,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,italics are enclos$ 9 und]scores4 ,additional notes w be f\nd ne> ! end ( ?is ebook4 ,,philosophy ,,philosophy ,by ,b]tr& ,russell ,illu/ration ,,new ,,york ,w ,w ,,norton ,,company1 ,,inc4 ,publi%]s ,copyright1 #aibg1 ,,b]tr& ,,russell ,publi%$ 9 ,great ,brita9 "u ! title 8,an ,outl9e ( ,philosophy0 ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica ,,= ,,! ,,publi%]s ,,by ,,! ,,van ,,rees ,,press ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,philosophic ,,d\bts #a ,,"p ,i ,,man ,,f ,,)\t ,,ii4 ,,man ,,& ,,8 ,,environm5t #af ,,iii4 ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,le>n+ ,,9 ,,animals ,,& ,,infants #bi ,,iv4 ,,language #dc ,v4 ,,p]ception ,,objectively ,,reg>d$ #eh ,,vi4 ,,memory ,,objectively ,,reg>d$ #gj ,,vii4 ,,inf]5ce ,,z ,a ,,habit #gi ,,viii4 ,,k ,,behavi\ri/ically ,,consid]$ #hh ,,"p ,,ii ,,! ,,physical ,,_w ,,ix4 ,,! ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,atom #ig ,x4 ,,relativity #ajg ,,xi4 ,,causal ,,laws ,,9 ,,physics #aad ,,xii4 ,,physics ,,& ,,p]ception #abc ,,xiii4 ,,physical ,,& ,,p]ceptual ,,space #acg ,,xiv4 ,,p]ception ,,& ,,physical ,,causal ,,laws #add ,,xv4 ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,our ,,k ,,( ,,physics #aea ,,"p ,,iii ,,man ,,f ,,)9 ,,xvi4 ,,self-,,obs]vation #afa ,,xvii4 ,,images #agf ,,xviii4 ,,imag9ation ,,& ,,memory #ahg ,,xix4 ,,! ,,introspective ,,analysis ,,( ,,p]ception #bja ,,xx4 ,,consci\sness8 #baj ,,xxi4 ,,emotion1 ,,desire1 ,,& ,,w #bah ,,xxii4 ,,e?ics #bbe ,,"p ,,iv ,,! ,,univ]se ,,xxiii4 ,,"s ,,great ,,philosophies ,,( ,,! ,,pa/ #bcf ,,xxiv4 ,,tru? ,,& ,,falsehood #bed ,,xxv4 ,,! ,,validity ,,( ,,inf]5ce #bff ,,xxvi4 ,,ev5ts1 ,,matt]1 ,,& ,,m9d #bgf ,,xxvii4 ,,man',s ,,place ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]se #bib ,,philosophy ,,*apt] ,i ,,philosophic ,,d\bts ,p]haps x might be expect$ t ,i %\ld beg9 ) a def9ition ( 8philosophy01 b1 rightly or wrongly1 ,i d n propose to d s4 ,! def9ition ( 8philosophy0 w v>y accord+ to ! philosophy we adopt2 all t we c say to beg9 ) is t !re are c]ta9 problems1 :i* c]ta9 p f9d int]e/+1 & :i* d n1 at lea/ at pres5t1 belong to any ( ! special sci5ces4 ,^! problems are all su* z to raise d\bts conc]n+ :at commonly passes = k2 & if ! d\bts are to be answ]$1 x c only be by means ( a special /udy1 to :i* we give ! "n 8philosophy04 ,!re=e ! fir/ /ep 9 def9+ 8philosophy0 is ! indication ( ^! problems & d\bts1 :i* is also ! fir/ /ep 9 ! actual /udy ( philosophy4 ,!re are "s among ! traditional problems ( philosophy t d n seem to me to l5d !mselves to intellectual treatm5t1 because !y transc5d our cognitive p[]s2 su* problems ,i %all n deal )4 ,!re are o!rs1 h[ev]1 z to :i*1 ev5 if a f9al solution is n possible at pres5t1 yet mu* c be done to %[ ! direction 9 :i* a solution is to be s\ght1 & ! k9d ( solution t may 9 "t prove possible4 ,philosophy arises f an unusually ob/9ate attempt to arrive at real k4 ,:at passes = k 9 ord9>y life suff]s f ?ree defects3 x is cocksure1 vague1 & self-contradictory4 ,! fir/ /ep t[>ds philosophy consi/s 9 becom+ aw>e ( ^! defects1 n 9 ord] to re/ cont5t ) a lazy scepticism1 b 9 ord] to sub/itute an am5d$ k9d ( k :i* %all be t5tative1 precise1 & self-consi/5t4 ,!re is ( c\rse ano!r quality :i* we wi% our k to possess1 namely compreh5siv5ess3 we wi% ! area ( our k to be z wide z possible4 ,b ?is is ! bus9ess ( sci5ce r ?an ( philosophy4 ,a man does n necess>ily become a bett] philosoph] ?r\gh kn[+ m sci5tific facts2 x is pr9ciples & me?ods & g5]al conceptions t he %\ld le>n f sci5ce if philosophy is :at int]e/s him4 ,! philosoph]'s "w is1 s to speak1 at ! second remove f crude fact4 ,sci5ce tries to collect facts into bundles by means ( sci5tific laws2 ^! laws1 r ?an ! orig9al facts1 are ! raw mat]ial ( philosophy4 ,philosophy involves a criticism ( sci5tific k1 n f a po9t ( view ultimately diff]5t f t ( sci5ce1 b f a po9t ( view less conc]n$ ) details & m conc]n$ ) ! h>mony ( ! :ole body ( special sci5ces4 ,! special sci5ces h all gr[n up by ! use ( notions d]iv$ f common s5se1 su* z ?+s & _! qualities1 space1 "t1 & causation4 ,sci5ce itself has %[n t none ( ^! common-s5se notions w q s]ve = ! explanation ( ! _w2 b x is h>dly ! prov9ce ( any special sci5ce to und]take ! necess>y recon/ruction ( fundam5tals4 ,?is mu/ be ! bus9ess ( philosophy4 ,i want to say1 to beg9 )1 t ,i believe x to be a bus9ess ( v great importance4 ,i believe t ! philosophical errors 9 common-s5se beliefs n only produce confusion 9 sci5ce1 b also d h>m 9 e?ics & politics1 9 social in/itutions1 & 9 ! conduct ( ev]yday life4 ,x w be no "p ( my bus9ess1 9 ?is volume1 to po9t out ^! practical effects ( a bad philosophy3 my bus9ess w be purely intellectual4 ,b if ,i am "r1 ! intellectual adv5tures :i* lie be=e u h effects 9 _m directions :i* seem1 at fir/ sight1 q remote f our !me4 ,! effect ( our passions ^u our beliefs =ms a fav\rite subject ( mod]n psy*ologi/s2 b ! conv]se effect1 t ( our beliefs ^u our passions1 also exi/s1 ?\gh x is n su* z an old-fa%ion$ intellectuali/ psy*ology w\ld h suppos$4 ,al?\gh ,i %all n discuss x1 we %all d well to be> x 9 m9d1 9 ord] to realise t our discussions may h be>+s ^u matt]s ly+ outside ! sph]e ( pure intellect4 ,i m5tion$ a mom5t ago ?ree defects 9 common beliefs1 namely1 t !y are cocksure1 vague1 & self-contradictory4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( philosophy to correct ^! defects s f> z x c1 )\t ?r[+ ov] k altoge!r4 ,to be a good philosoph]1 a man mu/ h a /rong desire to "k1 comb9$ ) great caution 9 believ+ t he kn[s2 he mu/ also h logical acum5 & ! habit ( exact ?9k+4 ,all ^!1 ( c\rse1 are a matt] ( degree4 ,vagu5ess1 9 p>ticul>1 belongs1 9 "s degree1 to all human ?9k+2 we c dim9i% x indef9itely1 b we c nev] aboli% x :olly4 ,philosophy1 accord+ly1 is a cont9u+ activity1 n some?+ 9 :i* we c a*ieve f9al p]fection once = all4 ,9 ?is respect1 philosophy has suff]$ f its association ) !ology4 ,!ological dogmas are fix$1 & are reg>d$ by ! or?odox z incapable ( improvem5t4 ,philosoph]s h too (t5 tri$ to produce simil>ly f9al sy/ems3 !y h n be5 cont5t ) ! gradual approximations t satisfi$ m5 ( sci5ce4 ,9 ?is !y seem to me to h be5 mi/ak54 ,philosophy %\ld be piecemeal & provisional l sci5ce2 f9al tru? belongs to heav51 n to ?is _w4 ,! ?ree defects :i* ,i h m5tion$ are int]connect$1 & by becom+ aw>e ( any "o we may be l$ to recognise ! o!r two4 ,i w illu/rate all ?ree by a few examples4 ,let u take fir/ ! belief 9 common objects1 su* z tables & *airs & trees4 ,we all feel q sure ab\t ^! 9 ord9>y life1 & yet our reasons = confid5ce are really v inadequate4 ,naive common s5se supposes t !y are :at !y appe> to be1 b t is impossible1 s9ce !y d n appe> exactly alike to any two simultane\s obs]v]s2 at lea/1 x is impossible if ! object is a s+le ?+1 ! same = all obs]v]s4 ,if we are go+ to admit t ! object is n :at we see1 we c no long] feel ! same assurance t !re is an object2 ?is is ! fir/ intrusion ( d\bt4 ,h[ev]1 we %all spe$ily recov] f ?is set-back1 & say t ( c\rse ! object is 8really0 :at physics says x is4#a ,n[ physics says t a table or a *air is 8really0 an incr$ibly va/ sy/em ( electrons & protons 9 rapid motion1 ) empty space 9 betwe54 ,?is is all v well4 ,b ! physici/1 l ! ord9>y man1 is dep5d5t ^u 8 s5ses = ! exi/5ce ( ! physical _w4 ,if y g up to him solemnly & say1 8w\ld y be s k9d z to tell me1 z a physici/1 :at a *air really is01 y w get a le>n$ answ]4 ,b if y say1 )\t preamble3 8,is !re a *air !re80 he w say3 8,( c\rse !re is2 c't y see x80 ,to ?is y ought to reply 9 ! negative4 ,y ought to say1 8,no1 ,i see c]ta9 pat*es ( col\r1 b ,i don't see any electrons or protons1 & y tell me t !y are :at a *air consi/s (04 ,he may reply3 8,yes1 b a l>ge numb] ( electrons & protons close toge!r look l a pat* ( col\r04 ,:at d y mean by 8look l08 y w !n ask4 ,he is ready ) an answ]4 ,he means t light-waves />t f ! electrons & protons 7or1 m probably1 are reflect$ by !m f a s\rce ( light71 rea* ! eye1 h a s]ies ( effects ^u ! rods & cones1 ! optic n]ve1 & ! bra91 & f9ally produce a s5sation4 ,b he has nev] se5 an eye or an optic n]ve or a bra91 any m ?an he has se5 a *air2 he has only se5 pat*es ( col\r :i*1 he says1 are :at eyes 8look l40 ,t is to say1 he ?9ks t ! s5sation y h :5 7z y ?9k7 y see a *air1 has a s]ies ( causes1 physical & psy*ological1 b all ( !m1 on 8 own %[+1 lie ess5tially & =ev] outside exp]i5ce4 ,nev]!less1 he pret5ds to base 8 sci5ce ^u obs]vation4 ,obvi\sly !re is "h a problem = ! logician1 a problem belong+ n to physics1 b to q ano!r k9d ( /udy4 ,?is is a fir/ example ( ! way 9 :i* ! pursuit ( precision de/roys c]ta9ty4 #a ,i am n ?9k+ "h ( ! elem5t>y physics to be f\nd 9 a s*ool text-book2 ,i am ?9k+ ( mod]n !oretical physics1 m p>ticul>ly z reg>ds ! /ructure ( atoms1 z to :i* ,i %all h m to say 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,! physici/ believes t he inf]s 8 electrons & protons f :at he p]ceives4 ,b ! inf]5ce is nev] cle>ly set =? 9 a logical *a91 &1 if x 71 x might n look suffici5tly plausible to w>rant mu* confid5ce4 ,9 actual fact1 ! :ole developm5t f common-s5se objects to electrons & protons has be5 gov]n$ by c]ta9 beliefs1 seldom consci\s1 b exi/+ 9 e natural man4 ,^! beliefs are n unalt]able1 b !y gr[ & develop l a tree4 ,we />t by ?9k+ t a *air is z x appe>s to be1 & is /ill !re :5 we are n look+4 ,b we f9d1 by a little reflection1 t ^! two beliefs are incompatible4 ,if ! *air is to p]si/ indep5d5tly ( be+ se5 by u1 x mu/ be some?+ o!r ?an ! pat* ( col\r we see1 because ?is is f\nd to dep5d ^u conditions extrane\s to ! *air1 su* z h[ ! light falls1 :e!r we are we>+ blue spectacles1 & s on4 ,?is =ces ! man ( sci5ce to reg>d ! 8real0 *air z ! cause 7or an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause7 ( our s5sations :5 we see ! *air4 ,?us we are committ$ to causation z an a priori belief )\t :i* we %\ld h no reason = suppos+ t !re is a 8real0 *air at all4 ,also1 = ! sake ( p]man5ce we br+ 9 ! notion ( sub/ance3 ! 8real0 *air is a sub/ance1 or collection ( sub/ances1 possess$ ( p]man5ce & ! p[] to cause s5sations4 ,?is metaphysical belief has op]at$1 m or less unconsci\sly1 9 ! inf]5ce f s5sations to electrons & protons4 ,! philosoph] mu/ drag su* beliefs into ! light ( day1 & see :e!r !y /ill survive4 ,(t5 x w be f\nd t !y die on exposure4 ,let u n[ take up ano!r po9t4 ,! evid5ce = a physical law1 or = any sci5tific law1 always involves bo? memory & te/imony4 ,we h to rely bo? ^u :at we rememb] to h obs]v$ on =m] occasions1 & on :at o!rs say !y h obs]v$4 ,9 ! v beg9n+s ( sci5ce1 x may h be5 possible sometimes to disp5se ) te/imony2 b v soon e sci5tific inve/igation began to be built ^u previ\sly asc]ta9$ results1 & ?us to dep5d ^u :at o!rs _h record$4 ,9 fact1 )\t ! corroboration ( te/imony we %\ld h>dly h _h mu* confid5ce 9 ! exi/5ce ( physical objects4 ,sometimes p suff] f halluc9ations1 t is to say1 !y ?9k !y p]ceive physical objects1 b are n confirm$ 9 ?is belief by ! te/imony ( o!rs4 ,9 su* cases1 we decide t !y are mi/ak54 ,x is ! simil>ity betwe5 ! p]ceptions ( diff]5t p 9 simil> situations t makes u feel confid5t ( ! ext]nal causation ( our p]ceptions2 b = ?is1 :atev] naive beliefs we might h _h 9 physical objects w\ld h be5 dissipat$ long ago4 ,?us memory & te/imony are ess5tial to sci5ce4 ,nev]!less1 ea* ( ^! is op5 to criticism by ! sceptic4 ,ev5 if we succe$1 m or less1 9 meet+ 8 criticism1 we %all1 if we are rational1 be left ) a less complete confid5ce 9 our orig9al beliefs ?an we _h be=e4 ,once m1 we %all become less cocksure z we become m accurate4 ,bo? memory & te/imony lead u into ! sph]e ( psy*ology4 ,i %all n at ?is /age discuss ei!r beyond ! po9t at :i* x is cle> t !re are g5u9e philosophical problems to be solv$4 ,i %all beg9 ) memory4 ,memory is a ^w :i* has a v>iety ( mean+s4 ,! k9d t ,i am conc]n$ ) at ! mom5t is ! recollection ( pa/ occurr5ces4 ,?is is s notori\sly fallible t e exp]im5t] makes a record ( ! result ( 8 exp]im5t at ! e>lie/ possible mom5t3 he consid]s ! inf]5ce f writt5 words to pa/ ev5ts less likely to be mi/ak5 ?an ! direct beliefs :i* con/itute memory4 ,b "s "t1 ?\gh p]haps only a few seconds1 mu/ elapse betwe5 ! obs]vation & ! mak+ ( ! record1 unless ! record is s fragm5t>y t memory is ne$$ to int]pret x4 ,?us we d n escape f ! ne$ ( tru/+ memory to "s degree4 ,moreov]1 )\t memory we %\ld n ?9k ( int]pret+ records z apply+ to ! pa/1 because we %\ld n "k t !re 0 any pa/4 ,n[1 ap>t f argum5ts z to ! prov$ fallibility ( memory1 !re is "o awkw>d consid]ation :i* ! sceptic may urge4 ,rememb]+1 :i* occurs n[1 _c possibly--he may say--prove t :at is rememb]$ occurr$ at "s o!r "t1 because ! _w might h sprung into be+ five m9utes ago1 exactly z x !n 01 full ( acts ( rememb]+ :i* 7 entirely mislead+4 ,oppon5ts ( ,d>w91 su* z ,edmund ,gosse's fa!r1 urg$ a v simil> argum5t aga9/ evolution4 ,! _w1 !y said1 0 creat$ 9 #djjd ,b4,c41 complete ) fossils1 :i* 7 ins]t$ to try our fai?4 ,! _w 0 creat$ sudd5ly1 b 0 made su* z x w\ld h be5 if x _h evolv$4 ,!re is no logical impossibility ab\t ?is view4 ,& simil>ly !re is no logical impossibility 9 ! view t ! _w 0 creat$ five m9utes ago1 complete ) memories & records4 ,?is may seem an improbable hypo!sis1 b x is n logically refutable4 ,ap>t f ?is argum5t1 :i* may be ?\ght fanta/ic1 !re are reasons ( detail = be+ m or less di/ru/ful ( memory4 ,x is obvi\s t no direct confirmation ( a belief ab\t a pa/ occurr5ce is possible1 because we _c make ! pa/ recur4 ,we c f9d confirmation ( an indirect k9d 9 ! revelations ( o!rs & 9 contempor>y records4 ,! latt]1 z we h se51 involve "s degree ( memory1 b !y may involve v little1 = in/ance :5 a %or?& report ( a conv]sation or spee* has be5 made at ! "t4 ,b ev5 !n1 we d n escape :olly f ! ne$ ( memory ext5d+ ov] a long] /ret* ( "t4 ,suppose a :olly imag9>y conv]sation 7 produc$ = "s crim9al purpose1 we %\ld dep5d ^u ! memories ( witnesses to e/abli% its fictiti\s "* 9 a law-c\rt4 ,& all memory :i* ext5ds ov] a long p]iod ( "t is v apt to be mi/ak52 ?is is %[n by ! errors inv>iably f\nd 9 autobiographies4 ,any man :o comes across lett]s :i* he wrote _m ye>s ago c v]ify ! mann] 9 :i* 8 memory has falsifi$ pa/ ev5ts4 ,= ^! reasons1 ! fact t we _c free ourselves f dep5d5ce ^u memory 9 build+ up k is1 prima facie1 a reason = reg>d+ :at passes = k z n q c]ta94 ,! :ole ( ?is subject ( memory w be consid]$ m c>efully 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,te/imony raises ev5 m awkw>d problems4 ,:at makes !m s awkw>d is ! fact t te/imony is involv$ 9 build+ up our k ( physics1 & t1 conv]sely1 physics is requir$ 9 e/abli%+ ! tru/wor?9ess ( te/imony4 ,moreov]1 te/imony raises all ! problems connect$ ) ! relation ( m9d & matt]4 ,"s em95t philosoph]s1 e4g4 ,leibniz1 h con/ruct$ sy/ems accord+ to :i* !re w\ld be no su* ?+ z te/imony1 & yet h accept$ z true _m ?+s :i* _c be kn[n )\t x4 ,i d n ?9k philosophy has q done ju/ice to ?is problem1 b a few words w1 ,i ?9k1 %[ its gravity4 ,= our purposes1 we may def9e te/imony z noises he>d1 or %apes se51 analog\s to ^? :i* we %\ld make if we wi%$ to convey an ass]tion1 & believ$ by ! he>] or se] to be due to someone else's desire to convey an ass]tion4 ,let u take a concrete in/ance3 ,i ask a policeman ! way1 & he says1 8,f\r? turn to ! "r1 ?ird to ! left40 ,t is to say1 ,i he> ^! s\nds1 & p]haps ,i see :at ,i int]pret z 8 lips mov+4 ,i assume t he has a m9d m or less l my own1 & has utt]$ ^! s\nds ) ! same int5tion z ,i %\ld h _h if ,i _h utt]$ !m1 namely to convey in=mation4 ,9 ord9>y life1 all ?is is n1 9 any prop] s5se1 an inf]5ce2 x is a belief :i* arises 9 u on ! appropriate occasion4 ,b if we are *all5g$1 we h to sub/itute inf]5ce = spontane\s belief1 & ! m ! inf]5ce is exam9$ ! m %aky x looks4 ,! inf]5ce t has to be made has two /eps1 "o physical & "o psy*ological4 ,! physical inf]5ce is ( ! sort we consid]$ a mom5t ago1 9 :i* we pass f a s5sation to a physical occurr5ce4 ,we he> noises1 & ?9k !y proce$ f ! policeman's body4 ,we see mov+ %apes1 & int]pret !m z physical motions ( 8 lips4 ,?is inf]5ce1 z we saw e>li]1 is 9 "p ju/ifi$ by te/imony2 yet n[ we f9d t x has to be made be=e we c h reason to believe t !re is any su* ?+ z te/imony4 ,& ?is inf]5ce is c]ta9ly sometimes mi/ak54 ,lunatics he> voices :i* o!r p d n he>2 in/ead ( cr$it+ !m ) abnormally acute he>+1 we lock !m up4 ,b if we sometimes he> s5t5ces :i* h n proce$$ f a body1 :y %\ld ?is n always be ! case8 ,p]haps our imag9ation has conjur$ up all ! ?+s t we ?9k o!rs h said to u4 ,b ?is is "p ( ! g5]al problem ( inf]r+ physical objects f s5sations1 :i*1 difficult z x is1 is n ! mo/ difficult "p ( ! logical puzzles conc]n+ te/imony4 ,! mo/ difficult "p is ! inf]5ce f ! policeman's body to 8 m9d4 ,i d n mean any special insult to policem52 ,i w\ld say ! same ( politicians & ev5 ( philosoph]s4 ,! inf]5ce to ! policeman's m9d c]ta9ly may be wrong4 ,x is cle> t a mak] ( wax-works c\ld make a life-l policeman & put a gramophone inside him1 :i* w\ld cause him p]iodically to tell visitors ! way to ! mo/ int]e/+ "p ( ! exhibition at ! entrance to :i* he w\ld /&4 ,!y w\ld h j ! sort ( evid5ce ( 8 be+ alive t is f\nd conv9c+ 9 ! case ( o!r policem54 ,desc>tes believ$ t animals h no m9ds1 b are m]ely complicat$ automata4 ,eighte5?-c5tury mat]iali/s ext5d$ ?is doctr9e to m54 ,b ,i am n n[ conc]n$ ) mat]ialism2 my problem is a diff]5t "o4 ,ev5 a mat]iali/ mu/ admit t1 :5 he talks1 he means to convey some?+1 t is to say1 he uses words z signs1 n z m]e noises4 ,x may be difficult to decide exactly :at is meant by ?is /atem5t1 b x is cle> t x means some?+1 & t x is true ( "o's own rem>ks4 ,! "q is3 ,are we sure t x is true ( ! rem>ks we he>1 z well z ( ^? we make8 ,or are ! rem>ks we he> p]haps j l o!r noises1 m]ely mean+less di/urbances ( ! air8 ,! *ief argum5t aga9/ ?is is analogy3 ! rem>ks we he> are s l ^? we make t we ?9k !y mu/ h simil> causes4 ,b al?\gh we _c disp5se ) analogy z a =m ( inf]5ce1 x is by no means demon/rative1 & n infrequ5tly leads u a/ray4 ,we are !re=e left1 once m1 ) a prima facie reason = unc]ta9ty & d\bt4 ,?is "q ( :at we mean ourselves :5 we speak br+s me to ano!r problem1 t ( introspection4 ,_m philosoph]s h held t introspection gave ! mo/ indubitable ( all k2 o!rs h held t !re is no su* ?+ z introspection4 ,desc>tes1 aft] try+ to d\bt ev]y?+1 arriv$ at 8,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am01 z a basis = ! re/ ( k4 ,dr4 ,john ,b4 ,watson ! behavi\ri/ holds1 on ! contr>y1 t we d n ?9k1 b only talk4 ,dr4 ,watson1 9 real life1 gives z mu* evid5ce ( ?9k+ z anyone does1 s if he is n conv9c$ t he ?9ks1 we are all 9 a bad way4 ,at any rate1 ! m]e exi/5ce ( su* an op9ion z 81 on ! "p ( a compet5t philosoph]1 mu/ suffice to %[ t introspection is n s c]ta9 z "s p h ?\ght4 ,b let u exam9e ?is "q a little m closely4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 introspection & :at we call p]ception ( ext]nal objects seems to me to be connect$1 n ) :at is prim>y 9 our k1 b ) :at is inf]r$4 ,we ?9k1 at "o "t1 t we are see+ a *air2 at ano!r1 t we are ?9k+ ab\t philosophy4 ,! fir/ we call p]ception ( an ext]nal object2 ! second we call introspection4 ,n[ we h already f\nd reason to d\bt ext]nal p]ception1 9 ! full-blood$ s5se 9 :i* common-s5se accepts x4 ,i %all consid] lat] :at !re is t is indubitable & primitive 9 p]ception2 = ! mom5t1 ,i %all anticipate by say+ t :at is indubitable 9 8see+ a *air0 is ! occurr5ce ( a c]ta9 patt]n ( col\rs4 ,b ?is occurr5ce1 we %all f9d1 is connect$ ) me j z mu* z ) ! *air2 no "o except myself c see exactly ! patt]n t ,i see4 ,!re is ?us some?+ subjective & private ab\t :at we take to be ext]nal p]ception1 b ?is is conceal$ by prec>i\s ext5sions into ! physical _w4 ,i ?9k introspection1 on ! contr>y1 involves prec>i\s ext5sions into ! m5tal _w3 %orn ( ^!1 x is n v diff]5t f ext]nal p]ception %orn ( its ext5sions4 ,to make ?is cle>1 ,i %all try to %[ :at we "k to be occurr+ :51 z we say1 we ?9k ab\t philosophy4 ,suppose1 z ! result ( introspection1 y arrive at a belief :i* y express 9 ! words3 8,i am n[ believ+ t m9d is diff]5t f matt]04 ,:at d y "k1 ap>t f inf]5ces1 9 su* a case8 ,fir/ ( all1 y mu/ cut out ! ^w 8,i03 ! p]son :o believes is an inf]5ce1 n "p ( :at y "k imm$iately4 ,9 ! second place1 y mu/ be c>eful ab\t ! ^w 8believ+03 ,i am n n[ conc]n$ ) :at ?is ^w %\ld mean 9 logic or !ory ( k2 ,i am conc]n$ ) :at x c mean :5 us$ to describe a direct exp]i5ce4 ,9 su* a case1 x w\ld seem t x c only describe a c]ta9 k9d ( feel+4 ,& z = ! proposition y ?9k y are believ+1 namely1 8m9d is diff]5t f matt]01 x is v difficult to say :at is really occurr+ :5 y ?9k y believe x4 ,x may be m]e words1 pron\nc$1 visualis$1 or 9 auditory or motor images4 ,x may be images ( :at ! words 8mean01 b 9 t case x w n be at all an accurate repres5tation ( ! logical cont5t ( ! proposition4 ,y may h an image ( a /atue ( ,newton 8voyag+ ?r\gh /range seas ( ?\ght alone01 & ano!r image ( a /one roll+ d[nhill1 comb9$ ) ! words 8h[ diff]5t60 ,or y may ?9k ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 compos+ a lecture & eat+ y\r d9n]4 ,x is only :5 y come to express+ y\r ?\ght 9 words t y approa* logical precision4 ,bo? 9 introspection & 9 ext]nal p]ception1 we try to express :at we "k 9 ,,words4 ,we come "h1 z 9 ! "q ( te/imony1 ^u ! social aspect ( k4 ,! purpose ( words is to give ! same k9d ( publicity to ?\ght z is claim$ = physical objects4 ,a numb] ( p c he> a spok5 ^w or see a writt5 ^w1 because ea* is a physical occurr5ce4 ,if ,i say to y1 8m9d is diff]5t f matt]01 !re may be only a v slight resemblance betwe5 ! ?\ght t ,i am try+ to express & ! ?\ght :i* is ar\s$ 9 y1 b ^! two ?\ghts h j ?is 9 common1 t !y c be express$ by ! same words4 ,simil>ly1 !re may be great diff]5ces betwe5 :at y & ,i see :51 z we say1 we look at ! same *air2 nev]!less we c bo? express our p]ceptions by ! same words4 ,a ?\ght & a p]ception are ?us n s v diff]5t 9 _! own nature4 ,if physics is true1 !y are diff]5t 9 _! correlations3 :5 ,i see a *air1 o!rs h m or less simil> p]ceptions1 & x is ?\ght t ^! are all connect$ ) light-waves com+ f ! *air1 :]eas1 :5 ,i ?9k a ?\ght1 o!rs may n be ?9k+ any?+ simil>4 ,b ?is applies also to feel+ a too?a*e1 :i* w\ld n usually be reg>d$ z a case ( introspection4 ,on ! :ole1 !re=e1 !re seems no reason to reg>d introspection z a diff]5t k9d ( k f ext]nal p]ception4 ,b ?is :ole "q w conc]n u aga9 at a lat] /age4 ,z = ! tru/wor?9ess ( introspection1 !re is aga9 a complete p>allelism ) ! case ( ext]nal p]ception4 ,! actual datum1 9 ea* case1 is unimpea*able1 b ! ext5sions :i* we make in/9ctively are que/ionable4 ,in/ead ( say+1 8,i am believ+ t m9d is diff]5t f matt]01 y ought to say1 8c]ta9 images are occurr+ 9 a c]ta9 relation to ea* o!r1 accompani$ by a c]ta9 feel+04 ,no words exi/ = describ+ ! actual occurr5ce 9 all its p>ticul>ity2 all words1 ev5 prop] names1 are g5]al1 ) ! possible exception ( 8?is01 :i* is ambigu\s4 ,:5 y translate ! occurr5ce into words1 y are mak+ g5]alisations & inf]5ces1 j z y are :5 y say 8!re is a *air04 ,!re is really no vital diff]5ce betwe5 ! two cases4 ,9 ea* case1 :at is really a datum is unutt]able1 & :at c be put into words involves inf]5ces :i* may be mi/ak54 ,:5 ,i say t 8inf]5ces0 are involv$1 ,i am say+ some?+ n q accurate unless c>efully int]pret$4 ,9 8see+ a *air01 = in/ance1 we d n fir/ appreh5d a col\r$ patt]n1 & !n proce$ to inf] a *air3 belief 9 ! *air arises spontane\sly :5 we see ! col\r$ patt]n4 ,b ?is belief has causes n only 9 ! pres5t physical /imulus1 b also p>tly 9 pa/ exp]i5ce1 p>tly 9 reflexes4 ,9 animals1 reflexes play a v l>ge "p2 9 human be+s1 exp]i5ce is m important4 ,! infant le>ns sl[ly to correlate t\* & sight1 & to expect o!rs to see :at he sees4 ,! habits :i* are ?us =m$ are ess5tial to our adult notion ( an object su* z a *air4 ,! p]ception ( a *air by means ( sight has a physical /imulus :i* affects only sight directly1 b /imulates ideas ( solidity & s on ?r\gh e>ly exp]i5ce4 ,! inf]5ce might be call$ 8physiological04 ,an inf]5ce ( ?is sort is evid5ce ( pa/ correlations1 = in/ance betwe5 t\* & sight1 b may be mi/ak5 9 ! pres5t in/ance2 y may1 = in/ance1 mi/ake a reflection 9 a l>ge mirror = ano!r room4 ,simil>ly 9 dreams we make mi/ak5 physiological inf]5ces4 ,we _c !re=e feel c]ta9ty 9 reg>d to ?+s :i* are 9 ?is s5se inf]r$1 because1 :5 we try to accept z _m ( !m z possible1 we are nev]!less compell$ to reject "s = ! sake ( self-consi/5cy4 ,we arriv$ a mom5t ago at :at we call$ 8physiological inf]5ce0 z an ess5tial +r$i5t 9 ! common-s5se notion ( a physical object4 ,physiological inf]5ce1 9 its simple/ =m1 means ?is3 giv5 a /imulus ,s1 to :i*1 by a reflex1 we react by a bodily movem5t ,r1 & a /imulus ,s ) a reaction ,r1 if ! two /imuli are frequ5tly exp]i5c$ toge!r1 ,s w 9 "t produce ,r4#b ,t is to say1 ! body w act z if ,s 7 pres5t4 ,physiological inf]5ce is important 9 !ory ( k1 & ,i %all h mu* to say ab\t x at a lat] /age4 ,= ! pres5t1 ,i h m5tion$ x p>tly to prev5t x f be+ confus$ ) logical inf]5ce1 & p>tly 9 ord] to introduce ! problem ( induction1 ab\t :i* we mu/ say a few prelim9>y words at ?is /age4 #b ,e4g4 if y he> a %>p noise & see a bright light simultane\sly (t51 9 "t ! noise )\t ! light w cause y\r pupils to contract4 ,induction raises p]haps ! mo/ difficult problem 9 ! :ole !ory ( k4 ,e sci5tific law is e/abli%$ by its means1 & yet x is difficult to see :y we %\ld believe x to be a valid logical process4 ,induction1 9 its b>e ess5ce1 consi/s ( ! argum5t t1 because ,a & ,b h be5 (t5 f\nd toge!r & nev] f\nd ap>t1 !re=e1 :5 ,a is f\nd aga91 ,b w probably also be f\nd4 ,?is exi/s fir/ z a 8physiological inf]5ce01 & z su* is practis$ by animals4 ,:5 we fir/ beg9 to reflect1 we f9d ourselves mak+ inductions 9 ! physiological s5se1 = in/ance1 expect+ ! food we see to h a c]ta9 k9d ( ta/e4 ,(t5 we only become aw>e ( ?is expectation ?r\gh hav+ x disappo9t$1 = in/ance if we take salt ?9k+ x is sug>4 ,:5 mank9d took to sci5ce1 !y tri$ to =mulate logical pr9ciples ju/ify+ ?is k9d ( inf]5ce4 ,i %all discuss ^! attempts 9 lat] *apt]s2 = ! pres5t1 ,i w only say t !y seem to me v unsuccessful4 ,i am conv9c$ t induction mu/ h validity ( "s k9d 9 "s degree1 b ! problem ( %[+ h[ or :y x c be valid rema9s unsolv$4 ,until x is solv$1 ! rational man w d\bt :e!r 8 food w n\ri% him1 & :e!r ! sun w rise tomorr[4 ,i am n a rational man 9 ?is s5se1 b = ! mom5t ,i %all pret5d to be4 ,& ev5 if we _c be completely rational1 we %\ld probably all be ! bett] = becom+ some:at m rational ?an we are4 ,at ! l[e/ e/imate1 x w be an int]e/+ adv5ture to see :i!r reason w lead u4 ,! problems we h be5 rais+ are none ( !m new1 b !y suffice to %[ t our ev]yday views ( ! _w & ( our relations to x are unsatisfactory4 ,we h be5 ask+ :e!r we "k ?is or t1 b we h n yet ask$ :at 8kn[+0 is4 ,p]haps we %all f9d t we h _h wrong ideas z to kn[+1 & t our difficulties gr[ less :5 we h m correct ideas on ?is po9t4 ,i ?9k we %all d well to beg9 our philosophical j\rney by an attempt to und]/& kn[+ consid]$ z "p ( ! relation ( man to 8 environm5t1 =gett+1 = ! mom5t1 ! fundam5tal d\bts ) :i* we h be5 conc]n$4 ,p]haps mod]n sci5ce may enable u to see philosophical problems 9 a new light4 ,9 t hope1 let u exam9e ! relation ( man to 8 environm5t ) a view to arriv+ at a sci5tific view z to :at con/itutes k4 ,,"p ,i ,,man ,,f ,,)\t ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,man ,,& ,,8 ,,environm5t ,if our sci5tific k 7 full & complete1 we %\ld und]/& ourselves & ! _w & our relation to ! _w4 ,z x is1 our und]/&+ ( all ?ree is fragm5t>y4 ,= ! pres5t1 x is ! ?ird "q1 t ( our relation to ! _w1 t ,i wi% to consid]1 because ?is br+s u ne>e/ to ! problems ( philosophy4 ,we %all f9d t x w lead u back to ! o!r two que/ions1 z to ! _w & z to ourselves1 b t we %all und]/& bo? ^! bett] if we h consid]$ fir/ h[ ! _w acts ^u u & h[ we act ^u ! _w4 ,!re are a numb] ( sci5ces :i* deal ) ,man4 ,we may deal ) him 9 natural hi/ory1 z "o among ! animals1 hav+ a c]ta9 place 9 evolution1 & relat$ to o!r animals 9 asc]ta9able ways4 ,we may deal ) him 9 physiology1 z a /ructure capable ( p]=m+ c]ta9 functions1 & react+ to ! environm5t 9 ways ( :i* "s1 at lea/1 c be expla9$ by *emi/ry4 ,we may /udy him 9 sociology1 z a unit 9 v>i\s organisms1 su* z ! family & ! /ate4 ,& we may /udy him1 9 psy*ology1 z he appe>s to himself4 ,?is la/ gives :at we may call an int]nal view ( man1 z oppos$ to ! o!r ?ree1 :i* give an ext]nal view4 ,t is to say1 9 psy*ology we use data :i* c only be obta9$ :5 ! obs]v] & ! obs]v$ are ! same p]son1 :]eas 9 ! o!r ways ( /udy+ ,man all our data c be obta9$ by obs]v+ o!r p4 ,!re are diff]5t ways ( int]pret+ ?is di/9ction1 & diff]5t views ( its importance1 b !re c be no d\bt t !re is su* a di/9ction4 ,we c rememb] our own dreams1 :]eas we _c "k ! dreams ( o!rs unless !y tell u ab\t !m4 ,we "k :5 we h too?a*e1 :5 our food ta/es too salty1 :5 we are rememb]+ "s pa/ occurr5ce1 & s on4 ,all ^! ev5ts 9 our lives o!r p _c "k 9 ! same direct way4 ,9 ?is s5se1 we all h an inn] life1 op5 to our own inspection b to no "o else's4 ,?is is no d\bt ! s\rce ( ! traditional di/9ction ( m9d & body3 ! body 0 suppos$ to be t "p ( u :i* o!rs c\ld obs]ve1 & ! m9d t "p :i* 0 private to ourselves4 ,! importance ( ! di/9ction has be5 call$ 9 "q 9 rec5t times1 & ,i d n myself believe t x has any fundam5tal philosophical significance4 ,b hi/orically x has play$ a dom9ant "p 9 det]m9+ ! conceptions f :i* m5 set out :5 !y began to philosophise1 & on ?is acc\nt1 if on no o!r1 x des]ves to be borne 9 m9d4 ,k1 traditionally1 has be5 view$ f )91 z some?+ :i* we obs]ve 9 ourselves r ?an z some?+ :i* we c see o!rs display+4 ,:5 ,i say t x has be5 s view$1 ,i mean t ?is has be5 ! practice ( philosoph]s2 9 ord9>y life1 p h be5 m objective4 ,9 ord9>y life1 k is some?+ :i* c be te/$ by exam9ations1 t is to say1 x consi/s 9 a c]ta9 k9d ( response to a c]ta9 k9d ( /imulus4 ,?is objective way ( view+ k is1 to my m9d1 mu* m fruitful ?an ! way :i* has be5 cu/om>y 9 philosophy4 ,i mean t1 if we wi% to give a def9ition ( 8kn[+01 we ought to def9e x z a mann] ( react+ to ! environm5t1 n z involv+ some?+ 7a 8/ate ( m9d07 :i* only ! p]son :o has ! k c obs]ve4 ,x is because ,i hold ?is view t ,i ?9k x be/ to beg9 ) ,man & 8 environm5t1 r ?an ) ^? matt]s 9 :i* ! obs]v] & ! obs]v$ mu/ be ! same p]son4 ,kn[+1 z ,i view x1 is a *>act]i/ic :i* may be display$ 9 our reactions to our environm5t2 x is !re=e necess>y fir/ ( all to consid] ! nature ( ^! reactions z !y appe> 9 sci5ce4 ,let u take "s ev]yday situation4 ,suppose y are wat*+ a race1 & at ! appropriate mom5t y say1 8!y're (f04 ,?is exclamation is a reaction to ! environm5t1 & is tak5 to %[ k if x is made at ! same "t z o!rs make x4 ,n[ let u consid] :at has be5 really happ5+1 accord+ to sci5ce4 ,! complication ( :at has happ5$ is almo/ incr$ible4 ,x may conv5i5tly be divid$ into f\r /ages3 fir/1 :at happ5$ 9 ! outside _w betwe5 ! runn]s & y\r eyes2 secondly1 :at happ5$ 9 y\r body f y\r eyes to y\r bra92 ?irdly1 :at happ5$ 9 y\r bra92 f\r?ly1 :at happ5$ 9 y\r body f y\r bra9 to ! movem5ts ( y\r ?roat & tongue :i* con/itut$ y\r exclamation4 ,( ^! f\r /ages1 ! fir/ belongs to physics1 & is dealt ) 9 ! ma9 by ! !ory ( light2 ! second & f\r? belong to physiology2 ! ?ird1 ?\gh x %\ld !oretically also belong to physiology1 belongs 9 fact r to psy*ology1 ow+ to our lack ( k z to ! bra94 ,! ?ird /age embodies ! results ( exp]i5ce & le>n+4 ,x is responsible = ! fact t y speak1 :i* an animal w\ld n d1 & t y speak ,engli%1 :i* a ,fr5*man w\ld n d4 ,?is imm5sely complicat$ occurr5ce is1 nev]!less1 ab\t ! simple/ example ( k t c\ld possibly be giv54 ,= ! mom5t1 let u leave on "o side ! "p ( ?is process :i* happ5s 9 ! outside _w & belongs to physics4 ,i %all h mu* to say ab\t x lat]1 b :at has to be said is n altoge!r easy1 & we w take less ab/ruse matt]s fir/4 ,i w m]ely obs]ve t ! ev5t :i* we are said to p]ceive1 namely ! runn]s />t+1 is sep>at$ by a long] or %ort] *a9 ( ev5ts f ! ev5t :i* happ5s at ! surface ( our eyes4 ,x is ?is la/ t is :at is call$ ! 8/imulus04 ,?us ! ev5t t we are said to p]ceive :5 we see is n ! /imulus1 b an ant]ior ev5t relat$ to x 9 a way t requires inve/igation4 ,! same applies to he>+ & smell1 b n to t\* or to p]ception ( /ates ( our own body4 ,9 ^! cases1 ! fir/ ( ! above f\r /ages is abs5t4 ,x is cle> t1 9 ! case ( sight1 he>+ & smell1 !re mu/ be a c]ta9 relation betwe5 ! /imulus & ! ev5t said to be p]ceiv$1 b we w n n[ consid] :at ?is relation mu/ be4 ,we w consid]1 r1 ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? /ages 9 an act ( p]ceptive k4 ,?is is ! m legitimate z ^! /ages always exi/1 :]eas ! fir/ is conf9$ to c]ta9 s5ses4 ,! second /age is t :i* proce$s f ! s5se-organ to ! bra94 ,x is n necess>y = our purposes to consid] exactly :at goes on dur+ ?is j\rney4 ,a purely physical ev5t--! /imulus--happ5s at ! b\nd>y ( ! body1 & has a s]ies ( effects :i* travel along ! aff]5t n]ves to ! bra94 ,if ! /imulus is light1 x mu/ fall on ! eye to produce ! *>act]i/ic effects2 no d\bt light fall+ on o!r p>ts ( ! body has effects1 b !y are n ^? t di/+ui% vision4 ,simil>ly1 if ! /imulus is s\nd1 x mu/ fall on ! e>4 ,a s5se-organ1 l a photographic plate1 is responsive to /imuli ( a c]ta9 sort3 light fall+ on ! eye has effects :i* are diff]5t = diff]5t wave-l5g?s1 int5sities1 & directions4 ,:5 ! ev5ts 9 ! eye due to incid5t light h tak5 place1 !y are foll[$ by ev5ts 9 ! optic n]ve1 lead+ at la/ to "s occurr5ce 9 ! bra9--an occurr5ce :i* v>ies ) ! /imulus4 ,! occurr5ce 9 ! bra9 mu/ be diff]5t = diff]5t /imuli 9 all cases :]e we c p]ceive diff]5ces4 ,r$ & yell[1 = in/ance1 are di/+ui%able 9 p]ception2 !re=e ! occurr5ces along ! optic n]ve & 9 ! bra9 mu/ h a diff]5t "* :5 caus$ by r$ light f :at !y h :5 caus$ by yell[ light4 ,b :5 two %ades ( col\r are s simil> t !y c only be di/+ui%$ by delicate in/rum5ts1 n by p]ception1 we _c be sure t !y cause occurr5ces ( diff]5t *>act]s 9 ! optic n]ve & bra94 ,:5 ! di/urbance has rea*$ ! bra91 x may or may n cause a *>act]i/ic set ( ev5ts 9 ! bra94 ,if x does n1 we %all n be :at is call$ 8consci\s0 ( x4 ,= to be 8consci\s0 ( see+ yell[1 :atev] else x may be1 mu/ c]ta9ly involve "s k9d ( c]ebral reaction to ! message br\ght by ! optic n]ve4 ,x may be assum$ t ! great majority ( messages br\ght to ! bra9 by ! aff]5t n]ves nev] secure any att5tion at all--!y are l lett]s to a gov]nm5t (fice :i* rema9 unansw]$4 ,! ?+s 9 ! m>g9 ( ! field ( vision1 unless !y are 9 "s way int]e/+1 are usually unnotic$2 if !y are notic$1 !y are br\ght into ! c5tre ( ! field ( vision unless we make a delib]ate ef=t to prev5t ?is f occurr+4 ,^! ?+s are visible1 9 ! s5se t we c\ld be aw>e ( !m if we *ose1 )\t any *ange 9 our physical environm5t or 9 our s5se-organs2 t is to say1 only a c]ebral *ange is requir$ to enable !m to cause a reaction4 ,b usually !y d n provoke any reaction2 life w\ld be altoge!r too we>+ if we _h to be always react+ to ev]y?+ 9 ! field ( vision4 ,:]e !re is no reaction1 ! second /age completes ! process1 & ! ?ird & f\r? /ages d n arise4 ,9 t case1 !re has be5 no?+ t c\ld be call$ 8p]ception0 connect$ ) ! /imulus 9 "q4 ,to u1 h[ev]1 ! int]e/+ case is t 9 :i* ! process cont9ues4 ,9 ?is case !re is fir/ a process 9 ! bra91 ( :i* ! nature is z yet conjectural1 :i* travels f ! c5tre appropriate to ! s5se 9 "q to a motor c5tre4 ,f ^! !re is a process :i* travels along an eff]5t n]ve1 & f9ally results 9 a muscul> ev5t caus+ "s bodily movem5t4 ,9 our illu/ration ( ! man wat*+ ! beg9n+ ( a race1 a process travels f ! "p ( ! bra9 conc]n$ ) sight to ! "p conc]n$ ) spee*2 ?is is :at we call$ ! ?ird /age4 ,!n a process travels along ! eff]5t n]ves & br+s ab\t ! movem5ts :i* con/itute say+ 8!y're (f02 ?is is :at we call$ ! f\r? /age4 ,unless all f\r /ages exi/1 !re is no?+ t c be call$ 8k04 ,& ev5 :5 !y are all pres5t1 v>i\s fur!r conditions mu/ be satisfi$ if !re is to be 8k04 ,b ^! obs]vations are premature1 & we mu/ return to ! analysis ( our ?ird & f\r? /ages4 ,! ?ird /age is ( two sorts1 accord+ z we are conc]n$ ) a reflex or ) a 8le>n$ reaction01 z ,dr4 ,watson calls x4 ,9 ! case ( a reflex1 if x is complete at bir?1 a new-born infant or animal has a bra9 s con/itut$ t1 )\t ! ne$ ( any previ\s exp]i5ce1 !re is a connection betwe5 a c]ta9 process 9 ! aff]5t n]ves & a c]ta9 o!r process 9 ! eff]5t n]ves4 ,a good example ( a reflex is sneez+4 ,a c]ta9 k9d ( tickl+ 9 ! nose produces a fairly viol5t movem5t hav+ a v def9ite "*1 & ?is connection exi/s already 9 ! y\nge/ infants4 ,le>n$ reactions1 on ! o!r h&1 are su* z only occur because ( ! effect ( previ\s occurr5ces 9 ! bra94 ,"o might illu/rate by an analogy :i*1 h[ev]1 w\ld be mislead+ if press$4 ,imag9e a des]t 9 :i* no ra9 has ev] fall51 & suppose t at la/ a ?und]/orm occurs 9 x2 !n ! c\rse tak5 by ! wat] w correspond to a reflex4 ,b if ra9 cont9ues to fall frequ5tly1 x w =m wat]c\rses & riv] valleys2 :5 ?is has occurr$1 ! wat] runs away along pre-=m$ *annels1 :i* are attributable to ! pa/ 8exp]i5ce0 ( ! region4 ,?is corresponds to 8le>n$ reactions04 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable examples ( le>n$ reactions is spee*3 we speak because we h le>n$ a c]ta9 language1 n because our bra9 _h orig9ally any t5d5cy to react 9 j t way4 ,p]haps all k1 c]ta9ly ne>ly all1 is dep5d5t ^u le>n$ reactions1 i4e41 ^u connections 9 ! bra9 :i* are n "p ( man's cong5ital equipm5t b are ! result ( ev5ts :i* h happ5$ to him4 ,to di/+ui% betwe5 le>n$ & unle>n$ responses is n always an easy task4 ,x _c be assum$ t responses :i* are abs5t dur+ ! fir/ weeks ( life are all le>n$4 ,to take ! mo/ obvi\s in/ance2 sexual responses *ange _! "* to a great] or less ext5t at pub]ty1 z a result ( *anges 9 ! ductless gl&s1 n z a result ( exp]i5ce4 ,b ?is in/ance does n /& alone3 z ! body gr[s & develops1 new modes ( response come into play1 modifi$1 no d\bt1 by exp]i5ce1 b n :olly due to x4 ,= example3 a new-born baby _c run1 & !re=e does n run away f :at is t]rify+1 z an old] *ild does4 ,! old] *ild has le>n$ to run1 b has n necess>ily le>n$ to run away2 ! /imulus 9 le>n+ to run may h nev] be5 a t]rify+ object4 ,x w\ld !re=e be a fallacy to suppose t we c di/+ui% betwe5 le>n$ & unle>n$ responses by obs]v+ :at a new-born infant does1 s9ce reflexes may come into play at a lat] /age4 ,conv]sely1 "s ?+s :i* a *ild does at bir? may h be5 le>n$1 :5 !y are su* z x c\ld h done 9 ! womb--= example1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( kick+ & /ret*+4 ,! :ole di/9ction betwe5 le>n$ & unle>n$ responses1 !re=e1 is n s def9ite z we c\ld wi%4 ,at ! two extremes we get cle> cases1 su* z sneez+ on ! "o h& & speak+ on ! o!r2 b !re are int]m$iate =ms ( behavi\r :i* are m difficult to classify4 ,?is is n d5i$ ev5 by ^? :o atta* mo/ importance to ! di/9ction betwe5 le>n$ & unle>n$ responses4 ,9 ,dr4 ,watson's ,behaviorism 7p4 #ajc7 !re is a 8,summ>y ( ,unle>n$ ,equipm5t01 :i* ends ) ! foll[+ p>agraph3 8,o!r activities appe> at a lat] /age--su* z bl9k+1 rea*+1 h&l+1 h&$ness1 crawl+1 /&+1 sitt+-up1 walk+1 runn+1 jump+4 ,9 ! great majority ( ^! lat] activities x is difficult to say h[ mu* ( ! act z a :ole is due to tra9+ or condition+4 ,a consid]able "p is unque/ionably due to ! gr[? *anges 9 /ructure1 & ! rema9d] is due to tra9+ & condition+40 7,watson's italics47 ,x is n possible to make a logically %>p di/9ction 9 ?is matt]2 9 c]ta9 cases we h to be satisfi$ ) some?+ less exact4 ,= example1 we might say t ^? developm5ts :i* are m]ely due to normal gr[? are to c\nt z unle>n$1 :ile ^? :i* dep5d ^u special circum/ances 9 ! individual biography are to c\nt z le>n$4 ,b take1 say1 muscul> developm5t3 ?is w n take place normally unless ! muscles are us$1 & if !y are us$ !y are b\nd to le>n "s ( ! skill :i* is appropriate to !m4 ,& "s ?+s :i* mu/ c]ta9ly c\nt z le>n$1 su* z focuss+ ) ! eyes1 dep5d ^u circum/ances :i* are normal & mu/ be pres5t 9 ! case ( e *ild :o is n bl9d4 ,! :ole di/9ction1 !re=e1 is "o ( degree r ?an ( k9d2 nev]!less x is valuable4 ,! value ( ! di/9ction betwe5 le>n$ & unle>n$ reactions is connect$ ) ! laws ( le>n+1 to :i* we %all come 9 ! next *apt]4 ,exp]i5ce modifies behavi\r accord+ to c]ta9 laws1 & we may say t a le>n$ reaction is "o 9 ! =mation ( :i* ^! laws h play$ a "p4 ,= example3 *ildr5 are fright5$ ( l\d noises f bir?1 b are n at fir/ fright5$ ( dogs2 aft] !y h he>d a dog b>k+ l\dly1 !y may become fright5$ ( dogs1 :i* is a le>n$ reaction4 ,if we knew en\gh ab\t ! bra91 we c\ld make ! di/9ction precise1 by say+ t le>n$ reactions are ^? dep5d+ ^u modifications ( ! bra9 o!r ?an m]e gr[?4 ,b z x is1 we h to judge by obs]vations ( bodily behavi\r1 & ! accompany+ modifications 9 ! bra9 are assum$ on a basis ( !ory r ?an actually obs]v$4 ,! ess5tial po9ts1 = our purposes1 are comp>atively simple4 ,man or any o!r animal1 at bir?1 is su* z to respond to c]ta9 /imuli 9 c]ta9 specific ways1 i4e4 by c]ta9 k9ds ( bodily movem5ts2 z he gr[s1 ^! ways ( respond+ *ange1 p>tly z ! m]e result ( develop+ /ructure1 p>tly 9 consequ5ce ( ev5ts 9 8 biography4 ,! latt] influ5ce proce$s accord+ to c]ta9 laws1 :i* we %all consid]1 s9ce !y h mu* to d ) ! g5esis ( 8k04 ,b--! indignant read] may be exclaim+--kn[+ some?+ is n a bodily movem5t1 b a /ate ( m9d1 & yet y talk to u ab\t sneez+ & su* matt]s4 ,i mu/ ask ! indignant read]'s pati5ce4 ,he 8kn[s0 t he has /ates ( m9d1 & t 8 kn[+ is itself a /ate ( m9d4 ,i d n d5y t he has /ates ( m9d1 b ,i ask two que/ions3 ,fir/1 :at sort ( ?+ are !y8 ,secondly1 :at evid5ce c he give me t he kn[s ab\t !m8 ,! fir/ "q he may f9d v difficult2 & if he wants1 9 8 answ]1 to %[ t /ates ( m9d are some?+ ( a sort totally diff]5t f bodily movem5ts1 he w h to tell me also :at bodily movem5ts are1 :i* w plunge him into ! mo/ ab/ruse "p ( physics4 ,all ?is ,i propose to consid] lat] on1 & !n ,i hope ! indignant read] w be appeas$4 ,z to ! second "q1 namely1 :at evid5ce ( 8 k ano!r man c give me1 x is cle> t he mu/ dep5d ^u spee* or writ+1 i4e4 9 ei!r case ^u bodily movem5ts4 ,!re=e :atev] k may be to ! kn[]1 z a social ph5om5on x is some?+ display$ 9 bodily movem5ts4 ,= ! pres5t ,i am delib]ately po/pon+ ! "q ( :at k is to ! kn[]1 & conf9+ myself to :at x is = ! ext]nal obs]v]4 ,& = him1 necess>ily1 x is some?+ %[n by bodily movem5ts made 9 answ] to /imuli--m specifically1 to exam9ation que/ions4 ,:at else x may be ,i %all consid] at a lat] /age4 ,h[ev] we may subsequ5tly add to our pres5t acc\nt by consid]+ h[ k appe>s to ! kn[]1 t w n invalidate any?+ t we may arrive at by consid]+ h[ k appe>s to ! ext]nal obs]v]4 ,& !re is some?+ :i* x is important to realise1 namely1 t we are conc]n$ ) a process 9 :i* ! environm5t fir/ acts ^u a man1 & !n he reacts ^u ! environm5t4 ,?is process has to be consid]$ z a :ole if we are to discuss :at k is4 ,! old] view w\ld h be5 t ! effect ( ! environm5t ^u u might con/itute a c]ta9 k9d ( k 7p]ception71 :ile our reaction to ! environm5t con/itut$ volition4 ,^! 71 9 ea* case1 8m5tal0 occurr5ces1 & _! connection ) n]ves & bra9 rema9$ entirely my/]i\s4 ,i ?9k ! my/]y c be elim9at$1 & ! subject remov$ f ! realm ( guesswork1 by />t+ ) ! :ole cycle f /imulus to bodily movem5t4 ,9 ?is way1 kn[+ becomes some?+ active1 n some?+ contemplative4 ,kn[+ & will+1 9 fact1 are m]ely aspects ( ! "o cycle1 :i* mu/ be consid]$ 9 its entirety if x is to be rightly und]/ood4 ,a few words mu/ be said ab\t ! human body z a me*anism4 ,x is an inconceivably complicat$ me*anism1 & "s m5 ( sci5ce ?9k t x is n explicable 9 t]ms ( physics & *emi/ry1 b is regulat$ by "s 8vital pr9ciple0 :i* makes its laws diff]5t f ^? ( dead matt]4 ,^! m5 are call$ 8vitali/s04 ,i d n myself see any reason to accept _! view1 b at ! same "t our k is n suffici5t to enable u to reject x def9itely4 ,:at we c say is t _! case is n prov$1 & t ! opposite view is1 sci5tifically1 a m fruitful work+ hypo!sis4 ,x is bett] to look = physical & *emical explanations :]e we c1 s9ce we "k ( _m processes 9 ! human body :i* c be acc\nt$ = 9 ?is way1 & ( none :i* c]ta9ly _c4 ,to invoke a 8vital pr9ciple0 is to give an excuse = laz9ess1 :5 p]haps m dilig5t rese>* w\ld h enabl$ u to d )\t x4 ,i %all !re=e assume1 z a work+ hypo!sis1 t ! human body acts accord+ to ! same laws ( physics & *emi/ry z ^? :i* gov]n dead matt]1 & t x diff]s f dead matt]1 n by its laws1 b by ! extraord9>y complexity ( its /ructure4 ,! movem5ts ( ! human body may1 none ! less1 be divid$ into two classes1 :i* we may call respectively 8me*anical0 & 8vital04 ,z an example ( ! =m]1 ,i %\ld give ! movem5t ( a man fall+ f a cliff into ! sea4 ,to expla9 ?is1 9 its broad features1 x is n necess>y to take acc\nt ( ! fact t ! man is alive2 8 c5tre ( gravity moves exactly z t ( a /one w\ld move4 ,b :5 a man climbs up a cliff1 he does some?+ t dead matt] ( ! same %ape & weight w\ld nev] d2 ?is is a 8vital0 movem5t4 ,!re is 9 ! human body a lot ( /or$ *emical en]gy 9 m or less un/able equilibrium2 a v small /imulus c release ?is en]gy1 & cause a consid]able am\nt ( bodily movem5t4 ,! situation is analog\s to t ( a l>ge rock delicately balanc$ on ! top ( a conical m\nta92 a t9y %ove may s5d x ?und]+ d[n into ! valley1 9 "o direction or ano!r accord+ to ! direction ( ! %ove4 ,s if y say to a man 8y\r h\se is on fire01 he w />t runn+2 al?\gh ! /imulus conta9$ v little en]gy1 8 exp5diture ( en]gy may be trem5d\s4 ,he increases ! available en]gy by pant+1 :i* makes 8 body burn up fa/] & increases ! en]gy due to combu/ion2 ?is is j l op5+ ! draft 9 a furnace4 8,vital0 movem5ts are ^? t use up ?is en]gy :i* is 9 un/able equilibrium4 ,x is !y alone t conc]n ! bio-*emi/1 ! physiologi/1 & ! psy*ologi/4 ,! o!rs1 be+ j l ! movem5ts ( dead matt]1 may be ignor$ :5 we are specially conc]n$ ) ! /udy ( ,man4 ,vital movem5ts h a /imulus :i* may be inside or outside ! body1 or bo? at once4 ,hung] is a /imulus inside ! body1 b hung] comb9$ ) ! sight ( good food is a d\ble /imulus1 bo? int]nal & ext]nal4 ,! effect ( a /imulus may be1 9 !ory1 accord+ to ! laws ( physics & *emi/ry1 b 9 mo/ cases ?is is1 at pres5t1 no m ?an a pi\s op9ion4 ,:at we "k f obs]vation is t behavi\r is modifi$ by exp]i5ce1 t is to say1 t if simil> /imuli are repeat$ at int]vals !y produce gradually *ang+ reactions4 ,:5 a bus conductor says1 8,f>es1 please01 a v "y *ild has no reaction1 an old] *ild gradually le>ns to look = p5nies1 &1 if a male1 ultimately acquires ! p[] ( produc+ ! requisite sum on dem& )\t consci\s ef=t4 ,! way 9 :i* our reactions *ange ) exp]i5ce is a di/9ctive *>act]i/ic ( animals2 moreov] x is m m>k$ 9 ! high] ?an 9 ! l[] animals1 & mo/ m>k$ ( all 9 ,man4 ,x is a matt] intimately connect$ ) 8intellig5ce01 & mu/ be inve/igat$ be=e we c und]/& :at con/itutes k f ! /&po9t ( ! ext]nal obs]v]2 we %all be conc]n$ ) x at l5g? 9 ! next *apt]4 ,speak+ broadly1 ! actions ( all liv+ ?+s are su* z t5d to biological survival1 i4e4 to ! leav+ ( a num]\s prog5y4 ,b :5 we desc5d to ! l[e/ organisms1 :i* h h>dly any?+ t c be call$ individuality1 & reproduce !mselves by fission1 x is possible to take a simpl] view4 ,liv+ matt]1 )9 limits1 has ! *emical peculi>ity ( be+ self-p]petuat+1 & ( conf]r+ its own *emical composition ^u o!r matt] compos$ ( ! "r elem5ts4 ,"o spore fall+ into a /agnant pond may produce millions ( m9ute vegetable organisms2 ^!1 9 turn1 enable "o small animal to h myriads ( desc5dants liv+ on ! small plants2 ^!1 9 turn1 provide life = l>g] animals1 newts1 tadpoles1 fi%es1 etc4 ,9 ! end !re is enorm\sly m protoplasm 9 t region ?an !re 0 to beg9 )4 ,?is is no d\bt explicable z a result ( ! *emical con/itution ( liv+ matt]4 ,b ?is purely *emical self-pres]vation & collective gr[? is at ! bottom ( ev]y?+ else t *>act]ises ! behavi\r ( liv+ ?+s4 ,e liv+ ?+ is a sort ( imp]iali/1 seek+ to trans=m z mu* z possible ( its environm5t into itself & its se$4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 self & po/]ity is "o :i* does n exi/ 9 a develop$ =m 9 asexual unicellul> organisms2 _m ?+s1 ev5 9 human life1 c only be completely und]/ood by =gett+ x4 ,we may reg>d ! :ole ( evolution z fl[+ f ?is 8*emical imp]ialism0 ( liv+ matt]4 ,( ?is1 ,man is only ! la/ example 7s f>74 ,he trans=ms ! surface ( ! globe by irrigation1 cultivation1 m9+1 qu>ry+1 mak+ canals & railways1 bre$+ c]ta9 animals1 & de/roy+ o!rs2 & :5 we ask ourselves1 f ! /&po9t ( an outside obs]v]1 :at is ! end a*iev$ by all ^! activities1 we f9d t x c be summ$ up 9 "o v simple =mula3 to trans=m z mu* z possible ( ! matt] on ! e>?'s surface into human bodies4 ,dome/ication ( animals1 agriculture1 comm]ce1 indu/rialism h be5 /ages 9 ?is process4 ,:5 we comp>e ! human population ( ! globe ) t ( o!r l>ge animals & also ) t ( =m] times1 we see t 8*emical imp]ialism0 has be51 9 fact1 ! ma9 end to :i* human intellig5ce has be5 devot$4 ,p]haps intellig5ce is rea*+ ! po9t :]e x c conceive wor?i] ends1 conc]n$ ) ! quality r ?an ! quantity ( human life4 ,b z yet su* intellig5ce is conf9$ to m9orities1 & does n control ! great movem5ts ( human affairs4 ,:e!r ?is w ev] be *ang$ ,i d n v5ture to pr$ict4 ,& 9 pursu+ ! simple purpose ( maximis+ ! am\nt ( human life1 we h at any rate ! consolation ( feel+ at "o ) ! :ole movem5t ( liv+ ?+s f _! e>lie/ orig9 on ?is planet4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,le>n+ ,,9 ,,animals ,,& ,,infants ,9 ! pres5t *apt] ,i wi% to consid] ! processes by :i*1 & ! laws accord+ to :i*1 an animal's orig9al rep]toire ( reflexes is *ang$ into a q diff]5t set ( habits z a result ( ev5ts t happ5 to x4 ,a dog le>ns to foll[ 8 ma/] 9 pref]5ce to anyone else2 a horse le>ns to "k 8 own /all 9 ! /able2 a c[ le>ns to come to ! c[-%$ at milk+ "t4 ,all ^! are acquir$ habits1 n reflexes2 !y dep5d ^u ! circum/ances ( ! animals conc]n$1 n m]ely ^u ! cong5ital *>act]i/ics ( ! species4 ,:5 ,i speak ( an animal 8le>n+0 some?+1 ,i %all include all cases ( acquir$ habits1 :e!r or n !y are useful to ! animal4 ,i h kn[n horses 9 ,italy 8le>n0 to dr9k w9e1 :i* ,i _c believe to h be5 a desirable habit4 ,a dog may 8le>n0 to fly at a man :o has ill-treat$ x1 & may d s ) su* regul>ity & f]ocity z to lead to its be+ kill$4 ,i d n use le>n+ 9 any s5se involv+ praise1 b m]ely to d5ote modification ( behavi\r z ! result ( exp]i5ce4 ,! mann] 9 :i* animals le>n has be5 mu* /udi$ 9 rec5t ye>s1 ) a great deal ( pati5t obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,c]ta9 results h be5 obta9$ z reg>ds ! k9ds ( problems t h be5 inve/igat$1 b on g5]al pr9ciples !re is /ill mu* controv]sy4 ,"o may say broadly t all ! animals t h be5 c>efully obs]v$ h behav$ s z to confirm ! philosophy 9 :i* ! obs]v] believ$ be=e 8 obs]vations began4 ,nay1 m1 !y h all display$ ! national *>act]i/ics ( ! obs]v]4 ,animals /udi$ by ,am]icans ru% ab\t frantically1 ) an incr$ible display ( hu/le & pep1 & at la/ a*ieve ! desir$ result by *ance4 ,animals obs]v$ by ,g]mans sit /ill & ?9k1 & at la/ evolve ! solution out ( _! inn] consci\sness4 ,to ! pla9 man1 su* z ! pres5t writ]1 ?is situation is disc\rag+4 ,i obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ! type ( problem :i* a man naturally sets to an animal dep5ds ^u 8 own philosophy1 & t ?is probably acc\nts = ! diff]5ces 9 ! results4 ,! animal responds to "o type ( problem 9 "o way & to ano!r 9 ano!r2 !re=e ! results obta9$ by diff]5t inve/igators1 ?\gh diff]5t1 are n incompatible4 ,b x rema9s necess>y to rememb] t no "o inve/igator is to be tru/$ to give a survey ( ! :ole field4 ,! matt]s ) :i* we %all be conc]n$ 9 ?is *apt] belong to behavi\ri/ psy*ology1 & 9 "p to pure physiology4 ,nev]!less1 !y seem to me vital to a prop] und]/&+ ( philosophy1 s9ce !y are necess>y = an objective /udy ( k & inf]5ce4 ,i mean by an 8objective0 /udy "o 9 :i* ! obs]v] & ! obs]v$ ne$ n be ! same p]son2 :5 !y mu/ be id5tical1 ,i call ! /udy 8subjective40 ,= ! pres5t we are conc]n$ ) :at is requir$ = und]/&+ 8k0 z an objective ph5om5on4 ,we %all take up ! "q ( ! subjective /udy ( k at a lat] /age4 ,! sci5tific /udy ( le>n+ 9 animals is a v rec5t gr[?2 x may almo/ be reg>d$ z beg9n+ ) ,?orndike's ,animal ,intellig5ce1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #aiaa4 ,?orndike inv5t$ ! me?od :i* has be5 adopt$ by practically all subsequ5t ,am]ican inve/igators4 ,9 ?is me?od an animal is sep>at$ f food1 :i* he c see or smell1 by an ob/acle :i* he may ov]come by *ance4 ,a cat1 say1 is put 9 a cage hav+ a door ) a h&le :i* he may by *ance pu% op5 ) 8 nose4 ,at fir/ ! cat makes entirely r&om movem5ts1 until he gets 8 result by a m]e fluke4 ,on ! second occasion1 9 ! same cage1 he /ill makes "s r&om movem5ts1 b n s _m z on ! fir/ occasion4 ,on ! ?ird occasion he does /ill bett]1 & be=e long he makes no useless movem5ts4 ,n[adays x has become cu/om>y to employ rats in/ead ( cats1 & to put !m 9 a model ( ! ,hampton ,c\rt maze r ?an 9 a cage4 ,!y take all sorts ( wrong turn+s at fir/1 b aft] a "t !y le>n to run /raight out )\t mak+ any mi/ake4 ,dr4 ,watson gives av]ages = n9ete5 rats1 ea* ( :i* 0 put into ! maze repeat$ly1 ) food outside :]e ! rat c\ld smell x4 ,9 all ! exp]im5ts c>e 0 tak5 to make sure t ! animal 0 v hungry4 ,dr4 ,watson says3 8,! fir/ trial requir$ on ! av]age ov] sev5te5 m9utes4 ,dur+ ?is "t ! rat 0 runn+ ar\nd ! maze1 into bl9d alleys1 runn+ back to ! />t+ po9t1 />t+ = ! food aga91 bit+ at ! wires ar\nd him1 scrat*+ himself1 smell+ ?is spot & t on ! floor4 ,f9ally he got to ! food4 ,he 0 all[$ only a bite4 ,aga9 he 0 put back into ! maze4 ,! ta/e ( ! food made him almo/ frantic 9 8 activity4 ,he da%$ ab\t m rapidly4 ,! av]age "t = ! gr\p on ! second trial is only a little ov] sev5 m9utes2 on ! f\r? trial n q ?ree m9utes2 f ?is po9t to ! tw5ty-?ird trial ! improvem5t is v gradual40 ,on ! ?irtie? trial ! "t requir$1 on ! av]age1 0 ab\t ?irty seconds4#c ,?is set ( exp]im5ts may be tak5 z typical ( ! :ole gr\p ( /udies to :i* x belongs4 #c ,watson1 ,behaviorism1 pp4 #afi-gj4 ,?orndike1 z a result ( exp]im5ts ) cages & mazes1 =mulat$ two 8provisional laws10 :i* are z foll[s3 8,! ,law ( ,effect is t3 ( sev]al responses made to ! same situation1 ^? :i* are accompani$ or closely foll[$ by satisfaction to ! animal w1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 be m firmly connect$ ) ! situation1 s t1 :5 x recurs1 !y w be m likely to recur2 ^? :i* are accompani$ or closely foll[$ by dissatisfaction to ! animal w1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 h _! connections ) t situation weak5$1 s t1 :5 x recurs1 !y w be less likely to recur4 ,! great] ! satisfaction or discom=t1 ! great] ! /r5g!n+ or weak5+ ( ! bond4 8,! ,law ( ,ex]cise is t3 ,any response to a situation w1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 be m /rongly connect$ ) ! situation 9 proportion to ! numb] ( times x has be5 connect$ ) t situation & to ! av]age vig\r & duration ( ! connections40 ,we may sum up ^! two laws1 r\ghly1 9 ! two /atem5ts3 ,fir/1 an animal t5ds to repeat :at has br\ght x pleasure2 second1 an animal t5ds to repeat :at x has (t5 done be=e4 ,nei!r ( ^! laws is at all surpris+1 b1 z we %all see1 !re are difficulties 9 ! !ory t !y are adequate to acc\nt = ! process ( le>n+ 9 animals4 ,be=e go+ fur!r !re is a !oretical po9t to be cle>$ up4 ,?orndike1 9 8 fir/ law1 speaks ( satisfaction & discom=t1 :i* are t]ms belong+ to subjective psy*ology4 ,we _c obs]ve :e!r an animal feels satisfaction or feels discom=t2 we c only obs]ve t x behaves 9 ways t we h become accu/om$ to int]pret z signs ( ^! feel+s4 ,?orndike's law1 z x /&s1 does n belong to objective psy*ology1 & is n capable ( be+ exp]im5tally te/$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n s s]i\s an objection z x looks4 ,in/ead ( speak+ ( a result t br+s satisfaction1 we c m]ely enum]ate ! results :i*1 9 fact1 h ! "* :i* ,?orndike m5tions1 namely1 t ! animal t5ds to behave s z to make !m recur4 ,! rat 9 ! maze behaves s z to get ! *eese1 & :5 an act has l$ him to ! *eese once1 he t5ds to repeat x4 ,we may say t ?is is :at we mean :5 we say t ! *eese 8gives satisfaction01 or t ! rat 8desires0 ! *eese4 ,t is to say1 we may use ,?orndike's 8,law ( ,effect0 to give u an objective def9ition ( desire1 satisfaction1 & discom=t4 ,! law %\ld !n say3 !re are situations su* t animals t5d to repeat acts :i* h l$ to !m2 ^! are ! situations :i* ! animal is said to 8desire0 & 9 :i* x is said to 8f9d satisfaction04 ,?is objection to ,?orndike's fir/ law is1 !re=e1 n v s]i\s1 & ne$ n fur!r tr\ble u4 ,dr4 ,watson consid]s "o pr9ciple alone suffici5t to acc\nt = all animal & human le>n+1 namely1 ! pr9ciple ( 8le>n$ reactions40 ,?is pr9ciple may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,:5 ! body ( an animal or human be+ has be5 expos$ suffici5tly (t5 to two r\ghly simultane\s /imuli1 ! e>li] ( !m alone t5ds to call out ! response previ\sly call$ out by ! o!r4 ,al?\gh ,i d n agree ) ,dr4 ,watson 9 ?9k+ ?is pr9ciple alone suffici5t1 ,i d agree t x is a pr9ciple ( v great importance4 ,x is ! mod]n =m ( ! pr9ciple ( 8association04 ,! 8association ( ideas0 has play$ a great "p 9 philosophy1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,briti% philosophy4 ,b x n[ appe>s t ?is is a consequ5ce ( a wid] & m primitive pr9ciple1 namely1 ! association ( bodily processes4 ,x is ?is wid] pr9ciple t is ass]t$ above4 ,let u see :at is ! nature ( ! evid5ce 9 its fav\r4 ,our pr9ciple becomes v]ifiable ov] a mu* l>g] field ?an ! old] pr9ciple ow+ to ! fact t x is movem5ts1 n 8ideas01 t are to be associat$4 ,:]e animals are conc]n$1 ideas are hypo!tical1 b movem5ts c be obs]v$2 ev5 ) m51 _m movem5ts are involunt>y & unconsci\s4 ,yet animal movem5ts & unconsci\s involunt>y human movem5ts are j z mu* subject to ! law ( association z ! mo/ consci\s ideas4 ,take1 e4g4 ! foll[+ example 7,watson1 p4 #cc74 ,! pupil ( ! eye exp&s 9 d>kness & contracts 9 bright light2 ?is is an involunt>y & unconsci\s action ( :i* we only become aw>e by obs]v+ o!rs4 ,n[ take "s p]son & repeat$ly expose him to bright light at ! same mom5t t y r+ an electric bell4 ,aft] a "t ! electric bell alone w cause 8 pupils to contract4 ,z f> z c be discov]$1 all muscles behave 9 ?is way4 ,s d gl&s :]e !y c be te/$4 ,x is said t a brass b& c be r$uc$ to sil5ce by suck+ a lemon 9 front ( x1 ow+ to ! effect ^u ! saliv>y gl&s ( its memb]s2 ,i confess t ,i h nev] v]ifi$ ?is /atem5t4 ,b y w f9d ! exact sci5tific analogue = dogs 9 ,watson1 p4 #bf4 ,y arrange a tube 9 a dog's m\? s t saliva drops out at a measurable rate4 ,:5 y give ! dog food x /imulates ! fl[ ( saliva4 ,at ! same mom5t y t\* 8 left ?igh4 ,aft] a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t ! t\* on ! left ?igh w produce j z mu* saliva )\t ! food z ) x4 ,! same sort ( ?+ applies to emotions1 :i* dep5d ^u ! ductless gl&s4 ,*ildr5 at bir? are afraid ( l\d noises1 b n ( animals4 ,watson took a *ild elev5 mon?s old1 :o 0 fond ( a c]ta9 :ite rat2 twice at ! mom5t :5 ! *ild t\*$ ! rat1 a sudd5 noise 0 made j beh9d ! *ild's head4 ,?is 0 en\gh to cause fe> ( ! rat on subsequ5t occasions1 no d\bt ow+ to ! fact t ! adr5al gl& 0 n[ /imulat$ by ! sub/itute /imulus1 j l ! saliv>y gl&s 9 ! dog or ! trumpet play]4 ,! above illu/rations %[ t 8ideas0 are n ! ess5tial units 9 association4 ,x seems t n m]ely is 8m9d0 irrelevant1 b ev5 ! bra9 is less important ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$4 ,at any rate1 :at is kn[n exp]im5tally is t ! gl&s & muscles 7bo? /rip$ & un/rip$7 ( ! high] animals exhibit ! law ( transf] ( response1 i4e4 :5 two /imuli h (t5 be5 appli$ toge!r1 "o w ultimately call out ! response :i* =m]ly ! o!r call$ out4 ,?is law is "o ( ! *ief bases ( habit4 ,x is also obvi\sly ess5tial to our und]/&+ ( language3 ! sight ( a dog calls up ! ^w 8dog01 & ! ^w 8dog0 calls up "s ( ! responses appropriate to a real dog4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r elem5t 9 le>n+1 besides m]e habit4 ,?is is ! elem5t dealt ) by ,?orndike's 8,law ( ,effect40 ,animals t5d to repeat acts :i* h pleasant consequ5ces1 & to avoid su* z h unpleasant consequ5ces4 ,b1 z we saw a mom5t ago1 8pleasant0 & 8unpleasant0 are words :i* we _c v]ify by objective obs]vation4 ,:at we c v]ify by obs]vation is t an animal seeks situations :i* 9 fact h _h c]ta9 results1 & avoids situations :i* 9 fact h _h c]ta9 o!r results4 ,moreov]1 broadly speak+1 ! animal seeks results :i* t5d to survival ( itself or its (fspr+1 & avoids results :i* t5d 9 ! opposite direction4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n inv>iable4 ,mo?s seek flames & m5 seek dr9k1 ?\gh nei!r is biologically useful4 ,x is only approximately1 9 situations long common1 t animals are s adju/$ to _! environm5t z to act 9 a way :i* is advantage\s f a biological /&po9t4 ,9 fact1 biological utility mu/ nev] be employ$ z an explanation1 b only notic$ z a frequ5t *>act]i/ic1 ( ! ways 9 :i* animals behave4 ,dr4 ,watson is ( ! op9ion t ,?orndike's 8,law ( ,effect0 is unnecess>y4 ,he fir/ sugge/s t only two factors are call$ = 9 ! explanation ( habit1 namely1 frequ5cy & rec5cy4 ,frequ5cy is cov]$ by ,?orndike's 8,law ( ,ex]cise01 b rec5cy1 :i* is almo/ c]ta9ly a g5u9e factor1 is n cov]$ by ,?orndike's two laws4 ,t is to say1 :5 a numb] ( r&om movem5ts h f9ally result$ 9 success1 ! m rec5t ( ^! movem5ts are likely to be repeat$ e>li]1 on a second trial1 ?an ! e>li] ones4 ,b ,dr4 ,watson f9ally ab&ons ?is me?od ( deal+ ) habit-=mation 9 fav\r ( ! "o law ( 8condition$ reflexes0 or 8le>n$ reactions04 ,he says 7,behaviorism1 p4 #aff73 8,only a few psy*ologi/s h be5 int]e/$ 9 ! problem4 ,mo/ ( ! psy*ologi/s1 x is to be regrett$1 h ev5 fail$ to see t !re is a problem4 ,!y believe habit =mation is implant$ by k9d fairies4 ,= example1 ,?orndike speaks ( pleasure /amp+ 9 ! successful movem5t & displeasure /amp+ out ! unsuccessful movem5ts4 ,mo/ ( ! psy*ologi/s talk1 too1 q volubly ab\t ! =mation ( new pa?ways 9 ! bra91 z ?\gh !re 7 a gr\p ( t9y s]vants ( ,vulcan !re :o run ?r\gh ! n]v\s sy/em ) hamm] & *isel digg+ new tr5*es & deep5+ old ones4 ,i am n sure t ! problem :5 phras$ 9 ?is way is a soluble "o4 ,i feel t !re mu/ come "s simpl] way ( envisag+ ! :ole process ( habit =mation or else x may rema9 insoluble4 ,s9ce ! adv5t ( ! condition$ reflex hypo!sis 9 psy*ology ) all ( ! simplifications 7& ,i am (t5 fe>ful t x may be an ov]simplification67 ,i h _h my own l>yngeal processes i4e4 :at o!rs call 8?\ghts0 /imulat$ to "w ^u ?is problem f ano!r angle40 ,i agree ) ,dr4 ,watson t ! explanations ( habit-=mation :i* are usually giv5 are v inadequate1 & t few psy*ologi/s h realis$ ei!r ! importance or ! difficulty ( ! problem4 ,i agree also t a great _m cases are cov]$ by 8 =mula ( ! condition$ reflex4 ,he relates a case ( a *ild :o once t\*$ a hot radiator1 & aft]w>d avoid$ x = two ye>s4 ,he adds3 8,if we %\ld keep our old habit t]m9ology1 we %\ld h 9 ?is example a habit =m$ by a s+le trial4 ,!re c be !n 9 ?is case no #8/amp+ 9 ( ! successful movem5t' & #8no /amp+ out ( ! unsuccessful movem5t4'0 ,on ! basis ( su* examples1 he believes t ! :ole ( habit-=mation c be d]iv$ f ! pr9ciple ( ! condition$ reflex1 :i* he =mulates z foll[s 7p4 #afh73 ,/imulus ,x w n n[ call out reaction ,r2 /imulus ,y w call out reaction ,r 7uncondition$ reflex72 b :5 /imulus ,x is pres5t$ fir/ & !n ,y 7:i* does call out ,r7 %ortly !reaft]1 ,x w !reaft] call out ,r4 ,9 o!r words1 /imulus ,x becomes ev] !reaft] sub/itut$ = ,y4 ,?is law is s simple1 s important1 & s widely true t !re is a dang] le/ its scope %\ld be exagg]at$1 j z1 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 physici/s tri$ to expla9 ev]y?+ by means ( gravitation4 ,b :5 consid]$ z cov]+ all ! gr\nd1 x seems to me to suff] f two opposite defects4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re are cases :]e no habit is set up1 al?\gh by ! law x %\ld be4 ,9 ! second place1 !re are habits :i*1 s f> z we c see at pres5t1 h a diff]5t g5esis4 ,to take ! fir/ po9t fir/3 ! ^w 8pepp]0 does n make p sneeze1 ?\gh accord+ to ! law x %\ld4#d ,words :i* describe succul5t foods w make ! m\? wat]2 voluptu\s words w h "s ( ! effect t w\ld be produc$ by ! situations !y sugge/2 b no words w produce sneezes or ! reactions appropriate to tickl+4 ,9 ! diagram giv5 by ,dr4 ,watson 7p4 #ajf71 !re are f\r reflexes :i* appe> to be n s\rces ( condition$ reflexes1 namely sneez+1 hicc\gh+1 bl9k+1 & ! ,bab9ski reflex2 ( ^!1 h[ev]1 bl9k+1 x is sugge/$ 7p4 #ii7 may be really itself a condition$ reflex4 ,!re may be "s q /raight=w>d explanation ( ! fact t "s reactions c be produc$ by sub/itute /imuli :ile o!rs _c1 b none is (f]$4 ,!re=e ! law ( ! condition$ reflex1 z =mulat$1 is too wide1 & x is n cle> :at is ! pr9ciple accord+ to :i* its scope %\ld be re/rict$4 #d ,dr4 ,watson app>5tly ent]ta9s hopes ( tea*+ babies to sneeze :5 !y see ! pepp] box1 b he has n yet done s4 ,see ,behaviorism1 p4 #ij4 ,! second objection to ,dr4 ,watson's law ( habit1 if valid1 is m important ?an ! fir/2 b its validity is m op5 to "q4 ,x is cont5d$ t ! acts by :i* solutions ( problems are obta9$ are1 9 cases ( a c]ta9 k9d1 n r&om acts lead+ to success by m]e *ance1 b acts proce$+ f 8insight01 involv+ a 8m5tal0 solution ( ! problem z a prelim9>y to ! physical solution4 ,?is is especially ! view ( ^? :o advocate ,ge/altpsy*ologie or ! psy*ology ( configuration4 ,we may take1 z typical ( _! attitude on ! subject ( le>n+1 ,khl]'s ,m5tality ( ,apes4 ,khl] w5t to ,t5]ife ) c]ta9 *impanzees 9 ! ye> #aiac2 ow+ to ! w> he 0 compell$ to rema9 ) !m until #aiag1 s t 8 opportunities = /udy 7 ext5sive4 ,he compla9s ( ! maze & cage problems set by ,am]ican inve/igators t !y are su* z _c be solv$ by intellig5ce4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton himself c\ld n h got out ( ! ,hampton ,c\rt maze by any me?od except trial & error4 ,khl]1 on ! o!r h&1 set 8 apes problems :i* c\ld be solv$ by :at he calls 8insight04 ,he w\ld hang up a banana#e out ( rea*1 & leave boxes 9 ! neighb\rhood s t by /&+ on ! boxes ! *impanzees c\ld rea* ! fruit4 ,sometimes !y _h to pile ?ree or ev5 f\r boxes on top ( ea* o!r be=e !y c\ld a*ieve success4 ,!n he w\ld put ! banana outside ! b>s ( ! cage1 leav+ a /ick inside1 & ! ape w\ld get ! banana by rea*+ = x ) ! /ick4 ,on "o occasion1 "o ( !m1 nam$ ,sultan1 _h two bamboo /icks1 ea* too %ort to rea* ! banana2 aft] va9 ef=ts foll[$ by a p]iod ( sil5t ?