---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,boldface type is delimited with the #8' character as ,boldface4 ,footnotes have been moved to follow the paragraphs in which they are referenced4 ,the many marginal notes usually appeared at the beginning of a paragraph4 ,these are given here on a separate line as ,sidenote3 ,a topic4 ,where the notes are in mid-paragraph1 they are merely interpolated in the text ,sidenote3 ,inline at an appropriate point4 ,there are a number of diagrams that cannot be directly rendered in this version4 ,an attempt has been made for each to retain the information conveyed4 ,for instance1 the chart of the various municipal offices facing p4 #bje has been rendered here as an indented list4 ,all illustrations1 charts1 tables and graphs are accompanied by a separate explanatory page1 either preceding or following4 ,neither are included in the pagination4 ,they have been moved to the nearest logical paragraph break1 and demarcated by horizontal rules1 which do not appear in the text4 ,a chart1 8,the ,commission ,plan01 facing p4 #aie1 is missing from the list of ,maps1 ,charts1 and ,diagrams4 ,minor errors1 attributable to the printer1 have been corrected4 ,please see the transcriber's note at the end of this text for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation4 ,,social ,,civics ,books by ,,william ,,bennett ,,munro ,,the ,,government ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,the ,,government ,,of ,,american ,,cities ,,the ,,government ,,of ,,european ,,cities ,,principles ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,municipal ,,administration ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,justice ,by ,edward ,simmons ,this frontispiece is a reproduction of a famous mural decoration in the ,new ,york ,criminal ,court ,house4 ,the background is the doorway of the criminal court room4 ,justice stands before the entrance holding in one hand the conventional scales as a token of impartiality1 and in the other hand a globe to symbolize the world4 ,over her left shoulder is draped the national flag4 ,condemnation and ,acquittal are typified by the two children1 one of whom holds a sword1 the other the dove of peace4 ,it has been usual to prefigure the ,goddess of ,justice with her eyes bandaged1 in token of her immunity from outside influence4 ,mr4 ,simmons1 however1 has here portrayed ,justice with her eyes uncovered1 because he believed that 8,justice should have her eyes wide open--particularly in ,new ,york ,city04 ,the artist's wife and two children were the models for this painting4 ,illustration3 ,,justice4 ,by ,edward ,simmons ,copyright by ,edward ,simmons4 ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,social ,,civics ,,by ,,william ,,bennett ,,munro ,,professor ,,of ,,municipal ,,government ,,in ,,harvard ,,university ,,and ,,charles ,,eugene ,,ozanne ,,teacher ,,of ,,civics ,,in ,,the ,,central ,,high ,,school1 ,,cleveland1 ,,ohio ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aibb ,all rights reserved ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,copyright1 #aibb ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company --- ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,june1 #aibb ,,preface ,many excellent textbooks are already available for the teaching of civics4 ,why should another be added to the number8 ,wherein does this book differ from the rest8 ,what are its outstanding features8 ,the ,plan4 ,this book covers a wider range than most texts4 ,it includes not only a survey of governmental framework and functions1 but many topics which are ordinarily spoken of as questions in economics1 sociology1 and international relations4 ,the propriety of including such topics scarcely requires a defensive argument nowadays1 for the old lines of demarcation in the social sciences are rapidly breaking down4 ,the problems of our complex modern civilization pay no heed to technical boundaries4 ,they are the joint product of political1 social1 and economic forces4 ,no one can get a grasp of them if he lets his mind run on a single track4 ,a well-organized course in civics1 or in the problems of democracy1 should acquaint the student with the great institutions1 relations1 and principles which dominate the life of the community4 ,to accomplish this end it should carry him as far afield as need be4 ,the ,method4 ,nevertheless1 the main theme of this book is ,american government4 ,no matter what the topic under discussion1 the authors have tried to link it up with the drift and purposes of governmental action and policy4 ,this intimate and continuous connection between public problems and public policy is the central concept of the book2 it is the thread which holds the various chapters together4 ,there are many winding roads in the broad domain of the social sciences1 but sooner or later they all lead through the realm of government4 ,the authors have not tried to discuss every possible phase of their subject4 ,questions of outstanding importance have been given the right of way2 minor matters have been relegated to the footnotes or omitted altogether4 ,those who desire enlightenment upon the odds and ends of government or economics can get it from an encyclopedia4 ,the primary aim has been to get the facts hitched up to principles1 and to set the principles in their right perspective4 ,for this reason considerable space has been given to problems which1 although international in their scope1 are of profound importance to the people of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,arrangement4 ,no two textbook writers seem able to agree as to the proper order in which material should be arranged4 ,but the sequence of the chapters is not1 after all1 a matter of much importance4 ,no one feels under any obligation to finish the ,book of ,deuteronomy before beginning to read the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,the teacher who prefers to start with the civic activities rather than with the organization of government should have no hesitation in doing so4 ,in this book1 at any rate1 each of the larger divisions of the subject is treated independently1 and does not depend upon the others4 ,some schools devote a half year to civics1 and a half year to economics4 ,material adapted to such an arrangement can be obtained by a slight transposition of the chapters4#a ,the ,supplementary ,material4 ,more than a hundred pages are devoted to lists of general references1 group problems1 short studies1 questions1 and topics for debate4 ,it is not anticipated1 of course1 that any teacher can find time to use them all2 but the endeavor has been made to afford ample variety for selection4 ,among the general references are included not only a few of the most authoritative and most recent publications1 but also some elementary books which can ordinarily be found in the smaller school and public libraries4 ,the group problems are intended to be of special service to those teachers who use the 8project method0 of instruction2 but in any event the practice of setting groups of pupils to work upon problems of a comprehensive character is a good one for every teacher to pursue at times4 ,some of these group problems are 8projects0 in the strict sense of the term2 others are merely research topics of an elementary sort4 ,some involve field work2 some do not4 ,the questions are not designed to be tests of memory1 but to provide a basis for socialized recitations1 to provoke discussion1 and to encourage among the pupils the habit of forming their own opinions4 ,the numerous and varied topics for debate have been inserted with the idea of lending encouragement to one of the most effective methods of promoting interest in public problems4 ,the ,point of ,view4 ,in dealing with controverted questions1 of which there are a great many in the field of civics1 the authors have tried to hold the scales justly1 and to give both sides a fair hearing4 ,it may be that they have not in all cases succeeded2 if so1 they can only plead the unconscious partisanship to which all human flesh is heir4 ,in any event these chapters have been written with a sincere desire to promote a more intelligent citizenship1 with an abiding faith in the merits of ,american government1 and with the conviction that the people of the ,united ,states will prove abundantly capable of solving their manifold problems by the traditional process of reconciling liberty with law4 ,the ,illustrations4 ,apart from a number of diagrams1 the illustrative material has been drawn from the masterpieces of ,american mural art4 ,they symbolize what is best in our civilization2 they may serve to give pupils a passing acquaintance with a few creative works of enduring value2 and they have some artistic merit1 which most textbook illustrations have not4 ,for the selection of these illustrations and for the explanatory legends which accompany them1 ,i am indebted to my wife4 ,a ,word of ,acknowledgment4 ,to ,mr4 ,ozanne this book owes a large part of whatever value it may possess4 ,he has had a great deal to do with the arrangement of materials and the methods of presentation4 ,every page has had his repeated scrutiny4 ,it is to me a great pleasure to have had1 in this work1 the close co-operation of one who possesses not only a mastery of the subject but a rare proficiency in classroom methods4 ,,william ,,bennett ,,munro4 ,,harvard ,,university1 ,february #bb1 #aibb4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface v ,,part ,i ,,the ,,american ,,environment ,,chapter ,i4 ,,human ,,society #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,people1 ,,races1 ,,and ,,racial ,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,united #ai ,,states ,,iii4 ,,economic ,,factors ,,and ,,organization #cg ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,government ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,government ,,iv4 ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,forms ,,of ,,government #fb ,v4 ,,the ,,citizen3 ,,his ,,rights ,,and ,,duties #gh ,,vi4 ,,popular ,,control ,,of ,,government #id ,,the ,,electoral ,,system ,,vii4 ,,suffrage ,,and ,,elections #aah ,,viii4 ,,party ,,organization ,,and ,,practical ,,politics #ade ,,local ,,and ,,state ,,government ,,ix4 ,,counties ,,and ,,rural ,,communities #aff ,x4 ,,city ,,government #ahb ,,xi4 ,,municipal ,,problems ,,of ,,today #bjc ,,xii4 ,,state ,,government ,,in ,,outline #bbf ,,national ,,government ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,national ,,constitution #bdf ,,xiv4 ,,congress ,,at ,,work #bff ,,xv4 ,,the ,,president ,,and ,,his ,,cabinet #bhf ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,courts ,,and ,,the ,,law #cjh ,,part ,,iii ,,the ,,civic ,,activities ,,economic ,,xvii4 ,,natural ,,resources ,,and ,,conservation #cbf ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,agricultural ,,interests #cci ,,xix4 ,,the ,,encouragement ,,and ,,regulation ,,of ,,commerce #cef ,,xx4 ,,the ,,organization ,,and ,,control ,,of ,,industry #chc ,,xxi4 ,,labor ,,and ,,labor ,,problems #djj ,,xxii4 ,,currency1 ,,banking1 ,,and ,,credit #dbd ,,xxiii4 ,,taxation ,,and ,,public ,,finance #dej ,,xxiv4 ,,public ,,utilities ,,and ,,public ,,ownership #dgd ,,social ,,xxv4 ,,education #dib ,,xxvi4 ,,public ,,health ,,and ,,sanitation #ead ,,xxvii4 ,,poor-,,relief1 ,,correction1 ,,and ,,other ,,welfare ,,problems #edj ,,international ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,national ,,defence #efc ,,xxix4 ,,foreign ,,relations #ehg ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,as ,a ,,world ,,power #fjf ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,the ,,league ,,of ,,nations #fbe ,,xxxii4 ,,political ,,and ,,social ,,reconstruction #fdf ,,appendix ,,the ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states #ffe ,,index ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,justice4 ,by ,edward ,simmons ,frontispiece ,,page ,the ,family4 ,by ,charles ,sprague ,pearce ,facing #ab ,the ,melting ,pot4 ,by ,vesper ,l4 ,george 0 #cc ,thrift and ,prosperity4 ,by ,frederick ,dielman 0 #ej ,liberty1 ,fraternity1 ,equality4 ,by ,edward ,simmons 0 #gh ,government4 ,by ,elihu ,vedder 0 #aah ,good ,administration4 ,by ,elihu ,vedder 0 #ade ,washington at the ,constitutional ,convention4 ,by 0 #bee ,violet ,oakley ,science ,revealing the ,treasures of the ,earth4 ,by 0 #cbi ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey ,the ,spirit of ,vulcan4 ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey 0 #chc ,the ,crowning of ,labor4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,alexander 0 #djj ,the ,evolution of the ,book4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,alexander 0 #dib ,justice and ,mercy4 ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,willett 0 #eed ,the ,spirit of ,light4 ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey 0 #fjf ,the ,graduate4 ,by ,edwin ,h4 ,blashfield 0 #fdf ,,list ,,of ,,maps1 ,,charts1 ,,and ,,diagrams ,,page ,the ,center of ,population ,facing #ba ,the ,growth of ,american ,cities 0 #ahc ,the ,city ,manager ,plan 0 #aig ,municipal ,administrative ,departments 0 #bje ,traffic ,zones 0 #baj ,simplified ,state ,administration 0 #bda ,land ,regions of the ,united ,states 0 #cdj ,the ,relation of ,money and ,prices 0 #ddc ,the ,national ,debt1 #ahfj-aibj 0 #dfg ,the ,control of ,education 0 #ejj ,the ,rise of ,prices in ,war ,time 0 #ehb ,,social ,,civics ,,chapter ,i ,,human ,,society ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain why human beings have come together into a society1 to point out some of the chief influences which affect their action in organized groups1 and to show that government is the greatest of the agencies through which human co-operative action is maintained today4 ,sidenote3 ,the supremacy of man4 ,man's ,place on the ,earth4--,the present organization of society finds its explanation in the nature of man4 ,man is by nature a social being2 he possesses intelligence and the capacity to organize4 ,among living creatures man is by no means the first in physical power--he is neither so strong as the lion nor so fleet as the reindeer4 ,but he dominates the earth because he more than makes up1 by his mental and moral superiority1 for whatever may be lacking in physical prowess4 ,we do not know when mankind first began to assert its mastery over all other forms of life on the earth1 but it was a very long time ago4 ,man's superior intelligence gave him a start1 and his capacity for organization enabled him to clinch the victory4 ,today he is supreme on land1 at sea1 and in the air4 ,sidenote3 ,evolution4 ,the ,principle of ,development4--,human society did not come into existence all at once2 it has grown to its present form through the slow process of time4 ,everywhere we see the principle of development at work--among individuals and among institutions4 ,everything is still in a continual process of change and this has unquestionably been the case for many thousands of years4 ,or to put it in another way1 new forms of life and institutions are continually being evolved from older forms4 ,sidenote3 ,darwin and his work4 ,to understand this principle of continual change and development it is necessary to know something about the doctrine of evolution4 ,this doctrine is commonly associated with the name of ,charles ,darwin1 for although many others had hinted at the idea1 he was the first to set it forth accompanied by scientific evidence4#b ,darwin's theory has been much misunderstood2 in the illiterate mind it is often summed up by saying that 8,man is descended from the monkey04 ,but ,darwin did not say anything of the kind1 neither did he ever deny the existence of ,god as the controlling factor in the life of the universe4 ,darwin's theory of evolution asserted that all forms of life now on earth have sprung from a few simple1 primitive types1 and that human life is an evolution from one of these earlier forms4 ,human institutions1 likewise1 did not arise instantaneously but developed from simple and primitive beginnings into their complex structure of today4 ,sidenote3 ,soundness of ,darwin's theory4 ,the evidence upon which the doctrine of evolution rests is too extensive and too technical to be even summarized here but it is regarded as trustworthy by most scientists4#c ,for fifty years it has been studied1 discussed1 and tested by scholars with the result that educated men are now disposed to accept the doctrine so far as its main principles are concerned although they differ about various details4 ,it is astonishing how little we know1 after all1 about the beginnings of things4 ,we do not know when or how life began upon the earth4 ,we do not know the exact origin of man4 ,but we do know that all forms of life and institutions have grown2 they were not created in the shape we now have them4 ,all the general laws of life which apply to plants and animals apply also to man4 ,alike they are born1 they are nourished1 they mature1 and they produce descendants like themselves4 ,sidenote3 ,the principle of 8natural selection0 and the struggle for existence4 ,the method of evolution1 according to ,darwin's theory is based upon the principle of natural selection4 ,it is a well-known law of nature that 8like begets like01 in other words that offspring resemble the parent-stock although there may be some individual differences4 ,if it were not so1 a definite species would never be perpetuated4 ,all forms of life1 moreover1 reproduce themselves more or less abundantly4 ,it is said that the progeny of a single starfish exceeds half a million per year4 ,even the elephants1 which are the slowest breeding of all animals1 produce a sufficiently numerous offspring to over-run the whole of ,africa if every young elephant grew to maturity4 ,but nowhere does the entire progeny of any organisms1 whether plants1 animals1 or human beings1 survive to full growth4 ,if every acorn became an oak tree1 there would in time be no room for anything else on the surface of the earth4 ,if every tadpole grew to be a frog1 there would be no room for anything else in the waters of the earth4 ,all life1 however1 is a struggle for existence1 a relentless competition for air1 sunshine1 moisture1 and soil on the part of plants1 and for food and shelter on the part of animals4 ,the further down we go in the scale of life the more bitter this struggle for existence becomes2 small animals eat up the plants2 large animals feed on the smaller ones4 ,higher in the scale1 the struggle is not so keen1 and among mankind it is the least strenuous of all4 ,in this struggle for existence1 what plants and animals survive8 ,the answer is that those which are best fitted to their environment continue to exist and to reproduce themselves1 while those which are more poorly adapted to their environment fall out of the race and disappear4 ,sidenote3 ,the survival of the fittest4 ,in other words natural selection or the survival of the fittest was thought by ,darwin to be the principle which determines the course of evolution4 ,the unfit perish and the fit survive1 everything depending upon the relative success of the organism in adapting itself to the conditions under which it is endeavoring to live4 ,the clumsy mastodon became extinct2 his bones are now relics in museums2 but the horse1 being fleet of foot1 managed to survive4 ,the fit organisms1--plants or animals or human beings1--have survived and have perpetuated the species4 ,they gave to their offspring the traits or qualities which enabled themselves to survive4 ,in that way each generation of organisms became a little better fitted to its environment than the generation which went before4 ,this is a slow process for human beings1 of course1 for it takes twenty years or more to produce a new generation of men1 whereas new generations of birds1 reptiles1 and lower animals appear every few months4 ,the principle of natural selection1 moreover1 does not fully account for the form which evolution has taken4 ,other factors have also been at work1 but scientists are not yet agreed as to their nature or importance4#d ,sidenote3 ,natural selection as applied to the human race4 ,now how does the human race figure in all this8 ,mankind has also been at all times under the necessity of adapting itself to its environment1 and in the early stages of human history those who did not successfully adapt themselves went to an early grave4 ,during century after century natural selection and the other factors strengthened the race4 ,as the race grew stronger in intelligence1 man undertook to subdue his environment rather than to be subdued by it1 and in considerable measure he succeeded4 ,he discovered the art of kindling a fire and made this element his servant in conquering the cold4 ,he domesticated wild animals1 made them provide him with milk and meat1 and compelled them to carry his burdens4 ,step by step he mastered the natural conditions which surrounded him4 ,this he did by his ability to work with his fellow-men4 ,through this power of co-operation he created group organizations--society1 the state1 and government4 ,sidenote3 ,today the strong assist the weak4 ,the struggle for existence among men is not now1 therefore1 as it was in primitive days1 a life-and-death competition for food and shelter4 ,individuals have come to recognize each other's rights and to seek even their own advantage by co-operation rather than by strife4 ,the association of individuals in the family and the community serves to preserve the weak whom a keen struggle for existence would eliminate4 ,our whole system of poor-relief1 hospitals1 and care for the defective is based upon the idea of giving a fair chance to those who otherwise would be crowded out of the struggle for existence altogether4 ,the competition today is not so much between individuals as among groups1 small or large1 including competition between whole nations of men4 ,sidenote3 ,the relative influence of inheritance and environment4 ,the ,factors in ,social ,progress4--,two factors have greatly influenced the course of social evolution or social progress4 ,these factors are inheritance and environment4 ,by inheritance we mean the qualities1 physical and mental1 which each generation inherits from the generation preceding4 ,by environment we mean the general surroundings1 physical and social1 in which the people live4 ,mankind influences these surroundings to a considerable extent and moulds them to his own needs1 but in turn is also influenced by them4 ,everything that is characteristic of man is the result of these two forces1 inheritance and environment4 ,in some things the first is more important1 in others the second4 ,for example1 under normal conditions the height of a man or woman is determined almost altogether by inheritance1 for no one by taking thought can add a cubit to his stature4 ,intelligence1 likewise1 is to a large degree an inherited quality4 ,but morals1 manners1 education1 and personal habits are determined much more largely by environment than by inheritance4 ,sidenote3 ,which is the more potent influence8 ,the respective influences of inheritance and environment cannot1 however1 be in all cases clearly separated4 ,both often work to produce the same result1 as when a person who inherits a strong body and a sound mind is fortunate enough to be placed in an environment where both body and mind are developed by out-of-door life and a good education4 ,sometimes they work in opposite directions1 as when a child starts life with a strong physique and good natural intelligence1 but grows up in a crowded tenement amid sordid conditions which weaken the one and fail to afford scope for the other4 ,we cannot say1 therefore1 that one factor is always stronger or weaker than the other4 ,the social progress of the race is promoted by improving both influences4 ,environment especially can be improved by human effort4 ,man's control of his inheritance is not nearly so complete1 but everything that conduces to the betterment of health or education and promotes a higher morality is a step towards improving its influence4 ,sidenote3 ,the two forms of inheritance4 ,physical and ,social ,inheritance4--,the influence of inheritance is exerted from two quarters which may be distinguished by calling them physical and social4 ,sidenote3 7a7 ,physical4 ,by the former we mean the influence exerted upon human beings by the bodily and mental traits which are handed down to them by their own parents4 ,not all the characteristics of parents are transmitted to their children but mainly those which the parents themselves have inherited4 ,traits or qualities which have been acquired by the parents during their own lives do not ordinarily descend to their children4#e ,parents who are born feeble-minded will in all probability have feeble-minded children2 but parents who acquire through education a high degree of learning and culture cannot transmit any of this to their children by inheritance4 ,there is no royal road to learning4 ,some of us are born with better or worse possibilities than others1 but we are all born illiterate4 ,sidenote3 7b7 ,social4 ,the other form of inherited influence is called our social heritage because it represents the whole accumulation of knowledge1 habits1 and expedients which have come down to us by the social process of teaching and learning4 ,each generation of mankind is enormously dependent upon its social inheritance2 without it everything that we now call civilization would collapse in a very short time4 ,each generation takes over all the knowledge possessed by the one which went before2 each generation adds something to this stock of knowledge1 habits1 and expedients for the benefit of the generation which comes after it4 ,each generation1 if it is to live happily1 must adapt this social inheritance to its own particular needs4 ,sidenote3 ,the two kinds of environment3 ,physical and ,social ,environment4--,the other great influence is that of environment4 ,by physical environment we mean the conditions of nature and society in which man lives1 moves1 and has his being4 ,physical environment includes the geographic1 climatic1 and other natural conditions which surround the people4 ,sidenote3 7a7 ,physical4 ,these conditions have an important influence upon the trend of human development and they are not1 for the most part1 under man's control4 ,man must adapt himself and his ways of life to them4 ,in cold climates he must wear warm clothing1 provide artificial heat in houses1 and consume warmth-giving food4 ,groups of men must everywhere mould their occupations to the character of the soil1 the natural resources1 and the other conditions of the physical environment in which they live4 ,it is because of differences in physical environment that the ,southern states developed cotton-culture on a large scale and employed slave labor1 while the ,northern states gave their attention to farming and industry with free labor4 ,physical environment1 moreover1 determines in some measure the relations of the various races with their neighbors4 ,men will be influenced by neighboring groups of men in so far as physical features make intercourse easy or difficult4 ,a race of men who live on a distant island1 or in any other shut-off region1 will not be so easily influenced by neighboring races as if they dwelt in the midst of a fertile plain4 ,to some extent1 as has been said1 man is able to overcome the difficulties which physical environment sets in the face of progress4 ,if there is inadequate rainfall1 he may devise a system of irrigation and carry on certain forms of agriculture as successfully as though rainfall were abundant4 ,by means of railroads1 steamships1 and electric or radio communication he can be in constant contact with other men who are separated from him by physical obstructions4 ,but however much the conditions of nature may be controlled1 they still exert a great influence upon human progress4 ,sidenote3 7b7 ,social4 ,the social environment is quite a different thing4 ,by it we mean the conditions altogether apart from geographic or natural features1 which influence the daily life of mankind4 ,we include within social environment such things as family life1 the schools1 the churches1 the organization and methods of industry1 the form of government--everything that society develops in the way of institutions4 ,many of these1 as has been pointed out1 are natural growths1 but the mind of man has also had a large part in shaping their course4 ,sidenote3 ,how customs and laws create a social environment4 ,most of the things we do1 whether as a body of people or as individuals1 are merely the result of custom or general habit4 ,why do men have their hair cut short while women let their hair grow long8 ,why do people wear black when they are in mourning8 ,in some countries they wear white4 ,the answer is merely that every nation1 through long-continued habit1 develops its own ways of doing things and keeps on doing things in that way regardless of any present reason4 ,orientals1 when they eat their meals1 squat on the floor2 ,europeans and ,americans seat themselves at the table4 ,aryans shake hands when they meet2 the ,esquimos hold their hands high above their heads as a token of greeting4 ,the gentleman of today1 when he greets a lady on the street1 raises his hat4 ,this is not a particularly graceful custom1 nor is it in rainy weather an altogether hygienic one2 but it has been in vogue among the people of western ,europe for many centuries4 ,it goes back to the days of chivalry when the armored knight raised his visor to show his countenance and disclose his identity4 ,primitive races are governed largely by customs1 and not until a race has shown itself amenable to the influence of custom is it prepared to be governed by laws4 ,laws differ from customs in that they have a definite sanction1 in other words are enforced by some official authority4 ,the institutions and practices which make up the social environment may be the outcome of long-standing custom1 like the system of trial by jury1 for example2 or they may be brought into existence by law1 as1 for instance1 the admission of women to suffrage or the establishment of national prohibition4 ,the avowed purpose of all human institutions is to promote the greatest good of the greatest number1 in other words to provide the best social environment4 ,some ,important ,social ,forces4--,the basis of custom is habit4 ,customs1 in other words1 are habits which extend ,sidenote3 ,two important social forces3 habit and imitation4 to the whole community and receive its approval4 ,we do not always realize how great a part habit plays in our daily lives4#f ,without it the day's work could not be done4 ,by habit we walk1 eat1 dress ourselves1 and perform many other common acts4 ,just think how long it would take a novice to put the various parts of a watch together2 but the watchmaker1 being habituated to the task1 can do it in an hour4 ,the foundation of habit is imitation4 ,one man does a thing successfully2 others follow his lead2 a habit develops and a general practice or custom may be the ultimate outcome4 ,the influence of custom is usually conservative1 for when a custom is once firmly established it does not easily give way4 ,take the custom of smoking tobacco1 for example4 ,europeans found it in vogue among the ,indians when they first came to ,america2 they adopted it and have kept it up for more than four hundred years4 ,sometimes1 however1 the habit or custom is only of short duration1 in which case we commonly call it a fashion4 ,fashions come and go4 ,a century ago men used snuff and women powdered their hair2 but these things have wholly passed out of fashion today4 ,the ,course of ,social ,progress4--,having considered the various social factors and forces 7development1 inheritance1 environment1 custom1 and so on7 we are now in a position to ask and to answer the following question3 ,in accordance with what principle has human society developed8 ,there was a time when even educated people imagined that such organizations as the state were planned in advance1 that individuals merely came together in prehistoric days and agreed after calm deliberation to establish a civil government4 ,that1 of course1 was an absurd idea4 ,today we realize that one step in social organization led gradually to another1 that institutions were not created but evolved1 that various social factors and forces exerted an influence upon their development1 and that the strongest institutions survived while the weaker disappeared4 ,sidenote3 ,institutions that have succumbed in the struggle for existence4 ,in the course of human history associations of every type have come into existence2 many still continue to flourish while others merely abode their little hour and went their way4 ,the organizations which we have today1 including the family1 the school1 the church1 the community1 the state1 are among those that have survived4 ,those that succumbed during the long journey down the ages would make a formidable list4 ,who ever hears nowadays of the totem-kin1 the clan1 or the gens8 ,where do we now find tribunes1 praetors1 augurs1 and triumvirates8 ,absolute monarchy1 as a form of government1 once held sway over most of the world4 ,but democratic government entered into competition with it1 and as there was not room enough for both1 one crowded the other off the stage4 ,the great mediaeval institution of feudalism dominated the rural life of ,europe for more than five hundred years1 but the last relics of feudal tenure have practically all been swept away4 ,the trade guilds of the olden days1 the orders of nobility1 the crowns and coronets1 the soothsayers and the alchemists--all of them have disappeared or are rapidly disappearing4 ,the beaches of history are strewn with the wrecks of social and political institutions4 ,some others1 like the hereditary peerages of a few ,european countries1 are barely able to keep afloat4 ,the institutions which survive and flourish are the ones that have been found best fitted to survive4 ,sidenote3 ,importance of the family4 ,the ,fundamental ,social ,group4--,in human society the foundation-group is the family4 ,human beings are social by nature2 the motive which draws people together is so universal that we call it a natural instinct4 ,individuals do not live in isolation4 ,nobody leads the hermit type of life if he can avoid it4 ,robinson ,crusoe was not on his little island because he wanted to be there4 ,even among the least civilized races of men1 among savage tribes1 there is a grouping of men1 women1 and children on the basis of blood relationship4 ,the family1 as a unit1 is older than either the state or the community4 ,it is the foundation upon which other groups and organizations have been built1 hence it is rightly called the 8social microcosm0 or basis of society4 ,sidenote3 ,the function of the family4 ,the primary function of the family is to keep the human race in existence4 ,its first duty is the rearing of children so that a new generation may take the place of the old4 ,other duties that belong to the family may be handed over to the school 7the duty of secular education7 or to the church 7the duty of religious instruction72 but the primary function of the family1 that of perpetuating the race1 is one which cannot be transferred4 ,the whole stream of human life flows through the family organization4 ,the same virtues which make for harmony in the household1--obedience1 co-operation1 loyalty1 and service1--are the ones which mark good citizenship2 therefore the home is the primary school of all the civic virtues4 ,for this reason the collapse of the home and of home life would be nothing short of a human catastrophe4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,the ,,family4 ,by ,charles ,sprague ,pearce ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,,the ,,family ,by ,charles ,sprague ,pearce ,from the mural painting in the entrance pavilion of the ,north ,hall1 ,library of ,congress4 ,this is the ancient family4 ,the father has just returned from hunting4 ,the mother holds up the baby to welcome him and his little daughter throws her arms about him4 ,on the benches of stone at either side of the group sit the grandmother and grandfather1 the latter with the air of a patriarch4 ,by his side lies a scroll4 ,three generations are placed together in the idyllic environment of which the poets have so often written4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,the clan4 ,other ,social ,groups4--,out of the family grew the clan1 or group of families united by ties of kinships4 ,in early days the clan was a wandering group1 like the gipsy bands of today2 but ultimately each clan settled upon the land and became a community4 ,in these communities men became trained in manual labor2 they developed customs and the rudiments of a village government4 ,then came the next stage--several village communities joined together for defence against their mutual enemies4 ,a loose confederation at first1 this group of communities in time became a state1 usually with a chieftain or a monarch at its head4 ,in other cases a single village community grew in size to such an extent that it became a city state1 like ,athens or ,sparta4 ,the most notable example of this development is afforded by ancient ,rome1 where a small community grew into a ,world ,empire4 ,the family1 the clan1 the community1 the confederation of communities1 the state1 and1 ultimately1 the nation--that is the general course of political evolution1 although this line of development was not in all cases exactly followed4 ,but the evolution was not confined to political institutions alone4 ,social and economic groups and institutions developed also4 ,a variety of needs called forth one institution after another1 the church1 the school1 the club1 the industrial organization4 ,each has its own function in organized society4 ,sidenote3 ,government is the guiding hand4 ,the ,rle of ,government4--,the dominating factor in the social and economic life of today1 however1 is the political community 7nation1 state1 and municipality71 acting through the agency which we call government4 ,government is the great co-ordinating factor4 ,day by day we are looking more and more to government for leadership1 for regulation1 and for supervision in all our greater social and economic activities4 ,in the field of social and economic effort1 all roads lead through government--it is the clearing house of our greater problems4 ,whether the problem be one of banking1 commerce1 poor-relief1 labor1 or defence we must reckon with the hand of government as one of the strongest among constructive and harmonizing factors4 ,government is the focal point in all civic relations4 ,it provides a thread which winds its way along every main line of civic activity4 ,that has been particularly noticeable in ,european countries2 but it is now true of ,america as well4 ,the greatest of our socializing agencies is government4 ,sidenote3 ,america's emphasis on individualism4 ,individual ,liberty and ,social ,control4--,in the ,united ,states strong emphasis has always been laid upon individual freedom1 and rightly so1 because the encouragement of individual initiative is essential to progress in a new country4 ,the exploitation of vast natural resources required that men should be given encouragement to pioneer1 and should not be held down by too much governmental interference4 8,that government is best which interferes the least0 was the common notion4 ,stress was laid upon the prosperity of the individual rather than upon the welfare of the whole people4 ,this doctrine of extreme individualism undoubtedly served a useful purpose in the days when the country's biggest problem was to increase production and gain for itself a place among the strong nations of the world4 ,sidenote3 ,the influence of the frontier4 ,to a considerable extent this emphasis upon individualism was due to the influence of the frontier4 ,from the first settlement of the country down to about #ahhj the ,american people were engaged in the task of marching steadily westward1 conquering the wilderness as they went4 ,this mastering of a great domain demanded qualities of enterprise1 initiative1 and individual courage4 ,it developed men's confidence in their own power and made them reliant upon their own efforts4 ,in old countries the natural tendency is for the individual to look to the public authorities for leadership1 guidance1 and supervision2 on the great ,american frontier the pioneers had to hew their own way4 ,they preceded the state and the community4 ,this emphasis upon individual initiative remained as the frontier rolled west and profoundly affected the whole social temper of the country4 ,sidenote3 ,the nature and scope of social control4 ,in time a reaction came4 ,social control developed4 ,the more thickly populated a country becomes1 the more complicated do the relations of individuals grow1 and the greater is the need for general restraint4 ,social control1 however1 is not merely negative in its purpose4 ,its object is not simply to restrain individuals in their freedom of action but to encourage them in the thing which the general welfare demands4 ,the government is the chief agency through which social control is exercised1 but it is by no means the only one4 ,religious1 fraternal1 professional1 and benevolent organizations do a good deal in the same general direction4 ,their function is to promote collective interests as distinguished from the interests of individuals2 they protect the collective interests against the avarice or selfishness of individuals4 ,the government exercises social control by means of laws and administrative orders2 other organizations exercise it by their own rules or by customs which the members obey4 ,sidenote3 ,the limits of social control4 ,there is always a danger1 of course1 that social control may proceed too far4 ,it is not the object of government and of social organizations to run all men in the same mould1 making them mere automatons without individuality or initiative4 ,government should aim to give sufficient scope for every individual to use his abilities in the best possible way4 ,control over the acts and discretion of individuals is justified only where such control promotes1 in the long run1 the well-being of the greatest number of individuals4 ,the state is not an end in itself4 ,society is not an end in itself4 ,the individual is the end4 ,society and the state are merely means to the promotion of the general welfare and the welfare of the individual4 ,their activities in the way of exercising social control should go no further than this4 ,general ,references ,c4 ,h4 ,,cooley1 ,social ,organization1 pp4 #c-bb2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells1 ,outline of ,history1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #c-ajc2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,ellwood1 ,sociology and ,modern ,social ,problems1 pp4 #g-ei2 ,f4 ,s4 ,,chapin1 ,social ,evolution1 pp4 #c-aja2 ,,vernon ,,kellogg1 ,darwinism ,today1 pp4 #aj-eg2 #abi-aeg2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,thomson1 ,darwinism and ,human ,life1 pp4 #aha-bcg2 ,d4 ,s4 ,,jordan and ,v4 ,l4 ,,kellogg1 ,evolution and ,animal ,life1 pp4 #a-ef2 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,sociology and ,social ,progress1 pp4 #agd-bgj2 ,e4 ,a4 ,,ross1 ,social ,control1 pp4 #a-aje4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,how far should society control the conduct of individuals8 ,why social control is exercised4 ,the extent of social control in older countries1--,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,germany4 ,its growth in ,america4 ,causes of this growth4 ,the point at which it ceases to be justified4 ,illustrations4 ,effects of too much emphasis on individualism4 ,effects of too much social restraint4 ,relation of social control to socialism4 ,references3 ,e4 ,a4 ,,ross1 ,social ,control1 pp4 #di-gf2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells1 ,new ,worlds for ,old1 pp4 #a-ee2 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,sociology and ,social ,progress1 pp4 #ghh-hjh2 ,ibid1 ,principles of ,national ,economy1 pp4 #gdj-gdi4 #b4 ,what is progress8 ,references3 ,f4 ,s4 ,,marvin1 ,progress and ,history1 pp4 #h-aj2 ,,john ,,dewey 8,progress0 in ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 xxvi1 #cab-cah 7#aiaf72 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,essays and ,addresses in ,war ,time1 pp4 #hd-ajb 7,war and ,progress72 ,,george ,,nasmyth1 ,social ,progress and the ,darwinian ,theory4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the past in the present4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch and ,s4 ,h4 ,,patterson1 ,american ,social ,problems1 pp4 #cc-dc4 #b4 ,the beginnings of civilization4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells1 ,outline of ,history1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ahc-bjh4 #c4 ,earlier forms of the family4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,ellwood1 ,sociology and ,modern ,social ,problems1 pp4 #ajh-acj4 #d4 ,the development of the tribe into the community4 ,j4 ,q4 ,,dealey1 ,the ,state and ,government1 pp4 #bd-de4 #e4 ,the ,american family as an economic unit4 ,,mary ,k4 ,,simkhovitch1 ,the ,city ,worker's ,world1 pp4 #a-ba4 #f4 ,the relation of leisure to family life4 ,,florence ,,kelley1 ,some ,ethical ,gains through ,legislation1 pp4 #aje-abe4 #g4 ,the influence of environment4 ,f4 ,s4 ,,chapin1 ,social ,evolution1 pp4 #aba-agj4 #h4 ,habit4 ,,william ,,james1 ,psychology1 ,i1 pp4 #ajd-abg4 #i4 ,the influence of frontier conditions upon the development of ,american society4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,turner1 ,the ,frontier in ,american ,history1 pp4 #a-ch4 #aj4 ,individualism4 ,,herbert ,,spencer1 ,social ,statics1 pp4 #ajj-acf2 ,c4 ,w4 ,,eliot1 ,the ,conflict between ,individualism and ,collectivism in a ,democracy1 pp4 #a-db4 ,questions #a4 ,how would you define 8society08 ,is it an organism8 ,what resemblances to an organism does it bear8 #b4 ,explain the following terms3 instinct2 impulse2 natural selection2 social inheritance2 social environment2 habit2 custom2 fashion2 mob mind2 institution2 social control4 ,give examples of each4 #c4 ,how has physical environment affected the ideas of the ,american people in relation to 7a7 national defence2 7b7 form of government2 7c7 social control8 ,how has the physical environment of ,england affected the ideas of the ,english people on the same matters8 #d4 ,what racial characteristics do you find most strongly marked in the 7a7 ,scotch2 7b7 ,irish2 7c7 ,scandinavians2 7d7 ,italians2 7e7 ,jews2 7f7 ,japanese8 #e4 ,name any institutions1 other than those given in the text1 which have served mankind for a time and been discarded4 #f4 ,can you think of any customs which are universal throughout the world8 ,any which prevail in the ,united ,states but not elsewhere8 ,any which prevail in some parts of the ,united ,states but not in others8 #g4 ,do ,americans in general pay too much deference to custom8 ,is there any ground for the ,european idea that there is 8too much uniformity0 in ,american life8 #h4 ,are crowds likely to be more conservative or more radical than the individuals who compose them8 ,give your reasons4 ,what is the difference between a mob1 a crowd1 a meeting1 and a deliberative assembly8 #i4 ,the family1 as an organization1 differs not only in size but in nature1 from all other social organizations such as the community1 the state and the nation4 ,show how this is4 #aj4 ,in what ways would society suffer if the family as a social unit were broken down8 #aa4 ,to what extent has society the right to regulate1 as a measure of self-protection1 the institution of marriage8 #ab4 ,why have we laid emphasis upon individualism in this country8 ,explain why this stress is being steadily diminished4 #ac4 ,should social control be exercised over 7a7 the methods of agriculture2 7b7 the marketing of timber2 7c7 the production and sale of tobacco2 7d7 the rates charged by electric lighting companies2 7e7 the price of bread at retail bakeries2 7f7 the hours of labor for men2 7g7 the hours of labor for women2 7h7 the kind of pictures shown in theaters2 7i7 the diet of the people2 7j7 the hours at which young people may be on the streets after dark2 7k7 the religious beliefs of the people8 ,tell why or why not in each case4 ,is a greater degree of social control justified over certain classes of the population than over others8 ,is it justified at certain times and not at others8 #ad4 ,if society exercises too little control over the individual1 what evils result8 ,if it exercises too much control1 what are the consequences 7a7 upon the individual2 7b7 upon society itself8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,physical environment has had a more important influence than racial characteristics in determining the establishment and maintenance of democratic institutions in the ,united ,states4 #b4 ,thomas ,jefferson was right when he said 8,that government is best which governs least04 #c4 ,society is under obligation to ensure every industrious man a decent living4 ----- ,footnote #a3 ,for example1 by covering ,chapters i1 ii1 iv-xvi1 xxviii-xxix1 in the first term and ,chapters iii1 xvii-xxvii1 xxx-xxxii in the second4 ,footnote #b3 ,charles ,darwin1 a distinguished ,english student of biology1 was born in #ahji1 and died in #ahhb4 ,his theory was set forth in two famous books1 ,the ,origin of ,species and ,the ,descent of ,man4 ,footnote #c3 ,the most interesting general account of the beginnings of life and the ancestry of man is that given in ,h4 ,g4 ,wells' ,outline of ,history1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #c-ajc4 ,a brief summary of the evidence on which the doctrine of evolution rests may be conveniently found in ,h4 ,r4 ,burch and ,s4 ,h4 ,patterson1 ,american ,social ,problems1 pp4 #ab-cb4 ,footnote #d3 ,for a discussion of these other factors see ,vernon ,kellogg1 ,darwinism ,today4 ,footnote #e3 ,there has been much discussion among scientists as to whether acquired characteristics can be transmitted at all4 ,the best opinion seems to be against such transmission1 but some biologists still hold to the belief that transmission is possible1 particularly in the lower organisms4 ,for a further discussion see ,w4 ,e4 ,castle1 ,genetics and ,eugenics1 pp4 #bf-bg4 ,footnote #f3 ,one of the best things ever written is the chapter on 8,habit0 in ,william ,james's ,psychology4 ,no one will regret the time spent in reading it4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,people1 ,,races1 ,,and ,,racial ,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain how the population of the ,united ,states has grown1 how it is distributed1 the varied races of which it is composed1 and the racial problems which immigration has created4 ,sidenote3 ,how the national population has grown4 ,we1 the ,people of the ,united ,states4--,the national constitution begins with the words3 8,we1 the ,people of the ,united ,states04 ,but who are the people8 ,no one cares to carry a lot of figures in his head and most people think that statistics are uninteresting2 but there are some figures which everyone ought to know and1 moreover1 there are some statistics which are far from being dry or tedious4 ,the figures relating to the population of the ,united ,states1 its growth and distribution1 are interesting because they portray something that the world has never seen before and probably will never see again1--a country doubling its population four times in just about a single century4 ,that is what the ,united ,states did in the hundred years from #agij to #ahij4 ,in #agij the entire population was less than four millions4 7,there are more people in the single city of ,new ,york today1 and almost as many in ,chicago47 ,the population had doubled in #ahac1 and had doubled again in #ahch1 when it passed sixteen million4 ,in #ahfd1 only twenty-four years later1 it had doubled once more 7#cb1jjj1jjj74 ,it passed the sixty-four million mark in #ahia1 and in all probability will double for the fifth time about the year #aidj4 ,in #aibj1 when the last national census was taken the population had passed #aje1jjj1jjj4 ,sidenote3 ,will this increase continue8 ,if so1 with what results8 ,now if you will take the data at the foot of the page and work the calculation to the year #bjjj 7allowing for the gradual slackening of the increase7 what will the population of the ,united ,states be then8#g ,it will be around three hundred millions1 which is more than the white population of the entire world today4 ,even so the country would not be nearly so thickly populated as some ,european countries now are4 ,today there are in the ,united ,states about thirty-five persons to the square mile4 ,but there are #gjj to the square mile in ,england and #feh per square mile in ,belgium1 which are two of the most thickly-populated of all countries at the present time4#h ,three hundred million people in the ,united ,states1 if the figure should reach that total at the end of the twentieth century1 would be less than one hundred per square mile4 ,there would still be six acres of ground for every man1 woman and child in the country4 ,whether there would be a sufficient food supply to support so large a population is another question and one which is not so easily answered4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,center ,,of ,,population ,the way in which the center of population has been steadily moving westward is indicated by this map4 ,it will be noted that in its journey to the west it has held closely to the #cith parallel of latitude4 ,the median point1 on the other hand1 has remained practically fixed during the last thirty years4 ,the location of the median point is determined as follows3 ,take the parallel of latitude which divides the country in such manner that half the population is north of that parallel and half is south of it2 similarly1 take the meridian of longitude which divides the country in such manner that half the population is east of it and half is west of it2 the intersection of this parallel and this meridian is called the median point4 ,illustration3 ,,centre ,,of ,,population ,,at ,,each ,,census3 #agij ,,to #aibj ,,median ,,point #ahhj ,,to #aibj ,,center ,,of ,,population ,,median ,,point ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,some areas are more densely populated than others4 ,how the ,national ,population is ,distributed4--,the people of the ,united ,states are very unevenly distributed over the face of the country4 ,great areas1 particularly in the ,west1 have only a few persons to the square mile1 while the crowded sections of the largest cities have many hundreds to the acre4 ,even the rural areas of some states are thickly settled while in others the people are few and far between4 ,rhode ,island is nearly as densely populated as ,belgium1 having about #eff people to the square mile while many states of the ,western mountain region have only seven or eight inhabitants per square mile of territory4 ,the reasons for this uneven distribution are chiefly geographical4 ,the states which have grown most rapidly in population are not necessarily the oldest states but the ones which have the greatest natural advantages in the way of fertile soil1 or mineral resources1 or harbors and waterways1 or favorable climate4 ,people make their homes in those regions where they can best make a living4 ,sidenote3 ,climate affects the density of population4 ,favorable climatic conditions exert a strong influence in attracting population4 ,it is an interesting fact1 often noted by students of history1 that whereas civilization developed earliest in the tropical and semi-tropical zones it has everywhere made its greatest advance in the regions of moderate temperatures and rainfall4 ,taking the broad strip of country which lies between the thirty-seventh and the forty-fifth parallels of latitude1 it will be found that nearly four-fifths of the entire population is concentrated within this mid-latitude area of the ,united ,states4 ,and this is the area which1 in all probability1 will continue to be the most thickly settled4 ,sidenote3 ,the center of population in #aibj4 ,the center of population in #aibj was at ,whitehall1 ,owen ,county1 ,indiana1 a little town of forty-three inhabitants which burst into prominence overnight when the census bureau announced it as the pivot of the nation4 ,by the center of population is meant the point which the greatest number of people could reach with the least amount of travel4 ,this point1 at each successive census1 has been steadily moving westward following very closely the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude4 ,in #agij it was at ,baltimore1 in #ahdj in ,west ,virginia1 in #ahhj in ,ohio1 and since #ahij it has been moving westward across ,indiana4#i ,the center of population is a long way from the center of area1 the latter being in ,northern ,kansas not far from the ,nebraska border4 ,the ,drift of ,population to the ,cities4--,the distribution of the people has also been influenced by the growth of large cities4 ,in #agij there were only five communities with populations exceeding #hjjj1 namely ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,boston1 ,baltimore1 and ,charleston4 ,taken altogether they had only #acj1jjj inhabitants1 that is to say only one person in every thirty lived in these towns4 ,but so rapidly did the various towns and cities spring up all over the country that by the time of the ,civil ,war there were nearly #aej with populations above #hjjj1 and today there are nearly a thousand4 ,not a single ,american city had #gj1jjj population in #agij2 today there are more than a hundred such cities4 ,sidenote3 ,the chief causes of city growth4 ,this remarkable drift of population into the towns and cities1 which began early in the nineteenth century and has continued ever since1 shows no signs of slackening4 ,it is due to many causes1 including the great demand for industrial labor in the cities1 the attractiveness of city life to the young men and women of the country districts 7see p4 #cea71 and the tendency of the immigrants to locate in the crowded centers4 ,wherever industry and commerce thrive1 there cities will be built and will grow4 ,half the population of the ,united ,states is now living in towns and cities of over #bejj population4 ,if the drift to the cities continues at its present rate of progress1 ninety per cent of the people will be living in the cities and towns by #aihj and only ten per cent in the country districts4 ,that is already the case in ,england4#aj ,one ,englishman in every seven lives in ,london4 ,that seems to be a very striking fact until we remember that one ,american in every ten lives in ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 or ,philadelphia4 ,new ,york ,city has nearly six millions now2 in fifty years1 at its present rate of growth1 it will be an urban giant of fifteen millions or more4 ,sidenote3 ,why most immigrants go to the cities4 ,why do the immigrants go to the cities rather than to the country districts8 ,the chief reason is that most immigrants come to the ,united ,states to find work1 and work is most easily found in the large cities4 ,the great majority of immigrants have learned no trade before they come to ,america1 hence they must seek jobs which require no great amount of skill or training4 ,another reason is that the immigrants want to be near others who speak their own language4 ,in every large city these foreign colonies or settlements are created--,italian1 ,polish1 ,jewish1 and so on4 ,the newcomer naturally prefers to live in one of these colonies until he learns the ,english language1 but having become accustomed to the city he rarely leaves it4 ,among the many millions of immigrants who have come to ,america during the past fifty years the great majority have gone to the cities1 particularly to the large cities4 ,new ,york ,city1 for example1 contains today more than two million people who were not born in this country4 ,nevertheless1 the cities have not been built up by the immigrant alone4 ,large numbers of native ,americans have left the rural districts and have helped to swell the population of the urban centers4 ,the ,ebb and ,flow of ,immigration4--,the ,united ,states has been the melting-pot of the nations4 ,no other country has ever welcomed to its shores so many millions of people from all parts of the earth4 ,one hundred years ago there were relatively few foreign-born persons in the country4 ,but waves of immigration soon began to come and the number of incoming aliens1 which was less than ten thousand in #agij1 rose to more than four hundred thousand in some of the years preceding the ,civil ,war4 ,the immigrants during this period were for the most part from ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,germany4 ,during the ,civil ,war the influx subsided1 but when the war was over it quickly began to swell once more and it continued1 with various ups and downs1 to the outbreak of the ,world ,war in #aiad4 ,sidenote3 ,where the immigrants have come from4 ,in some years1 during this period since #ahfe the number of immigrants has been as low as #bjj1jjj2 in other years it has run above a million4 ,nearly every ,european race has been represented in this influx1 although some have come in much larger numbers than others4 ,down to about #ahhj most of the newcomers were from ,ireland1 ,england1 ,scotland1 ,germany1 the ,scandinavian countries1 and the other regions of ,northern ,europe4 ,but since that date the source of immigration has been steadily shifting4 ,during the past forty years a much larger proportion has been coming from ,italy1 ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,poland1 ,greece1 and some of the smaller countries4#aa ,this has brought in many millions of people who are not of ,celtic or ,teutonic stock4 ,sidenote3 ,effects of the war on immigration4 ,upon the outbreak of the great ,european conflict in #aiad the flow of immigration subsided quickly and while the war lasted it practically ceased altogether4 ,this was due in part to the reluctance of ,european countries to let their people leave1 and in part due to the lack of shipping1 since all available vessels were engaged in carrying troops1 munitions1 and supplies4 ,immediately after the close of hostilities1 however1 the exodus from ,europe recommenced1 and in the year #aibj the figures of immigration once more rose into the hundreds of thousands4 ,in spite of the strict regulations imposed by the ,united ,states government1 enormous numbers of people in ,poland1 ,italy1 ,hungary1 and various other countries began applying for permission to migrate4 ,the ,american consular offices in ,europe were besieged by long lines of people waiting all day for passports to the ,promised ,land4 ,in the face of this threatened flood ,congress felt impelled to place all immigration under strict limitation1 as will be explained a few paragraphs later4 ,during the hundred years from #ahbj to #aibj it is estimated that more than thirty million immigrants reached the ,united ,states1 which is the largest migration in history4#ab ,it is true that considerable numbers of these immigrants eventually drifted back to their native lands but the larger portion of them remained permanently here4 ,sidenote3 ,the various factors which have caused ,europeans to leave their own countries4 ,causes of ,immigration4--,the causes of immigration to this country are manifold4 ,first in importance among them is the economic attractiveness of the ,united ,states4 ,cheap land1 equal opportunities1 the ease with which any industrious man or woman can make a living--these are the magnets which drew millions of people across the ,atlantic during the nineteenth century4 ,but there were other causes1 namely1 the existence in various parts of ,europe of conditions which encouraged the people to emigrate4 ,religious persecution was one of the first things that drove men or women to ,america4 ,it brought the ,pilgrims to ,massachusetts in the early days1 the ,quakers to ,pennsylvania1 and the ,english ,catholics to ,maryland4 ,political oppression in the middle years of the nineteenth century sent several million ,germans to the ,united ,states1 particularly to the ,middle ,west4 ,oppression1 both religious and political1 has been instrumental in driving the ,jews across the seas4 ,overcrowding in both the cities and the rural regions of ,europe and the consequent inability of the people to obtain lands of their own1 has been responsible for much of the drift to ,america4 ,the exhaustion of the soil in ,ireland1 the crop failures and consequent famines there1 have led to the migrations of the ,irish1 although dissatisfaction with political conditions has also been a factor in this case4 ,to a considerable extent1 moreover1 immigration has been assisted by those aliens who were already settled in this country4 ,immigrants arrived in this country and by hard work soon became prosperous4 ,then they sent passage-money to their friends and relatives until whole groups of families were enabled to come to ,america in this way4 ,the steamship companies1 too1 have advertised the attractions of ,america in all parts of ,europe2 they have kept agents at work in many countries1 and have been an important factor in promoting immigration4 ,sidenote3 ,the economic factors have been the most important4 ,nevertheless the underlying causes of immigration are economic4 ,immigrants come in greater numbers when prosperity reigns in ,america than in periods of business depression4 ,this indicates that high wages and plenty of employment are the things which have the greatest influence in bringing them here4 ,the democratic institutions of ,america have played their part1 no doubt1 and the relative social equality which exists among the people of the ,united ,states has been an attraction to those who are denied such equality in their own homelands4 ,but the equality of economic opportunity1 the open career1 the chance of making a good living and even a fortune--these1 after all1 have been and still are the impelling forces4 ,sidenote3 ,how the immigrant has affected ,american life4 ,the ,effects of ,immigration4--,a large immigration is certain to have far-reaching effects1 particularly if the newcomers be of a widely different race4 ,it has assuredly had far-reaching effects in the ,united ,states4 ,take the importation of the negroes as the most conspicuous example4 ,the coming of several hundred thousand persons of ,african blood1 during the years preceding #ahjh1 has resulted in placing a colored population of more than ten millions in the heart of a white man's country1 with all the social1 economic1 and political problems that this situation implies4 ,it influenced the agricultural system of the ,southern states1 provided the underlying causes of the ,civil ,war1 and has profoundly affected the politics of the ,united ,states down to the present day4 ,the problem presented by the immigration of the various ,european races has been altogether different because these races can be assimilated whereas the negroes can not4 ,even so1 the ,european immigration has presented its own problems and the coming of these many millions has had profound effects upon every branch of ,american life4 ,sidenote3 ,the making of a composite race4 ,social ,effects4--,the social effects are chiefly in the way of introducing natural traits or qualities which were not in the ,american people during the early period4 ,immigration has resulted in making a cosmopolitan population which is not uniform in temperament or tastes1 and can be made uniform only by the long-continued process of assimilation4 ,this lack of uniformity is in some ways an advantage1 not a defect4 ,it may give us1 in the long run1 a more vigorous population than could ever be had from the development of a single strain4 ,whether the new composite race which ultimately emerges from the melting-pot will be superior or inferior to the original stock is something which only the future can tell4 ,one disappointing feature is to be found in the fact that many of these immigrants are inferior to the average native-born ,american in physique1 in mentality1 and in moral fibre4 ,it is sometimes asserted that the immigrant population is responsible for more than its due proportion of crime but no satisfactory evidence has yet been brought forward to prove this statement4 ,it is a fact1 however1 that poverty and illiteracy are more common among the foreign-born than among the native white population4 ,it is quite likely that the new environment will do much to remedy this condition and that the second generation1 through the work of the public schools1 may measure up to the native-born4 ,these public schools are the most potent of all forces in the work of ,americanization4 ,it is upon them that we must depend to make the ultimate social effects of assimilation beneficial to the country4 ,sidenote3 ,immigration in its relation to industry and labor4 ,economic ,effects4--,immigration has had important economic results4 ,it has kept the labor market well supplied and throughout the last three-quarters of a century has aided the great industrial expansion of the country4 ,american industry and commerce could not have grown to such proportions without the man-power which has been obtained in such enormous quantities from ,europe4 ,we have used great numbers of aliens in building the railroads of the country1 in mines and steel mills1 in workshops and factories4 ,on the other hand the flood of immigration has at times proved too strong4 ,it has on occasions served to produce an over-supply of labor and this1 in turn1 has caused wages to fall4 ,labor leaders claim that the steady stream of immigrants has prevented the rise in the ,american workman's standard of living which otherwise would have taken place4 ,organized labor would like to place a protective duty upon immigrants4 ,if the newcomers could be scattered evenly over the whole country instead of being concentrated in the urban areas1 this danger of glutting the labor supply would be very small4 ,in any case1 as has already been pointed out1 the situation tends to adjust itself1 because immigration always falls off when business depression causes a slackening in the demand for labor4 ,sidenote3 ,ways in which the immigrant has influenced ,american politics4 ,political ,effects4--,the exact political effects of immigration are hard to determine4 ,it is to be remembered that most of our immigrants have come from countries where they were given no political opportunities1 or almost none4 ,prior to their arrival in the ,united ,states they have had no experience with democratic institutions4 ,yet we have freely offered them1 after five years of residence1 the privilege of becoming citizens and voters4 ,the rest of the world has always looked upon this as a very dangerous experiment in democratic government2 nevertheless its results have not been at all disastrous4 ,true enough1 the newcomers have often been exploited by unscrupulous politicians and they have sometimes allowed themselves to be misled into supporting incompetent or corrupt candidates1 especially in the large cities4 ,but the alien immigrant is not wholly or even chiefly responsible for the bad government that we have had from time to time in various parts of the country4 ,some of the worst political abuses have flourished in states and cities where the proportion of foreign-born citizens is relatively small4 ,political reformers rail at the iniquities of 8foreign-born bosses01 but the fact is that most of our notorious political bosses have been native-born4 ,notwithstanding the admission of many million aliens to all the rights of ,american citizenship it can be fairly claimed that ,american government in its various branches1 national1 state1 and local1 is just as honest and efficient as that of any other country4 ,sidenote3 ,the gradual stiffening of the regulations4 ,the ,restriction of ,immigration4--,until about forty years ago there were practically no restrictions upon the coming of aliens to the ,united ,states1 but in #ahhb laws were passed by ,congress to exclude paupers1 criminals1 and the insane4 ,all laborers of the ,mongolian race were also debarred4 ,three years later1 in #ahhe1 it was provided that no immigrant of any race should be admitted to the ,united ,states if under contract to perform labor in this country4 ,and from this date to the present the restrictions have gradually been tightened4 ,in #aiag ,congress established a literacy test for all immigrants over sixteen years of age1 and in #aiba it made further provision that the number of immigrants admitted each year from any ,european country should not exceed three per cent of the natives of that country already in the ,united ,states1 as shown by the census figures of #aiaj4 ,a tax of eight dollars per person is now imposed upon every immigrant4 ,sidenote3 ,should immigration be altogether forbidden8 ,there are some who believe that it would be wise to prohibit immigration altogether1 at any rate until conditions in both ,europe and ,america become more settled4 ,they argue that we already have as many aliens as we can ,americanize for some time2 that immigration at the present time increases unemployment1 and that the quality of immigrants is now considerably below what it used to be4 ,on the other hand it is urged that the industrial growth of the ,united ,states requires a larger supply of labor than can be provided without immigration and that by providing proper facilities for selection we can make sure of getting only the right type of immigrant4 ,our ,racial ,problems4--,we have several serious racial problems in this country including the problem of the ,european immigrants in the ,east 7particularly in the cities71 the negroes in the ,south1 and the ,japanese on the ,pacific slope4 ,the large percentage of ,european immigrants in the ,eastern cities has already been mentioned1 and the problems which their presence in these cities creates have been alluded to4 ,the ,european immigrant can be assimilated1 but the process takes time because a large part of it must be accomplished through education4 ,if the immigrants could be persuaded to scatter over the country instead of congregating in the cities with their fellow-immigrants1 the problem of making real ,americans out of them in a short time would be simplified4 ,sidenote3 ,extent of the negro population4 ,the ,negroes4--,the problem of the negro is older and more difficult still4 ,they are of a race so far removed from the white population of the ,united ,states that there is no hope of their ever being assimilated4 ,they were brought here by the tens of thousands without any adequate appreciation of the problem which their presence would eventually create1 and they form an unmeltable mass in the melting-pot of ,american society4 ,at the outbreak of the ,civil ,war the colored population of the ,united ,states1 most of whom were then slaves1 numbered less than five millions1 or about one-tenth of the total population of the entire country4 ,now they number about ten millions4 ,in other words the negroes have a little more than doubled in sixty years4 ,this is a much slower rate of natural increase than has been made during the same sixty years by the white population4 ,a high death rate1 especially in the cities1 is mainly responsible for this4 ,sidenote3 ,economic status of the negro4 ,the chief home of the negro is still1 as it has been from the beginning1 in the ,south4 ,nearly nine-tenths of the colored population of the ,united ,states lives below the ,mason and ,dixon line1 particularly in the great agricultural plain which stretches from ,virginia southwestward to ,texas4 ,in two states1 ,mississippi and ,south ,carolina1 the blacks outnumber the whites2 in three others1 ,alabama1 ,georgia1 and ,florida1 they almost equal them4 ,most of the ,southern negroes live in the rural districts and are engaged in the cultivation of the soil2 those who have made their way to the ,northern states1 more than a million in all1 live chiefly in the cities4 ,during the past few years the negroes have been coming northward in greater numbers4 ,sidenote3 ,can the negro problem be solved8 ,the problem of the negro has many phases1 political1 social1 and economic4 ,the political problem arises from the fact that although the negroes are guaranteed by the constitution the right to vote they are by one means or another debarred from voting in practically all the ,southern states4 ,the economic problems have been due1 in the main1 to the lack of educational facilities for the negro1 and particularly to the absence of opportunities for vocational education4 ,this defect is now being remedied to some extent by the spread of vocational schools1 of which ,tuskegee and ,hampton ,institute are the best-known examples4 ,the social separation between the white and colored races1 especially in the ,southern states1 is as absolute as ever it was and there is no reason to think that this separation will ever be broken down4 ,when two races in the same community must live their lives entirely apart there is bound to be some mutual suspicion and distrust4 ,in any case the negro problem1 in its various phases1 must be solved by the white population of the ,southern states if it is to be solved at all4 ,sidenote3 ,the 8gentlemen's agreement04 ,the ,japanese on the ,pacific ,slope4--,some years ago the influx of ,japanese into the states of the ,pacific slope gave rise to the fear that the ,far ,west would soon have a great racial problem on its hands if this immigration were allowed to go on unchecked4 ,one of these states1 ,california1 enacted laws designed to prevent the owning or leasing of land by ,japanese and pressure was brought upon ,congress with a view to having the ,japanese shut out of the country altogether4 ,in the end1 through diplomatic negotiations1 a 8gentlemen's agreement0 was concluded between the ,american and ,japanese governments by which the latter promised to grant no more passports enabling its citizens to emigrate to the ,united ,states1 except in the case of merchants1 students and others whose residence in this country would be temporary4 ,the ,japanese government has lived up to the letter of this agreement1 but this has not prevented a good many ,japanese coming into the ,united ,states under one subterfuge or another4 ,the ,western states are determined that their territory shall remain a 8white man's country02 on the other hand the ,japanese government is not willing to agree by formal treaty to the exclusion of its own people from any other country4 ,as a great and powerful nation1 civilized and progressive1 ,japan feels that such a treaty would be a humiliation4 ,so there the matter rests at present4 ,japanese are not forbidden to enter the ,united ,states2 we are merely depending upon the informal promise of the ,japanese government to keep them from coming here4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,melting ,,pot ,by ,vesper ,l4 ,george ,from a mural painting in the ,mc,clain ,high ,school1 ,greenfield1 ,ohio4 ,from the giant steamship at the left comes a procession which includes men1 women1 and children of many races4 ,each immigrant1 whether ,greek or ,russian1 ,jew or ,gentile1 brings some gift of art or skill to lay at the feet of ,america1 his new motherland4 ,the ,melting ,pot is not a huge cauldron into which all individuality is to be poured so that it may become a homogeneous and commonplace mass1 but a crucible in which the gold of character and personality is to be discovered and refined for the enrichment of all4 ,to the right are the sons and daughters of these immigrants4 ,they have become successful in the trades and professions2 they and their children have gained education2 they are contributing their share to the wealth1 government1 defence1 and prosperity of the nation4 ,the picture embodies a spirit of true ,americanism4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,melting ,,pot4 ,by ,vesper ,l4 ,george ,copyright by ,vesper ,l4 ,george4 ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,on the ,pillar to the left the words ,equality and ,liberty indicate what the immigrants seek in ,america4 ,on the ,pillar to the right the words ,opportunity and ,prosperity indicate what they find4 ,on the pedestal are graven the stirring words which ,paul addressed to the men of ,athens nearly nineteen hundred years ago4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,americanization4--,among the ,european immigrants now in the ,united ,states there are many thousands who cannot speak the ,english language1 who have never become citizens1 know nothing about the way in which ,american government is carried on1 and have no comprehension of ,american political or social ideals4 ,this situation was not fully appreciated until the outbreak of the ,world ,war4 ,during the past few years an earnest attempt has been made both by the public educational authorities and by private organizations to ,americanize these people by helping them to learn the language1 to obtain a knowledge of ,american history1 to become naturalized1 and to acquire a proper conception of what ,american democracy implies4 ,this does not mean1 of course1 that we desire all people1 of whatever race1 to possess the same temperamental traits1 or hold the same opinions1 or have the same point of view4 ,diversity in individual qualities1 physical1 mental1 and moral1 is not undesirable provided the differences are not so great as to prevent the various elements from adequately understanding one another4 ,by ,americanization we do not mean1 therefore1 that every newcomer to this country should submerge his individuality in the general mass1 discard his own inherited traits1 and put on a veneer of ,americanism4 ,rather it implies that those who are the children of the soil1 the native-born1 should exemplify the ,golden ,rule towards the stranger who comes within our gates and should endeavor to show him1 by actions as well as words1 the meaning of good citizenship in a democracy4 ,general ,references ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,principles of ,national ,economy1 pp4 #abc-adj2 ,j4 ,r4 ,,commons1 ,races and ,immigrants in ,america1 pp4 #a-ch2 #fc-ajf2 ,j4 ,w4 ,,jenks and ,w4 ,,jett ,,lauck1 ,the ,immigration ,problem1 pp4 #a-ci2 #dj-ff2 ,,mary ,,antin1 ,the ,promised ,land1 pp4 #ahj-bdj2 ,,edward ,a4 ,,steiner1 ,on the ,trail of the ,immigrant1 pp4 #bib-ccc2 ,,peter ,,roberts1 ,the ,new ,immigration1 pp4 #abd-agb2 #agc-aii2 ,e4 ,a4 ,,ross1 ,the ,old ,world in the ,new1 pp4 #bbh-bha1 and passim2 ,,booker ,t4 ,,washington1 ,up ,from ,slavery1 pp4 #a-fb2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,gulick1 ,the ,american-,japanese ,problem1 pp4 #c-bg2 #aah-ahc4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,should immigration be further restricted8 ,the history of immigration4 ,what the immigrants have done for the ,united ,states4 ,economic1 social1 and political disadvantages of immigration4 ,the present restrictions4 ,figures showing the probable influx of immigrants under the percentage system during the next ten years4 ,what further restrictions would improve the quality of immigration8 ,how might these restrictions be enforced8 ,could the selection be made at the port of sailing8 ,conclusions4 ,references3 ,p4 ,f4 ,,hall1 ,immigration1 pp4 #aba-ach2 ,j4 ,w4 ,,jenks and ,w4 ,j4 ,,lauck1 ,the ,immigration ,problem1 pp4 #ace-aig2 ,e4 ,a4 ,,ross1 ,the ,old ,world in the ,new1 pp4 #bhb-cjd2 ,,peter ,,roberts1 ,the ,new ,immigration1 pp4 #cda-cei2 ,debaters' ,handbook ,series1 ,immigration1 pp4 #fi-ha2 #adh-afc 7arguments on both sides72 ,f4 ,j4 ,,warne1 ,the ,tide of ,immigration1 pp4 #cac-cfa4 #b4 ,the foreign-born population of your own community4 ,take some such book as ,f4 ,a4 ,,bushee',s ,ethnic ,factors in the ,population of ,boston1 or ,h4 ,b4 ,,woolston',s ,study of the ,population of ,manhattanville1 or ,,robert ,a4 ,,woods' ,americans in ,process1 and note the plan followed in studying the characteristics of foreign-born groups4 ,some excellent suggestions can be had from ,,carol ,,aronovici',s booklet ,knowing ,one's ,own ,community4 ,apply this plan to a survey of your own town or city4 ,some data can be had from the national and state census reports in the case of larger cities2 in smaller communities the material must be gathered by field work4 #c4 ,an effective program of ,americanization4 ,references3 ,f4 ,s4 ,,bogardus1 ,americanization1 pp4 #ahf-bbe2 ,,peter ,,roberts1 ,the ,problem of ,americanization1 especially pp4 #de-ajh4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the economic effects of immigration4 ,e4 ,a4 ,,ross1 ,the ,old ,world in the ,new1 pp4 #aie-bbg4 #b4 ,the immigrant in ,american politics4 ,m4 ,k4 ,,simkhovitch1 ,the ,city ,worker's ,world1 pp4 #aha-bji2 ,p4 ,f4 ,,hall1 ,immigration1 pp4 #ahc-aih2 ,r4 ,a4 ,,woods1 ,americans in ,process1 pp4 #adg-ahi4 #c4 ,the ,german immigrant4 ,a4 ,b4 ,,faust1 ,the ,german ,element in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ceg-cij4 #d4 ,the ,italian immigrant4 ,r4 ,f4 ,,foerster1 ,the ,italian ,immigration of ,our ,times1 pp4 #cgd-daa4 #e4 ,the ,slavic immigrant4 ,e4 ,g4 ,,balch1 ,our ,slavic ,fellow ,citizens1 pp4 #cdi-cgg4 #f4 ,our treatment of the immigrant4 ,,jacob ,a4 ,,riis1 ,the ,making of an ,american1 pp4 #eh-ajj2 ,e4 ,a4 ,,steiner1 ,from ,alien to ,citizen1 pp4 #ec-ga2 #abb-afh4 #g4 ,immigrant life in the large cities4 ,r4 ,a4 ,,woods1 ,the ,city ,wilderness1 pp4 #cc-eg2 ,ibid41 ,americans in ,process1 pp4 #ajd-adf4 #h4 ,the economic problems of the negro4 ,,booker ,t4 ,,washington1 ,the ,future of the ,negro1 pp4 #db-ff2 ,,carl ,,kelsey1 ,the ,negro ,farmer1 pp4 #bb-bh1 and passim4 #i4 ,the problem of the ,japanese on the ,pacific coast4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,gulick1 ,the ,american-,japanese ,problem1 pp4 #c-bg2 ,h4 ,a4 ,,millis1 ,the ,japanese ,problem in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #aeb-aif4 #aj4 ,as others see us4 ,,hugo ,,muensterberg1 ,the ,americans1 pp4 #bbi-bed4 ,questions #a4 ,what has been the relative rate of increase of population in your own state during the last two decades8 ,has the rate been more or less rapid than that of the nation as a whole8 ,to what features is the difference due8 ,what racial elements are strong in the population of your state and in what industries are each of these elements chiefly engaged8 #b4 ,what have been the impelling causes of immigration from 7a7 ,germany2 7b7 ,ireland2 7c7 ,italy2 7d7 ,russia8 #c4 ,give four reasons why most immigrants settle in the cities4 #d4 ,explain the principal effects of immigration upon 7a7 the growth of industry2 7b7 the scale of wages2 7c7 municipal politics2 7d7 the public school system 7including evening schools1 etc474 #e4 ,which races are the most difficult to assimilate and why8 #f4 ,make some definite suggestions as to how the conditions of the negro race can be made more tolerable in this country4 #g4 ,should ,japanese as well as ,chinese be excluded by law from immigrating to the ,united ,states8 ,give your reasons4 #h4 ,what mistakes are we most likely to make in our zeal for the ,americanization of non-,english speaking immigrants8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the period of residence required for the naturalization of aliens should be extended to more than five years4 #b4 ,aliens ought to be debarred from employment on national1 state1 and municipal work4 #c4 ,the national government should take jurisdiction over and prevent all racial discrimination by the state4 ----- ,footnote #g3 ,the following table shows the increase1 by decades1 in round figures3 #agij-- #c1ijj1jjj #ahdj-- #ag1jjj1jjj #ahij-- #fb1ijj1jjj #ahjj-- #e1cjj1jjj #ahej-- #bc1ajj1jjj #aijj-- #ge1ijj1jjj #ahaj-- #g1bjj1jjj #ahfj-- #ca1djj1jjj #aiaj-- #ia1ijj1jjj #ahbj-- #i1fjj1jjj #ahgj-- #ch1ejj1jjj #aibj--aje1jjj1jjj #ahcj-- #ab1hjj1jjj #ahhj-- #ej1jjj1jjj ,from this it will be seen that the ratio of increase is declining4 ,the population increased about one-third in each decade from #agij to #ahfj2 by about one-fourth in each decade from #ahfj to #ahij2 by about one-fifth in the two decades from #ahij to #aiaj2 and by less than one-sixth in the decade from #aiaj to #aibj4 ,footnote #h3 ,it is customary to think of ,india and ,china as very densely populated2 but both have fewer than #bbe inhabitants to the square mile4 ,footnote #i3 ,a map showing the progress of the center from ,east to ,west will be found facing this page4 ,footnote #aj3 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 in his interesting book entitled ,when the ,sleeper ,wakes1 gives a picture of what the world will be like if all its inhabitants live in cities1 and the country workers are carried back and forth by rapid transit4 ,footnote #aa3 ,in #ahhj1 for example1 only about four per cent of the immigrants were ,italians while about thirty per cent were ,germans2 in #aiaj the ,italians had risen to more than twenty per cent while the ,german immigrants had declined to less than five per cent4 ,footnote #ab3 ,from #aghc to #ahbj it is estimated that not more than #bej1jjj immigrants came to the ,united ,states4 ,p4 ,f4 ,hall1 ,immigration1 p4 #d4 ,the total population in #ahbj was ten millions4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,economic ,,factors ,,and ,,organization ,the purpose of this chapter is to show how wealth is created and how it is distributed among the people4 ,sidenote3 ,primitive needs and modern needs4 ,the ,economic ,needs of ,man4--,the most elementary needs of human beings are for food1 clothing1 and shelter4 ,until these are satisfied no higher needs can develop4 ,in the lowest stages of barbarism men are content with the satisfaction of these elementary needs alone2 but as they obtain a greater mastery over nature and are able to supply these wants more easily1 other and higher wants arise within them4 ,as men and women become more intelligent and more refined1 they grow discontented with the primitive and coarser kinds of food2 they seek more presentable clothing than the skins of wild animals2 they replace their rude huts with substantial houses of wood4 ,step by step1 as the human race has advanced in civilization1 its needs have become more numerous and more varied4 ,purely material requirements being satisfied1 other and higher demands arise4 ,the spiritual and social aspirations make their appearance4 ,as mankind passes each stage in civilization it finds1 through the growing control over nature1 that purely material wants can be satisfied with less and less exertion4 ,men gain their daily bread today with infinitely less effort than in primitive times4 ,the chief reason is that they have learned to act collectively in mastering the forces of nature2 in other words they have achieved a high degree of economic organization4 ,sidenote3 ,how the economic motives promote progress4 ,the ,economic ,motives4--,self-preservation is the first law of nature4 ,the primeval instinct in man is to look out for himself1 to protect himself from hunger1 thirst1 and hardship4 ,this1 for the moment1 is more important to him than the satisfaction of his social and civic needs4 ,hence the economic motive1 the instinct which prompts him to seek the means of getting a living1 is extremely strong4 ,this instinct the lower animals possess as well1 but it does not carry them beyond the satisfaction of elementary wants4 ,the birds of the air and the beasts of the fields have never enlarged or raised the scale of their needs beyond the simple requirements of food1 drink1 and shelter4 ,no matter how easily obtainable these become they make no progress to anything higher4 ,but mankind1 endowed with superior mental faculties and a spiritual nature1 does not rest content with the easy earning of a livelihood4 ,the economic motive prompts men and women to move on1 to achieve wealth1 to procure luxuries1 and to gain such happiness as the possession of worldly goods can bring4 ,this economic motive1 deeply implanted in humanity1 has been a great incentive to progress in civilization1--probably the greatest of all incentives4 ,sidenote3 ,the altruistic motive4 ,let it not be assumed1 however1 that because the economic motive is strong in man he is an altogether selfish creature4 ,there is also an altruistic motive which impels him to help his fellow-men1 even at personal sacrifice4 ,men desire to gain wealth for themselves1 but having gained enough and to spare1 they frequently devote much of it to the assistance of those who have not been so fortunate4 ,the higher our civilization the more marked does this spirit of altruism or economic unselfishness become4 ,sidenote3 ,economic goods4 ,the ,subject-,matter of ,economics4--,the study of economics does not concern itself with all the possible wants and aspirations of men4 ,it deals only with the production1 distribution1 and consumption of those things which satisfy man's desire for 7a7 material objects and 7b7 personal services4 ,in other words economics is a subject which concerns itself with the production1 distribution1 and consumption of economic goods1 a term which includes material possessions known as wealth and also such personal services as have an economic value4 ,not all things of a material sort are economic goods2 air and sunlight1 for example1 being free to all1 require no effort on the part of man to obtain4 ,they are called free goods4 ,we apply the term economic goods only to such things and services as satisfy human wants and are not to be had free4 ,requiring effort to produce1 these economic goods are limited in supply and hence have a value in exchange for other goods4 ,for this reason they are commonly spoken of as wealth4 ,certain personal services1 those of the physician1 the lawyer1 the foreman1 the laborer1 also have an economic value in that they are limited in supply1 satisfy material wants1 and can be exchanged for tangible goods4 ,these services form a part of the economic activities of society1 a very important part4 ,so the study of economics includes these personal services as well4 ,sidenote3 ,present and future economic goods4 ,the ,consumption of ,wealth4--,all economic goods are produced for the purpose of being used4 ,this use is what the economist calls consumption4 ,some economic goods are in finished form1 ready for immediate consumption at any time2 others are in the form of raw materials or half-finished products not yet ready to be used4 ,hence we distinguish between present and future economic goods4 ,economic organization strives to manage matters so that a sufficient supply of economic goods will reach their finished form in time to fill the demands that arise4 ,this demand on the part of the consumers determines the methods and amount of production4 ,if there is no demand for a particular kind of economic goods1 these goods will not be intentionally produced4 ,on the other hand a vigorous demand will encourage production and speed up the process of distribution4 ,sidenote3 ,demand and supply4 ,so we get back1 in the end1 to the proposition with which we started1 that the purpose of economic activity and organization is to supply human needs4 ,where the need is felt1 the demand arises4 ,when the demand arises1 the agencies of supply1 namely production and distribution1 usually respond4 ,one of the great tasks of economic organization1 therefore1 is to estimate the probable demand and so influence production and distribution that the supply will neither be excessive nor fall short4 ,if there is an over-supply of any commodity1 prices normally will fall4 ,that means that goods may bring less than it costs to produce and to distribute them4 ,one reason for the organization of industry on a large scale under great corporations is that supply can thus be kept closer to demand4 ,at any rate the consumer1 by his greater or smaller demand1 virtually determines all activities of production and distribution4 ,he is the pivot of the whole economic system4 ,sidenote3 ,the factors in demand4 ,whether the demand on the part of the consumer will be larger or smaller depends on three factors4 ,the first is the utility of the goods to him4 ,economic goods do not have the same utility to all men at all times4 ,the utility of ice on a warm summer day may be considerable2 in midwinter it is next to nothing4 ,the utility of eye-glasses to short-sighted men is great2 to men of normal sight they have no utility at all4 ,economic goods may1 therefore have a greater or smaller utility depending upon the place1 the time1 and the consumer4 ,bear in mind1 moreover1 that each consumer matches the utility of one commodity with the utility of other commodities which he finds available1 and his demand follows the direction of the greater utility4 ,a second factor in demand is the price of the goods4 ,when the price goes up1 the demand ordinarily will go down1 because some customers will decide that the utility of their money is greater than that of the goods at the increased price4 ,finally1 demand depends in part upon the purchasing power or wealth of the consumers4 ,in prosperous times1 when people have plenty of income1 the utility of goods seems greater than the utility of money2 in times of depression and low incomes the reverse is true4 ,the interaction of these three factors determines the demand4 ,sidenote3 ,what production means4 ,economic ,production4--,production is the general term applied to all the processes whereby economic goods are adapted to the satisfaction of human wants4 ,we are often told that no man can either create or destroy a single atom of matter4 ,strictly speaking1 therefore1 production does not mean the creation of economic goods but the utilization of materials in such a way that they may satisfy the consumers' demands4 ,this utilization may involve changing their form1 as where iron is made into tools or wool into cloth4 ,the miner who takes coal out of the earth2 the farmer who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before2 the mason who hews the stone for the building2 the baker who makes flour into bread2 the manufacturer who takes leather and turns it into shoes--all are engaged in production4 ,so1 also1 are such workers as statesmen1 judges1 lawyers1 physicians1 and teachers4 ,they may not directly produce commodities but their services are essential to the smooth working of the processes of production4 ,the only workers who do not deserve to be called productive laborers are thieves1 swindlers1 counterfeiters1 and other parasites4 ,they often work harder than would suffice to earn them an honest living2 but their labor is not productive4 ,they live on what others produce4 ,sidenote3 ,natural resources1 labor1 capital1 organization1 and government4 ,the ,factors in ,production4--,there are five factors in production2 namely1 7#a7 natural resources 7including land72 7#b7 labor2 7#c7 capital2 7#d7 organization and management2 7#e7 government4 ,natural resources1 without the application of labor to them1 do not go far in satisfying human wants4 ,men cannot live on soil1 climate1 rainfall1 and minerals4 ,nor can labor and natural resources1 when one is applied to the other1 succeed in producing all the economic goods which people in an advanced stage of civilization require4 ,capital is also essential--capital in the form of machinery1 or in the form of money to support labor during the process of production4 ,these three things1 natural resources1 labor1 and capital must be brought together1 furthermore1 and kept working in unison4 ,this is where organization1 the fourth factor in production1 comes in4 ,it borrows the capital1 buys the raw materials1 sets the labor to work1 and markets the products4 ,government is not commonly looked upon as a factor in production1 but it ought to be4 ,without the protection and regulation which government affords we could not carry on production at high efficiency4 ,it is government that assures to labor1 capital1 and organization their rightful shares in the joint production and thus affords them the incentive to do their best4 ,sidenote3 ,land and its resources4 ,nature's ,contributions to ,production4--,nature contributes to the production of economic goods such things as land1 timber1 waterways for transportation1 minerals1 coal and oil1 the motive power of steam1--in a word nature provides all the materials and the environment of production4 ,hence it is fundamentally the most important of all the factors4 ,if one studies the history of those nations which have become great in various periods in history1 it will be found that the basis of their material greatness was in practically every case the bounty of nature4 ,civilization made its first advance in the fertile valleys of the ,euphrates and the ,nile4 ,its progress since the dawn of history has been conditioned by man's success in discovering and using natural resources4 ,among the contributions of nature to production some1 such as land1 can be brought under private ownership4 ,so long as land was plentiful and population scanty there was no occasion for private property in land4 ,when ,caesar first came into contact with the ,teutonic tribes he found that land was not held in private ownership4 ,everyone took what he wanted2 when the land seemed to be growing exhausted the whole tribe moved on to some other region4 ,but as these tribes grew in number and unoccupied land became less plentiful1 common ownership gave way to private ownership4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons had reached this stage before they migrated to ,england4 ,sidenote3 ,rent4 ,land held in private ownership can be bought1 sold1 and leased4 ,when it is leased1 the owner receives for its use a payment known as rent4 ,rent may be defined as the return which is obtained by the owner of any form of natural resource4 ,this includes not only land but mines1 water-powers1 trout-streams1 and so forth4 ,the return which is received for the use of unimproved land is usually called ground rent1 while the return which results from improvements such as buildings upon the land1 fences1 and drains is called improvement rent4 ,strictly speaking1 this is not rent1 but a return upon invested capital4 ,the amount of ground rent paid for any piece of land depends upon its relative fertility1 if it is to be used for agriculture1 and its location4 ,location alone determines the ground rent of land in towns and cities4 ,sidenote3 ,what is labor8 ,labor as a ,factor in ,production4--,what is labor8 ,is all muscular and mental exertion entitled to be called labor8 ,mountain climbing involves the most severe sort of bodily effort4 ,tourists do it for pleasure and guides do it for pay4 ,is it labor in one case and not in the other8 ,some men play chess for recreation2 others make a living out of it2 in either case there is strenuous mental exertion involved4 ,so where does labor begin and end8 ,no exact answer can be given to that question4 ,one man's play is another man's labor1--gardening1 fishing1 acting on the stage1 for example4 ,but economists usually define labor as 8human exertion or effort directed toward the creation of economic goods04 ,this includes mental as well as physical exertion4 ,all who are engaged in the production of material things or personal services for the satisfaction of human wants are engaged in productive labor4 ,sidenote3 ,the economic importance of labor4 ,labor1 of course1 is of great economic importance4 ,the natural resources of the ,american continent were as great three hundred years ago as they are today2 yet they were practically useless in satisfying human wants because the red man would not and could not bestow his labor upon them4 ,it remained for the white man to transform natural resources into economic goods4 ,this he has done not only by the use of muscular exertion but by the application of intelligence4 ,labor is never an end in itself2 it is always a means to an end1 and this end is the satisfaction of human demands4 ,sidenote3 ,the simple and complex forms of division of labor4 ,division of ,labor4--,in applying their labor to natural resources men soon found that the best results could be obtained by apportioning different tasks to different workers4 ,this is called the division of labor and it has been one of the great factors in the progress of production4 ,in its simpler form1 division of labor merely meant that each workman confined himself to a simple occupation and carried through all the processes of production in that particular trade4 ,the cloth-maker1 the shoemaker1 the implement-maker performed all the work of making cloth1 shoes1 or implements from start to finish4 ,this simple division of labor was practiced in very early times4 ,but as the world moved forward a more complex division of labor developed and this is particularly a feature of modern production4 ,in this development the individual worker is assigned to make only a part of a commodity4 ,the making of cloth is no longer a trade1 but embodies a series of trades--that of the wool-carder1 the spinner1 the weaver1 the fuller1 the dyer1 and the finisher4 ,in the modern shoe factory one employee cuts the sole1 another trims it1 a third turns the heels1 a fourth sews the uppers to the sole1 and so on4 ,there are more than twenty distinct operations in the making of a factory shoe1 each requiring special skill on the part of the worker4 ,in the time of the ,roman empire it is said that only thirty-seven different trades and professions were in existence4 ,today the number runs into the thousands4 ,it would be practically impossible to make a list of them all4 ,this is the age of specialists4 ,men no longer call themselves shoemakers but cutters1 lasters1 welters1 sole-makers4 ,even in the engineering profession we have electrical engineers1 civil engineers1 mechanical engineers1 locomotive engineers1 stationary engineers1 mining engineers1 marine engineers1 and chemical engineers4 ,advantages and ,disadvantages of ,division of ,labor4--,division of labor has brought many economic advantages4 ,it enables the worker1 by constant practice at a single operation1 to acquire skill and dexterity4 ,it enables almost every worker to find some task that he is able to do and for which he has a special liking or aptitude4 ,it stimulates the invention of new processes and methods by reducing each operation to the simplest possible form1 at which point it can often be taken over by machinery4 ,but the elaborate division of labor which marks modern industry also has its defects4 ,it increases the monotony and irksomeness of labor4 ,it prevents the development of all-round craftsmen1 men who can turn their hands to a variety of things4 ,hence when a worker in modern industry loses his regular employment it is difficult for him to change to anything else4 ,confining men and women to a single1 simple task day after day and year after year tends to narrow them2 it certainly does not conduce to the extension of their intelligence4 ,no great inspiration comes from his work to the man who spends his life in making the nineteenth part of a pin4#ac ,division of labor has come to stay1 however1 and in spite of all these disadvantages the world is on the whole far better for its coming4 ,it has made the production of goods so much easier that to give it up now would carry the world back to primitive conditions and lower the standard of living4 ,our aim should be to utilize all its advantages while reducing its evils to the minimum4 ,this we may hope to do by several methods2 for example1 by reducing the daily hours of labor1 by promoting vocational education1 by the restriction of child employment1 by a better organization of the labor market 7see p4 #dah71 and by providing wholesome recreation for the workers4 ,sidenote3 ,labor is a service4 ,is ,labor a ,commodity8--,labor1 as a factor in production1 receives its return in the form of wages4 ,a generation ago it was customary to speak of labor as a commodity and to say that the worker 8sold his labor0 for wages4 ,but labor is not a commodity4 ,the seller of goods parts company with them when he makes a sale2 the worker is inseparable from his work4 ,the man who sells shoes cares not who wears them2 but it makes some difference to the shoe-worker how and where and for whom he labors4 ,no commodity1 moreover1 is so perishable as labor4 ,the labor of one day will not keep for sale the next4 ,hence sales of labor1 if we call them such1 are in the nature of forced sales4 ,in the case of nearly all commodities1 again1 the supply can be diminished by stopping production1 thereby preventing a drastic fall in price4 ,but the supply of labor cannot be so easily cut down4 ,the analogy between labor and commodities is a poor analogy and it is much better to speak of labor as a personal service4 ,workers contract with employers for the giving of this service and should receive1 in return1 not only wages but various assurances as to the conditions under which the service is to be rendered4 ,the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 in the ,clayton ,act of #aiad1 declared that 8the labor of a human being is not a commodity or article of commerce0 and that an organization of workers was not to be regarded1 therefore1 as a 8combination in restraint of trade40 ,sidenote3 ,the factors which cause wages to rise and fall4 ,wages4--,the wages of labor depend fundamentally upon demand and supply4 ,but as the supply of labor is not susceptible to a quick and unlimited increase or reduction1 wages depend principally upon demand4 ,when there is an increased demand for economic goods1 due to factors which have already been explained 7see p4 #dj71 the quest for labor becomes more keen on the part of employers2 better terms are offered to the worker2 in other words wages go up and the conditions of labor are improved4 ,when the demand for economic goods diminishes the contrary takes place1 but in this case the decline in the rate of wages does not1 as a rule1 keep exact pace with the decrease in demand4 ,organizations of labor strive to keep wages up and often succeed1 temporarily at least1 in doing so4 ,during the years #aiah-aibj1 when the demand for economic goods expanded greatly1 the wages of labor in the ,united ,states went up promptly all along the line4 ,when the turn in the tide came1 about the middle of #aibj1 wages began to fall slowly and their descent has been very gradual4 ,wages1 thus1 incline to follow the general course of prices but they show this tendency more clearly when prices are going up than when they are coming down4 ,this is altogether natural1 for higher wages conduce to a better standard of living1 and when such better standard has been achieved there is objection to any lowering of it4 ,sidenote3 ,nominal and real wages4 ,this suggests that a distinction ought to be drawn between nominal and real wages4 ,wages1 of course1 are not an end in themselves2 they are merely a means which enables the worker to satisfy his wants4 ,the real utility of wages depends1 therefore1 upon what they will purchase1 and this1 again1 depends upon the general level of prices4 ,even if wages1 reckoned in dollars1 go up fifty per cent1 the worker is no better off if the general level of prices also goes up fifty per cent4 ,a worker's nominal wages are what he receives in dollars2 his real wages are reckoned in terms of purchasing-power4 ,the rate of wages should always be studied1 therefore1 in connection with prices4 ,an increase or decrease in nominal wages may mean much or it may mean very little4 ,sidenote3 ,the minimum wage level4 ,there is a limit below which real wages cannot fall4 ,this is the point at which the worker can manage to maintain himself and his family4 ,just where this point is1 stated in terms of money1 no one can say4 ,it varies in different parts of the country4 ,before the ,world ,war the statistics showed that half the adult male workers in this country were earning less than six hundred dollars a year1 yet the standard of living among ,american workmen was higher than that of the workers in any other country4 ,today it is probable that these same workers are earning more than a thousand dollars4 ,this does not mean1 necessarily1 that the standard of living has risen1 for the amount of nominal wages needed to maintain the pre-war standard is greater because of the rise in prices4 ,sidenote3 ,how capital arose4 ,capital4--,capital is the third factor in production4 ,in primitive industry the application of labor to natural resources produced direct and almost immediate results4 ,the savages who gathered nuts and caught fish with their hands1 for example1 gained the fruits of their efforts at once4 ,but these direct methods of satisfying their wants did not carry mankind very far4 ,it soon became apparent that men could produce economic goods more easily and more abundantly by indirect methods1 that is by the use of tools1 implements1 machinery1 and other labor-saving devices4 ,these made possible the utilization of minerals and other natural resources which could never have been made to serve the wants of man without using the appliances of indirect production4 ,so1 as civilization developed1 production came to be spread over a considerable period of time1 until today it often happens that a whole year intervenes between the first step in production and the sale of the finished article4 ,consider the articles of daily use1 clothes1 shoes1 furniture1 books1 and realize how vast has been the series of operations necessary to produce each of them6 ,many workers have contributed their share1 and each of these has had to receive his wages long before the goods passed into the hands of the ultimate consumer4 ,sidenote3 ,what it includes4 ,now the factor which has enabled production to become indirect and long-spread-out is capital4 ,capital consists of all the intermediate things which men use in producing economic goods4 ,it includes buildings1 materials1 machinery1 and the money which pays the wages of the workers4 ,the use of capital saves labor by enabling a given amount of it to achieve vastly better results than would be the case if capital did not exist4 ,capital is really stored-up labor in the form of economic goods which have been produced but not consumed4 ,in other words it is the result of saving4 ,if everything that the world produces were at once consumed1 there would be no capital4 ,sidenote3 ,how the rate of interest is determined4 ,interest on ,capital4--,interest is the return paid to the owner of capital for its part in production4 ,it is his recompense for saving his economic goods instead of consuming them4 ,productive capital is frequently in the form of material things but its value is reckoned in terms of money and a certain per cent per annum is paid on this value in the form of interest4 ,were it not so1 there would be no strong inducement for men to save1 and capital would not be forthcoming4 ,the rate of interest depends1 in a general way1 upon the interaction of demand and supply4 ,if the demand for capital exceeds the supply1 the rate of interest will ordinarily go up1 and vice-versa4 ,but this does not always take place because capital is sometimes obtained at a fixed rate for a long period1 and this rate1 whatever it is1 remains the same for the duration of such period4 ,sidenote3 ,why organization is essential4 ,organization and ,management as a ,factor in ,production4--,when labor and capital are brought into play upon natural resources the production of economic goods is the outcome4 ,but these three factors are in separate hands and have to be brought into co-operation4 ,owners of lands1 mines1 and forests control the natural resources2 another class possesses the capital2 a third is in a position to furnish the labor4 ,organization brings all three into joint action for the production of wealth4 ,sidenote3 ,the forms of organization4 ,this organization may take any one of several forms4 ,the simplest form of organization is represented by the individual employer1 the man who borrows capital 7or provides it from his own savings71 purchases the raw materials1 and hires labor to be applied to it4 ,he is an organizer of the productive process4 ,this system of single employers was nearly universal in the earlier stages of industry and trade4 ,next comes the partnership4 ,two or more men assume the task of bringing natural resources1 capital1 and labor together4 ,the partners divide the work and jointly assume all responsibilities of loss4 ,finally1 and most common in large-scale production nowadays1 there is the joint stock company or business corporation in which many persons participate4 ,each contributes to the organization and takes a proportionate share of the risk4#ad ,the nature and work of these corporations are explained in a later chapter4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,thrift ,,and ,,prosperity4 ,by ,frederick ,dielman4 ,copyright by ,frederick ,dielman4 ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,,thrift ,,and ,,prosperity ,by ,frederick ,dielman ,from a mosaic picture in the ,albany ,savings ,bank1 ,albany1 ,n4,y4 ,a mosaic is a decoration formed out of small pieces of natural stone or enamel1 of various colors1 set in cement4 ,this decoration measures fourteen feet by seven and one-half1 the figures being somewhat larger than life size4 ,under a fruit tree in a landscape suggesting grain fields and meadows1 is a group of figures4 ,the central and principal figure1 the mistress of a household with her distaff and spindle1 typifies industry and good management2 behind her on either side among the hollyhocks are beehives--the conventional emblems of industry and saving4 ,in the foreground on the left1 a woman with a sheaf of wheat at her feet and a sickle in her hand turns toward the keeper of the flocks and herds4 ,at the right1 a kneeling maiden lays a basket of fruit near the sheaf of wheat1 while a stalwart man1 adze in hand1 bares his arm for work4 ,all these figures symbolize the different branches of agriculture4 ,the children and the young animals typify the way in which each young generation is nourished by the industry and thrift of its elders4 ,the whole impression of this picture is one of industry1 prosperity1 thrift1 and--by reason of these three--happiness4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,the nature of profits4 ,profits4--,the return received by the organizers and managers of productive enterprises is commonly known as profit4 ,the amount of their profit depends upon the degree of success with which they can produce goods for less than the selling price4 ,every employer or organizer assumes a considerable amount of risk4 ,he obligates himself to pay definite amounts for the use of capital1 materials1 and labor no matter what the value of the finished products4 ,if this value be less than the cost of production1 he loses2 if it be more1 he gains4 ,losses1 if continued1 mean bankruptcy4 ,gains are profits and1 if continued1 make him rich4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that the employers or organizers of production take more risk than those who supply the materials1 the capital1 or the labor4 ,sidenote3 ,what determines the rate of profits4 ,their success1 in other words their rate of profits1 depends in general upon the degree of managing and organizing ability which they display2 but it sometimes happens that profits will be high in all branches of production for a time irrespective of the employer's skill4 ,the price of the finished product may rise without an immediate and proportionate increase in the cost of materials1 interest1 and wages4 ,this situation1 while it continues1 affords an opportunity for abnormal profits or 8profiteering0 as it is often called4 ,abnormal profits may also be due to the existence of a monopoly in a particular form of production4 ,sidenote3 ,the economic importance of government4 ,government as a ,factor in ,production4--,it has not been customary to speak of government as one of the essential factors in production1 but a few moments' reflection will show that its part in the process of industry and trade is very important4 ,to begin with1 the government determines what forms of production may be carried on and by what methods4 ,it forbids certain forms1 such as the making of intoxicants1 and strictly limits others1 such as the manufacture of narcotics4 ,it gives to some individuals and corporations the exclusive right to produce certain articles under patents4 ,it determines the forms of business organizations1 the responsibilities of employers1 the rules relating to partnership1 and the powers of corporations4 ,it sets a limit upon the rate of interest by means of usury laws and through its banks may virtually control the rate 7see p4 #dch74 ,the government1 moreover1 makes rules for the conservation of natural resources and to some extent fixes the relation between the employer and his workers4 ,at times it even fixes prices4 ,it provides courts and commissions for the settlement of disputes affecting production4 ,finally1 the whole system of private property rests upon the support of the government4 ,sidenote3 ,taxes as an element in cost4 ,what return does the government get for these services to production8 ,offhand1 one might say that the government receives its return in taxes4 ,in a sense this is true1 for taxes1 like interest1 wages1 and profits1 must be paid from the selling price of goods4 ,taxes1 indeed1 must be provided for before profits can be determined4 ,but it is not usual1 nor is it accurate1 to speak of taxes as a reward or return for services which the government renders4 ,revenue in the form of taxation is essential in order that a government may function properly1 yet there is no close relation between the rate of taxation and the amount of service given4 ,this whole question of taxation1 in theory and in practice1 will be discussed further on4 ,,some ,,essential ,,economic ,,activities ,sidenote3 ,the way in which each factor in production obtains its share4 ,exchange4--,it has been shown that several factors in production are each entitled to their share4 ,this share is reckoned in terms of money because every producer gets his own return in terms of money4 ,in other words goods are exchanged for money1 and money in turn is exchanged for other goods or service4 ,this mechanism of exchange engages the energy of a great many individuals and institutions1 such as wholesalers1 retailers1 brokers1 and banks4 ,economic goods would have relatively little value if they could not be translated into money and thus distributed from hand to hand4 ,no one1 as a rule1 can live and flourish by consuming exactly what he produces and nothing else4 ,he must use his share in what he produces as purchasing-power to secure whatever best satisfies his own wants4 ,money is the lubricant which facilitates this2 in a word1 it is the medium of exchange4 ,sidenote3 ,definition of value4 ,value and ,price4--,exchange takes place on a basis of relative values4 ,he who sells goods or services receives something of assumed equal value in return4 ,but what is value8 ,the term value is employed in two different senses1 value in use and value in exchange4 ,by the former we mean the intrinsic utility of a thing4 ,air and sunlight1 for example1 have a high value in use2 they are indispensable to life in fact2 but they have no value in exchange4 ,when the economist speaks of value he means value in exchange or market value1 that is to say the ratio in which one commodity or service will exchange for other commodities4 ,if a ton of coal can be exchanged for a large quantity of cloth1 or food1 or labor1 its value is high2 if it can be exchanged for only small amounts of these other commodities1 its value is said to be low4 ,sidenote3 ,definition of price4 ,but price is quite another thing4 ,the price of a commodity is the ratio at which it will exchange1 not for all other goods and services but for one specific thing1 namely1 money4 ,price is value expressed in terms of the medium of exchange4 ,we habitually translate our economic goods into terms of money before we buy or sell them4 ,a general rise or fall in prices is quite possible1 for this is merely another way of saying that money will buy less or more of all other things4 ,it is immaterial whether we say that prices have gone up or that money has gone down2 we mean exactly the same thing4 ,sidenote3 ,what determines the level of prices8 ,competition and ,monopoly4--,exchange is conducted1 for the most part1 under free competition4 ,buyers give as little as they can in money for goods2 sellers get as much as they can4 ,when goods bring higher prices1 more will be produced until prices are forced down again2 if prices fall1 production will decline until the reduction in supply serves to bring them up again4 ,this is the theory of free competition4 ,in practice1 however1 it does not always work so automatically4 ,some things1 such as diamonds and platinum1 cannot be produced in unlimited quantities no matter how much labor1 capital1 and organization we may apply4 ,other things are legal monopolies1 or patented articles1 which can be produced by only one concern and are not subject to the direct influence of competition4 ,still others are natural monopolies due to the fact that from the nature of things only one concern can produce the goods or render the service4 ,a telephone company1 for example1 has a natural monopoly4 ,competition involves a complete duplication of the service4 ,it means that many subscribers have to put two telephones in their stores or homes in order to get into full touch with other users of telephones4 ,the net cost of telephone service to customers cannot be reduced in this way4 ,finally1 some things are the subject of artificial monopoly1 that is to say1 they are produced or distributed under arrangements which restrict or eliminate competition 7see pp4 #chf-chh74 ,sidenote3 ,the effects of monopoly4 ,all these forms of monopoly interfere with free competition and they cover a great many of the things which are in common use by the people4#ae ,recent investigations have shown that the number of commodities which are either wholly or in large part controlled by monopolistic combines is larger than people commonly realize4 ,a certain amount of legal monopoly is essential in order to encourage research and invention4#af ,men will not strive to invent new machines and appliances if the invention at once becomes common property4 ,natural monopolies arise from the essential nature of things and it is difficult to see how most of them can ever be avoided4 ,we cannot very well have two competing street railways on the same street1 for example4 ,there would then be little room in the street for anything else4 ,artificial monopolies are often objectionable because they enable a few persons or corporations to obtain excessive prices from the public2 but even an artificial monopoly can in some cases be advantageous4 ,occasionally some corporation1 by producing things on a very large scale1 is able to do it so cheaply that small producers are driven out of business4 ,the large concern then finds that it has become a monopoly1 but so long as it does not arbitrarily raise prices the public is not injured by the mere fact that a monopoly exists4 ,sidenote3 ,the principle of freedom in economic relations ,freedom of ,contract4--,an outstanding characteristic of modern economic organization is the encouragement of private enterprise through freedom of contract4 ,by the laws of the land the worker is not forced to take employment from anybody2 he may contract with whomsoever he pleases4 ,he may even join with other workers in a union and make a collective bargain1 that is1 a group of workers1 large or small1 may contract with one or more employees or with a group of employers4 ,the employer1 on his side1 is not forced to hire anybody2 he also has freedom of contract4 ,it is true1 of course1 that this legal theory of individual freedom does not find complete exemplification in actual practice4 ,the right of the wage-earner to bargain collectively is not everywhere conceded by employers2 the right of the employer to hire non-union men is not everywhere conceded by the unions 7see p4 #djf74 ,the landlord is not obliged to rent his house1 nor the tenant to stay against his will4 ,both are bound by the terms of their contract and no more4 ,buying and selling are conducted with similar freedom4 ,all this affords a great spur to private initiative4 ,everyone depends for his own prosperity and advancement upon the skill with which he can use his freedom4 ,a well-known ,english writer1 ,sir ,henry ,maine1 once declared that the progress of civilization has been a movement from status to contract4 ,he meant that in primitive times all men had their careers virtually determined for them by the station in which they were born4 ,the child of a noble became a nobleman2 the child of a peasant remained a peasant through life4 ,in modern economic society the individual's own efforts1 exerted through his freedom to contract with others for his own advantage1 count far more heavily in determining his ultimate station in life4 ,sidenote3 ,why the institution of private property is maintained4 ,private ,property4--,freedom of contract would prove a poor incentive to progress were it not accompanied by a provision whereby industrious men can enjoy the fruits of their labor and thrift4 ,hence we guarantee to every man not only the right to earn but the right to save1 for future enjoyment1 a portion of his earnings4 ,these savings become his property and within certain limits he may use them as he pleases4 ,he may utilize his savings during his own lifetime or leave them to his children when he dies4 ,savings may take the form of private property in land and buildings1 or movable goods1 or such investments as bonds1 stocks1 mortgages1 and bank deposits4 ,property in land and buildings is commonly known as real property or real estate4 ,all other forms of property are called personal property4 ,sometimes we distinguish between two kinds of personal property1 tangible1 which includes all goods and chattels1 and intangible1 which comprises stocks1 bonds1 mortgages1 notes1 deposits1 and other obligations4 ,the institution of private property is the basis of our whole economic system4 ,no nation has ever enjoyed industrial prosperity for any length of time without recognizing the right of private property4 ,destroy this right and you take away what now constitutes the chief incentive to labor1 saving1 and industrial efficiency4 ,under a socialistic system1 which would either abolish or largely curtail this right of private property1 it is argued that other incentives would take the place of the motive now furnished by private property and that men would keep on working and organizing even if private property were entirely abolished2 but this is a large question and its discussion must be relegated to a later chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,the right of private property is subject to restrictions4 ,in any case most men are now agreed that the right of private property cannot be left unfettered2 it must be guarded against abuse4 ,society cannot wisely permit it to stand as an obstacle to the general interest4 ,even the right of private property1 therefore1 must bend to the good of the community4 ,men are allowed to own property because their doing so promotes the well-being of the whole people2 the right should not go further than that4 ,it is for this reason that we place various restrictions upon the right of private property1 restrictions in the interest of the public health1 or for protection against fire1 or for the preservation of public morals4 ,no one has the right to own and maintain property that constitutes a public nuisance1 such as an unsanitary tenement house1 for example1 or a building that forms a fire trap4 ,the right of private property is entitled to respect only in so far as it is exercised in keeping with its prime purpose1 which is to advance the interests of the whole people by giving each individual a sufficient incentive to work and to save4 ,general ,references ,h4 ,c4 ,,adams1 ,description of ,industry1 pp4 #c-aag2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #a-aaj2 ,h4 ,r4 ,,seager1 ,introduction to ,economics1 #dth ed41 pp4 #a-aba2 ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,outlines of ,economics1 #crd ed41 pp4 #a-ih2 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,economics1 pp4 #aae-agi2 #cge-dca2 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch1 ,american ,economic ,life1 pp4 #a-cg2 #ga-hj2 #cae-cce2 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,principles of ,national ,economy1 pp4 #c-df4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the effects of division of labor and the ways in which we may retain its advantages while reducing its detrimental effects4 ,how division of labor arose4 ,the extent to which it is now carried in industry4 ,its physical effects4 ,social1 political1 and economic effects4 ,its value4 ,how its defects can be overcome4 ,the reduction of hours in certain industries4 ,vocational education for the worker4 ,the restriction of child labor4 ,the better organization of the labor market4 ,recreation for the workers after work-hours4 ,the merits and practical difficulties of each plan4 ,references3 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cj-dh2 ,thirteenth annual report of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,labor on ,hand and ,machine ,labor 7for illustrative material72 ,h4 ,r4 ,,seager1 ,introduction to ,economics1 pp4 #aec-aeh2 ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,the ,evolution of ,industrial ,society1 pp4 #cih-dbd4 ,see also the references given at end of chapters ,,xx-,,xxi in this book4 #b4 ,the justification of private property4 ,references3 ,l4 ,c4 ,,marshall1 ,readings in ,industrial ,society1 pp4 #add-bbc2 #idg-ihh2 ,,john ,m4 ,,mecklin1 ,introduction to ,social ,ethics1 pp4 #cjb-cbb2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,,joseph ,,schafer1 ,democracy in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #fi-ie2 ,,herbert ,,spencer1 ,social ,statics1 pp4 #fb-fe4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,our chief economic wants4 ,l4 ,c4 ,,marshall1 ,readings in ,industrial ,society1 pp4 #i-ae2 #bgj-bgg2 #hbh-hcc2 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,economics1 pp4 #gi-hg4 #b4 ,economic ideals4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch1 ,american ,economic ,life1 pp4 #ag-bg4 #c4 ,is labor a commodity8 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,economics1 pp4 #dcb-dcf4 #d4 ,the relation of wages to the standard of living4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch1 ,american ,economic ,life1 pp4 #dg-ef2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,hammond and ,j4 ,w4 ,,jenks1 ,great ,american ,issues1 pp4 #hc-if4 #e4 ,how capital is accumulated4 ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,outlines of ,economics1 pp4 #aaf-acj4 #f4 ,the place of capital in modern agriculture1 industry1 and commerce4 ,l4 ,c4 ,,marshall1 ,readings in ,industrial ,society1 pp4 #aed-bab4 #g4 ,natural monopolies4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,economics1 pp4 #cji-cbd4 #h4 ,freedom of contract4 ,l4 ,c4 ,,marshall1 ,readings in ,industrial ,society1 pp4 #egj-egd4 #i4 ,thrift as a national asset4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,,joseph ,,schafer1 ,democracy in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #bdd-bfb4 #aj4 ,the place of luxury in economic life4 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,principles of ,national ,economy1 pp4 #ehd-eig4 ,questions #a4 ,make a list of the chief human wants that existed a thousand years ago4 ,also a list of the principal human wants of the ,united ,states today4 ,name the ones that are freely satisfied by nature4 #b4 ,what is meant by 8economic goods08 ,which of the following things are economic goods1 and which are not3 a phonograph record2 opium2 the sunken ,lusitania2 a silver dollar2 a ,liberty bond2 electricity2 ,mr4 ,bryan's skill as an orator2 desert land in the middle of ,africa2 weeds in a wheat field2 a wide acquaintance among business men2 a ten dollar bill2 a public park2 a band concert2 keen eyesight2 a cask of rum8 ,give your reasons in each case4 #c4 ,give some examples of the production of economic goods 7a7 without the use of labor or capital2 7b7 with labor but without capital2 7c7 with capital but without labor4 #d4 ,explain what one would mean by speaking of the 8productive consumption of wealth04 ,give some examples4 #e4 ,is division of labor carried as far in agriculture as in industry8 ,are the evils of division of labor as great in country districts as in towns and cities8 ,what remedies would you suggest to counterbalance the monotony of industrial labor8 #f4 ,which of the various productive factors are most important in 7a7 sheep raising2 7b7 banking2 7c7 the coining of money2 7d7 training a brass band2 7e7 selling newspapers on the street8 #g4 ,how would you estimate the ground rent of a piece of land1 situated on the main business street of a large city1 with a store built upon it8 #h4 ,would an increase in the price of wheat lead to a rise in the general rate of rental paid for farm land or would a rise in the general rate of rental cause the price of wheat to go up8 #i4 ,why is there more capital in the ,united ,states than in ,china although the population of ,china is three times as large8 #aj4 ,if all payment of interest were forbidden by law1 would people continue to save8 ,if not1 why does saving sometimes increase when the rate of interest goes down8 #aa4 ,why are each of the following paid a high or a low rate of remuneration as the case may be3 7a7 a locomotive engineer2 7b7 a hod carrier2 7c7 a movie actor2 7d7 a member of the state legislature2 7e7 a steeple jack2 7f7 a corporation lawyer8 #ab4 ,to what different things may a fall in wages be due8 ,a fall in profits8 ,if all large production could be eliminated1 would we be worse or better off8 #ac4 ,if all men were of equal business ability and had the same opportunities1 would there be any business profits8 #ad4 ,what are the advantages of a corporation as compared with a partnership8 #ae4 ,in what ways is democracy likely to enhance production to a greater degree than despotism8 #af4 ,can you think of something possessing value but not utility8 ,utility but not value8 ,both value and utility but having no price8 #ag4 ,what is meant by the saying that 8competition is the life of trade08 #ah4 ,make a list of all the natural monopolies that you can remember4 ,how may the evils of legal and artificial monopolies be lessened8 #ai4 ,how is freedom of contract related to the institution of private property8 ,do you think you would look forward to greater or less happiness in life if all private property were now to be abolished8 #bj4 ,which of the following are proper limitations on the freedom of contract or the right of private property3 7a7 a rule that billboards must not be built of wood2 7b7 a provision that no one shall buy or sell explosives without a license2 7c7 a regulation that no owner of a city lot shall build on it any building costing less than ten thousand dollars2 7d7 a requirement that no one sell cigarettes to persons under sixteen years of age8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,labor contributes more than management to national prosperity4 #b4 ,high prices are an advantage 7or a disadvantage7 to the workers of the ,united ,states4 #c4 ,every earner of income should be required to save a certain portion of his earnings each year1 thus making all men capitalists as well as workers4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,forms ,,of ,,government ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain what government is1 how it originated1 why people obey it1 and what its functions are4 ,sidenote3 ,various uses of the word 8state04 ,what is the ,state8--,the word 8state0 is so short and simple that everybody is assumed to know just what it means4 ,and in a general way everyone does know what it means4 ,but it is used in more than one sense and with a good deal of latitude4 ,when we speak1 for example1 of the 8newly-created states of ,europe0 we mean ,poland1 ,czecho-,slovakia1 and ,jugo-,slavia4 ,the term 8state01 so used1 designates a country with an independent political existence4 ,but we also speak of 8the states of the ,union01 by which we mean merely the political divisions of a single country4 ,then1 again1 one frequently encounters such expressions as 8a statesman who served the state0 or 8state control of railroads01 or 8the relations between ,church and ,state04 ,to what does the term in such cases refer8 ,here the expression is used in a generic sense to include politically organized society1 and those who so use it are thinking more particularly of the political agencies through which organized society acts4 ,sidenote3 ,a general definition4 ,a simple definition will cover all these uses of the term4 ,a state is a body of people1 possessing a definite territory1 and politically organized4 ,territory is essential4 ,the ,jews for many centuries did not constitute a state because they had no territory of their own4 ,now they are once more in the way of obtaining a national homeland4 ,population is also essential4 ,the territory around the ,south ,pole does not form a state because it is uninhabited4 ,and a political organization1 a government1 is the third essential4 ,the territory which is now the ,united ,states did not form a state before the first ,european settlers reached it1 for1 although it was inhabited1 the savages who roamed over its vast expanses were not politically organized4 ,they had1 for the most part1 neither government nor laws4 ,persons1 territory1 and organization--these are the essential attributes of a state4 ,the ,government and why we obey it4--,by the government we mean the various officials and bodies by whom the people are ruled4 ,by the government the will of the state is carried out4 ,but why should people obey a government8 ,we obey the rules of voluntary organizations because we are free to join them or not2 but no individual is free to disobey the laws or to remain aloof from the control of his government4 ,by what right does the government take money from us in taxes1 call upon us for service in war1 compel us to adjust all our controversies in its courts1 and insist that we obey its laws8 ,sidenote3 ,the divine right doctrine4 ,two theories have been offered to justify the government's right to the obedience of the people4 ,the first is known as the theory of divine right4 ,according to this idea all governmental authority was originally bestowed upon the rulers by the ,creator4 ,and having received their authority from ,god1 the rulers were not responsible to the people4 ,this theory of governmental authority is very old1 as old as the ,ten ,commandments and probably older4 ,it was argued that kings ruled and princes governed by divine right because 8the powers that be are ordained of ,god04 ,this doctrine of the divine right of rulers was maintained throughout the mediaeval period and was put forth by the ,stuart kings of ,england as a justification of their despotic rule4#ag ,sidenote3 ,the 8consent of the governed04 ,the other theory1 which is that government has its foundation in the 8consent of the governed01 appeared in the writings of the ,english philosopher1 ,john ,locke1 during the seventeenth century and was incorporated into the ,declaration of ,independence about one hundred years later4 ,when the ,stuart dynasty was finally expelled from the throne of ,england1 the new sovereigns were declared to be rulers 8according to the desire and resolution of parliament01 in other words by the consent of the ,english people through their representatives4 ,since the beginning of the nineteenth century the theory that government rests on the consent of the governed has been accepted in all democratic countries4 ,sidenote3 ,what the consent of the governed implies4 ,now if we hold this doctrine to be sound1 as most men do today1 it follows that when people establish a government by their own consent1 they are under obligation to submit to its authority4 ,every right imposes a duty4 ,the right to frame a constitution and to adopt it as the basis of a new government carries the duty of supporting the constitution and upholding the hands of those who exercise authority under it4 ,the people who claim the right to make the laws must be ready to obey these laws when they are made4 ,when men and women by their own consent establish a government they do this because they expect to obtain some advantages such as security1 peace1 and order4 ,in return for these advantages they must expect to yield obedience1 pay taxes1 adjust their differences in the courts1 and do whatever else a government reasonably requires4 ,sidenote3 ,the social contract theory4 ,how ,government ,began4--,but admitting that government rests on the consent of the governed1 how was this consent obtained1 and how did the first government come into existence8 ,here1 again1 there are two theories as to what happened4 ,the first is that the state and government originated in a 8social contract04 ,primitive men1 living in a condition of political chaos1 made a general covenant1 by which they created a sovereign power to rule them4 ,this idea is as old as the days of ,plato1 but it did not take strong hold on the minds of men until a few centuries ago4 ,it was put forward by ,thomas ,hobbes in ,england to defend absolutism1 his argument being that to dethrone a king was to break the contract upon which the state had been founded4 ,on the other hand it was used by ,john ,locke to prove that the people of ,england had a right to dethrone a monarch if the monarch failed to abide by the terms of the social contract1 and those who compare certain passages in ,locke's book with the ,declaration of ,independence will see that the framers of that daring document were much influenced by his assertions4 ,even in ,america the contract theory took a strong hold4 ,the ,mayflower pilgrims1 lying off the rock-bound shores of ,new ,england1 drew up and signed a formal document wherein they solemnly covenanted and combined themselves into a 8civil body politic04 ,the doctrine found frequent expression in the writings of ,jefferson and ,madison2 but while it afforded an excellent basis for arguments in defence of revolutions against despotism the theory that the state had its origin in a social contract has long since been abandoned as unhistorical4 ,it assumes that primitive men were free and equal individuals subject to no paternal authority1 whereas1 as a matter of history1 freedom and equality among men arose only after states had been formed4 ,sidenote3 ,the theory of political evolution4 ,the true explanation of how government began is to be found by applying to the study of political science the methods of biology4 ,we do not know exactly where or when the first government came into existence1 but we do know that all political institutions are the result of a gradual evolution or development4 ,we have already seen that the earliest social unit is the family--a small group of individuals bound together by intimate ties4 ,but the family was but one unit in a larger group1 the clan1 made up of families assumed to be descended from a common ancestor4 ,the various clans united to form the tribe which1 as an organization1 rested upon a common race1 language1 and religion4 ,these tribes1 although at first roving bodies1 wandering from place to place1 at length acquired some definite territory and settled permanently there4 ,the beginnings of a state were then at hand and with the state1 or even before it1 came government4 ,in all probability that is the process through which the earliest governments came into being1--a process extending through many generations4 ,the tribal chiefs became kings and passed on the kingship to their sons4 ,as time went on the kings gathered greater power until despotism became the customary form of government in most countries of the world4 ,it was not until near the end of the eighteenth century that the world began to shake off the despotic authority of kings and to establish governments based upon the consent of the people4 ,sidenote3 ,aristotle's classification4 ,the ,classification of ,governments4--,during this long evolution from the early tribal organizations down to the complex governments of the present day many forms of rule have been tried in various countries4 ,even in ancient ,greece the philosopher ,aristotle was able to divide states into six classes1 three of which he called normal types and three perverted4 ,where political power was lodged in the hands of a single individual1 he called the state a monarchy2 where it was lodged with a few men he called it an aristocracy2 and where it was vested in many hands he called it a democracy4 ,each of these normal types had its corresponding perversion or travesty4 ,a perverted monarchy he termed despotism2 a perverted aristocracy he termed oligarchy2 and a perverted democracy he called a demagogism or state ruled by mob methods4 ,this method of classifying states is of little value today and would be in many ways misleading4 ,sidenote3 ,monarchies and republics4 ,modern states are more commonly classed as monarchies and republics4 ,the former includes those in which the chief executive officer of the state--be he king1 emperor1 or other potentate--holds his position by hereditary right2 the latter includes those in which he is selected in some other way4 ,but even this classification is not very enlightening4 ,it does not tell us anything definite about the degree of actual control which the people of a state exercise over their government4 ,in some monarchies like ,great ,britain the power of the people1 exercised through their representatives1 is very great2 in some republics1 in ,china for example1 this power is very slight4 ,the term republic is nowadays far from being synonymous with democracy2 nor is the term monarchy incompatible with it4 ,various so-termed republics of ,central and ,south ,america have been in fact little more than military despotisms4 ,sidenote3 ,national and federal states4 ,another classification1 much more useful1 is that which separates national from federal states4 ,by the former term we mean a unified state with a single government which reaches down directly to the citizen4 ,great ,britain is a national state with a monarchical form of government2 ,france is also a national state with a republican form of government4 ,a federal state1 on the other hand1 is an agglomeration of smaller states1 each of which retains its own government but with a central government possessing certain powers over them all4 ,the ,german empire1 a few years ago1 was an example of a federal state under a monarchical form of government1 while the ,united ,states affords an illustration of federalism with republican institutions4 ,this classification is worth while1 for it tells us something tangible about the states so classified4 ,when we say that a state is of the federal type we imply that it has two spheres of government within it2 that is has a written constitution defining these spheres2 that the upper house of its parliament or legislature in some way represents the component units of the federation and that it has1 in all probability1 some powerful arbiter such as a supreme court to decide conflicts of authority between the nation and its component parts4 ,practically all federal states1 at any rate1 have these political characteristics4 ,one cannot imagine a successful federal state without a written constitution1 without division of political powers1 without some existing authority to decide between the respective claims of the whole and its parts4 ,sidenote3 ,true and false democracies4 ,but the most important thing that a student of government ought to know about any state is whether it merely possesses the forms of democracy or whether the people in fact control the government4 ,nearly all present-day states have the external forms of democracy1 that is to say1 they have representative legislatures or parliaments which bulk large in the general scheme of government4 ,but as to the actualities of democracy1 the extent to which these representative bodies really direct and control the affairs of state1 there is a considerable difference among the nations4 ,a classification of states from this point of view can be made only after a careful study of their actual governments4 ,it is not the form of government which makes a democracy1 but the way in which popular control of public affairs is actually secured and sustained4 ,sidenote3 ,the spread of democracy4 ,is ,democracy the ,best ,form of ,government8--,during the past few years democracy has been rapidly gaining ground4 ,the governments of ,germany1 ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,poland1 and other countries have been reconstructed in such way as to give them1 outwardly at any rate1 the rank of democratic states4 ,but in spite of this phenomenal progress1 which came on the heels of the ,world ,war1 it remains a fact that more than half the population of the world is still living under systems of government which the people do not control4 ,the world has not yet been made safe for democracy1 nor half of it4 ,this suggests the question whether democracy is the best form of government for all races and under all circumstances4 ,is it best for backward races1 for races only partly civilized8 ,is it the best system for people who have had very little political experience1 such as the ,egyptians1 the ,chinese1 and the ,filipinos8 ,are we quite certain1 in fact1 that it is the best form of government for fully civilized mankind8 ,most people have always felt sure that democracy is the nearest approach to an ideal form of government1 but if you ask their reasons for this belief1 you will frequently find that they have never thought of any reasons4 ,democracy has been and is being severely criticized by various writers who declare that it merely places political power in the hands of the ignorant and unthinking masses1 that it leads to wastefulness1 extravagance1 and corruption1 that it fosters incompetence in public office1 and that it results in woeful misgovernment4#ah ,now it is quite true that democracy does all this in some cases1 but however grave the indictment may be1 the friends of democracy can always answer3 8,what better alternative do you offer80 ,the great ,italian statesman1 ,cavour1 once remarked that1 whatever faults it might have1 a legislative chamber was better than a king's antechamber4 ,the justification of democracy is that it ensures1 not necessarily the best government1 or even good government2 but the sort of government the people earn for themselves4 ,a stream does not rise higher than its source4 ,nor can a representative government reach any higher level than that on which the people maintain it4 ,it will reflect the intelligence1 honesty1 and patriotism of the governed4 ,that is one reason why we should not apply to backward races the same principles of government which we apply to more civilized people4 ,democracy is the best form of government for those who are able to govern themselves1 but this does not include all the people of the earth by any means4 ,sidenote3 ,how a government fulfils its purpose4 ,the ,purpose of ,government4--,having seen how governments originated1 what forms they have assumed1 and why they ought to be obeyed1 it may be well to ask ourselves3 ,what is the purpose of government8 ,what ends does it serve8 ,the purpose of government is to promote the interests of each by promoting the interests of all4 ,this end it seeks to attain in various ways4 ,it protects the whole body of its people against external aggression1 against foreign invasion4 ,it also in this connection maintains the rights and liberties of its citizens against wrongful interference on the part of foreign states or citizens4 ,it is for this purpose that armies and navies are maintained4 ,the government safeguards its own citizens from injustice at the hands of one another4 ,this it does by laws which define the relations of individuals to one another1 and of one group of individuals to other groups4 ,these laws prescribe the relations of husband and wife1 of parent and child1 of landlord and tenant1 of employer and employee1 of office-holder and citizen--they define and regulate every person's rights and duties towards others4 ,in order that we may exercise our rights and perform our duties we must first know what they are4 ,the state1 through its laws1 tells us4 ,through its courts1 moreover1 it applies such pressure upon reluctant individuals as may be necessary to make these rights and duties real4 ,in a word1 government exists to enforce rights and to secure liberty4 ,sidenote3 ,relation of government to individual rights4 ,were every individual immune from the jurisdiction of any superior authority1 and free to do as he pleased1 he would have to accord every other individual the same immunity and the same freedom4 ,he would then have no rights that anyone else would be bound to respect4 ,he would have no liberty that others could not1 by force1 take away from him4 ,he would have no security against violence to his person or property4 ,the strength of his own strong arm would be his only protection4 ,what a condition of chaos1 injustice1 bloodshed1 and anarchy that would be6 ,sidenote3 ,the constructive work of government4 ,not all the government's work1 however1 takes the form of protection and regulation4 ,its functions are constructive as well4 ,through its various departments it actively promotes the general interest and thereby the interests of each citizen4 ,it not only protects the public health by regulations and restrictions2 it fosters and promotes things that help to raise the general standards of health among the people4 ,it does not merely make rules to prevent ships from colliding with one another2 it sets out buoys and beacons1 builds lighthouses1 and maintains life-saving stations4 ,it does not merely protect agriculture by regulations to prevent the spread of noxious weeds and pests2 it actively assists the improvement of agriculture by means of experiment stations and the distribution of educational literature4 ,the government1 indeed1 is the greatest of all the agencies through which society undertakes its tasks of using the resources of nature to the best advantage1 eliminating friction and waste1 adjusting the conflicting claims of individuals1 and giving to each and all an equal opportunity4 ,sidenote3 ,the citizen's obligations to his government4 ,from all this it ought to be apparent that the state and its government are the agencies through which the individual obtains rights1 protection1 assistance1 and liberty4 ,but neither rights nor liberty can be achieved without incurring an obligation in return4 ,to the state1 which secures us rights and liberties1 we owe the duty of patriotism4 ,patriotism is not a mere sentiment4 ,it is a concrete expression1 by thought1 word1 and act1 of the citizen's respect for the state to which he belongs4 ,it should be based upon recognition of the fact that without the security1 the justice1 and the freedom which the state provides1 life would not be worth living4 ,patriotism is a mixture of pride1 gratitude1 and faith1--pride in the great community to which a man belongs1 gratitude for what it is doing1 and faith in what it may do for posterity4 ,sidenote3 ,the limits of governmental action4 ,how ,far should ,governments ,go8--,one of the live questions of the present day concerns the extent to which the government ought to go in trying to fulfil these various purposes4 ,should it merely make laws1 coin money1 establish post offices1 maintain an army1 or should it actively engage in such activities as operating the railroads1 the coal mines1 and even the factories of the country8 ,on the one hand there are those who take an individualistic or laissez-faire attitude towards governmental policy and maintain that the government should interfere as little as possible with the daily life of the people4 ,it should confine itself1 the individualist claims1 to political matters purely1 leaving economic affairs entirely alone4 ,at the other extreme are the socialists1 who believe that the government ought to step in and directly control all important agencies of production4 ,it should own all the land1 the public utilities such as railroads and telegraph lines1 the mines1 and all the agencies of production 7pp4 #dha-dhh74 ,both individualism and socialism represent extremes2 most men take a midway stand as regards the proper functions of government4 ,the greatest good of the greatest number among the people cannot be secured unless the government interferes to some extent with the free play of economic forces4 ,it must prevent gross injustice wherever gross injustice appears4 ,no government fulfils its highest aim unless it becomes an ever-active force in making our common life more human and more fruitful in the good will of class toward class and of man toward man4 ,on the other hand it must take care not to invade the field of private enterprise so far as to take upon itself greater burdens than can be properly carried4 ,too much government is as bad as too little4 ,in a democracy1 where public officials are chosen by popular vote1 often with little reference to their personal ability1 there are obvious limits to what a government can do and do well4 ,the individualist starts with the assumption that governments are always inefficient when they meddle in affairs of everyday life4 ,the socialist1 on the other hand1 assumes that governments can always secure better results than private enterprise in any field of economic activity4 ,the truth1 as usual1 lies between the extremes4 ,to fix a rigid line between the two sets of functions1 as one would draw the boundary of two countries on a map1 is impossible4 ,to attempt this would be to forget that civilization is ever moving on1 bringing new social needs in its train4 ,every proposal to extend the functions of government must be determined on its own merits and not upon the basis of its conformance to any rule4 ,sidenote3 ,government as a science4 ,the ,world a ,great ,laboratory for ,experiments in ,government4--,everywhere throughout the world the process of experiment in forms of government is going on1 twenty-four hours a day1 in ceaseless round4 ,and it has been going on for more than two thousand years4 ,every experiment in political organization that the human mind can suggest has had1 or is having1 its trial somewhere4 ,during the past few years we have seen earth's proud empires pass away and new republics rise in their stead1 just as two thousand years ago the great ,roman republic collapsed and an empire took its place4 ,the astronomer who scans the heavens with his telescope commands no such laboratory of endless experiment and sees no such continuous panorama of change as the student who watches with naked eye the political activities of his fellow-men4 ,that is what makes the study of government1 when carefully pursued1 the most interesting and most instructive of all studies4 8,on earth01 as the poet ,pope has said1 8there is nothing great but man04 ,and it is in his organized activities that man shows himself at his best4 ,general ,references ,,james ,,bryce1 ,modern ,democracies1 especially ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bd-ej2 ,,ii1 pp4 #cce-faj2 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,the ,state1 pp4 #a-fh2 ,j4 ,q4 ,,dealy1 ,the ,state and ,government1 pp4 #aai-aha2 ,j4 ,w4 ,,garner1 ,introduction to ,political ,science1 pp4 #hf-bjd2 ,,stephen ,,leacock1 ,elements of ,political ,science1 pp4 #c-ea2 #ada-aec2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government4 7,see under ,state ,government1 ,social ,compact ,theory1 ,separation of ,powers1 etc474 ,group ,problems #a4 ,to what extent should the government engage in business8 ,the original functions of government4 ,growth of governmental activities4 ,extent of governmental enterprises in ,european countries4 ,government enterprises in ,america4 ,effects of government enterprises on private initiative4 ,effects on the government itself4 ,relation of government activities to the maintenance of democracy4 ,conclusions4 ,references3 ,j4 ,w4 ,,garner1 ,introduction to ,political ,science1 pp4 #bgc-caj2 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,the ,state1 pp4 #da-eg2 ,,stephen ,,leacock1 ,elements of ,political ,science1 pp4 #chf-dji2 ,j4 ,g4 ,,brooks1 ,the ,social ,unrest1 pp4 #df-fg4 #b4 ,the faults of democratic government4 ,references ,e4 ,l4 ,,godkin1 ,the ,unforeseen ,tendencies of ,democracy1 pp4 #if-add2 ,,emile ,,faguet1 ,the ,cult of ,incompetence1 pp4 #ab-cf2 ,a4 ,m4 ,,kales1 ,unpopular ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ba-ij2 ,,alleyne ,,ireland1 ,democracy and the ,human ,equation1 pp4 #hj-aah2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,cruikshank1 ,popular ,misgovernment in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #a-bg4 #c4 ,the merits of democratic government4 ,references3 ,c4 ,w4 ,,eliot1 ,american ,contributions to ,civilization1 pp4 #a-ajb2 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,modern ,democracies1 especially1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ebg-faj2 ,j4 ,q4 ,,dealey1 ,the ,state and ,government1 pp4 #cch-cec4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,what end does the state serve8 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,the ,state1 pp4 #eh-fh4 #b4 ,the stages in the development of government4 ,j4 ,q4 ,,dealey1 ,the ,state and ,government1 pp4 #bd-de4 #c4 ,the divine right of kings4 ,r4 ,g4 ,,gettell1 ,readings in ,political ,science1 pp4 #aah-abj2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fje4 #d4 ,the ,mayflower compact4 ,,william ,,macdonald1 ,documentary ,source ,book of ,american ,history1 p4 #ai2 ,,edward ,,channing1 ,history of the ,united ,states1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cjh-caj4 #e4 ,does federalism mean weak government8 ,a4 ,v4 ,,dicey1 ,the ,law of the ,constitution1 pp4 #afb-agb2 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ccd-cda4 #f4 ,the system of checks and balances4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dg-eb2 ,the ,federalist1 ,no4 #dg4 #g4 ,the meaning of self-government4 ,p4 ,l4 ,,kaye1 ,readings in ,civil ,government1 pp4 #ae-ba4 #h4 ,the relation of government to economic life4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,orth1 ,readings in the ,relation of ,government to ,property and ,industry1 pp4 #be-ch4 #i4 ,the first principles of democracy4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,,joseph ,,schafer1 ,democracy in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #dh-ff4 #aj4 ,jeffersonian and ,jacksonian democracy4 ,a4 ,c4 ,,mclaughlin1 ,steps in the ,development of ,american ,democracy1 pp4 #gh-aaf4 #aa4 ,the outlook for democracy in ,america4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #dch-ddh4 #ab4 ,the economic functions of government4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,economics1 pp4 #dgh-dib4 ,questions #a4 ,what is the difference between a state and society8 ,is ,india a state8 ,are the ,esquimos a state8 ,are pirates citizens or subjects of a state8 ,did the ,mayflower ,pilgrims constitute a state before they touched land8 #b4 ,has the doctrine of evolution affected our ideas concerning the origin of government8 ,are there any primitive types of government in the world today8 #c4 ,give some examples of the 8constructive work of government0 besides those mentioned in the text4 #d4 ,why are ancient classifications of government practically useless today8 ,when you say that the ,united ,states is a federal democratic republic what ideas do you intend to convey in each of the three italicized words8 #e4 ,do you believe that the plan of government now existing in the ,united ,states would be suitable for 7a7 the ,british ,empire2 7b7 ,china2 7c7 ,switzerland2 7d7 ,canada8 ,tell why or why not in each case4 #f4 ,make up lists of the functions which properly belong to national1 state1 and local governments respectively4 ,give your reasons for placing such things as 8education01 8fire-protection01 8public health01 8criminal law01 8conservation of natural resources01 and 8regulation of commerce0 in one or the other list4 #g4 ,james ,madison once said that the concentration of legislative1 executive1 and judicial powers in the same hands would be 8the very definition of tyranny04 ,what did he mean8 ,was he right8 ,does the same danger exist today8 #h4 ,arrange the mandatory functions of government in what you believe to be their order of importance and give reasons for your arrangement4 #i4 ,can you name any characteristics of ,american government other than those given in the text8 ,do the following things distinguish ,american government from other governments3 woman suffrage1 an elective president1 the absence of an hereditary nobility1 two-chambered legislatures1 a supreme court8 #aj4 ,in what ways may direct government be better than representative government and in what respects not so good8 7,consider such general problems as ensuring responsiveness to the will of the people1 deliberation1 the absence of corruption1 educational value1 and expense47 #aa4 ,what did ,president ,wilson mean when he said that the world must be made 8safe for democracy08 ,can the world be safe for democracy while great and powerful monarchies remain8 ,what changes in addition to the dethronement of the ,kaiser did ,americans consider essential in order to make ,germany a democracy8 #ab4 ,argue against the proposition that the study of government is the study of a science4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,written constitutions have been a hindrance rather than a help to the development of ,american democracy4 #b4 ,andrew ,jackson was more of a democrat than ,thomas ,jefferson4 #c4 ,it is not right under any circumstances to subject a people to government without their own consent4 _/ ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,citizen1 ,,his ,,rights ,,and ,,duties ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain who are citizens1 what their rights and duties are1 and how training for citizenship is obtained4 ,sidenote3 ,the old systems of oppression4 ,what ,civil ,liberty ,means4--,one of the best ways to get an appreciation or what civil liberty means is to read any book which describes the life of the ,french people before the ,revolution4 ,in those days men could be arrested without any reason1 thrown into jail for months or years without trial1 and their property confiscated4 ,no one could travel from one part of the country to another without permission4 ,there was no freedom of religion1 no freedom of speech1 no freedom of the press4 ,nothing could be printed without a license from the authorities4 ,the farmer who brought his produce into town had to pay a toll on it4 ,the workman1 in order to follow his trade1 was required to join a guild and pay a fee4 ,the amount of taxes which every farmer or workman had to pay depended upon the will of the tax-collectors1 who made a profit out of the taxes4 ,soldiers were billeted or boarded in the homes of the people and the king paid nothing for it4 ,the masses of the people toiled hard in order that princes and noblemen might live in luxury4 ,that was the ,bourbon despotism of old ,france4 ,things are very different in ,france today under a republican form of government2 they are different everywhere throughout ,europe and ,america4 ,despotic rule has given way to government by the people1 and government by the people has brought civil liberty4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,liberty1 ,,fraternity1 ,,equality4 ,by ,edward ,simmons ,copyright by ,edward ,simmons4 ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,,liberty1 ,,fraternity1 ,,equality ,by ,edward ,simmons ,in the ,new ,york ,criminal ,court ,house4 ,this mural decoration is placed above the pen in which the prisoners are kept4 ,equality1 holding a globe and compasses1 displays a sternness and rigor which ,fraternity1 with a kindly grip of the arm1 is seeking to soften4 ,liberty1 to the right1 has broken the chain which held him down1 in spirit as well as in body4 ,these three words1 ,libert1 ,egalit1 ,fraternit1 formed the motto of the ,french ,revolution1 and they have been the slogan of militant democracy ever since4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,this civil liberty1 as it exists in the ,united ,states1 includes the following rights3 ,sidenote3 ,the general rights of citizens4 #a4 ,to travel freely from place to place on any lawful errand1 and everywhere to be accorded the equal protection of the laws4 ,the citizen of ,new ,york who goes to ,california is not an alien there4 ,he is entitled to all the privileges which belong to an ,american citizen4 #b4 ,to own property1 make contracts1 and engage in any lawful trade or labor4 #c4 ,to enjoy freedom of worship1 freedom of speech1 and freedom from arbitrary arrest4 #d4 ,to have a fair trial when accused of any crime2 to be protected in the enjoyment of life1 liberty1 and property1 and not to be deprived of them without due process of law4 ,civil ,rights were ,won by ,hard ,struggles4--,now these rights did not descend upon mankind like manna from the skies4 ,they were gained for the people by prolonged struggles extending over many centuries4 ,thousands of men1 at various times in history1 gave their lives in order that these rights might be established4 ,if you were writing a history of civil liberty among ,english-speaking people1 you would have to go back at least seven hundred years to the days of ,magna ,carta1 when ,king ,john of ,england was forced to surrender in that famous document many of the arbitrary powers which he had claimed the right to exercise4 ,there1 on the historic field of ,runnymede1 the sullen king promised among other things that no free man should be imprisoned or fined or outlawed or otherwise penalized 8save by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land04 ,the winning of the ,great ,charter was merely the first encounter in a long series of conflicts between the kings and the people of ,england4 ,step by step the people wrested from the ,crown the right to control taxation1 to punish royal officials for wrong-doing1 to be supreme in the making of laws1 and even to change their entire form of government should they so desire4 ,it was a long and grim struggle1 hard-fought all the way4 8,lance