----------------------------------------
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,transcrib]'s ,note3    ,?is v]sion ( ! 
text _c repres5t c]ta9 typographical    
effects4  ,italics are delimit$ ) ! #8' 
"* z italic4 ,boldface type  is delimit$
 ) ! #8' "* z ,boldface4    ,footnotes h
 be5 mov$ to foll[ ! p>agraphs 9 :i* !y 
are  ref]5c$4    ,! _m m>g9al notes     
usually appe>$ at ! beg9n+ ( a          
p>agraph4 ,^! are giv5 "h on a sep>ate  
l9e z    ,sid5ote3 ,a topic4    ,:]e !  
notes are 9 mid-p>agraph1 !y are m]ely  
int]polat$ 9  ! text ,sid5ote3 ,inl9e at
 an appropriate po9t4    ,!re are a     
numb] ( diagrams t _c be directly r5d]$ 
9 ?is  v]sion4 ,an attempt has be5 made 
= ea* to reta9 ! in=mation  convey$4 ,= 
in/ance1 ! *>t ( ! v>i\s municipal      
(fices  fac+ p4 #bje has be5 r5d]$ "h z 
an ind5t$ li/4    ,all illu/rations1    
*>ts1 tables & graphs are accompani$ by 
a  sep>ate explanatory page1 ei!r prec$+
 or foll[+4 ,nei!r are  includ$ 9 !     
pag9ation4 ,!y h be5 mov$ to ! ne>e/    

logical  p>agraph break1 & dem>cat$ by  
horizontal rules1 :i* d n appe>  9 !    
text4 ,a *>t1 8,! ,commission ,plan01   
fac+ p4 #aie1 is miss+  f ! li/ ( ,maps1
 ,*>ts1 & ,diagrams4    ,m9or errors1   
attributable to ! pr9t]1 h be5 correct$4
 ,please  see ! transcrib]'s note at !  
end ( ?is text = details reg>d+  ! h&l+ 
( any textual issues enc\nt]$ dur+ its  
prep>ation4                             
,,social ,,civics                       
,books by ,,william ,,b5nett ,,munro    
,,! ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates  
,,! ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,am]ican ,,cities   
,,! ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,european ,,cities  
,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,me?ods ,,( ,,municipal
 ,,adm9i/ration                         
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,ju/ice                                
,by ,edw>d ,simmons              ,?is   
frontispiece is a reproduction ( a fam\s
            mural decoration 9 ! ,new   
,york ,crim9al ,c\rt            ,h\se4  
,! backgr\nd is ! doorway ( ! crim9al   

c\rt            room4 ,ju/ice /&s be=e !
 entrance hold+ 9            "o h& !    
conv5tional scales z a tok5 (           
imp>tiality1 & 9 ! o!r h& a globe to    
symbolize ! _w4 ,ov] h] left %\ld] is   
drap$ ! national flag4 ,condemnation &  
,acquittal            are typifi$ by !  
two *ildr51 "o ( :om holds            a 
sword1 ! o!r ! dove ( peace4            
,x has be5 usual to prefigure ! ,goddess
 (            ,ju/ice ) h] eyes b&ag$1 9
 tok5 ( h]            immunity f outside
 influ5ce4 ,mr4 ,simmons1               
h[ev]1 has "h portray$ ,ju/ice ) h] eyes
            uncov]$1 because he believ$ 
t 8,ju/ice %\ld            h h] eyes    
wide op5--p>ticul>ly 9 ,new ,york       
,city04              ,! arti/'s wife &  
two *ildr5 7 ! models            = ?is  
pa9t+4    ,illu/ration3      ,,ju/ice4  
,by ,edw>d ,simmons      ,copyright by  
,edw>d ,simmons4 ,f a ,copley ,pr9t1    
copyright by ,curtis  ,cam]on1 ,bo/on4  
,reproduc$ by p]mission4                
----------------------------------------

--------------------------------        
,,social ,,civics                       
,,by                                    
,,william ,,b5nett ,,munro              
,,pr(essor ,,( ,,municipal ,,gov]nm5t   
,,9 ,,h>v>d ,,univ]sity                 
,,&                             ,,*>les 
,,eug5e ,,ozanne                        
,,tea*] ,,( ,,civics                ,,9 
,,! ,,c5tral ,,high ,,s*ool1 ,,clevel&1 
,,ohio                                  
,,new ,,york                            
,,! ,,macmillan ,,company               
#aibb                             ,all  
rights res]v$                    ,,pr9t$
 ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica   
,,copyright1 #aibb                      
,,by ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company          
---                 ,set up &           
electrotyp$4 ,publi%$ ,june1 #aibb      
,,preface      ,_m excell5t textbooks   
are already available = ! tea*+ (       
civics4 ,:y %\ld ano!r be add$ to !     
numb]8 ,:]e9 does ?is  book diff] f !   
re/8 ,:at are its out/&+ features8    ,!

 ,plan4 ,?is book cov]s a wid] range ?an
 mo/ texts4 ,x includes  n only a survey
 ( gov]nm5tal framework & functions1 b  
_m  topics :i* are ord9>ily spok5 ( z   
que/ions 9 economics1  sociology1 &     
int]national relations4 ,! propriety (  
includ+ su*  topics sc>cely requires a  
def5sive argum5t n[adays1 = ! old  l9es 
( dem>cation 9 ! social sci5ces are     
rapidly break+ d[n4  ,! problems ( our  
complex mod]n civilization pay no he$ to
 te*nical  b\nd>ies4 ,!y are ! jo9t     
product ( political1 social1 &  economic
 =ces4 ,no "o c get a grasp ( !m if he  
lets 8 m9d run  on a s+le track4 ,a     
well-organiz$ c\rse 9 civics1 or 9 !    
problems  ( democracy1 %\ld acqua9t !   
/ud5t ) ! great in/itutions1  relations1
 & pr9ciples :i* dom9ate ! life ( !     
community4 ,to  accompli% ?is end x %\ld
 c>ry him z f> afield z ne$ be4    ,!   
,me?od4 ,nev]!less1 ! ma9 !me ( ?is book
 is ,am]ican  gov]nm5t4 ,no matt] :at ! 
topic "u discussion1 ! au?ors h  tri$ to
 l9k x up ) ! drift & purposes (        

gov]nm5tal action  & policy4 ,?is       
intimate & cont9u\s connection betwe5   
public  problems & public policy is !   
c5tral concept ( ! book2 x is !  ?read  
:i* holds ! v>i\s *apt]s toge!r4 ,!re   
are _m w9d+  roads 9 ! broad doma9 ( !  
social sci5ces1 b soon] or lat]  !y all 
lead ?r\gh ! realm ( gov]nm5t4    ,!    
au?ors h n tri$ to discuss e possible   
phase ( _!  subject4 ,que/ions ( out/&+ 
importance h be5 giv5 ! "r  ( way2 m9or 
matt]s h be5 relegat$ to ! footnotes or 
omitt$  altoge!r4 ,^? :o desire         
enlight5m5t ^u ! odds & ends (  gov]nm5t
 or economics c get x f an encyclop$ia4 
,! prim>y aim  has be5 to get ! facts   
hit*$ up to pr9ciples1 & to set !       
pr9ciples 9 _! "r p]spective4 ,= ?is    
reason consid]able  space has be5 giv5  
to problems :i*1 al?\gh int]national 9  
_!  scope1 are ( pr(\nd importance to ! 
p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4    ,! ,arrangem5t4 
,no two textbook writ]s seem able to    
agree z to !  prop] ord] 9 :i* mat]ial  
%\ld be arrang$4 ,b ! sequ5ce (  !      

*apt]s is n1 aft] all1 a matt] ( mu*    
importance4 ,no "o  feels "u any        
obligation to f9i% ! ,book ( ,deut]onomy
 be=e  beg9n+ to read ! ,acts ( !       
,apo/les4 ,! tea*] :o pref]s to  />t ) !
 civic activities r ?an ) ! organization
 (  gov]nm5t %\ld h no hesitation 9 do+ 
s4 ,9 ?is book1 at any  rate1 ea* ( !   
l>g] divisions ( ! subject is treat$    
indep5d5tly1 & does n dep5d ^u ! o!rs4  
,"s s*ools devote  a half ye> to civics1
 & a half ye> to economics4 ,mat]ial    
adapt$ to  su* an arrangem5t c be obta9$
 by a slight transposition ( !          
*apt]s4#a    ,! ,supplem5t>y ,mat]ial4  
,m ?an a hundr$ pages are devot$ to     
li/s ( g5]al ref]5ces1 gr\p problems1   
%ort /udies1 que/ions1  & topics =      
debate4 ,x is n anticipat$1 ( c\rse1 t  
any  tea*] c f9d "t to use !m all2 b !  
endeavor has be5 made to  af=d ample    
v>iety = selection4 ,among ! g5]al      
ref]5ces are  includ$ n only a few ( !  
mo/ au?oritative & mo/ rec5t            
publications1 b also "s elem5t>y books  

:i* c ord9>ily be  f\nd 9 ! small] s*ool
 & public libr>ies4 ,! gr\p problems are
  int5d$ to be ( special s]vice to ^?   
tea*]s :o use ! 8project  me?od0 (      
in/ruction2 b 9 any ev5t ! practice (   
sett+ gr\ps  ( pupils to "w ^u problems 
( a compreh5sive "* is a good  "o = e   
tea*] to pursue at times4 ,"s ( ^! gr\p 
problems  are 8projects0 9 ! /rict s5se 
( ! t]m2 o!rs are m]ely  rese>* topics (
 an elem5t>y sort4 ,"s involve field "w2
 "s d  n4 ,! que/ions are n design$ to  
be te/s ( memory1 b to  provide a basis 
= socializ$ recitations1 to provoke     
discussion1 &  to enc\rage among !      
pupils ! habit ( =m+ _! own op9ions4  ,!
 num]\s & v>i$ topics = debate h be5    
ins]t$ ) !  idea ( l5d+ enc\ragem5t to  
"o ( ! mo/ effective me?ods (  promot+  
int]e/ 9 public problems4    ,! ,po9t ( 
,view4 ,9 deal+ ) controv]t$ que/ions1 (
 :i*  !re are a great _m 9 ! field (    
civics1 ! au?ors h tri$ to  hold !      
scales ju/ly1 & to give bo? sides a fair
 he>+4 ,x may be  t !y h n 9 all cases  

succe$$2 if s1 !y c only plead  !       
unconsci\s p>tisan%ip to :i* all human  
fle% is heir4 ,9 any  ev5t ^! *apt]s h  
be5 writt5 ) a s9c]e desire to promote  
a m intellig5t citiz5%ip1 ) an abid+    
fai? 9 ! m]its (  ,am]ican gov]nm5t1 & )
 ! conviction t ! p ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates w
 prove abundantly capable ( solv+ _!    
manifold  problems by ! traditional     
process ( reconcil+ lib]ty ) law4    ,! 
,illu/rations4 ,ap>t f a numb] (        
diagrams1 ! illu/rative  mat]ial has be5
 drawn f ! ma/]pieces ( ,am]ican mural  
art4  ,!y symbolize :at is be/ 9 our    
civilization2 !y may s]ve to give       
pupils a pass+ acqua9tance ) a few      
creative works ( endur+  value2 & !y h  
"s arti/ic m]it1 :i* mo/ textbook       
illu/rations h n4 ,= ! selection ( ^!   
illu/rations & =  ! explanatory leg5ds  
:i* accompany !m1 ,i am indebt$ to my   
wife4    ,a ,^w ( ,ackn[l$gm5t4 ,to ,mr4
 ,ozanne ?is book owes a l>ge "p (      
:atev] value x may possess4 ,he has _h a
 great deal to d ) !  arrangem5t (      

mat]ials & ! me?ods ( pres5tation4 ,e   
page has  _h 8 repeat$ scrut9y4 ,x is to
 me a great pleasure to h _h1 9  ?is "w1
 ! close co-op]ation ( "o :o possesses n
 only a  ma/]y ( ! subject b a r>e      
pr(ici5cy 9 classroom me?ods4           
,,william ,,b5nett ,,munro4      ,,h>v>d
 ,,univ]sity1      ,febru>y #bb1 #aibb4 
,,cont5ts                               
,,page               ,,preface          
v                                       
,,"p ,i                            ,,!  
,,am]ican ,,environm5t         ,,*apt]  
,i4 ,,human ,,society                   
#a           ,,ii4 ,,! ,,p1 ,,races1 ,,&
 ,,racial ,,problems ,,( ,,! ,,unit$    
#ai             ,,/ates          ,,iii4 
,,economic ,,factors ,,& ,,organization 
#cg                                     
,,"p ,,ii                         ,,!   
,,organization ,,( ,,gov]nm5t           
,,! ,,f\ndations ,,( ,,gov]nm5t         
,,iv4 ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,=ms ,,(        
,,gov]nm5t                         #fb  
,v4 ,,! ,,citiz53 ,,8 ,,rights ,,&      

,,duties                         #gh    
,,vi4 ,,popul> ,,control ,,( ,,gov]nm5t 
#id                                ,,!  
,,electoral ,,sy/em          ,,vii4     
,,suffrage ,,& ,,elections              
#aah         ,,viii4 ,,p>ty             
,,organization ,,& ,,practical          
,,politics                 #ade         
,,local ,,& ,,/ate ,,gov]nm5t           
,,ix4 ,,c\nties ,,& ,,rural             
,,communities                           
#aff            ,x4 ,,city ,,gov]nm5t   
#ahb           ,,xi4 ,,municipal        
,,problems ,,( ,,today                  
#bjc          ,,xii4 ,,/ate ,,gov]nm5t  
,,9 ,,outl9e                            
#bbf                                    
,,national ,,gov]nm5t         ,,xiii4   
,,! ,,national ,,con/itution            
#bdf          ,,xiv4 ,,congress ,,at    
,,"w                                    
#bff           ,,xv4 ,,! ,,presid5t ,,& 
,,8 ,,cab9et                            
#bhf          ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,c\rts ,,& ,,!
 ,,law                                  

#cjh                                    
,,"p ,,iii                              
,,! ,,civic ,,activities                
,,economic         ,,xvii4 ,,natural    
,,res\rces ,,& ,,cons]vation            
#cbf        ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,agricultural 
,,int]e/s                               
#cci          ,,xix4 ,,! ,,enc\ragem5t  
,,& ,,regulation ,,( ,,comm]ce          
#cef           ,,xx4 ,,! ,,organization 
,,& ,,control ,,( ,,indu/ry             
#chc          ,,xxi4 ,,labor ,,& ,,labor
 ,,problems                             
#djj         ,,xxii4 ,,curr5cy1 ,,bank+1
 ,,& ,,cr$it                            
#dbd        ,,xxiii4 ,,taxation ,,&     
,,public ,,f9ance                       
#dej         ,,xxiv4 ,,public           
,,utilities ,,& ,,public ,,own]%ip      
#dgd                                    
,,social          ,,xxv4 ,,education    
#dib         ,,xxvi4 ,,public ,,heal?   
,,& ,,sanitation                        
#ead        ,,xxvii4 ,,poor-,,relief1   
,,correction1 ,,& ,,o!r ,,welf>e        

,,problems       #edj                   
,,int]national       ,,xxviii4 ,,!      
,,national ,,def5ce                     
#efc         ,,xxix4 ,,=eign ,,relations
                                        
#ehg          ,,xxx4 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates
 ,,z ,a ,,_w ,,p[]                      
#fjf         ,,xxxi4 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates
 ,,& ,,! ,,league ,,( ,,nations         
#fbe        ,,xxxii4 ,,political ,,&    
,,social ,,recon/ruction                
#fdf                                    
,,app5dix               ,,!             
,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates   
#ffe                                    
,,index                                 
,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations       ,ju/ice4 
,by ,edw>d ,simmons                     
,frontispiece                           
,,page     ,! ,family4 ,by ,*>les       
,sprague ,pe>ce                  ,fac+  
#ab     ,! ,melt+ ,pot4 ,by ,vesp] ,l4  
,george                     0           
#cc     ,?rift & ,prosp]ity4 ,by        
,fr$]ick ,dielman              0        

#ej     ,lib]ty1 ,frat]nity1 ,equality4 
,by ,edw>d ,simmons         0           
#gh     ,gov]nm5t4 ,by ,elihu ,v$d]     
0        #aah     ,good ,adm9i/ration4  
,by ,elihu ,v$d]                     0  
#ade     ,wa%+ton at ! ,con/itutional   
,conv5tion4 ,by            0        #bee
   ,violet ,oakley     ,sci5ce ,reveal+ 
! ,treasures ( ! ,e>?4 ,by           0  
#cbi   ,edw9 ,a4 ,abbey     ,! ,_s (    
,vulcan4 ,by ,edw9 ,a4 ,abbey           
0        #chc     ,! ,cr[n+ ( ,labor4   
,by ,john ,w4 ,alex&]              0    
#djj     ,! ,evolution ( ! ,book4 ,by   
,john ,w4 ,alex&]          0        #dib
     ,ju/ice & ,m]cy4 ,by ,a4 ,r4       
,willett                      0         
#eed     ,! ,_s ( ,light4 ,by ,edw9 ,a4 
,abbey                   0        #fjf  
,! ,graduate4 ,by ,edw9 ,h4 ,bla%field  
0        #fdf                           
,,li/ ,,( ,,maps1 ,,*>ts1 ,,& ,,diagrams
                                        
,,page   ,! ,c5t] ( ,population         
,fac+      #ba   ,! ,gr[? ( ,am]ican    

,cities                                0
        #ahc   ,! ,city ,manag] ,plan   
0        #aig   ,municipal ,adm9i/rative
 ,dep>tm5ts                         0   
#bje   ,traffic ,zones                  
0        #baj   ,simplifi$ ,/ate        
,adm9i/ration                           
0        #bda   ,l& ,regions ( ! ,unit$ 
,/ates                            0     
#cdj   ,! ,relation ( ,money & ,prices  
0        #ddc   ,! ,national ,debt1     
#ahfj-aibj                              
0        #dfg   ,! ,control ( ,education
                                     0  
#ejj   ,! ,rise ( ,prices 9 ,w> ,"t     
0        #ehb                           
,,social ,,civics                       
,,*apt] ,i                              
,,human ,,society        ,! purpose (   
?is *apt] is to expla9 :y human be+s h  
come toge!r into a society1 to po9t out 
"s ( ! *ief      influ5ces :i* affect _!
 action 9 organiz$ gr\ps1 & to      %[ t
 gov]nm5t is ! greate/ ( ! ag5cies ?r\gh
 :i*      human co-op]ative action is   

ma9ta9$ today4    ,sid5ote3 ,! supremacy
 ( man4    ,man's ,place on ! ,e>?4--,! 
pres5t organization ( society f9ds  its 
explanation 9 ! nature ( man4 ,man is by
 nature a social be+2  he possesses     
intellig5ce & ! capacity to organize4   
,among liv+  creatures man is by no     
means ! fir/ 9 physical p[]--he is nei!r
  s /rong z ! lion nor s fleet z !      
re9de]4 ,b he dom9ates !  e>? because he
 m ?an makes up1 by 8 m5tal & moral     
sup]iority1 = :atev] may be lack+ 9     
physical pr[ess4 ,we d n  "k :5 mank9d  
fir/ began to ass]t its ma/]y ov] all   
o!r =ms  ( life on ! e>?1 b x 0 a v long
 "t ago4 ,man's sup]ior  intellig5ce    
gave him a />t1 & 8 capacity =          
organization enabl$  him to cl9* !      
victory4 ,today he is supreme on l&1 at 
sea1 & 9  ! air4    ,sid5ote3           
,evolution4    ,! ,pr9ciple (           
,developm5t4--,human society did n come 
into  exi/5ce all at once2 x has gr[n to
 its pres5t =m ?r\gh ! sl[  process (   
"t4 ,ev]y:]e we see ! pr9ciple (        

developm5t at  "w--among individuals &  
among in/itutions4 ,ev]y?+ is /ill 9 a  
cont9ual process ( *ange & ?is has      
unque/ionably be5 ! case  = _m ?\s&s (  
ye>s4 ,or to put x 9 ano!r way1 new =ms 
(  life & in/itutions are cont9ually be+
 evolv$ f old] =ms4    ,sid5ote3 ,d>w9 &
 8 "w4    ,to und]/& ?is pr9ciple (     
cont9ual *ange & developm5t x is        
necess>y to "k some?+ ab\t ! doctr9e (  
evolution4 ,?is  doctr9e is commonly    
associat$ ) ! "n ( ,*>les ,d>w91 =      
al?\gh _m o!rs _h h9t$ at ! idea1 he 0 !
 fir/ to set x  =? accompani$ by        
sci5tific evid5ce4#b ,d>w9's !ory has   
be5  mu* misund]/ood2 9 ! illit]ate m9d 
x is (t5 summ$ up by  say+ t 8,man is   
desc5d$ f ! monkey04 ,b ,d>w9 did n say 
any?+ ( ! k9d1 nei!r did he ev] d5y !   
exi/5ce ( ,god z  ! controll+ factor 9 !
 life ( ! univ]se4 ,d>w9's !ory (       
evolution ass]t$ t all =ms ( life n[ on 
e>? h sprung f  a few simple1 primitive 
types1 & t human life is an evolution f 
"o ( ^! e>li] =ms4 ,human in/itutions1  

likewise1 did n arise  in/antane\sly b  
develop$ f simple & primitive beg9n+s   
into  _! complex /ructure ( today4      
,sid5ote3 ,s\ndness ( ,d>w9's !ory4     
,! evid5ce ^u :i* ! doctr9e ( evolution 
re/s is too ext5sive  & too te*nical to 
be ev5 summ>iz$ "h b x is reg>d$ z      
tru/wor?y by mo/ sci5ti/s4#c ,= fifty   
ye>s x has be5 /udi$1  discuss$1 & te/$ 
by s*ol>s ) ! result t educat$ m5 are   
n[ dispos$ to accept ! doctr9e s f> z   
its ma9 pr9ciples are  conc]n$ al?\gh !y
 diff] ab\t v>i\s details4    ,x is     
a/oni%+ h[ little we "k1 aft] all1 ab\t 
! beg9n+s (  ?+s4 ,we d n "k :5 or h[   
life began ^u ! e>?4 ,we d n  "k ! exact
 orig9 ( man4 ,b we d "k t all =ms (    
life &  in/itutions h gr[n2 !y 7 n      
creat$ 9 ! %ape we n[ h  !m4 ,all !     
g5]al laws ( life :i* apply to plants & 
animals  apply also to man4 ,alike !y   
are born1 !y are n\ri%$1 !y mature1  &  
!y produce desc5dants l !mselves4       
,sid5ote3 ,! pr9ciple ( 8natural        
selection0 & ! /ruggle =                

exi/5ce4    ,! me?od ( evolution1       
accord+ to ,d>w9's !ory is bas$ ^u !    
pr9ciple ( natural selection4 ,x is a   
well-kn[n law ( nature t  8l begets l01 
9 o!r words t (fspr+ resemble !         
p>5t-/ock al?\gh !re may be "s          
individual diff]5ces4 ,if x  7 n s1 a   
def9ite species w\ld nev] be p]petuat$4 
,all =ms (  life1 moreov]1 reproduce    
!mselves m or less abundantly4 ,x is    
said  t ! prog5y ( a s+le />fi% exce$s  
half a million p] ye>4  ,ev5 !          
elephants1 :i* are ! sl[e/ bre$+ ( all  
animals1  produce a suffici5tly num]\s  
(fspr+ to ov]-run ! :ole (  ,africa if e
 "y elephant grew to maturity4    ,b    
n[h]e does ! entire prog5y ( any        
organisms1 :e!r plants1  animals1 or    
human be+s1 survive to full gr[?4 ,if e 
acorn became  an oak tree1 !re w\ld 9 "t
 be no room = any?+ else on !  surface (
 ! e>?4 ,if e tadpole grew to be a frog1
 !re w\ld be  no room = any?+ else 9 !  
wat]s ( ! e>?4 ,all life1 h[ev]1  is a  
/ruggle = exi/5ce1 a rel5tless          

competition = air1 sun%9e1  moi/ure1 &  
soil on ! "p ( plants1 & = food & %elt] 
on  ! "p ( animals4 ,! fur!r d[n we g 9 
! scale ( life !  m bitt] ?is /ruggle = 
exi/5ce becomes2 small animals eat up  !
 plants2 l>ge animals fe$ on ! small]   
ones4 ,high] 9 ! scale1  ! /ruggle is n 
s ke51 & among mank9d x is ! lea/ /r5u\s
  ( all4    ,9 ?is /ruggle = exi/5ce1   
:at plants & animals survive8 ,!  answ] 
is t ^? :i* are be/ fitt$ to _!         
environm5t cont9ue  to exi/ & to        
reproduce !mselves1 :ile ^? :i* are m   
poorly  adapt$ to _! environm5t fall out
 ( ! race & disappe>4  ,sid5ote3 ,!     
survival ( ! fitte/4 ,9 o!r words       
natural  selection or ! survival ( !    
fitte/ 0 ?\ght by ,d>w9 to be !         
pr9ciple :i* det]m9es ! c\rse (         
evolution4 ,! unfit p]i% &  ! fit       
survive1 ev]y?+ dep5d+ ^u ! relative    
success ( !  organism 9 adapt+ itself to
 ! conditions "u :i* x is  endeavor+ to 
live4 ,! clumsy ma/odon became ext9ct2 8
 bones are  n[ relics 9 museums2 b !    

horse1 be+ fleet ( foot1 manag$ to      
survive4 ,! fit organisms1--plants or   
animals or human be+s1--h  surviv$ & h  
p]petuat$ ! species4 ,!y gave to _!     
(fspr+  ! traits or qualities :i* enabl$
 !mselves to survive4 ,9 t way  ea*     
g5]ation ( organisms became a little    
bett] fitt$ to its  environm5t ?an !    
g5]ation :i* w5t be=e4 ,?is is a sl[    
process = human be+s1 ( c\rse1 = x takes
 tw5ty ye>s or m  to produce a new      
g5]ation ( m51 :]eas new g5]ations (    
birds1  reptiles1 & l[] animals appe> e 
few mon?s4 ,! pr9ciple (  natural       
selection1 moreov]1 does n fully acc\nt 
= ! =m :i*  evolution has tak54 ,o!r    
factors h also be5 at "w1 b  sci5ti/s   
are n yet agre$ z to _! nature or       
importance4#d    ,sid5ote3 ,natural     
selection z appli$ to ! human race4     
,n[ h[ does ! human race figure 9 all   
?is8 ,mank9d has also be5  at all times 
"u ! necessity ( adapt+ itself to its   
environm5t1 & 9 ! e>ly /ages ( human    
hi/ory ^? :o did  n successfully adapt  

!mselves w5t to an e>ly grave4 ,dur+    
c5tury aft] c5tury natural selection & !
 o!r factors  /r5g!n$ ! race4 ,z ! race 
grew /rong] 9 intellig5ce1 man  und]took
 to subdue 8 environm5t r ?an to be     
subdu$ by x1  & 9 consid]able measure he
 succe$$4 ,he discov]$ ! art (  k9dl+ a 
fire & made ?is elem5t 8 s]vant 9       
conqu]+ !  cold4 ,he dome/icat$ wild    
animals1 made !m provide him ) milk  &  
meat1 & compell$ !m to c>ry 8 burd5s4   
,/ep by /ep he  ma/]$ ! natural         
conditions :i* surr\nd$ him4 ,?is he did
 by  8 ability to "w ) 8 fell[-m54      
,?r\gh ?is p[] (  co-op]ation he creat$ 
gr\p organizations--society1 ! /ate1 &  
gov]nm5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,today ! /rong   
assi/ ! weak4    ,! /ruggle = exi/5ce   
among m5 is n n[1 !re=e1 z x 0 9        
primitive days1 a life-&-dea?           
competition = food & %elt]4             
,individuals h come to recognize ea*    
o!r's rights & to seek ev5  _! own      
advantage by co-op]ation r ?an by /rife4
 ,!  association ( individuals 9 !      

family & ! community s]ves to  pres]ve !
 weak :om a ke5 /ruggle = exi/5ce w\ld  
elim9ate4  ,our :ole sy/em (            
poor-relief1 hospitals1 & c>e = !       
defective  is bas$ ^u ! idea ( giv+ a   
fair *ance to ^? :o o!rwise  w\ld be    
cr[d$ out ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce         
altoge!r4 ,!  competition today is n s  
mu* betwe5 individuals z among gr\ps1   
small or l>ge1 includ+ competition      
betwe5 :ole nations ( m54    ,sid5ote3  
,! relative influ5ce ( inh]itance &     
environm5t4    ,! ,factors 9 ,social    
,progress4--,two factors h greatly      
influ5c$  ! c\rse ( social evolution or 
social progress4 ,^! factors are        
inh]itance & environm5t4 ,by inh]itance 
we mean ! qualities1  physical & m5tal1 
:i* ea* g5]ation inh]its f ! g5]ation   
prec$+4 ,by environm5t we mean ! g5]al  
surr\nd+s1 physical &  social1 9 :i* ! p
 live4 ,mank9d influ5ces ^! surr\nd+s   
to a consid]able ext5t & m\lds !m to 8  
own ne$s1 b 9 turn  is also influ5c$ by 
!m4 ,ev]y?+ t is *>act]i/ic ( man is  ! 

result ( ^! two =ces1 inh]itance &      
environm5t4 ,9 "s  ?+s ! fir/ is m      
important1 9 o!rs ! second4 ,= example1 
"u normal conditions ! height ( a man or
 woman is det]m9$  almo/ altoge!r by    
inh]itance1 = no "o by tak+ ?\ght c add 
a  cubit to 8 /ature4 ,intellig5ce1     
likewise1 is to a l>ge degree an        
inh]it$ quality4 ,b morals1 mann]s1     
education1 & p]sonal habits  are det]m9$
 mu* m l>gely by environm5t ?an by      
inh]itance4    ,sid5ote3 ,:i* is ! m    
pot5t influ5ce8    ,! respective        
influ5ces ( inh]itance & environm5t _c1 
h[ev]1 be 9 all cases cle>ly sep>at$4   
,bo? (t5 "w to produce  ! same result1 z
 :5 a p]son :o inh]its a /rong body & a 
s\nd  m9d is =tunate en\gh to be plac$ 9
 an environm5t :]e bo? body  & m9d are  
develop$ by out-(-door life & a good    
education4  ,sometimes !y "w 9 opposite 
directions1 z :5 a *ild />ts life  ) a  
/rong physique & good natural           
intellig5ce1 b gr[s up 9 a  cr[d$ t5em5t
 amid sordid conditions :i* weak5 ! "o &

 fail to  af=d scope = ! o!r4 ,we _c    
say1 !re=e1 t "o factor is  always      
/rong] or weak] ?an ! o!r4 ,! social    
progress ( !  race is promot$ by improv+
 bo? influ5ces4 ,environm5t especially  
c be improv$ by human ef=t4 ,man's      
control ( 8 inh]itance is n  ne>ly s    
complete1 b ev]y?+ t conduces to !      
bett]m5t (  heal? or education &        
promotes a high] morality is a /ep t[>ds
  improv+ its influ5ce4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
two =ms ( inh]itance4    ,physical &    
,social ,inh]itance4--,! influ5ce (     
inh]itance is  ex]t$ f two qu>t]s :i*   
may be di/+ui%$ by call+ !m  physical & 
social4 ,sid5ote3 7a7 ,physical4 ,by !  
=m] we  mean ! influ5ce ex]t$ ^u human  
be+s by ! bodily & m5tal  traits :i* are
 h&$ d[n to !m by _! own p>5ts4 ,n all !
  *>act]i/ics ( p>5ts are transmitt$ to 
_! *ildr5 b ma9ly  ^? :i* ! p>5ts       
!mselves h inh]it$4 ,traits or qualities
  :i* h be5 acquir$ by ! p>5ts dur+ _!  
own lives d n  ord9>ily desc5d to _!    
*ildr54#e ,p>5ts :o are born            

feeble-m9d$ w 9 all probability h       
feeble-m9d$ *ildr52 b  p>5ts :o acquire 
?r\gh education a high degree ( le>n+ & 
culture _c transmit any ( ?is to _!     
*ildr5 by inh]itance4  ,!re is no royal 
road to le>n+4 ,"s ( u are born ) bett] 
or  worse possibilities ?an o!rs1 b we  
are all born illit]ate4    ,sid5ote3 7b7
 ,social4    ,! o!r =m ( inh]it$        
influ5ce is call$ our social h]itage    
because x repres5ts ! :ole accumulation 
( k1 habits1 &  exp$i5ts :i* h come d[n 
to u by ! social process ( tea*+  &     
le>n+4 ,ea* g5]ation ( mank9d is        
enorm\sly dep5d5t ^u  its social        
inh]itance2 )\t x ev]y?+ t we n[ call   
civilization w\ld collapse 9 a v %ort   
"t4 ,ea* g5]ation takes  ov] all ! k    
possess$ by ! "o :i* w5t be=e2 ea*      
g5]ation adds some?+ to ?is /ock ( k1   
habits1 &  exp$i5ts = ! b5efit ( !      
g5]ation :i* comes aft] x4 ,ea*         
g5]ation1 if x is to live happily1 mu/  
adapt ?is social inh]itance  to its own 
p>ticul> ne$s4    ,sid5ote3 ,! two k9ds 

( environm5t3    ,physical & ,social    
,environm5t4--,! o!r great influ5ce is t
 (  environm5t4 ,by physical environm5t 
we mean ! conditions ( nature  & society
 9 :i* man lives1 moves1 & has 8 be+4   
,physical  environm5t includes !        
geographic1 climatic1 & o!r natural     
conditions :i* surr\nd ! p4 ,sid5ote3   
7a7 ,physical4 ,^!  conditions h an     
important influ5ce ^u ! tr5d ( human    
developm5t & !y are n1 = ! mo/ "p1 "u   
man's control4  ,man mu/ adapt himself &
 8 ways ( life to !m4 ,9 cold climates  
he  mu/ we> w>m clo?+1 provide          
artificial heat 9 h\ses1 & consume      
w>m?-giv+ food4 ,gr\ps ( m5 mu/ ev]y:]e 
m\ld _!  occupations to ! "* ( ! soil1 !
 natural res\rces1 & !  o!r conditions (
 ! physical environm5t 9 :i* !y live4 ,x
 is  because ( diff]5ces 9 physical     
environm5t t ! ,s\!rn /ates  develop$   
cotton-culture on a l>ge scale & employ$
 slave labor1  :ile ! ,nor!rn /ates gave
 _! att5tion to f>m+ & indu/ry  ) free  
labor4    ,physical environm5t1 moreov]1

 det]m9es 9 "s measure ! relations  ( ! 
v>i\s races ) _! neighbors4 ,m5 w be    
influ5c$ by  neighbor+ gr\ps ( m5 9 s f>
 z physical features make  int]c\rse    
easy or difficult4 ,a race ( m5 :o live 
on a di/ant  isl&1 or 9 any o!r %ut-(f  
region1 w n be s easily  influ5c$ by    
neighbor+ races z if !y dwelt 9 ! mid/ (
 a  f]tile pla94 ,to "s ext5t1 z has be5
 said1 man is able to ov]come  !        
difficulties :i* physical environm5t    
sets 9 ! face (  progress4 ,if !re is   
inadequate ra9fall1 he may devise a     
sy/em (  irrigation & c>ry on c]ta9 =ms 
( agriculture z successfully z  ?\gh    
ra9fall 7 abundant4 ,by means (         
railroads1 /eam%ips1 &  electric or     
radio communication he c be 9 con/ant   
contact ) o!r  m5 :o are sep>at$ f him  
by physical ob/ructions4 ,b h[ev]  mu* !
 conditions ( nature may be controll$1  
!y /ill ex]t a  great influ5ce ^u human 
progress4    ,sid5ote3 7b7 ,social4     
,! social environm5t is q a diff]5t ?+4 
,by x we mean !  conditions altoge!r    

ap>t f geographic or natural features1  
:i*  influ5ce ! daily life ( mank9d4 ,we
 include )9 social  environm5t su* ?+s z
 family life1 ! s*ools1 ! *ur*es1 !     
organization & me?ods ( indu/ry1 ! =m ( 
gov]nm5t--ev]y?+  t society develops 9 !
 way ( in/itutions4 ,_m ( ^!1 z has  be5
 po9t$ out1 are natural gr[?s1 b ! m9d (
 man has also _h  a l>ge "p 9 %ap+ _!   
c\rse4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ cu/oms & laws   
create a social environm5t4    ,mo/ ( ! 
?+s we d1 :e!r z a body ( p or z        
individuals1  are m]ely ! result ( cu/om
 or g5]al habit4 ,:y d m5 h _!  hair cut
 %ort :ile wom5 let _! hair gr[ long8   
,:y d p we>  black :5 !y are 9 m\rn+8 ,9
 "s c\ntries !y we> :ite4 ,!  answ] is  
m]ely t e nation1 ?r\gh long-cont9u$    
habit1  develops its own ways ( do+ ?+s 
& keeps on do+ ?+s 9 t  way reg>dless ( 
any pres5t reason4 ,ori5tals1 :5 !y eat 
_!  meals1 squat on ! floor2 ,europeans 
& ,am]icans seat !mselves at  ! table4  
,aryans %ake h&s :5 !y meet2 ! ,esquimos
 hold _!  h&s high above _! heads z a   

tok5 ( greet+4 ,! g5tleman (  today1 :5 
he greets a lady on ! /reet1 raises 8   
hat4 ,?is is n  a p>ticul>ly graceful   
cu/om1 nor is x 9 ra9y wea!r an altoge!r
  hygi5ic "o2 b x has be5 9 vogue among 
! p ( we/]n  ,europe = _m c5turies4 ,x  
goes back to ! days ( *ivalry :5 !      
armor$ knight rais$ 8 visor to %[ 8     
c\nt5ance & disclose 8  id5tity4        
,primitive races are gov]n$ l>gely by   
cu/oms1 & n until a race  has %[n itself
 am5able to ! influ5ce ( cu/om is x     
prep>$ to  be gov]n$ by laws4 ,laws     
diff] f cu/oms 9 t !y h a  def9ite      
sanction1 9 o!r words are en=c$ by "s   
(ficial  au?ority4 ,! in/itutions &     
practices :i* make up ! social          
environm5t may be ! outcome ( long-/&+  
cu/om1 l ! sy/em  ( trial by jury1 =    
example2 or !y may be br\ght into       
exi/5ce by  law1 z1 = in/ance1 !        
admission ( wom5 to suffrage or !       
e/abli%m5t ( national prohibition4 ,!   
av[$ purpose ( all human  in/itutions is
 to promote ! greate/ good ( ! greate/  

numb]1 9  o!r words to provide ! be/    
social environm5t4    ,"s ,important    
,social ,=ces4--,! basis ( cu/om is     
habit4 ,cu/oms1  9 o!r words1 are habits
 :i* ext5d ,sid5ote3 ,two important     
social  =ces3 habit & imitation4 to !   
:ole community & receive its  approval4 
,we d n always realize h[ great a "p    
habit plays 9 our  daily lives4#f ,)\t x
 ! day's "w c\ld n be done4 ,by habit we
  walk1 eat1 dress ourselves1 & p]=m _m 
o!r common acts4 ,j  ?9k h[ long x w\ld 
take a novice to put ! v>i\s p>ts ( a   
wat* toge!r2 b ! wat*mak]1 be+ habituat$
 to ! task1 c d  x 9 an h\r4 ,!         
f\ndation ( habit is imitation4 ,"o man 
does a  ?+ successfully2 o!rs foll[ 8   
lead2 a habit develops & a  g5]al       
practice or cu/om may be ! ultimate     
outcome4 ,! influ5ce (  cu/om is usually
 cons]vative1 = :5 a cu/om is once      
firmly  e/abli%$ x does n easily give   
way4 ,take ! cu/om ( smok+  tobacco1 =  
example4 ,europeans f\nd x 9 vogue among
 ! ,indians :5  !y fir/ came to ,am]ica2

 !y adopt$ x & h kept x up = m  ?an f\r 
hundr$ ye>s4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! habit 
or cu/om is only  ( %ort duration1 9 :i*
 case we commonly call x a fa%ion4      
,fa%ions  come & g4 ,a c5tury ago m5 us$
 snuff & wom5 p[d]$ _! hair2  b ^! ?+s h
 :olly pass$ out ( fa%ion today4    ,!  
,c\rse ( ,social ,progress4--,hav+      
consid]$ ! v>i\s social  factors & =ces 
7developm5t1 inh]itance1 environm5t1    
cu/om1 &  s on7 we are n[ 9 a position  
to ask & to answ] ! foll[+  "q3 ,9      
accordance ) :at pr9ciple has human     
society develop$8    ,!re 0 a "t :5 ev5 
educat$ p imag9$ t su*  organizations z 
! /ate 7 plann$ 9 advance1 t individuals
  m]ely came toge!r 9 prehi/oric days & 
agre$ aft] calm  delib]ation to e/abli% 
a civil gov]nm5t4 ,t1 ( c\rse1 0 an     
absurd idea4 ,today we realize t "o /ep 
9 social organization l$  gradually to  
ano!r1 t in/itutions 7 n creat$ b       
evolv$1  t v>i\s social factors & =ces  
ex]t$ an influ5ce ^u _!  developm5t1 & t
 ! /ronge/ in/itutions surviv$ :ile !   

weak] disappe>$4    ,sid5ote3           
,in/itutions t h succumb$ 9 ! /ruggle = 
exi/5ce4    ,9 ! c\rse ( human hi/ory   
associations ( e type h come into       
exi/5ce2 _m /ill cont9ue to fl\ri% :ile 
o!rs m]ely abode  _! little h\r & w5t _!
 way4 ,! organizations :i* we h  today1 
includ+ ! family1 ! s*ool1 ! *ur*1 !    
community1 !  /ate1 are among ^? t h    
surviv$4 ,^? t succumb$ dur+  ! long    
j\rney d[n ! ages w\ld make a =midable  
li/4 ,:o ev]  he>s n[adays ( ! totem-k91
 ! clan1 or ! g5s8 ,:]e d we n[  f9d    
tribunes1 praetors1 augurs1 &           
triumvirates8 ,absolute mon>*y1 z  a =m 
( gov]nm5t1 once held sway ov] mo/ ( !  
_w4 ,b  democratic gov]nm5t ent]$ into  
competition ) x1 & z !re 0  n room en\gh
 = bo?1 "o cr[d$ ! o!r (f ! /age4 ,!    
great  m$iaeval in/itution ( feudalism  
dom9at$ ! rural life ( ,europe  = m ?an 
five hundr$ ye>s1 b ! la/ relics (      
feudal t5ure  h practically all be5     
swept away4 ,! trade guilds ( ! old5    
days1 ! ord]s ( nobility1 ! cr[ns &     

coronets1 ! soo?say]s  & ! al*emi/s--all
 ( !m h disappe>$ or are rapidly        
disappe>+4 ,! bea*es ( hi/ory are /rewn 
) ! wrecks (  social & political        
in/itutions4 ,"s o!rs1 l ! h]$it>y      
pe]ages ( a few ,european c\ntries1 are 
b>ely able to keep afloat4  ,!          
in/itutions :i* survive & fl\ri% are !  
ones t h be5  f\nd be/ fitt$ to survive4
    ,sid5ote3 ,importance ( ! family4   
,! ,fundam5tal ,social ,gr\p4--,9 human 
society ! f\ndation-gr\p is  ! family4  
,human be+s are social by nature2 !     
motive :i* draws  p toge!r is s univ]sal
 t we call x a natural in/9ct4          
,individuals d n live 9 isolation4      
,nobody leads ! h]mit type (  life if he
 c avoid x4 ,rob9son ,crusoe 0 n on 8   
little isl&  because he want$ to be !re4
 ,ev5 among ! lea/ civiliz$ races (  m51
 among savage tribes1 !re is a gr\p+ (  
m51 wom51 &  *ildr5 on ! basis ( blood  
relation%ip4 ,! family1 z a unit1 is    
old] ?an ei!r ! /ate or ! community4 ,x 
is ! f\ndation ^u  :i* o!r gr\ps &      

organizations h be5 built1 h5ce x is    
rightly call$ ! 8social microcosm0 or   
basis ( society4    ,sid5ote3 ,!        
function ( ! family4    ,! prim>y       
function ( ! family is to keep ! human  
race 9  exi/5ce4 ,its fir/ duty is !    
re>+ ( *ildr5 s t a new  g5]ation may   
take ! place ( ! old4 ,o!r duties t     
belong to  ! family may be h&$ ov] to ! 
s*ool 7! duty ( secul>  education7 or to
 ! *ur* 7! duty ( religi\s in/ruction72 
b !  prim>y function ( ! family1 t (    
p]petuat+ ! race1 is "o  :i* _c be      
transf]r$4    ,! :ole /ream ( human life
 fl[s ?r\gh ! family organization4  ,!  
same virtues :i* make = h>mony 9 !      
h\sehold1--ob$i5ce1  co-op]ation1       
loyalty1 & s]vice1--are ! ones :i* m>k  
good  citiz5%ip2 !re=e ! home is !      
prim>y s*ool ( all ! civic  virtues4 ,= 
?is reason ! collapse ( ! home & ( home 
life w\ld  be no?+ %ort ( a human       
cata/rophe4                             
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        

,illu/ration3      ,,! ,,family4 ,by    
,*>les ,sprague ,pe>ce    ,f a ,copley  
,pr9t1 copyright by ,curtis  ,cam]on1   
,bo/on4      ,reproduc$ by p]mission4   
,,! ,,family                            
,by ,*>les ,sprague ,pe>ce              
,f ! mural pa9t+ 9 ! entrance pavilion (
            ! ,nor? ,hall1 ,libr>y (    
,congress4              ,?is is ! anci5t
 family4 ,! fa!r has j                  
return$ f hunt+4 ,! "m holds up ! baby  
to welcome him & 8 little daught] ?r[s  
h] arms ab\t him4 ,on ! b5*es ( /one at 
ei!r side ( ! gr\p sit ! gr&mo!r &      
gr&fa!r1 ! latt] ) ! air ( a patri>*4   
,by 8 side lies a scroll4 ,?ree         
g5]ations are            plac$ toge!r 9 
! idyllic environm5t ( :i*            ! 
poets h s (t5 writt54                   
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,! clan4    ,o!r ,social      
,gr\ps4--,out ( ! family grew ! clan1 or
 gr\p (  families unit$ by ties (       
k9%ips4 ,9 e>ly days ! clan 0 a  w&]+   

gr\p1 l ! gipsy b&s ( today2 b          
ultimately ea* clan  settl$ ^u ! l& &   
became a community4 ,9 ^! communities m5
  became tra9$ 9 manual labor2 !y       
develop$ cu/oms & ! rudim5ts  ( a       
village gov]nm5t4    ,!n came ! next    
/age--sev]al village communities jo9$   
toge!r =  def5ce aga9/ _! mutual        
enemies4 ,a loose conf$]ation at fir/1  
?is gr\p ( communities 9 "t became a    
/ate1 usually ) a  *iefta9 or a mon>* at
 its head4 ,9 o!r cases a s+le village  
community grew 9 size to su* an ext5t t 
x became a city /ate1  l ,a!ns or       
,sp>ta4 ,! mo/ notable example ( ?is    
developm5t is  af=d$ by anci5t ,rome1   
:]e a small community grew into a ,_w   
,empire4 ,! family1 ! clan1 ! community1
 ! conf$]ation (  communities1 ! /ate1  
&1 ultimately1 ! nation--t is ! g5]al   
c\rse ( political evolution1 al?\gh ?is 
l9e ( developm5t 0 n  9 all cases       
exactly foll[$4    ,b ! evolution 0 n   
conf9$ to political in/itutions alone4  
,social & economic gr\ps & in/itutions  

develop$ also4 ,a v>iety (  ne$s call$  
=? "o in/itution aft] ano!r1 ! *ur*1 !  
s*ool1 ! club1 ! indu/rial organization4
 ,ea* has its own function  9 organiz$  
society4    ,sid5ote3 ,gov]nm5t is !    
guid+ h&4    ,! ,rle ( ,gov]nm5t4--,!   
dom9at+ factor 9 ! social &  economic   
life ( today1 h[ev]1 is ! political     
community 7nation1  /ate1 &             
municipality71 act+ ?r\gh ! ag5cy :i* we
 call  gov]nm5t4 ,gov]nm5t is ! great   
co-ord9at+ factor4 ,day by day we  are  
look+ m & m to gov]nm5t = lead]%ip1 =   
regulation1  & = sup]vision 9 all our   
great] social & economic activities4  ,9
 ! field ( social & economic ef=t1 all  
roads lead ?r\gh  gov]nm5t--x is ! cle>+
 h\se ( our great] problems4 ,:e!r !    
problem be "o ( bank+1 comm]ce1         
poor-relief1 labor1 or def5ce we  mu/   
reckon ) ! h& ( gov]nm5t z "o ( !       
/ronge/ among  con/ructive & h>moniz+   
factors4 ,gov]nm5t is ! focal po9t 9    
all civic relations4 ,x provides a ?read
 :i* w9ds its way along  e ma9 l9e (    

civic activity4 ,t has be5 p>ticul>ly   
noticeable  9 ,european c\ntries2 b x is
 n[ true ( ,am]ica z well4 ,!  greate/ (
 our socializ+ ag5cies is gov]nm5t4     
,sid5ote3 ,am]ica's emphasis on         
individualism4    ,individual ,lib]ty & 
,social ,control4--,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates   
/rong  emphasis has always be5 laid ^u  
individual fre$om1 & rightly s1  because
 ! enc\ragem5t ( individual initiative  
is ess5tial to  progress 9 a new c\ntry4
 ,! exploitation ( va/ natural res\rces 
requir$ t m5 %\ld be giv5 enc\ragem5t to
 pione]1 & %\ld  n be held d[n by too   
mu* gov]nm5tal int]f]5ce4 8,t gov]nm5t  
is be/ :i* int]f]es ! lea/0 0 ! common  
notion4 ,/ress 0  laid ^u ! prosp]ity ( 
! individual r ?an ^u ! welf>e  ( ! :ole
 p4 ,?is doctr9e ( extreme individualism
 und\bt$ly  s]v$ a useful purpose 9 !   
days :5 ! c\ntry's bigge/ problem  0 to 
increase production & ga9 = itself a    
place among ! /rong  nations ( ! _w4    
,sid5ote3 ,! influ5ce ( ! fronti]4      
,to a consid]able ext5t ?is emphasis ^u 

individualism 0 due to !  influ5ce ( !  
fronti]4 ,f ! fir/ settlem5t ( ! c\ntry 
d[n  to ab\t #ahhj ! ,am]ican p 7 engag$
 9 ! task ( m>*+  /eadily we/w>d1       
conqu]+ ! wild]ness z !y w5t4 ,?is      
ma/]+ ( a great doma9 dem&$ qualities ( 
ent]prise1  initiative1 & individual    
c\rage4 ,x develop$ m5's confid5ce 9  _!
 own p[] & made !m reliant ^u _! own    
ef=ts4 ,9 old  c\ntries ! natural t5d5cy
 is = ! individual to look to !  public 
au?orities = lead]%ip1 guidance1 &      
sup]vision2 on !  great ,am]ican fronti]
 ! pione]s _h to hew _! own way4 ,!y    
prec$$ ! /ate & ! community4 ,?is       
emphasis ^u individual  initiative      
rema9$ z ! fronti] roll$ we/ & pr(\ndly 
affect$  ! :ole social temp] ( ! c\ntry4
    ,sid5ote3 ,! nature & scope ( social
 control4    ,9 "t a reaction came4     
,social control develop$4 ,! m ?ickly   
populat$ a c\ntry becomes1 ! m          
complicat$ d ! relations (  individuals 
gr[1 & ! great] is ! ne$ = g5]al        
re/ra9t4  ,social control1 h[ev]1 is n  

m]ely negative 9 its purpose4 ,its      
object is n simply to re/ra9 individuals
 9 _! fre$om ( action  b to enc\rage !m 
9 ! ?+ :i* ! g5]al welf>e dem&s4  ,!    
gov]nm5t is ! *ief ag5cy ?r\gh :i*      
social control is  ex]cis$1 b x is by no
 means ! only "o4 ,religi\s1 frat]nal1  
pr(essional1 & b5evol5t organizations d 
a good deal 9 ! same  g5]al direction4  
,_! function is to promote collective   
int]e/s z  di/+ui%$ f ! int]e/s (       
individuals2 !y protect !  collective   
int]e/s aga9/ ! av>ice or selfi%ness (  
individuals4  ,! gov]nm5t ex]cises      
social control by means ( laws &        
adm9i/rative ord]s2 o!r organizations   
ex]cise x by _! own  rules or by cu/oms 
:i* ! memb]s obey4    ,sid5ote3 ,!      
limits ( social control4    ,!re is     
always a dang]1 ( c\rse1 t social       
control may proce$ too  f>4 ,x is n !   
object ( gov]nm5t & ( social            
organizations to  run all m5 9 ! same   
m\ld1 mak+ !m m]e automatons )\t        
individuality or initiative4 ,gov]nm5t  

%\ld aim to give suffici5t  scope = e   
individual to use 8 abilities 9 ! be/   
possible  way4 ,control ov] ! acts &    
discretion ( individuals is ju/ifi$     
only :]e su* control promotes1 9 ! long 
run1 ! well-be+ ( !  greate/ numb] (    
individuals4 ,! /ate is n an end 9      
itself4  ,society is n an end 9 itself4 
,! individual is ! end4 ,society &  !   
/ate are m]ely means to ! promotion ( ! 
g5]al welf>e &  ! welf>e ( ! individual4
 ,_! activities 9 ! way ( ex]cis+       
social control %\ld g no fur!r ?an ?is4 
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,c4 ,h4 ,,cooley1   
,social ,organization1 pp4 #c-bb2    ,h4
 ,g4 ,,wells1 ,outl9e ( ,hi/ory1 ,vol4  
,i1 pp4 #c-ajc2    ,c4 ,a4 ,,ellwood1   
,sociology & ,mod]n ,social ,problems1  
pp4 #g-ei2    ,f4 ,s4 ,,*ap91 ,social   
,evolution1 pp4 #c-aja2    ,,v]non      
,,kellogg1 ,d>w9ism ,today1 pp4 #aj-eg2 
#abi-aeg2    ,j4 ,a4 ,,?omson1 ,d>w9ism 
& ,human ,life1 pp4 #aha-bcg2    ,d4 ,s4
 ,,jordan & ,v4 ,l4 ,,kellogg1          
,evolution & ,animal ,life1 pp4 #a-ef2  

,t4 ,n4 ,,c>v]1 ,sociology & ,social    
,progress1 pp4 #agd-bgj2    ,e4 ,a4     
,,ross1 ,social ,control1 pp4 #a-aje4   
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,h[ f> %\ld      
society control ! conduct ( individuals8
 ,:y  social control is ex]cis$4 ,!     
ext5t ( social control 9 old]           
c\ntries1--,great ,brita91 ,france1 &   
,g]many4 ,its gr[? 9 ,am]ica4  ,causes (
 ?is gr[?4 ,! po9t at :i* x ceases to be
 ju/ifi$4  ,illu/rations4 ,effects ( too
 mu* emphasis on individualism4 ,effects
 (  too mu* social re/ra9t4 ,relation ( 
social control to socialism4  ,ref]5ces3
 ,e4 ,a4 ,,ross1 ,social ,control1 pp4  
#di-gf2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells1 ,new  ,worlds =
 ,old1 pp4 #a-ee2 ,t4 ,n4 ,,c>v]1       
,sociology & ,social  ,progress1 pp4    
#ghh-hjh2 ,ibid1 ,pr9ciples ( ,national 
,economy1 pp4  #gdj-gdi4    #b4 ,:at is 
progress8 ,ref]5ces3 ,f4 ,s4 ,,m>v91    
,progress & ,hi/ory1  pp4 #h-aj2 ,,john 
,,dewey 8,progress0 9 ,int]national     
,j\rnal ( ,e?ics1  xxvi1 #cab-cah       
7#aiaf72 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,essays &     

,addresses 9 ,w> ,"t1  pp4 #hd-ajb 7,w> 
& ,progress72 ,,george ,,nasmy?1 ,social
 ,progress & !  ,d>w9ian ,!ory4    ,%ort
 ,/udies    #a4 ,! pa/ 9 ! pres5t4 ,h4  
,r4 ,,bur* & ,s4 ,h4 ,,patt]son1        
,am]ican  ,social ,problems1 pp4 #cc-dc4
    #b4 ,! beg9n+s ( civilization4 ,h4  
,g4 ,,wells1 ,outl9e ( ,hi/ory1  ,vol4  
,i1 pp4 #ahc-bjh4    #c4 ,e>li] =ms ( ! 
family4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,ellwood1 ,sociology & 
,mod]n  ,social ,problems1 pp4 #ajh-acj4
    #d4 ,! developm5t ( ! tribe into !  
community4 ,j4 ,q4 ,,dealey1 ,!  ,/ate &
 ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bd-de4    #e4 ,!       
,am]ican family z an economic unit4     
,,m>y ,k4 ,,simkhovit*1 ,!  ,city       
,work]'s ,_w1 pp4 #a-ba4    #f4 ,!      
relation ( leisure to family life4      
,,flor5ce ,,kelley1 ,"s  ,e?ical ,ga9s  
?r\gh ,legislation1 pp4 #aje-abe4    #g4
 ,! influ5ce ( environm5t4 ,f4 ,s4      
,,*ap91 ,social ,evolution1 pp4         
#aba-agj4    #h4 ,habit4 ,,william      
,,james1 ,psy*ology1 ,i1 pp4 #ajd-abg4  
#i4 ,! influ5ce ( fronti] conditions ^u 

! developm5t (  ,am]ican society4 ,f4   
,j4 ,,turn]1 ,! ,fronti] 9 ,am]ican     
,hi/ory1 pp4  #a-ch4    #aj4            
,individualism4 ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c]1 ,social
 ,/atics1 pp4 #ajj-acf2 ,c4  ,w4        
,,eliot1 ,! ,conflict betwe5            
,individualism & ,collectivism 9 a      
,democracy1 pp4 #a-db4                  
,que/ions    #a4 ,h[ w\ld y def9e       
8society08 ,is x an organism8 ,:at      
resemblances  to an organism does x be>8
    #b4 ,expla9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 in/9ct2  
impulse2 natural selection2  social     
inh]itance2 social environm5t2 habit2   
cu/om2 fa%ion2 mob  m9d2 in/itution2    
social control4 ,give examples ( ea*4   
#c4 ,h[ has physical environm5t affect$ 
! ideas ( ! ,am]ican  p 9 relation to   
7a7 national def5ce2 7b7 =m ( gov]nm5t2 
7c7 social control8 ,h[ has ! physical  
environm5t ( ,engl&  affect$ ! ideas ( !
 ,engli% p on ! same matt]s8    #d4 ,:at
 racial *>act]i/ics d y f9d mo/ /rongly 
m>k$ 9 !  7a7 ,scot*2 7b7 ,iri%2 7c7    
,sc&9avians2 7d7 ,italians2 7e7  ,jews2 

7f7 ,japanese8    #e4 ,"n any           
in/itutions1 o!r ?an ^? giv5 9 ! text1  
:i* h  s]v$ mank9d = a "t & be5 disc>d$4
    #f4 ,c y ?9k ( any cu/oms :i* are   
univ]sal ?r\gh\t !  _w8 ,any :i* prevail
 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates b n else:]e8 ,any    
:i* prevail 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
b n 9 o!rs8    #g4 ,d ,am]icans 9 g5]al 
pay too mu* def]5ce to cu/om8 ,is !re   
any gr\nd = ! ,european idea t !re is   
8too mu* uni=mity0 9  ,am]ican life8    
#h4 ,are cr[ds likely to be m           
cons]vative or m radical ?an !          
individuals :o compose !m8 ,give y\r    
reasons4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce  betwe5 a   
mob1 a cr[d1 a meet+1 & a delib]ative   
assembly8    #i4 ,! family1 z an        
organization1 diff]s n only 9 size b 9  
nature1 f all o!r social organizations  
su* z ! community1 !  /ate & ! nation4  
,%[ h[ ?is is4    #aj4 ,9 :at ways w\ld 
society suff] if ! family z a social    
unit  7 brok5 d[n8    #aa4 ,to :at ext5t
 has society ! "r to regulate1 z a      
measure (  self-protection1 ! in/itution

 ( m>riage8    #ab4 ,:y h we laid       
emphasis ^u individualism 9 ?is c\ntry8 
,expla9 :y ?is /ress is be+ /eadily     
dim9i%$4    #ac4 ,%\ld social control be
 ex]cis$ ov] 7a7 ! me?ods (             
agriculture2 7b7 ! m>ket+ ( timb]2 7c7 !
 production &  sale ( tobacco2 7d7 !    
rates *>g$ by electric light+ companies2
  7e7 ! price ( bread at retail bak]ies2
 7f7 ! h\rs ( labor  = m52 7g7 ! h\rs ( 
labor = wom52 7h7 ! k9d ( pictures  %[n 
9 !at]s2 7i7 ! diet ( ! p2 7j7 ! h\rs at
  :i* "y p may be on ! /reets aft] d>k2 
7k7 ! religi\s  beliefs ( ! p8 ,tell :y 
or :y n 9 ea* case4 ,is a great]  degree
 ( social control ju/ifi$ ov] c]ta9     
classes ( !  population ?an ov] o!rs8   
,is x ju/ifi$ at c]ta9 times & n at     
o!rs8    #ad4 ,if society ex]cises too  
little control ov] ! individual1 :at    
evils result8 ,if x ex]cises too mu*    
control1 :at are !  consequ5ces 7a7 ^u !
 individual2 7b7 ^u society itself8     
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,physical      
environm5t has _h a m important influ5ce

 ?an racial  *>act]i/ics 9 det]m9+ !    
e/abli%m5t & ma9t5ance (  democratic    
in/itutions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4    #b4   
,?omas ,jeff]son 0 "r :5 he said 8,t    
gov]nm5t is be/  :i* gov]ns lea/04      
#c4 ,society is "u obligation to ensure 
e indu/ri\s man a dec5t  liv+4    ----- 
,footnote #a3      ,= example1 by cov]+ 
,*apt]s i1 ii1 iv-xvi1 xxviii-xxix1 9 ! 
fir/ t]m & ,*apt]s iii1 xvii-xxvii1     
xxx-xxxii 9 ! second4    ,footnote #b3  
,*>les ,d>w91 a di/+ui%$ ,engli% /ud5t (
 biology1 0 born    9 #ahji1 & di$ 9    
#ahhb4 ,8 !ory 0 set =? 9 two fam\s     
books1 ,! ,orig9 ( ,species & ,! ,desc5t
 ( ,man4    ,footnote #c3      ,! mo/   
int]e/+ g5]al acc\nt ( ! beg9n+s ( life 
& !    ance/ry ( man is t giv5 9 ,h4 ,g4
 ,wells' ,outl9e ( ,hi/ory1    ,vol4 ,i1
 pp4 #c-ajc4 ,a brief summ>y ( ! evid5ce
 on :i* !    doctr9e ( evolution re/s   
may be conv5i5tly f\nd 9 ,h4 ,r4 ,bur*  
& ,s4 ,h4 ,patt]son1 ,am]ican ,social   
,problems1 pp4 #ab-cb4    ,footnote #d3 
,= a discussion ( ^! o!r factors see    

,v]non ,kellogg1 ,d>w9ism    ,today4    
,footnote #e3      ,!re has be5 mu*     
discussion among sci5ti/s z to :e!r     
acquir$    *>act]i/ics c be transmitt$  
at all4 ,! be/ op9ion seems to    be    
aga9/ su* transmission1 b "s biologi/s  
/ill hold to !    belief t transmission 
is possible1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! l[]         
organisms4 ,= a fur!r discussion see ,w4
 ,e4 ,ca/le1 ,g5etics &    ,eug5ics1 pp4
 #bf-bg4    ,footnote #f3      ,"o ( !  
be/ ?+s ev] writt5 is ! *apt] on        
8,habit0 9    ,william ,james's         
,psy*ology4 ,no "o w regret ! "t sp5t 9 
read+ x4                                
,,*apt] ,,ii                 ,,! ,,p1   
,,races1 ,,& ,,racial ,,problems ,,(    
,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates        ,! purpose ( 
?is *apt] is to expla9 h[ ! population (
 !      ,unit$ ,/ates has gr[n1 h[ x is 
di/ribut$1 ! v>i$ races (      :i* x is 
compos$1 & ! racial problems :i*        
immigration has      creat$4            
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! national population has 
gr[n4    ,we1 ! ,p ( ! ,unit$           

,/ates4--,! national con/itution beg9s  
) ! words3 8,we1 ! ,p ( ! ,unit$        
,/ates04 ,b :o are !  p8 ,no "o c>es to 
c>ry a lot ( figures 9 8 head & mo/  p  
?9k t /ati/ics are un9t]e/+2 b !re are  
"s  figures :i* ev]yone ought to "k &1  
moreov]1 !re are "s  /ati/ics :i* are f>
 f be+ dry or t$i\s4 ,! figures relat+  
to ! population ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 its  
gr[? & di/ribution1 are  int]e/+ because
 !y portray some?+ t ! _w has nev] se5  
be=e & probably w nev] see aga91--a     
c\ntry d\bl+ its  population f\r times 9
 j ab\t a s+le c5tury4 ,t is :at !      
,unit$ ,/ates did 9 ! hundr$ ye>s f     
#agij to #ahij4 ,9 #agij !  entire      
population 0 less ?an f\r millions4     
7,!re are m p 9  ! s+le city ( ,new     
,york today1 & almo/ z _m 9 ,*icago47 ,!
  population _h d\bl$ 9 #ahac1 & _h     
d\bl$ aga9 9 #ahch1 :5 x  pass$ sixte5  
million4 ,9 #ahfd1 only tw5ty-f\r ye>s  
lat]1 x _h  d\bl$ once m 7#cb1jjj1jjj74 
,x pass$ ! sixty-f\r million m>k 9      
#ahia1 & 9 all probability w d\ble = !  

fif? "t ab\t !  ye> #aidj4 ,9 #aibj1 :5 
! la/ national c5sus 0 tak5 !           
population _h pass$ #aje1jjj1jjj4       
,sid5ote3 ,w ?is increase cont9ue8 ,if  
s1 ) :at results8    ,n[ if y w take !  
data at ! foot ( ! page & "w !          
calculation to ! ye> #bjjj 7all[+ = !   
gradual slack5+ ( !  increase7 :at w !  
population ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates be !n8#g ,x
  w be ar\nd ?ree hundr$ millions1 :i*  
is m ?an ! :ite  population ( ! entire  
_w today4 ,ev5 s ! c\ntry w\ld n be     
ne>ly s ?ickly populat$ z "s ,european  
c\ntries n[ are4 ,today  !re are 9 !    
,unit$ ,/ates ab\t ?irty-five p]sons to 
! squ>e  mile4 ,b !re are #gjj to !     
squ>e mile 9 ,engl& & #feh p] squ>e     
mile 9 ,belgium1 :i* are two ( ! mo/    
?ickly-populat$ ( all  c\ntries at !    
pres5t "t4#h ,?ree hundr$ million p 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 if ! figure %\ld rea* t  
total at ! end ( !  tw5tie? c5tury1 w\ld
 be less ?an "o hundr$ p] squ>e mile4   
,!re  w\ld /ill be six acres ( gr\nd = e
 man1 woman & *ild 9 !  c\ntry4 ,:e!r   

!re w\ld be a suffici5t food supply to  
support s  l>ge a population is ano!r "q
 & "o :i* is n s easily  answ]$4        
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,! ,,c5t] ,,( ,,population             
,! way 9 :i* ! c5t] ( population has be5
            /eadily mov+ we/w>d is      
indicat$ by ?is map4            ,x w be 
not$ t 9 its j\rney to ! we/ x          
has held closely to ! #ci? p>allel (    
latitude4            ,! m$ian po9t1 on !
 o!r h&1 has rema9$                     
practically fix$ dur+ ! la/ ?irty ye>s4 
,! location ( ! m$ian po9t is det]m9$ z 
foll[s3 ,take ! p>allel ( latitude :i*  
divides            ! c\ntry 9 su* mann] 
t half ! population            is nor? (
 t p>allel & half is s\? ( x2           
simil>ly1 take ! m]idian ( longitude :i*
            divides ! c\ntry 9 su* mann]
 t half !            population is ea/ (
 x & half is we/ ( x2 !                 
int]section ( ?is p>allel & ?is m]idian 
is            call$ ! m$ian po9t4       

,illu/ration3      ,,c5tre ,,(          
,,population    ,,at ,,ea* ,,c5sus3     
#agij ,,to #aibj      ,,m$ian ,,po9t    
#ahhj ,,to #aibj       ,,c5t] ,,(       
,,population  ,,m$ian ,,po9t            
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,"s areas are m d5sely        
populat$ ?an o!rs4    ,h[ ! ,national   
,population is ,di/ribut$4--,! p ( !    
,unit$  ,/ates are v unev5ly di/ribut$  
ov] ! face ( ! c\ntry4 ,great  areas1   
p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,we/1 h only a few p]sons
 to ! squ>e  mile1 :ile ! cr[d$ sections
 ( ! l>ge/ cities h _m  hundr$s to !    
acre4 ,ev5 ! rural areas ( "s /ates are 
?ickly  settl$ :ile 9 o!rs ! p are few &
 f> betwe54 ,rhode ,isl&  is ne>ly z    
d5sely populat$ z ,belgium1 hav+ ab\t   
#eff p to  ! squ>e mile :ile _m /ates ( 
! ,we/]n m\nta9 region h  only sev5 or  
eight inhabitants p] squ>e mile (       
t]ritory4 ,!  reasons = ?is unev5       
di/ribution are *iefly geographical4 ,! 
/ates :i* h gr[n mo/ rapidly 9          

population are n necess>ily  ! olde/    
/ates b ! ones :i* h ! greate/ natural  
advantages 9 ! way ( f]tile soil1 or    
m9]al res\rces1 or h>bors  & wat]ways1  
or favorable climate4 ,p make _! homes 9
 ^?  regions :]e !y c be/ make a liv+4  
,sid5ote3 ,climate affects ! d5sity (   
population4    ,favorable climatic      
conditions ex]t a /rong influ5ce 9      
attract+  population4 ,x is an int]e/+  
fact1 (t5 not$ by /ud5ts (  hi/ory1 t   
:]eas civilization develop$ e>lie/ 9 !  
tropical  & semi-tropical zones x has   
ev]y:]e made its greate/ advance 9  !   
regions ( mod]ate temp]atures & ra9fall4
 ,tak+ ! broad  /rip ( c\ntry :i* lies  
betwe5 ! ?irty-sev5? & !  =ty-fif?      
p>allels ( latitude1 x w be f\nd t ne>ly
  f\r-fif?s ( ! entire population is    
conc5trat$ )9 ?is  mid-latitude area ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,& ?is is ! area :i*1 9 
all probability1 w cont9ue to be ! mo/  
?ickly settl$4    ,sid5ote3 ,! c5t] (   
population 9 #aibj4    ,! c5t] (        
population 9 #aibj 0 at ,:itehall1 ,ow5 

,c\nty1 ,indiana1  a little t[n (       
=ty-?ree inhabitants :i* bur/ into      
prom95ce  ov]night :5 ! c5sus bureau    
ann\nc$ x z ! pivot ( !  nation4 ,by !  
c5t] ( population is meant ! po9t :i* ! 
greate/ numb] ( p c\ld rea* ) ! lea/    
am\nt ( travel4  ,?is po9t1 at ea*      
successive c5sus1 has be5 /eadily mov+  
we/w>d  foll[+ v closely ! ?irty-n9?    
p>allel ( latitude4 ,9 #agij x  0 at    
,baltimore1 9 #ahdj 9 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 9  
#ahhj 9 ,ohio1 & s9ce  #ahij x has be5  
mov+ we/w>d across ,indiana4#i ,! c5t] (
  population is a long way f ! c5t] (   
area1 ! latt] be+ 9  ,nor!rn ,kansas n  
f> f ! ,nebraska bord]4    ,! ,drift (  
,population to ! ,cities4--,!           
di/ribution ( ! p  has also be5 influ5c$
 by ! gr[? ( l>ge cities4 ,9 #agij !re  
7 only five communities ) populations   
exce$+ #hjjj1 namely ,new  ,york1       
,philadelphia1 ,bo/on1 ,baltimore1 &    
,*>le/on4 ,tak5 altoge!r  !y _h only    
#acj1jjj inhabitants1 t is to say only  
"o p]son 9  e ?irty liv$ 9 ^! t[ns4 ,b s

 rapidly did ! v>i\s t[ns  & cities spr+
 up all ov] ! c\ntry t by ! "t ( !      
,civil  ,w> !re 7 ne>ly #aej )          
populations above #hjjj1 & today !re    
are ne>ly a ?\s&4 ,n a s+le ,am]ican    
city _h #gj1jjj population  9 #agij2    
today !re are m ?an a hundr$ su* cities4
    ,sid5ote3 ,! *ief causes ( city     
gr[?4    ,?is rem>kable drift (         
population into ! t[ns & cities1 :i*    
began e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury & has     
cont9u$ ev] s9ce1  %[s no signs (       
slack5+4 ,x is due to _m causes1 includ+
 !  great dem& = indu/rial labor 9 !    
cities1 ! attractiv5ess (  city life to 
! "y m5 & wom5 ( ! c\ntry di/ricts 7see 
p4  #cea71 & ! t5d5cy ( ! immigrants to 
locate 9 ! cr[d$  c5t]s4 ,:]ev] indu/ry 
& comm]ce ?rive1 !re cities w be  built 
& w gr[4 ,half ! population ( ! ,unit$  
,/ates is n[  liv+ 9 t[ns & cities ( ov]
 #bejj population4 ,if ! drift to !     
cities cont9ues at its pres5t rate (    
progress1 n9ety p] c5t ( !  p w be liv+ 
9 ! cities & t[ns by #aihj & only t5 p] 

c5t 9 ! c\ntry di/ricts4 ,t is already !
 case 9 ,engl&4#aj  ,"o ,engli%man 9 e  
sev5 lives 9 ,london4 ,t seems to be a v
  /rik+ fact until we rememb] t "o      
,am]ican 9 e t5 lives 9  ,new ,york1    
,*icago1 or ,philadelphia4 ,new ,york   
,city has ne>ly six  millions n[2 9     
fifty ye>s1 at its pres5t rate ( gr[?1 x
 w be  an urban giant ( fifte5 millions 
or m4    ,sid5ote3 ,:y mo/ immigrants g 
to ! cities4    ,:y d ! immigrants g to 
! cities r ?an to ! c\ntry  di/ricts8 ,!
 *ief reason is t mo/ immigrants come to
 ! ,unit$  ,/ates to f9d "w1 & "w is mo/
 easily f\nd 9 ! l>ge cities4  ,! great 
majority ( immigrants h le>n$ no trade  
be=e !y come  to ,am]ica1 h5ce !y mu/   
seek jobs :i* require no great am\nt (  
skill or tra9+4 ,ano!r reason is t !    
immigrants want to be ne>  o!rs :o speak
 _! own language4 ,9 e l>ge city ^!     
=eign  colonies or settlem5ts are       
creat$--,italian1 ,poli%1 ,jewi%1 & s   
on4  ,! newcom] naturally pref]s to live
 9 "o ( ^! colonies until he  le>ns !   

,engli% language1 b hav+ become accu/om$
 to ! city he  r>ely leaves x4 ,among ! 
_m millions ( immigrants :o h come to   
,am]ica dur+ ! pa/ fifty ye>s ! great   
majority h gone to !  cities1 p>ticul>ly
 to ! l>ge cities4 ,new ,york ,city1 =  
example1  conta9s today m ?an two       
million p :o 7 n born 9 ?is  c\ntry4    
,nev]!less1 ! cities h n be5 built up by
 !  immigrant alone4 ,l>ge numb]s (     
native ,am]icans h left ! rural         
di/ricts & h help$ to swell ! population
 ( ! urban c5t]s4    ,! ,ebb & ,fl[ (   
,immigration4--,! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 
!  melt+-pot ( ! nations4 ,no o!r c\ntry
 has ev] welcom$ to its  %ores s _m     
millions ( p f all p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,"o    
hundr$ ye>s ago !re 7 relatively few    
=eign-born p]sons 9 !  c\ntry4 ,b waves 
( immigration soon began to come & !    
numb] (  incom+ ali5s1 :i* 0 less ?an t5
 ?\s& 9 #agij1 rose to m  ?an f\r hundr$
 ?\s& 9 "s ( ! ye>s prec$+ ! ,civil ,w>4
  ,! immigrants dur+ ?is p]iod 7 = ! mo/
 "p f ,engl&1  ,irel&1 & ,g]many4 ,dur+ 

! ,civil ,w> ! influx subsid$1 b :5  !  
w> 0 ov] x quickly began to swell once m
 & x cont9u$1  ) v>i\s ups & d[ns1 to ! 
outbreak ( ! ,_w ,w> 9 #aiad4           
,sid5ote3 ,:]e ! immigrants h come f4   
,9 "s ye>s1 dur+ ?is p]iod s9ce #ahfe ! 
numb] ( immigrants  has be5 z l[ z      
#bjj1jjj2 9 o!r ye>s x has run above a  
million4  ,ne>ly e ,european race has   
be5 repres5t$ 9 ?is influx1 al?\gh  "s h
 come 9 mu* l>g] numb]s ?an o!rs4 ,d[n  
to ab\t #ahhj  mo/ ( ! newcom]s 7 f     
,irel&1 ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 ,g]many1 !     
,sc&9avian c\ntries1 & ! o!r regions (  
,nor!rn ,europe4 ,b  s9ce t date ! s\rce
 ( immigration has be5 /eadily %ift+4   
,dur+ ! pa/ =ty ye>s a mu* l>g]         
proportion has be5 com+  f ,italy1      
,au/ria1 ,hung>y1 ,pol&1 ,greece1 & "s (
 ! small]  c\ntries4#aa ,?is has br\ght 
9 _m millions ( p :o are n  ( ,celtic or
 ,teutonic /ock4    ,sid5ote3 ,effects (
 ! w> on immigration4    ,^u ! outbreak 
( ! great ,european conflict 9 #aiad !  
fl[ (  immigration subsid$ quickly &    

:ile ! w> la/$ x practically  ceas$     
altoge!r4 ,?is 0 due 9 "p to !          
reluctance ( ,european  c\ntries to let 
_! p leave1 & 9 "p due to ! lack (      
%ipp+1 s9ce all available vessels 7     
engag$ 9 c>ry+ troops1  munitions1 &    
supplies4 ,imm$iately aft] ! close (    
ho/ilities1  h[ev]1 ! exodus f ,europe  
recomm5c$1 & 9 ! ye> #aibj !  figures ( 
immigration once m rose into ! hundr$s (
 ?\s&s4 ,9  spite ( ! /rict regulations 
impos$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t1     
enorm\s numb]s ( p 9 ,pol&1 ,italy1     
,hung>y1 & v>i\s o!r  c\ntries began    
apply+ = p]mission to migrate4 ,!       
,am]ican  consul> (fices 9 ,europe 7    
besieg$ by long l9es ( p wait+  all day 
= passports to ! ,promis$ ,l&4 ,9 ! face
 ( ?is  ?reat5$ flood ,congress felt    
impell$ to place all immigration "u     
/rict limitation1 z w be expla9$ a few  
p>agraphs lat]4    ,dur+ ! hundr$ ye>s f
 #ahbj to #aibj x is e/imat$ t m  ?an   
?irty million immigrants rea*$ ! ,unit$ 
,/ates1 :i* is !  l>ge/ migration 9     

hi/ory4#ab ,x is true t consid]able     
numb]s  ( ^! immigrants ev5tually drift$
 back to _! native l&s b  ! l>g] portion
 ( !m rema9$ p]man5tly "h4    ,sid5ote3 
,! v>i\s factors :i* h caus$ ,europeans 
to leave             _! own c\ntries4   
,causes ( ,immigration4--,! causes (    
immigration to ?is c\ntry are  manifold4
 ,fir/ 9 importance among !m is !       
economic attractiv5ess  ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates4 ,*eap l&1 equal opportunities1 !
 ease )  :i* any indu/ri\s man or woman 
c make a liv+--^! are !  magnets :i*    
drew millions ( p across ! ,atlantic    
dur+ !  n9ete5? c5tury4 ,b !re 7 o!r    
causes1 namely1 ! exi/5ce  9 v>i\s p>ts 
( ,europe ( conditions :i* enc\rag$ ! p 
to  emigrate4 ,religi\s p]secution 0 "o 
( ! fir/ ?+s t drove  m5 or wom5 to     
,am]ica4 ,x br\ght ! ,pilgrims to       
,massa*usetts 9 !  e>ly days1 ! ,quak]s 
to ,p5nsylvania1 & ! ,engli% ,ca?olics  
to  ,m>yl&4 ,political oppression 9 !   
middle ye>s ( ! n9ete5?  c5tury s5t     
sev]al million ,g]mans to ! ,unit$      

,/ates1 p>ticul>ly  to ! ,middle ,we/4  
,oppression1 bo? religi\s & political1  
has be5  in/rum5tal 9 driv+ ! ,jews     
across ! seas4 ,ov]cr[d+ 9 bo?  ! cities
 & ! rural regions ( ,europe & !        
consequ5t inability  ( ! p to obta9 l&s 
( _! own1 has be5 responsible =  mu* ( !
 drift to ,am]ica4 ,! exhau/ion ( ! soil
 9 ,irel&1 !  crop failures & consequ5t 
fam9es !re1 h l$ to ! migrations  ( !   
,iri%1 al?\gh dissatisfaction )         
political conditions has  also be5 a    
factor 9 ?is case4 ,to a consid]able    
ext5t1 moreov]1  immigration has be5    
assi/$ by ^? ali5s :o 7 already settl$  
9 ?is c\ntry4 ,immigrants arriv$ 9 ?is  
c\ntry & by h>d "w  soon became         
prosp]\s4 ,!n !y s5t passage-money to _!
 fri5ds  & relatives until :ole gr\ps ( 
families 7 enabl$ to come to  ,am]ica 9 
?is way4 ,! /eam%ip companies1 too1 h   
adv]tis$ !  attractions ( ,am]ica 9 all 
p>ts ( ,europe2 !y h kept ag5ts at  "w 9
 _m c\ntries1 & h be5 an important      
factor 9 promot+  immigration4          

,sid5ote3 ,! economic factors h be5 !   
mo/ important4    ,nev]!less ! und]ly+  
causes ( immigration are economic4      
,immigrants come 9 great] numb]s :5     
prosp]ity reigns 9 ,am]ica  ?an 9 p]iods
 ( bus9ess depression4 ,?is indicates t 
high wages  & pl5ty ( employm5t are !   
?+s :i* h ! greate/  influ5ce 9 br++ !m 
"h4 ,! democratic in/itutions ( ,am]ica 
h play$ _! "p1 no d\bt1 & ! relative    
social equality :i*  exi/s among ! p ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 an attraction to 
^? :o are d5i$ su* equality 9 _! own    
homel&s4 ,b !  equality ( economic      
opportunity1 ! op5 c>e]1 ! *ance ( mak+ 
a good liv+ & ev5 a =tune--^!1 aft] all1
 h be5 & /ill  are ! impell+ =ces4      
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! immigrant has affect$   
,am]ican life4    ,! ,effects (         
,immigration4--,a l>ge immigration is   
c]ta9 to h  f>-rea*+ effects1 p>ticul>ly
 if ! newcom]s be ( a widely  diff]5t   
race4 ,x has assur$ly _h f>-rea*+       
effects 9 ! ,unit$  ,/ates4 ,take !     
importation ( ! negroes z ! mo/         

conspicu\s  example4 ,! com+ ( sev]al   
hundr$ ?\s& p]sons ( ,african  blood1   
dur+ ! ye>s prec$+ #ahjh1 has result$ 9 
plac+ a  color$ population ( m ?an t5   
millions 9 ! he>t ( a :ite  man's       
c\ntry1 ) all ! social1 economic1 &     
political problems  t ?is situation     
implies4 ,x influ5c$ ! agricultural     
sy/em (  ! ,s\!rn /ates1 provid$ !      
und]ly+ causes ( ! ,civil ,w>1  & has   
pr(\ndly affect$ ! politics ( ! ,unit$  
,/ates d[n to  ! pres5t day4 ,! problem 
pres5t$ by ! immigration ( ! v>i\s      
,european races has be5 altoge!r diff]5t
 because ^! races c be  assimilat$ :]eas
 ! negroes c n4 ,ev5 s1 ! ,european     
immigration has pres5t$ its own problems
 & ! com+ ( ^! _m  millions has _h      
pr(\nd effects ^u e bran* ( ,am]ican    
life4    ,sid5ote3 ,! mak+ ( a composite
 race4    ,social ,effects4--,! social  
effects are *iefly 9 ! way (  introduc+ 
natural traits or qualities :i* 7 n 9 ! 
,am]ican  p dur+ ! e>ly p]iod4          
,immigration has result$ 9 mak+ a       

cosmopolitan population :i* is n uni=m 9
 temp]am5t or ta/es1  & c be made uni=m 
only by ! long-cont9u$ process (        
assimilation4 ,?is lack ( uni=mity is 9 
"s ways an advantage1 n  a defect4 ,x   
may give u1 9 ! long run1 a m vigor\s   
population  ?an c\ld ev] be _h f !      
developm5t ( a s+le /ra94 ,:e!r  ! new  
composite race :i* ultimately em]ges f !
 melt+-pot  w be sup]ior or inf]ior to !
 orig9al /ock is some?+ :i*  only !     
future c tell4 ,"o disappo9t+ feature is
 to be f\nd 9  ! fact t _m ( ^!         
immigrants are inf]ior to ! av]age      
native-born ,am]ican 9 physique1 9      
m5tality1 & 9 moral fibre4 ,x  is       
sometimes ass]t$ t ! immigrant          
population is responsible =  m ?an its  
due proportion ( crime b no satisfactory
 evid5ce has  yet be5 br\ght =w>d to    
prove ?is /atem5t4 ,x is a fact1 h[ev]1 
t pov]ty & illit]acy are m common among 
! =eign-born ?an  among ! native :ite   
population4 ,x is q likely t ! new      
environm5t w d mu* to rem$y ?is         

condition & t ! second  g5]ation1 ?r\gh 
! "w ( ! public s*ools1 may measure up  
to  ! native-born4 ,^! public s*ools are
 ! mo/ pot5t ( all =ces  9 ! "w (       
,am]icanization4 ,x is ^u !m t we mu/   
dep5d to  make ! ultimate social effects
 ( assimilation b5eficial to !  c\ntry4 
,sid5ote3 ,immigration 9 its relation to
 indu/ry & labor4    ,economic          
,effects4--,immigration has _h important
 economic results4 ,x  has kept ! labor 
m>ket well suppli$ & ?r\gh\t ! la/      
?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury has aid$ ! great 
indu/rial expansion (  ! c\ntry4        
,am]ican indu/ry & comm]ce c\ld n h gr[n
 to su*  proportions )\t ! man-p[] :i*  
has be5 obta9$ 9 su*  enorm\s quantities
 f ,europe4 ,we h us$ great numb]s (    
ali5s 9  build+ ! railroads ( ! c\ntry1 
9 m9es & /eel mills1 9  work%ops &      
factories4 ,on ! o!r h& ! flood (       
immigration has  at times prov$ too     
/rong4 ,x has on occasions s]v$ to      
produce an  ov]-supply ( labor & ?is1 9 
turn1 has caus$ wages to fall4 ,labor   

lead]s claim t ! /eady /ream (          
immigrants has prev5t$ !  rise 9 !      
,am]ican workman's /&>d ( liv+ :i*      
o!rwise w\ld  h tak5 place4 ,organiz$   
labor w\ld l to place a protective duty 
^u immigrants4 ,if ! newcom]s c\ld be   
scatt]$ ev5ly ov] !  :ole c\ntry in/ead 
( be+ conc5trat$ 9 ! urban areas1 ?is   
dang] ( glutt+ ! labor supply w\ld be v 
small4 ,9 any case1 z  has already be5  
po9t$ out1 ! situation t5ds to adju/    
itself1  because immigration always     
falls (f :5 bus9ess depression causes a 
slack5+ 9 ! dem& = labor4    ,sid5ote3  
,ways 9 :i* ! immigrant has influ5c$    
,am]ican             politics4          
,political ,effects4--,! exact political
 effects ( immigration are h>d  to      
det]m9e4 ,x is to be rememb]$ t mo/ (   
our immigrants h  come f c\ntries :]e !y
 7 giv5 no political opportunities1 or  
almo/ none4 ,prior to _! arrival 9 !    
,unit$ ,/ates !y h _h  no exp]i5ce )    
democratic in/itutions4 ,yet we h freely
 (f]$  !m1 aft] five ye>s ( resid5ce1 ! 

privilege ( becom+ citiz5s  & vot]s4 ,! 
re/ ( ! _w has always look$ ^u ?is z a v
  dang]\s exp]im5t 9 democratic         
gov]nm5t2 nev]!less its results  h n be5
 at all disa/r\s4 ,true en\gh1 !        
newcom]s h (t5  be5 exploit$ by         
unscrupul\s politicians & !y h sometimes
  all[$ !mselves to be misl$ into       
support+ incompet5t or corrupt          
c&idates1 especially 9 ! l>ge cities4 ,b
 ! ali5 immigrant is  n :olly or ev5    
*iefly responsible = ! bad gov]nm5t t we
  h _h f "t to "t 9 v>i\s p>ts ( !      
c\ntry4 ,"s ( !  wor/ political abuses h
 fl\ri%$ 9 /ates & cities :]e !         
proportion ( =eign-born citiz5s is      
relatively small4 ,political  re=m]s    
rail at ! iniquities ( 8=eign-born      
bosses01 b ! fact  is t mo/ ( our       
notori\s political bosses h be5         
native-born4  ,not)/&+ ! admission ( _m 
million ali5s to all ! rights  (        
,am]ican citiz5%ip x c be fairly claim$ 
t ,am]ican  gov]nm5t 9 its v>i\s        
bran*es1 national1 /ate1 & local1 is j  

z hone/ & effici5t z t ( any o!r c\ntry4
    ,sid5ote3 ,! gradual /iff5+ ( !     
regulations4    ,! ,re/riction (        
,immigration4--,until ab\t =ty ye>s ago 
!re 7  practically no re/rictions ^u !  
com+ ( ali5s to ! ,unit$  ,/ates1 b 9   
#ahhb laws 7 pass$ by ,congress to      
exclude paup]s1  crim9als1 & ! insane4  
,all labor]s ( ! ,mongolian race 7 also 
deb>r$4 ,?ree ye>s lat]1 9 #ahhe1 x 0   
provid$ t no immigrant  ( any race %\ld 
be admitt$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates if "u     
contract to  p]=m labor 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,&
 f ?is date to ! pres5t !  re/rictions h
 gradually be5 tight5$4 ,9 #aiag        
,congress e/abli%$  a lit]acy te/ = all 
immigrants ov] sixte5 ye>s ( age1 & 9   
#aiba x made fur!r provision t ! numb] (
 immigrants admitt$  ea* ye> f any      
,european c\ntry %\ld n exce$ ?ree p]   
c5t (  ! natives ( t c\ntry already 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 z %[n by  ! c5sus figures
 ( #aiaj4 ,a tax ( eight doll>s p] p]son
 is n[  impos$ ^u e immigrant4          
,sid5ote3 ,%\ld immigration be altoge!r 

=bidd58    ,!re are "s :o believe t x   
w\ld be wise to prohibit immigration    
altoge!r1 at any rate until conditions 9
 bo? ,europe & ,am]ica  become m settl$4
 ,!y argue t we already h z _m ali5s z  
we c ,am]icanize = "s "t2 t immigration 
at ! pres5t "t  increases unemploym5t1 &
 t ! quality ( immigrants is n[         
consid]ably bel[ :at x us$ to be4 ,on ! 
o!r h& x is urg$  t ! indu/rial gr[? ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates requires a l>g] supply  (
 labor ?an c be provid$ )\t immigration 
& t by provid+  prop] facilities =      
selection we c make sure ( gett+ only ! 
"r type ( immigrant4    ,our ,racial    
,problems4--,we h sev]al s]i\s racial   
problems 9 ?is  c\ntry includ+ ! problem
 ( ! ,european immigrants 9 ! ,ea/      
7p>ticul>ly 9 ! cities71 ! negroes 9 !  
,s\?1 & ! ,japanese  on ! ,pacific      
slope4 ,! l>ge p]c5tage ( ,european     
immigrants 9 !  ,ea/]n cities has       
already be5 m5tion$1 & ! problems :i* _!
  pres5ce 9 ^! cities creates h be5     
allud$ to4 ,! ,european  immigrant c be 

assimilat$1 b ! process takes "t because
 a l>ge  "p ( x mu/ be accompli%$ ?r\gh 
education4 ,if ! immigrants  c\ld be    
p]suad$ to scatt] ov] ! c\ntry in/ead ( 
congregat+  9 ! cities ) _!             
fell[-immigrants1 ! problem ( mak+ real 
,am]icans out ( !m 9 a %ort "t w\ld be  
simplifi$4    ,sid5ote3 ,ext5t ( ! negro
 population4    ,! ,negroes4--,! problem
 ( ! negro is old] & m difficult  /ill4 
,!y are ( a race s f> remov$ f ! :ite   
population (  ! ,unit$ ,/ates t !re is  
no hope ( _! ev] be+ assimilat$4  ,!y 7 
br\ght "h by ! t5s ( ?\s&s )\t any      
adequate  appreciation ( ! problem :i*  
_! pres5ce w\ld ev5tually  create1 & !y 
=m an unmeltable mass 9 ! melt+-pot (   
,am]ican  society4 ,at ! outbreak ( !   
,civil ,w> ! color$ population ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 mo/ ( :om 7 !n slaves1   
numb]$ less ?an five  millions1 or ab\t 
"o-t5? ( ! total population ( ! entire  
c\ntry4 ,n[ !y numb] ab\t t5 millions4  
,9 o!r words ! negroes  h a little m ?an
 d\bl$ 9 sixty ye>s4 ,?is is a mu* sl[] 

rate ( natural increase ?an has be5 made
 dur+ ! same sixty ye>s  by ! :ite      
population4 ,a high dea? rate1          
especially 9 ! cities1 is  ma9ly        
responsible = ?is4    ,sid5ote3         
,economic /atus ( ! negro4    ,! *ief   
home ( ! negro is /ill1 z x has be5 f ! 
beg9n+1  9 ! ,s\?4 ,ne>ly n9e-t5?s ( !  
color$ population ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates    
lives bel[ ! ,mason & ,dixon l9e1       
p>ticul>ly 9 ! great  agricultural pla9 
:i* /ret*es f ,virg9ia s\?we/w>d to     
,texas4  ,9 two /ates1 ,mississippi &   
,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ! blacks outnumb] !       
:ites2 9 ?ree o!rs1 ,alabama1 ,georgia1 
& ,florida1 !y almo/  equal !m4 ,mo/ ( !
 ,s\!rn negroes live 9 ! rural di/ricts 
&  are engag$ 9 ! cultivation ( ! soil2 
^? :o h made _!  way to ! ,nor!rn /ates1
 m ?an a million 9 all1 live *iefly 9  !
 cities4 ,dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s ! negroes 
h be5 com+  nor?w>d 9 great] numb]s4    
,sid5ote3 ,c ! negro problem be solv$8  
,! problem ( ! negro has _m phases1     
political1 social1 &  economic4 ,!      

political problem arises f ! fact t     
al?\gh !  negroes are gu>ante$ by !     
con/itution ! "r to vote !y are by  "o  
means or ano!r deb>r$ f vot+ 9          
practically all !  ,s\!rn /ates4 ,!     
economic problems h be5 due1 9 ! ma91 to
  ! lack ( educational facilities = !   
negro1 & p>ticul>ly to  ! abs5ce (      
opportunities = vocational education4   
,?is defect is  n[ be+ rem$i$ to "s     
ext5t by ! spread ( vocational s*ools1  
( :i* ,tuskegee & ,hampton ,in/itute are
 ! be/-kn[n examples4 ,!  social        
sep>ation betwe5 ! :ite & color$ races1 
especially 9 !  ,s\!rn /ates1 is z      
absolute z ev] x 0 & !re is no reason to
  ?9k t ?is sep>ation w ev] be brok5    
d[n4 ,:5 two races 9  ! same community  
mu/ live _! lives entirely ap>t !re is  
b\nd  to be "s mutual suspicion &       
di/ru/4 ,9 any case ! negro problem1  9 
its v>i\s phases1 mu/ be solv$ by ! :ite
 population ( !  ,s\!rn /ates if x is to
 be solv$ at all4    ,sid5ote3 ,!       
8g5tlem5's agreem5t04    ,! ,japanese on

 ! ,pacific ,slope4--,"s ye>s ago !     
influx (  ,japanese into ! /ates ( !    
,pacific slope gave rise to ! fe> t  !  
,f> ,we/ w\ld soon h a great racial     
problem on its h&s if ?is  immigration 7
 all[$ to g on un*eck$4 ,"o ( ^! /ates1 
,cali=nia1 enact$ laws design$ to prev5t
 ! own+ or leas+ (  l& by ,japanese &   
pressure 0 br\ght ^u ,congress ) a view 
to  hav+ ! ,japanese %ut out ( ! c\ntry 
altoge!r4 ,9 ! end1  ?r\gh diplomatic   
negotiations1 a 8g5tlem5's agreem5t0 0  
conclud$  betwe5 ! ,am]ican & ,japanese 
gov]nm5ts by :i* ! latt]  promis$ to    
grant no m passports enabl+ its citiz5s 
to emigrate to  ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except 
9 ! case ( m]*ants1 /ud5ts & o!rs  ^:   
resid5ce 9 ?is c\ntry w\ld be tempor>y4 
,! ,japanese  gov]nm5t has liv$ up to ! 
lett] ( ?is agreem5t1 b ?is has  n      
prev5t$ a good _m ,japanese com+ into ! 
,unit$ ,/ates "u  "o subt]fuge or ano!r4
 ,! ,we/]n /ates are det]m9$ t _!       
t]ritory %all rema9 a 8:ite man's       
c\ntry02 on ! o!r h& !  ,japanese       

gov]nm5t is n will+ to agree by =mal    
treaty to !  exclusion ( its own p f any
 o!r c\ntry4 ,z a great &  p[]ful       
nation1 civiliz$ & progressive1 ,japan  
feels t su* a  treaty w\ld be a         
humiliation4 ,s !re ! matt] re/s at     
pres5t4  ,japanese are n =bidd5 to ent] 
! ,unit$ ,/ates2 we are m]ely  dep5d+ ^u
 ! in=mal promise ( ! ,japanese gov]nm5t
 to keep  !m f com+ "h4                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,! ,,melt+ ,,pot                       
,by ,vesp] ,l4 ,george              ,f a
 mural pa9t+ 9 ! ,mc,clain ,high ,s*ool1
            ,gre5field1 ,ohio4          
,f ! giant /eam%ip at ! left comes a    
procession :i* includes m51 wom51 &     
*ildr5            ( _m races4 ,ea*      
immigrant1 :e!r ,greek or               
,russian1 ,jew or ,g5tile1 br+s "s gift 
( art or            skill to lay at !   
feet ( ,am]ica1 8 new            mo!rl&4
 ,! ,melt+ ,pot is n a huge cauldron    
into :i* all individuality is to be p\r$

 s t            x may become a homog5e\s
 & commonplace mass1            b a     
crucible 9 :i* ! gold ( "* &            
p]sonality is to be discov]$ & ref9$ = !
            enri*m5t ( all4             
,to ! "r are ! sons & daught]s ( ^!     
immigrants4 ,!y h become successful 9 ! 
trades & pr(essions2 !y & _! *ildr5 h   
ga9$ education2 !y are contribut+ _! %>e
            to ! weal?1 gov]nm5t1       
def5ce1 & prosp]ity            ( !      
nation4 ,! picture embodies a _s ( true 
,am]icanism4    ,illu/ration3      ,,!  
,,melt+ ,,pot4 ,by ,vesp] ,l4 ,george   
,copyright by ,vesp] ,l4 ,george4 ,f a  
,copley ,pr9t1 copyright by      ,curtis
  ,cam]on1 ,bo/on4 ,reproduc$ by        
p]mission4      ,on ! ,pill> to ! left !
 words ,equality & ,lib]ty indicate     
:at ! immigrants seek 9 ,am]ica4 ,on !  
,pill> to ! "r !      words ,opportunity
 & ,prosp]ity indicate :at !y f9d4 ,on !
      p$e/al are grav5 ! /irr+ words :i*
 ,paul address$ to !      m5 ( ,a!ns    
ne>ly n9ete5 hundr$ ye>s ago4           

----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,am]icanization4--,among ! ,european    
immigrants n[ 9 ! ,unit$  ,/ates !re are
 _m ?\s&s :o _c speak ! ,engli%         
language1  :o h nev] become citiz5s1 "k 
no?+ ab\t ! way 9 :i*  ,am]ican gov]nm5t
 is c>ri$ on1 & h no compreh5sion (     
,am]ican  political or social ideals4   
,?is situation 0 n fully appreciat$     
until ! outbreak ( ! ,_w ,w>4 ,dur+ !   
pa/ few ye>s an  e>ne/ attempt has be5  
made bo? by ! public educational        
au?orities  & by private organizations  
to ,am]icanize ^! p by help+ !m  to le>n
 ! language1 to obta9 a k ( ,am]ican    
hi/ory1 to  become naturaliz$1 & to     
acquire a prop] conception ( :at        
,am]ican  democracy implies4 ,?is does n
 mean1 ( c\rse1 t we desire all  p1 (   
:atev] race1 to possess ! same          
temp]am5tal traits1 or  hold ! same     
op9ions1 or h ! same po9t ( view4       
,div]sity 9  individual qualities1      
physical1 m5tal1 & moral1 is n          

undesirable  provid$ ! diff]5ces are n s
 great z to prev5t ! v>i\s  elem5ts f   
adequately und]/&+ "o ano!r4 ,by        
,am]icanization  we d n mean1 !re=e1 t e
 newcom] to ?is c\ntry %\ld  subm]ge 8  
individuality 9 ! g5]al mass1 disc>d 8  
own  inh]it$ traits1 & put on a v5e] (  
,am]icanism4 ,r x implies  t ^? :o are !
 *ildr5 ( ! soil1 ! native-born1 %\ld   
exemplify ! ,gold5 ,rule t[>ds ! /rang] 
:o comes )9 our  gates & %\ld endeavor  
to %[ him1 by actions z well z words1 ! 
mean+ ( good citiz5%ip 9 a democracy4   
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,t4 ,n4 ,,c>v]1     
,pr9ciples ( ,national ,economy1 pp4    
#abc-adj2    ,j4 ,r4 ,,commons1 ,races &
 ,immigrants 9 ,am]ica1 pp4 #a-ch2      
#fc-ajf2    ,j4 ,w4 ,,j5ks & ,w4 ,,jett 
,,lauck1 ,! ,immigration ,problem1 pp4  
#a-ci2  #dj-ff2    ,,m>y ,,ant91 ,!     
,promis$ ,l&1 pp4 #ahj-bdj2    ,,edw>d  
,a4 ,,/e9]1 ,on ! ,trail ( ! ,immigrant1
 pp4 #bib-ccc2    ,,pet] ,,rob]ts1 ,!   
,new ,immigration1 pp4 #abd-agb2        
#agc-aii2    ,e4 ,a4 ,,ross1 ,! ,old ,_w

 9 ! ,new1 pp4 #bbh-bha1 & passim2      
,,book] ,t4 ,,wa%+ton1 ,up ,f ,slav]y1  
pp4 #a-fb2    ,l4 ,h4 ,,gulick1 ,!      
,am]ican-,japanese ,problem1 pp4 #c-bg2 
#aah-ahc4                               
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,%\ld immigration
 be fur!r re/rict$8 ,! hi/ory (         
immigration4 ,:at ! immigrants h done = 
! ,unit$ ,/ates4  ,economic1 social1 &  
political disadvantages ( immigration4  
,!  pres5t re/rictions4 ,figures %[+ !  
probable influx ( immigrants  "u !      
p]c5tage sy/em dur+ ! next t5 ye>s4 ,:at
 fur!r  re/rictions w\ld improve !      
quality ( immigration8 ,h[ might ^!     
re/rictions be en=c$8 ,c\ld ! selection 
be made at ! port (  sail+8             
,conclusions4 ,ref]5ces3 ,p4 ,f4 ,,hall1
 ,immigration1 pp4  #aba-ach2 ,j4 ,w4   
,,j5ks & ,w4 ,j4 ,,lauck1 ,!            
,immigration ,problem1 pp4  #ace-aig2   
,e4 ,a4 ,,ross1 ,! ,old ,_w 9 ! ,new1   
pp4 #bhb-cjd2 ,,pet]  ,,rob]ts1 ,! ,new 
,immigration1 pp4 #cda-cei2 ,debat]s'   
,h&book ,s]ies1  ,immigration1 pp4      

#fi-ha2 #adh-afc 7argum5ts on bo?       
sides72 ,f4 ,j4  ,,w>ne1 ,! ,tide (     
,immigration1 pp4 #cac-cfa4    #b4 ,!   
=eign-born population ( y\r own         
community4 ,take "s su*  book z ,f4 ,a4 
,,bu%ee',s ,e?nic ,factors 9 !          
,population ( ,bo/on1 or  ,h4 ,b4       
,,wool/on',s ,/udy ( ! ,population (    
,manhattanville1 or ,,rob]t  ,a4        
,,woods' ,am]icans 9 ,process1 & note ! 
plan foll[$ 9 /udy+  ! *>act]i/ics (    
=eign-born gr\ps4 ,"s excell5t          
sugge/ions  c be _h f ,,c>ol            
,,aronovici',s booklet ,kn[+ ,"o's ,own 
,community4  ,apply ?is plan to a survey
 ( y\r own t[n or city4 ,"s data c be   
_h f ! national & /ate c5sus reports 9 !
 case ( l>g]  cities2 9 small]          
communities ! mat]ial mu/ be ga!r$ by   
field  "w4    #c4 ,an effective program 
( ,am]icanization4 ,ref]5ces3 ,f4 ,s4   
,,bog>dus1 ,am]icanization1 pp4         
#ahf-bbe2 ,,pet] ,,rob]ts1 ,! ,problem (
  ,am]icanization1 especially pp4       
#de-ajh4                                

,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! economic effects
 ( immigration4 ,e4 ,a4 ,,ross1 ,! ,old 
,_w 9  ! ,new1 pp4 #aie-bbg4    #b4 ,!  
immigrant 9 ,am]ican politics4 ,m4 ,k4  
,,simkhovit*1 ,! ,city  ,work]'s ,_w1   
pp4 #aha-bji2 ,p4 ,f4 ,,hall1           
,immigration1 pp4 #ahc-aih2 ,r4  ,a4    
,,woods1 ,am]icans 9 ,process1 pp4      
#adg-ahi4    #c4 ,! ,g]man immigrant4   
,a4 ,b4 ,,fau/1 ,! ,g]man ,elem5t 9 !   
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ceg-cij4    #d4 ,!  
,italian immigrant4 ,r4 ,f4 ,,fo]/]1 ,! 
,italian ,immigration (  ,our ,times1   
pp4 #cgd-daa4    #e4 ,! ,slavic         
immigrant4 ,e4 ,g4 ,,bal*1 ,our ,slavic 
,fell[ ,citiz5s1  pp4 #cdi-cgg4    #f4  
,our treatm5t ( ! immigrant4 ,,jacob ,a4
 ,,riis1 ,! ,mak+ ( an  ,am]ican1 pp4   
#eh-ajj2 ,e4 ,a4 ,,/e9]1 ,f ,ali5 to    
,citiz51 pp4  #ec-ga2 #abb-afh4    #g4  
,immigrant life 9 ! l>ge cities4 ,r4 ,a4
 ,,woods1 ,! ,city  ,wild]ness1 pp4     
#cc-eg2 ,ibid41 ,am]icans 9 ,process1   
pp4 #ajd-adf4    #h4 ,! economic        
problems ( ! negro4 ,,book] ,t4         

,,wa%+ton1 ,!  ,future ( ! ,negro1 pp4  
#db-ff2 ,,c>l ,,kelsey1 ,! ,negro ,f>m]1
 pp4  #bb-bh1 & passim4    #i4 ,!       
problem ( ! ,japanese on ! ,pacific     
coa/4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,gulick1  ,!             
,am]ican-,japanese ,problem1 pp4 #c-bg2 
,h4 ,a4 ,,millis1 ,! ,japanese  ,problem
 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #aeb-aif4       
#aj4 ,z o!rs see u4 ,,hugo ,,mu5/]b]g1  
,! ,am]icans1 pp4 #bbi-bed4             
,que/ions    #a4 ,:at has be5 ! relative
 rate ( increase ( population 9 y\r own 
/ate dur+ ! la/ two decades8 ,has ! rate
 be5 m or less rapid  ?an t ( ! nation z
 a :ole8 ,to :at features is ! diff]5ce 
due8 ,:at racial elem5ts are /rong 9 !  
population ( y\r /ate &  9 :at indu/ries
 are ea* ( ^! elem5ts *iefly engag$8    
#b4 ,:at h be5 ! impell+ causes (       
immigration f 7a7  ,g]many2 7b7 ,irel&2 
7c7 ,italy2 7d7 ,russia8    #c4 ,give   
f\r reasons :y mo/ immigrants settle 9 !
 cities4    #d4 ,expla9 ! pr9cipal      
effects ( immigration ^u 7a7 ! gr[? (   
indu/ry2 7b7 ! scale ( wages2 7c7       

municipal politics2 7d7 !  public s*ool 
sy/em 7includ+ ev5+ s*ools1 etc474      
#e4 ,:i* races are ! mo/ difficult to   
assimilate & :y8    #f4 ,make "s def9ite
 sugge/ions z to h[ ! conditions ( !    
negro  race c be made m tol]able 9 ?is  
c\ntry4    #g4 ,%\ld ,japanese z well z 
,*9ese be exclud$ by law f  immigrat+ to
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 ,give y\r reasons4    
#h4 ,:at mi/akes are we mo/ likely to   
make 9 our zeal = !  ,am]icanization (  
non-,engli% speak+ immigrants8          
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! p]iod (     
resid5ce requir$ = ! naturalization (   
ali5s  %\ld be ext5d$ to m ?an five     
ye>s4    #b4 ,ali5s ought to be deb>r$ f
 employm5t on national1 /ate1 &         
municipal "w4    #c4 ,! national        
gov]nm5t %\ld take jurisdiction ov] &   
prev5t all  racial discrim9ation by !   
/ate4    -----    ,footnote #g3      ,! 
foll[+ table %[s ! increase1 by decades1
 9 r\nd figures3            #agij--     
#c1ijj1jjj        #ahdj-- #ag1jjj1jjj   
#ahij-- #fb1ijj1jjj          #ahjj--    

#e1cjj1jjj        #ahej-- #bc1ajj1jjj   
#aijj-- #ge1ijj1jjj          #ahaj--    
#g1bjj1jjj        #ahfj-- #ca1djj1jjj   
#aiaj-- #ia1ijj1jjj          #ahbj--    
#i1fjj1jjj        #ahgj-- #ch1ejj1jjj   
#aibj--aje1jjj1jjj          #ahcj--     
#ab1hjj1jjj        #ahhj-- #ej1jjj1jjj  
,f ?is x w be se5 t ! ratio ( increase  
is decl9+4 ,!    population increas$    
ab\t "o-?ird 9 ea* decade f #agij to    
#ahfj2    by ab\t "o-f\r? 9 ea* decade f
 #ahfj to #ahij2 by ab\t    "o-fif? 9 ! 
two decades f #ahij to #aiaj2 & by less 
?an    "o-six? 9 ! decade f #aiaj to    
#aibj4    ,footnote #h3      ,x is      
cu/om>y to ?9k ( ,india & ,*9a z v      
d5sely populat$2    b bo? h few] ?an    
#bbe inhabitants to ! squ>e mile4       
,footnote #i3      ,a map %[+ ! progress
 ( ! c5t] f ,ea/ to ,we/ w be    f\nd   
fac+ ?is page4    ,footnote #aj3        
,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 9 8 int]e/+ book   
entitl$ ,:5 ! ,sleep]    ,wakes1 gives a
 picture ( :at ! _w w be l if all its   
inhabitants live 9 cities1 & ! c\ntry   

work]s are c>ri$ back    & =? by rapid  
transit4    ,footnote #aa3      ,9      
#ahhj1 = example1 only ab\t f\r p] c5t (
 ! immigrants 7    ,italians :ile ab\t  
?irty p] c5t 7 ,g]mans2 9 #aiaj !       
,italians _h ris5 to m ?an tw5ty p] c5t 
:ile ! ,g]man    immigrants _h decl9$ to
 less ?an five p] c5t4    ,footnote #ab3
      ,f #aghc to #ahbj x is e/imat$ t n
 m ?an #bej1jjj    immigrants came to ! 
,unit$ ,/ates4 ,p4 ,f4 ,hall1           
,immigration1 p4 #d4    ,! total        
population 9 #ahbj 0 t5 millions4       
,,*apt] ,,iii                           
,,economic ,,factors ,,& ,,organization 
,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to %[ h[ weal?
 is creat$ &      h[ x is di/ribut$     
among ! p4      ,sid5ote3 ,primitive    
ne$s & mod]n ne$s4    ,! ,economic ,ne$s
 ( ,man4--,! mo/ elem5t>y ne$s ( human  
be+s  are = food1 clo?+1 & %elt]4 ,until
 ^! are satisfi$ no high]  ne$s c       
develop4 ,9 ! l[e/ /ages ( b>b>ism m5   
are cont5t  ) ! satisfaction ( ^!       
elem5t>y ne$s alone2 b z !y  obta9 a    

great] ma/]y ov] nature & are able to   
supply ^! wants  m easily1 o!r & high]  
wants arise )9 !m4 ,z m5 & wom5  become 
m intellig5t & m ref9$1 !y gr[          
discont5t$ )  ! primitive & co>s] k9ds (
 food2 !y seek m pres5table  clo?+ ?an !
 sk9s ( wild animals2 !y replace _! rude
 huts  ) sub/antial h\ses ( wood4 ,/ep  
by /ep1 z ! human race has  advanc$ 9   
civilization1 its ne$s h become m num]\s
 & m  v>i$4 ,purely mat]ial requirem5ts 
be+ satisfi$1 o!r & high]  dem&s arise4 
,! spiritual & social aspirations make  
_!  appe>ance4 ,z mank9d passes ea* /age
 9 civilization x f9ds1  ?r\gh ! gr[+   
control ov] nature1 t purely mat]ial    
wants c  be satisfi$ ) less & less      
ex]tion4 ,m5 ga9 _! daily bread  today )
 inf9itely less ef=t ?an 9 primitive    
times4 ,! *ief  reason is t !y h le>n$  
to act collectively 9 ma/]+ !  =ces (   
nature2 9 o!r words !y h a*iev$ a high  
degree (  economic organization4        
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! economic motives promote
 progress4    ,! ,economic              

,motives4--,self-pres]vation is ! fir/  
law ( nature4  ,! primeval in/9ct 9 man 
is to look out = himself1 to protect    
himself f hung]1 ?ir/1 & h>d%ip4 ,?is1 =
 ! mom5t1 is  m important to him ?an !  
satisfaction ( 8 social & civic  ne$s4  
,h5ce ! economic motive1 ! in/9ct :i*   
prompts him to  seek ! means ( gett+ a  
liv+1 is extremely /rong4 ,?is in/9ct  !
 l[] animals possess z well1 b x does n 
c>ry !m beyond  ! satisfaction (        
elem5t>y wants4 ,! birds ( ! air & !    
bea/s ( ! fields h nev] enl>g$ or rais$ 
! scale ( _!  ne$s beyond ! simple      
requirem5ts ( food1 dr9k1 & %elt]4 ,no  
matt] h[ easily obta9able ^! become !y  
make no progress to  any?+ high]4 ,b    
mank9d1 end[$ ) sup]ior m5tal faculties 
& a spiritual nature1 does n re/ cont5t 
) ! easy e>n+ (  a livelihood4 ,!       
economic motive prompts m5 & wom5 to    
move on1 to  a*ieve weal?1 to procure   
luxuries1 & to ga9 su* happ9ess z !     
possession ( worldly goods c br+4 ,?is  
economic motive1 deeply  implant$ 9     

humanity1 has be5 a great inc5tive to   
progress 9  civilization1--probably !   
greate/ ( all inc5tives4    ,sid5ote3 ,!
 altrui/ic motive4    ,let x n be       
assum$1 h[ev]1 t because ! economic     
motive is  /rong 9 man he is an altoge!r
 selfi% creature4 ,!re is also an       
altrui/ic motive :i* impels him to help 
8 fell[-m51 ev5 at  p]sonal sacrifice4  
,m5 desire to ga9 weal? = !mselves1 b   
hav+  ga9$ en\gh & to sp>e1 !y frequ5tly
 devote mu* ( x to !  assi/ance ( ^? :o 
h n be5 s =tunate4 ,! high] our         
civilization ! m m>k$ does ?is _s (     
altruism or economic  unselfi%ness      
become4    ,sid5ote3 ,economic goods4   
,! ,subject-,matt] ( ,economics4--,!    
/udy ( economics does n  conc]n itself )
 all ! possible wants & aspirations (   
m54 ,x  deals only ) ! production1      
di/ribution1 & consumption ( ^?  ?+s :i*
 satisfy man's desire = 7a7 mat]ial     
objects & 7b7  p]sonal s]vices4 ,9 o!r  
words economics is a subject :i* conc]ns
  itself ) ! production1 di/ribution1 & 

consumption ( economic  goods1 a t]m :i*
 includes mat]ial possessions kn[n z    
weal? &  also su* p]sonal s]vices z h an
 economic value4 ,n all ?+s (  a mat]ial
 sort are economic goods2 air &         
sunlight1 = example1 be+  free to all1  
require no ef=t on ! "p ( man to obta94 
,!y are  call$ free goods4 ,we apply !  
t]m economic goods only to su* ?+s  &   
s]vices z satisfy human wants & are n to
 be _h free4  ,requir+ ef=t to produce1 
^! economic goods are limit$ 9 supply  &
 h5ce h a value 9 ex*ange = o!r goods4  
,= ?is reason !y  are commonly spok5 ( z
 weal?4 ,c]ta9 p]sonal s]vices1 ^? (  ! 
physician1 ! lawy]1 ! =eman1 ! labor]1  
also h an  economic value 9 t !y are    
limit$ 9 supply1 satisfy mat]ial  wants1
 & c be ex*ang$ = tangible goods4 ,^!   
s]vices =m a  "p ( ! economic activities
 ( society1 a v important "p4 ,s  ! /udy
 ( economics includes ^! p]sonal s]vices
 z well4    ,sid5ote3 ,pres5t & future  
economic goods4    ,! ,consumption (    
,weal?4--,all economic goods are produc$

 = !  purpose ( be+ us$4 ,?is use is :at
 ! economi/ calls  consumption4 ,"s     
economic goods are 9 f9i%$ =m1 ready =  
imm$iate consumption at any "t2 o!rs are
 9 ! =m ( raw  mat]ials or half-f9i%$   
products n yet ready to be us$4 ,h5ce we
  di/+ui% betwe5 pres5t & future        
economic goods4 ,economic  organization 
/rives to manage matt]s s t a suffici5t 
supply (  economic goods w rea* _! f9i%$
 =m 9 "t to fill !  dem&s t arise4 ,?is 
dem& on ! "p ( ! consum]s det]m9es  !   
me?ods & am\nt ( production4 ,if !re is 
no dem& = a  p>ticul> k9d ( economic    
goods1 ^! goods w n be int5tionally     
produc$4 ,on ! o!r h& a vigor\s dem& w  
enc\rage production  & spe$ up ! process
 ( di/ribution4    ,sid5ote3 ,dem& &    
supply4    ,s we get back1 9 ! end1 to !
 proposition ) :i* we />t$1  t ! purpose
 ( economic activity & organization is  
to supply  human ne$s4 ,:]e ! ne$ is    
felt1 ! dem& arises4 ,:5 ! dem&  arises1
 ! ag5cies ( supply1 namely production &
 di/ribution1  usually respond4 ,"o ( ! 

great tasks ( economic organization1    
!re=e1 is to e/imate ! probable dem& & s
 influ5ce  production & di/ribution t ! 
supply w nei!r be excessive  nor fall   
%ort4 ,if !re is an ov]-supply ( any    
commodity1 prices  normally w fall4 ,t  
means t goods may br+ less ?an x co/s   
to produce & to di/ribute !m4 ,"o reason
 = ! organization (  indu/ry on a l>ge  
scale "u great corporations is t supply 
c  ?us be kept clos] to dem&4 ,at any   
rate ! consum]1 by 8 great]  or small]  
dem&1 virtually det]m9es all activities 
( production &  di/ribution4 ,he is !   
pivot ( ! :ole economic sy/em4          
,sid5ote3 ,! factors 9 dem&4    ,:e!r ! 
dem& on ! "p ( ! consum] w be l>g] or   
small]  dep5ds on ?ree factors4 ,! fir/ 
is ! utility ( ! goods to him4          
,economic goods d n h ! same utility to 
all m5 at all times4 ,!  utility ( ice  
on a w>m summ] day may be consid]able2 9
 midw9t] x  is next to no?+4 ,! utility 
( eye-glasses to %ort-sight$ m5 is      
great2 to m5 ( normal sight !y h no     

utility at all4 ,economic  goods may1   
!re=e h a great] or small] utility      
dep5d+ ^u  ! place1 ! "t1 & ! consum]4  
,be> 9 m9d1 moreov]1 t ea*  consum]     
mat*es ! utility ( "o commodity ) !     
utility ( o!r  commodities :i* he f9ds  
available1 & 8 dem& foll[s !  direction 
( ! great] utility4 ,a second factor 9  
dem& is ! price  ( ! goods4 ,:5 ! price 
goes up1 ! dem& ord9>ily w g  d[n1      
because "s cu/om]s w decide t ! utility 
( _! money  is great] ?an t ( ! goods at
 ! increas$ price4 ,f9ally1  dem& dep5ds
 9 "p ^u ! pur*as+ p[] or weal? ( !     
consum]s4 ,9 prosp]\s times1 :5 p h     
pl5ty ( income1 !  utility ( goods seems
 great] ?an ! utility ( money2 9 times (
  depression & l[ incomes ! rev]se is   
true4 ,! int]action ( ^!  ?ree factors  
det]m9es ! dem&4    ,sid5ote3 ,:at      
production means4    ,economic          
,production4--,production is ! g5]al t]m
 appli$ to all !  processes :]eby       
economic goods are adapt$ to !          
satisfaction (  human wants4 ,we are (t5

 told t no man c ei!r create or de/roy  
a s+le atom ( matt]4 ,/rictly speak+1   
!re=e1 production does  n mean !        
creation ( economic goods b !           
utilization (  mat]ials 9 su* a way t !y
 may satisfy ! consum]s' dem&s4  ,?is   
utilization may involve *ang+ _! =m1 z  
:]e iron is made  into tools or wool    
into clo?4 ,! m9] :o takes coal out ( ! 
e>?2 ! f>m] :o makes two blades ( grass 
gr[ :]e "o grew  be=e2 ! mason :o hews !
 /one = ! build+2 ! bak] :o  makes fl\r 
into bread2 ! manufactur] :o takes lea!r
 & turns x  into %oes--all are engag$ 9 
production4 ,s1 also1 are su* work]s z  
/atesm51 judges1 lawy]s1 physicians1 &  
tea*]s4 ,!y may n  directly produce     
commodities b _! s]vices are ess5tial to
 !  smoo? work+ ( ! processes (         
production4 ,! only work]s :o d  n      
des]ve to be call$ productive labor]s   
are ?ieves1 sw9dl]s1  c\nt]feit]s1 & o!r
 p>asites4 ,!y (t5 "w h>d] ?an w\ld     
suffice to e>n !m an hone/ liv+2 b _!   
labor is n  productive4 ,!y live on :at 

o!rs produce4    ,sid5ote3 ,natural     
res\rces1 labor1 capital1 organization1 
&             gov]nm5t4    ,! ,factors 9
 ,production4--,!re are five factors 9  
production2  namely1 7#a7 natural       
res\rces 7includ+ l&72 7#b7 labor2 7#c7 
capital2  7#d7 organization & managem5t2
 7#e7 gov]nm5t4 ,natural res\rces1  )\t 
! application ( labor to !m1 d n g f> 9 
satisfy+  human wants4 ,m5 _c live on   
soil1 climate1 ra9fall1 & m9]als4  ,nor 
c labor & natural res\rces1 :5 "o is    
appli$ to ! o!r1  succe$ 9 produc+ all !
 economic goods :i* p 9 an advanc$  /age
 ( civilization require4 ,capital is    
also ess5tial--capital 9 !  =m ( ma*9]y1
 or 9 ! =m ( money to support labor dur+
 !  process ( production4 ,^! ?ree ?+s1 
natural res\rces1 labor1 &  capital mu/ 
be br\ght toge!r1 fur!rmore1 & kept     
work+ 9  unison4 ,?is is :]e            
organization1 ! f\r? factor 9           
production1  comes 94 ,x borr[s !       
capital1 buys ! raw mat]ials1 sets !    
labor  to "w1 & m>kets ! products4      

,gov]nm5t is n commonly look$  ^u z a   
factor 9 production1 b x ought to be4   
,)\t !  protection & regulation :i*     
gov]nm5t af=ds we c\ld n c>ry on        
production at high effici5cy4 ,x is     
gov]nm5t t assures to labor1  capital1 &
 organization _! rightful %>es 9 ! jo9t 
production  & ?us af=ds !m ! inc5tive to
 d _! be/4    ,sid5ote3 ,l& &  its      
res\rces4    ,nature's ,contributions to
 ,production4--,nature contributes to ! 
production ( economic goods su* ?+s z   
l&1 timb]1 wat]ways =  transportation1  
m9]als1 coal & oil1 ! motive p[] (      
/eam1--9 a  ^w nature provides all !    
mat]ials & ! environm5t (  production4  
,h5ce x is fundam5tally ! mo/ important 
( all !  factors4 ,if "o /udies ! hi/ory
 ( ^? nations :i* h become  great 9     
v>i\s p]iods 9 hi/ory1 x w be f\nd t !  
basis (  _! mat]ial greatness 0 9       
practically e case ! b\nty (  nature4   
,civilization made its fir/ advance 9 ! 
f]tile valleys (  ! ,euphrates & !      
,nile4 ,its progress s9ce ! dawn (      

hi/ory has  be5 condition$ by man's     
success 9 discov]+ & us+ natural        
res\rces4    ,among ! contributions (   
nature to production "s1 su* z l&1 c  be
 br\ght "u private own]%ip4 ,s long z l&
 0 pl5tiful &  population scanty !re 0  
no occasion = private prop]ty 9 l&4  ,:5
 ,caes> fir/ came into contact ) !      
,teutonic tribes he f\nd  t l& 0 n held 
9 private own]%ip4 ,ev]yone took :at he 
want$2 :5 ! l& seem$ to be gr[+ exhau/$ 
! :ole tribe  mov$ on to "s o!r region4 
,b z ^! tribes grew 9 numb] &  unoccupi$
 l& became less pl5tiful1 common own]%ip
 gave way to  private own]%ip4 ,!       
,anglo-,saxons _h rea*$ ?is /age be=e !y
  migrat$ to ,engl&4    ,sid5ote3 ,r5t4 
,l& held 9 private own]%ip c be b\ght1  
sold1 & leas$4 ,:5 x  is leas$1 ! own]  
receives = its use a paym5t kn[n z r5t4 
,r5t  may be def9$ z ! return :i* is    
obta9$ by ! own] ( any =m  ( natural    
res\rce4 ,?is includes n only l& b m9es1
  wat]-p[]s1 tr\t-/reams1 & s =?4 ,!    
return :i* is receiv$  = ! use (        

unimprov$ l& is usually call$ gr\nd r5t1
 :ile  ! return :i* results f           
improvem5ts su* z build+s ^u !  l&1     
f5ces1 & dra9s is call$ improvem5t r5t4 
,/rictly  speak+1 ?is is n r5t1 b a     
return ^u inve/$ capital4 ,!  am\nt (   
gr\nd r5t paid = any piece ( l& dep5ds  
^u its  relative f]tility1 if x is to be
 us$ = agriculture1 & its  location4    
,location alone det]m9es ! gr\nd r5t (  
l& 9 t[ns &  cities4    ,sid5ote3 ,:at  
is labor8    ,labor z a ,factor 9       
,production4--,:at is labor8 ,is all    
muscul> &  m5tal ex]tion entitl$ to be  
call$ labor8 ,m\nta9 climb+ involves  ! 
mo/ sev]e sort ( bodily ef=t4 ,t\ri/s d 
x = pleasure &  guides d x = pay4 ,is x 
labor 9 "o case & n 9 ! o!r8 ,"s  m5    
play *ess = recreation2 o!rs make a liv+
 out ( x2 9 ei!r  case !re is /r5u\s    
m5tal ex]tion involv$4 ,s :]e does labor
  beg9 & end8    ,no exact answ] c be   
giv5 to t "q4 ,"o man's play is ano!r   
man's labor1--g>d5+1 fi%+1 act+ on !    
/age1 = example4 ,b  economi/s usually  

def9e labor z 8human ex]tion or ef=t    
direct$  t[>d ! creation ( economic     
goods04 ,?is includes m5tal z well z    
physical ex]tion4 ,all :o are engag$ 9 !
 production ( mat]ial  ?+s or p]sonal   
s]vices = ! satisfaction ( human wants  
are  engag$ 9 productive labor4         
,sid5ote3 ,! economic importance (      
labor4    ,labor1 ( c\rse1 is ( great   
economic importance4 ,! natural res\rces
  ( ! ,am]ican cont95t 7 z great ?ree   
hundr$ ye>s ago z !y  are today2 yet !y 
7 practically useless 9 satisfy+ human  
wants  because ! r$ man w\ld n & c\ld n 
be/[ 8 labor ^u !m4  ,x rema9$ = ! :ite 
man to trans=m natural res\rces into    
economic goods4 ,?is he has done n only 
by ! use ( muscul>  ex]tion b by !      
application ( intellig5ce4 ,labor is    
nev] an end  9 itself2 x is always a    
means to an end1 & ?is end is !         
satisfaction ( human dem&s4    ,sid5ote3
 ,! simple & complex =ms ( division (   
labor4    ,division ( ,labor4--,9 apply+
 _! labor to natural res\rces m5  soon  

f\nd t ! be/ results c\ld be obta9$ by  
apportion+  diff]5t tasks to diff]5t    
work]s4 ,?is is call$ ! division (      
labor & x has be5 "o ( ! great factors 9
 ! progress (  production4 ,9 its simpl]
 =m1 division ( labor m]ely meant t  ea*
 workman conf9$ himself to a simple     
occupation & c>ri$ ?r\gh  all !         
processes ( production 9 t p>ticul>     
trade4 ,!  clo?-mak]1 ! %oemak]1 !      
implem5t-mak] p]=m$ all ! "w  ( mak+    
clo?1 %oes1 or implem5ts f />t to f9i%4 
,?is simple  division ( labor 0 practic$
 9 v e>ly times4 ,b z ! _w  mov$ =w>d a 
m complex division ( labor develop$ &   
?is is  p>ticul>ly a feature ( mod]n    
production4 ,9 ?is developm5t !         
individual work] is assign$ to make only
 a "p ( a commodity4 ,!  mak+ ( clo? is 
no long] a trade1 b embodies a s]ies (  
trades--t ( ! wool-c>d]1 ! sp9n]1 !     
weav]1 ! full]1 !  dy]1 & ! f9i%]4 ,9 ! 
mod]n %oe factory "o employee cuts !    
sole1 ano!r trims x1 a ?ird turns !     
heels1 a f\r? sews !  upp]s to ! sole1 &

 s on4 ,!re are m ?an tw5ty di/9ct      
op]ations 9 ! mak+ ( a factory %oe1 ea* 
requir+ special skill  on ! "p ( !      
work]4    ,9 ! "t ( ! ,roman empire x is
 said t only ?irty-sev5  diff]5t trades 
& pr(essions 7 9 exi/5ce4 ,today ! numb]
  runs into ! ?\s&s4 ,x w\ld be         
practically impossible to make a  li/ ( 
!m all4 ,?is is ! age ( speciali/s4 ,m5 
no long] call  !mselves %oemak]s b      
cutt]s1 la/]s1 welt]s1 sole-mak]s4 ,ev5 
9 ! eng9e]+ pr(ession we h electrical   
eng9e]s1 civil  eng9e]s1 me*anical      
eng9e]s1 locomotive eng9e]s1 /ation>y   
eng9e]s1 m9+ eng9e]s1 m>9e eng9e]s1 &   
*emical eng9e]s4    ,advantages &       
,disadvantages ( ,division (            
,labor4--,division ( labor  has br\ght  
_m economic advantages4 ,x enables !    
work]1 by con/ant  practice at a s+le   
op]ation1 to acquire skill & dext]ity4  
,x  enables almo/ e work] to f9d "s task
 t he is able to d &  = :i* he has a    
special lik+ or aptitude4 ,x /imulates !
  inv5tion ( new processes & me?ods by  

r$uc+ ea* op]ation to !  simple/        
possible =m1 at :i* po9t x c (t5 be tak5
 ov] by  ma*9]y4    ,b ! elaborate      
division ( labor :i* m>ks mod]n indu/ry 
also has  its defects4 ,x increases !   
monotony & irksom5ess ( labor4 ,x       
prev5ts ! developm5t ( all-r\nd         
craftsm51 m5 :o c turn _!  h&s to a     
v>iety ( ?+s4 ,h5ce :5 a work] 9 mod]n  
indu/ry  loses 8 regul> employm5t x is  
difficult = him to *ange to  any?+ else4
 ,conf9+ m5 & wom5 to a s+le1 simple    
task day  aft] day & ye> aft] ye> t5ds  
to n>r[ !m2 x c]ta9ly does  n conduce to
 ! ext5sion ( _! intellig5ce4 ,no great 
inspiration  comes f 8 "w to ! man :o   
sp5ds 8 life 9 mak+ !  n9ete5? "p ( a   
p94#ac ,division ( labor has come to    
/ay1  h[ev]1 & 9 spite ( all ^!         
disadvantages ! _w is on !  :ole f>     
bett] = its com+4 ,x has made !         
production ( goods s  mu* easi] t to    
give x up n[ w\ld c>ry ! _w back to     
primitive conditions & l[] ! /&>d (     
liv+4    ,our aim %\ld be to utilize all

 its advantages :ile r$uc+ its evils  to
 ! m9imum4 ,?is we may hope to d by     
sev]al me?ods2 = example1  by r$uc+ !   
daily h\rs ( labor1 by promot+          
vocational education1  by ! re/riction (
 *ild employm5t1 by a bett] organization
 ( !  labor m>ket 7see p4 #dah71 & by   
provid+ :olesome recreation = !  work]s4
    ,sid5ote3 ,labor is a s]vice4    ,is
 ,labor a ,commodity8--,labor1 z a      
factor 9 production1 receives its       
return 9 ! =m ( wages4 ,a g5]ation ago x
 0 cu/om>y to speak  ( labor z a        
commodity & to say t ! work] 8sold 8    
labor0 =  wages4 ,b labor is n a        
commodity4 ,! sell] ( goods p>ts company
  ) !m :5 he makes a sale2 ! work] is   
insep>able f 8 "w4  ,! man :o sells %oes
 c>es n :o we>s !m2 b x makes "s        
diff]5ce to ! %oe-work] h[ & :]e & = :om
 he labors4 ,no  commodity1 moreov]1 is 
s p]i%able z labor4 ,! labor ( "o day  w
 n keep = sale ! next4 ,h5ce sales (    
labor1 if we call !m  su*1 are 9 !      
nature ( =c$ sales4 ,9 ! case ( ne>ly   

all  commodities1 aga91 ! supply c be   
dim9i%$ by /opp+ production1  !reby     
prev5t+ a dra/ic fall 9 price4 ,b !     
supply ( labor  _c be s easily cut d[n4 
,! analogy betwe5 labor & commodities   
is a poor analogy & x is mu* bett] to   
speak ( labor z a p]sonal  s]vice4      
,work]s contract ) employ]s = ! giv+ (  
?is s]vice  & %\ld receive1 9 return1 n 
only wages b v>i\s assurances z  to !   
conditions "u :i* ! s]vice is to be     
r5d]$4 ,!  ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 
9 ! ,clayton ,act ( #aiad1 decl>$ t  8! 
labor ( a human be+ is n a commodity or 
article ( comm]ce0  & t an organization 
( work]s 0 n to be reg>d$1 !re=e1  z a  
8comb9ation 9 re/ra9t ( trade40         
,sid5ote3 ,! factors :i* cause wages to 
rise & fall4    ,wages4--,! wages (     
labor dep5d fundam5tally ^u dem& &      
supply4  ,b z ! supply ( labor is n     
susceptible to a quick & unlimit$       
increase or r$uction1 wages dep5d       
pr9cipally ^u dem&4 ,:5 !re  is an      
increas$ dem& = economic goods1 due to  

factors :i* h  already be5 expla9$ 7see 
p4 #dj71 ! que/ = labor becomes m  ke5  
on ! "p ( employ]s2 bett] t]ms are (f]$ 
to ! work]2  9 o!r words wages g up & ! 
conditions ( labor are improv$4  ,:5 !  
dem& = economic goods dim9i%es ! contr>y
 takes place1  b 9 ?is case ! decl9e 9 !
 rate ( wages does n1 z a rule1  keep   
exact pace ) ! decrease 9 dem&4         
,organizations ( labor  /rive to keep   
wages up & (t5 succe$1 tempor>ily at    
lea/1 9  do+ s4 ,dur+ ! ye>s #aiah-aibj1
 :5 ! dem& = economic goods  exp&$      
greatly1 ! wages ( labor 9 ! ,unit$     
,/ates w5t up  promptly all along ! l9e4
 ,:5 ! turn 9 ! tide came1 ab\t !       
middle ( #aibj1 wages began to fall     
sl[ly & _! desc5t has be5  v gradual4   
,wages1 ?us1 incl9e to foll[ ! g5]al    
c\rse (  prices b !y %[ ?is t5d5cy m    
cle>ly :5 prices are go+ up  ?an :5 !y  
are com+ d[n4 ,?is is altoge!r natural1 
= high]  wages conduce to a bett] /&>d (
 liv+1 & :5 su* bett]  /&>d has be5     
a*iev$ !re is objection to any l[]+ ( x4

    ,sid5ote3 ,nom9al & real wages4     
,?is sugge/s t a di/9ction ought to be  
drawn betwe5 nom9al &  real wages4      
,wages1 ( c\rse1 are n an end 9         
!mselves2 !y are  m]ely a means :i*     
enables ! work] to satisfy 8 wants4 ,!  
real  utility ( wages dep5ds1 !re=e1 ^u 
:at !y w pur*ase1 &  ?is1 aga91 dep5ds  
^u ! g5]al level ( prices4 ,ev5 if      
wages1  reckon$ 9 doll>s1 g up fifty p] 
c5t1 ! work] is no bett] (f  if ! g5]al 
level ( prices also goes up fifty p]    
c5t4 ,a work]'s  nom9al wages are :at he
 receives 9 doll>s2 8 real wages are    
reckon$ 9 t]ms ( pur*as+-p[]4 ,! rate ( 
wages %\ld always  be /udi$1 !re=e1 9   
connection ) prices4 ,an increase or    
decrease 9 nom9al wages may mean mu* or 
x may mean v little4    ,sid5ote3 ,!    
m9imum wage level4    ,!re is a limit   
bel[ :i* real wages _c fall4 ,?is is !  
po9t  at :i* ! work] c manage to ma9ta9 
himself & 8 family4 ,j  :]e ?is po9t is1
 /at$ 9 t]ms ( money1 no "o c say4 ,x   
v>ies  9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,be=e 

! ,_w ,w> ! /ati/ics  %[$ t half ! adult
 male work]s 9 ?is c\ntry 7 e>n+  less  
?an six hundr$ doll>s a ye>1 yet ! /&>d 
( liv+ among  ,am]ican workm5 0 high]   
?an t ( ! work]s 9 any o!r  c\ntry4     
,today x is probable t ^! same work]s   
are e>n+ m  ?an a ?\s& doll>s4 ,?is does
 n mean1 necess>ily1 t !  /&>d ( liv+   
has ris51 = ! am\nt ( nom9al wages ne$$ 
to  ma9ta9 ! pre-w> /&>d is great]      
because ( ! rise 9 prices4    ,sid5ote3 
,h[ capital arose4                      
,capital4--,capital is ! ?ird factor 9  
production4 ,9 primitive  indu/ry !     
application ( labor to natural res\rces 
produc$ direct  & almo/ imm$iate        
results4 ,! savages :o ga!r$ nuts &     
caught  fi% ) _! h&s1 = example1 ga9$ ! 
fruits ( _! ef=ts  at once4 ,b ^! direct
 me?ods ( satisfy+ _! wants did n  c>ry 
mank9d v f>4 ,x soon became app>5t t m5 
c\ld produce  economic goods m easily & 
m abundantly by indirect me?ods1 t  is  
by ! use ( tools1 implem5ts1 ma*9]y1 &  
o!r labor-sav+  devices4 ,^! made       

possible ! utilization ( m9]als & o!r   
natural res\rces :i* c\ld nev] h be5    
made to s]ve ! wants (  man )\t us+ !   
appliances ( indirect production4 ,s1 z 
civilization develop$1 production came  
to be spread ov] a consid]able  p]iod ( 
"t1 until today x (t5 happ5s t a :ole   
ye>  int]v5es betwe5 ! fir/ /ep 9       
production & ! sale ( !  f9i%$ article4 
,consid] ! articles ( daily use1 clo!s1 
%oes1  furniture1 books1 & realize h[   
va/ has be5 ! s]ies ( op]ations         
necess>y to produce ea* ( !m6 ,_m work]s
 h contribut$ _!  %>e1 & ea* ( ^! has _h
 to receive 8 wages long be=e !  goods  
pass$ into ! h&s ( ! ultimate consum]4  
,sid5ote3 ,:at x includes4    ,n[ !     
factor :i* has enabl$ production to     
become indirect &  long-spread-out is   
capital4 ,capital consi/s ( all !       
int]m$iate  ?+s :i* m5 use 9 produc+    
economic goods4 ,x includes build+s1    
mat]ials1 ma*9]y1 & ! money :i* pays !  
wages ( ! work]s4  ,! use ( capital     
saves labor by enabl+ a giv5 am\nt ( x  

to  a*ieve va/ly bett] results ?an w\ld 
be ! case if capital did n  exi/4       
,capital is really /or$-up labor 9 ! =m 
( economic goods  :i* h be5 produc$ b n 
consum$4 ,9 o!r words x is !  result (  
sav+4 ,if ev]y?+ t ! _w produces 7 at   
once  consum$1 !re w\ld be no capital4  
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! rate ( int]e/ is        
det]m9$4    ,int]e/ on                  
,capital4--,int]e/ is ! return paid to !
 own] (  capital = its "p 9 production4 
,x is 8 recomp5se = sav+ 8  economic    
goods in/ead ( consum+ !m4 ,productive  
capital is  frequ5tly 9 ! =m ( mat]ial  
?+s b its value is reckon$ 9  t]ms (    
money & a c]ta9 p] c5t p] annum is paid 
on ?is value 9  ! =m ( int]e/4 ,7 x n s1
 !re w\ld be no /rong  inducem5t = m5 to
 save1 & capital w\ld n be =?com+4 ,!   
rate ( int]e/ dep5ds1 9 a g5]al way1 ^u 
! int]action (  dem& & supply4 ,if !    
dem& = capital exce$s ! supply1 !  rate 
( int]e/ w ord9>ily g up1 & vice-v]sa4  
,b ?is does  n always take place because
 capital is sometimes obta9$ at a fix$  

rate = a long p]iod1 & ?is rate1 :atev] 
x is1 rema9s ! same  = ! duration ( su* 
p]iod4    ,sid5ote3 ,:y organization is 
ess5tial4    ,organization & ,managem5t 
z a ,factor 9 ,production4--,:5 labor & 
capital are br\ght into play ^u natural 
res\rces ! production (  economic goods 
is ! outcome4 ,b ^! ?ree factors are 9  
sep>ate  h&s & h to be br\ght into      
co-op]ation4 ,own]s ( l&s1 m9es1  & =e/s
 control ! natural res\rces2 ano!r class
 possesses !  capital2 a ?ird is 9 a    
position to furni% ! labor4             
,organization  br+s all ?ree into jo9t  
action = ! production ( weal?4          
,sid5ote3 ,! =ms ( organization4    ,?is
 organization may take any "o ( sev]al  
=ms4 ,! simple/ =m  ( organization is   
repres5t$ by ! individual employ]1 ! man
 :o  borr[s capital 7or provides x f 8  
own sav+s71 pur*ases ! raw  mat]ials1 & 
hires labor to be appli$ to x4 ,he is an
 organiz] (  ! productive process4 ,?is 
sy/em ( s+le employ]s 0 ne>ly  univ]sal 
9 ! e>li] /ages ( indu/ry & trade4 ,next

 comes !  p>tn]%ip4 ,two or m m5 assume 
! task ( br++ natural  res\rces1        
capital1 & labor toge!r4 ,! p>tn]s      
divide ! "w &  jo9tly assume all        
responsibilities ( loss4 ,f9ally1 & mo/ 
common 9  l>ge-scale production n[adays1
 !re is ! jo9t /ock company or  bus9ess 
corporation 9 :i* _m p]sons p>ticipate4 
,ea* contributes  to ! organization &   
takes a proportionate %>e ( ! risk4#ad  
,!  nature & "w ( ^! corporations are   
expla9$ 9 a lat] *apt]4                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,?rift ,,&          
,,prosp]ity4 ,by ,fr$]ick ,dielman4     
,copyright by ,fr$]ick ,dielman4 ,f a   
,copley ,pr9t1 copyright by      ,curtis
  ,cam]on1 ,bo/on4 ,reproduc$ by        
p]mission4                              
,,?rift ,,& ,,prosp]ity                 
,by ,fr$]ick ,dielman              ,f a 
mosaic picture 9 ! ,albany ,sav+s ,bank1
            ,albany1 ,n4,y4             
,a mosaic is a decoration =m$ out (     

small pieces            ( natural /one  
or enamel1 ( v>i\s colors1 set          
9 cem5t4 ,?is decoration measures f\rte5
 feet by            sev5 & "o-half1 !   
figures be+ some:at            l>g] ?an 
life size4              ,"u a fruit tree
 9 a l&scape sugge/+            gra9    
fields & mead[s1 is a gr\p ( figures4   
,! c5tral & pr9cipal figure1 ! mi/ress  
( a h\sehold ) h] di/aff & sp9dle1      
typifies indu/ry & good managem5t2 beh9d
            h] on ei!r side among !     
hollyhocks are            beehives--!   
conv5tional emblems ( indu/ry           
& sav+4              ,9 ! =egr\nd on !  
left1 a woman ) a %eaf            ( :eat
 at h] feet & a sickle 9 h] h& turns    
t[>d ! keep] ( ! flocks & h]ds4 ,at !   
"r1 a kneel+ maid5 lays a basket ( fruit
 ne>            ! %eaf ( :eat1 :ile a   
/alw>t man1 adze 9            h&1 b>es 8
 arm = "w4 ,all ^! figures              
symbolize ! diff]5t bran*es (           
agriculture4 ,!            *ildr5 & ! "y
 animals typify ! way 9            :i*  

ea* "y g5]ation is n\ri%$ by !          
indu/ry & ?rift ( its eld]s4            
,! :ole impression ( ?is picture is "o (
            indu/ry1 prosp]ity1 ?rift1  
&--by reason ( ^!                       
?ree--happ9ess4                         
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,! nature ( pr(its4           
,pr(its4--,! return receiv$ by !        
organiz]s & manag]s (  productive       
ent]prises is commonly kn[n z pr(it4 ,! 
am\nt ( _!  pr(it dep5ds ^u ! degree (  
success ) :i* !y c produce  goods = less
 ?an ! sell+ price4 ,e employ] or       
organiz]  assumes a consid]able am\nt ( 
risk4 ,he obligates himself to pay      
def9ite am\nts = ! use ( capital1       
mat]ials1 & labor no matt]  :at ! value 
( ! f9i%$ products4 ,if ?is value be    
less ?an !  co/ ( production1 he loses2 
if x be m1 he ga9s4 ,losses1 if         
cont9u$1 mean bankruptcy4 ,ga9s are     
pr(its &1 if cont9u$1 make  him ri*4 ,x 
w be se51 !re=e1 t ! employ]s or        

organiz]s  ( production take m risk ?an 
^? :o supply ! mat]ials1 !  capital1 or 
! labor4 ,sid5ote3 ,:at det]m9es ! rate 
( pr(its4  ,_! success1 9 o!r words _!  
rate ( pr(its1 dep5ds 9 g5]al  ^u !     
degree ( manag+ & organiz+ ability :i*  
!y display2  b x sometimes happ5s t     
pr(its w be high 9 all bran*es (        
production = a "t irrespective ( !      
employ]'s skill4 ,! price (  ! f9i%$    
product may rise )\t an imm$iate &      
proportionate  increase 9 ! co/ (       
mat]ials1 int]e/1 & wages4 ,?is         
situation1  :ile x cont9ues1 af=ds an   
opportunity = abnormal pr(its or        
8pr(ite]+0 z x is (t5 call$4 ,abnormal  
pr(its may also be due  to ! exi/5ce ( a
 monopoly 9 a p>ticul> =m ( production4 
,sid5ote3 ,! economic importance (      
gov]nm5t4    ,gov]nm5t z a ,factor 9    
,production4--,x has n be5 cu/om>y to   
speak ( gov]nm5t z "o ( ! ess5tial      
factors 9 production1 b a  few mom5ts'  
reflection w %[ t its "p 9 ! process (  
indu/ry & trade is v important4 ,to beg9

 )1 ! gov]nm5t  det]m9es :at =ms (      
production may be c>ri$ on & by :at     
me?ods4 ,x =bids c]ta9 =ms1 su* z ! mak+
 ( intoxicants1  & /rictly limits o!rs1 
su* z ! manufacture ( n>cotics4 ,x      
gives to "s individuals & corporations !
 exclusive "r to  produce c]ta9 articles
 "u pat5ts4 ,x det]m9es ! =ms (  bus9ess
 organizations1 ! responsibilities (    
employ]s1 ! rules  relat+ to p>tn]%ip1 &
 ! p[]s ( corporations4 ,x sets a limit 
^u ! rate ( int]e/ by means ( usury laws
 & ?r\gh its banks  may virtually       
control ! rate 7see p4 #dch74 ,!        
gov]nm5t1 moreov]1  makes rules = !     
cons]vation ( natural res\rces & to "s  
ext5t  fixes ! relation betwe5 ! employ]
 & 8 work]s4 ,at times x  ev5 fixes     
prices4 ,x provides c\rts & commissions 
= ! settlem5t  ( disputes affect+       
production4 ,f9ally1 ! :ole sy/em (     
private  prop]ty re/s ^u ! support ( !  
gov]nm5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,taxes z an      
elem5t 9 co/4    ,:at return does !     
gov]nm5t get = ^! s]vices to production8

  ,(fh&1 "o might say t ! gov]nm5t      
receives its return 9 taxes4  ,9 a s5se 
?is is true1 = taxes1 l int]e/1 wages1 &
 pr(its1  mu/ be paid f ! sell+ price ( 
goods4 ,taxes1 inde$1 mu/ be  provid$ = 
be=e pr(its c be det]m9$4 ,b x is n     
usual1 nor  is x accurate1 to speak (   
taxes z a rew>d or return = s]vices  :i*
 ! gov]nm5t r5d]s4 ,rev5ue 9 ! =m (     
taxation is  ess5tial 9 ord] t a        
gov]nm5t may function prop]ly1 yet !re  
is  no close relation betwe5 ! rate (   
taxation & ! am\nt ( s]vice  giv54 ,?is 
:ole "q ( taxation1 9 !ory & 9 practice1
 w  be discuss$ fur!r on4               
,,"s ,,ess5tial ,,economic ,,activities 
,sid5ote3 ,! way 9 :i* ea* factor 9     
production obta9s its             %>e4  
,ex*ange4--,x has be5 %[n t sev]al      
factors 9 production are  ea* entitl$ to
 _! %>e4 ,?is %>e is reckon$ 9 t]ms (   
money  because e produc] gets 8 own     
return 9 t]ms ( money4 ,9 o!r  words    
goods are ex*ang$ = money1 & money 9    
turn is ex*ang$ =  o!r goods or s]vice4 

,?is me*anism ( ex*ange engages ! en]gy 
(  a great _m individuals & in/itutions1
 su* z :olesal]s1  retail]s1 brok]s1 &  
banks4 ,economic goods w\ld h relatively
  little value if !y c\ld n be translat$
 into money & ?us  di/ribut$ f h& to h&4
 ,no "o1 z a rule1 c live & fl\ri%  by  
consum+ exactly :at he produces & no?+  
else4 ,he mu/ use 8  %>e 9 :at he       
produces z pur*as+-p[] to secure :atev] 
be/  satisfies 8 own wants4 ,money is ! 
lubricant :i* facilitates ?is2  9 a ^w1 
x is ! m$ium ( ex*ange4    ,sid5ote3    
,def9ition ( value4    ,value &         
,price4--,ex*ange takes place on a basis
 ( relative values4  ,he :o sells goods 
or s]vices receives some?+ ( assum$     
equal value  9 return4 ,b :at is value8 
,! t]m value is employ$ 9 two  diff]5t  
s5ses1 value 9 use & value 9 ex*ange4   
,by ! =m] we  mean ! intr9sic utility ( 
a ?+4 ,air & sunlight1 = example1  h a  
high value 9 use2 !y are indisp5sable to
 life 9 fact2 b  !y h no value 9        
ex*ange4 ,:5 ! economi/ speaks ( value  

he  means value 9 ex*ange or m>ket      
value1 t is to say ! ratio 9  :i* "o    
commodity or s]vice w ex*ange = o!r     
commodities4 ,if a  ton ( coal c be     
ex*ang$ = a l>ge quantity ( clo?1 or    
food1 or  labor1 its value is high2 if x
 c be ex*ang$ = only small am\nts  ( ^! 
o!r commodities1 its value is said to be
 l[4    ,sid5ote3 ,def9ition ( price4   
,b price is q ano!r ?+4 ,! price ( a    
commodity is ! ratio  at :i* x w        
ex*ange1 n = all o!r goods & s]vices b =
  "o specific ?+1 namely1 money4 ,price 
is value express$ 9 t]ms (  ! m$ium (   
ex*ange4 ,we habitually translate our   
economic goods into  t]ms ( money be=e  
we buy or sell !m4 ,a g5]al rise or fall
 9  prices is q possible1 = ?is is m]ely
 ano!r way ( say+ t  money w buy less or
 m ( all o!r ?+s4 ,x is immat]ial  :e!r 
we say t prices h gone up or t money has
 gone d[n2 we  mean exactly ! same ?+4  
,sid5ote3 ,:at det]m9es ! level (       
prices8    ,competition &               
,monopoly4--,ex*ange is conduct$1 = !   

mo/ "p1  "u free competition4 ,buy]s    
give z little z !y c 9 money =  goods2  
sell]s get z mu* z !y c4 ,:5 goods br+  
high] prices1  m w be produc$ until     
prices are =c$ d[n aga92 if prices      
fall1 production w decl9e until !       
r$uction 9 supply s]ves to  br+ !m up   
aga94 ,?is is ! !ory ( free competition4
 ,9  practice1 h[ev]1 x does n always "w
 s automatically4 ,"s  ?+s1 su* z       
diamonds & plat9um1 _c be produc$ 9     
unlimit$  quantities no matt] h[ mu*    
labor1 capital1 & organization we may   
apply4 ,o!r ?+s are legal monopolies1 or
 pat5t$ articles1 :i*  c be produc$ by  
only "o conc]n & are n subject to !     
direct  influ5ce ( competition4 ,/ill   
o!rs are natural monopolies due to  !   
fact t f ! nature ( ?+s only "o conc]n c
 produce !  goods or r5d] ! s]vice4 ,a  
telephone company1 = example1 has a     
natural monopoly4 ,competition involves 
a complete duplication ( !  s]vice4 ,x  
means t _m subscrib]s h to put two      
telephones 9  _! /ores or homes 9 ord]  

to get into full t\* ) o!r us]s  (      
telephones4 ,! net co/ ( telephone      
s]vice to cu/om]s _c be  r$uc$ 9 ?is    
way4 ,f9ally1 "s ?+s are ! subject (    
artificial  monopoly1 t is to say1 !y   
are produc$ or di/ribut$ "u  arrangem5ts
 :i* re/rict or elim9ate competition    
7see pp4 #chf-chh74    ,sid5ote3 ,!     
effects ( monopoly4    ,all ^! =ms (    
monopoly int]f]e ) free competition & !y
  cov] a great _m ( ! ?+s :i* are 9     
common use by !  p4#ae ,rec5t           
inve/igations h %[n t ! numb] (         
commodities :i* are ei!r :olly or 9 l>ge
 "p controll$ by  monopoli/ic comb9es is
 l>g] ?an p commonly realize4 ,a c]ta9  
am\nt ( legal monopoly is ess5tial 9    
ord] to enc\rage rese>* &  inv5tion4#af 
,m5 w n /rive to inv5t new ma*9es &     
appliances  if ! inv5tion at once       
becomes common prop]ty4 ,natural        
monopolies  arise f ! ess5tial nature ( 
?+s & x is difficult to see h[  mo/ ( !m
 c ev] be avoid$4 ,we _c v well h two   
compet+  /reet railways on ! same /reet1

 = example4 ,!re w\ld !n be  little room
 9 ! /reet = any?+ else4 ,artificial    
monopolies are  (t5 objectionable       
because !y enable a few p]sons or       
corporations to  obta9 excessive prices 
f ! public2 b ev5 an artificial monopoly
  c 9 "s cases be advantage\s4          
,occasionally "s corporation1 by        
produc+ ?+s on a v l>ge scale1 is able  
to d x s *eaply t  small produc]s are   
driv5 out ( bus9ess4 ,! l>ge conc]n !n  
f9ds  t x has become a monopoly1 b s    
long z x does n arbitr>ily  raise prices
 ! public is n injur$ by ! m]e fact t a 
monopoly  exi/s4    ,sid5ote3 ,!        
pr9ciple ( fre$om 9 economic relations  
,fre$om ( ,contract4--,an out/&+        
*>act]i/ic ( mod]n economic             
organization is ! enc\ragem5t ( private 
ent]prise ?r\gh fre$om  ( contract4 ,by 
! laws ( ! l& ! work] is n =c$ to take  
employm5t f anybody2 he may contract )  
:omsoev] he pleases4 ,he  may ev5 jo9 ) 
o!r work]s 9 a union & make a collective
  b>ga91 t is1 a gr\p ( work]s1 l>ge or 

small1 may contract )  "o or m employees
 or ) a gr\p ( employ]s4 ,! employ]1 on 
8  side1 is n =c$ to hire anybody2 he   
also has fre$om ( contract4 ,x  is true1
 ( c\rse1 t ?is legal !ory ( individual 
fre$om does  n f9d complete             
exemplification 9 actual practice4 ,! "r
 ( !  wage-e>n] to b>ga9 collectively is
 n ev]y:]e conc$$ by  employ]s2 ! "r ( !
 employ] to hire non-union m5 is n      
ev]y:]e conc$$ by ! unions 7see p4      
#djf74 ,! l&lord is n  oblig$ to r5t 8  
h\se1 nor ! t5ant to /ay aga9/ 8 w4 ,bo?
  are b\nd by ! t]ms ( _! contract & no 
m4 ,buy+ & sell+  are conduct$ ) simil> 
fre$om4 ,all ?is af=ds a great spur to  
private initiative4 ,ev]yone dep5ds = 8 
own prosp]ity &  advancem5t ^u ! skill )
 :i* he c use 8 fre$om4 ,a  well-kn[n   
,engli% writ]1 ,sir ,h5ry ,ma9e1 once   
decl>$ t !  progress ( civilization has 
be5 a movem5t f /atus to contract4  ,he 
meant t 9 primitive times all m5 _h _!  
c>e]s virtually  det]m9$ = !m by !      
/ation 9 :i* !y 7 born4 ,! *ild (  a    

noble became a nobleman2 ! *ild ( a     
peasant rema9$ a peasant  ?r\gh life4 ,9
 mod]n economic society ! individual's  
own ef=ts1  ex]t$ ?r\gh 8 fre$om to     
contract ) o!rs = 8 own  advantage1 c\nt
 f> m heavily 9 det]m9+ 8 ultimate      
/ation 9  life4    ,sid5ote3 ,:y !      
in/itution ( private prop]ty is ma9ta9$4
    ,private ,prop]ty4--,fre$om (       
contract w\ld prove a poor inc5tive to  
progress 7 x n accompani$ by a provision
 :]eby indu/ri\s m5  c enjoy ! fruits ( 
_! labor & ?rift4 ,h5ce we gu>antee to  
e man n only ! "r to e>n b ! "r to save1
 = future  enjoym5t1 a portion ( 8      
e>n+s4 ,^! sav+s become 8 prop]ty  & )9 
c]ta9 limits he may use !m z he pleases4
 ,he may utilize  8 sav+s dur+ 8 own    
lifetime or leave !m to 8 *ildr5 :5  he 
dies4 ,sav+s may take ! =m ( private    
prop]ty 9 l& &  build+s1 or movable     
goods1 or su* inve/m5ts z bonds1 /ocks1 
mortgages1 & bank deposits4 ,prop]ty 9  
l& & build+s is commonly  kn[n z real   
prop]ty or real e/ate4 ,all o!r =ms (   

prop]ty are  call$ p]sonal prop]ty4     
,sometimes we di/+ui% betwe5 two k9ds  (
 p]sonal prop]ty1 tangible1 :i* includes
 all goods & *attels1  & intangible1 :i*
 comprises /ocks1 bonds1 mortgages1     
notes1  deposits1 & o!r obligations4    
,! in/itution ( private prop]ty is !    
basis ( our :ole economic  sy/em4 ,no   
nation has ev] enjoy$ indu/rial         
prosp]ity = any l5g?  ( "t )\t recogniz+
 ! "r ( private prop]ty4 ,de/roy ?is  "r
 & y take away :at n[ con/itutes ! *ief 
inc5tive to  labor1 sav+1 & indu/rial   
effici5cy4 ,"u a sociali/ic sy/em1  :i* 
w\ld ei!r aboli% or l>gely curtail ?is  
"r ( private  prop]ty1 x is argu$ t o!r 
inc5tives w\ld take ! place ( !  motive 
n[ furni%$ by private prop]ty & t m5    
w\ld keep on  work+ & organiz+ ev5 if   
private prop]ty 7 entirely aboli%$2  b  
?is is a l>ge "q & its discussion mu/ be
 relegat$ to a  lat] *apt]4    ,sid5ote3
 ,! "r ( private prop]ty is subject to  
re/rictions4    ,9 any case mo/ m5 are  
n[ agre$ t ! "r ( private prop]ty  _c be

 left unfett]$2 x mu/ be gu>d$ aga9/    
abuse4 ,society  _c wisely p]mit x to /&
 z an ob/acle to ! g5]al int]e/4  ,ev5 !
 "r ( private prop]ty1 !re=e1 mu/ b5d to
 ! good (  ! community4 ,m5 are all[$ to
 own prop]ty because _! do+ s  promotes 
! well-be+ ( ! :ole p2 ! "r %\ld n g    
fur!r ?an t4 ,x is = ?is reason t we    
place v>i\s  re/rictions ^u ! "r (      
private prop]ty1 re/rictions 9 !  int]e/
 ( ! public heal?1 or = protection aga9/
 fire1 or =  ! pres]vation ( public     
morals4 ,no "o has ! "r to own &  ma9ta9
 prop]ty t con/itutes a public nuisance1
 su* z an  unsanit>y t5em5t h\se1 =     
example1 or a build+ t =ms a fire  trap4
 ,! "r ( private prop]ty is entitl$ to  
respect only 9 s  f> z x is ex]cis$ 9   
keep+ ) its prime purpose1 :i* is to    
advance ! int]e/s ( ! :ole p by giv+ ea*
 individual a  suffici5t inc5tive to "w 
& to save4                              
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,h4 ,c4 ,,adams1    
,description ( ,indu/ry1 pp4 #c-aag2 ,f4
 ,w4 ,,taussig1  ,pr9ciples (           

,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #a-aaj2 ,h4   
,r4 ,,seag]1  ,introduction to          
,economics1 #d? ed41 pp4 #a-aba2 ,r4 ,t4
 ,,ely1 ,outl9es (  ,economics1 #crd    
ed41 pp4 #a-ih2 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1      
,introduction to ! ,/udy  ( ,economics1 
pp4 #aae-agi2 #cge-dca2 ,h4 ,r4 ,,bur*1 
,am]ican ,economic  ,life1 pp4 #a-cg2   
#ga-hj2 #cae-cce2 ,t4 ,n4 ,,c>v]1       
,pr9ciples ( ,national  ,economy1 pp4   
#c-df4                                  
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! effects (     
division ( labor & ! ways 9 :i* we may  
reta9  its advantages :ile r$uc+ its    
detrim5tal effects4 ,h[ division (      
labor arose4 ,! ext5t to :i* x is n[    
c>ri$ 9 indu/ry4 ,its  physical effects4
 ,social1 political1 & economic effects4
 ,its value4  ,h[ its defects c be      
ov]come4 ,! r$uction ( h\rs 9 c]ta9     
indu/ries4 ,vocational education = !    
work]4 ,! re/riction (  *ild labor4 ,!  
bett] organization ( ! labor m>ket4     
,recreation =  ! work]s aft] "w-h\rs4 ,!
 m]its & practical difficulties (  ea*  

plan4 ,ref]5ces3 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1     
,pr9ciples ( ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1  pp4 
#cj-dh2 ,?irte5? annual report ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates ,commission]  ( ,labor on 
,h& & ,ma*9e ,labor 7= illu/rative      
mat]ial72 ,h4 ,r4  ,,seag]1             
,introduction to ,economics1 pp4        
#aec-aeh2 ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,!  ,evolution 
( ,indu/rial ,society1 pp4 #cih-dbd4    
,see also ! ref]5ces  giv5 at end (     
*apt]s ,,xx-,,xxi 9 ?is book4    #b4 ,! 
ju/ification ( private prop]ty4         
,ref]5ces3 ,l4 ,c4 ,,m>%all1  ,read+s 9 
,indu/rial ,society1 pp4 #add-bbc2      
#idg-ihh2 ,,john ,m4 ,,meckl91          
,introduction to ,social ,e?ics1 pp4    
#cjb-cbb2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel& & ,,joseph  
,,s*af]1 ,democracy 9 ,recon/ruction1   
pp4 #fi-ie2 ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c]1  ,social   
,/atics1 pp4 #fb-fe4                    
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,our *ief economic 
wants4 ,l4 ,c4 ,,m>%all1 ,read+s 9      
,indu/rial  ,society1 pp4 #i-ae2        
#bgj-bgg2 #hbh-hcc2 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1  
,introduction to  ! ,/udy ( ,economics1 

pp4 #gi-hg4    #b4 ,economic ideals4 ,h4
 ,r4 ,,bur*1 ,am]ican ,economic ,life1  
pp4 #ag-bg4    #c4 ,is labor a          
commodity8 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1           
,introduction to ! ,/udy (  ,economics1 
pp4 #dcb-dcf4    #d4 ,! relation ( wages
 to ! /&>d ( liv+4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,bur*1      
,am]ican ,economic ,life1 pp4 #dg-ef2   
,j4 ,h4 ,,hammond & ,j4 ,w4 ,,j5ks1     
,great ,am]ican ,issues1 pp4 #hc-if4    
#e4 ,h[ capital is accumulat$4 ,r4 ,t4  
,,ely1 ,outl9es ( ,economics1 pp4       
#aaf-acj4    #f4 ,! place ( capital 9   
mod]n agriculture1 indu/ry1 & comm]ce4  
,l4 ,c4 ,,m>%all1 ,read+s 9 ,indu/rial  
,society1 pp4 #aed-bab4    #g4 ,natural 
monopolies4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1          
,introduction to ! ,/udy (  ,economics1 
pp4 #cji-cbd4    #h4 ,fre$om ( contract4
 ,l4 ,c4 ,,m>%all1 ,read+s 9 ,indu/rial 
,society1 pp4 #egj-egd4    #i4 ,?rift z 
a national asset4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel& &   
,,joseph ,,s*af]1  ,democracy 9         
,recon/ruction1 pp4 #bdd-bfb4    #aj4 ,!
 place ( luxury 9 economic life4 ,t4 ,n4

 ,,c>v]1 ,pr9ciples (  ,national        
,economy1 pp4 #ehd-eig4                 
,que/ions    #a4 ,make a li/ ( ! *ief   
human wants t exi/$ a ?\s& ye>s  ago4   
,also a li/ ( ! pr9cipal human wants ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates  today4 ,"n ! ones t are 
freely satisfi$ by nature4    #b4 ,:at  
is meant by 8economic goods08 ,:i* ( !  
foll[+ ?+s are  economic goods1 & :i*   
are n3 a phonograph record2 opium2 !    
sunk5 ,lusitania2 a silv] doll>2 a      
,lib]ty bond2 electricity2 ,mr4         
,bryan's skill z an orator2 des]t l& 9 !
 middle ( ,africa2 we$s  9 a :eat field2
 a wide acqua9tance among bus9ess m52 a 
t5 doll>  bill2 a public p>k2 a b&      
conc]t2 ke5 eyesight2 a cask ( rum8     
,give  y\r reasons 9 ea* case4    #c4   
,give "s examples ( ! production (      
economic goods 7a7 )\t  ! use ( labor or
 capital2 7b7 ) labor b )\t capital2 7c7
  ) capital b )\t labor4    #d4 ,expla9 
:at "o w\ld mean by speak+ ( !          
8productive  consumption ( weal?04 ,give
 "s examples4    #e4 ,is division (     

labor c>ri$ z f> 9 agriculture z 9      
indu/ry8  ,are ! evils ( division (     
labor z great 9 c\ntry di/ricts z 9     
t[ns & cities8 ,:at rem$ies w\ld y      
sugge/ to c\nt]balance !  monotony (    
indu/rial labor8    #f4 ,:i* ( ! v>i\s  
productive factors are mo/ important 9  
7a7  %eep rais+2 7b7 bank+2 7c7 ! co9+ (
 money2 7d7 tra9+  a brass b&2 7e7 sell+
 newspap]s on ! /reet8    #g4 ,h[ w\ld y
 e/imate ! gr\nd r5t ( a piece ( l&1    
situat$  on ! ma9 bus9ess /reet ( a l>ge
 city1 ) a /ore built ^u x8    #h4 ,w\ld
 an increase 9 ! price ( :eat lead to a 
rise 9 ! g5]al  rate ( r5tal paid = f>m 
l& or w\ld a rise 9 ! g5]al rate (      
r5tal cause ! price ( :eat to g up8     
#i4 ,:y is !re m capital 9 ! ,unit$     
,/ates ?an 9 ,*9a al?\gh  ! population (
 ,*9a is ?ree times z l>ge8    #aj4 ,if 
all paym5t ( int]e/ 7 =bidd5 by law1    
w\ld p  cont9ue to save8 ,if n1 :y does 
sav+ sometimes increase :5 !  rate (    
int]e/ goes d[n8    #aa4 ,:y are ea* ( !
 foll[+ paid a high or a l[ rate (      

remun]ation z ! case may be3 7a7 a      
locomotive eng9e]2 7b7 a  hod c>ri]2 7c7
 a movie actor2 7d7 a memb] ( ! /ate    
legislature2 7e7 a /eeple jack2 7f7 a   
corporation lawy]8    #ab4 ,to :at      
diff]5t ?+s may a fall 9 wages be due8  
,a fall 9  pr(its8 ,if all l>ge         
production c\ld be elim9at$1 w\ld we be 
worse  or bett] (f8    #ac4 ,if all m5 7
 ( equal bus9ess ability & _h ! same    
opportunities1 w\ld !re be any bus9ess  
pr(its8    #ad4 ,:at are ! advantages ( 
a corporation z comp>$ ) a  p>tn]%ip8   
#ae4 ,9 :at ways is democracy likely to 
enhance production to a great]  degree  
?an despotism8    #af4 ,c y ?9k ( some?+
 possess+ value b n utility8 ,utility  b
 n value8 ,bo? value & utility b hav+ no
 price8    #ag4 ,:at is meant by ! say+ 
t 8competition is ! life ( trade08      
#ah4 ,make a li/ ( all ! natural        
monopolies t y c rememb]4 ,h[  may !    
evils ( legal & artificial monopolies be
 less5$8    #ai4 ,h[ is fre$om (        
contract relat$ to ! in/itution (       

private  prop]ty8 ,d y ?9k y w\ld look  
=w>d to great] or less  happ9ess 9 life 
if all private prop]ty 7 n[ to be       
aboli%$8    #bj4 ,:i* ( ! foll[+ are    
prop] limitations on ! fre$om (         
contract or ! "r ( private prop]ty3 7a7 
a rule t billbo>ds  mu/ n be built (    
wood2 7b7 a provision t no "o %all buy  
or  sell explosives )\t a lic5se2 7c7 a 
regulation t no own] ( a  city lot %all 
build on x any build+ co/+ less ?an t5  
?\s&  doll>s2 7d7 a requirem5t t no "o  
sell cig>ettes to p]sons  "u sixte5 ye>s
 ( age8                                 
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,labor         
contributes m ?an managem5t to national 
prosp]ity4    #b4 ,high prices are an   
advantage 7or a disadvantage7 to !      
work]s (  ! ,unit$ ,/ates4    #c4 ,e    
e>n] ( income %\ld be requir$ to save a 
c]ta9 portion  ( 8 e>n+s ea* ye>1 ?us   
mak+ all m5 capitali/s z well z  work]s4
                                        
,,*apt] ,,iv                     ,,!    
,,nature ,,& ,,=ms ,,( ,,gov]nm5t       

,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to expla9 :at 
gov]nm5t is1 h[      x orig9at$1 :y p   
obey x1 & :at its functions are4        
,sid5ote3 ,v>i\s uses ( ! ^w 8/ate04    
,:at is ! ,/ate8--,! ^w 8/ate0 is s %ort
 & simple t  ev]ybody is assum$ to "k j 
:at x means4 ,& 9 a g5]al way  ev]yone  
does "k :at x means4 ,b x is us$ 9 m ?an
 "o s5se  & ) a good deal ( latitude4   
,:5 we speak1 = example1 ( !            
8newly-creat$ /ates ( ,europe0 we mean  
,pol&1 ,cze*o-,slovakia1 &              
,jugo-,slavia4 ,! t]m 8/ate01 s us$1    
designates a c\ntry ) an  indep5d5t     
political exi/5ce4 ,b we also speak ( 8!
 /ates ( !  ,union01 by :i* we mean     
m]ely ! political divisions ( a s+le    
c\ntry4 ,!n1 aga91 "o frequ5tly enc\nt]s
 su* expressions z 8a  /atesman :o s]v$ 
! /ate0 or 8/ate control ( railroads01  
or 8!  relations betwe5 ,*ur* & ,/ate04 
,to :at does ! t]m 9 su* cases  ref]8   
,"h ! expression is us$ 9 a g5]ic s5se  
to include  politically organiz$        
society1 & ^? :o s use x are ?9k+ m     

p>ticul>ly ( ! political ag5cies ?r\gh  
:i* organiz$ society  acts4    ,sid5ote3
 ,a g5]al def9ition4    ,a simple       
def9ition w cov] all ^! uses ( ! t]m4 ,a
 /ate is a  body ( p1 possess+ a def9ite
 t]ritory1 & politically  organiz$4     
,t]ritory is ess5tial4 ,! ,jews = _m    
c5turies did n  con/itute a /ate because
 !y _h no t]ritory ( _! own4 ,n[ !y  are
 once m 9 ! way ( obta9+ a national     
homel&4 ,population is  also ess5tial4  
,! t]ritory ar\nd ! ,s\? ,pole does n =m
 a  /ate because x is un9habit$4 ,& a   
political organization1 a  gov]nm5t1 is 
! ?ird ess5tial4 ,! t]ritory :i* is n[ !
  ,unit$ ,/ates did n =m a /ate be=e !  
fir/ ,european settl]s  rea*$ x1 =1     
al?\gh x 0 inhabit$1 ! savages :o roam$ 
ov]  its va/ expanses 7 n politically   
organiz$4 ,!y _h1 = ! mo/  "p1 nei!r    
gov]nm5t nor laws4 ,p]sons1 t]ritory1 & 
organization--^! are ! ess5tial         
attributes ( a /ate4    ,! ,gov]nm5t &  
:y we obey x4--,by ! gov]nm5t we mean ! 
v>i\s (ficials & bodies by :om ! p are  

rul$4 ,by !  gov]nm5t ! w ( ! /ate is   
c>ri$ out4 ,b :y %\ld p  obey a         
gov]nm5t8 ,we obey ! rules ( volunt>y   
organizations because  we are free to   
jo9 !m or n2 b no individual is free to 
disobey  ! laws or to rema9 alo( f !    
control ( 8 gov]nm5t4 ,by :at  "r does !
 gov]nm5t take money f u 9 taxes1 call  
^u u =  s]vice 9 w>1 compel u to adju/  
all our controv]sies 9 its c\rts1  &    
insi/ t we obey its laws8    ,sid5ote3  
,! div9e "r doctr9e4    ,two !ories h   
be5 (f]$ to ju/ify ! gov]nm5t's "r to ! 
ob$i5ce ( ! p4 ,! fir/ is kn[n z ! !ory 
( div9e  "r4 ,accord+ to ?is idea all   
gov]nm5tal au?ority 0 orig9ally  be/[$  
^u ! rul]s by ! ,creator4 ,& hav+       
receiv$ _!  au?ority f ,god1 ! rul]s 7 n
 responsible to ! p4 ,?is  !ory (       
gov]nm5tal au?ority is v old1 z old z ! 
,t5  ,comm&m5ts & probably old]4 ,x 0   
argu$ t k+s rul$ &  pr9ces gov]n$ by    
div9e "r because 8! p[]s t be are       
orda9$ ( ,god04 ,?is doctr9e ( ! div9e  
"r ( rul]s 0  ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ! m$iaeval

 p]iod & 0 put =? by !  ,/u>t k+s (     
,engl& z a ju/ification ( _! despotic   
rule4#ag    ,sid5ote3 ,! 8cons5t ( !    
gov]n$04    ,! o!r !ory1 :i* is t       
gov]nm5t has its f\ndation 9 !  8cons5t 
( ! gov]n$01 appe>$ 9 ! writ+s ( !      
,engli%  philosoph]1 ,john ,locke1 dur+ 
! sev5te5? c5tury & 0  incorporat$ into 
! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce ab\t "o     
hundr$  ye>s lat]4 ,:5 ! ,/u>t dyna/y 0 
f9ally expell$ f !  ?rone ( ,engl&1 !   
new sov]eigns 7 decl>$ to be rul]s      
8accord+ to ! desire & resolution (     
p>liam5t01 9 o!r words  by ! cons5t ( ! 
,engli% p ?r\gh _! repres5tatives4      
,s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! !ory
 t gov]nm5t  re/s on ! cons5t ( ! gov]n$
 has be5 accept$ 9 all democratic       
c\ntries4    ,sid5ote3 ,:at ! cons5t ( !
 gov]n$ implies4    ,n[ if we hold ?is  
doctr9e to be s\nd1 z mo/ m5 d today1 x 
foll[s t :5 p e/abli% a gov]nm5t by _!  
own cons5t1  !y are "u obligation to    
submit to its au?ority4 ,e "r  imposes a
 duty4 ,! "r to frame a con/itution & to

 adopt x z !  basis ( a new gov]nm5t    
c>ries ! duty ( support+ !  con/itution 
& uphold+ ! h&s ( ^? :o ex]cise au?ority
  "u x4 ,! p :o claim ! "r to make !    
laws mu/ be ready  to obey ^! laws :5 !y
 are made4 ,:5 m5 & wom5 by _! own      
cons5t e/abli% a gov]nm5t !y d ?is      
because !y expect to  obta9 "s          
advantages su* z security1 peace1 &     
ord]4 ,9 return =  ^! advantages !y mu/ 
expect to yield ob$i5ce1 pay taxes1     
adju/  _! diff]5ces 9 ! c\rts1 & d      
:atev] else a gov]nm5t  reasonably      
requires4    ,sid5ote3 ,! social        
contract !ory4    ,h[ ,gov]nm5t         
,began4--,b admitt+ t gov]nm5t re/s on !
  cons5t ( ! gov]n$1 h[ 0 ?is cons5t    
obta9$1 & h[ did !  fir/ gov]nm5t come  
into exi/5ce8 ,"h1 aga91 !re are two    
!ories z to :at happ5$4 ,! fir/ is t !  
/ate & gov]nm5t  orig9at$ 9 a 8social   
contract04 ,primitive m51 liv+ 9 a      
condition  ( political *aos1 made a     
g5]al cov5ant1 by :i* !y creat$ a       
sov]eign p[] to rule !m4 ,?is idea is z 

old z ! days ( ,plato1  b x did n take  
/rong hold on ! m9ds ( m5 until a few   
c5turies ago4 ,x 0 put =w>d by ,?omas   
,hobbes 9 ,engl& to def5d  absolutism1 8
 argum5t be+ t to de?rone a k+ 0 to     
break !  contract ^u :i* ! /ate _h be5  
f\nd$4 ,on ! o!r h& x 0  us$ by ,john   
,locke to prove t ! p ( ,engl& _h a "r  
to  de?rone a mon>* if ! mon>* fail$ to 
abide by ! t]ms ( !  social contract1 & 
^? :o comp>e c]ta9 passages 9 ,locke's  
book  ) ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce w   
see t ! fram]s ( t  d>+ docum5t 7 mu*   
influ5c$ by 8 ass]tions4 ,ev5 9 ,am]ica 
! contract !ory took a /rong hold4 ,!   
,mayfl[] pilgrims1 ly+  (f ! rock-b\nd  
%ores ( ,new ,engl&1 drew up & sign$ a  
=mal  docum5t :]e9 !y solemnly cov5ant$ 
& comb9$ !mselves into a  8civil body   
politic04 ,! doctr9e f\nd frequ5t       
expression 9 !  writ+s ( ,jeff]son &    
,madison2 b :ile x af=d$ an excell5t    
basis = argum5ts 9 def5ce ( revolutions 
aga9/ despotism !  !ory t ! /ate _h its 
orig9 9 a social contract has long s9ce 

be5 ab&on$ z unhi/orical4 ,x assumes t  
primitive m5 7 free  & equal individuals
 subject to no pat]nal au?ority1 :]eas1 
z a  matt] ( hi/ory1 fre$om & equality  
among m5 arose only aft]  /ates _h be5  
=m$4    ,sid5ote3 ,! !ory ( political   
evolution4    ,! true explanation ( h[  
gov]nm5t began is to be f\nd by apply+  
to ! /udy ( political sci5ce ! me?ods ( 
biology4 ,we d n "k  exactly :]e or :5 !
 fir/ gov]nm5t came into exi/5ce1 b we  
d "k t all political in/itutions are !  
result ( a gradual  evolution or        
developm5t4    ,we h already se5 t !    
e>lie/ social unit is ! family--a small 
gr\p ( individuals b\nd toge!r by       
intimate ties4 ,b ! family 0  b "o unit 
9 a l>g] gr\p1 ! clan1 made up (        
families assum$ to  be desc5d$ f a      
common ance/or4 ,! v>i\s clans unit$ to 
=m  ! tribe :i*1 z an organization1 re/$
 ^u a common race1  language1 &         
religion4 ,^! tribes1 al?\gh at fir/    
rov+ bodies1  w&]+ f place to place1 at 
l5g? acquir$ "s def9ite  t]ritory &     

settl$ p]man5tly !re4 ,! beg9n+s ( a    
/ate 7  !n at h& & ) ! /ate1 or ev5 be=e
 x1 came gov]nm5t4 ,9  all probability t
 is ! process ?r\gh :i* ! e>lie/        
gov]nm5ts came into be+1--a process     
ext5d+ ?r\gh _m  g5]ations4 ,! tribal   
*iefs became k+s & pass$ on ! k+%ip  to 
_! sons4 ,z "t w5t on ! k+s ga!r$ great]
 p[] until  despotism became ! cu/om>y  
=m ( gov]nm5t 9 mo/ c\ntries (  ! _w4 ,x
 0 n until ne> ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury
 t  ! _w began to %ake (f ! despotic    
au?ority ( k+s & to  e/abli% gov]nm5ts  
bas$ ^u ! cons5t ( ! p4    ,sid5ote3    
,ari/otle's classification4    ,!       
,classification ( ,gov]nm5ts4--,dur+ ?is
 long evolution f !  e>ly tribal        
organizations d[n to ! complex gov]nm5ts
 ( !  pres5t day _m =ms ( rule h be5    
tri$ 9 v>i\s c\ntries4  ,ev5 9 anci5t   
,greece ! philosoph] ,ari/otle 0 able to
 divide  /ates into six classes1 ?ree ( 
:i* he call$ normal types &  ?ree       
p]v]t$4 ,:]e political p[] 0 lodg$ 9 !  
h&s ( a  s+le individual1 he call$ !    

/ate a mon>*y2 :]e x 0 lodg$  ) a few m5
 he call$ x an ari/ocracy2 & :]e x 0    
ve/$ 9  _m h&s he call$ x a democracy4  
,ea* ( ^! normal types _h its           
correspond+ p]v]sion or trave/y4 ,a     
p]v]t$ mon>*y he t]m$  despotism2 a     
p]v]t$ ari/ocracy he t]m$ olig>*y2 & a  
p]v]t$  democracy he call$ a demagogism 
or /ate rul$ by mob me?ods4 ,?is  me?od 
( classify+ /ates is ( little value     
today & w\ld be 9  _m ways mislead+4    
,sid5ote3 ,mon>*ies & republics4        
,mod]n /ates are m commonly class$ z    
mon>*ies & republics4  ,! =m] includes  
^? 9 :i* ! *ief executive (fic] ( !     
/ate--be he k+1 emp]or1 or o!r          
pot5tate--holds 8 position by  h]$it>y  
"r2 ! latt] includes ^? 9 :i* he is     
select$ 9  "s o!r way4 ,b ev5 ?is       
classification is n v enlight5+4  ,x    
does n tell u any?+ def9ite ab\t !      
degree ( actual control  :i* ! p ( a    
/ate ex]cise ov] _! gov]nm5t4 ,9 "s     
mon>*ies l ,great ,brita9 ! p[] ( ! p1  
ex]cis$ ?r\gh  _! repres5tatives1 is v  

great2 9 "s republics1 9 ,*9a =         
example1 ?is p[] is v slight4 ,! t]m    
republic is n[adays f>  f be+ synonym\s 
) democracy2 nor is ! t]m mon>*y        
incompatible ) x4 ,v>i\s s-t]m$         
republics ( ,c5tral & ,s\?  ,am]ica h   
be5 9 fact little m ?an milit>y         
despotisms4    ,sid5ote3 ,national &    
f$]al /ates4    ,ano!r classification1  
mu* m useful1 is t :i* sep>ates         
national f f$]al /ates4 ,by ! =m] t]m we
 mean a unifi$  /ate ) a s+le gov]nm5t  
:i* rea*es d[n directly to !  citiz54   
,great ,brita9 is a national /ate ) a   
mon>*ical =m (  gov]nm5t2 ,france is    
also a national /ate ) a republican =m (
  gov]nm5t4 ,a f$]al /ate1 on ! o!r h&1 
is an agglom]ation (  small] /ates1 ea* 
( :i* reta9s its own gov]nm5t b ) a     
c5tral gov]nm5t possess+ c]ta9 p[]s ov] 
!m all4 ,! ,g]man  empire1 a few ye>s   
ago1 0 an example ( a f$]al /ate "u a   
mon>*ical =m ( gov]nm5t1 :ile ! ,unit$  
,/ates af=ds an  illu/ration ( f$]alism 
) republican in/itutions4 ,?is          

classification is wor? :ile1 = x tells u
 some?+ tangible ab\t  ! /ates s        
classifi$4 ,:5 we say t a /ate is ( !   
f$]al  type we imply t x has two sph]es 
( gov]nm5t )9 x2 t is  has a writt5     
con/itution def9+ ^! sph]es2 t ! upp]   
h\se  ( its p>liam5t or legislature 9 "s
 way repres5ts ! compon5t  units ( !    
f$]ation & t x has1 9 all probability1  
"s  p[]ful arbit] su* z a supreme c\rt  
to decide conflicts (  au?ority betwe5 !
 nation & its compon5t p>ts4            
,practically all  f$]al /ates1 at any   
rate1 h ^! political *>act]i/ics4 ,"o   
_c imag9e a successful f$]al /ate )\t a 
writt5  con/itution1 )\t division (     
political p[]s1 )\t "s  exi/+ au?ority  
to decide betwe5 ! respective claims ( !
 :ole  & its p>ts4    ,sid5ote3 ,true & 
false democracies4    ,b ! mo/ important
 ?+ t a /ud5t ( gov]nm5t ought to "k    
ab\t any /ate is :e!r x m]ely possesses 
! =ms ( democracy or  :e!r ! p 9 fact   
control ! gov]nm5t4 ,ne>ly all          
pres5t-day /ates h ! ext]nal =ms (      

democracy1 t is to say1  !y h           
repres5tative legislatures or p>liam5ts 
:i* bulk l>ge 9  ! g5]al s*eme (        
gov]nm5t4 ,b z to ! actualities (       
democracy1 ! ext5t to :i* ^!            
repres5tative bodies really direct  &   
control ! affairs ( /ate1 !re is a      
consid]able diff]5ce  among ! nations4  
,a classification ( /ates f ?is po9t (  
view  c be made only aft] a c>eful /udy 
( _! actual gov]nm5ts4 ,x  is n ! =m (  
gov]nm5t :i* makes a democracy1 b ! way 
9  :i* popul> control ( public affairs  
is actually secur$ &  su/a9$4           
,sid5ote3 ,! spread ( democracy4    ,is 
,democracy ! ,be/ ,=m (                 
,gov]nm5t8--,dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s        
democracy has be5 rapidly ga9+ gr\nd4 ,!
 gov]nm5ts ( ,g]many1  ,au/ria1 ,hung>y1
 ,pol&1 & o!r c\ntries h be5 recon/ruct$
 9  su* way z to give !m1 outw>dly at   
any rate1 ! rank ( democratic  /ates4 ,b
 9 spite ( ?is ph5om5al progress1 :i*   
came on !  heels ( ! ,_w ,w>1 x rema9s a
 fact t m ?an half !  population ( ! _w 

is /ill liv+ "u sy/ems ( gov]nm5t  :i* !
 p d n control4 ,! _w has n yet be5 made
 safe  = democracy1 nor half ( x4       
,?is sugge/s ! "q :e!r democracy is !   
be/ =m (  gov]nm5t = all races & "u all 
circum/ances4 ,is x be/ =  backw>d      
races1 = races only p>tly civiliz$8 ,is 
x ! be/ sy/em  = p :o h _h v little     
political exp]i5ce1 su* z !  ,egyptians1
 ! ,*9ese1 & ! ,filip9os8 ,are we q     
c]ta91 9  fact1 t x is ! be/ =m (       
gov]nm5t = fully civiliz$  mank9d8 ,mo/ 
p h always felt sure t democracy is !   
ne>e/  approa* to an ideal =m (         
gov]nm5t1 b if y ask _! reasons  = ?is  
belief1 y w frequ5tly f9d t !y h nev]   
?\ght  ( any reasons4 ,democracy has be5
 & is be+ sev]ely criticiz$ by  v>i\s   
writ]s :o decl>e t x m]ely places       
political p[] 9 !  h&s ( ! ignorant &   
un?9k+ masses1 t x leads to             
wa/efulness1 extravagance1 & corruption1
 t x fo/]s incompet5ce  9 public (fice1 
& t x results 9 woeful misgov]nm5t4#ah  
,n[ x is q true t democracy does all ?is

 9 "s cases1 b  h[ev] grave ! indictm5t 
may be1 ! fri5ds ( democracy c always   
answ]3 8,:at bett] alt]native d y (f]80 
,! great ,italian  /atesman1 ,cav\r1    
once rem>k$ t1 :atev] faults x might h1 
a  legislative *amb] 0 bett] ?an a k+'s 
ante*amb]4 ,!  ju/ification ( democracy 
is t x ensures1 n necess>ily ! be/      
gov]nm5t1 or ev5 good gov]nm5t2 b ! sort
 ( gov]nm5t !  p e>n = !mselves4 ,a     
/ream does n rise high] ?an its  s\rce4 
,nor c a repres5tative gov]nm5t rea* any
 high] level ?an  t on :i* ! p ma9ta9 x4
 ,x w reflect ! intellig5ce1  hone/y1 & 
patriotism ( ! gov]n$4 ,t is "o reason  
:y we  %\ld n apply to backw>d races !  
same pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t  :i* we apply 
to m civiliz$ p4 ,democracy is ! be/ =m 
(  gov]nm5t = ^? :o are able to gov]n   
!mselves1 b ?is does  n include all ! p 
( ! e>? by any means4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ a
 gov]nm5t fulfils its purpose4    ,!    
,purpose ( ,gov]nm5t4--,hav+ se5 h[     
gov]nm5ts orig9at$1  :at =ms !y h       
assum$1 & :y !y ought to be obey$1 x may

 be  well to ask ourselves3 ,:at is !   
purpose ( gov]nm5t8 ,:at ends does  x   
s]ve8    ,! purpose ( gov]nm5t is to    
promote ! int]e/s ( ea* by  promot+ !   
int]e/s ( all4 ,?is end x seeks to atta9
 9 v>i\s  ways4 ,x protects ! :ole body 
( its p aga9/ ext]nal  aggression1 aga9/
 =eign invasion4 ,x also 9 ?is          
connection  ma9ta9s ! rights & lib]ties 
( its citiz5s aga9/ wrongful  int]f]5ce 
on ! "p ( =eign /ates or citiz5s4 ,x is 
= ?is  purpose t armies & navies are    
ma9ta9$4 ,! gov]nm5t safegu>ds  its own 
citiz5s f inju/ice at ! h&s ( "o ano!r4 
,?is x  does by laws :i* def9e !        
relations ( individuals to "o ano!r1  & 
( "o gr\p ( individuals to o!r gr\ps4   
,^! laws prescribe  ! relations ( husb& 
& wife1 ( p>5t & *ild1 ( l&lord &       
t5ant1 ( employ] & employee1 (          
(fice-hold] & citiz5--!y  def9e &       
regulate e p]son's rights & duties t[>ds
 o!rs4 ,9  ord] t we may ex]cise our    
rights & p]=m our duties we mu/  fir/ "k
 :at !y are4 ,! /ate1 ?r\gh its laws1   

tells u4 ,?r\gh  its c\rts1 moreov]1 x  
applies su* pressure ^u reluctant       
individuals z may be necess>y to make ^!
 rights & duties real4 ,9  a ^w1        
gov]nm5t exi/s to en=ce rights & to     
secure lib]ty4    ,sid5ote3 ,relation ( 
gov]nm5t to individual rights4    ,7 e  
individual immune f ! jurisdiction ( any
 sup]ior  au?ority1 & free to d z he    
pleas$1 he w\ld h to accord e  o!r      
individual ! same immunity & ! same     
fre$om4 ,he w\ld !n  h no rights t      
anyone else w\ld be b\nd to respect4 ,he
 w\ld h  no lib]ty t o!rs c\ld n1 by    
=ce1 take away f him4 ,he w\ld  h no    
security aga9/ viol5ce to 8 p]son or    
prop]ty4 ,!  /r5g? ( 8 own /rong arm    
w\ld be 8 only protection4 ,:at a       
condition ( *aos1 inju/ice1 blood%$1 &  
an>*y t w\ld be6    ,sid5ote3 ,!        
con/ructive "w ( gov]nm5t4    ,n all !  
gov]nm5t's "w1 h[ev]1 takes ! =m (      
protection &  regulation4 ,its functions
 are con/ructive z well4 ,?r\gh its     
v>i\s  dep>tm5ts x actively promotes !  

g5]al int]e/ & !reby !  int]e/s ( ea*   
citiz54 ,x n only protects ! public     
heal? by  regulations & re/rictions2 x  
fo/]s & promotes ?+s t help  to raise ! 
g5]al /&>ds ( heal? among ! p4 ,x does n
  m]ely make rules to prev5t %ips f     
collid+ ) "o ano!r2 x  sets out buoys & 
beacons1 builds ligh?\ses1 & ma9ta9s    
life-sav+ /ations4 ,x does n m]ely      
protect agriculture by  regulations to  
prev5t ! spread ( noxi\s we$s & pe/s2 x 
actively assi/s ! improvem5t (          
agriculture by means ( exp]im5t  /ations
 & ! di/ribution ( educational          
lit]ature4 ,! gov]nm5t1  inde$1 is !    
greate/ ( all ! ag5cies ?r\gh :i*       
society  und]takes its tasks ( us+ !    
res\rces ( nature to ! be/  advantage1  
elim9at+ friction & wa/e1 adju/+ !      
conflict+  claims ( individuals1 & giv+ 
to ea* & all an equal opportunity4      
,sid5ote3 ,! citiz5's obligations to 8  
gov]nm5t4    ,f all ?is x ought to be   
app>5t t ! /ate & its gov]nm5t  are !   
ag5cies ?r\gh :i* ! individual obta9s   

rights1  protection1 assi/ance1 &       
lib]ty4 ,b nei!r rights nor lib]ty c  be
 a*iev$ )\t incurr+ an obligation 9     
return4 ,to ! /ate1  :i* secures u      
rights & lib]ties1 we owe ! duty (      
patriotism4  ,patriotism is n a m]e     
s5tim5t4 ,x is a concrete expression1 by
  ?\ght1 ^w1 & act1 ( ! citiz5's respect
 = ! /ate to :i*  he belongs4 ,x %\ld be
 bas$ ^u recognition ( ! fact t )\t  !  
security1 ! ju/ice1 & ! fre$om :i* !    
/ate provides1  life w\ld n be wor?     
liv+4 ,patriotism is a mixture ( pride1 
gratitude1 & fai?1--pride 9 ! great     
community to :i* a man  belongs1        
gratitude = :at x is do+1 & fai? 9 :at x
 may d =  po/]ity4    ,sid5ote3 ,!      
limits ( gov]nm5tal action4    ,h[ ,f>  
%\ld ,gov]nm5ts ,g8--,"o ( ! live       
que/ions ( !  pres5t day conc]ns ! ext5t
 to :i* ! gov]nm5t ought to g 9  try+ to
 fulfil ^! v>i\s purposes4 ,%\ld x m]ely
 make laws1  co9 money1 e/abli% po/     
(fices1 ma9ta9 an army1 or %\ld x       
actively engage 9 su* activities z      

op]at+ ! railroads1 ! coal  m9es1 & ev5 
! factories ( ! c\ntry8 ,on ! "o h& !re 
are  ^? :o take an individuali/ic or    
laissez-faire attitude t[>ds  gov]nm5tal
 policy & ma9ta9 t ! gov]nm5t %\ld      
int]f]e z  little z possible ) ! daily  
life ( ! p4 ,x %\ld conf9e  itself1 !   
individuali/ claims1 to political matt]s
 purely1 leav+  economic affairs        
entirely alone4 ,at ! o!r extreme are ! 
sociali/s1 :o believe t ! gov]nm5t ought
 to /ep 9 &  directly control all       
important ag5cies ( production4 ,x %\ld 
own all  ! l&1 ! public utilities su* z 
railroads & telegraph l9es1  ! m9es1 &  
all ! ag5cies ( production 7pp4         
#dha-dhh74    ,bo? individualism &      
socialism repres5t extremes2 mo/ m5 take
 a  midway /& z reg>ds ! prop] functions
 ( gov]nm5t4 ,! greate/  good ( !       
greate/ numb] among ! p _c be secur$    
unless  ! gov]nm5t int]f]es to "s ext5t 
) ! free play ( economic  =ces4 ,x mu/  
prev5t gross inju/ice :]ev] gross       
inju/ice  appe>s4 ,no gov]nm5t fulfils  

its highe/ aim unless x becomes an      
ev]-active =ce 9 mak+ our common life m 
human & m fruitful  9 ! good w ( class  
t[>d class & ( man t[>d man4 ,on !  o!r 
h& x mu/ take c>e n to invade ! field ( 
private  ent]prise s f> z to take ^u    
itself great] burd5s ?an c be  prop]ly  
c>ri$4    ,too mu* gov]nm5t is z bad z  
too little4 ,9 a democracy1 :]e  public 
(ficials are *os5 by popul> vote1 (t5 ) 
little ref]5ce  to _! p]sonal ability1  
!re are obvi\s limits to :at a gov]nm5t 
c d & d well4 ,! individuali/ />ts ) !  
assumption t  gov]nm5ts are always      
ineffici5t :5 !y m$dle 9 affairs (      
ev]yday life4 ,! sociali/1 on ! o!r h&1 
assumes t  gov]nm5ts c always secure    
bett] results ?an private ent]prise 9   
any field ( economic activity4 ,! tru?1 
z usual1 lies betwe5 !  extremes4 ,to   
fix a rigid l9e betwe5 ! two sets (     
functions1 z "o  w\ld draw ! b\nd>y (   
two c\ntries on a map1 is impossible4   
,to  attempt ?is w\ld be to =get t      
civilization is ev] mov+ on1  br++ new  

social ne$s 9 its tra94 ,e proposal to  
ext5d !  functions ( gov]nm5t mu/ be    
det]m9$ on its own m]its & n  ^u ! basis
 ( its con=mance to any rule4           
,sid5ote3 ,gov]nm5t z a sci5ce4    ,!   
,_w a ,great ,laboratory = ,exp]im5ts 9 
,gov]nm5t4--,ev]y:]e  ?r\gh\t ! _w !    
process ( exp]im5t 9 =ms ( gov]nm5t is  
go+ on1 tw5ty-f\r h\rs a day1 9         
ceaseless r\nd4 ,& x has be5  go+ on = m
 ?an two ?\s& ye>s4 ,e exp]im5t 9       
political  organization t ! human m9d c 
sugge/ has _h1 or is hav+1 its  trial   
some:]e4 ,dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s we h se5  
e>?'s pr\d  empires pass away & new     
republics rise 9 _! /ead1 j z two  ?\s& 
ye>s ago ! great ,roman republic        
collaps$ & an empire took  its place4 ,!
 a/ronom] :o scans ! heav5s ) 8         
telescope  comm&s no su* laboratory (   
endless exp]im5t & sees no su*  cont9u\s
 panorama ( *ange z ! /ud5t :o wat*es ) 
nak$ eye  ! political activities ( 8    
fell[-m54 ,t is :at makes ! /udy  (     
gov]nm5t1 :5 c>efully pursu$1 ! mo/     

int]e/+ & mo/  in/ructive ( all /udies4 
8,on e>?01 z ! poet ,pope has said1     
8!re is no?+ great b man04 ,& x is 9 8  
organiz$ activities  t man %[s himself  
at 8 be/4                               
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,,james ,,bryce1    
,mod]n ,democracies1 especially ,vol4   
,i1 pp4 #bd-ej2 ,,ii1 pp4  #cce-faj2    
,,woodr[ ,,wilson1 ,! ,/ate1 pp4 #a-fh2 
,j4 ,q4 ,,dealy1 ,! ,/ate & ,gov]nm5t1  
pp4 #aai-aha2    ,j4 ,w4 ,,g>n]1        
,introduction to ,political ,sci5ce1 pp4
 #hf-bjd2    ,,/eph5 ,,leacock1 ,elem5ts
 ( ,political ,sci5ce1 pp4 #c-ea2       
#ada-aec2    ,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican      
,gov]nm5t4 7,see "u ,/ate ,gov]nm5t1    
,social  ,compact ,!ory1 ,sep>ation (   
,p[]s1 etc474                           
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,to :at ext5t    
%\ld ! gov]nm5t engage 9 bus9ess8 ,!    
orig9al functions ( gov]nm5t4 ,gr[? (   
gov]nm5tal activities4  ,ext5t (        
gov]nm5tal ent]prises 9 ,european       
c\ntries4 ,gov]nm5t  ent]prises 9       
,am]ica4 ,effects ( gov]nm5t ent]prises 

on private  initiative4 ,effects on !   
gov]nm5t itself4 ,relation ( gov]nm5t   
activities to ! ma9t5ance ( democracy4  
,conclusions4 ,ref]5ces3  ,j4 ,w4       
,,g>n]1 ,introduction to ,political     
,sci5ce1 pp4 #bgc-caj2 ,,woodr[         
,,wilson1 ,! ,/ate1 pp4 #da-eg2 ,,/eph5 
,,leacock1 ,elem5ts ( ,political        
,sci5ce1 pp4 #chf-dji2 ,j4 ,g4 ,,brooks1
 ,! ,social ,unre/1 pp4 #df-fg4    #b4  
,! faults ( democratic gov]nm5t4        
,ref]5ces ,e4 ,l4 ,,godk91 ,!  ,un=ese5 
,t5d5cies ( ,democracy1 pp4 #if-add2    
,,emile ,,faguet1 ,! ,cult  (           
,incompet5ce1 pp4 #ab-cf2 ,a4 ,m4       
,,kales1 ,unpopul> ,gov]nm5t 9 !  ,unit$
 ,/ates1 pp4 #ba-ij2 ,,alleyne ,,irel&1 
,democracy & ! ,human  ,equation1 pp4   
#hj-aah2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,cruik%ank1 ,popul>   
,misgov]nm5t 9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4    
#a-bg4    #c4 ,! m]its ( democratic     
gov]nm5t4 ,ref]5ces3 ,c4 ,w4 ,,eliot1   
,am]ican ,contributions to              
,civilization1 pp4 #a-ajb2 ,,james      
,,bryce1  ,mod]n ,democracies1          

especially1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ebg-faj2   
,j4 ,q4 ,,dealey1  ,! ,/ate & ,gov]nm5t1
 pp4 #cch-cec4                          
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,:at end does !    
/ate s]ve8 ,,woodr[ ,,wilson1 ,! ,/ate1 
pp4  #eh-fh4    #b4 ,! /ages 9 !        
developm5t ( gov]nm5t4 ,j4 ,q4 ,,dealey1
 ,!  ,/ate & ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bd-de4     
#c4 ,! div9e "r ( k+s4 ,r4 ,g4          
,,gettell1 ,read+s 9 ,political         
,sci5ce1 pp4 #aah-abj2 ,cyclop$ia (     
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4  #fje4 
#d4 ,! ,mayfl[] compact4 ,,william      
,,macdonald1 ,docum5t>y ,s\rce ,book  ( 
,am]ican ,hi/ory1 p4 #ai2 ,,edw>d       
,,*ann+1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates1    
,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cjh-caj4    #e4 ,does    
f$]alism mean weak gov]nm5t8 ,a4 ,v4    
,,dicey1 ,! ,law ( !  ,con/itution1 pp4 
#afb-agb2 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,am]ican     
,commonweal?1 ,vol4  ,i1 pp4 #ccd-cda4  
#f4 ,! sy/em ( *ecks & balances4 ,w4 ,b4
 ,,munro1 ,! ,gov]nm5t (  ! ,unit$      
,/ates1 pp4 #dg-eb2 ,! ,f$]ali/1 ,no4   
#dg4    #g4 ,! mean+ ( self-gov]nm5t4   

,p4 ,l4 ,,kaye1 ,read+s 9 ,civil        
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ae-ba4    #h4 ,!        
relation ( gov]nm5t to economic life4   
,s4 ,p4 ,,or?1 ,read+s  9 ! ,relation ( 
,gov]nm5t to ,prop]ty & ,indu/ry1 pp4   
#be-ch4    #i4 ,! fir/ pr9ciples (      
democracy4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel& & ,,joseph 
,,s*af]1 ,democracy 9 ,recon/ruction1   
pp4 #dh-ff4    #aj4 ,jeff]sonian &      
,jacksonian democracy4 ,a4 ,c4          
,,mclaughl91 ,/eps 9  ! ,developm5t (   
,am]ican ,democracy1 pp4 #gh-aaf4       
#aa4 ,! outlook = democracy 9 ,am]ica4  
,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel&1 ,organiz$            
,democracy1 pp4 #dch-ddh4    #ab4 ,!    
economic functions ( gov]nm5t4 ,c4 ,j4  
,,bullock1 ,introduction  to ! ,/udy (  
,economics1 pp4 #dgh-dib4               
,que/ions    #a4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce     
betwe5 a /ate & society8 ,is ,india a   
/ate8  ,are ! ,esquimos a /ate8 ,are    
pirates citiz5s or subjects ( a /ate8   
,did ! ,mayfl[] ,pilgrims con/itute a   
/ate be=e !y t\*$ l&8    #b4 ,has !     
doctr9e ( evolution affect$ our ideas   

conc]n+ !  orig9 ( gov]nm5t8 ,are !re   
any primitive types ( gov]nm5t 9 !  _w  
today8    #c4 ,give "s examples ( !     
8con/ructive "w ( gov]nm5t0 besides  ^? 
m5tion$ 9 ! text4    #d4 ,:y are anci5t 
classifications ( gov]nm5t practically  
useless  today8 ,:5 y say t ! ,unit$    
,/ates is a f$]al democratic  republic  
:at ideas d y int5d to convey 9 ea* ( ! 
?ree  italiciz$ words8    #e4 ,d y      
believe t ! plan ( gov]nm5t n[ exi/+ 9 !
 ,unit$  ,/ates w\ld be suitable = 7a7 !
 ,briti% ,empire2 7b7 ,*9a2  7c7        
,switz]l&2 7d7 ,canada8 ,tell :y or :y n
 9 ea* case4    #f4 ,make up li/s ( !   
functions :i* prop]ly belong to         
national1  /ate1 & local gov]nm5ts      
respectively4 ,give y\r reasons = plac+ 
su* ?+s z 8education01                  
8fire-protection01 8public heal?01      
8crim9al law01 8cons]vation ( natural   
res\rces01 & 8regulation (  comm]ce0 9  
"o or ! o!r li/4    #g4 ,james ,madison 
once said t ! conc5tration (            
legislative1  executive1 & judicial p[]s

 9 ! same h&s w\ld be 8! v  def9ition ( 
tyranny04 ,:at did he mean8 ,0 he "r8   
,does ! same  dang] exi/ today8    #h4  
,arrange ! m&atory functions ( gov]nm5t 
9 :at y believe to  be _! ord] (        
importance & give reasons = y\r         
arrangem5t4    #i4 ,c y "n any          
*>act]i/ics ( ,am]ican gov]nm5t o!r ?an 
^? giv5 9 ! text8 ,d ! foll[+ ?+s       
di/+ui% ,am]ican  gov]nm5t f o!r        
gov]nm5ts3 woman suffrage1 an elective  
presid5t1 ! abs5ce ( an h]$it>y         
nobility1 two-*amb]$  legislatures1 a   
supreme c\rt8    #aj4 ,9 :at ways may   
direct gov]nm5t be bett] ?an            
repres5tative  gov]nm5t & 9 :at respects
 n s good8 7,consid] su* g5]al  problems
 z ensur+ responsiv5ess to ! w ( ! p1   
delib]ation1 ! abs5ce ( corruption1     
educational value1 &  exp5se47    #aa4  
,:at did ,presid5t ,wilson mean :5 he   
said t ! _w mu/ be  made 8safe =        
democracy08 ,c ! _w be safe = democracy 
:ile  great & p[]ful mon>*ies rema98    
,:at *anges 9 addition to !  de?ronem5t 

( ! ,kais] did ,am]icans consid]        
ess5tial 9 ord] to  make ,g]many a      
democracy8    #ab4 ,argue aga9/ !       
proposition t ! /udy ( gov]nm5t is !    
/udy ( a sci5ce4                        
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,writt5        
con/itutions h be5 a h9drance r ?an a   
help to !  developm5t ( ,am]ican        
democracy4    #b4 ,&rew ,jackson 0 m ( a
 democrat ?an ,?omas ,jeff]son4    #c4  
,x is n "r "u any circum/ances to       
subject a p to  gov]nm5t )\t _! own     
cons5t4 _/                              
,,*apt] ,v                     ,,!      
,,citiz51 ,,8 ,,rights ,,& ,,duties     
,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to expla9 :o  
are citiz5s1 :at      _! rights & duties
 are1 & h[ tra9+ = citiz5%ip is         
obta9$4      ,sid5ote3 ,! old sy/ems (  
oppression4    ,:at ,civil ,lib]ty      
,means4--,"o ( ! be/ ways to get an     
appreciation  or :at civil lib]ty means 
is to read any book :i* describes ! life
  ( ! ,fr5* p be=e ! ,revolution4 ,9 ^? 
days m5 c\ld be  arre/$ )\t any reason1 

?r[n into jail = mon?s or ye>s  )\t     
trial1 & _! prop]ty confiscat$4 ,no "o  
c\ld travel f  "o "p ( ! c\ntry to ano!r
 )\t p]mission4 ,!re 0 no  fre$om (     
religion1 no fre$om ( spee*1 no fre$om (
 ! press4  ,no?+ c\ld be pr9t$ )\t a    
lic5se f ! au?orities4 ,!  f>m] :o      
br\ght 8 produce into t[n _h to pay a   
toll on x4 ,!  workman1 9 ord] to foll[ 
8 trade1 0 requir$ to jo9 a guild &  pay
 a fee4 ,! am\nt ( taxes :i* e f>m] or  
workman _h to pay  dep5d$ ^u ! w ( !    
tax-collectors1 :o made a pr(it out (  !
 taxes4 ,soldi]s 7 billet$ or bo>d$ 9 ! 
homes ( ! p  & ! k+ paid no?+ = x4 ,!   
masses ( ! p toil$ h>d  9 ord] t pr9ces 
& noblem5 might live 9 luxury4 ,t 0 !   
,b\rbon despotism ( old ,france4    ,?+s
 are v diff]5t 9 ,france today "u a     
republican =m (  gov]nm5t2 !y are       
diff]5t ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t ,europe &       
,am]ica4  ,despotic rule has giv5 way to
 gov]nm5t by ! p1 & gov]nm5t  by ! p has
 br\ght civil lib]ty4                   
----------------------------------------

--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,lib]ty1            
,,frat]nity1 ,,equality4 ,by ,edw>d     
,simmons      ,copyright by ,edw>d      
,simmons4 ,f a ,copley ,pr9t1 copyright 
by ,curtis       ,cam]on1 ,bo/on4       
,reproduc$ by p]mission4                
,,lib]ty1 ,,frat]nity1 ,,equality       
,by ,edw>d ,simmons              ,9 !   
,new ,york ,crim9al ,c\rt ,h\se4        
,?is mural decoration is plac$ above !  
p5 9            :i* ! prison]s are kept4
 ,equality1 hold+            a globe &  
compasses1 displays a /]nness &         
rigor :i* ,frat]nity1 ) a k9dly grip (  
! arm1 is seek+ to s(t54 ,lib]ty1 to !  
"r1 has brok5 ! *a9 :i* held him d[n1   
9 _s z well z 9 body4 ,^! ?ree words1   
,lib]t1 ,egalit1 ,frat]nit1 =m$ ! motto 
( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 & !y h be5 !     
slogan ( militant democracy ev] s9ce4   
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------    ,?is
 civil lib]ty1 z x exi/s 9 ! ,unit$     
,/ates1 includes !  foll[+ rights3      

,sid5ote3 ,! g5]al rights ( citiz5s4    
#a4 ,to travel freely f place to place  
on any lawful err&1 &  ev]y:]e to be    
accord$ ! equal protection ( ! laws4 ,! 
citiz5  ( ,new ,york :o goes to         
,cali=nia is n an ali5 !re4 ,he is      
entitl$  to all ! privileges :i* belong 
to an ,am]ican citiz54    #b4 ,to own   
prop]ty1 make contracts1 & engage 9 any 
lawful trade or  labor4    #c4 ,to enjoy
 fre$om ( wor%ip1 fre$om ( spee*1 &     
fre$om f  arbitr>y arre/4    #d4 ,to h a
 fair trial :5 accus$ ( any crime2 to be
 protect$ 9  ! enjoym5t ( life1 lib]ty1 
& prop]ty1 & n to be depriv$ (  !m )\t  
due process ( law4    ,civil ,rights 7  
,won by ,h>d ,/ruggles4--,n[ ^! rights  
did n  desc5d ^u mank9d l manna f !     
skies4 ,!y 7 ga9$ = !  p by prolong$    
/ruggles ext5d+ ov] _m c5turies4 ,?\s&s 
( m51 at v>i\s times 9 hi/ory1 gave _!  
lives 9 ord] t  ^! rights might be      
e/abli%$4 ,if y 7 writ+ a hi/ory (      
civil lib]ty among ,engli%-speak+ p1 y  
w\ld h to g back  at lea/ sev5 hundr$   

ye>s to ! days ( ,magna ,c>ta1 :5 ,k+   
,john  ( ,engl& 0 =c$ to surr5d] 9 t    
fam\s docum5t _m ( !  arbitr>y p[]s :i* 
he _h claim$ ! "r to ex]cise4 ,!re1 on  
! hi/oric field ( ,runnym$e1 ! sull5 k+ 
promis$ among o!r  ?+s t no free man    
%\ld be imprison$ or f9$ or outlaw$ or  
o!rwise p5aliz$ 8save by ! lawful       
judgm5t ( 8 pe]s or by !  law ( ! l&04  
,! w9n+ ( ! ,great ,*>t] 0 m]ely ! fir/ 
enc\nt] 9 a long s]ies ( conflicts      
betwe5 ! k+s & ! p  ( ,engl&4 ,/ep by   
/ep ! p wre/$ f ! ,cr[n ! "r to  control
 taxation1 to puni% royal (ficials =    
wrong-do+1 to be  supreme 9 ! mak+ (    
laws1 & ev5 to *ange _! entire =m (     
gov]nm5t %\ld !y s desire4 ,x 0 a long &
 grim /ruggle1  h>d-f\ght all ! way4    
8,lance & tor* & tumult1 /eel &         
grey-goose w+         ,wr5*$ x1 in* &   
ell & all1 sl[ly f ! ,k+04    ,sid5ote3 
,! beg9n+s ( civil lib]ty 9 ,am]ica4    
,! m5 :o f\nd$ ! ,am]ican colonies      
br\ght ^! rights across  ! ,atlantic )  
!m4 ,9 ! new soil civic lib]ty grew &   

n\ri%$  ev5 bett] ?an 9 ! old1 s mu* s t
 ,engli%m5 at home soon  became conc]n$ 
ov] ! /rong emphasis :i* ! colonies 7   
plac+ ^u ! civil rights ( ! individual4 
,! gap betwe5 !  colonies & ,great      
,brita9 /eadily wid5$ 9 ?is             
respect1--lead+ 9  ! end to !           
,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce1 :i* ass]t$ ! 
civil  rights ( m5 to be natural &      
inali5able4 ,:5 indep5d5ce _h be5       
e/abli%$1 aft] a long & difficult       
/ruggle1 x is n surpris+  t ! p ( !     
?irte5 /ates %\ld decide to write !     
pr9ciples ( civil lib]ty into _! new    
/ate con/itutions4 ,!y  took ?is means (
 demon/rat+ _! conviction t ! fundam5tal
  rights ( ! citiz5 ought to be inscrib$
 9 a solemn docum5t beyond  ! p[] (     
legislatures to *ange4 ,x w\ld be absurd
 to ?9k1  h[ev]1 t civil lib]ty exi/s 9 
! ,unit$ ,/ates m]ely because a  li/ (  
civil rights is writt5 into !           
con/itutions ( ! /ates &  ! nation4 ,9 !
 la/ analysis civil rights dep5d = _!   
ma9t5ance & en=cem5t ^u a realization ( 

_! value by !  :ole p & ! will+ness ( e 
citiz5 to grant to o!rs !  rights :i* he
 claims = himself4    ,sid5ote3         
,citiz5%ip & allegiance4    ,:o are     
,citiz5s8--,! pr\de/ boa/ ( ! ,roman1 9 
! days :5  ,rome dom9at$ ! _w 0 ,civis  
,romanus sum3 8,i am a ,roman  citiz504 
,by ?is say+ he meant t he 0 entitl$ to 
! protection  ( ! mo/ p[]ful c\ntry on  
e>?4 ,cic]o1 9 "o ( 8 orations1  decl>$ 
t ^! ?ree words w\ld protect any ,roman 
citiz5 no  matt] :]e he w5t1 ev5 among  
savage tribes4 ,a ,roman citiz5 0 "o  :o
 ow$ allegiance to ,rome4 ,an ,am]ican  
citiz5 is "o :o owes  allegiance to !   
,unit$ ,/ates4#ai ,e man1 woman1 & *ild 
9  e "p ( ! _w be>s a relation to "s    
gov]nm5t1 & ?is  relation we call       
allegiance4 ,!re is no su* ?+1 9 ! eyes 
( !  law1 z 8a man )\t a c\ntry04       
,sid5ote3 ,citiz5%ip by bir?4  ,?is     
allegiance1 or citiz5%ip1 is acquir$ 9 !
 great majority (  cases by bir?4 ,!    
con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates decl>es t 
8all  p]sons born or naturaliz$ 9 !     