\ght1 he fitt$ ! small] into ! holl[ ( ! o!r1 & s manufactur$ "o /ick :i* 0 long en\gh4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 f ! acc\nt1 t he fir/ fitt$ ! two toge!r m or less accid5tally1 & only !n realis$ t he _h f\nd a solution4 ,nev]!less1 8 behavi\r :5 he _h once realis$ t "o /ick c\ld be made by jo9+ ! two 0 sc>cely ,watsonian3 !re 0 no long] any?+ t5tative1 b a def9ite triumph1 fir/ 9 anticipation & !n 9 action4 ,he 0 s pleas$ ) 8 new trick t he drew a numb] ( bananas into 8 cage be=e eat+ any ( !m4 ,he behav$1 9 fact1 z capitali/s h behav$ ) ma*9]y4 #e ,call$ by ,khl] 8! objective10 because ! ^w 8banana0 is too humble = a le>n$ "w4 ,! pictures disclose ! fact t 8! objective0 0 a m]e banana4 ,khl] says3 8,we c1 f our own exp]i5ce1 di/+ui% %>ply betwe5 ! k9d ( conduct :i*1 f ! v beg9n+1 arises out ( a consid]ation ( ! *>act]i/ics ( a situation1 & "o t does n4 ,only 9 ! =m] case d we speak ( insight1 & only t behavi\r ( animals def9itely appe>s to u intellig5t :i* takes acc\nt f ! beg9n+ ( ! lie ( ! l&1 & proce$s to deal ) x 9 a smoo? cont9u\s c\rse4 ,h5ce foll[s ?is *>act]i/ic3 to set up z ! crit]ion ( insight1 ! appe>ance ( a complete solution ) ref]5ce to ! :ole lay-out ( ! field40 ,g5u9e solutions ( problems1 ,khl] says1 d n improve by repetition2 !y are p]fect on ! fir/ occasion1 &1 if any?+1 gr[ worse by repetition1 :5 ! excitem5t ( discov]y has worn (f4 ,! :ole acc\nt t ,khl] gives ( ! ef=ts ( 8 *impanzees makes a totally diff]5t impression f t ( ! rats 9 mazes1 & "o is =c$ to conclude t ! ,am]ican "w is some:at vitiat$ by conf9+ itself to "o type ( problem1 & draw+ f t "o type conclusions :i* x believes to be applicable to all problems ( animal le>n+4 ,x seems t !re are two ways ( le>n+1 "o by exp]i5ce1 & ! o!r by :at ,khl] calls 8insight04 ,le>n+ by exp]i5ce is possible to mo/ v]tebrates1 ?\gh r>ely1 s f> z is kn[n1 to inv]tebrates4 ,le>n+ by 8insight01 on ! contr>y1 is n kn[n to exi/ 9 any animals l[] ?an ! an?ropoid apes1 ?\gh x w\ld be extremely ra% to ass]t t x w n be reveal$ by fur!r obs]vations on dogs or rats4 ,un=tunately1 "s animals--= in/ance1 elephants--may be extremely intellig5t1 b ! practical difficulty & exp5se ( exp]im5tation ) !m is s great t we are n likely to "k mu* ab\t !m = "s "t to come4 ,h[ev]1 ! real problem is already suffici5tly def9ite 9 ,khl]'s book3 x is ! analysis ( 8insight0 z oppos$ to ! me?od ( ! condition$ reflex4 ,let u fir/ be cle> z to ! nature ( ! problem1 :5 describ$ solely 9 t]ms ( behavi\r4 ,a hungry monkey1 if suffici5tly ne> to a banana1 w p]=m acts su* z1 9 circum/ances to :i* x has be5 accu/om$1 h previ\sly enabl$ x to obta9 bananas4 ,?is fits well ) ei!r ,watson or ,?orndike1 s f>4 ,b if ^! famili> acts fail1 ! animal w1 if x has be5 long )\t food1 is 9 good heal?1 & is n too tir$1 proce$ to o!r acts :i* h nev] hi!rto produc$ bananas4 ,"o may suppose1 if "o wi%es to foll[ ,watson1 t ^! new acts are compos$ ( a numb] ( p>ts1 ea* ( :i*1 on "s =m] occasion1 has occurr$ 9 a s]ies :i* end$ ) ! obta9+ ( ! banana4 ,or "o may suppose--z ,i ?9k ,?orndike does--t ! acts ( ! baffl$ animal are r&om acts1 s t ! solution em]ges by pure *ance4 ,b ev5 9 ! fir/ hypo!sis1 ! elem5t ( *ance is consid]able4 ,let u suppose t ! acts ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 h ea*1 on a =m] occasion1 be5 "p ( a s]ies end+ ) success1 b t n[ = ! fir/ "t x is necess>y to p]=m !m all1 & 9 ! "r ord]4 ,x is obvi\s t1 if !y are only comb9$ by *ance1 ! animal w be lucky if x p]=ms !m all 9 ! "r ord] be=e dy+ ( hung]4 ,b ,khl] ma9ta9s t to anyone wat*+ 8 *impanzees x 0 obvi\s !y did n obta9 8a composition ( ! solution out ( *ance p>ts04 ,he says 7pp4 #aii-bjj73 8,x is c]ta9ly n a *>act]i/ic ( ! *impanzee1 :5 he is br\ght into an exp]im5tal situation1 to make any *ance movem5ts1 out ( :i*1 among o!r ?+s1 a non-g5u9e solution c\ld arise4 ,he is v seldom se5 to attempt any?+ :i* w\ld h to be consid]$ accid5tal 9 relation to ! situation 7except+1 ( c\rse1 if 8 int]e/ is turn$ away f ! objective to o!r ?+s74 ,z long z 8 ef=ts are direct$ to ! objective1 all di/+ui%able /ages ( 8 behavi\r 7z ) human be+s 9 simil> situations7 t5d to appe> z complete attempts at solutions1 none ( :i* appe>s z ! product ( accid5tally array$ p>ts4 ,?is is true1 mo/ ( all1 ( ! solution :i* is f9ally successful4 ,c]ta9ly x (t5 foll[s ^u a p]iod ( p]plexity or quiet 7(t5 a p]iod ( survey71 b 9 real & conv9c+ cases1 ! solution nev] appe>s 9 a disord] ( bl9d impulses4 ,x is "o cont9u\s smoo? action1 :i* c be resolv$ into its p>ts only by ! imag9ation ( ! onlook]2 9 reality !y d n appe> indep5d5tly4 ,b t 9 s _m #8g5u9e' cases z h be5 describ$1 ^! solutions z :oles %\ld h aris5 f m]e *ance1 is an entirely inadmissible supposition40 ,?us we may take x z an obs]v$ fact t1 s f> z ov]t behavi\r is conc]n$1 !re are two objections to ! type ( !ory ) :i* we began1 :5 consid]$ z cov]+ ! :ole field4 ,! fir/ objection is t 9 cases ( a c]ta9 k9d1 ! solution appe>s soon] ?an x %\ld accord+ to ! doctr9e ( *ances2 ! second is t x appe>s z a :ole1 i4e4 t ! animal1 aft] a p]iod ( quiesc5ce1 sudd5ly goes ?r\gh ! "r s]ies ( actions smoo?ly1 & )\t hesitation4 ,:]e human be+s are conc]n$1 x is difficult to obta9 su* good data z 9 ! case ( animals4 ,human mo!rs w n all[ _! *ildr5 to be />v$1 & !n %ut up 9 a room conta9+ a banana :i* c only be rea*$ by putt+ a *air on ! table & a foot/ool on ! *air1 & !n climb+ up )\t break+ any bones4 ,nor w !y p]mit !m to be put into ! middle ( a ,hampton ,c\rt maze1 ) _! d9n] gett+ cold outside4 ,p]haps 9 "t ! ,/ate w p]=m ^! exp]im5ts ) ! *ildr5 ( political prison]s1 b z yet1 p]haps =tunately1 ! au?orities are n suffici5tly int]e/$ 9 sci5ce4 ,"o c obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t human le>n+ seems to be ( bo? sorts1 namely t describ$ by ,watson & t describ$ by ,khl]4 ,i am p]suad$ t spee* is le>nt by ! ,watsonian me?od1 s long z x is conf9$ to s+le words3 (t5 ! trial & error1 9 lat] /ages1 proce$s sotto voce1 b x takes place ov]tly at fir/1 & 9 "s *ildr5 until _! spee* is q correct4 ,! speak+ ( s5t5ces1 h[ev]1 is already m difficult to expla9 )\t br++ 9 ! appreh5sion ( :oles :i* is ! ?+ ^u :i* ,ge/altpsy*ologie lays /ress4 ,9 ! lat] /ages ( le>n+1 ! sort ( sudd5 illum9ation :i* came to ,khl]'s *impanzees is a ph5om5on ) :i* e s]i\s /ud5t mu/ be famili>4 ,"o day1 aft] a p]iod ( grop+ bewild]m5t1 ! s*oolboy kn[s :at algebra is all ab\t4 ,9 writ+ a book1 my own exp]i5ce--:i* ,i "k is fairly common1 ?\gh by no means univ]sal--is t = a "t ,i fumble & hesitate1 & !n sudd5ly ,i see ! book z a :ole1 & h only to write x d[n z if ,i 7 copy+ a complet$ manuscript4 ,if ^! ph5om5a are to be br\ght )9 ! scope ( behavi\ri/ psy*ology1 x mu/ be by means ( 8implicit0 behavi\r4 ,watson makes mu* use ( ?is 9 ! =m ( talk+ to oneself1 b 9 apes x _c take q ?is =m4 ,& x is necess>y to h "s !ory to expla9 ! success ( 8implicit0 behavi\r1 :e!r we call x 8?\ght0 or n4 ,p]haps su* a !ory c be con/ruct$ on ,watson's l9es1 b x has c]ta9ly n yet be5 con/ruct$4 ,until ! behavi\ri/s h satisfactorily expla9$ ! k9d ( discov]y :i* appe>s 9 ,khl]'s obs]vations1 we _c say t _! !sis is prov$4 ,?is is a matt] :i* w occupy u aga9 at a lat] /age2 = ! pres5t let u pres]ve an op5 m9d4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,language ,! subject ( language is "o :i* has n be5 /udi$ ) suffici5t c>e 9 traditional philosophy4 ,x 0 tak5 = grant$ t words exi/ to express 8?\ghts10 & g5]ally also t 8?\ghts0 h 8objects0 :i* are :at ! words 8mean04 ,x 0 ?\ght t1 by means ( language1 we c\ld deal directly ) :at x 8means01 & t we ne$ n analyse ) any c>e ei!r ( ! two suppos$ prop]ties ( words1 namely t ( 8express+0 ?\ghts & t ( 8mean+0 ?+s4 ,(t5 :5 philosoph]s int5d$ to be consid]+ ! objects meant by words !y 7 9 fact consid]+ only ! words1 & :5 !y 7 consid]+ words !y made ! mi/ake ( suppos+1 m or less unconsci\sly1 t a ^w is a s+le entity1 n1 z x really is1 a set ( m or less simil> ev5ts4 ,! failure to consid] language explicitly has be5 a cause ( mu* t 0 bad 9 traditional philosophy4 ,i ?9k myself t 8mean+0 c only be und]/ood if we treat language z a bodily habit1 :i* is le>nt j z we le>n football or bicycl+4 ,! only satisfactory way to treat language1 to my m9d1 is to treat x 9 ?is way1 z ,dr4 ,watson does4 ,inde$1 ,i %\ld reg>d ! !ory ( language z "o ( ! /ronge/ po9ts 9 fav\r ( behavi\rism4 ,man has v>i\s advantages ov] ! bea/s1 = example1 fire1 clo?+1 agriculture1 & tools--n ! possession ( dome/ic animals1 = ants h !m4 ,b m important ?an any ( ^! is language4 ,x is n kn[n h[ or :5 language arose1 nor :y *impanzees d n speak4 ,i d\bt if x is ev5 kn[n :e!r writ+ or spee* is ! old] =m ( language4 ,! pictures made 9 caves by ! ,cro-,magnon m5 may h be5 int5d$ to convey a mean+1 & may h be5 a =m ( writ+4 ,x is kn[n t writ+ develop$ out ( pictures1 = t happ5$ 9 hi/orical times2 b x is n kn[n to :at ext5t pictures _h be5 us$ 9 pre-hi/oric times z a means ( giv+ in=mation or comm&s4 ,z = spok5 language1 x diff]s f ! cries ( animals 9 be+ n m]ely an expression ( emotion4 ,animals h cries ( fe>1 cries express+ pleasure 9 ! discov]y ( food1 & s on1 & by means ( ^! cries !y influ5ce ea* o!r's actions4 ,b !y d n appe> to h any means ( express+ any?+ except emotions1 & !n only emotions :i* !y are actually feel+4 ,!re is no evid5ce t !y possess any?+ analog\s to n>rative4 ,we may say1 !re=e1 )\t exagg]ation1 t language is a human pr]ogative1 & probably ! *ief habit 9 :i* we are sup]ior to ! 8dumb0 animals4 ,!re are ?ree matt]s to be consid]$ 9 beg9n+ ! /udy ( language4 ,fir/3 :at words are1 reg>d$ z physical occurr5ces2 secondly1 :at are ! circum/ances t lead u to use a giv5 ^w2 ?irdly1 :at are ! effects ( our he>+ or see+ a giv5 ^w4 ,b z reg>ds ! second & ?ird ( ^! que/ions1 we %all f9d ourselves l$ on f words to s5t5ces & ?us confront$ ) fre% problems p]haps dem&+ r ! me?ods ( ,ge/altpsy*ologie4 ,ord9>y words are ( f\r k9ds3 spok51 he>d1 writt51 & read4 ,x is ( c\rse l>gely a matt] ( conv5tion t we d n use words ( o!r k9ds4 ,!re is ! deaf-&-dumb language2 a ,fr5*man's %rug ( ! %\ld]s is a ^w2 9 fact1 any k9d ( ext]nally p]ceptible bodily movem5t may become a ^w1 if social usage s orda9s4 ,b ! conv5tion :i* has giv5 ! supremacy to speak+ is "o :i* has a good gr\nd1 s9ce !re is no o!r way ( produc+ a numb] ( p]ceptibly diff]5t bodily movem5ts s quickly or ) s little muscul> ef=t4 ,public speak+ w\ld be v t$i\s if /atesm5 _h to use ! deaf-&-dumb language1 & v exhau/+ if all words involv$ z mu* muscul> ef=t z a %rug ( ! %\ld]s4 ,i %all ignore all =ms ( language except speak+1 he>+1 writ+1 & read+1 s9ce ! o!rs are relatively unimportant & raise no special psy*ological problems4 ,a spok5 ^w consi/s ( a s]ies ( movem5ts 9 ! l>ynx & ! m\?1 comb9$ ) brea?4 ,two closely simil> s]ies ( su* movem5ts may be in/ances ( ! same words1 ?\gh !y may also n be1 s9ce two words ) diff]5t mean+s may s\nd alike2 b two su* s]ies :i* are n closely simil> _c be in/ances ( ! same ^w4 7,i am conf9+ myself to "o language47 ,?us a s+le spok5 ^w1 say 8dog10 is a c]ta9 set ( closely simil> s]ies ( bodily movem5ts1 ! set hav+ z _m memb]s z !re are occasions :5 ! ^w 8dog0 is pron\nc$4 ,! degree ( simil>ity requir$ 9 ord] t ! occurr5ce %\ld be an in/ance ( ! ^w 8dog0 _c be specifi$ exactly4 ,"s p say 8dawg01 & ?is mu/ c]ta9ly be admitt$4 ,a ,g]man might say 8tok01 & !n we %\ld beg9 to be d\btful4 ,9 m>g9al cases1 we _c be sure :e!r a ^w has be5 pron\nc$ or n4 ,a spok5 ^w is a =m ( bodily behavi\r )\t %>p b\nd>ies1 l jump+ or hopp+ or runn+4 ,is a man runn+ or walk+8 ,9 a walk+-race ! umpire may h great difficulty 9 decid+4 ,simil>ly !re may be cases :]e x _c be decid$ :e!r a man has said 8dog0 or 8dock04 ,a spok5 ^w is ?us at once g5]al & some:at vague4 ,we usually take = grant$ ! relation betwe5 a ^w spok5 & a ^w he>d4 8,c y he> :at ,i say80 we ask1 & ! p]son address$ says 8yes04 ,?is is ( c\rse a delusion1 a "p ( ! naive realism ( our unreflective outlook on ! _w4 ,we nev] he> :at is said2 we he> some?+ hav+ a complicat$ causal connection ) :at is said4 ,!re is fir/ ! purely physical process ( s\nd-waves f ! m\? ( ! speak] to ! e> ( ! he>]1 !n a complicat$ process 9 ! e> & n]ves1 & !n an ev5t 9 ! bra91 :i* is relat$ to our he>+ ( ! s\nd 9 a mann] to be inve/igat$ lat]1 b is at any rate simultane\s ) our he>+ ( ! s\nd4 ,?is gives ! physical causal connection betwe5 ! ^w spok5 & ! ^w he>d4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 also ano!r connection ( a m psy*ological sort4 ,:5 a man utt]s a ^w1 he also he>s x himself1 & s t ! ^w spok5 & ! ^w he>d become intimately associat$ = anyone :o kn[s h[ to speak4 ,& a man :o kn[s h[ to speak c also utt] any ^w he he>s 9 8 own language1 s t ! association works equally well bo? ways4 ,x is because ( ! intimacy ( ?is association t ! pla9 man id5tifies ! ^w spok5 ) ! ^w he>d1 al?\gh 9 fact ! two are sep>at$ by a wide gulf4 ,9 ord] t spee* may s]ve its purpose1 x is n necess>y1 z x is n possible1 t he>d & spok5 words %\ld be id5tical1 b x is necess>y t :5 a man utt]s diff]5t words ! he>d words %\ld be diff]5t1 & :5 he utt]s ! same ^w on two occasions ! he>d ^w %\ld be approximately ! same on ! two occasions4 ,! fir/ ( ^! dep5ds ^u ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! e> & its di/ance f ! speak]2 we _c di/+ui% betwe5 two r simil> words if we are too f> (f f ! man :o utt]s !m4 ,! second condition dep5ds ^u uni=mity 9 ! physical conditions1 & is realis$ 9 all ord9>y circum/ances4 ,b if ! speak] 7 surr\nd$ by in/rum5ts :i* 7 resonant to c]ta9 notes b n to c]ta9 o!rs1 "s tones ( voice might c>ry & o!rs might be lo/4 ,9 t case1 if he utt]$ ! same ^w ) two diff]5t intonations1 ! he>] might be q unable to recognise ! sam5ess4 ,?us ! efficacy ( spee* dep5ds ^u a numb] ( physical conditions4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 we w take = grant$1 9 ord] to come z soon z possible to ! m psy*ological p>ts ( our topic4 ,writt5 words diff] f spok5 words 9 be+ mat]ial /ructures4 ,a spok5 ^w is a process 9 ! physical _w1 hav+ an ess5tial "t-ord]2 a writt5 ^w is a s]ies ( pieces ( matt]1 hav+ an ess5tial space-ord]4 ,z to :at we mean by 8matt]01 t is a "q ) :i* we %all h to deal at l5g? at a lat] /age4 ,= ! pres5t x is en\gh to obs]ve t ! mat]ial /ructures :i* con/itute writt5 words1 unlike ! processes t con/itute spok5 words1 are capable ( endur+ = a long "t--sometimes = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,moreov]1 !y are n conf9$ to "o neighb\rhood1 b c be made to travel ab\t ! _w4 ,^! are ! two great advantages ( writ+ ov] spee*4 ,?is1 at lea/1 has be5 ! case until rec5tly4 ,b ) ! com+ ( radio writ+ x has begun to lose its pre-em95ce3 "o man c n[ speak to multitudes spread ov] a :ole c\ntry4 ,ev5 9 ! matt] ( p]man5ce1 spee* may become ! equal ( writ+4 ,p]haps1 in/ead ( legal docum5ts1 we %all h gramophone records1 ) voice signatures by ! p>ties to ! contract4 ,p]haps1 z 9 ,wells's ,:5 ! ,sleep] ,awakes1 books w no long] be pr9t$ b m]ely arrang$ = ! gramophone4 ,9 t case ! ne$ = writ+ may almo/ cease to exi/4 ,h[ev]1 let u return f ^! speculations to ! _w ( ! pres5t day4 ,! ^w read1 z oppos$ to ! writt5 or pr9t$ ^w1 is j z evanesc5t z ! ^w spok5 or he>d4 ,:5ev] a writt5 ^w1 expos$ to light1 is 9 a suitable spatial relation to a normal eye1 x produces a c]ta9 complicat$ effect ^u ! eye2 ! "p ( ?is process :i* occurs outside ! eye is inve/igat$ by ! sci5ce ( light1 :]eas ! "p t occurs 9 ! eye belongs to physiological optics4 ,!re is !n a fur!r process1 fir/ 9 ! optic n]ve & aft]w>ds 9 ! bra92 ! process 9 ! bra9 is simultane\s ) vision4 ,:at fur!r relation x has to vision is a "q z to :i* !re has be5 mu* philosophical controv]sy2 we %all return to x at a lat] /age4 ,! ess5ce ( ! matt]1 z reg>ds ! causal efficacy ( writ+1 is t ! act ( writ+ produces quasi-p]man5t mat]ial /ructures :i*1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( _! duration1 produce closely simil> results ^u all suitably plac$ normal eyes2 & z 9 ! case ( speak+1 diff]5t writt5 words lead to diff]5t read words1 & ! same ^w writt5 twice leads to ! same read ^w--aga9 ) obvi\s limitations4 ,s mu* = ! physical side ( language1 :i* is (t5 unduly neglect$4 ,i come n[ to ! psy*ological side1 :i* is :at really conc]ns u 9 ?is *apt]4 ,! two que/ions we h to answ]1 ap>t f ! problems rais$ by s5t5ces z oppos$ to words1 are3 ,fir/1 :at sort ( behavi\r is /imulat$ by he>+ a ^w8 ,& secondly1 :at sort ( occasion /imulates u to ! behavi\r t consi/s 9 pron\nc+ a ^w8 ,i put ! que/ions 9 ?is ord] because *ildr5 le>n to react to ! words ( o!rs be=e !y le>n to use words !mselves4 ,x might be object$ t1 9 ! hi/ory ( ! race1 ! fir/ spok5 ^w mu/ h prec$$ ! fir/ he>d ^w1 at lea/ by a fraction ( a second4 ,b ?is is n v relevant1 nor is x c]ta9ly true4 ,a noise may h mean+ to ! he>]1 b n to ! utt]]2 9 t case x is a he>d ^w b n a spok5 ^w4 7,i %all expla9 :at ,i mean by 8mean+0 %ortly47 ,friday's footpr9t _h 8mean+0 = ,rob9son ,crusoe b n = ,friday4 ,h[ev] t may be1 we %all d bett] to avoid ! v hypo!tical p>ts ( an?ropology t w\ld be involv$1 & take up ! le>n+ ( language z x c be obs]v$ 9 ! human infant ( ! pres5t day4 ,& 9 ! human infant z we "k him1 def9ite reactions to ! words ( o!rs come mu* e>li] ?an ! p[] ( utt]+ words himself4 ,a *ild le>ns to und]/& words exactly z he le>ns any o!r process ( bodily association4 ,if y always say 8bottle0 :5 y give a *ild 8 bottle1 he pres5tly reacts to ! ^w 8bottle01 )9 limits1 z he =m]ly react$ to ! bottle4 ,?is is m]ely an example ( ! law ( association :i* we consid]$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,:5 ! association has be5 e/abli%$1 p>5ts say t ! *ild 8und]/&s0 ! ^w 8bottle01 or kn[s :at ! ^w 8means04 ,( c\rse ! ^w does n h all ! effects t ! actual bottle has4 ,x does n ex]t gravitation1 x does n n\ri%1 x _c bump on to ! *ild's head4 ,! effects :i* are %>$ by ! ^w & ! ?+ are ^? :i* dep5d ^u ! law ( association or 8conditional reflexes0 or 8le>n$ reactions04 ,^! may be call$ 8associative0 effects or 8mnemic0 effects--! latt] "n be+ d]iv$ f ,semon's book ,mneme1#f 9 :i* he traces all ph5om5a analog\s to memory to a law :i* is1 9 effect1 n v diff]5t f ! law ( association or 8condition$ reflexes04 #f ,london3 ,george ,all5 ,unw91 ,ltd4 ,x is possible to be a little m precise z to ! class ( effects conc]n$4 ,a physical object is a c5tre f :i* a v>iety ( causal *a9s emanate4 ,if ! object is visible to ,john ,smi?1 "o ( ! causal *a9s emanat+ f x consi/s fir/ ( light-waves 7or light-quanta7 :i* travel f ! object to ,john ,smi?'s eye1 !n ( ev5ts 9 8 eye & optic n]ve1 !n ( ev5ts 9 8 bra91 & !n 7p]haps7 ( a reaction on 8 "p4 ,n[ mnemic effects belong only to ev5ts 9 liv+ tissue2 !re=e only ^? effects ( ! bottle :i* happ5 ei!r inside ,john ,smi?'s body1 or z a result ( 8 reaction to ! bottle1 c become associat$ ) 8 he>+ ! ^w 8bottle04 ,& ev5 !n only c]ta9 ev5ts c be associat$3 n\ri%m5t happ5s 9 ! body1 yet ! ^w 8bottle0 _c n\ri%4 ,! law ( condition$ reflexes is subject to asc]ta9able limitations1 b )9 its limits x supplies :at is want$ to expla9 ! und]/&+ ( words4 ,! *ild becomes excit$ :5 he sees ! bottle2 ?is is already a condition$ reflex1 due to exp]i5ce t ?is sight prec$es a meal4 ,"o fur!r /age 9 condition+ makes ! *ild gr[ excit$ :5 he he>s ! ^w 8bottle04 ,he is !n said to 8und]/&0 ! ^w4 ,we may say1 !n1 t a p]son und]/&s a ^w :i* he he>s if1 s f> z ! law ( condition$ reflexes is applicable1 ! effects ( ! ^w are ! same z ^? ( :at x is said to 8mean04 ,?is ( c\rse only applies to words l 8bottle01 :i* d5ote "s concrete object or "s class ( concrete objects4 ,to und]/& a ^w su* z 8reciprocity0 or 8republicanism0 is a m complicat$ matt]1 & _c be consid]$ until we h dealt ) s5t5ces4 ,b be=e consid]+ s5t5ces we h to exam9e ! circum/ances :i* make u use a ^w1 z oppos$ to ! consequ5ces ( he>+ x us$4 ,say+ a ^w is m difficult ?an us+ x1 except 9 ! case ( a few simple s\nds :i* infants make be=e !y "k t !y are words1 su* z 8ma-ma0 & 8da-da40 ,^! two are among ! _m r&om s\nds t all babies make4 ,:5 a *ild says 8ma-ma0 9 ! pres5ce ( 8 "m by *ance %e ?9ks he kn[s :at ?is noise means1 & %e %[s pleasure 9 ways t are agreeable to ! infant4 ,gradually1 9 accordance ) ,?orndike's law ( effect1 he acquires ! habit ( mak+ ?is noise 9 ! pres5ce ( 8 "m1 because 9 ^! circum/ances ! consequ5ces are pleasant4 ,b x is only a v small numb] ( words t are acquir$ 9 ?is way4 ,! great majority ( words are acquir$ by imitation1 comb9$ ) ! association betwe5 ?+ & ^w :i* ! p>5ts delib]ately e/abli% 9 ! e>ly /ages 7aft] ! v fir/ /age74 ,x is obvi\s t us+ words oneself involves some?+ ov] & above ! association betwe5 ! s\nd ( ! ^w & its mean+4 ,dogs und]/& _m words1 & infants und]/& f> m ?an !y c say4 ,! infant has to discov] t x is possible & pr(itable to make noises l ^? :i* he he>s4 7,?is /atem5t mu/ n be tak5 q lit]ally1 or x w\ld be too intellectuali/ic47 ,he w\ld nev] discov] ?is if he did n make noises at r&om1 )\t ! int5tion ( talk+4 ,he !n gradually f9ds t he c make noises l ^? :i* he he>s1 & 9 g5]al ! consequ5ces ( do+ s are pleasant4 ,p>5ts are pleas$1 desir$ objects c be obta9$1 &--p]haps mo/ important ( all--!re is a s5se ( p[] 9 mak+ int5d$ in/ead ( accid5tal noises4 ,b 9 ?is :ole process !re is no?+ ess5tially diff]5t f ! le>n+ ( mazes by rats4 ,x resembles ?is =m ( le>n+1 r ?an t ( ,khl] apes1 because no am\nt ( intellig5ce c\ld enable ! *ild to f9d out ! names ( ?+s--z 9 ! case ( ! mazes1 exp]i5ce is ! only possible guide4 ,:5 a p]son kn[s h[ to speak1 ! condition+ proce$s 9 ! opposite direction to t :i* op]ates 9 und]/&+ :at o!rs say4 ,! reaction ( a p]son :o kn[s h[ to speak1 :5 he notices a cat1 is naturally to utt] ! ^w 8cat02 he may n actually d s1 b he w h a reaction lead+ t[>ds ?is act1 ev5 if = "s reason ! ov]t act does n take place4 ,x is true t he may utt] ! ^w 8cat0 because he is 8?9k+0 ab\t a cat1 n actually see+ "o4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 z we %all see 9 a mom5t1 is m]ely "o fur!r /age 9 ! process ( condition+4 ,! use ( s+le words1 z oppos$ to s5t5ces1 is :olly explicable1 s f> z ,i c see1 by ! pr9ciples :i* apply to animals 9 mazes4 ,c]ta9 philosoph]s :o h a prejudice aga9/ analysis cont5d t ! s5t5ce comes fir/ & ! s+le ^w lat]4 ,9 ?is connection !y always allude to ! language ( ! ,patagonians1 :i* _! oppon5ts1 ( c\rse1 d n "k4 ,we are giv5 to und]/& t a ,patagonian c und]/& y if y say 8,i am go+ to fi% 9 ! lake beh9d ! we/]n hill01 b t he _c und]/& ! ^w 8fi%0 by itself4 7,?is in/ance is imag9>y1 b x repres5ts ! sort ( ?+ t is ass]t$47 ,n[ x may be t ,patagonians are peculi>--inde$ !y mu/ be1 or !y w\ld n *oose to live 9 ,patagonia4 ,b c]ta9ly infants 9 civiliz$ c\ntries d n behave 9 ?is way1 ) ! exception ( ,?omas ,c>lyle & ,"l ,macaulay4 ,! =m] nev] spoke be=e ! age ( ?ree1 :51 he>+ 8 y\ng] bro!r cry1 he said1 8,:at ails wee ,jock80 ,"l ,macaulay 8le>n$ 9 suff]+ :at he taught 9 song01 =1 hav+ spilt a cup ( hot tea ov] himself at a p>ty1 he began 8 c>e] z a talk] by say+ to 8 ho/ess1 aft] a "t1 8,?ank y1 ,madam1 ! agony is abat$04 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are facts ab\t biograph]s1 n ab\t ! beg9n+s ( spee* 9 infancy4 ,9 all *ildr5 t h be5 c>efully obs]v$1 s5t5ces come mu* lat] ?an s+le words4 ,*ildr51 at fir/1 are limit$ z to _! p[] ( produc+ s\nds1 & also by ! paucity ( _! le>n$ associations4 ,i am sure ! reason :y 8ma-ma0 & 8da-da0 h ! mean+ !y h is t !y are s\nds :i* infants make spontane\sly at an e>ly age1 & are !re=e conv5i5t z s\nds to :i* ! eld]s c atta* mean+4 ,9 ! v beg9n+ ( spee* !re is n imitation ( gr[nups1 b ! discov]y t s\nds made spontane\sly h agreeable results4 ,imitation comes lat]1 aft] ! *ild has discov]$ t s\nds c h ?is quality ( 8mean+04 ,! type ( skill involv$ is ?r\gh\t exactly simil> to t involv$ 9 le>n+ to play a game or ride a bicycle4 ,we may sum up ?is !ory ( mean+ 9 a simple =mula4 ,:5 ?r\gh ! law ( condition$ reflexes1 ,a has come to be a cause ( ,c1 we w call ,a an 8associative0 cause ( ,c1 & ,c an 8associative0 effect ( ,a4 ,we %all say t1 to a giv5 p]son1 ! ^w ,a1 :5 he he>s x1 8means0 ,c1 if ! associative effects ( ,a are closely simil> to ^? ( ,c2 & we %all say t ! ^w ,a1 :5 he utt]s x1 8means0 ,c1 if ! utt]ance ( ,a is an associative effect ( ,c1 or ( some?+ previ\sly associat$ ) ,c4 ,to put ! matt] m concretely1 ! ^w 8,pet]0 means a c]ta9 p]son if ! associat$ effects ( he>+ ! ^w 8,pet]0 are closely simil> to ^? ( see+ ,pet]1 & ! associative causes ( utt]+ ! ^w 8,pet]0 are occurr5ces previ\sly associat$ ) ,pet]4 ,( c\rse z our exp]i5ce increases 9 complexity ?is simple s*ema becomes obscur$ & ov]laid1 b ,i ?9k x rema9s fundam5tally true4 ,!re is an int]e/+ & valuable book by ,messrs4 ,c4 ,k4 ,ogd5 & ,i4 ,a4 ,ri*>ds1 call$ ,! ,mean+ ( ,mean+4 ,?is book1 ow+ to ! fact t x conc5trates on ! causes ( utt]+ words1 n on ! effects ( he>+ !m1 gives only half ! above !ory1 & t 9 a some:at incomplete =m4 ,x says t a ^w & its mean+ h ! same causes4 ,i %\ld di/+ui% betwe5 active mean+1 t ( ! man utt]+ ! ^w1 & passive mean+1 t ( ! man he>+ ! ^w4 ,9 active mean+ ! ^w is associatively caus$ by :at x means or some?+ associat$ ) ?is2 9 passive mean+1 ! associative effects ( ! ^w are approximately ! same z ^? ( :at x means4 ,on behavi\ri/ l9es1 !re is no important diff]5ce betwe5 prop] names & :at are call$ 8ab/ract0 or 8g5]ic0 words4 ,a *ild le>ns to use ! ^w 8cat01 :i* is g5]al1 j z he le>ns to use ! ^w 8,pet]01 :i* is a prop] "n4 ,b 9 actual fact 8,pet]0 really cov]s a numb] ( diff]5t occurr5ces1 & is 9 a s5se g5]al4 ,pet] may be ne> or f>1 walk+ or /&+ or sitt+1 laugh+ or fr[n+4 ,all ^! produce diff]5t /imuli1 b ! /imuli h en\gh 9 common to produce ! reaction consi/+ ( ! ^w 8,pet]04 ,?us !re is no ess5tial diff]5ce1 f a behavi\ri/ po9t ( view1 betwe5 8,pet]0 & 8man04 ,!re are m resemblances betwe5 ! v>i\s /imuli to ! ^w 8,pet]0 ?an betwe5 ^? to ! ^w 8man01 b ?is is only a diff]5ce ( degree4 ,we h n names = ! fleet+ p>ticul> occurr5ces :i* make up ! sev]al appe>ances ( ,pet]1 because !y are n ( mu* practical importance2 _! importance1 9 fact1 is purely !oretic & philosophical4 ,z su*1 we %all h a good deal to say ab\t !m at a lat] /age4 ,= ! pres5t1 we notice t !re are _m occurr5ces ( ,pet]1 & _m occurr5ces ( ! ^w 8,pet]02 ea*1 to ! man :o sees ,pet]1 is a set ( ev5ts hav+ c]ta9 simil>ities4 ,m exactly1 ! occurr5ces ( ,pet] are causally connect$1 :]eas ! occurr5ces ( ! ^w 8,pet]0 are connect$ by simil>ity4 ,b ?is is a di/9ction :i* ne$ n conc]n u yet4 ,g5]al words su* z 8man0 or 8cat0 or 8triangle0 are said to d5ote 8univ]sals01 conc]n+ :i*1 f ! "t ( ,plato to ! pres5t day1 philosoph]s h nev] ceas$ to debate4 ,:e!r !re are univ]sals1 &1 if s1 9 :at s5se1 is a metaphysical "q1 :i* ne$ n be rais$ 9 connection ) ! use ( language4 ,! only po9t ab\t univ]sals t ne$s to be rais$ at ?is po9t is t ! correct use ( g5]al words is no evid5ce t a man c ?9k ab\t univ]sals4 ,x has (t5 be5 suppos$ t1 because we c use a ^w l 8man0 correctly1 we mu/ be capable ( a correspond+ 8ab/ract0 idea ( man1 b ?is is q a mi/ake4 ,"s reactions are appropriate to "o man1 "s to ano!r1 b all h c]ta9 elem5ts 9 common4 ,if ! ^w 8man0 produces 9 u ! reactions :i* are common b no o!rs1 we may be said to und]/& ! ^w 8man04 ,9 le>n+ geometry1 "o acquires ! habit ( avoid+ special int]pretations ( su* a ^w z 8triangle04 ,we "k t1 :5 we h a proposition ab\t triangles 9 g5]al1 we mu/ n ?9k specially ( a "r-angl$ triangle or any "o k9d ( triangle4 ,?is is ess5tially ! process ( le>n+ to associate ) ! ^w :at is associat$ ) all triangles2 :5 we h le>nt ?is1 we und]/& ! ^w 8triangle04 ,consequ5tly !re is no ne$ to suppose t we ev] appreh5d univ]sals1 al?\gh we use g5]al words correctly4 ,hi!rto we h spok5 ( s+le words1 & among ^! we h consid]$ only ^? t c naturally be employ$ s+ly4 ,a *ild uses s+le words ( a c]ta9 k9d be=e con/ruct+ s5t5ces2 b "s words presuppose s5t5ces4 ,no "o w\ld use ! ^w 8pat]nity0 until aft] us+ su* s5t5ces z 8,john is ! fa!r ( ,james02 no "o w\ld use ! ^w 8causality0 until aft] us+ su* s5t5ces z 8! fire makes me w>m04 ,s5t5ces introduce new consid]ations1 & are n q s easily expla9$ on behavi\ri/ l9es4 ,philosophy1 h[ev]1 imp]atively dem&s an und]/&+ ( s5t5ces1 & we mu/ !re=e consid] !m4 ,z we f\nd e>li]1 all infants outside ,patagonia beg9 ) s+le words1 & only a*ieve s5t5ces lat]4 ,b !y diff] enorm\sly 9 ! spe$ ) :i* !y advance f ! "o to ! o!r4 ,my own two *ildr5 adopt$ entirely diff]5t me?ods4 ,my son fir/ practis$ s+le lett]s1 !n s+le words1 & only a*iev$ correct s5t5ces ( m ?an ?ree or f\r words at ! age ( two & ?ree mon?s4 ,my daught]1 on ! contr>y1 advanc$ v quickly to s5t5ces1 9 :i* !re 0 h>dly ev] an error4 ,at ! age ( eighte5 mon?s1 :5 suppos$ to be sleep+1 %e 0 ov]he>d say+ to h]self3 8,la/ ye> ,i us$ to dive (f ! div+-bo>d1 ,i did40 ,( c\rse 8la/ ye>0 0 m]ely a phrase repeat$ )\t und]/&+4 ,& no d\bt ! fir/ s5t5ces us$ by *ildr5 are always repetitions1 un*ang$1 ( s5t5ces !y h he>d us$ by o!rs4 ,su* cases raise no new pr9ciple n involv$ 9 ! le>n+ ( words4 ,:at does raise a new pr9ciple is ! p[] ( putt+ toge!r kn[n words into a s5t5ce :i* has nev] be5 he>d1 b :i* expresses correctly :at ! infant wi%es to convey4 ,?is involves ! p[] to manipulate =m & /ructure4 ,x does n ( c\rse involve ! appreh5sion ( =m or /ructure 9 ! ab/ract1 any m ?an ! use ( ! ^w 8man0 involves appreh5sion ( a univ]sal4 ,b x does involve a causal connection betwe5 ! =m ( ! /imulus & ! =m ( ! reaction4 ,an infant v soon le>ns to be diff]5tly affect$ by ! /atem5t 8cats eat mice0 f ! way he w\ld be affect$ by ! /atem5t 8mice eat cats02 & n mu* lat] he le>ns to make "o ( ^! /atem5ts r ?an ! o!r4 ,9 su* a case1 ! cause 79 he>+7 or ! effect 79 speak+7 is a :ole s5t5ce4 ,x may be t "o "p ( ! environm5t is suffici5t to cause "o ^w1 :ile ano!r is suffici5t to cause ano!r1 b x is only ! two p>ts 9 _! relation t c cause ! :ole s5t5ce4 ,?us :]ev] s5t5ces come 9 we h a causal relation betwe5 two complex facts1 namely ! fact ass]t$ & ! s5t5ce ass]t+ x2 ! facts z :oles ent] into ! cause-&-effect relation1 :i* _c be expla9$ :olly z comp\nd$ ( relations betwe5 _! p>ts4 ,moreov]1 z soon z ! *ild has le>n$ to use correctly relational words1 su* z 8eat01 he has become capable ( be+ causally affect$ by a relational feature ( ! environm5t1 :i* involves a new degree ( complexity n requir$ = ! use ( ord9>y n\ns4 ,?us ! correct use ( relational words1 i4e4 ( s5t5ces1 involves :at may be correctly t]m$ 8p]ception ( =m01 i4e4 x involves a def9ite reaction to a /imulus :i* is a =m4 ,suppose1 = example1 t a *ild has le>nt to say t "o ?+ is 8above0 ano!r :5 ?is is 9 fact ! case4 ,! /imulus to ! use ( ! ^w 8above0 is a relational feature ( ! environm5t1 & we may say t ?is feature is 8p]ceiv$0 s9ce x produces a def9ite reaction4 ,x may be said t ! relation above is n v l ! ^w 8above04 ,t is true2 b ! same is true ( ord9>y physical objects4 ,a /one1 accord+ to ! physici/s1 is n at all l :at we see :5 we look at x1 & yet we may be correctly said to 8p]ceive0 x4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is to anticipate4 ,! def9ite po9t :i* has em]g$ is t1 :5 a p]son c use s5t5ces correctly1 t is a pro( ( s5sitiv5ess to =mal or relational /imuli4 ,! /ructure ( a s5t5ce ass]t+ "s relational fact1 su* z 8?is is above t01 or 8,brutus kill$ ,cs>01 diff]s 9 an important respect f ! /ructure ( ! fact :i* x ass]ts4 ,above is a relation :i* holds betwe5 ! two t]ms 8?is0 & 8t02 b ! ^w 8above0 is n a relation4 ,9 ! s5t5ce ! relation is ! temporal ord] ( ! words 7or ! spatial ord]1 if !y are writt571 b ! ^w = ! relation is itself z sub/antial z ! o!r words4 ,9 inflect$ languages1 su* z ,lat91 ! ord] ( ! words is n necess>y to %[ ! 8s5se0 ( ! relation2 b 9 un9flect$ languages ?is is ! only way ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 8,brutus kill$ ,cs>0 & 8,cs> kill$ ,brutus04 ,words are physical ph5om5a1 hav+ spatial & temporal relations2 we make use ( ^! relations 9 our v]bal symbolisation ( o!r relations1 *iefly to %[ ! 8s5se0 ( ! relation1 i4e4 :e!r x goes f ,a to ,b or f ,b to ,a4 ,a great deal ( ! confusion ab\t relations :i* has prevail$ 9 practically all philosophies comes f ! fact1 :i* we notic$ j n[1 t relations are indicat$1 n by o!r relations1 b by words :i*1 9 !mselves1 are j l o!r words4 ,consequ5tly1 9 ?9k+ ab\t relations1 we con/antly hov] betwe5 ! unsub/antiality ( ! relation itself & ! sub/antiality ( ! ^w4 ,take1 say1 ! fact t lightn+ prec$es ?und]4 ,if we 7 to express ?is by a language closely reproduc+ ! /ructure ( ! fact1 we %\ld h to say simply3 8lightn+1 ?und]01 :]e ! fact t ! fir/ ^w prec$es ! second means t :at ! fir/ ^w means prec$es :at ! second ^w means4 ,b ev5 if we adopt$ ?is me?od = temporal ord]1 we %\ld /ill ne$ words = all o!r relations1 because we c\ld n )\t intol]able ambiguity symbolise !m also by ! ord] ( our words4 ,all ?is w be important to rememb] :5 we come to consid] ! /ructure ( ! _w1 s9ce no?+ b a prelim9>y /udy ( language w pres]ve u f be+ misl$ by language 9 our metaphysical speculations4 ,?r\gh\t ?is *apt] ,i h said no?+ ab\t ! n>rative & imag9ative uses ( words2 ,i h dealt ) words 9 connection ) an imm$iate s5sible /imulus closely connect$ ) :at !y mean4 ,! o!r uses ( words are difficult to discuss until we h consid]$ memory & imag9ation4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] ,i h conf9$ myself to a behavi\ri/ic explanation ( ! effects ( words he>d z /imuli1 & ! causes ( words spok5 :5 ! words apply to some?+ s5sibly pres5t4 ,i ?9k we %all f9d t o!r uses ( words1 su* z ! n>rative & imag9ative1 involve only new applications ( ! law ( association4 ,b we _c develop ?is !me until we h discuss$ sev]al fur!r psy*ological que/ions4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,p]ception ,,objectively ,,reg>d$ ,x w be rememb]$ t ! task ^u :i* we are at pres5t engag$ is ! def9ition ( 8k0 z a ph5om5on discov]able by an outside obs]v]4 ,:5 we h said :at we c f ?is objective /&po9t1 we w ask ourselves :e!r any?+ fur!r1 & if s :at1 is to be le>nt f ! subjective /&po9t1 9 :i* we take acc\nt ( facts :i* c only be discov]$ :5 ! obs]v] & ! obs]v$ are ! same p]son4 ,b = ! pres5t we w resolutely conf9e ourselves to ^? facts ab\t a human be+ :i* ano!r human be+ c obs]ve1 toge!r ) su* inf]5ces z c be drawn f ^! facts4 ,! ^w 8k0 is v ambigu\s4 ,we say t ,watson's rats 8"k0 h[ to get out ( mazes1 t a *ild ( ?ree 8kn[s0 h[ to talk1 t a man 8kn[s0 ! p ) :om he is acqua9t$1 t he 8kn[s0 :at he _h = breakfa/ ?is morn+1 & t he 8kn[s0 :5 ,columbus fir/ cross$ ! ocean4 ,fr5* & ,g]man are less ambigu\s1 s9ce ea* has two words = diff]5t k9ds ( 8kn[+01 :i* we t5d to confuse 9 our ?\ghts because we confuse !m 9 our language4 ,i %all n attempt z yet to deal ) k 9 g5]al1 b r ) c]ta9 less g5]al concepts :i* w\ld ord9>ily be includ$ "u 8k04 ,& fir/ ( all ,i w deal ) p]ception--n z x appe>s to ! p]ceiv]1 b z x c be te/$ by an outside obs]v]4 ,let u try1 fir/1 to get a r\gh prelim9>y view ( ! sort ( ?+ we are go+ to mean by 8p]ception04 ,"o may say t a man 8p]ceives0 any?+ t he notices ?r\gh 8 s5ses4 ,?is is n a "q ( ! s5se-organs alone1 ?\gh !y are a necess>y condition4 ,no man c p]ceive by sight :at is n 9 8 field ( vision1 b he may look /raight at a ?+ )\t p]ceiv+ x4 ,i h frequ5tly _h ! exp]i5ce--suppos$ to be *>act]i/ic ( philosoph]s--( look+ ev]y:]e = my spectacles al?\gh !y 7 be=e my eyes :5 my se>* began4 ,we _c !re=e tell :at a man is p]ceiv+ by obs]v+ 8 s5se-organs alone1 ?\gh !y may enable u to "k t he is n p]ceiv+ some?+4 ,! obs]v] c only "k t a man is p]ceiv+ some?+ if ! man reacts 9 "s appropriate mann]4 ,if ,i say to a man 8please pass ! mu/>d0 & he !reupon passes x1 x is highly probable t he p]ceiv$ :at ,i said1 al?\gh x may ( c\rse be a m]e co9cid5ce t he pass$ x at t mom5t4 ,b if ,i say to him 8! telephone numb] y want is #bdfg0 & he proce$s to call t numb]1 ! odds aga9/ 8 do+ s by m]e *ance are v great--r\ghly #aj1jjj to #a4 ,& if a man reads al\d out ( a book1 & ,i look ov] 8 %\ld] & p]ceive ! same words1 x becomes q fanta/ic to suppose t he does n p]ceive ! words he is utt]+4 ,we c ?us 9 _m cases a*ieve practical c]ta9ty z to "s ( ! ?+s t o!r p are p]ceiv+4 ,p]ception is a species ( a wid] g5us1 namely s5sitivity4 ,s5sitivity is n conf9$ to liv+ ?+s2 9 fact x is be/ exemplifi$ by sci5tific in/rum5ts4 ,a mat]ial object is said to be 8s5sitive0 to su* & su* a /imulus1 if1 :5 ! /imulus is pres5t1 x behaves 9 a way noticeably diff]5t f t 9 :i* x behaves 9 ! abs5ce ( ! /imulus4 ,a photographic plate is s5sitive to light1 a b>omet] is s5sitive to pressure1 a !rmomet] to temp]ature1 a galvanomet] to electric curr5t1 & s on4 ,9 all ^! cases1 we might say1 9 a c]ta9 metaphorical s5se1 t an in/rum5t 8p]ceives0 ! /imulus to :i* x is s5sitive4 ,we d n 9 fact say s2 we feel t p]ception involves some?+ m ?an we f9d 9 sci5tific in/rum5ts4 ,:at is ?is some?+ m8 ,! traditional answ] w\ld be3 consci\sness4 ,b ?is answ]1 "r or wrong1 is n :at we are seek+ at ! mom5t1 because we are consid]+ ! p]cipi5t z he appe>s to an outside obs]v]1 to :om 8 8consci\sness0 is only an inf]5ce4 ,is !re any?+ 9 p]ception z view$ f )\t t di/+ui%es x f ! s5sitivity ( a sci5tific in/rum5t8 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 ! fact t human be+s are s5sitive to a great] v>iety ( /imuli ?an any in/rum5t4 ,ea* sep>ate s5se-organ c be surpass$ by some?+ made artificially s5sitive to its p>ticul> /imulus4 ,photographic plates c photograph />s t we _c see2 cl9ical !rmomet]s regi/] diff]5ces ( temp]ature t we _c feel2 & s on4 ,b !re is no way ( comb9+ a microscope1 a microphone1 a !rmomet]1 a galvanomet]1 & s on1 into a s+le organism :i* w react 9 an integral mann] to ! comb9ation ( all ! diff]5t /imuli t affect its diff]5t 8s5se-organs04 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is p]haps only a pro( t our me*anical skill is n s great z x may 9 "t become4 ,x is c]ta9ly n en\gh to def9e ! diff]5ce betwe5 a dead in/rum5t & a liv+ body4 ,! *ief diff]5ce--p]haps ! only "o f our pres5t po9t ( view--is t liv+ bodies are subject to ! law ( association or ( ! 8condition$ reflex04 ,consid]1 = in/ance1 an automatic ma*9e4 ,x has a reflex :i* makes x s5sitive to p5nies1 9 response to :i* x gives up *ocolate4 ,b x nev] le>ns to give up *ocolate on m]ely see+ a p5ny1 or he>+ ! ^w 8p5ny04 ,if y kept x 9 y\r h\se1 & said 8,abracadabra0 to x e "t y ins]t$ a p5ny1 x w\ld n 9 ! end be mov$ to action by ! m]e ^w 8,abracadabra04 ,its reflexes rema9 uncondition$1 z d "s ( ours1 su* z sneez+4 ,b ) u sneez+ is peculi> 9 ?is respect--h5ce its unimportance4 ,mo/ ( our reflexes c be condition$1 & ! condition$ reflex c 9 turn be condition$ afre%1 & s on )\t limit4 ,?is is :at makes ! reactions ( ! high] animals1 & especially ( man1 s mu* m int]e/+ & complicat$ ?an ! reactions ( ma*9es4 ,let u see :e!r ?is "o law w suffice to di/+ui% p]ception f o!r =ms ( s5sitivity4 ,! v>iability 9 a human be+'s responses to a giv5 /imulus has giv5 rise to ! traditional di/9ction betwe5 cognition & volition4 ,:5 "o's ri* uncle comes = a visit1 smiles are ! natural response2 aft] he has lo/ 8 money1 a cold] demean\r results f ! new condition+4 ,?us ! reaction to ! /imulus has come to be divid$ into two p>ts1 "o purely receptive & s5sory1 ! o!r active & motor4 ,p]ception1 z traditionally conceiv$1 is1 s to speak1 ! end t]m ( ! receptive-s5sory "p ( ! reaction1 :ile volition 79 its wide/ s5se7 is ! fir/ t]m ( ! active-motor "p ( ! reaction4 ,x 0 possible to suppose t ! receptive "p ( ! reaction w\ld be always ! same = ! same /imulus1 & t ! diff]5ce due to exp]i5ce w\ld only arise 9 ! motor "p4 ,! la/ t]m ( ! passive "p1 z x appe>s to ! p]son conc]n$1 0 call$ 8s5sation04 ,b 9 fact ! influ5ce ( ! law ( condition$ reflexes goes mu* deep] ?an ?is !ory suppos$4 ,z we saw1 ! contraction ( ! pupil1 :i* is normally due to bright light1 c be condition$ s z to result f a l\d noise4 ,:at we see dep5ds l>gely ^u muscul> adju/m5ts ( ! eyes1 :i* we make q unconsci\sly4 ,b ap>t f ! contraction ( ! pupil only "o ( !m is a true reflex1 namely turn+ ! eyes t[>ds a bright light4 ,?is is a movem5t :i* *ildr5 c p]=m on ! day ( _! bir?2 ,i "k ?is1 n m]ely f p]sonal obs]vation1 b also1 :at is m1 f ! text-books4 ,b new-born infants _c foll[ a mov+ light ) _! eyes1 nor c !y focus or accommodate4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! purely receptive "p ( _! reaction to visual objects1 9 s f> z ?is reaction is visual1 is diff]5t f t ( adults or old] *ildr51 ^: eye muscles adju/ !mselves s z to see cle>ly4 ,b "h aga9 all sorts ( factors ent] 94 ,innum]able objects are 9 our field ( vision1 b only "s 7at mo/7 are int]e/+ to u4 ,if "s "o says 8look1 !re's a snake01 we adju/ our eyes afre% & obta9 a new 8s5sation04 ,!n1 :5 ! purely visual "p is f9i%$1 !re are /imulations1 by association1 ( o!r c5tres 9 ! bra94 ,!re are pictures1 9 ,khl]'s book1 ( apes wat*+ o!r apes on ! top ( insecure piles ( boxes1 & ! spectators h _! arms rais$ 9 sympa!tic balanc+ movem5ts4 ,any "o :o wat*es gymna/ics or skilful danc+ is liable to exp]i5ce sympa!tic muscul> contractions4 ,any visual object t we might be t\*+ w /imulate incipi5t t\* reactions1 b ! sun1 moon1 & />s d n4 ,conv]sely1 visual reactions may be /imulat$ ?r\gh association ) o!r /imuli4 ,:5 motor-c>s 7 /ill uncommon1 ,i 0 walk+ "o day ) a fri5d :5 a tire punctur$ 9 our neighb\rhood ) a l\d report4 ,he ?\ght x 0 a revolv]1 & av]r$ t he _h se5 ! fla%4 ,9 dreams1 ?is sort ( me*anism op]ates uncontroll$4 ,"s /imulus--say ! noise ( ! maid knock+ at ! door--becomes int]pret$ 9 fanta/ic ways :i* are gov]n$ by association4 ,i rememb] once dream+ t ,i 0 9 an inn 9 ! c\ntry 9 ,g]many & 0 wak5$ by a *oir s++ outside my w9d[4 ,f9ally ,i really woke1 & f\nd t a spr+ %[] 0 mak+ a v musical noise on ! ro(4 ,at lea/1 ,i he>d a v musical noise1 & n[ re-int]pret$ x z a %[] on ! ro(4 ,?is hypo!sis ,i confirm$ by look+ out ( ! w9d[4 ,9 wak+ life we are critical ( ! int]pretative hypo!ses t occur to u1 & !re=e d n make su* wild mi/akes z 9 dreams4 ,b ! creative1 z oppos$ to ! critical1 me*anism is ! same 9 wak+ life z x is 9 dreams3 !re is always f> m ri*ness 9 ! exp]i5ce ?an ! s5sory /imulus alone w\ld w>rant4 ,all adaptation to environm5t acquir$ dur+ ! life ( ! individual might be reg>d$ z le>n+ to dream dreams t succe$ r ?an dreams t fail4 ,! dreams we h :5 we are asleep usually end 9 a surprise3 ! dreams we h 9 wak+ life are less apt to d s4 ,sometimes !y d1 z :5 pride goes be=e a fall2 b 9 t case !y are reg>d$ z %[+ maladju/m5t1 unless !re is "s l>ge ext]nal cause1 su* z an e>?quake4 ,"o might say t a p]son prop]ly adapt$ to 8 environm5t is "o ^: dreams nev] end 9 ! sort ( surprise t w\ld wake him up4 ,9 t case1 he w ?9k t 8 dreams are objective reality4 ,b if mod]n physics is to be believ$1 ! dreams we call wak+ p]ceptions h only a v little m resemblance to objective reality ?an ! fanta/ic dreams ( sleep4 ,!y h "s tru?1 b only j s mu* z is requir$ to make !m useful4 ,until we beg9 to reflect1 we unhesitat+ly assume t :at we see is really 8!re0 9 ! outside _w1 except 9 su* cases z reflections 9 mirrors4 ,physics & ! !ory ( ! way 9 :i* p]ceptions are caus$ %[ t ?is naive belief _c be q true4 ,p]ception may1 & ,i ?9k does1 enable u to "k some?+ ( ! out] _w1 b x is n ! direct revelation t we naturally suppose x to be4 ,we _c g into ?is "q adequately until we h consid]$ :at ! philosoph] has to le>n f physics2 ,i am m]ely giv+1 by anticipation1 ! reasons = reg>d+ p]ception z a =m ( reaction to ! environm5t1 display$ 9 "s bodily movem5t1 r ?an z a =m ( k4 ,:5 we h consid]$ fur!r :at con/itutes k1 we may f9d t p]ception is1 aft] all1 a =m ( k1 b only because k is n q :at we naturally suppose x to be4 ,= ! pres5t1 let u /ick to ! view ( p]ception t c be obta9$ by ! ext]nal obs]v]1 i4e4 z some?+ display$ 9 ! mann] ( react+ to ! environm5t4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! ext]nal obs]v]1 p]ception is e/abli%$ j l any o!r causal correlation4 ,we obs]ve t1 :5ev] a c]ta9 object /&s 9 a c]ta9 spatial relation to a man's body1 ! man's body makes a c]ta9 movem5t or set ( movem5ts2 we %all !n say t ! man 8p]ceives0 ! object4 ,s ! new-born baby turns its eyes sl[ly t[>ds a bright light :i* is n 9 ! c5tre ( ! field ( vision2 ?is entitles u to say t ! baby 8p]ceives0 ! light4 ,if he is bl9d1 8 eyes d n move 9 ?is way4 ,a bird fly+ ab\t 9 a wood does n bump into ! bran*es1 :]eas 9 a room x w bump into ! glass ( ! w9d[4 ,?is entitles u to say t ! bird p]ceives ! bran*es b n ! glass4 ,d we 8p]ceive0 ! glass or d we m]ely "k t x is !re8 ,?is "q introduces u to ! complications produc$ by association4 ,we "k by exp]i5ce1 f ! s5se ( t\*1 t !re is usually glass 9 w9d[-frames2 ?us x makes u react to ! w9d[-frames z if we c\ld see ! glass4 ,b sometimes !re is no glass1 & /ill we %all p]haps behave z if !re 74 ,if ?is c happ51 x %[s t we d n p]ceive ! glass1 s9ce our reaction is ! same :e!r !re is glass or n4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! glass is col\r$1 or slightly di/ort+1 or n p]fectly clean1 a p]son accu/om$ to glass w be able to di/+ui% a frame conta9+ glass f "o :i* has none4 ,9 t case x is m difficult to decide :e!r we are to say t he 8p]ceives0 ! glass or n4 ,x is c]ta9 t p]ception is affect$ by exp]i5ce4 ,a p]son :o c read p]ceives pr9t :]e ano!r w\ld n4 ,a musician p]ceives diff]5ces betwe5 notes :i* to an untra9$ e> are indi/+ui%able4 ,p unaccu/om$ to ! telephone _c und]/& :at !y he> 9 x2 b ?is is p]haps n really a case 9 po9t4 ,! difficulty we are consid]+ arises f ! fact t a human body1 unlike a sci5tific in/rum5t1 is p]petually *ang+ its reaction to a giv5 /imulus1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! law ( association4 ,moreov]1 ! human body is always do+ some?+4 ,h[1 !n1 are we to "k :e!r :at x is do+ is ! result ( a giv5 /imulus or n8 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 ?is difficulty is n v s]i\s1 p>ticul>ly :5 we are deal+ ) p old en\gh to speak4 ,:5 y g to ! oculi/ he asks y to read a numb] ( lett]s gr[+ gradually small]2 at "s po9t y fail4 ,:]e y h succe$$1 he kn[s t y h p]ceiv$ en\gh to make out :at lett] x is4 ,or y take a pair ( compasses & press ! po9ts into a man's back1 ask+ him if he feels two pricks or only "o4 ,he may say "o :5 ! two po9ts are ne> toge!r2 if he is on 8 gu>d aga9/ ?is error he may say two :5 9 fact !re is only "o4 ,b if ! po9ts are suffici5tly f> ap>t he w nev] make a mi/ake4 ,t is to say1 ! bodily movem5t consi/+ 9 pron\nc+ ! ^w 8two0 w inv>iably result f a c]ta9 /imulus4 7,inv>iably1 ,i mean1 = a giv5 subject on a giv5 day47 ,?is entitles u to say t ! man c p]ceive t !re are two po9ts provid$ !y are n too ne> toge!r4 ,or y say3 8,:at c y see on ! horizon80 ,"o man says1 8,i see a %ip04 ,ano!r says1 8,i see a /eam] ) two funnels04 ,a ?ird says1 8,i see a ,cun>d] go+ f ,s\?ampton to ,new ,york04 ,h[ mu* ( :at ^! ?ree p say is to c\nt z p]ception8 ,!y may all ?ree be p]fectly "r 9 :at !y say1 & yet we %\ld n conc$e t a man c 8p]ceive0 t ! %ip is go+ f ,s\?ampton to ,new ,york4 ,?is1 we %\ld say1 is inf]5ce4 ,b x is by no means easy to draw a l9e2 "s ?+s :i* are1 9 an important s5se1 inf]5tial1 mu/ be admitt$ to be p]ceptions4 ,! man :o says 8,i see a %ip0 is us+ inf]5ce4 ,ap>t f exp]i5ce1 he only sees a que]ly %ap$ d>k dot on a blue backgr\nd4 ,exp]i5ce has taught him t t sort ( dot 8means0 a %ip2 t is to say1 he has a condition$ reflex :i* causes him to utt]1 al\d or to himself1 ! ^w 8%ip0 :5 8 eye is /imulat$ 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,to dis5tangle :at is due to exp]i5ce1 & :at n1 9 ! p]ceptions ( an adult1 is a hopeless task4 ,practically1 if a ^w comes )\t previ\s v]bal int]m$i>ies1 ! ord9>y man w\ld include :at ! ^w means 9 ! p]ception1 :ile he w\ld n d s if ! man arrives at ! ^w aft] v]bal prelim9>ies1 ov]t or int]nal4 ,b ?is is itself a "q ( famili>ity4 ,%[ a *ild a p5tagon1 & he w h to c\nt ! sides to "k h[ _m !re are2 b aft] a little exp]i5ce ( geometrical figures1 ! ^w 8p5tagon0 w arise )\t any previ\s words4 ,& 9 any case su* a crit]ion is !oretically wor?less4 ,! :ole affair is a matt] ( degree1 & we _c draw any %>p l9e betwe5 p]ception & inf]5ce4 ,z soon z ?is is realis$1 our difficulties are se5 to be purely v]bal & !re=e unimportant4 ,x w be obs]v$ t we are n attempt+ at pres5t to say :at con/itutes p]ception1 b only :at k9d ( behavi\r on ! "p ( a p]son :om we are obs]v+ w ju/ify u 9 say+ t he has p]ceiv$ ?is or t feature ( 8 environm5t4 ,i sugge/ t we are ju/ifi$ 9 say+ t a man 8p]ceives0 su* a feature if1 ?r\gh\t "s su* p]iod z a day1 !re is "s bodily act :i* he p]=ms :5ev] t feature is pres5t1 b n at any o!r "t4 ,?is condition is cle>ly suffici5t1 b n necess>y--t is to say1 !re may be p]ception ev5 :5 x is n fulfill$4 ,a man's reaction may *ange ?r\gh condition+1 ev5 9 s %ort a p]iod z a day4 ,aga91 !re may be a reaction1 b "o :i* is too slight to be obs]vable2 9 ?is case ! crit]ion ( p]ception is !oretically satisfi$1 b n practically1 s9ce no "o c "k t x is4 ,we (t5 h evid5ce lat] on t some?+ 0 p]ceiv$1 al?\gh at ! mom5t !re 0 no discov]able reaction4 ,i h frequ5tly kn[n *ildr5 repeat aft]w>ds "s rem>k :i*1 at ! "t1 !y seem$ n to h he>d4 ,?is sort ( case af=ds ano!r k9d ( evid5ce ( p]ception1 namely1 ! evid5ce af=d$ by a delay$ response4 ,"s p w sit sil5t & impassive 9 a company ( talk]s1 giv+ no evid5ce t !y are li/5+2 yet !y may g home & write d[n ! conv]sation v]batim 9 _! j\rnals4 ,^! are ! typical writ]s ( memoirs4 ,m rem>kable /ill1 ,i "k "o man--a man ( g5ius1 x is true--:o talks incessantly1 :o yet1 aft] meet+ a total /rang]1 kn[s exactly :at ! /rang] w\ld h said if he _h be5 giv5 ! *ance4 ,h[ ?is is manag$1 ,i d n "k2 b su* a man is rightly call$ 8p]ceptive04 ,obvi\sly1 9 deal+ ) human be+s old en\gh to talk1 words af=d ! be/ evid5ce ( p]ception4 ,a man's v]bal responses to p]ceptive situations d n *ange mu* aft] ! fir/ few ye>s ( life4 ,if y see a k+fi%]1 & at ! same mom5t y\r companion says 8!re's a k+fi%]01 t is pretty conclusive evid5ce t he saw x4 ,b1 z ?is case illu/rates1 our evid5ce t "s "o else has p]ceiv$ some?+ always dep5ds ^u our own p]ceptions4 ,& our own p]ceptions are kn[n to u 9 a diff]5t way f t 9 :i* ! p]ceptions ( o!rs are kn[n to u4 ,?is is "o ( ! weak spots 9 ! attempt at a philosophy f ! objective /&po9t4 ,su* a philosophy really assumes k z a go+ conc]n1 & takes = grant$ ! _w :i* a man d]ives f 8 own p]ceptions4 ,we _c tackle all our philosophical problems by ! objective me?od1 b x is wor? :ile to proce$ ) x z f> z x w take u4 ,?is :ole "q ( p]ception w h to be attack$ afre% f a diff]5t angle1 & we %all !n f9d reason to reg>d ! behavi\ri/ic /&po9t z inadequate1 ?\gh valid s f> z x goes4 ,we h /ill1 h[ev]1 a long road to g be=e we %all be driv5 to consid] ! subjective /&po9t2 m p>ticul>ly1 we h to def9e 8k0 & 8inf]5ce0 behavi\ri/ically1 & !n1 mak+ a new />t1 to consid] :at mod]n physics makes ( 8matt]04 ,b = ! mom5t !re are /ill "s ?+s to be said ab\t p]ception f ! objective /&po9t4 ,x w be se5 t1 accord+ to our crit]ion ( p]ception1 an object p]ceiv$ ne$ n be 9 contact ) ! p]cipi5t's body4 ,! sun1 moon1 & />s are p]ceiv$ accord+ to ! above crit]ion4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 t an object n 9 contact ) ! body %\ld be p]ceiv$1 !re are physical z well z physiological conditions to be fulfill$4 ,!re mu/ be "s physical process :i* takes place at ! surface ( ! body :5 ! object 9 "q is suitably situat$1 b n o!rwise2 & !re mu/ be s5se-organs capable ( be+ affect$ by su* a process4 ,!re are1 z we "k f physics1 _m processes :i* fulfil ! necess>y physical conditions1 b fail to affect u ?r\gh ! inadequacy ( our s5se-organs4 ,waves ( a c]ta9 sort make s\nd1 b waves ( exactly ! same sort become inaudible if !y are too %ort4 ,waves ( a c]ta9 sort make light1 b if !y are too long or too %ort !y are invisible4 ,! waves us$ 9 wireless are ( ! same sort z ^? t make light1 b are too long4 ,!re is no reason a priori :y we %\ld n be aw>e ( wireless messages ?r\gh our s5ses1 )\t ! ne$ ( in/rum5ts4 ,x-rays are also ( ! same sort z ^? t make light1 b 9 ?is case !y are too %ort to be se54 ,!y might r5d] ! objects f :i* !y come visible1 if we _h a diff]5t sort ( eye4 ,we are n s5sitive to magnetism1 unless x is enorm\sly p[]ful2 b if we _h m iron 9 our bodies1 we might h no ne$ ( ! m>9]'s compass4 ,our s5ses are a haphaz>d selection ( ^? t ! nature ( physical processes r5d]s possible2 "o may suppose t !y h result$ f *ance v>iation & ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,x is important to obs]ve t our p]ceptions are v l>gely conc]n$ ) =m or %ape or /ructure4 ,?is is ! po9t emphasis$ by :at is call$ 8,ge/altpsy*ologie01 or psy*ology ( =m4 ,read+ is a case 9 po9t4 ,:e!r we read black lett]s on :ite pap] or :ite lett]s on a blackbo>d is a matt] :i* we h>dly notice2 x is ! =ms ( ! lett]s t affect u1 n _! col\r or _! size 7s long z !y rema9 legible74 ,9 ?is matt]1 ! s5se ( sight is pre-em95t1 al?\gh bl9d m5 7& o!rs to a less degree7 c acquire a good k ( =m by ! s5se ( t\*4 ,ano!r po9t ( importance ab\t our p]ceptions is t !y give u1 )9 limits1 a k ( temporal sequ5ce4 ,if y say to a man 8,brutus kill$ ,cs>01 & !n 8,cs> kill$ ,brutus01 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two /atem5ts is likely to be p]ceiv$ by him if he is li/5+2 9 ! "o case he w say 8( c\rse01 9 ! o!r 8nons5se01 :i* is evid5ce ( 8 hav+ diff]5t p]ceptions 9 ! two cases1 accord+ to our def9ition4 ,fur!r1 if y ask him :at ! diff]5ce is1 he c tell y t x is a diff]5ce 9 ! ord] ( ! words4 ,?us "t-ord] )9 a %ort p]iod ( "t is cle>ly p]ceptible4 ,! objective me?od1 :i* we h be5 apply+ 9 ?is *apt]1 is ! only possible "o 9 /udy+ ! p]ceptions ( animals or ( infants be=e !y c talk4 ,_m animals too l[ 9 ! scale ( evolution to h eyes are yet s5sitive to light1 9 ! s5se t !y move t[>ds x or move away f x4 ,su* animals1 accord+ to our crit]ion1 p]ceive light1 ?\gh !re is no reason to suppose t !y p]ceive col\r or visual =m or any?+ beyond ! b>e pres5ce ( light4 ,we c p]ceive ! b>e pres5ce ( light :5 our eyes are %ut2 p]haps "o may imag9e _! s5sitiv5ess to be m or less analog\s 9 its limitations4 ,x is n to be suppos$1 9 any case1 t 8p]ceiv+0 an object involves kn[+ :at x is l4 ,t is q ano!r matt]4 ,we %all see lat] t c]ta9 inf]5ces1 ( a highly ab/ract "*1 c be drawn f our p]ceptions to ! objects p]ceiv$2 b ^! inf]5ces are at once difficult & n q c]ta94 ,! idea t p]ception1 9 itself1 reveals ! "* ( objects1 is a fond delusion1 & "o1 moreov]1 :i* x is v necess>y to ov]come if our philosophy is to be any?+ m ?an a pleasant fairy-tale4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,memory ,,objectively ,,reg>d$ ,we are conc]n$ 9 ^! *apt]s ) :at we c "k ab\t o!r m5 by m]ely obs]v+ _! behavi\r4 ,9 ?is *apt]1 ,i propose to consid] ev]y?+ t w\ld commonly be call$ 8memory01 9 s f> z x c be made a matt] ( ext]nal obs]vation4 ,& p]haps x may be z well1 at ?is po9t1 to /ate my own view ( ! "q ( 8behavi\rism04 ,?is philosophy1 ( :i* ! *ief protagoni/ is ,dr4 ,john ,b4 ,watson1 holds t ev]y?+ t c be kn[n ab\t man is discov]able by ! me?od ( ext]nal obs]vation1 i4e4 t none ( our k dep5ds1 ess5tially & necess>ily1 ^u data 9 :i* ! obs]v] & ! obs]v$ are ! same p]son4 ,i d n fundam5tally agree ) ?is view1 b ,i ?9k x conta9s mu* m tru? ?an mo/ p suppose1 & ,i reg>d x z desirable to develop ! behavi\ri/ me?od to ! fulle/ possible ext5t4 ,i believe t ! k to be obta9$ by ?is me?od1 s long z we take physics = grant$1 is self-conta9$1 & ne$ n1 at any po9t1 appeal to data d]iv$ f introspection1 i4e4 f obs]vations :i* a man c make ^u himself b n ^u any "o else4 ,nev]!less1 ,i hold t !re are su* obs]vations & t !re is k :i* dep5ds ^u introspection4 ,:at is m1 ,i hold t data ( ?is k9d are requir$ = a critical exposition ( physics1 :i* behavi\rism takes = grant$4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 aft] sett+ =? ! behavi\ri/ view ( man1 proce$ to a scrut9y ( our k ( physics1 return+ !nce to man1 b n[ z view$ f )94 ,!n1 f9ally1 ,i %all attempt to draw conclusions z to :at we "k ( ! univ]se 9 g5]al4 ,! ^w 8memory0 or 8rememb]+0 is commonly us$ 9 a numb] ( diff]5t s5ses1 :i* x is important to di/+ui%4 ,m especially1 !re is a broad s5se1 9 :i* ! ^w applies to ! p[] ( repeat+ any habitual act previ\sly le>nt1 & a n>r[ s5se1 9 :i* x applies only to recollection ( pa/ ev5ts4 ,x is 9 ! broad s5se t p speak ( a dog rememb]+ 8 ma/] or 8 "n1 & t ,sir ,francis ,d>w9 spoke ( memory 9 plants4 ,samuel ,butl] us$ to attribute ! sort ( behavi\r t w\ld usually be call$ in/9ctive to memory ( ance/ral exp]i5ce1 & evid5tly he 0 us+ ! ^w 8memory0 9 its wide/ possible s5se4 ,b]gson1 on ! contr>y1 dismisses 8habit-memory0 z n true memory at all4 ,true memory1 = him1 is conf9$ to ! recollection ( a pa/ occurr5ce1 :i*1 he ma9ta9s1 _c be a habit1 s9ce ! ev5t rememb]$ only occurr$ once4 ,! behavi\ri/ ma9ta9s t ?is cont5tion is mi/ak51 & t all memory consi/s 9 ! ret5tion ( a habit4 ,= him1 !re=e1 memory is n some?+ requir+ special /udy1 b is m]g$ into ! /udy ( habit4 ,dr4 ,watson says3 8,! behavi\ri/ nev] uses ! t]m #8memory'4 ,he believes t x has no place 9 an objective psy*ology40 ,he proce$s to give in/ances1 beg9n+ ) a :ite rat 9 a maze4 ,on ! fir/ occasion1 he says1 x took ?is rat =ty m9utes to get out ( ! maze1 b aft] ?irty-five trials he le>nt to get out 9 six seconds1 )\t tak+ any wrong turn+s4 ,he 0 !n kept away f ! maze = six mon?s1 & on be+ put 9 x aga9 he got out 9 two m9utes1 ) six mi/akes4 ,he 0 j z good z he _h be5 be=e at ! tw5tie? trial4 ,we h "h a measure ( ! ext5t to :i* ! habit ( ! maze _h be5 reta9$4 ,a simil> exp]im5t ) a monkey %[$ ev5 m ret5tiv5ess4 ,he 0 put into a problem box :i* at fir/ took him tw5ty m9utes to op51 b at ! tw5tie? trial he op5$ x 9 two seconds4 ,he 0 !n kept away f x = six mon?s1 & on be+ put back 9 x he op5$ x 9 f\r seconds4 ,) human be+s1 we "k t _m ( ! habits we le>n are reta9$ ?r\gh long p]iods ( disuse--skat+1 bicycl+1 swimm+1 golf1 etc41 are famili> in/ances4 ,p]haps ,dr4 ,watson goes a trifle too f> :5 he says3 8,if a poor %ot or an inexp]t golf] tells y t he 0 good five ye>s ago b t lack ( practice has made him poor1 don't believe him2 he nev] 0 good60 ,at any rate1 ?is is n ! belief ( viol9i/s & piani/s1 :o consid] x ess5tial to practise e day4 ,b ev5 if x be some:at ( an exagg]ation1 x is c]ta9ly true t we reta9 bodily habits pretty well4 ,"s1 su* z swimm+1 seem to be m completely reta9$ ?an o!rs4 ,! p[] ( talk+ a =eign language1 = example1 is "o :i* is greatly impair$ by disuse4 ,! :ole matt] is quantitative1 & easily te/$ by exp]im5t4 ,b memory 9 ! s5se ( recollection ( pa/ ev5ts1 if x c be expla9$ z a habit1 w h1 "o might suppose1 to be a v]bal habit4 ,z to ?is1 ,dr4 ,watson says3 8,:at ! man on ! /reet ord9>ily means by an exhibition ( memory is :at occurs 9 "s su* situation z ?is3 ,an old fri5d comes to see him1 aft] _m ye>s' abs5ce4 ,! mom5t he sees ?is fri5d1 he says3 #8,^u my life6 ,addison ,sims ( ,seattle6 ,i hav5't se5 y s9ce ! ,_w's ,fair 9 ,*icago4 ,d y rememb] ! gay p>ties we us$ to h 9 ! ,wild]ness ,hotel8 ,d y rememb] ! ,midway8 ,d y rememb] 444 etc41' ad inf9itum4 ,! psy*ology ( ?is process is s simple t x seems almo/ an insult to y\r intellig5ce to discuss x1 & yet a good _m ( ! behavi\ri/s' k9dly critics h said t behavi\rism _c adequately expla9 memory4 ,let u see if ?is is a fact40 ,he goes on to say t dur+ ! p]iod1 long ago1 :5 ! man on ! /reet 0 see+ ,mr4 ,sims1 !y =m$ v]bal & manual habits t[>ds "o ano!r1 s t 8f9ally1 j ! sight ( man1 ev5 aft] mon?s ( abs5ce1 w\ld call out n only ! old v]bal habits1 b _m o!r types ( bodily & visc]al responses40 ,he sums up3 8,by #8memory'1 !n1 we mean no?+ except ! fact t :5 we meet a /imulus aga9 aft] an abs5ce1 we d ! old habitual ?+ 7say ! old words & %[ ! old visc]al--emotional--behavi\r7 t we le>n$ to d :5 we 7 9 ! pres5ce ( t /imulus 9 ! fir/ place40 ,?is !ory is pref]able to ord9>y psy*ological !ories 9 _m ways4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is n an attempt to treat memory z "s sort ( my/ical 8faculty01 & does n suppose t we are always rememb]+ ev]y?+ t we %\ld rememb] if a suitable /imulus 7 appli$4 ,x is conc]n$ ) ! causation ( specific acts ( rememb]+1 ^! acts be+ all ext]nally obs]vable4 ,i d n see any good reason to "q x4 ,b]gson's cont5tion t ! recollection ( a unique occurr5ce _c be expla9$ by habit is cle>ly fallaci\s4 ,!re are _m in/ances1 bo? ) animals & ) human be+s1 ( a habit becom+ firmly e/abli%$ ?r\gh "o exp]i5ce4 ,x is1 !re=e1 q possible t a /imulus associat$ ) a previ\s occurr5ce %\ld set go+ a tra9 ( bodily ev5ts :i*1 9 turn1 produce words describ+ t occurr5ce4 ,!re is "h1 h[ev]1 a difficulty4 ,! memory ( a pa/ occurr5ce _c be a v]bal habit1 except :5 ! occurr5ce has be5 frequ5tly relat$4 ,:5 ,watson's man on ! /reet says 8,d y rememb] ! ,midway01 he is n us+ words t h become habitual2 v likely he nev] us$ ^! words be=e4 ,he is us+ words :i* a v]bal habit associates ) an ev5t t is n[ happ5+ 9 him1 & ! ev5t is call$ up by a habit associat$ ) ,mr4 ,sims4 ,s at lea/ we mu/ suppose1 if we accept ,watson's view4 ,b ?is dim9i%es ! plausibility & ! v]ifiability ( 8 view4 ,x is n our actual language t c be reg>d$ z habitual1 b only :at our words express4 ,9 repeat+ a poem we h le>n$ by he>t1 ! language is habitual1 b n s :5 we rec\nt a pa/ incid5t 9 words we nev] us$ be=e4 ,9 ?is case1 x is n ! actual words t we repeat1 b only _! mean+4 ,! habitual elem5t1 !re=e1 if x really acc\nts = ! recollection1 mu/ n be s\ght 9 words4 ,?is is some?+ ( a difficulty 9 ! ,watsonian !ory ( language4 ,:5 a rat le>ns a maze1 x le>ns c]ta9 def9ite bodily movem5ts2 s d we :5 we le>n by he>t4 ,b ,i may say to "o p]son1 8,i met ,mr4 ,jones 9 ! tra9 to-day01 & to ano!r 8,joseph 0 9 ! #i4ce ?is morn+40 ,) ! exception ( ! words 89 !01 ^! two s5t5ces h no?+ v]bally 9 common1 yet !y may relate ! same fact1 & ,i may use ei!r indiff]5tly :5 ,i recall ! fact4 ,?us my recollection is c]ta9ly n a def9ite v]bal habit4 ,yet words are ! only ov]t bodily movem5ts by :i* ,i make kn[n my recollections to o!r p4 ,if ! behavi\ri/ tells me t my recollection is bodily habit1 & beg9s by tell+ me t x is a v]bal habit1 he c be driv5 by su* in/ances to ! admission t x mu/ be "s o!r k9d ( habit4 ,if he says ?is1 he is ab&on+ ! region ( obs]vable fact1 & tak+ refuge 9 hypo!tical bodily movem5ts invok$ to save a !ory4 ,b ^! are h>dly any bett] ?an 8?\ghts40 ,?is "q is m g5]al ?an ! problem ( memory4 ,_m diff]5t =ms ( words may be us$ to express ! same 8mean+01 & !re seems no reason 9 m]e habit to acc\nt = ! fact t we sometimes use "o =m ( words & sometimes ano!r :5 we 8?9k0 ( t :i* all ! v>i\s =ms ( words express4 ,! association seems to g1 n direct f /imulus to words1 b f /imulus to 8mean+0 & !nce to words express+ ! 8mean+04 ,y may1 = in/ance1 be q unable to recollect :e!r y 7 told 8,jacob is old] ?an ,joseph01 or 8,joseph is y\ng] ?an ,jacob01 ?\gh y may rememb] q def9itely t y 7 told ! fact :i* bo? ^! =ms ( words express4 ,aga91 if y are le>n+1 say1 a pro( ( a ma!matical !orem1 y d n le>n by he>t :at ! book says1 unless y are a v bad ma!matician2 y le>n1 z p say1 to 8und]/&0 ! pro(1 & !n y c reproduce x 9 symbols q diff]5t f ^? 9 ! book4 ,x is su* facts1 among o!rs1 t make x difficult to expla9 ! me*anism ( association1 :e!r 9 memory or 9 8?\ght0 9 g5]al1 if we assume t words1 or ev5 s5t5ces1 are ! t]ms associat$4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ! !ory z to ! 8mean+0 ( words :i* we develop$ 9 an e>li] *apt] may help u out ( ! difficulty4 ,we def9$ ! 8mean+0 ( a ^w by means ( its associations2 !re=e1 if two words are synonyms1 !y h ! same associations2 & any /imulus :i* calls up "o may also call up ! o!r4 ,! "q :i* ( two synonyms we use w !n dep5d ^u "s extrane\s circum/ance4 ,?is is all v well s f> z s+le words are conc]n$2 x w\ld acc\nt satisfactorily1 = in/ance1 = ! fact t ,i call a man sometimes by 8 surname & sometimes by 8 ,*ri/ian "n4 ,b x is h>dly s adequate :5 we come to ! "q ( s5t5ces4 ,to rev]t to ! illu/ration ( a mom5t ago1 9 response to ! /imulus 8,did any?+ happ5 on y\r j\rney80 y may say ei!r 8,i met ,mr4 ,jones 9 ! tra9 to-day01 or 8,joseph 0 9 ! #i4ce ?is morn+01 or any "o ( an indef9ite numb] ( o!r s5t5ces expressive ( ! same occurr5ce4 ,are we to suppose t1 :ile y 7 9 ! tra91 y 7 rehe>s+ all ^! diff]5t s5t5ces to y\rself1 s t ea* ( !m became firmly associat$ ) ! words 8j\rney to-day08 ,cle>ly su* a supposition w\ld be absurd4 ,yet all ! sep>ate words ( y\r s5t5ce h _m o!r associations2 x is only ! s5t5ce z a :ole t is associat$ ) y\r j\rney4 ,y h met o!r p besides ,mr4 ,jones2 y h _h o!r contacts ) ,mr4 ,jones besides meet+ him ?is morn+2 8tra90 & 8to-day0 equally are appropriate to o!r occurr5ces t y might relate4 ,?us x has to be ! :ole s5t5ce t is ! associative unit1 & yet ! s5t5ce may nev] h be5 9 y\r head be=e4 ,x seems cle> t x is possible to /ate 9 words some?+ t y rememb]1 al?\gh y nev] put x into words be=e4 ,suppose ,i say 8,:at did y h = breakfa/ to-day80 ,probably y w be able to tell me1 ?\gh x is v likely t y h n giv5 names to ! ?+s y ate until ?is mom5t4 ,?is :ole matt] is connect$ ) ! di/9ction betwe5 s5t5ces & s+le words1 :i* we f\nd important :5 we 7 discuss+ language4 ,b ev5 :5 we conf9e ourselves to s+le words1 !re are difficulties 9 ,dr4 ,watson's view4 ,cases are alleg$ 9 :i* *ildr51 aft] le>n+ to speak1 c recall incid5ts :i* occurr$ be=e !y c\ld speak1 & describe !m 9 correct words4 ,?is w\ld %[ t ! memory _h p]si/$ 9 a non-v]bal =m ?r\gh\t ! p]iod be=e !y le>n$ to speak1 & _h only subsequ5tly f\nd v]bal expression4 ,su* extreme incid5ts are r>e & might be que/ion$1 b 9 a less extreme =m x ought n to be difficult to obta9 examples ( ! same sort ( ?+4 ,suppose1 = example1 t a "y *ild hurt 8 wri/ badly be=e he knew ! ^w 8wri/01 & t "s "t aft]w>ds he le>nt x2 ,i %\ld n be surpris$ if he c\ld relate t he _h hurt 8 wri/4 ,su* in/ances1 h[ev]1 w\ld n refute ! ess5ce ( ,watson's !ory4 ,he w\ld all[ 8visc]al0 memory1 = example1 & ! association ) ! ^w 8wri/0 might be graft$ on to ?is4 ,! real difficulty 9 ,dr4 ,watson's view1 to my m9d1 is ! fact t our s5t5ce may v>y v]bally z mu* z x likes s long z x reta9s ! same 8mean+01 & t we cle>ly d n rehe>se to ourselves be=eh& all ! possible s5t5ces hav+ ! 