and torch and tumult1 steel and grey-goose wing ,wrenched it1 inch and ell and all1 slowly from the ,king04 ,sidenote3 ,the beginnings of civil liberty in ,america4 ,the men who founded the ,american colonies brought these rights across the ,atlantic with them4 ,in the new soil civic liberty grew and nourished even better than in the old1 so much so that ,englishmen at home soon became concerned over the strong emphasis which the colonies were placing upon the civil rights of the individual4 ,the gap between the colonies and ,great ,britain steadily widened in this respect1--leading in the end to the ,declaration of ,independence1 which asserted the civil rights of men to be natural and inalienable4 ,when independence had been established1 after a long and difficult struggle1 it is not surprising that the people of the thirteen states should decide to write the principles of civil liberty into their new state constitutions4 ,they took this means of demonstrating their conviction that the fundamental rights of the citizen ought to be inscribed in a solemn document beyond the power of legislatures to change4 ,it would be absurd to think1 however1 that civil liberty exists in the ,united ,states merely because a list of civil rights is written into the constitutions of the states and the nation4 ,in the last analysis civil rights depend for their maintenance and enforcement upon a realization of their value by the whole people and the willingness of every citizen to grant to others the rights which he claims for himself4 ,sidenote3 ,citizenship and allegiance4 ,who are ,citizens8--,the proudest boast of the ,roman1 in the days when ,rome dominated the world was ,civis ,romanus sum3 8,i am a ,roman citizen04 ,by this saying he meant that he was entitled to the protection of the most powerful country on earth4 ,cicero1 in one of his orations1 declared that these three words would protect any ,roman citizen no matter where he went1 even among savage tribes4 ,a ,roman citizen was one who owed allegiance to ,rome4 ,an ,american citizen is one who owes allegiance to the ,united ,states4#ai ,every man1 woman1 and child in every part of the world bears a relation to some government1 and this relation we call allegiance4 ,there is no such thing1 in the eyes of the law1 as 8a man without a country04 ,sidenote3 ,citizenship by birth4 ,this allegiance1 or citizenship1 is acquired in the great majority of cases by birth4 ,the constitution of the ,united ,states declares that 8all persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the ,united ,states and of the state wherein they reside04 ,this means that every child born in this country and subject to its jurisdiction is a citizen1 no matter who his parents happen to be4#bj ,sidenote3 ,citizenship by naturalization4 ,the other method of acquiring citizenship is by naturalization4 ,naturalization is the process by which an alien renounces his original allegiance and swears allegiance to another country4 ,all white aliens1 and those of ,african blood1 are entitled to become citizens of the ,united ,states by naturalization if they fulfil the legal requirements4 ,the chief requirement is that the alien who seeks to be naturalized must have been continuously a resident of the ,united ,states for at least five years4 ,he must also be able to read and write1 must have some knowledge of ,american institutions1 must be of good character1 and must not be a disbeliever in organized government4 ,sidenote3 ,the process in naturalization4 ,the process of individual naturalization involves two steps1 first a formal declaration of intent to become a citizen1 and1 second1 the taking of final letters of citizenship4 ,at least two years1 and not more than seven years1 must elapse between these two steps4 ,the work of granting citizenship by naturalization is in the hands of such regular courts as are designated by law for this purpose4 ,applications must be on prescribed forms2 evidence as to residence has to be presented2 and the oath of allegiance to the ,united ,states must be taken4 ,many thousands of aliens are admitted to citizenship in this way every year4#ba ,the naturalization of a husband also naturalizes his wife without any action on her part4 ,the naturalization of a father makes all his minor children citizens4 ,can a ,man have ,double ,citizenship8--,is it possible for anyone to be a citizen of two countries at once8 ,until recent years it was the practice of some ,european countries to claim that when their citizens emigrated and became naturalized elsewhere they still retained their original allegiance4 ,germany1 for example1 maintained that ,german emigrants to the ,united ,states did not lose their ,german citizenship by becoming naturalized here4 ,if they subsequently returned to ,germany1 even for a short time1 they were treated as ,german citizens1 required to serve in the army and to perform the other obligations of ,german citizenship4 ,this situation created a great deal of friction because the naturalized citizens were in the habit of calling upon the ,united ,states to protect them against their own original governments4 ,all this has now been straightened out by treaties between the ,united ,states and foreign governments in which the latter have conceded the right of emigrants to become naturalized in the ,united ,states and by so doing to renounce their original citizenship4 ,the ,united ,states1 for its part1 also concedes the right of any ,american citizen to become naturalized in a foreign country1 thereby renouncing his allegiance as an ,american citizen4 ,these treaties sometimes provide1 however1 that if an individual who has been naturalized in the ,united ,states goes back to his native country and remains there a certain length of time1 he shall be deemed to have given up his ,american citizenship4 ,sidenote3 ,the specific duties of citizens4 ,the ,obligations of ,citizenship4--,many people seem to think that citizenship involves only rights4 ,they rarely place much emphasis upon the duties which citizenship involves4 ,a government protects its citizens both at home and abroad2 it secures them all the benefits of civil liberty4 ,in return it lays on them the duty of obedience and the obligation of service4 ,it is the duty of every good citizen to know his country's history1 to honor its flag1 and to be true to its ideals4 ,this does not mean that he should despise or dislike people who are not of his own race or allegiance4 ,all men are brothers4 ,above all nations is humanity4 ,yet no one can be a friend of mankind unless he is1 first of all1 a friend of his own land4 ,it is also the duty of the citizen to know his country's laws and to obey them4 ,no one knows all the laws1 or needs to know them all1 for very few of them touch the daily life of any one individual4 ,he should know the laws in so far as he comes into contact with them4 ,the merchant must know the laws relating to business2 there is no need for him to learn the legal rules relating to the practice of medicine1 for example4 ,the physician1 on his part1 must know the law in so far as it relates to his own profession1 but does not need to inform himself concerning the laws which relate to the buying and selling of goods4 ,laws are made in the common interest and if ignorance of the law were permitted to be an excuse for disobedience1 the whole system of government would soon break down4 ,finally1 it is the duty of the citizen to serve his government when called upon4 ,this may take the form of military service in time of war1 or service in public office1 or service on a jury4 ,all these various forms of service may involve great personal sacrifice2 but a country worth having is a country worth serving1 and it is only through service on the part of its citizens that a free government can be maintained4 ,training for ,citizenship in the ,schools4--,training for citizenship begins in the home and in the schools4 ,the purpose of the school is not merely to impart information4 ,that is a small part of its work4 ,its main function is to afford the sort of mental and moral training that will enable every pupil to achieve the durable satisfactions of life1--to make a good living1 to be of high service to others1 and to leave the world a little better by reason of his having lived in it4 ,many of the best fruits of education are not found listed on the school program4 ,orderliness is one of them4 ,industry is another4 ,responsibility for doing daily tasks well is a third4 ,there are no special courses in these things4 ,they are part and parcel of the whole process of education4 ,no one should make the mistake of supposing that the schools train for citizenship through instruction in ,american history1 civics1 and economics alone4 ,the whole organization of the school1 its entire program of studies1 its assemblies1 its discipline1 its insistence on punctuality1 its organized athletics and other activities1--all these things afford lessons in co-operation1 responsibility1 service1 and government4 ,sidenote3 ,how the public schools teach democracy4 ,the public school is a miniature democracy4 ,it is free and open to all4 ,its pupils have equal privileges and equal responsibilities4 ,it makes no distinction of race1 creed1 or wealth4 ,the children of rich and poor parents sit side by side and are given the same opportunities4 ,every pupil who enrolls in a public school gets the same start and his advancement depends upon his own efforts4 ,in the course of time some will lead and others fall behind1 just as men and women do in the outside world4 ,wherever individuals1 young or old1 are gathered together1 some will forge ahead of the rest by virtue of their natural ability1 their superior industry1 or their qualities of leadership4 ,school experience should impress this great fact of democratic life upon every pupil's mind4 ,the pupil who imagines that he can be regularly behind in his studies1 neglectful of his opportunities1 unable to command the respect of his teachers or his fellows in the school1 and yet hope to become a leader in the outside world is making a grave mistake4 ,it is not thus that the leaders of men are trained4 ,the useful citizen does not become so in a day or a year4 ,he begins to develop his qualities while he is young4#bb ,training for ,citizenship on the ,playground4--,recreation and play1 when properly carried on1 afford not only exercise and amusement1 but education as well4 ,some useful lessons which cannot well be taught in the class-room are learned by participation in organized athletics4 ,everyone realizes1 for example1 that play in which there is no leadership1 no observance of rules1 and no system1 is a very poor sort of play4 ,it may give physical exercise in plenty1 yet it satisfies nobody4 ,anarchy on the playground is no more satisfying than anarchy in any other branch of human activity4 ,hence1 whenever a group of young men or young women go to the athletic field1 their first step is to organize into teams or sides4 ,each team has its captain whose directions are to be obeyed1 not because he is an autocrat1 but because the team cannot hope to win unless it is provided with leadership4 ,when play begins it is conducted according to rules which everyone is supposed to know and observe4 ,if the contest is important1 an umpire is selected to act as arbitrator on questions involving an infraction of the rules4 ,now all this is merely government on a small scale4 ,the element of leadership1 the team-play1 the rules1 the practice of obeying the umpire--these things should suggest to us that officials1 laws1 government1 and courts also make for the best interests of the individual in the great interplay of life4 ,sidenote3 ,the spirit that rules the playground4 ,what is it that secures co-operation1 obedience1 and good temper on the playground8 ,is it the fear of punishment8 ,no1 it is the same force which in organized society secures obedience to law and respect for the rights of others1 namely1 the influence of public opinion4 ,public opinion1 in other words an inherent sense of fair play among the players1 is what really rules the playground4 ,bullying or meanness in any form results in unpopularity4 ,the player who sulks1 who shirks his part in the game1 or who selfishly seeks his own way at all times is not preparing himself rightly to win the confidence and respect of his fellow-citizens in later life4 ,on the other hand the boy or girl who gains on the playground a reputation for fairness1 good temper1 and a readiness to act in harmony with others is developing those qualities of character which enable men and women to achieve success in any field of adult activity4 ,the ,duke of ,wellington once declared that the battle of ,waterloo was won on the playing fields of ,eton1--a famous boys' school in ,england4 ,what he meant was that this victory was won not by military skill alone1 but by those qualities of discipline and bull-dog tenacity which the officers of his army had developed on the school athletic fields in their boyhood days4 ,peace hath her victories not less renowned than war4 ,good citizens as well as good soldiers can be trained on the playgrounds of every community4#bc ,sidenote3 ,college education and citizenship4 ,training for ,citizenship in ,later ,life4--,civic education is not completed when one graduates from school4 ,a man's whole life is a process of education1 a process that is never finished until he dies4 ,so the work of self-improvement should not be interrupted at any stage4 ,if the pupil goes to college1 it will be found that there the same qualities of obedience1 industry1 and respect for the rights of others will determine whether he stands high or low in the estimation of his equals4 ,in the college as in the school1 everyone starts upon the same plane with equal opportunities4 ,the college also is an organization with officials in authority1 with rules1 and with a vigilant public opinion among its students4 ,compared with the school it rises a step nearer to the ways of the world1 giving its students greater latitude but also placing more responsibility upon them4 ,its organized athletics develop the same qualities as are encouraged upon the school playground2 its various other student activities help to make young men and women more versatile and broader in their interests4 ,colleges try to make scholars2 they also endeavor to develop habits of industry in their students and to impress upon them the duty of service to their fellow-men4 ,on the whole the colleges have succeeded in these things4 ,it is significant that the great majority of the nation's leaders1 in every branch of life1 are men and women who have had a college education4 ,not all high school graduates1 however1 go to college4 ,the majority go directly out into the world as wage earners or home makers4 ,they enter the ranks of our great economic society and seek to move onward to the top4 ,for the most part all must begin at the bottom1 or very near it4 ,a high school or college education does not relieve anyone from the necessity of starting on a low rung of the ladder in his chosen trade or profession4 ,neither the school nor the college can teach the actual process of earning a living4 ,this must be learned by direct contact with the affairs of the world4 ,but the school and the college can so prepare young citizens that they will climb faster by virtue of the mental training they have obtained and the habits of industry they have acquired4 ,sidenote3 ,public service is a duty of the citizen4 ,citizenship and ,service4--,to make one's own way successfully in the world is a laudable ambition1 but no one can be and remain a good citizen if he devotes his entire time and thought to his own self-advancement4 ,it is well to be diligent in business and faithful to the immediate duty in hand1 but no inspiring career has ever been built upon foundations of selfishness4 ,if everyone is engrossed in his own affairs1 there will be none to serve and aid the state4 ,on the other hand a very small amount of public service freely and cheerfully given by every citizen1 results in great benefits to the community which receives this service1 and to the individuals who give it as well4 ,in this sense1 as in all others1 it is more blessed to give than to receive4 ,sidenote3 ,how this service may be rendered4 ,the ways of service are manifold4 ,every community has its civic and welfare organizations whose aim is the general good4 ,they draw their members and their active workers from among those citizens who are public spirited4 ,boards of trade and chambers of commerce devote themselves to advancing the economic interests of the community4 ,municipal improvement leagues1 citizens' associations1 men's clubs1 and women's societies are to be found in every large town or city2 they have various aims but all are guided by the same general aspiration1 which is to better the environment in which the people live4 ,the opportunities for women have been greatly increased by giving them the same responsibilities as men in all public activities4 ,there are organizations for the care of the poor1 for visiting the sick1 and for the prevention of cruelty in all its forms4 ,all depend for the effectiveness of their work1 and even for their very existence1 upon the degree of interest given to them by public-spirited citizens4 ,there is no one so poor or so busy that he can give no money1 no time1 and no sympathy to any public cause4 ,the citizen who centers all his interest upon his own personal affairs is not only missing one of the durable satisfactions of life but is giving himself a schooling in selfishness4 ,he is not a good citizen in the proper sense of the term4 ,sidenote3 ,the value of experience in public office4 ,service in public office is the best training for good citizenship1 although not all men and women can have this form of civic education4 ,yet everyone has a right to aspire to it1 and ought to welcome the opportunity of such service if it comes4 ,it does not usually come unearned4 ,like most other opportunities1 this one knocks at the doors of those who have earned their right to it4 ,men and women who have displayed no evidence of public spirit are rarely called upon to let their names go on the ballot4 ,the first step to honorable public office is taken when one joins a civic or welfare organization and shows ability to work with and for others4 ,thus a man's acquaintance1 or a woman's acquaintance1 gradually broadens2 the confidence of others is gained2 and in time the hand of the public beckons to those who have demonstrated their spirit of service4 ,public office is a public trust4 ,the proffer of its opportunities to any man or woman is a high compliment4 ,election to public office is the highest honor a democratic community can bestow4 ,as a means of becoming well versed in public affairs and in the practical problems of government there is no training which surpasses it4 ,general ,references ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #gc-hj2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ga-hg2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,woodburn and ,t4 ,f4 ,,moran1 ,the ,citizen and the ,republic1 pp4 #a-ca2 ,s4 ,w4 ,,mccall1 ,the ,liberty of ,citizenship1 pp4 #a-ca2 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,the ,hindrances to ,good ,citizenship1 especially pp4 #dc-gd2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #hj-abi2 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldwin1 ,the ,relations of ,education to ,citizenship1 pp4 #bg-ed2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,taft1 ,four ,aspects of ,civic ,duty1 pp4 #c-cd4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,how aliens are naturalized4 ,the requirements4 ,who are excluded8 ,steps in naturalization procedure1 the papers1 witnesses1 oaths1 fees1 etc41 required4 ,the tests which applicants must take4 ,how aliens can best be encouraged to become naturalized4 ,what is being done to secure the naturalization of aliens in your own community8 ,references3 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dig-dih2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of ,american ,cities1 pp4 #ajg-aaa2 ,h4 ,m4 ,,beck1 ,aliens' ,text ,book on ,citizenship1 especially pp4 #i-bf2 ,,peter ,,roberts1 ,the ,problem of ,americanization1 pp4 #aji-abi2 ,u4 ,s4 ,,department ,,of ,,labor1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,naturalization1 ,syllabus of the ,naturalization ,law 7pamphlet74 #b4 ,education in its relations to good citizenship4 ,references3 ,,irving ,,king1 ,education for ,social ,efficiency1 pp4 #ij-agf2 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,the ,hindrances to ,good ,citizenship1 pp4 #cc-db2 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldwin1 ,the ,relations of ,education to ,citizenship1 pp4 #a-bf4 #c4 ,the civic organizations of your community4 ,one or more organizations1 such as ,chambers of ,commerce1 ,boards of ,trade1 ,citizens' ,associations1 ,men's ,clubs1 ,women's ,clubs1 ,civic ,leagues1 ,local ,improvement ,associations1 ,city ,clubs1 ,reform ,associations1 ,family ,welfare ,societies1 etc41 etc41 may be found in every large community4 ,their aims and activities may be studied in their annual reports and by personal interviews with their officers4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,first steps in civil liberty4 ,,james ,h4 ,,tufts1 ,our ,democracy1 pp4 #aja-aaf4 #b4 ,what are the 8privileges and immunities0 of citizens8 ,,arnold ,j4 ,,lien1 ,privileges and ,immunities of ,citizens of the ,united ,states1 especially pp4 #ca-fh4 #c4 ,expatriation4 ,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1 ,elements of ,international ,law1 pp4 #adc-aea2 ,w4 ,e4 ,,hale1 ,international ,law 7#dth ed471 pp4 #bci-bee4 #d4 ,freedom of speech and of the press4 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 pp4 #eg-eh2 ,t4 ,m4 ,,cooley1 ,constitutional ,limitations1 pp4 #eif-fch4 #e4 ,freedom of worship4 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gfc-gga2 ,c4 ,w4 ,,eliot1 ,american ,contributions to ,civilization1 pp4 #ah-ba4 #f4 ,the rights of the citizen against the government4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #hj-if4 #g4 ,the right to fair judicial process4 ,,emlin ,,mcclain1 ,constitutional ,law of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cae-ccb4 #h4 ,how the hindrances to good citizenship may be removed4 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldwin1 ,the ,relation of ,education to ,citizenship1 pp4 #bg-ed4 #i4 ,the playground as a place of education for citizenship4 ,,joseph ,,lee1 ,play in ,education1 pp4 #cfj-cia4 #aj4 ,how the business man can help his community4 ,,henry ,,bru,,re1 ,the ,new ,city ,government1 pp4 #chd-djj4 #aa4 ,how women can serve their community4 ,,mary ,r4 ,,beard1 ,woman's ,work in ,municipalities1 especially pp4 #cai-ccg4 #ab4 ,may the obstacles to good citizenship be overcome8 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,the ,hindrances to ,good ,citizenship1 pp4 #aje-acd4 #ac4 ,school government as a training for citizenship4 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education ,bulletin ,no4 #h 7#aiae71 pp4 #g-ca2 ,,irving ,,king1 ,education for ,social ,efficiency1 pp4 #aeh-agf4 ,questions #a4 ,what is the difference between the following3 citizens1 subjects1 nationals1 residents1 denizens1 aliens8 #b4 ,what is meant by the expression to 8swear allegiance08 ,to 8forswear allegiance08 ,repeat the oath of allegiance4 ,when is the oath taken 7a7 by aliens2 7b7 by citizens8 #c4 ,are the following ,american citizens by birth3 7a7 a boy born abroad1 of alien parentage1 whose parents came to the ,united ,states and were naturalized after he was over twenty-one years of age2 7b7 children of ,chinese parents1 born in the ,united ,states2 7c7 children of ,american parents1 born in the ,philippines2 7d7 children of ,porto ,rican parents1 born in ,europe since #aiag8 #d4 ,name four important civic rights4 ,arrange in each case a set of facts which would constitute a violation of a civic right4 #e4 ,the constitution provides that the people shall have the right to assemble peaceably4 ,would it be a violation of this right to require that a permit from the police must be had in order to hold any meeting in the streets or in the public parks8 #f4 ,discuss the extent to which the public school is a 8miniature democracy04 ,is it organized like a democratic government8 ,to what extent and under what circumstances can school pupils be entrusted with self-government or given a share in the maintenance of discipline8 #g4 ,to what extent can public opinion be relied upon to enforce the rules 7a7 in athletics2 7b7 in the class-rooms2 7c7 in business2 7d7 in government8 ,would laws be effective if there were no penalties but the censure of public opinion to enforce them8 ,if not1 why not8 #h4 ,what is the value of a high school or college education in training young men and women 7a7 to make a living2 7b7 to become leaders2 7c7 to help their fellow-citizens2 7d7 to hold public office8 ,towards which of these things does education contribute the most8 #i4 ,can any one be a good citizen without knowing how government is carried on8 ,without knowing ,american history8 ,without belonging to any social or civic organization8 ,without voting at elections8 ,without being at all interested in social or political questions8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,no one who is not a citizen should be permitted to become a voter4 #b4 ,the obligation of military service ought to be imposed upon aliens as well as upon citizens4 #c4 ,the teaching of civics should be made compulsory in all grammar and high schools4 ----- ,footnote #ac3 ,the monotony of labor1 however1 is to some extent a matter of temperament4 ,some workers find even routine tasks interesting because they are constantly trying to attain greater expertness at the particular job4 ,others find work of a very varied character to be monotonous4 ,footnote #ad3 ,there are two other forms of productive organization1 neither of them very common4 ,one is the co-operative association1 with or without capital stock2 the other is the organization of production under the direct management of the public authorities4 ,the organization of the postal service is an example4 ,footnote #ae3 ,the ,lockwood ,committee1 which made its investigations during #aibj in ,new ,york1 found that excessive costs of building construction were due in considerable measure to the existence of artificial monopolies among producers of building materials4 ,footnote #af3 ,it has been suggested that instead of giving inventors the exclusive right to make and sell their appliances1 this right should be given to everybody with a provision that a fixed rate of royalty should be paid to the inventor4 ,this would afford an incentive to the inventor while preventing the creation of legal monopolies4 ,footnote #ag3 ,the doctrine of the divine right of rulers was based upon certain ,biblical texts1 particularly ,romans xiii1 #a-g1 and was put forth in the ,middle ,ages to support the secular rulers against the ,church4 ,the ,bourbon kings of ,france1 especially ,louis ,,xiv1 asserted it1 as well as the ,stuart kings of ,england4 ,the ,house of ,hohenzollern in ,germany maintained the doctrine1 and the former ,kaiser on more than one occasion alluded to himself as a ruler by divine right4 ,those who are interested in pursuing this topic further will find a great deal about it in ,j4 ,n4 ,figgis1 ,the ,divine ,right of ,kings 7,london1 #ahif7 and in ,the ,political ,writings of ,james ,i 7ed4 ,c4 ,h4 ,mc,ilwain1 ,cambridge1 #aiae74 ,footnote #ah3 ,for example1 ,e4 ,l4 ,godkin1 ,unforeseen ,tendencies of ,democracy 7,n4 ,y41 #ahih71 p4 #df2 ,emile ,faguet1 ,the ,cult of ,incompetence 7,n4 ,y41 #aiaa71 pp4 #ce-cf2 ,a4 ,m4 ,kales1 ,unpopular ,government in the ,united ,states 7,chicago1 #aiad72 ,a4 ,b4 ,cruikshank1 ,popular ,misgovernment in the ,united ,states 7,n4 ,y41 #aibj71 and ,alleyne ,ireland1 ,democracy and the ,human ,equation 7,n4 ,y41 #aiba71 pp4 #ge-gi4 ,footnote #ai3 ,corporations1 as well as individuals1 are citizens in the eyes of the law4 ,the ,standard ,oil ,company of ,new ,jersey is a citizen of ,new ,jersey and as such is entitled to all the 8privileges and immunities of citizens of the ,united ,states04 ,footnote #bj3 ,some children although born in the ,united ,states are not subject to ,american jurisdiction4 ,the children of a foreign ambassador1 serving in the ,united ,states1 are for this reason not citizens1 even though born here4 ,children born on board a foreign warship in an ,american harbor are not deemed to be 8subject to the jurisdiction0 of the ,united ,states4 ,but with a few unimportant exceptions of this sort all persons born in the ,united ,states are born within its jurisdiction1 and hence are citizens by birth4 ,one may be an ,american citizen by birth1 moreover1 without having been born in the ,united ,states4 ,the children of ,american parents1 even though born outside the territory of the ,united ,states1 have the right to claim this citizenship4 ,children of ,american parents1 born on the high seas1 or on ,american war vessels in foreign ports1 or children of ,american ambassadors born abroad1 are citizens of the ,united ,states by virtue of their parentage4 ,children of ,american parents1 born on foreign soil1 have the right to choose between ,american citizenship and citizenship of the country in which they were born4 ,footnote #ba3 ,on rather rare occasions a large body of people1 not citizens by birth1 have become citizens of the ,united ,states by what is called collective naturalization4 ,when ,louisiana 7#ahjc71 ,florida 7#ahai7 and ,alaska 7#ahfg7 were acquired1 for example1 the treaties which provided for their acquisition stipulated that all inhabitants of these territories should be admitted to ,american citizenship without becoming individually naturalized4 ,on the other hand1 when ,porto ,rico and the ,philippine ,islands were ceded to us by ,spain in #ahih there was no such provision4 ,in the case of the ,porto ,ricans1 citizenship was conferred by an act of ,congress in #aiag2 in the case of the ,filipinos the full status of ,american citizenship has not yet been granted4 ,the ,filipinos are called 8nationals0 of the ,united ,states1 which means that they have the protection of the federal government1 but are not entitled to all the other privileges and immunities of citizenship as provided in the constitution4 ,collective naturalization may thus be provided for by treaty or granted by act of ,congress4 ,footnote #bb3 ,the leisure hours of pupils may also be utilized to secure excellent lessons in good citizenship4 ,unfortunately they are not always so used4 ,many of the recreations which are now popular with the young people of the ,united ,states afford neither physical exercise nor mental inspiration1 neither do they conduce to the strengthening of character4 ,footnote #bc3 ,attention should be called to the inducement which in some schools is given to broad civic training by awarding to pupils a rank which is based upon proficiency in all their activities1 scholarship1 athletics1 debating1 good influence upon others1 qualities of leadership1 and so on4 ,student self-government may also be used in schools to afford training in the fundamentals of good citizenship4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,popular ,,control ,,of ,,government ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain how the people1 both directly and indirectly1 control all branches of government in the ,united ,states4 ,,public ,,opinion ,,and ,,representative ,,government ,sidenote3 ,the ultimate sovereignty of the people4 ,how the ,people ,rule4--,in free governments the will of the people prevails in the decision of all important matters4 ,this does not mean1 of course1 that the people decide every question directly1 but merely that when a substantial majority of them have reached a decision upon any point their will prevails through one channel or another4 ,the wishes of the ,american people have at times been thwarted by their government2 but in the long run1 when the people have made up their minds1 their will has brushed aside every obstacle and has become the supreme law of the land4 ,this popular control of ,american government is exerted in four ways1 namely1 by the pressure of public opinion upon all officials1 by the periodic election of representatives1 by direct law-making through the initiative and referendum1 and by the action of the people in amending their state constitutions4 ,the pressure of public opinion is continuous1 and it is exerted in various ways4 ,the government cannot proceed very far in defiance of it4 ,the election of representatives1 on the other hand1 takes place at stated intervals1 and in the period between elections the people do not have direct control over those whom they elect4 ,but where provision for the initiative and referendum exists1 the people may frame and enact laws without the intervention of their representatives and thus may exercise direct control4 ,finally1 the ultimate agency of popular sovereignty is the power of the people to amend their constitutions4 ,so far as the state constitutions are concerned they accept or reject proposed changes by their own votes2 in the case of the national constitution they act through their representatives in ,congress and in the state legislatures4 ,by these four methods of control we maintain what is known as the sovereignty of the people4 ,sidenote3 ,what is public opinion8 ,popular ,rule through ,public ,opinion4--,we hear a good deal nowadays about public opinion4 ,what is it8 ,how is it ascertained8 ,how does it make itself felt8 ,in general1 public opinion is the term which we apply to the predominating sentiment among the people4 ,public opinion is the sum-total of opinions held by individuals4 ,it is not merely the snap-judgment of the majority1 however1 because intensity of belief is a factor which counts in determining it4 ,public opinion is a composite of numbers and intensity4 ,a majority of the people may hold a certain belief upon any public question2 but if they hold it lightly1 without attaching much importance to it1 we do not speak of their sentiment as public opinion4 ,it is only when sentiment attains the earnestness of conviction that the term public opinion can be properly applied to it4 ,sidenote3 ,the channels through which it makes itself felt4 ,public opinion1 in this sense1 is continually exerting pressure upon all branches of government in the ,united ,states4 ,it finds expression through the editorial columns of newspapers1 through resolutions adopted by societies and organizations1 through letters from voters to their representatives in ,congress and in the legislatures1 and through the conversation of people wherever they are gathered together4 ,the representatives of the people are ever on the alert to discern the drift of public opinion4#bd ,they desire to keep in touch with it4 ,a capable representative always keeps his hand upon the public pulse4 ,when public opinion undergoes a change1 the attitude of the government swings with it1 slowly perhaps1 but inevitably4 ,public opinion is not easy to ascertain exactly1 for it cannot be measured by any process of arithmetic4 ,some men are better at gauging it than others4 ,one of the attributes of a successful politician is his ability to estimate public opinion accurately4 ,when we say1 therefore1 that we have 8government by public opinion01 we mean that those who are in authority are influenced and guided by it4 ,sidenote3 ,government by representatives4 ,popular ,rule through ,representatives4--,although public opinion exerts a guiding influence upon the course of government1 the actual work of making the laws and putting them into operation must be performed1 for the most part1 by individuals selected for this purpose1 that is by elective or appointive officers4 ,we say 8elective or appointive0 because these are the two ways in which officers of government may be chosen2 they may be elected by popular vote1 or they may be appointed by some authority which1 in turn1 has been elected by the people4 ,the members of all legislative bodies in the ,united ,states 7,congress1 the state legislatures1 city and town councils7 are directly elected by the people4 ,the chief executive officers in the nation1 state1 and city 7,president1 governors1 and mayors7 are chosen in the same way4#be ,in many states it is also the custom to choose some other executive officers1 such as the attorney-general1 state auditors1 superintendent of education1 as well as the judges and prosecuting attorneys by direct popular election4 ,subordinate officers of administration1 on the other hand1 are for the most part appointed4 ,in the national government all officials of administration subordinate to the ,president are appointed by him1 likewise all judges and court officers4 ,in the state and local governments1 some subordinate officers are elected but most of them are appointed by the governor1 the county commissioners1 or the mayor1 as the case may be4 ,sidenote3 ,when we should elect and when appoint4 ,election or ,appointment1 ,which is ,better8--,we often encounter the question3 ,which is the better plan of securing good men in public office--to elect them or to have them appointed8 ,the answer to this question depends upon what we expect the officials to do4 ,if the function of the official is to represent the people in deciding questions of general policy as in the case of a congressman1 a state legislator1 or a municipal councilman1 the people ought to choose him4 ,it is the right and the duty of the people to choose their own representatives4 ,if they did not do so1 we should not have 8representative0 government4 ,but if the function of the official is not to decide questions of general policy but to do work which requires skill and experience1 it is better to make the office appointive4 ,the rule1 in brief1 may be stated as follows3 ,when you want representation1 elect2 when you want skill or experience1 appoint4 ,some difficulty arises1 however1 in the case of officials who are expected both to represent the people and to perform functions which require expertness4 ,take1 for example1 the state treasurer or the state auditor4 ,these officials represent the financial interests of the people2 they are also called upon to perform functions which require skill and experience4 ,officials in this dual class are in some states elected2 in others they are appointed by the governor4 ,whether we ought to use one method or the other depends upon where we place the emphasis--upon representation or upon administrative efficiency4 ,account should also be taken of the fact that if too many officials are elected the ballot will be long and complicated4 ,in that case some poorly-qualified candidates are likely to be chosen because voters will not go through a long list carefully 7see p4 #acb74 ,sidenote3 ,should a representative obey his own conscience or the will of the voters8 ,the ,function of a ,representative4--,the function of a representative1 as the term implies1 is to represent4 ,but how is he to be guided in the performance of this function8 ,is it the duty of a representative in ,congress or in a state legislature to reflect the public opinion of his district whether he personally agrees with it or not8 ,should he obey the dictates of his own conscience and follow his own view of what the public welfare demands1 or should he disregard these things and consider only the opinions of those voters who elected him8 ,let us suppose1 for example1 that a congressman personally believes in free trade4 ,he is absolutely convinced1 let us assume1 that this is the only right policy4 ,but he also knows1 let us say1 that the voters of his district are overwhelmingly in favor of high protective duties because they believe that wages will be higher if foreign goods are shut out4 ,what is the duty of this congressman when called upon to vote for or against a protective tariff8 ,which should control--his own conviction or the opinions of those who elected him as their representative8 ,sidenote3 ,edmund ,burke's views4 ,many years ago the eminent ,irish orator and statesman1 ,edmund ,burke1 gave his opinion on this matter in a speech to the voters of ,bristol1 whom he represented in the ,british ,house of ,commons4 ,a representative1 according to ,burke1 ought to give due weight to the opinions of those who elected him1 but he ought not to sacrifice his own best judgment to any man or to any group of men4 ,it is the function of a representative to master all the details of public problems1 which the people of his district cannot be expected to do1 and to make his decision accordingly4 8,i maintained your interests against your opinions10 he said to the voters of ,bristol in defending his actions4 8,a representative worthy of you ought to be a person of stability4 ,i am to look1 indeed1 to your opinions1 but to such opinions as you and ,i must have five years hence4 ,i am not to look to the flash of the day40 ,public officials in the ,united ,states do not usually talk that way4 ,they dilate upon the wisdom of the people1 and profess their own readiness to conform to whatever the people demand4 ,they are prone to forget that a representative in ,congress or in a state legislature does not represent his own district alone4 ,he is in effect a representative of the whole people in nation or state4 ,it is poor patriotism to sacrifice the best interests of the whole to the desires of any single community4 ,at the same time when public opinion is strong and clear1 we expect the representatives of the people to hearken to it4 ,when it is vague or in doubt1 the representative must depend upon his own judgment4 ,if a representative cannot1 because of his own conscientious belief1 do what the people expect him to do1 his duty is to resign4 ,representatives1 however1 do not often resign for this or any other reason4 ,,the ,,appointment ,,of ,,public ,,officials4 ,methods of ,appointment4--,there are three ways of making appointments4 ,first1 appointments may be made by some high executive officer1 such as the ,president or the governor of a state1 subject to the confirmation of a legislative body4 ,second1 they may be made by the executive without the advice and consent of anyone else4 ,third1 they may be made under civil service rules by a competitive examination4#bf ,sidenote3 ,the merits and defects of confirmation4 ,appointments with ,confirmation4--,in the national government practically all appointments of high importance1 including heads of departments1 ambassadors1 judges1 and so on1 are made by the ,president subject to the consent of the ,senate4 ,the ,president nominates1 but the final appointment depends upon confirmation by a majority of the senators 7see p4 #bgj74 ,so in state government the appointment of higher administrative officials is usually shared by the governor and the upper chamber of the state legislature4 ,in the larger cities it has been the custom to require confirmation of the mayor's appointments by the city council or the upper branch of it2 but this requirement is now being generally abandoned4 ,the purpose of requiring confirmation is to prevent too great a growth in power on the part of the chief executive2 its effect has been to divide responsibility and it has resulted1 very often1 in poor appointments4 ,it is good policy1 in local and state government at least1 to insist that the responsibility for appointments shall be centralized and not divided4 ,in the national government1 where the appointing power is of such enormous importance1 and might1 if unchecked1 be so easily used to perpetuate a ,president in office1 the safeguard of confirmation is more easily justified4 ,appointments without ,confirmation4--,the practice of permitting a chief executive to make appointments without confirmation began in the large cities4 ,new ,york made the start1 many years ago1 by allowing the mayor to appoint the heads of the city departments on his own responsibility4 ,since then the plan has spread widely and in some cases the states have given the governor a similar power4 ,in other cases the confirmation has become1 for the most part1 a matter of routine1 the understanding being that the governor has the real responsibility and hence should be left free to make his own selections4 ,,the ,,civil ,,service ,,system4 ,sidenote3 ,giving the offices to politicians4 ,patronage and ,partisanship4--,when appointments are made by an executive officer1 with or without confirmation1 or by a legislative body1 there is always a danger that partisan motives will influence the selection4 ,nearly all executive and legislative officers are themselves partisan4 ,they are themselves nominated1 in most cases1 by party conventions or primaries2 they are elected with the aid of party workers2 and they are therefore under obligation to help the party interest in any reasonable way4 ,now it has been commonly believed that one effective way of helping a party organization is to appoint prominent and active members of the party to public office1 thus giving a reward for their work in the party's behalf4 ,men who have helped a ,president or a governor to gain the party nomination and get elected do not usually allow these officials to forget their obligations when appointments are to be made4 ,the appointing power1 in other words1 may be used as a means of bestowing 8patronage01 or rewards for party service and it has been so used in all branches of ,american government4 ,rise of the ,spoils ,system4--,in the earlier days of the ,republic it was the custom to make appointments with little or no reference to party politics4#bg ,but with the election of ,andrew ,jackson officials were removed in large numbers to provide patronage for the leaders of the victorious political party4 ,jackson's supporters frankly enunciated the doctrine that 8to the victors belong the spoils01 hence the practice of displacing one set of officials and filling the vacant posts with another set became known as the 8spoils system04 ,from this time to #ahhc1 a full half-century1 it was customary to remove large numbers of administrative officials whenever a new ,president came in4 ,the notion spread that offices ought to be passed around2 that four years was long enough for anyone to be on the public payroll1 and that in a democracy everyone ought to have his share of the patronage4 ,the ,iniquities of the ,spoils ,system4--,this doctrine1 although it was for more than fifty years accepted by public opinion in the ,united ,states1 rested upon a false conception of democratic government4 ,it assumed the interests of the political party to be more important than efficiency in the government service4 ,it assumed that administrative work could be well-enough performed by men who had no qualifications in the way of education or experience--nothing but a record of party service4 ,the spoils system regarded public office in nation1 state1 and city as mere booty for the victorious hordes after an election1 whereas public office is 8a public trust01 as ,grover ,cleveland once quite rightly said4 ,it is a privilege and a responsibility2 not a right or a reward4 ,no man has a right to hold public office merely because he belongs to the winning party4 ,he has a right only when he is qualified to perform the functions which the tenure of public office involves4 ,sidenote3 ,results of the spoils system4 ,being based upon a false doctrine the spoils system was pernicious in its results4 ,it filled the administrative offices of the land with party henchmen who were incompetent to perform the difficult work of administration2 it resulted in such frequent changes of officials that a man no sooner learned the duties of his position than he was removed to make room for someone else2 it debased the whole tone of the public service4 ,it spread from the national government to the states and from the states to the cities1 making the government service everywhere less efficient than private enterprise4 ,presidents1 senators1 and representatives were forced to spend a large portion of their time in listening to the pleas of office-seekers4 ,even ,lincoln1 in the dark days of the ,civil ,war1 could not escape the deluge of applicants for appointments4#bh ,not everyone who sought office could be appointed1 of course1 and where refusals were made they often caused much bitterness4 ,the seriousness of the whole situation was strongly impressed upon the public mind in #ahha1 when ,president ,garfield was shot by a man whose request for an appointment had been refused4 ,the ,rise of the ,civil ,service ,system4--,popular aversion to the spoils system ultimately moved ,congress to pass the ,civil ,service ,act of #ahhc4 ,although this statute has been several times amended and its provisions broadened1 it still remains the basis of the merit system as applied to federal appointments4 ,briefly1 it provides for a ,civil ,service ,commission of three persons appointed by the ,president with the confirmation of the ,senate4 ,it gives the ,president power to classify the various subordinate offices1 with the provision that all offices so classified must thereafter be filled by competitive examinations4 ,when the law went into force only about fourteen thousand positions were placed in the classified service but the list has been steadily widened until today more than three hundred thousand positions in the employ of the national government are filled by examination4 ,these examinations are conducted by the ,civil ,service ,commission4 ,sidenote3 ,the spread of civil service4 ,from the national government the civil service system spread to many of the states and cities where it has steadily made progress although it is yet far from being universally established4 ,more than half the states are even yet without civil service laws4 ,in the larger cities the adoption of the merit system had been more general2 nearly all of them have now established it in one form or other4 ,the system of patronage is everywhere losing its hold although the politicians often fight hard to retain it4 ,from the present outlook it is only a question of time until all administrative offices except the very highest will be filled under civil service rules4 ,sidenote3 ,the nature of civil service tests4 ,how the ,merit ,system ,works4--,the actual operation of the civil service or merit system is as follows3 ,whenever a classified position is to be filled1 the appointing officer calls upon the ,civil ,service ,commission to send him the names of suitable persons4 ,if the commission has recently held competitions for a similar position1 it may have names on hand4 ,for example1 if the appointment is to the position of mail-clerk1 stenographer1 postman1 or policeman1 there is no delay in sending in the names because examinations for these posts1 owing to the steady demand1 are held frequently4 ,but if some unusual position is to be filled1 such as that of chemist in the city's water department1 it is usually necessary to hold a special competition4 ,public announcement is made2 applications are received2 examination papers are made out2 the tests are taken by the various applicants1 and the results are figured out4 ,then the ,civil ,service ,commission certifies to the appointing officer the names which are highest on the list1 usually the three highest1 and the appointment is made from among these names4 ,sidenote3 ,they are practical in their nature4 ,do not imagine1 however1 that a civil service competition takes the form of examinations like those given in school or college4 ,the questions relate to the work which the applicant will have to do4 ,candidates for appointment as stenographers are given a practical test to determine whether they can take dictation rapidly1 read it accurately1 and write it out neatly with a typewriter4 ,civil service tests for policemen take the form of a physical examination1 questions on elementary law1 and on the duties of a policeman4 ,there are different examinations for each kind of position4 ,the examiners study what qualifications a position demands and then devise a set of examinations which will test these qualifications4 ,the ,civil ,service ,commission does not make the appointments2 it merely certifies the names of those who stand highest4 ,from these names the appointing officer usually selects the first on the list1 but in some cases he is permitted to choose any one of the first three names4 ,value of the ,merit ,system4--,the merit system does not always succeed in picking out the best among those who apply for a vacant position4 ,no system of competitive tests is infallible4 ,even school examinations do not always prove who is the best scholar4 ,but they come nearer doing so than any other method4 ,civil service tests do succeed in weeding out the unfit4 ,they protect the public service against the appointment of officials who are clearly incompetent and have no qualifications except political influence4 ,if the civil service system does not always select the best it certainly enables us to avoid the worst1 which is something that the spoils system never did4 ,sidenote3 ,the democratic character of the civil service system4 ,the civil service system is democratic4 ,it gives everyone an equal chance4 ,it matters not who the candidates are1 whether rich or poor1 ,republicans or ,democrats1 with friends or without friends--all have an equal opportunity4 ,merit is the only thing that counts4 ,and it is the only thing that ought to count in filling public positions4 ,it is true that the candidate with an education usually has an advantage in answering civil service questions2 but does not education help a man or woman in every branch of life8 ,in a country where education is free can we call a system of appointment 8undemocratic0 because it gives the educated candidate an advantage8 ,under the merit system men and women win appointments2 they do not receive appointments by favor4 ,they hold their posts during good behavior and are protected against dismissal without cause4 ,the cause must be specific and stated in writing4 ,this being done1 the appointing officer usually has the right to dismiss a subordinate and this right is necessary to the maintenance of proper discipline4 ,under the civil service system1 however1 dismissals are not frequent4#bi ,,direct ,,legislation ,,by ,,the ,,people ,sidenote3 ,some definitions4 ,the ,initiative and ,referendum3 ,what they are4--,the machinery of direct legislation consists of two political devices which usually go together and are known as the initiative and referendum4 ,by the initiative is meant the right of a stated percentage of voters in any state or other political division to propose a law and to require that if this proposal is not forthwith adopted by the regular law-making authorities it shall be submitted to the people for their decision at the polls4 ,the initiative usually covers constitutional amendments as well as laws4 ,to put it in less technical language1 if anyone believes that a new law or ordinance should be passed1 he draws up the law or ordinance in such form as he desires2 then he gets a certain number of voters to sign a petition asking for its passage4 ,if the legislature enacts it1 well and good2 if it does not enact it the question whether the law will be adopted goes on the ballot for the voters to decide4 ,the referendum1 on the other hand1 is an arrangement whereby a measure already passed by the legislature or city council may1 under certain conditions1 be withheld from going into effect until the people have had an opportunity to accept or reject it at the polls4 ,the conditions usually are that a certain number of voters shall present a petition asking that the measure be withheld from going into force4 ,the referendum1 as a rule1 cannot be invoked in the case of emergency measures4 ,their ,progress in ,america4--,it is only about a quarter of a century since the initiative and referendum1 in this form1 made their appearance in ,america1 the first state to establish them being ,south ,dakota in #ahih4cj ,other states soon took up the idea and today nearly half the entire number of states have made provision for direct legislation in one form or another4#ca ,sidenote3 ,spread of direct legislation4 ,from the states the movement spread to the cities1 a large number of which now have provisions for the initiative and referendum inserted in their charters4 ,the extension of the system to the national government1 by means of an amendment to the constitution1 is now being urged by some organizations1 including the ,american ,federation of ,labor4 ,sidenote3 ,reasons for this rapid extension4 ,how is the rapid spread of this movement for direct legislation in the ,united ,states to be accounted for8 ,two reasons for it1 at least1 may be given4 ,one is the decline of popular confidence in lawmaking by legislators4 ,the work of the legislatures in many of the states1 and of the city councils in most of the cities1 has been unsatisfactory to the people on a good many occasions4 ,it has given vogue to the idea that the people themselves could not do much worse and might do a great deal better4 ,the second reason may be found in the habit of waiving responsibility which many legislatures and city councils have acquired in recent years4 ,when difficult questions come before legislatures1 the legislators frequently find an easy solution1 so far as they themselves are concerned1 by 8putting the matter directly up to the people04 ,in other words they agree to place the questions on the ballot at the next election4 ,in many states this practice of passing measures with a 8referendum clause0 has become very common4 ,it has paved the way for direct legislation on a wider scale4 ,the ,initiative and ,referendum in ,practice4--,in actual practice the initiative and referendum do not provide a simple and easy means of making laws4 ,their use is hedged about by all sorts of formalities and conditions4 ,in no two states are these conditions exactly alike1 but in a general way the practical workings of direct legislation are somewhat as follows3 ,sidenote3 ,the petition4 ,as the first step1 those who desire a new law make a draft of it in writing4 ,then they write out a brief petition to accompany it and obtain as many signatures as they can4 ,the usual requirement is that a certain percentage of the qualified voters must sign the petition before it will be accepted by the authorities4 ,these signatures are secured by holding meetings1 or by a house-to-house canvass1 or by placing copies of the petition in banks1 stores1 and other public places where voters can sign them4 ,when enough signatures have been obtained1 the petition1 accompanied by the draft of the proposed law1 is presented to the proper official at the state ,capitol or city hall and this official checks the names with a copy of the voters' list4 ,sidenote3 ,the scrutiny4 ,if he finds that all the requirements have been fulfilled1 he endorses on the petition a statement to this effect and makes provision for placing the question on the ballot at the next election or1 in some cases1 at a special election held for the purpose4 ,meanwhile1 the legislature or city council may enact the measure1 in which case the question need not be placed on the ballot4 ,sidenote3 ,the voting4 ,to inform the voters concerning the various initiative measures which are to be voted on1 some states have provided that a pamphlet shall be prepared and mailed to every voter previous to the election4 ,these pamphlets contain the texts of the proposed laws and also1 in some cases1 a summary of the arguments for and against each proposal4 ,at the election the voters mark their ballots with a cross opposite the words ,yes or ,no and the proposed law is adopted or rejected in accordance with the will of the majority4 ,in the case of the referendum a petition is also drawn up and a designated number of signatures obtained4 ,when enough signatures have been secured1 usually the same number as is required for the initiative1 the petition is presented1 checked up1 and certified in the same way4 ,the law in question1 although duly enacted by the legislature1 is then withheld from going into effect until the voters ratify it at an election4 ,in some states the initiative and referendum have been used quite freely2 in others hardly at all4 ,in ,oregon1 during the decade #aijf-aiaf1 no fewer than ninety-one measures were submitted to the voters at five elections2 in ,massachusetts only four measures have been initiated by petition in five years4 ,much greater use has been made of direct legislation in the ,far ,west than in the ,east4 ,sidenote3 ,the arguments in favor4 ,merits of ,direct ,legislation4--,the reputed merits of the initiative and referendum may be summed up under four heads4 #a4 ,it makes government more democratic4 ,in legislatures the influence of some class1 section1 or partisan element among the people has often determined the nature of the laws4 ,by the use of direct legislation the whole people can make their will effective4 #b4 ,it has an educative value4 ,people who are called upon to vote upon measures will learn something about them before going to the polls4 ,when the legislators alone make the laws1 the individual voter takes no interest in the lawmaking4 ,but when the questions go on the ballot there is a general public discussion of the arguments for and against4 ,in this way the whole body of the voters becomes informed on public problems4 #c4 ,it gives the ordinary citizen a chance to make his influence felt4 ,the legislature1 in doing its work1 does not hear much from the plain man who attends to his own business4 ,it hears chiefly from the 8vested interests01 the corporations1 and capitalists on the one hand1 or from labor organizations or the farmers on the other4 ,it is also subjected to pressure by politicians and party leaders4 ,but a considerable part of the population is made up of men and women who are neither capitalists1 union workers1 nor politicians4 ,direct legislation gives this silent section of the electorate a chance4 #d4 ,it keeps legislative bodies on their good behavior4 ,the initiative and referendum are not intended to supplant lawmaking by legislatures4 ,most of the laws will continue to be made by the old process4 ,direct legislation is merely a remedy in the hands of the people for use when the regular lawmaking bodies fail to carry out the popular will4 ,knowing that the voters have this weapon ready for use1 the legislators are more careful about what they do4 ,they know that an appeal may be taken to the voters and their own decisions overturned4 ,this is an incentive to better work on their part4 ,hence the initiative and referendum will really strengthen rather than destroy our system of representative government4 ,sidenote3 ,the arguments against4 ,defects of ,direct ,legislation4--,but there are arguments on the other side as well2 and these also can be arranged under four headings4 #a4 ,direct legislation weakens the civil rights of the individual4 ,these rights are embodied in the state constitutions for the purpose of preserving them4 ,but if a majority of the voters can change these constitutions at any time1 there is no longer any distinction between constitutions and laws4 ,this means that there is no special protection for the rights of property1 for free speech1 or for freedom of worship4 ,a majority can ride rough-shod over a minority at any time4 #b4 ,direct legislation is usually the work of a majority in name only4 ,not more than eighty per cent of the people regularly cast their ballots on election day2 the proportion is often much smaller4 ,of those who go to the polls many do not vote on all the questions4 ,the result is that measures are frequently ratified by the votes of only thirty or forty per cent of the whole electorate1 in other words by a distinct minority4 ,the alleged 8rule of the majority0 thus becomes a fiction1 not a fact4 #c4 ,direct legislation results in appeals to public prejudice and leads to demagogism4 ,when measures are submitted to the people the discussion is not confined to the merits of the proposed laws4 ,the supporters and opponents alike appeal to the prejudice and the self-interest of the voters4 ,the demagogue uses his opportunity to the fullest extent1 thus inflaming bitterness between different classes among the people4 ,there is no opportunity for calm deliberation or compromise as in the legislative halls4 ,the voters can only say ,yes or ,no4 ,they must take the measure as it stands or reject it entirely4 ,as a rule1 moreover1 the man who is ready to say ,yes or ,no to any public question can be set down as one who has given very little thought to the subject4 #d4 ,direct legislation tends to break down the whole system of representative government4 ,it divides the responsibility for lawmaking1 encourages the election of less efficient representatives1 and places upon the people a task which they cannot intelligently perform4 ,the voters will not1 and cannot1 fully inform themselves about the merits and defects of ten1 twenty1 or thirty different questions on the ballot4 ,it is absurd1 the opponents of direct legislation declare1 to submit a long list of questions to the voters when thousands of these voters are not even able to read or write4#cb ,sidenote3 ,which are the stronger8 ,the ,relative ,weight of these ,arguments4--,the fore-going paragraphs give the arguments1 both for and against direct legislation1 as they are commonly put forth by the two sides4 ,the supporters of direct legislation are inclined to magnify its merits2 the opponents are equally prone to overstate its defects4 ,due allowance should be made for this in weighing their respective arguments4 ,direct legislation has not put an end to the power of political bosses or destroyed the party system or made all the laws righteous4 ,on the other hand it has not led to lawmaking by demagogues or impaired the fundamental rights of the citizen4 ,laws passed by means of the initiative and referendum have been1 on the whole1 no better and no worse than laws passed by legislatures4 ,the strong probability is1 if one may venture a prediction1 that less use of direct legislation will be made as time goes on4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that the system will be valueless4 ,it still remains a highly important weapon of last resort which the people can use if they need it4 ,at any rate no one need hesitate to make up his own mind as to the relative merits and defects of the initiative and referendum1 for he will find himself in pretty good company whichever side he takes4 ,the ,recall4--,the recall is the right of a designated number of voters to demand the immediate removal of any elective officeholder and to have their demand submitted to the voters for decision4 ,a petition for removal is drawn up and circulated for signatures2 when enough signatures have been obtained it is presented to the proper authorities who thereupon hold an election to decide the matter4 ,the petition usually states the reasons for demanding the officeholder's removal before the expiration of his term4 ,if a majority of those who vote on the question are in favor of the removal1 the officeholder vacates his post at once2 if they reject the demand for a recall1 he continues in office4 ,provision for the recall was first established in ,los ,angeles 7#aijc71 and during the past twenty years it has been adopted in many cities in different parts of the country4 ,ten states have also provided for the recall of elective state officers4 ,several city officials have been removed at recall elections1 but only one state officer has yet been ousted from office by this procedure4#cc ,the purpose of the recall is to ensure the complete and continual responsibility of public officials to the people who have elected them4 ,it enables the establishment of longer terms of office without incurring the danger of autocracy on the part of officeholders4 ,on the other hand1 the recall is a weapon which may easily be perverted to wrongful use4 ,if attempts were made to oust an officeholder whenever his work gives offence to any influential element among the voters1 the recall procedure would soon become an intolerable nuisance in that it would be continually bringing the people to the polls4 ,it would likewise deter independent and capable men from accepting office at all4 ,but as a matter of fact the recall has not been widely used4 ,for the most part the people have held it in reserve for emergencies4 ,it is like a fire-escape on the outside of a building1 not to be used at all under ordinary circumstances1 but exceedingly valuable when an emergency comes4 ,general ,references ,,james ,,bryce1 ,modern ,democracies1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aea-afd 7,public ,opinion72 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dag-dcd 7,direct ,legislation by the ,people72 ,a4 ,l4 ,,lowell1 ,public ,opinion and ,popular ,government1 pp4 #aac-bcb 7,methods of ,expressing ,public ,opinion72 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,actual ,government1 pp4 #bgj-bgc 7,appointing ,power72 #bgf-bid 7,civil ,service72 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #eja-eba 7,direct ,legislation and the ,recall72 ,e4 ,m4 ,,phelps 7editor71 ,initiative and ,referendum 7,debaters' ,handbook ,series72 ,,delos ,f4 ,,wilcox1 ,government by ,all the ,people 7,the ,arguments in ,favor71 pp4 #ajd-abh2 #adi-afc2 ,,arnold ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popular ,government 7,the ,arguments ,against71 pp4 #abj-adc4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,what is public opinion8 ,how is it formed8 ,influence of the press4 ,news columns and editorials4 ,the press and propaganda4 ,influence of advertisers4 ,the large measure of independence in the press4 ,resolutions of organizations4 ,communications to legislators4 ,relative importance of the various channels of public opinion4 ,references3 ,a4 ,v4 ,,dicey1 ,the ,relations between ,law and ,public ,opinion in ,england1 pp4 #ag-dg2 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bea-bff2 ,ibid41 ,modern ,democracies1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ib-aaj2 #aea-afd2 ,a4 ,l4 ,,lowell1 ,public ,opinion and ,popular ,government1 pp4 #d-ef2 ,g4 ,h4 ,,payne1 ,history of ,journalism in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cdg-cei and passim2 ,,arnold ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popular ,government1 pp4 #be-dd2 ,,walter ,,lippman1 ,liberty and the ,news1 passim4 #b4 ,the initiative and referendum in their practical workings4 ,references3 ,j4 ,d4 ,,barnett1 ,the ,operation of the ,initiative1 ,referendum and ,recall in ,oregon1 pp4 #aja-abe2 ,illinois ,constitutional ,convention 7#aibj71 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #b2 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention 7#aiag-aiah71 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #f2 ,a4 ,l4 ,,lowell1 ,public ,opinion and ,popular ,government1 pp4 #afi-bci2 ,d4 ,f4 ,,wilcox1 ,government by ,all the ,people1 pp4 #bbi-cbj2 ,,arnold ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popular ,government1 pp4 #abj-adc4 #c4 ,the civil service system3 its progress1 aims1 and methods4 ,references3 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,actual ,government1 pp4 #bgf-bid2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #bbb-bcj2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings in ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #fhc-gjb2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of ,american ,cities1 pp4 #bga-bij2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,fish1 ,the ,civil ,service and the ,patronage1 passim2 ,j4 ,t4 ,,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government and its ,work1 pp4 #eib-fjh4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the responsibility of public officials4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #cid-dji4 #b4 ,the function of a representative4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,jenks1 ,principles of ,politics1 pp4 #gg-hd2 ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill1 ,on ,representative ,government 7,everyman's ,library71 pp4 #bjb-bah2 #bbh-bda4 #c4 ,the election vs4 the appointment of public officials4 ,,john ,m4 ,,mathews1 ,principles of ,american ,state ,administration1 pp4 #agc-aij4 #d4 ,the spoils system4 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #acf-ade2 ,,james ,a4 ,,woodburn1 ,political ,parties and ,party ,problems1 pp4 #bed-bfe4 ,see also ,w4 ,d4 ,,foulke1 ,fighting the ,spoilsmen1 passim4 #e4 ,training for public service4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,allen1 ,training for the ,public ,service1 pp4 #afd-bjj4 #f4 ,how civil service tests are given4 ,l4 ,f4 ,,fuld1 ,police ,administration1 pp4 #ge-ig4 #g4 ,the public service as a profession4 ,a4 ,l4 ,,lowell1 ,public ,opinion and ,popular ,government1 pp4 #bfd-cje2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,allen1 ,training for the ,public ,service1 pp4 #afd-aha2 ,e4 ,a4 ,,fitzpatrick1 ,experts in ,city ,government1 pp4 #ga-ajd4 #h4 ,the recall of public officers4 ,,arnold ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popular ,government1 pp4 #bjc-bda4 ,questions #a4 ,how many 8organs0 of public opinion can you name8 ,how does each exert an influence8 ,which one do you consider the most influential8 #b4 ,is public opinion always the sentiment of the majority8 ,if it is not1 explain why4 ,give a concrete illustration4 #c4 ,do you agree with ,edmund ,burke's ideas as to the proper function of a representative8 #d4 ,when the question of woman suffrage was before the ,united ,states ,senate1 and only one additional vote was needed to pass it1 a certain senator declared that while he was personally in favor of granting the suffrage to women the people of his own state had just voted against the proposal and he therefore felt bound to follow their judgment4 ,was he right or wrong in taking that attitude8 #e4 ,make a list of the administrative officers of your state and community1 indicating which ones should be elected and which appointed4 ,can you think of any proper exceptions to the rule that all administrative offices requiring skill or experience should be filled by appointment8 #f4 ,what arguments were put forward in behalf of the spoils system8 #g4 ,what sort of civil service tests ought to be applied in selecting persons for the following positions3 truck-and-ladder driver in the fire department2 gardener in the public park service2 bookkeeper in the office of the state treasurer2 member of the ,united ,states life-saving service2 railway-mail clerk2 analyst of food and drugs2 inspector of wires and lamps2 woman police officer2 probation officer2 draftsman in the state highway department4 #h4 ,in a city of #ajj1jjj population what positions would you exempt from civil service rules8 #i4 ,is good government more important than popular government8 ,can a government be both democratic and efficient8 ,do you regard appointments by competition as undemocratic8 ,why or why not8 #aj4 ,work out a plan by which promotions in the police department could be made under the merit system 7consider the possibility of giving credits for punctuality1 acts of courage1 number of arrests1 etc41 and of making deductions for neglect of duty1 etc474 #aa4 ,what is the strongest argument for direct legislation and what is the weakest8 ,which argument on the other side impresses you the most and which the least8 #ab4 ,is it more dangerous to subject judges to the possibility of recall than other officials8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,a congressman should obey his conscience rather than his constituents when he cannot obey both4 #b4 ,heads of state and city administrative departments should be chosen under civil service rules4 #c4 ,the initiative and referendum should be extended to national lawmaking4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,suffrage ,,and ,,elections ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain who have the right to vote1 how the voters nominate public officials1 and how elections are held4 ,,suffrage ,sidenote3 ,direct and indirect popular control4 ,how the ,voters ,control the ,government4--,a democratic government is one in which the people1 acting directly or through their representatives1 control the course of public affairs4 ,this control may be exercised1 as has been pointed out1 in either one of two ways4 ,it may be exercised directly1 that is1 by the use of the initiative and referendum4 ,the proposal for a law comes from a designated number of voters1 and the adoption or rejection of the proposal is decided by a majority of the voters at the polls4 ,it is easy to see1 however1 that the people cannot perform the entire work of government in this direct way4 ,there are too many laws to be made1 too many details of administration to be handled1 and too many disputes to be adjusted4 ,so most of the work of government is carried on by persons who are chosen by the voters for this purpose or who are appointed to office by the representatives of the people4 ,elective officials1 as a rule1 have authority to determine matters of general policy in nation1 state1 or municipality1 while appointive officials1 for the most part1 carry out the policy thus determined upon4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,government4 ,by ,elihu ,vedder ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,,government ,by ,elihu ,vedder ,from a mural decoration in the ,library of ,congress4 ,mr4 ,vedder portrays ,government as a mature woman in the fullness of her strength4 ,she is seated upon a bench of hewn marble1 which is supported by the figures of two lions--all emblematic of strength and power4 ,behind is an oak tree1 which typifies slow1 deep-rooted growth4 ,in symbolic pictures the ballot box is usually represented as an urn4 ,here the marble bench rests upon urn-shaped vases4 ,in the lions' mouths are mooring-rings to remind us that the ship of state must not drift aimlessly but should be moored to strength4 ,in her left hand ,government grasps a golden sceptre 7the ,golden ,rule7 to signify that all her actions are based upon respect for the rights of others2 her right hand holds a tablet upon which is graven a notable epigram from ,lincoln's ,gettysburg ,address4 ,on either side of ,government are two genii or mythical figures4 ,one holds a bridle which typifies restraint1 discipline1 and order--the bulwark of effective government4 ,the other supports an unsheathed sword1 emblematic of defence and justice4 ,in this picture1 therefore1 the author prefigures the outstanding marks of a successful free government--strength2 fairness1 democracy1 restraint1 security1 and justice4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,the ,citizen and the ,voter4--,government by the people does not1 of course1 mean government by all the people4 ,sidenote3 ,not all citizens are voters4,in every country there are many persons who are not competent to exercise a share in the government4 ,very young persons1 for example1 do not have maturity of judgment1 which a share in government requires4 ,insane persons1 prisoners in jails1 aliens1 and others are also1 for obvious reasons1 usually debarred from the privilege of voting4 ,it is not to be assumed that everyone who is a citizen is also a voter4 ,all persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states and subject to ,american jurisdiction are citizens no matter what their ages or mental capacity may be1 but not all are voters4 ,the voters are those upon whom the privilege of voting has been conferred by law4 ,in the ,united ,states they comprise a large proportion of the adults but they do not form a majority of the entire population4 ,out of a national population of about one hundred and five millions the voters of the ,united ,states number about thirty-five millions4 ,this number is quite large enough to ensure an adequately representative government4 ,sidenote3 ,the gradual widening of the suffrage ,development of the ,suffrage4--,voting is a privilege and duty rather than a right4 ,in the earlier states of ,american history the privilege of voting was restricted to property-owners and taxpayers4 ,this condition of affairs1 moreover1 continued for a considerable period after the ,revolutionary ,war4 ,one by one1 however1 the various states began to abolish their restrictions and by the middle of the nineteenth century the principle of manhood suffrage had become firmly established so far as the white population was concerned4 ,the struggle for the extension of the suffrage to men who did not own property was a prolonged and bitter contest in which the opponents of manhood suffrage vainly argued that the extension would put all political leadership into the hands of noisy agitators and would end in the ruin of orderly government4 ,but manhood suffrage ultimately triumphed because the country came to the conclusion that the structure of democratic government could be made more secure by broadening the base upon which it rests4 ,sidenote3 ,the rights of the negro4 ,negro ,suffrage4--,in the ,southern states prior to the ,civil ,war colored men were excluded from voting at all elections4 ,but with the emancipation of the slaves the question of guaranteeing the suffrage to colored men had to be faced4 ,by the terms of the ,fourteenth and ,fifteenth ,amendments to the national constitution no state is permitted to withhold voting rights from any man on account of his color2 if it does so1 the constitution provides that such state shall have its number of representatives in ,congress reduced4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 there has always been a very strong sentiment among the white population of the ,southern states in opposition to political equality on the part of the colored element1 and this has prevented the enforcement of the guarantees contained in the constitution4 ,sidenote3 ,how negroes are excluded from voting4 ,by various devices the ,southern states have for the most part excluded negroes from suffrage4 ,one of these is the requirement that all voters shall be able to read and write4 ,if this provision were impartially applied to the white and the colored population alike2 if all illiterate persons irrespective of color were excluded1 this action would be entirely justified4 ,but the aim of the ,south is to eliminate the negro as a voter whether he is illiterate or not4#cd ,the attitude of the white population in the ,south is not difficult to understand4 ,in the days immediately following the ,civil ,war the colored men were given the ballot in all the ,southern states1 and the results were disastrous4 ,unfit men were elected to office1 public money was spent wastefully1 and government was badly conducted in all these states under the domination of the colored voters4 ,as a result the white population took the control once more into its own hands and has kept it there4 ,but this can scarcely be regarded as a final solution of the problem4 ,no political problem can be solved in this country in defiance of the constitution4 ,many ,southerners realize this and are endeavoring to find some solution which will be for the best interests of the negro while protecting the white man's political supremacy4 ,the negro question is particularly the ,southerner's problem2 he knows the colored race as no ,northerner can2 and if he cannot settle it justly and wisely1 no man can4 ,sidenote3 ,the extension of the suffrage to women4 ,the ,nineteenth ,amendment4--,it is now more than fifty years since women first began to claim1 in this country1 the right to equal political privileges with men4 ,those who supported this claim argued that women were quite competent to assume an active share in government and that in some branches of public administration 7such as the management of schools and the enforcement of the laws regulating child labor7 women have an even greater interest than men4 ,women were required to pay taxes and it was urged that on this account they were entitled to representation4 ,on the other hand the extension of the suffrage to women was opposed on the ground that it would tend to weaken the interest of women in the home1 thus impairing the strength of the family as a social unit1 and also that women would not use the ballot wisely4 ,they would be influenced by their sympathies and emotions rather than by their judgment1 it was predicted1 and would bring an element of instability into public policy4 ,another objection commonly raised was that with twice as many voters the cost of holding elections would be doubled4 ,but despite these objections the movement for woman suffrage made gradual headway in one state after another and finally1 in #aibj1 it was made compulsory upon the entire country by the provisions of the ,nineteenth ,amendment4#ce ,sidenote3 ,citizenship1 age1 and residence4 ,present ,qualifications for ,voting4--,each state decides who shall not vote4 ,each state has entire freedom to do as it thinks best in this matter subject only to the provisions of the national constitution1 which stipulate that the privilege of voting shall not be denied to any citizen by reason of sex1 or because of race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude4 ,there is no reason1 therefore1 why the qualifications for voting should be the same in all parts of the country1 and as a matter of fact they differ a little from state to state4 ,at present the restrictions relate mainly to age1 citizenship1 and residence1 but sometimes also to literacy and taxpaying4 ,in every state the privilege of voting is restricted to persons who are twenty-one years of age or over4 ,as for the residence requirement it varies considerably in different states1 running usually from six months to a year4 ,it is imposed in order to make sure that those who vote in any community shall be somewhat acquainted with its affairs4 ,in most of the states none but citizens are permitted to vote1 but in two or three states the privilege is extended to those aliens who have declared their intention of becoming citizens4 ,educational ,tests for ,voters4--,educational qualifications for voting1 in one form or another1 exist in nearly one-third of the states4#cf ,in some the requirement is that anyone who desires to be enrolled as a voter shall be able to write his name and also to read aloud any clause taken at random from the state constitution4 ,exemptions from this test are always granted to persons who by mere reason of physical disability are unable to read or write4 ,several of the ,southern states have provided additional exemptions which result in excusing from the test all white persons who are unable to read and write while strictly applying the requirement to all colored applicants4 ,sidenote3 ,how educational tests are applied4 ,various methods are employed to this end4 ,in one case the provision is that no one may be registered as a voter unless he can read any clause in the state constitution or 8give a reasonable interpretation thereof04 ,the white officials in charge of the registration then decide1 in their own discretion1 whether the interpretation is reasonable or not4 ,in some other states the attempt has been made by what is commonly known as the 8grandfather clause0 to excuse from the literacy test all persons who had the right to vote before #ahfg1 and all descendants of such persons4 ,as there were no colored voters in any of the ,southern states prior to this date the 8grandfather clause0 virtually establishes a racial discrimination which the ,supreme ,court1 a few years ago1 declared to be unconstitutional4 ,is an ,educational ,test ,desirable8--,in the majority of the states men and women are permitted to vote even though unable to read or write4 ,the question is often asked whether this practice is wise4 ,would it be better to insist on an elementary educational qualification everywhere1 or is it desirable that in a democracy no distinction be made between those who can read and those who cannot8 ,sidenote3 ,the arguments for and against educational tests4 ,on the one hand it is argued that men and women who have never had the advantages of a grammar school education may nevertheless be good1 patriotic citizens1 and indeed may be better informed upon questions of government and politics than some who have had far greater educational advantages4 ,people are not required to read and write before they are permitted to own property or compelled to pay taxes4 ,men who could neither read nor write were drafted to serve in the army during the war4 ,if1 then1 we compel illiterate persons to perform the duties of citizenship1 ought we not to grant its privileges to them as well8 ,but there is something to be said on the other side of this question4 ,bear in mind that we provide free public elementary education for everyone in the ,united ,states4 ,the privilege of learning to read and write is not the privilege of a single class2 it is within the reach of everyone4 ,we no longer allow aliens to enter the ,united ,states unless they can read and write1 nor can any illiterate person become naturalized4 ,under these circumstances is it unreasonable to require an elementary educational test for voting8 ,it may be true that persons who are unable to read are able to mark a certain type of ballot without spoiling it1 but they can hardly hope to exercise an intelligent choice as among individual candidates on the ballot2 they are unable to use any ballot which does not arrange the names of candidates in straight party columns and they cannot vote upon referendum questions except by mere guess-work4 ,if we are regularly going to submit questions to the voters at the polls for their decision1 should not the voting lists be confined to those who are at least able to read the questions8 ,tax-,paying ,qualifications for ,voting4--,in a few states the male suffrage is restricted to persons who have been assessed for a poll tax4 ,massachusetts has such a provision and enforces it strictly4 ,some ,southern states also impose this qualification1 partly1 no doubt1 because it is effective in debarring large numbers of colored men who are remiss in paying their annual poll taxes4 ,there is a difference1 of course1 between a taxpaying qualification and a property qualification4 ,many people pay taxes1 income and poll taxes1 for example1 without owning any property4 ,nowhere in the ,united ,states is the ownership of property a requirement for voting at national elections4 ,sidenote3 ,the requirements vary from state to state4 ,these1 then1 are the general and special qualifications4 ,it will be observed that since each state prescribes its own requirements1 no two of them establish the same qualifications1 or1 if they do1 it is merely by accident4 ,it is not strictly true that every adult citizen of the ,united ,states has the privilege of voting2 but it is approximately true4 ,those who are excluded by the residence1 educational1 or tax paying qualifications 7apart from colored citizens in the ,southern states7 form a relatively small fraction of the total adult citizenship1 probably less than ten per cent4#cg ,sidenote3 ,the registrars of voters4 ,how ,voters are ,registered4--,in order to obtain a ballot on election day it is necessary that one's name shall be on the voters' list4 ,this list is prepared by officials designated for this purpose in every community or district4 ,these officials are commonly known as registrars of voters4 ,whoever desires to be enrolled must appear before these registrars and usually must make a sworn statement as to age1 citizenship1 residence1 and other qualifications4 ,if there is an educational test1 it is applied by the registrars4 ,the printed lists of enrolled voters are then posted for public inspection4#ch ,in some states a new voters' list is compiled every year1 and it thus becomes necessary for everyone to register annually4 ,in others it is the practice to keep a voter's name on the list so long as he continues to pay poll taxes4#ci ,but in any case the only way a voter can be sure of having his name on the list at every election is to give this matter his personal attention4 ,in the eyes of the law voting is a privilege1 not a right1 and the voter is responsible for seeing that he obtains his privilege4 ,,nominations ,sidenote3 ,the chief purpose of nominations4 ,why ,nominations are ,essential4--,the choice of elective public officials usually involves two steps--the nomination and the election4 ,nominations may be made1 and they are sometimes made1 by a caucus or by a convention of delegates4 ,more often1 however1 they are made by the voters at a preliminary election or primary4 ,but the question may fairly be asked3 ,why have nominations at all8 ,why not give the voters blank ballots and let them write in whatever names they please8 ,apart from the fact that many voters 7in states which impose no educational test7 would not be able to write1 there is the objection that so many different persons would be voted for that no one would have anything like a majority4 ,in order to ensure that those who are elected will represent the choice of a substantial body of the voters and if possible an actual majority1 it is desirable that there be some way of eliminating all but the stronger candidates4 ,that is why we provide for formal nominations4 ,history of ,nominating ,methods4--,during the past hundred years or more we have tried a variety of nominating methods4 ,first came the caucus1 sometimes a gathering of legislators and sometimes of voters1 brought together to select a candidate4 ,sidenote3 ,the convention method4 ,the caucus gave place1 in time1 to the convention1 which is a body of delegates chosen by the voters of each locality4 ,to this day the convention remains the mechanism by which nominations are in some cases made4 ,but the convention method1 for a variety of reasons1 did not prove satisfactory and it has been replaced1 throughout the greater portion of the ,united ,states1 by the system of nomination at a primary election4 ,sidenote3 ,different forms of primary4 ,the ,primary4--,the primary1 in our electoral system corresponds to the 8qualifying trials0 in athletic contests4 ,its purpose is to see that the race is confined to the swift4 ,it eliminates those who have no chance to win4 ,those who desire to be candidates for any public office present their names on nomination papers1 each of which must bear the signatures of so many qualified voters--say twenty-five or fifty4 ,the names of the candidates are placed on a ballot1 and a primary election is held some time before the regular election4 ,but the details of primary elections differ somewhat from state to state4 ,an open primary is one at which voters are not restricted to the ballot or column of their own party1 but may exercise entire freedom of choice among all the names on the primary ballot4 ,in some states there are party primaries or closed primaries4 ,this means that none may vote at the primary except those who are members of a political party4#dj ,each party may hold its primary on a different date1 in which case it is called a separate primary2 or both parties may hold their primaries together1 in which case we call it a joint primary4 ,at a joint primary there may be a separate ballot for the voters of each party or there may be a single ballot which contains the names of different party candidates in parallel columns4 ,in some cities and towns another form1 the non-partisan primary1 is provided1 in which case the ballot bears no party designations at all4 ,the procedure at a primary election is like that of a regular election1 with printed ballots1 ballot boxes1 and regular officials in charge of the polls4 ,sidenote3 ,advantages of the primary4 ,merits and ,defects of the ,primary4--,as a method of making nominations the primary1 whether closed1 open1 or non-partisan1 has both merits and defects4 ,it is better than the convention in that it places nominations directly in the hands of the voters1 thus making it more difficult for party bosses to dictate who the candidates shall be4 ,conventions consisting of a relatively small number of delegates1 many of them officeholders1 can be manipulated by wire-pulling politicians4 ,nominations made by conventions have frequently been1 for that reason1 very unsatisfactory to the rank and file of the voters4 ,the primary gives an opportunity to the man or woman who is popular with the voters although not popular with the politicians4 ,it tends to break down some of the worst abuses of the party system4 ,sidenote3 ,objections to it4 ,on the other hand there are some practical objections to the primary as a method of making nominations and a vigorous fight is now being waged to abolish it4 ,a primary means an additional election with all the attendant campaigning and expense4 ,the total vote cast at a primary is often small2 hence the candidate who gains the nomination may or may not be the real choice of his party4#da ,the primary puts a burden upon those who seek to gain elective public office1 for they must virtually fight and win two successive battles at the polls4 ,to do this takes so much time that men and women who have business of their own to attend to are often deterred from becoming candidates4 ,the field of political activity thus tends to become monopolized by professional politicians who have nothing else to do4 ,the primary contests are so bitter at times that they create dissensions in the party ranks and weaken the party at the ensuing election4 ,the use of the primary has not enabled us to get rid of political bosses2 it has merely made them work a great deal harder to retain control4 ,sidenote3 ,a new development4 ,in some states the political parties have adopted the practice of holding an 8informal0 convention some few weeks before the date of the primary4 ,this convention1 which is composed of unofficial delegates1 makes recommendations as to the candidates who ought to be voted for by members of the party at the primary4 ,members of the party are free1 of course1 to do as they please at the primary1 but the recommendations made by an 8informal0 convention1 in view of the fact that they are largely the work of acknowledged party leaders1 carry a good deal of weight4 ,sidenote3 ,this means a further complication4 ,one result of the primary system has been1 therefore1 to complicate our electoral machinery4 ,if the practice of holding informal conventions becomes general1 there will be four steps which a party will have to take in order to put its candidates in office1 first the informal convention1 then the primary1 then the official convention which drafts the platform1 and finally the election4 ,surely it should be possible to elect our public officials under some less complicated arrangement than this4#db ,,elections ,sidenote3 ,the election day4 ,how an ,election is ,held4--,the date on which an election is held is fixed by law4 ,national elections always take place on the ,tuesday following the first ,monday in ,november4#dc ,state elections are usually1 although not always1 held on the same date4 ,local elections take place on such dates as the state laws or city charters provide4 ,it is usually thought best that local elections shall not be held on the same day as the state or national elections because of a desire to keep national and state politics out of local affairs4 ,when national1 state1 and local elections are held on the same day the tendency is for the voters to focus their whole attention on national and state issues1 giving very little attention to the problems of their own communities4 ,the names of candidates for the local offices are away down near the bottom of the ballot where they appear relatively unimportant4 ,separate elections involve additional expense1 however1 and increase the number of times a voter has to come to the polls4#dd ,sidenote3 ,polling places and poll officers4 ,the voting is done at polling places1 one or more of which are located in each precinct4 ,the precinct is a small division of the county1 town1 or city2 as a rule it does not contain more than four or five hundred voters4 ,the polling place is in charge of officials1 commonly known as poll-wardens or inspectors1 who are appointed by the state or local authorities4 ,they are assisted by clerks4 ,the duty of these various officials is to open the poll1 give ballots to persons who are registered and to no others1 count the votes after the poll is closed1 and report the results to the authorities who are in charge of the elections4 ,they are responsible for the lawful and honest conduct of the polling4 ,each party is also allowed to have one or more 8watchers0 at the polling place and these watchers have the right to challenge any person whom they believe to be an impostor4 ,when anyone is challenged he may take oath that he is entitled to vote1 in which case he will be given a ballot2 but such ballots are counted separately4 ,when a voter receives a ballot1 his name is checked off the voters' list4 ,various stalls or booths are provided1 into one of which the voter then goes and marks his ballot privately4 ,having finished marking it he folds the ballot and hands it to one of the polling officials who1 in the presence of the voter1 deposits it in the ballot box4 ,polls are kept open during designated hours1 usually from six or seven o'clock in the morning until five or six o'clock in the afternoon4 ,sidenote3 ,history of balloting4 ,the ,ballot4--,the history of the ballot in the ,united ,states is interesting4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,oral voting4 ,originally all votes were given orally4 ,the voter came to the polling place1 stated his choice aloud and the poll officials wrote it down4 ,the objection to this plan was that it precluded secrecy and left the voters open to intimidation4 ,then paper ballots came into use1 each party providing ballots for its own members4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the party ballot4 ,outside the polling place1 at each election1 stood a group of party workers each armed with a handful of ballots1 which were distributed to the voters as they came4 ,this method also was objectionable4 ,sidenote3 ,objections to the party ballot4 ,it encouraged the voting of a 8straight party ticket01 in other words it took for granted that everyone wished to vote for the entire slate of party candidates without exception4 ,if the voter desired to do otherwise1 it was necessary for him to scratch out the unacceptable names and write others in4 ,most voters would not go to this trouble4 ,this method of balloting was not secret1 because a voter could be watched from the time he received his ballot outside the polling place until he deposited it in the box4 ,this was an encouragement to bribery and intimidation4 ,it also facilitated fraud at elections since there was no limit upon the number of ballots printed by the parties and it was not difficult for dishonest voters or corrupt officials to slip extra ballots into the box4 ,this abuse1 known as 8stuffing0 the ballot box could only be prevented by having all the ballots officially printed4 ,when a definite number of official ballots is given to each polling place every ballot must be accounted for4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the ,australian ballot4 ,in nearly all the states1 therefore1 an official ballot is now used4 ,this is commonly known as the ,australian ballot4 ,usually the names of all the candidates are printed in parallel columns1 each party having a column of its own1 with the name and insignia of the party at the top4 ,immediately below the insignia is a circle in which the voter1 by marking a cross1 may record his vote for every one of the candidates in the entire column4 ,the voter who does this is said to vote a 8straight ticket04 ,but if he desires to vote for some of the candidates in the column of one party and for some in the column of another party1 he leaves the circle unmarked and places a cross after such individual names as he may choose4 ,this is called voting a 8split ticket04 ,in some states there are no party columns2 the names of the candidates are printed on the ballot in alphabetical order1 each name followed by a party designation4 ,in a few large cities1 such as ,boston and ,cleveland1 the party designation is omitted4 ,here the voter must pick and choose individually4 ,the party-column arrangement encourages the voting of straight tickets2 the alphabetical plan does not4#de ,sidenote3 ,evils of the long ballot4 ,the ,short ,ballot4--,throughout the ,united ,states the number of elective offices steadily increased during the nineteenth century4 ,the result was that ballots gradually became longer until in some cases the voters found themselves confronted with sheets of paper containing a hundred names or even more4 ,it proved exceedingly difficult to use proper discrimination among so many names and hence there arose an agitation for simplifying the ballot by reducing the number of positions to be filled by election4 ,in a democratic government all officials who have authority to decide questions of general policy--the ,president1 senators1 representatives1 governors1 assemblymen1 mayors1 councilors1 and the like--ought to be chosen by popular vote4 ,but there are many other officials1 such as state auditors1 county clerks1 and superintendents of schools1 whose duties are chiefly administrative4 ,these officials carry out a policy which is laid down for them by law1 and it is contended that they should not be elected but appointed4 ,if all such officials were made appointive1 the size of the ballot would be considerably reduced1 and the voters could concentrate their attention upon a smaller number of names4 ,a ballot is not an effective instrument of popular government unless it is simple enough for the average voter to use intelligently4 ,when a ballot is so long1 so complicated1 and so unwieldy that the voter is tempted by sheer exhaustion into voting a straight party ticket1 then the party leaders1 and not the people1 are really choosing the officers of government4 ,the movement for a 8short ballot0 aims to make government more truly democratic1 not less so4 ,sidenote3 ,defects of the ordinary ballot4 ,the ,preferential ,ballot4--,another defect of the ordinary ballot is that it allows the voter to indicate only a single choice for each office4 ,if there are five candidates for the office of mayor1 let us say1 the voter may mark his ballot for one of them only4 ,he is not permitted to indicate who would be his second choice1 or his third choice among the five4 ,whichever candidate gets the largest number of first choices among the voters is the winner1 although he may be the choice of a small minority4 ,to prevent this likelihood of election by a minority when there are several candidates in the field for a single office a system of 8preferential voting0 is sometimes used4 ,sidenote3 ,how the preferential system works4 ,where the preferential ballot is in use1 as it is in several ,american cities1 the voters are asked to indicate1 in columns provided for this purpose1 not only their first but their second and third choices and even their further choices among the various candidates4 ,the names of those candidates whom the voter does not want to support are left unmarked4 ,when preferential ballots are counted1 any candidate who has a clear majority of first choices is declared elected4 ,but if no candidate obtains a majority of first choices1 the second choices are added to the first choices and if the two totals combined give what would be a majority of first-choice votes1 the candidate who received them is declared elected4 ,in like manner the third choices are resorted to if necessary4#df ,the candidate elected by the preferential system is practically always the choice of a majority among the voters1 not the first choice of a majority always1 but one whom a majority have indicated their willingness to support4 ,the chief practical objection to the preferential ballot is that many voters do not take the trouble to mark their second and third choices4 ,sidenote3 ,the problem of minority representation4 ,proportional ,representation4#dg--,preferential voting should be distinguished from proportional representation1 which is a plan of choosing legislative bodies in such a way that all considerable groups of voters will be represented in proportion to their own numbers4 ,whenever several representatives are elected on the same ballot it usually happens that one political party secures them all4 ,so many voters adhere to the 8straight ticket0 that the entire party slate wins4 ,the minority party1 even though it may comprise nearly half the voters1 in such cases obtains no representation at all4 ,this1 of course1 does not give us a true system of representative government2 hence various plans have been put forward for securing to 8each considerable party or group of opinion0 a representation corresponding to its numerical strength among the voters4 ,the best known among these is the ,hare ,plan1 which has been used in several foreign countries and1 during recent years1 in a few ,american cities4#dh ,sidenote3 ,the ,hare plan explained4 ,this system of proportional representation is somewhat complicated but may be concisely described as follows3 ,first1 the names of all candidates are printed alphabetically on the ballot and the voter indicates his choices by marking the figure #a after the name of his first choice1 the figure #b after the name of his second choice1 and so on4 ,then1 when the polls are closed1 the election officers compute the number of votes needed to elect a candidate and this is called 8the quota04 ,this they do by dividing into the total number of votes cast the number of places to be filled1 plus one1 and then adding one to the quotient4 ,for example1 let us suppose that #aj1jjj votes have been cast and that there are seven candidates to be elected4 ,ten thousand divided by eight 7seven plus one7 is #abej and any candidate who receives #abea first-choice votes is declared elected4 ,if such candidate1 however1 has more votes than enough to fill his quota1 the surplus votes are distributed in accordance with the indicated second-choices among candidates whose quotas have not been filled4 ,if enough candidates are not elected by this process1 the candidate with the smallest number of first choices is then dropped and his votes are distributed in the same way4 ,this process of elimination and distribution goes on until enough candidates have filled their quotas or until the successive eliminations have left no more than enough to fill the vacant positions4 ,this plan is not a model of simplicity1 of course1 but it is not so difficult to understand as one might at first glance imagine1 nor in its actual workings does it present any serious complications4 ,what the voter has to do is simple enough4 ,in so far as there are any difficulties they arise in connection with counting the ballots1 not in marking them4 ,the plan is workable and the attainment of proportional representation in all our legislative bodies would be a great gain4 ,sidenote3 ,majorities and pluralities4 ,counting the ,votes4--,when the polls are closed the ballots are counted by the officials of the polling place in accordance with whatever plan is used4 ,with ordinary ballots the counting does not take very long2 if preferential ballots are used1 or if a system of proportional representation is in vogue1 the counting takes a good deal longer4 ,when a candidate receives more than one-half of all the polled votes1 he is declared to have a majority2 when he merely obtains more votes than the next highest candidate he is said to have a plurality4 ,in the ,united ,states1 at nearly all elections1 a plurality is sufficient4 ,when the counting is finished the result is certified to the proper higher officials4 ,a recount can usually be had at the demand of any candidate1 and recounts often take place when the result is close4 ,sidenote3 ,types of corruption4 ,corrupt ,practices at ,elections4--,all elections afford some opportunity for corrupt practices and various safeguards are provided against their occurrence4 ,personation is the offence of voting under a name which is not your own4 ,voters who have died since the lists were compiled1 or who are absent1 are sometimes impersonated by men who have no right to vote at all4 ,vigilance on the part of the election officers helps to prevent personation although the officials can hardly be expected to know everyone who comes to the polls4 ,repeating is the offence of voting twice at the same election4 ,to do this a voter must first1 by fraudulent means1 become enrolled as a voter in two or more precincts or districts4 ,ballot-box stuffing is the practice of putting in the box ballots which have no right to be there4 ,with the ,australian ballot the practice is very infrequent4 ,ballot-switching is the placing of marks on the ballots1 surreptitiously1 while the ballots are being counted4 ,a dishonest official1 with a small piece of lead under his fingernail1 has sometimes been able to spoil or to 8switch0 ballots by marking additional crosses on them during the process of counting4 ,intimidation is the offence of influencing a voter's action by threats or wrongful pressure4 ,bribery1 of course1 is self-explanatory4 ,all these practices involve moral turpitude and are forbidden under severe penalties4 ,they have now become relatively uncommon at ,american elections4#di ,absent ,voting4--,it frequently happens1 in the nature of things1 that many voters cannot conveniently be in their home districts on election day4 ,soldiers and sailors1 commercial travelers1 railway conductors1 engineers and trainmen1 fishermen1 students in universities are obvious examples4 ,it has been estimated that in ,massachusetts the number of voters who are necessarily absent from their homes on election day averages about thirty thousand4 ,many others1 in order to cast their ballots1 are put to considerable expense and inconvenience4 ,now it has seemed desirable1 in many of the states1 to make some provision whereby those voters may cast their ballots without being actually at the polls on election day4 ,the usual arrangement is that a voter who expects to be absent on election day must apply1 some time before the election date1 to a designated official for a ballot4 ,this ballot is then marked by the voter and sealed in an envelope4 ,the envelope is attested before a notary public and deposited with an election official who sees that it is counted when other ballots are counted4 ,in some states the blank ballot is sent by mail to absent voters who request it1 and after being marked the ballot is returned by mail before the election day4 ,the chief objection to absent voting is that it gives an opportunity for fraud1 but in practice this has not proved to be a serious objection4 ,compulsory ,voting4--,compulsory voting does not exist anywhere in the ,united ,states at the present time although it has been frequently proposed4 ,voting has been made compulsory1 however1 with legal penalties for failure to vote1 in several foreign countries1 notably in ,belgium1 in ,spain1 and in ,new ,zealand4 ,the usual procedure is to impose a fine upon every voter who1 without good excuse1 stays away from the polls on election day1 or1 for repeated absences1 to strike his name off the voters' list altogether4 ,sidenote3 ,the arguments for compulsory voting4 ,compulsory voting rests upon the argument that1 in a democracy1 the right to vote imposes a duty to vote4 ,the citizen must serve on a jury in time of peace and in the army during war whether he likes these forms of public service or not4 ,why1 then1 should he be allowed to shirk his duty to vote1 a duty which must be performed if democratic government is to survive8 ,if one voter has the right to stay away from the polls1 every other voter has the same right4 ,and if all followed this policy1 we could not maintain a 8representative0 form of government4 ,but there is another side to the question4 ,the voter who goes to the polls because he will be fined if he stays away will not cast his ballot with much discrimination1 intelligence1 or patriotism4 ,sidenote3 ,are they valid8 ,would the votes of such men be worth counting8 ,would they contribute anything to the cause of good government8 ,moreover1 it has been demonstrated by foreign experience that while you can compel a voter to go to the polls and drop a ballot in the box you cannot compel him to mark his ballot properly1 for he marks it in secret4 ,in one of the ,swiss cities some years ago it was found that the chief result of compulsory voting was to induce many hundreds of reluctant voters to drop blank ballots in the box4 ,it can well be argued that voting is a duty1 but it is a duty which ought to be performed from motives of patriotism and not from dread of the penalties4 ,most citizens do not require compulsion and it is questionable whether forcing others to vote would1 in the long run1 serve any useful purpose4 ,sidenote3 ,the merits and defects of voting machines4 ,voting by ,machine4--,in some cities of the ,united ,states the experiment of permitting the voter to record his choice by means of a voting machine has been tried with varying degrees of success4 ,a voting machine is constructed upon much the same principles as a cash register4 ,the keys bear the names of the various candidates and the voter merely steps behind a curtain where he presses one key after another just as he would mark crosses on a printed ballot4 ,the mechanism is so arranged that a voter cannot press two keys which register for the same office4 ,the voting machine plan has some distinct advantages in that it does away entirely with the trouble and expense of printing ballots2 it eliminates spoiled ballots1 it precludes all chance of tampering with the votes1 and it ensures an accurate count4 ,on the other hand the machines are expensive both to install and to maintain1 particularly when several machines are needed for each polling place4 ,moreover1 like all other complicated mechanisms1 they get out of order1 and when they do this on election day it makes a bad mess of things4 ,it is doubtful whether they will ever supplant the printed ballot plan of voting4 ,summary4--,in order that any systems of popular voting shall be permanently successful it is necessary that the ballot shall be simple1 intelligible1 and secret4 ,it must not be so long as to bewilder the voter of average intelligence1 and it ought to give the voter a reasonable chance to 8split0 his ballot without running a serious risk of spoiling it4 ,a short ballot is a far more effective instrument of democracy than a long ballot4 ,another essential is that the polling place shall be adequately safeguarded against fraudulent practices of any sort and that the counting of votes shall be conducted with absolute honesty4 ,any corrupt practice in connection with elections is a blow at the very heart of democracy4 ,we hear a good deal1 from time to time1 about unfairness1 fraud1 and corruption at elections in the ,united ,states1 particularly at elections in the larger cities4 ,while these things occur now and then they are much less frequent than they used to be4 ,american elections1 taking them as a whole1 are conducted with as much fairness and honesty as the elections which are held in any other country4 ,rival parties and candidates try hard to win2 they seize every opportunity to gain political advantages over their opponents1 and in so doing often travel very close to the line which separates right from wrong2 but on the whole they try to keep within the letter of the election laws4 ,transgressions of the law may bring some temporary success but in the long run they do not pay1 and the politicians know it4 ,general ,references ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #acj-aia2 ,p4 ,o4 ,,ray1 ,political ,parties and ,practical ,politics1 pp4 #aji-afd2 #bih-cba2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of ,american ,cities1 pp4 #ajb-aeb2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,readings on ,parties and ,elections1 pp4 #bab-bej2 ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,state ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #adc-afd2 ,k4 ,h4 ,,porter1 ,a ,history of ,suffrage in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bj-df and passim2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,willoughby and ,,lindsay ,,rogers1 ,introduction to the ,problem of ,government1 pp4 #ajg-abf 7,popular ,government74 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the direct primary3 is it a success8 ,earlier methods of nomination4 ,evils of the caucus and convention4 ,why the direct primary was established4 ,the different types of primary4 ,effect of the primary on the party system4 ,has it curbed the power of the bosses8 ,cost of the primary system4 ,percentage of votes polled at primaries4 ,has the primary secured better candidates8 ,can it be improved8 ,probable effects of the pre-primary informal convention4 ,if not the primary1 what then8 ,references3 ,c4 ,e4 ,,merriam1 ,primary ,elections1 pp4 #aag-acb2 #acc-agf2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,dallinger1 ,nominations for ,elective ,office in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ie-abf2 ,r4 ,s4 ,,boots1 ,the ,direct ,primary in ,new ,jersey1 passim2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #bbh-bdb2 ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,state ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ahb-bjd2 ,c4 ,g4 ,,haines and ,,bertha ,,haines1 ,principles and ,problems of ,government1 pp4 #acg-aej2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,readings on ,parties and ,elections1 pp4 #ec-gi2 ,p4 ,o4 ,,ray1 ,political ,parties and ,practical ,politics1 pp4 #adj-afd2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popular ,government1 pp4 #de-ig4 #b4 ,how can the ballot be improved8 ,references3 ,e4 ,c4 ,,evans1 ,history of the ,australian ,ballot in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ag-dg2 ,r4 ,s4 ,,childs1 ,short ,ballot ,principles1 passim2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #bfb-bgb2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #dgd-dhg2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #cfd-chc2 ,c4 ,g4 ,,haines and ,,bertha ,,haines1 ,principles and ,problems of ,government1 pp4 #aea-aff2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popular ,government1 pp4 #bdb-bfi2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ajj-ajd4 #c4 ,proportional representation in theory and in practice4 ,references3 ,j4 ,r4 ,,commons1 ,proportional ,representation1 pp4 #ii-aca2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,willoughby and ,,lindsay ,,rogers1 ,introduction to the ,problem of ,government1 pp4 #bfc-bge 7also ,appendix iii72 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #bh 7,proportional ,representation72 ,american ,proportional ,representation ,league1 ,pamphlets1 especially ,nos4 #f and #h4 7,the headquarters of the ,league are at ,haverford1 ,pa41 and material relating to proportional representation can be had on application47 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the gradual extension of the suffrage in the ,united ,states4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #acj-aej4 #b4 ,who have the right to vote in ,european countries8 ,f4 ,a4 ,,ogg1 ,the ,governments of ,europe 7see index74 #c4 ,qualifications for voting in the different states4 ,world ,almanac1 #aiah4 #d4 ,how ,american elections are conducted4 ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,state ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bje-bci4 #e4 ,how voters are enrolled4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #bbj-bbg4 #f4 ,the preferential ballot4 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #bg 7,preferential ,voting74 7,see also ,national ,municipal ,review1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #chf-djj1 ,july1 #aiab47 #g4 ,the short ballot4 ,r4 ,s4 ,,childs1 ,short ,ballot ,principles1 especially pp4 #ba-cj2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,state ,government1 pp4 #cgb-chc4 #h4 ,compulsory voting4 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #bd 7,compulsory ,voting74 #i4 ,corrupt practices at elections4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,readings on ,parties and ,elections1 pp4 #bjb-cjb4 #aj4 ,are elections as fairly conducted in the ,united ,states as in other countries8 ,,charles ,,seymour and ,,donald ,o4 ,,frary1 ,how the ,world ,votes 7see index74 ,questions #a4 ,is the right to vote a natural right or merely a privilege conferred by the state8 #b4 ,who have the right to vote at elections in your state8 ,who are excluded8 ,in order to vote1 how long must one reside in your state8 ,your county8 ,your precinct8 #c4 ,who enrolls voters in your community8 ,when and where do they enroll voters8 ,what evidence must you supply in order to be enrolled8 #d4 ,make a diagram of a polling place showing its interior arrangement1 the booths in which voters mark their ballots1 the location of the ballot box1 etc4 #e4 ,what are the different forms of primary and which form do you think is the best 7a7 for state nominations2 7b7 for local nominations8 #f4 ,what effects would the use of the short ballot have upon 7a7 the efficiency of government2 7b7 popular interest at elections2 7c7 the quality of the officials chosen8 #g4 ,explain the difference between preferential voting1 proportional representation1 limited voting1 and cumulative voting4 #h4 ,explain the difference between corrupt and illegal practices at elections4 ,make a list of each4 #i4 ,what are some of the reasons why so many voters stay away from the polls on election day8 ,are the following excuses valid3 8,i do not approve of either political party02 8,my vote doesn't count for anything02 8,i am too busy02 8,i am not interested in politics02 8,it is a rainy day and ,i might catch cold02 8,i have an engagement to play golf02 8,the polling place is too far away02 8,i do not think any of the candidates worth voting for08 #aj4 ,what are some of the practical objections to making voting compulsory8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,there should be an educational test for voting4 #b4 ,the failure to vote1 in the absence of a valid excuse1 should be punished by some appropriate penalty4 #c4 ,there should be a limit on the amount of money that may be legally spent by candidates in election campaigns4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,good ,,administration ,by ,elihu ,vedder ,from a mural decoration in the ,library of ,congress4 ,good ,administration1 with benign countenance1 sits upon her throne1 a perfect arch above her head4 ,as the strength of an arch depends upon all its parts equally1 so the maintenance of a strong and efficient administration depends upon the co-operation of all elements among the people4 ,in her right hand ,good ,administration holds evenly the scales of justice2 her left hand rests upon a quartered shield to indicate the fair balance of all parties and classes4 ,on her lap is the book of the law4 ,at her feet1 on either side1 is an urn4 ,into one of these urns a maiden is winnowing wheat drawn from the waving fields in the background4 ,the people also1 in choosing their public officials1 should winnow well4 ,into the other urn an eager youth1 with books of knowledge under his left arm1 is casting his ballot4 ,mr4 ,vedder has also executed for the ,library of ,congress a companion figure portraying ,corrupt ,administration4 ,she holds the scales1 unevenly balanced1 in her left hand4 ,a seeker of special favors is placing a bag of gold in the scales2 he has seized the book of the law and upset the ballot urn4 ,illustration3 ,,good ,,administration4 ,by ,elihu ,vedder ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,viii ,,political ,,parties ,,and ,,practical ,,politics ,the purpose of this chapter is to describe how political parties are organized1 what they do1 and how they do it4 ,sidenote3 ,parties are natural groups4 ,why ,political ,parties are ,formed4--,whenever people are in control of their government1 political parties are certain to be formed4 ,no popular government has long continued anywhere in the world without political parties4 ,the reason for this is that whenever any group of people find that they have the same opinions or the same interests they desire to act together4 ,if people are interested in music they organize an orchestra or a choral society and arrange concerts4 ,if men are interested in trade1 they organize themselves into a board of trade to promote their mutual interests4 ,workmen associate themselves together in labor unions2 boys who are interested in athletics organize clubs2 men who have been in the military and naval service associate themselves together in the ,american ,legion1 and so it goes4 ,people who have the same opinions1 desires1 ideas1 and interests tend to group themselves together1 which is a perfectly natural thing for them to do4 ,now large numbers of men and women have identical political opinions 7or think they have7 and this community of interest draws them together into groups4 ,such groups we call political parties4 ,the ,republican party is made up of men and women who believe in certain political principles which are set forth in the party platform2 the ,democratic party is made up of those who hold a different set of opinions4 ,whenever a large body of people wish the government to do something which is not already being done they soon find that the best way to achieve their end is to organize4#ej ,sidenote3 ,their first aim is to win elections4 ,the ,aims of ,political ,parties4--,every political party has two aims4 ,the first is to get control of the government2 the second is to carry out its own policy by means of this control4 ,to do this they must nominate candidates for office1 raise funds for carrying on a campaign1 and work to elect their men4 ,it is only by electing their own candidates for office that they can accomplish the ends for which they are organized4 ,an army does not exist merely to teach men drill or discipline4 ,its chief aim is to win victories4 ,drill and discipline are merely a means to this end4 ,so with a political party4 ,its organization1 leaders1 campaign work1 and all other activities have one purpose in mind1 namely1 to win victories at the polls4 ,then1 when the party has elected its candidates and obtained control of the government it can carry its program into effect4 ,occasionally a party secures its chief aim without gaining control of the government1 as the ,prohibition party did in #aibj4 ,sidenote3 ,but the aim of a political party is not altogether selfish4 ,definition of a ,political ,party4--,having seen why political parties are formed and what they aim to do we are now in a position to frame a definition4 ,a political party is a group of men and women who think alike on public questions and have joined themselves together in order to gain control of the government so that they can carry their opinions into practice4 ,the aim of a party is not always selfish1 however1 as this definition might imply4 ,most members of a political party believe that in endeavoring to get control of the government they are promoting the public interest4 ,their aim is to bring into operation certain policies which they believe will benefit the whole people4 ,the ,democratic party urged a revision of tariff ten years ago because its members believed that lower duties on imports would help the ,united ,states as a whole and not because the ,democrats1 as distinct from the ,republicans1 would derive the whole advantage4 ,the ,republicans1 for their part1 have favored high duties on imports because they believe that ,american industry ought to be protected against foreign competition4 ,both parties seek to promote the general interest1 but in different ways4 ,sidenote3 ,habit is an important factor in party strength4 ,party ,divisions ,tend to ,become ,permanent4--,parties are originally formed to promote a particular policy1 but when they have gained control of the government and have put their program into practice they do not go out of existence4 ,they continue1 and people remain members of the party1 largely from force of habit4 ,each party takes up new ideas1 gains some new members and loses some old ones4 ,the mill keeps on turning although new forms of grist are brought to be ground and new workmen guide the wheels4 ,men and women who reach voting age join one or another of the parties1 sometimes because they are influenced by its principles1 more often because their parents have belonged to that party4 ,thus it happens that over long periods of time a party may remain strong among the people in one section of the country and weak in another4 ,the reason is not that the party's policy at the moment happens to be popular in one area and unpopular in the other4 ,habit influences people in politics as in everything else4 ,when a man has voted several times with one political party he is not likely to desert it even though the party's program changes4 ,not only that but his sons and daughters will probably join the same political party4 ,pennsylvania has gone ,republican at every national election for more than sixty years although a wholly new set of voters has grown up2 ,texas on the other hand has never failed to support the ,democratic ticket for just as long a period4 ,the whole of the 8,solid ,south01 in fact1 goes ,democratic with unfailing regularity1 and has done so ever since the ,reconstruction4 ,a political party thus retains a strong hold upon large bodies of voters1 old and new1 even though it may change its policies from time to time4 ,sidenote3 ,the active work of parties4 ,the ,functions of ,political ,parties4--,could we get along without parties8 ,perhaps we could1 but ,american government would have to be carried on very differently if parties did not exist4 ,if you watch an election campaign1 you will notice that several things happen in the course of it4 ,first1 there is a great deal of public discussion about candidates4 ,then1 some time before the election1 candidates are nominated4 ,platforms are drawn up stating the things which each candidate favors4 ,the candidates1 together with other speakers1 go out and make addresses2 pamphlets are distributed broadcast giving reasons why people should vote for one candidate or the other2 meetings and rallies are held in halls and on the street corners2 the newspapers print the arguments on the respective sides2 the people are worked up to a white heat of enthusiasm2 and finally1 on the day of election1 the issue is decided4 ,now how would all this be done if there were no political parties8 ,candidates cannot be nominated without organized effort2 platforms do not make themselves2 the people cannot be stirred to an active interest on one side or the other except by a vigorous campaign2 without parties1 indeed1 an election would be a very dull and uninteresting affair4 ,sidenote3 ,parties perform three important functions3 ,the conclusion is1 therefore1 that political parties have various definite functions to perform1 and these may be summarized under three heads4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,they nominate candidates and frame platforms4 ,first1 they nominate candidates and tell the people about them4 ,this information is given in their platforms1 of which more will be said a little later4 ,sidenote3 ,they rouse interest among the voters4 ,second1 they rouse public interest by their rallies1 their pamphlets1 circulars1 articles in newspapers1 and posters1 as well as by personal canvassing4 ,this rousing of the voter is very important1 because most men and women are chiefly concerned with their own business and personal affairs4 ,even after all these methods of getting them interested have been used it will be found that two or three voters out of every ten have failed to go to the polls on election day4 ,what would happen if there were no rallies1 circulars1 canvassers1 and all the rest8 ,in that case most of the voters would probably manifest no interest at all1 and the election would be decided by a small portion of the people4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,they bring the various branches of government into harmony4 ,third1 the parties provide a chain which holds the various officers of the government to a joint responsibility4 ,we elect a great many public officers to perform different functions4 ,members of the legislature are elected to make laws2 governors and other state officers to administer these laws2 and judges to help enforce them4 ,to get the best results all three groups of public officials must work in harmony4 ,but if each were elected independently and without any reference to the others1 there would be little chance of their working together4 ,when they do work together it is because they have been elected to carry out a common policy4 ,this is the chain which holds them together--allegiance to the same political party4 ,if every public official followed his own ideas1 we should have one set of men making the laws and another set of men throwing obstacles in the way of their enforcement4#ea ,if there were no political parties1 something else would have to be organized to take their place4 ,the things which the party does must be done somehow4 ,we cannot have democratic government unless candidates are nominated1 platforms framed1 public interest aroused1 and officials encouraged to work together in a common cause4 ,political parties do not always perform these functions well1 but what sort of organization would be likely to manage them any better8 ,sidenote3 ,the political 8factions0 of early days4 ,when and ,how did ,political ,parties ,begin8--,it is difficult to say how or when political parties originated4 ,someone once remarked that even at the time of the ,flood there were two political parties1 namely1 the ,deluvians and the ,antedeluvians4 ,john ,adams declared that 8parties began with human nature04 ,in a sense he was right4 ,anyone who has read ,roman history will remember the long and bitter struggle between the patricians and the plebeians4 ,the ,guelphs and ,ghibellines of the ,middle ,ages were political parties although their rivalry often assumed the form of open warfare4 ,the ,cavaliers and ,roundheads of ,cromwell's time armed themselves and fought for the control of the government with muskets and sabres1 not with ballots4 ,they were parties1 dynastic parties4 ,but the violent conflict of parties eventually gave way to orderly contests at the polls1 and men found that they could belong to different political parties without thereby becoming personal enemies of one another4 ,so ,whigs and ,tories arose in ,england before the ,american ,revolution1 and corresponding groups were to be found in the thirteen ,american colonies4 ,sidenote3 ,the first ,american parties4 ,but the real history of political parties in the ,united ,states did not begin until after the adoption of the constitution1 when ,hamilton and ,jefferson became leaders of opposing elements among the people4 ,hamilton and his followers1 the ,federalists1 desired to strengthen the central government2 ,jefferson and his supporters1 calling themselves ,democratic-,republicans1 desired to keep the central government weak and to place the balance of power in the hands of the states4 ,in the end ,jefferson's party obtained the upper hand1 but by having things too much its own way finally lost its solidarity and split into several factions4 ,party politics gave way for a time to personal politics1 the voters ranging themselves behind leaders rather than principles2 but presently the various factions consolidated into two parties known as ,whigs and ,democrats4 ,the ,whig party eventually went to pieces and in its place arose the ,republican organization which elected ,lincoln in #ahfj4 ,since that date the ,democrats and ,republicans have continued to be the two leading parties4 ,sidenote3 ,the distinction between principles1 policies1 and issues4 ,what the ,leading ,political ,parties ,stand for4--,the general ideas upon which the members of a political party agree are incorporated into its platform and are commonly known as the party's principles4 ,for example1 a party may pledge itself to the principle of promoting foreign trade1 or conserving the natural resources of the country1 or keeping aloof from the affairs of ,europe4 ,the methods by which these principles are to be carried into effect constitute the party's policy4 ,the principle of promoting foreign trade1 to take an example1 may be carried into effect by lending money or credit to exporters1 as was done after the ,world ,war4 ,but the different parties do not usually agree upon either principles or policy1 and this divergence gives rise to party issues or points of conflict between the parties4 ,it is not easy to set forth in concise form the principal issues4 ,during the campaign of #aiaf the attitude of the ,united ,states towards the great ,european conflict was the pivot of attention2 in #aibj the question whether ,america should or should not enter the ,league of ,nations crowded most of the other issues into the background4 ,the main planks in party platform change from one election to another4#eb ,during the past twenty years the platforms of both parties have dealt with a wide variety of matters2 but the disagreement between the two parties has not always been clean-cut and in some cases it has left the voter little to choose between them4 ,on some matters the two leading platforms are openly opposed2 on others they are very much alike1 and on some others1 again1 they are so ambiguous that it is difficult to tell just where they differ4 ,as a practical matter it is not always wise to take an absolutely definite stand in the party platform1 for conditions may change and by so doing place the party in the position of having pledged something which ought not1 in view of the changed conditions1 to be carried out4 ,the ,minor ,parties4--,americans1 on the whole1 have accepted the two-party system4 ,the great majority of voters are either ,republicans or ,democrats4 ,nevertheless the platforms of these two parties never suit all the people and the result is that minor parties1 or 8third0 parties as they are sometimes called1 come into existence from time to time4 ,during the past hundred years a dozen or more of these minor parties have been formed but with two or three exceptions they have soon melted away4#ec ,these exceptions are the ,prohibition party1 which was organized in #ahgb for the purpose of securing the complete suppression of the liquor traffic in the ,united ,states4 ,the adoption of the ,eighteenth ,amendment gave this party the chief thing that it had been contending for1 but it has not yet gone out of existence4 ,the ,socialist party is the other example of a 8third party0 which has continued to be active for a considerable period4 ,sidenote3 ,why 8third parties0 rarely survive4 ,in the ,united ,states minor parties do not usually live long4 ,very few of them survive a dozen years4 ,there are reasons for this4 ,in the first place the ,democrats and ,republicans are constantly adapting their platforms to the needs of the country4 ,when any movement among the people becomes strong enough1 one of the leading parties takes it up4 ,if large numbers of voters1 for example1 should desire the abolition of divorces1 one of the political parties would soon put an 8anti-divorce plank0 in its platform1 and would thereby prevent any new party from making much headway on that particular issue4 ,in the second place the ,american voters1 taking them as a whole1 have become accustomed to the two-party system4 ,very few of them are willing to forsake the old party organizations without strong reasons for doing so4 ,when they do1 temporarily1 as a great many ,republicans did in #aiab and a great many ,democrats in #aibj1 they usually drift back again before very long4 ,a new party1 moreover1 is difficult to organize and expensive to maintain4 ,it has no chance to win the election and most people do not care to belong to an organization which never wins4 ,so the easiest way to get new things adopted in public policy is to persuade one of the leading parties to champion them4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,socialist platform4 ,the ,socialist ,party4--,among the 8third parties0 which exist at the present day the ,socialist party is the strongest4 ,it has a program widely different from that of either the ,republicans or the ,democrats4 ,the ,socialist party is organized to promote the public ownership of railroads1 telegraphs1 telephones1 mines1 forests1 factories1 and all other such economic instrumentalities4 ,in addition to its economic program the ,socialist party advocates the adoption of various political changes such as the abolition of the ,united ,states ,senate1 the election of all judges for short terms1 and the abolition of the ,supreme ,court's power to declare laws unconstitutional4 ,in point of strength at the polls the ,socialist party stands far below either of the two leading parties4 ,it is much weaker in the ,united ,states than in the various countries of ,europe4 ,sidenote3 ,is 8independence0 a virtue8 ,the ,voter's ,relation to ,parties4--,so long as political parties are essential in representative government1 and so long as they perform useful functions1 it is the duty of every citizen to affiliate with some political party if he can honestly do so4 ,there are times1 of course1 when the voter of independent views cannot honestly support any of the existing parties4 ,on this point every voter must make his or her own individual decision4 ,there is no inherent virtue in being an 8independent02 for if every voter persisted in assuming that attitude1 there would be no political parties at all1 and democracy would in the long run suffer rather than gain as a result4 ,most voters1 as a matter of fact1 belong to one of the leading parties and support the candidates of this party at every election4 ,they are commonly called the regular members of the party4 ,but membership in a political party does not mean that one is under obligation to support that party under all circumstances4 ,it is possible to belong to a political party and yet retain a reasonable degree of independence4 ,a political party gains1 indeed1 by having in its ranks a sprinkling of men and women who know their own minds on political questions and will not tamely follow wherever the party chiefs may lead4 ,sidenote3 ,the need of party leadership and discipline4 ,let us remember1 however1 that a political party1 like an army1 requires discipline and leadership for its success4 ,if every soldier insisted on following his own inclinations rather than the advice or orders of his officers1 he would never be on the winning side in any battles4 ,so1 if every voter declines to be led by anyone's counsel but his own1 there will be no unity of party effort and no real triumph of one set of principles over another4 ,to secure any substantial improvement in government1 large groups of men and women must pull together4 ,this means that they must have a platform1 an organization1 and capable leaders1 which is equivalent to saying that they must act as a political party4 ,sidenote3 ,the citizen's duty4 ,parties are ,what the ,people ,make ,them4--,the choice of a political party is one of the means by which the citizen in a democracy exercises his sovereign power4 ,a political party is merely what its members make it4 ,no chain is stronger than the links which compose it2 and no political party ever represents a higher grade of intelligence or patriotism than its members provide4 ,if a political party becomes selfish or corrupt1 the remedy lies in the hands of the people4 ,honest men and women will then desert that party2 it will fail to win elections1 and ultimately go to pieces4 ,on the other hand if a political party is honest in its principles1 wise in its policy1 patriotic in its ideals1 and progressive in its sympathies1 it will draw recruits from among the thousands of men and women who reach voting age each year4 ,it will grow in strength4 ,the voter can best display his zeal as a citizen by joining a party and helping to make it a power for good4 ,sidenote3 ,organization helps to win victories4 ,the ,need for ,party ,organization4--,organization is the watchword of every political party4 ,without organization there is no chance to win elections and put the party's policies into operation4 ,very little is ever achieved in this world without coperation4 ,however competent an individual may be1 there are limits to what he can do4 ,it is not the brilliant player that wins the game1 but the well-trained team4 ,napoleon ,bonaparte once said that organization and discipline counted for seventy-five per cent of victory4 ,these things are quite as important in politics as in war4 ,organization1 in party politics1 involves three things1 leadership1 coperation1 and money4 ,no party is well-organized unless it possesses all three4 ,for this reason every strong political party uses care in selecting its leaders1 builds up a system of party conventions and party committees1 and raises campaign funds to pay the necessary expenses of its work4 ,local ,party ,organization4--,let us see how this organization is effected4 ,beginning at the bottom each party has its local committees4 ,these committees are generally chosen by the voters of the party at the primary elections1 and they have charge of the party interests in the town or township1 county or district1 as the case may be4 ,in the large cities there is a committee for each ward and a general committee covering the whole city4 ,these local committees arrange for political meetings in their own neighborhood and help to bring out the voters on election day4 ,they work in harmony with the state committee4 ,state ,party ,organization4--,next come the state organizations4 ,the party organization in the states consists of a state central committee and a state convention4 ,sidenote3 ,the state committee4 ,the members of the state committee are sometimes elected by the voters in the various congressional or state senatorial districts2 sometimes they are named by the county conventions1 and occasionally they are chosen by the state convention4 ,the committee's functions are to issue the call for conventions 7or in some states for primaries71 to raise and spend the campaign funds in state elections1 to arrange the plans for the state campaign1 and to supervise so far as practicable the work of the local committees4 ,sidenote3 ,the state convention4 ,the state convention is made up of a large body of delegates who are directly elected by the party voters or chosen by the district or county conventions4 ,it meets a short time prior to each state election and one of its chief duties is to prepare the party's platform4#ed ,each political party holds its own convention4 ,sidenote3 ,the national convention4 ,national ,party ,organization4--,in the early years of the ,republic1 candidates for the presidency were nominated by congressional caucuses1 that is1 by meetings of the party's representatives in ,congress4 ,but this method was discarded about #ahbd and in due course national party conventions were called to make these nominations4 ,at present these national conventions meet every four years1 during the summer preceding the presidential election4 ,republicans1 ,democrats1 ,prohibitionists1 and ,socialists all hold their own conventions4 ,in the case of the two leading parties the conventions are made up of delegates from every state and territory1 these delegates being directly chosen at primaries or named by the state conventions4 ,the national conventions choose the candidates for the presidency and the vice presidency4 ,they also frame the party platforms1 this work being done through committees4 ,sidenote3 ,the national committee4 ,the chief permanent organ of each party is a national committee made up of one member from each state1 who is either chosen by the voters at the primary election or selected by the delegates from the state to the national convention4 ,the national committee chooses its own chairman1 who has general charge of the party's interests in the campaign2 but in making its choice the national committee usually defers to the wishes of the party's presidential candidate4 ,how the ,national ,party ,convention does its ,work4--,the national party conventions usually meet in some large city1 such as ,chicago1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,baltimore1 or ,san ,francisco4 ,sidenote3 ,the convention hall4 ,an enormous auditorium is needed for the gathering because a national convention consists of nearly a thousand delegates and an equal number of alternates4 ,among bodies which have to do with government the national party convention is the largest in the world4 ,the delegates are seated by alphabetical order of the states1 ,alabama first and ,wyoming last1 each state having its delegates grouped together4 ,large placards or banners show where each state is placed4 ,sidenote3 ,what a national convention is like4 ,the delegates are arranged in the front part of the hall1 the alternates in the rear4 ,whenever a delegate leaves the auditorium an alternate goes forward to sit in his place4 ,the galleries are filled with spectators and there is a huge bustle going on all the time4 ,it is hard for the speakers to make themselves heard1 as only a thunder-voiced orator can make his words rise above the din which goes on continually4 ,at times1 when a popular candidate appears1 there is a general pandemonium4 ,a band starts around the aisles1 playing as it goes4 ,delegates fall in behind the band1 cheering and shouting4 ,for half an hour1 perhaps longer1 this racket continues4 ,then the noise subsides and the convention gets back to its work--until the next commotion begins4 ,sidenote3 ,the balloting4 ,after various names have been proposed1 the convention begins to ballot4 ,if no candidate receives a sufficient majority1 another ballot is taken4 ,in the ,republican convention the successful candidate must get a majority of all the delegates2 in the ,democratic convention the requirement is two thirds4 ,when there are several candidates in the running1 many ballotings are sometimes required4 ,day after day the voting goes on1 if necessary1 until somebody wins4#ee ,the weaker candidates drop out2 the stronger ones keep gaining1 until finally the fight narrows down to two or three and the victor emerges4 ,then the tired delegates rush through the remaining business and start for home4 ,sidenote3 ,reasons for the existence of machines4 ,the ,party ,machine4--,the active workers in these conventions and committees make up what is called the 8machine04 ,it is called a machine because all its parts work smoothly together in the effort to obtain the desired result1 which is to win the election4 ,there are party organizations in other countries1 but party 8machines0 exist only in the ,united ,states4 ,various reasons account for this4 ,one is the frequency of elections1 which creates a class of professional politicians4 ,there are more elections in the ,united ,states than in any other country4 ,another reason is the organizing power of the ,american people1 and the zeal with which they throw themselves into an election campaign4 ,the practice of giving the appointive offices to leaders of the victorious party also has something to do with it4 ,many men give their time and energy to electioneering because they expect to get favors in return4 ,the function of the 8machine0 is to serve the party1 and through the party to serve the people4 ,but the 8machine0 often goes beyond this purpose4 ,sidenote3 ,how they lead to abuses4 ,its leaders1 finding themselves in control of great power1 are tempted to use it for their own personal profit and advantage4 ,they become arbitrary1 dictating what shall go into the party platform and who shall be nominated4 ,the party leader who does this becomes a party 8boss01 and when groups of bosses control the party they are commonly known as 8rings04 ,sidenote3 ,what is a 8boss08 ,rings and ,bosses4--,the 8boss0 in politics is just like any other kind of boss4 ,his will is law1 so far as all his underlings are concerned4 ,the difference between a party leader and a party boss is that the leader is chosen by the free action of the party and exercises his functions openly1 while the boss usurps the control of his party and utilizes it for his own ends without assuming any open responsibility4 ,sidenote3 ,why bosses are dangerous4 ,the leader leads and the boss drives4 ,party leaders are necessary to good party organization1 but the party 8boss0 is a menace to the best interests of the party and to the cause of honest government4 ,great power must sometimes be placed in the hands of one man2 but care should be taken that every man who wields great power in a democracy is made responsible for the use of this authority4 ,power1 when checked by responsibility1 is not dangerous4 ,a party 8boss0 is dangerous because he has the power and abuses it4 ,he controls a great 8machine0 without being accountable to anybody even when he directs it against the public interest4 ,he gives favors to his friends and the public pays the bills4 ,sidenote3 ,how 8rings0 are formed4 ,rings are groups of bosses and are more dangerous because they are stronger4 ,four or five unscrupulous men working together are stronger than one working alone4 ,so when bosses unite1 they are often able to nominate whomsoever they please and to secure the election of incompetent or supine men4 ,rings and bosses operate largely in city and state government because the opportunity to gain control there is much greater than in national affairs4 ,the smaller the election district1 the more chance the boss has for making himself the master of it4 ,the people as a whole cannot spend much time over politics2 the boss is always at work1 from one end of the year to the other4 ,he makes friends with everybody who can help him4 ,he is always ready to do favors4 ,then1 when election day comes1 he expects his friends to stand by him4#ef ,sidenote3 ,party revenue4 ,how ,parties are ,financed4--,the work which political parties do1 such as holding conventions1 framing platforms1 and conducting a campaign requires a great deal of money4 ,expenses that are necessary and quite legitimate have to be met4 ,no organization can hold together on an empty pocketbook4 ,so money has to be obtained1 and the only way of raising it is by voluntary contributions1 for the political parties have no right to tax anyone4 ,where does the money come from8 ,it comes largely from members of the party who respond to the call for subscriptions sent out by their leaders4 ,people who are well-to-do often give considerable sums although party leaders feel that it is not good policy to accept very large contributions from any one man because this may give rise to a suspicion that the subscriber hopes to get some political favor in return4 ,the party leaders prefer to obtain the essential funds from a great multitude of small donors who prove their loyalty to the party in this way4 ,sidenote3 ,party expenditures4 ,a national campaign costs each of the chief parties a large sum1 several million dollars nowadays4#eg ,state and local campaigns cost a great deal less4 ,the money is spent for the publication and mailing of campaign literature1 for the traveling expenses of speakers1 for hire of meeting-places1 and for a great many other things which go to make up an election campaign4#eh ,the speakers and the party workers usually give their services freely1 but the party must furnish the money to defray their expenses4 ,the ,reform of ,party ,organization4--,it will be seen1 therefore1 that although political parties are necessary and useful organizations in a democracy1 they often develop serious abuses when left free from official control4 ,for this reason the organization and work of the political parties should be regulated by provisions of law4 ,such provisions have already done much to eliminate boss rule and to improve the party system4 ,some people feel that political parties ought to be abolished altogether but that suggestion is impractical4 ,the abolition of parties would not make government any more democratic1 or more honest1 or more efficient4 ,the work which the parties now perform must be performed by some organizations of voters1 somehow1 and if parties were abolished something similar under a different name would have to be created to do this work4 ,sidenote3 ,parties must not be abolished but improved4 ,what we need is not the abolition of parties but the improvement of party organization and party methods4 ,realizing that parties can be useful we should give them scope for usefulness but restrict their opportunities for evil4 ,this is what the laws are now doing4 ,they aim to make party leaders responsible1 to make party nominations fair1 and to make party finance honest4 ,general ,references ,p4 ,,orman ,,ray1 ,political ,parties and ,practical ,politics1 pp4 #c-ab2 ,a4 ,,lawrence ,,lowell1 ,public ,opinion and ,popular ,government1 pp4 #eg-he2 ,,james ,a4 ,,woodburn1 ,political ,parties and ,party ,problems in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dfe-dgj2 ,m4 ,,ostrogorski1 ,democracy and the ,organization of ,political ,parties1 pp4 #bbe-bha2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cab-cef2 ,,moorfield ,,storey1 ,problems of ,today1 pp4 #a-ec2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,willoughby and ,,lindsay ,,rogers1 ,introduction to the ,problem of ,government1 pp4 #abg-aej4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the political doctrines of leading ,american statesmen3 ,hamilton1 ,john ,adams1 ,jefferson1 ,jackson1 ,calhoun1 ,clay1 and ,webster4 ,references3 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 passim2 ,c4 ,e4 ,,merriam1 ,american ,political ,theories 7see index74 #b4 ,minor political parties--their rise and fall4 ,references3 ,,james ,a4 ,,woodburn1 ,political ,parties and ,party ,problems1 pp4 #acc-adh2 ,p4 ,,orman ,,ray1 ,political ,parties and ,practical ,politics1 pp4 #dj-fh2 ,f4 ,e4 ,,haynes1 ,third ,party ,movements ,since the ,civil ,war1 pp4 #bba-bfj2 ,e4 ,b4 ,,stanwood1 ,history of the ,presidency1 passim4 #c4 ,the organization of political parties in a typical state of the ,union4 ,,jesse ,,macy1 ,party ,organization and ,machinery1 pp4 #if-acb2 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gf-ha2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dhc-dhg4 #d4 ,the national party conventions4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #aff-agb2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #hbf-hde2 ,p4 ,,orman ,,ray1 ,political ,parties1 pp4 #ade-afg2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,woodburn1 ,political ,parties1 pp4 #afe-bad2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,dallinger1 ,nominations for ,elective ,office1 pp4 #gd-ib2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,readings on ,parties and ,elections1 pp4 #hj-aje2 ,t4 ,h4 ,,mckee1 ,national ,conventions and ,platforms1 passim2 ,e4 ,b4 ,,stanwood1 ,history of the ,presidency1 passim4 #e4 ,the platforms of the various parties in #aibj3 an analysis and comparison4 ,world ,almanac 7#aiba74 ,also the ,campaign ,text ,books issued by the party organizations4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,campaign methods4 ,p4 ,o4 ,,ray1 ,political ,parties1 pp4 #bee-bfg4 #b4 ,party loyalty and political independence4 ,j4 ,a4 ,,woodburn1 ,political ,parties1 pp4 #bie-cjc4 #c4 ,the ,progressive ,party3 its history and platform4 ,s4 ,j4 ,,duncan-,,clark1 ,the ,progressive ,movement1 passim4 #d4 ,tammany ,hall4 ,,gustavus ,,myers1 ,history of ,tammany ,hall1 pp4 #bfg-bih2 ,encyclopedia ,americana1 ,vol4 ,,xxvi1 pp4 #bce-bcg4 #e4 ,the boss as a personality4 ,m4 ,,ostrogorski1 ,democracy and ,political ,parties1 pp4 #bej-bfc4 #f4 ,the ,tweed ,ring4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,rhodes1 ,history of the ,united ,states1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #cib-daa4 #g4 ,how the machine works4 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1 pp4 #fa-aja2 #add-ahd2 #ahe-bbb4 #h4 ,the nationalizing influence of parties4 ,,henry ,j4 ,,ford1 ,rise and ,growth of ,american ,politics1 pp4 #aej-afa4 #i4 ,municipal political parties4 ,m4 ,r4 ,,maltbie1 in ,proceedings1 ,national ,municipal ,league1 ,,vi1 pp4 #bbf;ff4 #aj4 ,the reform of party organization4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,organized ,democracy1 pp4 #bbh-bfa4 ,questions #a4 ,can you improve the definition of a political party given in this chapter8 #b4 ,among the various functions of political parties which do you consider the most important1 and why8 #c4 ,why do political parties refrain at times from making their platform pledges more definite8 ,what new proposal would you like to see inserted in a party platform8 #d4 ,account for the fact that constitutional questions played a more important part in ,american politics prior to #ahfj than since that date4 #e4 ,give brief sketches of the ,federalist1 ,democratic-,republican1 and ,whig parties and their work before the ,civil ,war4 #f4 ,explain why the 8mortality rate0 among 8third parties0 has been so high4 ,account for the fact that some of these parties have survived a considerable period of time while others have not4 #g4 ,make an outline showing the type of party organization used in your own state4 #h4 ,prepare a list of things for which money can be legally expended by political parties during an election campaign4 #i4 ,if you were a voter1 to which political party would you belong8 ,give your reasons4 #aj4 ,what are the important points to be emphasized in discussing the reform of party organization8 ,name some reforms which you think would be advantageous4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,municipal elections should be conducted on party lines4 #b4 ,the campaign expenses of presidential candidates should be paid from the national treasury4 #c4 ,a three-party system would be preferable in this country to the present two-party organization4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,counties ,,and ,,rural ,,communities ,the purpose of this chapter is to show how the counties1 towns1 and villages of the ,united ,states are governed1 who their local officials are1 and what they do4 ,sidenote3 ,the division of governmental functions4 ,what ,local ,government ,is4--,the functions performed by governments fall into two divisions4 ,first1 there are functions which relate mainly to the life and activities of the neighborhood1 such as police administration1 fire protection1 the cleaning of streets1 and the care of the poor4 ,these things can best be managed by the local authorities4 ,second1 there are functions of a more general character which relate to the life and activities of the entire state or nation1 such as the regulation of the railroads1 the coining of money1 the maintenance of post offices1 and the control of corporations4 ,these functions we have committed1 accordingly1 to the state and national governments4 ,in earlier days1 before industry and commerce developed so greatly1 local functions were the more numerous2 but as population grows the whole country tends to become one great community1 hence many functions formerly performed by the local authorities are being taken over by the states and the nation4 ,it is impossible to lay down any rule as to what functions are local and what functions are general4 ,a few years ago each town and village made its own regulations concerning the speed limit for automobiles2 to-day that matter has been taken over almost everywhere by the state authorities4 ,sidenote3 ,local government in the colonies4 ,the ,beginnings of ,local ,government in the ,united ,states4--,local government is the oldest branch of government2 both the state and the national government have grown out of it4 ,when colonists first came from ,england to ,plymouth and ,massachusetts ,bay they settled on small farms and built their houses within short distances of one another4 ,in ,virginia1 on the other hand1 the colonists took up large plantations for the growing of tobacco and cotton2 their homes were spread over a wide area4 ,because of the difference in the manner of settlement the ,new ,england colonists organized themselves into towns 7or townships7 while the ,southern colonists created larger units of local government known as counties4 ,from the ,atlantic seaboard these two types of local administration--township and county government--have spread out over the rest of the country4 ,in the course of this spread they have been considerably altered from their original forms4 ,,county ,,government ,sidenote3 ,nature of the county4 ,the ,county4--,every state in the ,union is now divided into counties4#ei ,the division is made by the state legislature1 but when county boundaries are once fixed they are seldom changed thereafter4 ,in the older states the counties are often small2 in the newer states they sometimes cover several hundred square miles4#fj ,counties1 like cities1 are public corporations1 that is to say they have the right to own property1 to raise taxes1 to borrow money1 and to make contracts4 ,they may sue and be sued in the courts4 ,but counties have no inalienable rights of their own4 ,all their powers are derived from the state4 ,they are merely political divisions of the state1 created for the more convenient administration of local affairs4 ,in a few states the people of each county are permitted to select and establish such form of county government as they may choose1 but as a rule the state legislature prescribes a uniform type of county government for all the counties within the state4 ,the ,county ,officers4--,the chief governmental authority of the county is the county board1 the members of which are usually known as commissioners or supervisors4 ,these members are either directly elected by the voters of the county or sent as representatives from the townships4 ,county boards may have only three members or as many as fifteen--each state has its own regulations on this point4 ,the board has its headquarters at the county seat1 where the county courthouse is located4 ,sidenote3 ,county functions4 ,the functions of the county board may be summarized under six heads4 #a4 ,financial4 ,most county boards have the right to levy county taxes and to make appropriations for expenditure4 ,they have authority from the state legislature to borrow money on the county's credit4 ,this borrowing power is exercised in order to construct county roads1 build bridges1 or provide county buildings4 #b4 ,highways and bridges4 ,in many states all the main highways are designated as state or county roads4 ,the towns and townships are responsible for the construction of minor highways only4 ,the state roads are built by state highway commissions or some such body2 the county roads are constructed and maintained by the county board4 ,in some states these county roads are numerous2 in others they are very few4 ,main bridges1 which connect two cities1 towns1 or townships1 are also built and maintained by the county board4 #c4 ,public buildings4 ,every county requires certain public buildings1 including a courthouse1 a county jail1 a registry of deeds1 a county poorhouse1 and sometimes a county hospital4 ,these buildings are erected and managed by the county board4 #d4 ,poor-relief and correction4 ,the function of providing public poor-relief is to some extent performed by the state and municipal authorities but a good deal of the responsibility still rests upon the county boards4 #e4 ,elections4 ,in most states of the ,west and ,south the county board has charge of the local arrangements for state and national elections4 ,it designates the polling places1 appoints the election officers1 and provides the ballots4 ,the county1 in most of the states1 serves as the unit for the selection of senators and assemblymen in the state legislature4 #f4 ,miscellaneous4 ,finally1 the county boards have sundry other functions4 ,occasionally they grant charters of incorporation to companies4 ,in some states they construct irrigation works and arrange for the abolition of grade crossings on railroads4 ,they often help in the selection of jurors and have authority to grant certain licenses4 ,sidenote3 ,the faults of county government4 ,have ,county ,boards been ,satisfactory8--,the work of the county boards has not received much public attention in most of the states until the last few years4 ,the county has been called 8the jungle of ,american politics0 because the masses of the people know so little about what is going on in the offices of the county authorities4 ,on the whole county government has not been conspicuously bad1 but it has been far from what it ought to be4 ,american counties1 as a rule1 have been more honestly and more economically governed than ,american cities4 ,the fundamental objection to the existing system of county government is that it places in the hands of an elective body1 the members of which are usually chosen for purely political reasons1 the performance of many difficult executive functions4 ,the management of finances1 construction of roads1 bridges1 and public buildings1 the proper treatment of the poor1 the sick1 and the insane are all tasks which require ability1 skill1 and experience4 ,elective county supervisors cannot reasonably be expected to perform them well1 and this is especially the case when the nominations and elections are dominated by professional politicians4 ,the ,county ,manager ,plan4--,in view of the large amount of executive work1 requiring skill and experience1 which is imposed upon the county boards1 and especially in consideration of the fact that this executive work is steadily growing1 it has been proposed that the boards should confine themselves to matters of general policy1 leaving to a county manager the entire work of actual administration4 ,in a few counties this proposal has been adopted4 ,the county manager1 a trained and highly-paid official1 is appointed by the county board to purchase all materials and supplies1 to hire labor1 to prepare contracts for the construction of public buildings1 and to attend to all the details which arise in connection with the board's work4 ,in this way1 by concentrating authority in a single hand1 a great deal of waste and inefficiency is avoided4 ,the plan is in harmony with the principle that responsibility for purely executive work1 particularly when it is of a