,unit$ ,/ates & subject to !            
jurisdiction !re( are citiz5s ( ! ,unit$
 ,/ates & ( ! /ate  :]e9 !y reside04    
,?is means t e *ild born 9 ?is c\ntry  &
 subject to its jurisdiction is a       
citiz51 no matt] :o 8 p>5ts  happ5 to   
be4#bj    ,sid5ote3 ,citiz5%ip by       
naturalization4    ,! o!r me?od (       
acquir+ citiz5%ip is by naturalization4 
,naturalization is ! process by :i* an  
ali5 r5\nces 8 orig9al  allegiance &    
swe>s allegiance to ano!r c\ntry4 ,all  
:ite ali5s1  & ^? ( ,african blood1 are 
entitl$ to become citiz5s ( !  ,unit$   
,/ates by naturalization if !y fulfil ! 
legal requirem5ts4  ,! *ief requirem5t  
is t ! ali5 :o seeks to be naturaliz$   
mu/  h be5 cont9u\sly a resid5t ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates = at lea/ five  ye>s4 ,he 
mu/ also be able to read & write1 mu/ h 
"s k  ( ,am]ican in/itutions1 mu/ be (  
good "*1 & mu/ n be a  disbeliev] 9     
organiz$ gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,! process 
9  naturalization4 ,! process (         
individual naturalization involves two  

/eps1 fir/ a =mal decl>ation ( int5t to 
become a citiz51 &1  second1 ! tak+ (   
f9al lett]s ( citiz5%ip4 ,at lea/ two   
ye>s1  & n m ?an sev5 ye>s1 mu/ elapse  
betwe5 ^! two /eps4 ,!  "w ( grant+     
citiz5%ip by naturalization is 9 ! h&s (
 su*  regul> c\rts z are designat$ by   
law = ?is purpose4 ,applications  mu/ be
 on prescrib$ =ms2 evid5ce z to resid5ce
 has to be  pres5t$2 & ! oa? (          
allegiance to ! ,unit$ ,/ates mu/ be    
tak54 ,_m ?\s&s ( ali5s are admitt$ to  
citiz5%ip 9 ?is way  e ye>4#ba ,!       
naturalization ( a husb& also           
naturalizes 8  wife )\t any action on h]
 "p4 ,! naturalization ( a fa!r  makes  
all 8 m9or *ildr5 citiz5s4    ,c a ,man 
h ,d\ble ,citiz5%ip8--,is x possible =  
anyone to be a  citiz5 ( two c\ntries at
 once8 ,until rec5t ye>s x 0 ! practice 
( "s ,european c\ntries to claim t :5 _!
 citiz5s emigrat$  & became naturaliz$  
else:]e !y /ill reta9$ _! orig9al       
allegiance4 ,g]many1 = example1 ma9ta9$ 
t ,g]man emigrants to  ! ,unit$ ,/ates  

did n lose _! ,g]man citiz5%ip by becom+
  naturaliz$ "h4 ,if !y subsequ5tly     
return$ to ,g]many1 ev5 = a  %ort "t1 !y
 7 treat$ z ,g]man citiz5s1 requir$ to  
s]ve 9  ! army & to p]=m ! o!r          
obligations ( ,g]man citiz5%ip4  ,?is   
situation creat$ a great deal ( friction
 because ! naturaliz$  citiz5s 7 9 !    
habit ( call+ ^u ! ,unit$ ,/ates to     
protect  !m aga9/ _! own orig9al        
gov]nm5ts4 ,all ?is has n[ be5          
/raight5$ out by treaties betwe5 !      
,unit$ ,/ates & =eign  gov]nm5ts 9 :i* !
 latt] h conc$$ ! "r ( emigrants to     
become naturaliz$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & by
 s do+ to r5\nce  _! orig9al citiz5%ip4 
,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 = its "p1 also        
conc$es ! "r ( any ,am]ican citiz5 to   
become naturaliz$ 9 a  =eign c\ntry1    
!reby r5\nc+ 8 allegiance z an ,am]ican 
citiz54 ,^! treaties sometimes provide1 
h[ev]1 t if an  individual :o has be5   
naturaliz$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates goes back  
to  8 native c\ntry & rema9s !re a c]ta9
 l5g? ( "t1 he %all  be deem$ to h giv5 

up 8 ,am]ican citiz5%ip4    ,sid5ote3 ,!
 specific duties ( citiz5s4    ,!       
,obligations ( ,citiz5%ip4--,_m p seem  
to ?9k t  citiz5%ip involves only       
rights4 ,!y r>ely place mu* emphasis ^u 
! duties :i* citiz5%ip involves4 ,a     
gov]nm5t protects its  citiz5s bo? at   
home & abroad2 x secures !m all !       
b5efits (  civil lib]ty4 ,9 return x    
lays on !m ! duty ( ob$i5ce & !         
obligation ( s]vice4 ,x is ! duty ( e   
good citiz5 to "k 8  c\ntry's hi/ory1 to
 honor its flag1 & to be true to its    
ideals4 ,?is  does n mean t he %\ld     
despise or dislike p :o are n (  8 own  
race or allegiance4 ,all m5 are bro!rs4 
,above all nations is  humanity4 ,yet no
 "o c be a fri5d ( mank9d unless he is1 
fir/ (  all1 a fri5d ( 8 own l&4    ,x  
is also ! duty ( ! citiz5 to "k 8       
c\ntry's laws & to  obey !m4 ,no "o kn[s
 all ! laws1 or ne$s to "k !m all1 =  v 
few ( !m t\* ! daily life ( any "o      
individual4 ,he %\ld  "k ! laws 9 s f> z
 he comes into contact ) !m4 ,! m]*ant  

mu/ "k ! laws relat+ to bus9ess2 !re is 
no ne$ = him to  le>n ! legal rules     
relat+ to ! practice ( m$ic9e1 =        
example4  ,! physician1 on 8 "p1 mu/ "k 
! law 9 s f> z x relates to  8 own      
pr(ession1 b does n ne$ to in=m himself 
conc]n+ !  laws :i* relate to ! buy+ &  
sell+ ( goods4 ,laws are made 9  !      
common int]e/ & if ignorance ( ! law 7  
p]mitt$ to be an  excuse = disob$i5ce1 !
 :ole sy/em ( gov]nm5t w\ld soon break  
d[n4    ,f9ally1 x is ! duty ( ! citiz5 
to s]ve 8 gov]nm5t :5  call$ ^u4 ,?is   
may take ! =m ( milit>y s]vice 9 "t (   
w>1  or s]vice 9 public (fice1 or s]vice
 on a jury4 ,all ^! v>i\s  =ms ( s]vice 
may involve great p]sonal sacrifice2 b a
 c\ntry  wor? hav+ is a c\ntry wor?     
s]v+1 & x is only ?r\gh s]vice  on ! "p 
( its citiz5s t a free gov]nm5t c be    
ma9ta9$4    ,tra9+ = ,citiz5%ip 9 !     
,s*ools4--,tra9+ = citiz5%ip  beg9s 9 ! 
home & 9 ! s*ools4 ,! purpose ( ! s*ool 
is n  m]ely to imp>t in=mation4 ,t is a 
small "p ( its "w4 ,its ma9  function is

 to af=d ! sort ( m5tal & moral tra9+ t 
w  enable e pupil to a*ieve ! durable   
satisfactions ( life1--to make  a good  
liv+1 to be ( high s]vice to o!rs1 & to 
leave ! _w a  little bett] by reason ( 8
 hav+ liv$ 9 x4 ,_m ( ! be/  fruits (   
education are n f\nd li/$ on ! s*ool    
program4  ,ord]l9ess is "o ( !m4        
,indu/ry is ano!r4 ,responsibility =    
do+ daily tasks well is a ?ird4 ,!re are
 no special c\rses 9 ^!  ?+s4 ,!y are "p
 & p>cel ( ! :ole process ( education4  
,no  "o %\ld make ! mi/ake ( suppos+ t !
 s*ools tra9 =  citiz5%ip ?r\gh         
in/ruction 9 ,am]ican hi/ory1 civics1 & 
economics alone4 ,! :ole organization ( 
! s*ool1 its entire  program ( /udies1  
its assemblies1 its discipl9e1 its      
insi/5ce on  punctuality1 its organiz$  
a?letics & o!r activities1--all ^!  ?+s 
af=d lessons 9 co-op]ation1             
responsibility1 s]vice1 &  gov]nm5t4    
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! public s*ools tea*      
democracy4    ,! public s*ool is a      
m9iature democracy4 ,x is free & op5 to 

all4  ,its pupils h equal privileges &  
equal responsibilities4 ,x makes no     
di/9ction ( race1 cre$1 or weal?4 ,!    
*ildr5 ( ri* & poor  p>5ts sit side by  
side & are giv5 ! same opportunities4 ,e
  pupil :o enrolls 9 a public s*ool gets
 ! same />t & 8  advancem5t dep5ds ^u 8 
own ef=ts4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t "s  w lead & 
o!rs fall beh9d1 j z m5 & wom5 d 9 !    
outside _w4 ,:]ev] individuals1 "y or   
old1 are ga!r$  toge!r1 "s w =ge ahead (
 ! re/ by virtue ( _! natural  ability1 
_! sup]ior indu/ry1 or _! qualities (   
lead]%ip4  ,s*ool exp]i5ce %\ld impress 
?is great fact ( democratic life ^u  e  
pupil's m9d4 ,! pupil :o imag9es t he c 
be regul>ly  beh9d 9 8 /udies1          
neglectful ( 8 opportunities1 unable to 
comm& ! respect ( 8 tea*]s or 8 fell[s 9
 ! s*ool1 &  yet hope to become a lead] 
9 ! outside _w is mak+ a grave  mi/ake4 
,x is n ?us t ! lead]s ( m5 are tra9$4  
,! useful  citiz5 does n become s 9 a   
day or a ye>4 ,he beg9s to develop 8    
qualities :ile he is "y4#bb    ,tra9+ = 

,citiz5%ip on ! ,playgr\nd4--,recreation
 & play1 :5  prop]ly c>ri$ on1 af=d n   
only ex]cise & amusem5t1 b  education z 
well4 ,"s useful lessons :i* _c well be 
taught 9  ! class-room are le>n$ by     
p>ticipation 9 organiz$ a?letics4       
,ev]yone realizes1 = example1 t play 9  
:i* !re is no  lead]%ip1 no obs]vance ( 
rules1 & no sy/em1 is a v poor sort  (  
play4 ,x may give physical ex]cise 9    
pl5ty1 yet x satisfies  nobody4 ,an>*y  
on ! playgr\nd is no m satisfy+ ?an     
an>*y 9  any o!r bran* ( human activity4
 ,h5ce1 :5ev] a gr\p ( "y m5  or "y wom5
 g to ! a?letic field1 _! fir/ /ep is to
 organize  into teams or sides4 ,ea*    
team has its capta9 ^: directions are to
  be obey$1 n because he is an autocrat1
 b because ! team _c  hope to w9 unless 
x is provid$ ) lead]%ip4 ,:5 play beg9s 
x  is conduct$ accord+ to rules :i*     
ev]yone is suppos$ to "k &  obs]ve4 ,if 
! conte/ is important1 an umpire is     
select$ to act z  arbitrator on que/ions
 involv+ an infraction ( ! rules4 ,n[   

all  ?is is m]ely gov]nm5t on a small   
scale4 ,! elem5t ( lead]%ip1  !         
team-play1 ! rules1 ! practice ( obey+ !
 umpire--^!  ?+s %\ld sugge/ to u t     
(ficials1 laws1 gov]nm5t1 & c\rts  also 
make = ! be/ int]e/s ( ! individual 9 ! 
great  int]play ( life4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
_s t rules ! playgr\nd4    ,:at is x t  
secures co-op]ation1 ob$i5ce1 & good    
temp] on !  playgr\nd8 ,is x ! fe> (    
puni%m5t8 ,no1 x is ! same =ce :i*  9   
organiz$ society secures ob$i5ce to law 
& respect = ! rights  ( o!rs1 namely1 ! 
influ5ce ( public op9ion4 ,public       
op9ion1 9  o!r words an inh]5t s5se (   
fair play among ! play]s1 is :at  really
 rules ! playgr\nd4 ,bully+ or meanness 
9 any =m results 9  unpopul>ity4 ,!     
play] :o sulks1 :o %irks 8 "p 9 ! game1 
or  :o selfi%ly seeks 8 own way at all  
times is n prep>+ himself  rightly to w9
 ! confid5ce & respect ( 8 fell[-citiz5s
 9  lat] life4 ,on ! o!r h& ! boy or    
girl :o ga9s on !  playgr\nd a          
reputation = fairness1 good temp]1 & a  

read9ess to  act 9 h>mony ) o!rs is     
develop+ ^? qualities ( "*  :i* enable  
m5 & wom5 to a*ieve success 9 any field 
( adult  activity4 ,! ,duke ( ,well+ton 
once decl>$ t ! battle (  ,wat]loo 0 won
 on ! play+ fields ( ,eton1--a fam\s    
boys' s*ool 9  ,engl&4 ,:at he meant 0 t
 ?is victory 0 won n by milit>y  skill  
alone1 b by ^? qualities ( discipl9e &  
bull-dog t5acity  :i* ! (fic]s ( 8 army 
_h develop$ on ! s*ool a?letic  fields 9
 _! boyhood days4 ,peace ha? h]         
victories n less r5[n$  ?an w>4 ,good   
citiz5s z well z good soldi]s c be tra9$
 on !  playgr\nds ( e community4#bc     
,sid5ote3 ,college education &          
citiz5%ip4    ,tra9+ = ,citiz5%ip 9     
,lat] ,life4--,civic education is n     
complet$ :5 "o graduates f s*ool4 ,a    
man's :ole life is a  process (         
education1 a process t is nev] f9i%$    
until he dies4 ,s  ! "w (               
self-improvem5t %\ld n be int]rupt$ at  
any /age4 ,if  ! pupil goes to college1 
x w be f\nd t !re ! same  qualities (   

ob$i5ce1 indu/ry1 & respect = ! rights (
 o!rs  w det]m9e :e!r he /&s high or l[ 
9 ! e/imation ( 8  equals4 ,9 ! college 
z 9 ! s*ool1 ev]yone />ts ^u ! same     
plane ) equal opportunities4 ,! college 
also is an organization )  (ficials 9   
au?ority1 ) rules1 & ) a vigilant public
 op9ion  among its /ud5ts4 ,comp>$ ) !  
s*ool x rises a /ep ne>] to  ! ways ( ! 
_w1 giv+ its /ud5ts great] latitude b   
also  plac+ m responsibility ^u !m4 ,its
 organiz$ a?letics develop  ! same      
qualities z are enc\rag$ ^u ! s*ool     
playgr\nd2 its  v>i\s o!r /ud5t         
activities help to make "y m5 & wom5 m  
v]satile & broad] 9 _! int]e/s4         
,colleges try to make s*ol>s2  !y also  
endeavor to develop habits ( indu/ry 9  
_! /ud5ts &  to impress ^u !m ! duty (  
s]vice to _! fell[-m54 ,on !  :ole !    
colleges h succe$$ 9 ^! ?+s4 ,x is      
significant  t ! great majority ( !     
nation's lead]s1 9 e bran* (  life1 are 
m5 & wom5 :o h _h a college education4  
,n all high s*ool graduates1 h[ev]1 g to

 college4 ,! majority g  directly out   
into ! _w z wage e>n]s or home mak]s4   
,!y ent]  ! ranks ( our great economic  
society & seek to move onw>d to !  top4 
,= ! mo/ "p all mu/ beg9 at ! bottom1 or
 v ne> x4 ,a  high s*ool or college     
education does n relieve anyone f !     
necessity ( />t+ on a l[ rung ( ! ladd] 
9 8 *os5 trade or  pr(ession4 ,nei!r !  
s*ool nor ! college c tea* ! actual     
process ( e>n+ a liv+4 ,?is mu/ be le>n$
 by direct contact )  ! affairs ( ! _w4 
,b ! s*ool & ! college c s prep>e  "y   
citiz5s t !y w climb fa/] by virtue ( ! 
m5tal  tra9+ !y h obta9$ & ! habits (   
indu/ry !y h  acquir$4    ,sid5ote3     
,public s]vice is a duty ( ! citiz54    
,citiz5%ip & ,s]vice4--,to make "o's own
 way successfully 9 !  _w is a laudable 
ambition1 b no "o c be & rema9 a good   
citiz5 if he devotes 8 entire "t & ?\ght
 to 8 own  self-advancem5t4 ,x is well  
to be dilig5t 9 bus9ess & fai?ful to  ! 
imm$iate duty 9 h&1 b no inspir+ c>e]   
has ev] be5 built  ^u f\ndations (      

selfi%ness4 ,if ev]yone is engross$ 9 8 
own  affairs1 !re w be none to s]ve &   
aid ! /ate4 ,on ! o!r  h& a v small     
am\nt ( public s]vice freely & *e]fully 
giv5  by e citiz51 results 9 great      
b5efits to ! community :i*  receives ?is
 s]vice1 & to ! individuals :o give x z 
well4 ,9  ?is s5se1 z 9 all o!rs1 x is m
 bless$ to give ?an to  receive4        
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ?is s]vice may be r5d]$4  
,! ways ( s]vice are manifold4 ,e       
community has its civic &  welf>e       
organizations ^: aim is ! g5]al good4   
,!y draw _!  memb]s & _! active work]s f
 among ^? citiz5s :o are  public        
spirit$4 ,bo>ds ( trade & *amb]s (      
comm]ce devote  !mselves to advanc+ !   
economic int]e/s ( ! community4         
,municipal improvem5t leagues1 citiz5s' 
associations1 m5's clubs1 &  wom5's     
societies are to be f\nd 9 e l>ge t[n or
 city2 !y h  v>i\s aims b all are guid$ 
by ! same g5]al aspiration1 :i* is  to  
bett] ! environm5t 9 :i* ! p live4 ,!   
opportunities  = wom5 h be5 greatly     

increas$ by giv+ !m ! same              
responsibilities z m5 9 all public      
activities4 ,!re are  organizations = ! 
c>e ( ! poor1 = visit+ ! sick1 & =  !   
prev5tion ( cruelty 9 all its =ms4 ,all 
dep5d = !  effectiv5ess ( _! "w1 & ev5 =
 _! v exi/5ce1 ^u !  degree ( int]e/    
giv5 to !m by public-spirit$ citiz5s4   
,!re is  no "o s poor or s busy t he c  
give no money1 no "t1 & no  sympa?y to  
any public cause4 ,! citiz5 :o c5t]s all
 8 int]e/  ^u 8 own p]sonal affairs is n
 only miss+ "o ( ! durable              
satisfactions ( life b is giv+ himself a
 s*ool+ 9 selfi%ness4  ,he is n a good  
citiz5 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m4          
,sid5ote3 ,! value ( exp]i5ce 9 public  
(fice4    ,s]vice 9 public (fice is !   
be/ tra9+ = good citiz5%ip1  al?\gh n   
all m5 & wom5 c h ?is =m ( civic        
education4  ,yet ev]yone has a "r to    
aspire to x1 & ought to welcome !       
opportunity ( su* s]vice if x comes4 ,x 
does n usually come  une>n$4 ,l mo/ o!r 
opportunities1 ?is "o knocks at ! doors 

(  ^? :o h e>n$ _! "r to x4 ,m5 & wom5  
:o h  display$ no evid5ce ( public _s   
are r>ely call$ ^u to let  _! names g on
 ! ballot4 ,! fir/ /ep to honorable     
public (fice  is tak5 :5 "o jo9s a civic
 or welf>e organization & %[s  ability  
to "w ) & = o!rs4 ,?us a man's          
acqua9tance1 or a  woman's acqua9tance1 
gradually broad5s2 ! confid5ce ( o!rs is
  ga9$2 & 9 "t ! h& ( ! public beckons  
to ^? :o h  demon/rat$ _! _s ( s]vice4  
,public (fice is a public tru/4 ,! pr(f]
 ( its opportunities to any  man or     
woman is a high complim5t4 ,election to 
public (fice is !  highe/ honor a       
democratic community c be/[4 ,z a means 
( becom+  well v]s$ 9 public affairs & 9
 ! practical problems (  gov]nm5t !re is
 no tra9+ :i* surpasses x4              
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 
,national ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  
pp4 #gc-hj2    ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1         
,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ga-hg2
    ,j4 ,a4 ,,woodburn & ,t4 ,f4        
,,moran1 ,! ,citiz5 & ! ,republic1 pp4  

#a-ca2    ,s4 ,w4 ,,mccall1 ,! ,lib]ty (
 ,citiz5%ip1 pp4 #a-ca2    ,,james      
,,bryce1 ,! ,h9drances to ,good         
,citiz5%ip1 especially pp4 #dc-gd2      
,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel&1 ,organiz$ ,democracy1
 pp4 #hj-abi2    ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldw91 ,!   
,relations ( ,education to ,citiz5%ip1  
pp4 #bg-ed2    ,w4 ,h4 ,,taft1 ,f\r     
,aspects ( ,civic ,duty1 pp4 #c-cd4     
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,h[ ali5s are    
naturaliz$4 ,! requirem5ts4 ,:o are     
exclud$8  ,/eps 9 naturalization        
proc$ure1 ! pap]s1 witnesses1 oa?s1     
fees1  etc41 requir$4 ,! te/s :i*       
applicants mu/ take4 ,h[ ali5s c  be/ be
 enc\rag$ to become naturaliz$4 ,:at is 
be+ done to secure  ! naturalization (  
ali5s 9 y\r own community8 ,ref]5ces3   
,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4  
,,ii1 pp4 #dig-dih2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1    
,gov]nm5t ( ,am]ican ,cities1 pp4       
#ajg-aaa2 ,h4 ,m4 ,,beck1 ,ali5s' ,text 
,book on ,citiz5%ip1 especially pp4     
#i-bf2 ,,pet] ,,rob]ts1 ,! ,problem  (  
,am]icanization1 pp4 #aji-abi2 ,u4 ,s4  

,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,labor1 ,,bureau ,,(    
,,naturalization1 ,syllabus ( !         
,naturalization ,law 7pamphlet74    #b4 
,education 9 its relations to good      
citiz5%ip4 ,ref]5ces3  ,,irv+ ,,k+1     
,education = ,social ,effici5cy1 pp4    
#ij-agf2 ,,james ,,bryce1  ,! ,h9drances
 to ,good ,citiz5%ip1 pp4 #cc-db2 ,s4   
,e4 ,,baldw91 ,!  ,relations (          
,education to ,citiz5%ip1 pp4 #a-bf4    
#c4 ,! civic organizations ( y\r        
community4 ,"o or m  organizations1 su* 
z ,*amb]s ( ,comm]ce1 ,bo>ds ( ,trade1  
,citiz5s'  ,associations1 ,m5's ,clubs1 
,wom5's ,clubs1 ,civic ,leagues1 ,local 
,improvem5t ,associations1 ,city ,clubs1
 ,re=m ,associations1 ,family  ,welf>e  
,societies1 etc41 etc41 may be f\nd 9 e 
l>ge community4  ,_! aims & activities  
may be /udi$ 9 _! annual reports & by   
p]sonal int]views ) _! (fic]s4          
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,fir/ /eps 9 civil 
lib]ty4 ,,james ,h4 ,,tufts1 ,our       
,democracy1 pp4  #aja-aaf4    #b4 ,:at  
are ! 8privileges & immunities0 (       

citiz5s8 ,,arnold ,j4  ,,li51           
,privileges & ,immunities ( ,citiz5s ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates1  especially pp4 #ca-fh4 
#c4 ,expatriation4 ,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1     
,elem5ts ( ,int]national ,law1 pp4      
#adc-aea2 ,w4 ,e4 ,,hale1 ,int]national 
,law 7#d? ed471 pp4 #bci-bee4    #d4    
,fre$om ( spee* & ( ! press4 ,cyclop$ia 
( ,am]ican  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #eg-eh2 ,t4  
,m4 ,,cooley1 ,con/itutional            
,limitations1 pp4  #eif-fch4    #e4     
,fre$om ( wor%ip4 ,,james ,,bryce1      
,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,,ii1  pp4 
#gfc-gga2 ,c4 ,w4 ,,eliot1 ,am]ican     
,contributions to ,civilization1 pp4    
#ah-ba4    #f4 ,! rights ( ! citiz5     
aga9/ ! gov]nm5t4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel&1    
,organiz$ ,democracy1 pp4 #hj-if4    #g4
 ,! "r to fair judicial process4 ,,eml9 
,,mccla91 ,con/itutional  ,law ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #cae-ccb4    #h4 ,h[ 
! h9drances to good citiz5%ip may be    
remov$4 ,s4 ,e4  ,,baldw91 ,! ,relation 
( ,education to ,citiz5%ip1 pp4 #bg-ed4 
#i4 ,! playgr\nd z a place ( education =

 citiz5%ip4 ,,joseph ,,lee1  ,play 9    
,education1 pp4 #cfj-cia4    #aj4 ,h[ ! 
bus9ess man c help 8 community4 ,,h5ry  
,,bru,,re1 ,!  ,new ,city ,gov]nm5t1 pp4
 #chd-djj4    #aa4 ,h[ wom5 c s]ve _!   
community4 ,,m>y ,r4 ,,be>d1 ,woman's   
,"w  9 ,municipalities1 especially pp4  
#cai-ccg4    #ab4 ,may ! ob/acles to    
good citiz5%ip be ov]come8 ,,james      
,,bryce1  ,! ,h9drances to ,good        
,citiz5%ip1 pp4 #aje-acd4    #ac4 ,s*ool
 gov]nm5t z a tra9+ = citiz5%ip4 ,u4 ,s4
 ,bureau (  ,education ,bullet9 ,no4 #h 
7#aiae71 pp4 #g-ca2 ,,irv+ ,,k+1        
,education =  ,social ,effici5cy1 pp4   
#aeh-agf4                               
,que/ions    #a4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce     
betwe5 ! foll[+3 citiz5s1 subjects1     
nationals1 resid5ts1 d5iz5s1 ali5s8     
#b4 ,:at is meant by ! expression to    
8swe> allegiance08 ,to 8=swe>           
allegiance08 ,repeat ! oa? ( allegiance4
 ,:5 is ! oa? tak5 7a7  by ali5s2 7b7 by
 citiz5s8    #c4 ,are ! foll[+ ,am]ican 
citiz5s by bir?3 7a7 a boy born  abroad1

 ( ali5 p>5tage1 ^: p>5ts came to !     
,unit$ ,/ates &  7 naturaliz$ aft] he 0 
ov] tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age2 7b7  *ildr5 (  
,*9ese p>5ts1 born 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2   
7c7 *ildr5  ( ,am]ican p>5ts1 born 9 !  
,philipp9es2 7d7 *ildr5 ( ,porto  ,rican
 p>5ts1 born 9 ,europe s9ce #aiag8      
#d4 ,"n f\r important civic rights4     
,arrange 9 ea* case a set ( facts  :i*  
w\ld con/itute a violation ( a civic "r4
    #e4 ,! con/itution provides t ! p   
%all h ! "r to  assemble peaceably4     
,w\ld x be a violation ( ?is "r to      
require  t a p]mit f ! police mu/ be _h 
9 ord] to hold any meet+  9 ! /reets or 
9 ! public p>ks8    #f4 ,discuss ! ext5t
 to :i* ! public s*ool is a 8m9iature   
democracy04 ,is x organiz$ l a          
democratic gov]nm5t8 ,to :at ext5t  & "u
 :at circum/ances c s*ool pupils be     
entru/$ )  self-gov]nm5t or giv5 a %>e 9
 ! ma9t5ance ( discipl9e8    #g4 ,to :at
 ext5t c public op9ion be reli$ ^u to   
en=ce ! rules  7a7 9 a?letics2 7b7 9 !  
class-rooms2 7c7 9 bus9ess2 7d7  9      

gov]nm5t8 ,w\ld laws be effective if !re
 7 no p5alties b  ! c5sure ( public     
op9ion to en=ce !m8 ,if n1 :y n8    #h4 
,:at is ! value ( a high s*ool or       
college education 9 tra9+  "y m5 & wom5 
7a7 to make a liv+2 7b7 to become       
lead]s2  7c7 to help _! fell[-citiz5s2  
7d7 to hold public (fice8  ,t[>ds :i* ( 
^! ?+s does education contribute ! mo/8 
#i4 ,c any "o be a good citiz5 )\t kn[+ 
h[ gov]nm5t is  c>ri$ on8 ,)\t kn[+     
,am]ican hi/ory8 ,)\t belong+ to any    
social or civic organization8 ,)\t vot+ 
at elections8 ,)\t be+  at all int]e/$ 9
 social or political que/ions8          
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,no "o :o is n 
a citiz5 %\ld be p]mitt$ to become a    
vot]4    #b4 ,! obligation ( milit>y    
s]vice ought to be impos$ ^u ali5s z    
well z ^u citiz5s4    #c4 ,! tea*+ (    
civics %\ld be made compulsory 9 all    
gramm> &  high s*ools4    -----         
,footnote #ac3      ,! monotony ( labor1
 h[ev]1 is to "s ext5t a matt] (        
temp]am5t4 ,"s work]s f9d ev5 r\t9e     

tasks int]e/+ because    !y are         
con/antly try+ to atta9 great] exp]tness
 at !    p>ticul> job4 ,o!rs f9d "w ( a 
v v>i$ "* to be    monoton\s4           
,footnote #ad3      ,!re are two o!r =ms
 ( productive organization1 nei!r ( !m  
v common4 ,"o is ! co-op]ative          
association1 ) or )\t    capital /ock2 !
 o!r is ! organization ( production "u !
    direct managem5t ( ! public         
au?orities4 ,! organization ( !    po/al
 s]vice is an example4    ,footnote #ae3
      ,! ,lockwood ,committee1 :i* made 
its inve/igations dur+ #aibj 9    ,new  
,york1 f\nd t excessive co/s ( build+   
con/ruction 7 due    9 consid]able      
measure to ! exi/5ce ( artificial       
monopolies    among produc]s ( build+   
mat]ials4    ,footnote #af3      ,x has 
be5 sugge/$ t in/ead ( giv+ inv5tors !  
exclusive    "r to make & sell _!       
appliances1 ?is "r %\ld be giv5 to      
ev]ybody ) a provision t a fix$ rate (  
royalty %\ld be paid    to ! inv5tor4   
,?is w\ld af=d an inc5tive to ! inv5tor 

:ile    prev5t+ ! creation ( legal      
monopolies4    ,footnote #ag3      ,!   
doctr9e ( ! div9e "r ( rul]s 0 bas$ ^u  
c]ta9    ,biblical texts1 p>ticul>ly    
,romans xiii1 #a-g1 & 0 put =? 9    !   
,middle ,ages to support ! secul> rul]s 
aga9/ ! ,*ur*4 ,!    ,b\rbon k+s (      
,france1 especially ,l\is ,,xiv1 ass]t$ 
x1 z well z    ! ,/u>t k+s ( ,engl&4 ,! 
,h\se ( ,hoh5zoll]n 9 ,g]many    ma9ta9$
 ! doctr9e1 & ! =m] ,kais] on m ?an "o  
occasion allud$ to himself z a rul] by  
div9e "r4 ,^? :o are    int]e/$ 9 pursu+
 ?is topic fur!r w f9d a great deal ab\t
    x 9 ,j4 ,n4 ,figgis1 ,! ,div9e ,"r (
 ,k+s 7,london1 #ahif7 & 9    ,!        
,political ,writ+s ( ,james ,i 7ed4 ,c4 
,h4 ,mc,ilwain1 ,cambridge1    #aiae74  
,footnote #ah3      ,= example1 ,e4 ,l4 
,godk91 ,un=ese5 ,t5d5cies ( ,democracy 
7,n4    ,y41 #ahih71 p4 #df2 ,emile     
,faguet1 ,! ,cult ( ,incompet5ce 7,n4   
,y41    #aiaa71 pp4 #ce-cf2 ,a4 ,m4     
,kales1 ,unpopul> ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$  
,/ates 7,*icago1 #aiad72 ,a4 ,b4        

,cruik%ank1 ,popul> ,misgov]nm5t 9    ! 
,unit$ ,/ates 7,n4 ,y41 #aibj71 &       
,alleyne ,irel&1 ,democracy &    !      
,human ,equation 7,n4 ,y41 #aiba71 pp4  
#ge-gi4    ,footnote #ai3               
,corporations1 z well z individuals1 are
 citiz5s 9 ! eyes ( !    law4 ,! ,/&>d  
,oil ,company ( ,new ,j]sey is a citiz5 
( ,new ,j]sey    & z su* is entitl$ to  
all ! 8privileges & immunities (        
citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates04    ,footnote
 #bj3      ,"s *ildr5 al?\gh born 9 !   
,unit$ ,/ates are n subject to          
,am]ican jurisdiction4 ,! *ildr5 ( a    
=eign ambassador1 s]v+    9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates1 are = ?is reason n citiz5s1 ev5 
?\gh    born "h4 ,*ildr5 born on bo>d a 
=eign w>%ip 9 an ,am]ican    h>bor are n
 deem$ to be 8subject to ! jurisdiction0
 ( !    ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,b ) a few       
unimportant exceptions ( ?is sort all   
p]sons born 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are born  
)9 its jurisdiction1    & h5ce are      
citiz5s by bir?4      ,"o may be an     
,am]ican citiz5 by bir?1 moreov]1 )\t   

hav+ be5    born 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!  
*ildr5 ( ,am]ican p>5ts1 ev5    ?\gh    
born outside ! t]ritory ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates1 h ! "r    to claim ?is          
citiz5%ip4 ,*ildr5 ( ,am]ican p>5ts1    
born on !    high seas1 or on ,am]ican  
w> vessels 9 =eign ports1 or *ildr5 (   
,am]ican ambassadors born abroad1 are   
citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by    virtue (
 _! p>5tage4 ,*ildr5 ( ,am]ican p>5ts1  
born on    =eign soil1 h ! "r to *oose  
betwe5 ,am]ican citiz5%ip    & citiz5%ip
 ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* !y 7 born4            
,footnote #ba3      ,on r r>e occasions 
a l>ge body ( p1 n citiz5s by    bir?1 h
 become citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by :at
 is call$    collective naturalization4 
,:5 ,l\isiana 7#ahjc71 ,florida 7#ahai7 
&    ,alaska 7#ahfg7 7 acquir$1 =       
example1 ! treaties :i* provid$    = _! 
acquisition /ipulat$ t all inhabitants (
 ^!    t]ritories %\ld be admitt$ to    
,am]ican citiz5%ip )\t    becom+        
individually naturaliz$4 ,on ! o!r h&1  
:5 ,porto ,rico    & ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s

 7 c$$ to u by ,spa9 9 #ahih !re 0    no
 su* provision4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,porto    
,ricans1 citiz5%ip 0    conf]r$ by an   
act ( ,congress 9 #aiag2 9 ! case ( !   
,filip9os    ! full /atus ( ,am]ican    
citiz5%ip has n yet be5 grant$4 ,!      
,filip9os are call$ 8nationals0 ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* means    t !y h !    
protection ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t1 b are n  
entitl$ to all ! o!r privileges &       
immunities ( citiz5%ip z    provid$ 9 ! 
con/itution4 ,collective naturalization 
may ?us be    provid$ = by treaty or    
grant$ by act ( ,congress4    ,footnote 
#bb3      ,! leisure h\rs ( pupils may  
also be utiliz$ to secure excell5t      
lessons 9 good citiz5%ip4 ,un=tunately  
!y are n always s    us$4 ,_m ( !       
recreations :i* are n[ popul> ) ! "y    
p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates af=d nei!r physical 
ex]cise nor    m5tal inspiration1 nei!r 
d !y conduce to ! /r5g!n+ (    "*4      
,footnote #bc3      ,att5tion %\ld be   
call$ to ! inducem5t :i* 9 "s s*ools is 
giv5 to broad civic tra9+ by aw>d+ to   

pupils a rank :i* is    bas$ ^u         
pr(ici5cy 9 all _! activities1 s*ol>%ip1
    a?letics1 debat+1 good influ5ce ^u  
o!rs1 qualities (    lead]%ip1 & s on4  
,/ud5t self-gov]nm5t may also be us$ 9  
s*ools to af=d tra9+ 9 ! fundam5tals (  
good citiz5%ip4                         
,,*apt] ,,vi                            
,,popul> ,,control ,,( ,,gov]nm5t       
,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to expla9 h[ !
 p1 bo?      directly & indirectly1     
control all bran*es ( gov]nm5t 9 !      
,unit$ ,/ates4                          
,,public ,,op9ion ,,& ,,repres5tative   
,,gov]nm5t    ,sid5ote3 ,! ultimate     
sov]eignty ( ! p4    ,h[ ! ,p ,rule4--,9
 free gov]nm5ts ! w ( ! p  prevails 9 ! 
decision ( all important matt]s4 ,?is   
does n mean1  ( c\rse1 t ! p decide e "q
 directly1 b m]ely  t :5 a sub/antial   
majority ( !m h rea*$ a decision ^u  any
 po9t _! w prevails ?r\gh "o *annel or  
ano!r4 ,! wi%es  ( ! ,am]ican p h at    
times be5 ?w>t$ by _! gov]nm5t2  b 9 !  
long run1 :5 ! p h made up _! m9ds1 _!  

w has bru%$ aside e ob/acle & has become
 ! supreme law (  ! l&4 ,?is popul>     
control ( ,am]ican gov]nm5t is ex]t$ 9  
f\r  ways1 namely1 by ! pressure (      
public op9ion ^u all (ficials1 by  !    
p]iodic election ( repres5tatives1 by   
direct law-mak+ ?r\gh  ! initiative &   
ref]5dum1 & by ! action ( ! p 9  am5d+  
_! /ate con/itutions4    ,! pressure (  
public op9ion is cont9u\s1 & x is ex]t$ 
9  v>i\s ways4 ,! gov]nm5t _c proce$ v  
f> 9 defiance ( x4  ,! election (       
repres5tatives1 on ! o!r h&1 takes place
 at  /at$ int]vals1 & 9 ! p]iod betwe5  
elections ! p d n  h direct control ov] 
^? :om !y elect4 ,b :]e provision =  !  
initiative & ref]5dum exi/s1 ! p may    
frame & enact  laws )\t ! int]v5tion (  
_! repres5tatives & ?us may  ex]cise    
direct control4 ,f9ally1 ! ultimate     
ag5cy ( popul>  sov]eignty is ! p[] ( ! 
p to am5d _! con/itutions4 ,s  f> z !   
/ate con/itutions are conc]n$ !y accept 
or reject  propos$ *anges by _! own     
votes2 9 ! case ( ! national            

con/itution !y act ?r\gh _!             
repres5tatives 9 ,congress & 9  ! /ate  
legislatures4 ,by ^! f\r me?ods (       
control we ma9ta9  :at is kn[n z !      
sov]eignty ( ! p4    ,sid5ote3 ,:at is  
public op9ion8    ,popul> ,rule ?r\gh   
,public ,op9ion4--,we he> a good deal   
n[adays  ab\t public op9ion4 ,:at is x8 
,h[ is x asc]ta9$8 ,h[ does x  make     
itself felt8 ,9 g5]al1 public op9ion is 
! t]m :i* we apply  to ! pr$om9at+      
s5tim5t among ! p4 ,public op9ion is !  
sum-total ( op9ions held by individuals4
 ,x is n m]ely !  snap-judgm5t ( !      
majority1 h[ev]1 because int5sity (     
belief is  a factor :i* c\nts 9 det]m9+ 
x4 ,public op9ion is a composite  (     
numb]s & int5sity4 ,a majority ( ! p may
 hold a c]ta9  belief ^u any public "q2 
b if !y hold x lightly1 )\t  atta*+ mu* 
importance to x1 we d n speak ( _!      
s5tim5t z  public op9ion4 ,x is only :5 
s5tim5t atta9s ! e>ne/ness (  conviction
 t ! t]m public op9ion c be prop]ly     
appli$ to x4    ,sid5ote3 ,! *annels    

?r\gh :i* x makes itself felt4          
,public op9ion1 9 ?is s5se1 is          
cont9ually ex]t+ pressure ^u all        
bran*es ( gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x
 f9ds expression ?r\gh  ! editorial     
columns ( newspap]s1 ?r\gh resolutions  
adopt$ by  societies & organizations1   
?r\gh lett]s f vot]s to _!              
repres5tatives 9 ,congress & 9 !        
legislatures1 & ?r\gh !  conv]sation ( p
 :]ev] !y are ga!r$ toge!r4 ,!          
repres5tatives ( ! p are ev] on ! al]t  
to disc]n ! drift  ( public op9ion4#bd  
,!y desire to keep 9 t\* ) x4 ,a capable
  repres5tative always keeps 8 h& ^u !  
public pulse4 ,:5 public  op9ion        
und]goes a *ange1 ! attitude ( !        
gov]nm5t sw+s )  x1 sl[ly p]haps1 b     
inevitably4 ,public op9ion is n easy to 
asc]ta9 exactly1 = x _c be measur$ by   
any process (  ari?metic4 ,"s m5 are    
bett] at gaug+ x ?an o!rs4 ,"o ( !      
attributes ( a successful politician is 
8 ability to e/imate public  op9ion     
accurately4 ,:5 we say1 !re=e1 t we h   

8gov]nm5t by  public op9ion01 we mean t 
^? :o are 9 au?ority are influ5c$  &    
guid$ by x4    ,sid5ote3 ,gov]nm5t by   
repres5tatives4    ,popul> ,rule ?r\gh  
,repres5tatives4--,al?\gh public op9ion 
ex]ts a  guid+ influ5ce ^u ! c\rse (    
gov]nm5t1 ! actual "w (  mak+ ! laws &  
putt+ !m into op]ation mu/ be p]=m$1 =  
! mo/ "p1 by individuals select$ = ?is  
purpose1 t is by  elective or appo9tive 
(fic]s4 ,we say 8elective or appo9tive0 
because  ^! are ! two ways 9 :i* (fic]s 
( gov]nm5t may be *os52  !y may be      
elect$ by popul> vote1 or !y may be     
appo9t$ by "s  au?ority :i*1 9 turn1 has
 be5 elect$ by ! p4 ,! memb]s (  all    
legislative bodies 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates    
7,congress1 ! /ate  legislatures1 city &
 t[n c\ncils7 are directly elect$ by !  
p4 ,! *ief executive (fic]s 9 ! nation1 
/ate1 & city  7,presid5t1 gov]nors1 &   
mayors7 are *os5 9 ! same way4#be ,9  _m
 /ates x is also ! cu/om to *oose "s o!r
 executive  (fic]s1 su* z !             
attorney-g5]al1 /ate auditors1          

sup]9t5d5t  ( education1 z well z !     
judges & prosecut+ attorneys by direct  
popul> election4 ,subord9ate (fic]s (   
adm9i/ration1 on ! o!r  h&1 are = ! mo/ 
"p appo9t$4 ,9 ! national gov]nm5t all  
(ficials ( adm9i/ration subord9ate to ! 
,presid5t are appo9t$  by him1 likewise 
all judges & c\rt (fic]s4 ,9 ! /ate &   
local  gov]nm5ts1 "s subord9ate (fic]s  
are elect$ b mo/ ( !m are  appo9t$ by ! 
gov]nor1 ! c\nty commission]s1 or !     
mayor1 z  ! case may be4    ,sid5ote3   
,:5 we %\ld elect & :5 appo9t4          
,election or ,appo9tm5t1 ,:i* is        
,bett]8--,we (t5 enc\nt] !  "q3 ,:i* is 
! bett] plan ( secur+ good m5 9 public  
(fice--to elect !m or to h !m appo9t$8  
,! answ] to ?is  "q dep5ds ^u :at we    
expect ! (ficials to d4 ,if !  function 
( ! (ficial is to repres5t ! p 9 decid+ 
que/ions ( g5]al policy z 9 ! case ( a  
congressman1 a /ate  legislator1 or a   
municipal c\ncilman1 ! p ought to *oose 
him4  ,x is ! "r & ! duty ( ! p to *oose
 _! own  repres5tatives4 ,if !y did n d 

s1 we %\ld n h  8repres5tative0         
gov]nm5t4 ,b if ! function ( ! (ficial  
is n  to decide que/ions ( g5]al policy 
b to d "w :i* requires  skill &         
exp]i5ce1 x is bett] to make ! (fice    
appo9tive4 ,!  rule1 9 brief1 may be    
/at$ z foll[s3 ,:5 y want repres5tation1
  elect2 :5 y want skill or exp]i5ce1   
appo9t4 ,"s difficulty  arises1 h[ev]1 9
 ! case ( (ficials :o are expect$ bo? to
  repres5t ! p & to p]=m functions :i*  
require exp]tness4  ,take1 = example1 ! 
/ate treasur] or ! /ate auditor4 ,^!    
(ficials repres5t ! f9ancial int]e/s ( !
 p2 !y are also  call$ ^u to p]=m       
functions :i* require skill & exp]i5ce4 
,(ficials 9 ?is dual class are 9 "s     
/ates elect$2 9 o!rs !y  are appo9t$ by 
! gov]nor4 ,:e!r we ought to use "o     
me?od or !  o!r dep5ds ^u :]e we place !
 emphasis--^u repres5tation or  ^u      
adm9i/rative effici5cy4 ,acc\nt %\ld    
also be tak5 ( ! fact  t if too _m      
(ficials are elect$ ! ballot w be long &
  complicat$4 ,9 t case "s              

poorly-qualifi$ c&idates are likely to  
be *os5 because vot]s w n g ?r\gh a long
 li/ c>efully 7see  p4 #acb74           
,sid5ote3 ,%\ld a repres5tative obey 8  
own consci5ce or ! w             ( !    
vot]s8    ,! ,function ( a              
,repres5tative4--,! function ( a        
repres5tative1 z  ! t]m implies1 is to  
repres5t4 ,b h[ is he to be guid$ 9 !   
p]=mance ( ?is function8 ,is x ! duty ( 
a repres5tative 9  ,congress or 9 a /ate
 legislature to reflect ! public op9ion 
( 8  di/rict :e!r he p]sonally agrees ) 
x or n8 ,%\ld he obey !  dictates ( 8   
own consci5ce & foll[ 8 own view ( :at !
  public welf>e dem&s1 or %\ld he       
disreg>d ^! ?+s & consid]  only !       
op9ions ( ^? vot]s :o elect$ him8 ,let u
 suppose1 =  example1 t a congressman   
p]sonally believes 9 free trade4 ,he is 
absolutely conv9c$1 let u assume1 t ?is 
is ! only "r policy4  ,b he also kn[s1  
let u say1 t ! vot]s ( 8 di/rict are    
ov]:elm+ly 9 favor ( high protective    
duties because !y believe  t wages w be 

high] if =eign goods are %ut out4 ,:at  
is !  duty ( ?is congressman :5 call$ ^u
 to vote = or aga9/ a  protective t>iff8
 ,:i* %\ld control--8 own conviction or 
!  op9ions ( ^? :o elect$ him z _!      
repres5tative8    ,sid5ote3 ,edmund     
,burke's views4    ,_m ye>s ago ! em95t 
,iri% orator & /atesman1 ,edmund ,burke1
  gave 8 op9ion on ?is matt] 9 a spee*  
to ! vot]s ( ,bri/ol1  :om he repres5t$ 
9 ! ,briti% ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,a        
repres5tative1  accord+ to ,burke1 ought
 to give due weight to ! op9ions ( ^?   
:o elect$ him1 b he ought n to sacrifice
 8 own be/ judgm5t to  any man or to any
 gr\p ( m54 ,x is ! function ( a        
repres5tative  to ma/] all ! details (  
public problems1 :i* ! p ( 8  di/rict _c
 be expect$ to d1 & to make 8 decision  
accord+ly4  8,i ma9ta9$ y\r int]e/s     
aga9/ y\r op9ions10 he said to !  vot]s 
( ,bri/ol 9 def5d+ 8 actions4 8,a       
repres5tative wor?y (  y ought to be a  
p]son ( /ability4 ,i am to look1 inde$1 
to y\r  op9ions1 b to su* op9ions z y & 

,i mu/ h five ye>s h5ce4  ,i am n to    
look to ! fla% ( ! day40    ,public     
(ficials 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates d n usually  
talk t way4 ,!y  dilate ^u ! wisdom ( ! 
p1 & pr(ess _! own read9ess to  con=m to
 :atev] ! p dem&4 ,!y are prone to =get 
t a  repres5tative 9 ,congress or 9 a   
/ate legislature does n repres5t  8 own 
di/rict alone4 ,he is 9 effect a        
repres5tative ( ! :ole  p 9 nation or   
/ate4 ,x is poor patriotism to sacrifice
 ! be/  int]e/s ( ! :ole to ! desires ( 
any s+le community4 ,at !  same "t :5   
public op9ion is /rong & cle>1 we expect
 !  repres5tatives ( ! p to he>k5 to x4 
,:5 x is vague or 9  d\bt1 !            
repres5tative mu/ dep5d ^u 8 own        
judgm5t4 ,if a  repres5tative _c1       
because ( 8 own consci5ti\s belief1 d   
:at  ! p expect him to d1 8 duty is to  
resign4 ,repres5tatives1  h[ev]1 d n (t5
 resign = ?is or any o!r reason4    ,,! 
,,appo9tm5t ,,( ,,public ,,(ficials4    
,me?ods ( ,appo9tm5t4--,!re are ?ree    
ways ( mak+ appo9tm5ts4  ,fir/1         

appo9tm5ts may be made by "s high       
executive (fic]1 su* z  ! ,presid5t or !
 gov]nor ( a /ate1 subject to !         
confirmation (  a legislative body4     
,second1 !y may be made by ! executive  
)\t  ! advice & cons5t ( anyone else4   
,?ird1 !y may be made "u  civil s]vice  
rules by a competitive exam9ation4#bf   
,sid5ote3 ,! m]its & defects (          
confirmation4    ,appo9tm5ts )          
,confirmation4--,9 ! national gov]nm5t  
practically  all appo9tm5ts ( high      
importance1 includ+ heads ( dep>tm5ts1  
ambassadors1 judges1 & s on1 are made by
 ! ,presid5t subject to !  cons5t ( !   
,s5ate4 ,! ,presid5t nom9ates1 b ! f9al 
appo9tm5t dep5ds ^u confirmation by a   
majority ( ! s5ators 7see  p4 #bgj74 ,s 
9 /ate gov]nm5t ! appo9tm5t ( high]     
adm9i/rative  (ficials is usually %>$ by
 ! gov]nor & ! upp] *amb] ( !  /ate     
legislature4 ,9 ! l>g] cities x has be5 
! cu/om to  require confirmation ( !    
mayor's appo9tm5ts by ! city c\ncil or  
! upp] bran* ( x2 b ?is requirem5t is n[

 be+ g5]ally  ab&on$4 ,! purpose (      
requir+ confirmation is to prev5t too   
great  a gr[? 9 p[] on ! "p ( ! *ief    
executive2 its effect has  be5 to divide
 responsibility & x has result$1 v (t51 
9 poor  appo9tm5ts4 ,x is good policy1 9
 local & /ate gov]nm5t at lea/1  to     
insi/ t ! responsibility = appo9tm5ts   
%all be c5traliz$  & n divid$4 ,9 !     
national gov]nm5t1 :]e ! appo9t+ p[]  is
 ( su* enorm\s importance1 & might1 if  
un*eck$1 be s easily  us$ to p]petuate a
 ,presid5t 9 (fice1 ! safegu>d (        
confirmation  is m easily ju/ifi$4      
,appo9tm5ts )\t ,confirmation4--,!      
practice ( p]mitt+ a *ief  executive to 
make appo9tm5ts )\t confirmation began 9
 ! l>ge  cities4 ,new ,york made ! />t1 
_m ye>s ago1 by all[+ ! mayor  to appo9t
 ! heads ( ! city dep>tm5ts on 8 own    
responsibility4  ,s9ce !n ! plan has    
spread widely & 9 "s cases ! /ates h    
giv5 ! gov]nor a simil> p[]4 ,9 o!r     
cases ! confirmation has  become1 = !   
mo/ "p1 a matt] ( r\t9e1 ! und]/&+ be+  

t ! gov]nor has ! real responsibility & 
h5ce %\ld be left  free to make 8 own   
selections4                             
,,! ,,civil ,,s]vice ,,sy/em4           
,sid5ote3 ,giv+ ! (fices to politicians4
    ,patronage & ,p>tisan%ip4--,:5      
appo9tm5ts are made by an executive     
(fic]1 ) or )\t confirmation1 or by a   
legislative body1 !re  is always a dang]
 t p>tisan motives w influ5ce !         
selection4  ,ne>ly all executive &      
legislative (fic]s are !mselves p>tisan4
  ,!y are !mselves nom9at$1 9 mo/ cases1
 by p>ty conv5tions or  prim>ies2 !y are
 elect$ ) ! aid ( p>ty work]s2 & !y are 
!re=e "u obligation to help ! p>ty      
int]e/ 9 any reasonable  way4 ,n[ x has 
be5 commonly believ$ t "o effective way 
( help+  a p>ty organization is to      
appo9t prom95t & active memb]s ( !  p>ty
 to public (fice1 ?us giv+ a rew>d = _! 
"w 9 !  p>ty's behalf4 ,m5 :o h help$ a 
,presid5t or a gov]nor to ga9  ! p>ty   
nom9ation & get elect$ d n usually all[ 
^!  (ficials to =get _! obligations :5  

appo9tm5ts are to be made4  ,! appo9t+  
p[]1 9 o!r words1 may be us$ z a means (
  be/[+ 8patronage01 or rew>ds = p>ty   
s]vice & x has be5 s  us$ 9 all bran*es 
( ,am]ican gov]nm5t4    ,rise ( !       
,spoils ,sy/em4--,9 ! e>li] days ( !    
,republic x 0  ! cu/om to make          
appo9tm5ts ) little or no ref]5ce to    
p>ty  politics4#bg ,b ) ! election (    
,&rew ,jackson (ficials 7  remov$ 9 l>ge
 numb]s to provide patronage = ! lead]s 
( !  victori\s political p>ty4          
,jackson's support]s frankly enunciat$ !
  doctr9e t 8to ! victors belong !      
spoils01 h5ce ! practice (  displac+ "o 
set ( (ficials & fill+ ! vacant po/s )  
ano!r set became kn[n z ! 8spoils       
sy/em04 ,f ?is "t to #ahhc1  a full     
half-c5tury1 x 0 cu/om>y to remove l>ge 
numb]s (  adm9i/rative (ficials :5ev] a 
new ,presid5t came 94 ,! notion  spread 
t (fices ought to be pass$ ar\nd2 t f\r 
ye>s 0 long  en\gh = anyone to be on !  
public payroll1 & t 9 a democracy       
ev]yone ought to h 8 %>e ( ! patronage4 

,! ,iniquities ( ! ,spoils ,sy/em4--,?is
 doctr9e1 al?\gh x 0  = m ?an fifty ye>s
 accept$ by public op9ion 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates1 re/$ ^u a false conception (    
democratic gov]nm5t4 ,x  assum$ !       
int]e/s ( ! political p>ty to be m      
important ?an  effici5cy 9 ! gov]nm5t   
s]vice4 ,x assum$ t adm9i/rative  "w    
c\ld be well-en\gh p]=m$ by m5 :o _h no 
qualifications 9  ! way ( education or  
exp]i5ce--no?+ b a record ( p>ty        
s]vice4 ,! spoils sy/em reg>d$ public   
(fice 9 nation1 /ate1 &  city z m]e     
booty = ! victori\s hordes aft] an      
election1 :]eas  public (fice is 8a     
public tru/01 z ,grov] ,clevel& once q  
rightly said4 ,x is a privilege & a     
responsibility2 n a "r or a  rew>d4 ,no 
man has a "r to hold public (fice m]ely 
because he  belongs to ! w9n+ p>ty4 ,he 
has a "r only :5 he is qualifi$  to p]=m
 ! functions :i* ! t5ure ( public (fice 
involves4    ,sid5ote3 ,results ( !     
spoils sy/em4    ,be+ bas$ ^u a false   
doctr9e ! spoils sy/em 0 p]nici\s 9  its

 results4 ,x fill$ ! adm9i/rative (fices
 ( ! l& ) p>ty  h5*m5 :o 7 incompet5t to
 p]=m ! difficult "w (  adm9i/ration2 x 
result$ 9 su* frequ5t *anges ( (ficials 
t a  man no soon] le>n$ ! duties ( 8    
position ?an he 0 remov$ to  make room =
 someone else2 x debas$ ! :ole tone ( ! 
public  s]vice4 ,x spread f ! national  
gov]nm5t to ! /ates & f  ! /ates to !   
cities1 mak+ ! gov]nm5t s]vice ev]y:]e  
less  effici5t ?an private ent]prise4   
,presid5ts1 s5ators1 &  repres5tatives 7
 =c$ to sp5d a l>ge portion ( _! "t 9   
li/5+ to ! pleas ( (fice-seek]s4 ,ev5   
,l9coln1 9 ! d>k days  ( ! ,civil ,w>1  
c\ld n escape ! deluge ( applicants =   
appo9tm5ts4#bh ,n ev]yone :o s\ght (fice
 c\ld be appo9t$1 (  c\rse1 & :]e       
refusals 7 made !y (t5 caus$ mu*        
bitt]ness4  ,! s]i\sness ( ! :ole       
situation 0 /rongly impress$ ^u !       
public m9d 9 #ahha1 :5 ,presid5t        
,g>field 0 %ot by a man ^:  reque/ = an 
appo9tm5t _h be5 refus$4    ,! ,rise ( !
 ,civil ,s]vice ,sy/em4--,popul> av]sion

 to ! spoils  sy/em ultimately mov$     
,congress to pass ! ,civil ,s]vice ,act 
( #ahhc4  ,al?\gh ?is /atute has be5    
sev]al times am5d$ & its provisions     
broad5$1 x /ill rema9s ! basis ( ! m]it 
sy/em z appli$ to  f$]al appo9tm5ts4    
,briefly1 x provides = a ,civil ,s]vice 
,commission ( ?ree p]sons appo9t$ by !  
,presid5t ) !  confirmation ( ! ,s5ate4 
,x gives ! ,presid5t p[] to classify !  
v>i\s subord9ate (fices1 ) ! provision t
 all (fices s  classifi$ mu/ !reaft] be 
fill$ by competitive exam9ations4 ,:5  !
 law w5t into =ce only ab\t f\rte5 ?\s& 
positions 7  plac$ 9 ! classifi$ s]vice 
b ! li/ has be5 /eadily wid5$  until    
today m ?an ?ree hundr$ ?\s& positions 9
 ! employ (  ! national gov]nm5t are    
fill$ by exam9ation4 ,^! exam9ations    
are conduct$ by ! ,civil ,s]vice        
,commission4    ,sid5ote3 ,! spread (   
civil s]vice4    ,f ! national gov]nm5t 
! civil s]vice sy/em spread to _m (  !  
/ates & cities :]e x has /eadily made   
progress al?\gh x is  yet f> f be+      

univ]sally e/abli%$4 ,m ?an half ! /ates
  are ev5 yet )\t civil s]vice laws4 ,9 
! l>g] cities !  adoption ( ! m]it sy/em
 _h be5 m g5]al2 ne>ly all ( !m  h n[   
e/abli%$ x 9 "o =m or o!r4 ,! sy/em (   
patronage is  ev]y:]e los+ its hold     
al?\gh ! politicians (t5 fight h>d to   
reta9 x4 ,f ! pres5t outlook x is only a
 "q ( "t until  all adm9i/rative (fices 
except ! v highe/ w be fill$ "u  civil  
s]vice rules4    ,sid5ote3 ,! nature (  
civil s]vice te/s4    ,h[ ! ,m]it ,sy/em
 ,works4--,! actual op]ation ( ! civil  
s]vice  or m]it sy/em is z foll[s3      
,:5ev] a classifi$ position is to be    
fill$1 ! appo9t+ (fic] calls ^u ! ,civil
 ,s]vice ,commission  to s5d him ! names
 ( suitable p]sons4 ,if ! commission has
  rec5tly held competitions = a simil>  
position1 x may h names on  h&4 ,=      
example1 if ! appo9tm5t is to ! position
 ( mail-cl]k1  /5ograph]1 po/man1 or    
policeman1 !re is no delay 9 s5d+ 9 !   
names because exam9ations = ^! po/s1 ow+
 to ! /eady dem&1  are held frequ5tly4  

,b if "s unusual position is to be      
fill$1 su*  z t ( *emi/ 9 ! city's wat] 
dep>tm5t1 x is usually  necess>y to hold
 a special competition4 ,public         
ann\ncem5t is made2  applications are   
receiv$2 exam9ation pap]s are made out2 
! te/s  are tak5 by ! v>i\s applicants1 
& ! results are figur$ out4  ,!n !      
,civil ,s]vice ,commission c]tifies to !
 appo9t+ (fic]  ! names :i* are highe/  
on ! li/1 usually ! ?ree highe/1 &  !   
appo9tm5t is made f among ^! names4     
,sid5ote3 ,!y are practical 9 _! nature4
    ,d n imag9e1 h[ev]1 t a civil s]vice
 competition takes ! =m  ( exam9ations l
 ^? giv5 9 s*ool or college4 ,! que/ions
  relate to ! "w :i* ! applicant w h to 
d4 ,c&idates =  appo9tm5t z /5ograph]s  
are giv5 a practical te/ to det]m9e     
:e!r !y c take dictation rapidly1 read x
 accurately1 & write  x out neatly ) a  
typewrit]4 ,civil s]vice te/s = policem5
 take  ! =m ( a physical exam9ation1    
que/ions on elem5t>y law1 & on  ! duties
 ( a policeman4 ,!re are diff]5t        

exam9ations = ea*  k9d ( position4 ,!   
exam9]s /udy :at qualifications a       
position  dem&s & !n devise a set (     
exam9ations :i* w te/ ^!                
qualifications4 ,! ,civil ,s]vice       
,commission does n make !  appo9tm5ts2 x
 m]ely c]tifies ! names ( ^? :o /&      
highe/4  ,f ^! names ! appo9t+ (fic]    
usually selects ! fir/ on !  li/1 b 9 "s
 cases he is p]mitt$ to *oose any "o ( !
 fir/  ?ree names4    ,value ( ! ,m]it  
,sy/em4--,! m]it sy/em does n always    
succe$ 9  pick+ out ! be/ among ^? :o   
apply = a vacant position4 ,no  sy/em ( 
competitive te/s is infallible4 ,ev5    
s*ool exam9ations d  n always prove :o  
is ! be/ s*ol>4 ,b !y come ne>] do+ s   
?an any o!r me?od4 ,civil s]vice te/s d 
succe$ 9 we$+ out !  unfit4 ,!y protect 
! public s]vice aga9/ ! appo9tm5t (     
(ficials :o are cle>ly incompet5t & h no
 qualifications except  political       
influ5ce4 ,if ! civil s]vice sy/em does 
n always select  ! be/ x c]ta9ly enables
 u to avoid ! wor/1 :i* is some?+  t !  

spoils sy/em nev] did4    ,sid5ote3 ,!  
democratic "* ( ! civil s]vice sy/em4   
,! civil s]vice sy/em is democratic4 ,x 
gives ev]yone an equal  *ance4 ,x matt]s
 n :o ! c&idates are1 :e!r ri* or poor1 
,republicans or ,democrats1 ) fri5ds or 
)\t fri5ds--all h an  equal opportunity4
 ,m]it is ! only ?+ t c\nts4 ,& x is !  
only ?+ t ought to c\nt 9 fill+ public  
positions4 ,x is true  t ! c&idate ) an 
education usually has an advantage 9    
answ]+ civil s]vice que/ions2 b does n  
education help a man or  woman 9 e bran*
 ( life8 ,9 a c\ntry :]e education is   
free c  we call a sy/em ( appo9tm5t     
8undemocratic0 because x gives !        
educat$ c&idate an advantage8 ,"u ! m]it
 sy/em m5 & wom5  w9 appo9tm5ts2 !y d n 
receive appo9tm5ts by favor4 ,!y hold   
_! po/s dur+ good behavior & are        
protect$ aga9/ dismissal  )\t cause4 ,! 
cause mu/ be specific & /at$ 9 writ+4   
,?is  be+ done1 ! appo9t+ (fic] usually 
has ! "r to dismiss a  subord9ate & ?is 
"r is necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( prop]   

discipl9e4 ,"u ! civil s]vice sy/em1    
h[ev]1 dismissals are n  frequ5t4#bi    
,,direct ,,legislation ,,by ,,! ,,p     
,sid5ote3 ,"s def9itions4    ,!         
,initiative & ,ref]5dum3 ,:at !y        
are4--,! ma*9]y ( direct  legislation   
consi/s ( two political devices :i*     
usually g toge!r  & are kn[n z !        
initiative & ref]5dum4 ,by ! initiative 
is  meant ! "r ( a /at$ p]c5tage ( vot]s
 9 any /ate or o!r  political division  
to propose a law & to require t if ?is  
proposal  is n =?) adopt$ by ! regul>   
law-mak+ au?orities x %all  be submitt$ 
to ! p = _! decision at ! polls4 ,!     
initiative usually cov]s con/itutional  
am5dm5ts z well z laws4 ,to  put x 9    
less te*nical language1 if anyone       
believes t a new law or  ord9ance %\ld  
be pass$1 he draws up ! law or ord9ance 
9 su*  =m z he desires2 !n he gets a    
c]ta9 numb] ( vot]s to sign a  petition 
ask+ = its passage4 ,if ! legislature   
enacts x1 well &  good2 if x does n     
enact x ! "q :e!r ! law w be  adopt$    

goes on ! ballot = ! vot]s to decide4   
,! ref]5dum1 on ! o!r h&1 is an         
arrangem5t :]eby a measure  already     
pass$ by ! legislature or city c\ncil   
may1 "u c]ta9  conditions1 be )held f   
go+ into effect until ! p h _h  an      
opportunity to accept or reject x at !  
polls4 ,! conditions  usually are t a   
c]ta9 numb] ( vot]s %all pres5t a       
petition  ask+ t ! measure be )held f   
go+ into =ce4 ,!  ref]5dum1 z a rule1 _c
 be invok$ 9 ! case ( em]g5cy  measures4
    ,_! ,progress 9 ,am]ica4--,x is only
 ab\t a qu>t] ( a c5tury  s9ce !        
initiative & ref]5dum1 9 ?is =m1 made _!
 appe>ance  9 ,am]ica1 ! fir/ /ate to   
e/abli% !m be+ ,s\? ,dakota 9  #ahih4cj 
,o!r /ates soon took up ! idea & today  
ne>ly half !  entire numb] ( /ates h    
made provision = direct legislation 9   
"o =m or ano!r4#ca ,sid5ote3 ,spread (  
direct legislation4 ,f  ! /ates !       
movem5t spread to ! cities1 a l>ge numb]
 ( :i*  n[ h provisions = ! initiative &
 ref]5dum ins]t$ 9 _!  *>t]s4 ,!        

ext5sion ( ! sy/em to ! national        
gov]nm5t1 by  means ( an am5dm5t to !   
con/itution1 is n[ be+ urg$ by "s       
organizations1 includ+ ! ,am]ican       
,f$]ation ( ,labor4    ,sid5ote3        
,reasons = ?is rapid ext5sion4    ,h[ is
 ! rapid spread ( ?is movem5t = direct  
legislation 9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates to be    
acc\nt$ =8 ,two reasons = x1 at lea/1   
may be  giv54 ,"o is ! decl9e ( popul>  
confid5ce 9 lawmak+ by  legislators4 ,! 
"w ( ! legislatures 9 _m ( ! /ates1 & ( 
! city c\ncils 9 mo/ ( ! cities1 has be5
 unsatisfactory to !  p on a good _m    
occasions4 ,x has giv5 vogue to ! idea t
 !  p !mselves c\ld n d mu* worse &     
might d a great deal  bett]4 ,! second  
reason may be f\nd 9 ! habit ( waiv+    
responsibility :i* _m legislatures &    
city c\ncils h acquir$  9 rec5t ye>s4   
,:5 difficult que/ions come be=e        
legislatures1 !  legislators frequ5tly  
f9d an easy solution1 s f> z !y !mselves
  are conc]n$1 by 8putt+ ! matt]        
directly up to ! p04 ,9  o!r words !y   

agree to place ! que/ions on ! ballot at
 ! next  election4 ,9 _m /ates ?is      
practice ( pass+ measures ) a  8ref]5dum
 clause0 has become v common4 ,x has    
pav$ ! way =  direct legislation on a   
wid] scale4    ,! ,initiative &         
,ref]5dum 9 ,practice4--,9 actual       
practice !  initiative & ref]5dum d n   
provide a simple & easy means (  mak+   
laws4 ,_! use is h$g$ ab\t by all sorts 
( =malities &  conditions4 ,9 no two    
/ates are ^! conditions exactly alike1 b
 9  a g5]al way ! practical work+s (    
direct legislation are some:at  z       
foll[s3    ,sid5ote3 ,! petition4    ,z 
! fir/ /ep1 ^? :o desire a new law make 
a draft ( x 9  writ+4 ,!n !y write out a
 brief petition to accompany x & obta9  
z _m signatures z !y c4 ,! usual        
requirem5t is t a c]ta9  p]c5tage ( !   
qualifi$ vot]s mu/ sign ! petition be=e 
x w  be accept$ by ! au?orities4 ,^!    
signatures are secur$ by hold+  meet+s1 
or by a h\se-to-h\se canvass1 or by     
plac+ copies ( !  petition 9 banks1     

/ores1 & o!r public places :]e vot]s c  
sign  !m4 ,:5 en\gh signatures h be5    
obta9$1 ! petition1  accompani$ by !    
draft ( ! propos$ law1 is pres5t$ to !  
prop]  (ficial at ! /ate ,capitol or    
city hall & ?is (ficial *ecks !  names )
 a copy ( ! vot]s' li/4 ,sid5ote3 ,!    
scrut9y4 ,if he  f9ds t all !           
requirem5ts h be5 fulfill$1 he endorses 
on !  petition a /atem5t to ?is effect &
 makes provision = plac+ !  "q on !     
ballot at ! next election or1 9 "s      
cases1 at a  special election held = !  
purpose4 ,mean:ile1 ! legislature or    
city c\ncil may enact ! measure1 9 :i*  
case ! "q ne$ n  be plac$ on ! ballot4  
,sid5ote3 ,! vot+4 ,to in=m ! vot]s     
conc]n+ ! v>i\s initiative measures :i* 
are to be vot$ on1  "s /ates h provid$ t
 a pamphlet %all be prep>$ & mail$  to e
 vot] previ\s to ! election4 ,^!        
pamphlets conta9 !  texts ( ! propos$   
laws & also1 9 "s cases1 a summ>y ( !   
argum5ts = & aga9/ ea* proposal4 ,at !  
election ! vot]s m>k  _! ballots ) a    

cross opposite ! words ,yes or ,no & !  
propos$  law is adopt$ or reject$ 9     
accordance ) ! w ( ! majority4    ,9 !  
case ( ! ref]5dum a petition is also    
drawn up & a  designat$ numb] (         
signatures obta9$4 ,:5 en\gh signatures 
h  be5 secur$1 usually ! same numb] z is
 requir$ = ! initiative1  ! petition is 
pres5t$1 *eck$ up1 & c]tifi$ 9 ! same   
way4  ,! law 9 "q1 al?\gh duly enact$ by
 ! legislature1 is !n  )held f go+ into 
effect until ! vot]s ratify x at an     
election4    ,9 "s /ates ! initiative & 
ref]5dum h be5 us$ q  freely2 9 o!rs    
h>dly at all4 ,9 ,oregon1 dur+ ! decade 
#aijf-aiaf1  no few] ?an n9ety-"o       
measures 7 submitt$ to ! vot]s at five  
elections2 9 ,massa*usetts only f\r     
measures h be5 initiat$ by  petition 9  
five ye>s4 ,mu* great] use has be5 made 
( direct  legislation 9 ! ,f> ,we/ ?an 9
 ! ,ea/4    ,sid5ote3 ,! argum5ts 9     
favor4    ,m]its ( ,direct              
,legislation4--,! reput$ m]its ( !      
initiative &  ref]5dum may be summ$ up  

"u f\r heads4 #a4 ,x makes gov]nm5t  m  
democratic4 ,9 legislatures ! influ5ce (
 "s class1 section1  or p>tisan elem5t  
among ! p has (t5 det]m9$ ! nature (  ! 
laws4 ,by ! use ( direct legislation !  
:ole p c make  _! w effective4 #b4 ,x   
has an educative value4 ,p :o are  call$
 ^u to vote ^u measures w le>n some?+   
ab\t !m be=e  go+ to ! polls4 ,:5 !     
legislators alone make ! laws1 !        
individual vot] takes no int]e/ 9 !     
lawmak+4 ,b :5 !  que/ions g on ! ballot
 !re is a g5]al public discussion ( !   
argum5ts = & aga9/4 ,9 ?is way ! :ole   
body ( ! vot]s  becomes in=m$ on public 
problems4 #c4 ,x gives ! ord9>y citiz5 a
  *ance to make 8 influ5ce felt4 ,!     
legislature1 9 do+ its "w1  does n he>  
mu* f ! pla9 man :o att5ds to 8 own     
bus9ess4  ,x he>s *iefly f ! 8ve/$      
int]e/s01 ! corporations1 &  capitali/s 
on ! "o h&1 or f labor organizations or 
! f>m]s  on ! o!r4 ,x is also subject$  
to pressure by politicians & p>ty       
lead]s4 ,b a consid]able "p ( !         

population is made up ( m5 &  wom5 :o   
are nei!r capitali/s1 union work]s1 nor 
politicians4  ,direct legislation gives 
?is sil5t section ( ! electorate a      
*ance4  #d4 ,x keeps legislative bodies 
on _! good behavior4 ,! initiative  &   
ref]5dum are n int5d$ to supplant       
lawmak+ by legislatures4  ,mo/ ( ! laws 
w cont9ue to be made by ! old process4  
,direct  legislation is m]ely a rem$y 9 
! h&s ( ! p = use :5  ! regul> lawmak+  
bodies fail to c>ry out ! popul> w4     
,kn[+  t ! vot]s h ?is weapon ready =   
use1 ! legislators are m  c>eful ab\t   
:at !y d4 ,!y "k t an appeal may be tak5
 to !  vot]s & _! own decisions         
ov]turn$4 ,?is is an inc5tive to  bett] 
"w on _! "p4 ,h5ce ! initiative &       
ref]5dum w  really /r5g!n r ?an de/roy  
our sy/em ( repres5tative  gov]nm5t4    
,sid5ote3 ,! argum5ts aga9/4    ,defects
 ( ,direct ,legislation4--,b !re are    
argum5ts on ! o!r  side z well2 & ^!    
also c be arrang$ "u f\r head+s4 #a4    
,direct legislation weak5s ! civil      

rights ( ! individual4 ,^!  rights are  
embodi$ 9 ! /ate con/itutions = !       
purpose (  pres]v+ !m4 ,b if a majority 
( ! vot]s c *ange ^!  con/itutions at   
any "t1 !re is no long] any di/9ction   
betwe5  con/itutions & laws4 ,?is means 
t !re is no special protection  = !     
rights ( prop]ty1 = free spee*1 or =    
fre$om ( wor%ip4  ,a majority c ride    
r\gh-%od ov] a m9ority at any "t4 #b4   
,direct  legislation is usually ! "w ( a
 majority 9 "n only4 ,n m  ?an eighty p]
 c5t ( ! p regul>ly ca/ _! ballots on   
election day2 ! proportion is (t5 mu*   
small]4 ,( ^? :o g to  ! polls _m d n   
vote on all ! que/ions4 ,! result is t  
measures are frequ5tly ratifi$ by !     
votes ( only ?irty or =ty  p] c5t ( !   
:ole electorate1 9 o!r words by a di/9ct
 m9ority4  ,! alleg$ 8rule ( ! majority0
 ?us becomes a fiction1 n a fact4  #c4  
,direct legislation results 9 appeals to
 public prejudice & leads  to           
demagogism4 ,:5 measures are submitt$ to
 ! p ! discussion  is n conf9$ to !     

m]its ( ! propos$ laws4 ,! support]s &  
oppon5ts alike appeal to ! prejudice & !
 self-int]e/ ( !  vot]s4 ,! demagogue   
uses 8 opportunity to ! fulle/ ext5t1   
?us  inflam+ bitt]ness betwe5 diff]5t   
classes among ! p4 ,!re  is no          
opportunity = calm delib]ation or       
compromise z 9 !  legislative halls4 ,! 
vot]s c only say ,yes or ,no4 ,!y mu/   
take !  measure z x /&s or reject x     
entirely4 ,z a rule1 moreov]1 ! man  :o 
is ready to say ,yes or ,no to any      
public "q c be set d[n z  "o :o has giv5
 v little ?\ght to ! subject4 #d4       
,direct  legislation t5ds to break d[n !
 :ole sy/em ( repres5tative  gov]nm5t4  
,x divides ! responsibility = lawmak+1  
enc\rages !  election ( less effici5t   
repres5tatives1 & places ^u ! p a  task 
:i* !y _c intellig5tly p]=m4 ,! vot]s w 
n1 &  _c1 fully in=m !mselves ab\t !    
m]its & defects ( t51  tw5ty1 or ?irty  
diff]5t que/ions on ! ballot4 ,x is     
absurd1 !  oppon5ts ( direct legislation
 decl>e1 to submit a long li/ (         

que/ions to ! vot]s :5 ?\s&s ( ^! vot]s 
are n ev5 able  to read or write4#cb    
,sid5ote3 ,:i* are ! /rong]8    ,!      
,relative ,weight ( ^! ,argum5ts4--,!   
=e-go+ p>agraphs give  ! argum5ts1 bo? =
 & aga9/ direct legislation1 z !y are   
commonly put =? by ! two sides4 ,!      
support]s ( direct  legislation are     
incl9$ to magnify its m]its2 ! oppon5ts 
are  equally prone to ov]/ate its       
defects4 ,due all[ance %\ld be made =   
?is 9 weigh+ _! respective argum5ts4    
,direct legislation has n  put an end to
 ! p[] ( political bosses or de/roy$ !  
p>ty  sy/em or made all ! laws righte\s4
 ,on ! o!r h& x has n l$  to lawmak+ by 
demagogues or impair$ ! fundam5tal      
rights ( !  citiz54 ,laws pass$ by means
 ( ! initiative & ref]5dum h  be51 on ! 
:ole1 no bett] & no worse ?an laws pass$
 by  legislatures4 ,! /rong probability 
is1 if "o may v5ture a  pr$iction1 t    
less use ( direct legislation w be made 
z "t  goes on4 ,?is does n mean1 h[ev]1 
t ! sy/em w be valueless4  ,x /ill      

rema9s a highly important weapon ( la/  
resort :i* !  p c use if !y ne$ x4 ,at  
any rate no "o ne$ hesitate to make  up 
8 own m9d z to ! relative m]its &       
defects ( ! initiative  & ref]5dum1 = he
 w f9d himself 9 pretty good company    
:i*ev] side he takes4    ,! ,recall4--,!
 recall is ! "r ( a designat$ numb] (   
vot]s  to dem& ! imm$iate removal ( any 
elective (ficehold] & to h  _! dem&     
submitt$ to ! vot]s = decision4 ,a      
petition =  removal is drawn up &       
circulat$ = signatures2 :5 en\gh        
signatures h be5 obta9$ x is pres5t$ to 
! prop] au?orities  :o !reupon hold an  
election to decide ! matt]4 ,! petition 
usually /ates ! reasons = dem&+ !       
(ficehold]'s removal  be=e ! expiration 
( 8 t]m4 ,if a majority ( ^? :o vote on 
! "q are 9 favor ( ! removal1 !         
(ficehold] vacates 8  po/ at once2 if !y
 reject ! dem& = a recall1 he cont9ues 9
  (fice4 ,provision = ! recall 0 fir/   
e/abli%$ 9 ,los ,angeles  7#aijc71 &    
dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty ye>s x has be5 adopt$ 9

 _m  cities 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry4  
,t5 /ates h also provid$  = ! recall (  
elective /ate (fic]s4 ,sev]al city      
(ficials h  be5 remov$ at recall        
elections1 b only "o /ate (fic] has yet 
be5 ou/$ f (fice by ?is proc$ure4#cc    
,! purpose ( ! recall is to ensure !    
complete & cont9ual  responsibility (   
public (ficials to ! p :o h elect$ !m4  
,x enables ! e/abli%m5t ( long] t]ms (  
(fice )\t incurr+  ! dang] ( autocracy  
on ! "p ( (ficehold]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1  ! 
recall is a weapon :i* may easily be    
p]v]t$ to wrongful use4 ,if  attempts 7 
made to ou/ an (ficehold] :5ev] 8 "w    
gives  (f5ce to any influ5tial elem5t   
among ! vot]s1 ! recall  proc$ure w\ld  
soon become an intol]able nuisance 9 t x
 w\ld be  cont9ually br++ ! p to !      
polls4 ,x w\ld likewise det]  indep5d5t 
& capable m5 f accept+ (fice at all4 ,b 
z a  matt] ( fact ! recall has n be5    
widely us$4 ,= ! mo/ "p  ! p h held x 9 
res]ve = em]g5cies4 ,x is l a           
fire-escape on ! outside ( a build+1 n  

to be us$ at all "u  ord9>y             
circum/ances1 b exce$+ly valuable :5 an 
em]g5cy  comes4                         
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,,james ,,bryce1    
,mod]n ,democracies1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4      
#aea-afd 7,public ,op9ion72  ,vol4 ,,ii1
 pp4 #dag-dcd 7,direct ,legislation by !
 ,p72    ,a4 ,l4 ,,l[ell1 ,public       
,op9ion & ,popul> ,gov]nm5t1 pp4        
#aac-bcb  7,me?ods ( ,express+ ,public  
,op9ion72    ,a4 ,b4 ,,h>t1 ,actual     
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bgj-bgc 7,appo9t+ ,p[]72
 #bgf-bid  7,civil ,s]vice72    ,w4 ,b4 
,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1   
pp4 #eja-eba 7,direct  ,legislation & ! 
,recall72    ,e4 ,m4 ,,phelps 7editor71 
,initiative & ,ref]5dum 7,debat]s'      
,h&book  ,s]ies72    ,,delos ,f4        
,,wilcox1 ,gov]nm5t by ,all ! ,p 7,!    
,argum5ts 9  ,favor71 pp4 #ajd-abh2     
#adi-afc2    ,,arnold ,b4 ,,hall1       
,popul> ,gov]nm5t 7,! ,argum5ts ,aga9/71
 pp4  #abj-adc4                         
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,:at is public   
op9ion8 ,h[ is x =m$8 ,influ5ce ( !     

press4  ,news columns & editorials4 ,!  
press & propag&a4 ,influ5ce (           
adv]tis]s4 ,! l>ge measure ( indep5d5ce 
9 ! press4 ,resolutions  (              
organizations4 ,communications to       
legislators4 ,relative importance (  !  
v>i\s *annels ( public op9ion4          
,ref]5ces3 ,a4 ,v4 ,,dicey1 ,!          
,relations betwe5 ,law & ,public ,op9ion
 9 ,engl&1 pp4 #ag-dg2 ,,james  ,,bryce1
 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 
#bea-bff2 ,ibid41 ,mod]n  ,democracies1 
,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ib-aaj2 #aea-afd2 ,a4 ,l4
 ,,l[ell1 ,public ,op9ion  & ,popul>    
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #d-ef2 ,g4 ,h4 ,,payne1  
,hi/ory ( ,j\rnalism  9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 pp4 #cdg-cei & passim2 ,,arnold ,b4    
,,hall1  ,popul> ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #be-dd2 
,,walt] ,,lippman1 ,lib]ty & ! ,news1   
passim4    #b4 ,! initiative & ref]5dum 
9 _! practical work+s4  ,ref]5ces3 ,j4  
,d4 ,,b>nett1 ,! ,op]ation ( !          
,initiative1  ,ref]5dum & ,recall 9     
,oregon1 pp4 #aja-abe2 ,ill9ois         
,con/itutional  ,conv5tion 7#aibj71     

,bullet9s1 ,no4 #b2 ,massa*usetts       
,con/itutional  ,conv5tion 7#aiag-aiah71
 ,bullet9s1 ,no4 #f2 ,a4 ,l4 ,,l[ell1   
,public  ,op9ion & ,popul> ,gov]nm5t1   
pp4 #afi-bci2 ,d4 ,f4 ,,wilcox1         
,gov]nm5t  by ,all ! ,p1 pp4 #bbi-cbj2  
,,arnold ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popul> ,gov]nm5t1 
pp4 #abj-adc4    #c4 ,! civil s]vice    
sy/em3 its progress1 aims1 & me?ods4    
,ref]5ces3 ,a4 ,b4 ,,h>t1 ,actual       
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bgf-bid2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1
  ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4   
#bbb-bcj2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1  ,read+s 9   
,am]ican ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #fhc-gjb2
 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1  ,gov]nm5t ( ,am]ican 
,cities1 pp4 #bga-bij2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,fi%1 ,!
 ,civil  ,s]vice & ! ,patronage1 passim2
 ,j4 ,t4 ,,"y1 ,! ,new ,am]ican         
,gov]nm5t & its ,"w1 pp4 #eib-fjh4      
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! responsibility (
 public (ficials4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel&1    
,organiz$  ,democracy1 pp4 #cid-dji4    
#b4 ,! function ( a repres5tative4 ,j4  
,w4 ,,j5ks1 ,pr9ciples (  ,politics1 pp4
 #gg-hd2 ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill1 ,on            

,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t  7,ev]yman's   
,libr>y71 pp4 #bjb-bah2 #bbh-bda4    #c4
 ,! election vs4 ! appo9tm5t ( public   
(ficials4 ,,john ,m4  ,,ma!ws1          
,pr9ciples ( ,am]ican ,/ate             
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #agc-aij4    #d4 ,!  
spoils sy/em4 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,am]ican 
,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,,ii1  pp4 #acf-ade2
 ,,james ,a4 ,,woodburn1 ,political     
,p>ties & ,p>ty ,problems1  pp4         
#bed-bfe4 ,see also ,w4 ,d4 ,,f\lke1    
,fight+ ! ,spoilsm51 passim4    #e4     
,tra9+ = public s]vice4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,all51 
,tra9+ = ! ,public  ,s]vice1 pp4        
#afd-bjj4    #f4 ,h[ civil s]vice te/s  
are giv54 ,l4 ,f4 ,,fuld1 ,police       
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #ge-ig4    #g4 ,!    
public s]vice z a pr(ession4 ,a4 ,l4    
,,l[ell1 ,public ,op9ion  & ,popul>     
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bfd-cje2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,all51
 ,tra9+ = !  ,public ,s]vice1 pp4       
#afd-aha2 ,e4 ,a4 ,,fitzpatrick1 ,exp]ts
 9 ,city  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ga-ajd4    #h4
 ,! recall ( public (fic]s4 ,,arnold ,b4
 ,,hall1 ,popul>  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4        

#bjc-bda4                               
,que/ions    #a4 ,h[ _m 8organs0 (      
public op9ion c y "n8 ,h[ does ea* ex]t 
an influ5ce8 ,:i* "o d y consid] ! mo/  
influ5tial8    #b4 ,is public op9ion    
always ! s5tim5t ( ! majority8 ,if x is 
n1  expla9 :y4 ,give a concrete         
illu/ration4    #c4 ,d y agree ) ,edmund
 ,burke's ideas z to ! prop] function ( 
a  repres5tative8    #d4 ,:5 ! "q (     
woman suffrage 0 be=e ! ,unit$ ,/ates   
,s5ate1 & only "o additional vote 0 ne$$
 to pass x1 a c]ta9  s5ator decl>$ t    
:ile he 0 p]sonally 9 favor ( grant+ !  
suffrage to wom5 ! p ( 8 own /ate _h j  
vot$ aga9/ !  proposal & he !re=e felt  
b\nd to foll[ _! judgm5t4 ,0 he  "r or  
wrong 9 tak+ t attitude8    #e4 ,make a 
li/ ( ! adm9i/rative (fic]s ( y\r /ate &
  community1 indicat+ :i* ones %\ld be  
elect$ & :i* appo9t$4  ,c y ?9k ( any   
prop] exceptions to ! rule t all        
adm9i/rative (fices requir+ skill or    
exp]i5ce %\ld be fill$ by  appo9tm5t8   
#f4 ,:at argum5ts 7 put =w>d 9 behalf ( 

! spoils sy/em8    #g4 ,:at sort ( civil
 s]vice te/s ought to be appli$ 9       
select+  p]sons = ! foll[+ positions3   
truck-&-ladd] driv] 9 ! fire  dep>tm5t2 
g>d5] 9 ! public p>k s]vice2 bookkeep] 9
 !  (fice ( ! /ate treasur]2 memb] ( !  
,unit$ ,/ates life-sav+  s]vice2        
railway-mail cl]k2 analy/ ( food &      
drugs2 inspector (  wires & lamps2 woman
 police (fic]2 probation (fic]2         
draftsman 9  ! /ate highway dep>tm5t4   
#h4 ,9 a city ( #ajj1jjj population :at 
positions w\ld y exempt f  civil s]vice 
rules8    #i4 ,is good gov]nm5t m       
important ?an popul> gov]nm5t8 ,c a     
gov]nm5t be bo? democratic & effici5t8  
,d y reg>d  appo9tm5ts by competition z 
undemocratic8 ,:y or :y n8    #aj4 ,"w  
out a plan by :i* promotions 9 ! police 
dep>tm5t c\ld  be made "u ! m]it sy/em  
7consid] ! possibility ( giv+  cr$its = 
punctuality1 acts ( c\rage1 numb] (     
arre/s1 etc41 &  ( mak+ d$uctions =     
neglect ( duty1 etc474    #aa4 ,:at is !
 /ronge/ argum5t = direct legislation & 

:at is  ! weake/8 ,:i* argum5t on ! o!r 
side impresses y ! mo/ &  :i* ! lea/8   
#ab4 ,is x m dang]\s to subject judges  
to ! possibility ( recall  ?an o!r      
(ficials8                               
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,a congressman 
%\ld obey 8 consci5ce r ?an 8 con/itu5ts
  :5 he _c obey bo?4    #b4 ,heads (    
/ate & city adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts %\ld 
be *os5  "u civil s]vice rules4    #c4  
,! initiative & ref]5dum %\ld be ext5d$ 
to national  lawmak+4                   
,,*apt] ,,vii                           
,,suffrage ,,& ,,elections        ,!    
purpose ( ?is *apt] is to expla9 :o h ! 
"r to      vote1 h[ ! vot]s nom9ate     
public (ficials1 & h[ elections      are
 held4                                  
,,suffrage    ,sid5ote3 ,direct &       
indirect popul> control4    ,h[ ! ,vot]s
 ,control ! ,gov]nm5t4--,a democratic   
gov]nm5t is "o  9 :i* ! p1 act+ directly
 or ?r\gh _! repres5tatives1  control ! 
c\rse ( public affairs4 ,?is control may
 be ex]cis$1 z  has be5 po9t$ out1 9    

ei!r "o ( two ways4 ,x may be ex]cis$   
directly1 t is1 by ! use ( ! initiative 
& ref]5dum4 ,!  proposal = a law comes f
 a designat$ numb] ( vot]s1 & !         
adoption or rejection ( ! proposal is   
decid$ by a majority ( !  vot]s at !    
polls4    ,x is easy to see1 h[ev]1 t ! 
p _c p]=m ! entire  "w ( gov]nm5t 9 ?is 
direct way4 ,!re are too _m laws to be  
made1 too _m details ( adm9i/ration to  
be h&l$1 & too _m  disputes to be       
adju/$4 ,s mo/ ( ! "w ( gov]nm5t is     
c>ri$ on  by p]sons :o are *os5 by !    
vot]s = ?is purpose or :o are  appo9t$  
to (fice by ! repres5tatives ( ! p4     
,elective  (ficials1 z a rule1 h        
au?ority to det]m9e matt]s ( g5]al      
policy 9 nation1 /ate1 or municipality1 
:ile appo9tive (ficials1  = ! mo/ "p1   
c>ry out ! policy ?us det]m9$ ^u4       
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,gov]nm5t4 ,by      
,elihu ,v$d]      ,f a ,copley ,pr9t1   
copyright by ,curtis  ,cam]on1 ,bo/on4  

,reproduc$ by p]mission4                
,,gov]nm5t                              
,by ,elihu ,v$d]              ,f a mural
 decoration 9 ! ,libr>y ( ,congress4    
,mr4 ,v$d] portrays ,gov]nm5t z a mature
 woman 9            ! fullness ( h]     
/r5g?4 ,%e is seat$ ^u a            b5* 
( hewn m>ble1 :i* is support$ by !      
figures ( two lions--all emblematic (   
/r5g? &            p[]4 ,beh9d is an oak
 tree1 :i* typifies sl[1                
deep-root$ gr[?4 ,9 symbolic pictures ! 
ballot            box is usually        
repres5t$ z an urn4 ,"h !               
m>ble b5* re/s ^u urn-%ap$ vases4 ,9 !  
lions' m\?s are moor+-r+s to rem9d u t  
! %ip ( /ate mu/ n drift aimlessly b    
%\ld be moor$ to /r5g?4              ,9 
h] left h& ,gov]nm5t grasps a gold5     
sceptre            7! ,gold5 ,rule7 to  
signify t all h] actions            are 
bas$ ^u respect = ! rights ( o!rs2 h]   
"r h& holds a tablet ^u :i* is grav5 a  
notable epigram f ,l9coln's ,gettysburg 
,address4            ,on ei!r side (    

,gov]nm5t are two g5ii or               
my?ical figures4 ,"o holds a bridle :i* 
typifies            re/ra9t1 discipl9e1 
& ord]--! bulw>k (            effective 
gov]nm5t4 ,! o!r supports an            
un%ea!d sword1 emblematic ( def5ce &    
ju/ice4              ,9 ?is picture1    
!re=e1 ! au?or prefigures            !  
out/&+ m>ks ( a successful free         
gov]nm5t--/r5g?2 fairness1 democracy1   
re/ra9t1            security1 & ju/ice4 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------    ,!  
,citiz5 & ! ,vot]4--,gov]nm5t by ! p    
does n1 (  c\rse1 mean gov]nm5t by all !
 p4 ,sid5ote3 ,n all citiz5s  are       
vot]s4,9 e c\ntry !re are _m p]sons :o  
are n  compet5t to ex]cise a %>e 9 !    
gov]nm5t4 ,v "y p]sons1 =  example1 d n 
h maturity ( judgm5t1 :i* a %>e 9       
gov]nm5t  requires4 ,insane p]sons1     
prison]s 9 jails1 ali5s1 & o!rs are     
also1 = obvi\s reasons1 usually deb>r$ f
 ! privilege (  vot+4 ,x is n to be     
assum$ t ev]yone :o is a citiz5 is also 

a  vot]4 ,all p]sons born or naturaliz$ 
9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & subject  to ,am]ican
 jurisdiction are citiz5s no matt] :at  
_! ages or  m5tal capacity may be1 b n  
all are vot]s4 ,! vot]s are ^?  ^u :om !
 privilege ( vot+ has be5 conf]r$ by    
law4 ,9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates !y comprise a  
l>ge proportion ( ! adults b !y d  n =m 
a majority ( ! entire population4 ,out (
 a national  population ( ab\t "o hundr$
 & five millions ! vot]s ( !  ,unit$    
,/ates numb] ab\t ?irty-five millions4  
,?is numb] is q  l>ge en\gh to ensure an
 adequately repres5tative gov]nm5t4     
,sid5ote3 ,! gradual wid5+ ( ! suffrage 
,developm5t ( ! ,suffrage4--,vot+ is a  
privilege & duty r  ?an a "r4 ,9 ! e>li]
 /ates ( ,am]ican hi/ory ! privilege (  
vot+ 0 re/rict$ to prop]ty-own]s &      
taxpay]s4 ,?is condition  ( affairs1    
moreov]1 cont9u$ = a consid]able p]iod  
aft] !  ,revolution>y ,w>4 ,"o by "o1   
h[ev]1 ! v>i\s /ates began to  aboli% _!
 re/rictions & by ! middle ( ! n9ete5?  
c5tury  ! pr9ciple ( manhood suffrage _h

 become firmly e/abli%$ s f>  z ! :ite  
population 0 conc]n$4 ,! /ruggle = !    
ext5sion (  ! suffrage to m5 :o did n   
own prop]ty 0 a prolong$ & bitt]  conte/
 9 :i* ! oppon5ts ( manhood suffrage    
va9ly argu$ t  ! ext5sion w\ld put all  
political lead]%ip into ! h&s ( noisy   
agitators & w\ld end 9 ! ru9 ( ord]ly   
gov]nm5t4 ,b manhood  suffrage          
ultimately triumph$ because ! c\ntry    
came to ! conclusion  t ! /ructure (    
democratic gov]nm5t c\ld be made m      
secure by  broad5+ ! base ^u :i* x re/s4
    ,sid5ote3 ,! rights ( ! negro4      
,negro ,suffrage4--,9 ! ,s\!rn /ates    
prior to ! ,civil ,w> color$  m5 7      
exclud$ f vot+ at all elections4 ,b ) ! 
emancipation ( ! slaves ! "q ( gu>antee+
 ! suffrage to  color$ m5 _h to be fac$4
 ,by ! t]ms ( ! ,f\rte5? &  ,fifte5?    
,am5dm5ts to ! national con/itution no  
/ate is p]mitt$  to )hold vot+ rights f 
any man on acc\nt ( 8 color2 if x  does 
s1 ! con/itution provides t su* /ate    
%all h its numb]  ( repres5tatives 9    

,congress r$uc$4 ,z a matt] ( fact1     
h[ev]1  !re has always be5 a v /rong    
s5tim5t among ! :ite population  ( !    
,s\!rn /ates 9 opposition to political  
equality on ! "p  ( ! color$ elem5t1 &  
?is has prev5t$ ! en=cem5t ( !          
gu>antees conta9$ 9 ! con/itution4      
,sid5ote3 ,h[ negroes are exclud$ f     
vot+4    ,by v>i\s devices ! ,s\!rn     
/ates h = ! mo/ "p exclud$  negroes f   
suffrage4 ,"o ( ^! is ! requirem5t t all
 vot]s  %all be able to read & write4   
,if ?is provision 7 imp>tially  appli$  
to ! :ite & ! color$ population alike2  
if all illit]ate  p]sons irrespective ( 
color 7 exclud$1 ?is action w\ld be     
entirely ju/ifi$4 ,b ! aim ( ! ,s\? is  
to elim9ate ! negro  z a vot] :e!r he is
 illit]ate or n4#cd ,! attitude ( !     
:ite population 9 ! ,s\? is n difficult 
to und]/&4 ,9 !  days imm$iately foll[+ 
! ,civil ,w> ! color$ m5 7 giv5 !       
ballot 9 all ! ,s\!rn /ates1 & ! results
 7 disa/r\s4  ,unfit m5 7 elect$ to     
(fice1 public money 0 sp5t wa/efully1 & 

gov]nm5t 0 badly conduct$ 9 all ^! /ates
 "u ! dom9ation  ( ! color$ vot]s4 ,z a 
result ! :ite population took ! control 
once m into its own h&s & has kept x    
!re4 ,b ?is c  sc>cely be reg>d$ z a    
f9al solution ( ! problem4 ,no political
  problem c be solv$ 9 ?is c\ntry 9     
defiance ( ! con/itution4  ,_m ,s\!rn]s 
realize ?is & are endeavor+ to f9d "s   
solution  :i* w be = ! be/ int]e/s ( !  
negro :ile protect+ !  :ite man's       
political supremacy4 ,! negro "q is     
p>ticul>ly !  ,s\!rn]'s problem2 he kn[s
 ! color$ race z no ,nor!rn] c2  & if he
 _c settle x ju/ly & wisely1 no man c4  
,sid5ote3 ,! ext5sion ( ! suffrage to   
wom54    ,! ,n9ete5? ,am5dm5t4--,x is n[
 m ?an fifty ye>s s9ce wom5  fir/ began 
to claim1 9 ?is c\ntry1 ! "r to equal   
political  privileges ) m54 ,^? :o      
support$ ?is claim argu$ t wom5  7 q    
compet5t to assume an active %>e 9      
gov]nm5t & t 9  "s bran*es ( public     
adm9i/ration 7su* z ! managem5t (       
s*ools & ! en=cem5t ( ! laws regulat+   

*ild labor7 wom5  h an ev5 great] int]e/
 ?an m54 ,wom5 7 requir$ to pay taxes  &
 x 0 urg$ t on ?is acc\nt !y 7 entitl$  
to  repres5tation4 ,on ! o!r h& !       
ext5sion ( ! suffrage to wom5  0 oppos$ 
on ! gr\nd t x w\ld t5d to weak5 !      
int]e/ (  wom5 9 ! home1 ?us impair+ !  
/r5g? ( ! family z a social  unit1 &    
also t wom5 w\ld n use ! ballot wisely4 
,!y w\ld be  influ5c$ by _! sympa?ies & 
emotions r ?an by _!  judgm5t1 x 0      
pr$ict$1 & w\ld br+ an elem5t (         
in/ability  into public policy4 ,ano!r  
objection commonly rais$ 0 t )  twice z 
_m vot]s ! co/ ( hold+ elections w\ld be
 d\bl$4 ,b  despite ^! objections !     
movem5t = woman suffrage made gradual   
headway 9 "o /ate aft] ano!r & f9ally1 9
 #aibj1 x 0 made  compulsory ^u ! entire
 c\ntry by ! provisions ( ! ,n9ete5?    
,am5dm5t4#ce    ,sid5ote3 ,citiz5%ip1   
age1 & resid5ce4    ,pres5t             
,qualifications = ,vot+4--,ea* /ate     
decides :o %all n  vote4 ,ea* /ate has  
entire fre$om to d z x ?9ks be/ 9 ?is   

matt] subject only to ! provisions ( !  
national con/itution1  :i* /ipulate t ! 
privilege ( vot+ %all n be d5i$ to any  
citiz5 by reason ( sex1 or because (    
race1 color1 or previ\s  condition (    
s]vitude4 ,!re is no reason1 !re=e1 :y !
  qualifications = vot+ %\ld be ! same 9
 all p>ts ( !  c\ntry1 & z a matt] (    
fact !y diff] a little f /ate to  /ate4 
,at pres5t ! re/rictions relate ma9ly to
 age1 citiz5%ip1  & resid5ce1 b         
sometimes also to lit]acy & taxpay+4 ,9 
e  /ate ! privilege ( vot+ is re/rict$  
to p]sons :o are  tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age or
 ov]4 ,z = ! resid5ce requirem5t x      
v>ies consid]ably 9 diff]5t /ates1 runn+
 usually f six mon?s  to a ye>4 ,x is   
impos$ 9 ord] to make sure t ^? :o vote 
9  any community %all be some:at        
acqua9t$ ) its affairs4 ,9 mo/ (  !     
/ates none b citiz5s are p]mitt$ to     
vote1 b 9 two or ?ree  /ates ! privilege
 is ext5d$ to ^? ali5s :o h decl>$ _!   
int5tion ( becom+ citiz5s4              
,educational ,te/s =                    

,vot]s4--,educational qualifications =  
vot+1  9 "o =m or ano!r1 exi/ 9 ne>ly   
"o-?ird ( ! /ates4#cf ,9  "s !          
requirem5t is t anyone :o desires to be 
enroll$ z a  vot] %all be able to write 
8 "n & also to read al\d any clause     
tak5 at r&om f ! /ate con/itution4      
,exemptions f ?is te/  are always grant$
 to p]sons :o by m]e reason ( physical  
disability  are unable to read or write4
    ,sev]al ( ! ,s\!rn /ates h provid$  
additional exemptions :i*  result 9     
excus+ f ! te/ all :ite p]sons :o are   
unable to  read & write :ile /rictly    
apply+ ! requirem5t to all color$       
applicants4 ,sid5ote3 ,h[ educational   
te/s are appli$4 ,v>i\s  me?ods are     
employ$ to ?is end4 ,9 "o case !        
provision is t no  "o may be regi/]$ z a
 vot] unless he c read any clause 9 !   
/ate con/itution or 8give a reasonable  
int]pretation !re(04 ,!  :ite (ficials 9
 *>ge ( ! regi/ration !n decide1 9 _!   
own  discretion1 :e!r ! int]pretation is
 reasonable or n4 ,9 "s  o!r /ates !    

attempt has be5 made by :at is commonly 
kn[n z !  8gr&fa!r clause0 to excuse f !
 lit]acy te/ all p]sons :o  _h ! "r to  
vote be=e #ahfg1 & all desc5dants ( su* 
p]sons4  ,z !re 7 no color$ vot]s 9 any 
( ! ,s\!rn /ates prior to  ?is date !   
8gr&fa!r clause0 virtually e/abli%es a  
racial  discrim9ation :i* ! ,supreme    
,c\rt1 a few ye>s ago1 decl>$ to be     
uncon/itutional4    ,is an ,educational 
,te/ ,desirable8--,9 ! majority ( !     
/ates m5  & wom5 are p]mitt$ to vote ev5
 ?\gh unable to read or write4 ,!  "q is
 (t5 ask$ :e!r ?is practice is wise4    
,w\ld x be  bett] to insi/ on an        
elem5t>y educational qualification      
ev]y:]e1  or is x desirable t 9 a       
democracy no di/9ction be made betwe5   
^? :o c read & ^? :o _c8    ,sid5ote3 ,!
 argum5ts = & aga9/ educational te/s4   
,on ! "o h& x is argu$ t m5 & wom5 :o h 
nev] _h !  advantages ( a gramm> s*ool  
education may nev]!less be good1        
patriotic citiz5s1 & inde$ may be bett] 
in=m$ ^u que/ions (  gov]nm5t & politics

 ?an "s :o h _h f> great] educational   
advantages4 ,p are n requir$ to read &  
write be=e !y are  p]mitt$ to own       
prop]ty or compell$ to pay taxes4 ,m5 :o
 c\ld  nei!r read nor write 7 draft$ to 
s]ve 9 ! army dur+ ! w>4  ,if1 !n1 we   
compel illit]ate p]sons to p]=m ! duties
 (  citiz5%ip1 ought we n to grant its  
privileges to !m z well8 ,b  !re is     
some?+ to be said on ! o!r side ( ?is   
"q4 ,be>  9 m9d t we provide free public
 elem5t>y education = ev]yone 9  !      
,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! privilege ( le>n+ to  
read & write is n  ! privilege ( a s+le 
class2 x is )9 ! rea* ( ev]yone4 ,we  no
 long] all[ ali5s to ent] ! ,unit$      
,/ates unless !y c read  & write1 nor c 
any illit]ate p]son become naturaliz$4  
,"u ^!  circum/ances is x unreasonable  
to require an elem5t>y educational  te/ 
= vot+8 ,x may be true t p]sons :o are  
unable to read are  able to m>k a c]ta9 
type ( ballot )\t spoil+ x1 b !y c      
h>dly hope to ex]cise an intellig5t     
*oice z among individual  c&idates on ! 

ballot2 !y are unable to use any ballot 
:i* does  n arrange ! names ( c&idates 9
 /raight p>ty columns & !y  _c vote ^u  
ref]5dum que/ions except by m]e         
guess-"w4 ,if we  are regul>ly go+ to   
submit que/ions to ! vot]s at ! polls = 
_! decision1 %\ld n ! vot+ li/s be      
conf9$ to ^? :o are  at lea/ able to    
read ! que/ions8    ,tax-,pay+          
,qualifications = ,vot+4--,9 a few /ates
 ! male  suffrage is re/rict$ to p]sons 
:o h be5 assess$ = a poll tax4          
,massa*usetts has su* a provision &     
en=ces x /rictly4 ,"s  ,s\!rn /ates also
 impose ?is qualification1 p>tly1 no    
d\bt1  because x is effective 9 deb>r+  
l>ge numb]s ( color$ m5 :o  are remiss 9
 pay+ _! annual poll taxes4 ,!re is a   
diff]5ce1 (  c\rse1 betwe5 a taxpay+    
qualification & a prop]ty qualification4
  ,_m p pay taxes1 income & poll taxes1 
= example1 )\t  own+ any prop]ty4 ,n[h]e
 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! own]%ip (       
prop]ty a requirem5t = vot+ at national 
elections4    ,sid5ote3 ,! requirem5ts  

v>y f /ate to /ate4    ,^!1 !n1 are !   
g5]al & special qualifications4 ,x w be 
obs]v$ t s9ce ea* /ate prescribes its   
own requirem5ts1 no two  ( !m e/abli% ! 
same qualifications1 or1 if !y d1 x is  
m]ely  by accid5t4 ,x is n /rictly true 
t e adult citiz5 ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates has 
! privilege ( vot+2 b x is approximately
 true4  ,^? :o are exclud$ by !         
resid5ce1 educational1 or tax pay+      
qualifications 7ap>t f color$ citiz5s 9 
! ,s\!rn /ates7 =m  a relatively small  
fraction ( ! total adult citiz5%ip1     
probably  less ?an t5 p] c5t4#cg        
,sid5ote3 ,! regi/r>s ( vot]s4    ,h[   
,vot]s are ,regi/]$4--,9 ord] to obta9 a
 ballot on election day  x is necess>y t
 "o's "n %all be on ! vot]s' li/4 ,?is  
li/  is prep>$ by (ficials designat$ =  
?is purpose 9 e community  or di/rict4  
,^! (ficials are commonly kn[n z        
regi/r>s ( vot]s4  ,:oev] desires to be 
enroll$ mu/ appe> be=e ^! regi/r>s &    
usually mu/ make a sworn /atem5t z to   
age1 citiz5%ip1 resid5ce1  & o!r        

qualifications4 ,if !re is an           
educational te/1 x is appli$  by !      
regi/r>s4 ,! pr9t$ li/s ( enroll$ vot]s 
are !n po/$  = public inspection4#ch ,9 
"s /ates a new vot]s' li/ is compil$  e 
ye>1 & x ?us becomes necess>y = ev]yone 
to regi/]  annually4 ,9 o!rs x is !     
practice to keep a vot]'s "n on !  li/ s
 long z he cont9ues to pay poll         
taxes4#ci ,b 9 any case !  only way a   
vot] c be sure ( hav+ 8 "n on ! li/ at e
  election is to give ?is matt] 8       
p]sonal att5tion4 ,9 ! eyes (  ! law    
vot+ is a privilege1 n a "r1 & ! vot] is
 responsible  = see+ t he obta9s 8      
privilege4                              
,,nom9ations    ,sid5ote3 ,! *ief       
purpose ( nom9ations4    ,:y ,nom9ations
 are ,ess5tial4--,! *oice ( elective    
public (ficials  usually involves two   
/eps--! nom9ation & ! election4         
,nom9ations  may be made1 & !y are      
sometimes made1 by a caucus or by a     
conv5tion  ( delegates4 ,m (t51 h[ev]1  
!y are made by ! vot]s at a  prelim9>y  

election or prim>y4 ,b ! "q may fairly  
be ask$3  ,:y h nom9ations at all8 ,:y n
 give ! vot]s blank ballots &  let !m   
write 9 :atev] names !y please8 ,ap>t f 
! fact t  _m vot]s 79 /ates :i* impose  
no educational te/7 w\ld n be  able to  
write1 !re is ! objection t s _m diff]5t
 p]sons  w\ld be vot$ = t no "o w\ld h  
any?+ l a majority4 ,9  ord] to ensure t
 ^? :o are elect$ w repres5t ! *oice (  
a sub/antial body ( ! vot]s & if        
possible an actual majority1 x  is      
desirable t !re be "s way ( elim9at+ all
 b ! /rong]  c&idates4 ,t is :y we      
provide = =mal nom9ations4    ,hi/ory ( 
,nom9at+ ,me?ods4--,dur+ ! pa/ hundr$   
ye>s or m  we h tri$ a v>iety ( nom9at+ 
me?ods4 ,fir/ came ! caucus1  sometimes 
a ga!r+ ( legislators & sometimes (     
vot]s1 br\ght  toge!r to select a       
c&idate4 ,sid5ote3 ,! conv5tion me?od4  
,!  caucus gave place1 9 "t1 to !       
conv5tion1 :i* is a body (  delegates   
*os5 by ! vot]s ( ea* locality4 ,to ?is 
day !  conv5tion rema9s ! me*anism by   

:i* nom9ations are 9 "s cases  made4 ,b 
! conv5tion me?od1 = a v>iety ( reasons1
 did n prove  satisfactory & x has be5  
replac$1 ?r\gh\t ! great] portion (  !  
,unit$ ,/ates1 by ! sy/em ( nom9ation at
 a prim>y election4    ,sid5ote3        
,diff]5t =ms ( prim>y4    ,!            
,prim>y4--,! prim>y1 9 our electoral    
sy/em corresponds to !  8qualify+       
trials0 9 a?letic conte/s4 ,its purpose 
is to see t !  race is conf9$ to !      
swift4 ,x elim9ates ^? :o h no *ance to 
w94 ,^? :o desire to be c&idates = any  
public (fice pres5t  _! names on        
nom9ation pap]s1 ea* ( :i* mu/ be> !    
signatures  ( s _m qualifi$ vot]s--say  
tw5ty-five or fifty4 ,! names ( !       
c&idates are plac$ on a ballot1 & a     
prim>y election is held "s  "t be=e !   
regul> election4 ,b ! details ( prim>y  
elections  diff] some:at f /ate to /ate4
 ,an op5 prim>y is "o at :i*  vot]s are 
n re/rict$ to ! ballot or column ( _!   
own p>ty1  b may ex]cise entire fre$om (
 *oice among all ! names on !  prim>y   

ballot4 ,9 "s /ates !re are p>ty        
prim>ies or clos$  prim>ies4 ,?is means 
t none may vote at ! prim>y except ^?   
:o are memb]s ( a political p>ty4#dj    
,ea* p>ty may hold its  prim>y on a     
diff]5t date1 9 :i* case x is call$ a   
sep>ate  prim>y2 or bo? p>ties may hold 
_! prim>ies toge!r1 9 :i*  case we call 
x a jo9t prim>y4 ,at a jo9t prim>y !re  
may be a  sep>ate ballot = ! vot]s ( ea*
 p>ty or !re may be a s+le  ballot :i*  
conta9s ! names ( diff]5t p>ty c&idates 
9  p>allel columns4 ,9 "s cities & t[ns 
ano!r =m1 !  non-p>tisan prim>y1 is     
provid$1 9 :i* case ! ballot be>s no    
p>ty designations at all4 ,! proc$ure at
 a prim>y election is l  t ( a regul>   
election1 ) pr9t$ ballots1 ballot boxes1
 &  regul> (ficials 9 *>ge ( ! polls4   
,sid5ote3 ,advantages ( ! prim>y4       
,m]its & ,defects ( ! ,prim>y4--,z a    
me?od ( mak+ nom9ations  ! prim>y1 :e!r 
clos$1 op51 or non-p>tisan1 has bo?     
m]its &  defects4 ,x is bett] ?an !     
conv5tion 9 t x places nom9ations       

directly 9 ! h&s ( ! vot]s1 ?us mak+ x m
 difficult =  p>ty bosses to dictate :o 
! c&idates %all be4 ,conv5tions  consi/+
 ( a relatively small numb] ( delegates1
 _m ( !m  (ficehold]s1 c be manipulat$  
by wire-pull+ politicians4  ,nom9ations 
made by conv5tions h frequ5tly be51 = t 
reason1  v unsatisfactory to ! rank &   
file ( ! vot]s4 ,! prim>y  gives an     
opportunity to ! man or woman :o is     
popul> ) ! vot]s  al?\gh n popul> ) !   
politicians4 ,x t5ds to break d[n "s  ( 
! wor/ abuses ( ! p>ty sy/em4           
,sid5ote3 ,objections to x4    ,on ! o!r
 h& !re are "s practical objections to !
 prim>y z  a me?od ( mak+ nom9ations & a
 vigor\s fight is n[ be+ wag$  to aboli%
 x4 ,a prim>y means an additional       
election ) all !  att5dant campaign+ &  
exp5se4 ,! total vote ca/ at a prim>y is
  (t5 small2 h5ce ! c&idate :o ga9s !   
nom9ation may or may n  be ! real *oice 
( 8 p>ty4#da ,! prim>y puts a burd5 ^u  
^? :o seek to ga9 elective public (fice1
 = !y mu/ virtually  fight & w9 two     

successive battles at ! polls4 ,to d ?is
 takes s  mu* "t t m5 & wom5 :o h       
bus9ess ( _! own to att5d to  are (t5   
det]r$ f becom+ c&idates4 ,! field (    
political  activity ?us t5ds to become  
monopoliz$ by pr(essional politicians   
:o h no?+ else to d4 ,! prim>y conte/s  
are s bitt] at times  t !y create       
diss5sions 9 ! p>ty ranks & weak5 ! p>ty
 at  ! ensu+ election4 ,! use ( ! prim>y
 has n enabl$ u to get  rid ( political 
bosses2 x has m]ely made !m "w a great  
deal  h>d] to reta9 control4            
,sid5ote3 ,a new developm5t4    ,9 "s   
/ates ! political p>ties h adopt$ !     
practice (  hold+ an 8in=mal0 conv5tion 
"s few weeks be=e ! date ( !  prim>y4   
,?is conv5tion1 :i* is compos$ (        
un(ficial delegates1  makes             
recomm5dations z to ! c&idates :o ought 
to be vot$ = by  memb]s ( ! p>ty at !   
prim>y4 ,memb]s ( ! p>ty are free1 (    
c\rse1 to d z !y please at ! prim>y1 b !
 recomm5dations  made by an 8in=mal0    
conv5tion1 9 view ( ! fact t !y are     

l>gely ! "w ( ackn[l$g$ p>ty lead]s1    
c>ry a good deal (  weight4    ,sid5ote3
 ,?is means a fur!r complication4    ,"o
 result ( ! prim>y sy/em has be51 !re=e1
 to complicate our  electoral ma*9]y4   
,if ! practice ( hold+ in=mal conv5tions
  becomes g5]al1 !re w be f\r /eps :i* a
 p>ty w h to  take 9 ord] to put its    
c&idates 9 (fice1 fir/ ! in=mal         
conv5tion1 !n ! prim>y1 !n ! (ficial    
conv5tion :i* drafts  ! plat=m1 & f9ally
 ! election4 ,surely x %\ld be possible 
to  elect our public (ficials "u "s less
 complicat$ arrangem5t ?an  ?is4#db     
,,elections    ,sid5ote3 ,! election    
day4    ,h[ an ,election is ,held4--,!  
date on :i* an election is held is  fix$
 by law4 ,national elections always take
 place on ! ,tuesday  foll[+ ! fir/     
,monday 9 ,novemb]4#dc ,/ate elections  
are usually1  al?\gh n always1 held on !
 same date4 ,local elections take place 
on su* dates z ! /ate laws or city *>t]s
 provide4 ,x is usually  ?\ght be/ t    
local elections %all n be held on ! same

 day z  ! /ate or national elections    
because ( a desire to keep national &   
/ate politics out ( local affairs4 ,:5  
national1 /ate1 & local  elections are  
held on ! same day ! t5d5cy is = ! vot]s
 to  focus _! :ole att5tion on national 
& /ate issues1 giv+ v  little att5tion  
to ! problems ( _! own communities4 ,!  
names (  c&idates = ! local (fices are  
away d[n ne> ! bottom ( !  ballot :]e !y
 appe> relatively unimportant4 ,sep>ate 
elections  involve additional exp5se1   
h[ev]1 & increase ! numb] ( times a     
vot] has to come to ! polls4#dd         
,sid5ote3 ,poll+ places & poll (fic]s4  
,! vot+ is done at poll+ places1 "o or m
 ( :i* are locat$  9 ea* prec9ct4 ,!    
prec9ct is a small division ( ! c\nty1  
t[n1  or city2 z a rule x does n conta9 
m ?an f\r or five hundr$  vot]s4 ,!     
poll+ place is 9 *>ge ( (ficials1       
commonly kn[n z  poll-w>d5s or          
inspectors1 :o are appo9t$ by ! /ate or 
local  au?orities4 ,!y are assi/$ by    
cl]ks4 ,! duty ( ^! v>i\s  (ficials is  

to op5 ! poll1 give ballots to p]sons :o
 are  regi/]$ & to no o!rs1 c\nt ! votes
 aft] ! poll is clos$1  & report !      
results to ! au?orities :o are 9 *>ge ( 
!  elections4 ,!y are responsible = !   
lawful & hone/ conduct ( !  poll+4 ,ea* 
p>ty is also all[$ to h "o or m 8wat*]s0
 at  ! poll+ place & ^! wat*]s h ! "r to
 *all5ge any  p]son :om !y believe to be
 an impo/or4 ,:5 anyone is *all5g$ he   
may take oa? t he is entitl$ to vote1 9 
:i* case he w be  giv5 a ballot2 b su*  
ballots are c\nt$ sep>ately4 ,:5 a vot] 
receives a ballot1 8 "n is *eck$ (f !   
vot]s' li/4 ,v>i\s  /alls or boo?s are  
provid$1 into "o ( :i* ! vot] !n goes & 
m>ks 8 ballot privately4 ,hav+ f9i%$    
m>k+ x he folds !  ballot & h&s x to "o 
( ! poll+ (ficials :o1 9 ! pres5ce  ( ! 
vot]1 deposits x 9 ! ballot box4 ,polls 
are kept op5 dur+  designat$ h\rs1      
usually f six or sev5 o'clock 9 ! morn+ 
until  five or six o'clock 9 ! aft]noon4
    ,sid5ote3 ,hi/ory ( ballot+4    ,!  
,ballot4--,! hi/ory ( ! ballot 9 !      

,unit$ ,/ates is  int]e/+4 ,sid5ote3 #a4
 ,oral vot+4 ,orig9ally all votes 7 giv5
  orally4 ,! vot] came to ! poll+ place1
 /at$ 8 *oice al\d &  ! poll (ficials   
wrote x d[n4 ,! objection to ?is plan 0 
t x  preclud$ secrecy & left ! vot]s op5
 to intimidation4 ,!n pap]  ballots came
 into use1 ea* p>ty provid+ ballots =   
its own memb]s4  ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,! p>ty  
ballot4 ,outside ! poll+ place1 at ea*  
election1 /ood a gr\p ( p>ty work]s ea* 
arm$ ) a h&ful (  ballots1 :i* 7        
di/ribut$ to ! vot]s z !y came4 ,?is    
me?od  also 0 objectionable4 ,sid5ote3  
,objections to ! p>ty ballot4 ,x        
enc\rag$ ! vot+ ( a 8/raight p>ty       
ticket01 9 o!r words x  took = grant$ t 
ev]yone wi%$ to vote = ! entire slate ( 
p>ty c&idates )\t exception4 ,if ! vot] 
desir$ to d  o!rwise1 x 0 necess>y = him
 to scrat* out ! unacceptable  names &  
write o!rs 94 ,mo/ vot]s w\ld n g to ?is
 tr\ble4  ,?is me?od ( ballot+ 0 n      
secret1 because a vot] c\ld be  wat*$ f 
! "t he receiv$ 8 ballot outside ! poll+

 place  until he deposit$ x 9 ! box4    
,?is 0 an enc\ragem5t to brib]y  &      
intimidation4 ,x also facilitat$ fraud  
at elections s9ce !re 0  no limit ^u !  
numb] ( ballots pr9t$ by ! p>ties & x 0 
n difficult = di%one/ vot]s or corrupt  
(ficials to slip extra  ballots into !  
box4 ,?is abuse1 kn[n z 8/uff+0 ! ballot
 box  c\ld only be prev5t$ by hav+ all !
 ballots (ficially pr9t$4  ,:5 a def9ite
 numb] ( (ficial ballots is giv5 to ea* 
poll+  place e ballot mu/ be acc\nt$ =4 
,sid5ote3 #c4 ,! ,au/ralian ballot4     
,9 ne>ly all ! /ates1 !re=e1 an (ficial 
ballot is n[ us$4  ,?is is commonly kn[n
 z ! ,au/ralian ballot4 ,usually ! names
 (  all ! c&idates are pr9t$ 9 p>allel  
columns1 ea* p>ty hav+ a  column ( its  
own1 ) ! "n & insignia ( ! p>ty at !    
top4  ,imm$iately bel[ ! insignia is a  
circle 9 :i* ! vot]1 by  m>k+ a cross1  
may record 8 vote = e "o ( ! c&idates 9 
! entire column4 ,! vot] :o does ?is is 
said to vote a 8/raight  ticket04 ,b if 
he desires to vote = "s ( ! c&idates 9 !

  column ( "o p>ty & = "s 9 ! column (  
ano!r p>ty1 he  leaves ! circle unm>k$ &
 places a cross aft] su* individual     
names z he may *oose4 ,?is is call$ vot+
 a 8split ticket04 ,9 "s  /ates !re are 
no p>ty columns2 ! names ( ! c&idates   
are  pr9t$ on ! ballot 9 alphabetical   
ord]1 ea* "n foll[$ by a  p>ty          
designation4 ,9 a few l>ge cities1 su* z
 ,bo/on & ,clevel&1  ! p>ty designation 
is omitt$4 ,"h ! vot] mu/ pick & *oose  
individually4 ,! p>ty-column arrangem5t 
enc\rages ! vot+ (  /raight tickets2 !  
alphabetical plan does n4#de            
,sid5ote3 ,evils ( ! long ballot4    ,! 
,%ort ,ballot4--,?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates
 ! numb] ( elective  (fices /eadily     
increas$ dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,!      
result 0  t ballots gradually became    
long] until 9 "s cases ! vot]s  f\nd    
!mselves confront$ ) %eets ( pap]       
conta9+ a hundr$  names or ev5 m4 ,x    
prov$ exce$+ly difficult to use prop]   
discrim9ation among s _m names & h5ce   
!re arose an agitation  = simplify+ !   

ballot by r$uc+ ! numb] ( positions to  
be  fill$ by election4 ,9 a democratic  
gov]nm5t all (ficials :o h  au?ority to 
decide que/ions ( g5]al policy--!       
,presid5t1 s5ators1  repres5tatives1    
gov]nors1 assemblym51 mayors1 c\ncilors1
 & !  l--ought to be *os5 by popul>     
vote4 ,b !re are _m o!r  (ficials1 su* z
 /ate auditors1 c\nty cl]ks1 &          
sup]9t5d5ts (  s*ools1 ^: duties are    
*iefly adm9i/rative4 ,^! (ficials c>ry  
out a policy :i* is laid d[n = !m by    
law1 & x is cont5d$  t !y %\ld n be     
elect$ b appo9t$4 ,if all su* (ficials  
7 made appo9tive1 ! size ( ! ballot w\ld
 be consid]ably  r$uc$1 & ! vot]s c\ld  
conc5trate _! att5tion ^u a small]      
numb] ( names4    ,a ballot is n an     
effective in/rum5t ( popul> gov]nm5t    
unless x  is simple en\gh = ! av]age    
vot] to use intellig5tly4 ,:5 a  ballot 
is s long1 s complicat$1 & s unwieldy t 
! vot] is  tempt$ by %e] exhau/ion into 
vot+ a /raight p>ty ticket1 !n  ! p>ty  
lead]s1 & n ! p1 are really *oos+ !     

(fic]s  ( gov]nm5t4 ,! movem5t = a 8%ort
 ballot0 aims to make gov]nm5t  m truly 
democratic1 n less s4    ,sid5ote3      
,defects ( ! ord9>y ballot4    ,!       
,pref]5tial ,ballot4--,ano!r defect ( ! 
ord9>y ballot is t  x all[s ! vot] to   
indicate only a s+le *oice = ea* (fice4 
,if  !re are five c&idates = ! (fice (  
mayor1 let u say1 ! vot]  may m>k 8     
ballot = "o ( !m only4 ,he is n p]mitt$ 
to  indicate :o w\ld be 8 second *oice1 
or 8 ?ird *oice among !  five4 ,:i*ev]  
c&idate gets ! l>ge/ numb] ( fir/ *oices
 among  ! vot]s is ! w9n]1 al?\gh he may
 be ! *oice ( a small  m9ority4 ,to     
prev5t ?is likelihood ( election by a   
m9ority :5  !re are sev]al c&idates 9 ! 
field = a s+le (fice a sy/em  (         
8pref]5tial vot+0 is sometimes us$4     
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! pref]5tial sy/em works4 
,:]e ! pref]5tial ballot is 9 use1 z x  
is 9 sev]al ,am]ican  cities1 ! vot]s   
are ask$ to indicate1 9 columns provid$ 
= ?is  purpose1 n only _! fir/ b _!     
second & ?ird *oices &  ev5 _! fur!r    

*oices among ! v>i\s c&idates4 ,! names 
(  ^? c&idates :om ! vot] does n want to
 support are left  unm>k$4 ,:5          
pref]5tial ballots are c\nt$1 any       
c&idate :o has a  cle> majority ( fir/  
*oices is decl>$ elect$4 ,b if no       
c&idate  obta9s a majority ( fir/       
*oices1 ! second *oices are add$ to !   
fir/ *oices & if ! two totals comb9$    
give :at w\ld be a  majority (          
fir/-*oice votes1 ! c&idate :o receiv$  
!m is  decl>$ elect$4 ,9 l mann] ! ?ird 
*oices are resort$ to if  necess>y4#df  
,! c&idate elect$ by ! pref]5tial sy/em 
is  practically always ! *oice ( a      
majority among ! vot]s1 n !  fir/ *oice 
( a majority always1 b "o :om a majority
 h  indicat$ _! will+ness to support4 ,!
 *ief practical objection to  !         
pref]5tial ballot is t _m vot]s d n take
 ! tr\ble to  m>k _! second & ?ird      
*oices4    ,sid5ote3 ,! problem (       
m9ority repres5tation4    ,proportional 
,repres5tation4#dg--,pref]5tial vot+    
%\ld be  di/+ui%$ f proportional        

repres5tation1 :i* is a plan (  *oos+   
legislative bodies 9 su* a way t all    
consid]able gr\ps  ( vot]s w be         
repres5t$ 9 proportion to _! own numb]s4
  ,:5ev] sev]al repres5tatives are      
elect$ on ! same ballot x  usually      
happ5s t "o political p>ty secures !m   
all4 ,s _m  vot]s adh]e to ! 8/raight   
ticket0 t ! entire p>ty slate w9s4  ,!  
m9ority p>ty1 ev5 ?\gh x may comprise   
ne>ly half ! vot]s1  9 su* cases obta9s 
no repres5tation at all4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 
does  n give u a true sy/em (           
repres5tative gov]nm5t2 h5ce v>i\s      
plans h be5 put =w>d = secur+ to 8ea*   
consid]able p>ty or  gr\p ( op9ion0 a   
repres5tation correspond+ to its        
num]ical  /r5g? among ! vot]s4 ,! be/   
kn[n among ^! is ! ,h>e ,plan1  :i* has 
be5 us$ 9 sev]al =eign c\ntries &1 dur+ 
rec5t  ye>s1 9 a few ,am]ican cities4#dh
    ,sid5ote3 ,! ,h>e plan expla9$4     
,?is sy/em ( proportional repres5tation 
is some:at complicat$ b  may be         
concisely describ$ z foll[s3 ,fir/1 !   

names ( all  c&idates are pr9t$         
alphabetically on ! ballot & ! vot]     
indicates 8 *oices by m>k+ ! figure #a  
aft] ! "n ( 8  fir/ *oice1 ! figure #b  
aft] ! "n ( 8 second *oice1 & s  on4    
,!n1 :5 ! polls are clos$1 ! election   
(fic]s compute !  numb] ( votes ne$$ to 
elect a c&idate & ?is is call$ 8!       
quota04 ,?is !y d by divid+ into ! total
 numb] ( votes ca/ !  numb] ( places to 
be fill$1 plus "o1 & !n add+ "o to !    
quoti5t4 ,= example1 let u suppose t    
#aj1jjj votes h be5 ca/  & t !re are    
sev5 c&idates to be elect$4 ,t5 ?\s&    
divid$  by eight 7sev5 plus "o7 is #abej
 & any c&idate :o receives #abea        
fir/-*oice votes is decl>$ elect$4 ,if  
su* c&idate1 h[ev]1 has  m votes ?an    
en\gh to fill 8 quota1 ! surplus votes  
are  di/ribut$ 9 accordance ) ! indicat$
 second-*oices among  c&idates ^: quotas
 h n be5 fill$4 ,if en\gh c&idates are  
n elect$ by ?is process1 ! c&idate ) !  
smalle/ numb] (  fir/ *oices is !n      
dropp$ & 8 votes are di/ribut$ 9 ! same 

way4 ,?is process ( elim9ation &        
di/ribution goes on until en\gh         
c&idates h fill$ _! quotas or until !   
successive elim9ations  h left no m ?an 
en\gh to fill ! vacant positions4 ,?is  
plan is  n a model ( simplicity1 (      
c\rse1 b x is n s difficult to  und]/& z
 "o might at fir/ glance imag9e1 nor 9  
its actual  work+s does x pres5t any    
s]i\s complications4 ,:at ! vot] has  to
 d is simple en\gh4 ,9 s f> z !re are   
any difficulties !y  arise 9 connection 
) c\nt+ ! ballots1 n 9 m>k+ !m4 ,!  plan
 is workable & ! atta9m5t ( proportional
 repres5tation 9  all our legislative   
bodies w\ld be a great ga94    ,sid5ote3
 ,majorities & pluralities4    ,c\nt+ ! 
,votes4--,:5 ! polls are clos$ ! ballots
 are c\nt$  by ! (ficials ( ! poll+     
place 9 accordance ) :atev] plan  is    
us$4 ,) ord9>y ballots ! c\nt+ does n   
take v long2 if  pref]5tial ballots are 
us$1 or if a sy/em ( proportional       
repres5tation is 9 vogue1 ! c\nt+ takes 
a good deal long]4 ,:5  a c&idate       

receives m ?an "o-half ( all ! poll$    
votes1 he is  decl>$ to h a majority2 :5
 he m]ely obta9s m votes ?an  ! next    
highe/ c&idate he is said to h a        
plurality4 ,9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 at ne>ly
 all elections1 a plurality is          
suffici5t4 ,:5  ! c\nt+ is f9i%$ !      
result is c]tifi$ to ! prop] high]      
(ficials4 ,a rec\nt c usually be _h at !
 dem& ( any c&idate1  & rec\nts (t5 take
 place :5 ! result is close4            
,sid5ote3 ,types ( corruption4          
,corrupt ,practices at ,elections4--,all
 elections af=d "s opportunity  =       
corrupt practices & v>i\s safegu>ds are 
provid$ aga9/ _!  occurr5ce4 ,p]sonation
 is ! (f5ce ( vot+ "u a "n :i* is  n y\r
 own4 ,vot]s :o h di$ s9ce ! li/s 7     
compil$1 or :o  are abs5t1 are sometimes
 imp]sonat$ by m5 :o h no "r to vote  at
 all4 ,vigilance on ! "p ( ! election   
(fic]s helps to prev5t  p]sonation      
al?\gh ! (ficials c h>dly be expect$ to 
"k  ev]yone :o comes to ! polls4        
,repeat+ is ! (f5ce ( vot+  twice at !  

same election4 ,to d ?is a vot] mu/     
fir/1 by fraudul5t  means1 become       
enroll$ z a vot] 9 two or m prec9cts or 
di/ricts4  ,ballot-box /uff+ is !       
practice ( putt+ 9 ! box ballots  :i* h 
no "r to be !re4 ,) ! ,au/ralian ballot 
! practice  is v infrequ5t4             
,ballot-swit*+ is ! plac+ ( m>ks on !   
ballots1 surreptiti\sly1 :ile ! ballots 
are be+ c\nt$4 ,a  di%one/ (ficial1 ) a 
small piece ( lead "u 8 f+]nail1 has    
sometimes be5 able to spoil or to       
8swit*0 ballots by m>k+  additional     
crosses on !m dur+ ! process ( c\nt+4   
,intimidation is ! (f5ce ( influ5c+ a   
vot]'s action by ?reats  or wrongful    
pressure4 ,brib]y1 ( c\rse1 is          
self-explanatory4 ,all  ^! practices    
involve moral turpitude & are =bidd5 "u 
sev]e  p5alties4 ,!y h n[ become        
relatively uncommon at ,am]ican         
elections4#di    ,abs5t ,vot+4--,x      
frequ5tly happ5s1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 t   
_m vot]s _c conv5i5tly be 9 _! home     
di/ricts on election  day4 ,soldi]s &   

sailors1 comm]cial travel]s1 railway    
conductors1  eng9e]s & tra9m51 fi%]m51  
/ud5ts 9 univ]sities are obvi\s         
examples4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t 9        
,massa*usetts ! numb] (  vot]s :o are   
necess>ily abs5t f _! homes on election 
day  av]ages ab\t ?irty ?\s&4 ,_m o!rs1 
9 ord] to ca/ _!  ballots1 are put to   
consid]able exp5se & inconv5i5ce4 ,n[ x 
has  seem$ desirable1 9 _m ( ! /ates1 to
 make "s provision :]eby  ^? vot]s may  
ca/ _! ballots )\t be+ actually at !    
polls  on election day4 ,! usual        
arrangem5t is t a vot] :o expects to be 
abs5t on election day mu/ apply1 "s "t  
be=e ! election date1  to a designat$   
(ficial = a ballot4 ,?is ballot is !n   
m>k$ by !  vot] & seal$ 9 an envelope4  
,! envelope is atte/$ be=e a  not>y     
public & deposit$ ) an election (ficial 
:o sees t x  is c\nt$ :5 o!r ballots are
 c\nt$4 ,9 "s /ates ! blank  ballot is  
s5t by mail to abs5t vot]s :o reque/ x1 
& aft] be+  m>k$ ! ballot is return$ by 
mail be=e ! election day4 ,! *ief       

objection to abs5t vot+ is t x gives an 
opportunity = fraud1  b 9 practice ?is  
has n prov$ to be a s]i\s objection4    
,compulsory ,vot+4--,compulsory vot+    
does n exi/ any:]e 9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates at
 ! pres5t "t al?\gh x has be5 frequ5tly 
propos$4 ,vot+ has be5 made compulsory1 
h[ev]1 ) legal p5alties  = failure to   
vote1 9 sev]al =eign c\ntries1 notably 9
 ,belgium1  9 ,spa91 & 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,!
 usual proc$ure is to impose a f9e  ^u e
 vot] :o1 )\t good excuse1 /ays away f !
 polls on  election day1 or1 = repeat$  
abs5ces1 to /rike 8 "n (f !  vot]s' li/ 
altoge!r4    ,sid5ote3 ,! argum5ts =    
compulsory vot+4    ,compulsory vot+    
re/s ^u ! argum5t t1 9 a democracy1 !   
"r to vote imposes a duty to vote4 ,!   
citiz5 mu/ s]ve on a jury  9 "t ( peace 
& 9 ! army dur+ w> :e!r he likes ^! =ms 
( public s]vice or n4 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld he  
be all[$ to %irk 8  duty to vote1 a duty
 :i* mu/ be p]=m$ if democratic gov]nm5t
 is  to survive8 ,if "o vot] has ! "r to
 /ay away f ! polls1  e o!r vot] has !  

same "r4 ,& if all foll[$ ?is policy1   
we c\ld n ma9ta9 a 8repres5tative0 =m ( 
gov]nm5t4 ,b !re  is ano!r side to ! "q4
 ,! vot] :o goes to ! polls because  he 
w be f9$ if he /ays away w n ca/ 8      
ballot ) mu*  discrim9ation1            
intellig5ce1 or patriotism4 ,sid5ote3   
,are !y valid8  ,w\ld ! votes ( su* m5  
be wor? c\nt+8 ,w\ld !y contribute      
any?+ to ! cause ( good gov]nm5t8       
,moreov]1 x has be5  demon/rat$ by =eign
 exp]i5ce t :ile y c compel a vot] to  g
 to ! polls & drop a ballot 9 ! box y _c
 compel him to  m>k 8 ballot prop]ly1 = 
he m>ks x 9 secret4 ,9 "o ( ! ,swiss    
cities "s ye>s ago x 0 f\nd t ! *ief    
result ( compulsory  vot+ 0 to induce _m
 hundr$s ( reluctant vot]s to drop blank
  ballots 9 ! box4 ,x c well be argu$ t 
vot+ is a duty1 b x  is a duty :i* ought
 to be p]=m$ f motives ( patriotism & n 
f dread ( ! p5alties4 ,mo/ citiz5s d n  
require compulsion &  x is que/ionable  
:e!r =c+ o!rs to vote w\ld1 9 ! long    
run1 s]ve any useful purpose4           

,sid5ote3 ,! m]its & defects ( vot+     
ma*9es4    ,vot+ by ,ma*9e4--,9 "s      
cities ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! exp]im5t  (  
p]mitt+ ! vot] to record 8 *oice by     
means ( a vot+  ma*9e has be5 tri$ )    
v>y+ degrees ( success4 ,a vot+ ma*9e   
is con/ruct$ ^u mu* ! same pr9ciples z a
 ca% regi/]4 ,!  keys be> ! names ( !   
v>i\s c&idates & ! vot] m]ely /eps      
beh9d a curta9 :]e he presses "o key    
aft] ano!r j z he w\ld  m>k crosses on a
 pr9t$ ballot4 ,! me*anism is s arrang$ 
t a  vot] _c press two keys :i* regi/] =
 ! same (fice4 ,!  vot+ ma*9e plan has  
"s di/9ct advantages 9 t x does away    
entirely ) ! tr\ble & exp5se ( pr9t+    
ballots2 x elim9ates  spoil$ ballots1 x 
precludes all *ance ( tamp]+ ) ! votes1 
& x ensures an accurate c\nt4 ,on ! o!r 
h& ! ma*9es are  exp5sive bo? to in/all 
& to ma9ta91 p>ticul>ly :5 sev]al       
ma*9es are ne$$ = ea* poll+ place4      
,moreov]1 l all o!r  complicat$         
me*anisms1 !y get out ( ord]1 & :5 !y d 
?is on  election day x makes a bad mess 

( ?+s4 ,x is d\btful :e!r !y  w ev]     
supplant ! pr9t$ ballot plan ( vot+4    
,summ>y4--,9 ord] t any sy/ems ( popul> 
vot+ %all be  p]man5tly successful x is 
necess>y t ! ballot %all be simple1     
intelligible1 & secret4 ,x mu/ n be s   
long z to bewild] !  vot] ( av]age      
intellig5ce1 & x ought to give ! vot] a 
reasonable *ance to 8split0 8 ballot )\t
 runn+ a s]i\s risk  ( spoil+ x4 ,a %ort
 ballot is a f> m effective in/rum5t (  
democracy ?an a long ballot4 ,ano!r     
ess5tial is t ! poll+  place %all be    
adequately safegu>d$ aga9/ fraudul5t    
practices (  any sort & t ! c\nt+ (     
votes %all be conduct$ ) absolute       
hone/y4 ,any corrupt practice 9         
connection ) elections is a bl[ at  ! v 
he>t ( democracy4 ,we he> a good deal1 f
 "t to "t1  ab\t unfairness1 fraud1 &   
corruption at elections 9 ! ,unit$      
,/ates1 p>ticul>ly at elections 9 ! l>g]
 cities4 ,:ile ^!  ?+s occur n[ & !n !y 
are mu* less frequ5t ?an !y us$ to  be4 
,am]ican elections1 tak+ !m z a :ole1   

are conduct$ ) z  mu* fairness & hone/y 
z ! elections :i* are held 9 any o!r    
c\ntry4 ,rival p>ties & c&idates try h>d
 to w92 !y seize e  opportunity to ga9  
political advantages ov] _! oppon5ts1 & 
9 s  do+ (t5 travel v close to ! l9e :i*
 sep>ates "r f  wrong2 b on ! :ole !y   
try to keep )9 ! lett] ( !  election    
laws4 ,transgressions ( ! law may br+ "s
 tempor>y  success b 9 ! long run !y d n
 pay1 & ! politicians "k  x4            
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel&1  
,organiz$ ,democracy1 pp4 #acj-aia2     
,p4 ,o4 ,,ray1 ,political ,p>ties &     
,practical ,politics1 pp4 #aji-afd2     
#bih-cba2    ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,!        
,gov]nm5t ( ,am]ican ,cities1 pp4       
#ajb-aeb2    ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,read+s on
 ,p>ties & ,elections1 pp4 #bab-bej2    
,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,/ate ,gov]nm5t 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #adc-afd2    ,k4 ,h4 
,,port]1 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,suffrage 9 !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #bj-df  & passim2    
,w4 ,w4 ,,will\ghby & ,,l9dsay ,,rog]s1 
,introduction to ! ,problem (           

,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ajg-abf 7,popul>        
,gov]nm5t74                             
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! direct prim>y3
 is x a success8 ,e>li] me?ods (        
nom9ation4  ,evils ( ! caucus &         
conv5tion4 ,:y ! direct prim>y 0        
e/abli%$4 ,! diff]5t types ( prim>y4    
,effect ( ! prim>y on  ! p>ty sy/em4    
,has x curb$ ! p[] ( ! bosses8 ,co/ ( ! 
prim>y sy/em4 ,p]c5tage ( votes poll$ at
 prim>ies4 ,has ! prim>y  secur$ bett]  
c&idates8 ,c x be improv$8 ,probable    
effects ( !  pre-prim>y in=mal          
conv5tion4 ,if n ! prim>y1 :at !n8      
,ref]5ces3 ,c4 ,e4 ,,m]riam1 ,prim>y    
,elections1 pp4 #aag-acb2 #acc-agf2  ,f4
 ,w4 ,,dall+]1 ,nom9ations = ,elective  
,(fice 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  pp4 #ie-abf2 
,r4 ,s4 ,,boots1 ,! ,direct ,prim>y 9   
,new ,j]sey1 passim2  ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel&1
 ,organiz$ ,democracy1 pp4 #bbh-bdb2 ,a4
 ,n4 ,,holcombe1  ,/ate ,gov]nm5t 9 !   
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ahb-bjd2 ,c4 ,g4    
,,ha9es &  ,,b]?a ,,ha9es1 ,pr9ciples & 
,problems ( ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #acg-aej2 ,c4

  ,l4 ,,jones1 ,read+s on ,p>ties &     
,elections1 pp4 #ec-gi2 ,p4 ,o4 ,,ray1  
,political ,p>ties & ,practical         
,politics1 pp4 #adj-afd2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hall1
  ,popul> ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #de-ig4    #b4 
,h[ c ! ballot be improv$8 ,ref]5ces3   
,e4 ,c4 ,,evans1 ,hi/ory  ( ! ,au/ralian
 ,ballot 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ag-dg2 
,r4 ,s4 ,,*ilds1  ,%ort ,ballot         
,pr9ciples1 passim2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel&1  
,organiz$  ,democracy1 pp4 #bfb-bgb2 ,c4
 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &       
,politics1 pp4 #dgd-dhg2 ,p4 ,s4        
,,re9s*1 ,read+s on ,am]ican ,f$]al     
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cfd-chc2 ,c4 ,g4 ,,ha9es
 & ,,b]?a ,,ha9es1 ,pr9ciples  &        
,problems ( ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #aea-aff2 ,a4
 ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popul>  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4    
#bdb-bfi2 ,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican         
,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4 ,i1  pp4 #ajj-ajd4     
#c4 ,proportional repres5tation 9 !ory &
 9 practice4  ,ref]5ces3 ,j4 ,r4        
,,commons1 ,proportional ,repres5tation1
 pp4 #ii-aca2  ,w4 ,w4 ,,will\ghby &    
,,l9dsay ,,rog]s1 ,introduction to !    

,problem (  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bfc-bge     
7also ,app5dix iii72 ,massa*usetts      
,con/itutional ,conv5tion1 #aiag-aiah1  
,bullet9s1 ,no4 #bh 7,proportional      
,repres5tation72 ,am]ican ,proportional 
,repres5tation ,league1  ,pamphlets1    
especially ,nos4 #f & #h4 7,! headqu>t]s
 ( ! ,league  are at ,hav]=d1 ,pa41 &   
mat]ial relat+ to proportional          
repres5tation c be _h on application47  
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! gradual ext5sion
 ( ! suffrage 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,f4 ,a4
  ,,clevel&1 ,organiz$ ,democracy1 pp4  
#acj-aej4    #b4 ,:o h ! "r to vote 9   
,european c\ntries8 ,f4 ,a4 ,,ogg1 ,!   
,gov]nm5ts ( ,europe 7see index74    #c4
 ,qualifications = vot+ 9 ! diff]5t     
/ates4 ,_w ,almanac1  #aiah4    #d4 ,h[ 
,am]ican elections are conduct$4 ,a4 ,n4
 ,,holcombe1 ,/ate  ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$
 ,/ates1 pp4 #bje-bci4    #e4 ,h[ vot]s 
are enroll$4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel&1         
,organiz$ ,democracy1  pp4 #bbj-bbg4    
#f4 ,! pref]5tial ballot4 ,massa*usetts 
,con/itutional ,conv5tion1  #aiag-aiah1 

,bullet9s1 ,no4 #bg 7,pref]5tial ,vot+74
 7,see also  ,national ,municipal       
,review1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #chf-djj1 ,july1 
#aiab47    #g4 ,! %ort ballot4 ,r4 ,s4  
,,*ilds1 ,%ort ,ballot ,pr9ciples1      
especially pp4 #ba-cj2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1 
,read+s on ,am]ican ,/ate  ,gov]nm5t1   
pp4 #cgb-chc4    #h4 ,compulsory vot+4  
,massa*usetts ,con/itutional ,conv5tion1
  #aiag-aiah1 ,bullet9s1 ,no4 #bd       
7,compulsory ,vot+74    #i4 ,corrupt    
practices at elections4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1
 ,read+s on ,p>ties  & ,elections1 pp4  
#bjb-cjb4    #aj4 ,are elections z      
fairly conduct$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z 9   
o!r  c\ntries8 ,,*>les ,,seym\r &       
,,donald ,o4 ,,fr>y1 ,h[ ! ,_w ,votes   
7see index74                            
,que/ions    #a4 ,is ! "r to vote a     
natural "r or m]ely a privilege  conf]r$
 by ! /ate8    #b4 ,:o h ! "r to vote at
 elections 9 y\r /ate8 ,:o are  exclud$8
 ,9 ord] to vote1 h[ long mu/ "o reside 
9 y\r /ate8 ,y\r  c\nty8 ,y\r prec9ct8  
#c4 ,:o enrolls vot]s 9 y\r community8  

,:5 & :]e d !y enroll  vot]s8 ,:at      
evid5ce mu/ y supply 9 ord] to be       
enroll$8    #d4 ,make a diagram ( a     
poll+ place %[+ its int]ior arrangem5t1 
! boo?s 9 :i* vot]s m>k _! ballots1 !   
location ( !  ballot box1 etc4    #e4   
,:at are ! diff]5t =ms ( prim>y & :i* =m
 d y ?9k  is ! be/ 7a7 = /ate           
nom9ations2 7b7 = local nom9ations8     
#f4 ,:at effects w\ld ! use ( ! %ort    
ballot h ^u 7a7 !  effici5cy ( gov]nm5t2
 7b7 popul> int]e/ at elections2 7c7 !  
quality ( ! (ficials *os58    #g4       
,expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 pref]5tial    
vot+1 proportional  repres5tation1      
limit$ vot+1 & cumulative vot+4    #h4  
,expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 corrupt &     
illegal practices at  elections4 ,make a
 li/ ( ea*4    #i4 ,:at are "s ( !      
reasons :y s _m vot]s /ay away f !      
polls on election day8 ,are ! foll[+    
excuses valid3 8,i d n  approve ( ei!r  
political p>ty02 8,my vote doesn't c\nt 
=  any?+02 8,i am too busy02 8,i am n   
int]e/$ 9 politics02 8,x is a  ra9y day 

& ,i might cat* cold02 8,i h an         
engagem5t to play golf02  8,! poll+     
place is too f> away02 8,i d n ?9k any (
 !  c&idates wor? vot+ =08    #aj4 ,:at 
are "s ( ! practical objections to mak+ 
vot+  compulsory8                       
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,!re %\ld be an
 educational te/ = vot+4    #b4 ,!      
failure to vote1 9 ! abs5ce ( a valid   
excuse1 %\ld be  puni%$ by "s           
appropriate p5alty4    #c4 ,!re %\ld be 
a limit on ! am\nt ( money t may be     
legally  sp5t by c&idates 9 election    
campaigns4                              
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,good ,,adm9i/ration                   
,by ,elihu ,v$d]              ,f a mural
 decoration 9 ! ,libr>y ( ,congress4    
,good ,adm9i/ration1 ) b5ign c\nt5ance1 
sits            ^u h] ?rone1 a p]fect   
ar* above h] head4            ,z ! /r5g?
 ( an ar* dep5ds ^u all its             
p>ts equally1 s ! ma9t5ance ( a /rong   
& effici5t adm9i/ration dep5ds ^u !     

co-op]ation ( all elem5ts among ! p4 ,9 
h] "r h& ,good ,adm9i/ration holds ev5ly
 !            scales ( ju/ice2 h] left  
h& re/s ^u a            qu>t]$ %ield to 
indicate ! fair balance ( all           
p>ties & classes4 ,on h] lap is ! book (
 !            law4 ,at h] feet1 on ei!r 
side1 is an urn4 ,into            "o (  
^! urns a maid5 is w9n[+ :eat drawn     
f ! wav+ fields 9 ! backgr\nd4 ,! p     
also1 9 *oos+ _! public (ficials1 %\ld  
w9n[ well4 ,into ! o!r urn an eag] y\?1 
)            books ( k "u 8 left arm1 is
 ca/+            8 ballot4              
,mr4 ,v$d] has also execut$ = ! ,libr>y 
(            ,congress a companion      
figure portray+ ,corrupt                
,adm9i/ration4 ,%e holds ! scales1      
unev5ly            balanc$1 9 h] left   
h&4 ,a seek] ( special            favors
 is plac+ a bag ( gold 9 ! scales2 he   
has seiz$ ! book ( ! law & upset !      
ballot            urn4    ,illu/ration3 
,,good ,,adm9i/ration4 ,by ,elihu ,v$d] 
,f a ,copley ,pr9t1 copyright by ,curtis

  ,cam]on1 ,bo/on4      ,reproduc$ by   
p]mission4                              
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,*apt] ,,viii                          
,,political ,,p>ties ,,& ,,practical    
,,politics        ,! purpose ( ?is *apt]
 is to describe h[ political p>ties     
are organiz$1 :at !y d1 & h[ !y d x4    
,sid5ote3 ,p>ties are natural gr\ps4    
,:y ,political ,p>ties are ,=m$4--,:5ev]
 p are 9 control (  _! gov]nm5t1        
political p>ties are c]ta9 to be =m$4   
,no popul>  gov]nm5t has long cont9u$   
any:]e 9 ! _w )\t political  p>ties4 ,! 
reason = ?is is t :5ev] any gr\p ( p f9d
  t !y h ! same op9ions or ! same       
int]e/s !y desire to  act toge!r4 ,if p 
are int]e/$ 9 music !y organize an      
or*e/ra or a *oral society & arrange    
conc]ts4 ,if m5 are  int]e/$ 9 trade1 !y
 organize !mselves into a bo>d ( trade  
to  promote _! mutual int]e/s4 ,workm5  
associate !mselves toge!r 9  labor      
unions2 boys :o are int]e/$ 9 a?letics  

organize clubs2 m5  :o h be5 9 ! milit>y
 & naval s]vice associate !mselves      
toge!r 9 ! ,am]ican ,legion1 & s x goes4
 ,p :o h !  same op9ions1 desires1      
ideas1 & int]e/s t5d to gr\p !mselves   
toge!r1 :i* is a p]fectly natural ?+ =  
!m to d4    ,n[ l>ge numb]s ( m5 & wom5 
h id5tical political op9ions  7or ?9k !y
 h7 & ?is community ( int]e/ draws !m   
toge!r  into gr\ps4 ,su* gr\ps we call  
political p>ties4 ,! ,republican p>ty   
is made up ( m5 & wom5 :o believe 9     
c]ta9 political pr9ciples  :i* are set  
=? 9 ! p>ty plat=m2 ! ,democratic p>ty  
is made  up ( ^? :o hold a diff]5t set (
 op9ions4 ,:5ev] a l>ge body  ( p wi% ! 
gov]nm5t to d some?+ :i* is n already   
be+  done !y soon f9d t ! be/ way to    
a*ieve _! end is to  organize4#ej       
,sid5ote3 ,_! fir/ aim is to w9         
elections4    ,! ,aims ( ,political     
,p>ties4--,e political p>ty has two     
aims4 ,!  fir/ is to get control ( !    
gov]nm5t2 ! second is to c>ry out  its  
own policy by means ( ?is control4 ,to d

 ?is !y mu/ nom9ate  c&idates = (fice1  
raise funds = c>ry+ on a campaign1 & "w 
to elect _! m54 ,x is only by elect+ _! 
own c&idates =  (fice t !y c accompli% !
 ends = :i* !y are organiz$4  ,an army  
does n exi/ m]ely to tea* m5 drill or   
discipl9e4 ,its  *ief aim is to w9      
victories4 ,drill & discipl9e are m]ely 
a means  to ?is end4 ,s ) a political   
p>ty4 ,its organization1 lead]s1        
campaign "w1 & all o!r activities h "o  
purpose 9 m9d1  namely1 to w9 victories 
at ! polls4 ,!n1 :5 ! p>ty has elect$   
its c&idates & obta9$ control ( !       
gov]nm5t x c c>ry its  program into     
effect4 ,occasionally a p>ty secures its
 *ief aim )\t  ga9+ control ( !         
gov]nm5t1 z ! ,prohibition p>ty did 9   
#aibj4    ,sid5ote3 ,b ! aim ( a        
political p>ty is n altoge!r selfi%4    
,def9ition ( a ,political ,p>ty4--,hav+ 
se5 :y political p>ties are  =m$ & :at  
!y aim to d we are n[ 9 a position to   
frame a  def9ition4 ,a political p>ty is
 a gr\p ( m5 & wom5 :o ?9k  alike on    

public que/ions & h jo9$ !mselves toge!r
 9 ord]  to ga9 control ( ! gov]nm5t s t
 !y c c>ry _! op9ions  into practice4 ,!
 aim ( a p>ty is n always selfi%1 h[ev]1
 z  ?is def9ition might imply4 ,mo/     
memb]s ( a political p>ty believe  t 9  
endeavor+ to get control ( ! gov]nm5t !y
 are promot+  ! public int]e/4 ,_! aim  
is to br+ into op]ation c]ta9  policies 
:i* !y believe w b5efit ! :ole p4 ,!    
,democratic p>ty urg$ a revision ( t>iff
 t5 ye>s ago because its  memb]s believ$
 t l[] duties on imports w\ld help !    
,unit$  ,/ates z a :ole & n because !   
,democrats1 z di/9ct f !  ,republicans1 
w\ld d]ive ! :ole advantage4 ,!         
,republicans1 =  _! "p1 h favor$ high   
duties on imports because !y believe  t 
,am]ican indu/ry ought to be protect$   
aga9/ =eign  competition4 ,bo? p>ties   
seek to promote ! g5]al int]e/1 b 9     
diff]5t ways4    ,sid5ote3 ,habit is an 
important factor 9 p>ty /r5g?4    ,p>ty 
,divisions ,t5d to ,become              
,p]man5t4--,p>ties are orig9ally  =m$ to

 promote a p>ticul> policy1 b :5 !y h   
ga9$ control  ( ! gov]nm5t & h put _!   
program into practice !y d n  g out (   
exi/5ce4 ,!y cont9ue1 & p rema9 memb]s (
 !  p>ty1 l>gely f =ce ( habit4 ,ea*    
p>ty takes up new ideas1 ga9s  "s new   
memb]s & loses "s old ones4 ,! mill     
keeps on turn+  al?\gh new =ms ( gri/   
are br\ght to be gr\nd & new workm5     
guide ! :eels4 ,m5 & wom5 :o rea* vot+  
age jo9 "o or ano!r  ( ! p>ties1        
sometimes because !y are influ5c$ by its
 pr9ciples1  m (t5 because _! p>5ts h   
belong$ to t p>ty4 ,?us x  happ5s t ov] 
long p]iods ( "t a p>ty may rema9 /rong 
among  ! p 9 "o section ( ! c\ntry &    
weak 9 ano!r4 ,! reason  is n t ! p>ty's
 policy at ! mom5t happ5s to be popul> 9
  "o area & unpopul> 9 ! o!r4 ,habit    
influ5ces p 9 politics  z 9 ev]y?+ else4
 ,:5 a man has vot$ sev]al times ) "o   
political p>ty he is n likely to des]t x
 ev5 ?\gh ! p>ty's  program *anges4 ,n  
only t b 8 sons & daught]s w probably   
jo9 ! same political p>ty4 ,p5nsylvania 

has gone ,republican at e  national     
election = m ?an sixty ye>s al?\gh a    
:olly new set (  vot]s has gr[n up2     
,texas on ! o!r h& has nev] fail$ to    
support  ! ,democratic ticket = j z long
 a p]iod4 ,! :ole ( ! 8,solid  ,s\?01 9 
fact1 goes ,democratic ) unfail+        
regul>ity1 & has done  s ev] s9ce !     
,recon/ruction4 ,a political p>ty ?us   
reta9s a  /rong hold ^u l>ge bodies (   
vot]s1 old & new1 ev5 ?\gh x may  *ange 
its policies f "t to "t4    ,sid5ote3 ,!
 active "w ( p>ties4    ,! ,functions ( 
,political ,p>ties4--,c\ld we get along 
)\t  p>ties8 ,p]haps we c\ld1 b ,am]ican
 gov]nm5t w\ld h to be  c>ri$ on v      
diff]5tly if p>ties did n exi/4 ,if y   
wat* an  election campaign1 y w notice t
 sev]al ?+s happ5 9 !  c\rse ( x4 ,fir/1
 !re is a great deal ( public discussion
 ab\t  c&idates4 ,!n1 "s "t be=e !      
election1 c&idates are  nom9at$4        
,plat=ms are drawn up /at+ ! ?+s :i* ea*
  c&idate favors4 ,! c&idates1 toge!r ) 
o!r speak]s1 g out  & make addresses2   

pamphlets are di/ribut$ broadca/ giv+   
reasons  :y p %\ld vote = "o c&idate or 
! o!r2 meet+s &  rallies are held 9     
halls & on ! /reet corn]s2 ! newspap]s  
pr9t ! argum5ts on ! respective sides2 !
 p are work$ up to  a :ite heat (       
en?usiasm2 & f9ally1 on ! day (         
election1 !  issue is decid$4    ,n[ h[ 
w\ld all ?is be done if !re 7 no        
political p>ties8  ,c&idates _c be      
nom9at$ )\t organiz$ ef=t2 plat=ms d  n 
make !mselves2 ! p _c be /irr$ to an    
active int]e/  on "o side or ! o!r      
except by a vigor\s campaign2 )\t       
p>ties1  inde$1 an election w\ld be a v 
dull & un9t]e/+ affair4    ,sid5ote3    
,p>ties p]=m ?ree important functions3  
,! conclusion is1 !re=e1 t political    
p>ties h v>i\s  def9ite functions to    
p]=m1 & ^! may be summ>iz$ "u ?ree      
heads4 ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,!y nom9ate        
c&idates & frame plat=ms4  ,fir/1 !y    
nom9ate c&idates & tell ! p ab\t !m4    
,?is  in=mation is giv5 9 _! plat=ms1 ( 
:i* m w be said a  little lat]4         

,sid5ote3 ,!y r\se int]e/ among ! vot]s4
 ,second1  !y r\se public int]e/ by _!  
rallies1 _! pamphlets1 circul>s1        
articles 9 newspap]s1 & po/]s1 z well z 
by p]sonal canvass+4  ,?is r\s+ ( ! vot]
 is v important1 because mo/ m5 & wom5  
are *iefly conc]n$ ) _! own bus9ess &   
p]sonal affairs4 ,ev5  aft] all ^!      
me?ods ( gett+ !m int]e/$ h be5 us$ x  w
 be f\nd t two or ?ree vot]s out ( e t5 
h fail$ to  g to ! polls on election    
day4 ,:at w\ld happ5 if !re 7 no        
rallies1 circul>s1 canvass]s1 & all !   
re/8 ,9 t case mo/ (  ! vot]s w\ld      
probably manife/ no int]e/ at all1 & !  
election  w\ld be decid$ by a small     
portion ( ! p4 ,sid5ote3 #c4 ,!y  br+ ! 
v>i\s bran*es ( gov]nm5t into h>mony4   
,?ird1 !  p>ties provide a *a9 :i* holds
 ! v>i\s (fic]s ( !  gov]nm5t to a jo9t 
responsibility4 ,we elect a great _m    
public  (fic]s to p]=m diff]5t          
functions4 ,memb]s ( ! legislature are  
elect$ to make laws2 gov]nors & o!r /ate
 (fic]s to adm9i/]  ^! laws2 & judges to

 help en=ce !m4 ,to get ! be/ results   
all  ?ree gr\ps ( public (ficials mu/ "w
 9 h>mony4 ,b if ea* 7  elect$          
indep5d5tly & )\t any ref]5ce to ! o!rs1
 !re  w\ld be little *ance ( _! work+   
toge!r4 ,:5 !y d "w  toge!r x is because
 !y h be5 elect$ to c>ry out a common   
policy4 ,?is is ! *a9 :i* holds !m      
toge!r--allegiance to !  same political 
p>ty4 ,if e public (ficial foll[$ 8 own 
ideas1  we %\ld h "o set ( m5 mak+ !    
laws & ano!r set ( m5  ?r[+ ob/acles 9 !
 way ( _! en=cem5t4#ea    ,if !re 7 no  
political p>ties1 some?+ else w\ld h to 
be  organiz$ to take _! place4 ,! ?+s   
:i* ! p>ty does mu/ be  done someh[4 ,we
 _c h democratic gov]nm5t unless        
c&idates are  nom9at$1 plat=ms fram$1   
public int]e/ ar\s$1 & (ficials         
enc\rag$ to "w toge!r 9 a common cause4 
,political p>ties d n  always p]=m ^!   
functions well1 b :at sort (            
organization w\ld  be likely to manage  
!m any bett]8    ,sid5ote3 ,! political 
8factions0 ( e>ly days4    ,:5 & ,h[ did

 ,political ,p>ties ,beg98--,x is       
difficult to say h[  or :5 political    
p>ties orig9at$4 ,someone once rem>k$ t 
ev5 at  ! "t ( ! ,flood !re 7 two       
political p>ties1 namely1 !  ,deluvians 
& ! ,ant$eluvians4 ,john ,adams decl>$ t
 8p>ties began  ) human nature04 ,9 a   
s5se he 0 "r4 ,anyone :o has read ,roman
  hi/ory w rememb] ! long & bitt]       
/ruggle betwe5 !  patricians & !        
plebeians4 ,! ,guelphs & ,ghibell9es ( !
 ,middle  ,ages 7 political p>ties      
al?\gh _! rivalry (t5 assum$ !  =m ( op5
 w>f>e4 ,! ,cavali]s & ,r\ndheads (     
,cromwell's "t  arm$ !mselves & f\ght = 
! control ( ! gov]nm5t )  muskets &     
sabres1 n ) ballots4 ,!y 7 p>ties1      
dyna/ic  p>ties4 ,b ! viol5t conflict ( 
p>ties ev5tually gave way to  ord]ly    
conte/s at ! polls1 & m5 f\nd t !y c\ld 
belong to  diff]5t political p>ties )\t 
!reby becom+ p]sonal enemies (  "o      
ano!r4 ,s ,:igs & ,tories arose 9 ,engl&
 be=e ! ,am]ican  ,revolution1 &        
correspond+ gr\ps 7 to be f\nd 9 !      

?irte5  ,am]ican colonies4    ,sid5ote3 
,! fir/ ,am]ican p>ties4    ,b ! real   
hi/ory ( political p>ties 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates did n  beg9 until aft] ! adoption
 ( ! con/itution1 :5 ,hamilton &        
,jeff]son became lead]s ( oppos+ elem5ts
 among ! p4 ,hamilton  & 8 foll[]s1 !   
,f$]ali/s1 desir$ to /r5g!n ! c5tral    
gov]nm5t2 ,jeff]son & 8 support]s1 call+
 !mselves  ,democratic-,republicans1    
desir$ to keep ! c5tral gov]nm5t weak & 
to place ! balance ( p[] 9 ! h&s ( !    
/ates4 ,9 ! end  ,jeff]son's p>ty obta9$
 ! upp] h&1 b by hav+ ?+s too mu*  its  
own way f9ally lo/ its solid>ity & split
 into sev]al factions4  ,p>ty politics  
gave way = a "t to p]sonal politics1 !  
vot]s  rang+ !mselves beh9d lead]s r ?an
 pr9ciples2 b pres5tly  ! v>i\s factions
 consolidat$ into two p>ties kn[n z     
,:igs &  ,democrats4 ,! ,:ig p>ty       
ev5tually w5t to pieces & 9 its place   
arose ! ,republican organization :i*    
elect$ ,l9coln 9 #ahfj4 ,s9ce  t date ! 
,democrats & ,republicans h cont9u$ to  

be ! two  lead+ p>ties4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
di/9ction betwe5 pr9ciples1 policies1 & 
issues4    ,:at ! ,lead+ ,political     
,p>ties ,/& =4--,! g5]al ideas ^u  :i* !
 memb]s ( a political p>ty agree are    
incorporat$ into its  plat=m & are      
commonly kn[n z ! p>ty's pr9ciples4 ,=  
example1 a p>ty may pl$ge itself to !   
pr9ciple ( promot+ =eign  trade1 or     
cons]v+ ! natural res\rces ( ! c\ntry1  
or keep+  alo( f ! affairs ( ,europe4 ,!
 me?ods by :i* ^! pr9ciples  are to be  
c>ri$ into effect con/itute ! p>ty's    
policy4 ,!  pr9ciple ( promot+ =eign    
trade1 to take an example1 may be c>ri$ 
into effect by l5d+ money or cr$it to   
export]s1 z 0 done aft]  ! ,_w ,w>4 ,b !
 diff]5t p>ties d n usually agree ^u    
ei!r pr9ciples or policy1 & ?is div]g5ce
 gives rise to p>ty  issues or po9ts (  
conflict betwe5 ! p>ties4    ,x is n    
easy to set =? 9 concise =m ! pr9cipal  
issues4 ,dur+  ! campaign ( #aiaf !     
attitude ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates t[>ds ! great
  ,european conflict 0 ! pivot (        

att5tion2 9 #aibj ! "q  :e!r ,am]ica    
%\ld or %\ld n ent] ! ,league ( ,nations
 cr[d$  mo/ ( ! o!r issues into !       
backgr\nd4 ,! ma9 planks 9 p>ty  plat=m 
*ange f "o election to ano!r4#eb ,dur+ !
 pa/ tw5ty  ye>s ! plat=ms ( bo? p>ties 
h dealt ) a wide v>iety (  matt]s2 b !  
disagreem5t betwe5 ! two p>ties has n   
always  be5 clean-cut & 9 "s cases x has
 left ! vot] little to *oose  betwe5 !m4
 ,on "s matt]s ! two lead+ plat=ms are  
op5ly  oppos$2 on o!rs !y are v mu*     
alike1 & on "s o!rs1 aga91  !y are s    
ambigu\s t x is difficult to tell j :]e 
!y  diff]4 ,z a practical matt] x is n  
always wise to take an  absolutely      
def9ite /& 9 ! p>ty plat=m1 = conditions
 may  *ange & by s do+ place ! p>ty 9 ! 
position ( hav+ pl$g$  some?+ :i* ought 
n1 9 view ( ! *ang$ conditions1 to be   
c>ri$ out4    ,! ,m9or                  
,p>ties4--,am]icans1 on ! :ole1 h       
accept$ !  two-p>ty sy/em4 ,! great     
majority ( vot]s are ei!r ,republicans  
or  ,democrats4 ,nev]!less ! plat=ms (  

^! two p>ties nev] suit  all ! p & !    
result is t m9or p>ties1 or 8?ird0      
p>ties  z !y are sometimes call$1 come  
into exi/5ce f "t to "t4  ,dur+ ! pa/   
hundr$ ye>s a doz5 or m ( ^! m9or p>ties
  h be5 =m$ b ) two or ?ree exceptions  
!y h soon melt$  away4#ec ,^! exceptions
 are ! ,prohibition p>ty1 :i* 0         
organiz$ 9 #ahgb = ! purpose ( secur+ ! 
complete suppression  ( ! liquor traffic
 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! adoption ( !     
,eighte5? ,am5dm5t gave ?is p>ty ! *ief 
?+ t x _h be5  cont5d+ =1 b x has n yet 
gone out ( exi/5ce4 ,! ,sociali/  p>ty  
is ! o!r example ( a 8?ird p>ty0 :i* has
 cont9u$ to be  active = a consid]able  
p]iod4    ,sid5ote3 ,:y 8?ird p>ties0   
r>ely survive4    ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates    
m9or p>ties d n usually live long4 ,v   
few (  !m survive a doz5 ye>s4 ,!re are 
reasons = ?is4 ,9 ! fir/  place !       
,democrats & ,republicans are con/antly 
adapt+ _!  plat=ms to ! ne$s ( ! c\ntry4
 ,:5 any movem5t among !  p becomes     
/rong en\gh1 "o ( ! lead+ p>ties takes x

 up4 ,if  l>ge numb]s ( vot]s1 =        
example1 %\ld desire ! abolition (      
divorces1 "o ( ! political p>ties w\ld  
soon put an 8anti-divorce  plank0 9 its 
plat=m1 & w\ld !reby prev5t any new p>ty
 f  mak+ mu* headway on t p>ticul>      
issue4 ,9 ! second place !  ,am]ican    
vot]s1 tak+ !m z a :ole1 h become       
accu/om$ to !  two-p>ty sy/em4 ,v few ( 
!m are will+ to =sake ! old p>ty        
organizations )\t /rong reasons = do+ s4
 ,:5 !y d1  tempor>ily1 z a great _m    
,republicans did 9 #aiab & a great _m   
,democrats 9 #aibj1 !y usually drift    
back aga9 be=e v long4 ,a new  p>ty1    
moreov]1 is difficult to organize &     
exp5sive to ma9ta94 ,x  has no *ance to 
w9 ! election & mo/ p d n c>e to belong 
to an organization :i* nev] w9s4 ,s !   
easie/ way to get new  ?+s adopt$ 9     
public policy is to p]suade "o ( ! lead+
  p>ties to *ampion !m4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
,sociali/ plat=m4    ,! ,sociali/       
,p>ty4--,among ! 8?ird p>ties0 :i* exi/ 
at !  pres5t day ! ,sociali/ p>ty is !  

/ronge/4 ,x has a program  widely       
diff]5t f t ( ei!r ! ,republicans or !  
,democrats4  ,! ,sociali/ p>ty is       
organiz$ to promote ! public own]%ip (  
railroads1 telegraphs1 telephones1 m9es1
 =e/s1 factories1 & all  o!r su*        
economic in/rum5talities4 ,9 addition to
 its economic  program ! ,sociali/ p>ty 
advocates ! adoption ( v>i\s political  
*anges su* z ! abolition ( ! ,unit$     
,/ates ,s5ate1 ! election  ( all judges 
= %ort t]ms1 & ! abolition ( ! ,supreme 
,c\rt's  p[] to decl>e laws             
uncon/itutional4 ,9 po9t ( /r5g? at !   
polls ! ,sociali/ p>ty /&s f> bel[ ei!r 
( ! two lead+  p>ties4 ,x is mu* weak] 9
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?an 9 ! v>i\s  c\ntries
 ( ,europe4    ,sid5ote3 ,is            
8indep5d5ce0 a virtue8    ,! ,vot]'s    
,relation to ,p>ties4--,s long z        
political p>ties are  ess5tial 9        
repres5tative gov]nm5t1 & s long z !y   
p]=m  useful functions1 x is ! duty ( e 
citiz5 to affiliate ) "s  political p>ty
 if he c hone/ly d s4 ,!re are times1 ( 

c\rse1  :5 ! vot] ( indep5d5t views _c  
hone/ly support any ( !  exi/+ p>ties4  
,on ?is po9t e vot] mu/ make 8 or h] own
  individual decision4 ,!re is no inh]5t
 virtue 9 be+ an  8indep5d5t02 = if e   
vot] p]si/$ 9 assum+ t attitude1  !re   
w\ld be no political p>ties at all1 &   
democracy w\ld 9 !  long run suff] r ?an
 ga9 z a result4 ,mo/ vot]s1 z a matt]  
( fact1 belong to "o ( ! lead+ p>ties & 
support ! c&idates  ( ?is p>ty at e     
election4 ,!y are commonly call$ !      
regul>  memb]s ( ! p>ty4 ,b memb]%ip 9 a
 political p>ty does n mean  t "o is "u 
obligation to support t p>ty "u all     
circum/ances4 ,x is possible to belong  
to a political p>ty & yet  reta9 a      
reasonable degree ( indep5d5ce4 ,a      
political p>ty ga9s1  inde$1 by hav+ 9  
its ranks a spr9kl+ ( m5 & wom5 :o "k   
_! own m9ds on political que/ions & w n 
tamely foll[  :]ev] ! p>ty *iefs may    
lead4    ,sid5ote3 ,! ne$ ( p>ty        
lead]%ip & discipl9e4    ,let u rememb]1
 h[ev]1 t a political p>ty1 l an army1  

requires  discipl9e & lead]%ip = its    
success4 ,if e soldi] insi/$ on  foll[+ 
8 own incl9ations r ?an ! advice or     
ord]s ( 8  (fic]s1 he w\ld nev] be on ! 
w9n+ side 9 any battles4 ,s1 if  e vot] 
decl9es to be l$ by anyone's c\nsel b 8 
own1 !re  w be no unity ( p>ty ef=t & no
 real triumph ( "o set (  pr9ciples ov] 
ano!r4 ,to secure any sub/antial        
improvem5t 9  gov]nm5t1 l>ge gr\ps ( m5 
& wom5 mu/ pull toge!r4 ,?is means  t !y
 mu/ h a plat=m1 an organization1 &     
capable lead]s1  :i* is equival5t to    
say+ t !y mu/ act z a political p>ty4   
,sid5ote3 ,! citiz5's duty4    ,p>ties  
are ,:at ! ,p ,make ,!m4--,! *oice ( a  
political p>ty  is "o ( ! means by :i* !
 citiz5 9 a democracy ex]cises 8        
sov]eign p[]4 ,a political p>ty is m]ely
 :at its memb]s make x4  ,no *a9 is     
/rong] ?an ! l9ks :i* compose x2 & no   
political  p>ty ev] repres5ts a high]   
grade ( intellig5ce or patriotism ?an   
its memb]s provide4 ,if a political p>ty
 becomes selfi% or corrupt1  ! rem$y    

lies 9 ! h&s ( ! p4 ,hone/ m5 & wom5 w  
!n des]t t p>ty2 x w fail to w9         
elections1 & ultimately g  to pieces4   
,on ! o!r h& if a political p>ty is     
hone/ 9 its  pr9ciples1 wise 9 its      
policy1 patriotic 9 its ideals1 &       
progressive  9 its sympa?ies1 x w draw  
recruits f among ! ?\s&s ( m5  & wom5 :o
 rea* vot+ age ea* ye>4 ,x w gr[ 9      
/r5g?4 ,!  vot] c be/ display 8 zeal z a
 citiz5 by jo9+ a p>ty &  help+ to make 
x a p[] = good4    ,sid5ote3            
,organization helps to w9 victories4    
,! ,ne$ = ,p>ty                         
,organization4--,organization is !      
wat*word (  e political p>ty4 ,)\t      
organization !re is no *ance to w9      
elections & put ! p>ty's policies into  
op]ation4 ,v little is  ev] a*iev$ 9 ?is
 _w )\t cop]ation4 ,h[ev] compet5t an   
individual may be1 !re are limits to :at
 he c d4 ,x is n !  brilliant play] t   
w9s ! game1 b ! well-tra9$ team4        
,napoleon  ,bonap>te once said t        
organization & discipl9e c\nt$ =        

sev5ty-five p] c5t ( victory4 ,^! ?+s   
are q z important 9  politics z 9 w>4   
,organization1 9 p>ty politics1 involves
 ?ree ?+s1 lead]%ip1  cop]ation1 &      
money4 ,no p>ty is well-organiz$ unless 
x possesses  all ?ree4 ,= ?is reason e  
/rong political p>ty uses c>e 9  select+
 its lead]s1 builds up a sy/em ( p>ty   
conv5tions & p>ty  committees1 & raises 
campaign funds to pay ! necess>y exp5ses
 (  its "w4    ,local ,p>ty             
,organization4--,let u see h[ ?is       
organization is  effect$4 ,beg9n+ at !  
bottom ea* p>ty has its local           
committees4  ,^! committees are g5]ally 
*os5 by ! vot]s ( ! p>ty at !  prim>y   
elections1 & !y h *>ge ( ! p>ty int]e/s 
9 !  t[n or t[n%ip1 c\nty or di/rict1 z 
! case may be4 ,9 ! l>ge  cities !re is 
a committee = ea* w>d & a g5]al         
committee  cov]+ ! :ole city4 ,^! local 
committees arrange = political  meet+s 9
 _! own neighborhood & help to br+ out !
 vot]s on  election day4 ,!y "w 9 h>mony
 ) ! /ate committee4    ,/ate ,p>ty     

,organization4--,next come ! /ate       
organizations4 ,! p>ty  organization 9 !
 /ates consi/s ( a /ate c5tral committee
 & a  /ate conv5tion4 ,sid5ote3 ,! /ate 
committee4 ,! memb]s ( !  /ate committee
 are sometimes elect$ by ! vot]s 9 !    
v>i\s  congressional or /ate s5atorial  
di/ricts2 sometimes !y are nam$ by  !   
c\nty conv5tions1 & occasionally !y are 
*os5 by ! /ate  conv5tion4 ,!           
committee's functions are to issue !    
call =  conv5tions 7or 9 "s /ates =     
prim>ies71 to raise & sp5d !  campaign  
funds 9 /ate elections1 to arrange !    
plans = ! /ate  campaign1 & to sup]vise 
s f> z practicable ! "w ( ! local       
committees4 ,sid5ote3 ,! /ate conv5tion4
 ,! /ate conv5tion is  made up ( a l>ge 
body ( delegates :o are directly elect$ 
by !  p>ty vot]s or *os5 by ! di/rict or
 c\nty conv5tions4 ,x meets a  %ort "t  
prior to ea* /ate election & "o ( its   
*ief duties is  to prep>e ! p>ty's      
plat=m4#ed ,ea* political p>ty holds its
 own  conv5tion4    ,sid5ote3 ,!        

national conv5tion4    ,national ,p>ty  
,organization4--,9 ! e>ly ye>s ( !      
,republic1  c&idates = ! presid5cy 7    
nom9at$ by congressional caucuses1  t   
is1 by meet+s ( ! p>ty's repres5tatives 
9 ,congress4 ,b  ?is me?od 0 disc>d$    
ab\t #ahbd & 9 due c\rse national p>ty  
conv5tions 7 call$ to make ^!           
nom9ations4 ,at pres5t ^!  national     
conv5tions meet e f\r ye>s1 dur+ ! summ]
 prec$+  ! presid5tial election4        
,republicans1 ,democrats1               
,prohibitioni/s1 &  ,sociali/s all hold 
_! own conv5tions4 ,9 ! case ( ! two    
lead+ p>ties ! conv5tions are made up ( 
delegates f e  /ate & t]ritory1 ^!      
delegates be+ directly *os5 at prim>ies 
or nam$ by ! /ate conv5tions4 ,!        
national conv5tions *oose !  c&idates = 
! presid5cy & ! vice presid5cy4 ,!y also
 frame  ! p>ty plat=ms1 ?is "w be+ done 
?r\gh committees4    ,sid5ote3 ,!       
national committee4    ,! *ief p]man5t  
organ ( ea* p>ty is a national committee
 made up  ( "o memb] f ea* /ate1 :o is  

ei!r *os5 by ! vot]s at !  prim>y       
election or select$ by ! delegates f !  
/ate to !  national conv5tion4 ,!       
national committee *ooses its own       
*airman1  :o has g5]al *>ge ( ! p>ty's  
int]e/s 9 ! campaign2 b 9  mak+ its     
*oice ! national committee usually def]s
 to ! wi%es (  ! p>ty's presid5tial     
c&idate4    ,h[ ! ,national ,p>ty       
,conv5tion does its ,"w4--,! national   
p>ty  conv5tions usually meet 9 "s l>ge 
city1 su* z ,*icago1 ,/4 ,l\is1         
,baltimore1 or ,san ,francisco4         
,sid5ote3 ,! conv5tion hall4 ,an        
enorm\s auditorium is ne$$ = ! ga!r+    
because a national  conv5tion consi/s ( 
ne>ly a ?\s& delegates & an equal numb] 
( alt]nates4 ,among bodies :i* h to d ) 
gov]nm5t !  national p>ty conv5tion is !
 l>ge/ 9 ! _w4 ,! delegates are  seat$  
by alphabetical ord] ( ! /ates1 ,alabama
 fir/ & ,wyom+  la/1 ea* /ate hav+ its  
delegates gr\p$ toge!r4 ,l>ge plac>ds   
or bann]s %[ :]e ea* /ate is plac$4     
,sid5ote3 ,:at a national  conv5tion is 

l4 ,! delegates are arrang$ 9 ! front "p
 ( !  hall1 ! alt]nates 9 ! re>4 ,:5ev] 
a delegate leaves !  auditorium an      
alt]nate goes =w>d to sit 9 8 place4 ,! 
gall]ies  are fill$ ) spectators & !re  
is a huge bu/le go+ on all !  "t4 ,x is 
h>d = ! speak]s to make !mselves he>d1 z
 only a  ?und]-voic$ orator c make 8    
words rise above ! d9 :i* goes  on      
cont9ually4 ,at times1 :5 a popul>      
c&idate appe>s1 !re is a  g5]al         
p&emonium4 ,a b& />ts ar\nd ! aisles1   
play+ z x  goes4 ,delegates fall 9 beh9d
 ! b&1 *e]+ & %\t+4 ,= half  an h\r1    
p]haps long]1 ?is racket cont9ues4 ,!n !
 noise subsides  & ! conv5tion gets back
 to its "w--until ! next commotion      
beg9s4    ,sid5ote3 ,! ballot+4    ,aft]
 v>i\s names h be5 propos$1 ! conv5tion 
beg9s to ballot4  ,if no c&idate        
receives a suffici5t majority1 ano!r    
ballot is tak54  ,9 ! ,republican       
conv5tion ! successful c&idate mu/ get a
  majority ( all ! delegates2 9 !       
,democratic conv5tion !  requirem5t is  

two ?irds4 ,:5 !re are sev]al c&idates 9
 !  runn+1 _m ballot+s are sometimes    
requir$4 ,day aft] day !  vot+ goes on1 
if necess>y1 until somebody w9s4#ee ,!  
weak]  c&idates drop out2 ! /rong] ones 
keep ga9+1 until f9ally !  fight n>r[s  
d[n to two or ?ree & ! victor em]ges4   
,!n !  tir$ delegates ru% ?r\gh ! rema9+
 bus9ess & />t = home4    ,sid5ote3     
,reasons = ! exi/5ce ( ma*9es4    ,!    
,p>ty ,ma*9e4--,! active work]s 9 ^!    
conv5tions &  committees make up :at is 
call$ ! 8ma*9e04 ,x is call$ a ma*9e    
because all its p>ts "w smoo?ly toge!r 9
 ! ef=t to obta9 !  desir$ result1 :i*  
is to w9 ! election4 ,!re are p>ty      
organizations 9 o!r c\ntries1 b p>ty    
8ma*9es0 exi/ only 9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates4  
,v>i\s reasons acc\nt = ?is4 ,"o is !   
frequ5cy (  elections1 :i* creates a    
class ( pr(essional politicians4 ,!re   
are  m elections 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?an 9
 any o!r c\ntry4 ,ano!r  reason is !    
organiz+ p[] ( ! ,am]ican p1 & ! zeal ) 
:i* !y ?r[ !mselves into an election    

campaign4 ,! practice (  giv+ !         
appo9tive (fices to lead]s ( ! victori\s
 p>ty also  has some?+ to d ) x4 ,_m m5 
give _! "t & en]gy to  electione]+      
because !y expect to get favors 9       
return4    ,! function ( ! 8ma*9e0 is to
 s]ve ! p>ty1 & ?r\gh !  p>ty to s]ve ! 
p4 ,b ! 8ma*9e0 (t5 goes beyond ?is     
purpose4 ,sid5ote3 ,h[ !y lead to       
abuses4 ,its lead]s1 f9d+  !mselves 9   
control ( great p[]1 are tempt$ to use x
 = _!  own p]sonal pr(it & advantage4   
,!y become arbitr>y1 dictat+ :at  %all g
 into ! p>ty plat=m & :o %all be        
nom9at$4 ,! p>ty  lead] :o does ?is     
becomes a p>ty 8boss01 & :5 gr\ps (     
bosses  control ! p>ty !y are commonly  
kn[n z 8r+s04    ,sid5ote3 ,:at is a    
8boss08    ,r+s & ,bosses4--,! 8boss0 9 
politics is j l any o!r k9d  ( boss4 ,8 
w is law1 s f> z all 8 und]l+s are      
conc]n$4  ,! diff]5ce betwe5 a p>ty     
lead] & a p>ty boss is t !  lead] is    
*os5 by ! free action ( ! p>ty &        
ex]cises 8  functions op5ly1 :ile ! boss

 usurps ! control ( 8 p>ty &  utilizes x
 = 8 own ends )\t assum+ any op5        
responsibility4  ,sid5ote3 ,:y bosses   
are dang]\s4 ,! lead] leads & ! boss    
drives4 ,p>ty lead]s are necess>y to    
good p>ty organization1 b !  p>ty 8boss0
 is a m5ace to ! be/ int]e/s ( ! p>ty & 
to !  cause ( hone/ gov]nm5t4 ,great p[]
 mu/ sometimes be plac$ 9 !  h&s ( "o   
man2 b c>e %\ld be tak5 t e man :o      
wields  great p[] 9 a democracy is made 
responsible = ! use ( ?is  au?ority4    
,p[]1 :5 *eck$ by responsibility1 is n  
dang]\s4 ,a  p>ty 8boss0 is dang]\s     
because he has ! p[] & abuses x4 ,he    
controls a great 8ma*9e0 )\t be+        
acc\ntable to anybody ev5  :5 he directs
 x aga9/ ! public int]e/4 ,he gives     
favors to 8  fri5ds & ! public pays !   
bills4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ 8r+s0 are =m$4  
,r+s are gr\ps ( bosses & are m dang]\s 
because !y are  /rong]4 ,f\r or five    
unscrupul\s m5 work+ toge!r are /rong]  
?an "o work+ alone4 ,s :5 bosses unite1 
!y are (t5 able to  nom9ate :omsoev] !y 

please & to secure ! election (         
incompet5t or sup9e m54 ,r+s & bosses   
op]ate l>gely 9 city &  /ate gov]nm5t   
because ! opportunity to ga9 control !re
 is mu*  great] ?an 9 national affairs4 
,! small] ! election di/rict1 !  m *ance
 ! boss has = mak+ himself ! ma/] ( x4  
,! p  z a :ole _c sp5d mu* "t ov]       
politics2 ! boss is always at  "w1 f "o 
end ( ! ye> to ! o!r4 ,he makes fri5ds )
  ev]ybody :o c help him4 ,he is always 
ready to d favors4 ,!n1 :5  election day
 comes1 he expects 8 fri5ds to /& by    
him4#ef    ,sid5ote3 ,p>ty rev5ue4      
,h[ ,p>ties are ,f9anc$4--,! "w :i*     
political p>ties d1 su* z  hold+        
conv5tions1 fram+ plat=ms1 & conduct+ a 
campaign  requires a great deal ( money4
 ,exp5ses t are necess>y & q  legitimate
 h to be met4 ,no organization c hold   
toge!r on an empty  pocketbook4 ,s money
 has to be obta9$1 & ! only way ( rais+ 
x  is by volunt>y contributions1 = !    
political p>ties h no "r  to tax anyone4
 ,:]e does ! money come f8 ,x comes     

l>gely f  memb]s ( ! p>ty :o respond to 
! call = subscriptions s5t out  by _!   
lead]s4 ,p :o are well-to-d (t5 give    
consid]able sums  al?\gh p>ty lead]s    
feel t x is n good policy to accept v   
l>ge contributions f any "o man because 
?is may give rise to a  suspicion t !   
subscrib] hopes to get "s political     
favor 9  return4 ,! p>ty lead]s pref] to
 obta9 ! ess5tial funds f a  great      
multitude ( small donors :o prove _!    
loyalty to ! p>ty 9  ?is way4 ,sid5ote3 
,p>ty exp5ditures4 ,a national campaign 
co/s ea*  ( ! *ief p>ties a l>ge sum1   
sev]al million doll>s n[adays4#eg  ,/ate
 & local campaigns co/ a great deal     
less4 ,! money is sp5t =  ! publication 
& mail+ ( campaign lit]ature1 = !       
travel+  exp5ses ( speak]s1 = hire (    
meet+-places1 & = a great _m  o!r ?+s   
:i* g to make up an election            
campaign4#eh ,! speak]s  & ! p>ty work]s
 usually give _! s]vices freely1 b !    
p>ty  mu/ furni% ! money to defray _!   
exp5ses4    ,! ,re=m ( ,p>ty            

,organization4--,x w be se51 !re=e1 t   
al?\gh political p>ties are necess>y &  
useful organizations 9 a  democracy1 !y 
(t5 develop s]i\s abuses :5 left free f 
(ficial control4 ,= ?is reason !        
organization & "w ( !  political p>ties 
%\ld be regulat$ by provisions ( law4   
,su*  provisions h already done mu* to  
elim9ate boss rule & to improve  ! p>ty 
sy/em4 ,"s p feel t political p>ties    
ought to be  aboli%$ altoge!r b t       
sugge/ion is impractical4 ,! abolition  
( p>ties w\ld n make gov]nm5t any m     
democratic1 or m  hone/1 or m effici5t4 
,! "w :i* ! p>ties n[ p]=m mu/  be p]=m$
 by "s organizations ( vot]s1 someh[1 & 
if p>ties  7 aboli%$ some?+ simil> "u a 
diff]5t "n w\ld h to be  creat$ to d ?is
 "w4 ,sid5ote3 ,p>ties mu/ n be aboli%$ 
b  improv$4 ,:at we ne$ is n ! abolition
 ( p>ties b !  improvem5t ( p>ty        
organization & p>ty me?ods4 ,realiz+ t  
p>ties c be useful we %\ld give !m scope
 = usefulness b  re/rict _!             
opportunities = evil4 ,?is is :at ! laws

 are n[  do+4 ,!y aim to make p>ty      
lead]s responsible1 to make p>ty        
nom9ations fair1 & to make p>ty f9ance  
hone/4                                  
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,p4 ,,orman ,,ray1  
,political ,p>ties & ,practical         
,politics1 pp4 #c-ab2    ,a4 ,,lawr5ce  
,,l[ell1 ,public ,op9ion & ,popul>      
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #eg-he2    ,,james ,a4   
,,woodburn1 ,political ,p>ties & ,p>ty  
,problems 9 ! ,unit$  ,/ates1 pp4       
#dfe-dgj2    ,m4 ,,o/rogorski1          
,democracy & ! ,organization (          
,political ,p>ties1  pp4 #bbe-bha2      
,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$   
,/ates1 pp4 #cab-cef2    ,,moorfield    
,,/orey1 ,problems ( ,today1 pp4 #a-ec2 
,w4 ,w4 ,,will\ghby & ,,l9dsay ,,rog]s1 
,introduction to ! ,problem (           
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #abg-aej4                
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! political     
doctr9es ( lead+ ,am]ican /atesm53      
,hamilton1  ,john ,adams1 ,jeff]son1    
,jackson1 ,calh\n1 ,clay1 & ,web/]4     
,ref]5ces3 ,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican        

,gov]nm5t1 passim2 ,c4 ,e4  ,,m]riam1   
,am]ican ,political ,!ories 7see index74
    #b4 ,m9or political p>ties--_! rise 
& fall4 ,ref]5ces3 ,,james ,a4          
,,woodburn1 ,political ,p>ties & ,p>ty  
,problems1 pp4 #acc-adh2 ,p4 ,,orman    
,,ray1 ,political ,p>ties & ,practical  
,politics1 pp4 #dj-fh2 ,f4 ,e4          
,,haynes1 ,?ird ,p>ty ,movem5ts ,s9ce ! 
,civil ,w>1 pp4 #bba-bfj2 ,e4 ,b4       
,,/anwood1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,presid5cy1      
passim4    #c4 ,! organization (        
political p>ties 9 a typical /ate ( !   
,union4 ,,jesse ,,macy1 ,p>ty           
,organization & ,ma*9]y1 pp4 #if-acb2   
,,james ,,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 
,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gf-ha2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1
  ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4      
#dhc-dhg4    #d4 ,! national p>ty       
conv5tions4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican    
,gov]nm5t  & ,politics1 pp4 #aff-agb2   
,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1 ,read+s on ,am]ican    
,f$]al  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #hbf-hde2 ,p4    
,,orman ,,ray1 ,political ,p>ties1 pp4  
#ade-afg2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,woodburn1 ,political

 ,p>ties1 pp4 #afe-bad2 ,f4 ,w4         
,,dall+]1 ,nom9ations = ,elective       
,(fice1 pp4 #gd-ib2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1    
,read+s on ,p>ties & ,elections1 pp4    
#hj-aje2 ,t4 ,h4 ,,mckee1 ,national     
,conv5tions & ,plat=ms1 passim2 ,e4 ,b4 
,,/anwood1 ,hi/ory ( !  ,presid5cy1     
passim4    #e4 ,! plat=ms ( ! v>i\s     
p>ties 9 #aibj3 an analysis &           
comp>ison4 ,_w ,almanac 7#aiba74 ,also !
 ,campaign ,text ,books  issu$ by ! p>ty
 organizations4                         
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,campaign me?ods4  
,p4 ,o4 ,,ray1 ,political ,p>ties1 pp4  
#bee-bfg4    #b4 ,p>ty loyalty &        
political indep5d5ce4 ,j4 ,a4           
,,woodburn1  ,political ,p>ties1 pp4    
#bie-cjc4    #c4 ,! ,progressive ,p>ty3 
its hi/ory & plat=m4 ,s4 ,j4            
,,duncan-,,cl>k1 ,! ,progressive        
,movem5t1 passim4    #d4 ,tammany ,hall4
 ,,gu/avus ,,my]s1 ,hi/ory ( ,tammany   
,hall1 pp4  #bfg-bih2 ,encyclop$ia      
,am]icana1 ,vol4 ,,xxvi1 pp4 #bce-bcg4  
#e4 ,! boss z a p]sonality4 ,m4         

,,o/rogorski1 ,democracy & ,political   
,p>ties1 pp4 #bej-bfc4    #f4 ,! ,twe$  
,r+4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,rhodes1 ,hi/ory ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 ,vol4  ,,vi1 pp4         
#cib-daa4    #g4 ,h[ ! ma*9e works4     
,,!odore ,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1   
pp4  #fa-aja2 #add-ahd2 #ahe-bbb4    #h4
 ,! nationaliz+ influ5ce ( p>ties4      
,,h5ry ,j4 ,,=d1 ,rise &  ,gr[? (       
,am]ican ,politics1 pp4 #aej-afa4    #i4
 ,municipal political p>ties4 ,m4 ,r4   
,,maltbie1 9 ,proce$+s1  ,national      
,municipal ,league1 ,,vi1 pp4 #bbf;ff4  
#aj4 ,! re=m ( p>ty organization4 ,f4   
,a4 ,,clevel&1 ,organiz$  ,democracy1   
pp4 #bbh-bfa4                           
,que/ions    #a4 ,c y improve !         
def9ition ( a political p>ty giv5 9 ?is 
*apt]8    #b4 ,among ! v>i\s functions (
 political p>ties :i* d y  consid] ! mo/
 important1 & :y8    #c4 ,:y d political
 p>ties refra9 at times f mak+ _! plat=m
  pl$ges m def9ite8 ,:at new proposal   
w\ld y l to see ins]t$  9 a p>ty plat=m8
    #d4 ,acc\nt = ! fact t con/itutional

 que/ions play$ a m  important "p 9     
,am]ican politics prior to #ahfj ?an    
s9ce t date4    #e4 ,give brief sket*es 
( ! ,f$]ali/1 ,democratic-,republican1 &
  ,:ig p>ties & _! "w be=e ! ,civil ,w>4
    #f4 ,expla9 :y ! 8mortality rate0   
among 8?ird p>ties0 has be5 s  high4    
,acc\nt = ! fact t "s ( ^! p>ties h     
surviv$ a  consid]able p]iod ( "t :ile  
o!rs h n4    #g4 ,make an outl9e %[+ !  
type ( p>ty organization us$ 9 y\r  own 
/ate4    #h4 ,prep>e a li/ ( ?+s = :i*  
money c be legally exp5d$ by  political 
p>ties dur+ an election campaign4    #i4
 ,if y 7 a vot]1 to :i* political p>ty  
w\ld y belong8 ,give  y\r reasons4      
#aj4 ,:at are ! important po9ts to be   
emphasiz$ 9 discuss+ !  re=m ( p>ty     
organization8 ,"n "s re=ms :i* y ?9k    
w\ld be  advantage\s4                   
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,municipal     
elections %\ld be conduct$ on p>ty l9es4
    #b4 ,! campaign exp5ses (           
presid5tial c&idates %\ld be paid f  !  
national treasury4    #c4 ,a ?ree-p>ty  

sy/em w\ld be pref]able 9 ?is c\ntry to 
!  pres5t two-p>ty organization4        
,,*apt] ,,ix                            
,,c\nties ,,& ,,rural ,,communities     
,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to %[ h[ !    
c\nties1 t[ns1 &      villages ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates are gov]n$1 :o _! local   
(ficials are1 & :at !y d4      ,sid5ote3
 ,! division ( gov]nm5tal functions4    
,:at ,local ,gov]nm5t ,is4--,! functions
 p]=m$ by gov]nm5ts fall  into two      
divisions4 ,fir/1 !re are functions :i* 
relate ma9ly to  ! life & activities ( !
 neighborhood1 su* z police             
adm9i/ration1 fire protection1 ! clean+ 
( /reets1 & ! c>e  ( ! poor4 ,^! ?+s c  
be/ be manag$ by ! local au?orities4    
,second1 !re are functions ( a m g5]al  
"* :i* relate to  ! life & activities ( 
! entire /ate or nation1 su* z !        
regulation ( ! railroads1 ! co9+ (      
money1 ! ma9t5ance (  po/ (fices1 & !   
control ( corporations4 ,^! functions we
 h  committ$1 accord+ly1 to ! /ate &    
national gov]nm5ts4 ,9  e>li] days1 be=e

 indu/ry & comm]ce develop$ s greatly1  
local  functions 7 ! m num]\s2 b z      
population gr[s ! :ole  c\ntry t5ds to  
become "o great community1 h5ce _m      
functions  =m]ly p]=m$ by ! local       
au?orities are be+ tak5 ov] by !  /ates 
& ! nation4 ,x is impossible to lay d[n 
any rule z to :at  functions are local &
 :at functions are g5]al4 ,a few ye>s   
ago ea*  t[n & village made its own     
regulations conc]n+ ! spe$ limit =      
automobiles2 to-day t matt] has be5 tak5
 ov] almo/ ev]y:]e by  ! /ate           
au?orities4    ,sid5ote3 ,local gov]nm5t
 9 ! colonies4    ,! ,beg9n+s ( ,local  
,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,local    
gov]nm5t is ! olde/ bran* ( gov]nm5t2   
bo? ! /ate & !  national gov]nm5t h gr[n
 out ( x4 ,:5 coloni/s fir/ came f      
,engl& to ,plym\? & ,massa*usetts ,bay  
!y settl$ on small f>ms  & built _!     
h\ses )9 %ort di/ances ( "o ano!r4 ,9   
,virg9ia1 on ! o!r h&1 ! coloni/s took  
up l>ge plantations =  ! gr[+ ( tobacco 
& cotton2 _! homes 7 spread ov] a wide  

area4 ,because ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! mann] ( 
settlem5t ! ,new  ,engl& coloni/s       
organiz$ !mselves into t[ns 7or t[n%ips7
 :ile  ! ,s\!rn coloni/s creat$ l>g]    
units ( local gov]nm5t kn[n z  c\nties4 
,f ! ,atlantic seabo>d ^! two types (   
local  adm9i/ration--t[n%ip & c\nty     
gov]nm5t--h spread out ov] !  re/ ( !   
c\ntry4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is spread !y h be5
  consid]ably alt]$ f _! orig9al =ms4   
,,c\nty ,,gov]nm5t    ,sid5ote3 ,nature 
( ! c\nty4    ,! ,c\nty4--,e /ate 9 !   
,union is n[ divid$ into c\nties4#ei  ,!
 division is made by ! /ate legislature1
 b :5 c\nty  b\nd>ies are once fix$ !y  
are seldom *ang$ !reaft]4 ,9 !  old]    
/ates ! c\nties are (t5 small2 9 ! new] 
/ates !y  sometimes cov] sev]al hundr$  
squ>e miles4#fj ,c\nties1 l cities1  are
 public corporations1 t is to say !y h !
 "r to own  prop]ty1 to raise taxes1 to 
borr[ money1 & to make contracts4 ,!y   
may sue & be su$ 9 ! c\rts4 ,b c\nties h
 no inali5able  rights ( _! own4 ,all _!
 p[]s are d]iv$ f ! /ate4 ,!y  are m]ely

 political divisions ( ! /ate1 creat$ = 
! m  conv5i5t adm9i/ration ( local      
affairs4 ,9 a few /ates ! p  ( ea* c\nty
 are p]mitt$ to select & e/abli% su* =m 
( c\nty  gov]nm5t z !y may *oose1 b z a 
rule ! /ate legislature  prescribes a   
uni=m type ( c\nty gov]nm5t = all !     
c\nties  )9 ! /ate4    ,! ,c\nty        
,(fic]s4--,! *ief gov]nm5tal au?ority ( 
! c\nty is  ! c\nty bo>d1 ! memb]s ( :i*
 are usually kn[n z  commission]s or    
sup]visors4 ,^! memb]s are ei!r directly
 elect$  by ! vot]s ( ! c\nty or s5t z  
repres5tatives f !  t[n%ips4 ,c\nty     
bo>ds may h only ?ree memb]s or z _m z  
fifte5--ea* /ate has its own regulations
 on ?is po9t4 ,! bo>d has  its          
headqu>t]s at ! c\nty seat1 :]e ! c\nty 
c\r?\se is  locat$4    ,sid5ote3 ,c\nty 
functions4    ,! functions ( ! c\nty    
bo>d may be summ>iz$ "u six heads4 #a4  
,f9ancial4 ,mo/ c\nty bo>ds h ! "r to   
levy c\nty taxes &  to make             
appropriations = exp5diture4 ,!y h      
au?ority f !  /ate legislature to borr[ 

money on ! c\nty's cr$it4 ,?is borr[+   
p[] is ex]cis$ 9 ord] to con/ruct c\nty 
roads1 build bridges1 or  provide c\nty 
build+s4 #b4 ,highways & bridges4 ,9 _m 
/ates all  ! ma9 highways are designat$ 
z /ate or c\nty roads4 ,! t[ns &        
t[n%ips are responsible = ! con/ruction 
( m9or highways only4  ,! /ate roads are
 built by /ate highway commissions or "s
 su*  body2 ! c\nty roads are con/ruct$ 
& ma9ta9$ by ! c\nty  bo>d4 ,9 "s /ates 
^! c\nty roads are num]\s2 9 o!rs !y    
are v few4 ,ma9 bridges1 :i* connect two
 cities1 t[ns1 or  t[n%ips1 are also    
built & ma9ta9$ by ! c\nty bo>d4 #c4    
,public  build+s4 ,e c\nty requires     
c]ta9 public build+s1 includ+ a         
c\r?\se1 a c\nty jail1 a regi/ry ( de$s1
 a c\nty poorh\se1 &  sometimes a c\nty 
hospital4 ,^! build+s are erect$ &      
manag$ by  ! c\nty bo>d4 #d4            
,poor-relief & correction4 ,! function (
  provid+ public poor-relief is to "s   
ext5t p]=m$ by ! /ate  & municipal      
au?orities b a good deal ( !            

responsibility /ill  re/s ^u ! c\nty    
bo>ds4 #e4 ,elections4 ,9 mo/ /ates ( ! 
,we/  & ,s\? ! c\nty bo>d has *>ge ( !  
local arrangem5ts =  /ate & national    
elections4 ,x designates ! poll+ places1
 appo9ts  ! election (fic]s1 & provides 
! ballots4 ,! c\nty1 9 mo/ (  ! /ates1  
s]ves z ! unit = ! selection ( s5ators &
  assemblym5 9 ! /ate legislature4 #f4  
,miscellane\s4 ,f9ally1 !  c\nty bo>ds h
 sundry o!r functions4 ,occasionally !y 
grant  *>t]s ( incorporation to         
companies4 ,9 "s /ates !y con/ruct      
irrigation works & arrange = ! abolition
 ( grade cross+s on  railroads4 ,!y (t5 
help 9 ! selection ( jurors & h au?ority
  to grant c]ta9 lic5ses4    ,sid5ote3  
,! faults ( c\nty gov]nm5t4    ,h ,c\nty
 ,bo>ds be5 ,satisfactory8--,! "w ( !   
c\nty bo>ds  has n receiv$ mu* public   
att5tion 9 mo/ ( ! /ates until !  la/   
few ye>s4 ,! c\nty has be5 call$ 8!     
jungle ( ,am]ican  politics0 because !  
masses ( ! p "k s little ab\t :at is    
go+ on 9 ! (fices ( ! c\nty au?orities4 

,on ! :ole c\nty  gov]nm5t has n be5    
conspicu\sly bad1 b x has be5 f> f :at  
x ought to be4 ,am]ican c\nties1 z a    
rule1 h be5 m hone/ly  & m economically 
gov]n$ ?an ,am]ican cities4 ,!          
fundam5tal  objection to ! exi/+ sy/em (
 c\nty gov]nm5t is t x places  9 ! h&s (
 an elective body1 ! memb]s ( :i* are   
usually  *os5 = purely political        
reasons1 ! p]=mance ( _m difficult      
executive functions4 ,! managem5t (     
f9ances1 con/ruction (  roads1 bridges1 
& public build+s1 ! prop] treatm5t ( !  
poor1  ! sick1 & ! insane are all tasks 
:i* require ability1 skill1 &  exp]i5ce4
 ,elective c\nty sup]visors _c          
reasonably be expect$ to  p]=m !m well1 
& ?is is especially ! case :5 !         
nom9ations  & elections are dom9at$ by  
pr(essional politicians4    ,! ,c\nty   
,manag] ,plan4--,9 view ( ! l>ge am\nt (
 executive  "w1 requir+ skill &         
exp]i5ce1 :i* is impos$ ^u ! c\nty      
bo>ds1 & especially 9 consid]ation ( !  
fact t ?is executive  "w is /eadily     

gr[+1 x has be5 propos$ t ! bo>ds %\ld  
conf9e !mselves to matt]s ( g5]al       
policy1 leav+ to a c\nty  manag] !      
entire "w ( actual adm9i/ration4 ,9 a   
few c\nties ?is  proposal has be5       
adopt$4 ,! c\nty manag]1 a tra9$ &      
highly-paid  (ficial1 is appo9t$ by !   
c\nty bo>d to pur*ase all mat]ials &    
supplies1 to hire labor1 to prep>e      
contracts = ! con/ruction (  public     
build+s1 & to att5d to all ! details :i*
 arise 9  connection ) ! bo>d's "w4 ,9  
?is way1 by conc5trat+  au?ority 9 a    
s+le h&1 a great deal ( wa/e &          
ineffici5cy is  avoid$4 ,! plan is 9    
h>mony ) ! pr9ciple t responsibility  = 
purely executive "w1 p>ticul>ly :5 x is 
( a te*nical  "*1 %\ld be entru/$ to m5 
:o h special qualifications  = p]=m+ x  
7see pp4 #aig-aih74    ,sid5ote3 ,c\nty 
c\rts4    ,! ,c\nty z a ,judicial       
,area4--,9 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice !    
c\nty plays an important "p4 ,c\nty     
c\rts exi/ 9 ne>ly all !  /ates1 &      
al?\gh !y =m an integral "p ( ! /ate    

judici>y  !y h jurisdiction ov] su*     
matt]s )9 ! c\nty z ! laws  may provide4
 ,bo? ! organization & ! jurisdiction ( 
! c\nty  c\rts diff] greatly f /ate to  
/ate4 ,9 "s /ates ea* c\nty  has its own
 judge2 9 o!rs !re is "o judge = a gr\p 
( c\nties4  ,?is judge holds sessions 9 
"o c\nty aft] ano!r4 ,! c\nty c\rt      
usually he>s appeals f ! local c\rts &  
has orig9al  jurisdiction 9 cases :]e a 
jury is 9 ord]4 ,! probat+ ( wills  is 9
 mo/ cases a function ( ! c\nty c\rt4   
,appeals f its  decisions may usually be
 c>ri$ to ! high] tribunals ( ! /ate4   
,sid5ote3 ,8 functions4    ,!           
,%]iff4--,e c\nty has a peace (fic] kn[n
 z ! %]iff1  usually elect$ by ! vot]s (
 ! c\nty4 ,he is ! *ief gu>dian (  ! law
 & ! "r-arm ( ! c\nty c\rt4 ,hi/orically
 ?is is !  olde/ (fice 9 ! c\ntry4 ,x   
goes back to ! "t ( ,william !          
,conqu]or or e>li]1 :5 ! %ire-reeve 0 ! 
ag5t ( ! k+ 9  keep+ law & ord]4 ,%]iffs
 h ! "r to appo9t  deputy-%]iffs ^: duty
 x is to help pres]ve ! public peace1 to

  make arre/s1 & to s]ve c\rt pap]s4    
,sometimes ! %]iff & 8  deputies are    
paid regul> sal>ies1 b m (t5 !y obta9 _!
  remun]ation f fees4 ,! %]iff is !     
cu/odian ( prison]s 9 !  c\nty jail2 he 
summons ! jurors to ! c\rt sessions &   
c>ries out  all ! judgm5ts r5d]$ by !   
c\rt4    ,sid5ote3 ,"w ( ! gr& jury4    
,! ,prosecut+ ,attorney4--,atta*$ to e  
c\nty c\rt !re is a  legal (fic] :o is  
commonly kn[n z ! prosecut+ attorney or 
c\nty attorney1 usually elect$ by !     
p4#fa ,8 *ief duty is to  conduct       
prosecutions be=e ! c\nty c\rt4 ,he     
inve/igates crimes1  prep>es ! evid5ce1 
& usually lays ! case1 fir/ ( all1 be=e 
a  body kn[n z ! gr& jury4 ,?is jury1 z 
w lat] be expla9$1 is  select$ by lot f 
among ! vot]s ( ! c\nty4 ,x does n g    
into  ! "q ( guilt or innoc5ce1 b m]ely 
det]m9es :e!r an  accus$ p]son %\ld be  
plac$ on trial be=e a trial jury 9 a    
c\nty  c\rt4 ,9 "s /ates x is n necess>y
 = ! prosecut+ attorney  to lay ! case  
be=e ! gr& jury2 he may m]ely file a    

sworn  decl>ation1 call$ an in=mation or
 compla9t1 /at+ 8 belief t  !re is      
suffici5t gr\nd = plac+ ! accus$ p]son  
on trial4  ,prosecut+ attorneys ev]y:]e 
h a good deal ( discretion 9 !  way (   
discont9u+ or 8nol-pross+0 crim9al      
cases4#fb    ,o!r ,c\nty ,(fic]s4--,!re 
are v>i\s o!r (fic]s connect$ )  c\nty  
gov]nm5t4 ,! c\nty assessors g ab\t !   
c\nty & assess  or value prop]ty =      
purposes ( taxation4 ,! c\nty treasur]  
receives ! taxes & pays ! c\nty's bills4
 ,! c\nty auditors  inspect ! f9ancial  
acc\nts ( all c\nty (fic]s4 ,! regi/r> (
  de$s or record] keeps books 9 :i* all 
de$s & mortgages on l&  are ent]$4#fc   
,sid5ote3 ,! coron]4 ,! c\nty coron] has
 !  duty ( hold+ an inve/igation or     
inque/ :5ev] a dea? takes place  "u     
circum/ances :i* excite suspicion (     
crime4 ,= ?is purpose he  summons a     
coron]'s jury ( citiz5s to det]m9e !    
facts4 ,!y d n  det]m9e guilt or        
innoc5ce1 b may recomm5d t a suspect$   
p]son  be arre/$ & held = trial4 ,9 "s  

/ates ! (fice ( coron] has  be5 aboli%$ 
& its functions giv5 to an appo9tive    
(ficial kn[n  z ! m$ical exam9]1 :o is  
always a physician4 ,9 _m c\nties  !re  
is a c\nty sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools ^: duties
 are indicat$  by 8 title4 ,practically 
all ^! (fic]s are elect$1 usually = a   
%ort t]m ( ye>s4    ,sid5ote3 ,!        
selection ( c\nty employees4    ,civil  
,s]vice ,re=m 9 ,c\nties4--,besides !   
=ego+ (fic]s !re  are1 9 ! s]vice (     
c\nty gov]nm5t1 l>ge numb]s ( subord9ate
  (ficials & employees1 includ+         
deputy-%]iffs1 att5dants 9 !  jail &    
poorh\se1 =em5 on road con/ruction1     
cl]ks 9 ! c\nty  (fices1 & s on4 ,all ( 
^! are /ill *os51 9 mo/ c\nties1  "u !  
spoils sy/em4 ,positions on ! c\nty pay 
roll are giv5  almo/ ev]y:]e ! rew>d (  
p>ty or p]sonal s]vice4 ,! m]it  sy/em (
 select+ subord9ate (ficials by         
competitive exam9ation has  made little 
or no progress 9 ! c\nties ( ! ,unit$   
,/ates al?\gh  !re is no good reason :y 
x %\ld n be us$ !re z well z 9  !       

municipal1 /ate1 & national s]vice4 ,!  
c\nty rema9s ! la/  =tress ( ! spoils   
sy/em because ! p z a :ole h n  be5     
fully awak5$ to ! importance ( its "w & 
because !  political influ5ces :i*      
control c\nty gov]nm5t h h]et(ore  be5  
/rong en\gh to prev5t ! loss ( patronage
 :i* !  introduction ( ! m]it sy/em w\ld
 entail4    ,sid5ote3 ,relations ( c\nty
 & city4    ,! ,metropolitan            
,c\nties4--,special problems ( c\nty    
gov]nm5t arise  :5ev] a l>ge city       
spreads itself ov] a :ole c\nty or ev5  
ov] a  v l>ge portion ( x4 ,! gr[? (    
great municipal c5t]s dur+  rec5t ye>s  
has *ang$ _m ,am]ican c\nties f rural   
into urban or  metropolitan areas4      
,examples are to be f\nd 9 ,new ,york   
,city :i*  includes five c\nties )9 !   
city limits4 ,! city ( ,philadelphia    
includes ! :ole ( ,philadelphia c\nty2  
,suffolk c\nty is almo/  entirely cov]$ 
by ! city ( ,bo/on1 & ! city ( ,clevel& 
conta9s n9e t5?s ( ! population (       
,cuyahoga c\nty4 ,! cities  are l>gely  

indep5d5t ( ! c\nties )9 :i* !y are     
locat$1  b ! functions ( city & c\nty   
gov]nm5t run close toge!r at  _m po9ts4 
,= example ! %]iff ( ! c\nty & ! police 
commission] or police *ief ( ! city are 
bo? responsible = !  ma9t5ance ( law &  
ord]4 ,! result is1 q (t51 a duplication
  ( "w & a wa/e ( money4 ,x has be5     
propos$ t ! city &  c\nty gov]nm5ts1 9 !
 case ( metropolitan c\nties1 %\ld be   
sub/antially comb9$ to prev5t ?is       
duplication4 ,to "s ext5t ?is  has be5  
done1 z 9 ! case ( ,/4 ,l\is1           
,baltimore1 ,bo/on1 & ,san  ,francisco4 
,9 o!r l>ge cities v>i\s plans = entire 
or p>tial  unification are "u way4      
,sid5ote3 ,desirable *anges 9 c\nty     
organization4    ,! ,re=m ( ,c\nty      
,gov]nm5t4--,= ! improvem5t ( c\nty     
gov]nm5t ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry ?ree important
 *anges 9 pres5t  organization & me?ods 
seem to be ne$$4 ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,a       
c5traliz$  executive4 ,9 ! fir/ place "s
 provision %\ld be made = !  bett] h&l+ 
( executive "w4 ,z matt]s n[ /& !re is  

no  c\nty (ficial correspond+ to !      
,presid5t1 ! gov]nor1 & !  mayor 9      
national1 /ate1 & city gov]nm5t         
respectively4  ,responsibility is       
scatt]$ into too _m h&s4 ,x ought to be 
c5traliz$ 9 a c\nty manag] or "s o!r    
s+le adm9i/rative  (ficial4 ,sid5ote3   
#b4 ,a %ort] ballot4 ,second1 ! numb] ( 
elective c\nty (fic]s %\ld be r$uc$4    
,!re is no s\nd reason :y  treasur]s1   
auditors1 & sup]9t5d5ts ( s*ools %\ld be
 appo9t$  9 cities 7z is usually !      
case71 b elect$ 9 c\nties4 ,!  practice 
( elect+ s _m adm9i/rative (fic]s makes 
! ballot  long & cumb]some2 x also leads
 to ! *oice ( m5 :o h no  qualifications
 o!r ?an popul>ity4 ,:at is ev5 worse1 x
 enc\rages  frequ5t *anges 9 ! incumb5ts
 ( ^! (fices & ?us int]f]es  ) !        
effici5t managem5t ( ! c\nty's bus9ess4 
,sid5ote3 #c4  ,! m]it sy/em4 ,f9ally1 !
 m]it sy/em c\ld be advantage\sly       
ext5d$ to include all subord9ate c\nty  
positions4                              
,,t[ns ,,& ,,t[n%ips    ,sid5ote3 ,!    

v>i\s units ( local gov]nm5t4    ,!     
,areas ( ,community ,gov]nm5t4--,=      
purposes ( local  adm9i/ration ! c\nties
 are divid$ into t[ns1 t[n%ips1 or c\nty
  di/ricts1 b :5ev] any portion ( !     
c\nty becomes ?ickly  settl$ x is       
usually organiz$ z an incorporat$       
village1 an  incorporat$ t[n1 a bor\gh1 
or a city4 ,x w be se51 !re=e1  t !re   
are at lea/ sev5 diff]5t units (        
community gov]nm5t 9  ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 n
 to speak ( ! special di/ricts :i* exi/ 
9  "s individual /ates4 ,! reason = ?is 
great div]sity is to be  f\nd 9 ! fact t
 ! ,am]ican sy/em ( local gov]nm5t has  
gr[n  up gradually & 9 ea* /ate         
indep5d5tly4 ,9 mo/ ,european c\ntries  
! sy/em ( local gov]nm5t is uni=m2 9 !  
,unit$ ,/ates x is  n4 ,ea* /ate has its
 own sy/em & 9 no two /ates are ^!      
sy/ems exactly alike4 ,= ?is reason only
 ! broad outl9e ( !  subject c be       
pres5t$2 ! details mu/ be /udi$ 9 !     
localities  conc]n$4    ,sid5ote3 ,! t[n
 meet+4    ,! ,new ,engl& ,t[n4--,among 

! areas ( community gov]nm5t ! ,new     
,engl& t[n is ! olde/ & ! mo/ int]e/+4  
,x is n always1  or ev5 usually1 a      
?ickly-settl$ place4 ,^! t[ns diff]     
greatly  bo? 9 size & 9 population2 !y  
are usually q irregul> 9  %ape & may    
conta9 any:]e f a few hundr$ to sev]al  
?\s&  p4 ,! ,new ,engl& t[n does n      
possess a *>t] ( incorporation  b x has 
! usual corporate p[]s 7see p4 #agg74 ,!
 *ief gov]n+  organ ( ! ,new ,engl& t[n 
is ! t[n meet+1 an assembly ( all  !    
vot]s1 bo? m5 & wom54 ,?is t[n meet+ is 
call$ toge!r at  lea/ once a ye> & (t5  
?ree or f\r times4 ,x elects ! t[n      
(fic]s1 votes ! appropriations1 &       
decides all que/ions ( g5]al  policy4   
,sometimes ! t[n meet+ la/s all day2    
occasionally x  cont9ues ev5 long]4 ,e  
citiz5 has ! "r to a voice & a  vote4   
,sid5ote3 ,! selectm54    ,dur+ !       
int]val betwe5 ! t[n meet+s ! affairs ( 
! t[n  are manag$ by a bo>d ( selectm51 
compos$ ( ?ree or five memb]s1  elect$  
by ! vot]s4 ,! selectm5 prep>e ! bus9ess

 = ! t[n  meet+ & c>ry out its          
decisions4 ,! l>g] t[ns also ma9ta9     
v>i\s o!r bo>ds1 su* z a s*ool bo>d1 a  
wat] bo>d1 & a bo>d  ( heal?1 ! memb]s  
be+ 9 all cases elect$ at ! t[n meet+4  
,o!r t[n (ficials include a t[n cl]k1 a 
treasur]1 an auditor1 &  a sup]9t5d5t ( 
s*ools4    ,sid5ote3 ,rec5t *anges 9 !  
sy/em4    ,:5 t[ns gr[ l>ge ! t[n meet+ 
becomes unwieldy & ! sy/em  (           
adm9i/ration by num]\s bo>ds fails to "w
 smoo?ly4 ,= ?is  reason "s ,new ,engl& 
t[ns h rec5tly adopt$ a 8limit$ t[n     
meet+0 sy/em1 by :i* ! vot]s ( ! t[n    
elect delegates to  repres5t !m 9 ! t[n 
meet+4 ,a few t[ns h also aboli%$ !     
v>i\s adm9i/rative bo>ds & h plac$ t[n  
adm9i/ration 9  *>ge ( a t[n manag]     
appo9t$ by ! selectm54#fd    ,!         
,t[n%ip4--,9 ! great gr\p ( ,c5tral &   
,middle ,we/]n /ates1  rang+ f ,new     
,york & ,p5nsylvania to ,nebraska & !   
,dakotas1 !  pr9cipal area ( community  
gov]nm5t is ! t[n%ip1 al?\gh x is       
sometimes call$ ! t[n4 ,9 ! old] /ates  

^! t[n%ips 7or  t[ns7 are ( irregul>    
%ape2 9 sev]al ( ! new] /ates !  s-call$
 8congressional0 t[n%ips 7 laid out 9   
uni=m blocks1 six  miles squ>e4 ,9 "s ( 
! /ates1 bo? old & new1 ! t[ns or       
t[n%ips h t[n meet+s1 z 9 ,new ,engl&1 b
 n[h]e outside (  ,new ,engl& h ^!      
meet+s atta9$ any great importance4 ,_! 
*ief function 9 ! ,c5tral & ,middle     
,we/]n /ates is to elect !  t[n or      
t[n%ip (fic]s4 ,! "w ( t[n%ip 7or t[n7  
adm9i/ration  is c>ri$ on ei!r by a bo>d
 ( tru/ees or by a s+le (ficial         
commonly kn[n z a sup]visor4 ,!re are   
also v>i\s subord9ate  (ficials1 all (  
:om are usually elect$ by ! vot]s4    ,!
 ,c\nty ,di/ricts4--,9 mo/ /ates ( !    
,s\? & ,f> ,we/ !re  are no t[n%ips4 ,! 
c\nty rema9s ! pr9cipal area ( local    
gov]nm5t1 b = ! managem5t ( v>i\s       
community affairs !  c\nty is divid$    
into di/ricts4 ,!re are s*ool di/ricts1 
road  di/ricts1 & election di/ricts1 =  
example4 ,ea* di/rict has its  own      
elective (fic]s :o are 9 *>ge ( !       

function = :i* !  di/rict 0 e/abli%$4   
,sid5ote3 ,incorporat$ t[ns1 bor\ghs1 & 
villages4    ,! ,incorporat$            
,communities4--,! vitality ( t[n%ips &  
di/rict  gov]nm5t has be5 weak5$ by !   
practice ( incorporat+ z a  village1    
t[n1 bor\gh1 or city1 any portion ( !   
area :i* becomes  ?ickly settl$4 ,! laws
 ( ! v>i\s /ates usually provide t      
:5ev] any "p ( a community becomes      
suffici5tly popul\s a  designat$ numb] (
 ! inhabitants may petition =           
incorporation4 ,!  "q is !n submitt$ to 
a vote1 & if ! vote is favorable1 a     
*>t] ( incorporation is grant$4 ,a c]ta9
 m9imum ( population is  requir$2       
usually f two to ?ree hundr$ 9 ! case ( 
a village1  "o to ?ree ?\s& 9 ! case ( a
 t[n1 & m ?an ?ree  ?\s& 9 ! case ( a   
city4 ,^! figures v>y f /ate to /ate4   
,9 "s ,we/]n /ates ! m9imum =           
incorporation = a city is only  a few   
hundr$4 ,9 any ev5t :5 ! place becomes  
incorporat$ z a  village1 t[n1 bor\gh1  
or city x becomes sep>ate1 =            

adm9i/rative  purposes1 f ! t[n%ip or   
di/rict to :i* x belong$ & sets up  a   
local gov]nm5t ( its own4 ,! nature (   
?is gov]nm5t1 !  (ficials1 & ! scope (  
_! p[]s are all fix$ by ! laws (  !     
/ate4 ,!re are m ?an #ae1jjj incorporat$
 villages1 t[ns1  bor\ghs1 & cities 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 ne>ly ?ree f\r?s ( !m    
be+ places ( less ?an #bejj population4 
,sid5ote3 ,! advantages4    ,! ,m]its & 
,defects ( ! ,local ,gov]nm5t           
,sy/em4--,! mo/ m>k$  feature ( !       
,am]ican sy/em ( local gov]nm5t1 :5     
survey$ z a  :ole1 is its               
dec5tralization4 ,no?+ is uni=m ?r\gh\t 
!  c\ntry2 ea* /ate foll[s its own plan1
 & ev]y:]e a l>ge measure  ( home rule 9
 local affairs is grant$4 ,contra/ ?is )
 ! sy/em  ( local gov]nm5t 9 ! ,fr5*    
,republic = example1 :]e all            
communities1 :e!r l>ge or small1 are    
gov]n$ 9 exactly ! same  way & /rictly  
controll$ by ! c5tral au?orities 9      
,p>is4 ,!  ,am]ican sy/em has !         
advantage ( all[+ ea* section ( !       

c\ntry to adopt :atev] s*eme be/ suits  
its own p>ticul> ne$s4 ,x  also         
facilitates ! mak+ ( exp]im5ts 9 local  
gov]nm5t &  ?r\gh ^! exp]im5ts we le>n  
bett] ways ( do+ ?+s4 ,!  l>ge measure (
 local home rule br+s community gov]nm5t
 close to  ! p1 giv+ !m control ov] x & 
responsibility = x4 ,x  fo/]s initiative
 & t5ds to develop a :olesome rivalry 9 
good  "w4 ,local gov]nm5t is a f9e s*ool
 = ! tea*+ ( democracy4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
defects4    ,on ! o!r h& ! ,am]ican     
sy/em has its defects4 ,s _m areas (    
local gov]nm5t h be5 creat$ 9 "s ( !    
/ates t ! p  are ov]-gov]n$4 ,!         
multiplication ( local (fices has l$ to 
wa/efulness4 ,local home rule1 moreov]1 
has 9 "s cases be5 a  synonym = local   
misrule4 ,! result is t we h requir$1   
dur+  rec5t ye>s1 an increase 9 ! am\nt 
( control ex]cis$ ov] !  gov]nm5t ( !   
local communities by /ate & c\nty       
au?orities4  ,t[n%ips1 t[ns1 & villages 
are areas ( gov]nm5t e/abli%$ to  meet  
local ne$s1 b !y are also ! *annels     

?r\gh :i* ! /ate  au?orities c>ry on a  
portion ( _! "w4 ,?is latt] phase (     
local  self-gov]nm5t %\ld n be ov]look$4
                               ,g5]al   
,ref]5ces    ,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,/ate &
 ,local ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cji-cdd2        
,,*>les ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &
 ,politics1 pp4 #fch-gje2  ,ibid41      
,read+s 9 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &          
,politics1 pp4 #eef-eff2    ,,james     
,,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,vol4   
,i1 pp4 #eif-faf2    ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1   
,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4        
#ece-ega2    ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,local    
,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 especially 
pp4  #bed-bii2    ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 
,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,c\nties1 ,t[ns &    
,villages1  especially pp4 #eg-adj2     
,am]ican ,academy ( ,political & ,social
 ,sci5ce1  ,c\nty ,gov]nm5t1 pp4        
#ha-aaa2 ,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t
  7see "u ,c\nty1 ,t[ns & ,t[n%ips1     
,bor\gh74                               
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,%\ld !          
c\nty-manag] plan be adopt$8 ,) :at     

c\nty  functions d y n[ come into       
contact8 ,h[ important to y & to y\r    
home is ! "w ( ! c\nty (ficials 9 !     
matt] ( road-build+1  ! ma9t5ance (     
prisons1 ! c>e ( ! poor1 ! regi/ration (
  de$s1 & ! sup]vision ( s*ools8 ,are   
any ( ^! ?+s n[  mismanag$ &1 if s1 9   
:at way c ! situation be improv$8 ,!    
pres5t multiplication ( c\nty           
au?orities4 ,duties ( ea*4 ,h[ ^!       
duties are p]=m$4 ,! cause ( wa/e or    
ineffici5cy4 ,:at !  c\nty-manag] sy/em 
aims to d4 ,comp>ison ( ! city-manag] & 
!  c\nty-manag] plans4 ,ref]5ces3 ,h4   
,g4 ,,james1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9  !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #dbe-dea2 ,,john ,a4 
,,fairlie1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9  ,c\nties1
 ,t[ns & ,villages1 pp4 #ge-id2 ,h4 ,g4 
,,gilb]tson1 ,!  ,c\nty1 pp4 #aea-ahj2  
8,c\nty ,gov]nm5t0 9 ! ,annals ( !      
,am]ican ,academy ( ,political & ,social
 ,sci5ce1 ,vol4 ,,xlvii 7,may1  #aiac72 
,national ,%ort ,ballot ,organization1  
,docum5ts on ,c\nty  ,gov]nm5t2 ,c4 ,c4 
,,maxey1 ,c\nty ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #de-fb4  

#b4 ,h[ t[n gov]nm5t c be improv$4      
,ref]5ces3 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1  ,local     
,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4        
#bed-bhc2 ,c4 ,s4 ,,bird1 ,t[n  ,plann+ 
= ,small ,communities1 pp4 #caa-cdj2    
,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican  ,gov]nm5t 7see "u
 ,t[ns & ,t[n%ips72 ,annual ,reports (  
,t[n  ,(fic]s4    #c4 ,:at y\r t[n%ip   
(ficials d4 ,ref]5ces3 ,,john ,a4       
,,fairlie1  ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,c\nties1
 ,t[ns & ,villages1 pp4 #afd-aha2 ,h4   
,g4  ,,james1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #bfh-bhc2 ,,john     
,,fiske1  ,civil ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$   
,/ates1 pp4 #hi-ie2 ,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 
,/ate & ,local ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ccc-cdd2 
,annual ,reports ( ,t[n%ip  ,sup]visor  
or ,*airman4                            
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! importance (    
local gov]nm5t 9 a democracy4 ,a4 ,,de  
,,tocqueville1 ,democracy 9 ,am]ica1    
,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gd-hg4    #b4 ,fr5* &    
,engli% me?ods ( local gov]nm5t4 ,h4 ,g4
 ,,james1 ,local  ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$  
,/ates1 pp4 #a-fe4    #c4 ,! c\nty bo>d4

 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 
9 ,c\nties1  ,t[ns & ,villages1 pp4     
#ge-id2 ,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,/ate &     
,local  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cag-ccb4    #d4 
,politics 9 c\nty gov]nm5t4 ,h4 ,s4     
,,gilb]tson1 ,! ,c\nty1 pp4  #dc-fe4    
#e4 ,:]e ! c\nty's money goes4 ,h4 ,g4  
,,james1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9  ! ,unit$   
,/ates1 pp4 #bcb-bej4    #f4 ,city &    
c\nty consolidation4 ,ibid41 pp4        
#dcg-ddh4    #g4 ,a ,new ,engl& t[n     
meet+4 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,civil ,gov]nm5t 
9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #af-cd4    #h4  
,! en=cem5t ( ! /ate laws 9 rural       
communities4 ,j4 ,m4  ,,ma!ws1          
,pr9ciples ( ,am]ican ,/ate             
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #dcj-dfb4    #i4 ,h[ 
good plann+ helps ! small t[n4 ,c4 ,s4  
,,bird1 ,t[n ,plann+  = ,small          
,communities1 pp4 #a-ai2 #gf-ii4    #aj4
 ,home rule = c\nties4 ,h4 ,s4          
,,gilb]tson1 ,! ,c\nty1 pp4  #bjg-bej4  
#aa4 ,! gov]nm5t ( an urban c\nty4 ,cook
 ,c\nty1 ,bo>d (  ,commission]s1 ,a     
,/udy ( ,cook ,c\nty1 pp4 #e-ba4    #ab4

 ,! c\nty c\rts4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,smi?1 ,tra9+ 
= ,citiz5%ip1 pp4  #ahe-aig2 ,am]ican   
,academy ( ,political & ,social ,sci5ce1
 ,c\nty  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #abj-acc2       
,ill9ois ,con/itutional ,conv5tion1     
#aibj1  ,bullet9s1 ,no4 #aa1 pp4        
#ije-ibe 7,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,*icago &  
,cook  ,c\nty74                         
,que/ions    #a4 ,:y d we ne$ a sy/em ( 
local gov]nm5t8 ,suppose all ! areas (  
local gov]nm5t 7 to be aboli%$ & !      
managem5t ( local  affairs tak5 ov] by !
 /ate1 :at advantages & disadvantages   
w\ld  result8    #b4 ,to :at ext5t does 
! con/itution ( y\r /ate re/rict !      
fre$om ( ! /ate legislature 9 int]f]+ ) 
local gov]nm5t8  ,are ^! re/rictions too
 great8 ,:y %\ld n c\nties & t[ns be    
giv5 complete home rule8    #c4 ,"n !   
qualifications :i* a good %]iff ought to
 h4 ,an  effici5t coron]4    #d4 ,:y d  
we ne$ a regi/ry ( de$s8 ,if de$s 7 n   
regi/]$ :at  difficulties w\ld be       
enc\nt]$8 ,is a de$ invalid if n        
regi/]$8    #e4 ,if c\nties 7 to be     

aboli%$1 :i* ( _! pres5t functions  w\ld
 y transf] to ! /ate & :i* to ! t[n%ips1
 t[ns1 or  villages8    #f4 ,:y is x    
?\ght desirable t :5 places become      
?ickly-settl$  !y %\ld be giv5 sep>ate  
incorporation8    #g4 ,expla9 h[ local  
gov]nm5t s]ves z a s*ool = democracy4   
#h4 ,:at ought to be ! m9imum limit (   
population = an incorporat$  village1 an
 incorporat$ t[n1 a city8               
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,all c\nty     
adm9i/rative (ficials1 except ! highe/1 
%\ld be  *os5 by civil s]vice rules4    
#b4 ,city & c\nty gov]nm5t %\ld be      
consolidat$ 9 cities l  ,*icago1        
,philadelphia1 ,clevel&1 & ,los         
,angeles4    -----    ,footnote #bd3    
,9 do+ ?is !y d n take editorials1      
resolutions1 & lett]s    too s]i\sly4   
,"s newspap]s m]ely reflect ! op9ion (  
_!    own]s1 n public op9ion4 ,societies
 (t5 adopt resolutions )\t    he>+ bo?  
sides ( ! case4 ,congressm5 sometimes   
receive sev]al    hundr$ lett]s 9 a s+le
 day1 mo/ ( !m say+ exactly ! same      

?+1 :i* means t !y h all be5 inspir$ f !
 same    qu>t]4    ,footnote #be3       
,! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is to all
 int5ts & purposes    *os5 directly by !
 vot]s al?\gh z a matt] ( =m ! *oice    
is made indirectly 7see pp4 #bhh-bij74  
,footnote #bf3      ,! appo9tm5t (      
(ficials is sometimes made by           
legislative bodies1    al?\gh ?is plan  
is n common4 ,9 a few /ates ! judges are
 nam$    by ! legislature4 ,9 "s o!rs ! 
legislature elects ! /ate    treasur]1 !
 secret>y ( /ate1 ! comptroll]1 or !    
auditor4    ,:]e ! commission =m ( city 
gov]nm5t has be5 adopt$ all             
appo9tm5ts are made by ! commission4 ,! 
g5]al !ory (    ,am]ican gov]nm5t is1   
h[ev]1 t ! *oos+ ( adm9i/rative    &    
judicial (fic]s %\ld n be ve/$ 9 ! h&s (
 a    legislative body4 ,x is reg>d$ z  
undesirable t ! body :i*    enacts !    
laws %\ld h any?+ directly to d ) !     
selection    ( ^? (fic]s :o en=ce or    
apply ! laws4 ,b ?is pr9ciple    ought n
 to be appli$ inflexibly2 !re are good  

reasons at times    = mak+ exceptions to
 x4    ,footnote #bg3      ,wa%+ton 0 n 
a p>ty man & c>$ v little ab\t !        
political views ( m5 :om he appo9t$ to  
public (fice4 ,8    imm$iate successors1
 ,adams & ,jeff]son1 did n pres]ve ?is  
/rict imp>tiality2 on ! o!r h&1 !y 7    
dis9cl9$ to treat    public (fice z a   
m]e means ( rew>d+ _! own support]s4 ,!y
    did n remove (fice-hold]s 9 ord] to 
make room = _! own    political fri5ds4 
,footnote #bh3      ,! /ory is (t5 told1
 & x may well be true1 t at a critical  
"t 9 ! w> a visitor to ! ,:ite ,h\se    
rem>k$ to ,l9coln t    !                
responsibilities ( ! great /ruggle mu/  
be a heavy burd5 ^u    8 %\ld]s4 8,no10 
repli$ ! ,presid5t1 8x is n ! w> t is   
giv+ me ! greate/ worry at ?is mom5t4 ,x
 is ! problem (    fill+ t po/ma/]%ip at
 ,little ,rapids1 ,indiana40            
,footnote #bi3      ,no me?od (         
appo9tm5t w secure ! be/ results1 h[ev]1
 unless    x is accompani$ by a fair    
sy/em ( promotions4 ,?is has n yet      

be5 arrang$ = on any l>ge scale4        
,appo9tm5ts are to a l>ge    ext5t bas$ 
^u m]it1 b promotions are /ill det]m9$1 
9 _m    cases1 by p]sonal or p>ty       
favoritism4 ,r>ely is !re any           
exam9ation or o!r te/ to decide :o w be 
promot$ :5 a    vacancy occurs high] up4
 ,x is desirable1 !re=e1 t ! m]it       
sy/em ( appo9tm5t %\ld be supplem5t$ by 
a m]it sy/em (    promotions4 ,_m       
capable "y m5 & wom5 w n ent] ! public  
s]vice today because !re is no c]ta9    
*ance ( promotion on !    basis (       
ability & indu/ry4 ,a m]it plan (       
promotion w\ld help to    attract bett] 
c&idates4 ,! public treasury1 moreov]1  
ought to    provide p5sions = ^? :o     
retire by reason ( old age aft] _m      
ye>s ( fai?ful s]vice4 ,"s l>ge private 
in/itutions are n[    do+ ?is4 ,!       
nation1 /ate1 & city ought to adopt !   
same    practice1 n only because x is ! 
humane way ( treat+ ag$    employees b  
because x w\ld make ! public s]vice m   
attractive    z a c>e]4    ,footnote    

#cj3      ,9 a s5se1 h[ev]1 ! t]ms      
initiative & ref]5dum are m]ely    new  
names = v old in/itutions4 ,! "r (      
petition1 :i* is    ! f\ndation ( !     
initiative1 has always exi/$ 9 ! ,unit$ 
,/ates4 ,! ref]5dum1 9 o!r words !      
submission ( que/ions    directly to !  
p1 is z old z ! ,new ,engl& t[n meet+2  
inde$ x goes back to ! "t ( anci5t      
,a!ns4 ,all e>ly    democracy1 9 fact1 0
 direct democracy2 ! p decid$ ?+s    )\t
 legislatures4 ,b z communities grew 9  
size ?is sy/em (    direct democracy    
became impractical2 h5ce !y resort$ to  
repres5tative gov]nm5t4 ,n[1 :5         
repres5tative gov]nm5t fails    to      
satisfy1 we g back aga9 9 a r\ndab\t way
 to ! old me?od4    ,footnote #ca3      
,only five ( ^! /ates1 h[ev]1 lie ea/ ( 
! ,mississippi ,riv]4    ,:y is x t s _m
 ( ^! new movem5ts1 political &         
economic1    orig9ate some:]e 9 ! ,we/8 
,direct legislation1 ! recall1 woman    
suffrage1 popul> election ( s5ators1    
free silv]1 ! s+le tax1    ,populism1 ! 