8mean+0 9 "q4 ,x %\ld be realis$ t behavi\rism loses mu* ( its attractiv5ess if x is compell$ to po/ulate movem5ts t no "o c obs]ve & t !re is no o!r reason to assume4 ,dr4 ,broad1 9 8 book on ,! ,m9d & its ,place 9 ,nature1 di/+ui%es betwe5 8mol>0 & 8molecul>0 behavi\rism3 ! =m] assumes only su* bodily movem5ts z c be obs]v$1 :ile ! latt] all[s & utilises hypo!tical m9ute movem5ts1 m especially 9 ! bra94 ,n[ "h we mu/ make a di/9ction4 ,physics believes 9 a l>ge numb] ( ph5om5a :i* are too m9ute to be obs]v$ ev5 ) ! /ronge/ microscope1 & if physics is at all correct1 !re mu/ be m9ute movem5ts 9 all p>ts ( a human body1 ( a sort :i* we c nev] hope to see4 ,we _c reasonably dem& ( ! behavi\ri/ t he %\ld ab/a9 f an hypo!sis :i* physics ass]ts = v good reasons4 ,& 9 ! process :i* leads f /imulus to reaction !re are b\nd to be small occurr5ces 9 ! bra91 :i*1 ?\gh !y _c be obs]v$1 are ess5tial to ! physiological explanation ( :at occurs4 ,b :5 ! behavi\ri/ assumes small occurr5ces = :i* !re is no gr\nd 9 physics1 & :i* are ne$$ solely 9 ord] to safegu>d 8 !ory1 he is 9 a less /rong position4 ,dr4 ,watson ass]ts1 = in/ance1 t :5ev] we 8?9k0 !re are small movem5ts 9 ! l>ynx :i* are beg9n+s ( ! movem5ts we %\ld make z if we spoke words out l\d4 ,x may be t ?is is true2 c]ta9ly ,i am n prep>$ to d5y x4 ,b ,i am n prep>$ to say t x mu/ be true m]ely because1 if x 7 n1 behavi\rism w\ld be false4 ,we d n "k 9 advance t behavi\rism is true2 we h to f9d out :e!r x w expla9 obs]v$ facts4 ,:5ev] x has to po/ulate some?+ unobs]v$ m]ely 9 ord] to avoid a refutation1 x weak5s its case4 ,& if x ma9ta9s1 z1 f ,dr4 ,watson's language1 x seems to d1 t we only rememb] an occurr5ce by =m+ a v]bal habit 9 connection ) x1 !n x is oblig$ to po/ulate mu* implicit use ( words ( :i* we h no evid5ce4 ,to sum up ?is discussion4 ,:ile x is q possible1 by behavi\ri/ me?ods1 to asc]ta9 :e!r a p]son rememb]s a pa/ occurr5ce or n1 unless he is delib]ately ob/ruct+ ! obs]v]1 & :ile mu* memory c be q adequately expla9$ z habit1 !re d seem to be great difficulties 9 ! view t memory consi/s entirely ( habit1 at lea/ 9 ! case ( ! recollection ( an ev5t4 ,^! difficulties seem insup]able if we suppose memory to be ess5tially a v]bal habit4 ,!y are n insup]able if we po/ulate suffici5t m9ute unobs]vable bodily movem5ts4 ,we h n consid]$ :e!r !y c be ov]come by introduc+ data d]iv$ f introspection1 s9ce we wi%1 = ! pres5t1 to ma9ta9 a /rictly objective attitude to human behavi\r4 ,! introspective discussion ( memory w be tak5 up at a lat] /age4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,inf]5ce ,,z ,a ,,habit ,9 ?is *apt]1 we are conc]n$ ) inf]5ce z x c be obs]v$ :5 practis$ by "s "o else4 ,inf]5ce is suppos$ to be a m>k ( intellig5ce & to %[ ! sup]iority ( m5 to ma*9es4 ,at ! same "t1 ! treatm5t ( inf]5ce 9 traditional logic is s /upid z to ?r[ d\bt on ?is claim1 & syllogi/ic inf]5ce1 :i* 0 tak5 z ! type f ,ari/otle to ,bacon 7exclusive71 is j ! sort ( ?+ t a calculat+ ma*9e c\ld d bett] ?an a pr(essor4 ,9 syllogi/ic inf]5ce1 y are suppos$ to "k already t all m5 are mortal & t ,socrates is a man2 h5ce y d$uce1 :at y nev] suspect$ be=e1 t ,socrates is mortal4 ,?is =m ( inf]5ce does actually occur1 ?\gh v r>ely4 ,! only in/ance ,i h ev] he>d ( 0 suppli$ by ,dr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,s4 ,s*ill]4 ,he once produc$ a comic numb] ( ! philosophical p]iodical ,m9d1 & s5t copies to v>i\s philosoph]s1 among o!rs to a c]ta9 ,g]man1 :o 0 mu* puzzl$ by ! adv]tisem5ts4 ,b at la/ he argu$3 8,ev]y?+ 9 ?is book is a joke1 !re=e ! adv]tisem5ts are jokes04 ,i h nev] come across any o!r case ( new k obta9$ by means ( a syllogism4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t1 = a me?od :i* dom9at$ logic = two ?\s& ye>s1 ?is contribution to ! _w's /ock ( in=mation _c be consid]$ v weighty4 ,! inf]5ces t we actually make 9 daily life diff] f ^? ( syllogi/ic logic 9 two respects1 namely1 t !y are important & prec>i\s1 in/ead ( be+ trivial & safe4 ,! syllogism may be reg>d$ z a monum5t to academic timidity3 if an inf]5ce might be wrong1 x 0 dang]\s to draw x4 ,s ! m$ival monks1 9 _! ?9k+ z 9 _! lives1 s\ght safety at ! exp5se ( f]tility4 ,) ! ,r5aissance1 a m adv5tur\s _s came into ! _w1 b at fir/ 9 philosophy1 x only took ! =m ( foll[+ ,greeks o!r ?an ,ari/otle1 & m especially ,plato4 ,x is only ) ,bacon & ,galileo t ! inductive me?od arriv$ at due recognition3 ) ,bacon z a programme :i* 0 l>gely faulty1 b ) ,galileo z some?+ :i* actually l$ to brilliant results1 namely1 ! f\ndation ( mod]n ma!matical physics4 ,un=tunately1 :5 ! p$ants got hold ( induction1 !y set to "w to make x z tame & s*ola/ic z d$uction _h be54 ,!y se>*$ = a way ( mak+ x always lead to true results1 & 9 s do+ robb$ x ( its adv5tur\s "*4 ,hume turn$ ^u !m ) sceptical argum5ts1 prov+ q conclusively t if an induction is wor? mak+ x may be wrong4 ,!reupon ,kant delug$ ! philosophic _w ) muddle & my/]y1 f :i* x is only n[ beg9n+ to em]ge4 ,kant has ! reputation ( be+ ! greate/ ( mod]n philosoph]s1 b to my m9d he 0 a m]e mis=tune4 ,induction1 z x appe>s 9 ! text-books1 consi/s1 r\ghly speak+1 9 ! inf]5ce t1 because ,a & ,b h be5 f\nd (t5 toge!r & nev] ap>t1 !re=e !y are probably always toge!r1 & ei!r may be tak5 z a sign ( ! o!r4 ,i d n wi%1 at ?is /age1 to exam9e ! logical ju/ification ( ?is =m ( argum5tation2 = ! pres5t1 ,i am consid]+ x z a practice1 :i* we c obs]ve 9 ! habits ( m5 & animals4 ,z a practice1 induction is no?+ b our old fri5d1 ! law ( condition$ reflexes or ( association4 ,a *ild t\*es a knob t gives him an electric %ock2 aft] t1 he avoids t\*+ ! knob4 ,if he is old en\gh to speak he may /ate t ! knob hurts :5 x is t\*$2 he has made an induction bas$ on a s+le in/ance4 ,b ! induction w exi/ z a bodily habit ev5 if he is too "y to speak1 & x occurs equally among animals1 provid$ !y are n too l[ 9 ! scale4 ,! !ories ( induction 9 logic are :at ,freudians call a 8rationalisation02 t is to say1 !y consi/ ( reasons inv5t$ aft]w>ds to prove t :at we h be5 do+ is s5sible4 ,x does n foll[ t !y are bad reasons2 9 view ( ! fact t we & our ance/ors h manag$ to exi/ s9ce ! orig9 ( life1 our behavi\r & !irs mu/ h be5 fairly s5sible1 ev5 if we & !y 7 unable to prove t x 04 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! po9t t conc]ns u at pres5t4 ,:at conc]ns u at pres5t is ! fact t v]bal induction is a late developm5t ( induction 9 behavi\r1 :i* is no?+ m or less ?an ! pr9ciple ( 8le>n$ reactions04 ,?is pr9ciple1 z ! read] w rememb]1 /ates t1 if a c]ta9 ev5t calls out a c]ta9 response1 & if ano!r ev5t is exp]i5c$ j be=e x1 or at ! same mom5t1 9 "t t o!r ev5t w t5d to call out ! response :i*1 orig9ally1 only ! fir/ ev5t w\ld call out4 ,?is applies bo? to muscles & to gl&s2 x is because x applies to gl&s t words are capable ( caus+ emotions4 ,moreov]1 we _c set limits to ! l5g? ( ! *a9 ( associations t may be e/abli%$4 ,if y hold an infant's limbs1 y call out a rage reaction2 ?is appe>s to be an 8unle>n$ reaction04 ,if y1 & no "o else1 repeat$ly hold an infant's limbs1 ! m]e sight ( y w call out a rage reaction aft] a "t4 ,:5 ! infant le>ns to talk y\r "n may h ! same effect4 ,if1 lat]1 he le>ns t y are an optician1 he may come to hate all opticians2 ?is may lead him to hate ,sp9oza because he made spectacles1 & !nce he may come to hate metaphysicians & ,jews4 ,= do+ s he w no d\bt h ! mo/ admirable reasons1 :i* w seem to him to be 8 real ones2 he w nev] suspect ! process ( condition+ by :i* he has 9 fact arriv$ at 8 en?usiasm = ! ,ku ,klux ,klan4 ,?is is an example ( condition+ 9 ! emotional sph]e2 b x is r 9 ! muscul> sph]e t we mu/ seek ! orig9 ( ! practice ( induction4 ,dome/ic animals :i* are habitually f$ by a c]ta9 p]son w run t[>ds t p]son z soon z !y see him4 ,we say t !y expect food1 & 9 fact _! behavi\r is v l :at x w\ld be if !y saw food4 ,b really we h only an example ( 8condition+03 !y h (t5 se5 fir/ ! f>m] & !n ! food1 s t 9 "t !y react to ! f>m] z !y orig9ally react$ to ! food4 ,infants soon le>n to react to ! sight ( ! bottle1 al?\gh at fir/ !y only react to ! t\* ( x4 ,:5 !y c speak1 ! same law makes !m say 8d9n]0 :5 !y he> ! d9n]-bell4 ,x is q unnecess>y to suppose t !y fir/ ?9k 8t bell means d9n]01 & !n say 8d9n]04 ,! sight ( d9n] 7by previ\s 8le>n$ reaction07 causes ! ^w 8d9n]03 ! bell frequ5tly prec$es ! sight ( d9n]2 !re=e 9 "t ! bell produces ! ^w 8d9n]04 ,x is only subsequ5t reflection1 probably at a mu* lat] age1 t makes ! *ild say 8,i knew d9n] 0 ready because ,i he>d ! bell04 ,long be=e he c say ?is1 he is act+ z if he knew x4 ,& !re is no good reason = d5y+ t he kn[s x1 :5 he acts z if he did4 ,if k is to be display$ by behavi\r1 !re is no reason to conf9e ourselves to v]bal behavi\r z ! sole k9d by :i* k c manife/ itself4 ,! situation1 /at$ ab/ractly1 is z foll[s4 ,orig9ally1 /imulus ,a produc$ reaction ,c2 n[ /imulus ,b produces x1 z a result ( association4 ,?us ,b has become a 8sign0 ( ,a1 9 ! s5se t x causes ! behavi\r appropriate to ,a4 ,all sorts ( ?+s may be signs ( o!r ?+s1 b ) human be+s words are ! supreme example ( signs4 ,all signs dep5d ^u "s practical induction4 ,:5ev] we read or he> a /atem5t1 its effect ^u u dep5ds ^u induction 9 ?is s5se1 s9ce ! words are signs ( :at !y mean1 9 ! s5se t we react to !m1 9 c]ta9 respects1 z we %\ld to :at !y /& =4 ,if "s "o says to y 8y\r h\se is on fire01 ! effect ^u y is practically ! same z if y saw ! conflagration4 ,y may1 ( c\rse1 be ! victim ( a hoax1 & 9 t case y\r behavi\r w n be su* z a*ieves any purpose y h 9 view4 ,?is risk ( error exi/s always1 s9ce ! fact t two ?+s h occurr$ toge!r 9 ! pa/ _c prove conclusively t !y w occur toge!r 9 ! future4 ,sci5tific induction is an attempt to regul>ise ! above process1 :i* we may call 8physiological induction04 ,x is obvi\s t1 z practis$ by animals1 infants1 & savages1 physiological induction is a frequ5t s\rce ( error4 ,!re is ,dr4 ,watson's infant :o induc$1 f two examples1 t :5ev] he saw a c]ta9 rat !re w\ld be a l\d noise4 ,!re is ,edmund ,burke1 :o induc$ f "o example 7,cromwell7 t revolutions lead to milit>y tyrannies4 ,!re are savages :o argue1 f "o bad season1 t ! arrival ( a :ite man causes bad crops4 ,! inhabitants ( ,si5a1 9 #acdh1 ?\ght t ! ,black ,dea? 0 a puni%m5t = _! pride 9 />t+ to build too l>ge a ca!dral4 ,( su* examples !re is no end4 ,x is v necess>y1 !re=e1 if possible1 to f9d "s me?od by :i* induction c be practis$ s z to lead1 9 g5]al1 to correct results4 ,b ?is is a problem ( sci5tific me?od1 ) :i* we w n yet conc]n ourselves4 ,:at does conc]n u at pres5t is ! fact t all inf]5ce1 ( ! sort t really occurs1 is a developm5t ( ?is "o pr9ciple ( condition+4 ,9 practice1 inf]5ce is ( two k9ds1 "o typifi$ by induction1 ! o!r by ma!matical reason+4 ,! =m] is by f> ! m important1 s9ce1 z we h se51 x cov]s all use ( signs & all empirical g5]alisations z well z ! habits ( :i* !y are ! v]bal expression4 ,i "k t1 f ! traditional /&po9t1 x seems absurd to talk ( inf]5ce 9 mo/ cases ( ?is sort4 ,= example1 y f9d x /at$ 9 ! pap] t su* & su* a horse has won ! ,d]by4 ,accord+ to my own use ( words1 y practise an induction :5 y arrive !nce at ! belief t t horse has won4 ,! /imulus consi/s ( c]ta9 black m>ks on :ite pap]--or p]haps on p9k pap]4 ,?is /imulus is only connect$ ) horses & ! ,d]by by association1 yet y\r reaction is "o appropriate to ! ,d]by4 ,traditionally1 !re 0 only inf]5ce :]e !re 0 a 8m5tal process01 :i*1 aft] dwell+ ^u ! 8premisses01 0 l$ to ass]t ! 8conclusion0 by means ( insight into _! logical connection4 ,i am n say+ t ! process :i* su* words z ! above are int5d$ to describe nev] takes place2 x c]ta9ly does4 ,:at ,i am say+ is t1 g5etically & causally1 !re is no important diff]5ce betwe5 ! mo/ elaborate induction & ! mo/ elem5t>y 8le>n$ reaction04 ,! "o is m]ely a develop$ =m ( ! o!r1 n some?+ radically diff]5t4 ,& our det]m9ation to believe 9 ! results ( inductions1 ev5 if1 z logicians1 we see no reason to d s1 is really due to ! pot5cy ( ! pr9ciple ( association2 x is an example--p]haps ! mo/ important example--( :at ,dr4 ,santayana calls 8animal fai?04 ,! "q ( ma!matical reason+ is m difficult4 ,i ?9k we may lay x d[n t1 9 ma!matics1 ! conclusion always ass]ts m]ely ! :ole or "p ( ! premisses1 ?\gh usually 9 new language4 ,! difficulty ( ma!matics consi/s 9 see+ t ?is is s 9 p>ticul> cases4 ,9 practice1 ! ma!matician has a set ( rules accord+ to :i* 8 symbols c be manipulat$1 & he acquires te*nical skill 9 work+ accord+ to ! rules 9 ! same sort ( way z a billi>d-play] does4 ,b !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ma!matics & billi>ds3 ! rules ( billi>ds are arbitr>y1 :]eas 9 ma!matics "s at lea/ are 9 "s s5se 8true04 ,a man _c be said to und]/& ma!matics unless he has 8se50 t ^! rules are "r4 ,n[ :at does ?is consi/ (8 ,i ?9k x is only a m complicat$ example ( ! process ( und]/&+ t 8,napoleon0 & 8,bonap>te0 ref] to ! same p]son4 ,to expla9 ?is1 h[ev]1 we mu/ rev]t to :at 0 said1 9 ! *apt] on 8,language01 ab\t ! und]/&+ ( =m4 ,human be+s possess ! p[] ( react+ to =m4 ,no d\bt "s ( ! high] animals also possess x1 ?\gh to no?+ l ! same ext5t z m5 d2 & all animals1 except a few ( ! mo/ intellig5t species1 appe> to be ne>ly devoid ( x4 ,among human be+s1 x diff]s greatly f "o individual to ano!r1 & increases1 z a rule1 up to adolesc5ce4 ,i %\ld take x z :at *iefly *>act]ises 8intellect04 ,b let u see1 fir/1 9 :at ! p[] consi/s4 ,:5 a *ild is be+ taught to read1 he le>ns to recognise a giv5 lett]1 say ,h1 :e!r x is l>ge or small1 black or :ite or r$4 ,h[ev] x may v>y 9 ^! respects 8 reaction is ! same3 he says 8,h04 ,t is to say1 ! ess5tial feature 9 ! /imulus is its =m4 ,:5 my boy1 at ! age ( j "u ?ree1 0 ab\t to eat a ?ree-corn]$ piece ( bread & butt]1 ,i told him x 0 a triangle4 7,8 slices 7 g5]ally rectangul>47 ,next day1 unprompt$1 he po9t$ to triangul> bits 9 ! pavem5t ( ! ,alb]t ,memorial1 & call$ !m 8triangles04 ,?us ! =m ( ! bread & butt]1 z oppos$ to its edibility1 its s(tness1 its col\r1 etc41 0 :at _h impress$ him4 ,?is sort ( ?+ con/itutes ! mo/ elem5t>y k9d ( reaction to =m4 ,n[ 8matt]0 & 8=m0 c be plac$1 z 9 ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 9 a hi]>*y4 ,f a triangle we c advance to a polygon1 !nce to a figure1 !nce to a manifold ( po9ts4 ,!n we c g on & turn 8po9t0 into a =mal concept1 mean+ 8some?+ t has relations :i* resemble spatial relations 9 c]ta9 =mal respects04 ,ea* ( ^! is a /ep away f 8matt]0 & fur!r into ! region ( 8=m04 ,at ea* /age ! difficulty increases4 ,! difficulty consi/s 9 hav+ a uni=m reaction 7o!r ?an bor$om7 to a /imulus ( ?is k9d4 ,:5 we 8und]/&0 a ma!matical expression1 t means t we c react to x 9 an appropriate mann]1 9 fact1 t x has 8mean+0 = u4 ,?is is also :at we mean by 8und]/&+0 ! ^w 8cat04 ,b x is easi] to und]/& ! ^w 8cat01 because ! resemblances betwe5 diff]5t cats are ( a sort :i* causes ev5 animals to h a uni=m reaction to all cats4 ,:5 we come to algebra1 & h to op]ate ) x & y1 !re is a natural desire to "k :at x & y really are4 ,t1 at lea/1 0 my feel+3 ,i always ?\ght ! tea*] knew :at !y really 71 b w\ld n tell me4 ,to 8und]/&0 ev5 ! simple/ =mula 9 algebra1 say 7x y7 x #bxy y1 is to be able to react to two sets ( symbols 9 virtue ( ! =m :i* !y express1 & to p]ceive t ! =m is ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,?is is a v elaborate bus9ess1 & x is no wond] t boys & girls f9d algebra a bugbe>4 ,b !re is no novelty 9 pr9ciple aft] ! fir/ elem5t>y p]ceptions ( =m4 ,& p]ception ( =m consi/s m]ely 9 react+ alike to two /imuli :i* are alike 9 =m b v diff]5t 9 o!r respects4 ,=1 :5 we c d t1 we c say1 on ! appropriate occasion1 8t is a triangle02 & ?is is en\gh to satisfy ! exam9] t we "k :at a triangle is1 unless he is s old-fa%ion$ z to expect u to reproduce ! v]bal def9ition1 :i* is ( c\rse a f> easi] matt]1 9 :i*1 ) pati5ce1 we might tea* ev5 a p>rot to succe$4 ,! mean+s ( complex ma!matical symbols are always fix$ by rules 9 relation to ! mean+ ( simpl] symbols2 ?us _! mean+s are analog\s to ^? ( s5t5ces1 n to ^? ( s+le words4 ,:at 0 said e>li] ab\t ! und]/&+ ( s5t5ces applies1 !re=e1 to any gr\p ( symbols :i*1 9 ma!matics1 w be decl>$ to h ! same mean+ z ano!r gr\p1 or "p ( t mean+4 ,we may sum up ?is discussion by say+ t ma!matical inf]5ce consi/s 9 atta*+ ! same reactions to two diff]5t gr\ps ( signs1 ^: mean+s are fix$ by conv5tion 9 relation to _! con/itu5t p>ts1 :]eas induction consi/s1 fir/1 9 tak+ some?+ z a sign ( some?+ else1 & lat]1 :5 we h le>n$ to take ,a z a sign ( ,b1 9 tak+ ,a z also a sign ( ,c4 ,?us ! usual cases ( induction & d$uction are di/+ui%$ by ! fact t1 9 ! =m]1 ! inf]5ce consi/s 9 tak+ "o sign z a sign ( two diff]5t ?+s1 :ile 9 ! latt] ! inf]5ce consi/s 9 tak+ two diff]5t signs z signs ( ! same ?+4 ,?is /atem5t is a little too anti!tical to be tak5 z an exact expression ( ! :ole tru? 9 ! matt]4 ,:at is true1 h[ev]1 is t bo? k9ds ( inf]5ces are conc]n$ ) ! relation ( a sign to :at x signifies1 & !re=e come )9 ! scope ( ! law ( association4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,k ,,behavi\ri/ically ,,consid]$ ,! ^w 8k01 l ! ^w 8memory01 is avoid$ by ! behavi\ri/4 ,nev]!less !re is a ph5om5on commonly call$ 8k01 :i* is te/$ behavi\ri/ically 9 exam9ations4 ,i want to consid] ?is ph5om5on 9 ?is *apt]1 ) a view to decid+ :e!r !re is any?+ 9 x t ! behavi\ri/ _c deal ) adequately4 ,x w be rememb]$ t1 9 ,*apt] ,,ii1 we 7 l$ to ! view t k is a *>act]i/ic ( ! complete process f /imulus to reaction1 or ev51 9 ! cases ( sight & he>+1 f an ext]nal object to a reaction1 ! ext]nal object be+ connect$ ) ! /imulus by a *a9 ( physical causation 9 ! out] _w4 ,let u1 = ! mom5t1 leave on "o side su* cases z sight & he>+1 & conf9e ourselves1 = ! sake ( def9it5ess1 to k d]iv$ f t\*4 ,we c obs]ve t\* produc+ reactions 9 q humble animals1 su* z worms & sea anemones4 ,are we to say t !y h 8k0 ( :at !y t\*8 ,9 "s s5se1 yes4 ,k is a matt] ( degree4 ,:5 x is reg>d$ 9 a purely behavi\ri/ic mann]1 we %all h to conc$e t x exi/s1 9 "s degree1 :]ev] !re is a *>act]i/ic reaction to a /imulus ( a c]ta9 k9d1 & ?is reaction does n occur 9 ! abs5ce ( ! "r k9d ( /imulus4 ,9 ?is s5se1 8k0 is indi/+ui%able f 8s5sitivity01 :i* we consid]$ 9 connection ) p]ception4 ,we might say t a !rmomet] 8kn[s0 ! temp]ature1 & t a compass 8kn[s0 ! direction ( ! magnetic nor?4 ,?is is ! only s5se 9 :i*1 on gr\nds ( obs]vation1 we c attribute k to animals t are l[ 9 ! scale4 ,_m animals1 = example1 hide !mselves :5 expos$ to light1 b z a rule n o!rwise4 ,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 !y d n diff] f a radiomet]4 ,no d\bt ! me*anism is diff]5t1 b ! obs]v$ mol> motion has simil> *>act]i/ics4 ,:]ev] !re is a reflex1 an animal may be said1 9 a s5se1 to 8"k0 ! /imulus4 ,?is is1 no d\bt1 n ! usual s5se ( 8k01 b x is ! g]m out ( :i* k 9 ! usual s5se has gr[n1 & )\t :i* no k w\ld be possible4 ,k 9 any m advanc$ s5se is only possible z a result ( le>n+1 9 ! s5se consid]$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! rat t has le>n$ ! maze 8kn[s0 ! way out ( x2 ! boy :o has le>n$ c]ta9 v]bal reactions 8kn[s0 ! multiplication table4 ,betwe5 ^! two cases !re is no important diff]5ce4 ,9 bo? cases1 we say t ! subject 8kn[s0 some?+ because he reacts 9 a mann] advantage\s to himself1 9 :i* he c\ld n react be=e he _h _h c]ta9 exp]i5ces4 ,i d n ?9k1 h[ev]1 t we ought to use su* a notion z 8advantage\s0 9 connection ) k4 ,:at we c obs]ve1 = in/ance1 ) ! rat 9 ! maze1 is viol5t activity until ! food is rea*$1 foll[$ by eat+ :5 x is rea*$2 also a gradual elim9ation ( acts :i* d n lead to ! food4 ,:]e ?is sort ( behavi\r is obs]v$1 we may say t x is direct$ t[>ds ! food1 & t ! animal 8kn[s0 ! way to ! food :5 he gets to x by ! %orte/ possible r\te4 ,b if ?is view is "r1 we _c def9e any k acquir$ by le>n+ except ) ref]5ce to circum/ances t[>d :i* an animal's activity is direct$4 ,we %\ld say1 popul>ly1 t ! animal 8desires0 su* circum/ances4 8,desire01 l 8k01 is capable ( a behavi\ri/ic def9ition1 & x w\ld seem t ! two are correlative4 ,let u1 !n1 sp5d a little "t on ! behavi\ri/ic treatm5t ( 8desire04 ,! be/ example ( desire1 f ?is po9t ( view1 is hung]4 ,! /imulus to hung] is a c]ta9 well-asc]ta9$ bodily condition4 ,:5 9 ?is condition1 an animal moves re/lessly2 if he sees or smells food1 he moves 9 a mann] :i*1 9 conditions to :i* he is accu/om$1 w\ld br+ him to ! food2 if he rea*es x1 he eats x1 & if ! quantity is suffici5t he !n becomes quiesc5t4 ,?is k9d ( behavi\r may be summ>is$ by say+ t a hungry animal 8desires0 food4 ,x is behavi\r :i* is 9 v>i\s ways diff]5t f t ( inanimate matt]1 because re/less movem5ts p]si/ until a c]ta9 condition is realis$4 ,^! movem5ts may or may n be ! be/ adapt$ to realis+ ! condition 9 "q4 ,e "o kn[s ab\t ! pike t 0 put on "o side ( a glass p>tition1 ) m9n[s on ! o!r side4 ,he cont9ually bump$ 8 nose on ! glass1 & aft] six weeks gave up ! attempt to cat* !m4 ,:51 aft] ?is1 ! p>tition 0 remov$1 he /ill refra9$ f pursu+ !m4 ,i d n "k :e!r ! exp]im5t 0 tri$ ( leav+ a possibility ( gett+ to ! m9n[s by a r\ndab\t r\te4 ,to h le>n$ to take a r\ndab\t r\te w\ld p]haps h requir$ a degree ( intellig5ce beyond ! capacity ( fi%es2 ?is is a matt]1 h[ev]1 :i* (f]s little difficulty to dogs or monkeys4 ,:at applies to hung] applies equally to o!r =ms ( 8desire04 ,e animal has a c]ta9 cong5ital app>atus ( 8desires02 t is to say1 9 c]ta9 bodily conditions he is /imulat$ to re/less activities :i* t5d t[>ds ! p]=mance ( "s reflex1 & if a giv5 situation is (t5 repeat$ ! animal arrives m & m quickly at ! p]=mance ( ! reflex4 ,?is la/1 h[ev]1 is only true ( ! high] animals2 9 ! l[]1 ! :ole process f beg9n+ to end is reflex1 & c !re=e only succe$ 9 normal circum/ances4 ,! high] animals1 & m especially m51 h a l>g] proportion ( le>n+ & a small] proportion ( reflexes 9 _! behavi\r1 & are !re=e bett] able to adapt !mselves to new circum/ances4 ,! helplessness ( infants is a necess>y condition = ! adaptability ( adults2 infants h few] useful reflexes ?an ! "y ( animals1 b h f> m p[] ( =m+ useful habits1 :i* c be adapt$ to circum/ances & are n fatally fix$ f bir?4 ,?is fact is intimately connect$ ) ! sup]iority ( ! human intellig5ce above t ( ! brutes4 ,desire is extremely subject to 8condition+04 ,if ,a is a primitive desire & ,b has on _m occasions be5 a means to ,a1 ,b comes to be desir$ 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* ,a 0 previ\sly desir$4 ,x may ev5 happ51 z 9 mis]s1 t ! desire = ,b completely displaces ! desire = ,a1 s t ,b1 :5 atta9$1 is no long] us$ z a means to ,a4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is m or less exceptional4 ,9 g5]al1 ! desire = ,a p]si/s1 al?\gh ! desire = ,b has a m or less indep5d5t life4 ,! 8condition+0 ( primitive desires 9 human be+s is ! s\rce ( mu* t di/+ui%es our life f t ( animals4 ,mo/ animals only seek food :5 !y are hungry2 !y may1 !n1 die ( />vation be=e !y f9d x4 ,m51 on ! contr>y1 mu/ h e>ly acquir$ pleasure 9 hunt+ z an art1 & mu/ h set out on hunt+ exp$itions be=e !y 7 actually hungry4 ,a fur!r /age 9 ! condition+ ( hung] came ) dome/ic animals2 a /ill fur!r /age ) agriculture4 ,n[adays1 :5 a man sets to "w to e>n 8 liv+1 8 activity is /ill connect$1 ?\gh n v directly1 ) hung] & ! o!r primitive desires t c be gratifi$ by means ( money4 ,^! primitive desires are /ill1 s to speak1 ! p[] /ation1 ?\gh _! en]gy is widely di/ribut$ to all sorts ( und]tak+s t seem1 at fir/ sight1 to h no connection ) !m4 ,consid] 8fre$om0 & ! political activities x inspires2 ?is is d]ivable1 by 8condition+01 f ! emotion ( rage :i* ,dr4 ,watson obs]v$ 9 infants ^: limbs are n 8free04 ,aga9 we speak ( ! 8fall0 ( empires & ( 8fall50 wom52 ?is is connect$ ) ! fe> :i* infants display :5 left )\t support4 ,aft] ?is excursion into ! realm ( desire1 we c n[ return to 8k01 :i*1 z we saw1 is a t]m correlative to 8desire01 & applicable to ano!r feature ( ! same k9d ( activity4 ,we may say1 broadly1 t a response to a /imulus ( ! k9d involv+ desire 9 ! above s5se %[s 8k0 if x leads by ! quicke/ or easie/ r\te to ! /ate ( affairs :i*1 9 ! above s5se1 is behavi\ri/ically ! object ( desire4 ,k is ?us a matt] ( degree3 ! rat1 dur+ its progressive improvem5ts 9 ! maze1 is gradually acquir+ m & m k4 ,its 8intellig5ce quoti5t01 s f> z t p>ticul> task is conc]n$1 w be ! ratio ( ! "t x took on ! fir/ trial to ! "t x takes n[ to get out ( ! maze4 ,ano!r po9t1 if our def9ition ( k is accept$1 is1 t !re is no su* ?+ z purely contemplative k3 k exi/s only 9 relation to ! satisfaction ( desire1 or1 z we say1 9 ! capacity to *oose ! "r means to a*ieve our ends4 ,b c su* a def9ition z ! above really /&8 ,does x repres5t at all ! sort ( ?+ t w\ld commonly be call$ k8 ,i ?9k x does 9 ! ma91 b !re is ne$ ( "s discussion to make ?is cle>4 ,9 "s cases1 ! def9ition is obvi\sly applicable4 ,^! are ! cases t are analog\s to ! rat 9 ! maze1 ! consid]ation ( :i* l$ u to our def9ition4 ,d y 8"k0 ! way f ,trafalg> ,squ>e to ,/4 ,pancras8 ,yes1 if y c walk x )\t tak+ any wrong turn+s4 ,9 practice1 y c give v]bal pro( ( su* k1 )\t actually hav+ to walk ! di/ance2 b t dep5ds ^u ! correlation ( names ) /reets1 & is "p ( ! process ( sub/itut+ words = ?+s4 ,!re may1 x is true1 come d\btful cases4 ,i 0 once on a bus 9 ,:itehall1 & my neighb\r ask$ 8,:at /reet is ?is80 ,i answ]$ him1 n )\t surprise at 8 ignorance4 ,he !n said1 8,:at build+ is t80 & ,i repli$ 8,! ,=eign ,(fice04 ,to ?is he retort$1 8b ,i ?\ght ! ,=eign ,(fice 0 9 ,d[n+ ,/reet04 ,?is "t1 x 0 8 k t surpris$ me4 ,%\ld we say t he knew :]e ! ,=eign ,(fice is8 ,! answ] is yes or no accord+ to 8 purpose4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( s5d+ a lett] to x1 he knew2 f ! po9t ( view ( walk+ to x1 he did n "k4 ,he _h1 9 fact1 be5 a ,briti% ,consul 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & 0 9 ,london = ! fir/ "t4 ,b n[ let u come to cases less obvi\sly )9 ! scope ( our def9ition4 ,! read] 8kn[s0 t ,columbus cross$ ! ocean 9 #adib4 ,:at d we mean by say+ t he 8kn[s0 ?is8 ,we mean1 no d\bt1 prim>ily t writ+ d[n ?is /atem5t is ! way to pass exam9ations1 :i* is j z useful to u z gett+ out ( ! maze is to ! rat4 ,b we d n mean only ?is4 ,!re is hi/orical evid5ce ( ! fact1 at lea/ ,i suppose !re is4 ,! hi/orical evid5ce consi/s ( pr9t$ books & manuscripts4 ,c]ta9 rules h be5 develop$ by hi/orians z to ! conditions 9 :i* /atem5ts 9 books or manuscripts may be accept$ z true1 & ! evid5ce 9 our case is 7,i presume7 9 accordance ) ^! rules4 ,hi/orical facts (t5 h importance 9 ! pres5t2 = example1 wills1 or laws n yet repeal$4 ,! rules = weigh+ hi/orical evid5ce are su* z w1 9 g5]al br+ out self-consi/5t results4 ,two results are self-consi/5t :51 9 relation to a desire to :i* bo? are relevant1 !y enjo9 ! same action1 or actions :i* c =m "p ( ! "o movem5t t[>ds ! goal4 ,at ,coton1 ne> ,cambridge1 !re is 7or 0 9 my "t7 a signpo/ ) two arms po9t+ 9 diametrically opposite directions1 & ea* arm said 8,to ,cambridge04 ,?is 0 a p]fect example ( self-contradiction1 s9ce ! two arms made /atem5ts repres5t+ exactly opposite actions4 ,& ?is case illu/rates :y self-contradiction is to be avoid$4 ,b ! avoidance ( self-contradiction makes great dem&s ^u u2 ,hegel & ,bradley imag9$ t we c\ld "k ! nature ( ! univ]se by means ( ?is pr9ciple alone4 ,9 ?is !y 7 pretty c]ta9ly mi/ak51 b nev]!less a great deal ( our 8k0 dep5ds ^u ?is pr9ciple to a great] or less ext5t4 ,mo/ ( our k is l t 9 a cook]y book1 maxims to be foll[$ :5 occasion arises1 b n useful at e mom5t ( e day4 ,s9ce k may be useful at any "t1 we get gradually1 ?r\gh condition+1 a g5]al desire = k4 ,! le>n$ man :o is helpless 9 practical affairs is analog\s to ! mis]1 9 t he has become absorb$ 9 a means4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$1 also1 t k is neutral z among diff]5t purposes4 ,if y "k t ars5ic is a poison1 t enables y equally to avoid x if y wi% to rema9 9 heal?1 & to take x if y wi% to commit suicide4 ,y _c judge f a man's conduct 9 relation to ars5ic :e!r he kn[s t x is a poison or n1 unless y "k 8 desires4 ,he may be tir$ ( life1 b avoid ars5ic because he has be5 told t x is a good m$ic9e2 9 ?is case1 8 avoidance ( x is evid5ce ( lack ( k4 ,b to return to ,columbus3 surely1 ! read] w say1 ,columbus really did cross ! ,atlantic 9 #adib1 & t is :y we call ?is /atem5t 8k04 ,?is is ! def9ition ( 8tru?0 z 8correspond5ce ) fact04 ,i ?9k !re is an important elem5t ( correctness 9 ?is def9ition1 b x is an elem5t to be elicit$ at a lat] /age1 aft] we h discuss$ ! physical _w4 ,& x has ! defect--z pragmati/s h urg$--t !re seems no way ( gett+ at 8facts0 & comp>+ !m ) our beliefs3 all t we ev] rea* consi/s ( o!r beliefs4 ,i d n (f] our pres5t behavi\ri/ic & pragmatic def9ition ( 8k0 z ! only possible "o1 b ,i (f] x z ! "o to :i* we are l$ if we wi% to reg>d k z some?+ causally important1 to be exemplifi$ 9 our reactions to /imuli4 ,?is is ! appropriate po9t ( view :5 we are /udy+ man f )\t1 z we h be5 do+ hi!rto4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 )9 ! behavi\ri/ philosophy1 "o important addition to be made to our def9ition4 ,we began ?is *apt] ) s5sitivity1 b we w5t on to ! consid]ation ( le>n$ reactions1 :]e ! le>n+ dep5d$ ^u association4 ,b !re is ano!r sort ( le>n+--at lea/ x is prima facie ano!r sort--:i* consi/s ( increase ( s5sitivity4 ,all s5sitivity 9 animals & human be+s mu/ c\nt z a sort ( k2 t is to say1 if an animal behaves1 9 ! pres5ce ( a /imulus ( a c]ta9 k9d1 z x w\ld n behave 9 ! abs5ce ( t /imulus !n1 9 an important s5se1 x has 8k0 z reg>ds ! /imulus4 ,n[ x appe>s t practice--e4g4 9 music--v greatly increases s5sitivity4 ,we le>n to react diff]5tly to /imuli :i* only diff] sightly2 :at is m1 we le>n to react to diff]5ces4 ,a viol9-play] c react ) great precision to an int]val ( a fif?2 if ! int]val is v slightly great] or less1 8 behavi\r 9 tun+ is influ5c$ by ! diff]5ce f a fif?4 ,& z we h already _h occasion to notice1 we become1 ?r\gh practice1 increas+ly s5sitive to =m4 ,all ?is increas$ s5sitivity mu/ c\nt z increase ( k4 ,b 9 say+ ?is we are n say+ any?+ inconsi/5t ) our e>li] def9ition ( k4 ,s5sitivity is ess5tial to *oos+ ! "r reaction 9 _m cases4 ,to take ! cook]y-book aga92 :5 x says 8take a p9* ( salt01 a good cook kn[s h[ mu* to take1 :i* is an in/ance ( s5sitivity4 ,accurate sci5tific obs]vation1 :i* is ( great practical importance1 dep5ds ^u s5sitivity4 ,& s d _m ( our practical deal+s ) o!r p3 if we _c 8feel0 _! moods1 we %all be always gett+ at cross purposes4 ,! ext5t to :i* s5sitivity is improv$ by practice is a/oni%+4 ,t[n-br$ p d n "k :e!r ! wea!r is w>m or cold until !y read ! wea!r reports 9 ! pap]4 ,an entomologi/ p]ceives va/ly m beetles 9 ! c\rse ( a c\ntry walk ?an o!r p d4 ,! subtlety ) :i* connoisseurs c di/+ui% among w9es & cig>s is ! despair ( y\?s :o wi% to become m5 ( ! _w4 ,:e!r ?is increase ( s5sitivity c be acc\nt$ = by ! law ( association1 ,i d n "k4 ,9 _m cases1 probably1 x c1 b ,i ?9k s5sitiv5ess to =m1 :i* is ! ess5tial elem5t 9 ! m difficult =ms ( ab/ract ?\ght z well z 9 _m o!r matt]s1 _c be reg>d$ z d]ivative f ! law ( association1 b is m analog\s to ! developm5t ( a new s5se4 ,i %\ld !re=e include improvem5t 9 s5sitivity z an indep5d5t elem5t 9 ! advancem5t ( k4 ,b ,i d s ) "s hesitation4 ,! above discussion does n pret5d to cov] ! :ole ( ! gr\nd t has to be cov]$ 9 discuss+ ! def9ition ( 8k04 ,!re are o!r po9ts ( view1 :i* are also necess>y to a complete consid]ation ( ! "q4 ,b ^! mu/ wait until1 aft] consid]+ ! physical _w1 we come to ! discussion ( man z view$ f )94 ,,"p ,,ii ,,! ,,physical ,,_w ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,atom ,9 all t we h said hi!rto on ! subject ( man f )\t1 we h tak5 a common-s5se view ( ! mat]ial _w4 ,we h n ask$ ourselves3 :at is matt]8 ,is !re su* a ?+1 or is ! outside _w compos$ ( /uff ( a diff]5t k9d8 ,& :at light does a correct !ory ( ! physical _w ?r[ ^u ! process ( p]ception8 ,^! are que/ions :i* we mu/ attempt to answ] 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 ,& 9 do+ s ! sci5ce ^u :i* we mu/ dep5d is physics4 ,mod]n physics1 h[ev]1 is v ab/ract1 & by no means easy to expla9 9 simple language4 ,i %all d my be/1 b ! read] mu/ n blame me too sev]ely if1 "h & !re1 he f9ds "s slight difficulty or obscurity4 ,! physical _w1 bo? ?r\gh ! !ory ( relativity & ?r\gh ! mo/ rec5t doctr9es z to ! /ructure ( ! atom1 has become v diff]5t f ! _w ( ev]yday life1 & also f t ( sci5tific mat]ialism ( ! eighte5?-c5tury v>iety4 ,no philosophy c ignore ! revolution>y *anges 9 our physical ideas t ! m5 ( sci5ce h f\nd necess>y2 inde$ x may be said t all traditional philosophies h to be disc>d$1 & we h to />t afre% ) z little respect z possible = ! sy/ems ( ! pa/4 ,our age has p5etrat$ m deeply into ! nature ( ?+s ?an any e>li] age1 & x w\ld be a false mode/y to ov]-e/imate :at c /ill be le>n$ f ! metaphysicians ( ! sev5te5?1 eighte5? & n9ete5? c5turies4 ,:at physics has to say ab\t matt]1 & ! physical _w g5]ally1 f ! /&po9t ( ! philosoph]1 comes "u two ma9 heads3 fir/1 ! /ructure ( ! atom2 secondly1 ! !ory ( relativity4 ,! =m] 01 until rec5tly1 ! less revolution>y philosophically1 ?\gh ! m revolution>y 9 physics4 ,until #aibe1 !ories ( ! /ructure ( ! atom 7 bas$ ^u ! old conception ( matt] z inde/ructible sub/ance1 al?\gh ?is 0 already reg>d$ z no m ?an a conv5i5ce4 ,n[1 ow+ *iefly to two ,g]man physici/s1 ,heis5b]g & ,s*rd+]1 ! la/ ve/iges ( ! old solid atom h melt$ away1 & matt] has become z gho/ly z any?+ 9 a spirituali/ seance4 ,b be=e tackl+ ^! new] views1 x is necess>y to und]/& ! mu* simpl] !ory :i* !y h displac$4 ,?is !ory does n1 except "h & !re1 take acc\nt ( ! new doctr9es on fundam5tals t h be5 introduc$ by ,e9/e91 & x is mu* easi] to und]/& ?an relativity4 ,x expla9s s mu* ( ! facts t1 :atev] may happ51 x mu/ rema9 a /epp+-/one to a complete !ory ( ! /ructure ( ! atom2 inde$1 ! new] !ories h gr[n directly out ( x1 & c\ld h>dly h aris5 9 any o!r way4 ,we mu/ !re=e sp5d a little "t 9 giv+ a b>e outl9e1 :i* is ! less to be regrett$ z ! !ory is 9 itself fasc9at+4 ,! !ory t matt] consi/s ( 8atoms01 i4e4 ( little bits t _c be divid$1 is due to ! ,greeks1 b ) !m x 0 only a speculation4 ,! evid5ce = :at is call$ ! atomic !ory 0 d]iv$ f *emi/ry1 & ! !ory itself1 9 its n9ete5?-c5tury =m1 0 ma9ly due to ,dalton4 ,x 0 f\nd t !re 7 a numb] ( 8elem5ts01 & t o!r sub/ances 7 comp\nds ( ^! elem5ts4 ,comp\nd sub/ances 7 f\nd to be compos$ ( 8molecules01 ea* molecule be+ compos$ ( 8atoms0 ( "o sub/ance comb9$ ) 8atoms0 ( ano!r or ( ! same4 ,a molecule ( wat] consi/s ( two atoms ( hydrog5 & "o atom ( oxyg52 !y c be sep>at$ by electrolysis4 ,x 0 suppos$1 until radio-activity 0 discov]$1 t atoms 7 inde/ructible & un*angeable4 ,sub/ances :i* 7 n comp\nds 7 call$ 8elem5ts04 ,! ,russian *emi/ ,m5deleev discov]$ t ! elem5ts c be arrang$ 9 a s]ies by means ( progressive *anges 9 _! prop]ties2 9 8 "t1 !re 7 gaps 9 ?is s]ies1 b mo/ ( !m h s9ce be5 fill$ by ! discov]y ( new elem5ts4 ,if all ! gaps 7 fill$1 !re w\ld be #ib elem5ts2 actually ! numb] kn[n is #hg1 or1 includ+ ?ree ab\t :i* !re is /ill "s d\bt1 #ij4 ,! place ( an elem5t 9 ?is s]ies is call$ its 8atomic numb]04 ,hydrog5 is ! fir/1 & has ! atomic numb] #a2 helium is ! second1 & has ! atomic numb] #b2 uranium is ! la/1 & has ! atomic numb] #ib4 ,p]haps 9 ! />s !re are elem5ts ) high] atomic numb]s1 b s f> none has be5 actually obs]v$4 ,! discov]y ( radio-activity necessitat$ new views z to 8atoms04 ,x 0 f\nd t an atom ( "o radio-active elem5t c break up into an atom ( ano!r elem5t & an atom ( helium1 & t !re is also ano!r way 9 :i* x c *ange4 ,x 0 f\nd also t !re c be diff]5t elem5ts hav+ ! same place 9 ! s]ies2 ^! are call$ 8isotopes04 ,= example1 :5 radium dis9tegrates x gives rise1 9 ! end1 to a k9d ( lead1 b ?is is some:at diff]5t f ! lead f\nd 9 lead-m9es4 ,a great _m 8elem5ts0 h be5 %[n by ,dr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,a/on to be really mixtures ( isotopes1 :i* c be sort$ out by +5i\s me?ods4 ,all ?is1 b m especially ! transmutation ( elem5ts 9 radio-activity1 l$ to ! conclusion t :at _h be5 call$ 8atoms0 7 really complex /ructures1 :i* c\ld *ange into atoms ( a diff]5t sort by los+ a "p4 ,aft] v>i\s attempts to imag9e ! /ructure ( an atom1 physici/s 7 l$ to accept ! view ( ,sir ,erne/ ,ru!r=d1 :i* 0 fur!r develop$ by ,niels ,bohr4 ,9 ?is !ory1 :i*1 9 spite ( rec5t developm5ts1 rema9s sub/antially correct1 all matt] is compos$ ( two sorts ( units1 electrons & protons4 ,all electrons are exactly alike1 & all protons are exactly alike4 ,all protons c>ry a c]ta9 am\nt ( positive electricity1 & all electrons c>ry an equal am\nt ( negative electricity4 ,b ! mass ( a proton is ab\t #ahce times t ( an electron3 x takes #ahce electrons to weigh z mu* z "o proton4 ,protons repel ea* o!r1 & electrons repel ea* o!r1 b an electron & a proton attract ea* o!r4 ,e atom is a /ructure consi/+ ( electrons & protons4 ,! hydrog5 atom1 :i* is ! simple/1 consi/s ( "o proton ) "o electron go+ r\nd x z a planet goes r\nd ! sun4 ,! electron may be lo/1 & ! proton left alone2 ! atom is !n positively electrifi$4 ,b :5 x has its electron1 x is1 z a :ole1 electrically neutral1 s9ce ! positive electricity ( ! proton is exactly balanc$ by ! negative electricity ( ! electron4 ,! second elem5t1 helium1 has already a mu* m complicat$ /ructure4 ,x has a nucleus1 consi/+ ( f\r protons1 & two electrons v close toge!r1 & 9 its normal /ate x has two planet>y electrons go+ r\nd ! nucleus4 ,b x may lose ei!r or bo? ( ^!1 & x is !n positively electrifi$4 ,all ! latt] elem5ts consi/1 l helium1 ( a nucleus compos$ ( protons & electrons1 & a numb] ( planet>y electrons go+ r\nd ! nucleus4 ,!re are m protons ?an electrons 9 ! nucleus1 b ! excess is balanc$ by ! planet>y electrons :5 ! atom is unelectrifi$4 ,! numb] ( protons 9 ! nucleus gives ! 8atomic weight0 ( ! elem5t3 ! excess ( protons ov] electrons 9 ! nucleus gives ! 8atomic numb]01 :i* is also ! numb] ( planet>y electrons :5 ! atom is unelectrifi$4 ,uranium1 ! la/ elem5t1 has #bch protons & #adf electrons 9 ! nucleus1 & :5 unelectrifi$ x has #ib planet>y electrons4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! planet>y electrons 9 atoms o!r ?an hydrog5 is n accurately kn[n1 b x is cle> t1 9 "s s5se1 !y =m diff]5t r+s1 ^? 9 ! out] r+s be+ m easily lo/ ?an ^? ne>] ! nucleus4 ,i come n[ to :at ,bohr add$ to ! !ory ( atoms z develop$ by ,ru!r=d4 ,?is 0 a mo/ curi\s discov]y1 introduc+1 9 a new field1 a c]ta9 type ( discont9uity :i* 0 already kn[n to be exhibit$ by "s o!r natural processes4 ,no adage _h seem$ m respectable 9 philosophy ?an 8natura non facit saltum01 ,nature makes no jumps4 ,b if !re is "o ?+ m ?an ano!r t ! exp]i5ce ( a long life has taught me1 x is t ,lat9 tags always express falsehoods2 & s x has prov$ 9 ?is case4 ,app>5tly ,nature does make jumps1 n only n[ & !n1 b :5ev] a body emits light1 z well z on c]ta9 o!r occasions4 ,! ,g]man physici/ ,planck 0 ! fir/ to demon/rate ! necessity ( jumps4 ,he 0 consid]+ h[ bodies radiate heat :5 !y are w>m] ?an _! surr\nd+s4 ,heat1 z has long be5 kn[n1 consi/s ( vibrations1 :i* are di/+ui%$ by _! 8frequ5cy01 i4e4 by ! numb] ( vibrations p] second4 ,planck %[$ t1 = vibrations hav+ a giv5 frequ5cy1 n all am\nts ( en]gy are possible1 b only ^? hav+ to ! frequ5cy a ratio :i* is a c]ta9 quantity h multipli$ by #a or #b or #c or "s o!r :ole numb]1 9 practice always a small :ole numb]4 ,! quantity h is kn[n z 8,planck's con/ant02 x has turn$ out to be involv$ practically ev]y:]e :]e measurem5t is delicate en\gh to "k :e!r x is involv$ or n4 ,x is su* a small quantity t1 except :]e measurem5t c rea* a v high degree ( accuracy1 ! dep>ture f cont9uity is n appreciable4#g #g ,! dim5sions ( h are ^? ( 8action01 i4e4 en]gy multipli$ by "t1 or mom5t ( mom5tum1 or mass multipli$ by l5g? multipli$ by velocity4 ,its magnitude is ab\t #f4ee #aj4bg erg secs4 ,bohr's great discov]y 0 t ?is same quantity h is involv$ 9 ! orbits ( ! planet>y electrons 9 atoms1 & t x limits ! possible orbits 9 ways = :i* no?+ 9 ,newtonian dynamics _h prep>$ u1 & = :i* s f>1 !re is no?+ 9 relativity-dynamics to acc\nt4 ,accord+ to ,newtonian pr9ciples1 an electron ought to be able to g r\nd ! nucleus 9 any circle ) ! nucleus 9 ! c5tre1 or 9 any ellipse ) ! nucleus 9 a focus2 among possible orbits1 x w\ld select "o or ano!r accord+ to its direction & velocity4 ,b 9 fact only c]ta9 out ( all ^! orbits occur4 ,^? t occur are among ^? t are possible on ,newtonian pr9ciples1 b are only an inf9itesimal selection f among ^!4 ,x w simplify ! explanation if we conf9e ourselves1 z ,bohr did at fir/1 to circul> orbits2 moreov] we w consid] only ! hydrog5 atom1 :i* has "o planet>y electron & a nucleus consi/+ ( "o proton4 ,to def9e ! circul> orbits t are f\nd to be possible1 we proce$ z foll[s3 multiply ! mass ( ! electron by ! circumf]5ce ( its orbit1 & ?is aga9 by ! velocity ( ! electron2 ! result w always be h or #b;h1 or #c;h1 or "s o!r small exact multiple ( h1 :]e h1 z be=e1 is 8,planck's con/ant04 ,!re is ?us a smalle/ possible orbit1 9 :i* ! above product is h2 ! radius ( ! next orbit1 9 :i* ! above produce is #b;h1 w h a l5g? f\r times ?is m9imum2 ! next1 n9e times2 ! next1 sixte5 times2 & s on ?r\gh ! 8squ>e numb]s0 7i4e4 ^? got by multiply+ a numb] by itself74 ,app>5tly no o!r circul> orbits ?an ^! are possible 9 ! hydrog5 atom4 ,elliptic orbits are possible1 & ^! aga9 introduce exact multiples ( h3 b we ne$ n1 = our purposes1 conc]n ourselves ) !m4 ,:5 a hydrog5 atom is left to itself1 if ! electron is 9 ! m9imum orbit x w cont9ue to rotate 9 t orbit s long z no?+ f outside di/urbs x2 b if ! electron is 9 any ( ! l>g] possible orbits1 x may soon] or lat] jump sudd5ly to a small] orbit1 ei!r ! m9imum or "o ( ! int]m$iate possible orbits4 ,s long z ! electron does n *ange its orbit1 ! atom does n radiate en]gy1 b :5 ! electron jumps to a small] orbit1 ! atom loses en]gy1 :i* is radiat$ out 9 ! =m ( a light-wave4 ,?is light-wave is always su* t its en]gy divid$ by its frequ5cy is exactly h4 ,! atom may absorb en]gy f )\t1 & x does s by ! electron jump+ to a l>g] orbit4 ,x may !n aft]w>ds1 :5 ! ext]nal s\rce ( en]gy is remov$1 jump back to ! small] orbit2 ?is is ! cause ( fluoresc5ce1 s9ce1 9 do+ s1 ! atom gives out en]gy 9 ! =m ( light4 ,! same pr9ciples1 ) great] ma!matical complications1 apply to ! o!r elem5ts4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ) "s ( ! late/ elem5ts1 a ph5om5on :i* _c h any analogue 9 hydrog51 & t is radio-activity4 ,:5 an atom is radio-active1 x emits rays ( ?ree k9ds1 call$ respectively -rays1 -rays1 & -rays4 ,( ^!1 ! -rays are analog\s to light1 b ( mu* high] frequ5cies1 or %ort] wave-l5g?s2 we ne$ n fur!r conc]n ourselves ) !m4 ,! -rays & -rays1 on ! contr>y1 are important z our *ief s\rce ( k conc]n+ ! nuclei ( atoms4 ,x is f\nd t ! -rays consi/ ( helium nuclei1 :ile ! -rays consi/ ( electrons4 ,bo? come out ( ! nucleus1 s9ce ! atom aft] radio-activity disruption is a diff]5t elem5t f :at x 0 be=e4 ,b no "o kn[s j :y ! nucleus dis9tegrates :5 x does1 nor :y1 9 a piece ( radium1 = example1 "s atoms break d[n :ile o!rs d n4 ,! ?ree pr9cipal s\rces ( our k conc]n+ atoms h be5 ! light !y emit1 ,x-rays & radio-activity4 ,z ev]yone kn[s1 :5 ! light emitt$ by a gl[+ gas is pass$ ?r\gh a prism1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( well-def9$ l9es ( diff]5t col\rs1 :i* are *>act]i/ic = ea* elem5t1 & con/itute :at is call$ its 8spectrum04 ,! spectrum ext5ds beyond ! range ( visible light1 bo? into ! infra-r$ & into ! ultra-violet4 ,9 ! latt] direction1 x ext5ds "r into ! region ( ,x-rays1 :i* are only ultra-ultra-violet light4 ,by means ( cry/als1 x has be5 f\nd possible to /udy ,x-ray spectra z exactly z ^? ( ord9>y light4 ,! great m]it ( ,bohr's !ory 0 t x expla9$ :y elem5ts h ! spectra !y d h1 :i* _h1 be=e1 be5 a complete my/]y4 ,9 ! cases ( hydrog5 & positively electrifi$ helium1 ! explanation1 p>ticul>ly z ext5d$ by ! ,g]man physici/ ,somm]feld1 gave ! mo/ m9ute num]ical agreem5t betwe5 !ory & obs]vation2 9 o!r cases1 ma!matical difficulties made ?is complet5ess impossible1 b !re 0 e reason to ?9k t ! same pr9ciples 7 adequate4 ,?is 0 ! ma9 reason = accept+ ,bohr's !ory2 & c]ta9ly x 0 a v /rong "o4 ,x 0 f\nd t visible light enabl$ u to /udy ! out] r+s ( planet>y electrons1 ,x-rays enabl$ u to /udy ! inn] r+s1 & radio-activity enabl$ u to /udy ! nucleus4 ,= ! latt] purpose1 !re are also o!r me?ods1 m p>ticul>ly ,ru!r=d's 8bomb>dm5t01 :i* aims at break+ up nuclei by fir+ projectiles at !m1 & sometimes succe$s 9 mak+ a hit 9 spite ( ! smallness ( ! t>get4 ,! !ory ( atomic /ructure t has j be5 outl9$1 l ev]y?+ 9 !oretical physics1 is capable ( expression 9 ma!matical =mul2 b l _m ?+s 9 !oretical physics1 x is also capable ( expression 9 ! =m ( an imag9ative picture4 ,b "h1 z always1 x is necess>y to di/+ui% %>ply betwe5 ! ma!matical symbols & ! pictorial words4 ,! symbols are pretty sure to be "r1 or ne>ly s2 ! imag9ative picture1 on ! o!r h&1 %\ld n be tak5 too s]i\sly4 ,:5 we consid] ! nature ( ! evid5ce ^u :i* ! above !ory ( ! atom is bas$1 we c see t ! attempt to make a picture ( :at goes on has l$ u to be f> m concrete ?an we h any "r to be4 ,if we want to ass]t only :at we h good reason to believe1 we %all h to ab&on ! attempt to be concrete ab\t :at goes on 9 ! atom1 & say m]ely some?+ l ?is3 ,an atom ) its electrons is a sy/em *>act]is$ by c]ta9 integ]s1 all small1 & all capable ( *ang+ indep5d5tly4 ,^! integ]s are ! multiples ( h involv$4 ,:5 any ( !m *anges to a small] integ]1 en]gy ( a def9ite am\nt is emitt$1 & its frequ5cy w be obta9$ by divid+ ! en]gy ( h4 ,:5 any ( ! integ]s conc]n$ *anges to a l>g] integ]1 en]gy is absorb$1 & aga9 ! am\nt absorb$ is def9ite4 ,b we _c "k :at goes on :5 ! atom is nei!r absorb+ nor radiat+ en]gy1 s9ce !n x has no effects 9 surr\nd+ regions2 consequ5tly all evid5ce z to atoms is z to _! *anges1 n z to _! /eady /ates4 ,! po9t is n t ! facts d n fit ) ! hypo!sis ( ! atom z a planet>y sy/em4 ,!re are1 x is true1 c]ta9 difficulties :i* af=d empirical gr\nds = ! new] !ory :i* has sup]s$$ ,bohr's1 & :i* we %all %ortly consid]4 ,b ev5 if no su* gr\nds exi/$1 x w\ld be obvi\s t ,bohr's !ory /ates m ?an we h a "r to inf] f :at we c obs]ve4 ,( !ories t /ate s mu*1 !re mu/ be an inf9ite numb] t are compatible ) :at is kn[n1 & x is only :at all ( ^! h 9 common t we are really entitl$ to ass]t4 ,suppose y\r k ( ,great ,brita9 7 entirely conf9$ to obs]v+ ! p & goods t ent] & leave ! ports2 y c\ld1 9 t case1 inv5t _m !ories z to ! int]ior ( ,great ,brita91 all ( :i* w\ld agree ) all kn[n facts4 ,?is is an exact analogy4 ,if y delimit 9 ! physical univ]se any region1 l>ge or small1 n conta9+ a sci5tific obs]v]1 all sci5tific obs]v]s w h exactly ! same exp]i5ces :atev] happ5s inside ?is region1 provid$ x does n affect ! fl[ ( en]gy across ! b\nd>y ( ! region4 ,& s1 if ! region conta9s "o atom1 any two !ories :i* give ! same results z to ! en]gy t ! atom radiates or absorbs are empirically indi/+ui%able1 & !re c be no reason except simplicity = pref]r+ "o ( !m to ! o!r4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 ev5 if on no o!r1 prud5ce compels u to seek a m ab/ract !ory ( ! atom ?an t :i* we owe to ,ru!r=d & ,bohr4 ,! new] !ory has be5 put =w>d ma9ly by two physici/s already m5tion$1 ,heis5b]g & ,s*rd+]1 9 =ms :i* look diff]5t1 b are 9 fact ma!matically equival5t4 ,x is z yet an impossible task to describe ?is !ory 9 simple language1 b some?+ c be said to %[ its philosophical be>+4 ,broadly speak+1 x describes ! atom by means ( ! radiations t come out ( x4 ,9 ,bohr's !ory1 ! planet>y electrons are suppos$ to describe orbits ov] & ov] aga9 :ile ! atom is n radiat+2 9 ! new] !ory1 we say no?+ at all z to :at happ5s at ^! times4 ,! aim is to conf9e ! !ory to :at is empirically v]ifiable1 namely radiations2 z to :at !re is :]e ! radiations come f1 we _c tell1 & x is sci5tifically unnecess>y to speculate4 ,! !ory requires modifications 9 our conception ( space1 ( a sort n yet q cle>4 ,x also has ! consequ5ce t we _c id5tify an electron at "o "t ) an electron at ano!r1 if 9 ! int]val1 ! atom has radiat$ en]gy4 ,! electron ceases altoge!r to h ! prop]ties ( a 8?+0 z conceiv$ by common s5se2 x is m]ely a region f :i* en]gy may radiate4 ,on ! subject ( discont9uity1 !re is disagreem5t betwe5 ,s*rd+] & o!r physici/s4 ,mo/ ( !m ma9ta9 t quantum *anges--i4e4 ! *anges t occur 9 an atom :5 x radiates or absorbs en]gy--mu/ be discont9u\s4 ,s*rd+] ?9ks o!rwise4 ,?is is a matt] 9 debate among exp]ts1 z to :i* x w\ld be ra% to v5ture an op9ion4 ,probably x w be decid$ "o way or o!r be=e v long4 ,! ma9 po9t = ! philosoph] 9 ! mod]n !ory is ! disappe>ance ( matt] z a 8?+04 ,x has be5 replac$ by emanations f a locality--! sort ( influ5ces t *>act]ise haunt$ rooms 9 gho/ /ories4 ,z we %all see 9 ! next *apt]1 ! !ory ( relativity leads to a simil> de/ruction ( ! solidity ( matt]1 by a diff]5t l9e ( argum5t4 ,all sorts ( ev5ts happ5 9 ! physical _w1 b tables & *airs1 ! sun & moon1 & ev5 our daily bread1 h become pale ab/ractions1 m]e laws exhibit$ 9 ! successions ( ev5ts :i* radiate f c]ta9 regions4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,relativity ,we h se5 t ! _w ( ! atom is a _w ( revolution r ?an evolution3 ! electron :i* has be5 mov+ 9 "o orbit hops q sudd5ly into ano!r1 s t ! motion is :at is call$ 8discont9u\s01 t is to say1 ! electron is fir/ 9 "o place & !n 9 ano!r1 )\t hav+ pass$ ov] any int]m$iate places4 ,?is s\nds l magic1 & !re may be "s way ( avoid+ su* a disconc]t+ hypo!sis4 ,at any rate1 no?+ ( ! sort seems to happ5 9 ! regions :]e !re are no electrons & protons4 ,9 ^! regions1 s f> z we c discov]1 !re is cont9uity1 t is to say1 ev]y?+ goes by gradual transitions1 n by jumps4 ,! regions 9 :i* !re are no electrons & protons may be call$ 8!r0 or 8empty space0 z y pref]3 ! diff]5ce is only v]bal4 ,! !ory ( relativity is especially conc]n$ ) :at goes on 9 ^! regions1 z oppos$ to :at goes on :]e !re are electrons & protons4 ,ap>t f ! !ory ( relativity1 :at we "k ab\t ^! regions is t waves travel across !m1 & t ^! waves1 :5 !y are waves ( light or electromagnetism 7:i* are id5tical71 behave 9 a c]ta9 fa%ion set =? by ,maxwell 9 c]ta9 =mul call$ 8,maxwell's equations04 ,:5 ,i say we 8"k0 ?is1 ,i am say+ m ?an is /rictly correct1 because all we "k is :at happ5s :5 ! waves rea* our bodies4 ,x is z if we c\ld n see ! sea1 b c\ld only see ! p disemb>k+ at ,dov]1 & inf]r$ ! waves f ! fact t ! p look$ gre54 ,x is obvi\s1 9 any case1 t we c only "k s mu* ab\t ! waves z is involv$ 9 _! hav+ su*-&-su* causes at "o end & su*-&-su* effects at ! o!r4 ,:at c be inf]r$ 9 ?is way w be1 at be/1 some?+ :olly expressible 9 t]ms ( ma!matical /ructure4 ,we mu/ n ?9k ( ! waves z be+ necess>ily 890 ! !r or 890 any?+ else2 !y are to be ?\ght ( m]ely z progressive p]iodic processes1 ^: laws are m or less kn[n1 b ^: intr9sic "* is n kn[n & nev] c be4 ,! !ory ( relativity has aris5 f ! /udy ( :at goes on 9 ! regions :]e !re are no electrons & protons4 ,:ile ! /udy ( ! atom has l$ u to discont9uities1 relativity has produc$ a completely cont9u\s !ory ( ! int]v5+ m$ium--f> m cont9u\s ?an any !ory =m]ly imag9$4 ,at ! mom5t1 ^! two po9ts ( view /& m or less oppos$ to ea* o!r1 b no d\bt be=e long !y w be reconcil$4 ,!re is n1 ev5 n[1 any logical contradiction betwe5 !m2 !re is only a fairly complete lack ( connection4 ,= philosophy1 f> ! mo/ important ?+ ab\t ! !ory ( relativity is ! abolition ( ! "o cosmic "t & ! "o p]si/5t space1 & ! sub/itution ( space-"t 9 place ( bo?4 ,?is is a *ange ( q enorm\s importance1 because x alt]s fundam5tally our notion ( ! /ructure ( ! physical _w1 & has1 ,i ?9k1 rep]cussions 9 psy*ology4 ,x w\ld be useless1 9 our day1 to talk ab\t philosophy )\t expla9+ ?is matt]4 ,!re=e ,i %all make ! attempt1 9 spite ( "s difficulty4 ,common-s5se & pre-relativity physici/s believ$ t1 if two ev5ts happ5 9 diff]5t places1 !re mu/ always be a def9ite answ]1 9 !ory1 to ! "q :e!r !y 7 simultane\s4 ,?is is f\nd to be a mi/ake4 ,let u suppose two p]sons ,a & ,b a long way ap>t1 ea* provid$ ) a mirror & means ( s5d+ out light-signals4 ,! ev5ts t happ5 to ,a /ill h a p]fectly def9ite "t-ord]1 & s h ^? t happ5 to ,b2 ! difficulty comes 9 connect+ ,a's "t ) ,b's4 ,suppose ,a s5ds a fla% to ,b1 ,b's mirror reflects x1 & x returns to ,a aft] a c]ta9 "t4 ,if ,a is on ! e>? & ,b on ! sun1 ! "t w be ab\t sixte5 m9utes4 ,we %all naturally say t ! "t :5 ,b receiv$ ! light-signal is half way betwe5 ! times :5 ,a s5t x out & receiv$ x back4 ,b ?is def9ition turns out to be n unambigu\s2 x w dep5d ^u h[ ,a & ,b are mov+ relatively to ea* o!r4 ,! m ?is difficulty is exam9$1 ! m insup]able x is se5 to be4 ,any?+ t happ5s to ,a aft] he s5ds out ! fla% & be=e he gets x back is nei!r def9itely be=e nor def9itely aft] nor def9itely simultane\s ) ! arrival ( ! fla% at ,b4 ,to ?is ext5t1 !re is no unambigu\s way ( correlat+ times 9 diff]5t places4 ,! notion ( a 8place0 is also q vague4 ,is ,london a 8place08 ,b ! e>? is rotat+4 ,is ! e>? a 8place08 ,b x is go+ r\nd ! sun4 ,is ! sun a 8place08 ,b x is mov+ relatively to ! />s4 ,at be/ y c\ld talk ( a place at a giv5 "t2 b !n x is ambigu\s :at is a giv5 "t1 unless y conf9e y\rself to "o place4 ,s ! notion ( 8place0 evaporates4 ,we naturally ?9k ( ! univ]se z be+ 9 "o /ate at "o "t & 9 ano!r at ano!r4 ,?is is a mi/ake4 ,!re is no cosmic "t1 & s we _c speak ( ! /ate ( ! univ]se at a giv5 "t4 ,& simil>ly we _c speak unambigu\sly ( ! di/ance betwe5 two bodies at a giv5 "t4 ,if we take ! "t appropriate to "o ( ! two bodies1 we %all get "o e/imate2 if ! "t ( ! o!r1 ano!r4 ,?is makes ! ,newtonian law ( gravitation ambigu\s1 & %[s t x ne$s re/atem5t1 indep5d5tly ( empirical evid5ce4 ,geometry also goes wrong4 ,a /raight l9e1 = example1 is suppos$ to be a c]ta9 track 9 space ^: p>ts all exi/ simultane\sly4 ,we %all n[ f9d t :at is a /raight l9e = "o obs]v] is n a /raight l9e = ano!r4 ,!re=e geometry ceases to be sep>able f physics4 ,! 8obs]v]0 ne$ n be a m9d1 b may be a photographic plate4 ,! peculi>ities ( ! 8obs]v]0 9 ?is region belong to physics1 n to psy*ology4 ,s long z we cont9ue to ?9k 9 t]ms ( bodies mov+1 & try to adju/ ?is way ( ?9k+ to ! new ideas by successive corrections1 we %all only get m & m confus$4 ,! only way to get cle> is to make a fre% />t1 ) ev5ts in/ead ( bodies4 ,9 physics1 an 8ev5t0 is any?+ :i*1 accord+ to ! old notions1 w\ld be said to h bo? a date & a place4 ,an explosion1 a fla% ( lightn+1 ! />t+ ( a light-wave f an atom1 ! arrival ( ! light-wave at "s o!r body1 any ( ^! w\ld be an 8ev5t04 ,"s /r+s ( ev5ts make up :at we reg>d z ! hi/ory ( "o body2 "s make up ! c\rse ( "o light-wave2 & s on4 ,! unity ( a body is a unity ( hi/ory--x is l ! unity ( a tune1 :i* takes "t to play1 & does n exi/ :ole 9 any "o mom5t4 ,:at exi/s at any "o mom5t is only :at we call an 8ev5t04 ,x may be t ! ^w 8ev5t01 z us$ 9 physics1 _c be q id5tifi$ ) ! same ^w z us$ 9 psy*ology2 = ! pres5t we are conc]n$ ) 8ev5ts0 z ! con/itu5ts ( physical processes1 & ne$ n tr\ble ourselves ab\t 8ev5ts0 9 psy*ology4 ,! ev5ts 9 ! physical _w h relations to ea* o!r :i* are ( ! sort t h l$ to ! notions ( space & "t4 ,!y h relations ( ord]1 s t we c say t "o ev5t is ne>] to a second ?an to a ?ird4 ,9 ?is way we c arrive at ! notion ( ! 8neighb\rhood0 ( an ev5t3 x w consi/ r\ghly speak+ ( all ! ev5ts t are v ne> ! giv5 ev5t4 ,:5 we say t neighb\r+ ev5ts h a c]ta9 relation1 we %all mean t ! ne>] two ev5ts are to ea* o!r1 ! m ne>ly !y h ?is relation1 & t !y approximate to hav+ x )\t limit z !y are tak5 ne>] & ne>] toge!r4 ,two neighb\r+ ev5ts h a measurable quantitative relation call$ 8int]val01 :i* is sometimes analog\s to di/ance 9 space1 sometimes to lapse ( "t4 ,9 ! =m] case x is call$ space-l1 9 ! latt] "t-l4 ,! int]val betwe5 two ev5ts is "t-l :5 "o body might be pres5t at bo?--= example1 :5 bo? are p>ts ( ! hi/ory ( y\r body4 ,! int]val is space-l 9 ! contr>y case4 ,9 ! m>g9al case betwe5 ! two1 ! int]val is z]o2 ?is happ5s :5 bo? are p>ts ( "o light-ray4 ,! int]val betwe5 two neighb\r+ ev5ts is some?+ objective1 9 ! s5se t any two c>eful obs]v]s w arrive at ! same e/imate ( x4 ,!y w n arrive at ! same e/imate = ! di/ance 9 space or ! lapse ( "t betwe5 ! two ev5ts1 b ! int]val is a g5u9e physical fact1 ! same = all4 ,if a body c travel freely f "o ev5t to ! o!r1 ! int]val betwe5 ! two ev5ts w be ! same z ! "t betwe5 !m z measur$ by a clock travell+ ) ! body4 ,if su* a j\rney is physically impossible1 ! int]val w be ! same z ! di/ance z e/imat$ by an obs]v] to :om ! two ev5ts are simultane\s4 ,b ! int]val is only def9ite :5 ! two ev5ts are v ne> toge!r2 o!rwise ! int]val dep5ds ^u ! r\te *os5 = travell+ f ! "o ev5t to ! o!r4 ,f\r numb]s are ne$$ to fix ! position ( an ev5t 9 ! _w2 ^! correspond to ! "t & ! ?ree dim5sions ( space 9 ! old reckon+4 ,^! f\r numb]s are call$ ! co-ord9ates ( ! ev5t4 ,!y may be assign$ on any pr9ciple :i* gives neighb\r+ co-ord9ates to neighb\r+ ev5ts2 subject to ?is condition1 !y are m]ely conv5tional4 ,= example1 suppose an a]oplane has _h an accid5t4 ,y c fix ! position ( ! accid5t by f\r numb]s3 latitude1 longitude1 altitude above sea-level1 & ,gre5wi* ,mean ,"t4 ,b y _c fix ! position ( ! explosion 9 space-"t by means ( less ?an f\r numb]s4 ,ev]y?+ 9 relativity-!ory goes 79 a s5se7 f next to next2 !re are no direct relations betwe5 di/ant ev5ts1 su* z di/ance 9 "t or space4 ,& ( c\rse !re are no =ces act+ at a di/ance2 9 fact1 except z a conv5i5t fiction1 !re are no 8=ces0 at all4 ,bodies take ! c\rse :i* is easie/ at ea* mom5t1 accord+ to ! "* ( space-"t 9 ! p>ticul> region :]e !y are2 ?is c\rse is call$ a geodesic4 ,n[ x w be obs]v$ t ,i h be5 speak+ freely ( bodies & motion1 al?\gh ,i said t bodies 7 m]ely c]ta9 /r+s ( ev5ts4 ,t be+ s1 x is ( c\rse necess>y to say :at /r+s ( ev5ts con/itute bodies1 s9ce n all cont9u\s /r+s ( ev5ts d s1 n ev5 all geodesics4 ,until we h def9$ ! sort ( ?+ t makes a body1 we _c legitimately speak ( motion1 s9ce ?is involves ! pres5ce ( "o body on diff]5t occasions4 ,we mu/ !re=e set to "w to def9e :at we mean by ! p]si/5ce ( a body1 & h[ a /r+ ( ev5ts con/itut+ a body diff]s f "o :i* does n4 ,?is topic w occupy ! next *apt]4 ,b x may be useful1 z a prelim9>y1 to tea* our imag9ation to "w 9 accordance ) ! new ideas4 ,we mu/ give up :at ,:itehead admirably calls ! 8pu%9ess0 ( matt]4 ,we naturally ?9k ( an atom z be+ l a billi>d-ball2 we %\ld d bett] to ?9k ( x z l a gho/1 :i* has no 8pu%9ess0 & yet c make y fly4 ,we h to *ange our notions bo? ( sub/ance & ( cause4 ,to say t an atom p]si/s is l say+ t a tune p]si/s4 ,if a tune takes five m9utes to play1 we d n conceive ( x z a s+le ?+ :i* exi/s ?r\gh\t t "t1 b z a s]ies ( notes1 s relat$ z to =m a unity4 ,9 ! case ( ! tune1 ! unity is /hetic2 9 ! case ( ! atom1 x is causal4 ,b :5 ,i say 8causal0 ,i d n mean exactly :at ! ^w naturally conveys4 ,!re mu/ be no idea ( compulsion or 8=ce01 nei!r ! =ce ( contact :i* we imag9e we see betwe5 billi>d-balls nor ! action at a di/ance :i* 0 =m]ly suppos$ to con/itute gravitation4 ,!re is m]ely an obs]v$ law ( succession f next to next4 ,an ev5t at "o mom5t is succe$$ by an ev5t at a neighb\r+ mom5t1 :i*1 to ! fir/ ord] ( small quantities1 c be calculat$ f ! e>li] ev5t4 ,?is enables u to con/ruct a /r+ ( ev5ts1 ea*1 approximately1 gr[+ out ( a slightly e>li] ev5t accord+ to an intr9sic law4 ,outside influ5ces only affect ! second ord] ( small quantities4 ,a /r+ ( ev5ts connect$1 9 ?is way1 by an approximate intr9sic law ( developm5t is call$ "o piece ( matt]4 ,?is is :at ,i mean by say+ t ! unity ( a piece ( matt] is causal4 ,i %all expla9 ?is notion m fully 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,causal ,,laws ,,9 ,,physics ,9 ! la/ *apt] we spoke ab\t ! sub/itution ( space-"t = space & "t1 & ! effect :i* ?is has _h 9 sub/itut+ /r+s ( ev5ts = 8?+s0 conceiv$ z sub/ances4 ,9 ?is *apt] we w deal ) cause & effect z !y appe> 9 ! light ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,x is at lea/ z difficult to purge our imag9ation ( irrelevances 9 ?is matt] z 9 reg>d to sub/ance4 ,! old-fa%ion$ notion ( cause appe>$ 9 dynamics z 8=ce04 ,we /ill speak ( =ces j z we /ill speak ( ! sunrise1 b we recognise t ?is is no?+ b a conv5i5t way ( speak+1 9 ! "o case z 9 ! o!r4 ,causation is deeply emb$d$ 9 language & common s5se4 ,we say t p build h\ses or make roads3 to 8build0 & to 8make0 are bo? notions involv+ causality4 ,we say t a man is 8p[]ful01 mean+ t 8 volitions are causes ov] a wide range4 ,"s examples ( causation seem to u q natural1 o!rs less s4 ,x seems natural t our muscles %\ld obey our w1 & only reflection makes u p]ceive ! necessity ( f9d+ an explanation ( ?is ph5om5on4 ,x seems natural t :5 y hit a billi>d-ball ) a cue x moves4 ,:5 we see a horse pull+ a c>t1 or a heavy object be+ dragg$ by a rope1 we feel z if we und]/ood all ab\t x4 ,x is ev5ts ( ?is sort t h giv5 rise to ! common-s5se belief 9 causes & =ces4 ,b z a matt] ( fact ! _w is incr$ibly m complicat$ ?an x seems to common s5se4 ,:5 we ?9k we und]/& a process--,i mean by 8we0 ! non-reflective "p 9 ea* ( u--:at really happ5s is t !re is "s sequ5ce ( ev5ts s famili> ?r\gh pa/ exp]i5ce t at ea* /age we expect ! next /age4 ,! :ole process seems to u peculi>ly intelligible :5 human desires ent] 91 = example1 9 wat*+ a game3 :at ! ball does & :at ! play]s d seem 8natural01 & we feel z if we q und]/ood h[ ! /ages succe$ ea* o!r4 ,we ?us arrive at ! notion ( :at is call$ 8necess>y0 sequ5ce4 ,! text-books say t ,a is ! cause ( ,b if ,a is 8necess>ily0 foll[$ by ,b4 ,?is notion ( 8necessity0 seems to be purely an?ropomorphic1 & n bas$ ^u any?+ t is a discov]able feature ( ! _w4 ,?+s happ5 accord+ to c]ta9 rules2 ! rules c be g5]alis$1 b 9 ! end rema9 brute facts4 ,unless ! rules are conceal$ conv5tions or def9itions1 no reason c be giv5 :y !y %\ld n be completely diff]5t4 ,to say t ,a is 8necess>ily0 foll[$ by ,b is ?us to say no m ?an t !re is "s g5]al rule1 exemplifi$ 9 a v l>ge numb] ( obs]v$ in/ances1 & falsifi$ 9 none1 accord+ to :i* ev5ts su* z ,a are foll[$ by ev5ts su* z ,b4 ,we mu/ n h any notion ( 8compulsion01 z if ! cause =c$ ! effect to happ54 ,a good te/ = ! imag9ation 9 ?is respect is ! rev]sibility ( causal laws4 ,we c j z (t5 inf] backw>ds z =w>ds4 ,:5 y get a lett]1 y are ju/ifi$ 9 inf]r+ t somebody wrote x1 b y d n feel t y\r receiv+ x compell$ ! s5d] to write x4 ,! notion ( compulsion is j z little applicable to effects z to causes4 ,to say t causes compel effects is z mislead+ z to say t effects compel causes4 ,compulsion is an?ropomorphic3 a man is compell$ to d some?+ :5 he wi%es to d ! opposite1 b except :]e human or animal wi%es come 9 ! notion ( compulsion is inapplicable4 ,sci5ce is conc]n$ m]ely ) :at happ5s1 n ) :at mu/ happ54 ,:5 we look = inv>iable rules ( sequ5ce 9 nature1 we f9d t !y are n su* z common s5se sets up4 ,common s5se says3 ?und] foll[s lightn+1 waves at sea foll[ w9d1 & s on4 ,rules ( ?is sort are indisp5sable 9 practical life1 b 9 sci5ce !y are all only approximate4 ,if !re is any f9ite int]val ( "t1 h[ev] %ort1 betwe5 ! cause & ! effect1 some?+ may happ5 to prev5t ! effect f occurr+4 ,sci5tific laws c only be express$ 9 diff]5tial equations4 ,?is means t1 al?\gh y _c tell :at may happ5 aft] a f9ite "t1 y c say t1 if y make ! "t %ort] & %ort]1 :at w happ5 w be m & m ne>ly accord+ to su*-&-su* a rule4 ,to take a v simple case3 ,i am n[ 9 ?is room2 y _c tell :]e ,i %all be 9 ano!r second1 because a bomb may explode & bl[ me sky-high1 b if y take any two small fragm5ts ( my body :i* are n[ v close toge!r1 y c be sure t1 aft] "s v %ort f9ite "t1 !y w /ill be v close toge!r4 ,if a second is n %ort en\gh1 y mu/ take a %ort] "t2 y _c tell 9 advance h[ %ort a "t y may h to take1 b y may feel fairly c]ta9 t !re is a %ort en\gh "t4 ,! laws ( sequ5ce 9 physics1 ap>t f quantum ph5om5a1 are ( two sorts1 :i* appe>$ 9 traditional dynamics z laws ( velocity & laws ( accel]ation4 ,9 a v %ort "t1 ! velocity ( a body alt]s v little1 & if ! "t is tak5 %ort en\gh1 ! *ange ( velocity dim9i%es )\t limit4 ,?is is :at1 9 ! la/ *apt]1 we call$ an 8intr9sic0 causal law4 ,!n !re is ! effect ( ! out] _w1 z x appe>$ 9 traditional dynamics1 :i* is %[n 9 accel]ation4 ,! small *ange :i* does occur 9 ! velocity 9 a %ort "t is attribut$ to surr\nd+ bodies1 because x is f\nd to v>y z !y v>y1 & to v>y accord+ to asc]ta9$ laws4 ,?us we ?9k ( surr\nd+ bodies z ex]t+ an influ5ce1 :i* we call 8=ce01 ?\gh ?is rema9s z my/]i\s z ! influ5ce ( ! />s 9 a/rology4 ,e9/e9's !ory ( gravitation has done away ) ?is conception 9 s f> z gravitational =ces are conc]n$4 ,9 ?is !ory1 a planet mov+ r\nd ! sun is mov+ 9 ! ne>e/ approa* to a /raight l9e t ! neighb\rhood p]mits4 ,! neighb\rhood is suppos$ to be non-,euclidean1 t is to say1 to conta9 no /raight l9es su* z ,euclid imag9$4 ,if a body is mov+ freely1 z ! planets d1 x obs]ves a c]ta9 rule4 ,p]haps ! simple/ way to /ate ?is rule is z foll[s3 ,suppose y take any two ev5ts :i* happ5 on ! e>?1 & y measure ! "t betwe5 !m by ideally accurate clocks :i* move ) ! e>?4 ,suppose "s travell] on a magic c>pet _h mean:ile cruis$ ab\t ! univ]se1 leav+ ! e>? at ! "t ( ! fir/ ev5t & return+ at ! "t ( ! second4 ,by 8 clocks ! p]iod elaps$ w be less ?an by ! t]re/ial clocks4 ,?is is :at is meant by say+ t ! e>? moves 9 a 8geodesic01 :i* is ! ne>e/ approa* to a /raight l9e to be f\nd 9 ! region 9 :i* we live4 ,all ?is is1 s to speak1 geometrical1 & involves no 8=ces04 ,x is n ! sun t makes ! e>? g r\nd1 b ! nature ( space-"t :]e ! e>? is4 ,ev5 ?is is n q correct4 ,space-"t does n make ! e>? g r\nd ! sun2 x makes u say ! e>? goes r\nd ! sun4 ,t is to say1 x makes ?is ! %orte/ way ( describ+ :at occurs4 ,we c\ld describe x 9 o!r language1 :i* w\ld be equally correct1 b less conv5i5t4 ,! abolition ( 8=ce0 9 a/ronomy is p]haps connect$ ) ! fact t a/ronomy dep5ds only ^u ! s5se ( sight4 ,on ! e>?1 we pu% & pull1 we t\* ?