technical character1 should be entrusted to men who have special qualifications for performing it 7see pp4 #aig-aih74 ,sidenote3 ,county courts4 ,the ,county as a ,judicial ,area4--,in the administration of justice the county plays an important part4 ,county courts exist in nearly all the states1 and although they form an integral part of the state judiciary they have jurisdiction over such matters within the county as the laws may provide4 ,both the organization and the jurisdiction of the county courts differ greatly from state to state4 ,in some states each county has its own judge2 in others there is one judge for a group of counties4 ,this judge holds sessions in one county after another4 ,the county court usually hears appeals from the local courts and has original jurisdiction in cases where a jury is in order4 ,the probating of wills is in most cases a function of the county court4 ,appeals from its decisions may usually be carried to the higher tribunals of the state4 ,sidenote3 ,his functions4 ,the ,sheriff4--,every county has a peace officer known as the sheriff1 usually elected by the voters of the county4 ,he is the chief guardian of the law and the right-arm of the county court4 ,historically this is the oldest office in the country4 ,it goes back to the time of ,william the ,conqueror or earlier1 when the shire-reeve was the agent of the king in keeping law and order4 ,sheriffs have the right to appoint deputy-sheriffs whose duty it is to help preserve the public peace1 to make arrests1 and to serve court papers4 ,sometimes the sheriff and his deputies are paid regular salaries1 but more often they obtain their remuneration from fees4 ,the sheriff is the custodian of prisoners in the county jail2 he summons the jurors to the court sessions and carries out all the judgments rendered by the court4 ,sidenote3 ,work of the grand jury4 ,the ,prosecuting ,attorney4--,attached to every county court there is a legal officer who is commonly known as the prosecuting attorney or county attorney1 usually elected by the people4#fa ,his chief duty is to conduct prosecutions before the county court4 ,he investigates crimes1 prepares the evidence1 and usually lays the case1 first of all1 before a body known as the grand jury4 ,this jury1 as will later be explained1 is selected by lot from among the voters of the county4 ,it does not go into the question of guilt or innocence1 but merely determines whether an accused person should be placed on trial before a trial jury in a county court4 ,in some states it is not necessary for the prosecuting attorney to lay the case before the grand jury2 he may merely file a sworn declaration1 called an information or complaint1 stating his belief that there is sufficient ground for placing the accused person on trial4 ,prosecuting attorneys everywhere have a good deal of discretion in the way of discontinuing or 8nol-prossing0 criminal cases4#fb ,other ,county ,officers4--,there are various other officers connected with county government4 ,the county assessors go about the county and assess or value property for purposes of taxation4 ,the county treasurer receives the taxes and pays the county's bills4 ,the county auditors inspect the financial accounts of all county officers4 ,the registrar of deeds or recorder keeps books in which all deeds and mortgages on land are entered4#fc ,sidenote3 ,the coroner4 ,the county coroner has the duty of holding an investigation or inquest whenever a death takes place under circumstances which excite suspicion of crime4 ,for this purpose he summons a coroner's jury of citizens to determine the facts4 ,they do not determine guilt or innocence1 but may recommend that a suspected person be arrested and held for trial4 ,in some states the office of coroner has been abolished and its functions given to an appointive official known as the medical examiner1 who is always a physician4 ,in many counties there is a county superintendent of schools whose duties are indicated by his title4 ,practically all these officers are elected1 usually for a short term of years4 ,sidenote3 ,the selection of county employees4 ,civil ,service ,reform in ,counties4--,besides the foregoing officers there are1 in the service of county government1 large numbers of subordinate officials and employees1 including deputy-sheriffs1 attendants in the jail and poorhouse1 foremen on road construction1 clerks in the county offices1 and so on4 ,all of these are still chosen1 in most counties1 under the spoils system4 ,positions on the county pay roll are given almost everywhere the reward of party or personal service4 ,the merit system of selecting subordinate officials by competitive examination has made little or no progress in the counties of the ,united ,states although there is no good reason why it should not be used there as well as in the municipal1 state1 and national service4 ,the county remains the last fortress of the spoils system because the people as a whole have not been fully awakened to the importance of its work and because the political influences which control county government have heretofore been strong enough to prevent the loss of patronage which the introduction of the merit system would entail4 ,sidenote3 ,relations of county and city4 ,the ,metropolitan ,counties4--,special problems of county government arise whenever a large city spreads itself over a whole county or even over a very large portion of it4 ,the growth of great municipal centers during recent years has changed many ,american counties from rural into urban or metropolitan areas4 ,examples are to be found in ,new ,york ,city which includes five counties within the city limits4 ,the city of ,philadelphia includes the whole of ,philadelphia county2 ,suffolk county is almost entirely covered by the city of ,boston1 and the city of ,cleveland contains nine tenths of the population of ,cuyahoga county4 ,the cities are largely independent of the counties within which they are located1 but the functions of city and county government run close together at many points4 ,for example the sheriff of the county and the police commissioner or police chief of the city are both responsible for the maintenance of law and order4 ,the result is1 quite often1 a duplication of work and a waste of money4 ,it has been proposed that the city and county governments1 in the case of metropolitan counties1 should be substantially combined to prevent this duplication4 ,to some extent this has been done1 as in the case of ,st4 ,louis1 ,baltimore1 ,boston1 and ,san ,francisco4 ,in other large cities various plans for entire or partial unification are under way4 ,sidenote3 ,desirable changes in county organization4 ,the ,reform of ,county ,government4--,for the improvement of county government throughout the country three important changes in present organization and methods seem to be needed4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,a centralized executive4 ,in the first place some provision should be made for the better handling of executive work4 ,as matters now stand there is no county official corresponding to the ,president1 the governor1 and the mayor in national1 state1 and city government respectively4 ,responsibility is scattered into too many hands4 ,it ought to be centralized in a county manager or some other single administrative official4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,a shorter ballot4 ,second1 the number of elective county officers should be reduced4 ,there is no sound reason why treasurers1 auditors1 and superintendents of schools should be appointed in cities 7as is usually the case71 but elected in counties4 ,the practice of electing so many administrative officers makes the ballot long and cumbersome2 it also leads to the choice of men who have no qualifications other than popularity4 ,what is even worse1 it encourages frequent changes in the incumbents of these offices and thus interferes with the efficient management of the county's business4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the merit system4 ,finally1 the merit system could be advantageously extended to include all subordinate county positions4 ,,towns ,,and ,,townships ,sidenote3 ,the various units of local government4 ,the ,areas of ,community ,government4--,for purposes of local administration the counties are divided into towns1 townships1 or county districts1 but whenever any portion of the county becomes thickly settled it is usually organized as an incorporated village1 an incorporated town1 a borough1 or a city4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that there are at least seven different units of community government in the ,united ,states1 not to speak of the special districts which exist in some individual states4 ,the reason for this great diversity is to be found in the fact that the ,american system of local government has grown up gradually and in each state independently4 ,in most ,european countries the system of local government is uniform2 in the ,united ,states it is not4 ,each state has its own system and in no two states are these systems exactly alike4 ,for this reason only the broad outline of the subject can be presented2 the details must be studied in the localities concerned4 ,sidenote3 ,the town meeting4 ,the ,new ,england ,town4--,among the areas of community government the ,new ,england town is the oldest and the most interesting4 ,it is not always1 or even usually1 a thickly-settled place4 ,these towns differ greatly both in size and in population2 they are usually quite irregular in shape and may contain anywhere from a few hundred to several thousand people4 ,the ,new ,england town does not possess a charter of incorporation but it has the usual corporate powers 7see p4 #agg74 ,the chief governing organ of the ,new ,england town is the town meeting1 an assembly of all the voters1 both men and women4 ,this town meeting is called together at least once a year and often three or four times4 ,it elects the town officers1 votes the appropriations1 and decides all questions of general policy4 ,sometimes the town meeting lasts all day2 occasionally it continues even longer4 ,every citizen has the right to a voice and a vote4 ,sidenote3 ,the selectmen4 ,during the interval between the town meetings the affairs of the town are managed by a board of selectmen1 composed of three or five members1 elected by the voters4 ,the selectmen prepare the business for the town meeting and carry out its decisions4 ,the larger towns also maintain various other boards1 such as a school board1 a water board1 and a board of health1 the members being in all cases elected at the town meeting4 ,other town officials include a town clerk1 a treasurer1 an auditor1 and a superintendent of schools4 ,sidenote3 ,recent changes in the system4 ,when towns grow large the town meeting becomes unwieldy and the system of administration by numerous boards fails to work smoothly4 ,for this reason some ,new ,england towns have recently adopted a 8limited town meeting0 system1 by which the voters of the town elect delegates to represent them in the town meeting4 ,a few towns have also abolished the various administrative boards and have placed town administration in charge of a town manager appointed by the selectmen4#fd ,the ,township4--,in the great group of ,central and ,middle ,western states1 ranging from ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania to ,nebraska and the ,dakotas1 the principal area of community government is the township1 although it is sometimes called the town4 ,in the older states these townships 7or towns7 are of irregular shape2 in several of the newer states the so-called 8congressional0 townships were laid out in uniform blocks1 six miles square4 ,in some of the states1 both old and new1 the towns or townships have town meetings1 as in ,new ,england1 but nowhere outside of ,new ,england have these meetings attained any great importance4 ,their chief function in the ,central and ,middle ,western states is to elect the town or township officers4 ,the work of township 7or town7 administration is carried on either by a board of trustees or by a single official commonly known as a supervisor4 ,there are also various subordinate officials1 all of whom are usually elected by the voters4 ,the ,county ,districts4--,in most states of the ,south and ,far ,west there are no townships4 ,the county remains the principal area of local government1 but for the management of various community affairs the county is divided into districts4 ,there are school districts1 road districts1 and election districts1 for example4 ,each district has its own elective officers who are in charge of the function for which the district was established4 ,sidenote3 ,incorporated towns1 boroughs1 and villages4 ,the ,incorporated ,communities4--,the vitality of townships and district government has been weakened by the practice of incorporating as a village1 town1 borough1 or city1 any portion of the area which becomes thickly settled4 ,the laws of the various states usually provide that whenever any part of a community becomes sufficiently populous a designated number of the inhabitants may petition for incorporation4 ,the question is then submitted to a vote1 and if the vote is favorable1 a charter of incorporation is granted4 ,a certain minimum of population is required2 usually from two to three hundred in the case of a village1 one to three thousand in the case of a town1 and more than three thousand in the case of a city4 ,these figures vary from state to state4 ,in some ,western states the minimum for incorporation for a city is only a few hundred4 ,in any event when the place becomes incorporated as a village1 town1 borough1 or city it becomes separate1 for administrative purposes1 from the township or district to which it belonged and sets up a local government of its own4 ,the nature of this government1 the officials1 and the scope of their powers are all fixed by the laws of the state4 ,there are more than #ae1jjj incorporated villages1 towns1 boroughs1 and cities in the ,united ,states1 nearly three fourths of them being places of less than #bejj population4 ,sidenote3 ,the advantages4 ,the ,merits and ,defects of the ,local ,government ,system4--,the most marked feature of the ,american system of local government1 when surveyed as a whole1 is its decentralization4 ,nothing is uniform throughout the country2 each state follows its own plan1 and everywhere a large measure of home rule in local affairs is granted4 ,contrast this with the system of local government in the ,french ,republic for example1 where all communities1 whether large or small1 are governed in exactly the same way and strictly controlled by the central authorities in ,paris4 ,the ,american system has the advantage of allowing each section of the country to adopt whatever scheme best suits its own particular needs4 ,it also facilitates the making of experiments in local government and through these experiments we learn better ways of doing things4 ,the large measure of local home rule brings community government close to the people1 giving them control over it and responsibility for it4 ,it fosters initiative and tends to develop a wholesome rivalry in good work4 ,local government is a fine school for the teaching of democracy4 ,sidenote3 ,the defects4 ,on the other hand the ,american system has its defects4 ,so many areas of local government have been created in some of the states that the people are over-governed4 ,the multiplication of local offices has led to wastefulness4 ,local home rule1 moreover1 has in some cases been a synonym for local misrule4 ,the result is that we have required1 during recent years1 an increase in the amount of control exercised over the government of the local communities by state and county authorities4 ,townships1 towns1 and villages are areas of government established to meet local needs1 but they are also the channels through which the state authorities carry on a portion of their work4 ,this latter phase of local self-government should not be overlooked4 ,general ,references ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,state and ,local ,government1 pp4 #cji-cdd2 ,,charles ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #fch-gje2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #eef-eff2 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eif-faf2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ece-ega2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,local ,government in the ,united ,states1 especially pp4 #bed-bii2 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,local ,government in ,counties1 ,towns and ,villages1 especially pp4 #eg-adj2 ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,county ,government1 pp4 #ha-aaa2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government 7see under ,county1 ,towns and ,townships1 ,borough74 ,group ,problems #a4 ,should the county-manager plan be adopted8 ,with what county functions do you now come into contact8 ,how important to you and to your home is the work of the county officials in the matter of road-building1 the maintenance of prisons1 the care of the poor1 the registration of deeds1 and the supervision of schools8 ,are any of these things now mismanaged and1 if so1 in what way can the situation be improved8 ,the present multiplication of county authorities4 ,duties of each4 ,how these duties are performed4 ,the cause of waste or inefficiency4 ,what the county-manager system aims to do4 ,comparison of the city-manager and the county-manager plans4 ,references3 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,local ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dbe-dea2 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,local ,government in ,counties1 ,towns and ,villages1 pp4 #ge-id2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,gilbertson1 ,the ,county1 pp4 #aea-ahj2 8,county ,government0 in the ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,vol4 ,,xlvii 7,may1 #aiac72 ,national ,short ,ballot ,organization1 ,documents on ,county ,government2 ,c4 ,c4 ,,maxey1 ,county ,government1 pp4 #de-fb4 #b4 ,how town government can be improved4 ,references3 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,local ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bed-bhc2 ,c4 ,s4 ,,bird1 ,town ,planning for ,small ,communities1 pp4 #caa-cdj2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government 7see under ,towns and ,townships72 ,annual ,reports of ,town ,officers4 #c4 ,what your township officials do4 ,references3 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,local ,government in ,counties1 ,towns and ,villages1 pp4 #afd-aha2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,local ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bfh-bhc2 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,civil ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #hi-ie2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,state and ,local ,government1 pp4 #ccc-cdd2 ,annual ,reports of ,township ,supervisor or ,chairman4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the importance of local government in a democracy4 ,a4 ,,de ,,tocqueville1 ,democracy in ,america1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gd-hg4 #b4 ,french and ,english methods of local government4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,local ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #a-fe4 #c4 ,the county board4 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,local ,government in ,counties1 ,towns and ,villages1 pp4 #ge-id2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,state and ,local ,government1 pp4 #cag-ccb4 #d4 ,politics in county government4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,gilbertson1 ,the ,county1 pp4 #dc-fe4 #e4 ,where the county's money goes4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,local ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bcb-bej4 #f4 ,city and county consolidation4 ,ibid41 pp4 #dcg-ddh4 #g4 ,a ,new ,england town meeting4 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,civil ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #af-cd4 #h4 ,the enforcement of the state laws in rural communities4 ,j4 ,m4 ,,mathews1 ,principles of ,american ,state ,administration1 pp4 #dcj-dfb4 #i4 ,how good planning helps the small town4 ,c4 ,s4 ,,bird1 ,town ,planning for ,small ,communities1 pp4 #a-ai2 #gf-ii4 #aj4 ,home rule for counties4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,gilbertson1 ,the ,county1 pp4 #bjg-bej4 #aa4 ,the government of an urban county4 ,cook ,county1 ,board of ,commissioners1 ,a ,study of ,cook ,county1 pp4 #e-ba4 #ab4 ,the county courts4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,smith1 ,training for ,citizenship1 pp4 #ahe-aig2 ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,county ,government1 pp4 #abj-acc2 ,illinois ,constitutional ,convention1 #aibj1 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #aa1 pp4 #ije-ibe 7,local ,government in ,chicago and ,cook ,county74 ,questions #a4 ,why do we need a system of local government8 ,suppose all the areas of local government were to be abolished and the management of local affairs taken over by the state1 what advantages and disadvantages would result8 #b4 ,to what extent does the constitution of your state restrict the freedom of the state legislature in interfering with local government8 ,are these restrictions too great8 ,why should not counties and towns be given complete home rule8 #c4 ,name the qualifications which a good sheriff ought to have4 ,an efficient coroner4 #d4 ,why do we need a registry of deeds8 ,if deeds were not registered what difficulties would be encountered8 ,is a deed invalid if not registered8 #e4 ,if counties were to be abolished1 which of their present functions would you transfer to the state and which to the townships1 towns1 or villages8 #f4 ,why is it thought desirable that when places become thickly-settled they should be given separate incorporation8 #g4 ,explain how local government serves as a school for democracy4 #h4 ,what ought to be the minimum limit of population for an incorporated village1 an incorporated town1 a city8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,all county administrative officials1 except the highest1 should be chosen by civil service rules4 #b4 ,city and county government should be consolidated in cities like ,chicago1 ,philadelphia1 ,cleveland1 and ,los ,angeles4 ----- ,footnote #bd3 ,in doing this they do not take editorials1 resolutions1 and letters too seriously4 ,some newspapers merely reflect the opinion of their owners1 not public opinion4 ,societies often adopt resolutions without hearing both sides of the case4 ,congressmen sometimes receive several hundred letters in a single day1 most of them saying exactly the same thing1 which means that they have all been inspired from the same quarter4 ,footnote #be3 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states is to all intents and purposes chosen directly by the voters although as a matter of form the choice is made indirectly 7see pp4 #bhh-bij74 ,footnote #bf3 ,the appointment of officials is sometimes made by legislative bodies1 although this plan is not common4 ,in a few states the judges are named by the legislature4 ,in some others the legislature elects the state treasurer1 the secretary of state1 the comptroller1 or the auditor4 ,where the commission form of city government has been adopted all appointments are made by the commission4 ,the general theory of ,american government is1 however1 that the choosing of administrative and judicial officers should not be vested in the hands of a legislative body4 ,it is regarded as undesirable that the body which enacts the laws should have anything directly to do with the selection of those officers who enforce or apply the laws4 ,but this principle ought not to be applied inflexibly2 there are good reasons at times for making exceptions to it4 ,footnote #bg3 ,washington was not a party man and cared very little about the political views of men whom he appointed to public office4 ,his immediate successors1 ,adams and ,jefferson1 did not preserve this strict impartiality2 on the other hand1 they were disinclined to treat public office as a mere means of rewarding their own supporters4 ,they did not remove office-holders in order to make room for their own political friends4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the story is often told1 and it may well be true1 that at a critical time in the war a visitor to the ,white ,house remarked to ,lincoln that the responsibilities of the great struggle must be a heavy burden upon his shoulders4 8,no10 replied the ,president1 8it is not the war that is giving me the greatest worry at this moment4 ,it is the problem of filling that postmastership at ,little ,rapids1 ,indiana40 ,footnote #bi3 ,no method of appointment will secure the best results1 however1 unless it is accompanied by a fair system of promotions4 ,this has not yet been arranged for on any large scale4 ,appointments are to a large extent based upon merit1 but promotions are still determined1 in many cases1 by personal or party favoritism4 ,rarely is there any examination or other test to decide who will be promoted when a vacancy occurs higher up4 ,it is desirable1 therefore1 that the merit system of appointment should be supplemented by a merit system of promotions4 ,many capable young men and women will not enter the public service today because there is no certain chance of promotion on the basis of ability and industry4 ,a merit plan of promotion would help to attract better candidates4 ,the public treasury1 moreover1 ought to provide pensions for those who retire by reason of old age after many years of faithful service4 ,some large private institutions are now doing this4 ,the nation1 state1 and city ought to adopt the same practice1 not only because it is the humane way of treating aged employees but because it would make the public service more attractive as a career4 ,footnote #cj3 ,in a sense1 however1 the terms initiative and referendum are merely new names for very old institutions4 ,the right of petition1 which is the foundation of the initiative1 has always existed in the ,united ,states4 ,the referendum1 in other words the submission of questions directly to the people1 is as old as the ,new ,england town meeting2 indeed it goes back to the time of ancient ,athens4 ,all early democracy1 in fact1 was direct democracy2 the people decided things without legislatures4 ,but as communities grew in size this system of direct democracy became impractical2 hence they resorted to representative government4 ,now1 when representative government fails to satisfy1 we go back again in a roundabout way to the old method4 ,footnote #ca3 ,only five of these states1 however1 lie east of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,why is it that so many of these new movements1 political and economic1 originate somewhere in the ,west8 ,direct legislation1 the recall1 woman suffrage1 popular election of senators1 free silver1 the single tax1 ,populism1 the ,non-partisan ,league1--the list would be a considerable one if given in full4 ,it is often said that the growth of industrial communities1 with large bodies of propertyless workers1 tends to promote radicalism2 but the ,west is still predominantly agricultural4 ,what new political or economic movements have had their origin in industrial states like ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 or ,pennsylvania during the past twenty-five years8 ,footnote #cb3 ,here are some of the matters submitted to the voters of a certain ,western city at one election3 to pension firemen2 to grant a street railway franchise2 to abolish grade crossings2 to exempt certain city officers from being citizens of the ,united ,states2 to define the powers of the municipal court2 to exempt certain officers from the civil service rules2 to regulate the sale of bonds2 to change the method of passing ordinances2 to allow the city to acquire property outside the city limits1 etc4 ,is the average voter likely1 or unlikely1 to know much about things of this sort8 ,footnote #cc3 ,in #aiba the voters of ,north ,dakota recalled ,governor ,frazier from office before the expiry of his term4 ,footnote #cd3 ,see p4 #ca4 ,footnote #ce3 ,in ,england full suffrage has been granted only to women who are thirty years of age or over4 ,this was purposely done in order that the male voters should be in the majority4 ,footnote #cf3 ,new ,york ,state in #aiba joined the list of states which impose the literacy test4 ,footnote #cg3 ,various classes of people1 although qualified by citizenship1 age1 and residence1 are debarred from voting on other grounds4 ,among these are insane persons1 criminals1 and1 in some states1 those who have been convicted of bribery or other serious offences against the election laws4 ,in some states1 also1 soldiers of the regular army and enlisted men of the navy are denied the right to register as voters on the ground that they are not really residents but merely representatives of the national government temporarily quartered within the state boundaries4 ,civil officials of the national government are not debarred4 ,footnote #ch3 ,this gives the party workers an opportunity to investigate all suspicious names on the list and be ready for action when election day comes4 ,footnote #ci3 ,sometimes annual registration is required in the cities but not in small towns or rural districts4 ,in ,ohio there is an annual registration in cities of over #ajj1jjj population2 a registration every four years in smaller cities1 and no general registration at all in the rural districts4 ,in the latter the same list is used year after year with such individual changes as may be necessary4 ,footnote #dj3 ,in most cases they take the voter's say-so as sufficient proof of his party allegiance4 ,footnote #da3 ,at the ,new ,york state primaries of ,september1 #aibj1 the candidate who won the ,democratic nomination for governor received fewer than #bjj1jjj votes2 at the ,november election he received more than a million1 and yet was not elected4 ,footnote #db3 ,in a few cities1 for example in ,boston1 there are no primaries before the municipal elections4 ,candidates for the office of mayor may be nominated by presenting a petition signed by not fewer than #ejjj qualified voters2 candidates for the city council must have at least #bejj signatures4 ,footnote #dc3 ,this roundabout way of fixing the election date is used in order to make certain that the election shall not take place on the first day of the month1 a time when those who work in banks1 offices1 etc41 are particularly busy4 ,footnote #dd3 ,it is sometimes arranged that local elections shall take place in the odd years1 while national and state elections come in the even years4 ,footnote #de3 ,a ward boss in a certain ,american city some time ago was urging his followers to vote the 8straight ticket01 but knowing that some of them could not read and recalling the fact that the figure of an eagle stood at the top of his party column1 he bellowed at them 8,now when you go to the polls put your cross right under that chicken with the short legs04 ,footnote #df3 ,for a further discussion1 with additional data1 see ,c4 ,a4 ,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 p4 #fgc4 ,footnote #dg3 ,proportional representation should also be distinguished from limited voting and cumulative voting4 ,under the limited voting plan a voter is permitted to mark his ballot only for some smaller number of candidates than there are places to be filled4 ,for example1 if seven councilmen are to be chosen by the electorate of the city at large1 each voter might be permitted to vote for not more than four4 ,the outcome would very likely be that the strongest party would elect four councilmen and the next strongest three4 ,this gives a certain amount of minority representation1 but does not ensure proportional representation4 ,cumulative voting is an arrangement under which each voter is given as many votes as there are candidates to be elected but is permitted to allot all or any of his votes as he pleases4 ,thus1 if three assemblymen are to be elected1 the voter will have three votes4 ,he may give all three votes to one candidate2 or two votes to one candidate and one vote to another2 or one vote to each of three candidates4 ,this plan also gives reasonable assurance of minority representation1 because the weaker party will concentrate its votes upon one candidate1 but the usual outcome is that the majority1 whatever its strength1 will have twice as many representatives as the minority4 ,it does not1 therefore1 ensure proportional representation4 ,this plan has been used in ,illinois4 ,footnote #dh3 ,in ,ashtabula 7,ohio71 ,boulder 7,colorado71 ,west ,hartford 7,connecticut71 and ,sacramento 7,california74 ,cleveland1 the fifth largest city in the ,united ,states1 adopted in #aiba a new city charter in which provision is made for using proportional representation at council elections4 ,the first election under the new plan will be held in the autumn of #aibc4 ,footnote #di3 ,various other things1 not in themselves wrong1 have been made illegal by statute because they are regarded as contrary to good public policy in that they tend to render an election undignified1 or unfair1 or unnecessarily expensive4 ,canvassing and distribution of campaign literature is forbidden within a certain radius of the polling place4 ,campaign advertisements must not be printed in some states unless they bear the name and address of a qualified voter4 ,candidates are required to file with the proper authorities a statement of their campaign expenses and it is illegal to spend more than a prescribed sum even for purely legitimate purposes1 such as the hiring of halls and the printing of posters4 ,the purpose of these provisions is not only to render the election a dignified affair1 as becomes an exercise of popular sovereignty1 but to give every candidate1 rich or poor1 as nearly equal a chance as the laws can ensure4 ,these regulations are sometimes evaded1 it is true1 but on the whole they are well respected both by party organizations and by candidates4 ,in ,senator ,newberry's case the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court ruled that ,congress could not limit the campaign expenses of candidates for election to the ,senate or the ,house4 ,control of these elections rests with the several states4 ,footnote #ej3 ,they try to persuade the existing parties into helping them gain their object2 if they fail in this1 they frequently organize a new party4 ,thus the ,liberty and ,free ,soil parties were organized to abolish slavery2 the ,prohibition party to get rid of the liquor traffic1 and the ,progressive party to put through various political and economic changes which the older parties would not father4 ,footnote #ea3 ,that1 indeed1 is what does actually happen at times in spite of the party system4 ,a ,president1 elected by one political party1 negotiates a treaty2 a ,senate controlled by the other political party declines to ratify it4 ,a governor insists that pledges made by him during the election campaign shall be carried out2 but the legislature 7having a majority of the opposite faith7 declines to pass the necessary laws4 ,a mayor tries to make an appointment1 and his political opponents in the city council refuse confirmation4 ,such things happen now and then4 ,as a general rule1 however1 when a political party gains control of one branch of the government it gains control of the other too4 ,footnote #eb3 ,there have been some critical issues at different times in ,american history1 such as nullification1 slavery1 secession1 reconstruction1 green-backs1 free silver1 the regulation of trusts1 imperialism1 the league of nations1 and so on4 ,most of the leading issues in recent years have been economic in character2 they have been concerned with such matters as the railroads1 the merchant marine1 the regulation of industry1 immigration1 relations with ,mexico1 banking reorganization1 the extension of aid to agriculture1 conservation1 budget methods1 and international trade4 ,footnote #ec3 ,this is quite a contrast with what has happened in ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 and the other countries of ,continental ,europe4 ,in these countries there are several parties and they continue in existence for long periods of time4 ,no two parties ever manage to get the field of politics largely to themselves4 ,it is significant that the two-party system has flourished in the ,english-speaking countries1 that is1 in ,great ,britain1 the ,british colonies1 and the ,united ,states4 ,everywhere else there are from three or four to a dozen parties4 ,why should there be this difference8 ,footnote #ed3 ,until recent years the state convention also had the function of nominating the party candidates for state officers1 but in most of the states this prerogative has been taken away from the convention and the nominations are made by the party voters at state-wide direct primaries4 ,in the others the nominations are still made by the conventions4 ,even where the primary is used1 however1 it is sometimes the practice of a convention to adopt an 8unofficial0 slate of candidates which it recommends to the voters for their endorsement at the primary 7see p4 #abi74 ,footnote #ee3 ,at the ,republican national convention of #ahhj it took thirty-six ballots to nominate ,mr4 ,garfield4 ,in #aiab1 at the ,democratic national convention1 ,woodrow ,wilson was not nominated until the forty-sixth ballot4 ,sometimes the very first ballot results in nominating the candidate as happened with ,mr4 ,wilson in #aiaf4 ,how many ballots were taken before the nomination of ,mr4 ,harding at ,chicago in ,june1 #aibj1 and before the nomination of his opponent1 ,mr4 ,cox1 at ,san ,francisco1 a few weeks later8 ,footnote #ef3 ,rings and bosses are not ,american inventions4 ,pericles was a political boss1 and a very successful one in his day4 ,there were bosses in ancient ,rome2 they could even get together and form a ring 7they called it a triumvirate74 ,simon de ,montfort1 the so-called 8father of the ,house of ,commons01 was a boss and a rather skilful one at that4 ,pitt1 the younger1 was a boss of the first order1 a corrupt one1 too4 ,in ,america we have had many political bosses from ,aaron ,burr down1 but most of them have operated in state and city politics4 ,there is no national party boss2 the field is too large for any one man to control4 ,perhaps the most notable of all ,american bosses was ,william ,m4 ,tweed1 who dominated the politics of ,new ,york ,city a half century ago4 8,he was an ,american by birth1 a chairmaker by trade1 a good fellow by nature1 a politician by circumstances1 a boss by natural process of evolution1 and a grafter by choice40 ,as the boss of his party he sold nominations openly1 assessed public officeholders for contributions to his campaign funds1 gave out contracts to his friends1 looted the city treasury1 and finally went to jail4 ,new ,york's experience with ,tweed cost the city about fifty million dollars in less than five years4 ,footnote #eg3 ,the campaign fund of the ,republican party1 when it elected ,abraham ,lincoln in #ahfj1 was a little over #ajj1jjj4 ,the amount raised by the ,republicans for the campaign of #aibj was about #d1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,democratic campaign fund was considerably smaller1 but it also ran into the millions4 ,the laws provide that the treasurers of these funds must publish1 before the election1 the names of all contributors who give more than #ajj1 and after the election must file a statement of all moneys expended4 ,corporations are forbidden to contribute to any federal campaign fund4 ,footnote #eh3 ,these costs mount up quickly4 ,a torchlight procession in a large city costs several thousand dollars4 ,to send a single circular1 with a one-cent stamp on the envelope1 to every registered voter in a city the size of ,boston costs for printing1 stationery1 stamps1 and labor about #aj1jjj4 ,some large halls cost #ejj per night1 yet halls for meetings have to be hired night after night during the latter part of the campaign4 ,footnote #ei3 ,in ,louisiana1 however1 the counties are known as parishes4 ,footnote #fj3 ,the largest county in the ,united ,states is ,san ,bernardino county1 ,california1 which covers more than #bjjj square miles4 ,the smallest is ,bristol county1 ,r4 ,i41 with about #be square miles4 ,cook county1 which includes ,chicago1 has the biggest population and ,cochran county1 ,texas1 with less than #ajj people1 has the smallest4 ,footnote #fa3 ,in some states he is known as the district attorney1 state's attorney1 or county solicitor4 ,footnote #fb3 ,to discontinue a prosecution the prosecuting attorney files in court a statement known as a nolle prosequi1 indicating that he does not wish to press the case to trial4 ,the right to do this gives the official a great deal of power1 which has been in some cases abused4 ,footnote #fc3 ,a deed is a document by which one person conveys land to another4 ,it is the duty of the purchaser to make sure that his deed is valid and that the seller has a good title to the land which he sells4 ,this he can ascertain by examining the records in the registry of deeds4 ,in some states a plan known as the ,torrens ,system is in operation4 ,intending purchasers submit their deeds to the registration official1 who examines them4 ,if he finds that the title is good1 he registers the deed and thereafter the title may not be questioned4 ,where the ,torrens ,system is not in operation a purchaser can get his title insured by paying a premium to a title insurance company4 ,footnote #fd3 ,there is a widespread impression that the government of the ,new ,england towns1 being a close approach to a direct democracy1 has been a great and consistent success4 ,these towns have been pictured by some writers as little ,utopias1 free from state interference1 and privileged to manage their own affairs in their own way4 ,unhappily this portrayal does not square with the facts4 ,small agricultural communities1 such as the ,new ,england towns used to be1 can manage their local affairs satisfactorily under almost any form of government4 ,but when population grows1 and factories come in1 and local activities are multiplied--then the problems of a town are akin to those of a city and have to be handled in the same way4 ,,chapter ,x ,,city ,,government ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain who the city authorities are and what they do4 ,sidenote3 ,to be a city a place must have a charter4 ,what is a ,city8--,the poet ,cowper once said that 8,god made the country and man made the town01 a remark which was not intended to flatter the cities4 ,nor is there any reason why life in a crowded community should particularly appeal to poets although it may have a strong fascination for more worldly-minded men4 ,a large body of people living closely together1 a place of busy streets and tall buildings1 a huge1 noisy1 jostling throng--that is the customary notion of an ,american city1 and on the whole it is not far wide of the facts4 ,not all cities1 however1 are big1 busy1 and congested4 ,in the entire ,united ,states there are today about a thousand places which call themselves cities1 yet more than half of them are places of less than fifteen thousand people4 ,in ,massachusetts no place can become a city until it has at least ten thousand people2 but in ,oklahoma the figure is two thousand and in ,kansas only two hundred4 ,a city may be anything1 therefore1 from a rural hamlet with only a few hundred people to a great metropolitan community with several millions4 ,size or population are not the things that determine cityhood4 ,a place is a city if it has been so incorporated and possesses a city charter4 ,so far as its government is concerned1 it cannot be called a city1 no matter how populous it may be1 unless it has been given a charter by authority of the state4#fe ,in the ,west the practice has been to grant such charters to relatively small places2 in the ,east the requirements are more strict4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,american ,,cities ,the table and diagram on the reverse of this page will serve to make clear the phenomenal growth of ,american cities during the past hundred and thirty years4 ,in #ahbj only one person in twenty lived in cities and towns of over #h1jjj population2 today nine persons in every twenty live in these communities4 ,the population of the whole country has been growing steadily during the past hundred years2 but the cities have been increasing even more rapidly4 ,these figures should be studied in connection with the discussion on pages #ahd-ahf4 --,,population ,,in ,,places ,,of #h1jjj ,,inhabitants ,,or ,,more3 #agij-aibj4 ,,places ,,of #h1jjj ,,inhabitants ,,or ,,more4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,census ,total ,population4 ,number of ,per cent of ,,year4 ,population4 places4 total population4 #aibj #aje1gaj1fbj #df1cjg1fdj #ibd #dc4h #aiaj #ia1igb1bef #ce1egj1ccd #gfh #ch4g #aijj #ge1iid1ege #be1jah1cce #edg #cb4i #ahij #fb1idg1gad #ah1bdd1bci #dde #bi4j #ahhj #ej1aee1ghc #aa1cfe1fih #bhe #bb4g #ahgj #ch1eeh1cga #h1jga1hge #bbf #bj4i #ahfj #ca1ddc1cba #e1jgb1bef #ada #af4a #ahej #bc1aia1hgf #b1hig1ehf #he #ab4e #ahdj #ag1jfi1dec #a1dec1iid #dd #h4e #ahcj #ab1hff1jbj #hfd1eji #bf #f4g #ahbj #i1fch1dec #dge1ace #ac #d4i #ahaj #g1bci1hha #cef1ibj #aa #d4i #ahjj #e1cjh1dhc #baj1hgc #f #d4j #agij #c1ibi1bad #aca1dgb #f #c4c ,illustration3 ,,population ,,in ,,places ,,of #h1jjj ,,inhabitants ,,or ,,more ,,at ,,each ,,census3 #agij-aibj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,why ,american cities have grown so rapidly4 ,the ,phenomenal ,growth of ,cities4--,the remarkable drift of population into the cities has already been pointed out4 ,it is one of the most striking social facts in ,american history during the past hundred years4#ff ,in the days when the national constitution was framed there were only eight or ten places that could be called cities and even these were1 with one or two exceptions1 nothing but good-sized towns4 ,new ,york1 the largest of them1 had a population of less than #ej1jjj2 it has grown a hundred-fold since that time4 ,in ,washington's day no country had as many as fifty cities and the largest city in the world1 ,london1 had less than a million people4 ,the cities counted for very little in the early days of the ,republic2 they then contained less than five per cent of the national population4 ,during the course of the nineteenth century1 however1 cities sprang into existence everywhere2 a large part of the immigration poured into them2 the development of industry and commerce built them up2 and today about half the people of the ,united ,states reside in cities of all sizes4 ,there are now more cities in ,america than in any other country and more large cities4 ,we have twelve great centers with populations exceeding half a million1#fg while the entire ,british empire 7including ,india1 ,canada1 and ,australia7 has only ten2 ,germany has only four and ,france has only two4 ,at the present rate of progress the ,united ,states in #aiej will probably contain more large cities than all the rest of the world put together4 ,the causes of this remarkable growth have been indicated elsewhere and there is no need to repeat them4 ,factories1 railroads1 and steamships have been the great factors in this urban expansion4 ,sidenote3 ,some features of city life3 ,effects of ,city ,growth upon the ,national ,life4--,the growth of large cities has had profound effects upon ,american life and temperament4 ,it has changed the whole character of the country1 its problems and its habits of mind4 ,a century ago the ,united ,states was predominantly an agricultural land2 the great majority of the people were engaged in earning their living from the soil4 ,they had the same occupation and common interests4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,diversity of occupation4 ,but with the growth of industries in cities the occupations of the people have become diversified1 and no bond of common vocation holds the population together4 ,the city-worker in the shops and factories is employed at a specialized task which the division of labor assigns to him 7see pp4 #dd-df72 he develops expertness at this one task and depends upon others for everything else4 ,the farmer supplies many of his own wants1 but the industrial worker depends almost wholly upon others4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the absence of strong home ties4 ,among the rural population there is a large property-owning class1 men who own their farms and homes2 but in the cities1 particularly in the larger cities1 the great majority of the people live in homes that are owned by others4 ,in ,new ,york ,city seven families out of every eight live in rented houses or apartments2 in ,boston four out of every five4 ,this tends to make the population restless2 the people are constantly moving about from one job to another and from one home to another2 they do not acquire a strong attachment to any neighborhood1 as is the case in rural districts4 ,one result of this is that people in the crowded centers know little about their neighbors1 and strange as it may seem1 the crowded sections of the large cities are in some respects the most lonely places in the world4#fh ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the docility of the people4 ,the tendency of the city population is to become absorbed in its daily work1 to depend upon the newspapers for its opinions and to display marked docility in obeying its leaders4 ,the people of the cities depend upon official or professional organizations for pretty nearly everything3 if disorder breaks out1 they expect the police to attend to it2 when they want recreation1 they expect the city authorities to provide it 7by furnishing parks1 playgrounds1 band concerts1 neighborhood dances1 and so on72 the functions of the home are largely given over to the school1 the club1 and the social organizations4 ,the city is thought to be radical2 but it is radical only in spots4 ,its population as a whole tends to be conservative 7see p4 #ajh1 footnote74 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,a place of extremes4 ,the city is a place where extremes meet4 ,great wealth and abject poverty exist in the cities side by side2 in the rural districts there is a closer approach to a common level4 ,the same is true if we compare city and country from the standpoint of education1 earning-power1 obedience to law1 respect for government1 or any other social feature4 ,the city runs to extremes2 it contains both the highest erudition and the most utter ignorance2 it has earners of enormous incomes and plenty of people who can earn no incomes at all2 it has reactionaries in one quarter and anarchists in another--a strange social mosaic when you study it and very much in contrast with the general uniformity of the rural area4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,a place of leadership4 ,nevertheless1 along nearly all lines of activity the cities lead the nation4 ,to say that half the people live in cities does not tell the whole story4 ,the influence which this half exerts is greater than its numerical strength implies4 ,the cities are the headquarters of those who direct the great industries1 the transportation systems1 and the banking interests of the country4 ,the newspapers of the great cities influence the moulding of public opinion the country over4 ,the political power of the cities1 their influence upon every phase of public policy is very great4 ,hence the character and the spirit of the cities will go far to determine the national characteristics of the future4 ,sidenote3 ,the city charter4 ,the ,city and the ,state4--,the inhabitants of a city are a corporate body with certain legal rights and privileges4 ,these rights are granted to them by the state in their city charter4#fi ,the charter is a document having the force of law2 it enumerates the powers of the city1 tells what form of government the inhabitants shall have1 and determines the duties of the various city officials4 ,in the larger cities it is a very long document covering a hundred printed pages or more4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,the general charter plan4 ,how are these charters framed and under what arrangements are they granted to cities8 ,three or four different plans are in vogue4 ,in some states the legislature has passed a general law relating to cities1 and their charters are all alike in accordance with the provisions of this law4 ,the difficulty with this plan is that cities differ greatly in size and in the nature of their problems4 ,the charter that suits one may not fit another4 ,a seaport city1 for example1 needs a harbor commission with power to license pilots and regulate the anchoring-places of ships2 but it is absurd to require1 for the sake of uniformity1 that inland cities shall also have harbor boards4 ,to render this general charter system more flexible1 therefore1 some states have adopted the expedient of dividing cities1 according to their size1 into three or four classes and giving a uniform charter to all cities in the same class4#gj ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the special charter plan4 ,a more common method is to deal with each city as a special case1 giving it a charter by special act of the legislature1 the result of this plan being that no two cities of the state are governed in exactly the same way4 ,the special charter system has the merit of adapting the form of government to the immediate needs of each particular city2 but it places a great burden upon the legislature1 for whenever any city desires an amendment to its charter a special legislative act is necessary4 ,the system also encourages the legislature to interfere in city affairs1 making changes in city charters on its own initiative without any request from the citizens4 ,this is particularly objectionable because so many members of the legislature come from rural districts and consequently have little or no knowledge of the city's problems4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,home rule charters4 ,municipal ,home ,rule4--,in order to diminish this interference by the legislature many states have made provision for municipal home rule4 ,this is a plan whereby cities make their own charters just as states frame their own constitutions4 ,the methods by which they do this vary somewhat from state to state but everywhere the main idea is the same4 ,the voters of the city elect a charter commission1 or board of freeholders as it is sometimes called4 ,this miniature constitutional convention1 made up of perhaps fifteen or twenty members1 proceeds to draw up the provisions of a new city charter4 ,when their work is finished they submit it to the people of the city at an election and if the people approve it1 the charter goes into effect4 ,in some states there are certain formalities to be gone through after the people have voted1 but the important thing is that each city obtains1 sooner or later1 whatever sort of charter its voters desire4 ,in this way the city becomes supreme in the handling of its own local affairs4 ,sidenote3 ,difficulties connected with the home rule system4 ,but the principle of municipal home rule is subject to some important practical limitations1 most of which can be indicated by asking the question 8,what are local affairs80 ,where is the line to be drawn between things which concern only the inhabitants of the city and those which affect the interests of the whole state4 ,at first glance it might seem as though the care of streets1 the maintenance of police1 the provision of a water-supply system1 and the control of education were matters of local concern1 which each city ought to handle as its citizens deem best4 ,but are any of them strictly local in nature8 ,the main streets of the city are arteries of traffic which link up with the state highways2 were it not for the speed-limit signs1 it would be difficult to tell where one class of streets ends and the other begins4 ,the city police enforce the state laws and it is hardly plausible to urge that the state legislature shall have no control over the enforcement of its own statutes4 ,the work of the city police is not1 therefore1 a matter of strictly local concern4 ,so it is with health regulation1 water supply1 education1 poor-relief1 and many other municipal functions4 ,the state cannot allow the children of any community to grow illiterate2 it cannot afford to take the risk of an epidemic through the defective care of the public health in some negligent city2 and it cannot fairly be expected to stand by idly when a city neglects the sick or the poor because its taxpayers wish to save money4 ,municipal home rule1 if it were permitted to cover all these things1 would be another name for local chaos4 ,the relations between a city and the surrounding country are so intimate1 and each depends so much upon the other1 that no rigid line of separation between local and general interests can be drawn4 ,to make every city a little sovereign republic1 wrapped up in its own local affairs and subject to no control from outside1 would not promote the common interests of the whole people4 ,sidenote3 ,difference between the theory and the practice of home rule4 ,municipal home rule means in practice1 therefore1 that cities shall be free to frame their own charters and to determine for themselves their form of municipal government provided they do not infringe upon the general laws of the state or detract from the authority of the state officials4 ,this is a very broad limitation and leaves the city a comparatively narrow field of self-determination4 ,nevertheless1 in spite of this limitation the home rule system has substantial advantages4 ,it relieves the legislature from having to do with a multitude of local matters at every session2 it helps to separate municipal from state politics2 and it encourages the people of the city to take an active interest in the making of their own charters4#ga ,sidenote3 ,the older form of municipal organization4 ,the ,organization of ,city ,government4--,twenty-five years ago the general plan of city government1 as established by these charters1 was fairly uniform throughout the country4 ,charters were granted in different ways2 their provisions varied in many details2 but the main framework of city government which they set up had everywhere the same general features4 ,this was the mayor-and-council type of government1 its chief feature being a division of powers between the mayor1 who performed executive functions1 and the council1 which served as a municipal legislature4 ,in other words the cities were governed on the same principle as the nation and the states4 ,even today most of the larger cities retain this plan4 ,sidenote3 ,the newer forms4 ,during the opening years of the twentieth century1 however1 a new plan of city government came to the front and spread with great rapidity through many sections of the country4 ,this is known as the commission system of government4 ,instead of dividing powers between a mayor and council it combines them all in the hands of a small elective board4 ,this plan of government now prevails in several hundred ,american cities1 but most of them are small places4 ,out of the commission plan has grown a third scheme of city government during the past few years4 ,this is called the city manager plan4 ,it gives to an elective commission or small council the general supervision of city affairs1 but entrusts to a professional administrator1 or city manager1 the immediate charge of the actual work4 ,let us look at these three types of city government a little more closely4 ,the ,mayor-and-,council ,plan4--,among the fifty largest cities of the ,united ,states1 the mayor-and-council system of government exists in all but twelve4 ,despite the spread of the other two plans1 therefore1 it is still the prevailing type of government in the more important communities4 ,sidenote3 ,position and powers of the mayor4 ,the mayor1 under this system1 is the city's chief official4 ,he is elected by the people1 usually for a two-year or four-year term1 and the election campaign is in most cities conducted on a party basis4 ,occasionally men of high ability have served as mayors in various cities1 but far more frequently the position has gone to active politicians who can be relied upon to use the powers and patronage of the office in promoting the interests of the party4#gb ,the authority of the mayor is in general like that exercised by the governor in state affairs4 ,he makes appointments 7which in some cases require confirmation by the council72 and he may veto ordinances or resolutions passed by the council4 ,in some cities he has the exclusive right to propose expenditures and in some others his assent is necessary in all municipal contracts4 ,he represents the city on all occasions of ceremony and is the 8first citizen0 of the community4 ,city charters usually provide that the mayor shall be responsible for the general observance of the laws and the maintenance of order4 ,in a few cities he presides at meetings of the council but for the most part he does not have this duty4 ,when he desires to address the council he does so by message or written communication4 ,sidenote3 ,the city's administrative officials4 ,the ,heads of ,departments4--,it is impossible1 of course1 for any one official to manage directly all branches of city administration2 hence the mayor is assisted in this work by various officials and boards1 such as the superintendent of streets1 the head of the police department1 the water board1 and the board of health4 ,sidenote3 ,commissioners vs4 boards4 ,in the larger cities the tendency now is to put each department of administration in charge of a single commissioner rather than a board because the members of a board are too prone to disagree among themselves and delay business4 ,in the smaller cities the board system is still widely used1 partly because it is less expensive4 ,when a single official is given charge of a department 7such as police1 fire protection1 or streets7 he must devote his whole time to it and hence has to be paid a good salary2 but members of a board can divide the work among themselves1 each giving only part-time to it1 and serving without any pay4 ,it is questionable1 however1 if this policy means any saving in the long run4 ,when a city attains a population of twenty1 thirty1 or forty thousand its administrative work grows to a point where it requires close and skilled attention in order to prevent extravagance and waste4 ,in behalf of the board system it is sometimes argued that it gives political parties a chance to be represented1 whereas a single official represents the controlling party only4 ,but there is no good reason why departments which have purely business functions to perform should be influenced by party considerations at all4 ,the board system has some distinct advantages when applied to such departments as schools1 public libraries1 poor-relief1 or city planning1 where discussion and deliberation are desirable2 but it does not work well in such departments as police1 fire protection1 and streets1 for these are branches of work which demand quick decisions and firm action4 ,there is no more reason for placing a board in charge of the city's police than for putting a board of generals in command of an army4 ,sidenote3 ,how organized4 ,the ,city ,council4--,the city council a generation ago was usually made up of two branches2 today it is almost everywhere composed of one chamber only4 ,a single chamber is quite enough for all that the council now has to do4 ,sidenote3 ,election by wards and election at large4 ,its members are elected1 sometimes by wards1 sometimes at large4 ,the objection to the ward system is that it encourages the election of inferior men and inspires them1 when elected1 to strive for the interests of their own particular wards rather than for the welfare of the city as a whole4 ,when councilmen are elected at large1 on the other hand1 the dominant political party is likely to elect its entire slate and control the whole council1 thus allowing the minority no representation at all4 ,in some cities an endeavor has been made to meet these objections by having the council chosen in part under each plan1 some councilmen from wards and some at large4#gc ,sidenote3 ,its powers4 ,the council enacts the local laws or ordinances and appropriates whatever money is needed to carry on the city's affairs4 ,no expenditures can be made without its approval and its consent is almost always needed before municipal debts can be incurred4 ,its authority was large in earlier days when it controlled through its committees the management of the various city departments2 but with the steady growth of the mayor's authority the powers of the council have been diminished4 ,it is a legislative body1 and in city government there is relatively little legislative work to be done4 ,the state laws cover almost everything of importance4 ,sidenote3 ,defects of the mayor-and-council plan4 ,the chief defect of the mayor-and-council plan is its unwieldiness4 ,there are too many separate authorities4 ,power and responsibility are scattered into too many hands4 ,when things go wrong the council blames the mayor2 the mayor blames the council2 the voters do not know who is at fault4 ,time is wasted and money is misspent because independent authorities fail to agree4 ,the political bosses take advantage of this situation to gain their own ends by helping one side or the other4 ,the citizen who tries to find out the real facts has a hard time of it4 ,it is like threading his way through a jungle4 ,when he has a complaint to make he is often referred from one official to another until he loses patience4 ,in the largest cities the mayor-and-council plan does not operate so badly1 because the methods of conducting business are more definitely prescribed and the mayor is given so much power that he cannot well evade the responsibility4 ,it is in the smaller communities that this plan of government obtains the least satisfactory results4 ,sidenote3 ,how commission government began4 ,the ,commission ,plan4--,twenty-five years ago it seemed impossible to secure any substantial improvement in the administration of ,american cities4 ,foreign observers spoke of city government as a 8conspicuous failure01 and there was a good deal of basis for that statement4 ,people realized that city government had become cumbrous and top-heavy4 ,they saw that the system of checks and balances1 whatever its merits in state and national government1 was not working well in the cities4 ,yet they had grown so accustomed to the complicated network of officials1 boards1 and councils that they hesitated to sweep the whole thing away in order to put some simple form of government in its place4 ,so things drifted along until #aija1 when the city of ,galveston1 driven to heroic measures as the result of a catastrophe1 installed an entirely new scheme of government known as the commission plan4#gd ,the success of this experiment was so marked that other cities became interested and followed ,galveston's example1 until today the commission plan has been established in nearly four hundred municipalities1 scattered all over the country4#ge ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,commission ,,plan ,the way in which the various branches of municipal administration are apportioned among members of the city commission is shown by the diagram on the other side of this page4 ,the final administrative authority1 however1 is not vested with these commissioners 7or councilmen as they are sometimes called74 ,it rests with the commission or council as a body4 ,all the lines of administrative responsibility converge inward1 which is what they ought to do in any well-organized government4 ,above the commission or council stands the electorate1 the whole body of voters1 which can exercise ultimate control over the whole city government by means of the initiative1 referendum1 and recall4 ,illustration ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,what the plan involves4 ,the commission plan is simplicity itself4 ,the people elect a board or commission of five members4 ,this commission has entire control of the city government in all its branches with the exception of schools1 which are usually left in charge of a school board4 ,they pass the ordinances1 vote appropriations1 make appointments1 and award contracts4 ,for purposes of actual management the city's administrative work is divided into five general departments 7public works1 public welfare1 public finance1 public safety1 and public health1 or some other such division7 and one of the commissioners takes immediate charge of each4 ,the final authority in all matters1 however1 remains with the commission as a whole4 ,sidenote3 ,advantages of the commission system4 ,its ,merits and ,defects4--,the outstanding feature of this scheme is that it lodges all power and responsibility in one place4 ,there is no division of authority1 no checks and balances1 no complicated network of officials1 boards1 councils1 and committees4 ,the commission meets every day2 does its business publicly2 takes full responsibility for its actions1 and when it makes decisions sees that they are promptly carried out4 ,the plan is so simple that any citizen can understand it4 ,it is truly democratic in that the voters are enabled to enforce responsibility when taxes are too heavy or public funds are wasted4 ,the commission plan tends to bring better men into office and affords them greater opportunities for the exercise of their abilities4 ,sidenote3 ,reputed defects of commission government4 ,the objection is made that the commission plan1 by giving so much authority to a few men1 may prove to be dangerous and result in establishing an oligarchy4 ,but the commissioners1 like mayors and councils1 are chosen by the people and cannot remain long in office unless the people re-elect them4 ,moreover1 most cities that use the commission plan have established the initiative1 referendum1 and recall 7see p4 #ajg7 as additional safeguards4 ,and so it is with the complaint that a commission of five members is not large enough to be representative of all classes among the people4 ,good representation is not merely a matter of numbers4 ,large bodies1 in fact1 can be easily handled by bosses4 ,congress with more than five hundred members has sometimes failed to reflect public opinion2 the ,president on occasions has done this much better4 ,five men can find out what the people want just as well as fifty1 and they are more likely to try4 ,quite as much to the point--they are in a better position to carry out the people's wishes when the time comes4 ,sidenote3 ,the most serious fault4 ,there is one serious defect in the commission plan1 however1 and it is this3 ,the control of the various city departments is not brought to a single center but is parceled out into five separate hands4 ,each commissioner looks after a certain portion of the city's business2 no one is supreme over them all4 ,the commission as a whole is supreme1 it is true1 but it must trust its own individual members to handle their own branches of work4 ,in other words1 the commission plan establishes a five-headed executive2 it leaves room for disagreements among the commissioners on a three-against-two basis1 and does not make some one man responsible for getting a dollar's worth of value for every hundred cents expended4 ,dividing the responsibility among five men is better1 of course1 than dividing it among fifty or sixty1 as the mayor-and-council plan does2 but putting it all upon the shoulders of one man is more effective still4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,city-,,manager ,,plan ,the diagram which is printed on the reverse of this page will make clear the analogy between the organization of a business corporation and that of a city in which the city-manager plan of government is followed4 ,the people of the city correspond to the stockholders of the corporation in that they possess the ultimate power4 ,this power is exercised in the one case through a board of directors1 in the other through a council or commission4 ,administrative authority1 however1 in both cases devolves upon a manager1 who1 in turn1 appoints and removes his subordinates4 ,all the activities of corporate business and of city-manager government are linked together or correlated at a single administrative center4 ,this diagram should be studied in connection with the discussion on pages #bjc-bjf4 ,a ,,comparison ,,the ,,factory ,,the ,,city ,,stockholders ,,people ,vote ,initiative1 ,referendum1 ,recall1 ,protest ,,directors _/ ,,commissioners --,popular control-- ,,general ----,centralized authority---- ,,city ,,manager ,,manager ,appoints ,appoints and discharges ,correlated activities and discharges ,department heads ---- ,department heads _/ ,,engineering ,,law ,,making ,,public ,,services ,,recording ,,public ,,welfare ,,selling ,,public ,,safety ,,welfare ,,finance ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,position and powers of the manager4 ,the ,city-,manager ,plan4--,in keeping with the principle1 therefore1 that some one official ought to have direct charge of the city's administrative work1 the city-manager plan has been devised4 ,under this plan the commission 7or a small elective council7 continues in full control1 but its members do not divide the various functions among themselves4 ,instead they appoint a well-paid1 expert official to act as general manager and he takes charge of all the city departments4 ,the city administration1 under this arrangement1 is conducted like that of any ordinary business corporation4 ,the commission or council serves as a board of directors2 the city manager becomes1 as it were1 a general superintendent4#gf ,in selecting its manager a city often goes outside its own limits2 usually it chooses a man who is an engineer by profession because so much of the work is of a technical nature4 ,when the manager is appointed he plans the work to be done1 estimates the cost1 awards the contracts1 purchases the materials1 and hires the labor4 ,the city-manager plan has been adopted by more than a hundred cities1 but only a few are large communities4#gg ,sidenote3 ,merits of the plan4 ,this scheme of city government has all the advantages of the commission plan and some of its defects4 ,the detailed work falls on the city manager who is qualified to do it4 ,there is a single1 responsible head of the administration4 ,when a citizen has any complaint to make1 he knows exactly where to go4 ,in all these respects it is an ideal arrangement4 ,sidenote3 ,two practical questions4 ,but there are two practical questions connected with the plan which only the future can answer4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,will the cities pay adequate salaries8 ,in the first place will cities be willing to pay the high salaries which they must pay in order to obtain the services of thoroughly competent managers8 ,men who are capable of handling the affairs of a great corporation1 which a city is1 cannot be secured without paying them the market price for their skill and experience4 ,private corporations pay high salaries to their general managers1 and the cities1 if they want the right men1 must do likewise4 ,but public opinion in most ,american cities is inclined to balk at high salaries4 ,people who have to work hard for their own living do not see why anyone should get a salary of eight or ten thousand dollars a year from the city1 and particularly they do not see why such a large salary should go to an outsider4 ,in consequence many cities are striving to get good managers at low salaries1 which is a very difficult if not an impossible thing to do4 ,the sentiment which strongly favors appointing a 8local man0 as city manager is also likely to work harmfully4 ,local appointments in the long run are almost certain to be influenced by local politics4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,is the plan applicable to very large cities8 ,a second limitation concerns the applicability of the city-manager plan to very large communities4 ,a competent official can take charge of the entire administration in a place of fifty or one hundred thousand people4 ,but how about a city of a million8 ,would the task be too big8 ,this is a question which cannot yet be answered1 because no very large city has yet tried the plan4 ,it is pointed out that giant business enterprises1 with operations extending into many countries1 are sometimes managed by one capable man who ensures success by a careful selection of his subordinates4 ,until the experiment is made we are not safe in assuming that the city-manager scheme can be advantageously adopted by all communities of whatever size4 ,the ,future of ,city ,government4--,what the final solution of the problem will be we cannot yet tell4 ,the new plans of city government which have been described in the foregoing pages may be merely a prelude to something still newer4 ,but at any rate the cities are making headway4 ,they are simplifying their governments1 making them more responsive to public opinion and better fitted to do the work which has to be done4 ,american city government is no longer a conspicuous failure4 ,misgovernment and waste have not wholly or even largely disappeared1 it is true2 but conditions are far better today than they were twenty-five years ago4 ,the people have awakened2 they are no longer misled by promises and excuses but are insisting upon knowing the facts4 ,the crooked methods of a generation ago would not be tolerated today4 ,the present task is to hold what we have thus gained and add to it4 ,that is a duty which belongs to every citizen whatever his age1 occupation1 or party allegiance4 ,the world is becoming a world of cities1 and he who helps to make his home city a better place is performing one of the highest duties of patriotism4 ,general ,references ,f4 ,j4 ,,goodnow and ,f4 ,g4 ,,bates1 ,municipal ,government1 pp4 #c-dc2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of ,american ,cities1 pp4 #hj-aja2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #egh-fjb2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #eji-ecd2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,local ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cjj-ceg2 ,t4 ,s4 ,,chang1 ,history and ,analysis of the ,commission and ,city ,manager ,plans of ,municipal ,government1 pp4 #ge-if2 ,,henry ,,bru,,re1 ,the ,new ,city ,government1 pp4 #aga-bjd2 ,,american ,,academy ,,of ,,political ,,and ,,social ,,science1 ,commission ,government and the ,city-,manager ,plans1 revised edition1 pp4 #di-gg2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,state and ,municipal ,government1 pp4 #cde-dec4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the charter of your own city 7or some nearby city74 ,study the main types of city charter4 ,examine the procedure by which your city charter was adopted2 make a summary of its chief provisions2 compare these with the main provisions in the charter of some other comparable city2 point out what seem to be the chief merits and defects2 state your conclusions as to desirable changes1 and explain how these may be secured4 ,references3 ,,nathan ,,matthews1 ,municipal ,charters1 pp4 #ig-afc2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,applied ,city ,government1 pp4 #ci-ec2 ,h4 ,a4 ,,toulmin1 ,the ,city ,manager1 pp4 #agj-aic2 ,,national ,,municipal ,,league1 ,municipal ,program 7ed4 ,c4 ,r4 ,woodruff71 passim4 7,copies of the city charter can always be found in the public library and in all but the larger cities may usually be had from the office of the city clerk47 #b4 ,the city-manager plan3 what are its merits and its limitations8 ,references3 ,h4 ,a4 ,,toulmin1 ,the ,city ,manager1 pp4 #gc-ig2 ,c4 ,e4 ,,rightor1 ,the ,city ,manager in ,dayton1 pp4 #ca-ef2 ,e4 ,c4 ,,mabie1 ,selected ,articles on the ,city ,manager ,plan of ,municipal ,government1 passim 7,debaters' ,handbook series72 ,t4 ,s4 ,,chang1 ,history and ,analysis of the ,commission and ,city ,manager ,plans of ,municipal ,government1 pp4 #aeh-bbj2 ,,national ,,municipal ,,league1 ,the ,story of the ,city ,manager ,plan 7pamphlet72 ,the ,year ,book of the ,city ,managers' ,association and the ,national ,municipal ,review also contain recent material4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,characteristics of city populations4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of ,american ,cities1 pp4 #bi-eb4 #b4 ,the city and the state4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,city ,government1 pp4 #ca-ea4 #c4 ,the city charter4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,local ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cjd-caa4 #d4 ,the position and powers of the mayor4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of ,american ,cities1 pp4 #bjg-bcg2 ,r4 ,m4 ,,story1 ,the ,american ,municipal ,executive1 passim4 #e4 ,the mayor as a human being4 ,,brand ,,whitlock1 ,forty ,years of ,it1 especially pp4 #bje-bcf4 #f4 ,the most striking mayor of his day4 ,,tom ,l4 ,,johnson1 ,my ,story1 pp4 #ajh-adc2 ,,carl ,,lorenz1 ,tom ,l4 ,johnson1 pp4 #ba-ff4 #g4 ,the city council4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,goodnow and ,f4 ,g4 ,,bates1 ,municipal ,government1 pp4 #agi-bbi4 #h4 ,parties and politics in city government4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of ,american ,cities1 pp4 #aec-agi4 #i4 ,the selection and training of city administrators4 ,,henry ,,bru,,re1 ,the ,new ,city ,government1 pp4 #cce-cfa4 #aj4 ,how our cities have improved during the past twenty years4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #a-bi4 ,questions #a4 ,if you compare a city of #ajj1jjj people with a rural district of the same population1 which would have 7a7 the larger income per capita2 7b7 the larger proportion of property owners2 7c7 the greater number of illiterates2 7d7 the greater number of criminals8 ,give reasons for your answer in each case4 #b4 ,compare a city charter with a state constitution1 pointing out wherein they are similar and wherein they are different4 #c4 ,name some branches of administration which you think ought to be wholly under the jurisdiction of the city and free from state interference4 #d4 ,which do you think is the better1 municipal home rule or the optional charter plan8 ,why do you think so8 #e4 ,in mayor-and-council cities what are the principal powers and duties of the mayor8 ,what are the chief functions of the city council8 #f4 ,state which of the following officials ought to be appointed by the mayor and which of them elected by the people1 giving your reasons in each case3 superintendent of streets1 chief or commissioner of police1 head of the fire department1 city treasurer1 overseers of the poor1 members of the school board1 public library trustees4 #g4 8,a city's affairs are of the nature of business1 not of government40 ,is this statement absolutely correct8 ,why or why not8 #h4 8,the commission plan embodied both a protest and a policy40 ,against what was it a protest8 ,to what extent does it avoid the defects of the mayor-and-council plan8 #i4 ,what are the practical difficulties connected with the city-manager plan8 ,do you believe that preference should be given to a 8local man0 in choosing the manager8 ,the salary of the mayor in a medium-sized city is usually not more than #ejjj4 ,should a city manager be paid more8 #aj4 ,explain what training and personal qualities a city manager ought to have4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the head of the police department in large cities 7over #ajj1jjj population7 should be appointed by the governor4 #b4 ,the city-manager plan is better than the mayor-and-council or commission form of government for cities under #ajj1jjj population4 #c4 ,home rule should be granted to cities in every state4 #d4 ,the members of the city council should be chosen from the city at large rather than from wards4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,municipal ,,problems ,,of ,,today ,the purpose of this chapter is to point out some of the difficult things which our cities have to do and to discuss the various ways of doing them4 ,sidenote3 ,the city's annual report4 ,government or ,business3 ,which is it8--,at the close of each year the city authorities issue a printed volume1 its pages well packed with figures of all sorts and interspersed with a good deal of very dry reading matter4 ,this is called the annual report2 it contains a statement of revenues and expenditures compiled by the auditor1 a summary of what each department has done during the year1 and a great many other facts about the work of the city officials4 ,very few people ever read these annual reports1 and not many would understand them if they did4 ,but any thoughtful man or woman who takes the trouble to look through one of these publications from cover to cover would be tempted to ask the question3 ,why do they call such things government8 ,they are not government in any sense1 nothing but business4 ,here is an account of how streets have been paved1 water purified and distributed to the people1 school buildings constructed1 supplies purchased1 contracts awarded1 labor employed1 money collected and money paid out--why do they call these things government when they are simply business operations and nothing else8 ,the problems that arise in connection with them are business problems2 the methods needed are business methods2 the organization best fitted to do the work is a business organization4 ,sidenote3 ,most of the city's work is business4 ,now there is a good deal to be said for this point of view4 ,a large part of the work which the city officials perform is of a business rather than a governmental nature4 ,making laws and enforcing them is a relatively small portion of their task4 ,the great majority of city officials and employees are engaged in rendering social and economic services--such as teaching in schools1 caring for the public health1 building streets1 inspecting markets1 attending to the water supply1 putting out fires1 and making out tax bills2 all of which tasks are quite different in nature from the work which legislatures or governors or courts perform4 ,it is work which1 in order to be effective1 must be done in accordance with the methods of everyday business with emphasis on intelligence1 punctuality1 and honesty4 ,sidenote3 ,but not all of it can be managed according to business principles4 ,nevertheless we should be careful not to press this point too far4 ,the aim of all organized business is to secure a profit1 but the purpose of city administration is to promote the well-being of the citizens4 ,it must be conducted in compliance with the desires of the voters1 whatever these desires may be1 and must give them what they want4 ,business can sometimes be managed without any heed to public opinion1 but municipal administration cannot4 ,the science of municipal government is1 to a considerable extent1 that of keeping the people satisfied4 ,the voters must have what they want and they do not always want what some expert may deem to be the best or the cheapest4 ,government by the best people is not necessarily the best government4 ,there is no denying that business methods can be advantageously applied to city administration at many points 7particularly in the awarding of contracts and the buying of supplies71 but it does not follow that such departments as poor-relief1 correction1 and public health should be managed according to exactly the same principles as a railroad or a cotton factory4 ,success or failure in these departments cannot always be measured in terms of dollars and cents4 ,the administration must be sympathetic and humane2 it avails little to save a little money if the saving entails a great deal of human misery4 ,the strict rules of business may easily be pressed too far4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,municipal ,,administrative ,,departments ,the accompanying diagram indicates the way in which the administrative work of a large ,american city such as ,boston is distributed among various officials and departments4 ,it will be noted that there were1 in #aibj1 some forty departments under the control of the mayor4 ,some consolidation has since been made1 but the number of departments is still larger in ,boston than in any other city4 ,this chart should be referred to in connection with ,group ,problem ,no4 #a 7page #bbc74 ,illustration3 ,,commonwealth ,,of ,,massachusetts ,,appointments ,,by ,,governor ,judiciary ,finance ,commission ,civil ,service ,commission ,met4 ,district ,commission ,p4,w ,dept4 ,division of ,highways ,medical ,examiner ,licensing ,board ,police ,commissioner ,pilot ,commission ,division of ,waterways ,dept4 of ,pub4 ,utilities ,state ,fire ,marshal ,,electorate ,,city ,,council 7#i7 ,city ,messenger ,clerk of ,committees ,city ,clerk ,,mayor 7#d ,years7 ,park ,recreation ,department ,consumptive ,hospital ,department ,hospital ,department ,examiner for ,bldg4 ,licenses ,public ,buildings ,department ,institutions ,registration ,dept4 ,weights ,measures ,department ,vessels ,ballast ,department ,penal ,institutions ,department ,overseers of the ,poor ,children's ,institutions ,dept4 ,soldiers ,relief ,department ,infirmary ,department ,sinking ,fund ,department ,auditing ,department ,treasury ,department ,public ,works ,department ,bridges ,ferries ,collecting ,department ,registry ,department ,water ,division ,city ,planning ,board ,highway ,division ,cemetery ,department ,assessing ,department ,library ,department ,election ,department ,sewer1 ,street ,cleaning ,div4 ,supply ,department ,lamps ,market ,department ,paving ,printing ,department ,statistics ,department ,art ,department ,school ,house ,department ,transit ,department ,budget ,department ,health ,department ,board of ,appeals ,building ,department ,law ,department ,city ,record ,fire ,department ,statistics ,department ,boston ,cambridge ,bridge ,comm4 ,street ,laying ,out ,department ,regulation of ,traffic --- ,,general ,,drafting ,,co4 ,,inc41 ,n4,y4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,one reason for waste in city administration4 ,the ,need for ,better ,co-operation among ,city ,departments4--,the greatest obstacle to satisfactory work on the part of city officials is the absence of close co-operation among the various city departments4 ,some heads of departments are elected2 some are appointed4 ,even when they are all chosen in the same way they often fail to work in complete harmony4 ,each department is jealous of its own functions and anxious to follow its own policy4#gh ,sidenote3 ,some examples4 ,each desires all the credit when things go right and wants none of the blame when things go wrong4 ,the various departments1 when unpleasant or unpopular tasks have to be performed1 often try to put the responsibility on someone else4 ,they have become very proficient in what is colloquially known as 8passing the buck04 ,the result is that team play is usually lacking1 and friction is not at all uncommon4 ,how frequently we see examples of this failure to save the city's money by co-operation6 ,the street department puts down a new pavement2 but the surface is scarcely dry before the water department proceeds to tear it up in order to lay new mains1 or the sewer department sends its men along to dig a new manhole1 or the gas and electric light employees come with picks and shovels to make excavations in it4 ,why not do all this before the new pavement goes down8 ,in the city of ,boston nearly ten thousand excavations are made in the streets during a single year4 ,some of these are unavoidable1 no doubt1 but many of them are simply the result of poor planning or no planning at all4 ,or1 take another illustration4 ,many city departments require materials and supplies of the same sort4 ,coal1 for example1 is needed in police stations1 fire stations1 the schools1 the city hall1 and all other public buildings4 ,why not get together1 buy it all in one large order at wholesale prices1 pay spot cash1 and secure a discount1 instead of having each department purchase its own supplies in relatively small quantities from local dealers8 ,the answer is that each department1 jealous of its own independence1 usually goes ahead in all its activities without informing the others or consulting them4 ,the situation is not nearly so bad nowadays as it was twenty or more years ago but there is still plenty of room for more effective co-operation4#gi ,,city ,,planning ,,and ,,public ,,works ,sidenote3 ,the lack of planning4 ,city ,planning4--,a second defect in ,american city administration has been the lack of careful planning4 ,the mayor and other city officials serve in office for short terms and their main concern is to do whatever happens to be urgent at the time1 leaving the more difficult problems for their successors4 ,much of their work thus becomes makeshift in character1--a street is widened1 a temporary schoolhouse is erected1 a fire engine is bought1 and a few new sewers put in--but no comprehensive plan for street improvement or schoolhouse construction or the motorization of fire apparatus or sewage disposal is usually made and followed4 ,public buildings are often badly placed because political influences rather than public convenience determines their location4 ,the congestion of traffic on the down-town streets1 the lack of parks and open spaces in certain sections of the city1 the unsightliness due to the myriad of poles1 wires1 signs1 and billboards in many of the city's thoroughfares--these things are all due in large measure to the absence of planning4 ,sidenote3 ,european cities are better planned4 ,many cities take little or no thought for the morrow4 ,they expect to grow bigger and busier1 but they give small thought to the impending problems which growth is bound to bring4 ,european cities have been far ahead in this respect4 ,if ,paris is outwardly the most attractive city in the world1 it is because the authorities1 more than seventy years ago1 set out to make it so4 ,the best-built city in the ,united ,states is ,washington1 the streets and parks of which were all planned before a single building was erected4#hj ,sidenote3 ,the broad scope of city planning4 ,what ,city ,planning ,includes4--,city planning is the science of designing cities1 or parts of cities1 so that they may be better places for people to live in4 ,it includes the arranging of streets1 the locating of public buildings1 the providing of parks and playgrounds1 the devising of a proper transportation system1 and the regulating of private property in such way as to promote the best interests of the whole community4 ,it is1 therefore1 or ought to be1 the center or focus of all the city's activities1 each one of which should be carried on in harmony with the general plan4 ,it is only in this way that a great waste of the city's money and serious inconvenience to all classes of citizens can be prevented4 ,although city planning is not a new art it is only within recent years that ,american cities have given much attention to it4 ,for many decades the cities and their suburbs were allowed to grow haphazard4 ,what was once a country highway became a village road1 then the main street of a town1 and finally the chief business thoroughfare of a large city4 ,to have widened it in early days would have been cheap and easy2 but when a city has grown up on both sides of it the project becomes too expensive4 ,lack of planning is responsible for much of the traffic congestion with which the cities are wrestling nowadays4 ,sidenote3 ,the great importance of streets4 ,the ,streets4--,the streets are very important factors in the daily life of every community1 far more so than we commonly realize4 ,they are the city's arteries4 ,on their surface they carry vehicles of every sort4 ,their surface also affords locations for lamp posts1 telephone poles1 hydrants1 and many other instrumentalities of public service4 ,underneath the street surface are sewers1 water mains1 gas pipes1 and conduits2 overhead are wires and signs and balconies4 ,the streets give access to the shops and houses2 they are likewise the principal channels for light and air1 both of which are essential to life in the buildings alongside4 ,nearly every form of public service depends upon the streets2 without them private property would have little or no value4 ,about one-third of all the land in the city is occupied by the streets1 so that proper street planning becomes a matter of great importance to the community4#ha ,sidenote3 ,the layout of streets4 ,in most ,american cities the streets are laid out in rectangular form1 with long1 broad avenues running one way and narrower cross-streets the other4 ,this means that each intersects the other at right angles and the city blocks become squares like those of a checker-board4 ,this plan has been widely used in ,america because it takes less land for streets than any other plan would require and it makes all building lots of convenient rectangular shape4#hb ,the chief objection to this gridiron plan is that it makes traffic more congested at the junction of important thoroughfares4 ,it also gives a sameness to the appearance of all the streets and hampers the development of architectural variety4 ,european visitors often comment on this4 ,street after street in the shopping or residential districts all look alike to the stranger2 all have been laid out with a pencil and ruler1 the same widths 7or nearly the same72 every lot of land is of the same size2 and the long rows of houses seem to be all of the same type4 ,in the cities of ,europe1 on the other hand1 the streets are more often curved or winding2 some are very broad and some very narrow1 so that each street has its own individuality4 ,to some extent ,american cities are now laying out diagonal and winding streets in their newer suburbs on the principle that picturesqueness ought to be combined with utility4 ,sidenote3 ,the old and the newer methods of determining widths4 ,how ,wide ,ought a ,street to be8--,until very recent years in all ,american cities1 and even yet in some of them1 the practice has been to lay out streets in widths of forty1 sixty1 or eighty feet1--always using multiples of ten4 ,this is a mere rule-of-thumb method and bears no direct relation to the needs of traffic4 ,the downtown streets of the older cities are1 for the most part1 too narrow2 in the newer suburbs they are often a good deal wider than they need be4 8,but what harm is done by having more street space than is necessary80 it may be asked4 ,well1 every square foot of street space costs money2 it has to be paved1 kept in repair1 cleaned1 and lighted4 ,the proper policy in laying out streets is to adapt their width to the probable needs of future traffic4 ,this cannot always be done with mathematical accuracy1 because the density of traffic changes from decade to decade2 but with careful study a fairly dependable estimate can usually be made4 ,sidenote3 ,the traffic 8zones04 ,the best practice nowadays is to fix the width of new streets in terms of traffic zones1 not merely in multiples of ten feet4 ,a stream of traffic--motor cars1 trucks1 and other vehicles following one another--requires a certain sluiceway or zone to move in4 ,this zone is ordinarily reckoned as ten feet in width4 ,a zone of parked vehicles alongside the curb uses about eight feet4 ,in order to allow full parking privileges and still have space for two streams of traffic to flow along easily 7one in each direction7 a street should be thirty-six feet in width from curb to curb4 ,anything less than this usually means that parking must be restricted or the thoroughfare must be made a one-way street4 ,anything more than this is useless unless a full zone of ten feet is added1 and it is of relatively little value unless two additional zones are put on4#hc ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,for #d lines of traffic ,all moving --#ac'--------dj'--------ac'-- ----------------#ff'------------------ ,for #f lines of traffic #d moving #b standing --#ae'------------ef'-----------ae'-- ----------------------#hf'-------------- ------- ,for #h lines of traffic #f moving #b standing --#bb'----------------gf'--------------- -bb'-- ------------------------#abj'----------- --------------- ,the normal roadway width is based on an allowance of #aj feet for each line of moving vehicles and #h feet for each line of standing vehicles4 ,where space is absolutely limited this unit allowance may be reduced to #i feet for moving and #g feet for standing vehicles4 ,the sidewalk width above suggested may be increased or reduced to meet special requirements as to pedestrian traffic or special demands for a tree and lawn strip4 ,,traffic ,,zones ,the congestion of traffic in the downtown streets of our large cities is due to four causes3 7a7 the increased number of vehicles1 7b7 the different rates of speed at which different types of vehicles desire to move 7horse-drawn vehicles1 street cars1 motor trucks1 trucks1 motor cars1 motorcycles1 etc471 7c7 the inadequate width and faulty arrangement of streets due to the lack of planning1 and 7d7 the improper driving and parking of vehicles4 ,the older streets cannot now be widened except at very great expense because the private property which fronts on them is so valuable4 ,but new streets can be planned to take care of future traffic growth4 ,no city street should be laid out with less than fifty-six feet between curb and curb4 ,the sidewalk space varies with the width of the street1 as the accompanying diagram shows4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,types of pavement4 ,street ,pavements4--,apart from good planning and adequate width1 the usefulness of a street depends to a considerable extent on its paving4 ,the qualities of an ideal pavement are easy enough to specify1 but not so easy to secure4 ,to reach perfection a street pavement should be cheap to construct1 durable1 easy to repair1 easy to keep clean1 smooth1 safe for traffic1 noiseless1 and attractive in appearance4 ,unfortunately there is no type of pavement possessing all these qualities4 ,a pavement of granite blocks will last for many years under heavy traffic1 but it is expensive to build1 noisy1 and hard to keep clean4 ,the asphalt pavement is cheaper1 cleaner1 and easier to drive upon2 but it is slippery in wet weather and breaks down very quickly when heavy traffic is allowed on it4 ,wood blocks have come into favor in many cities during recent years because they are believed to make a pavement which is sufficiently strong to stand the burden now placed on the streets by truck traffic and yet afford a surface which is easy to drive over1 not difficult to keep clean1 and relatively noiseless4 ,there is no one best form of pavement for all sections of the city4#hd ,it would be absurd to lay asphalt in the dock and shipping districts where the streets are filled with five-ton trucks1 and just as absurd to put a granite-block surface on the streets of fine residential districts4 ,the nature of the pavement should be adapted to neighborhood conditions4 ,sidenote3 ,the contract and direct labor systems4 ,when the pavement has been selected it can be laid in either of two ways--by contract or by city labor4 ,most pavements have been built by contract4 ,the city officials prepare the plans1 and call for bids2 paving contractors submit their figures1 and the contract is supposed to go to the one whose bid is the lowest4 ,that1 however1 is not what always happens4 ,contracts for street paving have often been awarded1 on one pretext or another1 to contractors who were able to exert political influence4#he ,in some cities the work is done by regular employees of the street department1 the city buying its own materials4 ,this plan is usually more expensive and it is not very practicable when a city wants a great deal of work done in a hurry2 on the other hand it results1 as a rule1 in getting pavement of a better quality4 ,contract work1 too often1 is done hastily and proves defective4 ,direct construction by the city's own labor force is slower1 and more expensive1 but usually more durable4 ,parks and ,recreation ,grounds4--,public parks are of two types1 first the large open spaces which cover many acres and can be used by the whole city1 and second1 the small areas which are provided for use by a single neighborhood only4 ,every large city has parks of both types4 ,the old-style park which served more for ornament than for use1 is now out of favor4 ,cities are placing more stress on grounds which can be used for athletic games or for other forms of recreation4 ,in all communities which have the advantage of being located on the ocean1 on a lake1 or on a river1 the water-front is a highly desirable addition to the available recreation spaces4 ,suitable bathing beaches in particular ought to be acquired by the cities for free use by the people4 ,the development of street railway and motor transportation has lessened the pressure upon the downtown parks by making it more easy for the people to get out into the country4 ,sidenote3 ,the various classes of public buildings3 ,public ,buildings4--,from the standpoint of suitable location the public buildings of a city may be divided into three classes4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,those which need central locations4 ,first1 there are those public buildings which ought to be centrally located so that they may be easily reached from every part of the community4 ,this class includes the post-office1 the city hall1 the court house1 and the public library4 ,in a few cities these buildings1 or most of them1 have been brought together in a civic center2 but as a rule they are scattered here and there all over the community1 wherever they may chance to have been placed in obedience to the influences or whims of the moment4 ,the desirability of bringing them together1 both as a matter of good planning and for the public convenience1 is easy to realize4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,those which must be scattered4 ,second1 there are many public buildings which must be located in different parts of the city rather than at a single center4 ,these include the fire engine houses1 police stations1 elementary schools1 and branch libraries4 ,they must necessarily be scattered1 but this does not mean that planning is superfluous4 ,very often in the past these buildings have been located at inconvenient points because political influence rather than the public interest has determined the choice of a location4 ,when a prominent politician has land to sell at a fancy price the city is usually a good customer4 ,there is no good reason why police and fire stations should not1 as a rule1 be housed under the same roof4 ,there is no good reason why the school1 the playground1 and the branch library should not be placed upon the same plot of ground1 yet rarely are these three places of instruction and recreation within sight of one another4 ,haphazard location and slipshod construction have resulted in large amounts of needless expense in the case of public buildings4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,those which need special locations4 ,third1 there are certain public buildings which have to be placed in special locations4 ,public baths1 for example1 go to the water's edge1 wherever it is4 ,the hospital should be situated outside the zone of heavy traffic and continuous noise4 ,the city prison1 the poorhouse1 the garbage disposal plant1 and the other waifs among public buildings--nobody wants their company4 ,they are not welcome in any neighborhood1 yet they must be placed somewhere4 ,timely planning would help to solve this problem by securing convenient and spacious tracts of land before the city grows so large that all the available sites are occupied1 but most of our cities give no thought to such questions until the problem becomes very urgent4 ,sidenote3 ,the private citizen and the 8,city ,beautiful04 ,regulating ,private ,property4--,no matter what the city authorities may do in the way of planning streets properly1 and expending great care upon public buildings1 the outward attractiveness of a community depends to a large extent upon the good taste and civic pride of its individual inhabitants4 ,within reasonable bounds a man can erect anything he pleases upon his own land4 ,he may build something which is a notable adornment or1 on the other hand1 something which is an architectural eyesore to the whole neighborhood4 ,he may keep his grounds and dwelling in perfect order1 everything spick and span4 ,or he may let them go into ramshackle1 the house unpainted1 the lawn grown up in weeds1 and signs of neglect apparent everywhere4 ,each section of the city is as its people make it4 ,it is absurd for men and women to clamor for fine parks1 monumental public buildings1 and brilliantly-lighted streets if they do not obey the precept that civic pride1 like charity1 ought to begin at home4 ,sidenote3 ,the billboard nuisance4 ,one of the worst offenders against civic beauty and good taste is the flaming billboard which stares from every vacant lot into the faces of the passers-by4 ,for the most part billboards serve no very useful purpose4 ,the advertising which they carry ought to be given to the newspapers1 which reach a far wider circle of people and are actively engaged in promoting the best interests of the community4 ,these billboards often mar what would otherwise be an attractive avenue or landscape4#hf ,the cities of ,continental ,europe virtually prohibit them altogether4 ,it is not possible to do that in the ,united ,states because of constitutional restrictions which protect private property2 but billboards can be restricted by law and some ,american cities have adopted the policy of so restricting them4#hg ,it is also possible to levy taxes upon them and thus to make billboard advertising less profitable4 ,the ,municipal ,utilities4--,in addition to streets1 parks1 and public buildings every city maintains various other physical utilities4 ,these include1 in some cases1 bridges1 docks1 markets1 ferries1 and so on4 ,more important1 however1 are the so-called utilities1 the water supply and the sewerage system4 ,both of these are intimately connected with the public health and can better be dealt with when we come to that general topic4 ,some cities own and operate their lighting plants1 and in a few cases their street railways4 ,but lighting and transportation are still1 for the most part1 in private hands and they present problems of such importance that they need a chapter to themselves 7see pp4 #dgd-dha74 ,sidenote3 ,beginning of the police system4 ,police ,protection4--,the practice of maintaining in cities a body of professional1 uniformed policemen who give their full time to the work of preserving law and order is less than a hundred years old4 ,until well into the nineteenth century the work of protecting life and property was performed by untrained constables and watchmen 7in ,england and ,america71 or by squads of soldiers 7in most of the larger cities of ,continental ,europe74#hh ,london1 in #ahbi1 was the first city to install a regular police force1 and this action met with great popular opposition4 ,it was regarded as a step in the direction of tyranny4#hi ,but regular policemen proved to be so much better1 as guardians of law and order1 than the untrained constable in citizen's clothes1 that other cities followed the example of ,london and eventually the system was established in the ,united ,states1 the first city to adopt the new plan being ,new ,york4 ,although ,new ,york was at that time a city of over #cjj1jjj population the work of policing was largely performed by elective constables and by citizen watchmen until #ahdd4 ,sidenote3 ,police organization today4 ,during the past three-quarters of a century the system of municipal police has been steadily improved4 ,the police are organized on what is practically a military model1 with a commissioner or chief in command4 ,under him are deputies at headquarters1 captains and lieutenants in charge of stations1 sergeants and patrolmen1 who do the work of investigating1 making arrests1 handling traffic1 and patrolling the streets4 ,the patrolmen in most ,american cities are now selected by civil service tests2 they have regular hours on and off duty1 and are subject to strict discipline4 ,the large cities have established training schools in which newly-appointed policemen receive instruction for a month or more before they are sent to do regular duty4 ,the number of policemen in all large cities has had to be greatly increased during recent years because of the growing need for traffic officers4 ,a considerable proportion of the whole force is now assigned to this duty at certain hours of the day4 ,policewomen are now being appointed in most of the larger cities because there are various forms of duty which it is believed they can perform more effectively than men4 ,sidenote3 ,state constabularies4 ,police protection1 until recent years1 has been largely confined to the cities and towns2 the rural districts have had to depend upon civilian constables and the sheriff's deputies4 ,some states1 however1 have now established bodies known as state constabularies1 the members of which patrol the country roads and perform the usual functions of police in cities4 ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,york1 ,massachusetts1 and other states have undertaken to give the rural districts adequate protection in this way4 ,the men are equipped with motorcycles and are thus enabled to cover large areas of territory in the course of a day4 ,the constabulary is under the control of the governor and may be used in any portion of the state4 ,the establishment of these state police forces has been opposed by the labor organizations which fear that they may be used to coerce strikers during labor controversies4 ,sidenote3 ,our enormous annual losses by fire4 ,fire ,prevention4--,the annual loss by fire in the ,united ,states is larger than that of all ,european countries put together4 ,chicago and ,paris are cities of about the same size2 but the yearly fire-losses in the former are four or five times that of the latter4 ,whether ,new ,york has a larger population than ,london is still a disputed question but there is no dispute about which has the larger number of fires4 ,new ,york ,city holds the world's record in fire-losses1 seven or eight million dollars per annum4 ,in every part of the ,united ,states the losses are enormous year after year4 ,it has been estimated that they amount to half a million dollars per day1 taking the country as a whole4 ,if all the buildings burned in the ,united ,states during a single year were placed side by side they would form an unbroken street from ,chicago to ,new ,york4 ,the loss of life in these fires is also appalling2 it amounts to about three thousand per year4 ,what are the reasons for this situation2 why is it so much worse than in other countries8 ,sidenote3 ,reasons for this heavy loss4 ,there are two reasons for it2 one of them we cannot control1 the other we can4 ,we cannot easily alter the fact that most of the buildings1 whether in the cities or the rural districts of the ,united ,states1 have been built of inflammable materials4 ,lumber has been cheap and it has been used lavishly4 ,in ,europe most buildings are of brick or stone4#ij ,with the depletion of the timber supply in ,america and the increased price of lumber fewer frame buildings will be constructed in the ,united ,states as time goes on4 ,the other reason for our large fire-losses is one which can be controlled4 ,it is summed up in a single word--carelessness4 ,to some extent this carelessness is the fault of the public authorities2 to a larger extent it is the fault of private individuals4 ,sidenote3 ,public prevention measures4 ,the public authorities have not been sufficiently active in framing and enforcing measures for the prevention of fires4 ,they have allowed certain neighborhoods to become veritable fire-traps1 liable to be wiped out by a conflagration at any moment4 ,during the past few years the state and city officials have been coming to realize the importance of prevention1 however1 and the laws relating to fire hazards have been growing more strict4 ,special rules are now applied to theaters1 factories1 garages1 tenements1 and other buildings in which fires are liable to result in the loss of life4 ,special fire prevention officials have been appointed in some of the larger communities2 their duty is to inspect all buildings in which fires are likely to occur and to enforce the fire prevention rules4 ,an endeavor has also been made to educate the people to the need of exercising greater care4 ,this is done by distributing circulars and by instruction in the schools4 ,sidenote3 ,the chief causes of fires4 ,the great majority of fires are the result of some individual's carelessness4 ,rubbish is left lying about near the cellar furnace2 matches are placed where children can reach them2 kerosene or gasoline is used to light the kitchen fire2 chimneys are allowed to go unrepaired and uncleaned2 ends of cigarettes are thrown on the floor or into the waste basket--individual carelessness may take many forms4 ,but every fire is the same size when it starts and a trivial accident may cause the destruction of a whole city4 ,fire departments are necessary and they should be kept up to the highest efficiency1 with well-trained men and motorized apparatus2 but dollar for dollar the money spent in prevention brings far more return than expenditures for putting out fires after they occur4 ,the work of fighting fires is spectacular and makes an impression on the people2 there is nothing spectacular about fire prevention1 hence it obtains far less attention from the average individual4 ,newspapers devote great headlines to the bravery of the fireman who carries somebody down the sheer wall of a high building in the midst of roaring flames and blinding smoke1 but the man who quietly builds his tenement so that no such rescue will ever be necessary--he gets no headlines at all4 ,for this the newspapers are of course not to blame2 they merely follow the trend of popular interest4 ,the ,city's ,share in ,health and ,welfare ,work4--,many functions which formerly devolved wholly upon the city government have now been taken over to some extent by the state authorities4 ,the state makes the general regulations and prescribes how things shall be done1 but the city officials still remain largely responsible for putting the regulations into effect4 ,sidenote3 ,the broadening field of municipal activity4 ,this is true of public health protection1 public utilities1 poor-relief1 correction1 sanitation1 and education1 all of which are dealt with in later chapters of this book4 ,no clear separation between state and local activities can be made nowadays1 the two overlap and are intermixed4 ,the city still retains1 however1 almost complete responsibility for the care of its streets1 for street lighting1 for the maintenance of parks1 and for the provision of recreation4 ,but whether it acts merely as the agent of the state or entirely on its own behalf the city's functions are being broadened year by year4 ,it is expected to do more and more for the social welfare of its people4 ,sidenote3 ,a typical example4 ,compare the ,american city of today with its prototype of seventy-five years ago4 ,in #ahde1 for example1 ,boston was a city of more than #dj1jjj people4 ,it had no paved streets1 not one4 ,there was no public water supply2 the people brought enough for their daily needs from neighborhood wells4 ,a few sewers had been built1 wooden drains they were1 and only in the more thickly-settled portions of the city4 ,provision for the care of the public health was altogether lacking2 there was no regular police force and only a volunteer bucket-brigade to put out fires4 ,public playgrounds were unknown2 so were public baths1 neighborhood centers1 band concerts1 branch libraries1 electric street lights1 trolley cars1 subways1 and the long list of things which come within the range of municipal enterprise today4 ,those were days of intense individualism when welfare work was left almost wholly to private auspices4 ,now the city has become a leader in almost every form of social and economic activity4 ,this socializing of urban life has gone on1 and still goes on1 without attracting much attention1 but it is one of the most far-reaching developments of the past century4 ,sidenote3 ,the problem of making both ends meet4 ,where will the ,cities ,get the ,money8--,this expansion in municipal activities has brought with it an incessant need for more money--more money for streets1 parks1 playgrounds1 schools1 poor-relief1 recreation1 pensions1 and for a dozen other things4 ,cities have many hard problems1 but the hardest of all is that of making both ends meet4 ,new enterprises mean new expenditures1 and even the older activities keep steadily costing more4 ,sidenote3 ,the effect of high taxes4 ,now it might be surmised that this problem of ways and means would be an easy one to solve4 8,just raise the tax rate and get more money0 someone may suggest4 ,that betrays the existence of a very common impression1 namely1 that city tax rates have the sky as their limit4 ,but the fact is quite otherwise4 ,in most cases1 to be sure1 there is no legal limitation upon the amount of taxes which the city officials can exact from the people2 the limit is a purely practical one4 ,most of the city's revenue comes from taxes upon real property--on lands and buildings 7see pp4 #dde-ddf74 ,by raising the tax rate on such property additional revenue can be secured up to a certain point4 ,but when the tax rate keeps on increasing year after year it finally reaches a level where it becomes an obstacle to the erection of new buildings2 it deters new industries from coming to the city2 it causes rents to rise and acts as a brake upon the expansion of business4 ,under such conditions the value of property stops rising and may even decline1 so that further increases in the tax rate do not yield a proportionate revenue4 ,the people1 moreover1 grow restive under the soaring tax rate on their homes2 they manifest their displeasure by turning the elective city officials out of office and installing others who pledge themselves to cut the expenses down4 ,such pledges1 as a matter of fact1 can rarely be kept4 ,considerable economies are undoubtedly practicable in the government of all ,american cities without exception2 but the big outlays are bound to go on increasing so long as the people keep making demands for more and better services4 ,sidenote3 ,newer sources of revenue4 ,if more revenue must be had1 how can it be best obtained8 ,taxes on property have now reached a point in many cities where they can hardly go much higher4 ,taxes on incomes are already levied by the nation and by some of the states2 the cities can hardly look forward to laying a heavy tax on top of these4 ,some cities1 notably ,los ,angeles1 ,cincinnati1 and ,st4 ,louis are imposing business taxes--so much per year on every lawyer1 doctor1 merchant1 dealer1 broker1 and so on1 the rate varying in each case4 ,chicago obtains a considerable income from a wheel tax imposed on all automobiles which use the city streets4 ,everywhere the quest for new sources of revenue is being carried on earnestly but not with any great measure of success4 ,one serious difficulty lies in the fact that some of the more lucrative sources have already been tapped by the national and state governments4 ,congress and the state legislatures are keenly on the scent for new revenues2 wherever the opportunity appears1 they seize it4 ,in this way the range from which the cities may draw their income is gradually being narrowed4 ,it can fairly be said1 therefore1 that the problem of paying its way is the most difficult of all the problems which confront the ,american city at the present time4 ,general ,references ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #fjc-fcg2 ,ibid41 ,readings1 pp4 #ece-eee2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #cj-gc 7,city ,planning72 #gd-aba 7,streets72 #bfj-cac 7,police ,administration72 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #a-bd2 ,f4 ,j4 ,,goodnow and ,f4 ,c4 ,,bates1 ,municipal ,government1 pp4 #caf-cif2 ,f4 ,c4 ,,howe1 ,the ,modern ,city and its ,problems1 pp4 #cd-ge2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,state and ,municipal ,government1 pp4 #ded-eej4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,make a plan of administrative organization which will include the undermentioned municipal functions4 ,provide as few departments as possible without putting unrelated functions into the same department4 ,each department should include all functions which are actually related and none which are not related to its main work4 ,consider1 for example1 such questions as these3 ,should playgrounds be included in the school department or combined with parks in some other department8 ,where does poor-relief belong1 in a department by itself or along with health or with prisons and correction8 ,where should we place the public library8 ,if you desire to include all these functions within seven or eight departments1 the public library cannot have a department all to itself4 ,where should it go8 ,think over carefully the proper placing of such things as the inspection of weights and measures1 auditing1 pensions1 printing1 assessments and collection of taxes1 billboards1 care of hydrants1 censorship of amusements1 charities and poor-relief1 child welfare1 collection and disposal of ashes1 excess condemnation1 food and milk inspection1 free employment bureaus1 free legal aid1 grade-crossing elimination1 hospital administration1 housing laws and their enforcement1 licensing1 limitation of building heights1 management of bridges and ferries1 municipal accounts1 municipal budget making1 municipal concerts1 municipal courts1 municipal purchasing1 parks and playgrounds1 paving1 playground administration1 prevention of incendiarism1 prisons1 protection of life and property1 public lighting1 public recreation1 public water supply1 registration of voters1 garbage collection and disposal1 regulation of explosives1 regulation of the location of buildings1 sewerage and sewage disposal1 sinking funds1 smoke prevention1 snow removal1 street construction1 street widening1 supervision of lodging houses1 tree planting1 vocational and industrial education1 zoning4 #b4 ,select three or four cities of approximately the same size as your own and compare the cost of public safety 7police and fire department expenditures7 on each of the following bases3 7a7 per capita2 7b7 per square mile of territory2 7c7 per #ajjj assessed valuation4 7,the data for all cities having over #cj1jjj population can be found in the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of the ,census3 ,financial ,statistics of ,cities latest edition47 #c4 ,what we get for our city taxes4 ,make up from your own community's latest annual report a table showing the per capita cost for each form of public service 7streets1 parks1 schools1 poor-relief1 etc474 ,the figures in the auditor's report divided by the population will give you the items4 ,when your table is completed illustrate it by drawing a circle with sectors to represent the division of expenditure4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,city planning3 its scope and importance4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #cj-cg4 #b4 ,the city's streets4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,city ,government1 pp4 #bab-bfj4 #c4 ,the organization of a city police force4 ,,raymond ,,fosdick1 ,european ,police ,systems1 pp4 #ii-adh2 ,e4 ,d4 ,g,r,a,p,er1 ,american ,police ,administration1 passim2 ,,raymond ,,fosdick1 ,american ,police ,systems1 pp4 #ahh-baf4 #d4 ,how the public can help the police4 ,,arthur ,,woods1 ,policeman and ,public1 pp4 #afb-agh4 #e4 ,what fire prevention means4 ,e4 ,f4 ,,croker1 ,fire ,prevention1 pp4 #a-cg4 #f4 ,the city's work for the social welfare4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #aej-ahe4 #g4 ,city parks and boulevards4 ,,charles ,,zueblin1 ,american ,municipal ,progress1 pp4 #bda-bge4 #h4 ,the city's part in health protection4 ,,henry ,,bru,,re1 ,the ,new ,city ,government1 pp4 #cad-ccd4 #i4 ,municipal recreation4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,city ,government1 pp4 #ccd-cee2 ,,john ,,nolen1 ,city ,planning1 pp4 #aci-aeh4 #aj4 ,raising and spending the city's money4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #djc-dgh4 ,questions #a4 ,make in parallel columns a list of municipal functions which you would classify as 7a7 political2 7b7 social2 7c7 economic or business functions4 #b4 ,can you give1 from your own observation1 any examples of the needless expense or public inconvenience due to the failure of city departments to co-operate properly8 #c4 ,take any atlas which contains the street plans of the larger cities and point out examples of the following3 7a7 gridiron or checkerboard planning2 7b7 diagonal avenues2 7c7 radial streets2 7d7 informal layout of streets4 #d4 ,select some portion of your own city which seems to you to be well planned and some section which seems to be poorly planned4 ,give reasons for your selections4 #e4 ,make a sketch plan for a residential suburb about one mile square on level ground with a small river1 two hundred feet wide1 running from east to west through it4 ,each building lot is to contain1 on the average1 about #bj1jjj square feet with access to both a street and an alley4 ,make provision for one double track street railway1 conveniently located4 ,indicate appropriate locations for a one-acre park1 an elementary school1 a playground1 a branch of the public library1 a police station1 a fire engine station1 a bridge1 a bath house1 and an athletic field4 #f4 ,what is the geographical center of your community8 ,the center of population8 ,the center of access1 that is1 the point which1 by reason of traffic facilities can be most quickly and easily reached by the largest number of people8 ,if a civic center were being established1 where ought it to be placed and why8 #g4 ,in the largest cities there are about #bj policemen for every #aj1jjj people1 in smaller cities only #aj or #ab4 ,why is this8 ,is the number of arrests made by a policeman an indication of his efficiency8 ,scandals are frequent in the police departments of large cities and this is sometimes explained by saying that the police are exposed to more temptations than any other city officials4 ,discuss this explanation4 #h4 ,what in your opinion are the most common causes of fires8 ,many schools set apart one day in the year as ,fire ,prevention ,day4 ,make some suggestions concerning a suitable program for this occasion4 #i4 ,can you think of any sources of revenue not now utilized by cities which might be drawn upon to meet an urgent need without arousing a great deal of opposition from the people8 #aj4 ,what civic organizations in your community are helping the public officials to solve their problems8 ,give an account of the purposes and work of each4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,a maximum limit should be imposed by the state law upon the tax rates of cities4 #b4 ,city employees1 including policemen and firemen1 should 7or should not7 have the right to join a labor organization4 #c4 ,all public work should be done by contract 7or by the city's own employees74 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,state ,,government ,,in ,,outline ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain the relation of the states to the nation1 to show how the state governments are organized1 and what services they render the people4 ,sidenote3 ,place of the states in the nation4 ,the ,sovereign ,states4--,it is customary to speak of the ,american ,republic as made up of 8sovereign states01 but unless this expression is clearly explained it is apt to be misleading4 ,on ,july #dth1 #aggf1 the thirteen colonies became free and independent states1 each entitled to frame its own plan of government4 ,these new states were subject to no restrictions except the very mild ones which1 by adopting the ,articles of ,confederation1 they had agreed to place upon themselves4 ,they were very jealous of their independence and disinclined to surrender any of their powers1 even to create a unified nation4 ,for this reason1 when the national constitution was framed in #aghg1 the states reserved to themselves all powers not conveyed to the new federal government by the provisions of that document4 ,it was intended that the preponderance of power should rest with the states1 that most of the work of government should be performed by them1 and that the first interest of the citizen should be in the affairs of his own state4 ,sidenote3 ,relative strength of the national and the state governments4 ,but scarcely had the new federal government become established when it began to gather strength4 ,by a series of decisions the ,supreme ,court gave a liberal interpretation to the powers of ,congress as set forth in the constitution1 each decision widening the authority of the central government4 ,the state governments did not look with favor upon this development2 but on the whole the people of the country approved it4 ,little by little the nation forged ahead of the states in its hold upon the interest and loyalty of the people4 ,the ,civil ,war was an important factor in all this1 for the real issue in that conflict concerned the respective rights of the federal and the state governments4 ,the union came out of the war much stronger than before and for the last sixty years it has kept gaining4 ,today people think of themselves as citizens of the ,united ,states1 rather than as citizens of a particular state2 their first interest is in matters of national government2 they look to the nation for the solution of all the great problems and are disposed to give the national government even broader powers1 as recent amendments to the constitution have shown4#ia ,in theory the place of the states in the nation is almost exactly what it was a hundred and thirty years ago2 they still remain sovereign in name2 but in actual fact their relative authority has been greatly diminished4 ,sidenote3 ,present importance of state government4 ,nevertheless the forty-eight states are even yet very from being mere administrative divisions as are the counties of ,england or the departments in ,france4 ,in these two countries the government is highly centralized2 all power emanates from ,london or from ,paris4 ,in ,america the forty-eight state capitals are still the location of important governmental powers and in all probability will continue to be4 ,this decentralization in government sometimes leads to friction and controversy2 but it has the advantage of keeping the people in more direct control of their local affairs4 ,sidenote3 ,territories made into states4 ,how ,states are ,admitted4--,in addition to the thirteen original states there was territory enough in #aghg for the creation of many more4 ,all the land east of the ,mississippi had been surrendered by ,great ,britain and although much of this was claimed by the states along the ,atlantic seaboard they finally agreed to turn it all over to ,congress4 ,the national government thereupon made provision for governing this territory and expressly stipulated that it should be given rights of statehood whenever the growth of population might warrant that step4 ,a little later the ,louisiana territory was purchased2 then ,florida1 and from time to time during the next fifty years additional areas were obtained in the ,southwest1 ,northwest1 and ,west4 ,in every case these areas were administered by territorial governments under the authority of ,congress1 but always with the stipulation that the territories would become states as soon as they had obtained a sufficient population4 ,we do not commonly think of the ,united ,states as a colonizing power1 in the sense that ,great ,britain has been such1 nevertheless the whole history of the ,american people has been a chronicle of colonization4 ,from the ,alleghenies to the ,pacific ocean the march of settlement went steadily on for nearly a hundred years2 lands were thrown open to settlers2 territories were formed2 and in the end each territory became a state4 ,sidenote3 ,steps in admission to statehood4 ,the makers of the federal constitution had no idea1 of course1 that the union would ever become so large1 but they did foresee that some day there would be more than thirteen states4 ,hence1 they made provision in the constitution that new states might be admitted from time to time at the discretion of ,congress4 ,in keeping with this provision the usual first step is the sending of a petition to ,congress from the people of the territory which seeks to be admitted4 ,if ,congress regards this petition with favor it passes an ,enabling ,act1 which authorizes the people of the territory to draw up a tentative state constitution4 ,this document1 having been framed and ratified at the polls by the people of the territory1 is then submitted to ,congress4 ,if ,congress finds the constitution satisfactory1 it may then1 by resolution1 declare the territory to be a state4 ,congress has been generous in granting full statehood to the home territories1 in some cases even before they had acquired large populations1 and this attitude has been wise4 ,it has welded the country together as no other policy could have unified it4 ,the ,newer ,territories4--,down to #ahfg1 therefore1 the problem of territorial government was not difficult and it was always handled satisfactorily4 ,sidenote3 ,how the territories were governed4 ,each territory was administered by a governor1 who was appointed by the ,president1 and by a territorial legislature which was elected by the people4 ,laws passed by the territorial legislature were subject to disapproval by ,congress1 but this right was seldom exercised4 ,the people of the territories quickly showed their capacity to govern themselves and ,congress let them alone4 ,but after the ,civil ,war and particularly after the ,spanish ,war1 territorial problems of a new sort arose4 ,sidenote3 ,the new insular territories4 ,in #ahfg the ,united ,states purchased ,alaska from ,russia2 in #ahih ,porto ,rico and the ,philippines were acquired from ,spain2 in the same year ,hawaii was annexed1 and during the past quarter of a century other distant possessions 7,samoa1 the ,panama ,canal ,zone1 and the ,virgin ,islands7 have been added4 ,sidenote3 ,can they be admitted as states8 ,these acquisitions differ from the old territories in two respects2 they are outside the regular national boundaries 7in some cases far outside71 and they contain for the most part populations which have not had much experience in self-government4#ib ,all have been given some form of territorial government2 but the question is3 ,can they be ultimately admitted as states of the union8 ,if they should be so admitted1 they must be given exactly the same rights as all the other states4 ,there is no such thing as partial or qualified admission4 ,if ,porto ,rico or ,hawaii should be admitted to statehood they will have exactly the same status as ,new ,york or ,pennsylvania4 ,sidenote3 ,future of these islands4 ,three courses are open4 ,first1 these territories may be admitted in due course to full rights of statehood4 ,in the case of ,alaska1 ,hawaii1 and ,porto ,rico this policy may be the one adopted if their populations are deemed to be large enough4 ,second1 the existing form of territorial government may be continued indefinitely4 ,this means that they would have a large measure of control over their own local affairs but not full control in the sense that the states have it4 ,third1 they might be given their independence with a guarantee of ,american protection from outside enemies4 ,in the case of the ,philippines this is virtually what has been promised2 but independence is not to be given until the islands prove entirely capable of governing themselves4#ic ,apart from the ,philippines none of these territories is asking for independence4#id ,the ,state ,constitutions4--,it has been pointed out that before any territory is admitted as a state it must frame a constitution4 ,sidenote3 ,state constitutional conventions4 ,this constitution is drawn1 as a rule1 by a constitutional convention composed of delegates elected by the people4 ,such a convention is called when a state enters the union and again whenever a general revision of the original document seems to be desirable4 ,as a rule there is an interval of ten years or more between such conventions and sometimes an interval of thirty or forty years4#ie ,due to differences in the growth and progress of the state a constitution may become out-of-date in one more rapidly than in another4 ,if only slight alterations in the constitution are needed1 it is not necessary or usual to call a convention4 ,individual amendments1 as will be shown presently1 can be made more easily4 ,what these ,constitutions ,contain4--,these state constitutions are rather long documents1 much longer than the constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,in early days they were much shorter1 but the state governments perform far more numerous functions today than they did fifty years ago4 ,it has become the tendency1 moreover1 in recent years to cover many things in constitutions which formerly were left to be dealt with by acts of the legislature4 ,this has meant a great lengthening of constitutional provisions4 ,in general a state constitution sets forth the form of government1 prescribes the powers and duties of state officers1 prohibits the legislature from doing certain things 7such as changing the state capitol1 for example71 and guarantees certain fundamental rights to the citizens4 ,but this is not all4 ,some of them contain long provisions relating to the powers of local governments1 the pay of officials1 the borrowing of money1 and the regulation of banks4 ,putting such details into the state constitution is an unwise policy because constitutional provisions are difficult to change1 whereas these various matters need to be dealt with somewhat differently from time to time4 ,sidenote3 ,the two methods of amendment4 ,how ,state ,constitutions are ,amended4--,there are two common ways of amending a state constitution4 ,the first1 which exists in nearly all the states1 is by concurrent action of the legislature and the people4 ,the legislature takes the first step by proposing the amendment2 then the people at the polls accept or reject the proposal4#if ,the other way is by action of the people alone4 ,by means of the initiative1 as already described1 the people may propose an amendment1 have it put on the ballot1 and accept or reject it as they desire4 ,this method of amending the constitution is used in less than half the states and even there it is not employed with great frequency4 ,the great majority of the amendments to state constitutions 7scores of them are made every year in the country as a whole7 are made by the first-named plan4 ,sidenote3 ,the states have the residuum of powers4 ,the ,powers of the ,states4--,some years ago a foreign student of government1 desiring to find out what powers belonged to the legislature of ,massachusetts1 took a copy of the state constitution and began reading it carefully4 ,much to his surprise he found that it contained no list of the powers which the legislature might exercise but merely stated some things which the legislature must not do4 ,the reason for this1 of course1 is simple enough4 ,the states retain all the powers which they have not given to the national government4 ,the way to find out whether a state possesses a certain power is to look in the constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,if the power is there given exclusively to ,congress or prohibited to the states1 then the state legislature cannot exercise it4 ,but if the power is not mentioned in the national constitution1 either expressly or by implication1 then the state legislatures have it4 ,on this basis a certain division of powers is made between the nation and the states4 ,the general principles on which the division is made are easy enough to understand1 but the exact distribution of powers is something that can only be mastered by studying it4 ,even lawyers do not always get hold of it accurately and newspapers are constantly making mistakes because they fail to realize just where the boundaries of the various governmental powers begin and end4 ,so let us try to condense the matter into a nutshell1 or1 to be more accurate1 into four nutshells as follows3 #a4 ,some powers belong exclusively to the nation4 ,these include the power to declare war1 to regulate foreign and interstate commerce1 to coin money1 to establish post offices1 and so on4 ,no share in the management of these things belongs to the state governments4 #b4 ,some powers belong concurrently both to the nation and the states4 ,both the nation and the states1 each within its own sphere1 have the power to tax1 to borrow money1 to charter banks1 to promote education1 and to do many other things4 ,these are called concurrent powers because the national and state authorities may both exercise them at the same time4 #c4 ,some powers are prohibited to the nation and some are prohibited to the states4 ,the national and state governments1 for example1 are forbidden to pass any bill of attainder1 to grant titles of nobility1 or to take private property for public use without compensation4 ,the states1 in addition1 are forbidden to make treaties1 coin money1 or levy tariff duties4 ,there are various other prohibitions upon both the nation or the states1 as will be seen by reading carefully the provisions of the national constitution4#ig #d4 ,all other governmental powers are reserved to the states4 ,every power which does not fall within the foregoing three classes belongs to the several states exclusively4 ,this is not only in accordance with the theory of the national constitution as a grant of powers but it is expressly stated in the ,tenth ,amendment4#ih ,sidenote3 ,features which are similar in all the states4 ,the ,general ,similarity of ,state ,governments4--,no two states1 among the forty-eight1 are governed alike4 ,a description of state government in ,massachusetts would not fit ,illinois1 much less ,idaho or ,nevada4 ,on the other hand no two states are governed very differently2 in all the essential features they conform to a single type4 ,they all have constitutions2 every state has an elective legislature of two chambers2 each has an elective governor2 and they all have state courts4 ,in all the states there is universal suffrage 7save for the exclusion of negroes in the ,south72 the secret ballot is used throughout the country2 the same political parties are in existence everywhere from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific2 and the principal laws are essentially the same4 ,the citizen who moves from one state to another finds the difference so slight that it is hardly noticeable4 ,it is not worth while1 therefore1 to spend any time in studying the points of difference between the government of one state and that of another4 ,state government everywhere has now been reduced to a type which is uniform for all practical purposes4 ,sidenote3 ,organization of the state legislature4 ,the ,state ,legislature4--,every state has a legislature which is the paramount branch of the state government4 ,it makes the laws1 levies the state taxes1 appropriates money for the management of state administration1 and decides all questions of public policy4 ,this legislature is composed of two chambers1 which have substantially concurrent lawmaking powers4 ,the upper chamber1 commonly called the ,senate1 is the smaller of the two2 its members are elected by counties or senatorial districts1 usually for a term of two or four years4 ,the lower chamber1 which is variously known as the ,assembly1 or ,house of ,representatives1 or ,house of ,delegates1 is much the larger body2 its members are also elected from counties or parts of counties4 ,nominations are made either by conventions or by a primary2 the latter is now the more common method except in the ,southern states4 ,sessions of the legislature are held every alternate year except in a few states where they are held annually4 ,sidenote3 ,the legislature's powers4 ,the powers of the state legislature are in actual operation very broad4 ,they comprise the whole field of lawmaking except in so far as it has been restricted by the national constitution or by the constitution of the state itself4 ,the state laws come closer to the life of the individual than do those of the nation4#ii ,they make provision for the registration of a child's birth2 they determine the age at which he must go to school2 they establish the schools and fix the qualifications of the teachers4 ,when the boy becomes a man he will find that the state laws regulate his profession or business4 ,the state laws enable him to marry1 to accumulate property1 to vote1 and to hold office4 ,when he dies the state laws regulate the transmission of his property to his heirs4 ,thus from birth to death the citizen comes almost daily into contact with the lawmaking authority of the state4 ,these laws determine most of the taxes that he pays2 they safeguard his life1 health1 and property2 they punish him when he does wrong2 and they provide for his maintenance if he becomes poor or crippled or insane4 ,where the federal government touches the citizen once1 the state government touches him a dozen times4 ,the average citizen does not always appreciate this fact4 ,sidenote3 ,the process of state legislation4 ,the consent of both chambers of the state legislature is necessary to the making of laws4 ,the process of lawmaking is very much like that used in ,congress 7see pp4 #bge-bgh74 ,bills are introduced1 referred to committees1 reported back to the legislature1 and voted on by each chamber4#ajj ,disagreements between the two chambers are adjusted by a conference committee4 ,the rules of procedure are very complicated and new members of a state legislature often have some difficulty in understanding them4 ,the purpose of the rules is threefold3 ,to expedite business1 to ensure the careful consideration of each measure1 and to protect the rights of the minority party in the legislature4 ,despite the rules1 however1 legislative business is often unduly delayed2 at other times measures are hustled through without proper consideration1 and the rights of the minority are frequently over-ridden4#aja ,this is done by suspending the rules or by merely disregarding them4 ,sidenote3 ,the governor4 ,the ,state ,executive4--,the executive branch of the state government is made up of the governor and the heads of the various state departments4 ,the governor is elected by the people for a term of two or four years4 ,his powers are extensive4 ,he is charged with the general supervision over the enforcement of the laws and the conduct of administrative affairs4 ,he makes most of the important appointments to state administrative offices1 the chief exceptions being the heads of state departments and the judges of the state courts1 both of whom are in most cases elected by the people4 ,the governor's appointments1 before they become effective1 usually require confirmation by the upper branch of the state legislature or by an elective executive council4 ,where the civil service system is in force1 moreover1 it places a limit on the governor's discretion in appointments4 ,the governor also possesses the veto power over acts of the state legislature1 but this may be over-ridden1 as a rule1 by a two-thirds vote of both chambers4 ,in all essential features the veto power of the governor is much like that of the ,president4 ,the power to pardon offenders convicted in the state courts likewise belongs to the governor in most states2 in some states1 however1 he must obtain the concurrence of a pardoning-board or some other authority1 and in a few states the entire power of pardon is given to a special board4 ,the governor is commander-in-chief of the state militia and may call it out for service in emergencies4 ,like the ,president the governor is removable from office by impeachment4 ,sidenote3 ,officials and boards4 ,for carrying on its administrative work the state has1 in addition to the governor1 a considerable number of administrative officials and boards4 ,these include the secretary of state1 who keeps the official records2 the treasurer2 the auditor2 the attorney-general1 who conducts the legal affairs of the state2 the state superintendent or commissioner of education2 together with state boards of health1 charity1 public works1 public utilities1 and so on4 ,the titles and functions of these various boards differ greatly from state to state4 ,in ,massachusetts there are only twenty-one state departments2 in ,new ,york there are more than one hundred4 ,everywhere the number displays a tendency to increase1 for the functions of the state are everywhere broadening4 ,the officials and members of boards who perform all this administrative work are sometimes elected but more often they are appointed by the governor4 ,the ,state ,courts3 ,their ,organization4--,in each state there are three gradations in the judiciary1 and sometimes four4 ,first1 there are local courts1 presided over by justices of the peace1 or police justices4 ,these courts try cases of minor importance4 ,when persons charged with serious offences are brought before them1 the offenders are held for trial by the next higher court4 ,these next higher courts are known as county or district or superior courts4 ,they are empowered to conduct jury trials2 they have prosecuting attorneys at their service2 they have a wider range of jurisdiction to try important cases1 and their decisions are usually final so far as the facts of the case are concerned4 ,finally1 there is in each state a supreme court 7sometimes called the ,court of ,errors7 which hears appeals1 chiefly on disputed points of law1 from the courts below4 ,this court is composed of from five to fifteen judges 7the number is fixed by law in each state71 and it has the last word in all cases save where an appeal may be taken to the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states4#ajb ,sidenote3 ,the election vs4 the appointment of judges4 ,the ,selection and ,removal of ,judges4--,in more than three-fourths of the states the judges of these various courts are elected by the people4 ,in the rest they are either appointed by the governor or chosen by the state legislature4 ,one plan cannot be said1 in general terms1 to be better than the other4 ,good judges have been secured by all three methods of selection1 and poor ones too4 ,it is worth noting1 however1 that the judges of all the federal courts are appointed for life and that they are men of fine quality4#ajc ,it is everywhere conceded that the courts ought to be kept out of party politics and this is much easier if the judges are appointed for life or for long terms than if they are chosen by the people for short terms4 ,but whether appointed or elected it is desirable that judges1 so long as their work is satisfactory1 should be kept in office4 ,if judges are denied reappointment or re-election because their decisions do not prove popular with those who are influential in politics1 it will be very hard to get men of ability and integrity to accept judicial positions4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,simplified ,,state ,,administration ,several states have simplified their administrative machinery during recent years by reducing the number of state departments4 ,illinois is one of these4 ,its plan of administrative organization1 as shown on the reverse of this page1 is simple enough for any voter to understand4 ,this contrasts with the situation in ,new ,york ,state1 where there are more than a hundred administrative departments4 7,,illinois7 ,,voters ,,of ,,the ,,state ,attorney ,general ,,term3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,const4 ,auditor of ,public ,accounts ,,term3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,const4 ,secretary of ,state ,,term3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,const4 ,governor ,,term3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,const4 ,civil ,service ,commission #c ,,members ,,term3 #f ,,years ,,stat4 ,dept4 of ,finance ,dept4 of ,agriculture ,dept4 of ,labor ,dept4 of ,mines and ,minerals ,dept4 of ,public ,works and ,buildings ,dept4 of ,public ,welfare ,dept4 of ,public ,health ,dept4 of ,trade and ,commerce ,dept4 of ,registration and ,education ,lieutenant ,governor ,,term3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,const4 ,treasurer ,,term3 #b ,,yrs4 ,,const4 ,supt4 of ,public ,instruction ,,term3 #d ,,yrs4 ,,const4 ,trustees ,university of ,illinois #i ,,elec4 ,,members ,,term3 #f ,,yrs4 ,,stat4 ,,general ,,drafting ,,co4 ,,inc4 ,n4,y4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,the present weakness4 ,the ,need of ,reform in ,state ,administration4--,there are two distinct weaknesses in state administration at the present day4 ,one results from the fact that the functions of the state have been enormously expanded during the past fifty years while the administrative machinery has not kept pace4 ,the state has taken over new duties in the field of public health1 the regulation of industry1 the administration of prisons1 the control of public utilities1 and many other matters4 ,in each case it has merely set up one more department or bureau or board until the whole organization has become top-heavy4 ,state administration1 in other words1 is now divided into too many compartments4 ,the other weakness arises from the fact that these various departments are not all responsible to the governor or to any central head4 ,some officials and boards are appointed2 some are elected4 ,some hold office for long terms1 some for short4 ,the governor bears the responsibility for the proper conduct of state administration1 yet the work is done by officials who are not required to obey his instructions4#ajd ,he is like a general who is expected to win battles without having officers who will obey his commands4 ,the result is not only a good deal of friction but a waste of time1 money1 and patience4 ,several states have felt the need of reforming this condition and have proceeded to make changes in their administrative organization4 ,these changes involve a reduction in the number of departments and the placing of them all under the general control of the governor4#aje ,in the national administration all departments are responsible to the ,president4 ,the same principle ought to be applied in state administration4 ,sidenote3 ,can the system of commission government be applied to the states8 ,the ,proposed ,reconstruction of ,state ,government4--,the system of state government1 as it now stands1 is not obtaining satisfactory results4 ,the state legislatures have declined in popular confidence during the past generation2 men of inferior quality are frequently elected to them2 the work of lawmaking is influenced too much by party considerations2 the administrative departments are too numerous in most of the states and often fail to do their work efficiently4 ,state taxes are everywhere going up rapidly and state debts are increasing4 ,various plans for a radical reconstruction in state government have been proposed in order to remedy these defects4 ,one proposal is that the two-chambered legislature should be abolished and a single small body of representatives put in its place4 ,it is argued that if fewer legislators were elected better men would be chosen and that the process of lawmaking would thereby be improved4 ,some have even gone so far as to urge that we should establish commission government for states as well as for cities4 ,state government1 they argue1 has become so complicated that it now needs a smaller number of capable men giving their undivided attention to it4 ,a two-chambered legislature1 which meets for a few months every second year1 cannot handle the business effectively4 ,nevertheless the people have become thoroughly accustomed to double-chambered legislatures1 and where the proposal to establish a single chamber has been submitted to them 7as in ,oregon7 they have rejected it4 ,sidenote3 ,should the governor's powers be increased8 ,another plan proposes the vesting of larger powers in the hands of the governor1 giving him the initiative in financial matters and making all the state administrative departments responsible to him4 ,today the drift is very strongly in this direction4 ,already1 in some states1 the governor is a more important factor than the legislature1 and this is strangely in contrast with the situation as it was a hundred years or more ago4 ,james ,madison1 in his time1 spoke of the governors as 8little more than ciphers0 and declared that the legislatures were omnipotent4 ,in our day this has entirely changed1 or is changing4 ,the balance of power is steadily swinging from the legislative to the executive branch4 ,general ,references ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #dbh-egg2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #cia-ejh2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,state and ,municipal ,government1 pp4 #aca-cjh2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #chi-dei2 ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,state ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bdj-cic2 ,j4 ,t4 ,,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government and ,its ,work1 pp4 #bih-cda2 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,the ,state1 pp4 #cae-ccf2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings in ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #bbb-bci2 ,j4 ,m4 ,,mathews1 ,principles of ,american ,state ,administration1 pp4 #be-bad2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,willoughby and ,,lindsay ,,rogers1 ,introduction to the ,problem of ,government1 pp4 #djg-dbi4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,a revision of your state constitution4 ,make a tabulation of the more important provisions in your state constitution1 under the following heads3 #a4 ,organization of the legislature4 #b4 ,powers of the governor4 #c4 ,relations between the governor and the legislature4 #d4 ,organization of the state departments4 #e4 ,control of state finances4 ,compare these in parallel columns with the corresponding provisions in the model state constitution of the ,national ,municipal ,league4 ,discuss the relative merits of each provision4 ,references3 ,national ,municipal ,review1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,no4 #aa1 pp4 #gaa-gae1 ,november1 #aibj4 ,copies of the state constitution may usually be had on application to the ,secretary of ,state at the ,state ,capitol4 ,the state constitution is also published in the handbook or manual which is supplied to members of the legislature4 ,for general discussions of the subject1 see ,c4 ,g4 ,,haines and ,,bertha ,h4 ,,haines1 ,principles and ,problems of ,american ,government1 pp4 #cba-cch2 #dbc-ddj2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ebb-ecd2 ,j4 ,m4 ,,mathews1 ,principles of ,american ,state ,administration1 pp4 #dii-eaf2 ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,state ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ajf-adb2 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bulletins1 ,nos4 #b1 #d1 #aj1 #ae1 #bi and #ce2 ,new ,york ,state ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiae1 ,index ,digest of ,state ,constitutions1 passim4 #b4 ,what we get for our state expenditures4 ,references3 ,united ,states ,bureau of the ,census1 ,financial ,statistics of ,states 7issued annually since #aiah72 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dde-dgb2 ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,taxation in ,american ,states and ,cities1 pp4 #ac-bd2 ,j4 ,m4 ,,mathews1 ,principles of ,american ,state ,administration1 pp4 #bif-djj4 #c4 ,can the procedure in state legislatures be simplified8 ,references3 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,american ,legislatures and ,legislative ,methods1 pp4 #abf-aeh2 ,h4 ,w4 ,,dodds1 ,the ,procedure of ,state ,legislatures1 pp4 #cf-fb2 ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,state ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bec-bgi2 ,h4 ,m4 ,,robert1 ,rules of ,order1 passim4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the place of the states in the nation4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #chi-djc4 #b4 ,the organization and procedure of constitutional conventions4 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #a 7,the ,procedure of ,constitutional ,conventions74 #c4 ,committees and committee work in state legislatures4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,american ,legislatures and ,legislative ,methods1 pp4 #aei-ahb4 #d4 ,the growth of executive power in state government4 ,j4 ,m4 ,,mathews1 ,principles of ,american ,state ,administration1 pp4 #be-acc4 #e4 ,the drift of legislation in recent years4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,stimson1 ,popular ,lawmaking1 pp4 #aag-abc4 #f4 ,reasons for the popular distrust of state legislatures4 ,,james ,t4 ,,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government and ,its ,work1 pp4 #fdc-fea4 #g4 ,how state administration has been simplified4 ,c4 ,g4 ,,haines and ,,bertha ,m4 ,,haines1 ,principles and ,problems of ,government1 pp4 #cbc-cch4 #h4 ,the government of the ,philippines4 ,,dean ,c4 ,,worcester1 ,the ,philippines1 ,past and ,present1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cbe-djg2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gfh-gia4 #i4 ,the appointment and removal of judges4 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldwin1 ,the ,american ,judiciary1 pp4 #caa-cdc2 ,a4 ,m4 ,,kales1 ,unpopular ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bbe-bea4 #aj4 ,plans for the reconstruction of state government4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ebb-ecd2 ,a4 ,m4 ,,kales1 ,unpopular ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #aff-ahj4 ,questions #a4 ,the national constitution provides that the ,united ,states shall guarantee to each state a republican form of government4 ,what does that mean8 ,would a state government be un-republican if it 7a7 raised the voting age to thirty years2 7b7 abolished the legislature and gave all lawmaking powers to an appointive board of five2 7c7 gave up the system of trial by jury in the state courts2 7d7 abolished private property8 #b4 ,if you were redistributing the respective powers of the national and state governments today where would you place 7a7 marriage and divorce2 7b7 education2 7c7 the regulation of child labor2 7d7 the chartering of banks2 7e7 the punishment of counterfeiting2 7f7 the protection of foreigners in the ,united ,states2 7g7 the punishment of persons for lynching2 7h7 the control of the national guard8 #c4 ,go through your state constitution and check off four or five provisions which you think might better be left to be dealt with by the laws4 #d4 ,how may your state constitution be amended8 ,what amendments have been made within the last ten years and by which method8 ,are amendments1 in your opinion1 too easy or too difficult to make8 #e4 ,if every state is entirely free to determine its own form of government why are they all so much alike8 #f4 ,make a list of all the steps in the passage of a law from its introduction in the legislature to its final enactment4 ,does the governor give any reason when he vetoes a bill8 ,should he be required to do so8 #g4 ,put each of the following offices at the head of a column and insert under each a list of matters with which the officials have to do3 ,board of ,public ,works2 ,commissioner of ,corrections2 ,public ,utilities ,commission2 ,fish and ,game ,bureau2 ,board of ,labor and ,industries2 ,industrial ,accident ,board2 ,department of ,social ,welfare2 ,board of ,agriculture2 ,attorney-,general2 ,civil ,service ,commission4 #h4 ,make a list of all the activities in which your state government is engaged where it acts in the capacity of 7a7 a business man or corporation2 7b7 an arbiter between parties2 7c7 a benevolent agency4 ,in which of these does it meet competition from private individuals8 #i4 ,make a chart showing the organization of the courts in your state1 the number of judges in each1 and the general jurisdiction of each court4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the commission plan of government1 as it now exists in many cities1 should be applied to the states4 #b4 ,the ,united ,states should not acquire any territory which cannot ultimately be admitted as a state4 #c4 ,which is the better plan of choosing ,supreme ,court judges3 7a7 appointment for life by the governor 7,massachusetts71 or1 7b7 election every six years by the people 7,illinois78 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,national ,,constitution ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain how the constitution was framed1 how it has developed1 and how it can be changed4 ,sidenote3 ,e pluribus unum4 ,the ,achievement of ,union4--,the greatest achievement of the ,american people has been the welding of separate states into a single nation4 ,to have brought into a permanent federation thirteen relatively small communities1 containing less than four million people in all1 may not seem to us to have been a remarkable feat4 ,these thirteen communities had won their independence together in a common war2 they were inhabited for the most part by people of the same race1 speaking the same language1 and accustomed to the same laws4 ,why should there have been any difficulty in getting them to form a union in order to provide for the common defence and promote the general welfare8 ,is not unification a natural process8 ,well1 if the gathering of different states into a single permanent union is an easy matter1 why did not the warring cities of ,ancient ,greece unite8 ,why did they persist in their disunion1 and through disunion ultimately fall a prey to their common enemy8 ,the whole of ,attica was smaller than the single state of ,south ,carolina4 ,why did not the various states of ,central ,america1 or of ,south ,america1 form a union after they had won their independence from ,spain8 ,how different the history of these ,latin-,american countries would have been during the past hundred years if they had established a federal union like that of the ,united ,states6 ,the forming of the ,american union was not an easy task4 ,it was brought about by dint of hard work1 patience1 a rare display of public spirit on the part of the leaders in the several states1 and the common sense of the masses of the people4 ,if the men and women of #aghg had regarded themselves alone and given no thought to posterity2 if they had placed the immediate interests of the individual states above the ultimate well-being of the whole2 if they had allowed themselves to be moved by prejudice rather than by patriotism1 the ,american union would not have been formed4 ,sidenote3 ,obstacles in the way of union4 ,why the ,task was ,difficult4--,the thirteen colonies were founded independently4 ,some of them grew out of trading-company operations4 ,others were founded by men and women who left their homes in the old country to escape religious persecution4 ,others1 again1 owed their beginnings to wealthy men who obtained large grants of land from the ,english crown in order to establish settlements4 ,founded in different ways1 these various colonies had from the outset very little community of interest4 ,each had its own government and these governments differed somewhat from one another4 ,the people did not travel about from one colony to another1 for transportation was crude and traveling was difficult4 ,from ,massachusetts to ,georgia seemed a much longer distance in #aghg than a journey across the entire continent seems today4 ,each colony1 moreover1 was primarily interested in its own problems and gave little thought to outside affairs except when dangers threatened4 ,it is true that the colonies also had some things in common1 but the forces which tended to keep them apart were far stronger than those which tended to bring them together4 ,sidenote3 ,early attempts at federation4 ,for this reason the first attempts at union resulted in no permanent federation4 ,as early as #afdc the four principal ,new ,england settlements united themselves into a league of friendship known as the ,new ,england ,federation1 but this union went out of existence after the danger of ,indian attacks had passed away4 ,william ,penn1 in #afif1 proposed a general union of all the colonies but nothing came of his suggestion4 ,at various times during the next sixty years conferences were called and the matter discussed1 the most important being the ,albany ,congress of #aged1 at which a plan of union was framed in detail4 ,local jealousies1 however1 always proved too strong until the impending quarrel with the mother country showed the necessity of united action4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,revolution as a unifying force4 ,how the ,war paved the ,way for ,union4--,the attempt of the ,english government to tax the colonies without their consent brought home to them1 for the first time1 the fact that they were all in the same boat4 ,if they should attempt to resist these taxes individually1 they would be coerced one by one4 ,for this reason they hastened to consult with one another and in due course sent delegates to a ,continental ,congress which handled the common interests of the colonies during the war4 ,the stress and strain of the war made unity essential for the time being1 but it did not produce an organic union4 ,the colonies were united in declaring their independence1 but this declaration did not create a union of new states4 ,the ,declaration of ,independence4--,the ,declaration of ,independence is one of the most famous documents in all history4 ,drawn by ,thomas ,jefferson it is at once a statement of political principles and a recital of the colonial grievances4 ,four outstanding political principles are set forth in the following words3 8,we hold these truths to be self-evident1 that all men are created equal1 that they are endowed by