,non-p>tisan ,league1--! li/ w\ld be a  
consid]able    "o if giv5 9 full4 ,x is 
(t5 said t ! gr[? ( indu/rial           
communities1 ) l>ge bodies ( prop]tyless
 work]s1 t5ds to    promote radicalism2 
b ! ,we/ is /ill pr$om9antly            
agricultural4    ,:at new political or  
economic movem5ts h _h _! orig9 9       
indu/rial /ates l ,massa*usetts1        
,connecticut1 or ,p5nsylvania    dur+ ! 
pa/ tw5ty-five ye>s8    ,footnote #cb3  
,"h are "s ( ! matt]s submitt$ to !     
vot]s ( a c]ta9    ,we/]n city at "o    
election3 to p5sion firem52 to grant a  
/reet    railway fran*ise2 to aboli%    
grade cross+s2 to exempt c]ta9 city     
(fic]s f be+ citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 
to def9e !    p[]s ( ! municipal c\rt2  
to exempt c]ta9 (fic]s f !    civil     
s]vice rules2 to regulate ! sale (      
bonds2 to *ange !    me?od ( pass+      
ord9ances2 to all[ ! city to acquire    
prop]ty    outside ! city limits1 etc4  
,is ! av]age vot] likely1 or            
unlikely1 to "k mu* ab\t ?+s ( ?is sort8

    ,footnote #cc3      ,9 #aiba ! vot]s
 ( ,nor? ,dakota recall$ ,gov]nor       
,frazi] f    (fice be=e ! expiry ( 8    
t]m4    ,footnote #cd3      ,see p4 #ca4
    ,footnote #ce3      ,9 ,engl& full  
suffrage has be5 grant$ only to wom5 :o 
are ?irty    ye>s ( age or ov]4 ,?is 0  
purposely done 9 ord] t ! male    vot]s 
%\ld be 9 ! majority4    ,footnote #cf3 
,new ,york ,/ate 9 #aiba jo9$ ! li/ (   
/ates :i* impose !    lit]acy te/4      
,footnote #cg3      ,v>i\s classes ( p1 
al?\gh qualifi$ by citiz5%ip1 age1 &    
resid5ce1 are deb>r$ f vot+ on o!r      
gr\nds4 ,among ^! are    insane p]sons1 
crim9als1 &1 9 "s /ates1 ^? :o h be5    
convict$ ( brib]y or o!r s]i\s (f5ces   
aga9/ ! election    laws4 ,9 "s /ates1  
also1 soldi]s ( ! regul> army & enli/$  
m5 ( ! navy are d5i$ ! "r to regi/] z   
vot]s on !    gr\nd t !y are n really   
resid5ts b m]ely repres5tatives    ( !  
national gov]nm5t tempor>ily qu>t]$ )9 !
 /ate    b\nd>ies4 ,civil (ficials ( !  
national gov]nm5t are n    deb>r$4      

,footnote #ch3      ,?is gives ! p>ty   
work]s an opportunity to inve/igate all 
suspici\s names on ! li/ & be ready =   
action :5 election day    comes4        
,footnote #ci3      ,sometimes annual   
regi/ration is requir$ 9 ! cities b n 9 
small t[ns or rural di/ricts4 ,9 ,ohio  
!re is an annual    regi/ration 9 cities
 ( ov] #ajj1jjj population2 a           
regi/ration    e f\r ye>s 9 small]      
cities1 & no g5]al regi/ration at all   
9 ! rural di/ricts4 ,9 ! latt] ! same   
li/ is us$ ye> aft]    ye> ) su*        
individual *anges z may be necess>y4    
,footnote #dj3      ,9 mo/ cases !y take
 ! vot]'s say-s z suffici5t pro( ( 8    
p>ty allegiance4    ,footnote #da3      
,at ! ,new ,york /ate prim>ies (        
,septemb]1 #aibj1 ! c&idate :o    won ! 
,democratic nom9ation = gov]nor receiv$ 
few] ?an #bjj1jjj    votes2 at !        
,novemb] election he receiv$ m ?an a    
million1 &    yet 0 n elect$4           
,footnote #db3      ,9 a few cities1 =  
example 9 ,bo/on1 !re are no prim>ies   

be=e    ! municipal elections4 ,c&idates
 = ! (fice ( mayor may be    nom9at$ by 
pres5t+ a petition sign$ by n few] ?an  
#ejjj    qualifi$ vot]s2 c&idates = !   
city c\ncil mu/ h at lea/    #bejj      
signatures4    ,footnote #dc3      ,?is 
r\ndab\t way ( fix+ ! election date is  
us$ 9 ord] to    make c]ta9 t ! election
 %all n take place on ! fir/ day    ( ! 
mon?1 a "t :5 ^? :o "w 9 banks1 (fices1 
etc41 are    p>ticul>ly busy4           
,footnote #dd3      ,x is sometimes     
arrang$ t local elections %all take     
place 9 !    odd ye>s1 :ile national &  
/ate elections come 9 ! ev5 ye>s4       
,footnote #de3      ,a w>d boss 9 a     
c]ta9 ,am]ican city "s "t ago 0 urg+ 8  
foll[]s to vote ! 8/raight ticket01 b   
kn[+ t "s ( !m    c\ld n read & recall+ 
! fact t ! figure ( an eagle    /ood at 
! top ( 8 p>ty column1 he bell[$ at !m  
8,n[ :5    y g to ! polls put y\r cross 
"r "u t *ick5 ) !    %ort legs04        
,footnote #df3      ,= a fur!r          
discussion1 ) additional data1 see ,c4  

,a4 ,be>d1    ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &      
,politics1 p4 #fgc4    ,footnote #dg3   
,proportional repres5tation %\ld also be
 di/+ui%$ f limit$    vot+ & cumulative 
vot+4 ,"u ! limit$ vot+ plan a vot]     
is p]mitt$ to m>k 8 ballot only = "s    
small] numb] (    c&idates ?an !re are  
places to be fill$4 ,= example1 if sev5 
c\ncilm5 are to be *os5 by ! electorate 
( ! city at l>ge1    ea* vot] might be  
p]mitt$ to vote = n m ?an f\r4 ,!       
outcome w\ld v likely be t ! /ronge/    
p>ty w\ld elect f\r    c\ncilm5 & ! next
 /ronge/ ?ree4 ,?is gives a c]ta9 am\nt 
( m9ority repres5tation1 b does n ensure
 proportional    repres5tation4         
,cumulative vot+ is an arrangem5t "u :i*
 ea*    vot] is giv5 z _m votes z !re   
are c&idates to be elect$ b    is       
p]mitt$ to allot all or any ( 8 votes z 
he pleases4 ,?us1 if    ?ree assemblym5 
are to be elect$1 ! vot] w h ?ree votes4
    ,he may give all ?ree votes to "o   
c&idate2 or two votes to "o    c&idate &
 "o vote to ano!r2 or "o vote to ea* (  

?ree    c&idates4 ,?is plan also gives  
reasonable assurance ( m9ority          
repres5tation1 because ! weak] p>ty w   
conc5trate its votes    ^u "o c&idate1 b
 ! usual outcome is t ! majority1       
:atev] its /r5g?1 w h twice z _m        
repres5tatives z !    m9ority4 ,x does  
n1 !re=e1 ensure proportional           
repres5tation4    ,?is plan has be5 us$ 
9 ,ill9ois4    ,footnote #dh3      ,9   
,a%tabula 7,ohio71 ,b\ld] 7,colorado71  
,we/ ,h>t=d 7,connecticut71    &        
,sacram5to 7,cali=nia74 ,clevel&1 ! fif?
 l>ge/ city 9 !    ,unit$ ,/ates1 adopt$
 9 #aiba a new city *>t] 9 :i* provision
    is made = us+ proportional          
repres5tation at c\ncil elections4    ,!
 fir/ election "u ! new plan w be held 9
 ! autumn (    #aibc4    ,footnote #di3 
,v>i\s o!r ?+s1 n 9 !mselves wrong1 h   
be5 made illegal    by /atute because !y
 are reg>d$ z contr>y to good public    
policy    9 t !y t5d to r5d] an election
 undignifi$1 or unfair1 or              
unnecess>ily exp5sive4 ,canvass+ &      

di/ribution ( campaign    lit]ature is  
=bidd5 )9 a c]ta9 radius ( ! poll+      
place4    ,campaign adv]tisem5ts mu/ n  
be pr9t$ 9 "s /ates unless !y    be> !  
"n & address ( a qualifi$ vot]4         
,c&idates are    requir$ to file ) !    
prop] au?orities a /atem5t ( _!         
campaign exp5ses & x is illegal to sp5d 
m ?an a prescrib$    sum ev5 = purely   
legitimate purposes1 su* z ! hir+ (     
halls    & ! pr9t+ ( po/]s4 ,! purpose (
 ^! provisions is n    only to r5d] !   
election a dignifi$ affair1 z becomes an
 ex]cise    ( popul> sov]eignty1 b to   
give e c&idate1 ri* or poor1 z    ne>ly 
equal a *ance z ! laws c ensure4 ,^!    
regulations are    sometimes evad$1 x is
 true1 b on ! :ole !y are well respect$ 
bo? by p>ty organizations & by c&idates4
 ,9 ,s5ator ,newb]ry's    case ! ,unit$ 
,/ates ,supreme ,c\rt rul$ t ,congress  
c\ld n    limit ! campaign exp5ses (    
c&idates = election to ! ,s5ate    or ! 
,h\se4 ,control ( ^! elections re/s ) ! 
sev]al    /ates4    ,footnote #ej3      

,!y try to p]suade ! exi/+ p>ties into  
help+ !m ga9 _!    object2 if !y fail 9 
?is1 !y frequ5tly organize a new p>ty4  
,?us ! ,lib]ty & ,free ,soil p>ties 7   
organiz$ to aboli%    slav]y2 !         
,prohibition p>ty to get rid ( ! liquor 
traffic1 &    ! ,progressive p>ty to put
 ?r\gh v>i\s political & economic       
*anges :i* ! old] p>ties w\ld n fa!r4   
,footnote #ea3      ,t1 inde$1 is :at   
does actually happ5 at times 9 spite ( !
    p>ty sy/em4 ,a ,presid5t1 elect$ by 
"o political p>ty1 negotiates    a      
treaty2 a ,s5ate controll$ by ! o!r     
political p>ty decl9es to    ratify x4  
,a gov]nor insi/s t pl$ges made by him  
dur+ !    election campaign %all be     
c>ri$ out2 b ! legislature 7hav+ a      
majority ( ! opposite fai?7 decl9es to  
pass ! necess>y laws4 ,a    mayor tries 
to make an appo9tm5t1 & 8 political     
oppon5ts 9 !    city c\ncil refuse      
confirmation4 ,su* ?+s happ5 n[ & !n4 ,z
    a g5]al rule1 h[ev]1 :5 a political 
p>ty ga9s control ( "o    bran* ( !     

gov]nm5t x ga9s control ( ! o!r too4    
,footnote #eb3      ,!re h be5 "s       
critical issues at diff]5t times 9      
,am]ican    hi/ory1 su* z nullification1
 slav]y1 secession1 recon/ruction1      
gre5-backs1 free silv]1 ! regulation (  
tru/s1 imp]ialism1 !    league (        
nations1 & s on4 ,mo/ ( ! lead+ issues 9
 rec5t    ye>s h be5 economic 9 "*2 !y h
 be5 conc]n$ )    su* matt]s z !        
railroads1 ! m]*ant m>9e1 ! regulation (
    indu/ry1 immigration1 relations )   
,mexico1 bank+ reorganization1    !     
ext5sion ( aid to agriculture1          
cons]vation1 budget me?ods1 &           
int]national trade4    ,footnote #ec3   
,?is is q a contra/ ) :at has happ5$ 9  
,france1 ,g]many1    ,italy1 & ! o!r    
c\ntries ( ,cont95tal ,europe4 ,9 ^!    
c\ntries !re are sev]al p>ties & !y     
cont9ue 9 exi/5ce =    long p]iods ( "t4
 ,no two p>ties ev] manage to get !     
field (    politics l>gely to !mselves4 
,x is significant t ! two-p>ty    sy/em 
has fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,engli%-speak+ c\ntries1

 t is1 9    ,great ,brita91 ! ,briti%   
colonies1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,ev]y:]e   
else !re are f ?ree or f\r to a doz5    
p>ties4 ,:y %\ld !re    be ?is diff]5ce8
    ,footnote #ed3      ,until rec5t    
ye>s ! /ate conv5tion also _h ! function
 (    nom9at+ ! p>ty c&idates = /ate    
(fic]s1 b 9 mo/ ( !    /ates ?is        
pr]ogative has be5 tak5 away f !        
conv5tion &    ! nom9ations are made by 
! p>ty vot]s at /ate-wide direct        
prim>ies4 ,9 ! o!rs ! nom9ations are    
/ill made by !    conv5tions4 ,ev5 :]e !
 prim>y is us$1 h[ev]1 x is sometimes   
! practice ( a conv5tion to adopt an    
8un(ficial0 slate (    c&idates :i* x   
recomm5ds to ! vot]s = _! endorsem5t at 
! prim>y 7see p4 #abi74    ,footnote    
#ee3      ,at ! ,republican national    
conv5tion ( #ahhj x took ?irty-six      
ballots to nom9ate ,mr4 ,g>field4 ,9    
#aiab1 at ! ,democratic national        
conv5tion1 ,woodr[ ,wilson 0 n nom9at$  
until ! =ty-six?    ballot4 ,sometimes !
 v fir/ ballot results 9 nom9at+ !      

c&idate z happ5$ ) ,mr4 ,wilson 9 #aiaf4
 ,h[ _m ballots 7    tak5 be=e !        
nom9ation ( ,mr4 ,h>d+ at ,*icago 9     
,june1 #aibj1    & be=e ! nom9ation ( 8 
oppon5t1 ,mr4 ,cox1 at ,san ,francisco1 
a few weeks lat]8    ,footnote #ef3     
,r+s & bosses are n ,am]ican inv5tions4 
,p]icles 0 a political    boss1 & a v   
successful "o 9 8 day4 ,!re 7 bosses 9  
anci5t ,rome2 !y c\ld ev5 get toge!r &  
=m a r+ 7!y    call$ x a triumvirate74  
,simon de ,mont=t1 ! s-call$ 8fa!r (    
! ,h\se ( ,commons01 0 a boss & a r     
skilful "o at t4    ,pitt1 ! y\ng]1 0 a 
boss ( ! fir/ ord]1 a corrupt "o1 too4  
,9 ,am]ica we h _h _m political bosses f
 ,a>on ,burr d[n1 b    mo/ ( !m h op]at$
 9 /ate & city politics4 ,!re is no     
national p>ty boss2 ! field is too l>ge 
= any "o man to    control4 ,p]haps !   
mo/ notable ( all ,am]ican bosses 0     
,william    ,m4 ,twe$1 :o dom9at$ !     
politics ( ,new ,york ,city a half      
c5tury    ago4 8,he 0 an ,am]ican by    
bir?1 a *airmak] by trade1 a good       

fell[ by nature1 a politician by        
circum/ances1 a boss by natural         
process ( evolution1 & a graft] by      
*oice40 ,z ! boss ( 8    p>ty he sold   
nom9ations op5ly1 assess$ public        
(ficehold]s =    contributions to 8     
campaign funds1 gave out contracts to 8 
fri5ds1 loot$ ! city treasury1 & f9ally 
w5t to jail4 ,new    ,york's exp]i5ce ) 
,twe$ co/ ! city ab\t fifty million     
doll>s    9 less ?an five ye>s4         
,footnote #eg3      ,! campaign fund ( !
 ,republican p>ty1 :5 x elect$ ,abraham 
,l9coln 9 #ahfj1 0 a little ov]         
#ajj1jjj4 ,! am\nt rais$ by !           
,republicans = ! campaign ( #aibj 0 ab\t
 #d1jjj1jjj4 ,!    ,democratic campaign 
fund 0 consid]ably small]1 b x also ran 
into ! millions4 ,! laws provide t !    
treasur]s ( ^! funds    mu/ publi%1 be=e
 ! election1 ! names ( all contributors 
:o    give m ?an #ajj1 & aft] ! election
 mu/ file a /atem5t (    all moneys     
exp5d$4 ,corporations are =bidd5 to     
contribute to any    f$]al campaign     

fund4    ,footnote #eh3      ,^! co/s   
m\nt up quickly4 ,a tor*light procession
 9 a l>ge city    co/s sev]al ?\s&      
doll>s4 ,to s5d a s+le circul>1 ) a     
"o-c5t /amp on ! envelope1 to e regi/]$ 
vot] 9 a city    ! size ( ,bo/on co/s = 
pr9t+1 /ation]y1 /amps1 & labor    ab\t 
#aj1jjj4 ,"s l>ge halls co/ #ejj p]     
night1 yet halls =    meet+s h to be    
hir$ night aft] night dur+ ! latt] "p ( 
! campaign4    ,footnote #ei3      ,9   
,l\isiana1 h[ev]1 ! c\nties are kn[n z  
p>i%es4    ,footnote #fj3      ,! l>ge/ 
c\nty 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ,san ,b]n>d9o
 c\nty1    ,cali=nia1 :i* cov]s m ?an   
#bjjj squ>e miles4 ,! smalle/ is        
,bri/ol c\nty1 ,r4 ,i41 ) ab\t #be squ>e
 miles4 ,cook c\nty1 :i*    includes    
,*icago1 has ! bigge/ population &      
,co*ran c\nty1    ,texas1 ) less ?an    
#ajj p1 has ! smalle/4    ,footnote #fa3
      ,9 "s /ates he is kn[n z ! di/rict
 attorney1 /ate's attorney1    or c\nty 
solicitor4    ,footnote #fb3      ,to   
discont9ue a prosecution ! prosecut+    

attorney files 9 c\rt a    /atem5t kn[n 
z a nolle prosequi1 indicat+ t he does n
    wi% to press ! case to trial4 ,! "r 
to d ?is gives !    (ficial a great deal
 ( p[]1 :i* has be5 9 "s cases abus$4   
,footnote #fc3      ,a de$ is a docum5t 
by :i* "o p]son conveys l& to ano!r4 ,x 
is ! duty ( ! pur*as] to make sure t 8  
de$ is valid &    t ! sell] has a good  
title to ! l& :i* he sells4 ,?is he    c
 asc]ta9 by exam9+ ! records 9 ! regi/ry
 ( de$s4 ,9    "s /ates a plan kn[n z ! 
,torr5s ,sy/em is 9 op]ation4    ,int5d+
 pur*as]s submit _! de$s to !           
regi/ration (ficial1    :o exam9es !m4  
,if he f9ds t ! title is good1 he       
regi/]s    ! de$ & !reaft] ! title may n
 be que/ion$4 ,:]e !    ,torr5s ,sy/em  
is n 9 op]ation a pur*as] c get 8 title 
insur$ by pay+ a premium to a title     
insurance company4    ,footnote #fd3    
,!re is a widespread impression t !     
gov]nm5t ( ! ,new    ,engl& t[ns1 be+ a 
close approa* to a direct democracy1 has
 be5    a great & consi/5t success4 ,^! 

t[ns h be5 pictur$ by "s    writ]s z    
little ,utopias1 free f /ate int]f]5ce1 
&    privileg$ to manage _! own affairs 
9 _! own way4 ,unhappily    ?is         
portrayal does n squ>e ) ! facts4 ,small
 agricultural    communities1 su* z !   
,new ,engl& t[ns us$ to be1 c manage    
_! local affairs satisfactorily "u almo/
 any =m (    gov]nm5t4 ,b :5 population 
gr[s1 & factories come 91 &    local    
activities are multipli$--!n ! problems 
( a t[n are ak9    to ^? ( a city & h to
 be h&l$ 9 ! same way4                  
,,*apt] ,x                              
,,city ,,gov]nm5t        ,! purpose (   
?is *apt] is to expla9 :o ! city        
au?orities      are & :at !y d4         
,sid5ote3 ,to be a city a place mu/ h a 
*>t]4    ,:at is a ,city8--,! poet ,c[p]
 once said t 8,god made ! c\ntry  & man 
made ! t[n01 a rem>k :i* 0 n int5d$ to  
flatt] !  cities4 ,nor is !re any reason
 :y life 9 a cr[d$ community %\ld       
p>ticul>ly appeal to poets al?\gh x may 
h a /rong fasc9ation  = m worldly-m9d$  

m54 ,a l>ge body ( p liv+ closely       
toge!r1 a place ( busy /reets & tall    
build+s1 a huge1 noisy1  jo/l+ ?rong--t 
is ! cu/om>y notion ( an ,am]ican city1 
& on  ! :ole x is n f> wide ( ! facts4  
,n all cities1 h[ev]1 are  big1 busy1 & 
conge/$4 ,9 ! entire ,unit$ ,/ates !re  
are today  ab\t a ?\s& places :i* call  
!mselves cities1 yet m ?an half  ( !m   
are places ( less ?an fifte5 ?\s& p4 ,9 
,massa*usetts no place c become a city  
until x has at lea/ t5  ?\s& p2 b 9     
,oklahoma ! figure is two ?\s& & 9      
,kansas only two hundr$4 ,a city may be 
any?+1 !re=e1 f a rural  hamlet ) only a
 few hundr$ p to a great metropolitan   
community  ) sev]al millions4 ,size or  
population are n ! ?+s t  det]m9e       
cityhood4 ,a place is a city if x has   
be5 s incorporat$ &  possesses a city   
*>t]4 ,s f> z its gov]nm5t is conc]n$1 x
  _c be call$ a city1 no matt] h[       
popul\s x may be1 unless x has  be5 giv5
 a *>t] by au?ority ( ! /ate4#fe ,9 !   
,we/ !  practice has be5 to grant su*   

*>t]s to relatively small places2 9  !  
,ea/ ! requirem5ts are m /rict4         
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,! ,,gr[? ,,( ,,am]ican ,,cities       
,! table & diagram on ! rev]se ( ?is    
page            w s]ve to make cle> !   
ph5om5al gr[? (            ,am]ican     
cities dur+ ! pa/ hundr$ & ?irty        
ye>s4 ,9 #ahbj only "o p]son 9 tw5ty    
liv$            9 cities & t[ns ( ov]   
#h1jjj population2            today n9e 
p]sons 9 e tw5ty live 9 ^!              
communities4 ,! population ( ! :ole     
c\ntry has            be5 gr[+ /eadily  
dur+ ! pa/ hundr$            ye>s2 b !  
cities h be5 increas+ ev5            m  
rapidly4 ,^! figures %\ld be /udi$ 9    
connection ) ! discussion on pages      
#ahd-ahf4                               
--,,population ,,9 ,,places ,,( #h1jjj  
,,inhabitants ,,or ,,m3                 
#agij-aibj4                             
,,places ,,( #h1jjj ,,inhabitants ,,or  
,,m4                                    

----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,,c5sus    ,total    ,population4 ,numb]
 ( ,p] c5t (          ,,ye>4            
,population4              places4       
total                                   
population4                 #aibj       
#aje1gaj1fbj  #df1cjg1fdj       #ibd    
#dc4h        #aiaj     #ia1igb1bef      
#ce1egj1ccd       #gfh        #ch4g     
#aijj     #ge1iid1ege  #be1jah1cce      
#edg        #cb4i        #ahij          
#fb1idg1gad  #ah1bdd1bci       #dde     
#bi4j        #ahhj     #ej1aee1ghc      
#aa1cfe1fih       #bhe        #bb4g     
#ahgj     #ch1eeh1cga   #h1jga1hge      
#bbf        #bj4i        #ahfj          
#ca1ddc1cba   #e1jgb1bef       #ada     
#af4a        #ahej     #bc1aia1hgf      
#b1hig1ehf        #he        #ab4e      
#ahdj     #ag1jfi1dec   #a1dec1iid      
#dd         #h4e        #ahcj           
#ab1hff1jbj     #hfd1eji        #bf     
#f4g        #ahbj      #i1fch1dec       
#dge1ace        #ac         #d4i        

#ahaj      #g1bci1hha     #cef1ibj      
#aa         #d4i        #ahjj           
#e1cjh1dhc     #baj1hgc         #f      
#d4j        #agij      #c1ibi1bad       
#aca1dgb         #f         #c4c        
,illu/ration3      ,,population ,,9     
,,places ,,( #h1jjj ,,inhabitants ,,or  
,,m ,,at    ,,ea* ,,c5sus3 #agij-aibj4  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,:y ,am]ican cities h gr[n s  
rapidly4    ,! ,ph5om5al ,gr[? (        
,cities4--,! rem>kable drift (          
population  into ! cities has already   
be5 po9t$ out4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/  /rik+  
social facts 9 ,am]ican hi/ory dur+ !   
pa/ hundr$  ye>s4#ff ,9 ! days :5 !     
national con/itution 0 fram$ !re  7 only
 eight or t5 places t c\ld be call$     
cities & ev5 ^!  71 ) "o or two         
exceptions1 no?+ b good-siz$ t[ns4 ,new 
,york1 ! l>ge/ ( !m1 _h a population (  
less ?an #ej1jjj2 x has  gr[n a         
hundr$-fold s9ce t "t4 ,9 ,wa%+ton's day
 no c\ntry _h  z _m z fifty cities & !  

l>ge/ city 9 ! _w1 ,london1 _h  less ?an
 a million p4 ,! cities c\nt$ = v little
 9 !  e>ly days ( ! ,republic2 !y !n    
conta9$ less ?an five p] c5t  ( !       
national population4 ,dur+ ! c\rse ( !  
n9ete5? c5tury1  h[ev]1 cities sprang   
into exi/5ce ev]y:]e2 a l>ge "p ( !     
immigration p\r$ into !m2 ! developm5t (
 indu/ry & comm]ce  built !m up2 & today
 ab\t half ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates  reside
 9 cities ( all sizes4 ,!re are n[ m    
cities 9 ,am]ica ?an  9 any o!r c\ntry &
 m l>ge cities4 ,we h twelve great c5t]s
  ) populations exce$+ half a           
million1#fg :ile ! entire ,briti%       
empire 7includ+ ,india1 ,canada1 &      
,au/ralia7 has only t52 ,g]many  has    
only f\r & ,france has only two4 ,at !  
pres5t rate ( progress  ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
9 #aiej w probably conta9 m l>ge cities 
?an  all ! re/ ( ! _w put toge!r4 ,!    
causes ( ?is rem>kable  gr[? h be5      
indicat$ else:]e & !re is no ne$ to     
repeat  !m4 ,factories1 railroads1 &    
/eam%ips h be5 ! great factors  9 ?is   

urban expansion4    ,sid5ote3 ,"s       
features ( city life3    ,effects (     
,city ,gr[? ^u ! ,national ,life4--,!   
gr[? ( l>ge  cities has _h pr(\nd       
effects ^u ,am]ican life & temp]am5t4 ,x
  has *ang$ ! :ole "* ( ! c\ntry1 its   
problems & its  habits ( m9d4 ,a c5tury 
ago ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 pr$om9antly an    
agricultural l&2 ! great majority ( ! p 
7 engag$ 9  e>n+ _! liv+ f ! soil4 ,!y  
_h ! same occupation &  common int]e/s4 
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,div]sity ( occupation4 ,b
 ) !  gr[? ( indu/ries 9 cities !       
occupations ( ! p h become  div]sifi$1 &
 no bond ( common vocation holds !      
population  toge!r4 ,! city-work] 9 !   
%ops & factories is employ$ at a        
specializ$ task :i* ! division ( labor  
assigns to him 7see pp4  #dd-df72 he    
develops exp]tness at ?is "o task &     
dep5ds ^u o!rs  = ev]y?+ else4 ,! f>m]  
supplies _m ( 8 own wants1 b !          
indu/rial work] dep5ds almo/ :olly ^u   
o!rs4 ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,!  abs5ce ( /rong  
home ties4 ,among ! rural population !re

 is a  l>ge prop]ty-own+ class1 m5 :o   
own _! f>ms & homes2 b 9  ! cities1     
p>ticul>ly 9 ! l>g] cities1 ! great     
majority ( !  p live 9 homes t are own$ 
by o!rs4 ,9 ,new ,york ,city sev5       
families out ( e eight live 9 r5t$ h\ses
 or ap>tm5ts2 9  ,bo/on f\r out ( e     
five4 ,?is t5ds to make ! population    
re/less2 ! p are con/antly mov+ ab\t f  
"o job to ano!r  & f "o home to ano!r2  
!y d n acquire a /rong atta*m5t to  any 
neighborhood1 z is ! case 9 rural       
di/ricts4 ,"o result ( ?is  is t p 9 !  
cr[d$ c5t]s "k little ab\t _! neighbors1
  & /range z x may seem1 ! cr[d$        
sections ( ! l>ge cities are  9 "s      
respects ! mo/ lonely places 9 ! _w4#fh 
,sid5ote3 #c4 ,! docility ( ! p4    ,!  
t5d5cy ( ! city population is to become 
absorb$ 9 its daily  "w1 to dep5d ^u !  
newspap]s = its op9ions & to display    
m>k$ docility 9 obey+ its lead]s4 ,! p (
 ! cities dep5d  ^u (ficial or          
pr(essional organizations = pretty ne>ly
  ev]y?+3 if disord] breaks out1 !y     

expect ! police to att5d to  x2 :5 !y   
want recreation1 !y expect ! city       
au?orities to  provide x 7by furni%+    
p>ks1 playgr\nds1 b& conc]ts1           
neighborhood dances1 & s on72 !         
functions ( ! home are l>gely  giv5 ov] 
to ! s*ool1 ! club1 & ! social          
organizations4 ,!  city is ?\ght to be  
radical2 b x is radical only 9 spots4   
,its  population z a :ole t5ds to be    
cons]vative 7see p4 #ajh1 footnote74    
,sid5ote3 #d4 ,a place ( extremes4    ,!
 city is a place :]e extremes meet4     
,great weal? & abject pov]ty  exi/ 9 !  
cities side by side2 9 ! rural di/ricts 
!re is a  clos] approa* to a common     
level4 ,! same is true if we comp>e city
  & c\ntry f ! /&po9t ( education1      
e>n+-p[]1 ob$i5ce  to law1 respect =    
gov]nm5t1 or any o!r social feature4 ,! 
city  runs to extremes2 x conta9s bo? ! 
highe/ erudition & ! mo/  utt]          
ignorance2 x has e>n]s ( enorm\s incomes
 & pl5ty ( p  :o c e>n no incomes at    
all2 x has reaction>ies 9 "o qu>t] &    

an>*i/s 9 ano!r--a /range social mosaic 
:5 y /udy x & v  mu* 9 contra/ ) ! g5]al
 uni=mity ( ! rural area4    ,sid5ote3  
#e4 ,a place ( lead]%ip4    ,nev]!less1 
along ne>ly all l9es ( activity ! cities
 lead !  nation4 ,to say t half ! p live
 9 cities does n tell !  :ole /ory4 ,!  
influ5ce :i* ?is half ex]ts is great]   
?an its  num]ical /r5g? implies4 ,!     
cities are ! headqu>t]s ( ^? :o  direct 
! great indu/ries1 ! transportation     
sy/ems1 & ! bank+  int]e/s ( ! c\ntry4  
,! newspap]s ( ! great cities influ5ce  
! m\ld+ ( public op9ion ! c\ntry ov]4 ,!
 political p[] (  ! cities1 _! influ5ce 
^u e phase ( public policy is v  great4 
,h5ce ! "* & ! _s ( ! cities w g f> to  
det]m9e ! national *>act]i/ics ( !      
future4    ,sid5ote3 ,! city *>t]4    ,!
 ,city & ! ,/ate4--,! inhabitants ( a   
city are a corporate body  ) c]ta9 legal
 rights & privileges4 ,^! rights are    
grant$ to  !m by ! /ate 9 _! city       
*>t]4#fi ,! *>t] is a docum5t  hav+ !   
=ce ( law2 x enum]ates ! p[]s ( ! city1 

tells  :at =m ( gov]nm5t ! inhabitants  
%all h1 & det]m9es !  duties ( ! v>i\s  
city (ficials4 ,9 ! l>g] cities x is a v
  long docum5t cov]+ a hundr$ pr9t$     
pages or m4    ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,! g5]al   
*>t] plan4    ,h[ are ^! *>t]s fram$ &  
"u :at arrangem5ts are !y  grant$ to    
cities8 ,?ree or f\r diff]5t plans are 9
 vogue4 ,9 "s  /ates ! legislature has  
pass$ a g5]al law relat+ to cities1 &   
_! *>t]s are all alike 9 accordance ) ! 
provisions ( ?is  law4 ,! difficulty )  
?is plan is t cities diff] greatly 9    
size  & 9 ! nature ( _! problems4 ,!    
*>t] t suits "o may n  fit ano!r4 ,a    
seaport city1 = example1 ne$s a h>bor   
commission )  p[] to lic5se pilots &    
regulate ! an*or+-places ( %ips2 b  x is
 absurd to require1 = ! sake ( uni=mity1
 t inl& cities  %all also h h>bor bo>ds4
 ,to r5d] ?is g5]al *>t] sy/em  m       
flexible1 !re=e1 "s /ates h adopt$ !    
exp$i5t (  divid+ cities1 accord+ to _! 
size1 into ?ree or f\r classes &  giv+ a
 uni=m *>t] to all cities 9 ! same      

class4#gj    ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,! special   
*>t] plan4    ,a m common me?od is to   
deal ) ea* city z a special case1 giv+  
x a *>t] by special act ( ! legislature1
 ! result ( ?is plan  be+ t no two      
cities ( ! /ate are gov]n$ 9 exactly !  
same  way4 ,! special *>t] sy/em has !  
m]it ( adapt+ ! =m (  gov]nm5t to !     
imm$iate ne$s ( ea* p>ticul> city2 b x  
places  a great burd5 ^u ! legislature1 
= :5ev] any city desires an  am5dm5t to 
its *>t] a special legislative act is   
necess>y4 ,!  sy/em also enc\rages !    
legislature to int]f]e 9 city affairs1  
mak+ *anges 9 city *>t]s on its own     
initiative )\t any  reque/ f ! citiz5s4 
,?is is p>ticul>ly objectionable because
 s  _m memb]s ( ! legislature come f    
rural di/ricts &  consequ5tly h little  
or no k ( ! city's problems4            
,sid5ote3 #c4 ,home rule *>t]s4         
,municipal ,home ,rule4--,9 ord] to     
dim9i% ?is int]f]5ce by !  legislature  
_m /ates h made provision = municipal   
home rule4  ,?is is a plan :]eby cities 

make _! own *>t]s j z /ates  frame _!   
own con/itutions4 ,! me?ods by :i* !y d 
?is v>y  some:at f /ate to /ate b       
ev]y:]e ! ma9 idea is ! same4  ,! vot]s 
( ! city elect a *>t] commission1 or    
bo>d (  freehold]s z x is sometimes     
call$4 ,?is m9iature con/itutional      
conv5tion1 made up ( p]haps fifte5 or   
tw5ty memb]s1 proce$s to  draw up !     
provisions ( a new city *>t]4 ,:5 _! "w 
is  f9i%$ !y submit x to ! p ( ! city at
 an election & if  ! p approve x1 ! *>t]
 goes into effect4 ,9 "s /ates  !re are 
c]ta9 =malities to be gone ?r\gh aft] ! 
p h  vot$1 b ! important ?+ is t ea*    
city obta9s1 soon] or  lat]1 :atev] sort
 ( *>t] its vot]s desire4 ,9 ?is way !  
city  becomes supreme 9 ! h&l+ ( its own
 local affairs4    ,sid5ote3            
,difficulties connect$ ) ! home rule    
sy/em4    ,b ! pr9ciple ( municipal home
 rule is subject to "s important        
practical limitations1 mo/ ( :i* c be   
indicat$ by ask+ !  "q 8,:at are local  
affairs80 ,:]e is ! l9e to be drawn     

betwe5 ?+s :i* conc]n only ! inhabitants
 ( ! city & ^?  :i* affect ! int]e/s ( !
 :ole /ate4 ,at fir/ glance x might     
seem z ?\gh ! c>e ( /reets1 ! ma9t5ance 
( police1 !  provision ( a wat]-supply  
sy/em1 & ! control ( education 7  matt]s
 ( local conc]n1 :i* ea* city ought to  
h&le z its  citiz5s deem be/4    ,b are 
any ( !m /rictly local 9 nature8 ,! ma9 
/reets ( !  city are art]ies ( traffic  
:i* l9k up ) ! /ate highways2 7  x n = !
 spe$-limit signs1 x w\ld be difficult  
to tell :]e  "o class ( /reets ends & ! 
o!r beg9s4 ,! city police en=ce  ! /ate 
laws & x is h>dly plausible to urge t ! 
/ate  legislature %all h no control ov] 
! en=cem5t ( its own  /atutes4 ,! "w ( !
 city police is n1 !re=e1 a matt] (     
/rictly local conc]n4 ,s x is ) heal?   
regulation1 wat] supply1  education1    
poor-relief1 & _m o!r municipal         
functions4 ,! /ate  _c all[ ! *ildr5 (  
any community to gr[ illit]ate2 x _c    
af=d to take ! risk ( an epidemic ?r\gh 
! defective c>e ( !  public heal? 9 "s  

neglig5t city2 & x _c fairly be expect$ 
to /& by idly :5 a city neglects ! sick 
or ! poor because its  taxpay]s wi% to  
save money4 ,municipal home rule1 if x 7
 p]mitt$  to cov] all ^! ?+s1 w\ld be   
ano!r "n = local *aos4 ,!  relations    
betwe5 a city & ! surr\nd+ c\ntry are s 
intimate1  & ea* dep5ds s mu* ^u ! o!r1 
t no rigid l9e (  sep>ation betwe5 local
 & g5]al int]e/s c be drawn4 ,to make  e
 city a little sov]eign republic1 wrapp$
 up 9 its own local  affairs & subject  
to no control f outside1 w\ld n promote 
!  common int]e/s ( ! :ole p4           
,sid5ote3 ,diff]5ce betwe5 ! !ory & !   
practice ( home rule4    ,municipal home
 rule means 9 practice1 !re=e1 t cities 
%all be  free to frame _! own *>t]s & to
 det]m9e = !mselves _!  =m ( municipal  
gov]nm5t provid$ !y d n infr+e ^u !     
g5]al laws ( ! /ate or detract f !      
au?ority ( ! /ate  (ficials4 ,?is is a v
 broad limitation & leaves ! city a     
comp>atively n>r[ field (               
self-det]m9ation4 ,nev]!less1 9 spite  (

 ?is limitation ! home rule sy/em has   
sub/antial advantages4 ,x  relieves !   
legislature f hav+ to d ) a multitude ( 
local  matt]s at e session2 x helps to  
sep>ate municipal f /ate  politics2 & x 
enc\rages ! p ( ! city to take an active
  int]e/ 9 ! mak+ ( _! own *>t]s4#ga    
,sid5ote3 ,! old] =m ( municipal        
organization4    ,! ,organization (     
,city ,gov]nm5t4--,tw5ty-five ye>s ago !
 g5]al  plan ( city gov]nm5t1 z e/abli%$
 by ^! *>t]s1 0 fairly  uni=m ?r\gh\t ! 
c\ntry4 ,*>t]s 7 grant$ 9 diff]5t ways2 
_! provisions v>i$ 9 _m details2 b ! ma9
 framework ( city  gov]nm5t :i* !y set  
up _h ev]y:]e ! same g5]al features4    
,?is 0 ! mayor-&-c\ncil type ( gov]nm5t1
 its *ief feature  be+ a division ( p[]s
 betwe5 ! mayor1 :o p]=m$ executive     
functions1 & ! c\ncil1 :i* s]v$ z a     
municipal legislature4 ,9  o!r words !  
cities 7 gov]n$ on ! same pr9ciple z !  
nation  & ! /ates4 ,ev5 today mo/ ( !   
l>g] cities reta9 ?is plan4    ,sid5ote3
 ,! new] =ms4    ,dur+ ! op5+ ye>s ( !  

tw5tie? c5tury1 h[ev]1 a new plan  (    
city gov]nm5t came to ! front & spread )
 great rapidity  ?r\gh _m sections ( !  
c\ntry4 ,?is is kn[n z ! commission     
sy/em ( gov]nm5t4 ,in/ead ( divid+ p[]s 
betwe5 a mayor &  c\ncil x comb9es !m   
all 9 ! h&s ( a small elective bo>d4    
,?is plan ( gov]nm5t n[ prevails 9      
sev]al hundr$ ,am]ican cities1  b mo/ ( 
!m are small places4    ,out ( !        
commission plan has gr[n a ?ird s*eme ( 
city gov]nm5t  dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s4 ,?is
 is call$ ! city manag] plan4 ,x  gives 
to an elective commission or small      
c\ncil ! g5]al sup]vision  ( city       
affairs1 b entru/s to a pr(essional     
adm9i/rator1 or city  manag]1 ! imm$iate
 *>ge ( ! actual "w4    ,let u look at  
^! ?ree types ( city gov]nm5t a little m
  closely4    ,! ,mayor-&-,c\ncil       
,plan4--,among ! fifty l>ge/ cities ( ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 ! mayor-&-c\ncil sy/em ( 
gov]nm5t exi/s 9 all  b twelve4 ,despite
 ! spread ( ! o!r two plans1 !re=e1 x is
  /ill ! prevail+ type ( gov]nm5t 9 ! m 

important  communities4 ,sid5ote3       
,position & p[]s ( ! mayor4 ,! mayor1   
"u ?is sy/em1 is ! city's *ief (ficial4 
,he is elect$ by !  p1 usually = a      
two-ye> or f\r-ye> t]m1 & ! election    
campaign is 9 mo/ cities conduct$ on a  
p>ty basis4 ,occasionally m5  ( high    
ability h s]v$ z mayors 9 v>i\s cities1 
b f> m  frequ5tly ! position has gone to
 active politicians :o c be reli$  ^u to
 use ! p[]s & patronage ( ! (fice 9     
promot+ !  int]e/s ( ! p>ty4#gb ,!      
au?ority ( ! mayor is 9 g5]al  l t      
ex]cis$ by ! gov]nor 9 /ate affairs4 ,he
 makes  appo9tm5ts 7:i* 9 "s cases      
require confirmation by ! c\ncil72  & he
 may veto ord9ances or resolutions pass$
 by ! c\ncil4 ,9 "s  cities he has !    
exclusive "r to propose exp5ditures & 9 
"s  o!rs 8 ass5t is necess>y 9 all      
municipal contracts4 ,he repres5ts  !   
city on all occasions ( c]emony & is !  
8fir/ citiz50 ( !  community4 ,city     
*>t]s usually provide t ! mayor %all be 
responsible = ! g5]al obs]vance ( ! laws

 & ! ma9t5ance  ( ord]4 ,9 a few cities 
he presides at meet+s ( ! c\ncil b =  ! 
mo/ "p he does n h ?is duty4 ,:5 he     
desires to address !  c\ncil he does s  
by message or writt5 communication4     
,sid5ote3 ,! city's adm9i/rative        
(ficials4    ,! ,heads ( ,dep>tm5ts4--,x
 is impossible1 ( c\rse1 = any "o       
(ficial to manage directly all bran*es (
 city adm9i/ration2 h5ce  ! mayor is    
assi/$ 9 ?is "w by v>i\s (ficials &     
bo>ds1 su*  z ! sup]9t5d5t ( /reets1 !  
head ( ! police dep>tm5t1 !  wat] bo>d1 
& ! bo>d ( heal?4 ,sid5ote3             
,commission]s vs4  bo>ds4 ,9 ! l>g]     
cities ! t5d5cy n[ is to put ea*        
dep>tm5t  ( adm9i/ration 9 *>ge ( a s+le
 commission] r ?an a bo>d  because !    
memb]s ( a bo>d are too prone to        
disagree among  !mselves & delay        
bus9ess4 ,9 ! small] cities ! bo>d sy/em
 is  /ill widely us$1 p>tly because x is
 less exp5sive4 ,:5 a s+le  (ficial is  
giv5 *>ge ( a dep>tm5t 7su* z police1   
fire  protection1 or /reets7 he mu/     

devote 8 :ole "t to x & h5ce  has to be 
paid a good sal>y2 b memb]s ( a bo>d c  
divide ! "w  among !mselves1 ea* giv+   
only "p-"t to x1 & s]v+ )\t  any pay4 ,x
 is que/ionable1 h[ev]1 if ?is policy   
means any sav+ 9  ! long run4 ,:5 a city
 atta9s a population ( tw5ty1 ?irty1 or 
=ty ?\s& its adm9i/rative "w gr[s to a  
po9t :]e x  requires close & skill$     
att5tion 9 ord] to prev5t extravagance  
& wa/e4    ,9 behalf ( ! bo>d sy/em x is
 sometimes argu$ t x gives  political   
p>ties a *ance to be repres5t$1 :]eas a 
s+le (ficial  repres5ts ! controll+ p>ty
 only4 ,b !re is no good reason :y      
dep>tm5ts :i* h purely bus9ess functions
 to p]=m %\ld be  influ5c$ by p>ty      
consid]ations at all4 ,! bo>d sy/em has 
"s  di/9ct advantages :5 appli$ to su*  
dep>tm5ts z s*ools1 public  libr>ies1   
poor-relief1 or city plann+1 :]e        
discussion &  delib]ation are desirable2
 b x does n "w well 9 su*  dep>tm5ts z  
police1 fire protection1 & /reets1 = ^! 
are  bran*es ( "w :i* dem& quick        

decisions & firm action4 ,!re is  no m  
reason = plac+ a bo>d 9 *>ge ( ! city's 
police ?an  = putt+ a bo>d ( g5]als 9   
comm& ( an army4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[       
organiz$4    ,! ,city ,c\ncil4--,! city 
c\ncil a g5]ation ago 0 usually made  up
 ( two bran*es2 today x is almo/ ev]y:]e
 compos$ ( "o  *amb] only4 ,a s+le *amb]
 is q en\gh = all t ! c\ncil  n[ has to 
d4 ,sid5ote3 ,election by w>ds &        
election at l>ge4 ,its  memb]s are      
elect$1 sometimes by w>ds1 sometimes at 
l>ge4 ,!  objection to ! w>d sy/em is t 
x enc\rages ! election (  inf]ior m5 &  
inspires !m1 :5 elect$1 to /rive = !    
int]e/s ( _! own p>ticul> w>ds r ?an = !
 welf>e (  ! city z a :ole4 ,:5 c\ncilm5
 are elect$ at l>ge1 on ! o!r  h&1 !    
dom9ant political p>ty is likely to     
elect its entire slate  & control ! :ole
 c\ncil1 ?us all[+ ! m9ority no         
repres5tation at all4 ,9 "s cities an   
endeavor has be5 made to meet  ^!       
objections by hav+ ! c\ncil *os5 9 "p "u
 ea* plan1  "s c\ncilm5 f w>ds & "s at  

l>ge4#gc    ,sid5ote3 ,its p[]s4    ,!  
c\ncil enacts ! local laws or ord9ances 
& appropriates  :atev] money is ne$$ to 
c>ry on ! city's affairs4 ,no           
exp5ditures  c be made )\t its approval 
& its cons5t is almo/ always ne$$  be=e 
municipal debts c be incurr$4 ,its      
au?ority 0 l>ge 9  e>li] days :5 x      
controll$ ?r\gh its committees !        
managem5t (  ! v>i\s city dep>tm5ts2 b )
 ! /eady gr[? ( ! mayor's  au?ority !   
p[]s ( ! c\ncil h be5 dim9i%$4 ,x is a  
legislative body1 & 9 city gov]nm5t !re 
is relatively little  legislative "w to 
be done4 ,! /ate laws cov] almo/ ev]y?+ 
(  importance4    ,sid5ote3 ,defects ( !
 mayor-&-c\ncil plan4    ,! *ief defect 
( ! mayor-&-c\ncil plan is its          
unwield9ess4  ,!re are too _m sep>ate   
au?orities4 ,p[] & responsibility are   
scatt]$ into too _m h&s4 ,:5 ?+s g wrong
 ! c\ncil blames  ! mayor2 ! mayor      
blames ! c\ncil2 ! vot]s d n "k :o is   
at fault4 ,"t is wa/$ & money is missp5t
 because indep5d5t  au?orities fail to  

agree4 ,! political bosses take         
advantage ( ?is  situation to ga9 _! own
 ends by help+ "o side or ! o!r4 ,!     
citiz5 :o tries to f9d out ! real facts 
has a h>d "t ( x4 ,x  is l ?read+ 8 way 
?r\gh a jungle4 ,:5 he has a compla9t to
  make he is (t5 ref]r$ f "o (ficial to 
ano!r until he loses  pati5ce4 ,9 !     
l>ge/ cities ! mayor-&-c\ncil plan does 
n  op]ate s badly1 because ! me?ods (   
conduct+ bus9ess are m  def9itely       
prescrib$ & ! mayor is giv5 s mu* p[] t 
he  _c well evade ! responsibility4 ,x  
is 9 ! small] communities  t ?is plan ( 
gov]nm5t obta9s ! lea/ satisfactory     
results4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ commission    
gov]nm5t began4    ,! ,commission       
,plan4--,tw5ty-five ye>s ago x seem$    
impossible to  secure any sub/antial    
improvem5t 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ,am]ican  
cities4 ,=eign obs]v]s spoke ( city     
gov]nm5t z a 8conspicu\s  failure01 &   
!re 0 a good deal ( basis = t /atem5t4  
,p  realiz$ t city gov]nm5t _h become   
cumbr\s & top-heavy4 ,!y  saw t ! sy/em 

( *ecks & balances1 :atev] its m]its 9  
/ate  & national gov]nm5t1 0 n work+    
well 9 ! cities4 ,yet !y  _h gr[n s     
accu/om$ to ! complicat$ network (      
(ficials1 bo>ds1  & c\ncils t !y        
hesitat$ to sweep ! :ole ?+ away 9 ord] 
to put "s simple =m ( gov]nm5t 9 its    
place4 ,s ?+s drift$  along until #aija1
 :5 ! city ( ,galve/on1 driv5 to h]oic  
measures  z ! result ( a cata/rophe1    
in/all$ an entirely new s*eme (         
gov]nm5t kn[n z ! commission plan4#gd ,!
 success ( ?is  exp]im5t 0 s m>k$ t o!r 
cities became int]e/$ &  foll[$         
,galve/on's example1 until today !      
commission plan has be5  e/abli%$ 9     
ne>ly f\r hundr$ municipalities1 scatt]$
 all ov]  ! c\ntry4#ge                  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,! ,,commission ,,plan              ,! 
way 9 :i* ! v>i\s bran*es ( municipal   
adm9i/ration are apportion$ among memb]s
 (            ! city commission is %[n  
by ! diagram on !            o!r side ( 

?is page4 ,! f9al adm9i/rative          
au?ority1 h[ev]1 is n ve/$ ) ^!         
commission]s 7or c\ncilm5 z !y are      
sometimes            call$74 ,x re/s ) !
 commission or c\ncil            z a    
body4 ,all ! l9es ( adm9i/rative        
responsibility conv]ge inw>d1 :i* is :at
 !y            ought to d 9 any         
well-organiz$ gov]nm5t4                 
,above ! commission or c\ncil /&s !     
electorate1 ! :ole body ( vot]s1 :i* c  
ex]cise ultimate control ov] ! :ole city
            gov]nm5t by means ( !       
initiative1 ref]5dum1            &      
recall4    ,illu/ration                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,:at ! plan involves4    ,!   
commission plan is simplicity itself4 ,!
 p elect a bo>d or  commission ( five   
memb]s4 ,?is commission has entire      
control ( !  city gov]nm5t 9 all its    
bran*es ) ! exception ( s*ools1 :i*  are
 usually left 9 *>ge ( a s*ool bo>d4 ,!y
 pass ! ord9ances1  vote appropriations1

 make appo9tm5ts1 & aw>d contracts4 ,=  
purposes ( actual managem5t ! city's    
adm9i/rative "w is divid$  into five    
g5]al dep>tm5ts 7public works1 public   
welf>e1 public  f9ance1 public safety1 &
 public heal?1 or "s o!r su* division7  
& "o ( ! commission]s takes imm$iate    
*>ge ( ea*4 ,! f9al  au?ority 9 all     
matt]s1 h[ev]1 rema9s ) ! commission z a
  :ole4    ,sid5ote3 ,advantages ( !    
commission sy/em4    ,its ,m]its &      
,defects4--,! out/&+ feature ( ?is s*eme
 is t  x lodges all p[] & responsibility
 9 "o place4 ,!re is no  division (     
au?ority1 no *ecks & balances1 no       
complicat$ network (  (ficials1 bo>ds1  
c\ncils1 & committees4 ,! commission    
meets e  day2 does its bus9ess publicly2
 takes full responsibility = its        
actions1 & :5 x makes decisions sees t  
!y are promptly c>ri$  out4 ,! plan is s
 simple t any citiz5 c und]/& x4 ,x is  
truly democratic 9 t ! vot]s are enabl$ 
to en=ce  responsibility :5 taxes are   
too heavy or public funds are wa/$4 ,!  

commission plan t5ds to br+ bett] m5    
into (fice & af=ds !m  great]           
opportunities = ! ex]cise ( _!          
abilities4    ,sid5ote3 ,reput$ defects 
( commission gov]nm5t4    ,! objection  
is made t ! commission plan1 by giv+ s  
mu*  au?ority to a few m51 may prove to 
be dang]\s & result 9  e/abli%+ an      
olig>*y4 ,b ! commission]s1 l mayors &  
c\ncils1 are *os5 by ! p & _c rema9 long
 9 (fice  unless ! p re-elect !m4       
,moreov]1 mo/ cities t use !  commission
 plan h e/abli%$ ! initiative1 ref]5dum1
 & recall  7see p4 #ajg7 z additional   
safegu>ds4    ,& s x is ) ! compla9t t a
 commission ( five memb]s is n  l>ge    
en\gh to be repres5tative ( all classes 
among ! p4 ,good  repres5tation is n    
m]ely a matt] ( numb]s4 ,l>ge bodies1 9 
fact1  c be easily h&l$ by bosses4      
,congress ) m ?an five hundr$  memb]s   
has sometimes fail$ to reflect public   
op9ion2 ! ,presid5t on  occasions has   
done ?is mu* bett]4 ,five m5 c f9d out  
:at !  p want j z well z fifty1 & !y are

 m likely to try4  ,q z mu* to !        
po9t--!y are 9 a bett] position to c>ry 
out  ! p's wi%es :5 ! "t comes4         
,sid5ote3 ,! mo/ s]i\s fault4    ,!re is
 "o s]i\s defect 9 ! commission plan1   
h[ev]1 & x is  ?is3 ,! control ( ! v>i\s
 city dep>tm5ts is n br\ght to a  s+le  
c5t] b is p>cel$ out into five sep>ate  
h&s4 ,ea*  commission] looks aft] a     
c]ta9 portion ( ! city's bus9ess2 no  "o
 is supreme ov] !m all4 ,! commission z 
a :ole is supreme1 x  is true1 b x mu/  
tru/ its own individual memb]s to h&le  
_!  own bran*es ( "w4 ,9 o!r words1 !   
commission plan e/abli%es a  five-head$ 
executive2 x leaves room = disagreem5ts 
among !  commission]s on a              
?ree-aga9/-two basis1 & does n make "s  
"o  man responsible = gett+ a doll>'s   
wor? ( value = e hundr$  c5ts exp5d$4   
,divid+ ! responsibility among five m5  
is bett]1 (  c\rse1 ?an divid+ x among  
fifty or sixty1 z ! mayor-&-c\ncil  plan
 does2 b putt+ x all ^u ! %\ld]s ( "o   
man is m  effective /ill4               

----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,! ,,city-,,manag] ,,plan              
,! diagram :i* is pr9t$ on ! rev]se (   
?is page w make cle> ! analogy betwe5 ! 
organization ( a bus9ess corporation & t
 ( a            city 9 :i* ! city-manag]
 plan ( gov]nm5t is            foll[$4  
,! p ( ! city correspond to !           
/ockhold]s ( ! corporation 9 t !y       
possess            ! ultimate p[]4 ,?is 
p[] is ex]cis$ 9 !            "o case   
?r\gh a bo>d ( directors1 9 ! o!r       
?r\gh a c\ncil or commission4           
,adm9i/rative            au?ority1      
h[ev]1 9 bo? cases devolves ^u a        
manag]1 :o1 9 turn1 appo9ts & removes 8 
subord9ates4 ,all ! activities (        
corporate            bus9ess & (        
city-manag] gov]nm5t are l9k$           
toge!r or correlat$ at a s+le           
adm9i/rative            c5t]4           
,?is diagram %\ld be /udi$ 9 connection 
)            ! discussion on pages      
#bjc-bjf4                               

,a ,,comp>ison         ,,! ,,factory    
,,! ,,city        ,,/ockhold]s          
,,p         ,vote                       
,initiative1 ,ref]5dum1                 
,recall1 ,prote/         ,,directors    
_/   ,,commission]s                     
--,popul> control--          ,,g5]al    
----,c5traliz$ au?ority----   ,,city    
,,manag]                                
,,manag]          ,appo9ts              
,appo9ts     & dis*>ges  ,correlat$     
activities  & dis*>ges    ,dep>tm5t     
heads        ----           ,dep>tm5t   
heads                           _/      
,,eng9e]+                               
,,law         ,,mak+                    
,,public ,,s]vices           ,,record+  
,,public ,,welf>e             ,,sell+   
,,public ,,safety                       
,,welf>e                   ,,f9ance     
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,position & p[]s ( ! manag]4  
,! ,city-,manag] ,plan4--,9 keep+ ) !   
pr9ciple1 !re=e1 t  "s "o (ficial ought 

to h direct *>ge ( ! city's             
adm9i/rative "w1 ! city-manag] plan has 
be5 devis$4 ,"u ?is  plan ! commission  
7or a small elective c\ncil7 cont9ues 9 
full  control1 b its memb]s d n divide !
 v>i\s functions among  !mselves4       
,in/ead !y appo9t a well-paid1 exp]t    
(ficial to act z  g5]al manag] & he     
takes *>ge ( all ! city dep>tm5ts4 ,!   
city adm9i/ration1 "u ?is arrangem5t1 is
 conduct$ l t (  any ord9>y bus9ess     
corporation4 ,! commission or c\ncil    
s]ves z a  bo>d ( directors2 ! city     
manag] becomes1 z x 71 a g5]al          
sup]9t5d5t4#gf ,9 select+ its manag] a  
city (t5 goes outside  its own limits2  
usually x *ooses a man :o is an eng9e]  
by  pr(ession because s mu* ( ! "w is ( 
a te*nical nature4 ,:5  ! manag] is     
appo9t$ he plans ! "w to be done1       
e/imates !  co/1 aw>ds ! contracts1     
pur*ases ! mat]ials1 & hires !  labor4  
,! city-manag] plan has be5 adopt$ by m 
?an a hundr$  cities1 b only a few are  
l>ge communities4#gg    ,sid5ote3 ,m]its

 ( ! plan4    ,?is s*eme ( city gov]nm5t
 has all ! advantages ( ! commission    
plan & "s ( its defects4 ,! detail$ "w  
falls on ! city  manag] :o is qualifi$  
to d x4 ,!re is a s+le1 responsible head
  ( ! adm9i/ration4 ,:5 a citiz5 has any
 compla9t to make1 he  kn[s exactly :]e 
to g4 ,9 all ^! respects x is an ideal  
arrangem5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,two practical    
que/ions4 ,b !re are two  practical     
que/ions connect$ ) ! plan :i* only !   
future c  answ]4 ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,w !     
cities pay adequate sal>ies8 ,9 !  fir/ 
place w cities be will+ to pay ! high   
sal>ies :i* !y  mu/ pay 9 ord] to obta9 
! s]vices ( ?or\ghly compet5t  manag]s8 
,m5 :o are capable ( h&l+ ! affairs ( a 
great  corporation1 :i* a city is1 _c be
 secur$ )\t pay+ !m !  m>ket price = _! 
skill & exp]i5ce4 ,private corporations 
pay  high sal>ies to _! g5]al manag]s1 &
 ! cities1 if !y want  ! "r m51 mu/ d   
likewise4 ,b public op9ion 9 mo/        
,am]ican  cities is incl9$ to balk at   
high sal>ies4 ,p :o h to "w  h>d = _!   

own liv+ d n see :y anyone %\ld get a   
sal>y (  eight or t5 ?\s& doll>s a ye> f
 ! city1 & p>ticul>ly  !y d n see :y su*
 a l>ge sal>y %\ld g to an outsid]4 ,9  
consequ5ce _m cities are /riv+ to get   
good manag]s at l[  sal>ies1 :i* is a v 
difficult if n an impossible ?+ to d4   
,! s5tim5t :i* /rongly favors appo9t+ a 
8local man0 z city  manag] is also      
likely to "w h>mfully4 ,local appo9tm5ts
 9 ! long  run are almo/ c]ta9 to be    
influ5c$ by local politics4    ,sid5ote3
 #b4 ,is ! plan applicable to v l>ge    
cities8    ,a second limitation conc]ns 
! applicability ( ! city-manag] plan  to
 v l>ge communities4 ,a compet5t (ficial
 c take *>ge ( !  entire adm9i/ration 9 
a place ( fifty or "o hundr$ ?\s&  p4 ,b
 h[ ab\t a city ( a million8 ,w\ld !    
task be too big8  ,?is is a "q :i* _c   
yet be answ]$1 because no v l>ge  city  
has yet tri$ ! plan4 ,x is po9t$ out t  
giant bus9ess  ent]prises1 ) op]ations  
ext5d+ into _m c\ntries1 are  sometimes 
manag$ by "o capable man :o ensures     

success by a c>eful  selection ( 8      
subord9ates4 ,until ! exp]im5t is made  
we are n  safe 9 assum+ t ! city-manag] 
s*eme c be advantage\sly  adopt$ by all 
communities ( :atev] size4    ,! ,future
 ( ,city ,gov]nm5t4--,:at ! f9al        
solution ( ! problem  w be we _c yet    
tell4 ,! new plans ( city gov]nm5t :i* h
  be5 describ$ 9 ! =ego+ pages may be   
m]ely a prelude to  some?+ /ill new]4 ,b
 at any rate ! cities are mak+ headway4 
,!y are simplify+ _! gov]nm5ts1 mak+ !m 
m responsive to  public op9ion & bett]  
fitt$ to d ! "w :i* has to be done4     
,am]ican city gov]nm5t is no long] a    
conspicu\s failure4  ,misgov]nm5t & wa/e
 h n :olly or ev5 l>gely disappe>$1 x   
is true2 b conditions are f> bett] today
 ?an !y 7 tw5ty-five  ye>s ago4 ,! p h  
awak5$2 !y are no long] misl$ by        
promises & excuses b are insi/+ ^u kn[+ 
! facts4 ,!  crook$ me?ods ( a g5]ation 
ago w\ld n be tol]at$ today4 ,!  pres5t 
task is to hold :at we h ?us ga9$ & add 
to x4 ,t is  a duty :i* belongs to e    

citiz5 :atev] 8 age1 occupation1 or     
p>ty allegiance4 ,! _w is becom+ a _w ( 
cities1 & he :o  helps to make 8 home   
city a bett] place is p]=m+ "o ( !      
highe/ duties ( patriotism4             
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,f4 ,j4 ,,goodn[ &  
,f4 ,g4 ,,bates1 ,municipal ,gov]nm5t1  
pp4 #c-dc2    ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,!       
,gov]nm5t ( ,am]ican ,cities1 pp4       
#hj-aja2    ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican    
,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4 #egh-fjb2    
,ibid41  ,read+s 9 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & 
,politics1 pp4 #eji-ecd2    ,h4 ,g4     
,,james1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates1 pp4 #cjj-ceg2    ,t4 ,s4 ,,*ang1
 ,hi/ory & ,analysis ( ! ,commission &  
,city ,manag]  ,plans ( ,municipal      
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ge-if2    ,,h5ry        
,,bru,,re1 ,! ,new ,city ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 
#aga-bjd2    ,,am]ican ,,academy ,,(    
,,political ,,& ,,social ,,sci5ce1      
,commission ,gov]nm5t  & ! ,city-,manag]
 ,plans1 revis$ edition1 pp4 #di-gg2    
,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,/ate & ,municipal  
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cde-dec4                

,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! *>t] ( y\r own
 city 7or "s ne>by city74 ,/udy ! ma9   
types ( city *>t]4 ,exam9e ! proc$ure by
 :i* y\r city *>t]  0 adopt$2 make a    
summ>y ( its *ief provisions2 comp>e ^! 
)  ! ma9 provisions 9 ! *>t] ( "s o!r   
comp>able city2 po9t  out :at seem to be
 ! *ief m]its & defects2 /ate y\r       
conclusions  z to desirable *anges1 &   
expla9 h[ ^! may be secur$4  ,ref]5ces3 
,,na?an ,,mat!ws1 ,municipal ,*>t]s1 pp4
 #ig-afc2 ,h4 ,g4  ,,james1 ,appli$     
,city ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ci-ec2 ,h4 ,a4    
,,t\lm91 ,! ,city  ,manag]1 pp4         
#agj-aic2 ,,national ,,municipal        
,,league1 ,municipal ,program  7ed4 ,c4 
,r4 ,woodruff71 passim4 7,copies ( !    
city *>t] c always  be f\nd 9 ! public  
libr>y & 9 all b ! l>g] cities may      
usually be _h f ! (fice ( ! city cl]k47 
#b4 ,! city-manag] plan3 :at are its    
m]its & its limitations8  ,ref]5ces3 ,h4
 ,a4 ,,t\lm91 ,! ,city ,manag]1 pp4     
#gc-ig2 ,c4 ,e4  ,,rightor1 ,! ,city    
,manag] 9 ,dayton1 pp4 #ca-ef2 ,e4 ,c4  

,,mabie1 ,select$  ,articles on ! ,city 
,manag] ,plan ( ,municipal ,gov]nm5t1   
passim  7,debat]s' ,h&book s]ies72 ,t4  
,s4 ,,*ang1 ,hi/ory & ,analysis ( !     
,commission & ,city ,manag] ,plans (    
,municipal ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #aeh-bbj2     
,,national ,,municipal ,,league1 ,!     
,/ory ( ! ,city ,manag] ,plan           
7pamphlet72 ,! ,ye> ,book ( ! ,city     
,manag]s' ,association & !  ,national   
,municipal ,review also conta9 rec5t    
mat]ial4                                
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,*>act]i/ics ( city
 populations4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,!       
,gov]nm5t  ( ,am]ican ,cities1 pp4      
#bi-eb4    #b4 ,! city & ! /ate4 ,c4 ,a4
 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican ,city ,gov]nm5t1  pp4 
#ca-ea4    #c4 ,! city *>t]4 ,h4 ,g4    
,,james1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates1 pp4 #cjd-caa4    #d4 ,! position
 & p[]s ( ! mayor4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,!  
,gov]nm5t  ( ,am]ican ,cities1 pp4      
#bjg-bcg2 ,r4 ,m4 ,,/ory1 ,! ,am]ican   
,municipal  ,executive1 passim4    #e4  
,! mayor z a human be+4 ,,br& ,,:itlock1

 ,=ty ,ye>s ( ,x1  especially pp4       
#bje-bcf4    #f4 ,! mo/ /rik+ mayor ( 8 
day4 ,,tom ,l4 ,,johnson1 ,my ,/ory1 pp4
  #ajh-adc2 ,,c>l ,,lor5z1 ,tom ,l4     
,johnson1 pp4 #ba-ff4    #g4 ,! city    
c\ncil4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,goodn[ & ,f4 ,g4      
,,bates1 ,municipal  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4     
#agi-bbi4    #h4 ,p>ties & politics 9   
city gov]nm5t4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,!      
,gov]nm5t ( ,am]ican ,cities1 pp4       
#aec-agi4    #i4 ,! selection & tra9+ ( 
city adm9i/rators4 ,,h5ry ,,bru,,re1  ,!
 ,new ,city ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cce-cfa4    
#aj4 ,h[ our cities h improv$ dur+ ! pa/
 tw5ty ye>s4 ,w4 ,b4  ,,munro1          
,pr9ciples & ,me?ods ( ,municipal       
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #a-bi4               
,que/ions    #a4 ,if y comp>e a city (  
#ajj1jjj p ) a rural di/rict ( !  same  
population1 :i* w\ld h 7a7 ! l>g] income
 p] capita2  7b7 ! l>g] proportion (    
prop]ty own]s2 7c7 ! great] numb]  (    
illit]ates2 7d7 ! great] numb] (        
crim9als8 ,give reasons =  y\r answ] 9  
ea* case4    #b4 ,comp>e a city *>t] ) a

 /ate con/itution1 po9t+ out  :]e9 !y   
are simil> & :]e9 !y are diff]5t4    #c4
 ,"n "s bran*es ( adm9i/ration :i* y ?9k
 ought to be  :olly "u ! jurisdiction ( 
! city & free f /ate  int]f]5ce4    #d4 
,:i* d y ?9k is ! bett]1 municipal home 
rule or ! optional  *>t] plan8 ,:y d y  
?9k s8    #e4 ,9 mayor-&-c\ncil cities  
:at are ! pr9cipal p[]s & duties  ( !   
mayor8 ,:at are ! *ief functions ( !    
city c\ncil8    #f4 ,/ate :i* ( ! foll[+
 (ficials ought to be appo9t$ by !      
mayor & :i* ( !m elect$ by ! p1 giv+ y\r
 reasons 9  ea* case3 sup]9t5d5t (      
/reets1 *ief or commission] ( police1   
head ( ! fire dep>tm5t1 city treasur]1  
ov]se]s ( ! poor1  memb]s ( ! s*ool     
bo>d1 public libr>y tru/ees4    #g4 8,a 
city's affairs are ( ! nature ( bus9ess1
 n ( gov]nm5t40  ,is ?is /atem5t        
absolutely correct8 ,:y or :y n8    #h4 
8,! commission plan embodi$ bo? a prote/
 & a policy40 ,aga9/  :at 0 x a prote/8 
,to :at ext5t does x avoid ! defects ( !
  mayor-&-c\ncil plan8    #i4 ,:at are !

 practical difficulties connect$ ) !    
city-manag]  plan8 ,d y believe t       
pref]5ce %\ld be giv5 to a 8local man0 9
  *oos+ ! manag]8 ,! sal>y ( ! mayor 9 a
 m$ium-siz$ city is  usually n m ?an    
#ejjj4 ,%\ld a city manag] be paid m8   
#aj4 ,expla9 :at tra9+ & p]sonal        
qualities a city manag] ought to  h4    
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! head ( !    
police dep>tm5t 9 l>ge cities 7ov]      
#ajj1jjj  population7 %\ld be appo9t$ by
 ! gov]nor4    #b4 ,! city-manag] plan  
is bett] ?an ! mayor-&-c\ncil or        
commission =m ( gov]nm5t = cities "u    
#ajj1jjj population4    #c4 ,home rule  
%\ld be grant$ to cities 9 e /ate4      
#d4 ,! memb]s ( ! city c\ncil %\ld be   
*os5 f ! city at  l>ge r ?an f w>ds4    
,,*apt] ,,xi                            
,,municipal ,,problems ,,( ,,today      
,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to po9t out "s
 ( ! difficult      ?+s :i* our cities h
 to d & to discuss ! v>i\s ways      (  
do+ !m4      ,sid5ote3 ,! city's annual 
report4    ,gov]nm5t or ,bus9ess3 ,:i*  

is x8--,at ! close ( ea* ye> !  city    
au?orities issue a pr9t$ volume1 its    
pages well pack$ )  figures ( all sorts 
& int]sp]s$ ) a good deal ( v dry  read+
 matt]4 ,?is is call$ ! annual report2 x
 conta9s a  /atem5t ( rev5ues &         
exp5ditures compil$ by ! auditor1 a     
summ>y ( :at ea* dep>tm5t has done dur+ 
! ye>1 & a great  _m o!r facts ab\t ! "w
 ( ! city (ficials4 ,v few p  ev] read  
^! annual reports1 & n _m w\ld und]/& !m
 if  !y did4 ,b any ?\ghtful man or     
woman :o takes ! tr\ble to look  ?r\gh  
"o ( ^! publications f cov] to cov] w\ld
 be tempt$  to ask ! "q3 ,:y d !y call  
su* ?+s gov]nm5t8 ,!y are  n gov]nm5t 9 
any s5se1 no?+ b bus9ess4 ,"h is an     
acc\nt  ( h[ /reets h be5 pav$1 wat]    
purifi$ & di/ribut$ to !  p1 s*ool      
build+s con/ruct$1 supplies pur*as$1    
contracts  aw>d$1 labor employ$1 money  
collect$ & money paid out--:y d !y  call
 ^! ?+s gov]nm5t :5 !y are simply       
bus9ess op]ations  & no?+ else8 ,!      
problems t arise 9 connection ) !m are  

bus9ess problems2 ! me?ods ne$$ are     
bus9ess me?ods2 !  organization be/     
fitt$ to d ! "w is a bus9ess            
organization4    ,sid5ote3 ,mo/ ( !     
city's "w is bus9ess4    ,n[ !re is a   
good deal to be said = ?is po9t ( view4 
,a l>ge "p  ( ! "w :i* ! city (ficials  
p]=m is ( a bus9ess r  ?an a gov]nm5tal 
nature4 ,mak+ laws & en=c+ !m is a      
relatively small portion ( _! task4 ,!  
great majority ( city  (ficials &       
employees are engag$ 9 r5d]+ social &   
economic  s]vices--su* z tea*+ 9 s*ools1
 c>+ = ! public heal?1  build+ /reets1  
inspect+ m>kets1 att5d+ to ! wat]       
supply1  putt+ out fires1 & mak+ out tax
 bills2 all ( :i* tasks are  q diff]5t 9
 nature f ! "w :i* legislatures or      
gov]nors  or c\rts p]=m4 ,x is "w :i*1 9
 ord] to be effective1 mu/ be  done 9   
accordance ) ! me?ods ( ev]yday bus9ess 
) emphasis  on intellig5ce1 punctuality1
 & hone/y4    ,sid5ote3 ,b n all ( x c  
be manag$ accord+ to bus9ess            
pr9ciples4    ,nev]!less we %\ld be     

c>eful n to press ?is po9t too f>4 ,!   
aim ( all organiz$ bus9ess is to secure 
a pr(it1 b ! purpose (  city            
adm9i/ration is to promote ! well-be+ ( 
! citiz5s4 ,x  mu/ be conduct$ 9        
compliance ) ! desires ( ! vot]s1 :atev]
  ^! desires may be1 & mu/ give !m :at  
!y want4 ,bus9ess c  sometimes be manag$
 )\t any he$ to public op9ion1 b        
municipal  adm9i/ration _c4 ,! sci5ce ( 
municipal gov]nm5t is1 to a  consid]able
 ext5t1 t ( keep+ ! p satisfi$4 ,! vot]s
  mu/ h :at !y want & !y d n always want
 :at "s exp]t  may deem to be ! be/ or !
 *eape/4 ,gov]nm5t by ! be/ p  is n     
necess>ily ! be/ gov]nm5t4 ,!re is no   
d5y+ t  bus9ess me?ods c be             
advantage\sly appli$ to city            
adm9i/ration at  _m po9ts 7p>ticul>ly 9 
! aw>d+ ( contracts & ! buy+ (          
supplies71 b x does n foll[ t su*       
dep>tm5ts z poor-relief1  correction1 & 
public heal? %\ld be manag$ accord+ to  
exactly !  same pr9ciples z a railroad  
or a cotton factory4 ,success or failure

 9  ^! dep>tm5ts _c always be measur$ 9 
t]ms ( doll>s &  c5ts4 ,! adm9i/ration  
mu/ be sympa!tic & humane2 x avails     
little to save a little money if ! sav+ 
entails a great deal (  human mis]y4 ,! 
/rict rules ( bus9ess may easily be     
press$ too  f>4                         
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,municipal ,,adm9i/rative ,,dep>tm5ts  
,! accompany+ diagram indicates ! way 9 
:i* ! adm9i/rative "w ( a l>ge ,am]ican 
city su* z ,bo/on is di/ribut$ among    
v>i\s            (ficials & dep>tm5ts4  
,x w be not$ t            !re 71 9      
#aibj1 "s =ty dep>tm5ts "u            ! 
control ( ! mayor4 ,"s consolidation has
            s9ce be5 made1 b ! numb] (  
dep>tm5ts is            /ill l>g] 9     
,bo/on ?an 9 any o!r city4              
,?is *>t %\ld be ref]r$ to 9 connection 
)            ,gr\p ,problem ,no4 #a     
7page #bbc74    ,illu/ration3           
,,commonweal?    ,,(    ,,massa*usetts  
,,appo9tm5ts ,,by ,,gov]nor             

,judici>y              ,f9ance          
,commission              ,civil ,s]vice 
,commission              ,met4 ,di/rict 
,commission              ,p4,w ,dept4   
,division ( ,highways                   
,m$ical ,exam9]                ,lic5s+  
,bo>d              ,police ,commission] 
,pilot ,commission                      
,division ( ,wat]ways                   
,dept4 ( ,pub4 ,utilities               
,/ate ,fire ,m>%al                      
,,electorate              ,,city        
,,c\ncil 7#i7                ,city      
,mess5g]                ,cl]k (         
,committees                ,city ,cl]k  
,,mayor 7#d ,ye>s7                ,p>k  
,recreation ,dep>tm5t                   
,consumptive ,hospital ,dep>tm5t        
,hospital ,dep>tm5t                     
,exam9] = ,bldg4 ,lic5ses               
,public ,build+s ,dep>tm5t              
,in/itutions ,regi/ration ,dept4        
,weights  ,measures ,dep>tm5t           
,vessels  ,balla/ ,dep>tm5t             
,p5al ,in/itutions ,dep>tm5t            

,ov]se]s ( ! ,poor                      
,*ildr5's ,in/itutions ,dept4           
,soldi]s ,relief ,dep>tm5t              
,infirm>y ,dep>tm5t                ,s9k+
 ,fund ,dep>tm5t                ,audit+ 
,dep>tm5t                ,treasury      
,dep>tm5t                ,public ,works 
,dep>tm5t                ,bridges       
,f]ries                ,collect+        
,dep>tm5t                ,regi/ry       
,dep>tm5t                ,wat] ,division
                ,city ,plann+ ,bo>d     
,highway ,division                      
,cemet]y ,dep>tm5t                      
,assess+ ,dep>tm5t                      
,libr>y ,dep>tm5t                       
,election ,dep>tm5t                     
,sew]1 ,/reet ,clean+ ,div4             
,supply ,dep>tm5t                ,lamps 
,m>ket ,dep>tm5t                ,pav+   
,pr9t+ ,dep>tm5t                        
,/ati/ics ,dep>tm5t                ,art 
,dep>tm5t                ,s*ool ,h\se   
,dep>tm5t                ,transit       
,dep>tm5t                ,budget        

,dep>tm5t                ,heal?         
,dep>tm5t                ,bo>d (        
,appeals                ,build+         
,dep>tm5t                ,law ,dep>tm5t 
,city ,record                ,fire      
,dep>tm5t                ,/ati/ics      
,dep>tm5t                ,bo/on         
,cambridge ,bridge ,comm4               
,/reet ,lay+ ,out ,dep>tm5t             
,regulation ( ,traffic                  
---                        ,,g5]al      
,,draft+ ,,co4 ,,inc41 ,n4,y4           
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,"o reason = wa/e 9 city      
adm9i/ration4    ,! ,ne$ = ,bett]       
,co-op]ation among ,city ,dep>tm5ts4--,!
 greate/  ob/acle to satisfactory "w on 
! "p ( city (ficials is !  abs5ce (     
close co-op]ation among ! v>i\s city    
dep>tm5ts4 ,"s  heads ( dep>tm5ts are   
elect$2 "s are appo9t$4 ,ev5 :5 !y are  
all *os5 9 ! same way !y (t5 fail to "w 
9 complete h>mony4  ,ea* dep>tm5t is    
jeal\s ( its own functions & anxi\s to  

foll[  its own policy4#gh    ,sid5ote3  
,"s examples4    ,ea* desires all !     
cr$it :5 ?+s g "r & wants none ( !      
blame :5 ?+s g wrong4 ,! v>i\s          
dep>tm5ts1 :5 unpleasant or  unpopul>   
tasks h to be p]=m$1 (t5 try to put !   
responsibility on someone else4 ,!y h   
become v pr(ici5t 9 :at  is colloquially
 kn[n z 8pass+ ! buck04 ,! result is t  
team  play is usually lack+1 & friction 
is n at all uncommon4 ,h[  frequ5tly we 
see examples ( ?is failure to save !    
city's money by  co-op]ation6 ,! /reet  
dep>tm5t puts d[n a new pavem5t2 b !    
surface is sc>cely dry be=e ! wat]      
dep>tm5t proce$s to te> x  up 9 ord] to 
lay new ma9s1 or ! sew] dep>tm5t s5ds   
its m5  along to dig a new manhole1 or !
 gas & electric light employees come  ) 
picks & %ovels to make excavations 9 x4 
,:y n d all ?is  be=e ! new pavem5t goes
 d[n8 ,9 ! city ( ,bo/on ne>ly t5  ?\s& 
excavations are made 9 ! /reets dur+ a  
s+le ye>4 ,"s  ( ^! are unavoidable1 no 
d\bt1 b _m ( !m are simply !  result (  

poor plann+ or no plann+ at all4    ,or1
 take ano!r illu/ration4 ,_m city       
dep>tm5ts require mat]ials  & supplies (
 ! same sort4 ,coal1 = example1 is ne$$ 
9 police  /ations1 fire /ations1 !      
s*ools1 ! city hall1 & all o!r  public  
build+s4 ,:y n get toge!r1 buy x all 9  
"o l>ge ord] at  :olesale prices1 pay   
spot ca%1 & secure a disc\nt1 in/ead (  
hav+ ea* dep>tm5t pur*ase its own       
supplies 9 relatively small  quantities 
f local deal]s8 ,! answ] is t ea*       
dep>tm5t1  jeal\s ( its own indep5d5ce1 
usually goes ahead 9 all its  activities
 )\t in=m+ ! o!rs or consult+ !m4 ,!    
situation is n ne>ly s bad n[adays z x 0
 tw5ty or m ye>s  ago b !re is /ill     
pl5ty ( room = m effective              
co-op]ation4#gi                         
,,city ,,plann+ ,,& ,,public ,,works    
,sid5ote3 ,! lack ( plann+4    ,city    
,plann+4--,a second defect 9 ,am]ican   
city adm9i/ration has  be5 ! lack (     
c>eful plann+4 ,! mayor & o!r city      
(ficials  s]ve 9 (fice = %ort t]ms & _! 

ma9 conc]n is to d :atev]  happ5s to be 
urg5t at ! "t1 leav+ ! m difficult      
problems  = _! successors4 ,mu* ( _! "w 
?us becomes make%ift 9  "*1--a /reet is 
wid5$1 a tempor>y s*oolh\se is erect$1 a
  fire eng9e is b\ght1 & a few new sew]s
 put 9--b no compreh5sive  plan = /reet 
improvem5t or s*oolh\se con/ruction or !
  motorization ( fire app>atus or sewage
 disposal is usually made &  foll[$4    
,public build+s are (t5 badly plac$     
because political  influ5ces r ?an      
public conv5i5ce det]m9es _! location4  
,!  conge/ion ( traffic on ! d[n-t[n    
/reets1 ! lack ( p>ks &  op5 spaces 9   
c]ta9 sections ( ! city1 ! unsightl9ess 
due to  ! myriad ( poles1 wires1 signs1 
& billbo>ds 9 _m ( ! city's             
?or\ghf>es--^! ?+s are all due 9 l>ge   
measure to ! abs5ce  ( plann+4          
,sid5ote3 ,european cities are bett]    
plann$4    ,_m cities take little or no 
?\ght = ! morr[4 ,!y expect to  gr[     
bigg] & busi]1 b !y give small ?\ght to 
! imp5d+  problems :i* gr[? is b\nd to  

br+4 ,european cities h be5 f>  ahead 9 
?is respect4 ,if ,p>is is outw>dly ! mo/
 attractive city 9  ! _w1 x is because !
 au?orities1 m ?an sev5ty ye>s ago1  set
 out to make x s4 ,! be/-built city 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates is  ,wa%+ton1 ! /reets &  
p>ks ( :i* 7 all plann$ be=e a  s+le    
build+ 0 erect$4#hj    ,sid5ote3 ,!     
broad scope ( city plann+4    ,:at ,city
 ,plann+ ,includes4--,city plann+ is !  
sci5ce ( design+  cities1 or p>ts (     
cities1 s t !y may be bett] places = p  
to live 94 ,x includes ! arrang+ (      
/reets1 ! locat+ ( public  build+s1 !   
provid+ ( p>ks & playgr\nds1 ! devis+ ( 
a  prop] transportation sy/em1 & !      
regulat+ ( private prop]ty 9  su* way z 
to promote ! be/ int]e/s ( ! :ole       
community4 ,x is1  !re=e1 or ought to   
be1 ! c5t] or focus ( all ! city's      
activities1 ea* "o ( :i* %\ld be c>ri$  
on 9 h>mony ) !  g5]al plan4 ,x is only 
9 ?is way t a great wa/e ( ! city's     
money & s]i\s inconv5i5ce to all classes
 ( citiz5s c be  prev5t$4    ,al?\gh    

city plann+ is n a new art x is only )9 
rec5t ye>s  t ,am]ican cities h giv5 mu*
 att5tion to x4 ,= _m decades  ! cities 
& _! suburbs 7 all[$ to gr[ haphaz>d4   
,:at 0  once a c\ntry highway became a  
village road1 !n ! ma9 /reet ( a  t[n1 &
 f9ally ! *ief bus9ess ?or\ghf>e ( a    
l>ge city4 ,to  h wid5$ x 9 e>ly days   
w\ld h be5 *eap & easy2 b :5 a  city has
 gr[n up on bo? sides ( x ! project     
becomes too exp5sive4  ,lack ( plann+ is
 responsible = mu* ( ! traffic conge/ion
 )  :i* ! cities are wre/l+ n[adays4    
,sid5ote3 ,! great importance ( /reets4 
,! ,/reets4--,! /reets are v important  
factors 9 ! daily life  ( e community1  
f> m s ?an we commonly realize4 ,!y are 
!  city's art]ies4 ,on _! surface !y    
c>ry vehicles ( e sort4  ,_! surface    
also af=ds locations = lamp po/s1       
telephone poles1  hydrants1 & _m o!r    
in/rum5talities ( public s]vice4        
,und]nea?  ! /reet surface are sew]s1   
wat] ma9s1 gas pipes1 & conduits2       
ov]head are wires & signs & balconies4  

,! /reets give access to  ! %ops &      
h\ses2 !y are likewise ! pr9cipal       
*annels = light  & air1 bo? ( :i* are   
ess5tial to life 9 ! build+s alongside4 
,ne>ly e =m ( public s]vice dep5ds ^u ! 
/reets2 )\t  !m private prop]ty w\ld h  
little or no value4 ,ab\t "o-?ird (  all
 ! l& 9 ! city is occupi$ by ! /reets1 s
 t prop]  /reet plann+ becomes a matt] (
 great importance to !  community4#ha   
,sid5ote3 ,! lay\t ( /reets4    ,9 mo/  
,am]ican cities ! /reets are laid out 9 
rectangul> =m1  ) long1 broad av5ues    
runn+ "o way & n>r[] cross-/reets !     
o!r4 ,?is means t ea* int]sects ! o!r at
 "r angles & !  city blocks become      
squ>es l ^? ( a *eck]-bo>d4 ,?is plan   
has  be5 widely us$ 9 ,am]ica because x 
takes less l& = /reets ?an  any o!r plan
 w\ld require & x makes all build+ lots 
(  conv5i5t rectangul> %ape4#hb ,! *ief 
objection to ?is gridiron  plan is t x  
makes traffic m conge/$ at ! junction ( 
important ?or\ghf>es4 ,x also gives a   
sam5ess to ! appe>ance (  all ! /reets &

 hamp]s ! developm5t ( ar*itectural     
v>iety4  ,european visitors (t5 comm5t  
on ?is4 ,/reet aft] /reet 9 !  %opp+ or 
resid5tial di/ricts all look alike to ! 
/rang]2 all  h be5 laid out ) a p5cil & 
rul]1 ! same wid?s 7or ne>ly  ! same72 e
 lot ( l& is ( ! same size2 & ! long r[s
 (  h\ses seem to be all ( ! same type4 
,9 ! cities ( ,europe1 on !  o!r h&1 !  
/reets are m (t5 curv$ or w9d+2 "s are v
  broad & "s v n>r[1 s t ea* /reet has  
its own  individuality4 ,to "s ext5t    
,am]ican cities are n[ lay+ out         
diagonal & w9d+ /reets 9 _! new] suburbs
 on ! pr9ciple  t picturesqu5ess ought  
to be comb9$ ) utility4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
old & ! new] me?ods ( det]m9+ wid?s4    
,h[ ,wide ,ought a ,/reet to be8--,until
 v rec5t ye>s 9 all ,am]ican  cities1 & 
ev5 yet 9 "s ( !m1 ! practice has be5 to
 lay out  /reets 9 wid?s ( =ty1 sixty1  
or eighty feet1--always us+  multiples (
 t54 ,?is is a m]e rule-(-?umb me?od &  
be>s no  direct relation to ! ne$s (    
traffic4 ,! d[nt[n /reets ( !  old]     

cities are1 = ! mo/ "p1 too n>r[2 9 !   
new] suburbs  !y are (t5 a good deal    
wid] ?an !y ne$ be4 8,b :at h>m is  done
 by hav+ m /reet space ?an is necess>y80
 x may be ask$4  ,well1 e squ>e foot (  
/reet space co/s money2 x has to be     
pav$1  kept 9 repair1 clean$1 & light$4 
,! prop] policy 9 lay+ out  /reets is to
 adapt _! wid? to ! probable ne$s (     
future traffic4  ,?is _c always be done 
) ma!matical accuracy1 because !  d5sity
 ( traffic *anges f decade to decade2 b 
) c>eful /udy  a fairly dep5dable       
e/imate c usually be made4    ,sid5ote3 
,! traffic 8zones04    ,! be/ practice  
n[adays is to fix ! wid? ( new /reets 9 
t]ms  ( traffic zones1 n m]ely 9        
multiples ( t5 feet4 ,a /ream (         
traffic--motor c>s1 trucks1 & o!r       
vehicles foll[+ "o  ano!r--requires a   
c]ta9 sluiceway or zone to move 94 ,?is 
zone is  ord9>ily reckon$ z t5 feet 9   
wid?4 ,a zone ( p>k$ vehicles  alongside
 ! curb uses ab\t eight feet4 ,9 ord] to
 all[ full p>k+  privileges & /ill h    

space = two /reams ( traffic to fl[     
along  easily 7"o 9 ea* direction7 a    
/reet %\ld be ?irty-six feet 9  wid? f  
curb to curb4 ,any?+ less ?an ?is       
usually means t  p>k+ mu/ be re/rict$ or
 ! ?or\ghf>e mu/ be made a "o-way       
/reet4 ,any?+ m ?an ?is is useless      
unless a full zone ( t5  feet is add$1 &
 x is ( relatively little value unless  
two  additional zones are put on4#hc    
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,= #d l9es ( traffic 
,all mov+                               
--#ac'--------dj'--------ac'--          
----------------#ff'------------------  
,= #f l9es ( traffic    #d mov+  #b /&+ 
--#ae'------------ef'-----------ae'--   
----------------------#hf'--------------
-------      ,= #h l9es ( traffic    #f 
mov+  #b /&+                            
--#bb'----------------gf'---------------
-bb'--                                  
------------------------#abj'-----------
---------------      ,! normal roadway  

wid? is bas$ on an all[ance ( #aj feet =
 ea*  l9e ( mov+ vehicles & #h feet =   
ea* l9e ( /&+ vehicles4    ,:]e space is
 absolutely limit$ ?is unit all[ance may
 be r$uc$ to  #i feet = mov+ & #g feet =
 /&+ vehicles4    ,! sidewalk wid? above
 sugge/$ may be increas$ or r$uc$ to    
meet  special requirem5ts z to p$e/rian 
traffic or special dem&s = a  tree &    
lawn /rip4                              
,,traffic ,,zones              ,!       
conge/ion ( traffic 9 ! d[nt[n /reets ( 
our l>ge cities is due to f\r causes3   
7a7 !            increas$ numb] (       
vehicles1 7b7 ! diff]5t            rates
 ( spe$ at :i* diff]5t types ( vehicles 
desire to move 7horse-drawn vehicles1   
/reet c>s1            motor trucks1     
trucks1 motor c>s1 motorcycles1         
etc471 7c7 ! inadequate wid? & faulty   
arrangem5t ( /reets due to ! lack (     
plann+1            & 7d7 ! improp] driv+
 & p>k+ (            vehicles4          
,! old] /reets _c n[ be wid5$ except at 
v great exp5se because ! private prop]ty

            :i* fronts on !m is s       
valuable4 ,b new /reets            c be 
plann$ to take c>e ( future traffic     
gr[?4 ,no city /reet %\ld be laid out ) 
less            ?an fifty-six feet      
betwe5 curb & curb4 ,!                  
sidewalk space v>ies ) ! wid? ( ! /reet1
            z ! accompany+ diagram %[s4 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,types ( pavem5t4    ,/reet   
,pavem5ts4--,ap>t f good plann+ &       
adequate wid?1 !  usefulness ( a /reet  
dep5ds to a consid]able ext5t on its    
pav+4  ,! qualities ( an ideal pavem5t  
are easy en\gh to specify1 b n  s easy  
to secure4 ,to rea* p]fection a /reet   
pavem5t %\ld be *eap  to con/ruct1      
durable1 easy to repair1 easy to keep   
clean1 smoo?1 safe  = traffic1          
noiseless1 & attractive 9 appe>ance4    
,un=tunately  !re is no type ( pavem5t  
possess+ all ^! qualities4 ,a pavem5t  (
 granite blocks w la/ = _m ye>s "u heavy
 traffic1 b x  is exp5sive to build1    

noisy1 & h>d to keep clean4 ,! asphalt  
pavem5t is *eap]1 clean]1 & easi] to    
drive ^u2 b x is  slipp]y 9 wet wea!r & 
breaks d[n v quickly :5 heavy traffic   
is all[$ on x4 ,wood blocks h come into 
favor 9 _m cities dur+  rec5t ye>s      
because !y are believ$ to make a pavem5t
 :i* is  suffici5tly /rong to /& ! burd5
 n[ plac$ on ! /reets by  truck traffic 
& yet af=d a surface :i* is easy to     
drive ov]1 n  difficult to keep clean1 &
 relatively noiseless4 ,!re is no "o be/
  =m ( pavem5t = all sections ( !       
city4#hd ,x w\ld be absurd to  lay      
asphalt 9 ! dock & %ipp+ di/ricts :]e ! 
/reets are  fill$ ) five-ton trucks1 & j
 z absurd to put a granite-block        
surface on ! /reets ( f9e resid5tial    
di/ricts4 ,! nature ( !  pavem5t %\ld be
 adapt$ to neighborhood conditions4     
,sid5ote3 ,! contract & direct labor    
sy/ems4    ,:5 ! pavem5t has be5 select$
 x c be laid 9 ei!r ( two  ways--by     
contract or by city labor4 ,mo/ pavem5ts
 h be5 built by  contract4 ,! city      

(ficials prep>e ! plans1 & call = bids2 
pav+ contractors submit _! figures1 & ! 
contract is suppos$ to  g to ! "o ^: bid
 is ! l[e/4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is n :at always  
happ5s4 ,contracts = /reet pav+ h (t5   
be5 aw>d$1 on "o  pretext or ano!r1 to  
contractors :o 7 able to ex]t political 
influ5ce4#he ,9 "s cities ! "w is done  
by regul> employees (  ! /reet dep>tm5t1
 ! city buy+ its own mat]ials4 ,?is plan
 is  usually m exp5sive & x is n v      
practicable :5 a city wants  a great    
deal ( "w done 9 a hurry2 on ! o!r h& x 
results1 z a  rule1 9 gett+ pavem5t ( a 
bett] quality4 ,contract "w1 too (t51   
is done ha/ily & proves defective4      
,direct con/ruction by ! city's  own    
labor =ce is sl[]1 & m exp5sive1 b      
usually m durable4    ,p>ks &           
,recreation ,gr\nds4--,public p>ks are (
 two types1 fir/ !  l>ge op5 spaces :i* 
cov] _m acres & c be us$ by ! :ole      
city1 & second1 ! small areas :i* are   
provid$ = use by a s+le  neighborhood   
only4 ,e l>ge city has p>ks ( bo? types4

 ,!  old-/yle p>k :i* s]v$ m = ornam5t  
?an = use1 is n[ out  ( favor4 ,cities  
are plac+ m /ress on gr\nds :i* c be us$
  = a?letic games or = o!r =ms (        
recreation4 ,9 all communities  :i* h ! 
advantage ( be+ locat$ on ! ocean1 on a 
lake1 or on  a riv]1 ! wat]-front is a  
highly desirable addition to ! available
  recreation spaces4 ,suitable ba?+     
bea*es 9 p>ticul> ought to be  acquir$  
by ! cities = free use by ! p4 ,!       
developm5t (  /reet railway & motor     
transportation has less5$ ! pressure ^u 
! d[nt[n p>ks by mak+ x m easy = ! p to 
get out into  ! c\ntry4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
v>i\s classes ( public build+s3         
,public ,build+s4--,f ! /&po9t (        
suitable location ! public  build+s ( a 
city may be divid$ into ?ree classes4   
,sid5ote3 #a4  ,^? :i* ne$ c5tral       
locations4 ,fir/1 !re are ^? public     
build+s :i* ought to be c5trally locat$ 
s t !y may be easily  rea*$ f e "p ( !  
community4 ,?is class includes !        
po/-(fice1 ! city hall1 ! c\rt h\se1 & !

 public libr>y4 ,9  a few cities ^!     
build+s1 or mo/ ( !m1 h be5 br\ght      
toge!r 9 a civic c5t]2 b z a rule !y are
 scatt]$ "h &  !re all ov] ! community1 
:]ev] !y may *ance to h be5  plac$ 9    
ob$i5ce to ! influ5ces or :ims ( !      
mom5t4 ,!  desirability ( br++ !m       
toge!r1 bo? z a matt] ( good  plann+ & =
 ! public conv5i5ce1 is easy to realize4
    ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,^? :i* mu/ be        
scatt]$4    ,second1 !re are _m public  
build+s :i* mu/ be locat$ 9  diff]5t    
p>ts ( ! city r ?an at a s+le c5t]4 ,^! 
include ! fire eng9e h\ses1 police      
/ations1 elem5t>y s*ools1 &  bran*      
libr>ies4 ,!y mu/ necess>ily be scatt]$1
 b ?is does n  mean t plann+ is         
sup]flu\s4 ,v (t5 9 ! pa/ ^!  build+s h 
be5 locat$ at inconv5i5t po9ts because  
political  influ5ce r ?an ! public      
int]e/ has det]m9$ ! *oice ( a          
location4 ,:5 a prom95t politician has  
l& to sell at a fancy price  ! city is  
usually a good cu/om]4 ,!re is no good  
reason :y police  & fire /ations %\ld n1

 z a rule1 be h\s$ "u ! same ro(4  ,!re 
is no good reason :y ! s*ool1 !         
playgr\nd1 & ! bran*  libr>y %\ld n be  
plac$ ^u ! same plot ( gr\nd1 yet r>ely 
are ^! ?ree places ( in/ruction &       
recreation )9 sight ( "o  ano!r4        
,haphaz>d location & slip%od con/ruction
 h result$ 9  l>ge am\nts ( ne$less     
exp5se 9 ! case ( public build+s4       
,sid5ote3 #c4 ,^? :i* ne$ special       
locations4    ,?ird1 !re are c]ta9      
public build+s :i* h to be plac$ 9      
special locations4 ,public ba?s1 =      
example1 g to ! wat]'s edge1  :]ev] x   
is4 ,! hospital %\ld be situat$ outside 
! zone (  heavy traffic & cont9u\s      
noise4 ,! city prison1 ! poorh\se1 !    
g>bage disposal plant1 & ! o!r waifs    
among public  build+s--nobody wants _!  
company4 ,!y are n welcome 9 any        
neighborhood1 yet !y mu/ be plac$       
some:]e4 ,timely plann+ w\ld  help to   
solve ?is problem by secur+ conv5i5t &  
spaci\s tracts (  l& be=e ! city gr[s s 
l>ge t all ! available sites are        

occupi$1 b mo/ ( our cities give no     
?\ght to su* que/ions until  ! problem  
becomes v urg5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,! private
 citiz5 & ! 8,city ,beautiful04         
,regulat+ ,private ,prop]ty4--,no matt] 
:at ! city au?orities may  d 9 ! way (  
plann+ /reets prop]ly1 & exp5d+ great   
c>e  ^u public build+s1 ! outw>d        
attractiv5ess ( a community dep5ds  to a
 l>ge ext5t ^u ! good ta/e & civic pride
 ( its individual  inhabitants4 ,)9     
reasonable b\nds a man c erect any?+ he 
pleases ^u 8 own l&4 ,he may build      
some?+ :i* is a notable  adornm5t or1 on
 ! o!r h&1 some?+ :i* is an ar*itectural
  eyesore to ! :ole neighborhood4 ,he   
may keep 8 gr\nds & dwell+  9 p]fect    
ord]1 ev]y?+ spick & span4 ,or he may   
let !m g into  ram%ackle1 ! h\se        
unpa9t$1 ! lawn gr[n up 9 we$s1 & signs 
( neglect app>5t ev]y:]e4 ,ea* section (
 ! city is z its  p make x4 ,x is absurd
 = m5 & wom5 to clamor = f9e p>ks1      
monum5tal public build+s1 &             
brilliantly-light$ /reets if !y d  n    

obey ! precept t civic pride1 l *>ity1  
ought to beg9 at  home4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
billbo>d nuisance4    ,"o ( ! wor/      
(f5d]s aga9/ civic beauty & good ta/e is
 !  flam+ billbo>d :i* />es f e vacant  
lot into ! faces (  ! pass]s-by4 ,= !   
mo/ "p billbo>ds s]ve no v useful       
purpose4 ,! adv]tis+ :i* !y c>ry ought  
to be giv5 to !  newspap]s1 :i* rea* a  
f> wid] circle ( p & are actively       
engag$ 9 promot+ ! be/ int]e/s ( !      
community4 ,^!  billbo>ds (t5 m> :at    
w\ld o!rwise be an attractive av5ue or  
l&scape4#hf ,! cities ( ,cont95tal      
,europe virtually prohibit !m  altoge!r4
 ,x is n possible to d t 9 ! ,unit$     
,/ates because  ( con/itutional         
re/rictions :i* protect private prop]ty2
 b  billbo>ds c be re/rict$ by law & "s 
,am]ican cities h  adopt$ ! policy ( s  
re/rict+ !m4#hg ,x is also possible to  
levy taxes ^u !m & ?us to make billbo>d 
adv]tis+ less  pr(itable4    ,!         
,municipal ,utilities4--,9 addition to  
/reets1 p>ks1 & public  build+s e city  

ma9ta9s v>i\s o!r physical utilities4   
,^!  include1 9 "s cases1 bridges1      
docks1 m>kets1 f]ries1 & s on4  ,m      
important1 h[ev]1 are ! s-call$         
utilities1 ! wat] supply  & ! sew]age   
sy/em4 ,bo? ( ^! are intimately connect$
 ) !  public heal? & c bett] be dealt ) 
:5 we come to t g5]al  topic4 ,"s cities
 own & op]ate _! light+ plants1 & 9 a   
few  cases _! /reet railways4 ,b light+ 
& transportation are /ill1  = ! mo/ "p1 
9 private h&s & !y pres5t problems ( su*
  importance t !y ne$ a *apt] to        
!mselves 7see pp4 #dgd-dha74            
,sid5ote3 ,beg9n+ ( ! police sy/em4     
,police ,protection4--,! practice (     
ma9ta9+ 9 cities a body (  pr(essional1 
uni=m$ policem5 :o give _! full "t to ! 
"w  ( pres]v+ law & ord] is less ?an a  
hundr$ ye>s old4 ,until well  into !    
n9ete5? c5tury ! "w ( protect+ life &   
prop]ty 0  p]=m$ by untra9$ con/ables & 
wat*m5 79 ,engl& & ,am]ica71  or by     
squads ( soldi]s 79 mo/ ( ! l>g] cities 
( ,cont95tal  ,europe74#hh ,london1 9   

#ahbi1 0 ! fir/ city to in/all a regul> 
police =ce1 & ?is action met ) great    
popul> opposition4 ,x 0  reg>d$ z a /ep 
9 ! direction ( tyranny4#hi ,b regul>   
policem5 prov$ to be s mu* bett]1 z     
gu>dians ( law & ord]1  ?an ! untra9$   
con/able 9 citiz5's clo!s1 t o!r cities 
foll[$ ! example ( ,london & ev5tually !
 sy/em 0 e/abli%$  9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! 
fir/ city to adopt ! new plan be+ ,new  
,york4 ,al?\gh ,new ,york 0 at t "t a   
city ( ov] #cjj1jjj  population ! "w (  
polic+ 0 l>gely p]=m$ by elective       
con/ables & by citiz5 wat*m5 until      
#ahdd4    ,sid5ote3 ,police organization
 today4    ,dur+ ! pa/ ?ree-qu>t]s ( a  
c5tury ! sy/em ( municipal  police has  
be5 /eadily improv$4 ,! police are      
organiz$ on :at is  practically a       
milit>y model1 ) a commission] or *ief 9
 comm&4  ,"u him are deputies at        
headqu>t]s1 capta9s & lieut5ants 9  *>ge
 ( /ations1 s]geants & patrolm51 :o d ! 
"w (  inve/igat+1 mak+ arre/s1 h&l+     
traffic1 & patroll+ !  /reets4 ,!       

patrolm5 9 mo/ ,am]ican cities are n[   
select$ by civil  s]vice te/s2 !y h     
regul> h\rs on & (f duty1 & are subject 
to /rict discipl9e4 ,! l>ge cities h    
e/abli%$ tra9+ s*ools  9 :i*            
newly-appo9t$ policem5 receive          
in/ruction = a mon? or  m be=e !y are   
s5t to d regul> duty4 ,! numb] (        
policem5 9  all l>ge cities has _h to be
 greatly increas$ dur+ rec5t ye>s       
because ( ! gr[+ ne$ = traffic (fic]s4  
,a consid]able  proportion ( ! :ole =ce 
is n[ assign$ to ?is duty at c]ta9  h\rs
 ( ! day4 ,policewom5 are n[ be+ appo9t$
 9 mo/ ( !  l>g] cities because !re are 
v>i\s =ms ( duty :i* x is  believ$ !y c 
p]=m m effectively ?an m54    ,sid5ote3 
,/ate con/abul>ies4    ,police          
protection1 until rec5t ye>s1 has be5   
l>gely conf9$ to !  cities & t[ns2 !    
rural di/ricts h _h to dep5d ^u civilian
  con/ables & ! %]iff's deputies4 ,"s   
/ates1 h[ev]1 h n[  e/abli%$ bodies kn[n
 z /ate con/abul>ies1 ! memb]s ( :i*    
patrol ! c\ntry roads & p]=m ! usual    

functions ( police 9  cities4           
,p5nsylvania1 ,new ,york1 ,massa*usetts1
 & o!r /ates h  und]tak5 to give ! rural
 di/ricts adequate protection 9 ?is way4
  ,! m5 are equipp$ ) motorcycles & are 
?us enabl$ to cov]  l>ge areas (        
t]ritory 9 ! c\rse ( a day4 ,!          
con/abul>y is  "u ! control ( ! gov]nor 
& may be us$ 9 any portion ( !  /ate4 ,!
 e/abli%m5t ( ^! /ate police =ces has   
be5 oppos$  by ! labor organizations :i*
 fe> t !y may be us$ to co]ce  /rik]s   
dur+ labor controv]sies4    ,sid5ote3   
,our enorm\s annual losses by fire4     
,fire ,prev5tion4--,! annual loss by    
fire 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is  l>g] ?an t ( 
all ,european c\ntries put toge!r4      
,*icago &  ,p>is are cities ( ab\t !    
same size2 b ! ye>ly fire-losses 9  !   
=m] are f\r or five times t ( ! latt]4  
,:e!r ,new ,york  has a l>g] population 
?an ,london is /ill a disput$ "q b  !re 
is no dispute ab\t :i* has ! l>g] numb] 
( fires4 ,new ,york  ,city holds ! _w's 
record 9 fire-losses1 sev5 or eight     

million  doll>s p] annum4    ,9 e "p ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates ! losses are enorm\s ye> 
aft]  ye>4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t !y am\nt
 to half a million doll>s  p] day1 tak+ 
! c\ntry z a :ole4 ,if all ! build+s    
burn$ 9  ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ a s+le ye>
 7 plac$ side by side !y  w\ld =m an    
unbrok5 /reet f ,*icago to ,new ,york4  
,! loss ( life  9 ^! fires is also      
appall+2 x am\nts to ab\t ?ree ?\s& p]  
ye>4 ,:at are ! reasons = ?is situation2
 :y is x s mu* worse  ?an 9 o!r         
c\ntries8    ,sid5ote3 ,reasons = ?is   
heavy loss4    ,!re are two reasons = x2
 "o ( !m we _c control1 ! o!r  we c4 ,we
 _c easily alt] ! fact t mo/ ( !        
build+s1  :e!r 9 ! cities or ! rural    
di/ricts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 h  be5 built
 ( inflammable mat]ials4 ,lumb] has be5 
*eap & x has  be5 us$ lavi%ly4 ,9       
,europe mo/ build+s are ( brick or      
/one4#ij  ,) ! depletion ( ! timb]      
supply 9 ,am]ica & ! increas$  price (  
lumb] few] frame build+s w be con/ruct$ 
9 ! ,unit$  ,/ates z "t goes on4 ,! o!r 

reason = our l>ge fire-losses is  "o :i*
 c be controll$4 ,x is summ$ up 9 a s+le
  ^w--c>elessness4 ,to "s ext5t ?is     
c>elessness is ! fault ( !  public      
au?orities2 to a l>g] ext5t x is ! fault
 ( private  individuals4    ,sid5ote3   
,public prev5tion measures4    ,! public
 au?orities h n be5 suffici5tly active 9
 fram+ &  en=c+ measures = ! prev5tion (
 fires4 ,!y h all[$  c]ta9 neighborhoods
 to become v]itable fire-traps1 liable  
to be wip$  out by a conflagration at   
any mom5t4 ,dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s !  /ate 
& city (ficials h be5 com+ to realize ! 
importance (  prev5tion1 h[ev]1 & ! laws
 relat+ to fire haz>ds h be5  gr[+ m    
/rict4 ,special rules are n[ appli$ to  
!at]s1  factories1 g>ages1 t5em5ts1 &   
o!r build+s 9 :i* fires are  liable to  
result 9 ! loss ( life4 ,special fire   
prev5tion (ficials  h be5 appo9t$ 9 "s (
 ! l>g] communities2 _! duty is to      
inspect all build+s 9 :i* fires are     
likely to occur & to en=ce  ! fire      
prev5tion rules4 ,an endeavor has also  

be5 made to educate !  p to ! ne$ (     
ex]cis+ great] c>e4 ,?is is done by     
di/ribut+ circul>s & by in/ruction 9 !  
s*ools4    ,sid5ote3 ,! *ief causes (   
fires4    ,! great majority ( fires are 
! result ( "s individual's  c>elessness4
 ,rubbi% is left ly+ ab\t ne> ! cell>   
furnace2  mat*es are plac$ :]e *ildr5 c 
rea* !m2 k]os5e or gasol9e  is us$ to   
light ! kit*5 fire2 *imneys are all[$ to
 g unrepair$  & unclean$2 ends (        
cig>ettes are ?r[n on ! floor or into ! 
wa/e basket--individual c>elessness may 
take _m =ms4 ,b e fire  is ! same size  
:5 x />ts & a trivial accid5t may cause 
!  de/ruction ( a :ole city4 ,fire      
dep>tm5ts are necess>y & !y  %\ld be    
kept up to ! highe/ effici5cy1 )        
well-tra9$ m5 &  motoriz$ app>atus2 b   
doll> = doll> ! money sp5t 9 prev5tion  
br+s f> m return ?an exp5ditures = putt+
 out fires aft]  !y occur4    ,! "w (   
fight+ fires is spectacul> & makes an   
impression on !  p2 !re is no?+         
spectacul> ab\t fire prev5tion1 h5ce x  

obta9s f> less att5tion f ! av]age      
individual4 ,newspap]s  devote great    
headl9es to ! brav]y ( ! fireman :o     
c>ries  somebody d[n ! %e] wall ( a high
 build+ 9 ! mid/ ( ro>+  flames & bl9d+ 
smoke1 b ! man :o quietly builds 8      
t5em5t  s t no su* rescue w ev] be      
necess>y--he gets no headl9es at  all4  
,= ?is ! newspap]s are ( c\rse n to     
blame2 !y m]ely  foll[ ! tr5d ( popul>  
int]e/4    ,! ,city's ,%>e 9 ,heal? &   
,welf>e ,"w4--,_m functions :i*  =m]ly  
devolv$ :olly ^u ! city gov]nm5t h n[   
be5 tak5  ov] to "s ext5t by ! /ate     
au?orities4 ,! /ate makes !  g5]al      
regulations & prescribes h[ ?+s %all be 
done1 b !  city (ficials /ill rema9     
l>gely responsible = putt+ !            
regulations into effect4 ,sid5ote3 ,!   
broad5+ field ( municipal  activity4    
,?is is true ( public heal? protection1 
public utilities1  poor-relief1         
correction1 sanitation1 & education1 all
 ( :i* are  dealt ) 9 lat] *apt]s ( ?is 
book4 ,no cle> sep>ation betwe5  /ate & 

local activities c be made n[adays1 !   
two ov]lap & are  int]mix$4 ,! city /ill
 reta9s1 h[ev]1 almo/ complete          
responsibility = ! c>e ( its /reets1 =  
/reet light+1 = !  ma9t5ance ( p>ks1 & =
 ! provision ( recreation4 ,b :e!r  x   
acts m]ely z ! ag5t ( ! /ate or entirely
 on its own behalf  ! city's functions  
are be+ broad5$ ye> by ye>4 ,x is       
expect$ to  d m & m = ! social welf>e ( 
its p4    ,sid5ote3 ,a typical example4 
,comp>e ! ,am]ican city ( today ) its   
prototype ( sev5ty-five  ye>s ago4 ,9   
#ahde1 = example1 ,bo/on 0 a city ( m   
?an #dj1jjj  p4 ,x _h no pav$ /reets1 n 
"o4 ,!re 0 no public wat]  supply2 ! p  
br\ght en\gh = _! daily ne$s f          
neighborhood wells4 ,a few sew]s _h be5 
built1 wood5 dra9s !y  71 & only 9 ! m  
?ickly-settl$ portions ( ! city4        
,provision = ! c>e ( ! public heal? 0   
altoge!r lack+2  !re 0 no regul> police 
=ce & only a volunte] bucket-brigade to 
put out fires4 ,public playgr\nds 7     
unkn[n2 s 7 public ba?s1  neighborhood  

c5t]s1 b& conc]ts1 bran* libr>ies1      
electric /reet  lights1 trolley c>s1    
subways1 & ! long li/ ( ?+s :i* come  )9
 ! range ( municipal ent]prise today4   
,^? 7 days (  int5se individualism :5   
welf>e "w 0 left almo/ :olly to  private
 auspices4 ,n[ ! city has become a lead]
 9 almo/ e =m  ( social & economic      
activity4 ,?is socializ+ ( urban life   
has gone  on1 & /ill goes on1 )\t       
attract+ mu* att5tion1 b x is "o  ( !   
mo/ f>-rea*+ developm5ts ( ! pa/ c5tury4
    ,sid5ote3 ,! problem ( mak+ bo? ends
 meet4    ,:]e w ! ,cities ,get !       
,money8--,?is expansion 9 municipal     
activities has br\ght ) x an incessant  
ne$ = m money--m  money = /reets1 p>ks1 
playgr\nds1 s*ools1 poor-relief1        
recreation1  p5sions1 & = a doz5 o!r    
?+s4 ,cities h _m h>d problems1  b !    
h>de/ ( all is t ( mak+ bo? ends meet4  
,new ent]prises  mean new exp5ditures1 &
 ev5 ! old] activities keep /eadily     
co/+ m4    ,sid5ote3 ,! effect ( high   
taxes4    ,n[ x might be surmis$ t ?is  

problem ( ways & means w\ld be an  easy 
"o to solve4 8,j raise ! tax rate & get 
m money0 someone  may sugge/4 ,t betrays
 ! exi/5ce ( a v common impression1     
namely1 t city tax rates h ! sky z _!   
limit4 ,b ! fact is  q o!rwise4 ,9 mo/  
cases1 to be sure1 !re is no legal      
limitation  ^u ! am\nt ( taxes :i* !    
city (ficials c exact f !  p2 ! limit is
 a purely practical "o4 ,mo/ ( ! city's 
rev5ue  comes f taxes ^u real           
prop]ty--on l&s & build+s 7see pp4      
#dde-ddf74 ,by rais+ ! tax rate on su*  
prop]ty additional rev5ue  c be secur$  
up to a c]ta9 po9t4 ,b :5 ! tax rate    
keeps on  increas+ ye> aft] ye> x f9ally
 rea*es a level :]e x becomes  an       
ob/acle to ! erection ( new build+s2 x  
det]s new indu/ries  f com+ to ! city2 x
 causes r5ts to rise & acts z a brake   
^u ! expansion ( bus9ess4 ,"u su*       
conditions ! value (  prop]ty /ops ris+ 
& may ev5 decl9e1 s t fur!r increases 9 
! tax rate d n yield a proportionate    
rev5ue4 ,! p1 moreov]1  gr[ re/ive "u ! 

so>+ tax rate on _! homes2 !y manife/   
_! displeasure by turn+ ! elective city 
(ficials out ( (fice  & in/all+ o!rs :o 
pl$ge !mselves to cut ! exp5ses d[n4    
,su* pl$ges1 z a matt] ( fact1 c r>ely  
be kept4 ,consid]able  economies are    
und\bt$ly practicable 9 ! gov]nm5t ( all
 ,am]ican  cities )\t exception2 b ! big
 outlays are b\nd to g on  increas+ s   
long z ! p keep mak+ dem&s = m & bett]  
s]vices4    ,sid5ote3 ,new] s\rces (    
rev5ue4    ,if m rev5ue mu/ be _h1 h[ c 
x be be/ obta9$8 ,taxes on  prop]ty h n[
 rea*$ a po9t 9 _m cities :]e !y c h>dly
  g mu* high]4 ,taxes on incomes are    
already levi$ by ! nation & by  "s ( !  
/ates2 ! cities c h>dly look =w>d to    
lay+ a heavy  tax on top ( ^!4 ,"s      
cities1 notably ,los ,angeles1          
,c9c9nati1 &  ,/4 ,l\is are impos+      
bus9ess taxes--s mu* p] ye> on e lawy]1 
doctor1 m]*ant1 deal]1 brok]1 & s on1 ! 
rate v>y+ 9 ea*  case4 ,*icago obta9s a 
consid]able income f a :eel tax impos$  
on  all automobiles :i* use ! city      

/reets4 ,ev]y:]e ! que/ = new  s\rces ( 
rev5ue is be+ c>ri$ on e>ne/ly b n ) any
 great  measure ( success4 ,"o s]i\s    
difficulty lies 9 ! fact t "s (  ! m    
lucrative s\rces h already be5 tapp$ by 
! national &  /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,congress 
& ! /ate legislatures are ke5ly on !    
sc5t = new rev5ues2 :]ev] ! opportunity 
appe>s1 !y seize x4  ,9 ?is way ! range 
f :i* ! cities may draw _! income is    
gradually be+ n>r[$4 ,x c fairly be     
said1 !re=e1 t !  problem ( pay+ its way
 is ! mo/ difficult ( all ! problems    
:i* confront ! ,am]ican city at ! pres5t
 "t4                                    
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1     
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4     
#fjc-fcg2 ,ibid41  ,read+s1 pp4         
#ece-eee2    ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,pr9ciples
 & ,me?ods ( ,municipal ,adm9i/ration1  
pp4  #cj-gc 7,city ,plann+72 #gd-aba    
7,/reets72 #bfj-cac 7,police            
,adm9i/ration72    ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1     
,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #a-bd2    ,f4
 ,j4 ,,goodn[ & ,f4 ,c4 ,,bates1        

,municipal ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #caf-cif2     
,f4 ,c4 ,,h[e1 ,! ,mod]n ,city & its    
,problems1 pp4 #cd-ge2    ,,ev]ett      
,,kimball1 ,/ate & ,municipal ,gov]nm5t1
 pp4 #ded-eej4                          
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,make a plan (   
adm9i/rative organization :i* w include 
!  und]m5tion$ municipal functions4     
,provide z few dep>tm5ts z  possible )\t
 putt+ unrelat$ functions into ! same   
dep>tm5t4  ,ea* dep>tm5t %\ld include   
all functions :i* are actually relat$  &
 none :i* are n relat$ to its ma9 "w4   
,consid]1 = example1  su* que/ions z ^!3
 ,%\ld playgr\nds be includ$ 9 ! s*ool  
dep>tm5t or comb9$ ) p>ks 9 "s o!r      
dep>tm5t8 ,:]e does  poor-relief belong1
 9 a dep>tm5t by itself or along ) heal?
 or  ) prisons & correction8 ,:]e %\ld  
we place ! public libr>y8  ,if y desire 
to include all ^! functions )9 sev5 or  
eight  dep>tm5ts1 ! public libr>y _c h a
 dep>tm5t all to itself4  ,:]e %\ld x g8
 ,?9k ov] c>efully ! prop] plac+ ( su*  
?+s z ! inspection ( weights & measures1

 audit+1 p5sions1  pr9t+1 assessm5ts &  
collection ( taxes1 billbo>ds1 c>e (    
hydrants1 c5sor%ip ( amusem5ts1 *>ities 
& poor-relief1 *ild  welf>e1 collection 
& disposal ( a%es1 excess condemnation1 
food &  milk inspection1 free employm5t 
bureaus1 free legal aid1 grade-cross+   
elim9ation1 hospital adm9i/ration1 h\s+ 
laws & _!  en=cem5t1 lic5s+1 limitation 
( build+ heights1 managem5t (  bridges &
 f]ries1 municipal acc\nts1 municipal   
budget mak+1  municipal conc]ts1        
municipal c\rts1 municipal pur*as+1 p>ks
 &  playgr\nds1 pav+1 playgr\nd         
adm9i/ration1 prev5tion (  inc5di>ism1  
prisons1 protection ( life & prop]ty1   
public light+1  public recreation1      
public wat] supply1 regi/ration ( vot]s1
 g>bage  collection & disposal1         
regulation ( explosives1 regulation ( ! 
location ( build+s1 sew]age & sewage    
disposal1 s9k+ funds1  smoke prev5tion1 
sn[ removal1 /reet con/ruction1 /reet   
wid5+1  sup]vision ( lodg+ h\ses1 tree  
plant+1 vocational & indu/rial          

education1 zon+4    #b4 ,select ?ree or 
f\r cities ( approximately ! same size z
 y\r  own & comp>e ! co/ ( public safety
 7police & fire dep>tm5t  exp5ditures7  
on ea* ( ! foll[+ bases3 7a7 p] capita2 
7b7  p] squ>e mile ( t]ritory2 7c7 p]   
#ajjj assess$ valuation4 7,!  data = all
 cities hav+ ov] #cj1jjj population c be
 f\nd 9 !  ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ! ,c5sus3  
,f9ancial ,/ati/ics ( ,cities late/     
edition47    #c4 ,:at we get = our city 
taxes4 ,make up f y\r own community's   
late/ annual report a table %[+ ! p]    
capita co/ = ea* =m  ( public s]vice    
7/reets1 p>ks1 s*ools1 poor-relief1     
etc474 ,!  figures 9 ! auditor's report 
divid$ by ! population w give y  !      
items4 ,:5 y\r table is complet$        
illu/rate x by draw+ a  circle ) sectors
 to repres5t ! division ( exp5diture4   
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,city plann+3 its  
scope & importance4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1    
,pr9ciples  & ,me?ods ( ,municipal      
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #cj-cg4    #b4 ,!    
city's /reets4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican 

,city ,gov]nm5t1 pp4  #bab-bfj4    #c4  
,! organization ( a city police =ce4    
,,raymond ,,fosdick1 ,european  ,police 
,sy/ems1 pp4 #ii-adh2 ,e4 ,d4           
,g,r,a,p,er1 ,am]ican ,police           
,adm9i/ration1 passim2 ,,raymond        
,,fosdick1 ,am]ican ,police ,sy/ems1    
pp4 #ahh-baf4    #d4 ,h[ ! public c help
 ! police4 ,,ar?ur ,,woods1 ,policeman &
  ,public1 pp4 #afb-agh4    #e4 ,:at    
fire prev5tion means4 ,e4 ,f4 ,,crok]1  
,fire ,prev5tion1 pp4  #a-cg4    #f4 ,! 
city's "w = ! social welf>e4 ,h4 ,g4    
,,james1 ,municipal  ,functions1 pp4    
#aej-ahe4    #g4 ,city p>ks & b\lev>ds4 
,,*>les ,,zuebl91 ,am]ican ,municipal   
,progress1 pp4 #bda-bge4    #h4 ,!      
city's "p 9 heal? protection4 ,,h5ry    
,,bru,,re1 ,! ,new ,city  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4
 #cad-ccd4    #i4 ,municipal recreation4
 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican ,city         
,gov]nm5t1 pp4  #ccd-cee2 ,,john ,,nol51
 ,city ,plann+1 pp4 #aci-aeh4    #aj4   
,rais+ & sp5d+ ! city's money4 ,w4 ,b4  
,,munro1 ,pr9ciples  & ,me?ods (        

,municipal ,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #djc-dgh4 
,que/ions    #a4 ,make 9 p>allel columns
 a li/ ( municipal functions :i* y  w\ld
 classify z 7a7 political2 7b7 social2  
7c7 economic or  bus9ess functions4     
#b4 ,c y give1 f y\r own obs]vation1 any
 examples ( ! ne$less  exp5se or public 
inconv5i5ce due to ! failure ( city     
dep>tm5ts  to co-op]ate prop]ly8    #c4 
,take any atlas :i* conta9s ! /reet     
plans ( ! l>g] cities  & po9t out       
examples ( ! foll[+3 7a7 gridiron or    
*eck]bo>d  plann+2 7b7 diagonal av5ues2 
7c7 radial /reets2 7d7 in=mal  lay\t (  
/reets4    #d4 ,select "s portion ( y\r 
own city :i* seems to y to be well      
plann$ & "s section :i* seems to be     
poorly plann$4 ,give reasons  = y\r     
selections4    #e4 ,make a sket* plan = 
a resid5tial suburb ab\t "o mile squ>e  
on  level gr\nd ) a small riv]1 two     
hundr$ feet wide1 runn+ f  ea/ to we/   
?r\gh x4 ,ea* build+ lot is to conta91  
on !  av]age1 ab\t #bj1jjj squ>e feet ) 
access to bo? a /reet & an  alley4 ,make

 provision = "o d\ble track /reet       
railway1 conv5i5tly  locat$4 ,indicate  
appropriate locations = a "o-acre p>k1  
an  elem5t>y s*ool1 a playgr\nd1 a bran*
 ( ! public libr>y1 a  police /ation1 a 
fire eng9e /ation1 a bridge1 a ba? h\se1
 & an  a?letic field4    #f4 ,:at is !  
geographical c5t] ( y\r community8 ,!   
c5t] (  population8 ,! c5t] ( access1 t 
is1 ! po9t :i*1 by reason (  traffic    
facilities c be mo/ quickly & easily    
rea*$ by ! l>ge/  numb] ( p8 ,if a civic
 c5t] 7 be+ e/abli%$1 :]e ought  x to be
 plac$ & :y8    #g4 ,9 ! l>ge/ cities   
!re are ab\t #bj policem5 = e #aj1jjj   
p1 9 small] cities only #aj or #ab4 ,:y 
is ?is8 ,is ! numb] (  arre/s made by a 
policeman an indication ( 8 effici5cy8  
,sc&als  are frequ5t 9 ! police         
dep>tm5ts ( l>ge cities & ?is is        
sometimes expla9$ by say+ t ! police are
 expos$ to m  temptations ?an any o!r   
city (ficials4 ,discuss ?is explanation4
    #h4 ,:at 9 y\r op9ion are ! mo/     
common causes ( fires8 ,_m  s*ools set  

ap>t "o day 9 ! ye> z ,fire ,prev5tion  
,day4 ,make  "s sugge/ions conc]n+ a    
suitable program = ?is occasion4    #i4 
,c y ?9k ( any s\rces ( rev5ue n n[     
utiliz$ by cities  :i* might be drawn ^u
 to meet an urg5t ne$ )\t ar\s+ a  great
 deal ( opposition f ! p8    #aj4 ,:at  
civic organizations 9 y\r community are 
help+ ! public  (ficials to solve _!    
problems8 ,give an acc\nt ( ! purposes &
  "w ( ea*4                             
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,a maximum     
limit %\ld be impos$ by ! /ate law ^u ! 
tax rates  ( cities4    #b4 ,city       
employees1 includ+ policem5 & firem51   
%\ld 7or %\ld  n7 h ! "r to jo9 a labor 
organization4    #c4 ,all public "w %\ld
 be done by contract 7or by ! city's own
  employees74                           
,,*apt] ,,xii                           
,,/ate ,,gov]nm5t ,,9 ,,outl9e        ,!
 purpose ( ?is *apt] is to expla9 !     
relation ( !      /ates to ! nation1 to 
%[ h[ ! /ate gov]nm5ts are              
organiz$1 & :at s]vices !y r5d] ! p4    

,sid5ote3 ,place ( ! /ates 9 ! nation4  
,! ,sov]eign ,/ates4--,x is cu/om>y to  
speak ( ! ,am]ican  ,republic z made up 
( 8sov]eign /ates01 b unless ?is        
expression is  cle>ly expla9$ x is apt  
to be mislead+4 ,on ,july #d?1 #aggf1 ! 
?irte5 colonies became free & indep5d5t 
/ates1 ea* entitl$ to  frame its own    
plan ( gov]nm5t4 ,^! new /ates 7 subject
 to no  re/rictions except ! v mild ones
 :i*1 by adopt+ ! ,articles  (          
,conf$]ation1 !y _h agre$ to place ^u   
!mselves4 ,!y 7  v jeal\s ( _!          
indep5d5ce & dis9cl9$ to surr5d] any (  
_! p[]s1 ev5 to create a unifi$ nation4 
,= ?is reason1 :5 !  national           
con/itution 0 fram$ 9 #aghg1 ! /ates    
res]v$ to  !mselves all p[]s n convey$  
to ! new f$]al gov]nm5t by !  provisions
 ( t docum5t4 ,x 0 int5d$ t !           
prepond]ance (  p[] %\ld re/ ) ! /ates1 
t mo/ ( ! "w ( gov]nm5t  %\ld be p]=m$  
by !m1 & t ! fir/ int]e/ ( ! citiz5     
%\ld be 9 ! affairs ( 8 own /ate4       
,sid5ote3 ,relative /r5g? ( ! national &

 ! /ate gov]nm5ts4    ,b sc>cely _h !   
new f$]al gov]nm5t become e/abli%$ :5 x 
began to ga!r /r5g?4 ,by a s]ies (      
decisions ! ,supreme ,c\rt  gave a      
lib]al int]pretation to ! p[]s (        
,congress z set =? 9  ! con/itution1 ea*
 decision wid5+ ! au?ority ( ! c5tral   
gov]nm5t4 ,! /ate gov]nm5ts did n look )
 favor ^u ?is  developm5t2 b on ! :ole !
 p ( ! c\ntry approv$ x4  ,little by    
little ! nation =g$ ahead ( ! /ates 9   
its hold ^u  ! int]e/ & loyalty ( ! p4  
,! ,civil ,w> 0 an important  factor 9  
all ?is1 = ! real issue 9 t conflict    
conc]n$ !  respective rights ( ! f$]al &
 ! /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,! union  came out ( 
! w> mu* /rong] ?an be=e & = ! la/ sixty
  ye>s x has kept ga9+4 ,today p ?9k (  
!mselves z citiz5s  ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 r
 ?an z citiz5s ( a p>ticul> /ate2  _!   
fir/ int]e/ is 9 matt]s ( national      
gov]nm5t2 !y look to  ! nation = !      
solution ( all ! great problems & are   
dispos$  to give ! national gov]nm5t ev5
 broad] p[]s1 z rec5t  am5dm5ts to !    

con/itution h %[n4#ia ,9 !ory ! place ( 
! /ates 9 ! nation is almo/ exactly :at 
x 0 a hundr$ &  ?irty ye>s ago2 !y /ill 
rema9 sov]eign 9 "n2 b 9 actual  fact _!
 relative au?ority has be5 greatly      
dim9i%$4    ,sid5ote3 ,pres5t importance
 ( /ate gov]nm5t4    ,nev]!less !       
=ty-eight /ates are ev5 yet v f be+ m]e 
adm9i/rative divisions z are ! c\nties (
 ,engl& or !  dep>tm5ts 9 ,france4 ,9 ^!
 two c\ntries ! gov]nm5t is highly      
c5traliz$2 all p[] emanates f ,london or
 f ,p>is4 ,9 ,am]ica  ! =ty-eight /ate  
capitals are /ill ! location ( important
  gov]nm5tal p[]s & 9 all probability w 
cont9ue to be4 ,?is  dec5tralization 9  
gov]nm5t sometimes leads to friction &  
controv]sy2 b x has ! advantage ( keep+ 
! p 9 m  direct control ( _! local      
affairs4    ,sid5ote3 ,t]ritories made  
into /ates4    ,h[ ,/ates are           
,admitt$4--,9 addition to ! ?irte5      
orig9al /ates  !re 0 t]ritory en\gh 9   
#aghg = ! creation ( _m m4 ,all  ! l&   
ea/ ( ! ,mississippi _h be5 surr5d]$ by 

,great ,brita9  & al?\gh mu* ( ?is 0    
claim$ by ! /ates along ! ,atlantic     
seabo>d !y f9ally agre$ to turn x all   
ov] to ,congress4 ,!  national gov]nm5t 
!reupon made provision = gov]n+ ?is     
t]ritory & expressly /ipulat$ t x %\ld  
be giv5 rights (  /atehood :5ev] ! gr[? 
( population might w>rant t /ep4 ,a     
little lat] ! ,l\isiana t]ritory 0      
pur*as$2 !n ,florida1 &  f "t to "t dur+
 ! next fifty ye>s additional areas 7   
obta9$ 9 ! ,s\?we/1 ,nor?we/1 & ,we/4 ,9
 e case ^!  areas 7 adm9i/]$ by         
t]ritorial gov]nm5ts "u ! au?ority  (   
,congress1 b always ) ! /ipulation t !  
t]ritories w\ld  become /ates z soon z  
!y _h obta9$ a suffici5t population4    
,we d n commonly ?9k ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates z
 a coloniz+ p[]1 9  ! s5se t ,great     
,brita9 has be5 su*1 nev]!less ! :ole   
hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican p has be5 a *ronicle
 ( colonization4  ,f ! ,allegh5ies to ! 
,pacific ocean ! m>* ( settlem5t w5t    
/eadily on = ne>ly a hundr$ ye>s2 l&s 7 
?r[n op5 to  settl]s2 t]ritories 7 =m$2 

& 9 ! end ea* t]ritory became  a /ate4  
,sid5ote3 ,/eps 9 admission to /atehood4
    ,! mak]s ( ! f$]al con/itution _h no
 idea1 ( c\rse1 t !  union w\ld ev]     
become s l>ge1 b !y did =esee t "s day  
!re w\ld be m ?an ?irte5 /ates4 ,h5ce1  
!y made provision 9  ! con/itution t new
 /ates might be admitt$ f "t to "t at  !
 discretion ( ,congress4 ,9 keep+ ) ?is 
provision ! usual  fir/ /ep is ! s5d+ ( 
a petition to ,congress f ! p (  !      
t]ritory :i* seeks to be admitt$4 ,if   
,congress reg>ds ?is  petition ) favor x
 passes an ,enabl+ ,act1 :i* au?orizes !
  p ( ! t]ritory to draw up a t5tative  
/ate con/itution4 ,?is  docum5t1 hav+   
be5 fram$ & ratifi$ at ! polls by ! p ( 
! t]ritory1 is !n submitt$ to ,congress4
 ,if ,congress f9ds !  con/itution      
satisfactory1 x may !n1 by resolution1  
decl>e !  t]ritory to be a /ate4        
,congress has be5 g5]\s 9 grant+ full   
/atehood to ! home t]ritories1 9 "s     
cases ev5 be=e !y _h  acquir$ l>ge      
populations1 & ?is attitude has be5     

wise4 ,x has  weld$ ! c\ntry toge!r z no
 o!r policy c\ld h unifi$ x4    ,! ,new]
 ,t]ritories4--,d[n to #ahfg1 !re=e1 !  
problem (  t]ritorial gov]nm5t 0 n      
difficult & x 0 always h&l$             
satisfactorily4 ,sid5ote3 ,h[ !         
t]ritories 7 gov]n$4 ,ea*  t]ritory 0   
adm9i/]$ by a gov]nor1 :o 0 appo9t$ by !
  ,presid5t1 & by a t]ritorial          
legislature :i* 0 elect$ by !  p4 ,laws 
pass$ by ! t]ritorial legislature 7     
subject to  disapproval by ,congress1 b 
?is "r 0 seldom ex]cis$4 ,! p  ( !      
t]ritories quickly %[$ _! capacity to   
gov]n !mselves  & ,congress let !m      
alone4 ,b aft] ! ,civil ,w> & p>ticul>ly
  aft] ! ,spani% ,w>1 t]ritorial        
problems ( a new sort arose4  ,sid5ote3 
,! new insul> t]ritories4 ,9 #ahfg !    
,unit$ ,/ates  pur*as$ ,alaska f        
,russia2 9 #ahih ,porto ,rico & !       
,philipp9es  7 acquir$ f ,spa92 9 ! same
 ye> ,hawaii 0 annex$1 &  dur+ ! pa/    
qu>t] ( a c5tury o!r di/ant possessions 
7,samoa1  ! ,panama ,canal ,zone1 & !   

,virg9 ,isl&s7 h be5 add$4    ,sid5ote3 
,c !y be admitt$ z /ates8    ,^!        
acquisitions diff] f ! old t]ritories 9 
two respects2 !y  are outside ! regul>  
national b\nd>ies 79 "s cases f>        
outside71  & !y conta9 = ! mo/ "p       
populations :i* h n _h mu*  exp]i5ce 9  
self-gov]nm5t4#ib ,all h be5 giv5 "s =m 
(  t]ritorial gov]nm5t2 b ! "q is3 ,c !y
 be ultimately  admitt$ z /ates ( !     
union8 ,if !y %\ld be s admitt$1 !y  mu/
 be giv5 exactly ! same rights z all !  
o!r /ates4 ,!re is  no su* ?+ z p>tial  
or qualifi$ admission4 ,if ,porto ,rico 
or ,hawaii  %\ld be admitt$ to /atehood 
!y w h exactly ! same /atus  z ,new     
,york or ,p5nsylvania4    ,sid5ote3     
,future ( ^! isl&s4    ,?ree c\rses are 
op54 ,fir/1 ^! t]ritories may be admitt$
 9 due  c\rse to full rights ( /atehood4
 ,9 ! case ( ,alaska1 ,hawaii1 &  ,porto
 ,rico ?is policy may be ! "o adopt$ if 
_! populations are  deem$ to be l>ge    
en\gh4 ,second1 ! exi/+ =m ( t]ritorial 
gov]nm5t may be cont9u$ indef9itely4    

,?is means t !y w\ld  h a l>ge measure (
 control ov] _! own local affairs b n   
full control 9 ! s5se t ! /ates h x4    
,?ird1 !y might be  giv5 _! indep5d5ce )
 a gu>antee ( ,am]ican protection f     
outside enemies4 ,9 ! case ( !          
,philipp9es ?is is virtually :at  has   
be5 promis$2 b indep5d5ce is n to be    
giv5 until ! isl&s  prove entirely      
capable ( gov]n+ !mselves4#ic ,ap>t f ! 
,philipp9es none ( ^! t]ritories is ask+
 = indep5d5ce4#id    ,! ,/ate           
,con/itutions4--,x has be5 po9t$ out t  
be=e any  t]ritory is admitt$ z a /ate x
 mu/ frame a con/itution4  ,sid5ote3    
,/ate con/itutional conv5tions4 ,?is    
con/itution is  drawn1 z a rule1 by a   
con/itutional conv5tion compos$ (       
delegates  elect$ by ! p4 ,su* a        
conv5tion is call$ :5 a /ate ent]s  !   
union & aga9 :5ev] a g5]al revision ( ! 
orig9al docum5t  seems to be desirable4 
,z a rule !re is an int]val ( t5 ye>s or
  m betwe5 su* conv5tions & sometimes an
 int]val ( ?irty or  =ty ye>s4#ie ,due  

to diff]5ces 9 ! gr[? & progress ( !    
/ate a con/itution may become out-(-date
 9 "o m rapidly ?an 9  ano!r4 ,if only  
slight alt]ations 9 ! con/itution are   
ne$$1 x  is n necess>y or usual to call 
a conv5tion4 ,individual am5dm5ts1  z w 
be %[n pres5tly1 c be made m easily4    
,:at ^! ,con/itutions ,conta94--,^! /ate
 con/itutions are r  long docum5ts1 mu* 
long] ?an ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates4  ,9 e>ly days !y 7 mu* %ort]1 b 
! /ate gov]nm5ts p]=m  f> m num]\s      
functions today ?an !y did fifty ye>s   
ago4 ,x has  become ! t5d5cy1 moreov]1 9
 rec5t ye>s to cov] _m ?+s 9            
con/itutions :i* =m]ly 7 left to be     
dealt ) by acts ( !  legislature4 ,?is  
has meant a great l5g!n+ ( con/itutional
  provisions4    ,9 g5]al a /ate        
con/itution sets =? ! =m ( gov]nm5t1    
prescribes ! p[]s & duties ( /ate       
(fic]s1 prohibits !  legislature f do+  
c]ta9 ?+s 7su* z *ang+ ! /ate  capitol1 
= example71 & gu>antees c]ta9 fundam5tal
 rights to !  citiz5s4 ,b ?is is n all4 

,"s ( !m conta9 long provisions  relat+ 
to ! p[]s ( local gov]nm5ts1 ! pay (    
(ficials1 !  borr[+ ( money1 & !        
regulation ( banks4 ,putt+ su* details  
into ! /ate con/itution is an unwise    
policy because con/itutional  provisions
 are difficult to *ange1 :]eas ^! v>i\s 
matt]s ne$  to be dealt ) some:at       
diff]5tly f "t to "t4    ,sid5ote3 ,!   
two me?ods ( am5dm5t4    ,h[ ,/ate      
,con/itutions are ,am5d$4--,!re are two 
common ways (  am5d+ a /ate con/itution4
 ,! fir/1 :i* exi/s 9 ne>ly all !       
/ates1 is by concurr5t action ( !       
legislature & ! p4 ,!  legislature takes
 ! fir/ /ep by propos+ ! am5dm5t2 !n !  
p at ! polls accept or reject !         
proposal4#if ,! o!r way is  by action ( 
! p alone4 ,by means ( ! initiative1 z  
already  describ$1 ! p may propose an   
am5dm5t1 h x put on !  ballot1 & accept 
or reject x z !y desire4 ,?is me?od (   
am5d+  ! con/itution is us$ 9 less ?an  
half ! /ates & ev5 !re x  is n employ$ )
 great frequ5cy4 ,! great majority ( !  

am5dm5ts to /ate con/itutions 7scores ( 
!m are made e ye> 9  ! c\ntry z a :ole7 
are made by ! fir/-nam$ plan4           
,sid5ote3 ,! /ates h ! residuum ( p[]s4 
,! ,p[]s ( ! ,/ates4--,"s ye>s ago a    
=eign /ud5t (  gov]nm5t1 desir+ to f9d  
out :at p[]s belong$ to ! legislature  (
 ,massa*usetts1 took a copy ( ! /ate    
con/itution & began  read+ x c>efully4  
,mu* to 8 surprise he f\nd t x conta9$  
no  li/ ( ! p[]s :i* ! legislature might
 ex]cise b m]ely  /at$ "s ?+s :i* !     
legislature mu/ n d4 ,! reason =  ?is1 (
 c\rse1 is simple en\gh4 ,! /ates reta9 
all ! p[]s  :i* !y h n giv5 to !        
national gov]nm5t4 ,! way to f9d  out   
:e!r a /ate possesses a c]ta9 p[] is to 
look 9 !  con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4
 ,if ! p[] is !re giv5  exclusively to  
,congress or prohibit$ to ! /ates1 !n ! 
/ate  legislature _c ex]cise x4 ,b if ! 
p[] is n m5tion$ 9 !  national          
con/itution1 ei!r expressly or by       
implication1 !n !  /ate legislatures h  
x4    ,on ?is basis a c]ta9 division (  

p[]s is made betwe5 ! nation  & ! /ates4
 ,! g5]al pr9ciples on :i* ! division is
 made are  easy en\gh to und]/&1 b !    
exact di/ribution ( p[]s is  some?+ t c 
only be ma/]$ by /udy+ x4 ,ev5 lawy]s d 
n  always get hold ( x accurately &     
newspap]s are con/antly mak+  mi/akes   
because !y fail to realize j :]e !      
b\nd>ies ( !  v>i\s gov]nm5tal p[]s beg9
 & end4 ,s let u try to cond5se !  matt]
 into a nut%ell1 or1 to be m accurate1  
into f\r nut%ells z  foll[s3    #a4 ,"s 
p[]s belong exclusively to ! nation4 ,^!
 include !  p[] to decl>e w>1 to        
regulate =eign & int]/ate comm]ce1 to   
co9 money1 to e/abli% po/ (fices1 & s   
on4 ,no %>e 9 !  managem5t ( ^! ?+s     
belongs to ! /ate gov]nm5ts4    #b4 ,"s 
p[]s belong concurr5tly bo? to ! nation 
& ! /ates4  ,bo? ! nation & ! /ates1 ea*
 )9 its own sph]e1 h !  p[] to tax1 to  
borr[ money1 to *>t] banks1 to promote  
education1  & to d _m o!r ?+s4 ,^! are  
call$ concurr5t p[]s because  ! national
 & /ate au?orities may bo? ex]cise !m at

 ! same  "t4    #c4 ,"s p[]s are        
prohibit$ to ! nation & "s are prohibit$
 to  ! /ates4 ,! national & /ate        
gov]nm5ts1 = example1 are  =bidd5 to    
pass any bill ( atta9d]1 to grant titles
 ( nobility1 or  to take private prop]ty
 = public use )\t comp5sation4 ,!       
/ates1 9 addition1 are =bidd5 to make   
treaties1 co9 money1 or levy  t>iff     
duties4 ,!re are v>i\s o!r prohibitions 
^u bo? ! nation  or ! /ates1 z w be se5 
by read+ c>efully ! provisions (  !     
national con/itution4#ig    #d4 ,all o!r
 gov]nm5tal p[]s are res]v$ to ! /ates4 
,e  p[] :i* does n fall )9 ! =ego+ ?ree 
classes belongs to  ! sev]al /ates      
exclusively4 ,?is is n only 9 accordance
 ) !  !ory ( ! national con/itution z a 
grant ( p[]s b x is  expressly /at$ 9 ! 
,t5? ,am5dm5t4#ih    ,sid5ote3 ,features
 :i* are simil> 9 all ! /ates4    ,!    
,g5]al ,simil>ity ( ,/ate               
,gov]nm5ts4--,no two /ates1 among !     
=ty-eight1 are gov]n$ alike4 ,a         
description ( /ate gov]nm5t 9           

,massa*usetts w\ld n fit ,ill9ois1 mu*  
less ,idaho or ,nevada4 ,on !  o!r h& no
 two /ates are gov]n$ v diff]5tly2 9 all
 !  ess5tial features !y con=m to a s+le
 type4 ,!y all h  con/itutions2 e /ate  
has an elective legislature ( two       
*amb]s2  ea* has an elective gov]nor2 & 
!y all h /ate c\rts4 ,9 all  ! /ates !re
 is univ]sal suffrage 7save = !         
exclusion (  negroes 9 ! ,s\?72 ! secret
 ballot is us$ ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry2  ! same
 political p>ties are 9 exi/5ce ev]y:]e 
f ! ,atlantic  to ! ,pacific2 & !       
pr9cipal laws are ess5tially ! same4 ,! 
citiz5 :o moves f "o /ate to ano!r f9ds 
! diff]5ce s  slight t x is h>dly       
noticeable4 ,x is n wor? :ile1 !re=e1   
to sp5d any "t 9 /udy+ ! po9ts (        
diff]5ce betwe5 !  gov]nm5t ( "o /ate & 
t ( ano!r4 ,/ate gov]nm5t ev]y:]e  has  
n[ be5 r$uc$ to a type :i* is uni=m =   
all practical  purposes4    ,sid5ote3   
,organization ( ! /ate legislature4     
,! ,/ate ,legislature4--,e /ate has a   
legislature :i* is !  p>am\nt bran* ( ! 

/ate gov]nm5t4 ,x makes ! laws1 levies !
  /ate taxes1 appropriates money = !    
managem5t ( /ate  adm9i/ration1 &       
decides all que/ions ( public policy4   
,?is  legislature is compos$ ( two      
*amb]s1 :i* h sub/antially  concurr5t   
lawmak+ p[]s4 ,! upp] *amb]1 commonly   
call$ !  ,s5ate1 is ! small] ( ! two2   
its memb]s are elect$ by c\nties  or    
s5atorial di/ricts1 usually = a t]m (   
two or f\r ye>s4 ,!  l[] *amb]1 :i* is  
v>i\sly kn[n z ! ,assembly1 or ,h\se (  
,repres5tatives1 or ,h\se ( ,delegates1 
is mu* ! l>g] body2 its  memb]s are also
 elect$ f c\nties or p>ts ( c\nties4    
,nom9ations  are made ei!r by conv5tions
 or by a prim>y2 ! latt] is n[ !  m     
common me?od except 9 ! ,s\!rn /ates4   
,sessions ( !  legislature are held e   
alt]nate ye> except 9 a few /ates :]e   
!y are held annually4    ,sid5ote3 ,!   
legislature's p[]s4    ,! p[]s ( ! /ate 
legislature are 9 actual op]ation v     
broad4  ,!y comprise ! :ole field (     
lawmak+ except 9 s f> z x has  be5      

re/rict$ by ! national con/itution or by
 ! con/itution (  ! /ate itself4 ,! /ate
 laws come clos] to ! life ( !          
individual ?an d ^? ( ! nation4#ii ,!y  
make provision = !  regi/ration ( a     
*ild's bir?2 !y det]m9e ! age at :i* he 
mu/  g to s*ool2 !y e/abli% ! s*ools &  
fix ! qualifications (  ! tea*]s4 ,:5 ! 
boy becomes a man he w f9d t ! /ate     
laws regulate 8 pr(ession or bus9ess4 ,!
 /ate laws enable him to  m>ry1 to      
accumulate prop]ty1 to vote1 & to hold  
(fice4 ,:5 he dies  ! /ate laws regulate
 ! transmission ( 8 prop]ty to 8 heirs4 
,?us f bir? to dea? ! citiz5 comes almo/
 daily into contact  ) ! lawmak+        
au?ority ( ! /ate4 ,^! laws det]m9e mo/ 
(  ! taxes t he pays2 !y safegu>d 8     
life1 heal?1 & prop]ty2  !y puni% him :5
 he does wrong2 & !y provide = 8        
ma9t5ance  if he becomes poor or crippl$
 or insane4 ,:]e ! f$]al gov]nm5t  t\*es
 ! citiz5 once1 ! /ate gov]nm5t t\*es   
him a doz5  times4 ,! av]age citiz5 does
 n always appreciate ?is fact4          

,sid5ote3 ,! process ( /ate legislation4
    ,! cons5t ( bo? *amb]s ( ! /ate     
legislature is necess>y to  ! mak+ (    
laws4 ,! process ( lawmak+ is v mu* l t 
us$  9 ,congress 7see pp4 #bge-bgh74    
,bills are introduc$1 ref]r$ to         
committees1 report$ back to !           
legislature1 & vot$ on by ea*           
*amb]4#ajj ,disagreem5ts betwe5 ! two   
*amb]s are adju/$ by a  conf]5ce        
committee4 ,! rules ( proc$ure are v    
complicat$ &  new memb]s ( a /ate       
legislature (t5 h "s difficulty 9       
und]/&+ !m4 ,! purpose ( ! rules is     
?reefold3 ,to exp$ite  bus9ess1 to      
ensure ! c>eful consid]ation ( ea*      
measure1 & to  protect ! rights ( !     
m9ority p>ty 9 ! legislature4 ,despite !
  rules1 h[ev]1 legislative bus9ess is  
(t5 unduly delay$2 at o!r  times        
measures are hu/l$ ?r\gh )\t prop]      
consid]ation1 & !  rights ( ! m9ority   
are frequ5tly ov]-ridd54#aja ,?is is    
done by  susp5d+ ! rules or by m]ely    
disreg>d+ !m4    ,sid5ote3 ,! gov]nor4  

,! ,/ate ,executive4--,! executive bran*
 ( ! /ate gov]nm5t is  made up ( !      
gov]nor & ! heads ( ! v>i\s /ate        
dep>tm5ts4  ,! gov]nor is elect$ by ! p 
= a t]m ( two or f\r ye>s4  ,8 p[]s are 
ext5sive4 ,he is *>g$ ) ! g5]al         
sup]vision  ov] ! en=cem5t ( ! laws & ! 
conduct ( adm9i/rative  affairs4 ,he    
makes mo/ ( ! important appo9tm5ts to   
/ate  adm9i/rative (fices1 ! *ief       
exceptions be+ ! heads ( /ate  dep>tm5ts
 & ! judges ( ! /ate c\rts1 bo? ( :om   
are 9 mo/  cases elect$ by ! p4 ,!      
gov]nor's appo9tm5ts1 be=e !y  become   
effective1 usually require confirmation 
by ! upp] bran* (  ! /ate legislature or
 by an elective executive c\ncil4 ,:]e !
  civil s]vice sy/em is 9 =ce1 moreov]1 
x places a limit on !  gov]nor's        
discretion 9 appo9tm5ts4 ,! gov]nor also
 possesses !  veto p[] ov] acts ( ! /ate
 legislature1 b ?is may be  ov]-ridd51 z
 a rule1 by a two-?irds vote ( bo?      
*amb]s4 ,9 all  ess5tial features ! veto
 p[] ( ! gov]nor is mu* l t (  !        

,presid5t4 ,! p[] to p>don (f5d]s       
convict$ 9 ! /ate  c\rts likewise       
belongs to ! gov]nor 9 mo/ /ates2 9 "s  
/ates1  h[ev]1 he mu/ obta9 ! concurr5ce
 ( a p>don+-bo>d or "s  o!r au?ority1 & 
9 a few /ates ! entire p[] ( p>don is   
giv5  to a special bo>d4 ,! gov]nor is  
comm&]-9-*ief ( ! /ate  militia & may   
call x out = s]vice 9 em]g5cies4 ,l !   
,presid5t ! gov]nor is removable f (fice
 by impea*m5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,(ficials & 
bo>ds4    ,= c>ry+ on its adm9i/rative  
"w ! /ate has1 9 addition to  ! gov]nor1
 a consid]able numb] ( adm9i/rative     
(ficials &  bo>ds4 ,^! include !        
secret>y ( /ate1 :o keeps ! (ficial     
records2 ! treasur]2 ! auditor2 !       
attorney-g5]al1 :o conducts  ! legal    
affairs ( ! /ate2 ! /ate sup]9t5d5t or  
commission]  ( education2 toge!r ) /ate 
bo>ds ( heal?1 *>ity1 public  works1    
public utilities1 & s on4 ,! titles &   
functions ( ^!  v>i\s bo>ds diff]       
greatly f /ate to /ate4 ,9 ,massa*usetts
  !re are only tw5ty-"o /ate dep>tm5ts2 

9 ,new ,york !re are m  ?an "o hundr$4  
,ev]y:]e ! numb] displays a t5d5cy to   
increase1  = ! functions ( ! /ate are   
ev]y:]e broad5+4 ,! (ficials  & memb]s (
 bo>ds :o p]=m all ?is adm9i/rative "w  
are  sometimes elect$ b m (t5 !y are    
appo9t$ by ! gov]nor4    ,! ,/ate       
,c\rts3 ,_! ,organization4--,9 ea* /ate 
!re are ?ree  gradations 9 ! judici>y1 &
 sometimes f\r4 ,fir/1 !re are local    
c\rts1 presid$ ov] by ju/ices ( ! peace1
 or police ju/ices4  ,^! c\rts try cases
 ( m9or importance4 ,:5 p]sons *>g$ )   
s]i\s (f5ces are br\ght be=e !m1 !      
(f5d]s are held =  trial by ! next high]
 c\rt4 ,^! next high] c\rts are kn[n z  
c\nty or di/rict or sup]ior c\rts4 ,!y  
are emp[]$ to conduct  jury trials2 !y h
 prosecut+ attorneys at _! s]vice2 !y h 
a wid] range ( jurisdiction to try      
important cases1 & _!  decisions are    
usually f9al s f> z ! facts ( ! case are
  conc]n$4 ,f9ally1 !re is 9 ea* /ate a 
supreme c\rt 7sometimes  call$ ! ,c\rt (
 ,errors7 :i* he>s appeals1 *iefly on   

disput$  po9ts ( law1 f ! c\rts bel[4   
,?is c\rt is compos$ ( f  five to fifte5
 judges 7! numb] is fix$ by law 9 ea*   
/ate71 &  x has ! la/ ^w 9 all cases    
save :]e an appeal may be tak5 to  !    
,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4#ajb   
,sid5ote3 ,! election vs4 ! appo9tm5t ( 
judges4    ,! ,selection & ,removal (   
,judges4--,9 m ?an ?ree-f\r?s ( !  /ates
 ! judges ( ^! v>i\s c\rts are elect$ by
 ! p4 ,9  ! re/ !y are ei!r appo9t$ by !
 gov]nor or *os5 by !  /ate legislature4
 ,"o plan _c be said1 9 g5]al t]ms1 to  
be  bett] ?an ! o!r4 ,good judges h be5 
secur$ by all ?ree  me?ods ( selection1 
& poor ones too4 ,x is wor? not+1 h[ev]1
  t ! judges ( all ! f$]al c\rts are    
appo9t$ = life &  t !y are m5 ( f9e     
quality4#ajc ,x is ev]y:]e conc$$ t  !  
c\rts ought to be kept out ( p>ty       
politics & ?is is mu*  easi] if ! judges
 are appo9t$ = life or = long t]ms ?an  
if  !y are *os5 by ! p = %ort t]ms4 ,b  
:e!r appo9t$ or  elect$ x is desirable t
 judges1 s long z _! "w is              

satisfactory1 %\ld be kept 9 (fice4 ,if 
judges are d5i$  reappo9tm5t or         
re-election because _! decisions d n    
prove  popul> ) ^? :o are influ5tial 9  
politics1 x w be v h>d  to get m5 (     
ability & integrity to accept judicial  
positions4                              
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,simplifi$ ,,/ate ,,adm9i/ration       
,sev]al /ates h simplifi$ _!            
adm9i/rative            ma*9]y dur+     
rec5t ye>s by r$uc+ ! numb]            (
 /ate dep>tm5ts4 ,ill9ois is "o ( ^!4   
,its            plan ( adm9i/rative     
organization1 z %[n on !                
rev]se ( ?is page1 is simple en\gh = any
 vot]            to und]/&4 ,?is        
contra/s ) ! situation 9            ,new
 ,york ,/ate1 :]e !re are m ?an a hundr$
            adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts4     
7,,ill9ois7                             
,,vot]s ,,( ,,! ,,/ate     ,attorney    
,g5]al ,,t]m3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,con/4         
,auditor ( ,public ,acc\nts ,,t]m3 #d   

,,yrs4 ,,con/4   ,secret>y ( ,/ate      
,,t]m3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,con/4     ,gov]nor   
,,t]m3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,con/4     ,civil     
,s]vice ,commission #c ,,memb]s ,,t]m3  
#f ,,ye>s ,,/at4     ,dept4 ( ,f9ance   
,dept4 ( ,agriculture     ,dept4 (      
,labor     ,dept4 ( ,m9es & ,m9]als     
,dept4 ( ,public ,works & ,build+s      
,dept4 ( ,public ,welf>e     ,dept4 (   
,public ,heal?     ,dept4 ( ,trade &    
,comm]ce     ,dept4 ( ,regi/ration &    
,education     ,lieut5ant ,gov]nor      
,,t]m3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,con/4     ,treasur]  
,,t]m3 #b ,,yrs4 ,,con/4     ,supt4 (   
,public ,in/ruction   ,,t]m3 #d ,,yrs4  
,,con/4     ,tru/ees ,univ]sity (       
,ill9ois   #i ,,elec4 ,,memb]s   ,,t]m3 
#f ,,yrs4 ,,/at4   ,,g5]al ,,draft+     
,,co4 ,,inc4 ,n4,y4                     
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,! pres5t weakness4    ,! ,ne$
 ( ,re=m 9 ,/ate ,adm9i/ration4--,!re   
are two di/9ct  weaknesses 9 /ate       
adm9i/ration at ! pres5t day4 ,"o       

results f  ! fact t ! functions ( ! /ate
 h be5 enorm\sly exp&$  dur+ ! pa/ fifty
 ye>s :ile ! adm9i/rative ma*9]y has n  
kept pace4 ,! /ate has tak5 ov] new     
duties 9 ! field ( public  heal?1 !     
regulation ( indu/ry1 ! adm9i/ration (  
prisons1 !  control ( public utilities1 
& _m o!r matt]s4 ,9 ea* case x has      
m]ely set up "o m dep>tm5t or bureau or 
bo>d until ! :ole  organization has     
become top-heavy4 ,/ate adm9i/ration1 9 
o!r words1  is n[ divid$ into too _m    
comp>tm5ts4 ,! o!r weakness arises  f ! 
fact t ^! v>i\s dep>tm5ts are n all     
responsible to  ! gov]nor or to any     
c5tral head4 ,"s (ficials & bo>ds are   
appo9t$2 "s are elect$4 ,"s hold (fice =
 long t]ms1 "s =  %ort4 ,! gov]nor be>s 
! responsibility = ! prop] conduct (    
/ate adm9i/ration1 yet ! "w is done by  
(ficials :o are n  requir$ to obey 8    
in/ructions4#ajd ,he is l a g5]al :o is 
expect$ to w9 battles )\t hav+ (fic]s :o
 w obey 8  comm&s4 ,! result is n only a
 good deal ( friction b a wa/e (  "t1   

money1 & pati5ce4 ,sev]al /ates h felt !
 ne$ (  re=m+ ?is condition & h proce$$ 
to make *anges 9 _!  adm9i/rative       
organization4 ,^! *anges involve a      
r$uction 9 !  numb] ( dep>tm5ts & !     
plac+ ( !m all "u ! g5]al  control ( !  
gov]nor4#aje ,9 ! national adm9i/ration 
all  dep>tm5ts are responsible to !     
,presid5t4 ,! same pr9ciple ought  to be
 appli$ 9 /ate adm9i/ration4            
,sid5ote3 ,c ! sy/em ( commission       
gov]nm5t be appli$ to !                 
/ates8    ,! ,propos$ ,recon/ruction (  
,/ate ,gov]nm5t4--,! sy/em ( /ate       
gov]nm5t1 z x n[ /&s1 is n obta9+       
satisfactory results4 ,!  /ate          
legislatures h decl9$ 9 popul> confid5ce
 dur+ ! pa/  g5]ation2 m5 ( inf]ior     
quality are frequ5tly elect$ to !m2 !   
"w ( lawmak+ is influ5c$ too mu* by p>ty
 consid]ations2 !  adm9i/rative         
dep>tm5ts are too num]\s 9 mo/ ( ! /ates
 &  (t5 fail to d _! "w effici5tly4     
,/ate taxes are ev]y:]e  go+ up rapidly 
& /ate debts are increas+4 ,v>i\s plans 

= a  radical recon/ruction 9 /ate       
gov]nm5t h be5 propos$ 9 ord]  to rem$y 
^! defects4 ,"o proposal is t !         
two-*amb]$  legislature %\ld be aboli%$ 
& a s+le small body (  repres5tatives   
put 9 its place4 ,x is argu$ t if few]  
legislators  7 elect$ bett] m5 w\ld be  
*os5 & t ! process (  lawmak+ w\ld !reby
 be improv$4 ,"s h ev5 gone s f> z to   
urge t we %\ld e/abli% commission       
gov]nm5t = /ates z well  z = cities4    
,/ate gov]nm5t1 !y argue1 has become s  
complicat$  t x n[ ne$s a small] numb] (
 capable m5 giv+ _! undivid$  att5tion  
to x4 ,a two-*amb]$ legislature1 :i*    
meets = a few  mon?s e second ye>1 _c   
h&le ! bus9ess effectively4  ,nev]!less 
! p h become ?or\ghly accu/om$ to       
d\ble-*amb]$ legislatures1 & :]e !      
proposal to e/abli% a  s+le *amb] has   
be5 submitt$ to !m 7z 9 ,oregon7 !y h   
reject$ x4    ,sid5ote3 ,%\ld !         
gov]nor's p[]s be increas$8    ,ano!r   
plan proposes ! ve/+ ( l>g] p[]s 9 ! h&s
 ( !  gov]nor1 giv+ him ! initiative 9  

f9ancial matt]s & mak+ all  ! /ate      
adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts responsible to   
him4 ,today ! drift  is v /rongly 9 ?is 
direction4 ,already1 9 "s /ates1 !      
gov]nor is a m important factor ?an !   
legislature1 & ?is is  /rangely 9       
contra/ ) ! situation z x 0 a hundr$    
ye>s or  m ago4 ,james ,madison1 9 8 "t1
 spoke ( ! gov]nors z 8little  m ?an    
ciph]s0 & decl>$ t ! legislatures 7     
omnipot5t4  ,9 our day ?is has entirely 
*ang$1 or is *ang+4 ,! balance (  p[] is
 /eadily sw++ f ! legislative to !      
executive bran*4                        
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1     
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4     
#dbh-egg2 ,ibid41  ,read+s 9 ,am]ican   
,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4 #cia-ejh2    
,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,/ate & ,municipal  
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #aca-cjh2    ,w4 ,b4     
,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1   
pp4 #chi-dei2    ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1    
,/ate ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4  
#bdj-cic2    ,j4 ,t4 ,,"y1 ,! ,new      
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,its ,"w1 pp4      

#bih-cda2    ,,woodr[ ,,wilson1 ,!      
,/ate1 pp4 #cae-ccf2    ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1
 ,read+s 9 ,am]ican ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1   
pp4 #bbb-bci2    ,j4 ,m4 ,,ma!ws1       
,pr9ciples ( ,am]ican ,/ate             
,adm9i/ration1 pp4  #be-bad2    ,w4 ,w4 
,,will\ghby & ,,l9dsay ,,rog]s1         
,introduction to ! ,problem (           
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #djg-dbi4                
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,a revision ( y\r
 /ate con/itution4 ,make a tabulation ( 
!  m important provisions 9 y\r /ate    
con/itution1 "u !  foll[+ heads3 #a4    
,organization ( ! legislature4 #b4 ,p[]s
 ( !  gov]nor4 #c4 ,relations betwe5 !  
gov]nor & ! legislature4 #d4            
,organization ( ! /ate dep>tm5ts4 #e4   
,control ( /ate f9ances4  ,comp>e ^! 9  
p>allel columns ) ! correspond+         
provisions 9  ! model /ate con/itution (
 ! ,national ,municipal ,league4        
,discuss  ! relative m]its ( ea*        
provision4 ,ref]5ces3 ,national         
,municipal  ,review1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,no4   
#aa1 pp4 #gaa-gae1 ,novemb]1 #aibj4     

,copies ( !  /ate con/itution may       
usually be _h on application to !       
,secret>y (  ,/ate at ! ,/ate ,capitol4 
,! /ate con/itution is also publi%$ 9  !
 h&book or manual :i* is suppli$ to     
memb]s ( ! legislature4  ,= g5]al       
discussions ( ! subject1 see ,c4 ,g4    
,,ha9es & ,,b]?a ,h4  ,,ha9es1          
,pr9ciples & ,problems ( ,am]ican       
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cba-cch2  #dbc-ddj2 ,w4 
,b4 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$       
,/ates1 pp4 #ebb-ecd2 ,j4  ,m4 ,,ma!ws1 
,pr9ciples ( ,am]ican ,/ate             
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #dii-eaf2  ,a4 ,n4   
,,holcombe1 ,/ate ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$  
,/ates1 pp4 #ajf-adb2  ,massa*usetts    
,con/itutional ,conv5tion1 #aiag-aiah1  
,bullet9s1 ,nos4 #b1  #d1 #aj1 #ae1 #bi 
& #ce2 ,new ,york ,/ate ,con/itutional  
,conv5tion1 #aiae1  ,index ,dige/ (     
,/ate ,con/itutions1 passim4    #b4 ,:at
 we get = our /ate exp5ditures4         
,ref]5ces3 ,unit$ ,/ates  ,bureau ( !   
,c5sus1 ,f9ancial ,/ati/ics ( ,/ates    
7issu$ annually  s9ce #aiah72 ,w4 ,b4   

,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1   
pp4  #dde-dgb2 ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,taxation 
9 ,am]ican ,/ates & ,cities1 pp4 #ac-bd2
  ,j4 ,m4 ,,ma!ws1 ,pr9ciples ( ,am]ican
 ,/ate ,adm9i/ration1 pp4  #bif-djj4    
#c4 ,c ! proc$ure 9 /ate legislatures be
 simplifi$8  ,ref]5ces3 ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1
 ,am]ican ,legislatures & ,legislative  
,me?ods1 pp4 #abf-aeh2 ,h4 ,w4 ,,dodds1 
,! ,proc$ure ( ,/ate  ,legislatures1 pp4
 #cf-fb2 ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,/ate      
,gov]nm5t 9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4       
#bec-bgi2 ,h4 ,m4 ,,rob]t1 ,rules (     
,ord]1 passim4                          
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! place ( ! /ates 
9 ! nation4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t (
  ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #chi-djc4    #b4 
,! organization & proc$ure (            
con/itutional conv5tions4  ,massa*usetts
 ,con/itutional ,conv5tion1 #aiag-aiah1 
,bullet9s1 ,no4 #a  7,! ,proc$ure (     
,con/itutional ,conv5tions74    #c4     
,committees & committee "w 9 /ate       
legislatures4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1  ,am]ican
 ,legislatures & ,legislative ,me?ods1  

pp4 #aei-ahb4    #d4 ,! gr[? ( executive
 p[] 9 /ate gov]nm5t4 ,j4 ,m4 ,,ma!ws1  
,pr9ciples ( ,am]ican ,/ate             
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #be-acc4    #e4 ,!   
drift ( legislation 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,f4   
,j4 ,,/imson1 ,popul>  ,lawmak+1 pp4    
#aag-abc4    #f4 ,reasons = ! popul>    
di/ru/ ( /ate legislatures4 ,,james ,t4 
,,"y1 ,! ,new ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,its 
,"w1 pp4 #fdc-fea4    #g4 ,h[ /ate      
adm9i/ration has be5 simplifi$4 ,c4 ,g4 
,,ha9es &  ,,b]?a ,m4 ,,ha9es1          
,pr9ciples & ,problems ( ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 
#cbc-cch4    #h4 ,! gov]nm5t ( !        
,philipp9es4 ,,dean ,c4 ,,worce/]1 ,!   
,philipp9es1 ,pa/ & ,pres5t1 ,vol4 ,i1  
pp4 #cbe-djg2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4  #gfh-gia4
    #i4 ,! appo9tm5t & removal ( judges4
 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldw91 ,! ,am]ican          
,judici>y1 pp4 #caa-cdc2 ,a4 ,m4        
,,kales1 ,unpopul> ,gov]nm5t 9 !  ,unit$
 ,/ates1 pp4 #bbe-bea4    #aj4 ,plans = 
! recon/ruction ( /ate gov]nm5t4 ,w4 ,b4
 ,,munro1  ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 
pp4 #ebb-ecd2 ,a4 ,m4 ,,kales1 ,unpopul>

  ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4      
#aff-ahj4                               
,que/ions    #a4 ,! national con/itution
 provides t ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all        
gu>antee to ea* /ate a republican =m (  
gov]nm5t4 ,:at does  t mean8 ,w\ld a    
/ate gov]nm5t be un-republican if x 7a7 
rais$  ! vot+ age to ?irty ye>s2 7b7    
aboli%$ ! legislature & gave  all       
lawmak+ p[]s to an appo9tive bo>d (     
five2 7c7 gave up !  sy/em ( trial by   
jury 9 ! /ate c\rts2 7d7 aboli%$ private
  prop]ty8    #b4 ,if y 7 r$i/ribut+ !  
respective p[]s ( ! national &  /ate    
gov]nm5ts today :]e w\ld y place 7a7    
m>riage &  divorce2 7b7 education2 7c7 !
 regulation ( *ild labor2 7d7 !  *>t]+ (
 banks2 7e7 ! puni%m5t ( c\nt]feit+2 7f7
 !  protection ( =eign]s 9 ! ,unit$     
,/ates2 7g7 ! puni%m5t (  p]sons =      
lyn*+2 7h7 ! control ( ! national gu>d8 
#c4 ,g ?r\gh y\r /ate con/itution & *eck
 (f f\r or five  provisions :i* y ?9k   
might bett] be left to be dealt ) by !  
laws4    #d4 ,h[ may y\r /ate           

con/itution be am5d$8 ,:at am5dm5ts h   
be5  made )9 ! la/ t5 ye>s & by :i*     
me?od8 ,are am5dm5ts1 9  y\r op9ion1 too
 easy or too difficult to make8    #e4  
,if e /ate is entirely free to det]m9e  
its own =m (  gov]nm5t :y are !y all s  
mu* alike8    #f4 ,make a li/ ( all !   
/eps 9 ! passage ( a law f its          
introduction 9 ! legislature to its f9al
 enactm5t4 ,does !  gov]nor give any    
reason :5 he vetoes a bill8 ,%\ld he be 
requir$ to  d s8    #g4 ,put ea* ( !    
foll[+ (fices at ! head ( a column &    
ins]t  "u ea* a li/ ( matt]s ) :i* !    
(ficials h to d3 ,bo>d  ( ,public       
,works2 ,commission] ( ,corrections2    
,public ,utilities  ,commission2 ,fi% & 
,game ,bureau2 ,bo>d ( ,labor &         
,indu/ries2  ,indu/rial ,accid5t ,bo>d2 
,dep>tm5t ( ,social ,welf>e2 ,bo>d (    
,agriculture2 ,attorney-,g5]al2 ,civil  
,s]vice ,commission4    #h4 ,make a li/ 
( all ! activities 9 :i* y\r /ate       
gov]nm5t is  engag$ :]e x acts 9 !      
capacity ( 7a7 a bus9ess man or         

corporation2 7b7 an arbit] betwe5       
p>ties2 7c7 a b5evol5t  ag5cy4 ,9 :i* ( 
^! does x meet competition f private    
individuals8    #i4 ,make a *>t %[+ !   
organization ( ! c\rts 9 y\r /ate1  !   
numb] ( judges 9 ea*1 & ! g5]al         
jurisdiction ( ea*  c\rt4               
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! commission  
plan ( gov]nm5t1 z x n[ exi/s 9 _m      
cities1  %\ld be appli$ to ! /ates4     
#b4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates %\ld n acquire any 
t]ritory :i* _c  ultimately be admitt$ z
 a /ate4    #c4 ,:i* is ! bett] plan (  
*oos+ ,supreme ,c\rt judges3 7a7        
appo9tm5t = life by ! gov]nor           
7,massa*usetts71 or1 7b7 election  e six
 ye>s by ! p 7,ill9ois78                
,,*apt] ,,xiii                          
,,! ,,national ,,con/itution        ,!  
purpose ( ?is *apt] is to expla9 h[ !   
con/itution 0      fram$1 h[ x has      
develop$1 & h[ x c be *ang$4            
,sid5ote3 ,e pluribus unum4    ,!       
,a*ievem5t ( ,union4--,! greate/        
a*ievem5t ( ! ,am]ican  p has be5 !     

weld+ ( sep>ate /ates into a s+le       
nation4 ,to  h br\ght into a p]man5t    
f$]ation ?irte5 relatively small        
communities1 conta9+ less ?an f\r       
million p 9 all1 may n  seem to u to h  
be5 a rem>kable feat4 ,^! ?irte5        
communities  _h won _! indep5d5ce toge!r
 9 a common w>2 !y 7 inhabit$  = ! mo/  
"p by p ( ! same race1 speak+ ! same    
language1 & accu/om$ to ! same laws4 ,:y
 %\ld !re h be5  any difficulty 9 gett+ 
!m to =m a union 9 ord] to provide =  ! 
common def5ce & promote ! g5]al welf>e8 
,is n unification a  natural process8   
,well1 if ! ga!r+ ( diff]5t /ates into a
 s+le p]man5t union  is an easy matt]1  
:y did n ! w>r+ cities ( ,anci5t ,greece
  unite8 ,:y did !y p]si/ 9 _! disunion1
 & ?r\gh disunion  ultimately fall a    
prey to _! common enemy8 ,! :ole (      
,attica 0  small] ?an ! s+le /ate ( ,s\?
 ,c>ol9a4 ,:y did n ! v>i\s  /ates (    
,c5tral ,am]ica1 or ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 =m a
 union aft] !y  _h won _! indep5d5ce f  
,spa98 ,h[ diff]5t ! hi/ory (  ^!       

,lat9-,am]ican c\ntries w\ld h be5 dur+ 
! pa/ hundr$  ye>s if !y _h e/abli%$ a  
f$]al union l t ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates6     
,! =m+ ( ! ,am]ican union 0 n an easy   
task4 ,x 0 br\ght  ab\t by d9t ( h>d "w1
 pati5ce1 a r>e display ( public _s on  
! "p ( ! lead]s 9 ! sev]al /ates1 & !   
common s5se (  ! masses ( ! p4 ,if ! m5 
& wom5 ( #aghg _h reg>d$  !mselves alone
 & giv5 no ?\ght to po/]ity2 if !y _h   
plac$  ! imm$iate int]e/s ( ! individual
 /ates above ! ultimate  well-be+ ( !   
:ole2 if !y _h all[$ !mselves to be mov$
 by  prejudice r ?an by patriotism1 !   
,am]ican union w\ld n h  be5 =m$4       
,sid5ote3 ,ob/acles 9 ! way ( union4    
,:y ! ,task 0 ,difficult4--,! ?irte5    
colonies 7 f\nd$  indep5d5tly4 ,"s ( !m 
grew out ( trad+-company op]ations4     
,o!rs 7 f\nd$ by m5 & wom5 :o left _!   
homes 9 ! old  c\ntry to escape religi\s
 p]secution4 ,o!rs1 aga91 ow$ _!        
beg9n+s to weal?y m5 :o obta9$ l>ge     
grants ( l& f !  ,engli% cr[n 9 ord] to 
e/abli% settlem5ts4 ,f\nd$ 9 diff]5t    

ways1 ^! v>i\s colonies _h f ! outset v 
little community  ( int]e/4 ,ea* _h its 
own gov]nm5t & ^! gov]nm5ts diff]$      
some:at f "o ano!r4 ,! p did n travel   
ab\t f "o  colony to ano!r1 =           
transportation 0 crude & travel+ 0      
difficult4 ,f ,massa*usetts to ,georgia 
seem$ a mu* long] di/ance  9 #aghg ?an a
 j\rney across ! entire cont95t seems   
today4 ,ea*  colony1 moreov]1 0 prim>ily
 int]e/$ 9 its own problems & gave      
little ?\ght to outside affairs except  
:5 dang]s ?reat5$4 ,x is  true t !      
colonies also _h "s ?+s 9 common1 b !   
=ces  :i* t5d$ to keep !m ap>t 7 f>     
/rong] ?an ^? :i*  t5d$ to br+ !m       
toge!r4    ,sid5ote3 ,e>ly attempts at  
f$]ation4    ,= ?is reason ! fir/       
attempts at union result$ 9 no p]man5t  
f$]ation4 ,z e>ly z #afdc ! f\r pr9cipal
 ,new ,engl& settlem5ts  unit$ !mselves 
into a league ( fri5d%ip kn[n z ! ,new  
,engl&  ,f$]ation1 b ?is union w5t out (
 exi/5ce aft] ! dang] (  ,indian attacks
 _h pass$ away4 ,william ,p5n1 9 #afif1 

propos$ a  g5]al union ( all ! colonies 
b no?+ came ( 8 sugge/ion4 ,at  v>i\s   
times dur+ ! next sixty ye>s conf]5ces 7
 call$ &  ! matt] discuss$1 ! mo/       
important be+ ! ,albany ,congress (     
#aged1 at :i* a plan ( union 0 fram$ 9  
detail4 ,local jeal\sies1  h[ev]1 always
 prov$ too /rong until ! imp5d+ qu>rel )
 !  "m c\ntry %[$ ! necessity ( unit$   
action4    ,sid5ote3 ,! ,revolution z a 
unify+ =ce4    ,h[ ! ,w> pav$ ! ,way =  
,union4--,! attempt ( ! ,engli%         
gov]nm5t to tax ! colonies )\t _! cons5t
 br\ght home to  !m1 = ! fir/ "t1 ! fact
 t !y 7 all 9 ! same boat4  ,if !y %\ld 
attempt to resi/ ^! taxes individually1 
!y w\ld be  co]c$ "o by "o4 ,= ?is      
reason !y ha/5$ to consult ) "o  ano!r &
 9 due c\rse s5t delegates to a         
,cont95tal ,congress :i*  h&l$ ! common 
int]e/s ( ! colonies dur+ ! w>4 ,! /ress
  & /ra9 ( ! w> made unity ess5tial = ! 
"t be+1 b x  did n produce an organic   
union4 ,! colonies 7 unit$ 9 decl>+  _! 
indep5d5ce1 b ?is decl>ation did n      

create a union ( new  /ates4    ,!      
,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce4--,!          
,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce is  "o ( ! mo/
 fam\s docum5ts 9 all hi/ory4 ,drawn by 
,?omas  ,jeff]son x is at once a /atem5t
 ( political pr9ciples & a  recital ( ! 
colonial grievances4 ,f\r out/&+        
political  pr9ciples are set =? 9 !     
foll[+ words3         8,we hold ^! tru?s
 to be self-evid5t1 t all m5 are creat$ 
equal1 t !y are end[$ by _! ,creator )  
c]ta9      inali5able rights1 t among ^!
 are life1 lib]ty1 & !      pursuit (   
happ9ess40        8,t to secure ^!      
rights1 gov]nm5ts are in/itut$ among m51
      d]iv+ _! j p[]s f ! cons5t ( !    
gov]n$40        8,t :5ev] any =m (      
gov]nm5t becomes de/ructive to ^!       
ends1 x is ! "r ( ! p to alt] or aboli% 
x40        8,t gov]nm5ts long e/abli%$  
%\ld n be *ang$ = light      or transi5t
 causes40    ,sid5ote3 ,importance ( !  
,decl>ation4    ,! ,decl>ation (        
,indep5d5ce is n ! law ( ! l& & nev] has
  be52 its text is n legally b9d+ ^u    

,congress1 ! legislatures1  or ! c\rts4 
,x is an ass]tion ( fundam5tal          
pr9ciples4 ,x did n  create a unit$     
nation1 save 9 s5tim5t4 ,by ! decl>ation
 ?irte5  new sov]eign /ates 7 e/abli%$1 
ea* ) ! "r to det]m9e  its own =m (     
gov]nm5t4 ,f a gov]nm5tal /&po9t ^!     
?irte5 communities 7 less unit$ aft] !  
decl>ation ?an !y  _h be5 be=e x4 ,prior
 to #aggf !re _h be5 a s+le sov]eign2   
aft] t date !re 7 ?irte54 ,b al?\gh !   
,decl>ation (  ,indep5d5ce did n make   
any provision = ! union ( ! sev]al      
/ates x is none ! less an immortal      
docum5t because x boldly  ass]t$        
pr9ciples t 7 new to ! _w4 ,9 #aggf !re 
0 v  little democracy any:]e4 ,! f\r    
tru?s above m5tion$ are  commonplace    
today2 b "o hundr$ & fifty ye>s ago !y 7
 a  *all5ge to revolution 9 all despotic
 c\ntries4 ,9 our "t !  great] "p ( !   
civiliz$ _w has come to accept !m z !   
only  s\nd basis ( democratic gov]nm5t4 
,! decl>ation1 !re=e1 is n  m]ely a     
l&m>k 9 ! hi/ory ( ,am]ican democracy2 x

 m>ks !  beg9n+ ( a great epo* 9 !      
hi/ory ( human fre$om4    ,! ,articles (
 ,conf$]ation4--,hav+ giv5 _! pl$ge to  
common  pr9ciples & hav+ /ood %\ld] to  
%\ld] ?r\gh ! d>k h\rs  ( a h>d-f\ght   
w>1 x might be ?\ght t ^! ?irte5 /ates  
w\ld h se5 cle>ly ! wisdom ( weld+      
!mselves into a s+le1  unit$ nation4 ,b 
!y 7 n yet ready to drop _! jeal\sies or
  abate _! zeal = individual indep5d5ce4
 ,! be/ !y 7 will+  to d1 = ! "t be+1 0 
to give _! ass5t to a plan = a  loose   
conf$]ation1 some?+ t 0 little bett] ?an
 an (f5sive  & def5sive alliance4       
,sid5ote3 ,provisions ( ! articles4 ,?is
  plan1 drawn up by ! ,cont95tal        
,congress 9 #aggg1 0 embodi$ 9 !        
,articles ( ,conf$]ation & s5t to !     
sev]al /ates to be ratifi$4  ,x met ) v 
little en?usiasm1 & n until #agha 0 x   
accept$  by all ! /ates4 ,9 tru?1 ^!    
,articles did n des]ve mu*  en?usiasm1 =
 !y provid$ an unworkable =m ( f$]al    
gov]nm5t4  ,a ,congress compos$ ( a s+le
 *amb] made up ( delegates f !  /ates 0 

! sole organ ( ! ,conf$]ation4 ,no      
provision 0 made  = an executive or = a 
sy/em ( c\rts4 ,9 ! ,congress ( !       
,conf$]ation all ! /ates1 l>ge & small1 
7 giv5 equal vot+  p[]s2 ! delegates 7  
appo9t$ by ! /ates1 paid by ! /ates1  & 
subject to recall at any "t by ! /ates4 
,! p1 z su*1  7 giv5 no direct %>e 9 !  
gov]nm5t2 on ! o!r h& !  c5tral gov]nm5t
 c\ld n deal directly ) ! p1 x c\ld act 
only ?r\gh ! /ates4    ,sid5ote3        
,weakness ( ! ,conf$]ation4    ,! /ates 
7 s jeal\s ( _! own sov]eignty &        
indep5d5ce  t !y )held f ! gov]nm5t ( ! 
,conf$]ation mo/ ( !  ess5tial p[]s :i* 
a gov]nm5t mu/ h 9 ord] to d its "w4    
,!y gave x no p[] to tax & h5ce no c]ta9
 means ( procur+ a  rev5ue4 ,!y gave x  
no p[] to borr[ money save ) ! ass5t (  
n9e /ates4 ,!y gave x no p[] to regulate
 trade4 ,! ,articles (  ,conf$]ation1   
al?\gh drawn & adopt$ 9 ! mid/ ( a w>1  
gave  ! ,congress no p[] to summon m5   
into ! army4 ,:5 x ne$$ troops  x c\ld  
only call ^u ! /ates to supply !m4      

,sometimes ! /ates  respond$ to ^!      
calls1 b m (t5 !y did n1 & 9 ! latt]    
case ! ,congress _h no way ( en=c+ its  
dem&s = m54 ,"u !  circum/ances x is    
amaz+ t ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,conf$]ation     
manag$ to c>ry on ! w> & br+ x to a     
successful conclusion4    ,sid5ote3 ,!  
critical p]iod4    ,! ,drift to ,an>*y  
aft] ! ,w>4--,despite ! utt] weakness ( 
!  ,conf$]ation ! w> cont9u$ to be a    
unify+ =ce s long z x  la/$4 ,9 ! face (
 a common dang] & ) a common goal ahead 
(  !m ! /ates kept _! jeal\sies 9 !     
backgr\nd4 ,b z soon z  ! w> 0 ov] !    
bick]+s began 9 e>ne/4 ,ea* /ate began  
to  look ^u its own int]e/s z ! ?+ (    
greate/ importance2 ea*  s\ght to ga9   
advantages at ! exp5se ( its neighbors4 
,ea* 0 at  lib]ty to impose its own     
t>iff & to regulate trade at its own    
ports4  ,s !y began to qu>rel among     
!mselves ov] trad+ privileges &  ov]    
disput$ b\nd>ies until a civil w> seem$ 
to be q )9 !  b\nds ( possibility4      
,sid5ote3 ,impot5ce ( ! ,congress4      

,:y did n ! ,congress ( ! ,conf$]ation  
int]v5e to prev5t ?is  drift to an>*y8  
,! ,congress w\ld gladly h done s b x _h
 no  p[]4 ,x _h no au?ority to int]v5e 9
 disputes betwe5 ! /ates1  or ev5 to    
prev5t w> among !m4 ,x _h no army ( its 
own1 no money  to raise an army4 ,"s ( !
 /ates1 n[ t ! w> 0 ov]1 took s  little 
int]e/ 9 ! ,conf$]ation t !y /opp$ s5d+ 
delegates  to ! ,congress altoge!r4 ,"t 
& aga9 x 0 f\nd impossible to  get a    
quorum 9 ord] to d bus9ess4 ,! utt]     
weakness ( ! ,congress  0 tragically    
display$ 9 #aghc :5 x 0 driv5 out ( its 
qu>t]s  at ,philadelphia by a mob (     
soldi]s clamor+ = _! pay4    ,sid5ote3  
,! economic disord]4    ,! :ole c\ntry 0
 9 a bad way4 ,dur+ ! w> a huge debt _h 
be5  creat$1 & ,congress n[ f\nd itself 
) no money to pay int]e/ on  x4         
,millions 9 pap] money _h be5 issu$1 b  
n[h]e 0 !re any  gold to r$eem !m4      
,prices _h be5 high dur+ ! w>1 z prices 
always are dur+ w> "t4 ,:5 ! w> end$ !re
 0 a g5]al fall  9 prices ) ! result t !

 f>m]s got less = _! products  & became 
discont5t$4 ,f>m]s1 9 ^? days1 =m$ n9ety
 p] c5t  ( ! population & !y completely 
controll$ ! legislatures ( !  v>i\s     
/ates4 ,!y clamor$ = relief f ! effects 
( ! decl9e  9 prices1 call$ = ! issue ( 
m pap] money1 = high t>iffs1  & =       
measures t w\ld less5 ! burd5 (         
mortgages on _!  l&s4 ,9 "s ( ! /ates   
!re 0 op5 riot+ & disord]4 ,^!  ye>s h  
be5 well call$ ! 8critical p]iod0 (     
,am]ican hi/ory4  ,x look$ = a "t z ?\gh
 indep5d5ce 0 to be m]ely a prelude  to 
an>*y4    ,sid5ote3 ,! lead]s 9 despair4
    ,no wond] ! lead]s ( ! p 7 disc\rag$
 & al>m$4  ,wa%+ton 0 9 despair4 8,i am 
mortifi$ beyond expression01 he wrote1  
8:5 ,i view ! cl\ds t h spread ov] !    
brighte/ morn t  ev] dawn$ ^u any       
c\ntry4444 ,i am lo/ 9 amazem5t :5 ,i   
behold  :at intrigue1 ignorance1 &      
jeal\sy are capable ( effect+4444 ,x  is
 b ! o!r day t we 7 %$d+ our blood to   
obta9 !  con/itutions "u :i* we n[      
live--con/itutions ( our own *oice  &   

mak+--& n[ we are un%ea?+ ! sword to    
ov]turn !m4444  ,:at a triumph = !      
advocates ( despotism to f9d t we are   
incapable ( gov]n+ ourselves60 ,^! are  
bitt] words1 b !  condition ( ! c\ntry q
 ju/ifi$ !m4 ,s5sible m5 9 all !  /ates 
%>$ ?is al>m & felt t :at _h be5 won    
dur+ ! w>  might easily be lo/1 = if !  
/ates %\ld fall to fight+ among         
!mselves1 x w\ld be v easy = ,europe to 
take a h& 9 ! fray  & divide ! spoils4  
,! fate ( ,pol& 0 fre% 9 ! m9ds (  ^? :o
 _h read hi/ory4    ,sid5ote3 ,a        
,con/itutional ,conv5tion call$4    ,!  
,triumph ( ,public ,_s ov]              
,selfi%ness4--,b pres5tly !re  came a   
rift 9 ! cl\ds4 ,! f\r million p :o =m$ 
!  population ( ! ?irte5 /ates1 despite 
_! sectional prejudices1  7 possess$ (  
common s5se & patriotism4 ,!y 7 bless$1 
moreov]1 ) z f9e a gr\p ( lead]s z ev]  
c>ri$ a "y nation  ?r\gh tr\bl\s ye>s4  
,wa%+ton1 ,jeff]son1 ,frankl91 ,madison1
  ,hamilton1 & ! o!rs ( ?is notable     
galaxy held diff]5t views z  to ! be/   

means ( br++ ord] out ( *aos2 b !y 7    
ready1  :5 ! "t came1 to s9k ^! p]sonal 
diff]5ces 9 ord] t  "s effective =m (   
c5tral gov]nm5t might be e/abli%$4 ,!y  
l5t ! weight ( _! great influ5ce1 !re=e1
 to a movem5t =  revis+ ! ,articles (   
,conf$]ation 9 su* a way t a bett] union
  ( ! ?irte5 /ates might be a*iev$4 ,9  
tru? x 0 a difficult  task to induce !  
/ates to move t[>ds unity1 = !y 7 all   
head$ 9 exactly ! opposite direction4 ,b
 by ! ex]cise ( tact  & pati5ce1 & aft] 
disc\rag+ delays1 twelve ( ! /ates      
f9ally s5t delegates to a conv5tion t 0 
call$ to meet at  ,philadelphia 9 #aghg 
to see :at c\ld be done4 ,if ! /ates _h 
be5  ask$ to jo9 9 ! mak+ ( an entirely 
new con/itution & !  e/abli%+ ( a real  
f$]al union1 !re is no d\bt t "s (  !m  
w\ld h decl9$4 ,! conv5tion 0 call$ to  
consid] *anges  9 ! ,articles (         
,conf$]ation4 ,b :5 ! delegates set to  
"w  !y soon f\nd t no pat*work p]=mance 
w\ld ev] solve !  problem ( weld+ !     
,am]ican p into a unifi$ nation4 ,s !y  

proce$$ to make an entirely new cov5ant 
conta9+ provision = a  real c5tral      
gov]nm5t end[$ ) adequate p[]s4    ,!   
,con/itutional ,conv5tion3 ,its         
,memb]s4--,9 ! conv5tion !re  7         
fifty-five delegates repres5t+ twelve   
/ates4 ,"s /ates s5t  six or sev5       
delegates2 o!rs only two or ?ree4 ,!    
numb] did n  matt] mu*1 = ea* /ate _h "o
 vote on all que/ions4 ,! delegates  7  
nev] all pres5t at any "o "t2 "s ( !m   
came & soon w5t  away2 o!rs kept com+ & 
go+2 b ! majority /ay$ "r  ?r\gh ! summ]
 & att5d$ ! meet+s regul>ly4 ,!         
conv5tion  met 9 ! old brick /ate h\se 9
 ,philadelphia1 ! build+ 9 :i*  !       
,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce _h be5 sign$  
elev5 ye>s be=e4 ,x  met beh9d clos$    
doors & ! delegates agre$ t !y w\ld n   
tell :at 0 go+ on4 ,day aft] day1 f ,may
 to ,septemb]1 !y  wre/l$ ) ! problem ( 
fram+ a new con/itution & al?\gh  _!    
diff]5ces ( op9ion (t5 seem$ impossible 
to adju/1 !  conv5tion f9ally manag$ to 
draft a docum5t :i* a majority ( !      

delegates 7 will+ to sign4              
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,wa%+ton ,,at ,,! ,,con/itutional      
,,conv5tion ,,( #aghg                   
,by ,violet ,oakley              ,?is   
picture is 9 ! ,p5nsylvania ,/ate       
,capitol at            ,h>risburg4      
,x portrays ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,republic at _!
            great "w ( fram+ ! national 
con/itution4            ,wa%+ton1 !     
presid+ (fic] ( ! conv5tion1            
is appeal+ to 8 colleagues ) ! notable  
words :i* encircle ! top ( ! picture4   
,ar\nd            & bel[ him are ,b5jam9
 ,frankl91 ,james ,madison1             
,william ,pat]son1 ,james ,dick9son1    
,edmund ,r&olph1            ,rob]t      
,morris1 & ,g\v]neur ,morris1 all ( !m 9
            qua9t co/umes ( ! lat]      
eighte5? c5tury4              ,! picture
 is symbolic ( ,am]ica's great          
aspiration--,let u raise a /&>d to :i* !
            hone/ c repair6             
,illu/ration3      ,,wa%+ton ,,at ,,!   

,,con/itutional ,,conv5tion4      ,by   
,violet ,oakley      ,copyright by      
,violet ,oakley4 ,f a ,copley ,pr9t1    
copyright by ,curtis       ,cam]on1     
,bo/on4 ,reproduc$ by p]mission4        
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,! ,fa!rs ( ! ,republic4    ,!
 m5 :o took a prom95t "p 9 ?is conv5tion
 p]=m$ a s]vice  ( su* value & p]man5ce 
t _! names c nev] be =gott54  ,wa%+ton1 
:o head$ ! delegation f ,virg9ia1 0 *os5
 by !  conv5tion to be its presid+      
(fic]4 ,?is deb>r$ him f tak+ an  active
 "p 9 ! discussions on ! floor1 b 8     
great p]sonal  influ5ce 0 on _m         
occasions ex]t$ 9 ! int]e/s ( h>mony4   
,b5jam9 ,frankl91 ! wise/ man ( 8 "t1 0 
! s5ior memb] (  ! ,p5nsylvania         
delegation4 ,8 broad k ( m5 & affairs1  
ga9$ ?r\gh a long life ( m ?an eighty   
ye>s1 made him "o (  ! mo/ valuable     
memb]s4 ,!n !re 0 ,james ,madison1 /ill 
a "y  man b already a ?or\gh s*ol> 9    
matt]s ( gov]nm5t4 ,among all  !        

delegates ,madison rank$ fir/ 9 po9t (  
active helpfulness &  fully e>n$ !      
di/9ction :i* po/]ity has giv5 him z !  
,fa!r  ( ! ,con/itution4 ,alex&]        
,hamilton1 ( ,new ,york1 "y &           
brilliant1 ) pl5ty ( imag9ation & /rong 
political op9ions1 0  ! orator ( !      
conv5tion2 b oratory did n c>ry f> ) !  
delegates4 ,!y li/5$ ) rapt att5tion to 
,hamilton's impassion$  spee*es &       
applaud$ him g5]\sly at ! end2 b :5 ! "q
  0 put to a vote he sometimes got      
nobody's vote b 8 own4 ,argum5ts  c\nt$ 
= m ?an eloqu5ce 9 ?is ga!r+4 ,among !  
delegates  ( ability & prom95ce 7 ,rob]t
 ,morris & ,james ,wilson1 (            
,p5nsylvania1 ! =m] a wiz>d 9 f9ancial  
matt]s1 ! latt] a  h>d-head$ ,scot*man (
 great political s5se2 ,rog] ,%]man1 !  
%oemak]-/atesman1 ( ,connecticut2 ! two 
,p9ckneys1 ( ,s\?  ,c>ol9a1 ,john       
,dick9son1 ( ,delaw>e1 & a doz5 o!rs ^: 
names  7 kn[n ?r\gh\t ! nation 9 _! day4
 ,!y 7 n all ( !  same m9d on political 
que/ions1 n by any means2 "s 7          

cons]vative & "s 7 radical2 "s look$ f> 
into ! future &  o!rs only to ! ne$s ( !
 h\r2 "s 7 always will+ to  compromise &
 o!rs 7 n ready to compromise at all2 b 
tak5 z  a :ole !y =m$ an able1          
well-balanc$ gr\p ( m51 fairly  reflect+
 ! intellig5ce & patriotism ( _! "t4#ajf
    ,sid5ote3 ,! ob/acles & !           
compromises4    ,h[ ! ,conv5tion ,solv$ 
its ,difficulties4--,9 a body made up ( 
m5  :o held su* widely-diff]+ op9ions x 
0 inevitable t bitt]  controv]sies %\ld 
arise4 ,& t is :at happ5$4 ,delegates f 
! small] /ates disagre$ ) ! delegates f 
! l>g] /ates  on ! "q :e!r1 "u ! new    
con/itution1 ! vot+ p[] (  ! /ates %\ld 
be equal1 z x _h be5 "u ! ,articles (   
,conf$]ation4 ,delegates f ! ,nor? cla%$
 ) delegates f !  ,s\? on ! "q ( giv+ ! 
new gov]nm5t p[] to regulate  trade2 = !
 ,s\? did n want export taxes plac$ ^u  
tobacco1  cotton1 & ! o!r plantation    
/aples4 ,! div]g5ce ( op9ion 0  (t5 v   
wide1 & on "o occasion ! conv5tion almo/
 broke (f its  proce$+s because !re     

seem$ to be no hope t any agreem5t c\ld 
be rea*$4 ,b pati5ce & public _s f9ally 
prevail$ on all  po9ts & by means ( "o  
compromise aft] ano!r ! conv5tion       
manag$ to f9i% its "w )\t splitt+ its   
ranks wide op54#ajg    ,sid5ote3 ,!     
con/itution draft$4    ,:5 all ! ma9    
features _h be5 agre$ ^u !y 7 put toge!r
  into a con/itution :i* ?irty-n9e ( !  
delegates 7 will+ to  sign4 ,( ! o!rs1  
"s 7 abs5t2 "s refus$ to put _! names   
to x4 ,ev5 among ^? :o sign$ x !re 7 _m 
:o did s )\t  ! lea/ en?usiasm4 ,!      
provisions ( ! new con/itution 7 n  :at 
any individual delegate want$1 b m]ely  
:at a majority c\ld be  induc$ to agree 
^u4 ,:at influ5c$ ! delegates mo/ ( all 
0 !  fact t ev]yone knew ! exi/+        
situation to be bad2 ! new  con/itution1
 :atev] its defects1 0 sure to be an    
improvem5t4 ,!  imm$iate ?+ 0 to get !  
/ates head$ t[>ds ! c5t] & n  t[>ds !   
circumf]5ce ( a circle4 ,?is be+        
accompli%$1 !  lead]s ( ! conv5tion     
believ$ ! future might be tru/$ to take 

c>e ( itself4 ,x 0 9 ?is broad &        
patriotic _s t  ?irty-n9e m5 app5d$ _!  
names to :at ! ,engli% /atesman1        
,glad/one1 once call$ 8! greate/        
a*ievem5t ev] /ruck (f 9 a  giv5 "t by !
 h& & bra9 ( man01--! con/itution ( !   
,unit$  ,/ates4    ,sid5ote3            
,ratification by ! /ates4    ,! ,f9al   
,/ep4--,b by sign+ _! names to ?is      
docum5t !  memb]s ( ! conv5tion did n   
make x ! law ( ! l&4 ,be=e  !           
con/itution c\ld g into =ce x mu/ be    
submitt$ to ! /ates  & adopt$ by !m4 ,& 
!re 0 grave dang] t sev]al ( !  /ates   
w\ld reject x4 ,public s5tim5t seem$ to 
be ab\t ev5ly  divid$2 ! small f>m]s 7  
l>gely oppos$ to accept+ ! new          
gov]nm5t1 :ile ! p ( ! t[ns & ! l>ge    
prop]ty-own]s  7 9 favor ( x4 ,sid5ote3 
,! ,f$]ali/4 ,"s ( ^? :o _h  be5 lead]s 
9 ! conv5tion1 notably ,hamilton &      
,madison1 organiz$  a campaign to       
influ5ce public op9ion 9 favor ( ! new  
con/itution1  9 ! c\rse ( :i* !y wrote  
num]\s lett]s to ! newspap]s  expla9+ & 

def5d+ ! v>i\s provisions4 ,^! lett]s 7 
subsequ5tly compil$ into book =m &      
publi%$ "u ! title (  ,! ,f$]ali/4 ,ev5 
today !y =m an admirable exposition (   
:at  ! v>i\s provisions ( ! con/itution 
express & imply4 ,9 ! end  ! campaign = 
ratification 0 successful & not)/&+     
/rong  opposition 9 "s ( ! /ates all 7  
f9ally induc$ to accept !  con/itution4 
,?is be+ accompli%$ ! ,congress ( !     
,conf$]ation  dissolv$ & 9 #aghi ! new  
f$]al gov]nm5t came into (fice )  ,new  
,york ,city z ! tempor>y capital4#ajh   
,sid5ote3 ,a notable docum5t4    ,!     
,con/itution z a ,:ole4--,! con/itution 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates z  fram$ by !         
conv5tion is a relatively %ort docum5t4 
,x is pr9t$  9 ! back ( ?is book & c be 
read 9 ab\t tw5ty m9utes4 ,x is  ! olde/
 & ! %orte/ among republican            
con/itutions 9 ! great  c\ntries ( ! _w4
 ,napoleon ,bonap>te once said t a good 
con/itution %\ld be 8%ort & obscure01   
%ort1 s t p w\ld  n h to wa/e "t 9 read+
 x1 & obscure s t rul]s c\ld  int]pret x

 9 any way !y *ose4 ,! con/itution ( !  
,unit$  ,/ates fulfils ! fir/ (         
,napoleon's requirem5ts b n ! second4   
,x is a rem>kably cle> docum5t1         
well-arrang$1 say+ 9 a few words        
exactly :at x means1 & c\*$ 9 admirable 
,engli%4 ,let anyone read  ! fir/ six   
l9es ( x1 = example1 & see if he c put !
  purposes ( a free gov]nm5t into few] &
 m tell+ words4 ,x is  ! supreme law ( !
 l&1 ! la/ ^w on all que/ions ( ,am]ican
  gov]nm5t4 ,no "o c claim to "k h[ !   
affairs ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates are adm9i/]$ 
)\t ma/]+1 at lea/ 9 a g5]al way1  !    
cont5ts ( ! con/itution4    ,sid5ote3   
,factors 9 ! developm5t ( ! con/itution3
    ,h[ ! ,con/itution has              
,develop$4--,b ! con/itution today is n 
:at x 0 a hundr$ & tw5ty-odd ye>s ago4  
,7 t ! case1 x  w\ld be sadly out ( t\* 
) ! ne$s ( ! nation4 ,to be             
satisfactory a con/itution mu/ be       
capable ( /eady expansion &  developm5t2
 x mu/ be able to keep /ep ) political1 
social1 &  economic progress4 ,?is !    

con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5   
able to d ?r\gh v>i\s ag5cies (         
developm5t1 usage1 judicial             
int]pretation1 & am5dm5t4 ,e/abli%$ =   
?irte5 /ates  conta9+ f\r million p x   
has be5 exp&$ to cov] ! ne$s  ( ne>ly   
f\r times z _m /ates & m ?an tw5ty-five 
times z  _m p4 ,fram$ 9 days ( /age     
coa*es & sail+ %ips1  h&-indu/ry &      
primitive me?ods ( agriculture1 x has   
c>ri$  ?r\gh into ! days ( air%ips &    
tractors1 giant factories &  miracles ( 
indu/ry4 ,x is end[$ ) dynamic          
qualities4    ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,usage4     
,let u look a little m closely at ^!    
ag5cies ( developm5t4  ,usage is "o (   
!m4 ,alongside ! writt5 docum5t !re h   
gr[n up  _m practices :i* h practically 
! /r5g? ( writt5  provisions4 ,take !   
me?od ( elect+ ! ,presid5t1 = example4  
,indirect election is provid$ 9 !       
con/itution2 by usage ! election  has   
become direct4 ,! con/itution provides t
 ! ,presid5t %all  make appo9tm5ts ) !  
8advice & cons5t0 ( ! ,s5ate2 b z a     

matt] ( usage its advice is nev] ask$ & 
its cons5t1 9 "s  cases1 is nev] refus$ 
7see p4 #bih74 ,! con/itution says n a  
^w  ab\t ! ,cab9et1 b by usage a ,cab9et
 sy/em has gr[n up 9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates z 
9 ,engl&4 ,nor does x say a ^w ab\t     
political  p>ties1 nev]!less usage has  
giv5 !m a l>ge "p 9 gov]nm5t4  ,^!      
illu/rations c\ld be multipli$4 ,:y does
 no ,presid5t seek a  ?ird t]m8 ,:y does
 a ,presid5t usually consult individual 
repres5tatives be=e mak+ local          
appo9tm5ts8 ,:y are non-resid5ts  9 a   
congressional di/rict practically nev]  
elect$ to repres5t x8  ,usage answ]s ^! 
& _m o!r que/ions4    ,sid5ote3 #b4     
,int]pretation4    ,! con/itution has   
also be5 modifi$ by decisions ( ! c\rts4
 ,!  c\rts _c *ange a s+le ^w 9 !       
con/itution2 !y m]ely  int]pret its     
mean+4 ,_! function is jus dic]e1 non   
d>e 7to  int]pret ! law1 n to make x71 z
 ! say+ goes4 ,b ! fact  rema9s t *anges
 9 ! mean+ ( words are equival5t = all  
practical purposes to *anges 9 ! words  

!mselves4 ,! ,supreme  ,c\rt1 9 a long  
s]ies ( decisions1 has greatly exp&$ !  
p[]s (  ! national gov]nm5t by !        
int]pretation ( words & clauses 9  !    
writt5 con/itution4 ,x has decid$ t !   
p[] to borr[ money  includes ! p[] to   
e/abli% banks1 t ! p[] to regulate      
comm]ce includes ! p[] to fix railroad  
rates1 t ! p[] to  e/abli% po/-(fices   
includes ! p[] to puni% ^? :o use !     
mails = a fraudul5t purpose1 & s on4 ,x 
has be5 ! function (  ! c\rt to make !  
words spell out new mean+s to fit new   
situations4 ,"o _c today obta9 an       
adequate k ( :at ^!  words & phrases    
mean by m]ely read+ ! docum5t2 x is     
necess>y  to g ?r\gh ! decisions ( !    
,supreme ,c\rt & f9d out j h[  ?is great
 tribunal has int]pret$ !m4    ,sid5ote3
 #c4 ,/atutes4    ,! con/itution has be5
 develop$ by law4 ,_m ?+s 7 left 9      
g5]al t]ms 9 ord] t ! details might be  
settl$ by ,congress or  by ! /ate       
legislature4 ,no?+ is said 9 !          
con/itution ab\t !  organization or     

proc$ure ( ! f$]al c\rts4 ,all ?is has  
be5 built  up by laws4 ,nor is any?+    
said ab\t ! me?od ( nom9at+  congressm51
 or ! =m ( ! ballot1 or ! duties (      
election  (ficials4 ,t1 too1 is arrang$ 
by law4 ,mu* ( :at we call !  ma*9]y (  
,am]ican gov]nm5t today re/s ^u ord9>y  
laws :i*  c be *ang$ by ,congress or !  
/ate legislatures at any "t4            
,sid5ote3 #d4 ,am5dm5ts4    ,f9ally1 !  
con/itution c be *ang$1 & on n9ete5     
matt]s has  be5 *ang$ by am5d+ x4 ,!    
con/itution provides f\r possible       
me?ods ( mak+ & ratify+ am5dm5ts1--two (
 initiat+ & two (  ratify+4 ,^! v>i\s   
ways are /at$ 9 ! docum5t 7,article ,v7 
m briefly & m cle>ly ?an !y c be        
recapitulat$ "h4 ,b  e "o ( ! am5dm5ts  
?us f> made has be5 propos$ & adopt$  9 
"o & ! same way1 namely1 proposal by    
,congress & ratification  by ?ree-f\r?s 
( ! /ate legislatures4 ,sid5ote3 ,me?od 
( mak+  am5dm5ts4 ,! o!r plan ( propos+ 
am5dm5ts1 t is by call+  a con/itutional
 conv5tion1 w\ld op5 ! gates = a g5]al  

revision  or = ! submission ( an        
entirely new con/itution1 :i* is  some?+
 t public op9ion has n yet seem$ to     
favor4 ,if1 h[ev]1  ,congress %\ld at   
any "t endeavor to ?w>t ! w ( ! p by    
decl9+ to propose an am5dm5t /rongly    
dem&$ by public op9ion  its h& c\ld be  
=c$ by resort to ! conv5tion me?od4     
,sid5ote3 ,nature ( ! n9ete5 am5dm5ts4  
,! ,n9ete5 ,am5dm5ts4--,( ! n9ete5      
am5dm5ts :i* h be5  made s9ce !         
con/itution w5t into =ce1 ! fir/ t5 7   
add$ 9  #agia4 ,:5 ! conv5tion ( #aghg  
f9i%$ its "w & s5t !  docum5t to ! /ates
 = _! approval !re 0 a *orus ( prote/   
because no ,bill ( ,rights _h be5       
includ$4 8,:]e are !re 9 ?is  docum5t01 
! objectors cri$ out1 8any provisions   
gu>antee+ u free  spee*1 trial by jury1 
fre$om ( ! press1 & ! o!r securities    
aga9/ oppression80 ,! reply 0 t ! p ne$$
 no gu>antees  aga9/ _! own gov]nm5t b  
only aga9/ gov]nm5ts impos$ ^u  !m f    
outside4 ,b ?is explanation did n       
satisfy1 & assurance  0 giv5 t if !     

con/itution 7 adopt$ 9 its orig9al =m a 
,bill ( ,rights w\ld be add$4 ,! fir/ t5
 am5dm5ts repres5t !  keep+ ( t pl$ge4  
,! la/ ( ^! am5dm5ts is ( p>ticul>      
importance 9 explicitly proclaim+ t all 
p[]s n giv5 to !  national gov]nm5t by !
 con/itution1 or prohibit$ to ! /ates1  
are res]v$ to ! /ates1 respectively1 &  
to ! p4    ,! late/ n9e am5dm5ts require
 little comm5t al?\gh "s are (  great   
importance4 ,?ree ( !m1 ! ?irte5?1      
f\rte5?1 &  fifte5?1 7 ne$$ to make     
p]man5t ! results ( ! ,civil ,w>4  ,"o (
 ^!1 ! f\rte5?1 conta9s provisions1     
relat+ to !  rights ( citiz5s1 :i* h be5
 giv5 a wide application & h  be5 !     
cause ( a great deal ( litigation be=e !
 ,supreme ,c\rt4  ,int5d$ to protect !  
negro !y h be5 us$1 9 l>ge measure1 to  
secure = bus9ess corporations ! equal   
protection ( ! laws4 ,z  = ! negro he   
has ga9$ v little f am5dm5ts :i* 7      
prim>ily made = 8 b5efit4 ,! fifte5?    
am5dm5t 0 int5d$ to  secure him ! "r to 
vote2 b 9 _m ( ! /ates x has n  succe$$ 

9 do+ s4 ,! two late/ am5dm5ts1 namely1 
!  eighte5?1 :i* e/abli%$ national      
prohibition1 & ! n9ete5?1  :i* provides 
= woman suffrage1 h bo? be5 ratifi$ s9ce
 !  ,_w ,w>4    ,tw5ty ye>s ago x 0     
commonly urg$ t ! process ( am5d+ !     
con/itution ought to be made easi]4 ,x 0
 po9t$ out 9 ^? days  t no am5dm5t _h   
be5 made = m ?an a g5]ation4 ,b !       
adoption ( f\r am5dm5ts dur+ ! pa/ t5   
ye>s seems to indicate  t :5 ! p dem& an
 am5dm5t ! process ( gett+ x is  n too  
difficult4 ,9 ea* ( ^! in/ances !re 0 a 
/rong popul>  dem&4    ,:y ,m5 ,honor ! 
,con/itution4--,am]icans h a great      
respect = !  con/itution ( _! c\ntry ev5
 ?\gh _m ( !m w\ld l to see  "s *anges  
made 9 x4 ,& :y %\ld !y n honor x8 ,its 
reign has  be5 long 9 ! l&4 ,no k+ ev]  
rul$ 8 p s long or kept  fai? ) !m s    
well4 ,"u x ! c\ntry has wax$ great &   
prosp]\s2 ! gov]nm5t :i* x e/abli%$ has 
become increas+ly  democratic 9 =m & 9  
_s2 x has gr[n /rong en\gh to protect   
its citiz5s at home & abroad1 & x has   

become ! model ^u :i*  sev]al o!r       
gov]nm5ts ( ! _w h be5 patt]n$4    ,x is
 easy en\gh to pick flaws 9 !           
con/itution ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates--or 9 !  
con/itution ( any c\ntry = t matt]--b   
:]e  are ! ,wa%+tons1 ,madisons1 &      
,hamiltons ( today :om we w\ld  tru/ ) !
 task ( mak+ a bett] "o8 ,dur+ ! pa/ few
 ye>s a  doz5 c\ntries ( ! _w h fram$   
new republican  con/itutions1--,g]many1 
,au/ria1 ,pol&1 ,cze*o-,slovakia1 & s   
on4  ,!y h _h ! exp]i5ce ( an additional
 c5tury to draw ^u &  ! comb9$ political
 wisdom ( ! _w at _! disposal4 ,is !re  
any con/itution 9 ?is li/ :i* ! rank &  
file ( ! ,am]ican  p w\ld pref] to _!   
own8 ,y c pick a l9e out (  ,%akespe>e1 
"h & !re1 & improve ^u x4 ,b :5 x comes 
to  improv+ ^u ! :ole ( ,%akespe>e's    
"w1--ah1 t is q a  diff]5t proposition4 
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,,james ,,bryce1 ,! 
,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4    
#ae-ca2 #cfj-daj  7,abridg$ ,edition1   
pp4 #bbd-bhd72    ,,*>les ,a4 ,,be>d1   
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 #c;d    

edition1 pp4  #a-gg2 ,ibid41 ,read+s 9  
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4     
#a-fi2  ,ibid41 ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates1 pp4 #aci-afa2    ,,ev]ett       
,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #a-df2    ,w4 ,b4    
,,munro1 ,! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 pp4 #a-gj2 ,ibid41  ,selections f !    
,f$]ali/1 pp4 #a-ag2 #ef-hf2    ,,max   
,,f>r&1 ,! ,fram+ ( ! ,con/itution ( !  
,unit$ ,/ates1  especially pp4 #db-fg4  
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! means ( secur+
 co-op]ation among /ates & m5 z         
illu/rat$ by ! ,am]ican gov]nm5t be=e1  
dur+1 & aft] !  ,revolution4 ,! ob/acles
 to union4 ,! cohesive =ces4 ,! influ5ce
  & nature ( lead]%ip4 ,hi/orical       
analogies 9 o!r p>ts ( !  _w4 ,! problem
 ( =m+ a league ( /ates comp>$ ) t (    
=m+ a league ( nations4 ,ref]5ces3      
,,woodr[ ,,wilson1 ,! ,/ate1  pp4       
#bfg-bih2 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,! ,critical  
,p]iod1 pp4 #ej-hi2 ,,max ,,f>r&1  ,!   
,fram+ ( ! ,con/itution1 pp4 #fe-aab2   
,a4 ,c4 ,,mclaughl91  ,conf$]ation & !  

,con/itution1 pp4 #ce-eb4    #b4 ,!     
,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce3 its orig91   
its importance1 & an  analysis ( its    
political pr9ciples4 ,ref]5ces3 ,c4 ,h4 
,,van ,,tyne1  ,! ,am]ican ,revolution1 
pp4 #ej-hg2 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,! ,am]ican 
,revolution1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #adg-aig2 ,! 
,madison ,pap]s1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4  #ai-bg2 
,h4 ,,fri$5wald1 ,! ,decl>ation (       
,indep5d5ce1 an  ,int]pretation &       
,analysis1 pp4 #aba-aea4    #c4 ,f :at  
s\rces did ! fram]s ( ! con/itution     
borr[ _!  ideas8 ,ref]5ces3 ,c4 ,e4     
,,/ev5s1 ,! ,s\rces ( ! ,con/itution1   
pp4 #ce-aaf2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,rob9son1 ,!      
,orig9al & ,d]iv$ ,features ( !         
,con/itution1 pp4 #bjc-baj2 ,s4 ,g4     
,,fi%]1 ,! ,evolution ( !  ,con/itution1
 pp4 #aa-be4    #d4 ,h[ ! con/itution   
has develop$4 ,ref]5ces3 ,,james        
,,bryce1 ,!  ,am]ican ,commonweal?1     
,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cfj-daj2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1
 ,gov]nm5t (  ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4      
#eg-gj2 ,c4 ,g4 ,,ti$eman1 ,! ,unwritt5 
,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4     

#af-ec4                                 
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! _s ( ,am]ica4   
,,woodr[ ,,wilson1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican 
,p1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ih-abf4    #b4 ,h[ 
,engl& controll$ ! ,colonies4 ,g4 ,c4   
,,lewis1 ,! ,gov]nm5t  ( ,dep5d5cies1   
pp4 #ahi-bdj4    #c4 ,! ,new ,engl&     
,conf$]ation4 ,,edw>d ,,*ann+1 ,hi/ory (
 !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4        
#dad-dcf4    #d4 ,! ,/amp ,act4 ,,edw>d 
,,*ann+1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1     
,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #df-gi4    #e4 ,!      
,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,c4 ,h4 ,,van 
,,tyne1 ,! ,am]ican  ,revolution1 pp4   
#age-bjb4    #f4 ,! weakness ( !        
,conf$]ation4 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,!        
,critical ,p]iod  ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1   
pp4 #ij-acc4    #g4 ,! p]sonnel ( !     
con/itutional conv5tion4 ,,max ,,f>r&1  
,!  ,fram+ ( ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$  
,/ates1 pp4 #ad-da4    #h4 ,!           
difficulties :i* confront$ ! conv5tion4 
,! ,f$]ali/1  ,no4 ,,xxxvi2 79 ,w4 ,b4  
,,munro1 ,selections f ! ,f$]ali/1 pp4  
#aji-aaf2 also 9 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,read+s

 on ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &  ,politics1 pp4
 #dd-dg74    #i4 ,contempor>y objections
 to ! con/itution4 ,a4 ,c4 ,,mclaughl91 
,conf$]ation & ! ,con/itution1 pp4      
#bgg-bha2 #bhg-bhh2 ,p4 ,l4 ,,=d1       
,pamphlets on ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ 
,/ates1 especially pp4  #c-bc4    #aj4  
,! political ideas ( ! ,fa!rs4 ,h4 ,j4  
,,=d1 ,rise & ,gr[?  ( ,am]ican         
,politics1 pp4 #ag-cd4    #aa4 ,out/&+  
features ( ! con/itution z a docum5t4   
,w4 ,b4  ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$  
,/ates1 pp4 #dd-ef4    #ab ,h[ am5dm5ts 
are made4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,read+s 9     
,am]ican  ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4    
#ef-fa4                                 
,que/ions    #a4 ,%[ h[ ! =m ( gov]nm5t 
e/abli%$ by ,engl& 9 !  ,am]ican        
colonies comp>es ) ! =m ( gov]nm5t      
ma9ta9$ by !  ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ,alaska1  
,hawaii1 & ,porto ,rico today4    #b4 ,9
 :at respects did ! colonies diff] f "o 
ano!r & 9 :at  respects 7 !y pretty mu* 
alike8    #c4 ,make a critical          
exam9ation ( ! f\r great political      

pr9ciples  enunciat$ 9 ! ,decl>ation (  
,indep5d5ce4 ,h[ w\ld y apply !m  today 
9 ! case ( 7a7 ,irel&2 7b7 !            
,philipp9es2 7c7 ,india8    #d4 ,"n !   
*ief weaknesses ( ! ,conf$]ation4    #e4
 ,:o is commonly call$ ! 8,fa!r ( !     
,con/itution08 ,does he  des]ve ?is     
title1 & if s1 :y8    #f4 ,read !       
con/itution c>efully & !n answ] ! foll[+
  que/ions1 8yes0 or 8no10 po9t+ out !  
provision on :i* y base  y\r answ]3 7a7 
,mu/ ! ,vice ,presid5t be a natural-born
 citiz58  7b7 ,may an ,am]ican citiz5   
accept a =eign ord] ( nobility8 7c7     
,may any "o :o is n a citiz5 vote at    
presid5tial elections8 7d7  ,may        
,congress pass a law impair+ !          
obligations ( contracts8 7e7  ,may !    
,presid5t & ,vice ,presid5t bo? be      
resid5ts ( ! same  /ate8 7f7 ,may !     
,presid5t p>don a p]son convict$ (      
treason8 ,may  he p>don a f$]al (ficial 
convict$ ( brib]y8    #g4 ,:at did y f9d
 9 ! con/itution t y did n expect to f9d
  !re8 ,:at did y expect & fail to f9d8 

,:at seems to y to be !  mo/ important  
section ( ! :ole docum5t8    #h4 ,expla9
 ! proc$ure by :i* ! con/itution may be 
am5d$4  ,classify ! n9ete5 am5dm5ts into
 f\r gr\ps & give a g5]al  title to ea* 
gr\p4    #i4 ,give "s examples (        
con/itutional developm5t 7a7 by law2 7b7
  by usage2 7c7 by judicial             
int]pretation4    #aj4 ,if we 7 to      
revise ! entire con/itution today :at   
*anges  w\ld probably be made8          
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,a national    
conv5tion %\ld be call$ to revise !     
con/itution4    #b4 ,! process ( am5d+ !
 con/itution %\ld be made easi]4        
,,*apt] ,,xiv                           
,,congress ,,at ,,"w        ,! purpose (
 ?is *apt] is to expla9 h[ ! nation's   
laws are      made4      ,sid5ote3 ,!   
reason = two *amb]s3    ,congress4--,!  
lawmak+ bran* ( ! national gov]nm5t is  
made up  ( two *amb]s1 ! ,s5ate & !     
,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,!  ,congress (
 ! ,conf$]ation consi/$ ( "o *amb] only2
 b !  memb]s ( ! con/itutional conv5tion

 7 /rongly impress$ )  ! desirability ( 
e/abli%+ a bicam]al legislative body4   
,!re is  a /ory t ,?omas ,jeff]son1 :o  
believ$ a s+le *amb] to be  suffici5t1 0
 engag$ 9 a fri5dly argum5t ) ,wa%+ton  
on ?is  matt] %ortly aft] ! con/itution 
_h be5 complet$4 ,! two 7  tak+ tea     
toge!r & ,jeff]son1 foll[+ a common     
practice ( !  "t1 p\r$ "s ( 8 tea f 8   
cup into ! sauc]4 8,:y d y  d t80 ask$ !
 ,fa!r ( 8 ,c\ntry4 8,to cool x01 repli$
  ,jeff]son4 8,q s01 add$ ,wa%+ton1 8& !
 ,s5ate is to be !  sauc] into :i* !    
laws :i* come hot f ! ,h\se (           
,repres5tatives w be p\r$ to cool40 ,t  
/ory may or may n be  true2 b x gives a 
clue to ! pr9cipal reason :y !re are two
  bran*es ( ,congress in/ead ( "o4 ,!re 
is "s significance1  moreov]1 9 ! fact t
 e /ate ( ! ,union1 & e =eign  c\ntry1  
has a legislature or p>liam5t ( two     
*amb]s4    ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,to provide a  
safegu>d4    ,! bicam]al sy/em is       
commonly ju/ifi$ on two gr\nds4 ,9 !    
fir/  place1 x is believ$ to af=d a     

safegu>d aga9/ ha/y & unwise            
legislation4 ,a s+le *amb] might be mov$
 by a pass+ wave (  prejudice or        
en?usiasm to take action )\t suffici5t  
reflection4  ,:5 all measures h to be   
consid]$ by two legislative bodies1 ?is 
dang] is n ne>ly s great4 ,"o *amb]     
s]ves z a *eck on !  o!r4 ,sid5ote3 #b4 
,to p]mit two types ( repres5tation4 ,a 
second  reason is f\nd 9 ! desirability 
( hav+ ! lawmak]s *os5 9  diff]5t ways1 
"s by small di/ricts & "s by l>ge       
di/ricts1  "s = long t]ms & "s = %ort   
t]ms4 ,a good lawmak+ body  %\ld be     
?or\ghly repres5tative2 x %\ld repres5t 
! :ole  c\ntry & all p>ts ( ! c\ntry2 x 
%\ld be kept 9 close t\*  ) public      
op9ion by frequ5t elections1 b ! entire 
body (  lawmak]s ought n to be *ang$ at 
%ort int]vals1 = !re w\ld  !n be no     
/ead9ess ( policy4 ,! fram]s ( !        
con/itution tri$  to meet all ^!        
requirem5ts by provid+ = a ,s5ate1 ^:   
memb]s  %\ld be *os5 by ! /ates =       
six-ye> t]ms1 & a ,h\se (               

,repres5tatives1 made up ( memb]s elect$
 by ! p e two  ye>s4#aji ,! =m]         
repres5ts ! /ates on a basis ( equality2
 !  o!r af=ds !m repres5tation accord+  
to _! respective  populations4          
,sid5ote3 ,me?od ( *oos+ s5ators4    ,! 
,s5ate3 ,its ,organization4--,9 !       
con/itution1 z orig9ally  adopt$1 x 0   
provid$ t ea* /ate %\ld h two s5ators1  
elect$ 8by ! legislature !re(04 ,= m ?an
 a hundr$ ye>s t  me?od ( election 0    
foll[$4 ,! two h\ses ( ! /ate           
legislature  *ose ! s5ators4 ,b ?is plan
 became unpopul> & 9 #aiac !            
con/itution 0 am5d$ to provide t !      
s5ators %\ld be *os5  9 ea* /ate by     
popul> vote4 ,! t]m rema9s fix$ at six  
ye>s1 b  "o-?ird ( ! s5ators retire e   
second ye>4#aaj ,e /ate1  l>ge or small1
 has two s5ators4 ,nevada1 ) only       
#hj1jjj population  has equal           
repres5tation 9 ! ,s5ate ) ,new ,york1  
:i* has above  t5 million p4            
,proportionally1 ,new ,york ought to h  
ab\t two  hundr$ & fifty s5ators4 ,?is  

may seem to be unfair to ! l>g]  /ates1 
b x 0 a necess>y concession to ! small] 
/ates at !  "t ! union 0 =m$4 ,sid5ote3 
,! pr9ciple ( equality4  ,population1   
moreov]1 is n ! only ?+ t %\ld be tak5  
into  consid]ation4 ,a /ate may be l>ge 
9 area1 ) great natural  res\rces & a   
spl5did future be=e x1 & yet be v ?9ly  
settl$4 ,! ,s5ate 0 creat$ to repres5t !
 /ates z su*1 & all  ! /ates are equal 9
 rights1 if !y are n equal 9 area or    
population4 ,at any rate ! provision =  
equal repres5tation is 9 !  con/itution 
& if y read ! provision1 y w see t x _c 
be easily *ang$ 7,article ,v1 la/       
clause74    ,sid5ote3 ,! ,s5ate's       
proc$ure4    ,! ,s5ate holds regul>     
sessions ea* ye> at ,wa%+ton4 ,x may be 
call$ 9 special session1 ev5 :5 ! ,h\se 
( ,repres5tatives is n  sitt+4 ,?is is  
because ! ,s5ate has "s special p[]s    
ap>t f  ^? :i* x %>es equally ) ! l[]   
h\se4 ,x makes its own  rules (         
proc$ure1 decides any disputes z to !   
qualifications ( its  own memb]s1 & has 

p[]1 by a two-?irds vote1 to expel any  
s5ator  f its memb]%ip4 ,mo/ ( !        
,s5ate's r\t9e "w is done by            
committees1 ! memb]s ( :i* are assign$ e
 second ye> by an  un(ficial 8,committee
 on ,committees0 subject to ! approval (
 !  :ole *amb]4 ,!re are ab\t ?irty ( ^!
 committees1 b _m (  !m are ( small     
importance4 ,! m important are ^? :i*   
deal  ) rev5ue measures1 appropriations1
 =eign relations1 & int]/ate  comm]ce4  
,ea* committee has its own *airman4     
,! ,s5ate3 ,its ,exclusive ,p[]s4--,!   
,s5ate has ?ree special p[]s  9 :i* !   
,h\se ( ,repres5tatives possesses no    
%>e4 ,^! p[]s  relate to impea*m5ts1 !  
confirm+ ( appo9tm5ts1 & !  ratification
 ( treaties4    ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,trial (  
impea*m5ts4    ,! ,s5ate1 z !           
con/itution decl>es1 has 8! sole p[] to 
try all  impea*m5ts04 ,! proc$ure kn[n z
 impea*m5t is ( ,engli% orig9  & goes   
back to m$iaeval times :5 ! only way (  
hold+ a k+ to  acc\nt 0 to impea* &     
puni% 8 advisors4 ,! fram]s ( !         