+s1 & we exp]i5ce muscul> /ra9s4 ,?is all gives u a notion ( 8=ce01 b ?is notion is an?ropomorphic4 ,to imag9e ! laws ( motion ( heav5ly bodies1 ?9k ( ! motions ( objects 9 a mirror2 !y may move v fa/1 al?\gh 9 ! mirror _w !re are no =ces4 ,:at we really h to sub/itute = =ce is laws ( correlation4 ,ev5ts c be collect$ 9 gr\ps by _! correlations4 ,?is is all t is true 9 ! old notion ( causality4 ,& ?is is n a 8po/ulate0 or 8category01 b an obs]v$ fact--lucky1 n necess>y4 ,z we sugge/$ be=e1 x is ^! correlations ( ev5ts t lead to ! def9ition ( p]man5t 8?+s04 ,!re is no ess5tial diff]5ce1 z reg>ds sub/antiality1 betwe5 an electron & a light-ray4 ,ea* is really a /r+ ( ev5ts or ( sets ( ev5ts4 ,9 ! case ( ! light-ray1 we h no temptation to ?9k o!rwise4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! electron1 we ?9k ( x z a s+le p]si/5t entity4 ,!re may be su* an entity1 b we c h no evid5ce t !re is4 ,:at we c discov] is 7a7 a gr\p ( ev5ts spread+ outw>ds f a c5tre--say1 = def9it5ess1 ! ev5ts con/itut+ a wave ( light--& attribut$1 hypo!tically1 to a 8cause0 9 t c5tre2 7b7 m or less simil> gr\ps ( ev5ts at o!r times1 connect$ ) ! fir/ gr\p accord+ to ! laws ( physics1 & !re=e attribut$ to ! same hypo!tical cause at o!r times4 ,b all t we ought to assume is s]ies ( gr\ps ( ev5ts1 connect$ by discov]able laws4 ,^! s]ies we may def9e z 8matt]04 ,:e!r !re is matt] 9 any o!r s5se1 no "o c tell4 ,:at is true 9 ! old notion ( causality is ! fact t ev5ts at diff]5t times are connect$ by laws 7diff]5tial equations74 ,:5 !re is a law connect+ an ev5t ,a ) an ev5t ,b1 ! two h a def9ite unambigu\s "t-ord]4 ,b if ! ev5ts are su* t a ray ( light />t+ f ,a w\ld arrive at any body :i* 0 pres5t at ,b aft] ,b _h occurr$1 & vice v]sa1 !n !re is no def9ite true ord]1 & no possible causal law connect+ ,a & ,b4 ,a & ,b mu/ !n be reg>d$ z sep>ate facts ( geography4 ,p]haps ! scope & purpose ( ?is & ! =ego+ *apt]s may be made cle>] by %[+ _! be>+ ^u c]ta9 popul> beliefs :i* may seem self-evid5t b are really 9 my op9ion ei!r false or likely to lead to falsehood4 ,i %all conf9e myself to objections :i* h actually be5 made to me :5 try+ to expla9 ! philosophical outcome ( mod]n physics4#h #h ,^! objections are quot$ 7) k9d p]mission7 f a lett] writt5 to me by a well-kn[n eng9e]1 ,mr4 ,p]cy ,griffi?1 :o is also a writ] on philosophical subjects4 8,we _c conceive ( movem5t ap>t f "s ?+ z mov+40 ,?is is1 9 a s5se1 a truism2 b 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x is usually meant1 x is a falsehood4 ,we speak ( ! 8movem5t0 ( a drama or piece ( music1 al?\gh we d n conceive ei!r z a 8?+0 :i* exi/s complete at e mom5t ( ! p]=mance4 ,?is is ! sort ( picture we mu/ h 9 our m9ds :5 we try to conceive ! physical _w4 ,we mu/ ?9k ( a /r+ ( ev5ts1 connect$ toge!r by c]ta9 causal connections1 & hav+ en\gh unity to des]ve a s+le "n4 ,we !n beg9 to imag9e t ! s+le "n d5otes a s+le 8?+01 & if ! ev5ts conc]n$ are n all 9 ! same place1 we say ! 8?+0 has 8mov$40 ,b ?is is only a conv5i5t %or?&4 ,9 ! c9ema1 we seem to see a man fall+ (f a skyscrap]1 cat*+ hold ( ! telegraph wires1 & rea*+ ! gr\nd none ! worse4 ,we "k t1 9 fact1 !re are a numb] ( diff]5t photographs1 & ! appe>ance ( a s+le 8?+0 mov+ is deceptive4 ,9 ?is respect1 ! real _w resembles ! c9ema4 ,9 connection ) motion "o ne$s to emphasise ! v difficult di/9ction betwe5 exp]i5ce & prejudice4 ,exp]i5ce1 r\ghly1 is :at y see1 & prejudice is :at y only ?9k y see4 ,prejudice tells y t y see ! same table on two diff]5t occasions2 y ?9k t exp]i5ce tells y ?is4 ,if x really 7 exp]i5ce1 y c\ld n be mi/ak52 yet a simil> table may be sub/itut$ )\t alt]+ ! exp]i5ce4 ,if y look at a table on two diff]5t occasions1 y h v simil> s5sations1 & memory tells y t !y are simil>2 b !re is no?+ to %[ t "o id5tical entity causes ! two s5sations4 ,if ! table is 9 a c9ema1 y "k t !re is n su* an entity1 ev5 ?\gh y c wat* x *ang+ ) app>5t cont9uity4 ,! exp]i5ce is j l t ) a 8real0 table2 s 9 ! case ( a 8real0 table also1 !re is no?+ 9 ! actual exp]i5ce to %[ :e!r !re is a p]si/5t entity or n4 ,i say1 !re=e3 ,i d n "k :e!r !re is a p]si/5t entity1 b ,i d "k t my exp]i5ces c be expla9$ )\t assum+ t !re is4 ,!re=e x c be no "p ( legitimate sci5ce to ass]t or d5y ! p]si/5t entity2 if x does ei!r1 x goes beyond ! w>rant ( exp]i5ce4 ,! foll[+ is a v]bally cit$ passage 9 ! lett] ref]r$ to object+ to :at 0 said above ab\t 8=ce03 8,! concept ( ,=ce is n ( physical b ( psy*ological orig94 ,rightly or wrongly x arises 9 ! mo/ imp]sonal contemplation ( ! ,/ell> ,univ]se1 :]e we obs]ve an inf9ite numb] ( sph]ical bodies revolv+ on _! own axes & gyrat+ 9 orbits r\nd ea* o!r4 ,rightly or wrongly1 we naturally conceive ( ^! z hav+ be5 s con/itut$ & s ma9ta9$ by "s ,=ce or ,=ces40 ,we d n1 9 fact1 8obs]ve0 :at x is "h said t we obs]ve2 all ?is is inf]r$4 ,:at we obs]ve1 9 a/ronomy1 is a two-dim5sional patt]n ( po9ts ( light1 ) a few bright surfaces ( measurable size :5 se5 ?r\gh ! telescope 7! planets71 & ( c\rse ! l>g] bright surfaces t we call ! sun & moon4 ,mo/ ( ?is patt]n 7! fix$ />s7 rotates r\nd ! e>? once 9 e tw5ty-?ree h\rs & fifty-six m9utes4 ,! sun rotates 9 v>y+ p]iods1 :i* av]age tw5ty-f\r h\rs & nev] dep>ts v f> f ! av]age4 ,! moon & planets h app>5t motions :i* are m irregul>4 ,^! are ! obs]v$ facts4 ,!re is no logical impossibility ab\t ! =mul doctr9e ( sph]es rotat+ r\nd ! e>?1 "o = ea* planet & "o = ! />s4 ,! mod]n doctr9es are simpl]1 b n "o :it m 9 accordance ) obs]v$ facts2 x is our passion = simple laws t has made u adopt !m4 ,! la/ s5t5ce ( ! above quotation raises "s fur!r po9ts ( int]e/4 8,rightly or wrongly01 ! writ] says1 8we naturally conceive ( ^! z hav+ be5 s con/itut$ & s ma9ta9$ by "s ,=ce or ,=ces40 ,i d n d5y ?is4 ,x is 8natural01 & x is 8"r or wrong0--m specifically1 x is wrong4 8,=ce0 is "p ( our love ( explanations4 ,ev]yone kn[s ab\t ! ,h9du :o ?\ght t ! _w does n fall because x is support$ by an elephant1 & ! elephant does n fall because x is support$ by a tortoise4 ,:5 8 ,european int]locutor said 8,b h[ ab\t ! tortoise80 he repli$ t he 0 tir$ ( metaphysics & want$ to *ange ! subject4 8,=ce01 z an explanation1 is no bett] ?an ! elephant & ! tortoise4 ,x is an attempt to get at ! 8:y0 ( natural processes1 n only at ! 8h[04 ,:at we obs]ve1 to a limit$ ext5t1 is :at happ5s1 & we c arrive at laws accord+ to :i* obs]vable ?+s happ51 b we _c arrive at a reason = ! laws4 ,if we inv5t a reason1 x ne$s a reason 9 its turn1 & s on4 8,=ce0 is a rationalis+ ( natural processes1 b a fruitless "o s9ce 8=ce0 w\ld h to be rationalis$ also4 ,:5 x is said1 z x (t5 is1 t 8=ce0 belongs to ! _w ( exp]i5ce1 we mu/ be c>eful to und]/& :at c be meant4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x may be meant t calculations :i* employ ! notion ( =ce "w out "r 9 practice4 ,?is1 broadly speak+1 is admitt$3 no "o w\ld sugge/ t ! eng9e] %\ld alt] 8 me?ods1 or %\ld give up work+ out /resses & /ra9s4 ,b t does n prove t !re are /resses & /ra9s4 ,a ,briti% m$ical man r5d]s 8 acc\nts 9 gu9eas1 al?\gh !y h long s9ce ceas$ to exi/ except z a "n2 he obta9s a real paym5t1 ?\gh he employs a fictiti\s co94 ,simil>ly1 ! eng9e] is conc]n$ ) ! "q :e!r 8 bridge w /&3 ! fact ( exp]i5ce is t x /&s 7or does n /&71 & ! /resses & /ra9s are only a way ( expla9+ :at sort ( bridge w /&4 ,!y are z useful z gu9eas1 b equally imag9>y4 ,b :5 x is said t =ce is a fact ( exp]i5ce1 !re is some?+ q diff]5t t may be meant4 ,x may be meant t we exp]i5ce =ce :5 we exp]i5ce su* ?+s z pressure or muscul> ex]tion4 ,we _c discuss ?is cont5tion adequately )\t go+ into ! relation ( physics to psy*ology1 :i* is a topic we %all consid] at l5g? at a lat] /age4 ,b we may say ?is mu*3 if y press y\r f+]-tip ^u a h>d object1 y h an exp]i5ce :i* y attribute to y\r f+]-tip1 b !re is a long *a9 ( int]m$iate causes 9 n]ves & bra94 ,if y\r f+] 7 amputat$ y c\ld /ill h ! same exp]i5ce by a suitable op]ation on ! n]ves t =m]ly connect$ ! f+] ) ! bra91 s t ! =ce betwe5 ! f+]-tip & ! h>d object1 z a fact ( exp]i5ce1 may exi/ :5 !re is no f+]-tip4 ,?is %[s t =ce1 9 ?is s5se1 _c be :at conc]ns physics4 ,z ! above example illu/rates1 we d n1 9 fact1 exp]i5ce _m ?+s t we ?9k we exp]i5ce4 ,?is makes x necess>y to ask1 )\t too mu* assurance1 9 :at s5se physics c be bas$ ^u exp]i5ce1 & :at mu/ be ! nature ( its entities & its inf]5ces if x is to make good its claim to be empirically gr\nd$4 ,we %all beg9 ?is inquiry 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,physics ,,& ,,p]ception ,x w be rememb]$ t we reg>d$ p]ception1 9 ,*apt] ,v1 z a species ( 8s5sitivity04 ,s5sitivity to a giv5 feature ( ! environm5t we def9$ z consi/+ 9 "s *>act]i/ic reaction :i* is exhibit$ :5ev] t feature is pres5t1 b n o!rwise2 ?is prop]ty is possess$ m p]fectly1 9 giv5 directions1 by sci5tific in/rum5ts ?an by liv+ bodies1 ?\gh sci5tific in/rum5ts are m selective z to ! /imuli to :i* !y w respond4 ,we decid$ t :at1 f ! /&po9t ( an ext]nal obs]v]1 di/+ui%es p]ception f o!r =ms ( s5sitivity is ! law ( association or condition$ reflexes4 ,b we also f\nd t ?is purely ext]nal treatm5t ( p]ception presupposes our k ( ! physical _w z a go+ conc]n4 ,we h n[ to inve/igate ?is presupposition1 & to consid] h[ we come to "k ab\t physics1 & h[ mu* we really d "k4 ,accord+ to ! !ory ( ,*apt] ,v1 x is possible to p]ceive ?+s t are n 9 a spatial contact ) ! body4 ,!re mu/ be a reaction to a feature ( ! environm5t1 b t feature may be at a great] or less di/ance f ! body ( ! p]cipi5t2 we c ev5 p]ceive ! sun & />s1 )9 ! limits ( ! def9ition4 ,all t is necess>y is t our reaction %\ld dep5d ^u ! spatial relation betwe5 our body & ! feature ( ! environm5t4 ,:5 our back is t[>ds ! sun1 we d n see x2 :5 our face is t[>ds x1 we d4 ,:5 we consid] p]ception--visual or auditory--( an ext]nal ev5t1 !re are ?ree diff]5t matt]s to be exam9$4 ,!re is fir/ ! process 9 ! outside _w1 f ! ev5t to ! p]cipi5t's body2 !re is next ! process 9 8 body1 9 s f> z ?is c be kn[n by an outside obs]v]2 la/ly1 !re is ! "q1 :i* mu/ be fac$ soon] or lat]1 :e!r ! p]cipi5t c p]ceive some?+ ( ! process 9 8 body :i* no o!r obs]v] c\ld p]ceive4 ,we w take ^! po9ts 9 ord]4 ,if x is to be possible to 8p]ceive0 an ev5t n 9 ! p]cipi5t's body1 !re mu/ be a physical process 9 ! out] _w su* t1 :5 a c]ta9 ev5t occurs1 x produces a /imulus ( a c]ta9 k9d at ! surface ( ! p]cipi5t's body4 ,suppose1 = example1 t pictures ( diff]5t animals are exhibit$ on a magic lant]n to a class ( *ildr51 & all ! *ildr5 are ask$ to say ! "n ( ea* animal 9 turn4 ,we may assume t ! *ildr5 are suffici5tly famili> ) animals to say 8cat01 8dog01 8giraffe01 8hippopotamus01 etc41 at ! "r mom5ts4 ,we mu/ !n suppose--tak+ ! physical _w = grant$--t "s process travels f ea* picture to ! eyes ( ! v>i\s *ildr51 reta9+ ?r\gh\t ^! j\rneys su* peculi>ities t1 :5 ! process rea*es _! eyes1 x c 9 "o case /imulate ! ^w 8cat0 & 9 ano!r ! ^w 8dog04 ,all ?is ! physical !ory ( light provides =4 ,b !re is "o int]e/+ po9t ab\t language t %\ld be notic$ 9 ?is connection4 ,if ! usual physical !ory ( light is correct1 ! v>i\s *ildr5 w receive /imuli :i* diff] greatly accord+ to _! di/ance & direction f ! picture1 & accord+ to ! way ! light falls4 ,!re are also diff]5ces 9 _! reactions1 =1 ?\gh !y all utt] ! ^w 8cat01 "s say x l\d1 o!rs s(t1 "s 9 a soprano voice1 "s 9 a contralto4 ,b ! diff]5ces 9 _! reactions are mu* less ?an ! diff]5ces 9 ! /imuli4 ,?is is /ill m ! case if we consid] v>i\s diff]5t pictures ( cats1 to all ( :i* !y respond ) ! ^w 8cat04 ,?us language is a means ( produc+ responses :i* diff] less ?an ! /imuli d1 9 cases :]e ! resemblances betwe5 ! /imuli are m important to u ?an ! diff]5ces4 ,?is fact makes u apt to ov]look ! diff]5ces betwe5 /imuli :i* produce ne>ly id5tical responses4 ,z appe>s f ! above1 :5 a numb] ( p simultane\sly p]ceive a picture ( a cat1 !re are diff]5ces betwe5 ! /imuli to _! v>i\s p]ceptions1 & ^! diff]5ces mu/ obvi\sly involve diff]5ces 9 _! reactions4 ,! v]bal responses may diff] v little1 b ev5 ! v]bal responses c\ld be made to diff] by putt+ m complicat$ que/ions ?an m]ely 8,:at animal is t80 ,"o c\ld ask3 8,c ! picture be cov]$ by y\r ?umb-nail held at arm's l5g?80 ,!n ! answ] w\ld be diff]5t accord+ z ! p]cipi5t 0 ne> ! picture or f> (f4 ,b ! normal p]cipi5t1 if left to himself1 w n notice su* diff]5ces1 t is to say1 8 v]bal response w be ! same 9 spite ( ! diff]5ces 9 ! /imuli4 ,! fact t x is possible = a numb] ( p to p]ceive ! same noise or ! same col\r$ patt]n obvi\sly dep5ds ^u ! fact t a physical process c travel outw>d f a c5tre & reta9 c]ta9 ( its *>act]i/ics un*ang$1 or v little *ang$4 ,! mo/ notable ( su* *>act]i/ics is frequ5cy 9 a wave-motion4 ,t1 no d\bt1 af=ds a biological reason = ! fact t our mo/ delicate s5ses1 sight & he>+1 are s5sitive to frequ5cies1 :i* det]m9e col\r 9 :at we see & pit* 9 :at we he>4 ,if !re 7 n1 9 ! physical _w1 processes spread+ out f c5tres & reta9+ c]ta9 *>act]s practically un*ang$1 x w\ld be impossible = diff]5t p]cipi5ts to p]ceive ! same object f diff]5t po9ts ( view1 & we %\ld n h be5 able to discov] t we all live 9 a common _w4 ,we come n[ to ! process 9 ! p]cipi5t's body1 9 s f> z ?is c be p]ceiv$ by an outside obs]v]4 ,?is raises no new philosophical problems1 because we are /ill conc]n$1 z be=e1 ) ! p]ception ( ev5ts outside ! obs]v]'s body4 ,! obs]v]1 n[1 is suppos$ to be a physiologi/1 obs]v+1 say1 :at goes on 9 ! eye :5 light falls ^u x4 ,8 means ( kn[+ are1 9 pr9ciple1 exactly ! same z 9 ! obs]vation ( dead matt]4 ,an ev5t 9 an eye ^u :i* light is fall+ causes light-waves to travel 9 a c]ta9 mann] until !y rea* ! eye ( ! physiologi/4 ,!y !re cause a process 9 ! physiologi/'s eye & optic n]ve & bra91 :i* ends 9 :at he calls 8see+ :at happ5s 9 ! eye he is obs]v+04 ,b ?is ev5t1 :i* happ5s 9 ! physiologi/1 is n :at happ5$ 9 ! eye he 0 obs]v+2 x is only connect$ ) ?is by a complicat$ causal *a94 ,?us our k ( physiology is no m direct or intimate ?an our k ( processes 9 dead matt]2 we d n "k any m ab\t our eyes ?an ab\t ! trees & fields & cl\ds t we see by means ( !m4 ,! ev5t :i* happ5s :5 a physiologi/ obs]ves an eye is an ev5t 9 him1 n on ! eye t he is obs]v+4 ,we come n[ at la/ to ! "q ( self-obs]vation1 :i* we h hi!rto avoid$4 ,i say 8self-obs]vation0 r ?an 8introspection01 because ! latt] ^w has controv]sial associations t ,i wi% to avoid4 ,i mean by 8self-obs]vation0 any?+ t a man c p]ceive ab\t himself b t o!rs1 h[ev] situat$1 _c p]ceive ab\t him4 ,:at foll[s is only prelim9>y1 s9ce ! subject w be discuss$ at l5g? 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,no "o c d5y t we "k ?+s ab\t ourselves :i* o!rs _c "k unless we tell !m4 ,we "k :5 we h too?a*e1 :5 we feel ?ir/y1 :at we 7 dream+ :5 we woke up1 & s on4 ,dr4 ,watson might say t ! d5ti/ c "k we h too?a*e by obs]v+ a cavity 9 a too?4 ,i w n reply t ! d5ti/ is (t5 mi/ak52 ?is may be m]ely because ! art ( d5ti/ry has n be5 suffici5tly p]fect$4 ,i w conc$e z possible1 9 ! future1 a /ate ( odontology 9 :i* ! d5ti/ c\ld always "k :e!r ,i am feel+ too?a*e4 ,b ev5 !n 8 k has a diff]5t "* f m9e4 ,8 k is an inf]5ce1 bas$ ^u ! inducive law t p ) su*-&-su* cavities suff] pa9 ( a c]ta9 k9d4 ,b ?is law _c be e/abli%$ by obs]vation ( cavities alone2 x requires t1 :]e ^! are obs]v$1 ! p :o h !m %\ld tell u t !y feel too?a*e4 ,&1 m ?an t1 !y mu/ be speak+ ! tru?4 ,purely ext]nal obs]vation c discov] t p ) cavities say !y h too?a*e1 b n t !y h x4 ,say+ "o has too?a*e is a diff]5t ?+ f hav+ x2 if n we c\ld cure too?a*e by n talk+ ab\t x1 & s save our d5ti/s' bills4 ,i am sure ! exp]t op9ion ( d5ti/s w agree ) me t ?is is impossible4 ,to ?is argum5t1 h[ev]1 x might be repli$ t hav+ too?a*e is a /ate ( ! body1 & t kn[+ ,i h too?a*e is a response to ?is bodily /imulus4 ,x w be said t1 !oretically1 ! /ate ( my body :5 ,i h too?a*e c be obs]v$ by an outsid]1 :o c !n also "k t ,i h too?a*e4 ,?is answ]1 h[ev]1 does n really meet ! po9t4 ,:5 ! outside obs]v] kn[s t ,i h too?a*e1 n only is 8 k bas$ ^u an inductive inf]5ce1 z we h already se51 b 8 k ( ! inf]r$ t]m1 8too?a*e01 mu/ be bas$ ^u p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,no k ( d5ti/ry c\ld enable a man to "k :at too?a*e is if he _h nev] felt x4 ,if1 !n1 too?a*e is really a /ate ( ! body--:i*1 at ! mom5t1 ,i nei!r affirm nor d5y--x is a /ate ( ! body :i* only ! man himself c p]ceive4 ,9 a ^w1 :oev] has exp]i5c$ too?a*e & c rememb] x has k t _c be possess$ by a man :o has nev] exp]i5c$ too?a*e4 ,take next our k ( our own dreams4 ,dr4 ,watson has n1 s f> z ,i "k1 ev] discuss$ dreams1 b ,i imag9e he w\ld say some?+ l ?is3 ,9 dreams1 !re are probably small l>yngeal movem5ts su* z1 if !y 7 great]1 w\ld lead to spee*2 inde$1 p d sometimes cry out 9 dreams4 ,!re may also be /imulations ( ! s5se-organs1 :i* produce unusual reactions ow+ to ! peculi> physiological condition ( ! bra9 dur+ sleep3 b all ^! reactions mu/ consi/ ( small movem5ts1 :i* c\ld !oretically be se5 f outside1 say by "s elaboration ( ,x-ray app>atus4 ,?is is all v well1 b meantime x is hypo!tical1 & ! dream] himself kn[s 8 dreams )\t all ?is elaborate inf]5ce4 ,c we say t he really kn[s ^! hypo!tical small bodily movem5ts1 al?\gh he ?9ks he kn[s some?+ else8 ,t w\ld presumably be ,dr4 ,watson's position1 & x mu/ be admitt$ t1 ) a def9ition ( 8k0 su* z we consid]$ 9 ,*apt] ,,viii1 su* a view is n to be dismiss$ (fh& z obvi\sly impossible4 ,moreov]1 if we are to say ! p]ception gives k ( ! physical _w1 we %all h to admit t :at we are p]ceiv+ may be q diff]5t f :at x seems to be4 ,a table does n look l a va/ numb] ( electrons & protons1 nor l tra9s ( waves meet+ & cla%+4 ,yet ?is is ! sort ( ?+ a table is said to be by mod]n physici/s4 ,if1 !n1 :at seems to u to be j a table su* z may be se5 any day is really ?is odd sort ( ?+1 x is possible t :at seems to u to be a dream is really a numb] ( movem5ts 9 ! bra94 ,?is aga9 is all v well1 b !re is "o po9t :i* x fails to expla91 namely1 :at is meant by 8seem+04 ,if a dream or a table 8seems0 to be "o sort ( ?+ :ile x is 8really0 ano!r1 we %all h to admit t x really seems1 & t :at x seems to be has a reality ( its own4 ,nay m1 we only arrive at :at x 8really0 is by an inf]5ce1 valid or invalid1 f :at x seems to be4 ,if we are wrong ab\t ! seem+1 we mu/ be d\bly wrong ab\t ! reality1 s9ce ! sole gr\nd = ass]t+ ! table compos$ ( electrons & protons is ! table t we see1 i4e4 ! 8seem+0 table4 ,we mu/ !re=e treat 8seem+0 ) respect4 ,let u consid] ,dr4 ,watson wat*+ a rat 9 a maze4 ,he means to be q objective1 & report only :at really goes on4 ,c he succe$8 ,9 "o s5se he c4 ,he c use words ab\t :at he sees :i* are ! same z any o!r sci5tifically tra9$ obs]v] w use if he wat*es ! same rat at ! same "t4 ,b ,dr4 ,watson's objectivity emphatically does n consi/ 9 us+ ! same words z o!r p use2 8 vocabul>y is v diff]5t f t ( mo/ psy*ologi/s4 ,he _c take z ! sole te/ ( tru? ! cons5sus ( mank9d4 8,securus judicat orbis t]r>um0 is ano!r example ( a ,lat9 tag :i* is false1 & :i* c]ta9ly ,dr4 ,watson w\ld n consid] true4 ,x has happ5$ aga9 & aga9 9 human hi/ory t a man :o said some?+ t _h nev] be5 said be=e turn$ out to be "r1 :ile ! p :o repeat$ ! wise saws ( _! =efa!rs 7 talk+ nons5se4 ,!re=e1 :5 ,dr4 ,watson endeav\rs to elim9ate subjectivity 9 obs]v+ rats1 he does n mean t he says :at ev]ybody else says4 ,he means t he refra9s f inf]r+ any?+ ab\t ! rat beyond its bodily movem5ts4 ,?is is all to ! good1 b ,i ?9k he fails to realise t almo/ z long & difficult an inf]5ce is requir$ to give u k ( ! rat's bodily movem5ts z to give u k ( its 8m9d04 ,& :at is m1 ! data f :i* we mu/ />t 9 ord] to get to "k ! rat's bodily movem5ts are data ( j ! sort t ,dr4 ,watson wi%es to avoid1 namely private data pat5t to self-obs]vation b n pat5t to anyone except ! obs]v]4 ,?is is ! po9t at :i*1 9 my op9ion1 behavi\rism z a f9al philosophy breaks d[n4 ,:5 sev]al p simultane\sly wat* a rat 9 a maze1 or any o!r example ( :at we %\ld naturally reg>d z matt] 9 motion1 !re is by no means complete id5tity betwe5 ! physical ev5ts :i* happ5 at ! surface ( _! eyes & con/itute ! /imuli to _! p]ceptions4 ,!re are diff]5ces ( p]spective1 ( light & %ade1 ( app>5t size1 & s on1 all ( :i* w be reproduc$ 9 photographs tak5 f ! places :]e ! eyes ( ! sev]al obs]v]s are4 ,^! diff]5ces produce diff]5ces 9 ! reactions ( ! obs]v]s--diff]5ces :i* a q un?9k+ p]son may ov]look1 b :i* are famili> to e arti/4 ,n[ x is contr>y to all sci5tific canons to suppose t ! object p]ceiv$1 9 addition to affect+ u 9 ! way ( /imulus & reaction1 also affects u directly by "s my/ical epiphany2 c]ta9ly x is n :at any behavi\ri/ w\ld c>e to ass]t4 ,our k ( ! physical _w1 !re=e1 mu/ be conta9$ 9 our reaction to ! /imulus :i* rea*es u across ! int]v5+ m$ium2 & x seems h>dly possible t our reaction %\ld h a m intimate relation to ! object ?an ! /imulus has4 ,s9ce ! /imulus diff]s = diff]5t obs]v]s1 ! reaction also diff]s2 consequ5tly1 9 all our p]ceptions ( physical processes !re is an elem5t ( subjectivity4 ,if1 !re=e1 physics is true 9 its broad outl9es 7z ! above argum5t supposes71 :at we call 8p]ceiv+0 a physical process is some?+ private & subjective1 at lea/ 9 "p1 & is yet ! only possible />t+-po9t = our k ( ! physical _w4 ,!re is an objection to ! above argum5t :i* might naturally be made1 b x w\ld be 9 fact invalid4 ,x may be said t we d n 9 fact proce$ to inf] ! physical _w f our p]ceptions1 b t we beg9 at once ) a r\gh-&-ready k ( ! physical _w1 & only at a late /age ( sophi/ication compel ourselves to reg>d our k ( ! physical _w z an inf]5ce4 ,:at is valid 9 ?is /atem5t is ! fact t our k ( ! physical _w is n at fir/ inf]5tial1 b t is only because we take our p]cepts to be ! physical _w4 ,sophi/ication & philosophy come 9 at ! /age at :i* we realise t ! physical _w _c be id5tifi$ ) our p]cepts4 ,:5 my boy 0 ?ree ye>s old1 ,i %[$ him ,jupit]1 & told him t ,jupit] 0 l>g] ?an ! e>?4 ,he insi/$ t ,i mu/ be speak+ ( "s o!r ,jupit]1 because1 z he pati5tly expla9$1 ! "o he 0 see+ 0 obvi\sly q small4 ,aft] "s ef=ts1 ,i _h to give x up & leave him unconv9c$4 ,9 ! case ( ! heav5ly bodies1 adults h got us$ to ! idea t :at is really !re c only be inf]r$ f :at !y see2 b :]e rats 9 mazes are conc]n$1 !y /ill t5d to ?9k t !y are see+ :at is happ5+ 9 ! physical _w4 ,! diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 is only "o ( degree1 & naive realism is z unt5able 9 ! "o case z 9 ! o!r4 ,!re are diff]5ces 9 ! p]ceptions ( two p]sons obs]v+ ! same process2 !re are sometimes no discov]able diff]5ces betwe5 two p]ceptions ( ! same p]sons obs]v+ diff]5t processes1 e4g4 pure wat] & wat] full ( bacilli4 ,! subjectivity ( our p]ceptions is ?us ( practical z well z !oretical importance4 ,i am n ma9ta9+ t :at we prim>ily "k is our own p]ceptions4 ,?is is l>gely a v]bal "q2 b ) ! def9ition ( k giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,viii1 x w be correct to say t f ! fir/ we "k ext]nal objects1 ! "q is n z to :at are ! objects we "k1 b r z to h[ accurately we "k !m4 ,our non-inf]5tial k ( an object _c be m accurate ?an our reaction to x1 s9ce x is "p ( t reaction4 ,& our reaction _c be m accurate ?an ! /imulus4 ,b :at on e>? c y mean by ! 8accuracy0 ( a /imulus8 ,i may be ask$4 ,i mean j ! same z by ! accuracy ( a map or a set ( /ati/ics4 ,i mean a c]ta9 k9d ( correspond5ce4 ,"o patt]n is an accurate repres5tation ( ano!r if e elem5t ( ! "o c be tak5 z ! repres5tative ( j "o elem5t ( ! o!r1 & ! relations t make ! "o set into a patt]n correspond ) relations mak+ ! o!r set into a patt]n4 ,9 ?is s5se1 writ+ c repres5t spee* ) a c]ta9 degree ( accuracy2 to e spok5 ^w a writt5 ^w corresponds1 & to ! "t-ord] ( ! spok5 words ! space-ord] ( ! writt5 words corresponds4 ,b !re are inflexions & tones ( voice t _c be repres5t$ 9 writ+1 except1 to "s ext5t1 by musical notation4 ,a gramophone record is a mu* m accurate repres5tation ( vocal s\nds ?an any writ+ c be2 b ev5 ! be/ gramophone record fails to be completely accurate4 ,! impression made ^u an obs]v] is v analog\s to a gramophone record or a photograph1 b usually less accurate ow+ to ! influ5ce ( ! law ( association1 & ! lack ( delicacy 9 our s5ses4 ,& :atev] limitations !re are to ! accuracy ( our impressions are limitations to ! accuracy ( our non-inf]5tial k ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,ano!r po9t3 ,if we accept ! def9ition ( k giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,viii1 :i* 0 fram$ s f> z to be z fav\rable z possible to behavi\rism1 a giv5 reaction may be reg>d$ z k ( v>i\s diff]5t occurr5ces4 ,:5 we see ,jupit]1 we h1 accord+ to ! def9ition1 k ( ,jupit]1 b we also h k ( ! /imulus at ! surface ( ! eye1 & ev5 ( ! process 9 ! optic n]ve4 ,= x is arbitr>y at :at po9t we />t 9 ! process lead+ to a c]ta9 ev5t 9 ! bra93 ?is ev5t1 & ! consequ5t bodily action1 may be reg>d$ z a reaction to a process />t+ at any e>li] po9t4 ,& ! ne>] our />t+-po9t is to ! bra91 ! m accurate becomes ! k display$ 9 our reaction4 ,a lamp at ! top ( a tall build+ might produce ! same visual /imulus z ,jupit]1 or at any rate "o practically indi/+ui%able f t produc$ by ,jupit]4 ,a bl[ on ! nose might make u 8see />s04 ,!oretically1 x %\ld be possible to apply a /imulus direct to ! optic n]ve1 :i* %\ld give u a visual s5sation4 ,?us :5 we ?9k we see ,jupit]1 we may be mi/ak54 ,we are less likely to be mi/ak5 if we say t ! surface ( ! eye is be+ /imulat$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 & /ill less likely to be mi/ak5 if we say t ! optic n]ve is be+ /imulat$ 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,we d n elim9ate ! risk ( error completely unless we conf9e ourselves to say+ t an ev5t ( a c]ta9 sort is happ5+ 9 ! bra92 ?is /atem5t may /ill be true if we see ,jupit] 9 a dream4 ,b1 ,i %all be ask$1 :at d y "k ab\t :at is happ5+ 9 ! bra98 ,surely no?+4 ,n s1 ,i reply4 ,i "k ab\t :at is happ5+ 9 ! bra9 exactly :at naive realism ?9ks x kn[s ab\t :at is happ5+ 9 ! outside _w4 ,b ?is ne$s expla9+1 & !re are o!r matt]s t mu/ be expla9$ fir/4 ,:5 ! light f a fix$ /> rea*es me1 ,i see ! /> if x is night & ,i am look+ 9 ! "r direction4 ,! light />t$ ye>s ago1 probably _m ye>s ago1 b my reaction is prim>ily to some?+ t is happ5+ n[4 ,:5 my eyes are op51 ,i see ! />2 :5 !y are %ut1 ,i d n4 ,*ildr5 discov] at a fairly e>ly age t !y see no?+ :5 _! eyes are %ut4 ,!y are aw>e ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 see+ & n see+1 & also ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 eyes op5 & eyes %ut2 gradually !y discov] t ^! two diff]5ces are correlat$--,i mean t !y h expectations ( :i* ?is is ! intellectuali/ transcription4 ,aga91 *ildr5 le>n to "n ! col\rs1 & to /ate correctly :e!r a ?+ is blue or r$ or yell[ or :at-n4 ,!y ought n to be sure t light ( ! appropriate wave-l5g? />t$ f ! object4 ,! sun looks r$ 9 a ,london fog1 grass looks blue ?r\gh blue spectacles1 ev]y?+ looks yell[ to a p]son suff]+ f jaundice4 ,b suppose y ask3 ,:at col\r are y see+8 ,! p]son :o answ]s1 9 ^! cases1 r$ = ! sun1 blue = ! grass1 & yell[ = ! sick-room ( ! jaundic$ pati5t1 is answ]+ q truly4 ,& 9 ea* ( ^! cases he is /at+ some?+ t he kn[s4 ,:at he kn[s 9 su* cases is :at ,i call a 8p]cept04 ,i %all cont5d lat] t1 f ! /&po9t ( physics1 a p]cept is 9 ! bra92 = ! pres5t1 ,i am only conc]n$ to say t a p]cept is :at is mo/ indubitable 9 our k ( ! _w4 ,to behavi\rism z a metaphysic "o may put ! foll[+ dilemma4 ,ei!r physics is valid 9 its ma9 l9es1 or x is n4 ,if x is n1 we "k no?+ ab\t ! movem5ts ( matt]2 = physics is ! result ( ! mo/ s]i\s & c>eful /udy ( :i* ! human intellig5ce has hi!rto be5 capable4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 physics is valid 9 its ma9 l9es1 any physical process />t+ ei!r inside or outside ! body w1 if x rea*es ! bra91 be diff]5t if ! int]v5+ m$ium is diff]5t2 moreov] two p]sons1 initially v diff]5t1 may become indi/+ui%able z !y spread & gr[ fa9t]4 ,on bo? gr\nds1 :at happ5s 9 ! bra9 is n connect$ q accurately ) :at happ5s else:]e1 & our p]ceptions are !re=e infect$ ) subjectivity on purely physical gr\nds4 ,ev51 !re=e1 :5 we assume ! tru? ( physics1 :at we "k mo/ indubitably ?r\gh p]ception is n ! movem5ts ( matt]1 b c]ta9 ev5ts 9 ourselves :i* are connect$1 9 a mann] n q inv>iable1 ) ! movem5ts ( matt]4 ,to be specific1 :5 ,dr4 ,watson wat*es rats 9 mazes1 :at he kn[s1 ap>t f difficult inf]5ces1 are c]ta9 ev5ts 9 himself4 ,! behavi\r ( ! rats c only be inf]r$ by ! help ( physics1 & is by no means to be accept$ z some?+ accurately kn[able by direct obs]vation4 ,i d n 9 fact ent]ta9 any d\bts t physics is true 9 its ma9 l9es4 ,! int]pretation ( physical =mul is a matt] z to :i* a consid]able degree ( unc]ta9ty is possible2 b we _c well d\bt t !re is an int]pretation :i* is true r\ghly & 9 ! ma94 ,i %all come to ! "q ( int]pretation lat]2 = ! pres5t1 ,i %all assume t we may accept physics 9 its broad outl9es1 )\t tr\bl+ to consid] h[ x is to be int]pret$4 ,on ?is basis1 ! above rem>ks on p]ception seem und5iable4 ,we are (t5 misl$ z to :at is happ5+1 ei!r by peculi>ities ( ! m$ium betwe5 ! object & our bodies1 or by unusual /ates ( our bodies1 or by a tempor>y or p]man5t abnormality 9 ! bra94 ,b 9 all ^! cases some?+ is really happ5+1 z to :i*1 if we turn our att5tion to x1 we c obta9 k t is n mislead+4 ,at "o "t :51 ow+ to illness1 ,i _h be5 tak+ a great deal ( qu99e1 ,i became hyp]s5sitive to noise1 s t :5 ! nurse ru/l$ ! newspap] ,i ?\ght %e 0 spill+ a scuttle ( coals on ! floor4 ,! int]pretation 0 mi/ak51 b x 0 q true t ,i he>d a l\d noise4 ,x is a commonplace t a man ^: leg has be5 amputat$ c /ill feel pa9s 9 x2 "h aga91 he does really feel ! pa9s1 & is only mi/ak5 9 8 belief t !y come f 8 leg4 ,a p]cept is an obs]vable ev5t1 b its int]pretation z k ( ?is or t ev5t 9 ! physical _w is liable to be mi/ak51 = reasons :i* physics & physiology c make fairly cle>4 ,! subjectivity ( p]cepts is a matt] ( degree4 ,!y are m subjective :5 p are drunk or asleep ?an :5 !y are sob] & awake4 ,!y are m subjective 9 reg>d to di/ant objects ?an 9 reg>d to su* z are ne>4 ,!y may acquire v>i\s peculi> k9ds ( subjectivity ?r\gh injuries to ! bra9 or to ! n]ves4 ,:5 ,i speak ( a p]cept z 8subjective0 ,i mean t ! physiological inf]5ces to :i* x gives rise are mi/ak5 or vague4 ,?is is always ! case to "s ext5t1 b mu* m s 9 "s circum/ances ?an 9 o!rs4 ,& ! sort ( defect t leads to mi/akes mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! sort t leads to vagu5ess4 ,if y see a man a qu>t] ( a mile away1 y c see t x is a man if y h normal eyesight1 b y probably _c tell :o x is1 ev5 if 9 fact x is "s "o y "k well4 ,?is is vagu5ess 9 ! p]cept3 ! inf]5ces y draw are correct s f> z !y g1 b !y d n g v f>4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if y are see+ d\ble & ?9k !re are two m51 y h a case ( mi/ake4 ,vagu5ess1 to a great] or less ext5t1 is univ]sal & inevitable2 mi/akes1 on ! o!r h&1 c usually be avoid$ by tak+ tr\ble & by n always tru/+ to physiological inf]5ce4 ,anybody c see d\ble on purpose1 by focuss+ on a di/ant object & notic+ a ne> "o2 b ?is w n cause mi/akes1 s9ce ! man is aw>e ( ! subjective elem5t 9 8 d\ble vision4 ,simil>ly we are n deceiv$ by aft]-images1 & only dogs are deceiv$ by gramophones4 ,f :at has be5 said 9 ?is *apt]1 x is cle> t our k ( ! physical _w1 if x is to be made z reliable z possible1 mu/ />t f p]cepts1 & mu/ scrut9ize ! physiological inf]5ces by :i* p]cepts are accompani$4 ,physiological inf]5ce is inf]5ce 9 ! s5se t x sometimes leads to error & physics gives reason to expect t p]cepts w1 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 be m or less deceptive if tak5 z signs ( some?+ outside ! bra94 ,x is ^! facts t give a subjective ca/ to ! philosophy ( physics1 at any rate 9 its beg9n+s4 ,we _c />t *e]fully ) a _w ( matt] 9 motion1 z to :i* any two sane & sob] obs]v]s mu/ agree4 ,to "s ext5t1 ea* man dreams 8 own dream1 & ! dis5tangl+ ( ! dream elem5t 9 our p]cepts is no easy matt]4 ,?is is1 inde$1 ! "w t sci5tific physics und]takes to d4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,physical ,,& ,,p]ceptual ,,space ,p]haps !re is no?+ s difficult = ! imag9ation z to tea* x to feel ab\t space z mod]n sci5ce compels u to ?9k4 ,?is is ! task :i* mu/ be attempt$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]4 ,we said 9 ,*apt] ,,xii t we "k ab\t :at is happ5+ 9 ! bra9 exactly :at naive realism ?9ks x kn[s ab\t :at is happ5+ 9 ! _w4 ,?is rem>k may h seem$ cryptic2 x mu/ n[ be exp&$ & exp\nd$4 ,! gi/ ( ! matt] is t p]cepts1 :i* we spoke ab\t at ! end ( la/ *apt]1 are 9 our heads2 t p]cepts are :at we c "k ) mo/ c]ta9ty2 & t p]cepts conta9 :at naive realism ?9ks x kn[s ab\t ! _w4 ,b :5 ,i say t my p]cepts are 9 my head1 ,i am say+ some?+ :i* is ambigu\s until ! diff]5t k9ds ( space h be5 expla9$1 = ! /atem5t is only true 9 connection ) physical space4 ,!re is also a space 9 our p]cepts1 & ( ?is space ! /atem5t w\ld n be true4 ,:5 ,i say t !re is space 9 our p]cepts1 ,i mean no?+ at all difficult to und]/&4 ,i mean--to take ! s5se ( sight1 :i* is ! mo/ important 9 ?is connection--t 9 :at we see at "o "t !re is up & d[n1 "r & left1 inside & outside4 ,if we see1 say1 a circle on a blackbo>d1 all ^! relations exi/ )9 :at we see4 ,! circle has a top half & a bottom half1 a "r-h& half & a left-h& half1 an inside & an outside4 ,^? relations alone are en\gh to make up a space ( sorts4 ,b ! space ( ev]yday life is fill$ out ) :at we d]ive f t\* & movem5t--h[ a ?+ feels :5 we t\* x1 & :at movem5ts are necess>y 9 ord] to grasp x4 ,o!r elem5ts also come into ! g5esis ( ! space 9 :i* ev]ybody believes :o has n be5 tr\bl$ by philosophy2 b x is unnecess>y = our purposes to g into ?is "q any m deeply4 ,! po9t t conc]ns u is t a man's p]cepts are private to himself3 :at ,i see1 no "o else sees2 :at ,i he>1 no "o else he>s2 :at ,i t\*1 no "o else t\*es2 & s on4 ,true1 o!rs he> & see some?+ v l :at ,i he> & see1 if !y are suitably plac$2 b !re are always diff]5ces4 ,s\nds are less l\d at a di/ance2 objects *ange _! visual appe>ance accord+ to ! laws ( p]spective4 ,!re=e x is impossible = two p]sons at ! same "t to h exactly id5tical p]cepts4 ,x foll[s t ! space ( p]cepts1 l ! p]cepts1 mu/ be private2 !re are z _m p]ceptual spaces z !re are p]cipi5ts4 ,my p]cept ( a table is outside my p]cept ( my head1 9 my p]ceptual space2 b x does n foll[ t x is outside my head z a physical object 9 physical space4 ,physical space is neutral & public3 9 ?is space1 all my p]cepts are 9 my head1 ev5 ! mo/ di/ant /> z ,i see x4 ,physical & p]ceptual space h relations1 b !y are n id5tical1 & failure to grasp ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m is a pot5t s\rce ( confusion4 ,to say t y see a /> :5 y see ! light t has come f x is no m correct ?an to say t y see ,new ,zeal& :5 y see a ,new ,zeal&] 9 ,london4 ,y\r p]ception :5 7z we say7 y see a /> is causally connect$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ) :at happ5s 9 ! bra91 ! optic n]ve1 & ! eye1 !n ) a light-wave :i*1 accord+ to physics1 c be trac$ back to ! /> z its s\rce4 ,y\r s5sations w be closely simil> if ! light comes f a lamp at ! top ( a ma/4 ,! physical space 9 :i* y believe ! 8real0 /> to be is an elaborate inf]5ce2 :at is giv5 is ! private space 9 :i* ! speck ( light y see is situat$4 ,x is /ill an op5 "q :e!r ! space ( sight has dep?1 or is m]ely a surface1 z ,b]keley cont5d$4 ,?is does n matt] = our purposes4 ,ev5 if we admit t sight alone %[s a diff]5ce betwe5 an object a few in*es f ! eyes & an object sev]al feet di/ant1 yet y c]ta9ly _c1 by sight alone1 see t a cl\d is less di/ant ?an a fix$ />1 ?\gh y may inf] t x is1 because x c hide ! />4 ,! _w ( a/ronomy1 f ! po9t ( view ( sight1 is a surface4 ,if y 7 put 9 a d>k room ) little holes cut 9 ! ceil+ 9 ! patt]n ( ! />s lett+ light come ?r\gh1 !re w\ld be no?+ 9 y\r imm$iate visual data to %[ t y 7 n 8see+ ! />s04 ,?is illu/rates :at ,i mean by say+ t :at y see is n 8out !re0 9 ! s5se ( physics4 ,we le>n 9 infancy t we c sometimes t\* objects we see1 & sometimes n4 ,:5 we _c t\* !m at once1 we c sometimes d s by walk+ to !m4 ,t is to say1 we le>n to correlate s5sations ( sight ) s5sations ( t\*1 & sometimes ) s5sations ( movem5t foll[$ by s5sations ( t\*4 ,9 ?is way we locate our s5sations 9 a ?ree-dim5sional _w4 ,^? :i* involve sight alone we ?9k ( z 8ext]nal01 b !re is no ju/ification = ?is view4 ,:at y see :5 y see a /> is j z int]nal z :at y feel :5 y feel a heada*e4 ,t is to say1 x is int]nal f ! /&po9t ( physical space4 ,x is di/ant 9 y\r private space1 because x is n associat$ ) s5sations ( t\*1 & _c be associat$ ) !m by means ( any j\rney y c p]=m4 ,y\r own body1 z kn[n to y ?r\gh direct exp]i5ce1 is q diff]5t f y\r own body z consid]$ 9 physics4 ,y "k m ab\t y\r own body ?an ab\t any o!r ?r\gh direct exp]i5ce1 because y\r own body c give y a numb] ( s5sations t no o!r body c1 = in/ance all k9ds ( bodily pa9s4 ,b y /ill "k x only ?r\gh s5sations2 ap>t f inf]5ce1 x is a bundle ( s5sations1 & !re=e q diff]5t1 prima facie1 f :at physics calls a body4 ,mo/ ( ! ?+s y see are outside :at y see :5 7z "o says7 y see y\r own body4 ,t is to say3 y see c]ta9 o!r pat*es ( col\r1 diff]5tly situat$ 9 visual space1 & say y are see+ ?+s outside y\r body4 ,b f ! po9t ( view ( physics1 all t y see mu/ c\nt z inside y\r body2 :at goes on else:]e c only be inf]r$4 ,?us ! :ole space ( y\r s5sible _w ) all its p]cepts c\nts z "o t9y region f ! po9t ( view ( physics4 ,!re is no direct spatial relation betwe5 :at "o p]son sees & :at ano!r sees1 because no two ev] see exactly ! same object4 ,ea* p]son c>ries ab\t a private space ( 8 own1 :i* c be locat$ 9 physical space by indirect me?ods1 b :i* conta9s no place 9 common ) ano!r p]son's private space4 ,?is %[s h[ entirely physical space is a matt] ( inf]5ce & con/ruction4 ,to make ! matt] def9ite1 let u suppose t a physiologi/ is obs]v+ a liv+ bra9--no long] an impossible supposition1 z x w\ld h be5 =m]ly4 ,x is natural to suppose t :at ! physiologi/ sees is 9 ! bra9 he is obs]v+4 ,b if we are speak+ ( physical space1 :at ! physiologi/ sees is 9 8 own bra94 ,x is 9 no s5se 9 ! bra9 t he is obs]v+1 ?\gh x is 9 ! p]cept ( t bra91 :i* occupies "p ( ! physiologi/'s p]ceptual space4 ,causal cont9uity makes ! matt] p]fectly evid5t3 light-waves travel f ! bra9 t is be+ obs]v$ to ! eye ( ! physiologi/1 at :i* !y only arrive aft] an int]val ( "t1 :i* is f9ite ?\gh %ort4 ,! physiologi/ sees :at he is obs]v+ only aft] ! light-waves h rea*$ 8 eye2 !re=e ! ev5t :i* con/itutes 8 see+ comes at ! end ( a s]ies ( ev5ts :i* travel f ! obs]v$ bra9 into ! bra9 ( ! physiologi/4 ,we _c1 )\t a prepo/]\s k9d ( discont9uity1 suppose t ! physiologi/'s p]cept1 :i* comes at ! end ( ?is s]ies1 is any:]e else b 9 ! physiologi/'s head4 ,?is "q is v important1 & mu/ be und]/ood if metaphysics is ev] to be got /raight4 ,! traditional dualism ( m9d & matt]1 :i* ,i reg>d z mi/ak51 is intimately connect$ ) confusions on ?is po9t4 ,s long z we adh]e to ! conv5tional notions ( m9d & matt]1 we are condemn$ to a view ( p]ception :i* is miracul\s4 ,we suppose t a physical process />ts f a visible object1 travels to ! eye1 !re *anges into ano!r physical process1 causes yet ano!r physical process 9 ! optic n]ve1 f9ally produces "s effect 9 ! bra91 simultane\sly ) :i* we see ! object f :i* ! process />t$1 ! see+ be+ some?+ 8m5tal01 totally diff]5t 9 "* f ! physical processes :i* prec$e & accompany x4 ,?is view is s que] t metaphysicians h inv5t$ all sorts ( !ories design$ to sub/itute some?+ less incr$ible4 ,b nobody notic$ an elem5t>y confusion4 ,to return to ! physiologi/ obs]v+ ano!r man's bra93 :at ! physiologi/ sees is by no means id5tical ) :at happ5s 9 ! bra9 he is obs]v+1 b is a some:at remote effect4 ,f :at he sees1 !re=e1 he _c judge :e!r :at is happ5+ 9 ! bra9 he is obs]v+ is1 or is n1 ! sort ( ev5t t he w\ld call 8m5tal04 ,:5 he says t c]ta9 physical ev5ts 9 ! bra9 are accompani$ by m5tal ev5ts1 he is ?9k+ ( physical ev5ts z if !y 7 :at he sees4 ,he does n see a m5tal ev5t 9 ! bra9 he is obs]v+1 & !re=e supposes !re is 9 t bra9 a physical process :i* he c obs]ve & a m5tal process :i* he _c4 ,?is is a complete mi/ake4 ,9 ! /rict s5se1 he _c obs]ve any?+ 9 ! o!r bra91 b only ! p]cepts :i* he himself has :5 he is suitably relat$ to t bra9 7eye to microscope1 etc474 ,we fir/ id5tify physical processes ) our p]cepts1 & !n1 s9ce our p]cepts are n o!r p's ?\ghts1 we argue t ! physical processes 9 _! bra9s are some?+ q diff]5t f _! ?\ghts4 ,9 fact1 ev]y?+ t we c directly obs]ve ( ! physical _w happ5s inside our heads1 & consi/s ( 8m5tal0 ev5ts 9 at lea/ "o s5se ( ! ^w 8m5tal04 ,x also consi/s ( ev5ts :i* =m "p ( ! physical _w4 ,! developm5t ( ?is po9t ( view w lead u to ! conclusion t ! di/9ction betwe5 m9d & matt] is illusory4 ,! /uff ( ! _w may be call$ physical or m5tal or bo? or nei!r1 z we please2 9 fact1 ! words s]ve no purpose4 ,!re is only "o def9ition ( ! words t is unobjectionable3 8physical0 is :at is dealt ) by physics1 & 8m5tal0 is :at is dealt ) by psy*ology4 ,:51 accord+ly1 ,i speak ( 8physical0 space1 ,i mean ! space t occurs 9 physics4 ,x is extraord9>ily difficult to dive/ ourselves ( ! belief t ! physical _w is ! _w we p]ceive by sight & t\*2 ev5 if1 9 our philosophic mom5ts1 we are aw>e t ?is is an error1 we nev]!less fall into x aga9 z soon z we are (f our gu>d4 ,! notion t :at we see is 8out !re0 9 physical space is "o :i* _c survive :ile we are grasp+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 :at physics supposes to be really happ5+1 & :at our s5ses %[ u z happ5+2 b x is sure to return & plague u :5 we beg9 to =get ! argum5t4 ,only long reflection c make a radically new po9t ( view famili> & easy4 ,our illu/rations hi!rto h be5 tak5 f ! s5se ( sight2 let u n[ take "o f ! s5se ( t\*4 ,suppose t1 ) y\r eyes %ut1 y let y\r f+]-tip press aga9/ a h>d table4 ,:at is really happ5+8 ,! physici/ says t y\r f+]-tip & ! table consi/1 r\ghly speak+1 ( va/ numb]s ( electrons & protons2 m correctly1 ea* electron & proton is to be ?\ght ( z a collection ( processes ( radiation1 b we c ignore ?is = our pres5t purposes4 ,al?\gh y ?9k y are t\*+ ! table1 no electron or proton 9 y\r f+] ev] really t\*es an electron or proton 9 ! table1 because ?is w\ld develop an inf9ite =ce4 ,:5 y press1 repulsions are set up betwe5 p>ts ( y\r f+] & p>ts ( ! table4 ,if y try to press ^u a liquid or a gas1 !re is room 9 x = ! p>ts t are repell$ to get away4 ,b if y press a h>d solid1 ! electrons & protons t try to get away1 because electrical =ces f y\r f+] repel !m1 are unable to d s1 because !y are cr[d$ close to o!rs :i* elb[ !m back to m or less _! orig9al position1 l p 9 a d5se cr[d4 ,!re=e ! m y press ! m !y repel y\r f+]4 ,! repulsion consi/s ( electrical =ces1 :i* set up 9 ! n]ves a curr5t ^: nature is n v def9itely kn[n4 ,?is curr5t runs into ! bra91 & !re has effects :i*1 s f> z ! physiologi/ is conc]n$1 are almo/ :olly conjectural4 ,b !re is "o effect :i* is n conjectural1 & t is ! s5sation ( t\*4 ,?is effect1 ow+ to physiological inf]5ce or p]haps to a reflex1 is associat$ by u ) ! f+]-tip4 ,b ! s5sation is ! same if1 by artificial means1 ! p>ts ( ! n]ve ne>] ! bra9 are suitably /imulat$--e4g4 if y\r h& has be5 amputat$ & ! "r n]ves are skilfully manipulat$4 ,?us our confid5ce t t\* af=ds evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( bodies at ! place :i* we ?9k is be+ t\*$ is q misplac$4 ,z a rule we are "r1 b we c be wrong2 !re is no?+ ( ! nature ( an infallible revelation ab\t ! matt]4 ,& ev5 9 ! mo/ favorable case1 ! p]ception ( t\* is some?+ v diff]5t f ! mad dance ( electrons & protons try+ to jazz out ( ea* o!r's way1 :i* is :at physics ma9ta9s is really tak+ place at y\r f+]-tip4 ,or1 at lea/1 x seems v diff]5t4 ,b z we %all see1 ! k we d]ive f physics is s ab/ract t we are n w>rant$ 9 say+ t :at goes on 9 ! physical _w is1 or is n1 intr9sically v diff]5t f ! ev5ts t we "k ?r\gh our own exp]i5ces4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,p]ception ,,& ,,physical ,,causal ,,laws ,9 an e>li] *apt] we saw ! inadequacy ( ! traditional notion ( cause1 )\t adequately expla9+ ! causal laws :i* are a sub/itute 9 ! practice ( sci5ce4 ,! "t has n[ come :5 x is possible to rem$y ?is defect1 &1 9 s do+1 to fit p]ception into its place 9 ! *a9 ( physical causation & recapitulate ! ma9 po9ts ( previ\s argum5ts4 ,! old view 0 t an ev5t ,a w always be foll[$ by a c]ta9 ev5t ,b1 & t ! problem ( discov]+ causal laws is ! problem1 giv5 an ev5t ,b1 ( f9d+ t ev5t ,a :i* is its inv>iable antec$5t or vice v]sa4 ,at an e>ly /age ( a sci5ce ?is po9t ( view is useful2 x gives laws :i* are true usually1 ?\gh probably n always1 & x af=ds ! basis = m exact laws4 ,b x has no philosophical validity1 & is sup]s$$ 9 sci5ce z soon z we arrive at g5u9e laws4 ,g5u9e laws1 9 advanc$ sci5ces1 are practically always quantitative laws ( t5d5cy4 ,i w try to illu/rate by tak+ ! simple/ possible case 9 physics4 ,imag9e a hydrog5 atom1 9 :i* ! electron is revolv+ n 9 ! m9imum orbit1 b 9 ! next1 :i* has f\r times ! m9imum radius4 ,s long z ?is /ate cont9ues1 ! atom has no ext]nal effects1 ap>t f its inf9itesimal gravitational action2 we _c1 !re=e1 obta9 any evid5ce ( its exi/5ce except :5 x *anges its /ate4 ,9 fact1 our k ( atoms is l t :i* a ticket collector has ( ! population ( 8 t[n3 he kn[s no?+ ( ^? :o /ay quietly at home4 ,n[ at "s mom5t1 accord+ to laws ( :i* we h only /ati/ical k1 ! electron 9 our atom jumps to a small] orbit1 & ! en]gy lo/ to ! atom travels outw>d 9 a light-wave4 ,we "k no causal law z to :5 ! electron w jump1 ?\gh we "k h[ f> x w jump & exactly :at w happ5 9 ! neighb\rhood :5 x does4 ,at lea/1 :5 ,i say we "k exactly :at w happ51 ,i ought to say t we "k exactly ! ma!matical laws ( :at w happ54 ,a s]ies ( ev5ts1 hav+ quantitative *>act]i/ics :i* obey c]ta9 equations1 w travel outw>d 9 all directions f ! electron1 & w proce$ q regul>ly1 l ripples on a pool1 until o!r matt] is enc\nt]$4 ,we h "h "o important & app>5tly fundam5tal k9d ( causal law1 ! k9d regulat+ ! propagation ( light 9 vacuo4 ,?is is summ$ up 9 ,maxwell's equations1 :i* enable u to calculate ! diffusion ( an electro-magnetic di/urbance />t+ f a s\rce4 ,s long z two su* di/urbances d n meet1 ! matt] is exce$+ly simple2 b ! equations also tell u :at happ5s :5 !y d meet4 ,we !n h1 z always 9 traditional physics1 two sep>ate t5d5cies1 :i* h a resultant comp\nd$ accord+ to ma!matical laws1 ( :i* ! p>allelogram law is ! olde/ & simple/4 ,t is to say1 ea* previ\s circum/ance 9 ! space-"t neighb\rhood contributes a t5d5cy1 & ! result+ ev5t is obta9$ by comp\nd+ ^! t5d5cies accord+ to a ma!matical law4 ,s f>1 we h be5 consid]+ only electro-magnetic ph5om5a 9 empty space4 ,we h ano!r set ( facts ab\t empty space1 namely ^? ^u :i* gravitation dep5ds4 ,^! h to d ) ! /ructure ( space-"t1 & %[ t ?is /ructure has s+ul>ities 9 ! regions :]e !re is matt]1 :i* spread ) dim9i%+ int5sity z we get away f ^! regions4 ,y may conceive ! /ructure ( space-"t on ! analogy ( a pond ) a f\nta9 play+ 9 x1 s t :]ev] a spray falls f ! f\nta9 !re is a little hill ( wat] :i* flatt5s quickly z y get away f ! spot :]e ! spray falls4 ,"h aga9 ! same sort ( ?+ applies3 to inf] ! /ructure 9 a small region ( space-"t f t 9 ! neighb\rhood1 x w be necess>y to sup]pose a numb] ( t5d5cies accord+ to ma!matical rules4 ,?us philosophically ?is introduces no novelty4 ,b n[ consid] :at happ5s :5 ! wave ( light :i* />t$ f our hydrog5 atom comes 9 contact ) matt]4 ,v>i\s ?+s may happ54 ,! matt] may absorb all or "s ( ! en]gy ( ! light-ray2 ?is is ! int]e/+ case f our po9t ( view4 ,! absorption may take ! =m ( caus+ ! electrons to move 9 l>g] orbits1 9 :i* case1 lat]1 :5 !y return to _! previ\s orbits1 we get ! ph5om5on ( fluoresc5ce4 ,or ! body may become heat$2 or x may visibly move1 l a radiomet]4 ,! effects ^u bodies dep5d ^u ! bodies z well z ! light4 ,"s ( !m c be individually pr$ict$1 o!rs c only be calculat$ 9 /ati/ical av]ages2 ?is dep5ds ^u :e!r quantum consid]ations come 9 or n4 ,:]e !y d1 we c enum]ate possibilities1 & /ate ! relative frequ5cies ) :i* !y w be realis$1 b we _c tell :i* w be realis$ 9 any giv5 case4 ,s f>1 we h consid]$ ! radiation ( en]gy f matt] into empty space1 its propagation 9 empty space & its impact on matt] f empty space4 ,we h n consid]$ ! hi/ory ( a giv5 piece ( matt]1 or ! di/9ction betwe5 matt] & empty space4 ,! ess5ce ( matt] appe>s to be ?is3 ,we c di/+ui% s]ies ( ev5ts 9 space-"t :i* h a c]ta9 k9d ( close resemblance to ea* o!r1 su* t common s5se reg>ds !m z manife/ations ( "o 8?+04 ,b :5 we look closely at ! "q1 x turns out t :at physics (f]s is some?+ m ab/ract ?an ?is4 ,take1 e4 g4 ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 electron4 ,?is means to say t ev5ts 9 a c]ta9 neighb\rhood w be su* z c be calculat$ on ! assumption t !re is an electric *>ge ( a c]ta9 /&>d magnitude 9 ! middle ( t neighb\rhood2 & t ! neighb\rhoods ( :i* ?is is true =m a tube 9 space-"t4 ,s long z we /ick to ! /&po9t ( pure physics !re is a c]ta9 air ( tak+ 9 ea* o!r's wa%+ ab\t ! :ole bus9ess4 ,ev5ts 9 empty space are only kn[n z reg>ds _! ab/ract ma!matical *>act]i/ics2 matt] is only an ab/ract ma!matical *>act]i/ic ( ev5ts 9 empty space4 ,?is seems r a cold _w4 ,b z a matt] ( fact we "k "s ?+s t are a little m concrete4 ,we "k1 e4g4 :at x feels l :5 we see ?+s4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( physics1 :5 our light-wave />ts out ?r\gh empty space1 if x pres5tly rea*es our eye we "k "o l9k 9 ! causal *a91 namely ! visual s5sation1 o!rwise ?an z a t]m 9 an ab/ract ma!matical =mula4 ,& x is ?is "o t]m :i* =ms ! basis = our belief 9 all ! re/4 ,see+ is believ+4 ,at ?is po9t ,i propose to make a brief digression on ! subject ( our evid5ce = causal laws4 ,! laws = :i* we fir/ get evid5ce are su* z d n hold always1 b only z a g5]al rule4 ,z a rule1 :5 y decide to move y\r arm1 x moves3 b sometimes x is p>alys$ & rema9s motionless4 ,z a rule1 :5 y say h[-d-y-d to an old fri5d1 he says ! same to y2 b he may h gr[n bl9d & deaf s9ce y la/ saw him1 & n notice y\r words or ge/ure4 ,z a rule1 if y put a mat* to gunp[d]1 x explodes2 b x may h got damp4 ,x is su* common b n inv>iable rules ( sequ5ce t we notice fir/4 ,b sci5ce is always seek+ to replace !m by laws t may h no exceptions4 ,we notice fir/ t heavy bodies fall1 !n t "s bodies d n fall4 ,!n we g5]alise bo? sets ( facts into ! law ( gravitation & ! laws ( resi/ance ( ! air4 ,^! m g5]al laws d n /ate t any?+ w actually happ53 !y /ate a t5d5cy1 & lead to ! conclusion t :at actually happ5s is ! resultant ( a numb] ( t5d5cies4 ,we _c "k :at ! resultant w be unless we "k a great deal ab\t ! neighb\rhood conc]n$4 ,= example1 ,i might1 )9 ! next few seconds be hit on ! head by a meteorite2 to "k :e!r ?is is go+ to happ51 ,i mu/ "k :at matt] is to be f\nd 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! e>?4 ,?is illu/rates t actual pr$ictions bas$ ^u laws :i* are p]fectly valid may always be falsifi$ by "s unkn[n fact ( :at we may call geography4 ,moreov]1 we c nev] be sure t our sci5tific laws are q "r2 ( ?is ! ,e9/e9ian modification ( ! law ( gravitation has af=d$ a notable in/ance4 ,let u n[ return to ! relation betwe5 p]ception & ! causal laws ( physics4 ,hav+ realis$ ! ab/ractness ( :at physics has to say1 we no long] h any difficulty 9 fitt+ ! visual s5sation into ! causal s]ies4 ,x us$ to be ?\ght 8my/]i\s0 t purely physical ph5om5a %\ld end 9 some?+ m5tal4 ,t 0 because p ?\ght !y knew a lot ab\t physical ph5om5a1 & 7 sure !y diff]$ 9 quality f m5tal ph5om5a4 ,we n[ realise t we "k no?+ ( ! intr9sic quality ( physical ph5om5a except :5 !y happ5 to be s5sations1 & t !re=e !re is no reason to be surpris$ t "s are s5sations1 or to suppose t ! o!rs are totally unlike s5sations4 ,! gap betwe5 m9d & matt] has be5 fill$ 91 p>tly by new views ( m9d1 b mu* m by ! realisation t physics tells u no?+ z to ! intr9sic "* ( matt]4 ,i conceive :at happ5s :5 we see an object m or less on ! foll[+ l9es4 ,= ! sake ( simplicity1 let u take a small self-lum9\s object4 ,9 ?is object1 a c]ta9 numb] ( atoms are los+ en]gy & radiat+ x accord+ to ! quantum pr9ciple4 ,! result+ light-waves become sup]pos$ accord+ to ! usual ma!matical pr9ciples2 ea* "p ( ea* light-wave consi/s ( ev5ts 9 a c]ta9 region ( space-"t4 ,on com+ 9 contact ) ! human body1 ! en]gy 9 ! light-wave takes new =ms1 b !re is /ill causal cont9uity4 ,at la/ x rea*es ! bra91 & !re "o ( its con/itu5t ev5ts is :at we call a visual s5sation4 ,?is visual s5sation is popul>ly call$ see+ ! object f :i* ! light-waves />t$--or f :i* !y 7 reflect$ if ! object 0 n self-lum9\s4 ,?us :at is call$ a p]ception is only connect$ ) its object ?r\gh ! laws ( physics4 ,its relation to ! object is causal & ma!matical2 we _c say :e!r or n x resembles ! object 9 any intr9sic respect1 except t bo? x & ! object are brief ev5ts 9 space-"t4 ,i ?9k we may lay d[n ! foll[+ univ]sal *>act]i/ics ( causal laws 9 an advanc$ sci5ce4 ,giv5 any ev5t1 !re are o!r ev5ts at neighb\r+ places 9 space-"t :i* w occur slightly lat] if no o!r factors int]v5e2 b 9 practice o!r factors almo/ always d int]v5e1 &1 9 t case1 ! ev5t :i* actually occurs at any po9t ( space-"t is a ma!matical resultant ( ^? :i* w\ld h foll[$ ! v>i\s neighb\r+ ev5ts if !y _h be5 alone conc]n$4 ,! equations ( physics give ! rules accord+ to :i* ev5ts are connect$1 b all are ( ! above sort4 ,=m]ly x 0 ?\ght t ! equations ( physics suffic$1 !oretically1 to det]m9e ! c\rse ( affairs 9 ! physical _w1 giv5 all ! facts ab\t "s f9ite /ret* ( "t1 h[ev] %ort4 ,n[ x appe>s t ?is is n ! case1 s f> z ! kn[n equations are conc]n$4 ,! kn[n equations suffice to det]m9e :at happ5s 9 empty space1 & /ati/ical av]ages z to :at happ5s to matt]2 b !y d n tell u :5 an individual atom w absorb or radiate en]gy4 ,:e!r !re are laws1 o!r ?an ^? ( /ati/ics1 gov]n+ ! behavi\r ( an individual atom 9 ?is respect1 we d n "k4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t !re are causal laws ( a diff]5t sort f ^? ( pure physics2 su* are ! laws t light-waves 8cause0 visual s5sations & s\nd-waves 8cause0 auditory s5sations4 ,all ! empirical evid5ce = physics re/s ^u su* laws1 !re=e no?+ 9 physics c h a high] degree ( c]ta9ty ?an su* laws h4 ,let u /op a mom5t to ask :at we mean by 8cause0 9 ?is connection4 ,! connection ( light-waves & visual s5sations looks a little diff]5t accord+ z we />t ) physics or ) psy*ology1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ultimately ! result mu/ be ! same4 ,let u fir/ />t ) physics4 ,i say1 !n1 t :5 a light-wave travels outw>ds f a body !re are successive ev5ts at successive places1 & t ! correspond+ ev5t 9 a bra9 beh9d a normal eye is a visual s5sation4 ,?is is ! only ev5t 9 ! :ole s]ies ab\t :i* ,i c say any?+ n purely ab/ract & ma!matical4 ,n[ let u />t f ! s5sation4 ,i say1 !n1 t ?is s5sation is "o ( a va/ s]ies ( connect$ ev5ts1 travell+ out f a c5tre accord+ to c]ta9 ma!matical laws1 9 virtue ( :i* ! s5sation enables me to "k a good deal ab\t ev5ts else:]e4 ,t is :y ! s5sation is a s\rce ( physical k4 ,x w be se5 t1 accord+ to ! view ,i h be5 advocat+1 !re is no difficulty ab\t int]action betwe5 m9d & body4 ,a s5sation is m]ely "o l9k 9 a *a9 ( physical causation2 :5 we reg>d ! s5sation z ! end ( su* a *a91 we h :at w\ld be reg>d$ z an effect ( matt] on m9d2 :5 z ! beg9n+1 an effect ( m9d on matt]4 ,b m9d is m]ely a cross-section 9 a /ream ( physical causation1 & !re is no?+ odd ab\t its be+ bo? an effect & a cause 9 ! physical _w4 ,?us physical causal laws are ^? t are fundam5tal4 ,!re seems no reason to reg>d causation z a priori1 ?\gh ?is "q is n simple4 ,giv5 c]ta9 v g5]al assumptions z to ! /ructure ( space-"t1 !re are b\nd to be :at we h call$ causal laws4 ,^! g5]al assumptions mu/ really replace causality z our basic pr9ciples4 ,b1 g5]al z !y are1 !y _c be tak5 z a priori2 !y are ! g5]alisation & ab/ract epitome ( ! fact t !re are causal laws1 & ?is mu/ rema9 m]ely an empirical fact1 :i* is r5d]$ probable1 ?\gh n c]ta91 by inductive argum5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,our ,,k ,,( ,,physics ,9 ?is *apt]1 we %all seek an answ] to two que/ions3 ,fir/1 h[ d we "k ab\t ! _w dealt ) 9 physics8 ,secondly1 :at d we "k ab\t x1 assum+ ! tru? ( mod]n physics8 ,fir/3 ,h[ d we "k ab\t ! physical _w8 ,we h already se5 t ?is "q _c h a simple answ]1 s9ce ! basis ( inf]5ce is some?+ t happ5s 9 our own heads1 & our k ( any?+ outside our own heads mu/ be m or less prec>i\s4 ,= ! pres5t1 ,i %all take x = grant$ t we may accept te/imony1 ) due precautions4 ,9 o!r words1 ,i %all assume t :at we he> :51 z we believe1 o!rs are speak+ to u1 does 9 fact h 8mean+0 to ! speak]1 & n only to u2 ) a correspond+ assumption z reg>ds writ+4 ,?is assumption w be exam9$ at a lat] /age4 ,= ! pres5t1 ,i w m]ely emphasise t x is an assumption1 & t x may possibly be false1 s9ce p seem to speak to u 9 dreams1 & yet1 on wak+1 we become p]suad$ t we inv5t$ ! dream4 ,x is impossible to prove1 by a demon/rative argum5t1 t we are n always dream+2 ! be/ we c hope is a pro( t ?is is improbable4 ,b = ! pres5t let u leave ?is discussion on "o side1 & assume t ! words we he> & read 8mean0 :at !y w\ld if we spoke or wrote !m4 ,on ?is basis1 we h reason to "k t ! worlds ( diff]5t p are alike 9 c]ta9 respects & diff]5t 9 c]ta9 o!rs4 ,take1 = example1 ! audi5ce at a !atre3 !y all1 we say1 he> ! same words & see ! same ge/ures1 :i*1 moreov]1 are ^? t ! actors wi% !m to he> & see4 ,b ^? :o are ne> ! /age he> ! words m l\dly ?an ^? fur!r (f2 !y also he> !m some:at e>li]4 ,& ^? :o sit on ! "r d n see q :at is se5 by ^? :o sit on ! left or 9 ! c5tre4 ,^! diff]5ces are ( two sorts3 on ! "o h&1 "s p c see some?+ invisible to o!rs2 on ! o!r h&1 :5 two p1 z we say1 see ! 8same0 ?+1 !y see x diff]5tly ow+ to effects ( p]spective & ( ! way ! light is reflect$4 ,all ?is is a "q ( physics1 n ( psy*ology2 = if we place a cam]a 9 an empty seat 9 ! !atre1 ! p]spective 9 ! resultant photograph is int]m$iate betwe5 ! p]spectives t are se5 by p]sons sitt+ on ei!r side2 inde$ ! :ole matt] ( p]spective is det]m9$ by q simple geometrical laws4 ,^! laws %[ also :at is common to ! %apes t two p see :5 !y see ! 8same0 ?+ f diff]5t po9ts ( view3 :at is common is :at is /udi$ by projective geometry1 :i* is conc]n$ ) :at is indep5d5t ( measurem5t 9 geometrical figures4 ,all ! diff]5ces 9 appe>ance due to p]spective h to be le>n$ 9 le>n+ to draw3 = ?is purpose1 x is necess>y to le>n to see ?+s z !y really seem1 & n z !y seem to seem4 ,b1 x w be said1 :at c y mean by h[ ?+s 8really0 seem & h[ !y 8seem0 to seem8 ,we come "h ^u an important fact ab\t le>n+4 ,:51 9 e>ly infancy1 we are le>n+ to correlate sight & t\*1 we acquire ! habit ( react+ to a visual /imulus 9 a mann] :i* is m 8objective0 ?an t 9 :i* a cam]a reacts4 ,:5 we see a co9 n directly 9 front ( u1 we judge x to be circul>1 al?\gh ! cam]a w\ld %[ x z oval1 & a man w\ld h to make x oval 9 a picture ( a sc5e :i* conta9$ x4 ,we le>n1 !re=e1 to react to a visual %ape 9 a mann] correspond+ to h[ x w\ld appe> if x 7 9 ! c5tre ( ! field ( vision1 provid$ we d n imm$iately focus ^u x1 :i* is :at we naturally d :5 any?+ visible int]e/s u4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 we are con/antly look+ 9 diff]5t directions1 &1 z a rule1 only notic+ :at1 at ! mom5t1 is 9 ! c5tre ( our field ( vision4 ,?us our visual _w consi/s r ( a syn!sis ( ?+s view$ directly 9 succession ?an ( ?+s se5 simultane\sly :ile ! c5tre ( ! field is kept fix$4 ,?is is "o reason :y ! rules ( p]spective h to be le>n$1 al?\gh a picture :i* ignores !m makes an impression ( be+ 8wrong04 ,ano!r reason = ! objectivity ( ! impressions we d]ive f sight is correlation ) o!r s5ses1 especially t\*4 ,?r\gh ?is correlation we soon get to 8"k0 t a man tw5ty y>ds away is 8really0 j z big z a man "o y>d away4 ,:5 *ildr5 are le>n+ to draw1 !y f9d x v difficult to make di/ant objects suffici5tly small1 because !y "k !y are n 8really0 small4 ,we soon le>n to judge ! di/ance ( a visual object1 & to react to x accord+ to ! size t x w\ld h if t\*$--or travell$ ov]--9 ! case ( v l>ge objects su* z m\nta9s4 ,our s5se ( size is n d]iv$ f sight1 b f su* s\rces z t\* & locomotion2 our metrical judgm5ts1 :5 ! /imulus is only visual1 are a result ( previ\s exp]i5ce4 ,by ! "t a *ild c speak well1 he has _h a great deal ( ?is k9d ( exp]i5ce4 ,consequ5tly our v]bal reactions conta9 a great deal m objectivity ?an !y w\ld if !y came at an e>li] /age ( infancy4 ,! result is t a numb] ( p c view a sc5e simultane\sly1 & use exactly ! same words ab\t x4 ,! words :i* we naturally use 9 describ+ :at we see are ^? describ+ features t w also be evid5t to o!rs 9 our neighb\rhood4 ,we say1 8!re is a man01 n1 8!re is a col\r$ %ape ^: visual dim5sions are su*-&-su* an angle v]tically1 & su* ano!r horizontally04 ,! inf]5ce is a physiological inf]5ce1 & only subsequ5t reflection makes u aw>e t x has tak5 place4 ,we c1 h[ev]1 become aw>e ( x ?r\gh occasional mi/akes2 a dot on ! w9d[-pane may be mi/ak5 = a man 9 a di/ant field4 ,9 ?is case1 we c discov] our error by op5+ ! w9d[1 or by mov+ ! head4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 physiological inf]5ces ( ?is sort are correct1 s9ce !y h result$ f correlations :i* are v common1 & are likely to be pres5t on a giv5 occasion4 ,consequ5tly our words t5d to conceal :at is private & peculi> 9 our impressions1 & to make u believe t diff]5t p live 9 a common _w to a great] ext5t ?an is 9 fact ! case4 ,we h be5 us+ ! ^w 8objectivity0 9 ! prec$+ pages1 & x is "t to consid] exactly :at we mean by x4 ,suppose "s sc5e--say 9 a !atre--is simultane\sly se5 by a numb] ( p & photograph$ by a numb] ( cam]as4 ,! impression made ^u a p]son or a cam]a is 9 "s respects l t made ^u o!r p]sons & cam]as1 9 o!r respects diff]5t4 ,we %all call ! elem5ts :i* are alike 8objective0 elem5ts 9 ! impression1 & ^? :i* are peculi> we %all call 8subjective04 ,?us ^? features ( %apes :i* are consid]$ 9 projective geometry w be objective1 :]eas ^? consid]$ 9 metrical geometry 7:]e l5g?s & angles are measur$7 _c be made objective ?r\gh sight alone1 b dem& ! use ( o!r s5ses4 ,9 ! photographs1 a man on ! /age w be long] if ! cam]a is ne> ! /age ?an if x is f> (f1 assum+ all ! cam]as to be alike4 ,b if f\r actors are /&+ 9 a r[ 9 "o photograph1 !y w be /&+ 9 a r[ 9 ano!r2 ?is is an 8objective0 feature ( ! impression4 ,& ! diff]5ces 9 ! visual impressions ( a numb] ( spectators ) normal eyesight are exactly analog\s to ! diff]5ces 9 ! photographs2 s also are ! lik5esses4 ,?us ! 8subjectivity0 t we are speak+ ab\t at pres5t is some?+ belong+ to ! physical _w1 n to psy*ology4 ,x m>ks ! fact t ! /imulus1 :e!r to an eye or to a cam]a1 is n exactly ! same :]ev] ! eye or ! cam]a may be plac$2 !re are features ( ! /imulus :i* are con/ant 7)9 limits71 b !re are o!rs :i* are diff]5t f any two diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,! t5d5cy ( our p]ceptions is to emphasise increas+ly ! objective elem5ts 9 an impression1 unless we h "s special reason1 z arti/s h1 = do+ ! opposite4 ,?is t5d5cy beg9s be=e spee*1 is mu* acc5tuat$ aft] spee* has be5 acquir$1 & is prolong$ by sci5tific physics4 ,! !ory ( relativity is only ! la/ t]m1 s f>1 9 ! elim9ation ( subjective elem5ts f impressions4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! subjective elem5ts are any less 8real0 ?an ! objective elem5ts2 !y are only less important4 ,!y are less important because !y d n po9t to any?+ beyond !mselves z ! o!rs d4 ,we want our s5ses to give u in=mation1 i4e4 to tell u ab\t some?+ m ?an our own mom5t>y impression4 ,we acquire in=mation ?r\gh our s5ses if we att5d to ! objective elem5ts 9 ! impression & ignore ! o!rs2 b ! subjective elem5ts are j z truly "p ( ! actual impression4 ,?is is obvi\s z soon z we realise t ! cam]a is z subjective z we are4 ,su* consid]ations lead irresi/ibly to ! sci5tific view t1 :5 an object c be se5 or photograph$ f a numb] ( po9ts ( view1 !re is a connect$ set ( ev5ts 7light-waves7 travell+ outw>d f a c5tre2 t1 moreov]1 !re are "s respects 9 :i* all ^! ev5ts are alike1 & o!rs 9 :i* !y diff] "o f ano!r4 ,we mu/ n ?9k ( a light-wave z a 8?+01 b z a connect$ gr\p ( rhy?mical ev5ts4 ,! ma!matical *>act]i/ics ( su* a gr\p c be inf]r$ by physics1 )9 limits2 b ! intr9sic "* ( ! compon5t ev5ts _c be inf]r$4 ,! ev5ts con/itut+ light-waves are only kn[n ?r\gh _! effects ^u our eyes1 optic n]ves1 & bra9s1 & ^! effects are n !mselves light-waves1 z is obvi\s f ! fact t n]ves & bra9s are n transp>5t4 ,light 9 ! physical _w1 !re=e1 mu/ consi/ ( ev5ts :i* are 9 "s way diff]5t f ! ev5ts :i* happ5 :5 we see2 b we _c say m ?an ?is z to ! intr9sic quality ( ^! ext]nal ev5ts4 ,moreov]1 :5 a numb] ( p1 z we say1 8see ! same ?+01 :at we h reason to believe is t light-waves emanat+ f a c]ta9 region h rea*$ ! eyes ( all ^! p4 ,z to :at is 9 ! region f :i* ! light-waves come1 we _c tell4 ,b--s ! pla9 man is tempt$ to argue--we c tell q well1 because we c t\* objects t we see1 & discov] t !re is some?+ h>d & solid 9 ! place f :i* ! light-waves come4 ,or1 aga91 we may f9d t !re is some?+ !re :i*1 ?\gh n solid1 is v hot1 & burns u :5 we try to t\* x4 ,we all feel t t\* gives m evid5ce ( 8reality0 ?an sight2 gho/s & ra9b[s c be se5 b n t\*$4 ,"o reason = ?is great] s5se ( reality is t our spatial relation to an object :5 we t\* x ) our f+]-tips is giv51 & !re=e an object does n give su* diff]5t impressions ( t\* to diff]5t p z x does ( sight4 ,ano!r reason is t !re are a numb] ( objects t c be se5 b n t\*$--reflections1 smoke1 mi/1 etc4--& t ^! objects are calculat$ to surprise ! inexp]i5c$4 ,none ( ^! facts1 h[ev]1 ju/ify ! pla9 man 9 suppos+ t t\* makes him "k real ?+s z !y are1 ?\gh we are v]bally =c$ to admit t x br+s him into 8contact0 ) !m4 ,we h se5 on an e>li] occasion h[ complex is ! physical & physiological process lead+ f ! object to ! bra9 :5 we t\* some?+2 & we h se5 t illusions ( t\* c be produc$ artificially4 ,:at we exp]i5ce :5 we h a s5sation ( t\* is1 !re=e1 no m a revelation ( ! real nature ( ! object t\*$ ?an :at we exp]i5ce :5 we look at x4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 if mod]n physics is to be believ$1 sight1 prud5tly employ$1 gives u a m delicate k conc]n+ objects ?an t\* c ev] d4 ,t\*1 z comp>$ ) sight1 is gross & massive4 ,we c photograph ! pa? ( an individual electron4 ,we p]ceive col\rs :i* indicate ! *anges happ5+ 9 atoms4 ,we c see fa9t />s ev5 ?