their ,creator with certain inalienable rights1 that among these are life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness40 8,that to secure these rights1 governments are instituted among men1 deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed40 8,that whenever any form of government becomes destructive to these ends1 it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it40 8,that governments long established should not be changed for light or transient causes40 ,sidenote3 ,importance of the ,declaration4 ,the ,declaration of ,independence is not the law of the land and never has been2 its text is not legally binding upon ,congress1 the legislatures1 or the courts4 ,it is an assertion of fundamental principles4 ,it did not create a united nation1 save in sentiment4 ,by the declaration thirteen new sovereign states were established1 each with the right to determine its own form of government4 ,from a governmental standpoint these thirteen communities were less united after the declaration than they had been before it4 ,prior to #aggf there had been a single sovereign2 after that date there were thirteen4 ,but although the ,declaration of ,independence did not make any provision for the union of the several states it is none the less an immortal document because it boldly asserted principles that were new to the world4 ,in #aggf there was very little democracy anywhere4 ,the four truths above mentioned are commonplace today2 but one hundred and fifty years ago they were a challenge to revolution in all despotic countries4 ,in our time the greater part of the civilized world has come to accept them as the only sound basis of democratic government4 ,the declaration1 therefore1 is not merely a landmark in the history of ,american democracy2 it marks the beginning of a great epoch in the history of human freedom4 ,the ,articles of ,confederation4--,having given their pledge to common principles and having stood shoulder to shoulder through the dark hours of a hard-fought war1 it might be thought that these thirteen states would have seen clearly the wisdom of welding themselves into a single1 united nation4 ,but they were not yet ready to drop their jealousies or abate their zeal for individual independence4 ,the best they were willing to do1 for the time being1 was to give their assent to a plan for a loose confederation1 something that was little better than an offensive and defensive alliance4 ,sidenote3 ,provisions of the articles4 ,this plan1 drawn up by the ,continental ,congress in #aggg1 was embodied in the ,articles of ,confederation and sent to the several states to be ratified4 ,it met with very little enthusiasm1 and not until #agha was it accepted by all the states4 ,in truth1 these ,articles did not deserve much enthusiasm1 for they provided an unworkable form of federal government4 ,a ,congress composed of a single chamber made up of delegates from the states was the sole organ of the ,confederation4 ,no provision was made for an executive or for a system of courts4 ,in the ,congress of the ,confederation all the states1 large and small1 were given equal voting powers2 the delegates were appointed by the states1 paid by the states1 and subject to recall at any time by the states4 ,the people1 as such1 were given no direct share in the government2 on the other hand the central government could not deal directly with the people1 it could act only through the states4 ,sidenote3 ,weakness of the ,confederation4 ,the states were so jealous of their own sovereignty and independence that they withheld from the government of the ,confederation most of the essential powers which a government must have in order to do its work4 ,they gave it no power to tax and hence no certain means of procuring a revenue4 ,they gave it no power to borrow money save with the assent of nine states4 ,they gave it no power to regulate trade4 ,the ,articles of ,confederation1 although drawn and adopted in the midst of a war1 gave the ,congress no power to summon men into the army4 ,when it needed troops it could only call upon the states to supply them4 ,sometimes the states responded to these calls1 but more often they did not1 and in the latter case the ,congress had no way of enforcing its demands for men4 ,under the circumstances it is amazing that the government of the ,confederation managed to carry on the war and bring it to a successful conclusion4 ,sidenote3 ,the critical period4 ,the ,drift to ,anarchy after the ,war4--,despite the utter weakness of the ,confederation the war continued to be a unifying force so long as it lasted4 ,in the face of a common danger and with a common goal ahead of them the states kept their jealousies in the background4 ,but as soon as the war was over the bickerings began in earnest4 ,each state began to look upon its own interests as the thing of greatest importance2 each sought to gain advantages at the expense of its neighbors4 ,each was at liberty to impose its own tariff and to regulate trade at its own ports4 ,so they began to quarrel among themselves over trading privileges and over disputed boundaries until a civil war seemed to be quite within the bounds of possibility4 ,sidenote3 ,impotence of the ,congress4 ,why did not the ,congress of the ,confederation intervene to prevent this drift to anarchy8 ,the ,congress would gladly have done so but it had no power4 ,it had no authority to intervene in disputes between the states1 or even to prevent war among them4 ,it had no army of its own1 no money to raise an army4 ,some of the states1 now that the war was over1 took so little interest in the ,confederation that they stopped sending delegates to the ,congress altogether4 ,time and again it was found impossible to get a quorum in order to do business4 ,the utter weakness of the ,congress was tragically displayed in #aghc when it was driven out of its quarters at ,philadelphia by a mob of soldiers clamoring for their pay4 ,sidenote3 ,the economic disorder4 ,the whole country was in a bad way4 ,during the war a huge debt had been created1 and ,congress now found itself with no money to pay interest on it4 ,millions in paper money had been issued1 but nowhere was there any gold to redeem them4 ,prices had been high during the war1 as prices always are during war time4 ,when the war ended there was a general fall in prices with the result that the farmers got less for their products and became discontented4 ,farmers1 in those days1 formed ninety per cent of the population and they completely controlled the legislatures of the various states4 ,they clamored for relief from the effects of the decline in prices1 called for the issue of more paper money1 for high tariffs1 and for measures that would lessen the burden of mortgages on their lands4 ,in some of the states there was open rioting and disorder4 ,these years have been well called the 8critical period0 of ,american history4 ,it looked for a time as though independence was to be merely a prelude to anarchy4 ,sidenote3 ,the leaders in despair4 ,no wonder the leaders of the people were discouraged and alarmed4 ,washington was in despair4 8,i am mortified beyond expression01 he wrote1 8when ,i view the clouds that have spread over the brightest morn that ever dawned upon any country4444 ,i am lost in amazement when ,i behold what intrigue1 ignorance1 and jealousy are capable of effecting4444 ,it is but the other day that we were shedding our blood to obtain the constitutions under which we now live--constitutions of our own choice and making--and now we are unsheathing the sword to overturn them4444 ,what a triumph for the advocates of despotism to find that we are incapable of governing ourselves60 ,these are bitter words1 but the condition of the country quite justified them4 ,sensible men in all the states shared this alarm and felt that what had been won during the war might easily be lost1 for if the states should fall to fighting among themselves1 it would be very easy for ,europe to take a hand in the fray and divide the spoils4 ,the fate of ,poland was fresh in the minds of those who had read history4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,constitutional ,convention called4 ,the ,triumph of ,public ,spirit over ,selfishness4--,but presently there came a rift in the clouds4 ,the four million people who formed the population of the thirteen states1 despite their sectional prejudices1 were possessed of common sense and patriotism4 ,they were blessed1 moreover1 with as fine a group of leaders as ever carried a young nation through troublous years4 ,washington1 ,jefferson1 ,franklin1 ,madison1 ,hamilton1 and the others of this notable galaxy held different views as to the best means of bringing order out of chaos2 but they were ready1 when the time came1 to sink these personal differences in order that some effective form of central government might be established4 ,they lent the weight of their great influence1 therefore1 to a movement for revising the ,articles of ,confederation in such a way that a better union of the thirteen states might be achieved4 ,in truth it was a difficult task to induce the states to move towards unity1 for they were all headed in exactly the opposite direction4 ,but by the exercise of tact and patience1 and after discouraging delays1 twelve of the states finally sent delegates to a convention that was called to meet at ,philadelphia in #aghg to see what could be done4 ,if the states had been asked to join in the making of an entirely new constitution and the establishing of a real federal union1 there is no doubt that some of them would have declined4 ,the convention was called to consider changes in the ,articles of ,confederation4 ,but when the delegates set to work they soon found that no patchwork performance would ever solve the problem of welding the ,american people into a unified nation4 ,so they proceeded to make an entirely new covenant containing provision for a real central government endowed with adequate powers4 ,the ,constitutional ,convention3 ,its ,members4--,in the convention there were fifty-five delegates representing twelve states4 ,some states sent six or seven delegates2 others only two or three4 ,the number did not matter much1 for each state had one vote on all questions4 ,the delegates were never all present at any one time2 some of them came and soon went away2 others kept coming and going2 but the majority stayed right through the summer and attended the meetings regularly4 ,the convention met in the old brick state house in ,philadelphia1 the building in which the ,declaration of ,independence had been signed eleven years before4 ,it met behind closed doors and the delegates agreed that they would not tell what was going on4 ,day after day1 from ,may to ,september1 they wrestled with the problem of framing a new constitution and although their differences of opinion often seemed impossible to adjust1 the convention finally managed to draft a document which a majority of the delegates were willing to sign4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,washington ,,at ,,the ,,constitutional ,,convention ,,of #aghg ,by ,violet ,oakley ,this picture is in the ,pennsylvania ,state ,capitol at ,harrisburg4 ,it portrays the ,fathers of the ,republic at their great work of framing the national constitution4 ,washington1 the presiding officer of the convention1 is appealing to his colleagues with the notable words which encircle the top of the picture4 ,around and below him are ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,james ,madison1 ,william ,paterson1 ,james ,dickinson1 ,edmund ,randolph1 ,robert ,morris1 and ,gouverneur ,morris1 all of them in quaint costumes of the later eighteenth century4 ,the picture is symbolic of ,america's great aspiration--,let us raise a standard to which the honest can repair6 ,illustration3 ,,washington ,,at ,,the ,,constitutional ,,convention4 ,by ,violet ,oakley ,copyright by ,violet ,oakley4 ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,the ,fathers of the ,republic4 ,the men who took a prominent part in this convention performed a service of such value and permanence that their names can never be forgotten4 ,washington1 who headed the delegation from ,virginia1 was chosen by the convention to be its presiding officer4 ,this debarred him from taking an active part in the discussions on the floor1 but his great personal influence was on many occasions exerted in the interests of harmony4 ,benjamin ,franklin1 the wisest man of his time1 was the senior member of the ,pennsylvania delegation4 ,his broad knowledge of men and affairs1 gained through a long life of more than eighty years1 made him one of the most valuable members4 ,then there was ,james ,madison1 still a young man but already a thorough scholar in matters of government4 ,among all the delegates ,madison ranked first in point of active helpfulness and fully earned the distinction which posterity has given him as the ,father of the ,constitution4 ,alexander ,hamilton1 of ,new ,york1 young and brilliant1 with plenty of imagination and strong political opinions1 was the orator of the convention2 but oratory did not carry far with the delegates4 ,they listened with rapt attention to ,hamilton's impassioned speeches and applauded him generously at the end2 but when the question was put to a vote he sometimes got nobody's vote but his own4 ,arguments counted for more than eloquence in this gathering4 ,among the delegates of ability and prominence were ,robert ,morris and ,james ,wilson1 of ,pennsylvania1 the former a wizard in financial matters1 the latter a hard-headed ,scotchman of great political sense2 ,roger ,sherman1 the shoemaker-statesman1 of ,connecticut2 the two ,pinckneys1 of ,south ,carolina1 ,john ,dickinson1 of ,delaware1 and a dozen others whose names were known throughout the nation in their day4 ,they were not all of the same mind on political questions1 not by any means2 some were conservative and some were radical2 some looked far into the future and others only to the needs of the hour2 some were always willing to compromise and others were not ready to compromise at all2 but taken as a whole they formed an able1 well-balanced group of men1 fairly reflecting the intelligence and patriotism of their time4#ajf ,sidenote3 ,the obstacles and the compromises4 ,how the ,convention ,solved its ,difficulties4--,in a body made up of men who held such widely-differing opinions it was inevitable that bitter controversies should arise4 ,and that is what happened4 ,delegates from the smaller states disagreed with the delegates from the larger states on the question whether1 under the new constitution1 the voting power of the states should be equal1 as it had been under the ,articles of ,confederation4 ,delegates from the ,north clashed with delegates from the ,south on the question of giving the new government power to regulate trade2 for the ,south did not want export taxes placed upon tobacco1 cotton1 and the other plantation staples4 ,the divergence of opinion was often very wide1 and on one occasion the convention almost broke off its proceedings because there seemed to be no hope that any agreement could be reached4 ,but patience and public spirit finally prevailed on all points and by means of one compromise after another the convention managed to finish its work without splitting its ranks wide open4#ajg ,sidenote3 ,the constitution drafted4 ,when all the main features had been agreed upon they were put together into a constitution which thirty-nine of the delegates were willing to sign4 ,of the others1 some were absent2 some refused to put their names to it4 ,even among those who signed it there were many who did so without the least enthusiasm4 ,the provisions of the new constitution were not what any individual delegate wanted1 but merely what a majority could be induced to agree upon4 ,what influenced the delegates most of all was the fact that everyone knew the existing situation to be bad2 the new constitution1 whatever its defects1 was sure to be an improvement4 ,the immediate thing was to get the states headed towards the center and not towards the circumference of a circle4 ,this being accomplished1 the leaders of the convention believed the future might be trusted to take care of itself4 ,it was in this broad and patriotic spirit that thirty-nine men appended their names to what the ,english statesman1 ,gladstone1 once called 8the greatest achievement ever struck off in a given time by the hand and brain of man01--the constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,ratification by the states4 ,the ,final ,step4--,but by signing their names to this document the members of the convention did not make it the law of the land4 ,before the constitution could go into force it must be submitted to the states and adopted by them4 ,and there was grave danger that several of the states would reject it4 ,public sentiment seemed to be about evenly divided2 the small farmers were largely opposed to accepting the new government1 while the people of the towns and the large property-owners were in favor of it4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,federalist4 ,some of those who had been leaders in the convention1 notably ,hamilton and ,madison1 organized a campaign to influence public opinion in favor of the new constitution1 in the course of which they wrote numerous letters to the newspapers explaining and defending the various provisions4 ,these letters were subsequently compiled into book form and published under the title of ,the ,federalist4 ,even today they form an admirable exposition of what the various provisions of the constitution express and imply4 ,in the end the campaign for ratification was successful and notwithstanding strong opposition in some of the states all were finally induced to accept the constitution4 ,this being accomplished the ,congress of the ,confederation dissolved and in #aghi the new federal government came into office with ,new ,york ,city as the temporary capital4#ajh ,sidenote3 ,a notable document4 ,the ,constitution as a ,whole4--,the constitution of the ,united ,states as framed by the convention is a relatively short document4 ,it is printed in the back of this book and can be read in about twenty minutes4 ,it is the oldest and the shortest among republican constitutions in the great countries of the world4 ,napoleon ,bonaparte once said that a good constitution should be 8short and obscure01 short1 so that people would not have to waste time in reading it1 and obscure so that rulers could interpret it in any way they chose4 ,the constitution of the ,united ,states fulfils the first of ,napoleon's requirements but not the second4 ,it is a remarkably clear document1 well-arranged1 saying in a few words exactly what it means1 and couched in admirable ,english4 ,let anyone read the first six lines of it1 for example1 and see if he can put the purposes of a free government into fewer and more telling words4 ,it is the supreme law of the land1 the last word on all questions of ,american government4 ,no one can claim to know how the affairs of the ,united ,states are administered without mastering1 at least in a general way1 the contents of the constitution4 ,sidenote3 ,factors in the development of the constitution3 ,how the ,constitution has ,developed4--,but the constitution today is not what it was a hundred and twenty-odd years ago4 ,were that the case1 it would be sadly out of touch with the needs of the nation4 ,to be satisfactory a constitution must be capable of steady expansion and development2 it must be able to keep step with political1 social1 and economic progress4 ,this the constitution of the ,united ,states has been able to do through various agencies of development1 usage1 judicial interpretation1 and amendment4 ,established for thirteen states containing four million people it has been expanded to cover the needs of nearly four times as many states and more than twenty-five times as many people4 ,framed in days of stage coaches and sailing ships1 hand-industry and primitive methods of agriculture1 it has carried through into the days of airships and tractors1 giant factories and miracles of industry4 ,it is endowed with dynamic qualities4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,usage4 ,let us look a little more closely at these agencies of development4 ,usage is one of them4 ,alongside the written document there have grown up many practices which have practically the strength of written provisions4 ,take the method of electing the ,president1 for example4 ,indirect election is provided in the constitution2 by usage the election has become direct4 ,the constitution provides that the ,president shall make appointments with the 8advice and consent0 of the ,senate2 but as a matter of usage its advice is never asked and its consent1 in some cases1 is never refused 7see p4 #bih74 ,the constitution says not a word about the ,cabinet1 but by usage a ,cabinet system has grown up in the ,united ,states as in ,england4 ,nor does it say a word about political parties1 nevertheless usage has given them a large part in government4 ,these illustrations could be multiplied4 ,why does no ,president seek a third term8 ,why does a ,president usually consult individual representatives before making local appointments8 ,why are non-residents in a congressional district practically never elected to represent it8 ,usage answers these and many other questions4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,interpretation4 ,the constitution has also been modified by decisions of the courts4 ,the courts cannot change a single word in the constitution2 they merely interpret its meaning4 ,their function is jus dicere1 non dare 7to interpret the law1 not to make it71 as the saying goes4 ,but the fact remains that changes in the meaning of words are equivalent for all practical purposes to changes in the words themselves4 ,the ,supreme ,court1 in a long series of decisions1 has greatly expanded the powers of the national government by the interpretation of words and clauses in the written constitution4 ,it has decided that the power to borrow money includes the power to establish banks1 that the power to regulate commerce includes the power to fix railroad rates1 that the power to establish post-offices includes the power to punish those who use the mails for a fraudulent purpose1 and so on4 ,it has been the function of the court to make the words spell out new meanings to fit new situations4 ,one cannot today obtain an adequate knowledge of what these words and phrases mean by merely reading the document2 it is necessary to go through the decisions of the ,supreme ,court and find out just how this great tribunal has interpreted them4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,statutes4 ,the constitution has been developed by law4 ,many things were left in general terms in order that the details might be settled by ,congress or by the state legislature4 ,nothing is said in the constitution about the organization or procedure of the federal courts4 ,all this has been built up by laws4 ,nor is anything said about the method of nominating congressmen1 or the form of the ballot1 or the duties of election officials4 ,that1 too1 is arranged by law4 ,much of what we call the machinery of ,american government today rests upon ordinary laws which can be changed by ,congress or the state legislatures at any time4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,amendments4 ,finally1 the constitution can be changed1 and on nineteen matters has been changed by amending it4 ,the constitution provides four possible methods of making and ratifying amendments1--two of initiating and two of ratifying4 ,these various ways are stated in the document 7,article ,v7 more briefly and more clearly than they can be recapitulated here4 ,but every one of the amendments thus far made has been proposed and adopted in one and the same way1 namely1 proposal by ,congress and ratification by three-fourths of the state legislatures4 ,sidenote3 ,method of making amendments4 ,the other plan of proposing amendments1 that is by calling a constitutional convention1 would open the gates for a general revision or for the submission of an entirely new constitution1 which is something that public opinion has not yet seemed to favor4 ,if1 however1 ,congress should at any time endeavor to thwart the will of the people by declining to propose an amendment strongly demanded by public opinion its hand could be forced by resort to the convention method4 ,sidenote3 ,nature of the nineteen amendments4 ,the ,nineteen ,amendments4--,of the nineteen amendments which have been made since the constitution went into force1 the first ten were added in #agia4 ,when the convention of #aghg finished its work and sent the document to the states for their approval there was a chorus of protest because no ,bill of ,rights had been included4 8,where are there in this document01 the objectors cried out1 8any provisions guaranteeing us free speech1 trial by jury1 freedom of the press1 and the other securities against oppression80 ,the reply was that the people needed no guarantees against their own government but only against governments imposed upon them from outside4 ,but this explanation did not satisfy1 and assurance was given that if the constitution were adopted in its original form a ,bill of ,rights would be added4 ,the first ten amendments represent the keeping of that pledge4 ,the last of these amendments is of particular importance in explicitly proclaiming that all powers not given to the national government by the constitution1 or prohibited to the states1 are reserved to the states1 respectively1 and to the people4 ,the latest nine amendments require little comment although some are of great importance4 ,three of them1 the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth1 were needed to make permanent the results of the ,civil ,war4 ,one of these1 the fourteenth1 contains provisions1 relating to the rights of citizens1 which have been given a wide application and have been the cause of a great deal of litigation before the ,supreme ,court4 ,intended to protect the negro they have been used1 in large measure1 to secure for business corporations the equal protection of the laws4 ,as for the negro he has gained very little from amendments which were primarily made for his benefit4 ,the fifteenth amendment was intended to secure him the right to vote2 but in many of the states it has not succeeded in doing so4 ,the two latest amendments1 namely1 the eighteenth1 which established national prohibition1 and the nineteenth1 which provides for woman suffrage1 have both been ratified since the ,world ,war4 ,twenty years ago it was commonly urged that the process of amending the constitution ought to be made easier4 ,it was pointed out in those days that no amendment had been made for more than a generation4 ,but the adoption of four amendments during the past ten years seems to indicate that when the people demand an amendment the process of getting it is not too difficult4 ,in each of these instances there was a strong popular demand4 ,why ,men ,honor the ,constitution4--,americans have a great respect for the constitution of their country even though many of them would like to see some changes made in it4 ,and why should they not honor it8 ,its reign has been long in the land4 ,no king ever ruled his people so long or kept faith with them so well4 ,under it the country has waxed great and prosperous2 the government which it established has become increasingly democratic in form and in spirit2 it has grown strong enough to protect its citizens at home and abroad1 and it has become the model upon which several other governments of the world have been patterned4 ,it is easy enough to pick flaws in the constitution of the ,united ,states--or in the constitution of any country for that matter--but where are the ,washingtons1 ,madisons1 and ,hamiltons of today whom we would trust with the task of making a better one8 ,during the past few years a dozen countries of the world have framed new republican constitutions1--,germany1 ,austria1 ,poland1 ,czecho-,slovakia1 and so on4 ,they have had the experience of an additional century to draw upon and the combined political wisdom of the world at their disposal4 ,is there any constitution in this list which the rank and file of the ,american people would prefer to their own8 ,you can pick a line out of ,shakespeare1 here and there1 and improve upon it4 ,but when it comes to improving upon the whole of ,shakespeare's work1--ah1 that is quite a different proposition4 ,general ,references ,,james ,,bryce1 ,the ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ae-ca2 #cfj-daj 7,abridged ,edition1 pp4 #bbd-bhd72 ,,charles ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 #c;d edition1 pp4 #a-gg2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #a-fi2 ,ibid41 ,history of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #aci-afa2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #a-df2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #a-gj2 ,ibid41 ,selections from the ,federalist1 pp4 #a-ag2 #ef-hf2 ,,max ,,farrand1 ,the ,framing of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 especially pp4 #db-fg4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the means of securing co-operation among states and men as illustrated by the ,american government before1 during1 and after the ,revolution4 ,the obstacles to union4 ,the cohesive forces4 ,the influence and nature of leadership4 ,historical analogies in other parts of the world4 ,the problem of forming a league of states compared with that of forming a league of nations4 ,references3 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,the ,state1 pp4 #bfg-bih2 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,the ,critical ,period1 pp4 #ej-hi2 ,,max ,,farrand1 ,the ,framing of the ,constitution1 pp4 #fe-aab2 ,a4 ,c4 ,,mclaughlin1 ,confederation and the ,constitution1 pp4 #ce-eb4 #b4 ,the ,declaration of ,independence3 its origin1 its importance1 and an analysis of its political principles4 ,references3 ,c4 ,h4 ,,van ,,tyne1 ,the ,american ,revolution1 pp4 #ej-hg2 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,the ,american ,revolution1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #adg-aig2 ,the ,madison ,papers1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ai-bg2 ,h4 ,,friedenwald1 ,the ,declaration of ,independence1 an ,interpretation and ,analysis1 pp4 #aba-aea4 #c4 ,from what sources did the framers of the constitution borrow their ideas8 ,references3 ,c4 ,e4 ,,stevens1 ,the ,sources of the ,constitution1 pp4 #ce-aaf2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,robinson1 ,the ,original and ,derived ,features of the ,constitution1 pp4 #bjc-baj2 ,s4 ,g4 ,,fisher1 ,the ,evolution of the ,constitution1 pp4 #aa-be4 #d4 ,how the constitution has developed4 ,references3 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,the ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cfj-daj2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #eg-gj2 ,c4 ,g4 ,,tiedeman1 ,the ,unwritten ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #af-ec4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the spirit of ,america4 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,history of the ,american ,people1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ih-abf4 #b4 ,how ,england controlled the ,colonies4 ,g4 ,c4 ,,lewis1 ,the ,government of ,dependencies1 pp4 #ahi-bdj4 #c4 ,the ,new ,england ,confederation4 ,,edward ,,channing1 ,history of the ,united ,states1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dad-dcf4 #d4 ,the ,stamp ,act4 ,,edward ,,channing1 ,history of the ,united ,states1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #df-gi4 #e4 ,the ,articles of ,confederation4 ,c4 ,h4 ,,van ,,tyne1 ,the ,american ,revolution1 pp4 #age-bjb4 #f4 ,the weakness of the ,confederation4 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,the ,critical ,period of ,american ,history1 pp4 #ij-acc4 #g4 ,the personnel of the constitutional convention4 ,,max ,,farrand1 ,the ,framing of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ad-da4 #h4 ,the difficulties which confronted the convention4 ,the ,federalist1 ,no4 ,,xxxvi2 7in ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,selections from the ,federalist1 pp4 #aji-aaf2 also in ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,readings on ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #dd-dg74 #i4 ,contemporary objections to the constitution4 ,a4 ,c4 ,,mclaughlin1 ,confederation and the ,constitution1 pp4 #bgg-bha2 #bhg-bhh2 ,p4 ,l4 ,,ford1 ,pamphlets on the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 especially pp4 #c-bc4 #aj4 ,the political ideas of the ,fathers4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,ford1 ,rise and ,growth of ,american ,politics1 pp4 #ag-cd4 #aa4 ,outstanding features of the constitution as a document4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dd-ef4 #ab ,how amendments are made4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #ef-fa4 ,questions #a4 ,show how the form of government established by ,england in the ,american colonies compares with the form of government maintained by the ,united ,states in ,alaska1 ,hawaii1 and ,porto ,rico today4 #b4 ,in what respects did the colonies differ from one another and in what respects were they pretty much alike8 #c4 ,make a critical examination of the four great political principles enunciated in the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,how would you apply them today in the case of 7a7 ,ireland2 7b7 the ,philippines2 7c7 ,india8 #d4 ,name the chief weaknesses of the ,confederation4 #e4 ,who is commonly called the 8,father of the ,constitution08 ,does he deserve this title1 and if so1 why8 #f4 ,read the constitution carefully and then answer the following questions1 8yes0 or 8no10 pointing out the provision on which you base your answer3 7a7 ,must the ,vice ,president be a natural-born citizen8 7b7 ,may an ,american citizen accept a foreign order of nobility8 7c7 ,may any one who is not a citizen vote at presidential elections8 7d7 ,may ,congress pass a law impairing the obligations of contracts8 7e7 ,may the ,president and ,vice ,president both be residents of the same state8 7f7 ,may the ,president pardon a person convicted of treason8 ,may he pardon a federal official convicted of bribery8 #g4 ,what did you find in the constitution that you did not expect to find there8 ,what did you expect and fail to find8 ,what seems to you to be the most important section of the whole document8 #h4 ,explain the procedure by which the constitution may be amended4 ,classify the nineteen amendments into four groups and give a general title to each group4 #i4 ,give some examples of constitutional development 7a7 by law2 7b7 by usage2 7c7 by judicial interpretation4 #aj4 ,if we were to revise the entire constitution today what changes would probably be made8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,a national convention should be called to revise the constitution4 #b4 ,the process of amending the constitution should be made easier4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,congress ,,at ,,work ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain how the nation's laws are made4 ,sidenote3 ,the reason for two chambers3 ,congress4--,the lawmaking branch of the national government is made up of two chambers1 the ,senate and the ,house of ,representatives4 ,the ,congress of the ,confederation consisted of one chamber only2 but the members of the constitutional convention were strongly impressed with the desirability of establishing a bicameral legislative body4 ,there is a story that ,thomas ,jefferson1 who believed a single chamber to be sufficient1 was engaged in a friendly argument with ,washington on this matter shortly after the constitution had been completed4 ,the two were taking tea together and ,jefferson1 following a common practice of the time1 poured some of his tea from his cup into the saucer4 8,why do you do that80 asked the ,father of his ,country4 8,to cool it01 replied ,jefferson4 8,quite so01 added ,washington1 8and the ,senate is to be the saucer into which the laws which come hot from the ,house of ,representatives will be poured to cool40 ,that story may or may not be true2 but it gives a clue to the principal reason why there are two branches of ,congress instead of one4 ,there is some significance1 moreover1 in the fact that every state of the ,union1 and every foreign country1 has a legislature or parliament of two chambers4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,to provide a safeguard4 ,the bicameral system is commonly justified on two grounds4 ,in the first place1 it is believed to afford a safeguard against hasty and unwise legislation4 ,a single chamber might be moved by a passing wave of prejudice or enthusiasm to take action without sufficient reflection4 ,when all measures have to be considered by two legislative bodies1 this danger is not nearly so great4 ,one chamber serves as a check on the other4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,to permit two types of representation4 ,a second reason is found in the desirability of having the lawmakers chosen in different ways1 some by small districts and some by large districts1 some for long terms and some for short terms4 ,a good lawmaking body should be thoroughly representative2 it should represent the whole country and all parts of the country2 it should be kept in close touch with public opinion by frequent elections1 but the entire body of lawmakers ought not to be changed at short intervals1 for there would then be no steadiness of policy4 ,the framers of the constitution tried to meet all these requirements by providing for a ,senate1 whose members should be chosen by the states for six-year terms1 and a ,house of ,representatives1 made up of members elected by the people every two years4#aji ,the former represents the states on a basis of equality2 the other affords them representation according to their respective populations4 ,sidenote3 ,method of choosing senators4 ,the ,senate3 ,its ,organization4--,in the constitution1 as originally adopted1 it was provided that each state should have two senators1 elected 8by the legislature thereof04 ,for more than a hundred years that method of election was followed4 ,the two houses of the state legislature chose the senators4 ,but this plan became unpopular and in #aiac the constitution was amended to provide that the senators should be chosen in each state by popular vote4 ,the term remains fixed at six years1 but one-third of the senators retire every second year4#aaj ,every state1 large or small1 has two senators4 ,nevada1 with only #hj1jjj population has equal representation in the ,senate with ,new ,york1 which has above ten million people4 ,proportionally1 ,new ,york ought to have about two hundred and fifty senators4 ,this may seem to be unfair to the larger states1 but it was a necessary concession to the smaller states at the time the union was formed4 ,sidenote3 ,the principle of equality4 ,population1 moreover1 is not the only thing that should be taken into consideration4 ,a state may be large in area1 with great natural resources and a splendid future before it1 and yet be very thinly settled4 ,the ,senate was created to represent the states as such1 and all the states are equal in rights1 if they are not equal in area or population4 ,at any rate the provision for equal representation is in the constitution and if you read the provision1 you will see that it cannot be easily changed 7,article ,v1 last clause74 ,sidenote3 ,the ,senate's procedure4 ,the ,senate holds regular sessions each year at ,washington4 ,it may be called in special session1 even when the ,house of ,representatives is not sitting4 ,this is because the ,senate has some special powers apart from those which it shares equally with the lower house4 ,it makes its own rules of procedure1 decides any disputes as to the qualifications of its own members1 and has power1 by a two-thirds vote1 to expel any senator from its membership4 ,most of the ,senate's routine work is done by committees1 the members of which are assigned every second year by an unofficial 8,committee on ,committees0 subject to the approval of the whole chamber4 ,there are about thirty of these committees1 but many of them are of small importance4 ,the more important are those which deal with revenue measures1 appropriations1 foreign relations1 and interstate commerce4 ,each committee has its own chairman4 ,the ,senate3 ,its ,exclusive ,powers4--,the ,senate has three special powers in which the ,house of ,representatives possesses no share4 ,these powers relate to impeachments1 the confirming of appointments1 and the ratification of treaties4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,trial of impeachments4 ,the ,senate1 as the constitution declares1 has 8the sole power to try all impeachments04 ,the procedure known as impeachment is of ,english origin and goes back to mediaeval times when the only way of holding a king to account was to impeach and punish his advisors4 ,the framers of the ,american constitution regarded impeachment as a useful means of checking any arbitrary use of executive power and they1 therefore1 made provision that 8the ,president1 ,vice ,president1 and all civil officers of the ,united ,states0 should be subject to impeachment before the ,senate in case of wrong-doing4 ,the term 8civil officers0 includes members of the cabinet1 judges1 ambassadors1 even postmasters2 but it does not include the members of either branch of ,congress nor1 of course1 does it include either state or local officeholders4 ,civil officers of the ,united ,states can be impeached only for 8treason1 bribery1 or other high crimes and misdemeanors02 and if convicted can be punished only to the extent of being removed from office as well as disqualified from ever holding any federal position again4 ,they cannot be put to death1 or imprisoned1 or fined4 ,when it is desired to impeach any civil officer1 the charges against him are laid before the ,senate by the ,house of ,representatives4 ,the ,senate sets a date for hearing the case2 the evidence is presented2 and the ,senate then frames its verdict behind closed doors4#aaa ,a two-thirds majority is necessary for a conviction4#aab ,sidenote3 #b4 ,confirmation of appointments4 ,all the more important appointments made by the ,president require the confirmation of the ,senate4 ,the ,president sends to the presiding officer of the ,senate the names of his proposed appointees and the ,senate thereupon refers them to the appropriate committees for consideration4 ,when the committees make their report the ,senate then votes to confirm or reject4 ,a bare majority1 not a two-thirds vote1 suffices4 ,rejections take place at times1 but the great majority of the ,president's nominations are confirmed without delay4 ,the ,senate understands that the chief responsibility for selecting federal officers rests with the executive branch of the government and that confirmation should not be refused without good reason4 ,there is1 however1 a practice known as 8senatorial courtesy01 which has frequently led to the rejection of names proposed by the ,president4 ,according to this custom the ,senate will not confirm the appointment of any local officer1 such as postmaster or internal revenue officer1 unless the person named for the appointment is satisfactory to the senator or senators from the state concerned1 provided1 of course1 that these senators are of the same political party as the ,president himself4 ,or1 to put it more concretely1 if a ,republican ,president nominates as internal revenue officer at ,philadelphia someone who is not approved by the ,republican ,senators from ,pennsylvania1 the ,republican majority in the ,senate will not permit the appointment to be confirmed4 ,this unwritten rule of senatorial courtesy has been enforced at some times and not at others4 ,some presidents have been able to persuade the ,senate to disregard it2 but in general it is a custom which ties the hands of all presidents to a considerable extent4 ,when the ,senate is not in session1 the ,president is free to make appointments at his own discretion4 ,these are known as 8recess appointments0 and are temporary only4 ,if the ,senate1 at its next session1 fails to confirm them1 these recess appointments lapse and the appointees get no pay for the time they may have served4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,ratification of treaties4 ,all treaties between the ,united ,states and other countries must be approved by a two-thirds vote of the ,senate before they can go into effect4 ,this gives the ,senate an important influence in the control and direction of foreign affairs because the relations between the ,united ,states and other countries are fixed1 to a considerable extent1 by treaties4 ,the whole subject of treaties and foreign relations is so complicated1 however1 that it may best be reserved for study in a later chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,powers which are jointly exercised with the ,house4 ,the ,senate3 ,its ,concurrent ,powers4--,in all other matters1 apart from impeachments1 appointments1 and treaties1 the ,senate has concurrent power with the ,house of ,representatives4 ,there is a provision in the constitution to the effect that all bills for raising revenue must 8originate0 in the ,house of ,representatives1 but that the ,senate may amend such bills as it pleases4 ,this is a partial reproduction of an ancient rule in the unwritten constitution of ,great ,britain which gives the ,house of ,commons the initiative in all financial matters4 ,by usage1 also1 all bills for spending money originate in the lower house4 ,but the ,senate1 as a practical matter1 uses its amending power so freely that it can virtually originate measures of either sort whenever it desires to do so4 ,when a bill comes up from the lower chamber it can strike out virtually the whole measure1 put a new bill in its place1 and send this back to the ,house of ,representatives4 ,in matters which do not relate to revenue or expenditure the powers of the two chambers are precisely the same both in theory and in practice4 ,sidenote3 ,how the size of the ,house is determined4 ,the ,house of ,representatives3 ,its ,organization4--,the ,house of ,representatives is nearly five times as large as the ,senate1 having #dce members at the present time4 ,it is much too large for the effective debating of measures4#aac ,every ten years1 after the population of each state has been determined by the census bureau1 ,congress by law fixes the total membership of the ,house for the ensuing decade4 ,dividing this figure into the total population of the country gives a 8ratio of representation01 that is the uniform quota of population which is entitled to one representative4 ,for example1 if the population of the country is one hundred millions and the membership of the ,house is fixed at #djj1 the ratio would be one representative for every #bej1jjj people4 ,having found this ratio1 it is a simple matter to determine how many representatives each state shall have4 ,new ,york1 with ten million people1 would be allotted forty congressmen2 ,maine1 with seven hundred and fifty thousand people1 would get only three4 ,nevada1 ,wyoming and ,delaware would not get any1 if the ratio were strictly applied1 but the constitution requires that every state1 no matter what its population1 shall be given at least one representative in the ,house4 ,when the quota to which each state is entitled has been figured the several states proceed1 through their legislatures1 to lay out congressional districts and from each such district one congressman is chosen at the next election4 ,sidenote3 ,congressional districts4 ,this work of 8redistricting0 the state gave rise at an early date to a practice commonly known as 8gerrymandering04#aad ,the national laws require that all congressional districts within a state shall be approximately equal in population and that they shall be composed of contiguous territory4 ,apart from these restrictions1 the state legislatures are free to map out the districts as they see fit and they do this1 very frequently1 with an eye to gaining advantage for the political party which happens to control the legislature4 ,by adding one county or town and taking off another1 always with party motives in mind1 it is possible to 8gerrymander0 a district into such form that the candidate of the favored party will have an advantage over his opponent4 ,true enough1 these gerrymandered congressional districts1 when drawn on the map1 often look like a lizard or a starfish1 but there is nothing in the constitution or the laws of the ,united ,states which requires congressional districts to be uniform in shape4 ,sidenote3 ,the method of choosing congressmen4 ,how ,representatives are ,chosen4--,every second year elections are held in all the congressional districts of the country and one congressman is chosen from each4 ,each state determines how the nominations are made and is responsible for conducting the election4 ,the qualifications for voting are the same as those established at state elections4 ,there is no legal requirement that a representative must be a resident of the district which elects him2 it is enough that he be a resident of the state in which the district is located4 ,but as a matter of practice congressmen are nearly always residents of their districts4 ,american usage in this respect differs from that of some other countries1 particularly ,great ,britain1 where members of the ,house of ,commons are frequently chosen from districts in which they do not reside4 ,sidenote3 ,the residence requirement4 ,the advantage of this plan is that a capable statesman can secure a seat in the lawmaking body even though his own home district may be one which the opposite party controls4 ,in the ,united ,states1 on the other hand1 if a capable man belonging to the ,democratic party happens to live in a strongly ,republican district1 there is practically no chance of his ever being a member of the national ,house of ,representatives no matter how strong his personal qualifications may be4 ,one congressional district1 moreover1 especially in the residential portion of a large city1 may have many capable men living in it4 ,but only one of them1 under ,american usage1 can sit in the ,house4 ,the argument that1 in order to know the needs of his district1 a congressman must actually live in it1 is on everyone's tongue1 but it deserves no considerable weight4 ,the first duty of a congressman is to promote the interests of the whole people and not merely those of his own district4 ,the ,speaker and the ,committees4--,the ,house of ,representatives elects its own presiding officer1 who is known as the ,speaker4 ,he has general charge of the proceedings and until a few years ago appointed all the committees4 ,all questions of procedure are decided by him and he determines which member of the ,house shall be 8recognized01 that is1 permitted to speak1 when several members desire to have the floor4 ,the ,speaker is always a prominent member of the majority party and usually one of its leaders4 ,he has a considerable influence on the work of the ,house4 ,in a body of more than four hundred members1 it stands to reason that a great deal of the business must be done by committees4 ,there are now nearly sixty of these committees1 the most important being those on rules1 appropriations1 ways and means1 interstate and foreign commerce1 post-offices1 military affairs1 naval affairs1 and agriculture4 ,sidenote3 ,the committees3 how selected4 ,since #aiaj these committees have been appointed by a complicated plan which places the selection in the hands of the whole ,house4#aae ,the majority party in the ,house obtains a majority on each important committee4 ,sidenote3 ,stages in the making of a law3 ,the ,process of ,lawmaking4--,the work of the committees may best be explained by describing the various stages through which a bill passes before it becomes a law4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,introduction of bill4 ,in the first place1 any member of the ,house may introduce a bill 7which is a draft of a proposed law7 either for himself or for someone else4 ,he does this by writing his name on the back of the bill and dropping it into a large basket at the ,speaker's table4 ,during the course of each session many thousand bills are placed in this 8hopper0 as it is called4 ,one of the ,speaker's assistants takes each bill from the basket and refers it to the proper committee4 ,if the bill relates to taxation it goes to the ,ways and ,means ,committee2 if it relates to railroads it goes to the ,committee on ,foreign and ,interstate ,commerce4 ,every bill goes to some committee before the ,house looks at it4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,consideration by a committee4 ,when the various committees receive their bills they place them on a list for consideration and each is taken up in order unless the committee decides to give some bills the right of way4 ,hearings on the important measures are then held4 ,the members of the committee meet in their committee room and listen to the arguments of those who desire to support or oppose the bill4 ,any citizen has the right to appear and be heard4 ,sometimes1 in the case of some important bills1 such as a tariff measure1 the hearings may continue for several days or even for weeks4 ,the committee hearings1 however1 are usually held in the mornings only1 for the ,house is in session during the afternoons4 ,when the hearings are concluded the committee decides what action it will take4 ,it may recommend to the ,house that the bill ought to be passed1 either with or without changes4 ,sometimes a committee completely redrafts a bill and reports it to the ,house in the entirely new form4 ,but in the great majority of cases the committees feel unfavorably towards the bills and make no report or recommendation on these bills at all4 ,sidenote3 ,how bills are killed in committee4 ,such measures are merely 8killed in committee0 and never get before the ,house4 ,the ,house can1 of course1 require any committee to send up a bill2 but this it hardly ever does4 ,most of the bills introduced by congressmen are put to death in this way2 in fact more than eighty per cent of them never survive the committee stage4#aaf ,one committee acquired such a reputation for slaughtering bills that its committee room was nicknamed the 8legislative morgue04 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the committee's report4 ,but let us suppose that a bill is favorably regarded by a committee and duly reported to the ,house4 ,what happens next8 ,it is placed on one of the calendars or lists2 printed copies are made2 and when its turn comes1 it is laid before the ,house4 ,a debate on the bill may take place1 amendments may be proposed1 and votes taken4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,consideration in the ,house4 ,in considering measures1 the ,house often sits as a ,committee of the ,whole4 ,this merely means that the entire membership forms a great committee1 but there are some important differences between the ,house in ,committee of the ,whole and the regular session4 ,in ,committee of the ,whole the ,speaker does not preside 7but calls some member to the chair72 the strict rules of procedure do not apply2 one hundred members form a quorum 7in regular session a majority of the members are needed to furnish a quorum7 and there are no roll calls4 ,in a word1 the system enables the ,house to do business with less formality4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,bills are then sent to the other chamber4 ,at any rate if the measure safely passes the ,house1 it is engrossed on parchment1 signed by the speaker1 and sent up to the ,senate where it goes through the whole procedure of committee hearings and discussion on the floor4#aag ,sidenote3 #f4 ,the executive approval4 ,having passed the ,senate it is signed by the presiding officer of that body and is then sent to the ,president for his signature4 ,the ,president1 as will be shown a little later1 may sign it1 veto it1 or allow it to become a law without his signature4 ,sidenote3 ,conference committees4 ,if one chamber amends a measure1 and the other chamber agrees to the amendment1 the bill also goes directly to the ,president4 ,but what happens in case either the ,senate or the ,house make amendments to which the other chamber does not agree8 ,that is just what very frequently occurs4 ,in such cases a conference committee is appointed1 made up as a rule of three members from each chamber4 ,these conferees meet and try to reach a common ground by compromise4 ,then1 when they have agreed1 they report to their respective chambers and the latter must accept or reject the conference report without further amendment4 ,sidenote3 ,the value of experience in ,congress4 ,some ,tricks of the ,lawmaker's ,trade4--,lawmaking is a skilled profession2 it takes the average congressman most of his first term to learn just how it is done4 ,he must acquire a knowledge of the rules1 written and unwritten1 the traditions1 and what may rightly be called the 8tricks of the trade04 ,ability as an orator does not count for much1 particularly in the ,house4 ,the house chamber is a big1 noisy place where only a leather-lunged speaker can make himself clearly heard4 ,congressmen1 moreover1 do not take kindly to long speeches2 they expect members of the ,house to say what they have to say in five or ten minutes4 ,if a congressman desires to make an impression upon the voters of his home district by sending them accounts of his able speeches in their behalf1 he can usually obtain from the ,house1 by unanimous consent1 permission to have his speech printed at the public expense and distributed without its ever having been delivered on the floor of the chamber at all4 ,when long speeches are made it is usually to waste the time of ,congress and prevent the passage of some measure to which the speakers are opposed4#aah ,sidenote3 ,filibusters4 ,attempts to talk a measure to death are known as 8filibusters04 ,both chambers are now able to put an end to filibusters by applying rules which shut off further debate when a specified majority of the members so desire2 but in the old days1 before these rules were adopted1 senators sometimes kept the floor hour after hour all day and all night long1 talking on every irrelevant matter1 reading long extracts from books1 and employing all their ingenuity to lengthen the debate4 ,the proceedings in the ,senate are often interesting2 but the visitor to the ,house gallery is likely to be disappointed if he goes with the expectation of hearing some good speech-making4 ,the real work of the ,house is done in committee4 ,sidenote3 ,classification of congressional powers4 ,the ,powers of ,congress4--,the powers of ,congress1 as the lawmaking branch of the national government1 are set forth in eighteen clauses of the federal constitution4 ,hence it is customary to speak of the 8eighteen powers of ,congress01 although there are in fact more than eighteen separate powers1 as anyone will find if he takes the trouble to count them4 ,these powers may be conveniently grouped together under eight heads3 7#a7 financial1 the power to levy taxes and to borrow money2 7#b7 commercial1 the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states2 7#c7 military1 the power to declare war1 to raise and support armies1 to maintain a navy1 and to provide for organizing1 arming1 and calling forth the state militia2 7#d7 monetary1 the power to coin money1 to regulate the value thereof1 and to protect the currency against counterfeiting2 7#e7 postal1 the power to establish post-offices and post roads2 7#f7 judicial1 the power to constitute tribunals subordinate to the ,supreme ,court2 7#g7 miscellaneous1 including powers in relation to bankruptcy1 naturalization1 patents1 copyrights1 and the government of the national capital2 7#h7 supplementary1 the power to make all laws which may be found 8necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers04 ,this is a rather tedious classification of congressional powers1 but the section which enumerates these powers is1 by all odds1 the most important part of the whole constitution and no one can claim to know much about the government of the ,united ,states unless he understands1 at least in a general way1 what these eighteen clauses express and imply4 ,sidenote3 ,express and implied powers4 ,it will be noted that all the powers except the last are express powers1 that is1 they are conveyed to ,congress in so many words4 ,the last is a grant of implied authority1 in other words it is a provision for supplementing the express powers4 ,where ,congress has the express right to tax1 to borrow1 to regulate interstate commerce1 to raise and support armies1 or to coin money1 it has the implied right to make whatever laws may be 8necessary and proper0 to carry its express powers into full operation4 ,having the express power to borrow money1 ,congress may therefore establish a system of banks if this is needed to render more easy the operations of borrowing4 ,having the express power to support armies1 it may place almost any sort of restriction upon industry in war time4 ,by the implied powers clause of the constitution the authority of ,congress is given great elasticity4 ,are the ,powers of ,congress ,broad ,enough8--,if the words of the constitution had been strictly interpreted1 the powers of ,congress would now be too narrow for the work which a strong national government must perform4 ,it is easy to understand why the framers of the constitution were cautious about conferring broad powers upon the new government4 ,they were anxious that no legislative despotism should be built up in ,america4 ,but as time passed the express powers of ,congress have been steadily widened by the process of interpreting them broadly so that today the real authority of ,congress is much greater than one would suspect from a mere reading of the constitution4 ,for all practical purposes they are broad enough although it is probably true that if the constitution were to be redrawn tomorrow1 the authority of the national government would be increased4 ,nearly all the amendments proposed in recent years have been in the direction of expanding the powers of ,congress4 ,sidenote3 ,the handicaps to good work4 ,the ,efficiency of ,congress4--,in comparison with the other great parliaments and legislatures of the world1 the ,congress of the ,united ,states does its work fairly well4 ,it is rather too large in membership1 and the ,house of ,representatives would probably gain in efficiency if it were reduced in size4 ,another handicap to good work arises from the enormous grist of measures which comes forward at every session4 ,congress is always under constant pressure for time4 ,many millions are often voted in a single hour and it is impossible for the congressmen to go carefully through the long list of financial items4 ,until very recently1 the absence of a budget system afforded an incentive to extravagance2 but this defect has now been remedied4#aai ,sidenote3 ,the lack of leadership4 ,congress also lacks leadership4 ,in ,european countries every parliament and legislature has a recognized leader1 usually called the prime minister4 ,he or his colleagues present the business and carry it through4#abj ,there is nothing of this sort in either the ,senate or the ,house of ,representatives4 ,it is true that each political party has a floor leader1 but he has not effective control over his followers4 ,the chairmen of the various committees also supply a certain measure of leadership1 but their work is not unified4 ,sidenote3 ,the lobby4 ,mention should also be made of the pressure which is applied to individual members of ,congress by the lobbyists4 ,these lobbyists are hired workers1 usually lawyers1 who are paid to help get measures through1 or in some cases to prevent the passage of certain laws4 ,they are employed by corporations1 or by labor organizations1 or by anyone who is deeply concerned in measures pending before ,congress4 ,they use every form of persuasion in their efforts to have congressmen see their side of the case4 ,the 8lobby0 has been placed under various restrictions in recent years1 but it is still an influential factor4 ,sidenote3 ,the influence of small groups in ,congress4 ,the ,congressional ,oligarchies4--,we are in the habit of assuming that the power in national lawmaking rests with the #eca men who constitute the ,senate and the ,house of ,representatives2 but the dominating influence is in reality exercised by a relatively small group of men in both chambers4 ,the chairmen of important committees and certain others of long congressional experience are the men whose influence counts4 ,the rest follow their lead for the most part4 ,important measures1 moreover1 are often discussed in a caucus of the majority party1 and the action of the caucus is considered binding on all who attend it4 ,a member in either chamber1 especially a new member1 who displays a disposition to be wholly independent1 and to disregard the advice of his party leaders or the decisions of his party caucus is not likely to get many favors for himself or for his district4 ,the senator or representative who desires to be effective finds it necessary1 therefore1 to help others with their plans whether he approves them heartily or not1 in order that he may be1 in turn1 helped with his own4 ,it is almost always true that a group of thirty or forty members1 on the majority side1 can secure the passage of measures which they desire and can prevent the passage of measures to which they are opposed4#aba ,in this respect the ,congress of the ,united ,states does not differ much from legislative bodies the world over4 ,large deliberative bodies are invariably prone to follow the lead of some relatively small group in their own membership2 otherwise they would never make headway1 and the larger the chamber the more likely is this to be true4 ,general ,references ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ig-bjh2 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,congressional ,government1 pp4 #eh-abi2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #bca-bic2 ,ibid41 ,readings on ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #bad-bga2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cjh-cgh2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #adf-bah2 ,s4 ,w4 ,,mccall1 ,the ,business of ,congress1 pp4 #dc-hd2 ,,lynn ,,haines1 ,your ,congress1 pp4 #fg-aji4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,is it desirable to restrict the present powers of the ,senate in relation to treaties8 ,reasons for giving the ,senate special powers in relation to treaties4 ,the meaning of 8advice and consent04 ,washington's attitude and experience4 ,the action of the ,senate on important treaties during the past hundred years4 ,the practical difficulty of obtaining a two-thirds majority4 ,confirmation as a barrier to secret diplomacy4 ,references3 ,,ralston ,,hayden1 ,the ,senate and ,treaties1 pp4 #afi-aie2 ,h4 ,c4 ,,lodge1 ,the ,senate of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #a-ca2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #edi-eea2 #egc2 ,s4 ,b4 ,,crandall1 ,treaties3 ,their ,making and ,enforcement1 pp4 #fg-ib2 ,congressional ,record1 #aiai-aibb4 #b4 ,the personnel of ,congress4 ,references3 ,types of men elected4 ,their occupations at home4 ,their legislative experience4 ,are there too many lawyers8 ,length of service4 ,how the personnel might be improved4 7,material for this study may be had in the ,congressional ,directory1 and in the various autobiographical works such as ,,james ,g4 ,,blaine',s ,twenty ,years in ,congress2 ,,champ ,,clark',s ,autobiography1 etc47 #c4 ,the merits and faults of the committee system4 ,references3 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aef-aff2 ,s4 ,w4 ,,mccall1 ,the ,business of ,congress1 pp4 #dc-fj2 ,l4 ,g4 ,,mcconachie1 ,congressional ,committees1 pp4 #eh-hf2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cdd-cef2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #beg-bfd4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the old and the new method of choosing ,senators4 ,,george ,h4 ,,haynes1 ,the ,election of ,senators1 pp4 #cf-abi4 #b4 ,the procedure in impeachments4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #afh-agc4 #c4 ,the ,speaker of the ,house4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #bhj-bhi2 ,m4 ,p4 ,,follett1 ,the ,speaker of the ,house of ,representatives1 pp4 #bif-ccj4 #d4 ,the rights of minorities4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,,joseph ,,schafer1 ,democracy in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #ddf-dfg4 #e4 ,the general powers of ,congress4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bjh-bah4 #f4 ,how ,congress legislates4 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cej-cef2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #bij-bif4 #g4 ,an ,englishman's observation on the work of ,congress4 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aia-bjh4 #h4 ,the rules of the ,house and ,senate4 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ccc-cdd4 #i4 ,obstruction in ,congress4 ,s4 ,w4 ,,mccall1 ,the ,business of ,congress1 pp4 #he-ib4 #aj4 ,party organizations in ,congress4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,willoughby and ,,lindsay ,,rogers1 ,introduction to the ,problem of ,government1 pp4 #ccd-cea4 #aa4 ,the lobby4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,american ,legislatures and ,legislative ,methods1 pp4 #bbh-bih4 #ab4 ,the ,library of ,congress4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,haskin1 ,american ,government1 pp4 #bhg-bhh4 ,questions #a4 ,do the merits of the double-chamber system outweigh the objections8 ,why should the members of the two chambers be chosen by different methods8 ,name at least three different methods of selecting representatives4 #b4 ,what is the present value of equal representation of the states in the ,senate8 ,what legal and practical obstacles are there to changing this system8 #c4 ,look up and explain the following terms which are commonly used in ,congress3 executive session2 morning hour2 union calendar2 ranking member2 filibuster2 leave to print2 pigeon-holing a bill2 pork barrel2 rider4 #d4 ,what are the practical difficulties which arise when the ,senate declines to confirm appointments proposed by the ,president8 #e4 ,explain the difference between an impeachment and a bill of attainder4 #f4 ,the ,senate usually exercises more influence than the ,house in matters of lawmaking4 ,can you give reasons why this should be so8 #g4 ,tell how congressional districts are mapped out4 ,mark on an outline map the districts in your state4 ,have any of them been gerrymandered8 #h4 ,the chairmanships of committees usually go to senior members4 ,do you think this a wise or unwise practice8 #i4 ,what would be gained1 and what would be lost by lengthening to four years the term for which representatives are chosen8 #aj4 ,two women1 ,miss ,rankin of ,montana and ,miss ,robertson of ,oklahoma1 have sat in ,congress4 ,what are the arguments for and against electing women in future8 #aa4 ,members of the ,house of ,representatives receive salaries of #gejj per year4 ,is this too much or too little8 ,give your reasons4 #ab4 ,congressmen are entitled to the free use of the mails4 7,this is called the franking privilege47 ,some years ago one senator sent nearly #gej1jjj copies of his speeches through the mails free4 ,do you believe this privilege should be withdrawn or retained8 #ac4 ,should the rules of the ,house provide for unlimited debate8 #ad4 ,can you suggest any practical way in which the work of ,congress might be improved8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the ,english practice of choosing non-resident representatives is advantageous and should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 #b4 ,the states should be represented in the ,senate according to their respective populations4 #c4 ,the provision relating to a reduction in representation1 whenever citizens are excluded from voting 7see ,amendment ,,xiv7 should be enforced4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,president ,,and ,,his ,,cabinet ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain how the ,president of the ,united ,states is chosen1 what his powers are1 and what functions his cabinet performs4 ,,the ,,president ,sidenote3 ,the notable ,presidents4 ,the ,man and the ,office4--,forty years ago1 an eminent ,english writer on ,american government spoke of the presidency as the greatest secular office in the world 8to which anyone can rise by his own merits04#abb ,in view of this fact1 he asked1 how does it come that the position is not more frequently filled by great and striking men8 ,there have been twenty-nine presidents since the constitution went into force in #aghh4 ,of these at least three1 ,washington1 ,jefferson1 and ,lincoln have won an assured place in world history4 ,five or six 7including ,adams1 ,jackson1 ,grant1 ,cleveland1 and ,roosevelt7 displayed during their respective terms of office some qualities which marked them as men of uncommon force or ability4 ,three others are still living and their achievements cannot yet be fairly estimated4 ,but taking all these together1 and even adding a few more for good measure1 would it not still be a fair statement to say that at least half the presidents have been men whose names would be entirely forgotten nowadays were it not for the fact that they occupied the presidential chair8 ,alexander ,hamilton1 ,daniel ,webster1 ,john ,marshall1 ,henry ,clay1 and ,john ,c4 ,calhoun are great and striking figures in ,american history although they never reached the presidency2 on the other hand the nation has1 at various times1 bestowed its highest honor upon men of commonplace qualities4 ,this1 of course1 was not what the ,fathers of the ,republic expected4 ,it was their anticipation that the presidential office would always be filled by men of 8pre-eminent ability and virtue04 ,why has this expectation been in part disappointed8 ,that is a question which can only be answered by a study of the methods by which presidents are chosen1 the relations between the office and the party system1 and the duties that presidents are required to perform4 ,sidenote3 ,why the plan of indirect election was adopted4 ,how the ,president is ,chosen4--,the ,articles of ,confederation did not provide for a ,president2 executive functions were performed by committees of the ,congress4 ,but this plan was found to be altogether unsatisfactory and the framers of the constitution decided in #aghg that the new federal government ought to have a single executive head4 ,how to choose this head1 however1 was a problem which gave them great difficulty and they debated it for a long time4 ,they did not approve a plan of election by direct popular vote1 for they feared that this might result in the choice of men who were personally popular but had no other qualifications4 ,their study of ancient and mediaeval republics made them averse to choosing the head of the nation by direct popular vote4 ,they were not prepared to trust the people2 in those days the risk seemed too great4 ,on the other hand they did not desire to have the ,president chosen by ,congress because this would give ,congress control of the office1 whereas their aim was to make the presidency a check upon ,congress4 ,so they finally decided upon the expedient of direct election by means of an electoral college4#abc ,sidenote3 ,the presidential electors4 ,the ,original ,plan of ,election4--,stated briefly the plan which they agreed upon and inserted in the constitution was as follows3 ,each state shall choose1 in such manner as its legislature may determine1 a number of electors equal to the state's combined quota of senators and representatives in ,congress4 ,a state having1 for example1 two senators and twelve representatives1 is entitled to fourteen electors4 ,on a definite date1 once in four years1 the electors meet in their respective states and give in writing their votes for ,president and ,vice ,president4 ,these votes are sealed up1 sent to ,washington1 counted1 and announced4 ,this plan did not contemplate that nominations should be made in advance1 or that political parties should have anything to do with the election1 or that the various states1 in choosing their electors1 should pledge them to vote for any particular candidate4 ,it was expected that the electors would meet1 discuss the merits of all the available men for the position1 and give their votes accordingly4 ,sidenote3 ,how the plan worked in the earlier elections4 ,the ,actual ,methods of ,election ,today4--,at the first two elections this plan was followed4 ,there were no nominations and no campaign preceding the election4 ,but at the election of #agif it was well understood1 even before the electors met1 that the contest would be between ,john ,adams and ,thomas ,jefferson4 ,and as time went on the actual practice drifted further away from the original plan of free choice by unpledged electors4 ,political parties grew up2 the electors were chosen with the definite understanding that they would vote for a particular party candidate1 and their share in the election became purely nominal4 ,in #ahjd some changes were made in the method of election but they did not affect the general plan or the current practice4 ,gradually the people took into their own hands the function of choosing the ,president2 everywhere the state legislatures turned the work of choosing the electors over to them1 so that the presidential elections became1 in everything but name and form1 direct elections by the people4#abd ,sidenote3 ,five steps in the choosing of a ,president3 ,in the choice of a ,president there are now five steps1 but only two of these are of any practical importance4 ,first1 each political party nominates its candidate at a national convention1 as already described4#abe ,sidenote3 #a4 ,the nomination of candidates4 ,second1 in each state the political parties nominate1 either by primaries or state conventions1 their respective slates or groups of electors4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the nomination of electors4 ,third1 the voters on election day decide which group of electors shall be given the formal function of electing the ,president4 ,this the voters do on the ,tuesday following the first ,monday in ,november every fourth year4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the polling4 ,each voter marks his ballot for a group of electors but what he really does is to indicate his preference for one of the candidates already nominated at the party conventions4 ,this means1 of course1 that one or the other group of electors is chosen as a whole and the state's vote cast solidly4 ,it rarely happens1 for example1 that a state casts ten electoral votes for one candidate and five for another2 if it has fifteen votes they all go to one candidate4 ,for this reason it sometimes happens that a candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes although not a majority of the popular votes1 taking the country as a whole4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,the action of the electors4 ,fourth1 the electors meet in their respective states and cast their votes4 ,fifth1 these votes are opened in ,washington and counted in the presence of ,congress4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,counting the votes4 ,among these five steps the first and third are the important ones4 ,the last step is nothing but a formality unless it appears that no candidate has received a majority4 ,in case this happens the ,house of ,representatives proceeds to choose a ,president from among the three candidates who have stood highest4 ,in the case of the ,vice ,president the choice rests with the ,senate4#abf ,sidenote3 ,the 8availability0 of candidates4 ,factors which ,influence ,presidential ,nominations and ,elections4--,as matters have worked out it is not possible for anyone to be elected ,president without first obtaining a nomination from one of the two leading political parties4 ,the party organizations and the party conventions are influenced by groups of political leaders and these leaders are often more interested in a man's strength as a candidate than in his personal qualifications for the work which a ,president has to do4 ,the consequence is that candidates have sometimes been nominated by party conventions because they were compromises on whom opposing factions of the party could agree1 or because they could be counted upon to carry some important state at the polls1 or for some other reason having nothing to do with the executive capacity of the individual concerned4 ,sidenote3 8,dark horses0 ,a big national convention1 comprising more than a thousand delegates1 cannot be expected to do its work with calm deliberation or to weigh carefully the personal qualifications of all those who seek to be nominated4 ,if there is a prolonged contest between two or three strong candidates1 no one of whom can obtain the requisite number of votes in the convention1 the delegates in their impatience are likely to turn to a 8dark horse01 that is to someone less prominent on whom there is a chance of agreement4#abg ,this has often happened4 ,the real work of nominating candidates is not done on the floor of the convention4 ,the plans are laid and put into operation by groups of leaders in private conferences1 the delegates following these leaders when called upon4 ,and the fact that a candidate possesses 8great and striking qualities0 does not always commend him to these party leaders4 ,on most occasions they are likely to prefer a man who1 if elected1 will work in harmony with the party organization rather than take the reins of office wholly into his own hands4#abh ,by various combinations of circumstances1 therefore1 men of mediocre quality have sometimes been nominated4 ,sidenote3 ,the election may turn upon various things4 ,narrowness of the ,people's ,choice4--,a nomination by one of the two leading parties is in some cases almost equivalent to election4 ,there are times1 of course1 when the election turns chiefly upon the merits of the two leading candidates2 but more often the result is determined by other factors entirely4 ,each candidate embodies the strength of his party as well as his own1 and each political party is for various reasons stronger in some years than in others4 ,when a party has been in power for a term of years the people usually grow disgruntled with its policy and refuse to support the candidate of that party at the next election no matter how capable he may be4 ,there is every reason to believe that the ,democratic candidate was doomed to defeat in #aibj no matter who he might have been4 ,when one political party remains in power for eight or twelve years it makes many enemies2 people find fault on one score or another and decide that they will vote for a change4 ,even a strong candidate in such circumstances has very little hope of winning4 ,public opinion is a very fickle thing4 ,it exalts a public man as a hero today and execrates him tomorrow4 ,it is strong for one policy this year and often veers around to something quite different a year or two later4 ,men are borne into the presidential office on this surging tide1 sometimes without much reference to their individual qualifications4 ,they are nominated because they are acceptable to the party leaders1 or because they come from some strong and doubtful state1 or because they are agreed upon by compromise1 or for any one of a dozen other reasons4 ,the capacity of the man is not always1 and indeed not usually1 the chief factor in determining a presidential nomination4#abi ,under the circumstances the wonder is that the country has obtained1 in the presidential office1 such a high general level of personal capacity and character4 ,sidenote3 ,presidential powers3 ,powers of the ,president4--,the actual powers of the ,president are greater than those of any other ruler in the world1 whether hereditary or elective4 ,he is the chief engineer of a great mechanism which controls an army1 raises several billion dollars a year in taxes1 enforces laws1 regulates commerce1 and employs the full time of more than half a million public officials4 ,congress makes the laws1 it is true2 but were it not for the ,president and those whom he appoints1 the laws would not be enforced4 ,congress decides what taxes shall be levied2 but the ,president and his subordinates collect them4 ,congress appropriates money out of the treasury2 but the executive branch of the government1 of which the ,president is the head1 spends the money4 ,the ,president1 in other words1 is the nation's chief executive--he is charged with the duty of executing the laws4 ,this is a large responsibility and a good deal of the work is necessarily entrusted to subordinates whom the ,president appoints4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,appointments4 ,the appointing power is1 then1 an important phase of the ,president's authority4 ,he names all the higher officials of the ,government subject to confirmation by the ,senate as has already been explained4 ,he has the power to remove any national official4 ,in the case of minor officials he may1 and usually does1 depend upon the advice of senators or congressmen both as regards appointments and removals2 but in the case of all high officers these things must have the ,president's personal attention4 ,naturally they take a great deal of his time4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the executive veto4 ,in relation to ,congress the ,president has the right to make recommendations and to veto any measure which he does not approve4 ,these recommendations he may make either by written message or by appearing before ,congress in person4 ,the veto power places a powerful weapon in the ,president's hands4 ,every bill or resolution which passes both ,houses of ,congress must be laid before the ,president4 ,if he approves1 he signs it4 ,if not1 he is entitled1 at any time within ten days1 to return the bill or resolution without his signature1 giving his reasons for the refusal to sign4 ,sidenote3 ,scope of the veto power4 ,when the ,president vetoes a measure in this way ,congress reconsiders it and a vote is then taken to determine whether the action of the ,president shall be sustained or overridden4 ,if two-thirds of the members present in both the ,senate and the ,house vote to override the veto1 the measure becomes effective2 if less than two-thirds so vote1 the measure becomes null4 ,sidenote3 ,the 8pocket veto04 ,but suppose the ,president neither signs nor vetoes the measure within ten days after it is sent to him1 what then8 ,the constitution provides that in such case the measure shall become a law4 ,if ,congress adjourns before the ten-day period has expired1 however1 the bill does not become a law4 ,it is not necessary for a ,president to veto any measure that may come to him during the ten days immediately preceding the adjournment of ,congress4 ,if he does not approve the measure1 he merely withholds his signature and it dies on his table4 ,this is known as the 8pocket veto04 ,sidenote3 ,its use and abuse4 ,the veto power has been used very little by some presidents and a great deal by others4 ,during the first forty years of the ,republic only nine bills were vetoed4 ,but during the past forty years presidential vetoes have been very common4 ,when a measure has been vetoed there is great difficulty1 as a rule1 in obtaining the necessary two-thirds vote to override the veto2 but vetoes1 nevertheless1 are occasionally overcome4 ,the use of the veto1 although it is an exercise of executive power1 makes the ,president a vital factor in legislation4 ,under ordinary circumstances he can defeat any measure that is not acceptable to him4#acj ,there are exceptions to this rule1 to be sure1 but it is valid in the main4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the conduct of foreign relations4 ,although the power of appointment and the veto power in normal times the two chief sources of the ,president's authority1 he has others of considerable importance4 ,he conducts relations with foreign governments and negotiates all treaties4 ,treaties do not become valid1 however1 until ratified by the ,senate4 ,he decides whether ambassadors and other diplomats sent to ,washington from other countries shall be formally recognized4 ,he has power to pardon offenders sentenced in the federal courts4 ,he is commander-in-chief of the military and naval forces4 ,all these functions are vested in the ,president by the constitution and the laws4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,other powers4 ,other powers have been acquired by usage1 for example1 the right to have a large voice in controlling the policy of the political party to which the ,president belongs4 ,the ,president is a party man1 a party leader4 ,he is elected on a party platform4 ,the people expect the ,president to carry out the pledges which this platform contains4 ,to do this the ,president finds it necessary at times to take the initiative in securing the passage of laws by ,congress and also to bring influence to bear upon the members of both ,houses4 ,strictly speaking1 the ,president has no formal share in the making of the laws2 but as a matter of usage he has a highly-important influence upon legislation4 ,succession to the ,presidency4--,in case the ,president should die1 or resign1 or be removed by impeachment1 or be otherwise incapable of performing his duties1 the ,vice ,president succeeds4 ,in the absence of the ,vice ,president it has been provided by law that the members of the cabinet1 beginning with the ,secretary of ,state1 have the right of succession according to the seniority of their offices4#aca ,no ,president has ever resigned or been removed from office4 ,on several occasions1 however1 a ,vice ,president has succeeded by reason of a ,president's death4 ,some presidents have been seriously ill during their terms of office1 and ,president ,wilson was absent in ,france for several months during #aiah-aiai2 but in no case has the ,vice ,president been called upon to exercise the presidential functions4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,vice ,president4 ,the office of ,vice ,president1 apart from the right of succession which it carries1 is not of much importance4 ,in selecting their candidates for the office the two leading political parties have usually given very little thought to the problem of getting the most capable man4 ,by the time the great task of nominating a candidate for the presidency has been finished1 the delegates are in a mood to get home4 ,they will not spend hours and days taking ballot after ballot for the second place on the ticket4 ,apart from presiding in the ,senate the ,vice ,president has no regular official duties1 but there is the ever-present chance that he may have to step into the chief executive position4 ,for that reason the work of selecting candidates ought to be done more carefully than has usually been the case4 ,,the ,,cabinet ,sidenote3 ,the whole cabinet system rests on usage4 ,the ,cabinet4--,the constitution makes no definite provision for a cabinet4 ,its framers expected that the ,president would appoint subordinates to assist him in the performance of his numerous functions and they made allusion to these officials2 but there was no anticipation that the officials in charge of the various departments would be formed into an organized branch of the government4 ,so the cabinet rests upon usage1 not upon the constitution or the laws4 ,the same is true of the cabinet in ,england4 ,it has no legal status1 exercises no formal powers1 keeps no records1 and has no fixed membership4 ,the prime minister selects1 for membership in the cabinet1 whomsoever he pleases1 the only restrictions being that they shall have seats in parliament and that the cabinet as a whole shall have the support of a majority in the ,house of ,commons4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states has an even wider range of choice in the selection of his cabinet4 ,he is not bound to choose a group of men who control a majority in either branch of ,congress4 ,his cabinet may be as large or as small as he chooses to make it4 ,by usage1 however1 the ,american cabinet consists of the heads of the national administrative departments1 these departments having been at various times established by law4#acb ,there are now ten such departments and hence ten members of the cabinet4 ,the ten departments are as follows3 ,state1 ,treasury1 ,war1 ,navy1 ,post-,office1 ,interior1 ,justice1 ,agriculture1 ,commerce1 and ,labor4 ,the head of each is appointed by the ,president with the confirmation of the ,senate2 but for more than eighty years this confirmation has never been refused4 ,the heads of departments are responsible to the ,president alone and may be dismissed by him at any time4 ,they are not permitted to have seats in either the ,senate or ,house of ,representatives4 ,sidenote3 ,the cabinet's functions3 ,the ,functions of the ,cabinet4--,in describing the functions of the cabinet it is advisable to make1 at the outset1 a distinction between those duties which are performed by the cabinet as a whole1 and those which pertain to the members of the cabinet individually1 as heads of their own departments4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,as a body4 ,the cabinet as a whole has no legal authority4#acc ,it is merely a group of high officials which the ,president calls together once or twice a week to discuss such matters as he chooses to lay before it1 or matters which he permits individual members to bring up4 ,the ,president may follow its advice or he may not4 ,he does not need the approval of the cabinet for any of his actions4 ,at the same time it has become the custom to consult the cabinet on practically all important questions of general policy and to give considerable weight to the cabinet's advice4 ,how much this weight will be depends1 in large measure1 upon the temperament and attitude of the ,president himself4#acd ,meetings of the cabinet are not public2 no records are kept or printed4 ,nobody knows what goes on at the meetings of the cabinet except those who are present4 ,it is a point of honor among the members that no one will disclose the proceedings to outsiders4 ,thus the cabinet always presents an outward appearance of being unanimous4 ,if any member cannot work in harmony with the ,president or with his fellow-members1 he is expected to resign4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,as individuals4 ,more vital than the functions of the cabinet as a whole are those which its members perform1 as individuals1 as heads of their departments4 ,every member of the cabinet1 as has been mentioned1 is the head of a department1 and as such is given charge of some branch of the government's work1 subject at all times1 however1 to the direction of the ,president4 ,the functions of each department are indicated1 in a general way1 by their respective titles4#ace ,these duties are so numerous and so varied that the various departments are divided into bureaus1 each bureau having charge of a certain division of the work4 ,on all routine matters the head of the department has practically independent authority1 but questions of general policy and those which affect more than one department are either discussed at cabinet meetings or taken to the ,president for his decision4#acf ,should the ,cabinet be ,enlarged8--,proposals are now under consideration for enlarging the cabinet by the creation of a department of education and a department of public health4 ,it is contended1 and perhaps rightly1 that the work of the national government in these two fields is sufficiently important to warrant their being placed upon the same footing as agriculture1 labor1 and commerce4 ,as an alternative it has been suggested that education and public health might be combined into a single department of public welfare2 but the objection to this is that the two things have no close relation to each other4 ,there is a feeling1 moreover1 that the cabinet should not be made much larger than it now is4 ,if every request for the creation of a new department were granted1 the cabinet would soon become too cumbrous for the effective performance of its advisory functions4 ,american and ,english ,cabinet ,systems ,compared4--,the cabinet system in the ,united ,states is like that of ,england in some respects and different in others4 ,these similarities and contrasts may be made clear by putting them in parallel columns4 ,,similarities #a4 ,the ,american cabinet system #a4 ,the ,english cabinet system also rests on custom or usage4 rests on usage1 having no basis in the laws of ,england4 #b4 ,members of the ,american cabinet #b4 ,members of the ,english cabinet are chosen by the chief are selected in the name of the executive--the ,president4 nominal chief executive--the king1 by the actual chief executive--the prime minister4 #c4 ,members of the ,american cabinet #c4 ,members of the ,english cabinet are heads of departments4 are also heads of departments2 but in ,england not all heads of departments become members of the cabinet4 #d4 ,the ,american cabinet advises the #d4 ,the ,english cabinet1 through the ,president4 prime minister1 advises the king4 ,,contrasts #a4 ,members of the ,american cabinet #a4 ,members of the ,english cabinet are not permitted to sit in must be members of parliament4 ,congress4 #b4 ,members of the ,american cabinet #b4 ,members of the ,english cabinet are responsible to the ,president are responsible to the ,house of only2 they do not have to resign ,commons and must resign whenever if they fail to retain the they lose the support of a confidence of ,congress4 majority of that chamber4 #c4 ,the ,american cabinet does not #c4 ,the ,english cabinet is the prepare business for ,congress nor 8great standing committee0 of assume any formal initiative in parliament1 preparing all law-making4 important measures for its consideration and assuming a definite leadership in the making of laws4 ,sidenote3 ,merits and defects of each plan4 ,which is the ,better ,plan8--,the relative merits of the ,american and ,english cabinet systems have been much discussed by writers in both countries4 ,the ,american plan enables the executive branch of the government to retain its independence and thus prevents the lodging of too much power in the hands of ,congress4 ,the ,english system makes the ,house of ,commons the supreme governing organ of the realm1 with no legal checks upon its omnipotence4 ,it affords1 moreover1 a degree of leadership in legislation which the ,american plan fails to provide4 ,the ,american system1 on the other hand gives the individual member of ,congress greater scope for independent action in that he is not confronted1 at the beginning of each session1 with a cut-and-dried program arranged in advance by the cabinet4 ,no one can say that either system is of itself better than the other4 ,as well might it be argued that an elephant is stronger than a whale4 ,the strength of each depends upon its environment4 ,the ,american cabinet system fits into the ,american scheme of government2 the ,english system would not do this unless our whole plan of government were greatly changed4 ,sidenote3 ,the arguments in favor4 ,should ,members of the ,cabinet ,sit in ,congress8--,the chief defect of the ,american cabinet system1 as thoughtful men now realize1 is the fact that while members of the cabinet and members of ,congress are deeply interested in the same work1 they are kept at arm's length apart4 ,members of the cabinet have information of great value to ,congress2 and ,congress is usually desirous of knowing their opinions on public questions4 ,on the other hand the work of the various departments1 over which members of the cabinet have supervision1 depends largely upon the action of ,congress4 ,congress votes them the money which they spend and makes the laws under which they spend it4 ,why not bring the two bodies into closer contact by permitting members of the cabinet to sit and speak1 but not to vote1 in both houses of ,congress8 ,this has frequently been proposed and it could be accomplished1 if ,congress so desired1 by a change in the rules4 ,sidenote3 ,the arguments against4 ,there are practical objections1 however1 to any such arrangement4 ,it would greatly increase the ,president's influence over the work of ,congress by giving him ten agents--usually men of ability and experience--in each chamber4 ,they would have no votes1 it is true2 but their argumentative powers would count4 ,the ,president would doubtless select as members of his cabinet persons who1 by their abilities and logic1 could exert a strong influence upon the lawmaking bodies4 ,it is also pointed out as an objection that members of the cabinet already have enough to do in attending to the affairs of their own departments4 ,were they to spend their time in attending sessions of the ,senate and the ,house1 they could not give adequate supervision to their other work1 and the administrative branch of the government would suffer in consequence4 ,when ,congress now desires information or an expression of opinion from any member of the cabinet1 moreover1 it is always possible to obtain what it wants by inviting him to appear before a congressional committee4 ,this partly serves the purpose which would be attained by giving members of the cabinet the right to sit and speak in ,congress4 ,general ,references ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ch-if2 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,congressional ,government1 pp4 #bdb-bic2 ,ibid41 ,constitutional ,government in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ed-ha2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,taft1 ,our ,chief ,magistrate and ,his ,powers1 especially pp4 #a-bh2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #aff-bcj2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #aed-bac2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #adj-bgj2 ,,james ,t4 ,,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government and ,its ,work1 pp4 #aj-dd2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #hh-ade2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #a-gh2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,willoughby and ,,lindsay ,,rogers1 ,introduction to the ,problem of ,government1 pp4 #agh-aie2 #cbc-ccc4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the actual steps in the election of a ,president4 ,the original plan of election4 ,what the framers of the constitution intended4 ,the early elections4 ,growth of a nominating system4 ,the caucus4 ,the convention4 ,presidential primaries4 ,factors affecting the nomination4 ,doubtful states4 ,functions of the electors today4 ,counting the electoral votes4 ,the part of ,congress in presidential elections4 ,suggested changes in the system4 ,should the electoral college be abolished8 ,references3 ,,max ,,farrand1 ,the ,framing of the ,constitution1 pp4 #afj-age2 ,the ,federalist1 ,no4 ,,lxvii2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,dougherty1 ,the ,electoral ,system of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ac-ca2 ,e4 ,b4 ,,stanwood1 ,history of the ,presidency1 pp4 #a-ai2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #aed-afc2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #adj-afg2 ,,arnold ,b4 ,,hall1 ,popular ,government1 pp4 #ih-aai 7,the ,presidential ,primary74 #b4 ,the increased powers of the ,president in war time4 ,references3 ,the ,federalist1 ,no4 #gd2 ,w4 ,f4 ,,willoughby1 ,government ,organization in ,war ,time and ,after1 pp4 #a-ba2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,weeden1 ,war ,government1 pp4 #cai-ceh2 ,w4 ,,whiting1 ,war ,powers under the ,constitution1 pp4 #ff-hc2 ,,emlin ,,mcclain1 ,constitutional ,law in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bja-bab2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #bb-ca2 ,,allen ,,johnson1 ,readings in ,american ,constitutional ,law1 pp4 #dgd-dha2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ahh-aid4 #c4 ,the ,american and ,english cabinet systems4 ,references3 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #he-if2 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,national ,administration1 pp4 #ed-fi2 ,c4 ,g4 ,,haines and ,b4 ,m4 ,,haines1 ,principles and ,problems of ,government1 pp4 #bei-bgi2 ,h4 ,b4 ,,learned1 ,the ,president's ,cabinet1 pp4 #i-dc2 ,,jesse ,,macy and ,j4 ,w4 ,,gannaway1 ,comparative ,free ,government1 pp4 #ha-ie2 #cie-djb2 #dba-ddf4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the personality of ,presidents4 ,t4 ,f4 ,,moran1 ,american ,presidents1 pp4 #i-aae4 #b4 ,why great men are not elected4 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #fi-gf4 #c4 ,the ,hayes-,tilden contested election of #ahgf4 ,e4 ,b4 ,,stanwood1 ,history of the ,presidency1 pp4 #cef-cic4 #d4 ,the ,president's veto power4 ,,allen ,,johnson1 ,readings in ,american ,constitutional ,history1 pp4 #cgj-cgi2 ,e4 ,c4 ,,mason1 ,the ,veto ,power1 pp4 #bd-adj2 ,h4 ,j4 ,,ford1 ,rise and ,growth of ,american ,politics1 pp4 #age-ahg4 #e4 ,the ,president's control of foreign relations4 ,e4 ,s4 ,,corwin1 ,the ,president's ,control of ,foreign ,relations1 pp4 #hd-abe2 ,,allen ,,johnson1 ,readings in ,american ,constitutional ,history1 pp4 #cic-djd4 #f4 ,the ,president's appointing power4 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #aha-ahh2 ,l4 ,m4 ,,salmon1 8,the ,appointing ,power of the ,president01 in ,american ,historical ,association1 ,annual ,report 7#ahii71 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #fg-hf4 #g4 ,the ,president as a party leader4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,readings on ,parties and ,elections1 pp4 #bje-baa2 ,,jesse ,,macy1 ,party ,organization and ,machinery1 pp4 #be-db4 #h4 ,daily life in the ,white ,house4 ,,benjamin ,,harrison1 ,this ,country of ,ours1 pp4 #aei-ahj4 #i4 ,how a cabinet is formed4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,learned1 ,history of the ,president's ,cabinet1 pp4 #aaj-acd4 #aj4 ,the cabinet's relation to the ,president4 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bjg-bag4 #aa4 ,is there need for a readjustment between the executive and legislative branches of the government8 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,,joseph ,,schafer1 ,democracy in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #dbc-dde4 #ab4 ,the actual work of the administrative departments4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,haskin1 ,american ,government1 pp4 #ad-bf 7,the ,state ,department72 #bg-ci 7,the ,treasury ,department72 #gh-ij 7,the ,department of the ,interior74 ,questions #a4 ,study carefully ,article ,,ii1 ,sections #b-g1 also ,amendment ,,xii1 of the constitution1 and then answer these questions3 7a7 ,in what respects was the method of election changed by this amendment8 7b7 ,in case no candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes how is the ,president chosen8 ,the ,vice ,president8 ,explain how it would be possible to have a ,president from one party and a ,vice ,president from another4 7c7 ,if a retiring ,president or ,vice ,president1 immediately after election in ,november1 should desire to have his successor take office at once1 without waiting for the regular inauguration date in ,march1 how could this be done8 #b4 ,explain how a candidate for the presidency may obtain a majority of the people's votes at the polls and yet not be elected4 7,this has happened on more than one occasion47 ,do you think it a fair arrangement8 #c4 ,what are the qualifications for the presidency3 7a7 legal requirements2 7b7 practical requirements8 ,compare them with those for the vice presidency under both heads4 #d4 ,make a list of the qualities which you think a ,president ought to possess1 placing them in order of their importance4 ,name the ,president whom you would regard as having each of these qualities in the highest degree4 ,what qualities do you associate with the names of ,madison1 ,jackson1 ,buchanan1 ,cleveland1 ,roosevelt8 #e4 ,explain the veto and the pocket veto4 ,would you be in favor of abolishing either8 ,ought the opinion of a single man to prevail against the decisions of a majority of the senators and representatives8 #f4 ,ought the ,president to give up all connection with his party on assuming office and be a non-partisan1 representing all the people8 #g4 ,explain why the ,president has so much greater power in war time than in time of peace4 #h4 ,do you think that a ,president1 in choosing members of his cabinet1 should be guided by any of the following motives and1 if so1 how much weight should he give to them3 7a7 to have all parts of the country represented in the cabinet2 7b7 to obtain men of long political experience2 7c7 to reward those who have supported him2 7d7 to strengthen himself for re-election2 7e7 to give representation to both the radical and conservative elements8 #i4 ,since the ,attorney-,general is always a lawyer1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture usually a farmer1 and the ,secretary of ,labor usually a member of a labor union1 why should not the ,secretary of ,war be a soldier and the ,secretary of the ,navy a sailor8 #aj4 ,look up in the ,congressional ,directory and tell what department has jurisdiction over the following matters3 consular service1 pensions1 the mint1 animal industry1 child labor law enforcement1 education1 forestry1 the census1 ,indian affairs1 lighthouses1 rural free delivery1 relations with the ,philippine ,islands1 inspection of drugs1 payment of interest on ,liberty ,bonds1 naturalization1 passports1 dredging of harbors4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the ,president should be ineligible for re-election4 #b4 ,the following new departments should be created and given representation in the cabinet3 7a7 ,public ,health2 7b7 ,education2 7c7 ,public ,welfare4 #c4 ,members of the cabinet should be permitted to speak1 but not to vote1 in ,congress4 ----- ,footnote #fe3 ,in some of the ,new ,england states there are places of twenty1 thirty1 or even forty thousand people which are still governed as towns4 7,see p4 #age47 ,footnote #ff3 ,see the chart facing this page4 ,footnote #fg3 ,according to the census of #aibj these twelve cities are as follows3 ,new ,york1 #e1fab1aea2 ,chicago1 #b1gja1bab2 ,philadelphia1 #a1hbc1aeh2 ,detroit1 #iic1gcg2 ,cleveland1 #gif1hcf2 ,st4 ,louis1 #ggb1hig2 ,boston1 #gdg1ibc2 ,baltimore1 #gcc1hbf2 ,pittsburgh1 #ehh1aic2 ,los ,angeles1 #ege1daj2 ,san ,francisco1 #ejh1daj2 ,buffalo1 #eje1hge4 ,footnote #fh3 ,if you make your home in a rural community1 you will become acquainted with most of your neighbors within a week2 you will know all about them1 and 7if they can find it out7 they will know all about you4 ,but if you go as a stranger to live in a city apartment1 with only thin walls separating you from your neighbors1 you may remain there for months or even for years without becoming acquainted with any of them4 ,you may not even know your neighbor's name1 save for seeing it on his door4 ,neighborliness is a trait of human nature which disappears in the great cities4 ,in the city a man's friends are not his neighbors as a rule1 but persons of his own occupation or interests who may live a considerable distance away4 ,this is an important difference1 for it means that townships and villages have a unity which the wards and districts of large cities do not possess4 ,footnote #fi3 ,the shortest city charter ever granted is the charter of ,london1 given by ,william the ,conqueror in #ajff4 ,it contains exactly sixty-six words4 ,the longest is the present charter of ,new ,york ,city1 which fills a closely-printed book of #adgh pages4 ,footnote #gj3 ,it was understood that by applying a general charter law or municipal code to all the cities of a state1 or to all the cities of a certain class1 the legislature would be discouraged from enacting special laws for particular cities4 ,but that is not what resulted4 ,legislatures adopted the plan of passing laws which were general in form but which by the nature of their provisions could apply to some one city alone4 ,for example3 ,the ,ohio legislature on one occasion provided that 8,any city of the first class1 having a population of more than #aej1jjj1 wherein a public avenue of not less than #ajj feet in width is now projected1 to be known as ,gilbert ,avenue1 is hereby authorized to issue bonds1 etc40 ,this law1 on its face1 applied to all cities of the first class2 in reality it gave special privileges to one particular city4 ,footnote #ga3 ,a few states1 although unwilling to grant municipal home rule1 have gone part way in that direction by establishing what is known as the ,optional ,charter system4 ,the legislature1 under this plan1 draws up several different types of charter4 ,a city may by popular vote adopt any one of these but is not permitted to make a special charter for itself4 ,the merit of this plan is that it allows a city a considerable amount of choice without opening the door for all manner of rash local experiments1 many of which bring controversy and lawsuits because they run foul of the state constitution or laws4 ,the various optional charters are so framed as to be in harmony with the general laws of the state4 ,this plan is used in ,new ,york1 ,massachusetts1 and ,virginia4 ,ohio has both the home rule and the optional charter system2 in addition there is a general charter law for such cities as do not take advantage of the other opportunities4 ,footnote #gb3 ,surprisingly few mayors have ever gone any higher in the public life of the state or nation4 ,most mayors1 when they finish their terms1 drop but of sight4 ,there are some exceptions1 of course1 the most noteworthy being ,grover ,cleveland1 who served as mayor of ,buffalo before he was elected governor of ,new ,york and1 later1 ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,before becoming ,secretary of ,war in ,president ,wilson's cabinet1 ,newton ,d4 ,baker served two terms as mayor of ,cleveland1 and ,brand ,whitlock was thrice mayor of ,toledo before he became minister to ,belgium4 ,a few other mayors have become governors1 ambassadors1 or members of ,congress2 but when we remind ourselves that nearly #djj men have held the office of mayor in the fifty largest cities of the ,united ,states since #aijj1 we may well wonder what became of all the rest4 ,apparently the office of mayor is not a good political stepping-stone4 ,is the fault with the office or with the men who usually occupy it8 ,footnote #gc3 ,the objection may also be overcome by using the system of proportional representation described on pp4 #acd-acf4 ,footnote #gd3 ,in ,september1 #aijj1 a tidal wave swept in from the ,gulf of ,mexico and destroyed about a third of the city4 ,galveston was already overburdened with debt1 and by this disaster1 which wrecked much city property1 became practically bankrupt4 ,the leading citizens came together and decided that radical measures would have to be taken4 ,they1 therefore1 petitioned the ,texas legislature to abolish the old city government1 placing entire charge of all municipal affairs in the hands of five trustees or commissioners4 ,the legislature complied and the new plan went into effect in #aija4 ,footnote #ge3 ,the largest of these cities are ,buffalo1 ,new ,orleans1 and ,st4 ,paul4 ,among the #djj commission-governed cities there are only fifteen with populations exceeding #ajj1jjj4 ,the plan has proved most popular in places of small and medium size4 ,footnote #gf3 ,see the diagram which faces p4 #aih4 ,footnote #gg3 ,the plan originated in ,sumter1 ,n4 ,c41 but the first large city to adopt it was ,dayton1 ,ohio1 about ten years ago4 ,in the autumn of #aiba ,cleveland adopted a city-manager charter which will go into effect in ,january1 #aibd4 ,footnote #gh3 ,for an example of the way in which the city's administrative work is divided1 see the diagram facing this page4 ,footnote #gi3 ,some cities have established a central purchasing office which buys all supplies of every sort1 thus securing a concentration of the work4 ,a considerable saving is made in this way4 ,but in most cities each department still does its own buying4 ,footnote #hj3 ,more than a hundred and twenty-five years ago1 when it was decided to build the nation's capital on the shores of the ,potomac1 ,president ,washington sent to ,france for ,major ,l',enfant1 an engineer who had served in the ,american army during the ,revolution1 and entrusted to him the task of laying out the new city4 ,l',enfant took great pains to provide for wide streets2 he designated the location of the important public buildings 7such as the ,capitol and the ,white ,house7 and left plenty of open spaces in his plan4 ,footnote #ha3 ,in ,washington1 thanks to ,l',enfant's sagacious planning1 the streets occupy about one-half the entire area4 ,footnote #hb3 ,this plan also renders it easy to find one's way about1 and this is particularly true when the streets are known by numbers rather than by names4 ,footnote #hc3 ,see the illustrative diagram facing this page4 ,footnote #hd3 ,,pavements ,,arranged ,,in ,,their ,,approximate ,,order ,,of ,,desirability ,,from ,,different ,,points ,,of ,,view ,economy ,economy ,durability ,cleanli- ,noiseless- ,safety in in ness ness construction ,repair ,macadam ,granite ,granite ,asphalt ,wood ,granite ,asphalt ,brick ,wood ,brick ,macadam ,macadam ,brick ,wood ,brick ,wood ,brick ,brick ,wood ,asphalt ,asphalt ,granite ,asphalt ,wood ,granite ,macadam ,macadam ,macadam ,granite ,asphalt ,footnote #he3 ,a common pretext is to allege that the lowest bidder is not a reliable contractor1 or that he underpays his workmen1 or that on some previous contract he failed to do a good job4 ,any such excuse is good enough for city officials who desire to favor their own friends at the public expense4 ,city charters sometimes provide that contracts must be given to the lowest bidder1 but a hard-and-fast requirement of this kind may sometimes lead to difficulties4 ,footnote #hf3 ,the unsightliness of the billboards is not their only objectionable feature4 ,unless they are firmly anchored in the ground they are often blown down by heavy winds2 they afford places of concealment for footpads2 and they become the nucleus of a rubbish heap4 ,land is rented for billboard space which otherwise would be improved and built upon4 ,billboard space is given over very largely to the advertising of non-essentials4 ,if you will make a survey of say fifty billboards in your own community1 you will find that by far the greater portion of the space is given to advertising luxuries4 ,local merchants use billboard advertising very little4 ,outside concerns take most of their surface4 ,footnote #hg3 ,restrictions may legally be placed upon private property in the interest of the public safety1 health1 or morals4 ,but people cannot be prohibited from using their own private property in ways which merely offend the public taste4 ,footnote #hh3 ,the watchmen were very unreliable4 ,in ,london it was said that most of them spent the greater part of the night in the ale-houses while thieves prowled around in the streets4 ,in order to keep the watchmen on their patrols it became the custom to have them call out the hours as they went along4 ,these watchmen's cries1 8,three o'clock1 a misty morning01 etc41 were a quaint feature of ,london life a hundred years ago4 ,footnote #hi3 ,sir ,robert ,peel1 who established the first regular police force in ,england1 made himself very unpopular for a time by this step4 ,the members of the new police force1 by way of ridicule1 were called 8peelers0 and 8bobbies01 and these nicknames persist in ,england to the present day4 ,they wore 7and still wear7 blue coats with copper buttons1 for which reason the ,london youngsters also referred to the policeman as 8the copper04 ,in ,america we have shortened it to 8the cop04 ,footnote #ij3 ,in ,berlin1 for example1 #ih per cent of the buildings are of brick1 stone1 concrete1 or other fire-resisting material4 ,in the average ,american city such buildings do not usually form more than #be per cent of the total4 ,footnote #ia3 ,take the income-tax amendment1 for example2 or the prohibition amendment4 ,both of them show a popular willingness to place great powers in the hands of the federal government4 ,the people would not have agreed to direct election of senators a hundred years ago2 but they did it in #aiac4 ,footnote #ib3 ,hawaii and ,alaska are both governed in the same way1 and exactly like one of the old territories4 ,porto ,rico has a slightly different form of government1 in that certain high officials besides the governor are appointed by the ,president4 ,the government of the ,philippines differs still further in that the higher administrative officials are appointed by the governor who1 in turn1 is named by the ,president4 ,footnote #ic3 ,during #aiba a study of ,philippine conditions was made1 at ,president ,harding's request1 by ,major-,general ,leonard ,wood and the ,hon4 ,w4 ,cameron ,forbes1 former governor-general of the islands4 ,these two eminent investigators1 after a careful survey1 found much to say in praise of the ,filipinos2 but their general conclusion was that the islanders needed further training in self-government under ,american supervision before they could wisely be given complete independence4 ,the entire text of the ,wood-,forbes report is printed in ,the ,times 8,current ,history0 7,january1 #aibb71 pp4 #fgh-fid4 ,footnote #id3 ,an area which is neither a state nor a territory1 a zone nor an insular possession remains to be mentioned4 ,this is ,washington1 or the ,district of ,columbia as it is officially called1 the home of the nation's government4 ,it has neither mayor nor aldermen4 ,the government of the ,district is in the hands of three commissioners appointed by the ,president1 one of them being an officer of the army4 ,these three commissioners carry on all the work of municipal administration4 ,footnote #ie3 ,in some states1 in ,ohio1 for example1 the question of calling a constitutional convention must be voted upon every twenty years4 ,footnote #if3 ,in some states the legislature1 in proposing an amendment1 must pass it in two successive sessions1 or by a two-thirds vote1 or must conform to some other special requirement4 ,footnote #ig3 ,see especially ,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #i2 and ,amendments ,i-,,xv1 ,,xix4 ,footnote #ih3 ,these four propositions may perhaps be made more understandable by the accompanying table1 which does not purport to be a complete enumeration but only an illustration of the way in which the propositions work out4 ,,exclusively ,,concurrent ,,prohibitions ,,prohibitions ,,exclusively ,,national ,,powers ,,upon ,,the ,,upon ,,the ,,state ,,powers ,,powers ,,nation ,,states ,to conduct ,to tax4 ,to abridge ,to keep troops,to make and foreign af- freedom of or ships of enforce the fairs4 ,to borrow worship or war in time ordinary money4 of the press of peace4 civil and ,to raise and or of assemb- criminal support ar- ,to promote ly or of pet-,to entry into laws4 mies4 education4 ition4 any treaty4 ,to establish ,to maintain a ,to encourage ,to deny any ,to coin money and control ,navy4 agriculture4 of the other or issue local govern- privileges bills of ment4 ,to regulate ,to charter enumerated credit4 foreign and banks and in the ,bill ,to conduct interstate other corpor- of ,rights ,to pass any elections4 commerce4 ations4 7see ,amend- law impair- ments ,i-,x74 ing the law ,to regulate ,to coin ,to enforce the of contracts4 commerce money4 ,eighteenth ,to permit and industry ,amendment4 slavery in ,to lay any within the ,to establish any territory tax or duties state4 a postal ,to establish within the on imports4 service4 and maintain national jur- ,to protect the courts4 isdiction4 ,to abridge life1 health1 ,to grant pat- the privi- and morals of ents and ,to abridge leges or im- the people copyrights4 the suffrage munities of 7the 8police of citizens citizens of power074 ,to admit new on account the ,united states4 of sex4 ,states1 or deprive them ,to give of life1 lib- prefer- ence to one erty1 or pro- state over perty without another in due process matters of of law or de- commerce4 ny to persons within their jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws4 ,to abridge the voting rights of citizens on account of race1 color1 previous condition of servitude1 or sex4 ---------------------------- ,to pass any bill of attainder or ex post facto law4 ,to grant letters of nobility4 ,to levy duties on exports4 ,footnote #ii3 ,a wide range of authority is included1 for example1 within the term 8police power01 which is the power of the state to take measures for protecting the safety1 health1 and morals of the people4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,any member of the legislature may introduce a bill1 but not many of them know how to draft one properly4 ,that is not surprising1 for state legislatures are not made up of lawyers alone but of farmers1 shop-keepers1 and other plain citizens who have had no previous experience in lawmaking4 ,in order to help the members of the legislature some states have established legislative reference bureaus in charge of expert bill-drafters4 ,these bureaus keep on file all the latest information concerning what is being done in other states1 including copies of laws which have been passed there4 ,at the request of any member the bureau officials will prepare a bill embodying the member's ideas4 ,footnote #aja3 ,a good deal of the trouble is due to party leaders and to lobbyists who plague the members into voting for measures or against them4 ,lobbyists are paid agents of corporations1 labor organizations1 women's leagues1 reform associations1 granges1 and so on1 who hang around the lobby and argue with the legislators1 trying to influence their action by persuasion or threats as may seem likely to be most effective4 ,at any state capitol one may count these lobbyists by the dozen4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,in ,new ,york ,state the ,supreme ,court1 paradoxically1 is not supreme4 ,final authority among the state courts rests with a still higher court1 known as the ,court of ,appeals4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,the jurisdiction of the federal courts is explained on pp4 #caa-cac4 ,all other cases besides those named in the constitution come within the authority of the state courts4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,when a governor instructs these elective officials to do something1 they frequently refuse4 ,in one case a state treasurer kept large sums of money in banks which the governor and other high state officials believed to be unsafe4 ,they urged him to withdraw these funds1 but the treasurer declined to do so4 ,a little later two of these banks were closed by order of the bank commissioner and half a million dollars of the state's money was tied up4 ,footnote #aje3 ,see the diagram facing this page4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,there were some notable absences4 ,thomas ,jefferson and ,john ,adams were not there2 both were serving their country as diplomatic representatives abroad1 the one in ,france and the other in ,england4 ,nor was ,john ,hancock1 whose flashing signature first meets the eye among the signers of the ,declaration4 ,neither was ,patrick ,henry present1 for he was strongly opposed to the convention's being held at all and declined to be a delegate from ,virginia4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,three of these compromises1 commonly known as 8,the ,great ,compromises01 stand out prominently and are fully described in all books of ,american history1 so that they do not need to be given in detail here4 ,there were compromises on many minor points as well4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,north ,carolina did not ratify1 however1 until #aghi1 and ,rhode ,island not until #agij4 ,footnote #aji3 ,a congressman who is elected in ,november does not take his seat until a year from the following ,december4 ,this is because1 although elected in ,november1 his term does not begin until the ensuing fourth of ,march4 ,by that time the winter session is over4 ,thus it happens that men who are defeated at the polls often continue to make the nation's laws4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,no one is eligible for election to the ,senate unless he is at least thirty years of age4 ,he must also have been a citizen of the ,united ,states for at least nine years and at the time of his election an inhabitant of the state from which he is chosen4 ,the governor of the state may be empowered by the legislature to fill any vacancy which may occur through the death or resignation of a senator1 this temporary appointment to be valid until a senatorial election is held4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,the ,vice ,president of the ,united ,states presides over the ,senate when trying impeachments1 as at other times2 but when the ,president is being impeached the ,chief ,justice of the ,supreme ,court serves as temporary presiding officer4 ,who would preside in case the ,vice ,president were impeached8 ,the constitution does not say4 ,presumably the president pro tempore of the ,senate would preside4 ,footnote #aab3 ,nine civil officers of the ,united ,states have been impeached at one time or another during the past hundred and twenty-five years4 ,the most notable case was that of ,president ,andrew ,johnson in #ahfh4 ,he was charged by the ,house of ,representatives with having violated the laws relating to appointments 7particularly the ,tenure of ,office ,act71 but was acquitted4 ,the ,senate voted thirty-five to nineteen for his conviction1 but this was one vote short of the necessary two-thirds majority4 ,footnote #aac3 ,despite the desirability of keeping the membership down1 there is a constant temptation to increase it in order that no state shall have fewer representatives than it has become accustomed to having4 ,footnote #aad3 ,when ,elbridge ,gerry was governor of ,massachusetts in #ahab1 the state legislature rearranged the congressional districts in such a way that one of them had a dragon-like appearance4 ,the boundaries of this district had been marked on a map in a local newspaper office4 ,gilbert ,stuart1 the famous painter1 happened to come in and with his pencil added a head1 wings1 and claws to the figure4 8,that will do for a ,salamander10 he said4 8,better say a ,gerry-mander10 replied the editor1 and the outlandish name1 thus accidentally coined1 passed into the ,english language4 ,footnote #aae3 ,the plan at present 7#aibb7 is as follows3 the ,republican members of the ,house from each state select one of their members to represent them in choosing the committees4 ,this representative from each state becomes a member of the ,committee on ,committees and at meetings of this committee casts a vote equal to the number of ,republican ,representatives from his state4 ,this ,committee on ,committees selects the ,republican members of the various committees4 ,a caucus of the ,democratic members of the ,house1 sometimes through the medium of a ,committee on ,committees1 selects the ,democratic members of the ,committees4 ,then the ,house as a whole accepts the joint list4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,on many bills the committees do not even hold hearings2 if they did1 they would never get through with their work4 ,measures by the hundred are introduced each year by congressmen simply to please people in their districts and without the slightest expectation that they will ever be passed4 ,footnote #aag3 ,when bills are introduced in the ,senate1 they are considered there first and then sent down to the ,house4 ,except in the case of bills relating to revenue and expenditure any measure may be introduced in either chamber4 ,footnote #aah3 ,another way to delay business is to keep continually asking for roll-calls to see if a quorum is present4 ,calling the names of #dce members takes a lot of time4 ,some years ago a bill was introduced to provide for the installation of electric apparatus by means of which every member could register 8,yes01 8,no01 or 8,present0 by merely pressing a button at his seat4 ,on the wall there were to be electric bulbs set opposite each congressman's name4 ,pressing the button would indicate the congressman's answer to a roll call by flashing a red or white or blue light on the wall4 ,congress did not adopt the plan4 ,footnote #aai3 ,see pp4 #dfc-dfe4 ,footnote #abj3 ,on the question whether members of the ,american cabinet should sit in ,congress1 see p4 #cjb4 ,footnote #aba3 ,during the past year or two a group of congressmen1 both senators and representatives1 from the agricultural states has been voting solidly and without regard to party affiliations on many important measures4 ,this group is known as the 8agricultural bloc04 ,its avowed aim is to see that the interests of the farmers are properly safeguarded in all legislation4 ,for a brief discussion of this topic from a different angle1 see p4 #cej4 ,footnote #abb3 ,,james ,,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,ch4 ,,vii4 ,footnote #abc3 ,when the constitution was finally drawn and made public many features of it were strongly criticized1 but nowhere was there any objection to this method of electing the ,president4 ,everyone seemed to feel that this method of choice by an electoral college was an admirable one4 ,yet curiously enough it turned out to be one of the poorest things that the convention did4 ,it has completely failed to work out as the convention intended4 ,direct popular election1 which the constitution endeavors to avoid1 is exactly what we have4 ,the convention1 moreover1 placed no limit upon the number of terms which a ,president might have4 ,but ,washington set the example by declining a third consecutive term and no ,president since his time has ever served three terms4 ,from time to time it has been suggested that the ,president's term should be lengthened to six years and that he should then be made ineligible for re-election1 just as1 in some of our larger cities1 the mayor is ineligible to succeed himself4 ,this suggestion1 however1 has never found much favor4 ,footnote #abd3 ,if the original plan were now followed1 this is about what would happen3 ,after the presidential election in ,november the people and the newspapers would be discussing the probable attitude of the electors1 wondering whom they would choose and making various suggestions to them4 ,some electors would be announcing their preferences2 others would be keeping silent4 ,with great interest we should await the meetings of the electors in ,january2 the newspaper reporters would crowd outside the door to gain the first inkling of their decisions in each state2 the returns would come in one by one from the forty-eight state capitals and would be figured up with breathless interest4 ,but what actually does happen is very different from this4 ,on the evening of the presidential election the fight is all over4 ,nobody knows1 and nobody cares who the electors are4 ,we only know that a majority of them will vote for the ,republican or for the ,democratic candidate when the time comes4 ,in ,january they meet1 almost unnoticed1 cast their votes as a matter of form1 and get a small paragraph somewhere on the inside pages of the newspapers4 ,footnote #abe3 ,see p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #abf3 ,the ,house votes by states2 the ,senate by individual members4 ,see ,amendment ,,xii4 ,in #ahjj there was a tie1 ,thomas ,jefferson and ,aaron ,burr1 each having an equal number of votes4 ,the ,house of ,representatives decided the tie by electing ,jefferson4 ,then the ,twelfth ,amendment was adopted4 ,in #ahbd no candidate received a majority1 and on this occasion the ,house chose ,john ,quincy ,adams as ,president4 ,the system worked thereafter without mishap for over fifty years1 but in #ahgf there was a serious muddle because twenty-two electoral voters were in dispute1 namely1 the votes of ,oregon1 ,louisiana1 ,south ,carolina1 and ,florida4 ,from each of these states two sets of electors claimed to have been chosen4 ,the controversy was decided by a special commission of fifteen members1 five from the ,senate1 five from the ,house1 and five from the ,supreme ,court4 ,by a vote of #h to #g this commission decided in favor of ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes and he became ,president4 ,footnote #abg3 ,in the ,republican national convention of #aibj1 for example1 ,general ,leonard ,wood and ,governor ,lowden polled the largest number of votes on the first ballot4 ,senator ,hiram ,johnson of ,california was third and ,senator ,harding of ,ohio was fourth4 ,but neither of the two leading candidates could obtain a majority although ballot after ballot was taken4 ,finally1 when the delegates were becoming tired and impatient1 some of their leaders came together and agreed to unite on ,senator ,harding4 ,they advised their supporters to swing over to him and on a subsequent ballot he was nominated4 ,footnote #abh3 ,the delegates sometimes resent this attitude on the part of the leaders4 ,they may make a strenuous fight in the convention or they may bolt altogether4 ,thus1 in #aiab1 the leaders of the ,republican convention decided to renominate ,president ,taft and1 after a hard fight1 managed to get a majority of the delegates recorded in his favor4 ,but a very strong minority desired to nominate ex-,president ,roosevelt1 who was believed to be far more acceptable to the rank and file of the party throughout the country4 ,when they failed in the convention they left the hall1 formed a new party1 and nominated ,colonel ,roosevelt as the ,progressive candidate4 ,but this merely split the ,republican ranks wide open and made certain the success of the ,democrats at the forthcoming election4 ,footnote #abi3 ,during the past fifty years there have been eleven presidents4 ,of these1 six came from ,ohio and three from ,new ,york4 ,one came from ,indiana 7but was a native of ,ohio71 and one from ,new ,jersey4 ,only four states1 therefore1 have contributed occupants to the presidential office during half a century4 ,footnote #acj3 ,england is a monarchy and the ,united ,states a republic1 yet the ,english monarch has no veto power like that of the ,president4 ,by usage the king must sign every bill that is laid before him4 ,someone has said that the king of ,england would be under obligations to sign his own death warrant if parliament should send it up to him4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states is given his far-reaching power to override the wishes of a majority in ,congress because he is an elective officer and in the exercise of his veto acts for the people1 not for himself4 ,footnote #aca3 ,when ,mr4 ,harding was elected in ,november1 #aibj1 ,president ,wilson was slowly recovering from a severe illness4 ,great problems were awaiting attention and by many it was deemed unfortunate that the newly-elected ,president could not take hold of them for four months4 ,so ,mr4 ,bryan suggested that ,mr4 ,harding should be appointed ,secretary of ,state and that thereafter the ,president and ,vice ,president should resign4 ,this1 under the rules of succession1 would have enabled ,mr4 ,harding to take office at once4 ,but the suggestion was not accepted4 ,footnote #acb3 ,on assuming office in #aiba ,president ,harding invited the ,vice ,president to attend all meetings of the cabinet4 ,footnote #acc3 ,when ,president ,wilson was ill in #aibj the ,secretary of ,state1 ,mr4 ,robert ,lansing1 called the cabinet together to discuss some urgent matters of business4 ,in due course the ,president heard of this action and resented it4 ,in a letter to the ,secretary of ,state he called attention to the fact that without the ,president there was nothing that the cabinet could legally do4 ,footnote #acd3 ,president ,lincoln1 for example1 did not consult the cabinet in the framing of the ,emancipation ,proclamation2 he merely read it to the cabinet after it was finished4 ,general ,grant treated his cabinet as though it was merely his general staff with the function of carrying out orders rather than giving advice4 ,president ,roosevelt usually had his own mind made up on matters of policy1 and the members of his cabinet1 although they differed from him in temperament1 did not often differ from him in opinion4 ,president ,wilson1 in choosing his cabinet1 made it a point to get men whose minds ran along with his own4 ,on the other hand1 ,president ,hayes1 ,president ,harrison1 and ,president ,mc,kinley were considerably guided by the advice of their cabinets and consulted them freely4 ,footnote #ace3 ,the ,state ,department deals chiefly with foreign and diplomatic affairs as well as with relations between the nation and the states2 it also promulgates the laws passed by ,congress4 ,the ,department of the ,treasury collects the revenues1 pays the government's bills1 attends to the borrowing of money when necessary1 issues the currency1 and has general supervision over the national banks4 ,the ,war ,department has charge of the armed forces1 the land fortifications1 the purchase of munitions1 and the whole upkeep of the army4 ,the ,department of the ,interior has functions of a very miscellaneous nature1 so much so that it has been jocularly called the 8department of things in general04 ,it has charge of national parks and forests1 patents1 pensions1 the geological survey1 and various other things which have little relation to one another4 ,the ,postmaster-,general assumes the oversight of the entire postal service4 ,the ,department of ,justice has an ,attorney-,general at its head4 ,he is the government's chief legal advisor and represents it in all legal controversies4 ,the ,navy ,department has charge of all the nation's armed forces afloat4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture has to do with the promotion of agricultural interests throughout the country 7see pp4 #cdf-cdh74 ,the ,department of ,labor has charge of immigration1 naturalization1 and the execution of the federal laws relating to labor4 ,the ,department of ,commerce is concerned with the development of foreign and domestic trade1 the inspection of steamboats1 the publication of consular reports 7see pp4 #cgc-cgd71 and so forth4 ,footnote #acf3 ,in addition to the ten regular departments there are other branches of the national administration whose heads are not members of the cabinet4 ,these include such bodies as the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission 7p4 #cfd71 the ,federal ,trade ,commission 7p4 #cia71 the ,civil ,service ,commission 7p4 #ajc71 the ,tariff ,commission 7p4 #cgj71 besides various bureaus of one kind or another4 ,members of these boards and heads of the independent bureaus are all appointed by the ,president1 responsible to him1 and removable by him4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,courts1 ,,the ,,law1 ,,and ,,judicial ,,procedure4 ,the purpose of this chapter is to show how the courts are organized and what systems of law they administer4 ,,the ,,courts ,sidenote3 ,the supreme justices4 ,the ,highest ,court in the ,land4--,visitors to the ,capitol at ,washington on any week day from ,october to ,june are usually interested to see a group of nine distinguished-looking men1 robed in silk gowns1 passing at noon through the long corridor into a room where a clerk begins to call out1 8,oyez6 ,oyez60#acg ,this is the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states1 the highest court in the land and the most powerful tribunal in the world4 ,it consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices1 all of them appointed for life by the ,president with the consent of the ,senate4 ,they cannot be removed from office except by impeachment4 ,the court holds its sessions in the chamber which was used by the ,senate in the days when that body was small4 ,the justices sit in a row1 the chief justice in the center1 with four associates on each side of him4 ,there is no jury1 and for the most part the court simply hears the arguments of attorneys on points of law in cases which have been appealed4 ,the sessions begin at twelve o'clock1 and continue1 with a brief interruption for luncheon1 until late in the afternoon4 ,every ,saturday morning the court meets behind closed doors to agree upon its decisions and on ,mondays the decisions are publicly announced4 ,these nine justices are the supreme guardians of the constitution1 entrusted with the duty of seeing that its provisions are duly respected by all officials of government from the ,president and ,congress down to the humblest officeholder4 ,their mandate is binding upon everyone within the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states4#ach ,sidenote3 ,the power to declare laws unconstitutional4 ,the ,supreme ,court's ,power4--,congress1 as has been pointed out1 is the lawmaking branch of the federal government4 ,with the approval of the ,president its power to enact laws1 within the limits prescribed by the constitution1 is complete and final4 ,the state legislatures are the lawmaking organs of state government and with the approval of the governors the authority of the state legislatures to make laws within limits prescribed by the national and state constitutions is also complete and final4 ,yet the ,supreme ,court1 by a majority vote of its nine justices1 may nullify laws passed by either ,congress or the state legislatures4 ,it has done so on many occasions4 ,why have we given to this small group of men1 appointed for life1 the power to set aside the action of the people's representatives8 ,sidenote3 ,reason for this authority4 ,the answer is this3 ,american government1 both in the nation and in the states1 rests upon certain fundamental rules which are embodied in written constitutions4 ,these rules determine1 among other things1 the powers and functions of government officers and bodies1 including ,congress and the legislatures4 ,they have been placed in the national and state constitutions with the intent that they shall be obeyed1 and if they were not obeyed one branch of the government would be encroaching upon the powers of the other4 ,but how can powerful bodies like ,congress and the state legislatures be held to the obedience of rules laid down in the national constitution8 ,the ,supreme ,court performs this duty by declaring 8unconstitutional0 any law which1 in its judgment1 violates the provisions of that document4 ,the constitution1 for example1 provides that ,congress shall pass no bill of attainder4 ,if ,congress should enact a measure of that kind1 the court would nullify it4 ,the constitution stipulates that no state shall make any law impairing the obligations of contract4 ,if any state legislature should enact such a law1 the ,supreme ,court would declare it to be unconstitutional and void4 ,sidenote3 ,limitations upon the discretion of the court4 ,now this does not mean that the justices of the ,supreme ,court have the right to veto any measure at their discretion4 ,they have nothing to do with the merits of a measure1 nothing to do with the question whether it has been wisely passed4 ,the only issue they decide is whether a law conforms to the provisions of the constitution4 ,if they find that it does not1 they have authority to set it aside4 ,and so long as government is based upon written constitutions there must be some body with power to decide whether a law is constitutional or not4 ,every branch of the government is under a natural temptation to extend its own authority4 ,state legislatures would like to have a share in regulating the trunk railroads2 ,congress would like to decide how much money may be spent by candidates for senatorial nominations4 ,both of them have tried to extend their authority in these directions during the past few years although the constitution does not warrant their so doing4 ,we must have some body1 therefore1 endowed with the right to say to all public officials and legislative bodies3 8,thus far shall you go and no further2 here is the point where your authority1 under the constitution1 comes to an end40 ,sidenote3 ,the ,supreme ,court's power is essential4 ,it is quite true that decisions of the ,supreme ,court are sometimes unpopular4 ,people who are eager for humanitarian reforms1 when they see the ,supreme ,court annulling measures which ,congress has passed to protect women or children1 or the weak or the poor1 are in the habit of crying out that the court is an obstacle to progress and that its power to declare laws unconstitutional should be taken away4 ,they overlook the fact that if there were no supreme tribunal to keep ,congress within its constitutional limits1 it would be easy for ,congress1 step by step1 to take away all the powers now possessed by the states and to centralize at ,washington the entire government of the country4 ,under a federal system of government1 with powers divided between the nation and the states as they are in this country1 disputes as to where a particular power belongs are sure to arise4 ,how could we devise a more satisfactory plan of deciding these disputes than by referring them to an impartial body of nine men chosen for life from among the ablest jurists of the land8 ,do we propose to abolish the powers of juries because they sometimes render unpopular verdicts8 ,people sometimes question the wisdom of the ,supreme ,court1 but no one has ever doubted its integrity4#aci ,sidenote3 ,scope of the federal courts' jurisdiction4 ,how ,cases ,come ,before the ,federal ,courts4--,the authority to try cases is divided by the national constitution into two parts1 and each part is assigned to two separate systems of courts4 ,certain classes of cases are named in the national constitution as falling within 8the judicial power of the ,united ,states0 and these cases are tried in the federal courts4 ,all other classes of cases 7and this includes the great majority of legal disputes7 are left to the state courts4 ,the controversies named in the national constitution as matters for trial in the federal courts are those which it did not seem wise to let the various state courts decide1 for example1 cases arising out of treaties made by the ,united ,states1 or controversies between two states1 or between citizens of different states4 ,this is a wise arrangement1 for if the state courts could say the last word on the interpretation of treaties1 the nation might easily find itself forced into trouble with foreign countries4 ,if cases between citizens of different states were tried in the courts of either state1 there would be a temptation for these courts to favor their own citizens4 ,even the rule which requires that cases affecting ambassadors shall be heard in the federal courts has a good reason1 for the ,united ,states guarantees to all foreign ambassadors the privileges of international law and must be in a position to see that these guarantees are respected4 ,the entire list of cases over which federal courts have jurisdiction is so clearly set forth in the constitution that there is no need for repeating it here4#adj ,sidenote3 ,how jurisdiction is determined4 ,when any dispute arises between individuals or corporations the lawyers who bring the suit determine whether the matter is one for the federal or the state courts to hear4 ,this they do by considering whether the controversy comes within any of the classes named in the constitutional provision just mentioned4 ,if they find that it does1 the suit is usually commenced in the federal courts2 otherwise it is begun in the state courts4 ,most suits begin in the lowest court1 and1 if the decision is not satisfactory1 can be carried on appeal to the higher federal or state courts as the case may be1 until finally a very small proportion of them reach the ,supreme ,court4#ada ,but not all cases which are heard in the lower federal courts1 or in the state courts1 can be brought up to the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states4 ,if that were permitted1 the ,supreme ,court would never be able to handle all the business which would come before it4 ,from the lower federal courts only cases of great importance can be brought to it1 and from the state courts only controversies in which some provision of the national constitution is involved4 ,the ,lower ,federal ,courts4--,the lower federal courts are called district and circuit courts4 ,the country is divided into about one hundred judicial districts1 in each of which there is a ,united ,states district court with a judge1 a marshall1 and a district attorney1 all appointed by the ,president4 ,next above these courts are the circuit courts of appeals4 ,there are nine of these courts1 each having jurisdiction within a certain section of the country4 ,a circuit court of appeals has from two to four judges1 appointed by the ,president1 and also has its own court officials4 ,these courts derive their name from the fact that they go 8on circuit01 that is1 they move about from one large city to another within their respective sections of the country holding sessions in each4 ,in most cases they have final jurisdiction4#adb ,,the ,,law ,what is ,meant by the ,law4--,having outlined the organization and jurisdiction of the federal courts1 the question next arises3 ,what branches of law do ,american courts administer8 ,we often speak of the courts as administering 8justice 01 and it is no doubt true that their decisions usually possess the quality of justice2 but what the courts really administer is the law4 ,the law may be just or unjust1 and it is very difficult1 if not impossible1 for any court to wring justice out of an unjust law4 ,where injustice is done1 the law and not the court is in most cases to blame4 ,sidenote3 ,how the common law developed4 ,the ,common ,law4--,speaking broadly the system of jurisprudence which ,american courts administer is made up of three branches1 known as common law1 statutory law1 and equity4 ,of these the common law is made up of various time-honored usages1 some of which go back many hundreds of years4 ,the common law began its growth in mediaeval ,england when there were very few written rules1 and the courts found it necessary to decide cases in accordance with the usages or customs of the people4 ,gradually these decisions became uniform1 one court following the example of another1 until this body of usages interpreted by judicial decision became 8common0 or universal throughout the whole realm of ,england although it had never been so established by any action of parliament4 ,thus the rule developed that no man should be compelled to testify against himself1 that mere hearsay should not 7with certain exceptions7 be received as evidence1 that all witnesses should be put upon oath1 that questions of fact should be decided by juries1 that agreements to restrain trade in an unreasonable manner were punishable1 and so on4#adc ,during several centuries a great body of legal rules developed in this way and the system of common law was brought by the ,english colonists to ,america1 where it speedily took root and was administered by the colonial courts4#add ,after the ,revolution it was continued and it still remains the groundwork of the law in all the states except ,louisiana4 ,of course it has been gradually modified during the past hundred or more years by court decisions and by statutes1 and it still keeps on changing4 ,statutory ,law4--,second1 there is statutory law4 ,this is law made by definite action of the people or their representatives4 ,constitutions are in effect statutory law1 supreme statutory law4 ,laws enacted by the people through the initiative and referendum are statutory law4 ,sidenote3 ,statutes4 ,most statutory law1 however1 consists of laws made by ,congress1 by the state legislatures1 by city councils1 and by other regular lawmaking bodies4#ade ,these enactments supplement or alter the common law4 ,until a statute is passed affecting any question1 the common law prevails4 ,whenever a statute conflicts with a provision of the common law1 the statute prevails4 ,but when ordinary statutes conflict with the constitution1 the constitution prevails4 ,enormous numbers of statutes are enacted each year by ,congress and the legislatures of the forty-eight states4 ,they now form the larger part of the whole system of law4 ,the ,need for ,greater ,uniformity in ,statute ,law4--,in many matters of business the fact that the statutes are different in every one of the forty-eight states is a great disadvantage4 ,when wholesale dealers sell goods on credit to merchants in far-off states they want to know just what the laws provide in the matter of collecting debts4 ,the only way to do this is to enquire into the statutes of each state where goods are sold4 ,so it is with wills1 contracts1 notes1 and so on4 ,in some states a will must have three witnesses2 in others only two4 ,the man who endorses a note in one state assumes greater liabilities than are assumed by endorsers somewhere else4 ,to remedy this situation there is a strong movement to secure uniformity among all the states in the case of certain important statutes 7for example1 the statutes relating to sales74 ,a commission of eminent lawyers has been at work for years preparing uniform laws on various subjects and some of these have been adopted by the legislatures of many states4 ,a uniform statute relating to negotiable instruments 7notes1 bills of exchange1 etc47 has now been adopted by more than forty states1 and a uniform sales act by about a dozen of them4 ,equity4--,finally1 there is the branch of jurisprudence known as equity4 ,people think of this word as implying something that is more just than the law1 something which has its roots in the conscience of the judge rather than in the statute books4 ,but equity as actually administered in the courts is made up of formal rules which the judges apply in certain cases without having much discretion in the matter4 ,the rules of equity are written in books just like the rules of law1 and they are about as precise4 ,sidenote3 ,the origin of equity4 ,the origin of these rules is an interesting story which cannot be narrated here save in the briefest way4 ,in early ,england there grew up1 side by side with the common law1 a set of unwritten rules administered by the chancellor1 who was called the 8keeper of the king's conscience0 and to whom people could appeal for relief when they felt that they had not received justice in the courts of common law4 ,at the outset the chancellor1 whose office eventually grew into a ,court of ,chancery1 decided every case on its own merits2 but in due course all cases of the same kind came to be decided in the same way1 and thus a set of rules or principles was gradually formulated4 ,with further growth these rules of chancery or equity were gathered together1 arranged logically1 put into written form1 applied by the ,english courts1 brought to ,america in colonial days1 retained after the ,revolution1 and they continue in force at the present time4 ,the differences between law and equity are too technical to be explained here2 even lawyers sometimes fail to understand them thoroughly4#adf ,cases in equity often result in the issue of injunctions and the issue of these injunctions in labor disputes has given rise to much complaint4 7,see pp4 #djg-djh47 ,both equity and law are usually administered by the same courts4#adg ,,judicial ,,procedure ,the ,jury ,system4--,when a legal dispute arises between individuals or corporations1 or when some offence is charged against a person1 there are usually two questions to be decided4 ,the first question is3 ,what are the facts8 ,what actually took place8 ,the second question is3 ,what does the law provide with reference to these facts8 ,if you charge someone with having done you a wrong1 it is not enough to prove your charge2 you must also convince the court that common law1 or statutory law1 or equity gives you the right to redress4 ,the first question in most important cases1 both criminal and civil1 is decided by a jury2 the second question by a judge4 ,sidenote3 ,how the grand jury is chosen4 ,the ,grand ,jury4--,there are two kinds of juries1 both of which are selected in much the same way1 but their functions are quite different4 ,the first is called the grand jury4 ,it is a body of men1 varying from seven to twenty-three in number1 chosen by lot from among the qualified voters of the county or district1 and charged with the duty of investigating whether crimes have been committed4 ,evidence is presented to it by the prosecuting attorney1 or the grand jury may make investigations on its own behalf4 ,sidenote3 ,its work4 ,it conducts an investigation1 not a trial4 ,if it decides by a majority vote that there are reasonable grounds for placing any person on trial1 it submits to the court a true bill or indictment4 ,if it believes that any conditions within the county or district are wrong and ought to be remedied1 it submits to the court a statement of these conditions1 which is called a presentment4 ,when a person is indicted by a grand jury1 this does not mean that he has been proved guilty but merely that1 in the grand jury's opinion1 he ought to be placed on trial4 ,the grand jury does not hear the accused person's side of the case4 ,its purpose is to protect individuals from being put to the inconvenience and humiliation of a public trial unless there are reasonable grounds for doing this4#adh ,sidenote3 ,how the trial jury is chosen4 ,the ,trial ,jury4--,the other jury is known as the trial jury or petit jury and practically always consists of twelve persons4 ,the method of selecting a trial jury is1 in general1 as follows3 ,some public official who is entrusted by the law with this duty makes a list of the persons who are liable for jury service4 ,this list is usually compiled from the roll of voters1 leaving off all persons 7such as lawyers1 physicians1 public officials1 and so on7 who are exempted by law from jury duty4 ,from this list a certain number of names1 perhaps fifty to a hundred1 are then selected1 usually by lot4 ,these individuals are thereupon summoned to court1 where they form what is known as the jury panel4 ,one by one their names are called in court and the lawyers on either side of the case are given an opportunity to state their objections4#adi ,when twelve persons have been found to whom there is no objection from either side1 these twelve constitute the jury and proceed to hear the facts of the case4 ,sidenote3 ,its work4 ,the trial jury1 however1 may hear only such evidence as the judge permits it to hear1 for the question whether any item of evidence can be permitted is a question of law4 ,the value of the evidence1 after the judge has allowed the jury to hear it1 is for the jury to determine4 ,sidenote3 ,jury procedure4 ,the usual procedure in a jury trial1 therefore1 is this3 ,when the jury has been chosen and sworn to decide the issue fairly1 the prosecuting attorney 7or1 in a civil case1 the counsel for the plaintiff7 states briefly to the court what he intends to prove4 ,then the witnesses for the prosecution1 or for the plaintiff1 are called1 put upon oath1 and questioned4 ,as each witness finishes his direct testimony the defendant's counsel takes him in hand for cross-examination4 ,the purpose of this cross-examination is to test the witness1 to see if he is telling the truth1 or to induce him to say things which will weaken his original testimony4#aej ,when the witnesses for the prosecution have finished1 the witnesses for the defendant are called and they likewise are cross-examined by the other side4 ,after all the testimony is concluded the counsel on both sides make addresses to the jury1 the judge explains to the jurymen the points of law bearing on the case1 and the jury retires to consider its verdict4 ,this it does in secret1 remaining in a room which no one is allowed to enter or leave4 ,sidenote3 ,second jeopardy4 ,in criminal cases the verdict must be unanimous one way or the other2 if not1 the case has to be tried all over again4#aea ,in civil cases unanimous verdicts are required in some states but not in others4 ,the verdict1 whatever it may be1 is reported in open court and is ordinarily conclusive4 ,in some cases1 however1 the presiding judge is empowered to set a unanimous verdict aside and to order a new trial4#aeb ,where an accused person is found not guilty by the unanimous verdict of a jury he may never1 under any circumstances1 be placed on trial for the same offence again4#aec ,if he is found guilty1 on the other hand1 he has in most cases the right to appeal1 on points of law1 to a higher court4 ,value of the ,jury ,system4--,the jury system has great value but also some serious defects4 ,its value consists in assuring to everyone a fair determination of the facts by an impartial body of his neighbors1 each one of whom is sworn to decide without fear or favor4 ,it is a great safeguard against the tyranny of judges and public officials4 ,on the other hand it makes judicial administration expensive 7for the jurymen have to be paid72 it results in making trials much longer than if the evidence were heard by a judge alone2 and the requirement that verdicts shall be unanimous often results in no verdict at all4 ,exemptions from jury service have been given too freely1 so that juries are sometimes made up of men who serve because they have no other work to do4 ,the others are either exempted by law or ask to be excused by the court4 ,prolonged trials and close confinement make jury service a burden which many people try to evade4 ,in serious cases the jurymen are sometimes not permitted to visit their homes for weeks at a time2 they sleep in the courthouse1 have their meals under the watchful eye of the sheriff1 and are not permitted to read the newspapers while the trial lasts4 ,occasionally we have witnessed the absurd spectacle of a jury kept under guard while the prisoner was out on bail4 ,yet with all its faults the jury system affords a safer method of trying criminal cases than trial by a judge alone4 ,on the other hand the use of jury trials in civil cases1 particularly where the matters in dispute are not of great importance1 tends to delay the work of the courts4 ,it has been suggested that all such cases ought to be tried by the judge alone4 ,the ,law's ,delays4--,much complaint is heard nowadays because lawsuits are so long and involve so much expense4 ,the courts are often so overwhelmed with cases that a lawsuit which is brought today cannot be tried for many months4 ,the privilege of appealing from the decisions of lower courts is so widely granted1 moreover1 that when lawsuits are once begun they may not be ended for years4 ,the claim is often made that all this gives a great advantage to the rich man or the large corporation as against the ordinary individual who cannot afford the expense involved in prolonged litigation4 ,lawsuits require the hiring of lawyers by both sides and the assistance of lawyers is costly4 ,judicial procedure can be much simplified1 and it ought to be4 ,it probably would be simplified were it not for lawyers4 ,lawyers profit by the law's delays2 the more lawsuits and the more prolonged they are1 the more profitable it is for them4 ,and lawyers form a large element in the legislatures which make the laws relating to court procedure4 ,this is not to imply1 however1 that lawyers on the whole fail to promote the interests of justice4 ,they do perform great services in this respect4 ,the ends of justice would be far less perfectly served were it not for lawyers4 ,sidenote3 ,reasons for these delays4 ,the main reason for the slowness with which justice is administered in the ,united ,states can be found in the great 7and perhaps unnecessary7 amount of care which is taken to assure every individual his legal rights4 ,this has multiplied appeals1 encouraged technicalities1 and given the courts far too much to do4 ,the right to be given a full and fair trial1 to have a jury in most cases1 to appeal1 and to have due process of law with all that this implies--these are rights which the constitution guarantees and which we greatly value4 ,valuable they are1 no doubt1 but they make the course of justice slower in the ,united ,states than in other countries where these constitutional safeguards do not exist4 ,a famous ,prussian king1 ,frederick the ,great1 once ordered that every lawsuit should be brought to an end within a year4 ,despots can make their courts move quickly in this way2 but nothing of the sort is possible in a democracy4 ,sidenote3 ,keep the courts incorruptible4 ,yet the courts are1 when all is said and done1 the most important among the institutions of free government4 ,corruption and incompetence in legislatures1 or in the executive branch of the government1 are serious evils when they exist1 to be sure2 but when incompetence and corruption invade the judiciary they reach to the very heart of the ,republic4 ,the ,great ,charter of #abae provided that 8justice should not be sold1 delayed1 or denied to any man04 ,that is a principle which must be maintained at all costs4 ,general ,references ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #bid-cad2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #bgc-bij2 #dhh-ejh2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cgi-dbb2 ,,james ,t4 ,,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government and ,its ,work1 pp4 #bge-big2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cdb-cga2 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldwin1 ,the ,american ,judiciary1 especially pp4 #c-abd2 ,j4 ,c4 ,,gray1 ,the ,nature and ,sources of the ,law1 pp4 #hd-aab4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,what can be done to improve the work of the courts8 ,present organization of the courts4 ,how cases are brought4 ,figures concerning the number of cases4 ,how far are the courts behind in their work8 ,causes of congestion4 ,has the jury system anything to do with it8 ,the right to new trials4 ,the right of appeal4 ,other factors which make for delay4 ,the expensiveness of lawsuits4 ,justice and the poor4 ,proposed reforms in judicial procedure4 ,conclusions4 ,references3 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldwin1 ,the ,american ,judiciary1 pp4 #aig-bea2 #cfe-cgc2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #ejj-ejh2 ,r4 ,h4 ,,smith1 ,justice and the ,poor1 pp4 #c-cd2 ,c4 ,g4 ,,haines and ,,bertha ,,haines1 ,principles and ,problems of ,government1 pp4 #cfg-djb2 ,american ,bar ,association1 ,report on the ,reform of ,judicial ,procedure 7in ,journal of the ,american ,bar ,association1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #eji-ebg1 ,july1 #aibj72 ,see also ,the ,cleveland ,survey1 #aiba4 #b4 ,the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states and its place in the ,american scheme of ,government4 ,references3 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ceg-cga2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #gjc-gbj2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #bhh-bij2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,willoughby1 ,the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bb-db4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the ,supreme ,court at work4 ,f4 ,j4 ,,haskin1 ,american ,government1 pp4 #cbe-ccf4 #b4 ,the practice of declaring laws invalid4 ,c4 ,g4 ,,haines1 ,the ,american ,doctrine of ,judicial ,supremacy1 pp4 #agc-ahd2 ,e4 ,s4 ,,corwin1 ,the ,doctrine of ,judicial ,review1 pp4 #a-dd4 #c4 ,the influence of ,supreme ,court decisions4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #gjf-gaf4 #d4 ,law3 its nature and development4 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,the ,state1 pp4 #fi-ic4 #e4 ,the common law4 ,j4 ,c4 ,,carter1 ,law3 ,its ,origin and ,growth1 pp4 #afg-aij2 ,j4 ,c4 ,,gray1 ,the ,nature and ,sources of the ,law1 pp4 #hb-ajh2 #bff-bib2 ,,sir ,,frederick ,,pollock1 ,the ,genius of the ,common ,law1 pp4 #a-bf4 #f4 ,trial by jury4 ,s4 ,e4 ,,baldwin1 ,the ,american ,judiciary1 pp4 #ahd-aif4 #g4 ,criminal procedure4 ,ibid41 pp4 #bbf-bea4 #h4 ,the law's delays4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #ejj-eje4 #i4 ,justice and the poor4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,smith1 ,justice and the ,poor1 pp4 #da-ei4 #aj4 ,the courts and democracy4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,tufts1 ,our ,democracy1 pp4 #bee-bfg4 ,questions #a4 ,is it essential that a country with a government like that of the ,united ,states should have some body vested with the power to declare laws unconstitutional8 ,why or why not8 #b4 ,under what circumstances might a murder case come to the ,supreme ,court8 #c4 ,tell in each case whether the following controversies would come up in the federal or the state courts and give your reasons3 7a7 a man charged with murder on an ,american ship at sea2 7b7 a suit between the ,standard ,oil ,company of ,new ,jersey and the ,ford ,motor ,company of ,michigan2 7c7 a suit brought by ,nicholas ,nickleby1 a citizen of ,illinois1 against the ,state of ,new ,york2 7d7 a charge of embezzlement brought against the cashier of a national bank2 7e7 a complaint against a railroad conductor for assaulting a passenger at a railroad station in ,pennsylvania2 7f7 a charge against a foreign ambassador2 7g7 a suit brought by a citizen of ,massachusetts against a citizen of ,california for non-payment of a note4 #d4 ,what are the subordinate federal courts8 ,how are they organized8 ,how are judges appointed and for what terms8 ,how are they removed8 #e4 ,describe all the steps in a criminal trial by jury1 from arrest to conviction4 #f4 ,explain the following terms1 using a dictionary where needed3 plaintiff2 jury panel2 venireman2 demurrer2 second jeopardy2 appellate jurisdiction2 writ of habeas corpus2 affidavit2 cross-examination2 peremptory challenge2 counsel for the defendant4 #g4 ,why should not every voter be required to do jury service when his turn comes8 ,what classes of citizens are exempted in your state8 ,do you think that these exemptions are justified8 ,is it right that women should be called on for jury service8 ,are there any cases in which they should not serve8 #h4 ,to what extent should the right of appeal be limited8 #i4 ,if a person is found not guilty and a few days later confesses that he actually did commit