,am]ican con/itution reg>d$ impea*m5t z 
a useful means ( *eck+  any arbitr>y use
 ( executive p[] & !y1 !re=e1 made      
provision  t 8! ,presid5t1 ,vice        
,presid5t1 & all civil (fic]s ( !       
,unit$ ,/ates0 %\ld be subject to       
impea*m5t be=e ! ,s5ate 9  case (       
wrong-do+4 ,! t]m 8civil (fic]s0        
includes memb]s ( !  cab9et1 judges1    
ambassadors1 ev5 po/ma/]s2 b x does n   
include  ! memb]s ( ei!r bran* (        
,congress nor1 ( c\rse1 does x include  
ei!r /ate or local (ficehold]s4 ,civil  
(fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates  c be impea*$  
only = 8treason1 brib]y1 or o!r high    
crimes &  misdemeanors02 & if convict$ c
 be puni%$ only to ! ext5t (  be+ remov$
 f (fice z well z disqualifi$ f ev]     
hold+ any  f$]al position aga94 ,!y _c  
be put to dea?1 or imprison$1 or  f9$4  
,:5 x is desir$ to impea* any civil     
(fic]1 ! *>ges aga9/ him  are laid be=e 
! ,s5ate by ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4  
,! ,s5ate  sets a date = he>+ ! case2 ! 
evid5ce is pres5t$2 & !  ,s5ate !n      

frames its v]dict beh9d clos$ doors4#aaa
 ,a two-?irds  majority is necess>y = a 
conviction4#aab    ,sid5ote3 #b4        
,confirmation ( appo9tm5ts4    ,all ! m 
important appo9tm5ts made by ! ,presid5t
 require !  confirmation ( ! ,s5ate4 ,! 
,presid5t s5ds to ! presid+ (fic]  ( !  
,s5ate ! names ( 8 propos$ appo9tees & !
 ,s5ate  !reupon ref]s !m to !          
appropriate committees = consid]ation4  
,:5 ! committees make _! report ! ,s5ate
 !n votes to confirm  or reject4 ,a b>e 
majority1 n a two-?irds vote1 suffices4 
,rejections  take place at times1 b !   
great majority ( ! ,presid5t's          
nom9ations are confirm$ )\t delay4 ,!   
,s5ate und]/&s t !  *ief responsibility 
= select+ f$]al (fic]s re/s ) !         
executive bran* ( ! gov]nm5t & t        
confirmation %\ld n be  refus$ )\t good 
reason4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a practice kn[n 
z  8s5atorial c\rtesy01 :i* has         
frequ5tly l$ to ! rejection (  names    
propos$ by ! ,presid5t4 ,accord+ to ?is 
cu/om ! ,s5ate  w n confirm ! appo9tm5t 

( any local (fic]1 su* z  po/ma/] or    
int]nal rev5ue (fic]1 unless ! p]son    
nam$ = !  appo9tm5t is satisfactory to !
 s5ator or s5ators f ! /ate  conc]n$1   
provid$1 ( c\rse1 t ^! s5ators are ( !  
same  political p>ty z ! ,presid5t      
himself4 ,or1 to put x m concretely1  if
 a ,republican ,presid5t nom9ates z     
int]nal rev5ue (fic] at  ,philadelphia  
someone :o is n approv$ by ! ,republican
 ,s5ators f  ,p5nsylvania1 ! ,republican
 majority 9 ! ,s5ate w n p]mit !        
appo9tm5t to be confirm$4 ,?is unwritt5 
rule ( s5atorial c\rtesy  has be5 en=c$ 
at "s times & n at o!rs4 ,"s presid5ts h
  be5 able to p]suade ! ,s5ate to       
disreg>d x2 b 9 g5]al x is a  cu/om :i* 
ties ! h&s ( all presid5ts to a         
consid]able ext5t4  ,:5 ! ,s5ate is n 9 
session1 ! ,presid5t is free to make    
appo9tm5ts at 8 own discretion4 ,^! are 
kn[n z 8recess  appo9tm5ts0 & are       
tempor>y only4 ,if ! ,s5ate1 at its next
  session1 fails to confirm !m1 ^!      
recess appo9tm5ts lapse & !  appo9tees  

get no pay = ! "t !y may h s]v$4        
,sid5ote3 #c4 ,ratification ( treaties4 
,all treaties betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates &  
o!r c\ntries mu/ be  approv$ by a       
two-?irds vote ( ! ,s5ate be=e !y c g   
into  effect4 ,?is gives ! ,s5ate an    
important influ5ce 9 ! control &        
direction ( =eign affairs because !     
relations betwe5 ! ,unit$  ,/ates & o!r 
c\ntries are fix$1 to a consid]able     
ext5t1 by  treaties4 ,! :ole subject (  
treaties & =eign relations is s         
complicat$1 h[ev]1 t x may be/ be res]v$
 = /udy 9 a lat]  *apt]4    ,sid5ote3   
,p[]s :i* are jo9tly ex]cis$ ) ! ,h\se4 
,! ,s5ate3 ,its ,concurr5t ,p[]s4--,9   
all o!r matt]s1 ap>t f  impea*m5ts1     
appo9tm5ts1 & treaties1 ! ,s5ate has    
concurr5t  p[] ) ! ,h\se (              
,repres5tatives4 ,!re is a provision 9 !
  con/itution to ! effect t all bills = 
rais+ rev5ue mu/  8orig9ate0 9 ! ,h\se (
 ,repres5tatives1 b t ! ,s5ate may  am5d
 su* bills z x pleases4 ,?is is a p>tial
 reproduction ( an  anci5t rule 9 !     

unwritt5 con/itution ( ,great ,brita9   
:i* gives  ! ,h\se ( ,commons !         
initiative 9 all f9ancial matt]s4 ,by   
usage1  also1 all bills = sp5d+ money   
orig9ate 9 ! l[] h\se4 ,b !  ,s5ate1 z a
 practical matt]1 uses its am5d+ p[] s  
freely t x  c virtually orig9ate        
measures ( ei!r sort :5ev] x desires to 
d s4 ,:5 a bill comes up f ! l[] *amb] x
 c /rike out  virtually ! :ole measure1 
put a new bill 9 its place1 & s5d ?is   
back to ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,9   
matt]s :i* d n relate to  rev5ue or     
exp5diture ! p[]s ( ! two *amb]s are    
precisely !  same bo? 9 !ory & 9        
practice4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! size ( !   
,h\se is det]m9$4    ,! ,h\se (         
,repres5tatives3 ,its ,organization4--,!
 ,h\se (  ,repres5tatives is ne>ly five 
times z l>ge z ! ,s5ate1 hav+ #dce      
memb]s at ! pres5t "t4 ,x is mu* too    
l>ge = ! effective  debat+ (            
measures4#aac ,e t5 ye>s1 aft] !        
population ( ea*  /ate has be5 det]m9$  
by ! c5sus bureau1 ,congress by law     

fixes  ! total memb]%ip ( ! ,h\se = !   
ensu+ decade4 ,divid+ ?is  figure into !
 total population ( ! c\ntry gives a    
8ratio (  repres5tation01 t is ! uni=m  
quota ( population :i* is  entitl$ to "o
 repres5tative4 ,= example1 if !        
population ( !  c\ntry is "o hundr$     
millions & ! memb]%ip ( ! ,h\se is fix$ 
at #djj1 ! ratio w\ld be "o             
repres5tative = e #bej1jjj p4  ,hav+    
f\nd ?is ratio1 x is a simple matt] to  
det]m9e h[ _m  repres5tatives ea* /ate  
%all h4 ,new ,york1 ) t5 million  p1    
w\ld be allott$ =ty congressm52 ,ma9e1 )
 sev5 hundr$  & fifty ?\s& p1 w\ld get  
only ?ree4 ,nevada1 ,wyom+ &  ,delaw>e  
w\ld n get any1 if ! ratio 7 /rictly    
appli$1 b !  con/itution requires t e   
/ate1 no matt] :at its population1  %all
 be giv5 at lea/ "o repres5tative 9 !   
,h\se4 ,:5 ! quota  to :i* ea* /ate is  
entitl$ has be5 figur$ ! sev]al /ates   
proce$1 ?r\gh _! legislatures1 to lay   
out congressional di/ricts  & f ea* su* 
di/rict "o congressman is *os5 at ! next

  election4    ,sid5ote3 ,congressional 
di/ricts4    ,?is "w ( 8r$i/rict+0 !    
/ate gave rise at an e>ly date to a     
practice commonly kn[n z 8g]rym&]+04#aad
 ,! national laws  require t all        
congressional di/ricts )9 a /ate %all be
  approximately equal 9 population & t  
!y %all be compos$ (  contigu\s         
t]ritory4 ,ap>t f ^! re/rictions1 ! /ate
  legislatures are free to map out !    
di/ricts z !y see fit & !y  d ?is1 v    
frequ5tly1 ) an eye to ga9+ advantage = 
!  political p>ty :i* happ5s to control 
! legislature4 ,by add+ "o  c\nty or t[n
 & tak+ (f ano!r1 always ) p>ty motives 
9  m9d1 x is possible to 8g]rym&]0 a    
di/rict into su* =m t !  c&idate ( !    
favor$ p>ty w h an advantage ov] 8      
oppon5t4  ,true en\gh1 ^! g]rym&]$      
congressional di/ricts1 :5 drawn on  !  
map1 (t5 look l a liz>d or a />fi%1 b   
!re is no?+ 9  ! con/itution or ! laws (
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* requires           
congressional di/ricts to be uni=m 9    
%ape4    ,sid5ote3 ,! me?od ( *oos+     

congressm54    ,h[ ,repres5tatives are  
,*os54--,e second ye> elections are held
  9 all ! congressional di/ricts ( !    
c\ntry & "o congressman is  *os5 f ea*4 
,ea* /ate det]m9es h[ ! nom9ations are  
made &  is responsible = conduct+ !     
election4 ,! qualifications =  vot+ are 
! same z ^? e/abli%$ at /ate elections4 
,!re is no  legal requirem5t t a        
repres5tative mu/ be a resid5t ( !      
di/rict :i* elects him2 x is en\gh t he 
be a resid5t ( !  /ate 9 :i* ! di/rict  
is locat$4 ,b z a matt] ( practice      
congressm5 are ne>ly always resid5ts (  
_! di/ricts4 ,am]ican  usage 9 ?is      
respect diff]s f t ( "s o!r c\ntries1   
p>ticul>ly ,great ,brita91 :]e memb]s ( 
! ,h\se ( ,commons are  frequ5tly *os5 f
 di/ricts 9 :i* !y d n reside4 ,sid5ote3
  ,! resid5ce requirem5t4 ,! advantage (
 ?is plan is t a capable  /atesman c    
secure a seat 9 ! lawmak+ body ev5 ?\gh 
8 own  home di/rict may be "o :i* !     
opposite p>ty controls4 ,9 !  ,unit$    
,/ates1 on ! o!r h&1 if a capable man   

belong+ to !  ,democratic p>ty happ5s to
 live 9 a /rongly ,republican di/rict1  
!re is practically no *ance ( 8 ev] be+ 
a memb] ( !  national ,h\se (           
,repres5tatives no matt] h[ /rong 8     
p]sonal  qualifications may be4 ,"o     
congressional di/rict1 moreov]1         
especially  9 ! resid5tial portion ( a  
l>ge city1 may h _m capable m5  liv+ 9  
x4 ,b only "o ( !m1 "u ,am]ican usage1 c
 sit 9 !  ,h\se4 ,! argum5t t1 9 ord] to
 "k ! ne$s ( 8 di/rict1 a  congressman  
mu/ actually live 9 x1 is on ev]yone's  
tongue1 b x  des]ves no consid]able     
weight4 ,! fir/ duty ( a congressman is 
to  promote ! int]e/s ( ! :ole p & n    
m]ely ^? ( 8  own di/rict4    ,! ,speak]
 & ! ,committees4--,! ,h\se (           
,repres5tatives elects  its own presid+ 
(fic]1 :o is kn[n z ! ,speak]4 ,he has  
g5]al  *>ge ( ! proce$+s & until a few  
ye>s ago appo9t$ all !  committees4 ,all
 que/ions ( proc$ure are decid$ by him &
 he  det]m9es :i* memb] ( ! ,h\se %all  
be 8recogniz$01 t is1  p]mitt$ to speak1

 :5 sev]al memb]s desire to h ! floor4  
,!  ,speak] is always a prom95t memb] ( 
! majority p>ty & usually  "o ( its     
lead]s4 ,he has a consid]able influ5ce  
on ! "w ( !  ,h\se4    ,9 a body ( m ?an
 f\r hundr$ memb]s1 x /&s to reason t a 
great deal ( ! bus9ess mu/ be done by   
committees4 ,!re are n[  ne>ly sixty (  
^! committees1 ! mo/ important be+ ^? on
  rules1 appropriations1 ways & means1  
int]/ate & =eign comm]ce1  po/-(fices1  
milit>y affairs1 naval affairs1 &       
agriculture4  ,sid5ote3 ,! committees3  
h[ select$4 ,s9ce #aiaj ^! committees  h
 be5 appo9t$ by a complicat$ plan :i*   
places ! selection 9  ! h&s ( ! :ole    
,h\se4#aae ,! majority p>ty 9 ! ,h\se   
obta9s a majority on ea* important      
committee4    ,sid5ote3 ,/ages 9 ! mak+ 
( a law3    ,! ,process ( ,lawmak+4--,! 
"w ( ! committees may be/ be  expla9$ by
 describ+ ! v>i\s /ages ?r\gh :i* a bill
 passes  be=e x becomes a law4 ,sid5ote3
 #a4 ,introduction ( bill4 ,9 !  fir/   
place1 any memb] ( ! ,h\se may introduce

 a bill 7:i* is a  draft ( a propos$    
law7 ei!r = himself or = someone else4  
,he does  ?is by writ+ 8 "n on ! back ( 
! bill & dropp+ x into a  l>ge basket at
 ! ,speak]'s table4 ,dur+ ! c\rse ( ea* 
session  _m ?\s& bills are plac$ 9 ?is  
8hopp]0 z x is call$4 ,"o (  ! ,speak]'s
 assi/ants takes ea* bill f ! basket &  
ref]s x  to ! prop] committee4 ,if !    
bill relates to taxation x goes to !    
,ways & ,means ,committee2 if x relates 
to railroads x goes to !  ,committee on 
,=eign & ,int]/ate ,comm]ce4 ,e bill    
goes to "s  committee be=e ! ,h\se looks
 at x4    ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,consid]ation by
 a committee4    ,:5 ! v>i\s committees 
receive _! bills !y place !m on a  li/ =
 consid]ation & ea* is tak5 up 9 ord]   
unless !  committee decides to give "s  
bills ! "r ( way4 ,he>+s on !  important
 measures are !n held4 ,! memb]s ( !    
committee meet 9  _! committee room &   
li/5 to ! argum5ts ( ^? :o desire to    
support or oppose ! bill4 ,any citiz5   
has ! "r to appe> & be  he>d4           

,sometimes1 9 ! case ( "s important     
bills1 su* z a t>iff  measure1 ! he>+s  
may cont9ue = sev]al days or ev5 =      
weeks4  ,! committee he>+s1 h[ev]1 are  
usually held 9 ! morn+s only1  = ! ,h\se
 is 9 session dur+ ! aft]noons4 ,:5 !   
he>+s are  conclud$ ! committee decides 
:at action x w take4 ,x may  recomm5d to
 ! ,h\se t ! bill ought to be pass$1    
ei!r ) or  )\t *anges4 ,sometimes a     
committee completely r$rafts a bill &   
reports x to ! ,h\se 9 ! entirely new   
=m4 ,b 9 ! great  majority ( cases !    
committees feel unfavorably t[>ds !     
bills &  make no report or recomm5dation
 on ^! bills at all4 ,sid5ote3 ,h[      
bills are kill$ 9 committee4 ,su*       
measures are m]ely 8kill$ 9  committee0 
& nev] get be=e ! ,h\se4 ,! ,h\se c1 (  
c\rse1  require any committee to s5d up 
a bill2 b ?is x h>dly ev] does4  ,mo/ ( 
! bills introduc$ by congressm5 are put 
to dea? 9 ?is  way2 9 fact m ?an eighty 
p] c5t ( !m nev] survive !  committee   
/age4#aaf ,"o committee acquir$ su* a   

reputation =  slaught]+ bills t its     
committee room 0 nicknam$ !             
8legislative morgue04    ,sid5ote3 #c4  
,! committee's report4    ,b let u      
suppose t a bill is favorably reg>d$ by 
a committee &  duly report$ to ! ,h\se4 
,:at happ5s next8 ,x is plac$ on "o (  !
 cal5d>s or li/s2 pr9t$ copies are made2
 & :5 its turn  comes1 x is laid be=e ! 
,h\se4 ,a debate on ! bill may take     
place1  am5dm5ts may be propos$1 & votes
 tak54    ,sid5ote3 #d4 ,consid]ation 9 
! ,h\se4    ,9 consid]+ measures1 !     
,h\se (t5 sits z a ,committee ( !       
,:ole4 ,?is m]ely means t ! entire      
memb]%ip =ms a great  committee1 b !re  
are "s important diff]5ces betwe5 !     
,h\se 9  ,committee ( ! ,:ole & ! regul>
 session4 ,9 ,committee ( !  ,:ole !    
,speak] does n preside 7b calls "s memb]
 to ! *air72  ! /rict rules ( proc$ure d
 n apply2 "o hundr$ memb]s =m a  quorum 
79 regul> session a majority ( ! memb]s 
are ne$$ to  furni% a quorum7 & !re are 
no roll calls4 ,9 a ^w1 ! sy/em  enables

 ! ,h\se to d bus9ess ) less =mality4   
,sid5ote3 #e4  ,bills are !n s5t to !   
o!r *amb]4 ,at any rate if ! measure    
safely passes ! ,h\se1 x is engross$ on 
p>*m5t1 sign$ by !  speak]1 & s5t up to 
! ,s5ate :]e x goes ?r\gh ! :ole        
proc$ure ( committee he>+s & discussion 
on ! floor4#aag    ,sid5ote3 #f4 ,!     
executive approval4    ,hav+ pass$ !    
,s5ate x is sign$ by ! presid+ (fic] ( t
  body & is !n s5t to ! ,presid5t = 8   
signature4 ,! ,presid5t1  z w be %[n a  
little lat]1 may sign x1 veto x1 or all[
 x to  become a law )\t 8 signature4    
,sid5ote3 ,conf]5ce committees4    ,if  
"o *amb] am5ds a measure1 & ! o!r *amb] 
agrees to !  am5dm5t1 ! bill also goes  
directly to ! ,presid5t4 ,b :at  happ5s 
9 case ei!r ! ,s5ate or ! ,h\se make    
am5dm5ts to :i*  ! o!r *amb] does n     
agree8 ,t is j :at v frequ5tly  occurs4 
,9 su* cases a conf]5ce committee is    
appo9t$1 made up z a  rule ( ?ree memb]s
 f ea* *amb]4 ,^! conf]ees meet & try to
  rea* a common gr\nd by compromise4    

,!n1 :5 !y h agre$1 !y  report to _!    
respective *amb]s & ! latt] mu/ accept  
or reject  ! conf]5ce report )\t fur!r  
am5dm5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,! value (        
exp]i5ce 9 ,congress4    ,"s ,tricks ( !
 ,lawmak]'s ,trade4--,lawmak+ is a      
skill$  pr(ession2 x takes ! av]age     
congressman mo/ ( 8 fir/ t]m to  le>n j 
h[ x is done4 ,he mu/ acquire a k ( !   
rules1  writt5 & unwritt51 ! traditions1
 & :at may rightly be call$  ! 8tricks (
 ! trade04 ,ability z an orator does n  
c\nt = mu*1  p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,h\se4 ,!   
h\se *amb] is a big1 noisy place :]e    
only a lea!r-lung$ speak] c make himself
 cle>ly he>d4  ,congressm51 moreov]1 d n
 take k9dly to long spee*es2 !y expect  
memb]s ( ! ,h\se to say :at !y h to say 
9 five or t5  m9utes4 ,if a congressman 
desires to make an impression ^u ! vot]s
  ( 8 home di/rict by s5d+ !m acc\nts ( 
8 able spee*es 9  _! behalf1 he c       
usually obta9 f ! ,h\se1 by unanim\s    
cons5t1 p]mission to h 8 spee* pr9t$ at 
! public exp5se &  di/ribut$ )\t its ev]

 hav+ be5 deliv]$ on ! floor ( !  *amb] 
at all4 ,:5 long spee*es are made x is  
usually to wa/e !  "t ( ,congress &     
prev5t ! passage ( "s measure to :i* !  
speak]s are oppos$4#aah    ,sid5ote3    
,filibu/]s4    ,attempts to talk a      
measure to dea? are kn[n z 8filibu/]s04 
,bo?  *amb]s are n[ able to put an end  
to filibu/]s by apply+ rules  :i* %ut (f
 fur!r debate :5 a specifi$ majority ( !
 memb]s  s desire2 b 9 ! old days1 be=e 
^! rules 7 adopt$1  s5ators sometimes   
kept ! floor h\r aft] h\r all day & all 
night  long1 talk+ on e irrelevant      
matt]1 read+ long extracts f  books1 &  
employ+ all _! +5uity to l5g!n ! debate4
 ,!  proce$+s 9 ! ,s5ate are (t5        
int]e/+2 b ! visitor to !  ,h\se gall]y 
is likely to be disappo9t$ if he goes ) 
!  expectation ( he>+ "s good           
spee*-mak+4 ,! real "w ( !  ,h\se is    
done 9 committee4    ,sid5ote3          
,classification ( congressional p[]s4   
,! ,p[]s ( ,congress4--,! p[]s (        
,congress1 z ! lawmak+  bran* ( !       

national gov]nm5t1 are set =? 9 eighte5 
clauses (  ! f$]al con/itution4 ,h5ce x 
is cu/om>y to speak ( !  8eighte5 p[]s (
 ,congress01 al?\gh !re are 9 fact m ?an
  eighte5 sep>ate p[]s1 z anyone w f9d  
if he takes ! tr\ble to  c\nt !m4 ,^!   
p[]s may be conv5i5tly gr\p$ toge!r "u  
eight heads3 7#a7 f9ancial1 ! p[] to    
levy taxes & to borr[  money2 7#b7      
comm]cial1 ! p[] to regulate comm]ce )  
=eign  nations & among ! sev]al /ates2  
7#c7 milit>y1 ! p[] to  decl>e w>1 to   
raise & support armies1 to ma9ta9 a     
navy1 & to  provide = organiz+1 arm+1 & 
call+ =? ! /ate militia2 7#d7  monet>y1 
! p[] to co9 money1 to regulate ! value 
!re(1 &  to protect ! curr5cy aga9/     
c\nt]feit+2 7#e7 po/al1 ! p[]  to       
e/abli% po/-(fices & po/ roads2 7#f7    
judicial1 ! p[] to  con/itute tribunals 
subord9ate to ! ,supreme ,c\rt2 7#g7    
miscellane\s1 includ+ p[]s 9 relation to
 bankruptcy1  naturalization1 pat5ts1   
copyrights1 & ! gov]nm5t ( ! national   
capital2 7#h7 supplem5t>y1 ! p[] to make

 all laws :i* may be  f\nd 8necess>y &  
prop] = c>ry+ into execution ! =ego+    
p[]s04 ,?is is a r t$i\s classification 
( congressional  p[]s1 b ! section :i*  
enum]ates ^! p[]s is1 by all odds1  !   
mo/ important "p ( ! :ole con/itution & 
no "o c claim  to "k mu* ab\t ! gov]nm5t
 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates unless he  und]/&s1  
at lea/ 9 a g5]al way1 :at ^! eighte5   
clauses  express & imply4    ,sid5ote3  
,express & impli$ p[]s4    ,x w be not$ 
t all ! p[]s except ! la/ are express   
p[]s1 t is1 !y are convey$ to ,congress 
9 s _m words4 ,!  la/ is a grant (      
impli$ au?ority1 9 o!r words x is a     
provision  = supplem5t+ ! express p[]s4 
,:]e ,congress has ! express  "r to tax1
 to borr[1 to regulate int]/ate comm]ce1
 to raise &  support armies1 or to co9  
money1 x has ! impli$ "r to make  :atev]
 laws may be 8necess>y & prop]0 to c>ry 
its express p[]s  into full op]ation4   
,hav+ ! express p[] to borr[ money1     
,congress  may !re=e e/abli% a sy/em (  
banks if ?is is ne$$ to r5d]  m easy !  

op]ations ( borr[+4 ,hav+ ! express p[] 
to  support armies1 x may place almo/   
any sort ( re/riction ^u  indu/ry 9 w>  
"t4 ,by ! impli$ p[]s clause ( !        
con/itution  ! au?ority ( ,congress is  
giv5 great ela/icity4    ,are ! ,p[]s ( 
,congress ,broad ,en\gh8--,if ! words ( 
!  con/itution _h be5 /rictly int]pret$1
 ! p[]s ( ,congress w\ld  n[ be too n>r[
 = ! "w :i* a /rong national gov]nm5t   
mu/  p]=m4 ,x is easy to und]/& :y !    
fram]s ( ! con/itution  7 cauti\s ab\t  
conf]r+ broad p[]s ^u ! new gov]nm5t4   
,!y 7 anxi\s t no legislative despotism 
%\ld be built up 9  ,am]ica4 ,b z "t    
pass$ ! express p[]s ( ,congress h be5  
/eadily wid5$ by ! process ( int]pret+  
!m broadly s t  today ! real au?ority ( 
,congress is mu* great] ?an "o w\ld     
suspect f a m]e read+ ( ! con/itution4  
,= all practical  purposes !y are broad 
en\gh al?\gh x is probably true t if !  
con/itution 7 to be r$rawn tomorr[1 !   
au?ority ( ! national  gov]nm5t w\ld be 
increas$4 ,ne>ly all ! am5dm5ts propos$ 

9  rec5t ye>s h be5 9 ! direction (     
exp&+ ! p[]s (  ,congress4    ,sid5ote3 
,! h&icaps to good "w4    ,! ,effici5cy 
( ,congress4--,9 comp>ison ) ! o!r great
  p>liam5ts & legislatures ( ! _w1 !    
,congress ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates does its "w
 fairly well4 ,x is r too l>ge 9        
memb]%ip1  & ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives  
w\ld probably ga9 9 effici5cy if x  7   
r$uc$ 9 size4 ,ano!r h&icap to good "w  
arises f !  enorm\s gri/ ( measures :i* 
comes =w>d at e session4  ,congress is  
always "u con/ant pressure = "t4 ,_m    
millions are  (t5 vot$ 9 a s+le h\r & x 
is impossible = ! congressm5 to  g      
c>efully ?r\gh ! long li/ ( f9ancial    
items4 ,until v  rec5tly1 ! abs5ce ( a  
budget sy/em af=d$ an inc5tive to       
extravagance2 b ?is defect has n[ be5   
rem$i$4#aai    ,sid5ote3 ,! lack (      
lead]%ip4    ,congress also lacks       
lead]%ip4 ,9 ,european c\ntries e       
p>liam5t  & legislature has a recogniz$ 
lead]1 usually call$ ! prime  m9i/]4 ,he
 or 8 colleagues pres5t ! bus9ess & c>ry

 x  ?r\gh4#abj ,!re is no?+ ( ?is sort 9
 ei!r ! ,s5ate or !  ,h\se (            
,repres5tatives4 ,x is true t ea*       
political p>ty has a  floor lead]1 b he 
has n effective control ov] 8 foll[]s4  
,!  *airm5 ( ! v>i\s committees also    
supply a c]ta9 measure (  lead]%ip1 b _!
 "w is n unifi$4 ,sid5ote3 ,! lobby4    
,m5tion %\ld also be made ( ! pressure  
:i* is appli$ to  individual memb]s (   
,congress by ! lobbyi/s4 ,^! lobbyi/s   
are  hir$ work]s1 usually lawy]s1 :o are
 paid to help get measures  ?r\gh1 or 9 
"s cases to prev5t ! passage ( c]ta9    
laws4 ,!y  are employ$ by corporations1 
or by labor organizations1 or by anyone 
:o is deeply conc]n$ 9 measures p5d+    
be=e ,congress4 ,!y use  e =m (         
p]suasion 9 _! ef=ts to h congressm5 see
 _!  side ( ! case4 ,! 8lobby0 has be5  
plac$ "u v>i\s re/rictions  9 rec5t     
ye>s1 b x is /ill an influ5tial factor4 
,sid5ote3 ,! influ5ce ( small gr\ps 9   
,congress4    ,! ,congressional         
,olig>*ies4--,we are 9 ! habit ( assum+ 

t  ! p[] 9 national lawmak+ re/s ) !    
#eca m5 :o con/itute  ! ,s5ate & ! ,h\se
 ( ,repres5tatives2 b ! dom9at+         
influ5ce is 9 reality ex]cis$ by a      
relatively small gr\p ( m5 9  bo?       
*amb]s4 ,! *airm5 ( important committees
 & c]ta9 o!rs  ( long congressional     
exp]i5ce are ! m5 ^: influ5ce c\nts4 ,! 
re/ foll[ _! lead = ! mo/ "p4 ,important
 measures1 moreov]1  are (t5 discuss$ 9 
a caucus ( ! majority p>ty1 & ! action (
  ! caucus is consid]$ b9d+ on all :o   
att5d x4 ,a memb] 9  ei!r *amb]1        
especially a new memb]1 :o displays a   
disposition to  be :olly indep5d5t1 & to
 disreg>d ! advice ( 8 p>ty lead]s  or !
 decisions ( 8 p>ty caucus is n likely  
to get _m favors  = himself or = 8      
di/rict4 ,! s5ator or repres5tative :o  
desires to be effective f9ds x necess>y1
 !re=e1 to help o!rs  ) _! plans :e!r he
 approves !m he>tily or n1 9 ord] t  he 
may be1 9 turn1 help$ ) 8 own4 ,x is    
almo/ always true t a  gr\p ( ?irty or  
=ty memb]s1 on ! majority side1 c secure

 !  passage ( measures :i* !y desire & c
 prev5t ! passage (  measures to :i* !y 
are oppos$4#aba ,9 ?is respect !        
,congress (  ! ,unit$ ,/ates does n     
diff] mu* f legislative bodies ! _w     
ov]4 ,l>ge delib]ative bodies are       
inv>iably prone to foll[ ! lead  ( "s   
relatively small gr\p 9 _! own memb]%ip2
 o!rwise !y  w\ld nev] make headway1 & !
 l>g] ! *amb] ! m likely is  ?is to be  
true4                                   
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,,james ,,bryce1    
,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4    
#ig-bjh2    ,,woodr[ ,,wilson1          
,congressional ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #eh-abi2  
,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &    
,politics1 pp4 #bca-bic2 ,ibid41        
,read+s on ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &         
,politics1 pp4 #bad-bga2    ,,ev]ett    
,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4  #cjh-cgh2    ,w4 ,b4
 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  
pp4 #adf-bah2    ,s4 ,w4 ,,mccall1 ,!   
,bus9ess ( ,congress1 pp4 #dc-hd2       
,,lynn ,,ha9es1 ,y\r ,congress1 pp4     

#fg-aji4                                
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,is x desirable  
to re/rict ! pres5t p[]s ( ! ,s5ate 9   
relation to treaties8 ,reasons = giv+ ! 
,s5ate special p[]s 9  relation to      
treaties4 ,! mean+ ( 8advice & cons5t04 
,wa%+ton's  attitude & exp]i5ce4 ,!     
action ( ! ,s5ate on important treaties 
dur+ ! pa/ hundr$ ye>s4 ,! practical    
difficulty ( obta9+ a  two-?irds        
majority4 ,confirmation z a b>ri] to    
secret diplomacy4  ,ref]5ces3 ,,ral/on  
,,hayd51 ,! ,s5ate & ,treaties1 pp4     
#afi-aie2 ,h4  ,c4 ,,lodge1 ,! ,s5ate ( 
! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #a-ca2 ,,ev]ett    
,,kimball1  ,national ,gov]nm5t ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #edi-eea2 #egc2 ,s4  
,b4  ,,cr&all1 ,treaties3 ,_! ,mak+ &   
,en=cem5t1 pp4 #fg-ib2  ,congressional  
,record1 #aiai-aibb4    #b4 ,! p]sonnel 
( ,congress4 ,ref]5ces3 ,types ( m5     
elect$4  ,_! occupations at home4 ,_!   
legislative exp]i5ce4 ,are !re too  _m  
lawy]s8 ,l5g? ( s]vice4 ,h[ ! p]sonnel  
might be improv$4  7,mat]ial = ?is /udy 

may be _h 9 ! ,congressional ,directory1
  & 9 ! v>i\s autobiographical works su*
 z ,,james ,g4 ,,bla9e',s  ,tw5ty ,ye>s 
9 ,congress2 ,,*amp ,,cl>k',s           
,autobiography1 etc47    #c4 ,! m]its & 
faults ( ! committee sy/em4 ,ref]5ces3  
,,james  ,,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1
 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aef-aff2 ,s4 ,w4        
,,mccall1 ,!  ,bus9ess ( ,congress1 pp4 
#dc-fj2 ,l4 ,g4 ,,mccona*ie1            
,congressional  ,committees1 pp4 #eh-hf2
 ,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t
 ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #cdd-cef2 ,p4  
,s4 ,,re9s*1 ,read+s on ,am]ican  ,f$]al
 ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #beg-bfd4               
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! old & ! new     
me?od ( *oos+ ,s5ators4 ,,george ,h4    
,,haynes1  ,! ,election ( ,s5ators1 pp4 
#cf-abi4    #b4 ,! proc$ure 9           
impea*m5ts4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t (
 !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #afh-agc4    #c4 
,! ,speak] ( ! ,h\se4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1   
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &  ,politics1 pp4    
#bhj-bhi2 ,m4 ,p4 ,,follett1 ,! ,speak] 
( ! ,h\se (  ,repres5tatives1 pp4       

#bif-ccj4    #d4 ,! rights ( m9orities4 
,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel& & ,,joseph ,,s*af]1   
,democracy 9 ,recon/ruction1 pp4        
#ddf-dfg4    #e4 ,! g5]al p[]s (        
,congress4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( 
!  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #bjh-bah4    #f4  
,h[ ,congress legislates4 ,,ev]ett      
,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t (  !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #cej-cef2 ,p4 ,s4    
,,re9s*1 ,read+s on ,am]ican  ,f$]al    
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bij-bif4    #g4 ,an     
,engli%man's obs]vation on ! "w (       
,congress4 ,,james ,,bryce1  ,am]ican   
,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aia-bjh4   
#h4 ,! rules ( ! ,h\se & ,s5ate4        
,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,national  ,gov]nm5t
 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ccc-cdd4    #i4
 ,ob/ruction 9 ,congress4 ,s4 ,w4       
,,mccall1 ,! ,bus9ess ( ,congress1  pp4 
#he-ib4    #aj4 ,p>ty organizations 9   
,congress4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,will\ghby &        
,,l9dsay  ,,rog]s1 ,introduction to !   
,problem ( ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ccd-cea4     
#aa4 ,! lobby4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1 ,am]ican
 ,legislatures & ,legislative  ,me?ods1 

pp4 #bbh-bih4    #ab4 ,! ,libr>y (      
,congress4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,hask91 ,am]ican    
,gov]nm5t1 pp4  #bhg-bhh4               
,que/ions    #a4 ,d ! m]its ( !         
d\ble-*amb] sy/em outweigh ! objections8
  ,:y %\ld ! memb]s ( ! two *amb]s be   
*os5 by diff]5t  me?ods8 ,"n at lea/    
?ree diff]5t me?ods ( select+           
repres5tatives4    #b4 ,:at is ! pres5t 
value ( equal repres5tation ( ! /ates 9 
! ,s5ate8 ,:at legal & practical        
ob/acles are !re to *ang+  ?is sy/em8   
#c4 ,look up & expla9 ! foll[+ t]ms :i* 
are commonly us$ 9  ,congress3 executive
 session2 morn+ h\r2 union cal5d>2 rank+
  memb]2 filibu/]2 leave to pr9t2       
pigeon-hol+ a bill2 pork b>rel2  rid]4  
#d4 ,:at are ! practical difficulties   
:i* arise :5 ! ,s5ate  decl9es to       
confirm appo9tm5ts propos$ by !         
,presid5t8    #e4 ,expla9 ! diff]5ce    
betwe5 an impea*m5t & a bill (  atta9d]4
    #f4 ,! ,s5ate usually ex]cises m    
influ5ce ?an ! ,h\se 9 matt]s  (        
lawmak+4 ,c y give reasons :y ?is %\ld  

be s8    #g4 ,tell h[ congressional     
di/ricts are mapp$ out4 ,m>k on an      
outl9e  map ! di/ricts 9 y\r /ate4 ,h   
any ( !m be5 g]rym&]$8    #h4 ,!        
*airman%ips ( committees usually g to   
s5ior memb]s4 ,d y  ?9k ?is a wise or   
unwise practice8    #i4 ,:at w\ld be    
ga9$1 & :at w\ld be lo/ by l5g!n+ to f\r
  ye>s ! t]m = :i* repres5tatives are   
*os58    #aj4 ,two wom51 ,miss ,rank9 ( 
,montana & ,miss ,rob]tson ( ,oklahoma1 
h sat 9 ,congress4 ,:at are ! argum5ts =
 & aga9/ elect+  wom5 9 future8    #aa4 
,memb]s ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives     
receive sal>ies ( #gejj  p] ye>4 ,is ?is
 too mu* or too little8 ,give y\r       
reasons4    #ab4 ,congressm5 are entitl$
 to ! free use ( ! mails4 7,?is is      
call$ ! frank+ privilege47 ,"s ye>s ago 
"o s5ator s5t ne>ly  #gej1jjj copies ( 8
 spee*es ?r\gh ! mails free4 ,d y       
believe  ?is privilege %\ld be )drawn or
 reta9$8    #ac4 ,%\ld ! rules ( ! ,h\se
 provide = unlimit$ debate8    #ad4 ,c y
 sugge/ any practical way 9 :i* ! "w (  

,congress  might be improv$8            
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! ,engli%     
practice ( *oos+ non-resid5t            
repres5tatives is  advantage\s & %\ld be
 adopt$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4    #b4 ,!    
/ates %\ld be repres5t$ 9 ! ,s5ate      
accord+ to _!  respective populations4  
#c4 ,! provision relat+ to a r$uction 9 
repres5tation1 :5ev]  citiz5s are       
exclud$ f vot+ 7see ,am5dm5t ,,xiv7 %\ld
 be  en=c$4                             
,,*apt] ,,xv                       ,,!  
,,presid5t ,,& ,,8 ,,cab9et        ,!   
purpose ( ?is *apt] is to expla9 h[ !   
,presid5t ( !      ,unit$ ,/ates is     
*os51 :at 8 p[]s are1 & :at functions 8 
cab9et p]=ms4                           
,,! ,,presid5t    ,sid5ote3 ,! notable  
,presid5ts4    ,! ,man & ! ,(fice4--,=ty
 ye>s ago1 an em95t ,engli% writ] on    
,am]ican gov]nm5t spoke ( ! presid5cy z 
! greate/ secul>  (fice 9 ! _w 8to :i*  
anyone c rise by 8 own m]its04#abb  ,9  
view ( ?is fact1 he ask$1 h[ does x come
 t ! position is  n m frequ5tly fill$ by

 great & /rik+ m58 ,!re h be5  tw5ty-n9e
 presid5ts s9ce ! con/itution w5t into  
=ce 9 #aghh4  ,( ^! at lea/ ?ree1       
,wa%+ton1 ,jeff]son1 & ,l9coln h won an 
assur$ place 9 _w hi/ory4 ,five or six  
7includ+ ,adams1 ,jackson1  ,grant1     
,clevel&1 & ,roosevelt7 display$ dur+ _!
 respective t]ms  ( (fice "s qualities  
:i* m>k$ !m z m5 ( uncommon =ce or      
ability4 ,?ree o!rs are /ill liv+ & _!  
a*ievem5ts _c yet  be fairly e/imat$4 ,b
 tak+ all ^! toge!r1 & ev5 add+ a  few m
 = good measure1 w\ld x n /ill be a fair
 /atem5t to say  t at lea/ half !       
presid5ts h be5 m5 ^: names w\ld be     
entirely =gott5 n[adays 7 x n = ! fact t
 !y occupi$  ! presid5tial *air8        
,alex&] ,hamilton1 ,daniel ,web/]1 ,john
 ,m>%all1 ,h5ry ,clay1 & ,john  ,c4     
,calh\n are great & /rik+ figures 9     
,am]ican hi/ory al?\gh  !y nev] rea*$ ! 
presid5cy2 on ! o!r h& ! nation has1 at 
v>i\s times1 be/[$ its highe/ honor ^u  
m5 ( commonplace  qualities4 ,?is1 (    
c\rse1 0 n :at ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,republic   

expect$4 ,x 0 _! anticipation t !       
presid5tial (fice w\ld  always be fill$ 
by m5 ( 8pre-em95t ability & virtue04   
,:y has ?is expectation be5 9 "p        
disappo9t$8 ,t is a "q  :i* c only be   
answ]$ by a /udy ( ! me?ods by :i*      
presid5ts  are *os51 ! relations betwe5 
! (fice & ! p>ty sy/em1 &  ! duties t   
presid5ts are requir$ to p]=m4          
,sid5ote3 ,:y ! plan ( indirect election
 0 adopt$4    ,h[ ! ,presid5t is        
,*os54--,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation did 
n  provide = a ,presid5t2 executive     
functions 7 p]=m$ by  committees ( !    
,congress4 ,b ?is plan 0 f\nd to be     
altoge!r  unsatisfactory & ! fram]s ( ! 
con/itution decid$ 9 #aghg t  ! new     
f$]al gov]nm5t ought to h a s+le        
executive head4 ,h[ to  *oose ?is head1 
h[ev]1 0 a problem :i* gave !m great    
difficulty & !y debat$ x = a long "t4   
,!y did n approve a  plan ( election by 
direct popul> vote1 = !y fe>$ t ?is     
might  result 9 ! *oice ( m5 :o 7       
p]sonally popul> b _h no o!r            

qualifications4 ,_! /udy ( anci5t &     
m$iaeval republics made !m  av]se to    
*oos+ ! head ( ! nation by direct popul>
 vote4 ,!y  7 n prep>$ to tru/ ! p2 9 ^?
 days ! risk seem$ too  great4 ,on ! o!r
 h& !y did n desire to h ! ,presid5t    
*os5 by ,congress because ?is w\ld give 
,congress control ( !  (fice1 :]eas _!  
aim 0 to make ! presid5cy a *eck ^u     
,congress4 ,s !y f9ally decid$ ^u !     
exp$i5t ( direct election  by means ( an
 electoral college4#abc    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
presid5tial electors4    ,! ,orig9al    
,plan ( ,election4--,/at$ briefly ! plan
 :i* !y  agre$ ^u & ins]t$ 9 !          
con/itution 0 z foll[s3 ,ea* /ate  %all 
*oose1 9 su* mann] z its legislature may
 det]m9e1 a numb]  ( electors equal to !
 /ate's comb9$ quota ( s5ators &        
repres5tatives 9 ,congress4 ,a /ate     
hav+1 = example1 two s5ators  & twelve  
repres5tatives1 is entitl$ to f\rte5    
electors4 ,on a  def9ite date1 once 9   
f\r ye>s1 ! electors meet 9 _!          
respective  /ates & give 9 writ+ _!     

votes = ,presid5t & ,vice ,presid5t4    
,^! votes are seal$ up1 s5t to ,wa%+ton1
 c\nt$1 & ann\nc$4  ,?is plan did n     
contemplate t nom9ations %\ld be made 9 
advance1 or t political p>ties %\ld h   
any?+ to d ) !  election1 or t ! v>i\s  
/ates1 9 *oos+ _! electors1 %\ld  pl$ge 
!m to vote = any p>ticul> c&idate4 ,x 0 
expect$ t  ! electors w\ld meet1 discuss
 ! m]its ( all ! available m5 =  !      
position1 & give _! votes accord+ly4    
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! plan work$ 9 ! e>li]    
elections4    ,! ,actual ,me?ods (      
,election ,today4--,at ! fir/ two       
elections ?is  plan 0 foll[$4 ,!re 7 no 
nom9ations & no campaign prec$+  !      
election4 ,b at ! election ( #agif x 0  
well und]/ood1 ev5  be=e ! electors met1
 t ! conte/ w\ld be betwe5 ,john ,adams 
& ,?omas ,jeff]son4 ,& z "t w5t on !    
actual practice drift$  fur!r away f !  
orig9al plan ( free *oice by unpl$g$    
electors4 ,political p>ties grew up2 !  
electors 7 *os5 ) !  def9ite und]/&+ t  
!y w\ld vote = a p>ticul> p>ty  c&idate1

 & _! %>e 9 ! election became purely    
nom9al4 ,9  #ahjd "s *anges 7 made 9 !  
me?od ( election b !y did n  affect !   
g5]al plan or ! curr5t practice4        
,gradually ! p  took into _! own h&s !  
function ( *oos+ ! ,presid5t2  ev]y:]e !
 /ate legislatures turn$ ! "w ( *oos+ ! 
electors ov] to !m1 s t ! presid5tial   
elections became1 9  ev]y?+ b "n & =m1  
direct elections by ! p4#abd            
,sid5ote3 ,five /eps 9 ! *oos+ ( a      
,presid5t3    ,9 ! *oice ( a ,presid5t  
!re are n[ five /eps1 b only two (  ^!  
are ( any practical importance4 ,fir/1  
ea* political p>ty  nom9ates its c&idate
 at a national conv5tion1 z already     
describ$4#abe ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,! nom9ation
 ( c&idates4 ,second1 9  ea* /ate !     
political p>ties nom9ate1 ei!r by       
prim>ies or /ate  conv5tions1 _!        
respective slates or gr\ps ( electors4  
,sid5ote3  #b4 ,! nom9ation ( electors4 
,?ird1 ! vot]s on election day decide   
:i* gr\p ( electors %all be giv5 ! =mal 
function ( elect+  ! ,presid5t4 ,?is !  

vot]s d on ! ,tuesday foll[+ ! fir/     
,monday 9 ,novemb] e f\r? ye>4 ,sid5ote3
 #c4 ,! poll+4 ,ea*  vot] m>ks 8 ballot 
= a gr\p ( electors b :at he really does
  is to indicate 8 pref]5ce = "o ( !    
c&idates already  nom9at$ at ! p>ty     
conv5tions4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t "o or
  ! o!r gr\p ( electors is *os5 z a :ole
 & ! /ate's vote  ca/ solidly4 ,x r>ely 
happ5s1 = example1 t a /ate ca/s t5     
electoral votes = "o c&idate & five =   
ano!r2 if x has  fifte5 votes !y all g  
to "o c&idate4 ,= ?is reason x sometimes
  happ5s t a c&idate receives a majority
 ( ! electoral votes  al?\gh n a        
majority ( ! popul> votes1 tak+ ! c\ntry
 z a  :ole4 ,sid5ote3 #d4 ,! action ( ! 
electors4 ,f\r?1 ! electors  meet 9 _!  
respective /ates & ca/ _! votes4 ,fif?1 
^! votes  are op5$ 9 ,wa%+ton & c\nt$ 9 
! pres5ce ( ,congress4  ,sid5ote3 #e4   
,c\nt+ ! votes4 ,among ^! five /eps !   
fir/ &  ?ird are ! important ones4 ,!   
la/ /ep is no?+ b a =mality  unless x   
appe>s t no c&idate has receiv$ a       

majority4 ,9 case  ?is happ5s ! ,h\se ( 
,repres5tatives proce$s to *oose a      
,presid5t  f among ! ?ree c&idates :o h 
/ood highe/4 ,9 ! case (  ! ,vice       
,presid5t ! *oice re/s ) ! ,s5ate4#abf  
,sid5ote3 ,! 8availability0 ( c&idates4 
,factors :i* ,influ5ce ,presid5tial     
,nom9ations & ,elections4--,z  matt]s h 
work$ out x is n possible = anyone to be
 elect$  ,presid5t )\t fir/ obta9+ a    
nom9ation f "o ( ! two  lead+ political 
p>ties4 ,! p>ty organizations & ! p>ty  
conv5tions are influ5c$ by gr\ps (      
political lead]s & ^!  lead]s are (t5 m 
int]e/$ 9 a man's /r5g? z a c&idate  ?an
 9 8 p]sonal qualifications = ! "w :i* a
 ,presid5t has  to d4 ,! consequ5ce is t
 c&idates h sometimes be5 nom9at$  by   
p>ty conv5tions because !y 7 compromises
 on :om oppos+  factions ( ! p>ty c\ld  
agree1 or because !y c\ld be c\nt$ ^u   
to c>ry "s important /ate at ! polls1 or
 = "s o!r reason  hav+ no?+ to d ) !    
executive capacity ( ! individual       
conc]n$4    ,sid5ote3 8,d>k horses0     

,a big national conv5tion1 compris+ m   
?an a ?\s& delegates1  _c be expect$ to 
d its "w ) calm delib]ation or to weigh 
c>efully ! p]sonal qualifications ( all 
^? :o seek to be  nom9at$4 ,if !re is a 
prolong$ conte/ betwe5 two or ?ree /rong
  c&idates1 no "o ( :om c obta9 !       
requisite numb] ( votes 9  ! conv5tion1 
! delegates 9 _! impati5ce are likely to
 turn to  a 8d>k horse01 t is to someone
 less prom95t on :om !re is a  *ance (  
agreem5t4#abg ,?is has (t5 happ5$4    ,!
 real "w ( nom9at+ c&idates is n done on
 ! floor ( !  conv5tion4 ,! plans are   
laid & put into op]ation by gr\ps (     
lead]s 9 private conf]5ces1 ! delegates 
foll[+ ^! lead]s  :5 call$ ^u4 ,& ! fact
 t a c&idate possesses 8great &  /rik+  
qualities0 does n always comm5d him to  
^! p>ty lead]s4  ,on mo/ occasions !y   
are likely to pref] a man :o1 if elect$1
 w  "w 9 h>mony ) ! p>ty organization r 
?an take ! re9s  ( (fice :olly into 8   
own h&s4#abh ,by v>i\s comb9ations (    
circum/ances1 !re=e1 m5 ( m$iocre       

quality h sometimes be5  nom9at$4       
,sid5ote3 ,! election may turn ^u v>i\s 
?+s4    ,n>r[ness ( ! ,p's ,*oice4--,a  
nom9ation by "o ( ! two  lead+ p>ties is
 9 "s cases almo/ equival5t to election4
 ,!re  are times1 ( c\rse1 :5 ! election
 turns *iefly ^u ! m]its (  ! two lead+ 
c&idates2 b m (t5 ! result is det]m9$ by
  o!r factors entirely4 ,ea* c&idate    
embodies ! /r5g? ( 8  p>ty z well z 8   
own1 & ea* political p>ty is = v>i\s    
reasons /rong] 9 "s ye>s ?an 9 o!rs4 ,:5
 a p>ty has be5 9  p[] = a t]m ( ye>s ! 
p usually gr[ disgruntl$ ) its  policy &
 refuse to support ! c&idate ( t p>ty at
 ! next  election no matt] h[ capable he
 may be4 ,!re is e reason to  believe t 
! ,democratic c&idate 0 doom$ to defeat 
9 #aibj no  matt] :o he might h be54 ,:5
 "o political p>ty rema9s 9 p[]  = eight
 or twelve ye>s x makes _m enemies2 p   
f9d fault on  "o score or ano!r & decide
 t !y w vote = a *ange4 ,ev5 a  /rong   
c&idate 9 su* circum/ances has v little 
hope ( w9n+4    ,public op9ion is a v   

fickle ?+4 ,x exalts a public man z a   
h]o  today & execrates him tomorr[4 ,x  
is /rong = "o policy ?is ye>  & (t5 ve]s
 ar\nd to some?+ q diff]5t a ye> or two 
lat]4  ,m5 are borne into ! presid5tial 
(fice on ?is surg+ tide1  sometimes )\t 
mu* ref]5ce to _! individual            
qualifications4  ,!y are nom9at$ because
 !y are acceptable to ! p>ty lead]s1 or 
because !y come f "s /rong & d\btful    
/ate1 or because !y  are agre$ ^u by    
compromise1 or = any "o ( a doz5 o!r    
reasons4  ,! capacity ( ! man is n      
always1 & inde$ n usually1 ! *ief       
factor 9 det]m9+ a presid5tial          
nom9ation4#abi ,"u !  circum/ances !    
wond] is t ! c\ntry has obta9$1 9 !     
presid5tial (fice1 su* a high g5]al     
level ( p]sonal capacity &  "*4         
,sid5ote3 ,presid5tial p[]s3    ,p[]s ( 
! ,presid5t4--,! actual p[]s ( !        
,presid5t are  great] ?an ^? ( any o!r  
rul] 9 ! _w1 :e!r h]$it>y  or elective4 
,he is ! *ief eng9e] ( a great me*anism 
:i*  controls an army1 raises sev]al    

billion doll>s a ye> 9 taxes1  en=ces   
laws1 regulates comm]ce1 & employs !    
full "t ( m  ?an half a million public  
(ficials4 ,congress makes ! laws1 x is  
true2 b 7 x n = ! ,presid5t & ^? :om he 
appo9ts1 !  laws w\ld n be en=c$4       
,congress decides :at taxes %all be     
levi$2  b ! ,presid5t & 8 subord9ates   
collect !m4 ,congress  appropriates     
money out ( ! treasury2 b ! executive   
bran* ( !  gov]nm5t1 ( :i* ! ,presid5t  
is ! head1 sp5ds ! money4 ,!  ,presid5t1
 9 o!r words1 is ! nation's *ief        
executive--he is *>g$  ) ! duty (       
execut+ ! laws4 ,?is is a l>ge          
responsibility &  a good deal ( ! "w is 
necess>ily entru/$ to subord9ates :om  !
 ,presid5t appo9ts4    ,sid5ote3 #a4    
,appo9tm5ts4    ,! appo9t+ p[] is1 !n1  
an important phase ( ! ,presid5t's      
au?ority4 ,he names all ! high] (ficials
 ( ! ,gov]nm5t subject  to confirmation 
by ! ,s5ate z has already be5 expla9$4  
,he has !  p[] to remove any national   
(ficial4 ,9 ! case ( m9or (ficials he   

may1 & usually does1 dep5d ^u ! advice (
 s5ators or congressm5  bo? z reg>ds    
appo9tm5ts & removals2 b 9 ! case ( all 
high  (fic]s ^! ?+s mu/ h ! ,presid5t's 
p]sonal att5tion4  ,naturally !y take a 
great deal ( 8 "t4    ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,!  
executive veto4    ,9 relation to       
,congress ! ,presid5t has ! "r to make  
recomm5dations & to veto any measure :i*
 he does n approve4 ,^!  recomm5dations 
he may make ei!r by writt5 message or by
 appe>+  be=e ,congress 9 p]son4 ,! veto
 p[] places a p[]ful weapon 9  !        
,presid5t's h&s4 ,e bill or resolution  
:i* passes bo? ,h\ses  ( ,congress mu/  
be laid be=e ! ,presid5t4 ,if he        
approves1 he signs  x4 ,if n1 he is     
entitl$1 at any "t )9 t5 days1 to return
 !  bill or resolution )\t 8 signature1 
giv+ 8 reasons = !  refusal to sign4    
,sid5ote3 ,scope ( ! veto p[]4 ,:5 !    
,presid5t  vetoes a measure 9 ?is way   
,congress reconsid]s x & a vote is !n   
tak5 to det]m9e :e!r ! action ( !       
,presid5t %all be  su/a9$ or ov]ridd54  

,if two-?irds ( ! memb]s pres5t 9 bo?  !
 ,s5ate & ! ,h\se vote to ov]ride !     
veto1 ! measure becomes  effective2 if  
less ?an two-?irds s vote1 ! measure    
becomes null4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 8pocket   
veto04    ,b suppose ! ,presid5t nei!r  
signs nor vetoes ! measure )9  t5 days  
aft] x is s5t to him1 :at !n8 ,!        
con/itution provides  t 9 su* case !    
measure %all become a law4 ,if ,congress
 adj\rns  be=e ! t5-day p]iod has       
expir$1 h[ev]1 ! bill does n become  a  
law4 ,x is n necess>y = a ,presid5t to  
veto any measure t may  come to him dur+
 ! t5 days imm$iately prec$+ ! adj\rnm5t
 (  ,congress4 ,if he does n approve !  
measure1 he m]ely )holds 8  signature & 
x dies on 8 table4 ,?is is kn[n z !     
8pocket veto04    ,sid5ote3 ,its use &  
abuse4    ,! veto p[] has be5 us$ v     
little by "s presid5ts & a great  deal  
by o!rs4 ,dur+ ! fir/ =ty ye>s ( !      
,republic only n9e  bills 7 veto$4 ,b   
dur+ ! pa/ =ty ye>s presid5tial vetoes  
h be5 v common4 ,:5 a measure has be5   

veto$ !re is great  difficulty1 z a     
rule1 9 obta9+ ! necess>y two-?irds vote
 to  ov]ride ! veto2 b vetoes1          
nev]!less1 are occasionally ov]come4  ,!
 use ( ! veto1 al?\gh x is an ex]cise ( 
executive p[]1  makes ! ,presid5t a     
vital factor 9 legislation4 ,"u ord9>y  
circum/ances he c defeat any measure t  
is n acceptable to  him4#acj ,!re are   
exceptions to ?is rule1 to be sure1 b x 
is valid  9 ! ma94    ,sid5ote3 #c4 ,!  
conduct ( =eign relations4    ,al?\gh ! 
p[] ( appo9tm5t & ! veto p[] 9 normal   
times !  two *ief s\rces ( ! ,presid5t's
 au?ority1 he has o!rs (  consid]able   
importance4 ,he conducts relations )    
=eign gov]nm5ts  & negotiates all       
treaties4 ,treaties d n become valid1   
h[ev]1  until ratifi$ by ! ,s5ate4 ,he  
decides :e!r ambassadors & o!r          
diplomats s5t to ,wa%+ton f o!r c\ntries
 %all be =mally  recogniz$4 ,he has p[] 
to p>don (f5d]s s5t5c$ 9 ! f$]al  c\rts4
 ,he is comm&]-9-*ief ( ! milit>y &     
naval =ces4 ,all  ^! functions are ve/$ 

9 ! ,presid5t by ! con/itution & !      
laws4    ,sid5ote3 #d4 ,o!r p[]s4       
,o!r p[]s h be5 acquir$ by usage1 =     
example1 ! "r to h  a l>ge voice 9      
controll+ ! policy ( ! political p>ty to
 :i*  ! ,presid5t belongs4 ,! ,presid5t 
is a p>ty man1 a p>ty lead]4 ,he  is    
elect$ on a p>ty plat=m4 ,! p expect !  
,presid5t to c>ry  out ! pl$ges :i* ?is 
plat=m conta9s4 ,to d ?is ! ,presid5t   
f9ds x necess>y at times to take !      
initiative 9 secur+ !  passage ( laws by
 ,congress & also to br+ influ5ce to be>
 ^u !  memb]s ( bo? ,h\ses4 ,/rictly    
speak+1 ! ,presid5t has no =mal  %>e 9 !
 mak+ ( ! laws2 b z a matt] ( usage he  
has a  highly-important influ5ce ^u     
legislation4    ,succession to !        
,presid5cy4--,9 case ! ,presid5t %\ld   
die1 or  resign1 or be remov$ by        
impea*m5t1 or be o!rwise incapable (    
p]=m+ 8 duties1 ! ,vice ,presid5t       
succe$s4 ,9 ! abs5ce (  ! ,vice         
,presid5t x has be5 provid$ by law t !  
memb]s ( !  cab9et1 beg9n+ ) ! ,secret>y

 ( ,/ate1 h ! "r (  succession accord+  
to ! s5iority ( _! (fices4#aca ,no      
,presid5t has ev] resign$ or be5 remov$ 
f (fice4 ,on sev]al  occasions1 h[ev]1 a
 ,vice ,presid5t has succe$$ by reason (
 a  ,presid5t's dea?4 ,"s presid5ts h   
be5 s]i\sly ill dur+ _!  t]ms ( (fice1 &
 ,presid5t ,wilson 0 abs5t 9 ,france =  
sev]al  mon?s dur+ #aiah-aiai2 b 9 no   
case has ! ,vice ,presid5t be5  call$ ^u
 to ex]cise ! presid5tial functions4    
,sid5ote3 ,! ,vice ,presid5t4    ,!     
(fice ( ,vice ,presid5t1 ap>t f ! "r (  
succession :i*  x c>ries1 is n ( mu*    
importance4 ,9 select+ _! c&idates =  ! 
(fice ! two lead+ political p>ties h    
usually giv5 v  little ?\ght to !       
problem ( gett+ ! mo/ capable man4 ,by !
  "t ! great task ( nom9at+ a c&idate = 
! presid5cy has  be5 f9i%$1 ! delegates 
are 9 a mood to get home4 ,!y w n  sp5d 
h\rs & days tak+ ballot aft] ballot = ! 
second place on  ! ticket4 ,ap>t f      
presid+ 9 ! ,s5ate ! ,vice ,presid5t has
 no  regul> (ficial duties1 b !re is !  

ev]-pres5t *ance t he  may h to /ep into
 ! *ief executive position4 ,= t reason 
!  "w ( select+ c&idates ought to be    
done m c>efully ?an has  usually be5 !  
case4                                   
,,! ,,cab9et    ,sid5ote3 ,! :ole cab9et
 sy/em re/s on usage4    ,! ,cab9et4--,!
 con/itution makes no def9ite provision 
= a  cab9et4 ,its fram]s expect$ t !    
,presid5t w\ld appo9t  subord9ates to   
assi/ him 9 ! p]=mance ( 8 num]\s       
functions  & !y made allusion to ^!     
(ficials2 b !re 0 no anticipation  t !  
(ficials 9 *>ge ( ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts w\ld
 be =m$  into an organiz$ bran* ( !     
gov]nm5t4 ,s ! cab9et re/s ^u  usage1 n 
^u ! con/itution or ! laws4 ,! same is  
true ( !  cab9et 9 ,engl&4 ,x has no    
legal /atus1 ex]cises no =mal p[]s1     
keeps no records1 & has no fix$         
memb]%ip4 ,! prime m9i/]  selects1 =    
memb]%ip 9 ! cab9et1 :omsoev] he        
pleases1 ! only  re/rictions be+ t !y   
%all h seats 9 p>liam5t & t !  cab9et z 
a :ole %all h ! support ( a majority 9 !

 ,h\se (  ,commons4 ,! ,presid5t ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates has an ev5 wid] range (   
*oice 9 ! selection ( 8 cab9et4 ,he is n
 b\nd to *oose a  gr\p ( m5 :o control a
 majority 9 ei!r bran* ( ,congress4 ,8  
cab9et may be z l>ge or z small z he    
*ooses to make x4 ,by usage1  h[ev]1 !  
,am]ican cab9et consi/s ( ! heads ( !   
national  adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts1 ^!    
dep>tm5ts hav+ be5 at v>i\s  times      
e/abli%$ by law4#acb ,!re are n[ t5 su* 
dep>tm5ts &  h5ce t5 memb]s ( ! cab9et4 
,! t5 dep>tm5ts are z foll[s3  ,/ate1   
,treasury1 ,w>1 ,navy1 ,po/-,(fice1     
,int]ior1 ,ju/ice1 ,agriculture1        
,comm]ce1 & ,labor4 ,! head ( ea* is    
appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t )  ! confirmation
 ( ! ,s5ate2 b = m ?an eighty ye>s ?is  
confirmation has nev] be5 refus$4 ,!    
heads ( dep>tm5ts are  responsible to ! 
,presid5t alone & may be dismiss$ by him
 at any  "t4 ,!y are n p]mitt$ to h     
seats 9 ei!r ! ,s5ate or ,h\se  (       
,repres5tatives4    ,sid5ote3 ,!        
cab9et's functions3    ,! ,functions ( !

 ,cab9et4--,9 describ+ ! functions ( !  
cab9et x is advisable to make1 at !     
outset1 a di/9ction betwe5  ^? duties   
:i* are p]=m$ by ! cab9et z a :ole1 & ^?
  :i* p]ta9 to ! memb]s ( ! cab9et      
individually1 z heads (  _! own         
dep>tm5ts4    ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,z a body4  
,! cab9et z a :ole has no legal         
au?ority4#acc ,x is m]ely a gr\p  ( high
 (ficials :i* ! ,presid5t calls toge!r  
once or twice a  week to discuss su*    
matt]s z he *ooses to lay be=e x1 or    
matt]s  :i* he p]mits individual memb]s 
to br+ up4 ,! ,presid5t may  foll[ its  
advice or he may n4 ,he does n ne$ !    
approval ( !  cab9et = any ( 8 actions4 
,at ! same "t x has become !  cu/om to  
consult ! cab9et on practically all     
important que/ions (  g5]al policy & to 
give consid]able weight to ! cab9et's   
advice4  ,h[ mu* ?is weight w be dep5ds1
 9 l>ge measure1 ^u !  temp]am5t &      
attitude ( ! ,presid5t himself4#acd     
,meet+s ( ! cab9et are n public2 no     
records are kept or pr9t$4  ,nobody kn[s

 :at goes on at ! meet+s ( ! cab9et     
except ^?  :o are pres5t4 ,x is a po9t (
 honor among ! memb]s t no "o  w        
disclose ! proce$+s to outsid]s4 ,?us ! 
cab9et always  pres5ts an outw>d        
appe>ance ( be+ unanim\s4 ,if any memb] 
_c  "w 9 h>mony ) ! ,presid5t or ) 8    
fell[-memb]s1 he is  expect$ to resign4 
,sid5ote3 #b4 ,z individuals4    ,m     
vital ?an ! functions ( ! cab9et z a    
:ole are ^? :i*  its memb]s p]=m1 z     
individuals1 z heads ( _! dep>tm5ts4  ,e
 memb] ( ! cab9et1 z has be5 m5tion$1 is
 ! head ( a  dep>tm5t1 & z su* is giv5  
*>ge ( "s bran* ( !  gov]nm5t's "w1     
subject at all times1 h[ev]1 to !       
direction (  ! ,presid5t4 ,! functions (
 ea* dep>tm5t are indicat$1 9 a  g5]al  
way1 by _! respective titles4#ace ,^!   
duties are s  num]\s & s v>i$ t ! v>i\s 
dep>tm5ts are divid$ into  bureaus1 ea* 
bureau hav+ *>ge ( a c]ta9 division ( ! 
"w4 ,on  all r\t9e matt]s ! head ( !    
dep>tm5t has practically  indep5d5t     
au?ority1 b que/ions ( g5]al policy & ^?

 :i*  affect m ?an "o dep>tm5t are ei!r 
discuss$ at cab9et meet+s  or tak5 to ! 
,presid5t = 8 decision4#acf    ,%\ld !  
,cab9et be ,enl>g$8--,proposals are n[  
"u consid]ation  = enl>g+ ! cab9et by ! 
creation ( a dep>tm5t ( education  & a  
dep>tm5t ( public heal?4 ,x is cont5d$1 
& p]haps rightly1  t ! "w ( ! national  
gov]nm5t 9 ^! two fields is  suffici5tly
 important to w>rant _! be+ plac$ ^u !  
same  foot+ z agriculture1 labor1 &     
comm]ce4 ,z an alt]native x has  be5    
sugge/$ t education & public heal? might
 be comb9$ into a  s+le dep>tm5t (      
public welf>e2 b ! objection to ?is is t
  ! two ?+s h no close relation to ea*  
o!r4 ,!re is a feel+1  moreov]1 t !     
cab9et %\ld n be made mu* l>g] ?an x n[ 
is4 ,if e reque/ = ! creation ( a new   
dep>tm5t 7 grant$1  ! cab9et w\ld soon  
become too cumbr\s = ! effective        
p]=mance  ( its advisory functions4     
,am]ican & ,engli% ,cab9et ,sy/ems      
,comp>$4--,! cab9et sy/em 9  ! ,unit$   
,/ates is l t ( ,engl& 9 "s respects &  

diff]5t  9 o!rs4 ,^! simil>ities &      
contra/s may be made cle> by putt+  !m 9
 p>allel columns4                       
,,simil>ities       #a4 ,! ,am]ican     
cab9et sy/em      #a4 ,! ,engli% cab9et 
sy/em also     re/s on cu/om or usage4  
re/s on usage1 hav+ no basis            
9 ! laws ( ,engl&4       #b4 ,memb]s ( !
 ,am]ican cab9et  #b4 ,memb]s ( !       
,engli% cab9et     are *os5 by ! *ief   
are select$ 9 ! "n ( !     executive--! 
,presid5t4            nom9al *ief       
executive--! k+1                        
by ! actual *ief executive--!           
prime m9i/]4       #c4 ,memb]s ( !      
,am]ican cab9et  #c4 ,memb]s ( ! ,engli%
 cab9et     are heads ( dep>tm5ts4      
are also heads ( dep>tm5ts2             
b 9 ,engl& n all heads (                
dep>tm5ts become memb]s ( !             
cab9et4       #d4 ,! ,am]ican cab9et    
advises ! #d4 ,! ,engli% cab9et1 ?r\gh !
     ,presid5t4                         
prime m9i/]1 advises ! k+4              
,,contra/s       #a4 ,memb]s ( !        

,am]ican cab9et  #a4 ,memb]s ( ! ,engli%
 cab9et     are n p]mitt$ to sit 9      
mu/ be memb]s ( p>liam5t4     ,congress4
       #b4 ,memb]s ( ! ,am]ican cab9et  
#b4 ,memb]s ( ! ,engli% cab9et     are  
responsible to ! ,presid5t    are       
responsible to ! ,h\se (     only2 !y d 
n h to resign    ,commons & mu/ resign  
:5ev]     if !y fail to reta9 !         
!y  lose ! support ( a     confid5ce (  
,congress4             majority ( t     
*amb]4       #c4 ,! ,am]ican cab9et does
 n    #c4 ,! ,engli% cab9et is !        
prep>e bus9ess = ,congress nor   8great 
/&+ committee0 (     assume any =mal    
initiative 9     p>liam5t1 prep>+ all   
law-mak+4                               
important measures = its                
consid]ation & assum+ a                 
def9ite lead]%ip 9 ! mak+               
( laws4    ,sid5ote3 ,m]its & defects ( 
ea* plan4    ,:i* is ! ,bett] ,plan8--,!
 relative m]its ( ! ,am]ican &  ,engli% 
cab9et sy/ems h be5 mu* discuss$ by     
writ]s 9 bo?  c\ntries4 ,! ,am]ican plan

 enables ! executive bran* ( !  gov]nm5t
 to reta9 its indep5d5ce & ?us prev5ts !
 lodg+ (  too mu* p[] 9 ! h&s (         
,congress4 ,! ,engli% sy/em makes !     
,h\se ( ,commons ! supreme gov]n+ organ 
( ! realm1 ) no legal  *ecks ^u its     
omnipot5ce4 ,x af=ds1 moreov]1 a degree 
(  lead]%ip 9 legislation :i* ! ,am]ican
 plan fails to provide4 ,!  ,am]ican    
sy/em1 on ! o!r h& gives ! individual   
memb] (  ,congress great] scope =       
indep5d5t action 9 t he is n  confront$1
 at ! beg9n+ ( ea* session1 ) a         
cut-&-dri$  program arrang$ 9 advance by
 ! cab9et4    ,no "o c say t ei!r sy/em 
is ( itself bett] ?an ! o!r4 ,z  well   
might x be argu$ t an elephant is /rong]
 ?an a :ale4 ,!  /r5g? ( ea* dep5ds ^u  
its environm5t4 ,! ,am]ican cab9et      
sy/em fits into ! ,am]ican s*eme (      
gov]nm5t2 ! ,engli% sy/em  w\ld n d ?is 
unless our :ole plan ( gov]nm5t 7       
greatly  *ang$4    ,sid5ote3 ,! argum5ts
 9 favor4    ,%\ld ,memb]s ( ! ,cab9et  
,sit 9 ,congress8--,! *ief defect ( !   

,am]ican cab9et sy/em1 z ?\ghtful m5 n[ 
realize1 is ! fact t  :ile memb]s ( !   
cab9et & memb]s ( ,congress are deeply  
int]e/$ 9 ! same "w1 !y are kept at     
arm's l5g? ap>t4  ,memb]s ( ! cab9et h  
in=mation ( great value to ,congress2 & 
,congress is usually desir\s ( kn[+ _!  
op9ions on public  que/ions4 ,on ! o!r  
h& ! "w ( ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts1 ov]  :i*   
memb]s ( ! cab9et h sup]vision1 dep5ds  
l>gely ^u !  action ( ,congress4        
,congress votes !m ! money :i* !y sp5d &
  makes ! laws "u :i* !y sp5d x4 ,:y n  
br+ ! two bodies  into clos] contact by 
p]mitt+ memb]s ( ! cab9et to sit &      
speak1 b n to vote1 9 bo? h\ses (       
,congress8 ,?is has frequ5tly  be5      
propos$ & x c\ld be accompli%$1 if      
,congress s desir$1 by a  *ange 9 !     
rules4    ,sid5ote3 ,! argum5ts aga9/4  
,!re are practical objections1 h[ev]1 to
 any su* arrangem5t4 ,x  w\ld greatly   
increase ! ,presid5t's influ5ce ov] ! "w
 (  ,congress by giv+ him t5            
ag5ts--usually m5 ( ability &           

exp]i5ce--9 ea* *amb]4 ,!y w\ld h no    
votes1 x is true2 b  _! argum5tative    
p[]s w\ld c\nt4 ,! ,presid5t w\ld       
d\btless  select z memb]s ( 8 cab9et    
p]sons :o1 by _! abilities &  logic1    
c\ld ex]t a /rong influ5ce ^u ! lawmak+ 
bodies4 ,x is  also po9t$ out z an      
objection t memb]s ( ! cab9et already  h
 en\gh to d 9 att5d+ to ! affairs ( _!  
own dep>tm5ts4  ,7 !y to sp5d _! "t 9   
att5d+ sessions ( ! ,s5ate &  ! ,h\se1  
!y c\ld n give adequate sup]vision to _!
 o!r "w1  & ! adm9i/rative bran* ( !    
gov]nm5t w\ld suff] 9  consequ5ce4 ,:5  
,congress n[ desires in=mation or an    
expression (  op9ion f any memb] ( !    
cab9et1 moreov]1 x is always possible   
to obta9 :at x wants by invit+ him to   
appe> be=e a congressional  committee4  
,?is p>tly s]ves ! purpose :i* w\ld be  
atta9$ by  giv+ memb]s ( ! cab9et ! "r  
to sit & speak 9 ,congress4             
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,,james ,,bryce1    
,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4    
#ch-if2    ,,woodr[ ,,wilson1           

,congressional ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bdb-bic2 
,ibid41  ,con/itutional ,gov]nm5t 9 !   
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ed-ha2    ,w4 ,h4   
,,taft1 ,our ,*ief ,magi/rate & ,8      
,p[]s1 especially pp4 #a-bh2    ,c4 ,a4 
,,be>d1 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 
pp4 #aff-bcj2 ,ibid41  ,read+s 9        
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4     
#aed-bac2    ,,ev]ett ,,kimball1        
,national ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  
pp4  #adj-bgj2    ,,james ,t4 ,,"y1 ,!  
,new ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,its ,"w1 pp4 
#aj-dd2    ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( 
! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #hh-ade2    ,p4 ,s4
 ,,re9s*1 ,read+s on ,am]ican ,f$]al    
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #a-gh2    ,w4 ,w4        
,,will\ghby & ,,l9dsay ,,rog]s1         
,introduction to ! ,problem (           
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #agh-aie2 #cbc-ccc4      
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! actual /eps 9 
! election ( a ,presid5t4 ,! orig9al    
plan  ( election4 ,:at ! fram]s ( !     
con/itution int5d$4 ,! e>ly  elections4 
,gr[? ( a nom9at+ sy/em4 ,! caucus4 ,!  
conv5tion4  ,presid5tial prim>ies4      

,factors affect+ ! nom9ation4 ,d\btful  
/ates4 ,functions ( ! electors today4   
,c\nt+ ! electoral votes4  ,! "p (      
,congress 9 presid5tial elections4      
,sugge/$ *anges 9 !  sy/em4 ,%\ld !     
electoral college be aboli%$8 ,ref]5ces3
 ,,max  ,,f>r&1 ,! ,fram+ ( !           
,con/itution1 pp4 #afj-age2 ,!          
,f$]ali/1 ,no4 ,,lxvii2 ,j4 ,h4         
,,d\gh]ty1 ,! ,electoral ,sy/em ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ac-ca2 ,e4 ,b4      
,,/anwood1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,presid5cy1  pp4 
#a-ai2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,read+s 9        
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1  pp4    
#aed-afc2 ,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,national 
,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates1 pp4       
#adj-afg2 ,,arnold ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popul>  
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ih-aai  7,! ,presid5tial
 ,prim>y74    #b4 ,! increas$ p[]s ( !  
,presid5t 9 w> "t4 ,ref]5ces3  ,!       
,f$]ali/1 ,no4 #gd2 ,w4 ,f4 ,,will\ghby1
 ,gov]nm5t ,organization 9  ,w> ,"t &   
,aft]1 pp4 #a-ba2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,we$51 ,w>   
,gov]nm5t1 pp4  #cai-ceh2 ,w4 ,,:it+1   
,w> ,p[]s "u ! ,con/itution1 pp4 #ff-hc2

  ,,eml9 ,,mccla91 ,con/itutional ,law 9
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #bja-bab2  ,p4 ,s4
 ,,re9s*1 ,read+s on ,am]ican ,f$]al    
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bb-ca2  ,,all5          
,,johnson1 ,read+s 9 ,am]ican           
,con/itutional ,law1 pp4 #dgd-dha2      
,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4  #ahh-aid4    #c4
 ,! ,am]ican & ,engli% cab9et sy/ems4   
,ref]5ces3 ,,james  ,,bryce1 ,am]ican   
,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #he-if2     
,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1  ,national        
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #ed-fi2 ,c4 ,g4      
,,ha9es & ,b4 ,m4 ,,ha9es1  ,pr9ciples &
 ,problems ( ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bei-bgi2   
,h4 ,b4 ,,le>n$1  ,! ,presid5t's        
,cab9et1 pp4 #i-dc2 ,,jesse ,,macy & ,j4
 ,w4 ,,gannaway1  ,comp>ative ,free     
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ha-ie2 #cie-djb2        
#dba-ddf4                               
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! p]sonality (    
,presid5ts4 ,t4 ,f4 ,,moran1 ,am]ican   
,presid5ts1  pp4 #i-aae4    #b4 ,:y     
great m5 are n elect$4 ,,james ,,bryce1 
,am]ican  ,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4   

#fi-gf4    #c4 ,! ,hayes-,tild5 conte/$ 
election ( #ahgf4 ,e4 ,b4 ,,/anwood1    
,hi/ory ( ! ,presid5cy1 pp4 #cef-cic4   
#d4 ,! ,presid5t's veto p[]4 ,,all5     
,,johnson1 ,read+s 9 ,am]ican           
,con/itutional ,hi/ory1 pp4 #cgj-cgi2   
,e4 ,c4 ,,mason1 ,! ,veto ,p[]1 pp4     
#bd-adj2 ,h4 ,j4 ,,=d1 ,rise & ,gr[? (  
,am]ican ,politics1 pp4 #age-ahg4    #e4
 ,! ,presid5t's control ( =eign         
relations4 ,e4 ,s4 ,,corw91 ,!          
,presid5t's ,control ( ,=eign           
,relations1 pp4 #hd-abe2 ,,all5         
,,johnson1  ,read+s 9 ,am]ican          
,con/itutional ,hi/ory1 pp4 #cic-djd4   
#f4 ,! ,presid5t's appo9t+ p[]4 ,,ev]ett
 ,,kimball1 ,national  ,gov]nm5t ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #aha-ahh2 ,l4 ,m4    
,,salmon1 8,!  ,appo9t+ ,p[] ( !        
,presid5t01 9 ,am]ican ,hi/orical       
,association1  ,annual ,report 7#ahii71 
,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #fg-hf4    #g4 ,!         
,presid5t z a p>ty lead]4 ,c4 ,l4       
,,jones1 ,read+s on ,p>ties  &          
,elections1 pp4 #bje-baa2 ,,jesse       

,,macy1 ,p>ty ,organization &  ,ma*9]y1 
pp4 #be-db4    #h4 ,daily life 9 ! ,:ite
 ,h\se4 ,,b5jam9 ,,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry
 (  ,ours1 pp4 #aei-ahj4    #i4 ,h[ a   
cab9et is =m$4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,le>n$1 ,hi/ory 
( ! ,presid5t's  ,cab9et1 pp4 #aaj-acd4 
#aj4 ,! cab9et's relation to !          
,presid5t4 ,,ev]ett ,,kimball1          
,national ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  
pp4 #bjg-bag4    #aa4 ,is !re ne$ = a   
readju/m5t betwe5 ! executive &         
legislative bran*es ( ! gov]nm5t8 ,f4   
,a4 ,,clevel& & ,,joseph  ,,s*af]1      
,democracy 9 ,recon/ruction1 pp4        
#dbc-dde4    #ab4 ,! actual "w ( !      
adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,hask91
  ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ad-bf 7,!    
,/ate ,dep>tm5t72 #bg-ci 7,!  ,treasury 
,dep>tm5t72 #gh-ij 7,! ,dep>tm5t ( !    
,int]ior74                              
,que/ions    #a4 ,/udy c>efully ,article
 ,,ii1 ,sections #b-g1 also ,am5dm5t    
,,xii1 ( !  con/itution1 & !n answ] ^!  
que/ions3 7a7 ,9 :at respects  0 ! me?od
 ( election *ang$ by ?is am5dm5t8 7b7 ,9

 case no  c&idate receives a majority ( 
! electoral votes h[ is !  ,presid5t    
*os58 ,! ,vice ,presid5t8 ,expla9 h[ x  
w\ld be possible  to h a ,presid5t f "o 
p>ty & a ,vice ,presid5t f ano!r4  7c7  
,if a retir+ ,presid5t or ,vice         
,presid5t1 imm$iately aft]  election 9  
,novemb]1 %\ld desire to h 8 successor  
take (fice at  once1 )\t wait+ = !      
regul> inauguration date 9 ,m>*1 h[     
c\ld ?is be done8    #b4 ,expla9 h[ a   
c&idate = ! presid5cy may obta9 a       
majority (  ! p's votes at ! polls & yet
 n be elect$4 7,?is has  happ5$ on m ?an
 "o occasion47 ,d y ?9k x a fair        
arrangem5t8    #c4 ,:at are !           
qualifications = ! presid5cy3 7a7 legal 
requirem5ts2 7b7 practical requirem5ts8 
,comp>e !m ) ^? =  ! vice presid5cy "u  
bo? heads4    #d4 ,make a li/ ( !       
qualities :i* y ?9k a ,presid5t ought to
  possess1 plac+ !m 9 ord] ( _!         
importance4 ,"n ! ,presid5t  :om y w\ld 
reg>d z hav+ ea* ( ^! qualities 9 !     
highe/  degree4 ,:at qualities d y      

associate ) ! names ( ,madison1         
,jackson1 ,bu*anan1 ,clevel&1           
,roosevelt8    #e4 ,expla9 ! veto & !   
pocket veto4 ,w\ld y be 9 favor (       
aboli%+ ei!r8 ,ought ! op9ion ( a s+le  
man to prevail aga9/  ! decisions ( a   
majority ( ! s5ators & repres5tatives8  
#f4 ,ought ! ,presid5t to give up all   
connection ) 8 p>ty on  assum+ (fice &  
be a non-p>tisan1 repres5t+ all ! p8    
#g4 ,expla9 :y ! ,presid5t has s mu*    
great] p[] 9 w> "t ?an  9 "t ( peace4   
#h4 ,d y ?9k t a ,presid5t1 9 *oos+     
memb]s ( 8 cab9et1  %\ld be guid$ by any
 ( ! foll[+ motives &1 if s1 h[ mu*     
weight %\ld he give to !m3 7a7 to h all 
p>ts ( ! c\ntry  repres5t$ 9 ! cab9et2  
7b7 to obta9 m5 ( long political        
exp]i5ce2 7c7 to rew>d ^? :o h support$ 
him2 7d7 to  /r5g!n himself =           
re-election2 7e7 to give repres5tation  
to bo?  ! radical & cons]vative elem5ts8
    #i4 ,s9ce ! ,attorney-,g5]al is     
always a lawy]1 ! ,secret>y (           
,agriculture usually a f>m]1 & !        

,secret>y ( ,labor usually a  memb] ( a 
labor union1 :y %\ld n ! ,secret>y ( ,w>
 be a  soldi] & ! ,secret>y ( ! ,navy a 
sailor8    #aj4 ,look up 9 !            
,congressional ,directory & tell :at    
dep>tm5t  has jurisdiction ov] ! foll[+ 
matt]s3 consul> s]vice1 p5sions1  ! m9t1
 animal indu/ry1 *ild labor law         
en=cem5t1 education1  =e/ry1 ! c5sus1   
,indian affairs1 ligh?\ses1 rural free  
deliv]y1  relations ) ! ,philipp9e      
,isl&s1 inspection ( drugs1 paym5t (    
int]e/ on ,lib]ty ,bonds1               
naturalization1 passports1 dr$g+ (      
h>bors4                                 
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! ,presid5t   
%\ld be ineligible = re-election4    #b4
 ,! foll[+ new dep>tm5ts %\ld be creat$ 
& giv5  repres5tation 9 ! cab9et3 7a7   
,public ,heal?2 7b7 ,education2  7c7    
,public ,welf>e4    #c4 ,memb]s ( !     
cab9et %\ld be p]mitt$ to speak1 b n to 
vote1  9 ,congress4    -----            
,footnote #fe3      ,9 "s ( ! ,new      
,engl& /ates !re are places ( tw5ty1    

?irty1    or ev5 =ty ?\s& p :i* are /ill
 gov]n$ z t[ns4 7,see    p4 #age47      
,footnote #ff3      ,see ! *>t fac+ ?is 
page4    ,footnote #fg3      ,accord+ to
 ! c5sus ( #aibj ^! twelve cities are z 
foll[s3    ,new ,york1 #e1fab1aea2      
,*icago1 #b1gja1bab2 ,philadelphia1     
#a1hbc1aeh2    ,detroit1 #iic1gcg2      
,clevel&1 #gif1hcf2 ,/4 ,l\is1 #ggb1hig2
 ,bo/on1    #gdg1ibc2 ,baltimore1       
#gcc1hbf2 ,pittsburgh1 #ehh1aic2 ,los   
,angeles1    #ege1daj2 ,san ,francisco1 
#ejh1daj2 ,buffalo1 #eje1hge4           
,footnote #fh3      ,if y make y\r home 
9 a rural community1 y w become acqua9t$
    ) mo/ ( y\r neighbors )9 a week2 y w
 "k all ab\t    !m1 & 7if !y c f9d x    
out7 !y w "k all ab\t y4 ,b    if y g z 
a /rang] to live 9 a city ap>tm5t1 )    
only ?9    walls sep>at+ y f y\r        
neighbors1 y may rema9 !re =    mon?s or
 ev5 = ye>s )\t becom+ acqua9t$ ) any ( 
!m4    ,y may n ev5 "k y\r neighbor's   
"n1 save = see+ x on 8    door4         
,neighborl9ess is a trait ( human nature

 :i* disappe>s 9    ! great cities4 ,9 !
 city a man's fri5ds are n 8 neighbors z
    a rule1 b p]sons ( 8 own occupation 
or int]e/s :o may live a    consid]able 
di/ance away4 ,?is is an important      
diff]5ce1 = x    means t t[n%ips &      
villages h a unity :i* ! w>ds &         
di/ricts ( l>ge cities d n possess4     
,footnote #fi3      ,! %orte/ city *>t] 
ev] grant$ is ! *>t] ( ,london1 giv5    
by ,william ! ,conqu]or 9 #ajff4 ,x     
conta9s exactly sixty-six words4    ,!  
longe/ is ! pres5t *>t] ( ,new ,york    
,city1 :i* fills a    closely-pr9t$ book
 ( #adgh pages4    ,footnote #gj3       
,x 0 und]/ood t by apply+ a g5]al *>t]  
law or municipal    code to all ! cities
 ( a /ate1 or to all ! cities ( a c]ta9 
class1 ! legislature w\ld be disc\rag$ f
 enact+ special laws    = p>ticul>      
cities4 ,b t is n :at result$4          
,legislatures    adopt$ ! plan ( pass+  
laws :i* 7 g5]al 9 =m b    :i* by !     
nature ( _! provisions c\ld apply to "s 
"o city    alone4 ,= example3 ,! ,ohio  

legislature on "o occasion provid$ t    
8,any city ( ! fir/ class1 hav+ a       
population ( m ?an    #aej1jjj1 :]e9 a  
public av5ue ( n less ?an #ajj feet 9   
wid? is    n[ project$1 to be kn[n z    
,gilb]t ,av5ue1 is h]eby au?oriz$ to    
issue bonds1 etc40 ,?is law1 on its     
face1 appli$ to all cities ( !    fir/  
class2 9 reality x gave special         
privileges to "o p>ticul>    city4      
,footnote #ga3      ,a few /ates1 al?\gh
 unwill+ to grant municipal home rule1 h
    gone "p way 9 t direction by        
e/abli%+ :at is kn[n z !    ,optional   
,*>t] sy/em4 ,! legislature1 "u ?is     
plan1 draws up    sev]al diff]5t types (
 *>t]4 ,a city may by popul> vote adopt 
any "o ( ^! b is n p]mitt$ to make a    
special *>t] =    itself4 ,! m]it ( ?is 
plan is t x all[s a city a consid]able  
am\nt ( *oice )\t op5+ ! door = all     
mann] ( ra% local    exp]im5ts1 _m ( :i*
 br+ controv]sy & lawsuits because !y   
run f\l ( ! /ate con/itution or laws4 ,!
 v>i\s optional    *>t]s are s fram$ z  

to be 9 h>mony ) ! g5]al laws (    !    
/ate4 ,?is plan is us$ 9 ,new ,york1    
,massa*usetts1 & ,virg9ia4    ,ohio has 
bo? ! home rule & ! optional *>t] sy/em2
 9    addition !re is a g5]al *>t] law =
 su* cities z d n take    advantage ( ! 
o!r opportunities4    ,footnote #gb3    
,surpris+ly few mayors h ev] gone any   
high] 9 ! public life    ( ! /ate or    
nation4 ,mo/ mayors1 :5 !y f9i% _! t]ms1
    drop b ( sight4 ,!re are "s         
exceptions1 ( c\rse1 ! mo/    notewor?y 
be+ ,grov] ,clevel&1 :o s]v$ z mayor (  
,buffalo    be=e he 0 elect$ gov]nor (  
,new ,york &1 lat]1 ,presid5t (    !    
,unit$ ,/ates4 ,be=e becom+ ,secret>y ( 
,w> 9 ,presid5t    ,wilson's cab9et1    
,newton ,d4 ,bak] s]v$ two t]ms z mayor 
(    ,clevel&1 & ,br& ,:itlock 0 ?rice  
mayor ( ,tol$o be=e he    became m9i/]  
to ,belgium4 ,a few o!r mayors h become 
gov]nors1    ambassadors1 or memb]s (   
,congress2 b :5 we rem9d ourselves t    
ne>ly #djj m5 h held ! (fice ( mayor 9 !
 fifty l>ge/    cities ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates

 s9ce #aijj1 we may well wond] :at      
became    ( all ! re/4 ,app>5tly ! (fice
 ( mayor is n a good    political       
/epp+-/one4 ,is ! fault ) ! (fice or ) !
 m5    :o usually occupy x8    ,footnote
 #gc3      ,! objection may also be     
ov]come by us+ ! sy/em ( proportional   
repres5tation describ$ on pp4 #acd-acf4 
,footnote #gd3      ,9 ,septemb]1 #aijj1
 a tidal wave swept 9 f ! ,gulf (       
,mexico &    de/roy$ ab\t a ?ird ( !    
city4 ,galve/on 0 already    ov]burd5$ )
 debt1 & by ?is disa/]1 :i* wreck$ mu*  
city    prop]ty1 became practically     
bankrupt4 ,! lead+ citiz5s came         
toge!r & decid$ t radical measures w\ld 
h to be tak54    ,!y1 !re=e1 petition$ !
 ,texas legislature to aboli% ! old     
city gov]nm5t1 plac+ entire *>ge ( all  
municipal affairs 9 !    h&s ( five     
tru/ees or commission]s4 ,! legislature 
compli$ &    ! new plan w5t into effect 
9 #aija4    ,footnote #ge3      ,! l>ge/
 ( ^! cities are ,buffalo1 ,new         
,orleans1 & ,/4 ,paul4    ,among ! #djj 

commission-gov]n$ cities !re are only   
fifte5 )    populations exce$+ #ajj1jjj4
 ,! plan has prov$ mo/ popul> 9         
places ( small & m$ium size4            
,footnote #gf3      ,see ! diagram :i*  
faces p4 #aih4    ,footnote #gg3      ,!
 plan orig9at$ 9 ,sumt]1 ,n4 ,c41 b !   
fir/ l>ge city to    adopt x 0 ,dayton1 
,ohio1 ab\t t5 ye>s ago4 ,9 ! autumn (  
#aiba    ,clevel& adopt$ a city-manag]  
*>t] :i* w g into effect 9    ,janu>y1  
#aibd4    ,footnote #gh3      ,= an     
example ( ! way 9 :i* ! city's          
adm9i/rative "w is    divid$1 see !     
diagram fac+ ?is page4    ,footnote #gi3
      ,"s cities h e/abli%$ a c5tral    
pur*as+ (fice :i* buys    all supplies (
 e sort1 ?us secur+ a conc5tration ( !  
"w4    ,a consid]able sav+ is made 9 ?is
 way4 ,b 9 mo/ cities ea*    dep>tm5t   
/ill does its own buy+4    ,footnote    
#hj3      ,m ?an a hundr$ & tw5ty-five  
ye>s ago1 :5 x 0 decid$ to    build !   
nation's capital on ! %ores ( !         
,potomac1 ,presid5t    ,wa%+ton s5t to  

,france = ,major ,l',enfant1 an eng9e]  
:o _h    s]v$ 9 ! ,am]ican army dur+ !  
,revolution1 & entru/$ to    him ! task 
( lay+ out ! new city4 ,l',enfant took  
great pa9s to    provide = wide /reets2 
he designat$ ! location ( ! important   
public build+s 7su* z ! ,capitol & !    
,:ite ,h\se7 & left    pl5ty ( op5      
spaces 9 8 plan4    ,footnote #ha3      
,9 ,wa%+ton1 ?anks to ,l',enfant's      
sagaci\s plann+1 ! /reets    occupy ab\t
 "o-half ! entire area4    ,footnote    
#hb3      ,?is plan also r5d]s x easy to
 f9d "o's way ab\t1 & ?is is            
p>ticul>ly true :5 ! /reets are kn[n by 
numb]s r ?an by    names4    ,footnote  
#hc3      ,see ! illu/rative diagram    
fac+ ?is page4    ,footnote #hd3        
,,pavem5ts ,,arrang$ ,,9 ,,_!           
,,approximate ,,ord] ,,( ,,desirability 
,,f    ,,diff]5t ,,po9ts ,,( ,,view     
,economy     ,economy   ,durability     
,cleanli-   ,noiseless- ,safety         
9           9                ness       
ness    con/ruction    ,repair          

,macadam       ,granite    ,granite     
,asphalt    ,wood       ,granite        
,asphalt       ,brick      ,wood        
,brick      ,macadam    ,macadam        
,brick         ,wood       ,brick       
,wood       ,brick      ,brick    ,wood 
,asphalt    ,asphalt    ,granite        
,asphalt    ,wood    ,granite           
,macadam    ,macadam    ,macadam        
,granite    ,asphalt        ,footnote   
#he3      ,a common pretext is to allege
 t ! l[e/ bidd] is n a reliable         
contractor1 or t he und]pays 8 workm51  
or t on "s previ\s    contract he fail$ 
to d a good job4 ,any su* excuse is good
 en\gh    = city (ficials :o desire to  
favor _! own fri5ds at ! public         
exp5se4 ,city *>t]s sometimes provide t 
contracts mu/ be giv5    to ! l[e/      
bidd]1 b a h>d-&-fa/ requirem5t ( ?is   
k9d may    sometimes lead to            
difficulties4    ,footnote #hf3      ,! 
unsightl9ess ( ! billbo>ds is n _! only 
objectionable    feature4 ,unless !y are
 firmly an*or$ 9 ! gr\nd !y are (t5     

bl[n d[n by heavy w9ds2 !y af=d places (
 concealm5t =    footpads2 & !y become !
 nucleus ( a rubbi% heap4 ,l& is    r5t$
 = billbo>d space :i* o!rwise w\ld be   
improv$ & built    ^u4 ,billbo>d space  
is giv5 ov] v l>gely to ! adv]tis+ (    
non-ess5tials4 ,if y w make a survey (  
say fifty billbo>ds 9    y\r own        
community1 y w f9d t by f> ! great]     
portion (    ! space is giv5 to adv]tis+
 luxuries4 ,local m]*ants use           
billbo>d adv]tis+ v little4 ,outside    
conc]ns take mo/ ( _!    surface4       
,footnote #hg3      ,re/rictions may    
legally be plac$ ^u private prop]ty 9 ! 
int]e/ ( ! public safety1 heal?1 or     
morals4 ,b p _c be    prohibit$ f us+ _!
 own private prop]ty 9 ways :i* m]ely   
(f5d ! public ta/e4    ,footnote #hh3   
,! wat*m5 7 v unreliable4 ,9 ,london x 0
 said t mo/ (    !m sp5t ! great] "p ( !
 night 9 ! ale-h\ses :ile    ?ieves     
pr[l$ ar\nd 9 ! /reets4 ,9 ord] to keep 
! wat*m5    on _! patrols x became !    
cu/om to h !m call out ! h\rs    z !y   

w5t along4 ,^! wat*m5's cries1 8,?ree   
o'clock1 a mi/y    morn+01 etc41 7 a    
qua9t feature ( ,london life a hundr$   
ye>s    ago4    ,footnote #hi3      ,sir
 ,rob]t ,peel1 :o e/abli%$ ! fir/ regul>
 police =ce 9    ,engl&1 made himself v 
unpopul> = a "t by ?is /ep4 ,!    memb]s
 ( ! new police =ce1 by way ( ridicule1 
7 call$    8peel]s0 & 8bobbies01 & ^!   
nicknames p]si/ 9 ,engl& to !    pres5t 
day4 ,!y wore 7& /ill we>7 blue coats ) 
copp]    buttons1 = :i* reason ! ,london
 y\ng/]s also ref]r$ to !    policeman z
 8! copp]04 ,9 ,am]ica we h %ort5$ x to 
8!    cop04    ,footnote #ij3      ,9   
,b]l91 = example1 #ih p] c5t ( ! build+s
 are ( brick1    /one1 concrete1 or o!r 
fire-resi/+ mat]ial4 ,9 ! av]age        
,am]ican city su* build+s d n usually =m
 m ?an #be p] c5t    ( ! total4         
,footnote #ia3      ,take ! income-tax  
am5dm5t1 = example2 or ! prohibition    
am5dm5t4 ,bo? ( !m %[ a popul> will+ness
 to place great    p[]s 9 ! h&s ( !     
f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,! p w\ld n    h agre$  

to direct election ( s5ators a hundr$   
ye>s ago2 b    !y did x 9 #aiac4        
,footnote #ib3      ,hawaii & ,alaska   
are bo? gov]n$ 9 ! same way1 & exactly l
    "o ( ! old t]ritories4 ,porto ,rico 
has a slightly diff]5t =m    ( gov]nm5t1
 9 t c]ta9 high (ficials besides !      
gov]nor are    appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t4  
,! gov]nm5t ( ! ,philipp9es diff]s      
/ill fur!r 9 t ! high] adm9i/rative     
(ficials are    appo9t$ by ! gov]nor :o1
 9 turn1 is nam$ by ! ,presid5t4        
,footnote #ic3      ,dur+ #aiba a /udy (
 ,philipp9e conditions 0 made1 at       
,presid5t    ,h>d+'s reque/1 by         
,major-,g5]al ,leon>d ,wood & ! ,hon4   
,w4    ,cam]on ,=bes1 =m] gov]nor-g5]al 
( ! isl&s4 ,^! two    em95t             
inve/igators1 aft] a c>eful survey1 f\nd
 mu* to say 9    praise ( ! ,filip9os2 b
 _! g5]al conclusion 0 t !    isl&]s    
ne$$ fur!r tra9+ 9 self-gov]nm5t "u     
,am]ican    sup]vision be=e !y c\ld     
wisely be giv5 complete indep5d5ce4     
,! entire text ( ! ,wood-,=bes report is

 pr9t$ 9 ,! ,times    8,curr5t ,hi/ory0 
7,janu>y1 #aibb71 pp4 #fgh-fid4         
,footnote #id3      ,an area :i* is     
nei!r a /ate nor a t]ritory1 a zone nor 
an    insul> possession rema9s to be    
m5tion$4 ,?is is ,wa%+ton1 or !         
,di/rict ( ,columbia z x is (ficially   
call$1 ! home ( !    nation's gov]nm5t4 
,x has nei!r mayor nor ald]m54 ,!       
gov]nm5t    ( ! ,di/rict is 9 ! h&s (   
?ree commission]s appo9t$ by    !       
,presid5t1 "o ( !m be+ an (fic] ( !     
army4 ,^! ?ree    commission]s c>ry on  
all ! "w ( municipal adm9i/ration4      
,footnote #ie3      ,9 "s /ates1 9      
,ohio1 = example1 ! "q ( call+ a        
con/itutional conv5tion mu/ be vot$ ^u e
 tw5ty ye>s4    ,footnote #if3      ,9  
"s /ates ! legislature1 9 propos+ an    
am5dm5t1 mu/ pass    x 9 two successive 
sessions1 or by a two-?irds vote1 or mu/
    con=m to "s o!r special requirem5t4 
,footnote #ig3      ,see especially     
,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #i2 & ,am5dm5ts ,i-,,xv1
 ,,xix4    ,footnote #ih3      ,^! f\r  

propositions may p]haps be made m       
und]/&able by !    accompany+ table1 :i*
 does n purport to be a complete        
enum]ation b only an illu/ration ( ! way
 9 :i* !    propositions "w out4        
,,exclusively    ,,concurr5t            
,,prohibitions  ,,prohibitions          
,,exclusively      ,,national           
,,p[]s       ,,^u ,,!      ,,^u ,,!     
,,/ate ,,p[]s       ,,p[]s              
,,nation        ,,/ates          ,to    
conduct    ,to tax4       ,to abridge   
,to keep troops,to make &    =eign af-  
fre$om (    or %ips (   en=ce !         
fairs4       ,to borr[      wor%ip or   
w> 9 "t   ord9>y                  money4
        ( ! press  ( peace4     civil & 
,to raise &                 or ( assemb-
               crim9al    support ar-   
,to promote     ly or ( pet-,to entry   
into  laws4    mies4         education4 
ition4        any treaty4               
,to e/abli%   ,to ma9ta9 a ,to enc\rage 
,to d5y any   ,to co9 money  & control  
,navy4         agriculture4  ( ! o!r  or

 issue      local gov]n-                
privileges    bills (      m5t4   ,to   
regulate   ,to *>t]     enum]at$        
cr$it4          =eign &   banks &     9 
! ,bill                ,to conduct      
int]/ate    o!r corpor- ( ,rights    ,to
 pass any    elections4    comm]ce4     
ations4       7see ,am5d-   law impair- 
m5ts ,i-,x74   + ! law  ,to regulate    
,to co9       ,to en=ce !               
( contracts4 comm]ce    money4          
,eighte5?   ,to p]mit                   
& indu/ry                  ,am5dm5t4    
slav]y 9   ,to lay any     )9 !   ,to   
e/abli%                 any t]ritory tax
 or duties /ate4    a po/al     ,to     
e/abli%   )9 !    on imports4           
s]vice4      & ma9ta9  national jur-    
,to protect !                  c\rts4   
isdiction4   ,to abridge     life1      
heal?1   ,to grant pat-                 
! privi-    & morals (    ents &        
,to abridge     leges or im-  ! p       
copyrights4                 ! suffrage  
munities (   7! 8police                 

( citiz5s   citiz5s (   p[]074   ,to    
admit new                 on acc\nt    !
 ,unit$       /ates4                    
( sex4       ,/ates1 or                 
deprive !m                              
,to give        ( life1 lib-            
pref]-                                  
ence to "o   erty1 or pro-              
/ate ov]    p]ty )\t                    
ano!r 9    due process                  
matt]s (    ( law or de-                
comm]ce4     ny to p]sons               
)9 _!                                   
jurisdiction                            
! equal                                 
protection (                            
! laws4                                 
,to abridge !                           
vot+ rights                             
( citiz5s                               
on                                      
acc\nt (                                
race1 color1                            
previ\s                                 
condition (                             

s]vitude1 or                            
sex4                                    
----------------------------            
,to pass any bill ( atta9d]             
or ex po/ facto law4 ,to                
grant lett]s ( nobility4                
,to levy duties on exports4             
,footnote #ii3      ,a wide range (     
au?ority is includ$1 = example1 )9 ! t]m
    8police p[]01 :i* is ! p[] ( ! /ate 
to take measures =    protect+ ! safety1
 heal?1 & morals ( ! p4    ,footnote    
#ajj3      ,any memb] ( ! legislature   
may introduce a bill1 b n _m (    !m "k 
h[ to draft "o prop]ly4 ,t is n         
surpris+1 = /ate    legislatures are n  
made up ( lawy]s alone b ( f>m]s1       
%op-keep]s1 & o!r pla9 citiz5s :o h _h  
no previ\s    exp]i5ce 9 lawmak+4 ,9    
ord] to help ! memb]s ( !    legislature
 "s /ates h e/abli%$ legislative ref]5ce
    bureaus 9 *>ge ( exp]t bill-draft]s4
 ,^! bureaus keep on file    all ! late/
 in=mation conc]n+ :at is be+ done 9 o!r
    /ates1 includ+ copies ( laws :i* h  

be5 pass$ !re4 ,at !    reque/ ( any    
memb] ! bureau (ficials w prep>e a bill 
embody+ ! memb]'s ideas4    ,footnote   
#aja3      ,a good deal ( ! tr\ble is   
due to p>ty lead]s & to lobbyi/s    :o  
plague ! memb]s into vot+ = measures or 
aga9/ !m4    ,lobbyi/s are paid ag5ts ( 
corporations1 labor organizations1      
wom5's leagues1 re=m associations1      
granges1 & s on1 :o hang    ar\nd !     
lobby & argue ) ! legislators1 try+ to  
influ5ce    _! action by p]suasion or   
?reats z may seem likely to be mo/      
effective4 ,at any /ate capitol "o may  
c\nt ^! lobbyi/s by !    doz54          
,footnote #ajb3      ,9 ,new ,york ,/ate
 ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 p>adoxically1 is n   
supreme4    ,f9al au?ority among ! /ate 
c\rts re/s ) a /ill high]    c\rt1 kn[n 
z ! ,c\rt ( ,appeals4    ,footnote #ajc3
      ,! jurisdiction ( ! f$]al c\rts is
 expla9$ on pp4 #caa-cac4    ,all o!r   
cases besides ^? nam$ 9 ! con/itution   
come )9    ! au?ority ( ! /ate c\rts4   
,footnote #ajd3      ,:5 a gov]nor      

in/ructs ^! elective (ficials to d      
some?+1    !y frequ5tly refuse4 ,9 "o   
case a /ate treasur] kept l>ge sums    (
 money 9 banks :i* ! gov]nor & o!r high 
/ate (ficials    believ$ to be unsafe4  
,!y urg$ him to )draw ^! funds1 b !     
treasur] decl9$ to d s4 ,a little lat]  
two ( ^! banks 7    clos$ by ord] ( !   
bank commission] & half a million doll>s
 (    ! /ate's money 0 ti$ up4          
,footnote #aje3      ,see ! diagram fac+
 ?is page4    ,footnote #ajf3      ,!re 
7 "s notable abs5ces4 ,?omas ,jeff]son &
 ,john ,adams 7    n !re2 bo? 7 s]v+ _! 
c\ntry z diplomatic    repres5tatives   
abroad1 ! "o 9 ,france & ! o!r 9 ,engl&4
    ,nor 0 ,john ,hancock1 ^: fla%+     
signature fir/ meets ! eye    among !   
sign]s ( ! ,decl>ation4 ,nei!r 0        
,patrick ,h5ry    pres5t1 = he 0 /rongly
 oppos$ to ! conv5tion's be+ held at    
all & decl9$ to be a delegate f         
,virg9ia4    ,footnote #ajg3      ,?ree 
( ^! compromises1 commonly kn[n z 8,!   
,great ,compromises01    /& out         

prom95tly & are fully describ$ 9 all    
books ( ,am]ican    hi/ory1 s t !y d n  
ne$ to be giv5 9 detail "h4 ,!re    7   
compromises on _m m9or po9ts z well4    
,footnote #ajh3      ,nor? ,c>ol9a did n
 ratify1 h[ev]1 until #aghi1 & ,rhode   
,isl&    n until #agij4    ,footnote    
#aji3      ,a congressman :o is elect$ 9
 ,novemb] does n take 8 seat until    a 
ye> f ! foll[+ ,decemb]4 ,?is is        
because1 al?\gh elect$    9 ,novemb]1 8 
t]m does n beg9 until ! ensu+ f\r? (    
,m>*4 ,by t "t ! w9t] session is ov]4   
,?us x happ5s t    m5 :o are defeat$ at 
! polls (t5 cont9ue to make ! nation's  
laws4    ,footnote #aaj3      ,no "o is 
eligible = election to ! ,s5ate unless  
he is at lea/    ?irty ye>s ( age4 ,he  
mu/ also h be5 a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates = at lea/ n9e ye>s & at ! "t ( 8 
election an    inhabitant ( ! /ate f :i*
 he is *os54 ,! gov]nor ( !    /ate may 
be emp[]$ by ! legislature to fill any  
vacancy :i*    may occur ?r\gh ! dea? or
 resignation ( a s5ator1 ?is    tempor>y

 appo9tm5t to be valid until a s5atorial
 election is held4    ,footnote #aaa3   
,! ,vice ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates    
presides ov] ! ,s5ate :5    try+        
impea*m5ts1 z at o!r times2 b :5 !      
,presid5t is    be+ impea*$ ! ,*ief     
,ju/ice ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt s]ves z      
tempor>y presid+ (fic]4 ,:o w\ld preside
 9 case ! ,vice    ,presid5t 7 impea*$8 
,! con/itution does n say4 ,presumably  
! presid5t pro tempore ( ! ,s5ate w\ld  
preside4    ,footnote #aab3      ,n9e   
civil (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates h be5    
impea*$ at "o    "t or ano!r dur+ ! pa/ 
hundr$ & tw5ty-five ye>s4 ,!    mo/     
notable case 0 t ( ,presid5t ,&rew      
,johnson 9 #ahfh4 ,he 0    *>g$ by !    
,h\se ( ,repres5tatives ) hav+ violat$ !
 laws    relat+ to appo9tm5ts           
7p>ticul>ly ! ,t5ure ( ,(fice ,act71 b  
0 acquitt$4 ,! ,s5ate vot$ ?irty-five to
 n9ete5 = 8    conviction1 b ?is 0 "o   
vote %ort ( ! necess>y two-?irds        
majority4    ,footnote #aac3            
,despite ! desirability ( keep+ !       

memb]%ip d[n1 !re is a    con/ant       
temptation to increase x 9 ord] t no    
/ate %all h    few] repres5tatives ?an x
 has become accu/om$ to hav+4           
,footnote #aad3      ,:5 ,elbridge ,g]ry
 0 gov]nor ( ,massa*usetts 9 #ahab1 !   
/ate    legislature re>rang$ !          
congressional di/ricts 9 su* a way t    
"o ( !m _h a dragon-l appe>ance4 ,!     
b\nd>ies ( ?is    di/rict _h be5 m>k$ on
 a map 9 a local newspap] (fice4 ,gilb]t
    ,/u>t1 ! fam\s pa9t]1 happ5$ to come
 9 & ) 8 p5cil    add$ a head1 w+s1 &   
claws to ! figure4 8,t w d = a          
,salam&]10 he said4 8,bett] say a       
,g]ry-m&]10 repli$ ! editor1    & !     
outl&i% "n1 ?us accid5tally co9$1 pass$ 
into !    ,engli% language4    ,footnote
 #aae3      ,! plan at pres5t 7#aibb7 is
 z foll[s3 ! ,republican memb]s (    !  
,h\se f ea* /ate select "o ( _! memb]s  
to repres5t    !m 9 *oos+ ! committees4 
,?is repres5tative f ea* /ate    becomes
 a memb] ( ! ,committee on ,committees &
 at meet+s (    ?is committee ca/s a    

vote equal to ! numb] ( ,republican     
,repres5tatives f 8 /ate4 ,?is          
,committee on ,committees selects    !  
,republican memb]s ( ! v>i\s committees4
 ,a caucus ( !    ,democratic memb]s ( !
 ,h\se1 sometimes ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a     
,committee on ,committees1 selects !    
,democratic memb]s ( !    ,committees4  
,!n ! ,h\se z a :ole accepts ! jo9t li/4
    ,footnote #aaf3      ,on _m bills ! 
committees d n ev5 hold he>+s2 if !y    
did1    !y w\ld nev] get ?r\gh ) _! "w4 
,measures by ! hundr$    are introduc$  
ea* ye> by congressm5 simply to please p
 9    _! di/ricts & )\t ! slighte/      
expectation t !y w    ev] be pass$4     
,footnote #aag3      ,:5 bills are      
introduc$ 9 ! ,s5ate1 !y are consid]$   
!re    fir/ & !n s5t d[n to ! ,h\se4    
,except 9 ! case ( bills    relat+ to   
rev5ue & exp5diture any measure may be  
introduc$ 9    ei!r *amb]4    ,footnote 
#aah3      ,ano!r way to delay bus9ess  
is to keep cont9ually ask+ =            
roll-calls to see if a quorum is pres5t4

 ,call+ ! names ( #dce    memb]s takes a
 lot ( "t4 ,"s ye>s ago a bill 0        
introduc$ to    provide = ! in/allation 
( electric app>atus by means ( :i*    e 
memb] c\ld regi/] 8,yes01 8,no01 or     
8,pres5t0 by m]ely    press+ a button at
 8 seat4 ,on ! wall !re 7 to be electric
    bulbs set opposite ea* congressman's
 "n4 ,press+ ! button w\ld    indicate !
 congressman's answ] to a roll call by  
fla%+ a r$ or    :ite or blue light on !
 wall4 ,congress did n adopt ! plan4    
,footnote #aai3      ,see pp4 #dfc-dfe4 
,footnote #abj3      ,on ! "q :e!r      
memb]s ( ! ,am]ican cab9et %\ld sit 9   
,congress1 see p4 #cjb4    ,footnote    
#aba3      ,dur+ ! pa/ ye> or two a gr\p
 ( congressm51 bo? s5ators &            
repres5tatives1 f ! agricultural /ates  
has be5 vot+ solidly    & )\t reg>d to  
p>ty affiliations on _m important       
measures4    ,?is gr\p is kn[n z !      
8agricultural bloc04 ,its av[$ aim is to
    see t ! int]e/s ( ! f>m]s are       
prop]ly safegu>d$ 9 all    legislation4 

,= a brief discussion ( ?is topic f a   
diff]5t    angle1 see p4 #cej4          
,footnote #abb3      ,,james ,,bryce1   
,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,*4    
,,vii4    ,footnote #abc3      ,:5 !    
con/itution 0 f9ally drawn & made public
 _m features    ( x 7 /rongly criticiz$1
 b n[h]e 0 !re any objection to    ?is  
me?od ( elect+ ! ,presid5t4 ,ev]yone    
seem$ to feel t    ?is me?od ( *oice by 
an electoral college 0 an admirable "o4 
,yet curi\sly en\gh x turn$ out to be "o
 ( ! poore/ ?+s    t ! conv5tion did4 ,x
 has completely fail$ to "w out z !     
conv5tion int5d$4 ,direct popul>        
election1 :i* ! con/itution    endeavors
 to avoid1 is exactly :at we h4 ,!      
conv5tion1 moreov]1    plac$ no limit ^u
 ! numb] ( t]ms :i* a ,presid5t might h4
    ,b ,wa%+ton set ! example by decl9+ 
a ?ird consecutive t]m    & no ,presid5t
 s9ce 8 "t has ev] s]v$ ?ree t]ms4 ,f "t
    to "t x has be5 sugge/$ t !         
,presid5t's t]m %\ld be    l5g!n$ to six
 ye>s & t he %\ld !n be made ineligible 

=    re-election1 j z1 9 "s ( our l>g]  
cities1 ! mayor is    ineligible to     
succe$ himself4 ,?is sugge/ion1 h[ev]1  
has nev]    f\nd mu* favor4    ,footnote
 #abd3      ,if ! orig9al plan 7 n[     
foll[$1 ?is is ab\t :at w\ld    happ53  
,aft] ! presid5tial election 9 ,novemb] 
! p & !    newspap]s w\ld be discuss+ ! 
probable attitude ( ! electors1         
wond]+ :om !y w\ld *oose & mak+ v>i\s   
sugge/ions to    !m4 ,"s electors w\ld  
be ann\nc+ _! pref]5ces2 o!rs    w\ld be
 keep+ sil5t4 ,) great int]e/ we %\ld   
await !    meet+s ( ! electors 9        
,janu>y2 ! newspap] report]s w\ld       
cr[d outside ! door to ga9 ! fir/ inkl+ 
( _! decisions 9    ea* /ate2 ! returns 
w\ld come 9 "o by "o f ! =ty-eight      
/ate capitals & w\ld be figur$ up )     
brea?less int]e/4 ,b    :at actually    
does happ5 is v diff]5t f ?is4 ,on !    
ev5+    ( ! presid5tial election ! fight
 is all ov]4 ,nobody kn[s1 &    nobody  
c>es :o ! electors are4 ,we only "k t a 
majority (    !m w vote = ! ,republican 

or = ! ,democratic c&idate :5    ! "t   
comes4 ,9 ,janu>y !y meet1 almo/        
unnotic$1 ca/ _!    votes z a matt] (   
=m1 & get a small p>agraph some:]e on ! 
inside pages ( ! newspap]s4    ,footnote
 #abe3      ,see p4 #aeh4    ,footnote  
#abf3      ,! ,h\se votes by /ates2 !   
,s5ate by individual memb]s4 ,see       
,am5dm5t ,,xii4 ,9 #ahjj !re 0 a tie1   
,?omas ,jeff]son & ,a>on    ,burr1 ea*  
hav+ an equal numb] ( votes4 ,! ,h\se ( 
,repres5tatives decid$ ! tie by elect+  
,jeff]son4 ,!n !    ,twelf? ,am5dm5t 0  
adopt$4 ,9 #ahbd no c&idate receiv$ a   
majority1 & on ?is occasion ! ,h\se *ose
 ,john ,qu9cy ,adams z    ,presid5t4 ,! 
sy/em work$ !reaft] )\t mi%ap = ov]     
fifty    ye>s1 b 9 #ahgf !re 0 a s]i\s  
muddle because tw5ty-two    electoral   
vot]s 7 9 dispute1 namely1 ! votes (    
,oregon1    ,l\isiana1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 &  
,florida4 ,f ea* ( ^! /ates two    sets 
( electors claim$ to h be5 *os54 ,!     
controv]sy 0    decid$ by a special     
commission ( fifte5 memb]s1 five f !    

,s5ate1 five f ! ,h\se1 & five f !      
,supreme ,c\rt4 ,by a    vote ( #h to #g
 ?is commission decid$ 9 favor ( ,ru!r=d
 ,b4 ,hayes    & he became ,presid5t4   
,footnote #abg3      ,9 ! ,republican   
national conv5tion ( #aibj1 = example1  
,g5]al    ,leon>d ,wood & ,gov]nor ,l[d5
 poll$ ! l>ge/ numb] ( votes on    !    
fir/ ballot4 ,s5ator ,hiram ,johnson (  
,cali=nia 0 ?ird &    ,s5ator ,h>d+ (   
,ohio 0 f\r?4 ,b nei!r ( ! two lead+    
c&idates c\ld obta9 a majority al?\gh   
ballot aft] ballot 0    tak54 ,f9ally1  
:5 ! delegates 7 becom+ tir$ & impati5t1
    "s ( _! lead]s came toge!r & agre$  
to unite on ,s5ator    ,h>d+4 ,!y advis$
 _! support]s to sw+ ov] to him & on a  
subsequ5t ballot he 0 nom9at$4          
,footnote #abh3      ,! delegates       
sometimes res5t ?is attitude on ! "p ( !
    lead]s4 ,!y may make a /r5u\s fight 
9 ! conv5tion or !y may    bolt         
altoge!r4 ,?us1 9 #aiab1 ! lead]s ( !   
,republican    conv5tion decid$ to      
r5om9ate ,presid5t ,taft &1 aft] a h>d  

fight1 manag$ to get a majority ( !     
delegates record$ 9 8    favor4 ,b a v  
/rong m9ority desir$ to nom9ate         
ex-,presid5t    ,roosevelt1 :o 0 believ$
 to be f> m acceptable to ! rank &      
file ( ! p>ty ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,:5 !y  
fail$ 9 !    conv5tion !y left ! hall1  
=m$ a new p>ty1 & nom9at$    ,colonel   
,roosevelt z ! ,progressive c&idate4 ,b 
?is m]ely split    ! ,republican ranks  
wide op5 & made c]ta9 ! success ( !     
,democrats at ! =?com+ election4        
,footnote #abi3      ,dur+ ! pa/ fifty  
ye>s !re h be5 elev5 presid5ts4 ,(      
^!1 six came f ,ohio & ?ree f ,new      
,york4 ,"o came f    ,indiana 7b 0 a    
native ( ,ohio71 & "o f ,new ,j]sey4    
,only f\r    /ates1 !re=e1 h contribut$ 
occupants to ! presid5tial    (fice dur+
 half a c5tury4    ,footnote #acj3      
,engl& is a mon>*y & ! ,unit$ ,/ates a  
republic1 yet !    ,engli% mon>* has no 
veto p[] l t ( ! ,presid5t4 ,by usage   
! k+ mu/ sign e bill t is laid be=e him4
 ,someone has    said t ! k+ ( ,engl&   

w\ld be "u obligations to sign 8    own 
dea? w>rant if p>liam5t %\ld s5d x up to
 him4 ,!    ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
is giv5 8 f>-rea*+ p[] to    ov]ride !  
wi%es ( a majority 9 ,congress because  
he is an    elective (fic] & 9 ! ex]cise
 ( 8 veto acts = ! p1    n = himself4   
,footnote #aca3      ,:5 ,mr4 ,h>d+ 0   
elect$ 9 ,novemb]1 #aibj1 ,presid5t     
,wilson 0    sl[ly recov]+ f a sev]e    
illness4 ,great problems 7 await+       
att5tion & by _m x 0 deem$ un=tunate t !
 newly-elect$    ,presid5t c\ld n take  
hold ( !m = f\r mon?s4 ,s ,mr4 ,bryan   
sugge/$ t ,mr4 ,h>d+ %\ld be appo9t$    
,secret>y ( ,/ate &    t !reaft] !      
,presid5t & ,vice ,presid5t %\ld resign4
 ,?is1    "u ! rules ( succession1 w\ld 
h enabl$ ,mr4 ,h>d+ to take    (fice at 
once4 ,b ! sugge/ion 0 n accept$4       
,footnote #acb3      ,on assum+ (fice 9 
#aiba ,presid5t ,h>d+ invit$ ! ,vice    
,presid5t to att5d all meet+s ( !       
cab9et4    ,footnote #acc3      ,:5     
,presid5t ,wilson 0 ill 9 #aibj !       

,secret>y ( ,/ate1 ,mr4    ,rob]t       
,lans+1 call$ ! cab9et toge!r to discuss
 "s urg5t    matt]s ( bus9ess4 ,9 due   
c\rse ! ,presid5t he>d ( ?is action    &
 res5t$ x4 ,9 a lett] to ! ,secret>y (  
,/ate he call$    att5tion to ! fact t  
)\t ! ,presid5t !re 0 no?+    t ! cab9et
 c\ld legally d4    ,footnote #acd3     
,presid5t ,l9coln1 = example1 did n     
consult ! cab9et 9 !    fram+ ( !       
,emancipation ,proclamation2 he m]ely   
read x to !    cab9et aft] x 0 f9i%$4   
,g5]al ,grant treat$ 8 cab9et z    ?\gh 
x 0 m]ely 8 g5]al /aff ) ! function (   
c>ry+    out ord]s r ?an giv+ advice4   
,presid5t ,roosevelt usually _h    8 own
 m9d made up on matt]s ( policy1 & !    
memb]s ( 8    cab9et1 al?\gh !y diff]$ f
 him 9 temp]am5t1 did n (t5    diff] f  
him 9 op9ion4 ,presid5t ,wilson1 9 *oos+
 8 cab9et1    made x a po9t to get m5 ^:
 m9ds ran along ) 8 own4 ,on !    o!r   
h&1 ,presid5t ,hayes1 ,presid5t         
,h>rison1 & ,presid5t    ,mc,kinley 7   
consid]ably guid$ by ! advice ( _!      

cab9ets &    consult$ !m freely4        
,footnote #ace3      ,! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t 
deals *iefly ) =eign & diplomatic       
affairs    z well z ) relations betwe5 !
 nation & ! /ates2 x also    promulgates
 ! laws pass$ by ,congress4 ,! ,dep>tm5t
 ( !    ,treasury collects ! rev5ues1   
pays ! gov]nm5t's bills1 att5ds    to ! 
borr[+ ( money :5 necess>y1 issues !    
curr5cy1 & has    g5]al sup]vision ov] !
 national banks4 ,! ,w> ,dep>tm5t has   
*>ge ( ! arm$ =ces1 ! l& =tifications1 !
 pur*ase (    munitions1 & ! :ole upkeep
 ( ! army4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( !    ,int]ior 
has functions ( a v miscellane\s nature1
 s mu* s t    x has be5 jocul>ly call$ !
 8dep>tm5t ( ?+s 9 g5]al04 ,x    has    
*>ge ( national p>ks & =e/s1 pat5ts1    
p5sions1 !    geological survey1 & v>i\s
 o!r ?+s :i* h little relation    to "o 
ano!r4 ,! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al assumes !     
ov]sight ( !    entire po/al s]vice4 ,! 
,dep>tm5t ( ,ju/ice has an              
,attorney-,g5]al at its head4 ,he is !  
gov]nm5t's *ief legal    advisor &      

repres5ts x 9 all legal controv]sies4 ,!
 ,navy    ,dep>tm5t has *>ge ( all !    
nation's arm$ =ces afloat4 ,!           
,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture has to d ) !   
promotion ( agricultural    int]e/s     
?r\gh\t ! c\ntry 7see pp4 #cdf-cdh74 ,! 
,dep>tm5t (    ,labor has *>ge (        
immigration1 naturalization1 & !        
execution (    ! f$]al laws relat+ to   
labor4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,comm]ce is       
conc]n$ ) ! developm5t ( =eign & dome/ic
 trade1 !    inspection ( /eamboats1 !  
publication ( consul> reports 7see pp4  
#cgc-cgd71 & s =?4    ,footnote #acf3   
,9 addition to ! t5 regul> dep>tm5ts !re
 are o!r bran*es (    ! national        
adm9i/ration ^: heads are n memb]s ( !  
cab9et4 ,^! include su* bodies z !      
,int]/ate ,comm]ce    ,commission 7p4   
#cfd71 ! ,f$]al ,trade ,commission 7p4  
#cia71 ! ,civil    ,s]vice ,commission  
7p4 #ajc71 ! ,t>iff ,commission 7p4     
#cgj71 besides    v>i\s bureaus ( "o k9d
 or ano!r4 ,memb]s ( ^! bo>ds &    heads
 ( ! indep5d5t bureaus are all appo9t$  

by ! ,presid5t1    responsible to him1 &
 removable by him4                      
,,*apt] ,,xvi                ,,!        
,,c\rts1 ,,! ,,law1 ,,& ,,judicial      
,,proc$ure4        ,! purpose ( ?is     
*apt] is to %[ h[ ! c\rts are organiz$  
& :at sy/ems ( law !y adm9i/]4          
,,! ,,c\rts    ,sid5ote3 ,! supreme     
ju/ices4    ,! ,highe/ ,c\rt 9 !        
,l&4--,visitors to ! ,capitol at        
,wa%+ton  on any week day f ,octob] to  
,june are usually int]e/$ to see a  gr\p
 ( n9e di/+ui%$-look+ m51 rob$ 9 silk   
g[ns1 pass+ at  noon ?r\gh ! long       
corridor into a room :]e a cl]k beg9s to
 call  out1 8,oyez6 ,oyez60#acg ,?is is 
! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  !  
highe/ c\rt 9 ! l& & ! mo/ p[]ful       
tribunal 9 !  _w4 ,x consi/s ( a *ief   
ju/ice & eight associate ju/ices1 all  (
 !m appo9t$ = life by ! ,presid5t ) !   
cons5t ( !  ,s5ate4 ,!y _c be remov$ f  
(fice except by impea*m5t4 ,!  c\rt     
holds its sessions 9 ! *amb] :i* 0 us$  
by ! ,s5ate 9  ! days :5 t body 0 small4

 ,! ju/ices sit 9 a r[1 ! *ief  ju/ice 9
 ! c5t]1 ) f\r associates on ea* side ( 
him4 ,!re  is no jury1 & = ! mo/ "p !   
c\rt simply he>s ! argum5ts  ( attorneys
 on po9ts ( law 9 cases :i* h be5       
appeal$4 ,!  sessions beg9 at twelve    
o'clock1 & cont9ue1 ) a brief           
int]ruption = lun*eon1 until late 9 !   
aft]noon4 ,e ,saturday  morn+ ! c\rt    
meets beh9d clos$ doors to agree ^u its 
decisions  & on ,mondays ! decisions are
 publicly ann\nc$4 ,^! n9e ju/ices  are 
! supreme gu>dians ( ! con/itution1     
entru/$ ) ! duty  ( see+ t its          
provisions are duly respect$ by all     
(ficials (  gov]nm5t f ! ,presid5t &    
,congress d[n to ! humble/  (ficehold]4 
,_! m&ate is b9d+ ^u ev]yone )9 !       
jurisdiction ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4#ach     
,sid5ote3 ,! p[] to decl>e laws         
uncon/itutional4    ,! ,supreme ,c\rt's 
,p[]4--,congress1 z has be5 po9t$ out1  
is !  lawmak+ bran* ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t4 
,) ! approval ( !  ,presid5t its p[] to 
enact laws1 )9 ! limits prescrib$ by !  

con/itution1 is complete & f9al4 ,! /ate
 legislatures are !  lawmak+ organs (   
/ate gov]nm5t & ) ! approval ( !        
gov]nors ! au?ority ( ! /ate            
legislatures to make laws )9  limits    
prescrib$ by ! national & /ate          
con/itutions is also  complete & f9al4  
,yet ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 by a majority    
vote ( its  n9e ju/ices1 may nullify    
laws pass$ by ei!r ,congress or ! /ate  
legislatures4 ,x has done s on _m       
occasions4 ,:y h we giv5 to  ?is small  
gr\p ( m51 appo9t$ = life1 ! p[] to set 
aside !  action ( ! p's repres5tatives8 
,sid5ote3 ,reason = ?is au?ority4    ,! 
answ] is ?is3 ,am]ican gov]nm5t1 bo? 9 !
 nation & 9 !  /ates1 re/s ^u c]ta9     
fundam5tal rules :i* are embodi$ 9      
writt5 con/itutions4 ,^! rules det]m9e1 
among o!r ?+s1 !  p[]s & functions (    
gov]nm5t (fic]s & bodies1 includ+       
,congress & ! legislatures4 ,!y h be5   
plac$ 9 ! national &  /ate con/itutions 
) ! int5t t !y %all be obey$1 & if  !y 7
 n obey$ "o bran* ( ! gov]nm5t w\ld be  

encroa*+  ^u ! p[]s ( ! o!r4 ,b h[ c    
p[]ful bodies l ,congress  & ! /ate     
legislatures be held to ! ob$i5ce (     
rules laid d[n  9 ! national            
con/itution8 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt p]=ms ?is
 duty by  decl>+ 8uncon/itutional0 any  
law :i*1 9 its judgm5t1 violates  !     
provisions ( t docum5t4 ,! con/itution1 
= example1 provides  t ,congress %all   
pass no bill ( atta9d]4 ,if ,congress   
%\ld enact  a measure ( t k9d1 ! c\rt   
w\ld nullify x4 ,! con/itution          
/ipulates t no /ate %all make any law   
impair+ ! obligations (  contract4 ,if  
any /ate legislature %\ld enact su* a   
law1 ! ,supreme  ,c\rt w\ld decl>e x to 
be uncon/itutional & void4    ,sid5ote3 
,limitations ^u ! discretion ( ! c\rt4  
,n[ ?is does n mean t ! ju/ices ( !     
,supreme ,c\rt h !  "r to veto any      
measure at _! discretion4 ,!y h no?+ to 
d  ) ! m]its ( a measure1 no?+ to d ) ! 
"q :e!r x  has be5 wisely pass$4 ,! only
 issue !y decide is :e!r a law  con=ms  
to ! provisions ( ! con/itution4 ,if !y 

f9d t x  does n1 !y h au?ority to set x 
aside4 ,& s long z gov]nm5t  is bas$ ^u 
writt5 con/itutions !re mu/ be "s body )
 p[]  to decide :e!r a law is           
con/itutional or n4 ,e bran* ( !        
gov]nm5t is "u a natural temptation to  
ext5d its own au?ority4  ,/ate          
legislatures w\ld l to h a %>e 9        
regulat+ ! trunk  railroads2 ,congress  
w\ld l to decide h[ mu* money may be    
sp5t by  c&idates = s5atorial           
nom9ations4 ,bo? ( !m h tri$ to ext5d   
_! au?ority 9 ^! directions dur+ ! pa/  
few ye>s al?\gh  ! con/itution does n   
w>rant _! s do+4 ,we mu/ h "s  body1    
!re=e1 end[$ ) ! "r to say to all public
 (ficials  & legislative bodies3 8,?us  
f> %all y g & no fur!r2 "h is  ! po9t   
:]e y\r au?ority1 "u ! con/itution1     
comes to an  end40    ,sid5ote3 ,!      
,supreme ,c\rt's p[] is ess5tial4    ,x 
is q true t decisions ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt
 are sometimes  unpopul>4 ,p :o are eag]
 = humanit>ian re=ms1 :5 !y see  !      
,supreme ,c\rt annull+ measures :i*     

,congress has pass$ to  protect wom5 or 
*ildr51 or ! weak or ! poor1 are 9 !    
habit (  cry+ out t ! c\rt is an ob/acle
 to progress & t its p[]  to decl>e laws
 uncon/itutional %\ld be tak5 away4 ,!y 
ov]look !  fact t if !re 7 no supreme   
tribunal to keep ,congress )9 its       
con/itutional limits1 x w\ld be easy =  
,congress1 /ep by /ep1 to  take away all
 ! p[]s n[ possess$ by ! /ates & to     
c5tralize  at ,wa%+ton ! entire gov]nm5t
 ( ! c\ntry4 ,"u a f$]al  sy/em (       
gov]nm5t1 ) p[]s divid$ betwe5 ! nation 
& !  /ates z !y are 9 ?is c\ntry1       
disputes z to :]e a p>ticul>  p[]       
belongs are sure to arise4 ,h[ c\ld we  
devise a m satisfactory  plan ( decid+  
^! disputes ?an by ref]r+ !m to an      
imp>tial  body ( n9e m5 *os5 = life f   
among ! able/ juri/s ( !  l&8 ,d we     
propose to aboli% ! p[]s ( juries       
because !y  sometimes r5d] unpopul>     
v]dicts8 ,p sometimes "q !  wisdom ( !  
,supreme ,c\rt1 b no "o has ev] d\bt$   
its  integrity4#aci    ,sid5ote3 ,scope 

( ! f$]al c\rts' jurisdiction4    ,h[   
,cases ,come ,be=e ! ,f$]al ,c\rts4--,! 
au?ority to try cases  is divid$ by !   
national con/itution into two p>ts1 &   
ea* "p is  assign$ to two sep>ate sy/ems
 ( c\rts4 ,c]ta9 classes ( cases are    
nam$ 9 ! national con/itution z fall+ )9
 8! judicial p[]  ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates0 &  
^! cases are tri$ 9 ! f$]al c\rts4  ,all
 o!r classes ( cases 7& ?is includes !  
great majority (  legal disputes7 are   
left to ! /ate c\rts4 ,! controv]sies   
nam$ 9  ! national con/itution z matt]s 
= trial 9 ! f$]al c\rts are  ^? :i* x   
did n seem wise to let ! v>i\s /ate     
c\rts decide1  = example1 cases aris+   
out ( treaties made by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 
or  controv]sies betwe5 two /ates1 or   
betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t  /ates4 ,?is is
 a wise arrangem5t1 = if ! /ate c\rts   
c\ld say  ! la/ ^w on ! int]pretation ( 
treaties1 ! nation might easily  f9d    
itself =c$ into tr\ble ) =eign c\ntries4
 ,if cases betwe5  citiz5s ( diff]5t    
/ates 7 tri$ 9 ! c\rts ( ei!r /ate1  !re

 w\ld be a temptation = ^! c\rts to     
favor _! own  citiz5s4 ,ev5 ! rule :i*  
requires t cases affect+ ambassadors    
%all be he>d 9 ! f$]al c\rts has a good 
reason1 = ! ,unit$  ,/ates gu>antees to 
all =eign ambassadors ! privileges (    
int]national law & mu/ be 9 a position  
to see t ^! gu>antees  are respect$4 ,! 
entire li/ ( cases ov] :i* f$]al c\rts h
  jurisdiction is s cle>ly set =? 9 !   
con/itution t !re is  no ne$ = repeat+ x
 "h4#adj    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ jurisdiction  
is det]m9$4    ,:5 any dispute arises   
betwe5 individuals or corporations !    
lawy]s  :o br+ ! suit det]m9e :e!r !    
matt] is "o = ! f$]al  or ! /ate c\rts  
to he>4 ,?is !y d by consid]+ :e!r !    
controv]sy comes )9 any ( ! classes nam$
 9 ! con/itutional  provision j m5tion$4
 ,if !y f9d t x does1 ! suit is usually 
comm5c$ 9 ! f$]al c\rts2 o!rwise x is   
begun 9 ! /ate  c\rts4 ,mo/ suits beg9 9
 ! l[e/ c\rt1 &1 if ! decision is  n    
satisfactory1 c be c>ri$ on appeal to ! 
high] f$]al or  /ate c\rts z ! case may 

be1 until f9ally a v small proportion  (
 !m rea* ! ,supreme ,c\rt4#ada ,b n all 
cases :i* are he>d  9 ! l[] f$]al c\rts1
 or 9 ! /ate c\rts1 c be br\ght up  to !
 ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,if t
 7 p]mitt$1 !  ,supreme ,c\rt w\ld nev] 
be able to h&le all ! bus9ess :i* w\ld  
come be=e x4 ,f ! l[] f$]al c\rts only  
cases ( great  importance c be br\ght to
 x1 & f ! /ate c\rts only  controv]sies 
9 :i* "s provision ( ! national         
con/itution is  involv$4    ,! ,l[]     
,f$]al ,c\rts4--,! l[] f$]al c\rts are  
call$ di/rict  & circuit c\rts4 ,!      
c\ntry is divid$ into ab\t "o hundr$    
judicial di/ricts1 9 ea* ( :i* !re is a 
,unit$ ,/ates di/rict  c\rt ) a judge1 a
 m>%all1 & a di/rict attorney1 all      
appo9t$  by ! ,presid5t4 ,next above ^! 
c\rts are ! circuit c\rts (  appeals4   
,!re are n9e ( ^! c\rts1 ea* hav+       
jurisdiction )9  a c]ta9 section ( !    
c\ntry4 ,a circuit c\rt ( appeals has f 
two to f\r judges1 appo9t$ by !         
,presid5t1 & also has its own  c\rt     

(ficials4 ,^! c\rts d]ive _! "n f ! fact
 t !y  g 8on circuit01 t is1 !y move    
ab\t f "o l>ge city to ano!r  )9 _!     
respective sections ( ! c\ntry hold+    
sessions 9  ea*4 ,9 mo/ cases !y h f9al 
jurisdiction4#adb                       
,,! ,,law    ,:at is ,meant by !        
,law4--,hav+ outl9$ ! organization &    
jurisdiction ( ! f$]al c\rts1 ! "q next 
arises3 ,:at  bran*es ( law d ,am]ican  
c\rts adm9i/]8 ,we (t5 speak ( !  c\rts 
z adm9i/]+ 8ju/ice 01 & x is no d\bt    
true t _!  decisions usually possess !  
quality ( ju/ice2 b :at ! c\rts  really 
adm9i/] is ! law4 ,! law may be j or    
unju/1 & x is  v difficult1 if n        
impossible1 = any c\rt to wr+ ju/ice out
 (  an unju/ law4 ,:]e inju/ice is done1
 ! law & n ! c\rt is 9  mo/ cases to    
blame4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! common law    
develop$4    ,! ,common ,law4--,speak+  
broadly ! sy/em ( jurisprud5ce :i*      
,am]ican c\rts adm9i/] is made up ( ?ree
 bran*es1 kn[n z common  law1 /atutory  
law1 & equity4 ,( ^! ! common law is    

made up (  v>i\s "t-honor$ usages1 "s ( 
:i* g back _m hundr$s (  ye>s4 ,! common
 law began its gr[? 9 m$iaeval ,engl& :5
 !re  7 v few writt5 rules1 & ! c\rts   
f\nd x necess>y to decide  cases 9      
accordance ) ! usages or cu/oms ( ! p4  
,gradually  ^! decisions became uni=m1  
"o c\rt foll[+ ! example (  ano!r1 until
 ?is body ( usages int]pret$ by judicial
 decision  became 8common0 or univ]sal  
?r\gh\t ! :ole realm ( ,engl&  al?\gh x 
_h nev] be5 s e/abli%$ by any action (  
p>liam5t4  ,?us ! rule develop$ t no man
 %\ld be compell$ to te/ify  aga9/      
himself1 t m]e he>say %\ld n 7) c]ta9   
exceptions7  be receiv$ z evid5ce1 t all
 witnesses %\ld be put ^u oa?1  t       
que/ions ( fact %\ld be decid$ by       
juries1 t agreem5ts to  re/ra9 trade 9  
an unreasonable mann] 7 puni%able1 & s  
on4#adc ,dur+ sev]al c5turies a great   
body ( legal rules develop$  9 ?is way &
 ! sy/em ( common law 0 br\ght by !     
,engli%  coloni/s to ,am]ica1 :]e x     
spe$ily took root & 0 adm9i/]$  by !    

colonial c\rts4#add ,aft] ! ,revolution 
x 0 cont9u$ &  x /ill rema9s ! gr\ndwork
 ( ! law 9 all ! /ates except           
,l\isiana4 ,( c\rse x has be5 gradually 
modifi$ dur+ ! pa/  hundr$ or m ye>s by 
c\rt decisions & by /atutes1 & x /ill   
keeps on *ang+4    ,/atutory            
,law4--,second1 !re is /atutory law4    
,?is is law made by  def9ite action ( ! 
p or _! repres5tatives4 ,con/itutions   
are 9 effect /atutory law1 supreme      
/atutory law4 ,laws enact$ by !  p ?r\gh
 ! initiative & ref]5dum are /atutory   
law4  ,sid5ote3 ,/atutes4 ,mo/ /atutory 
law1 h[ev]1 consi/s ( laws made  by     
,congress1 by ! /ate legislatures1 by   
city c\ncils1 & by o!r  regul> lawmak+  
bodies4#ade ,^! enactm5ts supplem5t or  
alt] !  common law4 ,until a /atute is  
pass$ affect+ any "q1 ! common  law     
prevails4 ,:5ev] a /atute conflicts ) a 
provision ( !  common law1 ! /atute     
prevails4 ,b :5 ord9>y /atutes conflict 
) ! con/itution1 ! con/itution prevails4
 ,enorm\s numb]s (  /atutes are enact$  

ea* ye> by ,congress & ! legislatures ( 
!  =ty-eight /ates4 ,!y n[ =m ! l>g] "p 
( ! :ole sy/em (  law4    ,! ,ne$ =     
,great] ,uni=mity 9 ,/atute ,law4--,9 _m
 matt]s (  bus9ess ! fact t ! /atutes   
are diff]5t 9 e "o ( !  =ty-eight /ates 
is a great disadvantage4 ,:5 :olesale   
deal]s sell  goods on cr$it to m]*ants 9
 f>-(f /ates !y want to "k j  :at ! laws
 provide 9 ! matt] ( collect+ debts4 ,! 
only way to  d ?is is to enquire into ! 
/atutes ( ea* /ate :]e goods are  sold4 
,s x is ) wills1 contracts1 notes1 & s  
on4 ,9 "s /ates a  w mu/ h ?ree         
witnesses2 9 o!rs only two4 ,! man :o   
endorses  a note 9 "o /ate assumes      
great] liabilities ?an are assum$ by    
endors]s some:]e else4 ,to rem$y ?is    
situation !re is a /rong  movem5t to    
secure uni=mity among all ! /ates 9 !   
case (  c]ta9 important /atutes 7=      
example1 ! /atutes relat+ to  sales74 ,a
 commission ( em95t lawy]s has be5 at "w
 = ye>s  prep>+ uni=m laws on v>i\s     
subjects & "s ( ^! h be5  adopt$ by !   

legislatures ( _m /ates4 ,a uni=m /atute
 relat+  to negotiable in/rum5ts 7notes1
 bills ( ex*ange1 etc47 has n[ be5      
adopt$ by m ?an =ty /ates1 & a uni=m    
sales act by ab\t a  doz5 ( !m4         
,equity4--,f9ally1 !re is ! bran* (     
jurisprud5ce kn[n z equity4  ,p ?9k (   
?is ^w z imply+ some?+ t is m j ?an  !  
law1 some?+ :i* has its roots 9 !       
consci5ce ( ! judge  r ?an 9 ! /atute   
books4 ,b equity z actually adm9i/]$ 9  
! c\rts is made up ( =mal rules :i* !   
judges apply 9 c]ta9  cases )\t hav+ mu*
 discretion 9 ! matt]4 ,! rules ( equity
  are writt5 9 books j l ! rules ( law1 
& !y are ab\t z  precise4    ,sid5ote3  
,! orig9 ( equity4    ,! orig9 ( ^!     
rules is an int]e/+ /ory :i* _c be      
n>rat$ "h save 9 ! briefe/ way4 ,9 e>ly 
,engl& !re grew up1  side by side ) !   
common law1 a set ( unwritt5 rules      
adm9i/]$  by ! *ancellor1 :o 0 call$ !  
8keep] ( ! k+'s consci5ce0  & to :om p  
c\ld appeal = relief :5 !y felt t !y _h 
n receiv$ ju/ice 9 ! c\rts ( common law4

 ,at ! outset !  *ancellor1 ^: (fice    
ev5tually grew into a ,c\rt ( ,*anc]y1  
decid$ e case on its own m]its2 b 9 due 
c\rse all cases ( !  same k9d came to be
 decid$ 9 ! same way1 & ?us a set (     
rules or  pr9ciples 0 gradually =mulat$4
 ,) fur!r gr[? ^! rules (  *anc]y or    
equity 7 ga!r$ toge!r1 arrang$          
logically1 put into  writt5 =m1 appli$  
by ! ,engli% c\rts1 br\ght to ,am]ica 9 
colonial days1 reta9$ aft] !            
,revolution1 & !y cont9ue 9 =ce  at !   
pres5t "t4    ,! diff]5ces betwe5 law & 
equity are too te*nical to be expla9$   
"h2 ev5 lawy]s sometimes fail to und]/& 
!m ?or\ghly4#adf  ,cases 9 equity (t5   
result 9 ! issue ( injunctions & ! issue
  ( ^! injunctions 9 labor disputes has 
giv5 rise to mu* compla9t4  7,see pp4   
#djg-djh47 ,bo? equity & law are usually
 adm9i/]$ by !  same c\rts4#adg         
,,judicial ,,proc$ure    ,! ,jury       
,sy/em4--,:5 a legal dispute arises     
betwe5 individuals or  corporations1 or 
:5 "s (f5ce is *>g$ aga9/ a p]son1 !re  

are usually two que/ions to be decid$4  
,! fir/ "q is3 ,:at are  ! facts8 ,:at  
actually took place8 ,! second "q is3   
,:at does  ! law provide ) ref]5ce to ^!
 facts8 ,if y *>ge someone  ) hav+ done 
y a wrong1 x is n en\gh to prove y\r    
*>ge2 y  mu/ also conv9ce ! c\rt t      
common law1 or /atutory law1 or  equity 
gives y ! "r to r$ress4 ,! fir/ "q 9 mo/
  important cases1 bo? crim9al & civil1 
is decid$ by a jury2 !  second "q by a  
judge4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! gr& jury is   
*os54    ,! ,gr& ,jury4--,!re are two   
k9ds ( juries1 bo? ( :i* are  select$ 9 
mu* ! same way1 b _! functions are q    
diff]5t4  ,! fir/ is call$ ! gr& jury4  
,x is a body ( m51 v>y+ f  sev5 to      
tw5ty-?ree 9 numb]1 *os5 by lot f among 
! qualifi$  vot]s ( ! c\nty or di/rict1 
& *>g$ ) ! duty (  inve/igat+ :e!r      
crimes h be5 committ$4 ,evid5ce is      
pres5t$  to x by ! prosecut+ attorney1  
or ! gr& jury may make  inve/igations on
 its own behalf4 ,sid5ote3 ,its "w4 ,x  
conducts an  inve/igation1 n a trial4   

,if x decides by a majority vote t !re  
are reasonable gr\nds = plac+ any p]son 
on trial1 x submits to  ! c\rt a true   
bill or indictm5t4 ,if x believes t any 
conditions  )9 ! c\nty or di/rict are   
wrong & ought to be rem$i$1 x  submits  
to ! c\rt a /atem5t ( ^! conditions1 :i*
 is call$ a  pres5tm5t4 ,:5 a p]son is  
indict$ by a gr& jury1 ?is does n  mean 
t he has be5 prov$ guilty b m]ely t1 9 !
 gr& jury's  op9ion1 he ought to be     
plac$ on trial4 ,! gr& jury does n he>  
! accus$ p]son's side ( ! case4 ,its    
purpose is to protect  individuals f be+
 put to ! inconv5i5ce & humiliation ( a 
public trial unless !re are reasonable  
gr\nds = do+ ?is4#adh    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ !
 trial jury is *os54    ,! ,trial       
,jury4--,! o!r jury is kn[n z ! trial   
jury or petit  jury & practically always
 consi/s ( twelve p]sons4 ,! me?od (    
select+ a trial jury is1 9 g5]al1 z     
foll[s3 ,"s public (ficial  :o is       
entru/$ by ! law ) ?is duty makes a li/ 
( ! p]sons  :o are liable = jury s]vice4

 ,?is li/ is usually compil$ f !  roll (
 vot]s1 leav+ (f all p]sons 7su* z      
lawy]s1 physicians1  public (ficials1 & 
s on7 :o are exempt$ by law f jury duty4
  ,f ?is li/ a c]ta9 numb] ( names1     
p]haps fifty to a hundr$1  are !n       
select$1 usually by lot4 ,^! individuals
 are !reupon  summon$ to c\rt1 :]e !y =m
 :at is kn[n z ! jury panel4 ,"o  by "o 
_! names are call$ 9 c\rt & ! lawy]s on 
ei!r side (  ! case are giv5 an         
opportunity to /ate _! objections4#adi  
,:5  twelve p]sons h be5 f\nd to :om !re
 is no objection f ei!r  side1 ^! twelve
 con/itute ! jury & proce$ to he> !     
facts (  ! case4 ,sid5ote3 ,its "w4 ,!  
trial jury1 h[ev]1 may he> only  su*    
evid5ce z ! judge p]mits x to he>1 = !  
"q :e!r  any item ( evid5ce c be p]mitt$
 is a "q ( law4 ,! value (  ! evid5ce1  
aft] ! judge has all[$ ! jury to he> x1 
is =  ! jury to det]m9e4    ,sid5ote3   
,jury proc$ure4    ,! usual proc$ure 9 a
 jury trial1 !re=e1 is ?is3 ,:5 ! jury  
has be5 *os5 & sworn to decide ! issue  

fairly1 ! prosecut+  attorney 7or1 9 a  
civil case1 ! c\nsel = ! pla9tiff7 /ates
  briefly to ! c\rt :at he int5ds to    
prove4 ,!n ! witnesses =  ! prosecution1
 or = ! pla9tiff1 are call$1 put ^u oa?1
 &  que/ion$4 ,z ea* witness f9i%es 8   
direct te/imony !  def5dant's c\nsel    
takes him 9 h& = cross-exam9ation4 ,!   
purpose  ( ?is cross-exam9ation is to   
te/ ! witness1 to see if he is  tell+ ! 
tru?1 or to induce him to say ?+s :i* w 
weak5 8  orig9al te/imony4#aej ,:5 !    
witnesses = ! prosecution h  f9i%$1 !   
witnesses = ! def5dant are call$ & !y   
likewise  are cross-exam9$ by ! o!r     
side4 ,aft] all ! te/imony is  conclud$ 
! c\nsel on bo? sides make addresses to 
! jury1 !  judge expla9s to ! jurym5 !  
po9ts ( law be>+ on ! case1 &  ! jury   
retires to consid] its v]dict4 ,?is x   
does 9 secret1  rema9+ 9 a room :i* no  
"o is all[$ to ent] or leave4           
,sid5ote3 ,second jeop>dy4    ,9 crim9al
 cases ! v]dict mu/ be unanim\s "o way  
or ! o!r2 if  n1 ! case has to be tri$  

all ov] aga94#aea ,9 civil cases        
unanim\s v]dicts are requir$ 9 "s /ates 
b n 9 o!rs4 ,!  v]dict1 :atev] x may be1
 is report$ 9 op5 c\rt & is ord9>ily    
conclusive4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 !       
presid+ judge is emp[]$ to  set a       
unanim\s v]dict aside & to ord] a new   
trial4#aeb ,:]e an  accus$ p]son is f\nd
 n guilty by ! unanim\s v]dict ( a jury 
he  may nev]1 "u any circum/ances1 be   
plac$ on trial = ! same  (f5ce aga94#aec
 ,if he is f\nd guilty1 on ! o!r h&1 he 
has 9  mo/ cases ! "r to appeal1 on     
po9ts ( law1 to a high] c\rt4    ,value 
( ! ,jury ,sy/em4--,! jury sy/em has    
great value b also  "s s]i\s defects4   
,its value consi/s 9 assur+ to ev]yone a
 fair  det]m9ation ( ! facts by an      
imp>tial body ( 8 neighbors1 ea*  "o (  
:om is sworn to decide )\t fe> or favor4
 ,x is a great  safegu>d aga9/ ! tyranny
 ( judges & public (ficials4 ,on !  o!r 
h& x makes judicial adm9i/ration        
exp5sive 7= ! jurym5  h to be paid72 x  
results 9 mak+ trials mu* long] ?an if !

  evid5ce 7 he>d by a judge alone2 & !  
requirem5t t v]dicts  %all be unanim\s  
(t5 results 9 no v]dict at all4         
,exemptions f  jury s]vice h be5 giv5   
too freely1 s t juries are sometimes    
made up ( m5 :o s]ve because !y h no o!r
 "w to d4 ,!  o!rs are ei!r exempt$ by  
law or ask to be excus$ by ! c\rt4      
,prolong$ trials & close conf9em5t make 
jury s]vice a burd5 :i*  _m p try to    
evade4 ,9 s]i\s cases ! jurym5 are      
sometimes n  p]mitt$ to visit _! homes =
 weeks at a "t2 !y sleep 9 !  c\r?\se1 h
 _! meals "u ! wat*ful eye ( ! %]iff1 & 
are n p]mitt$ to read ! newspap]s :ile !
 trial la/s4  ,occasionally we h        
witness$ ! absurd spectacle ( a jury    
kept "u  gu>d :ile ! prison] 0 out on   
bail4 ,yet ) all its faults !  jury     
sy/em af=ds a saf] me?od ( try+ crim9al 
cases ?an trial  by a judge alone4 ,on !
 o!r h& ! use ( jury trials 9 civil     
cases1 p>ticul>ly :]e ! matt]s 9 dispute
 are n ( great  importance1 t5ds to     
delay ! "w ( ! c\rts4 ,x has be5 sugge/$

  t all su* cases ought to be tri$ by ! 
judge alone4    ,! ,law's ,delays4--,mu*
 compla9t is he>d n[adays because       
lawsuits  are s long & involve s mu*    
exp5se4 ,! c\rts are (t5 s  ov]:elm$ )  
cases t a lawsuit :i* is br\ght today _c
 be  tri$ = _m mon?s4 ,! privilege (    
appeal+ f ! decisions (  l[] c\rts is s 
widely grant$1 moreov]1 t :5 lawsuits   
are once  begun !y may n be end$ = ye>s4
 ,! claim is (t5 made t all  ?is gives a
 great advantage to ! ri* man or ! l>ge 
corporation z  aga9/ ! ord9>y individual
 :o _c af=d ! exp5se involv$  9 prolong$
 litigation4 ,lawsuits require ! hir+ ( 
lawy]s by bo?  sides & ! assi/ance (    
lawy]s is co/ly4 ,judicial proc$ure c be
  mu* simplifi$1 & x ought to be4 ,x    
probably w\ld be simplifi$  7 x n =     
lawy]s4 ,lawy]s pr(it by ! law's delays2
 ! m  lawsuits & ! m prolong$ !y are1 ! 
m pr(itable x is =  !m4 ,& lawy]s =m a  
l>ge elem5t 9 ! legislatures :i* make  !
 laws relat+ to c\rt proc$ure4 ,?is is n
 to imply1 h[ev]1  t lawy]s on ! :ole   

fail to promote ! int]e/s ( ju/ice4 ,!y 
d p]=m great s]vices 9 ?is respect4 ,!  
ends ( ju/ice w\ld be  f> less p]fectly 
s]v$ 7 x n = lawy]s4    ,sid5ote3       
,reasons = ^! delays4    ,! ma9 reason =
 ! sl[ness ) :i* ju/ice is adm9i/]$ 9  !
 ,unit$ ,/ates c be f\nd 9 ! great 7&   
p]haps unnecess>y7  am\nt ( c>e :i* is  
tak5 to assure e individual 8 legal     
rights4 ,?is has multipli$ appeals1     
enc\rag$ te*nicalities1 &  giv5 ! c\rts 
f> too mu* to d4 ,! "r to be giv5 a full
 &  fair trial1 to h a jury 9 mo/ cases1
 to appeal1 & to h due  process ( law ) 
all t ?is implies--^! are rights :i* !  
con/itution gu>antees & :i* we greatly  
value4 ,valuable !y are1  no d\bt1 b !y 
make ! c\rse ( ju/ice sl[] 9 ! ,unit$   
,/ates ?an 9 o!r c\ntries :]e ^!        
con/itutional safegu>ds d  n exi/4 ,a   
fam\s ,prussian k+1 ,fr$]ick ! ,great1  
once ord]$  t e lawsuit %\ld be br\ght  
to an end )9 a ye>4 ,despots  c make _! 
c\rts move quickly 9 ?is way2 b no?+ ( !
 sort  is possible 9 a democracy4       

,sid5ote3 ,keep ! c\rts incorruptible4  
,yet ! c\rts are1 :5 all is said & done1
 ! mo/ important among  ! in/itutions ( 
free gov]nm5t4 ,corruption & incompet5ce
 9  legislatures1 or 9 ! executive bran*
 ( ! gov]nm5t1 are s]i\s  evils :5 !y   
exi/1 to be sure2 b :5 incompet5ce &    
corruption  invade ! judici>y !y rea* to
 ! v he>t ( ! ,republic4 ,!  ,great     
,*>t] ( #abae provid$ t 8ju/ice %\ld n  
be sold1  delay$1 or d5i$ to any man04  
,t is a pr9ciple :i* mu/ be  ma9ta9$ at 
all co/s4                               
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1     
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4     
#bid-cad2 ,ibid41  ,read+s 9 ,am]ican   
,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4 #bgc-bij2    
#dhh-ejh2    ,,ev]ett ,,kimball1        
,national ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  
pp4  #cgi-dbb2    ,,james ,t4 ,,"y1 ,!  
,new ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,its ,"w1 pp4 
#bge-big2    ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,!        
,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4        
#cdb-cga2    ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldw91 ,!       
,am]ican ,judici>y1 especially pp4      

#c-abd2    ,j4 ,c4 ,,gray1 ,! ,nature & 
,s\rces ( ! ,law1 pp4 #hd-aab4          
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,:at c be done to
 improve ! "w ( ! c\rts8 ,pres5t        
organization ( ! c\rts4 ,h[ cases are   
br\ght4 ,figures conc]n+  ! numb] (     
cases4 ,h[ f> are ! c\rts beh9d 9 _! "w8
 ,causes  ( conge/ion4 ,has ! jury sy/em
 any?+ to d ) x8 ,! "r to  new trials4  
,! "r ( appeal4 ,o!r factors :i* make = 
delay4 ,!  exp5siv5ess ( lawsuits4      
,ju/ice & ! poor4 ,propos$ re=ms 9      
judicial proc$ure4 ,conclusions4        
,ref]5ces3 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldw91 ,!         
,am]ican ,judici>y1 pp4 #aig-bea2       
#cfe-cgc2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,read+s 9     
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4     
#ejj-ejh2 ,r4 ,h4 ,,smi?1 ,ju/ice  & !  
,poor1 pp4 #c-cd2 ,c4 ,g4 ,,ha9es &     
,,b]?a ,,ha9es1 ,pr9ciples &  ,problems 
( ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cfg-djb2 ,am]ican ,b> 
,association1 ,report  on ! ,re=m (     
,judicial ,proc$ure 79 ,j\rnal ( !      
,am]ican ,b>  ,association1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 
pp4 #eji-ebg1 ,july1 #aibj72 ,see also  

,! ,clevel&  ,survey1 #aiba4    #b4 ,!  
,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & its  
place 9 ! ,am]ican  s*eme ( ,gov]nm5t4  
,ref]5ces3 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( 
!  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ceg-cga2 ,p4 ,s4 
,,re9s*1 ,read+s on ,am]ican  ,f$]al    
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #gjc-gbj2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1
 ,read+s 9 ,am]ican  ,gov]nm5t &        
,politics1 pp4 #bhh-bij2 ,w4 ,w4        
,,will\ghby1 ,! ,supreme  ,c\rt ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #bb-db4              
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt  
at "w4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,hask91 ,am]ican        
,gov]nm5t1 pp4  #cbe-ccf4    #b4 ,!     
practice ( decl>+ laws invalid4 ,c4 ,g4 
,,ha9es1 ,! ,am]ican  ,doctr9e (        
,judicial ,supremacy1 pp4 #agc-ahd2 ,e4 
,s4 ,,corw91 ,!  ,doctr9e ( ,judicial   
,review1 pp4 #a-dd4    #c4 ,! influ5ce (
 ,supreme ,c\rt decisions4 ,p4 ,s4      
,,re9s*1 ,read+s  on ,am]ican ,f$]al    
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #gjf-gaf4    #d4 ,law3   
its nature & developm5t4 ,,woodr[       
,,wilson1 ,! ,/ate1 pp4  #fi-ic4    #e4 
,! common law4 ,j4 ,c4 ,,c>t]1 ,law3    

,its ,orig9 & ,gr[?1 pp4  #afg-aij2 ,j4 
,c4 ,,gray1 ,! ,nature & ,s\rces ( !    
,law1 pp4 #hb-ajh2  #bff-bib2 ,,sir     
,,fr$]ick ,,pollock1 ,! ,g5ius ( !      
,common ,law1 pp4  #a-bf4    #f4 ,trial 
by jury4 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldw91 ,! ,am]ican  
,judici>y1 pp4  #ahd-aif4    #g4        
,crim9al proc$ure4 ,ibid41 pp4 #bbf-bea4
    #h4 ,! law's delays4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1
 ,read+s 9 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &         
,politics1 pp4 #ejj-eje4    #i4 ,ju/ice 
& ! poor4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,smi?1 ,ju/ice & !   
,poor1 pp4  #da-ei4    #aj4 ,! c\rts &  
democracy4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,tufts1 ,our        
,democracy1 pp4  #bee-bfg4              
,que/ions    #a4 ,is x ess5tial t a     
c\ntry ) a gov]nm5t l t ( !  ,unit$     
,/ates %\ld h "s body ve/$ ) ! p[] to   
decl>e  laws uncon/itutional8 ,:y or :y 
n8    #b4 ,"u :at circum/ances might a  
murd] case come to ! ,supreme  ,c\rt8   
#c4 ,tell 9 ea* case :e!r ! foll[+      
controv]sies w\ld come up  9 ! f$]al or 
! /ate c\rts & give y\r reasons3 7a7 a  
man  *>g$ ) murd] on an ,am]ican %ip at 

sea2 7b7 a suit betwe5 !  ,/&>d ,oil    
,company ( ,new ,j]sey & ! ,=d ,motor   
,company (  ,mi*igan2 7c7 a suit br\ght 
by ,ni*olas ,nickleby1 a citiz5 (       
,ill9ois1 aga9/ ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york2   
7d7 a *>ge ( embezzlem5t  br\ght aga9/ !
 ca%i] ( a national bank2 7e7 a compla9t
  aga9/ a railroad conductor = assault+ 
a pass5g] at a railroad  /ation 9       
,p5nsylvania2 7f7 a *>ge aga9/ a =eign  
ambassador2  7g7 a suit br\ght by a     
citiz5 ( ,massa*usetts aga9/ a citiz5 ( 
,cali=nia = non-paym5t ( a note4    #d4 
,:at are ! subord9ate f$]al c\rts8 ,h[  
are !y organiz$8 ,h[  are judges appo9t$
 & = :at t]ms8 ,h[ are !y remov$8    #e4
 ,describe all ! /eps 9 a crim9al trial 
by jury1 f arre/ to  conviction4    #f4 
,expla9 ! foll[+ t]ms1 us+ a diction>y  
:]e ne$$3  pla9tiff2 jury panel2        
v5ireman2 demurr]2 second jeop>dy2      
appellate  jurisdiction2 writ ( habeas  
corpus2 affidavit2 cross-exam9ation2    
p]emptory *all5ge2 c\nsel = ! def5dant4 
#g4 ,:y %\ld n e vot] be requir$ to d   

jury s]vice :5 8  turn comes8 ,:at      
classes ( citiz5s are exempt$ 9 y\r     
/ate8 ,d y  ?9k t ^! exemptions are     
ju/ifi$8 ,is x "r t wom5 %\ld  be call$ 
on = jury s]vice8 ,are !re any cases 9  
:i* !y %\ld  n s]ve8    #h4 ,to :at     
ext5t %\ld ! "r ( appeal be limit$8     
#i4 ,if a p]son is f\nd n guilty & a few
 days lat] confesses t  he actually did 
commit ! crime ) :i* he 0 *>g$1 he _c be
  plac$ on trial aga94 ,d y ?9k ?is is  
"r8 ,:y does ?is rule  exi/8    #aj4    
,:at sugge/ions c y make = ! prev5tion (
 exi/+ delays  9 ! adm9i/ration (       
ju/ice8                                 
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! p[] ( !     
,supreme ,c\rt to decl>e laws           
uncon/itutional  %\ld be tak5 away4     
#b4 ,trial by jury %\ld be aboli%$ 9    
civil cases4    #c4 ,! los] 9 a law suit
 %\ld n be compell$ to pay all !  w9n]'s
 co/s1 includ+ 8 lawy]'s fees4    ----- 
,footnote #acg3      ,?is is old ,fr5* =
 ,he> ,ye6 ,he> ,ye6 ,! cu/om ( op5+ a  
c\rt session ) ^! words goes back to !  

"t ( !    ,plantag5ets 9 ,engli% hi/ory4
    ,footnote #ach3      ,x may be well 
to expla9 briefly "s ( ! t]ms commonly  
us$ 9    connection ) ! law & ! c\rts4  
,! p>ties to a suit at law    are       
usually kn[n z ! pla9tiff & ! def5dant4 
,a crim9al    case is "o 9 :i* "s crime 
is *>g$2 9 a civil case1 !    issue     
conc]ns ! private rights ( individuals  
7= example1 :5 a    man is su$ = debt74 
,a c\rt has orig9al jurisdiction :]e    
cases    come be=e x 9 ! fir/ in/ance   
)\t hav+ already be5 he>d    by "s o!r  
c\rt2 x has appellate jurisdiction :5   
cases come    up f "s o!r c\rt on       
appeal4    ,footnote #aci3      ,9 m ?an
 "o hundr$ & ?irty ye>s only "o ,supreme
 ,c\rt    ju/ice has be5 impea*$ & he 0 
acquitt$4 ,! *>ges 9 ?is    case1       
moreov]1 did n reflect ^u ! integrity ( 
! judge4    ,footnote #adj3             
,article ,,iii1 ,section #a4            
,footnote #ada3      ,a few cases come  
directly be=e ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 =       
example1 suits    betwe5 two /ates ( !  

,union2 b ! great majority ( cases come 
up on appeal1 or on writ ( error1 :i* is
 a me?od ( appeal4    ,footnote #adb3   
,!re are1 9 addition1 "s special f$]al  
c\rts1 su* z ! c\rt    ( claims1 ! c\rts
 :i* try cases 9 ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia1
 &    ! c\rts ( ! insul> possessions4   
,footnote #adc3      ,^! rules 7 ga!r$  
toge!r & put into writt5 =m by    v>i\s 
comm5tators1 *ief among :om 7 ,glanvil1 
,bracton1 ,coke1    ,littleton1 &       
,black/one4 ,black/one's ,comm5t>ies on 
! ,common    ,law ( ,engl&1 compil$ be=e
 ! ,am]ican ,revolution1 is /ill !      
/&>d "w1 kn[n to e lawy]4    ,footnote  
#add3      ,! coloni/s look$ ^u ! common
 law z a bulw>k ( individual    fre$om4 
,edmund ,burke1 9 "o ( 8 spee*es1       
m5tion$ z a    significant indication ( 
! coloni/s' famili>ity ) ! common    law
 ! fact t almo/ z _m copies ( ,black/one
 _h be5 sold 9    ,am]ica z 9 ,engl&4 ,!
 ,decl>ation ( ,rights adopt$ by ! ,fir/
    ,cont95tal ,congress 9 #aggd spoke (
 ! colonies z entitl$ to all    !       

provisions ( ! common law4    ,footnote 
#ade3      ,:]e may ^! laws be f\nd8    
,/atutes pass$ by ,congress are pr9t$   
9 ! ,/atutes-at-,l>ge1 "o or m volumes =
 ea* session4 ,/ate    /atutes are pr9t$
 9 volumes kn[n z ,session ,laws1 or    
simply z    ,laws ( ,p5nsylvania or     
,acts & ,resolves ( ,massa*usetts4 ,f "t
    to "t1 usually e t5 ye>s1 ^! /ate   
laws are revis$1    re>rang$1 &         
consolidat$ into "o g5]al compilation1  
usually    publi%$ z ! ,revis$ ,/atutes 
or ,revis$ ,laws4 ,a simil>             
publication is issu$ p]iodically conta9+
 ! revis$ national    /atutes4 ,city    
c\ncils enact legislation by means (    
ord9ances1    :i* are put toge!r 9 a    
volume ( ,revis$ ,ord9ances4 ,:5 all !  
national or /ate laws relat+ to a c]ta9 
subject 7= example1    crim9al law1 or  
civil proc$ure1 or municipal affairs1   
etc47 are    br\ght toge!r into "o      
compilation ?is is usually kn[n z a     
code4    ,?us we speak ( ! ,crim9al     
,code or ! ,code ( ,civil ,proc$ure or  

! ,municipal ,code4    ,footnote #adf3  
,9 g5]al1 equity applies only to c]ta9  
classes ( civil actions    & nev] to    
crim9al cases2 its proc$ure is simple2 a
 jury is n    ord9>ily summon$ to he> ! 
facts2 evid5ce 9 writ+ may be           
submitt$2 judgm5t is giv5 by ! issue (  
an ord] or decree &    n by aw>d+ a     
c]ta9 sum 9 damages4 ,a fur!r           
explanation may be    f\nd 9 !          
,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4  
,i1 pp4 #fgc-fge4    ,footnote #adg3    
,c\rts ( law1 9 addition to aw>d+       
puni%m5t 9 crim9al cases    & damages 9 
civil cases are emp[]$ to issue writs4  
,writs are    ord]s or decrees comm&+   
c]ta9 ?+s to be done or left undone4    
,!y are address$ to o!r c\rts1 or to    
public (ficials1 or to    individuals4  
,! be/-kn[n ( ^! writs is ! writ (      
habeas    corpus1 an ord] issu$ to a    
jailor or o!r cu/odian comm&+ him    to 
produce a p]son 9 c\rt & %[ :y he is    
held 9 cu/ody4 ,if    ! c\rt f9ds t !   
p]son is wrongfully held 9 cu/ody x     

ord]s 8 release4 ,ano!r common writ is !
 writ ( m&ate    7m&amus7 issu$ to      
public (ficials to compel !m to p]=m "s 
duty :i* is impos$ ^u !m by law4 ,a writ
 ( error is issu$ 9    ord] to c>ry a   
case f a l[] to a high] c\rt4           
,footnote #adh3      ,9 "s c\nty c\rts !
 gr& jury is n n[ us$ 7see p4 #agb74    
,footnote #adi3      ,^! objections are 
call$ *all5ges4 ,! judge decides :e!r   
!y are well-f\nd$4 ,bo? sides are       
usually all[$ a c]ta9 numb]    (        
p]emptory *all5ges1 t is1 objections =  
:i* no reason at    all ne$ be giv54    
,footnote #aej3      ,!re are two or    
?ree ?+s :i* y ought to rememb] :5 go+  
on ! witness /&4 ,tell :at y "k ab\t !  
case simply &    briefly2 tell only :at 
y actually "k1 n :at y ?9k1 or :at      
somebody told y4 ,don't v5ture y\r own  
op9ion unless y are ask$    = x4 ,:5 y  
are be+ cross-exam9$1 ?9k ov] e "q      
be=e y answ] x4 ,if y answ] ev]y?+      
quickly & )\t    ?\ght y w probably fall
 into a trap & appe> to be              

contradict+ y\rself4 ,! oppos+ lawy] is 
play+ a game ( *ess    ) y4 ,wat* 8     
moves & take y\r own "t 9 mak+ y\rs4 ,if
    y make any slip1 correct x !re & !n2
 don't let x pass )    ! idea t x w nev]
 be notic$4 ,! witness /& is a place    
:]e a man ne$s to h 8 wits ab\t him4    
,footnote #aea3      ,if ! case is n v  
s]i\s ! prosecut+ attorney sometimes    
recomm5ds t !re be no fur!r trial & !   
accus$ p]son is    !n fre$4    ,footnote
 #aeb3      ,= example1 :]e ! jury has  
disreg>d$ ! judge's in/ructions    on   
po9ts ( law or :]e ! jurym5 h rea*$ _!  
v]dict 9    "s improp] way4    ,footnote
 #aec3      ,a prison] 0 once *>g$ )    
sett+ fire to 8 own home &    burn+ x   
d[n1 ?us caus+ ! dea? ( 8 fa!r & "m4 ,! 
prosecut+ attorney fir/ put him on trial
 = ! murd] ( 8    fa!r2 b ! jury        
acquitt$ him4 ,ano!r jury 0 !n summon$ &
    ! attempt 0 made to place him on    
trial = ! murd] ( 8    "m4 ,! prison]'s 
c\nsel argu$ t ?is 0 plac+ him on       
trial ! second "t 7or 9 second jeop>dy z

 x is call$7 = !    same (f5ce4 ,!      
prosecut+ attorney argu$ t x 0 a        
diff]5t (f5ce1 ! murd] ( a diff]5t      
p]son4 ,:i* 0    "r8                    
,,*apt] ,,xvii                          
,,natural ,,res\rces ,,& ,,cons]vation  
,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to %[ :at     
nature has done = !      ,unit$ ,/ates1 
& to expla9 ! relation betwe5 national  
prosp]ity & natural res\rces4           
,sid5ote3 ,! s\rce ( ,am]ica's          
greatness3    ,! ,?+s t ,make a ,nation 
,great4--,?ree ?+s h contribut$  greatly
 to ! upbuild+ ( ! ,am]ican nation4 ,!  
fir/ is ! wide  ext5t1 ! ri*ness1 & !   
v>i$ "* ( ,am]ican t]ritory4  ,! ,unit$ 
,/ates is n only a va/ c\ntry1 surpass$ 
9 area by v  few o!r c\ntries ( ! _w1 b 
x possesses great natural  advantages4  
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,! l& & its res\rces4 ,x  
conta9s1 z  w be se5 pres5tly1 ext5sive 
regions :i* are well-suit$ =  almo/ e =m
 ( human activity1 includ+ agriculture 9
 all its  bran*es1 manufacture1 m9+1    
=e/ry1 transportation1 & trade4 ,x  is  

abundantly provid$ ) natural h>bors &   
wat]ways4 ,9 soil &  climate !re is     
great v>iety4 ,no o!r c\ntry ( ! _w c   
produce s _m diff]5t ?+s "u su*         
favorable conditions4    ,sid5ote3 #b4  
,! initiative & indu/ry ( its p4    ,b x
 is n en\gh t a c\ntry %all h natural   
res\rces4 ,x  mu/ h a p ) initiative &  
indu/ry to develop !m4 ,!  ,am]ican p h 
sp5t ?ree c5turies at ! task ( mak+ !   
l& yield its increase & !y h mu* to %[ =
 x4 ,orig9ally1  = ! mo/ "p1 (          
,anglo-,saxon /ock1 ! population has be5
  enri*$ by ! addition ( immigrants f e 
c\ntry ( ! old  _w4 ,?is m+l+ ( _m races
 into "o p has giv5 ! nation  vigor &   
v]satility4 ,x has help$ to develop     
among ! ,am]ican  p t al]t & progressive
 _s :i* is "o ( _! mo/  valu$           
*>act]i/ics2 x has also giv5 /r5g? to   
democratic ideals4    ,sid5ote3 #c4 ,!  
national deals4    ,! endur+ greatness (
 a nation does n dep5d1 h[ev]1 ^u its   
mat]ial a*ievem5ts alone4 ,x _c be      
measur$ by figures (  population &      

weal?4 ,:at a nation contributes to !   
progress &  p]man5ce ( civilization     
dep5ds n only ^u its economic prosp]ity 
b 9 an ev5 great] degree ^u its         
spiritual & intellectual  /r5g?4 ,?is   
va/ l&1 s ri*ly end[$ by nature & ) its 
ri*es s fully utiliz$ by man1 has won & 
c reta9 its =emo/  place among ! nations
 ( ! _w by promot+ ju/ice &  cont5tm5t  
among its p1 uphold+ ! reign ( law1     
diffus+  education among all1 & hold+   
true to ! ideals ( democratic  gov]nm5t4
    ,sid5ote3 ,importance ( ! soil4     
,! ,l&4--,soil is ! fundam5tal res\rce (
 any c\ntry4 ,its  f]tility det]m9es1 9 
l>ge measure1 ! size ( ! population t  c
 be support$4 ,x is probable t m ?an    
?irty p] c5t ( !  ,am]ican p are today  
engag$ 9 e>n+ _! liv+ f ! soil2  at any 
rate ! :ole population is 9 "o way or   
ano!r dep5d5t ^u  x4 ,f ! soil comes    
almo/ our entire food supply4           
,sid5ote3 ,! l& ( ! c\ntry is privately 
own$4    ,outside ! orig9al ?irte5 /ates
 practically ! entire area ( !  c\ntry  

has be5 at "s p]iod 9 ! h&s ( ! national
 gov]nm5t  z "p ( ! public doma94#aed   
,by f> ! great] "p ( x1  h[ev]1 has be5 
sold or grant$ into private own]%ip4 ,9 
! c\rse  ( ?is disposal _m corporations 
& individuals manag$ to obta9  l>ge     
tracts ( l& = v little outlay1 because  
c>eful att5tion  0 n always giv5 to !   
adm9i/ration ( ! l& laws2  nev]!less !  
policy ( sell+ l& *eaply & giv+ x free  
to  settl]s help$ to build up ! great   
,we/]n t]ritories4 ,out ( a  public     
doma9 :i* at "o "t or ano!r includ$     
ne>ly two-?irds (  ! entire ,unit$      
,/ates only six hundr$ million acres n[ 
rema9 9  ! f$]al gov]nm5t's h&s4 ,mo/ ( 
?is is des]t1 m\nta9 l&1  or l& t is    
o!rwise unfit = cultivation4    ,! ,ne$ 
( ,cons]vation4--,s long z l& rema9$    
pl5tiful &  natural res\rces seem$ to be
 abundant1 v little ?\ght 0 giv5  to !  
possibility t "s day bo? ( ^! ?+s w\ld  
become  sc>ce4 ,! l& 9 "s p>ts ( !      
c\ntry 0 exhau/$ by wa/eful  me?ods (   
cultivation & !n ab&on$4 ,sid5ote3 ,"s  

examples (  wa/$ weal?4 ,!re are ?\s&s (
 ab&on$ f>ms 9 ! ,new  ,engl& /ates4    
,coal1 iron1 & copp] 7 m9$ 9 ways t     
p]mitt$  enorm\s wa/age4 ,?r\gh         
neglig5ce mu* ( our =e/ weal? 0  de/roy$
 by fire4 ,by ! beg9n+ ( ! tw5tie?      
c5tury x began to  dawn ^u ! p t !      
natural res\rces ( ! c\ntry 7  rapidly  
melt+ away1 t practically all ! good l& 
0 gone1 :ile  ! natural res\rces 9 ! way
 ( coal & timb] 7 be+ s  wa/efully us$ t
 !y w\ld bo? be exhau/$ )9 relatively   
few  decades unless some?+ 7 done to    
cons]ve !m4 ,accord+ly a  movem5t = !   
cons]vation ( natural res\rces 0 />t$ & 
s9ce  #aijj x has made consid]able      
progress bo? 9 secur+ ! passage (  laws 
& 9 ! education ( ! public to ! urg5cy (
 ! situation4                           
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,sci5ce ,,reveal+ ,,! ,,treasures      
,,( ,,! ,,e>?                           
,by ,edw9 ,a4 ,abbey              ,f a  
mural pa9t+ 9 ! ,p5nsylvania ,/ate      

,capitol at ,h>risburg4              ,9 
?is picture ! arti/ portrays an op5 coal
            m9e into :i* sev]al         
m9e-work]s are desc5d+4            ,!y  
are /alw>t1 "y1 artless pione]s1 eag]   
= discov]y4 ,!y imp>t dramatic en]gy &  
realism to ! picture4                   
,sci5ce is po9t+ ! way4 ,%e is          
accompani$ by            ,=tune1 ! latt]
 bl9dfold$ & tiptoe+ on h]              
:eel4 ,grasp+ ,=tune's "r h& is         
,abundance1            ) an ov]fl[+     
cornucopia1 or horn ( pl5ty1            
on h] %\ld]4 ,^! my?ological figures l5d
 !            picture its symbolism4    
,! arti/ portrays a great tru?4 ,human  
labor1            wisely guid$ by       
sci5ce1 has f\nd =tune &                
abundance 9 ! m9es & qu>ries ( ! e>?4   
,illu/ration3      ,,sci5ce ,,reveal+   
,,! ,,treasures ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,by ,edw9
 ,a4 ,abbey      ,copyright by ,edw9 ,a4
 ,abbey4 ,f a ,copley ,pr9t1 copyright  
by ,curtis       ,cam]on1 ,bo/on4       
,reproduc$ by p]mission4                

----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,cons]vation means ?ree ?+s3  
,:at ,cons]vation ,means4--,cons]vation 
means ?ree ?+s3 ,sid5ote3  #a4          
,ret5tion4 ,fir/1 t public l&s /ill 9 ! 
h&s ( ! nation  & ! /ates %all n be     
?\ghtlessly turn$ ov] to private        
corporations & individuals = _! own     
pr(it1 b %all be  adm9i/]$ s f> z       
practicable by ! public au?orities = !  
b5efit ( ! :ole c\ntry2 second1         
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,ret5tion4t su*  portions 
( our timb]1 coal1 oil1 & m9]al res\rces
 z h already  pass$ into private h&s    
%all be s regulat$ by law z to prev5t   
_! wa/eful exploitation2 & ,sid5ote3 #c4
 ,replacem5t4?ird1 t  ! gov]nm5t %all d 
its be/ to enc\rage ! replacem5t ( su*  
natural res\rces z c be replac$ 7=      
example1 by ! re=e/+ (  l& & ! re/ock+ (
 lakes ) fi%74    ,sid5ote3 ,coal &     
iron4    ,! ,m9es4--,no c\ntry c ev]    
become great 9 indu/ry unless x has     
ready access to m9]als1 especially iron 

& coal4 ,x 0 !  possession ( iron & coal
 9 great quantities t s]v$ to make      
,engl& dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury ! indu/rial
 lead] ( ,europe4  ,v>i\s regions ( !   
,unit$ ,/ates possess ^! great /ores (  
m9]al weal? & h made good use ( !m4 ,!re
 is "o great  diff]5ce betwe5 m9]al     
res\rces & o!r natural res\rces1        
namely1 t :5 m9]als are once tak5 f !   
e>? !re is no way  ( r5ew+ !m4 ,soil c  
be repl5i%$1 & =e/s regr[n2 b  m9]als =m
 an end[m5t :i*1 :5 once drawn f ! b[els
 ( !  e>?1 c nev] be replac$4 ,h5ce !   
urg5t ne$ = a policy (  cons]v+ ^!      
important s\rces ( national weal?4 ,coal
 & iron1  :ile !y are ! natural res\rces
 ^u :i* ! gr[? ( indu/ry  ma9ly dep5ds1 
are n ! only =ms ( weal? drawn f bel[ ! 
surface ( ! gr\nd 9 ?is c\ntry4         
,sid5ote3 ,o!r m9]als4 ,9  ! m9+ ( silv]
 & gold ! ,unit$ ,/ates is "o ( ! =emo/ 
among ! v>i\s produc+ c\ntries4 ,copp]1 
lead1 oil1 z9c1  alum9um1 quicksilv]1 & 
o!r natural mat]ials are also tak5 f  ! 
e>? 9 l>ge quantities ea* ye>4          

,sid5ote3 ,! e>li] practice4    ,!      
,cons]vation ( ,coal1 ,oil1 &           
,m9]als4--,until ab\t fifty ye>s  ago1  
l& conta9+ coal or o!r m9]al res\rces 0 
sold &  grant$ by ! gov]nm5t l any o!r  
l&s4 ,! individual or  corporation      
became ! own] ( :atev] weal? might happ5
 to lie  b5ea? ! surface4 ,9 ?is way an 
enorm\s am\nt ( weal? 0  practically    
giv5 away4 ,x 0 n until a few ye>s ago t
 !  gov]nm5t decid$ to res]ve = itself  
all coal & m9]als :i*  might be discov]$
 9 l&s giv5 to settl]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,!    
pres5t  coal situation4 ,b ?is action   
came too late1 = mo/ ( !  coal-be>+ l&s 
_h already pass$ into private own]%ip4  
,by its  failure to take due ?\ght = !  
morr[ ! gov]nm5t _h sold1 =  a few      
doll>s p] acre1 :at might h be5 a s\rce 
( enorm\s  rev5ue4 ,if ! practice (     
res]v+ ! "r to all coal1 oil1 &  m9]als 
9 grant$ l&s _h be5 adopt$ 9 #ahaj      
in/ead ( 9 #aiaj  ! value ( ^! rights   
today w\ld be great] ?an ! entire       
national debt4    ,a l>ge & /eady supply

 ( coal is ( ! utmo/ value to indu/ry2 9
  fact mod]n indu/ry dep5ds ^u x4 ,yet  
:5 coal is once tak5 out  & burn$ x _c  
be replac$2 !re is only s mu* ( x 9 !   
c\ntry & :5 t is gone !re w be no m4 ,x 
took nature _m  millions ( ye>s to      
produce ! coal t is !re n[4 ,at ! pres5t
  rate ( increase 9 ye>ly consumption   
all ! coal t is kn[n to  exi/ 9 ! ,unit$
 ,/ates w be gone 9 ab\t "o hundr$ &    
fifty  ye>s4 ,"s sav+ c be made by ! use
 ( oil & wat] p[]4 ,"s  economies 9 m9+ 
& 9 ! use ( coal are also possible4 ,b  
^!  w h>dly avail to prev5t ! ultimate  
exhau/ion ( ! supply4 ,at  be/ we c only
 set t day a bit fur!r (f4    ,sid5ote3 
,cons]vation ( oil4    ,speak+ ( oil1 ! 
am\nt ( crude petroleum or fuel oil n[  
actually  kn[n to be available 9 !      
,unit$ ,/ates w be exhau/$ 9 less  ?an  
fifty ye>s if ! pres5t rate (           
consumption is ma9ta9$4 ,!re  is e      
likelihood t ?is rate ( consumption w be
 increas$  ow+ to ! great] use ( gasol9e
 & k]os5e = motor p[]4 ,l>ge  quantities

 ( oil1 h[ev]1 are1 available 9 ,mexico4
 ,)9 rec5t  ye>s x has be5 hop$ t1 ) !  
progress ( me*anical  appliances1 x w be
 practicable to obta9 oil f %ale rock4  
,sid5ote3 ,! wa/age ( our =e/ weal?4    
,! ,=e/s4--,:5 ! fir/ ,european settl]s 
came to ,am]ica1 !  coloni/s dep5d$     
heavily ^u ! =e/s4 ,f ! woods !y  obta9$
 timb] = _! h\ses & b>ns1 wood = fuel &1
 by  hunt+1 a consid]able "p ( _! food  
supply4 ,9 all /ages (  civilization m5 
h dep5d$ ^u ! =e/s to satisfy _m ( _!   
div]sifi$ wants4 ,n[adays /eel has tak5 
! place ( timb] 9 !  con/ruction (      
build+s & %ips2 coal & oil h l>gely     
replac$  wood z fuel2 ! days :5 m5      
subsi/$ by hunt+ are pa/2 &  mank9d is  
no long] s heavily dep5d5t ^u ! =e/s z 9
 !  old5 days4 ,yet ! =e/s ( ,am]ica are
 /ill a great s\rce (  weal? ev5 ?\gh ! 
timb] res\rces h be5 heavily drawn ^u   
dur+ ! pa/ hundr$ ye>s4 ,?is is "o ( !  
natural res\rces  :i* has be5 wa/efully 
us$ & x is only 9 rec5t ye>s t  att5tion
 has be5 giv5 to cons]v+ :at is left (  

x4 ,! =e/s  are ne$$1 n only z a s\rce (
 timb] supply1 b 9 ord] to  pres]ve !   
f]tility ( ! soil & to reta9 9 x !      
moi/ure  :i* is o!rwise evaporat$ or run
 (f4    ,sid5ote3 ,! e>li] practice4    
,! ,cons]vation ( ,timb]4--,9 ! days :5 
s mu* ( ! l& 0  cov]$ ) timb] ! *ief    
conc]n 0 to get x out ( ! way s  t !    
gr\nd c\ld be us$ = agriculture4 ,no "o 
seem$ to realize  t ! day w\ld ev] come 
:5 =e/ l& w\ld be m valuable  ?an corn  
l&4 ,be=e #ahgh ! national gov]nm5t sold
 (f _m  million acres ( valuable =e/ l& 
at l[ prices to individuals &           
corporations & !y1 9 turn1 us$ x 9      
:atev] ways w\ld yield !  l>ge/ pr(it to
 !mselves4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,timb] & ,/one  
,act1  #ahgh4 ,by ! ,timb] & ,/one ,act 
( #ahgh1 h[ev]1 x 0 provid$  t only a   
limit$ area ( gov]nm5t l& conta9+ timb] 
or /one  c\ld be sold to any "o p]son or
 corporation & !n only at a high]  price
 ?an agricultural l&4 ,b ev5 ?is did n  
prove a suffici5t  measure (            
wa/e-prev5tion1 & 9 #ahia ,congress     

adopt$ ! policy (  )draw+ l>ge areas (  
gov]nm5t =e/ l& f ! m>ket  altoge!r4    
,sid5ote3 ,=e/ res]ves4 ,^! tracts 7 set
 aside z  national =e/ res]vations &    
today !re are ab\t "o hundr$ &  fifty   
million acres set ap>t to ensure !      
c\ntry's future supply (  timb]4 ,!     
national gov]nm5t is also p]mitt$ to buy
 f private  own]s =e/ l&s 9 ! wat]%$s ( 
navigable /reams 9 ord] to  protect !   
natural fl[ 9 su* wat]ways4 ,!          
adm9i/ration ( all  ! =e/ res]vations is
 9 ! h&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,=e/         
,s]vice1 :i* =ms "p ( ! ,dep>tm5t (     
,agriculture4    ,sid5ote3 ,=e/ policy (
 ! /ates4    ,! area ( timb] l& own$ by 
! /ates1 by corporations1 & by          
individuals is v mu* great] ?an t       
conta9$ 9 ! national  res]vations4 ,x is
 "h1 moreov]1 t ! greate/ am\nt ( wa/e  
is  tak+ place4 ,=e/ fires1 mo/ ( :i*   
are due to c>elessness1 burn  up enorm\s
 quantities ( timb] e ye>4 ,! /ates :i* 
/ill  possess consid]able =e/ res\rces1 
su* z ,new ,york1 ,m9nesota1 &          

,cali=nia1 are also adopt+ ! policy (   
creat+ res]vations &  ev]y:]e m         
effective measures are be+ tak5 to      
prev5t  de/ruction by =e/ fires4 ,^!    
measures include ! ma9t5ance (  fire    
patrols1 ! con/ruction ( fire-breaks on 
! ridges ( hills1  ! cle>+ out (        
und]bru%1 & ! /rict] sup]vision ( camp+ 
p>ties4    ,timb]1 =tunately1 is a      
natural res\rce :i* c be replac$4 ,l&s  
:i* h be5 cut-ov] c be re=e/$ & us$ to  
supply timb] =  future g5]ations4 ,l>ge 
trees take a long "t to mature1 h[ev]1 &
  ! l&s :i* are be+ plant$ ) se$l+s     
today w n be  yield+ mat]ial = ! sawmill
 until ! middle ( ! tw5tie?  c5tury has 
fad$ into ! pa/4 ,bo? ! national & /ate 
gov]nm5ts  are n[ re=e/+ on a l>ge      
scale4 ,to "s ext5t private             
corporations & individuals h foll[$ _!  
lead4    ,sid5ote3 ,h>bors1 lakes1 &    
wat]ways4    ,o!r ,natural              
,res\rces4--,all ! nation's weal? does n
 come1  h[ev]1 f ! fields1 ! m9es1 & !  
=e/s4 ,9 fi%]ies  ,am]ica leads ! entire

 _w4 ,! h>bors & ! wat]ways ( !  c\ntry 
are z important to comm]ce z ! soil is  
to agriculture4 ,no  o!r c\ntry is bett]
 provid$ ) natural h>bors1 lakes1 &     
navigable riv]s ?an ! ,unit$ ,/ates4    
,all ! l>ge/ cities are  locat$ ^u !m1 &
 7 x n = ! wat]ways1 we w\ld n h  !     
great cities4 ,run ov] 9 y\r m9d ! t5 or
 fifte5 l>ge/  cities ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
& see if y c "n any t are n  situat$ on 
"o ( ! oceans1 ! ,great ,lakes1 ! great 
navigable  riv]s1 or on ! ,gulf (       
,mexico4 ,x is n a m]e accid5t t none ( 
! great indu/rial c5t]s are )\t         
facilities = trade by wat]4  ,geography1
 n man1 det]m9es = ! mo/ "p ! situation 
( all  great indu/rial communities4     
,wat] p[] is ano!r natural h]itage4     
,sid5ote3 ,wat] p[]4 ,f ! giant ,niag>a 
to ! smalle/  cat>act1 ?\s&s ( ^! wat]  
p[]s h be5 h>ness$ & made  to function z
 ! s]vant ( man1 runn+ factories &      
g5]at+  electricity4 ,wat] p[] does ! "w
 ( coal4#aee ,its pres5ce has  (t5      
det]m9$ ! location ( l>ge indu/ries4    

,sid5ote3 ,h[ geography det]m9es a      
nation's progress4    ,geography & !    
,future4--,f :at has be5 said 9 ! la/   
f\r  sections x w ?us be se5 t natural  
res\rces are a great factor  9 det]m9+ !
 progress & prosp]ity ( a nation4       
,sid5ote3 ,!  en]gy ( man _c replace !  
b\nty ( nature4 ,no am\nt (  intellig5ce
 & indu/ry on ! "p ( ! p w ensure rapid 
economic progress if !y occupy a c\ntry 
:i* lacks a f]tile soil1  is devoid (   
m9]als1 possesses no =e/s or fi%]ies1 & 
is  defici5t 9 natural h>bors &         
wat]ways4 ,man c d mu*1 b 8  p[]s are   
limit$ )\t ! aid ( nature4 ,animals &   
plants c be  c>ri$ f "o "p ( ! _w to    
ano!r & made to ?rive 9  _! new         
environm5t2 b m9]al res\rces 7 laid d[n 
_m  millions ( ye>s ago 9 c]ta9 def9ite 
places & !re !y h  /ay$4 ,a c\ntry :i*  
has no m9]al res\rces _c create !m by  !
 g5ius or indu/ry ( its p4 ,on ! o!r h&1
 if great  natural res\rces are at h&1  
progress becomes m]ely a "q (  apply+   
human intellig5ce & indu/ry to ^!       

res\rces4 ,! rise (  ! ,am]ican nation  
to its pres5t position1 !re=e1 is n     
surpris+1 al?\gh x has tak5 a relatively
 %ort p]iod ( "t4 ,x  is ! jo9t result (
 nature's b\nty & man's effici5cy4 ,to  
:i* (  ^! we owe ! l>g] %>e ( ! nation's
 progress no "o c say4  ,if ! c\ntry _h 
lack$ ei!r1 x c\ld n h progress$ 9 any  
su* measure dur+ ! pa/ ?ree hundr$ ye>s4
    ,sid5ote3 ,natural res\rces &       
national p[]4    ,! same ?+s h be5 true 
( o!r c\ntries4 ,engl&1 dur+ !  great]  
"p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 0 ! lead+        
indu/rial  c\ntry ( ! _w4 ,?is 0        
unque/ionably due n only to !  ent]prise
 ( ,engli%m5 b to ! great natural       
res\rces ( !  c\ntry 9 coal & iron4 ,:5 
,g]many defeat$ ,france 9 #ahgj %e took 
away f ! ,fr5* c]ta9 t]ritories :i* 7   
ri* 9 m9]als4  ,) ! aid ( ^! mat]ials   
,g]many 9 ! c\rse ( fifty ye>s 0  able  
to become a great indu/rial p[]4 ,n[1 z 
! result ( ! ,_w  ,w>1 ! ,fr5* h recov]$
 ^! t]ritories & we may look = a  m>k$  
revival 9 ! indu/ries ( ,france4 ,dur+ !

 peace  negotiations m importance 0     
atta*$ to small areas ( coal &  m9]al   
l&s ?an to :ole prov9ces ( agricultural 
l&4    ,z ! m9]al res\rces ( old]       
c\ntries become exhau/$ x is  altoge!r  
likely t indu/rial supremacy w pass )   
!m4 ,new  c\ntries1 :i* today h         
unexplor$ possibilities 9 coal & iron1  
w !n h _! turn 9 indu/rial prom95ce4 ,:o
 kn[s :]e !  balance ( indu/rial p[] w  
be lodg$ a hundr$ ye>s h5ce4 ,*9a1  =   
aught we "k1 may be ! *ief manufactur+  
c\ntry ( ! _w  9 ! tw5ty-fir/ c5tury4   
,if we knew exactly h[ long ! natural   
res\rces ( ,europe & ,am]ica w hold out1
 & if we knew also j  h[ mu* m9]al weal?
 !re is 9 ! ,f> ,ea/1 we c\ld pr$ict ^! 
?+s ) reasonable c]ta9ty4    ,sid5ote3  
,h[ geography w influ5ce ! future       
progress ( ,am]ica4    ,c]ta9 x is1 at  
any rate1 t ! pa/ hi/ory ( ,am]ica has  
be5  det]m9$1 9 no small degree1 by     
geographical conditions4 ,! same        
factors are likely to influ5ce ! future4
 ,! c\ntry is becom+ less  agricultural1

 less dep5d5t ^u ! soil4 ,z x becomes m 
indu/rial our dep5d5ce ^u its o!r       
natural res\rces1 ^u coal1  iron1 oil1  
copp]1 timb]1 & wat] p[] mu/ necess>ily 
increase4  ,! comm]ce ( ! c\ntry keeps  
on gr[+1 & ) ?is gr[? !  reliance ( !   
nation ^u its h>bors & wat]ways w       
inevitably  become great]4 ,z population
 exp&s !re w be a heavi] dem&  ^u ! food
 supply & ! "t w d\btless come :5 !     
,unit$  ,/ates w h no food = export4    
,inde$ ! day may arrive :5  agricultural
 products w h to be import$ f outside4  
,all ?is  po9ts to ! ne$ = emphasis ^u  
cons]vation4 ,x means t we  %\ld avoid  
all wa/age ( natural res\rces4 ,!       
f]tility ( ! soil  %\ld be pres]v$ by   
sci5tific me?ods ( agriculture4 ,! m9]al
  weal? ( ! c\ntry %\ld be utiliz$ 9 su*
 a way z to give !  greate/ advantage   
ov] ! longe/ p]iod ( "t4 ,we mu/ re=e/  
our  unus$ l&s4 ,h>bors & wat]ways %\ld 
be develop$ to aid comm]ce4  ,if ^! ?+s 
are done1 ,am]ica c face ! future )     
confid5ce4                              

,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,,gregory1 ,,kell]1 
& ,,bi%op1 ,physical & ,comm]cial       
,geography ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4      
#beb-cej2    ,a4 ,p4 ,,brigham1         
,geographic ,influ5ces 9 ,am]ican       
,hi/ory1 especially  pp4 #gj-ajd2    ,e4
 ,c4 ,,semple1 ,influ5ces ( ,geographic 
,environm5t1 pp4 #ea-ga2    ,o4 ,w4     
,,price1 ,! ,l& ,we ,live ,91 pp4       
#ii-ach2    ,n4 ,s4 ,,%al]1 ,man & !    
,e>?1 pp4 #a-ai2    ,c4 ,r4 ,,van       
,,hise1 ,! ,cons]vation ( ,natural      
,res\rces 9 ! ,unit$  ,/ates1 especially
 pp4 #bfc-cjf2    ,t4 ,n4 ,,c>v]1       
,sociology & ,social ,progress1 pp4     
#agd-bgj 7,!  ,influ5ce ,ex]t$ by       
,physical ,laws ov] ! ,organization (   
,society &  ! ,"* ( ,individuals1 by ,t4
 ,h4 ,,buckle72 ,ibid41 ,pr9ciples (    
,national ,economy1 pp4 #c-ad2 #abc-aeb2
    ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &
 ,politics1 pp4 #dje-daf2 ,ibid41       
,read+s 9 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &          
,politics1 pp4 #cfh-cgd2    ,p4 ,s4     
,,re9s*1 ,read+s 9 ,am]ican ,f$]al      

,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #ech-ehi2    ,m4 ,h4     
,,gregory1 ,*eck+ ! ,wa/e1 pp4 #db-he2  
,,isaac ,,lipp9cott1 ,economic          
,developm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4      
#adi-ahb4    ,,isaiah ,,b[man1 ,! ,new  
,_w3 ,problems 9 ,political ,geography  
7see  index74                           
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! civilization (
 ! future z det]m9$ by ! exhau/ion &    
developm5t ( natural res\rces4 ,:5      
,european & ,am]ican res\rces  9 coal1  
oil1 & iron give out1 :at sub/itutes c  
be us$ & to  :at ext5t8 ,:at c\ntries h 
! res\rces to enable !m to =ge  ahead :5
 t "t comes8 ,%[ ! connection betwe5    
indu/rial  progress & ea* type ( natural
 weal?4 ,consid] :e!r !re is any  way 9 
:i* a c\ntry may keep its indu/rial     
supremacy despite !  exhau/ion ( natural
 weal?4 ,ref]5ces3 ,encyclop$ia         
,britannica2  ,/atesman's ,ye> ,book2   
,,gregory1 ,,kell]1 & ,,bi%op1 ,physical
 &  ,comm]cial ,geography1 especially   
pp4 #beb-cej2 #chd-cid2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van   
,,hise1  ,! ,cons]vation ( ,natural     

,res\rces 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 especially 
pp4 #cei-cgi2 ,h4 ,t4 ,,buckle1 ,hi/ory 
( ,civilization 9 ,engl&1 ,vol4 ,i      
7#ahfh edition71 pp4 #ci-aea2 ,,isaiah  
,,b[man1 ,! ,new ,_w1 passim4    #b4    
,cons]vation & its apo/les1 especially  
,presid5t ,roosevelt4  ,ref]5ces3 ,h4   
,r4 ,,bur*1 ,am]ican ,economic ,life1   
pp4 #aja-ajh2 ,c4 ,r4  ,,van ,,hise1 ,! 
,cons]vation ( ,natural ,res\rces 9 !   
,unit$ ,/ales1  pp4 #a-ad2 #cei-cgi2    
,,ely1 ,,hess1 ,,lei?1 & ,,c>v]1        
,f\ndations (  ,national ,prosp]ity1 pp4
 #ai-bj2 ,,gif=d ,,p9*ot1 ,! ,fight =   
,cons]vation1 pp4 #dj-gj2 ,,!odore      
,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1 pp4        
#djh-dcf4    #c4 ,! coal indu/ry3 its   
pa/1 pres5t1 & future4 ,ref]5ces3 ,w4   
,j4 ,,nicolls1 ,! ,/ory ( ,am]ican      
,coal2 ,,pet] ,,rob]ts1 ,! ,an?racite   
,coal ,indu/ry1 pp4 #c-af2 #bab-bbg2    
,,ely1 ,,hess1 ,,lei?1 & ,,c>v]1 ,!     
,f\ndations ( ,national ,prosp]ity1 pp4 
#aia-bji4                               
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! relation ( human

 progress to geographic conditions4     
,,gregory1  ,,kell]1 & ,,bi%op1         
,physical & ,comm]cial ,geography1 pp4  
#abf-agi2 ,t4  ,h4 ,,buckle1 ,hi/ory (  
,civilization1 ,i1 pp4 #agd-bgj4    #b4 
,:at are ! fundam5tal factors 9 national
 prosp]ity8 ,t4 ,n4  ,,c>v]1 ,pr9ciples 
( ,national ,economy1 pp4 #c-ae2 ,,isaac
 ,,lipp9cott1  ,economic ,developm5t ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ad-cd4    #c4      
,am]ican =e/ res]vations4 ,h4 ,d4       
,,bo]k]1 ,our ,national  ,=e/s1 pp4     
#agj-bcb2 ,o4 ,w4 ,,price1 ,! ,l& ,we   
,live ,91 pp4 #fe-ih2  ,,erne/          
,,brunck51 ,nor? ,am]ican ,=e/s & ,=e/ry
 7#aijj71 pp4  #afa-ahb2 ,u4 ,s4        
,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 
,circul>s4    #d4 ,! oil situation4     
,,david ,,:ite1 9 ! ,annals ( ! ,am]ican
  ,academy ( ,political & ,social       
,sci5ce 7,may1 #aibj72 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van    
,,hise1  ,! ,cons]vation ( ,natural     
,res\rces 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #dg-fa4
    #e4 ,! gr[? ( ! iron & /eel indu/ry4
 ,h4 ,n4 ,,casson1 ,!  ,romance ( ,/eel1

 pp4 #a-bf2 #gb-ajj2 ,j4 ,r4 ,,smi?1 ,! 
,/ory ( ,iron &  ,/eel1 pp4 #ajh-abf2   
,,&rew ,,c>negie1 ,autobiography1 pp4   
#acj-aig4    #f4 ,! cons]vation ( wat]  
p[]4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van ,,hise1 ,cons]vation 
(  ,natural ,res\rces 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 pp4 #add-afa4    #g4 ,! cons]vation (  
iron & copp]4 ,,ely1 ,,hess1 ,,lei?1 &  
,,c>v]1  ,f\ndations ( ,national        
,prosp]ity1 pp4 #baj-bca4    #h4 ,!     
settlem5t & use ( ! national doma94     
,,alb]t ,,%aw1  ,political ,problems (  
,am]ican ,developm5t1 pp4 #hg-aae4      
#i4 ,! home/ead sy/em4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van    
,,hise1 ,cons]vation ( ,natural         
,res\rces 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4        
#bgi-bhg2 ,g4 ,m4 ,,/eph5son1 ,!        
,political ,hi/ory ( ! ,public ,l&s1 pp4
 #aij-bde4    #aj4 ,! reclamation (     
des]t & swamp l&s4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,bur*1      
,am]ican  ,economic ,life1 pp4 #ic-ii4  
,que/ions    #a4 ,m>k on an outl9e map !
 *ief geographical divisions ( ! ,unit$ 
,/ates4 ,/ate ! *ief *>act]i/ics ( ea*4 
#b4 ,locate on ! map ! *ief agricultural

 areas1 ! *ief m9+  di/ricts1 ! *ief    
indu/rial c5t]s1 & ! *ief h>bors ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates4    #c4 ,:y d ! great     
railroads ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates run ea/ &   
we/  r ?an nor? & s\?8    #d4 ,d y      
approve ( grant+ free l&s to bona fide  
settl]s8 ,"u  :at re/rictions8    #e4   
,m>k on ! map ! location ( 7a7 !        
pr9cipal coal areas2 7b7  ! pr9cipal    
oil-be>+ areas2 7c7 ! national =e/s4    
#f4 ,%[ :at natural res\rces are utiliz$
 9 ! build+ ( a h\se1  f cell> to g>ret1
 & tell :at section ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is
 !  l>ge/ c5t] ( production = 7a7 oak   
timb]2 7b7 glass2 7c7  /eel beams2 7d7  
electric wire2 7e7 sew] pipe4    #g4 ,"n
 ! h>bors ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! ord] (  
_! 7a7  natural advantages2 7b7         
comm]cial importance4    #h4 ,comp>e !  
g5]al geographical advantages ( ,nor? & 
,s\?  ,am]ica4 ,to :at ext5t has !      
diff]5ce 9 ! relative economic  progress
 ( ! two cont95ts be5 due to            
geographical diff]5ces8    #i4 ,:i* d y 
reg>d z ! m urg5t ne$ at ! pres5t day3 !

  cons]vation ( timb] or ( coal or (    
oil8 ,give y\r reasons4    #aj4 ,comp>e 
! relative geographical advantages ( !  
foll[+  cities3 ,pittsburgh1 ,detroit1  
,atlanta1 ,san ,francisco1 ,baltimore4  
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! ,unit$      
,/ates %\ld adopt a r5tal sy/em = all   
public l&s  on :i* !re are m9]al        
res\rces or wat] p[]s4    #b4 ,! ,unit$ 
,/ates %\ld insi/ ^u free access to     
=eign natural  res\rces 7= example1 9   
,mexico74                               
,,*apt] ,,xviii                         
,,! ,,agricultural ,,int]e/s        ,!  
purpose ( ?is *apt] is to %[ ! l>ge "p  
:i*      agriculture plays 9 ! life ( ! 
c\ntry & to discuss briefly      "s ( ! 
problems ( agriculture today4           
,importance ( ,am]ican                  
,agriculture4--,agriculture has always  
be5 !  mo/ important s+le indu/ry 9 !   
,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,!  crops 9    
e>li] days4 ,x 0 at "o "t practically ! 
sole  occupation ( ! p2 ev5 today x     
directly or indirectly engages  !       

att5tion ( m ?an half ! adult male      
work]s ( ! c\ntry4  ,9 colonial days !  
*ief task ( ! p 0 to raise a food supply
  suffici5t = !mselves4 ,corn 0 _!      
pr9cipal crop1 ! coloni/s  hav+ le>n$ f 
! ,indians ! me?ods ( cultivat+ x4 ,corn
 _h  ! advantage ( be+ well suit$ to !  
soil & climate2 besides x  gr[s well ev5
 9 p>tially cle>$ l&4 ,b 9 colonial days
 & ev5  = a "t aft] ! ,revolution !     
c\ntry did n produce mu* gra9  beyond   
its own ne$s4 ,! production ( l>ge      
quantities = export came  ) ! op5+ up ( 
! great agricultural areas ( ! ,we/4    
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,mix$ f>m+4    ,types (   
,agricultural ,activity4--,am]ican      
agriculture has develop$1  dur+ ! pa/   
?ree hundr$ ye>s1 9 five or six diff]5t 
directions4 ,! e>lie/ settl]s 9 ! nor!rn
 colonies devot$  !mselves to g5]al or  
mix$ f>m+1 9 o!r words to ! rais+ (     
gra91 hay1 & cattle on ! same tract (   
l&4 ,?is 0 because !  environm5t & ne$s 
( ! nor!rn region alike favor$ ?is      
me?od4  ,mix$ f>m+ has cont9u$ to be !  

ma9/ay ( agriculture ea/ (  !           
,allegh5ies2 9 "s measure x has spread  
to o!r p>ts ( !  c\ntry z well4         
,sid5ote3 #b4 ,/aple or plantation f>m+4
    ,a second type ( agriculture1 almo/ 
f ! v outset1 made progress  9 ! ,s\?4  
,?is involv$ ! rais+ ( c]ta9 /aple      
products1 su*  z rice1 tobacco1 sug>1 & 
cotton on l>ge plantations4 ,! soil1    
climate1 & g5]al environm5t ( ! s\!rn   
colonies all l5t  !mselves to ?is type (
 agriculture & x ev5tually spread itself
  ov] ! :ole region4 ,cotton 9 "t       
out-/ripp$ ! o!r /aples &  became k+ ( !
 :ole ,s\?4 ,?is 0 l>gely because !     
inv5tion  ( ! cotton g91 an appliance = 
remov+ ! se$s f ! fibre1  greatly r$uc$ 
! co/ ( prep>+ cotton = ! m>ket4 ,!     
sc>city ( free labor to "w ^! great     
plantations l$ to !  importation ( negro
 slaves & ! in/itution ( slav]y _h a    
pr(\nd effect ^u ! subsequ5t c\rse (    
,am]ican hi/ory4 ,s9ce  ! emancipation (
 ! negroes1 ! plantation sy/em has      
rema9$  al?\gh _m ( ! l>g] tracts h be5 

brok5 up into small  hold+s4            
,sid5ote3 #c4 ,c]eal gr[+4    ,! op5+ ( 
! ,middle ,we/ & ,mississippi ,valley   
br\ght 9 a ?ird  =m ( agricultural      
activity1 namely1 ! production ( c]eals 
7su*  z corn1 :eat1 oats1 rye1 & b>ley7 
on great tracts ( prairie l&4  ,?is =m (
 agricultural production receiv$ a great
 impetus f !  inv5tion ( labor-sav+     
ma*9]y1 notably ! p[]-reap]4 ,!  region 
( ext5sive c]eal production today       
includes ! ,middle ,we/1  ! ,nor?we/1 & 
! ,mississippi ,valley1 mak+ ! ri*e/    
gra9-gr[+ area 9 ! _w4                  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,l& ,,regions    ,,(
 ,,!    ,,unit$ ,,/ates4                
,,l& ,,regions ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates  
,! great geographical regions ( ! ,unit$
 ,/ates            are indicat$ by ?is  
map4 ,/>t+ f ! ,ea/ we            h !   
,atlantic ,pla9s &1 j beh9d !m1 !       
,ea/]n ,plateaus runn+ nor? & s\?4 ,!n  
come ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s & !         

,allegh5y            ,plateaus1 foll[$1 
/ill fur!r we/w>d1 by !            ,lake
 ,pla9s1 ! ,prairie ,pla9s1 & ! ,great  
,pla9s4 ,s\?w>d1 fr++ ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1
 are            ! ,gulf ,pla9s4 ,to ! f>
 we/ are ?ree great            l&       
regions1 namely1 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 area1 
!            ,we/]n ,plateaus1 & !      
,pacific ,slope4              ,?is map  
%\ld be us$ 9 connection ) ,"q          
#a 7page #ced74                         
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 #d4 ,cattle rais+4    ,z !    
fronti] roll$ we/w>d to ! foo?ills ( !  
,rocky ,m\nta9s  a f\r? type (          
agriculture--us+ ! t]m 9 its wid]       
s5se--began to  make rapid /rides4 ,?is 
0 ! /ock-rais+ indu/ry1 ! production  ( 
horn$ cattle & %eep on l>ge tracts (    
graz+ l& or ran*es4  ,?is bran* (       
agricultural activity has made its      
greate/ progress 9  ! ,middle ,s\?we/ & 
^u ! upl& /ates j ea/ ( ! ,rockies      
7,montana1 ,wyom+1 etc474 ,cattle are   

rais$ on ! ran*es1 !n %ipp$  to ! corn  
belt :]e !y are fatt5$ be=e be+ s5t to !
  abattoirs at ,/4 ,l\is & ,*icago4#aef 
,sid5ote3 ,miscellane\s activities4     
,o!r bran*es ( agriculture :i* h        
develop$ l>gely )9 !  pa/ half c5tury   
are dairy+1 m>ket g>d5+1 & fruit gr[+4  
,^! activities are n conf9$ to any "o   
section ( ! c\ntry b  to a consid]able  
ext5t are c>ri$ on ev]y:]e4 ,dairy+ &   
m>ket  g>d5+ h made mo/ progress )9     
conv5i5t di/ance ( !  l>ge cities1      
al?\gh improv$ transportation facilities
 9 ! way (  air-cool$ & refrig]ator c>s 
n[ p]mit ! %ipm5t ( dairy &  g>d5       
produce ov] long di/ances4    ,f all ?is
 x c be se5 t :5 "o speaks ( ! int]e/s (
  agriculture a great _m diff]5t ?+s are
 includ$4 ,! agriculture  ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates is div]sifi$ to an ext5t t is    
f\nd 9 no  o!r c\ntry4    ,sid5ote3     
,size ( ! v>i\s crops4    ,! ,value (   
,am]ican ,agricultural ,products4--,!   
l>ge/ c]eal crop  produc$ 9 ! ,unit$    
/ates is corn2 ! total 9 "s ye>s runs z 

high z ?ree billion bu%els4 ,?is is m   
?an twice ! am\nt (  corn gr[n 9 all !  
re/ ( ! _w4 ,oats come next1 ) ab\t "o  
& "o-half billion bu%els 9 ! be/ ye>s1 &
 :eat ?ird1 ) a  r\nd billion or        
!reab\ts4 ,cotton is ! l>ge/ /aple crop1
 ) an  annual yield ( f t5 to fifte5    
billion bales1 ea* bale conta9+  five   
hundr$ p\nds4 ,( ?is ne>ly half is      
export$4 ,m ?an twelve  million cattle  
are receiv$ ea* ye> at ! great          
abattoirs1 besides an  equal numb] (    
%eep & twice z _m hogs4    ,! value (   
?is enorm\s agricultural production1 if 
/at$ 9 doll>s  & c5ts1 w\ld be mislead+ 
because prices *ange f ye> to ye>2  !   
fluctuations are (t5 consid]able )9 a v 
%ort p]iod (  "t4#aeg ,b 9 any case !   
contribution :i* agriculture makes to  !
 ye>ly income ( ! nation is enorm\s4 ,^u
 x ! national  prosp]ity dep5ds 9 a v   
great measure4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! w>    
/imulat$ ,am]ican food production4      
,am]ican ,agriculture & ! ,w>4--,am]ican
 agriculture _h a v  important "p 9 w9n+

 ! ,_w ,w>4 ,z ?is great /ruggle        
progress$ ! task ( provid+ food = !     
,alli$ armies & = !  civilian           
populations became mon? by mon? m       
difficult4 ,m5 7  drawn (f ! f>ms (     
,europe to fight & ! fields w5t         
uncultivat$2  practically ! :ole (      
,belgium & a consid]able "p ( ,france 7 
9 ! h&s ( ! enemy2 no supplies c\ld be  
drawn f remote p>ts  ( ! _w su* z       
,au/ralia1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 or ! ,f> ,ea/  
because  ! available %ips 7 ne$$ to c>ry
 troops & munitions2 s !  ,am]ican f>m] 
_h to spe$ up production 9 ord] to save 
!  situation4 ,:5 ,am]ica ent]$ ! w> !  
,allies _h practically  rea*$ ! end ( _!
 res\rces 9 food/uffs2 _! populations 7 
liv+ "u a rigid sy/em ( food ration+4   
,"u ! /imulation (  ?is great em]g5cy   
,am]ican agriculture rose to ! occasion 
& !  increas$ production ( food/uffs1   
toge!r ) ! sav+s :i* 7  made ?r\gh !    
obs]vance ( 8:eatless0 & 8meatless0 days
 enabl$  ! ,unit$ ,/ates n only to      
ma9ta9 an army ( two million soldi]s  9 

,france b to contribute l>gely to ! food
 supplies ( ! ,alli$  armies & civilian 
populations z well4 ,! supply tra9s :i* 
f$ !  ,am]ican army 9 ,france 7& nev] on
 a s+le day did !y fail to  rea* !      
front71 />t$ f ,kansas ,city & ,*icago1 
n f ,bre/  or ,havre4 ,! ,am]ican f>m] 0
 ! great factor 9 ?is s]vice (  supply4 
,sid5ote3 ,an example ( increas+        
returns4    ,a ,peculi>ity (            
,agricultural ,production--,! ,law (    
,dim9i%+  ,returns4--,!re is "o         
fundam5tal feature 9 :i* agriculture    
diff]s  f indu/ry4 ,9 indu/ry1 z a rule1
 ! m labor & capital y  apply ! great] !
 am\nt ( ! produce4 ,_m indu/ries1      
inde$1  are s con/itut$ t by apply+     
additional capital & labor y  obta9 m   
?an proportionate returns4 ,take !      
book-b9d+ indu/ry1  = example4 ,a small 
%op1 employ+ ?ree m51 might b9d & /amp  
two  hundr$ books p] day at a co/ (     
tw5ty c5ts p] book4 ,b a l>ge           
e/abli%m5t1 employ+ a hundr$ work]s )   
mod]n ma*9]y c  easily put ?r\gh _m ?\s&

 books at half ! co/ p] volume4 ,a      
manufactur]1 if he is wise1 f9ds out :at
 bran*es ( 8 bus9ess are  mo/ pr(itable4
 ,!n he applies m capital & labor 9 t   
direction s z to increase 8 e>n+s1 &    
devotes less att5tion to  ! ?+s :i* _c  
be made s pr(itably4 ,?is is kn[n z     
production "u ! law ( increas+ returns4 
,b 9 agriculture ! situation is q       
diff]5t4 ,any f>m] or  ran*man w tell y1
 if y ask him1 t "s ( 8 l& is bett]  ?an
 ! re/ & yields him great] pr(it = !    
capital & labor  appli$ to x4 ,b if y   
!reupon sugge/ to him t he %\ld devote  
all 8 att5tion to ?is p>ticul> piece (  
l&1 & neglect !  re/1 he w\ld ?9k v     
poorly ( y\r intellig5ce4 ,sid5ote3 ,an 
illu/ration ( decreas+ returns4 ,&      
rightly s1 = if he appli$  m labor &    
capital to 8 be/ l&1 he w\ld n be sure (
 gett+  a crop-increase 9 proportion2 on
 ! contr>y1 he w\ld be q safe  9 say+ t1
 aft] a c]ta9 po9t1 8 extra labor &     
capital w\ld  br+ him less ?an          
proportionate returns4 ,an inve/m5t ( t5

  doll>s p] acre may result 9 a crop (  
fifte5 bu%els p] acre4 ,x is  v d\btful 
:e!r by apply+ tw5ty doll>s wor? (      
capital &  labor to ! l& ?is yield c\ld 
be d\bl$ & x is q c]ta9  t x c\ld n be  
trebl$ by sp5d+ ?irty doll>s p] acre on 
!  l&4 ,9 o!r words1 agriculture is     
c>ri$ on1 = ! mo/ "p1  "u ! law (       
dim9i%+ returns1 :i* may be briefly     
def9$ by  say+ t1 8if at any giv5 "t1 ! 
am\nt ( labor & capital  appli$ to      
agricultural l& is increas$ beyond a    
c]ta9 po9t1 !  increas$ inve/m5t w yield
 less ?an proportionate returns04 ,if   
?is 7 n ! case1 no "o w\ld ev] cultivate
 ! poor] l&s4 ,we  w\ld raise our entire
 crops f ! mo/ f]tile tracts4 ,! po9t at
  :i* ! returns w beg9 to dim9i% c nev] 
be exactly fix$1 =  improvem5ts 9 !     
me?ods ( agriculture may place x fur!r  
ahead4  ,^! improv$ me?ods also br+ into
 cultivation l&s :i* o!rwise  w\ld n be 
utiliz$4    ,ano!r ,peculi>ity (        
,agriculture--,limitations on ,division 
(  ,labor4--,9 "o o!r fundam5tal feature

 !re is a diff]5ce betwe5  agriculture &
 indu/ry4 ,9 indu/ry1 z w be se5        
pres5tly1 !  individual work] conf9es 8 
att5tion to "o op]ation 9 ! process  (  
production4 ,he does n make a %oe1 b    
only "p ( a %oe4 ,b 9  agriculture1 ?is 
division ( labor _c be c>ri$ s f>4      
,sid5ote3  ,:y division ( labor does n  
apply to agriculture4 ,! work]s  engag$ 
9 agriculture _c be pl\ghm51 s[]s1      
reap]s1 or  ?re%]s only2 !y mu/ take a  
h& at all ^! ?+s :5 ! "t  comes4 ,?is is
 because ! tasks connect$ ) agriculture 
*ange )  ! seasons4 ,agricultural labor 
mu/1 !re=e1 be mu* m v]satile  ?an labor
 employ$ 9 l>ge-scale indu/ry4 ,mo/     
indu/ries1 moreov]1  are able to run    
along at an ev5 pace ?r\gh\t ! ye>1     
af=d+  /eady employm5t to a fix$ numb] (
 work]s4 ,b 9 mo/ =ms (  agriculture1 ! 
am\nt ( labor requir$ is mu* great] at  
"s  seasons ( ! ye> ?an at o!rs1 ?us    
giv+ ! f>m] a labor  problem ( great    
difficulty to cont5d )4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
*emical elem5ts 9 soil4    ,! ,exhau/ion

 ( ! ,soil4--,! agricultural production 
( ! c\ntry  dep5ds ^u ! f]tility ( !    
soil4 ,agricultural soil conta9s  v>i\s 
*emical prop]ties :i* are exhau/$ by    
long-cont9u$  cropp+1 p>ticul>ly if only
 "o type ( produce is gr[n4 ,^!  *emical
 elem5ts are1 m p>ticul>ly1 nitrog51    
phosphorus1 &  pota%4 ,"s crops draw    
*iefly ^u "o ( ^! *emical elem5ts &  "s 
^u ! o!rs4 ,:eat & corn take l>ge am\nts
 ( nitrog5 f  ! soil1 :ile potatoes draw
 a l>g] proportion ( pota%4 ,!          
exhau/ion ( ! soil is prev5t$ 9 two     
ways1 fir/ by rotation (  crops &1      
second1 by ! use ( f]tiliz]s4 ,rotation 
( crops involves  ! gr[+ ( diff]5t      
products 9 successive ye>s1 su* z :eat1 
potatoes1 & hay4 ,x is n always         
practicable4 ,sid5ote3  ,f]tilization4  
,f]tilization involves ! putt+ ( *emical
 elem5ts  back into ! soil4 ,x may be   
effect$ by ! use ( natural manure or    
artificial f]tiliz]s or by pl\gh+ "u !  
soil a gre5 cov]  crop4 ,l& reta9s its  
f]tility to ! degree t *emical elem5ts  

are cons]v$ 9 x4    ,! ,effects (       
,agricultural ,improvem5ts4--,dur+ ! pa/
 half c5tury  great progress has be5    
made 9 all ! processes ( agriculture4 ,!
  me?ods ( treat+ ! soil1 ! types ( gra9
 & o!r produce  gr[n1 ! ma*9]y available
 = use 9 agriculture1 & ! g5]al         
intellig5ce ) :i* ! l&s are             
cultivat$--all h va/ly  improv$ s9ce our
 gr&fa!rs' day4 ,sid5ote3 ,! increas$   
yield (  ! soil4 ,! results are app>5t 9
 an increas$ production4 ,at !  "t ( !  
,civil ,w> ! yield ( :eat ?r\gh\t !     
,unit$ ,/ates  av]ag$ only n9e to t5    
bu%els p] acre2 today x is ne>ly d\ble  
t figure4 ,good f>ms & good f>m]s are n[
 produc+ tw5ty-five  bu%els ( :eat to ! 
acre1 sixty bu%els ( corn1 or six hundr$
  p\nds ( cotton4 ,simil> progress has  
be5 made 9 ! rais+ (  cattle & 9 dairy+4
 ,?is has be5 accompli%$ by ! selection 
&  bre$+ ( improv$ /ock4    ,ye> by ye> 
?is improvem5t cont9ues & x is c]ta9 t  
we h  n yet ne>ly rea*$ ! limit (       
possibilities4 ,on ! highly  f]tiliz$   

l&s ( "s ,european c\ntries ! :eat yield
 is z high  z ?irty or ev5 =ty bu%els to
 ! acre4 ,9 ! case ( root crops1        
f]tilization ( ! l& is an extremely     
important factor 9  production4         
,sid5ote3 ,our future possibilities4 ,"o
 ( ! great  pres5t-day ne$s ( ,am]ican  
agriculture is a bett] & *eap] supply  (
 nitrates = f]tiliz+ ! l& & ?is has     
direct$ att5tion to  ! possibility (    
manufactur+ nitrates 9 ?is c\ntry in/ead
 (  import+ !m f abroad4#aeh    ,!      
,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t (               
,agriculture4--,to assi/ !  agricultural
 int]e/s ( ! c\ntry a ,commission]      
,sid5ote3 ,h[ !  national gov]nm5t helps
 ! f>m]4( ,agriculture 0 appo9t$ by  !  
national gov]nm5t 9 #ahfb1 & sev5 ye>s  
lat] ?is (fice 0  exp&$ into a ,dep>tm5t
 ( ,agriculture1 ) a memb] ( ! cab9et   
at its head4 ,! "w ( ?is dep>tm5t at !  
pres5t day cov]s a  wide range4 ,its m  
important activities1 c>ri$ on ?r\gh    
v>i\s  bureaus1 may be summ>iz$ z       
foll[s3 ,! ,bureau ( ,plant ,indu/ry    

/udies new agricultural me?ods1         
endeavors to f9d improv$ v>ieties  (    
gra9 & plants1 conducts rese>* "w on    
soil f]tility1 &  devises measures = !  
ext]m9ation ( noxi\s we$s4 ,x has comb$ 
! :ole _w = new gra9s & plants likely to
 ?rive 9 ?is  c\ntry4 ,its ag5ts g ab\t 
! c\ntry giv+ talks & demon/rations  to 
! f>m]s ) a view to educat+ !m 9 all ^! 
matt]s4 ,!  ,bureau ( ,animal ,indu/ry  
makes inve/igations into improv$ me?ods 
(  bre$+ & rais+ live /ock2 x /udies !  
problem ( prev5t+  communicable diseases
 among animals1 & has *>ge ( f$]al meat 
inspection4 ,! ,bureau ( ,entomology    
ga!rs & publi%es in=mation  conc]n+     
insects :i* d h>m to crops & cattle4 ,x 
sugge/s  me?ods ( ext]m9at+ ea* =m (    
insect pe/4 ,9 ?is x has a  giant task1 
= ! ravages ( insects l ! gypsy mo? &   
orange  ?rip are /ill co/+ ! c\ntry     
millions ( doll>s p] ye>4 ,!  "w ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates ,=e/ ,s]vice1 :i* is 9 ?is
 dep>tm5t1  has already be5 m5tion$4 ,! 
,wea!r ,bureau's "w is also well  kn[n4 

,x ga!rs in=mation conc]n+ ! wea!r 9 all
 sections (  ! c\ntry & s5ds out timely 
=eca/s ( probable /orms1  heat-waves1   
fro/s1 & ra9fall = ! b5efit (           
agriculture &  navigation4 ,o!r bureaus 
make *emical analyses ( soil1 wat]1 &   
foods1 & compile all mann] (            
agricultural /ati/ics4 ,! ,dep>tm5t  (  
,agriculture also ma9ta9s1 9 diff]5t    
p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 sixty  exp]im5t        
/ations1 at :i* new me?ods are fully    
tri$ out be=e  be+ recomm5d$4    ,x w be
 se5 t by f> ! great] portion ( !       
dep>tm5t's "w  is sci5tific &           
educational4 ,its educational "w is     
c>ri$ on n  only by speak]s &           
demon/rators :o g ab\t ! c\ntry1 b by ! 
issue ( bullet9s & an annual volume kn[n
 z ! dep>tm5t's ,ye>  ,book4 ,?is       
volume1 :i* may be _h free ( co/1       
conta9s m useful  in=mation on          
agricultural topics ?an any o!r book (  
its sort4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! /ate       
gov]nm5ts help ! f>m]4    ,/ate         
,enc\ragem5t ( ,agriculture4--,!        

enc\ragem5t ( agriculture  has n be5    
left entirely to ! national au?orities4 
,mo/ ( !  /ates also ma9ta9 dep>tm5ts ( 
agriculture 9 *>ge ( bo>ds or           
commission]s4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates1 moreov]1
 /ate colleges (  agriculture h be5     
e/abli%$1 & ^! may be att5d$1 usually   
)\t ! paym5t ( tuition fees1 by any     
qualifi$ resid5t ( !  /ate4 ,%ort c\rses
 ( in/ruction are giv5 9 v>i\s bran*es (
  agriculture = ^? :o c sp5d b a few    
weeks or mon?s at ^!  agricultural      
colleges2 ext5sion "w is c>ri$ on &     
sci5tific  inve/igations made4 ,?is "w  
has be51 to "s ext5t1 assi/$ by  grants 
( l& & money f ! national gov]nm5t4 ,!  
*ief  individual factor 9 br++ bo? !    
f$]al & /ate agricultural  au?orities   
into t\* ) ! f>m]s & cattle rais]s is ! 
c\nty  ag5t4 ,he addresses !m at _!     
meet+s1 advises !m on all  agricultural 
matt]s1 & helps !m to =m agricultural   
clubs4    ,! ,problem ( ,agricultural   
,cr$its4--,9 agriculture1 z 9 indu/ry  &
 comm]ce1 a consid]able am\nt ( capital 

is ne$$4 ,x takes  capital to buy l&1 to
 improve x1 to obta9 ma*9]y & live /ock1
  to pur*ase se$1 & to pay exp5ses dur+ 
! p]iod betwe5 se$time  & h>ve/4 ,until 
rec5tly ! agriculturi/ has be5 at a     
disadvantage1 z comp>$ ) ! manufactur]1 
9 secur+ ?is  capital4 ,! bank+ sy/em ( 
! c\ntry 0 organiz$ ma9ly to  assi/ !   
op]ations ( indu/ry & comm]ce2 !re 7 no 
special  banks to assi/ agriculture4    
,sid5ote3 ,! ,f$]al ,f>m ,loan ,banks4  
,9  #aiaf1 h[ev]1 a sy/em ( ,f>m ,loan  
,banks 0 e/abli%$4 ,!re are  n[ twelve  
su* banks situat$ 9 z _m regions ( !    
c\ntry4 ,_!  function is to loan money  
on ! security ( agricultural or graz+   
l& at reasonable rates ( int]e/1 ! loans
 to be repaid 9  in/allm5ts ov] a t]m ( 
ye>s4 ,?is has plac$ agriculture on an  
equality ) all o!r =ms ( production z   
reg>ds loans bas$ on  ! security ( l&2 b
 = loans ^u ! security ( cattle1 crops1 
& o!r p]sonal prop]ty1 ! agriculturi/   
mu/ /ill dep5d ^u  ! regul> bank+       
in/itutions4    ,sid5ote3 8,seasonal0 "*

 ( agriculture4    ,! ,problem (        
,agricultural ,labor4--,m5tion has      
already be5 made (  ! fact t agriculture
 is a 8seasonal0 occupation to a v l>ge 
ext5t4 ,x is an occupation1 moreov]1 9  
:i* ! work]s _c at  all times call eight
 h\rs a full day's "w4 ,at ! busy       
seasons (  se$time & h>ve/ ! day ( !    
f>m] & 8 help]s is f  be=e sunrise until
 aft] sunset4 ,z a result ( ^! features 
!  secur+ ( a suffici5t labor =ce at !  
busy seasons is an  agricultural problem
 ( great & con/antly-recurr+ difficulty4
 ,"t  & aga9 x has happ5$ t valuable    
crops h gone to wa/e because  m5 c\ld n 
be hir$ to h>ve/ !m4 ,dur+ ! w> ye>s !  
sc>city ( labor 0 especially acute & !  
wages ( f>m work]s  w5t up v rapidly4 ,x
 is believ$ t ?is problem ( gett+       
suffici5t labor might be solv$ by "s    
organiz$ action su* z !  ,unit$ ,/ates  
gov]nm5t took dur+ #aiag-aiah1 recruit+ 
labor 9 !  cities1 mov+ !m f section to 
section 9 accordance ) !  dem&1 &       
effect+ a m ev5 di/ribution ( !         

available work]s4    ,f>m]s'            
,organizations4--,x is h>d] = f>m]s to  
organize ?an =  m5 9 mo/ o!r            
occupations4 ,!y live ap>t f "o ano!r2  
!y  are n dep5d5t ^u "o ano!r to ! same 
ext5t t t[nsm5 are2  & _! mann] ( life  
t5ds to make !m individually            
self-reliant4  ,9 organiz+ !y h1 !re=e1 
be5 mu* less active ?an work]s  9       
indu/ry & comm]ce4 ,nev]!less !re are _m
 f>m]s'  associations 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
at ! pres5t "t & _!  memb]%ip is /eadily
 increas+4 ,"s ( !m are co-op]ative     
bodies1  organiz$ = ! buy+1 sell+1 or   
manufacture ( products4 ,o!rs  are      
agricultural societies =m$ = ! purpose (
 hold+ fairs &  meet+s4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
,grange & ! ,f>m]s' ,alliance4    ,two  
f>m]s' organizations ( a frat]nal &     
social nature h spread  all ov] !       
c\ntry4 ,! fir/ is ! ,patrons (         
,husb&ry1 m  commonly kn[n z ! ,grange4 
,! o!r is ! ,national ,f>m]s'           
,alliance4 ,betwe5 !m ^! two            
organizations include sev]al million    

memb]s4 ,_! ma9 purpose is to promote ! 
social & economic  int]e/s ( !          
agricultural population1 b !y are also1 
on "s  occasions1 active 9 politics4    
,f>m]s' ,in/itutes1 :i* are be+ held  "u
 ! jo9t auspices ( ! national & /ate    
agricultural  dep>tm5ts 9 all sections (
 ! c\ntry h also contribut$ to !        
facilities = popul> education &         
recreation4 ,^! in/itutes are  att5d$ by
 m ?an two million p]sons p] ye>4       
,sid5ote3 ,! agricultural 8bloc40    ,! 
,f>m] 9 ,politics4--,:ile ! f>m]s ( !   
,unit$ ,/ates d n  possess a political  
organization ( _! own !y are able ?r\gh 
!  v>i\s bodies m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+      
p>agraph & ?r\gh o!r  associations to   
ex]cise a v important influ5ce ^u !     
action (  ! gov]nm5t4 ,_m s5ators &     
repres5tatives come f sections (  !     
c\ntry :]e ! f>m]s con/itute an         
important elem5t among !  vot]s & on    
matt]s affect+ ! int]e/s ( agriculture  
^!  legislators usually /& toge!r4 ,9   
rec5t ye>s ?is gr\p (  congressm5 f !   

agricultural areas has be5 commonly kn[n
 z !  8agricultural bloc02 !y d n =m an 
actual majority 9 ,congress1  b !y h    
usually _h en\gh /r5g? to get :at !y    
want4 ,at !  session ( #aiba !y obta9$ a
 t>iff duty on :eat1 :i* is 9 effect  a 
tax on bread1 & any political           
organization :i* c put a tax on  bread  
mu/ be p[]ful inde$4 ,! f>m]s' lobby at 
,wa%+ton is  exce$+ly /rong4            
,attempts h be5 made to unite ! f>m]s 9 
! rural di/ricts )  ! work]s 9 ! cities 
into a regul> political p>ty4 ,at !     
presid5tial election ( #aibj a s-t]m$   
,f>m]-,labor ticket 0 plac$  9 ! field1 
b x did n mu/] mu* /r5g?4 ,a comb9ation 
(  ^! two elem5ts1 if x c\ld be         
effective1 w\ld be all-p[]ful4 ,x  is v 
d\btful1 h[ev]1 if any su* political    
comb9ation c be  really made4 ,! int]e/s
 ( ! two elem5ts are too f> ap>t4 ,!    
f>m]s are produc]s ( food2 ! city work]s
 are consum]s4 ,"o wants  prices to /ay 
high2 ! o!r wants !m to come d[n4 ,x w  
be  difficult to get two su* gr\ps to   

come toge!r & to /ay toge!r4            
,sid5ote3 ,! rural exodus4    ,!        
,special ,problems ( ,rural             
,communities4--,"o ( ! *ief problems  ( 
e rural community is to keep its "y m5 &
 wom5 f  migrat+ to ! cities & t[ns4 ,9 
_m p>ts ( ! c\ntry !  agricultural      
population is /eadily decl9+ by reason (
 ! con/ant  exodus to ! t[ns1 & :]ev]   
population decreases !re is usually  a  
fall 9 ! value ( l&4#aei ,!reupon !     
community ceases to move  =w>d2 ! l&s   
are neglect$2 me?ods ( agriculture fail 
to keep  pace ) ! times1 & ! :ole region
 takes on a %abby appe>ance4    ,n[ !   
*ief reason :y "y m5 & wom5 leave !     
rural di/ricts  = ! cities is to be f\nd
 9 ! outw>d attractiv5ess ( city  life4 
,?is attractiv5ess is really n s great z
 x appe>s to be2  b x is ! appe>ances t 
(t5 c\nt4 ,rural com=ts &  conv5i5ces h 
be5 all too few 9 ! pa/2 ! h\rs ( labor 
h  be5 long & ! "w (t5 disagreeable2 !  
de>? ( social  recreations has also be5 
a factor 9 mak+ rural life seem         

monoton\s  to y\?4 ,^! drawbacks1 h[ev]1
 are n ess5tial & p]man5t  features (   
rural life4 ,! balance ( advantage :i*  
t[ns & cities  h h]et(ore possess$ is 9 
fact be+ /eadily r$uc$ by !  adv5t ( ?+s
 :i* greatly enhance ! attractiv5ess (  
life 9  rural communities4 ,sid5ote3 ,! 
increas+ attractions ( rural life4  ,!  
motor c>1 ! pav$ roads1 ! p>cels po/ &  
rural mail  deliv]y1 ! ext5sion (       
telephone s]vice & electric light+ into 
! c\ntry1 ! tractor & o!r labor-sav+    
devices1 !  organization ( societies &  
clubs among ! "y p ( ! rural  areas1 !  
improvem5t & c5tralization ( rural      
s*ools--all ^! are  hav+ influ5ce4 ,!   
application ( sci5tific pr9ciples to    
agriculture1 moreov]1 has made x a      
skill$ occupation1 n a common  indu/ry4 
,r\t9e f>m+ by rule-(-?umb me?ods is n v
  int]e/+ & n v pr(itable2 b sci5tific  
f>m+ is bo?4 ,=  ^! v>i\s reasons !     
exodus f ! f>ms is n likely to be z     
great 9 ! future z x has be5 9 ! pa/4   
,?is is a =tunate  circum/ance =1 z     

,presid5t ,roosevelt once decl>$1 our   
:ole  civilization re/s ^u !            
attractiv5ess z well z ! prosp]ity (    
rural life4                             
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,h4 ,r4 ,,bur*1     
,am]ican ,economic ,life1 pp4 #bji-bcb2 
,h4 ,c4 ,,taylor1 ,agricultural         
,economics1 pp4 #ac-cj2    ,g4 ,f4      
,,w>r51 ,elem5ts ( ,agriculture1 pp4    
#cgb-cih2    ,,sir ,,horace ,,plunkett1 
,! ,rural ,life ,problem ( ! ,unit$     
,/ates1 pp4  #ei-hb2    ,,john ,,phelan1
 ,read+s 9 ,rural ,sociology1 pp4       
#afb-ahc2    ,k4 ,l4 ,,butt]field1 ,!   
,f>m] & ! ,new ,day1 pp4 #a-bi2    ,e4  
,g4 ,,n\rse1 ,agricultural ,economics1  
pp4 #baj-bbc2    ,a4 ,h4 ,,b5son & ,g4  
,h4 ,,betts1 ,agriculture & ! ,f>m+     
,bus9ess1  pp4 #a-ab2    ,s4 ,j4 ,,buck1
 ,! ,agr>ian ,crusade1 pp4 #aaa-ada4    
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,h[ ! national & 
/ate dep>tm5ts ( agriculture help !     
f>m] 9 y\r /ate4 ,ref]5ces3 ,j4 ,e4     
,,boyle1 ,agricultural  ,economics1 pp4 
#cab-cbg2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,! ,/ate & !