\gh ! en]gy ( ! light t rea*es u f !m is inconceivably m9ute4 ,sight may deceive ! unw>y m ?an t\*1 b = accurate sci5tific k x is incomp>ably sup]ior to any ( ! o!r s5ses4 ,x is *iefly ?r\gh ideas d]iv$ f sight t physici/s h be5 l$ to ! mod]n conception ( ! atom z a c5tre f :i* radiations travel4 ,we d n "k :at happ5s 9 ! c5tre4 ,! idea t !re is a little h>d lump !re1 :i* is ! electron or proton1 is an illegitimate intrusion ( common-s5se notions d]iv$ f t\*4 ,= aught we "k1 ! atom may consi/ entirely ( ! radiations :i* come out ( x4 ,x is useless to argue t radiations _c come out ( no?+4 ,we "k t !y come1 & !y d n become any m really intelligible by be+ suppos$ to come out ( a little lump4 ,mod]n physics1 !re=e1 r$uces matt] to a set ( ev5ts :i* proce$ outw>d f a c5tre4 ,if !re is some?+ fur!r 9 ! c5tre itself1 we _c "k ab\t x1 & x is irrelevant to physics4 ,! ev5ts t take ! place ( matt] 9 ! old s5se are inf]r$ f _! effect on eyes1 photographic plates1 & o!r in/rum5ts4 ,:at we "k ab\t !m is n _! intr9sic "*1 b _! /ructure & _! ma!matical laws4 ,_! /ructure is inf]r$ *iefly ?r\gh ! maxim 8same cause1 same effect04 ,x foll[s f ?is maxim t if ! effects are diff]5t1 ! causes mu/ be diff]5t2 if1 !re=e1 we see r$ & blue side by side1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 inf]r+ t 9 ! direction :]e we see r$ some?+ diff]5t is happ5+ f :at is happ5+ 9 ! direction :]e we see blue4 ,by ext5sions ( ?is l9e ( argum5t we arrive at ! ma!matical laws ( ! physical _w4 ,physics is ma!matical1 n because we "k s mu* ab\t ! physical _w1 b because we "k s little3 x is only its ma!matical prop]ties t we c discov]4 ,= ! re/1 our k is negative4 ,9 places :]e !re are no eyes or e>s or bra9s !re are no col\rs or s\nds1 b !re are ev5ts hav+ c]ta9 *>act]i/ics :i* lead !m to cause col\rs & s\nds 9 places :]e !re are eyes & e>s & bra9s4 ,we _c f9d out :at ! _w looks l f a place :]e !re is nobody1 because if we g to look !re w be somebody !re2 ! attempt is z hopeless z try+ to jump on "o's own %ad[4 ,matt] z x appe>s to common s5se1 & z x has until rec5tly appe>$ 9 physics1 mu/ be giv5 up4 ,! old idea ( matt] 0 connect$ ) ! idea ( 8sub/ance01 & ?is1 9 turn1 ) a view ( "t t ! !ory ( relativity %[s to be unt5able4 ,! old view 0 t !re is "o cosmic "t1 & t1 giv5 any two ev5ts 9 any two p>ts ( ! univ]se1 ei!r !y are simultane\s1 or ! fir/ is e>li] ?an ! second1 or ! second e>li] ?an ! fir/4 ,x 0 ?\ght t ! "t-ord] ( ! two ev5ts mu/ always be objectively def9ite1 al?\gh we might be unable to det]m9e x4 ,we n[ f9d t ?is is n ! case4 ,ev5ts :i* c be reg>d$ z all 9 "o place1 or all p>ts ( ! hi/ory ( "o piece ( matt]1 /ill h a def9ite "t-ord]4 ,s d ev5ts 9 diff]5t places if a p]son situat$ :]e ! second takes place c see ! fir/ be=e ! second happ5s1 or1 m exactly1 if light c travel f ! place ( ! "o to ! place ( ! o!r s z to rea* ! o!r place be=e ! second ev5t4 7,"h we mean by a 8place0 ! position ( a giv5 piece ( matt]3 h[ev] ! matt] may move relatively to o!r matt]1 x is always 9 ! same 8place0 f its own po9t ( view47 ,b if light travell+ f ! place ( ! "o ev5t to ! place ( ! o!r ev5t arrives at ! place ( ! o!r ev5t aft] ! o!r ev5t has tak5 place1 & conv]sely1 !n !re is no def9ite objective "t-ord] ( ! two ev5ts1 & !re is no reason = reg>d+ ei!r z e>li] ?an ! o!r2 nor yet = reg>d+ ! two z simultane\s2 ideally c>eful obs]v]s w judge diff]5tly accord+ to ! way 9 :i* !y are mov+4 ,?us "t is n cosmic1 b is to "s ext5t individual & p]sonal = ea* piece ( matt]4 ,:at d we mean by a 8piece ( matt]0 9 ?is /atem5t8 ,we d n mean some?+ t pres]ves a simple id5tity ?r\gh\t its hi/ory1 nor d we mean some?+ h>d & solid1 nor ev5 a hypo!tical ?+-9-itself kn[n only ?r\gh its effects4 ,we mean ! 8effects0 !mselves1 only t we no long] invoke an unkn[able cause = !m4 ,we f9d t en]gy 9 v>i\s =ms spreads outw>ds f v>i\s c5tres2 we f9d also t su* c5tres h a c]ta9 degree ( p]si/5ce1 ?\gh ?is p]si/5ce is n absolute--! mod]n physici/ faces *e]fully ! possibility t an electron & a proton may mutually annihilate ea* o!r1 & ev5 sugge/s t ?is may be ! ma9 s\rce ( ! radiant en]gy ( ! />s1 because :5 x happ5s x makes an explosion4 ,:at is ass]t$ may be put z foll[s3 ,:5 en]gy radiates f a c5tre1 we c describe ! laws ( its radiation conv5i5tly by imag9+ some?+ 9 ! c5tre1 :i* we w call an electron or a proton accord+ to circum/ances1 & = c]ta9 purposes x is conv5i5t to reg>d ?is c5tre z p]si/+1 i4e4 z n a s+le po9t 9 space-"t b a s]ies ( su* po9ts1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by "t-l int]vals4 ,all ?is1 h[ev]1 is only a conv5i5t way ( describ+ :at happ5s else:]e1 namely ! radiation ( en]gy away f ! c5tre4 ,z to :at goes on 9 ! c5tre itself1 if any?+1 physics is sil5t4 ,:at ,dr4 ,:itehead calls ! 8pu%9ess0 ( matt] disappe>s altoge!r on ?is view4 8,matt]0 is a conv5i5t =mula = describ+ :at happ5s :]e x isn't4 ,i am talk+ physics1 n metaphysics2 :5 we come to metaphysics1 we may be able1 t5tatively1 to add some?+ to ?is /atem5t1 b sci5ce alone c h>dly add to x4 ,mat]ialism z a philosophy becomes h>dly t5able 9 view ( ?is evaporation ( matt]4 ,b ^? :o w\ld =m]ly h be5 mat]iali/s c /ill adopt a philosophy :i* comes to mu* ! same ?+ 9 _m respects4 ,!y c say t ! type ( causation dealt ) 9 physics is fundam5tal1 & t all ev5ts are subject to physical laws4 ,i d n wi%1 z yet1 to consid] h[ f> su* a view %\ld be adopt$2 ,i am only sugge/+ t x mu/ replace mat]ialism z a view to be s]i\sly exam9$4 ,,"p ,,iii ,,man ,,f ,,)9 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,self-,,obs]vation ,x w be rememb]$ t ?r\gh\t ,"p ,i1 we agre$ to consid] only ^? facts ab\t a man :i* c be discov]$ by ext]nal obs]vation1 & we po/pon$ ! "q :e!r ?is exclud$ any g5u9e k or n4 ,! usual view is t we "k _m ?+s :i* c\ld n be kn[n )\t self-obs]vation1 b ! behavi\ri/ holds t ?is view is mi/ak54 ,i might be incl9$ to agree :olly ) ! behavi\ri/ b = ! consid]ations :i* 7 =c$ ^u u 9 ,"p ,,ii1 :5 we 7 exam9+ our k ( ! physical _w4 ,we 7 !n l$ to ! conclusion t1 assum+ physics to be correct1 ! data = our k ( physics are infect$ ) subjectivity1 & x is impossible = two m5 to obs]ve ! same ph5om5on except 9 a r\gh & approximate s5se4 ,?is und]m9es ! suppos$ objectivity ( ! behavi\ri/ me?od1 at lea/ 9 pr9ciple2 z a matt] ( degree1 x may survive to "s ext5t4 ,broadly speak+1 if physics is true & if we accept a behavi\ri/ def9ition ( k su* z t ( ,*apt] ,,viii1 we ought1 z a rule1 to "k m ab\t ?+s t happ5 ne> ! bra9 ?an ab\t ?+s t happ5 f> f x1 & mo/ ( all ab\t ?+s t happ5 9 ! bra94 ,?is seem$ untrue because p ?\ght t :at happ5s 9 ! bra9 is :at ! physiologi/ sees :5 he exam9es x2 b ?is1 accord+ to ! !ory ( ,*apt] ,,xii1 happ5s 9 ! bra9 ( ! physiologi/4 ,?us ! a priori objection to ! view t we "k be/ :at happ5s 9 our bra9s is remov$1 & we are l$ back to self-obs]vation z ! mo/ reliable way ( obta9+ k4 ,?is is ! !sis :i* is to be exp&$ & su/a9$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]4 ,z e "o kn[s1 ! c]ta9ty ( self-obs]vation 0 ! basis ( ,desc>tes' sy/em1 ) :i* mod]n philosophy began4 ,desc>tes1 be+ anxi\s to build 8 metaphysic only ^u :at 0 absolutely c]ta91 set to "w1 z a prelim9>y1 to d\bt any?+ t he c\ld make himself d\bt4 ,he succe$$ 9 d\bt+ ! :ole ext]nal _w1 s9ce !re might be a malici\s demon :o took pleasure 9 pres5t+ deceitful appe>ances to him4 7,= t matt]1 dreams w\ld h suppli$ a suffici5t argum5t47 ,b he c\ld n manage to d\bt 8 own exi/5ce4 ,=1 said he1 ,i am really d\bt+2 :atev] else may be d\btful1 ! fact t ,i d\bt is indubitable4 ,& ,i c\ld n d\bt if ,i did n exi/4 ,he summ$ up ! argum5t 9 8 fam\s =mula3 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am4 ,& hav+ arriv$ at ?is c]ta9ty1 he proce$$ to build up ! _w aga9 by successive inf]5ces4 ,oddly en\gh1 x 0 v l ! _w 9 :i* he _h believ$ be=e 8 excursion into scepticism4 ,x is in/ructive to contra/ ?is argum5t ) ,dr4 ,watson's4 ,dr4 ,watson1 l ,desc>tes1 is sceptical ( _m ?+s :i* o!rs accept )\t "q2 &1 l ,desc>tes1 he believes t !re are "s ?+s s c]ta9 t !y c be safely us$ z ! basis ( a />tl+ philosophy4 ,b ! ?+s :i* ,dr4 ,watson reg>ds z c]ta9 are j ^? :i* ,desc>tes reg>d$ z d\btful1 & ! ?+ :i* ,dr4 ,watson mo/ vehem5tly rejects is j :at ,desc>tes reg>d$ z absolutely unque/ionable4 ,dr4 ,watson ma9ta9s t !re is no su* ?+ z ?9k+4 ,no d\bt he believes 9 8 own exi/5ce1 b n because he ?9ks he c ?9k4 ,! ?+s t /rike him z absolutely indubitable are rats 9 mazes1 "t-measurem5ts1 physiological facts ab\t gl&s & muscles1 & s on4 ,:at are we to ?9k :5 two able m5 hold su* opposite views8 ,! natural inf]5ce w\ld be t ev]y?+ is d\btful4 ,?is may be true1 b !re are degrees ( d\btfulness1 & we %\ld l to "k :i* ( ^! two philosoph]s1 if ei!r1 is "r z to ! region ( m9imum d\btfulness4 ,let u beg9 by exam9+ ,desc>tes' view4 8,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am0 is :at he says1 b ?is won't d z x /&s4 ,:at1 f 8 own po9t ( view1 he %\ld pr(ess to "k is n 8,i ?9k01 b 8!re is ?9k+04 ,he f9ds d\bt go+ on1 & says3 ,!re is d\bt4 ,d\bt is a =m ( ?\ght1 !re=e !re is ?\ght4 ,to translate ?is into 8,i ?9k0 is to assume a great deal t a previ\s ex]cise 9 scepticism ought to h taught ,desc>tes to call 9 "q4 ,he w\ld say t ?\ghts imply a ?9k]4 ,b :y %\ld !y8 ,:y %\ld n a ?9k] be simply a c]ta9 s]ies ( ?\ghts1 connect$ ) ea* o!r by causal laws8 ,desc>tes believ$ 9 8sub/ance01 bo? 9 ! m5tal & 9 ! mat]ial _w4 ,he ?\ght t !re c\ld n be motion unless some?+ mov$1 nor ?9k+ unless "s "o ?\ght4 ,no d\bt mo/ p w\ld /ill hold ?is view2 b 9 fact x spr+s f a notion--usually unconsci\s--t ! categories ( gramm> are also ! categories ( reality4 ,we h already se5 t 8matt]0 is m]ely a "n = c]ta9 /r+s ( sets ( ev5ts4 ,x foll[s t :at we call motion ( matt] really means t ! c5tre ( su* a set ( ev5ts at "o "t does n h ! same spatial relations to o!r ev5ts z ! connect$ c5tre at ano!r "t has to ! connect$ o!r ev5ts4 ,x does n mean t !re is a def9ite entity1 a piece ( matt]1 :i* is n[ 9 "o place & n[ 9 ano!r4 ,simil>ly1 :5 we say1 8,i ?9k fir/ ?is & !n t01 we ought n to mean t !re is a s+le entity 8,i0 :i* 8has0 two successive ?\ghts4 ,we ought to mean only t !re are two successive ?\ghts :i* h causal relations ( ! k9d t makes u call !m p>ts ( "o biography1 9 ! same sort ( way 9 :i* successive notes may be p>ts ( "o tune2 & t ^! ?\ghts are connect$ ) ! body :i* is speak+ 9 ! way 7to be fur!r inve/igat$7 9 :i* ?\ghts & bodies are connect$4 ,all ?is is r complicat$1 & _c be admitt$ z "p ( any ultimate c]ta9ty4 ,:at ,desc>tes really felt sure ab\t 0 a c]ta9 occurr5ce1 :i* he describ$ 9 ! words 8,i ?9k04 ,b ! words 7 n q an accurate repres5tation ( ! occurr5ce2 inde$1 words nev] c escape f c]ta9 grammatical & social requirem5ts :i* make !m say at once m & less ?an we really mean4 ,i ?9k we ought to admit t ,desc>tes 0 ju/ifi$ 9 feel+ sure t !re 0 a c]ta9 occurr5ce1 conc]n+ :i* d\bt 0 impossible2 b he 0 n ju/ifi$ 9 br++ 9 ! ^w 8,i0 9 describ+ ?is occurr5ce1 & x rema9s to be consid]$ :e!r he 0 ju/ifi$ 9 us+ ! ^w 8?9k04 ,9 us+ a g5]al ^w su* z 8?9k01 we are obvi\sly go+ beyond ! datum1 f a logical po9t ( view4 ,we are subsum+ a p>ticul> occurr5ce "u a head+1 & ! head+ is d]iv$ f pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,n[ all words are applicable to _m occurr5ces2 !re=e all words g beyond any possible datum4 ,9 ?is s5se1 x is impossible ev] to convey 9 words ! p>ticul>ity ( a concrete exp]i5ce2 all words are m or less ab/ract4 ,su*1 at lea/1 is a plausible l9e ( argum5t1 b ,i am by no means sure t x is valid4 ,= example1 ! sight ( a p>ticul> dog may make ! g5]al ^w 8dog0 come into y\r m9d2 y !n "k t x is a dog1 b y may n notice :at sort ( dog x is4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ! k ) :i* we />t is ab/ract & g5]al2 t is to say1 x consi/s ( a le>n$ reaction to a /imulus ( a c]ta9 sort4 ,! reactions1 at any rate 9 s f> z !y are v]bal1 are m uni=m ?an ! /imuli4 ,a witness might be ask$ 8,did y see a dog80 8,yes40 8,:at sort ( dog80 8,oh1 j an ord9>y dog2 ,i don't rememb] m ab\t x40 ,t is to say1 ! witness's reaction consi/$ ( ! g5]alis$ ^w 8dog0 & no m4 ,"o is almo/ rem9d$ ( quantum ph5om5a 9 ! atom4 ,:5 light falls on a hydrog5 atom1 x may make ! electron jump f ! fir/ orbit to ! second1 or to ! ?ird1 etc4 ,ea* ( ^! is a g5]alis$ reaction to a /imulus :i* has no correspond+ g5]ality4 ,s dogs & cats h ea* _! individual peculi>ities1 b ! ord9>y inobs]vant p]son responds ) ! g5]alis$ reaction 8dog0 or 8cat01 & ! p>ticul>ity ( ! /imulus leads to no correspond+ p>ticul>ity 9 ! k-reaction4 ,to return to ,desc>tes & 8 ?9k+3 x is possible1 accord+ to :at we h j said1 t ,desc>tes knew he 0 ?9k+ ) m c]ta9ty ?an he knew :at he 0 ?9k+ ab\t4 ,?is possibility requires t we %\ld ask :at he meant by 8?9k+04 ,& s9ce1 = him1 ?9k+ 0 ! primitive c]ta9ty1 we mu/ n introduce any ext]nal /imulus1 s9ce he consid]$ x possible to d\bt :e!r any?+ ext]nal exi/$4 ,desc>tes us$ ! ^w 8?9k+0 some:at m widely ?an we %\ld g5]ally d n[adays4 ,he includ$ all p]ception1 emotion1 & volition1 n only :at are call$ 8intellectual0 processes4 ,we may p]haps ) advantage conc5trate ^u p]ception4 ,desc>tes w\ld say t1 :5 he 8sees ! moon01 he is m c]ta9 ( 8 visual p]cept ?an he is ( ! outside object4 ,z we h se51 ?is attitude is rational f ! /&po9t ( physics & physiology1 because a giv5 occurr5ce 9 ! bra9 is capable ( hav+ a v>iety ( causes1 & :]e ! cause is unusual common s5se w be misl$4 ,x w\ld be !oretically possible to /imulate ! optic n]ve artificially 9 j ! way 9 :i* light com+ f ! moon /imulates x2 9 ?is case1 we %\ld h ! same exp]i5ce z :5 we 8see ! moon01 b %\ld be deceiv$ z to its ext]nal s\rce4 ,desc>tes 0 influ5c$ by an argum5t ( ?is sort1 :5 he br\ght up ! possibility ( a deceitful demon4 ,!re=e :at he felt c]ta9 ab\t 0 n :at he _h initially felt c]ta9 ab\t1 b :at rema9$ c]ta9 aft] an argum5t z to ! causes ( p]ception4 ,?is br+s u to a di/9ction :i* is important1 b difficult to apply2 ! di/9ction betwe5 :at we 9 fact d n d\bt1 & :at we %\ld n d\bt if we 7 completely rational4 ,we d n 9 fact "q ! exi/5ce ( ! sun & moon1 ?\gh p]haps we might tea* ourselves to d s by a long c\rse ( ,c>tesian d\bt4 ,ev5 !n1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 we c\ld n d\bt t we h ! exp]i5ces :i* we h hi!rto call$ 8see+ ! sun0 & 8see+ ! moon01 al?\gh we %all ne$ diff]5t words if we are to describe ^! exp]i5ces correctly4 ,! "q arises3 ,:y %\ld we n d\bt ev]y?+8 ,:y %\ld we rema9 conv9c$ t we h ^! exp]i5ces8 ,might n a deceitful demon p]petually supply u ) false memories8 ,:5 we say 8a mom5t ago ,i _h ! exp]i5ce :i* ,i h hi!rto call$ see+ ! sun01 p]haps we are deceiv$4 ,9 dreams we (t5 rememb] ?+s t nev] happ5$4 ,at be/1 !re=e1 we c be sure ( our pres5t mom5t>y exp]i5ce1 n ( any?+ t happ5$ ev5 half a m9ute ago4 ,& be=e we c s fix our mom5t>y exp]i5ce z to make x ! basis ( a philosophy1 x w be pa/1 & !re=e unc]ta94 ,:5 ,desc>tes said 8,i ?9k01 he may h _h c]ta9ty2 b by ! "t he said 8!re=e ,i am01 he 0 rely+ ^u memory1 & may h be5 deceiv$4 ,?is l9e ( argum5t leads to complete scepticism ab\t ev]y?+4 ,if we are to avoid su* a result1 we mu/ h "s new pr9ciple4 ,9 actual fact1 we />t by feel+ c]ta9ty ab\t all sorts ( ?+s1 & we surr5d] ?is feel+ only :]e "s def9ite argum5t has conv9c$ u t x is liable to lead to error4 ,:5 we f9d any class ( primitive c]ta9ties :i* nev] leads to error1 we reta9 our convictions 9 reg>d to ?is class4 ,t is to say1 :]ev] we feel initial c]ta9ty1 we require an argum5t to make u d\bt1 n an argum5t to make u believe4 ,we may !re=e take1 z ! basis ( our beliefs1 any class ( primitive c]ta9ties :i* _c be %[n to lead u into error4 ,?is is really :at ,desc>tes does1 al?\gh he is n cle> ab\t x himself4 ,moreov]1 :5 we h f\nd an error 9 some?+ ( :i* we 7 previ\sly c]ta91 we d n z a rule ab&on entirely ! belief :i* misl$ u1 b we seek1 if we c1 to modify x s t x %all no long] be demon/rably false4 ,?is is :at has happ5$ ) p]ception4 ,:5 we ?9k we see an ext]nal object1 we may be deceiv$ by a v>iety ( causes4 ,!re may be a mirage or a reflection2 9 ?is case1 ! s\rce ( ! error is 9 ! ext]nal _w1 & a photographic plate w\ld be equally deceiv$4 ,!re may be a /imulus to ! eye ( ! sort t makes u 8see />s01 or we may see little black dots ow+ to a disord]$ liv]1 9 :i* case1 ! s\rce ( ! error is 9 ! body b n 9 ! bra94 ,we may h dreams 9 :i* we seem to see all sorts ( ?+s2 9 ?is case1 ! s\rce ( ! error is 9 ! bra94 ,hav+ gradually discov]$ ^! possibilities ( error1 p h become some:at w>y z to ! objective significance ( _! p]ceptions2 b !y h rema9$ conv9c$ t !y really h ! p]ceptions !y ?\ght !y _h1 al?\gh ! common-s5se int]pretation ( !m is sometimes at fault4 ,?us1 :ile reta9+ ! conviction t !y are sure ( some?+1 !y h gradually *ang$ _! view z to :at x is t !y are sure (4 ,no?+ is kn[n t t5ds to %[ error 9 ! view t we really h ! p]cepts we ?9k we h1 s long z we are prud5t 9 int]pret+ !m z signs ( some?+ ext]nal4 ,t is ! valid basis = ,desc>tes' view t 8?\ght0 is m c]ta9 ?an ext]nal objects4 ,:5 8?\ght0 is tak5 to mean ! exp]i5ces :i* we usually reg>d z p]cepts ( objects1 !re are s\nd reasons = accept+ ,desc>tes' op9ion to ?is ext5t4 ,let u n[ take up ,dr4 ,watson's view4 ,we %all f9d1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 t 8 position also is to a v l>ge ext5t valid4 ,t be+ s1 we %all seek to f9d an int]m$iate op9ion1 accept+ :at seems valid & reject+ :at seems d\btful 9 ! cont5tions ( bo? protagoni/s4 ,dr4 ,watson's view z to :at is mo/ c]ta9 is "o :i* is 9 entire accordance ) common s5se4 ,all psy*ological matt]s ! pla9 man reg>ds z m or less op5 to "q1 b he has no d\bts ab\t 8 (fice1 8 morn+ tra91 ! tax-collector1 ! wea!r1 & ! o!r bless+s ( ?is life4 ,x may amuse him1 9 an idle h\r1 to li/5 to "s "o play+ ) ! idea t life is a dream1 or sugge/+ t ! ?\ghts ( ! p 9 ! tra9 are m real ?an ! tra94 ,b unless he is a philosophical lectur]1 he does n c\nt5ance su* notions 9 bus9ess h\rs4 ,:o c imag9e a cl]k 9 an (fice conceiv+ metaphysical d\bts z to ! exi/5ce ( 8 boss8 ,or w\ld any railroad presid5t reg>d ) fav\r ! !ory t 8 railroad is only an idea 9 ! m9ds ( ! %>ehold]s8 ,su* a view1 he w\ld say1 ?\gh x is (t5 s\nd z reg>ds gold-m9es1 is simply silly :5 x comes to a railroad3 anybody c see x1 & c get himself run ov] if he w&]s on ! tracks "u ! impression t !y d n exi/4 ,belief 9 ! unreality ( matt] is likely to lead to an untimely dea?1 & t1 p]haps1 is ! reason :y ?is belief is s r>e1 s9ce ^? :o ent]ta9$ x di$ out4 ,we _c dismiss ! common-s5se outlook z simply silly1 s9ce x succe$s 9 daily life2 if we are go+ to reject x 9 "p1 we mu/ be sure t we d s 9 favor ( some?+ equally t\gh z a means ( cop+ ) practical problems4 ,desc>tes says3 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am4 ,watson says3 ,!re are rats 9 mazes1 !re=e ,i don't ?9k4 ,at lea/1 a p>odi/ might ?us sum up 8 philosophy4 ,:at ,watson really says is m l ?is3 7#a7 ,! mo/ c]ta9 facts are ^? :i* are public1 & c be confirm$ by ! te/imony ( a numb] ( obs]v]s4 ,su* facts =m ! basis ( ! physical sci5ces3 physics1 *emi/ry1 biology1 anatomy1 physiology1 to m5tion only ^? t are relevant to ! matt] 9 "q4 7#b7 ,! physical sci5ces are capable ( af=d+ an explanation ( all ! publicly obs]vable facts ab\t human behavi\r4 7#c7 ,!re is no reason to suppose t !re are any facts ab\t human be+s t c be kn[n only 9 "s o!r way4 7#d7 ,9 p>ticul>1 8introspection01 z a means ( discov]+ by self-obs]vation ?+s t are 9 pr9ciple undiscov]able by obs]vation ( o!rs1 is a p]nici\s sup]/ition1 :i* mu/ be swept away be=e any really s\nd k ( man becomes possible4 7#e7 ,&1 z a coroll>y1 !re is no reason to believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( 8?\ght0 z oppos$ to spee* & o!r bodily behavi\r4 ,i h numb]$ ! above propositions1 z x is important to keep !m sep>ate4 ,on ! :ole1 7#a71 7#b71 & 7#c7 seem to me to be true1 b 7#d7 & 7#e7 seem to me to be false4 ,behavi\ri/s1 ,i ?9k1 incl9e to ! view t 7#d7 & 7#e7 foll[ f 7#a71 7#b71 & 7#c72 b ?is view ,i attribute to :at ,i %\ld reg>d z errors conc]n+ ! basis ( physics4 ,t is :y x 0 necess>y to discuss physics be=e com+ to a decision on ?is "q ( self-obs]vation4 ,b let u exam9e ea* ( ! above propositions 9 turn4 7#a7 ,x is true t ! facts ^u :i* ! physical sci5ces are bas$ are all ( !m public1 9 ! s5se t _m m5 c obs]ve !m4 ,if a ph5om5on is photograph$1 any numb] ( p c inspect ! photograph4 ,if a measurem5t is made1 n only may sev]al p be pres5t1 b o!rs c repeat ! exp]im5t4 ,if ! result does n confirm ! fir/ obs]v]1 ! suppos$ fact is reject$4 ,! publicity ( physical facts is always reg>d$ z "o ( ! greate/ assets ( physics4 ,on a common-s5se basis1 !re=e1 ! fir/ ( ! propositions 9 :i* we h summ$ up ! behavi\ri/ philosophy mu/ be admitt$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s v important provisos :i* mu/ be m5tion$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a sci5tific obs]v] is n expect$ to note 8 integral reaction to a situation1 b only t "p ( x :i* exp]i5ce leads him to reg>d z 8objective01 i4e4 ! same z ! reaction ( any o!r compet5t obs]v]4 ,?is process ( le>n+ to note only 8objective0 features 9 our reaction is1 z we h se51 begun 9 infancy2 tra9+ 9 sci5ce only c>ries x fur!r4 ,a 8good0 obs]v] does n m5tion :at is peculi> to himself 9 8 reaction4 ,he does n say3 8,a bor+ speck ( light danc$ ab\t1 caus+ me eye-fatigue & irritation2 f9ally x settl$ at su*-&-su* a po9t40 ,he says simply3 8,! read+ 0 su*-&-su*04 ,all ?is objectivity is a result ( tra9+ & exp]i5ce4 ,"o may say1 9 fact1 t v few m5 h ! 8"r0 reaction to a sci5tific situation4 ,!re=e an imm5se am\nt ( !ory is mix$ up ) :at passes 9 sci5ce z pure obs]vation4 ,! nature & ju/ification ( ?is !ory is a matt] requir+ inve/igation4 ,9 ! second place1 we mu/ n mis9t]pret ! nature ( ! publicity 9 ! case ( physical ph5om5a4 ,! publicity consi/s 9 ! fact t a numb] ( p make closely simil> reactions at a giv5 mom5t4 ,suppose1 = example1 t twelve m5 are told to wat* a scre5 = ! appe>ance ( a bright light1 & to say 8n[0 :5 x appe>s4 ,suppose ! exp]im5t] he>s !m all j :5 he himself sees ! light2 !n he has good reason to believe t !y h ea* _h a /imulus simil> to 84 ,b physics compels u to hold t !y h _h twelve sep>ate /imuli1 s t :5 we say !y h all se5 ! same light we c only legitimately mean t _! twelve /imuli _h a common causal orig94 ,9 attribut+ our p]ceptions to a normal causal orig9 outside ourselves1 we run a c]ta9 risk ( error1 s9ce ! orig9 may be unusual3 !re may be reflection or refraction on ! way to ! eye1 !re may be an unusual condition ( ! eye or optic n]ve or bra94 ,all ^! consid]ations give a c]ta9 v small probability t1 on a giv5 occasion1 !re is n su* an outside cause z we suppose4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a numb] ( p concur ) u1 i4e4 simultane\sly h reactions :i* !y attribute to an outside cause t c be id5tifi$ ) ! "o we _h inf]r$1 !n ! probability ( error is enorm\sly dim9i%$4 ,?is is exactly ! usual case ( concurr5t te/imony4 ,if twelve m51 ea* ( :om lies e o!r "t t he speaks1 indep5d5tly te/ify t "s ev5t has occurr$1 ! odds 9 fav\r ( _! all speak+ ! tru? are #djie to #a4 ,! same sort ( argum5t %[s t our public s5ses1 :5 confirm$ by o!rs1 are probably speak+ ! tru?1 except :]e !re are s\rces ( collective illusion su* z mirage or sugge/ion4 ,9 ?is respect1 h[ev]1 !re is no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 matt]s ( ext]nal obs]vation & matt]s ( self-obs]vation4 ,suppose1 = example1 t1 = ! fir/ "t 9 y\r life1 y smell assaftida4 ,y say to y\rself 8t is a mo/ unpleasant smell04 ,n[ unpleasantness is a matt] ( self-obs]vation4 ,x may be correlat$ ) physiological conditions :i* c be obs]v$ 9 o!rs1 b x is c]ta9ly n id5tical ) ^!1 s9ce p knew t ?+s 7 pleasant & unpleasant be=e !y knew ab\t ! physiological conditions accompany+ pleasure & its opposite4 ,!re=e :5 y say 8t smell is unpleasant0 y are notic+ some?+ t does n come into ! _w ( physics z ord9>ily und]/ood4 ,y are1 h[ev]1 a read] ( psy*o-analysis1 & y h le>n$ t sometimes hate is conceal$ love & love is conceal$ hate4 ,y say to y\rself1 !re=e3 8,p]haps ,i really l ! smell ( assaftida1 b am a%am$ ( lik+ x04 ,y !re=e make y\r fri5ds smell x1 ) ! result t y soon h no fri5ds4 ,y !n try *ildr51 & f9ally *impanzees4 ,fri5ds & *ildr5 give v]bal expression to _! disgu/3 *impanzees are expressive1 ?\gh n v]bal4 ,all ^! facts lead y to /ate3 8,! smell ( assaftida is unpleasant04 ,al?\gh self-obs]vation is involv$1 ! result has ! same k9d ( c]ta9ty1 & ! same k9d ( objective v]ification1 z if x 7 "o ( ! facts t =m ! empirical basis ( physics4 7#b7 ,! second proposition1 to ! effect t ! physical sci5ces are capable ( af=d+ an explanation ( all ! publicly obs]vable facts ab\t human behavi\r1 is "o z to :i* x is possible to argue endlessly4 ,! pla9 fact is t we d n yet "k :e!r x is true or false4 ,!re is mu* to be said 9 its fav\r on g5]al sci5tific gr\nds1 p>ticul>ly if x is put =w>d1 n z a dogma1 b z a me?odological precept1 a recomm5dation to sci5tific inve/igators z to ! direction 9 :i* !y are to seek = solution ( _! problems4 ,b s long z mu* ( human behavi\r rema9s unexpla9$ 9 t]ms ( physical laws1 we _c ass]t dogmatically t !re is no residue :i* is !oretically inexplicable by ?is me?od4 ,we may say t ! tr5d ( sci5ce1 s f>1 seems to r5d] su* a view improbable1 b to say ev5 s mu* is p]haps ra%1 ?\gh1 = my "p1 ,i %\ld reg>d x z /ill m ra% to say t !re c]ta9ly is su* a residue4 ,i propose1 !re=e1 z a matt] ( argum5t1 to admit ! behavi\ri/ position on ?is po9t1 s9ce my objections to behavi\rism z an ultimate philosophy come f q a diff]5t k9d ( consid]ations4 7#c7 ,! proposition we are n[ to exam9e may be /at$ z foll[s3 8,all facts t c be kn[n ab\t human be+s are kn[n by ! same me?od by :i* ! facts ( physics are kn[n40 ,?is ,i hold to be true1 b = a reason exactly opposite to t :i* influ5ces ! behavi\ri/4 ,i hold t ! facts ( physics1 l ^? ( psy*ology1 are obta9$ by :at is really self-obs]vation1 al?\gh common s5se mi/ak5ly supposes t x is obs]vation ( ext]nal objects4 ,z we saw 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii1 y\r visual1 auditory1 & o!r p]cepts are all 9 y\r head1 f ! /&po9t ( physics4 ,!re=e1 :5 y 8see ! sun01 x is1 /rictly speak+1 an ev5t 9 y\rself t y are kn[+3 ! inf]5ce to an ext]nal cause is m or less prec>i\s1 & is on occasion mi/ak54 ,to rev]t to ! assaftida3 x is by a numb] ( self-obs]vations t y "k t ! smell ( assaftida is unpleasant1 & x is by a numb] ( self-obs]vations t y "k t ! sun is bright & w>m4 ,!re is no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! two cases4 ,"o may say t ! data ( psy*ology are ^? private facts :i* are n v directly l9k$ ) facts outside ! body1 :ile ! data ( physics are ^? private facts :i* h a v direct causal connection ) facts outside ! body4 ,?us physics & psy*ology h ! same me?od2 b ?is is r :at is commonly tak5 to be ! special me?od ( psy*ology ?an :at is reg>d$ z ! me?od ( physics4 ,we diff] f ! behavi\ri/ 9 assimilat+ physical to psy*ological me?od1 r ?an ! opposite4 7#d7 ,is !re a s\rce ( k su* z is believ$ 9 by ^? :o appeal to 8introspection08 ,accord+ to :at we h j be5 say+1 all k re/s ^u some?+ :i* might1 9 a s5se1 be call$ 8introspection04 ,nev]!less1 !re may be "s di/9ction to be discov]$4 ,i ?9k myself t ! only di/9ction ( importance is 9 ! degree ( correlation ) ev5ts outside ! body ( ! obs]v]4 ,suppose1 = example1 t a behavi\ri/ is wat*+ a rat 9 a maze1 & t a fri5d is /&+ by4 ,he says to ! fri5d 8,d y see t rat80 ,if ! fri5d says yes1 ! behavi\ri/ is engag$ 9 8 normal occupation ( obs]v+ physical occurr5ces4 ,b if ! fri5d says no1 ! behavi\ri/ exclaims1 8,i mu/ give up ?is boot-legg$ :iskey04 ,9 t case1 if 8 horror /ill p]mits him to ?9k cle>ly1 he w be oblig$ to say t 9 wat*+ ! imag9>y rat he 0 engag$ 9 introspection4 ,!re 0 c]ta9ly some?+ happ5+1 & he c\ld /ill obta9 k by obs]v+ :at 0 happ5+1 provid$ he ab/a9$ f suppos+ t x _h a cause outside 8 body4 ,b he _c1 )\t outside te/imony or "s o!r extrane\s in=mation1 di/+ui% betwe5 ! 8real0 rat & ! 8imag9>y0 "o4 ,?us 9 ! case ( ! 8real0 rat also1 8 prim>y datum ought to be consid]$ introspective1 9 spite ( ! fact t x does n seem s2 = ! datum 9 ! case ( ! 8imag9>y0 rat also does n seem to be m]ely introspective4 ,! real po9t seems to be ?is3 "s ev5ts h effects :i* radiate all r\nd !m1 & c !re=e produce reactions 9 a numb] ( obs]v]s2 ( ^!1 ord9>y spee* is an illu/ration4 ,b o!r ev5ts produce effects :i* travel l9e>ly1 n sph]ically2 ( ^!1 spee* into a telephone f a s\nd-pro( telephone box may s]ve z an illu/ration4 ,?is c be he>d by only "o p]son beside ! speak]2 if in/ead ( a speak] we _h an in/rum5t at ! m\?piece1 only "o p]son c\ld he> ! s\nd1 namely ! p]son at ! o!r end ( ! telephone4 ,ev5ts :i* happ5 inside a human body are l ! noise 9 ! telephone3 !y h effects1 9 ! ma91 :i* travel along n]ves to ! bra91 in/ead ( spread+ out 9 all directions equally4 ,consequ5tly1 a man c "k a great deal ab\t 8 own body :i* ano!r man c only "k indirectly4 ,ano!r man c see ! hole 9 my too?1 b he _c feel my too?a*e4 ,if he inf]s t ,i feel too?a*e1 he /ill does n h ! v same k t ,i h2 he may use ! same words1 b ! /imulus to 8 use ( !m is diff]5t f ! /imulus to m9e1 & ,i c be acutely aw>e ( ! pa9 :i* is ! /imulus to my words4 ,9 all ^! ways a man has k conc]n+ 8 own body :i* is obta9$ diff]5tly f ! way 9 :i* he obta9s k ( o!r bodies4 ,?is peculi> k is1 9 "o s5se1 8introspective01 ?\gh n q 9 ! s5se t ,dr4 ,watson d5ies4 7#e7 ,we come n[ to ! real crux ( ! :ole matt]1 namely to ! "q3 ,d we ?9k8 ,?is "q is v ambigu\s1 s long z 8?9k+0 has n be5 cle>ly def9$4 ,p]haps we may /ate ! matt] ?us3 ,d we "k ev5ts 9 u :i* w\ld n be includ$ 9 an absolutely complete k ( physics8 ,i mean by a complete k ( physics a k n only ( physical laws1 b also ( :at we may call geography1 i4e4 ! di/ribution ( en]gy ?r\gh\t space-"t4 ,if ! "q is put 9 ?is way1 ,i ?9k x is q cle> t we d "k ?+s n includ$ 9 physics4 ,a bl9d man c\ld "k ! :ole ( physics1 b he c\ld n "k :at ?+s look l to p :o c see1 nor :at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 r$ & blue z se54 ,he c\ld "k all ab\t wave-l5g?s1 b p knew ! diff]5ce betwe5 r$ & blue z se5 be=e !y knew any?+ ab\t wave-l5g?s4 ,! p]son :o kn[s physics & c see kn[s t a c]ta9 wave-l5g? w give him a s5sation ( r$1 b ?is k is n "p ( physics4 ,aga91 we "k :at we mean by 8pleasant0 & 8unpleasant01 & we d n "k ?is any bett] :5 we h discov]$ t pleasant ?+s h "o k9d ( physiological effect & unpleasant ?+s h ano!r4 ,if we did n already "k :at ?+s are pleasant & :at unpleasant1 we c\ld nev] h discov]$ ?is correlation4 ,b ! k t c]ta9 ?+s are pleasant & c]ta9 o!rs unpleasant is no "p ( physics4 ,f9ally1 we come to imag9ations1 halluc9ations1 & dreams4 ,9 all ^! cases1 we may suppose t !re is an ext]nal /imulus1 b ! c]ebral "p ( ! causal *a9 is unusual1 s t !re is n 9 ! outside _w some?+ connect$ ) :at we are imag9+ 9 ! same way z 9 normal p]ception4 ,yet 9 su* cases we c q cle>ly "k :at is happ5+ to u2 we c1 = example1 (t5 rememb] our dreams4 ,i ?9k dreams mu/ c\nt z 8?\ght01 9 ! s5se t !y lie outside physics4 ,!y may be accompani$ by movem5ts1 b k ( !m is n k ( ^! movem5ts4 ,inde$ all k z to movem5ts ( matt] is inf]5tial1 & ! k :i* a sci5tific man %\ld take z con/itut+ 8 prim>y data is m l our k ( dreams ?an l our k ( ! movem5ts ( rats or heav5ly bodies4 ,to ?is ext5t1 ,i %\ld say1 ,desc>tes is 9 ! "r z aga9/ ,watson4 ,watson's position seems to re/ ^u naive realism z reg>ds ! physical _w1 b naive realism is de/roy$ by :at physics itself has to say conc]n+ physical causation & ! antec$5ts ( our p]ceptions4 ,on ^! gr\nds1 ,i hold t self-obs]vation c & does give u k :i* is n "p ( physics1 & t !re is no reason to d5y ! reality ( 8?\ght04 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,images ,9 ?is *apt] we %all consid] ! "q ( images4 ,z ! read] d\btless kn[s1 "o ( ! battle-cries ( behavi\rism is 8dea? to images04 ,we _c discuss ?is "q )\t a good deal ( previ\s cle>+ ( ! gr\nd4 ,:at are 8images0 z conceiv$ by _! support]s8 ,let u take ?is "q fir/ 9 ! s5se ( try+ to "k "s ( ! ph5om5a int5d$1 & only aft]w>ds 9 ! s5se ( seek+ a =mal def9ition4 ,9 ! ord9>y s5se1 we h visual images if we %ut our eyes & call up pictures ( sc5]y or faces we h kn[n2 we h auditory images :5 we recall a tune )\t actually humm+ x2 we h tactual images :5 we look at a nice piece ( fur & ?9k h[ pleasant x w\ld be to /roke x4 ,we may ignore o!r k9ds ( images1 & conc5trate ^u ^!1 visual1 auditory1 & tactual4 ,!re is no d\bt t we h su* exp]i5ces z ,i h sugge/$ by ! above words2 ! only "q is z to h[ ^! exp]i5ces ought to be describ$4 ,!n we h ano!r set ( exp]i5ces1 namely dreams1 :i* feel l s5sations at ! mom5t1 b d n h ! same k9d ( relation to ! ext]nal _w z s5sations h4 ,dreams1 also1 indubitably occur1 & aga9 x is a "q ( analysis :e!r we are to say t !y conta9 8images0 or n4 ,! behavi\ri/ does n admit images1 b he equally does n admit s5sations & p]ceptions4 ,al?\gh he does n say s q def9itely1 he may be tak5 to ma9ta9 t !re is no?+ b matt] 9 motion4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 tackle ! "q ( images by contra/+ !m ) s5sations or p]ceptions1 unless we h fir/ cle>ly prov$ ! exi/5ce ( ^! latt] & def9$ _! *>act]i/ics4 ,n[ x w be rememb]$ t 9 ,*apt] ,v we attempt$ a behavi\ri/ def9ition ( p]ception1 & decid$ t its mo/ ess5tial feature 0 8s5sitivity04 ,t is to say1 if a p]son always has a reaction ( a c]ta9 k9d ,b :5 he has a c]ta9 spatial relation to an object ( a c]ta9 k9d ,a1 b n o!rwise1 !n we say t ! p]son is 8s5sitive0 to ,a4 ,9 ord] to obta9 f ?is a def9ition ( 8p]ception01 x is necess>y to take acc\nt ( ! law ( association2 b = ! mom5t we w ignore ?is complication1 & say t a p]son 8p]ceives0 any feature ( 8 environm5t1 or ( 8 own body1 to :i* he is s5sitive4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 z a result ( ! discussion 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi1 we c include 9 8 reaction1 n only :at o!rs c obs]ve1 b also :at he alone c obs]ve4 ,?is enl>ges ! kn[n sph]e ( p]ception1 practically if n !oretically4 ,b x leaves un*ang$ ! fact t ! ess5ce ( p]ception is a causal relation to a feature ( ! environm5t :i*1 except 9 a/ronomy1 is approximately contemporane\s ) ! p]ception1 ?\gh always at lea/ slightly e>li]1 ow+ to ! "t tak5 by light & s\nd to travel & ! int]val occupi$ 9 transmitt+ a curr5t along ! n]ves4 ,let u n[ contra/ ) ?is :at happ5s :5 y sit /ill ) y\r eyes %ut1 call+ up pictures ( places y h se5 abroad1 & p]haps ultimately fall+ asleep4 ,dr4 ,watson1 if ,i und]/& him aright1 ma9ta9s t ei!r !re is actual /imulation ( ! ret9a1 or y\r pictures are m]e ^w-pictures1 ! words be+ repres5t$ by small actual movem5ts su* z w\ld1 if magnifi$ & prolong$1 lead to actual pronunciation ( ! words4 ,n[ if y are 9 ! d>k ) y\r eyes %ut1 !re is no /imulation ( ! ret9a f )\t4 ,x may be t1 by association1 ! eye c be affect$ ?r\gh /imuli to o!r s5ses2 we h already _h an example 9 ! fact t ! pupil c be taught to contract at a l\d noise if ?is _h be5 frequ5tly exp]i5c$ along ) a bright light4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 dismiss ! idea t a /imulus to "o s5se may1 z a result ( pa/ ev5ts1 h an effect ^u ! organs ( ano!r s5se4 8,images0 might be def9able z effects produc$ 9 ?is way4 ,x may be t1 :5 y see a picture ( ,napoleon1 !re is an effect ^u y\r aural n]ves analog\s to t ( hav+ ! ^w 8,napoleon0 pron\nc$ 9 y\r pres5ce1 & t t is :y1 :5 y see ! picture1 ! ^w 8,napoleon0 comes into y\r head4 ,& simil>ly1 :5 y %ut y\r eyes & call up pictures ( =eign sc5es1 y may actually pron\nce1 completely or incipi5tly1 ! ^w 8,italy01 & ?is may1 ?r\gh association1 /imulate ! optic n]ve 9 a way m or less simil> to t 9 :i* "s actual place 9 ,italy /imulat$ x on "s =m] occasion4 ,!nce association alone may c>ry y along ?r\gh a s]ies ( j\rneys1 until at la/1 :5 y fall asleep1 y ?9k y are actually mak+ !m at ! mom5t4 ,all ?is is q possible1 b s f> z ,i "k !re is no reason to hold t x is m ?an possible1 ap>t f an a priori !ory exclud+ e o!r explanation4 ,:at ,i ?9k is cle>ly unt5able is ! view1 sometimes urg$ by ,dr4 ,watson1 t :5 we are1 z we ?9k1 see+ imag9>y pictures ) ! eyes %ut1 we are really only us+ su* words z w\ld describe !m4 ,x seems to me z c]ta9 z any?+ c be t1 :5 ,i visualise1 some?+ is happ5+ :i* is connect$ ) ! s5se ( sight4 ,= example1 ,i c call up q cle> m5tal pictures ( ! h\se 9 :i* ,i liv$ z a *ild2 if ,i am ask$ a "q z to ! furniture ( any ( ! rooms 9 t h\se1 ,i c answ] x by fir/ call+ up an image & !n look+ to see :at ! answ] is1 j z ,i %\ld look to see 9 an actual room4 ,x is q cle> to me t ! picture comes fir/ & t words aft]2 moreov]1 ! words ne$ n come at all4 ,i _c tell :at is happ5+ 9 my ret9a or optic n]ve at ^! mom5ts ( visualisation1 b ,i am q sure t some?+ is happ5+ :i* has a connection ) ! s5se ( sight t x does n h ) o!r s5ses4 ,& ,i c say ! same ( aural & tactual images4 ,if ?is belief 7 inconsi/5t ) any?+ else t seems to me equally c]ta91 ,i might be induc$ to ab&on x4 ,b s f> z ,i c see1 !re is no su* inconsi/5cy4 ,x w be rememb]$ t we decid$ 9 fav\r ( p]ceptions z ev5ts di/9ct f ^? :i* !y p]ceive1 & only causally connect$ ) !m4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no reason :y association %\ld n "w 9 ?is region z well z 9 ! region ( muscles & gl&s2 9 o!r words1 !re is no reason to d5y :at us$ to be call$ 8association ( ideas01 9 spite ( ! fact t bodily *anges c also be associat$4 ,if a physical basis is want$1 x c be assum$ to exi/ 9 ! bra94 ,! /ate ( ! bra9 :i* causes u to he> ! ^w 8,napoleon0 may become associat$ ) ! /ate ( bra9 :i* causes u to see a picture ( ,napoleon1 & ?us ! ^w & ! picture w call ea* o!r up4 ,! association may be 9 ! s5se-organs or n]ves1 b may equally well be 9 ! bra94 ,s f> z ,i "k1 !re is no conclusive evid5ce ei!r way1 nor ev5 t ! association is n purely 8m5tal40 ,:5 we try to f9d a def9ition ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 a s5sation & an image1 x is natural to look fir/ = intr9sic diff]5ces4 ,b intr9sic diff]5ces betwe5 ord9>y s5sations & ord9>y images1 = example z to 8livel9ess01 are f\nd to be subject to exceptions1 & !re=e unsuitable = purposes ( def9ition4 ,?us we are br\ght to diff]5ces z to causes & effects4 ,x is obvi\s t1 9 an ord9>y case1 y p]ceive a table because 79 "s s5se7 ! table is !re4 ,t is to say1 !re is a causal *a9 lead+ backw>ds f y\r p]ception to some?+ outside y\r body4 ,?is alone1 h[ev]1 is h>dly suffici5t z a crit]ion4 ,suppose y smell peat smoke & ?9k ( ,irel&1 y\r ?\ght c equally be trac$ to a cause outside y\r body4 ,! only real diff]5ce is t ! outside cause 7peat smoke7 w\ld n h _h ! effect 7images ( ,irel&7 ^u e normal p]son1 b only ^u su* z _h smelt peat smoke 9 ,irel&1 & n all ( !m4 ,t is to say1 ! normal c]ebral app>atus does n cause ! giv5 /imulus to produce ! giv5 effect except :]e c]ta9 previ\s exp]i5ces h occurr$4 ,?is is a v vital di/9ction4 ,"p ( :at occurs 9 u "u ! influ5ce ( a /imulus f )\t dep5ds ^u pa/ exp]i5ce2 "p does n4 ,! =m] "p includes images1 ! latt] consi/s ( pure s5sations4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 z we %all see lat]1 is inadequate z a def9ition4 ,m5tal occurr5ces :i* dep5d ^u pa/ exp]i5ce are call$ 8mnemic0 occurr5ces1 foll[+ ,semon4 ,images are ?us to be includ$ among mnemic occurr5ces1 at lea/ s f> z human exp]i5ce goes4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n suffice to def9e !m1 s9ce !re are o!rs1 e4g4 recollections4 ,:at fur!r def9es !m is _! simil>ity to s5sations4 ,?is only applies /rictly to simple images2 complex ones may occur )\t a prototype1 ?\gh all _! p>ts w h prototypes among s5sations4 ,su*1 at lea/1 is ,hume's pr9ciple1 & on ! :ole x seems to be true4 ,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be press$ beyond a po9t4 ,z a rule1 an image is m or less vague1 & has a numb] ( simil> s5sations z its prototypes4 ,?is does n prev5t ! connection ) s5sation 9 g5]al1 b makes x a connection ) a numb] ( s5sations1 n ) "o only4 ,x happ5s t1 :5 a complex ( s5sations has occurr$ at "s "t 9 a p]son's exp]i5ce1 ! recurr5ce ( "p ( ! :ole t5ds to produce images ( ! rema9+ p>ts or "s ( !m4 ,?is is association1 & has mu* to d ) memory4 ,x is common to speak ( images z 8c5trally excit$01 z oppos$ to s5sations1 :i* are excit$ by a /imulus to "s s5se organ4 ,9 ess5ce ?is is q correct1 b !re is ne$ ( "s caution 9 int]pret+ ! phrase4 ,s5sations also h proximate causes 9 ! bra92 images also may be due to "s excitem5t ( a s5se-organ1 :5 !y are r\s$ by a s5sation ?r\gh association4 ,b 9 su* cases !re is no?+ to expla9 _! occurr5ce except ! pa/ exp]i5ce & its effect on ! bra94 ,!y w n be ar\s$ by ! same /imulus 9 a p]son ) simil> s5se-organs b diff]5t pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,! connection ) pa/ exp]i5ce is cle>ly kn[n2 x is1 h[ev]1 an explanatory hypo!sis1 n directly v]ifiable 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k1 to suppose t ?is connection works ?r\gh an effect ( ! pa/ exp]i5ce on ! bra94 ,?is hypo!sis mu/ be reg>d$ z d\btful1 b x w save circumlocution to adopt x4 ,i %all !re=e n repeat1 on ea* occasion1 t we _c feel sure x is true4 ,9 g5]al1 :]e ! causal connection ) pa/ exp]i5ce is obvi\s1 we call an occurr5ce 8mnemic01 )\t imply+ ?is or t hypo!sis z to ! explanation ( mnemic ph5om5a4 ,x is p]haps wor? :ile to ask h[ we "k t images are l ! s5sations :i* are _! prototypes4 ,! difficulty ( ?is "q arises z foll[s4 ,suppose y call up an image ( ! ,brooklyn ,bridge1 & y are conv9c$ t x is l :at y see :5 y look at ,brooklyn ,bridge4 ,x w\ld seem natural to say t y "k ! lik5ess because y rememb] ,brooklyn ,bridge4 ,b rememb]+ is (t5 held to involve1 z an ess5tial elem5t1 ! occurr5ce ( an image :i* is reg>d$ z ref]r+ to a prototype4 ,unless y c rememb] )\t images1 x is difficult to see h[ y c be sure t images resemble prototypes4 ,i ?9k t 9 fact y _c be sure1 unless y c f9d "s indirect means ( comp>ison4 ,y might1 = example1 h photographs ( ,brooklyn ,bridge tak5 f a giv5 place on two diff]5t days1 & f9d !m indi/+ui%able1 %[+ t ,brooklyn ,bridge has n *ang$ 9 ! int]val4 ,y might see ,brooklyn ,bridge on ! fir/ ( ^! days1 rememb] x on ! second1 & imm$iately aft]w>ds look at x4 ,9 look+ at x1 y might f9d e detail com+ to y ) a feel+ ( expect$ness1 or y might f9d "s details com+ ) a feel+ ( surprise4 ,9 ?is case y w\ld say t y\r image _h be5 wrong z reg>ds ! details :i* 7 surpris+4 ,or1 aga91 y might make a picture ( ,brooklyn ,bridge on pap]1 f memory1 & !n comp>e x ) ! orig9al or a photograph4 ,or y might cont5t y\rself by writ+ d[n a description ( x 9 words1 & v]ify+ its accuracy by direct obs]vation4 ,innum]able me?ods ( ?is k9d c be devis$ by :i* y c te/ ! lik5ess ( an image to its prototype4 ,! result is t !re is (t5 a great lik5ess1 ?\gh seldom complete accuracy4 ,! belief 9 ! lik5ess ( an image to its prototype is1 ( c\rse1 n g5]at$ 9 ?is way1 b only te/$4 ,! belief exi/s prior to evid5ce z to its correctness1 l mo/ ( our beliefs4 ,i %all h m to say on ?is subject 9 ! next *apt]1 :i* w be conc]n$ ) memory4 ,b ,i ?9k en\gh has be5 said to %[ t x is n unreasonable to reg>d images z hav+ a great] or less degree ( resemblance to _! prototypes4 ,to claim m is h>dly ju/ifiable4 ,we c n[ rea* a def9ite conclusion ab\t p]ception1 s5sation1 & images4 ,let u imag9e a numb] ( p plac$1 z f> z possible1 9 ! same environm5t2 we w suppose t !y sit successively 9 a c]ta9 *air 9 a d>k room1 9 full view ( illum9at$ pictures ( two em95t politicians ( opposite p>ties ^: names are writt5 und]nea? !m4 ,we w suppose t all ( !m h normal eyesight4 ,_! reactions w be p>tly simil>1 p>tly diff]5t4 ,if any ( ^! obs]v]s are babies too "y to h le>nt to focus1 !y w n see %>p outl9es1 b a m]e blurr1 n f an optical defect1 b f a lack ( c]ebral control ov] muscles4 ,9 ?is respect1 exp]i5ce has an effect ev5 ^u :at mu/ c\nt z pure s5sation4 ,b ?is diff]5ce is really analog\s to ! diff]5ce betwe5 hav+ "o's eyes op5 & hav+ !m %ut2 ! diff]5ce is 9 ! s5se-organ1 al?\gh x may be due to a diff]5ce 9 ! bra94 ,we w !re=e assume t all ! spectators "k h[ to adju/ ! eyes s z to see z well z possible1 & all try to see4 ,we %all !n say t1 if ! spectators diff] z widely z is possible = normal human be+s1 :at is common to ! reactions ( all ( !m is s5sation1 provid$ x is connect$ ) ! s5se ( sight1 or1 m correctly1 provid$ x has t quality :i* we obs]ve to be common & peculi> to visual objects4 ,b probably all ( !m1 if !y are ov] ?ree mon?s old1 w h tactile images :ile !y see ! pictures4 ,& if !y are m ?an ab\t a ye> old1 !y w int]pret !m z pictures1 :i* repres5t ?ree-dim5sional objects2 be=e t age1 !y may see !m z col\r$ patt]ns1 n z repres5tations ( faces4 ,mo/ animals1 ?\gh n all1 are incapable ( int]pret+ pictures z repres5tations4 ,b 9 an adult human be+ ?is int]pretation is n delib]ate2 x has become automatic4 ,x is1 ,i ?9k1 ma9ly a "q ( tactile images3 ! images y h 9 look+ at a picture are n ^? appropriate to a smoo? flat surface1 b ^? appropriate to ! object repres5t$4 ,if ! object repres5t$ is a l>ge "o1 !re w also be images ( movem5t--walk+ r\nd ! object1 or climb+ up x1 or :at n4 ,all ^! are obvi\sly a product ( exp]i5ce1 & !re=e d n c\nt z "p ( ! s5sation4 ,?is influ5ce ( exp]i5ce is /ill m obvi\s :5 x comes to read+ ! names ( ! politicians1 consid]+ :e!r !y are good lik5esses1 & feel+ :at a f9e fell[ "o ( !m looks & :at unmitigat$ villa9y is /amp$ ^u ! features ( ! o!r4 ,none ( ?is c\nts z s5sation1 yet x is "p ( a man's spontane\s reaction to an outside /imulus4 ,x is evid5tly difficult to avoid a c]ta9 artificiality 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! effects ( exp]i5ce & ! re/ 9 a man's reaction to a /imulus4 ,p]haps we c\ld tackle ! matt] 9 a slightly diff]5t way4 ,we c di/+ui% /imuli ( diff]5t sorts3 to ! eye1 ! e>1 ! nose1 ! palate1 etc4 ,we c also di/+ui% elem5ts ( diff]5t sorts 9 ! reaction3 visual elem5ts1 auditory elem5ts1 etc4 ,! latt] are def9$1 n by ! /imulus1 b by _! intr9sic quality4 ,a visual s5sation & a visual image h a common quality :i* nei!r %>es ) an auditory s5sation or an auditory image4 ,we may !n say3 a visual image is an occurr5ce hav+ ! visual quality b n due to a /imulus to ! eye1 i4e4 n hav+ z a direct causal antec$5t ! incid5ce ( light-waves ^u ! ret9a4 ,simil>ly an auditory image w be an occurr5ce hav+ ! auditory quality b n due to s\nd-waves rea*+ ! e>1 & s on = ! o!r s5ses4 ,?is means a complete ab&onm5t ( ! attempt to di/+ui% psy*ologically betwe5 s5sations & images2 ! di/9ction becomes solely "o z to physical antec$5ts4 ,x is true t we c & d arrive at ! di/9ction )\t sci5tific physics1 because we f9d t c]ta9 elem5ts 9 our integral reactions h ! correlations t make u reg>d !m z correspond+ to some?+ ext]nal :ile o!rs d n--correlations bo? ) ! exp]i5ce ( o!rs & ) our own pa/ & future exp]i5ces4 ,b :5 we ref9e ^u ?is common-s5se di/9ction & try to make x precise1 x becomes ! di/9ction 9 t]ms ( physics z /at$ j n[4 ,we might !re=e conclude t an image is an occurr5ce hav+ ! quality associat$ ) /imulation by "s s5se-organ1 b n due to su* /imulation4 ,9 human be+s1 images seem to dep5d ^u pa/ exp]i5ce1 b p]haps 9 m in/9ctive animals !y are p>tly due to innate c]ebral me*anisms4 ,9 any case dep5d5ce ^u exp]i5ce is n ! m>k by :i* !y are to be def9$4 ,?is %[s h[ intimate is ! dep5d5ce ( traditional psy*ology ^u physics1 & h[ difficult x is to make psy*ology into an autonom\s sci5ce4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 /ill a fur!r ref9em5t necess>y4 ,:atev] is includ$ "u our pres5t def9ition is an image1 b "s ?+s n includ$ are also images4 ,! sight ( an object may br+ ) x a visual image ( "s o!r object frequ5tly associat$ ) x4 ,?is latt] is call$ an image1 n a s5sation1 because1 ?\gh also visual1 x is n appropriate to ! /imulus 9 a c]ta9 s5se3 x w\ld n appe> 9 a photograph ( ! sc5e1 or 9 a photograph ( ! ret9a4 ,?us we are =c$ to say3 ! s5sation elem5t 9 ! reaction to a /imulus is t "p :i* enables y to draw inf]5ces z to ! nature ( ! extra-c]ebral ev5t 7if any7 :i* 0 ! /imulus2#i ! re/ is images4 ,=tunately1 images & s5sations usually diff] 9 intr9sic quality2 ?is makes x possible to get an approximate idea ( ! ext]nal _w by us+ ! usual intr9sic diff]5ces1 & to correct x aft]w>ds by means ( ! /rict causal def9ition4 ,b evid5tly ! matt] is difficult & complicat$1 dep5d+ ^u physics & physiology1 n ^u pure psy*ology4 ,?is is ! ma9 ?+ to be realis$ ab\t images4 #i ,i4e4 ! imm$iate /imulus1 n ! 8physical object04 ,! above discussion has sugge/$ a def9ition ( ! ^w 8image04 ,we might h call$ an ev5t an 8image0 :5 x is recognisably ( ! same k9d z a 8p]cept01 b does n h ! /imulus :i* x w\ld h if x 7 a p]cept4 ,b if ?is def9ition is to be made satisfactory1 x w be necess>y to sub/itute a diff]5t ^w 9 place ( 8p]cept04 ,= example1 9 ! p]cept ( a visible object x w\ld be usual to include c]ta9 associat$ tactual elem5ts1 b ^! mu/1 f our po9t ( view1 c\nt z images4 ,x w be bett] to say1 !re=e1 t an 8image0 is an occurr5ce recognisably visual 7or auditory1 etc41 z ! case may be71 b n caus$ by a /imulus :i* is ( ! nature ( light 7or s\nd etc41 z ! case may be71 or at any rate only indirectly s caus$ z a result ( association4 ,) ?is def9ition1 ,i d n myself feel any d\bt z to ! exi/5ce ( images4 ,x is cle> t !y con/itute mo/ ( ! mat]ial ( dreams & day-dreams1 t !y are utilis$ by compos]s 9 mak+ music1 t we employ !m :5 we get out ( a famili> room 9 ! d>k 7?\gh "h ! rats 9 mazes make a diff]5t explanation possible71 & t !y acc\nt = ! %ock ( surprise we h :5 we take salt ?9k+ x is sug> or 7z happ5$ to me rec5tly7 v9eg> ?9k+ x is c(fee4 ,! "q ( ! causation ( images--i4e4 :e!r x is 9 ! bra9 or 9 o!r p>ts ( ! body--is n "o :i* x is necess>y to our purposes to decide1 :i* is =tunate1 s9ce1 s f> z ,i "k1 !re is n at pres5t any adequate evid5ce on ! po9t4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( images & _! resemblance to p]ception is important1 z we %all see 9 ! next *apt]4 ,images come 9 v>i\s ways1 & play v>i\s p>ts4 ,!re are ^? t come z accretions to a case ( s5sation1 :i* are n recognis$ z images except by ! psy*ologi/2 ^! =m1 = example1 ! tactual quality ( ?+s we only see1 & ! visual quality ( ?+s we only t\*4 ,i ?9k dreams belong1 9 "p1 to ?is class ( images3 "s dreams result f mis9t]pret+ "s ord9>y /imulus1 & 9 ^! cases ! images are ^? sugge/$ by a s5sation1 b sugge/$ m uncritically ?an if we 7 awake4 ,!n !re are images :i* are n atta*$ to a pres5t reality1 b to "o :i* we locate 9 ! pa/2 ^! are pres5t 9 memory1 n necess>ily always1 b sometimes4 ,!n !re are images n atta*$ to reality at all s f> z our feel+ ab\t !m goes3 images :i* m]ely float into our heads 9 rev]ie or 9 passionate desire4 ,& f9ally !re are images :i* are call$ up volunt>ily1 = example1 9 consid]+ h[ to decorate a room4 ,?is la/ k9d has its importance1 b ,i %all say no?+ m ab\t x at pres5t1 s9ce we _c pr(itably discuss x until we h decid$ :at we are to mean by ! ^w 8volunt>y04 ,! fir/ k9d1 :i* comes z an accretion to s5sation1 & gives to our feel+ ( objects a c]ta9 rotundity & full-blood$ness :i* ! /imulus alone w\ld h>dly w>rant1 has be5 consid]$ already4 ,!re=e :at rema9s = ! pres5t is ! use ( images 9 memory & imag9ation2 & ( ^! two ,i %all beg9 ) memory4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,imag9ation ,,& ,,memory ,9 ?is *apt] we h to consid] ! two topics ( imag9ation & memory4 ,! latt] has already be5 consid]$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vi1 b !re we view$ x f outside4 ,we want n[ to ask ourselves :e!r !re is any?+ fur!r to be kn[n ab\t x by tak+ acc\nt ( :at is only p]ceptible to ! p]son rememb]+4 ,z reg>ds ! "p play$ by images1 ,i d n ?9k ?is is ess5tial4 ,sometimes !re are memory-images1 sometimes n2 sometimes :5 images come 9 connection ) memory1 we may nev]!less "k t ! images are incorrect1 %[+ t we h also "s o!r & m reliable s\rce ( memory4 ,memory may dep5d ^u images1 z 9 ! case m5tion$ above1 ( ! h\se :]e ,i liv$ z a *ild4 ,b x may also be purely v]bal4 ,i am a poor visualis]1 except = ?+s ,i saw be=e ,i 0 t5 ye>s old2 :5 n[ ,i meet a man & wi% to rememb] 8 appe>ance1 ,i f9d t ! only way is to describe him 9 words :ile ,i am see+ him1 & !n rememb] ! words4 ,i say to myself3 8,?is man has blue eyes & a br[n be>d & a small nose2 he is %ort1 ) a r\nd$ back & slop+ %\ld]s04 ,i c rememb] ^! words = mon?s1 & recognise ! man by means ( !m1 unless two m5 hav+ ^! *>act]i/ics are pres5t at once4 ,9 ?is respect1 a visualis] w\ld h ! advantage ( me4 ,nev]!less1 if ,i _h made my v]bal inv5tory suffici5tly ext5sive & precise1 x w\ld h be5 pretty sure to answ] its purpose4 ,i d n ?9k !re is any?+ 9 memory t absolutely dem&s images z oppos$ to words4 ,:e!r ! words we use 9 8?\ght0 are !mselves sometimes images ( words1 or are always incipi5t movem5ts 7z ,watson cont5ds71 is a fur!r "q1 z to :i* ,i (f] no op9ion1 s9ce x ought to be capable ( be+ decid$ exp]im5tally4 ,! mo/ important po9t ab\t memory is "o :i* has no?+ to d ) images1 & is n m5tion$ 9 ,watson's brief discussion4 ,i mean ! ref]5ce to ! pa/4 ,?is ref]5ce to ! pa/ is n involv$ 9 m]e habit memory1 e4g4 9 skat+ or 9 repeat+ a poem =m]ly le>n$4 ,b x is involv$ 9 recollection ( a pa/ incid5t4 ,we d n1 9 ?is case1 m]ely repeat :at we did be=e3 !n1 we felt ! incid5t z pres5t1 b n[ we feel x z pa/4 ,?is is %[n 9 ! use ( ! pa/ t5se4 ,we say to ourselves at ! "t 8,i am hav+ a good d9n]01 b next day we say 8,i did h a good d9n]04 ,?us we d n1 l a rat 9 a maze1 repeat our previ\s p]=mance3 we alt] ! v]bal =mula4 ,:y d we d s8 ,:at con/itutes ?is ref]5ce ( a recollection to ! pa/8#aj #aj ,on ?is subject1 cf4 ,broad1 ,! ,m9d & ,its ,place 9 ,nature1 p4 #bfd ff41 9 8 *apt] on 8,memory04 ,let u take up ! "q fir/ f ! po9t ( view ( s5sitivity4 ,! /imulus to a recollection is1 no d\bt1 always some?+ 9 ! pres5t1 b our reaction 7or "p ( x7 is m intimately relat$ to a c]ta9 pa/ ev5t ?an to ! pres5t /imulus4 ,?is1 9 itself1 c be p>allel$ 9 inanimate objects1 = example1 9 a gramophone record4 ,x is n ! lik5ess ( our reaction to t call$ =? on a =m] occasion t conc]ns u at ! mom5t2 x is its un-lik5ess1 9 ! fact t n[ we h ! feel+ ( pa/ness1 :i* we did n h orig9ally4 ,y _c s+ into a dictaphone 8,i love y01 & h x say five days h5ce 8,i lov$ y la/ ,w$nesday02 yet t is :at we d :5 we rememb]4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t ?is feature ( memory is probably connect$ ) a feature ( reactions due to association :5 ! association is c]ebral3 ,i ?9k also t ?is is connect$ ) ! diff]5ce 9 quality t exi/s usually1 ?\gh n always1 betwe5 images & s5sations4 ,x w\ld seem t1 9 su* cases1 ! reaction ar\s$ ?r\gh association is usually diff]5t f t :i* w\ld h be5 ar\s$ directly1 9 c]ta9 def9ite ways4 ,x is fa9t]1 & has1 :5 att5d$ to1 ! sort ( quality t makes u call x 8imag9>y04 ,9 a c]ta9 class ( cases1 we come to "k t we c make x 8real0 if we *oose2 ?is applies1 e4g4 to ! tactual images produc$ by visible objects t we c t\*4 ,9 su* cases1 ! image is atta*$ by u to ! object1 & its 8imag9>y0 "* fails to be notic$4 ,^! are ! cases 9 :i* ! association is n due to "s accid5t ( our exp]i5ce1 b to a collocation :i* exi/s 9 nature4 ,9 o!r cases1 h[ev]1 we are p]fectly aw>e1 if we reflect1 t ! association dep5ds ^u "s circum/ance 9 our private lives4 ,we may1 = in/ance1 h _h a v int]e/+ conv]sation at a c]ta9 spot1 & always ?9k ( ?is conv]sation :5 we f9d ourselves 9 ?is place4 ,b we "k t ! conv]sation does n actually take place aga9 :5 we g back to :]e x happ5$4 ,9 su* a case1 we notice ! intr9sic diff]5ce betwe5 ! ev5t z a s5sible fact 9 ! pres5t & ! ev5t z m]ely reviv$ by association4 ,i ?9k ?is diff]5ce has to d ) our feel+ ( pa/ness4 ,! diff]5ce :i* we c directly obs]ve is n1 ( c\rse1 betwe5 our pres5t recollection & ! pa/ conv]sation1 b betwe5 our pres5t recollection & pres5t s5sible facts4 ,?is diff]5ce1 comb9$ ) ! inconsi/5cy ( our recollection ) pres5t facts if our recollection 7 plac$ 9 ! pres5t1 is p]haps a cause ( our ref]r+ memories to ! pa/4 ,b ,i (f] ?is sugge/ion ) hesitation2 &1 z we %all f9d :5 we h exam9$ imag9ation1 x _c be ! :ole tru?1 ?\gh x may be "p ( x4 ,!re are "s facts t t5d to support ! above view4 ,9 dreams1 :5 our critical faculty is 9 abeyance1 we may live pa/ ev5ts ov] aga9 "u ! impression t !y are actually happ5+2 ! ref]5ce ( recollections to ! pa/ mu/1 !re=e1 be a matt] involv+ a some:at advanc$ type ( m5tal activity4 ,conv]sely1 we sometimes h ! impression t :at is happ5+ n[ really happ5$ 9 ! pa/2 ?is is a well-kn[n & mu* discuss$ illusion4 ,x happ5s especially :5 we are pr(\ndly absorb$ 9 "s inw>d /ruggle or emotion1 s t out] ev5ts only p5etrate fa9tly4 ,i sugge/ t1 9 ^! circum/ances1 ! quality ( s5sations approximates to t ( images1 & t ?is is ! s\rce ( ! illusion4 ,if ?is sugge/ion is "r1 ! feel+ ( pa/ness is really complex4 ,some?+ is sugge/$ by association1 b is recognisably diff]5t f a pres5t s5sible occurr5ce4 ,we !re=e d n suppose t ?is some?+ is happ5+ n[2 & we may be confirm$ 9 ?is by ! fact t x is inconsi/5t ) some?+ t is happ5+ n[4 ,we may !n ei!r ref] ! some?+ to ! pa/1 9 :i* case we h a recollection1 ?\gh n necess>ily a correct "o2 or we may reg>d ! some?+ z purely imag9>y1 9 :i* case we h :at we reg>d z pure imag9ation4 ,x rema9s to inquire :y we d sometimes ! "o & sometimes ! o!r1 :i* br+s u to ! discussion ( imag9ation4 ,i ?9k we %all f9d t memory is m fundam5tal ?an imag9ation1 & t ! latt] consi/s m]ely ( memories ( diff]5t dates assembl$ toge!r4 ,b to support ?is !ory w dem& fir/ an analysis ( imag9ation & !n1 9 ! light ( ?is analysis1 an attempt to give fur!r precision to our !ory ( memory4 ,imag9ation is n1 z ! ^w might sugge/1 ess5tially connect$ ) images4 ,no d\bt images are (t51 ev5 usually1 pres5t :5 we imag9e1 b !y ne$ n be4 ,a man c improvise on ! piano )\t fir/ hav+ images ( ! music he is go+ to make2 a poet might write d[n a poem )\t fir/ mak+ x up 9 8 head4 ,9 talk+1 words sugge/ o!r words1 & a man ) suffici5t v]bal associations may be successfully c>ri$ along by !m = a consid]able "t4 ,! art ( talk+ )\t ?9k+ is p>ticul>ly necess>y to public speak]s1 :o mu/ g on :5 once !y are on _! feet1 & gradually acquire ! habit ( behav+ 9 private z !y d be=e an audi5ce4 ,yet ! /atem5ts !y make mu/ be admitt$ to be (t5 imag9ative4 ,! ess5ce ( imag9ation1 !re=e1 does n lie 9 images4 ,! ess5ce ( imag9ation1 ,i %\ld say1 is ! abs5ce ( belief toge!r ) a novel comb9ation ( kn[n elem5ts4 ,9 memory1 :5 x is correct1 ! comb9ation ( elem5ts is n novel2 & :e!r correct or n1 !re is belief4 ,i say t 9 imag9ation !re is 8a novel comb9ation ( kn[n elem5ts01 because1 if no?+ is novel1 we h a case ( memory1 :ile if ! elem5ts1 or any ( !m1 are novel1 we h a case ( p]ception4 ,?is la/ ,i say because ,i accept ,hume's pr9ciple t !re is no 8idea0 )\t an antec$5t 8impression04 ,i d n mean t ?is is to be appli$ 9 a bl9d & p$antic mann]1 :]e ab/ract ideas are conc]n$4 ,i %\ld n ma9ta9 t no "o c h an idea ( lib]ty until he has se5 ! ,/atue ( ,lib]ty4 ,! pr9ciple applies r to ! realm ( images4 ,i c]ta9ly d n ?9k t1 9 an image1 !re c be any elem5t :i* does n resemble "s elem5t 9 a previ\s p]ception1 9 ! di/9ctive mann] ( images4 ,hume made himself an unnecess>y difficulty 9 reg>d to ! !ory t images 8copy0 impressions4 ,he ask$ ! "q3 ,suppose a man has se5 all ! diff]5t %ades ( col\r t g to make up ! spectrum1 except j "o %ade4 ,to put ! ?+ 9 mod]n language1 suppose he has nev] se5 light ( a c]ta9 small range ( wave-l5g?s1 b has se5 light ( all o!r wave-l5g?s4 ,w he be able to =m an image ( ! %ade he has nev] se58 ,hume ?9ks he w1 al?\gh ?is contradicts ! pr9ciple4 ,i %\ld say t images are always m or less vague copies ( impressions1 s t an image might be reg>d$ z a copy ( any "o ( a numb] ( diff]5t impressions ( slightly diff]5t %ades4 ,9 ord] to get a te/ case = ,hume's "q1 we %\ld h to suppose t !re 0 a broad b& ( ! spectrum t ! man _h nev] se5--say ! :ole ( ! yell[4 ,he w\ld !n1 "o may suppose1 be able to =m images :i*1 ow+ to vagu5ess1 might be applicable to orange-yell[1 & o!rs applicable to gre5-yell[1 b none applicable to a yell[ midway betwe5 orange & gre54 ,?is is an example ( an unreal puzzle manufactur$ by =gett+ vagu5ess4 ,x is analog\s to ! foll[+ pr(\nd problem3 ,a man =m]ly hairy is n[ bald2 he lo/ 8 hairs "o by "o2 !re=e !re mu/ h be5 j "o hair t made ! diff]5ce1 s t :ile he _h x he 0 n bald b :5 he lo/ x he 04 ,( c\rse 8baldness0 is a vague conception2 & s is 8copy+01 :5 we are speak+ ( ! way 9 :i* images copy prototypes4 ,:at causes u1 9 imag9ation1 to put elem5ts toge!r 9 a new way8 ,let u ?9k fir/ ( concrete in/ances4 ,y read t a %ip has gone d[n on a r\te by :i* y h lately travell$2 v little imag9ation is ne$$ to g5]ate ! ?\ght 8,i might h gone d[n04 ,:at happ5s "h is obvi\s3 ! r\te is associat$ bo? ) y\rself & ) %ipwreck1 & y m]ely elim9ate ! middle t]m4 ,lit]>y ability is l>gely an ext5sion ( ! practice ( :i* ! above is a v humble example4 ,take1 say3 ,& all our ye/]days h light$ fools ,! way to du/y dea?4 ,out1 out1 brief c&le6 ,life's b a walk+ %ad[1 a poor play] ,:o /ruts & frets 8 h\r ^u ! /age1 ,& !n is he>d no m4 ,x is a tale ,told by an idiot1 full ( s\nd & fury ,signify+ no?+4 ,i d n pret5d to expla9 all ! associations :i* l$ ,%akespe>e to ?9k ( ^! l9es1 b "s few are obvi\s4 8,du/y dea?0 is sugge/$ by ,g5esis iii4 #ai3 8,du/ ?\ art1 & unto du/ %alt ?\ return04 ,hav+ spok5 ( 8light+ fools ! way01 x is natural to ?9k ( a 8c&le01 & !nce ( a 8walk+ %ad[0 be+ light$ by ! c&le along ! way4 ,f %ad[s to play]s 0 a well-e/abli%$ association 9 ,%akespe>e's m9d2 ?us 9 ,midsumm] ,night's ,dream he says ( play]s3 8,! be/ 9 ?is k9d are b %ad[s1 & ! wor/ are no worse1 if imag9ation am5d !m04 ,f a 8poor play]0 to a 8tale told by an idiot0 is no v difficult transition = a !atre-manag]2 & 8s\nd & fury0 no d\bt (t5 =m$ "p ( ! tales to :i* he _h to li/5 9 spite ( _! 8signify+ no?+04 ,if we knew m ab\t ,%akespe>e1 we c\ld expla9 m ( him 9 ?is sort ( way4 ,?us exceptional imag9ative gifts appe> to dep5d ma9ly ^u associations t are unusual & h an emotional value ow+ to ! fact t !re is a c]ta9 uni=m emotional tone ab\t !m4 ,_m adjectives are suitable to dea?3 9 a mood q diff]5t f ,macbe?'s1 x may be call$ 8noble1 puissant & mighty04 ,a ,*ancellor ( ! ,ex*equ]1 ?9k+ ( ! ,dea? ,duties1 might feel incl9$ to speak ( 8lucrative dea?02 nev]!less he w\ld n1 l ,vaughan1 speak ( 8de>1 beaute\s dea?04 ,%akespe>e also w\ld n h spok5 ( dea? 9 su* t]ms1 = 8 view ( x 0 pagan2 he speaks ( 8t *url dea?04 ,s a man's v]bal associations may af=d a key to 8 emotional reactions1 = (t5 :at connects two words 9 8 m9d is ! fact t !y r\se simil> emotions4 ,! abs5ce ( belief t accompanies imag9ation is a some:at sophi/icat$ product2 x fails 9 sleep & 9 /rong & emotional excitem5t4 ,*ildr5 inv5t t]rors = fun1 & !n beg9 to believe 9 !m4 ,! /ate ( ent]ta9+ an idea )\t believ+ x is "o involv+ "s t5sion1 :i* dem&s a c]ta9 level ( intellectual developm5t4 ,x may be assum$ t imag9ation1 at fir/1 always involv$ belief1 z x /ill does 9 dreams4 ,i am n conc]n$ at ! mom5t to def9e 8belief01 b a crit]ion is influ5ce on action4 ,if ,i say 8suppose !re 7 a tig] outside y\r front door01 y w rema9 calm2 b if ,i say1 ) su* a mann] z to comm& belief1 8!re is a tig] outside y\r front door01 y w /ay at home1 ev5 if x involves miss+ y\r tra9 to ! (fice4 ,?is illu/rates :at ,i mean :5 ,i say t imag9ation1 9 its develop$ =m1 involves abs5ce ( belief4 ,b ?is is n true ( its primitive =ms4 ,& ev5 a civilis$ adult1 pass+ ?r\gh a *ur*y>d on a d>k night1 may feel fe> if 8 imag9ation turns 9 ! direction ( gho/s4 ,:5 imag9ation passes into belief1 x does n1 z a rule1 become a belief ab\t ! pa/4 ,g5]ally we place ! imag9$ object 9 ! pres5t1 b n :]e x w\ld be p]ceptible to our s5ses4 ,if we place x 9 ! pa/1 x is because ! pa/ has "s great emotional significance = u4 ,if a p]son we love has be5 9 great dang]1 & we d n "k :e!r he has come ?r\gh safely1 imag9ation ( 8 dea? may lead u to believe t he has be5 kill$4 ,& (t5 imag9ation leads u to believe t some?+ is go+ to happ54 ,:at is common to all su* cases is ! emotional int]e/3 ?is fir/ causes u to imag9e an ev5t1 & !n leads u to ?9k t x has happ5$1 is happ5+1 or w happ51 accord+ to ! circum/ances4 ,hope & fe> h ?is effect equally2 wi%-fulfilm5t & dread-fulfilm5t are equally s\rces ( dreams & day-dreams4 ,a great _m beliefs h a s\rce ( ?is k9d4 ,b1 9 spite ( psy*o-analysis1 !re are a great _m t h a m rational f\ndation4 ,i believe t ,columbus fir/ cross$ ! ocean 9 #adib1 ?\gh #adia or #adic w\ld h suit$ me j z well4 ,i _c discov] t !re is any emotional elem5t 9 ?is belief1 or 9 ! belief t ,semipalat9sk is 9 ,c5tral ,asia4 ,! view t all our beliefs are irrational is p]haps some:at ov]done n[adays1 ?\gh x is f> m ne>ly true ?an ! views t x has displac$4 ,we mu/ n[ return to ! subject ( memory4 ,memory prop] does n1 l imag9ation1 involve a re-arrangem5t ( elem5ts d]iv$ f pa/ exp]i5ce2 on ! contr>y1 x %\ld re/ore su* elem5ts 9 ! patt]n 9 :i* !y occurr$4 ,?is is ! vital diff]5ce betwe5 memory & imag9ation2 belief1 ev5 belief involv+ ref]5ce to ! pa/1 may1 z we h se51 be pres5t 9 :at is really imag9ation ?\gh x may n seem to be s to ! p]son conc]n$4 ,t be+ s1 we /ill h to consid] :at con/itutes ! ref]5ce to ! pa/1 s9ce ! view t5tatively sugge/$ be=e we _h consid]$ imag9ation turns out to be inadequate4 ,!re is "o possible view1 sugge/$1 ?\gh n def9itely adopt$1 by ,dr4 ,broad 9 8 *apt] on 8,memory0 already ref]r$ to4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 we h to />t f temporal succession z p]ceiv$ )9 :at is call$ ! 