the crime with which he was charged1 he cannot be placed on trial again4 ,do you think this is right8 ,why does this rule exist8 #aj4 ,what suggestions can you make for the prevention of existing delays in the administration of justice8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the power of the ,supreme ,court to declare laws unconstitutional should be taken away4 #b4 ,trial by jury should be abolished in civil cases4 #c4 ,the loser in a law suit should not be compelled to pay all the winner's costs1 including his lawyer's fees4 ----- ,footnote #acg3 ,this is old ,french for ,hear ,ye6 ,hear ,ye6 ,the custom of opening a court session with these words goes back to the time of the ,plantagenets in ,english history4 ,footnote #ach3 ,it may be well to explain briefly some of the terms commonly used in connection with the law and the courts4 ,the parties to a suit at law are usually known as the plaintiff and the defendant4 ,a criminal case is one in which some crime is charged2 in a civil case1 the issue concerns the private rights of individuals 7for example1 when a man is sued for debt74 ,a court has original jurisdiction where cases come before it in the first instance without having already been heard by some other court2 it has appellate jurisdiction when cases come up from some other court on appeal4 ,footnote #aci3 ,in more than one hundred and thirty years only one ,supreme ,court justice has been impeached and he was acquitted4 ,the charges in this case1 moreover1 did not reflect upon the integrity of the judge4 ,footnote #adj3 ,article ,,iii1 ,section #a4 ,footnote #ada3 ,a few cases come directly before the ,supreme ,court1 for example1 suits between two states of the ,union2 but the great majority of cases come up on appeal1 or on writ of error1 which is a method of appeal4 ,footnote #adb3 ,there are1 in addition1 some special federal courts1 such as the court of claims1 the courts which try cases in the ,district of ,columbia1 and the courts of the insular possessions4 ,footnote #adc3 ,these rules were gathered together and put into written form by various commentators1 chief among whom were ,glanvil1 ,bracton1 ,coke1 ,littleton1 and ,blackstone4 ,blackstone's ,commentaries on the ,common ,law of ,england1 compiled before the ,american ,revolution1 is still the standard work1 known to every lawyer4 ,footnote #add3 ,the colonists looked upon the common law as a bulwark of individual freedom4 ,edmund ,burke1 in one of his speeches1 mentioned as a significant indication of the colonists' familiarity with the common law the fact that almost as many copies of ,blackstone had been sold in ,america as in ,england4 ,the ,declaration of ,rights adopted by the ,first ,continental ,congress in #aggd spoke of the colonies as entitled to all the provisions of the common law4 ,footnote #ade3 ,where may these laws be found8 ,statutes passed by ,congress are printed in the ,statutes-at-,large1 one or more volumes for each session4 ,state statutes are printed in volumes known as ,session ,laws1 or simply as ,laws of ,pennsylvania or ,acts and ,resolves of ,massachusetts4 ,from time to time1 usually every ten years1 these state laws are revised1 rearranged1 and consolidated into one general compilation1 usually published as the ,revised ,statutes or ,revised ,laws4 ,a similar publication is issued periodically containing the revised national statutes4 ,city councils enact legislation by means of ordinances1 which are put together in a volume of ,revised ,ordinances4 ,when all the national or state laws relating to a certain subject 7for example1 criminal law1 or civil procedure1 or municipal affairs1 etc47 are brought together into one compilation this is usually known as a code4 ,thus we speak of the ,criminal ,code or the ,code of ,civil ,procedure or the ,municipal ,code4 ,footnote #adf3 ,in general1 equity applies only to certain classes of civil actions and never to criminal cases2 its procedure is simple2 a jury is not ordinarily summoned to hear the facts2 evidence in writing may be submitted2 judgment is given by the issue of an order or decree and not by awarding a certain sum in damages4 ,a further explanation may be found in the ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #fgc-fge4 ,footnote #adg3 ,courts of law1 in addition to awarding punishment in criminal cases and damages in civil cases are empowered to issue writs4 ,writs are orders or decrees commanding certain things to be done or left undone4 ,they are addressed to other courts1 or to public officials1 or to individuals4 ,the best-known of these writs is the writ of habeas corpus1 an order issued to a jailor or other custodian commanding him to produce a person in court and show why he is held in custody4 ,if the court finds that the person is wrongfully held in custody it orders his release4 ,another common writ is the writ of mandate 7mandamus7 issued to public officials to compel them to perform some duty which is imposed upon them by law4 ,a writ of error is issued in order to carry a case from a lower to a higher court4 ,footnote #adh3 ,in some county courts the grand jury is not now used 7see p4 #agb74 ,footnote #adi3 ,these objections are called challenges4 ,the judge decides whether they are well-founded4 ,both sides are usually allowed a certain number of peremptory challenges1 that is1 objections for which no reason at all need be given4 ,footnote #aej3 ,there are two or three things which you ought to remember when going on the witness stand4 ,tell what you know about the case simply and briefly2 tell only what you actually know1 not what you think1 or what somebody told you4 ,don't venture your own opinion unless you are asked for it4 ,when you are being cross-examined1 think over every question before you answer it4 ,if you answer everything quickly and without thought you will probably fall into a trap and appear to be contradicting yourself4 ,the opposing lawyer is playing a game of chess with you4 ,watch his moves and take your own time in making yours4 ,if you make any slip1 correct it there and then2 don't let it pass with the idea that it will never be noticed4 ,the witness stand is a place where a man needs to have his wits about him4 ,footnote #aea3 ,if the case is not very serious the prosecuting attorney sometimes recommends that there be no further trial and the accused person is then freed4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,for example1 where the jury has disregarded the judge's instructions on points of law or where the jurymen have reached their verdict in some improper way4 ,footnote #aec3 ,a prisoner was once charged with setting fire to his own home and burning it down1 thus causing the death of his father and mother4 ,the prosecuting attorney first put him on trial for the murder of his father2 but the jury acquitted him4 ,another jury was then summoned and the attempt was made to place him on trial for the murder of his mother4 ,the prisoner's counsel argued that this was placing him on trial the second time 7or in second jeopardy as it is called7 for the same offence4 ,the prosecuting attorney argued that it was a different offence1 the murder of a different person4 ,which was right8 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,natural ,,resources ,,and ,,conservation ,the purpose of this chapter is to show what nature has done for the ,united ,states1 and to explain the relation between national prosperity and natural resources4 ,sidenote3 ,the source of ,america's greatness3 ,the ,things that ,make a ,nation ,great4--,three things have contributed greatly to the upbuilding of the ,american nation4 ,the first is the wide extent1 the richness1 and the varied character of ,american territory4 ,the ,united ,states is not only a vast country1 surpassed in area by very few other countries of the world1 but it possesses great natural advantages4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,the land and its resources4 ,it contains1 as will be seen presently1 extensive regions which are well-suited for almost every form of human activity1 including agriculture in all its branches1 manufacture1 mining1 forestry1 transportation1 and trade4 ,it is abundantly provided with natural harbors and waterways4 ,in soil and climate there is great variety4 ,no other country of the world can produce so many different things under such favorable conditions4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the initiative and industry of its people4 ,but it is not enough that a country shall have natural resources4 ,it must have a people with initiative and industry to develop them4 ,the ,american people have spent three centuries at the task of making the land yield its increase and they have much to show for it4 ,originally1 for the most part1 of ,anglo-,saxon stock1 the population has been enriched by the addition of immigrants from every country of the old world4 ,this mingling of many races into one people has given the nation vigor and versatility4 ,it has helped to develop among the ,american people that alert and progressive spirit which is one of their most valued characteristics2 it has also given strength to democratic ideals4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the national deals4 ,the enduring greatness of a nation does not depend1 however1 upon its material achievements alone4 ,it cannot be measured by figures of population and wealth4 ,what a nation contributes to the progress and permanence of civilization depends not only upon its economic prosperity but in an even greater degree upon its spiritual and intellectual strength4 ,this vast land1 so richly endowed by nature and with its riches so fully utilized by man1 has won and can retain its foremost place among the nations of the world by promoting justice and contentment among its people1 upholding the reign of law1 diffusing education among all1 and holding true to the ideals of democratic government4 ,sidenote3 ,importance of the soil4 ,the ,land4--,soil is the fundamental resource of any country4 ,its fertility determines1 in large measure1 the size of the population that can be supported4 ,it is probable that more than thirty per cent of the ,american people are today engaged in earning their living from the soil2 at any rate the whole population is in one way or another dependent upon it4 ,from the soil comes almost our entire food supply4 ,sidenote3 ,the land of the country is privately owned4 ,outside the original thirteen states practically the entire area of the country has been at some period in the hands of the national government as part of the public domain4#aed ,by far the greater part of it1 however1 has been sold or granted into private ownership4 ,in the course of this disposal many corporations and individuals managed to obtain large tracts of land for very little outlay1 because careful attention was not always given to the administration of the land laws2 nevertheless the policy of selling land cheaply and giving it free to settlers helped to build up the great ,western territories4 ,out of a public domain which at one time or another included nearly two-thirds of the entire ,united ,states only six hundred million acres now remain in the federal government's hands4 ,most of this is desert1 mountain land1 or land that is otherwise unfit for cultivation4 ,the ,need of ,conservation4--,so long as land remained plentiful and natural resources seemed to be abundant1 very little thought was given to the possibility that some day both of these things would become scarce4 ,the land in some parts of the country was exhausted by wasteful methods of cultivation and then abandoned4 ,sidenote3 ,some examples of wasted wealth4 ,there are thousands of abandoned farms in the ,new ,england states4 ,coal1 iron1 and copper were mined in ways that permitted enormous wastage4 ,through negligence much of our forest wealth was destroyed by fire4 ,by the beginning of the twentieth century it began to dawn upon the people that the natural resources of the country were rapidly melting away1 that practically all the good land was gone1 while the natural resources in the way of coal and timber were being so wastefully used that they would both be exhausted within relatively few decades unless something were done to conserve them4 ,accordingly a movement for the conservation of natural resources was started and since #aijj it has made considerable progress both in securing the passage of laws and in the education of the public to the urgency of the situation4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,science ,,revealing ,,the ,,treasures ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey ,from a mural painting in the ,pennsylvania ,state ,capitol at ,harrisburg4 ,in this picture the artist portrays an open coal mine into which several mine-workers are descending4 ,they are stalwart1 young1 artless pioneers1 eager for discovery4 ,they impart dramatic energy and realism to the picture4 ,science is pointing the way4 ,she is accompanied by ,fortune1 the latter blindfolded and tiptoeing on her wheel4 ,grasping ,fortune's right hand is ,abundance1 with an overflowing cornucopia1 or horn of plenty1 on her shoulder4 ,these mythological figures lend the picture its symbolism4 ,the artist portrays a great truth4 ,human labor1 wisely guided by science1 has found fortune and abundance in the mines and quarries of the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,science ,,revealing ,,the ,,treasures ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey ,copyright by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey4 ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,conservation means three things3 ,what ,conservation ,means4--,conservation means three things3 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,retention4 ,first1 that public lands still in the hands of the nation and the states shall not be thoughtlessly turned over to private corporations and individuals for their own profit1 but shall be administered so far as practicable by the public authorities for the benefit of the whole country2 second1 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,retention4that such portions of our timber1 coal1 oil1 and mineral resources as have already passed into private hands shall be so regulated by law as to prevent their wasteful exploitation2 and ,sidenote3 #c4 ,replacement4third1 that the government shall do its best to encourage the replacement of such natural resources as can be replaced 7for example1 by the reforesting of land and the restocking of lakes with fish74 ,sidenote3 ,coal and iron4 ,the ,mines4--,no country can ever become great in industry unless it has ready access to minerals1 especially iron and coal4 ,it was the possession of iron and coal in great quantities that served to make ,england during the nineteenth century the industrial leader of ,europe4 ,various regions of the ,united ,states possess these great stores of mineral wealth and have made good use of them4 ,there is one great difference between mineral resources and other natural resources1 namely1 that when minerals are once taken from the earth there is no way of renewing them4 ,soil can be replenished1 and forests regrown2 but minerals form an endowment which1 when once drawn from the bowels of the earth1 can never be replaced4 ,hence the urgent need for a policy of conserving these important sources of national wealth4 ,coal and iron1 while they are the natural resources upon which the growth of industry mainly depends1 are not the only forms of wealth drawn from below the surface of the ground in this country4 ,sidenote3 ,other minerals4 ,in the mining of silver and gold the ,united ,states is one of the foremost among the various producing countries4 ,copper1 lead1 oil1 zinc1 aluminum1 quicksilver1 and other natural materials are also taken from the earth in large quantities each year4 ,sidenote3 ,the earlier practice4 ,the ,conservation of ,coal1 ,oil1 and ,minerals4--,until about fifty years ago1 land containing coal or other mineral resources was sold and granted by the government like any other lands4 ,the individual or corporation became the owner of whatever wealth might happen to lie beneath the surface4 ,in this way an enormous amount of wealth was practically given away4 ,it was not until a few years ago that the government decided to reserve for itself all coal and minerals which might be discovered in lands given to settlers4 ,sidenote3 ,the present coal situation4 ,but this action came too late1 for most of the coal-bearing lands had already passed into private ownership4 ,by its failure to take due thought for the morrow the government had sold1 for a few dollars per acre1 what might have been a source of enormous revenue4 ,if the practice of reserving the right to all coal1 oil1 and minerals in granted lands had been adopted in #ahaj instead of in #aiaj the value of these rights today would be greater than the entire national debt4 ,a large and steady supply of coal is of the utmost value to industry2 in fact modern industry depends upon it4 ,yet when coal is once taken out and burned it cannot be replaced2 there is only so much of it in the country and when that is gone there will be no more4 ,it took nature many millions of years to produce the coal that is there now4 ,at the present rate of increase in yearly consumption all the coal that is known to exist in the ,united ,states will be gone in about one hundred and fifty years4 ,some saving can be made by the use of oil and water power4 ,some economies in mining and in the use of coal are also possible4 ,but these will hardly avail to prevent the ultimate exhaustion of the supply4 ,at best we can only set that day a bit further off4 ,sidenote3 ,conservation of oil4 ,speaking of oil1 the amount of crude petroleum or fuel oil now actually known to be available in the ,united ,states will be exhausted in less than fifty years if the present rate of consumption is maintained4 ,there is every likelihood that this rate of consumption will be increased owing to the greater use of gasoline and kerosene for motor power4 ,large quantities of oil1 however1 are1 available in ,mexico4 ,within recent years it has been hoped that1 with the progress of mechanical appliances1 it will be practicable to obtain oil from shale rock4 ,sidenote3 ,the wastage of our forest wealth4 ,the ,forests4--,when the first ,european settlers came to ,america1 the colonists depended heavily upon the forests4 ,from the woods they obtained timber for their houses and barns1 wood for fuel and1 by hunting1 a considerable part of their food supply4 ,in all stages of civilization men have depended upon the forests to satisfy many of their diversified wants4 ,nowadays steel has taken the place of timber in the construction of buildings and ships2 coal and oil have largely replaced wood as fuel2 the days when men subsisted by hunting are past2 and mankind is no longer so heavily dependent upon the forests as in the olden days4 ,yet the forests of ,america are still a great source of wealth even though the timber resources have been heavily drawn upon during the past hundred years4 ,this is one of the natural resources which has been wastefully used and it is only in recent years that attention has been given to conserving what is left of it4 ,the forests are needed1 not only as a source of timber supply1 but in order to preserve the fertility of the soil and to retain in it the moisture which is otherwise evaporated or run off4 ,sidenote3 ,the earlier practice4 ,the ,conservation of ,timber4--,in the days when so much of the land was covered with timber the chief concern was to get it out of the way so that the ground could be used for agriculture4 ,no one seemed to realize that the day would ever come when forest land would be more valuable than corn land4 ,before #ahgh the national government sold off many million acres of valuable forest land at low prices to individuals and corporations and they1 in turn1 used it in whatever ways would yield the largest profit to themselves4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,timber and ,stone ,act1 #ahgh4 ,by the ,timber and ,stone ,act of #ahgh1 however1 it was provided that only a limited area of government land containing timber or stone could be sold to any one person or corporation and then only at a higher price than agricultural land4 ,but even this did not prove a sufficient measure of waste-prevention1 and in #ahia ,congress adopted the policy of withdrawing large areas of government forest land from the market altogether4 ,sidenote3 ,forest reserves4 ,these tracts were set aside as national forest reservations and today there are about one hundred and fifty million acres set apart to ensure the country's future supply of timber4 ,the national government is also permitted to buy from private owners forest lands in the watersheds of navigable streams in order to protect the natural flow in such waterways4 ,the administration of all the forest reservations is in the hands of the ,united ,states ,forest ,service1 which forms part of the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,sidenote3 ,forest policy of the states4 ,the area of timber land owned by the states1 by corporations1 and by individuals is very much greater than that contained in the national reservations4 ,it is here1 moreover1 that the greatest amount of waste is taking place4 ,forest fires1 most of which are due to carelessness1 burn up enormous quantities of timber every year4 ,the states which still possess considerable forest resources1 such as ,new ,york1 ,minnesota1 and ,california1 are also adopting the policy of creating reservations and everywhere more effective measures are being taken to prevent destruction by forest fires4 ,these measures include the maintenance of fire patrols1 the construction of fire-breaks on the ridges of hills1 the clearing out of underbrush1 and the stricter supervision of camping parties4 ,timber1 fortunately1 is a natural resource which can be replaced4 ,lands which have been cut-over can be reforested and used to supply timber for future generations4 ,large trees take a long time to mature1 however1 and the lands which are being planted with seedlings today will not be yielding material for the sawmill until the middle of the twentieth century has faded into the past4 ,both the national and state governments are now reforesting on a large scale4 ,to some extent private corporations and individuals have followed their lead4 ,sidenote3 ,harbors1 lakes1 and waterways4 ,other ,natural ,resources4--,all the nation's wealth does not come1 however1 from the fields1 the mines1 and the forests4 ,in fisheries ,america leads the entire world4 ,the harbors and the waterways of the country are as important to commerce as the soil is to agriculture4 ,no other country is better provided with natural harbors1 lakes1 and navigable rivers than the ,united ,states4 ,all the largest cities are located upon them1 and were it not for the waterways1 we would not have the great cities4 ,run over in your mind the ten or fifteen largest cities of the ,united ,states and see if you can name any that are not situated on one of the oceans1 the ,great ,lakes1 the great navigable rivers1 or on the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,it is not a mere accident that none of the great industrial centers are without facilities for trade by water4 ,geography1 not man1 determines for the most part the situation of all great industrial communities4 ,water power is another natural heritage4 ,sidenote3 ,water power4 ,from the giant ,niagara to the smallest cataract1 thousands of these water powers have been harnessed and made to function as the servant of man1 running factories and generating electricity4 ,water power does the work of coal4#aee ,its presence has often determined the location of large industries4 ,sidenote3 ,how geography determines a nation's progress4 ,geography and the ,future4--,from what has been said in the last four sections it will thus be seen that natural resources are a great factor in determining the progress and prosperity of a nation4 ,sidenote3 ,the energy of man cannot replace the bounty of nature4 ,no amount of intelligence and industry on the part of the people will ensure rapid economic progress if they occupy a country which lacks a fertile soil1 is devoid of minerals1 possesses no forests or fisheries1 and is deficient in natural harbors and waterways4 ,man can do much1 but his powers are limited without the aid of nature4 ,animals and plants can be carried from one part of the world to another and made to thrive in their new environment2 but mineral resources were laid down many millions of years ago in certain definite places and there they have stayed4 ,a country which has no mineral resources cannot create them by the genius or industry of its people4 ,on the other hand1 if great natural resources are at hand1 progress becomes merely a question of applying human intelligence and industry to these resources4 ,the rise of the ,american nation to its present position1 therefore1 is not surprising1 although it has taken a relatively short period of time4 ,it is the joint result of nature's bounty and man's efficiency4 ,to which of these we owe the larger share of the nation's progress no one can say4 ,if the country had lacked either1 it could not have progressed in any such measure during the past three hundred years4 ,sidenote3 ,natural resources and national power4 ,the same things have been true of other countries4 ,england1 during the greater part of the nineteenth century1 was the leading industrial country of the world4 ,this was unquestionably due not only to the enterprise of ,englishmen but to the great natural resources of the country in coal and iron4 ,when ,germany defeated ,france in #ahgj she took away from the ,french certain territories which were rich in minerals4 ,with the aid of these materials ,germany in the course of fifty years was able to become a great industrial power4 ,now1 as the result of the ,world ,war1 the ,french have recovered these territories and we may look for a marked revival in the industries of ,france4 ,during the peace negotiations more importance was attached to small areas of coal and mineral lands than to whole provinces of agricultural land4 ,as the mineral resources of older countries become exhausted it is altogether likely that industrial supremacy will pass with them4 ,new countries1 which today have unexplored possibilities in coal and iron1 will then have their turn in industrial prominence4 ,who knows where the balance of industrial power will be lodged a hundred years hence4 ,china1 for aught we know1 may be the chief manufacturing country of the world in the twenty-first century4 ,if we knew exactly how long the natural resources of ,europe and ,america will hold out1 and if we knew also just how much mineral wealth there is in the ,far ,east1 we could predict these things with reasonable certainty4 ,sidenote3 ,how geography will influence the future progress of ,america4 ,certain it is1 at any rate1 that the past history of ,america has been determined1 in no small degree1 by geographical conditions4 ,the same factors are likely to influence the future4 ,the country is becoming less agricultural1 less dependent upon the soil4 ,as it becomes more industrial our dependence upon its other natural resources1 upon coal1 iron1 oil1 copper1 timber1 and water power must necessarily increase4 ,the commerce of the country keeps on growing1 and with this growth the reliance of the nation upon its harbors and waterways will inevitably become greater4 ,as population expands there will be a heavier demand upon the food supply and the time will doubtless come when the ,united ,states will have no food for export4 ,indeed the day may arrive when agricultural products will have to be imported from outside4 ,all this points to the need for emphasis upon conservation4 ,it means that we should avoid all wastage of natural resources4 ,the fertility of the soil should be preserved by scientific methods of agriculture4 ,the mineral wealth of the country should be utilized in such a way as to give the greatest advantage over the longest period of time4 ,we must reforest our unused lands4 ,harbors and waterways should be developed to aid commerce4 ,if these things are done1 ,america can face the future with confidence4 ,general ,references ,,gregory1 ,,keller1 and ,,bishop1 ,physical and ,commercial ,geography of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #beb-cej2 ,a4 ,p4 ,,brigham1 ,geographic ,influences in ,american ,history1 especially pp4 #gj-ajd2 ,e4 ,c4 ,,semple1 ,influences of ,geographic ,environment1 pp4 #ea-ga2 ,o4 ,w4 ,,price1 ,the ,land ,we ,live ,in1 pp4 #ii-ach2 ,n4 ,s4 ,,shaler1 ,man and the ,earth1 pp4 #a-ai2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van ,,hise1 ,the ,conservation of ,natural ,resources in the ,united ,states1 especially pp4 #bfc-cjf2 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,sociology and ,social ,progress1 pp4 #agd-bgj 7,the ,influence ,exerted by ,physical ,laws over the ,organization of ,society and the ,character of ,individuals1 by ,t4 ,h4 ,,buckle72 ,ibid41 ,principles of ,national ,economy1 pp4 #c-ad2 #abc-aeb2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #dje-daf2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #cfh-cgd2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings in ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #ech-ehi2 ,m4 ,h4 ,,gregory1 ,checking the ,waste1 pp4 #db-he2 ,,isaac ,,lippincott1 ,economic ,development of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #adi-ahb4 ,,isaiah ,,bowman1 ,the ,new ,world3 ,problems in ,political ,geography 7see index74 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the civilization of the future as determined by the exhaustion and development of natural resources4 ,when ,european and ,american resources in coal1 oil1 and iron give out1 what substitutes can be used and to what extent8 ,what countries have the resources to enable them to forge ahead when that time comes8 ,show the connection between industrial progress and each type of natural wealth4 ,consider whether there is any way in which a country may keep its industrial supremacy despite the exhaustion of natural wealth4 ,references3 ,encyclopedia ,britannica2 ,statesman's ,year ,book2 ,,gregory1 ,,keller1 and ,,bishop1 ,physical and ,commercial ,geography1 especially pp4 #beb-cej2 #chd-cid2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van ,,hise1 ,the ,conservation of ,natural ,resources in the ,united ,states1 especially pp4 #cei-cgi2 ,h4 ,t4 ,,buckle1 ,history of ,civilization in ,england1 ,vol4 ,i 7#ahfh edition71 pp4 #ci-aea2 ,,isaiah ,,bowman1 ,the ,new ,world1 passim4 #b4 ,conservation and its apostles1 especially ,president ,roosevelt4 ,references3 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch1 ,american ,economic ,life1 pp4 #aja-ajh2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van ,,hise1 ,the ,conservation of ,natural ,resources in the ,united ,stales1 pp4 #a-ad2 #cei-cgi2 ,,ely1 ,,hess1 ,,leith1 and ,,carver1 ,foundations of ,national ,prosperity1 pp4 #ai-bj2 ,,gifford ,,pinchot1 ,the ,fight for ,conservation1 pp4 #dj-gj2 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1 pp4 #djh-dcf4 #c4 ,the coal industry3 its past1 present1 and future4 ,references3 ,w4 ,j4 ,,nicolls1 ,the ,story of ,american ,coal2 ,,peter ,,roberts1 ,the ,anthracite ,coal ,industry1 pp4 #c-af2 #bab-bbg2 ,,ely1 ,,hess1 ,,leith1 and ,,carver1 ,the ,foundations of ,national ,prosperity1 pp4 #aia-bji4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the relation of human progress to geographic conditions4 ,,gregory1 ,,keller1 and ,,bishop1 ,physical and ,commercial ,geography1 pp4 #abf-agi2 ,t4 ,h4 ,,buckle1 ,history of ,civilization1 ,i1 pp4 #agd-bgj4 #b4 ,what are the fundamental factors in national prosperity8 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,principles of ,national ,economy1 pp4 #c-ae2 ,,isaac ,,lippincott1 ,economic ,development of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ad-cd4 #c4 ,american forest reservations4 ,h4 ,d4 ,,boerker1 ,our ,national ,forests1 pp4 #agj-bcb2 ,o4 ,w4 ,,price1 ,the ,land ,we ,live ,in1 pp4 #fe-ih2 ,,ernest ,,bruncken1 ,north ,american ,forests and ,forestry 7#aijj71 pp4 #afa-ahb2 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,forest ,service1 ,circulars4 #d4 ,the oil situation4 ,,david ,,white1 in the ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science 7,may1 #aibj72 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van ,,hise1 ,the ,conservation of ,natural ,resources in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dg-fa4 #e4 ,the growth of the iron and steel industry4 ,h4 ,n4 ,,casson1 ,the ,romance of ,steel1 pp4 #a-bf2 #gb-ajj2 ,j4 ,r4 ,,smith1 ,the ,story of ,iron and ,steel1 pp4 #ajh-abf2 ,,andrew ,,carnegie1 ,autobiography1 pp4 #acj-aig4 #f4 ,the conservation of water power4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van ,,hise1 ,conservation of ,natural ,resources in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #add-afa4 #g4 ,the conservation of iron and copper4 ,,ely1 ,,hess1 ,,leith1 and ,,carver1 ,foundations of ,national ,prosperity1 pp4 #baj-bca4 #h4 ,the settlement and use of the national domain4 ,,albert ,,shaw1 ,political ,problems of ,american ,development1 pp4 #hg-aae4 #i4 ,the homestead system4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van ,,hise1 ,conservation of ,natural ,resources in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bgi-bhg2 ,g4 ,m4 ,,stephenson1 ,the ,political ,history of the ,public ,lands1 pp4 #aij-bde4 #aj4 ,the reclamation of desert and swamp lands4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch1 ,american ,economic ,life1 pp4 #ic-ii4 ,questions #a4 ,mark on an outline map the chief geographical divisions of the ,united ,states4 ,state the chief characteristics of each4 #b4 ,locate on the map the chief agricultural areas1 the chief mining districts1 the chief industrial centers1 and the chief harbors of the ,united ,states4 #c4 ,why do the great railroads of the ,united ,states run east and west rather than north and south8 #d4 ,do you approve of granting free lands to bona fide settlers8 ,under what restrictions8 #e4 ,mark on the map the location of 7a7 the principal coal areas2 7b7 the principal oil-bearing areas2 7c7 the national forests4 #f4 ,show what natural resources are utilized in the building of a house1 from cellar to garret1 and tell what section of the ,united ,states is the largest center of production for 7a7 oak timber2 7b7 glass2 7c7 steel beams2 7d7 electric wire2 7e7 sewer pipe4 #g4 ,name the harbors of the ,united ,states in the order of their 7a7 natural advantages2 7b7 commercial importance4 #h4 ,compare the general geographical advantages of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,to what extent has the difference in the relative economic progress of the two continents been due to geographical differences8 #i4 ,which do you regard as the more urgent need at the present day3 the conservation of timber or of coal or of oil8 ,give your reasons4 #aj4 ,compare the relative geographical advantages of the following cities3 ,pittsburgh1 ,detroit1 ,atlanta1 ,san ,francisco1 ,baltimore4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the ,united ,states should adopt a rental system for all public lands on which there are mineral resources or water powers4 #b4 ,the ,united ,states should insist upon free access to foreign natural resources 7for example1 in ,mexico74 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,agricultural ,,interests ,the purpose of this chapter is to show the large part which agriculture plays in the life of the country and to discuss briefly some of the problems of agriculture today4 ,importance of ,american ,agriculture4--,agriculture has always been the most important single industry in the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,the crops in earlier days4 ,it was at one time practically the sole occupation of the people2 even today it directly or indirectly engages the attention of more than half the adult male workers of the country4 ,in colonial days the chief task of the people was to raise a food supply sufficient for themselves4 ,corn was their principal crop1 the colonists having learned from the ,indians the methods of cultivating it4 ,corn had the advantage of being well suited to the soil and climate2 besides it grows well even in partially cleared land4 ,but in colonial days and even for a time after the ,revolution the country did not produce much grain beyond its own needs4 ,the production of large quantities for export came with the opening up of the great agricultural areas of the ,west4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,mixed farming4 ,types of ,agricultural ,activity4--,american agriculture has developed1 during the past three hundred years1 in five or six different directions4 ,the earliest settlers in the northern colonies devoted themselves to general or mixed farming1 in other words to the raising of grain1 hay1 and cattle on the same tract of land4 ,this was because the environment and needs of the northern region alike favored this method4 ,mixed farming has continued to be the mainstay of agriculture east of the ,alleghenies2 in some measure it has spread to other parts of the country as well4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,staple or plantation farming4 ,a second type of agriculture1 almost from the very outset1 made progress in the ,south4 ,this involved the raising of certain staple products1 such as rice1 tobacco1 sugar1 and cotton on large plantations4 ,the soil1 climate1 and general environment of the southern colonies all lent themselves to this type of agriculture and it eventually spread itself over the whole region4 ,cotton in time out-stripped the other staples and became king of the whole ,south4 ,this was largely because the invention of the cotton gin1 an appliance for removing the seeds from the fibre1 greatly reduced the cost of preparing cotton for the market4 ,the scarcity of free labor to work these great plantations led to the importation of negro slaves and the institution of slavery had a profound effect upon the subsequent course of ,american history4 ,since the emancipation of the negroes1 the plantation system has remained although many of the larger tracts have been broken up into small holdings4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,cereal growing4 ,the opening of the ,middle ,west and ,mississippi ,valley brought in a third form of agricultural activity1 namely1 the production of cereals 7such as corn1 wheat1 oats1 rye1 and barley7 on great tracts of prairie land4 ,this form of agricultural production received a great impetus from the invention of labor-saving machinery1 notably the power-reaper4 ,the region of extensive cereal production today includes the ,middle ,west1 the ,northwest1 and the ,mississippi ,valley1 making the richest grain-growing area in the world4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,land ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,,land ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,the great geographical regions of the ,united ,states are indicated by this map4 ,starting from the ,east we have the ,atlantic ,plains and1 just behind them1 the ,eastern ,plateaus running north and south4 ,then come the ,appalachian ,mountains and the ,allegheny ,plateaus1 followed1 still further westward1 by the ,lake ,plains1 the ,prairie ,plains1 and the ,great ,plains4 ,southward1 fringing the ,gulf of ,mexico1 are the ,gulf ,plains4 ,to the far west are three great land regions1 namely1 the ,rocky ,mountain area1 the ,western ,plateaus1 and the ,pacific ,slope4 ,this map should be used in connection with ,question #a 7page #ced74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 #d4 ,cattle raising4 ,as the frontier rolled westward to the foothills of the ,rocky ,mountains a fourth type of agriculture--using the term in its wider sense--began to make rapid strides4 ,this was the stock-raising industry1 the production of horned cattle and sheep on large tracts of grazing land or ranches4 ,this branch of agricultural activity has made its greatest progress in the ,middle ,southwest and upon the upland states just east of the ,rockies 7,montana1 ,wyoming1 etc474 ,cattle are raised on the ranches1 then shipped to the corn belt where they are fattened before being sent to the abattoirs at ,st4 ,louis and ,chicago4#aef ,sidenote3 ,miscellaneous activities4 ,other branches of agriculture which have developed largely within the past half century are dairying1 market gardening1 and fruit growing4 ,these activities are not confined to any one section of the country but to a considerable extent are carried on everywhere4 ,dairying and market gardening have made most progress within convenient distance of the large cities1 although improved transportation facilities in the way of air-cooled and refrigerator cars now permit the shipment of dairy and garden produce over long distances4 ,from all this it can be seen that when one speaks of the interests of agriculture a great many different things are included4 ,the agriculture of the ,united ,states is diversified to an extent that is found in no other country4 ,sidenote3 ,size of the various crops4 ,the ,value of ,american ,agricultural ,products4--,the largest cereal crop produced in the ,united states is corn2 the total in some years runs as high as three billion bushels4 ,this is more than twice the amount of corn grown in all the rest of the world4 ,oats come next1 with about one and one-half billion bushels in the best years1 and wheat third1 with a round billion or thereabouts4 ,cotton is the largest staple crop1 with an annual yield of from ten to fifteen billion bales1 each bale containing five hundred pounds4 ,of this nearly half is exported4 ,more than twelve million cattle are received each year at the great abattoirs1 besides an equal number of sheep and twice as many hogs4 ,the value of this enormous agricultural production1 if stated in dollars and cents1 would be misleading because prices change from year to year2 the fluctuations are often considerable within a very short period of time4#aeg ,but in any case the contribution which agriculture makes to the yearly income of the nation is enormous4 ,upon it the national prosperity depends in a very great measure4 ,sidenote3 ,how the war stimulated ,american food production4 ,american ,agriculture and the ,war4--,american agriculture had a very important part in winning the ,world ,war4 ,as this great struggle progressed the task of providing food for the ,allied armies and for the civilian populations became month by month more difficult4 ,men were drawn off the farms of ,europe to fight and the fields went uncultivated2 practically the whole of ,belgium and a considerable part of ,france were in the hands of the enemy2 no supplies could be drawn from remote parts of the world such as ,australia1 ,south ,america1 or the ,far ,east because the available ships were needed to carry troops and munitions2 so the ,american farmer had to speed up production in order to save the situation4 ,when ,america entered the war the ,allies had practically reached the end of their resources in foodstuffs2 their populations were living under a rigid system of food rationing4 ,under the stimulation of this great emergency ,american agriculture rose to the occasion and the increased production of foodstuffs1 together with the savings which were made through the observance of 8wheatless0 and 8meatless0 days enabled the ,united ,states not only to maintain an army of two million soldiers in ,france but to contribute largely to the food supplies of the ,allied armies and civilian populations as well4 ,the supply trains which fed the ,american army in ,france 7and never on a single day did they fail to reach the front71 started from ,kansas ,city and ,chicago1 not from ,brest or ,havre4 ,the ,american farmer was the great factor in this service of supply4 ,sidenote3 ,an example of increasing returns4 ,a ,peculiarity of ,agricultural ,production--,the ,law of ,diminishing ,returns4--,there is one fundamental feature in which agriculture differs from industry4 ,in industry1 as a rule1 the more labor and capital you apply the greater the amount of the produce4 ,many industries1 indeed1 are so constituted that by applying additional capital and labor you obtain more than proportionate returns4 ,take the book-binding industry1 for example4 ,a small shop1 employing three men1 might bind and stamp two hundred books per day at a cost of twenty cents per book4 ,but a large establishment1 employing a hundred workers with modern machinery can easily put through many thousand books at half the cost per volume4 ,a manufacturer1 if he is wise1 finds out what branches of his business are most profitable4 ,then he applies more capital and labor in that direction so as to increase his earnings1 and devotes less attention to the things which cannot be made so profitably4 ,this is known as production under the law of increasing returns4 ,but in agriculture the situation is quite different4 ,any farmer or ranchman will tell you1 if you ask him1 that some of his land is better than the rest and yields him greater profit for the capital and labor applied to it4 ,but if you thereupon suggest to him that he should devote all his attention to this particular piece of land1 and neglect the rest1 he would think very poorly of your intelligence4 ,sidenote3 ,an illustration of decreasing returns4 ,and rightly so1 for if he applied more labor and capital to his best land1 he would not be sure of getting a crop-increase in proportion2 on the contrary1 he would be quite safe in saying that1 after a certain point1 his extra labor and capital would bring him less than proportionate returns4 ,an investment of ten dollars per acre may result in a crop of fifteen bushels per acre4 ,it is very doubtful whether by applying twenty dollars worth of capital and labor to the land this yield could be doubled and it is quite certain that it could not be trebled by spending thirty dollars per acre on the land4 ,in other words1 agriculture is carried on1 for the most part1 under the law of diminishing returns1 which may be briefly defined by saying that1 8if at any given time1 the amount of labor and capital applied to agricultural land is increased beyond a certain point1 the increased investment will yield less than proportionate returns04 ,if this were not the case1 no one would ever cultivate the poorer lands4 ,we would raise our entire crops from the most fertile tracts4 ,the point at which the returns will begin to diminish can never be exactly fixed1 for improvements in the methods of agriculture may place it further ahead4 ,these improved methods also bring into cultivation lands which otherwise would not be utilized4 ,another ,peculiarity of ,agriculture--,limitations on ,division of ,labor4--,in one other fundamental feature there is a difference between agriculture and industry4 ,in industry1 as will be seen presently1 the individual worker confines his attention to one operation in the process of production4 ,he does not make a shoe1 but only part of a shoe4 ,but in agriculture1 this division of labor cannot be carried so far4 ,sidenote3 ,why division of labor does not apply to agriculture4 ,the workers engaged in agriculture cannot be ploughmen1 sowers1 reapers1 or threshers only2 they must take a hand at all these things when the time comes4 ,this is because the tasks connected with agriculture change with the seasons4 ,agricultural labor must1 therefore1 be much more versatile than labor employed in large-scale industry4 ,most industries1 moreover1 are able to run along at an even pace throughout the year1 affording steady employment to a fixed number of workers4 ,but in most forms of agriculture1 the amount of labor required is much greater at some seasons of the year than at others1 thus giving the farmer a labor problem of great difficulty to contend with4 ,sidenote3 ,the chemical elements in soil4 ,the ,exhaustion of the ,soil4--,the agricultural production of the country depends upon the fertility of the soil4 ,agricultural soil contains various chemical properties which are exhausted by long-continued cropping1 particularly if only one type of produce is grown4 ,these chemical elements are1 more particularly1 nitrogen1 phosphorus1 and potash4 ,some crops draw chiefly upon one of these chemical elements and some upon the others4 ,wheat and corn take large amounts of nitrogen from the soil1 while potatoes draw a larger proportion of potash4 ,the exhaustion of the soil is prevented in two ways1 first by rotation of crops and1 second1 by the use of fertilizers4 ,rotation of crops involves the growing of different products in successive years1 such as wheat1 potatoes1 and hay4 ,it is not always practicable4 ,sidenote3 ,fertilization4 ,fertilization involves the putting of chemical elements back into the soil4 ,it may be effected by the use of natural manure or artificial fertilizers or by ploughing under the soil a green cover crop4 ,land retains its fertility to the degree that chemical elements are conserved in it4 ,the ,effects of ,agricultural ,improvements4--,during the past half century great progress has been made in all the processes of agriculture4 ,the methods of treating the soil1 the types of grain and other produce grown1 the machinery available for use in agriculture1 and the general intelligence with which the lands are cultivated--all have vastly improved since our grandfathers' day4 ,sidenote3 ,the increased yield of the soil4 ,the results are apparent in an increased production4 ,at the time of the ,civil ,war the yield of wheat throughout the ,united ,states averaged only nine to ten bushels per acre2 today it is nearly double that figure4 ,good farms and good farmers are now producing twenty-five bushels of wheat to the acre1 sixty bushels of corn1 or six hundred pounds of cotton4 ,similar progress has been made in the raising of cattle and in dairying4 ,this has been accomplished by the selection and breeding of improved stock4 ,year by year this improvement continues and it is certain that we have not yet nearly reached the limit of possibilities4 ,on the highly fertilized lands of some ,european countries the wheat yield is as high as thirty or even forty bushels to the acre4 ,in the case of root crops1 fertilization of the land is an extremely important factor in production4 ,sidenote3 ,our future possibilities4 ,one of the great present-day needs of ,american agriculture is a better and cheaper supply of nitrates for fertilizing the land and this has directed attention to the possibility of manufacturing nitrates in this country instead of importing them from abroad4#aeh ,the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4--,to assist the agricultural interests of the country a ,commissioner ,sidenote3 ,how the national government helps the farmer4of ,agriculture was appointed by the national government in #ahfb1 and seven years later this office was expanded into a ,department of ,agriculture1 with a member of the cabinet at its head4 ,the work of this department at the present day covers a wide range4 ,its more important activities1 carried on through various bureaus1 may be summarized as follows3 ,the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry studies new agricultural methods1 endeavors to find improved varieties of grain and plants1 conducts research work on soil fertility1 and devises measures for the extermination of noxious weeds4 ,it has combed the whole world for new grains and plants likely to thrive in this country4 ,its agents go about the country giving talks and demonstrations to the farmers with a view to educating them in all these matters4 ,the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry makes investigations into improved methods of breeding and raising live stock2 it studies the problem of preventing communicable diseases among animals1 and has charge of federal meat inspection4 ,the ,bureau of ,entomology gathers and publishes information concerning insects which do harm to crops and cattle4 ,it suggests methods of exterminating each form of insect pest4 ,in this it has a giant task1 for the ravages of insects like the gypsy moth and orange thrip are still costing the country millions of dollars per year4 ,the work of the ,united ,states ,forest ,service1 which is in this department1 has already been mentioned4 ,the ,weather ,bureau's work is also well known4 ,it gathers information concerning the weather in all sections of the country and sends out timely forecasts of probable storms1 heat-waves1 frosts1 and rainfall for the benefit of agriculture and navigation4 ,other bureaus make chemical analyses of soil1 water1 and foods1 and compile all manner of agricultural statistics4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture also maintains1 in different parts of the country1 sixty experiment stations1 at which new methods are fully tried out before being recommended4 ,it will be seen that by far the greater portion of the department's work is scientific and educational4 ,its educational work is carried on not only by speakers and demonstrators who go about the country1 but by the issue of bulletins and an annual volume known as the department's ,year ,book4 ,this volume1 which may be had free of cost1 contains more useful information on agricultural topics than any other book of its sort4 ,sidenote3 ,how the state governments help the farmer4 ,state ,encouragement of ,agriculture4--,the encouragement of agriculture has not been left entirely to the national authorities4 ,most of the states also maintain departments of agriculture in charge of boards or commissioners4 ,in most of the states1 moreover1 state colleges of agriculture have been established1 and these may be attended1 usually without the payment of tuition fees1 by any qualified resident of the state4 ,short courses of instruction are given in various branches of agriculture for those who can spend but a few weeks or months at these agricultural colleges2 extension work is carried on and scientific investigations made4 ,this work has been1 to some extent1 assisted by grants of land and money from the national government4 ,the chief individual factor in bringing both the federal and state agricultural authorities into touch with the farmers and cattle raisers is the county agent4 ,he addresses them at their meetings1 advises them on all agricultural matters1 and helps them to form agricultural clubs4 ,the ,problem of ,agricultural ,credits4--,in agriculture1 as in industry and commerce1 a considerable amount of capital is needed4 ,it takes capital to buy land1 to improve it1 to obtain machinery and live stock1 to purchase seed1 and to pay expenses during the period between seedtime and harvest4 ,until recently the agriculturist has been at a disadvantage1 as compared with the manufacturer1 in securing this capital4 ,the banking system of the country was organized mainly to assist the operations of industry and commerce2 there were no special banks to assist agriculture4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,federal ,farm ,loan ,banks4 ,in #aiaf1 however1 a system of ,farm ,loan ,banks was established4 ,there are now twelve such banks situated in as many regions of the country4 ,their function is to loan money on the security of agricultural or grazing land at reasonable rates of interest1 the loans to be repaid in installments over a term of years4 ,this has placed agriculture on an equality with all other forms of production as regards loans based on the security of land2 but for loans upon the security of cattle1 crops1 and other personal property1 the agriculturist must still depend upon the regular banking institutions4 ,sidenote3 8,seasonal0 character of agriculture4 ,the ,problem of ,agricultural ,labor4--,mention has already been made of the fact that agriculture is a 8seasonal0 occupation to a very large extent4 ,it is an occupation1 moreover1 in which the workers cannot at all times call eight hours a full day's work4 ,at the busy seasons of seedtime and harvest the day of the farmer and his helpers is from before sunrise until after sunset4 ,as a result of these features the securing of a sufficient labor force at the busy seasons is an agricultural problem of great and constantly-recurring difficulty4 ,time and again it has happened that valuable crops have gone to waste because men could not be hired to harvest them4 ,during the war years the scarcity of labor was especially acute and the wages of farm workers went up very rapidly4 ,it is believed that this problem of getting sufficient labor might be solved by some organized action such as the ,united ,states government took during #aiag-aiah1 recruiting labor in the cities1 moving them from section to section in accordance with the demand1 and effecting a more even distribution of the available workers4 ,farmers' ,organizations4--,it is harder for farmers to organize than for men in most other occupations4 ,they live apart from one another2 they are not dependent upon one another to the same extent that townsmen are2 and their manner of life tends to make them individually self-reliant4 ,in organizing they have1 therefore1 been much less active than workers in industry and commerce4 ,nevertheless there are many farmers' associations in the ,united ,states at the present time and their membership is steadily increasing4 ,some of them are co-operative bodies1 organized for the buying1 selling1 or manufacture of products4 ,others are agricultural societies formed for the purpose of holding fairs and meetings4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,grange and the ,farmers' ,alliance4 ,two farmers' organizations of a fraternal and social nature have spread all over the country4 ,the first is the ,patrons of ,husbandry1 more commonly known as the ,grange4 ,the other is the ,national ,farmers' ,alliance4 ,between them these two organizations include several million members4 ,their main purpose is to promote the social and economic interests of the agricultural population1 but they are also1 on some occasions1 active in politics4 ,farmers' ,institutes1 which are being held under the joint auspices of the national and state agricultural departments in all sections of the country have also contributed to the facilities for popular education and recreation4 ,these institutes are attended by more than two million persons per year4 ,sidenote3 ,the agricultural 8bloc40 ,the ,farmer in ,politics4--,while the farmers of the ,united ,states do not possess a political organization of their own they are able through the various bodies mentioned in the preceding paragraph and through other associations to exercise a very important influence upon the action of the government4 ,many senators and representatives come from sections of the country where the farmers constitute an important element among the voters and on matters affecting the interests of agriculture these legislators usually stand together4 ,in recent years this group of congressmen from the agricultural areas has been commonly known as the 8agricultural bloc02 they do not form an actual majority in ,congress1 but they have usually had enough strength to get what they want4 ,at the session of #aiba they obtained a tariff duty on wheat1 which is in effect a tax on bread1 and any political organization which can put a tax on bread must be powerful indeed4 ,the farmers' lobby at ,washington is exceedingly strong4 ,attempts have been made to unite the farmers in the rural districts with the workers in the cities into a regular political party4 ,at the presidential election of #aibj a so-termed ,farmer-,labor ticket was placed in the field1 but it did not muster much strength4 ,a combination of these two elements1 if it could be effective1 would be all-powerful4 ,it is very doubtful1 however1 if any such political combination can be really made4 ,the interests of the two elements are too far apart4 ,the farmers are producers of food2 the city workers are consumers4 ,one wants prices to stay high2 the other wants them to come down4 ,it will be difficult to get two such groups to come together and to stay together4 ,sidenote3 ,the rural exodus4 ,the ,special ,problems of ,rural ,communities4--,one of the chief problems of every rural community is to keep its young men and women from migrating to the cities and towns4 ,in many parts of the country the agricultural population is steadily declining by reason of the constant exodus to the towns1 and wherever population decreases there is usually a fall in the value of land4#aei ,thereupon the community ceases to move forward2 the lands are neglected2 methods of agriculture fail to keep pace with the times1 and the whole region takes on a shabby appearance4 ,now the chief reason why young men and women leave the rural districts for the cities is to be found in the outward attractiveness of city life4 ,this attractiveness is really not so great as it appears to be2 but it is the appearances that often count4 ,rural comforts and conveniences have been all too few in the past2 the hours of labor have been long and the work often disagreeable2 the dearth of social recreations has also been a factor in making rural life seem monotonous to youth4 ,these drawbacks1 however1 are not essential and permanent features of rural life4 ,the balance of advantage which towns and cities have heretofore possessed is in fact being steadily reduced by the advent of things which greatly enhance the attractiveness of life in rural communities4 ,sidenote3 ,the increasing attractions of rural life4 ,the motor car1 the paved roads1 the parcels post and rural mail delivery1 the extension of telephone service and electric lighting into the country1 the tractor and other labor-saving devices1 the organization of societies and clubs among the young people of the rural areas1 the improvement and centralization of rural schools--all these are having influence4 ,the application of scientific principles to agriculture1 moreover1 has made it a skilled occupation1 not a common industry4 ,routine farming by rule-of-thumb methods is not very interesting and not very profitable2 but scientific farming is both4 ,for these various reasons the exodus from the farms is not likely to be as great in the future as it has been in the past4 ,this is a fortunate circumstance for1 as ,president ,roosevelt once declared1 our whole civilization rests upon the attractiveness as well as the prosperity of rural life4 ,general ,references ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch1 ,american ,economic ,life1 pp4 #bji-bcb2 ,h4 ,c4 ,,taylor1 ,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #ac-cj2 ,g4 ,f4 ,,warren1 ,elements of ,agriculture1 pp4 #cgb-cih2 ,,sir ,,horace ,,plunkett1 ,the ,rural ,life ,problem of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ei-hb2 ,,john ,,phelan1 ,readings in ,rural ,sociology1 pp4 #afb-ahc2 ,k4 ,l4 ,,butterfield1 ,the ,farmer and the ,new ,day1 pp4 #a-bi2 ,e4 ,g4 ,,nourse1 ,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #baj-bbc2 ,a4 ,h4 ,,benson and ,g4 ,h4 ,,betts1 ,agriculture and the ,farming ,business1 pp4 #a-ab2 ,s4 ,j4 ,,buck1 ,the ,agrarian ,crusade1 pp4 #aaa-ada4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,how the national and state departments of agriculture help the farmer in your state4 ,references3 ,j4 ,e4 ,,boyle1 ,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #cab-cbg2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,the ,state and the ,farmer1 pp4 #hi-aaa2 ,e4 ,g4 ,,nourse1 ,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #eec-efe4 #b4 ,making country life more attractive4 ,references3 ,c4 ,j4 ,,galpin1 ,rural ,life1 pp4 #bab-bfj2 ,j4 ,m4 ,,gillette1 ,constructive ,rural ,sociology1 pp4 #afh-aii2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,the ,country ,life ,movement2 ,university of ,virginia1 ,alumni ,bulletins1 ,rural ,life ,conferences1 passim2 ,report of the ,country ,life ,commission4 #c4 ,the farmer in politics4 ,references3 ,s4 ,j4 ,,buck1 ,the ,granger ,movement1 pp4 #cd-ci2 #hj-abb2 ,f4 ,l4 ,,mcvey1 ,the ,populist ,movement1 in ,american ,economic ,association1 ,economic ,studies1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #c 7,august1 #ahif71 pp4 #aca-bji4 #d4 ,who owns the farms in the ,united ,states8 ,references3 ,h4 ,c4 ,,taylor1 ,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #bch-bfi2 ,p4 ,l4 ,,vogt1 ,introduction to ,rural ,sociology1 pp4 #fa-ajj2 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,selected ,readings in ,rural ,economics1 pp4 #dih-edf2 ,e4 ,g4 ,,nourse1 ,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #ffe-fgc2 ,,william ,,kent1 ,land ,tenure and ,public ,policy1 pp4 #bac-bbe4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the farm population of the ,united ,states4 ,p4 ,l4 ,,vogt1 ,introduction to ,rural ,sociology1 pp4 #abj-ade2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,the ,country ,life ,movement1 pp4 #ca-fj4 #b4 ,the rural school and the rural community4 ,,irving ,,king1 ,education for ,social ,efficiency1 pp4 #ba-db2 ,e4 ,p4 ,,cubberley1 ,rural ,life and ,education1 pp4 #afc-agf2 #bbf-bee2 ,,mabel ,,carney1 ,country ,life and the ,country ,school1 pp4 #acc-adh4 #c4 ,the grange4 ,s4 ,j4 ,,buck1 ,the ,granger ,movement1 pp4 #bgi-cja2 ,,mabel ,,carney1 ,country ,life and the ,country ,school1 pp4 #gb-hi4 #d4 ,the non-partisan league4 ,,andrew ,a4 ,,bruce1 ,the ,non-,partisan ,league1 passim2 ,,herbert ,,gaston1 ,the ,non-,partisan ,league1 pp4 #bfi-bhc4 #e4 ,community life in the country4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,galpin1 ,rural ,life1 pp4 #agf-baa2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,the ,country ,life ,movement1 pp4 #ig-acc2 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,rural ,economics1 pp4 #ccd-chb4 #f4 ,the farmer of the ,middle ,west4 ,,john ,,phelan1 ,readings in ,rural ,sociology1 pp4 #bg-dd4 #g4 ,the ,south and the negro farmer4 ,ibid41 pp4 #df-gb4 #h4 ,the ,new ,england farmer4 ,ibid41 pp4 #a-be4 #i4 ,the farmer of the ,rocky ,mountain states4 ,w4 ,e4 ,,smythe1 ,the ,conquest of ,arid ,america1 pp4 #ai-cj2 #aej-afc2 ,f4 ,i4 ,,anderson1 ,the ,farmer of ,tomorrow1 pp4 #ih-adj4 #aj4 ,marketing farm products4 ,e4 ,g4 ,,nourse1 ,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #ebd-edj2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,card1 ,farm ,management1 pp4 #aji-ach2 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,selected ,readings in ,rural ,economics1 pp4 #gfi-ghb2 ,h4 ,c4 ,,taylor1 ,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #ceb-cfe4 #aa4 ,women's place on the farm4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,galpin1 ,rural ,life1 pp4 #aja-aag2 ,,john ,,phelan1 ,readings in ,rural ,sociology1 pp4 #cac-cbd2 ,p4 ,,devuyst1 ,woman's ,place in ,rural ,economy1 pp4 #bc-db4 #ab4 ,rural credits4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,morman1 ,the ,place of ,agriculture in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #caj-cdg2 ,e4 ,g4 ,,nourse1 ,agricultural ,economics1 pp4 #gab-gbc2 #ghi-gie2 ,m4 ,t4 ,,herrick1 ,rural ,credits1 pp4 #dci-dee4 #ac4 ,agriculture and reconstruction4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,morman1 ,the ,place of ,agriculture in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #adf-ahj4 ,questions #a4 ,name the various types of agricultural activity and indicate on the map where they are chiefly carried on4 #b4 ,place the following agricultural products in the order of their relative annual value 7referring to the ,world ,almanac for such information as is not given in the text72 wood1 cotton1 rice1 wheat1 cattle1 corn1 sheep1 sugar1 tobacco4 #c4 ,explain fully the law of diminishing returns as applied to agricultural land4 ,name some of its effects4 #d4 ,what are the chief chemical elements in agricultural soil8 ,how are they saved from exhaustion8 ,what is the order of crop-rotation practiced in your district and why is this order chosen8 ,explain how the 8cover-crop0 system helps the soil4 #e4 ,list1 in what seems to you to be their order of importance1 the services rendered by the ,national ,department of ,agriculture4 #f4 ,how are ,farm ,loan ,banks financed8 ,what functions do they perform8 #g4 ,find out how a ,grange is organized1 what officers it has1 and what members do at their meetings4 #h4 ,the government assures to the owners of the railroads a minimum return on their invested capital 7see p4 #cfg74 ,should it guarantee the farmer a minimum price for his products8 #i4 ,do you believe that the farmers are justified in organizing a 8bloc0 in ,congress to promote their own interests8 ,if the industrial workers1 the shopkeepers1 the manufacturers and so forth were to do likewise1 how would this affect the party system8 #aj4 ,explain how the attractiveness of rural life has been increased in recent years4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the national government should 7a7 directly engage in improved road-building for the benefit of agricultural areas2 or 7b7 assist the states by grants of money for this purpose2 or 7c7 leave the matter entirely to the states and communities4 #b4 ,farmers and cattlemen should be permitted to form organizations in order to prevent competition and keep up the prices of their products1 although such agreements among manufacturers are forbidden4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,encouragement ,,and ,,regulation ,,of ,,commerce4 ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain what commerce is1 how it is regulated1 and what the government does to promote it4 ,sidenote3 ,who are engaged in commerce4 ,the ,purposes of ,commerce4--,the people of the world spend a large part of their energy in supplying their material wants1 including food1 clothing1 and shelter4 ,we commonly think of the farmer and the manufacturer as the ones chiefly engaged in this task1 but if you stop to think of it you will quickly realize that the farmers could not feed the world nor could the manufacturers clothe it without the aid of another important class1 which includes merchants1 traders1 transportation workers--in a word1 all who are engaged in commerce4 ,the purpose of commerce is not to create things but to put economic goods into the hands of those who need them4 ,it places commodities where they are wanted at the time when they are wanted4 ,sidenote3 ,commerce produces values4 ,in this sense commerce is a great producer1 a producer of values4 ,it fetches the raw material from the mines or agricultural areas to the industries4 ,it brings the products of the factories to the merchant and from the merchant to the homes of the people4 ,it helps to adjust the supply to the demand4 ,without commerce there would be an abundance of things in one place and a shortage in another4 ,commercial organization permits every part of the country1 and indeed every part of the civilized world1 to produce the things which it is best fitted to produce and to use these things in buying goods made elsewhere4 ,florida grows oranges and ,massachusetts makes shoes1 but through channels of commerce each secures what it needs from the products of the other4 ,sidenote3 ,commerce in its earliest forms4 ,the ,development of ,commerce4--,now although the advantages of commerce are so easy to realize1 the commercial system of the modern world took many centuries to develop4 ,primitive people did not have many wants and all of them they supplied by their own exertions4 ,each little group of people1 each tribe or village1 met its own needs4 ,then trade between different villages and tribes began4 ,it grew slowly in the early ages because there were no easy means of transporting goods1 and because neighboring tribes were so often hostile to each other4 ,this early trade was conducted by barter1 the direct exchange of one article for another1 there being no general use of money as a medium of exchange4 ,as time went on the area of trade widened until it covered whole countries1 and finally expanded into international trade or commerce between different countries4 ,sidenote3 ,inventions which have helped commerce to grow4 ,this widening kept step with improvements in the methods of transportation from pack-horse to wagon1 from wagon to railroad1 and from sailing vessel to steamship4 ,the expansion of trade was also aided by the growth of strong governments which protected the trader and made the paths of commerce safe4 ,likewise the general use of money facilitated the operations of trade2 so did the creation of a system of commercial credit4 ,without railroads and steamships1 law and order1 money and credit1 it would not be possible to carry on commerce as we have it today4 ,if the world can feed and clothe and shelter an enormously greater population than it could two hundred years ago this is not because the people work harder2 it is because they work more intelligently and because they have created that gigantic system of economic co-operation which we call commerce4 ,sidenote3 ,commerce includes exchange4 ,the ,scope of ,commerce4--,it is an error to suppose that commerce is concerned only with the transportation of goods4 ,its scope is far wider4 ,commerce includes not only the moving of goods but the whole process of buying and selling4 ,wholesalers1 jobbers1 retailers1 together with all those who work for them are engaged in commerce4 ,not only are the steamship lines1 the railroads1 and the motor trucks entitled to be called agencies of commerce1 but the telegraph and telephone systems as well4 ,the pipe lines which carry oil from the depths of the earth to the great cities are instrumentalities of commerce2 so are the gas mains in the streets1 the subways1 and the street cars4 ,the postal service1 likewise1 is one of the most important factors in expediting commercial transactions4 ,sidenote3 ,it depends upon currency and credit4 ,commerce cannot be carried on1 at least in any large measure1 without currency and credit4 ,hence the whole system of money and banking links itself up closely with commercial organization4 ,goods are bought on credit by the wholesaler1 and sold on credit to the retail merchant who1 in turn1 often sells on credit to his customers4 ,the banks and other credit institutions provide the money to carry on these operations of trade4 ,so when one takes all these things into account it will be seen that a considerable proportion of the people are engaged in one or another of the various branches of commerce4 ,sidenote3 ,local1 interstate1 and international commerce4 ,the ,three ,fields of ,commerce4--,in order to clarify the relations of government to commerce it is necessary1 at the outset1 to distinguish between three fields or types of commerce4 ,the first is local or intra-state commerce1 which comprises all the trading operations carried on within the boundaries of a single state4 ,goods produced in ,pittsburgh and marketed in ,philadelphia are said to be within the sphere of local or intra-state commerce4 ,as such they are wholly within the jurisdiction of the state of ,pennsylvania4 ,in the second place there is a large amount of commerce which1 originating in one state1 crosses into another4 ,shoes made in ,massachusetts are shipped to ,indiana2 cotton grown in ,georgia is sent to ,new ,york to be manufactured4 ,this is called national or inter-state commerce and it is under the jurisdiction of the federal government4 ,finally1 trade is carried on between the ,united ,states and foreign countries and this is known as international commerce4 ,it also is subject to regulation by the federal government4 ,sidenote3 ,the state governments control local commerce4 ,local ,commerce4--,each state makes provision for the encouragement and regulation of commerce within its own territory4 ,the communities and the state provide the improved roads which are essential for trade between country and town4 ,the development of motor cars1 motor trucks1 and suburban trolley lines has greatly increased the facility with which this trade can be carried on4 ,each state1 again1 has control over the street railways1 short-line railroads1 and other channels of commerce within its own borders4 ,this control is exercised through provisions of laws made by the state legislatures1 but the enforcement of these regulations is usually placed in the hands of one or more boards1 commonly known as public service commissions 7see pp4 #dhj-dha74 ,it is the duty of these commissions to see that the rates charged are reasonable and that adequate service is rendered4 ,the jurisdiction of the state authorities1 it should be repeated1 does not extend over any commercial operations which are not strictly local2 if the commerce concerns more than a single state it can be regulated only by the national government4 ,,interstate ,,commerce ,,and ,,the ,,railroads ,sidenote3 ,interstate commerce in early days4 ,interstate ,commerce4--,during the years which immediately followed the ,revolutionary ,war the several states were free to make their own regulations for the encouragement and control of commerce4 ,accordingly they began to compete with one another for trade1 each trying to increase its own prosperity at the expense of the others4 ,this led to ill-feeling1 of course1 and finally to retaliation4 ,one state would offer inducements to bring vessels into its ports2 the others1 in self-defence1 held out even greater inducements4 ,this rivalry soon got to the point where it looked as if some of the states might come to blows4#afj ,so1 when the framers of the national constitution met at ,philadelphia in #aghg1 they gave particular attention to the problem of ending this unwholesome rivalry by placing the regulation of all interstate and foreign commerce under a single1 central authority4 ,sidenote3 ,the constitution places interstate commerce under federal control4 ,the national constitution1 therefore1 transferred this regulating power from the states to ,congress1 by vesting in it the power 8to regulate commerce with foreign nations1 and among the several states1 and with the ,indian tribes04 ,this is a very important provision in the supreme law of the land1 and it has had a far-reaching influence in building up the commerce of the ,united ,states4 ,one can realize what might have happened if every state had been left at liberty to put duties upon goods imported from other states and to bestow all sorts of advantages upon its own merchants4 ,under such an arrangement a closely-knit1 unified country would have been impossible1 for freedom of trade within a nation is an indispensable factor in bringing the whole people into close and friendly relations4 ,the adoption of this clause in the national constitution meant that all trade1 from one end of the land to the other1 could be carried on freely1 without let or hindrance1 subject only to such uniform regulations as ,congress might provide4 ,sidenote3 ,this control is now very extensive4 ,in the days when the national constitution was adopted1 the carriers of commerce were few and primitive4 ,trade between different states was conducted by wagon and sailing vessels2 there were no railroads1 steamships1 street cars1 motor trucks1 telegraphs1 telephones1 or parcels post4 ,the cost of transporting goods was so great that it did not pay to ship them far4 ,goods were made almost wholly for the local market4 ,but when the constitution endowed ,congress with the power 8to regulate commerce0 it gave to this body a right which has been sufficiently broad to cover all the great developments of the past hundred years4 ,whatever comes within the term 8commerce01 no matter howsoever carried on1 is within the purview of ,congress if it concerns more than a single state4 ,a large part of the commerce of the ,united ,states today does concern more than a single state4 ,the great railroads traverse several states1 sometimes a dozen or more of them4 ,goods sent from ,new ,york to ,los ,angeles pass through ten or twelve states on their journey4 ,even street car lines sometimes cross the state boundaries4 ,to the trader a state boundary means nothing2 it is only a mark on the map4 ,trade moves wherever the chance of profit appears4 ,it pays no attention to political divisions within the country4 ,sidenote3 ,what interstate commerce includes4 ,interstate commerce1 then1 includes all agencies of trade among the states3 steamships1 sailing vessels1 railroads1 street railways1 motor trucks1 telegraphs1 telephone systems1 oil pipelines1 power lines1 and all passengers1 goods1 messages1 or anything else carried by them4 ,all persons who have to do with such things are engaged in interstate commerce4 ,but interstate commerce does not include the manufacture of goods in any state1 even though they be intended for sale in other states4 ,commerce does not begin until the product is finished and started on its way4 ,once started on their way1 with a destination in another state1 the goods pass under the supervision of the national government4 ,passengers traveling from ,chicago to ,st4 ,louis1 or goods shipped from one of these cities to the other1 or messages exchanged between them by telegraph1 for example1 are under the supervision of the national government from start to finish4 ,illinois and ,missouri have nothing to do with them4 ,sidenote3 ,railroads and steamships were at first not regulated4 ,how ,interstate ,commerce is ,regulated4--,for many years after the constitution was adopted there was no need for the regulation of interstate commerce because so little of it was carried on4 ,not until the era of steamships and railroads did commerce develop to a point where any strict regulation was necessary4 ,the earliest railroads1 moreover1 were short lines constructed and operated wholly within single states4 ,they were built by corporations under charters granted by the states4 ,frequently these charters were given for an indefinite term1 and they placed no limits upon the rates which the railroad might charge for the transportation of passengers and goods4 ,the chief concern of the people in those days was to get railroads built4 ,as time went on1 however1 the state authorities became more strict in granting charters for the construction of railroads and1 finally1 most of them established commissions to protect passengers and shippers from unreasonable rates4 ,meanwhile1 however1 another development was going on1 namely1 the consolidation of these small railroads into trunk lines or long stretches of railway4 ,the reason for this consolidation was the opportunity to make larger earnings from through traffic and at the same time to give better service4 ,the opening-up of the ,west led to the building of new trunk lines and to further consolidations1 especially during the years immediately following the ,civil ,war4 ,in this way single railroads spread themselves far outside the territory of a single state2 their tracks ran into many states4 ,sidenote3 ,but this freedom from control was abused4 ,the corporations controlling such trunk lines became big and powerful4 ,they fixed rates to suit themselves and often favored one section of the country at the expense of others1 or gave to large shippers an undue advantage over the smaller4#afa ,where there was but one railroad in any district everyone was at its mercy4 ,exorbitant rates could be charged4 ,on the other hand1 where there were competing lines between two cities the rivalry of the roads often forced the rates down to a point where goods were carried at a loss4 ,sometimes the competing roads1 realizing the folly of this competition1 formed a 8pool0 or agreement to share the traffic proportionately1 and then each put up its rates to a high level4 ,these practices were inimical to the best interests of commerce4 ,they gave rise to so much complaint that ,congress eventually responded by placing the interstate railroads under government regulation4 ,this it did by the ,interstate ,commerce ,act of #ahhg4 ,sidenote3 ,the beginnings of federal regulation4 ,the ,interstate ,commerce ,act of #ahhg4--;,by the provisions of this act and the various amendments which have been made to it during the past thirty-five years1 all corporations engaged in interstate commerce 7which includes not only railroad companies1 but express1 sleeping car1 telegraph1 and telephone companies7 must maintain reasonable rates2 must make these rates public2 and must not discriminate in favor of any locality or shipper4 ,the formation of 8pools0 is illegal2 the granting of free passes to other than railroad officials is forbidden2 and all the important activities of the railroads are subject to governmental supervision4 ,these various provisions were not all enacted in #ahhg4 ,the legislation of that date merely made a substantial beginning4 ,several amending laws1 passed from time to time during the past thirty-five years1 have steadily extended the scope of regulation and have also endeavored to secure greater safety in the operation of the railroads4 ,sidenote3 ,organization and work of the ,i4 ,c4 ,c4 ,the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission4--,congress realized in #ahhg that it was not enough to pass a regulatory law2 it must also provide some means of enforcing the regulations4 ,so a board1 known as the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission1 was established and it has now become one of the most powerful regulating bodies in the world4 ,at the outset it had five members2 now it has eleven4 ,they are appointed by the ,president4 ,the commission's function is1 in general1 to see that the national laws relating to carriers of interstate commerce are strictly observed4 ,it fixes the maximum rates1 hears complaints1 adjusts disagreements1 and prevents discrimination4 ,in the case of the railroads its powers have recently been widened by the provisions of the ,transportation ,act of #aibj1 as will be seen presently4 ,sidenote3 ,methods by which railroads consolidated4 ,railroad ,consolidation and the ,sherman ,act4--,there are at least three ways in which railroad consolidations have been effected in the ,united ,states4 ,the first and simplest method has been outright purchase1 one railroad buying up another4 ,the second is by lease1 one road leasing another for a long term of years1 thus becoming the virtual owner4 ,the third is by forming what is commonly called a 8holding company0 which steps in and takes the controlling ownership of both roads4 ,in this case neither road buys or leases the other1 but both put themselves into the control of a new corporation which proceeds to have the lines operated as though they formed a single road4 ,the objection to these consolidations is that1 in many cases1 they stifle competition and create a monopoly4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,sherman ,act4 ,so ,congress in #ahij enacted the ,sherman ,anti-,trust ,act1 a measure which although it was not primarily aimed at the railroads1 prohibited all combinations in restraint of trade or commerce among the several states4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,northern ,securities ,case4 ,for several years1 however1 this law was left unenforced1 but in #aijd it was invoked in the ,northern ,securities ,case to dissolve a combination of two great railroads1 the ,northern ,pacific and the ,great ,northern1 both of which had passed into the control of a holding company4 ,the ,supreme ,court held the consolidation to be illegal and ordered that the roads should be restored to a competitive basis4 ,the same process was applied to various other roads which had been merged in the years following #ahij and a general 8unscrambling of omelets0 took place4 ,railroad competition1 however1 is often wasteful and actually results in higher rates4 ,to consolidate two or more small railroads into a larger one may actually cheapen rather than increase the cost of transportation4 ,the practical problem is to permit consolidation in such cases while preventing it in others4 ,this was what the ,supreme ,court was endeavoring to do by a flexible enforcement of the ,anti-,trust ,act when the ,world ,war broke out and created new problems4 ,sidenote3 ,government operation of the railroads1#aiag-aibj4 ,the ,railroads in ,war ,time4--,in #aiag1 when the ,united ,states entered the war1 it seemed advisable that ,congress should place in the hands of the ,president a wide range of authority in connection with the mobilization and transportation of troops and war supplies4 ,by virtue of these powers ,president ,wilson1 in the closing days of the same year1 took over the operation of all the important railroads in the country and placed them in charge of a director-general appointed by himself4 ,the question of compensating the owners of the railroads was settled by providing that they should receive an annual payment equal to the average net earnings of the three preceding years4 ,it was also stipulated that the railroads should be given back to their owners in as good physical condition as when they were taken over1 this return to be made within twenty-one months after the close of the war4 ,sidenote3 ,how this plan worked4 ,during the whole of the years #aiah-aiai the railroads were operated by the government4 ,from the standpoint of profit-making1 government operation did not prove a success4 ,the cost of labor and materials rose enormously during the war and continued to rise after the fighting ended4 ,but passenger and freight rates were not proportionally increased1 hence there was a large deficit which had to be paid out of the government treasury4 ,the service given to the public by the railroads while they were operated by the government1 moreover1 was not very satisfactory2 although in partial explanation of this it must be remembered that the carrying of troops and supplies during #aiah placed a great strain upon the whole transportation system4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,plumb ,plan4 ,but if government operation was not altogether satisfactory to passengers and shippers1 it was popular with the railroad employees4 ,they were much more generously treated under government operation than they had been when the roads were in private hands4 ,some of their leaders accordingly brought forward a plan which proposed that the roads should not be handed back to private operation but should be purchased by the government and managed by joint boards representing the government1 the employees1 and the public4 ,this proposal was commonly known as the ,plumb ,plan4 ,it had the support not only of the railroad brotherhoods1 or organizations of railroad employees1 but of other labor bodies as well4 ,congress1 however1 did not fall in with this scheme and decided to deal with the railroads in an altogether different way4 ,sidenote3 ,the return of the railroads to private operation4 ,the ,transportation ,act of #aibj4--,the railroads were returned to private operation in the spring of #aibj under the provisions of the ,transportation ,act4 ,this legislation gave the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission complete authority over the fixing of railroad rates but stipulated that they should be high enough to enable the railroads in each section of the country to earn a net income of five and one-half per cent on their valuation and a further amount1 not to exceed one-half of one per cent for improvements at the discretion of the commission for two years from ,march #a1 #aiba4afb ,the act contained two new and very important provisions4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,railway ,labor ,board4 ,it stipulated that a ,railway ,labor ,board should be established1 consisting of nine members appointed by the ,president4 ,this board has the function of adjusting disputes between the railroads and their employees concerning wages or conditions of labor4#afc ,it also contained provisions allowing the consolidation of railroads in each section of the country with the consent of the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission4 ,sidenote3 ,the importance of the railroads to industry4 ,the ,future of the ,railroads4--,the railroads are the commercial arteries of the nation4 ,some idea of their importance may be gained from the fact that the railroads of the ,united ,states carry a billion passengers each year and nearly two billion tons of freight4 ,their mileage is greater than that of the railroads in the whole of ,europe4 ,if all the tracks of ,american railroads were placed end to end1 they would girdle the earth eight or ten times4 ,they represent a huge investment of capital--nearly twenty billions--or nearly as much as the entire national debt4 ,it is true that a good deal of our commerce is now carried on by steamships1 canal boats1 motor trucks1 and electric railways1 but we still place greater dependence upon the railroads than upon all these other carriers put together4 ,reasonable freight rates and good service are essential to the progress of industry4 ,this being the case1 it is imperative that there should be governmental control in the interests of passengers and shippers4 ,on the other hand the railroads1 to perform their service adequately1 must be assured a sufficient revenue and given due scope for the exercise of private initiative4 ,sidenote3 ,motor competition4 ,the railroads have been compelled1 in recent years1 to face a new form of competition1 that of motor cars and motor trucks4 ,these have a great advantage in that they use highways which have been built entirely at the public expense1 whereas the railroads have to buy the land on which their tracks are laid and pay the cost of maintaining their roadbed4 ,the use of the public highways for freight-carrying by heavy motor trucks imposes a heavy cost upon the taxpayer for the repair of roads4#afd ,,international ,,trade ,,and ,,tariff ,,policy ,sidenote3 ,the beginnings of ,american foreign trade4 ,international ,commerce3 ,its ,beginnings4--,before the ,revolution a considerable amount of trade was carried on between the ,american colonies and various ,european countries1 chiefly ,great ,britain4 ,after the winning of independence this foreign commerce began to grow rapidly because the hindrances that had formerly been imposed upon it were now removed4 ,moreover1 the ,napoleonic wars in ,europe brought about an enormous increase in the demand for ,american foodstuffs4 ,these wars retarded agriculture in ,europe and forced the various countries to import supplies from overseas4 ,american shipping developed greatly during the period #agij-ahje1 but it thereafter received a set-back owing to the blockades and the ,embargo ,act of #ahjg1 followed a few years later by a four-years' war with ,england4 ,tariff ,policy4--,during the period immediately preceding the framing of the constitution each of the thirteen states was free to regulate its own commercial relations4 ,each determined for itself whether it would permit imports to come in freely from other states and other countries or whether it would impose duties on such imports4 ,sidenote3 ,the constitution empowers ,congress to regulate foreign trade4 ,this arrangement proved altogether unsatisfactory and the constitution gave to ,congress complete authority to control commerce with foreign countries and among the states4 ,this action was taken primarily to afford ,congress an adequate revenue in the way of taxes on imports1 although it was also designed to put an end to undue commercial rivalry among the states themselves4 ,in #agib1 therefore1 ,congress passed our first tariff law1 a measure designed mainly to bring forth income for the new federal government but also to afford protection to ,american industries4 ,sidenote3 ,this is done by tariffs4 ,this act of #agib marks the beginning of a long line of tariff measures1 some imposing high duties on imports and some setting these duties at lower rates4#afe ,sidenote3 ,the ,tariff ,commission4 ,the making of the tariff is in the hands of ,congress but the function of studying the industrial needs of the country is entrusted to a ,tariff ,commission of six members appointed by the ,president4 ,this commission is empowered to make recommendations to ,congress1 but ,congress is under no obligation to follow its advice nor has it usually done so4 ,tariff rates are fixed1 for the most part1 in obedience to political pressure4 ,sidenote3 ,the case for protection4 ,the ,argument for ,protective ,tariffs4--,why should ,american industry be given protection by tariff duties against foreign competition8 ,the answer to this question was first given by ,alexander ,hamilton in his famous ,report on ,manufactures 7#agij7 and it has been elaborated by many writers since ,hamilton's time4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,it develops young industries4 ,the chief arguments in favor of protection are that it helps home industry1 develops a home market1 raises wages and keeps them high1 provides employment for a country's own workmen1 and makes a country independent of others4 ,protection1 it is claimed1 helps new industries or 8infant industries0 to get on their feet4 ,these new industries1 if not shielded against the pressure of foreign competition in their early stages would be unable to make headway1 but if given adequate protection for a time they ultimately get well established and add to the nation's industrial strength4 ,this industrial growth1 it is argued1 helps the farmer by creating a home market for his agricultural produce4 ,the growth of industry creates large cities and these centers of population form the farmer's best market4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,it keeps wages up4 ,those who favor the policy of protection also argue that if high duties were not imposed upon imports from other countries1 the wages of the ,american workman would fall and many would be out of employment4 ,until recent years the general rate of wages in ,european countries has been much lower than in the ,united ,states1 but since the ,world ,war the disparity has not been so great4 ,the lower wages of labor in ,europe have enabled goods to be produced more cheaply there than in ,america1 and were it not for the protective tariff1 the ,united ,states would be flooded with these products of underpaid ,european workers4 ,in the end the ,american scale of wages would be forced down to the same level--so the protectionists argue4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,it promotes an all-around economic development4 ,finally1 there is the nationalist argument for protection4 ,to be strong and independent a country ought to have an all-around economic development4 ,its people ought not to devote their entire energies to agriculture alone4 ,all branches of economic life ought to be fostered together4 ,a country should aim to provide1 so far as possible1 for all its own needs2 it should not be dependent on other countries for its food supply1 its manufactured goods1 or its shipping4 ,it is difficult for a country to reach this condition of affairs in any case1 and even a near approach to it can only be achieved by the artificial nurture of the weaker economic activities1 which is what the protective tariff endeavors to supply4 ,sidenote3 ,the case against protection3 ,the ,argument for ,free ,trade4--,although the foregoing arguments for protection have carried great weight in the ,united ,states during the past fifty years there are many ,americans who believe that trade with foreign countries ought to be free from all tariff duties1 or1 at any rate1 free from all duties except such as may be needed to provide a revenue4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,it creates artificial economic conditions4 ,those who believe in 8free trade01 or in a 8tariff for revenue only0 make the point that every country ought to devote itself to those industries which it can carry on most advantageously and should not try to produce for itself the things which can more cheaply be imported from other countries4 ,protection1 they claim1 merely diverts capital and labor into industries for which a country is not naturally adapted1 and thus makes production expensive4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,it keeps prices up4 ,it keeps wages up by keeping prices up1 and thus deprives the workman of the advantage which high wages are supposed to bring4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,it fosters industrial monopolies4 ,the policy of protection is also criticised on the ground that it fosters the creation of great industrial combinations1 leads to the establishment of monopolies1 and encourages corruption in politics by giving particular industries a financial interest in governmental action4 ,the free traders believe that there is no more reason for protective duties upon trade between different nations than there is for similar duties upon trade among the several states of the ,union4 ,sidenote3 ,why foreign trade is important4 ,the ,encouragement of ,foreign ,commerce4--,the work of the national government is not confined to the regulation and restriction of commerce2 it is concerned with the encouragement and promotion of trade as well4 ,this promotion of foreign trade is an important branch of the government's work because the prosperity of the ,united ,states depends to a considerable extent upon its commerce with other countries4 ,america produces a large surplus of grain1 meat1 cotton1 and other merchandise which must be marketed abroad4 ,on the other hand there are many commodities1 such as sugar1 tea1 coffee1 rubber1 and silk which cannot be produced in sufficient quantities here and hence must be imported4 ,the aim of the government is to help our exporters find the best foreign markets for their goods and to facilitate the acquisition of such foreign products as the country requires4 ,this help is rendered in various ways1 by making commercial treaties with foreign countries1 by maintaining a consular service1 by giving encouragement to ,american shipping1 and by the creation of a ,department of ,commerce in the national administration4#aff ,commercial ,treaties4--,from time to time the ,united ,states has established1 by treaty1 commercial relations with other countries4 ,these treaties are made for the mutual advantage of both parties4 ,they usually provide that citizens of each country may carry on trade with one another subject to the established tariffs1 and that there shall be no governmental discrimination against such trade4#afg ,they allow each country to maintain consuls in the territory of the other4 ,on a few occasions the ,united ,states has concluded reciprocity treaties providing for reciprocal free trade1 in whole or in part1 with other countries4 ,an arrangement of this sort was made with ,canada in #ahed but was brought to an end twelve years later4 ,the ,consular ,service4--,commerce with foreign countries is assisted and facilitated by the consular service4 ,the ,united ,states maintains consuls in all important foreign countries and these countries1 in turn1 send their consuls here4 ,there are several classes of officials in the consular service2 the more important are consuls-general1 consuls1 and consular agents4 ,consuls-general are stationed at the larger foreign ports and exercise a general supervision over consuls in their respective districts4 ,consuls and consular agents are maintained in less important foreign centers of trade4 ,sidenote3 ,how consuls are appointed4 ,all members of the ,american consular service are appointed by the ,president1 but since #aijf the selections have been made by competitive examinations for the lower grades and by promotion for the higher4 ,sidenote3 ,their duties4 ,members of the consular service gather information concerning trade opportunities and send this information to ,washington where it is printed and distributed to ,american merchants and manufacturers4 ,consuls verify the invoices of goods shipped to the ,united ,states so as to avoid delay at the custom house4 ,they assist ,american citizens who may be traveling abroad1 particularly those who go abroad to buy merchandise4 ,in a word they are the sentinels of ,american foreign commerce4 ,until #aijf the ,american consular service was not highly efficient because the appointment of consuls was usually made on political grounds4 ,men who had rendered service in party politics were often given important consular positions although possessed of no real qualifications for the work which they were expected to do4 ,moreover1 whenever a change of administration took place in ,washington many consuls were removed from office and new ones appointed4 ,this injured the service by preventing the development of experienced officials4 ,since #aijf the situation has greatly improved because appointments and promotions have been made upon a basis of merit alone4 ,the ,merchant ,marine4--,in order that a country may build up a profitable foreign trade it should have vessels of its own in which to carry exports and imports4 ,trade that depends entirely upon the use of foreign vessels is insecure1 because the outbreak of war between two or more foreign countries may keep these ships at home4 ,so the development of ,american maritime commerce has seemed to make desirable the maintenance of a merchant fleet under the ,american flag4 ,sidenote3 ,early ,american shipping4 ,since the ,revolution there has always been such a fleet2 sometimes it has been large1 but more often it has been small4#afh ,after #aiae1 when the ,german submarine campaign resulted in the wholesale sinking of ,british and ,french merchant vessels1 the demand for ships became acute4 ,sidenote3 ,the building of ships during the war4 ,american shipyards once more grew busy and expanded rapidly4 ,in #aiaf1 moreover1 ,congress passed a ,shipping ,act1 designed to foster the growth of the merchant marine1 and when the ,united ,states entered the war in #aiag an ,emergency ,fleet ,corporation was created to build a great flotilla of vessels at the public cost and a ,shipping ,board to operate them4 ,the work was not completed when the war came to an end1 nevertheless several hundred vessels were added to the list of ,america's ocean carriers4 ,as a result of these efforts the merchant marine of the ,united ,states is once more the second largest in the world2 but the problem now is to keep these ships busy4 ,foreign trade began to fall off after the ,american forces had been brought back from ,europe and hundreds of the new ships have remained tied up in ,american harbors4 ,some have been sold to private companies2 others have been operated by private companies under lease2 still others are being operated directly by the ,shipping ,board4#afi ,the ,bureau of ,foreign and ,domestic ,commerce4--,the progress of foreign commerce depends not only upon ships and ports but upon the possession of accurate knowledge concerning the course of markets and prices abroad4 ,data on such matters are gathered1 as has been pointed out1 by the ,american consular service4 ,sidenote3 ,statistics of trade--their value4 ,this is supplemented1 however1 by statistics collected for the ,bureau of ,foreign and ,domestic ,commerce at ,washington1 an office which is maintained to provide ,american business men with accurate and up-to-date information concerning every branch of foreign commerce4 ,the bureau collects and translates the tariff laws of foreign countries1 makes investigations into the cost of producing goods both in ,america and abroad1 and studies all possible methods of making ,american foreign trade more profitable4 ,it affords a good illustration of the way in which the government1 without itself engaging in trade1 may assist the private enterprises of the people4 ,future of ,foreign ,commerce4--,ocean transportation has made enormous strides forward during the past twenty years4 ,sidenote3 ,what new inventions may do for trade4 ,wireless communication now enables ships to keep in touch with each other and with the shore1 thus making navigation safer4 ,it has been demonstrated by naval experiments that great ships can be steered and their machinery controlled by radio apparatus in the hands of men several hundred miles away4 ,then there is the airship and the airplane1 in both of which it has been shown to be possible to cross the ,atlantic far above the surface without a stop4 ,it seems to be beyond doubt that air carriers will1 even within our own generation1 be used to carry mail overseas as they are now being used on land1 and probably passengers as well4 ,the day may come when goods1 also1 will be ferried through the air from continent to continent in less than a single day4 ,the march of invention in this as in other fields is so rapid that no one can tell today what the morrow may bring forth4#agj ,but of one thing we may be hopeful3 that even as the era of rail transportation served to bring all parts of the country into more intimate relation1 so may it come to pass that the world of the future will find all its distant parts brought into more friendly contact by the development of these twentieth-century miracles of rapid transit4 ,commerce and ,peace4--,commerce between countries helps to promote international good-feeling and friendship4 ,it is true that commercial rivalries have sometimes inspired international jealousy and have even paved the way to war2 but legitimate trade1 honestly carried on between nations1 is far more likely to prove a means of drawing them together4 ,from their commercial intercourse nations derive mutual profit4 ,by trading with one another they learn to understand each other4 ,isolation makes for suspicion and war4 ,world commerce makes for peace4 ,general ,references ,h4 ,g4 ,,selfridge1 ,the ,romance of ,commerce1 pp4 #bcj-bci2 #cah-cdi2 ,c4 ,f4 ,,carter1 ,when ,railroads ,were ,new1 pp4 #cc-gd2 ,e4 ,r4 ,,johnson and ,f4 ,w4 ,,van ,,metre1 ,principles of ,railroad ,transportation1 pp4 #dib-ecd2 ,,clive ,,day1 ,a ,history of ,commerce1 pp4 #dhe-eag2 #efd-egi2 ,e4 ,r4 ,,johnson1 ,american ,railway ,transportation1 #b;d ed41 pp4 #eb-fh2 #cfg-che2 ,,isaac ,,lippincott1 ,economic ,development of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ebj-edi2 #faa-fcd2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ejh-ede 7,protection and ,free ,trade72 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cfc-cif 7,railway ,problems72 ,,james ,t4 ,,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government and ,its ,work1 pp4 #aai-adj 7,the ,regulation of ,commerce72 #ahg-bjb 7,federal ,power ,over ,interstate ,commerce72 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bdf-bfd 7,the ,commerce ,power72 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch1 ,american ,economic ,life1 pp4 #bgc-bif2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,van ,,hise1 ,concentration and ,control1 pp4 #d-cd2 #agj-aib2 ,i4 ,l4 ,,sharfman1 ,the ,american ,railroad ,problem1 pp4 #ajj-ahf4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the problem of ,american railroads--government operation--the ,plumb plan--the ,transportation ,act--what of the future8 ,the growth of ,american railroads4 ,railroad consolidation4 ,development of government supervision4 ,the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission and its work4 ,why railroads were not permitted to consolidate4 ,the government's experience with the railroads1 #aiag-aibj4 ,the ,adamson law4 ,government operation4 ,labor problems under government operation4 ,the ,plumb plan4 ,why it was not adopted4 ,the provisions of the ,transportation ,act 7,esch-,cummins law74 ,difficulties now being encountered by the railroads4 ,proposed consolidations4 ,the outlook for railroad transportation4 ,references3 ,,john ,,moody1 ,the ,railroad ,builders1 pp4 #baa-bda2 ,j4 ,j4 ,,hill1 ,highways of ,progress1 pp4 #aad-aci2 ,c4 ,f4 ,,carter1 ,when the ,railroads ,were ,new1 pp4 #bbf-beh2 ,e4 ,r4 ,,johnson and ,f4 ,w4 ,,van ,,metre1 ,principles of ,railroad ,transportation1 pp4 #efd-egg2 ,w4 ,z4 ,,ripley1 ,railroads1 ,rates and ,regulation1 pp4 #dda-dee2 #deg-eba2 ,,otto ,h4 ,,kahn1 ,our ,economic ,problems1 pp4 #fg-aah2 ,i4 ,l4 ,,sharfman1 ,the ,railroad ,problem1 pp4 #chb-dfd4 #b4 ,what is commerce and how is it regulated8 ,references3 ,the ,federalist1 ,nos4 #g1 #aa1 #ab1 #bb1 #db2 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,critical ,period of ,american ,history1 pp4 #acd-afb2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #cdc-ceh2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dhj-ebj2 ,o4 ,w4 ,,knauth1 ,the ,policy of the ,united ,states towards ,industrial ,monopoly1 pp4 #ff-ib2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,haney1 ,business ,organization and ,combination1 pp4 #chc-dad2 #dai-dcg 7,the ,sherman ,act72 ,a4 ,h4 ,,walker1 ,history of the ,sherman ,law1 passim4 #c4 ,the ,american ,merchant ,marine4 ,how can it be developed8 ,references3 ,,clive ,,day1 ,history of ,commerce1 pp4 #dha-dhc2 #dib-did2 #eac-eae2 #ede-edf2 ,n4 ,s4 ,,shaler1 ,the ,united ,states1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ech-eeh2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,bates1 ,american ,navigation1 pp4 #bcd-bii2 #cce-cej2 ,w4 ,l4 ,,marvin1 ,the ,american ,merchant ,marine1 passim4 #d4 ,how the tariff has helped the nation as a whole4 ,references3 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,tariff ,history of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #aid-bbi2 ,d4 ,r4 ,,dewey1 ,financial ,history of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #hj-hd2 #afa-afd2 #agf-aif2 #bcg-bch2 #bdi-bea2 #bfb-bff2 #dch-dci2 #dfc-dfd and passim2 ,,ida ,m4 ,,tarbell1 ,the ,tariff in ,our ,times1 pp4 #bid-ccj2 ,e4 ,,stanwood1 ,american ,tariff ,controversies1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bdc-bie2 ,e4 ,r4 ,,johnson1 ,ocean and ,inland ,water ,transportation1 pp4 #beg-caj2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #dgf-dha4 #e4 ,our consular service3 its present value and future development4 ,references3 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #fea-fge2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,the ,consular ,service of the ,united ,states3 ,its ,history and ,activities1 passim2 ,f4 ,,van ,,dyne1 ,our ,foreign ,service1 pp4 #aag-agg2 #bag-bhd2 ,f4 ,j4 ,,haskin1 ,the ,american ,government1 pp4 #ad-bf2 ,,gaillard ,,hunt1 ,the ,department of ,state1 pp4 #cca-cdi2 ,a4 ,h4 ,,washburn1 8,some ,evils of ,our ,consular ,service10 in ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,lxxiv1 pp4 #bda-beb4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the commerce of colonial ,america4 ,,george ,l4 ,,beer1 ,the ,commercial ,policy of ,england toward the ,american ,colonies1 especially pp4 #ff-ij2 ,j4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,moore1 ,industrial ,history of the ,american ,people1 pp4 #afc-bjh4 #b4 ,the commercial relations of the states under the ,confederation4 ,,john ,,fiske1 ,the ,critical ,period of ,american ,history1 pp4 #acd-afb4 #c4 ,the embargo and non-intercourse policy of the years #ahjg-ahaa4 ,,edward ,,channing1 ,history of the ,united ,states1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cgi-djj2 #dae2 #dba4 #d4 ,the clipper ships4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,clark1 ,the ,clipper ,ship ,era1 pp4 #agc-aid2 ,r4 ,d4 ,,paine1 ,the ,old ,merchant ,marine1 pp4 #aed-ahd4 #e4 ,some great railroad builders4 ,,john ,,moody1 ,the ,railroad ,builders1 pp4 #afe-agh 7,james ,j4 ,hill72 #aic-baj 7,e4 ,h4 ,harriman74 #f4 ,railroads and land grants4 ,e4 ,l4 ,,bogart1 ,economic ,history of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cdh-cfj2 ,j4 ,b4 ,,sanborn1 ,congressional ,grants of ,land in ,aid of ,railways1 pp4 #fb-ge4 #g4 ,railroad rate discrimination4 ,w4 ,z4 ,,ripley1 ,railroads1 ,rates and ,regulation1 pp4 #aie-bji4 #h4 ,the work of the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #eag-ebg4 #i4 ,the ,sherman ,act and the ,northern ,securities ,case4 ,,james ,t4 ,,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government and ,its ,work1 pp4 #ada-afd4 #aj4 ,our foreign trade today4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,hammond and ,j4 ,w4 ,,jenks1 ,great ,american ,issues1 pp4 #aie-bji4 #aa4 ,the effects of the tariff on trade4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,some ,aspects of the ,tariff1 pp4 #c-di2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,hammond and ,j4 ,w4 ,,jenks1 ,great ,american ,issues1 pp4 #agd-aid4 #ab4 ,our river and lake commerce4 ,g4 ,s4 ,,callender1 ,economic ,history of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cac-cbf4 #ac4 ,international trade4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch1 ,american ,economic ,life1 pp4 #cgb-chd4 #ad4 ,the ,panama ,canal4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,ogg1 ,national ,progress1 pp4 #bff-bgg2 ,p4 ,l4 ,,haworth1 ,the ,united ,states in ,our ,own ,times1 pp4 #cjj-cji2 ,f4 ,j4 ,,haskin1 ,american ,government1 pp4 #bji-bbj4 #ae4 ,the ,shipping ,board and ,emergency ,fleet ,corporation4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,willoughby1 ,government ,organization in ,war ,time and ,after1 pp4 #aba-afe4 #af4 ,american commerce during the ,world ,war4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,,joseph ,,schafer1 ,democracy in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #cig-dai4 #ag4 ,government operation of the ,railroads4 #aiah-aibj4 ,i4 ,l4 ,,sharfman1 ,the ,american ,railroad ,problem1 pp4 #ajj-aca4 ,questions #a4 ,explain the various ways in which a bushel of wheat could be transported from ,albany to ,new ,york ,city in #agej2 in #ahej2 in #aibj4 ,state the approximate time required in each case4 #b4 ,what commercial functions are now performed by wholesalers1 jobbers1 retailers1 agents1 brokers1 and money-lenders1 respectively4 #c4 ,apportion the following into three columns according to whether they figure1 for the most part1 in the local1 the interstate1 or the foreign commerce of the ,united ,states3 bread1 tea1 oranges1 milk1 spices1 firewood1 brick1 dyestuffs1 automobiles1 shoes1 paper1 tin1 jute1 gravel1 glass1 straw1 potash1 poultry4 #d4 ,name the successive stages in the development of agencies for the transportation of 7a7 passengers2 7b7 goods2 7c7 information4 ,state their relative merits in regard to speed1 dependability1 and cost4 #e4 ,what objections would there be to giving ,congress authority over local commerce8 ,will the new agencies of transportation increase the power of ,congress or of the local authorities8 #f4 ,is there in your state a commission with authority over local commerce8 ,how is it appointed and what are its powers8 #g4 ,what sort of cases come before the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission8 ,the ,railway ,labor ,board8 ,give an example in each case4 #h4 ,among the various arguments for protection which one appears to be the strongest8 ,which seems the strongest argument for free trade8 ,can you suggest any argument on either side in addition to those given in the text8 #i4 ,make a list of the reasons why the ,united ,states should have a large merchant marine1 putting them in the order of their importance4 ,should the government sell or operate its ships8 #aj4 ,if you were planning to fit yourself for the consular service1 what subjects would you study8 ,show how each study would be of help to you in performing your duties as a consul4 ,why are appointments to the consular service made by competitive examination8 #aa4 ,explain what is meant by the following statements and give illustrations3 8,trade follows the flag02 8,commerce makes for peace02 8,trade rivalries lead to war02 8,commerce does not create goods but values04 #ab4 ,during the ,world ,war1 and for a time thereafter1 the exports of the ,united ,states greatly exceeded the imports4 ,what effects do you think this had 7a7 upon prices in this country2 7b7 upon our stock of gold2 7c7 upon tariff policy8 #ac4 ,suggest any ways1 not already utilized1 in which the national government could help the development of 7a7 interstate commerce2 7b7 foreign commerce4 ,subjects for ,debate #a4 ,the national government should own and operate the railways4 #b4 ,our protective policy has benefited 7or injured7 the farmer4 #c4 ,the national government should operate its own ships even if it must operate them at a loss4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,vulcan ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey ,from a mural decoration in the ,pennsylvania ,state ,capitol at ,harrisburg4 ,in this crowded and clanging hive of industry1 where no semblance of order appears visible to the onlooker1 ,vulcan sits aloft on the clouds of smoke and steam directing the actions and energies of the workers to a common end4 ,it is the co-operation of the toilers1 the guidance of their skill and strength1 that makes their work productive4 ,like a mentor the mythical patron of industry1 ,vulcan1 presides over the busy centers of human toil4 ,the general impression which the artist has sought to convey is that of industry reaching its results1 not through the unguided work of individuals1 but by mutual effort under wise and kindly direction4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,vulcan4 ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey ,copyright by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey4 ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,organization ,,and ,,control ,,of ,,industry ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain how ,american industry is organized and how the government has endeavored to regulate this organization in the public interest4 ,sidenote3 ,the broad scope of industry4 ,what is ,industry8--,industry comprises the whole process of converting raw materials into finished products4 ,it includes the production of goods by hand in the workshops1 and by machinery in the factories4 ,agriculture1 mining1 and forestry furnish the raw materials2 industry works them up2 commerce distributes them4 ,in its widest sense industry includes not only manufacturing1 as we ordinarily understand the term1 but mining1 lumbering1 the fisheries1 shipbuilding1 and many other great branches of economic activity4 ,it engages the attention of more than one-third of the ,american workers and is steadily growing to greater relative importance4 ,the ,united ,states is now entitled to be called one of the great 8industrial0 nations of the world4 ,as such its people have many difficult problems to face1 including such things as the proper organization and control of industry1 the improvement of conditions under which it is carried on1 and1 most difficult of all1 the maintenance of good relations between industrial labor and industrial management4 ,the ,old ,industry and the ,new4--,one hundred and fifty years ago practically all industry was carried on by hand4 ,the making of cloth was a home activity2 the yarn was spun by hand and woven into fabric on the hand-loom4 ,shoes were made--soles1 heels1 and uppers--by the village cobbler4 ,the local blacksmith made such agricultural implements as there were4 ,large factories did not exist4 ,but with the application of steam power to industry all this began to change4 ,steam power began to be utilized in ,american industry right after the ,war of ,independence2 it was not widely used at the outset1 but in the course of time it completely revolutionized the methods of industry throughout the world4 ,it supplanted hand methods almost altogether1 drove the village industries out of existence1 and introduced factory production on a large scale4 ,factories containing machinery operated by steam power could produce cloth1 shoes1 implements1 and almost every other sort of manufactured commodity more cheaply than they could be made by hand-industry in the homes or in small shops4 ,so the factory system spread over the length and breadth of the land1 drawing large investments of capital into its vortex1 giving rise to great industrial corporations1 creating a new labor class1 fostering the growth of great cities1 and compelling the government to take a hand in the regulation of industry4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,industrial ,revolution in ,america4 ,this great transformation in industry1 which covered the course of the nineteenth century1 is known as the ,industrial ,revolution1 and a gigantic revolution it was4 ,nothing in modern times has exerted a more profound or far-reaching influence upon the general course of civilization4 ,the factory is the symbol of a new economic order4 ,it has been said1 and rightly1 that three things1--steam1 steel1 and credit1--have revolutionized industry during the past hundred years4 ,industrial ,organization of ,today4--,in the days of hand-industry men needed no large amounts of capital in order to engage in the production of goods4 ,the tools used in hand-industry were not expensive2 nor was it necessary to buy raw materials in large quantities4 ,the things that the workman produced1 moreover1 were sold almost as soon as they were made4 ,sidenote3 ,the use of capital4 ,with the advent of the factory system1 however1 capital in large amounts became essential because buildings and machinery1 both of which are costly1 had to be provided4 ,large stocks of materials must also be kept on hand1 and workmen have to be paid before the goods manufactured by them are sold4 ,so1 whereas one man of relatively small wealth could carry on an industry under the old system1 the combined resources of many men are required under the new4 ,this need of combining the contributions of many persons into a large capital fund has given rise to the modern industrial corporation4 ,sidenote3 ,corporate organization4 ,american industry of today is carried on for the most part1 therefore1 by corporations or companies4 ,an industrial corporation or company is a group of persons1 each of whom contributes a portion of the capital needed to carry on the business4 ,these contributors receive shares in the corporation proportionate to the amounts of money which they invest4 ,the man who contributes one hundred dollars becomes the owner of one share2 the man who invests a thousand dollars receives ten shares4#aga ,an industrial corporation with a capital of a million dollars is able to allot among its stockholders ten thousand shares of the par value of one hundred dollars each4 ,it may have only a few shareholders1 or it may have a great many4 ,these shareholders1 be they many or few1 control the management of the business4 ,they elect each year a board of directors1 who1 in turn1 appoint the officers and managers4 ,the latter purchase the raw materials1 engage the workmen1 supervise their labor1 sell the finished goods1 and distribute the profits among the shareholders in the form of a dividend declared upon each share4 ,every corporation has as its legal basis a charter1 which is a document issued by the governmental authorities1 usually by the state4 ,this charter states the purpose of the corporation and authorizes it to do business4 ,charters of corporations may be revoked if the powers conferred by the charter are misused4 ,sidenote3 ,ways of avoiding industrial competition ,industrial ,agreements and ,pools4--,with large numbers of industrial corporations engaged in the same line of business it is inevitable that they should compete with one another for the sale of their respective products4 ,this competition1 quite naturally1 tends to keep prices down1 because each corporation does its best to get trade by underselling its rivals4 ,but competition which forces down prices also results in reducing profits1 and the industrial corporations often find that higher profits can be earned for their shareholders if some arrangement is made to limit this competition4 ,thus it came to pass that the men who controlled large corporations in the same line of business got together and made informal agreements not to compete in such way as to force prices down4 ,sidenote3 ,gentlemen's agreements4 ,these 8gentlemen's agreements01 so-called because they had no legal force but merely rested upon the honor of the various corporations1 usually provided that a certain scale of prices would be maintained and that no concern would sell its products below this stipulated scale4 ,sidenote3 ,pools4 ,these agreements1 however1 were not altogether satisfactory to the corporations4 ,at the fixed scale of prices some companies1 by reason of special advantages1 were able to make large profits while others earned very little and became dissatisfied4 ,hence a new method1 commonly known as pooling was devised to give every corporation its fair share in the earnings of the entire trade4 ,under this plan each company was allotted a certain territory within which it might sell its products without competition on the part of the others4 ,then1 at the end of the year1 the profits of all the companies were put into a 8pool0 or common fund and so distributed that no company would have a higher rate of earnings than the others4 ,this was an ingenious method of ensuring substantial profits to each corporation1 no matter how well or how badly it was managed4 ,incidentally1 it deprived the public of the benefits which would have come to it1 in reduced prices1 if competition had been freely carried on4 ,for this reason the practice of 8pooling0 was soon forbidden by law as an unreasonable restraint of trade4 ,sidenote3 ,trusts4 ,trusts1 ,holding ,companies1 and ,mergers4--,not to be balked in this way the corporations devised a new plan for checking competition4 ,this took the form of a trust4 ,corporations agreed to place their shares in the hands of trustees and these trustees1 by virtue of holding the shares1 controlled the business of all4#agb ,through this control the trustees were able to make sure that no price-cutting would result from competition among the various companies comprised within the trust4 ,sidenote3 ,holding companies4 ,another plan1 not widely different1 was to organize a 8holding company01 in other words a large corporation to hold all the shares of the smaller corporations not merely in trust but as the actual owner4#agc ,sidenote3 ,mergers4 ,finally in some cases1 the smaller companies were merged or consolidated outright into a single giant corporation4 ,in such instances the smaller concerns passed out of existence and their former owners received shares in the new corporation4 ,sidenote3 ,combinations stifle competition4 ,why ,industrial ,combinations are ,objectionable4--,the chief objection to all these combinations1 whether by informal agreement1 pooling1 trusts1 holding companies1 mergers is that they seek to restrain trade1 to create monopolies1 and to prevent the public from obtaining the advantages in the way of reduced prices and better quality which arise from free competition4 ,so long as free competition exists the rise of prices is automatically checked4 ,but when competition is stifled by monopoly1 the public gets fleeced4 ,when a monopoly is once created1 moreover1 free competition is difficult to establish again4 ,the reason for this is that when anyone enters the monopolized line of business the holders of the monopoly cut their prices temporarily below the profit-making point and thus make it impossible for the new competitor to continue4 ,then1 when they have driven him out of business1 they put prices up once more4 ,sidenote3 ,the value of large-scale production4 ,on the other hand we must not lose sight of the fact that large-scale production is more economical than production in small quantities1 and that large-scale production almost inevitably leads to industrial combinations4 ,most manufactured commodities are produced under what economists call 8the law of increasing returns01 that is to say the larger the quantity produced1 the smaller the cost per article4 ,there is a great deal of overlapping and waste when goods are manufactured in small independent shops or factories4 ,large industrial combinations can obtain capital more easily2 they can buy raw materials in larger quantities and at better prices2 they are in a position to secure and use modern machinery2 and they can create better facilities for selling their goods4 ,large-scale production also permits a profitable use of by-products1 such as coke in the manufacture of gas or scraps of leather in the making of shoes4 ,where industries are small these by-products are not sufficient to make their sale worth while2 but large-scale industries realize considerable sums from the sale of their by-products4 ,from almost every point of view the large manufacturing establishments have a great advantage1 and if we were to insist that all industry be carried on in small concerns1 the public would be the loser in the end4 ,large-scale production is not in itself to be frowned upon but rather encouraged4 ,the trouble arises from the misuse of the power over prices which results from monopoly1 and this misuse of power is what the laws are endeavoring to prevent4 ,sidenote3 ,federal and state control4 ,the ,legal ,control of ,industrial ,corporations4--,the right to exercise control over industrial corporations1 and thereby to protect the public against extortion1 rests partly with the states and partly with the national government4 ,most corporations are created by state charters and this gives the state authority over them4 ,so long1 therefore1 as a corporation confines its business within the limits of the state in which its charter was obtained1 the national government has no control over it4 ,but most large corporations1 such as steel and oil companies1 woolen and cotton companies1 carry on their business in more than one state4 ,they have factories scattered over several states4 ,they buy materials in one state1 manufacture them in another1 and sell the products in a third4 ,wherever this is the case the national government does have authority over them1 for the constitution gives to ,congress the power 8to regulate commerce among the several states04 ,industrial ,corporations and the ,sherman ,law4--,to understand the relation of the laws to combinations and monopolies it is necessary to go back a little way into legal history4 ,sidenote3 ,the common law rule against combinations in restraint of trade4 ,by the common law of ,england1 which was introduced into the colonies before the ,revolution and became the basis of the ,american legal system1 it was provided that combinations were illegal when formed to restrain trade unreasonably4 ,this was the prevailing legal doctrine in the ,united ,states for a hundred years after the formation of the ,union1 but it did not suffice to prevent the steady growth of monopolies4 ,in #ahij1 therefore1 ,congress decided to draw the line more strictly and to this end enacted the ,sherman ,anti-,trust ,law1 which declared every contract or combination1 in the form of a trust or otherwise1 or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce among the several states1 to be illegal4 ,sidenote3 ,the rule in the ,sherman ,law4 ,no distinction was made by the words of this law between reasonable and unreasonable restraint of trade2 the ,sherman ,law simply forbade all trade-restraining combinations in interstate business4 ,it applied to railroads and industries alike1 but it was not enforced widely until #aijd1 when the ,supreme ,court applied its provisions in the ,northern ,securities ,case 7see p4 #cfe74 ,this decision caused a great stirring among the dry bones of corporate industry4 ,many combinations and mergers had been formed in all parts of the country during the closing years of the nineteenth century1 and it was argued that to tear these combinations apart would be exceedingly difficult4 ,but the government proceeded against other consolidations1 notably the ,standard ,oil ,company and the ,american ,tobacco ,company1 and secured their dissolution as well4#agd ,sidenote3 ,the rule of reason4 ,in these latter cases1 however1 the ,supreme ,court gave hope for a less drastic interpretation of the ,sherman ,law by avowing its intention to decide each future case in accordance with the 8rule of reason04 ,in other words the court stated its belief that the ,sherman ,law was not intended to break up all combinations1 good1 bad1 and indifferent1 but only those which were contrary to the public interest4 ,by this dictum the ,supreme ,court re-established in effect the old common law principle that a combination may be legal or illegal according as its purpose is reasonable or unreasonable4 ,and such is the law of the land today4#age ,the ,practice of ,price-,fixing4--,meanwhile some new abuses on the part of various large industrial corporations had arisen4 ,many manufacturers began the habit of dictating to retail merchants the prices at which goods should be sold4 ,if a merchant refused to maintain these prices and sold goods at lower figures1 the manufacturer would thereupon decline to supply him with any more merchandise4 ,this was an effective way of bringing a merchant to terms1 particularly in the case of patented articles which are made by only one firm and which cannot be obtained from anyone else4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,clayton ,act4 ,here1 again1 the of the ,clayton ,act intervened by forbidding price discriminations wherever the effect of such action tends to lessen competition or to create a monopoly4 ,the ,clayton ,act also prohibited manufacturers and wholesalers from dictating to retail merchants the sort of goods they may sell4 ,the makers of a particular brand of flour1 for example1 are not permitted to say to the merchant3 8,you must sell our brand only1 otherwise we will not sell to you40 ,the ,federal ,trade ,commission4--,the foregoing statutes1 the ,sherman and ,clayton ,acts1 are examples of our attempt to regulate industry by law4 ,the trouble with regulation by law1 however1 is its stiffness4 ,laws are hard and fast while the scope and methods of modern business are continually and rapidly changing4 ,a law which is sufficient to meet one problem today proves quite inadequate to cope with another problem tomorrow4 ,the strictest legal provisions1 moreover1 can usually be circumvented or evaded by some new device4 ,accordingly1 the national government has reached the conclusion that it is better to have the laws lay down the general principles of industrial regulation1 leaving the details to be applied by an administrative board or commission4 ,in conformity with this idea ,congress in #aiad authorized the establishment of a ,federal ,trade ,commission1 the duty of which is to investigate all complaints regarding unfair methods of competition in interstate commerce 7except in the case of banks and railroads7 and to order that such unfair methods1 if found to be in existence1 shall be discontinued4#agf ,decisions of the ,federal ,trade ,commission are reached after a hearing at which both sides may be represented4 ,the commission is also given power to compile and publish information concerning the organization1 management1 and policy of any industrial corporation engaged in interstate trade4 ,since #aiad it has rendered signal service in protecting the business men of the country1 and the general public as well1 against economic injustice4 ,the ,control of ,industrial ,corporations by the ,states4--,what has been said in the preceding pages relates only to corporations which are engaged in interstate business4 ,this includes most of the largest industrial concerns4 ,smaller corporations which keep their operations within the bounds of a single state1 are not subject to the provisions of the ,sherman or ,clayton ,acts1 neither do they come within the jurisdiction of the ,federal ,trade ,commission4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that the smaller industrial corporations are exempt from regulation altogether4 ,most of the states have their own anti-trust laws and their own legal regulations to prevent the growth of local monopolies4 ,these rules differ from state to state2 in some they are much more strict than in others4 ,state regulation is beset with serious difficulties everywhere because in all the states industries are to some extent carried on by corporations which have obtained their charters from some other state and thus cannot be fully controlled except by the national government4 ,the ,greatest ,problem of ,modern ,industry4--,the most difficult industrial problems of today1 however1 are not connected with the question of government control4 ,so far as the protection of the public against combinations and monopolies is concerned the government is bound to be1 in the long run1 successful in its efforts although even the strictest laws can work no miracle over night4 ,far more perplexing is the problem of determining the proper relations between industrial employers on the one hand and industrial workmen on the other4 ,although labor is a great and essential factor in industry it has hitherto had practically no direct voice in determining the conditions under which industry shall be carried on4 ,taking ,american industry as a whole1 labor has had no share in ownership or management4 ,sidenote3 ,the human relation in industry4 ,the relation of the worker to industry has been strictly that of a hired employee who does his job1 takes his pay1 and calls the account square4 ,but of late years it has been becoming apparent that this relation does not satisfy the workman altogether and that he does not regard wages alone as a sufficient recompense for his share in industrial production4 ,his leaders are asking1 in some cases1 for a share in the profits1 for a voice in determining the conditions of labor and1 ultimately1 for some share in the management4 ,sidenote3 ,the representation of the workers4 ,industrial ,democracy4--,in some large industrial concerns representation has already been given to the workers4 ,they are permitted and encouraged to select a committee from among themselves whose function it is to take up with the management1 in an official way1 all questions of wages1 hours of labor1 discipline1 and conditions of work4 ,in case of disagreement between the committee and the management impartial arbiters are called in4 ,thus the employees are given a fair share in the settlement of all matters affecting their work and welfare4 ,the success of such schemes will depend1 of course1 upon the degree of fairness which both sides display in conference4 ,just as the success of political democracy depends upon the exercise of tolerance on the part of those to whom power is given1 so in any form of industrial democracy the abuse of power1 whether by employers or workmen1 will surely spell failure4 ,it is essential to the well-being of the nation that the workers in industry shall receive their rightful share from the earnings of industry1 that they shall have just conditions of employment and be treated like men4 ,but it is also essential that the management of industry shall not be subjected to unreasonable demands and that a system of production which the world has spent a century in building up shall not be broken down until something well tried and tested by experience can be put in its place4 ,profit ,sharing as a ,step toward ,industrial ,harmony4--,one of the ways suggested for ensuring to the workman his full share in the earnings of industry is known as profit sharing4 ,the usual provision is that after the current rates of interest1 wages1 and salaries are paid the surplus earnings shall be divided between the employers and the workers on some fair basis determined in advance4 ,but the amount which goes to the workers is not necessarily paid in cash4 ,either in part or in whole it may be given to them in the form of shares in the business and on these shares they receive thereafter the regular rate of earnings4 ,it was hoped that an arrangement of this sort would bring the employer and his workers more closely together4 ,profit sharing1 indeed1 was at one time proclaimed to be a solution of the whole labor problem4 ,but on the whole it has not fulfilled expectations4 ,for this there are several reasons4 ,sidenote3 ,why profit sharing has not made great headway4 ,some workers did their best1 others scamped their work2 but all shared alike4 ,the employers did not find that labor responded with increased efficiency when a share of profits was given4 ,the workers1 on their part1 found that profits sometimes declined greatly in spite of their hardest efforts4 ,bad judgment on the part of the management would offset hard work on the part of the men4 ,not having access to the books and figures the workers often suspected that their rightful share of the profits was being withheld from them4 ,the trade unions1 moreover1 looked askance at the whole proposal and insisted1 among other things1 that no one who was not a member of the union should be a profit-sharer4 ,so the movement has slackened1 although it still has some strong advocates and seems to be losing none of the ground that it has gained4 ,other ,remedies for ,industrial ,unrest4--,several other remedies for industrial unrest have been suggested1 and some of them are being given a trial4 ,the relations of labor to industry constitute a large and difficult problem1 however1 and cannot be made clear in a single paragraph4 ,they are1 in fact1 of sufficient importance to have a chapter to themselves4 ,sidenote3 ,industrial opportunities4 ,industry and the ,individual4--,the opportunities for capable young men and women in industry were never greater than they are today4 ,the operations of industry have become so complex that they afford openings for every type of individual skill and proficiency4 ,the management of ,american business is no longer conducted by hit-or-miss methods2 everything is worked out with scientific precision in buying materials1 merchandising1 manufacturing1 marketing1 and financing4 ,american industry in all its branches is hiring brains as well as muscle4 ,sidenote3 ,the choice of a vocation ,the success of the young man or woman who goes from school into industry depends in the first instance upon a wise selection at the start4 ,different types of industrial work call for altogether different tastes and abilities on the part of the individual4 ,some individuals are of a distinctly mechanical temperament2 their interests run to machinery and the processes of working with material things4 ,others have no interest at all in that direction2 but they may be tactful in dealing with other people1 able to use their imaginations1 with perhaps a penchant for figures4 ,others1 again1 have none of these qualities but are punctual1 industrious1 and can always be depended upon to carry out instructions to the letter4 ,american industry has openings which exactly fit individuals of all temperaments and capacities2 the big problem is to bring the man and the opportunity into touch with each other4 ,a square peg will not go into a round hole2 no amount of patience will put it there4 ,but there are many square pegs trying to fit themselves into the round holes of industrial employment today because so many young men and women have taken the first job offered to them without reference to its real suitability4 ,these first jobs very often lead up a blind alley4 ,the time spent in them by thousands of young men and women is time wasted4 ,sidenote3 ,vocational guidance4 ,it is to help eliminate this enormous waste of human effort that facilities for vocational guidance are now provided by a great many schools4 ,but no vocational counsellor can properly plan the start in life without assistance from the boy or girl immediately concerned4 ,it is the duty of everyone to make a personal study of the opportunities which the various forms of industry afford1 to reflect upon his own tastes1 abilities1 and ambitions1 and to look at the problem as one of supreme importance to himself4 ,a right start is half the victory4#agg ,general ,references ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,outlines of ,economics1 pp4 #bf-fb 7,the ,new ,industrial ,system72 ,w4 ,z4 ,,ripley1 ,trusts1 ,pools1 and ,corporations1 pp4 #gh-if2 #gjc-gcd2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dai-ddb 7,industrial ,combinations72 ,f4 ,a4 ,,ogg1 ,national ,progress1 pp4 #eh-ge 7,the ,legal ,control of ,industrial ,combinations72 ,l4 ,h4 ,,haney1 ,business ,organization and ,combination1 pp4 #ha-aaf2 ,e4 ,d4 ,,durand1 ,the ,trust ,problem1 pp4 #i-cj2 ,j4 ,r4 ,,commons1 ,labor and ,administration1 pp4 #abj-adh2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,fetter1 ,modern ,economic ,problems1 pp4 #dbg-deg2 ,,isaac ,,lippincott1 ,economic ,development of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dfi-dij4 ,see also ,u4 ,s4 ,,bureau ,,of ,,the ,,census3 ,abstract of the ,census of ,manufacturers1 #aiad1 ch4 vi1 vii4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the advantages and defects of large industrial organizations4 ,advantages of large-scale production4 ,are large organizations essential to large-scale production8 ,large industrial organizations and monopoly4 ,some examples4 ,the distinction between 8good trusts0 and 8bad trusts04 ,can large organizations be effectively regulated8 ,summary of merits and defects4 ,references3 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dai-ddb2 ,l4 ,h4 ,,haney1 ,business ,organization and ,combination1 pp4 #cfe-chb2 ,e4 ,d4 ,,durand1 ,the ,trust ,problem1 pp4 #fj-he2 ,w4 ,z4 ,,ripley1 ,trusts1 ,pools1 and ,corporations1 pp4 #cbd-cee2 ,j4 ,t4 ,,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government and ,its ,work1 pp4 #ada-ahf2 ,,john ,,moody1 ,the ,truth about the ,trusts1 pp4 #ajb-acb2 ,e4 ,s4 ,,meade1 ,trust ,finance1 pp4 #aic-bag2 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1 pp4 #dgf-eae4 #b4 ,the position of women in industry--past1 present1 and future4 ,references3 ,,edith ,,abbott1 ,women in ,industry1 especially pp4 #a-i2 #bae-bde2 #cjg-cbc2 ,t4 ,s4 ,,adams and ,h4 ,l4 ,,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 pp4 #ai-fg2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,hobson1 ,evolution of ,modern ,capitalism1 pp4 #bij-cba2 ,,john ,,mitchell1 ,organized ,labor1 pp4 #aca-ada2 ,b4 ,l4 ,,hutchins1 ,women in ,modern ,industry1 pp4 #bci-bfe4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the far-reaching effects of machine industry4 ,l4 ,c4 ,,marshall and ,l4 ,c4 ,,lyon1 ,our ,economic ,organization1 pp4 #ajf-abf4 #b4 ,evils of the factory system4 ,w4 ,c4 ,,taylor1 ,the ,modern ,factory ,system1 pp4 #agg-bbg4 #c4 ,the power of ,congress to regulate corporations4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,orth1 ,readings on the ,relation of ,government to ,prosperity and ,industry1 pp4 #bjh-bbj4 #d4 ,roosevelt and the trusts4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,ogg1 ,national ,progress1 pp4 #dj-ge2 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1 pp4 #dgf-eae2 ,,otto ,h4 ,,kahn1 ,our ,economic ,problems1 pp4 #cag-cbb4 #e4 ,the ,clayton ,act4 ,,james ,t4 ,,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government and ,its ,work1 pp4 #agc-agh4 #f4 ,the work of the ,federal ,trade ,commission4 ,w4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,stevens1 ,unfair ,competition1 pp4 #bag-bdd4 #g4 ,politics and big business4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,brooks1 ,the ,social ,unrest1 pp4 #df-fg4 #h4 ,competition and big business4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,hammond and ,j4 ,w4 ,,jenks1 ,great ,american ,issues1 pp4 #afj-agc4 #i4 ,profit sharing in industry4 ,t4 ,s4 ,,adams and ,,helen ,,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 pp4 #ccc-cgh4 #aj4 ,the contribution of ,american industry to the winning of the war4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,willoughby1 ,government ,organization in ,war ,time and ,after1 pp4 #fg-abj4 ,questions #a4 ,show why the rise of the factory system is entitled to be called a 8revolution40 ,are people better or worse off as a result8 #b4 8,machinery has made life more varied10 8,machinery has reduced life to routine40 ,with which of these statements do you agree and why8 #c4 ,make a diagram showing how a corporation is organized4 ,if you owned one or more shares in a corporation1 what would be your rights8 ,your duties8 ,your risks8 ,what is meant by the statement that a corporation has 8legal immortality08 #d4 ,what is the difference between a pool1 a trust1 a holding company1 and a merger8 ,is it better to forbid these things or to regulate them8 #e4 ,why is it that the ,chicago meat-packing concerns have been able to sell dressed meat to marketmen in the towns of the ,eastern states more cheaply than it can be procured and slaughtered locally8 #f4 ,explain what ,president ,roosevelt meant when he said that there are good trusts and bad trusts4 ,what service can a good trust perform8 ,what harm can a bad trust do8 #g4 ,what are the chief provisions of the ,sherman ,law8 ,the ,clayton ,act8 #h4 ,show how regulation by a commission is likely to be more effective than regulation by law4 #i4 ,in determining a choice of a vocation what considerations are you going to keep in view8 ,what tests have you applied to make sure that you know your own tastes and abilities8 ,have you made yourself acquainted with the industrial opportunities8 ,see foot note on p4 #cig4 #aj4 ,to what extent should the workers share in the management of industry8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the ,sherman ,law should be repealed4 #b4 ,the government should have the power to fix maximum prices in the case of all goods produced by industrial organizations which possess a monopoly4 ----- ,footnote #aed3 ,after the ,revolution the different states claimed vast tracts of western lands but they ultimately surrendered these claims to the national government4 ,the lands were surveyed and offered for sale at low prices4 ,many years later ,congress adopted the homestead system by which actual settlers might get lands for almost nothing4 ,footnote #aee3 ,it is said that if all the available water power of the ,united ,states were put to use1 it would take the place of all the coal that is now being used in supplying industries with power4 8,white coal0 it is called1 and there is an abundance of it4 ,footnote #aef3 ,in early days the slaughtering of cattle was done locally1 but the use of refrigerator cars has led to the centralizing of the meat industry at a few great centers4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,we have had a striking illustration of this in recent years4 ,during the ,world ,war the prices of all agricultural products rose enormously and they continued high for a short time after the war came to an end4 ,then they dropped quickly to a low level and by so doing left the ,american farmer in a hard situation4 ,labor and supplies cost him nearly as much in #aiba as in #aiai1 while he received in some cases only half as much for the products of his land4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,a large part of our nitrate supply comes from ,chile1 but owing to the lack of shipping during the war not much could be brought from that quarter4 ,the ,united ,states government built a huge nitrate-making plant at ,muscle ,shoals1 ,ala41 but it did not get into operation before the close of the war4 ,it has now been offered for sale to private capitalists4 ,there has been some discussion of the possibility of making nitrates by the electric fixation of the nitrogen which is in the air1 using water power to generate the electric power cheaply4 ,it is an interesting fact that certain types of bacteria gather nitrogen from the air at the roots of leguminous plants 7peas1 beans1 alfalfa1 etc471 and in order to ensure the presence of these bacteria the seed is frequently inoculated before planting4 ,footnote #aei3 ,an investigation of the exodus from ,ohio farms a few years ago showed that as many as #fj1jjj men and boys left the rural districts in a single year1 while fewer than #ijjj went from the cities and towns to the farms4 ,footnote #afj3 ,there is a somewhat similar situation in ,europe today4 ,the various new states which were created at the close of the war all have their tariffs1 their rivalries1 and their jealousies4 ,footnote #afa3 ,they did it1 sometimes1 in this way3 ,suppose ,a and ,b are towns of about equal size and about the same distance from ,chicago1 or that ,a is a little further away4 ,a _/ ,chicago ,b ,a railroad desiring to build up ,a and make it an important industrial center would merely give it lower freight rates to and from the western metropolis1 despite the greater distance4 ,footnote #afb3 ,the act further provides that all net profits above the rate of six per cent upon the valuation of the railroads1 as fixed by the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission1 shall be divided in equal shares between the railroads and the government4 ,the share received by the government is to go into a fund for the benefit of those railroads which are not able to earn the normal net income4 ,footnote #afc3 ,of the nine members three are representatives of the railroad owners1 three of the railroad employees1 and three of the public4 ,this board has its headquarters at ,chicago1 which by reason of its location may properly be termed the railroad capital of the country4 ,when the board hears both sides in a labor dispute it makes its recommendations but has no power to enforce these recommendations4 ,it is believed1 however1 that the pressure of public opinion will give sufficient force to its decisions4 ,footnote #afd3 ,canal transportation1 which declined after the railroads were built1 seems now to be gaining a new lease of life4 ,the ,state of ,new ,york is improving the ,erie ,canal and proposals have been made to enlarge the canals between the ,great ,lakes and the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence so as to permit through traffic from ,europe to the ,lake ports4 ,footnote #afe3 ,the general course of ,american tariff policy may be marked off into four main periods4 ,the first1 which extended from #agib to the close of the ,war of #ahab1 was a period of relatively low tariff duties4 ,the duties levied during these years did not greatly hamper imports4 ,while the ,united ,states and ,england were at war1 however1 some new industries were established in ,america1 and it was deemed advisable to afford these new industries protection against ,english competition when the war was over4 ,accordingly1 a more strongly protective policy was adopted in #ahaf1 and this action ushers in the second period1 which lasted till about #ahdb4 ,during the earlier part of this interval the duties on imported manufactures remained relatively high4 ,the high duties created strong opposition1 however1 especially in the ,southern states1 and in time a reaction took place with the result that the rates were gradually lowered to a general level of about twenty per cent in #ahdb4 ,from this date until the outbreak of the ,civil ,war the duties remained low1 so that the third period saw the virtual abandonment of protection in favor of a tariff for revenue only4 ,then the outbreak of the ,civil ,war changed the situation4 ,the need of a great increase in revenue became imperative1 and high duties on imports seemed to be a ready way of obtaining national funds4 ,a series of tariff measures put the rates higher and higher4 ,when the war was over the high rates for the most part remained and they have remained relatively high throughout the fourth period1 which carries us to the present day4 ,since #ahfe many tariff measures have been passed by ,congress2 some have raised the duties1 while others have lowered them4 ,in #aiac duties were considerably reduced by the ,democrats2 in #aiba they were put up again by the ,republicans4 ,the question of tariff rates has been an issue at many national elections4 ,but1 with all its ups and downs1 the tariff has remained protective both in its purpose and effect4 ,footnote #aff3 ,in #aibj ,congress enacted two important measures to aid the revival of foreign trade4 ,one of these measures relieved foreign trade from some of the anti-trust restrictions2 the other authorized the lending of government funds to exporters4 ,footnote #afg3 ,many of the commercial treaties which the ,united ,states has concluded with other countries contain what is known as the 8most favored nation clause04 ,this is a provision that if either of the treaty-making countries should grant to a third nation any special trading privilege1 this same privilege shall at once accrue to the other treaty-making country4 ,for example1 if the ,united ,states and ,brazil conclude a commercial treaty containing the 8most favored nation clause0 and ,brazil should subsequently grant to ,mexico the privilege of shipping oil into ,brazil without payment of duty1 the ,united ,states would become forthwith entitled to the same privilege or favor4 ,footnote #afh3 ,in the days of wooden vessels1 propelled by sail1 ,america had natural advantages in shipbuilding1 particularly in the abundant supply of ship-timber4 ,many such vessels were built and the once-famous ,american 8clipper ships0 carried our commerce to all parts of the world4 ,during the period from #ahae to #ahfj the ,american merchant marine reached its zenith in size and prosperity4 ,in #ahfj it was second to that of ,great ,britain and served not only to carry the entire commerce of the ,united ,states but the trade of other countries as well4 ,the ,civil ,war interfered greatly with the progress of ,american shipbuilding1 however1 and with the advent of iron vessels1 propelled by steam1 the ,united ,states began to drop behind in the construction of ships for ocean service4 ,european countries1 particularly ,great ,britain1 forged far ahead during the period from #ahfe to #aijj4 ,of the tonnage which cleared for foreign countries from the seaports of the ,united ,states in #aijj less than one-fifth was ,american4 ,this decline in the size of the merchant marine inspired the government of the ,united ,states to stimulate the construction of ships by the grant of subsidies1 but no great success attended these efforts4 ,the shipbuilding industry did not make renewed progress until it received a great impetus from the ,world ,war4 ,footnote #afi3 ,as a means of facilitating commerce the national government also maintains various aids to navigation4 ,it provides lighthouses1 buoys1 landmarks1 and lifesaving stations4 ,it has made surveys of the coasts and furnishes charts for the use of navigators4 ,it trains and licenses pilots and makes rules to ensure the safety of vessels entering or leaving ,american ports4 ,much money has also been spent by the national government in the deepening and improvement of harbors4 ,mention should likewise be made of the greatest enterprise ever undertaken by any country for the promotion of maritime commerce1 namely1 the building of the ,panama ,canal1 which connects two oceans and cost the ,united ,states more than three hundred and fifty million dollars4 ,footnote #agj3 ,in illustration of this it may be mentioned that in all the years from #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 to #agej ,a4 ,d4 there were only three inventions of remarkable value or interest2 namely1 printing1 gunpowder1 and the steam engine4 ,but what of the period since #agej8 ,the railroad1 the steamship1 the telegraph1 the cable1 the telephone1 radio communication1 the electric light1 the electric motor and the trolley1 the submarine1 the airplane1 the cinematograph1 the phonograph1 the internal combustion engine and motor vehicles of all kinds1 the ,x-ray1 and so on4 ,these1 moreover1 are only the landmarks of mechanical progress1 which is a relatively small item in the sum-total of human advance4 ,footnote #aga3 ,the customary par value of a share is one hundred dollars1 but it may be fifty1 ten1 or five dollars4 ,occasionally shares of no par value are issued4 ,footnote #agb3 ,the stockholders in the original corporation received 8trust certificates0 in place of their shares4 ,footnote #agc3 ,during the presidential campaign of #ahif there was a good deal of popular outcry over the asserted failure of the government to 8curb the trusts04 ,when ,mark ,hanna1 chairman of the ,republican ,national ,committee1 replied1 8,there are no trusts01 he was laughed at from one end of the country to the other4 ,but he was right1 for most of the trusts had been converted into holding companies4 ,footnote #agd3 ,in the long run this action did not amount to much1 however1 for the companies reorganized in a way which kept them within the letter of the law4 ,footnote #age3 ,in order to evade the provisions of the ,sherman ,act many large corporations resorted to the plan of 8interlocking directorates04 ,while forming no combination1 merger1 or holding company1 they merely arranged that the various companies should elect the same men to their respective boards of directors1 thus placing control of the companies in the hands of the same group of men4 ,to put an end to this practice ,congress in #aiad enacted the ,clayton ,act1 which provided1 among other things1 that no person may serve as a director in two or more large competitive interstate corporations except banks and railroads1 these latter being under separate regulations4 ,footnote #agf3 ,the ,federal ,trade ,commission is made up of five members1 each appointed by the ,president1 with the advice and consent of the ,senate1 for a term of seven years4 ,footnote #agg3 ,for those who are willing to look at the matter in this light1 bearing in mind the old adage concerning the kindliness of fate to those who help themselves1 the following helpful books are suggested3 ,,frederick ,j4 ,,allen1 ,a ,guide to the ,study of ,occupations 7,cambridge1 #aiba74 ,a survey of all the best literature on the subject4 ,,frederic ,m4 ,,giles and ,i4 ,k4 ,,giles1 ,vocational ,civics 7,n4 ,y41 #aibj74 ,a brief1 interesting account of the opportunities in different occupations4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,labor ,,and ,,labor ,,problems ,the purpose of this chapter is to describe the organization1 rights1 claims1 and problems of the ,american wage-earner4 ,sidenote3 ,hand-industry created no labor problem4 ,labor in the ,old and the ,new ,industrial ,order4--,so long as the system of hand-industry was in existence there was no sharp division of employers and laborers into two separate classes4 ,the employer was himself a workman at the loom1 the bench1 or the forge4 ,he might have as helpers a couple of apprentices who were learning the trade1 and perhaps a journeyman or two2 but rarely were there more than a half dozen men or women employed in a single establishment4 ,the apprentices and journeymen1 moreover1 expected in due course to set up in business for themselves4 ,there was no hard-and-fast labor class1 and no labor problem as we have it at the present day4 ,the employer and his helpers worked together1 often lived together2 no great gulf separated them in wealth1 education1 or social position4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crowning ,,of ,,labor4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,alexander ,from a ,thistle ,print1 copyright by the ,detroit ,publishing ,company4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,,the ,,crowning ,,of ,,labor ,by ,john ,w4 ,alexander ,this picture forms one of the panels in a series of mural decorations1 representing the achievements of labor1 at the head of the great staircase in the ,museum of the ,carnegie ,institute at ,pittsburgh4 ,pittsburgh1 a great industrial community1 is depicted as a knight in steel armor1 emblematic of strength and power4 ,labor having reached its highest expression in the prosperous industrial community1 the city is being crowned with a laurel wreath and heralded by the winged figures which have arisen out of the smoke and steam4 ,the whole picture is symbolic of the immense energy which is guided by labor into productive channels4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,labor problems came with the ,industrial ,revolution4 ,the advent of steam power1 factories1 and clanging machinery changed all this4 ,the number of employers diminished2 the number of employees increased4 ,hundreds and even thousands of workmen were brought together into great brick factories1 working long hours1 destined to be laborers throughout their entire lives1 with no hope of ever being anything else4 ,with this new organization of industry the relation of the employer to his helpers was completely changed4 ,the old personal relation disappeared2 the employer no longer possessed even a passing acquaintance with his men4#agh ,the new relation was simply one of dollars and cents4 ,he gave them so much wages2 they gave him so much work4 ,being only one among a hundred1 or one among several hundred1 the individual employee lost his industrial independence4 ,whether he liked his work or not there was little for him to do but take the wages that were offered2 he could no longer leave his employer and set up in business for himself as he could in the older days of hand-industry4 ,the ,industrial ,revolution thus brought into being a new labor class1 new conditions of labor1 and a new labor problem4 ,why ,labor ,organizes4--,organizations of workmen1 now commonly known as trade unions or labor unions1 were not in existence prior to the ,industrial ,revolution4 ,there was no need for such associations then4 ,but when the workers found that as individuals they could not bargain with their employers on terms of equality1 they naturally sought to achieve this position of equality by combining together into groups or unions4 ,the original purpose of a labor organization1 therefore1 was to enable its members to act unitedly in the interest of the worker1 making a collective bargain with the employers4 ,sidenote3 ,the aims of labor organizations4 ,by this process of collective bargaining they aim to secure fair wages1 reasonable hours of work1 sanitary conditions in factories1 and security against dismissal except for proper cause4 ,in addition to seeking these advantages the labor organizations try to promote the social and intellectual interests of their own members4#agi ,they have supported the policy of free1 public1 education and have urged the prohibition of child labor in order that the children of the workers may be kept at school4 ,they have advocated wholesome forms of public recreation1 particularly the establishment of play-grounds4 ,in a word the policy of organized labor is to support every movement which aims to make the worker self-respecting and independent while opposing everything that tends to reduce him to the ranks of a mere cog in the great industrial mechanism4#ahj ,sidenote3 ,unions and federations4 ,organization ,methods4--,trade unions are composed of the wage-earners in a particular trade or occupation4#aha ,a local union is formed among the wage-earners of each city or town4 ,these unions1 usually called 8locals01 hold regular meetings1 elect their own officers1 and collect small monthly dues from each member4 ,in the earlier stages of the labor movement these local unions were not federated into any national body1 but in #ahff the ,national ,labor ,union was formed by uniting many of the local associations4 ,this national organization became too much involved in politics1 however1 and soon went to pieces4 ,in its place arose another national organization known as the ,knights of ,labor1 which gained considerable strength during the twenty years from #ahgj to #ahij4 ,the ,knights of ,labor did not attempt to federate the local unions but took individual members directly into their own ranks4 ,in the end the organization became involved in several unsuccessful strikes and gradually weakened1 although even today it still maintains a nominal existence4 ,since #ahij the most important national organization in labor circles has been the ,american ,federation of ,labor4 ,meanwhile1 however1 the unions in particular trades 7such as garment workers1 mine workers1 railroad trainmen1 etc47 had begun to affiliate into individual national unions of their own4 ,state and city federations had also been formed1 made up of all the unions in a given state or city4 ,all this made more easy the rise of a giant national federation4 ,sidenote3 ,how the ,a4 ,f4 of ,l4 is organized4 ,the ,american ,federation of ,labor4--,the ,american ,federation was organized in #ahha but at first its growth was slow4 ,today it claims a membership of about four million workers4 ,it is a federal organization comprising various national unions in particular trades1 state federations of labor1 city federations1 and a large number of directly affiliated unions4 ,directly or indirectly the ,american ,federation of ,labor has brought into affiliation nearly thirty thousand local organizations throughout the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,every year it holds a convention made up of delegates from the component organizations1 and this convention determines the ,federation's policy4 ,the annual convention also elects the ,federation's general officers4 ,the ,federation has no compulsory authority of its own but merely exercises such powers as the organizations of which it is composed may concede to it4 ,its chief function is to bring representatives of unions together once a year for the discussion of common problems1 to secure general agreement upon a common program1 to give the labor movement greater strength through united action1 and to represent the interests of labor before the public authorities4 ,sidenote3 ,the demands of 8organized labor04 ,the ,federation's ,program4--,the ,federation's program comprises both economic and political aspirations4 ,among the former are included the demand for a rate of wages in all trades sufficient to enable the worker to live and bring up his family in accordance with 8,american standards of living02 the establishment of an eight-hour workday in all occupations1 with a half holiday on ,saturdays2 the prohibition of paid labor by children under sixteen years of age2 the more effective inspection of workshops1 factories1 and mines in order that proper sanitary conditions may be ensured and industrial accidents prevented2 and the establishment of a system of social insurance against sickness1 disability1 accident1 and old age4 ,among the political changes advocated by the ,federation are the nation-wide use of the initiative1 referendum1 and recall2 the election of a ,president by direct popular vote2 the restriction of the ,supreme ,court's right to declare laws unconstitutional2 the prohibition of injunctions in labor disputes2 and the extension of government control over railroads4 ,the ,federation also urges that greater attention be given to vocational training in the schools4 ,it should be understood that the