 ,f>m]1 pp4  #hi-aaa2 ,e4 ,g4 ,,n\rse1  
,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #eec-efe4 
#b4 ,mak+ c\ntry life m attractive4     
,ref]5ces3 ,c4 ,j4 ,,galp91  ,rural     
,life1 pp4 #bab-bfj2 ,j4 ,m4 ,,gillette1
 ,con/ructive ,rural  ,sociology1 pp4   
#afh-aii2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,! ,c\ntry  
,life ,movem5t2  ,univ]sity ( ,virg9ia1 
,alumni ,bullet9s1 ,rural ,life         
,conf]5ces1  passim2 ,report ( ! ,c\ntry
 ,life ,commission4    #c4 ,! f>m] 9    
politics4 ,ref]5ces3 ,s4 ,j4 ,,buck1 ,! 
,grang]  ,movem5t1 pp4 #cd-ci2 #hj-abb2 
,f4 ,l4 ,,mcvey1 ,! ,populi/ ,movem5t1 9
  ,am]ican ,economic ,association1      
,economic ,/udies1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #c    
7,augu/1  #ahif71 pp4 #aca-bji4    #d4  
,:o owns ! f>ms 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates8      
,ref]5ces3 ,h4 ,c4  ,,taylor1           
,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #bch-bfi2 
,p4 ,l4 ,,vogt1 ,introduction  to ,rural
 ,sociology1 pp4 #fa-ajj2 ,t4 ,n4       
,,c>v]1 ,select$ ,read+s 9  ,rural      
,economics1 pp4 #dih-edf2 ,e4 ,g4       
,,n\rse1 ,agricultural ,economics1  pp4 

#ffe-fgc2 ,,william ,,k5t1 ,l& ,t5ure & 
,public ,policy1 pp4 #bac-bbe4          
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! f>m population (
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,p4 ,l4 ,,vogt1       
,introduction  to ,rural ,sociology1 pp4
 #abj-ade2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,! ,c\ntry 
,life  ,movem5t1 pp4 #ca-fj4    #b4 ,!  
rural s*ool & ! rural community4 ,,irv+ 
,,k+1 ,education  = ,social ,effici5cy1 
pp4 #ba-db2 ,e4 ,p4 ,,cubb]ley1 ,rural  
,life &  ,education1 pp4 #afc-agf2      
#bbf-bee2 ,,mabel ,,c>ney1 ,c\ntry ,life
 & !  ,c\ntry ,s*ool1 pp4 #acc-adh4     
#c4 ,! grange4 ,s4 ,j4 ,,buck1 ,!       
,grang] ,movem5t1 pp4 #bgi-cja2 ,,mabel 
,,c>ney1 ,c\ntry ,life & ! ,c\ntry      
,s*ool1 pp4 #gb-hi4    #d4 ,!           
non-p>tisan league4 ,,&rew ,a4 ,,bruce1 
,! ,non-,p>tisan  ,league1 passim2      
,,h]b]t ,,ga/on1 ,! ,non-,p>tisan       
,league1 pp4  #bfi-bhc4    #e4          
,community life 9 ! c\ntry4 ,c4 ,j4     
,,galp91 ,rural ,life1 pp4  #agf-baa2   
,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,! ,c\ntry ,life      
,movem5t1 pp4 #ig-acc2 ,t4 ,n4  ,,c>v]1 

,rural ,economics1 pp4 #ccd-chb4    #f4 
,! f>m] ( ! ,middle ,we/4 ,,john        
,,phelan1 ,read+s 9 ,rural  ,sociology1 
pp4 #bg-dd4    #g4 ,! ,s\? & ! negro    
f>m]4 ,ibid41 pp4 #df-gb4    #h4 ,! ,new
 ,engl& f>m]4 ,ibid41 pp4 #a-be4    #i4 
,! f>m] ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 /ates4 ,w4   
,e4 ,,smy!1 ,!  ,conque/ ( ,arid        
,am]ica1 pp4 #ai-cj2 #aej-afc2 ,f4 ,i4  
,,&]son1 ,!  ,f>m] ( ,tomorr[1 pp4      
#ih-adj4    #aj4 ,m>ket+ f>m products4  
,e4 ,g4 ,,n\rse1 ,agricultural          
,economics1  pp4 #ebd-edj2 ,f4 ,w4      
,,c>d1 ,f>m ,managem5t1 pp4 #aji-ach2   
,t4 ,n4 ,,c>v]1  ,select$ ,read+s 9     
,rural ,economics1 pp4 #gfi-ghb2 ,h4 ,c4
 ,,taylor1  ,agricultural ,economics1   
pp4 #ceb-cfe4    #aa4 ,wom5's place on !
 f>m4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,galp91 ,rural ,life1 pp4
  #aja-aag2 ,,john ,,phelan1 ,read+s 9  
,rural ,sociology1 pp4 #cac-cbd2 ,p4    
,,devuy/1 ,woman's ,place 9 ,rural      
,economy1 pp4 #bc-db4    #ab4 ,rural    
cr$its4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,morman1 ,! ,place (   
,agriculture 9  ,recon/ruction1 pp4     

#caj-cdg2 ,e4 ,g4 ,,n\rse1 ,agricultural
 ,economics1  pp4 #gab-gbc2 #ghi-gie2   
,m4 ,t4 ,,h]rick1 ,rural ,cr$its1 pp4   
#dci-dee4    #ac4 ,agriculture &        
recon/ruction4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,morman1 ,!     
,place (  ,agriculture 9 ,recon/ruction1
 pp4 #adf-ahj4                          
,que/ions    #a4 ,"n ! v>i\s types (    
agricultural activity & indicate on !   
map :]e !y are *iefly c>ri$ on4    #b4  
,place ! foll[+ agricultural products 9 
! ord] ( _!  relative annual value      
7ref]r+ to ! ,_w ,almanac = su*         
in=mation z is n giv5 9 ! text72 wood1  
cotton1 rice1 :eat1  cattle1 corn1 %eep1
 sug>1 tobacco4    #c4 ,expla9 fully !  
law ( dim9i%+ returns z appli$ to       
agricultural l&4 ,"n "s ( its effects4  
#d4 ,:at are ! *ief *emical elem5ts 9   
agricultural soil8 ,h[ are  !y sav$ f   
exhau/ion8 ,:at is ! ord] (             
crop-rotation practic$  9 y\r di/rict & 
:y is ?is ord] *os58 ,expla9 h[ !       
8cov]-crop0 sy/em helps ! soil4    #e4  
,li/1 9 :at seems to y to be _! ord] (  

importance1 !  s]vices r5d]$ by !       
,national ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4     
#f4 ,h[ are ,f>m ,loan ,banks f9anc$8   
,:at functions d !y p]=m8    #g4 ,f9d   
out h[ a ,grange is organiz$1 :at (fic]s
 x has1 & :at  memb]s d at _! meet+s4   
#h4 ,! gov]nm5t assures to ! own]s ( !  
railroads a m9imum  return on _! inve/$ 
capital 7see p4 #cfg74 ,%\ld x gu>antee 
!  f>m] a m9imum price = 8 products8    
#i4 ,d y believe t ! f>m]s are ju/ifi$ 9
 organiz+ a 8bloc0  9 ,congress to      
promote _! own int]e/s8 ,if ! indu/rial 
work]s1  ! %opkeep]s1 ! manufactur]s & s
 =? 7 to d likewise1 h[  w\ld ?is affect
 ! p>ty sy/em8    #aj4 ,expla9 h[ !     
attractiv5ess ( rural life has be5      
increas$ 9  rec5t ye>s4                 
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! national    
gov]nm5t %\ld 7a7 directly engage 9     
improv$  road-build+ = ! b5efit (       
agricultural areas2 or 7b7 assi/ !      
/ates by grants ( money = ?is purpose2  
or 7c7 leave ! matt]  entirely to !     
/ates & communities4    #b4 ,f>m]s &    

cattlem5 %\ld be p]mitt$ to =m          
organizations 9  ord] to prev5t         
competition & keep up ! prices ( _!     
products1  al?\gh su* agreem5ts among   
manufactur]s are =bidd54                
,,*apt] ,,xix                    ,,!    
,,enc\ragem5t ,,& ,,regulation ,,(      
,,comm]ce4        ,! purpose ( ?is *apt]
 is to expla9 :at comm]ce is1 h[ x      
is regulat$1 & :at ! gov]nm5t does to   
promote x4      ,sid5ote3 ,:o are engag$
 9 comm]ce4    ,! ,purposes (           
,comm]ce4--,! p ( ! _w sp5d a l>ge "p  (
 _! en]gy 9 supply+ _! mat]ial wants1   
includ+ food1  clo?+1 & %elt]4 ,we      
commonly ?9k ( ! f>m] & !  manufactur] z
 ! ones *iefly engag$ 9 ?is task1 b if y
 /op  to ?9k ( x y w quickly realize t !
 f>m]s c\ld n fe$  ! _w nor c\ld !      
manufactur]s clo! x )\t ! aid (  ano!r  
important class1 :i* includes m]*ants1  
trad]s1  transportation work]s--9 a ^w1 
all :o are engag$ 9 comm]ce4 ,!  purpose
 ( comm]ce is n to create ?+s b to put  
economic goods  into ! h&s ( ^? :o ne$  

!m4 ,x places commodities :]e !y  are   
want$ at ! "t :5 !y are want$4 ,sid5ote3
 ,comm]ce  produces values4 ,9 ?is s5se 
comm]ce is a great produc]1 a produc]  (
 values4 ,x fet*es ! raw mat]ial f !    
m9es or agricultural  areas to !        
indu/ries4 ,x br+s ! products ( !       
factories to !  m]*ant & f ! m]*ant to !
 homes ( ! p4 ,x helps to  adju/ !      
supply to ! dem&4 ,)\t comm]ce !re w\ld 
be an  abundance ( ?+s 9 "o place & a   
%ortage 9 ano!r4 ,comm]cial             
organization p]mits e "p ( ! c\ntry1 &  
inde$ e "p (  ! civiliz$ _w1 to produce 
! ?+s :i* x is be/ fitt$ to  produce &  
to use ^! ?+s 9 buy+ goods made else:]e4
 ,florida  gr[s oranges & ,massa*usetts 
makes %oes1 b ?r\gh *annels (  comm]ce  
ea* secures :at x ne$s f ! products ( ! 
o!r4    ,sid5ote3 ,comm]ce 9 its e>lie/ 
=ms4    ,! ,developm5t ( ,comm]ce4--,n[ 
al?\gh ! advantages ( comm]ce  are s    
easy to realize1 ! comm]cial sy/em ( !  
mod]n _w took  _m c5turies to develop4  
,primitive p did n h _m wants &  all (  

!m !y suppli$ by _! own ex]tions4 ,ea*  
little gr\p (  p1 ea* tribe or village1 
met its own ne$s4 ,!n trade betwe5      
diff]5t villages & tribes began4 ,x grew
 sl[ly 9 ! e>ly ages  because !re 7 no  
easy means ( transport+ goods1 & because
  neighbor+ tribes 7 s (t5 ho/ile to ea*
 o!r4 ,?is e>ly trade  0 conduct$ by    
b>t]1 ! direct ex*ange ( "o article =   
ano!r1  !re be+ no g5]al use ( money z a
 m$ium ( ex*ange4    ,z "t w5t on ! area
 ( trade wid5$ until x cov]$ :ole       
c\ntries1 & f9ally exp&$ into           
int]national trade or comm]ce  betwe5   
diff]5t c\ntries4 ,sid5ote3 ,inv5tions  
:i* h help$  comm]ce to gr[4 ,?is wid5+ 
kept /ep ) improvem5ts 9 !  me?ods (    
transportation f pack-horse to wagon1 f 
wagon to  railroad1 & f sail+ vessel to 
/eam%ip4 ,! expansion ( trade  0 also   
aid$ by ! gr[? ( /rong gov]nm5ts :i*    
protect$ !  trad] & made ! pa?s (       
comm]ce safe4 ,likewise ! g5]al use (   
money facilitat$ ! op]ations ( trade2 s 
did ! creation ( a  sy/em ( comm]cial   

cr$it4 ,)\t railroads & /eam%ips1 law & 
ord]1 money & cr$it1 x w\ld n be        
possible to c>ry on comm]ce  z we h x   
today4 ,if ! _w c fe$ & clo! & %elt] an 
enorm\sly great] population ?an x c\ld  
two hundr$ ye>s ago ?is  is n because ! 
p "w h>d]2 x is because !y "w m         
intellig5tly & because !y h creat$ t    
gigantic sy/em (  economic co-op]ation  
:i* we call comm]ce4    ,sid5ote3       
,comm]ce includes ex*ange4    ,! ,scope 
( ,comm]ce4--,x is an error to suppose t
 comm]ce is  conc]n$ only ) !           
transportation ( goods4 ,its scope is f>
 wid]4  ,comm]ce includes n only ! mov+ 
( goods b ! :ole process (  buy+ &      
sell+4 ,:olesal]s1 jobb]s1 retail]s1    
toge!r ) all  ^? :o "w = !m are engag$ 9
 comm]ce4 ,n only are !  /eam%ip l9es1 !
 railroads1 & ! motor trucks entitl$ to 
be  call$ ag5cies ( comm]ce1 b !        
telegraph & telephone sy/ems z  well4 ,!
 pipe l9es :i* c>ry oil f ! dep?s ( !   
e>? to !  great cities are              
in/rum5talities ( comm]ce2 s are ! gas  

ma9s 9  ! /reets1 ! subways1 & ! /reet  
c>s4 ,! po/al s]vice1  likewise1 is "o (
 ! mo/ important factors 9 exp$it+      
comm]cial  transactions4    ,sid5ote3 ,x
 dep5ds ^u curr5cy & cr$it4    ,comm]ce 
_c be c>ri$ on1 at lea/ 9 any l>ge      
measure1 )\t  curr5cy & cr$it4 ,h5ce !  
:ole sy/em ( money & bank+ l9ks  itself 
up closely ) comm]cial organization4    
,goods are b\ght on  cr$it by !         
:olesal]1 & sold on cr$it to ! retail   
m]*ant :o1  9 turn1 (t5 sells on cr$it  
to 8 cu/om]s4 ,! banks & o!r  cr$it     
in/itutions provide ! money to c>ry on  
^! op]ations (  trade4 ,s :5 "o takes   
all ^! ?+s into acc\nt x w be se5  t a  
consid]able proportion ( ! p are engag$ 
9 "o or  ano!r ( ! v>i\s bran*es (      
comm]ce4    ,sid5ote3 ,local1 int]/ate1 
& int]national comm]ce4    ,! ,?ree     
,fields ( ,comm]ce4--,9 ord] to cl>ify !
 relations (  gov]nm5t to comm]ce x is  
necess>y1 at ! outset1 to di/+ui%       
betwe5 ?ree fields or types ( comm]ce4  
,! fir/ is local or  intra-/ate comm]ce1

 :i* comprises all ! trad+ op]ations    
c>ri$ on )9 ! b\nd>ies ( a s+le /ate4   
,goods produc$ 9  ,pittsburgh & m>ket$ 9
 ,philadelphia are said to be )9 ! sph]e
  ( local or intra-/ate comm]ce4 ,z su* 
!y are :olly )9 !  jurisdiction ( ! /ate
 ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,9 ! second place !re  
is  a l>ge am\nt ( comm]ce :i*1 orig9at+
 9 "o /ate1 crosses into  ano!r4 ,%oes  
made 9 ,massa*usetts are %ipp$ to       
,indiana2 cotton  gr[n 9 ,georgia is s5t
 to ,new ,york to be manufactur$4 ,?is  
is call$  national or int]-/ate comm]ce 
& x is "u ! jurisdiction (  ! f$]al     
gov]nm5t4 ,f9ally1 trade is c>ri$ on    
betwe5 ! ,unit$  ,/ates & =eign c\ntries
 & ?is is kn[n z int]national  comm]ce4 
,x also is subject to regulation by !   
f$]al gov]nm5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,! /ate    
gov]nm5ts control local comm]ce4        
,local ,comm]ce4--,ea* /ate makes       
provision = ! enc\ragem5t &  regulation 
( comm]ce )9 its own t]ritory4 ,!       
communities & !  /ate provide ! improv$ 
roads :i* are ess5tial = trade betwe5   

c\ntry & t[n4 ,! developm5t ( motor c>s1
 motor trucks1 &  suburban trolley l9es 
has greatly increas$ ! facility ) :i*   
?is trade c be c>ri$ on4 ,ea* /ate1     
aga91 has control ov] !  /reet railways1
 %ort-l9e railroads1 & o!r *annels (    
comm]ce  )9 its own bord]s4 ,?is control
 is ex]cis$ ?r\gh provisions (  laws    
made by ! /ate legislatures1 b !        
en=cem5t ( ^!  regulations is usually   
plac$ 9 ! h&s ( "o or m bo>ds1  commonly
 kn[n z public s]vice commissions 7see  
pp4 #dhj-dha74 ,x is  ! duty ( ^!       
commissions to see t ! rates *>g$ are   
reasonable & t adequate s]vice is r5d]$4
 ,! jurisdiction (  ! /ate au?orities1 x
 %\ld be repeat$1 does n ext5d ov] any  
comm]cial op]ations :i* are n /rictly   
local2 if ! comm]ce  conc]ns m ?an a    
s+le /ate x c be regulat$ only by !     
national gov]nm5t4                      
,,int]/ate ,,comm]ce ,,& ,,! ,,railroads
    ,sid5ote3 ,int]/ate comm]ce 9 e>ly  
days4    ,int]/ate ,comm]ce4--,dur+ !   
ye>s :i* imm$iately foll[$ !            

,revolution>y ,w> ! sev]al /ates 7 free 
to make _! own  regulations = !         
enc\ragem5t & control ( comm]ce4        
,accord+ly  !y began to compete ) "o    
ano!r = trade1 ea* try+ to  increase its
 own prosp]ity at ! exp5se ( ! o!rs4    
,?is l$ to  ill-feel+1 ( c\rse1 & f9ally
 to retaliation4 ,"o /ate w\ld  (f]     
inducem5ts to br+ vessels into its      
ports2 ! o!rs1 9  self-def5ce1 held out 
ev5 great] inducem5ts4 ,?is rivalry soon
 got  to ! po9t :]e x look$ z if "s ( ! 
/ates might come to  bl[s4#afj ,s1 :5 ! 
fram]s ( ! national con/itution met at  
,philadelphia 9 #aghg1 !y gave p>ticul> 
att5tion to ! problem (  end+ ?is       
un:olesome rivalry by plac+ ! regulation
 ( all  int]/ate & =eign comm]ce "u a   
s+le1 c5tral au?ority4    ,sid5ote3 ,!  
con/itution places int]/ate comm]ce "u  
f$]al             control4    ,!        
national con/itution1 !re=e1 transf]r$  
?is regulat+ p[]  f ! /ates to          
,congress1 by ve/+ 9 x ! p[] 8to        
regulate  comm]ce ) =eign nations1 &    

among ! sev]al /ates1 & )  ! ,indian    
tribes04 ,?is is a v important provision
 9 ! supreme  law ( ! l&1 & x has _h a  
f>-rea*+ influ5ce 9 build+ up  ! comm]ce
 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,"o c realize :at   
might h  happ5$ if e /ate _h be5 left at
 lib]ty to put duties ^u  goods import$ 
f o!r /ates & to be/[ all sorts (       
advantages  ^u its own m]*ants4 ,"u su* 
an arrangem5t a closely-knit1  unifi$   
c\ntry w\ld h be5 impossible1 = fre$om (
 trade )9  a nation is an indisp5sable  
factor 9 br++ ! :ole p into  close &    
fri5dly relations4 ,! adoption ( ?is    
clause 9 !  national con/itution meant t
 all trade1 f "o end ( ! l& to  ! o!r1  
c\ld be c>ri$ on freely1 )\t let or     
h9drance1 subject  only to su* uni=m    
regulations z ,congress might provide4  
,sid5ote3 ,?is control is n[ v ext5sive4
    ,9 ! days :5 ! national con/itution 
0 adopt$1 ! c>ri]s (  comm]ce 7 few &   
primitive4 ,trade betwe5 diff]5t /ates 0
  conduct$ by wagon & sail+ vessels2 !re
 7 no railroads1  /eam%ips1 /reet c>s1  

motor trucks1 telegraphs1 telephones1 or
  p>cels po/4 ,! co/ ( transport+ goods 
0 s great t x did  n pay to %ip !m f>4  
,goods 7 made almo/ :olly = ! local     
m>ket4 ,b :5 ! con/itution end[$        
,congress ) ! p[] 8to  regulate comm]ce0
 x gave to ?is body a "r :i* has be5    
suffici5tly broad to cov] all ! great   
developm5ts ( ! pa/  hundr$ ye>s4       
,:atev] comes )9 ! t]m 8comm]ce01 no    
matt]  h[soev] c>ri$ on1 is )9 ! purview
 ( ,congress if x conc]ns  m ?an a s+le 
/ate4    ,a l>ge "p ( ! comm]ce ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates today does conc]n  m ?an a
 s+le /ate4 ,! great railroads trav]se  
sev]al /ates1  sometimes a doz5 or m (  
!m4 ,goods s5t f ,new ,york to ,los     
,angeles pass ?r\gh t5 or twelve /ates  
on _! j\rney4 ,ev5 /reet  c> l9es       
sometimes cross ! /ate b\nd>ies4 ,to !  
trad] a /ate  b\nd>y means no?+2 x is   
only a m>k on ! map4 ,trade moves  :]ev]
 ! *ance ( pr(it appe>s4 ,x pays no     
att5tion to political  divisions )9 !   
c\ntry4    ,sid5ote3 ,:at int]/ate      

comm]ce includes4    ,int]/ate comm]ce1 
!n1 includes all ag5cies ( trade among !
  /ates3 /eam%ips1 sail+ vessels1       
railroads1 /reet railways1 motor        
trucks1 telegraphs1 telephone sy/ems1   
oil pipel9es1 p[] l9es1 &  all pass5g]s1
 goods1 messages1 or any?+ else c>ri$ by
 !m4 ,all  p]sons :o h to d ) su* ?+s   
are engag$ 9 int]/ate  comm]ce4 ,b      
int]/ate comm]ce does n include !       
manufacture (  goods 9 any /ate1 ev5    
?\gh !y be int5d$ = sale 9 o!r  /ates4  
,comm]ce does n beg9 until ! product is 
f9i%$ &  />t$ on its way4 ,once />t$ on 
_! way1 ) a de/9ation 9  ano!r /ate1 !  
goods pass "u ! sup]vision ( ! national 
gov]nm5t4 ,pass5g]s travel+ f ,*icago to
 ,/4 ,l\is1 or goods  %ipp$ f "o ( ^!   
cities to ! o!r1 or messages ex*ang$    
betwe5 !m by telegraph1 = example1 are  
"u ! sup]vision ( !  national gov]nm5t f
 />t to f9i%4 ,ill9ois & ,miss\ri h     
no?+ to d ) !m4    ,sid5ote3 ,railroads 
& /eam%ips 7 at fir/ n regulat$4    ,h[ 
,int]/ate ,comm]ce is ,regulat$4--,= _m 

ye>s aft] !  con/itution 0 adopt$ !re 0 
no ne$ = ! regulation (  int]/ate       
comm]ce because s little ( x 0 c>ri$ on4
 ,n until  ! era ( /eam%ips & railroads 
did comm]ce develop to a po9t  :]e any  
/rict regulation 0 necess>y4 ,! e>lie/  
railroads1  moreov]1 7 %ort l9es        
con/ruct$ & op]at$ :olly )9 s+le  /ates4
 ,!y 7 built by corporations "u *>t]s   
grant$ by !  /ates4 ,frequ5tly ^! *>t]s 
7 giv5 = an indef9ite t]m1 &  !y plac$  
no limits ^u ! rates :i* ! railroad     
might *>ge =  ! transportation (        
pass5g]s & goods4 ,! *ief conc]n ( !  p 
9 ^? days 0 to get railroads built4 ,z  
"t w5t on1  h[ev]1 ! /ate au?orities    
became m /rict 9 grant+ *>t]s  = !      
con/ruction ( railroads &1 f9ally1 mo/ (
 !m e/abli%$  commissions to protect    
pass5g]s & %ipp]s f unreasonable rates4 
,mean:ile1 h[ev]1 ano!r developm5t 0 go+
 on1 namely1 !  consolidation ( ^! small
 railroads into trunk l9es or long      
/ret*es ( railway4 ,! reason = ?is      
consolidation 0 !  opportunity to make  

l>g] e>n+s f ?r\gh traffic & at ! same  
"t to give bett] s]vice4 ,! op5+-up ( ! 
,we/ l$ to !  build+ ( new trunk l9es & 
to fur!r consolidations1 especially     
dur+ ! ye>s imm$iately foll[+ ! ,civil  
,w>4 ,9 ?is way s+le  railroads spread  
!mselves f> outside ! t]ritory ( a s+le 
/ate2  _! tracks ran into _m /ates4     
,sid5ote3 ,b ?is fre$om f  control 0    
abus$4 ,! corporations controll+ su*    
trunk l9es  became big & p[]ful4 ,!y    
fix$ rates to suit !mselves & (t5       
favor$ "o section ( ! c\ntry at ! exp5se
 ( o!rs1 or gave to  l>ge %ipp]s an     
undue advantage ov] ! small]4#afa ,:]e  
!re 0  b "o railroad 9 any di/rict      
ev]yone 0 at its m]cy4 ,exorbitant      
rates c\ld be *>g$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :]e   
!re 7 compet+  l9es betwe5 two cities ! 
rivalry ( ! roads (t5 =c$ ! rates  d[n  
to a po9t :]e goods 7 c>ri$ at a loss4  
,sometimes !  compet+ roads1 realiz+ !  
folly ( ?is competition1 =m$ a  8pool0  
or agreem5t to %>e ! traffic            
proportionately1 & !n ea*  put up its   

rates to a high level4 ,^! practices 7  
inimical to !  be/ int]e/s ( comm]ce4   
,!y gave rise to s mu* compla9t t       
,congress ev5tually respond$ by plac+ ! 
int]/ate railroads "u  gov]nm5t         
regulation4 ,?is x did by ! ,int]/ate   
,comm]ce ,act (  #ahhg4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
beg9n+s ( f$]al regulation4    ,!       
,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,act ( #ahhg4--;,by !
 provisions ( ?is act &  ! v>i\s        
am5dm5ts :i* h be5 made to x dur+ ! pa/ 
?irty-five ye>s1 all corporations engag$
 9 int]/ate comm]ce  7:i* includes n    
only railroad companies1 b express1     
sleep+ c>1  telegraph1 & telephone      
companies7 mu/ ma9ta9 reasonable rates2 
mu/  make ^! rates public2 & mu/ n      
discrim9ate 9 favor ( any  locality or  
%ipp]4 ,! =mation ( 8pools0 is illegal2 
! grant+  ( free passes to o!r ?an      
railroad (ficials is =bidd52 & all  !   
important activities ( ! railroads are  
subject to gov]nm5tal  sup]vision4 ,^!  
v>i\s provisions 7 n all enact$ 9 #ahhg4
 ,!  legislation ( t date m]ely made a  

sub/antial beg9n+4 ,sev]al  am5d+ laws1 
pass$ f "t to "t dur+ ! pa/ ?irty-five  
ye>s1 h /eadily ext5d$ ! scope (        
regulation & h also  endeavor$ to secure
 great] safety 9 ! op]ation ( !         
railroads4    ,sid5ote3 ,organization & 
"w ( ! ,i4 ,c4 ,c4    ,! ,int]/ate      
,comm]ce ,commission4--,congress realiz$
 9 #ahhg t x  0 n en\gh to pass a       
regulatory law2 x mu/ also provide "s   
means  ( en=c+ ! regulations4 ,s a bo>d1
 kn[n z ! ,int]/ate  ,comm]ce           
,commission1 0 e/abli%$ & x has n[      
become "o ( !  mo/ p[]ful regulat+      
bodies 9 ! _w4 ,at ! outset x _h five   
memb]s2 n[ x has elev54 ,!y are appo9t$ 
by ! ,presid5t4 ,!  commission's        
function is1 9 g5]al1 to see t !        
national laws  relat+ to c>ri]s (       
int]/ate comm]ce are /rictly obs]v$4 ,x 
fixes ! maximum rates1 he>s compla9ts1  
adju/s disagreem5ts1 &  prev5ts         
discrim9ation4 ,9 ! case ( ! railroads  
its p[]s h  rec5tly be5 wid5$ by !      
provisions ( ! ,transportation ,act (   

#aibj1 z w be se5 pres5tly4    ,sid5ote3
 ,me?ods by :i* railroads consolidat$4  
,railroad ,consolidation & ! ,%]man     
,act4--,!re are at lea/ ?ree  ways 9 :i*
 railroad consolidations h be5 effect$ 9
 ! ,unit$  ,/ates4 ,! fir/ & simple/    
me?od has be5 outright pur*ase1 "o      
railroad buy+ up ano!r4 ,! second is by 
lease1 "o road leas+  ano!r = a long t]m
 ( ye>s1 ?us becom+ ! virtual own]4 ,!  
?ird is by =m+ :at is commonly call$ a  
8hold+ company0 :i*  /eps 9 & takes !   
controll+ own]%ip ( bo? roads4 ,9 ?is   
case  nei!r road buys or leases ! o!r1 b
 bo? put !mselves into !  control ( a   
new corporation :i* proce$s to h ! l9es 
op]at$  z ?\gh !y =m$ a s+le road4 ,!   
objection to ^!  consolidations is t1 9 
_m cases1 !y /ifle competition &  create
 a monopoly4    ,sid5ote3 ,! ,%]man     
,act4    ,s ,congress 9 #ahij enact$ !  
,%]man ,anti-,tru/ ,act1 a measure :i*  
al?\gh x 0 n prim>ily aim$ at !         
railroads1 prohibit$ all  comb9ations 9 
re/ra9t ( trade or comm]ce among !      

sev]al /ates4  ,sid5ote3 ,! ,nor!rn     
,securities ,case4 ,= sev]al ye>s1      
h[ev]1  ?is law 0 left un5=c$1 b 9 #aijd
 x 0 invok$ 9 ! ,nor!rn  ,securities    
,case to dissolve a comb9ation ( two    
great railroads1 !  ,nor!rn ,pacific & !
 ,great ,nor!rn1 bo? ( :i* _h pass$ into
  ! control ( a hold+ company4 ,!       
,supreme ,c\rt held !  consolidation to 
be illegal & ord]$ t ! roads %\ld be    
re/or$ to a competitive basis4 ,! same  
process 0 appli$ to v>i\s  o!r roads :i*
 _h be5 m]g$ 9 ! ye>s foll[+ #ahij & a  
g5]al 8unscrambl+ ( omelets0 took place4
    ,railroad competition1 h[ev]1 is (t5
 wa/eful & actually results 9  high]    
rates4 ,to consolidate two or m small   
railroads into a l>g]  "o may actually  
*eap5 r ?an increase ! co/ (            
transportation4 ,! practical problem is 
to p]mit consolidation 9 su*  cases :ile
 prev5t+ x 9 o!rs4 ,?is 0 :at ! ,supreme
 ,c\rt 0  endeavor+ to d by a flexible  
en=cem5t ( ! ,anti-,tru/ ,act :5  ! ,_w 
,w> broke out & creat$ new problems4    

,sid5ote3 ,gov]nm5t op]ation ( !        
railroads1#aiag-aibj4    ,! ,railroads 9
 ,w> ,"t4--,9 #aiag1 :5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
ent]$ !  w>1 x seem$ advisable t        
,congress %\ld place 9 ! h&s ( !        
,presid5t a wide range ( au?ority 9     
connection ) ! mobilization  &          
transportation ( troops & w> supplies4  
,by virtue ( ^! p[]s  ,presid5t ,wilson1
 9 ! clos+ days ( ! same ye>1 took ov] !
  op]ation ( all ! important railroads 9
 ! c\ntry & plac$ !m  9 *>ge ( a        
director-g5]al appo9t$ by himself4 ,! "q
 (  comp5sat+ ! own]s ( ! railroads 0   
settl$ by provid+ t  !y %\ld receive an 
annual paym5t equal to ! av]age net     
e>n+s  ( ! ?ree prec$+ ye>s4 ,x 0 also  
/ipulat$ t ! railroads  %\ld be giv5    
back to _! own]s 9 z good physical      
condition z  :5 !y 7 tak5 ov]1 ?is      
return to be made )9 tw5ty-"o  mon?s    
aft] ! close ( ! w>4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[   
?is plan work$4    ,dur+ ! :ole ( ! ye>s
 #aiah-aiai ! railroads 7 op]at$ by  !  
gov]nm5t4 ,f ! /&po9t ( pr(it-mak+1     

gov]nm5t  op]ation did n prove a        
success4 ,! co/ ( labor & mat]ials rose 
enorm\sly dur+ ! w> & cont9u$ to rise   
aft] ! fight+  end$4 ,b pass5g] &       
freight rates 7 n proportionally        
increas$1 h5ce !re 0 a l>ge deficit :i* 
_h to be paid out (  ! gov]nm5t         
treasury4 ,! s]vice giv5 to ! public by 
!  railroads :ile !y 7 op]at$ by !      
gov]nm5t1 moreov]1 0 n  v satisfactory2 
al?\gh 9 p>tial explanation ( ?is x mu/ 
be  rememb]$ t ! c>ry+ ( troops &       
supplies dur+ #aiah plac$ a  great /ra9 
^u ! :ole transportation sy/em4         
,sid5ote3 ,! ,plumb ,plan4    ,b if     
gov]nm5t op]ation 0 n altoge!r          
satisfactory to  pass5g]s & %ipp]s1 x 0 
popul> ) ! railroad employees4  ,!y 7   
mu* m g5]\sly treat$ "u gov]nm5t        
op]ation ?an  !y _h be5 :5 ! roads 7 9  
private h&s4 ,"s ( _!  lead]s accord+ly 
br\ght =w>d a plan :i* propos$ t ! roads
  %\ld n be h&$ back to private op]ation
 b %\ld be pur*as$  by ! gov]nm5t &     
manag$ by jo9t bo>ds repres5t+ !        

gov]nm5t1 ! employees1 & ! public4 ,?is 
proposal 0 commonly  kn[n z ! ,plumb    
,plan4 ,x _h ! support n only ( !       
railroad  bro!rhoods1 or organizations (
 railroad employees1 b ( o!r labor      
bodies z well4 ,congress1 h[ev]1 did n  
fall 9 ) ?is s*eme &  decid$ to deal ) !
 railroads 9 an altoge!r diff]5t way4   
,sid5ote3 ,! return ( ! railroads to    
private op]ation4    ,! ,transportation 
,act ( #aibj4--,! railroads 7 return$ to
 private  op]ation 9 ! spr+ ( #aibj "u !
 provisions ( !  ,transportation ,act4  
,?is legislation gave ! ,int]/ate       
,comm]ce  ,commission complete au?ority 
ov] ! fix+ ( railroad rates b  /ipulat$ 
t !y %\ld be high en\gh to enable !     
railroads 9  ea* section ( ! c\ntry to  
e>n a net income ( five & "o-half  p]   
c5t on _! valuation & a fur!r am\nt1 n  
to exce$ "o-half  ( "o p] c5t =         
improvem5ts at ! discretion ( !         
commission =  two ye>s f ,m>* #a1       
#aiba4afb ,! act conta9$ two new & v    
important provisions4 ,sid5ote3 ,!      

,railway ,labor ,bo>d4 ,x /ipulat$  t a 
,railway ,labor ,bo>d %\ld be e/abli%$1 
consi/+ ( n9e  memb]s appo9t$ by !      
,presid5t4 ,?is bo>d has ! function (   
adju/+ disputes betwe5 ! railroads & _! 
employees conc]n+  wages or conditions (
 labor4#afc ,x also conta9$ provisions  
all[+  ! consolidation ( railroads 9 ea*
 section ( ! c\ntry ) !  cons5t ( !     
,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission4         
,sid5ote3 ,! importance ( ! railroads to
 indu/ry4    ,! ,future ( !             
,railroads4--,! railroads are !         
comm]cial art]ies  ( ! nation4 ,"s idea 
( _! importance may be ga9$ f ! fact  t 
! railroads ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates c>ry a    
billion pass5g]s ea*  ye> & ne>ly two   
billion tons ( freight4 ,_! mileage is  
great]  ?an t ( ! railroads 9 ! :ole (  
,europe4 ,if all ! tracks (  ,am]ican   
railroads 7 plac$ end to end1 !y w\ld   
girdle ! e>?  eight or t5 times4 ,!y    
repres5t a huge inve/m5t (              
capital--ne>ly  tw5ty billions--or ne>ly
 z mu* z ! entire national debt4 ,x is  

true t a good deal ( our comm]ce is n[  
c>ri$ on by /eam%ips1  canal boats1     
motor trucks1 & electric railways1 b we 
/ill place  great] dep5d5ce ^u !        
railroads ?an ^u all ^! o!r c>ri]s  put 
toge!r4 ,reasonable freight rates & good
 s]vice are ess5tial to  ! progress (   
indu/ry4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x is imp]ative
 t  !re %\ld be gov]nm5tal control 9 !  
int]e/s ( pass5g]s &  %ipp]s4 ,on ! o!r 
h& ! railroads1 to p]=m _! s]vice       
adequately1 mu/ be assur$ a suffici5t   
rev5ue & giv5 due scope =  ! ex]cise (  
private initiative4    ,sid5ote3 ,motor 
competition4    ,! railroads h be5      
compell$1 9 rec5t ye>s1 to face a new =m
  ( competition1 t ( motor c>s & motor  
trucks4 ,^! h a great  advantage 9 t !y 
use highways :i* h be5 built entirely at
  ! public exp5se1 :]eas ! railroads h  
to buy ! l& on :i*  _! tracks are laid &
 pay ! co/ ( ma9ta9+ _! roadb$4 ,!  use 
( ! public highways = freight-c>ry+ by  
heavy motor trucks  imposes a heavy co/ 
^u ! taxpay] = ! repair ( roads4#afd    

,,int]national ,,trade ,,& ,,t>iff      
,,policy    ,sid5ote3 ,! beg9n+s (      
,am]ican =eign trade4    ,int]national  
,comm]ce3 ,its ,beg9n+s4--,be=e !       
,revolution a  consid]able am\nt ( trade
 0 c>ri$ on betwe5 ! ,am]ican  colonies 
& v>i\s ,european c\ntries1 *iefly      
,great ,brita94 ,aft]  ! w9n+ (         
indep5d5ce ?is =eign comm]ce began to   
gr[ rapidly  because ! h9drances t _h   
=m]ly be5 impos$ ^u x 7 n[  remov$4     
,moreov]1 ! ,napoleonic w>s 9 ,europe   
br\ght ab\t an  enorm\s increase 9 !    
dem& = ,am]ican food/uffs4 ,^! w>s      
ret>d$ agriculture 9 ,europe & =c$ !    
v>i\s c\ntries to  import supplies f    
ov]seas4 ,am]ican %ipp+ develop$ greatly
  dur+ ! p]iod #agij-ahje1 b x !reaft]  
receiv$ a set-back ow+  to ! blockades &
 ! ,emb>go ,act ( #ahjg1 foll[$ a few   
ye>s lat]  by a f\r-ye>s' w> ) ,engl&4  
,t>iff ,policy4--,dur+ ! p]iod          
imm$iately prec$+ ! fram+ (  !          
con/itution ea* ( ! ?irte5 /ates 0 free 
to regulate its  own comm]cial          

relations4 ,ea* det]m9$ = itself :e!r x 
w\ld  p]mit imports to come 9 freely f  
o!r /ates & o!r c\ntries  or :e!r x w\ld
 impose duties on su* imports4 ,sid5ote3
 ,!  con/itution emp[]s ,congress to    
regulate =eign trade4 ,?is  arrangem5t  
prov$ altoge!r unsatisfactory & !       
con/itution gave  to ,congress complete 
au?ority to control comm]ce ) =eign     
c\ntries & among ! /ates4 ,?is action 0 
tak5 prim>ily to  af=d ,congress an     
adequate rev5ue 9 ! way ( taxes on      
imports1  al?\gh x 0 also design$ to put
 an end to undue comm]cial rivalry      
among ! /ates !mselves4 ,9 #agib1 !re=e1
 ,congress pass$ our  fir/ t>iff law1 a 
measure design$ ma9ly to br+ =? income =
  ! new f$]al gov]nm5t b also to af=d   
protection to ,am]ican  indu/ries4      
,sid5ote3 ,?is is done by t>iffs4 ,?is  
act ( #agib m>ks  ! beg9n+ ( a long l9e 
( t>iff measures1 "s impos+ high  duties
 on imports & "s sett+ ^! duties at l[] 
rates4#afe    ,sid5ote3 ,! ,t>iff       
,commission4    ,! mak+ ( ! t>iff is 9 !

 h&s ( ,congress b ! function (  /udy+ !
 indu/rial ne$s ( ! c\ntry is entru/$ to
 a ,t>iff  ,commission ( six memb]s     
appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t4 ,?is commission 
is  emp[]$ to make recomm5dations to    
,congress1 b ,congress is "u no         
obligation to foll[ its advice nor has x
 usually done s4 ,t>iff rates  are fix$1
 = ! mo/ "p1 9 ob$i5ce to political     
pressure4    ,sid5ote3 ,! case =        
protection4    ,! ,argum5t = ,protective
 ,t>iffs4--,:y %\ld ,am]ican indu/ry be 
giv5 protection by t>iff duties aga9/   
=eign competition8 ,!  answ] to ?is "q 0
 fir/ giv5 by ,alex&] ,hamilton 9 8     
fam\s ,report on ,manufactures 7#agij7 &
 x has be5 elaborat$ by  _m writ]s s9ce 
,hamilton's "t4 ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,x        
develops "y  indu/ries4 ,! *ief argum5ts
 9 favor ( protection are t x  helps    
home indu/ry1 develops a home m>ket1    
raises wages & keeps !m  high1 provides 
employm5t = a c\ntry's own workm51 &    
makes a  c\ntry indep5d5t ( o!rs4       
,protection1 x is claim$1 helps new     

indu/ries or 8infant indu/ries0 to get  
on _! feet4 ,^! new  indu/ries1 if n    
%ield$ aga9/ ! pressure ( =eign         
competition  9 _! e>ly /ages w\ld be    
unable to make headway1 b if giv5       
adequate protection = a "t !y ultimately
 get well e/abli%$ &  add to ! nation's 
indu/rial /r5g?4 ,?is indu/rial gr[?1 x 
is  argu$1 helps ! f>m] by creat+ a home
 m>ket = 8 agricultural  produce4 ,!    
gr[? ( indu/ry creates l>ge cities & ^! 
c5t]s  ( population =m ! f>m]'s be/     
m>ket4    ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,x keeps wages  
up4    ,^? :o favor ! policy (          
protection also argue t if high duties  
7 n impos$ ^u imports f o!r c\ntries1 ! 
wages ( !  ,am]ican workman w\ld fall & 
_m w\ld be out ( employm5t4 ,until      
rec5t ye>s ! g5]al rate ( wages 9       
,european c\ntries has be5  mu* l[] ?an 
9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b s9ce ! ,_w ,w> !   
disp>ity has n be5 s great4 ,! l[] wages
 ( labor 9 ,europe h  enabl$ goods to be
 produc$ m *eaply !re ?an 9 ,am]ica1 &  
7 x n = ! protective t>iff1 ! ,unit$    

,/ates w\ld be  flood$ ) ^! products (  
und]paid ,european work]s4 ,9 ! end  !  
,am]ican scale ( wages w\ld be =c$ d[n  
to ! same level--s  ! protectioni/s     
argue4    ,sid5ote3 #c4 ,x promotes an  
all-ar\nd economic developm5t4          
,f9ally1 !re is ! nationali/ argum5t =  
protection4 ,to be /rong  & indep5d5t a 
c\ntry ought to h an all-ar\nd economic 
developm5t4 ,its p ought n to devote _! 
entire en]gies to  agriculture alone4   
,all bran*es ( economic life ought to be
 fo/]$  toge!r4 ,a c\ntry %\ld aim to   
provide1 s f> z possible1 = all  its own
 ne$s2 x %\ld n be dep5d5t on o!r       
c\ntries = its  food supply1 its        
manufactur$ goods1 or its %ipp+4 ,x is  
difficult  = a c\ntry to rea* ?is       
condition ( affairs 9 any case1 & ev5 a 
ne> approa* to x c only be a*iev$ by !  
artificial nurture (  ! weak] economic  
activities1 :i* is :at ! protective     
t>iff  endeavors to supply4    ,sid5ote3
 ,! case aga9/ protection3    ,!        
,argum5t = ,free ,trade4--,al?\gh !     

=ego+ argum5ts =  protection h c>ri$    
great weight 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ !   
pa/ fifty ye>s !re are _m ,am]icans :o  
believe t trade )  =eign c\ntries ought 
to be free f all t>iff duties1 or1 at   
any  rate1 free f all duties except su* 
z may be ne$$ to provide a  rev5ue4     
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,x creates artificial     
economic conditions4 ,^?  :o believe 9  
8free trade01 or 9 a 8t>iff = rev5ue    
only0 make !  po9t t e c\ntry ought to  
devote itself to ^? indu/ries  :i* x c  
c>ry on mo/ advantage\sly & %\ld n try  
to produce  = itself ! ?+s :i* c m      
*eaply be import$ f o!r  c\ntries4      
,protection1 !y claim1 m]ely div]ts     
capital & labor into  indu/ries = :i* a 
c\ntry is n naturally adapt$1 & ?us     
makes  production exp5sive4 ,sid5ote3   
#b4 ,x keeps prices up4 ,x keeps wages  
up by keep+ prices up1 & ?us deprives ! 
workman ( ! advantage  :i* high wages   
are suppos$ to br+4 ,sid5ote3 #c4 ,x    
fo/]s  indu/rial monopolies4 ,! policy (
 protection is also criticis$ on  !     

gr\nd t x fo/]s ! creation ( great      
indu/rial  comb9ations1 leads to !      
e/abli%m5t ( monopolies1 & enc\rages    
corruption 9 politics by giv+ p>ticul>  
indu/ries a f9ancial  int]e/ 9          
gov]nm5tal action4 ,! free trad]s       
believe t !re is  no m reason =         
protective duties ^u trade betwe5       
diff]5t  nations ?an !re is = simil>    
duties ^u trade among ! sev]al  /ates ( 
! ,union4    ,sid5ote3 ,:y =eign trade  
is important4    ,! ,enc\ragem5t (      
,=eign ,comm]ce4--,! "w ( ! national    
gov]nm5t is n conf9$ to ! regulation &  
re/riction (  comm]ce2 x is conc]n$ ) ! 
enc\ragem5t & promotion ( trade  z well4
 ,?is promotion ( =eign trade is an     
important bran* ( !  gov]nm5t's "w      
because ! prosp]ity ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates   
dep5ds to  a consid]able ext5t ^u its   
comm]ce ) o!r c\ntries4 ,am]ica         
produces a l>ge surplus ( gra91 meat1   
cotton1 & o!r m]*&ise  :i* mu/ be m>ket$
 abroad4 ,on ! o!r h& !re are _m        
commodities1 su* z sug>1 tea1 c(fee1    

rubb]1 & silk :i* _c  be produc$ 9      
suffici5t quantities "h & h5ce mu/ be   
import$4  ,! aim ( ! gov]nm5t is to help
 our export]s f9d ! be/ =eign  m>kets = 
_! goods & to facilitate ! acquisition (
 su*  =eign products z ! c\ntry         
requires4 ,?is help is r5d]$ 9  v>i\s   
ways1 by mak+ comm]cial treaties ) =eign
 c\ntries1 by  ma9ta9+ a consul> s]vice1
 by giv+ enc\ragem5t to ,am]ican  %ipp+1
 & by ! creation ( a ,dep>tm5t (        
,comm]ce 9 !  national adm9i/ration4#aff
    ,comm]cial ,treaties4--,f "t to "t !
 ,unit$ ,/ates has  e/abli%$1 by treaty1
 comm]cial relations ) o!r c\ntries4 ,^!
  treaties are made = ! mutual advantage
 ( bo? p>ties4 ,!y usually  provide t   
citiz5s ( ea* c\ntry may c>ry on trade )
 "o  ano!r subject to ! e/abli%$ t>iffs1
 & t !re %all be no  gov]nm5tal         
discrim9ation aga9/ su* trade4#afg ,!y  
all[ ea*  c\ntry to ma9ta9 consuls 9 !  
t]ritory ( ! o!r4 ,on a few  occasions !
 ,unit$ ,/ates has conclud$ reciprocity 
treaties provid+  = reciprocal free     

trade1 9 :ole or 9 "p1 ) o!r c\ntries4  
,an  arrangem5t ( ?is sort 0 made )     
,canada 9 #ahed b 0 br\ght to  an end   
twelve ye>s lat]4    ,! ,consul>        
,s]vice4--,comm]ce ) =eign c\ntries is  
assi/$ &  facilitat$ by ! consul>       
s]vice4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ma9ta9s consuls
  9 all important =eign c\ntries & ^!   
c\ntries1 9 turn1 s5d  _! consuls "h4   
,!re are sev]al classes ( (ficials 9 !  
consul> s]vice2 ! m important are       
consuls-g5]al1 consuls1 &  consul>      
ag5ts4 ,consuls-g5]al are /ation$ at !  
l>g] =eign  ports & ex]cise a g5]al     
sup]vision ov] consuls 9 _!  respective 
di/ricts4 ,consuls & consul> ag5ts are  
ma9ta9$ 9 less  important =eign c5t]s ( 
trade4 ,sid5ote3 ,h[ consuls are        
appo9t$4 ,all memb]s ( ! ,am]ican       
consul> s]vice are appo9t$  by !        
,presid5t1 b s9ce #aijf ! selections h  
be5 made by  competitive exam9ations = !
 l[] grades & by promotion = !  high]4  
,sid5ote3 ,_! duties4    ,memb]s ( !    
consul> s]vice ga!r in=mation conc]n+   

trade  opportunities & s5d ?is in=mation
 to ,wa%+ton :]e x is  pr9t$ & di/ribut$
 to ,am]ican m]*ants & manufactur]s4    
,consuls  v]ify ! invoices ( goods %ipp$
 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates s z to avoid  delay 
at ! cu/om h\se4 ,!y assi/ ,am]ican     
citiz5s :o may be  travel+ abroad1      
p>ticul>ly ^? :o g abroad to buy        
m]*&ise4  ,9 a ^w !y are ! s5t9els (    
,am]ican =eign comm]ce4    ,until #aijf 
! ,am]ican consul> s]vice 0 n highly    
effici5t  because ! appo9tm5t ( consuls 
0 usually made on political  gr\nds4 ,m5
 :o _h r5d]$ s]vice 9 p>ty politics 7   
(t5 giv5  important consul> positions   
al?\gh possess$ ( no real               
qualifications = ! "w :i* !y 7 expect$  
to d4 ,moreov]1  :5ev] a *ange (        
adm9i/ration took place 9 ,wa%+ton _m   
consuls 7 remov$ f (fice & new ones     
appo9t$4 ,?is injur$  ! s]vice by       
prev5t+ ! developm5t ( exp]i5c$         
(ficials4  ,s9ce #aijf ! situation has  
greatly improv$ because appo9tm5ts &    
promotions h be5 made ^u a basis ( m]it 

alone4    ,! ,m]*ant ,m>9e4--,9 ord] t a
 c\ntry may build up a pr(itable  =eign 
trade x %\ld h vessels ( its own 9 :i*  
to c>ry  exports & imports4 ,trade t    
dep5ds entirely ^u ! use ( =eign        
vessels is insecure1 because ! outbreak 
( w> betwe5 two or m  =eign c\ntries may
 keep ^! %ips at home4 ,s ! developm5t (
  ,am]ican m>itime comm]ce has seem$ to 
make desirable ! ma9t5ance  ( a m]*ant  
fleet "u ! ,am]ican flag4 ,sid5ote3     
,e>ly ,am]ican  %ipp+4 ,s9ce !          
,revolution !re has always be5 su* a    
fleet2  sometimes x has be5 l>ge1 b m   
(t5 x has be5 small4#afh  ,aft] #aiae1  
:5 ! ,g]man subm>9e campaign result$ 9 !
 :olesale  s9k+ ( ,briti% & ,fr5* m]*ant
 vessels1 ! dem& = %ips  became acute4  
,sid5ote3 ,! build+ ( %ips dur+ ! w>4   
,am]ican  %ipy>ds once m grew busy &    
exp&$ rapidly4 ,9 #aiaf1 moreov]1       
,congress pass$ a ,%ipp+ ,act1 design$  
to fo/] ! gr[? ( !  m]*ant m>9e1 & :5 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates ent]$ ! w> 9 #aiag an     
,em]g5cy ,fleet ,corporation 0 creat$ to

 build a great flotilla (  vessels at ! 
public co/ & a ,%ipp+ ,bo>d to op]ate   
!m4 ,!  "w 0 n complet$ :5 ! w> came to 
an end1 nev]!less sev]al  hundr$ vessels
 7 add$ to ! li/ ( ,am]ica's ocean      
c>ri]s4 ,z a  result ( ^! ef=ts ! m]*ant
 m>9e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is once  m !    
second l>ge/ 9 ! _w2 b ! problem n[ is  
to keep  ^! %ips busy4 ,=eign trade     
began to fall (f aft] ! ,am]ican  =ces  
_h be5 br\ght back f ,europe & hundr$s (
 ! new %ips  h rema9$ ti$ up 9 ,am]ican 
h>bors4 ,"s h be5 sold to  private      
companies2 o!rs h be5 op]at$ by private 
companies "u  lease2 /ill o!rs are be+  
op]at$ directly by ! ,%ipp+  ,bo>d4#afi 
,! ,bureau ( ,=eign & ,dome/ic          
,comm]ce4--,! progress ( =eign  comm]ce 
dep5ds n only ^u %ips & ports b ^u !    
possession  ( accurate k conc]n+ ! c\rse
 ( m>kets & prices  abroad4 ,data on su*
 matt]s are ga!r$1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 
by  ! ,am]ican consul> s]vice4 ,sid5ote3
 ,/ati/ics ( trade--_!  value4 ,?is is  
supplem5t$1 h[ev]1 by /ati/ics collect$ 

= !  ,bureau ( ,=eign & ,dome/ic        
,comm]ce at ,wa%+ton1 an (fice :i*  is  
ma9ta9$ to provide ,am]ican bus9ess m5 )
 accurate &  up-to-date in=mation       
conc]n+ e bran* ( =eign comm]ce4 ,!     
bureau collects & translates ! t>iff    
laws ( =eign c\ntries1  makes           
inve/igations into ! co/ ( produc+ goods
 bo? 9 ,am]ica  & abroad1 & /udies all  
possible me?ods ( mak+ ,am]ican =eign   
trade m pr(itable4 ,x af=ds a good      
illu/ration ( ! way 9  :i* ! gov]nm5t1  
)\t itself engag+ 9 trade1 may assi/ !  
private ent]prises ( ! p4    ,future (  
,=eign ,comm]ce4--,ocean transportation 
has made enorm\s  /rides =w>d dur+ ! pa/
 tw5ty ye>s4 ,sid5ote3 ,:at new         
inv5tions may d = trade4 ,wireless      
communication n[ enables %ips  to keep 9
 t\* ) ea* o!r & ) ! %ore1 ?us mak+     
navigation saf]4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$  
by naval exp]im5ts t  great %ips c be   
/e]$ & _! ma*9]y controll$ by radio     
app>atus 9 ! h&s ( m5 sev]al hundr$     
miles away4 ,!n !re is  ! air%ip & !    

airplane1 9 bo? ( :i* x has be5 %[n to  
be  possible to cross ! ,atlantic f>    
above ! surface )\t a /op4 ,x  seems to 
be beyond d\bt t air c>ri]s w1 ev5 )9   
our own  g5]ation1 be us$ to c>ry mail  
ov]seas z !y are n[ be+ us$ on  l&1 &   
probably pass5g]s z well4 ,! day may    
come :5 goods1  also1 w be f]ri$ ?r\gh !
 air f cont95t to cont95t 9  less ?an a 
s+le day4 ,! m>* ( inv5tion 9 ?is z 9   
o!r  fields is s rapid t no "o c tell   
today :at ! morr[ may br+  =?4#agj ,b ( 
"o ?+ we may be hopeful3 t ev5 z ! era (
  rail transportation s]v$ to br+ all   
p>ts ( ! c\ntry into m  intimate        
relation1 s may x come to pass t ! _w ( 
! future  w f9d all its di/ant p>ts     
br\ght into m fri5dly contact by  !     
developm5t ( ^! tw5tie?-c5tury miracles 
( rapid transit4    ,comm]ce &          
,peace4--,comm]ce betwe5 c\ntries helps 
to promote  int]national good-feel+ &   
fri5d%ip4 ,x is true t comm]cial        
rivalries h sometimes inspir$           
int]national jeal\sy & h ev5  pav$ ! way

 to w>2 b legitimate trade1 hone/ly     
c>ri$ on betwe5  nations1 is f> m likely
 to prove a means ( draw+ !m toge!r4  ,f
 _! comm]cial int]c\rse nations d]ive   
mutual pr(it4 ,by  trad+ ) "o ano!r !y  
le>n to und]/& ea* o!r4 ,isolation      
makes = suspicion & w>4 ,_w comm]ce     
makes = peace4                          
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,h4 ,g4 ,,selfridge1
 ,! ,romance ( ,comm]ce1 pp4 #bcj-bci2  
#cah-cdi2    ,c4 ,f4 ,,c>t]1 ,:5        
,railroads ,7 ,new1 pp4 #cc-gd2    ,e4  
,r4 ,,johnson & ,f4 ,w4 ,,van ,,metre1  
,pr9ciples ( ,railroad  ,transportation1
 pp4 #dib-ecd2    ,,clive ,,day1 ,a     
,hi/ory ( ,comm]ce1 pp4 #dhe-eag2       
#efd-egi2    ,e4 ,r4 ,,johnson1 ,am]ican
 ,railway ,transportation1 #b;d ed41 pp4
 #eb-fh2  #cfg-che2    ,,isaac          
,,lipp9cott1 ,economic ,developm5t ( !  
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4  #ebj-edi2 #faa-fcd2 
,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,pr9ciples (         
,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ejh-ede      
7,protection & ,free ,trade72 ,vol4     
,,ii1 pp4 #cfc-cif 7,railway ,problems72

    ,,james ,t4 ,,"y1 ,! ,new ,am]ican  
,gov]nm5t & ,its ,"w1 pp4 #aai-adj  7,! 
,regulation ( ,comm]ce72 #ahg-bjb       
7,f$]al ,p[] ,ov] ,int]/ate  ,comm]ce72 
,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$   
,/ates1 pp4 #bdf-bfd 7,!  ,comm]ce      
,p[]72    ,h4 ,r4 ,,bur*1 ,am]ican      
,economic ,life1 pp4 #bgc-bif2    ,c4   
,r4 ,,van ,,hise1 ,conc5tration &       
,control1 pp4 #d-cd2 #agj-aib2    ,i4   
,l4 ,,%>fman1 ,! ,am]ican ,railroad     
,problem1 pp4 #ajj-ahf4                 
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! problem (     
,am]ican railroads--gov]nm5t op]ation--!
 ,plumb  plan--! ,transportation        
,act--:at ( ! future8 ,! gr[? ( ,am]ican
  railroads4 ,railroad consolidation4   
,developm5t ( gov]nm5t  sup]vision4 ,!  
,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission & its "w4
 ,:y  railroads 7 n p]mitt$ to          
consolidate4 ,! gov]nm5t's exp]i5ce  ) !
 railroads1 #aiag-aibj4 ,! ,adamson law4
 ,gov]nm5t op]ation4  ,labor problems "u
 gov]nm5t op]ation4 ,! ,plumb plan4 ,:y 
x 0  n adopt$4 ,! provisions ( !        

,transportation ,act 7,es*-,cumm9s      
law74 ,difficulties n[ be+ enc\nt]$ by !
 railroads4 ,propos$  consolidations4 ,!
 outlook = railroad transportation4     
,ref]5ces3  ,,john ,,moody1 ,! ,railroad
 ,build]s1 pp4 #baa-bda2 ,j4 ,j4 ,,hill1
 ,highways  ( ,progress1 pp4 #aad-aci2  
,c4 ,f4 ,,c>t]1 ,:5 ! ,railroads ,7     
,new1  pp4 #bbf-beh2 ,e4 ,r4 ,,johnson &
 ,f4 ,w4 ,,van ,,metre1 ,pr9ciples (    
,railroad  ,transportation1 pp4         
#efd-egg2 ,w4 ,z4 ,,ripley1 ,railroads1 
,rates &  ,regulation1 pp4 #dda-dee2    
#deg-eba2 ,,otto ,h4 ,,kahn1 ,our       
,economic  ,problems1 pp4 #fg-aah2 ,i4  
,l4 ,,%>fman1 ,! ,railroad ,problem1 pp4
  #chb-dfd4    #b4 ,:at is comm]ce & h[ 
is x regulat$8 ,ref]5ces3 ,!  ,f$]ali/1 
,nos4 #g1 #aa1 #ab1 #bb1 #db2 ,,john    
,,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod (  ,am]ican   
,hi/ory1 pp4 #acd-afb2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1  
,read+s 9 ,am]ican  ,gov]nm5t &         
,politics1 pp4 #cdc-ceh2 ,,ev]ett       
,,kimball1 ,national  ,gov]nm5t ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #dhj-ebj2 ,o4 ,w4    

,,knau?1 ,! ,policy  ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates  
t[>ds ,indu/rial ,monopoly1 pp4 #ff-ib2 
,l4 ,h4  ,,haney1 ,bus9ess ,organization
 & ,comb9ation1 pp4 #chc-dad2 #dai-dcg  
7,! ,%]man ,act72 ,a4 ,h4 ,,walk]1      
,hi/ory ( ! ,%]man ,law1 passim4    #c4 
,! ,am]ican ,m]*ant ,m>9e4 ,h[ c x be   
develop$8  ,ref]5ces3 ,,clive ,,day1    
,hi/ory ( ,comm]ce1 pp4 #dha-dhc2       
#dib-did2  #eac-eae2 #ede-edf2 ,n4 ,s4  
,,%al]1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 
#ech-eeh2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,bates1 ,am]ican     
,navigation1 pp4 #bcd-bii2 #cce-cej2 ,w4
 ,l4  ,,m>v91 ,! ,am]ican ,m]*ant ,m>9e1
 passim4    #d4 ,h[ ! t>iff has help$ ! 
nation z a :ole4 ,ref]5ces3 ,f4  ,w4    
,,taussig1 ,t>iff ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates1 pp4 #aid-bbi2 ,d4 ,r4  ,,dewey1 
,f9ancial ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4
 #hj-hd2 #afa-afd2  #agf-aif2 #bcg-bch2 
#bdi-bea2 #bfb-bff2 #dch-dci2 #dfc-dfd &
 passim2 ,,ida  ,m4 ,,t>bell1 ,! ,t>iff 
9 ,our ,times1 pp4 #bid-ccj2 ,e4        
,,/anwood1  ,am]ican ,t>iff             
,controv]sies1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bdc-bie2

 ,e4 ,r4 ,,johnson1  ,ocean & ,inl&     
,wat] ,transportation1 pp4 #beg-caj2    
,cyclop$ia (  ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4 
,,iii1 pp4 #dgf-dha4    #e4 ,our consul>
 s]vice3 its pres5t value & future      
developm5t4  ,ref]5ces3 ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1
 ,read+s on ,am]ican ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1  
pp4 #fea-fge2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,!       
,consul> ,s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3     
,its ,hi/ory & ,activities1 passim2 ,f4 
,,van ,,dyne1 ,our ,=eign  ,s]vice1 pp4 
#aag-agg2 #bag-bhd2 ,f4 ,j4 ,,hask91 ,! 
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1  pp4 #ad-bf2        
,,gaill>d ,,hunt1 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate1 
pp4 #cca-cdi2 ,a4 ,h4  ,,wa%burn1 8,"s  
,evils ( ,our ,consul> ,s]vice10 9      
,atlantic ,mon?ly1  ,vol4 ,,lxxiv1 pp4  
#bda-beb4                               
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! comm]ce (       
colonial ,am]ica4 ,,george ,l4 ,,be]1 ,!
 ,comm]cial  ,policy ( ,engl& t[>d !    
,am]ican ,colonies1 especially pp4      
#ff-ij2  ,j4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,moore1 ,indu/rial
 ,hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican ,p1 pp4  #afc-bjh4
    #b4 ,! comm]cial relations ( ! /ates

 "u ! ,conf$]ation4  ,,john ,,fiske1 ,! 
,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 pp4
 #acd-afb4    #c4 ,! emb>go &           
non-int]c\rse policy ( ! ye>s           
#ahjg-ahaa4  ,,edw>d ,,*ann+1 ,hi/ory ( 
! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4        
#cgi-djj2  #dae2 #dba4    #d4 ,! clipp] 
%ips4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,cl>k1 ,! ,clipp] ,%ip   
,era1 pp4  #agc-aid2 ,r4 ,d4 ,,pa9e1 ,! 
,old ,m]*ant ,m>9e1 pp4 #aed-ahd4    #e4
 ,"s great railroad build]s4 ,,john     
,,moody1 ,! ,railroad ,build]s1  pp4    
#afe-agh 7,james ,j4 ,hill72 #aic-baj   
7,e4 ,h4 ,h>riman74    #f4 ,railroads & 
l& grants4 ,e4 ,l4 ,,bog>t1 ,economic   
,hi/ory ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4         
#cdh-cfj2 ,j4 ,b4 ,,sanborn1            
,congressional ,grants (  ,l& 9 ,aid (  
,railways1 pp4 #fb-ge4    #g4 ,railroad 
rate discrim9ation4 ,w4 ,z4 ,,ripley1   
,railroads1 ,rates &  ,regulation1 pp4  
#aie-bji4    #h4 ,! "w ( ! ,int]/ate    
,comm]ce ,commission4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1  
,read+s on ,am]ican ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1   
pp4 #eag-ebg4    #i4 ,! ,%]man ,act & ! 

,nor!rn ,securities ,case4 ,,james ,t4  
,,"y1  ,! ,new ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,its
 ,"w1 pp4 #ada-afd4    #aj4 ,our =eign  
trade today4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,hammond & ,j4 ,w4
 ,,j5ks1 ,great  ,am]ican ,issues1 pp4  
#aie-bji4    #aa4 ,! effects ( ! t>iff  
on trade4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,"s        
,aspects  ( ! ,t>iff1 pp4 #c-di2 ,j4 ,h4
 ,,hammond & ,j4 ,w4 ,,j5ks1 ,great     
,am]ican  ,issues1 pp4 #agd-aid4    #ab4
 ,our riv] & lake comm]ce4 ,g4 ,s4      
,,call5d]1 ,economic ,hi/ory (  ! ,unit$
 ,/ates1 pp4 #cac-cbf4    #ac4          
,int]national trade4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,bur*1    
,am]ican ,economic ,life1 pp4  #cgb-chd4
    #ad4 ,! ,panama ,canal4 ,f4 ,a4     
,,ogg1 ,national ,progress1 pp4         
#bff-bgg2 ,p4  ,l4 ,,hawor?1 ,! ,unit$  
,/ates 9 ,our ,own ,times1 pp4 #cjj-cji2
 ,f4 ,j4  ,,hask91 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1  
pp4 #bji-bbj4    #ae4 ,! ,%ipp+ ,bo>d & 
,em]g5cy ,fleet ,corporation4 ,w4 ,f4   
,,will\ghby1 ,gov]nm5t ,organization 9  
,w> ,"t & ,aft]1 pp4  #aba-afe4    #af4 
,am]ican comm]ce dur+ ! ,_w ,w>4 ,f4 ,a4

 ,,clevel& & ,,joseph  ,,s*af]1         
,democracy 9 ,recon/ruction1 pp4        
#cig-dai4    #ag4 ,gov]nm5t op]ation ( !
 ,railroads4 #aiah-aibj4 ,i4 ,l4        
,,%>fman1  ,! ,am]ican ,railroad        
,problem1 pp4 #ajj-aca4                 
,que/ions    #a4 ,expla9 ! v>i\s ways 9 
:i* a bu%el ( :eat c\ld be  transport$ f
 ,albany to ,new ,york ,city 9 #agej2 9 
#ahej2 9 #aibj4  ,/ate ! approximate "t 
requir$ 9 ea* case4    #b4 ,:at         
comm]cial functions are n[ p]=m$ by     
:olesal]s1 jobb]s1  retail]s1 ag5ts1    
brok]s1 & money-l5d]s1 respectively4    
#c4 ,apportion ! foll[+ into ?ree       
columns accord+ to :e!r !y  figure1 = ! 
mo/ "p1 9 ! local1 ! int]/ate1 or !     
=eign  comm]ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 bread1
 tea1 oranges1 milk1 spices1  firewood1 
brick1 dye/uffs1 automobiles1 %oes1     
pap]1 t91 jute1  gravel1 glass1 /raw1   
pota%1 p\ltry4    #d4 ,"n ! successive  
/ages 9 ! developm5t ( ag5cies = !      
transportation ( 7a7 pass5g]s2 7b7      
goods2 7c7 in=mation4  ,/ate _! relative

 m]its 9 reg>d to spe$1 dep5dability1 & 
co/4    #e4 ,:at objections w\ld !re be 
to giv+ ,congress au?ority ov]  local   
comm]ce8 ,w ! new ag5cies (             
transportation increase !  p[] (        
,congress or ( ! local au?orities8      
#f4 ,is !re 9 y\r /ate a commission )   
au?ority ov] local  comm]ce8 ,h[ is x   
appo9t$ & :at are its p[]s8    #g4 ,:at 
sort ( cases come be=e ! ,int]/ate      
,comm]ce ,commission8  ,! ,railway      
,labor ,bo>d8 ,give an example 9 ea*    
case4    #h4 ,among ! v>i\s argum5ts =  
protection :i* "o appe>s to be  !       
/ronge/8 ,:i* seems ! /ronge/ argum5t = 
free trade8 ,c  y sugge/ any argum5t on 
ei!r side 9 addition to ^? giv5 9  !    
text8    #i4 ,make a li/ ( ! reasons :y 
! ,unit$ ,/ates %\ld h a l>ge  m]*ant   
m>9e1 putt+ !m 9 ! ord] ( _! importance4
 ,%\ld  ! gov]nm5t sell or op]ate its   
%ips8    #aj4 ,if y 7 plann+ to fit     
y\rself = ! consul> s]vice1 :at         
subjects w\ld y /udy8 ,%[ h[ ea* /udy   
w\ld be ( help to y 9  p]=m+ y\r duties 

z a consul4 ,:y are appo9tm5ts to !     
consul>  s]vice made by competitive     
exam9ation8    #aa4 ,expla9 :at is meant
 by ! foll[+ /atem5ts & give            
illu/rations3 8,trade foll[s ! flag02   
8,comm]ce makes = peace02  8,trade      
rivalries lead to w>02 8,comm]ce does n 
create goods b  values04    #ab4 ,dur+ !
 ,_w ,w>1 & = a "t !reaft]1 ! exports ( 
!  ,unit$ ,/ates greatly exce$$ !       
imports4 ,:at effects d y ?9k  ?is _h   
7a7 ^u prices 9 ?is c\ntry2 7b7 ^u our  
/ock (  gold2 7c7 ^u t>iff policy8      
#ac4 ,sugge/ any ways1 n already        
utiliz$1 9 :i* ! national  gov]nm5t c\ld
 help ! developm5t ( 7a7 int]/ate       
comm]ce2  7b7 =eign comm]ce4            
,subjects = ,debate    #a4 ,! national  
gov]nm5t %\ld own & op]ate ! railways4  
#b4 ,our protective policy has b5efit$  
7or injur$7 ! f>m]4    #c4 ,! national  
gov]nm5t %\ld op]ate its own %ips ev5 if
 x mu/  op]ate !m at a loss4            
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        

,,! ,,_s ,,( ,,vulcan                   
,by ,edw9 ,a4 ,abbey              ,f a  
mural decoration 9 ! ,p5nsylvania ,/ate 
,capitol at ,h>risburg4              ,9 
?is cr[d$ & clang+ hive ( indu/ry1      
:]e no semblance ( ord] appe>s visible  
to !            onlook]1 ,vulcan sits   
al(t on ! cl\ds ( smoke            &    
/eam direct+ ! actions & en]gies ( !    
work]s to a common end4 ,x is !         
co-op]ation            ( ! toil]s1 !    
guidance ( _! skill &            /r5g?1 
t makes _! "w productive4 ,l a          
m5tor ! my?ical patron ( indu/ry1       
,vulcan1            presides ov] ! busy 
c5t]s ( human toil4              ,!     
g5]al impression :i* ! arti/ has s\ght  
to convey is t ( indu/ry rea*+ its      
results1            n ?r\gh ! unguid$ "w
 ( individuals1 b by            mutual  
ef=t "u wise & k9dly direction4         
,illu/ration3      ,,! ,,_s ,,(         
,,vulcan4 ,by ,edw9 ,a4 ,abbey          
,copyright by ,edw9 ,a4 ,abbey4 ,f a    
,copley ,pr9t1 copyright by ,curtis     

,cam]on1 ,bo/on4 ,reproduc$ by          
p]mission4                              
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,*apt] ,,xx                  ,,!       
,,organization ,,& ,,control ,,(        
,,indu/ry        ,! purpose ( ?is *apt] 
is to expla9 h[ ,am]ican indu/ry is     
organiz$ & h[ ! gov]nm5t has endeavor$  
to regulate ?is      organization 9 !   
public int]e/4      ,sid5ote3 ,! broad  
scope ( indu/ry4    ,:at is             
,indu/ry8--,indu/ry comprises ! :ole    
process ( conv]t+  raw mat]ials into    
f9i%$ products4 ,x includes ! production
 (  goods by h& 9 ! work%ops1 & by      
ma*9]y 9 ! factories4  ,agriculture1    
m9+1 & =e/ry furni% ! raw mat]ials2     
indu/ry  works !m up2 comm]ce di/ributes
 !m4 ,9 its wide/ s5se indu/ry  includes
 n only manufactur+1 z we ord9>ily      
und]/& ! t]m1  b m9+1 lumb]+1 ! fi%]ies1
 %ipbuild+1 & _m o!r great  bran*es (   
economic activity4 ,x engages ! att5tion
 ( m ?an  "o-?ird ( ! ,am]ican work]s & 

is /eadily gr[+ to great]  relative     
importance4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is n[      
entitl$ to be call$ "o  ( ! great       
8indu/rial0 nations ( ! _w4 ,z su* its p
 h  _m difficult problems to face1      
includ+ su* ?+s z ! prop]  organization 
& control ( indu/ry1 ! improvem5t (     
conditions  "u :i* x is c>ri$ on1 &1 mo/
 difficult ( all1 !  ma9t5ance ( good   
relations betwe5 indu/rial labor &      
indu/rial  managem5t4    ,! ,old        
,indu/ry & ! ,new4--,"o hundr$ & fifty  
ye>s ago  practically all indu/ry 0     
c>ri$ on by h&4 ,! mak+ ( clo? 0  a home
 activity2 ! y>n 0 spun by h& & wov5    
into fabric on !  h&-loom4 ,%oes 7      
made--soles1 heels1 & upp]s--by !       
village  cobbl]4 ,! local blacksmi? made
 su* agricultural implem5ts z !re  74   
,l>ge factories did n exi/4 ,b ) !      
application ( /eam  p[] to indu/ry all  
?is began to *ange4 ,/eam p[] began to  
be  utiliz$ 9 ,am]ican indu/ry "r aft] !
 ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce2 x  0 n widely us$ at
 ! outset1 b 9 ! c\rse ( "t x           

completely revolutioniz$ ! me?ods (     
indu/ry ?r\gh\t ! _w4  ,x supplant$ h&  
me?ods almo/ altoge!r1 drove ! village  
indu/ries out ( exi/5ce1 & introduc$    
factory production on a  l>ge scale4    
,factories conta9+ ma*9]y op]at$ by /eam
 p[]  c\ld produce clo?1 %oes1          
implem5ts1 & almo/ e o!r sort (         
manufactur$ commodity m *eaply ?an !y   
c\ld be made by  h&-indu/ry 9 ! homes or
 9 small %ops4 ,s ! factory sy/em       
spread ov] ! l5g? & bread? ( ! l&1 draw+
 l>ge  inve/m5ts ( capital into its     
vortex1 giv+ rise to great indu/rial    
corporations1 creat+ a new labor class1 
fo/]+ ! gr[? ( great  cities1 & compell+
 ! gov]nm5t to take a h& 9 ! regulation 
( indu/ry4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,indu/rial      
,revolution 9 ,am]ica4 ,?is  great      
trans=mation 9 indu/ry1 :i* cov]$ !     
c\rse ( !  n9ete5? c5tury1 is kn[n z !  
,indu/rial ,revolution1 & a  gigantic   
revolution x 04 ,no?+ 9 mod]n times has 
ex]t$ a m  pr(\nd or f>-rea*+ influ5ce  
^u ! g5]al c\rse (  civilization4 ,!    

factory is ! symbol ( a new economic    
ord]4 ,x has  be5 said1 & rightly1 t    
?ree ?+s1--/eam1 /eel1 &  cr$it1--h     
revolutioniz$ indu/ry dur+ ! pa/ hundr$ 
ye>s4    ,indu/rial ,organization (     
,today4--,9 ! days ( h&-indu/ry m5  ne$$
 no l>ge am\nts ( capital 9 ord] to     
engage 9 ! production  ( goods4 ,! tools
 us$ 9 h&-indu/ry 7 n exp5sive2 nor 0 x 
necess>y to buy raw mat]ials 9 l>ge     
quantities4 ,! ?+s t !  workman produc$1
 moreov]1 7 sold almo/ z soon z !y 7    
made4  ,sid5ote3 ,! use ( capital4 ,) ! 
adv5t ( ! factory sy/em1  h[ev]1 capital
 9 l>ge am\nts became ess5tial because  
build+s &  ma*9]y1 bo? ( :i* are co/ly1 
_h to be provid$4 ,l>ge /ocks (         
mat]ials mu/ also be kept on h&1 &      
workm5 h to be paid be=e  ! goods       
manufactur$ by !m are sold4 ,s1 :]eas "o
 man (  relatively small weal? c\ld c>ry
 on an indu/ry "u ! old sy/em1  ! comb9$
 res\rces ( _m m5 are requir$ "u ! new4 
,?is ne$  ( comb9+ ! contributions ( _m 
p]sons into a l>ge capital fund  has    

giv5 rise to ! mod]n indu/rial          
corporation4    ,sid5ote3 ,corporate    
organization4    ,am]ican indu/ry (     
today is c>ri$ on = ! mo/ "p1 !re=e1  by
 corporations or companies4 ,an         
indu/rial corporation or company is a   
gr\p ( p]sons1 ea* ( :om contributes a  
portion ( ! capital  ne$$ to c>ry on !  
bus9ess4 ,^! contributors receive %>es 9
  ! corporation proportionate to !      
am\nts ( money :i* !y inve/4  ,! man :o 
contributes "o hundr$ doll>s becomes !  
own] ( "o  %>e2 ! man :o inve/s a ?\s&  
doll>s receives t5 %>es4#aga  ,an       
indu/rial corporation ) a capital ( a   
million doll>s is able to  allot among  
its /ockhold]s t5 ?\s& %>es ( ! p> value
 ( "o  hundr$ doll>s ea*4 ,x may h only 
a few %>ehold]s1 or x may  h a great _m4
 ,^! %>ehold]s1 be !y _m or few1 control
 !  managem5t ( ! bus9ess4 ,!y elect ea*
 ye> a bo>d ( directors1  :o1 9 turn1   
appo9t ! (fic]s & manag]s4 ,! latt]     
pur*ase !  raw mat]ials1 engage !       
workm51 sup]vise _! labor1 sell !  f9i%$

 goods1 & di/ribute ! pr(its among !    
%>ehold]s 9 !  =m ( a divid5d decl>$ ^u 
ea* %>e4 ,e corporation has z  its legal
 basis a *>t]1 :i* is a docum5t issu$ by
 !  gov]nm5tal au?orities1 usually by ! 
/ate4 ,?is *>t] /ates !  purpose ( !    
corporation & au?orizes x to d bus9ess4 
,*>t]s (  corporations may be revok$ if 
! p[]s conf]r$ by ! *>t] are  misus$4   
,sid5ote3 ,ways ( avoid+ indu/rial      
competition    ,indu/rial ,agreem5ts &  
,pools4--,) l>ge numb]s ( indu/rial     
corporations engag$ 9 ! same l9e (      
bus9ess x is inevitable t  !y %\ld      
compete ) "o ano!r = ! sale ( _!        
respective  products4 ,?is competition1 
q naturally1 t5ds to keep prices d[n1   
because ea* corporation does its be/ to 
get trade by und]sell+ its  rivals4 ,b  
competition :i* =ces d[n prices also    
results 9  r$uc+ pr(its1 & ! indu/rial  
corporations (t5 f9d t high]  pr(its c  
be e>n$ = _! %>ehold]s if "s arrangem5t 
is made  to limit ?is competition4 ,?us 
x came to pass t ! m5 :o  controll$ l>ge

 corporations 9 ! same l9e ( bus9ess got
 toge!r  & made in=mal agreem5ts n to   
compete 9 su* way z to =ce  prices d[n4 
,sid5ote3 ,g5tlem5's agreem5ts4 ,^!     
8g5tlem5's  agreem5ts01 s-call$ because 
!y _h no legal =ce b m]ely re/$  ^u !   
honor ( ! v>i\s corporations1 usually   
provid$ t a  c]ta9 scale ( prices w\ld  
be ma9ta9$ & t no conc]n w\ld  sell its 
products bel[ ?is /ipulat$ scale4       
,sid5ote3 ,pools4    ,^! agreem5ts1     
h[ev]1 7 n altoge!r satisfactory to !   
corporations4 ,at ! fix$ scale ( prices 
"s companies1 by reason (  special      
advantages1 7 able to make l>ge pr(its  
:ile o!rs e>n$  v little & became       
dissatisfi$4 ,h5ce a new me?od1 commonly
 kn[n  z pool+ 0 devis$ to give e       
corporation its fair %>e 9 !  e>n+s ( ! 
entire trade4 ,"u ?is plan ea* company 0
 allott$  a c]ta9 t]ritory )9 :i* x     
might sell its products )\t  competition
 on ! "p ( ! o!rs4 ,!n1 at ! end ( !    
ye>1 !  pr(its ( all ! companies 7 put  
into a 8pool0 or common fund &  s       

di/ribut$ t no company w\ld h a high]   
rate ( e>n+s ?an  ! o!rs4 ,?is 0 an     
+5i\s me?od ( ensur+ sub/antial pr(its  
to ea* corporation1 no matt] h[ well or 
h[ badly x 0 manag$4  ,incid5tally1 x   
depriv$ ! public ( ! b5efits :i* w\ld h 
come to x1 9 r$uc$ prices1 if           
competition _h be5 freely c>ri$  on4 ,= 
?is reason ! practice ( 8pool+0 0 soon  
=bidd5 by law  z an unreasonable re/ra9t
 ( trade4    ,sid5ote3 ,tru/s4          
,tru/s1 ,hold+ ,companies1 & ,m]g]s4--,n
 to be balk$ 9 ?is way  ! corporations  
devis$ a new plan = *eck+ competition4  
,?is took  ! =m ( a tru/4 ,corporations 
agre$ to place _! %>es 9 !  h&s (       
tru/ees & ^! tru/ees1 by virtue ( hold+ 
! %>es1  controll$ ! bus9ess ( all4#agb 
,?r\gh ?is control ! tru/ees  7 able to 
make sure t no price-cutt+ w\ld result f
  competition among ! v>i\s companies   
compris$ )9 ! tru/4  ,sid5ote3 ,hold+   
companies4 ,ano!r plan1 n widely        
diff]5t1 0  to organize a 8hold+        
company01 9 o!r words a l>ge corporation

 to  hold all ! %>es ( ! small]         
corporations n m]ely 9 tru/ b  z !      
actual own]4#agc ,sid5ote3 ,m]g]s4      
,f9ally 9 "s cases1  ! small] companies 
7 m]g$ or consolidat$ outright into a   
s+le  giant corporation4 ,9 su* in/ances
 ! small] conc]ns pass$ out (  exi/5ce &
 _! =m] own]s receiv$ %>es 9 ! new      
corporation4    ,sid5ote3 ,comb9ations  
/ifle competition4    ,:y ,indu/rial    
,comb9ations are ,objectionable4--,!    
*ief objection to  all ^! comb9ations1  
:e!r by in=mal agreem5t1 pool+1 tru/s1  
hold+ companies1 m]g]s is t !y seek to  
re/ra9 trade1 to  create monopolies1 &  
to prev5t ! public f obta9+ !           
advantages 9 ! way ( r$uc$ prices &     
bett] quality :i* arise  f free         
competition4 ,s long z free competition 
exi/s ! rise (  prices is automatically 
*eck$4 ,b :5 competition is /ifl$ by    
monopoly1 ! public gets fleec$4 ,:5 a   
monopoly is once creat$1  moreov]1 free 
competition is difficult to e/abli%     
aga94 ,! reason  = ?is is t :5 anyone   

ent]s ! monopoliz$ l9e ( bus9ess !      
hold]s ( ! monopoly cut _! prices       
tempor>ily bel[ !  pr(it-mak+ po9t & ?us
 make x impossible = ! new competitor   
to cont9ue4 ,!n1 :5 !y h driv5 him out (
 bus9ess1 !y put  prices up once m4     
,sid5ote3 ,! value ( l>ge-scale         
production4    ,on ! o!r h& we mu/ n    
lose sight ( ! fact t l>ge-scale        
production is m economical ?an          
production 9 small quantities1 &  t     
l>ge-scale production almo/ inevitably  
leads to indu/rial  comb9ations4 ,mo/   
manufactur$ commodities are produc$ "u  
:at  economi/s call 8! law ( increas+   
returns01 t is to say !  l>g] ! quantity
 produc$1 ! small] ! co/ p] article4    
,!re is  a great deal ( ov]lapp+ & wa/e 
:5 goods are manufactur$ 9  small       
indep5d5t %ops or factories4 ,l>ge      
indu/rial comb9ations c  obta9 capital m
 easily2 !y c buy raw mat]ials 9 l>g]   
quantities & at bett] prices2 !y are 9 a
 position to secure &  use mod]n ma*9]y2
 & !y c create bett] facilities = sell+ 

_! goods4 ,l>ge-scale production also   
p]mits a pr(itable use (  by-products1  
su* z coke 9 ! manufacture ( gas or     
scraps ( lea!r  9 ! mak+ ( %oes4 ,:]e   
indu/ries are small ^! by-products are  
n suffici5t to make _! sale wor? :ile2 b
 l>ge-scale  indu/ries realize          
consid]able sums f ! sale ( _!          
by-products4  ,f almo/ e po9t ( view !  
l>ge manufactur+ e/abli%m5ts  h a great 
advantage1 & if we 7 to insi/ t all     
indu/ry be  c>ri$ on 9 small conc]ns1 ! 
public w\ld be ! los] 9 ! end4          
,l>ge-scale production is n 9 itself to 
be fr[n$ ^u b r  enc\rag$4 ,! tr\ble    
arises f ! misuse ( ! p[] ov] prices    
:i* results f monopoly1 & ?is misuse (  
p[] is :at ! laws  are endeavor+ to     
prev5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,f$]al & /ate      
control4    ,! ,legal ,control (        
,indu/rial ,corporations4--,! "r to     
ex]cise  control ov] indu/rial          
corporations1 & !reby to protect !      
public  aga9/ extortion1 re/s p>tly ) ! 
/ates & p>tly ) !  national gov]nm5t4   

,mo/ corporations are creat$ by /ate    
*>t]s &  ?is gives ! /ate au?ority ov]  
!m4 ,s long1 !re=e1 z a  corporation    
conf9es its bus9ess )9 ! limits ( ! /ate
 9  :i* its *>t] 0 obta9$1 ! national   
gov]nm5t has no control  ov] x4 ,b mo/  
l>ge corporations1 su* z /eel & oil     
companies1  wool5 & cotton companies1   
c>ry on _! bus9ess 9 m ?an "o  /ate4 ,!y
 h factories scatt]$ ov] sev]al /ates4  
,!y buy  mat]ials 9 "o /ate1 manufacture
 !m 9 ano!r1 & sell !  products 9 a     
?ird4 ,:]ev] ?is is ! case ! national   
gov]nm5t  does h au?ority ov] !m1 = !   
con/itution gives to ,congress  ! p[]   
8to regulate comm]ce among ! sev]al     
/ates04    ,indu/rial ,corporations & ! 
,%]man ,law4--,to und]/& !  relation ( !
 laws to comb9ations & monopolies x is  
necess>y to  g back a little way into   
legal hi/ory4 ,sid5ote3 ,! common law   
rule  aga9/ comb9ations 9 re/ra9t (     
trade4 ,by ! common law (  ,engl&1 :i* 0
 introduc$ into ! colonies be=e !       
,revolution  & became ! basis ( !       

,am]ican legal sy/em1 x 0 provid$ t     
comb9ations 7 illegal :5 =m$ to re/ra9  
trade unreasonably4  ,?is 0 ! prevail+  
legal doctr9e 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = a     
hundr$ ye>s aft] ! =mation ( ! ,union1 b
 x did n suffice  to prev5t ! /eady gr[?
 ( monopolies4 ,9 #ahij1 !re=e1         
,congress  decid$ to draw ! l9e m       
/rictly & to ?is end enact$ !  ,%]man   
,anti-,tru/ ,law1 :i* decl>$ e contract 
or comb9ation1 9  ! =m ( a tru/ or      
o!rwise1 or conspiracy 9 re/ra9t ( trade
 or  comm]ce among ! sev]al /ates1 to be
 illegal4 ,sid5ote3 ,! rule 9  ! ,%]man 
,law4 ,no di/9ction 0 made by ! words ( 
?is law  betwe5 reasonable &            
unreasonable re/ra9t ( trade2 ! ,%]man  
,law  simply =bade all trade-re/ra9+    
comb9ations 9 int]/ate  bus9ess4 ,x     
appli$ to railroads & indu/ries alike1 b
 x 0 n  en=c$ widely until #aijd1 :5 !  
,supreme ,c\rt appli$ its  provisions 9 
! ,nor!rn ,securities ,case 7see p4     
#cfe74    ,?is decision caus$ a great   
/irr+ among ! dry bones ( corporate     

indu/ry4 ,_m comb9ations & m]g]s _h be5 
=m$ 9 all p>ts (  ! c\ntry dur+ ! clos+ 
ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & x  0 argu$ t 
to te> ^! comb9ations ap>t w\ld be      
exce$+ly  difficult4 ,b ! gov]nm5t      
proce$$ aga9/ o!r consolidations1       
notably ! ,/&>d ,oil ,company & !       
,am]ican ,tobacco ,company1 &  secur$ _!
 dissolution z well4#agd ,sid5ote3 ,!   
rule ( reason4  ,9 ^! latt] cases1      
h[ev]1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt gave hope = a   
less  dra/ic int]pretation ( ! ,%]man   
,law by av[+ its int5tion to  decide ea*
 future case 9 accordance ) ! 8rule (   
reason04 ,9  o!r words ! c\rt /at$ its  
belief t ! ,%]man ,law 0 n  int5d$ to   
break up all comb9ations1 good1 bad1 &  
indiff]5t1 b  only ^? :i* 7 contr>y to !
 public int]e/4 ,by ?is dictum  !       
,supreme ,c\rt re-e/abli%$ 9 effect !   
old common law pr9ciple  t a comb9ation 
may be legal or illegal accord+ z its   
purpose is  reasonable or unreasonable4 
,& su* is ! law ( ! l& today4#age    ,! 
,practice ( ,price-,fix+4--,mean:ile "s 

new abuses on ! "p (  v>i\s l>ge        
indu/rial corporations _h aris54 ,_m    
manufactur]s  began ! habit ( dictat+ to
 retail m]*ants ! prices at :i*  goods  
%\ld be sold4 ,if a m]*ant refus$ to    
ma9ta9 ^! prices &  sold goods at l[]   
figures1 ! manufactur] w\ld !reupon     
decl9e to  supply him ) any m m]*&ise4  
,?is 0 an effective way (  br++ a m]*ant
 to t]ms1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( pat5t$  
articles :i* are made by only "o firm & 
:i* _c be obta9$  f anyone else4        
,sid5ote3 ,! ,clayton ,act4 ,"h1 aga91 !
 ( !  ,clayton ,act int]v5$ by =bidd+   
price discrim9ations :]ev] !  effect (  
su* action t5ds to less5 competition or 
to create a  monopoly4 ,! ,clayton ,act 
also prohibit$ manufactur]s & :olesal]s 
f dictat+ to retail m]*ants ! sort (    
goods !y may sell4 ,!  mak]s ( a        
p>ticul> br& ( fl\r1 = example1 are n   
p]mitt$ to  say to ! m]*ant3 8,y mu/    
sell our br& only1 o!rwise we w  n sell 
to y40    ,! ,f$]al ,trade              
,commission4--,! =ego+ /atutes1 ! ,%]man

 &  ,clayton ,acts1 are examples ( our  
attempt to regulate indu/ry by law4  ,! 
tr\ble ) regulation by law1 h[ev]1 is   
its /iffness4 ,laws are  h>d & fa/ :ile 
! scope & me?ods ( mod]n bus9ess are    
cont9ually & rapidly *ang+4 ,a law :i*  
is suffici5t to meet "o  problem today  
proves q inadequate to cope ) ano!r     
problem  tomorr[4 ,! /ricte/ legal      
provisions1 moreov]1 c usually be       
circumv5t$ or evad$ by "s new device4   
,accord+ly1 ! national  gov]nm5t has    
rea*$ ! conclusion t x is bett] to h !  
laws  lay d[n ! g5]al pr9ciples (       
indu/rial regulation1 leav+ !  details  
to be appli$ by an adm9i/rative bo>d or 
commission4 ,9  con=mity ) ?is idea     
,congress 9 #aiad au?oriz$ ! e/abli%m5t 
( a ,f$]al ,trade ,commission1 ! duty ( 
:i* is to inve/igate all  compla9ts     
reg>d+ unfair me?ods ( competition 9    
int]/ate  comm]ce 7except 9 ! case (    
banks & railroads7 & to ord] t  su*     
unfair me?ods1 if f\nd to be 9 exi/5ce1 
%all be  discont9u$4#agf ,decisions ( ! 

,f$]al ,trade ,commission are rea*$     
aft] a he>+ at :i* bo? sides may be     
repres5t$4 ,! commission  is also giv5  
p[] to compile & publi% in=mation       
conc]n+ !  organization1 managem5t1 &   
policy ( any indu/rial corporation      
engag$ 9 int]/ate trade4 ,s9ce #aiad x  
has r5d]$ signal s]vice  9 protect+ !   
bus9ess m5 ( ! c\ntry1 & ! g5]al public 
z  well1 aga9/ economic inju/ice4    ,! 
,control ( ,indu/rial ,corporations by !
 ,/ates4--,:at has be5  said 9 ! prec$+ 
pages relates only to corporations :i*  
are  engag$ 9 int]/ate bus9ess4 ,?is    
includes mo/ ( ! l>ge/  indu/rial       
conc]ns4 ,small] corporations :i* keep  
_! op]ations  )9 ! b\nds ( a s+le /ate1 
are n subject to ! provisions  ( !      
,%]man or ,clayton ,acts1 nei!r d !y    
come )9 !  jurisdiction ( ! ,f$]al      
,trade ,commission4 ,?is does n mean1   
h[ev]1 t ! small] indu/rial corporations
 are exempt f  regulation altoge!r4 ,mo/
 ( ! /ates h _! own anti-tru/ laws  & _!
 own legal regulations to prev5t ! gr[? 

( local  monopolies4 ,^! rules diff] f  
/ate to /ate2 9 "s !y are  mu* m /rict  
?an 9 o!rs4 ,/ate regulation is beset ) 
s]i\s  difficulties ev]y:]e because 9   
all ! /ates indu/ries are to "s  ext5t  
c>ri$ on by corporations :i* h obta9$ _!
 *>t]s  f "s o!r /ate & ?us _c be fully 
controll$ except by !  national         
gov]nm5t4    ,! ,greate/ ,problem (     
,mod]n ,indu/ry4--,! mo/ difficult      
indu/rial  problems ( today1 h[ev]1 are 
n connect$ ) ! "q (  gov]nm5t control4  
,s f> z ! protection ( ! public aga9/   
comb9ations & monopolies is conc]n$ !   
gov]nm5t is b\nd to be1  9 ! long run1  
successful 9 its ef=ts al?\gh ev5 !     
/ricte/  laws c "w no miracle ov] night4
 ,f> m p]plex+ is ! problem  ( det]m9+ !
 prop] relations betwe5 indu/rial       
employ]s on !  "o h& & indu/rial workm5 
on ! o!r4 ,al?\gh labor is a great  &   
ess5tial factor 9 indu/ry x has hi!rto  
_h practically no  direct voice 9       
det]m9+ ! conditions "u :i* indu/ry %all
 be  c>ri$ on4    ,tak+ ,am]ican indu/ry

 z a :ole1 labor has _h no %>e 9 own]%ip
  or managem5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,! human      
relation 9 indu/ry4 ,! relation  ( !    
work] to indu/ry has be5 /rictly t ( a  
hir$ employee :o  does 8 job1 takes 8   
pay1 & calls ! acc\nt squ>e4 ,b ( late  
ye>s x has be5 becom+ app>5t t ?is      
relation does n satisfy  ! workman      
altoge!r & t he does n reg>d wages alone
 z a  suffici5t recomp5se = 8 %>e 9     
indu/rial production4 ,8  lead]s are    
ask+1 9 "s cases1 = a %>e 9 ! pr(its1 = 
a  voice 9 det]m9+ ! conditions ( labor 
&1 ultimately1 = "s  %>e 9 ! managem5t4 
,sid5ote3 ,! repres5tation ( ! work]s4  
,indu/rial ,democracy4--,9 "s l>ge      
indu/rial conc]ns repres5tation  has    
already be5 giv5 to ! work]s4 ,!y are   
p]mitt$ & enc\rag$  to select a         
committee f among !mselves ^: function x
 is to take  up ) ! managem5t1 9 an     
(ficial way1 all que/ions ( wages1  h\rs
 ( labor1 discipl9e1 & conditions ( "w4 
,9 case (  disagreem5t betwe5 !         
committee & ! managem5t imp>tial arbit]s

  are call$ 94 ,?us ! employees are giv5
 a fair %>e 9 !  settlem5t ( all matt]s 
affect+ _! "w & welf>e4    ,! success ( 
su* s*emes w dep5d1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! degree
 (  fairness :i* bo? sides display 9    
conf]5ce4 ,j z ! success (  political   
democracy dep5ds ^u ! ex]cise ( tol]ance
 on ! "p  ( ^? to :om p[] is giv51 s 9  
any =m ( indu/rial democracy  ! abuse ( 
p[]1 :e!r by employ]s or workm51 w      
surely spell  failure4 ,x is ess5tial to
 ! well-be+ ( ! nation t !  work]s 9    
indu/ry %all receive _! rightful %>e f !
 e>n+s  ( indu/ry1 t !y %all h j        
conditions ( employm5t & be  treat$ l   
m54 ,b x is also ess5tial t ! managem5t 
(  indu/ry %all n be subject$ to        
unreasonable dem&s & t a  sy/em (       
production :i* ! _w has sp5t a c5tury 9 
build+ up  %all n be brok5 d[n until    
some?+ well tri$ & te/$ by  exp]i5ce c  
be put 9 its place4    ,pr(it ,%>+ z a  
,/ep t[>d ,indu/rial ,h>mony4--,"o ( !  
ways  sugge/$ = ensur+ to ! workman 8   
full %>e 9 ! e>n+s (  indu/ry is kn[n z 

pr(it %>+4 ,! usual provision is t aft] 
! curr5t rates ( int]e/1 wages1 &       
sal>ies are paid ! surplus  e>n+s %all  
be divid$ betwe5 ! employ]s & ! work]s  
on "s  fair basis det]m9$ 9 advance4 ,b 
! am\nt :i* goes to !  work]s is n      
necess>ily paid 9 ca%4 ,ei!r 9 "p or 9  
:ole x  may be giv5 to !m 9 ! =m ( %>es 
9 ! bus9ess & on ^!  %>es !y receive    
!reaft] ! regul> rate ( e>n+s4    ,x 0  
hop$ t an arrangem5t ( ?is sort w\ld br+
 ! employ]  & 8 work]s m closely toge!r4
 ,pr(it %>+1 inde$1 0 at  "o "t         
proclaim$ to be a solution ( ! :ole     
labor problem4 ,b on  ! :ole x has n    
fulfill$ expectations4 ,= ?is !re are   
sev]al  reasons4 ,sid5ote3 ,:y pr(it %>+
 has n made great headway4 ,"s  work]s  
did _! be/1 o!rs scamp$ _! "w2 b all %>$
 alike4  ,! employ]s did n f9d t labor  
respond$ ) increas$  effici5cy :5 a %>e 
( pr(its 0 giv54 ,! work]s1 on _!  "p1  
f\nd t pr(its sometimes decl9$ greatly 9
 spite ( _!  h>de/ ef=ts4 ,bad judgm5t  
on ! "p ( ! managem5t w\ld (fset  h>d "w

 on ! "p ( ! m54 ,n hav+ access to !    
books &  figures ! work]s (t5 suspect$ t
 _! rightful %>e ( !  pr(its 0 be+ )held
 f !m4 ,! trade unions1 moreov]1 look$  
askance at ! :ole proposal & insi/$1    
among o!r ?+s1 t no  "o :o 0 n a memb] (
 ! union %\ld be a pr(it-%>]4 ,s !      
movem5t has slack5$1 al?\gh x /ill has  
"s /rong advocates &  seems to be los+  
none ( ! gr\nd t x has ga9$4    ,o!r    
,rem$ies = ,indu/rial ,unre/4--,sev]al  
o!r rem$ies =  indu/rial unre/ h be5    
sugge/$1 & "s ( !m are be+ giv5  a      
trial4 ,! relations ( labor to indu/ry  
con/itute a l>ge &  difficult problem1  
h[ev]1 & _c be made cle> 9 a s+le       
p>agraph4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 ( suffici5t  
importance to h a *apt]  to !mselves4   
,sid5ote3 ,indu/rial opportunities4     
,indu/ry & ! ,individual4--,!           
opportunities = capable "y m5  & wom5 9 
indu/ry 7 nev] great] ?an !y are today4 
,!  op]ations ( indu/ry h become s      
complex t !y af=d op5+s  = e type (     
individual skill & pr(ici5cy4 ,!        

managem5t (  ,am]ican bus9ess is no     
long] conduct$ by hit-or-miss me?ods2   
ev]y?+ is work$ out ) sci5tific         
precision 9 buy+ mat]ials1  m]*&is+1    
manufactur+1 m>ket+1 & f9anc+4 ,am]ican 
indu/ry 9 all its bran*es is hir+ bra9s 
z well z muscle4    ,sid5ote3 ,! *oice (
 a vocation    ,! success ( ! "y man or 
woman :o goes f s*ool into indu/ry      
dep5ds 9 ! fir/ in/ance ^u a wise       
selection at ! />t4  ,diff]5t types (   
indu/rial "w call = altoge!r diff]5t    
ta/es  & abilities on ! "p ( !          
individual4 ,"s individuals are ( a     
di/9ctly me*anical temp]am5t2 _! int]e/s
 run to ma*9]y &  ! processes ( work+ ) 
mat]ial ?+s4 ,o!rs h no int]e/  at all 9
 t direction2 b !y may be tactful 9     
deal+ ) o!r  p1 able to use _!          
imag9ations1 ) p]haps a p5*ant =        
figures4 ,o!rs1 aga91 h none ( ^!       
qualities b are punctual1  indu/ri\s1 & 
c always be dep5d$ ^u to c>ry out       
in/ructions  to ! lett]4 ,am]ican       
indu/ry has op5+s :i* exactly fit       

individuals ( all temp]am5ts &          
capacities2 ! big problem is to  br+ !  
man & ! opportunity into t\* ) ea* o!r4 
,a squ>e  peg w n g into a r\nd hole2 no
 am\nt ( pati5ce w put x  !re4 ,b !re   
are _m squ>e pegs try+ to fit !mselves  
into !  r\nd holes ( indu/rial employm5t
 today because s _m "y m5 &  wom5 h tak5
 ! fir/ job (f]$ to !m )\t ref]5ce to   
its  real suitability4 ,^! fir/ jobs v  
(t5 lead up a bl9d alley4 ,!  "t sp5t 9 
!m by ?\s&s ( "y m5 & wom5 is "t wa/$4  
,sid5ote3 ,vocational guidance4    ,x is
 to help elim9ate ?is enorm\s wa/e (    
human ef=t t  facilities = vocational   
guidance are n[ provid$ by a great _m   
s*ools4 ,b no vocational c\nsellor c    
prop]ly plan ! />t 9  life )\t assi/ance
 f ! boy or girl imm$iately conc]n$4 ,x 
is ! duty ( ev]yone to make a p]sonal   
/udy ( ! opportunities  :i* ! v>i\s =ms 
( indu/ry af=d1 to reflect ^u 8 own     
ta/es1 abilities1 & ambitions1 & to look
 at ! problem z "o (  supreme importance
 to himself4 ,a "r />t is half !        

victory4#agg                            
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1      
,outl9es ( ,economics1 pp4 #bf-fb 7,!   
,new ,indu/rial  ,sy/em72    ,w4 ,z4    
,,ripley1 ,tru/s1 ,pools1 &             
,corporations1 pp4 #gh-if2 #gjc-gcd2    
,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,pr9ciples (         
,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dai-ddb    
7,indu/rial ,comb9ations72    ,f4 ,a4   
,,ogg1 ,national ,progress1 pp4 #eh-ge  
7,! ,legal ,control (  ,indu/rial       
,comb9ations72    ,l4 ,h4 ,,haney1      
,bus9ess ,organization & ,comb9ation1   
pp4 #ha-aaf2    ,e4 ,d4 ,,dur&1 ,! ,tru/
 ,problem1 pp4 #i-cj2    ,j4 ,r4        
,,commons1 ,labor & ,adm9i/ration1 pp4  
#abj-adh2    ,f4 ,a4 ,,fett]1 ,mod]n    
,economic ,problems1 pp4 #dbg-deg2      
,,isaac ,,lipp9cott1 ,economic          
,developm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4      
#dfi-dij4 ,see also ,u4 ,s4 ,,bureau ,,(
 ,,! ,,c5sus3 ,ab/ract ( ! ,c5sus (     
,manufactur]s1 #aiad1 *4 vi1 vii4       
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! advantages &  
defects ( l>ge indu/rial organizations4 

,advantages ( l>ge-scale production4    
,are l>ge organizations ess5tial  to    
l>ge-scale production8 ,l>ge indu/rial  
organizations & monopoly4  ,"s examples4
 ,! di/9ction betwe5 8good tru/s0 & 8bad
 tru/s04  ,c l>ge organizations be      
effectively regulat$8 ,summ>y ( m]its & 
defects4 ,ref]5ces3 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1  
,pr9ciples ( ,economics1 ,vol4  ,,ii1   
pp4 #dai-ddb2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,haney1 ,bus9ess 
,organization & ,comb9ation1  pp4       
#cfe-chb2 ,e4 ,d4 ,,dur&1 ,! ,tru/      
,problem1 pp4 #fj-he2 ,w4 ,z4 ,,ripley1 
,tru/s1 ,pools1 & ,corporations1 pp4    
#cbd-cee2 ,j4 ,t4 ,,"y1 ,! ,new         
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,its ,"w1 pp4      
#ada-ahf2 ,,john ,,moody1 ,! ,tru?  ab\t
 ! ,tru/s1 pp4 #ajb-acb2 ,e4 ,s4        
,,meade1 ,tru/ ,f9ance1 pp4  #aic-bag2  
,,!odore ,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1   
pp4 #dgf-eae4    #b4 ,! position ( wom5 
9 indu/ry--pa/1 pres5t1 & future4       
,ref]5ces3 ,,edi? ,,abbott1 ,wom5 9     
,indu/ry1 especially pp4 #a-i2          
#bae-bde2 #cjg-cbc2 ,t4 ,s4 ,,adams &   

,h4 ,l4 ,,sumn]1 ,labor ,problems1 pp4  
#ai-fg2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,hobson1 ,evolution (  
,mod]n ,capitalism1 pp4 #bij-cba2 ,,john
  ,,mit*ell1 ,organiz$ ,labor1 pp4      
#aca-ada2 ,b4 ,l4 ,,hut*9s1 ,wom5 9     
,mod]n ,indu/ry1 pp4 #bci-bfe4          
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! f>-rea*+ effects
 ( ma*9e indu/ry4 ,l4 ,c4 ,,m>%all & ,l4
  ,c4 ,,lyon1 ,our ,economic            
,organization1 pp4 #ajf-abf4    #b4     
,evils ( ! factory sy/em4 ,w4 ,c4       
,,taylor1 ,! ,mod]n ,factory  ,sy/em1   
pp4 #agg-bbg4    #c4 ,! p[] ( ,congress 
to regulate corporations4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,or?1
  ,read+s on ! ,relation ( ,gov]nm5t to 
,prosp]ity & ,indu/ry1 pp4  #bjh-bbj4   
#d4 ,roosevelt & ! tru/s4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,ogg1
 ,national ,progress1 pp4  #dj-ge2      
,,!odore ,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1   
pp4 #dgf-eae2 ,,otto ,h4 ,,kahn1  ,our  
,economic ,problems1 pp4 #cag-cbb4      
#e4 ,! ,clayton ,act4 ,,james ,t4 ,,"y1 
,! ,new ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t &  ,its ,"w1 
pp4 #agc-agh4    #f4 ,! "w ( ! ,f$]al   
,trade ,commission4 ,w4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,/ev5s1

 ,unfair  ,competition1 pp4 #bag-bdd4   
#g4 ,politics & big bus9ess4 ,j4 ,g4    
,,brooks1 ,! ,social ,unre/1 pp4        
#df-fg4    #h4 ,competition & big       
bus9ess4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,hammond & ,j4 ,w4    
,,j5ks1 ,great  ,am]ican ,issues1 pp4   
#afj-agc4    #i4 ,pr(it %>+ 9 indu/ry4  
,t4 ,s4 ,,adams & ,,hel5 ,,sumn]1 ,labor
  ,problems1 pp4 #ccc-cgh4    #aj4 ,!   
contribution ( ,am]ican indu/ry to !    
w9n+ ( ! w>4  ,w4 ,f4 ,,will\ghby1      
,gov]nm5t ,organization 9 ,w> ,"t &     
,aft]1 pp4  #fg-abj4                    
,que/ions    #a4 ,%[ :y ! rise ( !      
factory sy/em is entitl$ to be call$ a  
8revolution40 ,are p bett] or worse (f z
 a result8    #b4 8,ma*9]y has made life
 m v>i$10 8,ma*9]y has r$uc$ life to    
r\t9e40 ,) :i* ( ^! /atem5ts d y agree &
 :y8    #c4 ,make a diagram %[+ h[ a    
corporation is organiz$4 ,if y own$  "o 
or m %>es 9 a corporation1 :at w\ld be  
y\r rights8 ,y\r  duties8 ,y\r risks8   
,:at is meant by ! /atem5t t a          
corporation  has 8legal immortality08   

#d4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a pool1 a 
tru/1 a hold+ company1  & a m]g]8 ,is x 
bett] to =bid ^! ?+s or to regulate !m8 
#e4 ,:y is x t ! ,*icago meat-pack+     
conc]ns h be5 able to  sell dress$ meat 
to m>ketm5 9 ! t[ns ( ! ,ea/]n /ates m  
*eaply ?an x c be procur$ & slaught]$   
locally8    #f4 ,expla9 :at ,presid5t   
,roosevelt meant :5 he said t !re are   
good tru/s & bad tru/s4 ,:at s]vice c a 
good tru/ p]=m8 ,:at  h>m c a bad tru/  
d8    #g4 ,:at are ! *ief provisions ( !
 ,%]man ,law8 ,! ,clayton ,act8    #h4  
,%[ h[ regulation by a commission is    
likely to be m effective  ?an regulation
 by law4    #i4 ,9 det]m9+ a *oice ( a  
vocation :at consid]ations are y  go+ to
 keep 9 view8 ,:at te/s h y appli$ to   
make sure t y  "k y\r own ta/es &       
abilities8 ,h y made y\rself acqua9t$  )
 ! indu/rial opportunities8 ,see foot   
note on p4 #cig4    #aj4 ,to :at ext5t  
%\ld ! work]s %>e 9 ! managem5t (       
indu/ry8                                
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! ,%]man ,law 

%\ld be repeal$4    #b4 ,! gov]nm5t %\ld
 h ! p[] to fix maximum prices 9 !  case
 ( all goods produc$ by indu/rial       
organizations :i* possess a  monopoly4  
-----    ,footnote #aed3      ,aft] !   
,revolution ! diff]5t /ates claim$ va/  
tracts (    we/]n l&s b !y ultimately   
surr5d]$ ^! claims to !    national     
gov]nm5t4 ,! l&s 7 survey$ & (f]$ = sale
 at    l[ prices4 ,_m ye>s lat]         
,congress adopt$ ! home/ead sy/em by    
:i* actual settl]s might get l&s = almo/
 no?+4    ,footnote #aee3      ,x is    
said t if all ! available wat] p[] ( !  
,unit$ ,/ates    7 put to use1 x w\ld   
take ! place ( all ! coal t is n[    be+
 us$ 9 supply+ indu/ries ) p[]4 8,:ite  
coal0 x is    call$1 & !re is an        
abundance ( x4    ,footnote #aef3       
,9 e>ly days ! slaught]+ ( cattle 0 done
 locally1 b ! use    ( refrig]ator c>s  
has l$ to ! c5traliz+ ( ! meat indu/ry  
at a few great c5t]s4    ,footnote #aeg3
      ,we h _h a /rik+ illu/ration ( ?is
 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,dur+    ! ,_w ,w> !     

prices ( all agricultural products rose 
enorm\sly    & !y cont9u$ high = a %ort 
"t aft] ! w> came to an end4    ,!n !y  
dropp$ quickly to a l[ level & by s do+ 
left !    ,am]ican f>m] 9 a h>d         
situation4 ,labor & supplies co/ him    
ne>ly z mu* 9 #aiba z 9 #aiai1 :ile he  
receiv$ 9 "s cases    only half z mu* = 
! products ( 8 l&4    ,footnote #aeh3   
,a l>ge "p ( our nitrate supply comes f 
,*ile1 b ow+ to !    lack ( %ipp+ dur+ !
 w> n mu* c\ld be br\ght f t    qu>t]4  
,! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t built a huge  
nitrate-mak+    plant at ,muscle ,%oals1
 ,ala41 b x did n get into op]ation be=e
    ! close ( ! w>4 ,x has n[ be5 (f]$ =
 sale to private    capitali/s4 ,!re has
 be5 "s discussion ( ! possibility (    
mak+ nitrates by ! electric fixation ( !
 nitrog5 :i* is 9    ! air1 us+ wat] p[]
 to g5]ate ! electric p[] *eaply4 ,x    
is an int]e/+ fact t c]ta9 types (      
bact]ia ga!r nitrog5    f ! air at !    
roots ( legum9\s plants 7peas1 beans1   
alfalfa1    etc471 & 9 ord] to ensure ! 

pres5ce ( ^! bact]ia ! se$    is        
frequ5tly inoculat$ be=e plant+4        
,footnote #aei3      ,an inve/igation ( 
! exodus f ,ohio f>ms a few ye>s ago %[$
    t z _m z #fj1jjj m5 & boys left !   
rural di/ricts 9 a    s+le ye>1 :ile    
few] ?an #ijjj w5t f ! cities & t[ns to 
! f>ms4    ,footnote #afj3      ,!re is 
a some:at simil> situation 9 ,europe    
today4 ,! v>i\s new    /ates :i* 7      
creat$ at ! close ( ! w> all h _!       
t>iffs1 _! rivalries1 & _! jeal\sies4   
,footnote #afa3      ,!y did x1         
sometimes1 9 ?is way3 ,suppose ,a & ,b  
are t[ns (    ab\t equal size & ab\t !  
same di/ance f ,*icago1 or t ,a    is a 
little fur!r away4                      
,a                                  _/  
,*icago                                 
,b      ,a railroad desir+ to build up  
,a & make x an important indu/rial      
c5t] w\ld m]ely give x l[] freight rates
 to & f !    we/]n metropolis1 despite !
 great] di/ance4    ,footnote #afb3     
,! act fur!r provides t all net pr(its  

above ! rate ( six    p] c5t ^u !       
valuation ( ! railroads1 z fix$ by !    
,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission1 %all be 
divid$ 9 equal %>es    betwe5 !         
railroads & ! gov]nm5t4 ,! %>e receiv$  
by !    gov]nm5t is to g into a fund = !
 b5efit ( ^? railroads    :i* are n able
 to e>n ! normal net income4            
,footnote #afc3      ,( ! n9e memb]s    
?ree are repres5tatives ( ! railroad    
own]s1    ?ree ( ! railroad employees1 &
 ?ree ( ! public4 ,?is bo>d    has its  
headqu>t]s at ,*icago1 :i* by reason (  
its location may    prop]ly be t]m$ !   
railroad capital ( ! c\ntry4 ,:5 ! bo>d 
he>s bo? sides 9 a labor dispute x makes
 its recomm5dations b    has no p[] to  
en=ce ^! recomm5dations4 ,x is believ$1 
h[ev]1 t ! pressure ( public op9ion w   
give suffici5t    =ce to its decisions4 
,footnote #afd3      ,canal             
transportation1 :i* decl9$ aft] !       
railroads 7 built1    seems n[ to be    
ga9+ a new lease ( life4 ,! ,/ate ( ,new
 ,york is    improv+ ! ,erie ,canal &   

proposals h be5 made to enl>ge !        
canals betwe5 ! ,great ,lakes & ! ,gulf 
( ,/4 ,lawr5ce s z to    p]mit ?r\gh    
traffic f ,europe to ! ,lake ports4     
,footnote #afe3      ,! g5]al c\rse (   
,am]ican t>iff policy may be m>k$ (f    
into    f\r ma9 p]iods4 ,! fir/1 :i*    
ext5d$ f #agib to ! close (    ! ,w> (  
#ahab1 0 a p]iod ( relatively l[ t>iff  
duties4 ,!    duties levi$ dur+ ^! ye>s 
did n greatly hamp] imports4 ,:ile    ! 
,unit$ ,/ates & ,engl& 7 at w>1 h[ev]1  
"s new    indu/ries 7 e/abli%$ 9        
,am]ica1 & x 0 deem$ advisable to       
af=d ^! new indu/ries protection aga9/  
,engli% competition    :5 ! w> 0 ov]4   
,accord+ly1 a m /rongly protective      
policy    0 adopt$ 9 #ahaf1 & ?is action
 u%]s 9 ! second p]iod1    :i* la/$ till
 ab\t #ahdb4 ,dur+ ! e>li] "p ( ?is     
int]val    ! duties on import$          
manufactures rema9$ relatively high4 ,! 
high    duties creat$ /rong opposition1 
h[ev]1 especially 9 ! ,s\!rn    /ates1 &
 9 "t a reaction took place ) ! result t

 !    rates 7 gradually l[]$ to a g5]al 
level ( ab\t tw5ty p]    c5t 9 #ahdb4 ,f
 ?is date until ! outbreak ( ! ,civil   
,w> !    duties rema9$ l[1 s t ! ?ird   
p]iod saw ! virtual    ab&onm5t (       
protection 9 favor ( a t>iff = rev5ue   
only4 ,!n    ! outbreak ( ! ,civil ,w>  
*ang$ ! situation4 ,! ne$ ( a    great  
increase 9 rev5ue became imp]ative1 &   
high duties on    imports seem$ to be a 
ready way ( obta9+ national funds4 ,a   
s]ies    ( t>iff measures put ! rates   
high] & high]4 ,:5 ! w> 0    ov] ! high 
rates = ! mo/ "p rema9$ & !y h rema9$   
relatively high ?r\gh\t ! f\r? p]iod1   
:i* c>ries u to !    pres5t day4 ,s9ce  
#ahfe _m t>iff measures h be5 pass$ by  
,congress2 "s h rais$ ! duties1 :ile    
o!rs h l[]$ !m4    ,9 #aiac duties 7    
consid]ably r$uc$ by ! ,democrats2 9    
#aiba    !y 7 put up aga9 by !          
,republicans4 ,! "q ( t>iff    rates has
 be5 an issue at _m national elections4 
,b1 ) all its    ups & d[ns1 ! t>iff has
 rema9$ protective bo? 9 its    purpose 

& effect4    ,footnote #aff3      ,9    
#aibj ,congress enact$ two important    
measures to aid ! revival (    =eign    
trade4 ,"o ( ^! measures reliev$ =eign  
trade f "s    ( ! anti-tru/ re/rictions2
 ! o!r au?oriz$ ! l5d+ (    gov]nm5t    
funds to export]s4    ,footnote #afg3   
,_m ( ! comm]cial treaties :i* ! ,unit$ 
,/ates has conclud$    ) o!r c\ntries   
conta9 :at is kn[n z ! 8mo/ favor$      
nation    clause04 ,?is is a provision t
 if ei!r ( ! treaty-mak+    c\ntries    
%\ld grant to a ?ird nation any special 
trad+    privilege1 ?is same privilege  
%all at once accrue to ! o!r            
treaty-mak+ c\ntry4 ,= example1 if !    
,unit$ ,/ates & ,brazil    conclude a   
comm]cial treaty conta9+ ! 8mo/ favor$  
nation    clause0 & ,brazil %\ld        
subsequ5tly grant to ,mexico ! privilege
    ( %ipp+ oil into ,brazil )\t paym5t 
( duty1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates    w\ld become  
=?) entitl$ to ! same privilege or      
favor4    ,footnote #afh3      ,9 ! days
 ( wood5 vessels1 propell$ by sail1     

,am]ica _h natural    advantages 9      
%ipbuild+1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! abundant      
supply (    %ip-timb]4 ,_m su* vessels 7
 built & ! once-fam\s ,am]ican          
8clipp] %ips0 c>ri$ our comm]ce to all  
p>ts ( ! _w4 ,dur+    ! p]iod f #ahae to
 #ahfj ! ,am]ican m]*ant m>9e rea*$ its 
z5i? 9 size & prosp]ity4 ,9 #ahfj x 0   
second to t ( ,great    ,brita9 & s]v$ n
 only to c>ry ! entire comm]ce ( !      
,unit$    ,/ates b ! trade ( o!r        
c\ntries z well4 ,! ,civil ,w>          
int]f]$ greatly ) ! progress ( ,am]ican 
%ipbuild+1    h[ev]1 & ) ! adv5t ( iron 
vessels1 propell$ by /eam1 !    ,unit$  
,/ates began to drop beh9d 9 !          
con/ruction ( %ips =    ocean s]vice4   
,european c\ntries1 p>ticul>ly ,great   
,brita91 =g$    f> ahead dur+ ! p]iod f 
#ahfe to #aijj4 ,( ! tonnage :i*        
cle>$ = =eign c\ntries f ! seaports ( ! 
,unit$ ,/ates    9 #aijj less ?an       
"o-fif? 0 ,am]ican4 ,?is decl9e 9 ! size
 (    ! m]*ant m>9e inspir$ ! gov]nm5t (
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates to    /imulate !       

con/ruction ( %ips by ! grant (         
subsidies1 b no    great success att5d$ 
^! ef=ts4 ,! %ipbuild+ indu/ry did    n 
make r5ew$ progress until x receiv$ a   
great impetus f !    ,_w ,w>4           
,footnote #afi3      ,z a means (       
facilitat+ comm]ce ! national gov]nm5t  
also    ma9ta9s v>i\s aids to           
navigation4 ,x provides ligh?\ses1      
buoys1    l&m>ks1 & lifesav+ /ations4 ,x
 has made surveys ( ! coa/s    &        
furni%es *>ts = ! use ( navigators4 ,x  
tra9s & lic5ses    pilots & makes rules 
to ensure ! safety ( vessels ent]+ or   
leav+ ,am]ican ports4 ,mu* money has    
also be5 sp5t by ! national    gov]nm5t 
9 ! deep5+ & improvem5t ( h>bors4       
,m5tion %\ld    likewise be made ( !    
greate/ ent]prise ev] und]tak5 by any   
c\ntry = ! promotion ( m>itime comm]ce1 
namely1 ! build+    ( ! ,panama ,canal1 
:i* connects two oceans & co/ ! ,unit$  
,/ates m ?an ?ree hundr$ & fifty million
 doll>s4    ,footnote #agj3      ,9     
illu/ration ( ?is x may be m5tion$ t 9  

all ! ye>s f    #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 to #agej  
,a4 ,d4 !re 7 only ?ree inv5tions (     
rem>kable value or int]e/2 namely1      
pr9t+1 gunp[d]1 & !    /eam eng9e4 ,b   
:at ( ! p]iod s9ce #agej8 ,! railroad1 !
    /eam%ip1 ! telegraph1 ! cable1 !    
telephone1 radio    communication1 !    
electric light1 ! electric motor & !    
trolley1    ! subm>9e1 ! airplane1 !    
c9ematograph1 ! phonograph1 !    int]nal
 combu/ion eng9e & motor vehicles ( all 
k9ds1 ! ,x-ray1    & s on4 ,^!1 moreov]1
 are only ! l&m>ks ( me*anical          
progress1 :i* is a relatively small item
 9 ! sum-total ( human    advance4      
,footnote #aga3      ,! cu/om>y p> value
 ( a %>e is "o hundr$ doll>s1 b x may   
be fifty1 t51 or five doll>s4           
,occasionally %>es ( no p> value    are 
issu$4    ,footnote #agb3      ,!       
/ockhold]s 9 ! orig9al corporation      
receiv$ 8tru/    c]tificates0 9 place ( 
_! %>es4    ,footnote #agc3      ,dur+ !
 presid5tial campaign ( #ahif !re 0 a   
good deal (    popul> outcry ov] !      

ass]t$ failure ( ! gov]nm5t to 8curb    
! tru/s04 ,:5 ,m>k ,hanna1 *airman ( !  
,republican ,national    ,committee1    
repli$1 8,!re are no tru/s01 he 0 laugh$
 at f "o    end ( ! c\ntry to ! o!r4 ,b 
he 0 "r1 = mo/ ( !    tru/s _h be5      
conv]t$ into hold+ companies4           
,footnote #agd3      ,9 ! long run ?is  
action did n am\nt to mu*1 h[ev]1 = !   
companies reorganiz$ 9 a way :i* kept !m
 )9 ! lett] (    ! law4    ,footnote    
#age3      ,9 ord] to evade ! provisions
 ( ! ,%]man ,act _m l>ge    corporations
 resort$ to ! plan ( 8int]lock+         
directorates04    ,:ile =m+ no          
comb9ation1 m]g]1 or hold+ company1 !y  
m]ely    arrang$ t ! v>i\s companies    
%\ld elect ! same m5 to _!    respective
 bo>ds ( directors1 ?us plac+ control ( 
! companies    9 ! h&s ( ! same gr\p (  
m54 ,to put an end to ?is practice      
,congress 9 #aiad enact$ ! ,clayton     
,act1 :i* provid$1 among o!r    ?+s1 t  
no p]son may s]ve z a director 9 two or 
m l>ge    competitive int]/ate          

corporations except banks & railroads1  
^!    latt] be+ "u sep>ate regulations4 
,footnote #agf3      ,! ,f$]al ,trade   
,commission is made up ( five memb]s1   
ea*    appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t1 ) !      
advice & cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1    = a t]m (
 sev5 ye>s4    ,footnote #agg3      ,=  
^? :o are will+ to look at ! matt] 9 ?is
 light1 be>+    9 m9d ! old adage       
conc]n+ ! k9dl9ess ( fate to ^? :o      
help !mselves1 ! foll[+ helpful books   
are sugge/$3 ,,fr$]ick    ,j4 ,,all51 ,a
 ,guide to ! ,/udy ( ,occupations       
7,cambridge1 #aiba74 ,a    survey ( all 
! be/ lit]ature on ! subject4 ,,fr$]ic  
,m4 ,,giles    & ,i4 ,k4 ,,giles1       
,vocational ,civics 7,n4 ,y41 #aibj74 ,a
 brief1    int]e/+ acc\nt ( !           
opportunities 9 diff]5t occupations4    
,,*apt] ,,xxi                           
,,labor ,,& ,,labor ,,problems        ,!
 purpose ( ?is *apt] is to describe !   
organization1      rights1 claims1 &    
problems ( ! ,am]ican wage-e>n]4        
,sid5ote3 ,h&-indu/ry creat$ no labor   

problem4    ,labor 9 ! ,old & ! ,new    
,indu/rial ,ord]4--,s long z ! sy/em  ( 
h&-indu/ry 0 9 exi/5ce !re 0 no %>p     
division (  employ]s & labor]s into two 
sep>ate classes4 ,! employ] 0  himself a
 workman at ! loom1 ! b5*1 or ! =ge4 ,he
 might h z  help]s a c\ple ( appr5tices 
:o 7 le>n+ ! trade1 & p]haps  a         
j\rneyman or two2 b r>ely 7 !re m ?an a 
half doz5 m5 or  wom5 employ$ 9 a s+le  
e/abli%m5t4 ,! appr5tices &  j\rneym51  
moreov]1 expect$ 9 due c\rse to set up 9
 bus9ess =  !mselves4 ,!re 0 no         
h>d-&-fa/ labor class1 & no labor       
problem  z we h x at ! pres5t day4 ,!   
employ] & 8 help]s work$  toge!r1 (t5   
liv$ toge!r2 no great gulf sep>at$ !m 9 
weal?1  education1 or social position4  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,! ,,cr[n+ ,,(      
,,labor4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,alex&]      ,f a
 ,?i/le ,pr9t1 copyright by ! ,detroit  
,publi%+ ,company4      ,reproduc$ by   
p]mission4                              

,,! ,,cr[n+ ,,( ,,labor                 
,by ,john ,w4 ,alex&]              ,?is 
picture =ms "o ( ! panels 9 a s]ies (   
mural decorations1 repres5t+ !          
a*ievem5ts (            labor1 at ! head
 ( ! great /aircase 9 !                 
,museum ( ! ,c>negie ,in/itute at       
,pittsburgh4              ,pittsburgh1 a
 great indu/rial community1 is          
depict$ z a knight 9 /eel armor1        
emblematic (            /r5g? & p[]4    
,labor hav+ rea*$ its highe/            
expression 9 ! prosp]\s indu/rial       
community1            ! city is be+     
cr[n$ ) a laurel wrea? &                
h]ald$ by ! w+$ figures :i* h aris5 out 
( ! smoke & /eam4 ,! :ole picture is    
symbolic ( ! imm5se en]gy :i* is guid$  
by            labor into productive     
*annels4                                
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,labor problems came ) !      
,indu/rial ,revolution4    ,! adv5t (   
/eam p[]1 factories1 & clang+ ma*9]y    

*ang$ all  ?is4 ,! numb] ( employ]s     
dim9i%$2 ! numb] ( employees  increas$4 
,hundr$s & ev5 ?\s&s ( workm5 7 br\ght  
toge!r  into great brick factories1     
work+ long h\rs1 de/9$ to be labor]s    
?r\gh\t _! entire lives1 ) no hope ( ev]
 be+ any?+ else4  ,) ?is new            
organization ( indu/ry ! relation ( !   
employ] to  8 help]s 0 completely *ang$4
 ,! old p]sonal relation  disappe>$2 !  
employ] no long] possess$ ev5 a pass+   
acqua9tance ) 8 m54#agh ,! new relation 
0 simply "o (  doll>s & c5ts4 ,he gave  
!m s mu* wages2 !y gave him s mu*  "w4  
,be+ only "o among a hundr$1 or "o among
 sev]al hundr$1 !  individual employee  
lo/ 8 indu/rial indep5d5ce4 ,:e!r he    
lik$  8 "w or n !re 0 little = him to d 
b take ! wages t  7 (f]$2 he c\ld no    
long] leave 8 employ] & set up 9        
bus9ess = himself z he c\ld 9 ! old]    
days ( h&-indu/ry4 ,!  ,indu/rial       
,revolution ?us br\ght into be+ a new   
labor class1 new  conditions ( labor1 & 
a new labor problem4    ,:y ,labor      

,organizes4--,organizations ( workm51 n[
 commonly kn[n z  trade unions or labor 
unions1 7 n 9 exi/5ce prior to !        
,indu/rial ,revolution4 ,!re 0 no ne$ = 
su* associations !n4 ,b  :5 ! work]s    
f\nd t z individuals !y c\ld n b>ga9 )  
_! employ]s on t]ms ( equality1 !y      
naturally s\ght to a*ieve  ?is position 
( equality by comb9+ toge!r into gr\ps  
or unions4  ,! orig9al purpose ( a labor
 organization1 !re=e1 0 to enable  its  
memb]s to act unit$ly 9 ! int]e/ ( !    
work]1 mak+ a  collective b>ga9 ) !     
employ]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,! aims ( labor     
organizations4 ,by ?is process (        
collective b>ga9+ !y aim to  secure fair
 wages1 reasonable h\rs ( "w1 sanit>y   
conditions 9  factories1 & security     
aga9/ dismissal except = prop] cause4 ,9
  addition to seek+ ^! advantages !     
labor organizations try to  promote !   
social & intellectual int]e/s ( _! own  
memb]s4#agi  ,!y h support$ ! policy (  
free1 public1 education & h urg$  !     
prohibition ( *ild labor 9 ord] t !     

*ildr5 ( ! work]s  may be kept at s*ool4
 ,!y h advocat$ :olesome =ms ( public   
recreation1 p>ticul>ly ! e/abli%m5t (   
play-gr\nds4 ,9 a ^w  ! policy (        
organiz$ labor is to support e movem5t  
:i* aims to  make ! work] self-respect+ 
& indep5d5t :ile oppos+  ev]y?+ t t5ds  
to r$uce him to ! ranks ( a m]e cog 9 ! 
great indu/rial me*anism4#ahj           
,sid5ote3 ,unions & f$]ations4          
,organization ,me?ods4--,trade unions   
are compos$ ( ! wage-e>n]s 9  a p>ticul>
 trade or occupation4#aha ,a local union
 is =m$ among !  wage-e>n]s ( ea* city  
or t[n4 ,^! unions1 usually call$       
8locals01 hold regul> meet+s1 elect _!  
own (fic]s1 & collect  small mon?ly dues
 f ea* memb]4 ,9 ! e>li] /ages ( ! labor
  movem5t ^! local unions 7 n f$]at$    
into any national body1  b 9 #ahff !    
,national ,labor ,union 0 =m$ by unit+  
_m ( !  local associations4 ,?is        
national organization became too mu*    
involv$  9 politics1 h[ev]1 & soon w5t  
to pieces4 ,9 its place arose  ano!r    

national organization kn[n z ! ,knights 
( ,labor1 :i*  ga9$ consid]able /r5g?   
dur+ ! tw5ty ye>s f #ahgj to #ahij4  ,! 
,knights ( ,labor did n attempt to      
f$]ate ! local unions b  took individual
 memb]s directly into _! own ranks4 ,9 !
 end !  organization became involv$ 9   
sev]al unsuccessful /rikes &  gradually 
weak5$1 al?\gh ev5 today x /ill ma9ta9s 
a nom9al  exi/5ce4 ,s9ce #ahij ! mo/    
important national organization 9 labor 
circles has be5 ! ,am]ican ,f$]ation (  
,labor4 ,mean:ile1 h[ev]1  ! unions 9   
p>ticul> trades 7su* z g>m5t work]s1 m9e
 work]s1  railroad tra9m51 etc47 _h     
begun to affiliate into individual      
national  unions ( _! own4 ,/ate & city 
f$]ations _h also be5 =m$1  made up (   
all ! unions 9 a giv5 /ate or city4 ,all
 ?is made m  easy ! rise ( a giant      
national f$]ation4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ !   
,a4 ,f4 ( ,l4 is organiz$4    ,!        
,am]ican ,f$]ation ( ,labor4--,!        
,am]ican ,f$]ation 0  organiz$ 9 #ahha b
 at fir/ its gr[? 0 sl[4 ,today x claims

 a  memb]%ip ( ab\t f\r million work]s4 
,x is a f$]al organization  compris+    
v>i\s national unions 9 p>ticul> trades1
 /ate  f$]ations ( labor1 city          
f$]ations1 & a l>ge numb] ( directly    
affiliat$ unions4 ,directly or          
indirectly ! ,am]ican ,f$]ation (       
,labor has br\ght into affiliation ne>ly
 ?irty ?\s& local  organizations ?r\gh\t
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,e ye> x    
holds a conv5tion made up ( delegates f 
! compon5t  organizations1 & ?is        
conv5tion det]m9es ! ,f$]ation's policy4
  ,! annual conv5tion also elects !     
,f$]ation's g5]al (fic]s4 ,!  ,f$]ation 
has no compulsory au?ority ( its own b  
m]ely ex]cises  su* p[]s z !            
organizations ( :i* x is compos$ may    
conc$e to  x4 ,its *ief function is to  
br+ repres5tatives ( unions toge!r  once
 a ye> = ! discussion ( common problems1
 to secure g5]al  agreem5t ^u a common  
program1 to give ! labor movem5t great] 
/r5g? ?r\gh unit$ action1 & to repres5t 
! int]e/s ( labor  be=e ! public        

au?orities4    ,sid5ote3 ,! dem&s (     
8organiz$ labor04    ,! ,f$]ation's     
,program4--,! ,f$]ation's program       
comprises bo?  economic & political     
aspirations4 ,among ! =m] are includ$ ! 
dem& = a rate ( wages 9 all trades      
suffici5t to enable ! work]  to live &  
br+ up 8 family 9 accordance ) 8,am]ican
 /&>ds  ( liv+02 ! e/abli%m5t ( an      
eight-h\r workday 9 all  occupations1 ) 
a half holiday on ,saturdays2 !         
prohibition ( paid  labor by *ildr5 "u  
sixte5 ye>s ( age2 ! m effective        
inspection ( work%ops1 factories1 & m9es
 9 ord] t prop]  sanit>y conditions may 
be ensur$ & indu/rial accid5ts prev5t$2 
& ! e/abli%m5t ( a sy/em ( social       
insurance aga9/ sickness1  disability1  
accid5t1 & old age4 ,among ! political  
*anges advocat$  by ! ,f$]ation are !   
nation-wide use ( ! initiative1         
ref]5dum1  & recall2 ! election ( a     
,presid5t by direct popul> vote2 !      
re/riction ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt's "r to   
decl>e laws  uncon/itutional2 !         

prohibition ( injunctions 9 labor       
disputes2 &  ! ext5sion ( gov]nm5t      
control ov] railroads4 ,! ,f$]ation also
  urges t great] att5tion be giv5 to    
vocational tra9+ 9 !  s*ools4 ,x %\ld be
 und]/ood t ! =ego+ program is n fix$  &
 inflexible2 x may be *ang$ by ! annual 
conv5tion at any "t  & is be+ con/antly 
modifi$4#ahb    ,sid5ote3 ,! radical    
elem5t 9 labor's ranks4    ,revolution>y
 ,labor ,organizations4--,9 rec5t ye>s x
 has become  app>5t t ! relatively      
mod]ate program & ! /rictly peaceful    
me?ods ( ! ,am]ican ,f$]ation d n       
satisfy ! m radical  elem5ts 9 its own  
ranks4 ,repeat$ attempts h be5 made at !
  annual conv5tion to displace ,mr4     
,gomp]s1 ! head ( ! ,f$]ation1  9 favor 
( "s lead] ) m radical views1 b ?us f>  
^!  attempts h fail$4 ,9 "s ( ! labor   
organizations ! radicals  h f "t to "t  
got out ( h& & h gone on /rike 9        
defiance ( _! lead]s4 ,/rikes ( ?is sort
 are commonly kn[n z  8outlaw /rikes04  
,sid5ote3 ,! ,i4 ,w4 ,w4--its hi/ory &  

aims4    ,b m p>ticul>ly ! drift to     
radicalism 9 labor's ranks has be5  %[n 
by ! organization & progress ( !        
,indu/rial ,work]s ( !  ,_w 7! ,i4 ,w4  
,w471 :i* aims to supplant ! ,am]ican   
,f$]ation (  ,labor & to comb9e all !   
work]s ( ! c\ntry into 8"o big  union04 
,! hi/ory ( ! ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 goes back to  
#ahih1 b x ga9$  little /r5g? z an      
organization until ab\t #aiaj4 ,e/imates
 z to !  ext5t ( its pres5t memb]%ip are
 unc]ta94 ,! program ( ! ,i4 ,w4  ,w4   
includes ! abolition ( all capitalism1 !
 control ( all indu/ry  by ! work]s1 & !
 union ( work]s ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,! ,i4 ,w4
  ,w4 opposes ! mak+ ( agreem5ts )      
employ]s & is at w> )  ! :ole exi/+     
economic sy/em4 ,x favors ! ov]?r[ ( !  
pres5t sy/em ( gov]nm5t & ! e/abli%m5t (
 a prolet>ian  dictator%ip4    ,sid5ote3
 ,:at 8collective b>ga9+0 means4        
,me?ods & ,policies ( ,labor3           
,collective ,b>ga9+4--,! prime  purpose 
( ! regul> labor organizations1 z has   
be5 said1 is to  enable ! work]s to     

b>ga9 ) ! employ]s ^u equal t]ms4 ,:]e  
! unions h acquir$ /r5g?1 !re=e1 !y     
insi/ t all  agreem5ts z to wages1 h\rs1
 & conditions ( labor %all be made by  !
 employ] on ! "o h& & ! (fic]s ( !      
unions on !  o!r4 ,t is to say !y insi/ 
t ! memb]s ( ! union %all  deal ) !     
employ]s collectively1 n individually1 &
 t !  employ]s %all agree to ?is me?od (
 det]m9+ all labor que/ions4  ,! unions 
insi/ ^u collective b>ga9+ because !y   
believe x to  be ! only way 9 :i* !     
work]s c be prev5t$ f compet+  among    
!mselves & ?us r$uc+ ! rate ( wages bel[
 a reasonable  m9imum4 ,! labor ( today 
_c be sold tomorr[4 ,if x is n sold     
today1 x p]i%es & br+s ! work] no       
return4 ,?is inexorable fact  places !  
workman 9 a position :]e1 if left )\t   
protection1 he  w\ld h to accept :atev] 
t]ms are (f]$ him4 ,_m l>ge  employ]s ( 
labor ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry h accept$ !      
pr9ciple (  collective b>ga9+1 b _m o!rs
 decl9e to d s on ! gr\nd  t x int]f]es 
) fre$om ( contract & re/ricts employm5t

 to  ! memb]s ( labor unions4           
,collective b>ga9s betwe5 employ]s &    
workm5 are made at jo9t conf]5ces betwe5
 ! repres5tatives (  bo? sides1 & !     
matt]s agre$ ^u at ^! conf]5ces are     
embodi$ 9 trade agreem5ts1 :i* usually  
run = a t]m ( mon?s or  ye>s4           
,sid5ote3 ,! !ory & practice ( /rikes4  
,! ,"r to ,/rike4--,! *ief weapon 9 !   
h&s ( organiz$ labor  is ! "r to /rike4 
,a /rike is a 8conc]t$ )drawal f "w by  
a "p or all ( ! employees 9 an          
e/abli%m5t1 or sev]al  e/abli%m5ts1 to  
en=ce a dem& on ! "p ( ! employees04    
,/rikes are call$ by (ficials ( ! unions
 :5 x appe>s t !  dem&s ( ! work]s _c be
 en=c$ 9 any o!r way4 ,?is c be  done1 z
 a rule1 only aft] a vote ( ! memb]s has
 be5 tak51 & 9  mo/ cases ! approval ( !
 national (fic]s ( ! union mu/ also  be 
secur$4 ,:ile ! m5 are 8on /rike0 x is  
cu/om>y to grant !m  a small daily      
all[ance = ! support ( !mselves & _!    
families4 ,?is is paid out ( ! treasury 
( ! union :]e funds h  be5 accumulat$ f 

mon?ly memb]%ip fees paid by ! m54      
,sid5ote3 ,picket+ ,:5 a /rike is call$1
 8pickets0 are /ation$  ne> ! factory or
 plant aga9/ :i* ! /rike is be+         
conduct$4  ,^! pickets or wat*]s are    
furni%$ f among ! /rik]s2 _!  purpose is
 to int]cept 8/rike-break]s0 or p]sons  
:o may be go+ to  take ! places ( !     
/rik]s1 & to p]suade !m aga9/ do+  ?is4 
,s long z picket+ is conduct$ peacefully
 & no intimidation  or viol5ce is       
practic$1 ! laws d n1 z a rule1 int]f]e4
    ,sid5ote3 ,boycotts4    ,9 addition 
to picket+1 ! /rik]s (t5 p]suade memb]s 
( o!r  unions to 8boycott0 ! products ( 
! e/abli%m5t aga9/ :i* !  /rike is be+  
conduct$1 9 o!r words to refuse to      
transport  mat]ials = x or to buy f     
m]*ants any ( its manufactures4 ,x is   
becom+ ! g5]al practice ( organiz$ labor
 to buy no goods :i*  d n be> ! 8union  
label01 :i* is a /ick] or tag c]tify+ t 
! m]*&ise 0 made by memb]s ( a union4   
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! employ] /rikes back4    
,lock\ts & ,blackli/s4--,b if ! work]   

has 8 weapons1 s has !  employ]4 ,:5 !  
employ] believes ! dem&s ( 8 workm5 to  
be  excessive he c %ut d[n ! e/abli%m5t 
& lock ! work]s out4  ,!n1 if he c f9d  
m5 & wom5 to "w = him on m favorable    
t]ms1 he takes !m into 8 employ & />ts  
up aga94 ,lock\ts are  n n[ z common z  
!y us$ to be4 ,ano!r weapon ( ! employ] 
is  ! blackli/1 :i* conta9s ! names (   
workm5 :o h be5  prom95t 9 fom5t+ labor 
tr\bles & :o are1 accord+ly1 reg>d$  by 
! employ]s z undesirable4 ,?is li/ is   
circulat$ by !  employ]s f "o to ano!r &
 no workman ^: "n is on x w be  giv5    
employm5t4 ,:5 a work]'s "n goes 9 !    
blackli/ x means  t he has ! greate/    
difficulty 9 f9d+ employm5t 9 8 own     
trade any:]e4    ,sid5ote3 ,labor & !   
c\rts4    ,! ,use ( ,injunctions 9      
,labor ,disputes4--,a mu*-discuss$ "q   
affect+ ! int]e/s ( labor relates to !  
use ( injunctions 9  controv]sies betwe5
 employ]s & workm54 ,an injunction is a 
writ or  ord] issu$ by a c\rt ( equity4 
,x comm&s a p]son or a corporation  to d

 some?+1 or n to d some?+4 ,a c\rt1 =   
example1 may by  ! issue ( an injunction
 ord] an employ] to re9/ate a workman :o
  has be5 wrongfully dismiss$1 or x may 
=bid ! call+ ( a /rike  by ! (fic]s ( a 
union if su* action involves ! brea* (  
an  agreem5t ) ! employ]4 ,sid5ote3     
,contempt ( c\rt4 ,anyone :o  disobeys  
an injunction is guilty ( 8contempt (   
c\rt0 & 9 mo/  cases may be clapp$ into 
jail )\t =mal trial by a jury4 ,memb]s  
( labor organizations feel t injunctions
 are frequ5tly us$ 9 !  int]e/ ( !      
employ]s4 ,! ,am]ican ,f$]ation ( ,labor
 has /rongly  oppos$ ! use ( injunctions
 9 labor disputes s long z m5 are n     
giv5 a trial by a jury be=e be+ adjudg$ 
9 contempt ( c\rt4 ,!  ,clayton ,act (  
#aiad provid$ t1 9 ! f$]al c\rts1 alleg$
  violations ( an injunction issu$ 9    
connection ) labor  controv]sies %\ld be
 det]m9$ by a jury trial4 ,9 ! c\rts (  
mo/ ( ! /ates1 on ! o!r h&1 no su*      
provision has yet be5  made & !re is    
/rong opposition to mak+ x4 ,_m p       

believe  t labor is ask+ a special      
privilege 9 dem&+ t controv]sies  9 :i* 
x is especially int]e/$ %all h an       
exemption f !  usual process ( ! c\rts4 
,! ,clos$ ,%op & ! ,op5 ,%op4--,! mo/   
hotly-debat$ "q 9  ! :ole range ( labor 
problems today conc]ns ! policy ( ! op5 
v]sus ! clos$ %op4 ,%all all %ops &     
factories be clos$ to ^?  :o are n      
memb]s ( ! union8 ,%all non-union m5 be 
virtually  requir$ to jo9 ! union or be 
refus$ employm5t unless !y d8 ,or  %all 
%ops & factories be op5 to all compet5t 
work]s no matt]  :e!r !y belong to !    
union or n8 ,a clos$ %op1 s-call$1 is a 
factory or o!r indu/rial plant 9 :i*    
none b memb]s ( a labor  union are      
employ$4#ahc ,an op5 %op is "o 9 :i* !  
employ] makes  no di/9ction betwe5 ^? :o
 are memb]s ( ! union & ^? :o  are n4 ,!
 unions insi/ ^u ! clos$ %op z ! only   
way (  ma9ta9+ ! effectiv5ess ( _!      
organizations & ( uphold+  ! pr9ciples (
 collective b>ga9+4 ,!y believe x to be 
impracticable to h union m5 & non-union 

m5 work+ effici5tly1  side by side1 9 ! 
same e/abli%m5t4 ,_m employ]s1 on ! o!r 
h&1 ma9ta9 ! op5 %op because !y believe 
x is ess5tial to  prop] discipl9e &     
gives e workman an equal opportunity4   
,!y  believe t x is ! inali5able "r ( e 
,am]ican to "w =  :om he pleases1 on su*
 t]ms z he pleases1 )\t ! necessity (   
jo9+ any organization4 ,h5ce !y h adopt$
 ! habit ( call+  ! op5 %op sy/em !     
8,am]ican plan0 ( indu/rial             
organization4 ,9  ^? trades :]e         
practically all ! work]s h become       
unioniz$ !  controv]sy ov] ! op5 or     
clos$ %op does n usually arise2 x is    
*iefly 9 ^? trades :]e a sub/antial     
proportion ( ! work]s  are n organiz$4  
,sid5ote3 ,! amicable settlem5t ( labor 
disputes4    ,conciliation &            
,arbitration4--,! frequ5cy ( /rikes &   
lock\ts  has be5 dim9i%$ 9 rec5t ye>s by
 an increas+ resort to !  settlem5t (   
indu/rial disputes by conciliation &    
arbitration4 ,by  conciliation is meant 
! action ( "s public au?ority1 usually a

  /ate bo>d1 9 t5d]+ its assi/ance to   
smoo? out ! difficulty  & effect a      
settlem5t4 ,?is assi/ance bo? sides (t5 
accept1  al?\gh !y are "u no obligation 
to d s4 ,by arbitration is meant  an    
agreem5t to submit ! dispute to "s "o   
man or gr\p ( m51 &  to abide by :atev] 
decision may be r5d]$4 ,an arbitration  
bo>d is  commonly made up ( ?ree memb]s1
 "o *os5 by ! employ]s1 "o by  ! work]s1
 & a ?ird mutually agre$ ^u z neutral4  
,"s /ates  ma9ta9 (ficial bo>ds (       
arbitration to :i* indu/rial disputes   
may  be ref]r$ at any "t by cons5t ( !  
disputants4 ,ev5 9 cases  :]e !y are n  
call$ ^u to arbitrate disputes ^! bo>ds 
usually h ! "r to inve/igate ! que/ions 
at issue & to make  kn[n _! f9d+s = !   
in=mation ( ! public4    ,sid5ote3      
,indu/rial c\rts4    ,compulsory        
,arbitration--,! ,kansas ,plan4--,al?\gh
 ! compulsory  arbitration ( indu/rial  
disputes has exi/$ = "s ye>s 9 a few    
o!r c\ntries#ahd x has n be5 look$ ^u ) 
favor by labor  lead]s 9 ! ,unit$       

,/ates4 ,^! lead]s feel t compulsory    
arbitration w\ld take f ! work] 8 mo/   
effective weapon--!  "r to /rike at an  
opportune "t4 ,9 #aiai1 h[ev]1 !        
legislature  ( ,kansas pass$ a law      
e/abli%+ 9 t /ate an ,indu/rial ,c\rt1  
) judges appo9t$ by ! gov]nor4#ahe ,?is 
c\rt is emp[]$ to  fix rules1           
regulations1 & practices = ! op]ation ( 
ess5tial  indu/ries4#ahf ,all indu/rial 
disputes1 ( :atev] sort 9 ^!  ess5tial  
indu/ries1 mu/ be submitt$ to x1 & its  
decisions are  b9d+ ^u employ]s &       
employees alike4 ,if ei!r side decl9es  
to  accept ! aw>d1 ! /ate gov]nm5t is   
emp[]$ to take ov] !  indu/ry & op]ate x
 until ! controv]sy is settl$4 ,!       
,kansas law  sub/itutes adjudication    
be=e a /ate tribunal = ! usual me?od (  
r$ress by /rikes & lock\ts4 ,x is bas$  
^u ! doctr9e t  nei!r capital nor labor 
has ! "r to c>ry on indu/rial w>f>e  at 
! exp5se ( ! public & t ess5tial        
indu/ries mu/ be kept  9 op]ation       
because ! :ole community dep5ds on !m4  

,! law has  be5 held to be              
con/itutional1 b x is /ill bitt]ly      
oppos$ by !  lead]s ( organiz$ labor4   
,sid5ote3 ,are ! laws unfri5dly to      
labor8    ,labor & ! ,law4--,x is (t5   
alleg$ t ! laws ( ! l& are  l>gely on ! 
side ( ! employ]4 ,?is may h be5 true ( 
!  common law :i* grew up 9 ! days (    
h&-indu/ry1 b ! /atutes  pass$ by       
,congress & by ! /ate legislatures dur+ 
rec5t ye>s  h done a great deal to      
ensure ! j & humane treatm5t ( !        
,am]ican work]4 ,^! laws h be5 conc]n$ )
 su* matt]s z !  prev5tion ( indu/rial  
accid5ts & ! e/abli%m5t ( workm5's      
comp5sation1 ! limitation ( ! h\rs (    
labor = wom51 !  prohibition ( *ild     
labor1 & ! e/abli%m5t ( m9imum wages 9  
c]ta9 indu/ries4 ,9 addition ! laws h   
made provision = prop]  sanit>y         
conditions 9 %ops & factories1 & h      
elim9at$ _m (  ! abuses :i* grew up 9 ! 
e>li] days ( ! factory sy/em4 ,!  g5]al 
t5d5cy ( ,am]ican legislation dur+ ! pa/
 tw5ty-five  ye>s has be5 9 ! direction 

( protect+ ! workman 9 all cases  :]e he
 _c be c\nt$ ^u to protect himself4     
,sid5ote3 ,! old plan ( deal+ ) injur$  
workm54    ,indu/rial ,accid5ts &       
,employ]s' ,liability4--,! use (        
high-p[]$  & complicat$ ma*9]y 9 mod]n  
times has greatly increas$ !  dang] (   
accid5t to ! work]s4 ,by ! t]ms ( !     
common law an  employ] 0 oblig$ to grant
 comp5sation to any workman :o met )  an
 accid5t because ( defects 9 ! ma*9]y or
 because ( any o!r  neglig5ce on !      
employ]'s "p4 ,b he 0 n oblig$ to grant 
comp5sation :5 ! accid5t 0 due to !     
employee's own neglig5ce  or to !       
neglig5ce ( a fell[-employee4 ,9 any    
ev5t ! only way 9  :i* an injur$ workman
 c\ld get comp5sation1 9 case ! employ] 
decl9$ to give x1 0 by br++ a suit 9 !  
c\rts1 an exp5sive  & unc]ta9 me?od4    
,?is meant t l>ge numb]s ( ! work]s :o  
7 disabl$ e ye> by accid5ts 7 left )\t  
any means (  support = !mselves & _!    
families4 ,x avail$ v little to say  t  
!y 7 !mselves to blame = _! plight1 or t

 "s  fell[-employee 0 to blame4 ,plac+ !
 blame did n save ! work]  or 8 family f
 />vation4 ,a great am\nt ( h>d%ip &    
suff]+  0 caus$ 9 pa/ g5]ations by putt+
 s mu* ( ! burd5 ^u !  hapless employee4
    ,sid5ote3 ,:y we h *ang$ x4    ,:5  
ma*9es break d[n ! employ] has to pay ! 
co/ ( replac+  or repair+ !m4 ,he1 9    
turn1 adds ?is exp5se to 8 co/ (        
production & 9 ?is way passes x to !    
public :i* buys 8  product4 ,b m5 break 
d[n z well z ma*9es4 ,e great indu/ry   
has _m human accid5ts ea* ye>4 ,no matt]
 h[ well ! ma*9]y is  gu>d$ or h[ c>eful
 ! workm5 may be1 accid5ts are          
inevitable4 ,an  enorm\s am\nt (        
att5tion has be5 giv5 to mak+           
railroad-op]ation  safe by means (      
automatic c\pl]s1 air-brakes1 electric  
signals1  int]lock+ swit*es1 & s on1 yet
 x is said t "o railroad  employee is   
kill$ or injur$ ea* ye> = e mile (      
trackage  op]at$4 ,:y n1 !re=e1 require 
! employ]1 & ?r\gh him1 !  consum]s ( ! 
f9i%$ products1 to pay = :at is an      

inevitable  item 9 ! co/ (              
transportation & manufacture8 ,! answ]  
to ?is  "q is t x %\ld be done1 & 9 mo/ 
( ! /ates x is n[  be+ done1 ?r\gh !    
m$ium ( workm5's comp5sation laws4      
,sid5ote3 ,! new plan4    ,workm5's     
,comp5sation4--,! usual arrangem5t      
e/abli%$ by workm5's  comp5sation laws  
is z foll[s3 ,e injur$ work] is entitl$ 
to  comp5sation1 accord+ to ! ext5t ( 8 
injury1 no matt] h[ !  accid5t may h be5
 caus$4 ,if ! accid5t results 9 ! dea? (
  ! workman1 8 dep5d5ts are entitl$ to  
comp5sation4 ,! am\nt (  ! comp5sation  
is ei!r fix$ by law1 or adju/$ to !     
am\nt (  wages :i* ! employee has be5   
receiv+1 or det]m9$ by a /ate  bo>d4 ,x 
is paid 9 in/allm5ts1 s mu* p] week = a 
set p]iod (  "t4 ,9 addition1 an injur$ 
workman receives m$ical att5tion )\t    
any exp5se to himself4 ,! employ]       
usually arranges ) a liability          
insurance company or ) ! /ate insurance 
dep>tm5t to pay ?is  comp5sation 9      
return = an annual premium :i* he remits

 to !  company or to ! insurance        
dep>tm5t z ! case may be4 ,! co/ (  !   
insurance1 9 o!r words ! am\nt ( !      
annual premium1 becomes  "o ( ! regul>  
exp5ses ( conduct+ bus9ess1 l taxes1    
fire  insurance1 or int]e/4 ,if !       
employ] does n arrange =                
liability-insurance1 he mu/ pay !       
comp5sation f 8 own pocket4  ,^!        
workm5's comp5sation laws h be5 (       
incalculable s]vice to  ! employees2 at 
! same "t ! co/ to ! public1 9 ! way (  
high] prices1 has be5 s small z to be   
almo/ unnoticeable4    ,sid5ote3 ,! ne$ 
= special laws to regulate ! employm5t (
             wom54    ,limitations on ! 
,work+ ,h\rs ( ,wom5 9 ,indu/ry4--,!    
v>i\s  indu/ries ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates n[   
employ sev]al million wom51 &  ! special
 protection ( ! laws has be5 ext5d$ to  
!m 9 v>i\s  directions4 ,! reason = ?is 
is t wom5 _c "w long h\rs  )\t detrim5t 
to _! physical welf>e1 & any break-d[n 9
 !  physical well-be+ ( sev]al million  
wom5 w\ld result 9 a s]i\s  injury to ! 

physique ( ! :ole race4 ,wom5 9 indu/ry1
 moreov]1  are n z well able to protect 
_! own int]e/ z m5 are & =  t reason    
also ! laws h int]v5$ 9 _! behalf4 ,mo/ 
( ^!  laws h be5 direct$ t[>ds limit+ ! 
h\rs ( labor = wom5 to  a c]ta9 maximum 
p] week1 =bidd+ "w at night1 & improv+ !
  conditions "u :i* wom5 are employ$4   
,factories1 = example1 h  be5 requir$ 9 
"s /ates to provide re/ rooms1 & /ores  
are "u  obligation to furni% seats = !  
use ( saleswom5 :5ev] !y are  n busy at 
! c\nt]s4 ,x may be urg$ t wom51 l m51  
%\ld  h ! "r to "w z _m h\rs z !y       
please2 b ! g5]al  welf>e ( society is  
p>am\nt to ! rights ( any class1 :e!r ( 
m5 or wom54 ,x is ! duty ( society to   
protect itself aga9/  any?+ t t5ds to   
break d[n its physical or moral         
well-be+4    ,sid5ote3 ,! old iniquities
 ( *ild labor4    ,*ild ,labor4--,9 !   
e>ly days ( ! factory sy/em *ildr5 (    
twelve1 t51 or ev5 sev5 ye>s 7 put to "w
 = long h\rs "u  frightful conditions4  
,und]paid & und]f$1 depriv$ ( s*ool+1   

!y grew up to be physically &           
intellectually unfit & develop$  into   
inf]ior citiz5s4#ahg ,*ild labor 0 ?\ght
 to be *eap1 &  f ! employ]'s po9t (    
view x 02 b 9 ! long run society  f\nd x
 to be incalculably exp5sive4           
,unre/rict$ *ild labor  increas$ ! numb]
 ( illit]ates1 promot$ ! spread (       
disease &  crime1 augm5t$ pov]ty1 & br$ 
discont5t4 ,! *ild is ! fa!r  ( ! man2 &
 z our *ildr5 are c>$ = s w ! future    
manhood  & womanhood ( ! nation be4 ,no 
few] ?an two million p]sons "u  fifte5  
ye>s ( age are engag$ 9 "s =m (         
wage-e>n+ occupation  9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
today4 ,s9ce !y are unable to protect   
!mselves  aga9/ ov]work & und]paym5t1 ! 
/ate mu/ see to x t !y  are treat$ by _!
 employ]s ) consid]ation & humanity4    
,sid5ote3 ,*ild labor laws ( today4     
,! laws relat+ to *ild labor diff]      
consid]ably 9 ! v>i\s  /ates2 9 "s !    
provisions are mu* /rict] ?an 9 o!rs4 ,9
  g5]al ! t5d5cy is to prohibit ! regul>
 employm5t ( *ildr5  "u f\rte5 ye>s (   

age4 ,_m ( ! /ates =bid ! employm5t (   
p]sons "u sixte5 ye>s ( age 9 night "w  
or 9 c]ta9 dang]\s  occupations1 su* z  
m9+4 ,! h\rs ( labor = p]sons "u  sixte5
 are also limit$ 9 "s /ates to n exce$+ 
eight p] day4  ,_m o!r provisions       
re/rict+ *ild labor are n[ 9 =ce1 & ye> 
by ye> new limitations are be+ add$4#ahh
 ,9 #aiaf ,congress und]took  to place a
 g5]al re/riction on *ild labor ?r\gh\t 
! entire  c\ntry by pass+ a law :i*     
=bade ! transportation & sale 9         
int]/ate comm]ce ( any goods made 9 :ole
 or 9 "p by *ildr5  "u a designat$      
age-limit4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ 
,/ates  held ?is law to be              
uncon/itutional1 h[ev]1 decl>+ t !      
au?ority to regulate comm]ce among !    
/ates does n emp[]  ,congress to control
 ! conditions ( indu/ry )9 ! /ate       
b\nd>ies4 ,congress has s9ce plac$ a ban
 ^u *ild labor 9 ano!r  way1 namely1 by 
provid+ t ! pr(its ( ^! indu/ries :i*   
employ *ildr5 %all be tax$ m heavily ?an
 ! pr(its ( ^?  conc]ns :i* d n4#ahi    

,sid5ote3 ,! argum5ts = m9imum wage     
laws4    ,m9imum ,wage                  
,laws4--,inve/igations into ! subject   
made "s ye>s ago  disclos$ ! fact t n   
only 7 wom5 & *ildr5 frequ5tly  ov]work$
 9 indu/ries b t !y 7 (t5 und]paid z    
well4 ,"o  reason = ?is und]paym5t 0 t  
_m ( ! wom5 & *ildr5  work]s liv$ at    
home & did n ne$ to be entirely         
self-support+4  ,!y m]ely contribut$ to 
! g5]al family e>n+s4 ,!y 7 ?us  9 a    
position to "w = small] wages ?an if !y 
7 entirely  self-dep5d5t4 ,b !re 7 also 
_m ?\s&s ( wom5 & *ildr5  :o _h to      
support !mselves entirely f _! own e>n+s
 & to  ^! ! l[ rate ( wages meant h>d%ip
 & suff]+4 ,x meant  und]n\ri%m5t1      
physical break-d[n1 & premature old age4
 ,x l$ to  paup]ism & immorality4 ,s !  
laws h once m int]v5$ to  protect !     
well-be+ ( ! race aga9/ ! fruits (      
indu/rial  inju/ice by provid+ t ! wages
 ( wom5 & *ildr5 9 indu/ry  %all n fall 
bel[ a c]ta9 m9imum4    ,sid5ote3       
,nature ( ^! laws4    ,_m ( ! /ates h   

put ^! m9imum wage laws ^u _! /atute    
books4 ,sometimes ! m9imum rate ( wages 
is fix$ 9 ! law2 m  (t5 x is det]m9$ 9 !
 case ( ea* indu/ry by a /ate bo>d  aft]
 an inve/igation4 ,! m9imum rate is set 
at su* a po9t z w  enable ! wage-e>n] to
 be self-support+4 ,"h1 aga91 ! basic   
pr9ciple is t ! actual co/ ( production1
 includ+ ! co/ (  protect+ society aga9/
 ?+s detrim5tal to x1 %\ld be paid by  !
 public :i* buys ! goods4 ,sid5ote3 ,"s 
practical  difficulties4 ,"o practical  
difficulty connect$ ) ! m9imum wage     
plan is t x t5ds to ?r[ ! less effici5t 
employees out ( "w  altoge!r4 ,! employ]
 :o is =c$ by law to pay a fix$ m9imum 9
  wages1 no matt] h[ unskillful ! work] 
may be1 w promptly dismiss  all ^? :o d 
n give him1 9 "w1 ! wor? ( _! wages4 ,if
 a  m9imum wage is e/abli%$ 9 all       
indu/ries1 :]e w ! lea/  skillful f9d   
employm5t8    ,sid5ote3 ,causes (       
unemploym5t4    ,! ,problem (           
,unemploym5t4--,! greate/ ( all economic
 wa/es today  is t :i* results f        

unemploym5t4 ,! ideal condition w\ld be 
to  h ev]ybody employ$ all ! "t4 ,if t  
c\ld be accompli%$ we  c\ld produce a   
great deal m ea* ye> at l[] co/4        
,unemploym5t  means t idle m5 mu/ use   
:at o!r work]s are produc+4 ,b x is  n  
possible to d away ) unemploym5t        
altoge!r4 ,"s trades are  seasonal 9 "*1
 t is to say1 busy at "o p]iod ( ! ye>  
& slack dur+ o!rs4 ,9 nor!rn regions !  
build+ trades1  bricklay+1 outdoor      
c>p5try1 & s on1 are 9 ?is category4 ,! 
l>g] "p ( ! unemploym5t1 h[ev]1 is due  
to o!r ?an seasonal  causes4 ,x is due r
 to trade depressions :i* f "t to "t    
cause ! %utt+ d[n ( indu/rial           
e/abli%m5ts & x is caus$ 9  "s degree by
 ! lack ( c>eful plann+ on ! "p ( !     
employ]4  ,! numb] ( unemploy$ work]s   
?r\gh\t ! c\ntry v>ies greatly  f "t to 
"t4 ,x may be z l[ z five p] c5t or z   
high z =ty  p] c5t ( ! entire numb]4    
,sid5ote3 ,"s sugge/$ rem$ies4    ,v>i\s
 plans = less5+ ! evils ( unemploym5t h 
be5  sugge/$1 b !y all pres5t "s        

practical difficulties4 ,bett]          
vocational tra9+ w\ld r$uce ! numb] (   
unskill$ work]s2 & x  is ! unskill$ :o  
contribute mo/ l>gely to ! ranks ( !    
unemploy$4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( public       
employm5t (fices has done  some?+ to br+
 work]s into t\* ) available jobs4 ,x is
  propos$ t we h a m c>eful plann+ (    
/ate & municipal  improvem5ts s t !     
heavie/ dem& = labor on public works    
w\ld  come at times :5 unemploym5t is   
mo/ preval5t--?is1 x is urg$1  w\ld help
 alleviate ! tr\ble ev5 ?\gh x might n g
 v f> 9  solv+ ! :ole problem4 ,mu* w\ld
 be accompli%$ by ! bett]  organization 
( indu/rial production & by "s s*eme (  
co-op]ation  among employ]s :i* w\ld    
enable work]s to be transf]r$ f "o      
indu/ry to ano!r4 ,great practical      
ob/acles are 9 ! way ( do+  ?is on a    
l>ge scale4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ progress   
t[>d a solution ( ! problem is be+ made4
    ,"s l>ge conc]ns h already adopt$ ! 
plan ( sett+ aside ea*  week a c]ta9    
p]c5tage ( ! total pay roll z an        

unemploym5t  res]ve4 ,!n1 :5ev] work]s  
are tempor>ily out ( employm5t  ?r\gh ! 
slack5+ ( bus9ess & n ?r\gh any fault ( 
_!  own1 a c]ta9 weekly wage is paid to 
!m f ?is res]ve4 ,some?+  w also be     
accompli%$ 9 ! way ( r$uc+ unemploym5t  
by bett]  vocational guidance1 = "y m5 &
 wom5 (t5 g into employm5ts  :i* af=d no
 *ance ( promotion & :i* !y subsequ5tly 
f9d to  be unsuit$ to _! ta/es4 ,_m l>ge
 indu/ries n[ be/[ great c>e  ^u !      
selection ( new employees4 ,all         
applicants are dealt )  ?r\gh a special 
(ficial kn[n z ! employm5t manag]1 ^:   
function x is to make reasonably sure t 
! applicant is fitt$ =  ! position4     
,=em5 & bosses are n all[$ to dis*>ge   
employees  at w4 ,! compla9ts mu/ fir/  
be ref]r$ = inve/igation to !  employm5t
 manag]'s (fice4 ,?is plan w also help  
alleviate  unemploym5t if x becomes     
g5]al4    ,sid5ote3 ,unemploym5t        
insurance4    ,unemploym5t insurance has
 be5 tri$ 9 a few ,european c\ntries &  
has be5 advocat$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,?is plan   

contemplates t ea* employ]  %all        
contribute to a fund f :i* a /at$ wage  
scale %all be paid  to ^? :o rema9 out (
 "w ?r\gh no fault ( _! own1 or t  !    
gov]nm5t %all provide su* a fund f !    
proce$s ( taxes4 ,x  is easy to see t a 
s*eme ( ?is sort might be s]i\sly abus$1
 yet  s long z ! problem ( unemploym5t  
rema9s s]i\s we mu/ /rive to  f9d "s way
 ( solv+ x4    ,old-,age ,p5sions4--,mo/
 wage-e>n]s d n save en\gh to provide = 
!mselves 9 old age4 ,! result is t aft] 
long ye>s ( toil !y  are dep5d5t ^u _!  
*ildr51 or mu/ eke out a prec>i\s       
exi/5ce by do+ odd jobs1 or mu/ be      
support$ by ! public  poor-relief funds4
 ,sid5ote3 ,! exp]i5ce ( ,great ,brita9 
&  ,g]many4 ,?is is n a desirable /ate (
 affairs & 9 "s ,european  c\ntries1    
notably 9 ,great ,brita9 & 9 ,g]many1   
sy/ems ( old-age  p5sions = work]s h be5
 e/abli%$4 ,9 ,g]many ! work] pays a    
small am\nt ea* week into ! fund2 !     
employ] pays an equal am\nt  & !        
gov]nm5t pays ! re/4 ,9 ,great ,brita9 !

 employ]s & !  gov]nm5t pay x all4 ,e   
wage-e>n]1 on rea*+ old age1 receives  a
 small weekly all[ance = ! re/ ( 8      
days4#aij ,! co/ ( an  old-age p5sion   
sy/em is enorm\s1 b 9 ! long run x is   
likely to  repres5t real economy4 ,soon]
 or lat] ! sy/em w probably be  e/abli%$
 9 ?is c\ntry2 ! only "q is :e!r1 :5 x  
comes1 ! wage-e>n] %\ld be requir$ to   
pay a regul> contribution  dur+ ! ye>s 9
 :i* he is able to d full "w4           
,sid5ote3 ,! patriotism ( ,am]ican      
labor4    ,am]ican ,labor & !           
,w>4--,among ! v>i\s factors :i* help$  
to  w9 ! ,_w ,w> ! loyalty & en?usiasm (
 ,am]ican labor %\ld be  accord$ a high 
place4 ,w> always creates a great       
%ortage ( work]s1  p>tly because s _m   
able-bodi$ m5 are tak5 into ! army &    
p>tly because ( ! trem5d\s ne$ = work]s 
9 munition plants &  o!r w> indu/ries4  
,dur+ w>1 !re=e1 ! labor organizations  
are  always 9 a position to make dem&s  
:i* _c well be refus$4 ,x is  q true t  
,am]ican labor took advantage ( its     

opportunities  dur+ ! ,_w ,w>2 b s did !
 employ]s4 ,! wages ( labor rose        
ev]y:]e1 z did ! pr(its ( indu/ry4      
,nev]!less x c fairly  be said t labor  
co-op]at$ ) ! gov]nm5t at all ! ess5tial
  po9ts & produc$ ! un9t]rupt$ fl[ (    
mat]ials :i* 0 ne$$  to ensure victory4 
,c]ta9 x is t )\t ?is co-op]ation on !  
"p ( labor ! ,unit$ ,/ates c\ld n h     
figur$ s prom95tly 9  decid+ ! ultimate 
issue ( ! great conflict4               
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,,isaac ,,lipp9cott1
 ,economic ,developm5t ( ! ,unit$       
,/ates1 pp4  #dia-eaa2    ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1
 ,! ,labor ,movem5t 9 ,am]ica1 pp4      
#cd-ia 7,gr[? &  ,pres5t ,conditions (  
,labor ,organizations72    ,t4 ,s4      
,,adams & ,h4 ,l4 ,,sumn]1 ,labor       
,problems1 pp4 #dfa-eja 7,labor  ,laws72
    ,f4 ,t4 ,,c>lton1 ,organiz$ ,labor 9
 ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 pp4 #aa-dd 7,epo*s  9
 ! ,hi/ory ( ,organiz$ ,labor72 pp4     
#afi-aig 7,labor ,p>ties72 pp4  #aih-bbe
 7,ideals ( ! ,wage ,e>n]72    ,r4 ,f4  
,,hoxie1 ,trade ,unionism 9 ! ,unit$    

,/ates1 pp4 #bed-bge  7,collective      
,b>ga9+72    ,,john ,r4 ,,commons & ,j4 
,b4 ,,&rews1 ,pr9ciples ( ,am]ican      
,labor  ,legislation1 pp4 #ce-ij        
7,individual ,b>ga9+72    ,,samuel      
,,gomp]s1 ,am]ican ,labor & ! ,w>1      
passim4                                 
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! orig91 gr[?1 &
 aims ( labor organizations4 ,!         
organization ( indu/ry be=e ! ,indu/rial
 ,revolution4 ,rise ( !  factory sy/em4 
,creation ( a labor class4 ,e>ly        
conditions ( factory  employm5t4        
,beg9n+s ( labor organizations4 ,e>ly   
attitude ( ! law  & ! c\rts4 ,gr[? (    
labor organizations dur+ ! pa/ half     
c5tury4 ,c5tral organizations & national
 bodies4 ,pres5t-day aims (  labor      
organizations--economic1 social1 &      
political4 ,specific features  (        
organiz$ labor's program4 ,labor z a    
factor 9 politics4 ,!  movem5ts =       
indu/rial democracy4 ,ref]5ces3 ,t4,s4  
,,adams & ,h4,l4  ,,sumn]1 ,labor       
,problems1 pp4 #bad-bgi2 ,,sidney       

,,webb1 ,hi/ory ( ,trade  ,unionism1 pp4
 #a-ef2 #dca-eda2 ,,m>y ,,be>d1 ,%ort   
,hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican  ,labor ,movem5t1  
pp4 #dg-gi2 ,f4 ,t4 ,,c>lton1 ,organiz$ 
,labor 9 ,am]ican  ,hi/ory1 pp4 #aa-dd2 
#aih-bbe2 ,r4 ,f4 ,,hoxie1 ,hi/ory (    
,trade ,unionism 9  ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4
 #baa-beb 7,! ,law 9 ,relation to       
,labor72 ,,john ,r4  ,,commons 7editor71
 ,hi/ory ( ,labor 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1    
passim2 ,r4  ,t4 ,,ely1 ,! ,labor       
,movem5t 9 ,am]ica1 pp4 #cd-ia2 ,p4 ,f4 
,,briss5d51  ,hi/ory ( ! ,i4 ,w4 ,w41   
pp4 #hc-aab 7,! ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 vs4 ! ,a4   
,f4 (  ,l474    #b4 ,! ,am]ican         
,f$]ation ( ,labor3 its hi/ory1 aims1 & 
a*ievem5ts4 ,ref]5ces3 ,,samuel         
,,gomp]s1 ,am]ican ,labor & !  ,w>1 pp4 
#ahf-aif2 ,,john ,,mit*ell1 ,organiz$   
,labor1 pp4 #cig-djf2 ,f4 ,t4  ,,c>lton1
 ,hi/ory & ,problems ( ,organiz$ ,labor1
 pp4 #ge-hb2 ,,m>y ,r4  ,,be>d1 ,%ort   
,hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican ,labor ,movem5t1   
pp4 #hf-adi2 ,g4 ,g4  ,,groat1 ,organiz$
 ,labor 9 ,am]ica1 pp4 #hb-ii2 ,,hel5   

,,m>ot1 ,am]ican  ,labor ,unions1 pp4   
#aa-bh4    #c4 ,! arbitration (         
indu/rial disputes4 ,ref]5ces3 ,t4 ,s4  
,,adams  & ,,hel5 ,,sumn]1 ,labor       
,problems1 pp4 #bie-ccb2 ,,sidney       
,,webb1  ,indu/rial ,democracy1 pp4     
#bbb-bdf2 ,n4 ,p4 ,,gilman1 ,me?ods (   
,indu/rial ,peace1 pp4 #cja-cde2 ,r4 ,t4
 ,,ely1 ,! ,evolution ( ,indu/rial      
,society1 pp4 #cgd-cig2 ,,john          
,,mit*ell1 ,organiz$ ,labor1 pp4        
#ccg-cdf2 ,f4  ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,pr9ciples
 ( ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cjc-cbb4
    #d4 ,! g5]al pr9ciples ( labor      
legislation4 ,ref]5ces3 ,w4 ,s4         
,,jevons1 ,! ,/ate 9 ,relation to       
,labor1 pp4 #a-cb2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1   
,pr9ciples ( ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4
 #bhe-cjb2 ,,john ,r4 ,,commons & ,j4   
,b4 ,,&rews1 ,pr9ciples ( ,labor        
,legislation1 pp4 #a-cd2 ,h4 ,s4        
,,p]son1  ,labor ,laws & ,_! ,en=cem5t1 
passim4                                 
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! f\r epo*s 9 !   
hi/ory ( organiz$ labor4 ,f4 ,t4        

,,c>lton1  ,organiz$ ,labor 9 ,am]ican  
,hi/ory1 pp4 #aa-dd4    #b4 ,labor &    
politics4 ,f4 ,t4 ,,c>lton1 ,hi/ory &   
,problems (  ,organiz$ ,labor1 pp4      
#afi-aig4    #c4 ,! ,knights ( ,labor3  
:y !y fail$4 ,,m>y ,r4 ,,be>d1 ,%ort    
,hi/ory ( ! ,am]ican ,labor ,movem5t1   
pp4 #aaf-abf4    #d4 ,! "r to /rike4    
,,john ,,mit*ell1 ,organiz$ ,labor1 pp4 
#bii-cbc4    #e4 ,collective b>ga9+4    
,f9al ,report ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,indu/rial    
,commission1 pp4 #hdc-hdg4    #f4 ,! use
 ( injunctions 9 labor disputes4 ,g4 ,l4
 ,,bol51 ,gett+ a  ,liv+1 pp4 #edh-ehj2 
,j4 ,r4 ,,commons1 ,trade ,unionism &   
,labor  ,problems1 pp4 #aef-afc4    #g4 
,! ,kansas plan4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,all51 ,!     
,p>ty ( ! ,?ird ,"p1 pp4  #af-ia4    #h4
 ,workm5's comp5sation4 ,,john ,r4      
,,commons & ,j4 ,b4 ,,&rews1  ,pr9ciples
 ( ,am]ican ,labor ,legislation1 pp4    
#cef-che4 ,see also !  publications on  
?is subject issu$ by ! ,national        
,indu/rial  ,conf]5ce ,bo>d4    #i4     
,wom5 & *ildr5 9 indu/ry4 ,t4 ,s4       

,,adams & ,h4 ,l4 ,,sumn]1  ,labor      
,problems1 pp4 #ai-fg4    #aj4 ,!       
problem ( unemploym5t4 ,e4 ,t4 ,,t[ne1  
,social ,problems1 pp4  #adj-aei2 ,w4   
,h4 ,,bev]idge1 ,unemploym5t1 #c;d ed41 
pp4 #a-ae 7,great  ,brita974    #aa4    
,pr(it %>+ z a solution ( indu/rial     
problems4 ,t4 ,s4 ,,adams  & ,h4 ,l4    
,,sumn]1 ,labor ,problems1 pp4 #ccc-cgh4
    #ab4 ,old age p5sions4 ,w4 ,h4      
,,dawson1 ,social ,insurance1 pp4       
#abh-afe2  ,f4 ,w4 ,,lewis1 ,/ate       
,insurance1 pp4 #adh-agj4               
,que/ions    #a4 ,expla9 :y labor       
organizations came into exi/5ce dur+ !  
n9ete5? c5tury4 ,on ! :ole h !y be5 a   
b5efit to indu/ry or  n8 ,give y\r      
reasons4    #b4 ,give "s reasons =      
expect+ trade unions to be /rong] 9     
c]ta9 employm5ts ?an 9 o!rs4 ,9 :i* ( ! 
foll[+  employm5ts w\ld y expect !      
unions to be /rong1 & 9 :i* w\ld  y     
expect !m to be weak3 7a7 railroad+2 7b7
 dome/ic s]vice2  7c7 s*ool tea*+2 7d7  
f>m+2 7e7 m9+2 7f7 /eel-mak+8  ,give    

reasons = y\r expectations 9 ea* case4  
#c4 ,) :at po9ts 9 ! program ( !        
,am]ican ,f$]ation ( ,labor  d y agree &
 ) :at ones d y disagree8    #d4 ,!     
clos$ %op is sometimes criticis$ z be+  
8un-,am]ican0 &  ! op5 %op has be5 call$
 ! 8,am]ican plan04 ,:at does ?is mean8 
#e4 ,are !re any employm5ts1 public or  
private1 9 :i* /rikes %\ld  n be        
p]mitt$8    #f4 ,:y %\ld ! consum] pay !
 co/s ( all indu/rial accid5ts8  ,expla9
 h[ he does s :]e workm5's comp5sation  
acts h be5  pass$4    #g4 ,9 y\r op9ion 
w\ld ! legislature be ju/ifi$ 9 limit+  
to  eight h\rs p] day ! labor ( 7a7 wom5
 9 c&y factories2 7b7  m5 :o "w on f>ms2
 7c7 m5 :o "w 9 coal m9es2 7d7          
physicians2 7e7 waitresses 9 hotels2 7f7
 female s]vants2 7g7  memb]s ( !        
fire-protection s]vice 9 cities2 7h7    
motorm5 on  /reet c>s8 ,give y\r reasons
 9 ea* case4    #h4 ,give y\r views z to
 ! m9imum age at :i* any p]son %\ld be  
p]mitt$ to engage 9 regul> employm5t =  
wages4 ,at :at age %\ld  employm5t 9    

night "w be p]mitt$8 ,%\ld p]sons "u    
f\rte5  ye>s ( age be all[$ to "w =     
wages aft] s*ool h\rs1 on  ,saturdays1 &
 dur+ vacations8    #i4 ,a girl ( sixte5
 has graduat$ f gramm> s*ool & c\ld     
obta9  a position z cl]k 9 a mill9]y    
/ore at eight doll>s a week4 ,%e is     
liv+ at home & does n h to support      
h]self4 ,b ! m9imum  wage = cl]ks 9     
/ores happ5s to be t5 doll>s p] week & !
  own] w n pay s mu*4 ,is !re any       
inju/ice "h8    #aj4 ,h[ c ! evil (     
unemploym5t be r$uc$8 ,:at abuses might 
arise  9 connection ) unemploym5t       
insurance8 ,:o pays ! co/ (  unemploym5t
 n[8 ,argue :e!r we %\ld or %\ld n place
 indu/rial  unemploym5t on ! same basis 
z indu/rial accid5ts4                   
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! dem& =      
collective b>ga9+ is 7or is n7 ju/ifi$4 
#b4 ,a plan ( old-age p5sions1 l t n[   
ma9ta9$ 9 ,great  ,brita91 %\ld be      
e/abli%$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4             
,,*apt] ,,xxii                          
,,curr5cy1 ,,bank+1 ,,& ,,cr$it         

,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to expla9 :at 
money is1 :at      purposes x s]ves1 h[ 
banks conduct _! bus9ess1 & h[ cr$it    
facilitates trade4      ,sid5ote3 ,money
 supplants b>t]4    ,! ,orig9 (         
,money4--,! use ( money is "o ( ! m>ks (
  civilization4 ,9 primitive communities
 money 0 unkn[n4 ,buy+ &  sell+ 0 by    
b>t]1 ! ex*ange ( "o commodity = ano!r4 
,!  man ) too mu* corn ex*ang$ corn =   
cattle or = a boat or =  sk9s ) :i* to  
clo! himself4 ,b ex*ange by b>t] is a   
sl[ &  clumsy me?od because x means t   
two p]sons mu/ be f\nd ea* (  :om wants 
exactly :at ! o!r has to sell1 a ?+ :i* 
does n  easily happ54 ,) ! gr[? ( trade1
 accord+ly1 x became  necess>y to f9d a 
m$ium ( ex*ange1 9 o!r words "s s+le    
commodity :i* is s readily ex*angeable =
 all o!r commodities  t x c be us$ to   
facilitate buy+ & sell+4 ,"s ( !        
,indians ( ,nor? ,am]ica us$ ! ends (   
%ells1 or wampum1 = ?is  purpose4 ,!    
e>ly coloni/s 9 ,virg9ia *ose tobacco z 
a tempor>y  m$ium ( ex*ange1 x be+ 9    

univ]sal dem&4 ,p accept$  tobacco 9    
ex*ange = ?+s :i* !y wi%$ to sell1 &    
gave  tobacco = ?+s :i* !y desir$ to    
buy4 ,?is 0 n because !y  want$ tobacco 
= _! own use b because ( all commodities
 9 !  colony tobacco 0 ! mo/ easy to    
ex*ange = o!r ?+s at a  mom5t's notice4 
,no ord9>y =m ( m]*&ise1 h[ev]1 makes an
  entirely satisfactory m$ium ( ex*ange 
& all ( !m 9 "t gave  way to ! preci\s  
metals1 gold & silv]1 :i* are n[ ev]y:]e
  us$ = ?is purpose4#aia    ,sid5ote3   
,money z a /&>d ( value & a measure (   
def]r$             paym5ts4    ,!       
,functions :i* ,money ,s]ves4--,money1  
h[ev]1 s]ves n only z a  m$ium ( ex*ange
 b z a /&>d ( value & a measure = future
  paym5ts4 ,money is ! common d5om9ator 
by means ( :i* we express  ! value (    
diff]5t commodities4 ,if money 7 n 9    
exi/5ce1 h[  c\ld we /ate ! value (     
any?+8 ,x w\ld be ( little avail to say 
t a suit ( clo!s is wor? t5 hats1 = ?is 
w\ld m]ely beg !  "q3 ,h[ mu* is a hat  
wor?8 ,money p]=ms ! function (  provid+

 a uni=m scale into :i* all values c be 
translat$4 ,:5  we say1 !re=e1 t a suit 
( clo!s is wor? =ty doll>s &  t hats are
 wor? f\r doll>s apiece we are measur+  
bo?  commodities accord+ to ! same /&>d 
( value4 ,money also  facilitates ! use 
( cr$it by provid+ a measure = def]r$   
paym5ts4 ,p _c well agree to indef9ite  
future obligations2  !y mu/ "k exactly  
:at a debt am\nts to4 ,! use ( money    
enables  m5 to borr[ today ) ! und]/&+ t
 !y w repay ! same  am\nt at "s future  
date4    ,sid5ote3 ,! qualities :i*     
money mu/ h3    ,*>act]i/ics (          
,money4--,gold & silv] are be/ adapt$ to
  facilitate ex*ange because !y possess1
 9 high degree1 c]ta9  qualities :i*    
money mu/ h 9 ord] to fulfil its        
functions  prop]ly4 ,:at are ^!         
qualities8 ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,value4 ,to    
s]ve  acceptably z money a sub/ance mu/ 
h1 9 ! fir/ place1 "s  value 9 itself2 x
 mu/ !re=e h utility z a basis ( value4 
,a  wor?less sub/ance1 :i* nobody wants1
 w\ld n d4 ,sid5ote3 #b4  ,/ability4    

,second1 x mu/ n only h value b /ability
 ( value4  ,to s]ve effici5tly z money a
 metal mu/ n be subject to wide &       
frequ5t fluctuations 9 :at x is wor?4 ,a
 sub/ance :i* might be  wor? mu* today &
 little tomorr[ w\ld n be satisfactory4 
,gold &  silv]1 be+ produc$ 9 limit$    
quantities1 are m ne>ly /able 9  value  
?an any o!r metals1 gold be+ p>ticul>ly 
s4 ,sid5ote3 #c4  ,conv5i5ce4 ,?ird1 !  
metal us$ z money mu/ possess relatively
  high value 9 proportion to its bulk s 
t x c be easily pass$  f h& to h&4 ,!re 
0 a tradition 9 anci5t ,greece t        
,lycurgus  compell$ ! ,lac$aemonians to 
use iron money 9 ord] t its weight      
might det] !m f ov]mu* trad+4 ,if iron 7
 us$ z curr5cy  today a dime w\ld weigh 
m ?an a p\nd4#aib ,9 a ^w ! metal  us$ z
 money mu/ be portable1 easy to c>ry    
ar\nd4 ,sid5ote3 #d4  ,durability4      
,f\r?1 x mu/ be relatively              
inde/ructible1 n subject  to rapid decay
 or ru/+4 ,gold & silv] satisfy ?is     
requirem5t1 =  "t does n de/roy _! value

 nor d !y suff] mu* we> & te>  ?r\gh    
h&l+4 ,x is believ$ t "s ( ! gold :i* is
 9 !  co9age ( ,european c\ntries today 
s]v$ z money 9 ! "t ( !  ,romans4       
,sid5ote3 #e4 ,uni=mity4 ,fif?1 x mu/ be
 homog5e\s1 t  is1 x mu/ n v>y 9        
quality1 o!rwise equal am\nts ( x w\ld n
  h ! same value4 ,9 ord] t we may      
reckon ?+s 9 t]ms (  money ! units mu/  
be equal & simil> s t twice "o w always 
make two4 ,if we 7 to use diamonds z    
money1 x w\ld n always  happ5 t two     
/ones w\ld be wor? exactly twice z mu* z
 "o4  ,sid5ote3 #f4 ,divisibility4      
,six?1 x mu/ be easily divisible )\t    
loss ( value1 = we ne$ small units (    
money z well z l>ge ones4  ,"o great    
difficulty :i* primitive p f\nd 9 us+ ! 
sk9s (  animals z money 0 t !y c\ld n be
 cut into portions )\t  de/roy+ _! value
 altoge!r4 ,nobody w\ld take1 = example1
 a  qu>t] ( a sk9 9 paym5t = a basketful
 ( corn4 ,b gold &  silv] c be divid$ at
 w & yet reta9 an exactly proportionate 
value4 ,sid5ote3 #g4 ,cognizability4    

,f9ally1 x mu/ be a metal or  o!r       
sub/ance ! g5u95ess ( :i* c be easily   
det]m9$4 ,if  e p]son :o receives money 
_h to scrut9ize1 weigh1 & te/ x1  !     
processes ( trade w\ld be intol]ably    
delay$4#aic ,gold &  silv] may n        
!mselves be readily cognizable by !     
un9itiat$1 b  !y are easy to /amp into  
co9s ) a /amp or design & ?is           
impression _c be easily c\nt]feit$4 ,!  
v>i\s c\ntries ( !  _w adopt$ gold &    
silv] z _! *ief m$ia ( ex*ange because  
^! metals fulfil 9 ! l>ge/ degree !     
=ego+ requirem5ts4  ,= small units (    
curr5cy nickel & bronze are utiliz$     
because  subsidi>y co9s ( gold & silv]  
w\ld be too small4    ,sid5ote3 ,gold is
 ! ,am]ican /&>d ( values4    ,! ,co9age
 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
gold is !  /&>d ( values4 ,?is does n   
mean t gold is circulat$ f h&  to h& 9 e
 transaction1 b m]ely t all economic    
values are  express$ 9 t]ms ( gold co94 
,! actual paym5ts may be made 9  pap]   
notes1 or 9 silv]1 nickel1 or copp]     

co9s4 ,! monet>y sy/em  ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates is bas$ ^u ! decimal sy/em1 :i* 0
 adopt$  9 #aghd at ! sugge/ion ( ,?omas
 ,jeff]son4 ,?is means t we reckon  9   
fractions & multiples ( t5--t5 c5ts "o  
dime1 t5 dimes "o  doll>1 & t5 doll>s "o
 eagle4 ,= conv5i5ce !re are also       
additional co9s1 su* z nickels1 qu>t]   
doll>s1 half doll>s1 &  half-eagles4 ,no
 gold doll>s are n[ co9$1 z !y 7 f\nd to
 be  too small = conv5i5ce4#aid ,! m9t  
has also ceas$ co9+ qu>t]  eagles b     
cont9ues to make five1 t51 & tw5ty doll>
 gold pieces  al?\gh ^! co9s rema9 = !  
mo/ "p 9 ! banks :]e !y  are held z     
res]ves4 ,v little gold co9 is 9        
circulation any:]e  9 ! _w today4 ,!    
co9+ ( money is :olly )9 !  jurisdiction
 ( ! national gov]nm5t2 no /ate is all[$
 to make or  issue co9s4 ,sid5ote3 ,!   
,unit$ ,/ates m9ts4 ,! mak+ ( co9s      
takes place at f\r m9ts1 :i* are locat$ 
at ,philadelphia1 ,new  ,orleans1 ,d5v]1
 & ,san ,francisco4#aie ,if y look at ! 
rev]se side  ( a rec5tly m9t$ co91 y w  

f9d1 ne> ! base1 a small lett]  indicat+
 ! m9t at :i* ! co9 0 /ruck2 if !re is  
no su*  lett]1 ! co9 0 m9t$ at          
,philadelphia4    ,sid5ote3 ,! ratio    
betwe5 gold & silv]4    ,! ,controv]sy  
ov] ,bimetallism4--,9 #agib1 :5 ! fir/  
,am]ican  m9t 0 e/abli%$1 ,congress     
provid$ by law t !re %\ld be two        
monet>y units1 ! gold doll> & ! silv]   
doll>--! ratio betwe5  ! two1 9 t]ms (  
weight1 be+ fix$ at fifte5 to "o4 ,any  
p]son  br++ gold or silv] bullion to !  
m9t 0 entitl$ to h x made  into co9s at 
?is ratio1 :i* correspond$ to ! relative
 m>ket  value ( ! two ,sid5ote3 ,9      
#agib4metals 9 #agib4 ,silv] ev5tually  
*eap5$ 9 relation to gold1 h[ev]1 & 9 "t
 only silv] bullion  came to be co9$4   
,sid5ote3 ,9 #ahcd4 ,s ,congress 9 #ahcd
 r$uc$ !  weight ( ! gold doll> & made !
 ratio sixte5 to "o4 ,?is1 9  turn1     
prov$ to be an "u-valuation ( silv]1 &  
no silv] n[ came  to ! m9t to be        
co9$4#aif ,sid5ote3 ,9 #ahgc4 ,9 #ahgc1 
aft]  silv] doll>s _h practically dropp$

 out ( circulation ,congress  aboli%$ ! 
free co9age ( silv] altoge!r4#aig       
,pres5tly1  h[ev]1 !re 0 a popul> dem& =
 a resumption ( silv] co9age  & ! m9t+ (
 silv] doll>s 0 recomm5c$1#aih ,sid5ote3
 ,9  #ahic4;b only on a limit$ scale2 & 
9 #ahic x 0 once m  ab&on$4#aii    ,?is 
action on ! "p ( ,congress rais$ a great
 hue & cry 9  c]ta9 sections ( ! c\ntry1
 especially 9 ! ,s\? & ,we/4 ,free      
co9age ( silv] 0 desir$ n only by own]s 
( m9es :o _h silv]  to sell b by l>ge   
numb]s ( f>m]s :o believ$ t gold 0      
becom+ too sc>ce to s]ve z ! sole /&>d (
 value4 ,sc>city (  gold meant sc>city (
 money1 & sc>city ( money meant l[      
prices =  :eat4 ,if money 7 pl5tiful1   
prices w\ld g high]1 & ! way to  get m  
money 0 to co9 into doll>s all ! silv] t
 w\ld come  to ! m9t4 ,t 0 ! f>m]s'     
argum5t4    ,! 8,cross ( ,gold0         
,campaign4--,! lead]s ( ! ,democratic   
p>ty took  advantage ( ?is widespread   
agricultural grievance4 ,at ! national  
conv5tion ( t p>ty1 held at ,*icago 9 ! 

summ] ( #ahif1 ,mr4 ,w4  ,j4 ,bryan     
swept ! delegates (f _! feet ) 8        
d5unciation ( !  8few f9ancial magnates 
:o corn] ! money ( ! _w0 & 8 plea  = !  
poor man's doll>4 8,y %all n press ^u ! 
br[ ( labor  ?is cr[n ( ?orns01 he      
declaim$4 8,y %all n crucify mank9d ^u  
a cross ( gold40 ,! delegates1 amid     
tumultu\s *e]+ &  en?usiasm1 !reupon    
nom9at$ ! "y orator f ,nebraska z _!    
c&idate = ,presid5t & made ! free co9age
 ( silv] at a ratio  ( 8sixte5 to "o0 a 
fundam5tal "p ( ! ,democratic plat=m 9 !
  election campaign4 ,b ,bryan 0        
ov]:elm+ly defeat$ & ! clamor  = free   
silv] soon subsid$4 ,sid5ote3 ,f9al     
settlem5t ( !  "q 9 #aijj4 ,9 #aijj     
,congress pass$ ! ,curr5cy ,act1 :i*    
decl>$ gold to be ! sole /&>d & direct$ 
! secret>y ( !  treasury to ma9ta9 all  
o!r =ms ( curr5cy at a p>ity ) gold4    
,?is means t e silv] doll>1 :e!r ! silv]
 :i* x  conta9s be wor? a doll> or n1 is
 gu>ante$ by ! national  gov]nm5t to be 
wor? a gold doll>4    ,sid5ote3 ,our    

e>ly exp]i5ce ) pap] curr5cy4    ,pap]  
,money4--,our exp]i5ce ) pap] money goes
 back to colonial  days :5 bills ( cr$it
 7 issu$ by ,massa*usetts to pay ! co/s 
( ! exp$ition aga9/ ,quebec 9 #afij4 ,b 
no great am\nts 7  issu$ until !        
,revolution>y ,w>2 !n ! v>i\s /ate      
gov]nm5ts  z well z ! ,cont95tal        
,congress pr9t$ & issu$ notes to ! p>   
value ( ne>ly half a billion doll>s4 ,9 
! e>li] ye>s ( ! w>  ?is pap] curr5cy   
circulat$ at its face value al?\gh !re 0
 no  gold or silv] res]ve beh9d x2 b z !
 /ruggle dragg$ on &  notes by ! million
 kept be+ issu$ !y began to depreciate  
until  ev5tually ?is cont95tal pap]     
curr5cy 0 wor? only a fraction (  a c5t 
p] doll>4 ,h5ce ! orig9 ( ! slang       
expression 8n wor? a  cont95tal04 ,!    
notes = ! mo/ "p 7 nev] r$eem$2 !y      
m]ely became wor?less & pass$ out (     
circulation4    ,sid5ote3 ,:at !        
con/itution provides z reg>ds pap]      
money4    ,naturally ?is exp]i5ce made !
 p av]se to pap] money & :5  !          

con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 fram$ x 
conta9$ a  provision t 8no /ate %all    
emit bills ( cr$it 7or7 make any?+  b   
gold & silv] co9 a t5d] 9 paym5t (      
debts04 ,x 0 /rongly  urg$ t ! national 
gov]nm5t %\ld also be prohibit$ f  issu+
 pap] money1 b 9 ! end x 0 decid$ n to  
make any  express prohibition1 s !      
con/itution is sil5t z reg>ds !         
au?ority ( ! national gov]nm5t to emit  
bills ( cr$it4 ,x nei!r  gives ?is p[]  
nor d5ies x4 ,9 due c\rse1 h[ev]1       
,congress  au?oriz$ ! issue ( legal-t5d]
 notes or gre5backs1 & !  ,supreme ,c\rt
 upheld its "r to d ?is on ! gr\nd t !  
con/itution expressly gives ,congress ! 
p[] to borr[ money & t  ! issue ( pap]  
money is a reasonable me?od ( borr[+4 ,b
  al?\gh ! national gov]nm5t has itself 
! legal "r to issue  pap] money1 ei!r ) 
or )\t a res]ve beh9d x1 mo/ ( !  pap]  
money n[ 9 circulation is issu$ by !    
f$]al res]ve bo>d or  by ! f$]al res]ve 
banks "u au?ority grant$ by ,congress4  
,sid5ote3 ,! sev5 k9ds ( pap] money 9   

use4    ,pap] ,notes n[ 9               
,circulation4--,!re are sev]al k9ds (   
pap] notes  n[ 9 circulation4#bjj ,^!   
include silv] c]tificates1 gold         
c]tificates1 treasury notes1 & gre5backs
 issu$ directly by !  national gov]nm5t1
 national bank notes1 f$]al res]ve      
notes1 &  f$]al res]ve bank notes4 ,!   
provisions = ! r$emption ( ^!  diff]5t  
types ( pap] money v>y greatly1 & ea* is
 protect$ by a  diff]5t res]ve1 b 9     
actual fact ! hold] ( any unit ( pap]   
money c obta9 gold = x if he s desires4 
,?is is true ev5 ( !  silv] c]tificates 
:i*1 /rictly speak+1 are r$eemable only 
9  silv] doll>s4 ,! arrangem5ts "u :i* !
 national banks1 !  f$]al res]ve banks1 
& ! f$]al res]ve bo>d are p]mitt$ to    
issue pap] money w be discuss$ pres5tly4
    ,sid5ote3 ,pap] money has "s        
advantages 9 conv5i5ce &                
*eapness4    ,:y d we h pap] money8     
,*iefly because x is1 9 _m respects1  m 
conv5i5t = use ?an metallic money4 ,9   
l>ge am\nts x is n  s bulky z silv] or  

gold w\ld be4 ,!re is also ! advantage t
  :5 pap] money we>s out x c be *eaply  
replac$4 ,if gold co9s  7 cont9ually 9  
circulation f h& to h&1 !y w\ld         
gradually  we> d[n & ! monet>y loss w\ld
 be consid]able4 ,h5ce x is  bett] to   
keep ! gold 9 ! bank vaults & circulate 
! pap]1  :i* repres5ts gold1 9 its /ead4
 ,b a s\nd sy/em ( pap] money  %\ld     
always provide = ! r$emption ( ! notes1 
:i* means t  ! notes %\ld h an adequate 
res]ve beh9d !m4 ,?is res]ve  %\ld be 9 
gold or 9 ! equival5t ( gold4 ,sid5ote3 
,inconv]tible  pap] money4 ,unr$eemable 
pap] money1 issu$ )\t an adequate       
res]ve beh9d x1 leads practically always
 to depreciation & !reby  to heavy      
losses on ! "p ( ! p :o h tak5 ! money 9
  good fai?4 ,t 0 :at happ5$ 9 ! case ( 
! assignats ( !  ,fr5* ,revolution1 !   
cont95tal curr5cy 9 ! ,am]ican          
,revolution1  & ! pap] money ( sev]al   
,european c\ntries dur+ ! ,_w  ,w>4#bja 
,x is folly to try to f9ance a w> or any
 o!r national  ent]prise by issu+ fiat  

curr5cy1 z x is call$1 :i* is pap]      
curr5cy ) only ! ^w ( ! gov]nm5t & no   
sub/antial res]ve  beh9d x4 ,bett] tax !
 p outright ?an make !m take money z    
legal t5d] :i* is n wor? :at x purports 
to be4#bjb    ,sid5ote3 ,:y n aboli%    
money8    ,radicals sometimes say3 8,let
 u d away ) money altoge!r04 ,in/ead  ( 
money1 !y say1 we might use 8labor      
*ecks01 ea* *eck repres5t+  a giv5 am\nt
 ( labor4 ,"o h\r ( labor1 let u say1   
w\ld !n be  ! /&>d ( value in/ead (     
#bc4b gra9s ( gold4 ,?is arrangem5t1    
h[ev]1 w\ld n aboli% money1 b only *ange
 ! nature ( !  basis ^u :i* ! value (   
money is calculat$4 ,! labor *ecks  w\ld
 be money 9 e s5se ( ! ^w4 ,!re is only 
"o way to  aboli% money & t is to g back
 to b>t]4                               
,,! ,,bank+ ,,sy/em    ,sid5ote3 ,banks 
s]ve3    ,:at ,functions d ,banks       
,p]=m8--,banks are e/abli%$ & ma9ta9$   
to satisfy c]ta9 ne$s :i* arise :]ev] m5
 c>ry on ext5sive  trade ) "o ano!r4    
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,z in/itutions ( deposit4 

,9  ! fir/ place :5 money is accumulat$ 
by p 9 ! c\rse (  _! bus9ess "s safe    
place is ne$$ to keep x4 ,banks1 !re=e1 
s]ve z in/itutions ( deposit4 ,sid5ote3 
#b4 ,z ag5cies = loan+  money4 ,9 !     
second place1 z bus9ess develops1 x     
becomes necess>y  = p to borr[ money4   
,banks facilitate ?is borr[+4 ,_! two   
prim>y functions are to receive deposits
 & to make loans4 ,b 9  ord] t !y may   
p]=m ^! two prim>y functions to ! be/   
advantage ! banks h assum$ o!r subsidi>y
 functions z well4  ,sid5ote3 #c4       
,sometimes also z issu]s ( pap] money4  
,frequ5tly !y  issue bank notes1 or !   
bank's own promises to pay1 = use 9     
g5]al  circulation4 ,sid5ote3 #d4 ,to   
transf] funds f "o place to ano!r4  ,!y 
sell drafts or bills ( ex*ange1 ?us     
enabl+ p to transf]  funds f "o city or 
c\ntry to ano!r )\t ! tr\ble & risk  (  
s5d+ ! actual money4 ,z a rule !y       
provide safe-deposit vaults  9 :i*      
cu/om]s1 on paym5t ( a small sum1 are   
p]mitt$ to keep  _! valuables4 ,^!      

vaults are fire-pro( & burgl>-pro(4     
,banks  also collect money :i* may be   
due to a cu/om] f someone  else:]e4 ,!y 
help ! national & /ate gov]nm5ts to sell
 _!  bonds4 ,frequ5tly !y act z tru/ees1
 hold+ prop]ty = *ildr5  until !y gr[ up
 or = o!r p]sons :o are unable to look  
aft] !  prop]ty = !mselves4 ,)\t banks x
 w\ld be difficult1 if n  impossible1 to
 c>ry on ! op]ations ( mod]n bus9ess4   
,! ,e>ly ,am]ican ,bank+ ,sy/em4--,!    
national con/itution conta9s  no m5tion 
( banks or bank+4 ,h5ce x 0 assum$ t !  
p[] to  *>t] banks w\ld re/ ) ! /ates4  
,! /ates assum$ ?is  au?ority b !       
national gov]nm5t desir$ to ex]cise x   
also1 &  dur+ ! fir/ ?irty ye>s ( its   
exi/5ce e/abli%$ two great  banks1 bo? (
 :i* became unpopul> & ultimately w5t   
out (  exi/5ce4 ,! fir/ ,bank ( ! ,unit$
 ,/ates1 e/abli%$ 9 #agia1  ceas$ to d  
bus9ess 9 #ahaa2 ! second bank1 *>t]$ 9 
#ahaf1  incurr$ ! wra? ( ,presid5t ,&rew
 ,jackson & w5t to ! wall 9  #ahcf4bjc  
,f ?is date to ! ,civil ,w> ! /ate      

banks1 ( :i* a  l>ge numb] 7 e/abli%$ 9 
all p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 _h ! field  to     
!mselves4    ,! ,national ,bank+ ,act ( 
#ahfc4--;,dur+ ! ,civil ,w>1 h[ev]1 !   
national gov]nm5t enc\nt]$ great        
difficulty 9 rais+ funds4 ,:5  x issu$  
bonds ! p w\ld n buy !m readily4 ,! /ate
 banks  %[$ v little int]e/ 9 m>ket+ !m4
 ,s ,congress1 9 ?is  em]g5cy1 decid$ to
 e/abli% a sy/em ( national banks 9 ord]
 to  facilitate ! sale ( w> bonds4 ,!   
,national ,bank+ ,act1 pass$ 9  t ye>1  
laid a heavy tax ^u ! pap] money ( all  
/ate banks1  ) int5t to drive ?is       
curr5cy out ( circulation4 ,x !n provid$
  t any bank *>t]$ by ! national        
gov]nm5t might issue untax$  pap] money 
provid$ x b\ght ,unit$ ,/ates bonds to a
 designat$  am\nt & deposit$ ^! bonds 9 
,wa%+ton z security4 ,9 o!r  words !    
,act ( #ahfc aim$ to provide a uni=m    
sy/em ( bank notes  ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 ^!
 notes to be back$ by gov]nm5t bonds4   
,! plan work$ well & its ma9 provisions 
h be5 reta9$ to ?is  day4    ,sid5ote3  

,pres5t organization ( ! national banks4
    ,national banks are own$ by private 
individuals :o subscribe !  capital     
/ock4 ,^! /ockhold]s1 or %>ehold]s1     
elect ! bank's  (fic]s1 :o 9 turn manage
 ! bus9ess4 ,! pr(its g to !  %>ehold]s 
9 ! =m ( annual divid5ds4 ,ea* national 
bank mu/  buy a designat$ am\nt ( ,unit$
 ,/ates bonds & ^! bonds are  deposit$ 9
 ,wa%+ton4 ,9 return ! bank receives an 
equal am\nt (  pap] notes1 ) its own "n 
engrav$ !reon1 & ^! notes !  bank pays  
out ov] its c\nt]s1 ?us putt+ !m 9 g5]al
  circulation4 ,if ! bank %\ld become   
insolv5t1 ! gov]nm5t w\ld  r$eem ! notes
 s9ce x holds ! bonds z security4       
,sid5ote3 ,_!  functions4 ,! national   
banks receive money on deposit1 make    
loans1 &  p]=m ! v>i\s o!r bank+        
functions4 ,!y are /rictly regulat$  by 
national law2 !y mu/ make p]iodic       
reports & are frequ5tly  inspect$ by    
(ficials f ,wa%+ton4 ,sid5ote3 ,_!      
res]ves4 ,"o  requirem5t is t !y %all   
always ma9ta9 a c]ta9 8res]ve0 s  t !y  

may be 9 a position to make all paym5ts 
:i* may be call$  = by _! cu/om]s4 ,!   
sup]vision ( ! national banks is 9 !    
h&s ( an (ficial kn[n z ! ,comptroll] ( 
! ,curr5cy1 :o is  appo9t$ by !         
,presid5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,/ate banks &   
tru/ companies4    ,9 addition to !     
national banks !re are /ate banks & tru/
  companies ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry op]at+ "u  
/ate *>t]s4 ,^!  in/itutions d n issue  
pap] money b p]=m all ! o!r bank+       
functions4#bjd ,_! bus9ess is regulat$  
by ! laws ( ! /ate 9  :i* !y are locat$ 
& !y are sup]vis$ by /ate (ficials4 ,!  
laws relat+ to /ate banks & tru/        
companies diff] consid]ably  f /ate to  
/ate4    ,sid5ote3 ,defects ( ! national
 bank+ sy/em due to !                   
conc5tration ( res]ves & lack (         
flexibility4    ,! ,f$]al ,res]ve       
,banks4--,al?\gh ! national bank+ sy/em 
work$  pretty well = fifty ye>s aft] its
 e/abli%m5t1 c]ta9 defects  came to be  
recogniz$4 ,"o ( ^! defects1 9 actual   
practice1 0 !  necessity ( always keep+ 

available a 8res]ve0 am\nt+ to a c]ta9  
p]c5tage ( ea* bank's total deposits4 ,x
 0 n necess>y to keep  ?is res]ve 9 !   
bank's own vaults2 a "p ( x might be    
plac$ ^u  deposit 9 l>g] banks :]e x    
w\ld draw int]e/4 ,z matt]s turn$  out1 
a consid]able portion ( ! res]ves 0     
usually deposit$ )  l>ge banks 9 ,new   
,york ,city4 ,9 times :5 bus9ess 0 good 
& money  pl5tiful1 ?is arrangem5t work$ 
v well1 b :5 p]iods (  bus9ess          
depression arriv$ & money became sc>ce e
 small bank  naturally drew ^u its      
res]ve deposits 9 ! l>g] banks1 :i*     
f\nd difficulty 9 pay+ !m all at ! same 
"t4 ,moreov]1 x 0  f\nd f exp]i5ce t    
dur+ times ( bus9ess prosp]ity !  c\ntry
 ne$$ a l>ge increase 9 pap] money :ile 
! national  bank+ sy/em1 z e/abli%$ 9   
#ahfc1 prov$ too rigid to meet !        
bus9ess ne$s ( ! c\ntry4    ,sid5ote3   
,h[ ! ,f$]al ,res]ve sy/em rem$ies ^!   
defects4    ,9 #aiac1 accord+ly1        
,congress made provision = ! e/abli%m5t 
( a  ,f$]al ,res]ve sy/em :i* does n    

displace b supplem5ts !  op]ations ( !  
national banks4 ,by an act pass$ 9 t ye>
  provision 0 made = ! e/abli%m5t (     
twelve f$]al res]ve  di/ricts1 ) a f$]al
 res]ve bank 9 ea*4 ,! capital /ock (   
ea* f$]al res]ve bank is contribut$ by  
national or /ate banks  )9 ! di/ricts1  
^! contributors be+ !n kn[n z 8memb]    
banks04 ,! national gov]nm5t also       
subscribes a "p ( ! capital  /ock :5    
necess>y4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,f$]al ,res]ve   
,bo>d4 ,ea*  f$]al res]ve bank is       
controll$ by (ficials1 "s ( :om are     
elect$ by ! memb] banks & "s appo9t$ by 
! national  gov]nm5t ?r\gh a body kn[n z
 ! ,f$]al ,res]ve ,bo>d4 ,?is bo>d  is  
compos$ ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury1 !  
,comptroll] ( !  ,curr5cy1 & five o!r   
memb]s appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t4          
,sid5ote3 ,functions ( ! ,f$]al ,res]ve 
,banks4    ,^! f$]al res]ve in/itutions 
are bank]s' banks4 ,!y d bus9ess  )     
banks only1 n ) individuals4 ,!y receive
 deposits f banks  & l5d money to banks4
 ,! memb] banks n[ keep ) !m a portion  

( _! res]ves4 ,9 ?is way ! res]ves are  
mobiliz$ at twelve  diff]5t f9ancial    
c5t]s :]e !y c be readily drawn ^u4#bje 
,! ,f$]al ,res]ve ,bo>d has au?ority to 
increase or decrease !  p]c5tage (      
res]ves :i* ! memb] banks are requir$ to
 ma9ta91  ?us giv+ ! res]ve sy/em a l>ge
 degree ( flexibility4 ,:5ev] a  memb]  
bank ne$s additional pap] money =       
circulation x goes to !  f$]al res]ve   
bank ( its di/rict & deposits any s\nd  
8collat]al01 t is to say1 any acceptable
 security1 & receives  f$]al res]ve     
notes ( l value 9 return4 ,?is collat]al
 may be 9  ! =m ( gov]nm5t bonds or x   
may be1 & m (t5 is1  8comm]cial pap]04  
,sid5ote3 ,h[ !y give flexibility to !  
:ole  bank+ sy/em ( ! c\ntry4 ,by       
comm]cial pap] is meant ! notes  or o!r 
obligations ( corporations & individuals
 :i* h be5  giv5 to ! memb] banks 9     
return = loans made to su* corporations 
& individuals4 ,! f$]al res]ve banks are
 au?oriz$ to issue  f$]al res]ve notes1 
to an unlimit$ ext5t on ! security ( ?is

  collat]al provid$ !y also keep a gold 
res]ve am\nt+ to =ty p]  c5t ( ! total  
notes issu$4 ,9 addition !y are emp[]$  
to issue  f$]al res]ve bank notes secur$
 by ,unit$ ,/ates bonds 9 ! same  way z 
national bank notes are secur$4 ,x is   
expect$ t 9 "t !  national bank notes w 
g out ( exi/5ce altoge!r1 _! place  be+ 
tak5 by ^! f$]al res]ve bank notes4     
,sid5ote3 ,value ( ! ,f$]al ,res]ve     
sy/em4    ,s9ce _! e/abli%m5t 9 #aiac ! 
"w ( ^! f$]al res]ve  banks has be5 (   
great value4 ,!y h enabl$ ! bank+       
op]ations  ( ! c\ntry to exp& & contract
 9 accordance ) *anges 9  bus9ess       
conditions1 ?us obviat+ s]i\s dang] (   
f9ancial panics4  ,9 help+ ! gov]nm5t to
 float ! v>i\s ,lib]ty ,loans !y  r5d]$ 
great s]vice4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! sy/em 
has improv$  & /r5g!n$ ! bank+          
facilities ( ! c\ntry4#bjf ,?is w  appe>
 m cle>ly :5 ! relations ( bank+ & cr$it
 are  discuss$ a few pages fur!r on4    
,sid5ote3 ,comm]cial & sav+s banks      
di/+ui%$4    ,! ,practical ,op]ations ( 

,bank+4--,!re are "s elem5t>y ?+s       
connect$ ) ! practical op]ations ( bank+
 :i* ev]yone ought  to "k4 ,g5]ally     
speak+1 !re are two k9ds ( banks1       
comm]cial  banks & sav+s banks2 or1 9 "s
 cases ! same bank may h two  dep>tm5ts1
 a comm]cial dep>tm5t & a sav+s         
dep>tm5t4 ,bo?  comm]cial & sav+s banks 
receive deposits2 ! =m] may or may n    
pay int]e/ accord+ to ! am\nt ( !       
deposit & ! l5g? (  "t x is left 9 !    
bank2 ! latt] always pay int]e/ if money
 is  left on deposit a prescrib$ l5g? ( 
"t4 ,:5 money is deposit$ 9  a comm]cial
 bank ! depositor is said to h an       
8acc\nt0 & he may  issue *ecks up to !  
am\nt ( 8 deposit4 ,sid5ote3 ,bank      
*ecks4 ,a  *eck is an ord]1 address$ to 
! bank1 & call+ = ! paym5t (  a         
designat$ sum4 ,?is *eck may be ca%$ at 
! bank on :i* x is  drawn1 or ! p]son :o
 receives x may h x ca%$ at ! bank  :]e 
he has 8 acc\nt4 ,banks ca% *ecks = _!  
own cu/om]s no  matt] :at bank ! *ecks  
happ5 to be drawn ^u4    ,"o result (   

?is is t e bank at ! close ( ea* day's  
bus9ess w h on h& a l>ge numb] ( *ecks  
drawn aga9/ o!r  banks4 ,sid5ote3 ,!    
cle>+ h\se sy/em4 ,x receives paym5t on 
^! *ecks ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! 8cle>+ h\se01
 an in/itution  :i* is ma9ta9$ by !     
banks 9 e l>ge city4 ,to ! ne>e/  cle>+ 
h\se a cl]k takes ea* morn+ all ! *ecks 
on o!r banks  t h come 9 dur+ ! previ\s 
day4 ,^! are sort$ out &  ex*ang$ =     
*ecks drawn on ! bank itself :i* are    
held by o!r  banks4 ,:atev] diff]5ce !re
 happ5s to be is paid 9 ca%4            
,sid5ote3 ,h[ bank loans are made4      
,:5 any p]son desires to borr[ money f a
 bank he gives 8 note1  :i* is a promise
 to repay ! bank at a designat$ "t4 ,!  
bank may  ask ! borr[] to obta9 an      
endorsem5t ^u 8 note1 t is1 to  h "s    
responsible p]son put 8 "n on ! back (  
x1 :i* means  t ! endors] assumes       
liability = ! am\nt ( ! note if x is  n 
paid by ! mak] on "t4 ,or ! bank may ask
 ! borr[] to  deposit 8collat]al0 z     
security = ! paym5t ( ! note4 ,?is      

collat]al may be 9 ! =m ( bonds1 /ocks1 
mortgages1 or any o!r  intangible       
prop]ty t has suffici5t value4 ,! bank  
holds ?is  collat]al until ! loan is    
repaid4    ,sid5ote3 ,! process (       
8disc\nt+40    ,:5 a bank l5ds money &  
takes a man's note1 ) or )\t  collat]al1
 x is said to disc\nt ! note4 ,x gives !
 borr[] !  face value ( 8 note less !   
int]e/1 :atev] x is1 calculat$ at  !    
curr5t rate4 ,?us if ! rate is six p]   
c5t & ! p]son gives  8 note = "o ?\s&   
doll>s payable 9 six mon?s1 ! bank w\ld 
h& him #igj 9 money4 ,bus9ess m5 obta9  
l>ge sums ( money f !  banks by gett+ _!
 notes disc\nt$2 !y borr[ money 9 ?is   
way  to buy goods & !n pay (f _! notes  
:5 ! goods are sold4 ,su*  notes are    
call$ 8comm]cial pap]04    ,sid5ote3    
8,r$isc\nt+40    ,n[ ! f$]al res]ve     
banks help ! memb] banks by 8r$isc\nt+0 
?is comm]cial pap] = !m4 ,suppose a     
small bank has loan$ on notes  all !    
money x has to sp>e4 ,!n x receives     
applications f its  cu/om]s = m loans4  

,:at does x d8 ,x takes a bundle (      
bus9ess  m5's notes1 or comm]cial pap]1 
f its vaults & s5ds ?is to !  ne>e/     
f$]al res]ve bank4 ,! latt] does j :at !
 memb] bank  did 9 ! fir/ in/ance2 x    
d$ucts ! disc\nt at curr5t rates &      
gives ! balance to ! memb] bank 9 money1
 t is1 9 f$]al  res]ve notes4 ,! memb]  
banks are enabl$1 9 ?is way1 to loan a  
great deal m money ?an w\ld be ! case if
 !re 7 no way (  gett+ _! comm]cial pap]
 8r$isc\nt$04    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! banks  
transf] funds4    ,drafts or bills (    
ex*ange are us$ to make paym5ts at      
di/ant po9ts4  ,if a p]son lives 9 ,san 
,francisco & wi%es to pay a small bill 9
 ,new  ,york1 he w probably g to ! po/  
(fice & buy a po/al money  ord]2 b if ! 
am\nt is l>ge1 he may f9d x m conv5i5t &
  *eap] to g to a bank 9 ,san ,francisco
 & buy a draft on "s ,new  ,york bank4  
,?is draft he !n s5ds to ,new ,york 9   
paym5t ( 8 bill4  ,a draft payable 9 a  
=eign c\ntry is usually call$ a bill (  
ex*ange4 ,f any ,am]ican bank "o c buy a

 bill ( ex*ange payable  9 ,p>is1       
,madras1 ,hong ,kong1 or else:]e4 ,:5 ! 
money ( "o c\ntry  is wor? m ?an t (    
ano!r1 z is ! case ?r\gh\t ! _w  at !   
pres5t "t1 all[ance is made = ?is       
diff]5ce4 ,bills (  ex*ange are 8cle>$0 
?r\gh ! great cle>+ h\ses 9 ,london or  
,new ,york1 & any balances are paid by !
 %ipm5t ( gold4                         
,,! ,,cr$it ,,sy/em    ,sid5ote3 ,! five
 *ief in/rum5ts ( cr$it4    ,:at is     
,cr$it8--,cr$it is simply ! giv+ & tak+ 
( promises 9  place ( money4 ,! mo/     
common =m is 8book cr$it01 :i* means t  
:olesal]s & retail m]*ants give out     
goods ) no?+ b *>ge  acc\nts on _! books
 to %[ = x4 ,^! acc\nts are m]ely !     
records ( cr$it :i* has be5 ext5d$ to   
cu/om]s4 ,b 9 _m  transactions some?+ m 
?an a book record is desir$1 9 :i* case 
! p]son giv+ ! cr$it may ask = a        
8promissory note04 ,?is is a  writt5    
promise to pay a designat$ sum ei!r on  
dem& or at a  def9ite date4 ,bank *ecks 
are also in/rum5ts ( cr$it2 s are drafts

  & bills ( ex*ange4 ,any?+ t expresses 
or implies a promise to  pay a sum (    
money is an evid5ce ( cr$it4            
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,money ,,& ,,prices 
,! g5]al relation betwe5 ! am\nt ( money
 9            circulation & ! c\rse (   
prices is %[n by !            two       
/ati/ical diagrams on ! o!r side ( ?is  
page4              ,x w be notic$ t p]  
capita circulation began            to  
decl9e 9 #aiba4 ,prices also comm5c$ to 
fall            dur+ t ye>1 & if ! table
 ( prices 7            ext5d$ to cov] ! 
la/ ye> or two x w\ld %[            !   
price-l9es mov+ d[nw>d4 ,! data =       
cont9u+ ! l9es ( ! l[] diagram may be   
f\nd 9 ! publications ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
,bureau ( ,labor ,/ati/ics4             
,,money ,,9 ,,circulation ,,p] ,,capita 
7,figures = fir/ day ( mon?7            
#aiac  #aiad  #aiae  #aiaf  #aiag  #aiah
  #aiai  #aibj  #aiba,mon?              
#cd4gbce4aace4ejch4dhdc4jjdh4gfee4gjee4h

iei4ab;,jan4    #cd4ga #ce4jj #cd4hd    
#ch4fg #dc4ej #dg4bc #ec4eh #ed4id      
#eg4ai;,feb4    #cd4ef #ce4jd #cd4ee    
#ch4ed #dd4bf #dh4cg #ec4gf #ef4af      
#eg4gc,m>4    #cd4df #cd4ii #cd4gd      
#ch4da #de4cd #di4gj #ed4ef #ef4cj      
#ef4fj;,apr4    #cd4ef #ce4bj #cd4gh    
#ch4bh #de4fa #ej4cg #ed4fd #ef4dd      
#ef4ca,may    #cd4ed #ce4ai #ce4jg      
#ch4cf #de4di #di4fc #ed4bi #eg4db      
#ee4dc;,june    #cd4fd #cd4ec #ce4ei    
#ci4bc #df4eg #ej4hf #ed4bh #eg4ah      
#ec4db;,july    #cd4dd #cc4if #ce4cc    
#ci4jj #df4ec #eb4dd #ed4dj #eg4dc      
#ec4jj;,aug4    #cd4dh #ce4jc #ce4hi    
#ci4ei #de4if #eb4ie #ed4jc #eh4bb      
#eb4da,sept4    #cd4hj #cg4ae #cf4hh    
#dj4fb #df4aj #ed4dg #ed4eh #eh4ie      
#eb4de,oct4    #cd4ij #cg4ca #cg4ea     
#da4ah #dg4jc #ee4hd #ed4fc #ei4gg      
#eb4ga,nov4    #ce4jc #cf4dj #ch4jd     
#da4gc #dh4ej #ef4bc #ee4fe #ei4da      
,dec4       #cd4fe #ce4da #ce4gc #ci4cd 
#de4ff #ea4dj #ed4ea #eg4cd 44444,av]age
    #cd4fb #ce4cb #ce4ea #ci4ab #de4dj  

#ej4if #ed4da #eg4ae #ee4abaa           
mos4           ,,c\rse ,,( ,,:olesale   
,,& ,,retail ,,prices#bjg ,,9 ,,!       
,,unit$ ,,/ates    ,,janu>y1 #aiac1 ,,to
 ,,may1 #aibj    ,av]age ,prices1 #aiac 
#ajj                                    
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------    ,!  
,relation ( ,cr$it to ,money4--,a l>ge  
"p ( ! _w's bus9ess  is done on cr$it4  
,if all debts _h to be paid tomorr[1 !re
 w\ld n  be en\gh money 9 ! _w to pay "o
 c5t on ! doll>4 ,b all  debts d n fall 
due at once1 & a huge cr$it sy/em is    
able to /&  ) comp>ative safety ^u a    
relatively small am\nt ( gold4          
,sid5ote3 ,!re is a limit to ! expansion
 ( cr$it4 ,!re is a  limit1 h[ev]1 to ! 
expansion ( cr$it & ?is limit is r\ghly 
det]m9$ by ! am\nt ( gold available to  
be held z a res]ve4  ,h5ce x is t :5 !  
volume ( gold increases1 cr$it usually  
exp&s also4 ,) _! res]ves full to       
ov]fl[+ ! banks are m  ready to l5d     
money on notes1 & ! rate ( disc\nt goes 

d[n4  ,conv]sely1 z ! volume ( gold     
decl9es1 cr$it usually contracts4  ,!   
rate ( disc\nt !n goes up & bus9ess m5  
f9d x h>d] to  borr[ money ^u comm]cial 
pap]4 ,9 ! "o case we speak ( an        
inflation or expansion 9 money & cr$it2 
9 ! o!r we speak ( a  contraction or    
deflation4    ,cr$it & ,prices4--,!     
g5]al level ( prices dep5ds ^u ! value  
( money4 ,! price ( a ?+ is m]ely its   
value express$ 9 t]ms (  money4 ,to say 
t prices h gone up is to say exactly !  
same ?+  z t ! value ( money has gone   
d[n4#bjh ,! g5]al level (  prices1 to   
put ! matt] 9 ano!r way1 is det]m9$ by !
 dem&  = goods on ! "o h& & ! supply (  
goods on ! o!r4 ,!  dem& = goods1 h[ev]1
 is repres5t$ by ! am\nt ( gold curr5cy 
available plus ! am\nt ( cr$it :i* is   
built ^u ?is gold4 ,!  cr$it1 z has be5 
se51 be>s a def9ite relation to ! gold4 
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! g5]al level ( prices is 
det]m9$4 ,h5ce x c  fairly be said t !  
am\nt ( gold is an index ( dem& = goods 
or s]vices4 ,s1 if ! supply ( goods     

rema9s approximately ! same1  any l>ge  
increase 9 ! available am\nt ( gold w\ld
 s5d prices up2  & conv]sely1 if !      
supply ( goods is greatly increas$1 :ile
 !  available am\nt ( gold rema9s       
approximately ! same1 prices w\ld g     
d[n4    ,sid5ote3 ,! quantity !ory (    
money & prices4    ,?is is ! s-call$    
quantity !ory ( ! relation betwe5 money1
  cr$it1 & prices & x holds good 9 a    
g5]al way al?\gh x does  n "w out z     
simply z x reads4 ,! adju/m5t ( supply &
 dem&  sometimes takes place v sl[ly4 ,!
 volume ( cr$it :i* c be  built ^u a    
giv5 res]ve ( gold is n absolutely fix$1
 moreov]2 9  "s circum/ances x may be m 
ext5sive ?an 9 o!rs4 ,sid5ote3  ,defects
 ( ! quantity !ory z %[n by rec5t       
exp]i5ce4 ,dur+  ! ,_w ,w>1 = example1  
cr$it ran away f ! gold res]ve 9 all  ! 
,european c\ntries4 ,enorm\s am\nts (   
pap] money 7 issu$ )  v little gold 9   
res]ve to protect !m4 ,due to r$uc$     
production1  ! supply ( ord9>y goods    
%>ply decl9$4 ,a comb9ation ( ^!  two   

?+s1 inflation ( cr$it 7i4 e41 pot5tial 
dem& = goods7  & decreas$ production1   
s5t prices sky-high4#bji ,9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates cr$it 0 also inflat$ dur+ ! w> & 
prices w5t up1  ?\gh n to ! same ext5t z
 9 ,europe4 ,s9ce #aibj ! process (     
8deflat+0 cr$it has be5 go+ on4 ,?is    
process ( deflation is  guid$ by ! f$]al
 res]ve banks1 :i* are able to contract 
!  volume ( cr$it by *>g+ high] rates = 
r$isc\nt4    ,! ,advantages & ,dang]s ( 
,cr$it4--,x is probable t at lea/       
two-?irds ( ! buy+ & sell+ 9 ! _w is    
done on cr$it4  ,ne>ly all l>ge         
transactions are put ?r\gh by ! use (   
cr$it =  %ort or long t]ms4 ,cr$it af=ds
 _m advantages to mod]n indu/ry  &      
comm]ce2 )\t x1 inde$1 our :ole economic
 sy/em w\ld break  d[n4 ,sid5ote3 ,f\r  
functions :i* cr$it p]mits4 ,a few ( ^! 
advantages may be m5tion$3 7a7 ,x       
economizes ! use ( gold &  silv]1 by do+
 away ) ! necessity ( pass+ gold & silv]
 co9  f h& to h& at e transaction4 7b7  
,x enables l>ge paym5ts  to be made at  

di/ant po9ts )\t an actual %ipm5t (     
metallic  money4 7c7 ,x p]mits m5 to    
engage 9 bus9ess op]ations beyond  _!   
own means by borr[+ capital & us+ x     
productively4 7d7 ,x  enables p to inve/
 _! sav+s 7by deposit+ 9 sav+s banks1   
l5d+ money on mortgages1 buy+ bonds or  
/ocks1 etc47 s z to  secure a pr(itable 
rate ( int]e/ )\t great risk4           
,sid5ote3 ,cr$it may also h>m4    ,b !re
 are also "s disadvantages4 ,! cr$it    
sy/em (t5  enc\rages extravagance 9 t p 
are tempt$ to buy goods :i*  !y         
ev5tually f9d x h>d to pay =2 x t5ds to 
enc\rage  speculation :i* frequ5tly     
results 9 heavy losses2 & x sometimes   
enables promot]s to obta9 capital :5 !re
 is little or no *ance (  _! be+        
successful4 ,by /rict gov]nm5tal        
sup]vision1 h[ev]1 !  advantages c be   
reta9$ & mo/ ( ! dang]s elim9at$4    ,! 
,/ock ,ex*ange4--,a ^w %\ld be said ab\t
 ! place :]e  in/rum5ts ( cr$it are mo/ 
commonly b\ght & sold1 namely1 !  /ock  
ex*ange4 ,z its "n implies1 ?is is a    

m>ket 9 :i* m5 buy  & sell /ocks1 bonds1
 & o!r securities4#baj ,!re is a /ock   
ex*ange 9 e l>ge city4 ,! buy+ & sell+  
is done ?r\gh  brok]s1 :o are memb]s ( !
 ex*ange & :o receive a small           
commission = _! "w1 ?is commission be+  
paid by ! p]sons =  :om !y buy or sell4 
,a brok]1 at y\r reque/1 w buy or sell  
on  ! ex*ange any security t is li/$    
!re4 ,! am\nt ( !  pur*ase may be paid 9
 full1 or1 if ! buy] desires1 a p>tial  
paym5t ( five1 t51 or tw5ty p] c5t may  
be made4 ,sid5ote3 ,trad+  on m>g94 ,?is
 is call$ 8buy+ on m>g904 ,! curr5t     
prices ( all  securities are kept po/$  
on ! ex*ange2 !y g up & d[n f day  to   
day 9 keep+ ) m>ket conditions4 ,%rewd  
inve/ors try to buy  :5 prices are l[ & 
to sell :5 prices are high1 b 9 ?is !y  
are n always successful4 ,_m =tunes h   
be5 made--& lo/--on !  /ock ex*ange4    
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1  
,pr9ciples ( ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4  
#bbg-bce 7,co9age72  #bcf-bea 7,quantity
 ( ,money & ,prices72 #bfe-bgc          

7,bimetallism72 #cdh-cei  7,bank+       
,op]ations72 #cge-che 7,! ,bank+ ,sy/em 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates72    ,,isaac          
,,lipp9cott1 ,economic ,developm5t ( !  
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4  #eej-ehj2    ,h4 ,r4
 ,,bur*1 ,am]ican ,economic ,life1 pp4  
#ccf-cga2    ,w4 ,a4 ,,scott1 ,money &  
,bank+1 pp4 #a-aaf2    ,w4 ,s4 ,,jevons1
 ,money & ! ,me*anism ( ,ex*ange1 pp4   
#c-da2    ,,m>%all1 ,,wright1 & ,,field1
 ,mat]ials = ! ,/udy ( ,elem5t>y        
,economics1 pp4 #ddc-edf2    ,c4 ,j4    
,,bullock1 ,introduction to ! ,/udy (   
,economics1 pp4 #bbd-bdf2    ,d4 ,r4    
,,dewey1 ,f9ancial ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$   
,/ates1 especially pp4  #chc-dac2       
,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4  #dfj-dgi2       
,,horace ,,:ite1 ,money & ,bank+ 7#e?   
edition71 passim2    ,f4 ,a4 ,,fett]1   
,mod]n ,economic ,problems1 pp4 #ca-afc4
                                 ,gr\p  
,problems    #a4 ,h[ money & cr$it are  
relat$ to prices4 ,! mean+ (  8prices04 
,! quantity !ory ( money4 ,relation (   

money to cr$it4  ,res]ves = pap] money4 
,bank res]ves4 ,disc\nt+ & r$isc\nt+4   
,h[ inflation ( money & cr$it affects   
prices4 ,index numb]s4  ,am]ican        
exp]i5ce dur+ ! ye>s #aiad-aiba4        
,ref]5ces3 ,f4 ,w4  ,,taussig1          
,pr9ciples ( ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4  
#dbg-dde2 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1            
,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,economics1  
pp4 #bdb-bgh2 ,,irv+ ,,fi%]1  ,!        
,pur*as+ ,p[] ( ,money1 pp4 #h-cb2      
,ibid41 ,/abiliz+ !  ,doll>1 pp4 #a-ab2 
,j4 ,a4 ,,hobson1 ,gold1 ,prices1 &     
,wages1 passim2  ,,david ,,k9ley1       
,money1 pp4 #aii-bbc4    #b4 ,! ,am]ican
 bank+ sy/em3 h[ x is organiz$ & h[ x   
functions4 ,d4 ,r4 ,,dewey1 ,f9ancial   
,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4          
#cbj-cbh2 #chc-cij2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1  
,pr9ciples ( ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4  
#cge-cii2 ,c4 ,f4 ,,dunb>1 ,!ory &      
,hi/ory ( ,bank+1 pp4 #acb-aec2 ,c4  ,a4
 ,,conant1 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,banks ( 
,issue1 pp4 #cif-ddg2 ,e4 ,w4  ,,kemm]]1
 ,! ,a1 ,b1 ,c ( ! ,f$]al ,res]ve       

,sy/em1 pp4 #bh-fe2 ,h4 ,p4  ,,willis1  
,! ,f$]al ,res]ve ,sy/em1 passim2 ,a4   
,b4 ,,hepburn1 ,hi/ory  ( ! ,curr5cy &  
,co9age ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #daa-dah2
 #eaa-edd4    #c4 ,! controv]sy ov] free
 silv] & its lessons = ! future4 ,d4    
,r4 ,,dewey1 ,f9ancial ,hi/ory ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #aja-ajd2  #baj-bab2 
#djc-dac2 #dcf-dcg2 #dfh2 ,f4 ,w4       
,,taussig1 ,pr9ciples (  ,economics1    
,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bfe-bgc2 ,j4 ,l4         
,,laughl91 ,hi/ory ( ,bimetallism  9 !  
,unit$ ,/ates1 especially pp4 #bff-bhj4 
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! e>ly hi/ory (   
money4 ,w4 ,s4 ,,jevons1 ,money & !     
,me*anism  ( ,ex*ange1 pp4 #ai-cj2      
,,david ,,k9ley1 ,money1 pp4 #ad-bf4    
#b4 ,! quantity !ory ( money4 ,f4 ,w4   
,,taussig1 ,pr9ciples (  ,economics1    
,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bcf-bea4    #c4 ,am]ican 
& =eign bank+ sy/ems comp>$4 ,e4 ,r4 ,a4
 ,,seligman1  ,pr9ciples ( ,economics1  
pp4 #ebd-eej2 or ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1     
,pr9ciples (  ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 
#cfj-che4    #d4 ,c ! doll> be /abiliz$8

 ,,m>%all1 ,,wright1 & ,,field1         
,mat]ials = ! ,/udy ( ,elem5t>y         
,economics1 pp4 #dgd-dhc2 ,,irv+        
,,fi%]1 ,/abiliz+ ! ,doll>1 especially  
pp4 #ab-cj4    #e4 ,! free-silv]        
campaign ( #ahif4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1       
,contempor>y  ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 pp4     
#afd-aih2 ,d4 ,r4 ,,dewey1 ,national    
,problems1 pp4  #bbj-bcg2 #cad-cbh4     
#f4 ,bank+ op]ations & acc\nts4 ,c4 ,f4 
,,dunb>1 ,hi/ory & ,!ory  ( ,bank+1 pp4 
#bj-ch4    #g4 ,am]ican in/itutions =   
sav+ & inve/m5t4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,fett]1       
,mod]n ,economic ,problems1 pp4         
#adf-aff4    #h4 ,f9ancial panics4 ,f4  
,w4 ,,taussig1 ,pr9ciples ( ,economics1 
,vol4 ,i1  pp4 #djj-dbf4    #i4 ,! high 
co/ ( liv+4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,hammond & ,j4 ,w4 
,,j5ks1 ,great  ,am]ican ,issues1 pp4   
#adc-aei4    #aj4 ,economic crises4 ,t4 
,n4 ,,c>v]1 ,pr9ciples ( ,national      
,economy1  pp4 #dbg-ddb4                
,que/ions    #a4 ,are ! qualities (     
money giv5 9 ?is book 9 ! ord] ( _!     
importance8 ,if n1 re>range !m s4 ,c y  

?9k ( any o!r  ess5tial qualities8 ,:at 
objections w\ld !re be to ! use (       
plat9um z money8 ,pe>ls8 ,porcela98     
#b4 ,gold doll>s are n co9$ 9 ! ,unit$  
,/ates at all4 ,h[ is x1  !n1 t ! gold  
doll> c be ! legal /&>d ( value8    #c4 
,"n all ! diff]5t k9ds ( money t are    
circulat$ 9 !  ,unit$ ,/ates 7includ+   
pap] money7 & tell :5 ! issue ( ea*  k9d
 0 fir/ au?oriz$4 ,exam9e ! money y h ) 
y4 ,tell  :]e ea* co9 0 m9t$4 ,9 ! case 
( bills :at is ! security  beh9d ea*8 ,c
 y detect c\nt]feit bills8 ,h[8    #d4  
,:y 0 ! action ( ,congress 9 demonetiz+ 
silv] call$ 8!  crime ( #ahgc08    #e4  
,at ! ,democratic ,national ,conv5tion (
 #ahij ,mr4 ,bryan said3 8,y  %all n    
crucify mank9d ^u a cross ( gold40      
,expla9 9 full :at he  meant4 ,0 !re any
 good reason = believ+ t ! free co9age (
  silv] at a ratio ( sixte5 to "o w\ld  
7a7 increase prices2 7b7  give relief to
 ! debtor class2 7c7 b5efit ! wage e>n]8
    #f4 ,expla9 ! process by :i*1 "u a  
dual sy/em ( co9age1 !  metal :i* is    

ov]-valu$ at ! m9t w drive ! o!r out (  
circulation4 ,is x correct to say t     
8*eap money drives out de>  money08     
#g4 ,if y 7 engag$ 9 bus9ess z a        
manufactur]1 "n all !  diff]5t deal+s t 
y might h ) a bank4    #h4 ,expla9 :at  
is meant by ea* ( ! foll[+ t]ms3 dem&   
note2  endors]2 tru/ee2 comm]cial pap]2 
rate ( disc\nt2 r$isc\nt+2  collat]al2  
deflation2 c\pon bond2 pref]r$ /ock2    
brok]2 buy+  /ock on m>g94    #i4 ,%[ h[
 ! volume ( cr$it helps to det]m9e      
prices & h[ !  volume ( cr$it is relat$ 
to ! am\nt ( gold co9 9 h&4 ,:y does  ! 
quantity !ory ( money n "w out )        
ma!matical accuracy 9  practice8    #aj4
 ,does ! argum5t 9 ,mc,culloch vs4      
,m>yl& impress y z  logical8 ,does !    
decision mean t (ficials ( national     
banks & (  f$]al res]ve banks are exempt
 f /ate taxes8 ,does x mean t  :5 a     
national bank occupies a leas$ build+ ! 
l&lord pays no  taxes to ! city8        
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,all bank+     
in/itutions %\ld be br\ght "u !         

sup]vision (  ! f$]al gov]nm5t4    #b4  
,a 8comp5sat$0 doll> 7adju/$ to ! g5]al 
level ( prices7  %\ld be e/abli%$ z a   
measure ( def]r$ paym5ts4    #c4 ,!     
national & /ate gov]nm5ts %\ld gu>antee 
depositors  aga9/ loss 9 all banks *>t]$
 by ! nation & ! /ates1  respectively4  
-----    ,footnote #agh3      ,!        
employ]1 9 fact1 0 (t5 a corporation )  
nei!r body nor    s\l4 ,! factories 7 9 
*>ge ( manag]s ^: function 0 to    e>n  
pr(its1 n to look aft] ! well-be+ ( !   
employees4    ,footnote #agi3      ,9   
,am]ica ! unions also s]ve z s*ools (   
citiz5%ip4 ,!y    ga!r toge!r into _!   
memb]%ip m5 & wom5 ( all races &        
cre$s1 & !y enc\rage _! memb]s to become
 ,am]ican citiz5s4    ,footnote #ahj3   
,! labor union movem5t began 9 ,engl&   
because x 0 !re t    ! ,indu/rial       
,revolution fir/ br\ght 9 ! factory     
sy/em4 ,at !    outset ! =mation (      
unions 0 bitt]ly oppos$ by ! employ]s   
& laws 7 enact$ decl>+ su* organizations
 to be illegal4 ,9    ! clos+ ye>s ( !  

eighte5? c5tury any ,engli% work] :o    
jo9$ an organization1 9 ord] to secure  
bett] wages or few] h\rs    ( labor1 0  
liable to be arre/$ & puni%$ by ! c\rts4
 ,9 due    c\rse ! labor organization   
movem5t spread to ,am]ica1 :]e also    x
 enc\nt]$ /rong opposition dur+ ! fir/  
half ( !    n9ete5? c5tury4 ,attempts to
 secure bett] wages by =m+ labor        
associations 7 held to be conspiracies 9
 re/ra9t ( trade &    ^? :o op5ly took  
"p 9 ! organization movem5t 7           
frequ5tly imprison$4 ,aft] #ahcj1 h[ev]1
 ! opposition began to    gr[ less      
int5se & by #ahgj x _h become g5]ally   
recogniz$ t    labor organizations 7 "h 
to /ay4 ,9 "o /ate aft] ano!r !y        
began to receive legal recognition &    
today ! "r ( ! work]s    to organize = !
 promotion ( _! own int]e/s is n d5i$ 9 
any "p ( ! c\ntry4    ,footnote #aha3   
,mo/ writ]s use ! t]m 8trade union0 to  
include only su* labor    organizations 
z are compos$ ( m5 & wom5 :o "w 9 ! same
    trade or occupation2 b "s employ !  

t]m to include all labor                
organizations ^: object is collective   
action 9 ! int]e/ (    _! memb]s4       
,footnote #ahb3      ,al?\gh ?is program
 does n conta9 any?+ t savors (         
viol5ce1 or ( arbitr>y control ( indu/ry
 by ! work]s1 or (    dictatorial me?ods
 t[>ds ! public x sometimes happ5s t    
individual labor organizations or _!    
lead]s are guilty ( ^!    ?+s4 ,:ile    
pr(ess+ disapproval ( viol5ce1 ! labor  
lead]s    h on occasions 7?\gh n z a    
rule7 tol]at$ x4 ,labor lead]s1         
moreov]1 9 "s cases h exact$ money f    
employ]s "u ?reat    ( call+ m5 (f _!   
jobs2 ! ,br9dell case 9 ,new ,york ,city
 is a    rec5t illu/ration4 ,on "s      
notable occasions labor lead]s h be5    
convict$ & s5t to jail = resort+ to     
organiz$ t]rorism    aga9/ employ]s4    
,all ?is1 h[ev]1 does n condemn !       
program (    labor organizations z a    
:ole4 ,no body ( m51 p>ticul>ly :5 x    
numb]s sev]al million memb]s1 c 9       
fairness be judg$ by !    wrongful acts 

( a few4    ,footnote #ahc3      ,x %\ld
 be borne 9 m9d t n ev]yone :o desires  
to "w at a    p>ticul> trade is entitl$ 
to memb]%ip 9 ! trade union4 ,he mu/    
apply = admission to memb]%ip & !       
initiation fee =    memb]%ip is (t5 z   
high z a hundr$ doll>s or m4 ,moreov]1  
he    mu/ satisfy ! union t he is       
prop]ly skill$ 9 ! trade1 if    ! trade 
requires skill4 ,"s unions1 commonly    
call$ 8op5 unions10    take 9           
practically all :o apply2 b ^! unions   
exi/1 = !    mo/ "p1 9 unskill$ trades  
only4    ,footnote #ahd3      ,9 ,new   
,zeal&1 = example4 ,= a "t x 0 look$ ^u 
z a great    success 9 t c\ntry1 b 9    
rec5t ye>s x has n prev5t$    num]\s    
/rikes4    ,footnote #ahe3      ,?is 0 !
 sequel to a /rike on ! "p ( ! ,kansas  
coal m9]s1    :i* ?reat5$ to leave ! p  
)\t fuel = ! w9t]4 ,:5    ! /rik]s      
refus$ to return to "w a call 0 s5t out 
=    volunte]s & m5 ( all occupations   
came =w>d to "w 9 !    m9es4 ,:5 !      
em]g5cy 0 pa/ ! legislature decid$ t !  

rights ( ! public ought to be protect$ 9
 ! future aga9/ bo?    employ]s &       
workm54    ,footnote #ahf3      ,^!     
include all indu/ries affect+ food1     
clo?+1 fuel1 &    transportation4       
,footnote #ahg3      8,! *ildr5 7 kept  
work+ = f\rte51 & ev5 sixte51 h\rs    a 
day2 !y 7 beat5 = ! slighte/ mi/ake or  
(f5ce2 &    sometimes !y 7 tortur$ by ! 
ov]se]s1 :o w\ld tie !m to a    beam    
close ov] ! :irl+ ma*9es by way ( tea*+ 
!m to hold    _! feet up1 or w\ld rivet 
irons on _! ankles & hips to tea*    !m 
n to try to run away4 ,lock$ 9 ! factory
 :ile !y work$1    & 9 neighbor+ b>racks
 :ile !y slept1 ^! pitiful m>tyrs    7 z
 absolutely ab&on$ by _! k9d z ?\gh !y  
_h be5    adult convicts on ! way to    
,botany ,bay1 or negro slaves on !      
middle    passage40 ,g4 ,h4 ,,p]ris1 ,! 
,indu/rial ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,engl&1 p4  
#bjg4    ,footnote #ahh3      ,congress 
has e/abli%$ a ,bureau ( ,*ild ,welf>e 9
 ! ,dep>tm5t    ( ,labor ) ! duty (     
enc\rag+ ! enactm5t ( laws to protect   

*ildr54    ,footnote #ahi3      ,!      
,supreme ,c\rt has decid$ t ?is action  
also is    uncon/itutional4    ,footnote
 #aij3      ,,rob9son & ,,be>d1 ,outl9es
 ( ,european ,hi/ory1 ,,ii1 #fdj4       
,footnote #aia3      ,_m sorts ( m]*&ise
 h be5 us$ z money at "o "t or    ano!r4
 ,9 e>ly times cattle (t5 s]v$ z ! /&>d 
( value4    ,?is 0 und\bt$ly ! case     
among our ,indo-,european ance/ors1 z is
    %[n by ! survival ( c]ta9 words 9 ! 
,engli% language at !    pres5t "t4 ,!  
^w 8pecuni>y10 = example1 comes f !     
,lat9    8pecunia10 mean+ money1 :i* is 
9 turn f 8pecus10 cattle4 ,!    ^w 8fee0
 is m]ely a r5dition ( ! old ,g]man ^w  
8,vieh10 :i*    also means cattle4      
,footnote #aib3      ,! ,*9ese use copp]
 money1 :i* !y call 8ca%40 ,! co9s h a  
hole 9 ! c5t] s t !y c be c>ri$ on a /r+
 l beads4    ,footnote #aic3      ,t 0  
:at _h to be done 9 ! old days be=e gold
 & silv]    7 /amp$ into co9s ( kn[n    
weight & f95ess4 ,y rememb] !           
,scriptural /ory ( ! patri>* ,abraham's 

weigh+ out ! f\r    hundr$ %ekels (     
silv] to pay ! sons ( ,he? = ,s>ah's    
grave4    ,if n1 read x 9 ,g5esis1      
xxiii1 #b-ai4    ,footnote #aid3      ,!
 weight ( ! gold doll>1 z fix$ by law1  
is #bc4b gra9s ( pure    gold4          
,footnote #aie3      ,anyone may take   
gold to ^! m9ts & h x co9$4 ,pure gold  
w\ld be too s(t = use z money1 h[ev]2 s 
an alloy ( silv] is    mix$ ) x4 ,! mix$
 metals are !n heat$ & roll$ into       
/rips4 ,^! /rips are next put into a    
/amp+ ma*9e :i* =ms    !m into s _m     
little gold cakes1 ready to be plac$ 9  
ano!r    ma*9e :i* /amps an impression  
^u !m4 ,9 ! case ( gold &    silv] co9s 
! edges are 8mill$0 to prev5t _! be+    
clipp$ or    scrap$ by di%one/ p4 ,9 !  
,unit$ ,/ates ?is is 9 ! =m    ( a rais$
 & s]rat$ edge2 9 ,european c\ntries an 
inscription is    (t5 pr9t$ on ! edges (
 ! co9s4 ,! ,g]man tw5ty-m>k piece      
be=e ! w> _h ! leg5d1 8,gott mit uns10 9
 ?is =m4 ,!    silv]1 nickel1 & copp] = 
,am]ican curr5cy is b\ght by ! m9t    & 

made into co9s at a pr(it4 ,?is pr(it is
 call$ seigniorage &    x is suffici5t  
to make all ! m9ts self-support+4 ,!    
am\nt (    metal 9 a nickel1 = in/ance1 
co/s only a fraction ( five c5ts4    ,:5
 co9s are lo/ or de/roy$--by %ipwreck1  
fire1 etc4--!    gov]nm5t is j s mu* to 
! good1 & a great _m co9s are           
p]man5tly lo/ or de/roy$ e ye>4         
,footnote #aif3      ,) a dual sy/em (  
co9age ! ratio at ! m9t mu/ be exactly  
t ( ! op5 m>ket1 o!rwise ! metal :i* !  
m9t ov]values    is ! only "o :i* w come
 9 to be co9$4 ,if m9e-own]s :o         
produce silv]1 = example1 c get m gold 9
 ex*ange = x 9    ! op5 m>ket ?an !y c  
get doll>s = x at ! m9t1 !y    w        
naturally ex*ange x 9 ! op5 m>ket4 ,b x 
is difficult to    keep ! legal ratio 9 
exact accord ) ! m>ket value because !  
latt] fluctuates some:at f ye> to ye>4  
,footnote #aig3      ,9 ?is same ye> a  
sev]e comm]cial panic took place & !    
action    ( ! gov]nm5t 9 demonetiz+     
silv] 0 blam$ = x4 ,h5ce !    frequ5t   

ref]5ce 9 lat] ye>s to 8! crime (       
#ahgc40    ,footnote #aih3              
,provision = ! co9age ( silv] on a      
limit$ scale 0 made by !    ,bl& ,act   
7#ahgh7 & ! ,%]man ,act 7#ahij74 ,^!    
acts m]ely    provid$ t ! ,treasury %\ld
 buy s mu* silv] ea* ye> &    co9 x1 a v
 diff]5t ?+ f free co9age4    ,footnote 
#aii3      ,curi\sly en\gh !re 0 ano!r  
f9ancial panic 9 #ahic2 b ?is    _h no?+
 :atev] to d ) ! /oppage ( silv] co9+4  
,footnote #bjj3      ,! pap] money is   
made at ! ,bureau ( ,engrav+ 9 ,wa%+ton1
 n    at ! m9ts4 ,e work+ day 9 ! ye>   
?is ,bureau turns out a    million      
doll>s or m 9 notes4 ,a special k9d (   
pap]1 made by a    secret process1 is   
us$1 & 9 ! manufacture ( ?is pap] small 
/r&s ( r$ silk are imb$d$ 9 ! fabric4 ,!
 notes are pr9t$    f me*anical copies (
 engrav$ plates1 ! orig9als ( :i* are   
made by h&4 ,x takes sev]al exp]t       
engrav]s a :ole ye> or m    to make "o (
 ^! orig9als1 ) its portrait1 seal1     
symbols1 &    myriad ( f9e l9es4 ,all ^!

 precautions are tak5 to prev5t         
c\nt]feit+4 ,on its way ?r\gh ! presses 
! bills are c\nt$    & *eck$ _m times to
 make sure t none g a/ray or are        
pocket$ by employees4 ,s c>efully is ?is
 done t only once 9 !    la/ tw5ty ye>s 
has a s+le bill be5 unacc\nt$ =4 ,:5 a  
pap]    note is p]man5tly lo/ or de/roy$
 aft] be+ issu$ ,uncle ,sam is    v mu* 
! ga9]1 = x co/s him1 on ! av]age1 only 
ab\t "o    c5t to pr9t a doll> bill4 ,if
 ! bill is only torn or p>tly           
de/roy$1 ! gov]nm5t w r$eem x4 ,full    
face value is giv5 if    at lea/        
?ree-fif?s ( ! orig9al bill is pres5t$1 
or half !    face value if two-fif?s is 
h&$ 94 ,if less ?an two-fif?s ( !       
bill is pres5t$1 x w n be r$eem$ except 
by prov+ !    circum/ances "u :i* ! re/ 
( ! bill 0 de/roy$4 ,:5    bills get    
dirty or worn ! banks s5d !m back to !  
,treasury4 ,"s    ye>s ago ! practice 0 
to burn !m 9 ! furnace2 b !re 0    a    
rumor t *>r$ pieces ( ! bills 7 9 !     
habit ( fly+    (f ?r\gh ! *imney to be 

f\nd by p :o pres5t$ !m =    r$emption4 
,n[ ! worn money is put into a mac]ator 
or *ew+    ma*9e1 :i* ma/icates !m to a 
pulp at ! rate ( ab\t a    million      
doll>s a m\?ful4    ,footnote #bja3     
,! ,g]man pap] m>k1 = example1          
depreciat$ to less ?an    "o-fiftie? (  
its face value 9 gold2 ! ,au/rian cr[n  
depreciat$    ev5 m4 ,ev5 m /rik+ has   
be5 ! depreciation ( ! ,russian    pap] 
r\ble :i* has fall5 m ?an a ?\s&-fold4  
,footnote #bjb3      ,money :i*1 accord+
 to law1 mu/ be accept$ 9 paym5t (      
debts1    is call$ legal t5d]4 ,gold    
co91 silv] doll>s1 & c]ta9 notes    are 
legal t5d] up to any am\nt4 ,half       
doll>s1 qu>t]s1 & dimes    mu/ be       
accept$ 9 paym5t up to ! am\nt ( t5     
doll>s4 ,nickels    & p5nies are legal  
t5d] to ! am\nt ( tw5ty-five c5ts only4 
,footnote #bjc3      ,! e/abli%m5t ( ?is
 second bank l$ to ! rais+ ( a v        
important con/itutional "q4 ,!          
con/itution1 z has be5 said1    conta9s 
n a ^w ab\t banks4 ,h5ce ! p[] to       

e/abli% banks    might be assum$ to     
rema9 entirely ) ! /ates 9 view ( !     
rule t p[]s n delegat$ to ! nation by ! 
con/itution1 nor    prohibit$ by x to ! 
/ates1 are res]v$ to ! /ates            
respectively1 or to ! p4 ,congress hav+ 
gone ahead1 h[ev]1    & e/abli%$ a bank1
 ! ,/ate ( ,m>yl& proce$$ to levy a tax 
on ! bank's pap] money4 ,?is tax ! ca%i]
 ( ! ,baltimore    bran* ( ! bank1      
,mc,culloch1 refus$ to pay1 :]eupon he 0
 held    liable by ! c\rts ( ,m>yl& &   
appeal$ to ! ,supreme ,c\rt4    ,! latt]
 tribunal w5t into ! :ole issue ?or\ghly
 & r5d]$    "o ( ! mo/ important legal  
decisions ev] giv5 9 ?is c\ntry4      ,!
 decision 9 ,mc,culloch vs4 ,m>yl& 0 t  
,congress1 hav+    be5 giv5 by !        
con/itution ! express p[] to collect    
taxes1 to    borr[ money1 & 8to make all
 laws :i* %all be necess>y &    prop] = 
c>ry+ into execution ! =ego+ p[]s10 0   
!reby    ve/$ ) impli$ au?ority to      
e/abli% banks z a means (    facilitat+ 
! collection ( taxes or ! borr[+ (      

money4 ,?is    be+ s1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt  
decid$1 no /ate c be p]mitt$ to         
int]f]e ) an in/rum5tality ?r\gh :i* !  
national    gov]nm5t is legally c>ry+ on
 its "w4 ,!y mu/ n int]f]e by           
taxation or o!rwise4 8,! p[] to tax     
involves ! p[] to    de/roy10 decl>$    
,*ief ,ju/ice ,m>%all 9 r5d]+ ?is       
decision4    ,if ! /ates c\ld tax "o    
ag5cy employ$ by ! national gov]nm5t    
9 ! execution ( its p[]s1 ! *ief ju/ice 
expla9$1 !y    c\ld tax e o!r "o4 ,!y   
c\ld tax ! po/ (fice1 ! cu/om    h\ses1 
! =ts1 ! %ips ( w>4 ,by tax+ ^! ?+s     
heavily    en\gh !y c\ld cripple !      
national gov]nm5t & ev5tually drive    x
 out ( exi/5ce altoge!r4 ,! c\rt 0      
unanim\s 9 affirm+    t ,congress _h !  
"r to e/abli% banks & t ) su*    action 
no /ate c\ld int]f]e4    ,footnote #bjd3
      ,tru/ companies 7 e/abli%$ to act 
z tru/ees or gu>dians (    funds belong+
 to wid[s1 orphans1 & o!rs :o c\ld n    
look out    = _! own inve/m5ts4 ,!n !y  
began ! practice ( accept+    deposits f

 o!rs & pay+ int]e/ on ^! deposits1     
:]eas    national banks & mo/ ( ! regul>
 /ate banks usually paid no    int]e/ to
 _! depositors4 ,gradually ! tru/       
companies became    banks 9 e s5se ( !  
t]m1 & !y h gradually increas$ 9        
numb] dur+ rec5t ye>s4 ,z a rule !y c d 
a wid] range (    bus9ess ?an is p]mitt$
 to national or /ate banks4    ,footnote
 #bje3      ,! locations ( ^! twelve    
f$]al res]ve banks are z foll[s3        
,bo/on1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1      
,clevel&1 ,ri*mond1 ,atlanta1 ,*icago1  
,/4 ,l\is1 ,m9neapolis1 ,kansas ,city1  
,dallas1 & ,san ,francisco4    ,footnote
 #bjf3      ,a fur!r addition to ! bank+
 facilities ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0    made 
9 #aiaf1 :5 ,congress inaugurat$ ! f$]al
 f>m loan bank    sy/em4 ,?is is "u !   
control ( a f$]al f>m loan bo>d         
compos$ ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury &   
f\r o!r p]sons    appo9t$ by !          
,presid5t4 ,two sy/ems ( l5d+ money on  
mortgages    are provid$ "u ! sup]vision
 ( ?is bo>d1 "o work+ ?r\gh    twelve   

f>m l& banks situat$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! 
c\ntry &    ! o!r ?r\gh jo9t /ock l&    
banks4 ,provision is also made =    !   
=m+ ( f>m loan associations compos$ (   
f>m]s :o wi% to    borr[ money on !     
security ( _! l&s4 ,see also p4 #cdh4   
,footnote #bjg3      ,retail prices     
repres5t prices ( ! pr9cipal articles ( 
,food2    :olesale prices include       
articles ( all k9ds4      ,figures f !  
,u4,s4 ,bureau ( ,labor ,/ati/ics4      
,footnote #bjh3      ,= ?is reason x is 
(t5 said t gold is n a good measure (   
def]r$ paym5ts4 ,= example1 if somebody 
7 to give y a note    = a ?\s& doll>s1  
payable five ye>s f n[ 9 gold co91 !    
am\nt ( goods :i* y w be able to buy ) !
 proce$s (    ?is note :5 x is paid may 
be mu* great]1 or mu* less1 ?an :at    y
 c\ld buy today4 ,?us y w\ld get y\r    
money back1 b x w\ld    n h ! same      
pur*as+ p[]1 & pur*as+ p[] is :at       
c\nts4 ,to det]m9e ! actual pur*as+ p[] 
( gold at diff]5t    dates1 figures kn[n
 z 8index numb]s0 are compil$ by v>i\s  

economic organizations4 ,index numb]s   
are compil$ 9 ?is way3 ,take a    c]ta9 
am\nt ( v>i\s ?+s :i* are 9 common use1 
say a b>rel    ( fl\r1 t5 p\nds ( butt]1
 a bu%el ( potatoes1 s mu* /eel1        
lea!r1 lumb]1 & o!r commodities1--make !
 li/ long en\gh to    cov] ! g5]al range
 ( prices4 ,add toge!r ! curr5t prices (
    ^! ?+s today & y h an index numb]4  
,t5 ye>s f n[1    if y take exactly !   
same am\nts ( exactly ! same commodities
    & add toge!r ! prices1 y w h ano!r  
index numb]4 ,by    comp>+ !m y c say t 
! pur*as+ p[] ( money has gone    up or 
gone d[n1 z ! case may be4 ,! index     
numb] m ?an    d\bl$ dur+ ! ye>s #aiad  
to #aiai2 t is to say1 ! pur*as+    p[] 
( money 0 cut 9 two4    ,footnote #bji3 
,p are 9 ! habit ( ?9k+ t ! high co/ (  
liv+ is    due l>gely to 8pr(ite]+0 &   
monopoly4 ,to "s ext5t1 no d\bt1    ?is 
is true4 ,b ! ?ree mo/ important factors
 9 ! high co/ (    liv+ are3 7a7 !      
inflation ( money & cr$it2 7b7 decreas$ 
production2 & 7c7 heavy taxes4 ,x is ^! 