8speci\s pres5t01 i4e4 a %ort p]iod ( "t su* t ! ev5ts t occur ?r\gh\t x c be p]ceiv$ toge!r4 7,i %all return to ?is subject pres5tly47 ,= example1 y c see a quick movem5t z a :ole2 y are n m]ely aw>e t ! object 0 fir/ 9 "o place & !n 9 ano!r4 ,y c see ! movem5t ( ! second-h& ( a wat*1 b n ( ! h\r-h& or m9ute-h&4 ,:5 y see a movem5t 9 ?is s5se1 y are aw>e t "o "p ( x is e>li] ?an ano!r4 ,?us y acquire ! idea 8e>li]01 & y c mean by 8pa/0 8e>li] ?an ?is01 :]e 8?is0 is :at is actually happ5+4 ,?is is a logically possible !ory1 b x seems nev]!less some:at difficult to believe4 ,i d n "k1 h[ev]1 ( any easi] !ory1 & ,i %all !re=e adopt x provisionally :ile wait+ = some?+ bett]4 ,= ! und]/&+ ( memory1 x is a help to consid] ! l9ks connect+ its mo/ develop$ =ms ) o!r occurr5ces ( a less complex k9d4 ,true recollection comes at ! end ( a s]ies ( /ages4 ,i %all di/+ui% five /ages on ! way1 s t recollection becomes ! six? 9 gradual progress4 ,! /ages are z foll[s3 #a4 ,images4--,z we h se51 images1 at any rate 9 _! simpl] p>ts1 9 fact copy pa/ s5sations m or less vaguely1 ev5 :5 !y are n kn[n to d s4 ,images are 8mnemic0 ph5om5a1 9 ! s5se t !y are call$ up by /imuli =m]ly associat$ ) _! prototypes1 s t _! occurr5ce is a result ( pa/ exp]i5ce accord+ to ! law ( association4 ,b obvi\sly an image :i* 9 fact copies a pa/ occurr5ce does n con/itute a recollection unless x is felt to be a copy4 #b4 ,famili>ity4--,images & p]ceptions may come to u1 & s may words or o!r bodily movem5ts1 ) m or less ( ! feel+ we call 8famili>ity04 ,:5 y recall a tune t y h he>d be=e1 ei!r by images or by actually s++ x1 "p ( :at comes to y may feel famili>1 "p unfamili>4 ,?is may lead y to judge t y h rememb]$ ! famili> "p rightly & ! unfamili> "p wrongly1 b ?is judgm5t belongs to a lat] /age4 #c4 ,habit-,memory4--,we h already discuss$ ?is 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,p say !y rememb] a poem if !y c repeat x correctly4 ,b ?is does n necess>ily involve any recollection ( a pa/ occurr5ce2 y may h q =gott5 :5 & :]e y read ! poem4 ,?is sort ( memory is m]e habit1 & is ess5tially l kn[+ h[ to walk al?\gh y _c rememb] le>n+ to walk4 ,?is does n des]ve to be call$ memory 9 ! /rict s5se4 #d4 ,recognition4--,?is has two =ms4 7a7 ,:5 y see a dog1 y c say to y\rself 8!re is a dog01 )\t recall+ any case 9 :i* y h se5 a dog be=e1 & ev5 )\t reflect+ t !re h be5 su* cases4 ,?is involves no k ab\t ! pa/2 ess5tially x is only an associative habit4 7b7 ,y may "k 8,i saw ?is be=e01 ?\gh y d n "k :5 or :]e1 & _c recollect ! previ\s occurr5ce 9 any way4 ,9 su* a case !re is k ab\t ! pa/1 b x is v slight4 ,:5 y judge3 8,i saw ?is be=e01 ! ^w 8?is0 mu/ be us$ vaguely1 because y did n see exactly :at y see n[1 b only some?+ v l ?is4 ,?us all t y are really kn[+ is t1 on "s pa/ occasion1 y saw some?+ v l :at y are see+ n[4 ,?is is ab\t ! m9imum ( k ab\t ! pa/ t actually occurs4 #e4 ,imm$iate ,memory4--,i come n[ to a region int]m$iate betwe5 s5sation & true memory1 ! region ( :at is sometimes call$ 8imm$iate memory04 ,:5 a s5se-organ is /imulat$1 x does n1 on ! cessation ( ! /imulus1 return at once to its un/imulat$ condition3 x goes on 7s to speak7 vibrat+1 l a piano-/r+1 = a %ort "t4 ,= example1 :5 y see a fla% ( lightn+1 y\r s5sation1 brief z x is1 la/s mu* long] ?an ! lightn+ z a physical occurr5ce4 ,!re is a p]iod dur+ :i* a s5sation is fad+3 x is !n call$ an 8acoleu?ic0 s5sation4 ,x is ow+ to ?is fact t y c see a movem5t z a :ole4 ,z obs]v$ be=e1 y _c see ! m9ute-h& ( a wat* mov+1 b y c see ! second-h& mov+4 ,t is because x is 9 sev]al appreciably diff]5t places )9 ! %ort "t t is requir$ = "o visual s5sation to fade1 s t y d actually1 at "o mom5t1 see x 9 sev]al places4 ,! fad+ s5sations1 h[ev]1 feel diff]5t f ^? t are fre%1 & ?us ! v>i\s positions :i* are all s5sibly pres5t are plac$ 9 a s]ies by ! degree ( fad+1 & y acquire ! p]ception ( movem5t z a process4 ,exactly ! same consid]ations apply to he>+ a spok5 s5t5ce4 ,?us n only an in/ant1 b a %ort f9ite "t is s5sibly pres5t to y at any mom5t4 ,?is %ort f9ite "t is call$ ! 8speci\s pres5t04 ,by ! felt degree ( fad+1 y c di/+ui% e>li] & lat] 9 ! speci\s pres5t1 & ?us exp]i5ce temporal succession )\t ! ne$ ( true memory4 ,if y see me quickly move my arm f left to "r1 y h an exp]i5ce :i* is q diff]5t f :at y w\ld h if y n[ saw x at ! "r & rememb]$ t a little :ile ago y saw x at ! left4 ,! diff]5ce is t1 9 ! quick movem5t1 ! :ole falls )9 ! speci\s pres5t1 s t ! entire process is s5sible4 ,! k ( some?+ z 9 ! imm$iate pa/1 ?\gh /ill s5sible1 is call$ 8imm$iate memory04 ,x has great importance 9 connection ) our appreh5sion ( temporal processes1 b _c c\nt z a =m ( true memory4 #f4 ,true ,recollection4--,we w suppose1 = ! sake ( def9it5ess1 t ,i am rememb]+ :at ,i _h = breakfa/ ?is morn+4 ,!re are two que/ions :i* we mu/ ask ab\t ?is occurr5ce3 7a7 ,:at is happ5+ n[ :5 ,i recollect8 7b7 ,:at is ! relation ( ! pres5t happ5+ to ! ev5t rememb]$8 ,z to :at is happ5+ n[1 my recollection may involve ei!r images or words2 9 ! latt] case1 ! words !mselves may be m]ely imag9$4 ,i w take ! case 9 :i* !re are images )\t words1 :i* mu/ be ! m primitive1 s9ce we _c suppose t memory w\ld be impossible )\t words4 ,! fir/ po9t is "o :i* seems s obvi\s t ,i %\ld be a%am$ to m5tion x1 b = ! fact t _m di/+ui%$ philosoph]s ?9k o!rwise4 ,! po9t is ?is3 :atev] may be happ5+ n[1 ! ev5t rememb]$ is n happ5+4 ,memory is (t5 spok5 ( z if x involv$ ! actual p]si/5ce ( ! pa/ :i* is rememb]$2 ,b]gson1 e4g4 speaks ( ! int]p5etration ( ! pres5t by ! pa/4 ,?is is m]e my?ology2 ! ev5t :i* occurs :5 ,i rememb] is q diff]5t f ! ev5t rememb]$4 ,p :o are />v+ c rememb] _! la/ meal1 b ! recollection does n appease _! hung]4 ,!re is no my/ic survival ( ! pa/ :5 we rememb]2 m]ely a new ev5t hav+ a c]ta9 relation to ! old "o4 ,:at ?is relation is1 we %all consid] pres5tly4 ,x is q cle> t images are n en\gh to con/itute recollection1 ev5 :5 !y are accurate copies ( a pa/ occurr5ce4 ,"o may1 9 a dream1 live ov] aga9 a pa/ exp]i5ce2 :ile "o is dream+1 "o does n seem to be recall+ a previ\s occurr5ce1 b liv+ ?r\gh a fre% exp]i5ce4 ,we _c be said to be rememb]+1 9 ! /rict s5se1 unless we h a belief ref]r+ to ! pa/4 ,images :i*1 l ^? 9 dreams1 feel z if !y 7 s5sations1 d n con/itute recollection4 ,!re mu/ be "s feel+ :i* makes u ref] ! images to a pa/ prototype4 ,p]haps famili>ity is en\gh to cause u to d s4 ,& p]haps ?is also expla9s ! exp]i5ce ( try+ to rememb] some?+ & feel+ t we are n rememb]+ x "r4 ,p>ts ( a complex image may feel m famili> ?an o!r p>ts1 & we !n feel m confid5ce 9 ! correctness ( ! famili> p>ts ?an 9 t ( ! o!rs4 ,! conviction t ! image we are =m+ ( a pa/ ev5t is wrong might seem to imply t we mu/ be kn[+ ! pa/ o!rwise ?an by images1 b ,i d n ?9k ?is conclusion is really w>rant$1 s9ce degrees ( famili>ity 9 images suffice to expla9 ?is exp]i5ce4 7b7 ,:at is ! relation ( ! pres5t happ5+ to ! ev5t rememb]$8 ,if we recollect correctly1 ! sev]al images w h t k9d ( resemblance ( quality :i* images c h to _! prototypes1 & _! /ructure & relations w be id5tical ) ^? ( _! prototypes4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 y want to rememb] :e!r1 9 a c]ta9 room1 ! w9d[ is to ! "r or left ( ! door z view$ f ! fireplace4 ,y c obs]ve y\r image ( ! room1 consi/+ 7int] alia7 ( an image ( ! door & an image ( ! w9d[ /&+ 7if y\r recollection is correct7 9 ! same relation z :5 y are actually see+ ! room4 ,memory w consi/ 9 atta*+ to ?is complex image ! sort ( belief t ref]s to ! pa/2 & ! correctness ( memory consi/s ( simil>ity ( quality & id5tity ( /ructure betwe5 ! complex image & a previ\s p]ception4 ,z = ! tru/wor?9ess ( memory1 !re are two ?+s to be said4 ,tak5 z a :ole1 memory is "o ( ! indep5d5t s\rces ( our k2 t is to say1 !re is no way ( arriv+ at ! ?+s we "k ?r\gh memory by any argum5t :olly d]iv$ f ?+s kn[n o!rwise4 ,b no s+le memory is oblig$ to /& alone1 because x fits1 or does n fit1 into a sy/em ( k ab\t ! pa/ bas$ ^u ! sum-total ( memories4 ,:5 :at is rememb]$ is a p]ception by "o or m ( ! public s5ses1 o!r p may corroborate x4 ,ev5 :5 x is private1 x may be confirm$ by o!r evid5ce4 ,y may rememb] t y _h a too?a*e ye/]day1 & t y saw ! d5ti/ to-day2 ! latt] fact may be confirm$ by an entry 9 y\r di>y4 ,all ^! make a consi/5t :ole1 & ea* increases ! likelihood ( ! o!r4 ,?us we c te/ ! tru? ( any p>ticul> recollection1 ?\gh n ( memory z a :ole4 ,to say t we _c te/ ! tru? ( memory z a :ole is n to give a reason = d\bt+ x1 b m]ely to say t x is an indep5d5t s\rce ( k1 n :olly replaceable by o!r s\rces4 ,we "k t our memory is fallible1 b we h no reason to di/ru/ x on ! :ole aft] suffici5t c>e 9 v]ification has be5 tak54 ,! causation ( p>ticul> acts ( recollection seems to be :olly associative4 ,some?+ 9 ! pres5t is v l some?+ 9 ! pa/1 & calls up ! context ( ! pa/ occurr5ce 9 ! %ape ( images or words2 :5 att5tion falls ^u ?is context1 we believe t x occurr$ 9 ! pa/1 n z m]e images1 & we !n h an act ( recollection4 ,!re are _m difficult problems connect$ ) memory :i* ,i h n discuss$1 because !y h an int]e/ :i* is m purely psy*ological ?an philosophical4 ,x is memory z a s\rce ( k t specially conc]ns ! philosoph]4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,! ,,introspective ,,analysis ,,( ,,p]ception ,we h consid]$ p]ception already f ! behavi\ri/ /&po9t1 & also f t ( physics4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] we are to consid] x f ! /&po9t ( self-obs]vation1 ) a view to discov]+ z mu* z we c ab\t ! intr9sic "* ( ! ev5t 9 u :5 we p]ceive4 ,i %all beg9 ) c]ta9 traditional doctr9es z to m5tal ev5ts1 & %all !nce pass to ! doctr9es t ,i wi% to advocate4 ,! words 8m9d0 & 8matt]0 are us$ glibly1 bo? by ord9>y p & by philosoph]s1 )\t any adequate attempt at def9ition4 ,philosoph]s are mu* to blame = ?is4 ,my own feel+ is t !re is n a %>p l9e1 b a diff]5ce ( degree2 an oy/] is less m5tal ?an a man1 b n :olly un-m5tal4 ,& ,i ?9k 8m5tal0 is a "*1 l 8h>moni\s0 or 8discordant01 t _c belong to a s+le entity 9 its own "r1 b only to a sy/em ( entities4 ,b be=e def5d+ ?is view1 ,i wi% to sp5d "s "t on ! !ories t h be5 curr5t 9 ! pa/4 ,traditionally1 !re are two ways ( becom+ aw>e t some?+ exi/s1 "o by ! s5ses1 ! o!r by :at is call$ 8introspection01 or :at ,kant call$ ! 8inn] s5se04 ,by means ( introspection1 x is ma9ta9$1 we become aw>e ( occurr5ces q diff]5t 9 k9d f ^? p]ceiv$ ?r\gh ! out] s5ses4 ,occurr5ces kn[n ?r\gh introspection are traditionally call$ 8m5tal01 & s are any o!r occurr5ces :i* intr9sically resemble !m4 ,m5tal occurr5ces are traditionally ( ?ree ma9 types1 call$ kn[+1 will+1 & feel+4 8,feel+01 9 ?is connection1 means pleasure & unpleasure--we d n say 8pleasure & pa901 because 8pa90 is an ambigu\s ^w3 x may /& = pa9ful s5sation1 z :5 y say 8,i h a pa9 9 my too?01 or x may /& = ! unpleasant "* ( ! s5sation4 ,r\ghly pleasure is a quality :i* makes y want an exp]i5ce to cont9ue1 & unpleasure is ! opposite quality :i* makes y want an exp]i5ce to /op4 ,h[ev]1 ,i am n conc]n$ to enl>ge ^u feel+ at pres5t4 ,z = ! o!r two k9ds ( m5tal occurr5ce1 8kn[+0 & 8will+0 are recognis$ z too n>r[ to describe :at is meant4 ,philosoph]s wi% to include n only k b also error1 & n only ! sort ( k t is express$ 9 beliefs b also ! sort t occurs 9 p]ception4 ,! ^w 8cognition0 or 8cognitive /ate0 is us$ to cov] ev]y?+ t c\ld possibly be describ$ z ei!r k or error2 p]ception is prima facie includ$1 b pure s5sation is m debatable4 8,will+01 aga91 is too n>r[ a t]m4 ,a t]m is requir$ :i* w include desire & av]sion1 & g5]ally ^? /ates ( m9d :i* lead up to action4 ,^! are all includ$ "u ! head ( 8conation01 a te*nical t]m inv5t$ = ?is special purpose4 ,cognition & conation bo? h1 9 ! or?odox !ory1 ! prop]ty ( be+ direct$ to an object4 ,:at y p]ceive or believe1 :at y desire or w1 is some?+ diff]5t f y\r /ate ( m9d4 ,to take in/ances3 y rememb] a pa/ ev5t1 b y\r rememb]+ occurs n[2 !re=e y\r rememb]+ is a diff]5t occurr5ce f :at y rememb]4 ,y w to move y\r arm1 b ! movem5t is a physical occurr5ce1 & !re=e obvi\sly diff]5t f y\r volition4 ,_m psy*ologi/s h tak5 ?is relation to an object z ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( m9d--notably ! two ,au/rians ,br5tano & ,me9ong4 ,sometimes feel+ also is reg>d$ z hav+ an object3 x is held t we are pleas$ or displeas$ at some?+4 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 has nev] won g5]al acceptance1 :]eas ! view t cognition & conation are direct$ to objects may be reg>d$ z or?odox4 ,x is und5iable t ?is *>act]i/ic ( be+ direct$ to objects is1 9 "s s5se1 a prop]ty ( cognition & conation1 b !re is room = great diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! prop] analysis ( ! prop]ty4 ,i ?9k we _c hope to und]/& ! ^w 8m5tal0 until we h und]tak5 ?is analysis1 & ,i %all !re=e proce$ to address myself to x4 ,i %all conf9e myself to cognition1 :i* is m important = our pres5t purposes ?an conation4 ,z reg>ds cognition1 ?\gh philosoph]s h disagre$ widely1 ,i ?9k t1 until rec5tly1 mo/ w\ld h ass5t$ to at lea/ ! foll[+ p>agraph3 ,cognition is ( v>i\s sorts4 ,take1 z important k9ds1 p]ception1 memory1 conception1 & beliefs involv+ concepts4 ,p]ception is ! ord9>y aw>5ess ( s5sible objects3 see+ a table1 he>+ a piano1 & s on4 ,memory is aw>5ess ( a pa/ occurr5ce1 :5 ?is aw>5ess is direct1 n inf]r$ or d]iv$ f te/imony4 ,conception is m difficult to *>act]ise4 ,"o may say1 z a way ( po9t+ out :at is int5d$1 t we 8conceive0 :5ev] we und]/& ! mean+ ( an ab/ract ^w1 or ?9k ( t :i* is 9 fact ! mean+ ( ! ^w4 ,if y see a :ite pat* ( sn[1 or recall x by means ( images1 y d n h a concept2 b if y ?9k ab\t :it5ess1 y h a concept4 ,simil>ly if1 aft] see+ a numb] ( co9s1 y ?9k ab\t r\ndness z a common *>act]i/ic ( all ( !m1 y h a concept4 ,! object ( y\r ?\ght1 9 su* a case1 is a univ]sal or a ,platonic idea4 ,e s5t5ce mu/ conta9 at lea/ "o ^w express+ a concept1 & !re=e e belief t c be express$ 9 words conta9s concepts4 ,ea* ( ^! k9ds ( cognitive attitude involves its own problems4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] we are conc]n$ ) p]ception4 ,?is has to be treat$ bo? introspectively & causally2 x is ! introspective treatm5t t we h n[ to und]take4 ,:5 y h ! exp]i5ce call$ 8see+ a table01 !re is a c]ta9 am\nt ( diff]5ce betwe5 y\r unreflect+ judgm5t & :at c>eful exam9ation reveals z to ! nature ( y\r exp]i5ce4 ,y judge t ! table is rectangul>1 b ! pat* ( col\r 9 y\r visual field is n a rectangle2 :5 y le>n to draw1 y h to draw ! table z x really seems & n z x seems to seem4 ,y h images ( s5sations ( t\*2 if y 7 to try to t\* ! table & x turn$ out to be an optical illusion1 y w\ld get a viol5t %ock ( surprise4 ,y h also expectations ( a c]ta9 degree ( p]man5ce & weight4 ,if y w5t to lift ! table1 y w\ld f9d y\r muscles q wrongly adju/$ if ! table 7 mu* light] ?an x look$4 ,all ^! elem5ts mu/ be includ$ 9 ! p]ception1 ?\gh n 9 ! s5sation4 8,s5sation01 z oppos$ to p]ception1 is m or less hypo!tical4 ,x is suppos$ to be ! core1 9 ! p]ception1 :i* is solely due to ! /imulus & ! s5se-organ1 n to pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,:5 y judge t ! table is rectangul>1 x is pa/ exp]i5ce t enables & compels y to d s2 if y _h be5 born bl9d & j op]at$ ^u1 y c\ld n make ?is judgm5t4 ,nor w\ld y h expectations ( h>dness1 etc4 ,b none ( ?is c be discov]$ by introspection4 ,f an introspective po9t ( view1 ! elem5ts due to pa/ exp]i5ce are l>gely indi/+ui%able f ^? due to ! /imulus alone4 ,"o supposes t pa/ exp]i5ce modifies ! bra91 & !reby modifies ! m5tal occurr5ce due to ! /imulus4 ,! notion ( s5sation z oppos$ to p]ception belongs1 !re=e1 to ! causal /udy ( p]ception1 n to ! introspective /udy4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a di/9ction to be made "h4 ,y c discov] by m]e self-obs]vation t visual objects are accompani$ by expectations or images ( t\*2 & simil>ly if y t\* an object 9 ! d>k y w probably be l$ to =m "s visual image ( x4 ,"h y c arrive at a c]ta9 degree ( analysis ( y\r p]ception ?r\gh ! fact t images1 z a rule1 feel diff]5t f ! imm$iate results ( a s5sory /imulus4 ,on ! o!r h&1 no am\nt ( introspection alone w reveal su* ?+s z ! bl9d spot4 ,! fill+ 9 ( a s5sation by elem5ts belong+ to ! same s5se is mu* less discov]able by introspection ?an ! fill+ 9 by associat$ images belong+ to o!r s5ses4 ,?us al?\gh by introspection alone we c\ld discov] "p ( ! influ5ce ( exp]i5ce on p]ception1 !re is ano!r "p :i* we _c discov] 9 ?is way4 ,rema9+ 9 ! introspective attitude1 x is evid5t t ! cont5ts ( our m9ds at any giv5 mom5t are v complex4 ,?r\gh\t our normal wak+ life we are always see+1 he>+1 & t\*+1 sometimes smell+ & ta/+1 always hav+ v>i\s bodily s5sations1 always feel+ pleasant or unpleasant feel+s 7usually bo?71 always hav+ desires or av]sions4 ,we are n normally aw>e ( all ^! items1 b we c become aw>e ( any ( !m by turn+ our att5tion 9 ! "r direction4 ,i am n at pres5t discuss+ 8unconsci\s m5tal /ates01 because !y1 obvi\sly1 c only be kn[n causally1 & we are n[ consid]+ :at c be kn[n introspectively4 ,!re may be any numb] ( p]ceptions t _c be kn[n by introspection2 ! po9t = u1 at ! mom5t1 is t ^? t c be discov]$ by introspection at any "o "t are _m & v>i\s4 ,i d n wi%1 j n[1 to discuss ! nature ( att5tion2 ,i wi% only to po9t out t x enables u to take ! fir/ /eps 9 ab/raction4 ,out ( ! :ole multiplicity ( objects ( s5se1 x enables u to s+le out a small selection1 :i* is an indisp5sable prelim9>y to ab/raction4 ,= example1 att5tion w enable u to discrim9ate a col\r$ patt]n :i* we are see+1 & to sep>ate x f ! o!r ?+s we see & f images & o!r objects ( s5se & ?\ghts :i* may exi/ simultane\sly4 ,= ! sake ( simplicity1 let u suppose t we discrim9ate a black & :ite patt]n 9 ! =m ( a triangle4 ,)9 ?is patt]n we c fur!r discrim9ate sides & angles & an inside & outside--( c\rse ! sides are n ma!matical l9es nor ! angles ma!matical po9ts4 ,we n[ come to a "q ( v great importance1 ^u :i* our views ( ! relations ( m9d & matt] l>gely dep5d4 ,! "q is ?is3 ,:at diff]5ce is !re betwe5 ! propositions 8!re is a triangle0 & 8,i see a triangle08 ,bo? ^! /atem5ts seem z c]ta9 z any /atem5t c be--at lea/ if rightly int]pret$4 ,z always happ5s 9 su* cases1 we are q c]ta9 ( some?+1 b n q c]ta9 :at x is t we are c]ta9 (4 ,i want to ask :e!r ?is some?+ t we are c]ta9 ( is really diff]5t 9 ! above two /atem5ts1 or :e!r ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m is only z to surr\nd+s ( :i* we are n c]ta94 ,mo/ philosoph]s hold t !re is a diff]5ce 9 :at we are c]ta9 (2 ,ma*1 ,james1 ,dewey1 ! ,am]ican reali/s1 & ,i hold t ! diff]5ce is 9 ! unc]ta9 context4 ,let u exam9e ?is "q4 ,! sugge/ions ( ! two /atem5ts 8,i see a triangle0 & 8!re is a triangle0 are obvi\sly diff]5t4 ,! fir/ /ates an ev5t 9 my life1 & sugge/s its possible effects ^u me4 ,! second aims at /at+ an ev5t 9 ! _w1 suppos$ to be equally discov]able by o!r p4 ,y might say 8!re is a triangle0 if y _h se5 x a mom5t ago b n[ _h y\r eyes %ut2 9 ?is case y w\ld n say 8,i see a triangle04 ,on ! o!r h&1 "o sometimes1 "u ! influ5ce ( indige/ion or fatigue1 sees little black dots float+ 9 ! air2 9 su* circum/ances y w\ld say 8,i see a black dot01 b n 8!re is a black dot04 ,?is illu/ration %[s t :5 y say 8!re is a black dot0 y are mak+ a /rong] ass]tion ?an :5 y say 8,i see a black dot04 ,9 ! o!r case1 :5 y say 8!re is a triangle0 because y saw x a mom5t ago1 ?\gh n n[1 y h ?ree /ages3 ,fir/1 memory assures y ( ! proposition 8,i saw a triangle01 & !n y pass on to 8!re 0 a triangle01 & !n1 fur!r1 to 8!re is a triangle1 because no?+ c h happ5$ to de/roy x s quickly40 ,"h we h obvi\sly pass$ f> beyond ! region ( imm$iate c]ta9ty4 ,x seems cle>1 !re=e1 t1 ( our two /atem5ts1 ! "o :i* comes ne>e/ to express+ ! fact ( :i* we are imm$iately c]ta9 is 8,i see a triangle01 because ! o!r makes inf]5ces to some?+ public1 & ?us goes beyond ! b>e datum4 ,?is is on ! assumption t we %\ld n say 8!re is a black dot0 :5 we see a black dot :i* we attribute to eye-tr\ble & !re=e suppose t no "o else c see4 ,let u !re=e conc5trate ^u 8,i see a triangle01 & ask ourselves :e!r ! :ole ( ?is1 or only "p1 c be accept$ z a primitive c]ta9ty4 ,a mom5t's reflection %[s t bo? 8,i0 & 8see0 are words :i* take u beyond :at ! mom5t>y ev5t reveals4 ,take 8,i0 to beg9 )4 ,?is is a ^w ^: mean+ evid5tly dep5ds ^u memory & expectation4 8,i0 means ! p]son :o _h c]ta9 rememb]$ exp]i5ces & is expect$ to h c]ta9 future exp]i5ces4 ,we might say 8,i see a triangle n[ & ,i saw a squ>e a mom5t ago40 ,! ^w 8,i0 has exactly ! same mean+ 9 its two occurr5ces 9 ?is s5t5ce1 & !re=e evid5tly has a mean+ dep5d5t ^u memory4 ,n[ x is our object to arrive at ! contribution to y\r k :i* is made by see+ ! triangle at ! mom5t4 ,!re=e1 s9ce ! ^w 8,i0 takes y beyond ?is contribution1 we mu/ cut x out if we want to f9d a correct v]bal expression = :at is add$ to our k by see+ ! triangle4 ,we w say 8a triangle is be+ se504 ,?is is at any rate "o /ep ne>] to :at we are seek+4 ,b n[ we mu/ deal ) ! ^w 8se504 ,z ord9>ily us$1 ?is is a causal ^w1 sugge/+ some?+ dep5d5t ^u ! eyes4 ,9 ?is s5se1 x obvi\sly involves a mass ( previ\s exp]i5ce2 a new-born baby does n "k t :at x sees dep5ds ^u its eyes4 ,h[ev]1 we c\ld elim9ate ?is4 ,obvi\sly all objects ( sight h a common quality1 :i* no objects ( t\* or he>+ h2 a visual object is diff]5t f an auditory object1 & s on4 ,!re=e in/ead ( say+ 8a triangle is be+ se501 we %\ld say 8!re is a visual triangle04 ,( c\rse ! mean+s ( ! words 8visual0 & 8triangle0 c only be le>nt by exp]i5ce1 b !y are n logically dep5d5t ^u exp]i5ce4 ,a be+ c\ld be imag9$ :i* w\ld "k ! words at bir?2 su* a be+ c\ld express its datum 9 ! words 8!re is a visual triangle04 ,9 any case1 ! problems rema9+ belong to ! /udy ( concepts2 we w !re=e ignore !m at pres5t4 ,n[ 9 ,engli% ! words 8!re is0 are ambigu\s4 ,:5 ,i us$ !m be=e1 say+1 8!re is a triangle01 ,i meant !m 9 ! s5se ( 8voila0 or 8da i/04 ,n[ ,i mean !m 9 ! s5se ( 8il y a0 or 8es giebt04 ,"o might express :at is meant by say+ 8a visual triangle exi/s01 b ! ^w 8exi/0 has all sorts ( metaphysical connotations t ,i wi% to avoid4 ,p]haps x is be/ to say 8occurs04 ,we h n[ arriv$ at some?+ :i* is j z true :5 y\r p]ception is illusory z :5 x is correct4 ,if y say 8a visual black dot is occurr+01 y are speak+ ! tru?1 if !re is "o 9 y\r field ( vision4 ,we h elim9at$ ! sugge/ion t o!rs c\ld see x1 or t x c\ld be t\*$1 or t x is compos$ ( matt] 9 ! s5se ( physics4 ,all ^! sugge/ions are pres5t :5 "o says1 9 ord9>y conv]sation1 8!re is a black dot02 !y are int5d$ to be elim9at$ by ! addition ( ! ^w 8visual0 & ! sub/itution ( 8is occurr+0 = 8!re is04 ,by ^! means we h arriv$ at :at is indubitable & intr9sic 9 ! addition to y\r k d]iv$ f a visual datum4 ,we mu/ n[ ask ourselves once m3 ,is !re /ill a di/9ction1 )9 :at is imm$iate & intr9sic1 betwe5 ! occurr5ce ( a visual datum & ! cognition ( x8 ,c we say1 on ! basis ( imm$iate exp]i5ce1 n only 8a visual black dot occurs01 b also 8a visual black dot is cognis$08 ,my feel+ is t we _c4 ,:5 we say t x is cognis$1 we seem to me to mean t x is "p ( an exp]i5ce1 t is to say1 t x c be rememb]$1 or c modify our habits1 or1 g5]ally1 c h :at are call$ 8mnemic0 effects4 ,all ?is takes u beyond ! imm$iate exp]i5ce into ! realm ( its causal relations4 ,i see no reason to ?9k t !re is any duality ( subject & object 9 ! occurr5ce itself1 or t x c prop]ly be describ$ z a case ( 8k04 ,x gives rise to k1 ?r\gh memory1 & ?r\gh consci\s or unconsci\s inf]5ces to ! common correlates ( su* data4 ,b 9 itself x is n k1 & has no duality4 ,! datum is a datum equally = physics & = psy*ology2 x is a meet+ po9t ( ! two4 ,x is nei!r m5tal nor physical1 j z a s+le "n is nei!r 9 alphabetical ord] nor 9 ord] ( prec$5ce2 b x is "p ( ! raw mat]ial ( bo? ! m5tal & ! physical worlds4 ,?is is ! !ory :i* is call$ 8neutral monism01 & is ! "o t ,i believe to be true4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,consci\sness8 ,tw5ty-?ree ye>s h elaps$ s9ce ,william ,james />tl$ ! _w ) 8 article entitl$ 8,does #8consci\sness' exi/80 ,9 ?is article1 repr9t$ 9 ! volume call$ ,essays 9 ,radical ,empiricism1 he set out ! view t 8!re is only "o primal /uff or mat]ial 9 ! _w01 & t ! ^w 8consci\sness0 /&s = a function1 n an entity4 ,he holds t !re are 8?\ghts01 :i* p]=m ! function ( 8kn[+01 b t ?\ghts are n made ( any diff]5t 8/uff0 f t ( :i* mat]ial objects are made4 ,he ?us laid ! f\ndations = :at is call$ 8neutral monism01 a view advocat$ by mo/ ,am]ican reali/s4 ,?is is ! view advocat$ 9 ! pres5t volume4 ,9 ?is *apt]1 we h to ask ourselves :e!r !re is any?+ t we c call 8consci\sness0 9 any s5se involv+ a peculi> k9d ( /uff1 or :e!r we c agree ) ,william ,james t !re is no 8inn] duplicity0 9 ! /uff ( ! _w z we "k x1 & t ! sep>ation ( x into kn[+ & :at is kn[n does n repres5t a fundam5tal dualism4 ,!re are two v diff]5t mean+s atta*$ to ! ^w 8consci\sness0 by ^? :o use x4 ,on ! "o h&1 we are said to be 8consci\s (0 some?+2 9 ?is s5se1 8consci\sness0 is a relation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 8consci\sness0 may be reg>d$ z a quality ( m5tal occurr5ces1 n consi/+ 9 _! relation to o!r ?+s4 ,let u take ! fir/ view fir/1 s9ce1 9 discuss+ x1 we %all f9d reasons = reject+ ! second view4 ,:at is ! relation we call be+ 8consci\s (0 some?+8 ,take ! diff]5ce betwe5 a p]son awake & a p]son asleep4 ,! =m] reacts to all k9ds ( /imuli to :i* ! latt] does n react2 we !re=e say t ! latt] is n 8consci\s (0 :at is happ5+ 9 8 neighb\rhood4 ,b ev5 if ! sleep] does react 9 a fa%ion1 = example1 by turn+ away f ! light1 su* a reaction does n fall )9 :at is commonly reg>d$ z 8k0 or 8aw>5ess02 we %\ld say t ! sleep] turn$ ov] 8unconsci\sly04 ,if he wakes up suffici5tly to speak intellig5tly1 = in/ance to address ! di/urb] by "n1 we consid] him 8consci\s04 ,s we d if we f9d t he rememb]s ! incid5t next morn+4 ,b common s5se does n reg>d any & e bodily movem5t 9 response to a /imulus z evid5ce ( 8consci\sness04 ,!re is no d\bt1 ,i ?9k1 t common s5se reg>ds c]ta9 k9ds ( response z evid5ce ( "s 8m5tal0 process caus$ by ! /imulus1 & reg>ds ! 8consci\sness0 z resid+ 9 ! inf]r$ 8m5tal0 occurr5ce4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 z 9 hypnotism & sleep-walk+1 p refuse to admit 8consci\sness0 ev5 :]e _m ( ! usual m>ks ( x are pres5t4 ,= ?is !re are c]ta9 reasons4 ,"o ( !m is subsequ5t lack ( memory2 ano!r is lack ( intellig5ce 9 :at is be+ done4 ,if y (f] a hypnotis$ pati5t a dr9k ( ink1 tell+ him x is port w9e1 & he dr9ks x up ) e sign ( enjoym5t1 y say t he is n 8consci\s01 because he does n react normally to ! na/y ta/e4 ,x w\ld seem bett]1 h[ev]1 to say t he is consci\s ( ! hypnoti/ & :at he comm&s1 ?\gh n ( o!r ?+s ( :i* he w\ld be consci\s 9 a normal condition4 ,& lack ( subsequ5t memory is a v difficult crit]ion1 s9ce we normally =get _m ?+s t h happ5$ to u1 & ! sleep-walk]'s =gett+ is only unusually complete4 ,?is is obvi\sly a matt] ( degree4 ,take next morn+'s memories 9 ! case ( a man :o 0 drunk ov]night4 ,!y become m & m vague z he reviews ! lat] h\rs ( ! ev5+1 b !re is no %>p l9e :]e !y cease abruptly4 ,?us1 if memory is a te/1 consci\sness mu/ be a matt] ( degree4 ,i ?9k t "h1 aga91 common s5se reg>ds a c]ta9 am\nt ( memory z necess>y evid5ce to prove t !re 7 8m5tal0 processes at ! "t ( ! acts 9 "q1 acts 9 sleep be+ reg>d$ z n involv+ 8m9d01 & o!r acts 9 c]ta9 abnormal conditions be+ suppos$ to resemble ^? ( sleep 9 ?is respect4 ,x foll[s t1 if we are to f9d out :at is commonly meant by 8consci\sness01 we mu/ ask ourselves :at is meant by a 8m5tal0 occurr5ce4 ,n e m5tal occurr5ce1 h[ev]1 is 9 "q4 ,! only k9ds conc]n$ are ^? :i* seem to h relation to an 8object04 ,a feel+ ( pleasant dr[s9ess w\ld commonly c\nt z 8m5tal01 b does n involve 8consci\sness0 ( an 8object04 ,x is ?is suppos$ peculi> relation to an 8object0 t we h to exam9e4 ,we may take1 z ! be/ example1 an ord9>y act ( p]ception4 ,i see1 let u say1 a table1 & ,i am conv9c$ t ! table is outside me1 :]eas my see+ ( x is a 8m5tal0 occurr5ce1 :i* is inside me4 ,9 su* a case ,i am 8consci\s0 ( ! table--s at lea/ common s5se w\ld say4 ,& s9ce ,i _c see )\t see+ some?+1 ?is relation to an 8object0 is ( ! v ess5ce ( see+4 ,! same ess5tial relation to an 8object01 x w\ld be said1 is *>act]i/ic ( e k9d ( consci\sness4 ,b :5 we beg9 to consid] ?is view m closely1 all sorts ( difficulties arise4 ,we h already se5 t1 on gr\nds d]iv$ f physics1 ! table itself1 z a physical ?+1 _c be reg>d$ z ! object ( our p]ception1 if ! object is some?+ ess5tial to ! exi/5ce ( ! p]ception4 ,9 suitable circum/ances1 we %all h ! same p]ception al?\gh !re is no table4 ,9 fact1 !re is no ev5t outside ! bra9 :i* mu/ exi/ :5ev] we 8see a table04 ,x seems prepo/]\s to say t :5 we ?9k we see a table we really see a motion 9 our own bra94 ,h5ce we are l$ to ! conclusion t ! 8object0 :i* is ess5tial to ! exi/5ce ( an act ( p]ception is j z 8m5tal0 z ! p]ceiv+4 ,9 fact1 s ?is !ory runs1 ! m5tal occurr5ce call$ 8p]ceiv+0 is "o :i* conta9s )9 itself ! relation ( p]ceiv] & p]ceiv$1 bo? sides ( ! relation be+ equally 8m5tal04 ,n[1 h[ev]1 !re seems no long] any reason to suppose t !re is any ess5tially relational "* ab\t :at occurs 9 u :5 we p]ceive4 ,! orig9al reason = ?9k+ s 0 ! naively reali/ic view t we see ! actual table4 ,if :at we see is z m5tal z our see+1 :y di/+ui% betwe5 ! two8 ,! col\r$ patt]n t we see is n really 8out !re01 z we _h suppos$2 x is 9 our heads1 if we are speak+ ( physical space4 ,true1 m ?an a col\r$ patt]n occurs :5 we 8see a table04 ,!re are tactual expectations or images3 !re is probably belief 9 an ext]nal object2 & aft]w>ds !re may be memory or o!r 8mnemic0 effects4 ,all ?is may be tak5 z repres5t+ :at ! above !ory took to be ! 8subject0 side ( an act ( p]ception1 :ile ! col\r$ patt]n is :at ! !ory took to be ! 8object0 side4 ,b bo? sides are on a level z reg>ds be+ 8m5tal04 ,& ! relation betwe5 ! two sides is n ( su* a k9d t ! exi/5ce ( ! "o logically dem&s ! exi/5ce ( ! o!r2 on ! contr>y1 ! relation betwe5 ! two sides is causal1 be+ dep5d5t ^u exp]i5ce & ! law ( association4 ,if ?is is correct1 :at really happ5s :51 z common s5se w\ld say1 we are consci\s ( a table1 is m or less z foll[s4 ,fir/ !re is a physical process ext]nal to ! body1 produc+ a /imulus to ! eye :i* occurs r>ely 7n nev]7 9 ! abs5ce ( an actual physical table4 ,!n !re is a process 9 ! eye1 n]ves1 & bra91 & f9ally !re is a col\r$ patt]n4 ,?is col\r$ patt]n1 by ! law ( association1 gives rise to tactual & o!r expectations & images2 also1 p]haps1 to memories & o!r habits4 ,b ev]y?+ 9 ?is :ole s]ies consi/s ( a causally cont9u\s *a9 ( ev5ts 9 space-"t1 & we h no reason to ass]t t ! ev5ts 9 u are s v diff]5t f ! ev5ts outside u--z to ?is1 we mu/ rema9 ignorant1 s9ce ! outside ev5ts are only kn[n z to _! ab/ract ma!matical *>act]i/ics1 :i* d n %[ :e!r ^! ev5ts are l 8?\ghts0 or unlike !m4 ,x foll[s t 8consci\sness0 _c be def9$ ei!r z a peculi> k9d ( relation or z an intr9sic "* belong+ to c]ta9 ev5ts & n to o!rs4 8,m5tal0 ev5ts are n ess5tially relational1 & we d n "k en\gh ( ! intr9sic "* ( ev5ts outside u to say :e!r x does or does n diff] f t ( 8m5tal0 ev5ts4 ,b :at makes u call a c]ta9 class ( ev5ts 8m5tal0 & di/+ui% !m f o!r ev5ts is ! comb9ation ( s5sitivity ) associative reproduction4 ,! m m>k$ly ?is comb9ation exi/s1 ! m 8m5tal0 are ! ev5ts conc]n$2 ?us m5tality is a matt] ( degree4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a fur!r po9t :i* mu/ be discuss$ 9 ?is connection1 & t is 8self-consci\sness01 or aw>5ess ( our own 8m5tal0 ev5ts4 ,we already _h occasion to t\* on ?is 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi 9 connection ) ,desc>tes' 8,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am04 ,b ,i want to discuss ! "q afre% 9 connection ) 8consci\sness04 ,:5 ! pla9 man sees 8a table0 9 ! pres5ce ( a philosoph]1 ! pla9 man c be driv51 by ! argum5ts we h repeat$ly br\ght =w>d1 to admit t he _c h complete c]ta9ty z to any?+ outside himself4 ,b if he does n lose 8 head or 8 temp]1 he w rema9 c]ta9 t !re is a col\r$ patt]n1 :i* may be 9 him1 b indubitably exi/s4 ,no argum5t f logic or physics ev5 t5ds to %[ t he is mi/ak5 9 ?is2 !re=e !re is no reason :y he %\ld surr5d] 8 conviction4 ,! argum5t ab\t k 9 ,*apt] ,,viii %[$ t1 accept+ ! usual views ( physici/s z to causal laws1 our k becomes m c]ta9 z ! causal *a9 f object to reaction is %ort5$1 & c only be q c]ta9 :5 ! two are 9 ! same place 9 space-"t1 or at lea/ contigu\s4 ,?us we %\ld expect t ! highe/ grade ( c]ta9ty w\ld belong to k z to :at happ5s 9 our own heads4 ,& ?is is exactly :at we h :5 we are aw>e ( our own 8m5tal0 ev5ts1 su* z ! exi/5ce ( a col\r$ patt]n :5 we ?\ght we 7 see+ a table4 ,we might1 !re=e1 if we 7 anxi\s to pres]ve ! ^w 8m5tal01 def9e a 8m5tal0 ev5t z "o t c be kn[n ) ! highe/ grade ( c]ta9ty1 because1 9 physical space-"t1 ! ev5t & ! kn[+ ( x are contigu\s4 ,?us 8m5tal0 ev5ts w be c]ta9 ( ! ev5ts t occur 9 heads t h bra9s4 ,!y w n be all ev5ts t occur 9 bra9s1 b only su* z cause a reaction ( ! k9d t c be call$ 8k04 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 /ill a numb] ( difficult que/ions1 to :i*1 z yet1 a def9itive answ] _c be giv54 ,:5 we 8"k0 a ?\ght ( our own1 :at happ5s8 ,& d we "k ! ?\ght 9 a m intimate way ?an we "k any?+ else8 ,k ( ext]nal ev5ts1 z we h se51 consi/s ( a c]ta9 s5sitivity to _! pres5ce1 b n 9 hav+ 9 or be=e our m9ds any?+ simil> to !m1 except 9 c]ta9 ab/ract /ructural respects4 ,is k ( our own m9ds equally ab/ract & indirect8 ,or is x some?+ m analog\s to :at we ord9>ily imag9e k to be8 ,take fir/ ! "q3 ,:at happ5s :5 we 8"k0 a ?\ght ( our own8 ,tak+ ! def9ition ( 8kn[+0 t we adopt$ 9 ,*apt] ,,viii1 we %all say3 ,we 8"k0 a ?\ght ( our own :5 an ev5t 9 our bra9 causes a *>act]i/ic reaction :i* is pres5t :5 ! ev5t occurs & n o!rwise4 ,9 ?is s5se1 :5ev] we say1 8,i see a table01 we are kn[+ a ?\ght1 s9ce an ev5t 9 our bra9 is ! only inv>iable antec$5t ( su* a /atem5t 7assum+ x to be made tru?fully74 ,we may ?9k we are kn[+ a table1 b ?is is an error4 ,?us ! diff]5ce betwe5 introspective & o!r k is only 9 our int5tion & 9 ! degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,:5 we say1 8,i see a table01 we may int5d to "k an ext]nal object1 b if s we may be mi/ak52 we are1 h[ev]1 actually kn[+ ! occurr5ce ( a visual p]cept4 ,:5 we describe ! same occurr5ce 9 ! words 8a c]ta9 col\r$ patt]n is occurr+01 we h *ang$ our int5tion & are mu* m c]ta9 ( be+ "r4 ,?us all t diff]5tiates our reaction :5 x gives introspective k f our reaction :5 x gives k ( ano!r k9d is ! elim9ation ( a possible s\rce ( error4 ,i come n[ to ! "q3 ,d we "k our own ?\ghts 9 a m intimate way ?an we "k any?+ else8 ,?is is a "q to :i* x is difficult to give precision2 x describes some?+ t "o feels to be a problem )\t be+ able to say exactly :at ! problem is4 ,h[ev]1 "s ?+s c be said :i* may s]ve to cle> up our feel+s1 if n our ideas4 ,suppose y are ask$ to repeat aft] a man :atev] he says1 z a te/ ( y\r he>+4 ,he says 8h[ d y d80 & y repeat 8h[ d y d80 ,?is is y\r k-reaction1 & y he> y\rself speak+4 ,y c p]ceive t :at y he> :5 y speak is closely simil> to :at y he> :5 ! o!r man speaks4 ,?is makes y feel t y\r reaction reproduces accurately :at y he>d4 ,y\r k-reaction1 9 ?is case1 is ! cause ( an occurr5ce closely simil> to ! occurr5ce t y are kn[+4 ,moreov]1 our invet]ate naive realism makes u ?9k t :at we said 0 :at we he>d :ile we 7 speak+4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 an illusion1 s9ce an elaborate *a9 ( physical & physiological causation int]v5es betwe5 speak+ & he>+ oneself speak2 nev]!less1 ! illusion re-en=ces our conviction t our k1 9 su* a case1 is v intimate4 ,& x is1 9 fact1 z intimate z x c hope to be1 :5 our k-reaction reproduces ! v ev5t we are kn[+1 or at lea/ an ev5t extremely simil> to x4 ,?is may be ! case on o!r occasions1 b we c only "k1 ) any c]ta9ty1 t x is ! case :5 :at is kn[n is a p]cept4 ,?is acc\nts = ! fact t our mo/ indubitable & complete k is conc]n+ p]cepts1 n conc]n+ o!r m5tal ev5ts or ev5ts 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,our reaction to a s\nd c be to make a simil> s\nd1 & if we are clev] en\gh we c pa9t some?+ v l :at we see4 ,b we _c %[ our k ( a pleasure by creat+ = ourselves ano!r v simil> pleasure1 nor ( a desire by creat+ a simil> desire4 ,?us p]cepts are kn[n ) m accuracy & c]ta9ty ?an any?+ else ei!r 9 ! out] _w or 9 our own m9ds4 ,! conclusion we h rea*$ 9 ?is *apt] is t ,william ,james 0 "r 9 8 views on 8consci\sness04 ,no m5tal occurr5ce has1 9 its own intr9sic nature1 t sort ( relational "* t 0 impli$ 9 ! opposition ( subject & object1 or ( kn[] & kn[n4 ,nev]!less we c di/+ui% 8m5tal0 ev5ts f o!rs1 & our mo/ indubitable k is conc]n$ ) a c]ta9 class ( m5tal ev5ts4 ,we h arriv$ at ?is result by foll[+ out to its logical conclusion ! behavi\ri/ def9ition ( k :i* we gave 9 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,we h _h to modify consid]ably ! po9t ( view :i* orig9ally l$ u to t def9ition1 ! modification hav+ be5 =c$ ^u u by ! physical k :i*1 />t+ f a common-s5se realism1 has be5 gradually driv51 ?r\gh ! causal !ory ( p]ception1 to a view ( cognition f> m subjective ?an t f :i* physici/s1 l ! re/ ( mank9d1 orig9ally set out4 ,b ,i d n see h[ !re c be any escape f ?is developm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,emotion1 ,,desire1 ,,& ,,w ,hi!rto1 9 our inve/igation ( man f )91 we h consid]$ only ! cognitive aspect1 :i* is1 9 fact1 ! mo/ important to philosophy4 ,b n[ we mu/ turn our att5tion to ! o!r sides ( human nature4 ,if we treat !m m briefly ?an ! cognitive side1 x is n because !y are less important1 b because _! ma9 importance is practical & our task is !oretical4 ,let u beg9 ) ! emotions4 ,! !ory ( ! emotions has be5 radically trans=m$ by ! discov]y ( ! "p play$ by ! ductless gl&s4 ,cannon's ,bodily ,*anges 9 ,pa91 ,hung]1 ,fe> & ,rage is a book ^: tea*+ has come to be widely kn[n1 ?\gh n m s ?an its importance w>rants4 ,x appe>s t c]ta9 secretions f ! gl&s into ! blood are ! ess5tial physiological conditions ( ! emotions4 ,"s p say t ! physiological *anges correlat$ ) ^! secretions are ! emotions4 ,i ?9k ?is view mu/ be receiv$ ) "s caution4 ,z ev]yone kn[s1 ! adr5al gl&s secrete adr591 :i* produces ! bodily symptoms ( fe> or rage4 ,on "o occasion my d5ti/ inject$ a consid]able am\nt ( ?is sub/ance into my blood1 9 ! c\rse ( adm9i/]+ a local an/hetic4 ,i turn$ pale & trembl$1 & my he>t beat viol5tly2 ! bodily symptoms ( fe> 7 pres5t1 z ! books said !y %\ld be1 b x 0 q obvi\s to me t ,i 0 n actually feel+ fe>4 ,i %\ld h _h ! same bodily symptoms 9 ! pres5ce ( a tyrant ab\t to condemn me to dea?1 b !re w\ld h be5 some?+ extra :i* 0 abs5t :5 ,i 0 9 ! d5ti/'s *air4 ,:at 0 diff]5t 0 ! cognitive "p3 ,i did n feel fe> because ,i knew !re 0 no?+ to be afraid (4 ,9 normal life1 ! adr5al gl&s are /imulat$ by ! p]ception ( an object :i* is frightful or enrag+2 ?us !re is already a cognitive elem5t pres5t4 ,! fe> or rage atta*es itself to ! object :i* has /imulat$ ! gl&s1 & ! full emotion arises4 ,b :5 adr59 is artificially adm9i/]$1 ?is cognitive elem5t is abs5t1 & ! emotion 9 its entirety fails to arise4 ,probably if x 7 adm9i/]$ 9 sleep x w\ld produce a dream ( t]ror1 9 :i* ! dream]'s imag9ation w\ld supply an object = fe>4 ,! same ?+ might happ5 on wak+ life ) animals or "y *ildr54 ,b ) an adult ( av]age rationality1 ! k t !re is no?+ to be afraid ( inhibits ! full developm5t ( ! emotion4 ,fe> & rage are bo? active emotions1 dem&+ a c]ta9 k9d ( behavi\r t[>ds an object2 :5 ?is behavi\r is obvi\sly n call$ =1 x is impossible to feel ei!r emotion fully4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r emotions1 su* z melan*oly1 :i* d n dem& an object4 ,^!1 presumably1 c be caus$ 9 _! entirety by adm9i/]+ ! prop] secretions4 ,a disord]$ liv] may cause melan*oly :i* is n reliev$ by k ( its s\rce4 ,! emotions :i* d n require an object are ^? :i* d n call = any appropriate l9e ( action4 ,emotions are subject to 8condition+01 s t ! /imuli :i* call !m out become m v>i\s z a result ( exp]i5ce4 ,dr4 ,watson has f\nd only two orig9al /imuli to fe> 9 "y infants1 namely l\d noises1 & lack ( support2 b any?+ associat$ ) ei!r ( ^! may become t]rify+4 ,! sep>ation ( an emotional elem5t 9 our integral reaction to a situation is m or less artificial4 ,no d\bt !re is a def9ite physiological concomitant1 namely /imulation ( a gl&2 b fe>1 = example1 involves a mode ( action t[>ds an object1 = :i* mode ( action ! secretion ( adr59 is helpful4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 some?+ 9 common among a numb] ( occasions t h a giv5 emotional tone2 ?is may be se5 f ! fact t !y are associat$4 ,:5 we are feel+ "s emotion /rongly1 we t5d to ?9k ( o!r occasions :5 we h _h simil> feel+s4 ,association by means ( emotional simil>ity is a *>act]i/ic ( a great deal ( poetry4 ,& ?is acc\nts = ! fact t1 if our blood is 9 a /ate usually associat$ ) t]ror1 we %all1 if our critical faculty is 9 abeyance1 be v likely to imag9e "s cause ( fe> s vividly z to believe t x is really pres5t3 ,9 ! night1 imag9+ "s fe>1 ,h[ easy is a bu% suppos$ a be>4 ,b 9 a rational man1 if he is n drunk or sleepy1 o!r associations are too /rong = ?is production ( imag9>y t]rors4 ,t is :y x is possible to %[ ! physical symptoms ( fe> "u ! influ5ce ( adr591 )\t actually feel+ ! emotion4 ,! emotions are :at makes life int]e/+1 & :at makes u feel x important4 ,f ?is po9t ( view1 !y are ! mo/ valuable elem5t 9 human exi/5ce4 ,b :51 z 9 philosophy1 we are try+ to und]/& ! _w1 !y appe> r z a h9drance4 ,!y g5]ate irrational op9ions1 s9ce emotional associations seldom correspond ) collocations 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,!y cause u to view ! univ]se 9 ! mirror ( our moods1 z n[ bright1 n[ dim1 accord+ to ! /ate ( ! mirror4 ,) ! sole exception ( curiosity1 ! emotions are on ! :ole a h9drance to ! intellectual life1 ?\gh ! degree ( vig\r requir$ = successful ?9k+ is likely to be correlat$ ) a consid]able susceptibility to emotion4 ,if ,i say little ab\t ! emotions 9 ?is book1 x is n f "u-e/imat+ _! human importance1 b solely because ! task ^u :i* we are engag$ is !oretical r ?an practical3 to und]/& ! _w1 n to *ange x4 ,& if emotion det]m9es ! ends we %all pursue1 k is :at gives u ! p[] to realise !m4 ,ev5 f ! practical po9t ( view1 ! advancem5t ( k is m useful ?an any?+ else t lies )9 human p[]4 ,i come n[ to ! subject ( desire1 :i* we consid]$ f a behavi\ri/ /&po9t 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,i want n[ to ask :e!r !re is any?+ to be add$ f an introspective po9t ( view4 ,let u aga9 rem9d ourselves t !re is an elem5t ( artificiality 9 isolat+ elem5ts )9 ! "o process lead+ f /imulus to reaction4 ,:5ev] a /imulus produces a reaction1 we may consid] ! reaction z ! effect ( ! /imulus1 or z ! cause ( fur!r effects4 ,! =m] is ! natural way ( view+ ! reaction :5 we are conc]n$ ) k2 ! latt] is ! natural way :5 we are conc]n$ ) desire & w4 ,9 desire1 we wi% to *ange some?+ 9 ourselves or 9 our environm5t or bo?4 ,! "q is3 ,:at c we discov] introspectively ab\t desire8 ,i ?9k t "h1 z 9 ! case ( k1 ! purely behavi\ri/ic acc\nt is m important causally ?an ! introspective acc\nt1 & applies ov] a mu* wid] range4 ,desire z a *>act]i/ic ( behavi\r1 z consid]$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii1 beg9s v l[ 9 ! scale ( evolution1 & rema9s1 ev5 9 human be+s1 ! :ole ( :at c be discov]$ 9 a l>ge numb] ( in/ances4 ,! ,freudian 8unconsci\s0 desires give a =mula :i* is useful z expla9+ causally a numb] ( acts1 b ^! desires d n exi/ z any?+ except ways ( behav+4 ,"s desires1 on ! o!r h&1 are consci\s & explicit4 ,:at1 exactly1 is add$ 9 ^! la/ t is n pres5t 9 ! o!rs8 ,let u take "s /ock in/ance1 say1 ,demo/h5es desir+ to become a great orator4 ,?is 0 a desire ( :i* he 0 consci\s1 & 9 accordance ) :i* he delib]ately m\ld$ 8 actions4 ,"o may suppose1 to beg9 )1 a m]ely behavi\ri/ic t5d5cy to d su* ?+s z seem$ likely to impress 8 companions4 ,?is is a practically univ]sal *>act]i/ic ( human nature1 :i* is display$ naively by *ildr54 ,!n come attempts1 j l ^? ( rats 9 mazes1 to rea* ! goal2 wrong turn+s1 lead+ to d]ision2 "r turn+s1 lead+ to a brief nibble at ! *eese ( admiration4 ,self-obs]vation1 /ill ( a behavi\ri/ k9d1 may lead to ! =mula3 ,i want to be admir$4 ,at ?is po9t ! desire has become 8consci\s04 ,:5 ?is po9t has be5 rea*$1 k c be br\ght to be> on ! problem ( a*iev+ ! desir$ end4 ,by association1 ! means come to be desir$ also4 ,& s ,demo/h5es arrives at ! decision to subject himself to a difficult tra9+ z an orator1 s9ce ?is seems ! be/ way ( a*iev+ 8 end4 ,! :ole developm5t is closely analog\s to t ( explicit k out ( m]e s5sitivity2 x is1 inde$1 "p ( ! v same evolution4 ,we _c1 9 our integral reaction to a situation1 sep>ate out "o ev5t z k & ano!r z desire2 bo? k & desire are features :i* *>act]ise ! reaction1 b d n exi/ 9 isolation4 ,9 explicit consci\s desire !re is always an object1 j z !re is 9 explicit consci\s p]ception2 we desire "s ev5t or "s /ate ( affairs4 ,b 9 ! primitive condition out ( :i* explicit desire is evolv$1 ?is is n ! case4 ,we h a /ate ( affairs :i* may be said to involve discom=t1 & activities ( v>i\s sorts until a c]ta9 diff]5t /ate ( affairs is a*iev$1 or fatigue sup]v5es1 or "s o!r int]e/ causes a di/raction4 ,^! activities w be su* z to a*ieve ! new /ate ( affairs quickly if !re has be5 previ\s exp]i5ce ( a relevant k9d4 ,:5 we rea* ! level ( explicit consci\s desire1 x seems z if we 7 be+ attract$ to a goal1 b we are really /ill pu%$ f beh9d4 ,! attraction to ! goal is a %or?& way ( describ+ ! effects ( le>n+ toge!r ) ! fact t our ef=ts w cont9ue till ! goal is a*iev$1 provid$ ! "t requir$ is n too long4 ,!re are feel+s ( v>i\s k9ds connect$ ) desire1 & 9 ! case ( famili> desires1 su* z hung]1 ^! feel+s become associat$ ) :at we "k w cause ! desire to cease4 ,b ,i see no m reason 9 ! case ( desire ?an 9 ! case ( k to admit an ess5tially relational occurr5ce su* z _m suppose desire to be4 ,only exp]i5ce1 memory & association--s ,i %\ld say--conf] objects ^u desire1 :i* are initially bl9d t5d5cies to c]ta9 k9ds ( activity4 ,x rema9s to say a few words ab\t 8w04 ,!re is a s5se 9 :i* w is an obs]vable ph5om5a1 & ano!r 9 :i* x is a metaphysical sup]/ition4 ,x is obvi\s t ,i c say1 8,i w hold my brea? = ?irty seconds01 & proce$ to d s2 t ,i c say1 8,i w g to ,am]ica01 & proce$ to d s2 & s on4 ,9 ?is s5se1 w is an obs]vable ph5om5on4 ,b z a faculty1 z a sep>able occurr5ce1 x is1 ,i ?9k1 a delusion4 ,to make ?is cle>1 x w be necess>y to exam9e ! obs]vable ph5om5on4 ,v "y infants d n appe> to h any?+ t c\ld be call$ 8w04 ,_! movem5ts1 at fir/1 are reflexes1 & are explicable1 :]e !y fir/ cease to be reflexes1 by ! law ( condition$ reflexes4 ,"o obs]ves1 h[ev]1 some?+ t looks v l w :5 ! *ild le>ns control ov] f+]s & toes4 ,x seems cle>1 9 wat*+ ?is process1 t1 aft] "s exp]i5ce ( involunt>y movem5ts1 ! *ild discov]s h[ to ?9k ( a movem5t fir/ & !n make ! movem5t1 & t ?is discov]y is exce$+ly pleasurable4 ,we "k t1 9 adult life1 a delib]ate movem5t is "o :i* we ?9k ( be=e we make x4 ,obvi\sly we _c ?9k ( a movem5t unless we h previ\sly made x2 x foll[s t no movem5t c be volunt>y unless x has previ\sly be5 involunt>y4 ,i ?9k t1 z ,william ,james sugge/$1 a volunt>y movem5t is m]ely "o :i* is prec$$ by ! ?\ght ( x1 & has ! ?\ght ( x z an ess5tial "p ( its cause4 ,:5 ,i say ?is1 ,i d n mean to take any p>ticul> view z to :at con/itutes 8?9k+04 ,x may consi/ almo/ entirely ( talk+1 z ,dr4 ,watson holds2 or x may be some?+ m4 ,t is n ! po9t at pres5t4 ,! po9t is t1 :atev] philosophy "o may adopt1 !re c]ta9ly is an occurr5ce :i* is describ$ by ord9>y p z 8?9k+ ( gett+ up 9 ! morn+01 or 8?9k+ (0 any o!r bodily movem5t4 ,:atev] ! analysis ( ?is occurr5ce may be1 x is an ess5tial "p ( ! cause ( any movem5t :i* c be attribut$ to ! 8w04 ,x is true1 ( c\rse1 t we may ?9k ( a movem5t )\t p]=m+ x4 ,?is is analog\s to imag9+ a /ate ( affairs )\t believ+ 9 x2 ea* is a r sophi/icat$ & late developm5t4 ,ea* w only happ5 :5 we ?9k ( sev]al ?+s at once1 & "o ( !m int]f]es ) ano!r4 ,x may1 ,i ?9k1 be assum$ t1 :5ev] we ?9k ( a possible movem5t1 we h a t5d5cy to p]=m x1 & are only re/ra9$1 if at all1 by "s ?\ght1 or o!r circum/ance1 hav+ a contr>y t5d5cy4 ,if ?is is ! case1 !re is no?+ at all my/]i\s ab\t ! w4 ,:atev] may con/itute 8?9k+ (0 a movem5t1 x is c]ta9ly some?+ associat$ ) ! movem5t itself2 !re=e1 by ! usual law ( le>n$ reactions we %\ld expect t ?9k+ ( a movem5t w\ld t5d to cause x to occur4 ,?is1 ,i %\ld say1 is ! ess5ce ( w4 ,emphatic cases ( volition1 :]e we decide aft] a p]iod ( delib]ation1 are m]ely examples ( conflict+ =ces4 ,y may h bo? pleasant & unpleasant associations ) "s place t y are ?9k+ ( go+ to2 ?is may cause y to hesitate1 until "o or o!r association proves ! /rong]4 ,!re may be m ?an ?is 9 volition1 b ,i _c see any good gr\nd = believ+ t !re is4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,e?ics ,e?ics is traditionally a dep>tm5t ( philosophy1 & t is my reason = discuss+ x4 ,i h>dly ?9k myself t x ought to be includ$ 9 ! doma9 ( philosophy1 b to prove ?is w\ld take z long z to discuss ! subject itself1 & w\ld be less int]e/+4 ,z a provisional def9ition1 we may take e?ics to consi/ ( g5]al pr9ciples :i* help to det]m9e rules ( conduct4 ,x is n ! bus9ess ( e?ics to say h[ a p]son %\ld act 9 su* & su* specific circum/ances2 t is ! prov9ce ( casui/ry4 ,! ^w 8casui/ry0 has acquir$ bad connotations1 z a result ( ! ,prote/ant & ,jans5i/ attacks on ! ,jesuits4 ,b 9 its old & prop] s5se x repres5ts a p]fectly legitimate /udy4 ,take1 say1 ! "q3 ,9 :at circum/ances is x "r to tell a lie8 ,"s p1 un?9k+ly1 w\ld say3 ,nev]6 ,b ?is answ] _c be s]i\sly def5d$4 ,ev]ybody admits t y %\ld lie if y meet a homicidal maniac pursu+ a man ) a view to murd]+ him1 & he asks y :e!r ! man has pass$ y\r way4 ,x is admitt$ t ly+ is a legitimate bran* ( ! art ( w>f>e2 also t prie/s may lie to gu>d ! secrets ( ! confessional1 & doctors to protect ! pr(essional confid5ces ( _! pati5ts4 ,all su* que/ions belong to casui/ry 9 ! old s5se1 & x is evid5t t !y are que/ions des]v+ to be ask$ & answ]$4 ,b !y d n belong to e?ics 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ?is /udy has be5 includ$ 9 philosophy4 ,x is n ! bus9ess ( e?ics to arrive at actual rules ( conduct1 su* z3 8,?\ %alt n /eal04 ,?is is ! prov9ce ( morals4 ,e?ics is expect$ to provide a basis f :i* su* rules c be d$uc$4 ,! rules ( morals diff] accord+ to ! age1 ! race1 & ! cre$ ( ! community conc]n$1 to an ext5t t is h>dly realis$ by ^? :o h nei!r travell$ nor /udi$ an?ropology4 ,ev5 )9 a homog5e\s community diff]5ces ( op9ion arise4 ,%\ld a man kill 8 wife's lov]8 ,! ,*ur* says no1 ! law says no1 & common s5se says no2 yet _m p w\ld say yes1 & juries (t5 refuse to condemn4 ,^! d\btful cases arise :5 a moral rule is 9 process ( *ang+4 ,b e?ics is conc]n$ ) some?+ m g5]al ?an moral rules1 & less subject to *ange4 ,x is true t1 9 a giv5 community1 an e?ic :i* does n lead to ! moral rules accept$ by t community is consid]$ immoral4 ,x does n1 ( c\rse1 foll[ t su* an e?ic is 9 fact false1 s9ce ! moral rules ( t community may be undesirable4 ,"s tribes ( head-hunt]s hold t no man %\ld m>ry until he c br+ to ! w$d+ ! head ( an enemy sla9 by himself4 ,^? :o "q ?is moral rule are held to be enc\rag+ lic5ce & l[]+ ! /&>d ( manl9ess4 ,nev]!less1 we %\ld n dem& ( an e?ic t x %\ld ju/ify ! moral rules ( head-hunt]s4 ,p]haps ! be/ way to approa* ! subject ( e?ics is to ask :at is meant :5 a p]son says3 8,y ought to d s-&-s0 or 8,i ought to d s-&-s04 ,prim>ily1 a s5t5ce ( ?is sort has an emotional cont5t2 x means 8?is is ! act t[>ds :i* ,i feel ! emotion ( approval04 ,b we d n wi% to leave ! matt] !re2 we want to f9d some?+ m objective & sy/ematic & con/ant ?an a p]sonal emotion4 ,! e?ical tea*] says3 8,y ought to approve acts ( su*-&-su* k9ds04 ,he g5]ally gives reasons = ?is view1 & we h to exam9e :at sorts ( reasons are possible4 ,we are "h on v anci5t gr\nd4 ,socrates 0 conc]n$ ma9ly ) e?ics2 ,plato & ,ari/otle bo? discuss$ ! subject at l5g?2 be=e _! "t1 ,confucius & ,buddha _h ea* f\nd$ a religion consi/+ almo/ entirely ( e?ical tea*+1 ?\gh 9 ! case ( ,buddhism !re 0 aft]w>ds a gr[? ( !ological doctr9e4 ,! views ( ! anci5ts on e?ics are bett] wor? /udy+ ?an _! views on 7say7 physical sci5ce2 ! subject has n yet prov$ am5able to exact reason+1 & we _c boa/ t ! mod]ns h z yet r5d]$ _! pr$ecessors obsolete4 ,hi/orically1 virtue consi/$ at fir/ ( ob$i5ce to au?ority1 :e!r t ( ! gods1 ! gov]nm5t1 or cu/om4 ,^? :o disobey$ au?ority suff]$ obvi\s p5alties4 ,?is is /ill ! view ( ,hegel1 to :om virtue consi/s 9 ob$i5ce to ! ,/ate4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 diff]5t =ms ( ?is !ory1 & ! objections to !m are diff]5t4 ,9 its m primitive =m1 ! !ory is unaw>e t diff]5t au?orities take diff]5t views z to :at con/itutes virtue1 & x !re=e univ]salises ! practice ( ! community 9 :i* ! !oris] lives4 ,:5 o!r ages & nations are f\nd to h diff]5t cu/oms1 ^! are condemn$ z abom9ations4 ,let u consid] ?is view fir/4 ,! view we are n[ to exam9e is ! !ory t !re are c]ta9 rules ( conduct--e4g4 ! ,decalogue--:i* det]m9e virtue 9 all situations4 ,! p]son :o keeps all ! rules is p]fectly virtu\s2 ! p]son :o fails 9 ?is is wick$ 9 proportion to ! frequ5cy ( 8 failures4 ,!re are sev]al objections to ?is z ! basis ( e?ics4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! rules c h>dly cov] ! :ole field ( human conduct2 e4g4 !re is no?+ 9 ! ,decalogue to %[ :e!r we ought to h a gold /&>d or n4 ,accord+ly ^? :o hold ?is view reg>d "s que/ions z 8moral issues01 :ile o!rs h n ?is "*4 ,t means1 9 practice1 t 9 reg>d to 8moral issues0 we ought to act 9 a c]ta9 way1 reg>dless ( consequ5ces1 :ile 9 o!r matt]s we ought to consid] :i* c\rse w d ! mo/ good4 ,?us 9 effect we are driv5 to adopt two diff]5t e?ical sy/ems1 "o :]e ! code has spok51 ! o!r :]e x is sil5t4 ,?is is unsatisfactory to a philosoph]4 ,! second objection to su* a view is sugge/$ by ! fir/4 ,we all feel t c]ta9 results are desirable1 & o!rs undesirable2 b a code ( conduct :i* takes no acc\nt ( circum/ances w h sometimes ! sort ( consequ5ces we ?9k desirable1 & sometimes ! sort we ?9k undesirable4 ,take1 e4g4 ! precept 8,?\ %alt n kill04 ,all respectable p hold t ?is does n apply :5 ! ,/ate ord]s a p]son to kill2 on ?is gr\nd among o!rs1 ! ,new ,york ,s*ool ,bo>d rec5tly refus$ to sanction ! tea*+ ( ! ,decalogue 9 s*ools4 ,a ?ird objection is t x may be ask$ h[ ! moral rules are kn[n4 ,! usual answ]1 hi/orically1 is t !y are kn[n by revelation & tradition4 ,b ^! are extra-philosophical s\rces ( k4 ,! philosoph] _c b obs]ve t !re h be5 _m revelations1 & t x is n cle> :y he %\ld adopt "o r ?an ano!r4 ,to ?is x may be repli$ t consci5ce is a p]sonal revelation to ea* individual1 & inv>iably tells him :at is "r & :at is wrong4 ,! difficulty ( ?is view is t consci5ce *anges f age to age4 ,mo/ p n[adays consid] x wrong to burn a man alive = disagree+ ) !m 9 metaphysics1 b =m]ly ?is 0 held to be a highly m]itori\s act1 provid$ x 0 done 9 ! int]e/s ( ! "r metaphysics4 ,no "o :o has /udi$ ! hi/ory ( moral ideas c reg>d consci5ce z inv>iably "r4 ,?us we are driv5 to ab&on ! attempt to def9e virtue by means ( a set ( rules ( conduct4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r =m ( ! view t virtue consi/s 9 ob$i5ce to au?ority4 ,?is may be call$ 8! adm9i/rator's e?ic04 ,a ,roman or ,anglo-,indian pro-consul w\ld def9e virtue z ob$i5ce to ! moral code ( ! community to :i* a man happ5s to belong4 ,no matt] h[ moral codes may diff]1 a man %\ld always obey t ( 8 own "t & place & cre$4 ,a ,mohamm$an1 = in/ance1 w\ld n be reg>d$ z wick$ = practis+ polygamy1 b an ,engli%man w\ld1 ev5 if he liv$ 9 a ,mohamm$an c\ntry4 ,?is view makes social con=mity ! ess5ce ( virtue2 or1 z ) ,hegel1 reg>ds virtue z ob$i5ce to ! gov]nm5t4 ,! difficulty ( su* !ories is t !y make x impossible to apply e?ical pr$icates to au?ority3 we _c f9d any mean+ = ! /atem5t t a cu/om is good or t ! gov]nm5t is bad4 ,! view is appropriate to despots & _! will+ slaves2 x _c survive 9 a progressive democracy4 ,we come a little ne>] to a correct view :5 we def9e "r conduct by ! motive or /ate ( m9d ( ! ag5t4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 acts inspir$ by c]ta9 emotions are good1 & ^? inspir$ by c]ta9 o!r emotions are bad4 ,my/ics hold ?is view1 & h accord+ly a c]ta9 contempt = ! lett] ( ! law4 ,broadly speak+1 x w\ld be held t acts inspir$ by love are good1 & ^? inspir$ by hate are bad4 ,9 practice1 ,i hold ?is view to be "r2 b philosophically ,i reg>d x z d$ucible f some?+ m fundam5tal4 ,all ! !ories we h hi!rto consid]$ are oppos$ to ^? :i* judge ! rightness or wrongness ( conduct by its consequ5ces4 ,( ^! ! mo/ fam\s is ! utilit>ian philosophy1 :i* ma9ta9$ t happ9ess is ! good1 & t we ought to act s z to maximise ! balance ( happ9ess ov] unhapp9ess 9 ! _w4 ,i %\ld n myself reg>d happ9ess z an adequate def9ition ( ! good1 b ,i %\ld agree t conduct ought to be judg$ by its consequ5ces4 ,i d n mean1 ( c\rse1 t 9 e practical exig5cy ( daily life we %\ld attempt to ?9k out ! results ( ?is or t l9e ( conduct1 because1 if we did1 ! opportunity = action w\ld (t5 be pa/ be=e our calculations 7 f9i%$4 ,b ,i d mean t ! receiv$ moral code1 9 s f> z x is taught 9 education & embodi$ 9 public op9ion or ! crim9al law1 %\ld be c>efully exam9$ 9 ea* g5]ation1 to see :e!r x /ill s]ves to a*ieve desirable ends1 &1 if n1 9 :at respects x ne$s to be am5d$4 ,! moral code1 9 %ort1 l ! legal code1 %\ld adapt itself to *ang+ circum/ances1 keep+ ! public good always z its motive4 ,if s1 we h to consid] 9 :at ! public good consi/s4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 8"r conduct0 is n an autonom\s concept1 b means 8conduct calculat$ to produce desirable results04 ,x w be "r1 let u say1 to act s z to make p happy & intellig5t1 b wrong to act s z to make !m unhappy & /upid4 ,we h to ask ourselves h[ we c discov] :at con/itutes ! ends ( "r conduct4 ,!re is a view1 advocat$1 e4g4 by ,dr4 ,g4 ,e4 ,moore1 t 8good0 is an indef9able notion1 & t we "k a priori c]ta9 g5]al propositions ab\t ! k9ds ( ?+s t are good on _! own acc\nt4 ,su* ?+s z happ9ess1 k1 appreciation ( beauty1 are kn[n to be good1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,moore2 x is also kn[n t we ought to act s z to create :at is good & prev5t :at is bad4 ,i =m]ly held ?is view myself1 b ,i 0 l$ to ab&on x1 p>tly by ,mr4 ,santayana's ,w9ds ( ,doctr9e4 ,i n[ ?9k t good & bad are d]ivative f desire4 ,i d n mean q simply t ! good is ! desir$1 because m5's desires conflict1 & 8good0 is1 to my m9d1 ma9ly a social concept1 design$ to f9d an issue f ?is conflict4 ,! conflict1 h[ev]1 is n only betwe5 ! desires ( diff]5t m51 b betwe5 incompatible desires ( "o man at diff]5t times1 or ev5 at ! same "t1 & ev5 if he is solit>y1 l ,rob9son ,crusoe4 ,let u see h[ ! concept ( 8good0 em]ges f reflection or conflicts ( desires4 ,we w beg9 ) ,rob9son ,crusoe4 ,9 him !re w be conflicts1 = example1 betwe5 fatigue & hung]1 p>ticul>ly betwe5 fatigue at "o "t & =ese5 hung] at ano!r4 ,! ef=t :i* he w require 9 ord] to "w :5 he is tir$ ) a view to provid+ food on ano!r occasion has all ! *>act]i/ics ( :at is call$ a moral ef=t3 we ?9k bett] ( a man :o makes ! ef=t ?an ( "o :o does n1 & ! mak+ ( x requires self-control4 ,= "s reason1 ?is sort ( ?+ is call$1 n morals1 b 8morale02 ! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 seems to me illusory4 ,rob9son ,crusoe is b\nd to realise t he has _m desires1 ea* ( :i* is /rong] at "o "t ?an at ano!r1 & t1 if he acts always ^u ! "o t is /ronge/ at ! mom5t1 he may defeat o!rs t are /rong] 9 ! long run4 ,s f>1 only intellig5ce is involv$2 b "o may assume t1 ) ! progress ( intellig5ce1 !re goes a gr[+ desire = a h>moni\s life1 i4e4 a life 9 :i* action is dom9at$ by consi/5t quasi-p]man5t desires4 ,aga93 "s desires1 9 addition to ! desire = a h>moni\s life1 are m likely to lead to h>mony !n c]ta9 o!r desires4 ,intellectual curiosity1 e4g4 af=ds a mild diffus$ satisfaction1 :]eas drugs provide ec/asy foll[$ by despair4 ,if we arrive unexpect$ly 9 ,rob9son ,crusoe's isl& & f9d him /udy+ botany1 we %all ?9k bett] ( him ?an if we f9d him dead drunk on 8 la/ bottle ( :isky4 ,all ?is belongs to morals1 al?\gh x is purely self-reg>d+4 ,:5 we come to consid]+ m5 9 society1 moral que/ions become bo? m important & m difficult1 because conflicts betwe5 ! desires ( diff]5t p]sons are h>d] to resolve ?an int]nal conflicts among ! desires ( "o p]son4 ,!re are "s di/9ctions to be made4 ,fir/1 !re is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! po9t ( view ( ! neutral au?ority contemplat+ a squabble 9 :i* x is n int]e/$1 & ! po9t ( view ( ! disputants !mselves4 ,!n !re is ! di/9ction betwe5 :at we wi% p to d1 & :at we wi% !m to feel 9 ! way ( emotions & desires4 ,! view ( au?ority ev]y:]e is t squabbles to :i* x is n a p>ty are undesirable1 b t 9 ! squabbles to :i* x is a p>ty virtue consi/s 9 promot+ ! victory ( au?ority4 ,9 ! latt] respect1 x is act+1 n z an au?ority1 b m]ely z a comb9ation ( qu>relsome individuals :o ?9k x m pr(itable to qu>rel ) outsid]s ?an ) ea* o!r2 we w !re=e ignore ?is aspect ( au?ority1 & consid] its action only :5 x is a neutral4 ,9 ?is case1 x aims at prev5t+ qu>rels by puni%+ ^? :o beg9 !m1 or sometimes by puni%+ bo? p>ties4 ,monsieur ,huc1 ! ,jesuit mission>y :o wrote a fasc9at+ acc\nt ( 8 travels 9 ,*9a1 ,t>t>y1 & ,tibet ab\t eighty ye>s ago1 relates an amus+ conv]sation he _h ) a m&>94 ,monsieur ,huc _h rem>k$ t ,*9ese ju/ice 0 dilatory1 exp5sive1 & corrupt4 ,! m&>9 expla9$ t x _h be5 made s 9 ob$i5ce to an ,imp]ial edict1 sett+ =? t ! subjects ( ! ,son ( ,heav5 _h become too mu* addict$ to litigation1 & mu/ be l$ to ab&on ?is practice4 ,! rescript !n proce$$ to sugge/ to magi/rates & judges ! desirability ( ! above defects z a means ( dim9i%+ ! numb] ( law-suits4 ,x appe>$ t ! ,emp]or's comm&s _h be5 fai?fully obey$ 9 ?is respect--m s ?an 9 "s o!rs4 ,ano!r me?od adopt$ by public au?orities to prev5t ! impulse t[>ds int]nal qu>rels is ! creation ( esprit de corps1 public _s1 patriotism1 etc41 i4e4 a conc5tration ( qu>relsome impulses or p]sons outside ! gr\p ov] :i* x rules4 ,su* a me?od1 obvi\sly1 is p>tial & ext]nal2 x w\ld n be op5 to a _w-wide democratic au?ority1 %\ld ?is ev] come into exi/5ce4 ,su* an au?ority w\ld h to adopt bett] me?ods ( produc+ h>mony2 x w\ld also h a high] claim to ! ob$i5ce ( citiz5s ?an "s au?orities h at pres5t4 ,:at c we say f ! po9t ( view ( ! disputants !mselves8 ,x is ( c\rse obvi\s t !re w be a great] total satisfaction :5 two p's desires h>monise ?an :5 !y conflict1 b t is n an argum5t :i* c be us$ to p :o 9 fact hate ea* o!r4 ,"o c argue t ! "o :o is go+ to be beat5 w\ld d well to give way1 b ea* w ?9k t he himself is go+ to be victori\s4 ,"o c argue t !re is m happ9ess to be d]iv$ f love ?an f hate1 b p _c love to ord]1 & !re is no satisfaction to be d]iv$ f an ins9c]e love4 ,nor is x always true 9 an individual case t love br+s m happ9ess ?an hate4 ,dur+ & imm$iately aft] ! w>1 ^? :o hat$ ! ,g]mans 7 happi] ?an ^? :o /ill reg>d$ !m z human be+s1 because !y c\ld feel t :at 0 be+ done s]v$ a good purpose4 ,i ?9k1 !re=e1 t c]ta9 dep>tm5ts ( morals1 & ^? ! mo/ important1 _c be inculcat$ f a p]sonal po9t ( view1 b only f ! po9t ( view ( a neutral au?ority4 ,t is :y ,i said t e?ics is ma9ly social4 ,! attitude ( a neutral au?ority w\ld1 x seems to me1 be ?is3 ,m5 desire all sorts ( ?+s1 & 9 !mselves all desires1 tak5 s+ly1 are on a level1 i4e4 !re is no reason to pref] ! satisfaction ( "o to ! satisfaction ( ano!r4 ,b :5 we consid] n a s+le desire b a gr\p ( desires1 !re is ?is diff]5ce1 t sometimes all ! desires 9 a gr\p c be satisfi$1 :]eas 9 o!r cases ! satisfaction ( "s ( ! desires 9 ! gr\p is incompatible ) t ( o!rs4 ,if ,a & ,b desire to m>ry ea* o!r1 bo? c h :at !y want1 b if !y desire to kill ea* o!r1 at mo/ "o c succe$1 unless !y are ,kilk5ny cats4 ,!re=e ! =m] pair ( desires is socially pref]able to ! latt]4 ,n[ our desires are a product ( ?ree factors3 native disposition1 education1 & pres5t circum/ances4 ,! fir/ factor is difficult to deal ) at pres5t1 = lack ( k4 ,! ?ird is br\ght into op]ation by means ( ! crim9al law1 economic motives1 & social praise & blame1 :i* make x on ! :ole to ! int]e/ ( an individual 9 a community to promote ! int]e/s ( ! dom9ant gr\p 9 t community4 ,b ?is is done 9 an ext]nal way1 n by creat+ good desires1 b by produc+ a conflict ( gre$ & fe> 9 :i* x is hop$ t fe> w w94 ,! really vital me?od is education1 9 ! l>ge s5se 9 :i* x includes c>e ( ! body & habit-=mation 9 ! fir/ few ye>s4 ,by means ( education1 m5's desires c be *ang$1 s t !y act spontane\sly 9 a social fa%ion4 ,to =ce a man to curb 8 desires1 z we d by ! crim9al law1 is n ne>ly s satisfactory z to cause him g5u9ely to feel ! desires :i* promote socially h>moni\s conduct4 ,& ?is br+s me to ! la/ po9t ) :i* we are conc]n$1 namely1 ! di/9ction betwe5 feel+ & do+4 ,no d\bt1 f a social po9t ( view ! important ?+ is :at a man does1 b x is impossible to cause a man to d ! "r ?+s consi/5tly unless he has ! "r desires4 ,& ! "r desires _c be produc$ m]ely by prais+ !m or by desir+ to h !m2 ! te*nique ( moral education is n "o ( exhortation or explicit moral in/ruction4 ,we c n[ /ate ! e?ic at :i* we h arriv$ 9 ab/ract t]ms4 ,prim>ily1 we call some?+ 8good0 :5 we desire x1 & 8bad0 :5 we h an av]sion f x4 ,b our use ( words is m con/ant ?an our desires1 & !re=e we %all cont9ue to call a ?+ good ev5 at mom5ts :5 we are n actually desir+ x1 j z we always call grass gre5 ?\gh x sometimes looks yell[4 ,& ! laudatory associations ( ! ^w 8good0 may g5]ate a desire :i* w\ld n o!rwise exi/3 we may want to eat cavi>e m]ely because we are told t x is good4 ,moreov] ! use ( words is social1 & !re=e we le>n only to call a ?+ good1 except 9 r>e circum/ances1 if mo/ ( ! p we associate ) are also will+ to call x good4 ,?us 8good0 comes to apply to ?+s desir$ by ! :ole ( a social gr\p4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t !re c be m good 9 a _w :]e ! desires ( diff]5t individuals h>monise ?an 9 "o :]e !y conflict4 ,! supreme moral rule %\ld1 !re=e1 be3 ,act s z to produce h>moni\s r ?an discordant desires4 ,?is rule w apply :]ev] a man's influ5ce ext5ds3 )9 himself1 9 8 family1 8 city1 8 c\ntry1 ev5 ! _w z a :ole1 if he is able to influ5ce x4 ,!re w be two ma9 me?ods to ?is end3 fir/1 to produce social in/itutions "u :i* ! int]e/s ( diff]5t individuals or gr\ps conflict z little z possible2 second1 to educate individuals 9 su* a way t _! desires c be h>monis$ ) ea* o!r & ) ! desires ( _! neighb\rs4 ,z to ! fir/ me?od1 ,i %all say no?