foregoing program is not fixed and inflexible2 it may be changed by the annual convention at any time and is being constantly modified4#ahb ,sidenote3 ,the radical element in labor's ranks4 ,revolutionary ,labor ,organizations4--,in recent years it has become apparent that the relatively moderate program and the strictly peaceful methods of the ,american ,federation do not satisfy the more radical elements in its own ranks4 ,repeated attempts have been made at the annual convention to displace ,mr4 ,gompers1 the head of the ,federation1 in favor of some leader with more radical views1 but thus far these attempts have failed4 ,in some of the labor organizations the radicals have from time to time got out of hand and have gone on strike in defiance of their leaders4 ,strikes of this sort are commonly known as 8outlaw strikes04 ,sidenote3 ,the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4--its history and aims4 ,but more particularly the drift to radicalism in labor's ranks has been shown by the organization and progress of the ,industrial ,workers of the ,world 7the ,i4 ,w4 ,w471 which aims to supplant the ,american ,federation of ,labor and to combine all the workers of the country into 8one big union04 ,the history of the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 goes back to #ahih1 but it gained little strength as an organization until about #aiaj4 ,estimates as to the extent of its present membership are uncertain4 ,the program of the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 includes the abolition of all capitalism1 the control of all industry by the workers1 and the union of workers throughout the world4 ,the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 opposes the making of agreements with employers and is at war with the whole existing economic system4 ,it favors the overthrow of the present system of government and the establishment of a proletarian dictatorship4 ,sidenote3 ,what 8collective bargaining0 means4 ,methods and ,policies of ,labor3 ,collective ,bargaining4--,the prime purpose of the regular labor organizations1 as has been said1 is to enable the workers to bargain with the employers upon equal terms4 ,where the unions have acquired strength1 therefore1 they insist that all agreements as to wages1 hours1 and conditions of labor shall be made by the employer on the one hand and the officers of the unions on the other4 ,that is to say they insist that the members of the union shall deal with the employers collectively1 not individually1 and that the employers shall agree to this method of determining all labor questions4 ,the unions insist upon collective bargaining because they believe it to be the only way in which the workers can be prevented from competing among themselves and thus reducing the rate of wages below a reasonable minimum4 ,the labor of today cannot be sold tomorrow4 ,if it is not sold today1 it perishes and brings the worker no return4 ,this inexorable fact places the workman in a position where1 if left without protection1 he would have to accept whatever terms are offered him4 ,many large employers of labor throughout the country have accepted the principle of collective bargaining1 but many others decline to do so on the ground that it interferes with freedom of contract and restricts employment to the members of labor unions4 ,collective bargains between employers and workmen are made at joint conferences between the representatives of both sides1 and the matters agreed upon at these conferences are embodied in trade agreements1 which usually run for a term of months or years4 ,sidenote3 ,the theory and practice of strikes4 ,the ,right to ,strike4--,the chief weapon in the hands of organized labor is the right to strike4 ,a strike is a 8concerted withdrawal from work by a part or all of the employees in an establishment1 or several establishments1 to enforce a demand on the part of the employees04 ,strikes are called by officials of the unions when it appears that the demands of the workers cannot be enforced in any other way4 ,this can be done1 as a rule1 only after a vote of the members has been taken1 and in most cases the approval of the national officers of the union must also be secured4 ,while the men are 8on strike0 it is customary to grant them a small daily allowance for the support of themselves and their families4 ,this is paid out of the treasury of the union where funds have been accumulated from monthly membership fees paid by the men4 ,sidenote3 ,picketing ,when a strike is called1 8pickets0 are stationed near the factory or plant against which the strike is being conducted4 ,these pickets or watchers are furnished from among the strikers2 their purpose is to intercept 8strike-breakers0 or persons who may be going to take the places of the strikers1 and to persuade them against doing this4 ,so long as picketing is conducted peacefully and no intimidation or violence is practiced1 the laws do not1 as a rule1 interfere4 ,sidenote3 ,boycotts4 ,in addition to picketing1 the strikers often persuade members of other unions to 8boycott0 the products of the establishment against which the strike is being conducted1 in other words to refuse to transport materials for it or to buy from merchants any of its manufactures4 ,it is becoming the general practice of organized labor to buy no goods which do not bear the 8union label01 which is a sticker or tag certifying that the merchandise was made by members of a union4 ,sidenote3 ,how the employer strikes back4 ,lockouts and ,blacklists4--,but if the worker has his weapons1 so has the employer4 ,when the employer believes the demands of his workmen to be excessive he can shut down the establishment and lock the workers out4 ,then1 if he can find men and women to work for him on more favorable terms1 he takes them into his employ and starts up again4 ,lockouts are not now as common as they used to be4 ,another weapon of the employer is the blacklist1 which contains the names of workmen who have been prominent in fomenting labor troubles and who are1 accordingly1 regarded by the employers as undesirable4 ,this list is circulated by the employers from one to another and no workman whose name is on it will be given employment4 ,when a worker's name goes in the blacklist it means that he has the greatest difficulty in finding employment in his own trade anywhere4 ,sidenote3 ,labor and the courts4 ,the ,use of ,injunctions in ,labor ,disputes4--,a much-discussed question affecting the interests of labor relates to the use of injunctions in controversies between employers and workmen4 ,an injunction is a writ or order issued by a court of equity4 ,it commands a person or a corporation to do something1 or not to do something4 ,a court1 for example1 may by the issue of an injunction order an employer to reinstate a workman who has been wrongfully dismissed1 or it may forbid the calling of a strike by the officers of a union if such action involves the breach of an agreement with the employer4 ,sidenote3 ,contempt of court4 ,anyone who disobeys an injunction is guilty of 8contempt of court0 and in most cases may be clapped into jail without formal trial by a jury4 ,members of labor organizations feel that injunctions are frequently used in the interest of the employers4 ,the ,american ,federation of ,labor has strongly opposed the use of injunctions in labor disputes so long as men are not given a trial by a jury before being adjudged in contempt of court4 ,the ,clayton ,act of #aiad provided that1 in the federal courts1 alleged violations of an injunction issued in connection with labor controversies should be determined by a jury trial4 ,in the courts of most of the states1 on the other hand1 no such provision has yet been made and there is strong opposition to making it4 ,many people believe that labor is asking a special privilege in demanding that controversies in which it is especially interested shall have an exemption from the usual process of the courts4 ,the ,closed ,shop and the ,open ,shop4--,the most hotly-debated question in the whole range of labor problems today concerns the policy of the open versus the closed shop4 ,shall all shops and factories be closed to those who are not members of the union8 ,shall non-union men be virtually required to join the union or be refused employment unless they do8 ,or shall shops and factories be open to all competent workers no matter whether they belong to the union or not8 ,a closed shop1 so-called1 is a factory or other industrial plant in which none but members of a labor union are employed4#ahc ,an open shop is one in which the employer makes no distinction between those who are members of the union and those who are not4 ,the unions insist upon the closed shop as the only way of maintaining the effectiveness of their organizations and of upholding the principles of collective bargaining4 ,they believe it to be impracticable to have union men and non-union men working efficiently1 side by side1 in the same establishment4 ,many employers1 on the other hand1 maintain the open shop because they believe it is essential to proper discipline and gives every workman an equal opportunity4 ,they believe that it is the inalienable right of every ,american to work for whom he pleases1 on such terms as he pleases1 without the necessity of joining any organization4 ,hence they have adopted the habit of calling the open shop system the 8,american plan0 of industrial organization4 ,in those trades where practically all the workers have become unionized the controversy over the open or closed shop does not usually arise2 it is chiefly in those trades where a substantial proportion of the workers are not organized4 ,sidenote3 ,the amicable settlement of labor disputes4 ,conciliation and ,arbitration4--,the frequency of strikes and lockouts has been diminished in recent years by an increasing resort to the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration4 ,by conciliation is meant the action of some public authority1 usually a state board1 in tendering its assistance to smooth out the difficulty and effect a settlement4 ,this assistance both sides often accept1 although they are under no obligation to do so4 ,by arbitration is meant an agreement to submit the dispute to some one man or group of men1 and to abide by whatever decision may be rendered4 ,an arbitration board is commonly made up of three members1 one chosen by the employers1 one by the workers1 and a third mutually agreed upon as neutral4 ,some states maintain official boards of arbitration to which industrial disputes may be referred at any time by consent of the disputants4 ,even in cases where they are not called upon to arbitrate disputes these boards usually have the right to investigate the questions at issue and to make known their findings for the information of the public4 ,sidenote3 ,industrial courts4 ,compulsory ,arbitration--,the ,kansas ,plan4--,although the compulsory arbitration of industrial disputes has existed for some years in a few other countries#ahd it has not been looked upon with favor by labor leaders in the ,united ,states4 ,these leaders feel that compulsory arbitration would take from the worker his most effective weapon--the right to strike at an opportune time4 ,in #aiai1 however1 the legislature of ,kansas passed a law establishing in that state an ,industrial ,court1 with judges appointed by the governor4#ahe ,this court is empowered to fix rules1 regulations1 and practices for the operation of essential industries4#ahf ,all industrial disputes1 of whatever sort in these essential industries1 must be submitted to it1 and its decisions are binding upon employers and employees alike4 ,if either side declines to accept the award1 the state government is empowered to take over the industry and operate it until the controversy is settled4 ,the ,kansas law substitutes adjudication before a state tribunal for the usual method of redress by strikes and lockouts4 ,it is based upon the doctrine that neither capital nor labor has the right to carry on industrial warfare at the expense of the public and that essential industries must be kept in operation because the whole community depends on them4 ,the law has been held to be constitutional1 but it is still bitterly opposed by the leaders of organized labor4 ,sidenote3 ,are the laws unfriendly to labor8 ,labor and the ,law4--,it is often alleged that the laws of the land are largely on the side of the employer4 ,this may have been true of the common law which grew up in the days of hand-industry1 but the statutes passed by ,congress and by the state legislatures during recent years have done a great deal to ensure the just and humane treatment of the ,american worker4 ,these laws have been concerned with such matters as the prevention of industrial accidents and the establishment of workmen's compensation1 the limitation of the hours of labor for women1 the prohibition of child labor1 and the establishment of minimum wages in certain industries4 ,in addition the laws have made provision for proper sanitary conditions in shops and factories1 and have eliminated many of the abuses which grew up in the earlier days of the factory system4 ,the general tendency of ,american legislation during the past twenty-five years has been in the direction of protecting the workman in all cases where he cannot be counted upon to protect himself4 ,sidenote3 ,the old plan of dealing with injured workmen4 ,industrial ,accidents and ,employers' ,liability4--,the use of high-powered and complicated machinery in modern times has greatly increased the danger of accident to the workers4 ,by the terms of the common law an employer was obliged to grant compensation to any workman who met with an accident because of defects in the machinery or because of any other negligence on the employer's part4 ,but he was not obliged to grant compensation when the accident was due to the employee's own negligence or to the negligence of a fellow-employee4 ,in any event the only way in which an injured workman could get compensation1 in case the employer declined to give it1 was by bringing a suit in the courts1 an expensive and uncertain method4 ,this meant that large numbers of the workers who were disabled every year by accidents were left without any means of support for themselves and their families4 ,it availed very little to say that they were themselves to blame for their plight1 or that some fellow-employee was to blame4 ,placing the blame did not save the worker or his family from starvation4 ,a great amount of hardship and suffering was caused in past generations by putting so much of the burden upon the hapless employee4 ,sidenote3 ,why we have changed it4 ,when machines break down the employer has to pay the cost of replacing or repairing them4 ,he1 in turn1 adds this expense to his cost of production and in this way passes it to the public which buys his product4 ,but men break down as well as machines4 ,every great industry has many human accidents each year4 ,no matter how well the machinery is guarded or how careful the workmen may be1 accidents are inevitable4 ,an enormous amount of attention has been given to making railroad-operation safe by means of automatic couplers1 air-brakes1 electric signals1 interlocking switches1 and so on1 yet it is said that one railroad employee is killed or injured each year for every mile of trackage operated4 ,why not1 therefore1 require the employer1 and through him1 the consumers of the finished products1 to pay for what is an inevitable item in the cost of transportation and manufacture8 ,the answer to this question is that it should be done1 and in most of the states it is now being done1 through the medium of workmen's compensation laws4 ,sidenote3 ,the new plan4 ,workmen's ,compensation4--,the usual arrangement established by workmen's compensation laws is as follows3 ,every injured worker is entitled to compensation1 according to the extent of his injury1 no matter how the accident may have been caused4 ,if the accident results in the death of the workman1 his dependents are entitled to compensation4 ,the amount of the compensation is either fixed by law1 or adjusted to the amount of wages which the employee has been receiving1 or determined by a state board4 ,it is paid in installments1 so much per week for a set period of time4 ,in addition1 an injured workman receives medical attention without any expense to himself4 ,the employer usually arranges with a liability insurance company or with the state insurance department to pay this compensation in return for an annual premium which he remits to the company or to the insurance department as the case may be4 ,the cost of the insurance1 in other words the amount of the annual premium1 becomes one of the regular expenses of conducting business1 like taxes1 fire insurance1 or interest4 ,if the employer does not arrange for liability-insurance1 he must pay the compensation from his own pocket4 ,these workmen's compensation laws have been of incalculable service to the employees2 at the same time the cost to the public1 in the way of higher prices1 has been so small as to be almost unnoticeable4 ,sidenote3 ,the need for special laws to regulate the employment of women4 ,limitations on the ,working ,hours of ,women in ,industry4--,the various industries of the ,united ,states now employ several million women1 and the special protection of the laws has been extended to them in various directions4 ,the reason for this is that women cannot work long hours without detriment to their physical welfare1 and any break-down in the physical well-being of several million women would result in a serious injury to the physique of the whole race4 ,women in industry1 moreover1 are not as well able to protect their own interest as men are and for that reason also the laws have intervened in their behalf4 ,most of these laws have been directed towards limiting the hours of labor for women to a certain maximum per week1 forbidding work at night1 and improving the conditions under which women are employed4 ,factories1 for example1 have been required in some states to provide rest rooms1 and stores are under obligation to furnish seats for the use of saleswomen whenever they are not busy at the counters4 ,it may be urged that women1 like men1 should have the right to work as many hours as they please2 but the general welfare of society is paramount to the rights of any class1 whether of men or women4 ,it is the duty of society to protect itself against anything that tends to break down its physical or moral well-being4 ,sidenote3 ,the old iniquities of child labor4 ,child ,labor4--,in the early days of the factory system children of twelve1 ten1 or even seven years were put to work for long hours under frightful conditions4 ,underpaid and underfed1 deprived of schooling1 they grew up to be physically and intellectually unfit and developed into inferior citizens4#ahg ,child labor was thought to be cheap1 and from the employer's point of view it was2 but in the long run society found it to be incalculably expensive4 ,unrestricted child labor increased the number of illiterates1 promoted the spread of disease and crime1 augmented poverty1 and bred discontent4 ,the child is the father of the man2 and as our children are cared for so will the future manhood and womanhood of the nation be4 ,no fewer than two million persons under fifteen years of age are engaged in some form of wage-earning occupation in the ,united ,states today4 ,since they are unable to protect themselves against overwork and underpayment1 the state must see to it that they are treated by their employers with consideration and humanity4 ,sidenote3 ,child labor laws of today4 ,the laws relating to child labor differ considerably in the various states2 in some the provisions are much stricter than in others4 ,in general the tendency is to prohibit the regular employment of children under fourteen years of age4 ,many of the states forbid the employment of persons under sixteen years of age in night work or in certain dangerous occupations1 such as mining4 ,the hours of labor for persons under sixteen are also limited in some states to not exceeding eight per day4 ,many other provisions restricting child labor are now in force1 and year by year new limitations are being added4#ahh ,in #aiaf ,congress undertook to place a general restriction on child labor throughout the entire country by passing a law which forbade the transportation and sale in interstate commerce of any goods made in whole or in part by children under a designated age-limit4 ,the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states held this law to be unconstitutional1 however1 declaring that the authority to regulate commerce among the states does not empower ,congress to control the conditions of industry within the state boundaries4 ,congress has since placed a ban upon child labor in another way1 namely1 by providing that the profits of these industries which employ children shall be taxed more heavily than the profits of those concerns which do not4#ahi ,sidenote3 ,the arguments for minimum wage laws4 ,minimum ,wage ,laws4--,investigations into the subject made some years ago disclosed the fact that not only were women and children frequently overworked in industries but that they were often underpaid as well4 ,one reason for this underpayment was that many of the women and children workers lived at home and did not need to be entirely self-supporting4 ,they merely contributed to the general family earnings4 ,they were thus in a position to work for smaller wages than if they were entirely self-dependent4 ,but there were also many thousands of women and children who had to support themselves entirely from their own earnings and to these the low rate of wages meant hardship and suffering4 ,it meant undernourishment1 physical break-down1 and premature old age4 ,it led to pauperism and immorality4 ,so the laws have once more intervened to protect the well-being of the race against the fruits of industrial injustice by providing that the wages of women and children in industry shall not fall below a certain minimum4 ,sidenote3 ,nature of these laws4 ,many of the states have put these minimum wage laws upon their statute books4 ,sometimes the minimum rate of wages is fixed in the law2 more often it is determined in the case of each industry by a state board after an investigation4 ,the minimum rate is set at such a point as will enable the wage-earner to be self-supporting4 ,here1 again1 the basic principle is that the actual cost of production1 including the cost of protecting society against things detrimental to it1 should be paid by the public which buys the goods4 ,sidenote3 ,some practical difficulties4 ,one practical difficulty connected with the minimum wage plan is that it tends to throw the less efficient employees out of work altogether4 ,the employer who is forced by law to pay a fixed minimum in wages1 no matter how unskillful the worker may be1 will promptly dismiss all those who do not give him1 in work1 the worth of their wages4 ,if a minimum wage is established in all industries1 where will the least skillful find employment8 ,sidenote3 ,causes of unemployment4 ,the ,problem of ,unemployment4--,the greatest of all economic wastes today is that which results from unemployment4 ,the ideal condition would be to have everybody employed all the time4 ,if that could be accomplished we could produce a great deal more each year at lower cost4 ,unemployment means that idle men must use what other workers are producing4 ,but it is not possible to do away with unemployment altogether4 ,some trades are seasonal in character1 that is to say1 busy at one period of the year and slack during others4 ,in northern regions the building trades1 bricklaying1 outdoor carpentry1 and so on1 are in this category4 ,the larger part of the unemployment1 however1 is due to other than seasonal causes4 ,it is due rather to trade depressions which from time to time cause the shutting down of industrial establishments and it is caused in some degree by the lack of careful planning on the part of the employer4 ,the number of unemployed workers throughout the country varies greatly from time to time4 ,it may be as low as five per cent or as high as forty per cent of the entire number4 ,sidenote3 ,some suggested remedies4 ,various plans for lessening the evils of unemployment have been suggested1 but they all present some practical difficulties4 ,better vocational training would reduce the number of unskilled workers2 and it is the unskilled who contribute most largely to the ranks of the unemployed4 ,the establishment of public employment offices has done something to bring workers into touch with available jobs4 ,it is proposed that we have a more careful planning of state and municipal improvements so that the heaviest demand for labor on public works would come at times when unemployment is most prevalent--this1 it is urged1 would help alleviate the trouble even though it might not go very far in solving the whole problem4 ,much would be accomplished by the better organization of industrial production and by some scheme of co-operation among employers which would enable workers to be transferred from one industry to another4 ,great practical obstacles are in the way of doing this on a large scale4 ,sidenote3 ,how progress toward a solution of the problem is being made4 ,some large concerns have already adopted the plan of setting aside each week a certain percentage of the total pay roll as an unemployment reserve4 ,then1 whenever workers are temporarily out of employment through the slackening of business and not through any fault of their own1 a certain weekly wage is paid to them from this reserve4 ,something will also be accomplished in the way of reducing unemployment by better vocational guidance1 for young men and women often go into employments which afford no chance of promotion and which they subsequently find to be unsuited to their tastes4 ,many large industries now bestow great care upon the selection of new employees4 ,all applicants are dealt with through a special official known as the employment manager1 whose function it is to make reasonably sure that the applicant is fitted for the position4 ,foremen and bosses are not allowed to discharge employees at will4 ,the complaints must first be referred for investigation to the employment manager's office4 ,this plan will also help alleviate unemployment if it becomes general4 ,sidenote3 ,unemployment insurance4 ,unemployment insurance has been tried in a few ,european countries and has been advocated in ,america4 ,this plan contemplates that each employer shall contribute to a fund from which a stated wage scale shall be paid to those who remain out of work through no fault of their own1 or that the government shall provide such a fund from the proceeds of taxes4 ,it is easy to see that a scheme of this sort might be seriously abused1 yet so long as the problem of unemployment remains serious we must strive to find some way of solving it4 ,old-,age ,pensions4--,most wage-earners do not save enough to provide for themselves in old age4 ,the result is that after long years of toil they are dependent upon their children1 or must eke out a precarious existence by doing odd jobs1 or must be supported by the public poor-relief funds4 ,sidenote3 ,the experience of ,great ,britain and ,germany4 ,this is not a desirable state of affairs and in some ,european countries1 notably in ,great ,britain and in ,germany1 systems of old-age pensions for workers have been established4 ,in ,germany the worker pays a small amount each week into the fund2 the employer pays an equal amount and the government pays the rest4 ,in ,great ,britain the employers and the government pay it all4 ,every wage-earner1 on reaching old age1 receives a small weekly allowance for the rest of his days4#aij ,the cost of an old-age pension system is enormous1 but in the long run it is likely to represent real economy4 ,sooner or later the system will probably be established in this country2 the only question is whether1 when it comes1 the wage-earner should be required to pay a regular contribution during the years in which he is able to do full work4 ,sidenote3 ,the patriotism of ,american labor4 ,american ,labor and the ,war4--,among the various factors which helped to win the ,world ,war the loyalty and enthusiasm of ,american labor should be accorded a high place4 ,war always creates a great shortage of workers1 partly because so many able-bodied men are taken into the army and partly because of the tremendous need for workers in munition plants and other war industries4 ,during war1 therefore1 the labor organizations are always in a position to make demands which cannot well be refused4 ,it is quite true that ,american labor took advantage of its opportunities during the ,world ,war2 but so did the employers4 ,the wages of labor rose everywhere1 as did the profits of industry4 ,nevertheless it can fairly be said that labor co-operated with the government at all the essential points and produced the uninterrupted flow of materials which was needed to ensure victory4 ,certain it is that without this co-operation on the part of labor the ,united ,states could not have figured so prominently in deciding the ultimate issue of the great conflict4 ,general ,references ,,isaac ,,lippincott1 ,economic ,development of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dia-eaa2 ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,the ,labor ,movement in ,america1 pp4 #cd-ia 7,growth and ,present ,conditions of ,labor ,organizations72 ,t4 ,s4 ,,adams and ,h4 ,l4 ,,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 pp4 #dfa-eja 7,labor ,laws72 ,f4 ,t4 ,,carlton1 ,organized ,labor in ,american ,history1 pp4 #aa-dd 7,epochs in the ,history of ,organized ,labor72 pp4 #afi-aig 7,labor ,parties72 pp4 #aih-bbe 7,ideals of the ,wage ,earner72 ,r4 ,f4 ,,hoxie1 ,trade ,unionism in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bed-bge 7,collective ,bargaining72 ,,john ,r4 ,,commons and ,j4 ,b4 ,,andrews1 ,principles of ,american ,labor ,legislation1 pp4 #ce-ij 7,individual ,bargaining72 ,,samuel ,,gompers1 ,american ,labor and the ,war1 passim4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the origin1 growth1 and aims of labor organizations4 ,the organization of industry before the ,industrial ,revolution4 ,rise of the factory system4 ,creation of a labor class4 ,early conditions of factory employment4 ,beginnings of labor organizations4 ,early attitude of the law and the courts4 ,growth of labor organizations during the past half century4 ,central organizations and national bodies4 ,present-day aims of labor organizations--economic1 social1 and political4 ,specific features of organized labor's program4 ,labor as a factor in politics4 ,the movements for industrial democracy4 ,references3 ,t4,s4 ,,adams and ,h4,l4 ,,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 pp4 #bad-bgi2 ,,sidney ,,webb1 ,history of ,trade ,unionism1 pp4 #a-ef2 #dca-eda2 ,,mary ,,beard1 ,short ,history of the ,american ,labor ,movement1 pp4 #dg-gi2 ,f4 ,t4 ,,carlton1 ,organized ,labor in ,american ,history1 pp4 #aa-dd2 #aih-bbe2 ,r4 ,f4 ,,hoxie1 ,history of ,trade ,unionism in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #baa-beb 7,the ,law in ,relation to ,labor72 ,,john ,r4 ,,commons 7editor71 ,history of ,labor in the ,united ,states1 passim2 ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,the ,labor ,movement in ,america1 pp4 #cd-ia2 ,p4 ,f4 ,,brissenden1 ,history of the ,i4 ,w4 ,w41 pp4 #hc-aab 7,the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 vs4 the ,a4 ,f4 of ,l474 #b4 ,the ,american ,federation of ,labor3 its history1 aims1 and achievements4 ,references3 ,,samuel ,,gompers1 ,american ,labor and the ,war1 pp4 #ahf-aif2 ,,john ,,mitchell1 ,organized ,labor1 pp4 #cig-djf2 ,f4 ,t4 ,,carlton1 ,history and ,problems of ,organized ,labor1 pp4 #ge-hb2 ,,mary ,r4 ,,beard1 ,short ,history of the ,american ,labor ,movement1 pp4 #hf-adi2 ,g4 ,g4 ,,groat1 ,organized ,labor in ,america1 pp4 #hb-ii2 ,,helen ,,marot1 ,american ,labor ,unions1 pp4 #aa-bh4 #c4 ,the arbitration of industrial disputes4 ,references3 ,t4 ,s4 ,,adams and ,,helen ,,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 pp4 #bie-ccb2 ,,sidney ,,webb1 ,industrial ,democracy1 pp4 #bbb-bdf2 ,n4 ,p4 ,,gilman1 ,methods of ,industrial ,peace1 pp4 #cja-cde2 ,r4 ,t4 ,,ely1 ,the ,evolution of ,industrial ,society1 pp4 #cgd-cig2 ,,john ,,mitchell1 ,organized ,labor1 pp4 #ccg-cdf2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cjc-cbb4 #d4 ,the general principles of labor legislation4 ,references3 ,w4 ,s4 ,,jevons1 ,the ,state in ,relation to ,labor1 pp4 #a-cb2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bhe-cjb2 ,,john ,r4 ,,commons and ,j4 ,b4 ,,andrews1 ,principles of ,labor ,legislation1 pp4 #a-cd2 ,h4 ,s4 ,,person1 ,labor ,laws and ,their ,enforcement1 passim4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the four epochs in the history of organized labor4 ,f4 ,t4 ,,carlton1 ,organized ,labor in ,american ,history1 pp4 #aa-dd4 #b4 ,labor and politics4 ,f4 ,t4 ,,carlton1 ,history and ,problems of ,organized ,labor1 pp4 #afi-aig4 #c4 ,the ,knights of ,labor3 why they failed4 ,,mary ,r4 ,,beard1 ,short ,history of the ,american ,labor ,movement1 pp4 #aaf-abf4 #d4 ,the right to strike4 ,,john ,,mitchell1 ,organized ,labor1 pp4 #bii-cbc4 #e4 ,collective bargaining4 ,final ,report of the ,u4 ,s4 ,industrial ,commission1 pp4 #hdc-hdg4 #f4 ,the use of injunctions in labor disputes4 ,g4 ,l4 ,,bolen1 ,getting a ,living1 pp4 #edh-ehj2 ,j4 ,r4 ,,commons1 ,trade ,unionism and ,labor ,problems1 pp4 #aef-afc4 #g4 ,the ,kansas plan4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,allen1 ,the ,party of the ,third ,part1 pp4 #af-ia4 #h4 ,workmen's compensation4 ,,john ,r4 ,,commons and ,j4 ,b4 ,,andrews1 ,principles of ,american ,labor ,legislation1 pp4 #cef-che4 ,see also the publications on this subject issued by the ,national ,industrial ,conference ,board4 #i4 ,women and children in industry4 ,t4 ,s4 ,,adams and ,h4 ,l4 ,,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 pp4 #ai-fg4 #aj4 ,the problem of unemployment4 ,e4 ,t4 ,,towne1 ,social ,problems1 pp4 #adj-aei2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,beveridge1 ,unemployment1 #c;d ed41 pp4 #a-ae 7,great ,britain74 #aa4 ,profit sharing as a solution of industrial problems4 ,t4 ,s4 ,,adams and ,h4 ,l4 ,,sumner1 ,labor ,problems1 pp4 #ccc-cgh4 #ab4 ,old age pensions4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,dawson1 ,social ,insurance1 pp4 #abh-afe2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,lewis1 ,state ,insurance1 pp4 #adh-agj4 ,questions #a4 ,explain why labor organizations came into existence during the nineteenth century4 ,on the whole have they been a benefit to industry or not8 ,give your reasons4 #b4 ,give some reasons for expecting trade unions to be stronger in certain employments than in others4 ,in which of the following employments would you expect the unions to be strong1 and in which would you expect them to be weak3 7a7 railroading2 7b7 domestic service2 7c7 school teaching2 7d7 farming2 7e7 mining2 7f7 steel-making8 ,give reasons for your expectations in each case4 #c4 ,with what points in the program of the ,american ,federation of ,labor do you agree and with what ones do you disagree8 #d4 ,the closed shop is sometimes criticised as being 8un-,american0 and the open shop has been called the 8,american plan04 ,what does this mean8 #e4 ,are there any employments1 public or private1 in which strikes should not be permitted8 #f4 ,why should the consumer pay the costs of all industrial accidents8 ,explain how he does so where workmen's compensation acts have been passed4 #g4 ,in your opinion would the legislature be justified in limiting to eight hours per day the labor of 7a7 women in candy factories2 7b7 men who work on farms2 7c7 men who work in coal mines2 7d7 physicians2 7e7 waitresses in hotels2 7f7 female servants2 7g7 members of the fire-protection service in cities2 7h7 motormen on street cars8 ,give your reasons in each case4 #h4 ,give your views as to the minimum age at which any person should be permitted to engage in regular employment for wages4 ,at what age should employment in night work be permitted8 ,should persons under fourteen years of age be allowed to work for wages after school hours1 on ,saturdays1 and during vacations8 #i4 ,a girl of sixteen has graduated from grammar school and could obtain a position as clerk in a millinery store at eight dollars a week4 ,she is living at home and does not have to support herself4 ,but the minimum wage for clerks in stores happens to be ten dollars per week and the owner will not pay so much4 ,is there any injustice here8 #aj4 ,how can the evil of unemployment be reduced8 ,what abuses might arise in connection with unemployment insurance8 ,who pays the cost of unemployment now8 ,argue whether we should or should not place industrial unemployment on the same basis as industrial accidents4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the demand for collective bargaining is 7or is not7 justified4 #b4 ,a plan of old-age pensions1 like that now maintained in ,great ,britain1 should be established in the ,united ,states4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,currency1 ,,banking1 ,,and ,,credit ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain what money is1 what purposes it serves1 how banks conduct their business1 and how credit facilitates trade4 ,sidenote3 ,money supplants barter4 ,the ,origin of ,money4--,the use of money is one of the marks of civilization4 ,in primitive communities money was unknown4 ,buying and selling was by barter1 the exchange of one commodity for another4 ,the man with too much corn exchanged corn for cattle or for a boat or for skins with which to clothe himself4 ,but exchange by barter is a slow and clumsy method because it means that two persons must be found each of whom wants exactly what the other has to sell1 a thing which does not easily happen4 ,with the growth of trade1 accordingly1 it became necessary to find a medium of exchange1 in other words some single commodity which is so readily exchangeable for all other commodities that it can be used to facilitate buying and selling4 ,some of the ,indians of ,north ,america used the ends of shells1 or wampum1 for this purpose4 ,the early colonists in ,virginia chose tobacco as a temporary medium of exchange1 it being in universal demand4 ,people accepted tobacco in exchange for things which they wished to sell1 and gave tobacco for things which they desired to buy4 ,this was not because they wanted tobacco for their own use but because of all commodities in the colony tobacco was the most easy to exchange for other things at a moment's notice4 ,no ordinary form of merchandise1 however1 makes an entirely satisfactory medium of exchange and all of them in time gave way to the precious metals1 gold and silver1 which are now everywhere used for this purpose4#aia ,sidenote3 ,money as a standard of value and a measure of deferred payments4 ,the ,functions which ,money ,serves4--,money1 however1 serves not only as a medium of exchange but as a standard of value and a measure for future payments4 ,money is the common denominator by means of which we express the value of different commodities4 ,if money were not in existence1 how could we state the value of anything8 ,it would be of little avail to say that a suit of clothes is worth ten hats1 for this would merely beg the question3 ,how much is a hat worth8 ,money performs the function of providing a uniform scale into which all values can be translated4 ,when we say1 therefore1 that a suit of clothes is worth forty dollars and that hats are worth four dollars apiece we are measuring both commodities according to the same standard of value4 ,money also facilitates the use of credit by providing a measure for deferred payments4 ,people cannot well agree to indefinite future obligations2 they must know exactly what a debt amounts to4 ,the use of money enables men to borrow today with the understanding that they will repay the same amount at some future date4 ,sidenote3 ,the qualities which money must have3 ,characteristics of ,money4--,gold and silver are best adapted to facilitate exchange because they possess1 in high degree1 certain qualities which money must have in order to fulfil its functions properly4 ,what are these qualities8 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,value4 ,to serve acceptably as money a substance must have1 in the first place1 some value in itself2 it must therefore have utility as a basis of value4 ,a worthless substance1 which nobody wants1 would not do4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,stability4 ,second1 it must not only have value but stability of value4 ,to serve efficiently as money a metal must not be subject to wide and frequent fluctuations in what it is worth4 ,a substance which might be worth much today and little tomorrow would not be satisfactory4 ,gold and silver1 being produced in limited quantities1 are more nearly stable in value than any other metals1 gold being particularly so4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,convenience4 ,third1 the metal used as money must possess relatively high value in proportion to its bulk so that it can be easily passed from hand to hand4 ,there was a tradition in ancient ,greece that ,lycurgus compelled the ,lacedaemonians to use iron money in order that its weight might deter them from overmuch trading4 ,if iron were used as currency today a dime would weigh more than a pound4#aib ,in a word the metal used as money must be portable1 easy to carry around4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,durability4 ,fourth1 it must be relatively indestructible1 not subject to rapid decay or rusting4 ,gold and silver satisfy this requirement1 for time does not destroy their value nor do they suffer much wear and tear through handling4 ,it is believed that some of the gold which is in the coinage of ,european countries today served as money in the time of the ,romans4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,uniformity4 ,fifth1 it must be homogeneous1 that is1 it must not vary in quality1 otherwise equal amounts of it would not have the same value4 ,in order that we may reckon things in terms of money the units must be equal and similar so that twice one will always make two4 ,if we were to use diamonds as money1 it would not always happen that two stones would be worth exactly twice as much as one4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,divisibility4 ,sixth1 it must be easily divisible without loss of value1 for we need small units of money as well as large ones4 ,one great difficulty which primitive people found in using the skins of animals as money was that they could not be cut into portions without destroying their value altogether4 ,nobody would take1 for example1 a quarter of a skin in payment for a basketful of corn4 ,but gold and silver can be divided at will and yet retain an exactly proportionate value4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,cognizability4 ,finally1 it must be a metal or other substance the genuineness of which can be easily determined4 ,if every person who receives money had to scrutinize1 weigh1 and test it1 the processes of trade would be intolerably delayed4#aic ,gold and silver may not themselves be readily cognizable by the uninitiated1 but they are easy to stamp into coins with a stamp or design and this impression cannot be easily counterfeited4 ,the various countries of the world adopted gold and silver as their chief media of exchange because these metals fulfil in the largest degree the foregoing requirements4 ,for small units of currency nickel and bronze are utilized because subsidiary coins of gold and silver would be too small4 ,sidenote3 ,gold is the ,american standard of values4 ,the ,coinage of the ,united ,states4--,in the ,united ,states gold is the standard of values4 ,this does not mean that gold is circulated from hand to hand in every transaction1 but merely that all economic values are expressed in terms of gold coin4 ,the actual payments may be made in paper notes1 or in silver1 nickel1 or copper coins4 ,the monetary system of the ,united ,states is based upon the decimal system1 which was adopted in #aghd at the suggestion of ,thomas ,jefferson4 ,this means that we reckon in fractions and multiples of ten--ten cents one dime1 ten dimes one dollar1 and ten dollars one eagle4 ,for convenience there are also additional coins1 such as nickels1 quarter dollars1 half dollars1 and half-eagles4 ,no gold dollars are now coined1 as they were found to be too small for convenience4#aid ,the mint has also ceased coining quarter eagles but continues to make five1 ten1 and twenty dollar gold pieces although these coins remain for the most part in the banks where they are held as reserves4 ,very little gold coin is in circulation anywhere in the world today4 ,the coining of money is wholly within the jurisdiction of the national government2 no state is allowed to make or issue coins4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,united ,states mints4 ,the making of coins takes place at four mints1 which are located at ,philadelphia1 ,new ,orleans1 ,denver1 and ,san ,francisco4#aie ,if you look at the reverse side of a recently minted coin1 you will find1 near the base1 a small letter indicating the mint at which the coin was struck2 if there is no such letter1 the coin was minted at ,philadelphia4 ,sidenote3 ,the ratio between gold and silver4 ,the ,controversy over ,bimetallism4--,in #agib1 when the first ,american mint was established1 ,congress provided by law that there should be two monetary units1 the gold dollar and the silver dollar--the ratio between the two1 in terms of weight1 being fixed at fifteen to one4 ,any person bringing gold or silver bullion to the mint was entitled to have it made into coins at this ratio1 which corresponded to the relative market value of the two ,sidenote3 ,in #agib4metals in #agib4 ,silver eventually cheapened in relation to gold1 however1 and in time only silver bullion came to be coined4 ,sidenote3 ,in #ahcd4 ,so ,congress in #ahcd reduced the weight of the gold dollar and made the ratio sixteen to one4 ,this1 in turn1 proved to be an under-valuation of silver1 and no silver now came to the mint to be coined4#aif ,sidenote3 ,in #ahgc4 ,in #ahgc1 after silver dollars had practically dropped out of circulation ,congress abolished the free coinage of silver altogether4#aig ,presently1 however1 there was a popular demand for a resumption of silver coinage and the minting of silver dollars was recommenced1#aih ,sidenote3 ,in #ahic4;but only on a limited scale2 and in #ahic it was once more abandoned4#aii ,this action on the part of ,congress raised a great hue and cry in certain sections of the country1 especially in the ,south and ,west4 ,free coinage of silver was desired not only by owners of mines who had silver to sell but by large numbers of farmers who believed that gold was becoming too scarce to serve as the sole standard of value4 ,scarcity of gold meant scarcity of money1 and scarcity of money meant low prices for wheat4 ,if money were plentiful1 prices would go higher1 and the way to get more money was to coin into dollars all the silver that would come to the mint4 ,that was the farmers' argument4 ,the 8,cross of ,gold0 ,campaign4--,the leaders of the ,democratic party took advantage of this widespread agricultural grievance4 ,at the national convention of that party1 held at ,chicago in the summer of #ahif1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,bryan swept the delegates off their feet with his denunciation of the 8few financial magnates who corner the money of the world0 and his plea for the poor man's dollar4 8,you shall not press upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns01 he declaimed4 8,you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold40 ,the delegates1 amid tumultuous cheering and enthusiasm1 thereupon nominated the young orator from ,nebraska as their candidate for ,president and made the free coinage of silver at a ratio of 8sixteen to one0 a fundamental part of the ,democratic platform in the election campaign4 ,but ,bryan was overwhelmingly defeated and the clamor for free silver soon subsided4 ,sidenote3 ,final settlement of the question in #aijj4 ,in #aijj ,congress passed the ,currency ,act1 which declared gold to be the sole standard and directed the secretary of the treasury to maintain all other forms of currency at a parity with gold4 ,this means that every silver dollar1 whether the silver which it contains be worth a dollar or not1 is guaranteed by the national government to be worth a gold dollar4 ,sidenote3 ,our early experience with paper currency4 ,paper ,money4--,our experience with paper money goes back to colonial days when bills of credit were issued by ,massachusetts to pay the costs of the expedition against ,quebec in #afij4 ,but no great amounts were issued until the ,revolutionary ,war2 then the various state governments as well as the ,continental ,congress printed and issued notes to the par value of nearly half a billion dollars4 ,in the earlier years of the war this paper currency circulated at its face value although there was no gold or silver reserve behind it2 but as the struggle dragged on and notes by the million kept being issued they began to depreciate until eventually this continental paper currency was worth only a fraction of a cent per dollar4 ,hence the origin of the slang expression 8not worth a continental04 ,the notes for the most part were never redeemed2 they merely became worthless and passed out of circulation4 ,sidenote3 ,what the constitution provides as regards paper money4 ,naturally this experience made the people averse to paper money and when the constitution of the ,united ,states was framed it contained a provision that 8no state shall emit bills of credit 7or7 make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts04 ,it was strongly urged that the national government should also be prohibited from issuing paper money1 but in the end it was decided not to make any express prohibition1 so the constitution is silent as regards the authority of the national government to emit bills of credit4 ,it neither gives this power nor denies it4 ,in due course1 however1 ,congress authorized the issue of legal-tender notes or greenbacks1 and the ,supreme ,court upheld its right to do this on the ground that the constitution expressly gives ,congress the power to borrow money and that the issue of paper money is a reasonable method of borrowing4 ,but although the national government has itself the legal right to issue paper money1 either with or without a reserve behind it1 most of the paper money now in circulation is issued by the federal reserve board or by the federal reserve banks under authority granted by ,congress4 ,sidenote3 ,the seven kinds of paper money in use4 ,paper ,notes now in ,circulation4--,there are several kinds of paper notes now in circulation4#bjj ,these include silver certificates1 gold certificates1 treasury notes1 and greenbacks issued directly by the national government1 national bank notes1 federal reserve notes1 and federal reserve bank notes4 ,the provisions for the redemption of these different types of paper money vary greatly1 and each is protected by a different reserve1 but in actual fact the holder of any unit of paper money can obtain gold for it if he so desires4 ,this is true even of the silver certificates which1 strictly speaking1 are redeemable only in silver dollars4 ,the arrangements under which the national banks1 the federal reserve banks1 and the federal reserve board are permitted to issue paper money will be discussed presently4 ,sidenote3 ,paper money has some advantages in convenience and cheapness4 ,why do we have paper money8 ,chiefly because it is1 in many respects1 more convenient for use than metallic money4 ,in large amounts it is not so bulky as silver or gold would be4 ,there is also the advantage that when paper money wears out it can be cheaply replaced4 ,if gold coins were continually in circulation from hand to hand1 they would gradually wear down and the monetary loss would be considerable4 ,hence it is better to keep the gold in the bank vaults and circulate the paper1 which represents gold1 in its stead4 ,but a sound system of paper money should always provide for the redemption of the notes1 which means that the notes should have an adequate reserve behind them4 ,this reserve should be in gold or in the equivalent of gold4 ,sidenote3 ,inconvertible paper money4 ,unredeemable paper money1 issued without an adequate reserve behind it1 leads practically always to depreciation and thereby to heavy losses on the part of the people who have taken the money in good faith4 ,that was what happened in the case of the assignats of the ,french ,revolution1 the continental currency in the ,american ,revolution1 and the paper money of several ,european countries during the ,world ,war4#bja ,it is folly to try to finance a war or any other national enterprise by issuing fiat currency1 as it is called1 which is paper currency with only the word of the government and no substantial reserve behind it4 ,better tax the people outright than make them take money as legal tender which is not worth what it purports to be4#bjb ,sidenote3 ,why not abolish money8 ,radicals sometimes say3 8,let us do away with money altogether04 ,instead of money1 they say1 we might use 8labor checks01 each check representing a given amount of labor4 ,one hour of labor1 let us say1 would then be the standard of value instead of #bc4b grains of gold4 ,this arrangement1 however1 would not abolish money1 but only change the nature of the basis upon which the value of money is calculated4 ,the labor checks would be money in every sense of the word4 ,there is only one way to abolish money and that is to go back to barter4 ,,the ,,banking ,,system ,sidenote3 ,banks serve3 ,what ,functions do ,banks ,perform8--,banks are established and maintained to satisfy certain needs which arise wherever men carry on extensive trade with one another4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,as institutions of deposit4 ,in the first place when money is accumulated by people in the course of their business some safe place is needed to keep it4 ,banks1 therefore1 serve as institutions of deposit4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,as agencies for loaning money4 ,in the second place1 as business develops1 it becomes necessary for people to borrow money4 ,banks facilitate this borrowing4 ,their two primary functions are to receive deposits and to make loans4 ,but in order that they may perform these two primary functions to the best advantage the banks have assumed other subsidiary functions as well4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,sometimes also as issuers of paper money4 ,frequently they issue bank notes1 or the bank's own promises to pay1 for use in general circulation4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,to transfer funds from one place to another4 ,they sell drafts or bills of exchange1 thus enabling people to transfer funds from one city or country to another without the trouble and risk of sending the actual money4 ,as a rule they provide safe-deposit vaults in which customers1 on payment of a small sum1 are permitted to keep their valuables4 ,these vaults are fire-proof and burglar-proof4 ,banks also collect money which may be due to a customer from someone elsewhere4 ,they help the national and state governments to sell their bonds4 ,frequently they act as trustees1 holding property for children until they grow up or for other persons who are unable to look after the property for themselves4 ,without banks it would be difficult1 if not impossible1 to carry on the operations of modern business4 ,the ,early ,american ,banking ,system4--,the national constitution contains no mention of banks or banking4 ,hence it was assumed that the power to charter banks would rest with the states4 ,the states assumed this authority but the national government desired to exercise it also1 and during the first thirty years of its existence established two great banks1 both of which became unpopular and ultimately went out of existence4 ,the first ,bank of the ,united ,states1 established in #agia1 ceased to do business in #ahaa2 the second bank1 chartered in #ahaf1 incurred the wrath of ,president ,andrew ,jackson and went to the wall in #ahcf4bjc ,from this date to the ,civil ,war the state banks1 of which a large number were established in all parts of the country1 had the field to themselves4 ,the ,national ,banking ,act of #ahfc4--;,during the ,civil ,war1 however1 the national government encountered great difficulty in raising funds4 ,when it issued bonds the people would not buy them readily4 ,the state banks showed very little interest in marketing them4 ,so ,congress1 in this emergency1 decided to establish a system of national banks in order to facilitate the sale of war bonds4 ,the ,national ,banking ,act1 passed in that year1 laid a heavy tax upon the paper money of all state banks1 with intent to drive this currency out of circulation4 ,it then provided that any bank chartered by the national government might issue untaxed paper money provided it bought ,united ,states bonds to a designated amount and deposited these bonds in ,washington as security4 ,in other words the ,act of #ahfc aimed to provide a uniform system of bank notes throughout the country1 these notes to be backed by government bonds4 ,the plan worked well and its main provisions have been retained to this day4 ,sidenote3 ,present organization of the national banks4 ,national banks are owned by private individuals who subscribe the capital stock4 ,these stockholders1 or shareholders1 elect the bank's officers1 who in turn manage the business4 ,the profits go to the shareholders in the form of annual dividends4 ,each national bank must buy a designated amount of ,united ,states bonds and these bonds are deposited in ,washington4 ,in return the bank receives an equal amount of paper notes1 with its own name engraved thereon1 and these notes the bank pays out over its counters1 thus putting them in general circulation4 ,if the bank should become insolvent1 the government would redeem the notes since it holds the bonds as security4 ,sidenote3 ,their functions4 ,the national banks receive money on deposit1 make loans1 and perform the various other banking functions4 ,they are strictly regulated by national law2 they must make periodic reports and are frequently inspected by officials from ,washington4 ,sidenote3 ,their reserves4 ,one requirement is that they shall always maintain a certain 8reserve0 so that they may be in a position to make all payments which may be called for by their customers4 ,the supervision of the national banks is in the hands of an official known as the ,comptroller of the ,currency1 who is appointed by the ,president4 ,sidenote3 ,state banks and trust companies4 ,in addition to the national banks there are state banks and trust companies throughout the country operating under state charters4 ,these institutions do not issue paper money but perform all the other banking functions4#bjd ,their business is regulated by the laws of the state in which they are located and they are supervised by state officials4 ,the laws relating to state banks and trust companies differ considerably from state to state4 ,sidenote3 ,defects of the national banking system due to the concentration of reserves and lack of flexibility4 ,the ,federal ,reserve ,banks4--,although the national banking system worked pretty well for fifty years after its establishment1 certain defects came to be recognized4 ,one of these defects1 in actual practice1 was the necessity of always keeping available a 8reserve0 amounting to a certain percentage of each bank's total deposits4 ,it was not necessary to keep this reserve in the bank's own vaults2 a part of it might be placed upon deposit in larger banks where it would draw interest4 ,as matters turned out1 a considerable portion of the reserves was usually deposited with large banks in ,new ,york ,city4 ,in times when business was good and money plentiful1 this arrangement worked very well1 but when periods of business depression arrived and money became scarce every small bank naturally drew upon its reserve deposits in the larger banks1 which found difficulty in paying them all at the same time4 ,moreover1 it was found from experience that during times of business prosperity the country needed a large increase in paper money while the national banking system1 as established in #ahfc1 proved too rigid to meet the business needs of the country4 ,sidenote3 ,how the ,federal ,reserve system remedies these defects4 ,in #aiac1 accordingly1 ,congress made provision for the establishment of a ,federal ,reserve system which does not displace but supplements the operations of the national banks4 ,by an act passed in that year provision was made for the establishment of twelve federal reserve districts1 with a federal reserve bank in each4 ,the capital stock of each federal reserve bank is contributed by national or state banks within the districts1 these contributors being then known as 8member banks04 ,the national government also subscribes a part of the capital stock when necessary4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,federal ,reserve ,board4 ,each federal reserve bank is controlled by officials1 some of whom are elected by the member banks and some appointed by the national government through a body known as the ,federal ,reserve ,board4 ,this board is composed of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 the ,comptroller of the ,currency1 and five other members appointed by the ,president4 ,sidenote3 ,functions of the ,federal ,reserve ,banks4 ,these federal reserve institutions are bankers' banks4 ,they do business with banks only1 not with individuals4 ,they receive deposits from banks and lend money to banks4 ,the member banks now keep with them a portion of their reserves4 ,in this way the reserves are mobilized at twelve different financial centers where they can be readily drawn upon4#bje ,the ,federal ,reserve ,board has authority to increase or decrease the percentage of reserves which the member banks are required to maintain1 thus giving the reserve system a large degree of flexibility4 ,whenever a member bank needs additional paper money for circulation it goes to the federal reserve bank of its district and deposits any sound 8collateral01 that is to say1 any acceptable security1 and receives federal reserve notes of like value in return4 ,this collateral may be in the form of government bonds or it may be1 and more often is1 8commercial paper04 ,sidenote3 ,how they give flexibility to the whole banking system of the country4 ,by commercial paper is meant the notes or other obligations of corporations and individuals which have been given to the member banks in return for loans made to such corporations and individuals4 ,the federal reserve banks are authorized to issue federal reserve notes1 to an unlimited extent on the security of this collateral provided they also keep a gold reserve amounting to forty per cent of the total notes issued4 ,in addition they are empowered to issue federal reserve bank notes secured by ,united ,states bonds in the same way as national bank notes are secured4 ,it is expected that in time the national bank notes will go out of existence altogether1 their place being taken by these federal reserve bank notes4 ,sidenote3 ,value of the ,federal ,reserve system4 ,since their establishment in #aiac the work of these federal reserve banks has been of great value4 ,they have enabled the banking operations of the country to expand and contract in accordance with changes in business conditions1 thus obviating serious danger of financial panics4 ,in helping the government to float the various ,liberty ,loans they rendered great service4 ,there is no doubt that the system has improved and strengthened the banking facilities of the country4#bjf ,this will appear more clearly when the relations of banking and credit are discussed a few pages further on4 ,sidenote3 ,commercial and savings banks distinguished4 ,the ,practical ,operations of ,banking4--,there are some elementary things connected with the practical operations of banking which everyone ought to know4 ,generally speaking1 there are two kinds of banks1 commercial banks and savings banks2 or1 in some cases the same bank may have two departments1 a commercial department and a savings department4 ,both commercial and savings banks receive deposits2 the former may or may not pay interest according to the amount of the deposit and the length of time it is left in the bank2 the latter always pay interest if money is left on deposit a prescribed length of time4 ,when money is deposited in a commercial bank the depositor is said to have an 8account0 and he may issue checks up to the amount of his deposit4 ,sidenote3 ,bank checks4 ,a check is an order1 addressed to the bank1 and calling for the payment of a designated sum4 ,this check may be cashed at the bank on which it is drawn1 or the person who receives it may have it cashed at the bank where he has his account4 ,banks cash checks for their own customers no matter what bank the checks happen to be drawn upon4 ,one result of this is that every bank at the close of each day's business will have on hand a large number of checks drawn against other banks4 ,sidenote3 ,the clearing house system4 ,it receives payment on these checks through the medium of the 8clearing house01 an institution which is maintained by the banks in every large city4 ,to the nearest clearing house a clerk takes each morning all the checks on other banks that have come in during the previous day4 ,these are sorted out and exchanged for checks drawn on the bank itself which are held by other banks4 ,whatever difference there happens to be is paid in cash4 ,sidenote3 ,how bank loans are made4 ,when any person desires to borrow money from a bank he gives his note1 which is a promise to repay the bank at a designated time4 ,the bank may ask the borrower to obtain an endorsement upon his note1 that is1 to have some responsible person put his name on the back of it1 which means that the endorser assumes liability for the amount of the note if it is not paid by the maker on time4 ,or the bank may ask the borrower to deposit 8collateral0 as security for the payment of the note4 ,this collateral may be in the form of bonds1 stocks1 mortgages1 or any other intangible property that has sufficient value4 ,the bank holds this collateral until the loan is repaid4 ,sidenote3 ,the process of 8discounting40 ,when a bank lends money and takes a man's note1 with or without collateral1 it is said to discount the note4 ,it gives the borrower the face value of his note less the interest1 whatever it is1 calculated at the current rate4 ,thus if the rate is six per cent and the person gives his note for one thousand dollars payable in six months1 the bank would hand him #igj in money4 ,business men obtain large sums of money from the banks by getting their notes discounted2 they borrow money in this way to buy goods and then pay off their notes when the goods are sold4 ,such notes are called 8commercial paper04 ,sidenote3 8,rediscounting40 ,now the federal reserve banks help the member banks by 8rediscounting0 this commercial paper for them4 ,suppose a small bank has loaned on notes all the money it has to spare4 ,then it receives applications from its customers for more loans4 ,what does it do8 ,it takes a bundle of business men's notes1 or commercial paper1 from its vaults and sends this to the nearest federal reserve bank4 ,the latter does just what the member bank did in the first instance2 it deducts the discount at current rates and gives the balance to the member bank in money1 that is1 in federal reserve notes4 ,the member banks are enabled1 in this way1 to loan a great deal more money than would be the case if there were no way of getting their commercial paper 8rediscounted04 ,sidenote3 ,how the banks transfer funds4 ,drafts or bills of exchange are used to make payments at distant points4 ,if a person lives in ,san ,francisco and wishes to pay a small bill in ,new ,york1 he will probably go to the post office and buy a postal money order2 but if the amount is large1 he may find it more convenient and cheaper to go to a bank in ,san ,francisco and buy a draft on some ,new ,york bank4 ,this draft he then sends to ,new ,york in payment of his bill4 ,a draft payable in a foreign country is usually called a bill of exchange4 ,from any ,american bank one can buy a bill of exchange payable in ,paris1 ,madras1 ,hong ,kong1 or elsewhere4 ,when the money of one country is worth more than that of another1 as is the case throughout the world at the present time1 allowance is made for this difference4 ,bills of exchange are 8cleared0 through the great clearing houses in ,london or ,new ,york1 and any balances are paid by the shipment of gold4 ,,the ,,credit ,,system ,sidenote3 ,the five chief instruments of credit4 ,what is ,credit8--,credit is simply the giving and taking of promises in place of money4 ,the most common form is 8book credit01 which means that wholesalers and retail merchants give out goods with nothing but charge accounts on their books to show for it4 ,these accounts are merely the records of credit which has been extended to customers4 ,but in many transactions something more than a book record is desired1 in which case the person giving the credit may ask for a 8promissory note04 ,this is a written promise to pay a designated sum either on demand or at a definite date4 ,bank checks are also instruments of credit2 so are drafts and bills of exchange4 ,anything that expresses or implies a promise to pay a sum of money is an evidence of credit4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,money ,,and ,,prices ,the general relation between the amount of money in circulation and the course of prices is shown by the two statistical diagrams on the other side of this page4 ,it will be noticed that per capita circulation began to decline in #aiba4 ,prices also commenced to fall during that year1 and if the table of prices were extended to cover the last year or two it would show the price-lines moving downward4 ,the data for continuing the lines of the lower diagram may be found in the publications of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,labor ,statistics4 ,,money ,,in ,,circulation ,,per ,,capita 7,figures for first day of month7 #aiac #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag #aiah #aiai #aibj #aiba,month #cd4gbce4aace4ejch4dhdc4jjdh4gfee4gjee4h iei4ab;,jan4 #cd4ga #ce4jj #cd4hd #ch4fg #dc4ej #dg4bc #ec4eh #ed4id #eg4ai;,feb4 #cd4ef #ce4jd #cd4ee #ch4ed #dd4bf #dh4cg #ec4gf #ef4af #eg4gc,mar4 #cd4df #cd4ii #cd4gd #ch4da #de4cd #di4gj #ed4ef #ef4cj #ef4fj;,apr4 #cd4ef #ce4bj #cd4gh #ch4bh #de4fa #ej4cg #ed4fd #ef4dd #ef4ca,may #cd4ed #ce4ai #ce4jg #ch4cf #de4di #di4fc #ed4bi #eg4db #ee4dc;,june #cd4fd #cd4ec #ce4ei #ci4bc #df4eg #ej4hf #ed4bh #eg4ah #ec4db;,july #cd4dd #cc4if #ce4cc #ci4jj #df4ec #eb4dd #ed4dj #eg4dc #ec4jj;,aug4 #cd4dh #ce4jc #ce4hi #ci4ei #de4if #eb4ie #ed4jc #eh4bb #eb4da,sept4 #cd4hj #cg4ae #cf4hh #dj4fb #df4aj #ed4dg #ed4eh #eh4ie #eb4de,oct4 #cd4ij #cg4ca #cg4ea #da4ah #dg4jc #ee4hd #ed4fc #ei4gg #eb4ga,nov4 #ce4jc #cf4dj #ch4jd #da4gc #dh4ej #ef4bc #ee4fe #ei4da ,dec4 #cd4fe #ce4da #ce4gc #ci4cd #de4ff #ea4dj #ed4ea #eg4cd 44444,average #cd4fb #ce4cb #ce4ea #ci4ab #de4dj #ej4if #ed4da #eg4ae #ee4abaa mos4 ,,course ,,of ,,wholesale ,,and ,,retail ,,prices#bjg ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,january1 #aiac1 ,,to ,,may1 #aibj ,average ,prices1 #aiac #ajj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,the ,relation of ,credit to ,money4--,a large part of the world's business is done on credit4 ,if all debts had to be paid tomorrow1 there would not be enough money in the world to pay one cent on the dollar4 ,but all debts do not fall due at once1 and a huge credit system is able to stand with comparative safety upon a relatively small amount of gold4 ,sidenote3 ,there is a limit to the expansion of credit4 ,there is a limit1 however1 to the expansion of credit and this limit is roughly determined by the amount of gold available to be held as a reserve4 ,hence it is that when the volume of gold increases1 credit usually expands also4 ,with their reserves full to overflowing the banks are more ready to lend money on notes1 and the rate of discount goes down4 ,conversely1 as the volume of gold declines1 credit usually contracts4 ,the rate of discount then goes up and business men find it harder to borrow money upon commercial paper4 ,in the one case we speak of an inflation or expansion in money and credit2 in the other we speak of a contraction or deflation4 ,credit and ,prices4--,the general level of prices depends upon the value of money4 ,the price of a thing is merely its value expressed in terms of money4 ,to say that prices have gone up is to say exactly the same thing as that the value of money has gone down4#bjh ,the general level of prices1 to put the matter in another way1 is determined by the demand for goods on the one hand and the supply of goods on the other4 ,the demand for goods1 however1 is represented by the amount of gold currency available plus the amount of credit which is built upon this gold4 ,the credit1 as has been seen1 bears a definite relation to the gold4 ,sidenote3 ,how the general level of prices is determined4 ,hence it can fairly be said that the amount of gold is an index of demand for goods or services4 ,so1 if the supply of goods remains approximately the same1 any large increase in the available amount of gold would send prices up2 and conversely1 if the supply of goods is greatly increased1 while the available amount of gold remains approximately the same1 prices would go down4 ,sidenote3 ,the quantity theory of money and prices4 ,this is the so-called quantity theory of the relation between money1 credit1 and prices and it holds good in a general way although it does not work out as simply as it reads4 ,the adjustment of supply and demand sometimes takes place very slowly4 ,the volume of credit which can be built upon a given reserve of gold is not absolutely fixed1 moreover2 in some circumstances it may be more extensive than in others4 ,sidenote3 ,defects of the quantity theory as shown by recent experience4 ,during the ,world ,war1 for example1 credit ran away from the gold reserve in all the ,european countries4 ,enormous amounts of paper money were issued with very little gold in reserve to protect them4 ,due to reduced production1 the supply of ordinary goods sharply declined4 ,a combination of these two things1 inflation of credit 7i4 e41 potential demand for goods7 and decreased production1 sent prices sky-high4#bji ,in the ,united ,states credit was also inflated during the war and prices went up1 though not to the same extent as in ,europe4 ,since #aibj the process of 8deflating0 credit has been going on4 ,this process of deflation is guided by the federal reserve banks1 which are able to contract the volume of credit by charging higher rates for rediscount4 ,the ,advantages and ,dangers of ,credit4--,it is probable that at least two-thirds of the buying and selling in the world is done on credit4 ,nearly all large transactions are put through by the use of credit for short or long terms4 ,credit affords many advantages to modern industry and commerce2 without it1 indeed1 our whole economic system would break down4 ,sidenote3 ,four functions which credit permits4 ,a few of these advantages may be mentioned3 7a7 ,it economizes the use of gold and silver1 by doing away with the necessity of passing gold and silver coin from hand to hand at every transaction4 7b7 ,it enables large payments to be made at distant points without an actual shipment of metallic money4 7c7 ,it permits men to engage in business operations beyond their own means by borrowing capital and using it productively4 7d7 ,it enables people to invest their savings 7by depositing in savings banks1 lending money on mortgages1 buying bonds or stocks1 etc47 so as to secure a profitable rate of interest without great risk4 ,sidenote3 ,credit may also harm4 ,but there are also some disadvantages4 ,the credit system often encourages extravagance in that people are tempted to buy goods which they eventually find it hard to pay for2 it tends to encourage speculation which frequently results in heavy losses2 and it sometimes enables promoters to obtain capital when there is little or no chance of their being successful4 ,by strict governmental supervision1 however1 the advantages can be retained and most of the dangers eliminated4 ,the ,stock ,exchange4--,a word should be said about the place where instruments of credit are most commonly bought and sold1 namely1 the stock exchange4 ,as its name implies1 this is a market in which men buy and sell stocks1 bonds1 and other securities4#baj ,there is a stock exchange in every large city4 ,the buying and selling is done through brokers1 who are members of the exchange and who receive a small commission for their work1 this commission being paid by the persons for whom they buy or sell4 ,a broker1 at your request1 will buy or sell on the exchange any security that is listed there4 ,the amount of the purchase may be paid in full1 or1 if the buyer desires1 a partial payment of five1 ten1 or twenty per cent may be made4 ,sidenote3 ,trading on margin4 ,this is called 8buying on margin04 ,the current prices of all securities are kept posted on the exchange2 they go up and down from day to day in keeping with market conditions4 ,shrewd investors try to buy when prices are low and to sell when prices are high1 but in this they are not always successful4 ,many fortunes have been made--and lost--on the stock exchange4 ,general ,references ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bbg-bce 7,coinage72 #bcf-bea 7,quantity of ,money and ,prices72 #bfe-bgc 7,bimetallism72 #cdh-cei 7,banking ,operations72 #cge-che 7,the ,banking ,system of the ,united ,states72 ,,isaac ,,lippincott1 ,economic ,development of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #eej-ehj2 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch1 ,american ,economic ,life1 pp4 #ccf-cga2 ,w4 ,a4 ,,scott1 ,money and ,banking1 pp4 #a-aaf2 ,w4 ,s4 ,,jevons1 ,money and the ,mechanism of ,exchange1 pp4 #c-da2 ,,marshall1 ,,wright1 and ,,field1 ,materials for the ,study of ,elementary ,economics1 pp4 #ddc-edf2 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,economics1 pp4 #bbd-bdf2 ,d4 ,r4 ,,dewey1 ,financial ,history of the ,united ,states1 especially pp4 #chc-dac2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dfj-dgi2 ,,horace ,,white1 ,money and ,banking 7#eth edition71 passim2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,fetter1 ,modern ,economic ,problems1 pp4 #ca-afc4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,how money and credit are related to prices4 ,the meaning of 8prices04 ,the quantity theory of money4 ,relation of money to credit4 ,reserves for paper money4 ,bank reserves4 ,discounting and rediscounting4 ,how inflation of money and credit affects prices4 ,index numbers4 ,american experience during the years #aiad-aiba4 ,references3 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dbg-dde2 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,economics1 pp4 #bdb-bgh2 ,,irving ,,fisher1 ,the ,purchasing ,power of ,money1 pp4 #h-cb2 ,ibid41 ,stabilizing the ,dollar1 pp4 #a-ab2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,hobson1 ,gold1 ,prices1 and ,wages1 passim2 ,,david ,,kinley1 ,money1 pp4 #aii-bbc4 #b4 ,the ,american banking system3 how it is organized and how it functions4 ,d4 ,r4 ,,dewey1 ,financial ,history of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cbj-cbh2 #chc-cij2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cge-cii2 ,c4 ,f4 ,,dunbar1 ,theory and ,history of ,banking1 pp4 #acb-aec2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,conant1 ,a ,history of ,modern ,banks of ,issue1 pp4 #cif-ddg2 ,e4 ,w4 ,,kemmerer1 ,the ,a1 ,b1 ,c of the ,federal ,reserve ,system1 pp4 #bh-fe2 ,h4 ,p4 ,,willis1 ,the ,federal ,reserve ,system1 passim2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hepburn1 ,history of the ,currency and ,coinage of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #daa-dah2 #eaa-edd4 #c4 ,the controversy over free silver and its lessons for the future4 ,d4 ,r4 ,,dewey1 ,financial ,history of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #aja-ajd2 #baj-bab2 #djc-dac2 #dcf-dcg2 #dfh2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bfe-bgc2 ,j4 ,l4 ,,laughlin1 ,history of ,bimetallism in the ,united ,states1 especially pp4 #bff-bhj4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the early history of money4 ,w4 ,s4 ,,jevons1 ,money and the ,mechanism of ,exchange1 pp4 #ai-cj2 ,,david ,,kinley1 ,money1 pp4 #ad-bf4 #b4 ,the quantity theory of money4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bcf-bea4 #c4 ,american and foreign banking systems compared4 ,e4 ,r4 ,a4 ,,seligman1 ,principles of ,economics1 pp4 #ebd-eej2 or ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cfj-che4 #d4 ,can the dollar be stabilized8 ,,marshall1 ,,wright1 and ,,field1 ,materials for the ,study of ,elementary ,economics1 pp4 #dgd-dhc2 ,,irving ,,fisher1 ,stabilizing the ,dollar1 especially pp4 #ab-cj4 #e4 ,the free-silver campaign of #ahif4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,contemporary ,american ,history1 pp4 #afd-aih2 ,d4 ,r4 ,,dewey1 ,national ,problems1 pp4 #bbj-bcg2 #cad-cbh4 #f4 ,banking operations and accounts4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,dunbar1 ,history and ,theory of ,banking1 pp4 #bj-ch4 #g4 ,american institutions for saving and investment4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,fetter1 ,modern ,economic ,problems1 pp4 #adf-aff4 #h4 ,financial panics4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #djj-dbf4 #i4 ,the high cost of living4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,hammond and ,j4 ,w4 ,,jenks1 ,great ,american ,issues1 pp4 #adc-aei4 #aj4 ,economic crises4 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,principles of ,national ,economy1 pp4 #dbg-ddb4 ,questions #a4 ,are the qualities of money given in this book in the order of their importance8 ,if not1 rearrange them so4 ,can you think of any other essential qualities8 ,what objections would there be to the use of platinum as money8 ,pearls8 ,porcelain8 #b4 ,gold dollars are not coined in the ,united ,states at all4 ,how is it1 then1 that the gold dollar can be the legal standard of value8 #c4 ,name all the different kinds of money that are circulated in the ,united ,states 7including paper money7 and tell when the issue of each kind was first authorized4 ,examine the money you have with you4 ,tell where each coin was minted4 ,in the case of bills what is the security behind each8 ,can you detect counterfeit bills8 ,how8 #d4 ,why was the action of ,congress in demonetizing silver called 8the crime of #ahgc08 #e4 ,at the ,democratic ,national ,convention of #ahij ,mr4 ,bryan said3 8,you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold40 ,explain in full what he meant4 ,was there any good reason for believing that the free coinage of silver at a ratio of sixteen to one would 7a7 increase prices2 7b7 give relief to the debtor class2 7c7 benefit the wage earner8 #f4 ,explain the process by which1 under a dual system of coinage1 the metal which is over-valued at the mint will drive the other out of circulation4 ,is it correct to say that 8cheap money drives out dear money08 #g4 ,if you were engaged in business as a manufacturer1 name all the different dealings that you might have with a bank4 #h4 ,explain what is meant by each of the following terms3 demand note2 endorser2 trustee2 commercial paper2 rate of discount2 rediscounting2 collateral2 deflation2 coupon bond2 preferred stock2 broker2 buying stock on margin4 #i4 ,show how the volume of credit helps to determine prices and how the volume of credit is related to the amount of gold coin in hand4 ,why does the quantity theory of money not work out with mathematical accuracy in practice8 #aj4 ,does the argument in ,mc,culloch vs4 ,maryland impress you as logical8 ,does the decision mean that officials of national banks and of federal reserve banks are exempt from state taxes8 ,does it mean that when a national bank occupies a leased building the landlord pays no taxes to the city8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,all banking institutions should be brought under the supervision of the federal government4 #b4 ,a 8compensated0 dollar 7adjusted to the general level of prices7 should be established as a measure of deferred payments4 #c4 ,the national and state governments should guarantee depositors against loss in all banks chartered by the nation and the states1 respectively4 ----- ,footnote #agh3 ,the employer1 in fact1 was often a corporation with neither body nor soul4 ,the factories were in charge of managers whose function was to earn profits1 not to look after the well-being of the employees4 ,footnote #agi3 ,in ,america the unions also serve as schools of citizenship4 ,they gather together into their membership men and women of all races and creeds1 and they encourage their members to become ,american citizens4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,the labor union movement began in ,england because it was there that the ,industrial ,revolution first brought in the factory system4 ,at the outset the formation of unions was bitterly opposed by the employers and laws were enacted declaring such organizations to be illegal4 ,in the closing years of the eighteenth century any ,english worker who joined an organization1 in order to secure better wages or fewer hours of labor1 was liable to be arrested and punished by the courts4 ,in due course the labor organization movement spread to ,america1 where also it encountered strong opposition during the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,attempts to secure better wages by forming labor associations were held to be conspiracies in restraint of trade and those who openly took part in the organization movement were frequently imprisoned4 ,after #ahcj1 however1 the opposition began to grow less intense and by #ahgj it had become generally recognized that labor organizations were here to stay4 ,in one state after another they began to receive legal recognition and today the right of the workers to organize for the promotion of their own interests is not denied in any part of the country4 ,footnote #aha3 ,most writers use the term 8trade union0 to include only such labor organizations as are composed of men and women who work in the same trade or occupation2 but some employ the term to include all labor organizations whose object is collective action in the interest of their members4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,although this program does not contain anything that savors of violence1 or of arbitrary control of industry by the workers1 or of dictatorial methods towards the public it sometimes happens that individual labor organizations or their leaders are guilty of these things4 ,while professing disapproval of violence1 the labor leaders have on occasions 7though not as a rule7 tolerated it4 ,labor leaders1 moreover1 in some cases have exacted money from employers under threat of calling men off their jobs2 the ,brindell case in ,new ,york ,city is a recent illustration4 ,on some notable occasions labor leaders have been convicted and sent to jail for resorting to organized terrorism against employers4 ,all this1 however1 does not condemn the program of labor organizations as a whole4 ,no body of men1 particularly when it numbers several million members1 can in fairness be judged by the wrongful acts of a few4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,it should be borne in mind that not everyone who desires to work at a particular trade is entitled to membership in the trade union4 ,he must apply for admission to membership and the initiation fee for membership is often as high as a hundred dollars or more4 ,moreover1 he must satisfy the union that he is properly skilled in the trade1 if the trade requires skill4 ,some unions1 commonly called 8open unions10 take in practically all who apply2 but these unions exist1 for the most part1 in unskilled trades only4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,in ,new ,zealand1 for example4 ,for a time it was looked upon as a great success in that country1 but in recent years it has not prevented numerous strikes4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,this was the sequel to a strike on the part of the ,kansas coal miners1 which threatened to leave the people without fuel for the winter4 ,when the strikers refused to return to work a call was sent out for volunteers and men of all occupations came forward to work in the mines4 ,when the emergency was past the legislature decided that the rights of the public ought to be protected in the future against both employers and workmen4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,these include all industries affecting food1 clothing1 fuel1 and transportation4 ,footnote #ahg3 8,the children were kept working for fourteen1 and even sixteen1 hours a day2 they were beaten for the slightest mistake or offence2 and sometimes they were tortured by the overseers1 who would tie them to a beam close over the whirling machines by way of teaching them to hold their feet up1 or would rivet irons on their ankles and hips to teach them not to try to run away4 ,locked in the factory while they worked1 and in neighboring barracks while they slept1 these pitiful martyrs were as absolutely abandoned by their kind as though they had been adult convicts on the way to ,botany ,bay1 or negro slaves on the middle passage40 ,g4 ,h4 ,,perris1 ,the ,industrial ,history of ,modern ,england1 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,congress has established a ,bureau of ,child ,welfare in the ,department of ,labor with the duty of encouraging the enactment of laws to protect children4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,the ,supreme ,court has decided that this action also is unconstitutional4 ,footnote #aij3 ,,robinson and ,,beard1 ,outlines of ,european ,history1 ,,ii1 #fdj4 ,footnote #aia3 ,many sorts of merchandise have been used as money at one time or another4 ,in early times cattle often served as the standard of value4 ,this was undoubtedly the case among our ,indo-,european ancestors1 as is shown by the survival of certain words in the ,english language at the present time4 ,the word 8pecuniary10 for example1 comes from the ,latin 8pecunia10 meaning money1 which is in turn from 8pecus10 cattle4 ,the word 8fee0 is merely a rendition of the old ,german word 8,vieh10 which also means cattle4 ,footnote #aib3 ,the ,chinese use copper money1 which they call 8cash40 ,the coins have a hole in the center so that they can be carried on a string like beads4 ,footnote #aic3 ,that was what had to be done in the old days before gold and silver were stamped into coins of known weight and fineness4 ,you remember the ,scriptural story of the patriarch ,abraham's weighing out the four hundred shekels of silver to pay the sons of ,heth for ,sarah's grave4 ,if not1 read it in ,genesis1 xxiii1 #b-ai4 ,footnote #aid3 ,the weight of the gold dollar1 as fixed by law1 is #bc4b grains of pure gold4 ,footnote #aie3 ,anyone may take gold to these mints and have it coined4 ,pure gold would be too soft for use as money1 however2 so an alloy of silver is mixed with it4 ,the mixed metals are then heated and rolled into strips4 ,these strips are next put into a stamping machine which forms them into so many little gold cakes1 ready to be placed in another machine which stamps an impression upon them4 ,in the case of gold and silver coins the edges are 8milled0 to prevent their being clipped or scraped by dishonest people4 ,in the ,united ,states this is in the form of a raised and serrated edge2 in ,european countries an inscription is often printed on the edges of the coins4 ,the ,german twenty-mark piece before the war had the legend1 8,gott mit uns10 in this form4 ,the silver1 nickel1 and copper for ,american currency is bought by the mint and made into coins at a profit4 ,this profit is called seigniorage and it is sufficient to make all the mints self-supporting4 ,the amount of metal in a nickel1 for instance1 costs only a fraction of five cents4 ,when coins are lost or destroyed--by shipwreck1 fire1 etc4--the government is just so much to the good1 and a great many coins are permanently lost or destroyed every year4 ,footnote #aif3 ,with a dual system of coinage the ratio at the mint must be exactly that of the open market1 otherwise the metal which the mint overvalues is the only one which will come in to be coined4 ,if mine-owners who produce silver1 for example1 can get more gold in exchange for it in the open market than they can get dollars for it at the mint1 they will naturally exchange it in the open market4 ,but it is difficult to keep the legal ratio in exact accord with the market value because the latter fluctuates somewhat from year to year4 ,footnote #aig3 ,in this same year a severe commercial panic took place and the action of the government in demonetizing silver was blamed for it4 ,hence the frequent reference in later years to 8the crime of #ahgc40 ,footnote #aih3 ,provision for the coinage of silver on a limited scale was made by the ,bland ,act 7#ahgh7 and the ,sherman ,act 7#ahij74 ,these acts merely provided that the ,treasury should buy so much silver each year and coin it1 a very different thing from free coinage4 ,footnote #aii3 ,curiously enough there was another financial panic in #ahic2 but this had nothing whatever to do with the stoppage of silver coining4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,the paper money is made at the ,bureau of ,engraving in ,washington1 not at the mints4 ,every working day in the year this ,bureau turns out a million dollars or more in notes4 ,a special kind of paper1 made by a secret process1 is used1 and in the manufacture of this paper small strands of red silk are imbedded in the fabric4 ,the notes are printed from mechanical copies of engraved plates1 the originals of which are made by hand4 ,it takes several expert engravers a whole year or more to make one of these originals1 with its portrait1 seal1 symbols1 and myriad of fine lines4 ,all these precautions are taken to prevent counterfeiting4 ,on its way through the presses the bills are counted and checked many times to make sure that none go astray or are pocketed by employees4 ,so carefully is this done that only once in the last twenty years has a single bill been unaccounted for4 ,when a paper note is permanently lost or destroyed after being issued ,uncle ,sam is very much the gainer1 for it costs him1 on the average1 only about one cent to print a dollar bill4 ,if the bill is only torn or partly destroyed1 the government will redeem it4 ,full face value is given if at least three-fifths of the original bill is presented1 or half the face value if two-fifths is handed in4 ,if less than two-fifths of the bill is presented1 it will not be redeemed except by proving the circumstances under which the rest of the bill was destroyed4 ,when bills get dirty or worn the banks send them back to the ,treasury4 ,some years ago the practice was to burn them in the furnace2 but there was a rumor that charred pieces of the bills were in the habit of flying off through the chimney to be found by people who presented them for redemption4 ,now the worn money is put into a macerator or chewing machine1 which masticates them to a pulp at the rate of about a million dollars a mouthful4 ,footnote #bja3 ,the ,german paper mark1 for example1 depreciated to less than one-fiftieth of its face value in gold2 the ,austrian crown depreciated even more4 ,even more striking has been the depreciation of the ,russian paper rouble which has fallen more than a thousand-fold4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,money which1 according to law1 must be accepted in payment of debts1 is called legal tender4 ,gold coin1 silver dollars1 and certain notes are legal tender up to any amount4 ,half dollars1 quarters1 and dimes must be accepted in payment up to the amount of ten dollars4 ,nickels and pennies are legal tender to the amount of twenty-five cents only4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,the establishment of this second bank led to the raising of a very important constitutional question4 ,the constitution1 as has been said1 contains not a word about banks4 ,hence the power to establish banks might be assumed to remain entirely with the states in view of the rule that powers not delegated to the nation by the constitution1 nor prohibited by it to the states1 are reserved to the states respectively1 or to the people4 ,congress having gone ahead1 however1 and established a bank1 the ,state of ,maryland proceeded to levy a tax on the bank's paper money4 ,this tax the cashier of the ,baltimore branch of the bank1 ,mc,culloch1 refused to pay1 whereupon he was held liable by the courts of ,maryland and appealed to the ,supreme ,court4 ,the latter tribunal went into the whole issue thoroughly and rendered one of the most important legal decisions ever given in this country4 ,the decision in ,mc,culloch vs4 ,maryland was that ,congress1 having been given by the constitution the express power to collect taxes1 to borrow money1 and 8to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers10 was thereby vested with implied authority to establish banks as a means of facilitating the collection of taxes or the borrowing of money4 ,this being so1 the ,supreme ,court decided1 no state can be permitted to interfere with an instrumentality through which the national government is legally carrying on its work4 ,they must not interfere by taxation or otherwise4 8,the power to tax involves the power to destroy10 declared ,chief ,justice ,marshall in rendering this decision4 ,if the states could tax one agency employed by the national government in the execution of its powers1 the chief justice explained1 they could tax every other one4 ,they could tax the post office1 the custom houses1 the forts1 the ships of war4 ,by taxing these things heavily enough they could cripple the national government and eventually drive it out of existence altogether4 ,the court was unanimous in affirming that ,congress had the right to establish banks and that with such action no state could interfere4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,trust companies were established to act as trustees or guardians of funds belonging to widows1 orphans1 and others who could not look out for their own investments4 ,then they began the practice of accepting deposits from others and paying interest on these deposits1 whereas national banks and most of the regular state banks usually paid no interest to their depositors4 ,gradually the trust companies became banks in every sense of the term1 and they have gradually increased in number during recent years4 ,as a rule they can do a wider range of business than is permitted to national or state banks4 ,footnote #bje3 ,the locations of these twelve federal reserve banks are as follows3 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,cleveland1 ,richmond1 ,atlanta1 ,chicago1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,minneapolis1 ,kansas ,city1 ,dallas1 and ,san ,francisco4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,a further addition to the banking facilities of the ,united ,states was made in #aiaf1 when ,congress inaugurated the federal farm loan bank system4 ,this is under the control of a federal farm loan board composed of the ,secretary of the ,treasury and four other persons appointed by the ,president4 ,two systems of lending money on mortgages are provided under the supervision of this board1 one working through twelve farm land banks situated in different parts of the country and the other through joint stock land banks4 ,provision is also made for the forming of farm loan associations composed of farmers who wish to borrow money on the security of their lands4 ,see also p4 #cdh4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,retail prices represent prices of the principal articles of ,food2 wholesale prices include articles of all kinds4 ,figures from the ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,labor ,statistics4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,for this reason it is often said that gold is not a good measure of deferred payments4 ,for example1 if somebody were to give you a note for a thousand dollars1 payable five years from now in gold coin1 the amount of goods which you will be able to buy with the proceeds of this note when it is paid may be much greater1 or much less1 than what you could buy today4 ,thus you would get your money back1 but it would not have the same purchasing power1 and purchasing power is what counts4 ,to determine the actual purchasing power of gold at different dates1 figures known as 8index numbers0 are compiled by various economic organizations4 ,index numbers are compiled in this way3 ,take a certain amount of various things which are in common use1 say a barrel of flour1 ten pounds of butter1 a bushel of potatoes1 so much steel1 leather1 lumber1 and other commodities1--make the list long enough to cover the general range of prices4 ,add together the current prices of these things today and you have an index number4 ,ten years from now1 if you take exactly the same amounts of exactly the same commodities and add together the prices1 you will have another index number4 ,by comparing them you can say that the purchasing power of money has gone up or gone down1 as the case may be4 ,the index number more than doubled during the years #aiad to #aiai2 that is to say1 the purchasing power of money was cut in two4 ,footnote #bji3 ,people are in the habit of thinking that the high cost of living is due largely to 8profiteering0 and monopoly4 ,to some extent1 no doubt1 this is true4 ,but the three most important factors in the high cost of living are3 7a7 the inflation of money and credit2 7b7 decreased production2 and 7c7 heavy taxes4 ,it is these things that give the profiteers and monopolists their opportunity4 ,footnote #baj3 ,bonds are promises to pay a certain principal sum at the expiry of a certain term of years4 ,they are issued by governments and by business corporations4 ,they bear interest annually or semi-annually4 ,in the case of registered bonds the name of the bondholder is inscribed on the books of the government or company and a check for the interest is sent to him4 ,coupon bonds1 on the other hand1 are payable to bearer and small tickets or coupons must be cut off by the holder and presented on each interest date4 ,stocks are merely shares in a business corporation and do not carry an obligation to pay a definite sum at any given time4 ,there are two kinds of stock1 preferred and common4 ,the preferred stock is entitled to a stated dividend2 the common stock takes what is left of the net profits if there are any4 ,bonds1 as a rule1 yield a smaller return than preferred stock1 because the security is better4 ,the man who holds common stock takes the greatest risk of all and for this reason expects the largest rate of dividend4 ,when you invest money the income which you get from it is proportioned to the risk which you take4 ,an absolutely safe investment like government bonds brings in only four or five per cent annually2 the preferred stock of railroads or industrial corporations may yield six or seven per cent2 the common stock of some companies pays as high as eight or ten per cent4 ,when you find that an investment promises a large income you may be sure that the risk is proportionately large4 ,all sorts of 8get rich quick0 schemes are placed before the public by promoters who promise high rates on 8safe0 investments4 ,such investments are not safe2 if they were1 the banks and large capitalists would put their money into them4 ,to protect the public from these frauds1 some states have passed 8blue-sky laws10 which require that every stock-selling concern shall be investigated by the state authorities before it is allowed to take money from the people4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,taxation ,,and ,,public ,,finance ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain what taxes are1 how they are levied1 and how they are spent4 ,sidenote3 ,taxation per capita4 ,the ,cost of ,government4--,the cost of maintaining the national government and all its activities is now about four billion dollars per year1 in other words about forty dollars per annum for every man1 woman1 and child in the country4 ,the cost of maintaining state and local government varies in different parts of the country1 but it would be safe enough to put it down as three billion dollars more1 or thirty dollars per head4 ,in round figures1 therefore1 the average tax payment every year for each individual in the ,united ,states is at least seventy dollars4#baa ,sidenote3 ,the extent of the burden upon the income-earner4 ,bear in mind1 however1 that only a small part of the whole population is earning the income which enables these taxes to be paid4 ,when we eliminate all the children1 all the women who are not employed in any income-earning occupation1 all the public officials who are paid out of taxes1 all the delinquents1 cripples1 paupers1 unemployed1 and so on--when we subtract all these from the total it will be found that only one person in five is an actual income-earner4 ,from the earnings of these twenty million people the entire seven billions in taxes must be paid2 there is no other source from which the taxes can come4 ,a little mental arithmetic will readily demonstrate1 therefore1 that every income-earner in the ,united ,states pays1 on the average1 at least #cej per year in taxes of one sort or another1 in other words about a dollar a day4#bab ,sidenote3 ,everyone is a taxpayer1 directly or indirectly4 ,who ,pays the ,taxes8--8,oh yes01 someone will say1 8but most people earn small incomes and pay no taxes at all1 or almost none4 ,the heavy taxes are paid by wealthy men and women who own property and have large incomes40 ,that is misleading4 ,people who own property and earn large incomes are the ones who actually hand the collector his tax-money1 to be sure2 but they merely give him1 for the most part1 money which they have collected from others4 ,the owner of an apartment house collects taxes from his tenants in the form of rent2 the storekeeper collects taxes in the price of his goods2 the lawyer and the doctor collect taxes when they charge fees4 ,taxes are an element in the cost of everything1 an element just as certain as interest1 wages1 or profit4 ,everyone who rents a house1 buys goods1 or hires any form of service pays taxes4 ,if you analyze the various items which make up the price of a suit of clothes1 for example1 you will find that they usually come in this order of importance2 wages1 cost of materials1 taxes1 profits1 interest4#bac ,the chief factors which make up the rent of a house are interest1 taxes1 and profits in the order named4 ,hence it is that while landlords1 merchants1 manufacturers1 and others make the direct payment of taxes to the government1 they in turn pass the burden to tenants and consumers4#bad ,sidenote3 ,the way in which taxes are shifted4 ,the ,incidence of ,taxation4--,taxes1 therefore1 do not usually stay where they are levied4 ,they are shifted from one shoulder to another until they finally reach someone1 usually the ultimate consumer1 who cannot unload the burden upon anybody else4 ,this ultimate resting-place of a tax is called its incidence1 and an important thing about any tax is to discover just what its incidence is2 for the justice or injustice of taxation depends upon the ability of the actual taxpayer to bear the burden and not upon the wealth of the ostensible taxpayer4 ,if the government were to levy a tax of one cent per loaf upon bread1 there would be a storm of protest because everybody would recognize it as a direct tax upon one of the necessities of life4 ,but a tariff duty on wheat1 or a property tax on flour mills or bakeries1 is just as certainly a tax on bread and is paid ultimately by those who buy it4 ,the chief difference is that in the latter case the payment is made by the consumer without his knowing it4 ,sidenote3 ,relation of taxes to rents and prices4 ,most people pay taxes unknowingly4 ,their taxes are concealed in rents or prices1 and they complain bitterly that these things are high4 ,it does not occur to the average ,american wage-earner that if taxes were lower1 rents and prices would be lower1 and that if there were no taxes1 it would be exactly the equivalent to finding every morning1 on coming down to breakfast1 a crisp1 new dollar-bill on his plate4 ,demagogues tell us that trusts1 and profiteers1 and other forms of organized avarice are responsible for high prices2 but one of the biggest factors in the high-cost-of-living is the high-cost-of-government4 ,sidenote3 ,if waste were avoided the tax burden would be diminished4 ,if this enormous flow from the nation's earnings into the public coffers were wholly1 or even largely1 used to promote and encourage production1 it would not be so bad4 ,much of it is wasted1 or spent without adequate return4 ,this takes place because the people do not keep close watch on the officials whom they elect to public office and do not hold them to a strict accountability when public money is squandered4 ,more than a hundred years ago the most eminent of ,american jurists1 ,chief ,justice ,john ,marshall1 pointed out that 8the power to tax involves the power to destroy04 ,he was right2 the power to tax is the most far-reaching power that any government can possess4 ,by the use of the taxing power a government can take from the people what they would otherwise save1 thus preventing the increase of the nation's wealth and ultimately breaking down its prosperity4 ,sidenote3 ,taxes are3 ,how ,taxes ,differ from other ,payments4--,taxes differ from most other payments in two respects4 ,sidenote3 7a7 compulsory4 ,first1 they are compulsory4 ,no one need pay interest1 rent1 wages1 or prices unless he bargains to do so2 but the payment of taxes is not the result of any bargain4 ,taxes are levied without any reference to the initiative or wishes of the individuals upon whom they may fall1 except1 of course1 in so far as these individuals by their votes may have an influence in determining the general taxing policy of the government4 ,sidenote3 7b7 levied without reference to service rendered4 ,second1 taxes are not payments made to the government by individuals and corporations in return for services rendered4 ,the man who rides a hundred miles on a railroad pays twice as much as one who goes half that distance1 because he gets twice as much for his money4 ,but the man who pays a thousand dollars in taxes does not get twice as much in benefits from the government as the one who pays only five hundred dollars4 ,sidenote3 ,the basis of taxation is ability to pay4 ,nearly all payments that we make are in the form of a quid pro quo2 they are in proportion to the benefits which we receive4 ,this is the case in payments for all forms of goods or services--the one great exception is the payment of taxes4 ,taxes have no direct relation to benefit2 those who pay very little in taxes1 either directly or indirectly1 sometimes receive a large return in the form of public services4 ,take for example the taxes that support the public schools4 ,the fact that a wealthy man has no children1 or prefers to send his children to a private school1 does not relieve him of the obligation to pay his full share of what public education costs the community4 ,on the other hand1 a man whose contribution in taxes is very small may send a dozen children1 one after another1 through the public schools without any extra cost4 ,sidenote3 ,why taxes cannot be adjusted to service4 ,it would not be possible to base taxation upon service1 because there is no way of knowing how much benefit each individual receives from the government's work4 ,do some individuals1 for example1 obtain more benefit than others from the maintenance of law and order or do all derive benefit alike8 ,who gets the greater benefit from clean streets1 the rich man who drives his motor car over them1 or the poor man whose children use the streets as a playground8 ,taxes could not be adjusted to benefit4 ,even if they could be so proportioned1 it would be unwise to do so4 ,the general interest requires that everyone should enjoy the benefits of police protection1 the public schools1 the parks1 the playgrounds whether they are able to pay for them or not4#bae ,so taxes are levied in order to pay for these things1 not on a basis of individual benefit1 but simply by putting the heaviest burden in the first instance upon those who are best able to pay it1 letting them shift it if they can4 ,principles upon which ,taxes are ,levied4--,how is the ability of individuals to pay taxes estimated8 ,it is done by taking some such thing as property or income as the basis4 ,those who have more property or income are called upon to contribute more than those who have less4 ,sidenote3 ,the basic principles of taxation according to ,adam ,smith4 ,about a hundred and fifty years ago a famous writer on economics1 ,adam ,smith1 laid down four principles to which all taxation should conform4 ,these maxims of taxation are now everywhere recognized as valid and are worth remembering4 ,briefly stated1 they are as follows3 ,people should be taxed according to their ability to pay2 all taxes should be definite and not uncertain or arbitrary2 they ought to be levied at the time and in the manner which causes the least inconvenience to the people2 and they should be so contrived as to take out of the pockets of the people as little as possible over what is needed by the public treasury4 ,those who make the tax laws do not always heed these maxims1 and taxes are sometimes levied on the principle of getting the most money with the least trouble4#baf ,sidenote3 ,taxes on property4 ,local ,taxes4--,the greater portion of the taxation levied by cities1 counties1 towns1 and villages is in the form of taxes on property4 ,this is a direct tax and as a rule it is levied on all private property1 of whatever sort1 at a uniform rate of so much per thousand dollars of valuation4 ,sidenote3 ,the general property tax4 ,a tax levied in this uniform way on all private property is called a general property tax4 ,in some states1 however1 provision has been made for classifying the various kinds of property and taxing each kind at a different rate4 ,property is first classified into two divisions1 real property1 and personal property4#bag ,real property 7or real estate7 consists of land1 buildings1 and other fixtures established on the land2 personal property consists of1 first1 tangible things of a movable nature such as household furniture1 machinery1 merchandise2 and second1 intangibles such as bonds1 mortgages1 and bank deposits4 ,sidenote3 ,the classified property tax4 ,where there is a classified property tax1 each of these three forms 7real property1 tangibles1 and intangibles7 is taxed at a different rate4 ,one reason for taxing them at different rates is that real estate requires a great deal more in the way of public services 7for example1 in paved streets1 water supply1 sewerage1 etc472 another reason is that while real property cannot evade taxation intangibles can usually do so when the tax is too heavy4#bah ,if the rate of taxation on intangibles is lowered1 the temptation to evade is not so great4 ,it will usually be found that more money will come into the public treasury from a moderate rate of taxes on stocks and bonds than from an oppressively high rate4 ,sidenote3 ,other local taxes4 ,a few communities also obtain some revenue from another direct tax1 the poll tax1 which amounts to one or two dollars per year on each adult4 ,in some cities franchise taxes are laid upon public service companies 7such as gas1 electric lighting1 and street railway companies74 ,the proceeds from these sources do not form any large proportion of the total revenue4 ,sidenote3 ,assessments for purposes of taxation4 ,all collecting of taxes is preceded by a formal step known as assessment4 ,no tax can be legally collected unless it has been assessed in ways prescribed by law4 ,property of all kinds is valued for taxation by officials known as assessors4 ,usually they are county or city officials1 sometimes appointed1 sometimes elected4 ,they re-value property at stated intervals and set their assessment at what they believe to be the market value 7unless they are instructed to assess at a percentage of the market value as is the case in some states74 ,income taxes1 corporation taxes1 and inheritance taxes are assessed by the tax officials on the basis of sworn statements made to them by the taxpayers4 ,sidenote3 ,special assessments4 ,in the case of such public improvements as sewers1 street pavements1 and sidewalks it is the custom in many cities to levy a special assessment upon the owners of the property that is benefited4 ,these special assessments are levied in proportion to the benefit received2 they are not taxes in the ordinary sense4 ,sidenote3 ,taking property for public use4 ,when the nation or state or city requires land for public improvements it has the right to acquire it from the owner1 even though he be unwilling to sell4 ,the public authorities1 by their right of eminent domain1 can take land or other property for public use at any time1 but must give the owner just compensation4 ,if the amount of compensation cannot be agreed upon between the government and the private owner1 it is fixed by the courts4 ,sidenote3 ,the sources of state revenue4 ,state ,taxes4--,the states obtain their revenue in various ways4 ,one common method is by requiring the cities1 counties1 or towns to pay over to the state a certain fraction of the sums which they collect on property4 ,thus1 when the citizen gets his bill for local taxes he finds it itemized--so much for state taxes1 so much for county taxes1 and so much for city or town taxes4 ,most of the states also levy taxes on corporations1 including railways1 telephone companies1 insurance companies1 and banks4 ,these taxes may be calculated upon capital or net earnings or deposits or upon some other basis4 ,a few states tax inheritances and a few levy a state income tax4 ,taxes on inheritances are usually progressive1 that is1 the rate is higher in the case of large inherited fortunes4 ,state income taxes are levied upon the net earnings of individuals or partnerships1 a certain minimum income being left exempt4 ,most of the states have other miscellaneous sources of revenue1 some of them important1 as1 for example1 the annual license fees imposed upon all owners of motor vehicles4 ,sidenote3 ,income and excess profits taxes4 ,national ,taxes4--,the national government1 by reason of its need for larger revenues in recent years1 has resorted to many forms of taxation4 ,at the present time the principal sources of national revenue are the taxes on the incomes of corporations and individuals1 the customs duties1 the excises1 and the inheritance taxes4 ,the national income taxes are levied upon the net earnings of all individuals1 partnerships1 and corporations above a certain minimum4 ,the rate of taxation1 in the case of individual incomes1 is progressive--a normal tax is laid upon all incomes up to a certain figure and surtaxes are levied upon incomes above this amount4#bai ,under the original provisions of the constitution1 the national government could not levy direct taxes unless it apportioned them among the several states according to their population1 and according to a decision of the ,supreme ,court in #ahid an income tax is a direct tax4#bbj ,but the ,sixteenth ,amendment1 adopted in #aiac1 now gives the national government authority to tax incomes 8from whatever source derived0 without the necessity of apportionment among the states4 ,once a year every person or corporation earning a net income above the prescribed minimum must make a sworn statement setting forth the exact amount of such earnings1 and upon this 8income tax return0 the legal rate is assessed4 ,sidenote3 ,duties on imports4 ,duties on imports still yield a large revenue1 as they have done every year since #agij4 ,no duties may be laid upon exports1 such duties being forbidden by the constitution4 ,this is in some respects unfortunate1 because duties on exports go into the price of the exported goods and thus fall upon the foreign consumer4 ,a tariff on exports 7such as lumber1 coal1 and ore7 would not only yield a considerable revenue but would help to conserve the natural wealth of the ,united ,states4 ,the excises are levied upon tobacco1 theatre tickets1 and other things which are rated as luxuries4#bba ,the national government also levies an inheritance tax1 the rate of the tax depending upon the value of the property inherited4 ,these various taxes bring in between three and four billion dollars per year4 ,sidenote3 ,taxes for revenue and taxes for regulation4 ,the ,two ,purposes of ,taxation4--,the main object of all taxation is to produce a revenue4 ,but this is not the only object4 ,taxation may also be used to bring about such social reforms as the nation or the community may deem desirable1 and taxes are sometimes adjusted to this end4 ,for example1 the manufacture of goods by the use of child labor can be checked by placing a heavy excise tax upon such products4#bbb ,it is believed that the growth of large fortunes can be checked by the imposition of heavy surtaxes on large incomes and on inheritances2 the present national taxes on incomes and inheritances have been framed with this end in view to some extent4 ,in other words the system of taxation can be used and is being used in some measure to secure such economic and social readjustments as ,congress and the state legislatures think desirable4 ,the question is3 ,how far should the law-making bodies go in this direction8 ,many people believe that 8swollen fortunes0 are an evil in a democratic society and that all earnings above a certain point should belong to the community4 ,others feel that heavy surtaxes place a damper upon ambition1 that they lessen the amount of money saved by the whole people1 thus reducing the amount of capital available for industry1 and that they give the government large sums which are spent wastefully4#bbc ,sidenote3 ,taxation and class prejudice4 ,tax ,exemptions and ,extravagance4--,when taxation is regarded as a means not only of raising a revenue but also of redistributing wealth it takes on grave possibilities of abuse4 ,the majority among the voters can always find reasons for increasing the burdens on the minority2 the wage-earners urge that more taxes ought to be placed on the rich and insist that they themselves be exempted from taxation upon their incomes4 ,the chief evil in all this is not the injustice to the rich1 for they usually manage to shift the burden down the line till it comes back upon the wage-earner2 the unfortunate part of it is that the masses of the people1 proceeding under the delusion that they pay none of the taxes1 are quite unconcerned when they see large sums of money being collected by the government and spent wastefully4 ,they do not realize that it is their money2 that they earned every cent of it before the government obtained it to spend4 ,if they could be induced to see matters in this light1 they would never permit their representatives in ,congress1 in the state legislatures1 and in city councils to throw money around with such a lavish hand4 ,tax exemptions and extravagance are twin brothers4 ,sidenote3 ,the single tax4 ,proposed ,reforms in ,taxation4--,various new forms of taxation are proposed from time to time4 ,many years ago a well-known ,american social reformer1 ,henry ,george1 advocated the placing of all property taxes on land alone1 allowing buildings and personal property to go untaxed altogether4 ,his argument was that the high value of land in cities and towns is created by the community1 not by the owner4 ,vacant land in the downtown portion of a large city is sometimes worth many hundred dollars per foot4 ,what gives it this high value8 ,not the owner1 for he has done nothing to improve it4 ,the growth of the city round about this land has made it valuable4 ,this 8unearned increment0 of value1 therefore1 ,henry ,george proposed that the community should take by levying a very heavy tax upon it4#bbd ,sidenote3 ,objections to the single tax4 ,the single tax proposition1 as above outlined1 has many earnest advocates2 but it has made very little progress as a practical policy in this country4 ,the objection commonly raised against the proposal is that it would be an outright confiscation of a certain form of private property1 namely1 vacant land2 that the single tax on the site value of improved land1 like taxes on buildings used for industrial or mercantile purposes1 would merely be shifted to the tenant and by him transferred in the form of higher prices to the consumer2 and that the amount derived from the single tax would not yield enough to relieve the people from paying other forms of taxation4 ,sidenote3 ,the proposed sales tax4 ,more recently a good deal of discussion has taken place concerning the desirability of a general tax on sales at a uniform rate4 ,it is argued that such a tax would fall directly and proportionately on all the people2 that it would be so small as to have only the slightest effect upon prices2 that it would be easy to collect and hard to evade4 ,such a sales tax at one per cent would probably yield nearly a billion dollars per year to the national treasury4 ,on the other hand the objection is made that a tax of this sort would be a real hardship upon masses of the people who have small incomes and would be felt much less severely by the well-to-do4#bbe ,sidenote3 ,how money is appropriated4 ,the ,spending of ,public ,money4--,when taxes are collected they go into the public treasury of the nation1 state1 or community4 ,once in the treasury the money cannot be spent until it has been finally appropriated by ,congress1 by the state legislature1 by the county board1 by the city council1 or by whatever body possesses the power to make appropriations4 ,appropriations are usually made once a year in the form of a budget1 and the manner of making a budget is as follows3 ,on or before a given date the various administrative departments 7such as the parks department in cities or the departments of highways in states7 make their estimates of expenditure for the next twelve months4 ,along with this1 for purposes of comparison1 a statement of probable revenue from taxes and other sources is prepared by the financial officers of the state or local government4 ,sidenote3 ,the estimates4 ,the estimates are put together and submitted to the mayor1 the governor1 or some other designated officer1 who transmits them to the council or legislature as the case may be4 ,the lawmaking body then considers the estimates1 item by item1 and finally votes the entire list after making such changes as it finds desirable4 ,this budget1 in cities and states1 usually requires the approval of the mayor or the governor and may be vetoed like other measures4 ,in some states the governor may veto individual items in the budget while letting the others stand1 but as a rule he is required to accept or reject the appropriation bill as a whole4 ,the general tendency is to give the executive branch of the state and local governments larger powers in budget-making so that the responsibility for any extravagance may be better centralized4 ,sidenote3 ,the older method of making appropriations1 in ,congress4 ,the ,national ,budget ,system4--,until #aiba the national government made its large annual expenditures without any regular budget system at all4 ,each department 7war1 navy1 agriculture1 and so on7 prepared its estimates and sent them to the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 who presented them to the ,president for transmission to ,congress with whatever recommendations he might choose to make4 ,in addition to this every senator and representative had the right to propose appropriations1 and hundreds of such proposals were made in ,congress at every session4 ,the practice1 prior to #aiba1 was to refer all the departmental estimates and all the individual proposals to various committees4 ,all estimates and bills for army expenditures went to the ,committee on ,military ,affairs2 all such measures relating to the postal service went to the ,committee on ,post-,offices1 and so on4 ,eight or nine committees each took a hand in considering these proposals to spend money2 each did its work without reference to what the other committees were doing2 and each made its own recommendations to ,congress4#bbf ,sidenote3 ,results of this method4 ,the result of this procedure was that no general plan for keeping down the expense could ever be effectively put into force1 there being too many independent committees to deal with4 ,in #aiba1 however1 ,congress passed an act providing for the establishment of a national budget system and the rules of both chambers in ,congress were altered so as to carry the new plan into effect4 ,sidenote3 ,the new budget system4 ,the departmental estimates now go to an official in the ,treasury ,department known as the ,director4 ,he puts them together into a budget and with the ,president's approval submits them to the ,house of ,representatives4 ,here they are considered by a single large committee1 known as the ,appropriations ,committee1 and all proposals of expenditure made by individual congressmen 7after they have been approved by the committees directly concerned7 are also submitted to this committee4 ,the latter then lays before the ,house a complete budget or plan of expenditures for the ensuing fiscal year4 ,when this budget1 with or without changes1 passes the ,house1 it is forwarded to the ,senate1 where it is likewise considered by a single committee4 ,after it has been passed by the ,senate it goes to the ,president for his approval4 ,the ,president cannot veto individual items in the budget but must accept or reject it as a whole4 ,this is a serious handicap because the rejection of the entire budget would leave the departments without funds with which to carry on their work4 ,the great advantage of the new budget system is that it enables ,congress to make a comprehensive plan of expenditure for the year and thus to hold the expenses within the estimated revenues4 ,sidenote3 ,is it necessary for governments to borrow8 ,public ,debts3 ,why ,governments ,borrow ,money4--,nearly all nations1 states1 counties1 cities1 and even villages have debts4 ,why do they find it necessary to borrow money8 ,why should they not1 like wise individuals1 adopt a pay-as-you-go policy8 ,the reason is that such a policy would be very unfair to the present taxpayers4 ,suppose1 for example1 that a town or city builds a new high school4 ,the building will cost a great deal of money and may reasonably be expected to serve its purpose for twenty1 thirty1 or even forty years4 ,now there are two ways in which the community can defray the cost3 ,it can levy a heavy tax rate upon the property of the people at once1 doubling or trebling the usual tax rate if necessary1 and thereby obtaining the money with which to pay cash for the school4 ,or1 on the other hand1 it may borrow the money and arrange that this amount 7with interest7 shall be repaid in annual installments over twenty or more years1 thus spreading the burden over the whole period in which the building fulfils its purpose4 ,sidenote3 ,proper and improper borrowing4 ,which of these is the fairer method8 ,the latter plan has the merit of placing the burden upon all those who get the benefit2 but it has the defect of saddling the taxpayers of the future with a debt which they have had no share in creating4 ,governments1 however1 are much more concerned with the present than with the future1 for it is the present taxpayer who decides the elections4 ,wherever practicable1 therefore1 they endeavor to finance public improvements by selling bonds rather than by increasing the present tax rates4 ,state roads1 public buildings1 bridges1 and other costly enterprises are financed by borrowing4 ,the construction of the ,panama ,canal by the national government was not paid for at the time2 the money with which to build it was borrowed by issuing long-term bonds4 ,governments sometimes go further and borrow money to make good a shortage in current expenses4 ,this is an unwise policy2 not one honest word can be said in favor of it4 ,current expenses should be paid from the taxes of today1 not from the taxes of ten years hence4 ,when a government borrows money to pay current expenses it usually defends its action by saying that the people approved it at the polls4 ,of course the people will usually approve things of this sort4 ,when you ask a man whether he prefers to pay for a thing himself or let somebody else pay for it1 there is little doubt what his answer will be4 ,war is the greatest cause of borrowing4 ,during the ,civil ,war the ,united ,states government borrowed about three billion dollars1 most of which was repaid within thirty years4 ,during and immediately after the ,world ,war it secured1 by the issue of ,liberty ,bonds and ,victory ,notes1 about twenty-six billion dollars1 all of which becomes repayable at various dates before #aiej4bbg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,national ,,debt #ahfj-aibj ,the largest additions to the national debt of the ,united ,states were made during the years #ahfa-ahfe1 and the years #aiag-aiai4 ,during the former of these two periods the debt rose from less than fifty millions to nearly three billions2 during the years #aiag-aiai it increased from one to twenty-seven billions or thereabouts4 ,by using the logarithmic or proportional scale for comparing these two periods it will be seen that the ratio of increase was less in the later period than in the earlier4 ,it will be noticed that although the national debt was much reduced during the twenty-five years which followed the ,civil ,war1 it never dropped anywhere near its pre-war level4 ,the enormous debt which we piled up during the ,world ,war is already being reduced4 ,will it ever be cut to the level of #aiaf8 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,national ,,debt #ahfj-aibj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,long- and short-term loans4 ,how ,borrowing ,takes ,place4--,when governments decide to borrow money there are two ways of doing it4 ,if the money is needed for a short time only1 for example1 to pay expenses until the taxes come in1 it can be borrowed from the banks on short-term notes4 ,the national government1 for its short-term borrowing1 issues treasury notes1 running for a year or less4 ,these bear interest and are sold to the banks which re-sell them to private investors4 ,but if the money is needed for a longer period1 the usual plan is to issue bonds4 ,these bonds1 as already pointed out 7p4 #dde7 are promises to pay1 and the government pledges its credit to repay them promptly when they mature1 with interest every year or every half-year meanwhile4 ,national1 state1 and local bonds are for the most part exempt from taxation4#bbh ,sidenote3 ,how the war increased the national debt4 ,the ,burden of the ,public ,debt ,today4--,the borrowing power of the national government is not limited by any provision of the constitution4 ,congress may borrow money up to any amount4 ,the national debt today is about twenty-three billion dollars1 as against only one billion before the war4 ,the yearly interest on the present debt1 in fact1 is about as large as the whole of the old debt4 ,arrangements are being made1 however1 to lessen this interest-burden by obtaining interest payments from foreign countries upon the loans made to them by the ,united ,states during the war4 ,sidenote3 ,debt limits4 ,in the case of the states and cities the power to borrow money is not unlimited4 ,the state constitutions usually contain provisions as to how much money may be borrowed and for what purposes4 ,sometimes they provide that state debts may not be created except by vote of the people4 ,cities are also1 in most cases1 bound by debt limits which are fixed by the state constitution or by state laws4 ,the limit1 as a rule1 is flexible2 it enables the city to borrow money up to a certain percentage of its assessed valuation1 so that when the value of property goes up the borrowing power becomes enlarged4 ,state and city debts have been increasing at a rapid rate2 on the whole more rapidly than population or wealth4#bbi ,the tendency is to put a large share of the burden on the shoulders of the next generation4 ,it is right that future taxpayers should bear their share1 as has been said2 but they should not be called upon to do more than that4#bcj ,it is probably within bounds to say that thirty to forty cents out of every dollar which we pay in taxes today goes for interest and debt repayments4 ,before long1 if we keep on1 half the taxes will go to pay for past obligations4 ,the large cities are the worst offenders2 some of them are mortgaging the future at an alarming rate4 ,stricter laws relating to local borrowing are needed1 but more essential still is the awakening of public opinion to the realities of the situation4 ,how ,public ,debts are ,repaid4--,when bonds are issued by the public authorities some provision ought to be made for paying them at maturity2 but this is not always done4 ,sidenote3 ,refunding4 ,the national debt1 when portions of it become due1 is sometimes refunded1 that is1 paid off by issuing new bonds4 ,sidenote3 ,sinking funds4 ,in the states and municipalities the usual plan has been to establish a sinking fund when the bonds are issued1 and then to pay a certain installment into this fund out of each year's taxes4 ,by this process the sinking fund grows year by year until it is sufficient to pay off the bonds when they become due4 ,sidenote3 ,serial issues4 ,a better plan is to issue the bonds in such form that they will fall due serially1 that is1 one or more bonds coming due in each successive year of the loan period4 ,then1 instead of creating a sinking fund to pay off the whole debt at one time1 the bonds are paid off one by one4 ,the serial bond plan does away with the necessity of holding large sums in hand awaiting the maturity of the debt1 and thus diminishes the risk of loss through poor investment or corruption4 ,are ,public ,debts a ,public ,evil8--,alexander ,hamilton1 who was ,secretary of the ,treasury in ,washington's first cabinet1 propounded the doctrine that a public debt1 if not too large1 is a source of strength to the government4 ,he argued that when government bonds are widely held by the people1 all those who own the bonds are interested in the stability and prosperity of the nation4 ,other noted financiers at various times have contradicted ,hamilton and have declared all public debts to be public evils in that they impose burdens on the people without giving them anything tangible to show for it4 ,but the truth is that public debts do not fall entirely in either class4 ,they are benefits in one sense and evils in another4 ,the power to borrow1 like any other power1 may be used wisely or unwisely4 ,in times of great emergency1 or for public improvements of permanent value1 money may very properly be obtained by borrowing2 always provided1 however1 that arrangements are made to pay off the debts within a reasonable time4 ,the evil comes when governments borrow money in order to pay current expenses or to defray the cost of improvements which are not needed1 and when they complacently allow the debt to pile up1 year after year1 with no thought of reducing it4 8,sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof01 it is said2 but we can also make the evil sufficient unto the future as well4 ,general ,references ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #ceh-cgh2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #cbc-cdb2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dhc-efa2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dde-dgi2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bcc-bde2 ,ibid41 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #djc-dgh 7,municipal ,finance72 ,c4 ,f4 ,,bastable1 ,public ,finance1 pp4 #bfa-bhj2 ,e4 ,r4 ,a4 ,,seligman1 ,essays in ,taxation 7#ith edition71 pp4 #ff-ii 7,the ,single ,tax72 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,selected ,readings in ,public ,finance1 pp4 #ci-di2 #adc-aeg2 ,ibid41 ,introduction to the ,study of ,economics1 pp4 #dic-ebj2 ,c4 ,c4 ,,plehn1 ,introduction to ,public ,finance1 pp4 #caj-cbg2 ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,taxation and ,public ,expenditures1 pp4 #a-bhc 7,annals1 ,vol4 ,,xcv1 ,may1 #aiba74 ,group ,problems #a4 ,should the present rate of national income taxes and surtaxes be raised or lowered8 ,the ,income ,tax ,law of #aiac4 ,the increase in rates during the war4 ,the changes made in #aiba4 ,are the present exemptions fair8 ,how do the surtaxes operate8 ,are they shifted by the taxpayers to others8 ,how8 ,the flow of investments into non-taxables4 ,examples4 ,is a progressive rate justifiable in order to promote a greater approach to equality in net incomes8 ,conclusions4 ,references3 ,c4 ,c4 ,,plehn1 ,introduction to ,public ,finance1 #dth ed41 pp4 #bgj-cji2 ,g4 ,n4 ,,wilson1 ,the ,income ,tax1 pp4 #a-aa2 ,f4 ,r4 ,,fairchild1 ,federal ,taxation of ,income and ,profits 7,american ,economic ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,no4 #a1 ,supplement1 pp4 #adh-aei72 ,r4 ,m4 ,,haig1 ,the ,federal ,income ,tax1 pp4 #a-be2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,hobson1 ,taxation in the ,new ,state1 pp4 #ie-aaj2 ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,taxation and ,public ,expenditure1 pp4 #ahj-ahg 7,annals1 ,vol4 ,,xcv1 ,may1 #aiba74 #b4 ,how public budgets are made4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,ford1 ,the ,cost of ,our ,national ,government1 pp4 #aa-ba2 ,s4 ,g4 ,,lowrie1 ,the ,budget1 pp4 #aa-cj2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland1 ,chapters on ,municipal ,administration and ,accounting1 pp4 #fg-ha2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aha-ahd2 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #b 7,state ,budget ,systems in the ,united ,states72 ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,public ,budgets1 pp4 #cf-df 7,annals1 ,vol4 ,,lxii1 ,no4 #aea72 ,ibid41 ,taxation and ,public ,expenditure1 pp4 #bbh-bej 7,annals1 ,vol4 ,,xcv1 ,may1 #aiba72 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of the ,census1 ,financial ,statistics of ,states2 ,financial ,statistics of ,cities4 7,each is published annually47 #c4 ,a study of the per capita cost of selected administrative departments in your own state or community compared with those of other states or communities4 7,adequate data for this study can be found in two annual publications of the ,u4 ,s4 ,census ,bureau1 namely1 ,financial ,statistics of ,states1 and ,financial ,statistics of ,cities4 ,for an example of such a study1 in brief form1 see ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 p4 #deg47 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the principles underlying taxation4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dhc-dif4 #b4 ,the power of ,congress to tax4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bba-bbg4 #c4 ,income taxes in foreign countries4 ,e4 ,r4 ,a4 ,,seligman1 ,the ,income ,tax 7#b;d ed471 ,england1 pp4 #afg-bah2 ,france1 pp4 #bgc-cbh2 ,germany1 pp4 #bbc-bgb4 #d4 ,how the ,civil ,war was financed4 ,d4 ,r4 ,,dewey1 ,financial ,history of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bih-ccc4 #e4 ,the mobilization of ,american finances during the ,world ,war4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,willoughby1 ,government ,organization in ,war ,time and ,after1 pp4 #ej-ff2 ,e4 ,r4 ,a4 ,,seligman1 ,essays in ,taxation 7#ith ed471 pp4 #gej-ghb4 #f4 ,excises as a source of revenue4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,selected ,readings in ,public ,finance1 pp4 #ddi-dgb4 #g4 ,the general property tax4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ebh-edi4 #h4 ,the tariff as a source of revenue4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,selected ,readings in ,public ,finance1 pp4 #dbe-ddh4 #i4 ,the single tax4 ,e4 ,r4 ,a4 ,,seligman1 ,essays in ,taxation1 pp4 #ff-ii4 #aj4 ,the wastefulness of the old appropriation system4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #cee-cfa4 #aa4 ,state debts and debt limits4 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #ae 7,constitutional ,restrictions on ,state ,debts74 #ab4 ,municipal debts and debt limits4 ,ibid41 ,no4 #ad 7,constitutional ,restrictions on ,municipal ,indebtedness74 #ac4 ,methods of borrowing3 sinking funds vs4 serial bonds4 ,ibid41 ,no4 #ba 7,methods of ,borrowing3 ,sinking ,funds vs4 ,serial ,bonds74 #ad4 ,the classification of property for taxation4 ,ibid41 ,no4 #bj 7,classification of ,property for ,purposes of ,taxation74 #ae4 ,the new national budget system4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,a4 ,e4 ,,buck1 ,the ,budget and ,responsible ,government1 pp4 #cga-cha4 ,questions #a4 ,show how taxes are related to the cost of living4 ,what forms of taxation are most closely related to it8 #b4 ,can you add any other principles of taxation to those laid down by ,adam ,smith8 #c4 ,select from the constitution all the provisions which relate to taxation and put them together in this form3 8,congress may impose any sort of taxation except that----and that----and that1 etc40 #d4 ,what is the incidence of 7a7 import duties2 7b7 export duties2 7c7 a tax on vacant land2 7d7 a tax on a factory2 7e7 a normal tax on incomes2 7f7 a poll tax2 7g7 a tax on inheritances2 7h7 a tax on the profits of theatres2 7i7 a tax on motor trucks8 #e4 ,is it right that income from government bonds should be exempt from taxation8 #f4 ,which of the following taxes is the wage-earner likely to feel the least1 and why3 tariff duties1 a property tax1 income taxes1 a sales tax1 a poll tax8 #g4 ,should different forms of property 7land1 buildings1 household furniture1 stocks1 bonds1 automobiles1 etc47 be taxed at different rates8 ,should factories be taxed at a different rate from homes8 ,if all men are equal in the eyes of the law1 why should they be taxed at different rates8 #h4 ,it cost only a billion dollars a year to run the government before the war4 ,interest on the debt now amounts to nearly another billion4 ,but the government is spending about four billions4 ,why is this8 ,now that the war is over1 why is it not possible 7apart from interest on the war debt7 to get back to the old scale of expenditures8 #i4 ,what are the chief defects in our present system of raising public revenues8 ,what improvements can you suggest8 ,would you favor a sales tax8 ,do you believe that ,congress was unwise in abolishing the tax on excess profits8 #aj4 ,enumerate all the different forms of taxation that any one man may have to pay in the ,united ,states at the present day4 #aa4 ,how is the budget prepared and passed in your state8 ,compare the relative influence of the governor with that of the legislature in determining what the state government spends4 #ab4 ,explain treasury notes2 refunding2 debt limit2 surtaxes2 net debt2 progressive taxation2 sinking fund2 serial bonds2 special assessments4 #ac4 ,two cities of about the same size may have approximately equal amounts of net debt yet one may be in a much better financial position than the other4 ,account for this4 #ad4 ,when ,chief ,justice ,marshall said3 8,the power to tax involves the power to destroy01 what did he mean8 ,should the power to tax be used to secure a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and net annual incomes among the people8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the salaries of government officials should be taxed like the incomes of private individuals4 #b4 ,no man's income should be twice taxed 7once by the nation and once by the state74 #c4 ,property should be taxed by a uniform rule and should not be classified for taxation4 #d4 ,no debt limits should be fixed for cities by state law1 cities being allowed to decide for themselves how much they shall borrow4 #e4 ,assessors should be appointive state officials and should not be elected by the voters of cities1 counties1 or towns4 ----- ,footnote #baa3 ,if anything1 this estimate is probably too low4 ,in #aiba the tax commissioner of ,massachusetts estimated the tax burden in that state to be #aag per capita4 ,footnote #bab3 ,the cities spend a great deal more than the rural districts and the per capita burden there is consequently much heavier4 ,footnote #bac3 ,in the case of some heavily-taxed forms of merchandise1 such as tobacco1 more than half the price is made up of taxes4 ,footnote #bad3 ,there are some cases1 of course1 in which the tax cannot be shifted2 for example1 taxes on vacant or unimproved land1 or taxes on fixed incomes and salaries4 ,but all this is a small element in the total tax bill4 ,footnote #bae3 ,many public services which are now paid for out of the general taxes were at one time supported by charging only those who made use of them4 ,many of the first macadam roads were built by private companies1 which collected a few cents in toll from every person using them4 ,toll bridges were not uncommon a generation ago and they still exist in some places4 ,fees were charged in many places by the schools1 so much per pupil4 ,before regular police forces were established1 well-to-do people hired watchmen to patrol the streets around their property1 the poorer sections of the city being left without any protection at all4 ,footnote #baf3 ,the ,french statesman1 ,colbert1 chief minister of ,louis ,,xiv1 once said that the art of taxing the people was like that of plucking a goose1 namely1 to get the largest amount of feathers with the least amount of squawking4 ,there is more truth than fiction in that remark4 ,footnote #bag3 ,in a general way the distinction between real and personal property is simple enough1 but the exact line between the two is not as a practical matter so easy to draw4 ,for example3 ,is grain growing in the field real or personal property8 ,which is it after it is cut by the reaper8 ,to which class do the trees in the forest belong 7a7 before they are cut down1 7b7 after they have been felled8 ,would it be correct to say that cattle grazing in the field are converting real estate into personal property8 ,footnote #bah3 ,real estate is in plain sight and cannot be concealed from the taxing authorities2 but stocks1 bonds1 notes1 and so forth1 are kept in a safe where no one sees them but the owner4 ,there is no way of knowing how much taxable wealth a man has hidden away unless he is honest enough to tell4 ,in some states the plan of taxing intangibles has been given up altogether on the ground that such taxes are too easy to evade4 ,as a substitute these states impose a tax on the income from intangibles and require every person to make1 once a year1 a sworn statement of such income4 ,footnote #bai3 ,the exemptions1 allowances1 and rates change from time to time4 ,the existing rules can be found in the latest edition of the ,world ,almanac4 ,they cannot be briefly stated without serious danger of inaccuracy4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,see ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dib4 ,the court held that a tax on land was a direct tax2 that a tax on the income from land was in effect a tax on land1 and hence also a direct tax4 ,footnote #bba3 ,during the years #aiah-aiba these excises were also laid on railway tickets1 telegrams1 and sales at soda fountains4 ,the excess profits tax1 which also brought in a large revenue during the years #aiah-aibb was levied upon all business profits above a designated standard4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,every state undoubtedly has power to lay such a tax4 ,there is some doubt whether the national government also possesses it1 because a tax on the products of labor is in reality a means of regulating the conditions of labor1 and the constitution gives the national government no authority to regulate the conditions of labor2 such authority belongs to the states4 ,the question whether the national government can levy a tax on the products of child labor is now pending before the ,supreme ,court4 ,see also p4 #dae4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,people who have large fortunes may invest them in non-taxable investments1 such as state and municipal bonds1 thus evading the heavy surtaxes on incomes4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,henry ,george advocated that on all land a tax should be levied equal to the full amount of its ground rent 7see p4 #dc7 and that all other taxes should be abolished4 ,this1 in effect1 would do away with the private ownership of land1 making the government the real owner4 ,mr4 ,george endeavored to prove that nearly all our economic troubles are due to the private ownership of land and land monopoly4 8,what ,i therefore propose01 he said1 8as the simple yet sovereign remedy which will raise wages1 increase the earnings of capital1 extirpate pauperism1 abolish poverty1 give remunerative employment to whoever wishes it1 afford free scope to human powers1 lessen crime1 elevate morals and taste and intelligence1 purify government and carry civilization to yet nobler heights1 is--to appropriate rent by taxation40 ,progress and ,poverty1 ,book ,,viii1 ,ch4 ii4 ,this is a good example of the extravagant and ,utopian hopes held out by reformers who are carried away by a single idea4 ,if earth could be changed into heaven by merely taxing one thing instead of another1 the transformation would have been made long ago4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,president ,harding1 early in #aibb1 suggested the imposition of a sales tax as a practicable method of obtaining money with which to pay a bonus to veterans of the ,world ,war4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,it was the custom to take such individual measures as were approved by the various committees and put them all together into what was called an 8omnibus bill01 providing for many millions of dollars to be spent upon the erection of new post-offices1 the dredging of harbors1 and so on4 ,in these bills every congressman expected to get something for his district1 whether there was need or not4 ,such grants of money were commonly known as 8pork barrel0 appropriations4 ,one way of keeping congressmen in ,washington until the very last day of the session was to hold back these appropriations until just before adjournment4 ,every senator and representative would then stay at his post lest by some mishap his particular item might be dropped out4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,about ten billion dollars of this total was loaned by the ,united ,states to ,england1 ,france1 and other countries to help them carry on the war 7see pp4 #fac-fad74 ,footnote #bbh3 ,there are some exceptions4 ,the income from the first issue of ,liberty ,bonds is entirely exempt from national taxation2 the income from the other issues is exempt up to a certain amount for a designated period of years4 ,all the bonds issued by the national government are exempt from state and local taxation4 ,bonds issued by states1 counties1 cities1 and other municipalities are exempt from national taxation2 they may or may not be exempt from state and local taxes1 depending usually upon where the owner resides4 ,for example1 if a man owns bonds issued by the city of ,san ,francisco and resides in ,california1 the income from these bonds is exempt from state and local taxes2 but if the owner resides in some other state which has an income tax1 the income is taxable4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,the debt of ,new ,york state is about one hundred and thirty-five millions2 no other state has a debt half as large4 ,a few states have no debts at all4 ,the total net debt of the counties1 cities1 towns1 villages1 and other communities is nearly five billions4 ,it would be conservative to say that the total public indebtedness of the ,american people today is about twenty-eight billions4 ,from this may be subtracted1 of course1 the ten billions owed to the ,united ,states by other countries4 ,but even allowing for this1 the debt is about #gjj per family4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,it is a sound rule of public finance that bonds ought not to run for a longer period than the estimated life of a public improvement4 ,for example1 if a new street pavement is estimated to be good for twenty years1 the bonds should all be repayable within that term4 ,very often1 however1 the taxpayers of ,american cities have been paying off paving bonds long after the pavements have completely worn out4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,public ,,utilities ,,and ,,public ,,ownership ,the purpose of this chapter is to discuss the nature of public utilities1 the various methods of regulating them1 and the question whether they ought to be owned by the government4 ,sidenote3 ,ordinary business is regulated by competition4 ,the ,problem4--,in the case of most ordinary business enterprises the factor which secures reasonable prices and good service to the customer is competition4 ,the customer who finds that prices are high or that service is poor at one grocery store stops trading there and goes somewhere else4 ,the merchant who finds one bank unsatisfactory moves his account to another bank4 ,the wholesale dealer1 if one factory does not send him goods promptly1 or charges him too much1 gives his future orders to some other factory4 ,stores1 banks1 and factories are in competition with other establishments of their own kind2 in order to get business they are constantly trying to outstrip their competitors by lowering prices and improving service4 ,in this sense 8competition is the life of trade04 ,the rivalry of those who have goods or services to sell is in itself enough to afford the public protection4 ,natural ,monopolies4--,but there are certain lines of business in which no real competition exists because they are monopolies4 ,monopolies1 as has already been pointed out1 are of three different types1 natural1 legal1 or artificial 7see p4 #ed72 and all public service enterprises 7railroads1 telegraphs1 telephones1 lighting plants1 etc47 fall within the first of these classes--they are natural monopolies4 ,we call them public services or public utilities2 but this is not merely because they are of great importance to the public4 ,bread and meat are also of vast public importance but we do not refer to the bakery and the meat market as public services4 ,sidenote3 ,but public utilities are natural monopolies4 ,telephones1 telegraphs1 street railways are called public services or public utilities because they are monopolies by nature4 ,the citizen has no alternative by reason of competition4 ,if he wants to go from one place to another1 he cannot usually find two lines of railroad1 or if so1 their rates are the same4 ,if the rates for electric lighting are exorbitant1 he cannot tell the company that he will buy electric light from someone else1 for he is dealing with the only concern from which electric light can be obtained in that particular locality4 ,the man who lives in ,omaha can send to ,chicago and buy his shoes there if he finds that prices and quality are not satisfactory in his own city2 but he cannot get his telephone service or his electric light in that way4 ,he is absolutely dependent on local service and1 as a rule1 on one local service alone4 ,sidenote3 ,their nature excludes competition4 ,public ,utilities do not ,compete4--,why do we say that these public utilities are monopolies by nature8 ,it is because their business1 from the way in which it is carried on1 virtually excludes competition4 ,it would be physically possible to have two rival street railway companies operating on the same street1 two gas companies1 and two electric lighting companies2 but imagine the congestion and inconvenience this would cause6 ,moreover1 it would practically double the amount of fixed capital needed to provide the service and this would mean higher prices to the public in the end4#bca ,in years gone by many cities tried the plan of setting two public service companies in competition with one another1 and in a few cities competing telephone companies still exist2 but the competition is rarely in earnest and scarcely ever lasts very long4 ,the rival public service companies1 finding that competition is not profitable1 presently form a combination and raise their rates4 ,the controlling fact is that light1 power1 transportation1 and communication 7whether by telegraph1 telephone1 or post7 can be more cheaply served by a monopoly than by competing companies4 ,there can be1 in fact1 no effective competition between public utilities operating in the same area4 ,being ,monopolies ,they ,must be ,regulated4--,now if public utilities are monopolies by nature1 and can never be anything else1 it is essential that the government shall exercise1 in one way or another1 sufficient control over them to restrain them from abusing their power4 ,sidenote3 ,public utilities use public property4 ,this is all the more easy to do because public utilities1 unlike ordinary industrial or mercantile concerns1 must come to the state or city government for certain privileges which they find necessary in order to carry on their business4 ,every public utility finds it essential to use property which belongs to the whole people4 ,a railroad must run its tracks across the highway2 a gas company must lay its pipes beneath the pavements2 an electric lighting company must put some of its poles in the streets2 a street railway company1 as its name implies1 must make large use of the public thoroughfares4 ,moreover1 they all desire the right to take whatever private property they may need for their terminals1 power houses1 tanks1 and so on4 ,this is a right which only the government can give4#bcb ,so the public service companies1 from the fact that they must ask privileges from the government1 render themselves amenable to governmental control4 ,it is not so with ordinary industrial monopolies such as the making of steel or sugar or tobacco4 ,sidenote3 ,they also use the right of eminent domain4 ,they do not1 as a rule1 ask for legal privileges of any kind2 they do not need permanent rights in the public highways or demand that they be allowed to exercise the right to eminent domain2 hence they are not so easily brought under public regulation4 ,how the ,regulation is ,effected4--,in order to use the streets or any other public property1 an individual or corporation must first obtain official permission4 ,the merchant who puts a sign out from his building over the highway1 the barber who sets his familiar red-and-white pole in the sidewalk1 the contractor who blocks the public passage way when he is putting up a building--all must first get the city's permission4 ,sidenote3 ,permits and franchises4 ,this is given by the city officials in the form of a license or permit4 ,but the public service company must have a general permit covering rights in a great many streets and holding good for a number of years4 ,sidenote3 ,definition of a franchise4 ,this general permission1 which does not differ from an individual permit except in its broader scope and longer duration1 is called a franchise4 ,a franchise is merely a grant of the right to use public property 7the streets1 particularly7 either in perpetuity or for a term of years and subject to certain conditions4 ,before any public service company can begin operations it must first secure a franchise from the state1 city1 town1 or township as the case may be4 ,the company secures the rights and the government imposes the conditions4 ,sidenote3 ,the old-type franchise4 ,franchises1 ,past and ,present4--,it was formerly the custom of states and cities to grant franchises for long terms of years without imposing strict conditions for the protection of the people4 ,the reason for this was1 in part1 the strong desire of the community to get the service at once4 ,when electric street railways first came into use1 replacing the old horse-cars1 they were regarded as a godsend to the suburban districts4 ,there was a great popular clamor to have the horse-car lines electrified as quickly as possible4 ,so the companies that were willing to provide this improved service obtained1 in many cases1 very liberal franchises running for long terms and without strict conditions4 ,these were days1 moreover1 when city councilmen and state legislators often proved susceptible to corrupt influences4 ,valuable privileges in many cities were bartered away for next to nothing by dishonest or incompetent officials4 ,how many million dollars in franchises have been practically given away by ,american states and cities during the past generation no one has ever been able to calculate4 ,certain it is1 at any rate1 that hundreds of private fortunes were made from these one-sided bargains4 ,sidenote3 ,the newer methods4 ,but public opinion1 in due course1 became aroused to the injustice of this free-and-easy method1 and laws were passed forbidding the grant of franchise privileges for longer than a designated term of years1 or without first giving the opponents of the grant an opportunity to be heard4#bcc ,in some cases the laws forbade the granting of any franchise without the consent of the people at the polls4 ,provisions were also made to ensure that in return for their privileges the companies should pay a share of their annual profits into the city treasury4#bcd ,finally1 it became the practice to stipulate in the franchise that the rates charged by the company1 the quality of the service1 and various other features affecting the interests of the citizens1 should be subject to public regulation4 ,franchises are still granted by legislatures and municipal councils but with much greater care than formerly4 ,sidenote3 ,regulation by the terms of a franchise is not enough4 ,administrative ,regulation4--,in spite of these various restrictions1 however1 it soon became apparent that a sufficiently close regulation of public utilities could not be maintained by merely inserting various conditions in their franchises4 ,franchises are granted for ten1 twenty1 or even fifty years1 and conditions greatly change within this period4 ,a provision in the franchise relating to the quality of gas1 or the rate of fare on street railways1 or the candle-power of electric lamps may be framed carefully to cover the needs of today1 but no one can foresee what will be needed five or ten years hence4 ,progress is continually being made in the mechanism of public utilities as in all other branches of industry4 ,if regulation is to be effective1 it must keep moving forward as new devices and methods come into use4 ,a franchise has the defect of being a closed bargain4 ,it stands still while the things which it tries to regulate keep marching on4 ,no written document1 furthermore1 is self-enforcing1 and unless some machinery is provided to make the companies live up to their agreements there are always loopholes through which they can evade the restrictions4 ,sidenote3 ,it must be supplemented4 ,in order to make the regulation of public utilities flexible and effective1 therefore1 it has become the practice to supplement the terms of franchises by a system of administrative regulation4 ,besides inserting a long list of conditions in the franchise the government now stipulates1 as a rule1 that the rates and the quality of service shall be fixed from time to time1 in accordance with existing conditions1 by a body of officials commonly known as a public service commission which is supposed to deal fairly with all parties4 ,sidenote3 ,state and municipal commissions4 ,public ,service ,commissions4--,public service commissions are in some cases maintained by the cities2 but more often they are state-appointed bodies4 ,there are two reasons which make it desirable that the regulation of public utilities should be in the hands of the state rather than under the control of the cities4 ,in the first place the jurisdiction of the city officials does not extend beyond the city limits1 whereas public service companies often do a considerable part of their business outside4 ,it is not uncommon1 for example1 to find the same street railway1 electric lighting1 and telephone company operating in several neighboring communities4#bce ,municipal regulation1 in such cases1 would subject the company to different rules in each community4 ,there is a second reason1 namely1 that public regulation is always expensive4 ,a public service commission must have skilled investigators to assist it in deciding the technical questions which arise1 and these experts are costly to employ4 ,large cities can afford it1 but in the case of small communities it is better to have a single state commission perform the functions of regulation for them all4 ,in this way1 moreover1 the regulations can be made uniform4 ,public service commissions consist of three or five members2 in cities they are appointed as a rule by the mayor2 in states they are usually appointed by the governor2 but in some states they are elected by popular vote4 ,appointment is now regarded as the more satisfactory method4 ,sidenote3 ,work of these commissions4 ,the work of a public service commission covers a wide range4 ,its chief function is to see that the companies live up to the terms of their franchises and obey the laws relating to public utilities4 ,it hears complaints from city officials and citizens1 investigates these complaints1 obtains the company's side of the case1 and makes such decision as the matter seems to require4 ,it prevents discriminations in favor of one community against another1 and insists that equally good service be given to all2 it requires financial reports from the various companies and often has power to fix the maximum rates which they may charge4 ,in some states it is the practice to grant 8indeterminate0 franchises1 or franchises which run for no stated term of years1 coupled with the provision that the franchise may be canceled at any time by order of the public service commission if the company does not comply with the conditions4 ,it can easily be seen1 therefore1 that public service commissions have a degree of authority which can readily be abused unless the commissioners are fair-minded and absolutely honest men4 ,their position is like that of judges1 in a sense1 for their function is to hold evenly the scales of justice between the companies on the one hand and the public on the other4 ,fairness is the essence of successful regulation4 ,sidenote3 ,has regulation been satisfactory8 ,public ,ownership4--,by the methods which have been described in the foregoing pages the government has been able to protect1 fairly well1 on the whole1 the interests of the public4 ,railroads1 telegraph companies1 electric lighting plants1 and other similar corporations are no longer able to do as they please4 ,on the contrary their owners are inclined to feel that public regulation has gone too far and has become oppressive4 ,yet regulation has not always been satisfactory to the public4 ,the complaint is often made that members of public service commissions are chosen for political reasons and that their work1 in such cases1 is neither effective nor impartial4 ,the success of regulation has varied in different parts of the country4 ,in some states it has been satisfactory to both sides2 in others it has satisfied neither4 ,sidenote3 ,would public ownership be better8 ,because regulation has not proved successful in all cases the proposal is sometimes made that the utilities should be taken over and operated by the government itself4 ,those who support this policy of public ownership believe that the national government should take over the railroads1 telegraphs1 and telephone lines1 while the states and the cities should become owners of all the street railways1 gas companies1 and electric lighting concerns4 ,these utilities should then be publicly managed1 they argue1 just as the postal service is now conducted by the national government1 or as water supplies are now provided by the cities4#bcf ,sidenote3 ,public ownership overseas4 ,european ,experience in ,public ,ownership4--,it is pointed out1 in this connection1 that the policy of public ownership has been widely followed in various ,european countries1 particularly in ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,germany4 ,in ,germany the railroads have been for many years owned and operated by the government4 ,in all three countries the telegraphs are government-owned1 and are operated in connection with the post-offices4 ,the telephone service is also in public hands4 ,gas and electric lighting plants are to some extent owned by companies in various ,european cities1 but the majority of them have been taken over by the municipal authorities4 ,even the street railways have been passing under municipal ownership4 ,many ,european cities1 moreover1 not only operate these various public services but conduct other municipal enterprises1 such as abattoirs1 bakeries1 theatres1 savings banks1 and even pawnshops as well4#bcg ,sidenote3 ,american experience has been less extensive4 ,public ,ownership in ,america4--,in the ,united ,states the policy of public ownership has not been nearly so popular4 ,the railroads1 telegraphs1 and telephones are owned and operated by private companies4 ,they were managed by the national government for a time during the war1 but when the emergency ended they were returned to their owners4 ,among the larger cities of the ,united ,states only five or six own and operate their gas plants2 about twenty have municipal ownership of electric lighting plants4#bch ,street railway lines are owned by the city in only three