?+s t give !    pr(ite]s & monopoli/s _!
 opportunity4    ,footnote #baj3        
,bonds are promises to pay a c]ta9      
pr9cipal sum at ! expiry ( a    c]ta9   
t]m ( ye>s4 ,!y are issu$ by gov]nm5ts &
 by bus9ess    corporations4 ,!y be>    
int]e/ annually or semi-annually4 ,9 !  
case ( regi/]$ bonds ! "n ( ! bondhold] 
is inscrib$ on    ! books ( ! gov]nm5t  
or company & a *eck = ! int]e/ is    s5t
 to him4 ,c\pon bonds1 on ! o!r h&1 are 
payable to be>]    & small tickets or   
c\pons mu/ be cut (f by ! hold] &       
pres5t$ on ea* int]e/ date4 ,/ocks are  
m]ely %>es 9 a    bus9ess corporation & 
d n c>ry an obligation to pay a def9ite 
sum at any giv5 "t4 ,!re are two k9ds ( 
/ock1 pref]r$ &    common4 ,! pref]r$   
/ock is entitl$ to a /at$ divid5d2 !    
common /ock takes :at is left ( ! net   
pr(its if !re are any4      ,bonds1 z a 
rule1 yield a small] return ?an pref]r$ 
/ock1 because    ! security is bett]4 ,!
 man :o holds common /ock takes !       
greate/ risk ( all & = ?is reason       

expects ! l>ge/ rate (    divid5d4 ,:5 y
 inve/ money ! income :i* y get f x is  
proportion$ to ! risk :i* y take4 ,an   
absolutely safe inve/m5t    l gov]nm5t  
bonds br+s 9 only f\r or five p] c5t    
annually2    ! pref]r$ /ock ( railroads 
or indu/rial corporations may yield     
six or sev5 p] c5t2 ! common /ock ( "s  
companies pays z high    z eight or t5  
p] c5t4 ,:5 y f9d t an inve/m5t promises
 a    l>ge income y may be sure t ! risk
 is proportionately l>ge4    ,all sorts 
( 8get ri* quick0 s*emes are plac$ be=e 
! public by    promot]s :o promise high 
rates on 8safe0 inve/m5ts4 ,su*         
inve/m5ts are n safe2 if !y 71 ! banks &
 l>ge    capitali/s w\ld put _! money   
into !m4 ,to protect ! public    f ^!   
frauds1 "s /ates h pass$ 8blue-sky      
laws10 :i*    require t e /ock-sell+    
conc]n %all be inve/igat$ by !    /ate  
au?orities be=e x is all[$ to take money
 f ! p4                                 
,,*apt] ,,xxiii                         
,,taxation ,,& ,,public ,,f9ance        

,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to expla9 :at 
taxes are1 h[ !y      are levi$1 & h[ !y
 are sp5t4      ,sid5ote3 ,taxation p]  
capita4    ,! ,co/ ( ,gov]nm5t4--,! co/ 
( ma9ta9+ ! national  gov]nm5t & all its
 activities is n[ ab\t f\r billion      
doll>s p]  ye>1 9 o!r words ab\t =ty    
doll>s p] annum = e man1 woman1  & *ild 
9 ! c\ntry4 ,! co/ ( ma9ta9+ /ate &     
local  gov]nm5t v>ies 9 diff]5t p>ts ( !
 c\ntry1 b x w\ld be  safe en\gh to put 
x d[n z ?ree billion doll>s m1 or ?irty 
doll>s p] head4 ,9 r\nd figures1 !re=e1 
! av]age tax paym5t  e ye> = ea*        
individual 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is at lea/ 
sev5ty  doll>s4#baa    ,sid5ote3 ,!     
ext5t ( ! burd5 ^u ! income-e>n]4       
,be> 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t only a small "p ( !
 :ole population is  e>n+ ! income :i*  
enables ^! taxes to be paid4 ,:5 we     
elim9ate all ! *ildr51 all ! wom5 :o are
 n employ$ 9 any  income-e>n+           
occupation1 all ! public (ficials :o are
 paid out (  taxes1 all ! del9qu5ts1    
cripples1 paup]s1 unemploy$1 & s  on--:5

 we subtract all ^! f ! total x w be    
f\nd t only  "o p]son 9 five is an      
actual income-e>n]4 ,f ! e>n+s (  ^!    
tw5ty million p ! entire sev5 billions 9
 taxes mu/ be  paid2 !re is no o!r s\rce
 f :i* ! taxes c come4 ,a little  m5tal 
ari?metic w readily demon/rate1 !re=e1 t
 e  income-e>n] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates pays1 
on ! av]age1 at lea/ #cej  p] ye> 9     
taxes ( "o sort or ano!r1 9 o!r words   
ab\t a doll>  a day4#bab    ,sid5ote3   
,ev]yone is a taxpay]1 directly or      
indirectly4    ,:o ,pays ! ,taxes8--8,oh
 yes01 someone w say1 8b mo/ p e>n      
small incomes & pay no taxes at all1 or 
almo/ none4 ,! heavy taxes  are paid by 
weal?y m5 & wom5 :o own prop]ty & h l>ge
  incomes40 ,t is mislead+4 ,p :o own   
prop]ty & e>n l>ge  incomes are ! ones  
:o actually h& ! collector 8 tax-money1 
to  be sure2 b !y m]ely give him1 = !   
mo/ "p1 money :i* !y  h collect$ f o!rs4
 ,! own] ( an ap>tm5t h\se collects     
taxes f 8 t5ants 9 ! =m ( r5t2 !        
/orekeep] collects  taxes 9 ! price ( 8 

goods2 ! lawy] & ! doctor collect taxes 
:5 !y *>ge fees4 ,taxes are an elem5t 9 
! co/ ( ev]y?+1  an elem5t j z c]ta9 z  
int]e/1 wages1 or pr(it4 ,ev]yone :o    
r5ts a h\se1 buys goods1 or hires any =m
 ( s]vice pays taxes4 ,if  y analyze !  
v>i\s items :i* make up ! price ( a suit
 (  clo!s1 = example1 y w f9d t !y      
usually come 9 ?is ord]  ( importance2  
wages1 co/ ( mat]ials1 taxes1 pr(its1   
int]e/4#bac  ,! *ief factors :i* make up
 ! r5t ( a h\se are int]e/1 taxes1  &   
pr(its 9 ! ord] nam$4 ,h5ce x is t :ile 
l&lords1  m]*ants1 manufactur]s1 & o!rs 
make ! direct paym5t ( taxes to  !      
gov]nm5t1 !y 9 turn pass ! burd5 to     
t5ants &  consum]s4#bad    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
way 9 :i* taxes are %ift$4    ,!        
,incid5ce ( ,taxation4--,taxes1 !re=e1 d
 n usually /ay :]e  !y are levi$4 ,!y   
are %ift$ f "o %\ld] to ano!r until  !y 
f9ally rea* someone1 usually ! ultimate 
consum]1 :o _c  unload ! burd5 ^u       
anybody else4 ,?is ultimate re/+-place (
 a  tax is call$ its incid5ce1 & an     

important ?+ ab\t any tax is  to discov]
 j :at its incid5ce is2 = ! ju/ice or   
inju/ice (  taxation dep5ds ^u ! ability
 ( ! actual taxpay] to be> !  burd5 & n 
^u ! weal? ( ! o/5sible taxpay]4 ,if !  
gov]nm5t 7 to levy a tax ( "o c5t p]    
loaf ^u bread1 !re  w\ld be a /orm (    
prote/ because ev]ybody w\ld recognize x
 z a  direct tax ^u "o ( ! necessities (
 life4 ,b a t>iff duty on  :eat1 or a   
prop]ty tax on fl\r mills or bak]ies1 is
 j z  c]ta9ly a tax on bread & is paid  
ultimately by ^? :o buy x4 ,!  *ief     
diff]5ce is t 9 ! latt] case ! paym5t is
 made by !  consum] )\t 8 kn[+ x4       
,sid5ote3 ,relation ( taxes to r5ts &   
prices4    ,mo/ p pay taxes unkn[+ly4   
,_! taxes are conceal$ 9 r5ts or        
prices1 & !y compla9 bitt]ly t ^! ?+s   
are high4 ,x does  n occur to ! av]age  
,am]ican wage-e>n] t if taxes 7 l[]1    
r5ts & prices w\ld be l[]1 & t if !re 7 
no taxes1 x  w\ld be exactly ! equival5t
 to f9d+ e morn+1 on com+ d[n  to       
breakfa/1 a crisp1 new doll>-bill on 8  

plate4 ,demagogues tell u  t tru/s1 &   
pr(ite]s1 & o!r =ms ( organiz$ av>ice   
are  responsible = high prices2 b "o ( !
 bigge/ factors 9 !  high-co/-(-liv+ is 
! high-co/-(-gov]nm5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,if 
wa/e 7 avoid$ ! tax burd5 w\ld be       
dim9i%$4    ,if ?is enorm\s fl[ f !     
nation's e>n+s into ! public c(f]s  7   
:olly1 or ev5 l>gely1 us$ to promote &  
enc\rage production1  x w\ld n be s bad4
 ,mu* ( x is wa/$1 or sp5t )\t adequate 
return4 ,?is takes place because ! p d n
 keep close wat* on  ! (ficials :om !y  
elect to public (fice & d n hold !m to a
  /rict acc\ntability :5 public money is
 squ&]$4 ,m ?an a  hundr$ ye>s ago ! mo/
 em95t ( ,am]ican juri/s1 ,*ief ,ju/ice 
,john ,m>%all1 po9t$ out t 8! p[] to tax
 involves ! p[] to  de/roy04 ,he 0 "r2 !
 p[] to tax is ! mo/ f>-rea*+ p[]  t any
 gov]nm5t c possess4 ,by ! use ( ! tax+ 
p[] a  gov]nm5t c take f ! p :at !y w\ld
 o!rwise save1 ?us  prev5t+ ! increase (
 ! nation's weal? & ultimately break+   
d[n its prosp]ity4    ,sid5ote3 ,taxes  

are3    ,h[ ,taxes ,diff] f o!r         
,paym5ts4--,taxes diff] f mo/ o!r       
paym5ts 9 two respects4 ,sid5ote3 7a7   
compulsory4 ,fir/1 !y are  compulsory4  
,no "o ne$ pay int]e/1 r5t1 wages1 or   
prices unless he  b>ga9s to d s2 b !    
paym5t ( taxes is n ! result ( any      
b>ga94 ,taxes are levi$ )\t any ref]5ce 
to ! initiative or  wi%es ( !           
individuals ^u :om !y may fall1 except1 
( c\rse1 9  s f> z ^! individuals by _! 
votes may h an influ5ce 9  det]m9+ !    
g5]al tax+ policy ( ! gov]nm5t4         
,sid5ote3  7b7 levi$ )\t ref]5ce to     
s]vice r5d]$4 ,second1 taxes are  n     
paym5ts made to ! gov]nm5t by           
individuals & corporations 9  return =  
s]vices r5d]$4 ,! man :o rides a hundr$ 
miles on a  railroad pays twice z mu* z 
"o :o goes half t di/ance1 because  he  
gets twice z mu* = 8 money4 ,b ! man :o 
pays a ?\s&  doll>s 9 taxes does n get  
twice z mu* 9 b5efits f !  gov]nm5t z ! 
"o :o pays only five hundr$ doll>s4     
,sid5ote3 ,! basis ( taxation is ability

 to pay4    ,ne>ly all paym5ts t we make
 are 9 ! =m ( a quid pro quo2  !y are 9 
proportion to ! b5efits :i* we receive4 
,?is is !  case 9 paym5ts = all =ms (   
goods or s]vices--! "o great  exception 
is ! paym5t ( taxes4 ,taxes h no direct 
relation to  b5efit2 ^? :o pay v little 
9 taxes1 ei!r directly or  indirectly1  
sometimes receive a l>ge return 9 ! =m (
 public  s]vices4 ,take = example !     
taxes t support ! public s*ools4  ,!    
fact t a weal?y man has no *ildr51 or   
pref]s to s5d 8  *ildr5 to a private    
s*ool1 does n relieve him ( ! obligation
 to  pay 8 full %>e ( :at public        
education co/s ! community4 ,on !  o!r  
h&1 a man ^: contribution 9 taxes is v  
small may s5d a  doz5 *ildr51 "o aft]   
ano!r1 ?r\gh ! public s*ools )\t  any   
extra co/4    ,sid5ote3 ,:y taxes _c be 
adju/$ to s]vice4    ,x w\ld n be       
possible to base taxation ^u s]vice1    
because !re is  no way ( kn[+ h[ mu*    
b5efit ea* individual receives f !      
gov]nm5t's "w4 ,d "s individuals1 =     

example1 obta9 m b5efit  ?an o!rs f !   
ma9t5ance ( law & ord] or d all d]ive   
b5efit alike8 ,:o gets ! great] b5efit f
 clean /reets1 ! ri*  man :o drives 8   
motor c> ov] !m1 or ! poor man ^: *ildr5
  use ! /reets z a playgr\nd8 ,taxes    
c\ld n be adju/$ to b5efit4  ,ev5 if !y 
c\ld be s proportion$1 x w\ld be unwise 
to d s4 ,!  g5]al int]e/ requires t     
ev]yone %\ld enjoy ! b5efits (  police  
protection1 ! public s*ools1 ! p>ks1 !  
playgr\nds  :e!r !y are able to pay = !m
 or n4#bae ,s taxes are levi$  9 ord] to
 pay = ^! ?+s1 n on a basis ( individual
 b5efit1  b simply by putt+ ! heavie/   
burd5 9 ! fir/ in/ance ^u  ^? :o are be/
 able to pay x1 lett+ !m %ift x if !y c4
    ,pr9ciples ^u :i* ,taxes are        
,levi$4--,h[ is ! ability (  individuals
 to pay taxes e/imat$8 ,x is done by    
tak+ "s su* ?+  z prop]ty or income z ! 
basis4 ,^? :o h m prop]ty or  income are
 call$ ^u to contribute m ?an ^? :o h   
less4  ,sid5ote3 ,! basic pr9ciples (   
taxation accord+ to ,adam ,smi?4  ,ab\t 

a hundr$ & fifty ye>s ago a fam\s writ] 
on economics1 ,adam  ,smi?1 laid d[n f\r
 pr9ciples to :i* all taxation %\ld     
con=m4  ,^! maxims ( taxation are n[    
ev]y:]e recogniz$ z valid & are  wor?   
rememb]+4 ,briefly /at$1 !y are z       
foll[s3 ,p %\ld be  tax$ accord+ to _!  
ability to pay2 all taxes %\ld be       
def9ite  & n unc]ta9 or arbitr>y2 !y    
ought to be levi$ at ! "t &  9 ! mann]  
:i* causes ! lea/ inconv5i5ce to ! p2 & 
!y %\ld be s contriv$ z to take out ( ! 
pockets ( ! p  z little z possible ov]  
:at is ne$$ by ! public treasury4 ,^?   
:o make ! tax laws d n always he$ ^!    
maxims1 & taxes are  sometimes levi$ on 
! pr9ciple ( gett+ ! mo/ money ) !  lea/
 tr\ble4#baf    ,sid5ote3 ,taxes on     
prop]ty4    ,local ,taxes4--,! great]   
portion ( ! taxation levi$ by cities1   
c\nties1 t[ns1 & villages is 9 ! =m (   
taxes on prop]ty4 ,?is  is a direct tax 
& z a rule x is levi$ on all private    
prop]ty1 (  :atev] sort1 at a uni=m rate
 ( s mu* p] ?\s& doll>s (  valuation4   

,sid5ote3 ,! g5]al prop]ty tax4 ,a tax  
levi$ 9 ?is  uni=m way on all private   
prop]ty is call$ a g5]al prop]ty tax4   
,9 "s /ates1 h[ev]1 provision has be5   
made = classify+ !  v>i\s k9ds ( prop]ty
 & tax+ ea* k9d at a diff]5t rate4      
,prop]ty is fir/ classifi$ into two     
divisions1 real prop]ty1 &  p]sonal     
prop]ty4#bag ,real prop]ty 7or real     
e/ate7 consi/s ( l&1  build+s1 & o!r    
fixtures e/abli%$ on ! l&2 p]sonal      
prop]ty  consi/s (1 fir/1 tangible ?+s (
 a movable nature su* z  h\sehold       
furniture1 ma*9]y1 m]*&ise2 & second1   
intangibles  su* z bonds1 mortgages1 &  
bank deposits4 ,sid5ote3 ,! classifi$   
prop]ty tax4 ,:]e !re is a classifi$    
prop]ty tax1 ea* ( ^!  ?ree =ms 7real   
prop]ty1 tangibles1 & intangibles7 is   
tax$ at a  diff]5t rate4 ,"o reason =   
tax+ !m at diff]5t rates is t  real     
e/ate requires a great deal m 9 ! way ( 
public s]vices  7= example1 9 pav$      
/reets1 wat] supply1 sew]age1 etc472    
ano!r  reason is t :ile real prop]ty _c 

evade taxation intangibles c  usually d 
s :5 ! tax is too heavy4#bah ,if ! rate 
( taxation on  intangibles is l[]$1 !   
temptation to evade is n s great4 ,x w  
usually be f\nd t m money w come into ! 
public treasury f  a mod]ate rate (     
taxes on /ocks & bonds ?an f an         
oppressively  high rate4    ,sid5ote3   
,o!r local taxes4    ,a few communities 
also obta9 "s rev5ue f ano!r direct tax1
 !  poll tax1 :i* am\nts to "o or two   
doll>s p] ye> on ea* adult4 ,9  "s      
cities fran*ise taxes are laid ^u public
 s]vice companies 7su*  z gas1 electric 
light+1 & /reet railway companies74 ,!  
proce$s  f ^! s\rces d n =m any l>ge    
proportion ( ! total  rev5ue4           
,sid5ote3 ,assessm5ts = purposes (      
taxation4    ,all collect+ ( taxes is   
prec$$ by a =mal /ep kn[n z  assessm5t4 
,no tax c be legally collect$ unless x  
has be5 assess$  9 ways prescrib$ by    
law4 ,prop]ty ( all k9ds is valu$ =     
taxation  by (ficials kn[n z assessors4 
,usually !y are c\nty or city  (ficials1

 sometimes appo9t$1 sometimes elect$4   
,!y re-value  prop]ty at /at$ int]vals &
 set _! assessm5t at :at !y  believe to 
be ! m>ket value 7unless !y are in/ruct$
 to assess at  a p]c5tage ( ! m>ket     
value z is ! case 9 "s /ates74 ,income  
taxes1 corporation taxes1 & inh]itance  
taxes are assess$ by ! tax  (ficials on 
! basis ( sworn /atem5ts made to !m by !
  taxpay]s4    ,sid5ote3 ,special       
assessm5ts4    ,9 ! case ( su* public   
improvem5ts z sew]s1 /reet pavem5ts1 &  
sidewalks x is ! cu/om 9 _m cities to   
levy a special assessm5t  ^u ! own]s ( !
 prop]ty t is b5efit$4 ,^! special      
assessm5ts are levi$ 9 proportion to !  
b5efit receiv$2 !y are  n taxes 9 !     
ord9>y s5se4 ,sid5ote3 ,tak+ prop]ty =  
public  use4 ,:5 ! nation or /ate or    
city requires l& = public  improvem5ts x
 has ! "r to acquire x f ! own]1 ev5    
?\gh  he be unwill+ to sell4 ,! public  
au?orities1 by _! "r (  em95t doma91 c  
take l& or o!r prop]ty = public use at  
any  "t1 b mu/ give ! own] j            

comp5sation4 ,if ! am\nt (  comp5sation 
_c be agre$ ^u betwe5 ! gov]nm5t & !    
private own]1 x is fix$ by ! c\rts4     
,sid5ote3 ,! s\rces ( /ate rev5ue4      
,/ate ,taxes4--,! /ates obta9 _! rev5ue 
9 v>i\s ways4 ,"o  common me?od is by   
requir+ ! cities1 c\nties1 or t[ns to   
pay ov]  to ! /ate a c]ta9 fraction ( ! 
sums :i* !y collect on  prop]ty4 ,?us1  
:5 ! citiz5 gets 8 bill = local taxes he
 f9ds  x itemiz$--s mu* = /ate taxes1 s 
mu* = c\nty taxes1 & s  mu* = city or   
t[n taxes4 ,mo/ ( ! /ates also levy     
taxes on  corporations1 includ+         
railways1 telephone companies1 insurance
  companies1 & banks4 ,^! taxes may be  
calculat$ ^u capital or net  e>n+s or   
deposits or ^u "s o!r basis4 ,a few     
/ates tax  inh]itances & a few levy a   
/ate income tax4 ,taxes on inh]itances  
are usually progressive1 t is1 ! rate is
 high] 9 ! case (  l>ge inh]it$ =tunes4 
,/ate income taxes are levi$ ^u ! net   
e>n+s ( individuals or p>tn]%ips1 a     
c]ta9 m9imum income be+  left exempt4   

,mo/ ( ! /ates h o!r miscellane\s s\rces
 (  rev5ue1 "s ( !m important1 z1 =     
example1 ! annual lic5se  fees impos$ ^u
 all own]s ( motor vehicles4            
,sid5ote3 ,income & excess pr(its taxes4
    ,national ,taxes4--,! national      
gov]nm5t1 by reason ( its ne$ =  l>g]   
rev5ues 9 rec5t ye>s1 has resort$ to _m 
=ms ( taxation4  ,at ! pres5t "t !      
pr9cipal s\rces ( national rev5ue are ! 
taxes on ! incomes ( corporations &     
individuals1 ! cu/oms  duties1 !        
excises1 & ! inh]itance taxes4 ,!       
national income  taxes are levi$ ^u !   
net e>n+s ( all individuals1 p>tn]%ips1 
& corporations above a c]ta9 m9imum4 ,! 
rate ( taxation1 9 !  case ( individual 
incomes1 is progressive--a normal tax is
 laid ^u all  incomes up to a c]ta9     
figure & surtaxes are levi$ ^u incomes  
above ?is am\nt4#bai ,"u ! orig9al      
provisions ( !  con/itution1 ! national 
gov]nm5t c\ld n levy direct taxes       
unless x apportion$ !m among ! sev]al   
/ates accord+ to _!  population1 &      

accord+ to a decision ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt
 9 #ahid an  income tax is a direct     
tax4#bbj ,b ! ,sixte5? ,am5dm5t1 adopt$ 
9  #aiac1 n[ gives ! national gov]nm5t  
au?ority to tax incomes 8f  :atev] s\rce
 d]iv$0 )\t ! necessity ( apportionm5t  
among  ! /ates4 ,once a ye> e p]son or  
corporation e>n+ a net income  above !  
prescrib$ m9imum mu/ make a sworn       
/atem5t sett+ =?  ! exact am\nt ( su*   
e>n+s1 & ^u ?is 8income tax return0 !   
legal rate is assess$4    ,sid5ote3     
,duties on imports4    ,duties on       
imports /ill yield a l>ge rev5ue1 z !y h
 done e  ye> s9ce #agij4 ,no duties may 
be laid ^u exports1 su* duties be+      
=bidd5 by ! con/itution4 ,?is is 9 "s   
respects un=tunate1  because duties on  
exports g into ! price ( ! export$ goods
 &  ?us fall ^u ! =eign consum]4 ,a     
t>iff on exports 7su* z  lumb]1 coal1 & 
ore7 w\ld n only yield a consid]able    
rev5ue b  w\ld help to cons]ve ! natural
 weal? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!  excises   
are levi$ ^u tobacco1 !atre tickets1 &  

o!r ?+s :i*  are rat$ z luxuries4#bba ,!
 national gov]nm5t also levies an       
inh]itance tax1 ! rate ( ! tax dep5d+ ^u
 ! value ( !  prop]ty inh]it$4 ,^! v>i\s
 taxes br+ 9 betwe5 ?ree & f\r  billion 
doll>s p] ye>4    ,sid5ote3 ,taxes =    
rev5ue & taxes = regulation4    ,! ,two 
,purposes ( ,taxation4--,! ma9 object ( 
all taxation is to  produce a rev5ue4 ,b
 ?is is n ! only object4 ,taxation may  
also be  us$ to br+ ab\t su* social     
re=ms z ! nation or ! community  may    
deem desirable1 & taxes are sometimes   
adju/$ to ?is end4 ,=  example1 !       
manufacture ( goods by ! use ( *ild     
labor c be  *eck$ by plac+ a heavy      
excise tax ^u su* products4#bbb ,x is   
believ$ t ! gr[? ( l>ge =tunes c be     
*eck$ by !  imposition ( heavy surtaxes 
on l>ge incomes & on inh]itances2 !     
pres5t national taxes on incomes &      
inh]itances h be5 fram$ )  ?is end 9    
view to "s ext5t4 ,9 o!r words ! sy/em (
 taxation  c be us$ & is be+ us$ 9 "s   
measure to secure su* economic  & social

 readju/m5ts z ,congress & ! /ate       
legislatures ?9k  desirable4 ,! "q is3  
,h[ f> %\ld ! law-mak+ bodies g 9  ?is  
direction8 ,_m p believe t 8swoll5      
=tunes0 are an evil  9 a democratic     
society & t all e>n+s above a c]ta9 po9t
  %\ld belong to ! community4 ,o!rs feel
 t heavy surtaxes place a  damp] ^u     
ambition1 t !y less5 ! am\nt ( money    
sav$ by !  :ole p1 ?us r$uc+ ! am\nt (  
capital available =  indu/ry1 & t !y    
give ! gov]nm5t l>ge sums :i* are sp5t  
wa/efully4#bbc    ,sid5ote3 ,taxation & 
class prejudice4    ,tax ,exemptions &  
,extravagance4--,:5 taxation is reg>d$ z
 a means  n only ( rais+ a rev5ue b also
 ( r$i/ribut+ weal? x takes  on grave   
possibilities ( abuse4 ,! majority among
 ! vot]s c  always f9d reasons =        
increas+ ! burd5s on ! m9ority2 !       
wage-e>n]s urge t m taxes ought to be   
plac$ on ! ri* &  insi/ t !y !mselves be
 exempt$ f taxation ^u _!  incomes4 ,!  
*ief evil 9 all ?is is n ! inju/ice to !
 ri*1  = !y usually manage to %ift !    

burd5 d[n ! l9e till x comes  back ^u ! 
wage-e>n]2 ! un=tunate "p ( x is t !    
masses  ( ! p1 proce$+ "u ! delusion t  
!y pay none ( !  taxes1 are q unconc]n$ 
:5 !y see l>ge sums ( money be+         
collect$ by ! gov]nm5t & sp5t wa/efully4
 ,!y d n realize  t x is _! money2 t !y 
e>n$ e c5t ( x be=e !  gov]nm5t obta9$ x
 to sp5d4 ,if !y c\ld be induc$ to see  
matt]s  9 ?is light1 !y w\ld nev] p]mit 
_! repres5tatives 9  ,congress1 9 ! /ate
 legislatures1 & 9 city c\ncils to ?r[  
money  ar\nd ) su* a lavi% h&4 ,tax     
exemptions & extravagance are tw9       
bro!rs4    ,sid5ote3 ,! s+le tax4       
,propos$ ,re=ms 9 ,taxation4--,v>i\s new
 =ms ( taxation are  propos$ f "t to "t4
 ,_m ye>s ago a well-kn[n ,am]ican      
social  re=m]1 ,h5ry ,george1 advocat$ !
 plac+ ( all prop]ty taxes on  l& alone1
 all[+ build+s & p]sonal prop]ty to g   
untax$  altoge!r4 ,8 argum5t 0 t ! high 
value ( l& 9 cities &  t[ns is creat$ by
 ! community1 n by ! own]4 ,vacant l& 9 
!  d[nt[n portion ( a l>ge city is      

sometimes wor? _m hundr$ doll>s  p]     
foot4 ,:at gives x ?is high value8 ,n ! 
own]1 = he has done  no?+ to improve x4 
,! gr[? ( ! city r\nd ab\t ?is l& has   
made x valuable4 ,?is 8une>n$ increm5t0 
( value1 !re=e1 ,h5ry  ,george propos$ t
 ! community %\ld take by levy+ a v     
heavy  tax ^u x4#bbd    ,sid5ote3       
,objections to ! s+le tax4    ,! s+le   
tax proposition1 z above outl9$1 has _m 
e>ne/  advocates2 b x has made v little 
progress z a practical policy 9  ?is    
c\ntry4 ,! objection commonly rais$     
aga9/ ! proposal is t  x w\ld be an     
outright confiscation ( a c]ta9 =m (    
private  prop]ty1 namely1 vacant l&2 t !
 s+le tax on ! site value (  improv$ l&1
 l taxes on build+s us$ = indu/rial or  
m]cantile  purposes1 w\ld m]ely be %ift$
 to ! t5ant & by him transf]r$  9 ! =m (
 high] prices to ! consum]2 & t ! am\nt 
d]iv$ f ! s+le tax w\ld n yield en\gh to
 relieve ! p  f pay+ o!r =ms ( taxation4
    ,sid5ote3 ,! propos$ sales tax4     
,m rec5tly a good deal ( discussion has 

tak5 place conc]n+ !  desirability ( a  
g5]al tax on sales at a uni=m rate4 ,x  
is argu$  t su* a tax w\ld fall directly
 & proportionately on all !  p2 t x w\ld
 be s small z to h only ! slighte/      
effect  ^u prices2 t x w\ld be easy to  
collect & h>d to evade4 ,su* a  sales   
tax at "o p] c5t w\ld probably yield    
ne>ly a billion doll>s  p] ye> to !     
national treasury4 ,on ! o!r h& !       
objection is  made t a tax ( ?is sort   
w\ld be a real h>d%ip ^u masses ( !  p  
:o h small incomes & w\ld be felt mu*   
less sev]ely by  ! well-to-d4#bbe       
,sid5ote3 ,h[ money is appropriat$4     
,! ,sp5d+ ( ,public ,money4--,:5 taxes  
are collect$ !y g into  ! public        
treasury ( ! nation1 /ate1 or community4
 ,once 9 !  treasury ! money _c be sp5t 
until x has be5 f9ally  appropriat$ by  
,congress1 by ! /ate legislature1 by !  
c\nty  bo>d1 by ! city c\ncil1 or by    
:atev] body possesses ! p[] to  make    
appropriations4 ,appropriations are     
usually made once a ye> 9 !  =m ( a     

budget1 & ! mann] ( mak+ a budget is z  
foll[s3 ,on or  be=e a giv5 date ! v>i\s
 adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts 7su* z !  p>ks  
dep>tm5t 9 cities or ! dep>tm5ts (      
highways 9 /ates7  make _! e/imates (   
exp5diture = ! next twelve mon?s4 ,along
  ) ?is1 = purposes ( comp>ison1 a      
/atem5t ( probable rev5ue  f taxes & o!r
 s\rces is prep>$ by ! f9ancial (fic]s (
  ! /ate or local gov]nm5t4    ,sid5ote3
 ,! e/imates4    ,! e/imates are put    
toge!r & submitt$ to ! mayor1 ! gov]nor1
  or "s o!r designat$ (fic]1 :o         
transmits !m to ! c\ncil or  legislature
 z ! case may be4 ,! lawmak+ body !n    
consid]s !  e/imates1 item by item1 &   
f9ally votes ! entire li/ aft] mak+  su*
 *anges z x f9ds desirable4 ,?is budget1
 9 cities & /ates1  usually requires !  
approval ( ! mayor or ! gov]nor & may be
  veto$ l o!r measures4 ,9 "s /ates !   
gov]nor may veto  individual items 9 !  
budget :ile lett+ ! o!rs /&1 b z a  rule
 he is requir$ to accept or reject !    
appropriation bill z a  :ole4 ,! g5]al  

t5d5cy is to give ! executive bran* ( ! 
/ate  & local gov]nm5ts l>g] p[]s 9     
budget-mak+ s t !  responsibility = any 
extravagance may be bett] c5traliz$4    
,sid5ote3 ,! old] me?od ( mak+          
appropriations1 9 ,congress4    ,!      
,national ,budget ,sy/em4--,until #aiba 
! national gov]nm5t made  its l>ge      
annual exp5ditures )\t any regul> budget
 sy/em at all4  ,ea* dep>tm5t 7w>1 navy1
 agriculture1 & s on7 prep>$ its        
e/imates & s5t !m to ! ,secret>y ( !    
,treasury1 :o pres5t$  !m to ! ,presid5t
 = transmission to ,congress ) :atev]   
recomm5dations he might *oose to make4  
,9 addition to ?is e  s5ator &          
repres5tative _h ! "r to propose        
appropriations1 &  hundr$s ( su*        
proposals 7 made 9 ,congress at e       
session4 ,!  practice1 prior to #aiba1 0
 to ref] all ! dep>tm5tal e/imates &    
all ! individual proposals to v>i\s     
committees4 ,all e/imates &  bills =    
army exp5ditures w5t to ! ,committee on 
,milit>y ,affairs2  all su* measures    

relat+ to ! po/al s]vice w5t to !       
,committee  on ,po/-,(fices1 & s on4    
,eight or n9e committees ea* took a h& 9
  consid]+ ^! proposals to sp5d money2  
ea* did its "w )\t  ref]5ce to :at ! o!r
 committees 7 do+2 & ea* made its own   
recomm5dations to ,congress4#bbf        
,sid5ote3 ,results ( ?is me?od4    ,!   
result ( ?is proc$ure 0 t no g5]al plan 
= keep+ d[n  ! exp5se c\ld ev] be       
effectively put into =ce1 !re be+ too   
_m indep5d5t committees to deal )4 ,9   
#aiba1 h[ev]1 ,congress  pass$ an act   
provid+ = ! e/abli%m5t ( a national     
budget  sy/em & ! rules ( bo? *amb]s 9  
,congress 7 alt]$ s z to  c>ry ! new    
plan into effect4 ,sid5ote3 ,! new      
budget sy/em4 ,!  dep>tm5tal e/imates n[
 g to an (ficial 9 ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t
  kn[n z ! ,director4 ,he puts !m toge!r
 into a budget & ) !  ,presid5t's       
approval submits !m to ! ,h\se (        
,repres5tatives4 ,"h  !y are consid]$ by
 a s+le l>ge committee1 kn[n z !        
,appropriations ,committee1 & all       

proposals ( exp5diture made by          
individual congressm5 7aft] !y h be5    
approv$ by ! committees  directly       
conc]n$7 are also submitt$ to ?is       
committee4 ,! latt]  !n lays be=e !     
,h\se a complete budget or plan (       
exp5ditures =  ! ensu+ fiscal ye>4 ,:5  
?is budget1 ) or )\t *anges1  passes !  
,h\se1 x is =w>d$ to ! ,s5ate1 :]e x is 
likewise  consid]$ by a s+le committee4 
,aft] x has be5 pass$ by ! ,s5ate  x    
goes to ! ,presid5t = 8 approval4 ,!    
,presid5t _c veto  individual items 9 ! 
budget b mu/ accept or reject x z a     
:ole4  ,?is is a s]i\s h&icap because ! 
rejection ( ! entire budget  w\ld leave 
! dep>tm5ts )\t funds ) :i* to c>ry on  
_!  "w4 ,! great advantage ( ! new      
budget sy/em is t x enables  ,congress  
to make a compreh5sive plan ( exp5diture
 = ! ye> &  ?us to hold ! exp5ses )9 !  
e/imat$ rev5ues4    ,sid5ote3 ,is x     
necess>y = gov]nm5ts to borr[8          
,public ,debts3 ,:y ,gov]nm5ts ,borr[   
,money4--,ne>ly all nations1  /ates1    

c\nties1 cities1 & ev5 villages h debts4
 ,:y d !y f9d  x necess>y to borr[      
money8 ,:y %\ld !y n1 l wise            
individuals1 adopt a pay-z-y-g policy8  
,! reason is t su* a  policy w\ld be v  
unfair to ! pres5t taxpay]s4 ,suppose1 =
  example1 t a t[n or city builds a new 
high s*ool4 ,! build+ w  co/ a great    
deal ( money & may reasonably be expect$
 to s]ve its  purpose = tw5ty1 ?irty1 or
 ev5 =ty ye>s4 ,n[ !re are two ways  9  
:i* ! community c defray ! co/3 ,x c    
levy a heavy tax rate  ^u ! prop]ty ( ! 
p at once1 d\bl+ or trebl+ ! usual  tax 
rate if necess>y1 & !reby obta9+ ! money
 ) :i* to pay  ca% = ! s*ool4 ,or1 on ! 
o!r h&1 x may borr[ ! money &  arrange t
 ?is am\nt 7) int]e/7 %all be repaid 9  
annual  in/allm5ts ov] tw5ty or m ye>s1 
?us spread+ ! burd5 ov]  ! :ole p]iod 9 
:i* ! build+ fulfils its purpose4       
,sid5ote3 ,prop] & improp] borr[+4      
,:i* ( ^! is ! fair] me?od8 ,! latt]    
plan has ! m]it (  plac+ ! burd5 ^u all 
^? :o get ! b5efit2 b x has !  defect ( 

saddl+ ! taxpay]s ( ! future ) a debt   
:i* !y  h _h no %>e 9 creat+4           
,gov]nm5ts1 h[ev]1 are mu* m  conc]n$ ) 
! pres5t ?an ) ! future1 = x is ! pres5t
  taxpay] :o decides ! elections4 ,:]ev]
 practicable1 !re=e1  !y endeavor to    
f9ance public improvem5ts by sell+ bonds
 r  ?an by increas+ ! pres5t tax rates4 
,/ate roads1 public build+s1  bridges1 &
 o!r co/ly ent]prises are f9anc$ by     
borr[+4 ,!  con/ruction ( ! ,panama     
,canal by ! national gov]nm5t 0 n paid  
= at ! "t2 ! money ) :i* to build x 0   
borr[$ by  issu+ long-t]m bonds4        
,gov]nm5ts sometimes g fur!r & borr[    
money to make good a %ortage 9 curr5t   
exp5ses4 ,?is is an unwise  policy2 n "o
 hone/ ^w c be said 9 favor ( x4 ,curr5t
 exp5ses  %\ld be paid f ! taxes (      
today1 n f ! taxes ( t5 ye>s  h5ce4 ,:5 
a gov]nm5t borr[s money to pay curr5t   
exp5ses x  usually def5ds its action by 
say+ t ! p approv$ x at !  polls4 ,(    
c\rse ! p w usually approve ?+s ( ?is   
sort4  ,:5 y ask a man :e!r he pref]s to

 pay = a ?+ himself or let  somebody    
else pay = x1 !re is little d\bt :at 8  
answ] w be4    ,w> is ! greate/ cause ( 
borr[+4 ,dur+ ! ,civil ,w> ! ,unit$     
,/ates gov]nm5t borr[$ ab\t ?ree billion
 doll>s1 mo/ ( :i*  0 repaid )9 ?irty   
ye>s4 ,dur+ & imm$iately aft] ! ,_w  ,w>
 x secur$1 by ! issue ( ,lib]ty ,bonds &
 ,victory ,notes1 ab\t  tw5ty-six       
billion doll>s1 all ( :i* becomes       
repayable at v>i\s  dates be=e #aiej4bbg
                                        
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,! ,,national ,,debt                   
#ahfj-aibj              ,! l>ge/        
additions to ! national debt ( !        
,unit$ ,/ates 7 made dur+ ! ye>s        
#ahfa-ahfe1            & ! ye>s         
#aiag-aiai4 ,dur+ ! =m] ( ^!            
two p]iods ! debt rose f less ?an fifty 
millions to ne>ly ?ree billions2 dur+ ! 
ye>s            #aiag-aiai x increas$ f 
"o to tw5ty-sev5            billions or 
!reab\ts4 ,by us+ ! log>i?mic or        

proportional scale = comp>+ ^! two      
p]iods            x w be se5 t ! ratio (
 increase 0 less            9 ! lat]    
p]iod ?an 9 ! e>li]4              ,x w  
be notic$ t al?\gh ! national debt      
0 mu* r$uc$ dur+ ! tw5ty-five ye>s :i*  
foll[$ ! ,civil ,w>1 x nev] dropp$      
any:]e            ne> its pre-w> level4 
,! enorm\s debt :i* we            pil$  
up dur+ ! ,_w ,w> is already be+        
r$uc$4 ,w x ev] be cut to ! level (     
#aiaf8    ,illu/ration3      ,,!        
,,national ,,debt    #ahfj-aibj         
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,long- & %ort-t]m loans4      
,h[ ,borr[+ ,takes ,place4--,:5         
gov]nm5ts decide to borr[ money  !re are
 two ways ( do+ x4 ,if ! money is ne$$ =
 a %ort "t  only1 = example1 to pay     
exp5ses until ! taxes come 91 x c be    
borr[$ f ! banks on %ort-t]m notes4 ,!  
national gov]nm5t1  = its %ort-t]m      
borr[+1 issues treasury notes1 runn+ = a
 ye>  or less4 ,^! be> int]e/ & are sold

 to ! banks :i* re-sell  !m to private  
inve/ors4 ,b if ! money is ne$$ = a     
long]  p]iod1 ! usual plan is to issue  
bonds4 ,^! bonds1 z already  po9t$ out  
7p4 #dde7 are promises to pay1 & !      
gov]nm5t pl$ges its  cr$it to repay !m  
promptly :5 !y mature1 ) int]e/ e ye>   
or e half-ye> mean:ile4 ,national1 /ate1
 & local bonds are =  ! mo/ "p exempt f 
taxation4#bbh    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! w>     
increas$ ! national debt4    ,! ,burd5 (
 ! ,public ,debt ,today4--,! borr[+ p[] 
( !  national gov]nm5t is n limit$ by   
any provision ( ! con/itution4          
,congress may borr[ money up to any     
am\nt4 ,! national debt today is  ab\t  
tw5ty-?ree billion doll>s1 z aga9/ only 
"o billion be=e  ! w>4 ,! ye>ly int]e/  
on ! pres5t debt1 9 fact1 is ab\t z     
l>ge z ! :ole ( ! old debt4 ,arrangem5ts
 are be+ made1  h[ev]1 to less5 ?is     
int]e/-burd5 by obta9+ int]e/ paym5ts  f
 =eign c\ntries ^u ! loans made to !m by
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates  dur+ ! w>4            
,sid5ote3 ,debt limits4    ,9 ! case ( !

 /ates & cities ! p[] to borr[ money is 
n  unlimit$4 ,! /ate con/itutions       
usually conta9 provisions z to h[  mu*  
money may be borr[$ & = :at purposes4   
,sometimes !y provide  t /ate debts may 
n be creat$ except by vote ( ! p4       
,cities  are also1 9 mo/ cases1 b\nd by 
debt limits :i* are fix$ by !  /ate     
con/itution or by /ate laws4 ,! limit1 z
 a rule1 is flexible2  x enables ! city 
to borr[ money up to a c]ta9 p]c5tage ( 
its  assess$ valuation1 s t :5 ! value (
 prop]ty goes up !  borr[+ p[] becomes  
enl>g$4 ,/ate & city debts h be5        
increas+ at a rapid rate2 on ! :ole m   
rapidly ?an population or  weal?4#bbi ,!
 t5d5cy is to put a l>ge %>e ( ! burd5  
on !  %\ld]s ( ! next g5]ation4 ,x is "r
 t future taxpay]s  %\ld be> _! %>e1 z  
has be5 said2 b !y %\ld n be call$  ^u  
to d m ?an t4#bcj ,x is probably )9     
b\nds to say t  ?irty to =ty c5ts out ( 
e doll> :i* we pay 9 taxes today  goes =
 int]e/ & debt repaym5ts4 ,be=e long1 if
 we keep on1 half  ! taxes w g to pay = 

pa/ obligations4 ,! l>ge cities are !   
wor/ (f5d]s2 "s ( !m are mortgag+ !     
future at an al>m+  rate4 ,/rict] laws  
relat+ to local borr[+ are ne$$1 b m    
ess5tial /ill is ! awak5+ ( public      
op9ion to ! realities (  ! situation4   
,h[ ,public ,debts are ,repaid4--,:5    
bonds are issu$ by ! public  au?orities 
"s provision ought to be made = pay+ !m 
at maturity2  b ?is is n always done4   
,sid5ote3 ,refund+4 ,! national debt1   
:5 portions ( x become due1 is sometimes
 refund$1 t is1 paid (f  by issu+ new   
bonds4 ,sid5ote3 ,s9k+ funds4 ,9 ! /ates
 &  municipalities ! usual plan has be5 
to e/abli% a s9k+ fund :5  ! bonds are  
issu$1 & !n to pay a c]ta9 in/allm5t    
into ?is  fund out ( ea* ye>'s taxes4   
,by ?is process ! s9k+ fund gr[s  ye> by
 ye> until x is suffici5t to pay (f !   
bonds :5 !y  become due4 ,sid5ote3      
,s]ial issues4 ,a bett] plan is to issue
 !  bonds 9 su* =m t !y w fall due      
s]ially1 t is1 "o or  m bonds com+ due 9
 ea* successive ye> ( ! loan p]iod4 ,!n1

  in/ead ( creat+ a s9k+ fund to pay (f 
! :ole debt at "o  "t1 ! bonds are paid 
(f "o by "o4 ,! s]ial bond plan does    
away  ) ! necessity ( hold+ l>ge sums 9 
h& await+ ! maturity  ( ! debt1 & ?us   
dim9i%es ! risk ( loss ?r\gh poor       
inve/m5t or corruption4    ,are ,public 
,debts a ,public ,evil8--,alex&]        
,hamilton1 :o 0 ,secret>y  ( ! ,treasury
 9 ,wa%+ton's fir/ cab9et1 prop\nd$ !   
doctr9e  t a public debt1 if n too l>ge1
 is a s\rce ( /r5g? to !  gov]nm5t4 ,he 
argu$ t :5 gov]nm5t bonds are widely    
held by !  p1 all ^? :o own ! bonds are 
int]e/$ 9 ! /ability &  prosp]ity ( !   
nation4 ,o!r not$ f9anci]s at v>i\s     
times h  contradict$ ,hamilton & h      
decl>$ all public debts to be public    
evils 9 t !y impose burd5s on ! p )\t   
giv+ !m  any?+ tangible to %[ = x4 ,b ! 
tru? is t public debts d  n fall        
entirely 9 ei!r class4 ,!y are b5efits 9
 "o s5se &  evils 9 ano!r4 ,! p[] to    
borr[1 l any o!r p[]1 may be us$  wisely
 or unwisely4 ,9 times ( great em]g5cy1 

or = public  improvem5ts ( p]man5t      
value1 money may v prop]ly be obta9$ by 
borr[+2 always provid$1 h[ev]1 t        
arrangem5ts are made to pay  (f ! debts 
)9 a reasonable "t4 ,! evil comes :5    
gov]nm5ts  borr[ money 9 ord] to pay    
curr5t exp5ses or to defray ! co/ (     
improvem5ts :i* are n ne$$1 & :5 !y     
complac5tly all[ !  debt to pile up1 ye>
 aft] ye>1 ) no ?\ght ( r$uc+ x4        
8,suffici5t unto ! day is ! evil !re(01 
x is said2 b we c  also make ! evil     
suffici5t unto ! future z well4         
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1     
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4     
#ceh-cgh2 ,ibid41  ,read+s 9 ,am]ican   
,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4 #cbc-cdb2    
,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,pr9ciples (         
,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dhc-efa2   
,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4  #dde-dgi2    ,w4
 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates1 pp4 #bcc-bde2 ,ibid41           
,pr9ciples & ,me?ods ( ,municipal       
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #djc-dgh  7,municipal

 ,f9ance72    ,c4 ,f4 ,,ba/able1 ,public
 ,f9ance1 pp4 #bfa-bhj2    ,e4 ,r4 ,a4  
,,seligman1 ,essays 9 ,taxation 7#i?    
edition71 pp4 #ff-ii 7,!  ,s+le ,tax72  
,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,select$ ,read+s 9   
,public ,f9ance1 pp4 #ci-di2  #adc-aeg2 
,ibid41 ,introduction to ! ,/udy (      
,economics1 pp4 #dic-ebj2    ,c4 ,c4    
,,plehn1 ,introduction to ,public       
,f9ance1 pp4 #caj-cbg2    ,am]ican      
,academy ( ,political & ,social ,sci5ce1
 ,taxation & ,public  ,exp5ditures1 pp4 
#a-bhc 7,annals1 ,vol4 ,,xcv1 ,may1     
#aiba74                                 
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,%\ld ! pres5t   
rate ( national income taxes & surtaxes 
be  rais$ or l[]$8 ,! ,income ,tax ,law 
( #aiac4 ,! increase 9 rates  dur+ ! w>4
 ,! *anges made 9 #aiba4 ,are ! pres5t  
exemptions  fair8 ,h[ d ! surtaxes      
op]ate8 ,are !y %ift$ by ! taxpay]s to  
o!rs8 ,h[8 ,! fl[ ( inve/m5ts into      
non-taxables4 ,examples4 ,is a          
progressive rate ju/ifiable 9 ord] to   
promote a great] approa* to  equality 9 

net incomes8 ,conclusions4 ,ref]5ces3   
,c4 ,c4 ,,plehn1  ,introduction to      
,public ,f9ance1 #d? ed41 pp4 #bgj-cji2 
,g4 ,n4 ,,wilson1  ,! ,income ,tax1 pp4 
#a-aa2 ,f4 ,r4 ,,fair*ild1 ,f$]al       
,taxation ( ,income  & ,pr(its 7,am]ican
 ,economic ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,no4 #a1
 ,supplem5t1 pp4  #adh-aei72 ,r4 ,m4    
,,haig1 ,! ,f$]al ,income ,tax1 pp4     
#a-be2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,hobson1  ,taxation 9 ! 
,new ,/ate1 pp4 #ie-aaj2 ,am]ican       
,academy ( ,political  & ,social        
,sci5ce1 ,taxation & ,public            
,exp5diture1 pp4 #ahj-ahg  7,annals1    
,vol4 ,,xcv1 ,may1 #aiba74    #b4 ,h[   
public budgets are made4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,=d1  
,! ,co/ ( ,our ,national  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4
 #aa-ba2 ,s4 ,g4 ,,l[rie1 ,! ,budget1   
pp4 #aa-cj2 ,f4 ,a4  ,,clevel&1 ,*apt]s 
on ,municipal ,adm9i/ration & ,acc\nt+1 
pp4  #fg-ha2 ,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican      
,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aha-ahd2      
,massa*usetts ,con/itutional ,conv5tion1
 #aiag-aiah1 ,bullet9s1 ,no4 #b  7,/ate 
,budget ,sy/ems 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates72     

,am]ican ,academy (  ,political &       
,social ,sci5ce1 ,public ,budgets1 pp4  
#cf-df 7,annals1 ,vol4  ,,lxii1 ,no4    
#aea72 ,ibid41 ,taxation & ,public      
,exp5diture1 pp4 #bbh-bej  7,annals1    
,vol4 ,,xcv1 ,may1 #aiba72 ,u4 ,s4      
,bureau ( ! ,c5sus1 ,f9ancial  ,/ati/ics
 ( ,/ates2 ,f9ancial ,/ati/ics (        
,cities4 7,ea* is  publi%$ annually47   
#c4 ,a /udy ( ! p] capita co/ ( select$ 
adm9i/rative  dep>tm5ts 9 y\r own /ate  
or community comp>$ ) ^? ( o!r  /ates or
 communities4 7,adequate data = ?is /udy
 c be f\nd 9  two annual publications ( 
! ,u4 ,s4 ,c5sus ,bureau1 namely1       
,f9ancial  ,/ati/ics ( ,/ates1 &        
,f9ancial ,/ati/ics ( ,cities4 ,= an    
example ( su* a /udy1 9 brief =m1 see   
,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,pr9ciples &  ,me?ods (
 ,municipal ,adm9i/ration1 p4 #deg47    
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! pr9ciples       
und]ly+ taxation4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1    
,pr9ciples (  ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1   
pp4 #dhc-dif4    #b4 ,! p[] ( ,congress 
to tax4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,! ,gov]nm5t ( 

!  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #bba-bbg4    #c4  
,income taxes 9 =eign c\ntries4 ,e4 ,r4 
,a4 ,,seligman1 ,! ,income  ,tax 7#b;d  
ed471 ,engl&1 pp4 #afg-bah2 ,france1 pp4
 #bgc-cbh2 ,g]many1 pp4  #bbc-bgb4      
#d4 ,h[ ! ,civil ,w> 0 f9anc$4 ,d4 ,r4  
,,dewey1 ,f9ancial ,hi/ory (  ! ,unit$  
,/ates1 pp4 #bih-ccc4    #e4 ,!         
mobilization ( ,am]ican f9ances dur+ !  
,_w ,w>4 ,w4 ,f4  ,,will\ghby1 ,gov]nm5t
 ,organization 9 ,w> ,"t & ,aft]1 pp4   
#ej-ff2  ,e4 ,r4 ,a4 ,,seligman1 ,essays
 9 ,taxation 7#i? ed471 pp4 #gej-ghb4   
#f4 ,excises z a s\rce ( rev5ue4 ,c4 ,j4
 ,,bullock1 ,select$ ,read+s  9 ,public 
,f9ance1 pp4 #ddi-dgb4    #g4 ,! g5]al  
prop]ty tax4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1         
,pr9ciples ( ,economics1  ,vol4 ,,ii1   
pp4 #ebh-edi4    #h4 ,! t>iff z a s\rce 
( rev5ue4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,select$   
,read+s 9 ,public ,f9ance1 pp4 #dbe-ddh4
    #i4 ,! s+le tax4 ,e4 ,r4 ,a4        
,,seligman1 ,essays 9 ,taxation1 pp4    
#ff-ii4    #aj4 ,! wa/efulness ( ! old  
appropriation sy/em4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1   

,read+s on ,am]ican ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1   
pp4 #cee-cfa4    #aa4 ,/ate debts & debt
 limits4 ,massa*usetts ,con/itutional   
,conv5tion1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bullet9s1 ,no4 
#ae 7,con/itutional ,re/rictions  on    
,/ate ,debts74    #ab4 ,municipal debts 
& debt limits4 ,ibid41 ,no4 #ad         
7,con/itutional  ,re/rictions on        
,municipal ,indebt$ness74    #ac4       
,me?ods ( borr[+3 s9k+ funds vs4 s]ial  
bonds4 ,ibid41 ,no4  #ba 7,me?ods (     
,borr[+3 ,s9k+ ,funds vs4 ,s]ial        
,bonds74    #ad4 ,! classification (    
prop]ty = taxation4 ,ibid41 ,no4 #bj    
7,classification ( ,prop]ty = ,purposes 
( ,taxation74    #ae4 ,! new national   
budget sy/em4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel& & ,a4   
,e4 ,,buck1  ,! ,budget & ,responsible  
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cga-cha4                
,que/ions    #a4 ,%[ h[ taxes are relat$
 to ! co/ ( liv+4 ,:at =ms (  taxation  
are mo/ closely relat$ to x8    #b4 ,c y
 add any o!r pr9ciples ( taxation to ^? 
laid d[n by  ,adam ,smi?8    #c4 ,select
 f ! con/itution all ! provisions :i*   

relate to  taxation & put !m toge!r 9   
?is =m3 8,congress may impose any  sort 
( taxation except t----& t----& t1 etc40
    #d4 ,:at is ! incid5ce ( 7a7 import 
duties2 7b7 export duties2  7c7 a tax on
 vacant l&2 7d7 a tax on a factory2 7e7 
a normal tax  on incomes2 7f7 a poll    
tax2 7g7 a tax on inh]itances2 7h7 a tax
  on ! pr(its ( !atres2 7i7 a tax on    
motor trucks8    #e4 ,is x "r t income f
 gov]nm5t bonds %\ld be exempt f        
taxation8    #f4 ,:i* ( ! foll[+ taxes  
is ! wage-e>n] likely to feel !  lea/1 &
 :y3 t>iff duties1 a prop]ty tax1 income
 taxes1 a sales  tax1 a poll tax8    #g4
 ,%\ld diff]5t =ms ( prop]ty 7l&1       
build+s1 h\sehold  furniture1 /ocks1    
bonds1 automobiles1 etc47 be tax$ at    
diff]5t  rates8 ,%\ld factories be tax$ 
at a diff]5t rate f homes8 ,if all  m5  
are equal 9 ! eyes ( ! law1 :y %\ld !y  
be tax$ at  diff]5t rates8    #h4 ,x co/
 only a billion doll>s a ye> to run !   
gov]nm5t be=e  ! w>4 ,int]e/ on ! debt  
n[ am\nts to ne>ly ano!r billion4 ,b  ! 

gov]nm5t is sp5d+ ab\t f\r billions4 ,:y
 is ?is8 ,n[ t  ! w> is ov]1 :y is x n  
possible 7ap>t f int]e/ on ! w>  debt7  
to get back to ! old scale (            
exp5ditures8    #i4 ,:at are ! *ief     
defects 9 our pres5t sy/em ( rais+      
public  rev5ues8 ,:at improvem5ts c y   
sugge/8 ,w\ld y favor a sales  tax8 ,d y
 believe t ,congress 0 unwise 9 aboli%+ 
! tax on  excess pr(its8    #aj4        
,enum]ate all ! diff]5t =ms ( taxation t
 any "o man may  h to pay 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates at ! pres5t day4    #aa4 ,h[ is !
 budget prep>$ & pass$ 9 y\r /ate8      
,comp>e !  relative influ5ce ( ! gov]nor
 ) t ( ! legislature 9  det]m9+ :at !   
/ate gov]nm5t sp5ds4    #ab4 ,expla9    
treasury notes2 refund+2 debt limit2    
surtaxes2 net debt2  progressive        
taxation2 s9k+ fund2 s]ial bonds2       
special assessm5ts4    #ac4 ,two cities 
( ab\t ! same size may h approximately  
equal  am\nts ( net debt yet "o may be 9
 a mu* bett] f9ancial position  ?an !   
o!r4 ,acc\nt = ?is4    #ad4 ,:5 ,*ief   

,ju/ice ,m>%all said3 8,! p[] to tax    
involves !  p[] to de/roy01 :at did he  
mean8 ,%\ld ! p[] to tax be us$ to      
secure a m ne>ly equal di/ribution (    
weal? & net annual incomes  among ! p8  
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! sal>ies (   
gov]nm5t (ficials %\ld be tax$ l !      
incomes  ( private individuals4    #b4  
,no man's income %\ld be twice tax$     
7once by ! nation & once by  ! /ate74   
#c4 ,prop]ty %\ld be tax$ by a uni=m    
rule & %\ld n be  classifi$ = taxation4 
#d4 ,no debt limits %\ld be fix$ =      
cities by /ate law1 cities be+  all[$ to
 decide = !mselves h[ mu* !y %all borr[4
    #e4 ,assessors %\ld be appo9tive    
/ate (ficials & %\ld n be  elect$ by !  
vot]s ( cities1 c\nties1 or t[ns4       
-----    ,footnote #baa3      ,if any?+1
 ?is e/imate is probably too l[4 ,9     
#aiba ! tax    commission] (            
,massa*usetts e/imat$ ! tax burd5 9 t   
/ate    to be #aag p] capita4           
,footnote #bab3      ,! cities sp5d a   
great deal m ?an ! rural di/ricts & !   

p] capita burd5 !re is consequ5tly mu*  
heavi]4    ,footnote #bac3      ,9 !    
case ( "s heavily-tax$ =ms ( m]*&ise1   
su* z    tobacco1 m ?an half ! price is 
made up ( taxes4    ,footnote #bad3     
,!re are "s cases1 ( c\rse1 9 :i* ! tax 
_c be %ift$2    = example1 taxes on     
vacant or unimprov$ l&1 or taxes on fix$
    incomes & sal>ies4 ,b all ?is is a  
small elem5t 9 ! total tax    bill4     
,footnote #bae3      ,_m public s]vices 
:i* are n[ paid = out ( ! g5]al taxes   
7 at "o "t support$ by *>g+ only ^? :o  
made use (    !m4 ,_m ( ! fir/ macadam  
roads 7 built by private companies1     
:i* collect$ a few c5ts 9 toll f e p]son
 us+ !m4 ,toll    bridges 7 n uncommon a
 g5]ation ago & !y /ill exi/ 9    "s    
places4 ,fees 7 *>g$ 9 _m places by !   
s*ools1 s mu*    p] pupil4 ,be=e regul> 
police =ces 7 e/abli%$1 well-to-d    p  
hir$ wat*m5 to patrol ! /reets ar\nd _! 
prop]ty1 !    poor] sections ( ! city   
be+ left )\t any protection at all4     
,footnote #baf3      ,! ,fr5* /atesman1 

,colb]t1 *ief m9i/] ( ,l\is ,,xiv1 once 
said    t ! art ( tax+ ! p 0 l t (      
pluck+ a goose1    namely1 to get !     
l>ge/ am\nt ( fea!rs ) ! lea/ am\nt (   
squawk+4 ,!re is m tru? ?an fiction 9 t 
rem>k4    ,footnote #bag3      ,9 a     
g5]al way ! di/9ction betwe5 real &     
p]sonal    prop]ty is simple en\gh1 b ! 
exact l9e betwe5 ! two is n    z a      
practical matt] s easy to draw4 ,=      
example3 ,is gra9 gr[+    9 ! field real
 or p]sonal prop]ty8 ,:i* is x aft] x is
 cut by    ! reap]8 ,to :i* class d !   
trees 9 ! =e/ belong 7a7    be=e !y are 
cut d[n1 7b7 aft] !y h be5 fell$8 ,w\ld 
x    be correct to say t cattle graz+ 9 
! field are conv]t+ real    e/ate into  
p]sonal prop]ty8    ,footnote #bah3     
,real e/ate is 9 pla9 sight & _c be     
conceal$ f ! tax+    au?orities2 b      
/ocks1 bonds1 notes1 & s =?1 are kept 9 
a    safe :]e no "o sees !m b ! own]4   
,!re is no way ( kn[+    h[ mu* taxable 
weal? a man has hidd5 away unless he is 
hone/    en\gh to tell4 ,9 "s /ates !   

plan ( tax+ intangibles has be5    giv5 
up altoge!r on ! gr\nd t su* taxes are  
too easy to    evade4 ,z a sub/itute ^! 
/ates impose a tax on ! income f        
intangibles & require e p]son to make1  
once a ye>1 a sworn    /atem5t ( su*    
income4    ,footnote #bai3      ,!      
exemptions1 all[ances1 & rates *ange f  
"t to "t4 ,!    exi/+ rules c be f\nd 9 
! late/ edition ( ! ,_w    ,almanac4 ,!y
 _c be briefly /at$ )\t s]i\s dang] (   
inaccuracy4    ,footnote #bbj3      ,see
 ,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4 
,,iii1 p4 #dib4 ,! c\rt    held t a tax 
on l& 0 a direct tax2 t a tax on !      
income    f l& 0 9 effect a tax on l&1 &
 h5ce also a direct tax4    ,footnote   
#bba3      ,dur+ ! ye>s #aiah-aiba ^!   
excises 7 also laid on railway          
tickets1 telegrams1 & sales at soda     
f\nta9s4 ,! excess pr(its    tax1 :i*   
also br\ght 9 a l>ge rev5ue dur+ ! ye>s 
#aiah-aibb    0 levi$ ^u all bus9ess    
pr(its above a designat$ /&>d4          
,footnote #bbb3      ,e /ate und\bt$ly  

has p[] to lay su* a tax4 ,!re is "s    
d\bt :e!r ! national gov]nm5t also      
possesses x1 because a tax    on !      
products ( labor is 9 reality a means ( 
regulat+ !    conditions ( labor1 & !   
con/itution gives ! national    gov]nm5t
 no au?ority to regulate ! conditions ( 
labor2 su*    au?ority belongs to !     
/ates4 ,! "q :e!r ! national    gov]nm5t
 c levy a tax on ! products ( *ild labor
 is n[    p5d+ be=e ! ,supreme ,c\rt4   
,see also p4 #dae4    ,footnote #bbc3   
,p :o h l>ge =tunes may inve/ !m 9      
non-taxable    inve/m5ts1 su* z /ate &  
municipal bonds1 ?us evad+ ! heavy      
surtaxes on incomes4    ,footnote #bbd3 
,h5ry ,george advocat$ t on all l& a tax
 %\ld be levi$ equal    to ! full am\nt 
( its gr\nd r5t 7see p4 #dc7 & t all o!r
    taxes %\ld be aboli%$4 ,?is1 9      
effect1 w\ld d away ) !    private      
own]%ip ( l&1 mak+ ! gov]nm5t ! real    
own]4 ,mr4    ,george endeavor$ to prove
 t ne>ly all our economic tr\bles are   
due to ! private own]%ip ( l& & l&      

monopoly4 8,:at ,i    !re=e propose01 he
 said1 8z ! simple yet sov]eign rem$y   
:i*    w raise wages1 increase ! e>n+s (
 capital1 extirpate    paup]ism1 aboli% 
pov]ty1 give remun]ative employm5t to   
:oev]    wi%es x1 af=d free scope to    
human p[]s1 less5 crime1 elevate        
morals & ta/e & intellig5ce1 purify     
gov]nm5t & c>ry    civilization to yet  
nobl] heights1 is--to appropriate r5t by
    taxation40 ,progress & ,pov]ty1     
,book ,,viii1 ,*4 ii4 ,?is is a good    
example ( ! extravagant & ,utopian hopes
 held out by re=m]s :o    are c>ri$ away
 by a s+le idea4 ,if e>? c\ld be *ang$  
into    heav5 by m]ely tax+ "o ?+ in/ead
 ( ano!r1 !    trans=mation w\ld h be5  
made long ago4    ,footnote #bbe3       
,presid5t ,h>d+1 e>ly 9 #aibb1 sugge/$ !
 imposition ( a sales    tax z a        
practicable me?od ( obta9+ money ) :i*  
to pay a    bonus to vet]ans ( ! ,_w    
,w>4    ,footnote #bbf3      ,x 0 !     
cu/om to take su* individual measures z 
7 approv$ by    ! v>i\s committees & put

 !m all toge!r into :at 0 call$    an   
8omnibus bill01 provid+ = _m millions ( 
doll>s to be sp5t    ^u ! erection ( new
 po/-(fices1 ! dr$g+ ( h>bors1 & s      
on4 ,9 ^! bills e congressman expect$ to
 get some?+ = 8    di/rict1 :e!r !re 0  
ne$ or n4 ,su* grants ( money 7         
commonly kn[n z 8pork b>rel0            
appropriations4 ,"o way ( keep+         
congressm5 9 ,wa%+ton until ! v la/ day 
( ! session 0    to hold back ^!        
appropriations until j be=e adj\rnm5t4  
,e    s5ator & repres5tative w\ld !n /ay
 at 8 po/ le/ by "s    mi%ap 8 p>ticul> 
item might be dropp$ out4    ,footnote  
#bbg3      ,ab\t t5 billion doll>s ( ?is
 total 0 loan$ by ! ,unit$    ,/ates to 
,engl&1 ,france1 & o!r c\ntries to help 
!m c>ry on    ! w> 7see pp4 #fac-fad74  
,footnote #bbh3      ,!re are "s        
exceptions4 ,! income f ! fir/ issue (  
,lib]ty    ,bonds is entirely exempt f  
national taxation2 ! income f !    o!r  
issues is exempt up to a c]ta9 am\nt = a
 designat$ p]iod    ( ye>s4 ,all ! bonds

 issu$ by ! national gov]nm5t are exempt
    f /ate & local taxation4 ,bonds     
issu$ by /ates1 c\nties1    cities1 &   
o!r municipalities are exempt f national
 taxation2    !y may or may n be exempt 
f /ate & local taxes1 dep5d+    usually 
^u :]e ! own] resides4 ,= example1 if a 
man owns bonds    issu$ by ! city ( ,san
 ,francisco & resides 9 ,cali=nia1 !    
income f ^! bonds is exempt f /ate &    
local taxes2 b if    ! own] resides 9 "s
 o!r /ate :i* has an income tax1 !      
income is taxable4    ,footnote #bbi3   
,! debt ( ,new ,york /ate is ab\t "o    
hundr$ & ?irty-five    millions2 no o!r 
/ate has a debt half z l>ge4 ,a few     
/ates h    no debts at all4 ,! total net
 debt ( ! c\nties1 cities1 t[ns1        
villages1 & o!r communities is ne>ly    
five billions4 ,x w\ld be    cons]vative
 to say t ! total public indebt$ness ( !
 ,am]ican    p today is ab\t tw5ty-eight
 billions4 ,f ?is may be    subtract$1 (
 c\rse1 ! t5 billions ow$ to ! ,unit$   
,/ates by    o!r c\ntries4 ,b ev5 all[+ 

= ?is1 ! debt is ab\t #gjj    p] family4
    ,footnote #bcj3      ,x is a s\nd   
rule ( public f9ance t bonds ought n to 
run = a    long] p]iod ?an ! e/imat$    
life ( a public improvem5t4 ,=          
example1 if a new /reet pavem5t is      
e/imat$ to be good = tw5ty    ye>s1 !   
bonds %\ld all be repayable )9 t t]m4 ,v
 (t51    h[ev]1 ! taxpay]s ( ,am]ican   
cities h be5 pay+ (f pav+    bonds long 
aft] ! pavem5ts h completely worn out4  
,,*apt] ,,xxiv                          
,,public ,,utilities ,,& ,,public       
,,own]%ip        ,! purpose ( ?is *apt] 
is to discuss ! nature ( public         
utilities1 ! v>i\s me?ods ( regulat+ !m1
 & ! "q      :e!r !y ought to be own$ by
 ! gov]nm5t4      ,sid5ote3 ,ord9>y     
bus9ess is regulat$ by competition4     
,! ,problem4--,9 ! case ( mo/ ord9>y    
bus9ess ent]prises !  factor :i* secures
 reasonable prices & good s]vice to !   
cu/om]  is competition4 ,! cu/om] :o    
f9ds t prices are high or t  s]vice is  
poor at "o groc]y /ore /ops trad+ !re & 

goes  some:]e else4 ,! m]*ant :o f9ds "o
 bank unsatisfactory moves 8  acc\nt to 
ano!r bank4 ,! :olesale deal]1 if "o    
factory does n  s5d him goods promptly1 
or *>ges him too mu*1 gives 8 future    
ord]s to "s o!r factory4 ,/ores1 banks1 
& factories are 9  competition ) o!r    
e/abli%m5ts ( _! own k9d2 9 ord] to get 
bus9ess !y are con/antly try+ to out/rip
 _! competitors by  l[]+ prices &       
improv+ s]vice4 ,9 ?is s5se 8competition
 is !  life ( trade04 ,! rivalry ( ^? :o
 h goods or s]vices to sell  is 9 itself
 en\gh to af=d ! public protection4     
,natural ,monopolies4--,b !re are c]ta9 
l9es ( bus9ess 9 :i*  no real           
competition exi/s because !y are        
monopolies4 ,monopolies1 z  has already 
be5 po9t$ out1 are ( ?ree diff]5t types1
 natural1  legal1 or artificial 7see p4 
#ed72 & all public s]vice ent]prises    
7railroads1 telegraphs1 telephones1     
light+ plants1 etc47 fall )9  ! fir/ (  
^! classes--!y are natural monopolies4  
,we call !m  public s]vices or public   

utilities2 b ?is is n m]ely because !y  
are ( great importance to ! public4     
,bread & meat are also ( va/  public    
importance b we d n ref] to ! bak]y & ! 
meat m>ket  z public s]vices4 ,sid5ote3 
,b public utilities are natural         
monopolies4 ,telephones1 telegraphs1    
/reet railways are call$ public  s]vices
 or public utilities because !y are     
monopolies by nature4 ,!  citiz5 has no 
alt]native by reason ( competition4 ,if 
he wants to g  f "o place to ano!r1 he  
_c usually f9d two l9es ( railroad1  or 
if s1 _! rates are ! same4 ,if ! rates =
 electric light+  are exorbitant1 he _c 
tell ! company t he w buy electric      
light f someone else1 = he is deal+ ) ! 
only conc]n f  :i* electric light c be  
obta9$ 9 t p>ticul> locality4 ,!  man :o
 lives 9 ,omaha c s5d to ,*icago & buy 8
 %oes !re if he  f9ds t prices & quality
 are n satisfactory 9 8 own city2 b  he 
_c get 8 telephone s]vice or 8 electric 
light 9 t way4  ,he is absolutely       
dep5d5t on local s]vice &1 z a rule1 on 

"o local  s]vice alone4    ,sid5ote3 ,_!
 nature excludes competition4    ,public
 ,utilities d n ,compete4--,:y d we say 
t ^! public  utilities are monopolies by
 nature8 ,x is because _! bus9ess1 f  ! 
way 9 :i* x is c>ri$ on1 virtually      
excludes competition4 ,x  w\ld be       
physically possible to h two rival /reet
 railway companies  op]at+ on ! same    
/reet1 two gas companies1 & two electric
  light+ companies2 b imag9e ! conge/ion
 & inconv5i5ce ?is  w\ld cause6         
,moreov]1 x w\ld practically d\ble !    
am\nt ( fix$  capital ne$$ to provide ! 
s]vice & ?is w\ld mean high] prices  to 
! public 9 ! end4#bca ,9 ye>s gone by _m
 cities tri$ !  plan ( sett+ two public 
s]vice companies 9 competition ) "o     
ano!r1 & 9 a few cities compet+         
telephone companies /ill exi/2  b !     
competition is r>ely 9 e>ne/ & sc>cely  
ev] la/s v  long4 ,! rival public s]vice
 companies1 f9d+ t competition is  n    
pr(itable1 pres5tly =m a comb9ation &   
raise _! rates4 ,!  controll+ fact is t 

light1 p[]1 transportation1 &           
communication  7:e!r by telegraph1      
telephone1 or po/7 c be m *eaply s]v$ by
  a monopoly ?an by compet+ companies4  
,!re c be1 9 fact1 no  effective        
competition betwe5 public utilities     
op]at+ 9 ! same  area4    ,be+          
,monopolies ,!y ,mu/ be ,regulat$4--,n[ 
if public utilities are  monopolies by  
nature1 & c nev] be any?+ else1 x is    
ess5tial  t ! gov]nm5t %all ex]cise1 9  
"o way or ano!r1 suffici5t  control ov] 
!m to re/ra9 !m f abus+ _! p[]4         
,sid5ote3  ,public utilities use public 
prop]ty4 ,?is is all ! m easy to d      
because public utilities1 unlike ord9>y 
indu/rial or m]cantile  conc]ns1 mu/    
come to ! /ate or city gov]nm5t = c]ta9 
privileges :i* !y f9d necess>y 9 ord] to
 c>ry on _!  bus9ess4 ,e public utility 
f9ds x ess5tial to use prop]ty :i*      
belongs to ! :ole p4 ,a railroad mu/ run
 its tracks across !  highway2 a gas    
company mu/ lay its pipes b5ea? !       
pavem5ts2 an  electric light+ company   

mu/ put "s ( its poles 9 ! /reets2 a    
/reet railway company1 z its "n implies1
 mu/ make l>ge use ( !  public          
?or\ghf>es4 ,moreov]1 !y all desire ! "r
 to take  :atev] private prop]ty !y may 
ne$ = _! t]m9als1 p[]  h\ses1 tanks1 & s
 on4 ,?is is a "r :i* only ! gov]nm5t c 
give4#bcb ,s ! public s]vice companies1 
f ! fact t !y mu/  ask privileges f !   
gov]nm5t1 r5d] !mselves am5able to      
gov]nm5tal control4 ,x is n s ) ord9>y  
indu/rial monopolies  su* z ! mak+ (    
/eel or sug> or tobacco4 ,sid5ote3 ,!y  
also  use ! "r ( em95t doma94 ,!y d n1 z
 a rule1 ask = legal  privileges ( any  
k9d2 !y d n ne$ p]man5t rights 9 !      
public  highways or dem& t !y be all[$  
to ex]cise ! "r to em95t  doma92 h5ce !y
 are n s easily br\ght "u public        
regulation4    ,h[ ! ,regulation is     
,effect$4--,9 ord] to use ! /reets or   
any  o!r public prop]ty1 an individual  
or corporation mu/ fir/ obta9  (ficial  
p]mission4 ,! m]*ant :o puts a sign out 
f 8 build+  ov] ! highway1 ! b>b] :o    

sets 8 famili> r$-&-:ite pole 9  !      
sidewalk1 ! contractor :o blocks !      
public passage way :5 he  is putt+ up a 
build+--all mu/ fir/ get ! city's       
p]mission4  ,sid5ote3 ,p]mits &         
fran*ises4 ,?is is giv5 by ! city       
(ficials  9 ! =m ( a lic5se or p]mit4 ,b
 ! public s]vice company mu/  h a g5]al 
p]mit cov]+ rights 9 a great _m /reets &
  hold+ good = a numb] ( ye>s4 ,sid5ote3
 ,def9ition ( a  fran*ise4 ,?is g5]al   
p]mission1 :i* does n diff] f an        
individual p]mit except 9 its broad]    
scope & long] duration1 is  call$ a     
fran*ise4 ,a fran*ise is m]ely a grant (
 ! "r to use  public prop]ty 7! /reets1 
p>ticul>ly7 ei!r 9 p]petuity or =  a t]m
 ( ye>s & subject to c]ta9 conditions4  
,be=e any public  s]vice company c beg9 
op]ations x mu/ fir/ secure a fran*ise  
f ! /ate1 city1 t[n1 or t[n%ip z ! case 
may be4 ,! company  secures ! rights & !
 gov]nm5t imposes ! conditions4         
,sid5ote3 ,! old-type fran*ise4         
,fran*ises1 ,pa/ & ,pres5t4--,x 0 =m]ly 

! cu/om ( /ates &  cities to grant      
fran*ises = long t]ms ( ye>s )\t impos+ 
/rict conditions = ! protection ( ! p4  
,! reason = ?is  01 9 "p1 ! /rong desire
 ( ! community to get ! s]vice at  once4
 ,:5 electric /reet railways fir/ came  
into use1 replac+ !  old horse-c>s1 !y 7
 reg>d$ z a gods5d to ! suburban        
di/ricts4 ,!re 0 a great popul> clamor  
to h ! horse-c> l9es  electrifi$ z      
quickly z possible4 ,s ! companies t 7  
will+  to provide ?is improv$ s]vice    
obta9$1 9 _m cases1 v lib]al  fran*ises 
runn+ = long t]ms & )\t /rict           
conditions4 ,^!  7 days1 moreov]1 :5    
city c\ncilm5 & /ate legislators (t5    
prov$ susceptible to corrupt influ5ces4 
,valuable privileges 9 _m  cities 7     
b>t]$ away = next to no?+ by di%one/ or 
incompet5t (ficials4 ,h[ _m million     
doll>s 9 fran*ises h be5  practically   
giv5 away by ,am]ican /ates & cities    
dur+ ! pa/  g5]ation no "o has ev] be5  
able to calculate4 ,c]ta9 x is1 at any  
rate1 t hundr$s ( private =tunes 7 made 

f ^! "o-sid$  b>ga9s4    ,sid5ote3 ,!   
new] me?ods4    ,b public op9ion1 9 due 
c\rse1 became ar\s$ to ! inju/ice (  ?is
 free-&-easy me?od1 & laws 7 pass$      
=bidd+ ! grant (  fran*ise privileges = 
long] ?an a designat$ t]m ( ye>s1 or    
)\t fir/ giv+ ! oppon5ts ( ! grant an   
opportunity to be  he>d4#bcc ,9 "s cases
 ! laws =bade ! grant+ ( any fran*ise   
)\t ! cons5t ( ! p at ! polls4          
,provisions 7 also  made to ensure t 9  
return = _! privileges ! companies %\ld 
pay a %>e ( _! annual pr(its into ! city
 treasury4#bcd  ,f9ally1 x became !     
practice to /ipulate 9 ! fran*ise t !   
rates *>g$ by ! company1 ! quality ( !  
s]vice1 & v>i\s  o!r features affect+ ! 
int]e/s ( ! citiz5s1 %\ld be  subject to
 public regulation4 ,fran*ises are /ill 
grant$ by  legislatures & municipal     
c\ncils b ) mu* great] c>e ?an  =m]ly4  
,sid5ote3 ,regulation by ! t]ms ( a     
fran*ise is n en\gh4    ,adm9i/rative   
,regulation4--,9 spite ( ^! v>i\s       
re/rictions1  h[ev]1 x soon became      

app>5t t a suffici5tly close regulation 
(  public utilities c\ld n be ma9ta9$ by
 m]ely ins]t+ v>i\s  conditions 9 _!    
fran*ises4 ,fran*ises are grant$ = t51  
tw5ty1  or ev5 fifty ye>s1 & conditions 
greatly *ange )9 ?is p]iod4 ,a          
provision 9 ! fran*ise relat+ to !      
quality ( gas1 or ! rate  ( f>e on /reet
 railways1 or ! c&le-p[] ( electric     
lamps may be  fram$ c>efully to cov] !  
ne$s ( today1 b no "o c =esee  :at w be 
ne$$ five or t5 ye>s h5ce4 ,progress is 
cont9ually  be+ made 9 ! me*anism (     
public utilities z 9 all o!r bran*es  ( 
indu/ry4 ,if regulation is to be        
effective1 x mu/ keep mov+  =w>d z new  
devices & me?ods come into use4 ,a      
fran*ise has !  defect ( be+ a clos$    
b>ga94 ,x /&s /ill :ile ! ?+s :i*  x    
tries to regulate keep m>*+ on4 ,no     
writt5 docum5t1 fur!rmore1  is          
self-en=c+1 & unless "s ma*9]y is       
provid$ to make !  companies live up to 
_! agreem5ts !re are always loopholes   
?r\gh  :i* !y c evade ! re/rictions4    

,sid5ote3 ,x mu/ be supplem5t$4    ,9   
ord] to make ! regulation ( public      
utilities flexible &  effective1 !re=e1 
x has become ! practice to supplem5t !  
t]ms  ( fran*ises by a sy/em (          
adm9i/rative regulation4 ,besides       
ins]t+ a long li/ ( conditions 9 !      
fran*ise ! gov]nm5t n[  /ipulates1 z a  
rule1 t ! rates & ! quality ( s]vice    
%all  be fix$ f "t to "t1 9 accordance )
 exi/+ conditions1 by a  body ( (ficials
 commonly kn[n z a public s]vice        
commission :i* is  suppos$ to deal      
fairly ) all p>ties4    ,sid5ote3 ,/ate 
& municipal commissions4    ,public     
,s]vice ,commissions4--,public s]vice   
commissions are 9 "s  cases ma9ta9$ by !
 cities2 b m (t5 !y are /ate-appo9t$    
bodies4 ,!re are two reasons :i* make x 
desirable t !  regulation ( public      
utilities %\ld be 9 ! h&s ( ! /ate  r   
?an "u ! control ( ! cities4 ,9 ! fir/  
place !  jurisdiction ( ! city (ficials 
does n ext5d beyond ! city  limits1     
:]eas public s]vice companies (t5 d a   

consid]able "p (  _! bus9ess outside4 ,x
 is n uncommon1 = example1 to f9d !     
same /reet railway1 electric light+1 &  
telephone company op]at+  9 sev]al      
neighbor+ communities4#bce ,municipal   
regulation1 9 su*  cases1 w\ld subject !
 company to diff]5t rules 9 ea*         
community4    ,!re is a second reason1  
namely1 t public regulation is always   
exp5sive4 ,a public s]vice commission   
mu/ h skill$ inve/igators  to assi/ x 9 
decid+ ! te*nical que/ions :i* arise1 & 
^!  exp]ts are co/ly to employ4 ,l>ge   
cities c af=d x1 b 9 !  case ( small    
communities x is bett] to h a s+le /ate 
commission  p]=m ! functions (          
regulation = !m all4 ,9 ?is way1        
moreov]1  ! regulations c be made uni=m4
 ,public s]vice commissions consi/  (   
?ree or five memb]s2 9 cities !y are    
appo9t$ z a rule by !  mayor2 9 /ates !y
 are usually appo9t$ by ! gov]nor2 b 9  
"s  /ates !y are elect$ by popul> vote4 
,appo9tm5t is n[ reg>d$ z  ! m          
satisfactory me?od4    ,sid5ote3 ,"w (  

^! commissions4    ,! "w ( a public     
s]vice commission cov]s a wide range4   
,its *ief  function is to see t !       
companies live up to ! t]ms ( _!        
fran*ises & obey ! laws relat+ to public
 utilities4 ,x he>s  compla9ts f city   
(ficials & citiz5s1 inve/igates ^!      
compla9ts1 obta9s ! company's side ( !  
case1 & makes su*  decision z ! matt]   
seems to require4 ,x prev5ts            
discrim9ations 9  favor ( "o community  
aga9/ ano!r1 & insi/s t equally good    
s]vice be giv5 to all2 x requires       
f9ancial reports f ! v>i\s  companies & 
(t5 has p[] to fix ! maximum rates :i*  
!y may  *>ge4 ,9 "s /ates x is !        
practice to grant 8indet]m9ate0         
fran*ises1 or fran*ises :i* run = no    
/at$ t]m ( ye>s1 c\pl$  ) ! provision t 
! fran*ise may be cancel$ at any "t by  
ord] ( ! public s]vice commission if !  
company does n comply  ) ! conditions4  
,x c easily be se51 !re=e1 t public     
s]vice commissions h a degree ( au?ority
 :i* c readily be  abus$ unless !       

commission]s are fair-m9d$ & absolutely 
hone/  m54 ,_! position is l t ( judges1
 9 a s5se1 = _!  function is to hold    
ev5ly ! scales ( ju/ice betwe5 !        
companies  on ! "o h& & ! public on !   
o!r4 ,fairness is ! ess5ce (  successful
 regulation4    ,sid5ote3 ,has          
regulation be5 satisfactory8    ,public 
,own]%ip4--,by ! me?ods :i* h be5       
describ$ 9 !  =ego+ pages ! gov]nm5t has
 be5 able to protect1 fairly well1 on  !
 :ole1 ! int]e/s ( ! public4 ,railroads1
 telegraph companies1  electric light+  
plants1 & o!r simil> corporations are no
 long]  able to d z !y please4 ,on !    
contr>y _! own]s are incl9$ to  feel t  
public regulation has gone too f> & has 
become oppressive4  ,yet regulation has 
n always be5 satisfactory to ! public4  
,!  compla9t is (t5 made t memb]s (     
public s]vice commissions are  *os5 =   
political reasons & t _! "w1 9 su*      
cases1 is  nei!r effective nor imp>tial4
 ,! success ( regulation has v>i$ 9     
diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 "s /ates x  

has be5 satisfactory  to bo? sides2 9   
o!rs x has satisfi$ nei!r4    ,sid5ote3 
,w\ld public own]%ip be bett]8          
,because regulation has n prov$         
successful 9 all cases ! proposal  is   
sometimes made t ! utilities %\ld be    
tak5 ov] & op]at$  by ! gov]nm5t itself4
 ,^? :o support ?is policy ( public     
own]%ip believe t ! national gov]nm5t   
%\ld take ov] !  railroads1 telegraphs1 
& telephone l9es1 :ile ! /ates & !      
cities %\ld become own]s ( all ! /reet  
railways1 gas companies1  & electric    
light+ conc]ns4 ,^! utilities %\ld !n be
 publicly  manag$1 !y argue1 j z ! po/al
 s]vice is n[ conduct$ by !  national   
gov]nm5t1 or z wat] supplies are n[     
provid$ by !  cities4#bcf    ,sid5ote3  
,public own]%ip ov]seas4    ,european   
,exp]i5ce 9 ,public ,own]%ip4--,x is    
po9t$ out1 9 ?is  connection1 t ! policy
 ( public own]%ip has be5 widely foll[$ 
9 v>i\s ,european c\ntries1 p>ticul>ly 9
 ,great ,brita91 ,france1  & ,g]many4 ,9
 ,g]many ! railroads h be5 = _m ye>s    

own$ &  op]at$ by ! gov]nm5t4 ,9 all    
?ree c\ntries ! telegraphs are          
gov]nm5t-own$1 & are op]at$ 9 connection
 ) ! po/-(fices4  ,! telephone s]vice is
 also 9 public h&s4 ,gas & electric     
light+  plants are to "s ext5t own$ by  
companies 9 v>i\s ,european cities1  b !
 majority ( !m h be5 tak5 ov] by !      
municipal  au?orities4 ,ev5 ! /reet     
railways h be5 pass+ "u municipal       
own]%ip4 ,_m ,european cities1 moreov]1 
n only op]ate ^!  v>i\s public s]vices b
 conduct o!r municipal ent]prises1 su* z
  abattoirs1 bak]ies1 !atres1 sav+s     
banks1 & ev5 pawn%ops z  well4#bcg      
,sid5ote3 ,am]ican exp]i5ce has be5 less
 ext5sive4    ,public ,own]%ip 9        
,am]ica4--,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! policy ( 
public  own]%ip has n be5 ne>ly s       
popul>4 ,! railroads1 telegraphs1 &     
telephones are own$ & op]at$ by private 
companies4 ,!y 7  manag$ by ! national  
gov]nm5t = a "t dur+ ! w>1 b :5  !      
em]g5cy end$ !y 7 return$ to _! own]s4  
,among ! l>g]  cities ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 

only five or six own & op]ate _! gas    
plants2 ab\t tw5ty h municipal own]%ip (
 electric light+  plants4#bch ,/reet    
railway l9es are own$ by ! city 9 only  
?ree or  f\r in/ances2 b 9 sev]al o!r   
communities !y are be+ op]at$  by !     
public au?orities "u leases f !         
own]s4#bci ,:5 "o  be>s 9 m9d t ! total 
numb] ( public utilities 9 ! ,unit$     
,/ates runs up into ! ?\s&s x w be se5 t
 ! policy (  public own]%ip has _h a    
relatively small & sl[ developm5t on ?is
  side ( ! ,atlantic4    ,argum5ts =    
,public ,own]%ip4--,! *ief argum5ts 9   
favor ( public  own]%ip 9 ! ,unit$      
,/ates may be briefly set =? z foll[s3  
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,regulation has fail$4    
,fir/1 all public utilities1 be+        
natural monopolies1 require a /rict]    
measure ( regulation ?an c  ev] be      
provid$ by any =m ( public sup]vision4  
,s long z ^!  utilities rema9 9 private 
h&s !re w be a cont9ual ef=t to  evade  
public regulation & ?is ef=t w usually  
be successful  because ri* & p[]ful     

companies are exce$+ly difficult to     
control  "u a democratic =m ( gov]nm5t4 
8,we h tri$ regulation01 !  advocates ( 
public own]%ip say1 8& x has n be5      
satisfactory4  ,!re=e1 let u try ! only 
o!r alt]native1 :i* is to buy out  !    
companies altoge!r40 ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,l[] 
rates & bett]  s]vice4 ,second1 "u      
public own]%ip ! p w\ld obta9 l[]  rates
 & bett] s]vice4 ,?is w\ld be possible  
because ! gov]nm5t  c\ld procure capital
 m *eaply ?an private companies & ?us   
make  a sub/antial sav+ 9 int]e/4#bdj ,x
 w\ld n be seek+ =  pr(its1 b w\ld /rive
 to give s]vice at actual co/4 ,if !    
gov]nm5t own$ all ! utilities1 moreov]1 
x c\ld buy supplies &  mat]ials 9 l>ge  
quantities & h5ce at l[] prices4 ,ea*   
/reet  railway company n[ buys rails1   
c>s1 cables1 coal1 & s on =  itself4 ,if
 a /ate own$ all ! /reet railways )9 its
 t]ritory1  x w\ld pur*ase ^! ?+s on a  
mu* l>g] scale4 ,sid5ote3 #c4  ,m j to  
labor4 ,?ird1 public own]%ip means a    
fair] & bett]  treatm5t ( ! employees4  

,wages1 z a rule1 are high] 9 public ?an
  9 private employm5t 7assum+ ! same    
degree ( tra9+ & skill72  ! h\rs ( labor
 are n s long 7s9ce ! eight-h\r day is  
n[  g5]ally recogniz$ 9 public          
employm5t72 & !re is bett]  protection  
aga9/ arbitr>y dismissal4 ,= ^! reasons 
labor  organizations usually favor      
public own]%ip4 ,sid5ote3 #d4 ,! effect 
on politics4 ,f\r?1 ! public s]vice     
companies h _h a  detrim5tal influ5ce ^u
 ,am]ican politics4 ,!y are seek]s (    
public  privileges1 & 9 _! zeal to obta9
 favors are "u /rong  temptation to "w 9
 a quiet way = ! election ( public      
(ficials  :o w be fri5dly to !m4 ,!y =m 
a "p ( :at ,mr4 ,elihu ,root  once spoke
 ( z ! 8invisible gov]nm5t04 ,?r\gh _!  
paid ag5ts  & lobbyi/s !y try to        
influ5ce ! action ( legislatures & city 
c\ncils 9 ways :i* are to _! own        
f9ancial advantage b  detrim5tal to !   
public int]e/4 ,! abolition ( all       
fran*ises &  ! direct public own]%ip (  
all utilities w\ld remove1 x is  ass]t$1

 a corrupt+ influ5ce f ,am]ican         
politics4 ,^! are !  *ief argum5ts us$  
by ! advocates ( public own]%ip4    ,!  
,argum5ts ,aga9/ ,public ,own]%ip4--,b  
!re is mu* to be said  on ! o!r side4   
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,m co/ly to ! public4     
,fir/1 x  is claim$ t public own]%ip1 by
 reason ( high] wages & less  effici5t  
managem5t1 w\ld prove to be f> m        
exp5sive ?an private  ent]prise1 & t 9 !
 long run ! increas$ co/ w\ld h to be   
paid by ! p4 ,?is high] co/ might take !
 =m ( high] rates  = ! s]vice or x might
 come out ( ! g5]al taxes2 b x w\ld     
fall on ! public 9 ei!r case4 ,:5 !     
national gov]nm5t op]at$  ! railroads   
dur+ ! w> x kept ! freight & pass5g]    
rates  l[2 ! result 0 a deficit am\nt+  
to ab\t a billion doll>s1  :i* _h to be 
made good out ( ! public treasury4 ,!   
taxpay]s  c>ri$ a burd5 :i* %\ld h be5  
borne by ! %ipp]s &  pass5g]s4 ,sid5ote3
 #b4 ,means ret5tion ( obsolete me?ods4 
,second1  public own]%ip w\ld mean poor 
s]vice2 ! utilities w\ld n keep  up )   

mod]n me?ods2 ! public w\ld be put to   
great inconv5i5ce  by reason (          
incompet5t managem5t4 ,private companies
 are al]t1 on !  look-out = new         
economies1 & always ready to adopt      
improv$ me?ods4  ,! inc5tive to all ?is 
is _! desire to make great] pr(its4 ,!y 
d n hesitate to sp5d money ^u           
improvem5ts if by s do+ !y c  obta9 m   
bus9ess & increase _! e>n+s4#bda ,remove
 ?is  inc5tive1 z is done :5 ! gov]nm5t 
op]ates a public utility1 &  ev]ybody   
takes 8 job easily4 ,sid5ote3 #c4 ,w\ld 
n improve  political conditions4 ,?ird1 
municipal own]%ip w\ld m]ely  sub/itute 
! influ5ce ( organiz$ labor = t (       
organiz$  capital 9 politics4 ,! nation1
 /ates1 & cities w\ld h an  enorm\s     
numb] ( (ficials & employees on _!      
respective pay  rolls4 ,! employees w\ld
 also be vot]s4 ,!y w\ld /& solidly =   
:i*ev] political p>ty (f]$ !m bett]     
wages1 few] h\rs (  labor1 & o!r        
advantages4 ,! int]e/s ( ! public w\ld h
  scant consid]ation 9 ! face ( organiz$

 political pressure f  ?is huge array ( 
gov]nm5t work]s4 ,ev5 today ! city      
employees are  an important factor 9    
municipal politics4 ,:at w\ld !y be if  
_!  numb]s 7 d\bl$ or trebl$8 ,!        
railroad employees ( ! c\ntry  numb] _m 
hundr$ ?\s&4 ,c\nt 9 _! wives 7:o are   
also  vot]s71 _! relatives & fri5ds1 !  
vot]s :om !y c  p]sonally influ5ce1 & y 
w see t !y w\ld =m no  negligible factor
 9 national politics4 ,sid5ote3 #d4     
,european  exp]i5ce n applicable4 ,f\r?1
 al?\gh public own]%ip has be5          
mod]ately successful 9 ,european        
c\ntries :]e ! gov]nm5ts are  highly    
c5traliz$ x does n foll[ t x w\ld h !   
same  success 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,9 ! ,unit$ 
,/ates1 :]e gov]nm5t is  conduct$ on a  
democratic basis1 ) %ort t]ms ( (fice & 
/rong  p>tisan =ces at "w1 ) ! spoils   
sy/em /ill fl\ri%+ 9  _m /ates & cities1
 public own]%ip w\ld result 9 gross     
mismanagem5t & extravagance4 ,if !      
gov]nm5t is to engage 9  bus9ess x %\ld 
fir/ put itself on a bus9ess basis4     

,be=e x  und]takes to op]ate ! railroads
 or ! telephone s]vice x %\ld  introduce
 effici5cy into its own gov]nm5tal      
functions4    ,sid5ote3 ,weight ( !     
=ego+ argum5ts4    ,summ>y4--,9 balanc+ 
^! v>i\s argum5ts1 "o aga9/ ! o!r1  & 9 
comp>+ ! relative m]its ( public        
regulation ) ^? (  public own]%ip1 mu*  
dep5ds ^u local conditions4 ,x _c be    
said  t ei!r policy is ! bett] "o at all
 times1 9 all communities1  = all       
utilities1 & "u all circum/ances4 ,:]e  
public regulation  has be5 satisfactory 
!re is a good deal to be said = ! policy
 (  lett+ well en\gh alone4 ,:]e !      
policy ( regulation has n be5           
successful ! argum5ts = try+ ! exp]im5t 
( public own]%ip  become /rong]4 ,x     
ought to be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t if local   
conditions are su* z to make regulation 
a failure !y are n likely  to make      
public own]%ip a success4 ,a /ate or    
community :i* _c  hold capital "u       
effective control is n likely to be mu* 
m  successful 9 its deal+s ) a l>ge body

 ( public employees4 ,no  great weight  
%\ld be atta*$ to ! fact t public       
own]%ip has  succe$$ 9 "o city or fail$ 
9 ano!r4 ,! success or failure (  public
 own]%ip1 z a policy1 _c be fairly judg$
 f ?is or t  adv5ture 9 x1 any m ?an we 
c judge ! outcome ( a campaign  f ! w9n+
 or los+ ( a s+le skirmi%4 ,banks       
sometimes fail1  yet our bank+ sy/em is 
s\nd4 ,speculators occasionally succe$1 
&  make =tunes1 b t does n prove        
speculation to be a pr(itable  =m (     
bus9ess4    ,s f> z c be judg$ f !      
figures ( pr(it & loss1 public  own]%ip 
is less economical ?an private          
managem5t4 ,! community  :i* owns &     
op]ates a /reet railway or a light+     
plant or any  o!r public utility w n    
make a pr(it1 9 mo/ cases1 unless x     
*>ges high] rates ?an w\ld be *>g$ by a 
private company4 ,!  books may %[ a     
pr(it1 b ?is is because n all exp5ses   
:i*  ought to be *>g$ to ! plant are put
 d[n2 !y are saddl$ ^u !  taxpay] 9 "s  
r\ndab\t way4 ,public own]%ip _c be     

ju/ifi$ z  a matt] ( p5nies & dimes4    
,sid5ote3 ,! "q is n "o (  pr(it & loss 
alone4 ,b pr(it & loss are n ! only ?+s 
to  be consid]$4 ,! "q z to :i* plan is 
bett] = ! public is  mu* m ?an a "q (   
surplus or deficit4 ,! fair treatm5t (  
labor1 ! reliability ( ! s]vice1 !      
removal ( s9i/] political  influ5ces--^!
 %\ld be reckon$ ) z well4 ,& t is :]e  
p ) diff]5t po9ts ( view fail to agree4 
,! advisability (  public own]%ip is an 
int5sely practical issue :i* _c be solv$
  by appeal+ to any set rules or        
pr9ciples4 ,x is entirely logical =  "o 
to favor public own]%ip ( ! wat] supply 
:ile oppos+ its  ext5sion to ! /reet    
railway4 ,"o is closely relat$ to !     
public  heal?2 ! o!r is n4 ,9 a         
well-gov]n$ community1 :]e !  s]vice    
r5d]$ by a private company has prov$ to 
be unsatisfactory1  ! policy ( public   
own]%ip may be entirely ju/ifi$4 ,?is   
does n  mean1 h[ev]1 t ! p ( boss-ridd5 
cities1 ) ! spoils  sy/em 9 full        
op]ation1 %\ld take ov] public s]vices  

:i* are  do+ well en\gh "u private      
managem5t4 ,conditions1 n !ories1  %\ld 
det]m9e :i* is ! wise policy4    ,guild 
,op]ation4--,9 rec5t ye>s ano!r         
alt]native to private  own]%ip has be5  
put =?4 ,x is kn[n z guild own]%ip4     
,kn[+  t _m p are dis9cl9$ t[>d public  
own]%ip because !y  fe> t x w\ld m]ely  
mean ! mismanagem5t ( ! public s]vices  
by politicians1 "s labor lead]s h       
propos$ t ! utilities  %\ld be own$ &   
op]at$ by ! organiz$ employees4 ,9 brief
 !y  sugge/ t ! gov]nm5t %\ld supply !  
capital 7receiv+  int]e/ on x1 ( c\rse17
 & t ! employees %\ld op]ate !          
utilities ?r\gh (ficials *os5 by !m1 or 
*os5 by !mselves &  ! gov]nm5t jo9tly4  
,! ,plumb plan1 put =w>d 9 #aiai z a    
solution ( ! railroad problem1 0 a      
proposal ( ?is nature4 ,"s  advocates ( 
guild op]ation believe 9 apply+ ?is     
policy n only to  public utilities b to 
all indu/ries4                          
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1  
,pr9ciples ( ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4

 #cig-dah2    ,,clyde ,l4 ,,k+1 ,!      
,regulation ( ,municipal ,utilities1 pp4
 #c-ee2    ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,municipal  
,functions1 pp4 #bdf-bha 7,public       
,utilities72 pp4  #bhb-bie 7,municipal  
,own]%ip72    ,massa*usetts             
,con/itutional ,conv5tion1 #aiag-aiah1  
,bullet9s1 ,no4 #bb  7,municipal        
,own]%ip 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates72    ,e4 ,m4 
,,phelps 7editor71 ,gov]nm5t ,own]%ip ( 
,railroads 7,debat]s'  ,h&book ,s]ies74 
,conta9s mat]ial on bo? sides ( ! "q4   
,see  also ,k4 ,b4 ,,judson 7editor71   
,gov]nm5t ,own]%ip ( ,telegraphs &      
,telephones1 & ,j4 ,e4 ,,johnson1       
,municipal ,own]%ip1 9 ! same  s]ies2   
,f4 ,c4 ,,h[e1 ,! ,mod]n ,city & its    
,problems1 pp4 #adi-afd4                
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,gov]nm5t own]%ip
 ( telegraphs & telephones4 ,hi/ory ( ! 
wire s]vices4 ,h[ ! telegraph &         
telephone companies are organiz$4       
,pres5t me?ods ( regulation by !        
national1 /ate1 & local  au?orities4    
,public own]%ip ( telegraphs &          

telephones 9 ,europe4  ,! results (     
,european exp]i5ce4 ,am]ican exp]i5ce   
dur+ ! w>4  ,summ>y & conclusions4      
,ref]5ces3 ,k4 ,b4 ,,judson 7editor71   
,gov]nm5t ,own]%ip ( ,telegraphs &      
,telephones 7,debat]s' ,h&book  ,s]ies72
 ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,gov]nm5t ,own]%ip 
( ,telephones 9 ,europe1  pp4 #dda-dfc2 
,h4 ,r4 ,,mey]1 ,public ,own]%ip & !    
,telephone ( ,great  ,brita91 pp4       
#bci-bfh2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,will\ghby1 ,gov]nm5t
 ,organization 9 ,w>  ,"t1 pp4 #aia-aih4
    #b4 ,/ate regulation ( public       
utilities4 ,ref]5ces3 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1  
,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #bdf-bha2 ,c4
 ,l4 ,,k+1 ,regulation ( ,municipal     
,utilities1 pp4 #bec-bfc2 ,g4 ,p4       
,,jones1 ,/ate ,v]sus ,local            
,regulation1  9 ,annals ( ! ,am]ican    
,academy ( ,political & ,social ,sci5ce1
 ,,liii  7,may1 #aiad71 pp4 #id-ajg2    
,proce$+s ( ! ,conf]5ce ( ,am]ican      
,mayors1 #aiae1 pp4 #abc-afb2 ,h4 ,m4   
,,pollock & ,h4 ,s4 ,,morgan1 ,mod]n    
,cities1 pp4 #bbe-bdi4    #c4 ,municipal

 own]%ip 9 ,europe4 ,ref]5ces3 ,g4 ,b4  
,,%aw1 ,!  ,common ,s5se ( ,municipal   
,trad+1 pp4 #ag-db2 ,,leon>d ,,d>w91    
,municipal ,own]%ip1 pp4 #cc-ff2        
,,d\glas ,,knoop1 ,pr9ciples & ,me?ods  
( ,municipal ,trad+1 pp4 #ie-ajf2 ,f4   
,c4 ,,h[e1 ,european ,cities at  ,"w1   
pp4 #cg-fg2 ,,yves ,,guyot1 ,:]e & ,:y  
,public ,own]%ip ,has  ,fail$1 pp4      
#ee-ga2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,dawson1 ,municipal    
,life & ,gov]nm5t 9  ,g]many1 pp4       
#bjh-bei2 ,c4 ,d4 ,,?ompson1 ,municipal 
,own]%ip1 pp4 #ae-be2  ,national ,civic 
,f$]ation ,report 7#aijg71 ,"p ,i1 ,vol4
 ,i1 pp4 #bfa-cjb4                      
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,fran*ises4        
,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4  
,,ii1 pp4  #dd-dh4    #b4 ,a model /reet
 railway fran*ise4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,k+1        
,regulation (  ,municipal ,utilities1   
pp4 #afe-aha4    #c4 ,gas & electric    
light+ fran*ises4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1      
,pr9ciples &  ,me?ods ( ,municipal      
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #bdg-beg4    #d4     
,g]many's exp]i5ce 9 public own]%ip4 ,w4

 ,h4 ,,dawson1 ,municipal  ,life &      
,gov]nm5t 9 ,g]many1 pp4 #bjh-bei4      
#e4 ,great ,brita9's exp]i5ce 9 public  
own]%ip4 ,,d\glas ,,knoop1  ,pr9ciples &
 ,me?ods ( ,municipal ,trad+1 pp4       
#cjf-cfe4    #f4 ,municipal own]%ip 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates4 ,massa*usetts            
,con/itutional ,conv5tion1 #aiag-aiah1  
,bullet91 ,no4 #bb2 ,national ,civic    
,f$]ation1 ,%all ! ,gov]nm5t ,own &     
,op]ate ! ,railroads1 !  ,telegraph &   
,telephone ,sy/ems8 ,! ,affirmative     
,side2 ,ibid41 ,!  ,negative ,side4     
#g4 ,guild own]%ip4 ,g4 ,d4 ,h4 ,,cole1 
,guild ,socialism1 pp4 #db-gg4    #h4   
,public s]vice commissions4 ,s4 ,p4     
,,or?1 ,read+s on ! ,relation  (        
,gov]nm5t to ,indu/ry1 pp4 #cjh-cdc4    
#i4 ,! dang] ( giv+ gov]nm5t too mu* to 
d4 ,,otto ,h4 ,,kahn1  ,am]ican         
,economic ,problems1 pp4 #bce-bge4      
#aj4 ,! ,plumb plan4 ,public ,own]%ip   
,league1 ,bullet91 ,no4 #ab1 pp4        
#hf-ajj2 ,ibid41 ,bullet91 ,no4 #ad1 pp4
 #ei-gd2 #abg-acj4                      

,que/ions    #a4 ,"n all ! pr9cipal     
public s]vice indu/ries ( ! pres5t day4 
,w\ld y say t ! foll[+ are public       
utilities3 abattoirs2 gra9  elevators2  
coal m9es2 pipe l9es = convey+ oil f    
city to city2  wireless telegraph       
e/abli%m5ts2 air%ips c>ry+ pass5g]s2    
automobiles2 taxicabs2 jitney busses2   
hotels2 /eam%ips2 docks2 banks2         
hospitals8 ,:y or :y n 9 ea* case8      
#b4 ,make a def9ition ( public utilities
 :i* w squ>e ) y\r  answ] to ! previ\s  
"q4    #c4 ,if a m]*ant %\ld in/all an  
electric g5]ator to provide light  = 8  
own /ore1 w\ld he be !n engag$ 9 a      
public s]vice &  w\ld he require a      
fran*ise8 ,if he desir$ to sell curr5t  
to 8  neighbors 7)\t cross+ a /reet7    
w\ld he !n require a fran*ise8  ,give   
y\r reasons4    #d4 ,c]ta9 indu/ries are
 p>ticul>ly suit$ to public managem5t 7=
  example1 ! po/al s]vice & wat]        
supply74 ,"n "s o!rs4 ,:y are  !y suit$8
    #e4 ,:at provisions %\ld be made 9 a
 /reet railway fran*ise z  reg>ds t]m1  

f>es1 s]vice1 contributions by ! company
 to ! public  treasury1 disposal ( !    
plant :5 ! fran*ise expires1 &          
regulation dur+ ! fran*ise t]m8    #f4  
,c y give any reasons :y ! gov]nm5t %\ld
 c>ry mail b n  telegrams8 ,p>cels by   
po/ b n by express8    #g4 ,"n "s       
reasons :y ! effective regulation (     
public utilities is  difficult4    #h4  
,:at public utilities are op]at$ 9 y\r  
city8 ,by :at companies8  ,:5 d _!      
fran*ises expire8 ,:o regulates !m8     
,w\ld any ( !m  be bett] manag$ "u      
public own]%ip8    #i4 ,:i* ( ! argum5ts
 = municipal own]%ip seem to y to be !  
/ronge/1 & :y8 ,:i* ( ! argum5ts aga9/8 
#aj4 ,w\ld x be consi/5t = an ,engli%man
 to favor municipal  own]%ip ( /reet    
railways 9 ,london b to oppose x 9 ,new 
,york  aft] becom+ a resid5t !re8       
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,/reet railways
 %\ld be 7a7 own$ & op]at$ by private   
companies1 or 7b7 own$ by private       
companies & op]at$ by !  gov]nm5t1 or   
7c7 own$ & op]at$ by ! gov]nm5t4    #b4 

,guild op]ation %\ld be appli$ to all   
public utilities4    -----    ,footnote 
#bca3      ,! co/ ( any public s]vice is
 made up l>gely ( two items1    ov]head 
*>ges & runn+ exp5ses4 ,9 ! case (      
electric light    ! ov]head *>ges       
include int]e/ on ! capital inve/$ 9 p[]
    h\ses1 ma*9]y1 wires & poles1       
conduits2 also su* ?+s z    insurance1  
taxes1 & r5tals1 :i* g on :e!r ! plant  
produces    mu* or little4 ,runn+       
exp5ses include ! co/ ( labor1 coal1    
supplies1 etc41 & ^! ?+s1 ( c\rse1 v>y )
 ! am\nt (    bus9ess done4 ,ov]head    
*>ges (t5 make up half ! co/ (          
produc+ electric curr5t2 s if y d\ble ! 
ov]head1 ! price    to ! consum] w\ld g 
up1 n d[n4    ,footnote #bcb3           
,public s]vice companies1 :5 ! gov]nm5t 
gives !m ! p[] to    take private       
prop]ty by "r ( em95t doma9 mu/ pay j   
comp5sation = :at !y take4 ,! gov]nm5t  
c\ld n give a    company p[] to take    
private prop]ty )\t comp5sation1 = x    
does n itself possess t p[]4            

,footnote #bcc3      ,fran*ises 7 (t5   
grant$ 9 p]petuity4 ,:5 ! laws =bade    
! grant+ ( p]petual fran*ises ! attempt 
0 sometimes made to    evade ?is        
re/riction by grant+ !m = #iii ye>s4    
,sometimes !    grant ( a fran*ise 0 put
 ?r\gh ! bo>d ( ald]m5 or ! city        
c\ncil )\t any notice be+ giv5 to !     
public4 ,l\d prote/s    !n foll[$1 b !y 
avail$ little aft] ! grant _h be5 made4 
,footnote #bcd3      ,^! paym5ts are    
arrang$ 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,sometimes a 
gas    company pays ! city s mu* p] ye> 
= e mile ( gas-ma9s or    s mu* p]      
million cubic feet ( gas sold4 ,/reet   
railway companies    occasionally pay s 
mu* ea* ye> p] mile ( track4 ,m commonly
    ! paym5t is bas$ ^u gross e>n+s or  
^u ! value ( !    company's capital     
/ock1 or ^u ! e/imat$ value ( its       
fran*ise4    ,9 "s in/ances ! fran*ise  
is sold to ! highe/ bidd]1 t is    !    
company :i* (f]s to pay mo/ = !         
privilege ( us+ !    /reets gets x4     
,footnote #bce3      ,! /reet railway   

sy/em ( ,bo/on1 = example1 op]ates 9 m  
?an tw5ty o!r cities & t[ns4 ,a s+le    
telephone company    sometimes controls 
! telephone s]vice 9 all ! cities & t[ns
    ( ! /ate or ev5 9 sev]al /ates4     
,footnote #bcf3      ,fifty ye>s ago ^! 
wat] supplies 7 usually controll$ by    
private companies op]at+ "u fran*ises4  
,today !re are v few    public          
wat]-supply companies 9 ! c\ntry4 ,among
 ! sixty-five    cities ( ov] #ajj1jjj  
population !re are only six :i* d n h   
municipal own]%ip ( ?is s]vice4         
,footnote #bcg3      ,! city ( ,glasg[1 
9 ,scotl&1 is sometimes cit$ z an       
example (    a community :i* has gone ! 
longe/ di/ance 9 ! way (    municipal   
own]%ip4 ,! citiz5 ( ,glasg[1 x is said1
 may be born    9 a municipal t5em5t1 be
 f$ on milk f ! municipal dairy    7:i* 
is w>m$ on a municipal gas /ove71 be    
transport$ to s*ool    on municipal     
tramc>s1 & :5 he dies be c>ri$ (f 9 a   
municipal    he>se to ! municipal       
cemet]y4    ,footnote #bch3      ,!re   

are ab\t ?irty municipal gas plants &   
sev]al hundr$    municipal electric     
light+ plants 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b !    
great    majority ( !m are 9 small      
communities4    ,footnote #bci3         
,!re are municipal /reet railways 9 ,san
 ,francisco1 ,seattle1 & ,new           
,orleans4 ,public op]ation ( /reet      
railways1 )\t public    own]%ip1 is !   
policy ( ,bo/on & sev]al o!r cities4 ,^!
    /reet railways are op]at$ on a      
s]vice-at-co/ plan4 ,!    gov]nm5t ( !  
/ate or city takes ov] ! /reet railway1 
appo9ts (ficials to manage x1 & *>ges   
:atev] f>es are    necess>y to pay !    
exp5ses ( op]ation 7includ+ :atev] rate 
(    int]e/ is to be paid to ! own]s ( !
 /reet railway74 ,:5    wages g up1 f>es
 g up4 ,9 "s cases s]vice-at-co/ has be5
    prov$ to be a co/ly plan4 ,:5 wages 
w5t up dur+ & aft] !    w>1 f>es rose   
correspond+ly4 ,b al?\gh wages h come   
d[n    s9ce #aibj 9 private employm5ts1 
!y h n be5 r$uc$ to !    same ext5t on  
publicly-own$ /reet railways1 h5ce !    

f>es rema9    :]e !y 74 ,to be fair to !
 public1 ! sy/em ought to "w    bo?     
ways4    ,footnote #bdj3      ,!        
national1 /ate1 & municipal gov]nm5ts c 
borr[ money at    five p] c5t or less2 !
 companies h to pay six or sev5 p] c5t  
"u pres5t conditions4    ,footnote #bda3
      ,notice ! way 9 :i* gas & electric
 light+ companies try to    increase _! 
bus9ess by sell+ gas /oves1 electric    
irons1 &    o!r appliances at l[ figures
 & on ! in/allm5t plan4 ,telephone      
companies place public pay-/ations 9 e  
nook & corn] to pick    up a few extra  
nickels & dimes4 ,telegraph companies   
give special    rates on night lett]s to
 get messages :i* w\ld be s5t by mail if
    ! regul> rates 7 *>g$4 ,c y imag9e !
 po/-(fice    keep+ op5 at night 9 ord] 
to obta9 m bus9ess8                     
,,*apt] ,,xxv                           
,,education        ,! purpose ( ?is     
*apt] is to expla9 :y education is made 
compulsory1 h[ ! s*ools are manag$1 :at 
!y co/1 & :at      !y are try+ to d4    

,sid5ote3 ,9 a democracy education is   
ess5tial4    ,education &               
,democracy4--,no matt] :]e "o may g1 9  
any "p (  ! _w1 x w be f\nd t political 
democracy & public  education t5d to    
keep pace ) ea* o!r4 ,9 despotisms "o w 
r>ely f9d a sy/em ( univ]sal1 free1     
public education2 or1 if x is  f\nd1 "o 
c be sure t ! despotism w n la/ v long4 
,education is ! fri5d ( democracy & !   
foe ( despotism4 ,inde$ x  c fairly be  
said t )\t a sy/em ( public education no
  democracy c be sure ( its own         
p]man5ce4 ,?is is because !  ma9t5ance (
 democratic gov]nm5t dep5ds ^u ! ability
 ( !  p to ?9k /raight & to see ?+s     
cle>ly4 ,! m political  fre$om y give a 
p ! great] is _! opportunity = abus+  x4
    ,sid5ote3 ,free gov]nm5t dep5ds on  
intellig5ce4    ,9 a real democracy !   
only safegu>d is ! common s5se ( !  p1 &
 a sy/em ( free1 public education w d m 
= !  diffusion ( common s5se among ! p  
?an any?+ else c d4 ,x  is unsafe to    
place ! ballot 9 ! h&s ( p )\t giv+ !m  

! opportunity to acquire t degree (     
enlight5m5t :i* is  necess>y to enable  
!m to use ! ballot intellig5tly4 ,! vot]
 :o  _c read a newspap] or und]/& !     
public que/ions :i* he is  call$ ^u to  
decide is a poor f\ndation ^u :i* to    
build a  gov]nm5t4 ,m ?an fifty ye>s    
ago1 :5 ,engl& practically adopt$       
manhood suffrage1 "s ( ! old-fa%ion$    
/atesm5 bemoan$ ! fact  t ! multitudes (
 ! p w\ld be 8ma/]s0 ( ! gov]nm5t4      
8,well1 !n01 said a c]ta9 memb] (       
,p>liam5t1 8educate y\r  ma/]s60 ,t is !
 only way to keep a democratic gov]nm5t 
hone/1  intellig5t1 ord]ly1 & capable4  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,! ,,evolution ,,(  
,,! ,,book4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,alex&]       
,f a ,copley ,pr9t1 copyright by ,curtis
  ,cam]on1 ,bo/on4      ,reproduc$ by   
p]mission4                              
,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,! ,,book          
,by ,john ,w4 ,alex&]              ,^!  
?ree mural pa9t+s are 9 ! ,ea/ ,corridor

            ( ! ,libr>y ( ,congress4    
,! fir/ depicts ! spread ( k by oral    
tradition4 ,a se]1 or wise man1 n>rates 
by ^w (            m\? to 8 tribesm5 !  
/ory ( ! race4 ,?is            01 9     
e>lie/ times1 ! only way ( imp>t+       
k4 ,!n1 aft] _m c5turies1 came !        
mak+ ( manuscript books on p>*m5t4 ,!   
monks            ( ! ,middle ,ages1 z   
%[n 9 ! c5tral picture1            sp5t 
mu* ( _! "t 9 ! labori\s task (         
mak+ books--ea* lett] be+ pr9t$ by h&4  
,f9ally came ! inv5tion ( pr9t+4 ,9 !   
?ird            picture ,gut5burg1 !    
inv5tor1 is inspect+ "o            ( !  
pages j complet$ by ! primitive press   
:i* ! boy is turn+ by h&4               
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,if s1 :y are intellig5t m5   
sometimes corrupt 9                     
politics8    ,b someone may int]pose to 
ask ?is emb>rass+ "q3 ,if  education    
helps to make p m intellig5t 9 political
 matt]s1  :y is x t well-educat$ &      

intellig5t p are (t5 f\nd  among corrupt
 & selfi% politicians1 & t ev5 college  
graduates  sometimes become notori\s    
political bosses8 ,! answ] is t 9 ?is1  
z 9 o!r ?+s1 a g5]al tru? does n cease  
to be a g5]al tru?  because !re are     
exceptions to x4 ,_m well-educat$ m5 are
 unable to  e>n a liv+1 b w\ld any      
s5sible p]son argue t education1 z a    
g5]al rule1 r5d]s no aid t[>d ! ga9+ ( a
 livelihood8 ,z well  might "o urge t   
newspap]s r5d] no s]vice 9 dissem9at+ ! 
tru? because "s ( !m occasionally pr9t  
lies4 ,x is q true  t m5 are n          
politically wise 9 exact proportion to !
 ext5t (  _! education4 ,! man or woman 
:o is only a gramm> s*ool graduate  may 
h m political wisdom ?an ! mo/ f9i%$    
s*ol> 9 !  l&4 ,b ?is does n impair !   
fundam5tal tru? t k is  pref]able to    
ignorance 9 all c\ntries1 at all times1 
& 9 e  field ( human activity4          
,sid5ote3 ,! g5]al purpose ( education4 
,education & ,p]sonal ,effici5cy4--,to  
make m5 & wom5 intellig5t  9 matt]s (   

gov]nm5t is n1 h[ev]1 ! only purpose (  
education4  ,! g5]al prosp]ity ( !      
c\ntry dep5ds1 9 ! long run1 ^u !       
individual ability ( its citiz5s4 ,e    
individual :o proves able to  e>n 8 own 
liv+1 e/abli% a home1 br+ up a family1 &
 by 8  sav+s add some?+ to ! nation's   
capital is a contributor to !  national 
prosp]ity4 ,e individual :o fails to    
make 8 own way &  becomes dep5d5t1 ei!r 
9 :ole or 9 "p1 ^u ! ef=ts (  o!rs1 is a
 drag ^u ! community4 ,9 its own int]e/1
 !re=e1 x  is ! duty ( ! :ole p to see t
 ev]yone is n only enabl$  b enc\rag$ to
 become p]sonally effici5t1 able to make
 8 own way  9 ! _w1 & capable ( pull+ 8 
own weight 9 t _m-o>$  boat :i* c>ries !
 progress ( society along4    ,sid5ote3 
,! specific purposes ( education3    ,! 
,purpose & ,value ( ,education4--,!     
purpose ( education !re=e  is ?ree-fold4
 ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,economic4 ,fir/1 x aims 
to give "y m5  & wom5 ! sort ( tra9+ :i*
 w enable !m to e>n a liv+4  ,?is is a  
prim>y & fundam5tal purpose1 because    

e>n+ a liv+ is  "o ( life's great       
problems4 ,b x is n ! only purpose (    
education2 an educational sy/em w\ld be 
v defective if x conf9$  itself to ?is &
 no?+ m4 ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,p]sonal4 ,!     
second  purpose ( education is to       
develop ! p]sonality ( ! individual1  8 
own res\rces & m5tality1 s t he may     
enjoy ^? durable  satisfactions ( life  
:i* are n directly connect$ ) ! "w (    
e>n+ a livelihood4 ,! enjoym5t :i* m5 & 
wom5 d]ive f life  is n entirely dep5d5t
 ^u ! am\nt ( _! incomes2 "o ne$  only  
to look ab\t ! community to realize t   
?is is s4 ,ev5 a  l>ge =tune does n (   
itself gu>antee happ9ess4 ,to live a    
full &  cont5t$ life x is necess>y to "k
 :at is go+ on 9 ! _w1 to  appreciate   
its significance1 & to und]/& ! _m ?+s  
:i*1 to  ! un$ucat$ man or woman1 are   
hidd5 my/]ies4 ,education helps an      
individual to "k himself1 to "k :at is  
go+ on ar\nd him1 to  und]/& ! motives  
:i* gov]n ! actions ( 8 fell[-m51 &  to 
adju/ himself to ! environm5t 9 :i* he  

lives4 ,k is  p[]4 ,x is p[] 9 ! h&s (  
ev]yone :o possesses x4 ,sid5ote3  #c4  
,social4 ,! ?ird purpose ( education1 ! 
social purpose1 is also  ( great        
importance4 ,education aims to tra9 !   
individual s t he  may bett] s]ve 8     
fell[-m54 ,democracy1 z has be5 said1   
re/s ^u  ! intellig5ce ( ! p4 ,a        
democratic gov]nm5t exacts f its        
citiz5s a sort ( s]vice :i* education   
alone c tea* !m to  give4#bdb           
,sid5ote3 ,! illit]acy ( bygone days4   
,! ,gr[? ( ,public ,education4--,= _m   
c5turies 9 ! hi/ory (  ! _w ! masses ( !
 p 7 af=d$ no opportunity = ev5  !      
elem5ts ( education4 ,n "o p]son 9 t5   
?\s& c\ld read or  write4 ,ev5 k+s on ! 
?rone 7 illit]ate4 ,!re is a well-kn[n  
picture ( ,k+ ,john1 ) a cr[n on 8 head 
& a quill p5 9 8  h&1 sign+ ! ,great    
,*>t]4 ,x is an altoge!r fanciful       
picture1  because ,john ,plantag5et c\ld
 n write a s+le ^w1 n ev5 8 own  "n4 ,no
 copy ( ,magna ,c>ta or any o!r docum5t 
has ev] be5 f\nd  ) 8 signature on x4 ,!

 only p]sons :o c\ld read or write 9  ^?
 days 7 ! monks & o!r (fic]s ( ! ,*ur*  
toge!r )  a v few laym5 :o 7 educat$ by 
!m4 ,ev5 aft] ! inv5tion (  pr9t+1      
education spread sl[ly & x 0 n until !  
n9ete5?  c5tury t ! desirability (      
provid+ free s*ools = ! masses  ( ! p   
came to be g5]ally recogniz$4 ,prior to 
t "t  education 0 almo/ ev]y:]e reg>d$ z
 a luxury to be b\ght &  paid = by !    
relatively few individuals :o c\ld af=d 
x4    ,sid5ote3 ,! fir/ ,am]ican s*ools4
    ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates free education   
goes back to colonial days4 ,z e>ly  z  
#afdg ! colony ( ,massa*usetts ,bay     
provid$ t a s*oolma/]  %\ld be appo9t$ &
 paid out ( ! taxes 9 e t[n ( m ?an     
fifty families & t ?is s*oolma/] %\ld   
tea* all ! *ildr5  8to write & reade02 b
 ?is example 0 n g5]ally foll[$ 9 !  o!r
 colonies4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t n m ?an 
half !  population 9 ! colonial days    
c\ld read & write4 ,! proportion (      
illit]acy among wom5 0 especially l>ge  
because v little  provision 0 made =    

educat+ girls4 ,ev5 aft] ! ,revolution !
  sy/em ( free1 public s*ools spread    
sl[ly & n until ! middle (  ! n9ete5?   
c5tury did x cov] ! great] portion ( !  
c\ntry4  ,s9ce ! ,civil ,w>1 h[ev]1 !   
policy ( mak+ education n only  free b  
compulsory has be5 adopt$ 9 virtually e 
"p ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! total enrolm5t
 9 ! public s*ools is n[ m  ?an         
tw5ty-two millions1 & ! co/ ( educat+ ! 
va/ array (  "y citiz5s is consid]ably  
ov] a billion doll>s a ye>4    ,sid5ote3
 ,! function ( ! /ate 9 education4    ,!
 ,control & ,managem5t ( ,education4--,z
 ! national con/itution  gives ! f$]al  
gov]nm5t no p[] to control education !  
responsibility re/s ) ! sev]al /ates4 ,e
 /ate has  e/abli%$ a sy/em ( free1     
public education1 b ! me?ods (  control 
& managem5t diff] greatly f "o /ate to  
ano!r4 ,"s  /ates h c5traliz$ !         
managem5t ( ! s*ools 9 ! h&s (  ! /ate  
au?orities2 o!rs leave ?is v l>gely to !
 s*ool  (ficials ( ! c\nties1 cities1 or
 di/ricts4 ,ev]y:]e !re is a  /ate      

dep>tm5t ( education1 ) a bo>d or a     
sup]9t5d5t 9  *>ge1 "s /ates hav+ bo?4  
,! local educational unit may be !      
city1 t[n1 t[n%ip1 s*ool di/rict1 or    
7especially 9 ! ,s\!rn  /ates7 ! c\nty4 
,a s*ool bo>d1 usually elect$1 erects ! 
s*ool  build+s1 *ooses a s*ool          
sup]9t5d5t1 appo9ts pr9cipals &  tea*]s 
7on ! recomm5dation ( ! sup]9t5d5t71 &  
appropriates  money = ! support ( !     
s*ools4 ,! detail$ "w ( manag+ !  s*ools
 re/s prim>ily ^u ! sup]9t5d5t4#bdc     
,sid5ote3 ,:]e %\ld ! *ief control be   
lodg$8    ,c5tral vs4 ,local ,control ( 
,s*ools4--,to :at ext5t %\ld ! public   
s*ools be "u ! control ( ! /ate         
au?orities8 ,is x advisable  t local    
s*ool bo>ds %\ld be left free to manage 
! s*ools z  !y ?9k be/1 )\t int]f]5ce f 
! /ate8 ,^! are  que/ions ^u :i* !      
op9ions ( educators diff]4 ,x is argu$ t
  ! s*ool bo>d1 9 e city1 t[n1 or t[n%ip
 kn[s be/ ! ne$s  ( its own community & 
h5ce ought to be giv5 a free h& 9 meet+ 
^! ne$s4 ,?is policy1 moreov]1 af=ds ea*

 s*ool a *ance to try  exp]im5ts & x is 
?r\gh exp]im5ts t progress 9 education1 
z  9 ev]y?+ else1 is usually made4 ,on !
 o!r h& x is logical to  ass]t t if !   
/ate laws make education compulsory & if
 ! /ate  treasury grants money to local 
s*ools x is ! "r ( ! /ate to  see t !   
money is prop]ly sp5t4 ,if e city1 t[n1 
& village  7 left free to manage its    
s*ools )\t any c5tral control !re  w\ld 
be no uni=mity 9 ! subjects taught1 9 ! 
qualifications (  tea*]s1 or 9 !        
organization ( ! s*ools4 ,x w\ld be     
difficult  9 t case = a pupil to transf]
 f "o s*ool to ano!r1 outside  ! same   
community1 )\t f9d+ himself a misfit 9 !
 new  in/itution4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt (      
c5tral control seems !re=e to be        
desirable1 b x is n = ! be/ int]e/s (   
education t e  s*ool ?r\gh\t ! /ate %\ld
 be conduct$ 9 exactly ! same way4  ,a  
sy/em ( t sort t5ds to dead5 ! :ole     
process ( education4  ,!re is a great   
deal to be said = home rule 9 education1
 provid$  !re is a suffici5t am\nt (    

/ate sup]vision to keep ! s*ools up  to 
a prop] /&>d4    ,sid5ote3 ,keep+ !     
s*ools out ( politics4    ,s*ool ,bo>ds 
& ,politics4--,x is g5]ally agre$ t p>ty
 politics  %\ld h no place 9 ! managem5t
 ( ! public s*ools4 ,!re may  be        
ju/ification = p>ty politics 9 lawmak+  
bodies2 b 9 s*ool  bo>ds !re is none4   
,!re is an effici5t way ( manag+ !      
s*ools  & an ineffici5t way2 b !re is no
 su* ?+ z a ,republican way  or a       
,democratic way4 ,yet elections to s*ool
 bo>ds are1 9 _m  communities1 conte/$  
^u p>ty l9es4 ,m5 & wom5 are nom9at$ &  
elect$1 v (t51 because !y belong to "o  
or ! o!r political  p>ty1 n because !y h
 good judgm5t or a deep int]e/ 9 s*ool  
affairs4 ,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 public s5tim5t  
is gradually *ang+4 ,9  _m places !     
s*ool bo>d elections h become           
non-p>tisan2 p>ty  designations h be5   
tak5 (f ! ballots1 & x matt]s little    
:i* p>ty a c&idate belongs to4 ,:y %\ld 
x8 ,:at relation is  !re betwe5 a man's 
views on ! t>iff or ! league ( nations &

  8 ability to s]ve 8 own neighbors     
acceptably z a memb] ( a local  s*ool   
bo>d8 ,!re is no visible relation4 ,tak+
 ! s*ools out (  politics means t !     
taxpay]s get great] value = ! money :i* 
is sp5t 9 ma9ta9+ ! s*ools1 t all       
que/ions are decid$ ^u  _! m]its & n by 
political favoritism1 & t e pupil gets  
! b5efit ( bett] s*ools1 bett] tea*]s1 &
 bett] educational  me?ods4             
,educational ,"w ( ! ,national          
,gov]nm5t4--,! national gov]nm5t1  z has
 already be5 po9t$ out1 possesses no    
=mal p[]s ) respect  to education 9 !   
/ates4 ,nev]!less x has done a good deal
 to  promote ! int]e/s ( public         
education by publi%+ ! results (        
inve/igations into educational problems1
 & by r5d]+ advisory  assi/ance to !    
/ate au?orities4 ,sid5ote3 ,! national  
,bureau (  ,education4 ,x ma9ta9s a     
,bureau ( ,education :i* is n[ )9 !     
jurisdiction ( ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t4 ,at
 ! head ( ?is bureau is a  ,commission] 
( ,education appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t4 ,! 

functions (  ! bureau are almo/ :olly ( 
an in=mal "*2 x collects data  = ! use (
 educators & publi%es ?is mat]ial 9     
annual reports  & bullet9s4#bdd ,!re has
 be5 a /rong movem5t to make ?is bureau 
a regul> ,dep>tm5t ( ,education1 ) a    
memb] ( ! cab9et at its  head1 & to     
increase its p[]s consid]ably2 b ?is    
movem5t has n  yet be5 successful4      
,f$]al ,aid to ,education4--,)9 ! la/   
few ye>s !re has be5 a  good deal (     
controv]sy1 bo? 9 ,congress & outside1  
ov] a proposal  to appropriate fur!r    
funds f ! national treasury = !         
promotion ( g5]al education 9 ! /ates1  
p>ticul>ly 9 ^?  /ates :]e ! common     
s*ool sy/em ne$s ton+ up4 ,sid5ote3 ,!  
,t[n]-,/]l+ ,bill3 its m]its & defects4 
,?is proposal is embodi$  9 a measure   
:i* has be5 be=e ,congress = "s "t b ^u 
:i*  no favorable action has yet be5    
tak54#bde ,9 favor ( ! measure x  is    
argu$ t public elem5t>y education is a  
national necessity &  t if any /ate _c  
raise suffici5t money to keep its common

  s*ools up to a prop] /&>d ! int]e/s ( 
! :ole nation w  suff] 9 ! end4 ,!re is 
j z mu* reason1 & m1 x is  ass]t$1 =    
f$]al aid to /ate s*ools z = su* aid to 
/ate  roads4 ,on ! o!r h& x is object$ t
 ! policy ( l>ge f$]al  subsidies to    
education w\ld involve ! tax+ ( !       
popul\s &  ?riv+ /ates ( ! ,ea/1 !      
,middle ,we/1 & ! ,pacific ,slope =  !  
b5efit ( ^? o!r /ates1 especially 9 !   
,s\?1 :]e !  s*ool sy/em has h]et(ore   
be5 backw>d ?r\gh lack ( funds4 ,mo/  ( 
! f$]al gov]nm5t's income is provid$ by 
! taxpay]s (  /ates l ,new ,york1       
,ill9ois1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,ohio1 &        
,massa*usetts4  ,b 9 ^! /ates ! public  
s*ool sy/em has already be5 br\ght up   
to a /&>d :]e !re is no urg5t ne$ =     
f$]al assi/ance4 ,!  *ief ga9]s "u ! new
 plan w\ld be ! /ates :i* contribute  v 
little ( ! rev5ue4 ,9 o!r words1 we %\ld
 be tax+ "s  /ates = ! b5efit ( o!rs4 ,a
 some:at m weighty objection1 to  "s    
m9ds1 is f\nd 9 ! possibility t if !    
national gov]nm5t  beg9s ! practice (   

mak+ l>ge annual grants to ! /ates =    
educational purposes x may1 9 due c\rse1
 und]take to ex]cise  control ov] !     
public s*ool sy/ems ( ! entire c\ntry4  
,:5 a  gov]nm5t grants money = any      
purpose x has an und5iable "r to  make  
sure t ! money is be+ prop]ly sp5t4 ,to 
d ?is x mu/  create "s sy/em (          
inspection4 ,inspection leads to        
sup]vision1 &  sup]vision soon] or lat] 
m]ges into actual control4 ,x is fe>$ 9 
"s qu>t]s t ?is w\ld be ! ultimate      
outcome ( f$]al aid to  common s*ool    
education on any l>ge scale4            
,,! ,,public                            
,,bo>d ,,( ,,education                  
,,cl]k      ,,sup]9t5d5t        ,,c\nsel
                                        
,,secret>y                              
,,pr9cipals                             
,,eng9e]s                               
,,sup]visors    ,,janitors              
,,tea*]s                                
,,pupils                                
,,huron ,,plan ,,( ,,s*ool              

,,organization                          
,,! ,,control ,,( ,,education           
,?is diagram illu/rates a common type ( 
municipal            s*ool adm9i/ration4
 ,! vot]s *oose a ,bo>d (               
,education1 or ,s*ool ,bo>d4 ,?is body1 
9 turn1            appo9ts a ,sup]9t5d5t
 ( ,s*ools :o has            sup]vision 
ov] all matt]s ( s*ool managem5t4       
,9 "s cities ! memb]s ( ! ,bo>d (       
,education            are appo9t$ by !  
mayor4 ,9 ! l>g]                        
municipalities !re are1 z a rule1 "o or 
m            assi/ant sup]9t5d5ts4      
,make a simil> *>t %[+ ! organization ( 
!            s*ool sy/em 9 y\r own      
community4                              
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,a s]ies ( pres5t-day         
que/ions4    ,"s ,problems ( ,s*ool     
,organization4--,sev]al problems ( great
  importance are engag+ ! att5tion ( !  
s*ool au?orities at !  pres5t "t4 ,! m  
conspicu\s among !m may be indicat$ by a

  s]ies ( que/ions :i* are "u discussion
 :]ev] educators come  toge!r1 b :i* are
 also ( direct int]e/ to ! pupils & to !
  community4 ,to :at age %\ld s*ool     
att5dance be made compulsory8 ,h[  c    
pupils be kept f leav+ s*ool be=e !y h  
receiv$ a  suffici5t am\nt ( education8 
,h[ %\ld ! s*ool c\rse be divid$8  ,%\ld
 we h junior high s*ools & junior       
colleges z well z  regul> high s*ools & 
regul> colleges8 ,h[ may ! tra9+ (      
tea*]s be improv$8 ,c ! "w ( ! s*ools be
 br\ght into clos]  & bett] contact ) ! 
res\rces ( ! public libr>y8 ,is x       
possible to use ! s*ool plant1 aft]     
s*ool h\rs1 = v>i\s =ms  ( community    
s]vice8 ,c great] use be made ( ! s*ool 
plant dur+  ! s*ool day8 ,& :]e are we  
go+ to get ! money ) :i* to  c>ry on all
 ^! new ent]prises if we ultimately     
agree t !y are  desirable8 ,?is li/ (   
que/ions may seem to conta9 "s t are n  
relat$ to "o ano!r1 b !y all po9t to    
diff]5t aspects ( !  same great problem 
& may be summ$ up 9 ! "o broad qu]y3    

,:at  *anges 9 s*ool organization w     
bett] enable education to fulfil  its   
?ree-fold purpose8    ,sid5ote3         
,compulsory s*ool att5dance4    ,!      
,s*ool ,age4--,to :at age %\ld att5dance
 be made compulsory8 ,9  mo/ ( ! /ates  
?is age is n[ fix$ at f\rte5 ye>s 7or   
gramm>  s*ool graduation7 al?\gh "s     
,s\!rn /ates /ill ma9ta9 !  twelve-ye>  
limit4 ,_m believe t ev5 ! f\rte5-ye>   
limit is n  high en\gh & are urg+ t x be
 rais$4 ,9 "s /ates a /ep 9  ?is        
direction has be5 tak5 by requir+ t all 
p]sons "u  sixte5 ye>s ( age :o engage 9
 any =m ( wage-e>n+ employm5t  mu/ ei!r 
pres5t a c]tificate ( graduation f      
gramm> s*ool or  mu/ att5d cont9uation  
classes = s _m h\rs p] week4 ,m urg5t   
?an any rais+ ( ! s*ool age1 h[ev]1 is !
 ne$ = m  /rictly en=c+ ! rules :i* n[  
exi/4 ,9 "s communities !  pres5t age   
limit ( f\rte5 ye>s is n insi/$ ^u1 ) ! 
result t _m ?\s&s 9 ! backw>d rural     
sections & 9 !  cr[d$ di/ricts ( cities 
are gr[+ up 9 illit]acy4 ,:atev] !  age 

limit x ought to be en=c$ to !          
lett]4#bdf    ,sid5ote3 ,! pres5t s*ool 
divisions4    ,re-arrang+ ! ,s*ool      
,divisions4--,b we %\ld n dep5d :olly   
^u ! /]n arm ( ! law = ! solution ( a   
problem l t (  keep+ pupils at s*ool4   
,:5 normal boys & girls /rongly dislike 
go+ to s*ool1 :5 !y /ay away at e       
opportunity & leave  s*ool z soon z !y  
c1 we may well suspect t !re is some?+  
wrong ) ! s*ool sy/em itself4           
,graduation f gramm> s*ool has  hi!rto  
be5 look$ ^u z ! natural po9t at :i* to 
break (f4  ,! majority ( pupils leave ! 
s*ools at t /age2 only a m9ority  g on )
 ! regul> s*ool c\rse4 ,our :ole sy/em (
 s*ool  divisions has !re=e br\ght x    
ab\t t !re is no logical  break+-(f po9t
 betwe5 ! ages ( ?irte5 or f\rte5 on !  
"o  h& 7gramm> s*ool graduation7 &      
sev5te5 or eighte5 7high s*ool          
graduation7 on ! o!r4 ,x is believ$ by  
_m educators1 moreov]1  t ! la/ two     
grades ( ! gramm> s*ools h n be5 s      
organiz$ z to awak5 9 ! av]age pupil a  

desire to g fur!r4 ,!  upp] grades (    
gramm> s*ools d n diff] ess5tially 9 _! 
me?ods ( in/ruction f ! l[] grades      
al?\gh ! mu* great]  maturity ( ! pupils
 w\ld seem to w>rant ! use ( diff]5t    
me?ods4    ,sid5ote3 ,! junior high     
s*ool sy/em4    ,to improve ?is         
situation x is n[ propos$ to divide !   
s*ool c\rse  into ?ree p>ts by e/abli%+ 
junior high s*ools1 & _m  communities h 
already adopt$ ?is plan4 ,! junior high 
s*ool z  usually organiz$ takes ! la/   
two grades ( ! gramm> s*ool1 adds  on ! 
fir/ ye> or ! fir/ two ye>s ( ! regul>  
high s*ool  c\rse1 & ?us provides a     
?ree-ye> or a f\r-ye> program :i*       
c>ries pupils ?r\gh to ! ages ( fifte5  
or sixte54 ,! me?ods (  in/ruction are  
^? ( ! regul> high s*ool4#bdg ,?is plan 
is said  to h two m>k$ advantages3 x    
induces pupils to cont9ue _!  s*ool+ "o 
or two ye>s long]1 & x gives !m a type (
  in/ruction :i* is bett] suit$ to _!   
age & int]e/s4 ,objection  is sometimes 
rais$ aga9/ ! junior high s*ool sy/em on

 ! gr\nd  t x involves ! introduction ( 
elective /udies & h5ce may  result 9 !  
neglect+ ( fundam5tals4 ,x may also     
result 9 br++  all ! cu/om>y social &   
a?letic div]sions ( ! high s*ool into  !
 lives ( y\ng] pupils4 ,:e!r ?is is an  
advantage or a defect  may be reg>d$ z  
an op5 "q4    ,sid5ote3 ,! junior       
college4    ,:at becomes ( ! regul> high
 s*ool if its fir/ ye> or two ye>s  are 
lopp$ (f8 ,!re are two alt]natives4 ,x  
may become simply a  s5ior high s*ool ) 
a ?ree-ye> or a two-ye> c\rse1 or x may 
add  on two additional ye>s cov]+ "w :i*
 has hi!rto be5 done by  fre%m5 &       
sophomores 9 colleges1 ?us provid+ :at  
has come to be  kn[n z a junior college 
c\rse4 ,:]e ?is policy is pursu$ ! pupil
  c be c>ri$ two ye>s beyond ! old high 
s*ool graduation &  enabl$1 on ent]+ a  
college or univ]sity1 to obta9 a degree 
9 less  ?an ! usual "t4 ,all ?is        
involves a consid]able increase 9 !     
exp5se ( ma9ta9+ ! s*ool sy/em1 ( c\rse2
 b x also  increases ! s]vice r5d]$ to !

 community4    ,! ,tra9+ ( ,tea*]s4--,9 
! la/ analysis ! success (  education   
dep5ds ^u ! tea*]4 ,suitable build+s1 a 
well-plann$  curriculum1 good text      
books1 all contribute _! %>e t[>ds !    
effici5cy ( a s*ool2 b ^! are inanimate 
?+s4 ,)\t capable  tea*]s !y are (      
little avail4 ,n[ effective tea*+       
requires two  atta9m5ts on ! "p ( !     
tea*]1 a k ( ! subject &  ability to    
imp>t ?is k to o!rs4 ,bo? ( ^! ?+s are  
ess5tial & bo? are 9 l>ge measure !     
result ( tra9+4  ,sid5ote3 ,normal      
s*ools4 ,x is = ?is reason t all ! /ates
  ma9ta9 normal s*ools 9 :i* prospective
 tea*]s are tra9$ 9 !  art ( giv+       
in/ruction4 ,= tea*]s :o are already 9  
s]vice _m  ( ^! normal s*ools provide   
c\rses dur+ ! aft]noon & ev5+  h\rs s t 
tea*]s may keep abrea/ ( ! mo/ mod]n    
me?ods 9  education4 ,sid5ote3 ,ext5sion
 c\rses4 ,! univ]sities also provide    
ext5sion c\rses & summ] in/ruction ) !  
same end 9 view4 ,all  ?is is highly    
desirable & %\ld be c>ri$ ev5 fur!r4 ,we

 are  incl9$ to sp5d our s*ool          
appropriations on build+s1 books1       
supplies1 & facilities = ! pupils & to  
feel t ! community  dis*>ges its full   
obligation to ! tea*]s :5 x pays !m     
sal>ies t are by no means proportionate 
to ! importance ( !  "w 9 :i* !y are    
engag$4 ,b human k is mov+ =w>d at  a   
rapid pace & anyone :o does n keep close
 on its trail is sure to  be left f>    
beh9d4 ,unless ! tea*]s are af=d$ !     
opportunity (  keep+ 9 t\* ) ev]y?+ t is
 new x is difficult to see h[  _!       
in/ruction c keep pace ) ! times4    ,! 
,s*ool & ! ,public ,libr>y4--,! public  
libr>y is an  in/itution ( great        
educational value & its relation to !   
s*ools  ought to be m intimate ?an is   
usually ! case4 ,too (t5 ! public       
libr>y is m]ely an ornate build+ ) a    
miscellane\s assortm5t (  books 7mo/ly  
fiction7 on its %elves4 ,x is reg>d$ z a
 place =  adult read]s prim>ily4 ,b !   
way to enl>ge ?is circle ( adult  read]s
 is to br+ !m into t\* ) ! res\rces ( ! 

libr>y  :5 !y are "y1 & ! public s*ools 
are ! natural *annels  ?r\gh :i* ?is c  
be accompli%$4    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! public
 libr>y c help ! s*ools4    ,9          
well-manag$ public libr>ies ?is is n[   
be+ done4 ,_m ( !m  h e/abli%$ juv5ile  
dep>tm5ts 9 :i* an exp]t c>efully       
*ooses books t are likely to int]e/ !   
"y4 ,read+ li/s (  int]e/+ & timely     
subjects are also kept po/$2 ! pupils 9 
!  s*ools are enc\rag$ to use ! libr>y 9
 connection ) _!  /udies2 illu/rat$     
lectures are provid$ 9 ! late aft]noon  
h\rs  & on ,saturdays1 & ! :ole         
atmosph]e ( ! libr>y becomes "o (       
welcome to read]s ( e age4 ,x %\ld n be 
?\ght1 h[ev]1 t  all public libr>ies are
 r5d]+ ?is degree ( s]vice4 ,_m ( !m    
are unprogressive 9 ^! ?+s4    ,sid5ote3
 ,! s*ool z a neighborhood c5t]4        
,wid] ,use ( ! ,s*ools4--,"u ord9>y     
conditions1 h[ _m h\rs (  use does a    
community obta9 f its s*ool build+s 9 ! 
c\rse ( a  ye>8 ,five h\rs p] day1 five 
days p] week = ab\t =ty weeks 9  ! ye>4 

,t makes a total ( ab\t a ?\s& h\rs--a  
ye> conta9s  m ?an eight times z _m4 ,:5
 us$ = s*ool purposes only1  s*ool      
build+s are empty sev5-eigh?s ( ! "t4 ,b
 ! co/ (  ma9t5ance 7int]e/1 c>e1 etc47 
goes on all ! "t j ! same4  ,^! build+s 
are admirably suit$ = _m aft]-s*ool     
purposes2  !y are c5trally-locat$1 well 
heat$ & v5tilat$1 clean &  commodi\s4   
,:y n make use ( !m outside ( s*ool     
h\rs8 ,! answ]  to ?is qu]y is t _m     
cities are n[ mak+ use ( !m = ev5+      
classes1 = public meet+s1 & neighborhood
 recreation4 ,! high  s*ools 9 _m cities
 h become ev5+ social c5t]s = !  section
 9 :i* !y are locat$4 ,?is means t !    
classrooms1  assembly hall1 & gymnasium 
are op5$ = lectures1 ent]ta9m5ts1       
games1 & dances1 all "u ! sup]vision (  
(ficials 7usually  tea*]s7 :o are       
appo9t$ & paid by ! s*ool bo>d4 ,!      
compla9t  is sometimes made t ?is wid]  
use ( ! s*ool plant is n  education 9 ! 
cu/om>y s5se1 b recreation or amusem5t1 
& t  ! taxpay]s %\ld n be requir$ to pay

 = adult amusem5t "u  color ( support+ a
 public s*ool sy/em4 ,!re is "s =ce 9   
?is  cont5tion1 b s long z ! "w is (    
value to ! community1 &  wor? :at x     
co/s1 ! p>ticul> head+ "u :i* ! money is
  exp5d$ does n matt] a great deal4 ,^! 
ev5+ activities are  plac$ 9 *>ge ( !   
s*ool au?orities z a matt] ( conv5i5ce  
& n because !y are exclusively ( an     
educational "*4    ,! ,g>y ,sy/em4--,d  
we make suffici5t use ( ! s*ool         
facilities  )9 ! available s*ool h\rs ( 
! day8 ,! usual s*ool program  does n   
cov] m ?an five h\rs1 al?\gh !re are    
eight h\rs  betwe5 eight 9 ! morn+ & f\r
 9 ! aft]noon4 ,sid5ote3  ,s*ools on an 
eight-h\r basis4 ,9 ,g>y1 ,indiana1 a   
few ye>s ago !  s*ool au?orities decid$ 
t s*ool+1 l labor1 %\ld be put  ^u an   
eight-h\rs-a-day basis4 ,pupils 7 !re=e 
kept at s*ool  f eight until f\r1 sp5d+ 
half _! "t 9 ! classrooms &  ! o!r half 
at vocational "w or at organiz$ play4 ,9
 ?is way !  classrooms 7 made to        
accommodate twice ! cu/om>y numb] (     

pupils4 ,! ,g>y plan 0 bas$ on ! idea t 
ev5 z reg>ds _!  play ! s*ool c be (    
s]vice to pupils & t "t sp5t 9  le>n+   
some?+ useful %\ld be sub/itut$ = "t    
sp5t 9  roam+ ! /reets4 ,especial       
emphasis is plac$ by ! ,g>y plan ^u     
lett+ ea* pupil foll[ 8 own l9e (       
int]e/s bo? 9 !  classroom & 9 !        
vocational "w4 ,b ! sy/em has n1 on !   
:ole1 prov$ popul> else:]e ) ei!r p>5ts 
or pupils4 ,! labor  organizations also 
dislike x1 suspect+ t ! plan is a       
capitali/  s*eme = gett+ ! *ildr5 ( !   
work] m rapidly into !  %ops &          
factories4    ,sid5ote3 ,! old          
curriculum4    ,vocational              
,education4--,! =ego+ topics d n exhau/ 
! li/ (  ?+s :i* educators are e>ne/ly  
consid]+ today4 ,!re is also  !         
important "q z to :at %\ld be taught 9 !
 s*ools &  h[ x %\ld be taught4 ,= "s   
ye>s ! :ole curriculum ( !  public      
s*ools has be5 9 process ( *ange4 ,!    
tra9+ ( !  old-"t ,am]ican s*ool 0 9    
l>ge measure lit]>y & intellectual1  )\t

 any direct relation to ! pres5t or     
future int]e/s (  pupils4 ,x came to u f
 a pa/ g5]ation1 :5 education 0 !       
pr]ogative ( ! well-to-d alone1 !       
privilege ( ! leisure class1  design$ to
 give culture & erudition4 ,b inasmu* z 
ne>ly n9ety  p] c5t ( all ! pupils 9 !  
public s*ool g directly into "s  =m (   
indu/rial or m]cantile employm5t 7n into
 ! le>n$  pr(essions7 x c readily be se5
 t a s*ool program ( /rictly  cultural  
/udies does n satisfy ! real ne$s ( !   
community4 ,h5ce  ! dem& = vocational   
education1 = su* /udy & practice z w    
connect ! pupil directly ) 8 future life
 "w4#bdh    ,sid5ote3 ,! new curriculum4
    ,9 response to ! dem& = vocational  
/udies ! old s*ool  curriculum has      
und]gone a /rik+ *ange4 ,today x is !   
disposition  ( educators to *all5ge e   
subject to demon/rate its value4 ,a     
subject :i* _c demon/rate t x helps to  
fulfil "s "o ( !  recogniz$ purposes (  
education is giv5 a subord9ate place 9 !
  curriculum or tak5 out altoge!r4 ,9   

keep+ ) ?is attitude !  vocational      
/udies h come into great prom95ce dur+ !
 pa/  tw5ty ye>s or m1 = !y are reg>d$ z
 connect+ ! pupil )  8 future life-"w4  
,%opwork1 mill9]y1 sew+1 cook+1         
/5ography1  me*anical draw+1 & a doz5   
o!r bran*es ( vocational "w h  be5      
br\ght into ! s*ool program4 ,!y are    
cr[d+ ! old] high  s*ool /udies1        
p>ticul>ly ! classical languages1 into !
  backgr\nd4 ,special s*ools ( comm]ce &
 indu/ry h be5 provid$  9 _m ( ! l>ge   
cities1 & special s*ools ( agriculture 9
 !  rural di/ricts4#bdi    ,no s5sible  
p]son %\ld regret t ! s*ools h mov$ 9   
?is new  direction2 ! only "q is h[ f>  
!y ought to g4 ,if ! only  purpose (    
education 7 to tea* ! art ( e>n+ a liv+ 
x w\ld  be ano!r matt]2 b d purely      
vocational /udies af=d suffici5t  scope 
= ! atta9m5t ( ! o!r educational        
purposes8 ,man does n  live by bread    
alone4 ,! cultural /udies h _! value    
al?\gh ?is  is (t5 ov]look$ because x   
does n appe> 9 pla9 sight to !  nak$    

eye4 ,ev5 9 ! vocational s*ool !re %\ld 
be a prop]  balance betwe5 ! def9itely  
vocational /udies & ! s-call$  cultural 
subjects4    ,! ,new] ,me?ods ( ,s*ool  
,in/ruction4--,=ty or fifty ye>s ago all
  ,am]ican education1 9 s*ools &        
colleges1 0 on a prescrib$ basis4       
,def9ite subjects 7 laid d[n to be /udi$
 & ev]ybody /udi$  !m4 ,b ! plan ( all[+
 /ud5ts to *oose "s or all ( _!  /udies 
0 adopt$ by ! colleges & 9 due c\rse ?is
 elective  sy/em work$ its way d[n into 
! s*ools4    ,sid5ote3 ,! elective      
sy/em4    ,!re is a good deal to be said
 9 favor ( ! elective sy/em2 x  p]mits a
 *oice ( "w 9 accordance ) individual   
int]e/s &  capacities4 ,aft] all1 !     
s*ool is creat$ = ! pupil1 n !  pupil = 
! s*ool4 ,! pupil is ! true unit (      
in/ruction1 n  ! subject4 ,on ! o!r h& !
 elective sy/em may be c>ri$ to         
extremes2 9 "s colleges t 0 ! case & x  
has n[ be5 f\nd  necess>y to put        
re/rictions on ! plan4 ,a sy/em ( free &
 unguid$  electives leads to a pat*work 

education1 desultory 9 "* &  )\t dep?4  
,x is all "r to "k a little ab\t ev]y?+2
 b x  is ev5 m important to "k "s "o ?+ 
well4 ,c]ta9 subjects  =m ! gr\ndwork ( 
k1 & to g ahead ) o!rs be=e  fir/ ma/]+ 
!m is l build+ ! ro( ( a h\se be=e y  h 
dug ! f\ndation or erect$ ! walls4 ,)\t 
a gr\nd+ 9 !  great languages1 ! ,engli%
 language p>ticul>ly1 & a fair          
pr(ici5cy 9 ma!matics1 hi/ory1 & !      
elem5ts ( sci5ce no "o  is entitl$ to   
call himself an educat$ man4            
,sid5ote3 ,! socializ$ recitation4    ,!
 classroom me?ods h also *ang$          
consid]ably 9 ! la/  g5]ation1 & !y h   
*ang$ = ! bett]4 ,! old] me?ods  s\ght  
to drill facts into ! pupil's m9d &     
result$1 v (t51 9  m]ely ov]-/ock+ 8    
memory4 ,today ! aim is to utilize1     
:]ev]  possible1 a me?od ( approa* ?r\gh
 ! int]e/s ( ! individual  & to %[ him  
h[ e %r$ ( k fits into ! :ole fabric4   
,! old me?ods ( classroom in/ruction    
laid ! entire emphasis ^u  individual   
/udy & recitations2 today mu* great]    

emphasis is be+  plac$ ^u gr\p activity1
 :i* includes gr\p discussions1 gr\p    
inve/igations1 & gr\p reports4 ,?is does
 n mean1 h[ev]1 t !  individual pupil   
c>ries less responsibility ?an "u ! old]
  sy/em4 ,x /ill rema9s true t !re is no
 royal road to k  & no sy/em ( rapid    
transit ei!r4 ,no sy/em c make an       
educat$  individual )\t self-ef=t4      
,education is "o ( ! v few ?+s  9 ! _w  
:i* anyone c obta9 b :i* no "o c give   
away4#bej    ,f9anc+ ! ,s*ools4--,all   
new educational ent]prises mean increas$
  exp5ses4 ,public education 9 ! ,unit$ 
,/ates has become enorm\sly  m exp5sive 
dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty ye>s4 ,! new] me?ods ( 
s*ool  organization & in/ruction1 ! wid]
 use ( ! s*ools1 !  ext5sion (          
vocational education1 ! provid+ ( free  
text books1 !  progress ( heal? "w 9 !  
s*ools1 ! e/abli%m5t ( ev5+  s*ools1    
cont9uation s*ools1 vacation s*ools--all
 ^! ?+s h  caus$ ! co/ to keep m\nt+ ye>
 aft] ye>4 ,sid5ote3 ,a billion  doll>s 
a ye> = education4 ,! public s*ools ( ! 

,unit$ ,/ates  n[ co/ ! taxpay] m ?an a 
billion doll>s p] annum4 ,t is  twice   
:at !y co/ t5 ye>s ago4 ,if ! exp5ses   
d\ble once m 9  ! next decade1 :]e w !  
money come f8 ,practically all ( x  is  
n[ obta9$ by taxation2 b taxation       
spreads itself out ?r\gh  r5ts & prices 
^u ! :ole p z has already be5 %[n4 ,a   
billion a ye> seems to be a l>ge sum4 ,x
 is a l>ge sum b1 /range  to say1 x is  
less ?an ! ,am]ican p sp5d e ye> =      
tobacco4 ,money = ! s*ools1 x is safe to
 pr$ict1 w be  =?com+ :5 p und]/& :at   
education means to individuals  & to !  
nation4 ,if pres5t s\rces ( rev5ue w n  
/& !  /ra9 o!rs mu/ be f\nd4 ,!re is no 
m pr(itable way 9 :i*  ! nation c inve/ 
its weal?4                              
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,e4 ,p4 ,,cubb]ly1  
,public ,s*ool ,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #c-fe2
    ,s4 ,t4 ,,dutton & ,,david ,,sn$d51 
,! ,adm9i/ration ( ,public ,education  9
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #be-ie2    ,f4 ,j4
 ,,goodn[ & ,f4 ,j4 ,,bates1 ,municipal 
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cce-ced  7,educational  

,adm9i/ration72    ,a4 ,j4 ,,+lis1      
,pr9ciples ( ,second>y ,education1 pp4  
#cdj-chc2    ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1      
,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,c\nties1 ,t[ns1 &   
,villages1  pp4 #bae-bbd2    ,w4 ,e4    
,,*ancellor1 ,our ,city ,s*ools1 pp4    
#be-gg2    ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,pr9ciples &
 ,me?ods ( ,municipal ,adm9i/ration1 pp4
  #cef-djb2    ,,george ,f4 ,,swa91 ,h[ 
to ,/udy1 pp4 #a-ba2    ,! ,annual      
,reports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,commission] 
( ,education1 !  ,bullet9s ( ! ,unit$   
,/ates ,bureau ( ,education1 & ! ,annual
  ,reports ( ! ,/ate ,sup]9t5d5ts (     
,education conta9 mu* useful  in=mation4
                                 ,gr\p  
,problems    #a4 ,! purpose1 progress1  
value1 & limitations ( vocational       
education4 ,! old curriculum1 its m]its 
& defects4 ,! rise (  manual tra9+4 ,its
 value4 ,beg9n+s ( indu/rial education4 
,its  progress4 ,its scope4 ,its place 9
 ! s*ool sy/em4 ,its relation to        
indu/ry & ! attitude ( indu/ry t[>d x4  
,! attitude (  organiz$ labor4          

,limitations on ! scope ( vocational    
education4  ,ref]5ces3 ,p4 ,h4 ,,hanus1 
,beg9n+s 9 ,indu/rial ,education1 pp4   
#c-bg2 ,,david ,,sn$d51 ,vocational     
,education1 pp4 #a-ajd2 ,,mey]          
,,bloomfield1 ,! ,s*ool & ! ,/>t 9 ,life
 7,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau (  ,education1  
,bullet91 #aiad1 ,no4 #d1 pp4 #aag-acc72
 ,s4 ,t4 ,,dutton & ,,david  ,,sn$d51 ,!
 ,adm9i/ration ( ,public ,education 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1  pp4 #djd-dbe2 ,,irv+    
,,k+1 ,social ,aspects ( ,education1 pp4
 #add-agf2 ,a4  ,h4 ,,leake1 ,indu/rial 
,education1 its ,problems1 ,me?ods1 &   
,dang]s1  pp4 #c-ci2 ,unit$ ,/ates      
,s5ate & ,h\se ,committees on           
,agriculture1  ,vocational ,education   
7,report ( ,he>+s1 #aiab74 ,see also !  
,proce$+s ( ! ,national ,society = !    
,promotion ( ,indu/rial  7,vocational7  
,education 7publi%$ annually74    #b4   
,h[ f> %\ld ! /ate control ! public     
s*ools8 ,ref]5ces3  ,s4 ,t4 ,,dutton &  
,,david ,,sn$d51 ,! ,adm9i/ration (     
,public ,education  9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  

pp4 #da-gb2 ,e4 ,c4 ,,elliott1 ,/ate    
,s*ool ,sy/ems  7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau (      
,education1 ,bullet91 #aiaj1 ,no4 #b1   
pp4 #ca-fh72 ,a4 ,c4  ,,p]ry1 ,outl9es (
 ,s*ool ,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #af-bh2 ,j4  
,m4 ,,ma!ws1  ,pr9ciples ( ,am]ican     
,/ate ,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #bif-ccd4      
#c4 ,! s*ool z a social c5t]4 ,ref]5ces3
 ,irv+ ,k+1  ,education = ,social       
,effici5cy1 pp4 #bfb-bgi2 ,c4 ,a4       
,,p]ry1 ,! ,wid]  ,use ( ! ,s*ool       
,plant1 pp4 #c-af2 #cce-chj2 ,e4 ,j4    
,,w>d1 ,! ,social  ,c5t]1 pp4 #cjb-cad2 
,national ,society = ! ,/udy (          
,education1  ,t5? ,ye>book 7#aiac71 ,"p 
,i1 pp4 #a-fi4                          
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! social aim (    
education4 ,,irv+ ,,k+1 ,education =    
,social  ,effici5cy1 pp4 #aa-bj4    #b4 
,! organization & functions ( s*ool     
bo>ds4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1  ,pr9ciples &   
,me?ods ( ,municipal ,adm9i/ration1 pp4 
#cei-cgb4    #c4 ,h[ tea*]s are appo9t$4
 ,f4 ,w4 ,,ball\1 ,! ,appo9tm5t (       
,tea*]s 9 ,cities1 pp4 #h-da4    #d4    

,vocational guidance4 ,,irv+ ,,k+1      
,education = ,social  ,effici5cy1 pp4   
#agg-bje4    #e4 ,h[ s*oolh\ses %\ld be 
con/ruct$4 ,f4 ,b4 ,,dressl>1 ,am]ican  
,s*ool ,h\ses 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau (        
,education1 ,bullet91 #aiaj1 ,no4 #e1   
pp4  #ag-ch & passim74    #f4 ,! ,g>y   
sy/em4 ,g5]al ,education ,bo>d1 ,new    
,york ,city4 ,! ,g>y  ,s*ools1 a ,g5]al 
,acc\nt1 pp4 #ag-gb4    #g4 ,has popul> 
education fail$ 9 ,am]ica8 ,c4 ,w4      
,,eliot1 ,am]ican  ,contributions to    
,civilization1 pp4 #bjc-bcf4    #h4 ,!  
educational lessons ( ! w>4 ,f4 ,a4     
,,clevel& & ,,joseph  ,,s*af]1          
,democracy 9 ,recon/ruction1 pp4        
#bab-bdc4    #i4 ,education & economic  
success4 ,j4 ,,ellis ,,b>k]1 ,economic  
,/atesman%ip1 pp4 #adc-agi4             
,que/ions    #a4 ,expla9 :y public      
education is necess>y = ! pres]vation ( 
popul> rights & lib]ties4    #b4 ,if    
democracy & public education usually g  
toge!r1 :y is x t  ,g]many _h an        
excell5t sy/em ( public education & yet 

rema9$ an  autocracy d[n to #aiah8      
#c4 ,d ! laws ( y\r /ate provide =      
compulsory s*ool att5dance8  ,if s1     
betwe5 :at ages8 ,:at is y\r op9ion z to
 ! prop] age  limits8    #d4 ,expla9 !  
organization & functions ( y\r /ate bo>d
 7or  dep>tm5t7 ( education & y\r local 
s*ool bo>d4    #e4 ,give a summ>y ( :at 
! f$]al gov]nm5t is n[ do+ =  education4
 ,d y believe t x ought to d m8 ,if s1  
:at8    #f4 ,h[ are funds = s*ool       
purposes rais$ 9 y\r community8 ,on :at 
basis does ! /ate make its contribution8
    #g4 ,:at sugge/ions c y make = keep+
 ! s*ools out (  politics8    #h4 ,d y  
believe t tea*]s %\ld be appo9t$ "u     
civil-s]vice  rules8    #i4 ,d y approve
 or disapprove ( ! ,g>y sy/em8 ,give y\r
 reasons4    #aj4 ,make "s sugge/ions = 
br++ ! s*ool & ! public libr>y  into    
clos] relations4                        
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! ,t[n]-,/]l+ 
,bill %\ld be pass$ by ,congress4    #b4
 ,s*ool discipl9e %\ld be plac$ 9 *>ge (
 a /ud5t c\ncil4    #c4 ,! age limit (  

compulsory s*ool att5dance %\ld be rais$
 to  sixte5 ye>s4    -----    ,footnote 
#bdb3      ,by nam+ ^! ?ree purposes (  
education1 fir/1 second1 & ?ird1    x is
 n int5d$ to imply t ?is is _! ord] (   
importance4    ,"s w\ld put s]vice to ! 
community fir/ ( all4 ,ov] "o ( !    ma9
 gates at ,h>v>d ,univ]sity1 ?r\gh :i* !
 /ud5ts pass out    into ! _w aft] !y h 
be5 graduat$1 is ?is timely             
inscription3 8,dep>t to s]ve ?y c\ntry &
 ?y k9d40    ,footnote #bdc3      ,!    
laws & ! practice diff] greatly f /ate  
to /ate1 &    sometimes f "o community  
to ano!r4 ,x w\ld be futile to attempt  
! task ( pres5t+ "h ev5 ! mo/ important 
v>iations4 ,^?    :o desire to "k       
exactly h[ ! s*ools are controll$ &     
manag$    9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry w   
f9d full in=mation 9 ,s4 ,t4    ,dutton 
& ,david ,sn$d51 ,! ,adm9i/ration (     
,public ,education 9    ! ,unit$ ,/ates4
    ,footnote #bdd3      ,9 #aiag       
,congress provid$ t ea* ye> a grant f ! 
f$]al    treasury %\ld be made to !     

sev]al /ates 9 ord] to enc\rage         
vocational education4 ,?is money is     
di/ribut$ among ! /ates on    condition 
t ea* %all contribute an equal am\nt1 ! 
di/ribution    be+ made1 n by ! ,bureau 
( ,education1 b by a body kn[n z !      
,f$]al ,bo>d = ,vocational ,education4  
,?is bo>d is made up ( sev5    p]sons1 !
 ,secret>ies ( ,agriculture1 ,comm]ce1 &
 ,labor1 !    ,commission] ( ,education 
& ?ree o!r p]sons appo9t$ by !          
,presid5t4 ,a consid]able "p ( its "w = 
! pres5t is    connect$ ) ! provid+ (   
vocational tra9+ = ,am]ican    soldi]s &
 sailors :o 7 disabl$ 9 ! ,_w ,w>4      
,footnote #bde3      ,! ,smi?-,t[n]     
,bill1 n[ ! ,t[n]-,/]l+ ,bill4          
,footnote #bdf3      ,accord+ to ! c5sus
 figures only "o p]son 9 fifte5 7above  
s*ool age7 is unable to write2 b !      
exp]i5ce ( army (fic]s    ) draft$ m5   
dur+ ! w> %[$ t ! proportion mu/ be a   
great deal l>g]4 ,! c5sus enum]ators    
take a man's ^w = x2    ! army          
au?orities at ! v>i\s camps appli$ an   

actual te/4 ,!y    f\nd t ab\t "o man 9 
e five 0 unable to write a simple       
lett] ( a doz5 l9es4    ,footnote #bdg3 
,! ess5tial diff]5ces betwe5 gramm>     
s*ool & high s*ool    in/ruction are ^!3
 ! "w ( ! gramm> s*ool grades is        
practically all prescrib$2 9 ! high     
s*ool !re are "s elective    /udies2 9 !
 gramm> s*ool grades "o tea*] gives !   
in/ruction 9 all ! subjects1 :]eas 9 !  
high s*ools !    v>i\s subjects are     
taught by diff]5t tea*]s1 ea* "o a      
speciali/4    ,footnote #bdh3      ,a   
prop] sy/em ( vocational education      
involves ?ree ?+s3 7a7 a    broad &     
practical f\ndation 9 elem5t>y education
 ( ! ord9>y    type2 7b7 a /udy ( !     
social & civic =ces :i* control !       
life ( ! p2 & 7c7 def9ite tra9+ 9 "s    
p>ticul>    vocation or trade4 ,9 ord]  
to help ! pupil *oose 8 life "w    m    
intellig5tly1 _m s*ools h made provision
 = vocational    guidance4 ,a vocational
 director or c\nsellor /udies ! special 
aptitudes & abilities ( ea* pupil1 po9ts

 out :at opportunities    are op51 &    
advises z to ! be/ means ( tra9+ = ! "w 
select$4    ,footnote #bdi3      ,! dem&
 = vocational education has come f      
sev]al s\rces3    namely1 f p>5ts :o    
believe t education ought to be directly
    relat$ to e>n+-p[]2 f tea*]s :o are 
conv9c$ t !re    is little or no        
educational value 9 drill+ pupils 9     
/udies :i*    d n int]e/ !m2 f ! g5]al  
public :i* ?9ks ! s*ools    w\ld r5d] a 
l>g] social s]vice 9 tra9+ pupils to    
vocational    effici5cy2 & f ent]pris+  
employ]s :o see 9 ?is =m (    education 
a *ance to get a supply ( tra9$ work]s  
)\t hav+    to break !m 9 z appr5tices4 
,organiz$ labor at fir/ look$ )         
suspicion ^u ! movem5t1 b is n[ m       
favorably dispos$ t[>d    x4 ,vocational
 education %\ld be cle>ly di/+ui%$ f    
manual    tra9+1 :i* is m]ely a g5]al   
education 9 ! pr9ciples (    skilful h& 
"w )\t reg>d to any p>ticul> vocation or
 trade4    ,vocational education does n 
turn out a fully-tra9$ work]1 b    only 

"o :o has practically f9i%$ ! appr5tice 
/age4    ,footnote #bej3      ,!re is a 
curr5t notion t ^? :o /& highe/ 9 _!    
/udies at s*ool or 9 college usually d  
poorly :5 !y get out    into ! _w1 & t  
^? :o take a prom95t "p 9 s*ool or      
college activities1 ev5 ?\gh _! s*ol>%ip
 be v poor1 are    ! ones :o rise to !  
top 9 lat] life4 ,! evid5ce is all to ! 
contr>y4 ,e inve/igation t has ev] be5  
made into ?is matt]    indicates t 9 !  
va/ majority ( cases ! boy :o does well 
at    s*ool does well 9 8 college /udies
 if he goes to college2 &    t /ud5ts :o
 /& high 9 _! college /udies are mu* m  
likely to succe$ 9 lat] life ?an ^? :o  
/& l[4 ,?ree great    ,ea/]n            
univ]sities1 ,h>v>d1 ,yale1 & ,pr9ceton1
 gave ! nation    ?ree successive       
,presid5ts dur+ ! ye>s #aija-aiba1      
,roosevelt1    ,taft1 & ,wilson4 ,nobody
 ?\ght x wor? :ile to m5tion t ea*    ( 
! ?ree 0 a s*ol> ( high rank at         
graduation2 b if anyone    ( !m _h be5  
graduat$ ne> ! bottom ( ! li/1 we %\ld h

    he>d comm5t 9 pl5ty4 ,! exceptions  
are too (t5 s+l$ out =    notice2 !     
in/ances t prove ! rule are s num]\s t  
!y    pass unobs]v$4                    
,,*apt] ,,xxvi                          
,,public ,,heal? ,,& ,,sanitation       
,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to po9t out   
:at ?+s endang]      ! public heal? &   
:at means are tak5 to safegu>d ! p      
aga9/ !m4      ,sid5ote3 ,heal? &       
effici5cy4    ,a ,highly ,important     
,matt]4--,no?+ among all ! activities ( 
mod]n  gov]nm5t is m important ?an ! c>e
 ( ! public heal?4 ,its  importance _c  
be measur$ 9 doll>s & c5ts or 9 figures 
( any  k9d4 ,! heal? ( ! individual is !
 greate/ ( all factors 9  p]sonal       
effici5cy2 no man1 woman1 or *ild c d ! 
be/ "w 9 any  field ( activity if hamp]$
 by disease1 h[ev] slight4 ,! heal? (  !
 community is likewise ess5tial to its  
progress & prosp]ity4  ,heal?           
protection1 accord+ly1 is n a matt] :i* 
c safely be left  to ev]yone's          
discretion4 ,"s p w\ld realize !        

necessity (  safegu>d+ !mselves & _!    
families aga9/ disease2 b o!rs  w\ld n1 
& _! neglect w\ld entail dang] to ! :ole
 community4  ,"s p w\ld "k h[ to avoid  
ill-heal?1 s f> z x c be  avoid$2 b o!rs
 w\ld n possess ?is k & w\ld suff]  =   
lack ( x4#bea ,a man's religi\s or      
political belief may be 8  own p]sonal  
conc]n2 b 8 ideas ( cleanl9ess & disease
  prev5tion are n4 ,p :o lay !mselves   
op5 to disease con/itute  a dang] to all
 ^? ar\nd !m4 ,9 e>li] days1 :5 !       
population  0 scatt]$ & n br\ght into   
contact ! ne$ = social control  ( !     
public heal? 0 less imp]ative4 ,today1  
:5 millions ( p  live 9 cr[d$ cities :]e
 !y come h\rly into contact ) "o  ano!r 
! safegu>d+ ( ! public heal? con/itutes 
a gov]nm5tal  task ( ! fir/ importance &
 magnitude4    ,old & ,new ,ideas       
,conc]n+ ,heal? ,protection4--,no sci5ce
 has made  great] progress dur+ ! pa/   
hundr$ ye>s ?an ! sci5ce (  prev5tive   
m$ic9e4 ,9 e>ly times all diseases 7    
look$ ^u z due  to ! same cause1 namely1

 ! ang] ( ! gods = "s misdo+ on  ! "p ( 
! individual or ! community4#beb ,!     
usual c\rse1 :5  a pe/il5ce came ^u ! p1
 0 to g ?r\gh c]emonies &  (f]          
sacrifices 9 ord] t ?is ang] might be   
appeas$4    ,sid5ote3 ,! great plagues (
 old5 days4    ,great plagues swept ov] 
,europe almo/ un*eck$ = a ?\s& ye>s4  ,9
 e community !re 7 heal]s & m$ic9e-m51  
:o claim$ to  possess magic arts 9 deal+
 ) all human ailm5ts b1 z a grim  tru?1 
nobody _h ! remote/ idea z to :at br\ght
 ^! epidemics1  or h[ !y 7 spread1 or   
:at might be done to prev5t !m4 ,x is   
said t ! ,black ,dea? 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury
 c>ri$ (f  "o-?ird ( all ! p 9 ,engl&4  
,:ole t[ns 7 swept out (  exi/5ce4 ,k   
conc]n+ ! nature ( disease & ! me?ods ( 
prev5t+ x develop$ v sl[ly = _m         
c5turies1 because _m  sup]/itions _h to 
be brok5 d[n1 & only )9 q mod]n times   
did heal? protection rea* ! /age :]e x  
c\ld prop]ly be call$  a sci5ce4        
,sid5ote3 ,! g]m !ory ( disease4        
,heal? protection did n atta9 a         

sci5tific basis1 9 fact1 until !  g]m   
!ory ( disease 0 work$ out & accept$4   
,?is !ory1 :i*  is simple en\gh 9 its   
elem5t>y pr9ciples1 completely          
recon/ruct$  ! ideas ( ! human race     
conc]n+ ! causes & me?ods (  prev5t+    
bodily ailm5ts4 ,x provid$ a complete   
explanation = _m  ?+s :i* _h be5 look$  
^u z utt] my/]ies4 ,! wond] is t  ! _w  
sp5t s _m c5turies 9 discov]+ x4 ,ev5 9 
! days (  ! ,roman ,empire intellig5t m5
 suspect$ t !re 0 "s  connection betwe5 
fil? & pe/il5ce2 b j :at ?is connection 
0 !y nev] 7 able to trace out           
satisfactorily1 nor did anyone  manage  
to d x = m ?an fifte5 hundr$ ye>s aft]  
!m4#bec ,h[  long x has sometimes tak5 !
 _w to move f "o /ep 9 k  to ! next6    
,sid5ote3 ,explanation ( ?is !ory4    ,!
 ,causes ( ,disease & ,infection4--,!   
g]m !ory ( disease may be  concisely    
/at$ 9 ?is way3 ,innum]able small       
organisms 7kn[n z  microbes1 bact]ia1   
bacilli1 or g]ms7 exi/ 9 ! air1 & 9 or  
^u  ne>ly all sub/ances4 ,^! organisms  

or g]ms are s small t !y  are invisible 
to ! eye unless a p[]ful microscope is  
us$4 ,!y are  s small t ?\s&s ( !m c    
assemble on ! head ( a p9 or 9  !       
smalle/ drop ( wat]4 ,sid5ote3 ,h>mless 
bact]ia4 ,mo/ ( !m  are h>mless2 & "s ( 
!m r5d] useful s]vice4 ,)\t ! aid (  ^! 
little organisms we c\ld n make *eese or
 v9eg>4 ,on ! o!r  h& ne>ly all organic 
decay1 ( :atev] sort1 is caus$ by !     
action  ( bact]ia4 ,:5 apples rot1 or   
milk gr[s s\r1 or butt] becomes  rancid1
 x is all due to bact]ial action4       
,bact]ia multiply )  extraord9>y        
rapidity :]ev] ! temp]ature & o!r       
conditions are  favorable2 mo/ species  
increase by division1 t is1 "o          
micro-organism divides itself into two1 
^! two into f\r1 & s on  by geometrical 
progression4 ,z successive divisions (t5
 take place  )9 a few h\rs x is easy to 
see h[ a v few g]ms today may  numb]    
millions tomorr[4 ,"u ! microscope mo/ (
 ! diff]5t  species c be id5tifi$1 = !y 
assume v>y+ %apes & display a  v>iety ( 

*>act]i/ics4    ,sid5ote3 ,h>mful       
bact]ia4    ,b al?\gh mo/ ( ^! dim9utive
 organisms are h>mless1 _m (  !m are :at
 sci5ti/s call pa?og5ic g]ms1 9 o!r     
words1 !y  are a m5ace to heal? :5 !y   
ga9 access to ! human body4 ,!  human   
body1 9 fact1 is ! mo/ favorable        
environm5t = ^!  disease-be>+ bacilli1 &
 mo/ ( !m c live b a %ort "t  outside ( 
x4 ,access may be ga9$ 9 v>i\s ways1 b  
pr9cipally  ?r\gh ! food & dr9k we      
consume1 or ?r\gh ! bites (  g]m-c>ry+  
insects4 ,! bact]ia1 :5 !y ga9 lodgm5t 9
 !  tissues ( ! body1 (t5 multiply )    
great rapidity1 creat+  poison\s        
sub/ances1 & ?us increase ! normal      
bodily temp]ature--a  condition :i* we  
speak ( z fev]4 ,:5 ! body is /rong &   
vigor\s1 x c sometimes ov]come & ?r[ (f 
! effects ( ?is  bact]ial action1 = !   
human blood1 "u normal conditions1      
possesses p[]s ( resi/ance to pa?og5ic  
g]ms2 b :5 p are  frail or exhau/$1 ?is 
p[] ( resi/ance is greatly dim9i%$ &  ! 
bacilli are enabl$ to ga9 ! upp] h&4    

,wat]-,borne ,diseases--,typhoid        
,fev]4--,"o way 9 :i* pa?og5ic  bacilli 
ga9 access to ! human body & produce    
disease may be  illu/rat$ by ! case (   
typhoid fev]4 ,fifty ye>s ago ?is       
disease  0 "o ( ! mo/ common 9 all      
c\ntries2 today x has be5 almo/         
entirely eradicat$ 9 civiliz$ l&s4 ,bo? 
armies 9 ! ,civil ,w>  lo/ ?\s&s ( m5   
?r\gh its ravages1 b 9 ! ,am]ican army  
dur+ ! ,_w ,w> !re 7 only a few cases4  
,accurate k (  ! way 9 :i* typhoid is   
transmitt$ has giv5 mank9d an almo/     
complete ma/]y ov] ?is sc\rge ( _m      
c5turies4    ,sid5ote3 ,! causes (      
typhoid & ! rem$ies4    ,typhoid is     
caus$ by a g]m :i* is mo/ commonly f\nd 
9 pollut$  wat]1 b sometimes makes its  
way into milk ?r\gh ! use ( wat] 9  wa%+
 cans & ut5sils4 ,x does n come f bad   
v5tilation1 sew]  gas1 a% piles1 or     
exposure to cold1 z "s p imag9e4 ,!     
typhoid  bacilli1 be+ tak5 into ! /oma* 
) wat]1 milk1 or any o!r  contam9at$    
n\ri%m5t1 f9d _! way into ! inte/9es &  

cause  inflammation !re1 ?us produc+ a  
fev]$ condition4 ,if ! sewage  f        
hospitals & homes :]e !re are typhoid   
pati5ts is n  c>efully gu>d$1 x gets    
into lakes1 riv]s1 or wells1 pollut+ !m 
& spread+ ! disease4 ,! elim9ation (    
typhoid is1 !re=e1  v l>gely a problem (
 protect+ ! wat] supply aga9/ contact  )
 human sewage4 ,?is is "o reason :y     
progressive communities are  giv+ s mu* 
att5tion & sp5d+ s mu* money ^u mod]n   
me?ods  ( sewage disposal & ^u ! rigor\s
 protection ( _! public  wat] supplies4 
,an epidemic ( typhoid is always !      
outcome (  somebody's ignorance or      
neglect4 ,x has be5 sugge/$1 ) a good   
deal  ( =ce1 t = e su* epidemic somebody
 ought to be put 9 jail4                
,insect-,borne ,diseases4--,ano!r way 9 
:i* disease-be>+ bacilli  obta9 access  
to ! human blood is ?r\gh ! bites (     
insects4  ,sid5ote3 ,! sc\rge ( yell[   
fev]4 ,fifty ye>s ago yell[ fev]  0 !   
great sc\rge ( all tropical c\ntries4   
,:5 ! ,fr5* built a  railway across !   

,i/hmus ( ,panama 9 #ahhe x is said t ! 
"w  co/ "o life = e tie 9 ! road1 s     
great 7 ! ravages (  yell[ fev] among ! 
labor]s4 ,b ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 tw5ty-odd  
ye>s  lat]1 succe$$ 9 digg+ a canal     
across ! ,i/hmus )\t ! loss  ( a s+le   
life f ?is disease4 ,"u ,spani% rule1   
,cuba 0 nev]  free f yell[ fev]2 ! isl& 
has be5 free f x s9ce !  ,am]icans      
clean$ x up4    ,sid5ote3 ,! w> ^u      
insects4    ,! *ange has be5 br\ght ab\t
 by ! discov]y t ! g]ms (  yell[ fev]   
are c>ri$ by a c]ta9 species ( mosquito 
:i*  transmits ! infection f a diseas$  
p]son to o!rs4 ,!  clean+-up ( /agnant  
pools 9 :i* ! mosquitoes bre$1 & !      
c>eful scre5+ ( doors & w9d[s has       
practically elim9at$ !  disease :]ev] ^!
 measures h be5 tak54 ,sub/antially !   
same  ?+ is true ( ! disease kn[n z     
mal>ia s f> z causes &  rem$ies are     
conc]n$4 ,typhus1 a fev] :i* has long   
be5 !  pe/il5ce ( backw>d c\ntries1 is  
transmitt$ f p]son to p]son  by ! common
 body-l\se or 8cootie04 ,cities1 armies1

 & ev5 :ole  c\ntries h be5 set free f  
?is plague by del\s+ op]ations1  t is by
 ! :olesale dis9fection ( clo?+ &       
p]sons4#bed  ,bubonic plague1 ! ,black  
,dea? ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :i* has swept  
ov]  ,asia & portions ( ,europe s _m    
times1 is transmitt$ by rat fleas4  ,o!r
 diseases besides yell[ fev]1 typhus1 & 
bubonic are kn[n to be  spread by       
insects1 & /ill o!rs are believ$ to be4 
,! common  h\se-fly is und\bt$ly a c>ri]
 ( typhoid g]ms f fil? &  sewage to !   
wat]1 milk1 & food supplies 9 homes &   
/ores4 ,!  _w w\ld be f> bett] (f if !  
:ole category ( disease-c>ry+  insects1 
mosquitoes1 lice1 fleas1 & flies1 c\ld  
be made z ext9ct z  ! dodo4    ,! ,wide 
,range ( ,disease & ,causes4--,n all    
diseases1 ( c\rse1 are  caus$ by pollut$
 food & dr9k or by ! transmission (     
insect-borne  bacilli4 ,"s are und\bt$ly
 caus$ by pa?og5ic g]ms ^: me?ods  (    
infection we d n yet "k4 ,!re are v>i\s 
!ories z to :at  c>ri$ influ5za f "o end
 ( ! _w to ! o!r dur+ #aiah b  none ( !m

 satisfactorily expla9 all t happ5$4 ,! 
epidemic 9  "o case broke out ^u a sail+
 %ip1 f> (f at sea1 six weeks aft]  x _h
 left port4 ,s disease /ill has its     
my/]ies1 yet unsolv$4  ,sid5ote3 ,?+s   
:i* cause & spread disease4 ,we "k1     
h[ev]1  t _m ailm5ts are ei!r directly  
caus$ or are facilitat$ by poor         
n\ri%m5t1 bad v5tilation1 lack (        
cleanl9ess1 physical exhau/ion1  & lax  
att5tion to p]sonal hygi5e4 ,"s are due 
also1 9 :ole or 9  "p1 to c]ta9 =ms or  
conditions ( "w1 & are commonly kn[n z  
occupational or indu/rial diseases4     
,su*1 = example1 is lead  poison+ 9 pa9t
 factories2 su* also is ! illness :i*   
(t5  ov]comes m5 work+ 9 tunnels & o!r  
places :]e compress$ air  is us$4 ,!    
spread ( tub]culosis1 ! great :ite      
plague ( today1 is  und\bt$ly due 9 "s  
measure to du/ & bad v5tilation4 ,!     
relations betwe5 diseases & occupations 
h n receiv$ c>eful  /udy until rec5t    
ye>s1 b x is believ$ t we %all          
ultimately  f9d ! causes ( _m human     

ailm5ts 9 ! conditions "u :i*  "s =ms ( 
indu/ry are c>ri$ on4    ,sid5ote3      
,indu/ry & ill heal?4    ,hygi5e (      
,factories & ,work%ops4--,because ( !   
unsanit>y  conditions :i* h be5 f\nd by 
inve/igation to exi/ 9 work%ops  &      
factories1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! l>ge cities1  
v>i\s /ates h  made laws & regulations  
to protect ! heal? ( employees 9 su*    
e/abli%m5ts4 ,"s trades1 su* z ! mak+ ( 
poison\s phosphor\s  mat*es1 h be5      
prohibit$ altoge!r4 ,o!rs1 by reason (  
_!  dang] to ! heal? ( ! work]s1 h be5  
subject$ to /rict  regulation4 ,!       
8sweat-%ops0 or t5em5t rooms 9 :i* wom5 
&  *ildr5 =m]ly work$ long h\rs = a m]e 
pittance1 cr[d$  toge!r ) almo/ no      
v5tilation--^! indu/rial dungeons h be5 
legislat$ out ( exi/5ce almo/ ev]y:]e4  
,work%ops & factories  mu/ n[ be        
commodi\s1 well-light$1 clean1 & prop]ly
 v5tilat$4  ,adequate sanit>y equipm5t  
mu/ be provid$4 ,x is ! duty ( !  /ate  
factory inspectors to see t all ^!      
requirem5ts are  fulfill$4    ,!        

,prev5tion ( ,disease--,individual      
,precautions4--,)\t !  co-op]ation (    
individuals no gov]nm5t c ma9ta9 a high 
/&>d  ( heal? among ! p4 ,all t ! public
 au?orities may d w  prove inadequate   
unless individuals !mselves1 "y & old1  
und]/& & obs]ve ! means (               
disease-prev5tion4 ,sid5ote3  ,physical 
fitness4 ,physical fitness is "o ( !    
greate/ bless+s any  man or woman c h1 &
 x is l>gely ! product ( /rict att5tion 
to ! upbuild+ ( ! body 9 e>ly ye>s4     
,!odore ,roosevelt 0 a  frail1 sickly   
lad 9 8 boyhood days4 ,he realiz$1 z he 
expla9s 9  8 autobiography1 t he c\ld   
nev] make a m>k$ success 9 life  )\t    
build+ up 8 physical vigor1 s he set    
ab\t do+ x1 & by  ! "t he _h rea*$ full 
manhood he 0 a model ( physical         
rugg$ness4 ,h[ did he manage x8 ,regul> 
habits1 out-(-door life1  prompt        
att5tion to m9or ailm5ts1 a ze/ = e =m (
 :olesome  sport1--^! ?+s trans=m$ a    
weakly y\? into ! /urdie/ man  t ev] sat
 9 ! presid5tial *air4    ,!re is no ne$

 to lay d[n any def9ite rules z to h[ ! 
"y m5  & wom5 ( ,am]ica may ga9 & ma9ta9
 a high /&>d ( heal? &  bodily vigor4   
,common s5se w sugge/ mo/ ( !m4 ,!      
besett+ s9  ( y\? is its prodigality1 ! 
wa/+ ( /r5g? t %\ld be  sav$ = ye>s to  
come1 & ! failure to realize t an       
individual's  heal? at ! age ( =ty or   
fifty dep5ds v l>gely ^u :at use  is    
made ( heal? opportunities dur+ ! ye>s f
 fifte5 to  tw5ty-five4 ,! glory ( a "y 
man is 8 /r5g?2 he does n  usually let 8
 m9d run ahead to ! day :5 he w be nei!r
 "y  nor /rong4 ,no inve/m5t t "y p c   
make w pay high]  divid5ds ?an t :i* is 
repres5t$ by ! "t1 ! ?\ght1 &  ! c>e    
sp5t ^u ! task ( keep+ well 9 e>ly ye>s4
    ,sid5ote3 ,qu>ant9e4    ,!          
,prev5tion ( ,communicable ,diseases3   
,qu>ant9e &  ,dis9fection4--,fir/ among 
! measures tak5 by ! public au?orities  
to prev5t ! spread ( communicable       
diseases are ! qu>ant9e  regulations :i*
 are en=c$ at all ! seaports "u !       
au?ority  ( ! national gov]nm5t4 ,day & 

night ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 !  heal? (fic]s /& 
gu>d at ^! ports to see t no            
disease-be>+ p]sons are p]mitt$ to l&4  
,vessels leav+ =eign  h>bors = ! ,unit$ 
,/ates mu/ secure a bill-(-heal? f !    
,am]ican consul be=e !y sail2 & ! fir/  
p]son :o goes on bo>d  an incom+ vessel 
aft] x takes on its pilot is ! qu>ant9e 
(fic]4 ,?is (ficial p]mits no pass5g]s  
to be l&$ until he has  made sure t !re 
are no p]sons afflict$ ) communicable   
disease  abo>d4 ,if !re are any su*     
cases1 ! pass5g]s are held until !      
dang] is pa/4 ,! v>i\s /ates & cities   
also ma9ta9 sy/ems (  heal?-inspection &
 qu>ant9e4 ,c]ta9 diseases 7includ+     
tub]culosis1 smallpox1 typhoid1 sc>let  
fev]1 pneumonia1 :oop+  c\gh1 diph!ria1 
measles1 mumps1 & s =?7 mu/ be promptly 
report$ to ! local heal? au?orities4 ,! 
local heal? regulations  require t 9    
case ( ! m readily communicable diseases
 ! h\se  be plac>d$4 ,9 extreme cases1 !
 pati5ts may be remov$ to an  isolation 
hospital4    ,sid5ote3 ,dis9fection4    

,aft] ! illness has t]m9at$1 !          
regulations usually provide t  !        
premises %all be dis9fect$ "u !         
sup]vision ( an (ficial  f ! heal?      
dep>tm5t4 ,e /ate1 z well z e city &    
t[n1  ma9ta9s g5]al regulations relat+  
to qu>ant9e & dis9fection1  ^! be+ en=c$
 by ! /ate heal? au?orities4 ,= ! mo/   
"p1  h[ev]1 ?is "w is sup]visory1 !     
detail$ en=cem5t ( ! rules  be+ left to 
! heal? (fic]s ( ! v>i\s communities1   
al?\gh  9 ! case ( epidemics1 involv+   
sev]al municipalities1 ! /ate  heal?    
au?orities usually assume direct        
control4 ,simil>ly1 :5  epidemics spread
 or ?reat5 to spread f "o /ate to ano!r1
 !  national heal? au?orities /ep 94#bee
    ,vacc9ation & ,inoculation4--,!     
practice ( vacc9at+ &  inoculat+ heal?y 
p]sons z a safegu>d aga9/ disease has   
be5 us$  = m ?an a c5tury4 ,vacc9ation  
consi/s 9 introduc+ vacc9e  into ! blood
 ( a heal?y p]son1 usually by mak+ an   
abrasion ( !  sk94 ,! vacc9e is obta9$ f
 heal? laboratories1 :]e x is  produc$ f

 ! blood ( artificially-infect$ cattle4 
,inoculation (  ! human blood is also   
widely us$ n[adays 9 ord] to prev5t or  
to  mitigate diph!ria1 typhoid1         
pneumonia1 & rabies4 ,all memb]s ( !    
,am]ican exp$ition>y =ces dur+ ! ,_w ,w>
 7 giv5 !  anti-typhoid inoculation4 ,x 
consi/$ ( inject+ into ! blood a        
quantity ( dead or greatly-weak5$       
typhoid bacilli4 ,!y 7 n  suffici5t to  
produce ! disease b !y 7 en\gh to set ! 
resi/+-p[]s ( ! blood 9 motion s t !    
latt] w\ld be  fully develop$ to meet a 
real infection if x %\ld come4          
,sid5ote3 ,%\ld vacc9ation be           
compulsory8    ,vacc9ation aga9/        
smallpox is compulsory 9 sev]al ( !     
/ates &  9 _m communities1 al?\gh !re is
 a good deal ( objection to x  among    
c]ta9 sections ( ! p4 ,if smallpox 7    
completely wip$  (f ! face ( ! e>? !re  
w\ld be no ne$ = univ]sal  vacc9ation2 b
 s long z num]\s cases exi/1 z !y /ill d
 9  _m c\ntries1 compulsory vacc9ation  
is likely to prove a ju/ifiable  measure

 ( public safety4    ,sid5ote3          
,importance ( ! milk supply4    ,milk   
,inspection4--,among all ! foods (      
humanity1 milk is probably !  mo/       
important4 ,x is ! *ief nutrition (     
*ildr5 until !y rea*  s*ool age1 &      
sometimes ev5 long]4 ,x =ms a l>ge      
factor 9 !  diet ( invalids4 ,ev5 9 !   
daily f>e ( robu/ adults1 x is an item  
( no small importance4 ,yet no article (
 ev]yday comm]ce is m  easily           
contam9at$1 & 9 ! case ( no o!r article 
are ! results  ( pollution likely to be 
s s]i\s4 ,= :5 ! g]ms ( disease get     
into milk1 !y multiply ) appall+        
rapidity & !y g directly  into ! diet ( 
^? :o h ! lea/ p[] to )/& infection1  ! 
*ildr5 & invalids ( ! community4        
,sid5ote3 ,! dang] ( pollution4    ,f   
its s\rce on ! f>ms milk passes ?r\gh   
sev]al h&s be=e  rea*+ ! consum]1 & at  
ea* ( ^! po9ts may be contam9at$4       
,c>eless milk+1 ! /or+ ( milk 9         
unsanit>y places or 9 unclean  ut5sils1 
! lack ( adequate precautions 9         

transport+ or deliv]+  ! milk--any ( ^! 
?+s may result 9 pollution4 ,/rict rules
 &  frequ5t inspection help to safegu>d 
! milk supply at ! s\rce &  dur+ its    
j\rney to ! consum]1 b ! problem (      
c>eful  inspection is r5d]$ difficult by
 ! fact t ! milk supplies (  l>ge cities
 are n[ drawn f a wide area outside !   
municipal  limits4 ,new ,york ,city1 =  
example1 obta9s its supply ( ne>ly two  
million qu>ts p] day f ab\t =ty-five    
?\s& f>ms scatt]$  ?r\gh\t eight diff]5t
 /ates4    ,sid5ote3 ,milk & ! infant   
dea? rate4    ,x is easy to appreciate !
 difficulties involv$ 9 ! sup]vision (  
! milk supply "u su* conditions4        
,nev]!less1 ?is sup]vision is  be+ c>ri$
 on 9 all l>ge communities & x has      
result$ 9 a  m>k$ l[]+ ( ! infant dea?  
rate4 ,infant mortality & ! milk  supply
 are closely relat$1 9 fact x c fairly  
be said t ! rate  ( ! "o dep5ds 9 a l>ge
 measure ^u ! purity ( ! o!r4 ,!        
e/abli%m5t ( milk-di/ribution /ations 9 
l>ge cities has be5 (  consid]able value

 9 enabl+ ! p ( ! cr[d$ sections to     
obta9 pure milk at reasonable prices4   
,! ,inspection ( ,food4--,! m>ket+ (    
impure or adult]at$ food is  ev]y:]e    
=bidd5 by ! laws & ! heal? regulations1 
b until  comp>atively rec5t ye>s ^!     
rules 7 n always /rictly  en=c$4 ,"o    
reason = ?is is to be f\nd 9 ! fact t _m
  articles ( food are subjects (        
int]/ate comm]ce1 produc$ 9 "o  /ate to 
be sold 9 ano!r1 & h5ce are n easily    
made am5able to  local control4         
,sid5ote3 ,! ,food & ,drugs ,act1 #aijf4
 ,9 #aijf1  h[ev]1 ,congress pass$ a    
compreh5sive law kn[n z ! ,food & ,drugs
  ,act1 by ! t]ms ( :i* ! national      
gov]nm5t assum$ ! duty (  elim9at+      
impure food f g5]al comm]ce4 ,?is act   
prohibit$ !  adult]ation ( food & drugs2
 x made provision = ! inspection (      
meats at ! great pack+ plants2 x requir$
 t all packages ( food  & drugs %all be 
br&$ correctly & t :5 artificial        
pres]vatives are us$1 ! label %all /ate 
! fact4 ,all impure1  adult]at$1 or     

wrongly-br&$ articles are exclud$ f     
int]/ate  comm]ce "u ! provisions ( ?is 
law4    ,sid5ote3 ,/ate inspection (    
food4    ,! sup]vision ( ! national     
gov]nm5t does n ext5d1 h[ev]1 to        
articles ( food :i* are produc$1        
di/ribut$1 & sold )9 !  t]ritory ( a    
s+le /ate4 ,z reg>ds su* articles1 !    
task (  protect+ ! public aga9/ impurity
 & adult]ation re/s ) !  /ate & local   
heal? (fic]s4 ,^! (fic]s p]=m _! "w by  
frequ5t inspection at places :]e food is
 produc$ & sold4 ,mak]s  & v5dors (     
impure or adult]at$ foods are prosecut$ 
9 !  ord9>y c\rts4    ,! ,drug          
,evil4--,! indiscrim9ate & un*eck$ sale 
( n>cotic drugs  7morph9e1 opium1 etc47 
9 pa/ ye>s l$ to s]i\s evils4 ,p]sons :o
  regul>ly use any ( ^! n>cotic drugs   
become slaves to ! habit2  !y are unable
 to get along )\t daily use ( !m1 & 9 ! 
end  become physical wrecks4 ,! drug    
habit became1 a few ye>s ago1 su* a     
widespread public evil t ! national     
gov]nm5t took ! manufacture  & sale ( ^!

 n>cotics "u its own sup]vision4 ,su*   
drugs _c  n[ be b\ght or sold except "u 
/rict regulations :i* involve !  writt5 
reque/ ( a qualifi$ physician4          
,nev]!less a good deal (  trade 9       
n>cotics is /ill c>ri$ on ?r\gh illicit 
*annels4    ,sid5ote3 ,prohibition z a  
heal? measure4    ,prohibition ( !      
,liquor ,traffic4--,! relation ( !      
liquor traffic  to ! public heal? is a  
matt] ^u :i* m5 h n entirely  agre$2 b x
 is a well-recogniz$ fact t ! g5]al use 
(  intoxicat+ liquors l$ 9 _m cases to  
pov]ty1 & pov]ty 9 turn  br\ght         
"u-n\ri%m5t & disease 9 its tra94 ,!    
action ( !  /ates 9 adopt+ ! ,eighte5?  
,am5dm5t1 by :i* ! manufacture1         
transportation1 & sale ( all intoxicants
 is =bidd51 may !re=e  be look$ ^u z a  
/ep :i*1 9 ! long run1 w conduce to !   
bett]m5t ( ! public heal?4 ,! excessive 
use ( alcohol impair$  ! physical vigor 
( _m ?\s&s among ! population & r5d]$   
!m less capable ( resi/+ disease4 ,!    
/ati/ics ( hospitals  dur+ ! p]iod t has

 int]v5$ s9ce prohibition w5t into      
effect  %[ t1 f a heal? /&po9t1 !       
,eighte5? ,am5dm5t has _h a  b5eficial  
effect4    ,wa/e ,disposal &            
,sew]age4--,e community produces ea* day
 a l>ge  am\nt ( wa/e :i* mu/ be        
collect$ & dispos$ ( 9 a sanit>y  mann] 
if ! int]e/s ( ! public heal? are to be 
fully protect$4  ,"s ( ?is wa/e conta9s 
little or no elem5t ( dang]--a%es1 wa/e 
pap]1 & rubbi% ( all sorts1 = example4  
,! removal ( ?is  mat]ial is a matt] (  
public conv5i5ce r ?an ( public heal?   
protection4 ,z a rule x is drawn away & 
ei!r us$ = fill+ m>%  l& or inc9]at$4   
,sid5ote3 ,g>bage4 ,ano!r =m ( wa/e is  
g>bage1 :i* includes ! disc>d$ mat]ial f
 m>kets1 bak]ies1  hotels1 re/aurants1 &
 private dwell+s4 ,?is g>bage decomposes
  quickly & mu/ be ga!r$ at frequ5t     
int]vals4 ,9 "s communities  ! g>bage is
 dispos$ ( by inc9]ation2 9 o!rs x is   
sold to  f>m]s = fe$+ sw9e2 a few cities
 utilize x 9 r$uction plants1  :]e !    
grease & oil is extract$ = comm]cial    

use4    ,sid5ote3 ,sewage4    ,sewage1  
:i* includes bo? surface wat] & ! liquid
 wa/e f  places ( human abode1 is by f> 
! mo/ dang]\s wa/e ( all4  ,al?\gh x is 
m ?an n9ety-n9e p] c5t wat]1 e ounce    
conta9s ! possibility ( spread+ disease4
 ,sid5ote3 ,old] me?ods  ( disposal4    
,?is effluvia1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! sew]s 
& dra9s1  0 at "o "t ev]y:]e dispos$ (  
by turn+ x into ! ocean1  lakes1 or     
riv]s4 ,ev5 yet _m cities ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates get rid (  _! sewage 9 t way4 ,! 
me?od is n objectionable 9 ! case (     
ocean dis*>ge1 provid$ ! outfall sew] is
 c>ri$ a suffici5t  di/ance f ! %ore1   
al?\gh ev5 9 su* cases "s ( ! sewage    
may be borne l&w>d by ! incom+ tides to 
pollute ! %ellfi%  b$s & ! bea*es4 ,!   
sewage ( _m cities along ! ,great ,lakes
 is  dis*>g$ into ^! ext5sive bodies (  
fre% wat] :]e ! am\nt  ( dilution is s  
great t no s]i\s h>m results1 provid$ no
 wat]  = human consumption is drawn f ! 
imm$iate neighborhood ( !  dis*>ge      
po9ts4 ,! "t w d\btless come1 h[ev]1 :5 

!  increas+ volume ( sewage w compel ^! 
cities to adopt o!r  me?ods ( disposal4 
,! dis*>ge ( untreat$ sewage into riv]s 
&  small /reams is n[ g5]ally reg>d$ z a
 public nuisance1 & !  ab&onm5t ( !     
practice is be+ requir$ by ! laws :]ev] 
practicable4 ,_m cities1 h[ev]1 yet     
resort to ?is me?od4    ,sid5ote3 ,mod]n
 sewage sy/ems4    ,mod]n1 sci5tific    
me?ods ( sewage disposal h tak5 sev]al  
diff]5t =ms4 ,a common plan is to       
conduct ! sewage into huge  res]voirs1  
bas9s1 or tanks1 :]e ! solids are all[$ 
to settle &  =m a sludge :ile ! liquid  
is run (f into ! ocean or a lake or a   
riv]4 ,! settl+ process is sometimes    
ha/5$ by ! use (  *emicals4 ,?is does n 
free ! wat]ways f dang] b x is a good   
deal less objectionable ?an ! practice (
 turn+ untreat$ sewage  into !m4 ,"s    
cities pump ! sewage ^u filt] b$s       
7tracts ( l&  :i* h be5 dug out & fill$ 
) slag or o!r por\s  sub/ances74 ,a few 
use _! sewage = ! irrigation ( dry f>m+ 
l&s4 ,no p>ticul> plan ( sewage disposal

 c be reg>d$ z ! be/  "u all            
circum/ances4 ,local conditions diff] f 
"o community to  ano!r1 & ea* case      
requires special /udy4 ,ord9>ily a l>ge 
t[n  or city w produce ne>ly two hundr$ 
gallons ( sewage p] day =  e man1 woman1
 & *ild 9 its population4 ,?is means an 
enorm\s  total 9 ! c\rse ( a ye> & !    
problem ( h&l+ x safely1  )\t excessive 
exp5se1 is (t5 a difficult "o4 ,x may   
well be  repeat$1 h[ev]1 t s f> z !     
public heal? is conc]n$1 sewage  is !   
mo/ dang]\s sub/ance kn[n to man1 & its 
safe disposal is  "o ( ! mo/ important  
problems ( ! gov]nm5t 9 e civiliz$      
community4    ,! ,protection ( ! ,public
 ,wat] ,supply4--,! great importance (  
an  adequate & safe wat] supply is      
some?+ :i* h>dly requires a long        
argum5t4 ,9 ! rural di/ricts & 9 small  
villages ! neighbor+  wells & spr+s may 
be utiliz$1 b 9 l>ge communities1       
especially  ^? hav+ num]\s indu/ries1 a 
public supply mu/ be provid$4  ,sid5ote3
 ,h[ mu* wat] is ne$$8 ,x is cu/om>ily  

figur$ t  l>ge t[ns & cities require    
approximately & on ! av]age "o  hundr$  
gallons ( wat] p] capita e day 9 ! ye>4 
,half-a-ton (  wat] p] day p] p]son6    
,:at is done ) x all8 ,n all ( x1 (     
c\rse1 is us$ = human consumption4 ,by  
f> ! great] "p is  utiliz$ = public1    
indu/rial1 & g5]al sanit>y purposes4    
,spr9kl+ p>ks & lawns1 putt+ out fires1 
flu%+ sew]s--all ^!  activities require 
l>ge am\nts ( wat]4 ,factories1         
laundries1  railroads1 & o!r su*        
e/abli%m5ts make heavy dem&s on ! total 
supply4 ,s does ! mod]n sanit>y equipm5t
 :i* is n[ be+  in/all$ almo/ ev]y:]e 9 
hotels1 /ores1 & h\ses4 ,! am\nt (  wat]
 requir$ = human consumption is v small 
comp>$ ) !  quantities us$ 9 ^! o!r     
ways4    ,! fir/ ess5tial ( a           
satisfactory wat] supply1 !re=e1 is t  x
 be adequate1 :i* means t l>ge cities   
mu/ (t5 g a long  di/ance 9 ord] to     
obta9 wat] 9 suffici5t quantities4      
,sid5ote3  ,s\rces ( supply4 ,new ,york 
,city d]ives a l>ge "p ( its wat] f  !  