+ fur!r1 s9ce ! que/ions t arise belong to politics & economics4 ,z to ! second1 ! important p]iod is ! =mative p]iod ( *ildhood1 dur+ :i* !re %\ld be heal?1 happ9ess1 fre$om1 & a gradual gr[? ( self-discipl9e ?r\gh opportunities = difficult a*ievem5t ( a sort :i* is useful & yet satisfies ! impulse t[>ds ma/]y ( ! environm5t4 ,! desire = p[]1 :i* is pres5t 9 mo/ p & /ronge/ 9 ! mo/ vigor\s1 %\ld be direct$ t[>ds p[] ov] ?+s r ?an ov] p4 ,x is cle> t1 if h>moni\s desires are :at we %\ld seek1 love is bett] ?an hate1 s9ce1 :5 two p love ea* o!r1 bo? c be satisfi$1 :]eas :5 !y hate ea* o!r "o at mo/ c a*ieve ! object ( 8 desire4 ,x is obvi\s also t desire = k is to be enc\rag$1 s9ce ! k t a man acquires is n obta9$ by tak+ x away f "s "o else2 b a desire = 7say7 l>ge l&$ e/ates c only be satisfi$ 9 a small m9ority4 ,desire = p[] ov] o!r p is a pot5t s\rce ( conflict1 & is !re=e to be disc\rag$2 a respect = ! lib]ty ( o!rs is "o ( ! ?+s t ought to be develop$ by ! "r k9d ( education4 ,! impulse t[>ds p]sonal a*ievem5t ought to g into su* ?+s z arti/ic creation or sci5tific discov]y or ! promotion ( useful in/itutions--9 a ^w1 into activities t are creative r ?an possessive4 ,k1 :i* may d positive h>m :]e m5's desires conflict 7= example1 by %[+ h[ to make w> m deadly71 w h only good results 9 a _w :]e m5's desires h>monise1 s9ce x t5ds to %[ h[ _! common desires are to be realis$4 ,! conclusion may be summ$ up 9 a s+le phrase3 ,! good life is "o inspir$ by love & guid$ by k4#aa #aa ,cf4 ,:at ,i ,believe1 by ! pres5t au?or--,to-day & ,to-morr[ ,s]ies4 ,,"p ,,iv ,,! ,,univ]se ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,"s ,,great ,,philosophies ,,( ,,! ,,pa/ ,our discussions1 hi!rto1 h be5 conc]n$ v l>gely ) ,man1 b ,man on 8 own acc\nt is n ! true subject-matt] ( philosophy4 ,:at conc]ns philosophy is ! univ]se z a :ole2 ,man dem&s consid]ation solely z ! in/rum5t by means ( :i* we acquire k ( ! univ]se4 ,& t is :y x is human be+s z capable ( k t h conc]n$ u ma9ly 9 pa/ *apt]s1 r ?an z c5tres ( w or ( emotion4 ,we are n 9 ! mood prop] to philosophy s long z we are int]e/$ 9 ! _w only z x affects human be+s2 ! philosophic _s dem&s an int]e/ 9 ! _w = its own sake4 ,b s9ce we appreh5d ! _w ?r\gh our own s5ses1 & ?9k ab\t x ) our own intellect1 ! picture t we acquire is inevitably col\r$ by ! p]sonal m$ium ?r\gh :i* x comes to u4 ,consequ5tly we h to /udy ?is m$ium1 namely ourselves1 9 ord] to f9d out1 if we c1 :at elem5ts 9 our picture ( ! _w are contribut$ by u1 & :at elem5ts we may accept z repres5tative ( outside fact4 ,previ\s *apt]s h /udi$ cognition1 bo? z an outw>dly obs]vable reaction1 & z x appe>s to introspection4 ,9 ! *apt]s t rema91 we %all be conc]n$ ) :at we c "k ab\t ! univ]se1 9 view ( ! nature ( ! in/rum5t t we h to employ4 ,i d n ?9k we c "k z mu* z _m philosoph]s ( ! pa/ h suppos$1 b ,i ?9k x is wor? :ile to h 9 our m9ds an outl9e ( _! sy/ems4 ,i %all !re=e beg9 by sett+ =? a few typical philosophical con/ructions ( e>li] c5turies4 ,mod]n philosophy is g5]ally tak5 z beg9n+ ) ,desc>tes1 :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! fir/ half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,we h already _h occasion1 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi1 to consid] 8 argum5t 8,i ?9k1 !re=e1 ,i am01 b n[ we w deal ) him some:at m g5]ally4 ,he inaugurat$ two movem5ts1 "o 9 metaphysics1 "o 9 !ory ( k4 ,9 metaphysics1 he emphasis$ ! gulf betwe5 m9d & matt]1 or betwe5 s\l & body2 9 !ory ( k he advocat$ a critical scrut9y ( premises4 ,^! two movem5ts _h diff]5t hi/ories1 ea* ( !m int]e/+4 ,! sci5ce ( dynamics 0 rapidly develop+ 9 ,desc>tes' "t1 & seem$ to %[ t ! motions ( matt] c\ld be calculat$ ma!matically1 giv5 suffici5t data4 ,z ! motions ( matt] include our bodily acts1 ev5 speak+ & writ+1 x seem$ z if ! consequ5ce mu/ be a mat]iali/ic !ory ( human behavi\r4 ,?is consequ5ce1 h[ev]1 0 di/a/eful to mo/ philosoph]s1 & !y !re=e inv5t$ v>i\s ways ( escap+ f x4 ,desc>tes himself ?\ght t ! w c\ld h c]ta9 direct physical effects4 ,he ?\ght t ! bra9 conta9s a fluid call$ ! 8animal spirits01 & t ! w c\ld influ5ce ! direction ( its motion1 ?\gh n ! velocity4 ,9 ?is way he 0 /ill able to hold t ! w is effective 9 ! mann] 9 :i* common s5se supposes x to be4 ,b ?is view did n fit 9 at all well ) ! re/ ( 8 philosophy4 ,he held t1 ap>t f ! ,supreme ,sub/ance1 namely ,god1 !re are two creat$ sub/ances1 m9d & matt]2 t ! ess5ce ( m9d is ?\ght1 & t ! ess5ce ( matt] is ext5sion4 ,he made ^! two sub/ances s diff]5t t int]action betwe5 !m became difficult to und]/&1 & 8 foll[]s decid$ t !re is nev] any effect ei!r ( m9d on matt] or ( matt] on m9d4 ,! motives = ?is developm5t 7 v>i\s2 p]haps ! mo/ important 0 ! developm5t ( physics imm$iately aft] ,desc>tes' "t4 ,a law 0 discov]$ call$ ! 8cons]vation ( mom5tum04 ,?is /ates t1 if a sy/em ( bodies is 9 any sort ( motion1 & is free f outside influ5ces1 ! am\nt ( motion 9 any direction is con/ant4 ,?is %[$ t ! k9d ( action ( ! w on ! 8animal spirits0 :i* ,desc>tes _h assum$ 0 contr>y to ! pr9ciples ( dynamics4 ,x seem$ to foll[ t m9d _c influ5ce matt]1 & x 0 inf]r$ t matt] _c influ5ce m9d1 s9ce ! two 7 reg>d$ z co-equal sub/ances4 ,x 0 held t ea* goes x own way1 accord+ to its own laws4 ,! fact t our arm moves :5 we w x to move 0 reg>d$ z analog\s to ! fact t two p]fectly accurate clocks /rike at ! same mom5t1 ?\gh nei!r has any effect ^u ! o!r4 ,! s]ies ( m5tal ev5ts & ! s]ies ( physical ev5ts 7 p>allel1 ea* go+ at ! same rate z ! o!r1 !re=e !y cont9u$ to syn*ronise1 9 spite ( _! indep5d5ce ( ea* o!r4 ,sp9oza s\ght to make ?is p>allelism less my/]i\s by d5y+ t !re are two sep>ate sub/ances1 m9d & matt]4 ,he ma9ta9$ t !re is only "o sub/ance1 ( :i* ?\ght & ext5sion are attributes4 ,b !re seem$ /ill no good reason :y ! ev5ts belong+ to ! two attributes %\ld develop along p>allel l9es4 ,sp9oza is 9 _m ways "o ( ! greate/ philosoph]s1 b 8 greatness is r e?ical ?an metaphysical4 ,accord+ly he 0 reg>d$ by contempor>ies z a pr(\nd metaphysician b a v wick$ man4 ,! notion ( ! impossibility ( int]action betwe5 m9d & body has p]si/$ d[n to our own day4 ,"o /ill he>s ( 8psy*ophysical p>allelism01 accord+ to :i* to e /ate ( ! bra9 a /ate ( m9d corresponds & vice v]sa1 )\t ei!r act+ on ! o!r4 ,?is :ole po9t ( view1 ?\gh n exactly t ( ,desc>tes1 d]ives f him4 ,x has a numb] ( s\rces1 religi\s1 metaphysical1 & sci5tific2 b !re seems no gr\nd :atev] = reg>d+ x z true4 ,take1 fir/1 ! rigid det]m9ism ( traditional physics1 :i* 0 to h be5 avoid$4 ,sp9oza rightly p]ceiv$ t ?is c\ld n be avoid$ by su* me?ods1 & !re=e accept$ det]m9ism 9 ! psy*ical z 9 ! physical realm4 ,if ev]y?+ we say is det]m9$ by physical causes1 our ?\ghts are only free :5 we tell lies3 s long z we say :at we ?9k1 our ?\ghts also c be inf]r$ f physics4 ,! philosophy :i* ,i advocate escapes ?is consequ5ce 9 sev]al ways4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 causality does n involve compulsion1 b only a law ( sequ5ce3 if physical & m5tal ev5ts run p>allel1 ei!r may ) equal ju/ice be reg>d$ z caus+ ! o!r1 & !re is no s5se 9 speak+ ( !m z causally indep5d5t4 ,?us ! ,c>tesian dualism does n h ! pleasant consequ5ces :i* 7 int5d$4 ,9 ! second place1 mod]n physics has become less det]m9i/ic ?an ! physics ( ! pa/ few c5turies4 ,we d n "k1 e4g4 :at makes a radio-active atom explode or an electron jump f a l>g] to a small] orbit4 ,9 ^! matt]s we only "k /ati/ical av]ages4 ,take next ! view t m9d & matt] are q disp>ate4 ,?is we h criticis$ already4 ,x re/s ^u a notion t we "k mu* m ab\t matt] ?an we d1 & 9 p>ticul> ^u ! belief t ! space ( physics c be id5tifi$ ) ! space ( s5sible exp]i5ce4 ,?is belief is abs5t 9 ,leibniz1 :o1 h[ev]1 nev] q realis$ :at 8 own view 04 ,x is n abs5t 9 ,kant1 :o realis$ t ! space ( s5sible exp]i5ce is subjective1 & inf]r$ t ! space ( physics is subjective4 ,s9ce ,kant1 no "o seems to h ?\ght cle>ly ab\t space until ,e9/e9 & ,m9k[ski4 ,! sep>ation ( physical & s5sible space1 logically c>ri$ out1 %[s ! gr\ndlessness ( traditional views ab\t m9d & matt]4 ,?is "p ( ,desc>tes' philosophy1 !re=e1 ?\gh x accel]at$ ! progress ( physics1 mu/ be reg>d$ z metaphysically an ab]ration4 ,! o!r "p ( ,desc>tes' philosophy1 namely1 ! emphasis ^u me?odical d\bt1 & consequ5tly ^u !ory ( k1 has be5 m fruitful4 ,! beg9n+ ( a philosophic attitude is ! realisation t we d n "k z mu* z we ?9k we d1 & to ?is ,desc>tes contribut$ notably4 ,we h se5 t he set to "w to d\bt all he c\ld1 b f\nd he c\ld n d\bt 8 own exi/5ce1 :i* he !re=e took z ! />t+-po9t ( 8 con/ructive sy/em4 ,he suppos$ t ! mo/ c]ta9 fact 9 ! _w is 8,i ?9k04 ,?is 0 un=tunate1 s9ce x gave a subjective bias to mod]n philosophy4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 8,i0 seems to be only a /r+ ( ev5ts1 ea* ( :i* sep>ately is m c]ta9 ?an ! :ole4 ,& 8?9k0 is a ^w :i* ,desc>tes accept$ z indef9able1 b :i* really cov]s complicat$ relations betwe5 ev5ts4 ,:5 is an ev5t a 8?\ght08 ,is !re "s intr9sic *>act]i/ic :i* makes x a ?\ght8 ,desc>tes w\ld say yes1 & s w\ld mo/ philosoph]s4 ,i %\ld say no4 ,take1 e4g4 a visual & an auditory s5sation4 ,bo? are 8?\ghts0 9 ,desc>tes' s5se1 b :at h !y 9 common8 ,two visual s5sations h an indef9able common quality1 viz4 t :i* makes !m visual4 ,two auditory s5sations likewise4 ,b a visual & an auditory s5sation h 9 common1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 no intr9sic prop]ty1 b a c]ta9 capacity = be+ kn[n )\t inf]5ce4 ,?is am\nts to say+ t !y are mnemic causes ( a c]ta9 k9d ( ev5t1 call$ a cognition1 & t !y h moreov]1 a c]ta9 =mal simil>ity to ! cognition :i* !y cause4 ,!re=e1 in/ead ( tak+ ! g5]al 8,i ?9k0 z our basis1 we ought to take ! p>ticul> occurr5ces :i* are kn[n )\t inf]5ce1 among :i* s5sations 7or r 8p]ceptions07 w be includ$4 ,^! occurr5ces1 z we h already se51 may be reg>d$ ) equal ju/ice z physical & m5tal3 !y are p>ts ( *a9s ( physical causation1 & !y h mnemic effects :i* are cognitions4 ,! =m] fact makes u call !m physical1 ! latt] m5tal1 bo? q truly4 ,x is ! p>ticul> ev5ts :i* are c]ta91 n ! 8,i ?9k0 :i* ,desc>tes made ! basis ( 8 philosophy4 ,x is n correct to reg>d ! ultimate c]ta9ties z 8subjective01 except 9 ! s5se t !y are ev5ts 9 t "p ( space-"t 9 :i* our body is--& our m9d also1 ,i %\ld say4 ,a new turn 0 giv5 to ! ,c>tesian type ( metaphysics by ,leibniz 7#afdf-agaf71 :o1 l ,desc>tes1 0 supremely em95t bo? 9 ma!matics & 9 philosophy4 ,leibniz reject$ ! view t !re is only "o sub/ance1 z ,sp9oza held1 or only two o!r ?an ,god1 z ! or?odox foll[]s ( ,desc>tes ma9ta9$4 ,he also reject$ ! dualism ( m9d & matt]1 hold+ t !re are innum]able sub/ances all 9 a great] or less degree m5tal1 & none 9 any degree mat]ial4 ,he ma9ta9$ t e sub/ance is immortal1 & t !re is no int]action betwe5 "o sub/ance & ano!r--?is la/ be+ a view d]iv$ f ! ,c>tesian indep5d5ce ( m9d & matt]4 ,he also ext5d$ to 8 _m sub/ances ! belief 9 p>allelism :i* _h exi/$ = ! two sub/ances ( ! ,c>tesians4 ,he call$ 8 sub/ances 8monads01 & ma9ta9$ t e monad mirrors ! univ]se1 & develops along l9es :i* correspond1 po9t by po9t1 ) ^? along :i* e o!r monad is develop+4 ,a man's s\l or m9d is a s+le monad1 :ile 8 body is a collection ( monads1 ea* m5tal 9 "s degree1 b less s ?an ! monad :i* is 8 s\l4 ,inf]ior monads mirror ! _w 9 a m confus$ way ?an high] ones d1 b !re is "s elem5t ( confusion 9 ! p]ceptions ( ev5 ! mo/ sup]ior monads4 ,e monad mirrors ! _w f its own po9t ( view1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 po9ts ( view is comp>$ to a diff]5ce ( p]spective4 8,matt]0 is a confus$ way ( p]ceiv+ a numb] ( monads2 if we p]ceiv$ cle>ly1 we %\ld see t !re is no su* ?+ z matt]4 ,leibniz's sy/em _h great m]its & great dem]its4 ,! !ory t 8matt]0 is a confus$ way ( p]ceiv+ some?+ non-mat]ial 0 an advance ^u any?+ to be f\nd 9 8 pr$ecessors4 ,he _h1 ?\gh only semi-consci\sly1 ! di/9ction betwe5 physical & p]ceptual space3 !re is space 9 ea* monad's picture ( ! _w1 & !re is also ! assemblage or patt]n ( 8po9ts ( view04 ,! latt] corresponds to :at ,i h call$ 8physical space01 ! =m] to 8p]ceptual space04 ,leibniz ma9ta9$1 z aga9/ ,newton1 t space & "t consi/s only ( relations--a view :i* has a*iev$ a def9itive triumph 9 ,e9/e9's !ory ( relativity4 ,! weak po9t ( 8 sy/em 0 :at he call$ ! 8pre-e/abli%$ h>mony01 9 virtue ( :i* all ! monads 7s to speak7 kept /ep1 9 spite ( ! fact t !y 7 8w9d[less0 & nev] act$ ^u ea* o!r4 ,p]ception1 = ,leibniz1 0 n an effect ( ! object p]ceiv$1 b a modification aris+ 9 ! p]ceiv+ monad & runn+ p>allel ) :at 0 happ5+ 9 ! p]ceiv$ object4 ,?is view w\ld nev] h seem$ plausible b = ! ant]ior ,c>tesian !ory ( ! mutual indep5d5ce ( m9d & matt]4 ,& if ,leibniz himself develop$1 z he believ$1 9 complete indep5d5ce ( all o!r creat$ ?+s1 x is n cle> :at good reasons he c\ld h _h = believ+ 9 ! exi/5ce ( any?+ except himself1 s9ce1 by 8 own !ory1 8 exp]i5ces w\ld rema9 un*ang$ if ev]y?+ else 7 annihilat$4 ,9 fact1 he 0 only able to refute ?is possibility by br++ 9 !ological consid]ations1 :i*1 :e!r valid or n1 are out ( place 9 philosophy4 ,= ?is reason1 8 doctr9es1 +5i\s z !y 71 f\nd little acceptance 9 ,france & ,engl&1 ?\gh 9 ,g]many !y prevail$1 9 a modifi$ =m1 until ! "t ( ,kant4 ,! sy/ems ( ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza & ,leibniz h "o v important *>act]i/ic 9 common1 namely1 t !y all dep5d ^u ! category ( 8sub/ance04 ,?is is a concept :i* has develop$ out ( ! common-s5se notion ( 8?+04 ,a 8sub/ance0 is t :i* has qualities1 & is 9 g5]al suppos$ to be inde/ructible1 ?\gh x is difficult to see :y4 ,x acquir$ its hold ov] metaphysicians p>tly because bo? matt] & ! s\l 7 held to be immortal1 & p>tly ?r\gh a ha/y transf]5ce to reality ( ideas d]iv$ f gramm>4 ,we say 8,pet] is runn+01 8,pet] is talk+01 8,pet] is eat+01 & s on4 ,we ?9k t !re is "o entity1 ,pet]1 :o does all ^! ?+s1 & t none ( !m c\ld be done unless !re 7 someone to d !m1 b t ,pet] might q well d none ( !m4 ,simil>ly we assign qualities to ,pet]3 we say he is wise & tall & blond & s on4 ,all ^! qualities1 we feel1 _c subsi/ by !mselves 9 ! void1 b only :5 !re is a subject to :i* !y belong2 b ,pet] w\ld rema9 ,pet] ev5 if he became fooli% & %ort & dy$ 8 hair4 ,?us ,pet]1 :o is reg>d$ z a 8sub/ance01 is self-subsi/5t z comp>$ ) 8 qualities & /ates1 & he pres]ves 8 sub/antial id5tity ?r\gh\t all sorts ( *anges4 ,simil>ly 9 ! mat]ial _w an atom is suppos$ 7or r 0 suppos$ until rec5tly7 to pres]ve its id5tity ?r\gh\t all "t1 h[ev] x might move & :atev] comb9ations x might =m ) o!r atoms4 ,! concept ( 8motion01 ^u :i* all physics seem$ to dep5d1 0 only /rictly applicable to a sub/ance :i* pres]ves its id5tity :ile *ang+ its spatial relations to o!r sub/ances2 ?us 8sub/ance0 acquir$ an ev5 firm] hold ^u physics ?an ^u metaphysics4 ,nev]!less1 ! notion ( 8sub/ance01 at any rate 9 any s5se involv+ p]man5ce1 mu/ be %ut out f our ?\ghts if we are to a*ieve a philosophy 9 any way adequate ei!r to mod]n physics or to mod]n psy*ology4 ,mod]n physics1 bo? 9 ! !ory ( relativity & 9 ! ,heis5b]g-,s*rd+] !ories ( atomic /ructure1 has r$uc$ 8matt]0 to a sy/em ( ev5ts1 ea* ( :i* la/s only = a v %ort "t4 ,to treat an electron or a proton z a s+le entity has become z wrong-head$ z x w\ld be to treat ! population ( ,london or ,new ,york z a s+le entity4 ,& 9 psy*ology1 equally1 ! 8ego0 has disappe>$ z an ultimate conception1 & ! unity ( a p]sonality has become a peculi> causal nexus among a s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,9 ?is respect1 gramm> & ord9>y language h be5 %[n to be bad guides to metaphysics4 ,a great book might be writt5 %[+ ! influ5ce ( syntax on philosophy2 9 su* a book1 ! au?or c\ld trace 9 detail ! influ5ce ( ! subject-pr$icate /ructure ( s5t5ces ^u ,european ?\ght1 m p>ticul>ly 9 ?is matt] ( 8sub/ance04 ,& x mu/ be und]/ood t ! same reasons :i* lead to ! rejection ( sub/ance lead also to ! rejection ( 8?+s0 & 8p]sons0 z ultimately valid concepts4 ,i say 8,i sit at my table01 b ,i ought to say3 8,"o ( a c]ta9 /r+ ( ev5ts causally connect$ 9 ! sort ( way t makes ! :ole s]ies t is call$ a #8p]son' has a c]ta9 spatial relation to "o ( ano!r /r+ ( ev5ts causally connect$ ) ea* o!r 9 a diff]5t way & hav+ a spatial configuration ( ! sort d5ot$ by ! ^w #8table'04 ,i d n say s1 because life is too %ort2 b t is :at ,i %\ld say if ,i 7 a true philosoph]4 ,ap>t f any o!r gr\nds1 ! inadequacy ( ! notion ( 8sub/ance0 w\ld lead u to reg>d ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 & ,leibniz z incompatible ) mod]n sci5ce4 ,!re is ( c\rse 9 all ?ree1 a great deal t does n dep5d ^u 8sub/ance01 & t /ill has value2 b 8sub/ance0 suppli$ ! framework & a good deal ( ! argum5tation1 & !re=e introduces a fatal defect into ^! ?ree great sy/ems4 ,i come n[ to ! triad ( ,briti% philosoph]s1 ,locke1 ,b]keley1 & ,hume--,engli%1 ,iri%1 & ,scot* respectively4 ,p]haps f patriotic bias or f community ( national temp]am5t1 ,i f9d m t ,i c accept1 & reg>d z /ill important1 9 ! writ+s ( ^! ?ree ?an 9 ! philosophy ( _! cont95tal pr$ecessors4 ,_! con/ructions are less ambiti\s1 _! argum5ts m detail$1 & _! me?ods m empirical2 9 all ^! respects !y %[ m k9%ip ) ! mod]n sci5tific outlook4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,locke & ,hume1 if n ,b]keley1 approa* philosophy too exclusively f ! side ( psy*ology1 & are conc]n$ to /udy ,man r ?an ! univ]se4 ,locke 0 a contempor>y & fri5d ( ,newton2 8 great book1 ,an ,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 0 publi%$ at almo/ ! same mom5t z ,newton's ,pr9cipia4 ,8 influ5ce has be5 enorm\s1 great]1 9 fact1 ?an 8 abilities w\ld seem to w>rant2 & ?is influ5ce 0 n only philosophical1 b q z mu* political & social4 ,he 0 "o ( ! creators ( eighte5? c5tury lib]alism3 democracy1 religi\s tol]ation1 fre$om ( economic ent]prise1 educational progress1 all owe mu* to him4 ,! ,engli% ,revolution ( #afhh embodi$ 8 ideas2 ! ,am]ican ,revolution ( #aggf & ! ,fr5* ,revolution ( #aghi express$ :at _h gr[n1 9 a c5tury1 out ( 8 tea*+4 ,& 9 all ^! movem5ts1 philosophy & politics w5t h& 9 h&4 ,?us ! practical success ( ,locke's ideas has be5 extraord9>y4 ,:51 kn[+ all ?is1 "o comes to read ,locke himself1 x is difficult to resi/ a feel+ ( disappo9tm5t4 ,he is s5sible1 enlight5$1 m9ute1 b un9spir$ & 7to mod]ns7 un9spir+4 ,"o has to rememb] t 8 contempor>ies f\nd common s5se exhil>at+ aft] a c5tury ( w>s ( religion & a long /ruggle ) obscurantism4 ,locke combatt$ ! doctr9e ( 8innate ideas01 accord+ to :i* we le>n$ only c]ta9 ?+s by exp]i5ce1 b possess$ our ab/ract k 9 virtue ( our cong5ital con/itution4 ,he reg>d$ ! m9d at bir? z a wax tablet1 ^u :i* exp]i5ce proce$$ to write4 ,und\bt$ly he 01 9 ?is matt]1 m 9 ! "r ?an 8 oppon5ts1 al?\gh ! t]ms 9 :i* ! controv]sy 0 wag$ are n su* z a mod]n c\ld employ4 ,we %\ld say t ! innate app>atus ( man consi/s ( 8reflexes0 r ?an 8ideas02 also t our s5se-organs1 our gl&s1 & our muscles lead to responses ( c]ta9 k9ds1 9 :i* our own organisation plays a "p ( ! same importance z t play$ by ! ext]nal /imulus4 ,! elem5t 9 our k-responses t corresponds to our own bodily organisation might1 p]haps1 be reg>d$ z repres5t+ :at ,locke's oppon5ts meant by 8innate04 ,b x does n repres5t ?is at all accurately s f> z our feel+s t[>ds x are conc]n$4 ,! 8innate0 ideas 7 ! ideas to be pr\d (2 !y embrac$ pure ma!matics1 natural !ology1 & e?ics4 ,b nobody is pr\d ( sneez+ or c\gh+4 ,& :5 ,locke tri$ to %[1 9 detail1 h[ our k is g5]at$ by exp]i5ce1 he 0 lib]at+ philosophy f a great deal ( useless lumb]1 ev5 if 8 own doctr9es 7 n altoge!r su* z we c n[ accept4 ,locke us$ 8 own pr9ciples only 9 ways consi/5t ) common s5se2 ,b]keley & ,hume bo? pu%$ !m to p>adoxical conclusions4 ,! philosophy ( ,b]keley1 to my m9d1 has n receiv$ q ! att5tion & respect t x des]ves--n t ,i agree ) x1 b t ,i ?9k x +5i\s & h>d] to refute ?an is (t5 suppos$4 ,b]keley1 z ev]yone kn[s1 d5i$ ! reality ( matt]1 & ma9ta9$ t ev]y?+ is m5tal4 ,9 ! =m] respect ,i agree ) him1 ?\gh n = 8 reasons2 9 ! latt] respect1 ,i ?9k 8 argum5t uns\nd & 8 conclusion improbable1 ?\gh n c]ta9ly false4 ,h[ev]1 ,i w leave ! developm5t ( my own views to a lat] *apt]1 & conf9e myself to ,b]keley's argum5t4 ,b]keley cont5d$ t :51 = example1 y 8see a tree01 all t y really "k to be happ5+ is 9 y1 & is m5tal4 ,! col\r t y see1 z ,locke _h already argu$1 does n belong to ! physical _w1 b is an effect ^u y1 produc$1 accord+ to ,locke1 by a physical /imulus4 ,locke held t ! purely spatial prop]ties ( p]ceiv$ objects really belong to ! objects1 :]eas su* ?+s z col\r1 s(tness1 s\nd1 etc41 are effects 9 u4 ,b]keley w5t fur!r1 & argu$ t ! spatial prop]ties ( p]ceiv$ objects are no exception4 ,?us ! object p]ceiv$ is compos$ entirely ( 8m5tal0 con/itu5ts1 & !re is no reason to believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( any?+ n m5tal4 ,he did n wi% to admit t a tree ceases to exi/ :5 we d n look at x1 s he ma9ta9$ t x acquires p]man5ce ?r\gh be+ an idea 9 ! m9d ( ,god4 ,x is /ill only an 8idea01 b n "o ^: exi/5ce dep5ds ^u ! accid5ts ( our p]ceptions4 ,! real objection to ,b]keley's view is r physical ?an metaphysical4 ,light & s\nd take "t to travel f _! s\rces to ! p]cipi5t1 & "o mu/ suppose t some?+ is happ5+ along ! r\te by :i* !y travel4 ,:at is happ5+ along ! r\te is presumably n 8m5tal01 =1 z we h se51 8m5tal0 ev5ts are ^? t h peculi> mnemic effects :i* are connect$ ) liv+ tissue4 ,!re=e1 al?\gh ,b]keley is "r 9 say+ t ! ev5ts we "k imm$iately are m5tal1 x is highly probable t he is wrong z to ! ev5ts :i* we inf] 9 places :]e !re are no liv+ bodies4 ,9 say+ ?is1 h[ev]1 we are anticipat+ ! results ( a full] discussion 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,hume1 proce$+ f a />t+-po9t ess5tially simil> to t ( ,locke & ,b]keley1 arriv$ at conclusions s sceptical t all subsequ5t philosoph]s h %i$ away f !m4 ,he d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! ,self1 que/ion$ ! validity ( induction1 & d\bt$ :e!r causal laws c\ld be appli$ to any?+ except our own m5tal processes4 ,he is "o ( ! v few philosoph]s n conc]n$ to e/abli% any positive conclusions4 ,to a great ext5t1 ,i ?9k1 we mu/ admit ! validity ( 8 reasons = refus+ to feel ! usual c]ta9ties4 ,z reg>ds ! ,self1 he 0 almo/ c]ta9ly "r4 ,z we h already argu$1 a p]son is n a s+le entity1 b a s]ies ( ev5ts l9k$ toge!r by peculi> causal laws4 ,z reg>ds induction1 ! "q is v difficult1 & ,i %all devote a subsequ5t *apt] to x4 ,z reg>ds causal laws1 ! "q1 z we %all f9d lat]1 is ! same z ! "q ( induction4 ,on bo? po9ts ,hume's d\bts are n to be lightly dismiss$4 ,! usual mod]n criticism ( ,locke1 ,b]keley1 & ,hume is t !y 7 unduly 8atomi/ic04 ,!y ?\ght ( ! m9d z a collection ( 8ideas01 ea* z h>d & sep>ate z a billi>d-ball4 ,!y _h n ! conception ( cont9u\s *ange or ( integral processes2 _! causal units 7 too small4 ,z we h already se5 9 connection ) ,ge/altpsy*ologie & ) s5t5ces1 ! causal unit is (t5 a configuration :i* _c be brok5 up )\t los+ its di/9ctive causal prop]ties4 ,9 ?is s5se1 x is true t ! traditional ,briti% philosophy 0 too atomi/ic4 ,b 9 ano!r s5se ,i d n ?9k x is true1 & ,i ?9k mu* mod]n philosophy is confus$ on ?is po9t4 ,al?\gh a configuration may lose its causal prop]ties :5 brok5 up into its elem5ts1 x nev]!less does consi/ ( ^! elem5ts relat$ 9 c]ta9 ways2 analysis into 8atoms0 is p]fectly valid1 s long z x is n assum$ t ! causal efficacy ( ! :ole is comp\nd$ out ( ! sep>ate effects ( ! sep>ate atoms4 ,x is because ,i hold ?is view t ,i call ! philosophy :i* ,i advocate 8logical atomism04 ,& to ?is ext5t ,i reg>d ,locke1 ,b]keley1 & ,hume z 9 ! "r z aga9/ _! mod]n critics4 ,b ?is also is a topic :i* w be resum$ 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,hume's criticism ( ! notion ( cause 0 :at l$ ,kant to 8 new dep>ture4 ,kant's philosophy is difficult & obscure1 & philosoph]s /ill dispute z to :at he meant4 ,^? :o disagree ) him are held by 8 support]s to h misund]/ood him2 ,i mu/ !re=e w>n ! read] t :at foll[s is my view ( :at he meant1 & t !re is no agre$ view4 ,kant ma9ta9$ t1 9 virtue ( our m5tal con/itution1 we deal ) ! raw mat]ial ( s5se-impressions by means ( c]ta9 8categories0 & by arrang+ x 9 space & "t4 ,bo? ! categories & ! space-"t arrangem5t are suppli$ by u1 & d n belong to ! _w except z kn[n by u4 ,b s9ce our m5tal con/itution is a con/ant datum1 all ph5om5a z kn[n w be spatio-temporal & w con=m to ! categories4 ,among ! latt] 8cause0 is ! mo/ important4 ,?us al?\gh !re may be no cause 9 ! _w z x is 9 itself 7a po9t on :i* ,kant 0 inconsi/5t 9 ! int]e/ ( morals71 yet ph5om5a1 i4e4 ?+s z !y seem to u1 w always h o!r ph5om5a z _! causes4 ,& al?\gh !re is no "t 9 ! real _w1 ?+s z !y appe> to u w be "s e>li] & "s lat]4 ,space1 aga9 is suppli$ by u1 & !re=e geometry c be kn[n a priori1 )\t our hav+ to /udy ! out] _w4 ,kant ?\ght t ,euclidean geometry 0 q c]ta9ly true1 al?\gh x c\ld n be prov$ by logic alone1 s9ce ,euclid's axioms c\ld be d5i$ )\t self-contradiction4 ,x 0 on ?is "q ( geometry t ! weakness ( ,kant's sy/em fir/ became obvi\s4 ,x 0 f\nd t we h no gr\nds = reg>d+ ,euclidean geometry z q true4 ,s9ce ,e9/e91 we h positive gr\nds = reg>d+ x z n q true4 ,x appe>s t geometry is j z empirical z geography4 ,we dep5d ^u obs]vation if we want to "k :e!r ! sum ( ! angles ( a triangle is two "r angles j z mu* z if we want to "k h[ mu* l& !re is 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,) reg>d to ! 8categories0 !re are equally great difficulties4 ,let u take 8cause0 z our illu/ration4 ,we see lightn+1 & !n we he> ?und]2 z ph5om5a1 our see+ & he>+ are connect$ z cause & effect4 ,b we mu/ n--if we are to take ! subjectivity ( 8cause0 s]i\sly--suppose t our see+ or our he>+ has an outside cause4 ,9 t case1 we h no reason to suppose t !re is any?+ outside ourselves4 ,nay1 m3 :at really happ5s :5 we see is n1 accord+ to ,kant1 :at we p]ceive by introspection2 :at really happ5s is some?+ )\t a date1 )\t a position 9 space1 )\t causes & )\t effects4 ,?us we d n "k ourselves any bett] ?an we "k ! outside _w4 ,space & "t & ! categories int]pose a mirage ( illusion :i* _c be p5etrat$ at any po9t4 ,z an answ] to ,hume's scepticism1 ?is seems a some:at unsuccessful ef=t4 ,& ,kant himself1 lat]1 9 ! ,critique ( ,practical ,reason1 demoli%$ mu* ( 8 own edifice1 because he ?\ght t e?ics at lea/ mu/ h validity 9 ! 8real0 _w4 ,?is "p ( 8 philosophy1 h[ev]1 is usually ignor$ by 8 foll[]s or apologetically m9imis$4 ,kant gave a new turn to an old philosophical controv]sy1 z to h[ f> our k is a priori & h[ f> x is bas$ on exp]i5ce4 ,kant admitt$ t )\t exp]i5ce we c\ld "k no?+1 & t :at we "k is only valid )9 ! realm ( exp]i5ce4 ,b he held t ! g5]al framework ( our k is a priori 9 ! s5se t x is n prov$ by means ( p>ticul> facts ( exp]i5ce1 b repres5ts ! conditions to :i* ph5om5a h to con=m 9 ord] to be capable ( be+ exp]i5c$4 ,be=e 8 day1 ! t5d5cy _h be5 = cont95tal philosoph]s to reg>d almo/ ev]y?+ z a priori :ile ,briti% philosoph]s reg>d$ almo/ ev]y?+ z empirical4 ,b bo? sides ?\ght t :at is a priori c be prov$ by logic1 at lea/ 9 !ory1 :]eas ,kant held t ma!matics is a priori & yet 8syn!tic01 i4e4 n capable ( be+ prov$ by logic4 ,9 ?is he 0 misl$ by geometry4 ,euclidean geometry1 consid]$ z true1 is 8syn!tic0 b n a priori2 consid]$ m]ely z d$uc+ consequ5ces f premisses1 x is a priori b n 8syn!tic04 ,! geometry ( ! actual _w1 z requir$ by eng9e]s1 is empirical2 ! geometry ( pure ma!matics1 :i* does n inquire into ! tru? ( ! axioms b m]ely %[s _! implications1 is an ex]cise 9 pure logic4 ,x %\ld be said1 h[ev]1 t1 if ! correct analysis ( k be>s any resemblance at all to t :i* has be5 sugge/$ 9 ?is book1 ! :ole controv]sy betwe5 empirici/s & apriori/s becomes m or less unreal4 ,all beliefs are caus$ by ext]nal /imuli2 :5 !y are z p>ticul> z ! /imuli !y are ( ! sort :i* an empirici/ might reg>d z prov$ by exp]i5ce1 b :5 !y are m g5]al difficulties arise4 ,a =eign] arrives 9 ,am]ica & sees ! immigration (ficials1 :o lead him to ! g5]alisation t all ,am]icans are rude2 b a few m9utes lat] ! port] upsets ?is induction 9 ! hope ( a tip4 ,?us sometimes a giv5 belief w be caus$ by "o ev5t & de/roy$ by ano!r4 ,if all ! ev5ts 9 a man's life1 s f> z !y affect ! belief 9 "q1 are su* z to cause x1 he c\nts ! belief true4 ,! m g5]al a belief is1 ! m ev5ts are relevant to x1 & !re=e ! m difficult x is = x to be su* z a man w long consid] true4 ,r\ghly speak+1 ! beliefs :i* c\nt z a priori w be ^? :i* well might h be5 upset by subsequ5t ev5ts1 b 9 fact 7 confirm$4 ,"h z else:]e we are driv5 to ! view t !ory ( k is n s fundam5tal z x has be5 consid]$ s9ce ,kant4 ,!re is "o m traditional controv]sy :i* ,i wi% to consid]1 namely1 t betwe5 moni/s & plurali/s4 ,is ! univ]se "o1 or is x _m8 ,if _m1 h[ intimately are !y int]connect$8 ,! moni/ic view is v old3 x is already complete 9 ,p>m5ides 7fif? c5tury ,b4,c474 ,x is fully develop$ 9 ,sp9oza1 ,hegel1 & ,bradley4 ,! plurali/ic view1 on ! o!r h&1 is f\nd 9 ,h]aclitus1 ! atomi/s1 ,leibniz1 & ! ,briti% empirici/s4 ,= ! sake ( def9it5ess1 let u take ! moni/ic view z f\nd 9 ,bradley1 :o is 9 ! ma9 a foll[] ( ,hegel4 ,he ma9ta9s t e judgm5t consi/s 9 assign+ a pr$icate to ,reality z a :ole3 ! :ole is ! subject ( e pr$icate4 ,suppose y />t by say+ 8,tommy has a cold 9 ! head04 ,?is may n seem to be a /atem5t ab\t ! univ]se z a :ole1 b accord+ to ,bradley x is4 ,if ,i may be all[$ to set =? 8 argum5t 9 popul> language :i* 8 foll[]s might res5t1 ,i %\ld put x some?+ l ?is3 ,fir/ ( all1 :o is ,tommy8 ,he is a p]son ) a c]ta9 nature1 di/+ui%$ f o!r p]sons by t nature2 he may resemble o!rs 9 _m respects1 b n 9 all1 s t y _c really expla9 :o ,tommy is unless y set =? all 8 *>act]i/ics4 ,b :5 y try to d ?is1 y are tak5 beyond ,tommy3 he is *>act]is$ by relations to 8 environm5t4 ,he is affectionate or rebelli\s or ?ir/y1 noisy or quiet1 & s on2 all ( ^! qualities involve 8 relations to o!rs4 ,if y try to def9e ,tommy )\t m5tion+ any?+ outside him1 y w f9d ?is q impossible2 !re=e he is n a self-subsi/5t be+1 b an unsub/antial fragm5t ( ! _w4 ,! same ?+ applies ev5 m obvi\sly to 8 nose & 8 cold4 ,h[ d y "k he has a cold8 ,because mat]ial sub/ances ( a c]ta9 k9d pass f 8 nose to 8 h&k]*ief1 :i* w\ld n be possible if he alone exi/$4 ,b n[1 :5 y take 9 ! environm5t ) a view to def9+ ,tommy & 8 nose & 8 cold1 y f9d t y _c def9e 8 imm$iate environm5t )\t tak+ acc\nt ( its environm5t1 & s on1 until at la/ y h be5 =c$ to include ! :ole _w4 ,!re=e ,tommy's cold is 9 reality a prop]ty ( ! _w1 s9ce no?+ %ort ( ! _w is suffici5tly sub/antial to h prop]ties4 ,we may put ! argum5t 9 a m ab/ract =m4 ,ev]y?+ :i* is "p ( ! _w is con/itut$1 9 "p1 by its relations to o!r ?+s2 b relations _c be real4 ,bradley's argum5t aga9/ relations is z foll[s4 ,fir/ he argues t1 if !re are relations1 !re mu/ be qualities betwe5 :i* !y hold4 ,?is "p ( ! argum5t ne$ n deta9 u4 ,he !n proce$s3 8,b h[ ! relation c /& to ! qualities is1 on ! o!r side1 un9telligible4 ,if x is no?+ to ! qualities1 !n !y are n relat$ at all2 &1 if s1 z we saw1 !y h ceas$ to be qualities1 & _! relation is a non5tity4 ,b if x is to be some?+ to !m1 !n cle>ly we %all require a new-connect+ relation4 ,= ! relation h>dly c be ! m]e adjective ( "o or bo? ( its t]ms2 or1 at lea/1 z su* x seems indef5sible4 ,&1 be+ some?+ itself1 if x does n itself be> a relation to ! t]ms1 9 :at intelligible way w x succe$ 9 be+ any?+ to !m8 ,b "h aga9 we are hurri$ (f into ! eddy ( a hopeless process1 s9ce we are =c$ to g on f9d+ new relations )\t end4 ,! l9ks are unit$ by a l9k1 & ?is bond ( union is a l9k :i* also has two ends2 & ^! require ea* a fre% l9k to connect !m ) ! old4 ,! problem is to f9d h[ ! relation c /& to its qualities1 & ?is problem is insoluble40 ,i _c deal adequately ) ?is argum5t )\t ab/ruse te*nicalities :i* w\ld be out ( place4 ,i w1 h[ev]1 po9t out :at seems to me ! ess5tial error4 ,bradley conceives a relation z some?+ j z sub/antial z its t]ms1 & n radically diff]5t 9 k9d4 ,! analogy ( ! *a9 ) l9ks %\ld make u suspici\s1 s9ce x cle>ly proves1 if x is valid1 t *a9s are impossible1 & yet1 z a fact1 !y exi/4 ,!re is n a ^w 9 8 argum5t :i* w\ld n apply to physical *a9s4 ,! successive l9ks are unit$ n by ano!r l9k1 b by a spatial relation4 ,i ?9k ,bradley has be5 misl$1 unconsci\sly1 by a circum/ance to :i* ,i allud$ 9 an e>li] *apt]1 namely1 ! fact t ! ^w = a relation is z sub/antial z ! words = its t]ms4 ,suppose ,a & ,b are two ev5ts1 & ,a prec$es ,b4 ,9 ! proposition 8,a prec$es ,b01 ! ^w 8prec$es0 is j z sub/antial z ! words 8,a0 & 8,b04 ,! relation ( ! two ev5ts ,a & ,b is repres5t$1 9 language1 by ! "t or space ord] ( ! ?ree words 8,a01 8prec$es01 & 8,b04 ,b ?is ord] is an actual relation1 n a ^w = relation4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ,bradley's regress does actually h to be tak5 9 giv+ v]bal expression to a relation1 & ! ^w = a relation does h to be relat$ to ! words = its t]ms4 ,b ?is is a l+ui/ic1 n a metaphysical1 fact1 & ! regress does n h to g any fur!r4 ,x %\ld be add$ t1 z ,bradley himself recognises1 8 difficulties break out afre% :5 he comes to consid] ! relation ( subject & pr$icate :5 a "* is assign$ to ,reality1 & t he is !re=e compell$ to conclude t no tru? is q true4 ,a conclusion ( ?is sort1 bas$ ^u an extremely ab/ract argum5t1 makes x natural to suspect t !re is "s error 9 ! argum5t4 ,pluralism is ! view ( sci5ce & common s5se1 & is !re=e to be accept$ if ! argum5ts aga9/ x are n conclusive4 ,= my "p1 ,i h no d\bt :atev] t x is ! true view1 & t monism is d]iv$ f a faulty logic inspir$ by my/icism4 ,?is logic dom9ates ! philosophy ( ,hegel & 8 foll[]s2 x is also ! ess5tial basis ( ,b]gson's sy/em1 al?\gh x is seldom m5tion$ 9 8 writ+s4 ,:5 x is reject$1 ambiti\s metaphysical sy/ems su* z ^? ( ! pa/ are se5 to be impossible4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,tru? ,,& ,,falsehood ,! "q ( tru? & falsehood has be5 wrapp$ 9 unnecess>y my/]y ow+ to a numb] ( causes4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 p wi% to ?9k t _! beliefs are m apt to be true ?an false1 s t !y seek a !ory t w %[ t tru? is normal & falsehood m or less accid5tal4 ,9 ! second place1 p are v vague z to :at !y mean by 8belief0 or 8judgm5t01 ?\gh p]suad$ t !y "k beliefs or judgm5ts to be ! objects to :i* ! pr$icates 8true0 or 8false0 apply4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 !re is a t5d5cy to use 8tru?0 ) a big ,t 9 ! gr& s5se1 z some?+ noble & spl5did & wor?y ( adoration4 ,?is gets p into a frame ( m9d 9 :i* !y become unable to ?9k4 ,b j z ! grave-digg]s 9 ,hamlet became famili> ) skulls1 s logicians become famili> ) tru?4 8,! h& ( little employm5t ha? ! da9ti] s5se10 says ,hamlet4 ,!re=e x is n f ! logician t awe be=e tru? is to be expect$4 ,!re are two que/ions 9 our pres5t subject3 7#a7 ,:at are ! objects to :i* ! pr$icates 8true0 & 8false0 apply8 7#b7 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 su* z are true & su* z are false8 ,we w beg9 ) ! fir/ ( ^! que/ions4 ,prima facie1 8true0 & 8false0 apply to /atem5ts1 :e!r 9 spee* or 9 writ+4 ,by ext5sion1 !y are suppos$ to apply to ! beliefs express$ 9 ^? /atem5ts1 & also to hypo!ses :i* are ent]ta9$ )\t be+ believ$ or disbeliev$4 ,b let u fir/ consid] ! tru? & falsehood ( /atem5ts1 foll[+ our practice ( go+ z f> z we c ) ! behavi\ri/s be=e fall+ back on introspection4 ,we consid]$ ! mean+ ( words e>li]2 n[ we h to consid] s5t5ces4 ,( c\rse a s5t5ce may consi/ ( a s+le ^w1 or ( a w9k2 b g5]ally x consi/s ( sev]al words4 ,9 t case1 x has a mean+ :i* is a function ( ! mean+s ( ! sep>ate words & _! ord]4 ,a s5t5ce :i* has no mean+ is n true or false2 ?us x is only s5t5ces z vehicles ( a c]ta9 sort ( mean+ t h tru? or falsehood4 ,we h !re=e to exam9e ! mean+ ( a s5t5ce4 ,let u take "s v humble example4 ,suppose y look 9 a "t-table & f9d x !re /at$ t a pass5g] tra9 leaves ,k+'s ,cross = ,ed9burgh at #aj ,a4,m4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ?is ass]tion8 ,i %udd] :5 ,i ?9k ( its complexity4 ,if ,i 7 to try to develop ! !me adequately1 ,i %\ld be occupi$ ) no?+ else till ! end ( ! pres5t volume1 & !n ,i %\ld h only t\*$ ! fr+e ( ! subject4 ,take fir/ ! social aspect3 x is n ess5tial t anybody b ! eng9e] & fireman %\ld travel by ! tra91 ?\gh x is ess5tial t o!rs %\ld be able to travel by x if !y fulfil c]ta9 conditions4 ,x is n ess5tial t ! tra9 %\ld rea* ,ed9burgh3 ! /atem5t rema9s true if !re is an accid5t or breakd[n on ! way4 ,b x is ess5tial t ! managem5t ( ! railway %\ld int5d x to rea* ,ed9burgh4 ,take next ! physical aspect3 x is n ess5tial1 or ev5 possible1 t ! tra9 %\ld />t exactly at t52 "o might p]haps say t x mu/ n />t m ?an t5 seconds be=e its "t or m ?an fifty seconds aft]1 b ^! limits _c be laid d[n rigidly4 ,9 c\ntries :]e unpunctuality is common !y w\ld be mu* wid]4 ,!n we mu/ consid] :at we mean by 8/>t+01 :i* no "o c def9e unless he has le>nt ! inf9itesimal calculus4 ,!n we consid] ! def9itions ( ,k+'s ,cross & ,ed9burgh1 bo? ( :i* are m or less vague t]ms4 ,!n we mu/ consid] :at is meant by a 8tra904 ,"h !re w be fir/ ( all complicat$ legal que/ions2 :at con/itutes fulfilm5t ( a railway company's obligations 9 ! way ( runn+ 8tra9s08 ,!n !re are que/ions z to ! con/itution ( matt]1 s9ce evid5tly a tra9 is a piece ( matt]2 also ( c\rse !re are que/ions z to me?ods ( e/imat+ ,gre5wi* "t at ,k+'s ,cross4 ,mo/ ( ! above po9ts h to d ) ! mean+ ( s+le words1 n ) ! mean+ ( ! :ole s5t5ce4 ,x is obvi\s t ! ord9>y mortal does n tr\ble ab\t su* complications :5 he uses ! words3 to him a ^w has a mean+ v f> f precise1 & he does n try to exclude m>g9al cases4 ,x is ! se>* = precision t introduces complications4 ,we ?9k we atta* a mean+ to ! ^w 8man01 b we don't "k :e!r to include ,pi!can?ropus ,erectus4 ,to ?is ext5t1 ! mean+ ( ! ^w is vague4 ,z k increases1 words acquire mean+s :i* are m precise & m complex2 new words h to be introduc$ to express ! less complex con/itu5ts :i* h be5 discov]$4 ,a ^w is int5d$ to describe some?+ 9 ! _w2 at fir/ x does s v badly1 b aft]w>ds x gradually improves4 ,?us s+le words embody k1 al?\gh !y d n make ass]tions4 ,9 an ideal logical language1 !re w be words ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,fir/1 prop] names4 ,( ^!1 h[ev]1 !re are no examples 9 actual language4 ,! words :i* are call$ prop] names describe collections1 :i* are always def9$ by "s *>act]i/ic2 ?us ass]tions ab\t 8,pet]0 are really ab\t ev]y?+ t is 8,pet]i%04 ,to get a true prop] "n1 we %\ld h to get to a s+le p>ticul> or a set ( p>ticul>s def9$ by enum]ation1 n by a common quality4 ,s9ce we _c acquire k ( actual p>ticul>s1 ! words we use d5ote1 9 ! be/ language we c make1 ei!r adjectives or relations betwe5 two or m t]ms4 ,9 addition to ^!1 !re are words indicative ( /ructure3 e4g4 9 8,a is great] ?an ,b01 ! words 8is0 & 8?an0 h no sep>ate mean+1 b m]ely s]ve to %[ ! 8s5se0 ( ! relation 8great]01 i4e4 t x goes f ,a to ,b1 n f ,b to ,a4 ,/rictly speak+1 we are /ill simplify+4 ,true adjectives & relations w require p>ticul>s = _! t]ms2 ! sort ( adjectives we c "k1 su* z 8blue0 & 8r\nd01 w n be applicable to p>ticul>s4 ,!y are !re=e analog\s to ! adjective 8popul\s0 appli$ to a t[n4 ,to say 8?is t[n is popul\s0 means 8_m p live 9 ?is t[n04 ,a simil> trans=mation w\ld be dem&$ by logic 9 all ! adjectives & relations we c "k empirically4 ,t is to say1 no ^w t we c und]/& w\ld occur 9 a grammatically correct acc\nt ( ! univ]se4 ,leav+ on "o side ! vagu5ess & inaccuracy ( words1 let u ask ourselves2 9 :at circum/ances d we feel conv9c$ t we "k a /atem5t to be true or false z ! case may be8 ,a pres5t /atem5t w be reg>d$ z true if1 e4g4 x agrees ) recollection or p]ception2 a pa/ /atem5t1 if x rais$ expectations n[ confirm$4 ,i d n mean to say t ^! are ! only gr\nds ^u :i* we reg>d /atem5ts z true2 ,i mean t !y are simple & typical1 & wor? exam9+4 ,if y say 8x 0 ra9+ ?is morn+01 ,i may recollect t x 0 or t x wasn't4 ,"o may p]haps say t ! words 8?is morn+0 are associat$ = me ) ! ^w 8ra9+0 or ) ! words 8n ra9+04 ,accord+ to :i* occurs1 ,i judge y\r /atem5t true or false4 ,if ,i h nei!r association1 ,i d n judge y\r /atem5t ei!r true or false unless ,i h mat]ial = an inf]5ce2 & ,i d n wi% to consid] inf]5ce yet4 ,if y say 8! lights h gone out01 :5 ,i c see ! lights %9+1 ,i judge t y speak falsely1 because my p]ception is associat$ ) ! words 8lights %9+04 ,if y say 8! lights w g out 9 a m9ute01 y produce a c]ta9 famili> k9d ( t5sion call$ 8expectation01 & aft] a "t y produce a judgm5t t y spoke falsely 7if ! lights d n g out74 ,^! are ! ord9>y direct ways ( decid+ on ! tru? or falsehood ( /atem5ts ab\t pa/1 pres5t1 or future4 ,x is necess>y to di/+ui% betwe5 direct & indirect gr\nds = accept+ or reject+ /atem5ts4 ,pragmatism consid]s only indirect gr\nds4 ,broadly speak+1 x consid]s a /atem5t false :5 ! consequ5ces ( accept+ x are un=tunate4 ,b ?is belongs to ! region ( inf]5ce4 ,i ask y ! way to ! /ation1 y tell me wrong1 & ,i miss my tra92 ,i !n inf] t y told me wrong4 ,b if y say 8! lights are out0 :5 ,i see !m %9+1 ,i reject y\r /atem5t )\t inf]5ce4 ,9 ?is case1 some?+ 9 my pres5t circum/ances is associat$ ) words diff]5t f y\rs1 & diff]5t 9 ways :i* ,i h le>nt to reg>d z involv+ incompatibility4 ,! ultimate te/ ( falsehood is nev]1 s ,i ?9k1 ! nature ( ! consequ5ces ( a belief1 b ! association betwe5 words & s5sible or rememb]$ facts4 ,a belief is 8v]ifi$0 :5 a situation arises :i* gives a feel+ ( expect$ness 9 connection ) x2 x is falsifi$ :5 ! feel+ is "o ( surprise4 ,b ?is only applies to beliefs :i* await "s future cont+5cy = v]ification or refutation4 ,a belief :i* is an imm$iate reaction to a situation--e4g4 :5 y are wait+ = a race to beg9 & pres5tly y say 8!y're (f0--has no ne$ ( v]ification1 b v]ifies o!r beliefs4 ,& ev5 :]e ! confirmation ( a belief is 9 ! future1 x is ! expect$ness1 n ! pleasantness1 ( ! consequ5ces t confirms ! tru? ( ! belief4 ,i ?9k x is a mi/ake to treat 8belief0 z "o k9d ( occurr5ce1 z is done 9 traditional psy*ology4 ,! sort ( belief :i* is bas$ ^u memory or p]ception alone diff]s f ! sort :i* involves expectation4 ,:5 y f9d 9 ! "t-table t a tra9 leaves ,k+'s ,cross at t51 y\r belief t ?is /atem5t occurs 9 ! "t-table does n await future confirmation1 b y\r belief ab\t ! tra9 does3 y may g to ,k+'s ,cross & see ! tra9 />t4 ,a belief :i* conc]ns an ev5t may be a recollection1 a p]ception1 or an expectation4 ,x may be none ( ^!1 9 ! case ( an ev5t :i* y h n se5 & d n expect to see--e4g4 ,cs> cross+ ! ,rubicon1 or ! abolition ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,b su* beliefs always involve inf]5ce4 ,i d n at ?is /age consid] logical & ma!matical beliefs1 "s ( :i* mu/ be1 9 a s5se1 non-inf]5tial4 ,b ,i ?9k we %all f9d t ?is s5se is diff]5t f t 9 :i* memories & p]ceptions are non-inf]5tial4 ,a belief1 ,i %\ld say1 int]pret$ n>r[ly1 is a =m ( words relat$ to an emotion ( "o ( sev]al k9ds4 7,i %all give a broad] mean+ lat]47 ,! emotion is diff]5t accord+ z ! belief embodies a rem9isc5ce1 a p]ception1 an expectation1 or some?+ outside ! exp]i5ce ( ! believ]4 ,moreov]1 a =m ( words is n ess5tial4 ,:]e ! emotion is pres5t1 & leads to action relevant to "s feature ( ! environm5t1 !re may be said to be a belief4 ,! fundam5tal te/ ( a belief1 ( no matt] :at sort1 is t x causes "s ev5t :i* actually takes place to ar\se ! emotion ( expect$ness or its opposite4 ,i d n n[ attempt to decide :at an emotion is4 ,dr4 ,watson gives a behavi\ri/ic acc\nt ( emotions1 :i* w\ld1 if adopt$1 make my def9ition ( 8belief0 purely behavi\ri/ic4 ,i h fram$ ! def9ition s z n to involve a decision on ! "q ( introspection4 ,! subject ( tru? & falsehood may be subdivid$ z foll[s3 ,a4 ,=mal ,!ory4--,giv5 ! mean+s ( ! compon5t words1 :at decides :e!r a s5t5ce is true or false8 ,b4 ,causal ,!ory4--,c we di/+ui% betwe5 tru? & falsehood by 7a7 _! causes1 7b7 _! effects8 ,c4 ,individual & ,social ,elem5ts4--,a /atem5t is a social occurr5ce1 a belief is some?+ individual4 ,h[ c we def9e a belief1 & :at is x :5 n compos$ ( words8 ,d4 ,consi/5cy & ,tru?4--,c we get outside ! circle ( beliefs or /atem5ts to some?+ else :i* %[s !m true1 n m]ely consi/5t8 ,9 o!r words1 :at possible relation is !re betwe5 propositions & facts8 ,x is v h>d to dis5tangle ^! que/ions4 ,! fir/ "q1 z to =mal !ories1 leads to ! f\r?1 z to ! relations ( propositions to facts4 ,e4g4 8,brutus kill$ ,cs>0 is true because ( a c]ta9 fact2 :at fact8 ,! fact t ,brutus kill$ ,cs>4 ,?is keeps u 9 ! v]bal realm1 & does n get u outside x to "s realm ( non-v]bal fact by :i* v]bal /atem5ts c be v]ifi$4 ,h5ce our f\r? problem arises4 ,b ?is leads u to our second problem1 z to causes & effects ( :at is true or false1 = x is "h t we %all naturally look = ! vital relation betwe5 propositions & facts4 ,& "h aga9 we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ?9k+ truly & speak+ truly4 ,! =m] is an individual affair1 ! latt] a social affair4 ,?us all our problems hang toge!r4 ,i w beg9 ) ,c1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 a belief & a /atem5t4 ,by a 8/atem5t0 ,i mean a =m ( words1 utt]$ or writt51 ) a view to be+ he>d or read by "s o!r p]son or p]sons1 & n a "q1 int]jection1 or comm&1 b su* z we %\ld call an ass]tion4 ,z to ! "q :at =ms ( words are ass]tions1 t is "o = ! gramm>ian & diff]s f language to language4 ,b p]haps we c say r m ?an t4 ,! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 betwe5 an ass]tion & an imp]ative is n %>p4 ,9 ,engl&1 notices say 8,visitors are reque/$ n to walk on ! grass04 ,9 ,am]ica1 !y say 8,keep (f6 ,?is means y40 ,effectively1 ! two h ! same mean+3 yet ! ,engli% notice consi/s only ( a /atem5t1 :ile ! ,am]ican notice consi/s ( an imp]ative foll[$ by a /atem5t :i* mu/ be false if read by m ?an "o p]son4 ,9 s f> z /atem5ts are int5d$ to influ5ce ! conduct ( o!rs1 !y p>take ( ! nature ( imp]atives or reque/s4 ,_! *>act]i/ic1 h[ev]1 is t !y endeav\r to effect _! aim by produc+ a belief :i* may or may n exi/ 9 ! m9d ( ! speak]4 ,(t51 h[ev]1 !y express a belief1 )\t /opp+ to consid] ! effect ^u o!rs4 ,?us a /atem5t may be def9$ z a =m ( words :i* ei!r expresses a belief or is int5d$ to create "o4 ,our next /ep1 !re=e1 mu/ be ! def9ition ( 8belief04 8,belief0 is a ^w :i* w be q diff]5tly def9$ if we take an analytic po9t ( view f ! way 9 :i* we %all def9e x if we reg>d ! matt] causally4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( sci5ce1 ! causal po9t ( view is ! m important4 ,beliefs influ5ce action 9 c]ta9 ways2 :at influ5ces action 9 ^! ways may be call$ a belief1 ev5 if1 analytically1 x does n mu* resemble :at w\ld ord9>ily be s call$4 ,we may !re=e wid5 our previ\s def9ition ( belief4 ,consid] a man :o goes to ! h\se :]e 8 fri5d us$ to live1 &1 f9d+ he has mov$1 says1 8,i ?\ght he /ill liv$ "h01 :]eas he act$ m]ely f habit )\t ?\ght4 ,if we are go+ to use words causally1 we ought to say t ?is man _h a 8belief0 & !re=e a 8belief0 w be m]ely a *>act]i/ic ( a /r+ ( actions4 ,we %all h to say3 ,a man 8believes0 a c]ta9 proposition p if1 :5ev] he is aim+ at any result to :i* p is relevant1 he acts 9 a mann] calculat$ to a*ieve ! result if p is true1 b n o!rwise4 ,sometimes ?is gives def9ite results1 sometimes n4 ,:5 y call a telephone numb]1 x is cle> t y believe t to be ! numb] ( ! subscrib] y want4 ,b :e!r y believe 9 ! cons]vation ( en]gy or a future life may be h>d] to decide4 ,y may hold a belief 9 "s contexts & n 9 o!rs2 = we d n ?9k 9 accordance ) ! s-call$ 8,laws ( ,?\ght04 8,belief0 l all ! o!r categories ( traditional psy*ology1 is a notion incapable ( precision4 ,?is br+s me to ! "q :e!r ! tru? or falsehood ( a belief c be det]m9$ ei!r by its causes or by its effects4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a prelim9>y difficulty4 ,i said j n[ t ,a believes p if he acts 9 a way :i* w a*ieve 8 ends if p is true4 ,i !re=e assum$ t we "k :at is meant by 8tru?04 ,i assum$1 to be def9ite1 t we "k :at is meant by 8tru?0 z appli$ to a =m ( words4 ,! argum5t 0 z foll[s3 ,f obs]vation ( a p]son's acts1 y inf] 8 beliefs1 by a process :i* may be elaborate z ! discov]y ( ,kepl]'s ,laws f ! obs]v$ motions ( ! planets4 ,8 8beliefs0 are n assum$ to be 8/ates ( m9d01 b m]ely *>act]i/ics ( s]ies ( actions4 ,^! beliefs1 :5 asc]ta9$ by obs]vation1 c be express$ 9 words2 y c say1 e4g4 8,?is p]son believes t !re is a tra9 f ,k+'s ,cross at #aj ,a4,m40 ,hav+ once express$ ! belief 9 words ( :i* ! mean+ is kn[n1 y h arriv$ at ! /age :]e =mal !ories are applicable4 ,words ( kn[n mean+1 put toge!r accord+ to a kn[n syntax1 are true or false 9 virtue ( "s fact1 & _! relation to ?is fact results logically f ! mean+s ( ! sep>ate words & ! laws ( syntax4 ,?is is :]e logic is /rong4 ,x w be se5 t1 accord+ to :at we h said1 tru? is applicable prim>ily to a =m ( words1 & only d]ivatively to a belief4 ,a =m ( words is a social ph5om5on1 !re=e ! fundam5tal =m ( tru? mu/ be social4 ,a =m ( words is true :5 x has a c]ta9 relation to a c]ta9 fact4 ,:at relation to :at fact8 ,i ?9k ! fundam5tal relation is ?is3 a =m ( words is true if a p]son :o kn[s ! language is l$ to t =m ( words :5 he f9ds himself 9 an environm5t :i* conta9s features t are ! mean+s ( ^? words1 & ^! features produce reactions 9 him suffici5tly /rong = him to use words :i* mean !m4 ,?us 8a tra9 leaves ,k+'s ,cross at #aj ,a4,m40 is true if a p]son c be l$ to say1 8,x is n[ #aj ,a4,m41 ?is is ,k+'s ,cross1 & ,i see a tra9 />t+04 ,! environm5t causes words1 & words directly caus$ by ! environm5t 7if !y are /atem5ts7 are 8true04 ,:at is call$ 8v]ification0 9 sci5ce consi/s 9 putt+ oneself 9 a situation :]e words previ\sly us$ = o!r reasons result directly f ! environm5t4 ,( c\rse1 giv5 ?is basis1 !re are innum]able indirect ways ( v]ify+ /atem5ts1 b all1 ,i ?9k1 dep5d ^u ?is direct way4 ,! above !ory may be ?\ght v odd1 b x is p>tly design$ to meet ! f\r? ( our previ\s que/ions1 namely1 8,h[ c we get outside words to ! facts :i* make !m true or false80 ,obvi\sly we _c d ?is )9 logic1 :i* is imprison$ 9 ! realm ( words2 we c only d x by consid]+ ! relations ( words to our o!r exp]i5ces1 & ^! relations1 9 s f> z !y are relevant1 c h>dly be o!r ?an causal4 ,i ?9k ! above !ory1 z x /&s1 is too crude to be q true4 ,we mu/ also br+ 9 su* ?+s z expect$ness1 :i* we discuss$ e>li]4 ,b ,i believe t ! def9ition ( tru? or falsehood w h to be s\ght along "s su* l9es z ,i h indicat$4 ,i want 9 conclusion to indulge 9 two speculations4 ,! fir/ conc]ns a possible reconciliation ( behavi\rism & logic4 ,x is cle> t1 :5 we h a problem to solve1 we d n always solve x z ! rat does1 by means ( r&om movem5ts2 we (t5 solve x by 8?9k+01 i4e4 by a process 9 :i* we are n mak+ any ov]t movem5ts4 ,! same ?+ 0 sometimes true ( ,khl]'s *impanzees4 ,n[ :at is involv$ 9 ! possibility ( solv+ a problem by v]bal ?9k+8 ,we put words toge!r 9 v>i\s ways :i* are n :olly r&om1 b limit$ by previ\s k ( ! sort ( phrase t is likely to conta9 a solution ( our problem4 ,at la/ we hit ^u a phrase :i* seems to give :at we want4 ,we !n proce$ to an ov]t action ( ! k9d indicat$ by ! phrase2 if x succe$s1 our problem is solv$4 ,n[ ?is process is only intelligible if !re is "s connection betwe5 ! laws ( syntax & ! laws ( physics--us+ 8syntax0 9 a psy*ological r ?an a grammatical s5se4 ,i ?9k ?is connection is assum$ 9 logic & ord9>y philosophy1 b x ought to be treat$ z a problem requir+ inve/igation by behavi\ri/ me?ods4 ,i lay no /ress on ?is sugge/ion1 except z giv+ a h9t = future inve/igations4 ,b ,i _c ?9k t ! behavi\ri/ has gone f> t[>ds ! solution ( 8 problem until he has succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ a connection betwe5 syntax & physics4 ,)\t ?is1 ! efficacy ( 8?\ght0 _c be expla9$ on 8 pr9ciples4 ,my second speculation is z to ! limitations :i* ! /ructure ( language imposes ^u ! ext5t ( our possible k ( ! _w4 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t q important metaphysical conclusions1 ( a m or less sceptical k9d1 c be drawn f simple consid]ations z to ! relation betwe5 language & ?+s4 ,a spok5 s5t5ce consi/s ( a temporal s]ies ( ev5ts2 a writt5 s5t5ce is a spatial s]ies ( bits ( matt]4 ,?us x is n surpris+ t language c repres5t ! c\rse ( ev5ts 9 ! physical _w2 x c1 9 fact1 make a map ( ! physical _w1 pres]v+ its /ructure 9 a m manageable =m1 & x c d ?is because x consi/s ( physical ev5ts4 ,b if !re 7 su* a _w z ! my/ic po/ulates1 x w\ld h a /ructure diff]5t f t ( language1 & w\ld !re=e be incapable ( be+ v]bally describ$4 ,x is fairly cle> t no?+ v]bal c con=m or confute ?is hypo!sis4 ,a great deal ( ! confusion ab\t relations :i* has prevail$ 9 practically all philosophies comes f ! fact t relations are indicat$1 n by relations1 b by words :i* are z sub/antial z o!r words4 ,consequ5tly1 9 ?9k+ ab\t relations1 we con/antly hov] betwe5 ! unsub/antiality ( ! relation itself & ! sub/antiality ( ! ^w4 ,take1 say1 ! fact t lightn+ prec$es ?und]4 ,we saw e>li] t to express ?is by a language closely reproduc+ ! /ructure ( ! fact1 we %\ld h to say simply3 8lightn+1 ?und]01 :]e ! fact t ! fir/ ^w prec$es ! second means t :at ! fir/ ^w means prec$es :at ! second ^w means4 ,b ev5 if we adopt$ ?is me?od = temporal ord]1 we %\ld /ill ne$ words = all o!r relations1 because we c\ld n )\t intol]able ambiguity symbolise !m also by ! ord] ( our words4 ,:5 we say 8lightn+ prec$es ?und]01 ! ^w 8prec$es0 has a q diff]5t relation to :at x means f t :i* ! words 8lightn+0 & 8?und]0 h to :at !y respectively mean4 ,wittg5/e9#ab says t :at really happ5s is t we e/abli% a relation betwe5 ! ^w 8lightn+0 & ! ^w 8?und]01 namely ! relation ( hav+ ! ^w 8prec$es0 betwe5 !m4 ,9 ?is way he causes relations to be symbolis$ by relations4 ,b al?\gh ?is may be q correct1 x is suffici5tly odd to make x n surpris+ t p h ?\ght ! ^w 8prec$es0 means a relation 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* 8lightn+0 means a k9d ( ev5t4 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 mu/ be incorrect4 ,i ?9k x has usually be5 held unconsci\sly1 & has produc$ _m confusions ab\t relations :i* cease :5 x is expos$ to ! light ( day--= example1 ^? :i* lead ,bradley to condemn relations4 #ab ,tractatus ,logico-,philosophicus 7,kegan ,paul74 ,9 all ?is ,i h be5 consid]+ ! "q ( ! relation betwe5 ! /ructure ( language & ! /ructure ( ! _w4 ,x is cle> t any?+ t c be said 9 an inflect$ language c be said 9 an un9flect$ language2 !re=e1 ev]y?+ t c be said 9 language c be said by means ( a temporal s]ies ( un9flect$ words4 ,?is places a limitation ^u :at c be express$ 9 words4 ,x may well be t !re are facts :i* d n l5d !mselves to ?is v simple s*ema2 if s1 !y _c be express$ 9 language4 ,our confid5ce 9 language is due to ! fact t x consi/s ( ev5ts 9 ! physical _w1 &1 !re=e1 %>es ! /ructure ( ! physical _w1 & !re=e c express t /ructure4 ,b if !re be a _w :i* is n physical1 or n 9 space-"t1 x may h a /ructure :i* we c nev] hope to express or to "k4 ,^! consid]ations might lead u to some?+ l ! ,kantian a priori1 n z d]iv$ f ! /ructure ( ! m9d1 b z d]iv$ f ! /ructure ( language1 :i* is ! /ructure ( ! physical _w4 ,p]haps t is :y we "k s mu* physics & s little ( any?+ else4 ,h[ev]1 ,i h laps$ into my/ical speculation1 & w leave ^! possibilities1 s9ce1 by ! nature ( ! case1 ,i _c say any?+ true ab\t !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv ,,! ,,validity ,,( ,,inf]5ce ,x is cu/om>y 9 sci5ce to reg>d c]ta9 facts z 8data01 f :i* laws & also o!r facts are 8inf]r$04 ,we saw 9 ,*apt] ,,vii t ! practice ( inf]5ce is mu* wid] ?an ! !ories ( any logician w\ld ju/ify1 & t x is no?+ o!r ?an ! law ( association or ( 8le>n$ reactions04 ,9 ! pres5t *apt]1 ,i wi% to consid] :at ! logicians h evolv$ f ?is primitive =m ( inf]5ce1 & :at gr\nds we h1 z rational be+s1 = cont9u+ to inf]4 ,b let u fir/ get z cle> a notion z we c ( :at %\ld be meant by a 8datum04 ,! conception ( a 8datum0 _c be made absolute4 ,!oretically1 x %\ld mean some?+ t we "k )\t inf]5ce4 ,b be=e ?is has any def9ite mean+1 we mu/ def9e bo? 8k0 & 8inf]5ce04 ,bo? ^! t]ms h be5 consid]$ 9 e>li] *apt]s4 ,= our pres5t purpose x w simplify matt]s to take acc\nt only ( su* k z is express$ 9 words4 ,we consid]$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxiv ! conditions requir$ 9 ord] t a =m ( words may be 8true02 = pres5t purposes1 !re=e1 we may say t 8k0 means 8! ass]tion ( a true =m ( words04 ,?is def9ition is n q adequate1 s9ce a man may be "r by *ance2 b we may ignore ?is complication4 ,we may !n def9e a 8datum0 z foll[s3 ,a 8datum0 is a =m ( words :i* a man utt]s z ! result ( a /imulus1 ) no int]m$i>y ( any le>n$ reaction beyond :at is involv$ 9 kn[+ h[ to speak4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 p]mit su* le>n$ reactions z consi/ 9 adju/m5ts ( ! s5se-organs or 9 m]e increase ( s5sitivity4 ,^! m]ely improve ! receptivity to data1 & d n involve any?+ t c be call$ inf]5ce4 ,if ! above def9ition is accept$1 all our data = k ( ! ext]nal _w mu/ be ( ! nature ( p]cepts4 ,! belief 9 ext]nal objects is a le>n$ reaction acquir$ 9 ! fir/ mon?s ( life1 & x is ! duty ( ! philosoph] to treat x z an inf]5ce ^: validity mu/ be te/$4 ,a v little consid]ation %[s t1 logically1 ! inf]5ce _c be demon/rative1 b mu/ be at be/ probable4 ,x is n logically impossible t my life may be "o long dream1 9 :i* ,i m]ely imag9e all ! objects t ,i believe to be ext]nal to me4 ,if we are to reject ?is view1 we mu/ d s on ! basis ( an inductive or analogical argum5t1 :i* _c give complete c]ta9ty4 ,we p]ceive o!r p behav+ 9 a mann] analog\s to t 9 :i* we behave1 & we assume t !y h _h simil> /imuli4 ,we may he> a :ole cr[d say 8oh0 at ! mom5t :5 we see a rocket bur/1 & x is natural to suppose t ! cr[d saw x too4 ,nor are su* argum5ts conf9$ to liv+ organisms4 ,we c talk to a dictaphone & h x aft]w>ds repeat :at we said2 ?is is mo/ easily expla9$ by ! hypo!sis t at ! surface ( ! dictaphone ev5ts happ5$1 :ile ,i 0 speak+1 :i* 7 closely analog\s to ^? t 7 happ5+ j outside my e>s4 ,x rema9s possible t !re is no dictaphone & ,i h no e>s & !re is no cr[d wat*+ ! rocket2 my p]cepts may be all t is happ5+ 9 su* cases4 ,b1 if s1 x is difficult to arrive at any causal laws1 & argum5ts f analogy are m mislead+ ?an we are incl9$ to ?9k !m4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! :ole /ructure ( sci5ce1 z well z ! _w ( common s5se1 dem&s ! use ( induction & analogy if x is to be believ$4 ,^! =ms ( inf]5ce1 !re=e1 r ?an d$uction1 are ^? t mu/ be exam9$ if we are to accept ! _w ( sci5ce or any _w outside ( our own dreams4 ,let u take a simple example ( an induction :i* we h all p]=m$ 9 practice4 ,if we are hungry1 we eat c]ta9 ?+s we see & n o!rs--x may be said t we inf] edibility inductively f a c]ta9 visual & olfactory appe>ance4 ,! hi/ory ( ?is process is t *ildr5 a few mon?s old put ev]y?+ into _! m\?s unless !y are /opp$2 sometimes ! result is pleasant1 sometimes unpleasant2 !y repeat ! =m] r ?an ! latt]4 ,t is to say3 giv5 t an object hav+ a c]ta9 visual & olfactory appe>ance has be5 f\nd pleasant to eat1 an object hav+ a v simil> appe>ance w be eat52 b :5 a c]ta9 appe>ance has be5 f\nd connect$ ) unpleasant consequ5ces :5 eat51 a simil> appe>ance does n lead to eat+ next "t4 ,! "q is3 :at logical ju/ification is !re = our behavi\r8 ,giv5 all our pa/ exp]i5ce1 are we m likely to be n\ri%$ by bread ?an by a /one8 ,x is easy to see :y we ?9k s1 b c we1 z philosoph]s ju/ify ?is way ( ?9k+8 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 obvi\s t unless "o ?+ c be a sign ( ano!r bo? sci5ce & daily life w\ld be impossible4 ,m p>ticul>ly1 read+ involves ?is pr9ciple4 ,"o accepts pr9t$ words z signs1 b ?is is only ju/ifiable by means ( induction4 ,i d n mean t induction is necess>y to e/abli% ! exi/5ce ( o!r p1 ?\gh t also1 z we h se51 is true4 ,i mean some?+ simpl]4 ,suppose y want y\r hair cut1 & z y walk along ! /reet y see a notice 8hair-cutt+1 fir/ floor04 ,x is only by means ( induction t y c e/abli% t ?is notice makes x 9 "s degree probable t !re is a hair-cutt]'s e/abli%m5t on ! fir/ floor4 ,i d n mean t y employ ! pr9ciple ( induction2 ,i mean t y act 9 accordance ) x1 & t y w\ld h to appeal to x if y 7 accompani$ by a long-hair$ sceptical philosoph] :o refus$ to g up/airs till he 0 p]suad$ !re 0 "s po9t 9 do+ s4 ,! pr9ciple ( induction1 prima facie1 is z foll[s3 ,let !re be two k9ds ( ev5ts1 ,a & ,b 7e4g4 lightn+ & ?und]71 & let _m in/ances be kn[n 9 :i* an ev5t ( ! k9d ,a has be5 quickly foll[$ by "o ( ! k9d ,b1 & no in/ances ( ! contr>y4 ,!n ei!r a suffici5t numb] ( in/ances ( ?is sequ5ce1 or in/ances ( suitable k9ds w make x increas+ly probable t ,a is always foll[$ by ,b1 & 9 "t ! probability c be made to approa* c]ta9ty )\t limit provid$ ! "r k9d & numb] ( in/ances c be f\nd4 ,?is is ! pr9ciple we h to exam9e4 ,sci5tific !ories ( induction g5]ally try to sub/itute well-*os5 in/ances = num]\s in/ances1 & repres5t numb] ( in/ances z belong+ to crude popul> induction4 ,b 9 fact popul> induction dep5ds ^u ! emotional int]e/ ( ! in/ances1 n ^u _! numb]4 ,a *ild :o has burnt its h& once 9 a c&le-flame e/abli%es an induction1 b words take long]1 because at fir/ !y are n emotionally int]e/+4 ,! pr9ciple us$ 9 primitive practice is3 ,:atev]1 on a giv5 occasion1 imm$iately prec$es some?+ v pa9ful or pleasant1 is a sign ( t int]e/+ ev5t4 ,numb] plays a second>y "p z comp>$ ) emotional int]e/4 ,t is "o reason :y rational ?\ght is s difficult4 ,! logical problem ( induction is to %[ t ! proposition 8,a is always accompani$ 7or foll[$7 by ,b0 c be r5d]$ probable by k ( in/ances 9 :i* ?is happ5s1 provid$ ! in/ances are suitably *os5 or v num]\s4 ,f> ! be/ exam9ation ( induction is conta9$ 9 ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,keynes's ,treatise on ,probability4 ,!re is a valuable doctor's !sis by ! late ,jean ,nicod1 ,le ,problme logique de l'induction1 :i* is v ably review$ by ,r4 ,b4 ,brai?waite 9 ,m9d1 ,octob] #aibe4 ,a man :o reads ^! ?ree w "k mo/ ( :at is kn[n ab\t induction4 ,! subject is te*nical & difficult1 involv+ a good deal ( ma!matics1 b ,i w attempt to give ! gi/ ( ! results4 ,we w beg9 ) ! condition 9 :i* ! problem _h be5 left by ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4 ,he _h f\r canons ( induction1 by means ( :i*1 giv5 suitable examples1 x c\ld be demon/rat$ t ,a & ,b 7 causally connect$1 if ! law ( causation c\ld be assum$4 ,t is to say1 giv5 ! law ( causation1 ! sci5tific use ( induction c\ld be r$uc$ to d$uction4 ,r\ghly ! me?od is ?is3 ,we "k t ,b mu/ h a cause2 ! cause _c be ,c or ,d or ,e1 etc41 because we f9d by exp]im5t or obs]vation t ^! may be pres5t )\t produc+ ,b4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we nev] succe$ 9 f9d+ ,a )\t its be+ accompani$ 7or foll[$7 by ,b4 ,if ,a & ,b are bo? capable ( quantity1 we may f9d fur!r t ! m !re is ( ,a ! m !re is ( ,b4 ,by su* me?ods we elim9ate all possible causes except ,a2 !re=e1 s9ce ,b mu/ h a cause1 t cause mu/ be ,a4 ,all ?is is n really induction at all2 true induction only comes 9 9 prov+ ! law ( causation4 ,?is law ,mill reg>ds z prov$ by m]e enum]ation ( in/ances3 we "k va/ numb]s ( ev5ts :i* h causes1 & no ev5ts :i* c be %[n to be uncaus$2 !re=e1 x is highly probable t all ev5ts h causes4 ,leav+ out ( acc\nt ! fact t ! law ( causality _c h q ! =m t ,mill suppos$1 we are left ) ! problem3 ,does m]e numb] ( in/ances af=d a basis = induction8 ,if n1 is !re any o!r basis8 ,?is is ! problem to :i* ,mr4 ,keynes addresses himself4 ,mr4 ,keynes holds t an induction may be r5d]$ m probable by numb] ( in/ances1 n because ( _! m]e numb]1 b because ( ! probability1 if ! in/ances are v num]\s1 t !y w h no?+ 9 common except ! *>act]i/ics 9 "q4 ,we want1 let u suppose1 to f9d out :e!r "s quality ,a is always associat$ ) "s quality ,b4 ,we f9d in/ances 9 :i* ?is is ! case2 b x may happ5 t 9 all our in/ances "s quality ,c is also pres5t1 & t x is ,c t is associat$ ) ,b4 ,if we c s *oose our in/ances t !y h no?+ 9 common except ! qualities ,a & ,b1 !n we h bett] gr\nds = hold+ t ,a is always associat$ ) ,b4 ,if our in/ances are v num]\s1 !n1 ev5 if we d n "k t !y h no o!r common quality1 x may become q likely t ?is is ! case4 ,?is1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,keynes1 is ! sole value ( _m in/ances4 ,a few te*nical t]ms are useful4 ,suppose we want to e/abli% inductively t !re is "s probability 9 fav\r ( ! g5]alisation3 8,ev]y?