or four instances2 but in several other communities they are being operated by the public authorities under leases from the owners4#bci ,when one bears in mind that the total number of public utilities in the ,united ,states runs up into the thousands it will be seen that the policy of public ownership has had a relatively small and slow development on this side of the ,atlantic4 ,arguments for ,public ,ownership4--,the chief arguments in favor of public ownership in the ,united ,states may be briefly set forth as follows3 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,regulation has failed4 ,first1 all public utilities1 being natural monopolies1 require a stricter measure of regulation than can ever be provided by any form of public supervision4 ,so long as these utilities remain in private hands there will be a continual effort to evade public regulation and this effort will usually be successful because rich and powerful companies are exceedingly difficult to control under a democratic form of government4 8,we have tried regulation01 the advocates of public ownership say1 8and it has not been satisfactory4 ,therefore1 let us try the only other alternative1 which is to buy out the companies altogether40 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,lower rates and better service4 ,second1 under public ownership the people would obtain lower rates and better service4 ,this would be possible because the government could procure capital more cheaply than private companies and thus make a substantial saving in interest4#bdj ,it would not be seeking for profits1 but would strive to give service at actual cost4 ,if the government owned all the utilities1 moreover1 it could buy supplies and materials in large quantities and hence at lower prices4 ,each street railway company now buys rails1 cars1 cables1 coal1 and so on for itself4 ,if a state owned all the street railways within its territory1 it would purchase these things on a much larger scale4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,more just to labor4 ,third1 public ownership means a fairer and better treatment of the employees4 ,wages1 as a rule1 are higher in public than in private employment 7assuming the same degree of training and skill72 the hours of labor are not so long 7since the eight-hour day is now generally recognized in public employment72 and there is better protection against arbitrary dismissal4 ,for these reasons labor organizations usually favor public ownership4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,the effect on politics4 ,fourth1 the public service companies have had a detrimental influence upon ,american politics4 ,they are seekers of public privileges1 and in their zeal to obtain favors are under strong temptation to work in a quiet way for the election of public officials who will be friendly to them4 ,they form a part of what ,mr4 ,elihu ,root once spoke of as the 8invisible government04 ,through their paid agents and lobbyists they try to influence the action of legislatures and city councils in ways which are to their own financial advantage but detrimental to the public interest4 ,the abolition of all franchises and the direct public ownership of all utilities would remove1 it is asserted1 a corrupting influence from ,american politics4 ,these are the chief arguments used by the advocates of public ownership4 ,the ,arguments ,against ,public ,ownership4--,but there is much to be said on the other side4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,more costly to the public4 ,first1 it is claimed that public ownership1 by reason of higher wages and less efficient management1 would prove to be far more expensive than private enterprise1 and that in the long run the increased cost would have to be paid by the people4 ,this higher cost might take the form of higher rates for the service or it might come out of the general taxes2 but it would fall on the public in either case4 ,when the national government operated the railroads during the war it kept the freight and passenger rates low2 the result was a deficit amounting to about a billion dollars1 which had to be made good out of the public treasury4 ,the taxpayers carried a burden which should have been borne by the shippers and passengers4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,means retention of obsolete methods4 ,second1 public ownership would mean poor service2 the utilities would not keep up with modern methods2 the public would be put to great inconvenience by reason of incompetent management4 ,private companies are alert1 on the look-out for new economies1 and always ready to adopt improved methods4 ,the incentive to all this is their desire to make greater profits4 ,they do not hesitate to spend money upon improvements if by so doing they can obtain more business and increase their earnings4#bda ,remove this incentive1 as is done when the government operates a public utility1 and everybody takes his job easily4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,would not improve political conditions4 ,third1 municipal ownership would merely substitute the influence of organized labor for that of organized capital in politics4 ,the nation1 states1 and cities would have an enormous number of officials and employees on their respective pay rolls4 ,the employees would also be voters4 ,they would stand solidly for whichever political party offered them better wages1 fewer hours of labor1 and other advantages4 ,the interests of the public would have scant consideration in the face of organized political pressure from this huge array of government workers4 ,even today the city employees are an important factor in municipal politics4 ,what would they be if their numbers were doubled or trebled8 ,the railroad employees of the country number many hundred thousand4 ,count in their wives 7who are also voters71 their relatives and friends1 the voters whom they can personally influence1 and you will see that they would form no negligible factor in national politics4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,european experience not applicable4 ,fourth1 although public ownership has been moderately successful in ,european countries where the governments are highly centralized it does not follow that it would have the same success in this country4 ,in the ,united ,states1 where government is conducted on a democratic basis1 with short terms of office and strong partisan forces at work1 with the spoils system still flourishing in many states and cities1 public ownership would result in gross mismanagement and extravagance4 ,if the government is to engage in business it should first put itself on a business basis4 ,before it undertakes to operate the railroads or the telephone service it should introduce efficiency into its own governmental functions4 ,sidenote3 ,weight of the foregoing arguments4 ,summary4--,in balancing these various arguments1 one against the other1 and in comparing the relative merits of public regulation with those of public ownership1 much depends upon local conditions4 ,it cannot be said that either policy is the better one at all times1 in all communities1 for all utilities1 and under all circumstances4 ,where public regulation has been satisfactory there is a good deal to be said for the policy of letting well enough alone4 ,where the policy of regulation has not been successful the arguments for trying the experiment of public ownership become stronger4 ,it ought to be remarked1 however1 that if local conditions are such as to make regulation a failure they are not likely to make public ownership a success4 ,a state or community which cannot hold capital under effective control is not likely to be much more successful in its dealings with a large body of public employees4 ,no great weight should be attached to the fact that public ownership has succeeded in one city or failed in another4 ,the success or failure of public ownership1 as a policy1 cannot be fairly judged from this or that adventure in it1 any more than we can judge the outcome of a campaign from the winning or losing of a single skirmish4 ,banks sometimes fail1 yet our banking system is sound4 ,speculators occasionally succeed1 and make fortunes1 but that does not prove speculation to be a profitable form of business4 ,so far as can be judged from the figures of profit and loss1 public ownership is less economical than private management4 ,the community which owns and operates a street railway or a lighting plant or any other public utility will not make a profit1 in most cases1 unless it charges higher rates than would be charged by a private company4 ,the books may show a profit1 but this is because not all expenses which ought to be charged to the plant are put down2 they are saddled upon the taxpayer in some roundabout way4 ,public ownership cannot be justified as a matter of pennies and dimes4 ,sidenote3 ,the question is not one of profit and loss alone4 ,but profit and loss are not the only things to be considered4 ,the question as to which plan is better for the public is much more than a question of surplus or deficit4 ,the fair treatment of labor1 the reliability of the service1 the removal of sinister political influences--these should be reckoned with as well4 ,and that is where people with different points of view fail to agree4 ,the advisability of public ownership is an intensely practical issue which cannot be solved by appealing to any set rules or principles4 ,it is entirely logical for one to favor public ownership of the water supply while opposing its extension to the street railway4 ,one is closely related to the public health2 the other is not4 ,in a well-governed community1 where the service rendered by a private company has proved to be unsatisfactory1 the policy of public ownership may be entirely justified4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that the people of boss-ridden cities1 with the spoils system in full operation1 should take over public services which are doing well enough under private management4 ,conditions1 not theories1 should determine which is the wise policy4 ,guild ,operation4--,in recent years another alternative to private ownership has been put forth4 ,it is known as guild ownership4 ,knowing that many people are disinclined toward public ownership because they fear that it would merely mean the mismanagement of the public services by politicians1 some labor leaders have proposed that the utilities should be owned and operated by the organized employees4 ,in brief they suggest that the government should supply the capital 7receiving interest on it1 of course17 and that the employees should operate the utilities through officials chosen by them1 or chosen by themselves and the government jointly4 ,the ,plumb plan1 put forward in #aiai as a solution of the railroad problem1 was a proposal of this nature4 ,some advocates of guild operation believe in applying this policy not only to public utilities but to all industries4 ,general ,references ,f4 ,w4 ,,taussig1 ,principles of ,economics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cig-dah2 ,,clyde ,l4 ,,king1 ,the ,regulation of ,municipal ,utilities1 pp4 #c-ee2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #bdf-bha 7,public ,utilities72 pp4 #bhb-bie 7,municipal ,ownership72 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bulletins1 ,no4 #bb 7,municipal ,ownership in the ,united ,states72 ,e4 ,m4 ,,phelps 7editor71 ,government ,ownership of ,railroads 7,debaters' ,handbook ,series74 ,contains material on both sides of the question4 ,see also ,k4 ,b4 ,,judson 7editor71 ,government ,ownership of ,telegraphs and ,telephones1 and ,j4 ,e4 ,,johnson1 ,municipal ,ownership1 in the same series2 ,f4 ,c4 ,,howe1 ,the ,modern ,city and its ,problems1 pp4 #adi-afd4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,government ownership of telegraphs and telephones4 ,history of the wire services4 ,how the telegraph and telephone companies are organized4 ,present methods of regulation by the national1 state1 and local authorities4 ,public ownership of telegraphs and telephones in ,europe4 ,the results of ,european experience4 ,american experience during the war4 ,summary and conclusions4 ,references3 ,k4 ,b4 ,,judson 7editor71 ,government ,ownership of ,telegraphs and ,telephones 7,debaters' ,handbook ,series72 ,a4 ,n4 ,,holcombe1 ,government ,ownership of ,telephones in ,europe1 pp4 #dda-dfc2 ,h4 ,r4 ,,meyer1 ,public ,ownership and the ,telephone of ,great ,britain1 pp4 #bci-bfh2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,willoughby1 ,government ,organization in ,war ,time1 pp4 #aia-aih4 #b4 ,state regulation of public utilities4 ,references3 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #bdf-bha2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,king1 ,regulation of ,municipal ,utilities1 pp4 #bec-bfc2 ,g4 ,p4 ,,jones1 ,state ,versus ,local ,regulation1 in ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,,liii 7,may1 #aiad71 pp4 #id-ajg2 ,proceedings of the ,conference of ,american ,mayors1 #aiae1 pp4 #abc-afb2 ,h4 ,m4 ,,pollock and ,h4 ,s4 ,,morgan1 ,modern ,cities1 pp4 #bbe-bdi4 #c4 ,municipal ownership in ,europe4 ,references3 ,g4 ,b4 ,,shaw1 ,the ,common ,sense of ,municipal ,trading1 pp4 #ag-db2 ,,leonard ,,darwin1 ,municipal ,ownership1 pp4 #cc-ff2 ,,douglas ,,knoop1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,trading1 pp4 #ie-ajf2 ,f4 ,c4 ,,howe1 ,european ,cities at ,work1 pp4 #cg-fg2 ,,yves ,,guyot1 ,where and ,why ,public ,ownership ,has ,failed1 pp4 #ee-ga2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,dawson1 ,municipal ,life and ,government in ,germany1 pp4 #bjh-bei2 ,c4 ,d4 ,,thompson1 ,municipal ,ownership1 pp4 #ae-be2 ,national ,civic ,federation ,report 7#aijg71 ,part ,i1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bfa-cjb4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,franchises4 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dd-dh4 #b4 ,a model street railway franchise4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,king1 ,regulation of ,municipal ,utilities1 pp4 #afe-aha4 #c4 ,gas and electric lighting franchises4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #bdg-beg4 #d4 ,germany's experience in public ownership4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,dawson1 ,municipal ,life and ,government in ,germany1 pp4 #bjh-bei4 #e4 ,great ,britain's experience in public ownership4 ,,douglas ,,knoop1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,trading1 pp4 #cjf-cfe4 #f4 ,municipal ownership in the ,united ,states4 ,massachusetts ,constitutional ,convention1 #aiag-aiah1 ,bulletin1 ,no4 #bb2 ,national ,civic ,federation1 ,shall the ,government ,own and ,operate the ,railroads1 the ,telegraph and ,telephone ,systems8 ,the ,affirmative ,side2 ,ibid41 ,the ,negative ,side4 #g4 ,guild ownership4 ,g4 ,d4 ,h4 ,,cole1 ,guild ,socialism1 pp4 #db-gg4 #h4 ,public service commissions4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,orth1 ,readings on the ,relation of ,government to ,industry1 pp4 #cjh-cdc4 #i4 ,the danger of giving government too much to do4 ,,otto ,h4 ,,kahn1 ,american ,economic ,problems1 pp4 #bce-bge4 #aj4 ,the ,plumb plan4 ,public ,ownership ,league1 ,bulletin1 ,no4 #ab1 pp4 #hf-ajj2 ,ibid41 ,bulletin1 ,no4 #ad1 pp4 #ei-gd2 #abg-acj4 ,questions #a4 ,name all the principal public service industries of the present day4 ,would you say that the following are public utilities3 abattoirs2 grain elevators2 coal mines2 pipe lines for conveying oil from city to city2 wireless telegraph establishments2 airships carrying passengers2 automobiles2 taxicabs2 jitney busses2 hotels2 steamships2 docks2 banks2 hospitals8 ,why or why not in each case8 #b4 ,make a definition of public utilities which will square with your answer to the previous question4 #c4 ,if a merchant should install an electric generator to provide light for his own store1 would he be then engaged in a public service and would he require a franchise8 ,if he desired to sell current to his neighbors 7without crossing a street7 would he then require a franchise8 ,give your reasons4 #d4 ,certain industries are particularly suited to public management 7for example1 the postal service and water supply74 ,name some others4 ,why are they suited8 #e4 ,what provisions should be made in a street railway franchise as regards term1 fares1 service1 contributions by the company to the public treasury1 disposal of the plant when the franchise expires1 and regulation during the franchise term8 #f4 ,can you give any reasons why the government should carry mail but not telegrams8 ,parcels by post but not by express8 #g4 ,name some reasons why the effective regulation of public utilities is difficult4 #h4 ,what public utilities are operated in your city8 ,by what companies8 ,when do their franchises expire8 ,who regulates them8 ,would any of them be better managed under public ownership8 #i4 ,which of the arguments for municipal ownership seem to you to be the strongest1 and why8 ,which of the arguments against8 #aj4 ,would it be consistent for an ,englishman to favor municipal ownership of street railways in ,london but to oppose it in ,new ,york after becoming a resident there8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,street railways should be 7a7 owned and operated by private companies1 or 7b7 owned by private companies and operated by the government1 or 7c7 owned and operated by the government4 #b4 ,guild operation should be applied to all public utilities4 ----- ,footnote #bca3 ,the cost of any public service is made up largely of two items1 overhead charges and running expenses4 ,in the case of electric light the overhead charges include interest on the capital invested in power houses1 machinery1 wires and poles1 conduits2 also such things as insurance1 taxes1 and rentals1 which go on whether the plant produces much or little4 ,running expenses include the cost of labor1 coal1 supplies1 etc41 and these things1 of course1 vary with the amount of business done4 ,overhead charges often make up half the cost of producing electric current2 so if you double the overhead1 the price to the consumer would go up1 not down4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,public service companies1 when the government gives them the power to take private property by right of eminent domain must pay just compensation for what they take4 ,the government could not give a company power to take private property without compensation1 for it does not itself possess that power4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,franchises were often granted in perpetuity4 ,when the laws forbade the granting of perpetual franchises the attempt was sometimes made to evade this restriction by granting them for #iii years4 ,sometimes the grant of a franchise was put through the board of aldermen or the city council without any notice being given to the public4 ,loud protests then followed1 but they availed little after the grant had been made4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,these payments are arranged in a variety of ways4 ,sometimes a gas company pays the city so much per year for every mile of gas-mains or so much per million cubic feet of gas sold4 ,street railway companies occasionally pay so much each year per mile of track4 ,more commonly the payment is based upon gross earnings or upon the value of the company's capital stock1 or upon the estimated value of its franchise4 ,in some instances the franchise is sold to the highest bidder1 that is the company which offers to pay most for the privilege of using the streets gets it4 ,footnote #bce3 ,the street railway system of ,boston1 for example1 operates in more than twenty other cities and towns4 ,a single telephone company sometimes controls the telephone service in all the cities and towns of the state or even in several states4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,fifty years ago these water supplies were usually controlled by private companies operating under franchises4 ,today there are very few public water-supply companies in the country4 ,among the sixty-five cities of over #ajj1jjj population there are only six which do not have municipal ownership of this service4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,the city of ,glasgow1 in ,scotland1 is sometimes cited as an example of a community which has gone the longest distance in the way of municipal ownership4 ,the citizen of ,glasgow1 it is said1 may be born in a municipal tenement1 be fed on milk from the municipal dairy 7which is warmed on a municipal gas stove71 be transported to school on municipal tramcars1 and when he dies be carried off in a municipal hearse to the municipal cemetery4 ,footnote #bch3 ,there are about thirty municipal gas plants and several hundred municipal electric lighting plants in the ,united ,states2 but the great majority of them are in small communities4 ,footnote #bci3 ,there are municipal street railways in ,san ,francisco1 ,seattle1 and ,new ,orleans4 ,public operation of street railways1 without public ownership1 is the policy of ,boston and several other cities4 ,these street railways are operated on a service-at-cost plan4 ,the government of the state or city takes over the street railway1 appoints officials to manage it1 and charges whatever fares are necessary to pay the expenses of operation 7including whatever rate of interest is to be paid to the owners of the street railway74 ,when wages go up1 fares go up4 ,in some cases service-at-cost has been proved to be a costly plan4 ,when wages went up during and after the war1 fares rose correspondingly4 ,but although wages have come down since #aibj in private employments1 they have not been reduced to the same extent on publicly-owned street railways1 hence the fares remain where they were4 ,to be fair to the public1 the system ought to work both ways4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,the national1 state1 and municipal governments can borrow money at five per cent or less2 the companies have to pay six or seven per cent under present conditions4 ,footnote #bda3 ,notice the way in which gas and electric lighting companies try to increase their business by selling gas stoves1 electric irons1 and other appliances at low figures and on the installment plan4 ,telephone companies place public pay-stations in every nook and corner to pick up a few extra nickels and dimes4 ,telegraph companies give special rates on night letters to get messages which would be sent by mail if the regular rates were charged4 ,can you imagine the post-office keeping open at night in order to obtain more business8 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,education ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain why education is made compulsory1 how the schools are managed1 what they cost1 and what they are trying to do4 ,sidenote3 ,in a democracy education is essential4 ,education and ,democracy4--,no matter where one may go1 in any part of the world1 it will be found that political democracy and public education tend to keep pace with each other4 ,in despotisms one will rarely find a system of universal1 free1 public education2 or1 if it is found1 one can be sure that the despotism will not last very long4 ,education is the friend of democracy and the foe of despotism4 ,indeed it can fairly be said that without a system of public education no democracy can be sure of its own permanence4 ,this is because the maintenance of democratic government depends upon the ability of the people to think straight and to see things clearly4 ,the more political freedom you give a people the greater is their opportunity for abusing it4 ,sidenote3 ,free government depends on intelligence4 ,in a real democracy the only safeguard is the common sense of the people1 and a system of free1 public education will do more for the diffusion of common sense among the people than anything else can do4 ,it is unsafe to place the ballot in the hands of people without giving them the opportunity to acquire that degree of enlightenment which is necessary to enable them to use the ballot intelligently4 ,the voter who cannot read a newspaper or understand the public questions which he is called upon to decide is a poor foundation upon which to build a government4 ,more than fifty years ago1 when ,england practically adopted manhood suffrage1 some of the old-fashioned statesmen bemoaned the fact that the multitudes of the people would be 8masters0 of the government4 8,well1 then01 said a certain member of ,parliament1 8educate your masters60 ,that is the only way to keep a democratic government honest1 intelligent1 orderly1 and capable4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,book4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,alexander ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,book ,by ,john ,w4 ,alexander ,these three mural paintings are in the ,east ,corridor of the ,library of ,congress4 ,the first depicts the spread of knowledge by oral tradition4 ,a seer1 or wise man1 narrates by word of mouth to his tribesmen the story of the race4 ,this was1 in earliest times1 the only way of imparting knowledge4 ,then1 after many centuries1 came the making of manuscript books on parchment4 ,the monks of the ,middle ,ages1 as shown in the central picture1 spent much of their time in the laborious task of making books--each letter being printed by hand4 ,finally came the invention of printing4 ,in the third picture ,gutenburg1 the inventor1 is inspecting one of the pages just completed by the primitive press which the boy is turning by hand4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,if so1 why are intelligent men sometimes corrupt in politics8 ,but someone may interpose to ask this embarrassing question3 ,if education helps to make people more intelligent in political matters1 why is it that well-educated and intelligent people are often found among corrupt and selfish politicians1 and that even college graduates sometimes become notorious political bosses8 ,the answer is that in this1 as in other things1 a general truth does not cease to be a general truth because there are exceptions to it4 ,many well-educated men are unable to earn a living1 but would any sensible person argue that education1 as a general rule1 renders no aid toward the gaining of a livelihood8 ,as well might one urge that newspapers render no service in disseminating the truth because some of them occasionally print lies4 ,it is quite true that men are not politically wise in exact proportion to the extent of their education4 ,the man or woman who is only a grammar school graduate may have more political wisdom than the most finished scholar in the land4 ,but this does not impair the fundamental truth that knowledge is preferable to ignorance in all countries1 at all times1 and in every field of human activity4 ,sidenote3 ,the general purpose of education4 ,education and ,personal ,efficiency4--,to make men and women intelligent in matters of government is not1 however1 the only purpose of education4 ,the general prosperity of the country depends1 in the long run1 upon the individual ability of its citizens4 ,every individual who proves able to earn his own living1 establish a home1 bring up a family1 and by his savings add something to the nation's capital is a contributor to the national prosperity4 ,every individual who fails to make his own way and becomes dependent1 either in whole or in part1 upon the efforts of others1 is a drag upon the community4 ,in its own interest1 therefore1 it is the duty of the whole people to see that everyone is not only enabled but encouraged to become personally efficient1 able to make his own way in the world1 and capable of pulling his own weight in that many-oared boat which carries the progress of society along4 ,sidenote3 ,the specific purposes of education3 ,the ,purpose and ,value of ,education4--,the purpose of education therefore is three-fold4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,economic4 ,first1 it aims to give young men and women the sort of training which will enable them to earn a living4 ,this is a primary and fundamental purpose1 because earning a living is one of life's great problems4 ,but it is not the only purpose of education2 an educational system would be very defective if it confined itself to this and nothing more4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,personal4 ,the second purpose of education is to develop the personality of the individual1 his own resources and mentality1 so that he may enjoy those durable satisfactions of life which are not directly connected with the work of earning a livelihood4 ,the enjoyment which men and women derive from life is not entirely dependent upon the amount of their incomes2 one need only to look about the community to realize that this is so4 ,even a large fortune does not of itself guarantee happiness4 ,to live a full and contented life it is necessary to know what is going on in the world1 to appreciate its significance1 and to understand the many things which1 to the uneducated man or woman1 are hidden mysteries4 ,education helps an individual to know himself1 to know what is going on around him1 to understand the motives which govern the actions of his fellow-men1 and to adjust himself to the environment in which he lives4 ,knowledge is power4 ,it is power in the hands of everyone who possesses it4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,social4 ,the third purpose of education1 the social purpose1 is also of great importance4 ,education aims to train the individual so that he may better serve his fellow-men4 ,democracy1 as has been said1 rests upon the intelligence of the people4 ,a democratic government exacts from its citizens a sort of service which education alone can teach them to give4#bdb ,sidenote3 ,the illiteracy of bygone days4 ,the ,growth of ,public ,education4--,for many centuries in the history of the world the masses of the people were afforded no opportunity for even the elements of education4 ,not one person in ten thousand could read or write4 ,even kings on the throne were illiterate4 ,there is a well-known picture of ,king ,john1 with a crown on his head and a quill pen in his hand1 signing the ,great ,charter4 ,it is an altogether fanciful picture1 because ,john ,plantagenet could not write a single word1 not even his own name4 ,no copy of ,magna ,carta or any other document has ever been found with his signature on it4 ,the only persons who could read or write in those days were the monks and other officers of the ,church together with a very few laymen who were educated by them4 ,even after the invention of printing1 education spread slowly and it was not until the nineteenth century that the desirability of providing free schools for the masses of the people came to be generally recognized4 ,prior to that time education was almost everywhere regarded as a luxury to be bought and paid for by the relatively few individuals who could afford it4 ,sidenote3 ,the first ,american schools4 ,in the ,united ,states free education goes back to colonial days4 ,as early as #afdg the colony of ,massachusetts ,bay provided that a schoolmaster should be appointed and paid out of the taxes in every town of more than fifty families and that this schoolmaster should teach all the children 8to write and reade02 but this example was not generally followed in the other colonies4 ,it has been estimated that not more than half the population in the colonial days could read and write4 ,the proportion of illiteracy among women was especially large because very little provision was made for educating girls4 ,even after the ,revolution the system of free1 public schools spread slowly and not until the middle of the nineteenth century did it cover the greater portion of the country4 ,since the ,civil ,war1 however1 the policy of making education not only free but compulsory has been adopted in virtually every part of the ,united ,states4 ,the total enrolment in the public schools is now more than twenty-two millions1 and the cost of educating the vast array of young citizens is considerably over a billion dollars a year4 ,sidenote3 ,the function of the state in education4 ,the ,control and ,management of ,education4--,as the national constitution gives the federal government no power to control education the responsibility rests with the several states4 ,every state has established a system of free1 public education1 but the methods of control and management differ greatly from one state to another4 ,some states have centralized the management of the schools in the hands of the state authorities2 others leave this very largely to the school officials of the counties1 cities1 or districts4 ,everywhere there is a state department of education1 with a board or a superintendent in charge1 some states having both4 ,the local educational unit may be the city1 town1 township1 school district1 or 7especially in the ,southern states7 the county4 ,a school board1 usually elected1 erects the school buildings1 chooses a school superintendent1 appoints principals and teachers 7on the recommendation of the superintendent71 and appropriates money for the support of the schools4 ,the detailed work of managing the schools rests primarily upon the superintendent4#bdc ,sidenote3 ,where should the chief control be lodged8 ,central vs4 ,local ,control of ,schools4--,to what extent should the public schools be under the control of the state authorities8 ,is it advisable that local school boards should be left free to manage the schools as they think best1 without interference from the state8 ,these are questions upon which the opinions of educators differ4 ,it is argued that the school board1 in every city1 town1 or township knows best the needs of its own community and hence ought to be given a free hand in meeting these needs4 ,this policy1 moreover1 affords each school a chance to try experiments and it is through experiments that progress in education1 as in everything else1 is usually made4 ,on the other hand it is logical to assert that if the state laws make education compulsory and if the state treasury grants money to local schools it is the right of the state to see that the money is properly spent4 ,if every city1 town1 and village were left free to manage its schools without any central control there would be no uniformity in the subjects taught1 in the qualifications of teachers1 or in the organization of the schools4 ,it would be difficult in that case for a pupil to transfer from one school to another1 outside the same community1 without finding himself a misfit in the new institution4 ,a certain amount of central control seems therefore to be desirable1 but it is not for the best interests of education that every school throughout the state should be conducted in exactly the same way4 ,a system of that sort tends to deaden the whole process of education4 ,there is a great deal to be said for home rule in education1 provided there is a sufficient amount of state supervision to keep the schools up to a proper standard4 ,sidenote3 ,keeping the schools out of politics4 ,school ,boards and ,politics4--,it is generally agreed that party politics should have no place in the management of the public schools4 ,there may be justification for party politics in lawmaking bodies2 but in school boards there is none4 ,there is an efficient way of managing the schools and an inefficient way2 but there is no such thing as a ,republican way or a ,democratic way4 ,yet elections to school boards are1 in many communities1 contested upon party lines4 ,men and women are nominated and elected1 very often1 because they belong to one or the other political party1 not because they have good judgment or a deep interest in school affairs4 ,in this1 however1 public sentiment is gradually changing4 ,in many places the school board elections have become non-partisan2 party designations have been taken off the ballots1 and it matters little which party a candidate belongs to4 ,why should it8 ,what relation is there between a man's views on the tariff or the league of nations and his ability to serve his own neighbors acceptably as a member of a local school board8 ,there is no visible relation4 ,taking the schools out of politics means that the taxpayers get greater value for the money which is spent in maintaining the schools1 that all questions are decided upon their merits and not by political favoritism1 and that every pupil gets the benefit of better schools1 better teachers1 and better educational methods4 ,educational ,work of the ,national ,government4--,the national government1 as has already been pointed out1 possesses no formal powers with respect to education in the states4 ,nevertheless it has done a good deal to promote the interests of public education by publishing the results of investigations into educational problems1 and by rendering advisory assistance to the state authorities4 ,sidenote3 ,the national ,bureau of ,education4 ,it maintains a ,bureau of ,education which is now within the jurisdiction of the ,interior ,department4 ,at the head of this bureau is a ,commissioner of ,education appointed by the ,president4 ,the functions of the bureau are almost wholly of an informal character2 it collects data for the use of educators and publishes this material in annual reports and bulletins4#bdd ,there has been a strong movement to make this bureau a regular ,department of ,education1 with a member of the cabinet at its head1 and to increase its powers considerably2 but this movement has not yet been successful4 ,federal ,aid to ,education4--,within the last few years there has been a good deal of controversy1 both in ,congress and outside1 over a proposal to appropriate further funds from the national treasury for the promotion of general education in the states1 particularly in those states where the common school system needs toning up4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,towner-,sterling ,bill3 its merits and defects4 ,this proposal is embodied in a measure which has been before ,congress for some time but upon which no favorable action has yet been taken4#bde ,in favor of the measure it is argued that public elementary education is a national necessity and that if any state cannot raise sufficient money to keep its common schools up to a proper standard the interests of the whole nation will suffer in the end4 ,there is just as much reason1 and more1 it is asserted1 for federal aid to state schools as for such aid to state roads4 ,on the other hand it is objected that the policy of large federal subsidies to education would involve the taxing of the populous and thriving states of the ,east1 the ,middle ,west1 and the ,pacific ,slope for the benefit of those other states1 especially in the ,south1 where the school system has heretofore been backward through lack of funds4 ,most of the federal government's income is provided by the taxpayers of states like ,new ,york1 ,illinois1 ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 and ,massachusetts4 ,but in these states the public school system has already been brought up to a standard where there is no urgent need for federal assistance4 ,the chief gainers under the new plan would be the states which contribute very little of the revenue4 ,in other words1 we should be taxing some states for the benefit of others4 ,a somewhat more weighty objection1 to some minds1 is found in the possibility that if the national government begins the practice of making large annual grants to the states for educational purposes it may1 in due course1 undertake to exercise control over the public school systems of the entire country4 ,when a government grants money for any purpose it has an undeniable right to make sure that the money is being properly spent4 ,to do this it must create some system of inspection4 ,inspection leads to supervision1 and supervision sooner or later merges into actual control4 ,it is feared in some quarters that this would be the ultimate outcome of federal aid to common school education on any large scale4 ,,the ,,public ,,board ,,of ,,education ,,clerk ,,superintendent ,,counsel ,,secretary ,,principals ,,engineers ,,supervisors ,,janitors ,,teachers ,,pupils ,,huron ,,plan ,,of ,,school ,,organization ,,the ,,control ,,of ,,education ,this diagram illustrates a common type of municipal school administration4 ,the voters choose a ,board of ,education1 or ,school ,board4 ,this body1 in turn1 appoints a ,superintendent of ,schools who has supervision over all matters of school management4 ,in some cities the members of the ,board of ,education are appointed by the mayor4 ,in the larger municipalities there are1 as a rule1 one or more assistant superintendents4 ,make a similar chart showing the organization of the school system in your own community4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,a series of present-day questions4 ,some ,problems of ,school ,organization4--,several problems of great importance are engaging the attention of the school authorities at the present time4 ,the more conspicuous among them may be indicated by a series of questions which are under discussion wherever educators come together1 but which are also of direct interest to the pupils and to the community4 ,to what age should school attendance be made compulsory8 ,how can pupils be kept from leaving school before they have received a sufficient amount of education8 ,how should the school course be divided8 ,should we have junior high schools and junior colleges as well as regular high schools and regular colleges8 ,how may the training of teachers be improved8 ,can the work of the schools be brought into closer and better contact with the resources of the public library8 ,is it possible to use the school plant1 after school hours1 for various forms of community service8 ,can greater use be made of the school plant during the school day8 ,and where are we going to get the money with which to carry on all these new enterprises if we ultimately agree that they are desirable8 ,this list of questions may seem to contain some that are not related to one another1 but they all point to different aspects of the same great problem and may be summed up in the one broad query3 ,what changes in school organization will better enable education to fulfil its three-fold purpose8 ,sidenote3 ,compulsory school attendance4 ,the ,school ,age4--,to what age should attendance be made compulsory8 ,in most of the states this age is now fixed at fourteen years 7or grammar school graduation7 although some ,southern states still maintain the twelve-year limit4 ,many believe that even the fourteen-year limit is not high enough and are urging that it be raised4 ,in some states a step in this direction has been taken by requiring that all persons under sixteen years of age who engage in any form of wage-earning employment must either present a certificate of graduation from grammar school or must attend continuation classes for so many hours per week4 ,more urgent than any raising of the school age1 however1 is the need for more strictly enforcing the rules which now exist4 ,in some communities the present age limit of fourteen years is not insisted upon1 with the result that many thousands in the backward rural sections and in the crowded districts of cities are growing up in illiteracy4 ,whatever the age limit it ought to be enforced to the letter4#bdf ,sidenote3 ,the present school divisions4 ,re-arranging the ,school ,divisions4--,but we should not depend wholly upon the stern arm of the law for the solution of a problem like that of keeping pupils at school4 ,when normal boys and girls strongly dislike going to school1 when they stay away at every opportunity and leave school as soon as they can1 we may well suspect that there is something wrong with the school system itself4 ,graduation from grammar school has hitherto been looked upon as the natural point at which to break off4 ,the majority of pupils leave the schools at that stage2 only a minority go on with the regular school course4 ,our whole system of school divisions has therefore brought it about that there is no logical breaking-off point between the ages of thirteen or fourteen on the one hand 7grammar school graduation7 and seventeen or eighteen 7high school graduation7 on the other4 ,it is believed by many educators1 moreover1 that the last two grades of the grammar schools have not been so organized as to awaken in the average pupil a desire to go further4 ,the upper grades of grammar schools do not differ essentially in their methods of instruction from the lower grades although the much greater maturity of the pupils would seem to warrant the use of different methods4 ,sidenote3 ,the junior high school system4 ,to improve this situation it is now proposed to divide the school course into three parts by establishing junior high schools1 and many communities have already adopted this plan4 ,the junior high school as usually organized takes the last two grades of the grammar school1 adds on the first year or the first two years of the regular high school course1 and thus provides a three-year or a four-year program which carries pupils through to the ages of fifteen or sixteen4 ,the methods of instruction are those of the regular high school4#bdg ,this plan is said to have two marked advantages3 it induces pupils to continue their schooling one or two years longer1 and it gives them a type of instruction which is better suited to their age and interests4 ,objection is sometimes raised against the junior high school system on the ground that it involves the introduction of elective studies and hence may result in the neglecting of fundamentals4 ,it may also result in bringing all the customary social and athletic diversions of the high school into the lives of younger pupils4 ,whether this is an advantage or a defect may be regarded as an open question4 ,sidenote3 ,the junior college4 ,what becomes of the regular high school if its first year or two years are lopped off8 ,there are two alternatives4 ,it may become simply a senior high school with a three-year or a two-year course1 or it may add on two additional years covering work which has hitherto been done by freshmen and sophomores in colleges1 thus providing what has come to be known as a junior college course4 ,where this policy is pursued the pupil can be carried two years beyond the old high school graduation and enabled1 on entering a college or university1 to obtain a degree in less than the usual time4 ,all this involves a considerable increase in the expense of maintaining the school system1 of course2 but it also increases the service rendered to the community4 ,the ,training of ,teachers4--,in the last analysis the success of education depends upon the teacher4 ,suitable buildings1 a well-planned curriculum1 good text books1 all contribute their share towards the efficiency of a school2 but these are inanimate things4 ,without capable teachers they are of little avail4 ,now effective teaching requires two attainments on the part of the teacher1 a knowledge of the subject and ability to impart this knowledge to others4 ,both of these things are essential and both are in large measure the result of training4 ,sidenote3 ,normal schools4 ,it is for this reason that all the states maintain normal schools in which prospective teachers are trained in the art of giving instruction4 ,for teachers who are already in service many of these normal schools provide courses during the afternoon and evening hours so that teachers may keep abreast of the most modern methods in education4 ,sidenote3 ,extension courses4 ,the universities also provide extension courses and summer instruction with the same end in view4 ,all this is highly desirable and should be carried even further4 ,we are inclined to spend our school appropriations on buildings1 books1 supplies1 and facilities for the pupils and to feel that the community discharges its full obligation to the teachers when it pays them salaries that are by no means proportionate to the importance of the work in which they are engaged4 ,but human knowledge is moving forward at a rapid pace and anyone who does not keep close on its trail is sure to be left far behind4 ,unless the teachers are afforded the opportunity of keeping in touch with everything that is new it is difficult to see how their instruction can keep pace with the times4 ,the ,school and the ,public ,library4--,the public library is an institution of great educational value and its relation to the schools ought to be more intimate than is usually the case4 ,too often the public library is merely an ornate building with a miscellaneous assortment of books 7mostly fiction7 on its shelves4 ,it is regarded as a place for adult readers primarily4 ,but the way to enlarge this circle of adult readers is to bring them into touch with the resources of the library when they are young1 and the public schools are the natural channels through which this can be accomplished4 ,sidenote3 ,how the public library can help the schools4 ,in well-managed public libraries this is now being done4 ,many of them have established juvenile departments in which an expert carefully chooses books that are likely to interest the young4 ,reading lists of interesting and timely subjects are also kept posted2 the pupils in the schools are encouraged to use the library in connection with their studies2 illustrated lectures are provided in the late afternoon hours and on ,saturdays1 and the whole atmosphere of the library becomes one of welcome to readers of every age4 ,it should not be thought1 however1 that all public libraries are rendering this degree of service4 ,many of them are unprogressive in these things4 ,sidenote3 ,the school as a neighborhood center4 ,wider ,use of the ,schools4--,under ordinary conditions1 how many hours of use does a community obtain from its school buildings in the course of a year8 ,five hours per day1 five days per week for about forty weeks in the year4 ,that makes a total of about a thousand hours--a year contains more than eight times as many4 ,when used for school purposes only1 school buildings are empty seven-eighths of the time4 ,but the cost of maintenance 7interest1 care1 etc47 goes on all the time just the same4 ,these buildings are admirably suited for many after-school purposes2 they are centrally-located1 well heated and ventilated1 clean and commodious4 ,why not make use of them outside of school hours8 ,the answer to this query is that many cities are now making use of them for evening classes1 for public meetings1 and neighborhood recreation4 ,the high schools in many cities have become evening social centers for the section in which they are located4 ,this means that the classrooms1 assembly hall1 and gymnasium are opened for lectures1 entertainments1 games1 and dances1 all under the supervision of officials 7usually teachers7 who are appointed and paid by the school board4 ,the complaint is sometimes made that this wider use of the school plant is not education in the customary sense1 but recreation or amusement1 and that the taxpayers should not be required to pay for adult amusement under color of supporting a public school system4 ,there is some force in this contention1 but so long as the work is of value to the community1 and worth what it costs1 the particular heading under which the money is expended does not matter a great deal4 ,these evening activities are placed in charge of the school authorities as a matter of convenience and not because they are exclusively of an educational character4 ,the ,gary ,system4--,do we make sufficient use of the school facilities within the available school hours of the day8 ,the usual school program does not cover more than five hours1 although there are eight hours between eight in the morning and four in the afternoon4 ,sidenote3 ,schools on an eight-hour basis4 ,in ,gary1 ,indiana1 a few years ago the school authorities decided that schooling1 like labor1 should be put upon an eight-hours-a-day basis4 ,pupils were therefore kept at school from eight until four1 spending half their time in the classrooms and the other half at vocational work or at organized play4 ,in this way the classrooms were made to accommodate twice the customary number of pupils4 ,the ,gary plan was based on the idea that even as regards their play the school can be of service to pupils and that time spent in learning something useful should be substituted for time spent in roaming the streets4 ,especial emphasis is placed by the ,gary plan upon letting each pupil follow his own line of interests both in the classroom and in the vocational work4 ,but the system has not1 on the whole1 proved popular elsewhere with either parents or pupils4 ,the labor organizations also dislike it1 suspecting that the plan is a capitalist scheme for getting the children of the worker more rapidly into the shops and factories4 ,sidenote3 ,the old curriculum4 ,vocational ,education4--,the foregoing topics do not exhaust the list of things which educators are earnestly considering today4 ,there is also the important question as to what should be taught in the schools and how it should be taught4 ,for some years the whole curriculum of the public schools has been in process of change4 ,the training of the old-time ,american school was in large measure literary and intellectual1 without any direct relation to the present or future interests of pupils4 ,it came to us from a past generation1 when education was the prerogative of the well-to-do alone1 the privilege of the leisure class1 designed to give culture and erudition4 ,but inasmuch as nearly ninety per cent of all the pupils in the public school go directly into some form of industrial or mercantile employment 7not into the learned professions7 it can readily be seen that a school program of strictly cultural studies does not satisfy the real needs of the community4 ,hence the demand for vocational education1 for such study and practice as will connect the pupil directly with his future life work4#bdh ,sidenote3 ,the new curriculum4 ,in response to the demand for vocational studies the old school curriculum has undergone a striking change4 ,today it is the disposition of educators to challenge every subject to demonstrate its value4 ,a subject which cannot demonstrate that it helps to fulfil some one of the recognized purposes of education is given a subordinate place in the curriculum or taken out altogether4 ,in keeping with this attitude the vocational studies have come into great prominence during the past twenty years or more1 for they are regarded as connecting the pupil with his future life-work4 ,shopwork1 millinery1 sewing1 cooking1 stenography1 mechanical drawing1 and a dozen other branches of vocational work have been brought into the school program4 ,they are crowding the older high school studies1 particularly the classical languages1 into the background4 ,special schools of commerce and industry have been provided in many of the large cities1 and special schools of agriculture in the rural districts4#bdi ,no sensible person should regret that the schools have moved in this new direction2 the only question is how far they ought to go4 ,if the only purpose of education were to teach the art of earning a living it would be another matter2 but do purely vocational studies afford sufficient scope for the attainment of the other educational purposes8 ,man does not live by bread alone4 ,the cultural studies have their value although this is often overlooked because it does not appear in plain sight to the naked eye4 ,even in the vocational school there should be a proper balance between the definitely vocational studies and the so-called cultural subjects4 ,the ,newer ,methods of ,school ,instruction4--,forty or fifty years ago all ,american education1 in schools and colleges1 was on a prescribed basis4 ,definite subjects were laid down to be studied and everybody studied them4 ,but the plan of allowing students to choose some or all of their studies was adopted by the colleges and in due course this elective system worked its way down into the schools4 ,sidenote3 ,the elective system4 ,there is a good deal to be said in favor of the elective system2 it permits a choice of work in accordance with individual interests and capacities4 ,after all1 the school is created for the pupil1 not the pupil for the school4 ,the pupil is the true unit of instruction1 not the subject4 ,on the other hand the elective system may be carried to extremes2 in some colleges that was the case and it has now been found necessary to put restrictions on the plan4 ,a system of free and unguided electives leads to a patchwork education1 desultory in character and without depth4 ,it is all right to know a little about everything2 but it is even more important to know some one thing well4 ,certain subjects form the groundwork of knowledge1 and to go ahead with others before first mastering them is like building the roof of a house before you have dug the foundation or erected the walls4 ,without a grounding in the great languages1 the ,english language particularly1 and a fair proficiency in mathematics1 history1 and the elements of science no one is entitled to call himself an educated man4 ,sidenote3 ,the socialized recitation4 ,the classroom methods have also changed considerably in the last generation1 and they have changed for the better4 ,the older methods sought to drill facts into the pupil's mind and resulted1 very often1 in merely over-stocking his memory4 ,today the aim is to utilize1 wherever possible1 a method of approach through the interests of the individual and to show him how every shred of knowledge fits into the whole fabric4 ,the old methods of classroom instruction laid the entire emphasis upon individual study and recitations2 today much greater emphasis is being placed upon group activity1 which includes group discussions1 group investigations1 and group reports4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that the individual pupil carries less responsibility than under the older system4 ,it still remains true that there is no royal road to knowledge and no system of rapid transit either4 ,no system can make an educated individual without self-effort4 ,education is one of the very few things in the world which anyone can obtain but which no one can give away4#bej ,financing the ,schools4--,all new educational enterprises mean increased expenses4 ,public education in the ,united ,states has become enormously more expensive during the past twenty years4 ,the newer methods of school organization and instruction1 the wider use of the schools1 the extension of vocational education1 the providing of free text books1 the progress of health work in the schools1 the establishment of evening schools1 continuation schools1 vacation schools--all these things have caused the cost to keep mounting year after year4 ,sidenote3 ,a billion dollars a year for education4 ,the public schools of the ,united ,states now cost the taxpayer more than a billion dollars per annum4 ,that is twice what they cost ten years ago4 ,if the expenses double once more in the next decade1 where will the money come from8 ,practically all of it is now obtained by taxation2 but taxation spreads itself out through rents and prices upon the whole people as has already been shown4 ,a billion a year seems to be a large sum4 ,it is a large sum but1 strange to say1 it is less than the ,american people spend every year for tobacco4 ,money for the schools1 it is safe to predict1 will be forthcoming when people understand what education means to individuals and to the nation4 ,if present sources of revenue will not stand the strain others must be found4 ,there is no more profitable way in which the nation can invest its wealth4 ,general ,references ,e4 ,p4 ,,cubberly1 ,public ,school ,administration1 pp4 #c-fe2 ,s4 ,t4 ,,dutton and ,,david ,,snedden1 ,the ,administration of ,public ,education in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #be-ie2 ,f4 ,j4 ,,goodnow and ,f4 ,j4 ,,bates1 ,municipal ,government1 pp4 #cce-ced 7,educational ,administration72 ,a4 ,j4 ,,inglis1 ,principles of ,secondary ,education1 pp4 #cdj-chc2 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,local ,government in ,counties1 ,towns1 and ,villages1 pp4 #bae-bbd2 ,w4 ,e4 ,,chancellor1 ,our ,city ,schools1 pp4 #be-gg2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #cef-djb2 ,,george ,f4 ,,swain1 ,how to ,study1 pp4 #a-ba2 ,the ,annual ,reports of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 the ,bulletins of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 and the ,annual ,reports of the ,state ,superintendents of ,education contain much useful information4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the purpose1 progress1 value1 and limitations of vocational education4 ,the old curriculum1 its merits and defects4 ,the rise of manual training4 ,its value4 ,beginnings of industrial education4 ,its progress4 ,its scope4 ,its place in the school system4 ,its relation to industry and the attitude of industry toward it4 ,the attitude of organized labor4 ,limitations on the scope of vocational education4 ,references3 ,p4 ,h4 ,,hanus1 ,beginnings in ,industrial ,education1 pp4 #c-bg2 ,,david ,,snedden1 ,vocational ,education1 pp4 #a-ajd2 ,,meyer ,,bloomfield1 ,the ,school and the ,start in ,life 7,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 ,bulletin1 #aiad1 ,no4 #d1 pp4 #aag-acc72 ,s4 ,t4 ,,dutton and ,,david ,,snedden1 ,the ,administration of ,public ,education in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #djd-dbe2 ,,irving ,,king1 ,social ,aspects of ,education1 pp4 #add-agf2 ,a4 ,h4 ,,leake1 ,industrial ,education1 its ,problems1 ,methods1 and ,dangers1 pp4 #c-ci2 ,united ,states ,senate and ,house ,committees on ,agriculture1 ,vocational ,education 7,report of ,hearings1 #aiab74 ,see also the ,proceedings of the ,national ,society for the ,promotion of ,industrial 7,vocational7 ,education 7published annually74 #b4 ,how far should the state control the public schools8 ,references3 ,s4 ,t4 ,,dutton and ,,david ,,snedden1 ,the ,administration of ,public ,education in the ,united ,states1 pp4 #da-gb2 ,e4 ,c4 ,,elliott1 ,state ,school ,systems 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education1 ,bulletin1 #aiaj1 ,no4 #b1 pp4 #ca-fh72 ,a4 ,c4 ,,perry1 ,outlines of ,school ,administration1 pp4 #af-bh2 ,j4 ,m4 ,,mathews1 ,principles of ,american ,state ,administration1 pp4 #bif-ccd4 #c4 ,the school as a social center4 ,references3 ,irving ,king1 ,education for ,social ,efficiency1 pp4 #bfb-bgi2 ,c4 ,a4 ,,perry1 ,the ,wider ,use of the ,school ,plant1 pp4 #c-af2 #cce-chj2 ,e4 ,j4 ,,ward1 ,the ,social ,center1 pp4 #cjb-cad2 ,national ,society for the ,study of ,education1 ,tenth ,yearbook 7#aiac71 ,part ,i1 pp4 #a-fi4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the social aim of education4 ,,irving ,,king1 ,education for ,social ,efficiency1 pp4 #aa-bj4 #b4 ,the organization and functions of school boards4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #cei-cgb4 #c4 ,how teachers are appointed4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,ballou1 ,the ,appointment of ,teachers in ,cities1 pp4 #h-da4 #d4 ,vocational guidance4 ,,irving ,,king1 ,education for ,social ,efficiency1 pp4 #agg-bje4 #e4 ,how schoolhouses should be constructed4 ,f4 ,b4 ,,dresslar1 ,american ,school ,houses 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education1 ,bulletin1 #aiaj1 ,no4 #e1 pp4 #ag-ch and passim74 #f4 ,the ,gary system4 ,general ,education ,board1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,the ,gary ,schools1 a ,general ,account1 pp4 #ag-gb4 #g4 ,has popular education failed in ,america8 ,c4 ,w4 ,,eliot1 ,american ,contributions to ,civilization1 pp4 #bjc-bcf4 #h4 ,the educational lessons of the war4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,,joseph ,,schafer1 ,democracy in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #bab-bdc4 #i4 ,education and economic success4 ,j4 ,,ellis ,,barker1 ,economic ,statesmanship1 pp4 #adc-agi4 ,questions #a4 ,explain why public education is necessary for the preservation of popular rights and liberties4 #b4 ,if democracy and public education usually go together1 why is it that ,germany had an excellent system of public education and yet remained an autocracy down to #aiah8 #c4 ,do the laws of your state provide for compulsory school attendance8 ,if so1 between what ages8 ,what is your opinion as to the proper age limits8 #d4 ,explain the organization and functions of your state board 7or department7 of education and your local school board4 #e4 ,give a summary of what the federal government is now doing for education4 ,do you believe that it ought to do more8 ,if so1 what8 #f4 ,how are funds for school purposes raised in your community8 ,on what basis does the state make its contribution8 #g4 ,what suggestions can you make for keeping the schools out of politics8 #h4 ,do you believe that teachers should be appointed under civil-service rules8 #i4 ,do you approve or disapprove of the ,gary system8 ,give your reasons4 #aj4 ,make some suggestions for bringing the school and the public library into closer relations4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the ,towner-,sterling ,bill should be passed by ,congress4 #b4 ,school discipline should be placed in charge of a student council4 #c4 ,the age limit of compulsory school attendance should be raised to sixteen years4 ----- ,footnote #bdb3 ,by naming these three purposes of education1 first1 second1 and third1 it is not intended to imply that this is their order of importance4 ,some would put service to the community first of all4 ,over one of the main gates at ,harvard ,university1 through which the students pass out into the world after they have been graduated1 is this timely inscription3 8,depart to serve thy country and thy kind40 ,footnote #bdc3 ,the laws and the practice differ greatly from state to state1 and sometimes from one community to another4 ,it would be futile to attempt the task of presenting here even the most important variations4 ,those who desire to know exactly how the schools are controlled and managed in different parts of the country will find full information in ,s4 ,t4 ,dutton and ,david ,snedden1 ,the ,administration of ,public ,education in the ,united ,states4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,in #aiag ,congress provided that each year a grant from the federal treasury should be made to the several states in order to encourage vocational education4 ,this money is distributed among the states on condition that each shall contribute an equal amount1 the distribution being made1 not by the ,bureau of ,education1 but by a body known as the ,federal ,board for ,vocational ,education4 ,this board is made up of seven persons1 the ,secretaries of ,agriculture1 ,commerce1 and ,labor1 the ,commissioner of ,education and three other persons appointed by the ,president4 ,a considerable part of its work for the present is connected with the providing of vocational training for ,american soldiers and sailors who were disabled in the ,world ,war4 ,footnote #bde3 ,the ,smith-,towner ,bill1 now the ,towner-,sterling ,bill4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,according to the census figures only one person in fifteen 7above school age7 is unable to write2 but the experience of army officers with drafted men during the war showed that the proportion must be a great deal larger4 ,the census enumerators take a man's word for it2 the army authorities at the various camps applied an actual test4 ,they found that about one man in every five was unable to write a simple letter of a dozen lines4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,the essential differences between grammar school and high school instruction are these3 the work of the grammar school grades is practically all prescribed2 in the high school there are some elective studies2 in the grammar school grades one teacher gives the instruction in all the subjects1 whereas in the high schools the various subjects are taught by different teachers1 each one a specialist4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,a proper system of vocational education involves three things3 7a7 a broad and practical foundation in elementary education of the ordinary type2 7b7 a study of the social and civic forces which control the life of the people2 and 7c7 definite training in some particular vocation or trade4 ,in order to help the pupil choose his life work more intelligently1 many schools have made provision for vocational guidance4 ,a vocational director or counsellor studies the special aptitudes and abilities of each pupil1 points out what opportunities are open1 and advises as to the best means of training for the work selected4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,the demand for vocational education has come from several sources3 namely1 from parents who believe that education ought to be directly related to earning-power2 from teachers who are convinced that there is little or no educational value in drilling pupils in studies which do not interest them2 from the general public which thinks the schools would render a larger social service in training pupils to vocational efficiency2 and from enterprising employers who see in this form of education a chance to get a supply of trained workers without having to break them in as apprentices4 ,organized labor at first looked with suspicion upon the movement1 but is now more favorably disposed toward it4 ,vocational education should be clearly distinguished from manual training1 which is merely a general education in the principles of skilful hand work without regard to any particular vocation or trade4 ,vocational education does not turn out a fully-trained worker1 but only one who has practically finished the apprentice stage4 ,footnote #bej3 ,there is a current notion that those who stand highest in their studies at school or in college usually do poorly when they get out into the world1 and that those who take a prominent part in school or college activities1 even though their scholarship be very poor1 are the ones who rise to the top in later life4 ,the evidence is all to the contrary4 ,every investigation that has ever been made into this matter indicates that in the vast majority of cases the boy who does well at school does well in his college studies if he goes to college2 and that students who stand high in their college studies are much more likely to succeed in later life than those who stand low4 ,three great ,eastern universities1 ,harvard1 ,yale1 and ,princeton1 gave the nation three successive ,presidents during the years #aija-aiba1 ,roosevelt1 ,taft1 and ,wilson4 ,nobody thought it worth while to mention that each of the three was a scholar of high rank at graduation2 but if anyone of them had been graduated near the bottom of the list1 we should have heard comment in plenty4 ,the exceptions are too often singled out for notice2 the instances that prove the rule are so numerous that they pass unobserved4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,public ,,health ,,and ,,sanitation ,the purpose of this chapter is to point out what things endanger the public health and what means are taken to safeguard the people against them4 ,sidenote3 ,health and efficiency4 ,a ,highly ,important ,matter4--,nothing among all the activities of modern government is more important than the care of the public health4 ,its importance cannot be measured in dollars and cents or in figures of any kind4 ,the health of the individual is the greatest of all factors in personal efficiency2 no man1 woman1 or child can do the best work in any field of activity if hampered by disease1 however slight4 ,the health of the community is likewise essential to its progress and prosperity4 ,health protection1 accordingly1 is not a matter which can safely be left to everyone's discretion4 ,some people would realize the necessity of safeguarding themselves and their families against disease2 but others would not1 and their neglect would entail danger to the whole community4 ,some people would know how to avoid ill-health1 so far as it can be avoided2 but others would not possess this knowledge and would suffer for lack of it4#bea ,a man's religious or political belief may be his own personal concern2 but his ideas of cleanliness and disease prevention are not4 ,people who lay themselves open to disease constitute a danger to all those around them4 ,in earlier days1 when the population was scattered and not brought into contact the need for social control of the public health was less imperative4 ,today1 when millions of people live in crowded cities where they come hourly into contact with one another the safeguarding of the public health constitutes a governmental task of the first importance and magnitude4 ,old and ,new ,ideas ,concerning ,health ,protection4--,no science has made greater progress during the past hundred years than the science of preventive medicine4 ,in early times all diseases were looked upon as due to the same cause1 namely1 the anger of the gods for some misdoing on the part of the individual or the community4#beb ,the usual course1 when a pestilence came upon the people1 was to go through ceremonies and offer sacrifices in order that this anger might be appeased4 ,sidenote3 ,the great plagues of olden days4 ,great plagues swept over ,europe almost unchecked for a thousand years4 ,in every community there were healers and medicine-men1 who claimed to possess magic arts in dealing with all human ailments but1 as a grim truth1 nobody had the remotest idea as to what brought these epidemics1 or how they were spread1 or what might be done to prevent them4 ,it is said that the ,black ,death in the fourteenth century carried off one-third of all the people in ,england4 ,whole towns were swept out of existence4 ,knowledge concerning the nature of disease and the methods of preventing it developed very slowly for many centuries1 because many superstitions had to be broken down1 and only within quite modern times did health protection reach the stage where it could properly be called a science4 ,sidenote3 ,the germ theory of disease4 ,health protection did not attain a scientific basis1 in fact1 until the germ theory of disease was worked out and accepted4 ,this theory1 which is simple enough in its elementary principles1 completely reconstructed the ideas of the human race concerning the causes and methods of preventing bodily ailments4 ,it provided a complete explanation for many things which had been looked upon as utter mysteries4 ,the wonder is that the world spent so many centuries in discovering it4 ,even in the days of the ,roman ,empire intelligent men suspected that there was some connection between filth and pestilence2 but just what this connection was they never were able to trace out satisfactorily1 nor did anyone manage to do it for more than fifteen hundred years after them4#bec ,how long it has sometimes taken the world to move from one step in knowledge to the next6 ,sidenote3 ,explanation of this theory4 ,the ,causes of ,disease and ,infection4--,the germ theory of disease may be concisely stated in this way3 ,innumerable small organisms 7known as microbes1 bacteria1 bacilli1 or germs7 exist in the air1 and in or upon nearly all substances4 ,these organisms or germs are so small that they are invisible to the eye unless a powerful microscope is used4 ,they are so small that thousands of them can assemble on the head of a pin or in the smallest drop of water4 ,sidenote3 ,harmless bacteria4 ,most of them are harmless2 and some of them render useful service4 ,without the aid of these little organisms we could not make cheese or vinegar4 ,on the other hand nearly all organic decay1 of whatever sort1 is caused by the action of bacteria4 ,when apples rot1 or milk grows sour1 or butter becomes rancid1 it is all due to bacterial action4 ,bacteria multiply with extraordinary rapidity wherever the temperature and other conditions are favorable2 most species increase by division1 that is1 one micro-organism divides itself into two1 these two into four1 and so on by geometrical progression4 ,as successive divisions often take place within a few hours it is easy to see how a very few germs today may number millions tomorrow4 ,under the microscope most of the different species can be identified1 for they assume varying shapes and display a variety of characteristics4 ,sidenote3 ,harmful bacteria4 ,but although most of these diminutive organisms are harmless1 many of them are what scientists call pathogenic germs1 in other words1 they are a menace to health when they gain access to the human body4 ,the human body1 in fact1 is the most favorable environment for these disease-bearing bacilli1 and most of them can live but a short time outside of it4 ,access may be gained in various ways1 but principally through the food and drink we consume1 or through the bites of germ-carrying insects4 ,the bacteria1 when they gain lodgment in the tissues of the body1 often multiply with great rapidity1 creating poisonous substances1 and thus increase the normal bodily temperature--a condition which we speak of as fever4 ,when the body is strong and vigorous1 it can sometimes overcome and throw off the effects of this bacterial action1 for the human blood1 under normal conditions1 possesses powers of resistance to pathogenic germs2 but when people are frail or exhausted1 this power of resistance is greatly diminished and the bacilli are enabled to gain the upper hand4 ,water-,borne ,diseases--,typhoid ,fever4--,one way in which pathogenic bacilli gain access to the human body and produce disease may be illustrated by the case of typhoid fever4 ,fifty years ago this disease was one of the most common in all countries2 today it has been almost entirely eradicated in civilized lands4 ,both armies in the ,civil ,war lost thousands of men through its ravages1 but in the ,american army during the ,world ,war there were only a few cases4 ,accurate knowledge of the way in which typhoid is transmitted has given mankind an almost complete mastery over this scourge of many centuries4 ,sidenote3 ,the causes of typhoid and the remedies4 ,typhoid is caused by a germ which is most commonly found in polluted water1 but sometimes makes its way into milk through the use of water in washing cans and utensils4 ,it does not come from bad ventilation1 sewer gas1 ash piles1 or exposure to cold1 as some people imagine4 ,the typhoid bacilli1 being taken into the stomach with water1 milk1 or any other contaminated nourishment1 find their way into the intestines and cause inflammation there1 thus producing a fevered condition4 ,if the sewage from hospitals and homes where there are typhoid patients is not carefully guarded1 it gets into lakes1 rivers1 or wells1 polluting them and spreading the disease4 ,the elimination of typhoid is1 therefore1 very largely a problem of protecting the water supply against contact with human sewage4 ,this is one reason why progressive communities are giving so much attention and spending so much money upon modern methods of sewage disposal and upon the rigorous protection of their public water supplies4 ,an epidemic of typhoid is always the outcome of somebody's ignorance or neglect4 ,it has been suggested1 with a good deal of force1 that for every such epidemic somebody ought to be put in jail4 ,insect-,borne ,diseases4--,another way in which disease-bearing bacilli obtain access to the human blood is through the bites of insects4 ,sidenote3 ,the scourge of yellow fever4 ,fifty years ago yellow fever was the great scourge of all tropical countries4 ,when the ,french built a railway across the ,isthmus of ,panama in #ahhe it is said that the work cost one life for every tie in the road1 so great were the ravages of yellow fever among the laborers4 ,but the ,united ,states1 twenty-odd years later1 succeeded in digging a canal across the ,isthmus without the loss of a single life from this disease4 ,under ,spanish rule1 ,cuba was never free from yellow fever2 the island has been free from it since the ,americans cleaned it up4 ,sidenote3 ,the war upon insects4 ,the change has been brought about by the discovery that the germs of yellow fever are carried by a certain species of mosquito which transmits the infection from a diseased person to others4 ,the cleaning-up of stagnant pools in which the mosquitoes breed1 and the careful screening of doors and windows has practically eliminated the disease wherever these measures have been taken4 ,substantially the same thing is true of the disease known as malaria so far as causes and remedies are concerned4 ,typhus1 a fever which has long been the pestilence of backward countries1 is transmitted from person to person by the common body-louse or 8cootie04 ,cities1 armies1 and even whole countries have been set free from this plague by delousing operations1 that is by the wholesale disinfection of clothing and persons4#bed ,bubonic plague1 the ,black ,death of the ,middle ,ages1 which has swept over ,asia and portions of ,europe so many times1 is transmitted by rat fleas4 ,other diseases besides yellow fever1 typhus1 and bubonic are known to be spread by insects1 and still others are believed to be4 ,the common house-fly is undoubtedly a carrier of typhoid germs from filth and sewage to the water1 milk1 and food supplies in homes and stores4 ,the world would be far better off if the whole category of disease-carrying insects1 mosquitoes1 lice1 fleas1 and flies1 could be made as extinct as the dodo4 ,the ,wide ,range of ,disease and ,causes4--,not all diseases1 of course1 are caused by polluted food and drink or by the transmission of insect-borne bacilli4 ,some are undoubtedly caused by pathogenic germs whose methods of infection we do not yet know4 ,there are various theories as to what carried influenza from one end of the world to the other during #aiah but none of them satisfactorily explain all that happened4 ,the epidemic in one case broke out upon a sailing ship1 far off at sea1 six weeks after it had left port4 ,so disease still has its mysteries1 yet unsolved4 ,sidenote3 ,things which cause and spread disease4 ,we know1 however1 that many ailments are either directly caused or are facilitated by poor nourishment1 bad ventilation1 lack of cleanliness1 physical exhaustion1 and lax attention to personal hygiene4 ,some are due also1 in whole or in part1 to certain forms or conditions of work1 and are commonly known as occupational or industrial diseases4 ,such1 for example1 is lead poisoning in paint factories2 such also is the illness which often overcomes men working in tunnels and other places where compressed air is used4 ,the spread of tuberculosis1 the great white plague of today1 is undoubtedly due in some measure to dust and bad ventilation4 ,the relations between diseases and occupations have not received careful study until recent years1 but it is believed that we shall ultimately find the causes of many human ailments in the conditions under which some forms of industry are carried on4 ,sidenote3 ,industry and ill health4 ,hygiene of ,factories and ,workshops4--,because of the unsanitary conditions which have been found by investigation to exist in workshops and factories1 particularly in the large cities1 various states have made laws and regulations to protect the health of employees in such establishments4 ,some trades1 such as the making of poisonous phosphorous matches1 have been prohibited altogether4 ,others1 by reason of their danger to the health of the workers1 have been subjected to strict regulation4 ,the 8sweat-shops0 or tenement rooms in which women and children formerly worked long hours for a mere pittance1 crowded together with almost no ventilation--these industrial dungeons have been legislated out of existence almost everywhere4 ,workshops and factories must now be commodious1 well-lighted1 clean1 and properly ventilated4 ,adequate sanitary equipment must be provided4 ,it is the duty of the state factory inspectors to see that all these requirements are fulfilled4 ,the ,prevention of ,disease--,individual ,precautions4--,without the co-operation of individuals no government can maintain a high standard of health among the people4 ,all that the public authorities may do will prove inadequate unless individuals themselves1 young and old1 understand and observe the means of disease-prevention4 ,sidenote3 ,physical fitness4 ,physical fitness is one of the greatest blessings any man or woman can have1 and it is largely the product of strict attention to the upbuilding of the body in early years4 ,theodore ,roosevelt was a frail1 sickly lad in his boyhood days4 ,he realized1 as he explains in his autobiography1 that he could never make a marked success in life without building up his physical vigor1 so he set about doing it1 and by the time he had reached full manhood he was a model of physical ruggedness4 ,how did he manage it8 ,regular habits1 out-of-door life1 prompt attention to minor ailments1 a zest for every form of wholesome sport1--these things transformed a weakly youth into the sturdiest man that ever sat in the presidential chair4 ,there is no need to lay down any definite rules as to how the young men and women of ,america may gain and maintain a high standard of health and bodily vigor4 ,common sense will suggest most of them4 ,the besetting sin of youth is its prodigality1 the wasting of strength that should be saved for years to come1 and the failure to realize that an individual's health at the age of forty or fifty depends very largely upon what use is made of health opportunities during the years from fifteen to twenty-five4 ,the glory of a young man is his strength2 he does not usually let his mind run ahead to the day when he will be neither young nor strong4 ,no investment that young people can make will pay higher dividends than that which is represented by the time1 the thought1 and the care spent upon the task of keeping well in early years4 ,sidenote3 ,quarantine4 ,the ,prevention of ,communicable ,diseases3 ,quarantine and ,disinfection4--,first among the measures taken by the public authorities to prevent the spread of communicable diseases are the quarantine regulations which are enforced at all the seaports under the authority of the national government4 ,day and night throughout the year1 the health officers stand guard at these ports to see that no disease-bearing persons are permitted to land4 ,vessels leaving foreign harbors for the ,united ,states must secure a bill-of-health from the ,american consul before they sail2 and the first person who goes on board an incoming vessel after it takes on its pilot is the quarantine officer4 ,this official permits no passengers to be landed until he has made sure that there are no persons afflicted with communicable disease aboard4 ,if there are any such cases1 the passengers are held until the danger is past4 ,the various states and cities also maintain systems of health-inspection and quarantine4 ,certain diseases 7including tuberculosis1 smallpox1 typhoid1 scarlet fever1 pneumonia1 whooping cough1 diphtheria1 measles1 mumps1 and so forth7 must be promptly reported to the local health authorities4 ,the local health regulations require that in case of the more readily communicable diseases the house be placarded4 ,in extreme cases1 the patients may be removed to an isolation hospital4 ,sidenote3 ,disinfection4 ,after the illness has terminated1 the regulations usually provide that the premises shall be disinfected under the supervision of an official from the health department4 ,every state1 as well as every city and town1 maintains general regulations relating to quarantine and disinfection1 these being enforced by the state health authorities4 ,for the most part1 however1 this work is supervisory1 the detailed enforcement of the rules being left to the health officers of the various communities1 although in the case of epidemics1 involving several municipalities1 the state health authorities usually assume direct control4 ,similarly1 when epidemics spread or threaten to spread from one state to another1 the national health authorities step in4#bee ,vaccination and ,inoculation4--,the practice of vaccinating and inoculating healthy persons as a safeguard against disease has been used for more than a century4 ,vaccination consists in introducing vaccine into the blood of a healthy person1 usually by making an abrasion of the skin4 ,the vaccine is obtained from health laboratories1 where it is produced from the blood of artificially-infected cattle4 ,inoculation of the human blood is also widely used nowadays in order to prevent or to mitigate diphtheria1 typhoid1 pneumonia1 and rabies4 ,all members of the ,american expeditionary forces during the ,world ,war were given the anti-typhoid inoculation4 ,it consisted of injecting into the blood a quantity of dead or greatly-weakened typhoid bacilli4 ,they were not sufficient to produce the disease but they were enough to set the resisting-powers of the blood in motion so that the latter would be fully developed to meet a real infection if it should come4 ,sidenote3 ,should vaccination be compulsory8 ,vaccination against smallpox is compulsory in several of the states and in many communities1 although there is a good deal of objection to it among certain sections of the people4 ,if smallpox were completely wiped off the face of the earth there would be no need for universal vaccination2 but so long as numerous cases exist1 as they still do in many countries1 compulsory vaccination is likely to prove a justifiable measure of public safety4 ,sidenote3 ,importance of the milk supply4 ,milk ,inspection4--,among all the foods of humanity1 milk is probably the most important4 ,it is the chief nutrition of children until they reach school age1 and sometimes even longer4 ,it forms a large factor in the diet of invalids4 ,even in the daily fare of robust adults1 it is an item of no small importance4 ,yet no article of everyday commerce is more easily contaminated1 and in the case of no other article are the results of pollution likely to be so serious4 ,for when the germs of disease get into milk1 they multiply with appalling rapidity and they go directly into the diet of those who have the least power to withstand infection1 the children and invalids of the community4 ,sidenote3 ,the danger of pollution4 ,from its source on the farms milk passes through several hands before reaching the consumer1 and at each of these points may be contaminated4 ,careless milking1 the storing of milk in unsanitary places or in unclean utensils1 the lack of adequate precautions in transporting or delivering the milk--any of these things may result in pollution4 ,strict rules and frequent inspection help to safeguard the milk supply at the source and during its journey to the consumer1 but the problem of careful inspection is rendered difficult by the fact that the milk supplies of large cities are now drawn from a wide area outside the municipal limits4 ,new ,york ,city1 for example1 obtains its supply of nearly two million quarts per day from about forty-five thousand farms scattered throughout eight different states4 ,sidenote3 ,milk and the infant death rate4 ,it is easy to appreciate the difficulties involved in the supervision of the milk supply under such conditions4 ,nevertheless1 this supervision is being carried on in all large communities and it has resulted in a marked lowering of the infant death rate4 ,infant mortality and the milk supply are closely related1 in fact it can fairly be said that the rate of the one depends in a large measure upon the purity of the other4 ,the establishment of milk-distribution stations in large cities has been of considerable value in enabling the people of the crowded sections to obtain pure milk at reasonable prices4 ,the ,inspection of ,food4--,the marketing of impure or adulterated food is everywhere forbidden by the laws and the health regulations1 but until comparatively recent years these rules were not always strictly enforced4 ,one reason for this is to be found in the fact that many articles of food are subjects of interstate commerce1 produced in one state to be sold in another1 and hence are not easily made amenable to local control4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,food and ,drugs ,act1 #aijf4 ,in #aijf1 however1 ,congress passed a comprehensive law known as the ,food and ,drugs ,act1 by the terms of which the national government assumed the duty of eliminating impure food from general commerce4 ,this act prohibited the adulteration of food and drugs2 it made provision for the inspection of meats at the great packing plants2 it required that all packages of food and drugs shall be branded correctly and that when artificial preservatives are used1 the label shall state the fact4 ,all impure1 adulterated1 or wrongly-branded articles are excluded from interstate commerce under the provisions of this law4 ,sidenote3 ,state inspection of food4 ,the supervision of the national government does not extend1 however1 to articles of food which are produced1 distributed1 and sold within the territory of a single state4 ,as regards such articles1 the task of protecting the public against impurity and adulteration rests with the state and local health officers4 ,these officers perform their work by frequent inspection at places where food is produced and sold4 ,makers and vendors of impure or adulterated foods are prosecuted in the ordinary courts4 ,the ,drug ,evil4--,the indiscriminate and unchecked sale of narcotic drugs 7morphine1 opium1 etc47 in past years led to serious evils4 ,persons who regularly use any of these narcotic drugs become slaves to the habit2 they are unable to get along without daily use of them1 and in the end become physical wrecks4 ,the drug habit became1 a few years ago1 such a widespread public evil that the national government took the manufacture and sale of these narcotics under its own supervision4 ,such drugs cannot now be bought or sold except under strict regulations which involve the written request of a qualified physician4 ,nevertheless a good deal of trade in narcotics is still carried on through illicit channels4 ,sidenote3 ,prohibition as a health measure4 ,prohibition of the ,liquor ,traffic4--,the relation of the liquor traffic to the public health is a matter upon which men have not entirely agreed2 but it is a well-recognized fact that the general use of intoxicating liquors led in many cases to poverty1 and poverty in turn brought under-nourishment and disease in its train4 ,the action of the states in adopting the ,eighteenth ,amendment1 by which the manufacture1 transportation1 and sale of all intoxicants is forbidden1 may therefore be looked upon as a step which1 in the long run1 will conduce to the betterment of the public health4 ,the excessive use of alcohol impaired the physical vigor of many thousands among the population and rendered them less capable of resisting disease4 ,the statistics of hospitals during the period that has intervened since prohibition went into effect show that1 from a health standpoint1 the ,eighteenth ,amendment has had a beneficial effect4 ,waste ,disposal and ,sewerage4--,every community produces each day a large amount of waste which must be collected and disposed of in a sanitary manner if the interests of the public health are to be fully protected4 ,some of this waste contains little or no element of danger--ashes1 waste paper1 and rubbish of all sorts1 for example4 ,the removal of this material is a matter of public convenience rather than of public health protection4 ,as a rule it is drawn away and either used for filling marsh land or incinerated4 ,sidenote3 ,garbage4 ,another form of waste is garbage1 which includes the discarded material from markets1 bakeries1 hotels1 restaurants1 and private dwellings4 ,this garbage decomposes quickly and must be gathered at frequent intervals4 ,in some communities the garbage is disposed of by incineration2 in others it is sold to farmers for feeding swine2 a few cities utilize it in reduction plants1 where the grease and oil is extracted for commercial use4 ,sidenote3 ,sewage4 ,sewage1 which includes both surface water and the liquid waste from places of human abode1 is by far the most dangerous waste of all4 ,although it is more than ninety-nine per cent water1 every ounce contains the possibility of spreading disease4 ,sidenote3 ,older methods of disposal4 ,this effluvia1 which passes through the sewers and drains1 was at one time everywhere disposed of by turning it into the ocean1 lakes1 or rivers4 ,even yet many cities of the ,united ,states get rid of their sewage in that way4 ,the method is not objectionable in the case of ocean discharge1 provided the outfall sewer is carried a sufficient distance from the shore1 although even in such cases some of the sewage may be borne landward by the incoming tides to pollute the shellfish beds and the beaches4 ,the sewage of many cities along the ,great ,lakes is discharged into these extensive bodies of fresh water where the amount of dilution is so great that no serious harm results1 provided no water for human consumption is drawn from the immediate neighborhood of the discharge points4 ,the time will doubtless come1 however1 when the increasing volume of sewage will compel these cities to adopt other methods of disposal4 ,the discharge of untreated sewage into rivers and small streams is now generally regarded as a public nuisance1 and the abandonment of the practice is being required by the laws wherever practicable4 ,many cities1 however1 yet resort to this method4 ,sidenote3 ,modern sewage systems4 ,modern1 scientific methods of sewage disposal have taken several different forms4 ,a common plan is to conduct the sewage into huge reservoirs1 basins1 or tanks1 where the solids are allowed to settle and form a sludge while the liquid is run off into the ocean or a lake or a river4 ,the settling process is sometimes hastened by the use of chemicals4 ,this does not free the waterways from danger but it is a good deal less objectionable than the practice of turning untreated sewage into them4 ,some cities pump the sewage upon filter beds 7tracts of land which have been dug out and filled with slag or other porous substances74 ,a few use their sewage for the irrigation of dry farming lands4 ,no particular plan of sewage disposal can be regarded as the best under all circumstances4 ,local conditions differ from one community to another1 and each case requires special study4 ,ordinarily a large town or city will produce nearly two hundred gallons of sewage per day for every man1 woman1 and child in its population4 ,this means an enormous total in the course of a year and the problem of handling it safely1 without excessive expense1 is often a difficult one4 ,it may well be repeated1 however1 that so far as the public health is concerned1 sewage is the most dangerous substance known to man1 and its safe disposal is one of the most important problems of the government in every civilized community4 ,the ,protection of the ,public ,water ,supply4--,the great importance of an adequate and safe water supply is something which hardly requires a long argument4 ,in the rural districts and in small villages the neighboring wells and springs may be utilized1 but in large communities1 especially those having numerous industries1 a public supply must be provided4 ,sidenote3 ,how much water is needed8 ,it is customarily figured that large towns and cities require approximately and on the average one hundred gallons of water per capita every day in the year4 ,half-a-ton of water per day per person6 ,what is done with it all8 ,not all of it1 of course1 is used for human consumption4 ,by far the greater part is utilized for public1 industrial1 and general sanitary purposes4 ,sprinkling parks and lawns1 putting out fires1 flushing sewers--all these activities require large amounts of water4 ,factories1 laundries1 railroads1 and other such establishments make heavy demands on the total supply4 ,so does the modern sanitary equipment which is now being installed almost everywhere in hotels1 stores1 and houses4 ,the amount of water required for human consumption is very small compared with the quantities used in these other ways4 ,the first essential of a satisfactory water supply1 therefore1 is that it be adequate1 which means that large cities must often go a long distance in order to obtain water in sufficient quantities4 ,sidenote3 ,sources of supply4 ,new ,york ,city derives a large part of its water from the ,catskill ,mountains2 ,los ,angeles brings its entire supply from the ,sierra ,nevadas1 more than two hundred and fifty miles away4#bef ,many other cities obtain their water close at hand3 ,chicago1 for example1 draws from ,lake ,michigan1 and ,cleveland from ,lake ,erie4 ,adequacy1 however1 is not the only consideration4 ,for use in the industries1 water must be clear in color and not too hard4 ,when it is turbid or hard1 it has to be clarified and softened by storage and the use of chemicals4 ,the relative purity of the water1 its freedom from pollution1 is the most important consideration of all4 ,sidenote3 ,the treatment of water for human use4 ,there are various ways of making sure that water is fit for human consumption4 ,one way is to secure the supply from a source which is by nature free from pollution1 from deep-driven wells or from mountain lakes which are above the level of probable contamination4 ,water supplies drawn from very large bodies of water1 like the ,great ,lakes1 are normally safe enough if the intake is set far out from shore1 because the diluting power of these vast water areas is sufficient to render harmless even a considerable amount of pollution by sewage discharge4 ,where a water supply of sufficient natural purity cannot be had within reasonable distance the only safe plan is to subject the water to such length of storage1 or to such mechanical or chemical treatment as will ensure its fitness for use4 ,the storage of water in a reservoir1 exposed to the light and air1 will render it safe1 under normal conditions4 ,the length of time required for this purpose will depend1 of course1 upon the quality of the water which is put into the reservoir4 ,a period of three months is ordinarily regarded as sufficient where the raw water has not been badly contaminated4 ,the mechanical treatment of water is commonly known as filtration1 and there are several forms of public water-filtration plants now in use by ,american cities4 ,the simplest is the system of slow sand filters in which the water is treated by allowing it to percolate slowly through a bed of sand and crushed stone1 thereby becoming rid of noxious bacteria4 ,a more complicated method involves the use of rapid sand filters in which the raw water is forced through filterbeds of crushed stone under pressure4#beg ,smoke ,abatement4--,pure air is another essential to the maintenance of the public health4 ,rural parts of the country encounter no difficulty on this score1 but the larger cities are now finding it necessary to protect the air which their citizens have to breathe4 ,in these days of smoke-belching industry1 the very atmosphere of the large city is laden with a menace to health and cleanliness4 ,an investigation made in ,new ,york some years ago disclosed the fact that sulphur dioxide 7a poisonous gas7 was being discharged into the air by the smokestacks and chimneys of the city at an appalling rate4 ,the elementary student of chemistry can well testify that ,,so#b is not a substance that human beings thrive upon4 ,and apart from the menace to health there is the heavy damage done by soot-laden atmosphere to the furnishings of houses and the contents of shops4 ,hence the agitation in the large cities for an abatement of this smoke nuisance and the establishment of regulations which now1 in many places1 require the use of mechanical smoke consumers by all large industries4 ,the enforcement of this requirement is not at all difficult1 because any violation is visible to the naked eye4 ,sidenote3 ,overcrowding and disease4 ,the ,housing of the ,people4--,by the homes of a town or city you may judge its people4 ,the proper housing of the population has a close relation to many things1 but to none is this relation closer than to the public health4 ,when the people are herded together in tenements1 with dark and narrow hallways1 with rooms badly ventilated and often without sunlight1 we have a fertile soil for the spread of tuberculosis4 ,more than ten thousand persons die each year in the tenement districts of ,new ,york ,city from the ,great ,white ,plague alone4 ,the children who grow up in congested quarters1 moreover1 go out into the world handicapped in both body and soul4 ,their powers of resistance to disease are often seriously impaired by the crowding1 poor ventilation1 and lack of proper sanitary arrangements4 ,an investigation of housing conditions made in ,new ,york ,city over twenty years ago led to the enactment of a comprehensive ,tenement ,house ,law 7#aija7 in order to prevent overcrowding1 and the main provisions of this law have since been copied by most of the larger cities of the country4#beh ,sidenote3 ,housing experiments abroad4 ,in some ,european cities1 notably ,glasgow and ,london1 many municipal tenements have been erected4 ,crowded slums have been demolished and model houses1 each accommodating one or more families1 have been erected in their place by the use of public money4 ,these tenements are then rented to workers at reasonable rates4 ,this plan has not yet been tried on any large scale in the ,united ,states nor would it be likely to prove very satisfactory so long as city administration1 in all its branches1 is conducted so wastefully as it is in ,america today4 ,during the ,world ,war1 however1 the federal government built many hundreds of workmen's dwellings in different parts of the country1 particularly in the neighborhood of the great shipbuilding plants4 ,after the war they were sold to private buyers4 ,it is often urged that instead of building model tenements in crowded sections1 the authorities of large cities ought to promote the growth of suburbs by giving them good transportation facilities1 and by promptly supplying these suburban districts with sewers1 water supply1 gas1 electricity1 and paved roads4 ,people who go to the suburbs not only have more room1 but they are much more likely in the course of time1 to own their homes4 ,sidenote3 ,the importance of owning a home4 ,home-owning is a practice which ought to be encouraged1 not only for reasons of health and recreation1 but to steady the political temper of the people as well4 ,the man who owns a piece of the earth's surface1 with a house on it that he calls his home1 is not often a believer in violence or revolution4 ,a great deal of honest sentiment clusters about the ,american home1 but very little can ever attach to three or four rooms in a tenement house4 ,other ,measures of ,public ,health ,protection4--,the foregoing list does not exhaust the various measures taken by the authorities of the nation1 state1 and city for the protection of the public health4 ,the laws and regulations which now prohibit the use of public drinking-cups on trains1 in schools1 and in other public places may be mentioned4 ,the common cup has been1 in the past1 an active spreader of infection4 ,its use ought to be forbidden everywhere4 ,measures for the elimination of mosquitoes and house-flies have been taken by all the more progressive states and cities with aid at many points from the national government4 ,the statement has been made1 upon what seems to be good authority1 that mosquitoes1 flies1 and other insect pests are directly or indirectly responsible for a hundred thousand deaths in the ,united ,states every year4 ,whatever their number1 these deaths are preventable1 because a diligent campaign will suffice to banish both flies and mosquitoes from any part of the country4 ,the medical inspection of children in the schools is another health measure of great importance4 ,in many of the larger cities this inspection includes all school children1 of whatever age1 and is made at frequent intervals4 ,it permits the early detection of symptoms and thus allows remedies to be applied promptly4 ,it has done a great deal to protect the schools against the frequent outbreak of epidemics4 ,how ,health ,measures are ,enforced4--,the duty of enforcing measures for the protection of the public health rests first of all upon the local health officers4 ,sidenote3 ,local boards of health4 ,the laws of most states now require that a board of health or some similar authority shall be maintained in every township1 village1 town1 and city4 ,one of the members of this board of health must usually be a physician4 ,in large towns and cities a qualified health officer1 who is always a physician1 is employed on part time or full time4 ,the local boards of health and the health officers have charge of quarantine and disinfection1 the inspection of food and milk1 and the enforcement of sanitary regulations4 ,they also grant permits for the maintenance of slaughter-houses and other establishments which have a direct or indirect relation to the public health4 ,sidenote3 ,state health officers4 ,in practically all the states1 moreover1 there is a ,state ,department of ,health4 ,this department is usually under the supervision of a ,state ,board of ,health1 but in a few states a single health commissioner has been placed in charge4 ,the powers and duties of these state departments vary a good deal throughout the country1 but in a general way they assist the local health authorities1 especially when an epidemic threatens to spread beyond local control4 ,a good deal of their work is advisory in character4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service ,the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service was established in #aiab1 although health work had been carried on by the national government through other agencies prior to that date4 ,it is1 rather strangely1 a bureau of the ,treasury ,department4 ,the ,public ,health ,service has charge of the port quarantine system2 its assistance may be obtained by the states at any time in coping with epidemics2 and it maintains well-equipped research laboratories for the study of all questions affecting the public health4 ,it is believed by many physicians that the work of this bureau is so important that it ought to be made a regular department of the national administration with a member of the cabinet at its head4#bei ,sidenote3 ,what the schools can do4 ,education and the ,public ,health4--,the basis of successful public health work is the education of people in hygiene and sanitation4 ,if the people can be brought to realize the transcendent importance of the work1 their co-operation will be given cheerfully4 ,where the health regulations are now disobeyed it is largely because their value to the individual1 as well as to the community1 has not been made clear4 ,an effective method of educating the public is by means of health exhibits which demonstrate1 with the aid of pictures1 especially motion pictures1 the value of proper hygienic conditions in the workshop and the home4 ,but the ultimate education of the whole people in this field1 as in all others1 must be primarily the work of the schools4 ,it is easier to teach hygiene and sanitation to children than to grown-ups4 ,adults have acquired habits of life and attitudes of mind which are hard to alter4 ,hence the education of children in all that relates to clean living1 wholesome food1 modern sanitation1 and the avoidance of disease should be part of the regular work in schools throughout the country4 ,upon this will depend1 in no small degree1 the future physical well-being of the nation4 ,general ,references ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #fh-ib2 ,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,the ,health of the ,city1 especially pp4 #a-bi2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,allen1 ,civics and ,health1 pp4 #c-cb2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 see under ,health1 ,contagious ,diseases1 ,quarantine1 ,tenement ,house ,regulation1 etc42 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #abb-aff 7,water ,supply72 pp4 #afg-baj 7,sewerage and ,sanitation72 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically ,applied1 especially pp4 #bje-bcb 7,pure ,foods72 pp4 #bcc-bgg 7,clean ,milk72 ,,irving ,,fisher and ,l4 ,b4 ,,fisk1 ,how to ,live1 pp4 #aai-afh2 ,,walter ,,camp1 ,keeping ,fit ,all the ,way1 pp4 #c-da2 ,,charles ,,baskerville1 ,municipal ,chemistry1 pp4 #a-ai2 ,,milton ,j4 ,,rosenau1 ,preventive ,medicine and ,hygiene1 pp4 #gaf-gde2 ,w4 ,t4 ,,sedgwick1 ,principles of ,sanitary ,science and the ,public ,health1 pp4 #hi-ajg2 ,e4 ,b4 ,,hoag and ,l4 ,m4 ,,terman1 ,health ,work in the ,schools1 pp4 #acc-aia4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,how can the spread of communicable diseases be prevented8 ,are the vital statistics of your community carefully and promptly compiled8 ,the local health authorities1--who are they and what are their functions8 ,what control is exercised over the agencies which spread disease8 ,examine the status of each in your own community4 ,references3 ,,milton ,j4 ,,rosenau1 ,preventive ,medicine and ,hygiene1 pp4 #acd-aeh2 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically ,applied1 pp4 #ff-aeb2 ,,woods ,,hutchinson1 ,preventable ,diseases1 pp4 #hc-abb2 ,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,the ,health of the ,city1 pp4 #aeh-aic2 ,g4 ,c4 ,,whipple1 ,state ,sanitation1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #hh-aab2 see also the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service1 ,reprints on the ,notifiable ,diseases1 and the reports of the state and local ,boards of ,health4 #b4 ,public water supplies4 ,references3 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #abb-aff2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #bag-bbg2 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically ,applied1 pp4 #bgh-ccg2 ,,allen ,,hazen1 ,clean ,water and ,how to ,get ,it1 #b;d ed41 pp4 #gc-ii2 ,,charles ,,baskerville1 ,municipal ,chemistry1 pp4 #cc-hi2 ,f4 ,e4 ,,turneaure and ,h4 ,l4 ,,russell1 ,public ,water ,supplies1 pp4 #ada-agb4 #c4 ,modern methods of sewage disposal4 ,references3 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #ahc-baj2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,james1 ,municipal ,functions1 pp4 #bbg-bcg2 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically ,applied1 pp4 #cch-cgh2 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #bde-bee2 ,,charles ,,baskerville1 ,municipal ,chemistry1 pp4 #bgf-bii2 ,w4 ,p4 ,,capes and ,j4 ,d4 ,,carpenter1 ,municipal ,housecleaning1 pp4 #cc-hi2 ,g4 ,w4 ,,fuller1 ,sewage ,disposal1 pp4 #age-ahc2 ,,leonard ,,metcalf and ,h4 ,p4 ,,eddy1 ,american ,sewerage ,practice1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gh-abg2 ,a4 ,p4 ,,folwell1 ,sewerage1 pp4 #cjj-ccb2 ,l4 ,p4 ,,kinnicut1 ,c4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,winslow1 and ,a4 ,w4 ,,pratt1 ,sewage ,disposal1 pp4 #bjd-bcb4 #d4 ,the milk question4 ,references3 ,,charles ,,baskerville1 ,municipal ,chemistry1 pp4 #ij-aah2 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically ,applied1 pp4 #bcc-bgg2 ,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,the ,health of the ,city1 pp4 #cj-eg2 ,m4 ,j4 ,,rosenau1 ,the ,milk ,question1 pp4 #a-bb2 ,j4 ,s4 ,,macnutt1 ,the ,modern ,milk ,problem1 pp4 #a-cj2 ,h4 ,n4 ,,parker1 ,city ,milk ,supply1 pp4 #bh-ij2 ,g4 ,c4 ,,whipple1 ,typhoid ,fever1 pp4 #da-ia4 #e4 ,housing in its relation to public health4 ,references3 ,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,the ,health of the ,city1 pp4 #cjb-cde2 ,f4 ,c4 ,,howe1 ,the ,modern ,city and ,its ,problems1 pp4 #bgc-bhh2 ,,jacob ,a4 ,,riis1 ,how the ,other ,half ,lives1 pp4 #g-bg2 ,,lawrence ,,veiller1 ,housing ,reform1 pp4 #c-df4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the germ theory of disease4 ,c4 ,v4 ,,chapin1 ,the ,sources and ,modes of ,infection1 pp4 #a-ch2 ,c4 ,b4 ,,morrey1 ,the ,fundamentals of ,bacteriology1 pp4 #ah-ca4 #b4 ,typhoid fever4 ,illinois ,state ,board of ,health1 ,typhoid ,fever3 ,its ,cause1 ,prevention1 and ,suppression1 pp4 #b-ag4 #c4 ,insects and disease4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically ,applied1 pp4 #dbj-ddd4 #d4 ,vital statistics4 ,ibid41 pp4 #be-fe2 ,g4 ,c4 ,,whipple1 ,vital ,statistics1 pp4 #cjh-ccg4 #e4 ,sources of water supply4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,principles and ,methods of ,municipal ,administration1 pp4 #abb-adb4 #f4 ,the disposal of garbage4 ,ibid41 pp4 #afg-ahc4 #g4 ,the inspection of food4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically ,applied1 pp4 #bje-bcb4 #h4 ,the smoke nuisance4 ,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,the ,health of the ,city1 pp4 #a-h4 7,see also ,united ,states ,bureau of ,mines1 ,bulletin1 ,no4 #di47 #i4 ,tenement-house reform4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,city ,government1 pp4 #bhg-caj4 #aj4 ,municipal housing abroad4 ,,hollis ,,godfrey1 ,the ,health of the ,city1 pp4 #bfc-cja2 ,f4 ,c4 ,,howe1 ,the ,modern ,city and ,its ,problems1 pp4 #bhd-cjd4 #aa4 ,the work of local health authorities4 ,,moses ,n4 ,,baker1 ,municipal ,engineering and ,sanitation1 pp4 #bdh-beh2 ,,henry ,,bru,,re1 ,the ,new ,city ,government1 pp4 #dja-dac4 #ab4 ,health and education4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,wood1 ,sanitation ,practically ,applied1 pp4 #dde-dfb2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,burks and ,j4 ,d4 ,,burks1 ,health and the ,school1 pp4 #gc-ajb2 ,e4 ,b4 ,,hoag and ,l4 ,m4 ,,terman1 ,health ,work in the ,schools1 pp4 #a-ce4 ,questions #a4 ,from your reading of history and literature give some examples of the way diseases were dealt with in the olden days4 #b4 ,what are bacilli8 ,make a list of the things1 beneficial1 harmless1 and harmful which are due to their activities4 #c4 ,explain the various ways in which disease may be communicated4 ,how are the following measures related to the control of communicable diseases3 7a7 quarantine2 7b7 the draining of marshes2 7c7 the removal of filth2 7d7 the extermination of rats2 7e7 the enforcement of regulations to prevent overcrowding in tenements8 #d4 ,what are vital statistics and what is their value8 ,how are they compiled and by what means may they be improved8 #e4 ,explain what is meant by vaccination4 ,by inoculation4 ,give some evidence to prove that both have been effective4 #f4 ,why is milk inspection of supreme importance8 ,in what various ways may milk become infected8 ,why should milk be kept in a cool place8 #g4 ,do you understand the following terms3 adulteration2 artificial preservatives2 misbranding2 ptomaine2 narcotics8 #h4 ,name the various wastes which the community produces each day and explain how each may be safely disposed of4 #i4 ,in what ways may water be treated so as to make it safe for human consumption8 #aj4 ,why and in what way is it necessary to regulate the housing of the people in large cities8 #aa4 ,what are the duties of the local board of health in your community8 ,the state department of health8 #ab4 ,ought hygiene to be a compulsory study in the public high schools8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,vaccination should be made compulsory throughout the ,united ,states4 #b4 ,american cities should construct and maintain municipal tenements4 #c4 ,free medical attendance should be provided at the public expense for all who cannot afford to pay for it4 ----- ,footnote #bea3 ,measures for the promotion and protection of the public health have a marked effect upon the death rate4 ,fifty years ago it was not at all uncommon to find1 in ,american cities and towns1 an annual death rate of thirty persons per thousand of population4 ,today this rate has everywhere been cut in two4 ,even in large centers of population like ,new ,york and ,chicago the annual death rate1 in normal years1 is now below fifteen per thousand4 ,this means1 of course1 that the average duration of life1 taking the population as a whole1 has been lengthened4 ,the lowered death rate has probably added seven or eight additional years to the average life-span4 ,it is easy to see what an enormous gain this has meant to the productive power of the country4 ,footnote #beb3 ,recall1 for example1 the passage in ,homer's ,iliad1 where the sun god in anger raised his terrible bow and with every twang of the bow-string sent men to their death by pestilence4 ,footnote #bec3 ,it was the same with many other things4 ,the ,romans1 for example1 used seals with which to stamp impressions on documents and coins4 ,that is the essence of printing4 ,yet the world did not learn the next important step1 how to print books1 for a thousand years4 ,footnote #bed3 ,during the earlier years of the ,world ,war1 before the armies of the ,central ,powers overran ,serbia1 that country was stricken with typhus from one end to the other4 ,the ,allied countries equipped a great sanitary expedition which went through the land and virtually disinfected the entire population4 ,trains of box cars were fitted up as bathing and delousing plants1 with hot water and steam from the locomotive4 ,these trains went along from village to village1 stopping at each long enough to put the inhabitants1 one by one1 through the scrubbing process and their clothing through the steam vat4 ,footnote #bee3 ,in order that measures for preventing the spread of disease may be effective1 they must be based upon a well-organized and accurate system of vital statistics4 ,these statistics include figures relating to births1 deaths1 and illness4 ,they are compiled in the offices of the health authorities from the reports sent in by physicians4 ,these reports1 to be of real value1 must not only be accurate but prompt4 ,by means of these statistics the health authorities can sense the beginnings of an epidemic1 can often determine its source or cause1 and can immediately set the machinery in motion to ensure its control4 ,when one physician reports a case of typhoid this may not be of great significance2 but if a dozen cases are reported on the same day1 the necessity of an immediate investigation into the water and milk supplies becomes apparent4 ,footnote #bef3 ,the city of ,glasgow obtains its supply of pure water from ,loch ,katrine1 immortalized in ,the ,lady of the ,lake4 ,footnote #beg3 ,the choice between the two kinds of filtration depends upon local conditions4 ,where the raw water is excessively turbid or bad-colored1 the rapid sand filter is more commonly used4 ,the chemical treatment of water involves the use of chlorinated lime 7better known as bleaching powder7 or some other chemical disinfectant which kills the noxious bacteria4 ,only small quantities are required in proportion to the volume of water used4 ,chemical treatment is not commonly used except in emergencies2 it is not regarded as a satisfactory permanent plan of water treatment4 ,footnote #beh3 ,these housing regulations now provide1 as a rule1 that houses designed to accommodate more than two families shall not occupy more than two-thirds of the lots upon which they are built1 the remaining space being left for light and air4 ,they also require that such houses shall not be of highly inflammable construction1 that they be provided with lighted hallways1 that sanitary equipment be installed1 and that no rooms be used for ordinary living purposes unless they have one or more windows4 ,a further provision in some of these tenement-house laws is that houses may be condemned as unsanitary if they contain less than so many cubic feet of air space for each person living in them4 ,this last provision is difficult to enforce except by frequent inspection1 yet it is very important because no matter how well a house may be constructed1 there will be a danger to the public health if it is seriously overcrowded4 ,footnote #bei3 ,at the ,peace ,conference in #aiai the protection of the public health throughout the world was considered so important that provision for it was included in the ,covenant of the ,league of ,nations 7see p4 #fch74 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,poor-,,relief1 ,,correction1 ,,and ,,other ,,welfare ,,problems ,the purpose of this chapter is to describe the way in which ,american communities are dealing with the problems of poverty1 crime1 and delinquency4 ,poverty and ,pauperism4--,poverty is one of the very oldest among human problems2 two thousand years ago1 in ,biblical times1 the world was trying to find a solution for it and it has not ceased to try ever since4 ,in all ages and in all countries there have been groups of unfortunate people who1 through their own fault or the fault of others1 are not able to provide for their own subsistence4 ,it is to the condition of such people1 whose earnings do not enable them to maintain the normal standard of living1 that we apply the term poverty4 ,not all who are poor1 therefore1 are in poverty1 but only those who are so poor that their health and physical efficiency are being impaired by lack of earning power4 ,some of those who are in poverty become dependent upon private or public charity1 and these we call paupers4 ,pauperism1 in other words1 is a condition of dependence upon the agencies of poor-relief4 ,many thousands of persons live in poverty1 yet are not paupers4 ,they struggle along1 able only to make the barest sort of living1 and often suffer great privations rather than apply for any form of charity4 ,the ,extent of ,poverty and ,pauperism in the ,united ,states4--,there are no accurate figures showing the extent of poverty in the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,the number of paupers in public institutions4 ,the census of #aibj listed nearly a million persons in charitable institutions of one sort or another1 of whom about one hundred thousand were paupers in public almshouses4 ,but this census made no computation of the number receiving poor-relief in their own homes1 which must be several times as large as that in institutions4 ,it would probably be within bounds to say that five persons out of every hundred in the ,united ,states are partly or wholly dependent upon private or public aid4 ,probably as many more are in a condition of poverty1 but continue to struggle along without assistance from others4 ,we may say1 therefore1 that poverty holds about ten per cent of the whole population in its iron grip2 hence it is no exaggeration to speak1 as social-workers often do1 of the 8submerged tenth04 ,sidenote3 ,comparison with ,europe4 ,compared with other countries1 however1 this is not an excessive proportion4 ,in the countries of ,europe the percentage of paupers is much larger4 ,poverty is usually more widespread in thickly-populated regions where there are large groups of industrial workers4 ,in ,london it has been estimated that at least thirty per cent of the people are below the poverty line2 in ,new ,york ,city the estimate is twenty-five per cent4 ,the cities everywhere contribute far more than their due proportion to the impoverished classes4 ,poverty is least prevalent1 as a rule1 in the agricultural districts4#bfj ,the ,causes of ,poverty4--,the causes of poverty are numerous and complicated but they can all be grouped into two general classes3 ,first1 those which are traceable to the individual1 and second1 those which are attributable to the environment in which he lives4 ,these we may distinguish by calling them individual and social causes4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,individual causes of poverty4 ,among the individual causes of poverty the most common are illness1 accident1 old age1 degeneracy1 bereavement1 intemperance1 shiftlessness1 and ignorance4 ,illness is probably the most important single cause4 ,the figures compiled by poor-relief organizations show that it is the immediate reason for at least one-quarter of all the applications which come to them for assistance1 and is a contributory reason in the case of many more4 ,accidents which result in either temporary or permanent incapacity to do full work have also been an important cause of poverty in the past1 but they are no longer so to the same extent in those states which have made provision for workmen's insurance 7see p4 #daa74 ,old age comes to all in time and there are many thousands who make no provision for its coming4 ,this class includes many who have worked hard all their lives1 have reared families1 and have been useful citizens1 but who have been either unable or unwilling to save4 ,in some ,european countries1 as has been pointed out1 provision is made for them by means of old age pension systems4 ,bereavement1 particularly the loss by death of the family's main support1 has been a frequent cause of poverty among women and children4 ,to some extent this has been alleviated by the practice of making provision for mothers' pensions and by the increasing extent to which men who have dependents are now securing life insurance4 ,sidenote3 ,mental and moral degeneracy4 ,degeneracy1 which is also an important cause of poverty1 may be defined as inherited mental or moral weakness4 ,feeble-minded parents often transmit this defect to their children1 who start life with a handicap which they are not usually able to overcome4 ,it has been estimated that nearly one-half of all the inmates of public institutions are below the normal standard of mentality4 ,many years ago a careful study was made of a certain family--the ,jukes--through four generations1 great-grandparents1 grandparents1 parents1 and children4 ,among seven hundred persons in this family1 beginning with degenerate great-grandparents1 no fewer than five hundred became at some time or other recipients of public poor-relief4 ,incidentally1 it may be mentioned that they also contributed far more than their due proportion to the prisons and insane asylums4 ,sidenote3 ,physical handicaps4 ,then1 again1 some people who are neither mentally nor morally degenerate1 are born with physical handicaps or acquire these handicaps early in life2 such1 for instance1 are the deaf-mutes1 the blind1 and the crippled4 ,they are the ones whom we most commonly meet on the public streets begging or selling trinkets1 or playing some sort of instrument as an excuse for what is really begging4 ,intemperance1 too1 has figured largely among the causes of poverty during many centuries1 but so far as the ,united ,states is concerned it is not likely to do so in the future4 ,alcohol is one of the important factors in the problem of poverty which can be placed under control by the action of society4 ,shiftlessness1 ignorance1 bad habits1 and vice are all causes of varying importance1 but in the main they are only immediate causes2 the underlying causes are usually to be found in some mental1 moral1 or physical defect of the individual1 or they arise from a poor environment4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the social causes of poverty4 ,the social causes of poverty are also numerous4 ,unemployment is one of them1 and it is in many cases due to no fault of the individual worker4 ,more often it is the outcome of a serious imperfection in our industrial organization 7see p4 #dag74 ,the underpayment of the worker1 particularly the underpayment of women and children in industry1 has also contributed to the problem of poverty4 ,it means that the workers are under-nourished and therefore unable to maintain their normal strength2 they are unable to save anything for use in case of sickness or old age1 and hence have to fall back upon the agencies of private or public assistance whenever misfortune comes4 ,minimum wage laws 7see p4 #daf7 aim to protect society from having to pay the penalty which results1 both directly and indirectly1 from the underpayment of labor4 ,unsanitary conditions of living1 bad housing1 and overcrowding are causes of poverty--they are social causes because society creates such conditions and permits them to continue4 ,unsanitary conditions lead to illness1 and illness results in unemployment4 ,but they are also1 in a sense1 the effects of poverty2 they are conditions of life to which1 under our present social and economic organization1 the poor are compelled to submit by reason of their poverty4 ,defects in our educational system have been productive of more poverty than people commonly imagine4 ,it is not without significance that poverty is always widespread in those countries and those regions where illiteracy and ignorance are prevalent4 ,compulsory public education is one of the greatest measures for the prevention of poverty that the world has ever devised4 ,sidenote3 ,relation of the school system to poverty4 ,while the system of public education in the ,united ,states is exceedingly efficient on the whole1 it is nevertheless true that many thousands of children are growing up without enough education to ensure them a fair chance of success in life4 ,some would also include our immigration policy among the social causes of poverty4 ,until recent years these immigrants were permitted to come in almost unrestricted numbers2 they concentrated1 for the most part1 in large cities2 they contributed to overcrowding and by their competition for labor forced down the level of wages in unskilled employments4 ,the causes of poverty1 in short1 are not all traceable to the faults or misfortunes of the individual4 ,society as a whole is responsible for some of them4#bfa ,how ,we ,deal with the ,problem of ,poverty4--,the public attitude in regard to the problem of poverty has undergone a marked change during the past fifty years4 ,for many centuries poverty was looked upon as the result of human perverseness1 the outcome of purely individual causes which were likely to endure as long as human nature remained the same4 ,sidenote3 ,older methods of dealing with the poor4 ,it was taken for granted that the poor would be with us always2 that poverty could not be prevented by any action on the part of society1 and that the only thing to do was to punish the shiftless while helping the worthy poor by giving them public and private aid4 ,the measures for the relief of the poor taken by the governments of various ,european countries and by most ,american communities until comparatively recent years were based upon this attitude4 ,those who could work and would not were branded as vagrants and put in jail4 ,those who were in poverty through sickness1 accident1 old age1 degeneracy1 intemperance1 or other individual causes were taken into such institutions as hospitals1 infirmaries1 almshouses1 homes for inebriates1 and the like4 ,the people were everywhere encouraged to give alms to the poor1 but the prevention of poverty by organized social action received little or no attention4 ,sidenote3 ,the modern attitude4 ,the public attitude1 especially the attitude of the more enlightened part of the public1 has now changed or is changing4 ,we know from a careful study of the problem that poverty is no more an essential concomitant of civilized life than were piracy1 slavery1 bubonic plague1 or universal drunkenness in years now long gone by4 ,poverty can be eradicated as these things have been1 although not by any means so easily4 ,the individual causes of poverty1 of course1 will always be at work4 ,old age will continue to come upon mankind1 and we can hardly hope under any circumstances to get rid of sickness and accidents entirely4 ,but society can at least bring it about that old age1 illness1 and accident1 not to speak of unemployment and other social causes1 will no longer bring inevitable poverty in their train4 ,attention is now being given1 therefore1 to measures of prevention2 and almsgiving has come to be recognized as a mere makeshift way of dealing with the problem4 ,it is like trying to put an end to all diseases and to wipe illness off the face of the earth by merely giving people medicine after they become sick4 ,the ,temporary ,remedies4--,the only permanent solution for the problem of poverty is the removal of the underlying causes4 ,this1 however1 cannot be accomplished in a day1 and in the meantime various measures of temporary alleviation must be provided by the public authorities and by private organizations4 ,sidenote3 ,indoor relief4 ,public provision for the care of the poor takes two forms known respectively as indoor and outdoor relief4 ,by indoor relief is meant the care of the poor in institutions maintained by the state1 county1 or city4 ,there was a time when paupers of all types were herded together into the same poorhouse1 but it is now the policy to provide1 so far as practicable1 different public institutions for the sick1 the mentally defective1 the aged1 and the young4 ,hence1 in many states we have hospitals for chronic cases1 institutions for the feeble-minded1 homes for the aged1 institutions for the care of orphans1 schools for the blind1 and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,outdoor relief4 ,by outdoor relief is meant the giving of assistance to the poor in their own homes4 ,many years ago this was the more common plan of dealing with the problem2 it still exists in many ,american communities4 ,people who are in need apply to the overseers of the poor or to some other public authority from whom they receive1 after proper investigation1 such assistance in the form of food1 clothing1 fuel1 or medicine as they may urgently require4 ,some of the larger cities have abandoned altogether the giving of outdoor relief at the public expense because they have found this system open to grave abuses4 ,unless administered with great care1 it encourages shiftlessness and results in the expenditure of large amounts from the public funds4 ,the tendency nowadays is to leave outdoor relief to be provided by private organizations although some communities still take care of the most urgent cases from the public funds4 ,these private organizations are sometimes connected with the churches but more often they are entirely non-sectarian1 made up of generous men and women who give both time and money to the work4 ,private outdoor relief often leads to indiscriminate almsgiving1 thus lending encouragement to wastefulness and imposture4 ,people who are too lazy to earn an honest living apply to various organizations for help and sometimes obtain it from several of them4 ,sidenote3 ,the organization of relief agencies4 ,to eliminate this overlapping central bodies known as ,charity ,organization ,societies1 or ,associated ,charities1 or ,family ,welfare ,societies have been formed in many of the larger ,american communities4 ,their function is to serve as a clearing house of information concerning all applicants for assistance and in other ways to make the work of the individual organizations more efficient4 ,the ,permanent ,remedies4--,the permanent solution of the problem of poverty must be sought in comprehensive measures of prevention4 ,some of these measures are already being taken in the more progressive states2 others have been proposed and are steadily gaining public support4 ,sidenote3 ,social insurance4 ,insurance against sickness and accident1 minimum wage laws1 mothers' pensions1 are already doing their share in the prevention of poverty4 ,old age pensions have been established abroad and in time will doubtless be provided for the ,american worker4 ,insurance against unemployment may be inadvisable 7see p4 #dah7 but the organization of industry can be so improved as to reduce the amount of unemployment now existing4 ,sidenote3 ,other remedies4 ,the prohibition of the liquor traffic has marked an important step in the direction of reducing poverty4 ,vocational schools for the deaf1 the blind1 and the crippled1 are now training these unfortunates in the art of earning their own living4 ,the enforcement of laws relating to compulsory education will reduce illiteracy and thus decrease the class from which poverty secures most of its recruits4 ,present restrictions upon immigration1 if they are continued1 will render more easy the maintenance of ,american standards of living among those who toil with their hands4 ,by the segregation of degenerates in public institutions1 moreover1 we can prevent the propagation of degeneracy4#bfb ,overcrowding and unsanitary conditions of living are being prevented by modern city planning and good housing laws4 ,now it is doubtful whether all of these measures put together will avail to wipe out poverty entirely1 but if they are vigorously applied the amount of poverty in the ,united ,states will certainly be much reduced4 ,sidenote3 ,the danger of too many remedies4 ,there is always a danger1 of course1 that laws and regulations designed to promote the well-being of the poor may over-reach themselves1 and may result in placing additional burdens upon the wage-earning classes4 ,attempts to narrow the gulf between the rich and the poor by the levying of discriminatory taxes do not usually succeed2 in the end they merely augment the hardships of the poor4 ,it is customary for sociologists to speak of poverty as a 8social disease0 and to assure us that like any other disease it can be eradicated4 ,that is all very true4 ,but diseases are not eradicated by striking at the heads of healthy people in order that they may have a smaller advantage over the sick4 ,neither will the plague of poverty be cured by measures which strike at the well-to-do for the mere reason that they are so much better off than the poor4 ,the poor can never be made rich by the simple expedient of making the rich poorer4 ,the ,problem of the ,mentally ,defective4--,there are various forms of mental defectiveness1 ranging from feeble-mindedness to violent insanity4 ,the total number of mentally defective persons in the ,united ,states is estimated to exceed half a million4 ,until relatively recent years no careful distinction was made between persons afflicted with different forms of mental trouble2 all were treated in much the same way4 ,sidenote3 ,old and new methods of dealing with the insane4 ,the usual plan was to bring them together in large asylums where the violently insane were kept under close restraint while the 8harmless0 inmates were given somewhat greater freedom4 ,this crude method of dealing with unfortunates who needed medical treatment far more than they needed restraint and confinement has now been almost everywhere abandoned1 and the treatment of mental defectiveness is being carried on in accordance with more scientific methods4 ,these scientific methods involve the careful study and diagnosis of each particular case and the substitution of medical care for mechanical restraint4 ,in response to this treatment a considerable proportion of the cases have proved capable of marked improvement1 and sometimes entire recovery4 ,it should be mentioned1 however1 that some forms of insanity are not curable by any known form of scientific treatment4 ,a permanent reduction in the number of mentally-defective persons can best be achieved by preventing the transmission of hereditary defects1 by the proper treatment of mental ailments as soon as the first symptoms appear1 and by the removal of two things which have contributed greatly to the spread of insanity in the past1 namely1 alcoholism and the drug habit4 ,the ,problem of ,crime4--,a crime is an offence against society4 ,in early days all offences were regarded as having been committed against individuals4 ,the person who stole something was looked upon as having wronged the owner1 and the owner was entitled to secure his own redress4 ,but with the development of organized society there grew up the idea that the whole community had an interest in the prevention of wrong-doing1 and that wrongs which were ostensibly directed against single individuals were in reality committed against the whole people4 ,sidenote3 ,evolution of the criminal law4 ,so society took upon itself the responsibility for making laws to protect the rights of individuals1 and for the imposition of punishment whenever these laws are violated4 ,a crime is an offence against society because it involves some violation of a law which has been made in the interest of all4 ,an act may constitute a crime1 therefore1 without being morally wrong4 ,it is not morally wrong to park an automobile alongside a hydrant1 but it is in most cities a violation of the law to do so1 and punishable in the courts4 ,the courts enforce the law whatever it is4 ,the ,classification of ,crimes4--,it was formerly the custom to classify all crimes as treasons1 felonies1 or misdemeanors4 ,a treason was an attempt to overthrow the state by rebellion or otherwise2 a felony was a serious offence against persons or property1 such as murder or burglary2 while the term misdemeanor was used to include all the less serious violations of the law1 such as selling milk without a license or disregarding a sign to keep off the grass in the public parks4 ,nowadays1 however1 a more elaborate grouping of crimes is usually made4 ,sidenote3 ,the various types of offences4 ,this grouping usually includes 7a7 offences against the public peace and order1 such as treason1 rioting1 and any obstruction of the officers of the law2 7b7 offences against the public health and morals1 such as bigamy1 gambling1 the sale of intoxicants1 or the pollution of public water supplies2 7c7 offences against the person1 such as murder1 manslaughter1 or assault2 and 7d7 offences against property1 including burglary1 theft1 fraud1 and so on4 ,this list of offences does not include such things as breaches of contract1 libel1 and failure to pay debts1 for these are not crimes but torts or civil wrongs4 ,they are still regarded as offences against individuals and not against society4 ,the aggrieved individual brings his own suit in the courts1 and the courts merely act as arbiters to see that justice is done between man and man4 ,the ,causes of ,crime4--,the causes of crime1 like those of poverty1 are both individual and social4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,individual causes of crime4 ,men sometimes take to wrongdoing because they are mentally or morally defective1 having inherited traits of degeneracy4 ,handicapped by these defects in making an honest living they often resort to crime at an early age4 ,bad training in the home1 habits of truancy acquired during school age1 and aversion to work are all individual causes which promote criminality4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,social causes of crime4 ,the social causes include poverty1 the influence of bad companions1 the lack of efficiency on the part of police in cities1 the undue leniency of the courts in some cases1 and the difficulty which even honest men sometimes encounter in obeying the host of laws which our lawmakers are turning out every year4 ,it is significant that crimes against property1 such as burglary and theft become less frequent when the country is prosperous and more numerous in times of depression when so many persons are out of employment4 ,among illiterates the proportion of offenders against the law is very high1 so that the failure to enforce rigidly the laws relating to school attendance must also be set down as one of the social causes of criminality4 ,the ,extent of ,crime in the ,united ,states4--,more than half a million persons are sent to jails or reformatories in the ,united ,states every year4 ,the number of those who are let off with the payment of fines is much larger4 ,even these two figures put together do not give us the number of crimes committed1 however1 for it is probable that the majority of crimes do not result in the detection of the guilty person1 and many minor crimes are not reported to the police at all4 ,the cost of maintaining police systems for the prevention of crime1 courts for the trial of accused persons1 and prisons for the incarceration of the convicted1 is about a billion dollars per year1 or about as much as the country spends upon education4 ,sidenote3 ,are crimes on the increase8 ,whether the number of crimes1 taking the country as a whole1 is increasing more rapidly than the growth of population we do not know4 ,this is because the figures in some states are not carefully or uniformly kept4 ,but crime has been increasing in the large cities during the past few decades4 ,this is partly because the crowded cities afford unusual opportunities to escape detection and partly because police inefficiency or corruption has encouraged the commission of crimes with impunity4 ,the number of crimes committed in the ,united ,states is much greater1 in proportion to population1 than in any of the chief ,european countries4#bfc ,the ,theory of ,punishment4--,among primitive people punishment was regarded as a retaliation or vengeance1 but as civilization developed this notion gave way to one in which punishment was looked upon as a means of warning other people from committing similar crimes4 ,in either case the feeling was that punishment ought to be severe4 ,sidenote3 ,the old severity4 ,severity1 rather than certainty of punishment was depended upon to deter people from committing crimes4 ,a century ago in ,england1 for example1 men were put to death for stealing small sums of money and were sent to jail for long terms when they failed to pay their debts4 ,but even this severity of punishment did not achieve the desired end1 for crimes were relatively more numerous in ,england a century ago than they are today4 ,sidenote3 ,what is the purpose of punishment8 ,in due course the public intelligence was led to the conclusion that certainty of detection and punishment1 rather than severity1 was the best way of securing the observance of the laws4#bfd ,since the prime object of punishment is neither to visit the wrath of society upon the offender1 nor yet to reform him 7although this is an incidental object71 but to protect the people against the commission of crimes1 it follows that the penalty should be no more severe than is necessary to achieve this object4 ,hence there are gradations of punishment1 each adjusted to the degree in which the offence constitutes a challenge to the well-being of society4 ,if murder is more severely penalized than manslaughter1 it is not because the victim suffers more in one case than in the other4 ,he has lost his life in either case1 and no penalty can restore it4 ,it is not the atrociousness of a crime that makes it serious1 but the degree of danger to the whole community involved4 ,prisons and ,prison ,reform4--,until a generation ago the treatment of prisoners in all parts of the country was inhuman4 ,offenders of all types1 old and young1 were thrown together into the same institutions4 ,they were brutally treated by those in charge1 confined in narrow1 damp cells1 given poor food to eat and rarely set to work at any useful employment4 ,even yet these conditions have not wholly disappeared from every part of the ,united ,states4 ,but the movement for the reform of prisons and prison methods has made notable progress during the past twenty years4 ,sidenote3 ,the main features of prison reform3 ,the main features in prison reform may be briefly stated4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,classification of prisoners4 ,first1 in point of importance1 is the classifying of prisoners and the sending of each class to a special institution instead of herding them all together in one county jail4 ,some prisoners are hardened criminals and not easy to reform4 ,others are first offenders1 persons who have never been previously convicted4 ,with humane treatment and the opportunity to learn a trade these prisoners can often be sent out into the world1 when their terms expire1 with the likelihood of their becoming good citizens4 ,there are others who also need to be segregated1 such as juvenile offenders and those who are mentally defective4 ,prison reform involves the separation and special treatment of each class4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,justice ,,and ,,mercy4 ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,willett ,copyright by ,a4 ,r4 ,willett4 ,reproduced by permission of the ,county ,commissioners1 ,mahoning ,county1 ,ohio1 from a photograph by the ,youngstown ,art ,engraving ,company4 ,,justice ,,and ,,mercy ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,willett ,from a mural decoration in the ,mahoning ,county ,court ,house1 ,youngstown1 ,ohio4 ,there is enough realism in this picture to obviate the need of much interpretation4 ,the prosecuting attorney1 with the book of the law in his hand1 asks that judgment be given4 ,he is in no angry mood1 but is merely performing a stern duty4 ,to the right1 a wife and mother pleads that justice be tempered with mercy4 8,and earthly power doth then show likest ,god's1 ,when mercy seasons justice40 --,the ,merchant of ,venice4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the new discipline4 ,another feature of prison reform is the humanizing of discipline4 ,it has been the general custom in prisons to punish any serious breach of the rules by placing the offender in solitary confinement for days or even weeks4 ,better results are now being obtained by giving privileges to those prisoners who behave properly and taking these privileges away from all who do not4 ,this plan involves the grading of prisoners according to their conduct1 the best-behaved men being placed in the first class and allowed various privileges4 ,a system of marks and demerits is used to determine the grade of each prisoner4 ,solitary confinement is reserved for the incorrigibles only4#bfe ,sidenote3 #c4 ,internal reforms4 ,along with the system of classifying and grading prisoners1 a general betterment of internal prison conditions has been taking place4 ,it is now generally recognized that all prisoners should be kept employed at useful labor1 that wherever practicable those who have not already learned a trade should be taught one during their prison terms1 that those who are illiterate should learn to read and write1 that the labor of prisoners should not be farmed out to employers as has so often been the case in the past1 that prisoners should not be subjected to unnecessary humiliation1 and that they should be given such measure of self-government as can be safely entrusted to them4 ,outdoor employment on state farms and state roads is replacing1 to a considerable extent1 the activities of the prison workshop4 ,indeterminate ,sentences and the ,parole ,system4--,two marked improvements in correctional methods have been introduced by the use of indeterminate sentences and releases on parole4 ,the old plan was to sentence every prisoner for a fixed term1 two years1 ten years1 or some such period4 ,the convict then served out his full term1 no more and no less1 irrespective of his behavior4 ,this plan is now being abolished4 ,instead it is becoming the general practice to make the sentences indeterminate1 as for example1 not less than two nor more than five years4 ,by good behavior the prisoner is then enabled to secure his release when the minimum period has expired4 ,this method is particularly desirable in the case of young offenders who are sent to reformatories4 ,the parole system is also used as a means of encouraging good behavior and reformation on the part of prisoners4 ,where this system is in operation the prison officials are permitted to release prisoners1 even before their minimum terms have expired1 upon promise to give society no further trouble4 ,if the paroled prisoner should violate this promise1 he is brought back to finish his term4 ,it has been found that very few paroled prisoners fail to keep their promises4 ,the ,probation ,system4--,the number of persons committed to prison has been considerably reduced by the use of probation4 ,in the case of first offences1 where the crime is not serious1 it is now the usual practice in many courts to place the offender on probation for a given period4 ,this means that instead of being taken to jail he is placed under the surveillance of a probation officer4 ,these probation officers are attached to the courts2 their duty is to help probationers1 keep a watchful eye on them1 and report from time to time how they are getting along4#bff ,the ,problem of ,juvenile ,delinquency4--,great progress has been made during the past twenty-five years in the treatment of juvenile offenders4 ,persons under eighteen years of age were formerly dealt with by the regular criminal tribunals2 in many of the larger cities they are now brought before a special ,juvenile ,court4 ,where such courts do not exist it is the usual practice to have juvenile cases brought before the regular court at a special session4 ,the offenders1 in serious cases1 are usually sent to reform schools or other institutions where vocational instruction is given4 ,for minor offences1 particularly where there is no previous record of appearance in the juvenile court1 the offender is placed in charge of a probation officer4 ,the purpose of the probation system is to secure the reformation of the offenders1 not to enforce punishment4#bfg ,sidenote3 ,why divorces are becoming more common4 ,the ,divorce ,problem4--,the steady increase in the number of divorces has tended to make juvenile delinquency more difficult to handle2 in other respects also it constitutes a social problem of the first magnitude4#bfh ,several economic and social changes have tended to make divorces more common4 ,the development of industry is one of them4 ,before modern industry afforded employment for women1 the household was almost the sole center of feminine activity4 ,but under present economic conditions most women find no great difficulty in earning their own living and this has engendered a feeling of self-reliance4 ,mention may likewise be made of the fact that the rights and privileges of women have been more strongly stressed by law and custom during recent years4 ,women have been given the legal right to own property1 to vote1 and to hold office4 ,these things have helped to develop a spirit of independence4 ,social conditions have also changed4 ,in the old days men who divorced their wives and women who divorced their husbands were frowned upon by their neighbors1 but this weapon of social ostracism has been gradually losing its power because society has come to recognize the justice of granting divorces for adequate reasons4 ,sidenote3 ,can the causes of divorces be reduced8 ,how ,may the ,situation be ,remedied8--,in seeking a remedy for any political1 social1 or economic evil we must first turn to the causes4 ,the increase in the number of divorces has been due in considerable measure1 as already pointed out1 to the growth of industrial opportunities for women and to the readiness with which society tolerates the granting of divorces4 ,it is also due1 in some degree1 to the conditions of life in large cities where the nervous strain caused by over-crowding makes it more difficult to meet the complex domestic problems patiently4 ,it is significant that divorces are much more common in the large cities than in the rural districts4 ,in part it is due also to the lax divorce laws of some states1 where the courts are permitted to grant divorces on the flimsiest pretexts1 and to the absence of sufficiently strict regulations designed to prevent hasty marriages4 ,sidenote3 ,some specific remedies4 ,some of these causes are hard to remedy4 ,the economic independence of women is a new condition which cannot be changed4 ,some progress has been made in various cities of the country by the establishment of special tribunals known as ,courts of ,domestic ,relations whose function it is to adjust family quarrels4 ,these courts have proved their value by keeping many cases out of the divorce courts4 ,it has been suggested that we ought to amend the national constitution so as to provide that no divorces shall be granted except by the federal courts4 ,this would make the rules uniform throughout the ,united ,states and prevent the securing of divorces on trivial grounds4 ,a proposal for such an amendment is now being considered by ,congress4 ,meanwhile some of the states have come to the conclusion that a check should be placed upon hasty marriages and have consequently made laws requiring that persons intending to be married shall file notice of their intention a certain number of days before the marriage takes place4 ,these various remedies are good enough so far as they go1 but the only permanent and effective remedy is the education of public opinion to a point where it will use its influence to check the stream of divorces4 ,social ostracism is a powerful weapon in the hands of any community that wishes to use it4 ,the immediate need is to educate the ,american people in the homes1 in the schools1 and in the churches1 so that they may appreciate the gravity of the problem and insist upon its being properly solved4 ,general ,references ,e4 ,t4 ,,towne1 ,social ,problems1 pp4 #bhe-cjg 7,poor ,relief72 pp4 #ahd-bjg 7,mental ,defectives72 pp4 #bjh-bcd 7,crime and ,correction72 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch and ,s4 ,h4 ,,patterson1 ,american ,social ,problems1 pp4 #bjj-bej 7,poor ,relief72 pp4 #bga-bhh 7,mental ,defectives72 pp4 #bcg-bgj 7,crime and ,correction72 ,,charles ,a4 ,,ellwood1 ,sociology and ,modern ,social ,problems1 pp4 #bii-cbe 7,poor ,relief72 pp4 #cbf-cec 7,crime and ,correction72 ,a4 ,g4 ,,warner1 ,american ,charities1 especially pp4 #cf-fc2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,henderson1 ,dependent1 ,defective1 and ,delinquent ,classes1 especially pp4 #a-ci2 ,f4 ,h4 ,,wines1 ,punishment and ,reformation1 especially pp4 #aba-acb 7,the ,reformation of the ,criminal72 ,,maurice ,,parmelee1 ,poverty and ,social ,progress1 pp4 #afh-ahg4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the causes of poverty and how we may get rid of them4 ,relative importance of the various causes in your own state and community4 ,analyze each of these causes and ascertain what measures have been taken to deal with each4 ,study the experience of foreign countries with old-age pensions and unemployment allowances4 ,note the effect1 if any1 of workmen's insurance1 mothers' pensions1 and minimum wage laws in various ,american states4 ,suggest further steps for removing the fundamental causes of poverty4 ,references3 ,e4 ,t4 ,,towne1 ,social ,problems1 pp4 #bij-cja2 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch and ,s4 ,h4 ,,patterson1 ,american ,social ,problems1 pp4 #bje-baf2 ,e4 ,t4 ,,devine1 ,misery and its ,causes1 pp4 #a-ej2 ,,robert ,,hunter1 ,poverty1 pp4 #a-fe2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,dawson1 ,social ,insurance1 passim4 #b4 ,the care of dependent children4 ,references3 ,a4 ,g4 ,,warner1 ,american ,charities1 pp4 #bbj-bbh2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,henderson1 ,dependent1 ,defective1 and ,delinquent ,classes1 pp4 #ih-abj2 ,g4 ,b4 ,,mangold1 ,child ,problems1 pp4 #bic-cde4 #c4 ,prison reform3 how far should it be carried8 ,references3 ,e4 ,h4 ,,wines1 ,punishment and ,reformation1 pp4 #cab-cfc2 ,t4 ,m4 ,,osborne1 ,within ,prison ,walls1 pp4 #bd-eh2 ,ibid41 ,society and ,prisons1 pp4 #ahe-bce2 ,c4 ,r4 ,,henderson1 ,the ,dependent1 ,defective1 and ,delinquent ,classes1 pp4 #bgf-cjg4 #d4 ,the divorce problem in its social and economic aspects4 ,early history of the problem4 ,the spread of divorce in the ,united ,states4 ,comparison with other countries4 ,causes of divorce4 ,relative importance of these causes4 ,effects on family organization4 ,effects upon the children concerned4 ,economic results of divorce4 ,the possible remedies4 ,probable effectiveness of these remedies4 ,conclusions4 ,references3 ,c4 ,a4 ,,ellwood1 ,sociology and ,modern ,social ,problems1 pp4 #adg-aff2 ,w4 ,f4 ,,willcox1 ,the ,divorce ,problem1 passim2 ,j4 ,p4 ,,lichtenberger1 ,divorce2 ,a study in social causation 7,columbia ,university ,studies in ,history1 ,economics1 and ,public ,law1 ,vol4 ,,xxxv1 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #eb-if1 #aea-aga72 ,j4 ,q4 ,,dealey1 ,the ,family in its ,sociological ,aspects1 pp4 #gc-ajh2 ,united ,states ,bureau of the ,census1 ,report for #aiaj 7,see ,abstract1 ,sections on ,marital ,conditions72 ,h4 ,,bosanquet1 ,the ,family1 pp4 #bfj-cad2 ,w4 ,,goodsell1 ,the ,family as a ,social and ,educational ,institution1 pp4 #def-dif4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the treatment of the poor in earlier days4 ,,thomas ,,mackay1 ,public ,relief of the ,poor1 pp4 #ce-fh4 #b4 ,unemployment as a cause of poverty4 ,e4 ,t4 ,,devine1 ,misery and its ,causes1 pp4 #aac-adf4 #c4 ,old-age pensions abroad4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,dawson1 ,social ,insurance in ,germany1 pp4 #a-ba4 #d4 ,the problem of the deaf and the blind4 ,e4 ,t4 ,,towne1 ,social ,problems1 pp4 #afa-aha4 #e4 ,poor relief organizations in the ,united ,states4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,henderson1 ,modern ,methods of ,charity1 pp4 #chj-dea4 #f4 ,the problem of the mental defectives4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,burch and ,s4 ,h4 ,,patterson1 ,american ,social ,problems1 pp4 #bga-bhh4 #g4 ,theories of crime and punishment4 ,t4 ,n4 ,,carver1 ,sociology and ,social ,progress1 pp4 #fed-fgc4 #h4 ,the work of ,jeremy ,bentham4 ,a4 ,v4 ,,dicey1 ,the ,relation ,between ,law and ,public ,opinion in ,england1 pp4 #afg-bji4 #i4 ,prison self-government4 ,f4 ,h4 ,,wines1 ,punishment and ,reformation1 pp4 #cfd-dab4 #aj4 ,fundamental factors in the prevention of crime4 ,f4 ,h4 ,,wines1 ,punishment and ,reformation1 pp4 #dac-dfa4 #aa4 ,juvenile courts4 ,,bernard ,,flexner and ,r4 ,n4 ,,baldwin1 ,juvenile ,courts and ,probation1 pp4 #ab-gh2 ,t4 ,d4 ,,eliot1 ,the ,juvenile ,court and the ,community1 pp4 #a-da4 ,questions #a4 ,what is the difference between poverty and pauperism8 ,has the distinction any importance8 #b4 ,place the individual causes of poverty in what seems to you to be their order of consequence and give your reasons for so placing them4 #c4 ,what is meant by the minimum standard of living8 ,make an estimate of what it costs to maintain this minimum standard in your own community at the present time4 #d4 ,to what extent are overcrowding and unsanitary conditions the cause of poverty and to what extent are they the effect8 #e4 ,what are the advantages and the disadvantages of private poor relief organizations8 ,in what way may the disadvantages be overcome8 #f4 ,in what ways are poverty and a poor educational system related8 #g4 ,why is it desirable to separate the different types of mental defectives8 #h4 ,what is the difference between crimes and torts8 ,which of the following are crimes and which are not3 telling a falsehood2 blasphemy2 throwing rubbish in the streets2 refusing to obey the orders of a policeman2 building a house on another man's land2 ringing in a false alarm2 telling false stories about a neighbor2 playing ball on ,sunday8 ,can you make a classification of crimes apart from that given in the text8 #i4 ,place the causes of crime in what seems to you to be their order of importance4 ,compare this with the answer to ,question #b4 #aj4 ,explain the difference between indeterminate sentence1 parole1 and probation4 #aa4 ,make a list of prison reforms which meet your approval4 ,what could you do1 as a citizen1 to secure the adoption of these reforms4 #ab4 ,why are juvenile courts desirable8 ,what disposition do they make of cases which come before them8 ,what are the duties of a probation officer8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the public authorities should assume all responsibility for poor relief and do away with private charity organizations altogether4 #b4 ,county jails should be abolished and all prisoners sent to state or federal institutions4 #c4 ,the ,osborne plan of prison self-government should be adopted throughout the country4 ----- ,footnote #bfj3 ,an exception to this must be made in the case of the negro population of the ,south4 ,the amount of poverty among the ,southern negroes is large1 although most of them live in rural communities4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,poverty1 in a way1 reproduces itself4 ,some years ago a ,new ,york social worker gave the following rather cogent description of the way in which one generation passes its poverty on to the next4 8,a child1 reared in a poor home1 is taken out of school and sent to work at an early age4 ,he drudges away1 brings home every cent of his pay1 is allowed to keep little or none of it1 and gets no fun out of life4 ,after a while he gets tired of this2 he meets some girl who has been brought up in the same way2 they get married2 but neither of them has saved any money nor has the slightest idea of how to manage a home4 ,they rent a small flat1 buy some furniture on the installment plan1 and then find that they are not able to pay for it4 ,they get into debt and when either falls sick or the husband is out of work there is nothing to eat4 ,when children come they grow up on improper nourishment2 they are slapped in the face and scolded at all hours2 they get no home training and very little schooling2 as soon as they are able to earn a few dollars a week they are hauled out of school and put to work--and so history just repeats itself40 ,footnote #bfb3 ,the marriage of feeble-minded or other mentally defective persons ought to be prevented1 for the results of such marriages are bad for the whole community4 ,they help to fill the poorhouses1 the asylums1 and the jails4 ,there are some who believe that the government ought to go further and lend its influence towards the promotion of greater care in determining the marriage of persons who are not mentally defective4 ,marriage1 as has been shown in an earlier chapter1 is the basis of the home and hence the foundation of the whole social order4 ,it is an institution of exceedingly great importance to the well-being of society4 ,yet we leave the whole thing to the caprice of individuals1 or their passing fancy1 or to the accidents of chance friendships4 ,whatever may be the inspiration to marriage it can truly be said that many unions of man and woman contribute nothing to the well-being of present or future society4 ,is it right that an institution of such importance to the human race1 both present and future1 should be so little controlled by law1 by custom1 or by public opinion and so largely left to the discretion of individuals8 ,can the race be improved in that way8 ,beyond preventing the marriage of mentally degenerate persons is there any further action that society ought to take8 ,footnote #bfc3 ,many explanations are offered for this4 ,we are a relatively new country1 with a population made up of many races4 ,court procedure is slow and cumbrous2 it takes a long time to punish offenders1 and they have a fair chance of escaping punishment altogether4 ,police have been under the control of politicians and have been lax in enforcing the laws4 ,we have emphasized the idea of liberty so strongly that it has benefited even the criminal4 ,we have not made punishment certain enough or severe enough to deter people from evil-doing4 ,all these excuses have some force1 no doubt1 but do they fully account for our poor showing in comparison with other countries8 ,footnote #bfd3 ,the reformer who first educated the public to this doctrine was ,jeremy ,bentham1 an ,english writer on social topics who lived in the early years of the nineteenth century4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,the most conspicuous figure in this branch of prison reform during recent years is ,mr4 ,thomas ,mott ,osborne1 who was for a time in charge of the state prison at ,auburn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,osborne entirely abolished the old system of discipline and established a scheme of self-government among the prisoners4 ,but public opinion was not quite ready for such a radical experiment as ,mr4 ,osborne inaugurated1 and his work was bitterly criticised in many quarters1 although it was commended in others4 ,in the midst of the controversy he gave up his post and his successor did not continue his policy4 ,footnote #bff3 ,a good many people are beginning to wonder whether the reaction against the old-fashioned methods of dealing with offenders has not been carried too far4 ,persons charged with crime are now given a fair trial with liberal opportunities for appeal4 ,when convicted they are frequently given indeterminate sentences and then1 after a short term of confinement1 are released on parole4 ,in prison they are well housed1 properly fed1 given various privileges1 provided with motion picture entertainments1 and given other forms of recreation4 ,the complaint is made that we have made the path of the transgressor altogether too easy and that the sort of punishment which is now meted out to offenders is inadequate to serve as a deterrent to crime4 ,the increase in crime1 particularly in the larger ,american cities1 is by some attributed to this leniency of treatment4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,one of the first of these courts1 and the best known of them all1 is the ,juvenile ,court of ,denver1 ,colorado1 which was for some years presided over by ,judge ,ben ,b4 ,lindsey4 ,for a time the success of this court seemed to be remarkable1 for ,judge ,lindsey possessed the knack of getting wayward boys to tell him the truth2 but in his zeal for giving them a chance to reform he appeared to many citizens of ,denver to be unduly lenient4 ,the ,juvenile ,court was retained1 but another judge was put in charge of it4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,in number of divorces the ,united ,states1 unhappily1 leads the world4 ,more divorces are granted each year in this country than in all other civilized countries put together4 ,this is one of the things which gives us no occasion for boasting1 because it points to a serious weakening in the stability and strength of the family as a social unit4 ,not only is the number of divorces very large1 but it is rapidly increasing year by year4 ,fifty years ago the number per annum in the ,united ,states was only about twenty thousand2 now it is over one hundred and twenty thousand4 ,on the average there was one divorce for every thirty marriages in #ahgj2 today the ratio is one in ten4 ,at the present rate of increase it has been estimated that by #aiej no fewer than one-fourth of all marriages will be terminated by divorce1 and if the same condition of affairs should continue until the end of the twentieth century1 one-half of all the marriages would eventuate in that way4 ,this would indeed be an ominous outlook were it not that conditions are likely1 sooner or later1 to undergo a change4 ,when a social problem becomes very serious1 as this one is now becoming1 it is the habit