,catskill ,m\nta9s2 ,los ,angeles br+s  
its entire supply f !  ,si]ra ,nevadas1 
m ?an two hundr$ & fifty miles away4#bef
 ,_m  o!r cities obta9 _! wat] close at 
h&3 ,*icago1 = example1  draws f ,lake  
,mi*igan1 & ,clevel& f ,lake ,erie4     
,adequacy1  h[ev]1 is n ! only          
consid]ation4 ,= use 9 ! indu/ries1 wat]
  mu/ be cle> 9 color & n too h>d4 ,:5 x
 is turbid or h>d1 x  has to be cl>ifi$ 
& s(t5$ by /orage & ! use ( *emicals4   
,! relative purity ( ! wat]1 its fre$om 
f pollution1 is !  mo/ important        
consid]ation ( all4    ,sid5ote3 ,!     
treatm5t ( wat] = human use4    ,!re are
 v>i\s ways ( mak+ sure t wat] is fit = 
human  consumption4 ,"o way is to secure
 ! supply f a s\rce :i* is by  nature   
free f pollution1 f deep-driv5 wells or 
f m\nta9  lakes :i* are above ! level ( 
probable contam9ation4 ,wat]  supplies  
drawn f v l>ge bodies ( wat]1 l ! ,great
 ,lakes1  are normally safe en\gh if !  
intake is set f> out f %ore1  because ! 
dilut+ p[] ( ^! va/ wat] areas is       

suffici5t to  r5d] h>mless ev5 a        
consid]able am\nt ( pollution by sewage 
dis*>ge4 ,:]e a wat] supply ( suffici5t 
natural purity _c be  _h )9 reasonable  
di/ance ! only safe plan is to subject !
  wat] to su* l5g? ( /orage1 or to su*  
me*anical or *emical  treatm5t z w      
ensure its fitness = use4 ,! /orage (   
wat] 9 a  res]voir1 expos$ to ! light & 
air1 w r5d] x safe1 "u  normal          
conditions4 ,! l5g? ( "t requir$ = ?is  
purpose w  dep5d1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! quality 
( ! wat] :i* is put into !  res]voir4 ,a
 p]iod ( ?ree mon?s is ord9>ily reg>d$ z
 suffici5t  :]e ! raw wat] has n be5    
badly contam9at$4 ,! me*anical  treatm5t
 ( wat] is commonly kn[n z filtration1 &
 !re are  sev]al =ms ( public           
wat]-filtration plants n[ 9 use by      
,am]ican  cities4 ,! simple/ is ! sy/em 
( sl[ s& filt]s 9 :i* !  wat] is treat$ 
by all[+ x to p]colate sl[ly ?r\gh a b$ 
(  s& & cru%$ /one1 !reby becom+ rid (  
noxi\s bact]ia4 ,a m  complicat$ me?od  
involves ! use ( rapid s& filt]s 9 :i* !

  raw wat] is =c$ ?r\gh filt]b$s ( cru%$
 /one "u  pressure4#beg    ,smoke       
,abatem5t4--,pure air is ano!r ess5tial 
to ! ma9t5ance (  ! public heal?4 ,rural
 p>ts ( ! c\ntry enc\nt] no difficulty  
on  ?is score1 b ! l>g] cities are n[   
f9d+ x necess>y to  protect ! air :i* _!
 citiz5s h to brea!4 ,9 ^! days (       
smoke-bel*+ indu/ry1 ! v atmosph]e ( !  
l>ge city is lad5  ) a m5ace to heal? & 
cleanl9ess4 ,an inve/igation made 9 ,new
  ,york "s ye>s ago disclos$ ! fact t   
sulphur dioxide 7a poison\s  gas7 0 be+ 
dis*>g$ into ! air by ! smoke/acks &    
*imneys  ( ! city at an appall+ rate4 ,!
 elem5t>y /ud5t ( *emi/ry  c well te/ify
 t ,,s#b is n a sub/ance t human be+s   
?rive  ^u4 ,& ap>t f ! m5ace to heal?   
!re is ! heavy damage done  by soot-lad5
 atmosph]e to ! furni%+s ( h\ses & !    
cont5ts  ( %ops4 ,h5ce ! agitation 9 !  
l>ge cities = an abatem5t (  ?is smoke  
nuisance & ! e/abli%m5t ( regulations   
:i* n[1 9  _m places1 require ! use (   
me*anical smoke consum]s by all l>ge    

indu/ries4 ,! en=cem5t ( ?is requirem5t 
is n at all difficult1  because any     
violation is visible to ! nak$ eye4     
,sid5ote3 ,ov]cr[d+ & disease4    ,!    
,h\s+ ( ! ,p4--,by ! homes ( a t[n or   
city y may  judge its p4 ,! prop] h\s+ (
 ! population has a close  relation to  
_m ?+s1 b to none is ?is relation clos] 
?an to !  public heal?4 ,:5 ! p are h]d$
 toge!r 9 t5em5ts1 )  d>k & n>r[        
hallways1 ) rooms badly v5tilat$ & (t5  
)\t  sunlight1 we h a f]tile soil = !   
spread ( tub]culosis4 ,m  ?an t5 ?\s&   
p]sons die ea* ye> 9 ! t5em5t di/ricts (
 ,new  ,york ,city f ! ,great ,:ite     
,plague alone4 ,! *ildr5 :o gr[ up 9    
conge/$ qu>t]s1 moreov]1 g out into ! _w
 h&icapp$ 9 bo?  body & s\l4 ,_! p[]s ( 
resi/ance to disease are (t5 s]i\sly    
impair$ by ! cr[d+1 poor v5tilation1 &  
lack ( prop] sanit>y  arrangem5ts4 ,an  
inve/igation ( h\s+ conditions made 9   
,new ,york  ,city ov] tw5ty ye>s ago l$ 
to ! enactm5t ( a compreh5sive  ,t5em5t 
,h\se ,law 7#aija7 9 ord] to prev5t     

ov]cr[d+1 & ! ma9  provisions ( ?is law 
h s9ce be5 copi$ by mo/ ( ! l>g]  cities
 ( ! c\ntry4#beh    ,sid5ote3 ,h\s+     
exp]im5ts abroad4    ,9 "s ,european    
cities1 notably ,glasg[ & ,london1 _m   
municipal  t5em5ts h be5 erect$4 ,cr[d$ 
slums h be5 demoli%$ &  model h\ses1 ea*
 accommodat+ "o or m families1 h be5    
erect$  9 _! place by ! use ( public    
money4 ,^! t5em5ts are !n  r5t$ to      
work]s at reasonable rates4 ,?is plan   
has n yet be5 tri$  on any l>ge scale 9 
! ,unit$ ,/ates nor w\ld x be likely to 
prove  v satisfactory s long z city     
adm9i/ration1 9 all its bran*es1  is    
conduct$ s wa/efully z x is 9 ,am]ica   
today4 ,dur+ ! ,_w  ,w>1 h[ev]1 ! f$]al 
gov]nm5t built _m hundr$s ( workm5's    
dwell+s 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry1      
p>ticul>ly 9 !  neighborhood ( ! great  
%ipbuild+ plants4 ,aft] ! w> !y 7  sold 
to private buy]s4    ,x is (t5 urg$ t   
in/ead ( build+ model t5em5ts 9 cr[d$   
sections1 ! au?orities ( l>ge cities    
ought to promote ! gr[? (  suburbs by   

giv+ !m good transportation facilities1 
& by promptly  supply+ ^! suburban      
di/ricts ) sew]s1 wat] supply1 gas1     
electricity1 & pav$ roads4 ,p :o g to ! 
suburbs n only h  m room1 b !y are mu* m
 likely 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 to own  _!      
homes4 ,sid5ote3 ,! importance ( own+ a 
home4 ,home-own+ is  a practice :i*     
ought to be enc\rag$1 n only = reasons (
 heal?  & recreation1 b to /eady !      
political temp] ( ! p z  well4 ,! man :o
 owns a piece ( ! e>?'s surface1 ) a    
h\se on  x t he calls 8 home1 is n (t5 a
 believ] 9 viol5ce or  revolution4 ,a   
great deal ( hone/ s5tim5t clu/]s ab\t !
 ,am]ican  home1 b v little c ev] atta* 
to ?ree or f\r rooms 9 a  t5em5t h\se4  
,o!r ,measures ( ,public ,heal?         
,protection4--,! =ego+ li/ does  n      
exhau/ ! v>i\s measures tak5 by !       
au?orities ( ! nation1  /ate1 & city = !
 protection ( ! public heal?4 ,! laws & 
regulations :i* n[ prohibit ! use (     
public dr9k+-cups on  tra9s1 9 s*ools1 &
 9 o!r public places may be m5tion$4 ,! 

common cup has be51 9 ! pa/1 an active  
spread] ( infection4 ,its  use ought to 
be =bidd5 ev]y:]e4 ,measures = !        
elim9ation (  mosquitoes & h\se-flies h 
be5 tak5 by all ! m progressive  /ates &
 cities ) aid at _m po9ts f ! national  
gov]nm5t4  ,! /atem5t has be5 made1 ^u  
:at seems to be good au?ority1 t        
mosquitoes1 flies1 & o!r insect pe/s are
 directly or indirectly  responsible = a
 hundr$ ?\s& dea?s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates e  
ye>4 ,:atev] _! numb]1 ^! dea?s are     
prev5table1 because a  dilig5t campaign 
w suffice to bani% bo? flies &          
mosquitoes f  any "p ( ! c\ntry4 ,!     
m$ical inspection ( *ildr5 9 !  s*ools  
is ano!r heal? measure ( great          
importance4 ,9 _m ( !  l>g] cities ?is  
inspection includes all s*ool *ildr51 ( 
:atev]  age1 & is made at frequ5t       
int]vals4 ,x p]mits ! e>ly detection  ( 
symptoms & ?us all[s rem$ies to be      
appli$ promptly4 ,x has done  a great   
deal to protect ! s*ools aga9/ ! frequ5t
 outbreak (  epidemics4    ,h[ ,heal?   

,measures are ,en=c$4--,! duty ( en=c+  
measures =  ! protection ( ! public     
heal? re/s fir/ ( all ^u ! local  heal? 
(fic]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,local bo>ds ( heal?4 
,! laws ( mo/  /ates n[ require t a bo>d
 ( heal? or "s simil> au?ority  %all be 
ma9ta9$ 9 e t[n%ip1 village1 t[n1 &     
city4 ,"o (  ! memb]s ( ?is bo>d ( heal?
 mu/ usually be a physician4 ,9  l>ge   
t[ns & cities a qualifi$ heal? (fic]1 :o
 is always a  physician1 is employ$ on  
"p "t or full "t4 ,! local bo>ds (      
heal? & ! heal? (fic]s h *>ge ( qu>ant9e
 &  dis9fection1 ! inspection ( food &  
milk1 & ! en=cem5t (  sanit>y           
regulations4 ,!y also grant p]mits = !  
ma9t5ance (  slaught]-h\ses & o!r       
e/abli%m5ts :i* h a direct or  indirect 
relation to ! public heal?4    ,sid5ote3
 ,/ate heal? (fic]s4    ,9 practically  
all ! /ates1 moreov]1 !re is a ,/ate    
,dep>tm5t (  ,heal?4 ,?is dep>tm5t is   
usually "u ! sup]vision ( a ,/ate  ,bo>d
 ( ,heal?1 b 9 a few /ates a s+le heal? 
commission] has  be5 plac$ 9 *>ge4 ,!   

p[]s & duties ( ^! /ate dep>tm5ts  v>y a
 good deal ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 b 9 a g5]al
 way !y  assi/ ! local heal? au?orities1
 especially :5 an epidemic  ?reat5s to  
spread beyond local control4 ,a good    
deal ( _! "w is  advisory 9 "*4         
,sid5ote3 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,public      
,heal? ,s]vice    ,! ,unit$ ,/ates      
,public ,heal? ,s]vice 0 e/abli%$ 9     
#aiab1  al?\gh heal? "w _h be5 c>ri$ on 
by ! national gov]nm5t  ?r\gh o!r       
ag5cies prior to t date4 ,x is1 r       
/rangely1 a  bureau ( ! ,treasury       
,dep>tm5t4 ,! ,public ,heal? ,s]vice has
 *>ge  ( ! port qu>ant9e sy/em2 its     
assi/ance may be obta9$ by !  /ates at  
any "t 9 cop+ ) epidemics2 & x ma9ta9s  
well-equipp$ rese>* laboratories = !    
/udy ( all que/ions  affect+ ! public   
heal?4 ,x is believ$ by _m physicians t 
!  "w ( ?is bureau is s important t x   
ought to be made a regul>  dep>tm5t ( ! 
national adm9i/ration ) a memb] ( !     
cab9et  at its head4#bei    ,sid5ote3   
,:at ! s*ools c d4    ,education & !    

,public ,heal?4--,! basis ( successful  
public heal?  "w is ! education ( p 9   
hygi5e & sanitation4 ,if ! p  c be      
br\ght to realize ! transc5d5t          
importance ( ! "w1 _!  co-op]ation w be 
giv5 *e]fully4 ,:]e ! heal? regulations 
are  n[ disobey$ x is l>gely because _! 
value to ! individual1 z  well z to !   
community1 has n be5 made cle>4 ,an     
effective me?od  ( educat+ ! public is  
by means ( heal? exhibits :i*           
demon/rate1 ) ! aid ( pictures1         
especially motion pictures1 !  value (  
prop] hygi5ic conditions 9 ! work%op & !
 home4 ,b  ! ultimate education ( ! :ole
 p 9 ?is field1 z 9 all  o!rs1 mu/ be   
prim>ily ! "w ( ! s*ools4 ,x is easi] to
 tea*  hygi5e & sanitation to *ildr5 ?an
 to gr[n-ups4 ,adults h  acquir$ habits 
( life & attitudes ( m9d :i* are h>d to 
alt]4  ,h5ce ! education ( *ildr5 9 all 
t relates to clean liv+1  :olesome food1
 mod]n sanitation1 & ! avoidance (      
disease %\ld  be "p ( ! regul> "w 9     
s*ools ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,^u ?is  w     

dep5d1 9 no small degree1 ! future      
physical well-be+ ( !  nation4          
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1    
,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #fh-ib2      
,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,! ,heal? ( ! ,city1
 especially pp4 #a-bi2    ,w4 ,h4       
,,all51 ,civics & ,heal?1 pp4 #c-cb2    
,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1 see "u 
,heal?1 ,contagi\s  ,diseases1          
,qu>ant9e1 ,t5em5t ,h\se ,regulation1   
etc42    ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,pr9ciples &  
,me?ods ( ,municipal ,adm9i/ration1 pp4 
#abb-aff 7,wat] ,supply72 pp4 #afg-baj  
7,sew]age & ,sanitation72    ,h4 ,b4    
,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically        
,appli$1 especially pp4 #bje-bcb  7,pure
 ,foods72 pp4 #bcc-bgg 7,clean ,milk72  
,,irv+ ,,fi%] & ,l4 ,b4 ,,fisk1 ,h[ to  
,live1 pp4 #aai-afh2    ,,walt] ,,camp1 
,keep+ ,fit ,all ! ,way1 pp4 #c-da2     
,,*>les ,,bask]ville1 ,municipal        
,*emi/ry1 pp4 #a-ai2    ,,milton ,j4    
,,ros5au1 ,prev5tive ,m$ic9e & ,hygi5e1 
pp4 #gaf-gde2    ,w4 ,t4 ,,s$gwick1     
,pr9ciples ( ,sanit>y ,sci5ce & !       

,public ,heal?1  pp4 #hi-ajg2    ,e4 ,b4
 ,,hoag & ,l4 ,m4 ,,t]man1 ,heal? ,"w 9 
! ,s*ools1 pp4 #acc-aia4                
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,h[ c ! spread ( 
communicable diseases be prev5t$8 ,are !
  vital /ati/ics ( y\r community        
c>efully & promptly compil$8 ,!  local  
heal? au?orities1--:o are !y & :at are  
_! functions8  ,:at control is ex]cis$  
ov] ! ag5cies :i* spread disease8       
,exam9e ! /atus ( ea* 9 y\r own         
community4 ,ref]5ces3 ,,milton  ,j4     
,,ros5au1 ,prev5tive ,m$ic9e & ,hygi5e1 
pp4 #acd-aeh2 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1           
,sanitation ,practically ,appli$1 pp4   
#ff-aeb2 ,,woods ,,hut*9son1            
,prev5table ,diseases1 pp4 #hc-abb2     
,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,! ,heal? ( !       
,city1 pp4 #aeh-aic2 ,g4 ,c4 ,,:ipple1  
,/ate ,sanitation1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4        
#hh-aab2 see also ! ,unit$ ,/ates       
,public ,heal? ,s]vice1 ,repr9ts on  !  
,notifiable ,diseases1 & ! reports ( !  
/ate & local ,bo>ds  ( ,heal?4    #b4   
,public wat] supplies4 ,ref]5ces3 ,w4   

,b4 ,,munro1 ,pr9ciples &  ,me?ods (    
,municipal ,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #abb-aff2 
,h4 ,g4 ,,james1  ,municipal ,functions1
 pp4 #bag-bbg2 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1          
,sanitation ,practically  ,appli$1 pp4  
#bgh-ccg2 ,,all5 ,,haz51 ,clean ,wat] & 
,h[ to ,get ,x1 #b;d  ed41 pp4 #gc-ii2  
,,*>les ,,bask]ville1 ,municipal        
,*emi/ry1 pp4 #cc-hi2  ,f4 ,e4          
,,turneaure & ,h4 ,l4 ,,russell1 ,public
 ,wat] ,supplies1 pp4 #ada-agb4    #c4  
,mod]n me?ods ( sewage disposal4        
,ref]5ces3 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1  ,pr9ciples 
& ,me?ods ( ,municipal ,adm9i/ration1   
pp4 #ahc-baj2 ,h4 ,g4  ,,james1         
,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #bbg-bcg2 ,h4
 ,b4 ,,wood1 ,sanitation  ,practically  
,appli$1 pp4 #cch-cgh2 ,,john ,a4       
,,fairlie1 ,municipal  ,adm9i/ration1   
pp4 #bde-bee2 ,,*>les ,,bask]ville1     
,municipal  ,*emi/ry1 pp4 #bgf-bii2 ,w4 
,p4 ,,capes & ,j4 ,d4 ,,c>p5t]1         
,municipal  ,h\seclean+1 pp4 #cc-hi2 ,g4
 ,w4 ,,full]1 ,sewage ,disposal1 pp4    
#age-ahc2  ,,leon>d ,,metcalf & ,h4 ,p4 

,,eddy1 ,am]ican ,sew]age ,practice1    
,vol4 ,,ii1  pp4 #gh-abg2 ,a4 ,p4       
,,folwell1 ,sew]age1 pp4 #cjj-ccb2 ,l4  
,p4 ,,k9nicut1 ,c4  ,a4 ,e4 ,,w9sl[1 &  
,a4 ,w4 ,,pratt1 ,sewage ,disposal1 pp4 
#bjd-bcb4    #d4 ,! milk "q4 ,ref]5ces3 
,,*>les ,,bask]ville1 ,municipal        
,*emi/ry1 pp4 #ij-aah2 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1  
,sanitation ,practically ,appli$1  pp4  
#bcc-bgg2 ,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,! ,heal? 
( ! ,city1 pp4 #cj-eg2 ,m4 ,j4          
,,ros5au1 ,! ,milk ,"q1 pp4 #a-bb2 ,j4  
,s4 ,,macnutt1 ,! ,mod]n ,milk          
,problem1 pp4 #a-cj2 ,h4 ,n4 ,,p>k]1    
,city ,milk ,supply1 pp4 #bh-ij2 ,g4 ,c4
  ,,:ipple1 ,typhoid ,fev]1 pp4 #da-ia4 
#e4 ,h\s+ 9 its relation to public      
heal?4 ,ref]5ces3 ,,hollis  ,,godfrey1  
,! ,heal? ( ! ,city1 pp4 #cjb-cde2 ,f4  
,c4 ,,h[e1 ,! ,mod]n  ,city & ,its      
,problems1 pp4 #bgc-bhh2 ,,jacob ,a4    
,,riis1 ,h[ ! ,o!r ,half  ,lives1 pp4   
#g-bg2 ,,lawr5ce ,,veill]1 ,h\s+ ,re=m1 
pp4 #c-df4                              
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! g]m !ory (      

disease4 ,c4 ,v4 ,,*ap91 ,! ,s\rces &   
,modes (  ,infection1 pp4 #a-ch2 ,c4 ,b4
 ,,morrey1 ,! ,fundam5tals (            
,bact]iology1  pp4 #ah-ca4    #b4       
,typhoid fev]4 ,ill9ois ,/ate ,bo>d (   
,heal?1 ,typhoid ,fev]3 ,its  ,cause1   
,prev5tion1 & ,suppression1 pp4 #b-ag4  
#c4 ,insects & disease4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1 
,sanitation ,practically ,appli$1  pp4  
#dbj-ddd4    #d4 ,vital /ati/ics4       
,ibid41 pp4 #be-fe2 ,g4 ,c4 ,,:ipple1   
,vital  ,/ati/ics1 pp4 #cjh-ccg4    #e4 
,s\rces ( wat] supply4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 
,pr9ciples & ,me?ods (  ,municipal      
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #abb-adb4    #f4 ,!  
disposal ( g>bage4 ,ibid41 pp4 #afg-ahc4
    #g4 ,! inspection ( food4 ,h4 ,b4   
,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically        
,appli$1 pp4 #bje-bcb4    #h4 ,! smoke  
nuisance4 ,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,! ,heal? 
( ! ,city1 pp4  #a-h4 7,see also ,unit$ 
,/ates ,bureau ( ,m9es1 ,bullet91 ,no4  
#di47    #i4 ,t5em5t-h\se re=m4 ,c4 ,a4 
,,be>d1 ,am]ican ,city ,gov]nm5t1 pp4   
#bhg-caj4    #aj4 ,municipal h\s+       

abroad4 ,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,! ,heal? ( 
!  ,city1 pp4 #bfc-cja2 ,f4 ,c4 ,,h[e1  
,! ,mod]n ,city & ,its ,problems1 pp4   
#bhd-cjd4    #aa4 ,! "w ( local heal?   
au?orities4 ,,moses ,n4 ,,bak]1         
,municipal  ,eng9e]+ & ,sanitation1 pp4 
#bdh-beh2 ,,h5ry ,,bru,,re1 ,! ,new     
,city  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #dja-dac4    #ab4 
,heal? & education4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1     
,sanitation ,practically  ,appli$1 pp4  
#dde-dfb2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,burks & ,j4 ,d4     
,,burks1 ,heal? & !  ,s*ool1 pp4        
#gc-ajb2 ,e4 ,b4 ,,hoag & ,l4 ,m4       
,,t]man1 ,heal? ,"w 9 !  ,s*ools1 pp4   
#a-ce4                                  
,que/ions    #a4 ,f y\r read+ ( hi/ory &
 lit]ature give "s examples ( !  way    
diseases 7 dealt ) 9 ! old5 days4    #b4
 ,:at are bacilli8 ,make a li/ ( ! ?+s1 
b5eficial1 h>mless1  & h>mful :i* are   
due to _! activities4    #c4 ,expla9 !  
v>i\s ways 9 :i* disease may be         
communicat$4 ,h[  are ! foll[+ measures 
relat$ to ! control ( communicable      
diseases3 7a7 qu>ant9e2 7b7 ! dra9+ (   

m>%es2 7c7 !  removal ( fil?2 7d7 !     
ext]m9ation ( rats2 7e7 ! en=cem5t  (   
regulations to prev5t ov]cr[d+ 9        
t5em5ts8    #d4 ,:at are vital /ati/ics 
& :at is _! value8 ,h[ are !y  compil$ &
 by :at means may !y be improv$8    #e4 
,expla9 :at is meant by vacc9ation4 ,by 
inoculation4 ,give "s  evid5ce to prove 
t bo? h be5 effective4    #f4 ,:y is    
milk inspection ( supreme importance8 ,9
 :at v>i\s ways  may milk become        
infect$8 ,:y %\ld milk be kept 9 a cool 
place8    #g4 ,d y und]/& ! foll[+ t]ms3
 adult]ation2 artificial  pres]vatives2 
misbr&+2 ptoma9e2 n>cotics8    #h4 ,"n !
 v>i\s wa/es :i* ! community produces   
ea* day &  expla9 h[ ea* may be safely  
dispos$ (4    #i4 ,9 :at ways may wat]  
be treat$ s z to make x safe = human    
consumption8    #aj4 ,:y & 9 :at way is 
x necess>y to regulate ! h\s+ ( !  p 9  
l>ge cities8    #aa4 ,:at are ! duties (
 ! local bo>d ( heal? 9 y\r community8  
,! /ate dep>tm5t ( heal?8    #ab4 ,ought
 hygi5e to be a compulsory /udy 9 !     

public high s*ools8                     
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,vacc9ation    
%\ld be made compulsory ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$
 ,/ates4    #b4 ,am]ican cities %\ld    
con/ruct & ma9ta9 municipal t5em5ts4    
#c4 ,free m$ical att5dance %\ld be      
provid$ at ! public exp5se =  all :o _c 
af=d to pay = x4    -----    ,footnote  
#bea3      ,measures = ! promotion &    
protection ( ! public heal? h a    m>k$ 
effect ^u ! dea? rate4 ,fifty ye>s ago x
 0 n at all    uncommon to f9d1 9       
,am]ican cities & t[ns1 an annual dea?  
rate    ( ?irty p]sons p] ?\s& (        
population4 ,today ?is rate has         
ev]y:]e be5 cut 9 two4 ,ev5 9 l>ge c5t]s
 ( population l    ,new ,york & ,*icago 
! annual dea? rate1 9 normal ye>s1 is n[
    bel[ fifte5 p] ?\s&4 ,?is means1 (  
c\rse1 t ! av]age    duration ( life1   
tak+ ! population z a :ole1 has be5     
l5g!n$4 ,! l[]$ dea? rate has probably  
add$ sev5 or eight    additional ye>s to
 ! av]age life-span4 ,x is easy to see  
:at an    enorm\s ga9 ?is has meant to !

 productive p[] ( ! c\ntry4    ,footnote
 #beb3      ,recall1 = example1 !       
passage 9 ,hom]'s ,iliad1 :]e ! sun god 
9 ang] rais$ 8 t]rible b[ & ) e twang ( 
!    b[-/r+ s5t m5 to _! dea? by        
pe/il5ce4    ,footnote #bec3      ,x 0 !
 same ) _m o!r ?+s4 ,! ,romans1 =       
example1 us$    seals ) :i* to /amp     
impressions on docum5ts & co9s4 ,t is   
! ess5ce ( pr9t+4 ,yet ! _w did n le>n !
 next    important /ep1 h[ to pr9t      
books1 = a ?\s& ye>s4    ,footnote #bed3
      ,dur+ ! e>li] ye>s ( ! ,_w ,w>1   
be=e ! armies ( !    ,c5tral ,p[]s      
ov]ran ,s]bia1 t c\ntry 0 /rick5 )      
typhus    f "o end to ! o!r4 ,! ,alli$  
c\ntries equipp$ a great    sanit>y     
exp$ition :i* w5t ?r\gh ! l& & virtually
    dis9fect$ ! entire population4      
,tra9s ( box c>s 7 fitt$ up    z ba?+ & 
del\s+ plants1 ) hot wat] & /eam f !    
locomotive4 ,^! tra9s w5t along f       
village to village1 /opp+    at ea* long
 en\gh to put ! inhabitants1 "o by "o1  
?r\gh !    scrubb+ process & _! clo?+   

?r\gh ! /eam vat4    ,footnote #bee3    
,9 ord] t measures = prev5t+ ! spread ( 
disease may be    effective1 !y mu/ be  
bas$ ^u a well-organiz$ & accurate      
sy/em ( vital /ati/ics4 ,^! /ati/ics    
include figures relat+    to bir?s1     
dea?s1 & illness4 ,!y are compil$ 9 !   
(fices (    ! heal? au?orities f !      
reports s5t 9 by physicians4 ,^!        
reports1 to be ( real value1 mu/ n only 
be accurate b prompt4 ,by    means ( ^! 
/ati/ics ! heal? au?orities c s5se !    
beg9n+s ( an epidemic1 c (t5 det]m9e its
 s\rce or cause1    & c imm$iately set !
 ma*9]y 9 motion to ensure its control4 
,:5 "o physician reports a case (       
typhoid ?is may n be ( great            
significance2 b if a doz5 cases are     
report$ on ! same day1 !    necessity ( 
an imm$iate inve/igation into ! wat] &  
milk    supplies becomes app>5t4        
,footnote #bef3      ,! city ( ,glasg[  
obta9s its supply ( pure wat] f ,lo*    
,katr9e1 immortaliz$ 9 ,! ,lady ( !     
,lake4    ,footnote #beg3      ,! *oice 

betwe5 ! two k9ds ( filtration dep5ds ^u
 local    conditions4 ,:]e ! raw wat] is
 excessively turbid or bad-color$1    ! 
rapid s& filt] is m commonly us$4 ,!    
*emical treatm5t (    wat] involves !   
use ( *lor9at$ lime 7bett] kn[n z blea*+
    p[d]7 or "s o!r *emical dis9fectant 
:i* kills ! noxi\s    bact]ia4 ,only    
small quantities are requir$ 9          
proportion to !    volume ( wat] us$4   
,*emical treatm5t is n commonly us$     
except    9 em]g5cies2 x is n reg>d$ z a
 satisfactory p]man5t plan (    wat]    
treatm5t4    ,footnote #beh3      ,^!   
h\s+ regulations n[ provide1 z a rule1 t
 h\ses design$    to accommodate m ?an  
two families %all n occupy m ?an        
two-?irds ( ! lots ^u :i* !y are built1 
! rema9+ space    be+ left = light &    
air4 ,!y also require t su* h\ses %all  
n be ( highly inflammable con/ruction1 t
 !y be provid$ )    light$ hallways1 t  
sanit>y equipm5t be in/all$1 & t no     
rooms be us$ = ord9>y liv+ purposes     
unless !y h "o or    m w9d[s4 ,a fur!r  

provision 9 "s ( ^! t5em5t-h\se laws    
is t h\ses may be condemn$ z unsanit>y  
if !y conta9 less    ?an s _m cubic feet
 ( air space = ea* p]son liv+ 9 !m4     
,?is la/ provision is difficult to en=ce
 except by frequ5t    inspection1 yet x 
is v important because no matt] h[ well 
a    h\se may be con/ruct$1 !re w be a  
dang] to ! public heal?    if x is      
s]i\sly ov]cr[d$4    ,footnote #bei3    
,at ! ,peace ,conf]5ce 9 #aiai !        
protection ( ! public heal?    ?r\gh\t !
 _w 0 consid]$ s important t provision =
 x    0 includ$ 9 ! ,cov5ant ( ! ,league
 ( ,nations 7see p4 #fch74              
,,*apt] ,,xxvii                         
,,poor-,,relief1 ,,correction1 ,,& ,,o!r
                              ,,welf>e  
,,problems        ,! purpose ( ?is *apt]
 is to describe ! way 9 :i*             
,am]ican communities are deal+ ) !      
problems ( pov]ty1      crime1 &        
del9qu5cy4      ,pov]ty &               
,paup]ism4--,pov]ty is "o ( ! v olde/   
among human  problems2 two ?\s& ye>s    

ago1 9 ,biblical times1 ! _w 0  try+ to 
f9d a solution = x & x has n ceas$ to   
try ev]  s9ce4 ,9 all ages & 9 all      
c\ntries !re h be5 gr\ps (  un=tunate p 
:o1 ?r\gh _! own fault or ! fault (     
o!rs1  are n able to provide = _! own   
subsi/5ce4 ,x is to !  condition ( su*  
p1 ^: e>n+s d n enable !m to ma9ta9  !  
normal /&>d ( liv+1 t we apply ! t]m    
pov]ty4 ,n all  :o are poor1 !re=e1 are 
9 pov]ty1 b only ^? :o are s poor  t _! 
heal? & physical effici5cy are be+      
impair$ by lack (  e>n+ p[]4 ,"s ( ^? :o
 are 9 pov]ty become dep5d5t ^u  private
 or public *>ity1 & ^! we call paup]s4  
,paup]ism1 9  o!r words1 is a condition 
( dep5d5ce ^u ! ag5cies (  poor-relief4 
,_m ?\s&s ( p]sons live 9 pov]ty1 yet   
are n  paup]s4 ,!y /ruggle along1 able  
only to make ! b>e/ sort (  liv+1 & (t5 
suff] great privations r ?an apply = any
 =m  ( *>ity4    ,! ,ext5t ( ,pov]ty &  
,paup]ism 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,!re are  
no  accurate figures %[+ ! ext5t (      
pov]ty 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  ,sid5ote3 ,! 

numb] ( paup]s 9 public in/itutions4 ,! 
c5sus (  #aibj li/$ ne>ly a million     
p]sons 9 *>itable in/itutions ( "o  sort
 or ano!r1 ( :om ab\t "o hundr$ ?\s& 7  
paup]s 9  public alm%\ses4 ,b ?is c5sus 
made no computation ( ! numb]  receiv+  
poor-relief 9 _! own homes1 :i* mu/ be  
sev]al times z  l>ge z t 9 in/itutions4 
,x w\ld probably be )9 b\nds to say  t  
five p]sons out ( e hundr$ 9 ! ,unit$   
,/ates are p>tly  or :olly dep5d5t ^u   
private or public aid4 ,probably z _m m 
are 9 a condition ( pov]ty1 b cont9ue to
 /ruggle along )\t  assi/ance f o!rs4   
,we may say1 !re=e1 t pov]ty holds ab\t 
t5 p] c5t ( ! :ole population 9 its iron
 grip2 h5ce x is no  exagg]ation to     
speak1 z social-work]s (t5 d1 ( !       
8subm]g$  t5?04    ,sid5ote3 ,comp>ison 
) ,europe4    ,comp>$ ) o!r c\ntries1   
h[ev]1 ?is is n an excessive            
proportion4 ,9 ! c\ntries ( ,europe !   
p]c5tage ( paup]s is mu*  l>g]4 ,pov]ty 
is usually m widespread 9               
?ickly-populat$ regions  :]e !re are    

l>ge gr\ps ( indu/rial work]s4 ,9       
,london x has  be5 e/imat$ t at lea/    
?irty p] c5t ( ! p are bel[ !  pov]ty   
l9e2 9 ,new ,york ,city ! e/imate is    
tw5ty-five p] c5t4 ,!  cities ev]y:]e   
contribute f> m ?an _! due proportion to
 !  impov]i%$ classes4 ,pov]ty is lea/  
preval5t1 z a rule1 9 !  agricultural   
di/ricts4#bfj    ,! ,causes (           
,pov]ty4--,! causes ( pov]ty are num]\s 
&  complicat$ b !y c all be gr\p$ into  
two g5]al classes3 ,fir/1  ^? :i* are   
traceable to ! individual1 & second1 ^? 
:i* are  attributable to ! environm5t 9 
:i* he lives4 ,^! we may  di/+ui% by    
call+ !m individual & social causes4    
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,individual causes (      
pov]ty4    ,among ! individual causes ( 
pov]ty ! mo/ common are illness1        
accid5t1 old age1 deg5]acy1 b]eavem5t1  
intemp]ance1 %iftlessness1  & ignorance4
 ,illness is probably ! mo/ important   
s+le cause4 ,!  figures compil$ by      
poor-relief organizations %[ t x is !   
imm$iate reason = at lea/ "o-qu>t] ( all

 ! applications :i*  come to !m =       
assi/ance1 & is a contributory reason 9 
! case (  _m m4 ,accid5ts :i* result 9  
ei!r tempor>y or p]man5t  incapacity to 
d full "w h also be5 an important cause 
( pov]ty  9 ! pa/1 b !y are no long] s  
to ! same ext5t 9 ^?  /ates :i* h made  
provision = workm5's insurance 7see p4  
#daa74  ,old age comes to all 9 "t & !re
 are _m ?\s&s :o make no  provision =   
its com+4 ,?is class includes _m :o h   
work$ h>d  all _! lives1 h re>$         
families1 & h be5 useful citiz5s1  b :o 
h be5 ei!r unable or unwill+ to save4 ,9
 "s ,european  c\ntries1 z has be5 po9t$
 out1 provision is made = !m by means  (
 old age p5sion sy/ems4 ,b]eavem5t1     
p>ticul>ly ! loss by dea?  ( ! family's 
ma9 support1 has be5 a frequ5t cause (  
pov]ty among  wom5 & *ildr54 ,to "s     
ext5t ?is has be5 alleviat$ by !        
practice ( mak+ provision = mo!rs'      
p5sions & by ! increas+  ext5t to :i* m5
 :o h dep5d5ts are n[ secur+ life       
insurance4    ,sid5ote3 ,m5tal & moral  

deg5]acy4    ,deg5]acy1 :i* is also an  
important cause ( pov]ty1 may be def9$  
z inh]it$ m5tal or moral weakness4      
,feeble-m9d$ p>5ts (t5  transmit ?is    
defect to _! *ildr51 :o />t life ) a    
h&icap  :i* !y are n usually able to    
ov]come4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t  ne>ly    
"o-half ( all ! inmates ( public        
in/itutions are bel[ !  normal /&>d (   
m5tality4 ,_m ye>s ago a c>eful /udy 0  
made (  a c]ta9 family--! ,jukes--?r\gh 
f\r g5]ations1 great-gr&p>5ts1          
gr&p>5ts1 p>5ts1 & *ildr54 ,among sev5  
hundr$ p]sons 9 ?is  family1 beg9n+ )   
deg5]ate great-gr&p>5ts1 no few] ?an    
five  hundr$ became at "s "t or o!r     
recipi5ts ( public poor-relief4         
,incid5tally1 x may be m5tion$ t !y also
 contribut$ f> m  ?an _! due proportion 
to ! prisons & insane asylums4          
,sid5ote3 ,physical h&icaps4    ,!n1    
aga91 "s p :o are nei!r m5tally nor     
morally  deg5]ate1 are born ) physical  
h&icaps or acquire ^! h&icaps  e>ly 9   
life2 su*1 = in/ance1 are ! deaf-mutes1 

! bl9d1 &  ! crippl$4 ,!y are ! ones :om
 we mo/ commonly meet on ! public       
/reets begg+ or sell+ tr9kets1 or play+ 
"s sort ( in/rum5t  z an excuse = :at is
 really begg+4 ,intemp]ance1 too1 has   
figur$  l>gely among ! causes ( pov]ty  
dur+ _m c5turies1 b s f> z  ! ,unit$    
,/ates is conc]n$ x is n likely to d s 9
 ! future4  ,alcohol is "o ( ! important
 factors 9 ! problem ( pov]ty :i*  c be 
plac$ "u control by ! action ( society4 
,%iftlessness1  ignorance1 bad habits1 &
 vice are all causes ( v>y+ importance1 
b 9 ! ma9 !y are only imm$iate causes2 !
 und]ly+ causes  are usually to be f\nd 
9 "s m5tal1 moral1 or physical defect ( 
!  individual1 or !y arise f a poor     
environm5t4    ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,! social  
causes ( pov]ty4    ,! social causes (  
pov]ty are also num]\s4 ,unemploym5t is 
"o (  !m1 & x is 9 _m cases due to no   
fault ( ! individual work]4  ,m (t5 x is
 ! outcome ( a s]i\s imp]fection 9 our  
indu/rial  organization 7see p4 #dag74  
,! und]paym5t ( ! work]1 p>ticul>ly  !  

und]paym5t ( wom5 & *ildr5 9 indu/ry1   
has also contribut$  to ! problem (     
pov]ty4 ,x means t ! work]s are         
"u-n\ri%$  & !re=e unable to ma9ta9 _!  
normal /r5g?2 !y are unable  to save    
any?+ = use 9 case ( sickness or old    
age1 & h5ce h  to fall back ^u ! ag5cies
 ( private or public assi/ance :5ev]    
mis=tune comes4 ,m9imum wage laws 7see  
p4 #daf7 aim to protect society  f hav+ 
to pay ! p5alty :i* results1 bo?        
directly &  indirectly1 f ! und]paym5t (
 labor4 ,unsanit>y conditions (  liv+1  
bad h\s+1 & ov]cr[d+ are causes (       
pov]ty--!y are  social causes because   
society creates su* conditions & p]mits 
!m  to cont9ue4 ,unsanit>y conditions   
lead to illness1 & illness results  9   
unemploym5t4 ,b !y are also1 9 a s5se1 !
 effects ( pov]ty2  !y are conditions ( 
life to :i*1 "u our pres5t social &     
economic organization1 ! poor are       
compell$ to submit by reason (  _!      
pov]ty4    ,defects 9 our educational   
sy/em h be5 productive ( m pov]ty  ?an p

 commonly imag9e4 ,x is n )\t           
significance t  pov]ty is always        
widespread 9 ^? c\ntries & ^? regions   
:]e  illit]acy & ignorance are preval5t4
 ,compulsory public education is  "o ( !
 greate/ measures = ! prev5tion ( pov]ty
 t !  _w has ev] devis$4 ,sid5ote3      
,relation ( ! s*ool sy/em to  pov]ty4   
,:ile ! sy/em ( public education 9 !    
,unit$ ,/ates is  exce$+ly effici5t on !
 :ole1 x is nev]!less true t _m  ?\s&s (
 *ildr5 are gr[+ up )\t en\gh education 
to ensure  !m a fair *ance ( success 9  
life4    ,"s w\ld also include our      
immigration policy among ! social causes
  ( pov]ty4 ,until rec5t ye>s ^!        
immigrants 7 p]mitt$ to come  9 almo/   
unre/rict$ numb]s2 !y conc5trat$1 = !   
mo/ "p1 9  l>ge cities2 !y contribut$ to
 ov]cr[d+ & by _! competition  = labor  
=c$ d[n ! level ( wages 9 unskill$      
employm5ts4 ,!  causes ( pov]ty1 9 %ort1
 are n all traceable to ! faults or     
mis=tunes ( ! individual4 ,society z a  
:ole is responsible =  "s ( !m4#bfa     

,h[ ,we ,deal ) ! ,problem (            
,pov]ty4--,! public attitude 9 reg>d  to
 ! problem ( pov]ty has und]gone a m>k$ 
*ange dur+ ! pa/  fifty ye>s4 ,= _m     
c5turies pov]ty 0 look$ ^u z ! result ( 
human p]v]s5ess1 ! outcome ( purely     
individual causes :i* 7  likely to      
endure z long z human nature rema9$ !   
same4 ,sid5ote3  ,old] me?ods ( deal+ ) 
! poor4 ,x 0 tak5 = grant$ t  ! poor    
w\ld be ) u always2 t pov]ty c\ld n be  
prev5t$ by  any action on ! "p (        
society1 & t ! only ?+ to d 0 to  puni% 
! %iftless :ile help+ ! wor?y poor by   
giv+ !m public  & private aid4 ,!       
measures = ! relief ( ! poor tak5 by !  
gov]nm5ts ( v>i\s ,european c\ntries &  
by mo/ ,am]ican  communities until      
comp>atively rec5t ye>s 7 bas$ ^u ?is   
attitude4 ,^? :o c\ld "w & w\ld n 7 br&$
 z vagrants  & put 9 jail4 ,^? :o 7 9   
pov]ty ?r\gh sickness1 accid5t1  old    
age1 deg5]acy1 intemp]ance1 or o!r      
individual causes 7 tak5  into su*      
in/itutions z hospitals1 infirm>ies1    

alm%\ses1 homes =  inebriates1 & ! l4 ,!
 p 7 ev]y:]e enc\rag$ to give  alms to !
 poor1 b ! prev5tion ( pov]ty by        
organiz$ social  action receiv$ little  
or no att5tion4    ,sid5ote3 ,! mod]n   
attitude4    ,! public attitude1        
especially ! attitude ( ! m enlight5$   
"p ( ! public1 has n[ *ang$ or is *ang+4
 ,we "k f a  c>eful /udy ( ! problem t  
pov]ty is no m an ess5tial  concomitant 
( civiliz$ life ?an 7 piracy1 slav]y1   
bubonic plague1  or univ]sal drunk5ness 
9 ye>s n[ long gone by4 ,pov]ty c be    
eradicat$ z ^! ?+s h be51 al?\gh n by   
any means s  easily4 ,! individual      
causes ( pov]ty1 ( c\rse1 w always be at
  "w4 ,old age w cont9ue to come ^u     
mank9d1 & we c h>dly hope  "u any       
circum/ances to get rid ( sickness &    
accid5ts entirely4  ,b society c at lea/
 br+ x ab\t t old age1 illness1 &       
accid5t1 n to speak ( unemploym5t & o!r 
social causes1 w no  long] br+          
inevitable pov]ty 9 _! tra94 ,att5tion  
is n[ be+  giv51 !re=e1 to measures (   

prev5tion2 & almsgiv+ has come to  be   
recogniz$ z a m]e make%ift way ( deal+ )
 ! problem4 ,x is  l try+ to put an end 
to all diseases & to wipe illness (f !  
face ( ! e>? by m]ely giv+ p m$ic9e aft]
 !y become  sick4    ,! ,tempor>y       
,rem$ies4--,! only p]man5t solution = ! 
problem (  pov]ty is ! removal ( !      
und]ly+ causes4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 _c  be     
accompli%$ 9 a day1 & 9 ! meantime v>i\s
 measures (  tempor>y alleviation mu/ be
 provid$ by ! public au?orities & by    
private organizations4    ,sid5ote3     
,indoor relief4    ,public provision = !
 c>e ( ! poor takes two =ms kn[n        
respectively z indoor & outdoor relief4 
,by indoor relief is meant !  c>e ( !   
poor 9 in/itutions ma9ta9$ by ! /ate1   
c\nty1 or  city4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 paup]s (
 all types 7 h]d$ toge!r  into ! same   
poorh\se1 b x is n[ ! policy to provide1
 s f> z  practicable1 diff]5t public    
in/itutions = ! sick1 ! m5tally         
defective1 ! ag$1 & ! "y4 ,h5ce1 9 _m   
/ates we h  hospitals = *ronic cases1   

in/itutions = ! feeble-m9d$1 homes  = ! 
ag$1 in/itutions = ! c>e ( orphans1     
s*ools = !  bl9d1 & s on4    ,sid5ote3  
,outdoor relief4    ,by outdoor relief  
is meant ! giv+ ( assi/ance to ! poor 9 
_!  own homes4 ,_m ye>s ago ?is 0 ! m   
common plan ( deal+ )  ! problem2 x /ill
 exi/s 9 _m ,am]ican communities4 ,p :o 
are 9 ne$ apply to ! ov]se]s ( ! poor or
 to "s o!r public  au?ority f :om !y    
receive1 aft] prop] inve/igation1 su*   
assi/ance 9 ! =m ( food1 clo?+1 fuel1 or
 m$ic9e z !y may  urg5tly require4 ,"s (
 ! l>g] cities h ab&on$ altoge!r  ! giv+
 ( outdoor relief at ! public exp5se    
because !y h  f\nd ?is sy/em op5 to     
grave abuses4 ,unless adm9i/]$ ) great  
c>e1 x enc\rages %iftlessness & results 
9 ! exp5diture (  l>ge am\nts f ! public
 funds4 ,! t5d5cy n[adays is to leave   
outdoor relief to be provid$ by private 
organizations al?\gh "s  communities    
/ill take c>e ( ! mo/ urg5t cases f !   
public  funds4 ,^! private organizations
 are sometimes connect$ ) !  *ur*es b m 

(t5 !y are entirely non-sect>ian1 made  
up (  g5]\s m5 & wom5 :o give bo? "t &  
money to ! "w4    ,private outdoor      
relief (t5 leads to indiscrim9ate       
almsgiv+1 ?us  l5d+ enc\ragem5t to      
wa/efulness & impo/ure4 ,p :o are too   
lazy to e>n an hone/ liv+ apply to v>i\s
 organizations = help  & sometimes obta9
 x f sev]al ( !m4 ,sid5ote3 ,!          
organization ( relief ag5cies4 ,to      
elim9ate ?is ov]lapp+ c5tral  bodies    
kn[n z ,*>ity ,organization ,societies1 
or ,associat$ ,*>ities1  or ,family     
,welf>e ,societies h be5 =m$ 9 _m ( !   
l>g]  ,am]ican communities4 ,_! function
 is to s]ve z a cle>+ h\se (  in=mation 
conc]n+ all applicants = assi/ance & 9  
o!r ways  to make ! "w ( ! individual   
organizations m effici5t4    ,! ,p]man5t
 ,rem$ies4--,! p]man5t solution ( !     
problem (  pov]ty mu/ be s\ght 9        
compreh5sive measures ( prev5tion4 ,"s (
  ^! measures are already be+ tak5 9 ! m
 progressive /ates2  o!rs h be5 propos$ 
& are /eadily ga9+ public support4      

,sid5ote3 ,social insurance4 ,insurance 
aga9/ sickness & accid5t1  m9imum wage  
laws1 mo!rs' p5sions1 are already do+ _!
 %>e 9  ! prev5tion ( pov]ty4 ,old age  
p5sions h be5 e/abli%$ abroad  & 9 "t w 
d\btless be provid$ = ! ,am]ican work]4 
,insurance aga9/ unemploym5t may be     
inadvisable 7see p4 #dah7 b !           
organization ( indu/ry c be s improv$ z 
to r$uce ! am\nt (  unemploym5t n[      
exi/+4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r rem$ies4 ,!       
prohibition  ( ! liquor traffic has m>k$
 an important /ep 9 ! direction (  r$uc+
 pov]ty4 ,vocational s*ools = ! deaf1 ! 
bl9d1 & !  crippl$1 are n[ tra9+ ^!     
un=tunates 9 ! art ( e>n+  _! own liv+4 
,! en=cem5t ( laws relat+ to compulsory 
education w r$uce illit]acy & ?us       
decrease ! class f :i*  pov]ty secures  
mo/ ( its recruits4 ,pres5t re/rictions 
^u  immigration1 if !y are cont9u$1 w   
r5d] m easy !  ma9t5ance ( ,am]ican     
/&>ds ( liv+ among ^? :o toil )  _! h&s4
 ,by ! segregation ( deg5]ates 9 public 
in/itutions1  moreov]1 we c prev5t !    

propagation ( deg5]acy4#bfb  ,ov]cr[d+ &
 unsanit>y conditions ( liv+ are be+    
prev5t$ by  mod]n city plann+ & good    
h\s+ laws4    ,n[ x is d\btful :e!r all 
( ^! measures put toge!r w avail  to    
wipe out pov]ty entirely1 b if !y are   
vigor\sly appli$ !  am\nt ( pov]ty 9 !  
,unit$ ,/ates w c]ta9ly be mu* r$uc$4   
,sid5ote3 ,! dang] ( too _m rem$ies4    
,!re is always a dang]1  ( c\rse1 t laws
 & regulations design$ to promote !     
well-be+  ( ! poor may ov]-rea*         
!mselves1 & may result 9 plac+          
additional burd5s ^u ! wage-e>n+        
classes4 ,attempts to n>r[ !  gulf      
betwe5 ! ri* & ! poor by ! levy+ (      
discrim9atory  taxes d n usually succe$2
 9 ! end !y m]ely augm5t !  h>d%ips ( ! 
poor4 ,x is cu/om>y = sociologi/s to    
speak (  pov]ty z a 8social disease0 &  
to assure u t l any o!r  disease x c be 
eradicat$4 ,t is all v true4 ,b diseases
 are  n eradicat$ by /rik+ at ! heads ( 
heal?y p 9 ord] t  !y may h a small]    
advantage ov] ! sick4 ,nei!r w ! plague 

( pov]ty be cur$ by measures :i* /rike  
at ! well-to-d = !  m]e reason t !y are 
s mu* bett] (f ?an ! poor4 ,! poor c    
nev] be made ri* by ! simple exp$i5t (  
mak+ ! ri* poor]4    ,! ,problem ( !    
,m5tally ,defective4--,!re are v>i\s =ms
 (  m5tal defectiv5ess1 rang+ f         
feeble-m9d$ness to viol5t  insanity4 ,! 
total numb] ( m5tally defective p]sons 9
 ! ,unit$  ,/ates is e/imat$ to exce$   
half a million4 ,until relatively rec5t 
ye>s no c>eful di/9ction 0 made betwe5  
p]sons afflict$ )  diff]5t =ms ( m5tal  
tr\ble2 all 7 treat$ 9 mu* ! same  way4 
,sid5ote3 ,old & new me?ods ( deal+ ) ! 
insane4 ,!  usual plan 0 to br+ !m      
toge!r 9 l>ge asylums :]e !  viol5tly   
insane 7 kept "u close re/ra9t :ile !   
8h>mless0  inmates 7 giv5 some:at great]
 fre$om4 ,?is crude me?od (  deal+ )    
un=tunates :o ne$$ m$ical treatm5t f> m 
?an  !y ne$$ re/ra9t & conf9em5t has n[ 
be5 almo/ ev]y:]e  ab&on$1 & ! treatm5t 
( m5tal defectiv5ess is be+ c>ri$ on  9 
accordance ) m sci5tific me?ods4 ,^!    

sci5tific me?ods  involve ! c>eful /udy 
& diagnosis ( ea* p>ticul> case & !     
sub/itution ( m$ical c>e = me*anical    
re/ra9t4 ,9 response to  ?is treatm5t a 
consid]able proportion ( ! cases h prov$
  capable ( m>k$ improvem5t1 & sometimes
 entire recov]y4 ,x %\ld  be m5tion$1   
h[ev]1 t "s =ms ( insanity are n curable
 by  any kn[n =m ( sci5tific treatm5t4  
,a p]man5t r$uction 9 !  numb] (        
m5tally-defective p]sons c be/ be a*iev$
 by prev5t+  ! transmission ( h]$it>y   
defects1 by ! prop] treatm5t (  m5tal   
ailm5ts z soon z ! fir/ symptoms appe>1 
& by ! removal  ( two ?+s :i* h         
contribut$ greatly to ! spread (        
insanity  9 ! pa/1 namely1 alcoholism & 
! drug habit4    ,! ,problem (          
,crime4--,a crime is an (f5ce aga9/     
society4 ,9 e>ly  days all (f5ces 7     
reg>d$ z hav+ be5 committ$ aga9/        
individuals4 ,! p]son :o /ole some?+ 0  
look$ ^u z hav+  wrong$ ! own]1 & ! own]
 0 entitl$ to secure 8 own r$ress4  ,b )
 ! developm5t ( organiz$ society !re    

grew up ! idea  t ! :ole community _h an
 int]e/ 9 ! prev5tion (  wrong-do+1 & t 
wrongs :i* 7 o/5sibly direct$ aga9/     
s+le individuals 7 9 reality committ$   
aga9/ ! :ole p4  ,sid5ote3 ,evolution ( 
! crim9al law4 ,s society took ^u itself
  ! responsibility = mak+ laws to       
protect ! rights ( individuals1  & = !  
imposition ( puni%m5t :5ev] ^! laws are 
violat$4 ,a  crime is an (f5ce aga9/    
society because x involves "s violation 
( a law :i* has be5 made 9 ! int]e/ (   
all4 ,an act may  con/itute a crime1    
!re=e1 )\t be+ morally wrong4 ,x is n   
morally wrong to p>k an automobile      
alongside a hydrant1 b x is 9  mo/      
cities a violation ( ! law to d s1 &    
puni%able 9 !  c\rts4 ,! c\rts en=ce !  
law :atev] x is4    ,! ,classification (
 ,crimes4--,x 0 =m]ly ! cu/om to        
classify  all crimes z treasons1        
felonies1 or misdemeanors4 ,a treason 0 
an  attempt to ov]?r[ ! /ate by         
rebellion or o!rwise2 a felony 0 a      
s]i\s (f5ce aga9/ p]sons or prop]ty1 su*

 z murd] or burgl>y2  :ile ! t]m        
misdemeanor 0 us$ to include all ! less 
s]i\s  violations ( ! law1 su* z sell+  
milk )\t a lic5se or  disreg>d+ a sign  
to keep (f ! grass 9 ! public p>ks4     
,n[adays1  h[ev]1 a m elaborate gr\p+ ( 
crimes is usually made4 ,sid5ote3  ,!   
v>i\s types ( (f5ces4 ,?is gr\p+ usually
 includes 7a7  (f5ces aga9/ ! public    
peace & ord]1 su* z treason1 riot+1  &  
any ob/ruction ( ! (fic]s ( ! law2 7b7  
(f5ces aga9/  ! public heal? & morals1  
su* z bigamy1 gambl+1 ! sale (          
intoxicants1 or ! pollution ( public    
wat] supplies2 7c7 (f5ces  aga9/ !      
p]son1 su* z murd]1 manslaught]1 or     
assault2 & 7d7  (f5ces aga9/ prop]ty1   
includ+ burgl>y1 !ft1 fraud1 & s on4    
,?is li/ ( (f5ces does n include su* ?+s
 z brea*es (  contract1 libel1 & failure
 to pay debts1 = ^! are n crimes b      
torts or civil wrongs4 ,!y are /ill     
reg>d$ z (f5ces aga9/  individuals & n  
aga9/ society4 ,! aggriev$ individual   
br+s 8  own suit 9 ! c\rts1 & ! c\rts   

m]ely act z arbit]s to see  t ju/ice is 
done betwe5 man & man4    ,! ,causes (  
,crime4--,! causes ( crime1 l ^? (      
pov]ty1 are  bo? individual & social4   
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,individual causes (      
crime4  ,m5 sometimes take to wrongdo+  
because !y are m5tally or morally       
defective1 hav+ inh]it$ traits (        
deg5]acy4 ,h&icapp$ by ^!  defects 9    
mak+ an hone/ liv+ !y (t5 resort to     
crime at an  e>ly age4 ,bad tra9+ 9 !   
home1 habits ( truancy acquir$ dur+     
s*ool age1 & av]sion to "w are all      
individual causes :i* promote           
crim9ality4 ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,social causes
 ( crime4 ,! social causes  include     
pov]ty1 ! influ5ce ( bad companions1 !  
lack ( effici5cy  on ! "p ( police 9    
cities1 ! undue l5i5cy ( ! c\rts 9  "s  
cases1 & ! difficulty :i* ev5 hone/ m5  
sometimes enc\nt]  9 obey+ ! ho/ ( laws 
:i* our lawmak]s are turn+ out e  ye>4  
,x is significant t crimes aga9/        
prop]ty1 su* z burgl>y  & !ft become    
less frequ5t :5 ! c\ntry is prosp]\s & m

  num]\s 9 times ( depression :5 s _m   
p]sons are out (  employm5t4 ,among     
illit]ates ! proportion ( (f5d]s aga9/ !
  law is v high1 s t ! failure to en=ce 
rigidly ! laws  relat+ to s*ool         
att5dance mu/ also be set d[n z "o ( !  
social  causes ( crim9ality4    ,!      
,ext5t ( ,crime 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,m  
?an half a million  p]sons are s5t to   
jails or re=matories 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates e
  ye>4 ,! numb] ( ^? :o are let (f ) !  
paym5t ( f9es is  mu* l>g]4 ,ev5 ^! two 
figures put toge!r d n give u !  numb] (
 crimes committ$1 h[ev]1 = x is probable
 t !  majority ( crimes d n result 9 !  
detection ( ! guilty p]son1  & _m m9or  
crimes are n report$ to ! police at all4
 ,! co/ (  ma9ta9+ police sy/ems = !    
prev5tion ( crime1 c\rts = !  trial (   
accus$ p]sons1 & prisons = ! inc>c]ation
 ( !  convict$1 is ab\t a billion doll>s
 p] ye>1 or ab\t z mu* z !  c\ntry sp5ds
 ^u education4    ,sid5ote3 ,are crimes 
on ! increase8    ,:e!r ! numb] (       
crimes1 tak+ ! c\ntry z a :ole1 is      

increas+ m rapidly ?an ! gr[? (         
population we d n "k4  ,?is is because !
 figures 9 "s /ates are n c>efully or   
uni=mly kept4 ,b crime has be5 increas+ 
9 ! l>ge cities dur+  ! pa/ few decades4
 ,?is is p>tly because ! cr[d$ cities   
af=d  unusual opportunities to escape   
detection & p>tly because police        
ineffici5cy or corruption has enc\rag$ !
 commission ( crimes )  impunity4 ,!    
numb] ( crimes committ$ 9 ! ,unit$      
,/ates is mu*  great]1 9 proportion to  
population1 ?an 9 any ( ! *ief ,european
  c\ntries4#bfc    ,! ,!ory (           
,puni%m5t4--,among primitive p puni%m5t 
0  reg>d$ z a retaliation or v5geance1 b
 z civilization develop$  ?is notion    
gave way to "o 9 :i* puni%m5t 0 look$ ^u
 z a  means ( w>n+ o!r p f committ+     
simil> crimes4 ,9 ei!r  case ! feel+ 0 t
 puni%m5t ought to be sev]e4 ,sid5ote3  
,!  old sev]ity4 ,sev]ity1 r ?an c]ta9ty
 ( puni%m5t 0  dep5d$ ^u to det] p f    
committ+ crimes4 ,a c5tury ago 9        
,engl&1 = example1 m5 7 put to dea? =   

/eal+ small sums (  money & 7 s5t to    
jail = long t]ms :5 !y fail$ to pay _!  
debts4 ,b ev5 ?is sev]ity ( puni%m5t did
 n a*ieve ! desir$  end1 = crimes 7     
relatively m num]\s 9 ,engl& a c5tury   
ago  ?an !y are today4    ,sid5ote3 ,:at
 is ! purpose ( puni%m5t8    ,9 due     
c\rse ! public intellig5ce 0 l$ to !    
conclusion t  c]ta9ty ( detection &     
puni%m5t1 r ?an sev]ity1 0 !  be/ way ( 
secur+ ! obs]vance ( ! laws4#bfd ,s9ce !
 prime  object ( puni%m5t is nei!r to   
visit ! wra? ( society ^u !  (f5d]1 nor 
yet to re=m him 7al?\gh ?is is an       
incid5tal object71  b to protect ! p    
aga9/ ! commission ( crimes1 x foll[s  t
 ! p5alty %\ld be no m sev]e ?an is     
necess>y to a*ieve  ?is object4 ,h5ce   
!re are gradations ( puni%m5t1 ea*      
adju/$ to  ! degree 9 :i* ! (f5ce       
con/itutes a *all5ge to !  well-be+ (   
society4 ,if murd] is m sev]ely p5aliz$ 
?an  manslaught]1 x is n because !      
victim suff]s m 9 "o case ?an  9 ! o!r4 
,he has lo/ 8 life 9 ei!r case1 & no    

p5alty c  re/ore x4 ,x is n !           
atroci\sness ( a crime t makes x  s]i\s1
 b ! degree ( dang] to ! :ole community 
involv$4    ,prisons & ,prison          
,re=m4--,until a g5]ation ago ! treatm5t
 (  prison]s 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry 0    
inhuman4 ,(f5d]s ( all  types1 old & "y1
 7 ?r[n toge!r into ! same in/itutions4 
,!y 7 brutally treat$ by ^? 9 *>ge1     
conf9$ 9 n>r[1 damp  cells1 giv5 poor   
food to eat & r>ely set to "w at any    
useful  employm5t4 ,ev5 yet ^!          
conditions h n :olly disappe>$ f  e "p (
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,b ! movem5t = ! re=m 
(  prisons & prison me?ods has made     
notable progress dur+ ! pa/  tw5ty ye>s4
    ,sid5ote3 ,! ma9 features ( prison  
re=m3    ,! ma9 features 9 prison re=m  
may be briefly /at$4 ,sid5ote3 #a4      
,classification ( prison]s4 ,fir/1 9    
po9t ( importance1 is !  classify+ (    
prison]s & ! s5d+ ( ea* class to a      
special  in/itution in/ead ( h]d+ !m all
 toge!r 9 "o c\nty jail4  ,"s prison]s  
are h>d5$ crim9als & n easy to re=m4    

,o!rs are  fir/ (f5d]s1 p]sons :o h nev]
 be5 previ\sly convict$4 ,)  humane     
treatm5t & ! opportunity to le>n a trade
 ^! prison]s  c (t5 be s5t out into !   
_w1 :5 _! t]ms expire1 ) !  likelihood (
 _! becom+ good citiz5s4 ,!re are o!rs  
:o also  ne$ to be segregat$1 su* z     
juv5ile (f5d]s & ^? :o are  m5tally     
defective4 ,prison re=m involves !      
sep>ation & special  treatm5t ( ea*     
class4                                  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,ju/ice ,,& ,,m]cy4 
,by ,a4 ,r4 ,willett      ,copyright by 
,a4 ,r4 ,willett4 ,reproduc$ by         
p]mission ( ! ,c\nty      ,commission]s1
 ,mahon+ ,c\nty1 ,ohio1 f a photograph  
by !      ,y\ng/[n ,art ,engrav+        
,company4                               
,,ju/ice ,,& ,,m]cy                     
,by ,a4 ,r4 ,willett              ,f a  
mural decoration 9 ! ,mahon+ ,c\nty     
,c\rt            ,h\se1 ,y\ng/[n1 ,ohio4
              ,!re is en\gh realism 9   

?is picture to obviate            ! ne$ 
( mu* int]pretation4 ,! prosecut+       
attorney1 ) ! book ( ! law 9 8 h&1 asks 
t judgm5t be giv54 ,he is 9 no angry    
mood1 b            is m]ely p]=m+ a /]n 
duty4 ,to ! "r1 a            wife & "m  
pleads t ju/ice be temp]$ )             
m]cy4                8,& e>?ly p[] do?  
!n %[ like/ ,god's1              ,:5    
m]cy seasons ju/ice40                   
--,! ,m]*ant ( ,v5ice4                  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 #b4 ,! new discipl9e4         
,ano!r feature ( prison re=m is !       
humaniz+ ( discipl9e4 ,x has  be5 !     
g5]al cu/om 9 prisons to puni% any s]i\s
 brea* ( !  rules by plac+ ! (f5d] 9    
solit>y conf9em5t = days or ev5  weeks4 
,bett] results are n[ be+ obta9$ by giv+
 privileges to  ^? prison]s :o behave   
prop]ly & tak+ ^! privileges away  f all
 :o d n4 ,?is plan involves ! grad+ (   
prison]s  accord+ to _! conduct1 !      
be/-behav$ m5 be+ plac$ 9 !  fir/ class 

& all[$ v>i\s privileges4 ,a sy/em (    
m>ks &  dem]its is us$ to det]m9e !     
grade ( ea* prison]4 ,solit>y  conf9em5t
 is res]v$ = ! incorrigibles only4#bfe  
,sid5ote3 #c4 ,int]nal re=ms4    ,along 
) ! sy/em ( classify+ & grad+ prison]s1 
a g5]al  bett]m5t ( int]nal prison      
conditions has be5 tak+ place4 ,x is  n[
 g5]ally recogniz$ t all prison]s %\ld  
be kept employ$ at  useful labor1 t     
:]ev] practicable ^? :o h n already     
le>n$ a trade %\ld be taught "o dur+ _! 
prison t]ms1 t  ^? :o are illit]ate %\ld
 le>n to read & write1 t ! labor  (     
prison]s %\ld n be f>m$ out to employ]s 
z has s (t5 be5  ! case 9 ! pa/1 t      
prison]s %\ld n be subject$ to          
unnecess>y humiliation1 & t !y %\ld be  
giv5 su* measure (  self-gov]nm5t z c be
 safely entru/$ to !m4 ,outdoor         
employm5t  on /ate f>ms & /ate roads is 
replac+1 to a consid]able ext5t1  !     
activities ( ! prison work%op4          
,indet]m9ate ,s5t5ces & ! ,p>ole        
,sy/em4--,two m>k$ improvem5ts  9       

correctional me?ods h be5 introduc$ by !
 use ( indet]m9ate  s5t5ces & releases  
on p>ole4 ,! old plan 0 to s5t5ce e     
prison] = a fix$ t]m1 two ye>s1 t5 ye>s1
 or "s su* p]iod4  ,! convict !n s]v$   
out 8 full t]m1 no m & no less1         
irrespective ( 8 behavior4 ,?is plan is 
n[ be+ aboli%$4 ,in/ead  x is becom+ !  
g5]al practice to make ! s5t5ces        
indet]m9ate1  z = example1 n less ?an   
two nor m ?an five ye>s4 ,by good       
behavior ! prison] is !n enabl$ to      
secure 8 release :5 !  m9imum p]iod has 
expir$4 ,?is me?od is p>ticul>ly        
desirable 9 !  case ( "y (f5d]s :o are  
s5t to re=matories4 ,! p>ole sy/em  is  
also us$ z a means ( enc\rag+ good      
behavior & re=mation on  ! "p (         
prison]s4 ,:]e ?is sy/em is 9 op]ation !
 prison  (ficials are p]mitt$ to release
 prison]s1 ev5 be=e _! m9imum  t]ms h   
expir$1 ^u promise to give society no   
fur!r tr\ble4 ,if  ! p>ol$ prison] %\ld 
violate ?is promise1 he is br\ght back  
to  f9i% 8 t]m4 ,x has be5 f\nd t v few 

p>ol$ prison]s fail  to keep _!         
promises4    ,! ,probation ,sy/em4--,!  
numb] ( p]sons committ$ to prison has   
be5 consid]ably r$uc$ by ! use (        
probation4 ,9 ! case ( fir/  (f5ces1 :]e
 ! crime is n s]i\s1 x is n[ ! usual    
practice  9 _m c\rts to place ! (f5d] on
 probation = a giv5 p]iod4  ,?is means t
 in/ead ( be+ tak5 to jail he is plac$  
"u !  surveillance ( a probation (fic]4 
,^! probation (fic]s are  atta*$ to !   
c\rts2 _! duty is to help probation]s1  
keep a  wat*ful eye on !m1 & report f "t
 to "t h[ !y are gett+  along4#bff    ,!
 ,problem ( ,juv5ile ,del9qu5cy4--,great
 progress has be5 made  dur+ ! pa/      
tw5ty-five ye>s 9 ! treatm5t ( juv5ile  
(f5d]s4 ,p]sons "u eighte5 ye>s ( age 7 
=m]ly dealt )  by ! regul> crim9al      
tribunals2 9 _m ( ! l>g] cities !y are  
n[ br\ght be=e a special ,juv5ile ,c\rt4
 ,:]e su* c\rts d n  exi/ x is ! usual  
practice to h juv5ile cases br\ght be=e 
!  regul> c\rt at a special session4 ,! 
(f5d]s1 9 s]i\s cases1 are  usually s5t 

to re=m s*ools or o!r in/itutions :]e   
vocational  in/ruction is giv54 ,= m9or 
(f5ces1 p>ticul>ly :]e !re is no        
previ\s record ( appe>ance 9 ! juv5ile  
c\rt1 ! (f5d] is  plac$ 9 *>ge ( a      
probation (fic]4 ,! purpose ( !         
probation  sy/em is to secure !         
re=mation ( ! (f5d]s1 n to en=ce        
puni%m5t4#bfg    ,sid5ote3 ,:y divorces 
are becom+ m common4    ,! ,divorce     
,problem4--,! /eady increase 9 ! numb] (
 divorces has  t5d$ to make juv5ile     
del9qu5cy m difficult to h&le2 9 o!r    
respects also x con/itutes a social     
problem ( ! fir/  magnitude4#bfh ,sev]al
 economic & social *anges h t5d$ to make
  divorces m common4 ,! developm5t (    
indu/ry is "o ( !m4 ,be=e  mod]n indu/ry
 af=d$ employm5t = wom51 ! h\sehold 0   
almo/  ! sole c5t] ( fem99e activity4 ,b
 "u pres5t economic  conditions mo/ wom5
 f9d no great difficulty 9 e>n+ _! own  
liv+ & ?is has eng5d]$ a feel+ (        
self-reliance4 ,m5tion may  likewise be 
made ( ! fact t ! rights & privileges ( 

wom5  h be5 m /rongly /ress$ by law &   
cu/om dur+ rec5t ye>s4  ,wom5 h be5 giv5
 ! legal "r to own prop]ty1 to vote1 &  
to  hold (fice4 ,^! ?+s h help$ to      
develop a _s (  indep5d5ce4 ,social     
conditions h also *ang$4 ,9 ! old days  
m5  :o divorc$ _! wives & wom5 :o       
divorc$ _! husb&s 7  fr[n$ ^u by _!     
neighbors1 b ?is weapon ( social        
o/racism has  be5 gradually los+ its p[]
 because society has come to recognize  
! ju/ice ( grant+ divorces = adequate   
reasons4    ,sid5ote3 ,c ! causes (     
divorces be r$uc$8    ,h[ ,may !        
,situation be ,rem$i$8--,9 seek+ a rem$y
 = any  political1 social1 or economic  
evil we mu/ fir/ turn to ! causes4  ,!  
increase 9 ! numb] ( divorces has be5   
due 9 consid]able  measure1 z already   
po9t$ out1 to ! gr[? ( indu/rial        
opportunities = wom5 & to ! read9ess )  
:i* society  tol]ates ! grant+ (        
divorces4 ,x is also due1 9 "s degree1  
to  ! conditions ( life 9 l>ge cities   
:]e ! n]v\s /ra9 caus$  by ov]-cr[d+    

makes x m difficult to meet ! complex   
dome/ic  problems pati5tly4 ,x is       
significant t divorces are mu* m common 
9 ! l>ge cities ?an 9 ! rural di/ricts4 
,9 "p x is due also  to ! lax divorce   
laws ( "s /ates1 :]e ! c\rts are p]mitt$
  to grant divorces on ! flimsie/       
pretexts1 & to ! abs5ce (  suffici5tly  
/rict regulations design$ to prev5t ha/y
 m>riages4    ,sid5ote3 ,"s specific    
rem$ies4    ,"s ( ^! causes are h>d to  
rem$y4 ,! economic indep5d5ce (  wom5 is
 a new condition :i* _c be *ang$4 ,"s   
progress has be5  made 9 v>i\s cities ( 
! c\ntry by ! e/abli%m5t ( special      
tribunals kn[n z ,c\rts ( ,dome/ic      
,relations ^: function x is to  adju/   
family qu>rels4 ,^! c\rts h prov$ _!    
value by keep+  _m cases out ( ! divorce
 c\rts4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t we  ought  
to am5d ! national con/itution s z to   
provide t no  divorces %all be grant$   
except by ! f$]al c\rts4 ,?is w\ld make 
! rules uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates & 
prev5t ! secur+  ( divorces on trivial  

gr\nds4 ,a proposal = su* an am5dm5t is 
n[  be+ consid]$ by ,congress4 ,mean:ile
 "s ( ! /ates h come to  ! conclusion t 
a *eck %\ld be plac$ ^u ha/y m>riages & 
h consequ5tly made laws requir+ t p]sons
 int5d+ to be  m>ri$ %all file notice ( 
_! int5tion a c]ta9 numb] ( days  be=e !
 m>riage takes place4 ,^! v>i\s rem$ies 
are good en\gh  s f> z !y g1 b ! only   
p]man5t & effective rem$y is !          
education ( public op9ion to a po9t :]e 
x w use its influ5ce  to *eck ! /ream ( 
divorces4 ,social o/racism is a p[]ful  
weapon  9 ! h&s ( any community t wi%es 
to use x4 ,! imm$iate ne$  is to educate
 ! ,am]ican p 9 ! homes1 9 ! s*ools1 & 9
  ! *ur*es1 s t !y may appreciate !     
gravity ( ! problem &  insi/ ^u its be+ 
prop]ly solv$4                          
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,e4 ,t4 ,,t[ne1     
,social ,problems1 pp4 #bhe-cjg 7,poor  
,relief72 pp4 #ahd-bjg  7,m5tal         
,defectives72 pp4 #bjh-bcd 7,crime &    
,correction72    ,h4 ,r4 ,,bur* & ,s4   
,h4 ,,patt]son1 ,am]ican ,social        

,problems1 pp4 #bjj-bej  7,poor         
,relief72 pp4 #bga-bhh 7,m5tal          
,defectives72 pp4 #bcg-bgj 7,crime &    
,correction72    ,,*>les ,a4 ,,ellwood1 
,sociology & ,mod]n ,social ,problems1  
pp4 #bii-cbe  7,poor ,relief72 pp4      
#cbf-cec 7,crime & ,correction72    ,a4 
,g4 ,,w>n]1 ,am]ican ,*>ities1          
especially pp4 #cf-fc2    ,c4 ,r4       
,,h5d]son1 ,dep5d5t1 ,defective1 &      
,del9qu5t ,classes1  especially pp4     
#a-ci2    ,f4 ,h4 ,,w9es1 ,puni%m5t &   
,re=mation1 especially pp4 #aba-acb 7,! 
,re=mation ( ! ,crim9al72    ,,maurice  
,,p>melee1 ,pov]ty & ,social ,progress1 
pp4 #afh-ahg4                           
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! causes (      
pov]ty & h[ we may get rid ( !m4        
,relative  importance ( ! v>i\s causes 9
 y\r own /ate & community4  ,analyze ea*
 ( ^! causes & asc]ta9 :at measures h   
be5 tak5  to deal ) ea*4 ,/udy !        
exp]i5ce ( =eign c\ntries )  old-age    
p5sions & unemploym5t all[ances4 ,note !
 effect1 if any1  ( workm5's insurance1 

mo!rs' p5sions1 & m9imum wage laws 9    
v>i\s ,am]ican /ates4 ,sugge/ fur!r /eps
 = remov+ !  fundam5tal causes ( pov]ty4
 ,ref]5ces3 ,e4 ,t4 ,,t[ne1 ,social     
,problems1 pp4 #bij-cja2 ,h4 ,r4 ,,bur* 
& ,s4 ,h4 ,,patt]son1 ,am]ican  ,social 
,problems1 pp4 #bje-baf2 ,e4 ,t4        
,,dev9e1 ,mis]y & its ,causes1  pp4     
#a-ej2 ,,rob]t ,,hunt]1 ,pov]ty1 pp4    
#a-fe2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,dawson1 ,social        
,insurance1 passim4    #b4 ,! c>e (     
dep5d5t *ildr54 ,ref]5ces3 ,a4 ,g4      
,,w>n]1  ,am]ican ,*>ities1 pp4         
#bbj-bbh2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,h5d]son1 ,dep5d5t1  
,defective1 & ,del9qu5t ,classes1 pp4   
#ih-abj2 ,g4 ,b4 ,,mangold1 ,*ild       
,problems1 pp4 #bic-cde4    #c4 ,prison 
re=m3 h[ f> %\ld x be c>ri$8 ,ref]5ces3 
,e4 ,h4  ,,w9es1 ,puni%m5t & ,re=mation1
 pp4 #cab-cfc2 ,t4 ,m4 ,,osborne1 ,)9   
,prison ,walls1 pp4 #bd-eh2 ,ibid41     
,society & ,prisons1 pp4 #ahe-bce2  ,c4 
,r4 ,,h5d]son1 ,! ,dep5d5t1 ,defective1 
& ,del9qu5t ,classes1 pp4  #bgf-cjg4    
#d4 ,! divorce problem 9 its social &   

economic aspects4 ,e>ly  hi/ory ( !     
problem4 ,! spread ( divorce 9 ! ,unit$ 
,/ates4  ,comp>ison ) o!r c\ntries4     
,causes ( divorce4 ,relative importance 
( ^! causes4 ,effects on family         
organization4 ,effects ^u !  *ildr5     
conc]n$4 ,economic results ( divorce4 ,!
 possible rem$ies4  ,probable           
effectiv5ess ( ^! rem$ies4 ,conclusions4
 ,ref]5ces3 ,c4  ,a4 ,,ellwood1         
,sociology & ,mod]n ,social ,problems1  
pp4 #adg-aff2 ,w4 ,f4  ,,willcox1 ,!    
,divorce ,problem1 passim2 ,j4 ,p4      
,,li*t5b]g]1 ,divorce2  ,a /udy 9 social
 causation 7,columbia ,univ]sity ,/udies
 9 ,hi/ory1  ,economics1 & ,public ,law1
 ,vol4 ,,xxxv1 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #eb-if1     
#aea-aga72 ,j4 ,q4  ,,dealey1 ,! ,family
 9 its ,sociological ,aspects1 pp4      
#gc-ajh2 ,unit$  ,/ates ,bureau ( !     
,c5sus1 ,report = #aiaj 7,see ,ab/ract1 
,sections on ,m>ital ,conditions72 ,h4  
,,bosanquet1 ,! ,family1 pp4  #bfj-cad2 
,w4 ,,goodsell1 ,! ,family z a ,social &
 ,educational  ,in/itution1 pp4         

#def-dif4                               
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! treatm5t ( !    
poor 9 e>li] days4 ,,?omas ,,mackay1    
,public  ,relief ( ! ,poor1 pp4 #ce-fh4 
#b4 ,unemploym5t z a cause ( pov]ty4 ,e4
 ,t4 ,,dev9e1 ,mis]y & its  ,causes1 pp4
 #aac-adf4    #c4 ,old-age p5sions      
abroad4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,dawson1 ,social       
,insurance 9  ,g]many1 pp4 #a-ba4    #d4
 ,! problem ( ! deaf & ! bl9d4 ,e4 ,t4  
,,t[ne1 ,social  ,problems1 pp4         
#afa-aha4    #e4 ,poor relief           
organizations 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,c4 ,r4
 ,,h5d]son1  ,mod]n ,me?ods ( ,*>ity1   
pp4 #chj-dea4    #f4 ,! problem ( !     
m5tal defectives4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,bur* & ,s4  
,h4  ,,patt]son1 ,am]ican ,social       
,problems1 pp4 #bga-bhh4    #g4 ,!ories 
( crime & puni%m5t4 ,t4 ,n4 ,,c>v]1     
,sociology &  ,social ,progress1 pp4    
#fed-fgc4    #h4 ,! "w ( ,j]emy ,b5?am4 
,a4 ,v4 ,,dicey1 ,! ,relation ,betwe5   
,law  & ,public ,op9ion 9 ,engl&1 pp4   
#afg-bji4    #i4 ,prison self-gov]nm5t4 
,f4 ,h4 ,,w9es1 ,puni%m5t & ,re=mation1 

pp4 #cfd-dab4    #aj4 ,fundam5tal       
factors 9 ! prev5tion ( crime4 ,f4 ,h4  
,,w9es1  ,puni%m5t & ,re=mation1 pp4    
#dac-dfa4    #aa4 ,juv5ile c\rts4       
,,b]n>d ,,flexn] & ,r4 ,n4 ,,baldw91    
,juv5ile  ,c\rts & ,probation1 pp4      
#ab-gh2 ,t4 ,d4 ,,eliot1 ,! ,juv5ile    
,c\rt &  ! ,community1 pp4 #a-da4       
,que/ions    #a4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce     
betwe5 pov]ty & paup]ism8 ,has !        
di/9ction any importance8    #b4 ,place 
! individual causes ( pov]ty 9 :at seems
 to y to be  _! ord] ( consequ5ce & give
 y\r reasons = s plac+ !m4    #c4 ,:at  
is meant by ! m9imum /&>d ( liv+8 ,make 
an e/imate (  :at x co/s to ma9ta9 ?is  
m9imum /&>d 9 y\r own community at  !   
pres5t "t4    #d4 ,to :at ext5t are     
ov]cr[d+ & unsanit>y conditions ! cause 
( pov]ty & to :at ext5t are !y ! effect8
    #e4 ,:at are ! advantages & !       
disadvantages ( private poor relief     
organizations8 ,9 :at way may !         
disadvantages be ov]come8    #f4 ,9 :at 
ways are pov]ty & a poor educational    

sy/em relat$8    #g4 ,:y is x desirable 
to sep>ate ! diff]5t types ( m5tal      
defectives8    #h4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce   
betwe5 crimes & torts8 ,:i* ( !  foll[+ 
are crimes & :i* are n3 tell+ a         
falsehood2 blasphemy2  ?r[+ rubbi% 9 !  
/reets2 refus+ to obey ! ord]s ( a      
policeman2 build+ a h\se on ano!r man's 
l&2 r++ 9 a false  al>m2 tell+ false    
/ories ab\t a neighbor2 play+ ball on   
,sunday8  ,c y make a classification (  
crimes ap>t f t giv5 9 !  text8    #i4  
,place ! causes ( crime 9 :at seems to y
 to be _! ord] (  importance4 ,comp>e   
?is ) ! answ] to ,"q #b4    #aj4 ,expla9
 ! diff]5ce betwe5 indet]m9ate s5t5ce1  
p>ole1 &  probation4    #aa4 ,make a li/
 ( prison re=ms :i* meet y\r approval4  
,:at c\ld  y d1 z a citiz51 to secure ! 
adoption ( ^! re=ms4    #ab4 ,:y are    
juv5ile c\rts desirable8 ,:at           
disposition d !y make (  cases :i* come 
be=e !m8 ,:at are ! duties ( a probation
  (fic]8                                
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! public      

au?orities %\ld assume all              
responsibility = poor  relief & d away )
 private *>ity organizations altoge!r4  
#b4 ,c\nty jails %\ld be aboli%$ & all  
prison]s s5t to /ate or  f$]al          
in/itutions4    #c4 ,! ,osborne plan (  
prison self-gov]nm5t %\ld be adopt$     
?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4    -----    ,footnote 
#bfj3      ,an exception to ?is mu/ be  
made 9 ! case ( ! negro population    ( 
! ,s\?4 ,! am\nt ( pov]ty among ! ,s\!rn
 negroes is    l>ge1 al?\gh mo/ ( !m    
live 9 rural communities4    ,footnote  
#bfa3      ,pov]ty1 9 a way1 reproduces 
itself4 ,"s ye>s ago a ,new ,york social
    work] gave ! foll[+ r cog5t         
description ( ! way 9    :i* "o g5]ation
 passes its pov]ty on to ! next4 8,a    
*ild1    re>$ 9 a poor home1 is tak5 out
 ( s*ool & s5t to "w at an    e>ly age4 
,he drudges away1 br+s home e c5t ( 8   
pay1 is    all[$ to keep little or none 
( x1 & gets no fun out ( life4    ,aft] 
a :ile he gets tir$ ( ?is2 he meets "s  
girl :o has be5    br\ght up 9 ! same   

way2 !y get m>ri$2 b nei!r ( !m has     
sav$ any money nor has ! slighte/ idea (
 h[ to manage a home4    ,!y r5t a small
 flat1 buy "s furniture on ! in/allm5t  
plan1    & !n f9d t !y are n able to pay
 = x4 ,!y get into debt    & :5 ei!r    
falls sick or ! husb& is out ( "w !re is
    no?+ to eat4 ,:5 *ildr5 come !y gr[ 
up on improp]    n\ri%m5t2 !y are slapp$
 9 ! face & scold$ at all h\rs2    !y   
get no home tra9+ & v little s*ool+2 z  
soon z !y    are able to e>n a few      
doll>s a week !y are haul$ out ( s*ool  
& put to "w--& s hi/ory j repeats       
itself40    ,footnote #bfb3      ,!     
m>riage ( feeble-m9d$ or o!r m5tally    
defective p]sons    ought to be prev5t$1
 = ! results ( su* m>riages are bad =   
! :ole community4 ,!y help to fill !    
poorh\ses1 ! asylums1    & ! jails4 ,!re
 are "s :o believe t ! gov]nm5t ought to
    g fur!r & l5d its influ5ce t[>ds !  
promotion ( great]    c>e 9 det]m9+ !   
m>riage ( p]sons :o are n m5tally       
defective4 ,m>riage1 z has be5 %[n 9 an 

e>li] *apt]1 is !    basis ( ! home &   
h5ce ! f\ndation ( ! :ole social ord]4  
,x is an in/itution ( exce$+ly great    
importance to ! well-be+    ( society4  
,yet we leave ! :ole ?+ to ! caprice (  
individuals1 or _! pass+ fancy1 or to ! 
accid5ts ( *ance    fri5d%ips4 ,:atev]  
may be ! inspiration to m>riage x c     
truly    be said t _m unions ( man &    
woman contribute no?+ to !    well-be+ (
 pres5t or future society4 ,is x "r t an
    in/itution ( su* importance to !    
human race1 bo? pres5t &    future1 %\ld
 be s little controll$ by law1 by cu/om1
 or by public    op9ion & s l>gely left 
to ! discretion ( individuals8 ,c !     
race be improv$ 9 t way8 ,beyond prev5t+
 ! m>riage (    m5tally deg5]ate p]sons 
is !re any fur!r action t society       
ought to take8    ,footnote #bfc3       
,_m explanations are (f]$ = ?is4 ,we are
 a relatively new    c\ntry1 ) a        
population made up ( _m races4 ,c\rt    
proc$ure is    sl[ & cumbr\s2 x takes a 
long "t to puni% (f5d]s1 & !y    h a    

fair *ance ( escap+ puni%m5t altoge!r4  
,police h be5    "u ! control (         
politicians & h be5 lax 9 en=c+ !       
laws4 ,we h emphasiz$ ! idea ( lib]ty s 
/rongly t x has    b5efit$ ev5 !        
crim9al4 ,we h n made puni%m5t c]ta9    
en\gh or sev]e en\gh to det] p f        
evil-do+4 ,all ^!    excuses h "s =ce1  
no d\bt1 b d !y fully acc\nt = our      
poor %[+ 9 comp>ison ) o!r c\ntries8    
,footnote #bfd3      ,! re=m] :o fir/   
educat$ ! public to ?is doctr9e 0 ,j]emy
    ,b5?am1 an ,engli% writ] on social  
topics :o liv$ 9 ! e>ly    ye>s ( !     
n9ete5? c5tury4    ,footnote #bfe3      
,! mo/ conspicu\s figure 9 ?is bran* (  
prison re=m dur+    rec5t ye>s is ,mr4  
,?omas ,mott ,osborne1 :o 0 = a "t 9    
*>ge    ( ! /ate prison at ,auburn1 ,n4 
,y4 ,mr4 ,osborne entirely aboli%$    ! 
old sy/em ( discipl9e & e/abli%$ a s*eme
 (    self-gov]nm5t among ! prison]s4 ,b
 public op9ion 0 n q    ready = su* a   
radical exp]im5t z ,mr4 ,osborne        
inaugurat$1 &    8 "w 0 bitt]ly         

criticis$ 9 _m qu>t]s1 al?\gh x 0       
comm5d$ 9 o!rs4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ! controv]sy
 he gave up 8    po/ & 8 successor did n
 cont9ue 8 policy4    ,footnote #bff3   
,a good _m p are beg9n+ to wond] :e!r ! 
reaction    aga9/ ! old-fa%ion$ me?ods (
 deal+ ) (f5d]s has n    be5 c>ri$ too  
f>4 ,p]sons *>g$ ) crime are n[ giv5 a  
fair    trial ) lib]al opportunities =  
appeal4 ,:5 convict$ !y are    frequ5tly
 giv5 indet]m9ate s5t5ces & !n1 aft] a  
%ort t]m    ( conf9em5t1 are releas$ on 
p>ole4 ,9 prison !y are well    h\s$1   
prop]ly f$1 giv5 v>i\s privileges1      
provid$ ) motion    picture ent]ta9m5ts1
 & giv5 o!r =ms ( recreation4 ,!        
compla9t is made t we h made ! pa? ( !  
transgressor    altoge!r too easy & t ! 
sort ( puni%m5t :i* is n[ met$    out to
 (f5d]s is inadequate to s]ve z a       
det]r5t to crime4 ,!    increase 9      
crime1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! l>g] ,am]ican     
cities1 is by    "s attribut$ to ?is    
l5i5cy ( treatm5t4    ,footnote #bfg3   
,"o ( ! fir/ ( ^! c\rts1 & ! be/ kn[n ( 

!m all1 is    ! ,juv5ile ,c\rt ( ,d5v]1 
,colorado1 :i* 0 = "s ye>s    presid$   
ov] by ,judge ,b5 ,b4 ,l9dsey4 ,= a "t !
 success ( ?is    c\rt seem$ to be      
rem>kable1 = ,judge ,l9dsey possess$ !  
knack    ( gett+ wayw>d boys to tell him
 ! tru?2 b 9 8 zeal =    giv+ !m a *ance
 to re=m he appe>$ to _m citiz5s ( ,d5v]
    to be unduly l5i5t4 ,! ,juv5ile     
,c\rt 0 reta9$1 b ano!r    judge 0 put 9
 *>ge ( x4    ,footnote #bfh3      ,9   
numb] ( divorces ! ,unit$ ,/ates1       
unhappily1 leads ! _w4    ,m divorces   
are grant$ ea* ye> 9 ?is c\ntry ?an 9   
all o!r    civiliz$ c\ntries put toge!r4
 ,?is is "o ( ! ?+s :i*    gives u no   
occasion = boa/+1 because x po9ts to a  
s]i\s    weak5+ 9 ! /ability & /r5g? ( !
 family z a social    unit4 ,n only is !
 numb] ( divorces v l>ge1 b x is rapidly
    increas+ ye> by ye>4 ,fifty ye>s ago
 ! numb] p] annum 9 !    ,unit$ ,/ates 0
 only ab\t tw5ty ?\s&2 n[ x is ov] "o   
hundr$ & tw5ty ?\s&4 ,on ! av]age !re 0 
"o divorce =    e ?irty m>riages 9      

#ahgj2 today ! ratio is "o 9 t54 ,at !  
pres5t rate ( increase x has be5 e/imat$
 t by #aiej no few]    ?an "o-f\r? ( all
 m>riages w be t]m9at$ by divorce1 & if 
! same condition ( affairs %\ld cont9ue 
until ! end ( !    tw5tie? c5tury1      
"o-half ( all ! m>riages w\ld ev5tuate 9
    t way4 ,?is w\ld inde$ be an om9\s  
outlook 7 x n t    conditions are       
likely1 soon] or lat]1 to und]go a      
*ange4 ,:5 a    social problem becomes v
 s]i\s1 z ?is "o is n[ becom+1 x    is !
 habit ( society to seek out & apply    
appropriate rem$ies4                    
,,*apt] ,,xxviii                        
,,! ,,national ,,def5ce        ,!       
purpose ( ?is *apt] is to %[ :y an army 
& navy are      ne$$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates2
 h[ !y are organiz$2 & :at !y      co/4 
,sid5ote3 ,:at we sp5d ea* ye> = milit>y
 purposes4    ,! ,/up5d\s ,co/ (        
,armam5ts4--,al?\gh ! p ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates dislike w> & desire peace !      
national gov]nm5t is n[  sp5d+ ab\t     
#gej1jjj1jjj e ye> to ma9ta9 ! c\ntry's 

milit>y & naval =ces4 ,sev5 doll>s p]   
head ( population is our  annual        
contribution = national def5ce4 ,! p ( !
 ,unit$  ,/ates are sp5d+ f> m on       
national def5ce1 on paym5ts = pa/  w>s1 
& on prep>ations = w>s ( ! future1 ?an  
!y are  exp5d+ ^u all bran*es ( civil   
gov]nm5t4 ,! co/ ( a s+le  battle%ip is 
great] ?an t ( all ! s*ool build+s 9 a  
/ate  l ,ohio or ,cali=nia4 ,& ?is does 
n reckon ! loss caus$ by !  )drawal ( m 
?an two hundr$ ?\s& able-bodi$ "y m5 f  
! f>ms & factories4 ,:y is x necess>y to
 support armies &  navies8 ,! lead+     
nations ( ! _w1 at ! ,wa%+ton conf]5ce  
( #aiba-aibb1 rea*$ an agreem5t = !     
r$uction ( naval armam5ts4  ,w\ld x n be
 practicable = ! _w to aboli% armies &  
navies  altoge!r8 ,we h all he>d !      
argum5ts ( ! pacifi/s to !  effect t    
great armam5ts are n necess>y1 t !y are 
9 fact an  enc\ragem5t to w>1 & t !y    
m]ely impose ^u ! p a  griev\s burd5 9  
taxes )\t any sub/antial advantage 9    
return4#bfi    ,let u fir/ look at ?is  

problem f a diff]5t angle1 close at     
home4  ,we sp5d l>ge sums ( money 9 all 
,am]ican cities = ! ma9t5ance  ( police1
 police c\rts1 & prisons4 ,:y d we d x8 
,if p w\ld  only obey ! laws1 respect ! 
rights ( o!rs1 & refra9 f  int]f]+ ) _! 
neighbors1 !re w\ld be no ne$ = ^! arm$ 
gu>dians ( ! law4 ,! tr\ble is1 h[ev]1 t
 )\t police &  prisons we w\ld h        
disord]1 inju/ice1 & oppression4 ,a     
community  c]ta9ly w\ld n promote !     
cause ( law & ord] by leav+ itself      
helpless aga9/ ^? :o set out to d wrong4
 ,n[ ! army & !  navy are our police    
writ l>ge4 ,!y are1 aga9/ wrong-do+ f   
)\t1 :at ! police are aga9/ wrong-do+ f 
)9--a measure  ( protection & security4 
,sid5ote3 ,a nation _c leave itself     
def5celess4    ,def5ce is an ,ess5tial  
,function ( ,gov]nm5t4--,_m ye>s ago "o 
(  ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,am]ican ,republic1     
,james ,madison1 /at$ ?is po9t  9 a s+le
 s5t5ce4 8,security aga9/ =eign dang]01 
he wrote1 8is  "o ( ! primitive objects 
( civil society4 ,x is an av[$ object ( 

! ,am]ican union40 ,we set great value 9
 ?is democracy on ! "r  to 8life1       
lib]ty1 & ! pursuit ( happ9ess01 b no p 
c be  secure 9 _! rights to any ( ^! ?+s
 s long z !y p]mit  !mselves to rema9   
def5celess aga9/ ! assaults ( _!        
enemies4  ,:5 "o citiz5 injures ano!r   
!re are c\rts to r5d] ju/ice4 ,b  :5 "o 
nation treats ano!r unju/ly ! injur$    
c\ntry has no su*  r$ress2 x mu/ dep5d  
^u its own /r5g? to ass]t its rights4 ,!
  impulse to self-def5ce is deeply      
implant$ 9 human nature4 ,a man's  fir/ 
c>e is to def5d himself & ^? de>e/ to   
him4 ,s a nation's  fir/ c>e %\ld be = !
 safety ( ^? )9 its bord]s4 ,a  c\ntry t
 is n ready & able to protect its own   
citiz5s c  sc>cely be said to des]ve _! 
patriotism4 ,fe> ,god & take y\r own    
"p6 is a good motto4#bgj ,a man :o _c   
take 8 own "p1 :5  occasion dem&s1 is a 
weakness 9 any community1 = 8 impot5ce  
is  an enc\ragem5t to wrongdo]s4 ,! same
 applies to nations4 ,a c\ntry  t _c    
def5d itself aga9/ ext]nal inju/ice puts

 a premium on  aggression4#bga ,! day   
may come :51 z x is writt5 9 !          
,scriptures1 8nation %all n lift up     
sword aga9/ nation1 nei!r  %all !y le>n 
w> any m02 b until t long-look$-= "t    
arrives x is ! duty ( e l& to make sure 
t its t]ritories  %all n be invad$ )    
impunity4 ,wanton or unju/ w> is an     
abhorr5t  evil1 & ev5 a j w> (          
self-def5ce br+s immeasurable suff]+4   
,! p]man5t avoidance ( w> is assur$ly a 
goal :i* human ef=t  %\ld /rive by "s   
means or o!r to atta94    ,sid5ote3 ,d  
armam5ts eng5d] milit>ism8    ,national 
,def5ce & ,milit>ism4--,x is (t5 said t 
armam5ts lead  to milit>ism & !         
enc\ragem5t ( a w>like _s among !  p1 & 
t ! nation :i* keeps a %>p sword is     
always "u a  temptation to un%ea! x4 ,! 
hi/ory ( ,european nations proves t  !re
 is a measure ( tru? 9 ?is ass]tion4    
,huge armies are n  m]ely an economic   
burd51 a s\rce ( enorm\s exp5se2 b !y   
create  suspicion & di/ru/ among a      
nation's neighbors4 ,dur+ ! fifty  ye>s 

prec$+ #aiad ! v>i\s c\ntries ( ,europe 
kept ea* o!r's  temp]s con/antly on edge
 by reason ( _! be+ arm$ to ! tee?4  ,! 
/&+ armies ( ,g]many1 ,au/ria1 ,russia1 
,france1 & ,italy prior  to ! outbreak (
 ! ,_w ,w> totall$ ne>ly two million m54
 ,^!  m5 _h to be f$1 clo!d1 & support$ 
by ! labor ( ^? :o 7  n 9 ! milit>y     
s]vice4 ,h[ mu* bett] x w\ld h be5 if   
mo/  ( !m _h sp5t _! "t beh9d ! pl\gh6  
,sid5ote3 ,:at ano!r _w-w> w\ld mean4   
,! ,causes ( ,w>4--,intellig5t p ev]y:]e
 are agre$ t w>  is ! greate/ curse (   
humanity & t "s means ( prev5tion mu/   
be f\nd4 ,if ! _w1 )9 ! next g5]ation1  
%\ld h !  mis=tune to engage 9 ano!r    
titanic conflict l ! la/1 x w  n mu*    
matt] :o w9s4 ,victor & vanqui%$ w alike
 g d[n 9 a  welt] ( blood & *aos4 ,!re  
is no diff]5ce ( op9ion among  ?\ghtful 
m5 ( all nations on ?is po9t4 ,s f> z ! 
desirability  ( p]man5tly avoid+ w> is  
conc]n$1 !re is entire agreem5t  betwe5 
pacifi/s & o!r p4 ,b h[ is w> to be     
p]man5tly  avoid$8 ,"o way1 & probably !

 only effective way1 is to remove !     
causes ( w>4    ,sid5ote3 ,! *ief       
motives 9 w>4    ,9 pa/ ye>s a great _m 
diff]5t ?+s h drawn nations into w>4    
,gre$ = t]ritory has be5 a prolific     
cause ( arm$ conflict dur+  _m c5turies4
 ,gov]nm5ts1 l individuals1 (t5 violate 
! t5?  comm&m5t & covet ! possessions ( 
_! neighbors4 ,rivalry 9  trade         
sometimes leads to ill-feel+1 suspicion1
 & 9 ! end to  ho/ilities4 ,! press1 or 
c]ta9 sections ( x1 is sometimes giv5 to
  fom5t+ ?is bad feel+ & s are          
politicians occasionally4 ,!            
misgov]nm5t ( a helpless p has at times 
l$ to outside  int]v5tion on _! behalf1 
z :5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #ahih  int]pos$  
to t]m9ate ,spani% oppression 9 ,cuba4  
,alliances among  nations1 p>ticul>ly   
secret alliances1 h ar\s$ jeal\sy to a  
po9t  :]e "s relatively m9or mi%ap      
suffic$ to s5d armies =? to  battle4 ,9 
! case ( ! ,_w ,w> ! murd] ( an ,au/rian
 ar*duke  at ,s]ajevo 0 ! mat* :i* set  
,europe aflame2 b x 0 n !  und]ly+ cause

 ( ! conflict4 ,! real causes are to be 
f\nd 9 !  rivalry1 ! jeal\sies1 & !     
milit>ism :i* turn$ ,europe into a  huge
 arm$ camp dur+ ! ye>s prec$+ #aiad4    
,sid5ote3 ,c ^! motives be remov$8      
,!re is no reason :y nations %\ld be    
natural enemies4 ,l m5 !y  c live toge!r
 9 amity if1 l m51 !y le>n to secure    
respect  = _! own rights by respect+ !  
rights ( o!rs4 ,up to a c]ta9  po9t     
rivalry betwe5 diff]5t c\ntries makes = 
progress1 b :5  rivalry eng5d]s         
bitt]ness x becomes a m5ace to peace4 ,a
 l>ge "p  ( ! mutual suspicion :i* exi/s
 among gov]nm5ts w\ld be  oblit]at$ if  
secret diplomacy 7 aboli%$ & ! burd5 (  
great  armam5ts remov$4    ,! ,regul>   
,army ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,until ^!     
causes ( w> are  p]man5tly remov$ by "s 
agreem5t among ! nations ( ! _w no      
c\ntry c v5ture to give up reasonable   
measures = its own def5ce4  ,= milit>y  
protection ! ,unit$ ,/ates relies fir/ (
 all ^u !  regul> army4 ,9 proportion to
 ! total population ( ! c\ntry ?is  army

 has nev] be5 l>ge 9 "t ( peace4 ,!     
policy ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates has always be5
 to ma9ta9 a /&+ army ( v mod]ate size  
& to dep5d1 9 em]g5cies1 ^u ! assi/ance 
( units rais$ f  among ! able-bodi$ m5 (
 ! civilian population4#bgb ,sid5ote3   
,h[ ! regul> army is organiz$4 ,! size (
 ! regul> army is  fix$ f "t to "t by   
,congress2 x is always recruit$ by      
volunt>y  enli/m5t & has nev] conta9$   
any regim5ts rais$ by conscription4     
,enli/m5ts are = a t]m ( ye>s1 at ! end 
( :i* "t an  honorable dis*>ge is giv5  
if ! soldi] has s]v$ fai?fully4 ,!      
regul> army is completely & at all times
 "u ! control ( ! ,w>  ,dep>tm5t2 its   
(fic]s are appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t z     
comm&]-9-*ief2 its discipl9e is regulat$
 by f$]al law & its  entire co/ (       
ma9t5ance is borne by ! national        
gov]nm5t4    ,! ,national ,gu>d4--,b !  
milit>y =ces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates d  n     
consi/ ( ! regul> army alone4 ,ea* /ate 
ma9ta9s a militia 9  :i* e able-bodi$   
citiz5 betwe5 ! ages ( eighte5 &        

=ty-five is "u obligation to s]ve :5    
call$ ^u4 ,! effective  portion ( ?is   
militia1 h[ev]1 consi/s ( organiz$ units
 kn[n z  ! national gu>d4 ,9 "t ( peace 
! national gu>d is "u !  control ( !    
/ates1 ! gov]nor 9 ea* /ate be+ its     
comm&]-9-*ief2 b ,congress has au?ority 
to provide = ! arm+  & discipl9+ ( ?is  
=ce s t x may be s]viceable 9 "t (  w>4 
,! pres5t regulations relat+ to ! size1 
organization1 arm+1  & discipl9+ ( !    
national gu>d 7 fram$ by ,congress 9    
#aiaf4  ,its (fic]s1 9 "t ( peace1 are  
appo9t$ 9 ea* /ate by !  gov]nor2 b !   
national gov]nm5t furni%es ! arms &     
equipm5t  besides giv+ an annual money  
grant to ea* /ate4 ,! national gu>d1  l 
! regul> army1 is recruit$ by volunt>y  
enli/m5t4 ,9 "t (  w> or o!r em]g5cy x  
may be call$ into ! s]vice ( ! f$]al    
gov]nm5t & !n becomes1 = all practical  
purposes1 an integral  "p ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates army4#bgc    ,!                  
,volunte]s4--,dur+ practically all ! w>s
 9 :i* ! ,unit$  ,/ates 0 engag$ prior  

to #aiag a call 0 made = volunte]s4 ,9 !
  ,civil ,w> m ?an a million soldi]s 7  
br\ght to ! colors 9  response to ! six 
successive calls :i* ,presid5t ,l9coln  
issu$4 ,b  recruits did n always come   
readily & x 0 necess>y on occasions  to 
(f] b\nties or money grants to all :o   
w\ld volunte]4 ,dur+ !  w> ) ,spa9 9    
#ahih volunte]s 7 aga9 call$ =1 & _m    
regim5ts 7 rais$ 9 ?is way1 notably !   
,fir/ ,volunte] ,cavalry1  bett] kn[n z 
! ,r\gh ,rid]s4#bgd ,! s]i\s defect ( an
 army  rais$ 9 ?is way is t no "o c     
=etell ! numb] ( m5 :o  w respond4 ,!   
volunte] sy/em1 moreov]1 re/s ^u ! idea 
t  milit>y s]vice is an optional1 n a   
univ]sal duty1 on ! "p (  citiz5s4      
,sid5ote3 ,! draft 9 #aiag-aiah4    ,!  
,national ,army4--,:5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates   
ent]$ ! ,_w ,w> 9  #aiag x 0 realiz$ t a
 suffici5t milit>y =ce c\ld n be  obta9$
 by us+ ! regul> army1 by ord]+ out !   
national gu>d1  or by call+ = volunte]s4
 ,s1 on ,may #ah1 #aiag1 ,congress pass$
 !  ,selective ,s]vice ,act :i* au?oriz$

 ! ,presid5t to summon all male  citiz5s
 betwe5 ! ages ( tw5ty-"o & ?irty-"o to 
be regi/]$4  ,x fur!r provid$ t !       
,presid5t %\ld call into s]vice 7subject
  to c]ta9 exemptions made 9 ! act & 9  
accordance ) regulations  :i* he might  
frame7 a suffici5t numb] ( m5 to =m a   
national  army4 ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! draft 0 
appli$4 ,! fir/ regi/ration took  place 
9 ,june1 #aiag1 & imm$iately !reaft] !  
local draft bo>ds1  "u ! sup]vision ( ! 
,provo/-,m>%al-,g5]al1 select$ !  p]sons
 :o 7 call$ into s]vice4 ,9 due c\rse x 
0 f\nd  advisable to classify all !     
regi/rants & to summon1 fir/ ( all1     
unm>ri$ m5 )\t dep5d5ts :o 7 n engag$ 9 
any ess5tial  occupation4 ,9 ! summ] (  
#aiah an ext5sion ( ! age limit 0       
au?oriz$ by ,congress1 to include all m5
 betwe5 ! ages ( eighte5  & =ty-five2 b 
x did n prove necess>y to call into     
s]vice any  consid]able numb] ( m5 f    
among ^! lat] regi/rants4 ,!            
classification ( ! m51 ! physical       
exam9ations1 & ! ord] 9  :i* m5 7 call$ 

to ! colors 7 all provid$ = 9 ! body (  
rules kn[n z ! ,selective ,s]vice       
,regulations4    ,! m5 draft$ "u ^!     
regulations 7 s5t to milit>y camps or   
cantonm5ts locat$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( !    
c\ntry4 ,!re !y 7  organiz$ into milit>y
 units1 equipp$1 & tra9$4 ,z soon z ea* 
division _h complet$ its prelim9>y tra9+
 x 0 s5t to ,europe4  ,=ty divisions ( !
 national army1 mobiliz$ 9 ?is way1 7 9 
,europe be=e ! armi/ice 0 sign$4 ,^!1 ) 
! non-combatant  troops1 made up a total
 ( ab\t two million m54 ,sid5ote3 ,!    
,am]ican army 9 ! w>4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #aiah1
 :5 ! la/ great  ,g]man drive aga9/ !   
,fr5* & ,briti% armies took place1 !re  
7 only half a million ,am]ican troops 9 
,europe4 ,! ne$ = m  0 urg5t & ,am]ica 0
 ask$ to hurry4 ,by almo/ sup]human ef=t
  great bodies ( troops 7 ru%$ f ! camps
 to ! ,atlantic ports  & s5t across !   
wat] dur+ ! summ] at ! rate ( m ?an two 
hundr$ ?\s& m5 a mon?4 ,:5 ! f9al unit$ 
assault ( !  ,alli$ armies c>ri$ !m     
?r\gh ! ,g]man l9es 9 ! autumn !  /r5g? 

( ! ,am]ican =ces contribut$ decisively 
to ! ultimate  victory4 ,! spe$ ) :i*   
,am]ica drew a great army f ! ranks  (  
h] citiz5%ip1 tra9$ x1 s5t x ov]seas1   
us$ x to turn !  scale1 & br\ght x home 
aga9--^! ?+s made a pr(\nd impression   
^u ! :ole _w4    ,sid5ote3 ,! ,presid5t 
z comm&]-9-*ief4    ,! ,control ( !     
,army 9 ,w>4--,accord+ to ! con/itution 
( !  ,unit$ ,/ates ! p[] to decl>e w>   
re/s ) ,congress4 ,! usual  me?od (     
decl>+ w> is ! passage ( a resolution by
 bo? h\ses (  ,congress1 sign$ by !     
,presid5t4 ,w> may beg91 h[ev]1 )\t a   
=mal decl>ation on ei!r side4 ,x may    
beg9 by an act ( w>1 an  attack by "o   
nation ^u ano!r1 or by "o section ( a   
c\ntry ^u  ano!r4 ,! ,civil ,w> began ) 
! fir+ ^u ,=t ,sumt]2 !re 0  no         
decl>ation ( w> by ei!r side4 ,once w>  
is decl>$ ! movem5ts  ( ! army dep5d ^u 
! discretion ( ! ,presid5t4 ,he appo9ts 
!  (fic]s :o comm& x & has ! f9al       
decision z reg>ds ! c\rse  ( milit>y    
op]ations4 ,congress votes ! money =    

c>ry+ on a w>1  b ! ,presid5t directs ! 
sp5d+ ( x4 ,congress det]m9es !  size & 
"* ( ! army1 b z comm&]-9-*ief !        
,presid5t  controls all its op]ations 9 
! field4#bge ,?is division (  functions 
might possibly lead to friction & ev5 to
 disa/] if  ,congress & ! ,presid5t did 
n "w 9 h>mony1 b on ! :ole !  two       
bran*es ( ! gov]nm5t h always %[n a _s (
  co-op]ation 9 w>-"t4    ,sid5ote3 ,!  
army z an aid to ! civil p[]4    ,! ,use
 ( ,arm$ ,=ces 9 ,"t ( ,peace4--,9 "t ( 
peace ! regul>  army & ! national gu>d  
may be us$ "u c]ta9 conditions to put   
d[n riot or disord]4 ,! ,presid5t has ! 
"r to use ,unit$ ,/ates  troops )9 !    
limits ( any /ate 9 ord] to en=ce !     
national  laws1 to facilitate ! c>ry+ ( 
! mails1 or to ma9ta9 any o!r  function 
( ! national gov]nm5t4 ,?is he may d )\t
 !  invitation or p]mission ( ! /ate    
gov]nm5t1 or ev5 aga9/ !  wi%es ( ! /ate
 au?orities4 ,9 #ahid :5 a railway /rike
 9  ,*icago int]f]$ ) ! free passage (  
mails1 ,presid5t ,clevel&  s5t a        

deta*m5t ( regul> troops to ! /ate (    
,ill9ois & cle>$  ! way4 ,! ,supreme    
,c\rt held t he 0 )9 8 rights4 ,if a    
/ate is invad$1 ! ,presid5t may also act
 on 8 own volition2 b  :5 int]nal       
disord]s occur1 x is ! prim>y function (
 ! /ate  au?orities to suppress !m4 ,!  
gov]nor is ve/$ ) au?ority to  call out 
! national gu>d = ?is purpose4 ,f$]al   
troops _c be  s5t 9 su* cases except ^u 
! reque/ ( ! /ate au?orities1  unless1 (
 c\rse1 ! disord]s rea* a po9t :]e !y   
ob/ruct !  national gov]nm5t 9 !        
p]=mance ( its functions4 ,9 any ev5t1  
troops are n call$ out = active s]vice 9
 "t ( peace save "u  conditions ( s]i\s 
em]g5cy4 ,soldi]s are n well qualifi$ to
  h&le ord9>y di/urbances2 !y h n be5   
tra9$ = t  purpose & _! pres5ce is      
likely to make mild di/urbances m       
s]i\s4 ,bodies ( /ate con/abul>y1 l ^?  
ma9ta9$ 9 ,new  ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 &  
,massa*usetts1 are bett] adapt$ to use 9
 su*  situations4    ,sid5ote3 ,!       
articles ( w>4    ,milit>y ,law4--,!    

citiz51 "u normal conditions1 is subject
 only to  ! law ( ! l&4 ,b ! soldi] 7&  
?is t]m includes (fic]s7  is subject n  
only to ! ord9>y laws b to a special    
code (  milit>y law ! provisions ( :i*  
are embodi$ 9 ! ,articles ( ,w>  & are  
adm9i/]$ by c\rts-m>tial4 ,! ,articles (
 ,w> are enact$  by ,congress1 & anyone 
ent]+ ! army1 :e!r z a commission$      
(fic] or an enli/$ man1 becomes subject 
to _! provisions bo? 9  "t ( w> & 9 "t (
 peace4 ,^! articles deal ) su* matt]s  
z des]tion1 disob$i5ce ( ord]s1 neglect 
( duty1 abs5ce )\t  leave1 ! wrongful   
use ( milit>y equipm5t1 & k9dr$ milit>y 
(f5ces4    ,sid5ote3 ,c\rts-m>tial4     
,milit>y law is n en=c$ by ! ord9>y     
c\rts b by special  c\rts kn[n z        
c\rts-m>tial1 :i* are compos$ ( army    
(fic]s4#bgf ,puni%m5t may be inflict$ 9 
! =m ( di%onorable  dis*>ge f ! army1 or
 imprisonm5t--ev5 ! dea? p5alty may be  
impos$ 9 extreme cases dur+ w>4 ,!      
accus$ p]son has ! "r to  h 8 own c\nsel
 & ! cu/om>y rules ( evid5ce are foll[$1

  z 9 ! civil c\rts4    ,sid5ote3 ,:at  
m>tial law implies4    ,m>tial          
,law4--,milit>y law & m>tial law are (t5
 confus$ ) ea*  o!r1 b !y are 9 fact    
:olly diff]5t4 ,m>tial law is ! entire  
legal adm9i/ration :i* is appli$ to any 
area ( conflict or  insurrection by ord]
 ( ,congress1 or by ! ,presid5t 9 case  
su*  action is urg5tly ne$$ be=e action 
by ,congress c be tak54 ,x is  n        
proclaim$ except 9 case ( invasion1     
insurrection1 or civil or  =eign w>1 &  
!n only 9 di/ricts :]e ! ord9>y laws &  
c\rts prove !mselves unable to secure ! 
public safety4    ,sid5ote3 ,its        
effects4    ,:5 m>tial law is proclaim$ 
9 any di/rict ! ord9>y laws cease  to   
function !re4 ,! ord]s ( ! comm&+       
milit>y (fic] take  ! place ( ! laws4   
,special milit>y tribunals are usually  
appo9t$  to en=ce ^! ord]s2 b if        
practicable1 ! ord9>y c\rts may be      
reta9$4 ,m>tial law applies to ev]ybody 
)9 ! di/rict1 soldi]s  & civilians      
alike4 ,! comm&+ (fic] issues 8 ord]s &1

  :atev] !y are1 !y mu/ be implicitly   
obey$4 ,he may ord]1 =  example1 t !re  
%all be no public ga!r+s1 no traffic 9 !
  /reets aft] nightfall1 & no keep+ (   
weapons 9 private h\ses4 ,he  may       
require e inhabitant to c>ry a pass     
sign$ by ! milit>y  au?orities4 ,!re is 
no def9ite code ( m>tial law2 ! w ( !   
comm&+ (fic] is supreme s long z !      
citiz5 is n depriv$ (  8 rights z       
gu>ante$ by ! con/itution ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates4 ,?is  con/itution1 h[ev]1 is !  
supreme law ( ! l& & n ev5 !  army c    
disreg>d x4 ,m>tial law is nev]         
proclaim$ except 9 urg5t  circum/ances  
:5 x appe>s to be ! only way ( secur+   
public  ord] & protect+ prop]ty4 ,dur+ !
 ,civil ,w> x 0 adm9i/]$  9 "s sections 
( ! ,s\? :i* 7 occupi$ by ! ,nor!rn     
armies4#bgg    ,! ,navy4--,! navy is    
commonly call$ ! 8fir/ l9e0 ( ! national
  def5ce inasmu* z ! mo/ vuln]able      
b\nd>ies ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates  ext5d along 
two great seacoa/s4#bgh ,l ! army its   
organization is  "u ! jurisdiction (    

,congress1 :i* appropriates ! money =   
its  ma9t5ance2 b ! ,presid5t is also ! 
comm&]-9-*ief ( !  navy & is responsible
 = direct+ its op]ations4 ,9 ?is he is  
assi/$ by ! ,secret>y ( ! ,navy :o 9    
turn is advis$ by a /aff  ( naval       
(fic]s4 ,m5 are enli/$ 9 ! navy1 &      
(fic]s are  commission$ z 9 ! army1 b ) 
diff]5t rat+s & ranks4  ,sid5ote3       
,adm9i/ration ( ! navy4 ,! navy also has
 its code  correspond+ to ! ,articles ( 
,w> & its sy/em ( c\rts-m>tial4  ,!     
,m>9e ,corps1 :i* 9 organization1 drill1
 & discipl9e1 is  really a milit>y      
organization1 comes "u ! control ( !    
,secret>y  ( ! ,navy because x is       
prim>ily int5d$ to furni% a l&+ =ce     
aft] attack4 ,! m>9e1 z ,kipl+ says1 is 
8a soldi] & sailor  too04 ,9 connection 
) ! "w ( ! navy m5tion %\ld also be     
made ( ! coa/ def5ces :i* are locat$ at 
po9ts :]e !y may  s]ve to protect !     
comm]cial seaports4 ,^! consi/ (        
conceal$  l& batt]ies1 float+ batt]ies1 
*annels gu>d$ by m9es1  subm>9es1 &     

naval airplanes4    ,sid5ote3 ,! hi/ory 
( ! issue4    ,! ,problem (             
,dis>mam5t4--,is !re any reasonable     
gr\nd = !  hope t ! burd5 ( ma9ta9+ an  
army & navy may be r$uc$ at  "s "t 9 !  
ne> future8 ,proposals = a g5]al        
dis>mam5t by  int]national agreem5t h   
be5 put =? at v>i\s times = a  hundr$   
ye>s or m4 ,foll[+ ! long ,napoleonic   
,w>s :i*  exhau/$ ! *ief c\ntries (     
,europe1 ! ,cz> ( ,russia sugge/$  t !  
nations %\ld agree to place a limit ^u  
_! respective  armam5ts4 ,b no?+ came ( 
?is proposal1 & al?\gh ! "q  ( dis>mam5t
 0 discuss$ dur+ ! next ?ree-qu>t]s ( a 
c5tury  9 un(ficial circles no concrete 
plan = an int]national conf]5ce  on !   
matt] 0 =mulat$ until #ahih1 :5 ,russia 
once m br\ght  to ! att5tion ( ! o!r    
,european p[]s ! urg5t desirability (   
consid]+ "s effective measures =        
dis>mam5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,! two ,hague   
conf]5ces4    ,z a direct result ( ?is  
action delegates appo9t$ by all ! lead+ 
gov]nm5ts ( ! _w assembl$ at ! ,hague 9 

! foll[+ ye>  & discuss$ ! possible     
me?ods ( secur+ int]national  dis>mam5t4
 ,a resolution 0 adopt$ affirm+ !       
desirability ( su*  action b no def9ite 
plan 0 =mulat$4 ,a second ,hague        
,conf]5ce  0 held eight ye>s lat] b x   
likewise manag$ to procure no  def9ite  
promises ( dis>mam5t because ,g]many    
refus$ to ent] into  any su* agreem5t1  
believ+ t m c\ld be ga9$ by w> ?an by   
dis>m+4 ,s ! fev]i% activity 9          
prep>ations = w> cont9u$  until ! great 
_w conflict began4 ,9 ! negotiations :i*
 took  place at ! close ( ?is w> x 0    
g5]ally agre$ t a r$uction  ( armam5ts  
on ! "p ( all c\ntries %\ld beg9 at !   
e>lie/  practicable mom5t1 b ! disord]$ 
/ate ( affairs 9 sev]al  ,european      
c\ntries1 notably 9 ,russia1 delay$ any 
important /eps 9  t direction4 ,?is l$  
,presid5t ,h>d+1 9 ! summ] ( #aiba1 to  
propose t ! *ief naval p[]s %\ld s5d    
delegates to a  conf]5ce at ,wa%+ton 9  
ord] t "s plan ( limit+ naval  expansion
 might be prep>$4    ,sid5ote3 ,!       

conf]5ce on naval armam5ts4    ,?is     
conf]5ce assembl$ 9 ! autumn ( #aiba &  
at once proce$$ to  consid] a proposal1 
made on behalf ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 t a   
fix$  tonnage ( capital %ips agre$ ^u & 
t ?is limit %\ld n be  exce$$ dur+ !    
next t5 ye>s4 ,) "s slight am5dm5ts !   
,am]ican proposal 0 ultimately accept$ &
 embodi$ 9 an  int]national treaty4 ,!  
conf]5ce also fram$ agreem5ts = !       
future limitation ( subm>9e w>f>e1 !    
prohibition ( poison gas 9  w>1 & !     
re/riction ( =tifications 9 ! ,pacific  
regions4 ,no  action 0 tak5 t[>ds !     
limitation ( armies4#bgi    ,univ]sal   
,milit>y ,tra9+4--,if ! lead+ nations d 
n agree ^u  a plan ( g5]al dis>mam5t1 is
 x desirable t ! ,unit$ ,/ates  %\ld    
adopt a sy/em ( univ]sal milit>y tra9+8 
,!re is a popul>  av]sion to ! ma9t5ance
 ( a l>ge regul> army4 ,on ! o!r h&  x  
w\ld be folly to p]mit ! ,unit$ ,/ates  
to /& unprep>$ if  o!r nations g on arm+
 !mselves z 9 ! ye>s prec$+ !  ,_w ,w>4 
,sid5ote3 ,! ,swiss plan4 ,! sugge/ion  

has be5 made t  we c\ld avoid !         
necessity ( ma9ta9+ a l>ge regul> army &
 yet  secure ! advantages ( milit>y     
prep>$ness by adopt+ ! plan us$  9      
,switz]l& :]e e able-bodi$ "y man is    
requir$ to und]go  a %ort p]iod (       
milit>y tra9+4 ,?is tra9+ w\ld be tak5  
at  "s conv5i5t "t betwe5 ! ages (      
eighte5 & tw5ty-"o2 x  w\ld la/ f ?ree  
to six mon?s4 ,! claim is made t ?is    
tra9+ w\ld h educational z well z       
milit>y value & t x  w\ld conduce to !  
physical upbuild+ ( ,am]ican manhood4 ,9
  opposition to ! plan ( univ]sal       
milit>y tra9+ x is cont5d$  t any?+ (   
?is sort w\ld involve a great wa/e (    
en]gy1 w\ld  )draw l>ge numb]s ( "y m5 f
 productive labor1 w\ld fo/]  milit>ism1
 & w\ld involve enorm\s exp5se4         
,sid5ote3 ,new w>s be+ new me?ods4      
,:at is ,real ,prep>$ness8--,"u         
pres5t-day conditions "o mu/  recognize 
t prep>$ness = w> does n consi/ 9 m]ely 
tra9+  m5 to m>* & %oot4 ,no w> is ev] l
 any previ\s w>4 ,no am\nt  ( human     

+5uity or =esight c avail to tra9 m5 =  
8! next  w>01 because nobody kn[s :]e1  
:51 or h[ ! next w> is go+ to  be f\ght4
 ,! ,civil ,w> 0 f\ght 9 ! op52 x 0 a w>
 (  movem5t4 ,! ,_w ,w> 0 f\ght1 = ! mo/
 "p1 9 tr5*es2 x  0 a w> ( positions4 ,9
 ! ,civil ,w>1 cavalry play$ an         
important  "p2 9 ! ,_w ,w> cavalry _h v 
little %>e4 ,artill]y 0 !  great factor4
 ,= example1 x has be5 e/imat$ t all !  
artill]y  ammunition us$ dur+ ?ree :ole 
days at ! battle ( ,gettysburg  w\ld h  
la/$ ! ,am]ican artill]y j ab\t ?irty   
m9utes 9  "o ( ! ,argonne battles6 ,new 
weapons & devices are br\ght =? 9  e new
 conflict1 & !y greatly *ange !         
conditions ( w>f>e4  ,! great ,european 
/ruggle utiliz$ ! airplane1 poison gas1 
inc5di>y bombs1 gas %ells1 h& gr5ades1  
liquid flame1 tanks1  wireless          
telegraphy1 wireless telephony1         
dirigible balloons1 subm>9es1           
seaplanes1 & artill]y ) a range ( ov]   
fifty miles--none ( ^!  ?+s figur$ 9 any
 previ\s w>4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 8next w>01 

if x comes4    ,x has be5 pr$ict$ t !   
next w> w be f\ght1 = ! mo/  "p1 9 ! air
 & "u ! sea2 t ! entire populations (   
great  cities may be wip$ out dur+ a few
 days by a deluge ( poison\s  gas-bombs 
hurl$ f ! sky2#bhj t sci5ce "u !        
pressure (  w> em]g5cy w discov] "s =m (
 le?al ray 7we h ,x-rays1  light rays1  
heat rays1--:y n rays ( a deadli] sort87
 :i* w be  %ot f ! cl\ds to %rivel &    
poison human be+s by !  ?\s&s2 t disease
 g]ms w be call$ into s]vice to spread  
pe/il5ce among ! p2--all ^! ?+s h be5   
sob]ly  pr$ict$ z likely to feature !   
next great conflict if "o ev]           
comes4#bha    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! progress (
 sci5ce affects w>f>e4    ,progress 9   
sci5ce & 9 ! arts completely *anges !   
me?ods (  w>f>e 9 "o g5]ation aft]      
ano!r1 ,if ,g5]al ,hook] _h possess$  a 
s+le airplane1 y may be sure t          
8,/onewall0 ,jackson w\ld nev]  h slipp$
 ar\nd 8 flank at ,*ancellorsville4 ,a  
squadron (  8tanks01 if ! ,army ( !     
,potomac _h be5 provid$ ) !m 9 #ahfc1   

w\ld probably h cle>$ ! road to ,ri*mond
 )9 a week4 ,:o c  tell :at weapons1    
appliances1 & tactics ! nations w ne$ = 
use  9 ! next w>1 if ano!r w> %\ld ev]  
come8 ,prep>ations ( a  /rictly milit>y 
sort are ess5tial1 to be sure1 b x is n 
wise to  place entire reliance ^u an    
army :i* is tra9$ to use c]ta9  tactics 
9 a prescrib$ way4 ,t1 ( itself1 does n 
con/itute true  8prep>$ness04    ,?ree  
words sum up ! reasons = ! ,alli$       
victory 9 ! ,_w ,w>2  ^! words are m51  
munitions1 & morale4 ,france1 ,great    
,brita91  ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ,italy _h  
civilian res]ves to draw ^u4 ,!y  _h    
great peace-"t indu/ries :i* !y conv]t$ 
into munition  factories4 ,above all ?+s
 ! moral /r5g? & /eadfa/ness ( free     
peoples c\nt$ 9 ! long /ruggle aga9/    
autocracy4 ,sid5ote3 ,:at  real         
8prep>$ness0 means4 ,! lesson to be     
drawn f ?is is t if  a c\ntry builds up 
a vigor\s manhood1 bo? physically &     
m5tally2 if  x creates great1 v>i$1 &   
well-manag$ indu/ries2 if x fo/]s       

patriotism & a s5se ( righte\sness ?r\gh
 its sy/em ( public  education2 if x    
cultivates intellig5tly all !           
progressive arts (  peace--if a nation  
does all ^! ?+s1 x is accompli%+ real   
prep>$ness = :atev] may come4 ,great w>s
 are won1 p>adoxical z  x may s\nd1 9   
times ( peace4    ,! ,w>-,"t ,p[]s (    
,gov]nm5t4--,!re is an anci5t ,lat9     
maxim3  int] arma sil5t leges4 ,x means 
t "u ! /ress ( arm$  conflict ! ord9>y  
laws give way4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?is   
maxim  does n /rictly apply2 !          
con/itutional rights ( ! citiz5 rema9   
intact & ! ord9>y laws ( ! l& cont9ue to
 apply 9 w>-"t4  ,nev]!less x is true t 
a /ate ( w> requires /rict vigilance on 
! "p ( ! gov]nm5t & ?is may lead x to   
impose ^u  individual fre$om v>i\s      
re/rictions :i* w\ld n be impos$ 9  "t (
 peace4 ,sid5ote3 ,limitations on civic 
lib]ty dur+ w>s4  ,dur+ ! ,_w ,w>1 =    
example1 ! national gov]nm5t laid c]ta9 
re/rictions ^u ! consumption ( food1 !  
use ( coal1 & !  manufacture ( luxuries4

 ,?is x did "u its con/itutional        
au?ority  8to raise & support armies04  
,sid5ote3 ,! ,espionage & ,s$ition      
,acts4 ,congress also pass$ ! ,espionage
 & ,s$ition ,acts :i*  provid$ p5alties 
= mak+ or circulat+ false /atem5ts )    
int5t to injure ! ,unit$ ,/ates or us+  
8abusive language ab\t !  gov]nm5t or   
in/itutions ( ! c\ntry04 ,by ^! laws1 9 
brief1 x  0 made a crime to favor !     
cause ( ! enemy by any ^w or act4 ,9  "s
 qu>t]s ?is legislation 0 reg>d$ z an   
unw>rant$  int]f]5ce ) fre$om ( spee* b 
on ! :ole x 0 a  ju/ifiable w>-"t       
precaution4 ,^? :o f\nd _! p]sonal      
fre$om  re/rict$ by ! ,espionage &      
,s$ition ,acts suff]$ v little  h>d%ip  
comp>$ ) t borne by ! soldi]s & sailors 
:o w5t  into active s]vice4    ,sid5ote3
 ,!re c be no absolute fre$om ( spee* at
 any "t4    ,fre$om ( ,spee* 9          
,w>-,"t4--,dur+ ! ,_w ,w> !re 0         
consid]able compla9t 9 "s qu>t]s because
 ! national gov]nm5t  plac$ c]ta9       
limitations ^u fre$om ( spee*1 & a good 

deal (  discussion arose z to :at fre$om
 ( spee* really means4 ,! issue is  "o  
:i* _c be argu$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 = x is n a
 "q (  pr9ciple b ( practical policy4   
,on ! "o h& x is g5]ally  agre$ t m5    
ought to h all reasonable lib]ty to     
express _!  own ?\ghts 9 _! own way2 on 
! o!r h& x is j z fully  agre$ t p mu/ n
 be all[$ to g ab\t prea*+ treason1     
utt]+ sl&]s1 & by ^w ( m\? infr++ !     
rights ( o!rs4  ,! "q1 !n1 is n :e!r we 
%\ld grant fre$om ( spee* or  d5y x2 b  
h[ mu* ( x we %\ld grant or d5y4        
,sid5ote3 ,b ! presumption %\ld be 9    
favor ( free spee*4    ,9 a democracy ! 
presumption %\ld be 9 favor ( fre$om4 ,x
 %\ld  be curtail$ no fur!r ?an is      
cle>ly dem&$ by ! g5]al  int]e/4 ,j :]e 
t po9t comes is some?+ t _c be fix$  by 
any g5]al rule4 ,9 "t ( peace1 =        
example1 we may safely p]mit  a great]  
fre$om ( spee* ?an 9 "t ( w>4 ,we may   
rightly all[ a  citiz51 ^: loyalty is n 
9 d\bt1 a great] latitude ?an a  =eign] 
:o pr(esses 8 hatr$ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  

,! problem is  an exce$+ly difficult "o 
& ! c\rts may at times d inju/ice 9     
deal+ ) outspok5 p]sons2 b ! nation 9   
its sob] s5ses is  n likely to let !    
fundam5tal "r ( free spee* be p]man5tly 
re/rict$ beyond a reasonable po9t4#bhb  
,sid5ote3 ,! v>i\s w> bo>ds1 #aiag-aiah4
    ,mobiliz+ ! ,economic ,=ces4--,9    
ord] to ensure victory x also  becomes  
necess>y to mobilize all ! economic =ces
 ( a c\ntry1 !  indu/ries1 ! means (    
transport1 & ev5 ! pr(essional skill4   
,dur+ ! ye>s #aiag-ah ! gov]nm5t ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates e/abli%$  a ,w> ,indu/ries
 ,bo>d ^: function x 0 to sup]vise &    
spe$ up  indu/rial production2 likewise 
a ,food ,adm9i/ration1 a ,fuel          
,adm9i/ration1 a ,w> ,labor ,bo>d1 a    
,c5sor%ip ,bo>d1 a ,committee on        
,public ,in=mation1 a ,w> ,f9ance       
,corporation1 an ,ali5 ,prop]ty         
,cu/odian1 & v>i\s o!r w>-"t au?orities 
) duties :i* are  9 a g5]al way indicat$
 by _! titles4 ,bo? ! "w & !  au?ority (
 a gov]nm5t enl>ge "u ! /ress ( w>4     

----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,prices ,,9 ,,!     
,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,f    #ahaj ,,to #aibj 
7,prices 9 #aiad  #ajj7          ,retail
 prices are bas$ on :olesale prices4    
,?ree times h :olesale prices 9 ,am]ica 
ris5 to m ?an      d\ble ! normal4      
#a4 ,dur+ ! w> ( #ahab1 :i* 0 9 reality 
! c\ntry's          p>ticipation 9 !    
,napoleonic w>s--"o ( ! great _w        
w>s4          #b4 ,dur+ ! ,civil ,w>1 9 
#ahfa-fe1 a long & co/ly /ruggle4       
#c4 ,dur+ ! rec5t ,_w ,w>4        ,n    
less notable ?an ! great rise ( prices  
dur+ ^! great      w>s has be5 ! long & 
cont9u$ fall ( prices ext5d+ ov] a      
g5]ation ( "t :i* foll[$ ! great rise4  
,,! ,,rise ,,( ,,prices ,,9 ,,w> ,,"t   
,! diagram on ! rev]se ( ?is page       
illu/rates            ! way 9 :i* w>    
di/urbs a nation's economic             
life4 ,x s5ds prices sky-high by reason 
( !            monet>y inflation :i*    
almo/ inv>iably            accompanies  

w>4 ,?is rapid rise 9 prices causes     
indu/ries to exp&4 ,wages rise ) prices1
 &            = ! mom5t we h an era (   
prosp]ity or 8good            times0 z x
 is usually call$4 ,b :5 !              
/imulus ( w> inflation is remov$1 !     
g5]al            level ( prices beg9s to
 decl9e1 & ) ?is            fall 9      
prices ! indu/ries slack54 ,wages also  
come d[n1 al?\gh m sl[ly ?an prices1 &  
we            h an era ( indu/rial      
depression or h>d times4                
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,sid5ote3 ,! greate/ ( all human        
trag$ies4    ,w>'s ,aft]ma?4--,w> is    
wa/e4 ,x de/roys life & prop]ty1 uses up
  ! accumulat$ weal? ( nations1 &       
saddles !m ) huge debts  :i* future     
g5]ations h to pay4 ,! co/ ( a w> c nev]
 be  reckon$ 9 full until long aft] !   
treaty ( peace has be5 sign$4  ,! ,civil
 ,w> came to an end m ?an fifty ye>s    
ago1 b we are /ill  pay+ m ?an two      
hundr$ million doll>s p] annum 9 p5sions

 to  vet]ans ( t /ruggle or to _! wid[s4
 ,! numb] ( ,civil ,w>  p5sion]s & _!   
wid[s n[ on ! roll is m ?an five hundr$ 
?\s&4 ,x 0 n until #aijf t ! la/ surviv+
 wid[ ( a  vet]an ( ! ,revolution>y ,w> 
di$4 ,! burd5 ( p5sions gr[+  out ( !   
,_w ,w> is j beg9n+ to accumulate2 !    
c\ntry w  n feel its full weight = _m   
ye>s to come4 ,a g5]ation born aft]  ?is
 w> end$ w be requir$ to defray its co/4
 ,w> also leaves1 z  its tragic aft]ma?1
 l>ge numb]s ( w\nd$1 disabl$1 or       
invalid$  soldi]s :o mu/ be c>$ = at !  
public exp5se4 ,no nation :i*  values   
its own honor c af=d to leave its       
vet]ans unaid$ 9  suff]+ & want4 ,9 !   
,unit$ ,/ates we h made provision =     
af=d+ m$ical c>e to ^? soldi]s ( ! ,_w  
,w> :o require x  & = giv+ vocational   
education to ^? p>tially disabl$ m5 :o  
ne$ x 9 ord] to fit !m = success 9 life4
                               ,g5]al   
,ref]5ces    ,c4 ,a4 ,,be>d1 ,am]ican   
,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4 #cdb-ceg2    
,ibid41  ,read+s 9 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & 

,politics1 pp4 #cjh-cbb2    ,,ev]ett    
,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4  #dbc-ddd2    ,w4 ,b4
 ,,munro1 ,! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$       
,/ates1 pp4 #bfe-bgf2    ,a4 ,b4 ,,h>t1 
,actual ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #dei-dhj2    ,p4 
,s4 ,,re9s*1 ,read+s 9 ,am]ican ,f$]al  
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #faj-fej2    ,,edw>d ,f4 
,,all5 & ,,raymond ,,fosdick1 ,keep+    
,our ,fight]s ,fit1  passim2    ,b4 ,a4 
,,fiske1 ,! ,navy z a ,fight+ ,ma*9e1   
passim2    ,r4 ,m4 ,,john/on1 ,lead+    
,am]ican ,soldi]s1 especially pp4 #c-fe2
    ,e4 ,h4 ,,cr[d]1 ,! ,_s ( ,selective
 ,s]vice1 pp4 #ei-ib2    ,r4 ,r4        
,,mccormick1 ,! ,army ( #aiah1 pp4      
#bjg-bdc4                               
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,9 :at ways did !
 ,_w ,w> diff] f previ\s w>s8 ,:at      
pr$ictions h be5 made conc]n+ ! weapons 
& tactics ( !  next w>8 ,h[ c prep>$ness
 be/ be made = su* a w>8  ,ref]5ces3 ,j4
 ,f4 ,,rhodes1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,civil ,w>1  
pp4 #a-df2 ,b4  ,,cr[ell & ,r4 ,f4      
,,wilson1 ,h[ ,am]ica ,w5t to ,w>1 ,vol4

 ,i1 pp4 #c-ad2  ,,w ,,irw91 ,! ,next   
,w>1 pp4 #cc-ff2 ,,emory ,,upton1 ,!    
,milit>y ,policy  ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1    
passim2 ,,eri* ,,von ,,lud5dorff1       
,lud5dorff's ,own  ,/ory1 passim2 ,,b>on
 ,,horff ,,von ,,dewitz1 ,w>'s ,new     
,weapons1 pp4 #e-dh2  ,w4 ,l4           
,,mcph]son1 ,! ,/rategy ( ! ,great ,w>1 
pp4 #hj-aah2 ,d4 ,w4  ,,johnson1        
,topography & ,/rategy 9 ! ,w>1 pp4     
#a-dj4    #b4 ,h[ c ! causes ( w> be    
remov$8 ,%\ld we h int]national         
dis>mam5t8 ,ref]5ces3 ,g4 ,l4           
,,dick9son1 ,! ,*oice ,be=e ,u1 pp4     
#aff-ahf2 ,h4 ,m4 ,,kall51 ,! ,/ructure 
( ,la/+ ,peace1 pp4 #ada-ahg2 ,a4  ,t4  
,,mahan1 ,armam5ts & ,arbitration1 pp4  
#ae-ce2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,holls1 ,!  ,peace     
,conf]5ce at ,! ,hague1 pp4 #ff-ib2 ,j4 
,b4 ,,scott1 ,! ,/atus (  !             
,int]national ,c\rt ( ,ju/ice1 pp4      
#a-cj2 ,,john ,,bakeless1 ,!  ,economic 
,causes ( ,mod]n ,w>s1 pp4 #agg-aie4    
#c4 ,! ,national ,army ( #aiag-aiah3 h[ 
x 0 rais$1 tra9$1 &  us$4 ,ref]5ces3 ,e4

 ,h4 ,,cr[d]1 ,! ,_s ( ,selective       
,s]vice1  pp4 #aae-age2 ,selective      
,s]vice ,regulations 7revis$ edition71  
pp4  #a-cj2 ,r4 ,b4 ,,p]ry1 ,!          
,plattsburg ,movem5t1 pp4 #agc-bad2     
,,leon>d ,p4  ,,ayres1 ,! ,w> ) ,g]many1
 pp4 #ac-dh2 ,r4 ,r4 ,,mccormick1 ,!    
,army (  #aiah1 pp4 #a-eg4              
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! ,w> ,dep>tm5t4  
,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,national         
,adm9i/ration1 pp4  #acc-aea4    #b4 ,! 
w> p[]s ( ! ,presid5t & ,congress4      
,cyclop$ia (  ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4 
,,iii1 pp4 #fdf-fdh2 ,g4 ,,gl5n1 ,!     
,army & !  ,law1 passim4    #c4 ,! gr[? 
( ! navy4 ,g4 ,r4 ,,cl>k1 ,hi/ory ( !   
,unit$ ,/ates  ,navy1 pp4 #djf-ddd2 ,e4 
,s4 ,,maclay1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
,navy1  ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #aa-cf4    #d4 
,great ,am]ican soldi]s4 ,r4 ,m4        
,,john/on1 ,lead+ ,am]ican  ,soldi]s1   
pp4 #acg-aib 7,grant72 #bef-caj 7,lee74 
#e4 ,! ,gr& ,army ( ! ,republic4 ,w4 ,h4
 ,,w>d1 ,records ( ,memb]s (  ! ,gr&    
,army ( ! ,republic1 pp4 #e-ae4    #f4  

,! ,am]ican ,legion4 ,g4 ,s4 ,,:eat1 ,! 
,/ory ( ! ,am]ican  ,legion1 pp4 #ab-cj2
 #aic-baa4    #g4 ,h[ ! nation mobiliz$ 
9 #aiag-aiah4 ,p4 ,l4 ,,hawor?1 ,!      
,unit$  ,/ates 9 ,our ,own ,"t1 pp4     
#dbb-ddj4    #h4 ,milit>y law1 m>tial   
law1 & milit>y gov]nm5t4 ,,ev]ett       
,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #dcd-ddd4    #i4 ,!  
human co/ ( ! w>4 ,,hom] ,,folks1 ,!    
,human ,co/s ( !  ,w>1 pp4 #aai-afg4    
#aj4 ,! use ( regul> troops 9 labor     
tr\bles4 ,,grov] ,,clevel&1             
,presid5tial ,problems1 pp4 #gi-aag4    
#aa4 ,! ,hague ,conf]5ces4 ,f4 ,w4      
,,holls1 ,! ,peace ,conf]5ces at ,!     
,hague1 pp4 #a-ce2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,*oate1 ,!  
,two ,hague ,conf]5ces1 passim4    #ab4 
,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,food ,adm9i/ration4   
#aiag-aiah4 ,w4 ,f4  ,,will\ghby1       
,gov]nm5t ,organization 9 ,w> ,"t1 pp4  
#beh-bib4    #ac4 ,h[ ! ,national ,army 
0 draft$4 ,e4 ,h4 ,,cr[d]1 ,! ,_s (     
,selective ,s]vice1 pp4 #aae-age2 see   
also ,second ,report ( ! ,provo/  ,m>%al

 ,g5]al 7#aiah74    #ad4 ,milit>y       
p5sions4 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,national
 ,adm9i/ration1 pp4  #bje-bjh2 ,w4 ,h4  
,,glasson1 ,hi/ory ( ,milit>y ,p5sion   
,legislation1 pp4  #gj-ajg4    #ae4     
,fre$om ( spee* 9 w> "t4 ,,ze*>iah      
,,*afee1 ,,jr41 ,fre$om (  ,spee*1      
passim4                                 
,que/ions    #a4 ,classify ! *ief causes
 ( w> & indicate :i* class ( causes  0  
ma9ly responsible =3 ! ,fr5* & ,indian  
,w>s2 !  ,revolution>y ,w>2 !           
,napoleonic ,w>s2 ! ,w> ( #ahab2 !      
,mexican  ,w>2 ! ,civil ,w>2 ! ,spani%  
,w>2 ! ,russo-,japanese ,w>2 & !  ,_w   
,w>4    #b4 ,:at did ,presid5t          
,roosevelt mean :5 he said t a          
def5celess  nation is a temptation to   
inju/ice4 ,give "s examples to illu/rate
  ?is proposition & also to illu/rate ! 
rev]se4    #c4 ,:y w\ld x n be bett] to 
aboli% ! national gu>d & h  only a      
regul> army8    #d4 ,expla9 ! v>i\s /eps
 by :i* civilians 7 tak5 into !         
national army "u ! provisions ( !       

,selective ,s]vice ,law4    #e4 ,is x "r
 to use ! arm$ =ces ( ! nation 9 quell+ 
labor  tr\bles8 ,:at are ! objections to
 s do+8    #f4 ,expla9 ! sy/em ( trial  
by c\rt-m>tial "u ! foll[+  heads3 7a7  
:o may be tri$2 7b7 on :at *>ges2 7c7 h[
 !  c\rt is organiz$2 7d7 :o prosecutes2
 7e7 :o def5ds2 7f7 :at  s5t5ce may be  
impos$2 7g7 :o reviews ! s5t5ce4    #g4 
,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 proclaim+     
m>tial law 9 a di/rict  & e/abli%+ a    
milit>y gov]nm5t ov] x8    #h4 ,outl9e !
 hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates navy4 ,:at are
 !  *>act]i/ics ( 7a7 battle%ips2 7b7   
battle cruis]s2 7c7  gunboats8    #i4   
,:at w\ld be 7a7 ! political & 7b7 !    
economic advantages  ( dis>mam5t8 ,:at  
difficulties /& 9 ! way ( an            
int]national  agreem5t to dis>m8    #aj4
 ,make a li/ ( ! special gov]nm5tal     
ag5cies :i* 7  e/abli%$ 9 ! ,unit$      
,/ates dur+ ! ,_w ,w>1 & "n !  functions
 p]=m$ by ea*4                          
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! ,unit$      
,/ates %\ld adopt ! sy/em ( univ]sal    

milit>y  tra9+4    #b4 ,a decl>ation (  
w> %\ld require a two-?irds vote (      
,congress4    #c4 ,! national gov]nm5t  
%\ld pay p5sions to vet]ans ( ! ,_w  ,w>
 9 ! same way t x has provid$ p5sions = 
vet]ans ( !  ,civil ,w>4    -----       
,footnote #bfi3      ,s9ce its f\ndation
 9 #aghh ! national gov]nm5t has sp5t1 9
    r\nd figures1 ab\t sixty-sev5       
billion doll>s4 ,( ?is entire sum       
fifty-eight billions h be5 sp5t = w>1 t 
is1 = ma9ta9+    ! army & navy1 = c>ry+ 
on ! nation's v>i\s w>s1 =    p5sions1 &
 = int]e/ on w> debts4    ,footnote     
#bgj3      ,,!odore ,,roosevelt1 ,fe>   
,god & ,take ,y\r ,own ,"p 7,n4 ,y41    
#aiae71    ,*4 ,i4    ,footnote #bga3   
,hi/ory is full ( examples to support   
?is /atem5t4 ,:5 ,c>?age    prov$ unable
 to def5d h]self aga9/ ,roman           
aggression1 ! victors    left n "o /one 
^u ano!r4 ,look at ,pol&1 ripp$ ap>t    
dur+    ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies  
by h] av>ici\s neighbors    & n[ re/or$ 
to nationhood by ! arm$ =ces ( ,france1 

,engl&1    ,italy1 & ,am]ica4 ,& :at (  
,*9a today8 ,are h] f\r hundr$          
million p happi] & m prosp]\s because !y
 happ5 to be    citiz5s ( a def5celess  
c\ntry8    ,footnote #bgb3      ,! ,w> (
 ,indep5d5ce 0 won by a volunte] army4  
,on ! conclusion    ( peace ?is army 0  
disb&$1 b ! abs5ce ( a def5ce =ce    0  
deem$ a s]i\s dang]4 ,accord+ly1 :5 !   
con/itution 0    fram$ 9 #aghg1 x       
provid$ t ! new ,congress %\ld h p[]    
8to raise & support armies40 ,dur+      
,wa%+ton's fir/ t]m a    ,dep>tm5t ( ,w>
 0 e/abli%$ 9 ! national gov]nm5t & a   
small regul> army 0 creat$ "u !         
sup]vision ( ?is    dep>tm5t4 ,! size ( 
?is army 0 n above five ?\s& m5 (    all
 ranks1 b>ely suffici5t to keep !       
,indian tribes f giv+    tr\ble4 ,b !   
,napoleonic w>s 9 ,europe l$ ,congress  
to increase    its size z a measure (   
precaution1 & dur+ ! ,w> ( #ahab an     
endeavor 0 made to raise ! regul> army1 
by enli/m5t1 to ab\t    #ce1jjj m54     
,recruits1 h[ev]1 did n come readily    

because ! w>    0 unpopul> 9 "s p>ts ( !
 c\ntry1 & x !re=e became    necess>y to
 call out ! militia organizations ( !   
sev]al /ates4    ,aft] #ahaf1 :5 peace 0
 made1 ! regul> army 0 greatly r$uc$1   
& until #ahfj x rema9$ small ) !        
exception ( ! ye>s 9    :i* ! ,unit$    
,/ates 0 at w> ) ,mexico4 ,! ,civil ,w> 
necessitat$ a consid]able expansion ( ! 
regul> army1 b !    l>g] portion ( !    
fight+ =ce 0 obta9$ by call+ out !      
/ate militia & by rais+ regim5ts (      
volunte]s4 ,:5 ! w> 0    ov]1 ,congress 
fix$ ! maximum /r5g? ( ! regul> army at 
#be1jjj1 & !re x rema9$ until ! outbreak
 ( ! w> )    ,spa91 :5 x 0 m ?an d\bl$4 
,9 #aiaf1 dur+ ! ,_w ,w>1    b be=e !   
,unit$ ,/ates ent]$ ! conflict1 a fur!r 
increase    to a maximum ( #age1jjj 0   
au?oriz$4 ,?is figure subsequ5tly rose  
to #bbe1jjj b 9 #aiba x 0 cut d[n by    
,congress to #aej1jjj1 at    :i* po9t x 
rema9s today1 al?\gh a fur!r r$uction is
 n[    be+ consid]$4    ,footnote #bgc3 
,prior to #aiaf ! national gu>d c\ld n  

be call$ ^u = s]vice    outside ! ,unit$
 ,/ates1 b only = def5ce aga9/ invasion 
&    = ! suppression ( int]nal          
di/urbances4 ,b 9 #aiaf x 0    provid$  
by ! ,national ,def5ce ,act t :5ev]     
,congress au?orizes    ! use ( arm$ =ces
 9 addition to ! regul> army1 !         
,presid5t    may draft any or all memb]s
 ( ! national gu>d into ! s]vice (    ! 
,unit$ ,/ates & may employ !m outside   
,am]ican t]ritory4    ,footnote #bgd3   
,!odore ,roosevelt 0 s]v+ z ,assi/ant   
,secret>y ( ! ,navy :5    ! w> ) ,spa9  
began 9 #ahih4 ,he (f]$ to raise a      
volunte]    cavalry regim5t ( c[boys f !
 cattle c\ntry & 8 (f] 0    accept$ by !
 gov]nm5t4 ,resign+ 8 position 9 ! ,navy
    ,dep>tm5t he organiz$ ?is regim5t ( 
,r\gh ,rid]s & became its               
lieut5ant-colonel4 ,! ,r\gh ,rid]s w5t  
to ,cuba1 :]e !y gave a    good acc\nt (
 !mselves4    ,footnote #bge3      ,!   
actual organization & discipl9+ ( ! army
 dur+ peace1 z    well z its movem5ts & 
op]ations 9 w>1 are "u ! imm$iate       

direction ( ! ,g5]al ,/aff4 ,?is body   
consi/s ( a ,*ief (    ,/aff1 :o is     
appo9t$ f among ! high (fic]s ( ! army1 
&    num]\s o!r army (fic]s :o are      
detail$ = ?is s]vice4 ,!    ,g5]al ,/aff
 is s organiz$ t 9 ! ev5t ( w> "o       
section (    x c take *>ge ( op]ations 9
 ! field :ile ! o!r keeps    build+ up !
 army at home4 ,g5]al ,p]%+1 :o comm&$ !
    ,am]ican ,exp$ition>y ,=ces 9 ! ,_w 
,w> is n[ ,*ief ( ,/aff1    8 pr9cipal  
assi/ant be+ ,major-,g5]al ,h>bord1 :o  
comm&$ !    ,fir/ ,army ov]seas4        
,footnote #bgf3      ,= m9or (f5ces an  
enli/$ man is tri$ by summ>y c\rt-m>tial
    be=e a s+le (fic]4 ,= m s]i\s (f5ces
 a special    c\rt-m>tial ( f ?ree to   
five (fic]s is conv5$4 ,if !    (f5ce is
 v s]i\s1 or if ! accus$ p]son is a     
commission$    (fic]1 ! trial takes     
place be=e a g5]al c\rt-m>tial ( f      
five to fifte5 (fic]s1 :o mu/ be1 :]ev] 
possible1 at lea/ (    equal rank ) !   
accus$4 ,! v]dict1 or f9d+1 ( !         
c\rt-m>tial1 toge!r ) its recomm5dations

 = puni%m5t 9    case ( conviction1 is  
transmitt$ to ! (fic] by ^: ord] !      
c\rt 0 conv5$4 ,?is (fic] has p[] to    
dim9i% b n to    increase ! puni%m5t    
recomm5d$ by ! c\rt-m>tial4    ,footnote
 #bgg3      ,!re is /ill ano!r phase (  
milit>y jurisdiction :i* mu/ be         
di/+ui%$ f bo? milit>y law & m>tial law4
 ,?is is call$    milit>y gov]nm5t4 ,x  
may be expla9$ z foll[s3 ,:5 any        
t]ritory is conqu]$ & held by an invad+ 
army x mu/ obvi\sly    be giv5 "s       
tempor>y =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,! =m] gov]nm5t 
usually flees & some?+ mu/ be put 9 its 
place4 ,"u su*    conditions !          
comm&]-9-*ief ( ! occupy+ =ce sets up a 
tempor>y adm9i/ration4 ,9 #aiai1 :5 a   
portion ( ! ,am]ican    ,exp$ition>y    
,=ce advanc$ into ,g]man t]ritory "u !  
t]ms (    ! armi/ice1 a milit>y gov]nm5t
 ) its headqu>t]s at ,cobl5z    0       
e/abli%$ = ! area occupi$ by ! ,am]ican 
troops4 ,a    milit>y gov]nm5t may ev5  
be set up 9 home t]ritory dur+ a        
civil w> or insurrection4 ,aft] ! fall (

 ! ,conf$]acy milit>y    gov]nm5ts 7    
ma9ta9$ 9 ! ,s\? until ! /ate gov]nm5ts 
7 recon/ruct$1 h5ce we commonly speak ( 
! 8recon/ruction0    p]iod4 ,milit>y    
gov]nm5t is always a tempor>y           
arrangem5t1 nev]    int5d$ to be        
p]man5t1 al?\gh x may la/ = sev]al ye>s4
 ,x    does n1 l m>tial law1 supplant ! 
ord9>y laws ( ! occupi$    t]ritory1 b  
m]ely means t ! occupy+ army1 ?r\gh its 
comm&]-9-*ief1 takes ov] ! adm9i/ration4
    ,footnote #bgh3      ,! beg9n+s ( ! 
,am]ican ,navy g back to ! "t ( !       
,revolution>y ,w>1 :5 a few frigates 7  
plac$ 9 s]vice2 b    :5 ! w> 0 ov] ^!   
%ips 7 sold & ! navy aboli%$4 ,9        
#agid1 h[ev]1 ,congress au?oriz$ !      
build+ ( six new frigates1    & f\r ye>s
 lat] a ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,navy 0 creat$1 ) 
a    memb] ( ! ,cab9et at its head4 ,!  
numb] ( vessels increas$    v sl[ly & :5
 ! ,w> ( #ahab began ! ,unit$ ,/ates _h 
only    sixte5 w> vessels1 "s ( !m too  
small to be ( great usefulness4    ,?is 
small navy1 nev]!less1 gave a good      

acc\nt ( itself dur+    ! c\rse ( ! w>  
at sea4 ,f #ahae to ! outbreak ( !      
,civil    ,w> little att5tion 0 paid to 
! upbuild+ ( ,am]ican naval    /r5g?1 b 
dur+ ! c\rse ( ?is /ruggle a great      
expansion    took place4 ,! inv5tion ( !
 iron-clad ,monitor revolutioniz$       
naval con/ruction4 ,b :5 ! ,s\? _h be5  
subdu$ ! ,navy 0    once m all[$ to     
dw9dle & x 0 n until aft] #ahhe t !     
,unit$ ,/ates aga9 made a s]i\s attempt 
to build up a /rong naval    e/abli%m5t4
 ,s9ce t date naval progress has be5    
/eady &    today ! ,unit$ ,/ates navy   
ranks second 9 po9t ( size among !      
sea =ces ( ! _w4 ,by ! t]ms ( ! agreem5t
 conclud$ among    ! *ief naval p[]s ( !
 _w at ,wa%+ton 9 #aibb x has be5       
arrang$ t ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,great       
,brita91 & ,japan %all ea*    de/roy    
c]ta9 w> vessels n[ built or 9 process (
 build+1 &    t ea* %all refra9 f build+
 new capital %ips 7except =    purposes 
( replacem5t71 dur+ ! next t5 ye>s4 ,at 
! end (    ?is p]iod ! navies ( ! ,unit$

 ,/ates & ,great ,brita9 w be           
approximately equal 9 /r5g?1 :ile t (   
,japan w be ab\t    ?ree-fif?s z /rong4 
,see also p4 #egg4    ,footnote #bgi3   
,= ! action ( ! conf]5ce ) ref]5ce to   
matt]s 9 ! ,f>    ,ea/1 see p4 #fai4    
,footnote #bhj3      ,brigadi]-,g5]al   
,mit*ell ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,army ,air   
,s]vice1 9    8 te/imony be=e a         
committee ( ,congress 9 #aibj1 decl>$ t 
a    few planes c\ld visit ,new ,york   
,city & ra9 d[n en\gh phosg5e gas    to 
kill e inhabitant 8unless we provide "s 
means ( repell+    !m40    ,footnote    
#bha3      ,see ! quotations f v>i\s    
milit>y au?orities giv5 9 ,!    ,next   
,w>1 by ,,w ,,irw91 pp4 #df-ff4         
,footnote #bhb3      ,!re is a tradition
 9 ,engl& t if a p]son goes into ,hyde  
,p>k1    ,london 7a l>ge op5 space 9 !  
c5t] ( ! city71 he may ga!r a    cr[d   
ar\nd him & say any?+ he pleases1       
subject only to !    *ance t he may be  
r\ghly h&l$ if 8 he>]s d n l :at    he  
says4 ,= ?is reason1 ,hyde ,p>k is      

sometimes ref]r$ to z !    8safety      
valve0 ( ! ,engli% gov]nm5t4 ,anyone :o 
has a grievance1    real or imag9>y1 c g
 !re & bl[ (f /eam4 ,hav+ _h 8    say1  
)\t let or h9drance1 ! speak] feels     
bett] ab\t x4    ,some:]e 9 ?is c\ntry  
we ought to h a ,hyde ,p>k4      ,we mu/
 be c>eful n to judge ! lib]ties ( !    
citiz5 & !    sev]ity ( a gov]nm5t by   
:at may happ5 9 w>-"t or 9 "t (    civil
 insurrection4 ,w> inflames popul>      
passion & impels bo? !    (fic]s (      
gov]nm5t & ! p to d unwise ?+s1         
sometimes    to violate ! laws ( ! l& 9 
! "n ( patriotism4 ,an excit$    nation1
 l an excit$ man1 is entitl$ to "s      
all[ance4    ,nev]!less1 x is ! duty (  
all :o und]/& ! mean+ ( free    gov]nm5t
 to /& firmly aga9/ ! wrongful          
curtailm5t (    p]sonal rights at any   
"t2 = ! true int]e/s ( free gov]nm5t    
are nev] promot$ by resort to inju/ice  
or oppression4                          
,,*apt] ,,xxix                          
,,=eign ,,relations        ,! purpose ( 

?is *apt] is to expla9 :at int]national 
law      is1 :at obligations x imposes1 
& h[ ! ,unit$ ,/ates c>ries      on its 
relations ) o!r c\ntries4      ,sid5ote3
 ,trade has br\ght nations toge!r4    ,!
 ,contact ( ,nations4--,9 all ages !    
nations ( ! _w h be5  br\ght into       
relations ) "o ano!r4 ,dur+ ! e>ly      
c5turies  _! contact 0 n v close1 z a   
rule1 because diff]5ces 9  race1        
religion1 & language1 toge!r ) ! lack ( 
facilities =  travel & transportation   
s]v$ to keep ! p ap>t4 ,b !             
,pho5icians1 ! ,greeks1 & ! ,romans all 
trad$ ) _! neighbors1  & ?is trade1 :i* 
began ar\nd ! ea/]n %ores ( !           
,m$it]ranean1 gradually wid5$ ea/ & we/4
 ,aft] ! fall ( !  ,roman empire *aos   
reign$ ov] ! great] "p ( ,europe2       
comm]ce  decl9$1 & incessant w>f>e      
prev5t$ ! gr[? ( fri5dly  int]c\rse     
among ! p ( diff]5t religions4 ,^! 7 !  
s-call$ ,d>k ,ages1 9 :i* travel 0      
fraught ) dang] & trade  0 at ! m]cy (  
b&its4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 int]c\rse     

betwe5  diff]5t regions reviv$ & exp&$4 
,! highways & wat]ways  became safe     
aga94 ,nations 7 once m br\ght into     
fri5dly  relation%ips4 ,dur+ ! pa/ ?ree 
or f\r hundr$ ye>s ?is  int]c\rse (     
nation ) nation has be5 /eadily becom+ m
  ext5sive1 brok5 only f "t to "t by !  
wag+ ( w>s4 ,!  /eam%ip1 ! railroads1 ! 
automobile1 ! telegraph1 & !  telephone 
h all s]v$ to r$uce di/ances & br+ !    
v>i\s  p>ts ( ! _w clos] toge!r4        
,sid5ote3 ,! orig9 ( int]national law4  
,int]national ,rules & ,cu/oms4--,j z   
social & economic  relations among m5   
gave rise to cu/oms & usages :i* ev]yone
 n[  obeys = ! common good1 s ! gr[? (  
int]c\rse among !  nations br\ght into  
exi/5ce1 little by little1 a body (     
usages &  rules :i* guide !m 9 _!       
relations ) "o ano!r4 ,ev5 !  ,greeks & 
,romans recogniz$ ! necessity ( "s su*  
rules to  prev5t misund]/&+s4 ,s9ce     
anci5t times ^! usages1 rules1  &       
agreem5ts h be5 gradually becom+ m      
def9ite until !y  n[ =m t body (        

jurisprud5ce :i* is kn[n z ,int]national
  ,law4 ,9 a /rict s5se int]national law
 is n law at all2 its rules  h n emanat$
 f any def9ite s\rce su* z p>liam5t or a
  legislature1 & !re are no c\rts ) p[] 
to en=ce its  provisions4#bhc ,"s ( its 
rules are ( long /&+ cu/om2 o!rs  h come
 into effect z ! result ( agreem5ts     
among nations4 ,!  provision t !        
ambassador is exempt f ! jurisdiction ( 
!  /ate to :i* he goes is v old1--z old 
z ! ,a*aean ,league4 ,x  is an anci5t   
cu/om1 n[ call$ law4 ,on ! o!r h& ! rule
 t  a blockade ( enemy ports is n valid 
unless ma9ta9$ by an  adequate =ce is a 
relatively mod]n rule & re/s ^u         
int]national agreem5t4    ,sid5ote3 ,:at
 int]national law includes4             
,int]national ,law4--,int]national law  
may !re=e be def9$ z t  body ( usages & 
rules :i* ! civiliz$ nations ( ! _w are 
accu/om$ to obs]ve 9 _! deal+s ) "o     
ano!r4 ,^! rules  & usages relate to a  
great _m ?+s4 ,sid5ote3 ,! laws ( w>4   
,!y provide = fri5dly communication     

betwe5 nations 9 "t ( peace  by means ( 
ambassadors & o!r diplomatic envoys4    
,int]national law  decl>es ! high seas  
to be free to all1 b /ipulates t a      
c\ntry  may ex]cise jurisdiction ov] its
 adjac5t seas = a di/ance ( "o  m>9e    
league f ! %ore4 ,! usages & rules (    
int]national law  also provide = !      
protection ( ali5s1 ! collection (      
debts1 !  c>ry+ on ( trade1 & _m o!r    
que/ions :i* arise betwe5  nations at   
peace4    ,:5 nations are at w> !y are  
call$ bellig]5ts1 & ! rules (           
int]national law re/rict ! ways 9 :i* w>
 may be c>ri$ on4 ,!y  =bid a bellig]5t 
to put poison 9 wells1 or to bomb>d     
undef5d$  t[ns1 or to kill prison]s (   
w>4 ,x is q true t ^!  s-call$ 8laws (  
w>0 are sometimes set at naught 9 ! heat
 (  conflict1 & x is also true t :5 a   
nation violates !m !re is  no regul>    
r$ress2 b ! rules are well e/abli%$ & ! 
public  op9ion ( ! _w always condemns   
any c\ntry :i* indulges 9  b>b>ities    
contr>y to ! rules ( w>4    ,sid5ote3 ,!

 laws ( neutrality4    ,nations :i* are 
n at w> :5 w> is go+ on are call$       
neutrals4  ,_! rights z neutrals are    
def9$ & _! duties z neutrals are        
prescrib$ by ! rules ( int]national law4
 ,neutrals are p]mitt$ to  c>ry on trade
 ) bellig]5ts subject to two            
limitations1 namely t  _! %ips mu/ n try
 to ent] any blockad$ port & mu/ n c>ry 
contrab& ( w>4 ,contrab& ( w> includes  
weapons1 munitions1  milit>y supplies1 &
 any o!r m]*&ise :i* a bellig]5t c use  
directly or indirectly 9 c>ry+ on ! w>4 
,! citiz5s ( neutral  /ates are also    
deb>r$ f s]v+ 9 ! arm$ =ces (           
bellig]5ts4    ,int]national law1 9     
%ort1 deals ) a great v>iety ( matt]s   
:i*  arise 9 peace1 includ+ emigration &
 travel1 trade1 naturalization1         
diplomatic int]c\rse1 ! extradition (   
crim9als1 treaties1 & s  =?1 z well z ) 
que/ions :i* arise dur+ w> su* z        
blockades1 captures at sea1 ! rules ( l&
 w>f>e1 & ! rights (  neutrals4 ,x is   
consid]$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates to be a "p (

 ! law  ( ! l&1 & its rules are en=c$ )9
 ,am]ican t]ritory by !  f$]al c\rts4   
,sid5ote3 ,! f$]al gov]nm5t alone       
controls =eign relations4    ,! ,control
 ( ,=eign ,relations4--,all relations ) 
=eign c\ntries  are "u ! control ( !    
national gov]nm5t4 ,no /ate ( ! ,union  
c make any treaty1 or decl>e w>1 or ent]
 into an alliance1 or s5d  ambassadors  
abroad4 ,no /ate1 moreov]1 may ma9ta9   
%ips ( w> 9  "t ( peace or arm$ =ces    
except z provid$ 9 ! con/itution4  ,w> c
 be decl>$ by ,congress alone4 ,^!      
provisions are wisely  ins]t$ 9 !       
national con/itution1 = if e /ate 7     
p]mitt$  to deal indep5d5tly ) =eign    
c\ntries1 we %\ld get into endless      
complications & difficulties4 ,b 9 spite
 ( ! fact t no /ate  c make a treaty or 
h any =mal diplomatic negotiations ) a  
=eign c\ntry x is nev]!less true t a    
/ate c & sometimes  does create a       
situation :i* requires diplomatic action
 on ! "p (  ! national gov]nm5t4        
,prolong$ negotiations betwe5 ! ,am]ican

 &  ,japanese gov]nm5ts h _h to be c>ri$
 on1 = example1 z !  result (           
,cali=nia's hav+ re/rict$ ! privileges (
 ,japanese  citiz5s 9 t /ate 7see p4    
#cb74 ,s1 also1 al?\gh ! con/itution    
gives ,congress ! sole p[] to decl>e w>1
 ! ,presid5t ?r\gh 8  comm& ( ! army &  
navy c br+ ab\t a situation :i* leaves  
,congress no *oice :atsoev]4 ,on "o     
occasion ,presid5t ,roosevelt  ?reat5$ t
 if ,g]man w>%ips did n leave ! coa/ (  
,v5ezuela  )9 =ty-eight h\rs1 he w\ld   
s5d ! ,am]ican fleet !re4 ,_h  ! ,g]man 
%ips rema9$ & a conflict ensu$1 ! action
 ( ,congress  9 decl>+ w> w\ld h become 
a m]e =mality4    ,h[ ,=eign ,relations 
are ,conduct$4--,! conduct ( =eign      
relations  re/s ) ! ,presid5t1 ^: "r-h& 
man 9 su* matt]s is !  ,secret>y (      
,/ate4 ,b ! ,presid5t's discretion is   
limit$ by !  fact t all appo9tm5ts      
require confirmation by ! ,s5ate & all  
treaties mu/ be approv$ 9 t body by a   
two-?irds vote be=e !y  become valid4 ,=
 ?is reason1 ! ,presid5t usually f9ds x 

advisable  to keep 9 t\* ) ! lead]s ( ! 
,s5ate :ile he is h&l+  =eign affairs ( 
importance4 ,he is "u no legal          
obligation to d  ?is1 b x is politically
 exp$i5t4 ,failure to d x has on        
occasions  l$ ! ,s5ate to reject        
agreem5ts :i* ! ,presid5t has conclud$  
aft] prolong$ negotiations4#bhd         
,sid5ote3 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate4  ,!     
,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate is ! ,presid5t's      
imm$iate ag5cy 9 !  conduct ( all       
diplomatic int]c\rse1 & is s recogniz$  
by all  =eign gov]nm5ts4 ,x is ?r\gh ?is
 dep>tm5t t all (ficial  correspond5ce )
 o!r gov]nm5ts is c>ri$ on4 ,! ,secret>y
 (  ,/ate is (t5 call$ ! 8premi]0 ( !   
cab9et1 b ! function (  lead]%ip & !    
ultimate responsibility = ! cab9et's "w 
re/s  ) ! ,presid5t4 ,9 h&l+ ! details (
 =eign relations !  ,/ate ,dep>tm5t is  
assi/$ by a body ( (ficials :o con/itute
 !  diplomatic s]vice4    ,! ,diplomatic
 ,s]vice4--,x is ! cu/om ( e civiliz$   
c\ntry to  s5d & receive diplomatic     
(ficials4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates s5ds a       

repres5tative to e important =eign      
capital2 9 return1 e  =eign c\ntry      
ma9ta9s a diplomatic ag5t 9 ,wa%+ton4 ,9
 ! case  ( ! mo/ important c\ntries ^!  
repres5tatives are giv5 ! rank  & title 
( ambassador4 ,sid5ote3 ,ambassadors &  
m9i/]s4 ,!re is  an ,am]ican ambassador 
/ation$ at ,p>is2 a ,fr5* ambassador at 
,wa%+ton4 ,9 ! case ( less important    
c\ntries ! diplomatic  repres5tatives   
are usually giv5 ! rank & title ( m9i/]4
 ,!re  is an ,am]ican m9i/] at          
,cop5hag52 a ,dani% m9i/] at ,wa%+ton4  
,! diff]5ce betwe5 ambassadors & m9i/]s 
is 9 rank1 title1 &  sal>y2 !re is no   
important diff]5ce 9 _! functions4 ,:5  
an  ambassador or m9i/] is abs5t1 !     
diplomatic (ficial :o is left 9  *>ge is
 call$ a *>g d'affaires4 ,if "s special 
negotiations are  to be c>ri$ on1 a     
c\ntry may s5d an envoy1 or an 8envoy   
extraord9>y01 z he is call$4#bhe ,ea*   
ambassador or m9i/] is  assi/$ by "o or 
m secret>ies & a =ce ( cl]ks4           
,sid5ote3 ,duties ( diplomats4          

,diplomatic (ficials1 :e!r ambassadors  
or m9i/]s1 h ! duty (  s]v+ z *annels ( 
(ficial communication betwe5 _! own     
gov]nm5t & ! gov]nm5t to :i* !y are     
accr$it$4 ,!y act  always 9 accordance )
 in/ructions s5t to !m f home4 ,if a    
=eign gov]nm5t has any communication to 
make to ! gov]nm5t (  ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x
 addresses itself ei!r to ! ,am]ican    
diplomatic  repres5tative at its own    
capital1 or to its own diplomatic       
repres5tative at ,wa%+ton4 ,9 ei!r case 
! diplomatic  repres5tative pres5ts !   
communication1 orally or 9 writ+1 to !  
,secret>y ( ,/ate4 ,! heads ( nations1  
:e!r presid5ts1 k+s1 or  emp]ors1       
sometimes communicate ) ea* o!r by      
p]sonal lett]2 b  important matt]s are n
 usually h&l$ 9 t way4#bhf    ,9        
addition to =w>d+ communications !      
memb]s ( ! diplomatic  s]vice h v>i\s   
o!r duties4 ,an ambassador or m9i/] is  
expect$  to keep 8 own gov]nm5t well    
in=m$ conc]n+ all t is go+ on  at !     
=eign capital :]e he is /ation$4 ,he    

r5d]s any necess>y  assi/ance to        
,am]ican citiz5s :o may become involv$ 9
 difficulties  or dang]4 ,he repres5ts 8
 own c\ntry on all occasions ( c]emony  
& has _m social duties to p]=m4 ,^!     
duties are prescrib$ by  ! usages ( !   
diplomatic s]vice & are ! same at all   
national  capitals4 ,f9ally1 he         
co-op]ates ) ! consuls ( 8 own c\ntry  &
 does :at he c to make _! "w m          
effective4#bhg    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ memb]s (
 ! diplomatic s]vice are *os54    ,all  
,am]ican ambassadors1 m9i/]s1 & o!r     
diplomatic (ficials are  appo9t$ by !   
,presid5t ) ! cons5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,9     
,european  c\ntries x is ! cu/om = "y & 
capable m5 to ent] ! l[]  ranks (       
diplomatic s]vice & "w up1 /ep by /ep1  
to ! high]  po/s4 ,b al?\gh l[] po/s 9 !
 diplomatic s]vice ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates   
are fill$ by competitive exam9ation1 !  
high] positions are  usually giv5 to m5 
:o h _h no previ\s diplomatic exp]i5ce4 
,m5  :om ! ,presid5t selects z          
ambassadors or m9i/]s are1 z a rule1    

drawn f civil life1 & _! appo9tm5ts are 
(t5 look$ ^u z  rew>ds = political      
s]vice4 ,?is does n mean1 h[ev]1 t !y   
fail to make capable ambassadors or     
m9i/]s1 despite ! lack (  exp]i5ce2 on !
 contr>y1 ! sy/em has work$ a/oni%+ly   
well on  ! :ole4 ,?is is because m5 (   
m>k$ ability & di/9ction 9  civil life  
are usually select$ by ! ,presid5t = ! m
 important  diplomatic po/s4 ,among !   
li/ ( ^? :o h s]v$ z ,am]ican           
ambassadors to ,great ,brita9 "o f9ds ! 
names ( ,*>les ,francis  ,adams1 ,james 
,russell ,l[ell1 ,john ,hay1 & ,joseph  
,h4 ,*oate4 ,among !  notable ,am]ican  
diplomats dur+ ! e>li] ye>s ( ! ,_w ,w> 
7 ,james ,w4 ,g]>d at ,b]l91 ,h5ry      
,morg5?au at ,con/ant9ople1  ,br&       
,:itlock at ,brussels1 & ,paul ,s4      
,re9s* at ,pek94    ,! (ficial          
e/abli%m5t ( an ambassador is call$ an  
embassy2 t  ( a m9i/] is kn[n z a       
legation4 ,sid5ote3 ,! immunities (     
diplomats4 ,an embassy or a legation is 
exempt f local jurisdiction2  x _c be   

se>*$ by ! police1 & ! (ficials connect$
 ) x  are exempt f arre/ except = v     
s]i\s crimes4 ,a c\ntry _c1  accord+ to 
int]national usages1 decl9e to receive a
 diplomatic  (ficial f any o!r c\ntry1 b
 x c1 & sometimes does1 object  to      
receiv+ "s p>ticul> individual z        
ambassador or m9i/] on !  gr\nd t he is 
p]sona non grata4 ,simil>ly a c\ntry may
 reque/  t any diplomatic (ficial :o has
 be5 s5t to x %all be recall$  by 8 own 
gov]nm5t & su* reque/s h occasionally   
be5  made4#bhh    ,sid5ote3 ,consuls4   
,9 addition to diplomatic (ficials !    
,unit$ ,/ates s5ds & receives  consuls4 
,! consul> s]vice is conc]n$ ) comm]cial
 r ?an  diplomatic relations2 h5ce !    
consuls are /ation$1 = ! mo/  "p1 at    
ports ( entry4 ,! functions ( consuls   
are closely relat$ to  ! developm5t (   
,am]ican =eign trade & !y h be5 describ$
  9 an e>li] *apt] 7p4 #cgc74    ,secret
 & ,op5 ,diplomacy4--,! traditional     
policy ( ! diplomatic  s]vice 9 all     
c\ntries has be5 to d its "w 9 secret4  

,to "s  ext5t ?is has be5 necess>y1     
because ( ! nature ( !  negotiations    
c>ri$ on4 ,sid5ote3 ,:y secrecy is deem$
 ess5tial4  ,!re are times1 ( c\rse1 :5 
! publication ( :at is go+ on 9  ! way (
 negotiations betwe5 diff]5t c\ntries   
w\ld lead to  s]i\s misund]/&+s & might 
cause ! negotiations to be brok5  (f    
altoge!r4 ,x is natural1 = example1 t   
ea* gov]nm5t1 :5  x beg9s negotiations  
on any "q1 %\ld ask a good deal m ?an  x
 expects to obta94 ,only z ! discussion 
proce$s ?r\gh !  *annels ( diplomacy    
does ea* c\ntry give way a little & 9 ! 
end  !y rea* an agreem5t4 ,n[1 if ^!    
negotiations _h to be c>ri$ on  be=e !  
eyes ( ! :ole _w an agreem5t w\ld be v  
difficult  because no gov]nm5t likes to 
back d[n1 ev5 slightly1 f its  orig9al  
dem&s4    ,s secrecy is 9 "s cases      
necess>y4 ,b !re has be5 too mu* ( x  9 
! pa/4 ,_m important matt]s h be5 )held 
f public  k ev5 aft] ! negotiations h   
be5 f9i%$1 & pl$ges  h be5 made by rul]s
 )\t in=m+ _! p4 ,sid5ote3 ,!  exp]i5ce 

( ,europe4 ,x 0 because ( secret        
diplomacy t !  v>i\s ,european c\ntries1
 prior to #aiad1 became enme%$ 9 a maze 
(  intrigues & semi-secret alliances :i*
 drew !m /eadily t[>d !  br9k ( w>4#bhi 
,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 happily1 has _h v     
little  exp]i5ce ) secret diplomacy4 ,e 
treaty or agreem5t mu/ be  submitt$ to !
 ,s5ate & :5 s submitt$ x _c be kept    
secret4  ,no?+ c be kept secret aft] x  
is laid = discussion be=e a body  (     
n9ety-six m51 at lea/ x _c rema9 secret 
v long4  ,sid5ote3 ,! ,am]ican tradition
 ( op5 diplomacy4 ,! ,s5ate1  moreov]1  
has always insi/$ on mak+ ^! agreem5ts  
public1  al?\gh ! discussions may be    
held beh9d clos$ doors4 ,"o ( !  reasons
 :y ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has    
acquir$ a good  reputation = frankness &
 s9c]ity 9 its relations ) o!r  c\ntries
 is to be f\nd 9 ?is avoidance ( secrecy
 9 int]national  agreem5ts4 ,?is policy 
%\ld nev] be ab&on$4    ,treaties4--,a  
treaty is a =mal agreem5t made betwe5   
two or m  c\ntries & b9d+ ^u ea*4 ,!re  

are _m k9ds ( treaties1  includ+        
treaties ( peace1 treaties ( alliance1  
treaties provid+  = reciprocity 9 trade1
 = ! mutual surr5d] ( fugitive          
crim9als1 po/al treaties1 treaties (    
arbitration1 & s on4  ,sid5ote3 ,h[     
treaties are made4 ,!re are ?ree /ages 9
 ! mak+  ( a treaty1 namely1 !          
negotiation1 ! signature1 & !           
ratification4 ,! negotiations are       
usually c>ri$ on ?r\gh memb]s (  !      
diplomatic s]vice1 b 9 ! case (         
important treaties x is  cu/om>y to     
appo9t special envoys = ! purpose4 ,:5  
all details  h be5 agre$ ^u ! treaty is 
engross$ on p>*m5t & sign$ by  ! (ficial
 repres5tatives ( ! respective c\ntries4
 ,b x does  n g into effect until x is  
ratifi$ &1 s f> z ! ,unit$ ,/ates  is   
conc]n$1 ?is ratification _c take place 
until ! treaty has  be5 approv$ by a    
two-?irds majority ( ! ,s5ate4#bij      
,:5ev] a treaty has be5 conclud$ on     
behalf ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  !re=e1 x is  
transmitt$ by ! ,presid5t to ! presid+  

(fic]  ( ! ,s5ate by :om x is ref]r$ to 
! ,committee on ,=eign  ,affairs4 ,?is  
committee1 9 due c\rse1 makes its report
 to ! ,s5ate  :]eupon a discussion takes
 place4 ,sid5ote3 ,! p[] ( ! ,s5ate  ov]
 treaties4 ,:5 ! discussion is f9i%$ !  
,s5ate votes to give  or )hold its      
ass5t4 ,if x acts favorably1 ! ,presid5t
 notifies !  o!r gov]nm5t & ! treaty    
becomes effective2 if ! ,s5ate rejects  
! treaty1 x fails to g into =ce4 ,!     
,s5ate1 /rictly speak+1  _c am5d any    
treaty1 b x may ask ! ,presid5t1 & ?r\gh
 him  ! o!r gov]nm5t1 to accept c]ta9   
*anges4 ,z a rule ! ,s5ate  has ratifi$ 
treaties )\t am5dm5t b x has sometimes  
insi/$ on  alt]ations1 & on "s notable  
occasions x has reject$ treaties        
altoge!r4#bia    ,sid5ote3 ,! roots (   
,am]ican diplomacy4    ,am]ican ,=eign  
,policy4--,:5 ,wa%+ton f9i%$ 8 second   
t]m z  ,presid5t 9 #agif1 he deliv]$ to 
8 c\ntrym5 a ,f>ewell ,address 9  :i* he
 gave !m "s s\nd advice4 ,among o!r ?+s 
he po9t$ out  t ! prim>y int]e/s (      

,am]ica 7 v remote f ^? (  ,europe &    
advis$ t ! ,unit$ ,/ates %\ld 8/e] cle> 
(  p]man5t alliances ) any portion ( !  
=eign _w04 ,n long  aft]w>ds ,jeff]son  
reit]at$ ?is pr9ciple & urg$ t ! policy 
( ,am]ica %\ld aim at 8hone/ fri5d%ip ) 
all nations1 entangl+  alliances )      
none04 ,?is attitude ( ,wa%+ton &       
,jeff]son embodi$  ! be/ int]e/s ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! e>ly days ( !         
,republic & und\bt$ly reflect$ ! s5tim5t
 ( ! p4 ,9  keep+ ) ?is pr9ciple (      
8political isolation0 ! ,unit$ ,/ates   
rema9$ neutral dur+ ! ,european w>s :i* 
foll[$ ! ,fr5*  ,revolution & /r5u\sly  
endeavor$ to avoid tak+ sides 9 !       
/ruggle betwe5 ,engl& & ,france4 ,!     
,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t1 9  #ahjg1 w5t s 
f> z to %ut (f all trade ) bo? ^! w>r+  
c\ntries4 ,b 9 #ahab1 ! cont9u$         
violation ( ,am]ica's rights z a        
neutral exhau/$ ! pati5ce ( ! p4 ,^!    
rights 7 violat$  by ,france & ,engl&   
alike2 ! ,engli% violations1 h[ev]1 7 ! 
ones :i* /irr$ up ! greate/ am\nt (     

popul> res5tm5t4 ,s !  ,unit$ ,/ates    
engag$ 9 w> ) ,engl& = ! ma9t5ance ( !  
pr9ciples ( neutrality4    ,! ,monroe   
,doctr9e4--,be+ resolv$ n to m$dle 9 !  
political  affairs ( ,europe s long z   
,am]ican rights 7 n infr+$1 !  ,unit$   
,/ates felt 9 a position to insi/1 at ! 
appropriate "t1  t ,europe %\ld refra9 f
 int]f]5ce 9 ! affairs ( !  ,we/]n      
,hemisph]e4 ,sid5ote3 ,orig9 ( !        
doctr9e4 ,! occasion =  ann\nc+ ?is     
pr9ciple ( 8h&s (f0 came 9 #ahbc4 ,dur+ 
! ye>s  prec$+ ?is date ! ,spani%       
colonies 9 ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica  _h   
revolt$4 ,!y decl>$ _! indep5d5ce (     
,spa9 & drove out  ! ,spani% au?orities1
 sett+ up 9 ea* case a republican =m (  
gov]nm5t4 ,spa9 naturally desir$ to     
reta9 h] sov]eignty ov] ^!  t]ritories &
 s\ght assi/ance ( o!r ,european        
c\ntries = t  purpose4 ,!re appe>$ to be
 a possibility t ,france1 ,au/ria1      
,prussia1 & ,russia--a comb9ation kn[n z
 ! ,holy ,alliance--w\ld jo9  ) ,spa9 9 
! subjugation ( ! revolt$ ,s\? ,am]ican 

t]ritories4 ,! gov]nm5t at ,wa%+ton     
became al>m$ ov] !  possibilities ( l>ge
 milit>y & naval =ces be+ s5t across !  
,atlantic by a coalition ( mon>*ial     
c\ntries1 believ+ t ?is  w\ld n only be 
a bl[ to ! republican =m ( rule b a     
s]i\s  dang] to ! ,unit$ ,/ates z well4 
,presid5t ,james ,monroe accord+ly      
au?oriz$ ! issue ( a decl>ation sett+ =?
 ! int]e/ ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates 9 !        
matt]4#bib    ,! sali5t passages 9 ?is  
decl>ation are z foll[s3      8,9 ! w>s 
( ,european p[]s 9 matt]s relat+ to     
!mselves we    h nev] tak5 any "p1 nor  
does x comport ) our policy to d        
s4444 ,) ! exi/+ colonies or dep5d5cies 
( any ,european    p[] we h n int]f]$ & 
%all n int]f]e4444 ,b ) !    gov]nm5ts  
:i* h decl>$ _! indep5d5ce & ma9ta9$ x1 
& ^: indep5d5ce we h on great           
consid]ation & on j    pr9ciples        
ackn[l$g$1 we c\ld n view any           
int]position = !    purpose ( oppress+  
!m1 or controll+ 9 any o!r mann] _!     
de/9y1 by any ,european p[]1 9 any o!r  

light ?an z a    manife/ation ( an      
unfri5dly disposition t[>ds ! ,unit$    
,/ates4444 ,! ,am]ican cont95ts1 by !   
free & indep5d5t    condition :i* !y    
assum$ & ma9ta91 are h5ce=? n to be     
consid]$ z subjects = future            
colonization by any ,european    p[]s40 
,?is doctr9e has rema9$ ! corn]/one (   
,am]ican policy )  ref]5ce to ! c\ntries
 ( ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica = "o hundr$   
ye>s4 ,sid5ote3 ,its application4 ,on   
sev]al occasions x has be5  invok$ to   
protect ^! c\ntries aga9/ arm$ pressure4
 ,dur+ !  ,civil ,w>1 = example1 ! ,fr5*
 gov]nm5t s5t an army to ,mexico &      
ma9ta9$ an imp]ial adm9i/ration !re 9   
defiance ( ! ,mexican  p4 ,:ile !       
conflict betwe5 ,nor? & ,s\? cont9u$ !  
gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 unable to  
take any firm action 9  ?is matt]1 b 9  
#ahff ,france 0 reque/$ to )draw h]     
troops  f ,mexico1 :i* %e did4 ,aga91 9 
#ahie1 ,presid5t ,clevel& in=m$  !      
gov]nm5t ( ,great ,brita9 t ! ,unit$    
,/ates w\ld support  ,v5ezuela aga9/ any

 attempt to settle a b\nd>y dispute     
o!rwise  ?an by arbitration4            
,sid5ote3 ,its /atus4    ,! ,monroe     
,doctr9e is n a "p ( int]national law4  
,x is n ev5 a  law ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x
 nev] receiv$ ! approval ( ! ,s5ate1    
:i* is suppos$ to be a *eck ^u !        
,presid5t 9 decid+ !  p]man5t features (
 ,am]ican =eign policy4 ,its validity   
has nev]  be5 =mally recogniz$ ei!r by !
 c\ntries ( ,europe or by !  /ates (    
,s\? ,am]ica :om ! doctr9e imm$iately   
conc]ns4#bic ,its  ma9t5ance re/s ^u !  
vigilance & /r5g? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  ,9
 gu>d+ ! small] /ates ( ! ,new ,_w aga9/
 ,european  aggression ! ,unit$ ,/ates  
is tak+ :at ! ,am]ican p reg>d  z an    
ess5tial measure ( self-protection4     
,is ! ,monroe ,doctr9e ,obsolete8--,we  
are sometimes told n[adays t  ! ,monroe 
,doctr9e is beh9d ! times1 t we h       
outgr[n x1 &  ought to give x up4#bid   
,:5 ! doctr9e 0 ann\nc$1 a hundr$  ye>s 
ago1 ! /ates ( ,s\? ,am]ica 7 too weak  
to def5d  !mselves2 ! v>i\s c\ntries (  

,cont95tal ,europe 7 gov]n$             
despotically & ma9ta9$ l>ge /&+ armies4 
,! /ates ( ,c5tral  & ,s\? ,am]ica1     
likewise1 7 at t "t glad to h ,am]ican  
protection4 ,b n[1 we are told1 all ?is 
is *ang$4 ,!  ,spani%-,am]ican /ates are
 /rong & able to look out = !mselves4   
,!y d n want our gu>dian%ip4 ,! nations 
( ,cont95tal ,europe1  moreov]1 are no  
long] despotisms b republics & limit$   
mon>*ies4  ,!y h en\gh problems to keep 
!m employ$ = ! next g5]ation  )\t       
int]f]+ 9 ! affairs ( ! ,new ,hemisph]e4
 ,s x has be5  sugge/$ t ! doctr9e be   
giv5 up1 p>ticul>ly z no "o kn[s        
exactly :at x means at ! pres5t day4#bie
 ,b ! doctr9e is  deeply imb$d$ 9 !     
diplomatic traditions ( ! ,am]ican p &  
!re is no?+ to be ga9$ by giv+ x up     
unless ! situation  becomes v diff]5t f 
:at x is today4    ,am]ican             
,contributions to ,int]national         
,law4--,! ,unit$ ,/ates has  r5d]$      
signal s]vice 9 mak+ ! rules & usages ( 
int]national  law m enlight5$ & m       

humane4 ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,neutral rights4  
,at  all times ! ,am]ican gov]nm5t has  
be5 a *ampion ( neutral rights  &       
p>ticul>ly has insi/$ ^u lib]al rules   
conc]n+ neutral  comm]ce on ! high seas4
 ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,laws ( w>4 ,x has l5t   
its  influ5ce to ! movem5t = mak+ ! laws
 ( w> m human & =  prohibit+ all        
practices :i* ne$lessly endang] ! lives 
(  non-combatants4 ,x has /ood = fre$om 
( trade & ! 8op5 door04  ,sid5ote3 #c4  
,arbitration4 ,among ! nations ( ! _w ! 
,unit$  ,/ates has be5 =emo/ 9 !        
advocacy & use ( arbitration z a  means 
( settl+ int]national disputes4 ,9 keep+
 ) ?is policy  arbitration treaties h   
be5 conclud$ betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates &   
tw5ty o!r c\ntries1 ea* treaty provid+ t
 all disput$  que/ions1 ( :atsoev]      
nature1 %all be submitt$ to arbitration 
if  !y _c be adju/$ by diplomatic       
negotiation1 & t no resort to  w> %all 9
 any ev5t take place until aft] !       
processes (  arbitration h be5 exhau/$4 
,sid5ote3 #d4 ,rec5t contributions4 ,at 

! ,peace ,conf]5ce :i* assembl$ 9 #aiai 
aft] ! close ( !  ,_w ,w>1 moreov]1 x 0 
! ,unit$ ,/ates t fir/ put =w>d 9       
def9ite =m ! plan = a ,league (         
,nations4 ,& 9 #aiba x 0 !  ,unit$      
,/ates :i* took ! initiative 9 call+ !  
int]national  conf]5ce :i* arrang$ = a  
great r$uction 9 naval armam5ts4        
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,,*>les ,a4 ,,be>d1 
,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4     
#cae-cda2  ,ibid41 ,read+s 9 ,am]ican   
,gov]nm5t & ,politics1 pp4 #bia-cjg2    
,,ev]ett ,,kimball1 ,national ,gov]nm5t 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4  #edj-egc2    ,a4
 ,b4 ,,h>t1 ,actual ,gov]nm5t1 pp4      
#dcj-dde2    ,,john ,w4 ,,fo/]1 ,!      
,practice ( ,diplomacy1 especially pp4  
#cd-ed2    ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1 ,read+s 9   
,am]ican ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #fea-fhb2
    ,e4 ,s4 ,,corw91 ,! ,presid5t's     
,control ( ,=eign ,relations1 passim2   
,,gaill>d ,,hunt1 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate4 
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! ,monroe       
,doctr9e4 ,is x obsolete8 ,!            
int]national situation  dur+ ! ye>s     

#ahae-ahbc4 ,! ,holy ,alliance1 its     
organization &  aims4 ,spa9 9 ,am]ica4  
,! revolt ( ! ,spani% ,colonies4        
,prelim9>ies ( ! decl>ation4 ,cann+'s   
sugge/ion4 ,scope ( !  doctr9e z        
ann\nc$4 ,subsequ5t applications &      
ext5sions4 ,!  ,fr5* 9 ,mexico4 ,!      
,v5ezuela controv]sy4 ,pres5t scope ( ! 
doctr9e4 ,attitude ( ,europe t[>d x4    
,attitude ( ! ,spani%-,am]ican  /ates4  
,its value = ! future4 ,conclusion4     
,ref]5ces3 ,,hiram  ,,b+ham1 ,! ,monroe 
,doctr9e3 ,an ,obsolete ,%ibbole?1 pp4  
#c-ee2 ,a4 ,b4  ,,h>t1 ,! ,monroe       
,doctr9e1 pp4 #ee-hc1 & passim2 ,a4 ,c4 
,,coolidge1  ,! ,unit$ ,/ates z a ,_w   
,p[]1 pp4 #ie-abj2 ,c4 ,h4 ,,%]rill1    
,mod]niz+ ! ,monroe ,doctr9e1 pp4       
#fd-gf2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,c>ibbean      
,int]e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4         
#cbc-cea2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,latan1 ,! ,unit$    
,/ates & ,spani% ,am]ica1 pp4 #bib-ccd2 
,d4 ,c4 ,,gilman1 ,james ,monroe        
7,am]ican ,/atesm5 ,s]ies1 ,/&>d ,libr>y
 ,edition71 pp4 #aef-agd2  ,,!odore     

,,roosevelt1 ,am]ican ,ideals1 pp4      
#bbj-bcg2 ,cyclop$ia (  ,am]ican        
,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #def-dfh2    
,,dext] ,,p]k9s1 8,europe1  ,spani%     
,am]ica1 & ! ,monroe ,doctr9e0 9        
,am]ican ,hi/orical  ,review 7,janu>y1  
#aibb74    #b4 ,! diplomatic s]vice & h[
 x c be improv$4 ,ref]5ces3 ,j4  ,w4    
,,fo/]1 ,! ,practice ( ,diplomacy1 pp4  
#cd-ed2 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1  ,national
 ,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #gg-ia2 ,e4 ,,van   
,,dyne1 ,our ,=eign  ,s]vice1 pp4       
#de-aac2 ,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican          
,gov]nm5t1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4  #eic-eie2 ,p4 
,s4 ,,re9s*1 ,read+s on ,am]ican ,f$]al 
,gov]nm5t1 pp4  #fea-feh2 #fge-fhb4     
#c4 ,! *ief rules ( int]national law2 h[
 c _! en=cem5t be  ensur$8 ,ref]5ces3   
,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1 ,elem5ts (             
,int]national ,law1  pp4 #ai-cj2 ,t4 ,j4
 ,,lawr5ce1 ,pr9ciples ( ,int]national  
,law1 pp4  #aai-ach2 ,g4 ,g4 ,,wilson & 
,g4 ,f4 ,,tuck]1 ,int]national ,law 7#g?
 ed471  pp4 #dd-fj2 ,a4 ,s4 ,,h]%ey1 ,! 
,ess5tials ( ,int]national ,public ,law1

  pp4 #adc-afi2 ,a4 ,h4 ,,sn[1 ,!       
,am]ican ,philosophy ( ,gov]nm5t1 pp4   
#aac-aed2 #bfg-bhc4 ,see also ! ,g5]al  
,ref]5ces to ,*apt] ,,xxx4              
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! rights & duties 
( neutrals4 ,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1 ,elem5ts ( 
,int]national ,law1 pp4 #cgf-cie        
7,rights ( ,neutrals72 pp4 #cif-dde     
7,duties ( ,neutrals74    #b4 ,!        
privileges ( diplomats4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,fo/]1 
,! ,practice (  ,diplomacy1 pp4         
#aei-agd4    #c4 ,h[ treaties are made4 
,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1 ,elem5ts (             
,int]national  ,law1 pp4 #bbc-bdi4      
#d4 ,! p[] ( ! ,s5ate 9 relation to     
treaties4 ,,ral/on ,,hayd51  ,! ,s5ate &
 ,treaties1 especially pp4 #afi-aie2 ,j4
 ,w4 ,,fo/]1 ,!  ,practice ( ,diplomacy1
 pp4 #bfb-bhc4    #e4 ,! ,v5ezuelan     
controv]sy4 ,,grov] ,,clevel&1          
,presid5tial  ,problems1 pp4 #agc-bha4  
#f4 ,arbitration z a me?od ( settl+     
,int]national disputes4 ,r4 ,l4         
,,jones1 ,int]national ,arbitration z a 
,sub/itute = ,w> betwe5  ,nations1 pp4  

#bah-bfi2 ,j4 ,w4 ,,fo/]1 ,arbitration &
 ,! ,hague ,c\rt1  pp4 #ci-eg2 ,j4 ,b4  
,,moore1 ,am]ican ,diplomacy1 pp4       
#bjj-bbb4    #g4 ,! ,hague ,conf]5ces4  
,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1 ,elem5ts (             
,int]national  ,law1 pp4 #beh-bfc2      
#eai-ebd2 #ebe4    #h4 ,! propos$       
codification ( int]national law4 ,a4 ,h4
 ,,sn[1 ,!  ,am]ican ,philosophy (      
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #cie-dah4                
,que/ions    #a4 ,:at is int]national   
law8 ,is x prop]ly a sy/em ( law8       
,expla9  ! s5se 9 :i* y use ! t]m law 9 
! foll[+ expressions3  law (            
gravitation2 law ( ! l&2 law ( supply & 
dem&2 law (  fa%ion4    #b4 ,look up &  
expla9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 bellig]5t1        
contrab&1  unneutral s]vice1 filibu/]+1 
blockade1 ?ree-mile limit1  diplomatic  
immunity4    #c4 ,make a li/ ( 7a7 !    
rights ( neutrals2 7b7 ! duties (       
neutrals1 & %[ h[ ea* "r involves a     
duty4    #d4 ,draw up1 9 ! =m ( a di>y1 
a day's happ5+s 9 ! ,am]ican  embassy at
 ,tokyo1 putt+ d[n at lea/ six ?+s done 

by !  ambassador dur+ ! day4    #e4     
,expla9 :at is meant by secret          
diplomacy4 ,to :at ext5t has !  ,unit$  
,/ates avoid$ x & :y8    #f4 ,give an   
acc\nt 7f y\r /udies 9 ,am]ican ,hi/ory7
 ( "s  important treaty to :i* ! ,unit$ 
,/ates 0 a p>ty4 ,tell h[ x 0           
negotiat$1 sign$1 & ratifi$4    #g4 ,is 
! pr9ciple set =? by ,wa%+ton &         
,jeff]son conc]n+ !  true policy ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates 9 =eign affairs applicable
 at !  pres5t "t8    #h4 ,are ! foll[+  
/atem5ts true ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates today3  
7a7 8,9 ! w>s ( ,european p[]s 9 matt]s 
relat+ to !mselves  we h nev] tak5 any  
"p40    7b7 8,) ! exi/+ colonies or     
dep5d5cies ( any ,european p[]  we h n  
int]f]$08    #i4 ,:at is meant by ! say+
 t 8! cov5ant ( ! ,league (  ,nations   
does n de/roy ! ,monroe ,doctr9e b      
ext5ds x to ! :ole  _w08 ,is t /atem5t  
correct8    #aj4 ,:at seems to y to be !
 mo/ important among ,am]ican           
contributions to int]national law8      
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,all memb]s ( !

 diplomatic s]vice1 includ+ ambassadors1
 %\ld  be *os5 "u civil s]vice rules4   
#b4 ,a majority vote 9 ! ,s5ate %\ld be 
made suffici5t = !  ratification (      
treaties4    #c4 ,x w\ld be a violation 
( ! ,monroe ,doctr9e if ,great ,brita9 7
  to sell ! isl& ( ,jamaica to ,g]many4 
-----    ,footnote #bhc3      ,?is is a 
great & fundam5tal weakness (           
int]national law1 t    !re is no        
executive au?ority to apply x & !re are 
no c\rts to    en=ce its rules :5       
nations disobey4 ,dur+ ! ,_w ,w> ! rules
    ( int]national law 7 violat$ on _m  
occasions1 = example1 9    ! use (      
poison gas1 ! bomb+ ( hospitals1 ! s9k+ 
(    hospital %ips1 ! =c+ ( prison]s to 
labor on milit>y works1    & ! illegal  
det5tion ( neutral %ips4 ,yet 9 spite ( 
^!    violations int]national law em]g$ 
f ! w> /rong] ?an x 0    be=e4 ,!       
nations :i* violat$ int]national law mo/
 %amelessly    7 ! ones t lo/ ! w>1 & _!
 defeat 0 due 9 no small    measure to !
 res5tm5t :i* 0 ar\s$ ?r\gh\t ! _w by   

reason ( ^! violations4    ,footnote    
#bhd3      ,illu/rations are too fre% 9 
ev]yone's m9d to require any ext5d$     
comm5t4 ,9 #aiah ,presid5t ,wilson took 
) him to ! peace    negotiations at     
,p>is no memb] ( ! ,s5ate4 ,he did n    
keep 9    t\* ) ! lead]s ( ! majority   
p>ty 9 ?is body4 ,b 9 #aiba    :5       
,presid5t ,h>d+ appo9t$ ! f\r ,am]ican  
delegates to !    ,wa%+ton ,conf]5ce he 
nam$ two ( !m f ! ,s5ate4    ,footnote  
#bhe3      ,9 addition to regul> envoys1
 x is sometimes cu/om>y = a c\ntry    to
 s5d an un(ficial repres5tative to      
conduct negotiations    in=mally4 ,dur+ 
! ye>s be=e ! ,unit$ ,/ates ent]$ ! w>1 
,colonel ,edw>d ,m4 ,h\se1 ( ,texas1 0  
s5t to ,europe by ,presid5t    ,wilson  
on at lea/ two occasions 9 ord] t c]ta9 
confid5tial    discussions might be     
c>ri$ on )\t us+ ! regul> diplomatic    
*annels4 ,:5 un(ficial repres5tatives   
are s5t 9 ?is way no    public          
ann\ncem5t is made4    ,footnote #bhf3  
,communications betwe5 diplomats & _!   

own gov]nm5ts are n    usually s5t by   
mail if ! matt]s dealt ) are ( great    
importance4 ,!y are s5t by special      
c\ri]s or mess5g]s4 ,:5    diplomatic   
communications are s5t by telegraph or  
cable !y are    transmitt$ 9 ciph]1 t   
is1 9 a secret code ( words :i* no      
outsid] c read4 ,nations occasionally   
get hold ( "o ano!r's    diplomatic     
codes & deciph] communications :i* !y   
are n    suppos$ to read4 ,= example1 ! 
,g]man gov]nm5t 9 ! spr+ (    #aiag1    
be=e ! ,unit$ ,/ates decl>$ w>1 s5t a   
wireless message    to its (ficial      
repres5tative 9 ,mexico1 tell+ him 9    
sub/ance    t if ,am]ica ent]$ ! w>1 he 
0 to /ir up ,mexico aga9/ !    ,unit$   
,/ates by promis+ t :5 ! w> 0 ov]       
,mexico w\ld be    rew>d$ ) "s ,am]ican 
t]ritory4 ,?is message 0 9 secret       
code2 b ! ,am]ican (ficials caught x f !
 air1 deciph]$    x1 & at ! appropriate 
"t put ! ,g]man gov]nm5t 9 an           
emb>rass+ situation by publi%+ ! message
 9 pla9 ,engli% to    ! :ole _w4        

,footnote #bhg3      ,:5 two c\ntries g 
to w> !y at once )draw _! diplomatic    
repres5tatives f "o ano!r's capitals4 ,!
 embassy or legation    & its ar*ives   
are put "u ! c>e ( "s neutral ambassador
    until ! w> is ov]4 ,dur+ ! ye>s     
#aiad-aiag ! ,am]ican    ambassador 9   
,b]l9 & ! ,am]ican m9i/] 9 ,brussels    
look$    aft] ! int]e/s ( ,great ,brita9
 at ^! two capitals4 ,! "w    ( ,mr4    
,br& ,:itlock at ,brussels 0 notable1 & 
! s]vices :i*    he r5d]$ to ! ,belgian 
p dur+ ! ye>s ( _! c\ntry's    captivity
 w long be rememb]$ 9 t h]oic little l&4
    ,footnote #bhh3      ,9 #aiae1 =    
example1 ! ,au/ro-,hung>ian ambassador  
to ! ,unit$    ,/ates1 ,dr4 ,dumba1     
endeavor$ to /ir up tr\ble among c]ta9  
,hung>ian immigrants :o 7 work+ 9       
,am]ican munition factories1    mak+    
weapons & milit>y supplies = sale to    
,great ,brita9 &    ,france4 ,:5 !      
,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t discov]$ ^!      
intrigues1    ,dr4 ,dumba 0 dismiss$ f !
 c\ntry4    ,footnote #bhi3      ,! mak+

 ( secret treaties cont9u$1 9 fact1 aft]
 ! w> began4    ,by secret treaties     
,france & ,great ,brita9 promis$ t      
,italy %\ld    h c]ta9 t]ritories :i* 7 
held by ,au/ria & t ,russia    %\ld h   
,con/ant9ople4 ,:5 ! w> 0 ov] ! new     
gov]nm5t    at ,vi5na p]mitt$ !         
publication ( a :ole volume ( secret    
treaties t _h be5 made dur+ ! prec$+    
fifty ye>s4 ,!    ,bol%eviks 9 ,russia  
also publi%$ all ! secret treaties ( !  
,cz> t !y c\ld f9d4      ,9 ! cov5ant ( 
! ,league ( ,nations x is provid$ t e   
treaty betwe5 nations :i* become memb]s 
( ! ,league mu/ be    regi/]$ & publi%$4
    ,footnote #bij3      ,!re are "s    
cases 9 :i* ! approval ( ! ,h\se (      
,repres5tatives is also ne$$ be=e a     
treaty c g into effect4 ,9    ! treaty  
:i* provid$ = ! pur*ase ( ,alaska 9     
#ahfg & 9    ! treaty :i* clos$ ! w> )  
,spa9 9 #ahih1 provision 0 made    = !  
paym5t ( money by ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,n[  
no money c be    appropriat$ f !        
treasury )\t action on ! "p ( !         

,h\se1 & if ! ,h\se _h decl9$ to        
appropriate ! money1 !    conditions (  
^! treaties c\ld n h be5 fulfill$4 ,9   
bo?    cases1 h[ev]1 ! ,h\se did        
actually vote ! necess>y funds4         
,footnote #bia3      ,9 #ahgj1 =        
example1 ,presid5t ,grant conclud$ ) !  
gov]nm5t (    ,san ,dom+o a treaty :i*  
provid$ = ! annexation ( t isl&    to ! 
,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,s5ate1 aft] a h>d    
fight1 reject$ !    treaty altoge!r4    
,ev5 m notable1 ( c\rse1 0 ! ,s5ate's   
action 9 decl9+ to ratify ! treaty :i*  
,presid5t ,wilson sign$    at ,p>is 9   
#aiai4    ,footnote #bib3      ,!       
,engli% gov]nm5t propos$ t ! ,unit$     
,/ates & ,great    ,brita9 %\ld issue ! 
decl>ation jo9tly1 b ,presid5t ,monroe &
    8 secret>y ( /ate1 ,john ,qu9cy     
,adams1 ?\ght x bett] t !    ,unit$     
,/ates %\ld make ! decl>ation alone4    
,footnote #bic3      ,at ! ,peace       
,conf]5ce 9 #aiai ! ,european c\ntries 7
 will+ to    conc$e :at 0 virtually a   
recognition ( ! ,monroe ,doctr9e1 &    !

 cov5ant ( ! ,league ( ,nations conta9s 
a provision t    no?+ 9 t docum5t %all  
affect ! validity ( 8regional           
und]/&+s1 l ! ,monroe ,doctr9e1 = secur+
 ! ma9t5ance    ( peace0 7,article      
,,xxi74    ,footnote #bid3      ,,hiram 
,,b+ham1 ,! ,monroe ,doctr9e3 ,an       
,obsolete ,%ibbole? 7,new    ,hav51     
#aiac74    ,footnote #bie3      ,no "o  
kn[s exactly :at x means today because  
its scope has be5    r indef9itely      
ext5d$ at v>i\s times4 ,no d\bt x w\ld  
be    fur!r ext5d$ if ! occasion %\ld   
arise4 ,= example1 !    orig9al doctr9e 
0 direct$ aga9/ ,european p[]s only4 ,b 
if    ,japan %\ld attempt to acquire    
t]ritory 9 ,c5tral or ,s\? ,am]ica1    !
 ,monroe ,doctr9e w\ld unque/ionably be 
invok$ z applicable to    an ,asiatic   
p[] z well4                             
,,*apt] ,,xxx                     ,,!   
,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,z ,a ,,_w ,,p[]       
,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to answ] ! "q3
 ,:at are !      relations ( ! ,unit$   
,/ates to ! re/ ( ! _w8      ,! ,old    

,policy ( ,isolation4--,= m ?an "o      
hundr$ ye>s x 0  ! settl$ policy ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates to keep alo( f all        
entanglem5ts 9 ! affairs ( ! re/ ( ! _w4
 ,sid5ote3 ,!  doctr9es ( ,wa%+ton &    
,jeff]son4 ,?is tradition ( alo(ness 0  
giv5 a def9ite =m by ,wa%+ton1 :o       
solemnly w>n$ 8 c\ntrym5  aga9/ gett+   
mix$ up 9 ! 8ord9>y0 conflicts (        
,european /ates1  & x 0 subsequ5tly     
endors$ by ,jeff]son4#bif ,yet ev5 9    
,jeff]son's own adm9i/ration x became   
app>5t t if ! ,unit$  ,/ates int5d$ to  
c>ry on trade ) all p>ts ( ! _w1 !      
gov]nm5t mu/ int]v5e = ! protection (   
its own citiz5s  :5ev] ?is %\ld become  
necess>y4 ,s1 9 #ahjc1 ! ,am]ican fleet 
0 s5t to ! ,m$it]ranean1 :]e x bomb>d$ a
 ne/ ( pirates :o  _h be5 int]f]+ )     
,am]ican comm]ce4 ,!n came ! ,w> (      
#ahab1  :i* grew out ( =eign int]f]5ce )
 ,am]ican trade4 ,on sev]al  subsequ5t  
occasions dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury ! policy
 (  protect+ & promot+ =eign trade drew 
! ,unit$ ,/ates into  negotiations )    

v>i\s c\ntries ( ,europe & ,asia4 ,9 a  
s5se1  !re=e1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has nev]  
pursu$ a policy ( complete  isolation2  
on ! o!r h& no p]man5t alliances h be5  
made )  any c\ntry1 & ! pr9ciple (      
indep5d5ce 9 all matt]s ( =eign  policy 
has be5 consi/5tly ma9ta9$4 ,s f> z     
diplomatic matt]s  did n directly conc]n
 ,nor?1 ,c5tral1 or ,s\? ,am]ica1 !     
/atesm5  ( ! _w c\ld safely leave !     
,unit$ ,/ates out ( _!  reckon+s dur+ ! 
great] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,9        
diplomacy ! ,unit$ ,/ates belong$1 s to 
speak1 to a diff]5t _w4                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,! ,,_s ,,( ,,light4
 ,by ,edw9 ,a4 ,abbey      ,copyright by
 ,edw9 ,a4 ,abbey4 ,f a ,copley ,pr9t1  
copyright by ,curtis       ,cam]on1     
,bo/on4 ,reproduc$ by p]mission4        
,,! ,,_s ,,( ,,light                    
,by ,edw9 ,a4 ,abbey              ,f a  
mural pa9t+ 9 ! ,p5nsylvania ,/ate      
,capitol at ,h>risburg4                 

,?is is a v /rik+ picture1 "o ( !       
arti/'s            be/4 ,9 ! backgr\nd  
are ! huge d]ricks :i*            lift !
 oil f ! b[els ( ! e>?4 ,9 front        
( !m gold5-hair$ figures1 rob$ 9 gauze )
            tor* 9 h&1 are swirl+ upw>d 
9 joy\s en]gy            l a sw>m (     
fireflies4              ,9 mak+ ?is     
picture ! arti/ took inf9ite            
pa9s4 ,ea* figure 0 fir/ drawn f a liv+ 
model4 ,ea* 0 !n photograph$ & by ! use 
(            a lant]n ! figures 7       
project$ ^u !            canvas :]e !y 7
 manuvr$ into place = !                 
arti/'s guidance4 ,! :ole picture is    
successful            9 convey+ !       
impression ( spontaneity comb9$         
) lightness & grace4                    
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------    ,:y 
,isolation 0 ,possible4--,?is sub/antial
 isolation 0 made  possible = m ?an a   
hundr$ ye>s by ?ree features4 ,sid5ote3 
#a4  ,! =tunate geographical position ( 
! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! fir/ is  ! favor$   

geographical position ( ! c\ntry4 ,!    
,unit$ ,/ates1 z  a /rong nation1 has   
/ood alone 9 ! ,we/]n ,hemisph]e4 ,h]   
only  neighbors 7 ,european colonies & !
 /ruggl+ /ates (  ,lat9-,am]ica4 ,s     
long1 !re=e1 z ! p[]ful nations (       
,europe  c\ld be held at arm's l5g? !re 
0 no reason :y ! ,unit$ ,/ates  %\ld    
give mu* ?\ght to problems ( def5ce1    
alliances1 &  diplomacy4 ,nature gave ! 
,unit$ ,/ates an advantage 9 ?is respect
  :i* is n possess$ by any o!r /rong    
nation ) ! exception (  ,japan4         
,c\ntries l ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many  
c\ld n h  pursu$ a policy ( isolation   
ev5 if _! p _h desir$ x1 =  !y are too  
close to ea* o!r4    ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,!   
abundance ( l&4    ,9 ! second place !  
,unit$ ,/ates 0 enc\rag$ to hold alo( f 
! old] c\ntries ( ! _w by ! fact t !re 0
 pl5ty (  room = expansion at home4 ,= a
 hundr$ ye>s !re 0 no ne$ to g  abroad  
seek+ new t]ritories4 ,x took ! ,unit$  
,/ates a :ole  c5tury to develop &      
populate ! solid block ( c\ntry :i*     

ext5ds  f ! ,atlantic to ! ,pacific4 ,:5
 o!r c\ntries desir$ places (  ov]fl[ = 
_! population & new fields ( inve/m5t = 
_!  capital1 !y engag$ 9 a race =       
colonial possessions4 ,! ,unit$  ,/ates 
_h no su* ne$ or ambition2 !re 0 q en\gh
 opportunity  at home4    ,sid5ote3 #c4 
,! abs5ce ( ,european int]v5tion4       
,f9ally1 ! traditional policy (         
isolation 0 made possible by !  good    
=tune :i* prev5t$ ,european int]f]5ce at
 critical times1  notably dur+ !        
,am]ican ,civil ,w>1 :5 !re 0 s]i\s     
dang]  t ,great ,brita9 & ,france might 
comb9e to aid ! ,s\?4 ,if t  _h actually
 happ5$1 x is n unlikely t ,russia w\ld 
h come to  ! aid ( ! ,nor?1 & ! ,civil  
,w> w\ld !n h develop$ into a  _w       
conflict4 ,9 t case ,am]ican isolation  
w\ld h end$ m  ?an a half c5tury ago4 ,b
 good =tune1 aid$ by compet5t diplomacy1
  enabl$ ! ,unit$ ,/ates to settle its  
own tr\bles )\t =eign  int]f]5ce & to   
cont9ue ! traditional policy ( incurr+  
no  obligations to any o!r c\ntry4 ,9 a 

^w !re 0 ! w to keep  alo( &1 :at is q z
 important1 ! opportunity to d x4#big   
,f ! ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce d[n to ! ye>     
#aiag ! ,unit$ ,/ates  ent]$ into no    
milit>y alliance or association ) any   
o!r c\ntry2  :5 ! ,am]ican armies f\ght1
 !y f\ght alone4    ,am]ica's ,entry    
into ! ,_w ,w>4--,! ,_w ,w> creat$ a    
situation  :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates _h nev]  
fac$ be=e4 ,sid5ote3 ,! old  policy (   
isolation comes to an end4 ,all ,we/]n  
,europe bur/ ablaze2  "o c\ntry aft]    
ano!r 0 drawn 92 & ho/ilities soon      
spread  beyond ! bord]s ( ! ,old        
,cont95t4 ,f ! outset ! ,unit$  ,/ates  
endeavor$ to ma9ta9 a /rict neutrality2 
b ,am]ican comm]ce  0 subject$ to       
int]f]5ce by ! bellig]5ts on bo? sides4 
,p>ticul>ly (f5sive to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 
h[ev]1 0 ! ,g]man  practice ( s9k+ )\t  
w>n+ pass5g] vessels ^u :i*  ,am]ican   
citiz5s 7 travel+4 ,! torp$o+ ( !       
,briti% l9]  ,lusitania1 & ! consequ5t  
loss ( _m ,am]ican lives1 /irr$  public 
op9ion ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is &  

o!r (f5ces  aga9/ ! law ( nations mov$  
,presid5t ,wilson to dem& f !  ,g]man   
gov]nm5t a pl$ge t ! practice ( s9k+    
vessels )\t  w>n+ %\ld cease1 & ?is     
pl$ge 0 conditionally giv54 ,e>ly 9     
#aiag1 h[ev]1 ! ,g]man gov]nm5t decid$  
to inaugurate1 z a  desp]ate /roke1 a   
campaign ( 8unre/rict$ subm>9e w>f>e01 &
  ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 in=m$ t
 ev5 neutral  vessels1 unless !y obs]v$ 
c]ta9 /rict precautions1 w\ld be        
torp$o$ )\t w>n+4    ,?is action settl$ 
! matt] ( ,am]ica's cont9u$ neutrality4 
,sid5ote3 ,! decl>ation ( w> 9 #aiag4   
,diplomatic relations )  ,g]many 7 brok5
 (f & 9 ,april1 #aiag1 ,congress pass$ a
  decl>ation ( w>4 ,! ev5ts ( ! next    
eighte5 mon?s are /ill  fre% 9 ev]yone's
 m9d4 ,am]ica ent]$ ! /ruggle ) a       
det]m9ation to turn ! scale1 & on       
,novemb] #aa1 #aiah1 ! ,g]man  milit>y  
au?orities 7 br\ght to t]ms4 ,by sign+  
an armi/ice !y  ackn[l$g$ defeat & agre$
 to t]ms dictat$ by ! ,alli$ &          
,associat$ ,p[]s4    ,! ,f\rte5         

,po9ts4--,"s mon?s be=e ! sign+ ( ?is   
armi/ice  ,presid5t ,wilson1 9 an       
address to ,congress1 set =? ! pr9cipal 
aims ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! w>4 ,^! aims 
7 gr\p$ "u  f\rte5 heads & soon came to 
be kn[n z ! ,f\rte5 ,po9ts4 ,e  "o ( !m 
_h to d ) matt]s :i*1 prior to ! w>1    
w\ld h  be5 deem$ ( no imm$iate conc]n  
to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,tak5 z a  :ole1    
h[ev]1 !y outl9$ ! pr9ciples ^u :i*1 9  
,presid5t  ,wilson's op9ion1 a durable  
peace c\ld be erect$ & ! future         
security ( ! _w ma9ta9$4 ,! ,g]man      
gov]nm5t1 9 ask+ =  an armi/ice1 decl>$ 
its acceptance ( ^! pr9ciples4    ,!    
,treaty ( ,v]sailles4--,aft] ! armi/ice 
_h be5 sign$ on  behalf ( ! v>i\s       
bellig]5ts a conf]5ce 0 conv5$ at       
,v]sailles to draw up a def9ite treaty (
 peace4 ,?is conf]5ce  includ$ delegates
 f ! c\ntries :i* _h %>$ 9 ! w9n+ (  !  
w>4 ,g]many & h] allies1 ! vanqui%$1 7 n
 repres5t$4  ,= sev]al mon?s ! conf]5ce 
wre/l$ ) ! problems involv$ 9  ! mak+ ( 
a treaty--! re>rangem5t ( b\nd>ies1 !   

recognition  ( new /ates1 ! disposal (  
,g]man colonies1 ! paym5t (  rep>ations1
 &1 mo/ difficult ( all1 ! =m+ ( a      
league (  nations to prev5t future w>s4 
,:5 ! "w 0 f9i%$ ! ,g]man               
repres5tatives 7 call$ 9 & 7 requir$ to 
sign ! treaty  sub/antially )\t any     
*anges4 ,! treaty 0 !n communicat$ to  !
 v>i\s c\ntries to be ratifi$ & 9 due   
c\rse x 0 ratifi$  by all ! important   
c\ntries except ! ,unit$ ,/ates4        
,sid5ote3 ,:y isolation is no long]     
possible3    ,! ,new ,_w ,ord]4--,! w> &
 ! *anges :i* accompani$ x  s]v$ to alt]
 ! :ole _w environm5t4 ,am]ica 0 br\ght 
into  m intimate contact ) ,europe ?an  
ev] be=e4 ,ev5 be=e ! w>1  h[ev]1 x _h  
become app>5t t ! traditional policy (  
isolation  c\ld n be p]man5tly ma9ta9$4 
,to all int5ts & purposes !  _w has     
become mu* small] 9 ^! latt] days4 ,9   
po9t ( miles  ,am]ica is j z f> away f  
,europe z ev]1 b a ?\s& miles  c\nt =   
less n[adays ?an did a hundr$ 9 our     
great-gr&fa!rs'  "t4 ,dur+ ! summ] (    

#aiah ! ,unit$ ,/ates transport$ to     
,europe  9 less ?an f\r mon?s a million 
m54 ,fifty ye>s ago t w\ld h  be5 deem$ 
to be an utt]ly impossible a*ievem5t4   
,sid5ote3 #a4 ,!  annihilation (        
di/ance4 ,! fa/ /eam%ip ( today c cross 
!  ocean 9 a hundr$ h\rs2 9 ,wa%+ton's  
"t ! fleete/  sail+-%ips c\ld n skim !  
,atlantic 9 less ?an ?ree weeks on  !   
av]age4 ,! "t is soon com+1 9 all       
probability1 :5 m5 c  be 9 ,london "o   
day & 9 ,new ,york ! next4 ,?is is n a  
m]e dream2  x is well )9 ! range (      
possibilities4 ,s we c no long] talk  ( 
geographical isolation4 ,! progress (   
mank9d has virtually  annihilat$        
di/ance4    ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,! acquisition
 ( ov]seas possessions4    ,aga91 !     
,unit$ ,/ates is no long]1 z 9 ! old    
days1 devoid (  tangible int]e/s 9      
di/ant p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,beg9n+ 9 #ahih1   
,porto ,rico1 ! ,philipp9es1 & ,guam 7  
acquir$ f ,spa91 &  ,hawaii 0 annex$4   
,lat] ! ,panama ,canal 0 built & a zone 
(  t]ritory on bo? sides ( x acquir$4 ,m

 rec5tly1 ! ,virg9  ,isl&s 7 pur*as$ f  
,d5m>k4 ,all ?is has involv$ a dep>ture 
f ! traditional policy ( acquir+ local  
int]e/s only4 ,x has  giv5 ,am]ica1 9 ! 
case ( ! ,philipp9es1 an outpo/ sev]al  
?\s& miles away4 ,:atev]1 !re=e1 conc]ns
 ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago  or1 inde$1 any "p
 ( ! ,f> ,ea/1 conc]ns ! int]e/s ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates4 ,isolation is no long]   
possible because ! ,unit$ ,/ates  has   
surr5d]$1 9 ?is case at any rate1 !     
geographical advantage (  isolation4    
,sid5ote3 #c4 ,! acquisition ( int]e/s  
?r\gh ! w>4    ,f9ally1 dur+ ! pa/ few  
ye>s1 ! relation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to  !
 re/ ( ! _w has be5 *ang$ by reason ( ! 
int]e/s  acquir$ ?r\gh ! w>4 ,! fact t !
 ,treaty ( ,v]sailles did n  receive !  
approval ( ! ,s5ate does n 9 any way    
impair ! rights  & int]e/s :i* ! ,unit$ 
,/ates acquir$ z "o ( ! victors 9  ! w>4
 ,^? int]e/s1 obta9$ at great sacrifice 
& ackn[l$g$  by ,g]many 9 ! sep>ate     
treaty :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates made ) t     
c\ntry 9 #aiba1 are spread ov] virtually

 ! entire _w4 ,!y are (  incalculable   
value1 pres5t & future4 ,no policy (    
isolation is n[  possible unless !      
c\ntry is ready to ab&on ^! privileges  
altoge!r1 &1 = reasons :i* w pres5tly be
 /at$1 !  surr5d] ( ^! v>i\s ,am]ican   
int]e/s is out ( ! "q4 ,9  ! new _w ord]
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates _c hold (f f ! re/ (  !
 _w4 ,! policy ( a nation is det]m9$ by 
:at x reg>ds z  its own vital int]e/s4  
,sid5ote3 ,wide scope ( ^! int]e/s4     
,! ,new ,am]ican ,int]e/s4--,"s         
important int]e/s 9 v>i\s p>ts  ( ! _w 7
 acquir$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates be=e ! w>2  
o!rs  h be5 obta9$ or int5sifi$ z a     
result ( x4 ,! scope &  nature ( ^!     
int]e/s may be/ be expla9$1 p]haps1 by  
gr\p+  !m "u f\r ma9 heads1 accord+ to  
_! g5]al geographical  location1 namely1
 ,europe1 ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! ,f> 
,ea/1 &  ! ,ne> ,ea/4 ,x is n possible  
to arrange !m 9 ! ord] ( _!  relative   
importance1 = only ! future c det]m9e   
:at ?is ord]  ( importance may turn out 
to be4 ,c]ta9 x is1 h[ev]1 t 9 all  f\r 

_w-areas ! int]e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are
 ( va/  consequ5ce n only to ! ,am]ican 
p b to ! cause ( _w  peace & prosp]ity4 
,above & beyond all1 moreov]1 is ! vital
  int]e/ ( ,am]ica 9 ! ma9t5ance (      
int]national amity4 ,ap>t  f ! loss (   
life1 ,am]ica's p>ticipation 9 ! ,_w ,w>
 co/ !  c\ntry1 directly & indirectly1 m
 ?an ?irty ?\s& million  doll>s4 ,t is  
inde$ a heavy price to pay = help+ to   
settle a  qu>rel :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates _h 
no "p 9 promot+4 ,x surely  requires no 
argum5t to prove t ,am]ica has a vital  
int]e/ 9  avoid+ ano!r su* calamity4    
,sid5ote3 ,am]ica's int]e/s n[ ext5d to 
ev]y?+ t may             ?reat5 peace4  
,am]ica & ,europe4--,! w> result$ 9     
plac+ ,great ,brita91 ,france1  ,italy1 
& ! o!r victori\s c\ntries ( ,europe "u 
heavy  obligations to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  
,to a c]ta9 ext5t ^! obligations  are   
s5tim5tal2 9 return = ,am]ica's help    
t[>ds w9n+ ! w>  ! o!r victori\s        
c\ntries are "u a natural obligation to 
give  ! ,unit$ ,/ates an adequate %>e 9 

det]m9+ ! p]man5t  conditions ( peace4  
,?is !y h be5 will+ to d2 b x involves  
responsibilities :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates has
 %[n no great will+ness  to accept4 ,!  
old tradition ( non-int]f]5ce 9 /rictly 
,european  affairs is /ill /rong & ?is  
has l$ ! ,am]ican gov]nm5t to  di/+ui%1 
:]ev] possible1 betwe5 que/ions ( local 
& (  _w-wide conc]n4 ,! di/9ction1      
h[ev]1 is practically impossible  to    
make4 ,! b\nd>ies ( "s small ,european  
/ate may seem to be a  matt] ( no conc]n
 at ,wa%+ton2 b if a disagreem5t ov] ?is
  "q %\ld br+ once m a g5]al ,european  
cla% ( arms1 !  importance ( ! issue    
w\ld spe$ily be recogniz$4 ,s long z !  
g5]al pres]vation ( _w-peace is among ! 
prim>y int]e/s (  ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z x  
seems b\nd to be1 no m5ace to peace1    
any:]e1 at any "t1 c be lightly reg>d$  
by ! p ( ,am]ica4    ,! ,loans to       
,associat$ ,nations4--,b ! w> did n     
result 9 !  creation ( s5tim5tal        
obligations only4 ,obligations ( great  
importance & a tangible nature on ! "p (

 ,europe to ,am]ica grew  out ( x4 ,dur+
 ! conflict ! ,unit$ ,/ates loan$ l>ge  
sums (  money to ,great ,brita91        
,france1 ,italy1 ,russia1 & ! o!r       
,associat$  ,p[]s4#bih ,^! loans 7 made 
g5]\sly1 9 ! mid/ ( a grave  em]g5cy2 b 
no?+ def9ite 0 arrang$ z to :5 or h[ !y 
%\ld be repaid4 ,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! loans 7 
made4 ,9 view ( !  disorganiz$          
conditions 9 ,europe creat$ by ! w> no  
reque/ = !  paym5t ( int]e/ 0 made by ! 
,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! conflict or  = "s  
ye>s aft] its close4 ,9 #aibb1 h[ev]1   
,congress au?oriz$  ! ,presid5t to      
appo9t a commission ( five p]sons to    
arrange )  ! ,european c\ntries = !     
fund+ ( ! debts by ! issue (  bonds4 ,^!
 bonds w be giv5 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4    
,n[ x mu/ be reasonably cle> to anyone  
:o gives ! matt] a  mom5t's ?\ght t     
until ^! bonds are paid (f by ! v>i\s   
,european c\ntries 7:i* w be ?irty or   
=ty ye>s h5ce7 !  ,unit$ ,/ates w be    
vitally int]e/$ 9 :at ,wa%+ton call$ !  
8vicissitudes0 ( ! ,old ,_w4 ,sid5ote3  

,am]ica's mortgage on  ,europe4 ,am]ica1
 9 effect1 holds a mortgage on ,europe1 
& x is !  practice ( mortgage-hold]s to 
keep a %>p eye on _! inve/$  funds4     
,great ,brita91 ,france1 & ! o!r debtor 
c\ntries expect to  r$eem ^! loans1 9   
consid]able "p1 out ( rep>ation paym5ts 
made to !m by ,g]many4 ,if ,g]many does 
n pay !m1 x w be mu*  h>d] = !m to pay  
,am]ica4#bii ,9 ?is r\ndab\t way1 !re=e1
  ! ,unit$ ,/ates has acquir$ a tangible
 int]e/ 9 ! pl$ges made  by ! ,g]man    
gov]nm5t4    ,am]ica's ,int]e/ 9 !      
,indu/rial ,recon/ruction ( ,europe4--,!
 sum  total ( ,am]ica's int]e/ 9 ! peace
 & prosp]ity ( ,europe is n  repres5t$1 
h[ev]1 by ^! t5 billion doll>s ( loans4 
,!  comm]cial relations ( ! two cont95ts
 h become s intimate t  :atev] is an    
injury to ! "o is a detrim5t to ! o!r4  
,europe is  ,am]ica's be/ cu/om]4 ,our  
exports !re are great] ?an to all !  re/
 ( ! _w put toge!r4 ,sid5ote3           
,importance ( ,europe z a  m>ket4 ,!    
f>m]1 ! cotton gr[]1 ! manufactur]--all 

dep5d 9  "p ^u ! ,european m>ket4 ,!re  
is n suffici5t dem& at home  = all !    
food/uffs1 mat]ials1 & manufactur$ goods
 :i* !  ,unit$ ,/ates c n[ produce4 ,!  
,european m>ket1 h[ev]1 has be5  brok5  
d[n z ! result ( ! long conflict & x is 
greatly to !  int]e/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates t
 x %\ld be built up aga94 ,?is c  only  
be done by keep+ ! _w at peace until !  
damage done by !  w> has be5 repair$4 ,=
 t comm]cial reason1 if = no o!r1 !     
,unit$ ,/ates _c well af=d to rema9     
entirely isolat$ f !  re/ ( ! _w4    ,! 
,unit$ ,/ates & ,lat9-,am]ica4--,!      
relations ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates ) mo/ ( !  
,lat9-,am]ican /ates h be5 at all times 
fri5dly4 ,we h nev] be5 at w> ) any ( !m
 except ,mexico4 ,:5  ^! v>i\s c\ntries 
revolt$ aga9/ ,spani% control ab\t a    
hundr$  ye>s ago1 ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 rememb]+ _! own  exp]i5ce1 7 9 sympa?y 
) !m4 ,! ann\ncem5t ( ! ,monroe         
,doctr9e 0 reg>d$ by ,lat9-,am]ica z an 
act ( fri5dl9ess4 ,&  = m ?an a c5tury  
s9ce t "t ! ,unit$ ,/ates has s]v$ z  a 

protector to ! si/] republics ( ! s\!rn 
cont95t4 ,:5 !  ,w> ) ,spa9 began 9     
#ahih ,congress ann\nc$ t ! ,unit$      
,/ates  _h no int5tion to annex ,cuba & 
?is pl$ge1 at ! close ( ! w>1  0 kept4  
,cuba 0 giv5 h] indep5d5ce4 ,naturally  
?is evid5ce (  good fai? made a /rong & 
favorable impression ^u ! ,c5tral &     
,s\? ,am]ican /ates4    ,sid5ote3       
,relations ) ,mexico4    ,) ,mexico1    
h[ev]1 relations h n be5 cordial =      
sev]al ye>s4  ,ev] s9ce ! invasion ( _! 
c\ntry by an ,am]ican army 9 #ahdf !    
,mexican p h be5 suspici\s ( ,am]ican   
aggression2 b !  relations betwe5 ! two 
gov]nm5ts rema9$ cordial en\gh s long z 
,presid5t ,diaz cont9u$ 9 p[] s\? ( !   
,rio ,gr&e1 :i* 0  f %ortly aft] ! close
 ( ! ,am]ican ,civil ,w> until well into
  ! tw5tie? c5tury4 ,diaz rul$ ,mexico 9
 ! fa%ion ( a dictator2  b he kept !    
c\ntry peaceful z well z on good t]ms ) 
!  outside _w4 ,s9ce ! expulsion ( ,diaz
 ! ,mexicans h _h sev]al  *anges 9 !    
presid5cy & = t5 ye>s ! gov]nm5t has be5

  d5i$ recognition by ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  
,! successors ( ,diaz h  pr(ess$ _!     
desire to place ! gov]nm5t ( ! c\ntry on
 a truly  democratic basis & to "s ext5t
 !y h succe$$ 9 do+ s2 b  !y h n manag$ 
to ma9ta9 ord] & ju/ice ) a firm h&4    
,twice dur+ ! pa/ decade x has be5 deem$
 necess>y to s5d  ,am]ican troops into !
 c\ntry4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ,mexico is       
republican  9 =m1 b elections h n1 z a  
rule1 be5 fairly conduct$4 ,!  lead]s :o
 h control ( ! gov]nm5t try to          
manipulate !  elections s z to ma9ta9 _!
 own hold ^u ! c\ntry1 & !y  usually    
succe$4    ,sid5ote3 ,! situation today4
    ,betwe5 ,mexico & ! ,unit$ ,/ates   
!re are today no que/ions (  great      
importance 9 dispute4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates  
is ready to recognize !  exi/+ gov]nm5t 
( ,mexico b only ^u condition t c]ta9   
pl$ges are made 9 writ+4 ,^! include    
assurances t paym5ts w  be made by      
,mexico z comp5sation = ! lives &       
prop]ty ( ,am]ican  citiz5s de/roy$ dur+
 ! tr\bles ( ! pa/ t5 ye>s2 t !re  %all 

be no confiscat+ ( prop]ty )\t legal    
reason 9 ! future2  & t paym5ts ( int]e/
 on ,mexico's =eign obligations %all be 
resum$4 ,^! d n appe> to be unreasonable
 conditions4    ,!re are l>ge ,am]ican  
inve/m5ts 9 ,mexico1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! oil 
& m9+ di/ricts4 ,"s ( ^? :o hold ^!     
inve/m5ts w\ld  l to see ! ,unit$ ,/ates
 int]v5e by =ce ( arms1 b x is  q       
unlikely t !re w be any?+ ( ! k9d unless
 all o!r  means ( secur+ ! rights (     
,am]icans 9 ,mexico prove unavail+4  ,! 
,unit$ ,/ates has a c]ta9 moral         
responsibility = ! good  behavior (     
,mexico1 ev5 ?\gh ! ,mexican gov]nm5t   
may n recognize  ! exi/5ce ( su* an     
obligation4 ,sid5ote3 ,mexico & !       
,monroe  ,doctr9e4 ,if ! ,monroe        
,doctr9e gives ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! "r to  
keep ,european c\ntries f int]f]+ 9     
,mexican affairs1 ev5 :5  _! citiz5s h  
be5 wrong$1 x may also be said to c>ry !
 duty  ( see+ t ,mexico does n abuse ?is
 protector%ip4    ,sid5ote3 ,panama4    
,9 ! region ( ! ,i/hmus ! int]e/s ( !   