+ t has ! prop]ty ,f also has ! prop]ty f04 ,we w call ?is g5]alisation g4 ,suppose we h obs]v$ a numb] ( in/ances 9 :i* ,f & f g toge!r1 & no in/ances to ! contr>y4 ,^! in/ances may h o!r common prop]ties z well2 ! sum-total ( _! common prop]ties is call$ ! total positive analogy1 & ! sum-total ( _! kn[n common qualities is call$ ! kn[n positive analogy4 ,! prop]ties belong+ to "s b n to all ( ! in/ances 9 "q are call$ ! negative analogy3 all ( !m con/itute ! total negative analogy1 all ^? t are kn[n con/itute ! kn[n negative analogy4 ,to /r5g!n an induction1 we want to dim9i% ! positive analogy to ! utmo/ possible ext5t2 ?is1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,keynes1 is :y num]\s in/ances are useful4 ,on 8pure0 induction1 :]e we rely solely ^u numb] ( in/ances1 )\t kn[+ h[ !y affect ! analogy1 ,mr4 ,keynes concludes 7,treatise 9 ,probability1 p4 #bcf73 8,we h %[n t if ea* ( ! in/ances necess>ily foll[s f ! g5]alisation1 !n ea* additional in/ance increases ! probability ( ! g5]alisation1 s long z ! new in/ance c\ld n h be5 pr$ict$ ) c]ta9ty f a k ( ! =m] in/ances4444 ,! common notion1 t ea* successive v]ification ( a d\btful pr9ciple /r5g!ns x1 is =mally prov$1 !re=e )\t any appeal to conceptions ( law or ( causality4 ,b we h n prov$ t ?is probability approa*es c]ta9ty z a limit1 or ev5 t our conclusion becomes m likely ?an n1 z ! numb] ( v]ifications or in/ances is indef9itely increas$40 ,x is obvi\s t induction is n mu* use unless1 ) suitable c>e1 its conclusions c be r5d]$ m likely to be true ?an false4 ,?is problem !re=e necess>ily occupies ,mr4 ,keynes4 ,x is f\nd t an induction w approa* c]ta9ty z a limit if two conditions are fulfill$3 7#a7 ,if ! g5]alisation is false1 ! probability ( its be+ true 9 a new in/ance :5 x has be5 f\nd to be true 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( in/ances1 h[ev] great t numb] may be1 falls %ort ( c]ta9ty by a f9ite am\nt4 7#b7 ,!re is a f9ite a priori probability 9 fav\r ( our g5]alisation4 ,mr4 ,keynes uses 8f9ite0 "h 9 a special s5se4 ,he holds t n all probabilities are num]ically measurable2 a 8f9ite0 probability is "o :i* exce$s "s num]ically measurable probability h[ev] small4 ,e4g4 our g5]alisation has a f9ite a priori probability if x is less unlikely ?an ?r[+ heads a billion times runn+4 ,! difficulty is1 h[ev]1 t !re is no easily discov]able way ( e/imat+ ! a priori probability ( a g5]alisation4 ,9 exam9+ ?is "q1 ,mr4 ,keynes is l$ to a v int]e/+ po/ulate :i*1 if true1 w1 he ?9ks1 give ! requir$ f9ite a priori probability4 ,8 po/ulate z he gives x is n q correct1 b ,i %all give 8 =m fir/1 & !n ! necess>y modification4 ,mr4 ,keynes supposes t ! qualities ( objects coh]e 9 gr\ps1 s t ! numb] ( indep5d5t qualities is mu* less ?an ! total numb] ( qualities4 ,we may conceive ?is aft] ! analogy ( biological species3 a cat has a numb] ( di/9ctive qualities :i* are f\nd 9 all cats1 a dog has a numb] ( o!r di/9ctive qualities :i* are f\nd 9 all dogs4 ,! me?od ( induction c1 he says1 be ju/ifi$ if we assume 8t ! objects 9 ! field1 ov] :i* our g5]alisations ext5d1 d n h an inf9ite numb] ( indep5d5t qualities2 t1 9 o!r words1 _! *>act]i/ics1 h[ev] num]\s1 coh]e toge!r 9 gr\ps ( inv>iable connection1 :i* are f9ite 9 numb]0 7p4 #bef74 ,aga9 7p4 #beh73 8,z a biological f\ndation = ,analogy1 !re=e1 we seem to ne$ "s su* assumption z t ! am\nt ( v>iety 9 ! univ]se is limit$ 9 su* a way t !re is no "o object s complex t its qualities fall into an inf9ite numb] ( indep5d5t gr\ps 444 or r t none ( ! objects ab\t :i* we g5]alise are z complex z ?is2 or at lea/ t1 ?\gh "s objects may be inf9itely complex1 we sometimes h a f9ite probability t an object ab\t :i* we seek to g5]alise is n inf9itely complex40 ,?is po/ulate is call$ ! 8pr9ciple ( limitation ( v>iety04 ,mr4 ,keynes aga9 f9ds t x is ne$$ 9 attempts to e/abli% laws by /ati/ics2 if he is "r1 x is ne$$ = all our sci5tific k outside pure ma!matics4 ,jean ,nicod po9t$ out t x is n q suffici5tly /r+5t4 ,we ne$1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,keynes1 a f9ite probability t ! object 9 "q has only a f9ite numb] ( indep5d5t qualities2 b :at we really ne$ is a f9ite probability t ! numb] ( its indep5d5t qualities is less ?an "s assign$ f9ite numb]4 ,?is is a v diff]5t ?+1 z may be se5 by ! foll[+ illu/ration4 ,suppose !re is "s numb] ( :i* we "k only t x is f9ite2 x is inf9itely improbable t x w be less ?an a million1 or a billion1 or any o!r assign$ f9ite numb]1 because1 :atev] su* numb] we take1 ! numb] ( small] numb]s is f9ite & ! numb] ( great] numb]s is inf9ite4 ,nicod requires u to assume t !re is a f9ite numb] n su* t !re is a f9ite probability t ! numb] ( indep5d5t qualities ( our object is less ?an n4 ,?is is a mu* /rong] assumption ?an ,mr4 ,keynes's1 :i* is m]ely t ! numb] ( indep5d5t qualities is f9ite4 ,x is ! /rong] assumption :i* is ne$$ to ju/ify induction4 ,?is result is v int]e/+ & v important4 ,x is rem>kable t x is 9 l9e ) ! tr5d ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,edd+ton has po9t$ out t !re is a c]ta9 f9ite numb] :i* is fundam5tal 9 ! univ]se1 namely ! numb] ( electrons4 ,accord+ to ! quantum !ory1 x w\ld seem t ! numb] ( possible arrangem5ts ( electrons may well also be f9ite1 s9ce !y _c move 9 all possible orbits1 b only 9 su* z make ! action 9 "o complete revolution con=m to ! quantum pr9ciple4 ,if all ?is is true1 ! pr9ciple ( limitation ( v>iety may well also be true4 ,we _c1 h[ev]1 arrive at a pro( ( our pr9ciple 9 ?is way1 because physics uses induction1 & is !re=e presumably invalid unless ! pr9ciple is true4 ,:at we c say1 9 a g5]al way1 is t ! pr9ciple does n refute itself1 b1 on ! contr>y1 leads to results :i* confirm x4 ,to ?is ext5t1 ! tr5d ( mod]n sci5ce may be reg>d$ z increas+ ! plausibility ( ! pr9ciple4 ,x is important to realise ! fundam5tal position ( probability 9 sci5ce4 ,at ! v be/1 induction & analogy only give probability4 ,e inf]5ce wor?y ( ! "n is inductive1 !re=e all inf]r$ k is at be/ probable4 ,z to :at is meant by probability1 op9ions diff]4 ,mr4 ,keynes takes x z a fundam5tal logical category3 c]ta9 premisses may make a conclusion m or less probable1 )\t mak+ x c]ta94 ,= him1 probability is a relation betwe5 a premiss & a conclusion4 ,a proposition does n h a def9ite probability on its own acc\nt2 9 itself1 x is m]ely true or false4 ,b x has probabilities ( diff]5t am\nts 9 reg>d to diff]5t premisses4 ,:5 we speak1 elliptically1 ( ! probability ( a proposition1 we mean its probability 9 relation to all our relevant k4 ,a proposition 9 probability _c be refut$ by m]e obs]vation3 improbable ?+s may happ5 & probable ?+s may fail to happ54 ,nor is an e/imate ( probability relevant to giv5 evid5ce prov$ wrong :5 fur!r evid5ce alt]s ! probability4 ,= ?is reason ! inductive pr9ciple _c be prov$ or disprov$ by exp]i5ce4 ,we might prove validly t su* & su* a conclusion 0 enorm\sly probable1 & yet x might n happ54 ,we might prove invalidly t x 0 probable1 & yet x might happ54 ,:at happ5s affects ! probability ( a proposition1 s9ce x is relevant evid5ce2 b x nev] alt]s ! probability relative to ! previ\sly available evid5ce4 ,! :ole subject ( probability1 !re=e1 on ,mr4 ,keynes's !ory1 is /rictly a priori & indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce4 ,!re is h[ev] ano!r !ory1 call$ ! 8frequ5cy !ory01 :i* w\ld make probability n indef9able1 & w\ld all[ empirical evid5ce to affect our e/imates ( probability relative to giv5 premisses4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory 9 its crude =m1 ! probability t an object hav+ ! prop]ty ,f w h ! prop]ty f is simply ! proportion ( ! objects hav+ bo? prop]ties to all ^? hav+ ! prop]ty ,f4 ,= example1 9 a monogam\s c\ntry ! probability ( a m>ri$ p]son be+ male is exactly a half4 ,mr4 ,keynes advances /rong argum5ts aga9/ all =ms ( ?is !ory t exi/$ :5 8 book 0 writt54 ,!re is h[ev] an article by ,r4 ,h4 ,nisbet on 8,! ,f\ndations ( ,probability0 9 ,m9d = ,janu>y #aibf1 :i* und]takes to rehabilitate ! frequ5cy !ory4 ,8 argum5ts are int]e/+1 & suffice to %[ t ! controv]sy is /ill an op5 "o1 b !y d n1 9 my op9ion1 am\nt to decisive pro(4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! frequ5cy !ory1 if x c\ld be ma9ta9$1 w\ld be pref]able to ,mr4 ,keynes's1 because x w\ld get rid ( ! necessity = treat+ probability z indef9able1 & w\ld br+ probability into mu* clos] t\* ) :at actually occurs4 ,mr4 ,keynes leaves an uncom=table gap betwe5 probability & fact1 s t x is f> f cle> :y a rational man w act ^u a probability4 ,nev]!less1 ! difficulties ( ! frequ5cy !ory are s consid]able t ,i _c v5ture to advocate x def9itely4 ,mean:ile1 ! details ( ! discussion are unaffect$ by ! view we may take on ?is fundam5tal philosophical "q4 ,& on ei!r view ! pr9ciple ( limitation ( v>iety w be equally necess>y to give validity to ! inf]5ces by induction & analogy ^u :i* sci5ce & daily life dep5d4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi ,,ev5ts1 ,,matt]1 ,,& ,,m9d ,ev]y?+ 9 ! _w is compos$ ( 8ev5ts02 t1 at lea/1 is ! !sis ,i wi% to ma9ta94 ,an 8ev5t01 z ,i und]/& x1 is some?+ hav+ a small f9ite duration & a small f9ite ext5sion 9 space2 or r1 9 view ( ! !ory ( relativity1 x is some?+ occupy+ a small f9ite am\nt ( space-"t4 ,if x has p>ts1 ^! p>ts1 ,i say1 are aga9 ev5ts1 nev] some?+ occupy+ a m]e po9t ( in/ant1 :e!r 9 space1 9 "t1 or 9 space-"t4 ,! fact t an ev5t occupies a f9ite am\nt ( space-"t does n prove t x has p>ts4 ,ev5ts are n imp5etrable1 z matt] is suppos$ to be2 on ! contr>y1 e ev5t 9 space-"t is ov]lapp$ by o!r ev5ts4 ,!re is no reason to suppose t any ( ! ev5ts ) :i* we are famili> are inf9itely complex2 on ! contr>y1 ev]y?+ kn[n ab\t ! _w is compatible ) ! view t e complex ev5t has a f9ite numb] ( p>ts4 ,we d n "k t ?is is ! case1 b x is an hypo!sis :i* _c be refut$ & is simpl] ?an any o!r possible hypo!sis4 ,i %all !re=e adopt x z a work+ hypo!sis 9 :at foll[s4 ,:5 ,i speak ( an 8ev5t0 ,i d n mean any?+ out ( ! way4 ,see+ a fla% ( lightn+ is an ev5t2 s is he>+ a tire bur/1 or smell+ a rott5 egg1 or feel+ ! coldness ( a frog4 ,^! are ev5ts t are 8data0 9 ! s5se ( ,*apt] ,,xxv2 b1 on ! pr9ciples expla9$ 9 t *apt]1 we inf] t !re are ev5ts :i* are n data & happ5 at a di/ance f our own body4 ,"s ( ^! are data to o!r p1 o!rs are data to no "o4 ,9 ! case ( ! fla% ( lightn+1 !re is an electro-magnetic di/urbance consi/+ ( ev5ts travell+ outw>d f ! place :]e ! fla% takes place1 & !n :5 ?is di/urbance rea*es ! eye ( a p]son or animal t c see1 !re is a p]cept1 :i* is causally cont9u\s ) ! ev5ts betwe5 ! place ( ! lightn+ & ! body ( ! p]cipi5t4 ,p]cepts af=d ! logical premisses = all inf]5ces to ev5ts t are n precepts1 :]ev] su* inf]5ces are logically ju/ifiable4 ,p>ticul> col\rs & s\nds & s on are ev5ts2 _! causal antec$5ts 9 ! inanimate _w are also ev5ts4 ,if we assume1 z ,i propose to d1 t e ev5t has only a f9ite numb] ( p>ts1 !n e ev5t is compos$ ( a f9ite numb] ( ev5ts t h no p>ts4 ,su* ev5ts ,i %all call 8m9imal ev5ts40 ,x w simplify our discussion to assume !m1 b by a little circumlocution ?is assumption c\ld be elim9at$4 ,! read] mu/ n !re=e reg>d x z an ess5tial "p ( :at foll[s4 ,a m9imal ev5t occupies a f9ite region 9 space-"t4 ,let u take "t alone = purposes ( illu/ration4 ,! ev5t 9 "q may ov]lap 9 "t ) ea* ( two o!rs1 al?\gh ! fir/ ( ^! o!rs :olly prec$es ! second2 = example1 y may he> a long note on ! viol9 :ile y he> two %ort notes on ! piano4 7,x is n necess>y to suppose t ^! are really m9imal ev5ts2 ,i m]ely want to illu/rate :at is meant47 ,i assume t e ev5t is contemporane\s ) ev5ts t are n contemporane\s ) ea* o!r2 ?is is :at is meant by say+ t e ev5t la/s = a f9ite "t1 z ! read] c easily conv9ce himself if he rememb]s t "t is :olly relational4 ,if we look away f ! _w ( physics = a mom5t1 & conf9e ourselves to ! _w ( "o man's exp]i5ce1 we c easily def9e an 8in/ant0 9 8 life4 ,x w be a gr\p ( ev5ts1 all belong+ to 8 exp]i5ce1 & hav+ ! foll[+ two prop]ties3 7#a7 any two ( ! ev5ts ov]lap2 7#b7 no ev5t outside ! gr\p ov]laps ) e memb] ( ! gr\p4 ,by a slightly m complicat$ b ess5tially simil> me?od1 we c def9e a po9t-in/ant 9 space-"t z a gr\p ( ev5ts hav+ two prop]ties analog\s to ^? us$ j n[ 9 def9+ an 8in/ant0 9 "o biography4#ac ,?us ! 8po9ts0 7or po9t-in/ants7 t ! ma!matician ne$s are n simple1 b are /ructures compos$ ( ev5ts1 made up = ! conv5i5ce ( ! ma!matician4 ,!re w be _m 8po9ts0 ( :i* a giv5 m9imal ev5t is a memb]2 all ^! toge!r make up ! region ( space-"t occupi$ by t ev5t4 ,space-"t ord]1 z well z space-"t po9ts1 results f ! relations betwe5 ev5ts4 #ac ,see ,! ,analysis ( ,matt]1 by ! pres5t au?or1 *ap4 xxviii4 ,a piece ( matt]1 l a space-"t po9t1 is to be con/ruct$ out ( ev5ts1 b ! con/ruction is consid]ably m complicat$1 & 9 ! end is only an approximation to :at ! physici/ supposes to be really tak+ place4 ,!re are1 at ! mom5t1 two some:at diff]5t views ( matt]1 "o appropriate to ! /udy ( atomic /ructure1 ! o!r to ! g5]al !ory ( relativity z af=d+ an explanation ( gravitation4 ,! view appropriate to atomic /ructure has itself two =ms1 "o d]iv$ f ,heis5b]g1 ! o!r f ,de ,broglie & ,s*rd+]4 ,^! two =ms1 x is true1 are ma!matically equival5t1 b 9 words !y are v diff]5t4 ,heis5b]g reg>ds a piece ( matt] z a c5tre f :i* radiations travel outw>d2 ! radiations are suppos$ really to occur1 b ! matt] at _! c5tre is r$uc$ to a m]e ma!matical fiction4 ,! radiations are1 = example1 su* z con/itute light2 !y are all av[$ly sy/ems ( ev5ts1 n *anges 9 ! conditions or relations ( 8sub/ances40 ,9 ! ,de ,broglie-,s*rd+] sy/em1 matt] consi/s ( wave motions4 ,x is n necess>y to ! !ory to po/ulate any?+ ab\t ^! wave-motions except _! ma!matical *>act]i/ics1 b1 obvi\sly1 s9ce !y are to expla9 matt]s !y _c s]ve _! purpose if !y consi/ ( motions ( matt]4 ,9 ?is sy/em also1 !re=e1 we are l$ to con/ruct matt] out ( sy/ems ( ev5ts1 :i* j happ51 & d n happ5 8to0 matt] or 8to0 any?+ else4 ,gravitation1 z expla9$ by ! g5]al !ory ( relativity1 is r$uc$ to 8cr9kles0 9 space-"t4 ,space-"t be+1 z we h already se51 a sy/em con/ruct$ out ( ev5ts1 ! 8cr9kles0 9 x are also d]iv$ f ev5ts4 ,!re is no reason to suppose t !re is a 8?+0 at ! place :]e ! 8cr9kle0 is mo/ cr9kly4 ,?us 9 ?is "p ( physics1 also1 matt] has ceas$ to be a 8?+0 & has become m]ely a ma!matical *>act]i/ic ( ! relations betwe5 complicat$ logical /ructures compos$ ( ev5ts4 ,x 0 traditionally a prop]ty ( sub/ance to be p]man5t1 & to a consid]able ext5t matt] has reta9$ ?is prop]ty 9 spite ( its loss ( sub/antiality4 ,b its p]man5ce n[ is only approximate1 n absolute4 ,x is ?\ght t an electron & a proton c meet & annihilate ea* o!r2 9 ! />s ?is is suppos$ to be happ5+ on a l>ge scale4#ad ,& ev5 :ile an electron or a proton la/s1 x has a diff]5t k9d ( p]si/5ce f t =m]ly attribut$ to matt]4 ,a wave 9 ! sea p]si/s = a long] or %ort] "t3 ! waves t ,i see da%+ !mselves to pieces on ! ,corni% coa/ may h come all ! way f ,brazil1 b t does n mean t a 8?+0 has travell$ across ! ,atlantic2 x means only t a c]ta9 process ( *ange has travell$4 ,& j z a wave 9 ! sea comes to grief at la/ on ! rocks1 s an electron or a proton may come to grief :5 x meets "s unusual /ate ( affairs4 #ad ,see ,! ,analysis ( ,matt]1 by ! pres5t au?or1 *ap4 xxviii4 ,?us 8matt]0 has v def9itely come d[n 9 ! _w z a result ( rec5t physics4 ,x us$ to be ! cause ( our s5sations3 ,dr4 ,johnson 8disprov$0 ,b]keley's d5ial ( matt] by kick+ a /one4 ,if he _h kn[n t 8 foot nev] t\*$ ! /one1 & t bo? 7 only complicat$ sy/ems ( wave-motions1 he might h be5 less satisfi$ ) 8 refutation4 ,we _c say t 8matt]0 is ! cause ( our s5sations4 ,we c say t ! ev5ts :i* cause our s5sations usually belong to ! sort ( gr\p t physici/s reg>d z mat]ial2 b t is a v diff]5t ?+4 ,imp5etrability us$ to be a noble prop]ty ( matt]1 a k9d ( ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce2 n[ x is a m]ely tautological result ( ! way 9 :i* matt] is def9$4 ,! ev5ts :i* are ! real /uff ( ! _w are n imp5etrable1 s9ce !y c ov]lap 9 space-"t4 ,9 a ^w1 8matt]0 has become no m ?an a conv5i5t %or?& = /at+ c]ta9 causal laws conc]n+ ev5ts4 ,b if matt] has f>$ badly1 m9d has f>$ little bett]4 ,! adjective 8m5tal0 is "o :i* is n capable ( any exact significance4 ,!re is1 x is true1 an important gr\p ( ev5ts1 namely p]cepts1 all ( :i* may be call$ 8m5tal04 ,b x w\ld be arbitr>y to say t !re are no 8m5tal0 ev5ts except p]cepts1 & yet x is difficult to f9d any pr9ciple by :i* we c decide :at o!r ev5ts %\ld be includ$4 ,p]haps ! mo/ ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( m9d are introspection & memory4 ,b memory 9 "s ( its =ms is1 z we h se51 a consequ5ce ( ! law ( condition$ reflexes1 :i* is at lea/ z mu* physiological z psy*ological1 & *>act]ises liv+ tissue r ?an m9d4 ,k1 z we h f\nd1 is n easy to di/+ui% f s5sitivity1 :i* is a prop]ty possess$ by sci5tific in/rum5ts4 ,introspection is a =m ( k1 b turns out1 on exam9ation1 to be little m ?an a cauti\s int]pretation ( ord9>y 8k04 ,:]e ! philosoph]'s *ild at ! ,zoo says 8,!re is a hippopotamus ov] !re01 ! philosoph] %\ld reply3 8,!re is a col\r$ patt]n ( a c]ta9 %ape1 :i* may p]haps be connect$ ) a sy/em ( ext]nal causes ( ! sort call$ a hippopotamus04 7,i d n live up to ?is precept myself47 ,9 say+ t !re is a col\r$ patt]n1 ! philosoph] is practis+ introspection 9 ! only s5se t ,i c atta* to t t]m1 i4e4 8 k-reaction is to an ev5t situat$ 9 8 own bra9 f ! /&po9t ( physical space1 & is consci\sly avoid+ physiological & o!r inf]5ce z f> z possible4 ,ev5ts to :i* a k-reaction ( ?is sort occurs are 8m5tal02 s are1 presumably1 o!r ev5ts resembl+ !m 9 c]ta9 respects4 ,b ,i d n see any way ( def9+ ?is wid] gr\p except by say+ t m5tal ev5ts are ev5ts 9 a liv+ bra91 or1 bett]1 9 a region comb9+ s5sitivity & ! law ( le>n$ reactions to a m>k$ ext5t4 ,?is def9ition has at lea/ ! m]it ( %[+ t m5tality is an affair ( causal laws1 n ( ! quality ( s+le ev5ts1 & also t m5tality is a matt] ( degree4 ,p]haps x is n unnecess>y to repeat1 at ?is po9t1 t ev5ts 9 ! bra9 are n to be reg>d$ z consi/+ ( motions ( bits ( matt]4 ,matt] & motion1 z we h se51 are logical con/ructions us+ ev5ts z _! mat]ial1 & ev5ts are !re=e some?+ q diff]5t f matt] 9 motion4 ,i take x t1 :5 we h a p]cept1 j :at we p]ceive 7if we avoid avoidable s\rces ( error7 is an ev5t occupy+ "p ( ! region :i*1 = physics1 is occupi$ by ! bra94 ,9 fact1 p]ception gives u ! mo/ concrete k we possess z to ! /uff ( ! physical _w1 b :at we p]ceive is "p ( ! /uff ( our bra9s1 n "p ( ! /uff ( tables & *airs1 sun1 moon1 & />s4 ,suppose we are look+ at a leaf1 & we see a gre5 pat*4 ,?is pat* is n 8out !re0 :]e ! leaf is1 b is an ev5t occupy+ a c]ta9 volume 9 our bra9s dur+ ! "t t we see ! leaf4 ,see+ ! leaf consi/s ( ! exi/5ce1 9 ! region occupi$ by our bra91 ( a gre5 pat* causally connect$ ) ! leaf1 or r ) a s]ies ( ev5ts emanat+ f ! place 9 physical space :]e physics places ! leaf4 ,! p]cept is "o ( ?is s]ies ( ev5ts1 diff]+ f ! o!rs 9 its effects ow+ to ! peculi>ities ( ! region 9 :i* x occurs--or p]haps x w\ld be m correct to say t ! diff]5t effects are ! peculi>ities ( ! region4 ,?us 8m9d0 & 8m5tal0 are m]ely approximate concepts1 giv+ a conv5i5t %or?& = c]ta9 approximate laws4 ,9 a complet$ sci5ce1 ! ^w 8m9d0 & ! ^w 8matt]0 w\ld bo? disappe>1 & w\ld be replac$ by causal laws conc]n+ 8ev5ts01 ! only ev5ts kn[n to u o!rwise ?an 9 _! ma!matical & causal prop]ties be+ p]cepts1 :i* are ev5ts situat$ 9 ! same region z a bra9 & hav+ effects ( a peculi> sort call$ 8k-reactions04 ,x w be se5 t ! view :i* ,i am advocat+ is nei!r mat]ialism nor m5talism1 b :at we call 8neutral monism04 ,x is monism 9 ! s5se t x reg>ds ! _w z compos$ ( only "o k9d ( /uff1 namely ev5ts2 b x is pluralism 9 ! s5se t x admits ! exi/5ce ( a great multiplicity ( ev5ts1 ea* m9imal ev5t be+ a logically self-subsi/5t entity4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r "q1 n q ! same z ?is1 namely ! "q z to ! relations ( psy*ology & physics4 ,if we knew m1 w\ld psy*ology be absorb$ 9 physics8 or1 conv]sely1 w\ld physics be absorb$ 9 psy*ology8 ,a man may be a mat]iali/ & yet hold t psy*ology is an indep5d5t sci5ce2 ?is is ! view tak5 by ,dr4 ,broad 9 8 important book on ,! ,m9d & its ,place 9 ,nature4 ,he holds t a m9d is a mat]ial /ructure1 b t x has prop]ties :i* c\ld n1 ev5 !oretically1 be inf]r$ f ^? ( its mat]ial con/itu5ts4 ,he po9ts out t /ructures v (t5 h prop]ties :i*1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 _c be inf]r$ f ! prop]ties & relations ( _! p>ts4 ,wat] has _m prop]ties :i* we _c inf] f ^? ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 ev5 if we suppose ourselves to "k ! /ructure ( ! molecule ( wat] m completely ?an we d z yet4 ,prop]ties ( a :ole :i* _c1 ev5 !oretically1 be inf]r$ f ! prop]ties & relations ( its p>ts are call$ by ,dr4 ,broad 8em]g5t0 prop]ties4 ,?us he holds t a m9d 7or bra97 has prop]ties :i* are 8em]g5t01 & to ?is ext5t psy*ology w be indep5d5t ( physics & *emi/ry4 ,! 8em]g5t0 prop]ties ( m9ds w only be discov]able by obs]vation ( m9ds1 n by inf]5ce f ! laws ( physics & *emi/ry4 ,?is possibility is an important "o1 & x w be wor? :ile to consid] x4 ,our decision to reg>d a unit ( matt] z itself n ultimate1 b an assemblage ( ev5ts1 some:at alt]s ! =m ( our "q z to 8em]g5t0 prop]ties4 ,we h to ask3 ,is matt] em]g5t f ev5ts8 ,is m9d em]g5t f ev5ts8 ,if ! =m]1 is m9d em]g5t f matt]1 or d$ucible f ! prop]ties ( matt]1 or nei!r8 ,if ! latt]1 is matt] em]g5t f m9d or d$ucible f ! prop]ties ( m9d1 or nei!r8 ,( c\rse1 if nei!r m9d nor matt] is em]g5t f ev5ts1 ^! latt] que/ions d n arise4 ,let u co9 a ^w1 8*rono-geography01 = ! sci5ce :i* beg9s ) ev5ts hav+ space-"t relations & does n assume at ! outset t c]ta9 /r+s ( !m c be treat$ z p]si/5t mat]ial units or z m9ds4 ,!n we h to ask ourselves fir/3 c ! sci5ce ( matt]1 z x appe>s 9 physics & *emi/ry1 be :olly r$uc$ to *rono-geography8 ,if no1 matt] is em]g5t f ev5ts2 if yes1 x is n em]g5t4 ,is matt] em]g5t f ev5ts8 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce x is difficult to give a decid$ answ] to ?is "q4 ,! notion ( matt]1 9 mod]n physics1 has become absorb$ into ! notion ( en]gy4 ,edd+ton1 9 8 ,ma!matical ,!ory ( ,relativity %[s t1 9 virtue ( ! laws assum$ conc]n+ ev5ts1 !re mu/ be some?+ hav+ ! obs]v$ prop]ties ( matt] & en]gy z reg>ds cons]vation4 ,?is he calls ! 8mat]ial-en]gy-t5sor01 & sugge/s t x is ! reality :i* we sometimes call 8matt]0 & sometimes 8en]gy04 ,to ?is ext5t1 matt] has be5 %[n to be n em]g5t4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( electrons & protons 7to ! ext5t t !y d exi/7 has n yet be5 d$uc$ f ! g5]al !ory ( relativity1 ?\gh attempts are be+ made & may at any mom5t succe$4 ,if & :5 ^! attempts succe$1 physics w cease to be 9 any degree indep5d5t ( *rono-geography1 b = ! pres5t x rema9s 9 "p indep5d5t4 ,z = *emi/ry1 al?\gh we _c practically r$uce x all to physics1 we c see h[1 !oretically1 ?is c\ld be done1 & ,i ?9k x is safe to assume t x is n an ultimately indep5d5t sci5ce4 ,! "q we h be5 ask+ is3 c\ld we pr$ict1 !oretically1 f ! laws ( ev5ts t !re mu/ be mat]ial units obey+ ! laws :i* !y d 9 fact obey1 or is ?is a new1 logically indep5d5t1 fact8 ,9 !ory we might be able to prove t x is n indep5d5t1 b x w\ld be v difficult to prove t x is4 ,! pres5t position is1 broadly speak+1 t ! cont9u\s prop]ties ( ! physical _w c be d$uc$ f *rono-geography1 b n ! discont9u\s facts1 viz4 electrons & protons & ,planck's quantum4 ,?us = ! pres5t mat]iality is practically1 ?\gh p]haps n !oretically1 an em]g5t *>act]i/ic ( c]ta9 gr\ps ( ev5ts4 ,is m9d em]g5t f ev5ts8 ,?is "q1 z yet1 c h>dly be ev5 discuss$ intellig5tly1 because psy*ology is n a suffici5tly advanc$ sci5ce4 ,!re are1 nev]!less1 "s po9ts to be not$4 ,*rono-geography is conc]n$ only ) ! ab/ract ma!matical prop]ties ( ev5ts1 & _c conceivably1 unless x is radically trans=m$1 prove t !re are visual ev5ts1 or auditory ev5ts1 or ev5ts ( any ( ! k9ds t we "k by p]ception4 ,9 ?is s5se1 psy*ology is c]ta9ly em]g5t f *rono-geography & also f physics1 & x is h>d to see h[ x c ev] cease to be s4 ,! reason = ?is is t our k ( data conta9s features ( a qualitative sort1 :i* _c be d$uc$ f ! m]ely ma!matical features ( ! space-"t ev5ts inf]r$ f data1 & yet ^! ab/ract ma!matical features are all t we c legitimately inf]4 ,! above argum5t decides also t m9d mu/ be em]g5t f matt]1 if x is a mat]ial /ructure4 ,no am\nt ( physics c ev] tell u all t we d 9 fact "k ab\t our own p]cepts4 ,we h /ill to ask :e!r we are to reg>d a m9d z a /ructure ( mat]ial units or n4 ,if we d s reg>d x1 we are1 s f> z m9d is conc]n$1 em]g5t mat]iali/s 9 view ( :at we h j decid$2 ?is is ! view fav\r$ by ,dr4 ,broad4 ,if we d n s reg>d x1 we are 9 no s5se mat]iali/s4 ,9 fav\r ( ! mat]iali/ view1 !re is ! fact t1 s f> z our exp]i5ce goes1 m9ds only em]ge 9 connection ) c]ta9 physical /ructures1 namely liv+ bodies1 & t m5tal developm5t increases ) a c]ta9 k9d ( complexity ( physical /ructure4 ,we _c set aga9/ ?is ! argum5t t m9ds h peculi> *>act]i/ics1 = ?is is q consi/5t ) em]g5t mat]ialism4 ,if we are to refute x1 x mu/ be by f9d+ out :at sort ( gr\p ( ev5ts con/itutes a m9d4 ,x is "t to address ourselves to ?is "q4 ,:at is a m9d8 ,x is obvi\s1 to beg9 )1 t a m9d mu/ be a gr\p ( m5tal ev5ts1 s9ce we h reject$ ! view t x is a s+le simple entity su* z ! ego 0 =m]ly suppos$ to be4 ,our fir/ /ep1 !re=e1 is to be cle> z to :at we mean by a 8m5tal0 ev5t4 ,we said a few pages ago t3 ,m5tal ev5ts are ev5ts 9 a region comb9+ s5sitivity & ! law ( le>n$ reactions to a m>k$ ext5t4 ,= practical purposes1 ?is means 7subject to a proviso to be expla9$ %ortly7 t a m5tal ev5t is any ev5t 9 a liv+ bra94 ,we expla9$ t ?is does n mean t a m5tal ev5t consi/s ( matt] 9 motion1 :i* is :at an old-fa%ion$ physici/ w\ld reg>d z ! sort ( ev5t t happ5s 9 a bra94 ,matt] 9 motion1 we h se51 is n an ev5t 9 our s5se1 b a %or?& description ( a v complicat$ causal process among ev5ts ( a diff]5t sort4 ,b we mu/ say a few words 9 ju/ification ( our def9ition4 ,let u consid] "s alt]native def9itions4 ,a m5tal ev5t1 we might say1 is "o :i* is 8exp]i5c$40 ,:5 is an ev5t 8exp]i5c$08 ,we might say3 :5 x has 8mnemic0 effects1 i4e4 effects gov]n$ by ! law ( association4 ,b we saw t ?is law applies to purely bodily ev5ts su* z ! contraction ( ! pupil1 ) :i* no?+ 8m5tal0 seems to be connect$4 ,?us if our def9ition is to s]ve1 we %all h to def9e 8exp]i5ce0 diff]5tly2 we %all h to say t ! mnemic effects mu/ include some?+ t c be call$ 8k40 ,?is w\ld sugge/ ! def9ition3 ,a m5tal ev5t is any?+ t is rememb]$4 ,b ?is is too n>r[3 we only rememb] a small proportion ( our m5tal ev5ts4 ,we might h reg>d$ 8consci\sness0 z ! ess5ce ( m5tal ev5ts1 b ?is view 0 exam9$ & f\nd inadequate 9 ,*apt] ,,xx4 ,moreov]1 we d n want our def9ition to exclude ! 8unconsci\s04 ,x is cle> t ! prim>y m5tal ev5ts1 ^? ab\t :i* !re c be no "q1 are p]cepts4 ,b p]cepts h c]ta9 peculi> causal prop]ties1 notably t !y give rise to k-reactions1 & t !y are capable ( hav+ mnemic effects :i* are cognitions4 ,^! causal prop]ties1 h[ev]1 belong to "s ev5ts :i* are n app>5tly p]cepts4 ,x seems t any ev5t 9 ! bra9 may h ^! prop]ties4 ,& p]haps we 7 too ha/y 9 say+ t ! contraction ( ! pupil on he>+ a l\d noise involves no?+ 8m5tal04 ,!re may be o!r 8m5tal0 ev5ts connect$ ) a human body besides ^? belong+ to ! c5tral p]sonality4 ,i %all come back to ?is possibility pres5tly4 ,mean:ile1 ,i %all adh]e to ! above def9ition ( a 8m5tal0 ev5t1 :i*1 z we saw1 makes m5tality a matt] ( degree4 ,we c n[ return to ! "q3 ,:at is a m9d8 ,!re may be m5tal ev5ts n =m+ "p ( ! sort ( gr\p t we %\ld call a 8m9d01 b !re c]ta9ly are gr\ps hav+ t k9d ( unity t make u call !m "o m9d4 ,!re are two m>k$ *>act]i/ics ( a m9d3 ,fir/1 x is connect$ ) a c]ta9 body2 secondly1 x has ! unity ( "o 8exp]i5ce04 ,! two prima facie div]ge 9 cases ( dual or multiple p]sonality1 b ,i ?9k ?is is m app>5t ?an real4 ,^! two *>act]i/ics are1 "o physical1 ! o!r psy*ological4 ,let u consid] ea* 9 turn z a possible def9ition ( :at we mean by "o 8m9d04 ,9 ! physical way1 we beg9 by obs]v+ t e m5tal ev5t kn[n to u is also "p ( ! hi/ory ( a liv+ body1 & we def9e a 8m9d0 z ! gr\p ( m5tal ev5ts :i* =m "p ( ! hi/ory ( a c]ta9 liv+ body4 ,! def9ition ( a liv+ body is *emical1 & ! r$uction ( *emi/ry to physics is cle> 9 !ory1 ?\gh 9 practice ! ma!matics is too difficult4 ,x is s f> a m]ely empirical fact t mnemic causation is almo/ exclusively associat$ ) matt] hav+ a c]ta9 *emical /ructure4 ,b ! same may be said ( magnetism4 ,z yet1 we _c d$uce ! magnetic prop]ties ( iron f :at we "k ( ! /ructure ( ! atom ( iron1 b no "o d\bts t !y c\ld be d$uc$ by a p]son ) suffici5t k & suffici5t ma!matical skill4 ,9 l mann] x may be assum$ t mnemic causation is !oretically d$ucible f ! /ructure ( liv+ matt]4 ,if we knew en\gh1 we might be able to inf] t "s o!r possible /ructure w\ld exhibit mnemic ph5om5a1 p]haps 9 an ev5 m m>k$ degree2 if s1 we might be able to con/ruct ,robots :o w\ld be m intellig5t ?an we are4 ,9 ! psy*ological way ( def9+ a 8m9d01 x consi/s ( all ! m5tal ev5ts connect$ ) a giv5 m5tal ev5t by 8exp]i5ce01 i4e4 by mnemic causation1 b ?is def9ition ne$s a little elaboration be=e x c be reg>d$ z precise4 ,we d n want ! contraction ( ! pupil to c\nt z a 8m5tal0 ev5t2 !re=e a m5tal ev5t w h to be "o :i* has mnemic effects1 n m]ely mnemic causes4 ,9 t case1 h[ev]1 !re _c be a la/ m5tal ev5t 9 a man's life1 unless we assume t x may h mnemic effects on 8 body aft] dea?4 ,p]haps we may avoid ?is inconv5i5ce by discov]+ ! k9d ( ev5t t usually has mnemic effects1 ?\gh !y may be prev5t$ f occurr+ by special circum/ances4 ,or we might ma9ta9 t dea? is gradual1 ev5 :5 x is :at is call$ in/antane\s2 9 t case ! la/ ev5ts 9 a man's life gr[ progressively less m5tal z life ebbs4 ,neglect+ ?is po9t1 :i* is n v important1 we %all def9e ! 8exp]i5ce0 to :i* a giv5 m5tal ev5t belongs z all ^? m5tal ev5ts :i* c be rea*$ f ! giv5 ev5t by a mnemic causal *a91 :i* may g backw>ds or =w>ds1 or alt]nately fir/ "o & !n ! o!r4 ,?is may be conceiv$ on ! analogy ( an eng9e %unt+ at a junction or :]e !re are _m po9ts3 any l9e t c be rea*$1 by h[ev] _m %unt+s1 w c\nt z "p ( ! same exp]i5ce4 ,we _c be sure t all ! m5tal ev5ts connect$ ) "o body are connect$ by l9ks ( mnemic causation ) ea* o!r1 & !re=e we _c be sure t our two def9itions ( "o 8m9d0 give ! same result4 ,9 cases ( multiple p]sonality1 "s at lea/ ( ! usual mnemic effects1 notably recollection1 are abs5t 9 ! life ( "o p]sonality :5 !y h occurr$ 9 ! life ( ! o!r4 ,b probably bo? p]sonalities are connect$ by mnemic *a9s ) ev5ts :i* occurr$ be=e ! dissociation took place1 s t !re w\ld be only "o m9d accord+ to our def9ition4 ,b !re are o!r possibilities :i* mu/ be consid]$4 ,x may be t ea* cell 9 ! body has its own m5tal life1 & t only selections f ^! m5tal lives g to make up ! life :i* we reg>d z ours4 ,! 8unconsci\s0 might be ! m5tal lives ( subord9ate p>ts ( ! body1 hav+ occasional mnemic effects :i* we c notice1 b 9 ! ma9 sep>ate f ! life ( :i* we are 8consci\s04 ,if s1 ! m5tal ev5ts connect$ ) "o body w be m num]\s ?an ! ev5ts mak+ up its c5tral 8m9d04 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are only speculative possibilities4 ,i spoke a mom5t ago ( ! life ( :i* we are 8consci\s01 & p]haps ! read] has be5 wond]+ :y ,i h n made m use ( ! notion ( 8consci\sness04 ,! reason is t ,i reg>d x z only "o k9d ( mnemic effect1 & n "o entitl$ to a special place4 ,to say t ,i am 8consci\s0 ( an ev5t is to say t ,i recollect x1 at any rate = a %ort "t aft] x has happ5$4 ,to say t ,i recollect an ev5t is to say t a c]ta9 ev5t is occurr+ 9 me n[ :i* is connect$ by mnemic causation ) ! ev5t recollect$1 & is ( ! sort t we call a 8cognition0 ( t ev5t4 ,b ev5ts :i* ,i d n recollect may h mnemic effects ^u me4 ,?is is ! case1 n only :]e we h ,freudian suppression1 b 9 all habits :i* 7 le>nt long ago & h n[ become automatic1 su* z writ+ & speak+4 ,! emphasis ^u consci\sness has made a my/]y ( ! 8unconsci\s01 :i* ought to be 9 no way surpris+4 ,x does n mu* matt] :i* ( our two def9itions ( a 8m9d0 we adopt4 ,let u1 provisionally1 adopt ! fir/ def9ition1 s t a m9d is all ! m5tal ev5ts :i* =m "p ( ! hi/ory ( a c]ta9 liv+ body1 or p]haps we %\ld r say a liv+ bra94 ,we c n[ tackle ! "q :i* is to decide :e!r we are em]g5t mat]iali/s or n1 namely3 ,is a m9d a /ructure ( mat]ial units8 ,i ?9k x is cle> t ! answ] to ?is "q is 9 ! negative4 ,ev5 if a m9d consi/s ( all ! ev5ts 9 a bra91 x does n consi/ ( bundles ( ^! ev5ts gr\p$ z physics gr\ps !m1 i4e4 x does n lump toge!r all ! ev5ts t make up "o piece ( matt] 9 ! bra91 & !n all ! ev5ts t make up ano!r1 & s on4 ,mnemic causation is :at conc]ns u mo/ 9 /udy+ m9d1 b ?is seems to dem& a rec\rse to physics1 if we assume1 z seems plausible1 t m5tal mnemic causation is due to effects ^u ! bra94 ,?is "q1 h[ev]1 is /ill an op5 "o4 ,if mnemic causation is ultimate1 m9d is em]g5t4 ,if n1 ! "q is m difficult4 ,z we saw e>li]1 !re c]ta9ly is k 9 psy*ology :i* _c ev] =m "p ( physics4 ,b z ?is po9t is important1 ,i %all repeat ! argum5t 9 diff]5t t]ms4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 physics & psy*ology is analog\s to t betwe5 a po/man's k ( lett]s & ! k ( a recipi5t ( lett]s4 ,! po/man kn[s ! movem5ts ( _m lett]s1 ! recipi5t kn[s ! cont5ts ( a few4 ,we may reg>d ! light & s\nd waves t g ab\t ! _w z lett]s ( :i* ! physici/ may "k ! de/9ation2 "s few ( !m are address$ to human be+s1 & :5 read give psy*ological k4 ,( c\rse ! analogy is n p]fect1 because ! lett]s ) :i* ! physici/ deals are cont9ually *ang+ dur+ _! j\rneys1 z if !y 7 writt5 9 fad+ ink1 :i*1 also1 0 n q dry all ! "t1 b occasionally got smudg$ ) ra94 ,h[ev]1 ! analogy may pass if n press$4 ,x w\ld be possible )\t alt]+ ! detail ( previ\s discussions1 except t ( ,*apt] ,,xxv1 to give a diff]5t turn to ! argum5t1 & make matt] a /ructure compos$ ( m5tal units4 ,i am n q sure t ?is is ! wrong view4 ,x arises n unnaturally f ! argum5t z to data conta9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,we saw t all data are m5tal ev5ts 9 ! n>r[e/ & /ricte/ s5se1 s9ce !y are p]cepts4 ,consequ5tly all v]ification ( causal laws consi/s 9 ! occurr5ce ( expect$ p]cepts4 ,consequ5tly any inf]5ce beyond p]cepts 7actual or possible7 is incapable ( be+ empirically te/$4 ,we %all !re=e be prud5t if we reg>d ! non-m5tal ev5ts ( physics z m]e auxili>y concepts1 n assum$ to h any reality1 b only introduc$ to simplify ! laws ( p]cepts4 ,?us matt] w be a con/ruction built out ( p]cepts1 & our metaphysic w be ess5tially t ( ,b]keley4 ,if !re are no non-m5tal ev5ts1 causal laws w be v odd2 = example1 a hidd5 dictaphone may record a conv]sation al?\gh x did n exi/ at ! "t1 s9ce no "o 0 p]ceiv+ x4 ,b al?\gh ?is seems odd1 x is n logically impossible4 ,& x mu/ be conc$$ t x enables u to int]pret physics ) a small] am\nt ( dubi\s inductive & analogical inf]5ce ?an is requir$ if we admit non-m5tal ev5ts4 ,9 spite ( ! logical m]its ( ?is view1 ,i _c br+ myself to accept x1 ?\gh ,i am n sure t my reasons = dislik+ x are any bett] ?an ,dr4 ,johnson's4 ,i f9d myself con/itutionally incapable ( believ+ t ! sun w\ld n exi/ on a day :5 he 0 ev]y:]e hidd5 by cl\ds1 or t ! meat 9 a pie spr+s into exi/5ce at ! mom5t :5 ! pie is op5$4 ,i "k ! logical answ] to su* objections1 & qua logician ,i ?9k ! answ] a good "o4 ,! logical argum5t1 h[ev]1 does n ev5 t5d to %[ t !re are n non-m5tal ev5ts2 x only t5ds to %[ t we h no "r to feel sure ( _! exi/5ce4 ,= my "p1 ,i f9d myself 9 fact believ+ 9 !m 9 spite ( all t c be said to p]suade me t ,i ought to feel d\btful4 ,!re is an argum5t1 ( a sort1 aga9/ ! view we are consid]+4 ,i h be5 assum+ t we admit ! exi/5ce ( o!r p & _! p]ceptions1 b "q only ! inf]5ce f p]ceptions to ev5ts ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,n[ !re is no good reason :y we %\ld n c>ry our logical caution a /ep fur!r4 ,i _c v]ify a !ory by means ( ano!r man's p]ceptions1 b only by means ( my own4 ,!re=e ! laws ( physics c only be v]ifi$ by me 9 s f> z !y lead to pr$ictions ( my p]cepts4 ,if !n1 ,i refuse to admit non-m5tal ev5ts because !y are n v]ifiable1 ,i ought to refuse to admit m5tal ev5ts 9 e "o except myself1 on ! same gr\nd4 ,?us ,i am r$uc$ to :at is call$ 8solipsism01 i4e4 ! !ory t ,i alone exi/4 ,?is is a view :i* is h>d to refute1 b /ill h>d] to believe4 ,i once receiv$ a lett] f a philosoph] :o pr(ess$ to be a solipsi/1 b 0 surpris$ t !re 7 no o!rs6 ,yet ?is philosoph] 0 by way ( believ+ t no "o else exi/$4 ,?is %[s t solipsism is n really believ$ ev5 by ^? :o ?9k !y are conv9c$ ( its tru?4 ,we may g a /ep fur!r4 ,! pa/ c only be v]ifi$ indirectly1 by means ( its effects 9 ! future2 !re=e ! type ( logical caution we h be5 consid]+ %\ld lead u to ab/a9 f ass]t+ t ! pa/ really occurr$3 we ought to reg>d x z consi/+ ( auxili>y concepts conv5i5t 9 /at+ ! laws applicable to ! future4 ,& s9ce ! future1 ?\gh v]ifiable if & :5 x occurs1 is z yet unv]ifi$1 we ought to susp5d judgm5t ab\t ! future also4 ,if we are n will+ to g s f> z ?is1 !re seems no reason to draw ! l9e at ! precise po9t :]e x 0 drawn by ,b]keley4 ,on ^! gr\nds ,i feel no %ame 9 admitt+ ! exi/5ce ( non-m5tal ev5ts su* z ! laws ( physics lead u to inf]4 ,nev]!less1 x is important to realise t o!r views are t5able4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii ,,man',s ,,place ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]se ,9 ?is f9al *apt]1 ,i propose to recapitulate ! ma9 conclusions at :i* we h arriv$1 & !n to say a few words on ! subject ( ,man's relation to ! univ]se 9 s f> z philosophy has any?+ to tea* on ?is subject )\t extrane\s help4 ,popul> metaphysics divides ! kn[n _w into m9d & matt]1 & a human be+ into s\l & body4 ,"s--! mat]iali/s--h said t matt] alone is real & m9d is an illusion4 ,_m--! ideali/s 9 ! te*nical s5se1 or m5tali/s1 z ,dr4 ,broad m appropriately calls !m--h tak5 ! opposite view1 t m9d alone is real & matt] is an illusion4 ,! view :i* ,i h sugge/$ is t bo? m9d & matt] are /ructures compos$ ( a m primitive /uff :i* is nei!r m5tal nor mat]ial4 ,?is view1 call$ 8neutral monism01 is sugge/$ 9 ,ma*'s ,analysis ( ,s5sations1 develop$ 9 ,william ,james's ,essays 9 ,radical ,empiricism1 & advocat$ by ,john ,dewey1 z well z by ,pr(essor ,r4 ,b4 ,p>ry & o!r ,am]ican reali/s4 ,! use ( ! ^w 8neutral0 9 ?is way is due to ,dr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,%eff]1#ae =m]ly ( ,h>v>d1 :o is "o ( ! able/ logicians ( our "t4 #ae ,see ,holt's ,concept ( ,consci\sness1 preface4 ,s9ce man is ! in/rum5t ( 8 own k1 x is necess>y to /udy him z an in/rum5t be=e we c appraise ! value ( :at our s5ses seem to tell u conc]n+ ! _w4 ,9 ,"p ,i we /udi$ man1 )9 ! framework ( common-s5se beliefs1 j z we might /udy clocks or !rmomet]s1 z an in/rum5t s5sitive to c]ta9 features ( ! environm5t1 s9ce s5sitiv5ess to ! environm5t is obvi\sly an indisp5sable condition = k ab\t x4 ,9 ,"p ,,ii we advanc$ to ! /udy ( ! physical _w4 ,we f\nd t matt]1 9 mod]n sci5ce1 has lo/ its solidity & sub/antiality2 x has become a m]e gho/ haunt+ ! sc5es ( its =m] spl5d\rs4 ,9 pursuit ( some?+ t c\ld be treat$ z sub/antial1 physici/s analys$ ord9>y matt] into molecules1 molecules into atoms1 atoms into electrons & protons4 ,!re1 = a few ye>s1 analysis f\nd a re/+-place4 ,b n[ electrons & protons !mselves are dissolv$ into sy/ems ( radiations by ,heis5b]g1 & into sy/ems ( waves by ,s*rd+]--! two !ories am\nt ma!matically to mu* ! same ?+4 ,& ^! are n wild metaphysical speculations2 !y are sob] ma!matical calculations1 accept$ by ! great majority ( exp]ts4 ,ano!r dep>tm5t ( !oretical physics1 ! !ory ( relativity1 has philosophical consequ5ces :i* are1 if possible1 ev5 m important4 ,! sub/itution ( space-"t = space & "t has made ! category ( sub/ance less applicable ?an =m]ly1 s9ce ! ess5ce ( sub/ance 0 p]si/5ce ?r\gh "t1 & !re is n[ no "o cosmic "t4 ,! result ( ?is is to turn ! physical _w into a f\r-dim5sional cont9uum ( ev5ts1 in/ead ( a s]ies ( ?ree-dim5sional /ates ( a _w compos$ ( p]si/5t bits ( matt]4 ,a second important feature ( relativity-!ory is ! abolition ( =ce1 p>ticul>ly gravitational =ce1 & ! sub/itution ( diff]5tial causal laws hav+ to d only ) ! neighb\rhood ( an ev5t1 n ) an influ5ce ex]t$ f a di/ance1 su* z gravitation =m]ly seem$ to be4 ,! mod]n /udy ( ! atom has _h two consequ5ces :i* h consid]ably *ang$ ! philosophical he>+ ( physics4 ,on ! "o h&1 x appe>s t !re are discont9u\s *anges 9 nature1 occasions :5 !re is a sudd5 jump f "o /ate to ano!r )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! int]m$iate /ates4 7,s*rd+]1 x is true1 que/ions ! ne$ = assum+ discont9uity2 b s f> 8 op9ion has n prevail$47 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! c\rse ( nature is n s def9itely det]m9$ by ! physical laws at pres5t kn[n z x 0 =m]ly ?\ght to be4 ,we _c pr$ict :5 a discont9u\s *ange w take place 9 a giv5 atom1 ?\gh we c pr$ict /ati/ical av]ages4 ,x c no long] be said t1 giv5 ! laws ( physics & ! relevant facts ab\t ! environm5t1 ! future hi/ory ( an atom c !oretically be calculat$ f its pres5t condition4 ,x may be t ?is is m]ely due to ! insuffici5cy ( our k1 b we _c be sure t ?is is ! case4 ,z ?+s /& at pres5t1 ! physical _w is n s rigidly det]m9i/ic z x has be5 believ$ to be dur+ ! la/ #bej ye>s4 ,& 9 v>i\s directions :at =m]ly appe>$ z laws gov]n+ ea* sep>ate atom are n[ f\nd to be only av]ages attributable 9 "p to ! laws ( *ance4 ,f ^! que/ions conc]n+ ! physical _w 9 itself1 we 7 l$ to o!rs conc]n+ ! causation ( our p]ceptions1 :i* are ! data ^u :i* our sci5tific k ( physics is bas$4 ,we saw t a long causal *a9 always int]v5es betwe5 an ext]nal ev5t & ! ev5t 9 u :i* we reg>d z p]ception ( ! ext]nal ev5t4 ,we _c !re=e suppose t ! ext]nal ev5t is exactly :at we see or he>2 x c1 at be/1 resemble ! p]cept only 9 c]ta9 /ructural respects4 ,?is fact has caus$ consid]able confusion 9 philosophy1 p>tly because philosoph]s tri$ to ?9k bett] ( p]ception ?an x des]ves1 p>tly because !y fail$ to h cle> ideas on ! subject ( space4 ,x is cu/om>y to treat space z a *>act]i/ic ( matt] z oppos$ to m9d1 b ?is is only true ( physical space4 ,!re is also p]ceptual space1 :i* is t 9 :i* :at we "k imm$iately ?r\gh ! s5ses is situat$4 ,?is space _c be id5tifi$ ) t ( physics4 ,f ! /&po9t ( physical space1 all our p]cepts are 9 our heads2 b 9 p]ceptual space our p]cept ( our h& is outside our p]cept ( our head4 ,! failure to keep physical & p]ceptual space di/9ct has be5 a s\rce ( great confusion 9 philosophy4 ,9 ,"p ,,iii we resum$ ! /udy ( man1 b n[ z he appe>s to himself1 n only z he is kn[n to an ext]nal obs]v]4 ,we decid$1 contr>y to ! view ( ! behavi\ri/s1 t !re are important facts :i* _c be kn[n except :5 ! obs]v] & obs]v$ are ! same p]son4 ,! datum 9 p]ception1 we decid$1 is a private fact :i* c only be kn[n directly to ! p]cipi5t2 x is a datum = physics & psy*ology equally1 & mu/ be reg>d$ z bo? physical & m5tal4 ,we decid$ lat] t !re are inductive gr\nds1 giv+ probability b n c]ta9ty1 9 fav\r ( ! view t p]ceptions are causally connect$ ) ev5ts :i* ! p]cipi5t does n exp]i5ce1 :i* may belong only to ! physical _w4 ,! behavi\r ( human be+s is di/+ui%$ f t ( inanimate matt] by :at are call$ 8mnemic0 ph5om5a1 i4e4 by a c]ta9 k9d ( effect ( pa/ occurr5ces4 ,?is k9d ( effects is exemplifi$ 9 memory1 9 le>n+1 9 ! intellig5t use ( words1 & 9 e k9d ( k4 ,b we _c1 on ?is gr\nd1 erect an absolute b>ri] betwe5 m9d & matt]4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 inanimate matt]1 to "s slight ext5t1 %[s analog\s behavi\r--e4g4 if y unroll a roll ( pap]1 x w roll itself up aga94 ,9 ! second place1 we f9d t liv+ bodies display mnemic ph5om5a to exactly ! same ext5t to :i* m9ds display !m4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 if we are to avoid :at ,i h call$ 8mnemic0 causation1 :i* involves action at a di/ance 9 "t1 we mu/ say t mnemic ph5om5a 9 m5tal ev5ts are due to ! modification ( ! body by pa/ ev5ts4 ,t is to say1 ! set ( ev5ts :i* con/itutes "o man's exp]i5ce is n causally self-suffici5t1 b is dep5d5t ^u causal laws involv+ ev5ts :i* he _c exp]i5ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 our k ( ! physical _w is purely ab/ract3 we "k c]ta9 logical *>act]i/ics ( its /ructure1 b no?+ ( its intr9sic "*4 ,!re is no?+ 9 physics to prove t ! intr9sic "* ( ! physical _w diff]s1 9 ?is or t respect1 f t ( ! m5tal _w4 ,?us f bo? ends1 bo? by ! analysis ( physics & by ! analysis ( psy*ology1 we f9d t m5tal & physical ev5ts =m "o causal :ole1 :i* is n kn[n to consi/ ( two diff]5t sorts4 ,at pres5t1 we "k ! laws ( ! physical _w bett] ?an ^? ( ! m5tal _w1 b t may *ange4 ,we "k ! intr9sic "* ( ! m5tal _w to "s ext5t1 b we "k absolutely no?+ ( ! intr9sic "* ( ! physical _w4 ,& 9 view ( ! nature ( ! inf]5ces ^u :i* our k ( physics re/s1 x seems sc>cely possible t we %\ld ev] "k m ?an ab/ract laws ab\t matt]4 ,9 ,"p ,,iv we consid]$ :at philosophy has to say ab\t ! univ]se4 ,! function ( philosophy1 accord+ to ! view advocat$ 9 ?is volume1 is some:at diff]5t f t :i* has be5 assign$ to x by a l>ge & influ5tial s*ool4 ,take1 e4g4 ,kant's ant9omies4 ,he argues 7#a7 t space mu/ be inf9ite1 7#b7 t space _c be inf9ite2 & he d$uces t space is subjective4 ,! non-,euclideans refut$ ! argum5t t x mu/ be inf9ite1 & ,georg ,cantor refut$ ! argum5t t x _c be4 ,=m]ly1 a priori logic 0 us$ to prove t v>i\s hypo!ses :i* look$ possible 7 impossible1 leav+ only "o possibility1 :i* philosophy !re=e pron\nc$ true4 ,n[ a priori logic is us$ to prove ! exact contr>y1 namely1 t hypo!ses :i* look$ impossible are possible4 ,:]eas logic 0 =m]ly c\nsel = ! prosecution1 x is n[ c\nsel = ! def5ce4 ,! result is t _m m hypo!ses are at l>ge ?an 0 =m]ly ! case4 ,=m]ly1 to rev]t to ! in/ance ( space1 x appe>$ t exp]i5ce left only "o k9d ( space to logic1 & logic %[$ ?is "o k9d to be impossible4 ,n[1 logic pres5ts _m k9ds ( space z possible ap>t f exp]i5ce1 & exp]i5ce only p>tially decides betwe5 !m4 ,?us1 :ile our k ( :at is has become less ?an x 0 =m]ly suppos$ to be1 our k ( :at may be is enorm\sly increas$4 ,in/ead ( be+ %ut 9 )9 n>r[ walls1 ( :i* e nook & cranny c\ld be explor$1 we f9d ourselves 9 an op5 _w ( free possibilities1 :]e mu* rema9s unkn[n because !re is s mu* to "k4 ,! attempt to prescribe to ! univ]se by means ( a priori pr9ciples has brok5 d[n2 logic1 in/ead ( be+1 z =m]ly1 a b> to possibilities1 has become ! great lib]ator ( ! imag9ation1 pres5t+ innum]able alt]natives :i* are clos$ to unreflective common s5se1 & leav+ to exp]i5ce ! task ( decid+1 :]e decision is possible1 betwe5 ! _m worlds :i* logic (f]s = our *oice4 ,philosophical k1 if :at we h be5 say+ is correct1 does n diff] ess5tially f sci5tific k2 !re is no special s\rce ( wisdom :i* is op5 to philosophy b n to sci5ce1 & ! results obta9$ by philosophy are n radically diff]5t f ^? rea*$ 9 sci5ce4 ,philosophy is di/+ui%$ f sci5ce only by be+ m critical & m g5]al4 ,b :5 ,i say t philosophy is critical1 ,i d n mean t x attempts to criticise k f outside1 = t w\ld be impossible3 ,i mean only t x exam9es ! v>i\s p>ts ( our suppos$ k to see :e!r !y are mutually consi/5t & :e!r ! inf]5ces employ$ are su* z seem valid to a c>eful scrut9y4 ,! criticism aim$ at is n t :i*1 )\t reason1 det]m9es to reject1 b t :i* consid]s ea* piece ( app>5t k on its m]its & reta9s :atev] /ill appe>s to be k :5 ?is consid]ation is complet$4 ,t "s risk ( error rema9s mu/ be admitt$1 s9ce human be+s are fallible4 ,philosophy may claim ju/ly t x dim9i%es ! risk ( error1 & t 9 "s cases x r5d]s ! risk s small z to be practically negligible4 ,to d m ?an ?is is n possible 9 a _w :]e mi/akes mu/ occur2 & m ?an ?is no prud5t advocate ( philosophy w\ld claim to h p]=m$4 ,i want to end ) a few words ab\t man's place 9 ! univ]se4 ,x has be5 cu/om>y to dem& ( a philosoph] t he %\ld %[ t ! _w is good 9 c]ta9 respects4 ,i _c admit any duty ( ?is sort4 ,"o might z well dem& ( an acc\ntant t he %\ld %[ a satisfactory balance %eet4 ,x is j z bad to be fraudul5tly optimi/ic 9 philosophy z 9 money matt]s4 ,if ! _w is good1 by all means let u "k x2 b if n1 let u "k t4 ,9 any case1 ! "q ( ! goodness or badness ( ! _w is "o = sci5ce r ?an = philosophy4 ,we %all call ! _w good if x has c]ta9 *>act]i/ics t we desire4 ,9 ! pa/ philosophy pr(ess$ to be able to prove t ! _w _h su* *>act]i/ics1 b x is n[ fairly evid5t t ! pro(s 7 invalid4 ,x does n1 ( c\rse1 foll[ t ! _w does n h ! *>act]i/ics 9 "q2 x foll[s only t philosophy _c decide ! problem4 ,take = example ! problem ( p]sonal immortality4 ,y may believe ?is on ! gr\nd ( reveal$ religion1 b t is a gr\nd :i* lies outside philosophy4 ,y may believe x on ! gr\nd ( ! ph5om5a inve/igat$ by psy*ical rese>*1 b t is sci5ce1 n philosophy4 ,9 =m] days1 y c\ld believe x on a philosophical gr\nd1 namely1 t ! s\l is a sub/ance & all sub/ances are inde/ructible4 ,y w f9d ?is argum5t1 sometimes m or less disguis$1 9 _m philosoph]s4 ,b ! notion ( sub/ance1 9 ! s5se ( a p]man5t entity ) *ang+ /ates1 is no long] applicable to ! _w4 ,x may happ51 z ) ! electron1 t a /r+ ( ev5ts are s int]connect$ causally t x is practically conv5i5t to reg>d !m z =m+ "o entity1 b :]e ?is happ5s x is a sci5tific fact1 n a metaphysical necessity4 ,! :ole "q ( p]sonal immortality1 !re=e lies outside philosophy1 & x is to be decid$1 if at all1 ei!r by sci5ce or by reveal$ religion4 ,i w take up ano!r matt] 9 reg>d to :i* :at ,i h said may h be5 disappo9t+ to "s read]s4 ,x is sometimes ?\ght t philosophy ought to aim at enc\rag+ a good life4 ,n[1 ( c\rse1 ,i admit t x %\ld h ?is effect1 b ,i d n admit t x %\ld h ?is z a consci\s purpose4 ,to beg9 )1 :5 we emb>k ^u ! /udy ( philosophy we ought n to assume t we already "k = c]ta9 :at ! good life is2 philosophy may conceivably modify our views z to :at is good1 9 :i* case x w seem to ! non-philosophical to h _h a bad moral effect4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is a second>y po9t4 ,! ess5tial ?+ is t philosophy is "p ( ! pursuit ( k1 & t we _c limit ?is pursuit by insi/+ t ! k obta9$ %all be su* z we %\ld h ?\ght edify+ be=e we obta9$ x4 ,i ?9k x c\ld be ma9ta9$ ) tru? t all k is edify+1 provid$ we h a "r conception ( edification4 ,:5 ?is appe>s to be n ! case x is because we h moral /&>ds bas$ ^u ignorance4 ,x may happ5 by good =tune t a moral /&>d bas$ ^u ignorance is "r1 b if s k w n de/roy x2 if k c de/roy x1 x mu/ be wrong4 ,! consci\s purpose ( philosophy1 !re=e1 ought to be solely to und]/& ! _w z well z possible1 n to e/abli% ?is or t proposition :i* is ?\ght morally desirable4 ,^? :o emb>k ^u philosophy mu/ be prep>$ to "q all _! preconceptions1 e?ical z well z sci5tific2 if !y h a det]m9ation nev] to surr5d] c]ta9 philosophic beliefs1 !y are n 9 ! frame ( m9d 9 :i* philosophy c be pr(itably pursu$4 ,b al?\gh philosophy ought n to h a moral purpose1 x ought to h c]ta9 good moral effects4 ,any dis9t]e/$ pursuit ( k tea*es u ! limits ( our p[]1 :i* is salut>y2 at ! same "t1 9 proportion z we succe$ 9 a*iev+ k1 x tea*es ! limits ( our impot5ce1 :i* is equally desirable4 ,& philosophical k1 or r philosophical ?\ght1 has c]ta9 special m]its n belong+ 9 an equal degree to o!r intellectual pursuits4 ,by its g5]ality x enables u to see human passions 9 _! j proportions1 & to realise ! absurdity ( _m qu>rels betwe5 individuals1 classes1 & nations4 ,philosophy comes z ne> z possible = human be+s to t l>ge1 imp>tial contemplation ( ! univ]se z a :ole :i* raises u = ! mom5t above our purely p]sonal de/9y4 ,!re is a c]ta9 asceticism ( ! intellect :i* is good z a "p ( life1 ?\gh x _c be ! :ole s long z we h to rema9 animals engag$ 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,! asceticism ( ! intellect requires t1 :ile we are engag$ 9 ! pursuit ( k1 we %all repress all o!r desires = ! sake ( ! desire to "k4 ,:ile we are philosophis+1 ! wi% to prove t ! _w is good1 or t ! dogmas ( ?is or t sect are true1 mu/ c\nt z weaknesses ( ! fle%--!y are temptations to be ?ru/ on "o side4 ,b we obta9 9 return some?+ ( ! joy :i* ! my/ic exp]i5ces 9 h>mony ) ! w ( ,god4 ,?is joy philosophy c give1 b only to ^? :o are will+ to foll[ x to ! end1 ?r\gh all its ardu\s unc]ta9ties4 ,! _w pres5t$ = our belief by a philosophy bas$ ^u mod]n sci5ce is 9 _m ways less ali5 to ourselves ?an ! _w ( matt] z conceiv$ 9 =m] c5turies4 ,! ev5ts t happ5 9 our m9ds are "p ( ! c\rse ( nature1 & we d n "k t ! ev5ts :i* happ5 else:]e are ( a totally diff]5t k9d4 ,! physical _w1 s f> z sci5ce c %[ at pres5t1 is p]haps less rigidly det]m9$ by causal laws ?an x 0 ?\ght to be2 "o might1 m or less fancifully1 attribute ev5 to ! atom a k9d ( limit$ free w4 ,!re is no ne$ to ?9k ( ourselves z p[]less & small 9 ! grip ( va/ cosmic =ces4 ,all measurem5t is conv5tional1 & x w\ld be possible to devise a p]fectly s]viceable sy/em ( measurem5t accord+ to :i* a man w\ld be l>g] ?an ! sun4 ,no d\bt !re are limits to our p[]1 & x is good t we %\ld recognise ! fact4 ,b we _c say :at ! limits are1 except 9 a q ab/ract way1 su* z t we _c create en]gy4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( human life1 x is n important to be able to create en]gy2 :at is important is to be able to direct en]gy into ?is or t *annel1 & ?is c d m & m z our k ( sci5ce increases4 ,s9ce m5 fir/ began to ?9k1 ! =ces ( nature h oppress$ !m2 e>?quakes1 floods1 pe/il5ces1 & fam9es h fill$ !m ) t]ror4 ,n[ at la/1 ?anks to sci5ce1 mank9d is discov]+ h[ to avoid mu* ( ! suff]+ t su* ev5ts h hi!rto entail$4 ,! mood 9 :i*1 z x seems to me ! mod]n man %\ld face ! univ]se is "o ( quiet self-respect4 ,! univ]se z kn[n to sci5ce is n 9 itself ei!r fri5dly or ho/ile to man1 b x c be made to act z a fri5d if approa*$ ) pati5t k4 ,:]e ! univ]se is conc]n$1 k is ! "o ?+ ne$ful4 ,man1 alone ( liv+ ?+s1 has %[n himself capable ( ! k requir$ to give him a c]ta9 ma/]y ov] 8 environm5t4 ,! dang]s to man 9 ! future1 or at lea/ 9 any measurable future1 come1 n f nature1 b f man himself4 ,w he use 8 p[] wisely8 ,or w he turn ! en]gy lib]at$ f ! /ruggle ) nature into /ruggles ) 8 fell[-m58 ,hi/ory1 sci5ce1 & philosophy all make u aw>e ( ! great collective a*ievem5ts ( mank9d4 ,x w\ld be well if e civilis$ human be+ _h a s5se ( ^! a*ievem5ts & a realisation ( ! possibility ( great] ?+s to come1 ) ! indiff]5ce :i* mu/ result z reg>ds ! petty squabbles ^u :i* ! passions ( individuals & nations are wa/efully squ&]$4 ,philosophy %\ld make u "k ! ends ( life1 & ! elem5ts 9 life t h value on _! own acc\nt4 ,h[ev] our fre$om may be limit$ 9 ! causal sph]e1 we ne$ admit no limitations to our fre$om 9 ! sph]e ( values3 :at we judge good on its own acc\nt we may cont9ue to judge good1 )\t reg>d to any?+ b our own feel+4 ,philosophy _c itself det]m9e ! ends ( life1 b x c free u f ! tyranny ( prejudice & f di/ortions due to a n>r[ view4 ,love1 beauty1 k1 & joy ( life3 ^! ?+s reta9 _! lu/re h[ev] wide our purview4 ,& if philosophy c help u to feel ! value ( ^! ?+s1 x w h play$ its p>ts 9 man's collective "w ( br++ light into a _w ( d>kness4 ,,index !r or empty space1 #ajg ,analogy1 positive & negative1 #bga ,analysis ( ,s5sations 7,ma*71 #bib ,animal ,intellig5ce 7,?orndike71 #cj ,animal le>n+1 /udy (1 #bi ff4 ,?orndike's laws (1 #ca f4 le>n$ reactions1 #ce f4 ,a priori1 causation n reg>d$ z1 #aej k1 #bdi f41 #bfe probability1 on ,keynes's !ory1 is1 #bgd logic1 #bif ,ari/otle1 #bbf ,association1 pr9ciple (1 #cc f41 #dh1 #fd1 #ahj ,a/on1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,w41 #ii ,atom1 !ory ( !1 #ih ff4 c5tre f :i* radiations travel1 #aeg philosophical consequ5ces ( mod]n /udy ( !1 #bic ,att5tion1 #bje ,bacon1 #hj ,behavi\rism1 its view ( man1 #gj ff4 :]e x breaks d[n z a f9al philosophy1 #abi dilemma put to1 #acc its propositions z to ?\ght exam9$1 #afi ff4 & logic1 #bfc ,behavi\rism 7,watson71 #bb1 #ca1 #cc 8,belief01 #bed1 #beh ff4 def9ition (1 #bfa ,beliefs1 defects 9 common1 #c ff4 ,b]gson1 #ga1 #gc1 #aih ,b]keley1 #bdf f4 ,bodily ,*anges 9 ,pa91 ,hung]1 ,fe> & ,rage 7,cannon71 #bah ,body1 human1 #be1 #aci ,bohr1 ,niels1 8 addition to ! !ory ( atoms1 #aja ff4 ,bradley1 moni/ic view (1 #bea criticism ( 8 argum5t aga9/ relations1 #beb ,brai?waite1 ,r4 ,b41 #bfi ,br5tano1 #bjb ,broad1 ,dr41 #ahh1 #aie1 #bhb1 #bib ,buddha1 #bbg ,butl]1 ,samuel1 #ga ,cannon1 #bah ,cantor1 ,georg1 #bif ,casui/ry1 #bbe ,causation1 z an a priori belief1 #e1 #aej notion ( 8necess>y0 sequ5ce1 #aae conception (1 9 sci5ce1 #add ff4 8,cause01 ,kant's category (1 #bdh f4 8,*rono-geography01 #bhc ,cognition1 #fa1 #bjb f41 #bag ,conation1 #bjb ,conception1 #bjc 8,condition$ reflexes01 #ce ,confucius1 #bbg ,consci5ce1 #bbh 8,consci\sness01 #fj ,william ,james's views on1 #baj two diff]5t mean+s ( ! ^w1 #baj criticism ( common s5se view (1 #baa ff4 self1 #bad ,william ,james's views approv$1 #bag "o k9d ( mnemic effect1 #bhh ,cont9uity 9 nature1 #ajh ,correlation1 laws (1 #aag ,critique ( ,practical ,reason 7,kant71 #bdi ,curiosity1 #bbj ,dalton1 #ih 8,data01 #bff f41 #bgf ,de ,broglie1 #bgh ,decalogue1 !1 #bbg ,desc>tes1 #i1 #afb ff41 #bcg ff4 ,desire1 behavi\ri/ view (1 #ij f4 introspective view (1 #bba ff4 ,dewey1 ,john1 #bib ,discont9uity 9 nature1 #aja1 #ajf1 #ajh ,dreams1 #fb1 #abg1 #age1 #agf1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #aic ,dualism ( m9d & matt]1 #ada1 #bci ,ductless gl&s1 !1 #bah ,edd+ton1 ,pr(essor1 #bgc1 #bgi ,education1 #bcc ,e9/e91 #if1 #aaf1 #bci1 #bdb1 #bdi ,electron1 #ii ff41 #aah1 #ade 8,em]g5t0 prop]ties1 #bhb ,emotions1 ess5tial physiological conditions ( !1 #aah subject to 8,condition+01 #aai g5]ate irrational op9ions1 #abj ,en]gy1 radiation (1 f matt] into empty space1 #ade propagation 9 empty space1 #ade impact on matt] 9 empty space1 #adf ,essays 9 ,radical ,empiricism 7,william ,james71 #baj1 #bib ,e?ics1 views ( ! anci5ts on1 #bbg !ory t virtue consi/s 9 ob$i5ce to au?ority1 #bbg ff4 utilit>ian !ory (1 #bbi f4 ! concept ( 8good01 #bcj ma9ly social1 #bcc ! supreme moral rule1 #bcd f4 ,ev5ts1 9 physics1 #aaj f4 /r+ (1 #aah f4 8m5tal01 #ada1 #bhj ff4 /ructure & ma!matical laws (1 #aeg m9imal1 #bgg matt] con/ruct$ out (1 #bgh ,exp]i5ce1 effects (1 9 a reaction to /imulus1 #ahj ff4 ,famili>ity1 a /age 9 memory1 #aie f4 ,fe> & ,rage1 #bai ,feel+1 z m5tal occurr5ce1 #bjb ,=ces1 #aaa1 #aad1 #aag1 #abj f4 ,=m1 reaction to1 #he f4 ,freudian 8unconsci\s0 !1 #bba ,galileo1 #hj ,g5]alisations1 #bga f4 ,geodesic1 #aab1 #aag ,geometry1 z empirical z geography1 #bdi f4 ,ge/altpsy*ologie1 #cg1 #da1 #dc1 #fh1 #bdg ,gravitation1 #aaf f41 #ade1 #bgi ,griffi?1 ,mr4 ,p]cy1 #aah ,habit-=mation1 #cf ,habit-memory1 #ahh1 #aif ,hegel1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bea ,heis5b]g1 #if1 #aje1 #bgh1 #bic ,heis5b]g-,s*rd+] !ories ( atomic /ructure1 #bdc ,h]aclitus1 #bea ,huc1 ,monsieur1 #bcb ,hume1 #ahj1 #aia1 #bdg f4 ,images1 visual1 auditory & tactual1 #agf behavi\ri/ explanation (1 #agg f4 diff]5ce betwe5 s5sations &1 #agi ff4 def9ition (1 #ahd f4 fir/ /age 9 memory1 #aie ,imag9ation1 analysis (1 #aij ff4 ess5ce (1 #aia exceptional gifts (1 #aic & belief1 #aic f4 diff]5ce betwe5 memory &1 #aid ,induction problem ( validity (1 #ad z a practice1 #hj f4 pr9ciple (1 #bfh f4 logical problem (1 #bfi ff4 ,mr4 ,keynes's exam9ation (1 #bgj ff4 ,inf]5ce1 8physiological01 #ac1 #hj ff41 #ace syllogi/ic1 #gi inductive & ma!matical1 #hc ff4 8,innate ideas01 doctr9e (1 #bde ,int]val1 space-l & "t-l1 #aaj f4 ,introspection1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #agb f41 #bja ff4 ,james1 ,william1 #baj1 #bbc4 ,kant1 #hj1 #bja1 #bci1 #bdh1 #bif ,keynes ,mr41 on problems ( induction1 #bfi ff4 ,khl]1 #cg ff4 ,kn[+1 z m5tal occurr5ce1 #bjb ,k1 z display$ 9 reactions to environm5t1 #ag ff4 p]ceptual1 #eh ff4 behavi\ri/ view (1 #hh ff4 diff]5ce betwe5 introspective & o!r1 #bae a priori1 #bdi f4 limitations on1 impos$ by /ructure ( language1 #bfd f4 ,k-reaction1 #baf1 #bhb ,language1 z a bodily habit1 #dc ff4 psy*ological side (1 #dh words 9 an ideal logical1 #bef f4 & ?+s1 relation betwe51 #bfd ,laws1 causal1 #add ff4 evid5ce =1 #adg univ]sal *>act]i/ics (1 #adi ,le>n+1 laws (1 #bc1 #bi ff4 two ways (1 #ci 9 infants1 #da1 #dh by increase ( s5sitivity1 #ie f4 ,leibniz1 #bci1 #bda f4 ,le ,problme logique de l'induction 7,jean ,nicod71 #bfi1 #bgc ,locke1 #bdd ff4 ,logic1 #bfc1 #bif 8,logical atomism01 #bdh ,ma*1 #bad1 #bib ,man1 8 relation to ! ,univ]se1 #bib1 #bie1 #bih ff4 ,mat]ialism1 z a philosophy1 #aei ,ma!matical ,!ory ( ,relativity 7,edd+ton71 #bhc ,matt]1 ! /ructure ( ! atom1 #ih ff4 ess5ce (1 #adf f4 z conceiv$ 9 mod]n physics1 #aeg1 #bic old view (1 n[ unt5able1 #aeh ff4 con/ruct$ out ( ev5ts1 #bgh p]man5ce (1 only approximate1 #bgi possibly a /ructure ( m5tal units1 #bij ,maxwell's equations1 #ajg1 #ade ,mean+1 #eb1 #ga1 #hb ,me9ong1 #bjb ,memory1 behavi\ri/ !ory (1 #ga ff4 its ref]5ce to ! pa/1 #ahh ff4 feel+ ( pa/ness complex1 #aij m fundam5tal ?an imag9ation1 #aij vital diff]5ce betwe5 imag9ation &1 #aid ,dr4 ,broad's view on ref]5ce to ! pa/1 #aie /ages (1 #aie ff4 imm$iate1 #aif f4 true recollection1 #aig ff4 tru/wor?9ess (1 #aii ,memory & te/imony1 #e ff4 ,m5deleev1 #ii 8,m5tal0 ev5ts1 #aad1 #ada f41 #bhj f4 8,m5tal0 occurr5ces1 #bja1 #bab ,m5tality ( ,apes 7,khl]71 #cg ff41 #fb ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 8 canons ( induction1 #bfi f4 ,m9d & matt]1 conv5tional notions (1 #ada di/9ction betwe51 illusory1 #adb1 #bja gap betwe51 h[ fill$ 91 #adh int]action betwe51 #aej !ory ( 8neutral monism01 #bjf ff4 ,c>tesian dualism1 #bci ,leibniz's !ory (1 #bda ,m9d1 a cross-section 9 a /ream ( physical causation1 #aej mod]n conception (1 #bhj ff4 em]g5t f ev5ts1 #bhd def9itions ( a1 #bhe ff4 ,m9k[ski1 #bci ,mneme 7,semon71 #di 8,mnemic0 effects1 #di1 #bji1 #bie 8,mnemic0 occurr5ces1 #di1 #ahj f4 ,monads1 #bda ,moni/s & plurali/s1 controv]sy betwe51 #bea ff4 pluralism ! view ( sci5ce & common s5se1 #bec ,moore1 ,dr4 ,g4 ,e41 on notion ( 8good01 #bcj 8,moral issues01 #bbg ,motion1 #aai1 #afc ,my/ics1 #bbi1 #bfd1 #cjj ,names1 #ec ,necessity1 an?ropomorphic notion (1 #aae1 #aag 8,neutral monism01 !ory (1 #bjf ff41 #baj1 #bhb1 #bib ,newton1 #bdb ,nisbet1 ,r4 ,h41 on probability1 #bge ,object1 :at happ5s :5 we see an1 #adf f4 ,objective & subjective /udy1 #cj ,objectivity1 #aed f41 #afi ,ogd5 & ,ri*>ds1 ,messrs41 #eb ,p>m5ides1 moni/ic view complete 91 #bea ,p>ry1 ,pr(essor ,r4 ,b41 #bib ,p]ception1 diff]5ce betwe5 introspection &1 #aj f4 a species ( s5sitivity1 #ei1 #abc & inf]5ce1 #fe f4 f objective /&po9t1 #ff ff4 ( ext]nal ev5t1 analysis (1 #abc ff4 elem5t ( subjectivity 91 #acj ff4 & causal laws ( physics1 #ade ff4 its relation to ! object causal & ma!matical1 #adi f introspective /&po9t1 #bja ff4 ,p]ceptive k1 /ages 9 act (1 #ah ff4 ,p]cepts1 #acc1 #ace1 #acg ff4 ,p]spective1 #aeb ,philosophy1 ! bus9ess (1 #b1 #bcf ,behavi\rism z a1 #abi ff4 ,utilit>ian1 #bbi f4 sy/ems ( ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 & ,leibniz1 #bcg ff4 ,locke1 ,b]keley1 & ,hume1 #bdd ff4 consci\s purpose (1 #bii ,physics1 mod]n1 #ig causal laws 91 #aad ff41 #ade ff4 & p]ception1 #abc ff4 spatial relations 91 #acg ff4 our k (1 #aea ff4 only ma!matical prop]ties (1 discov]able1 #aeg less det]m9i/ic ?an =m]ly1 #bci & psy*ology1 #bhb1 #bhi ,pictures1 z repres5tations1 #ahc 8,planck's ,con/ant01 #aja f4 ,plato1 #bbf ,poetry1 #bbj ,probability1 fundam5tal 9 sci5ce1 #bgd a priori on ,mr4 ,keynes's !ory1 #bgd 8frequ5cy01 !ory (1 #bgd f4 ,psy*ology1 #af1 #agb1 #ahd & physics1 #bhb1 #bhi 8,psy*ophysical p>allelism01 #bch 8,public good01 !1 #bcj ,publicity1 9 ! case ( physical ph5om5a1 #agj ,quantum *anges1 #ajf ,radio-activity1 #ii1 #ajc ,reactions1 le>n$1 #ba1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #di1 #ha ,realism1 naive1 #age ,recognition1 two =ms (1 #aif ,recollection1 true1 #aig ff4 ,relations1 ,bradley's argum5t aga9/1 #beb cause ( confusion ab\t1 #bfd ,relativity1 !ory (1 8space-"t0 in/ead ( "o cosmic "t & space1 #ajh "s results ( !1 #ajh ff4 8ev5ts0 in/ead ( bodies mov+1 #aaj relations betwe5 8ev5ts01 #aaj f4 no 8=ces0 9 !1 #aaa philosophical consequ5ces ( !1 #bic 8,"r conduct01 #bcj ,ru!r=d1 ,sir ,e41 #ii1 #aja ,santayana1 ,mr41 #bcj ,s*ill]1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,s41 #gi ,s*rd+]1 #ih1 #aje1 #bgh1 #bic1 #bid ,self-obs]vation1 #abf1 #afa ff4 basis ( ,desc>tes's sy/em1 #afb ff4 ,dr4 ,watson's views1 #afg ff4 gives k n "p ( physics1 #age ,semon1 #di1 #ahj ,s5sation1 diff]5ce betwe5 images &1 #agi acoleu?ic1 #aig z oppos$ to p]ception1 #bjd ,s5sitivity1 #ei f41 #hh1 #abc1 #agg ,s5t5ces1 #ea1 #ed1 #ge1 #bee1 #bfd ,sequ5ce1 laws (1 #aaf ,%akespe>e1 #aib ,%eff]1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,m41 #bhb1 #bib ,sight1 comp>$ ) t\*1 #aef f4 ,size1 s5se (1 #aec ,socrates1 #bbf 8,solipsism01 #bia ,somm]feld1 #ajc ,space1 "o p]si/5t1 aboli%$ 9 relativity !ory1 #ajh physical & p]ceptual1 #acg ff41 #bda f41 #bid ,space-"t1 9 !ory ( relativity1 #ajh ff4 /ructure (1 #ade po9t-in/ant 91 #bgh 8,speci\s pres5t01 #aie1 #aig ,sp9oza1 #bch1 #bea ,/>s & ,atoms 7,edd+ton71 #bgi 8,/atem5t01 def9ition ( a1 #bfj ,subjectivity1 #abi1 #acc1 #ace1 #aed f4 ,sub/ance1 #e1 #bdb ff41 #bic ,syllogism1 !1 #hj ,syntax1 influ5ce (1 on philosophy1 #bdc connection betwe5 laws ( physics & laws (1 #bfc ,talk+ )\t ?9k+1 #aij ,t5d5cy1 quantitative laws (1 #add ,te/imony1 #aa f41 #agj ,! ,analysis ( ,matt] 7,b]tr& ,russell71 #bgh ,! ,mean+ ( ,mean+ 7,ogd5 & ,ri*>ds71 #eb ,! ,m9d & ,its ,place 9 ,nature 7,dr4 ,broad71 #gf1 #ahh1 #bhb ,?orndike's 8provisional laws01 #ca ff4 ,?\ght1 #afc ff41 #agd1 #bdj1 #bfc ,"t1 n cosmic1 #ajh ff41 #aeh ,t\*1 comp>$ ) sight1 #aef ,treatise on ,probability 7,keynes71 #bfi ff4 ,tru?1 #id1 #bfa f4 ,tru? & ,falsehood1 causes ( my/]y ab\t1 #bed two que/ions 91 #bed ff4 mean+ ( a s5t5ce exam9$1 #bee f4 gr\nds on :i* /atem5ts are reg>d$ z true or false1 #beg ultimate te/ ( falsehood1 #beh 8belief01 #beh ff4 problems (1 #bei ff4 ,univ]sals1 #ec1 #bjc ,univ]se1 !1 philosophy conc]n$ )1 #bcf man's relation to1 #bih ff4 8,unle>n$ ,equipm5t01 #bb ,utilit>ian philosophy1 #bbi f4 ,vitali/s1 #be ,volition1 #fa ,watson1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,b41 #aj1 #ba1 #bb1 #ca1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #gj ff41 #abf ff41 #afb1 #afg ff41 #agg1 #ahh1 #bai1 #bbc1 #bei ,waves 9 empty space1 #ajg f4 ,:itehead1 ,dr41 #aei 8,w01 #bbc f4 ,will+1 z m5tal occurr5ce1 #bjb ,w9ds ( ,doctr9e 7,santayana71 #bcj ,wi%-fulfilm5t & dread-fulfilm5t1 #aid ,wittg5/e91 #bfd ,words1 purpose (1 #aa f4 z physical occurr5ces1 #dd ff4 spok5 & writt51 #df f4 h[ acquir$ by infants1 #dh ff4 mean+ (1 #eb1 #bef relations (1 #ef 9 an ideal logical language1 #bef f4 ,_w1 ! physical1 nature ( our k (1 #aea ff4 a f\r-dim5sional cont9uum ( ev5ts1 #bic our k (1 purely ab/ract1 #bie ,,! ,,end ,illu/ration ,,norton ,,books ,paul ,bekk] ,,! ,,/ory ,,( ,,music #c4ej ,ev]ett ,dean ,m>t9 ,,psy*ology #c4jj ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,a ,,lib]al ,,education #c4jj ,daniel ,gregory ,mason ,,arti/ic ,,ideals #b4ej ,h4 ,a4 ,ov]/reet ,,influ5c+ ,,human ,,behavior #c4jj ,a ,,book ,,ab\t ,,ourselves #c4jj ,b]tr& ,russell ,,philosophy #c4jj ,?omas ,e4 ,tallmadge ,,! ,,/ory ,,( ,,ar*itecture ,,9 ,,am]ica #c4ej ,john ,b4 ,watson ,,behaviorism #c4jj ,,! ,,new ,,sci5ce ,,s]ies ,,edit$ ,,by ,c4 ,k4 ,,ogd5 ,c4 ,judson ,h]rick ,,fatalism ,,or ,,fre$om #a4jj ,i4 ,a4 ,ri*>ds ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,poetry #a4jj ,vilhjalmur ,/efansson ,,! ,,/&>dization ,,( ,,error #a4jj ,ann\ncem5ts ( o!r volumes 9 ?is s]ies1 & a complete catalogue ( ,norton ,books s5t on reque/ ,w ,w ,,norton ,,company1 ,,inc4 #gj ,fif? ,av5ue ,new ,york ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,hyph5ation1 & spell+ 7 made consi/5t :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ! 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