,unit$ ,/ates are  especially important 
because ( ! ,canal4 ,! ,panama ,canal is
 n only  ( comm]cial b ( milit>y value  
to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & no s]i\s          
di/urbance ( ! peace 9 ?is section (    
,c5tral ,am]ica c well be  tol]at$4     
,sid5ote3 ,! ,pan-,am]ican ,congress4   
,_m ye>s ago ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t   
made ! sugge/ion t  f "t to "t a        
,pan-,am]ican ,congress made up (       
delegates f all  ! republics ( ! ,new   
,_w %\ld be held to discuss matt]s (    
common int]e/4 ,! sugge/ion 0 accept$ & 
sev]al ,congresses h  be5 held dur+ !   
pa/ ?ree decades4 ,!re has also be5     
e/abli%$  at ,wa%+ton a ,bureau (       
,am]ican ,republics ^: function x is to 
c>ry out ! resolutions ( ea* ,congress &
 to spread in=mation  conc]n+ ! common  
int]e/s ( all ! c\ntries4    ,! ,unit$  
,/ates & ! ,f> ,ea/4--,9 ord9>y usage ! 
t]m 8,f>  ,ea/0 includes ! ,japanese &  
,*9ese empires1 ,sib]ia & ! o!r         
,russian t]ritories to ! nor? ( ,*9a1 & 
! ,malay ,ar*ipelago to  ! s\?4 ,until a

 qu>t] ( a c5tury ago ! int]e/s ( !     
,unit$  ,/ates1 :e!r political or       
comm]cial1 7 relatively small 9 ?is  "p 
( ! _w4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,philipp9es4 ,b !  
acquisition (  ! ,philipp9es & ! gr[? ( 
,am]ican trade ) ! ,ori5t h  comb9$ to  
alt] ! situation4 ,ano!r factor :i* has 
impell$ !  ,unit$ ,/ates to pay great]  
att5tion to ! ,ori5t today is !         
progress ( ,japan4 ,! rapid gr[? ( ?is  
empire 9 milit>y & naval  /r5g? means t 
! ,unit$ ,/ates has a rival = ! ma/]y ( 
!  ,pacific4 ,dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury !   
eyes ( ,am]ica 7 turn$  entirely t[>ds  
,europe2 9 ! tw5tie? !y w h to be turn$ 
t[>ds ,asia z well4    ,sid5ote3 ,*9a & 
,japan4    ,ap>t f affairs 9 !          
,philipp9es ! problems ( ! ,f> ,ea/1 s  
f> z ! ,unit$ ,/ates is conc]n$1 c5t]   
ar\nd two pres5t-day  int]national      
ph5om5a1 ! weakness ( ,*9a & ! /r5g? (  
,japan4 ,*9a is a va/ c\ntry ) at lea/  
?ree or f\r times !  population ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates4 ,al?\gh nom9ally a       
republic its  gov]nm5t is weak1         

ineffici5t1 unable to ex]cise firm      
control ov]  all p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 & )\t 
effective means ( national  def5ce4 ,q  
naturally1 !re=e1 ,*9a (f]s a temptation
 to any  /rong c\ntry desir+ exclusive  
trade advantages = itself4 ,h]  ne>e/   
neighbor1 ,japan1 w\ld spe$ily be able  
to secure entire control  ( ! ,*9ese    
,republic & make ,*9a a vassal /ate 7 x 
n =  ! det]r+ influ5ce ( ! o!r great    
p[]s ( ! _w4    ,9 #ahii1 aft] ! close (
 ! ,spani% ,w>1 ! gov]nm5t ( !  ,unit$  
,/ates address$ a note to all ! great   
p[]s urg+ t !y  agree to seek no fur!r  
special trade advantages 9 ,*9a1 t !    
integrity ( ,*9ese t]ritory be pres]v$1 
& t ! pr9ciple (  8equal & imp>tial     
trade0 %\ld be adopt$4 ,sid5ote3 ,! 8op5
  door40 ,to ?is sugge/ion all ! p[]s   
agre$4 ,?is policy ?us  accept$ has     
become kn[n z ! policy ( ! 8op5 door01 &
 until  ! outbreak ( ! ,_w ,w> x 0      
sub/antially foll[$1 except t  ! v>i\s  
p[]s reta9$ ! comm]cial advantages t !y 
_h  already acquir$4    ,dur+ ?is w>1   

h[ev]1 ,japan attack$ & captur$         
,kiao-,*ao1 a port  :i* _h be5 leas$ by 
,*9a to ,g]many = a long t]m ( ye>s1 &  
?is t]ritory ! ,japanese cont9u$ to hold
 aft] ! w> 0 ov]4  ,n until ! ,wa%+ton  
conf]5ce ( #aibb did ,japan agree to    
give x  up4 ,sid5ote3 ,rec5t            
developm5ts4 ,9 #aiah1 moreov]1 !       
gov]nm5t  ( ,japan made a li/ ( tw5ty-"o
 dem&s ^u ,*9a = special  privileges1 & 
al?\gh "s ( ^! dem&s 7 lat] modifi$ or  
)drawn entirely1 sev]al important       
privileges 7 wrung f !  ,*9ese4 ,9      
connection ) ^! negotiations ! ,unit$   
,/ates  gov]nm5t gave assurance 9 !     
s-call$ ,i%ii-,lans+ agreem5t t  !      
,unit$ ,/ates w\ld recognize ! 8special 
int]e/0 ( ,japan 9  ,*9ese affairs4 ,x  
is av[$ly ! policy ( ,japan to acquire1 
if %e  c1 ! same pr$om9ance 9 ,asia t ! 
,unit$ ,/ates has ex]cis$  9 ,nor? &    
,s\? ,am]ica4    ,! ,conf]5ce on        
,pacific ,problems4 ,reg>d+ x z highly  
desirable  t all controv]sies affect+ ! 
,f> ,ea/ & ! ,pacific %\ld be  amicably 

settl$1 ?us =e/all+ ! gr[? ( l>ge naval 
armam5ts  on bo? sides ( ! ,we/]n ocean1
 ,presid5t ,h>d+ 9 ! summ] (  #aiba     
propos$ t ! ,wa%+ton conf]5ce %\ld      
discuss ^!  que/ions & %\ld endeavor to 
secure a satisfactory solution ( !m4    
,sid5ote3 ,! ,wa%+ton conf]5ce4 ,!      
conf]5ce did s1 &  embodi$ ! results (  
its negotiations 9 c]ta9 agreem5ts1     
p>ticul>ly 9 :at is commonly kn[n z !   
8,f\r ,p[]0 treaty4 ,by  ! t]ms ( ?is   
treaty ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,great ,brita91 
,france1 &  ,japan mutually agree to    
respect ! integrity ( ea* o!r's         
possessions 9 ! isl&s ( ! ,pacific4#cjj 
,! nations repres5t$  at ! conf]5ce also
 agre$ to refra9 f ! erection (         
=tifications 9 c]ta9 places n[ un=tifi$4
    ,out ( ! negotiations at ,wa%+ton1  
moreov]1 came ! agreem5t on  ! "p (     
,japan to re/ore ,kiao-,*ao & ! adjac5t 
prov9ce (  ,%antung to ,*9a4 ,fir/ &    
la/1 !re=e1 ! ,wa%+ton conf]5ce  succe$$
 9 promot+ an amicable agreem5t on mo/ (
 ! que/ions at  issue4 ,x did n1 h[ev]1 

take up ! "q ( ,japanese immigration  to
 ! ,pacific ,coa/ ( ,am]ica1 nor did x  
discuss ! grievances (  ! ,japanese     
immigrants already !re4 ,^! matt]s are  
left =  fur!r negotiation ?r\gh ! regul>
 diplomatic *annels4    ,am]ica & ! ,ne>
 ,ea/4--,! expression 8,ne> ,ea/0 is    
commonly  reg>d$ z includ+ ! areas :i*  
lie at ! ea/]n end ( !  ,m$it]ranean &  
!reab\ts2 x comprises ,turkey1 ,arm5ia1 
,syria1  ,pale/9e1 ,arabia1             
,mesopotamia1 & o!r t]ritories 9 ! same 
g5]al region4 ,z a result ( ! w> !      
,turki% ,empire has be5  dis9tegrat$2   
mo/ ( its t]ritories h be5 virtually    
plac$ "u  ! control ( ,great ,brita91   
,france1 ,italy1 & ,greece ?r\gh !      
in/rum5tality ( m&ates 7see p4 #fcf74 ,!
 ,unit$ ,/ates 0 (f]$  ! m&ate =        
,arm5ia1 b decl9$ to accept x4          
,sid5ote3 ,! oil "q4    ,n[ "s ( ^!     
t]ritories are ri* 9 natural res\rces4  
,mesopotamia1 = example1 is kn[n to     
possess ext5sive oil fields4 ,!  "q     
arises1 !re=e1 :e!r ! ,european c\ntries

 :i* hold  ! m&ates are to h ! lion's   
%>e ( ?is natural weal?4 ,& x  is a "q (
 consid]able importance :5 "o be>s 9 m9d
 ! fact  t ! oil fields ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates w probably be exhau/$  be=e _m   
decades h pass$ 7see p4 #ccj74 ,! direct
 int]e/ ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates is less      
imm$iate1 p]haps1 ?an 9 ! o!r areas     
7,europe1 ,c5tral & ,s\? ,am]ica1 & !   
,f> ,ea/71 b x is  suffici5tly vital to 
des]ve m5tion4    ,! ,wide ,scope (     
,am]ica's ,int]e/s4--,f ?is brief &     
g5]al  survey "s idea ( ! scope (       
,am]ican int]e/s c be ga9$4 ,b  ! prec$+
 p>agraphs h n li/$ !m all4 ,! p ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates h a s5tim5tal int]e/ 9 _m 
=eign problems :]e  no economic         
consid]ations are at /ake4 ,irel& is an 
example4  ,am]ica's int]e/ 9 a j &      
peaceful settlem5t ( ! ,iri%  "q is n   
inspir$ by economic motives4 ,x arises 9
 l>ge "p  f ! s5tim5tal desire to see a 
p1 ) :om !re are close  ties ( k9%ip1   
atta9 cont5tm5t & prosp]ity4 ,s ) ,pol& 
&  ! new ,slavic c\ntries ( ,cont95tal  

,europe4 ,am]ica w\ld regret to  see !m 
lose a /atus ( indep5d5ce :i* 0 ga9$ at 
s great a  sacrifice4    ,!re is no "p (
 ! _w1 9 fact1 to :i* ! int]e/ ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 direct or indirect1      
s5tim5tal1 political1 or economic1  does
 n n[ ext5d4 ,! enorm\s /r5g? & pre/ige 
( ,am]ica1 z  disclos$ dur+ ! w>1 h made
 a pr(\nd impression 9 e "p  ( ! globe &
 h giv5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates a pot5t influ5ce
 ^u  ! de/9ies ( mank9d4 ,! ,unit$      
,/ates has become a _w p[] (  ! fir/    
ord]4 ,:e!r ! ,am]ican p l x or n1 t    
inexorable fact rema9s4                 
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,a4 ,t4 ,,mahan1 ,! 
,int]e/ ( ,am]ica 9 ,int]national       
,conditions1 pp4  #abg-ahe2    ,w4 ,e4  
,,weyl1 ,am]ican ,_w ,policies1 passim2 
,a4 ,c4 ,,coolidge1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates z a
 ,_w ,p[]1 pp4 #ie-abj2    ,c4 ,e4      
,,jones1 ,c>ibbean ,int]e/s ( ! ,unit$  
,/ates1 pp4 #adh-aib2    ,j4 ,h4        
,,latan1 ,am]ica z a ,_w ,p[]1 pp4      
#bee-bfh2 ,ibid41 ,f  ,isolation to     
,lead]%ip1 pp4 #c-ci2    ,h4 ,h4 ,,p[]s1

 ,am]ica ,among ! ,nations1 pp4         
#aig-bci2    ,w4 ,a4 ,,dunn+1 ,! ,briti%
 ,empire & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4         
#ceg-cga2    ,a4 ,b4 ,,h>t1 ,f\ndations 
( ,am]ican ,=eign ,policy1 pp4 #a-eb2   
,,woodr[ ,,wilson1 ,/ate ,pap]s &       
,addresses1 pp4 #dfd-dgi2    ,p4 ,s4    
,,re9s*1 ,_w ,politics1 pp4 #cbg-cfb4   
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,h[ ! ,unit$     
,/ates became a _w p[]4 ,e>ly relations 
)  ,europe4 ,! ,monroe ,doctr9e4 ,! op5+
 ( ,japan4 ,! w> ) ,spa9  & ! new       
acquisitions4 ,john ,hay & ! 8op5 door40
 ,! ,_w ,w>  & its aft]ma?4 ,scope (    
,am]ican int]e/s today4 ,ref]5ces3 ,j4  
,h4 ,,latan1 ,am]ica z a ,_w ,p[]1 pp4  
#c-bh2 #fc-ha2 ,ibid41 ,!  ,unit$ ,/ates
 & ,lat9 ,am]ica1 pp4 #fa-bia2 ,a4 ,c4  
,,coolidge1 ,!  ,unit$ ,/ates z a ,_w   
,p[]1 pp4 #aba-adg2 ,j4 ,w4 ,,fo/]1     
,am]ican  ,diplomacy 9 ! ,ori5t1 pp4    
#cii-dch2 ,w4 ,m4 ,,full]ton1 ,problems 
(  ,p[]1 pp4 #aa-dc2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,re9s*1   
,_w ,politics1 pp4 #cji-ccf4    #b4 ,h[ 
=eign trade affects ! national welf>e4  

,=eign trade &  national prosp]ity4     
,=eign trade & _w p[]4 8,doll>          
,diplomacy40  ,trade & imp]ialism4      
,ref]5ces3 ,c4 ,m4 ,,pepp]1 ,am]ican    
,=eign  ,trade1 pp4 #c-cb2 #fb-hi2      
#aaj-aci2 ,j4 ,d4 ,,:elpley1 ,! ,trade (
 !  ,_w1 pp4 #cia-dbe2 ,a4 ,j4 ,,wolfe1 
,!ory & ,practice ( ,int]national       
,comm]ce1 pp4 #die-ebb2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1
 ,c>ibbean ,int]e/s ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates1 
pp4 #a-af2 ,l4 ,c4 & ,t4 ,f4 ,,=d1 ,!   
,=eign ,trade ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4   
#a-bg4    #c4 ,h[ ! build+ ( ! ,panama  
,canal ext5d$ ,am]ican int]e/s  abroad4 
,ref]5ces3 ,,l9coln ,,hut*9son1 ,!      
,panama ,canal &  ,int]national ,trade  
,competition1 pp4 #df-ig2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,ogg1
 ,national  ,progress1 pp4 #bdf-bfe2 ,a4
 ,b4 ,,h>t1 ,! ,monroe ,doctr9e3 ,an    
,int]pretation1 pp4 #cdj-cdh2 ,w4 ,m4   
,,full]ton1 ,problems ( ,p[]1 pp4       
#cjj-cae4    #d4 ,! op5 door 9 ,*9a4    
,:at x means4 ,ob/acles 9 its way4      
,ref]5ces3 ,k4 ,k4 ,,kawakami1 ,japan 9 
,_w ,politics1 pp4 #aag-aff2 ,j4  ,h4   

,,latan1 ,am]ica z a ,_w ,p[]1 pp4      
#ajj-aai2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,will\ghby1  ,=eign  
,rights & ,int]e/s 9 ,*9a1 pp4 #bde-bff2
 ,a4 ,b4 ,,h>t1 ,!  ,monroe ,doctr9e3   
,an ,int]pretation1 pp4 #bhb-bih2 ,w4   
,r4 ,,?ay]1 ,!  ,life & ,lett]s ( ,john 
,hay1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bca-bdi2 ,a4 ,c4 
,,coolidge1  ,! ,unit$ ,/ates z a ,_w   
,p[]1 pp4 #cbg-cgd2 ,k4 ,k4 ,,kawakami1 
,japan & ,_w ,peace1 pp4 #afj-aif2      
,,john ,,dewey1 ,*9a1 ,japan1 & !       
,unit$ ,/ates 7,new ,republic           
,pamphlets1 ,no4 #a74                   
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,pan-,am]icanism4  
,:at x means4 ,r4 ,g4 ,,u%]1            
,pan-,am]icanism1 pp4  #bjc-bca2 ,j4 ,v4
 ,,noel1 ,! ,hi/ory ( ! ,second         
,pan-,am]ican ,congress1  pp4 #i-cj2    
,pan-,am]ican ,union1 ,bullet9s1 ,m>*1  
#aiaa4    #b4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates z an     
int]national policeman4 ,,!odore        
,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1 pp4        
#edc-eec2 ,d4 ,c4 ,,munro1 ,! ,five     
,republics ( ,c5tral ,am]ica1 pp4       
#bbg-bfd2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,h>t1 ,! ,monroe     

,doctr9e3 ,an ,int]pretation1 pp4       
#bbc-bdb4    #c4 ,our ,mid-,pacific     
possessions4 ,e4 ,j4 ,,c>p5t]1 ,am]ica 9
 ,hawaii1  pp4 #aib-bea2 ,j4 ,m4        
,,callahan1 ,am]ican ,relations 9 !     
,pacific & !  ,f> ,ea/1 pp4 #aad-ade4   
#d4 ,_w competition = oil4 ,f4 ,a4      
,,talbot1 ,! ,oil ,conque/ ( !  ,_w1 pp4
 #ag-cd2 ,f4 ,r4 ,,kellogg1 ,! ,mexican 
,oil ,situation 79 ,cl>k  ,univ]sity    
,addresses1 ,mexico & ! ,c>ibbean1 pp4  
#ed-gb74    #e4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates 9      
,panama4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,c>ibbean     
,int]e/s (  ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4        
#aic-bbh2 ,,ralph ,,page1 ,dramatic     
,mom5ts 9  ,am]ican ,diplomacy1 pp4     
#bbg-bei2 ,,!odore ,,roosevelt1         
,autobiography1  pp4 #eec-ega4    #f4   
,am]ica's int]e/ 9 ,*9a4 ,w4 ,e4        
,,griff91 ,am]ica 9 ! ,ea/1  pp4        
#bjc-bbe2 ,b4 ,a4 ,,rob9son1 ,am]ica's  
,bus9ess ,opportunity 9 ,*9a  79 ,cl>k  
,univ]sity ,addresses1 ,rec5t           
,developm5ts 9 ,*9a1 pp4  #bcg-bee2 also
 ,cl>k ,univ]sity ,lectures1 ,*9a & !   

,f> ,ea/1 pp4  #ie-aai74    #g4 ,!      
,unit$ ,/ates & ! ,lat9 ,am]ican        
republics4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,latan1  ,am]ica z a
 ,_w ,p[]1 pp4 #bfi-bhd2 ,c4 ,e4        
,,jones1 ,c>ibbean  ,int]e/s ( ! ,unit$ 
,/ates1 pp4 #ajf-abd4    #h4 ,isolation 
z an ,am]ican policy4 ,a4 ,b4 ,,h>t1    
,f\ndations (  ,am]ican ,=eign ,policy1 
pp4 #a-eb2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,latan1 ,f          
,isolation to  ,lead]%ip1 pp4 #c-ec4    
#i4 ,am]ica's m>itime p[]4 ,e4 ,n4      
,,hurley1 ,! ,new ,m]*ant ,m>9e1  pp4   
#abb-aff2 ,a4 ,t4 ,,mahan1 ,! ,int]e/ ( 
,am]ica 9 ,sea ,p[]1 pp4  #c-bg4    #aj4
 ,am]ica's int]e/ 9 ! recon/ruction (   
,europe4 ,d4 ,j4 ,,hill1  ,! ,rebuild+ (
 ,europe1 pp4 #bcf-bhb2 ,,walt] ,,weyl1 
,! ,end ( !  ,w>1 pp4 #ej-gb2 ,r4 ,s4   
,,bak]1 ,:at ,wilson ,did at ,p>is1 pp4 
#c-ce4                                  
,que/ions    #a4 ,give reasons :y a     
policy ( isolation 0 possible dur+ !    
fir/  ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4   
#b4 ,0 ! entry ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates into ! 
w> 9 #aiag 9 keep+  ) ,am]ican          

traditions or a dep>ture f ,am]ican     
traditions8 ,give  y\r reasons4    #c4  
,look up ! ,f\rte5 ,po9ts4 ,indicate !  
ones :i* 7  incorporat$ 9 ! ,treaty (   
,v]sailles4 ,"n ! ones :i* 7 n  s       
incorporat$4    #d4 ,expla9 :y ,am]ica  
is int]e/$ 9 ! recon/ruction ( ,europe4 
,h[ c ?is recon/ruction be be/ aid$ by !
 ,unit$ ,/ates8    #e4 ,x has be5       
sugge/$ t ! loans made by ! ,unit$      
,/ates to  ,european c\ntries ought to  
be cancel$4 ,:y is ?is proposal made &  
:at is y\r op9ion ( x8    #f4 ,:at      
policy d y ?9k ! ,unit$ ,/ates ought to 
pursue t[>d  ,mexico8 ,has ! ,unit$     
,/ates any responsibility = ! good      
behavior  ( ,mexico t[>ds ,european     
c\ntries8 ,:y or :y n8    #g4 ,to :at   
ext5t %\ld ,am]ica insi/ ^u ! ma9t5ance 
( !  8op5 door0 9 ,*9a8 ,has ,japan a   
special int]e/ 9 ! ,ori5t simil>  to t (
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! ,we/]n ,hemisph]e8 
#h4 ,:at did ! ,wa%+ton ,conf]5ce       
accompli%8 ,:y did x n  accompli% m8    
#i4 ,0 ! ,unit$ ,/ates wise or unwise 9 

decl9+ to accept any  m&ates f ! ,league
 ( ,nations8    #aj4 ,does ! /r5g? &    
pre/ige ( ,am]ica entail any            
responsibilities ( lead]%ip8 ,if s1 give
 "s idea z to h[ ^!  c be c>ri$ out4    
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,! ,unit$      
,/ates %\ld ma9ta9 ! ,monroe ,doctr9e4  
#b4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates %\ld recognize a   
,japanese 8,monroe ,doctr9e0 9  ! ,f>   
,ea/4    #c4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates %\ld n    
p>ticipate 9 int]national conf]5ces     
deal+ only ) ,european que/ions4        
-----    ,footnote #bif3      ,wa%+ton 0
 well aw>e t ! ,unit$ ,/ates might h to 
take a    h& 9 ,european qu>rels if !y  
%\ld assume an extraord9>y              
importance4 ,notice ! exact word+ ( !   
passage 9 8 ,f>ewell    ,address4 8,x   
w\ld be unwise 9 u to implicate         
ourselves by    artificial ties 9 !     
ord9>y vicissitudes ( h] 7,europe's7    
politics1 or ! ord9>y comb9ations &     
collisions ( h]    fri5d%ips or         
enmities40 ,wa%+ton 0 n 9 ! habit ( wa/+
    words1 & he did n twice ins]t !     

limitation 8ord9>y0 )\t    good reason4 
,by ! way1 he did n use ! phrase        
8entangl+    alliances04 ,t expression 0
 fir/ us$ by ,jeff]son 9 8    inaugural 
address 7,m>* #d1 #ahja74    ,footnote  
#big3      ,f #ahae to #aiad all ! great
 w>s 7 localiz$4 ,! ,crimean ,w>        
7#ahed-ahee71 al?\gh five nations took  
"p 9 x1 0 conf9$ to    ! t]ritories     
ar\nd ! ,black ,sea2 ! ,w> ( #ahei1 9   
:i* !    ,fr5* & ,italians on ! "o side 
f\ght ! ,au/rians on ! o!r1    0 settl$ 
9 ,nor!rn ,italy4 ,! o!r important w>s  
71 = !    mo/ "p1 individual duels      
betwe5 two nations or betwe5 two        
sections ( a s+le nation4    ,footnote  
#bih3      ,! total am\nt loan$ to      
,european gov]nm5ts by ! ,unit$ ,/ates  
dur+ ! w> 0 ab\t t5 billion doll>s1 (   
:i* ne>ly half 0    loan$ to ,great     
,brita94    ,footnote #bii3      ,!     
paym5ts made by ,g]many to ,great       
,brita91 ,france1 & ,italy1 z    well z 
! paym5ts made by ^! c\ntries to !      
,unit$ ,/ates1    mu/ inevitably take ! 

=m ( paym5t 9 goods4 ,!re is n en\gh    
gold 9 ,europe to make paym5t 9 gold4   
,all ?is means t s long z    !          
rep>ations & loans are be+ liquidat$    
l>ge imports ( goods    f ,europe are   
likely to come into ?is c\ntry4         
,footnote #cjj3      ,by ! t]ms ( a     
supplem5t>y treaty1 ?is does n include !
 ma9    ,japanese isl&s !mselves4       
,,*apt] ,,xxxi                ,,!       
,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,& ,,! ,,league ,,(    
,,nations        ,! purpose ( ?is *apt] 
is to describe ! relations ( !          
,unit$ ,/ates to ! mo/ ambiti\s exp]im5t
 9 gov]nm5t t      ! _w has ev]         
attempt$4      ,! ,desire to ,end       
,w>4--,s9ce ! dawn ( human hi/ory mank9d
 has  be5 divid$ into indep5d5t tribes &
 nations ready to hurl  !mselves ^u "o  
ano!r 9 w>f>e4 ,no m9d c compreh5d !    
immeasurable suff]+ :i* w> has br\ght ^u
 ! human race dur+  ! pa/ ?ree ?\s&     
ye>s4 ,f ! days :5 ! ,assyrian  *>iote]s
 cru%$ _! enemies "u horse & :eel to ^? 
tragic  ye>s ( ye/]day :5 ! hospitals ( 

,europe 7 fill$ ) !  victims ( high     
explosive %ells & poison gas1--9 all ?is
 long  int]val !re has be5 no cessation 
( w>f>e among m5 & no era (  peace on   
e>?4    ,small wond] x is1 !re=e1 t 9 ! 
angui% ( ! ,_w ,w> m5  ( all races %\ld 
h cri$ out = "s su* settlem5t z w\ld put
  an end to w> & all its horrors        
=ev]4#cja ,sid5ote3 ,! cry = a  p]man5t 
peace4 ,soldi]s 9 ! ranks call$ x a 8w> 
to end w>8 &  gave up _! lives unfl9*+ly
 9 ! hope t future g5]ations  w\ld be   
sp>$ a repetition ( ! _w-wide mis]y4 ,b 
h[ might  su* a bless+ be obta9$ =      
future g5]ations ( mank9d8 ,t 0  "o ( ! 
great problems :i* ! soldi]s bequea!d to
 !  /atesm54    ,sid5ote3 ,h[ /rife     
betwe5 individuals has be5 dim9i%$4     
,c ?is ,desire be ,realiz$8--,n[ x is   
believ$ by _m t w> c  nev] be p]man5tly 
aboli%$ except by apply+ to nations a   
pr9ciple  :i* m5 h appli$ to !mselves z 
individuals1 t is to say1 by  e/abli%+  
an organization :]eby all controv]sies c
 be settl$  )\t resort to =ce4 ,treaties

 ( amity & arbitration among nations    
are valuable s f> z !y g2 b s long z !re
 is no high  au?ority ) p[] to adm9i/]  
ju/ice betwe5 nation & nation  ea* mu/  
look to its own self-pres]vation4 ,?is  
means t ea* feels  oblig$ to reg>d w> z 
a possibility & to be prep>$ = x4  ,)\t 
suffici5t assurance aga9/ ! possibility 
( w> x is idle  to expect t nations w   
:olly dis>m4 ,& :5 int]e/s cla% &  !    
passions ( m5 are ar\s$ !y w use !      
weapons :i* are at  h&4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 
motive beh9d ! ,league ( ,nations4    ,!
 prim>y motive ( ^? :o urg$ ! =mation ( 
a ,league (  ,nations 0 ! desire to     
avoid w> by sub/itut+ ano!r me?od (     
adju/+ disputes1 b !y also hop$ t su* an
 organization w\ld  enable ! va/ sums   
hi!rto sp5t ea* ye> on w>like           
prep>ations to  be appli$ to !          
developm5t ( indu/ry & comm]ce1 to      
education1 to  ! protection ( ! public  
heal?1 to ! bett]m5t ( labor            
conditions1 & to promot+ all ! arts (   
peace4 ,!y h>bor$ !  hope1 moreov]1 t   

great con/ructive tasks :i* are beyond !
 p[]  ( any "o nation to accompli% might
 be a*iev$ by ! nations ( !  _w 9       
co-op]ation4 ,z an ideal x is truly     
great4 ,! ,italian poet1  ,dante1 dreamt
 ( x six hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,p]haps we c  
be/  appreciate :at ! realization ( su* 
an ideal w\ld mean to ! _w  by glanc+ = 
a mom5t at :at tribulations ! _w pass$  
?r\gh  dur+ ! c\rse ( a s+le c5tury1 f  
#ahad to #aiad4    ,! ,great ,w>s ( a   
,c5tury ,ago4--,a little m ?an a c5tury 
ago !  v>i\s nations ( ,europe engag$ 9 
a long & exhau/+ w>4 ,fir/  & la/ all ! 
*ief c\ntries ( ! _w 7 drawn into x4    
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! ,napoleonic ,w>s fail$  
to elim9ate ! causes (  w>4 ,! *ief     
cause ( ?is great /ruggle 0 ! ambition (
  ,napoleon1 :o s\ght to make ,france   
dom9ant 9 ! political affairs (  ,europe
 & by 8 aggressions f9ally manag$ to    
array all ! o!r  lead+ nations 9 an     
alliance aga9/ him4 ,:5 ,france 0 f9ally
  vanqui%$ by ! comb9$ ef=ts ( ,engl&1  
,prussia1 ,russia1 ,au/ria1  & ,spa91 a 

congress ( ! nations 0 held at ,vi5na to
 det]m9e !  detail$ arrangem5ts by :i* !
 future peace ( ! cont95t might  be     
pres]v$1 & aft] prolong$ discussions ?is
 congress agre$ ^u  a g5]al settlem5t4  
,! pr9cipal motive :i* actuat$ !        
delegates  at ! ,congress ( ,vi5na 0 t (
 /r5g!n+ ! f\r p[]s to  :om ! ov]?r[ (  
,france _h be5 *iefly due1 ?us e/abli%+ 
a  comb9ation :i* w\ld be able to impose
 its w ^u ! re/ ( !  cont95t 9 ! int]e/s
 ( peace4 ,great ,brita91 ,prussia1     
,au/ria1  & ,russia dom9at$ ! congress &
 = "s ye>s aft] #ahae  virtually rema9$ 
9 a quadruple alliance to see t ! t]ms (
  peace 7 obs]v$4 ,b ! ,congress (      
,vi5na took no action 9 !  way (        
e/abli%+ a league or conf$]ation to :i* 
all ! nations1  great & small1 %\ld be  
admitt$4 ,x left ! peace ( ,europe 9 !  
h&s ( f\r p[]ful /ates ) ! hope1 a      
futile hope x turn$ out  to be1 t ^! f\r
 /ates w\ld agree among !mselves4    ,! 
,rise ( ! ,alliances4--,! map ( ,europe1
 z re>rang$ by  ! ,congress ( ,vi5na1   

paid no att5tion to ! "r (              
self-det]m9ation4 ,t]ritories 7 tak5 f  
"o /ate &  giv5 to ano!r )\t ref]5ce to 
! desires ( _!  inhabitants4 ,! *ief aim
 0 to /r5g!n ! p[]s t _h  won ! w>1 giv+
 ea* ( !m b\nd>ies t c\ld be easily     
def5d$4 ,! int]e/s ( milit>y def5ce1 n  
^? (  nationality1 prevail$4            
,sid5ote3 ,! rivalries ( ! n9ete5?      
c5tury4    ,because ( ?is action !      
congress left _m op5+s = friction &     
jeal\sy among ! v>i\s /ates1 yet provid$
 no regul> means :]eby  disputes c\ld be
 adju/$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t1 moreov]1 !    
int]e/s ( ! f\r great p[]s :i* dom9at$ !
 "w ( !  congress drew ap>t4 ,engl&     
pref]r$ to hold alo( f ! diplomatic     
intrigues ( ! cont95tal /ates1 devot+ h]
 en]gies to !  upbuild+ ( an empire 9   
o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,france1 moreov]1      
rega9$ h] old-"t /r5g? & once m became  
recogniz$ z "o (  ! lead+ ,european     
p[]s4 ,italy1 :i* _h be5 left by !      
,congress  ( ,vi5na a mosaic ( small    
indep5d5t /ates1 ev5tually a*iev$ its   

unity1 & ! k+dom ( ,prussia exp&$ into !
 ,g]man ,empire4 ,?us1  ! f\r great p[]s
 ( #ahae grew to six be=e ! end ( !     
n9ete5? c5tury--,great ,brita91 ,russia1
 ,au/ro-,hung>y1 ,france1 ,italy1  &    
,g]many4    ,) ^! six great /ates       
progress+ side by side1 ambiti\s =  p[] 
& jeal\s ( "o ano!r1 x 0 inevitable t   
alliances &  c\nt]-alliances %\ld be    
=m$4 ,^! comb9ations took _m twi/s  &   
turns dur+ ! diplomatic manoeuvres ( !  
n9ete5? c5tury1  b 9 ! end ! six lead+  
nations ( ,europe gravitat$ into  oppos+
 camps4 ,! fir/1 kn[n z ! ,triple       
,alliance1 includ$  ,g]many1            
,au/ro-,hung>y1 & ,italy4 ,! second1    
commonly call$ !  ,triple ,ent5te1 0    
made up ( ,great ,brita91 ,france1 &    
,russia4 ,^!  alliances 7 bas$ ^u       
treaties or und]/&+s ( :i* c]ta9        
portions 7 made public & ! re/ kept     
secret4    ,sid5ote3 ,! 8arm$ peace40   
,! ,balance ( ,p[]4--,= _m ye>s !       
pres]vation ( ,european  peace re/$ ^u !
 obs]vance ( a pr9ciple kn[n z !        

8balance (  p[]04 ,?is pr9ciple is n    
easy to def9e1 b 9 g5]al x meant  t no  
s+le /ate or comb9ation ( /ates %\ld be 
all[$ to  become /rong en\gh to outweigh
 a rival /ate or its comb9ation4 ,!     
balance c\ld nev] be exact because "s   
/ates1 by virtue ( _!  m rapid increase 
9 population & prosp]ity1 7 always      
outrunn+  o!rs1 h5ce ! situation        
develop$ into a race :]e9 ea* gr\p (    
p[]s s\ght to /r5g!n itself by br++     
small] /ates into its  circle1 by weld+ 
its memb]s m closely toge!r1 & by !     
creation ( great armam5ts4 ,! purpose ( 
! alliances1 bas$ ^u  ! pr9ciple (      
balance ( p[]1 0 n to prev5t w> b r to  
prev5t any /ate f be+ attack$ by a      
comb9ation ( o!r /ates  & hav+ to def5d 
itself s+le-h&$4 ,"u ! t]ms ( ! ,triple 
,alliance & ! ,triple ,ent5te x rema9$ q
 possible = s+le  /ates to g to w> &    
fight x out alone2 b bo? alliances      
protect$  _! memb]s aga9/ comb9$        
attacks4 ,9 a ^w1 ! situation became    
su* t any w>1 :]ev] x might />t1 0 v    

likely to become a  g5]al w>4           
,sid5ote3 ,! nations 9 ! rec5t w>4    ,!
 ,realignm5ts ( #aiad-aiah4--,on !      
outbreak ( ! ,_w ,w> 9  #aiad ! ,triple 
,ent5te held toge!r1 b ! ,triple        
,alliance 0  weak5$ by ! action ( ,italy
 9 refus+ to be drawn into a cause  :i* 
! ,italian p did n approve4 ,italy1 a   
little lat]1 jo9$  ) ,france1 ,great    
,brita91 & ,russia4 ,mean:ile ,japan _h 
also tak5  ! side ( ^! allies &         
ev5tually ! ,unit$ ,/ates became        
associat$ 9 ! w> ) !m4 ,?us ! ,triple   
,ent5te develop$ into  a p[]ful alli$   
comb9ation includ+ n only ! five p[]s   
nam$  b _m small] /ates z well4 ,be=e ! 
close ( ho/ilities  tw5ty-five /ates _h 
decl>$ w> ^u ! ,g]man gov]nm5t4 ,g]many 
& ,au/ro-,hung>y1 ! rema9+ /ates ( !    
,triple ,alliance1 _h !  aid ( two o!r  
/ates only1 ,turkey & ,bulg>ia4 ,! c\rse
 ( ev5ts  %[$1 !re=e1 t n only 7        
alliances ineffective 9  pres]v+ ! peace
 b t !y actually help$ to ext5d ! area (
  conflict ov] a :ole cont95t4    ,! ,w>

 to ,end ,w>4--,:5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 aft]
 long hesitation1  decid$ to ?r[ its    
/r5g? on ! side ( ! ,allies1 "o ( !     
*ief actuat+ motives 0 ! desire to see !
 /ruggle settl$ 9  su* a way t !re w\ld 
nev] be ano!r great w>4 ,sid5ote3       
,idealism 9 ?is w>4 ,z ! spokesman ( !  
,am]ican p1  ,presid5t ,wilson repeat$ly
 decl>$ t out ( ! w> "s g5]al  agreem5t 
& league = ! p]man5t pres]vation ( _w   
peace mu/  come4 ,9 ?is he und\bt$ly    
reflect$ ! s5tim5t n only ( 8 own       
c\ntry b ( ! great masses ( ! p 9 ! o!r 
w>r+  /ates z well4 ,ev]y:]e !re _h be5 
go+ on1 practically  ?r\gh\t ! _w1 a    
popul> agitation = ! e/abli%m5t ( "s    
g5]al cov5ant :i* w\ld make future w>s  
impossible4 ,x 0 n[  felt t ! balance ( 
p[] 0 gone1 t individual treaties among 
nations 7 n suffici5t protection1 & t   
some?+ m  effective mu/ be f\nd4 ,!re 0 
no great diff]5ce ( op9ion z to  !      
ideal4 ,x 0 welcom$ ev]y:]e4 ,! problem 
0 h[ to translate  ! ideal into a       
reality4 ,?is task ,presid5t ,wilson    

believ$ to be !  mo/ important & yet !  
mo/ difficult among all ! problems (    
peace-mak+4 ,to help ) its solution he  
took ! highly-unusual  c\rse ( himself  
att5d+ ! conf]5ce :i* 0 held at ,p>is to
  det]m9e ! conditions ( peace4         
,sid5ote3 ,h[ ! ,league 0 br\ght into   
exi/5ce4    ,! ,fram+ ( ! ,cov5ant4--,:5
 ! memb]s ( ?is conf]5ce  assembl$ x 0  
agre$1 aft] "s delib]ation1 t a         
commission  %\ld be appo9t$ to prep>e a 
plan = a ,league ( ,nations & t  ?is    
plan1 :5 accept$ by ! conf]5ce1 %\ld    
become an integral  "p ( ! peace treaty4
 ,?is latt] po9t 0 p>ticul>ly insi/$  ^u
 by ,presid5t ,wilson & 0 agre$ to z !  
result ( 8  insi/5ce4 ,! commission 0   
appo9t$2 x prep>$ a plan2 ! plan  0 laid
 be=e ! peace conf]5ce1 & be=e be+      
adopt$ 0  publi%$ to ! _w4 ,9 ! ,unit$  
,/ates x met ) /rong support  9 "s      
qu>t]s & vigor\s opposition 9 o!rs4 ,!  
,s5ate1 by :i*  ! :ole peace treaty w\ld
 h to be approv$ be=e x c\ld be  b9d+ ^u
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 discuss$ ! details ( !

 plan &  ?irty-"o s5ators sign$ a       
decl>ation t "s ( ! provisions  7       
unacceptable4 ,9 ! end1 h[ev]1 ! orig9al
 cov5ant1 ) "s  modifications1 0 adopt$ 
by ! peace conf]5ce & incorporat$ z a   
"p ( ! treaty ( peace4#cjb ,z su* x 0   
subsequ5tly accept$  by all ! lead+ p[]s
 to :om x 0 submitt$1 except ! ,unit$   
,/ates4 ,9 its scope ! ,league (        
,nations is design$ to include1         
ultimately1 all ! c\ntries ( ! _w4      
,provision is made 9 !  cov5ant = !     
imm$iate admission ( mo/ c\ntries by _! 
simple  acceptance ( ! cov5ant2 o!rs may
 be admitt$ to memb]%ip by a  two-?irds 
vote ( ! league assembly4 ,fifty-"o     
/ates are n[  memb]s4#cjc    ,sid5ote3  
,an analogy & contra/4    ,! ,league z a
 ,s*eme ( ,gov]nm5t4--,:at are !        
important features  9 ?is s*eme (       
sup]-gov]nm5t8 ,?is "q may be/ be       
answ]$1  p]haps1 by tak+ z our backgr\nd
 ! f$]al sy/em ) :i* we  are mo/ famili>
 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 not+ ! out/&+ po9ts 
(  resemblance & contra/4 ,at ! "t ( its

 =mation1 inde$1 !  ,am]ican f$]al      
gov]nm5t 0 look$ ^u by ! sev]al /ates z 
a  sup]-gov]nm5t & !y 7 v jeal\s ( x4 ,x
 0 n until _m  ye>s _h pass$ t ?is      
jeal\sy di$ d[n4 ,?is same designation 0
  giv5 to ! s*eme ( organization        
e/abli%$ by ! ,league ,cov5ant4  ,!     
gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has its      
delib]ative1 executive1 &  judicial     
dep>tm5ts2 s has ! ,league ( ,nations4  
,b !re !  resemblance ends4 ,! me?ods ( 
con/itut+ ! organs are diff]5t2  s are  
_! p[]s1 & s are _! relations to "o     
ano!r4    ,sid5ote3 ,! ,assembly & !    
,c\ncil4    ,! ,league's ,delib]ative   
,organs4--,! ,league ( ,nations has two 
delib]ative bodies1--an ,assembly to :i*
 ea* memb]-nation may s5d  n m ?an ?ree 
delegates1 & a ,c\ncil1 made up ( "o    
memb] f  ea* ( ! five great p[]s1--!    
,unit$ ,/ates1 ,great ,brita91 ,france1 
,italy1 & ,japan 7^! five nations be+   
always repres5t$71 & "o  memb] f ea* (  
f\r less] p[]s to be designat$ f "t to  
"t by ! ,assembly4 ,s9ce ! ,unit$ ,/ates

 has n jo9$ ! ,league1  ! ,c\ncil n[    
consi/s ( only eight memb]s1 ! f\r      
nations  con/itut+ ! second gr\p be+ at 
pres5t ,belgium1 ,brazil1 ,spa91  &     
,*9a4 ,unless o!rwise /at$ 9 ! cov5ant1 
any decision ei!r  ( ! ,c\ncil or !     
,assembly requires a unanim\s vote4 ,!  
,c\ncil  mu/ meet at lea/ once a ye>2 ! 
,assembly meets at /at$ int]vals        
det]m9$ by itself4 ,! ,assembly has     
decid$ to meet annually on !  fir/      
,monday 9 ,septemb] & ! ,c\ncil is n[   
hold+ qu>t]ly  sessions4 ,g5eva has be5 
select$ z ! ,league capital4            
,sid5ote3 ,! ,secret>iat4    ,!         
,adm9i/rative ,organization4--,by ! t]ms
 ( ! cov5ant c]ta9  functions ( an      
executive nature are giv5 to ! ,c\ncil1 
b !  adm9i/rative "w devolves ^u !      
,secret>iat ( ! ,league4 ,?is  body     
comprises a p]man5t secret>y & num]\s   
(ficials appo9t$ by  him4 ,! ,secret>iat
 p]=ms ! cl]ical "w1 regi/]s all        
treaties1  c>ries on ! correspond5ce ) !
 memb]-nations1 & prep>es  bus9ess to be

 laid be=e ! ,c\ncil & ! ,assembly4     
,sid5ote3 ,! ,league's judici>y4    ,!  
,c\rt ( ,int]national ,ju/ice4--,!      
cov5ant also makes provision  = a       
p]man5t _w c\rt1 compos$ ( judges       
select$ by ! ,assembly  f among em95t   
juri/s nom9at$ by ! diff]5t             
memb]-c\ntries4  ,at ! second ,assembly 
session1 held dur+ #aiba1 ! elev5 regul>
  judges & f\r alt]nate or deputy judges
 7 *os54 ,controv]sies  come be=e ?is   
c\rt :5ev] nations agree to submit _!   
disputes  to x = decision4    ,out/&+   
,features ( ,league ,organization4--,9  
comp>+ ! g5]al  organization ( ,league  
gov]nm5t ) ! ,am]ican f$]al sy/em "s    
/rik+ contra/s appe>4 ,sid5ote3         
,equality ( all nations 9 !  ,league    
,assembly4 ,fir/ ( all1 x is significant
 t 9 ! ,c\ncil  & 9 ! ,assembly ea*     
nation has "o vote only4 ,ea* nation may
 s5d  to ! ,assembly "o1 two1 or ?ree   
repres5tatives2 b :e!r x s5ds  "o or    
?ree its vot+ p[] is ! same4 ,9 !       
,am]ican ,s5ate all  ! /ates h ! same   

vot+ p[]1 b 9 ! ,h\se (  ,repres5tatives
 ! /ates ) l>g] populations h           
proportionate  vot+ /r5g?4 ,equality (  
vot+ p[] is natural 9 a political  union
 t is j />t+4 ,! nations ( ! _w1 be+    
accu/om$  to sov]eignty & legal equality
 7 n will+ to recognize  gradations (   
rank4 ,! same feel+ 0 manife/$ among !  
,am]ican  colonies :51 "u ! ,articles ( 
,conf$]ation1 x 0 provid$ t  e /ate1    
small or l>ge1 :ile x might s5d f two to
 sev5  delegates to ! ,congress1 %\ld h 
! same vot+ p[] z any  o!r4 ,!re 0 a    
long fight ov] ?is "q 9 ! ,con/itutional
  ,conv5tion ( #aghg1 ! small] /ates    
dem&+ equal p[] ) !  l>g]1 ! l>g] ask+ t
 repres5tation %\ld be bas$ ^u          
population4 ,! matt] 0 settl$ by giv+ ! 
small] /ates equal  repres5tation 9 !   
,s5ate1 & conc$+ to ! l>g] /ates !  "r  
to dom9ate ! ,h\se4 ,b ! fram]s ( !     
,league ,cov5ant  c\ld n accept a       
compromise ( ?is sort2 = if             
repres5tation  accord+ to population 7  
made ! rule 9 ei!r ! ,c\ncil or !       

,assembly1 ,india & ,*9a w\ld h f> m    
delegates ?an ! ,unit$  ,/ates1 ,engl&1 
& ,france put toge!r4 ,s all 7 giv5     
equal  repres5tation 9 ! ,assembly1 :ile
 repres5tation 9 ! ,c\ncil 0  conf9$ to 
n9e nations only4    ,o!r m>k$ contra/s 
%\ld be not$4 ,9 ! ,h\se (              
,repres5tatives  & 9 ! ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$
 ,/ates measures are pass$ by a majority
  vote2 ,sid5ote3 ,! requirem5t (       
unanimity49 ! ,assembly &  ,c\ncil ( !  
,league1 unless o!rwise specifi$1 a     
unanim\s vote is  necess>y = action4    
,?is is a m>k ( ! di/ru/ ) :i* !        
nations reg>d "o ano!r4 ,! provision =  
unanimity means t  no?+ c be c>ri$ ?r\gh
 ! ,assembly if a s+le nation           
disapproves1 = a solit>y vote c block   
action4 ,! same is true (  ! ,c\ncil z  
respects ea* nation repres5t$ 9 x4 ,?is1
 ( c\rse1  e/abli%es a v cumb]some &    
sl[-work+ s*eme ( gov]nm5t4  ,decisions 
( ! ,c\ncil or ! ,assembly1 moreov]1 h  
no absolute  b9d+ =ce1 z h ! enactm5ts (
 ,congress4 ,!re is no  c5traliz$       

executive au?ority1 ) p[] to see t      
decisions are  obey$--no executive      
au?ority 9 ! national s5se4 ,! ,league  
has no  army to en=ce its w4 ,ev5 !     
,int]national ,c\rt ( ,ju/ice has no    
jurisdiction save :5 ! suitors1 ( _! own
 accord1 come to x4 ,x  lacks ! co]cive 
p[] ( a ,supreme ,c\rt4    ,provisions =
 ! ,prev5tion ( ,w>s4--,! prime purpose 
9  e/abli%+ ! ,league ( ,nations 0 a    
desire to less5 ! dang] (  w>s4 ,to t   
end ! cov5ant conta9s sev]al provisions 
( high  importance :i* may be briefly   
summ>iz$4    ,sid5ote3 #a4 ,armam5ts4   
,fir/1 !re is a provision = ! r$uction (
 armam5ts4 ,! ,c\ncil  is direct$ to h a
 /udy made by exp]ts & to report ^u !   
am\nt ( arm$ /r5g? ne$$ by ea* nation4  
,! v>i\s gov]nm5ts1  h[ev]1 are n b\nd  
to accept ! ,c\ncil's recomm5dations4 ,9
 any  case1 all memb]s ( ! ,league agree
 to keep "o ano!r in=m$ z to  ! ext5t ( 
_! respective armam5t programs4 ,?is    
repres5ts1 (  c\rse1 a v mode/ /ep 9 !  
direction ( actual int]national         

dis>mam5t4    ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,t]ritorial 
integrity4    ,second1 ! memb]s ( !     
,league agree to protect "o ano!r aga9/ 
any seizure ( _! t]ritories or any      
de/ruction ( _!  indep5d5ce by outside  
attacks4 ,?is is ! fam\s ,article ,x4   
,:5ev]  su* attack occurs1 ! ,c\ncil is 
to advise z to h[ ! pl$ge (  integrity c
 be fulfill$4    ,sid5ote3 #c4          
,conciliation4    ,?ird1 if a dispute   
:i* _c be settl$ by diplomatic          
negotiations  arises betwe5 memb]s ( !  
,league1 ! memb]s agree to ref] x to    
arbitration if x is suitable = su*      
disposition2 or1 if n1 !n to  ! ,c\ncil 
( ! ,league = inquiry4 ,! memb]s ( !    
,league agree  to refra9 f ho/ilities   
until ?ree mon?s aft] ! ,c\ncil has     
r5d]$ its decision4    ,sid5ote3 #d4    
,co]cion4    ,f\r?1 if any memb]-nation 
resorts to w> 9 violation ( !  prec$+   
provisions1 ! o!r memb]s ( ! ,league    
agree to boycott  x & to )draw f        
relations ) x2 9 extreme cases1 !       
,c\ncil  is au?oriz$ to consid] &       

recomm5d means ( compulsion by arm$     
=ce4    ,sid5ote3 #e4 ,regi/ration (    
treaties4    ,fif?1 a v important       
provision is t by :i* all treaties      
h]eaft] ent]$ into by memb]s ( ! ,league
 %all be regi/]$ )  ! ,secret>iat &     
publi%$4 ,until ?is has be5 done1 no    
treaty is to  be consid]$ b9d+4 ,?is1 ( 
itself1 embodies no small /ep 9 !       
direction ( elim9at+ a prolific s\rce ( 
friction & /rife4  ,secret treaties h   
be5 ! ma9spr+ ( _m w>s4    ,sid5ote3    
,duties ( ! m&atories4    ,! ,sy/em (   
,m&ates4--,9 previ\s w>s x has be5 !    
habit (  victori\s nations to divide all
 ! conqu]$ t]ritory among  !mselves1 ea*
 tak+ a portion 9 full own]%ip4 ,!      
,peace  ,conf]5ce ( #aiai1 h[ev]1 agre$ 
to try a new plan1 namely1 t (  plac+ ! 
,league ( ,nations 9 *>ge ( "s =m]      
,g]man &  ,turki% t]ritories4 ,x 0      
provid$ t by means ( m&ates ea* (  ^!   
t]ritories %\ld be directly gov]n$1 on  
behalf ( ! ,league1  by "o ( its        
memb]-c\ntries1 ) ! und]/&+ t ev5tually 

complete self-gov]nm5t %\ld be giv5 9   
c]ta9 cases4 ,!  m&atory1 or c\ntry     
hold+ ! m&ate1 is requir$ to pres5t an  
annual report to ! ,league & a p]man5t  
commission is provid$ to  exam9e ^!     
reports4 ,9 accordance ) ^! arrangem5ts1
 sev]al  m&ates h be5 grant$4 ,great    
,brita91 = example1 has be5 made  !     
m&atory = ,pale/9e1 ,france = ,syria1 & 
,new ,zeal& =  c]ta9 =m] ,g]man colonies
 9 ! ,s\? ,pacific4    ,sid5ote3 ,a     
t]ritorial tru/4    ,! possession ( a   
m&ate does n give ! m&atory any         
exclusive  comm]cial privileges 9 !     
t]ritory conc]n$1 b m]ely creates a     
tru/ :i* is to be ex]cis$ = ! b5efit ( !
 p :o inhabit  x4 ,:e!r ?is new exp]im5t
 9 ! gov]nm5t ( dep5d5t  t]ritories w "w
 out successfully no "o yet c tell4 ,mu*
 w  dep5d ^u :e!r ! ,league acquires    
pre/ige & p[]4 ,if x %\ld  collapse1 !re
 is little d\bt t ^! v>i\s t]ritories   
w\ld  m]ely pass into ! full own]%ip ( !
 c\ntries :i* n[ hold !  m&ates4    ,!  
,league & ,labor4--,! widely-diff]+     

policies hi!rto pursu$  by v>i\s        
c\ntries 9 relation to labor h long be5 
a cause (  int]national di/ru/ &        
friction4 ,:5 any "o c\ntry endeavors to
  accord great] privileges to its       
work]s--su* z ! adoption ( a  %ort]     
work+ day or ! gu>antee ( a m9imum      
wage--?is action  places x at a         
disadvantage 9 trade competition ) o!r  
c\ntries  n s progressive4 ,x is1 !re=e1
 provid$ t a p]man5t  ,int]national     
,labor ,(fice %all be e/abli%$ & t      
memb]s ( !  ,league %all s5d            
repres5tatives to a labor conf]5ce at   
lea/ once a  ye>4 ,su* measures = !     
protection ( labor z may be recomm5d$ by
  ?is conf]5ce are to be pres5t$ to !   
gov]nm5t ( ea*  memb]-c\ntry = adoption4
 ,ea* gov]nm5t may adopt or refuse to   
adopt ! recomm5dations z x sees fit2 b  
:]e a recomm5dation is  adopt$1 a c\ntry
 mu/ live up to x & provisions are made 
=  ensur+ ?is4 ,sid5ote3 ,! fir/ labor  
conf]5ce4 ,! fir/ meet+  ( ! labor      
conf]5ce took place at ,wa%+ton 9 #aiai4

 ,s9ce t  "t two fur!r conf]5ces h be5  
held4 ,recomm5dations h be5  made 9     
favor ( ! eight-h\r day1 ! prohibition (
 *ild labor1 &  an effective sy/em (    
factory inspection4 ,9 mo/ ( !          
discussions  conc]n+ ! ,league ^! great 
opportunities :i* x pres5ts =  !        
improvem5t ( labor conditions 7 entirely
 ov]look$4    ,! ,league & ! ,protection
 ( ,heal?4--,great improvem5ts 9 !      
sci5ce ( heal? protection h be5 made    
dur+ ! pa/ g5]ation  by all civiliz$    
c\ntries1 z a previ\s *apt] has         
indicat$4 ,b no  matt] h[ wat*ful a     
c\ntry may be 9 gu>d+ ! heal? ( its own 
p1 x c nev] feel safe s long z epidemics
 are all[$ to rage  un*eck$ 9 o!r l&s4  
,! ravages ( disease /op at no national 
b\nd>ies4 ,trade & travel c>ry infection
 across ev5 !  be/-protect$ bord]s4 ,9  
recognition ( ?is ! ,league cov5ant     
pl$ges ! memb]-c\ntries to take /eps = !
 int]national  prev5tion & control (    
disease4 ,sid5ote3 ,! int]national heal?
  (fice4 ,?is is to be accompli%$ by !  

e/abli%m5t ( a p]man5t  ,int]national   
,heal? ,(fice4 ,! function ( ?is (fice  
is to ga!r  data relat+ to public heal? 
que/ions1 to promote ! acceptance (  !  
be/ heal? regulations by ! diff]5t      
c\ntries1 & to secure  common action 9 !
 case ( dang]\s epidemics4#cjd ,!       
,league is  also au?oriz$ to wage a w>  
^u ! use ( opium & o!r h>mful  drugs1   
likewise to take measures aga9/ !       
traffic 9 wom5 &  *ildr54    ,am]ican   
,objections to ! ,cov5ant4--,:5 !       
provisions ( !  cov5ant 7 f9ally adopt$ 
by ! ,peace ,conf]5ce1 objections 7     
urg$ 9 v>i\s c\ntries1 b m p>ticul>ly 9 
! ,unit$ ,/ates4  ,to :at features 0    
objection made8 ,"s object$ to !        
provision  :i* gives ! ,briti% ,empire  
six votes 9 ! ,assembly ( ! ,league     
:ile ! ,unit$ ,/ates _h b "o4#cje       
,article ,x ( ! cov5ant1 by  :i* !      
nations :o ent] ! ,league mu/ gu>antee  
"o ano!r's  t]ritory & indep5d5ce aga9/ 
outside aggression 0 also object$  to1 =
 x seem$ to pl$ge ! ,unit$ ,/ates to    

def5d b\nd>y l9es  9 all p>ts ( ! _w4   
,_m fe>$ t ?is provision w\ld "s  day   
require ! use ( ,am]ican soldi]s 9      
di/ant places4 ,objection  0 also rais$ 
aga9/ c]ta9 provisions ( ! peace treaty1
 su* z  t :i* turn$ ov] to ,japan !     
t]ritorial & o!r rights 9 !  ,*9ese     
prov9ce ( ,%antung1 :i* _h be5 held by  
,g]many4#cjf ,&  9 g5]al !re 0 a feel+ t
 if ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 to ent]  !        
,league1 ?is action w\ld involve a      
cont9ual entanglem5t 9  ,european       
affairs & a complete ab&onm5t (         
,am]ica's traditional  policy4          
,sid5ote3 ,! propos$ res]vations4    ,x 
0 at fir/ believ$ t by mak+ res]vations 
on ^! v>i\s  po9ts ! ,unit$ ,/ates c\ld 
ov]come ! m important objections1       
ratify ! treaty1 & ent] ! ,league4 ,b   
,presid5t ,wilson decl9$  to accept su* 
res]vations & 9 ! end ! :ole docum5t1   
treaty  & cov5ant toge!r1 fail$ to      
receive ! requisite two-?irds vote  9 ! 
,s5ate4    ,! presid5tial election (    
#aibj 0 f\ght out on ?is issue4 ,!      

,democratic c&idate decl>$ 9 favor (    
ent]+ ! ,league )  suitable res]vations1
 :ile ! ,republican c&idate made no     
explicit  pl$ge z to :at c\rse he w\ld  
pursue al?\gh he seem$ = a "t  to favor 
! =mation ( a new association on a      
some:at diff]5t  basis4 ,sid5ote3 ,!    
ultimate decision4 ,aft] ! election1 :i*
  result$ 9 a decisive ,republican      
victory1 ,presid5t ,h>d+ ann\nc$  t !   
,unit$ ,/ates w\ld n ent] ! ,league2 !  
project ( a new  association 0 quietly  
dropp$2 & a sep>ate peace ) ! new       
,g]man republic 0 conclud$4    ,!       
,league at ,"w4--,! refusal ( ! ,unit$  
,/ates to assume  memb]%ip 0 a sev]e1 & 
possibly a fatal1 bl[ to ! /r5g? &      
pre/ige ( ! ,league4 ,x is z ?\gh ! /ate
 ( ,new ,york1 a c5tury  & a qu>t] ago1 
_h decl9$ to ratify ! con/itution1 leav+
 !  o!r twelve /ates to =m a union by   
!mselves4 ,sid5ote3 ,:at !  ,league has 
done4 ,nev]!less1 ! ,league ( ,nations  
seems to be a  go+ conc]n2 x has        
e/abli%$ headqu>t]s at ,g5eva2 its      

,secret>iat has be5 organiz$2 its       
,c\ncil has held _m sessions2 its       
,assembly has be5 twice convok$2 its    
c\rt has be5 e/abli%$2 labor  conf]5ces 
h be5 held2 m&ates h be5 allott$2       
commissions  h be5 appo9t$2 & a good    
deal ( important bus9ess has be5        
transact$4 ,its memb]s are v anxi\s to h
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates jo9  ) !m & w\ld       
d\btless g a long way 9 accept+ :atev]  
reasonable res]vations ?is c\ntry might 
*oose to make4 ,b !re is  no imm$iate   
probability t ,am]ica w become a memb]  
on any t]ms4  ,! problem :i* n[ engages 
! att5tion ( ! ,am]ican gov]nm5t  is t (
 arrang+1 ?r\gh treaties & conf]5ces1 = 
! removal  ( ! v>i\s dang]s to peace 9 !
 future4    ,sid5ote3 ,c ! "w be done by
 a s]ies ( conf]5ces8    ,! ,league & ! 
,wa%+ton ,conf]5ce4--,! call+ ( !       
,wa%+ton ,conf]5ce 0 ! fir/ /ep 9 ?is   
direction4 ,!  agreem5ts rea*$ at ?is   
conf]5ce repres5t a v sub/antial /ep  9 
! direction ( avoid+ future w>s b !y d n
 cov] ! :ole  field ( possible          

controv]sy4 ,!y leave unt\*$ ! :ole "q  
( l& armam5ts & deal ) none ( ! *ief    
,european problems4 ,x  is tak5 = grant$
 t o!r conf]5ces w be call$ f "t to  "t1
 ea* = ! purpose ( deal+ ) "s specific  
set (  int]national que/ions1 & !re are 
_m :o believe t ! prim>y  purposes :i* !
 ,league ( ,nations 0 int5d$ to fulfill 
c be  s]v$ 9 ?is way4 ,"o advantage ( ! 
conf]5ce plan is t x  all[s ea* nation  
to reta9 great] fre$om ( action2 b ?is  
is also  a defect1 = x p]mits any s+le  
c\ntry to block progress by m]ely       
decl9+ to jo9 ) ! o!rs :5 a conf]5ce is 
call$4 ,!  ,wa%+ton ,conf]5ce demon/rat$
 h[ easy x is to rea* agreem5ts 9  !    
common int]e/ :5 nations come toge!r = a
 free & frank  discussion4    ,sid5ote3 
,a lo/ opportunity4    ,w ! ,league (   
,nations ,live8--,w ! ,league sl[ly     
acquire  /r5g? despite ! failure ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates to become a memb]8 ,or  w 
! ,league gradually lose all its reason 
= exi/5ce1 save z an  ag5cy = c>ry+ out 
! t]ms ( ! peace treaty1 & :5 ^!  t]ms  

are fulfill$1 pass out ( exi/5ce8 ,^!   
are que/ions :i* no  "o c answ] today4  
,! close ( ! w> gave ! _w its greate/   
opportunity to devise a plan :i* w\ld   
=ev] put an end to ! curse  ( w> & u%] 9
 a long era ( int]national amity4 ,m5   
labor$ long  & dilig5tly to provide su* 
a plan1 b !y fail$ to a*ieve a full     
measure ( success4    ,:]e ! blame = ?is
 p>tial failure belongs is n a matt] t x
  c pr(it ! _w mu* to discuss4 ,!       
opportunity came & has gone4  ,:e!r !   
p>tial failure c ev] be retriev$1 :e!r !
 ,league  devis$ at ,p>is w survive !   
sev]e setback giv5 to x by !  action ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates1 are ?+s :i* only ! next 
g5]ation  c det]m9e4 ,9 spite ( its     
h&icap1 h[ev]1 ! ,league mu/ /rive  to  
ma9ta9 its exi/5ce1 = its cont9uance is 
ess5tial to !  en=cem5t ( ! peace       
treaty4 ,^? nations :i* are int]e/$ 9   
see+ ! provisions ( ! treaty fulfill$   
mu/ ei!r use !  ,league1 or provide o!r 
ma*9]y 9 its place1 or else revise !    
t]ms ( peace1 & on ! :ole1 ! fir/       

alt]native seems to be !  easi] "o4 ,to 
! exhau/$ nations ( ,europe x (f]s "s   
hope (  relief f ! burd5 ( great        
armam5ts1 & to small c\ntries  ?r\gh\t !
 _w ! ,league /&s z a means ( obta9+ a  
fair  he>+ = _! grievances4 ,x is easy  
en\gh to pick flaws 9 !  cov5ant2 b is  
!re any likelihood t a diff]5t docum5t  
w\ld  ga9 ! adhesion ( fifty-"o /ates8  
,no su* numb] ev] agre$ to  any?+ ( !   
sort be=e4    ,! attitude ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates 0 n dictat$ by self-int]e/       
alone1 or by p>ty politics4 ,!re 01 &   
/ill is1 a /rong  conviction 9 ! m9ds ( 
a l>ge elem5t among ! ,am]ican p  t !   
cov5ant ( ,v]sailles w n prove to be a  
safegu>d aga9/  w>1 b may1 inde$1 lead  
to int5sifi$ rivalries & bitt]ness4 ,_m 
,am]icans1 & _m ,europeans also1 feel t 
! t]ms ( peace :i*  7 arrang$ at ,p>is  
conta9 _m unwise1 unju/1 & ev5          
impracticable provisions4 ,!y believe t 
a ,league ( ,nations1 *>g$  ) ! duty (  
en=c+ ^! provisions1 is b\nd to enc\nt] 
difficulties ( a s]i\s "*4              

,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,f4 ,c4 ,,hicks1 ,! 
,new ,_w ,ord]1 especially pp4 #c-ia 7,!
 ,peace  ,treaty1 includ+ ! ,cov5ant1 is
 pr9t$ 9 ! app5dix72    ,w4 ,h4 ,,taft1 
,g4 ,w4 ,,wick]%am1 & o!rs1 ,!          
,cov5ant]3 ,an ,am]ican  ,exposition ( !
 ,cov5ant ( ! ,league ( ,nations1       
passim2    ,s4 ,p4 ,,duggan1 ,! ,league 
( ,nations1 p4 #a-ag2 #if-aaa2    ,j4   
,a4 ,,hobson1 ,t[>ds ,int]national      
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #aa-eg2    ,annals ( !   
,am]ican ,academy ( ,political & ,social
 ,sci5ce1 ,!  ,place ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9
 a ,_w ,organization = ! ,ma9t5ance  (  
,peace 7,july1 #aiba71 pp4 #a-bi2    ,g4
 ,g4 ,,wilson1 ,! ,fir/ ,ye> ( ! ,league
 ( ,nations1 pp4 #a-ee2    ,r4 ,b4      
,,fosdick1 ,,george ,,rublee1 ,j4 ,t4   
,,%otwell1 ,l,,on ,,b\rgeois1 &  o!rs1  
,! ,league ( ,nations ,/>ts1 pp4 #a-bh2 
,l4 ,,opp5heim1 ,! ,league ( ,nations1  
pp4 #bh-dh2    ,d4 ,l4 ,,morr[1 ,!      
,society ( ,free ,/ates1 pp4 #acg-aed2  
,t4 ,j4 ,,lawr5ce1 ,! ,society (        
,nations1 pp4 #cc-eg2    ,,ray ,,/ann>d 

,,bak]1 ,am]ica & ,_w ,peace1 passim4   
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,! idea ( a      
league ( nations 9 hi/ory4 ,anci5t      
,greek leagues4  ,dante's ,de ,mon>*ia4 
,! ,great ,design ( ,h5ry ,,iv4 ,william
 ,p5n's plan4  ,! propos$ conf$]ation ( 
,europe aft] ! ,napoleonic w>s4 ,kant's 
8,ev]la/+ ,peace40 ,! ,holy ,alliance4  
,! f$]ation ( ,c5tral  ,am]ica 7#ahbd74 
,! ,hague ,conf]5ces4 ,ref]5ces3        
,,elizabe? ,,york1  ,leagues ( ,nations1
 ,anci5t1 ,m$iaeval1 & ,mod]n1 pp4      
#aad-agi 7see  also ,bibliography1 pp4  
#cca-ccg72 ,,william ,,ladd1 ,! ,peace (
 ,europe1  pp4 #a-aa2 ,w4 ,a4           
,,phillips1 ,! ,conf$]ation ( ,europe1  
pp4 #ade-aef2 ,f4  ,c4 ,,hicks1 ,! ,new 
,_w ,ord]1 pp4 #ff-gh2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,*oate1 
,! ,two ,hague  ,conf]5ces1 pp4 #c-dd2  
,d4 ,l4 ,,morr[1 ,! ,society ( ,free    
,/ates1 pp4  #ab-cb4    #b4 ,a /udy ( ! 
m]its & faults ( ! ,cov5ant4 ,ref]5ces3 
,s5ate ,debates dur+ ! p]iod ,june #b to
 ,octob] #f1 #aiai1 9  ,congressional   
,record 7#ff? ,congress1 #a/ ,session1  

,vol4 #eh71 ,= !  ,league3 ,,s5ator     
,,swanson1 ( ,virg9ia 7pp4 #becb-bedb71 
,,s5ator  ,,hit*cock1 ( ,nebraska 7pp4  
#fdjc-fdbg72 ,aga9/ ! ,league3 ,,s5ator 
,,johnson1 ( ,cali=nia 7pp4 #eja-eji71  
,,s5ator ,,lodge1 ( ,massa*usetts  7pp4 
#cggh-cghd74                            
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,! ,league (       
,nations & ,am]ican ideals4 ,a4 ,h4     
,,sn[1 ,!  ,am]ican ,philosophy (       
,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #aee-agb4    #b4 ,!      
,league ( ,nations & ,am]ican int]e/s4  
,,otto ,h4 ,,kahn1 ,our  ,economic      
,problems1 pp4 #ced-cfg4    #c4 ,!      
,league & ! ,monroe ,doctr9e4 ,s4 ,p4   
,,duggan1 ,! ,league (  ,nations1 pp4   
#bgc-cjc2 ,annals ( ,am]ican ,academy ( 
,political &  ,social ,sci5ce1 ,! ,place
 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 a ,_w ,organization
  = ! ,ma9t5ance ( ,peace 7,july1       
#aiba71 pp4 #ca-dd4    #d4 ,!           
int]national labor conf]5ces4 ,f4 ,c4   
,,hicks1 ,! ,new ,_w  ,ord]1 pp4        
#bgj-bgi4    #e4 ,! ,league & dis>mam5t4
 ,annals ( ! ,am]ican ,academy (        

,political & ,social ,sci5ce1 ,! ,place 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 a ,_w  ,organization
 = ! ,ma9t5ance ( ,peace 7,july1 #aiba71
 pp4 #de-fg4    #f4 ,! ,league at "w4   
,,ar?ur ,,sweets]1 ,! ,league ( ,nations
 at  ,"w1 pp4 #bi-fb4    #g4 ,"s        
examples ( int]national gov]nm5t4 ,l4   
,s4 ,,woolf1  ,int]national ,gov]nm5t1  
pp4 #agi-bfe2 ,f4 ,b4 ,,sayre1          
,exp]im5ts 9  ,int]national             
,adm9i/ration1 pp4 #ah-fb4    #h4 ,!    
8,conc]t ( ,p[]s0 9 ,europe4 ,t4 ,j4    
,,lawr5ce1 ,pr9ciples (  ,int]national  
,law1 pp4 #bfh-bgi4    #i4 ,! sy/em (   
m&ates4 ,r4 ,b4 ,,fosdick1 ,,george     
,,rublee1 ,j4 ,t4  ,,%otwell1 ,l,,on    
,,b\rgeois1 & o!rs1 ,! ,league (        
,nations ,/>ts1  pp4 #aaj-abe4    #aj4  
,int]national public heal? & sanitation4
 ,r4 ,b4 ,,fosdick1 ,,george  ,,rublee1 
,j4 ,t4 ,,%otwell1 ,l,,on ,,b\rgeois1 & 
o!rs1 ,! ,league (  ,nations ,/>ts1 pp4 
#aee-afi4    #aa4 ,! ,league ( ,nations 
z a s*eme ( gov]nm5t4 ,l4 ,,opp5heim1   
,! ,league ( ,nations1 pp4 #bh-dh4      

#ab4 ,small nations & ! ,league4 ,s4 ,p4
 ,,duggan1 ,! ,league (  ,nations1 pp4  
#afa-ahc2 ,annals ( ! ,am]ican ,academy 
( ,political &  ,social ,sci5ce1 ,!     
,place ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 a ,_w        
,organization  = ! ,ma9t5ance ( ,peace  
7,july1 #aiba71 pp4 #fh-ig4             
,que/ions    #a4 ,:at is meant by       
8apply+ to nations a pr9ciple :i* m5 !  
_w  ov] h appli$ to !mselves z          
individuals08    #b4 ,expla9 :at 0 done 
at ! ,congress ( ,vi5na & :y !re 7 s  _m
 w>s dur+ ! hundr$ ye>s :i* foll[$ t    
congress4    #c4 ,expla9 ! foll[+       
expressions3 balance ( p[]1 ,triple     
,alliance1 ,ent5te1 conc]t ( p[]s4      
#d4 ,make a diagram %[+ ! organization (
 ! ,league ( ,nations4  ,expla9 by means
 ( ?is diagram ! contra/s betwe5 !      
,league's  organization & t ( a f$]al   
gov]nm5t4    #e4 ,:at are ! weak        
features 9 ! ,league organization8      
#f4 ,summ>ize ! provisions :i* 7 plac$ 9
 ! ,cov5ant = !  prev5tion ( future w>s 
& give y\r op9ion z to ! value ( ea*4   

#g4 ,expla9 ! relation ( ! ,league to   
7a7 labor problems1 7b7  heal?          
protection1 7c7 ! suppression ( ! drug  
traffic4    #h4 ,make a li/ ( ! *ief    
,am]ican objections to ! ,league &      
indicate h[ mu* importance y atta* to   
ea*4    #i4 ,d y reg>d ! refusal ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates z a dea?-bl[ to !  success
 ( ! ,league8 ,give y\r reasons4    #aj4
 ,if ! ,league fails1 h[ c int]national 
peace be be/ secur$8                    
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,a s*eme (     
univ]sal arbitration %\ld be sub/itut$ =
 !  ,league ( ,nations4    #b4 ,! ,unit$
 ,/ates %\ld call ano!r conf]5ce to     
effect an  int]national agreem5t = !    
r$uction ( armies4    -----    ,footnote
 #cja3      ,x is said t ! ,?irty ,ye>s'
 ,w> r$uc$ ! population 9 "s    sections
 ( ! w>r+ /ates to "o-half or "o-?ird ( 
:at x _h    be5 :5 ! /ruggle began4 ,!  
losses ( all ! c\ntries engag$    9 !   
,_w ,w> h be5 e/imat$ to be almo/ t5    
millions1 m    ?an ! entire population (
 ,canada f ocean to ocean4 ,millions    

m di$ f fam9e & "u-n\ri%m5t at home4 ,is
 x n /range    t nations %\ld "w = ye>s 
) might & ma9 to increase !    size &   
prosp]ity ( _! populations1 !n turn     
ar\nd & undo a    l>ge "p ( :at !y h be5
 able to accompli%8 ,9 peace nations    
labor to alleviate ea* o!rs' di/ress2 9 
w> !y labor to cause    x4 ,pati5tly    
?r\gh ! decades m5 ( sci5ce wre/le ) !  
problem ( reliev+ pa9 & suff]+2 !n1 9 an
 in/ant1 all    _! skill is devot$ to   
kill+1 maim+1 & suffocat+ m5 by !       
million6 ,!re is no wisdom l ! wisdom ( 
man1 & no folly l    x ei!r4            
,footnote #cjb3      ,! cov5ant 0 made  
an integral "p ( ! peace treaty1 l>gely 
at    ,presid5t ,wilson's insi/5ce1 =   
two reasons3 ,fir/1 because x 0         
believ$ t ?is w\ld be a sur] way (      
obta9+ ! ass5t ( all    ! great nations 
to ! provisions ( ! cov5ant2 second1    
because    _m ( ! t]ms ( ! treaty 7=    
example1 ^? relat+ to    b\nd>ies &     
m&ates7 7 fram$ on ! assumption t a     
,league    ( ,nations w\ld be 9 exi/5ce 

to c>ry !m into effect4 ,tak5    toge!r1
 ! treaty & ! cov5ant make ! longe/     
int]national    docum5t ev] fram$1 a    
pr9t$ book ( #hg1jjj words--ab\t half ! 
size ( ?is text-book4 ,ne>ly a ?\s&     
diplomats1 exp]ts1 &    cl]ks sp5t m ?an
 ?ree mon?s 9 draft+ x4    ,footnote    
#cjc3      ,invitations 7 n ext5d$ to   
,g]many1 ,au/ria1 ,hung>y1 ,bulg>ia1    
,turkey1 ,russia1 or ,mexico4 ,au/ria1  
h[ev]1 has s9ce be5 admitt$    to       
memb]%ip4    ,footnote #cjd3      ,:51 =
 example1 a typhus epidemic broke out 9 
,pol&1 & !    ,poli% au?orities f\nd    
!mselves unable to control x1 ! ,league 
s5t a commission ( heal? exp]ts to assi/
 !m4    ,footnote #cje3      ,?is is    
because n only ,great ,brita9 h]self b  
,india1 ,canada1    ,au/ralia1 ,s\?     
,africa1 & ,new ,zeal& are memb]s ( !   
,league4 ,x    0 assum$ t ! six ,briti% 
votes 9 ! ,assembly w\ld always be      
ca/ toge!r2 b1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! v>i\s
 ,briti% dom9ions    insi/$ ^u hav+     
sep>ate votes 9 ord] t !y might vote    

accord+ to _! own p>ticul> int]e/s4 ,9  
mo/ int]national    matt]s ! int]e/s (  
,canada1 ,au/ralia1 & ,s\? ,africa are n
    at all c]ta9 to co9cide ) ^? (      
,engl&4    ,footnote #cjf3      ,s9ce ! 
treaty & ! cov5ant 7 jo9$ toge!r1 !     
objections    to "o appli$ to ! o!r4    
,conc]n+ ,%antung1 see also p4 #fbj4    
,,*apt] ,,xxxii                         
,,political ,,& ,,economic              
,,recon/ruction        ,! purpose ( ?is 
*apt] is to discuss "s pres5t-day       
problems      ( _w democracy4           
,sid5ote3 ,:y ! p are n[ ?9k+ new       
?\ghts4    ,! ,w> & ! ,new ,era4--,! _w 
has sp5t ! ye>s s9ce ! w>  9 a condition
 ( political & economic unre/4 ,?is is n
 surpris+  because ?is h]culean conte/  
rock$ ! f\ndations ( civiliz$  society4 
,x let loose ! primitive passions ( m51 
hurl$ mon>*s  f _! ?rones1 turn$ indu/ry
 upside d[n1 drew millions ( m5  out (  
life's normal r\t9e1 & wa/$ z mu* weal? 
z ! :ole  _w c create 9 tw5ty or ?irty  
ye>s4 ,small wond] x is t  p %\ld ask   

!mselves :e!r a social ord] :i* p]mitt$ 
all  ?is to happ5 is 9 reality ! be/    
type ( organization = !  civiliz$       
c\ntries ( ! _w4 ,self-exam9ation       
usually takes place  among m5 & nations 
aft] a great disa/]4 ,?+s :i* h be5     
assum$ to be true are inspect$2 old     
traditions are ov]haul$1 & new          
proposals receive a m ready welcome ?an 
at o!r times4                           
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,illu/ration3      ,,! ,,graduate4 ,by  
,edw9 ,h4 ,bla%field      ,f a ,copley  
,pr9t1 copyright by ,curtis  ,cam]on1   
,bo/on4      ,reproduc$ by p]mission4   
,,! ,,graduate                          
,by ,edw9 ,h4 ,bla%field              ,f
 ! mural pa9t+ 9 ! ,great ,hall ( !     
,college ( ! ,city ( ,new ,york4        
,wisdom sits en?ron$1 a globe 9 h] h&s4 
,h]            placid head1 cov]$ ) a   
fold ( h] mantle1            is light$ f
 bel[ by ! flame on ! alt>            at
 h] feet4 ,! light also illum9es ! globe

            :i* %e holds4 ,on ei!r side 
( h] p$e/al1            9 a long curv$  
r[1 sit ! great c5t]s (            le>n+
 7,p>is1 ,rome1 ,ox=d1 etc47 repres5t$  
by graceful female =ms1 & 9 front ( !m  
are "s illu/ri\s repres5tatives ( ! arts
            & sci5ces--,petr>*1         
,galileo1 ,%akespe>e1 &            o!rs4
 ,9 ! imm$iate =egr\nd are "y           
m5 ( today--/ud5ts on ! "r & aspirants  
on ! left4              ,directly 9     
front ( ! alt> is ! ,graduate1 )        
academic cap & g[n4 ,beside him /&s     
,alma ,mat]1            h&some &        
dignifi$1 9 a figur$ ,v5etian           
mantle1 be>+ a %ield ) a seal ( !       
college            & hold+ a scroll4 ,%e
 bids ! "y graduate g            =? into
 ! _w1 be>+ ! tor* :i* he has           
light$ at ! alt> ( ,wisdom4 ,9 front (  
bo?1            & a little to ! "r1 is  
,discipl9e1 or ,self                    
,control1 hold+ 9 "o h& a sc\rge & 9 !  
o!r a sword4 ,%e /&s ready to accompany 
!            "y graduate on 8 j\rney    

?r\gh life4              ,bel[ ! picture
 is ! inscription3 8,do? n              
,wisdom cry8 ,%e /&e? 9 ! top ( ! high  
places1 by ! way ( ! places ( ! pa?s4   
,%e            crie? at ! gates at !    
entry ( ! city1 at !            com+ 9  
at ! doors40                            
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------    ,!  
,gr[? ( ,radicalism4--,two work+        
pr9ciples h hi!rto  furni%$ ! basis =   
political & economic organizations 9 su*
  c\ntries z ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,great    
,brita91 & ,france4 ,sid5ote3           
,democracy & individualism4 ,democracy1 
by :i* we mean ! control (  gov]nm5t by 
! :ole p1 act+ *iefly ?r\gh _!          
repres5tatives1 has be5 ! accept$ basis 
( political in/itutions4                
,individualism1 by :i* we mean an       
economic sy/em f\nd$ ^u !  individual   
own]%ip ( private prop]ty &1 ?r\gh      
private prop]ty1  ! individual control (
 indu/ry has be5 9 g5]al ! recogniz$    
f\ndation ( economic in/itutions4 ,by ! 

masses ( ! p 9 all  free c\ntries !     
pr9ciples prefigur$ by ^! two words1    
democracy  & individualism1 h be5       
tacitly accept$ = fifty ye>s or m z  !  
gr\ndwork ( political & economic        
activity4 ,bo? 7 *all5g$  f c]ta9       
qu>t]s2 ! sociali/s1 = example1 attack$ 
! :ole  sy/em ( economic individualism2 
b 9 no c\ntry 0 ! policy (              
individualism ov]?r[n4    ,sid5ote3     
,%\ld !y be displac$8    ,dur+ & aft] ! 
w>1 h[ev]1 ! dem& = a recon/ruction (  !
 _w's entire political & economic       
/ructure became m  insi/5t4 ,radical    
ideas z to :at ought to be done1 &      
radical  proposals z to h[ x ought to be
 done 7 br\ght =? & spread4  ,! _w f\nd 
itself1 almo/ 9 a day1 face to face )   
dem&s =  ! complete repudiation (       
democracy z an ideal & ( individualism  
z a pr9ciple ( economic organization4   
,proposals = /ate socialism1  guild     
socialism1 communism1 & a dictator%ip ( 
! prolet>iat 7  put =? aggressively on e
 h&4 ,no c\ntry prov$ to be immune  f   

?is radical movem5t1 al?\gh 9 "s x made 
f> great] headway  ?an 9 o!rs4    ,!    
,soviet ,plan ( ,gov]nm5t 9             
,!ory4#cjg--;,among ! v>i\s  c\ntries1  
,russia has gone ! f>!/1 ( c\rse1 9 !   
radical  demolition ( ! old political & 
economic ord]4 ,! ov]?r[ ( !  ,cz>i/    
empire 0 pres5tly foll[$ by ! e/abli%m5t
 ( soviet  gov]nm5t & a sy/em ( economic
 communism4 ,?is action naturally       
attract$ _w-wide att5tion & x has ex]t$1
 dur+ ! pa/ few  ye>s1 a pr(\nd influ5ce
 ^u ! attitude ( m5 t[>d political  &   
economic problems ev]y:]e4 ,sid5ote3 ,:y
 %\ld ,am]icans c>e  to "k any?+ ab\t x8
 ,x has giv5 new inspiration to         
radicalism  9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,we      
ought1 !re=e1 to "k some?+ ab\t ?is     
extraord9>y ov]turn+ ( ! old political &
 economic /ructure 9  ,russia2 o!rwise  
we _c grasp ! f>-rea*+ significance (   
radical movem5ts 9 our own c\ntry4      
,:at is ! soviet =m ( gov]nm5t & :at is 
meant by communism z  appli$ to indu/ry8
    ,! soviet =m ( gov]nm5t is a        

repudiation ( ! entire s*eme (  gov]nm5t
 :i* has be5 describ$ 9 ?is book4       
,sid5ote3 ,:y !  ,bol%evi/s object to   
democracy4 ,its support]s reg>d         
democracy z a  m]e weapon ( ! capitali/ 
by means ( :i* he exploits ! work]4  ,! 
only way 9 :i* ! work]s c obta9 _!      
rights1 !y decl>e1  is by e/abli%+ a    
8dictator%ip ( ! prolet>iat01 9 o!r     
words1  a gov]nm5t absolutely dom9at$ by
 !mselves to ! exclusion ( all  o!rs4   
,?is1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 mu/ be done by  
viol5ce2 b1  ev5tually1 !y hold1 ! p w  
accept x peaceably4    ,sid5ote3 ,!     
diff]5ce betwe5 soviet & democratic     
gov]nm5t4    ,soviet gov]nm5t diff]s f  
democratic gov]nm5t 9 two  all-important
 respects4 ,9 a democracy all adult     
citiz5s1 :atev]  _! occupation1 are     
equally entitl$ to a %>e 9 ! control ( !
  gov]nm5t4 ,democracy /&s on ! pr9ciple
 ( univ]sal1 direct1 &  secret suffrage4
 ,! soviet =m ( gov]nm5t repudiates !   
doctr9e  ( political equality4 ,x ass]ts
 t all p[] mu/ be ve/$ 9 !  h&s ( !     

peasants & work]s1 & t ! b\rgeoisie 7by 
:i*  !y mean capitali/s1 /orekeep]s1    
employ]s ( any k9d1 includ+  ev5 f>m]s  
:o employ hir$ labor7 are entitl$ to no 
%>e 9 !  control ( ! gov]nm5t4          
,democracy & equal suffrage1 ! soviet   
apologi/s proclaim1 are m]ely in/rum5ts 
by :i* ! /rong oppress  ! weak4 ,= a    
sy/em ( gov]nm5t by ! p1 !y w\ld        
sub/itute gov]nm5t by a portion ( ! p4  
,9 ,russia ?is has  meant1 z a matt] (  
fact1 gov]nm5t by a v small fraction ( !
  p4    ,! soviet sy/em also diff]s f   
democracy z respects ! way 9  :i* !     
(ficials ( gov]nm5t are *os54           
,repres5tation 9  democracies is bas$ ^u
 areas ( t]ritory4 ,sid5ote3 ,! soviet  
basis ( repres5tation4 ,all ! vot]s ( a 
t[n1 c\ntry1 or di/rict  jo9 9 elect+ a 
s+le repres5tative4 ,! p :o live 9 a    
giv5  t]ritorial area are assum$ to h a 
common int]e/ by reason (  _! liv+ close
 toge!r4 ,"u ! soviet sy/em ?is is      
consid]ably *ang$4 ,occupation z well z 
t]ritory is ! basis (  repres5tation4   

,gr\ps ( vot]s unite 9 *oos+ delegates  
because  !y "w at ! same trade1 n       
because !y live 9 ! same  neighborhood4 
,= example1 all ! work]s 9 a p>ticul>   
factory1 or  all ! f>m]s 9 a c]ta9      
di/rict beg9 by *oos+ "o or m           
repres5tatives4 ,^! repres5tatives come 
toge!r & =m ! city  work]s' soviet or ! 
t[n%ip soviet4 ,! city work]s' soviet is
 made  up ( "o or m delegates f e       
factory4 ,ea* local soviet1  moreov]1   
appo9ts delegates to high] soviets & ^!1
 9 turn1  *oose delegates to !          
,all-,russian ,congress ( ,soviets1 :i* 
is !  supreme gov]n+ body4 ,z ?is       
congress is too l>ge to d ! r\t9e  "w ( 
gov]nm5t1 x delegates ?is function to a 
cab9et or ,c\ncil  ( ,peoples'          
,commiss>s4#cjh    ,! ,soviet ,plan (   
,gov]nm5t 9 ,practice4--,?is is ! !ory (
  soviet gov]nm5t4 ,! supreme political 
au?ority is con/itut$ by !  work]s      
alone1 ?r\gh a long process ( indirect  
election4 ,!  national executive is     
sev]al /eps remov$ f ! control ( !  p4  

,he is n directly responsible to ! p z 9
 ! ,unit$  ,/ates4 ,9 actual fact1      
moreov]1 ?is elaborate plan ( indirect  
repres5tation has become1 9 ,russia1    
little m ?an a s*eme on  pap]4 ,_m ( !  
prov9cial ,soviets h *os5 no delegates  
at all4  ,!re is no assurance t ^? :o n[
 hold ! re9s ( p[] 9  ,russia are ! real
 repres5tatives ( ! masses ( ! p4 ,to   
keep  !mselves 9 (fice ! ,commiss>s h   
?rottl$ all opposition4  ,sid5ote3 ,"s  
results ( ! soviet rule4 ,!y h set at   
naught all  ! securities = p]sonal      
lib]ty :i* exi/ 9 democratic c\ntries4  
,arre/s h be5 made )\t w>rants1 ?\s&s ( 
!m2 m5 &  wom5 h be5 held 9 prison & put
 to dea? )\t public trial2  fre$om (    
spee*1 fre$om ( ! press1 & fre$om (     
assembly h  be5 d5i$4 ,! soviet lead]s  
admit all ?is b argue t ^!  measures are
 necess>y 9 ord] to prev5t a            
c\nt]-revolution4    ,! ,economic       
,aspects ( ,communism4--,! ,russian     
revolution did n  conf9e itself to      
political recon/ruction alone4 ,x 0 an  

economic  revolution z well4 ,sid5ote3  
,relation ( communism to indu/ry4 ,all  
private trade1 ( :atev] sort1 01 9 !ory 
at lea/1 aboli%$  ?r\gh\t ,russia & all 
indu/ries tak5 ov] by ! gov]nm5t4 ,!    
factories1 %ops1 /ores1 & all o!r       
in/rum5talities ( bus9ess  7 plac$ 9    
*>ge ( (ficials to be manag$ = ! b5efit 
( !  work]s4 ,^! work]s 7 assign$ to !  
v>i\s indu/ries by !  soviet au?orities1
 compulsory labor be+ decre$ by law & a 
fix$  /&>d ( wages e/abli%$4 ,trade     
unions & co-op]ative societies  7 put "u
 ! ban4 ,work]s receiv$ _! pay 9 ! =m ( 
requisitions or ord]s on ! gov]nm5t     
/ores = food & o!r  supplies4 ,/rikes 7 
=bidd5 on p5alty ( imprisonm5t4 ,all l& 
0 decl>$ to be own$ by ! /ate1 b !      
peasant f>m]s 7  all[$ to reta9 _! f>ms 
^u giv+ ! gov]nm5t a %>e 9 !  produce4  
,sid5ote3 ,breakd[n ( communism 9       
,russia4    ,al?\gh ! gov]nm5t did its  
be/ to c>ry ?r\gh ! =ego+  program1     
economic communism 9 ,russia broke      
d[n4#cji ,factories &  /ores w5t out (  

bus9ess2 ! peasants c\ld n be co]c$ into
  supply+ food = cities2 =eign trade    
/opp$ almo/ entirely2 !  railroads fail$
 to function2 ev]y:]e !re 0 mis]y &     
/>vation4 ,s ! soviet au?orities 9 #aiba
 decid$ ^u a p>tial  return to ! sy/em (
 privately-manag$ indu/ry4 ,factories & 
%ops1  to "s ext5t1 h be5 reop5$ "u     
individual own]%ip2 ! trade  unions h   
be5 p]mitt$ to reorganize2 ! rules      
relat+ to  compulsory labor h be5       
relax$2 & diff]5ces 9 ! rate ( wages    
paid to diff]5t work]s are once m       
p]mitt$4 ,! c\ntry has swung  back to a 
modifi$ =m ( individualism & capitali/ic
 production4    ,sid5ote3 ,! ,russian   
lesson4    ,! great lesson ( communism 9
 ,russia is t no sy/em ( economic       
organization c long survive unless x    
succe$s 9 produc+ en\gh to  fe$1 clo!1 &
 %elt] ! p4 ,:5 ! inc5tive ( private ga9
  is tak5 away1 "s equally /rong        
inc5tive to production mu/ be put  9 its
 place2 o!rwise production w decl9e &   
!re w n be  en\gh to g ar\nd4 ,t is :at 

happ5$ 9 ,russia4 ,nei!r compulsion  nor
 appeals to ! loyalty ( ! work] avail$  
to keep production up4  ,few] goods 7   
produc$ & !re 0 less to di/ribute4      
,equality (  di/ribution avails no?+ :5 
!re is too little to be di/ribut$4    ,!
 ,int]national ,aims ( !                
,communi/s4--,communism is n m]ely      
national 9 its aim2 x is int]national4  
,its motto is3 8,work]s ( !  ,_w1       
,unite60 ,its goal is ! viol5t ov]turn+ 
( ! exi/+  political & economic         
organization 9 all c\ntries s t soviet  
gov]nm5ts may be e/abli%$ & all private 
indu/ry aboli%$4  ,sid5ote3 ,program ( !
 ,?ird ,int]national4 ,?is is ! program 
(  ! ,?ird ,int]national1 a body made up
 ( communi/ delegates f  all ov] ! _w4  
,9 ord] to promote ?is program !        
,russian  au?orities h endeavor$ to c>ry
 on a propag&a 9 all o!r  c\ntries1 s5d+
 out lit]ature & ag5ts :]ev] possible4  
,!  communi/s realize1 h[ev]1 t !       
prospects = su* a revolution  are n good
 9 c\ntries l ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,great   

,brita91 &  ,france s long z ! trade    
union movem5t makes progress & ga9s     
advantages = organiz$ labor4 ,h5ce !y   
aim to secure ! de/ruction  ( unions1 to
 promote 8outlaw0 /rikes1 & to enc\rage 
e =m (  indu/rial discont5t4            
,sid5ote3 ,socialism & communism are    
widely diff]5t4    ,mod]ate ,socialism &
 ,communism ,di/+ui%$4--,communism1 z x 
has  be5 exemplifi$ 9 ,russia dur+ ! pa/
 few ye>s1 %\ld be  di/+ui%$ f socialism
 z ! latt] t]m is commonly und]/ood1    
al?\gh extreme =ms ( socialism may g    
sub/antially z f>4  ,sociali/s d n      
propose t all except ! work]s %all be   
exclud$  f a %>e 9 gov]nm5t4 ,!y d n    
propose to wipe out !  political rights 
( ! individual1 or to de/roy trade      
unionism1 or to  provide = labor        
conscription4 ,or?odox socialism does n 
aim at a  8dictator%ip0 ( any k9d4      
,sid5ote3 ,socialism def9$4    ,/ate    
,socialism4--,! program ( ! mod]ate     
sociali/s is commonly  kn[n z /ate      
socialism4 ,briefly /at$1 x proposes t  

all ! l&1  ! m9es1 ! =e/s1 ! factories1 
! railroads1 & e o!r  in/rum5tality (   
production or di/ribution %\ld be manag$
 9 !  int]e/s ( ! :ole p4 ,"u ! sy/em ( 
individualism1  accord+ to ! sociali/   
argum5t1 ^! ?+s are n[ manag$  prim>ily 
9 ! int]e/ ( private own]s4 ,! work]    
creates values  9 f> great] proportion  
?an ! wages he receives4 ,?is surplus   
value  goes to ! employ] 9 ! =m (       
pr(its4 ,! sociali/ w\ld aboli%  pr(its4
 ,! entire net e>n+s w\ld g to ! work]4 
,! basis (  gov]nm5t w\ld n1 h[ev]1 be  
revolutioniz$4 ,) "s *anges to  make    
democracy m effective 7= example1 ! wid]
 use ( !  initiative & ref]5dum71 /ate  
socialism w\ld leave gov]nm5t ab\t  z x 
is4 ,! work]s1 be+ 9 ! majority1 w\ld   
control gov]nm5t  ?r\gh _! num]ical     
sup]iority at ! polls2 !y w\ld n d5y  ! 
suffrage to non-sociali/s4 ,/ate        
socialism proposes ! do+ (  all ?is     
?r\gh ! ballot-box1 n by viol5ce or arm$
 revolution4    ,! ,case =              
,socialism4--,_m books h be5 writt5 9   

advocacy (  /ate socialism & _m argum5ts
 advanc$ 9 its behalf4 ,! case =        
socialism re/s l>gely ^u c]ta9          
propositions :i* may be briefly  /at$ z 
foll[s3 ,sid5ote3 ,! pres5t indu/rial   
inju/ice4 ,weal?  is l>gely ! product ( 
labor1 yet labor does n get its rightful
  %>e 9 ! product4 ,capital & managem5t1
 on ! o!r h&1 get  m ?an _! rightful    
%>e4 ,h5ce ! ri* are gr[+ ri*]1 &  !    
poor are gr[+ poor]4 ,! control (       
indu/ry1 & ) x !  well-be+ ( _m million 
work]s1 is pass+ /eadily into ! h&s  ( a
 v few m54 ,inequalities ( weal? lead to
 discont5t2 !  pres5t organization (    
indu/ry results 9 unemploym5t2 & m5 are 
engag$ 9 a p]petual class w> ) "o ano!r4
 ,great wa/es1  moreov]1 result f !     
sy/em ( competition4 ,sev]al milkm51 =  
in/ance1 g up & d[n ! same /reet1 ea*   
s]v+ a few families4  ,?9k ( :at !      
po/age rates w\ld be if we _h a simil>  
/ate (  affairs "u free competition 9   
furni%+ po/al s]vice6 ,socialism1  x is 
claim$1 w\ld unify production &         

di/ribution1 ?us prev5t+  wa/e4         
,sid5ote3 ,:at socialism proposes z a   
rem$y4    ,n[ ! rem$y = ?is is to aboli%
 private capitalism1 to h !  gov]nm5t   
take ov] ! indu/ries1 divide ! e>n+s    
fairly1 giv+  e work] 8 rightful %>e1   
?us secur+ a m ne>ly equal  di/ribution 
( weal? & happ9ess4 ,by ?is means1 also1
 pov]ty &  unemploym5t w\ld be aboli%$4 
,if all ! products ( labor 7 giv5  to ! 
work] 7r5t1 int]e/1 & pr(its be+        
aboli%$71 !re w\ld  be en\gh to give    
ev]ybody a reasonable day's "w & a      
com=table  liv+4 ,!re w\ld be /eady     
employm5t = all4 ,! great majority (  ! 
p are work]s4 ,_! welf>e %\ld be ! fir/ 
c>e (  organiz$ society2 b _! welf>e c  
nev] be secur$ s long z  practically    
complete p[] ov] ! conditions "u :i* !  
work]s  labor & live is ex]cis$ by !    
private own]s ( indu/ry4  ,sociali/s    
also claim t a moral ga9 w\ld result1   
inasmu* z !  pres5t class conflict w\ld 
give way to a recognition ( human       
bro!rhood4 ,co-op]ation1 n conflict1    

w\ld be ! wat*word (  indu/rial society4
    ,! ,case ,aga9/ ,socialism4--,!     
advocates ( socialism1 9 _!  argum5ts1  
frequ5tly assume some?+ :i* !y h n be5  
able to  prove4 ,sid5ote3 ,are ! poor   
gr[+ poor]8 ,!y proclaim t !  ri* are   
gr[+ ri*] & ! poor are gr[+ poor]1 t !  
middle  class is be+ cru%$ out1 & t soon
 !re w be only two gr\ps1  ! v ri* & ! v
 poor4 ,x is true t weal? is increas+  &
 t !re are m ri* m5 today ?an ev] be=e 9
 ! hi/ory  ( ! _w2 b x is also true t ! 
middle class is m num]\s  & ! work] mu* 
bett] (f ?an at any previ\s "t4 ,! /&>d 
( liv+ among ,am]ican wage-e>n]s today  
is high] ?an x 0 among  well-to-d p a   
hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,! av]age work] is     
bett]  h\s$1 bett] clo!d1 bett] f$1 &   
has m ( ! com=ts ( life  ?an ! employ] (
 a c5tury ago4    ,sid5ote3 ,! *ief     
argum5t aga9/ socialism4    ,b ap>t f   
?is ! crucial "q conc]ns ! way 9 :i*    
production w\ld be ma9ta9$ & h[ ! e>n+s 
w\ld be di/ribut$  "u a sociali/ sy/em4 
,today ! ma9 inc5tive to "w is !        

expectation ( rew>d4 ,mo/ m5 "w because 
!y expect to be paid =  x4 ,cut d[n _!  
pay & !y w usually /op "w & try to      
p]suade o!r p f work+4 ,!re are         
exceptions to ! rule1 (  c\rse2 b :5 m5 
& wom5 "w h>d & try to d _! be/ x is    
because !y hope to get promot$1 to get  
_! wages rais$1 to secure  an easi] job 
at high] pay4#caj ,socialism w\ld aboli%
 ?is exact  relation betwe5 skill &     
wages4 ,ev]yone w\ld "w at :atev] task  
he 0 be/ fitt$ to p]=m & w\ld be giv5   
en\gh to live on  com=tably4 ,or1 z !   
sociali/s put x1 ev]yone w\ld produce   
accord+ to 8 ability & be paid accord+  
to 8 ne$s4    ,sid5ote3 ,"s practical   
que/ions4    ,?is1 h[ev]1 begs "s v     
important que/ions ( a practical nature4
  ,:o w\ld det]m9e ! "w t y or ,i %\ld  
d8 ,:o w\ld  det]m9e t y mu/ labor 9 !  
coal m9es :ile ,i g abroad1 z a  =eign  
ambassador8 ,:o w det]m9e y\r ne$s &    
m9e1 s t we  may be rew>d$ accord+ly8   
,sid5ote3 ,socialism & compulsion4    ,!
 answ] is t au?orities w\ld h to be     

e/abli%$ ) p[]  to settle ^! ?+s & to   
apply compulsion :]e necess>y4 ,we w\ld 
h indu/rial autocracy4 ,m5 & wom5 w\ld h
 no complete fre$om  to *oose _! own    
occupations4 ,! sociali/s say t if !    
exi/+  wage sy/em 7 aboli%$ ev]yone w\ld
 d 8 be/ to increase  production 9 ord] 
to make ! new plan a success2 b :]e     
sociali/ic exp]im5ts h be5 tri$ !       
contr>y is true2 !  work]s d less &     
produce less4 ,let u rememb]1 also1 !   
increas$  dang] ( corruption :i* w\ld   
come if ! au?orities 7 giv5 s  great an 
increase 9 p[]4 ,! :ole res\rces ( !    
c\ntry w\ld be  plac$ 9 ! control ( an  
(ficial class2 ! entire labor-=ce (  !  
nation w\ld be put at _! disposal4 ,!   
sociali/ answ]s t if  (ficials prov$    
arbitr>y or corrupt ! p w\ld turn !m out
 (  (fice4 ,does our exp]i5ce ) o!r =ms 
( gov]nm5t w>rant any  su* expectation8 
,sid5ote3 ,socialism & human nature4    
,two me?ods ( gett+ "w done h be5 tri$  
by ! _w at "o  "t or ano!r4 ,9 anci5t & 
m$ival times mo/ ( ! "w 0 done  by      

slaves4 ,! slave got no wages2 he did 8 
"w because he 0  compell$ to d x4 ,9    
mod]n times1 s9ce slav]y & s]fdom no    
long]  exi/ among civiliz$ p1 mo/ ( ! "w
 is done by free m5 :o  d x because !y  
expect to be paid = do+ x4 ,& s9ce !re  
are  diff]5ces 9 ! abilities ( diff]5t  
m51 "s get m pay ?an  o!rs1 ev5 ?\gh !  
opportunities be ! same = all4 ,if !    
capable work] 7 n paid m ?an ! less     
compet5t1 he w\ld n  ex]t himself to d 8
 be/4 ,to get ! be/ out ( any free man  
he  mu/ be giv5 ! hope ( a rew>d 9      
proportion to 8 effici5cy1 &  = ! great 
majority ( p ?is means a rew>d 9 doll>s 
&  c5ts4 ,t is human nature4            
,sid5ote3 ,c human nature be *ang$8     
,x is sometimes said t human nature may 
*ange & t1 9 a new  environm5t1 m5 might
 "w unselfi%ly = ! common welf>e )\t    
ref]5ce to _! rate ( wages or pr(its4   
,true en\gh ! motives (  m5 may & d     
*ange some:at2 b :5 we trace ! c\rse (  
human  hi/ory ?r\gh tw5ty c5turies we   
f9d t ! dom9ant traits (  mank9d h alt]$

 v little 9 all t "t4 ,human nature     
itself  af=ds ! greate/ ob/acle to !    
success ( a sociali/ sy/em4             
,socialism & ,lib]ty4--,lib]ty does n   
include political fre$om  alone4 ,x     
comprises ! "r ( ! individual to *oose 8
 own  c>e]1 to make 8 own b>ga9s1 & to  
become 8 own employ] if he  c4 ,an      
indu/rial sy/em 9 :i* all m5 are        
compell$ to d z "s  high] au?ority      
dictates w\ld e/abli% ! v negation (    
lib]ty4  ,"u socialism ! complete       
control ( all economic life w\ld be     
ve/$ 9 "s supreme au?ority4 ,x matt]s   
little h[ t au?ority  might be *os52 !  
conc5tration ( su* va/ p[]s any:]e1 9 ! 
h&s ( any gr\p ( m51 w\ld make          
individual lib]ty a mean+less           
expression4 ,x may be repli$ t "u our   
pres5t sy/em ( private  indu/ry ! work] 
has 9 fact v little lib]ty2 t _m        
employ]s  are despots & t ! work] is    
subject$ to tyranny4 ,t is to a  c]ta9  
ext5t true4 ,b 9 s f> z !re is an undue 
& ne$less  re/riction "u pres5t         

conditions ( indu/ry ! rem$y is to      
promote ! lib]ty ( ! work] ?r\gh ! p[] (
 8 own  organizations & by ! laws ( !   
l&4    ,socialism &                     
,democracy4--,socialism & democracy c   
nev] be good  fri5ds4 ,democracy is     
gov]nm5t by ! p2 9 o!r words x is       
gov]nm5t by amateurs4 ,x is n gov]nm5t  
by a pr(essional class4  ,! gov]nm5t ( !
 ,g]man ,empire be=e ! w> 0 l>gely 9 !  
h&s ( a pr(essional class1 a bureaucracy
 x 0 call$4 ,n[ a  democratic gov]nm5t1 
be+ manag$ by ! rank & file ( ! p1  is  
(t5 wa/eful & clumsy 9 its h&l+ (       
bus9ess affairs4 ,we  h _h "s notable   
examples ( ?is 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 =     
example1 ! build+ ( airplanes & %ips    
dur+ ! w>1 !  op]ation ( ! railroads    
dur+ #aiah-aibj1 & ! con/ruction (      
public build+s4 ,a bureaucratic         
gov]nm5t1 conduct$ by pr(essional       
adm9i/rators1 is mu* m effici5t4        
,sid5ote3 ,socialism w\ld               
pr(essionalize ! gov]nm5t4 ,x is n      
improbable1 !re=e1 t  socialism1 by     

plac+ ^u ! public au?orities ! entire   
managem5t  ( e =m ( indu/ry1 includ+    
factories & %ops z well z  railroads &  
telegraphs1 w\ld mean ! breakd[n ( !    
democratic  ideal & ! pr(essionaliz+ (  
gov]nm5t4 ,! entire indu/rial  sy/em ( !
 c\ntry c\ld n be successfully manag$ by
 amateurs4 ,to  save x f collapse "u    
socialism ! gov]nm5t w\ld h to be       
reorganiz$ on bureaucratic l9es4    ,c  
,democracy ,solve ,its ,problems8--,b if
 n socialism1 :at !n8  ,c]ta9 x is t we 
are fac+ great problems bo? at home &   
abroad  today2 & ^! problems mu/ be     
solv$ 9 ! int]e/ ( human  happ9ess4 ,we 
_c close our eyes to !m & tru/ t someh[ 
or  o!r !y w "w out _! own solution4 ,c 
democracy & our  pres5t sy/em ( private 
indu/ry ma/] !m8 ,well1 democracy & our 
pres5t indu/rial sy/em h ov]come a great
 _m ob/acles 9 !  pa/ & x is only by    
/udy+ ! pa/ t we c make any =eca/  ( !  
future4 ,! l& surveyor1 :5 he wants to  
project a /raight  l9e f a giv5 po9t1   
walks back "s di/ance s t he may align  

8 pickets 9 ! gr\nd4 ,let u = a mom5t   
pursue ! same plan1  walk back a doz5   
decades 9 ,am]ican hi/ory & take a sight
 along !  great l&m>ks to ! pres5t "t4  
,:at h democracy &  individualism       
contribut$ to ! well-be+ & happ9ess ( ! 
,am]ican p8    ,sid5ote3 ,democracy &   
,am]ican progress4    ,:at ,am]ica ,has 
,done4--,9 ! pa/ "o hundr$ & tw5ty ye>s 
!  p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates h increas$ _!    
t]ritories t5-fold1  _! numb]s          
tw5ty-fold1 & _! weal? at lea/ a        
?\s&-fold4  ,!y h1 ) "o great exception1
 compos$ _! int]nal qu>rels  peaceably  
dur+ ! :ole ( ?is long p]iod4 ,!y h     
develop$ a  gov]nm5t bas$ ^u ! cons5t ( 
! gov]n$ & h plac$ !  cap/one ^u x by ! 
grant ( univ]sal suffrage4 ,!y h kept ! 
v>i\s bran*es ( gov]nm5t )9 _! own      
respective fields &  h ?us prev5t$ !    
gr[? ( despotic p[] any:]e4 ,! p's      
direct control ov] ! policy ( !         
gov]nm5t1 moreov]1 has be5  greatly     
augm5t$ dur+ ! pa/ g5]ation4 ,x is inde$
 d\btful  :e!r ,wa%+ton1 ,hamilton1 &   

,madison1 if !y 7 to arise f  _! graves1
 w\ld recognize ! pres5t gov]nm5t ( !   
,unit$  ,/ates z _! own h&iwork1 s f>   
has x mov$ along l9es (  great]         
democracy4 ,9 ! /ates & ! cities ?is    
/eady drift to  m direct popul> control 
has be5 v m>k$4 ,"o ne$ only m5tion  su*
 ?+s z ! initiative1 ref]5dum & recall1 
direct prim>ies1  popul> election (     
s5ators1 ! %ort ballot1 ! commission &  
city-manag] =ms ( gov]nm5t1 & ! ext5sion
 ( suffrage to  wom5--all ( :i* are !   
product ( ! la/ tw5ty-five ye>s--to     
indicate h[ /rong has be5 ! tide (      
popul> control4    ,mo/ /rik+ ( all     
,am]ican a*ievem5ts1 h[ev]1 has be5 !   
wide  diffusion ( mat]ial com=ts among !
 masses ( ! p4 ,9 no  o!r c\ntry is !re 
any?+ approa*+ x4 ,! /&>d ( liv+  among 
wage-e>n]s is high] ?an x is any:]e     
else1 mu* high]4 ,!  av]age ,am]ican    
work] is bett] h\s$ & bett] provid$ )   
food  ?an is ! typical workman 9 any o!r
 c\ntry4 ,he & 8 *ildr5  get bett]      
educational opportunities & a bett]     

*ance to rise 9 !  _w4 ,! way 9 :i*     
immigrants h be5 flock+ to our %ores    
dur+ ! pa/ hundr$ ye>s is a pro( t      
millions ( m5 & wom5  h look$ ^u ,am]ica
 z a l& ( opportunity4 ,?is is n to     
imply1  by any means1 t !re are no slums
 9 ,am]ican cities1 no pov]ty1 no       
mis]y1 & no indu/rial oppression4 ,we h1
 9 tru?1 f> too mu* (  all ^! ?+s4 ,b x 
is also ! tru? t we h relatively less  (
 !m ?an any ( ! o!r great indu/rial l&s4
    ,n all ( ?is progress & prosp]ity is
 due1 ( c\rse1 to !  political &        
economic sy/em :i* ,am]ica has ma9ta9$  
dur+ !  pa/ c5tury4 ,! ri* natural      
res\rces ( ! c\ntry & ! /eady  indu/ry (
 its p h be5 fundam5tal factors4 ,b no  
matt] h[  va/ _! res\rces or h[         
unremitt+ _! indu/ry a p _c  a*ieve la/+
 prosp]ity & cont5tm5t unless !y possess
 a  political sy/em & an economic       
organization :i* is well suit$ to  _!   
ne$s4    ,:at ,democracy ,has ,fail$ to 
,d4--,x w\ld be idle to reg>d democratic
  gov]nm5t ev]y:]e z an unqualifi$      

success4 ,no s*eme ( political          
organization w ( itself secure a        
gov]nm5t :i* is bo? effici5t  & popul>4 
,! active ef=ts ( ! p are requir$ to    
a*ieve  ?is end4 ,n m]ely ! cons5t ( !  
gov]n$ b ! p>ticipation  ( ! gov]n$ is  
ess5tial4 ,by reason ( popul> indiff]5ce
 !  in/itutions ( democracy 9 ,am]ica h 
frequ5tly be5 p]v]t$ &  abus$ by m5 :om 
! p h plac$ 9 p[]4 ,sid5ote3 ,"s        
examples4 ,:at passes = public op9ion is
 at times no?+ b  propag&a1 organiz$ to 
promote "s selfi% int]e/4 ,democracy has
  n yet succe$$1 moreov]1 9 prev5t+ w>s 
or induc+ all nations  to deal ju/ly )  
"o ano!r4 ,x has n prev5t$ ! rise (     
oppos+ classes among ! p1 or kept gr\ps 
( individuals f  sett+ !mselves 9       
antagonism to ea* o!r4 ,democracy has n 
reconcil$ labor & capital2 x has n c>ri$
 its pr9ciples v f>  into our indu/rial 
organization4 ,^! are s]i\s fail+s1 no  
d\bt2  b ! fri5ds ( democracy c fairly  
say1 8,w\ld any o!r sy/em  h done       
bett]80 ,democracy is :at ! p make x1 & 

its faults  po9t to ! defects ( human   
nature4    ,! ,citiz5's ,duty 9 a       
,democracy4--,no =m ( gov]nm5t gives !  
citiz5 s mu* z democracy1 & none makes  
great] dem&s ^u him 9  return4 ,we are  
f> too mu* conc]n$ ab\t ! rights ( m5 & 
wom52  f> too little conc]n$ ab\t _!    
obligations to society1 to !  /ate1 & to
 _! fell[-m54 ,vot+ at elections is b a 
small "p  ( ! citiz5's duty4 ,8 %>e 9 ! 
=m+ ( a s\nd &  enlight5$ public op9ion 
con/itutes an obligation ^u him e day  9
 ! ye>4 ,:5 public op9ion takes an      
unwise c\rse x is because  ! p make up  
_! m9ds ha/ily1 )\t c>eful ?\ght1 &  )\t
 ! guidance :i* %\ld be provid$ by !    
educat$ m5 &  wom5 ( ! l&4 ,e individual
 is a unit 9 ! =m+ ( public  s5tim5t2 he
 c be a helpful factor if he w4         
,education is ! *ief  corn]-/one (      
democratic gov]nm5t1 & x mu/ also be !  
*ief  prop to any plan ( indu/rial      
democracy :i* hopes to be successful  & 
p]man5t4 ,education makes m5 & wom5     
tol]ant ( o!r p's  op9ions1 gives !m    

confid5ce 9 mank9d1 & fai? 9 :at mank9d 
c accompli%4    ,democracy has pass$    
?r\gh _m rag+ /orms4 ,9 ! d>k days ( !  
,civil ,w> !re 7 _m :o fe>$ t 9 ,am]ica 
x 0 ab\t to  p]i% utt]ly4 ,b x surviv$ &
 grew /rong] ?an be=e4 ,)\t  ! fai? ( ! 
p 9 x1 & ! "w :i* is ! exemplification  
( fai?1 democracy c accompli% no?+2 ) ^!
 ?+s !re is  no problem t x ne$ fe> to  
face4                                   
,g5]al ,ref]5ces    ,e4 ,m4 ,,fri$man1  
,am]ican ,problems ( ,recon/ruction1 pp4
 #de-ee2    ,,b]tr& ,,russell1 ,propos$ 
,roads to ,fre$om1 pp4 #ahf-bab2    ,r4 
,c4 ,k4 ,,ensor 7editor71 ,mod]n        
,socialism1 pp4 #fe-hi2    ,n4 ,p4      
,,gilman1 ,socialism & ! ,am]ican ,_s1  
pp4 #df-hi2    ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells1 ,:at is 
,com+1 pp4 #if-abd2    ,o4 ,d4          
,,skelton1 ,socialism3 ,a ,critical     
,analysis1 pp4 #af-fa2    ,,john        
,,sp>go1 ,social ,democracy ,expla9$1   
pp4 #a-di2    ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1        
,select$ ,read+s 9 ,economics1 pp4      
#ffh-gje2    ,j4 ,r4 ,,commons1         

,indu/rial ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #aaj-acd2     
,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel& & ,,joseph ,,s*af]1   
,democracy 9 ,recon/ruction1 pp4        
#afe-aib2    ,,sidney & ,,beatrice      
,,webb1 ,a ,con/itution = ! ,sociali/   
,commonweal?  ( ,great ,brita91 passim2 
,,william ,,macdonald1 ,a ,new          
,con/itution = a ,new ,am]ica1 pp4      
#abg-aci4                               
,gr\p ,problems    #a4 ,:at indu/rial   
democracy means4 ,! traditional         
organization (  indu/ry4 ,relations (   
employ] & employee4 ,! repres5tation ( !
  work]s 9 ! managem5t ( indu/ry4       
,me?ods ( secur+ ?is  repres5tation4    
,%op c\ncils4 ,m]its & defects ( ! plan4
 ,o!r  proposals4 ,effects ( indu/rial  
democracy ^u production4  ,ref]5ces3 ,g4
 ,d4 ,h4 ,,cole1 ,guild ,socialism      
,re-/at$1 pp4 #db-gg2  ,ibid41          
,self-,gov]nm5t 9 ,indu/ry1 pp4 #bd-dg2 
,r4 ,w4 ,,sell>s1 ,!  ,next ,/ep 9      
,democracy1 pp4 #bdf-bgb2 ,j4 ,r4       
,,commons1 ,indu/rial  ,gov]nm5t1 pp4   
#gg-aji2 ,,ida ,m4 ,,t>bell1 ,new       

,ideals 9 ,bus9ess1 pp4  #acd-afb2      
,,sidney & ,,beatrice ,,webb1 ,a        
,con/itution = ! ,sociali/  ,commonweal?
 ( ,great ,brita91 pp4 #adg-afg4    #b4 
,! work] 9 ! sociali/ /ate4 ,ref]5ces3  
,,h>tley ,,)]s1  ,! ,case = ,capitalism1
 pp4 #ach-afh2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells & o!rs1  
,socialism & ! ,great ,/ate1 pp4        
#fi-aai2 ,r4 ,w4 ,,sell>s1 ,! ,next     
,/ep 9 ,democracy1 pp4 #ace-aef2 ,o4 ,d4
 ,,skelton1 ,socialism3 ,a ,critical    
,analysis1 pp4 #agg-bai2 ,,john ,,sp>go1
 ,social ,democracy ,expla9$1 pp4       
#ej-hd4    #c4 ,! new] problems (       
democracy4 ,ref]5ces3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,clevel& 
&  ,,joseph ,,s*af]1 ,democracy 9       
,recon/ruction1 pp4 #be-ff2 ,e4 ,m4     
,,fri$man1 ,am]ican ,problems (         
,recon/ruction1 pp4 #ddg-dfd2 ,f4 ,j4   
,c4  ,,he>n%aw1 ,democracy at !         
,crossways1 pp4 #aa-gh2 ,,graham        
,,wallas1 ,our  ,social ,h]itage1 pp4   
#aeh-ahf2 ,l4 ,t4 ,,hobh\se1 ,democracy 
& ,reaction1  pp4 #afg-ahg2 ,h4 ,f4     
,,w>d1 ,! ,new ,social ,ord]1 pp4       

#ce-ge2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,tufts1  ,our          
,democracy2 its ,orig9s & its ,tasks1   
pp4 #bfh-bih4                           
,%ort ,/udies    #a4 ,h[ ! work]s manage
 bus9ess ent]prises4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,fay1     
,coop]ation at ,home & ,abroad1 pp4     
#bbb-bcg4    #b4 ,an>*ism3 its tea*+s & 
me?ods4 ,,b]tr& ,,russell1 ,propos$     
,roads to ,fre$om1 pp4 #cb-ee2 ,f4 ,j4  
,c4 ,,he>n%aw1 ,democracy at !          
,crossways1 pp4 #bfb-bhg4    #c4        
,syndicalism3 its organization & aims4  
,,john ,,sp>go1 ,social  ,democracy     
,expla9$1 pp4 #bdd-bgg2 ,j4 ,g4         
,,brooks1 ,am]ican ,syndicalism1  pp4   
#gc-aje4    #d4 ,communism4 ,,leo       
,,pasvolsky1 ,! ,economics ( ,communism1
 pp4 #a-ag2  #dh-hc4    #e4 ,bol%evism4 
,r4 ,w4 ,,po/gate1 ,! ,bol%evik ,!ory1  
pp4 #ac-da2  ,,b]tr& ,,russell1 ,!      
,practice & ,!ory ( ,bol%evism1 pp4     
#aai-aef2  ,,john ,,sp>go1 ,bol%evism1  
pp4 #bfb-cbc4    #f4 ,! soviet exp]im5t 
9 ,russia4 ,h4 ,n4 ,,brails=d1 ,!       
,russian  ,work]s' ,republic1 pp4       

#cg-gi2 ,,frank ,,com]=d1 ,! ,new ,_w1  
pp4  #aah-afi2 #bha-cje4    #g4 ,guild  
socialism4 ,g4 ,d4 ,h4 ,,cole1 ,guild   
,socialism ,re-,/at$1 pp4  #i-da2       
,,h>tley ,,)]s1 ,! ,case = ,capitalism1 
pp4 #ahi-bce2 ,,graham  ,,wallas1 ,our  
,social ,h]itage1 pp4 #ajb-aba4    #h4  
,m>xian socialism4 ,b4 ,l4 ,,brasol1    
,socialism vs4 ,civilization1  pp4      
#fa-aaj2 ,,john ,,sp>go1 ,socialism     
,expla9$1 pp4 #abc-aeg4    #i4 ,/ate    
socialism3 ! argum5ts = & aga9/4        
,,h>tley ,,)]s1  ,! ,case = ,capitalism1
 pp4 #ach-afh2 ,a4 ,e4 ,,davies1 ,!     
,case =  ,nationalization1 pp4 #ab-bi4  
#aj4 ,! individual & ! new society4 ,a4 
,b4 ,,h>t 7editor71 ,problems  (        
,readju/m5t ,aft] ! ,w>1 pp4 #ih-abh4   
#aa4 ,wom5 9 ! new social ord]4 ,h4 ,g4 
,,wells1 ,:at is ,com+1 pp4  #aei-ahh2  
,h4 ,a4 ,,holli/]1 ,! ,woman ,citiz51   
pp4 #adb-agh4    #ab4 ,fiscal           
recon/ruction4 ,e4 ,m4 ,,fri$man1       
,am]ican ,problems (  ,recon/ruction1   
pp4 #dbg-ddf4                           

,que/ions    #a4 ,:y has ! movem5t =    
political & social recon/ruction become 
/rong] 9 rec5t ye>s8    #b4 ,expla9 h[  
8! soviet =m ( gov]nm5t is a repudiation
 ( !  entire s*eme ( gov]nm5t :i* has   
be5 describ$ 9 ?is book04    #c4 ,make a
 diagram %[+ ! organization ( ! soviet  
gov]nm5t 9  ,russia4 ,%[ h[ mu* m direct
 is ! control ( ! p ov]  _! gov]nm5t 9 !
 ,unit$ ,/ates4    #d4 ,:at is ! lesson 
( ! economic breakd[n 9 ,russia8    #e4 
,expla9 :at is meant by ! ,int]national4
 ,:at are its aims8    #f4 ,/ate any    
argum5ts = socialism :i* are n giv5 9 ! 
text4  ,any argum5ts aga9/ socialism4   
,is x true t 8z a g5]al rule  !re are   
only two ways ( gett+ "w done 9 ?is _w08
 ,9 a  sociali/ /ate :at w\ld be !      
inc5tive to "w8 ,w\ld x be  suffici5t8  
#g4 ,w\ld ! e/abli%m5t ( socialism      
necess>ily involve !  ab&onm5t (        
democracy8 ,argue ! po9t4    #h4 ,"n !  
pr9cipal a*ievem5ts ( ,am]ican democracy
 dur+ ! pa/  hundr$ ye>s4 ,:i* ( !m d y 
reg>d z ! mo/ important &  :y8    #i4   

,"n "s pres5t-day political & economic  
inju/ices :i* y  w\ld l to see set "r4  
,sugge/ :at might be done ab\t !m4      
#aj4 ,are y a m e>ne/ or a less e>ne/   
believ] 9 democracy by  reason ( y\r    
hav+ /udi$ ,social ,civics8             
,topics = ,debate    #a4 ,repres5tation 
9 gov]nm5t %\ld be bas$ on occupations r
  ?an on t]ritorial divisions4    #b4 ,!
 labor]s %\ld be giv5 a voice 9 !       
managem5t ( _!  respective indu/ries4   
#c4 ,! condition ( ! labor] is bett] "u 
private capitalism ?an  x w\ld be "u    
socialism4    -----    ,footnote #cjg3  
,! t]m 8soviet0 means c\ncil or meet+4  
,! con/itution ( !    ,russian ,sociali/
 ,f$]at$ ,soviet ,republic may be f\nd 9
 ,,frank    ,,com]=d1 ,! ,new ,_w1 pp4  
#bha-cje4    ,footnote #cjh3            
,nikalai ,l59 is n[ ! head ( ?is        
,c\ncil2 ,leon ,trotzky is    ,m9i/] (  
,w> 9 x4 ,ea* memb] ( ! ,c\ncil is head 
( a    dep>tm5t4    ,footnote #cji3     
,! breakd[n 0 due 9 "p1 no d\bt1 to !   
disorganization    wr\ght by ! w> & !   

int]nal revolts :i* broke out 9 ,russia 
aft] ! w>4 ,to make matt]s worse !re 7  
crop failures1 )    result+ fam9es1 9 "s
 ( ,russia's be/ gra9-produc+ regions4  
,footnote #caj3      ,x is q true t "s  
m5 & wom5 "w because !y l to    "w &    
dislike to be idle1 or because !y feel t
 :at !y d is    ( value to ! community1 
or = "s o!r reason n directly           
connect$ ) _! pay4 ,!y =m1 h[ev]1 a v   
small fraction (    ! total body (      
wage-e>n]s4                             
,,app5dix                               
,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates   
,,preamble    ,we1 ! p ( ! ,unit$       
,/ates1 9 ord] to =m a m p]fect  ,union1
 e/abli% ju/ice1 insure dome/ic         
tranquillity1 provide = !  common       
def5ce1 promote ! g5]al welf>e1 & secure
 ! bless+s (  lib]ty to ourselves & our 
po/]ity1 d orda9 & e/abli% ?is          
,con/itution = ! ,unit$ ,/ates (        
,am]ica4                                
,,article ,i                            
,,legislative ,,dep>tm5t                

,section #a4 ,two ,h\ses    #a4 ,all    
legislative p[]s h]e9 grant$ %all be    
ve/$ 9 a ,congress  ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  
:i* %all consi/ ( a ,s5ate & ,h\se (    
,repres5tatives4                        
,section #b4 ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives    
#a4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all be  
compos$ ( memb]s *os5  e second ye> by !
 p ( ! sev]al /ates1 & ! electors  9 ea*
 /ate %all h ! qualifications requisite 
= electors#caa  ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( !
 /ate legislature4    #b4 ,no p]son %all
 be a ,repres5tative :o %all n h atta9$ 
to  ! age ( tw5ty-five ye>s1 & be5 sev5 
ye>s a citiz5 ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o  
%all n1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( t 
/ate 9 :i* he %all be *os54    #c4      
,repres5tatives & direct taxes %all be  
apportion$ among !  sev]al /ates :i* may
 be includ$ )9 ?is ,union1 accord+ to   
_! respective numb]s1 :i* %all be       
det]m9$ by add+ to !  :ole numb] ( free 
p]sons1 includ+ ^? b\nd to s]vice = a   
t]m ( ye>s1 & exclud+ ,indians n tax$1  
?ree-fif?s ( all  o!r p]sons#cab4 ,!    

actual enum]ation %all be made )9 ?ree  
ye>s aft] ! fir/ meet+ ( ! ,congress ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates1 &  )9 e subsequ5t t]m ( 
t5 ye>s1 9 su* mann] z !y %all  by law  
direct4 ,! numb] ( ,repres5tatives %all 
n exce$ "o =  e ?irty ?\s&1 b ea* /ate  
%all h at lea/ "o  ,repres5tative2 &1   
until su* enum]ations %all be made1 !   
/ate (  ,new ,hamp%ire %all be entitl$  
to *oose ?ree1 ,massa*usetts eight1     
,rhode ,isl& & ,provid5ce ,plantations  
"o1 ,connecticut five1 ,new ,york  six1 
,new ,j]sey f\r1 ,p5nsylvania eight1    
,delaw>e "o1 ,m>yl& six1  ,virg9ia t51  
,nor? ,c>ol9a five1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a five1 &
 ,georgia  ?ree4    #d4 ,:5 vacancies   
happ5 9 ! repres5tation f any /ate1 !   
executive au?ority !re( %all issue writs
 ( election to fill su*  vacancies4     
#e4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all     
*oose _! ,speak] & o!r  (fic]s2 & %all h
 ! sole p[] ( impea*m5t4                
,section #c4 ,s5ate    #a4 ,! ,s5ate ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$ ( two    
,s5ators  f ea* /ate *os5 by !          

legislature !re(#cac = six ye>s2  & ea* 
,s5ator %all h "o vote4    #b4          
,imm$iately aft] !y %all be assembl$ 9  
consequ5ce ( ! fir/  election1 !y %all  
be divid$1 z equally z may be1 into ?ree
  classes4 ,! seats ( ! s5ators ( ! fir/
 class %all be vacat$  at ! expiration (
 ! second ye>2 ( ! second class1 at !   
expiration ( ! f\r? ye>2 & ( ! ?ird     
class1 at ! expiration  ( ! six? ye>2 s 
t "o-?ird may be *os5 e second ye>2  &  
if vacancies happ5 by resignation1 or   
o!rwise1 dur+ ! recess  ( ! legislature 
( any /ate1 ! executive !re( may make   
tempor>y appo9tm5ts until ! next meet+ (
 ! legislature1 :i*  %all !n fill su*   
vacancies4#cad    #c4 ,no p]son %all be 
a ,s5ator :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age  (
 ?irty ye>s1 & be5 n9e ye>s a citiz5 ( !
 ,unit$    ,/ates1 :o %all n1 :5 elect$1
 be an inhabitant ( t /ate =  :i* he    
%all be *os54    #d4 ,! ,vice-,presid5t 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ,presid5t ( ! 
,s5ate1 b %all h no vote1 unless !y be  
equally divid$4    #e4 ,! ,s5ate %all   

*oose _! o!r (fic]s1 & also a ,presid5t 
pro tempore1 9 ! abs5ce ( !             
,vice-,presid5t1 or :5 he %all  ex]cise 
! (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  
#f4 ,! ,s5ate %all h ! sole p[] to try  
all impea*m5ts4 ,:5  sitt+ = t purpose1 
!y %all be on oa? or affirmation4 ,:5 ! 
,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is tri$1 !  
,*ief ,ju/ice %all  preside2 & no p]son 
%all be convict$ )\t ! concurr5ce (     
two-?irds ( ! memb]s pres5t4    #g4     
,judgm5t 9 cases ( impea*m5t %all n     
ext5d fur!r ?an to  removal f (fice1 &  
disqualification to hold & enjoy any    
(fice  ( honor1 tru/1 or pr(it1 "u !    
,unit$ ,/ates2 b ! p>ty  convict$ %all1 
nev]!less1 be liable & subject to       
indictm5t1  trial1 judgm5t1 & puni%m5t1 
accord+ to law4                 ,section
 #d4 ,elections & ,meet+s ( ,congress   
#a4 ,! times1 places1 & mann]1 ( hold+  
elections = ,s5ators &  ,repres5tatives1
 %all be prescrib$ 9 ea* /ate by !      
legislature  !re(3 b ! ,congress may at 
any "t1 by law1 make or alt] su*        

regulations1 except z to ! places (     
*oos+ ,s5ators4    #b4 ,! ,congress %all
 assemble at lea/ once 9 e ye>1 & su*   
meet+ %all be on ! fir/ ,monday 9       
,decemb]1 unless !y %all by  law appo9t 
a diff]5t day4                          
,section #e4 ,p[]s & ,duties ( ! ,h\ses 
#a4 ,ea* ,h\se %all be ! judge ( !      
elections1 returns1 &  qualifications ( 
its own memb]s1 & a majority ( ea* %all 
con/itute a quorum to d bus9ess2 b a    
small] numb] may adj\rn  f day to day1 &
 may be au?oriz$ to compel ! att5dance (
  abs5t memb]s1 9 su* mann]1 & "u su*   
p5alties1 z ea* ,h\se  may provide4     
#b4 ,ea* ,h\se may det]m9e ! rules ( !  
proce$+s1 puni% its  memb]s = disord]ly 
behavior1 &1 ) ! concurr5ce (           
two-?irds1 expel a memb]4    #c4 ,ea*   
,h\se %all keep a j\rnal ( its proce$+s1
 &1 f "t to  "t1 publi% ! same1 except+ 
su* p>ts z may1 9 _! judgm5t1  require  
secrecy2 & ! yeas & nays ( ! memb]s (   
ei!r ,h\se1  on any "q1 %all1 at !      
desire ( "o-fif? ( ^? pres5t1 be  ent]$ 

on ! j\rnal4    #d4 ,nei!r ,h\se1 dur+ !
 session ( ,congress1 %all1 )\t !       
cons5t ( ! o!r1 adj\rn = m ?an ?ree     
days1 nor to any o!r  place ?an t 9 :i* 
! two ,h\ses %all be sitt+4             
,section #f4 ,privileges ( &            
,re/rictions on ,memb]s    #a4 ,!       
,s5ators & ,repres5tatives %all receive 
a comp5sation =  _! s]vices1 to be      
asc]ta9$ by law1 & paid out ( ! treasury
  ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y %all1 9 all    
cases1 except treason1 felony1  & brea* 
( ! peace1 be privileg$ f arre/ dur+ _! 
att5dance at ! session ( _! respective  
,h\ses1 & 9 go+ to1  & return+ f1 !     
same2 & = any spee* or debate 9 ei!r    
,h\se1 !y %all n be que/ion$ 9 any o!r  
place4    #b4 ,no ,s5ator or            
,repres5tative %all1 dur+ ! "t = :i* he 
0  elect$1 be appo9t$ to any civil (fice
 "u ! au?ority ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i*  
%all h be5 creat$1 or ! emolum5ts :]e(  
%all h be5 increas$ dur+ su* "t2 & no   
p]son1 hold+ any  (fice "u ! ,unit$     
,/ates1 %all be a memb] ( ei!r ,h\se    

dur+  8 cont9uance 9 (fice4             
,section #g4 ,rev5ue ,bills3 ,veto (    
,presid5t    #a4 ,all bills = rais+     
rev5ue %all orig9ate 9 ! ,h\se (        
,repres5tatives2 b ! ,s5ate may propose 
or concur ) am5dm5ts z  on o!r bills4   
#b4 ,e bill :i* %all h pass$ ! ,h\se (  
,repres5tatives &  ! ,s5ate1 %all1 be=e 
x become a law1 be pres5t$ to !         
,presid5t  ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 if he     
approve1 he %all sign x1 b if n1 he     
%all return x1 ) 8 objections1 to t     
,h\se 9 :i* x %all  h orig9at$1 :o %all 
ent] ! objections at l>ge on _!  j\rnal1
 & proce$ to reconsid] x4 ,if1 aft] su* 
reconsid]ation1  two-?irds ( t ,h\se    
%all agree to pass ! bill1 x %all be    
s5t1  toge!r ) ! objections1 to ! o!r   
,h\se1 by :i* x %all  likewise be       
reconsid]$1 &1 if approv$ by two-?irds (
 t ,h\se1  x %all become a law4 ,b 9 all
 su* cases ! votes ( bo? ,h\ses  %all be
 det]m9$ by yeas & nays1 & ! names ( !  
p]sons  vot+ = & aga9/ ! bill %all be   
ent]$ on ! j\rnal ( ea*  h\se           

respectively4 ,if any bill %all n be    
return$ by ! ,presid5t  )9 t5 days      
7,sundays except$7 aft] x %all h be5    
pres5t$ to  him1 ! same %all be a law1 9
 l mann] z if he _h sign$ x1  unless !  
,congress1 by _! adj\rnm5t1 prev5t its  
return1 9 :i*  case x %all n be a law4  
#c4 ,e ord]1 resolution1 or vote1 to :i*
 ! concurr5ce ( !  ,s5ate & ,h\se (     
,repres5tatives may be necess>y 7except 
on a  "q ( adj\rnm5t71 %all be pres5t$  
to ! ,presid5t ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates2 &    
be=e ! same %all take effect1 %all be   
approv$  by him1 or1 be+ disapprov$ by  
him1 %all be repass$ by two-?irds (  !  
,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1       
accord+ to ! rules &  limitations       
prescrib$ 9 ! case ( a bill4            
,section #h4 ,legislative ,p[]s (       
,congress    ,! ,congress %all h p[]3   
#a4 ,to lay & collect taxes1 duties1    
impo/s1 & excises1 to pay !  debts1 &   
provide = ! common def5ce & g5]al       
welf>e1 ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates2 b all       
duties1 impo/s1 & excises1 %all be uni=m

  ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates3    #b4 ,to   
borr[ money on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$       
,/ates3    #c4 ,to regulate comm]ce )   
=eign nations1 & among ! sev]al  /ates1 
& ) ! ,indian tribes3    #d4 ,to e/abli%
 a uni=m rule ( naturalization1 & uni=m 
laws on  ! subject ( bankruptcies1      
?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates3    #e4 ,to co9 
money1 regulate ! value !re(1 & ( =eign 
co91 &  fix ! /&>d ( weights & measures3
    #f4 ,to provide = ! puni%m5t (      
c\nt]feit+ ! securities &  curr5t co9 ( 
! ,unites ,/ates3    #g4 ,to e/abli%    
po/-(fices & po/-roads3    #h4 ,to      
promote ! progress ( sci5ce & useful    
arts1 by secur+1 =  limit$ times1 to    
au?ors & inv5tors1 ! exclusive "r to _! 
respective writ+s & discov]ies3    #i4  
,to con/itute tribunals inf]ior to !    
,supreme ,c\rt3    #aj4 ,to def9e &     
puni% piracies & felonies1 committ$ on !
 high  seas1 & (f5ces aga9/ ! law (     
nations3    #aa4 ,to decl>e w>1 grant   
lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 & make rules 
conc]n+ captures on l& & wat]3    #ab4  

,to raise & support armies2 b no        
appropriation ( money to t  use %all be 
= a long] t]m ?an two ye>s3    #ac4 ,to 
provide & ma9ta9 a navy3    #ad4 ,to    
make rules = ! gov]nm5t & regulation ( !
 l& &  naval =ces3    #ae4 ,to provide =
 call+ =? ! militia to execute ! laws ( 
!  ,union1 suppress insurrections1 &    
repel invasions3    #af4 ,to provide =  
organiz+1 arm+1 & discipl9+ ! militia1 &
  = gov]n+ su* "p ( !m z may be employ$ 
9 ! s]vice ( !  ,unit$ ,/ates1 res]v+ to
 ! /ates respectively ! appo9tm5t (  !  
(fic]s1 & ! au?ority ( tra9+ ! militia1 
accord+ to  ! discipl9e prescrib$ by    
,congress3    #ag4 ,to ex]cise exclusive
 legislation 9 all cases :atsoev]1 ov]  
su*  di/rict 7n exce$+ t5 miles squ>e7 z
 may1 by cession (  p>ticul> /ates1 & ! 
acceptance ( ,congress1 become ! seat ( 
! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to      
ex]cise l au?ority ov]  all places1     
pur*as$ by ! cons5t ( ! legislature ( ! 
/ate 9  :i* ! same %all be1 = ! erection
 ( =ts1 magaz9es1 ars5als1  dock-y>ds1 &

 o!r ne$ful build+s3--,&    #ah4 ,to    
make all laws :i* %all be necess>y &    
prop] = c>ry+  into execution ! =ego+   
p[]s1 & all o!r p[]s ve/$ by ?is        
,con/itution 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates1 or 9 any  dep>tm5t or (fic]     
!re(4                 ,section #i4      
,prohibitions ^u ! ,unit$ ,/ates    #a4 
,! migration or importation ( su*       
p]sons1 z any ( ! /ates1  n[ exi/+1 %all
 ?9k prop] to admit1 %all n be prohibit$
 by  ! ,congress prior to ! ye> "o ?\s& 
eight hundr$ & eight2 b  a tax or duty  
may be impos$ on su* importation1 n     
exce$+ t5  doll>s = ea* p]son4    #b4 ,!
 privilege ( ! writ ( habeas corpus %all
 n be susp5d$1  unless :51 9 cases (    
rebellion or invasion1 ! public safety  
may  require x4    #c4 ,no bill (       
atta9d]1 or ex po/ facto law1 %all be   
pass$4    #d4 ,no capitation1 or o!r    
direct tax1 %all be laid1 unless 9      
proportion to ! c5sus or enum]ation     
h]e9be=e direct$ to be  tak54#cae    #e4
 ,no tax or duty %all be laid on        

articles export$ f any /ate4    #f4 ,no 
pref]5ce %all be giv5 by any regulation 
( comm]ce or rev5ue  to ! ports ( "o    
/ate ov] ^? ( ano!r2 nor %all vessels   
b\nd  to1 or f1 "o /ate1 be oblig$ to   
ent]1 cle>1 or pay duties1 9  ano!r4    
#g4 ,no money %all be drawn f !         
treasury1 b 9 consequ5ce (              
appropriations made by law2 & a regul>  
/atem5t & acc\nt ( !  receipts &        
exp5ditures ( all public money %all be  
publi%$ f  "t to "t4    #h4 ,no title ( 
nobility %all be grant$ by ! ,unit$     
,/ates2 & no  p]son hold+ any (fice (   
pr(it or tru/ "u !m %all1 )\t  ! cons5t 
( ! ,congress1 accept ( any pres5t1     
emolum5t1 (fice1  or title1 ( any k9d   
:atev]1 f any k+1 pr9ce1 or =eign /ate4 
,section #aj4 ,prohibitions ^u ! ,/ates 
#a4 ,no /ate %all ent] into any treaty1 
alliance1 or conf$]ation2  grant lett]s 
( m>que & reprisal2 co9 money2 emit     
bills ( cr$it2  make any?+ b gold &     
silv] co9 a t5d] 9 paym5t ( debts2  pass
 any bill ( atta9d]1 ex po/ facto law1  

or law impair+ !  obligation (          
contracts1 or grant any title (         
nobility4    #b4 ,no /ate %all1 )\t !   
cons5t ( ! ,congress1 lay any impo/s  or
 duties on imports or exports1 except   
:at may be absolutely necess>y  =       
execut+ its inspection laws2 & ! net    
produce ( all duties &  impo/s1 laid by 
any /ate on imports or exports1 %all be 
= ! use  ( ! treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2
 & all su* laws %all be subject  to !   
revision & control ( ! ,congress4 ,no   
/ate %all1 )\t !  cons5t ( ,congress1   
lay any duty ( tonnage1 keep troops1 or 
%ips (  w>1 9 "t ( peace1 ent] into any 
agreem5t or compact ) ano!r  /ate1 or ) 
a =eign p[]1 or engage 9 w>1 unless     
actually  invad$1 or 9 su* imm95t dang] 
z w n admit ( delay4                    
,,article ,,ii                          
,,executive ,,dep>tm5t3 ,,! ,,presid5t  
,,&                                     
,,vice-,,presid5t       ,section #a4    
,t]m3 ,election3 ,qualifications3       
,sal>y3 ,oa? ( ,(fice    #a4 ,!         

,executive p[] %all be ve/$ 9 a         
,presid5t ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 
,he %all hold 8 (fice dur+ ! t]m ( f\r  
ye>s1 & toge!r ) ! ,vice-,presid5t1 *os5
 = ! same t]m1  be elect$ z foll[s3     
#b4 ,ea* /ate %all appo9t1 9 su* mann] z
 ! legislature !re(  may direct1 a numb]
 ( ,electors1 equal to ! :ole numb] (   
,s5ators  & ,repres5tatives1 to :i* !   
/ate may be entitl$ 9 ! ,congress2  b no
 ,s5ator or ,repres5tative1 or p]son    
hold+ an (fice ( tru/  or pr(it1 "u !   
,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be appo9t$ an       
,elector4    #c4 ,! ,electors %all meet 
9 _! respective /ates1 & vote by  ballot
 = two p]sons1 ( :om "o1 at lea/1 %all n
 be an  inhabitant ( ! same /ate )      
!mselves4 ,& !y %all make a li/  ( all !
 p]sons vot$ =1 & ( ! numb] ( votes =   
ea*2 :i*  li/ !y %all sign & c]tify1 &  
transmit1 seal$1 to ! seat (  !         
,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 direct$ to 
! ,presid5t ( !  ,s5ate4 ,! ,presid5t ( 
! ,s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate  &
 ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 op5 all !     

c]tificates1 & ! votes  %all !n be      
c\nt$4 ,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] (  
votes  %all be ! ,presid5t1 if su* numb]
 be a majority ( ! :ole numb]  (        
,electors appo9t$2 & if !re be m ?an "o1
 :o h su*  majority1 & h an equal numb] 
( votes1 !n ! ,h\se (  ,repres5tatives  
%all imm$iately *oose1 by ballot1 "o (  
!m =  ,presid5t2 & if no p]son h a      
majority1 !n1 f ! five highe/  on ! li/1
 ! said ,h\se %all1 9 l mann]1 *oose !  
,presid5t4  ,b 9 *oos+ ! ,presid5t1 !   
votes %all be tak5 by /ates1 !          
repres5tation f ea* /ate hav+ "o vote2 a
 quorum = ?is  purpose %all consi/ ( a  
memb] or memb]s f two-?irds ( !  /ates1 
& a majority ( all ! /ates %all be      
necess>y to a *oice4  ,9 e case1 aft] ! 
*oice ( ! ,presid5t1 ! p]son hav+ !     
greate/ numb] ( votes ( ! ,electors %all
 be ! ,vice-,presid5t4  ,b if !re %\ld  
rema9 two or m :o h equal votes1 !      
,s5ate  %all *oose f !m1 by ballot1 !   
,vice-,presid5t4#caf    #d4 ,! ,congress
 may det]m9e ! "t ( *oos+ ! ,electors1 &

 !  day on :i* !y %all give _! votes2   
:i* day %all be ! same  ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$
 ,/ates4    #e4 ,no p]son1 except a     
natural-born citiz51 or a citiz5 ( !    
,unit$  ,/ates at ! "t ( ! adoption (   
?is ,con/itution1 %all be  eligible to !
 (fice ( ,presid5t2 nei!r %all any p]son
 be  eligible to t (fice1 :o %all n h   
atta9$ to ! age (  ?irty-five ye>s1 &   
be5 f\rte5 ye>s a resid5t )9 ! ,unit$   
,/ates4    #f4 ,9 case ( ! removal ( !  
,presid5t f (fice1 or ( 8 dea?1         
resignation1 or inability to dis*>ge !  
p[]s & duties ( ! said  (fice1 ! same   
%all devolve on ! ,vice-,presid5t1 & !  
,congress  may by law provide = ! case (
 removal1 dea?1 resignation or          
inability1 bo? ( ! ,presid5t &          
,vice-,presid5t1 decl>+ :at  (fic] %all 
!n act z ,presid5t1 & su* (fic] %all act
  accord+ly1 until ! disability be      
remov$1 or a ,presid5t %all be  elect$4 
#g4 ,! ,presid5t %all1 at /at$ times1   
receive = 8 s]vices a  comp5sation1 :i* 
%all nei!r be increas$ nor dim9i%$ dur+ 

!  p]iod = :i* he %all h be5 elect$1 &  
he %all n receive1  )9 t p]iod1 any o!r 
emolum5t f ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any  (   
!m4    #h4 ,be=e he ent] on ! execution 
( 8 (fice1 he %all take !  foll[+ oa? or
 affirmation3    #i4 8,i d solemnly swe>
 7or affirm71 t ,i w fai?fully execute !
  (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 &
 w1 to ! be/ ( my  ability1 pres]ve1    
protect1 & def5d ! ,con/itution ( !     
,unit$  ,/ates40                        
,section #b4 ,presid5t's ,executive     
,p[]s    #a4 ,! ,presid5t %all be       
,comm&]-9-,*ief ( ! army & navy ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! militia ( ! sev]al 
/ates1 :5 call$  into ! actual s]vice ( 
! ,unit$ ,/ates2 he may require !       
op9ion1 9 writ+1 ( ! pr9cipal (fic] 9   
ea* ( ! executive  dep>tm5ts ^u any     
subject relat+ to ! duties ( _!         
respective  (fices1 & he %all h p[] to  
grant reprieves & p>dons =  (f5ces aga9/
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except 9 cases (      
impea*m5t4    #b4 ,he %all h p[]1 by & )
 ! advice & cons5t ( !  ,s5ate1 to make 

treaties1 provid$ two-?irds ( ! ,s5ators
 pres5t  concur2 & he %all nom9ate1 &1  
by & ) ! advice & cons5t  ( ! ,s5ate1   
%all appo9t ambassadors1 o!r public     
m9i/]s1 &  consuls1 judges ( ! ,supreme 
,c\rt1 & all o!r (fic]s ( !  ,unit$     
,/ates ^: appo9tm5ts are n h]e9 o!rwise 
provid$ =1  & :i* %all be e/abli%$ by   
law2 b ! ,congress may by law ve/  !    
appo9tm5t ( su* inf]ior (fic]s1 z !y ?9k
 prop]1 9 !  ,presid5t alone1 9 ! c\rts 
( law1 or 9 ! heads ( dep>tm5ts4    #c4 
,! ,presid5t %all h p[] to fill all     
vacancies t may happ5  dur+ ! recess ( !
 ,s5ate1 by grant+ commissions :i* %all 
expire at ! end ( _! next session4      
,section #c4 ,presid5t's ,executive     
,p[]s 7cont9u$7    #a4 ,he %all1 f "t to
 "t1 give to ! ,congress in=mation ( !  
/ate ( ! ,union1 & recomm5d to _!       
consid]ation su* measures  z he %all    
judge necess>y & exp$i5t2 he may1 on    
extraord9>y  occasions1 conv5e bo?      
,h\ses1 or ei!r ( !m1 & 9 case (        
disagreem5t betwe5 !m1 ) respect to ! "t

 ( adj\rnm5t1 he  may adj\rn !m to su*  
"t z he %all ?9k prop]2 he %all receive 
ambassadors & o!r public m9i/]s2 he %all
 take c>e t ! laws  be fai?fully        
execut$1 & %all commission all ! (fic]s 
( !  ,unit$ ,/ates4                     
,section #d4 ,impea*m5t    #a4 ,!       
,presid5t1 ,vice-,presid5t1 & all civil 
(fic]s ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates1 %all be      
remov$ f (fice on impea*m5t =1 &        
conviction  (1 treason1 brib]y1 or o!r  
high crimes & misdemeanors4             
,,article ,,iii                         
,,judicial ,,dep>tm5t                   
,section #a4 ,c\rts3 ,t]ms ( ,(fice     
#a4 ,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates   
%all be ve/$ 9 "o  ,supreme ,c\rt1 & 9  
su* inf]ior c\rts z ! ,congress may f "t
  to "t orda9 & e/abli%4 ,! judges1 bo? 
( ! ,supreme &  inf]ior c\rts1 %all hold
 _! (fices dur+ good behavior1 &  %all1 
at /at$ times1 receive = _! s]vices a   
comp5sation :i*  %all n be dim9i%$ dur+ 
_! cont9uance 9 (fice4                  
,section #b4 ,jurisdiction    #a4 ,!    

judicial p[] %all ext5d to all cases1 9 
law & equity1  aris+ "u ?is             
,con/itution1 ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 
&  treaties made1 or :i* %all be made1  
"u _! au?ority2 to all  cases affect+   
ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s1 &       
consuls2 to all  cases ( admiralty &    
m>itime jurisdiction2 to controv]sies to
 :i*  ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be a p>ty2 to
 controv]sies betwe5 two or m  /ates1   
betwe5 a /ate & citiz5s ( ano!r         
/ate1#cag betwe5  citiz5s ( diff]5t     
/ates1 betwe5 citiz5s ( ! same /ate     
claim+ l&s "u grants ( diff]5t /ates1 & 
betwe5 a /ate1 or  ! citiz5s !re(1 &    
=eign /ates1 citiz5s1 or subjects4      
#b4 ,9 all cases affect+ ambassadors1   
o!r public m9i/]s &  consuls1 & ^? 9 :i*
 a /ate %all be a p>ty1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt
  %all h orig9al jurisdiction4 ,9 all ! 
o!r cases be=e  m5tion$1 ! ,supreme     
,c\rt %all h appellate jurisdiction1 bo?
 z  to law & fact1 ) su* exceptions & "u
 su* regulations z !  ,congress %all    
make4    #c4 ,! trial ( all crimes1     

except 9 cases ( impea*m5t1 %all be by  
jury2 & su* trial %all be held 9 ! /ate 
:]e ! said crimes  %all h be5 committ$2 
b :5 n committ$ )9 any /ate !  trial    
%all be at su* place or places z !      
,congress may by law h  direct$4        
,section #c4 ,treason    #a4 ,treason   
aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all consi/ only 9
 levy+ w>  aga9/ !m1 or 9 adh]+ to _!   
enemies1 giv+ !m aid &  com=t4 ,no p]son
 %all be convict$ ( treason unless on ! 
te/imony  ( two witnesses to ! same ov]t
 act1 or on confession 9 op5 c\rt4      
#b4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to decl>e ! 
puni%m5t ( treason1  b no atta9d] (     
treason %all "w corruption ( blood or   
=feiture1 except dur+ ! life ( ! p]son  
atta9t$4                                
,,article ,,iv                          
,,relations ,,( ,,/ates                 
,section #a4 ,public ,records    #a4    
,full fai? & cr$it %all be giv5 9 ea*   
/ate to ! public  acts1 records1 &      
judicial proce$+s ( e o!r /ate4 ,& !    
,congress may1 by g5]al laws1 prescribe 

! mann] 9 :i* su* acts1  records1 &     
proce$+s %all be prov$1 & ! effect !re(4
          ,section #b4 ,rights 9 ,"o    
,/ate ( ,citiz5s ( ,ano!r ,/ate    #a4  
,! citiz5s ( ea* /ate %all be entitl$ to
 all privileges &  immunities ( citiz5s 
9 ! sev]al /ates4#cah    #b4 ,a p]son   
*>g$ 9 any /ate ) treason1 felony1 or   
o!r crime1  :o %all flee f ju/ice1 & be 
f\nd 9 ano!r /ate1 %all1 on  dem& ( !   
executive au?ority ( ! /ate f :i* he    
fl$1 be  deliv]$ up1 to be remov$ to !  
/ate hav+ jurisdiction ( !  crime4      
#c4 ,no p]son held to s]vice or labor 9 
"o /ate1 "u ! laws  !re(1 escap+ into   
ano!r1 %all1 9 consequ5ce ( any law or  
regulation !re91 be dis*>g$ f su* s]vice
 or labor1 b %all  be deliv]$ up on     
claim ( ! p>ty to :om su* s]vice or     
labor may  be due4                      
,section #c4 ,new ,/ates3 ,t]ritories   
#a4 ,new /ates may be admitt$ by !      
,congress into ?is ,union2 b no  new    
/ate %all be =m$ or erect$ )9 !         
jurisdiction ( any  o!r /ate1 nor any   

/ate be =m$ by ! junction ( two or m    
/ates1 or p>ts ( /ates1 )\t ! cons5t ( !
 legislatures (  ! /ates conc]n$ z well 
z ( ! ,congress4    #b4 ,! ,congress    
%all h p[] to dispose ( & make all      
ne$ful  rules & regulations respect+ !  
t]ritory or o!r prop]ty  belong+ to !   
,unit$ ,/ates2 & no?+ 9 ?is ,con/itution
 %all  be s con/ru$ z to prejudice any  
claims ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or (  any     
p>ticul> /ate4                 ,section 
#d4 ,protection to ,/ates by ! ,nation  
#a4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates %all gu>antee to e 
/ate 9 ?is ,union a  republican =m (    
gov]nm5t1 & %all protect ea* ( !m aga9/ 
invasion2 & on application ( !          
legislature1 or ( ! executive  7:5 !    
legislature _c be conv5$71 aga9/ dome/ic
 viol5ce4                               
,,article ,v                            
,,am5dm5t    #a4 ,! ,congress1 :5ev]    
two-?irds ( bo? ,h\ses %all deem x      
necess>y1 %all propose am5dm5ts to ?is  
,con/itution1 or1 on !  application ( ! 
legislatures ( two-?irds ( ! sev]al     

/ates1  %all call a conv5tion = propos+ 
am5dm5ts1 :i*1 9 ei!r case1  %all be    
valid1 to all int5ts & purposes1 z "p ( 
?is  ,con/itution1 :5 ratifi$ by !      
legislatures ( ?ree-f\r?s ( !  sev]al   
/ates1 or by conv5tions 9 ?ree-f\r?s    
!re(1 z ! "o  or ! o!r mode (           
ratification may be propos$ by !        
,congress3  provid$ t no am5dm5t :i* may
 be made prior to ! ye> "o  ?\s& eight  
hundr$ & eight %all 9 any mann] affect !
 fir/  & f\r? clauses 9 ! n9? section ( 
! fir/ ,article2 & t  no /ate1 )\t its  
cons5t1 %all be depriv$ ( its equal     
suffrage  9 ! ,s5ate4                   
,,article ,,vi                          
,,national ,,debts3 ,,supremacy ,,(     
,,national ,,law3                       
,,oa?    #a4 ,all debts contract$ &     
engagem5ts ent]$ into1 be=e !  adoption 
( ?is ,con/itution1 %all be z valid     
aga9/ ! ,unit$  ,/ates "u ?is           
,con/itution z "u ! ,conf$]ation4    #b4
 ,?is ,con/itution1 & ! laws ( ! ,unit$ 
,/ates :i* %all be  made 9 pursuance    

!re(1 & all treaties made1 or :i* %all  
be  made1 "u ! au?ority ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates1 %all be ! supreme law  ( ! l&2 &
 ! judges 9 e /ate %all be b\nd !reby1  
any?+ 9 ! con/itution or laws ( any /ate
 to ! contr>y  not)/&+4    #c4 ,!       
,s5ators & ,repres5tatives be=e m5tion$1
 & ! memb]s (  ! sev]al /ate            
legislatures1 & all executive & judicial
 (fic]s1  bo? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ( !   
sev]al /ates1 %all be b\nd1 by  oa? or  
affirmation1 to support ?is             
,con/itution2 b no religi\s te/  %all   
ev] be requir$ z a qualification to any 
(fice or public tru/  "u ! ,unit$       
,/ates4                                 
,,article ,,vii                         
,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,con/itution    #a4 ,!
 ratification ( ! conv5tions ( n9e /ates
 %all be  suffici5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is
 ,con/itution betwe5 ! /ates  s ratify+ 
! same4                                 
,,am5dm5ts#cai                          
,,article ,i                 ,,fre$om   
,,( ,,religion1 ,,( ,,spee*1 ,,& ,,( ,,!

                          ,,press3 ,,"r 
,,( ,,petition    ,congress %all make no
 law respect+ an e/abli%m5t ( religion1 
or  prohibit+ ! free ex]cise !re(2 or   
abridg+ ! fre$om (  spee*1 or ( ! press2
 or ! "r ( ! p peaceably to  assemble1 &
 to petition ! gov]nm5t = a r$ress (    
grievances4                             
,,article ,,ii                          
,,"r ,,to ,,keep ,,arms    ,a           
well-regulat$ militia be+ necess>y to ! 
security ( a free  /ate1 ! "r ( ! p to  
keep & be> arms %all n be  infr+$4      
,,article ,,iii                         
,,qu>t]+ ,,( ,,soldi]s ,,9 ,,private    
,,h\ses    ,no soldi] %all1 9 "t (      
peace1 be qu>t]$ 9 any h\se1 )\t  !     
cons5t ( ! own]2 nor1 9 "t ( w>1 b 9 a  
mann] to be  prescrib$ by law4          
,,article ,,iv                          
,,se>* ,,w>rants    ,! "r ( ! p to be   
secure 9 _! p]sons1 h\ses1 pap]s1  &    
effects1 aga9/ unreasonable se>*es &    
seizures1 %all n be  violat$2 & no      
w>rants %all issue1 b ^u probable cause1

  support$ by oa? or affirmation1 &     
p>ticul>ly describ+ ! place  to be      
se>*$1 & ! p]sons or ?+s to be seiz$4   
,,article ,v                            
,,crim9al ,,proce$+s    ,no p]son %all  
be held to answ] = a capital1 or o!rwise
 infam\s1  crime1 unless on a pres5tm5t 
or indictm5t ( a gr& jury1 except 9     
cases aris+ 9 ! l& or naval =ces1 or 9 !
 militia1 :5 9  actual s]vice1 9 "t (   
w>1 or public dang]2 nor %all any p]son 
be subject1 = ! same (f5ce1 to be twice 
put 9 jeop>dy ( life or  limb2 nor %all 
be compell$1 9 any crim9al case1 to be a
 witness  aga9/ himself2 nor be depriv$ 
( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 )\t  due    
process ( law2 nor %all private prop]ty 
be tak5 = public use1  )\t j            
comp5sation4#cbj                        
,,article ,,vi                          
,,crim9al ,,proce$+s 7cont9u$7    ,9 all
 crim9al prosecutions1 ! accus$ %all    
enjoy ! "r to a  spe$y & public trial1  
by an imp>tial jury ( ! /ate & di/rict  
:]e9 ! crime %all h be5 committ$1 :i*   

di/rict %all h  be5 previ\sly asc]ta9$  
by law2 & to be in=m$ ( ! nature &      
cause ( ! accusation2 to be confront$ ) 
! witnesses aga9/  him2 to h compulsory 
process = obta9+ witnesses 9 8 favor2  &
 to h ! assi/ance ( c\nsel = 8 def5ce4  
,,article ,,vii                         
,,jury ,,trial ,,9 ,,civil ,,cases    ,9
 suits at common law1 :]e ! value 9     
controv]sy %all exce$  tw5ty doll>s1 !  
"r ( trial by jury %all be pres]v$2 & no
  fact1 tri$ by a jury1 %all be o!rwise 
re-exam9$ 9 any c\rt (  ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
?an accord+ to ! rules ( ! common law4  
,,article ,,viii                        
,,excessive ,,puni%m5ts    ,excessive   
bail %all n be requir$1 nor excessive   
f9es impos$1 nor  cruel & unusual       
puni%m5ts inflict$4                     
,,article ,,ix                          
,,un5um]at$ ,,rights ,,( ,,! ,,p    ,!  
enum]ation 9 ! ,con/itution ( c]ta9     
rights %all n be  con/ru$ to d5y or     
disp>age o!rs reta9$ by ! p4            
,,article ,x                            

,,p[]s ,,res]v$ ,,to ,,/ates    ,! p[]s 
n delegat$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by !      
,con/itution1 nor  prohibit$ by x to !  
/ates1 are res]v$ to ! /ates            
respectively1  or to ! p4               
,,article ,,xi#cba                      
,,suits ,,aga9/ ,,/ates    ,! judicial  
p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all n be con/ru$ 
to ext5d  to any suit 9 law or equity1  
comm5c$ or prosecut$ aga9/ "o ( !       
,unit$ ,/ates by citiz5s ( ano!r /ate1  
or by citiz5s or subjects  ( any =eign  
/ate4                                   
,,article ,,xii                         
,,election ,,( ,,presid5t ,,&           
,,vice-,,presid5t    #a4 ,! ,electors   
%all meet 9 _! respective /ates1 & vote 
by  ballot = ,presid5t &                
,vice-,presid5t1 "o ( :om1 at lea/1 %all
  n be an inhabitant ( ! same /ate )    
!mselves2 !y %all "n  9 _! ballots !    
p]son vot$ = z ,presid5t1 & 9 di/9ct    
ballots ! p]son vot$ = z                
,vice-,presid5t2 & !y %all make  di/9ct 
li/s ( all p]sons vot$ = z ,presid5t1 & 

( all p]sons  vot$ = z ,vice-,presid5t1 
& ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*1 :i*  li/s !y 
%all sign1 & c]tify1 & transmit1 seal$1 
to ! seat (  ! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$     
,/ates1 direct$ to ! ,presid5t ( !      
,s5ate2 ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate %all1 9 !
 pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate  & ! ,h\se (        
,repres5tatives1 op5 all ! c]tificates1 
& !  votes %all !n be c\nt$2 ! p]son    
hav+ ! greate/ numb] (  votes =         
,presid5t %all be ! ,presid5t1 if su*   
numb] be a majority  ( ! :ole numb] (   
,electors appo9t$2 & if no p]son h su* a
  majority1 !n1 f ! p]sons hav+ ! highe/
 numb]s1 n  exce$+ ?ree1 on ! li/ ( ^?  
vot$ = z ,presid5t1 ! ,h\se  (          
,repres5tatives %all *oose imm$iately1  
by ballot1 ! ,presid5t4  ,b 9 *oos+ !   
,presid5t1 ! votes %all be tak5 by      
/ates1 !  repres5tation f ea* /ate hav+ 
"o vote2 a quorum = ?is  purpose %all   
consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two-?irds (
 !  /ates1 & a majority ( all ! /ates   
%all be necess>y to a *oice4  ,& if !   
,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all n *oose a  

,presid5t1  :5ev] ! "r ( *oice %all     
devolve ^u !m1 be=e ! f\r?  day ( ,m>*  
next foll[+1 !n ! ,vice-,presid5t %all  
act z  ,presid5t1 z 9 case ( ! dea?1 or 
o!r con/itutional disability1  ( !      
,presid5t4#cbb    #b4 ,! p]son hav+ !   
greate/ numb] ( votes z ,vice-,presid5t1
  %all be ! ,vice-,presid5t1 if su*     
numb] be a majority ( ! :ole  numb] (   
,electors appo9t$2 & if no p]son h a    
majority1 !n1  f ! two highe/ numb]s on 
! li/1 ! ,s5ate %all *oose !            
,vice-,presid5t2 a quorum = ! purpose   
%all consi/ ( two-?irds (  ! :ole numb] 
( ,s5ators2 a majority ( ! :ole numb]   
%all be  necess>y to a *oice4#cbb    #c4
 ,b no p]son con/itutionally ineligible 
to ! (fice ( ,presid5t  %all be eligible
 to t ( ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates1                                 
,,article ,,xiii#cbc                    
,,slav]y                        ,section
 #a4 ,abolition ( ,slav]y    ,nei!r     
slav]y nor involunt>y s]vitude1 except z
 a puni%m5t =  crime1 :]e( ! p>ty %all h

 be5 duly convict$1 %all exi/  )9 !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 or any place subject to  
_! jurisdiction4                        
,section #b4 ,p[] ( ,congress           
,congress %all h p[] to en=ce ?is       
article by appropriate  legislation4    
,,article ,,xiv#cbd              ,,civil
 ,,rights3 ,,apportionm5t ,,(           
,,repres5tatives3                       
,,political ,,disabilities3 ,,public    
,,debt                                  
,section #a4 ,civil ,rights    ,all     
p]sons born or naturaliz$ 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates1 & subject to !  jurisdiction    
!re(1 are citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ( 
! /ate  :]e9 !y reside4 ,no /ate %all   
make or en=ce any law :i* %all  abridge 
! privileges or immunities ( citiz5s ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates2  nor %all any /ate      
deprive any p]son ( life1 lib]ty1 or    
prop]ty1  )\t due process ( law1 nor d5y
 to any p]son )9 its  jurisdiction !    
equal protection ( ! laws4              
,section #b4 ,apportionm5t (            
,repres5tatives    ,repres5tatives %all 

be apportion$ among ! sev]al /ates      
accord+  to _! respective numb]s1 c\nt+ 
! :ole numb] ( p]sons 9  ea* /ate1      
exclud+ ,indians n tax$4 ,b :5 ! "r to  
vote at  any election = ! *oice (       
electors = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t  
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,repres5tatives 9    
,congress1 ! executive &  judicial      
(fic]s ( a /ate1 or ! memb]s ( !        
legislature !re(1  is d5i$ to any ( !   
male inhabitants ( su* /ate1 be+        
tw5ty-"o  ye>s ( age1 & citiz5s ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any way abridg$1    
except = p>ticipation 9 rebellion or o!r
 crime1 ! basis (  repres5tation !re9   
%all be r$uc$ 9 ! proportion :i* !      
numb] ( su* male citiz5s %all be> to !  
:ole numb] ( male  citiz5s tw5ty-"o ye>s
 ( age 9 su* /ate4                      
,section #c4 ,political ,disabilities   
,no p]son %all be a ,s5ator or          
,repres5tative 9 ,congress1 or elector  
( ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 or hold  
any (fice1 civil or milit>y1  "u !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 or "u any /ate1 :o1 hav+ 

previ\sly  tak5 an oa?1 z a memb] (     
,congress1 or z an (fic] ( ! ,unit$     
,/ates1 or z a memb] ( any /ate         
legislature1 or z an executive or       
judicial (fic] ( any /ate1 to support ! 
,con/itution ( ! ,unit$  ,/ates1 %all h 
engag$ 9 insurrection or rebellion aga9/
 !  same1 or giv5 aid or com=t to !     
enemies !re(4 ,b ,congress may1  by a   
vote ( two-?irds ( ea* ,h\se1 remove su*
 disability4                            
,section #d4 ,public ,debt    ,!        
validity ( ! public debt ( ! ,unit$     
,/ates1 au?oriz$ by law1  includ+ debts 
incurr$ = paym5t ( p5sions & b\nties =  
s]vices 9 suppress+ insurrection or     
rebellion1 %all n be  que/ion$4 ,b nei!r
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates nor any /ate %all      
assume or  pay any debt or obligation   
incurr$ 9 aid ( insurrection or         
rebellion  aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any
 claim = ! loss or emancipation (  any  
slave2 b all su* debts1 obligations1 &  
claims %all be held  illegal & void4    
,section #e4 ,p[]s ( ,congress    ,!    

,congress %all h p[] to en=ce1 by       
appropriate legislation1  ! provisions (
 ?is article4                           
,,article ,,xv#cbe                      
,,"r ,,( ,,suffrage                     
,section #a4 ,"r ( ,negro to ,vote    ,!
 "r ( citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to vote 
%all n be d5i$  or abridg$ by ! ,unit$  
,/ates or by any /ate on acc\nt ( race1 
color1 or previ\s condition ( s]vitude4 
,section #b4 ,p[] ( ,congress    ,!     
,congress %all h p[] to en=ce ?is       
article by appropriate  legislation4    
,,article ,,xvi#cbf                     
,,income ,,tax    ,! ,congress %all h   
p[] to lay & collect taxes on incomes1 f
  :atev] s\rce d]iv$1 )\t apportionm5t  
among ! sev]al /ates1  & )\t reg>d to   
any c5sus or enum]ation4                
,,article ,,xvii#cbg                    
,,s5ate3 ,,election3 ,,vacancies    ,!  
,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$
 ( two ,s5ators f  ea* /ate1 elect$ by !
 p !re(1 = six ye>s2 & ea*  ,s5ator %all
 h "o vote4 ,! electors 9 ea* /ate %all 

h !  qualifications requisite = electors
 ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( !  /ate         
legislatures4    ,:5 vacancies happ5 9 !
 repres5tation ( any /ate 9 ! ,s5ate1  !
 executive au?ority ( su* /ate %all     
issue writs ( election to  fill su*     
vacancies3 ,provid$1 ,t ! legislature ( 
any /ate may  emp[] ! executive !re( to 
make tempor>y appo9tm5t until !  p fill 
! vacancies by election z ! legislature 
may direct4    ,?is am5dm5t %all n be s 
con/ru$ z to affect ! election or  t]m (
 any ,s5ator *os5 be=e x becomes valid z
 "p ( !  ,con/itution4                  
,,article ,,xviii#cbh                   
,,national ,,prohibition    ,,section   
#a--;,aft] "o ye> f ! ratification ( ?is
 article !  manufacture1 sale or        
transportation ( intoxicat+ liquors )91 
!  importation !re( into1 or !          
exportation !re( f ! ,unit$  ,/ates &   
all t]ritory subject to ! jurisdiction  
!re( =  bev]age purposes is h]eby       
prohibit$4    ,,section #b--,! ,congress
 & ! sev]al ,/ates %all h concurr5t  p[]

 to en=ce ?is article by appropriate    
legislation4    ,,section #c--,?is      
article %all be inop]ative unless x %all
 h be5  ratifi$ z an am5dm5t to !       
,con/itution by ! legislatures ( !      
sev]al ,/ates1 z provid$ 9 !            
,con/itution1 )9 sev5 ye>s (  ! date ( !
 submission h]e( to ! ,/ates by         
,congress4                              
,,article ,,xix#cbi                     
,,woman ,,suffrage    ,,section #a--,!  
"r ( citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to vote  
%all n  be d5i$ or abridg$ by ! ,unit$  
,/ates or by any ,/ate on acc\nt (  sex4
    ,,section #b--;,congress %all h p[] 
to en=ce ?is article by  appropriate    
legislation4    -----    ,footnote #caa3
      ,vot]s4    ,footnote #cab3        
,annull$ by ! ,?irte5? & ,f\rte5?       
,am5dm5ts4    ,footnote #cac3           
,sup]s$$ by ! ,sev5te5? ,am5dm5t4       
,footnote #cad3      ,see ,sev5te5?     
,am5dm5t4    ,footnote #cae3      ,see  
,sixte5? ,am5dm5t4    ,footnote #caf3   
,sup]s$$ by ! ,twelf? ,am5dm5t4         

,footnote #cag3      ,modifi$ by !      
,elev5? ,am5dm5t4    ,footnote #cah3    
,comp>e ,f\rte5? ,am5dm5t4    ,footnote 
#cai3      ,! fir/ t5 ,am5dm5ts1 kn[n z 
! ,bill ( ,rights1 7 adopt$ 9    #agia4 
,footnote #cbj3      ,see ,am5dm5t      
,,xiv1 ,sec4 #a1 :i* ext5ds "p ( ?is    
re/riction to    ! ,/ates4    ,footnote 
#cba3      ,adopt$ 9 #agih to protect ! 
sov]eignty ( ! ,/ates4    ,footnote     
#cbb3      ,adopt$ 9 #ahjd1 sup]s$+     
,article ,,ii1 ,sec4 #a4    ,footnote   
#cbc3      ,adopt$ 9 #ahfe4    ,footnote
 #cbd3      ,adopt$ 9 #ahfh4            
,footnote #cbe3      ,adopt$ 9 #ahgj4   
,footnote #cbf3      ,adopt$ 9 #aiac4   
,footnote #cbg3      ,adopt$ 9 #aiac4   
,footnote #cbh3      ,adopt$ 9 #aiai4   
,footnote #cbi3      ,adopt$ 9 #aibj4   
,,index                ,a     ,accid5ts1
 indu/rial1 #daa-dab     ,admission (   
new /ates1 #bbg-bbh     ,agriculture1 ! 
f$]al ,dep>tm5t (1 #bii n     scope &   
me?ods (1 #cci-cdb     special          
*>act]i/ics (1 #cdc-cde     improvem5ts 

91 #cde-cdf     gov]nm5t enc\ragem5t (1 
#cdf-cdh     f9ancial aids to1 #cdh-cdi 
problems (1 #cdi-ceb     ,agricultural  
bloc1 9 ,congress1 #bhb n1 #cej-cea     
,alaska1 gov]nm5t (1 #bbi n     ,albany 
,congress1 #bdh     ,ambassadors1       
appo9tm5t & duties (1 #eia-eie          
,am5dm5ts1 to /ate con/itutions1 #bcb   
to national con/itution1 #bfj-bfb       
,am]ican ,f$]ation ( ,labor1 #djc-djd   
,am]icanization1 ! public s*ools z      
ag5cies (1 #bh     purpose & me?ods (1  
#cc     8,am]ican ,plan0 9 indu/ry1 #dji
     ,anti-,tru/ ,law4 ,see ,%]man ,act 
,appo9tm5ts to (fice1 me?ods (1 #ii-aja 
confirmation (1 #bgj-bga                
presid5tial1 #bic-bid     ,appeals1     
judicial1 #caa-cab     ,appropriations 9
 ,congress1 #dfc-dfe     ,arbitration1 (
 labor disputes1 #dji-daj               
compulsory1 #daj-daa     int]national1  
#fja-fjb     ,ari/otle1 classification (
 gov]nm5ts by1 #ff-fg     ,armam5ts1 !  
co/ (1 #efc-efd     ,army1 v>i\s        
divisions ( !1 #efg-ega     control (1 9

 w>1 #ega-egb     ,army 9 peace1        
#egb-egc     ,articles ( ,conf$]ation1  
#bdi-bea1 #bhg     ,assessm5ts =        
taxation1 #def-deg     ,a?letics1 value 
(1 9 tra9+ citiz5s1 #hf-hh              
,attorney-,g5]al1 (fice (1 #bii n       
,au/ralian ballot1 #acb              ,b 
,balance ( p[] 9 ,europe1 #fbi          
,ballot1 hi/ory ( !1 #aca-acb     re=m  
(1 #acb-acc     pref]5tial1 #acc-acd    
,banks1 functions (1 #dcd               
organization (1 #dce-dcg     f$]al      
res]ve1 #dcg-dci     "w (1 #dci-ddb     
,see also ,f>m ,loan ,banks     ,b>ga9+1
 collective1 #dje-djf     ,billbo>ds1   
regulation (1 #bad-bae     ,bill (      
,rights1 #bfa     ,bimetallism1 !       
controv]sy ov]1 #dbh-dcj     ,blackli/s1
 indu/rial1 #djg     ,black/one's       
,comm5t>ies1 #cad n     ,bloc4 ,see     
,agricultural bloc     ,blue-sky laws1  
#ddf n     ,bo>ds1 9 c\nties1 #afi-agj  
9 cities1 #aib     9 /ate gov]nm5t1     
#bch-bci     ( education1 #dih     (    
heal?1 #ecd     ,bonds1 def9$ & expla9$1

 #dde n     gov]nm5t1 #dff-dfg          
s]ial1 #dfi     ,bonap>te1 ,napoleon1 on
 ! qualities ( a good con/itution1 #beh 
,bosses1 political1 _! orig91 #bi     _!
 me?ods1 #afj-afa     ,boycotts 9 labor 
tr\bles1 #djg     ,br9dell ,case1 #djd n
     ,bryan1 ,william ,j41 on free      
silv]1 #dcj     ,budgets1 h[ made1      
#dfb-dfc     9 ,congress1 #dfc-dfe      
,build+s1 public1 9 cities1 #bab-bad    
,bureau ( ,animal ,indu/ry1 #cdg     (  
,=eign & ,dome/ic ,comm]ce1 #cgf     (  
,*ild ,welf>e1 #dae n     ( ,education1 
#dii     ( ,am]ican ,republics1 #fag    
,burke1 ,edmund1 on ! function ( a      
repres5tative1 #ih-ii     ,bus9ess      
taxes1 #bbb              ,c     ,cab9et1
 organization & functions (1 #big-cjc   
,campaign funds1 #afa-afb     ,capital1 
z a factor 9 production1 #dh-ej         
,c5t] ( population 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1   
#ba     ,*anc]y4 ,see ,equity           
,*>t]s1 municipal1 #ahf-aij     ,*ecks &
 balances1 #bcb-bcd     ,*ild labor1 !  
re/riction (1 #dad-dae     ,*ief ju/ice1

 duties (1 9 presid5tial impea*m5ts1    
#bgj n     ,*9a1 economic res\rces (1   
#cce     op5 door 91 #fah-fbj           
,circuit c\rts1 #cac     ,cities1 drift 
( population to1 #bb-bc     gr[? (1     
#ahc-ahd     "* ( population 91 #ahd-ahf
     relation to /ate1 #ahf-aij         
gov]nm5t (1 #aij-aii     adm9i/rative   
problems 91 #bjc-bbb     taxation 91    
#dee-deg     ,city c\ncils1 #aic-aid    
,city gov]nm5t1 developm5t (1 #ahb-ahd  
pres5t organization (1 #ahd-aii     ,see
 also ,municipal problems               
,city-manag] plan1 #aig-aih     ,city   
plann+1 #bjf-bih     ,citiz5%ip1 rights 
(1 #gi     qualifications =1 #ha        
dual1 #hb n     obligations (1 #hc-hd   
tra9+ =1 #hd-hh     ,civil lib]ty1 orig9
 & nature (1 #gh-ha     relation (      
direct legislation to1 #aaa     ,civil  
,w>1 effect (1 on relations betwe5      
nation & /ates1 #bbg     on !           
con/itution1 #bfa-bfb     m>tial law    
dur+1 #egd-ege     naval progress dur+1 
#ege n     co/ ( p5sions aft]1 #ehc     

dang] ( =eign int]v5tion dur+1 #fjh     
,civil s]vice1 f$]al1 #ajd     9        
c\nties1 #agc     ,see also ,m]it sy/em 
,clayton ,act1 #cia1 #djh     ,clevel&1 
adoption ( city manag] plan 91 #aig n   
,grov]1 use ( arm$ =ces 9 labor tr\bles 
by1 #egb-egc     ,clos$ %op1 ! "q (1    
#djh-dji     ,coal1 ! cons]vation (1    
#cbi-ccj     ,codes ( law1 #cae n       
,co9age 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dbg-dcj     
,colb]t1 ,jean-,bapti/e1 on ! art (     
taxation1 #dee n     ,collective b>ga9+1
 #ef1 #dje-djf     ,colleges1 tra9+ =   
citiz5%ip 91 #hg-hh     ,comm]ce1       
purposes (1 #cef-ceg     developm5t (1  
#ceg-ceh     scope & nature (1 #ceh-cei 
regulation (1 #cei-cfj     ag5cies (1   
#cfd-cfh     effect ( t>iffs on1        
#cfh-cgb     ! enc\ragem5t (1 #cgb-cgh  
,commission gov]nm5t1 9 cities1 #aid-aif
     9 /ates1 #bda-bdb     ,commissions1
 public s]vice1 #dhj-dha                
,committees1 p>ty1 #aef-aeh     9 !     
,s5ate1 #bfh-bfi     9 ! ,h\se1 #bge    
( conf]5ce1 #bgg-bgh     on budget      

matt]s1 #dfd-dfe     ,communism1        
economic aspects (1 #fej-feb     ,common
 law1 #cad-cae     ,companies1          
comm]cial1 #ej-ea     ,see also ,hold+  
companies     ,competition1 ! nature (1 
#ed     among public utilities1 #dge-dgf
     ,conciliation 9 labor disputes1    
#dji-daj     ,conf$]ation1 ,articles (1 
#bdi-bea     ,confirmation ( appo9tm5ts1
 #ajj     ,congress1 ( ! ,conf$]ation1  
#bdh-beb1 #beg     ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1   
influ5ce ( public op9ion on1 #ie-if     
organization & "w (1 #bff-bhb           
committees 91 #bfh-bgh     agricultural 
bloc 91 #cej-cea     new budget sy/em 91
 #dfd-dfe     ( ,vi5na1 #fbg-fbh        
,cons]vation ( natural res\rces1        
#cbf-ccf     ,consul> s]vice1 #cgc-cgd  
,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ev5ts   
lead+ to1 #bdf-bec     mak]s (1 #bed-bee
     nature (1 #beg-beh     developm5t  
(1 #beh-bfj     me?ods ( am5d+1 #bfj-bfb
     ,con/itutions1 /ate1 #bcj-bcb      
,consumption ( weal?1 #ci-dj            
,con/abul>y1 /ate1 #bag                 

,con/itutional ,conv5tion ( #aghg1      
#bec-beg     ,cont95tal ,congress1 #bdh 
,contract1 fre$om (1 #ee-ef             
,conv5tions1 p>ty1 /ate1 #abi1 #aef-aeg 
national1 #aeh-aei     ,coron]1 (fice (1
 #agb     ,corporations1 ! nature (1    
#ej-ea     citiz5%ip (1 #ha n           
indu/rial1 #chd-che     control (1      
#chi-cic     ,c\ncil1 9 cities1 #aic-aid
     ,c\nty di/ricts1 #agg     ,c\nty   
gov]nm5t1 #afg-agd     ,c\nty manag]    
plan1 #agj     ,c\rtesy ( ! ,s5ate1     
#bgj-bga     ,c\rts1 c\nty1 #agj-aga    
/ate1 #bci     f$]al1 #cjh-cac          
,c\rts-m>tial1 #egc-egd     ,cov5ant4   
,see ,league ( ,nations     ,cr$it1     
agricultural1 #cdh-cdi     relation (   
money to1 #ddb-ddc     ,cr$it1 relation 
( prices to1 #ddc-ddd     advantages &  
dang]s (1 #ddd-dde     ,crime1          
classifications (1 #eej-eea     causes  
(1 #eeb-eec     me?ods ( deal+ )1       
#eec-eeg     8,crime ( #ahgc01 #dbi n   
8,cross ( ,gold0 campaign1 #dcj         
,curr5cy1 pap]1 hi/ory (1 #dcj-dca      

pres5t =ms (1 #dca-dcb     advantages (1
 #dcb-dcd     ,curr5cy ,act 7#aijj71    
#dcj     ,cu/om1 ! influ5ce (1 #i-aj    
,d     ,d>w91 ,*>les1 !ories (1 #b-d    
,debts1 public1 necessity (1 #dfe-dff   
nature & am\nt (1 #dff-dfh     repaym5t 
(1 #dfh-dfi     ,decl>ation (           
,indep5d5ce1 influ5ce ( ,john ,locke on1
 #fd-fe     ass]tion ( civil rights 91  
#hj     political doctr9es (1 #bdh-bdi  
,def5ce1 national1 co/ (1 #efc-efd      
ne$ =1 #efd-efg     me?ods (1 #efg-ehc  
,deg5]acy z a cause ( pov]ty1 #edb      
,dem& & supply1 relations (1 #dj        
,democracy1 true & false types1 #fh     
progress (1 #fi     ju/ification (1 #gj 
relation ( education to1 #dib-dic       
relation ( socialism to1 #feg-feh       
a*ievem5ts (1 #feh-ffj     citiz5's duty
 t[>d1 #ffj-ffa     ,dep>tm5ts1 9 city  
gov]nm5t1 #aia-aib1 #bje-bjf     9 /ate 
gov]nm5t1 #bch-bci     9 f$]al gov]nm5t1
 #bii     ,dim9i%+ returns1 ! law (1    
#cdc     ,diplomatic s]vice1            
organization & functions (1 #eia-eie    

,direct legislation1 progress (1        
#ajg-ajh     proc$ure 91 #aji-aaj       
m]its & defects (1 #aaj-aab             
,dis>mam5t1 int]national1 #egf-egg      
,see also ,wa%+ton ,conf]5ce            
,disease1 ! g]m !ory (1 #eaf-eag        
transmission (1 #eag-ebj     9 indu/ry1 
#eba-ebb     ! prev5tion (1 #ebb-ebd    
,di/rict attorney4 ,see ,prosecut+      
attorney     ( ,columbia1 gov]nm5t (1   
#bcj n     c\rts1 f$]al1 #cac     ,div9e
 "r1 !ory (1 #fc-fd     ,division (     
labor1 #dd-df     9 agriculture1        
#cdd-cde     ( p[]s1 #bcb-bcd           
,divorce problem1 #eeg-efj     ,dome/ic 
relations1 c\rts (1 #eei     ,drug evil1
 !1 #ebf     ,duties on imports1 #dei   
,see also ,t>iffs & ,t>iff problems     
,e     ,economics1 ! subject-matt] (1   
#ch-ci     ,education1 relation to      
democracy1 #dib-dic     to p]sonal      
effici5cy1 #dic-did     purpose & value 
(1 #did-die     gr[? (1 #die-dif        
control & managem5t (1 #dif-dih         
national gov]nm5t's "w =1 #dih-dii      

f$]al aid to1 #dii-ejj     problems (1  
#ejj-ejg     vocational1 #ejg-ejh       
,educational te/s = vot+1 #abb-abd      
,elections1 9 c\nties1 #afi     proc$ure
 at1 #abi-acg     corrupt practices at1 
#acg-ach     ( s5ators1 #bfg-bfh     (  
repres5tatives 9 ,congress1 #bgc-bgd    
presid5tial1 #bhh-bij     ,see also     
,ballots1 ,city ,gov]nm5t1 ,vot+        
,em]g5cy ,fleet ,corporation1 #cge      
,employ]s' liability1 #daa-dab          
,engl&1 local gov]nm5t 91 #bbg          
cab9et sy/em 91 #cja     ,environm5t1 ! 
influ5ce (1 #e-i     ,equity1 orig9 &   
nature (1 #caf-cag     ,espionage ,act1 
!1 #eha     ,europe1 relations )1 #fac  
,evolution1 !ory (1 #a-e     9 political
 in/itutions1 #ff     ,excess pr(its1   
taxation (1 #deh-dei     ,ex*ange1 !    
!ory (1 #ec     ,expatriation1 ! doctr9e
 (1 #hc              ,f     ,factories4 
,see ,indu/ry     ,family1 z a          
fundam5tal social gr\p1 #aa-ab     its  
place 9 ! evolution ( gov]nm5t1 #ff     
,f> ,ea/1 ,am]ican int]e/s 9 !1 #fag-fah

     ,f>m ,loan ,banks1 #cdh-cdi        
,f>m]s' ,alliance4 ,see ,national       
,f>m]s' ,alliance     ,in/itutes1 #cej  
,f>m]-,labor p>ty1 #cea     ,f$]alism1 !
 nature (1 #fg-fh     ,f$]ali/1 ,!1 #beg
     ,f$]al res]ve banks1 organization &
 "w (1 #dcg-dci     ,trade ,commission1 
#cda-cib     ,filibu/]s1 #bgh-bgi       
,filtration ( wat] supplies1 #ecj-eca   
,fire prev5tion1 ! ne$ =1 #bag-bah      
me?ods (1 #bah-bai     ,fi%]ies1        
economic importance (1 #ccc     ,fitte/1
 survival ( !1 #c-d1 #aa     ,food1 !   
inspection (1 #ebe-ebf     control (1 9 
w> "t1 #ehb     ,=eign policy1 ,am]ican 
traditions relat+ to1 #fjf-fjg          
nature (1 #ehg-eij     control (1       
#eij-eia     h[ conduct$1 #eia-fjb      
,=e/s1 economic importance (1 #cca      
,see also ,res]ves     ,f\r ,p[]        
,treaty1 #fai-fbj     ,f\rte5 ,po9ts1 !1
 #fji-faj     ,france1 local gov]nm5t 91
 #bbg     ,fran*ises1 taxation (1 #def  
public s]vice1 #dgg-dhj     ,fre$om (   
spee* 9 w> "t1 #eha-ehb     ,free silv]1

 ! fight =1 #dbh-dcj     ,free trade1   
argum5ts = & aga9/1 #cgj-cgb            
,g     ,g>bage1 disposal (1 #ebg-ebh    
,g>y sy/em1 #ejf-ejg     ,g5]al prop]ty 
tax1 #dee-def     8,g5tlem5's agreem5t01
 ) ,japan1 #cb     9 indu/ry1 #chf      
,geography1 influ5ce (1 #h-i1 #ccc-ccf  
,george1 ,h5ry1 social views (1 #dfa n  
,g]many1 social insurance 91 #dai       
,g]rym&]1 orig9 & use (1 #bgc           
,glad/one1 ,w4 ,e41 op9ion ( ! national 
con/itution1 #bef-beg     ,gomp]s1      
,samuel1 #dje     ,gov]nm5t1 !          
importance (1 #ac     z a factor 9      
production1 #ea-eb     ! basis ( ob$i5ce
 to1 #fc-fe     orig9 (1 #fe-ff         
classification (1 #ff-fi     purpose (1 
#gj-gb     functions (1 #gb-gc     !    
/udy (1 #gd     ,gov]nor1 position &    
p[]s (1 #bcg-bch     ,gr& jury1 #cah    
,granges4 ,see ,patrons ( ,husb&ry      
,gre5backs1 !1 #dca     ,guidance1      
vocational1 #cif-cig     ,guild         
op]ation1 #dhh-dhi              ,h      
,habeas corpus1 ! writ (1 #cag n        

,habit1 influ5ce (1 #aj     ,hague      
,conf]5ces1 !1 #egg     ,hamilton1      
,alex&]1 #bee1 #beg     ,report on      
,manufactures1 #cgj     ,hawaii1        
gov]nm5t (1 #bbi n     ,hayes-,tild5    
election1 #bij n     ,highways 9        
c\nties1 #afh     ,hobbes1 ,?omas1      
def5d] ( absolutism1 #fe     ,hold+     
companies1 #chg     ,holy ,alliance1    
#eih-eii     ,home rule1 municipal1     
#ahg-aij     ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1   
f$]al1 organization & "w (1 #bgb-bhc    
,h\s+1 municipal control (1 #eca-ecc    
,i     ,ideals1 national1 economic      
influ5ce (1 #cbg     effect ( urban gr[?
 on1 #ahd-ahf     ,illit]acy 9 ! ,unit$ 
,/ates1 #ejb n     ,immigration1 ! c\rse
 (1 #bc-bd     causes (1 #be-bf         
effects (1 #bf-bi     re/riction (1     
#bi-cj1 #cb     ,impea*m5ts1 f$]al1     
#bfi-bgj     ,income taxes1 #deh-dei    
,increas+ returns1 law (1 #chh          
,incid5ce ( taxation1 #dea-deb          
,individualism z an economic sy/em1 #ad1
 #gc     ,index numb]s1 #ddc n          

,indu/rial accid5ts1 #daa-dab     c\rts1
 #daj-daa     democracy1 #cic-cid       
,revolution1 nature (1 #chc-chd         
,revolution1 effect on labor1 #djj-dja1 
#dad n     ,work]s ( ! ,_w 7! ,i4 ,w4   
,w471 #dje     ,indu/ry1 def9ition (1   
#chc     developm5t & organization (1   
#chd-chf     comb9ations 91 #chf-chi    
gov]nm5t regulation (1 #chi-cic         
pres5t-day problems (1 #cic-cig     !   
hygi5e (1 #ebj-eba     ,inh]itances1    
taxes on1 #deh     ,initiative &        
ref]5dum1 orig9 & spread (1 #ajg-ajh    
h[ us$1 #aji-aaj     value (1 #aaj-aaa  
objections to1 #aaa-aab                 
,injunctions1 use (1 9 labor disputes1  
#djg-djh     ,insul> possessions1       
gov]nm5t (1 #bbi-bcj     ,insane1       
problem ( !1 #edi-eej     ,insects z    
disease c>ri]s1 #eah-eai     ,insurance1
 aga9/ accid5t1 #dac     aga9/          
unemploym5t1 #dah     aga9/ old age1    
#dai     ,int]e/ on inve/$ capital1     
#di-ej     ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t1 its "w1  
#bii n     ,int]national1 ,!1 #fea-feb  

,int]national law1 nature & scope (1    
#ehh-eij     ,int]/ate comm]ce1 gr[? (1 
#cei-cfa     regulation (1 #cfb-cfd     
,comm]ce ,commission1 jurisdiction & "w 
(1 #cfc-cfd     ,int]pretation1         
developm5t ( ! con/itution by1 #bei-bfj 
,j     ,jackson1 ,&rew1 removals f (fice
 by1 #ajb     ,japan1 relations )1      
#fah-fbj     ,japanese1 problem ( !1 on 
,pacific slope1 #cb-cc     ,jeff]son1   
,?omas1 believ] 9 social contract !ory1 
#fe     on entangl+ alliances1 #eih1    
#fjf     ,johnson1 ,&rew1 impea*m5t (1  
#bgj n     ,judicial proc$ure1 #cag-cbc 
,judicial supremacy1 ! doctr9e (1       
#caj-caa     ,judges1 selection &       
removal (1 #bci-bdj     ,jukes1 !1      
#edb-edc     ,junior high s*ools &      
colleges1 #ejb-ejc     ,jury1 gr&1 #cah 
trial1 #cah-cai     m]its & defects (1  
#cag-cba     ,ju/ice1 ,dep>tm5t (1 its  
"w1 #bii n     ,juv5ile del9qu5cy1 #eeg 
,k     ,kansas plan ( arbitration1      
#daj-daa     ,knights ( ,labor1 #djb-djc
              ,l     ,labor1 z a factor 

9 production1 #dc-dd     division (1    
#dd-df     p]i%able nature (1 #df-dg    
f$]al dep>tm5t (1 #bii n     ,labor 9   
agriculture1 #cdi     *anges 9 !        
conditions (1 #djj-dja     organization 
(1 #dja-djc     ,am]ican ,f$]ation (1   
#djc-djd     ! radical elem5t 91        
#djd-dje     me?ods & policies (1       
#dje-daj     problems (1 #daj-dai       
s]vices (1 dur+ ! ,_w ,w>1 #dai-dbj     
relations (1 to ,league ( ,nations1 #fcg
     ,lat9-,am]ica1 relations )1        
#fae-fag     ,law1 bran*es ( !1 #cad-cae
     milit>y1 #egc-egd     m>tial1      
#egd-ege     relations ( labor to1 #daa 
,league ( ,nations1 orig9 ( !1 #fbe-fcj 
cov5ant (1 #fcj-fcb     z a s*eme (     
gov]nm5t1 #fcb-fcf     sy/em ( m&ates1  
#fcf-fcg     relation ( labor to1 #fcg  
public heal? "w (1 #fch     ,am]ican    
objections to1 #fch-fci     "w (1       
#fci-fdj     relation ( ,wa%+ton        
,conf]5ce to1 #fdj-fda     future (1    
#fda-fdb     relation ( ,monroe ,doctr9e
 to1 #fjj n     ,legislative ref]5ce    

bureaus1 #bcg n     ,legislatures1 /ate1
 decl9e ( confid5ce 91 #ajh             
organization (1 #bce-bcg     ,l',enfant1
 ,major1 plann+ ( ,wa%+ton by1 #bjg     
,liquor traffic1 its effect ^u ! public 
heal?1 #ebf-ebg     ,loans to ,european 
c\ntries1 #fac-fad     ,see also ,debts 
,lobby+1 #bcg n     ,local gov]nm5t 9   
,europe & ,am]ica comp>$1 #agh-agi      
,locke1 ,john1 8 !ory ( political       
ob$i5ce1 #fd     ,lock\ts1 indu/rial1   
#djg     ,lockwood ,committee1 its      
inve/igations1 #ee n     ,london1 fir/  
civil police e/abli%$ 91 #baf     pov]ty
 91 #eda     ,los ,angeles1 orig9 (     
recall 91 #aad     ,l\isiana ,pur*ase1  
#bbh     ,lusitania1 s9k+ ( !1 #fji     
,m     ,mc,culloch v4 ,m>yl&1 ! case (1 
#dce n     ,ma*9es1 political1 #aei-afj 
,madison1 ,james1 on ! ne$ ( national   
def5ce1 #efd     contributions to ,!    
,f$]ali/1 #beg     ,magna ,c>ta1 #gi1   
#cbc1 #die     ,ma9e1 ,sir ,h5ry1 on !  
rise ( m5 f /atus to contract1 #ef      
,managem5t1 indu/rial1 z a factor 9     

production1 #ej-ea     ,m&ate 7m&amus71 
! writ (1 #cag n     ,m&ates1 ! sy/em (1
 #fcf-fcg     ,m>tial law1 #egd-ege     
,mayor1 position & p[]s ( !1 #aij-aia   
,m5tally defective1 ! problem ( !1      
#edi-eej     ,m]*ant m>9e1 #cge-cgf     
,m]g]s 9 indu/ry1 #chg     ,m]it sy/em1 
orig9 (1 #ajc-ajd     work+s (1 #ajd-aje
     value (1 #aje-ajf     9 ! consul>  
s]vice1 #cgd     ,metropolitan c\nties1 
#agc-agd     ,mexico1 relations )1      
#fae-fag     ,milit>y gov]nm5t1 #ege n  
,milit>y law1 #egc-egd     ,milit>ism1 !
 enc\ragem5t (1 #efe-eff     ,milk1     
inspectors (1 #ebd-ebe     ,m9es &      
m9]als1 economic importance (1 #cbi-cdj 
_! relation to conque/1 #ccd-cce        
,m9imum wage laws1 #daf-dag     ,m9or   
political p>ties1 #aeb-aec     ,m9ts 9 !
 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #dbh     ,money1 orig9  
(1 #dbd-dbe     functions & *>act]i/ics 
(1 #dbe-dbg     ,money1 =ms (1 9 !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 #dbg-dcc     relation (  
cr$it to1 #ddb-ddc     quantity !ory (1 
#ddd     ,see also ,curr5cy             

,monopolies1 types (1 #ed     effects (1
 #ee     indu/rial1 #chg-chh            
natural1 #dgd-dge     ,monroe ,doctr9e1 
orig9 & nature (1 #eif-eii     pres5t   
/atus (1 #fjj-fja     ,municipal        
problems1 #bjc-bbb     ,see also ,city  
gov]nm5t              ,n     ,national  
banks1 organization & "w (1 #dce-dci    
,f>m]s' ,alliance1 #cej     ,gu>d1      
relation ( f$]al au?orities to1 #efh-efi
     ,naturalization1 requirem5ts =1 &  
proc$ure 91 #ha-hb     ,natural         
monopolies1 #dgd-dge     res\rces1      
#cbf-ccf     selection1 ! pr9ciple (1   
#c-d     ,navy1 gr[? & organization (1  
#ege-egf     ,see also ,dis>mam5t       
,ne> ,ea/1 ,am]ican int]e/s 91 #fbj     
,negroes1 migration (1 to ! ,unit$      
,/ates1 #bg     pres5t numb]s &         
di/ribution1 #cj-ca     problems (1     
#ca-cb     vot+ rights (1 #bfa-bfb      
,neutrality1 laws (1 #ehi     ,am]ican  
contributions to ! rights (1 #fja       
,new ,engl& t[n1 ! gov]nm5t (1 #age-agf 
,new ,york ,city1 population (1 #bc     

pov]ty 91 #eda     ,new ,zeal&1         
compulsory arbitration 91 #dji n        
,nom9ations1 hi/ory (1 #abj-aba         
me?ods ( mak+1 #abg-abi     ,see also   
,conv5tions1 ,prim>y     ,normal s*ools1
 #ejd     ,nor!rn ,securities ,case1    
#cfe-cij              ,o     ,oil1 !    
cons]vation (1 #cbi-ccj     ,old age    
p5sions1 #dai     ,op5 %op1 controv]sies
 ov]1 #djh-dji     ,optional *>t] sy/em1
 #ahi n     ,oregon1 direct legislation 
91 #aaj     ,organization1 ( indu/ry1   
#ej-ea1 #chd-che     ( labor1 #dja-dje  
,own]%ip1 public4 ,see ,public own]%ip  
,p     ,pacific1 problems ( !1 #fah-fbj 
,panama ,canal1 !1 #fag                 
,pan-,am]ican ,congress1 #fag     ,p>ks 
& recreation gr\nds1 #bab     ,p>ole    
sy/em1 #eee-eef     ,p>ties1 political1 
nature & functions (1 #ade-aej          
hi/ory (1 #aej-aea     programs (1      
#aea-aed     ! vot]'s relation to1      
#aed-aee     organization (1 #aef-afa   
f9ance (1 #afa-afb     re=m (1 #afb-afc 
,p>tn]%ips1 bus9ess1 #ej     ,pat5ts1   

#ee     ,patrons ( ,husb&ry1 #cej       
,paup]ism1 nature (1 & rem$ies =1       
#edj-edi     ,pavem5ts1 #baj-bab        
,peel1 ,sir ,rob]t1 fir/ civil police   
sy/em e/abli%$ by1 #baf n     ,p5n1     
,william1 plan ( colonial union propos$ 
by1 #bdh     ,p5sions1 ! co/ (1 #ehc    
old age1 #dai     ,petitions1 = direct  
legislation1 #aji     ,picket+ dur+     
labor tr\bles1 #djg     ,playgr\nd1     
tra9+ = citiz5%ip on !1 #hf             
,philipp9es1 gov]nm5t ( !1 #bbi n1 #bcj 
n     ,plumb ,plan1 #cff1 #dhi          
,pocket veto1 #bid     ,police1 hi/ory  
(1 #bae-baf     organization (1 #baf-bag
     ,poll taxes1 #def     ,pools 9     
indu/ry1 #chf-chg     ,poor relief1     
hi/ory & me?ods (1 #edj-edi     ,popul> 
sov]eignty1 #id-ie     ,population1 gr[?
 (1 #ai-bj     di/ribution (1 #bj-ba    
c5t] (1 #ba     drift (1 to ! cities1   
#bb-bc     8,pork b>rel01 9 ,congress1  
#dfd n     ,porto ,rico1 gov]nm5t (1    
#bbi n     ,pov]ty1 ext5t & causes (1   
#edj-ede     me?ods ( deal+ )1 #ede-edi 

,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 position & 
p[]s (1 #bhf-big     control ( army1    
#ega-egb     control ( navy1 #egf       
,prep>$ness = w>1 ! true nature (1      
#egh-ehj     ,price-fix+ by gov]nm5ts1  
#cia     ,prices1 relation (1 to value1 
#ec-ed     to money & cr$it1 #ddc-ddd   
to taxes1 #deb     ,prim>y1 ! diff]5t   
=ms (1 #abg-abi     ,prisons & prison   
re=m1 #eed-eee     ,private prop]ty1    
regulation (1 #bad-bae     ,probation   
sy/em1 #eef-eeg     ,production1        
economic1 #da-db     ! factors 91 #db-eb
     l>ge-scale1 #chh-chi     ,pr(it    
%>+1 #cid-cie     ,pr(its1 nature &     
basis (1 #ea     ,prop]ty1 private4 ,see
 ,private ,prop]ty     ,proportional    
repres5tation1 #acd-acf     ,prosecut+  
attorney1 #aga-agb     ,protective      
t>iffs1 argum5ts =1 #cgj-cga            
argum5ts aga9/1 #cga-cgb     ,public    
build+s1 9 c\nties1 #afh     9 cities1  
#bab-bad     ,public doma91 #cbg-cbh    
,public heal?1 importance (1 #ead-eae   
progress 9 ! protection (1 #eae-eaf     

m5aces to1 #eaf-ebj     me?ods (        
safegu>d+1 #eba-ecd     en=cem5t (      
regulations relat+ to1 #ecd-ece         
,public ,heal? ,s]vice1 f$]al1 #ecd-ece 
,public libr>ies1 #ejd-eje     ,public  
op9ion1 nature & influ5ce (1 #id-if     
,public own]%ip1 9 ,europe1 #dhb     9  
,am]ica1 #dhc     argum5ts =1 #dhc-dhe  
argum5ts aga9/1 #dce-dcg     ,public    
s]vice commissions1 #dhj-dha            
,q     ,quantity !ory ( money & prices1 
#ddd     ,qu>ant9e1 me?ods (1 #ebb-ebc  
,r     ,races 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ai-cc 
,radicalism1 gr[? (1 #fdf-fdg           
,railroads1 ! beg9n+s (1 #cfb-cfc       
relation (1 to ,%]man ,act1 #cfd-cfe    
9 w> "t1 #cfe-cff     gov]nm5t op]ation 
(1 #cff-cfg     return to private       
op]ation (1 #cfg     future (1 #cfh     
,railway ,labor ,bo>d1 #cfg     ,ratio (
 repres5tation1 #bgb     ,recall (      
(fic]s1 #aac-aad     ,recess appo9tm5ts1
 #bga     ,reciprocity ) ,canada1 #cgc  
,recon/ruction1 economic1 9 ,europe1    
#fad-fae     political & economic1      

#fdf-ffa     ,r$i/rict+1 #bgc           
,refund+ ( public debts1 #dfh           
,regi/ration ( vot]s1 #abe-abf          
,regul> army1 #efg-efh     ,removals f  
(fice1 #ajf     ,r5t1 its nature1 #dc   
,repres5tation1 proportional1 #acd-acf  
,repres5tatives1 effect ( direct        
legislation on ! quality (1 #aab     !  
*oice (1 #if-ig     prop] function (1   
#ih-ii     ,res]ves1 =e/1 #ccb-ccc      
,re/ra9t ( trade1 #chi-cij              
,res\rces1 natural1 #cbf-ccf            
,revolution1 ,am]ican1 z a unify+       
factor1 #bdh     ,r+s1 political1       
#afj-afa     ,rome1 anci5t1 pre/ige (   
citiz5%ip 91 #hj-ha     ,roosevelt1     
,!odore1 on national def5ce1 #efe n     
9 ,v5ezuela controv]sy1 #eij     ,rule (
 reason1 !1 #cij     ,rural exodus1 !1  
#cea-ceb     ,russia1 ! new gov]nm5t 91 
#fdg-feb              ,s     ,sales tax1
 z propos$1 #dfb     ,s*ools4 ,see      
,education     ,second jeop>dy1 #cbj    
,secret diplomacy1 #eie-eif             
,selective s]vice 9 w> "t1 #egj-ega     

,selectm51 bo>ds (1 9 t[ns1 #agf        
,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 organization &
 p[]s (1 #bfg-bgb     rejection (       
treaties by1 #fca     ,s5atorial        
c\rtesy4 ,see ,c\rtesy ( ! ,s5ate       
,sewage1 collection & disposal (1       
#ebg-ebh     ,%]iff1 (fice (1 #aga      
,%]man ,act1 #cfd-cfe1 #chi-cij1 #cia n 
,%ipp+ ,bo>d1 #cge     ,s+le tax1 z     
propos$1 #dfa-dfb     ,%ort ballot1     
#acb-acc     9 c\nty elections1 #agd    
,s9k+ funds1 #dfh     ,smi?1 ,adam1 on !
 canons ( taxation1 #dee     ,smoke     
abatem5t 9 cities1 #eca     ,social     
contract1 !ory (1 #fe     control1      
#ad-ae     control1 ! limits to1 #gb-gc 
insurance z a means ( r$uc+ pov]ty1 #edh
     ,socialism1 def9$ & expla9$1       
#feb-fec     argum5ts =1 #fec-fed       
argum5ts aga9/1 #fed-feh     ,sociali/  
p>ty1 its rise & pres5t /atus1 #aed     
,society1 its orig9 & nature1 #a-ac     
,soil1 economic importance (1 #cbg-cbh  
exhau/ion (1 #cde     ,soviet sy/em 9   
,russia1 #fdg-fej     ,speak]1 (fice (1 

#bgd-bge     ,special assessm5ts1 #deg  
,spoils sy/em1 #aja-ajc     9 ! consul> 
s]vice1 #cgd     ,/ate ,dep>tm5t1 its   
"w1 #eia     ,/ates1 nature (1 #fb-fc   
relation ( local gov]nm5t to1 #ahf-aij1 
#bai-bbj     relation to national       
gov]nm5t1 #bbf-bbg     admission (1     
#bbg-bcj     con/itutions (1 #bcj-bcb   
functions (1 #bcb-bcc     legislative   
organization 91 #bce-bcg     executive  
organization 91 #bcg-bch     judicial   
organization 91 #bci-bdj     enc\ragem5t
 ( agriculture by1 #cdh     control (   
corporations by1 #cib     tax sy/ems (1 
#deg-deh     educational "w (1 #dif-dig 
sup]vision ( public heal? by1 #ecd      
,/atutes & /atutory law1 #cae-caf       
,/eam1 revolution 9 indu/ry caus$ by1   
#chd     ,/ock ex*ange1 functions (1    
#dde-ddf     ,/reets1 plann+ (1 #bjh-bji
     wid? & arrangem5t1 #bji-baj        
pav+ (1 #baj-bab     ,/rikes1 h[        
organiz$1 #djf-djg     ,succession to ! 
presid5cy1 #bif     ,suffrage1 hi/ory (1
 #aai-abj     negro1 #abj-aba           

univ]sal1 #aba-abb     ,see also        
,elections1 ,vot+     ,supreme ,c\rt ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates1 its con/itutional       
functions1      #bei-bfj     its        
organization & influ5ce1 #cjh-caa       
,t     ,t>iffs & t>iff policy1 #cfh-cgb 
,taxation1 9 cities1 #bbj-bbb     !     
burd5 (1 #dej-dea     ! incid5ce (1     
#dea-dec     special nature (1 #dec-ded 
pr9ciples (1 #ded-dee     local1        
#dee-deg     /ate1 #deg-deh             
national1 #deh-dei     ! two purposes (1
 #dei-dfj     exemptions f1 #dfj-dfa    
! re=m (1 #dfa-dfb     ,taxes1 on       
immigrants1 #cj     z an elem5t 9 ! co/ 
( production1 #eb     ,tea*]s1 ! tra9+  
(1 #ejc-ejd     ,t5em5ts4 ,see ,h\s+    
,t]ritories1 ! gov]nm5t (1 #bbi-bcj     
,timb]1 ! cons]vation (1 #cca-ccb       
,t[n gov]nm5t1 #age-agf     ,t[n]-,/]l+ 
,bill1 #dii n     ,t[n%ip gov]nm5t1     
#agf-agg     ,trade unions4 ,see        
,organization ( labor     ,traffic      
zones1 #baj     ,transportation ,act1   
#cfd1 #cfg     ,treasury1 ,dep>tm5t ( !1

 #bii n     ,treaties1 ratification (1  
by ! ,s5ate1 #bga     comm]cial1 #cgc   
h[ made1 #eif-eig     ,trial by jury1   
#cah-cba     ,tribe1 its place 9        
political evolution1 #ff     ,triple    
,alliance1 #fbh-fbi     ,tru/s1         
indu/rial1 #chg     ,twe$1 ,william ,m41
 #afa n     ,typhoid fev]1 its cause &  
me?od ( transmission1 #eag-eah          
,u     ,unemploym5t1 ! problem (1       
#dag-dah     ,unions1 labor1 aims &     
me?ods (1 #dja-daj     ,univ]sal milit>y
 tra9+1 m]its & defects (1 #egh         
,usage1 developm5t ( con/itution by1    
#beh-bei     ,utility1 ! pr9ciple (1 9  
det]m9+ dem&1 #dj-da     ,utilities1    
public1 #bae     ! nature (1 #dgd-dgf   
regulation (1 #dgj-dgg     fran*ises (1 
#dgg-dhj     public own]%ip (1 #dha-dhh 
guild op]ation (1 #dhh-dhi              
,v     ,vacc9ation & inoculation1       
effects ( #ebc-ebd     ,value1 def9ition
 (1 #ec     ,v]sailles1 ,treaty (1 #faj1
 #fca n     ,vice presid5t1 election (1 
#bhh     duties (1 #bgj n     functions 

( !1 #bif-big     ,veto p[]1 !          
,presid5t's1 #bid-bie     ,vocation1 !  
*oice ( a1 #cif-cig     ,vocational     
education1 #ejg-ejh     ,see also       
,guidance1 vocational     ,volunte]s1   
use (1 9 w>1 #efi-egj     ,vot+1        
pref]5tial1 #acc-acd     qualifications 
=1 #abb-abe     abs5t1 #ach             
compulsory1 #ach-aci     by ma*9e1      
#aci-adj     9 ,congress1 #bgh n        
,see also ,regi/ration ( vot]s1         
,suffrage              ,w     ,wages1   
factors affect+ ! rate (1 #dg-dh        
,w>1 ! co/ (1 #efc-efd     ! causes (1  
#eff-efg     prep>$ness =1 #egh-eha     
! laws (1 #ehh-ehi     humaniz+ (1 #fja 
measures = ! prev5tion (1 #fce-fcf      
,see also ,arbitration1 ,hague          
,conf]5ces1 ,league ( ,nations1         
,wa%+ton ,conf]5ce     ,w> ,indu/ries   
,bo>d1 #ehb     ,wa%+ton ,conf]5ce1 #ege
 n1 #egg1 #fai-fbj     ,wa%+ton         
,conf]5ce1 relation ( ,league ( ,nations
 to1 #fdj-fda     ,wa%+ton1 ,george1 z a
 non-p>tisan ,presid5t1 #ajb     on !   

weakness ( ! ,conf$]ation1 #beb     at !
 con/itutional conv5tion1 #bed     on   
two-h\se legislatures1 #bff     advice  
on =eign policy1 #eig-eih1 #fjf n       
,wa/e disposal1 me?ods (1 9 cities1     
#ebg-ebh     ,wat] supply1 s\rces &     
me?ods (1 #ebi-ecj     ,weal?1 def9ition
 (1 #ci     ,wea!r ,bureau1 importance (
 its "w1 #cdg     ,well+ton1 ! ,duke (1 
on ! value ( organiz$ play1 #hg         
,wid] use ( ! s*ool plant1 #eje-ejf     
,:itehall1 ,indiana1 c5t] ( population1 
#ba     ,wilson1 ,woodr[1 on ! aims (   
,am]ica 9 ! ,_w ,w>1 #fji-faj     ,see  
also ,f\rte5 ,po9ts1 ,league ( ,nations1
 ,_w ,w>     ,woman suffrage1 ! w9n+ (1 
#bfb     ,wom51 9 indu/ry1 ! protection 
(1 #dac-dad     ,workman's comp5sation1 
#dac     ,_w p[]1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9     
relation to1 #fjf-fba     ,_w ,w>1 rise 
( wages dur+1 #dh     ,am]ican          
agriculture dur+1 #cdb-cdc     ,am]ican 
labor dur+1 #dai-dbj     public debts   
result+ f1 #dff     p[]s ( ! gov]nm5t   
dur+1 #ehj-ehc     ,am]ica's "p 91      

#fjh-fji     co/ (1 #fab     problems   
creat$ by1 #fdf-ffa     ,writs at law1  
#cag n              ,y     ,ye> ,book ( 
! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #cdg        
,footnotes                              
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,transcrib]'s ,note    ,! index entry   
reg>d+ ! duties ( ! ,vice ,presid5t     
ref]s to a  note on p4 #bgj1 b no su*   
note exi/s4    ,! index entry reg>d+    
compulsory arbitration 9 ,new ,zeal&    
ref]s  to a note on p4 #dai4 ,! note    
appe>s on p4 #dji4    ,o!r errors deem$ 
mo/ likely to be ! pr9t]'s h be5        
correct$1  & are not$ "h4 ,! ref]5ces   
are to ! page & l9e 9 !  orig9al4 ,:]e !
 error is 9 a footnote1 ! orig9al note  
is  includ$ & ! l9e )9 x4     #ga4cb    
protect arg_/griculture                 
,transpos$4   #hj4b       ,x was a long 
& grim /ruggle              ,re/or$4    
#hb4cd      ,9 ! case ( ! ,porto        
,ricans1 citiz5%ip ,add$4   #aje4aj     
,!y are practical 9 _! nature4          

,add$4   #agi4cc     & & ! c\nty-manag] 
plans4            ,remov$4   #aic4g     
t is_/t enc\rages                       
,replac$4   #bej4bf     ,i_/it c\ld act 
only                          ,replac$4 
#caf4ac     _m /ates4                   
,add$4   #cbi4h      re/ock+ ( lakes )  
fi%74              ,add$4   #cec4cc     
,! ,non-,p>tisan ,league1               
pp4#bfi-bhc2_/4     ,replac$4   #cgi4cc 
& future developm5t4                    
,add$4   #dah4aj     a c]ta9            
pre_/erc5tage ( ! total                 
,transpos$4   #dfe4ab     to ! pres5t   
taxpay]s4                    ,add$4     
#dfh4n#b4b   life ( a public            
in_/mprovem5t               ,replac$4   
#dgj4aj     ,public ,f9ance1 pp4        
#bfa-bhj4               ,add$4   #dga4aa
     p4 #deg47                          
,add$4   #fah4f      ma/]y ( ! ,pacific4
                      ,add$4   #fgc4bi  
,i d solemnly swe>                      
,ins]t$4   #fhc4f      a ,s5ator or     
,repres5tative                  ,ins]t$4