of society to seek out and apply appropriate remedies4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,the ,,national ,,defence ,the purpose of this chapter is to show why an army and navy are needed by the ,united ,states2 how they are organized2 and what they cost4 ,sidenote3 ,what we spend each year for military purposes4 ,the ,stupendous ,cost of ,armaments4--,although the people of the ,united ,states dislike war and desire peace the national government is now spending about #gej1jjj1jjj every year to maintain the country's military and naval forces4 ,seven dollars per head of population is our annual contribution for national defence4 ,the people of the ,united ,states are spending far more on national defence1 on payments for past wars1 and on preparations for wars of the future1 than they are expending upon all branches of civil government4 ,the cost of a single battleship is greater than that of all the school buildings in a state like ,ohio or ,california4 ,and this does not reckon the loss caused by the withdrawal of more than two hundred thousand able-bodied young men from the farms and factories4 ,why is it necessary to support armies and navies8 ,the leading nations of the world1 at the ,washington conference of #aiba-aibb1 reached an agreement for the reduction of naval armaments4 ,would it not be practicable for the world to abolish armies and navies altogether8 ,we have all heard the arguments of the pacifists to the effect that great armaments are not necessary1 that they are in fact an encouragement to war1 and that they merely impose upon the people a grievous burden in taxes without any substantial advantage in return4#bfi ,let us first look at this problem from a different angle1 close at home4 ,we spend large sums of money in all ,american cities for the maintenance of police1 police courts1 and prisons4 ,why do we do it8 ,if people would only obey the laws1 respect the rights of others1 and refrain from interfering with their neighbors1 there would be no need for these armed guardians of the law4 ,the trouble is1 however1 that without police and prisons we would have disorder1 injustice1 and oppression4 ,a community certainly would not promote the cause of law and order by leaving itself helpless against those who set out to do wrong4 ,now the army and the navy are our police writ large4 ,they are1 against wrong-doing from without1 what the police are against wrong-doing from within--a measure of protection and security4 ,sidenote3 ,a nation cannot leave itself defenceless4 ,defence is an ,essential ,function of ,government4--,many years ago one of the ,fathers of the ,american ,republic1 ,james ,madison1 stated this point in a single sentence4 8,security against foreign danger01 he wrote1 8is one of the primitive objects of civil society4 ,it is an avowed object of the ,american union40 ,we set great value in this democracy on the right to 8life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness01 but no people can be secure in their rights to any of these things so long as they permit themselves to remain defenceless against the assaults of their enemies4 ,when one citizen injures another there are courts to render justice4 ,but when one nation treats another unjustly the injured country has no such redress2 it must depend upon its own strength to assert its rights4 ,the impulse to self-defence is deeply implanted in human nature4 ,a man's first care is to defend himself and those dearest to him4 ,so a nation's first care should be for the safety of those within its borders4 ,a country that is not ready and able to protect its own citizens can scarcely be said to deserve their patriotism4 ,fear ,god and take your own part6 is a good motto4#bgj ,a man who cannot take his own part1 when occasion demands1 is a weakness in any community1 for his impotence is an encouragement to wrongdoers4 ,the same applies to nations4 ,a country that cannot defend itself against external injustice puts a premium on aggression4#bga ,the day may come when1 as it is written in the ,scriptures1 8nation shall not lift up sword against nation1 neither shall they learn war any more02 but until that long-looked-for time arrives it is the duty of every land to make sure that its territories shall not be invaded with impunity4 ,wanton or unjust war is an abhorrent evil1 and even a just war of self-defence brings immeasurable suffering4 ,the permanent avoidance of war is assuredly a goal which human effort should strive by some means or other to attain4 ,sidenote3 ,do armaments engender militarism8 ,national ,defence and ,militarism4--,it is often said that armaments lead to militarism and the encouragement of a warlike spirit among the people1 and that the nation which keeps a sharp sword is always under a temptation to unsheathe it4 ,the history of ,european nations proves that there is a measure of truth in this assertion4 ,huge armies are not merely an economic burden1 a source of enormous expense2 but they create suspicion and distrust among a nation's neighbors4 ,during the fifty years preceding #aiad the various countries of ,europe kept each other's tempers constantly on edge by reason of their being armed to the teeth4 ,the standing armies of ,germany1 ,austria1 ,russia1 ,france1 and ,italy prior to the outbreak of the ,world ,war totalled nearly two million men4 ,these men had to be fed1 clothed1 and supported by the labor of those who were not in the military service4 ,how much better it would have been if most of them had spent their time behind the plough6 ,sidenote3 ,what another world-war would mean4 ,the ,causes of ,war4--,intelligent people everywhere are agreed that war is the greatest curse of humanity and that some means of prevention must be found4 ,if the world1 within the next generation1 should have the misfortune to engage in another titanic conflict like the last1 it will not much matter who wins4 ,victor and vanquished will alike go down in a welter of blood and chaos4 ,there is no difference of opinion among thoughtful men of all nations on this point4 ,so far as the desirability of permanently avoiding war is concerned1 there is entire agreement between pacifists and other people4 ,but how is war to be permanently avoided8 ,one way1 and probably the only effective way1 is to remove the causes of war4 ,sidenote3 ,the chief motives in war4 ,in past years a great many different things have drawn nations into war4 ,greed for territory has been a prolific cause of armed conflict during many centuries4 ,governments1 like individuals1 often violate the tenth commandment and covet the possessions of their neighbors4 ,rivalry in trade sometimes leads to ill-feeling1 suspicion1 and in the end to hostilities4 ,the press1 or certain sections of it1 is sometimes given to fomenting this bad feeling and so are politicians occasionally4 ,the misgovernment of a helpless people has at times led to outside intervention on their behalf1 as when the ,united ,states in #ahih interposed to terminate ,spanish oppression in ,cuba4 ,alliances among nations1 particularly secret alliances1 have aroused jealousy to a point where some relatively minor mishap sufficed to send armies forth to battle4 ,in the case of the ,world ,war the murder of an ,austrian archduke at ,serajevo was the match which set ,europe aflame2 but it was not the underlying cause of the conflict4 ,the real causes are to be found in the rivalry1 the jealousies1 and the militarism which turned ,europe into a huge armed camp during the years preceding #aiad4 ,sidenote3 ,can these motives be removed8 ,there is no reason why nations should be natural enemies4 ,like men they can live together in amity if1 like men1 they learn to secure respect for their own rights by respecting the rights of others4 ,up to a certain point rivalry between different countries makes for progress1 but when rivalry engenders bitterness it becomes a menace to peace4 ,a large part of the mutual suspicion which exists among governments would be obliterated if secret diplomacy were abolished and the burden of great armaments removed4 ,the ,regular ,army of the ,united ,states4--,until these causes of war are permanently removed by some agreement among the nations of the world no country can venture to give up reasonable measures for its own defence4 ,for military protection the ,united ,states relies first of all upon the regular army4 ,in proportion to the total population of the country this army has never been large in time of peace4 ,the policy of the ,united ,states has always been to maintain a standing army of very moderate size and to depend1 in emergencies1 upon the assistance of units raised from among the able-bodied men of the civilian population4#bgb ,sidenote3 ,how the regular army is organized4 ,the size of the regular army is fixed from time to time by ,congress2 it is always recruited by voluntary enlistment and has never contained any regiments raised by conscription4 ,enlistments are for a term of years1 at the end of which time an honorable discharge is given if the soldier has served faithfully4 ,the regular army is completely and at all times under the control of the ,war ,department2 its officers are appointed by the ,president as commander-in-chief2 its discipline is regulated by federal law and its entire cost of maintenance is borne by the national government4 ,the ,national ,guard4--,but the military forces of the ,united ,states do not consist of the regular army alone4 ,each state maintains a militia in which every able-bodied citizen between the ages of eighteen and forty-five is under obligation to serve when called upon4 ,the effective portion of this militia1 however1 consists of organized units known as the national guard4 ,in time of peace the national guard is under the control of the states1 the governor in each state being its commander-in-chief2 but ,congress has authority to provide for the arming and disciplining of this force so that it may be serviceable in time of war4 ,the present regulations relating to the size1 organization1 arming1 and disciplining of the national guard were framed by ,congress in #aiaf4 ,its officers1 in time of peace1 are appointed in each state by the governor2 but the national government furnishes the arms and equipment besides giving an annual money grant to each state4 ,the national guard1 like the regular army1 is recruited by voluntary enlistment4 ,in time of war or other emergency it may be called into the service of the federal government and then becomes1 for all practical purposes1 an integral part of the ,united ,states army4#bgc ,the ,volunteers4--,during practically all the wars in which the ,united ,states was engaged prior to #aiag a call was made for volunteers4 ,in the ,civil ,war more than a million soldiers were brought to the colors in response to the six successive calls which ,president ,lincoln issued4 ,but recruits did not always come readily and it was necessary on occasions to offer bounties or money grants to all who would volunteer4 ,during the war with ,spain in #ahih volunteers were again called for1 and many regiments were raised in this way1 notably the ,first ,volunteer ,cavalry1 better known as the ,rough ,riders4#bgd ,the serious defect of an army raised in this way is that no one can foretell the number of men who will respond4 ,the volunteer system1 moreover1 rests upon the idea that military service is an optional1 not a universal duty1 on the part of citizens4 ,sidenote3 ,the draft in #aiag-aiah4 ,the ,national ,army4--,when the ,united ,states entered the ,world ,war in #aiag it was realized that a sufficient military force could not be obtained by using the regular army1 by ordering out the national guard1 or by calling for volunteers4 ,so1 on ,may #ah1 #aiag1 ,congress passed the ,selective ,service ,act which authorized the ,president to summon all male citizens between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one to be registered4 ,it further provided that the ,president should call into service 7subject to certain exemptions made in the act and in accordance with regulations which he might frame7 a sufficient number of men to form a national army4 ,sidenote3 ,how the draft was applied4 ,the first registration took place in ,june1 #aiag1 and immediately thereafter the local draft boards1 under the supervision of the ,provost-,marshal-,general1 selected the persons who were called into service4 ,in due course it was found advisable to classify all the registrants and to summon1 first of all1 unmarried men without dependents who were not engaged in any essential occupation4 ,in the summer of #aiah an extension of the age limit was authorized by ,congress1 to include all men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five2 but it did not prove necessary to call into service any considerable number of men from among these later registrants4 ,the classification of the men1 the physical examinations1 and the order in which men were called to the colors were all provided for in the body of rules known as the ,selective ,service ,regulations4 ,the men drafted under these regulations were sent to military camps or cantonments located in different parts of the country4 ,there they were organized into military units1 equipped1 and trained4 ,as soon as each division had completed its preliminary training it was sent to ,europe4 ,forty divisions of the national army1 mobilized in this way1 were in ,europe before the armistice was signed4 ,these1 with the non-combatant troops1 made up a total of about two million men4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,american army in the war4 ,in the spring of #aiah1 when the last great ,german drive against the ,french and ,british armies took place1 there were only half a million ,american troops in ,europe4 ,the need for more was urgent and ,america was asked to hurry4 ,by almost superhuman effort great bodies of troops were rushed from the camps to the ,atlantic ports and sent across the water during the summer at the rate of more than two hundred thousand men a month4 ,when the final united assault of the ,allied armies carried them through the ,german lines in the autumn the strength of the ,american forces contributed decisively to the ultimate victory4 ,the speed with which ,america drew a great army from the ranks of her citizenship1 trained it1 sent it overseas1 used it to turn the scale1 and brought it home again--these things made a profound impression upon the whole world4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,president as commander-in-chief4 ,the ,control of the ,army in ,war4--,according to the constitution of the ,united ,states the power to declare war rests with ,congress4 ,the usual method of declaring war is the passage of a resolution by both houses of ,congress1 signed by the ,president4 ,war may begin1 however1 without a formal declaration on either side4 ,it may begin by an act of war1 an attack by one nation upon another1 or by one section of a country upon another4 ,the ,civil ,war began with the firing upon ,fort ,sumter2 there was no declaration of war by either side4 ,once war is declared the movements of the army depend upon the discretion of the ,president4 ,he appoints the officers who command it and has the final decision as regards the course of military operations4 ,congress votes the money for carrying on a war1 but the ,president directs the spending of it4 ,congress determines the size and character of the army1 but as commander-in-chief the ,president controls all its operations in the field4#bge ,this division of functions might possibly lead to friction and even to disaster if ,congress and the ,president did not work in harmony1 but on the whole the two branches of the government have always shown a spirit of co-operation in war-time4 ,sidenote3 ,the army as an aid to the civil power4 ,the ,use of ,armed ,forces in ,time of ,peace4--,in time of peace the regular army and the national guard may be used under certain conditions to put down riot or disorder4 ,the ,president has the right to use ,united ,states troops within the limits of any state in order to enforce the national laws1 to facilitate the carrying of the mails1 or to maintain any other function of the national government4 ,this he may do without the invitation or permission of the state government1 or even against the wishes of the state authorities4 ,in #ahid when a railway strike in ,chicago interfered with the free passage of mails1 ,president ,cleveland sent a detachment of regular troops to the state of ,illinois and cleared the way4 ,the ,supreme ,court held that he was within his rights4 ,if a state is invaded1 the ,president may also act on his own volition2 but when internal disorders occur1 it is the primary function of the state authorities to suppress them4 ,the governor is vested with authority to call out the national guard for this purpose4 ,federal troops cannot be sent in such cases except upon the request of the state authorities1 unless1 of course1 the disorders reach a point where they obstruct the national government in the performance of its functions4 ,in any event1 troops are not called out for active service in time of peace save under conditions of serious emergency4 ,soldiers are not well qualified to handle ordinary disturbances2 they have not been trained for that purpose and their presence is likely to make mild disturbances more serious4 ,bodies of state constabulary1 like those maintained in ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,massachusetts1 are better adapted to use in such situations4 ,sidenote3 ,the articles of war4 ,military ,law4--,the citizen1 under normal conditions1 is subject only to the law of the land4 ,but the soldier 7and this term includes officers7 is subject not only to the ordinary laws but to a special code of military law the provisions of which are embodied in the ,articles of ,war and are administered by courts-martial4 ,the ,articles of ,war are enacted by ,congress1 and anyone entering the army1 whether as a commissioned officer or an enlisted man1 becomes subject to their provisions both in time of war and in time of peace4 ,these articles deal with such matters as desertion1 disobedience of orders1 neglect of duty1 absence without leave1 the wrongful use of military equipment1 and kindred military offences4 ,sidenote3 ,courts-martial4 ,military law is not enforced by the ordinary courts but by special courts known as courts-martial1 which are composed of army officers4#bgf ,punishment may be inflicted in the form of dishonorable discharge from the army1 or imprisonment--even the death penalty may be imposed in extreme cases during war4 ,the accused person has the right to have his own counsel and the customary rules of evidence are followed1 as in the civil courts4 ,sidenote3 ,what martial law implies4 ,martial ,law4--,military law and martial law are often confused with each other1 but they are in fact wholly different4 ,martial law is the entire legal administration which is applied to any area of conflict or insurrection by order of ,congress1 or by the ,president in case such action is urgently needed before action by ,congress can be taken4 ,it is not proclaimed except in case of invasion1 insurrection1 or civil or foreign war1 and then only in districts where the ordinary laws and courts prove themselves unable to secure the public safety4 ,sidenote3 ,its effects4 ,when martial law is proclaimed in any district the ordinary laws cease to function there4 ,the orders of the commanding military officer take the place of the laws4 ,special military tribunals are usually appointed to enforce these orders2 but if practicable1 the ordinary courts may be retained4 ,martial law applies to everybody within the district1 soldiers and civilians alike4 ,the commanding officer issues his orders and1 whatever they are1 they must be implicitly obeyed4 ,he may order1 for example1 that there shall be no public gatherings1 no traffic in the streets after nightfall1 and no keeping of weapons in private houses4 ,he may require every inhabitant to carry a pass signed by the military authorities4 ,there is no definite code of martial law2 the will of the commanding officer is supreme so long as the citizen is not deprived of his rights as guaranteed by the constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,this constitution1 however1 is the supreme law of the land and not even the army can disregard it4 ,martial law is never proclaimed except in urgent circumstances when it appears to be the only way of securing public order and protecting property4 ,during the ,civil ,war it was administered in some sections of the ,south which were occupied by the ,northern armies4#bgg ,the ,navy4--,the navy is commonly called the 8first line0 of the national defence inasmuch as the most vulnerable boundaries of the ,united ,states extend along two great seacoasts4#bgh ,like the army its organization is under the jurisdiction of ,congress1 which appropriates the money for its maintenance2 but the ,president is also the commander-in-chief of the navy and is responsible for directing its operations4 ,in this he is assisted by the ,secretary of the ,navy who in turn is advised by a staff of naval officers4 ,men are enlisted in the navy1 and officers are commissioned as in the army1 but with different ratings and ranks4 ,sidenote3 ,administration of the navy4 ,the navy also has its code corresponding to the ,articles of ,war and its system of courts-martial4 ,the ,marine ,corps1 which in organization1 drill1 and discipline1 is really a military organization1 comes under the control of the ,secretary of the ,navy because it is primarily intended to furnish a landing force after attack4 ,the marine1 as ,kipling says1 is 8a soldier and sailor too04 ,in connection with the work of the navy mention should also be made of the coast defences which are located at points where they may serve to protect the commercial seaports4 ,these consist of concealed land batteries1 floating batteries1 channels guarded by mines1 submarines1 and naval airplanes4 ,sidenote3 ,the history of the issue4 ,the ,problem of ,disarmament4--,is there any reasonable ground for the hope that the burden of maintaining an army and navy may be reduced at some time in the near future8 ,proposals for a general disarmament by international agreement have been put forth at various times for a hundred years or more4 ,following the long ,napoleonic ,wars which exhausted the chief countries of ,europe1 the ,czar of ,russia suggested that the nations should agree to place a limit upon their respective armaments4 ,but nothing came of this proposal1 and although the question of disarmament was discussed during the next three-quarters of a century in unofficial circles no concrete plan for an international conference on the matter was formulated until #ahih1 when ,russia once more brought to the attention of the other ,european powers the urgent desirability of considering some effective measures for disarmament4 ,sidenote3 ,the two ,hague conferences4 ,as a direct result of this action delegates appointed by all the leading governments of the world assembled at the ,hague in the following year and discussed the possible methods of securing international disarmament4 ,a resolution was adopted affirming the desirability of such action but no definite plan was formulated4 ,a second ,hague ,conference was held eight years later but it likewise managed to procure no definite promises of disarmament because ,germany refused to enter into any such agreement1 believing that more could be gained by war than by disarming4 ,so the feverish activity in preparations for war continued until the great world conflict began4 ,in the negotiations which took place at the close of this war it was generally agreed that a reduction of armaments on the part of all countries should begin at the earliest practicable moment1 but the disordered state of affairs in several ,european countries1 notably in ,russia1 delayed any important steps in that direction4 ,this led ,president ,harding1 in the summer of #aiba1 to propose that the chief naval powers should send delegates to a conference at ,washington in order that some plan of limiting naval expansion might be prepared4 ,sidenote3 ,the conference on naval armaments4 ,this conference assembled in the autumn of #aiba and at once proceeded to consider a proposal1 made on behalf of the ,united ,states1 that a fixed tonnage of capital ships agreed upon and that this limit should not be exceeded during the next ten years4 ,with some slight amendments the ,american proposal was ultimately accepted and embodied in an international treaty4 ,the conference also framed agreements for the future limitation of submarine warfare1 the prohibition of poison gas in war1 and the restriction of fortifications in the ,pacific regions4 ,no action was taken towards the limitation of armies4#bgi ,universal ,military ,training4--,if the leading nations do not agree upon a plan of general disarmament1 is it desirable that the ,united ,states should adopt a system of universal military training8 ,there is a popular aversion to the maintenance of a large regular army4 ,on the other hand it would be folly to permit the ,united ,states to stand unprepared if other nations go on arming themselves as in the years preceding the ,world ,war4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,swiss plan4 ,the suggestion has been made that we could avoid the necessity of maintaining a large regular army and yet secure the advantages of military preparedness by adopting the plan used in ,switzerland where every able-bodied young man is required to undergo a short period of military training4 ,this training would be taken at some convenient time between the ages of eighteen and twenty-one2 it would last from three to six months4 ,the claim is made that this training would have educational as well as military value and that it would conduce to the physical upbuilding of ,american manhood4 ,in opposition to the plan of universal military training it is contended that anything of this sort would involve a great waste of energy1 would withdraw large numbers of young men from productive labor1 would foster militarism1 and would involve enormous expense4 ,sidenote3 ,new wars being new methods4 ,what is ,real ,preparedness8--,under present-day conditions one must recognize that preparedness for war does not consist in merely training men to march and shoot4 ,no war is ever like any previous war4 ,no amount of human ingenuity or foresight can avail to train men for 8the next war01 because nobody knows where1 when1 or how the next war is going to be fought4 ,the ,civil ,war was fought in the open2 it was a war of movement4 ,the ,world ,war was fought1 for the most part1 in trenches2 it was a war of positions4 ,in the ,civil ,war1 cavalry played an important part2 in the ,world ,war cavalry had very little share4 ,artillery was the great factor4 ,for example1 it has been estimated that all the artillery ammunition used during three whole days at the battle of ,gettysburg would have lasted the ,american artillery just about thirty minutes in one of the ,argonne battles6 ,new weapons and devices are brought forth in every new conflict1 and they greatly change the conditions of warfare4 ,the great ,european struggle utilized the airplane1 poison gas1 incendiary bombs1 gas shells1 hand grenades1 liquid flame1 tanks1 wireless telegraphy1 wireless telephony1 dirigible balloons1 submarines1 seaplanes1 and artillery with a range of over fifty miles--none of these things figured in any previous war4 ,sidenote3 ,the 8next war01 if it comes4 ,it has been predicted that the next war will be fought1 for the most part1 in the air and under the sea2 that the entire populations of great cities may be wiped out during a few days by a deluge of poisonous gas-bombs hurled from the sky2#bhj that science under the pressure of war emergency will discover some form of lethal ray 7we have ,x-rays1 light rays1 heat rays1--why not rays of a deadlier sort87 which will be shot from the clouds to shrivel and poison human beings by the thousands2 that disease germs will be called into service to spread pestilence among the people2--all these things have been soberly predicted as likely to feature the next great conflict if one ever comes4#bha ,sidenote3 ,how the progress of science affects warfare4 ,progress in science and in the arts completely changes the methods of warfare in one generation after another1 ,if ,general ,hooker had possessed a single airplane1 you may be sure that 8,stonewall0 ,jackson would never have slipped around his flank at ,chancellorsville4 ,a squadron of 8tanks01 if the ,army of the ,potomac had been provided with them in #ahfc1 would probably have cleared the road to ,richmond within a week4 ,who can tell what weapons1 appliances1 and tactics the nations will need for use in the next war1 if another war should ever come8 ,preparations of a strictly military sort are essential1 to be sure1 but it is not wise to place entire reliance upon an army which is trained to use certain tactics in a prescribed way4 ,that1 of itself1 does not constitute true 8preparedness04 ,three words sum up the reasons for the ,allied victory in the ,world ,war2 these words are men1 munitions1 and morale4 ,france1 ,great ,britain1 the ,united ,states1 and ,italy had civilian reserves to draw upon4 ,they had great peace-time industries which they converted into munition factories4 ,above all things the moral strength and steadfastness of free peoples counted in the long struggle against autocracy4 ,sidenote3 ,what real 8preparedness0 means4 ,the lesson to be drawn from this is that if a country builds up a vigorous manhood1 both physically and mentally2 if it creates great1 varied1 and well-managed industries2 if it fosters patriotism and a sense of righteousness through its system of public education2 if it cultivates intelligently all the progressive arts of peace--if a nation does all these things1 it is accomplishing real preparedness for whatever may come4 ,great wars are won1 paradoxical as it may sound1 in times of peace4 ,the ,war-,time ,powers of ,government4--,there is an ancient ,latin maxim3 inter arma silent leges4 ,it means that under the stress of armed conflict the ordinary laws give way4 ,in the ,united ,states this maxim does not strictly apply2 the constitutional rights of the citizen remain intact and the ordinary laws of the land continue to apply in war-time4 ,nevertheless it is true that a state of war requires strict vigilance on the part of the government and this may lead it to impose upon individual freedom various restrictions which would not be imposed in time of peace4 ,sidenote3 ,limitations on civic liberty during wars4 ,during the ,world ,war1 for example1 the national government laid certain restrictions upon the consumption of food1 the use of coal1 and the manufacture of luxuries4 ,this it did under its constitutional authority 8to raise and support armies04 ,sidenote3 ,the ,espionage and ,sedition ,acts4 ,congress also passed the ,espionage and ,sedition ,acts which provided penalties for making or circulating false statements with intent to injure the ,united ,states or using 8abusive language about the government or institutions of the country04 ,by these laws1 in brief1 it was made a crime to favor the cause of the enemy by any word or act4 ,in some quarters this legislation was regarded as an unwarranted interference with freedom of speech but on the whole it was a justifiable war-time precaution4 ,those who found their personal freedom restricted by the ,espionage and ,sedition ,acts suffered very little hardship compared with that borne by the soldiers and sailors who went into active service4 ,sidenote3 ,there can be no absolute freedom of speech at any time4 ,freedom of ,speech in ,war-,time4--,during the ,world ,war there was considerable complaint in some quarters because the national government placed certain limitations upon freedom of speech1 and a good deal of discussion arose as to what freedom of speech really means4 ,the issue is one which cannot be argued in general terms1 for it is not a question of principle but of practical policy4 ,on the one hand it is generally agreed that men ought to have all reasonable liberty to express their own thoughts in their own way2 on the other hand it is just as fully agreed that people must not be allowed to go about preaching treason1 uttering slanders1 and by word of mouth infringing the rights of others4 ,the question1 then1 is not whether we should grant freedom of speech or deny it2 but how much of it we should grant or deny4 ,sidenote3 ,but the presumption should be in favor of free speech4 ,in a democracy the presumption should be in favor of freedom4 ,it should be curtailed no further than is clearly demanded by the general interest4 ,just where that point comes is something that cannot be fixed by any general rule4 ,in time of peace1 for example1 we may safely permit a greater freedom of speech than in time of war4 ,we may rightly allow a citizen1 whose loyalty is not in doubt1 a greater latitude than a foreigner who professes his hatred of the ,united ,states4 ,the problem is an exceedingly difficult one and the courts may at times do injustice in dealing with outspoken persons2 but the nation in its sober senses is not likely to let the fundamental right of free speech be permanently restricted beyond a reasonable point4#bhb ,sidenote3 ,the various war boards1 #aiag-aiah4 ,mobilizing the ,economic ,forces4--,in order to ensure victory it also becomes necessary to mobilize all the economic forces of a country1 the industries1 the means of transport1 and even the professional skill4 ,during the years #aiag-ah the government of the ,united ,states established a ,war ,industries ,board whose function it was to supervise and speed up industrial production2 likewise a ,food ,administration1 a ,fuel ,administration1 a ,war ,labor ,board1 a ,censorship ,board1 a ,committee on ,public ,information1 a ,war ,finance ,corporation1 an ,alien ,property ,custodian1 and various other war-time authorities with duties which are in a general way indicated by their titles4 ,both the work and the authority of a government enlarge under the stress of war4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,prices ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,from #ahaj ,,to #aibj 7,prices in #aiad #ajj7 ,retail prices are based on wholesale prices4 ,three times have wholesale prices in ,america risen to more than double the normal4 #a4 ,during the war of #ahab1 which was in reality the country's participation in the ,napoleonic wars--one of the great world wars4 #b4 ,during the ,civil ,war1 in #ahfa-fe1 a long and costly struggle4 #c4 ,during the recent ,world ,war4 ,not less notable than the great rise of prices during these great wars has been the long and continued fall of prices extending over a generation of time which followed the great rise4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,prices ,,in ,,war ,,time ,the diagram on the reverse of this page illustrates the way in which war disturbs a nation's economic life4 ,it sends prices sky-high by reason of the monetary inflation which almost invariably accompanies war4 ,this rapid rise in prices causes industries to expand4 ,wages rise with prices1 and for the moment we have an era of prosperity or 8good times0 as it is usually called4 ,but when the stimulus of war inflation is removed1 the general level of prices begins to decline1 and with this fall in prices the industries slacken4 ,wages also come down1 although more slowly than prices1 and we have an era of industrial depression or hard times4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,the greatest of all human tragedies4 ,war's ,aftermath4--,war is waste4 ,it destroys life and property1 uses up the accumulated wealth of nations1 and saddles them with huge debts which future generations have to pay4 ,the cost of a war can never be reckoned in full until long after the treaty of peace has been signed4 ,the ,civil ,war came to an end more than fifty years ago1 but we are still paying more than two hundred million dollars per annum in pensions to veterans of that struggle or to their widows4 ,the number of ,civil ,war pensioners and their widows now on the roll is more than five hundred thousand4 ,it was not until #aijf that the last surviving widow of a veteran of the ,revolutionary ,war died4 ,the burden of pensions growing out of the ,world ,war is just beginning to accumulate2 the country will not feel its full weight for many years to come4 ,a generation born after this war ended will be required to defray its cost4 ,war also leaves1 as its tragic aftermath1 large numbers of wounded1 disabled1 or invalided soldiers who must be cared for at the public expense4 ,no nation which values its own honor can afford to leave its veterans unaided in suffering and want4 ,in the ,united ,states we have made provision for affording medical care to those soldiers of the ,world ,war who require it and for giving vocational education to those partially disabled men who need it in order to fit them for success in life4 ,general ,references ,c4 ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #cdb-ceg2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #cjh-cbb2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dbc-ddd2 ,w4 ,b4 ,,munro1 ,the ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #bfe-bgf2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,actual ,government1 pp4 #dei-dhj2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings in ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #faj-fej2 ,,edward ,f4 ,,allen and ,,raymond ,,fosdick1 ,keeping ,our ,fighters ,fit1 passim2 ,b4 ,a4 ,,fiske1 ,the ,navy as a ,fighting ,machine1 passim2 ,r4 ,m4 ,,johnston1 ,leading ,american ,soldiers1 especially pp4 #c-fe2 ,e4 ,h4 ,,crowder1 ,the ,spirit of ,selective ,service1 pp4 #ei-ib2 ,r4 ,r4 ,,mccormick1 ,the ,army of #aiah1 pp4 #bjg-bdc4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,in what ways did the ,world ,war differ from previous wars8 ,what predictions have been made concerning the weapons and tactics of the next war8 ,how can preparedness best be made for such a war8 ,references3 ,j4 ,f4 ,,rhodes1 ,history of the ,civil ,war1 pp4 #a-df2 ,b4 ,,crowell and ,r4 ,f4 ,,wilson1 ,how ,america ,went to ,war1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #c-ad2 ,,will ,,irwin1 ,the ,next ,war1 pp4 #cc-ff2 ,,emory ,,upton1 ,the ,military ,policy of the ,united ,states1 passim2 ,,erich ,,von ,,ludendorff1 ,ludendorff's ,own ,story1 passim2 ,,baron ,,horff ,,von ,,dewitz1 ,war's ,new ,weapons1 pp4 #e-dh2 ,w4 ,l4 ,,mcpherson1 ,the ,strategy of the ,great ,war1 pp4 #hj-aah2 ,d4 ,w4 ,,johnson1 ,topography and ,strategy in the ,war1 pp4 #a-dj4 #b4 ,how can the causes of war be removed8 ,should we have international disarmament8 ,references3 ,g4 ,l4 ,,dickinson1 ,the ,choice ,before ,us1 pp4 #aff-ahf2 ,h4 ,m4 ,,kallen1 ,the ,structure of ,lasting ,peace1 pp4 #ada-ahg2 ,a4 ,t4 ,,mahan1 ,armaments and ,arbitration1 pp4 #ae-ce2 ,f4 ,w4 ,,holls1 ,the ,peace ,conference at ,the ,hague1 pp4 #ff-ib2 ,j4 ,b4 ,,scott1 ,the ,status of the ,international ,court of ,justice1 pp4 #a-cj2 ,,john ,,bakeless1 ,the ,economic ,causes of ,modern ,wars1 pp4 #agg-aie4 #c4 ,the ,national ,army of #aiag-aiah3 how it was raised1 trained1 and used4 ,references3 ,e4 ,h4 ,,crowder1 ,the ,spirit of ,selective ,service1 pp4 #aae-age2 ,selective ,service ,regulations 7revised edition71 pp4 #a-cj2 ,r4 ,b4 ,,perry1 ,the ,plattsburg ,movement1 pp4 #agc-bad2 ,,leonard ,p4 ,,ayres1 ,the ,war with ,germany1 pp4 #ac-dh2 ,r4 ,r4 ,,mccormick1 ,the ,army of #aiah1 pp4 #a-eg4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the ,war ,department4 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,national ,administration1 pp4 #acc-aea4 #b4 ,the war powers of the ,president and ,congress4 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #fdf-fdh2 ,g4 ,,glenn1 ,the ,army and the ,law1 passim4 #c4 ,the growth of the navy4 ,g4 ,r4 ,,clark1 ,history of the ,united ,states ,navy1 pp4 #djf-ddd2 ,e4 ,s4 ,,maclay1 ,history of the ,united ,states ,navy1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #aa-cf4 #d4 ,great ,american soldiers4 ,r4 ,m4 ,,johnston1 ,leading ,american ,soldiers1 pp4 #acg-aib 7,grant72 #bef-caj 7,lee74 #e4 ,the ,grand ,army of the ,republic4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,ward1 ,records of ,members of the ,grand ,army of the ,republic1 pp4 #e-ae4 #f4 ,the ,american ,legion4 ,g4 ,s4 ,,wheat1 ,the ,story of the ,american ,legion1 pp4 #ab-cj2 #aic-baa4 #g4 ,how the nation mobilized in #aiag-aiah4 ,p4 ,l4 ,,haworth1 ,the ,united ,states in ,our ,own ,time1 pp4 #dbb-ddj4 #h4 ,military law1 martial law1 and military government4 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #dcd-ddd4 #i4 ,the human cost of the war4 ,,homer ,,folks1 ,the ,human ,costs of the ,war1 pp4 #aai-afg4 #aj4 ,the use of regular troops in labor troubles4 ,,grover ,,cleveland1 ,presidential ,problems1 pp4 #gi-aag4 #aa4 ,the ,hague ,conferences4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,holls1 ,the ,peace ,conferences at ,the ,hague1 pp4 #a-ce2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,choate1 ,the ,two ,hague ,conferences1 passim4 #ab4 ,the ,united ,states ,food ,administration4 #aiag-aiah4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,willoughby1 ,government ,organization in ,war ,time1 pp4 #beh-bib4 #ac4 ,how the ,national ,army was drafted4 ,e4 ,h4 ,,crowder1 ,the ,spirit of ,selective ,service1 pp4 #aae-age2 see also ,second ,report of the ,provost ,marshal ,general 7#aiah74 #ad4 ,military pensions4 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,national ,administration1 pp4 #bje-bjh2 ,w4 ,h4 ,,glasson1 ,history of ,military ,pension ,legislation1 pp4 #gj-ajg4 #ae4 ,freedom of speech in war time4 ,,zechariah ,,chafee1 ,,jr41 ,freedom of ,speech1 passim4 ,questions #a4 ,classify the chief causes of war and indicate which class of causes was mainly responsible for3 the ,french and ,indian ,wars2 the ,revolutionary ,war2 the ,napoleonic ,wars2 the ,war of #ahab2 the ,mexican ,war2 the ,civil ,war2 the ,spanish ,war2 the ,russo-,japanese ,war2 and the ,world ,war4 #b4 ,what did ,president ,roosevelt mean when he said that a defenceless nation is a temptation to injustice4 ,give some examples to illustrate this proposition and also to illustrate the reverse4 #c4 ,why would it not be better to abolish the national guard and have only a regular army8 #d4 ,explain the various steps by which civilians were taken into the national army under the provisions of the ,selective ,service ,law4 #e4 ,is it right to use the armed forces of the nation in quelling labor troubles8 ,what are the objections to so doing8 #f4 ,explain the system of trial by court-martial under the following heads3 7a7 who may be tried2 7b7 on what charges2 7c7 how the court is organized2 7d7 who prosecutes2 7e7 who defends2 7f7 what sentence may be imposed2 7g7 who reviews the sentence4 #g4 ,what is the difference between proclaiming martial law in a district and establishing a military government over it8 #h4 ,outline the history of the ,united ,states navy4 ,what are the characteristics of 7a7 battleships2 7b7 battle cruisers2 7c7 gunboats8 #i4 ,what would be 7a7 the political and 7b7 the economic advantages of disarmament8 ,what difficulties stand in the way of an international agreement to disarm8 #aj4 ,make a list of the special governmental agencies which were established in the ,united ,states during the ,world ,war1 and name the functions performed by each4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the ,united ,states should adopt the system of universal military training4 #b4 ,a declaration of war should require a two-thirds vote of ,congress4 #c4 ,the national government should pay pensions to veterans of the ,world ,war in the same way that it has provided pensions for veterans of the ,civil ,war4 ----- ,footnote #bfi3 ,since its foundation in #aghh the national government has spent1 in round figures1 about sixty-seven billion dollars4 ,of this entire sum fifty-eight billions have been spent for war1 that is1 for maintaining the army and navy1 for carrying on the nation's various wars1 for pensions1 and for interest on war debts4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt1 ,fear ,god and ,take ,your ,own ,part 7,n4 ,y41 #aiae71 ,ch4 ,i4 ,footnote #bga3 ,history is full of examples to support this statement4 ,when ,carthage proved unable to defend herself against ,roman aggression1 the victors left not one stone upon another4 ,look at ,poland1 ripped apart during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by her avaricious neighbors and now restored to nationhood by the armed forces of ,france1 ,england1 ,italy1 and ,america4 ,and what of ,china today8 ,are her four hundred million people happier and more prosperous because they happen to be citizens of a defenceless country8 ,footnote #bgb3 ,the ,war of ,independence was won by a volunteer army4 ,on the conclusion of peace this army was disbanded1 but the absence of a defence force was deemed a serious danger4 ,accordingly1 when the constitution was framed in #aghg1 it provided that the new ,congress should have power 8to raise and support armies40 ,during ,washington's first term a ,department of ,war was established in the national government and a small regular army was created under the supervision of this department4 ,the size of this army was not above five thousand men of all ranks1 barely sufficient to keep the ,indian tribes from giving trouble4 ,but the ,napoleonic wars in ,europe led ,congress to increase its size as a measure of precaution1 and during the ,war of #ahab an endeavor was made to raise the regular army1 by enlistment1 to about #ce1jjj men4 ,recruits1 however1 did not come readily because the war was unpopular in some parts of the country1 and it therefore became necessary to call out the militia organizations of the several states4 ,after #ahaf1 when peace was made1 the regular army was greatly reduced1 and until #ahfj it remained small with the exception of the years in which the ,united ,states was at war with ,mexico4 ,the ,civil ,war necessitated a considerable expansion of the regular army1 but the larger portion of the fighting force was obtained by calling out the state militia and by raising regiments of volunteers4 ,when the war was over1 ,congress fixed the maximum strength of the regular army at #be1jjj1 and there it remained until the outbreak of the war with ,spain1 when it was more than doubled4 ,in #aiaf1 during the ,world ,war1 but before the ,united ,states entered the conflict1 a further increase to a maximum of #age1jjj was authorized4 ,this figure subsequently rose to #bbe1jjj but in #aiba it was cut down by ,congress to #aej1jjj1 at which point it remains today1 although a further reduction is now being considered4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,prior to #aiaf the national guard could not be called upon for service outside the ,united ,states1 but only for defence against invasion and for the suppression of internal disturbances4 ,but in #aiaf it was provided by the ,national ,defence ,act that whenever ,congress authorizes the use of armed forces in addition to the regular army1 the ,president may draft any or all members of the national guard into the service of the ,united ,states and may employ them outside ,american territory4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,theodore ,roosevelt was serving as ,assistant ,secretary of the ,navy when the war with ,spain began in #ahih4 ,he offered to raise a volunteer cavalry regiment of cowboys from the cattle country and his offer was accepted by the government4 ,resigning his position in the ,navy ,department he organized this regiment of ,rough ,riders and became its lieutenant-colonel4 ,the ,rough ,riders went to ,cuba1 where they gave a good account of themselves4 ,footnote #bge3 ,the actual organization and disciplining of the army during peace1 as well as its movements and operations in war1 are under the immediate direction of the ,general ,staff4 ,this body consists of a ,chief of ,staff1 who is appointed from among the high officers of the army1 and numerous other army officers who are detailed for this service4 ,the ,general ,staff is so organized that in the event of war one section of it can take charge of operations in the field while the other keeps building up the army at home4 ,general ,pershing1 who commanded the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in the ,world ,war is now ,chief of ,staff1 his principal assistant being ,major-,general ,harbord1 who commanded the ,first ,army overseas4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,for minor offences an enlisted man is tried by summary court-martial before a single officer4 ,for more serious offences a special court-martial of from three to five officers is convened4 ,if the offence is very serious1 or if the accused person is a commissioned officer1 the trial takes place before a general court-martial of from five to fifteen officers1 who must be1 wherever possible1 at least of equal rank with the accused4 ,the verdict1 or finding1 of the court-martial1 together with its recommendations for punishment in case of conviction1 is transmitted to the officer by whose order the court was convened4 ,this officer has power to diminish but not to increase the punishment recommended by the court-martial4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,there is still another phase of military jurisdiction which must be distinguished from both military law and martial law4 ,this is called military government4 ,it may be explained as follows3 ,when any territory is conquered and held by an invading army it must obviously be given some temporary form of government4 ,the former government usually flees and something must be put in its place4 ,under such conditions the commander-in-chief of the occupying force sets up a temporary administration4 ,in #aiai1 when a portion of the ,american ,expeditionary ,force advanced into ,german territory under the terms of the armistice1 a military government with its headquarters at ,coblenz was established for the area occupied by the ,american troops4 ,a military government may even be set up in home territory during a civil war or insurrection4 ,after the fall of the ,confederacy military governments were maintained in the ,south until the state governments were reconstructed1 hence we commonly speak of the 8reconstruction0 period4 ,military government is always a temporary arrangement1 never intended to be permanent1 although it may last for several years4 ,it does not1 like martial law1 supplant the ordinary laws of the occupied territory1 but merely means that the occupying army1 through its commander-in-chief1 takes over the administration4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,the beginnings of the ,american ,navy go back to the time of the ,revolutionary ,war1 when a few frigates were placed in service2 but when the war was over these ships were sold and the navy abolished4 ,in #agid1 however1 ,congress authorized the building of six new frigates1 and four years later a ,department of the ,navy was created1 with a member of the ,cabinet at its head4 ,the number of vessels increased very slowly and when the ,war of #ahab began the ,united ,states had only sixteen war vessels1 some of them too small to be of great usefulness4 ,this small navy1 nevertheless1 gave a good account of itself during the course of the war at sea4 ,from #ahae to the outbreak of the ,civil ,war little attention was paid to the upbuilding of ,american naval strength1 but during the course of this struggle a great expansion took place4 ,the invention of the iron-clad ,monitor revolutionized naval construction4 ,but when the ,south had been subdued the ,navy was once more allowed to dwindle and it was not until after #ahhe that the ,united ,states again made a serious attempt to build up a strong naval establishment4 ,since that date naval progress has been steady and today the ,united ,states navy ranks second in point of size among the sea forces of the world4 ,by the terms of the agreement concluded among the chief naval powers of the world at ,washington in #aibb it has been arranged that the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 and ,japan shall each destroy certain war vessels now built or in process of building1 and that each shall refrain from building new capital ships 7except for purposes of replacement71 during the next ten years4 ,at the end of this period the navies of the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain will be approximately equal in strength1 while that of ,japan will be about three-fifths as strong4 ,see also p4 #egg4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,for the action of the conference with reference to matters in the ,far ,east1 see p4 #fai4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,brigadier-,general ,mitchell of the ,united ,states ,army ,air ,service1 in his testimony before a committee of ,congress in #aibj1 declared that a few planes could visit ,new ,york ,city and rain down enough phosgene gas to kill every inhabitant 8unless we provide some means of repelling them40 ,footnote #bha3 ,see the quotations from various military authorities given in ,the ,next ,war1 by ,,will ,,irwin1 pp4 #df-ff4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,there is a tradition in ,england that if a person goes into ,hyde ,park1 ,london 7a large open space in the center of the city71 he may gather a crowd around him and say anything he pleases1 subject only to the chance that he may be roughly handled if his hearers do not like what he says4 ,for this reason1 ,hyde ,park is sometimes referred to as the 8safety valve0 of the ,english government4 ,anyone who has a grievance1 real or imaginary1 can go there and blow off steam4 ,having had his say1 without let or hindrance1 the speaker feels better about it4 ,somewhere in this country we ought to have a ,hyde ,park4 ,we must be careful not to judge the liberties of the citizen and the severity of a government by what may happen in war-time or in time of civil insurrection4 ,war inflames popular passion and impels both the officers of government and the people to do unwise things1 sometimes to violate the laws of the land in the name of patriotism4 ,an excited nation1 like an excited man1 is entitled to some allowance4 ,nevertheless1 it is the duty of all who understand the meaning of free government to stand firmly against the wrongful curtailment of personal rights at any time2 for the true interests of free government are never promoted by resort to injustice or oppression4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,foreign ,,relations ,the purpose of this chapter is to explain what international law is1 what obligations it imposes1 and how the ,united ,states carries on its relations with other countries4 ,sidenote3 ,trade has brought nations together4 ,the ,contact of ,nations4--,in all ages the nations of the world have been brought into relations with one another4 ,during the early centuries their contact was not very close1 as a rule1 because differences in race1 religion1 and language1 together with the lack of facilities for travel and transportation served to keep the people apart4 ,but the ,phoenicians1 the ,greeks1 and the ,romans all traded with their neighbors1 and this trade1 which began around the eastern shores of the ,mediterranean1 gradually widened east and west4 ,after the fall of the ,roman empire chaos reigned over the greater part of ,europe2 commerce declined1 and incessant warfare prevented the growth of friendly intercourse among the people of different religions4 ,these were the so-called ,dark ,ages1 in which travel was fraught with danger and trade was at the mercy of bandits4 ,gradually1 however1 intercourse between different regions revived and expanded4 ,the highways and waterways became safe again4 ,nations were once more brought into friendly relationships4 ,during the past three or four hundred years this intercourse of nation with nation has been steadily becoming more extensive1 broken only from time to time by the waging of wars4 ,the steamship1 the railroads1 the automobile1 the telegraph1 and the telephone have all served to reduce distances and bring the various parts of the world closer together4 ,sidenote3 ,the origin of international law4 ,international ,rules and ,customs4--,just as social and economic relations among men gave rise to customs and usages which everyone now obeys for the common good1 so the growth of intercourse among the nations brought into existence1 little by little1 a body of usages and rules which guide them in their relations with one another4 ,even the ,greeks and ,romans recognized the necessity of some such rules to prevent misunderstandings4 ,since ancient times these usages1 rules1 and agreements have been gradually becoming more definite until they now form that body of jurisprudence which is known as ,international ,law4 ,in a strict sense international law is not law at all2 its rules have not emanated from any definite source such as parliament or a legislature1 and there are no courts with power to enforce its provisions4#bhc ,some of its rules are of long standing custom2 others have come into effect as the result of agreements among nations4 ,the provision that the ambassador is exempt from the jurisdiction of the state to which he goes is very old1--as old as the ,achaean ,league4 ,it is an ancient custom1 now called law4 ,on the other hand the rule that a blockade of enemy ports is not valid unless maintained by an adequate force is a relatively modern rule and rests upon international agreement4 ,sidenote3 ,what international law includes4 ,international ,law4--,international law may therefore be defined as that body of usages and rules which the civilized nations of the world are accustomed to observe in their dealings with one another4 ,these rules and usages relate to a great many things4 ,sidenote3 ,the laws of war4 ,they provide for friendly communication between nations in time of peace by means of ambassadors and other diplomatic envoys4 ,international law declares the high seas to be free to all1 but stipulates that a country may exercise jurisdiction over its adjacent seas for a distance of one marine league from the shore4 ,the usages and rules of international law also provide for the protection of aliens1 the collection of debts1 the carrying on of trade1 and many other questions which arise between nations at peace4 ,when nations are at war they are called belligerents1 and the rules of international law restrict the ways in which war may be carried on4 ,they forbid a belligerent to put poison in wells1 or to bombard undefended towns1 or to kill prisoners of war4 ,it is quite true that these so-called 8laws of war0 are sometimes set at naught in the heat of conflict1 and it is also true that when a nation violates them there is no regular redress2 but the rules are well established and the public opinion of the world always condemns any country which indulges in barbarities contrary to the rules of war4 ,sidenote3 ,the laws of neutrality4 ,nations which are not at war when war is going on are called neutrals4 ,their rights as neutrals are defined and their duties as neutrals are prescribed by the rules of international law4 ,neutrals are permitted to carry on trade with belligerents subject to two limitations1 namely that their ships must not try to enter any blockaded port and must not carry contraband of war4 ,contraband of war includes weapons1 munitions1 military supplies1 and any other merchandise which a belligerent can use directly or indirectly in carrying on the war4 ,the citizens of neutral states are also debarred from serving in the armed forces of belligerents4 ,international law1 in short1 deals with a great variety of matters which arise in peace1 including emigration and travel1 trade1 naturalization1 diplomatic intercourse1 the extradition of criminals1 treaties1 and so forth1 as well as with questions which arise during war such as blockades1 captures at sea1 the rules of land warfare1 and the rights of neutrals4 ,it is considered by the ,united ,states to be a part of the law of the land1 and its rules are enforced within ,american territory by the federal courts4 ,sidenote3 ,the federal government alone controls foreign relations4 ,the ,control of ,foreign ,relations4--,all relations with foreign countries are under the control of the national government4 ,no state of the ,union can make any treaty1 or declare war1 or enter into an alliance1 or send ambassadors abroad4 ,no state1 moreover1 may maintain ships of war in time of peace or armed forces except as provided in the constitution4 ,war can be declared by ,congress alone4 ,these provisions are wisely inserted in the national constitution1 for if every state were permitted to deal independently with foreign countries1 we should get into endless complications and difficulties4 ,but in spite of the fact that no state can make a treaty or have any formal diplomatic negotiations with a foreign country it is nevertheless true that a state can and sometimes does create a situation which requires diplomatic action on the part of the national government4 ,prolonged negotiations between the ,american and ,japanese governments have had to be carried on1 for example1 as the result of ,california's having restricted the privileges of ,japanese citizens in that state 7see p4 #cb74 ,so1 also1 although the constitution gives ,congress the sole power to declare war1 the ,president through his command of the army and navy can bring about a situation which leaves ,congress no choice whatsoever4 ,on one occasion ,president ,roosevelt threatened that if ,german warships did not leave the coast of ,venezuela within forty-eight hours1 he would send the ,american fleet there4 ,had the ,german ships remained and a conflict ensued1 the action of ,congress in declaring war would have become a mere formality4 ,how ,foreign ,relations are ,conducted4--,the conduct of foreign relations rests with the ,president1 whose right-hand man in such matters is the ,secretary of ,state4 ,but the ,president's discretion is limited by the fact that all appointments require confirmation by the ,senate and all treaties must be approved in that body by a two-thirds vote before they become valid4 ,for this reason1 the ,president usually finds it advisable to keep in touch with the leaders of the ,senate while he is handling foreign affairs of importance4 ,he is under no legal obligation to do this1 but it is politically expedient4 ,failure to do it has on occasions led the ,senate to reject agreements which the ,president has concluded after prolonged negotiations4#bhd ,sidenote3 ,the ,department of ,state4 ,the ,department of ,state is the ,president's immediate agency in the conduct of all diplomatic intercourse1 and is so recognized by all foreign governments4 ,it is through this department that all official correspondence with other governments is carried on4 ,the ,secretary of ,state is often called the 8premier0 of the cabinet1 but the function of leadership and the ultimate responsibility for the cabinet's work rests with the ,president4 ,in handling the details of foreign relations the ,state ,department is assisted by a body of officials who constitute the diplomatic service4 ,the ,diplomatic ,service4--,it is the custom of every civilized country to send and receive diplomatic officials4 ,the ,united ,states sends a representative to every important foreign capital2 in return1 every foreign country maintains a diplomatic agent in ,washington4 ,in the case of the most important countries these representatives are given the rank and title of ambassador4 ,sidenote3 ,ambassadors and ministers4 ,there is an ,american ambassador stationed at ,paris2 a ,french ambassador at ,washington4 ,in the case of less important countries the diplomatic representatives are usually given the rank and title of minister4 ,there is an ,american minister at ,copenhagen2 a ,danish minister at ,washington4 ,the difference between ambassadors and ministers is in rank1 title1 and salary2 there is no important difference in their functions4 ,when an ambassador or minister is absent1 the diplomatic official who is left in charge is called a charg d'affaires4 ,if some special negotiations are to be carried on1 a country may send an envoy1 or an 8envoy extraordinary01 as he is called4#bhe ,each ambassador or minister is assisted by one or more secretaries and a force of clerks4 ,sidenote3 ,duties of diplomats4 ,diplomatic officials1 whether ambassadors or ministers1 have the duty of serving as channels of official communication between their own government and the government to which they are accredited4 ,they act always in accordance with instructions sent to them from home4 ,if a foreign government has any communication to make to the government of the ,united ,states1 it addresses itself either to the ,american diplomatic representative at its own capital1 or to its own diplomatic representative at ,washington4 ,in either case the diplomatic representative presents the communication1 orally or in writing1 to the ,secretary of ,state4 ,the heads of nations1 whether presidents1 kings1 or emperors1 sometimes communicate with each other by personal letter2 but important matters are not usually handled in that way4#bhf ,in addition to forwarding communications the members of the diplomatic service have various other duties4 ,an ambassador or minister is expected to keep his own government well informed concerning all that is going on at the foreign capital where he is stationed4 ,he renders any necessary assistance to ,american citizens who may become involved in difficulties or danger4 ,he represents his own country on all occasions of ceremony and has many social duties to perform4 ,these duties are prescribed by the usages of the diplomatic service and are the same at all national capitals4 ,finally1 he co-operates with the consuls of his own country and does what he can to make their work more effective4#bhg ,sidenote3 ,how members of the diplomatic service are chosen4 ,all ,american ambassadors1 ministers1 and other diplomatic officials are appointed by the ,president with the consent of the ,senate4 ,in ,european countries it is the custom for young and capable men to enter the lower ranks of diplomatic service and work up1 step by step1 to the higher posts4 ,but although lower posts in the diplomatic service of the ,united ,states are filled by competitive examination1 the higher positions are usually given to men who have had no previous diplomatic experience4 ,men whom the ,president selects as ambassadors or ministers are1 as a rule1 drawn from civil life1 and their appointments are often looked upon as rewards for political service4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that they fail to make capable ambassadors or ministers1 despite the lack of experience2 on the contrary1 the system has worked astonishingly well on the whole4 ,this is because men of marked ability and distinction in civil life are usually selected by the ,president for the more important diplomatic posts4 ,among the list of those who have served as ,american ambassadors to ,great ,britain one finds the names of ,charles ,francis ,adams1 ,james ,russell ,lowell1 ,john ,hay1 and ,joseph ,h4 ,choate4 ,among the notable ,american diplomats during the earlier years of the ,world ,war were ,james ,w4 ,gerard at ,berlin1 ,henry ,morgenthau at ,constantinople1 ,brand ,whitlock at ,brussels1 and ,paul ,s4 ,reinsch at ,pekin4 ,the official establishment of an ambassador is called an embassy2 that of a minister is known as a legation4 ,sidenote3 ,the immunities of diplomats4 ,an embassy or a legation is exempt from local jurisdiction2 it cannot be searched by the police1 and the officials connected with it are exempt from arrest except for very serious crimes4 ,a country cannot1 according to international usages1 decline to receive a diplomatic official from any other country1 but it can1 and sometimes does1 object to receiving some particular individual as ambassador or minister on the ground that he is persona non grata4 ,similarly a country may request that any diplomatic official who has been sent to it shall be recalled by his own government and such requests have occasionally been made4#bhh ,sidenote3 ,consuls4 ,in addition to diplomatic officials the ,united ,states sends and receives consuls4 ,the consular service is concerned with commercial rather than diplomatic relations2 hence the consuls are stationed1 for the most part1 at ports of entry4 ,the functions of consuls are closely related to the development of ,american foreign trade and they have been described in an earlier chapter 7p4 #cgc74 ,secret and ,open ,diplomacy4--,the traditional policy of the diplomatic service in all countries has been to do its work in secret4 ,to some extent this has been necessary1 because of the nature of the negotiations carried on4 ,sidenote3 ,why secrecy is deemed essential4 ,there are times1 of course1 when the publication of what is going on in the way of negotiations between different countries would lead to serious misunderstandings and might cause the negotiations to be broken off altogether4 ,it is natural1 for example1 that each government1 when it begins negotiations on any question1 should ask a good deal more than it expects to obtain4 ,only as the discussion proceeds through the channels of diplomacy does each country give way a little and in the end they reach an agreement4 ,now1 if these negotiations had to be carried on before the eyes of the whole world an agreement would be very difficult because no government likes to back down1 even slightly1 from its original demands4 ,so secrecy is in some cases necessary4 ,but there has been too much of it in the past4 ,many important matters have been withheld from public knowledge even after the negotiations have been finished1 and pledges have been made by rulers without informing their people4 ,sidenote3 ,the experience of ,europe4 ,it was because of secret diplomacy that the various ,european countries1 prior to #aiad1 became enmeshed in a maze of intrigues and semi-secret alliances which drew them steadily toward the brink of war4#bhi ,the ,united ,states1 happily1 has had very little experience with secret diplomacy4 ,every treaty or agreement must be submitted to the ,senate and when so submitted it cannot be kept secret4 ,nothing can be kept secret after it is laid for discussion before a body of ninety-six men1 at least it cannot remain secret very long4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,american tradition of open diplomacy4 ,the ,senate1 moreover1 has always insisted on making these agreements public1 although the discussions may be held behind closed doors4 ,one of the reasons why the government of the ,united ,states has acquired a good reputation for frankness and sincerity in its relations with other countries is to be found in this avoidance of secrecy in international agreements4 ,this policy should never be abandoned4 ,treaties4--,a treaty is a formal agreement made between two or more countries and binding upon each4 ,there are many kinds of treaties1 including treaties of peace1 treaties of alliance1 treaties providing for reciprocity in trade1 for the mutual surrender of fugitive criminals1 postal treaties1 treaties of arbitration1 and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,how treaties are made4 ,there are three stages in the making of a treaty1 namely1 the negotiation1 the signature1 and the ratification4 ,the negotiations are usually carried on through members of the diplomatic service1 but in the case of important treaties it is customary to appoint special envoys for the purpose4 ,when all details have been agreed upon the treaty is engrossed on parchment and signed by the official representatives of the respective countries4 ,but it does not go into effect until it is ratified and1 so far as the ,united ,states is concerned1 this ratification cannot take place until the treaty has been approved by a two-thirds majority of the ,senate4#bij ,whenever a treaty has been concluded on behalf of the ,united ,states1 therefore1 it is transmitted by the ,president to the presiding officer of the ,senate by whom it is referred to the ,committee on ,foreign ,affairs4 ,this committee1 in due course1 makes its report to the ,senate whereupon a discussion takes place4 ,sidenote3 ,the power of the ,senate over treaties4 ,when the discussion is finished the ,senate votes to give or withhold its assent4 ,if it acts favorably1 the ,president notifies the other government and the treaty becomes effective2 if the ,senate rejects the treaty1 it fails to go into force4 ,the ,senate1 strictly speaking1 cannot amend any treaty1 but it may ask the ,president1 and through him the other government1 to accept certain changes4 ,as a rule the ,senate has ratified treaties without amendment but it has sometimes insisted on alterations1 and on some notable occasions it has rejected treaties altogether4#bia ,sidenote3 ,the roots of ,american diplomacy4 ,american ,foreign ,policy4--,when ,washington finished his second term as ,president in #agif1 he delivered to his countrymen a ,farewell ,address in which he gave them some sound advice4 ,among other things he pointed out that the primary interests of ,america were very remote from those of ,europe and advised that the ,united ,states should 8steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world04 ,not long afterwards ,jefferson reiterated this principle and urged that the policy of ,america should aim at 8honest friendship with all nations1 entangling alliances with none04 ,this attitude of ,washington and ,jefferson embodied the best interests of the ,united ,states in the early days of the ,republic and undoubtedly reflected the sentiment of the people4 ,in keeping with this principle of 8political isolation0 the ,united ,states remained neutral during the ,european wars which followed the ,french ,revolution and strenuously endeavored to avoid taking sides in the struggle between ,england and ,france4 ,the ,united ,states government1 in #ahjg1 went so far as to shut off all trade with both these warring countries4 ,but in #ahab1 the continued violation of ,america's rights as a neutral exhausted the patience of the people4 ,these rights were violated by ,france and ,england alike2 the ,english violations1 however1 were the ones which stirred up the greatest amount of popular resentment4 ,so the ,united ,states engaged in war with ,england for the maintenance of the principles of neutrality4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine4--,being resolved not to meddle in the political affairs of ,europe so long as ,american rights were not infringed1 the ,united ,states felt in a position to insist1 at the appropriate time1 that ,europe should refrain from interference in the affairs of the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of the doctrine4 ,the occasion for announcing this principle of 8hands off0 came in #ahbc4 ,during the years preceding this date the ,spanish colonies in ,central and ,south ,america had revolted4 ,they declared their independence of ,spain and drove out the ,spanish authorities1 setting up in each case a republican form of government4 ,spain naturally desired to retain her sovereignty over these territories and sought assistance of other ,european countries for that purpose4 ,there appeared to be a possibility that ,france1 ,austria1 ,prussia1 and ,russia--a combination known as the ,holy ,alliance--would join with ,spain in the subjugation of the revolted ,south ,american territories4 ,the government at ,washington became alarmed over the possibilities of large military and naval forces being sent across the ,atlantic by a coalition of monarchial countries1 believing that this would not only be a blow to the republican form of rule but a serious danger to the ,united ,states as well4 ,president ,james ,monroe accordingly authorized the issue of a declaration setting forth the interest of the ,united ,states in the matter4#bib ,the salient passages in this declaration are as follows3 8,in the wars of ,european powers in matters relating to themselves we have never taken any part1 nor does it comport with our policy to do so4444 ,with the existing colonies or dependencies of any ,european power we have not interfered and shall not interfere4444 ,but with the governments which have declared their independence and maintained it1 and whose independence we have on great consideration and on just principles acknowledged1 we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them1 or controlling in any other manner their destiny1 by any ,european power1 in any other light than as a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the ,united ,states4444 ,the ,american continents1 by the free and independent condition which they assumed and maintain1 are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any ,european powers40 ,this doctrine has remained the cornerstone of ,american policy with reference to the countries of ,central and ,south ,america for one hundred years4 ,sidenote3 ,its application4 ,on several occasions it has been invoked to protect these countries against armed pressure4 ,during the ,civil ,war1 for example1 the ,french government sent an army to ,mexico and maintained an imperial administration there in defiance of the ,mexican people4 ,while the conflict between ,north and ,south continued the government of the ,united ,states was unable to take any firm action in this matter1 but in #ahff ,france was requested to withdraw her troops from ,mexico1 which she did4 ,again1 in #ahie1 ,president ,cleveland informed the government of ,great ,britain that the ,united ,states would support ,venezuela against any attempt to settle a boundary dispute otherwise than by arbitration4 ,sidenote3 ,its status4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine is not a part of international law4 ,it is not even a law of the ,united ,states4 ,it never received the approval of the ,senate1 which is supposed to be a check upon the ,president in deciding the permanent features of ,american foreign policy4 ,its validity has never been formally recognized either by the countries of ,europe or by the states of ,south ,america whom the doctrine immediately concerns4#bic ,its maintenance rests upon the vigilance and strength of the ,united ,states4 ,in guarding the smaller states of the ,new ,world against ,european aggression the ,united ,states is taking what the ,american people regard as an essential measure of self-protection4 ,is the ,monroe ,doctrine ,obsolete8--,we are sometimes told nowadays that the ,monroe ,doctrine is behind the times1 that we have outgrown it1 and ought to give it up4#bid ,when the doctrine was announced1 a hundred years ago1 the states of ,south ,america were too weak to defend themselves2 the various countries of ,continental ,europe were governed despotically and maintained large standing armies4 ,the states of ,central and ,south ,america1 likewise1 were at that time glad to have ,american protection4 ,but now1 we are told1 all this is changed4 ,the ,spanish-,american states are strong and able to look out for themselves4 ,they do not want our guardianship4 ,the nations of ,continental ,europe1 moreover1 are no longer despotisms but republics and limited monarchies4 ,they have enough problems to keep them employed for the next generation without interfering in the affairs of the ,new ,hemisphere4 ,so it has been suggested that the doctrine be given up1 particularly as no one knows exactly what it means at the present day4#bie ,but the doctrine is deeply imbedded in the diplomatic traditions of the ,american people and there is nothing to be gained by giving it up unless the situation becomes very different from what it is today4 ,american ,contributions to ,international ,law4--,the ,united ,states has rendered signal service in making the rules and usages of international law more enlightened and more humane4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,neutral rights4 ,at all times the ,american government has been a champion of neutral rights and particularly has insisted upon liberal rules concerning neutral commerce on the high seas4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,laws of war4 ,it has lent its influence to the movement for making the laws of war more human and for prohibiting all practices which needlessly endanger the lives of non-combatants4 ,it has stood for freedom of trade and the 8open door04 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,arbitration4 ,among the nations of the world the ,united ,states has been foremost in the advocacy and use of arbitration as a means of settling international disputes4 ,in keeping with this policy arbitration treaties have been concluded between the ,united ,states and twenty other countries1 each treaty providing that all disputed questions1 of whatsoever nature1 shall be submitted to arbitration if they cannot be adjusted by diplomatic negotiation1 and that no resort to war shall in any event take place until after the processes of arbitration have been exhausted4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,recent contributions4 ,at the ,peace ,conference which assembled in #aiai after the close of the ,world ,war1 moreover1 it was the ,united ,states that first put forward in definite form the plan for a ,league of ,nations4 ,and in #aiba it was the ,united ,states which took the initiative in calling the international conference which arranged for a great reduction in naval armaments4 ,general ,references ,,charles ,a4 ,,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #cae-cda2 ,ibid41 ,readings in ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp4 #bia-cjg2 ,,everett ,,kimball1 ,national ,government of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #edj-egc2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,actual ,government1 pp4 #dcj-dde2 ,,john ,w4 ,,foster1 ,the ,practice of ,diplomacy1 especially pp4 #cd-ed2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings in ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #fea-fhb2 ,e4 ,s4 ,,corwin1 ,the ,president's ,control of ,foreign ,relations1 passim2 ,,gaillard ,,hunt1 ,the ,department of ,state4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,is it obsolete8 ,the international situation during the years #ahae-ahbc4 ,the ,holy ,alliance1 its organization and aims4 ,spain in ,america4 ,the revolt of the ,spanish ,colonies4 ,preliminaries of the declaration4 ,canning's suggestion4 ,scope of the doctrine as announced4 ,subsequent applications and extensions4 ,the ,french in ,mexico4 ,the ,venezuela controversy4 ,present scope of the doctrine4 ,attitude of ,europe toward it4 ,attitude of the ,spanish-,american states4 ,its value for the future4 ,conclusion4 ,references3 ,,hiram ,,bingham1 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine3 ,an ,obsolete ,shibboleth1 pp4 #c-ee2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine1 pp4 #ee-hc1 and passim2 ,a4 ,c4 ,,coolidge1 ,the ,united ,states as a ,world ,power1 pp4 #ie-abj2 ,c4 ,h4 ,,sherrill1 ,modernizing the ,monroe ,doctrine1 pp4 #fd-gf2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,caribbean ,interests of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #cbc-cea2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,latan1 ,the ,united ,states and ,spanish ,america1 pp4 #bib-ccd2 ,d4 ,c4 ,,gilman1 ,james ,monroe 7,american ,statesmen ,series1 ,standard ,library ,edition71 pp4 #aef-agd2 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt1 ,american ,ideals1 pp4 #bbj-bcg2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #def-dfh2 ,,dexter ,,perkins1 8,europe1 ,spanish ,america1 and the ,monroe ,doctrine0 in ,american ,historical ,review 7,january1 #aibb74 #b4 ,the diplomatic service and how it can be improved4 ,references3 ,j4 ,w4 ,,foster1 ,the ,practice of ,diplomacy1 pp4 #cd-ed2 ,,john ,a4 ,,fairlie1 ,national ,administration1 pp4 #gg-ia2 ,e4 ,,van ,,dyne1 ,our ,foreign ,service1 pp4 #de-aac2 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,government1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eic-eie2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,readings on ,american ,federal ,government1 pp4 #fea-feh2 #fge-fhb4 #c4 ,the chief rules of international law2 how can their enforcement be ensured8 ,references3 ,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1 ,elements of ,international ,law1 pp4 #ai-cj2 ,t4 ,j4 ,,lawrence1 ,principles of ,international ,law1 pp4 #aai-ach2 ,g4 ,g4 ,,wilson and ,g4 ,f4 ,,tucker1 ,international ,law 7#gth ed471 pp4 #dd-fj2 ,a4 ,s4 ,,hershey1 ,the ,essentials of ,international ,public ,law1 pp4 #adc-afi2 ,a4 ,h4 ,,snow1 ,the ,american ,philosophy of ,government1 pp4 #aac-aed2 #bfg-bhc4 ,see also the ,general ,references to ,chapter ,,xxx4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the rights and duties of neutrals4 ,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1 ,elements of ,international ,law1 pp4 #cgf-cie 7,rights of ,neutrals72 pp4 #cif-dde 7,duties of ,neutrals74 #b4 ,the privileges of diplomats4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,foster1 ,the ,practice of ,diplomacy1 pp4 #aei-agd4 #c4 ,how treaties are made4 ,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1 ,elements of ,international ,law1 pp4 #bbc-bdi4 #d4 ,the power of the ,senate in relation to treaties4 ,,ralston ,,hayden1 ,the ,senate and ,treaties1 especially pp4 #afi-aie2 ,j4 ,w4 ,,foster1 ,the ,practice of ,diplomacy1 pp4 #bfb-bhc4 #e4 ,the ,venezuelan controversy4 ,,grover ,,cleveland1 ,presidential ,problems1 pp4 #agc-bha4 #f4 ,arbitration as a method of settling ,international disputes4 ,r4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,international ,arbitration as a ,substitute for ,war between ,nations1 pp4 #bah-bfi2 ,j4 ,w4 ,,foster1 ,arbitration and ,the ,hague ,court1 pp4 #ci-eg2 ,j4 ,b4 ,,moore1 ,american ,diplomacy1 pp4 #bjj-bbb4 #g4 ,the ,hague ,conferences4 ,g4 ,b4 ,,davis1 ,elements of ,international ,law1 pp4 #beh-bfc2 #eai-ebd2 #ebe4 #h4 ,the proposed codification of international law4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,snow1 ,the ,american ,philosophy of ,government1 pp4 #cie-dah4 ,questions #a4 ,what is international law8 ,is it properly a system of law8 ,explain the sense in which you use the term law in the following expressions3 law of gravitation2 law of the land2 law of supply and demand2 law of fashion4 #b4 ,look up and explain the following terms3 belligerent1 contraband1 unneutral service1 filibustering1 blockade1 three-mile limit1 diplomatic immunity4 #c4 ,make a list of 7a7 the rights of neutrals2 7b7 the duties of neutrals1 and show how each right involves a duty4 #d4 ,draw up1 in the form of a diary1 a day's happenings in the ,american embassy at ,tokyo1 putting down at least six things done by the ambassador during the day4 #e4 ,explain what is meant by secret diplomacy4 ,to what extent has the ,united ,states avoided it and why8 #f4 ,give an account 7from your studies in ,american ,history7 of some important treaty to which the ,united ,states was a party4 ,tell how it was negotiated1 signed1 and ratified4 #g4 ,is the principle set forth by ,washington and ,jefferson concerning the true policy of the ,united ,states in foreign affairs applicable at the present time8 #h4 ,are the following statements true of the ,united ,states today3 7a7 8,in the wars of ,european powers in matters relating to themselves we have never taken any part40 7b7 8,with the existing colonies or dependencies of any ,european power we have not interfered08 #i4 ,what is meant by the saying that 8the covenant of the ,league of ,nations does not destroy the ,monroe ,doctrine but extends it to the whole world08 ,is that statement correct8 #aj4 ,what seems to you to be the most important among ,american contributions to international law8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,all members of the diplomatic service1 including ambassadors1 should be chosen under civil service rules4 #b4 ,a majority vote in the ,senate should be made sufficient for the ratification of treaties4 #c4 ,it would be a violation of the ,monroe ,doctrine if ,great ,britain were to sell the island of ,jamaica to ,germany4 ----- ,footnote #bhc3 ,this is a great and fundamental weakness of international law1 that there is no executive authority to apply it and there are no courts to enforce its rules when nations disobey4 ,during the ,world ,war the rules of international law were violated on many occasions1 for example1 in the use of poison gas1 the bombing of hospitals1 the sinking of hospital ships1 the forcing of prisoners to labor on military works1 and the illegal detention of neutral ships4 ,yet in spite of these violations international law emerged from the war stronger than it was before4 ,the nations which violated international law most shamelessly were the ones that lost the war1 and their defeat was due in no small measure to the resentment which was aroused throughout the world by reason of these violations4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,illustrations are too fresh in everyone's mind to require any extended comment4 ,in #aiah ,president ,wilson took with him to the peace negotiations at ,paris no member of the ,senate4 ,he did not keep in touch with the leaders of the majority party in this body4 ,but in #aiba when ,president ,harding appointed the four ,american delegates to the ,washington ,conference he named two of them from the ,senate4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,in addition to regular envoys1 it is sometimes customary for a country to send an unofficial representative to conduct negotiations informally4 ,during the years before the ,united ,states entered the war1 ,colonel ,edward ,m4 ,house1 of ,texas1 was sent to ,europe by ,president ,wilson on at least two occasions in order that certain confidential discussions might be carried on without using the regular diplomatic channels4 ,when unofficial representatives are sent in this way no public announcement is made4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,communications between diplomats and their own governments are not usually sent by mail if the matters dealt with are of great importance4 ,they are sent by special couriers or messengers4 ,when diplomatic communications are sent by telegraph or cable they are transmitted in cipher1 that is1 in a secret code of words which no outsider can read4 ,nations occasionally get hold of one another's diplomatic codes and decipher communications which they are not supposed to read4 ,for example1 the ,german government in the spring of #aiag1 before the ,united ,states declared war1 sent a wireless message to its official representative in ,mexico1 telling him in substance that if ,america entered the war1 he was to stir up ,mexico against the ,united ,states by promising that when the war was over ,mexico would be rewarded with some ,american territory4 ,this message was in secret code2 but the ,american officials caught it from the air1 deciphered it1 and at the appropriate time put the ,german government in an embarrassing situation by publishing the message in plain ,english to the whole world4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,when two countries go to war they at once withdraw their diplomatic representatives from one another's capitals4 ,the embassy or legation and its archives are put under the care of some neutral ambassador until the war is over4 ,during the years #aiad-aiag the ,american ambassador in ,berlin and the ,american minister in ,brussels looked after the interests of ,great ,britain at these two capitals4 ,the work of ,mr4 ,brand ,whitlock at ,brussels was notable1 and the services which he rendered to the ,belgian people during the years of their country's captivity will long be remembered in that heroic little land4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,in #aiae1 for example1 the ,austro-,hungarian ambassador to the ,united ,states1 ,dr4 ,dumba1 endeavored to stir up trouble among certain ,hungarian immigrants who were working in ,american munition factories1 making weapons and military supplies for sale to ,great ,britain and ,france4 ,when the ,united ,states government discovered these intrigues1 ,dr4 ,dumba was dismissed from the country4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,the making of secret treaties continued1 in fact1 after the war began4 ,by secret treaties ,france and ,great ,britain promised that ,italy should have certain territories which were held by ,austria and that ,russia should have ,constantinople4 ,when the war was over the new government at ,vienna permitted the publication of a whole volume of secret treaties that had been made during the preceding fifty years4 ,the ,bolsheviks in ,russia also published all the secret treaties of the ,czar that they could find4 ,in the covenant of the ,league of ,nations it is provided that every treaty between nations which become members of the ,league must be registered and published4 ,footnote #bij3 ,there are some cases in which the approval of the ,house of ,representatives is also needed before a treaty can go into effect4 ,in the treaty which provided for the purchase of ,alaska in #ahfg and in the treaty which closed the war with ,spain in #ahih1 provision was made for the payment of money by the ,united ,states4 ,now no money can be appropriated from the treasury without action on the part of the ,house1 and if the ,house had declined to appropriate the money1 the conditions of these treaties could not have been fulfilled4 ,in both cases1 however1 the ,house did actually vote the necessary funds4 ,footnote #bia3 ,in #ahgj1 for example1 ,president ,grant concluded with the government of ,san ,domingo a treaty which provided for the annexation of that island to the ,united ,states4 ,the ,senate1 after a hard fight1 rejected the treaty altogether4 ,even more notable1 of course1 was the ,senate's action in declining to ratify the treaty which ,president ,wilson signed at ,paris in #aiai4 ,footnote #bib3 ,the ,english government proposed that the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain should issue the declaration jointly1 but ,president ,monroe and his secretary of state1 ,john ,quincy ,adams1 thought it better that the ,united ,states should make the declaration alone4 ,footnote #bic3 ,at the ,peace ,conference in #aiai the ,european countries were willing to concede what was virtually a recognition of the ,monroe ,doctrine1 and the covenant of the ,league of ,nations contains a provision that nothing in that document shall affect the validity of 8regional understandings1 like the ,monroe ,doctrine1 for securing the maintenance of peace0 7,article ,,xxi74 ,footnote #bid3 ,,hiram ,,bingham1 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine3 ,an ,obsolete ,shibboleth 7,new ,haven1 #aiac74 ,footnote #bie3 ,no one knows exactly what it means today because its scope has been rather indefinitely extended at various times4 ,no doubt it would be further extended if the occasion should arise4 ,for example1 the original doctrine was directed against ,european powers only4 ,but if ,japan should attempt to acquire territory in ,central or ,south ,america1 the ,monroe ,doctrine would unquestionably be invoked as applicable to an ,asiatic power as well4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,as ,a ,,world ,,power ,the purpose of this chapter is to answer the question3 ,what are the relations of the ,united ,states to the rest of the world8 ,the ,old ,policy of ,isolation4--,for more than one hundred years it was the settled policy of the ,united ,states to keep aloof from all entanglements in the affairs of the rest of the world4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrines of ,washington and ,jefferson4 ,this tradition of aloofness was given a definite form by ,washington1 who solemnly warned his countrymen against getting mixed up in the 8ordinary0 conflicts of ,european states1 and it was subsequently endorsed by ,jefferson4#bif ,yet even in ,jefferson's own administration it became apparent that if the ,united ,states intended to carry on trade with all parts of the world1 the government must intervene for the protection of its own citizens whenever this should become necessary4 ,so1 in #ahjc1 the ,american fleet was sent to the ,mediterranean1 where it bombarded a nest of pirates who had been interfering with ,american commerce4 ,then came the ,war of #ahab1 which grew out of foreign interference with ,american trade4 ,on several subsequent occasions during the nineteenth century the policy of protecting and promoting foreign trade drew the ,united ,states into negotiations with various countries of ,europe and ,asia4 ,in a sense1 therefore1 the ,united ,states has never pursued a policy of complete isolation2 on the other hand no permanent alliances have been made with any country1 and the principle of independence in all matters of foreign policy has been consistently maintained4 ,so far as diplomatic matters did not directly concern ,north1 ,central1 or ,south ,america1 the statesmen of the world could safely leave the ,united ,states out of their reckonings during the greater part of the nineteenth century4 ,in diplomacy the ,united ,states belonged1 so to speak1 to a different world4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,light4 ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey ,copyright by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey4 ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,light ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,abbey ,from a mural painting in the ,pennsylvania ,state ,capitol at ,harrisburg4 ,this is a very striking picture1 one of the artist's best4 ,in the background are the huge derricks which lift the oil from the bowels of the earth4 ,in front of them golden-haired figures1 robed in gauze with torch in hand1 are swirling upward in joyous energy like a swarm of fireflies4 ,in making this picture the artist took infinite pains4 ,each figure was first drawn from a living model4 ,each was then photographed and by the use of a lantern the figures were projected upon the canvas where they were manuvred into place for the artist's guidance4 ,the whole picture is successful in conveying the impression of spontaneity combined with lightness and grace4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,why ,isolation was ,possible4--,this substantial isolation was made possible for more than a hundred years by three features4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,the fortunate geographical position of the ,united ,states4 ,the first is the favored geographical position of the country4 ,the ,united ,states1 as a strong nation1 has stood alone in the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,her only neighbors were ,european colonies and the struggling states of ,latin-,america4 ,so long1 therefore1 as the powerful nations of ,europe could be held at arm's length there was no reason why the ,united ,states should give much thought to problems of defence1 alliances1 and diplomacy4 ,nature gave the ,united ,states an advantage in this respect which is not possessed by any other strong nation with the exception of ,japan4 ,countries like ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany could not have pursued a policy of isolation even if their people had desired it1 for they are too close to each other4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the abundance of land4 ,in the second place the ,united ,states was encouraged to hold aloof from the older countries of the world by the fact that there was plenty of room for expansion at home4 ,for a hundred years there was no need to go abroad seeking new territories4 ,it took the ,united ,states a whole century to develop and populate the solid block of country which extends from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,when other countries desired places of overflow for their population and new fields of investment for their capital1 they engaged in a race for colonial possessions4 ,the ,united ,states had no such need or ambition2 there was quite enough opportunity at home4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the absence of ,european intervention4 ,finally1 the traditional policy of isolation was made possible by the good fortune which prevented ,european interference at critical times1 notably during the ,american ,civil ,war1 when there was serious danger that ,great ,britain and ,france might combine to aid the ,south4 ,if that had actually happened1 it is not unlikely that ,russia would have come to the aid of the ,north1 and the ,civil ,war would then have developed into a world conflict4 ,in that case ,american isolation would have ended more than a half century ago4 ,but good fortune1 aided by competent diplomacy1 enabled the ,united ,states to settle its own troubles without foreign interference and to continue the traditional policy of incurring no obligations to any other country4 ,in a word there was the will to keep aloof and1 what is quite as important1 the opportunity to do it4#big ,from the ,war of ,independence down to the year #aiag the ,united ,states entered into no military alliance or association with any other country2 when the ,american armies fought1 they fought alone4 ,america's ,entry into the ,world ,war4--,the ,world ,war created a situation which the ,united ,states had never faced before4 ,sidenote3 ,the old policy of isolation comes to an end4 ,all ,western ,europe burst ablaze2 one country after another was drawn in2 and hostilities soon spread beyond the borders of the ,old ,continent4 ,from the outset the ,united ,states endeavored to maintain a strict neutrality2 but ,american commerce was subjected to interference by the belligerents on both sides4 ,particularly offensive to the ,united ,states1 however1 was the ,german practice of sinking without warning passenger vessels upon which ,american citizens were traveling4 ,the torpedoing of the ,british liner ,lusitania1 and the consequent loss of many ,american lives1 stirred public opinion throughout the ,united ,states4 ,this and other offences against the law of nations moved ,president ,wilson to demand from the ,german government a pledge that the practice of sinking vessels without warning should cease1 and this pledge was conditionally given4 ,early in #aiag1 however1 the ,german government decided to inaugurate1 as a desperate stroke1 a campaign of 8unrestricted submarine warfare01 and the government of the ,united ,states was informed that even neutral vessels1 unless they observed certain strict precautions1 would be torpedoed without warning4 ,this action settled the matter of ,america's continued neutrality4 ,sidenote3 ,the declaration of war in #aiag4 ,diplomatic relations with ,germany were broken off and in ,april1 #aiag1 ,congress passed a declaration of war4 ,the events of the next eighteen months are still fresh in everyone's mind4 ,america entered the struggle with a determination to turn the scale1 and on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 the ,german military authorities were brought to terms4 ,by signing an armistice they acknowledged defeat and agreed to terms dictated by the ,allied and ,associated ,powers4 ,the ,fourteen ,points4--,some months before the signing of this armistice ,president ,wilson1 in an address to ,congress1 set forth the principal aims of the ,united ,states in the war4 ,these aims were grouped under fourteen heads and soon came to be known as the ,fourteen ,points4 ,every one of them had to do with matters which1 prior to the war1 would have been deemed of no immediate concern to the ,united ,states4 ,taken as a whole1 however1 they outlined the principles upon which1 in ,president ,wilson's opinion1 a durable peace could be erected and the future security of the world maintained4 ,the ,german government1 in asking for an armistice1 declared its acceptance of these principles4 ,the ,treaty of ,versailles4--,after the armistice had been signed on behalf of the various belligerents a conference was convened at ,versailles to draw up a definite treaty of peace4 ,this conference included delegates from the countries which had shared in the winning of the war4 ,germany and her allies1 the vanquished1 were not represented4 ,for several months the conference wrestled with the problems involved in the making of a treaty--the rearrangement of boundaries1 the recognition of new states1 the disposal of ,german colonies1 the payment of reparations1 and1 most difficult of all1 the forming of a league of nations to prevent future wars4 ,when the work was finished the ,german representatives were called in and were required to sign the treaty substantially without any changes4 ,the treaty was then communicated to the various countries to be ratified and in due course it was ratified by all the important countries except the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,why isolation is no longer possible3 ,the ,new ,world ,order4--,the war and the changes which accompanied it served to alter the whole world environment4 ,america was brought into more intimate contact with ,europe than ever before4 ,even before the war1 however1 it had become apparent that the traditional policy of isolation could not be permanently maintained4 ,to all intents and purposes the world has become much smaller in these latter days4 ,in point of miles ,america is just as far away from ,europe as ever1 but a thousand miles count for less nowadays than did a hundred in our great-grandfathers' time4 ,during the summer of #aiah the ,united ,states transported to ,europe in less than four months a million men4 ,fifty years ago that would have been deemed to be an utterly impossible achievement4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,the annihilation of distance4 ,the fast steamship of today can cross the ocean in a hundred hours2 in ,washington's time the fleetest sailing-ships could not skim the ,atlantic in less than three weeks on the average4 ,the time is soon coming1 in all probability1 when men can be in ,london one day and in ,new ,york the next4 ,this is not a mere dream2 it is well within the range of possibilities4 ,so we can no longer talk of geographical isolation4 ,the progress of mankind has virtually annihilated distance4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the acquisition of overseas possessions4 ,again1 the ,united ,states is no longer1 as in the old days1 devoid of tangible interests in distant parts of the earth4 ,beginning in #ahih1 ,porto ,rico1 the ,philippines1 and ,guam were acquired from ,spain1 and ,hawaii was annexed4 ,later the ,panama ,canal was built and a zone of territory on both sides of it acquired4 ,more recently1 the ,virgin ,islands were purchased from ,denmark4 ,all this has involved a departure from the traditional policy of acquiring local interests only4 ,it has given ,america1 in the case of the ,philippines1 an outpost several thousand miles away4 ,whatever1 therefore1 concerns the ,malay ,archipelago or1 indeed1 any part of the ,far ,east1 concerns the interests of the ,united ,states4 ,isolation is no longer possible because the ,united ,states has surrendered1 in this case at any rate1 the geographical advantage of isolation4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the acquisition of interests through the war4 ,finally1 during the past few years1 the relation of the ,united ,states to the rest of the world has been changed by reason of the interests acquired through the war4 ,the fact that the ,treaty of ,versailles did not receive the approval of the ,senate does not in any way impair the rights and interests which the ,united ,states acquired as one of the victors in the war4 ,those interests1 obtained at great sacrifice and acknowledged by ,germany in the separate treaty which the ,united ,states made with that country in #aiba1 are spread over virtually the entire world4 ,they are of incalculable value1 present and future4 ,no policy of isolation is now possible unless the country is ready to abandon these privileges altogether1 and1 for reasons which will presently be stated1 the surrender of these various ,american interests is out of the question4 ,in the new world order the ,united ,states cannot hold off from the rest of the world4 ,the policy of a nation is determined by what it regards as its own vital interests4 ,sidenote3 ,wide scope of these interests4 ,the ,new ,american ,interests4--,some important interests in various parts of the world were acquired by the ,united ,states before the war2 others have been obtained or intensified as a result of it4 ,the scope and nature of these interests may best be explained1 perhaps1 by grouping them under four main heads1 according to their general geographical location1 namely1 ,europe1 ,central and ,south ,america1 the ,far ,east1 and the ,near ,east4 ,it is not possible to arrange them in the order of their relative importance1 for only the future can determine what this order of importance may turn out to be4 ,certain it is1 however1 that in all four world-areas the interests of the ,united ,states are of vast consequence not only to the ,american people but to the cause of world peace and prosperity4 ,above and beyond all1 moreover1 is the vital interest of ,america in the maintenance of international amity4 ,apart from the loss of life1 ,america's participation in the ,world ,war cost the country1 directly and indirectly1 more than thirty thousand million dollars4 ,that is indeed a heavy price to pay for helping to settle a quarrel which the ,united ,states had no part in promoting4 ,it surely requires no argument to prove that ,america has a vital interest in avoiding another such calamity4 ,sidenote3 ,america's interests now extend to everything that may threaten peace4 ,america and ,europe4--,the war resulted in placing ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,italy1 and the other victorious countries of ,europe under heavy obligations to the ,united ,states4 ,to a certain extent these obligations are sentimental2 in return for ,america's help towards winning the war the other victorious countries are under a natural obligation to give the ,united ,states an adequate share in determining the permanent conditions of peace4 ,this they have been willing to do2 but it involves responsibilities which the ,united ,states has shown no great willingness to accept4 ,the old tradition of non-interference in strictly ,european affairs is still strong and this has led the ,american government to distinguish1 wherever possible1 between questions of local and of world-wide concern4 ,the distinction1 however1 is practically impossible to make4 ,the boundaries of some small ,european state may seem to be a matter of no concern at ,washington2 but if a disagreement over this question should bring once more a general ,european clash of arms1 the importance of the issue would speedily be recognized4 ,so long as the general preservation of world-peace is among the primary interests of the ,united ,states1 as it seems bound to be1 no menace to peace1 anywhere1 at any time1 can be lightly regarded by the people of ,america4 ,the ,loans to ,associated ,nations4--,but the war did not result in the creation of sentimental obligations only4 ,obligations of great importance and a tangible nature on the part of ,europe to ,america grew out of it4 ,during the conflict the ,united ,states loaned large sums of money to ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,russia1 and the other ,associated ,powers4#bih ,these loans were made generously1 in the midst of a grave emergency2 but nothing definite was arranged as to when or how they should be repaid4 ,sidenote3 ,how the loans were made4 ,in view of the disorganized conditions in ,europe created by the war no request for the payment of interest was made by the ,united ,states during the conflict or for some years after its close4 ,in #aibb1 however1 ,congress authorized the ,president to appoint a commission of five persons to arrange with the ,european countries for the funding of the debts by the issue of bonds4 ,these bonds will be given to the ,united ,states4 ,now it must be reasonably clear to anyone who gives the matter a moment's thought that until these bonds are paid off by the various ,european countries 7which will be thirty or forty years hence7 the ,united ,states will be vitally interested in what ,washington called the 8vicissitudes0 of the ,old ,world4 ,sidenote3 ,america's mortgage on ,europe4 ,america1 in effect1 holds a mortgage on ,europe1 and it is the practice of mortgage-holders to keep a sharp eye on their invested funds4 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and the other debtor countries expect to redeem these loans1 in considerable part1 out of reparation payments made to them by ,germany4 ,if ,germany does not pay them1 it will be much harder for them to pay ,america4#bii ,in this roundabout way1 therefore1 the ,united ,states has acquired a tangible interest in the pledges made by the ,german government4 ,america's ,interest in the ,industrial ,reconstruction of ,europe4--,the sum total of ,america's interest in the peace and prosperity of ,europe is not represented1 however1 by these ten billion dollars of loans4 ,the commercial relations of the two continents have become so intimate that whatever is an injury to the one is a detriment to the other4 ,europe is ,america's best customer4 ,our exports there are greater than to all the rest of the world put together4 ,sidenote3 ,importance of ,europe as a market4 ,the farmer1 the cotton grower1 the manufacturer--all depend in part upon the ,european market4 ,there is not sufficient demand at home for all the foodstuffs1 materials1 and manufactured goods which the ,united ,states can now produce4 ,the ,european market1 however1 has been broken down as the result of the long conflict and it is greatly to the interest of the ,united ,states that it should be built up again4 ,this can only be done by keeping the world at peace until the damage done by the war has been repaired4 ,for that commercial reason1 if for no other1 the ,united ,states cannot well afford to remain entirely isolated from the rest of the world4 ,the ,united ,states and ,latin-,america4--,the relations of the ,united ,states with most of the ,latin-,american states have been at all times friendly4 ,we have never been at war with any of them except ,mexico4 ,when these various countries revolted against ,spanish control about a hundred years ago1 the people of the ,united ,states1 remembering their own experience1 were in sympathy with them4 ,the announcement of the ,monroe ,doctrine was regarded by ,latin-,america as an act of friendliness4 ,and for more than a century since that time the ,united ,states has served as a protector to the sister republics of the southern continent4 ,when the ,war with ,spain began in #ahih ,congress announced that the ,united ,states had no intention to annex ,cuba and this pledge1 at the close of the war1 was kept4 ,cuba was given her independence4 ,naturally this evidence of good faith made a strong and favorable impression upon the ,central and ,south ,american states4 ,sidenote3 ,relations with ,mexico4 ,with ,mexico1 however1 relations have not been cordial for several years4 ,ever since the invasion of their country by an ,american army in #ahdf the ,mexican people have been suspicious of ,american aggression2 but the relations between the two governments remained cordial enough so long as ,president ,diaz continued in power south of the ,rio ,grande1 which was from shortly after the close of the ,american ,civil ,war until well into the twentieth century4 ,diaz ruled ,mexico in the fashion of a dictator2 but he kept the country peaceful as well as on good terms with the outside world4 ,since the expulsion of ,diaz the ,mexicans have had several changes in the presidency and for ten years the government has been denied recognition by the ,united ,states4 ,the successors of ,diaz have professed their desire to place the government of the country on a truly democratic basis and to some extent they have succeeded in doing so2 but they have not managed to maintain order and justice with a firm hand4 ,twice during the past decade it has been deemed necessary to send ,american troops into the country4 ,the government of ,mexico is republican in form1 but elections have not1 as a rule1 been fairly conducted4 ,the leaders who have control of the government try to manipulate the elections so as to maintain their own hold upon the country1 and they usually succeed4 ,sidenote3 ,the situation today4 ,between ,mexico and the ,united ,states there are today no questions of great importance in dispute4 ,the ,united ,states is ready to recognize the existing government of ,mexico but only upon condition that certain pledges are made in writing4 ,these include assurances that payments will be made by ,mexico as compensation for the lives and property of ,american citizens destroyed during the troubles of the past ten years2 that there shall be no confiscating of property without legal reason in the future2 and that payments of interest on ,mexico's foreign obligations shall be resumed4 ,these do not appear to be unreasonable conditions4 ,there are large ,american investments in ,mexico1 particularly in the oil and mining districts4 ,some of those who hold these investments would like to see the ,united ,states intervene by force of arms1 but it is quite unlikely that there will be anything of the kind unless all other means of securing the rights of ,americans in ,mexico prove unavailing4 ,the ,united ,states has a certain moral responsibility for the good behavior of ,mexico1 even though the ,mexican government may not recognize the existence of such an obligation4 ,sidenote3 ,mexico and the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,if the ,monroe ,doctrine gives the ,united ,states the right to keep ,european countries from interfering in ,mexican affairs1 even when their citizens have been wronged1 it may also be said to carry the duty of seeing that ,mexico does not abuse this protectorship4 ,sidenote3 ,panama4 ,in the region of the ,isthmus the interests of the ,united ,states are especially important because of the ,canal4 ,the ,panama ,canal is not only of commercial but of military value to the ,united ,states1 and no serious disturbance of the peace in this section of ,central ,america can well be tolerated4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,pan-,american ,congress4 ,many years ago the ,united ,states government made the suggestion that from time to time a ,pan-,american ,congress made up of delegates from all the republics of the ,new ,world should be held to discuss matters of common interest4 ,the suggestion was accepted and several ,congresses have been held during the past three decades4 ,there has also been established at ,washington a ,bureau of ,american ,republics whose function it is to carry out the resolutions of each ,congress and to spread information concerning the common interests of all the countries4 ,the ,united ,states and the ,far ,east4--,in ordinary usage the term 8,far ,east0 includes the ,japanese and ,chinese empires1 ,siberia and the other ,russian territories to the north of ,china1 and the ,malay ,archipelago to the south4 ,until a quarter of a century ago the interests of the ,united ,states1 whether political or commercial1 were relatively small in this part of the world4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,philippines4 ,but the acquisition of the ,philippines and the growth of ,american trade with the ,orient have combined to alter the situation4 ,another factor which has impelled the ,united ,states to pay greater attention to the ,orient today is the progress of ,japan4 ,the rapid growth of this empire in military and naval strength means that the ,united ,states has a rival for the mastery of the ,pacific4 ,during the nineteenth century the eyes of ,america were turned entirely towards ,europe2 in the twentieth they will have to be turned towards ,asia as well4 ,sidenote3 ,china and ,japan4 ,apart from affairs in the ,philippines the problems of the ,far ,east1 so far as the ,united ,states is concerned1 center around two present-day international phenomena1 the weakness of ,china and the strength of ,japan4 ,china is a vast country with at least three or four times the population of the ,united ,states4 ,although nominally a republic its government is weak1 inefficient1 unable to exercise firm control over all parts of the country1 and without effective means of national defence4 ,quite naturally1 therefore1 ,china offers a temptation to any strong country desiring exclusive trade advantages for itself4 ,her nearest neighbor1 ,japan1 would speedily be able to secure entire control of the ,chinese ,republic and make ,china a vassal state were it not for the deterring influence of the other great powers of the world4 ,in #ahii1 after the close of the ,spanish ,war1 the government of the ,united ,states addressed a note to all the great powers urging that they agree to seek no further special trade advantages in ,china1 that the integrity of ,chinese territory be preserved1 and that the principle of 8equal and impartial trade0 should be adopted4 ,sidenote3 ,the 8open door40 ,to this suggestion all the powers agreed4 ,this policy thus accepted has become known as the policy of the 8open door01 and until the outbreak of the ,world ,war it was substantially followed1 except that the various powers retained the commercial advantages that they had already acquired4 ,during this war1 however1 ,japan attacked and captured ,kiao-,chao1 a port which had been leased by ,china to ,germany for a long term of years1 and this territory the ,japanese continued to hold after the war was over4 ,not until the ,washington conference of #aibb did ,japan agree to give it up4 ,sidenote3 ,recent developments4 ,in #aiah1 moreover1 the government of ,japan made a list of twenty-one demands upon ,china for special privileges1 and although some of these demands were later modified or withdrawn entirely1 several important privileges were wrung from the ,chinese4 ,in connection with these negotiations the ,united ,states government gave assurance in the so-called ,ishii-,lansing agreement that the ,united ,states would recognize the 8special interest0 of ,japan in ,chinese affairs4 ,it is avowedly the policy of ,japan to acquire1 if she can1 the same predominance in ,asia that the ,united ,states has exercised in ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the ,conference on ,pacific ,problems4 ,regarding it as highly desirable that all controversies affecting the ,far ,east and the ,pacific should be amicably settled1 thus forestalling the growth of large naval armaments on both sides of the ,western ocean1 ,president ,harding in the summer of #aiba proposed that the ,washington conference should discuss these questions and should endeavor to secure a satisfactory solution of them4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,washington conference4 ,the conference did so1 and embodied the results of its negotiations in certain agreements1 particularly in what is commonly known as the 8,four ,power0 treaty4 ,by the terms of this treaty the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,japan mutually agree to respect the integrity of each other's possessions in the islands of the ,pacific4#cjj ,the nations represented at the conference also agreed to refrain from the erection of fortifications in certain places now unfortified4 ,out of the negotiations at ,washington1 moreover1 came the agreement on the part of ,japan to restore ,kiao-,chao and the adjacent province of ,shantung to ,china4 ,first and last1 therefore1 the ,washington conference succeeded in promoting an amicable agreement on most of the questions at issue4 ,it did not1 however1 take up the question of ,japanese immigration to the ,pacific ,coast of ,america1 nor did it discuss the grievances of the ,japanese immigrants already there4 ,these matters are left for further negotiation through the regular diplomatic channels4 ,america and the ,near ,east4--,the expression 8,near ,east0 is commonly regarded as including the areas which lie at the eastern end of the ,mediterranean and thereabouts2 it comprises ,turkey1 ,armenia1 ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,arabia1 ,mesopotamia1 and other territories in the same general region4 ,as a result of the war the ,turkish ,empire has been disintegrated2 most of its territories have been virtually placed under the control of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,italy1 and ,greece through the instrumentality of mandates 7see p4 #fcf74 ,the ,united ,states was offered the mandate for ,armenia1 but declined to accept it4 ,sidenote3 ,the oil question4 ,now some of these territories are rich in natural resources4 ,mesopotamia1 for example1 is known to possess extensive oil fields4 ,the question arises1 therefore1 whether the ,european countries which hold the mandates are to have the lion's share of this natural wealth4 ,and it is a question of considerable importance when one bears in mind the fact that the oil fields of the ,united ,states will probably be exhausted before many decades have passed 7see p4 #ccj74 ,the direct interest of the ,united ,states is less immediate1 perhaps1 than in the other areas 7,europe1 ,central and ,south ,america1 and the ,far ,east71 but it is sufficiently vital to deserve mention4 ,the ,wide ,scope of ,america's ,interests4--,from this brief and general survey some idea of the scope of ,american interests can be gained4 ,but the preceding paragraphs have not listed them all4 ,the people of the ,united ,states have a sentimental interest in many foreign problems where no economic considerations are at stake4 ,ireland is an example4 ,america's interest in a just and peaceful settlement of the ,irish question is not inspired by economic motives4 ,it arises in large part from the sentimental desire to see a people1 with whom there are close ties of kinship1 attain contentment and prosperity4 ,so with ,poland and the new ,slavic countries of ,continental ,europe4 ,america would regret to see them lose a status of independence which was gained at so great a sacrifice4 ,there is no part of the world1 in fact1 to which the interest of the ,united ,states1 direct or indirect1 sentimental1 political1 or economic1 does not now extend4 ,the enormous strength and prestige of ,america1 as disclosed during the war1 have made a profound impression in every part of the globe and have given the ,united ,states a potent influence upon the destinies of mankind4 ,the ,united ,states has become a world power of the first order4 ,whether the ,american people like it or not1 that inexorable fact remains4 ,general ,references ,a4 ,t4 ,,mahan1 ,the ,interest of ,america in ,international ,conditions1 pp4 #abg-ahe2 ,w4 ,e4 ,,weyl1 ,american ,world ,policies1 passim2 ,a4 ,c4 ,,coolidge1 ,the ,united ,states as a ,world ,power1 pp4 #ie-abj2 ,c4 ,e4 ,,jones1 ,caribbean ,interests of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #adh-aib2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,latan1 ,america as a ,world ,power1 pp4 #bee-bfh2 ,ibid41 ,from ,isolation to ,leadership1 pp4 #c-ci2 ,h4 ,h4 ,,powers1 ,america ,among the ,nations1 pp4 #aig-bci2 ,w4 ,a4 ,,dunning1 ,the ,british ,empire and the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ceg-cga2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,foundations of ,american ,foreign ,policy1 pp4 #a-eb2 ,,woodrow ,,wilson1 ,state ,papers and ,addresses1 pp4 #dfd-dgi2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,world ,politics1 pp4 #cbg-cfb4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,how the ,united ,states became a world power4 ,early relations with ,europe4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,the opening of ,japan4 ,the war with ,spain and the new acquisitions4 ,john ,hay and the 8open door40 ,the ,world ,war and its aftermath4 ,scope of ,american interests today4 ,references3 ,j4 ,h4 ,,latan1 ,america as a ,world ,power1 pp4 #c-bh2 #fc-ha2 ,ibid41 ,the ,united ,states and ,latin ,america1 pp4 #fa-bia2 ,a4 ,c4 ,,coolidge1 ,the ,united ,states as a ,world ,power1 pp4 #aba-adg2 ,j4 ,w4 ,,foster1 ,american ,diplomacy in the ,orient1 pp4 #cii-dch2 ,w4 ,m4 ,,fullerton1 ,problems of ,power1 pp4 #aa-dc2 ,p4 ,s4 ,,reinsch1 ,world ,politics1 pp4 #cji-ccf4 #b4 ,how foreign trade affects the national welfare4 ,foreign trade and national prosperity4 ,foreign trade and world power4 8,dollar ,diplomacy40 ,trade and imperialism4 ,references3 ,c4 ,m4 ,,pepper1 ,american ,foreign ,trade1 pp4 #c-cb2 #fb-hi2 #aaj-aci2 ,j4 ,d4 ,,whelpley1 ,the ,trade of the ,world1 pp4 #cia-dbe2 ,a4 ,j4 ,,wolfe1 ,theory and ,practice of ,international ,commerce1 pp4 #die-ebb2 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,caribbean ,interests of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #a-af2 ,l4 ,c4 and ,t4 ,f4 ,,ford1 ,the ,foreign ,trade of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #a-bg4 #c4 ,how the building of the ,panama ,canal extended ,american interests abroad4 ,references3 ,,lincoln ,,hutchinson1 ,the ,panama ,canal and ,international ,trade ,competition1 pp4 #df-ig2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,ogg1 ,national ,progress1 pp4 #bdf-bfe2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine3 ,an ,interpretation1 pp4 #cdj-cdh2 ,w4 ,m4 ,,fullerton1 ,problems of ,power1 pp4 #cjj-cae4 #d4 ,the open door in ,china4 ,what it means4 ,obstacles in its way4 ,references3 ,k4 ,k4 ,,kawakami1 ,japan in ,world ,politics1 pp4 #aag-aff2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,latan1 ,america as a ,world ,power1 pp4 #ajj-aai2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,willoughby1 ,foreign ,rights and ,interests in ,china1 pp4 #bde-bff2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine3 ,an ,interpretation1 pp4 #bhb-bih2 ,w4 ,r4 ,,thayer1 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,john ,hay1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bca-bdi2 ,a4 ,c4 ,,coolidge1 ,the ,united ,states as a ,world ,power1 pp4 #cbg-cgd2 ,k4 ,k4 ,,kawakami1 ,japan and ,world ,peace1 pp4 #afj-aif2 ,,john ,,dewey1 ,china1 ,japan1 and the ,united ,states 7,new ,republic ,pamphlets1 ,no4 #a74 ,short ,studies #a4 ,pan-,americanism4 ,what it means4 ,r4 ,g4 ,,usher1 ,pan-,americanism1 pp4 #bjc-bca2 ,j4 ,v4 ,,noel1 ,the ,history of the ,second ,pan-,american ,congress1 pp4 #i-cj2 ,pan-,american ,union1 ,bulletins1 ,march1 #aiaa4 #b4 ,the ,united ,states as an international policeman4 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1 pp4 #edc-eec2 ,d4 ,c4 ,,munro1 ,the ,five ,republics of ,central ,america1 pp4 #bbg-bfd2 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine3 ,an ,interpretation1 pp4 #bbc-bdb4 #c4 ,our ,mid-,pacific possessions4 ,e4 ,j4 ,,carpenter1 ,america in ,hawaii1 pp4 #aib-bea2 ,j4 ,m4 ,,callahan1 ,american ,relations in the ,pacific and the ,far ,east1 pp4 #aad-ade4 #d4 ,world competition for oil4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,talbot1 ,the ,oil ,conquest of the ,world1 pp4 #ag-cd2 ,f4 ,r4 ,,kellogg1 ,the ,mexican ,oil ,situation 7in ,clark ,university ,addresses1 ,mexico and the ,caribbean1 pp4 #ed-gb74 #e4 ,the ,united ,states in ,panama4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,jones1 ,caribbean ,interests of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #aic-bbh2 ,,ralph ,,page1 ,dramatic ,moments in ,american ,diplomacy1 pp4 #bbg-bei2 ,,theodore ,,roosevelt1 ,autobiography1 pp4 #eec-ega4 #f4 ,america's interest in ,china4 ,w4 ,e4 ,,griffin1 ,america in the ,east1 pp4 #bjc-bbe2 ,b4 ,a4 ,,robinson1 ,america's ,business ,opportunity in ,china 7in ,clark ,university ,addresses1 ,recent ,developments in ,china1 pp4 #bcg-bee2 also ,clark ,university ,lectures1 ,china and the ,far ,east1 pp4 #ie-aai74 #g4 ,the ,united ,states and the ,latin ,american republics4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,latan1 ,america as a ,world ,power1 pp4 #bfi-bhd2 ,c4 ,e4 ,,jones1 ,caribbean ,interests of the ,united ,states1 pp4 #ajf-abd4 #h4 ,isolation as an ,american policy4 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart1 ,foundations of ,american ,foreign ,policy1 pp4 #a-eb2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,latan1 ,from ,isolation to ,leadership1 pp4 #c-ec4 #i4 ,america's maritime power4 ,e4 ,n4 ,,hurley1 ,the ,new ,merchant ,marine1 pp4 #abb-aff2 ,a4 ,t4 ,,mahan1 ,the ,interest of ,america in ,sea ,power1 pp4 #c-bg4 #aj4 ,america's interest in the reconstruction of ,europe4 ,d4 ,j4 ,,hill1 ,the ,rebuilding of ,europe1 pp4 #bcf-bhb2 ,,walter ,,weyl1 ,the ,end of the ,war1 pp4 #ej-gb2 ,r4 ,s4 ,,baker1 ,what ,wilson ,did at ,paris1 pp4 #c-ce4 ,questions #a4 ,give reasons why a policy of isolation was possible during the first three-quarters of the nineteenth century4 #b4 ,was the entry of the ,united ,states into the war in #aiag in keeping with ,american traditions or a departure from ,american traditions8 ,give your reasons4 #c4 ,look up the ,fourteen ,points4 ,indicate the ones which were incorporated in the ,treaty of ,versailles4 ,name the ones which were not so incorporated4 #d4 ,explain why ,america is interested in the reconstruction of ,europe4 ,how can this reconstruction be best aided by the ,united ,states8 #e4 ,it has been suggested that the loans made by the ,united ,states to ,european countries ought to be canceled4 ,why is this proposal made and what is your opinion of it8 #f4 ,what policy do you think the ,united ,states ought to pursue toward ,mexico8 ,has the ,united ,states any responsibility for the good behavior of ,mexico towards ,european countries8 ,why or why not8 #g4 ,to what extent should ,america insist upon the maintenance of the 8open door0 in ,china8 ,has ,japan a special interest in the ,orient similar to that of the ,united ,states in the ,western ,hemisphere8 #h4 ,what did the ,washington ,conference accomplish8 ,why did it not accomplish more8 #i4 ,was the ,united ,states wise or unwise in declining to accept any mandates from the ,league of ,nations8 #aj4 ,does the strength and prestige of ,america entail any responsibilities of leadership8 ,if so1 give some idea as to how these can be carried out4 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,the ,united ,states should maintain the ,monroe ,doctrine4 #b4 ,the ,united ,states should recognize a ,japanese 8,monroe ,doctrine0 in the ,far ,east4 #c4 ,the ,united ,states should not participate in international conferences dealing only with ,european questions4 ----- ,footnote #bif3 ,washington was well aware that the ,united ,states might have to take a hand in ,european quarrels if they should assume an extraordinary importance4 ,notice the exact wording of the passage in his ,farewell ,address4 8,it would be unwise in us to implicate ourselves by artificial ties in the ordinary vicissitudes of her 7,europe's7 politics1 or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities40 ,washington was not in the habit of wasting words1 and he did not twice insert the limitation 8ordinary0 without good reason4 ,by the way1 he did not use the phrase 8entangling alliances04 ,that expression was first used by ,jefferson in his inaugural address 7,march #d1 #ahja74 ,footnote #big3 ,from #ahae to #aiad all the great wars were localized4 ,the ,crimean ,war 7#ahed-ahee71 although five nations took part in it1 was confined to the territories around the ,black ,sea2 the ,war of #ahei1 in which the ,french and ,italians on the one side fought the ,austrians on the other1 was settled in ,northern ,italy4 ,the other important wars were1 for the most part1 individual duels between two nations or between two sections of a single nation4 ,footnote #bih3 ,the total amount loaned to ,european governments by the ,united ,states during the war was about ten billion dollars1 of which nearly half was loaned to ,great ,britain4 ,footnote #bii3 ,the payments made by ,germany to ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,italy1 as well as the payments made by these countries to the ,united ,states1 must inevitably take the form of payment in goods4 ,there is not enough gold in ,europe to make payment in gold4 ,all this means that so long as the reparations and loans are being liquidated large imports of goods from ,europe are likely to come into this country4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,by the terms of a supplementary treaty1 this does not include the main ,japanese islands themselves4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,the ,,league ,,of ,,nations ,the purpose of this chapter is to describe the relations of the ,united ,states to the most ambitious experiment in government that the world has ever attempted4 ,the ,desire to ,end ,war4--,since the dawn of human history mankind has been divided into independent tribes and nations ready to hurl themselves upon one another in warfare4 ,no mind can comprehend the immeasurable suffering which war has brought upon the human race during the past three thousand years4 ,from the days when the ,assyrian charioteers crushed their enemies under horse and wheel to those tragic years of yesterday when the hospitals of ,europe were filled with the victims of high explosive shells and poison gas1--in all this long interval there has been no cessation of warfare among men and no era of peace on earth4 ,small wonder it is1 therefore1 that in the anguish of the ,world ,war men of all races should have cried out for some such settlement as would put an end to war and all its horrors forever4#cja ,sidenote3 ,the cry for a permanent peace4 ,soldiers in the ranks called it a 8war to end war8 and gave up their lives unflinchingly in the hope that future generations would be spared a repetition of the world-wide misery4 ,but how might such a blessing be obtained for future generations of mankind8 ,that was one of the great problems which the soldiers bequeathed to the statesmen4 ,sidenote3 ,how strife between individuals has been diminished4 ,can this ,desire be ,realized8--,now it is believed by many that war can never be permanently abolished except by applying to nations a principle which men have applied to themselves as individuals1 that is to say1 by establishing an organization whereby all controversies can be settled without resort to force4 ,treaties of amity and arbitration among nations are valuable so far as they go2 but so long as there is no high authority with power to administer justice between nation and nation each must look to its own self-preservation4 ,this means that each feels obliged to regard war as a possibility and to be prepared for it4 ,without sufficient assurance against the possibility of war it is idle to expect that nations will wholly disarm4 ,and when interests clash and the passions of men are aroused they will use the weapons which are at hand4 ,sidenote3 ,the motive behind the ,league of ,nations4 ,the primary motive of those who urged the formation of a ,league of ,nations was the desire to avoid war by substituting another method of adjusting disputes1 but they also hoped that such an organization would enable the vast sums hitherto spent each year on warlike preparations to be applied to the development of industry and commerce1 to education1 to the protection of the public health1 to the betterment of labor conditions1 and to promoting all the arts of peace4 ,they harbored the hope1 moreover1 that great constructive tasks which are beyond the power of any one nation to accomplish might be achieved by the nations of the world in co-operation4 ,as an ideal it is truly great4 ,the ,italian poet1 ,dante1 dreamt of it six hundred years ago4 ,perhaps we can best appreciate what the realization of such an ideal would mean to the world by glancing for a moment at what tribulations the world passed through during the course of a single century1 from #ahad to #aiad4 ,the ,great ,wars of a ,century ,ago4--,a little more than a century ago the various nations of ,europe engaged in a long and exhausting war4 ,first and last all the chief countries of the world were drawn into it4 ,sidenote3 ,how the ,napoleonic ,wars failed to eliminate the causes of war4 ,the chief cause of this great struggle was the ambition of ,napoleon1 who sought to make ,france dominant in the political affairs of ,europe and by his aggressions finally managed to array all the other leading nations in an alliance against him4 ,when ,france was finally vanquished by the combined efforts of ,england1 ,prussia1 ,russia1 ,austria1 and ,spain1 a congress of the nations was held at ,vienna to determine the detailed arrangements by which the future peace of the continent might be preserved1 and after prolonged discussions this congress agreed upon a general settlement4 ,the principal motive which actuated the delegates at the ,congress of ,vienna was that of strengthening the four powers to whom the overthrow of ,france had been chiefly due1 thus establishing a combination which would be able to impose its will upon the rest of the continent in the interests of peace4 ,great ,britain1 ,prussia1 ,austria1 and ,russia dominated the congress and for some years after #ahae virtually remained in a quadruple alliance to see that the terms of peace were observed4 ,but the ,congress of ,vienna took no action in the way of establishing a league or confederation to which all the nations1 great and small1 should be admitted4 ,it left the peace of ,europe in the hands of four powerful states with the hope1 a futile hope it turned out to be1 that these four states would agree among themselves4 ,the ,rise of the ,alliances4--,the map of ,europe1 as rearranged by the ,congress of ,vienna1 paid no attention to the right of self-determination4 ,territories were taken from one state and given to another without reference to the desires of their inhabitants4 ,the chief aim was to strengthen the powers that had won the war1 giving each of them boundaries that could be easily defended4 ,the interests of military defence1 not those of nationality1 prevailed4 ,sidenote3 ,the rivalries of the nineteenth century4 ,because of this action the congress left many openings for friction and jealousy among the various states1 yet provided no regular means whereby disputes could be adjusted4 ,in the course of time1 moreover1 the interests of the four great powers which dominated the work of the congress drew apart4 ,england preferred to hold aloof from the diplomatic intrigues of the continental states1 devoting her energies to the upbuilding of an empire in other parts of the world4 ,france1 moreover1 regained her old-time strength and once more became recognized as one of the leading ,european powers4 ,italy1 which had been left by the ,congress of ,vienna a mosaic of small independent states1 eventually achieved its unity1 and the kingdom of ,prussia expanded into the ,german ,empire4 ,thus1 the four great powers of #ahae grew to six before the end of the nineteenth century--,great ,britain1 ,russia1 ,austro-,hungary1 ,france1 ,italy1 and ,germany4 ,with these six great states progressing side by side1 ambitious for power and jealous of one another1 it was inevitable that alliances and counter-alliances should be formed4 ,these combinations took many twists and turns during the diplomatic manoeuvres of the nineteenth century1 but in the end the six leading nations of ,europe gravitated into opposing camps4 ,the first1 known as the ,triple ,alliance1 included ,germany1 ,austro-,hungary1 and ,italy4 ,the second1 commonly called the ,triple ,entente1 was made up of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,russia4 ,these alliances were based upon treaties or understandings of which certain portions were made public and the rest kept secret4 ,sidenote3 ,the 8armed peace40 ,the ,balance of ,power4--,for many years the preservation of ,european peace rested upon the observance of a principle known as the 8balance of power04 ,this principle is not easy to define1 but in general it meant that no single state or combination of states should be allowed to become strong enough to outweigh a rival state or its combination4 ,the balance could never be exact because some states1 by virtue of their more rapid increase in population and prosperity1 were always outrunning others1 hence the situation developed into a race wherein each group of powers sought to strengthen itself by bringing smaller states into its circle1 by welding its members more closely together1 and by the creation of great armaments4 ,the purpose of the alliances1 based upon the principle of balance of power1 was not to prevent war but rather to prevent any state from being attacked by a combination of other states and having to defend itself single-handed4 ,under the terms of the ,triple ,alliance and the ,triple ,entente it remained quite possible for single states to go to war and fight it out alone2 but both alliances protected their members against combined attacks4 ,in a word1 the situation became such that any war1 wherever it might start1 was very likely to become a general war4 ,sidenote3 ,the nations in the recent war4 ,the ,realignments of #aiad-aiah4--,on the outbreak of the ,world ,war in #aiad the ,triple ,entente held together1 but the ,triple ,alliance was weakened by the action of ,italy in refusing to be drawn into a cause which the ,italian people did not approve4 ,italy1 a little later1 joined with ,france1 ,great ,britain1 and ,russia4 ,meanwhile ,japan had also taken the side of these allies and eventually the ,united ,states became associated in the war with them4 ,thus the ,triple ,entente developed into a powerful allied combination including not only the five powers named but many smaller states as well4 ,before the close of hostilities twenty-five states had declared war upon the ,german government4 ,germany and ,austro-,hungary1 the remaining states of the ,triple ,alliance1 had the aid of two other states only1 ,turkey and ,bulgaria4 ,the course of events showed1 therefore1 that not only were alliances ineffective in preserving the peace but that they actually helped to extend the area of conflict over a whole continent4 ,the ,war to ,end ,war4--,when the ,united ,states1 after long hesitation1 decided to throw its strength on the side of the ,allies1 one of the chief actuating motives was the desire to see the struggle settled in such a way that there would never be another great war4 ,sidenote3 ,idealism in this war4 ,as the spokesman of the ,american people1 ,president ,wilson repeatedly declared that out of the war some general agreement and league for the permanent preservation of world peace must come4 ,in this he undoubtedly reflected the sentiment not only of his own country but of the great masses of the people in the other warring states as well4 ,everywhere there had been going on1 practically throughout the world1 a popular agitation for the establishment of some general covenant which would make future wars impossible4 ,it was now felt that the balance of power was gone1 that individual treaties among nations were not sufficient protection1 and that something more effective must be found4 ,there was no great difference of opinion as to the ideal4 ,it was welcomed everywhere4 ,the problem was how to translate the ideal into a reality4 ,this task ,president ,wilson believed to be the most important and yet the most difficult among all the problems of peace-making4 ,to help with its solution he took the highly-unusual course of himself attending the conference which was held at ,paris to determine the conditions of peace4 ,sidenote3 ,how the ,league was brought into existence4 ,the ,framing of the ,covenant4--,when the members of this conference assembled it was agreed1 after some deliberation1 that a commission should be appointed to prepare a plan for a ,league of ,nations and that this plan1 when accepted by the conference1 should become an integral part of the peace treaty4 ,this latter point was particularly insisted upon by ,president ,wilson and was agreed to as the result of his insistence4 ,the commission was appointed2 it prepared a plan2 the plan was laid before the peace conference1 and before being adopted was published to the world4 ,in the ,united ,states it met with strong support in some quarters and vigorous opposition in others4 ,the ,senate1 by which the whole peace treaty would have to be approved before it could be binding upon the ,united ,states1 discussed the details of the plan and thirty-one senators signed a declaration that some of the provisions were unacceptable4 ,in the end1 however1 the original covenant1 with some modifications1 was adopted by the peace conference and incorporated as a part of the treaty of peace4#cjb ,as such it was subsequently accepted by all the leading powers to whom it was submitted1 except the ,united ,states4 ,in its scope the ,league of ,nations is designed to include1 ultimately1 all the countries of the world4 ,provision is made in the covenant for the immediate admission of most countries by their simple acceptance of the covenant2 others may be admitted to membership by a two-thirds vote of the league assembly4 ,fifty-one states are now members4#cjc ,sidenote3 ,an analogy and contrast4 ,the ,league as a ,scheme of ,government4--,what are the important features in this scheme of super-government8 ,this question may best be answered1 perhaps1 by taking as our background the federal system with which we are most familiar in the ,united ,states1 noting the outstanding points of resemblance and contrast4 ,at the time of its formation1 indeed1 the ,american federal government was looked upon by the several states as a super-government and they were very jealous of it4 ,it was not until many years had passed that this jealousy died down4 ,this same designation was given to the scheme of organization established by the ,league ,covenant4 ,the government of the ,united ,states has its deliberative1 executive1 and judicial departments2 so has the ,league of ,nations4 ,but there the resemblance ends4 ,the methods of constituting the organs are different2 so are their powers1 and so are their relations to one another4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,assembly and the ,council4 ,the ,league's ,deliberative ,organs4--,the ,league of ,nations has two deliberative bodies1--an ,assembly to which each member-nation may send not more than three delegates1 and a ,council1 made up of one member from each of the five great powers1--the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,italy1 and ,japan 7these five nations being always represented71 and one member from each of four lesser powers to be designated from time to time by the ,assembly4 ,since the ,united ,states has not joined the ,league1 the ,council now consists of only eight members1 the four nations constituting the second group being at present ,belgium1 ,brazil1 ,spain1 and ,china4 ,unless otherwise stated in the covenant1 any decision either of the ,council or the ,assembly requires a unanimous vote4 ,the ,council must meet at least once a year2 the ,assembly meets at stated intervals determined by itself4 ,the ,assembly has decided to meet annually on the first ,monday in ,september and the ,council is now holding quarterly sessions4 ,geneva has been selected as the ,league capital4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,secretariat4 ,the ,administrative ,organization4--,by the terms of the covenant certain functions of an executive nature are given to the ,council1 but the administrative work devolves upon the ,secretariat of the ,league4 ,this body comprises a permanent secretary and numerous officials appointed by him4 ,the ,secretariat performs the clerical work1 registers all treaties1 carries on the correspondence with the member-nations1 and prepares business to be laid before the ,council and the ,assembly4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,league's judiciary4 ,the ,court of ,international ,justice4--,the covenant also makes provision for a permanent world court1 composed of judges selected by the ,assembly from among eminent jurists nominated by the different member-countries4 ,at the second ,assembly session1 held during #aiba1 the eleven regular judges and four alternate or deputy judges were chosen4 ,controversies come before this court whenever nations agree to submit their disputes to it for decision4 ,outstanding ,features of ,league ,organization4--,in comparing the general organization of ,league government with the ,american federal system some striking contrasts appear4 ,sidenote3 ,equality of all nations in the ,league ,assembly4 ,first of all1 it is significant that in the ,council and in the ,assembly each nation has one vote only4 ,each nation may send to the ,assembly one1 two1 or three representatives2 but whether it sends one or three its voting power is the same4 ,in the ,american ,senate all the states have the same voting power1 but in the ,house of ,representatives the states with larger populations have proportionate voting strength4 ,equality of voting power is natural in a political union that is just starting4 ,the nations of the world1 being accustomed to sovereignty and legal equality were not willing to recognize gradations of rank4 ,the same feeling was manifested among the ,american colonies when1 under the ,articles of ,confederation1 it was provided that every state1 small or large1 while it might send from two to seven delegates to the ,congress1 should have the same voting power as any other4 ,there was a long fight over this question in the ,constitutional ,convention of #aghg1 the smaller states demanding equal power with the larger1 the larger asking that representation should be based upon population4 ,the matter was settled by giving the smaller states equal representation in the ,senate1 and conceding to the larger states the right to dominate the ,house4 ,but the framers of the ,league ,covenant could not accept a compromise of this sort2 for if representation according to population were made the rule in either the ,council or the ,assembly1 ,india and ,china would have far more delegates than the ,united ,states1 ,england1 and ,france put together4 ,so all were given equal representation in the ,assembly1 while representation in the ,council was confined to nine nations only4 ,other marked contrasts should be noted4 ,in the ,house of ,representatives and in the ,senate of the ,united ,states measures are passed by a majority vote2 ,sidenote3 ,the requirement of unanimity4in the ,assembly and ,council of the ,league1 unless otherwise specified1 a unanimous vote is necessary for action4 ,this is a mark of the distrust with which the nations regard one another4 ,the provision for unanimity means that nothing can be carried through the ,assembly if a single nation disapproves1 for a solitary vote can block action4 ,the same is true of the ,council as respects each nation represented in it4 ,this1 of course1 establishes a very cumbersome and slow-working scheme of government4 ,decisions of the ,council or the ,assembly1 moreover1 have no absolute binding force1 as have the enactments of ,congress4 ,there is no centralized executive authority1 with power to see that decisions are obeyed--no executive authority in the national sense4 ,the ,league has no army to enforce its will4 ,even the ,international ,court of ,justice has no jurisdiction save when the suitors1 of their own accord1 come to it4 ,it lacks the coercive power of a ,supreme ,court4 ,provisions for the ,prevention of ,wars4--,the prime purpose in establishing the ,league of ,nations was a desire to lessen the danger of wars4 ,to that end the covenant contains several provisions of high importance which may be briefly summarized4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,armaments4 ,first1 there is a provision for the reduction of armaments4 ,the ,council is directed to have a study made by experts and to report upon the amount of armed strength needed by each nation4 ,the various governments1 however1 are not bound to accept the ,council's recommendations4 ,in any case1 all members of the ,league agree to keep one another informed as to the extent of their respective armament programs4 ,this represents1 of course1 a very modest step in the direction of actual international disarmament4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,territorial integrity4 ,second1 the members of the ,league agree to protect one another against any seizure of their territories or any destruction of their independence by outside attacks4 ,this is the famous ,article ,x4 ,whenever such attack occurs1 the ,council is to advise as to how the pledge of integrity can be fulfilled4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,conciliation4 ,third1 if a dispute which cannot be settled by diplomatic negotiations arises between members of the ,league1 the members agree to refer it to arbitration if it is suitable for such disposition2 or1 if not1 then to the ,council of the ,league for inquiry4 ,the members of the ,league agree to refrain from hostilities until three months after the ,council has rendered its decision4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,coercion4 ,fourth1 if any member-nation resorts to war in violation of the preceding provisions1 the other members of the ,league agree to boycott it and to withdraw from relations with it2 in extreme cases1 the ,council is authorized to consider and recommend means of compulsion by armed force4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,registration of treaties4 ,fifth1 a very important provision is that by which all treaties hereafter entered into by members of the ,league shall be registered with the ,secretariat and published4 ,until this has been done1 no treaty is to be considered binding4 ,this1 of itself1 embodies no small step in the direction of eliminating a prolific source of friction and strife4 ,secret treaties have been the mainspring of many wars4 ,sidenote3 ,duties of the mandatories4 ,the ,system of ,mandates4--,in previous wars it has been the habit of victorious nations to divide all the conquered territory among themselves1 each taking a portion in full ownership4 ,the ,peace ,conference of #aiai1 however1 agreed to try a new plan1 namely1 that of placing the ,league of ,nations in charge of some former ,german and ,turkish territories4 ,it was provided that by means of mandates each of these territories should be directly governed1 on behalf of the ,league1 by one of its member-countries1 with the understanding that eventually complete self-government should be given in certain cases4 ,the mandatory1 or country holding the mandate1 is required to present an annual report to the ,league and a permanent commission is provided to examine these reports4 ,in accordance with these arrangements1 several mandates have been granted4 ,great ,britain1 for example1 has been made the mandatory for ,palestine1 ,france for ,syria1 and ,new ,zealand for certain former ,german colonies in the ,south ,pacific4 ,sidenote3 ,a territorial trust4 ,the possession of a mandate does not give the mandatory any exclusive commercial privileges in the territory concerned1 but merely creates a trust which is to be exercised for the benefit of the people who inhabit it4 ,whether this new experiment in the government of dependent territories will work out successfully no one yet can tell4 ,much will depend upon whether the ,league acquires prestige and power4 ,if it should collapse1 there is little doubt that these various territories would merely pass into the full ownership of the countries which now hold the mandates4 ,the ,league and ,labor4--,the widely-differing policies hitherto pursued by various countries in relation to labor have long been a cause of international distrust and friction4 ,when any one country endeavors to accord greater privileges to its workers--such as the adoption of a shorter working day or the guarantee of a minimum wage--this action places it at a disadvantage in trade competition with other countries not so progressive4 ,it is1 therefore1 provided that a permanent ,international ,labor ,office shall be established and that members of the ,league shall send representatives to a labor conference at least once a year4 ,such measures for the protection of labor as may be recommended by this conference are to be presented to the government of each member-country for adoption4 ,each government may adopt or refuse to adopt the recommendations as it sees fit2 but where a recommendation is adopted1 a country must live up to it and provisions are made for ensuring this4 ,sidenote3 ,the first labor conference4 ,the first meeting of the labor conference took place at ,washington in #aiai4 ,since that time two further conferences have been held4 ,recommendations have been made in favor of the eight-hour day1 the prohibition of child labor1 and an effective system of factory inspection4 ,in most of the discussions concerning the ,league these great opportunities which it presents for the improvement of labor conditions were entirely overlooked4 ,the ,league and the ,protection of ,health4--,great improvements in the science of health protection have been made during the past generation by all civilized countries1 as a previous chapter has indicated4 ,but no matter how watchful a country may be in guarding the health of its own people1 it can never feel safe so long as epidemics are allowed to rage unchecked in other lands4 ,the ravages of disease stop at no national boundaries4 ,trade and travel carry infection across even the best-protected borders4 ,in recognition of this the ,league covenant pledges the member-countries to take steps for the international prevention and control of disease4 ,sidenote3 ,the international health office4 ,this is to be accomplished by the establishment of a permanent ,international ,health ,office4 ,the function of this office is to gather data relating to public health questions1 to promote the acceptance of the best health regulations by the different countries1 and to secure common action in the case of dangerous epidemics4#cjd ,the ,league is also authorized to wage a war upon the use of opium and other harmful drugs1 likewise to take measures against the traffic in women and children4 ,american ,objections to the ,covenant4--,when the provisions of the covenant were finally adopted by the ,peace ,conference1 objections were urged in various countries1 but more particularly in the ,united ,states4 ,to what features was objection made8 ,some objected to the provision which gives the ,british ,empire six votes in the ,assembly of the ,league while the ,united ,states had but one4#cje ,article ,x of the covenant1 by which the nations who enter the ,league must guarantee one another's territory and independence against outside aggression was also objected to1 for it seemed to pledge the ,united ,states to defend boundary lines in all parts of the world4 ,many feared that this provision would some day require the use of ,american soldiers in distant places4 ,objection was also raised against certain provisions of the peace treaty1 such as that which turned over to ,japan the territorial and other rights in the ,chinese province of ,shantung1 which had been held by ,germany4#cjf ,and in general there was a feeling that if the ,united ,states were to enter the ,league1 this action would involve a continual entanglement in ,european affairs and a complete abandonment of ,america's traditional policy4 ,sidenote3 ,the proposed reservations4 ,it was at first believed that by making reservations on these various points the ,united ,states could overcome the more important objections1 ratify the treaty1 and enter the ,league4 ,but ,president ,wilson declined to accept such reservations and in the end the whole document1 treaty and covenant together1 failed to receive the requisite two-thirds vote in the ,senate4 ,the presidential election of #aibj was fought out on this issue4 ,the ,democratic candidate declared in favor of entering the ,league with suitable reservations1 while the ,republican candidate made no explicit pledge as to what course he would pursue although he seemed for a time to favor the formation of a new association on a somewhat different basis4 ,sidenote3 ,the ultimate decision4 ,after the election1 which resulted in a decisive ,republican victory1 ,president ,harding announced that the ,united ,states would not enter the ,league2 the project of a new association was quietly dropped2 and a separate peace with the new ,german republic was concluded4 ,the ,league at ,work4--,the refusal of the ,united ,states to assume membership was a severe1 and possibly a fatal1 blow to the strength and prestige of the ,league4 ,it is as though the state of ,new ,york1 a century and a quarter ago1 had declined to ratify the constitution1 leaving the other twelve states to form a union by themselves4 ,sidenote3 ,what the ,league has done4 ,nevertheless1 the ,league of ,nations seems to be a going concern2 it has established headquarters at ,geneva2 its ,secretariat has been organized2 its ,council has held many sessions2 its ,assembly has been twice convoked2 its court has been established2 labor conferences have been held2 mandates have been allotted2 commissions have been appointed2 and a good deal of important business has been transacted4 ,its members are very anxious to have the ,united ,states join with them and would doubtless go a long way in accepting whatever reasonable reservations this country might choose to make4 ,but there is no immediate probability that ,america will become a member on any terms4 ,the problem which now engages the attention of the ,american government is that of arranging1 through treaties and conferences1 for the removal of the various dangers to peace in the future4 ,sidenote3 ,can the work be done by a series of conferences8 ,the ,league and the ,washington ,conference4--,the calling of the ,washington ,conference was the first step in this direction4 ,the agreements reached at this conference represent a very substantial step in the direction of avoiding future wars but they do not cover the whole field of possible controversy4 ,they leave untouched the whole question of land armaments and deal with none of the chief ,european problems4 ,it is taken for granted that other conferences will be called from time to time1 each for the purpose of dealing with some specific set of international questions1 and there are many who believe that the primary purposes which the ,league of ,nations was intended to fulfill can be served in this way4 ,one advantage of the conference plan is that it allows each nation to retain greater freedom of action2 but this is also a defect1 for it permits any single country to block progress by merely declining to join with the others when a conference is called4 ,the ,washington ,conference demonstrated how easy it is to reach agreements in the common interest when nations come together for a free and frank discussion4 ,sidenote3 ,a lost opportunity4 ,will the ,league of ,nations ,live8--,will the ,league slowly acquire strength despite the failure of the ,united ,states to become a member8 ,or will the ,league gradually lose all its reason for existence1 save as an agency for carrying out the terms of the peace treaty1 and when these terms are fulfilled1 pass out of existence8 ,these are questions which no one can answer today4 ,the close of the war gave the world its greatest opportunity to devise a plan which would forever put an end to the curse of war and usher in a long era of international amity4 ,men labored long and diligently to provide such a plan1 but they failed to achieve a full measure of success4 ,where the blame for this partial failure belongs is not a matter that it can profit the world much to discuss4 ,the opportunity came and has gone4 ,whether the partial failure can ever be retrieved1 whether the ,league devised at ,paris will survive the severe setback given to it by the action of the ,united ,states1 are things which only the next generation can determine4 ,in spite of its handicap1 however1 the ,league must strive to maintain its existence1 for its continuance is essential to the enforcement of the peace treaty4 ,those nations which are interested in seeing the provisions of the treaty fulfilled must either use the ,league1 or provide other machinery in its place1 or else revise the terms of peace1 and on the whole1 the first alternative seems to be the easier one4 ,to the exhausted nations of ,europe it offers some hope of relief from the burden of great armaments1 and to small countries throughout the world the ,league stands as a means of obtaining a fair hearing for their grievances4 ,it is easy enough to pick flaws in the covenant2 but is there any likelihood that a different document would gain the adhesion of fifty-one states8 ,no such number ever agreed to anything of the sort before4 ,the attitude of the ,united ,states was not dictated by self-interest alone1 or by party politics4 ,there was1 and still is1 a strong conviction in the minds of a large element among the ,american people that the covenant of ,versailles will not prove to be a safeguard against war1 but may1 indeed1 lead to intensified rivalries and bitterness4 ,many ,americans1 and many ,europeans also1 feel that the terms of peace which were arranged at ,paris contain many unwise1 unjust1 and even impracticable provisions4 ,they believe that a ,league of ,nations1 charged with the duty of enforcing these provisions1 is bound to encounter difficulties of a serious character4 ,general ,references ,f4 ,c4 ,,hicks1 ,the ,new ,world ,order1 especially pp4 #c-ia 7,the ,peace ,treaty1 including the ,covenant1 is printed in the appendix72 ,w4 ,h4 ,,taft1 ,g4 ,w4 ,,wickersham1 and others1 ,the ,covenanter3 ,an ,american ,exposition of the ,covenant of the ,league of ,nations1 passim2 ,s4 ,p4 ,,duggan1 ,the ,league of ,nations1 p4 #a-ag2 #if-aaa2 ,j4 ,a4 ,,hobson1 ,towards ,international ,government1 pp4 #aa-eg2 ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,the ,place of the ,united ,states in a ,world ,organization for the ,maintenance of ,peace 7,july1 #aiba71 pp4 #a-bi2 ,g4 ,g4 ,,wilson1 ,the ,first ,year of the ,league of ,nations1 pp4 #a-ee2 ,r4 ,b4 ,,fosdick1 ,,george ,,rublee1 ,j4 ,t4 ,,shotwell1 ,l,,on ,,bourgeois1 and others1 ,the ,league of ,nations ,starts1 pp4 #a-bh2 ,l4 ,,oppenheim1 ,the ,league of ,nations1 pp4 #bh-dh2 ,d4 ,l4 ,,morrow1 ,the ,society of ,free ,states1 pp4 #acg-aed2 ,t4 ,j4 ,,lawrence1 ,the ,society of ,nations1 pp4 #cc-eg2 ,,ray ,,stannard ,,baker1 ,america and ,world ,peace1 passim4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,the idea of a league of nations in history4 ,ancient ,greek leagues4 ,dante's ,de ,monarchia4 ,the ,great ,design of ,henry ,,iv4 ,william ,penn's plan4 ,the proposed confederation of ,europe after the ,napoleonic wars4 ,kant's 8,everlasting ,peace40 ,the ,holy ,alliance4 ,the federation of ,central ,america 7#ahbd74 ,the ,hague ,conferences4 ,references3 ,,elizabeth ,,york1 ,leagues of ,nations1 ,ancient1 ,mediaeval1 and ,modern1 pp4 #aad-agi 7see also ,bibliography1 pp4 #cca-ccg72 ,,william ,,ladd1 ,the ,peace of ,europe1 pp4 #a-aa2 ,w4 ,a4 ,,phillips1 ,the ,confederation of ,europe1 pp4 #ade-aef2 ,f4 ,c4 ,,hicks1 ,the ,new ,world ,order1 pp4 #ff-gh2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,choate1 ,the ,two ,hague ,conferences1 pp4 #c-dd2 ,d4 ,l4 ,,morrow1 ,the ,society of ,free ,states1 pp4 #ab-cb4 #b4 ,a study of the merits and faults of the ,covenant4 ,references3 ,senate ,debates during the period ,june #b to ,october #f1 #aiai1 in ,congressional ,record 7#ffth ,congress1 #ast ,session1 ,vol4 #eh71 ,for the ,league3 ,,senator ,,swanson1 of ,virginia 7pp4 #becb-bedb71 ,,senator ,,hitchcock1 of ,nebraska 7pp4 #fdjc-fdbg72 ,against the ,league3 ,,senator ,,johnson1 of ,california 7pp4 #eja-eji71 ,,senator ,,lodge1 of ,massachusetts 7pp4 #cggh-cghd74 ,short ,studies #a4 ,the ,league of ,nations and ,american ideals4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,snow1 ,the ,american ,philosophy of ,government1 pp4 #aee-agb4 #b4 ,the ,league of ,nations and ,american interests4 ,,otto ,h4 ,,kahn1 ,our ,economic ,problems1 pp4 #ced-cfg4 #c4 ,the ,league and the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,duggan1 ,the ,league of ,nations1 pp4 #bgc-cjc2 ,annals of ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,the ,place of the ,united ,states in a ,world ,organization for the ,maintenance of ,peace 7,july1 #aiba71 pp4 #ca-dd4 #d4 ,the international labor conferences4 ,f4 ,c4 ,,hicks1 ,the ,new ,world ,order1 pp4 #bgj-bgi4 #e4 ,the ,league and disarmament4 ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,the ,place of the ,united ,states in a ,world ,organization for the ,maintenance of ,peace 7,july1 #aiba71 pp4 #de-fg4 #f4 ,the ,league at work4 ,,arthur ,,sweetser1 ,the ,league of ,nations at ,work1 pp4 #bi-fb4 #g4 ,some examples of international government4 ,l4 ,s4 ,,woolf1 ,international ,government1 pp4 #agi-bfe2 ,f4 ,b4 ,,sayre1 ,experiments in ,international ,administration1 pp4 #ah-fb4 #h4 ,the 8,concert of ,powers0 in ,europe4 ,t4 ,j4 ,,lawrence1 ,principles of ,international ,law1 pp4 #bfh-bgi4 #i4 ,the system of mandates4 ,r4 ,b4 ,,fosdick1 ,,george ,,rublee1 ,j4 ,t4 ,,shotwell1 ,l,,on ,,bourgeois1 and others1 ,the ,league of ,nations ,starts1 pp4 #aaj-abe4 #aj4 ,international public health and sanitation4 ,r4 ,b4 ,,fosdick1 ,,george ,,rublee1 ,j4 ,t4 ,,shotwell1 ,l,,on ,,bourgeois1 and others1 ,the ,league of ,nations ,starts1 pp4 #aee-afi4 #aa4 ,the ,league of ,nations as a scheme of government4 ,l4 ,,oppenheim1 ,the ,league of ,nations1 pp4 #bh-dh4 #ab4 ,small nations and the ,league4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,duggan1 ,the ,league of ,nations1 pp4 #afa-ahc2 ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,the ,place of the ,united ,states in a ,world ,organization for the ,maintenance of ,peace 7,july1 #aiba71 pp4 #fh-ig4 ,questions #a4 ,what is meant by 8applying to nations a principle which men the world over have applied to themselves as individuals08 #b4 ,explain what was done at the ,congress of ,vienna and why there were so many wars during the hundred years which followed that congress4 #c4 ,explain the following expressions3 balance of power1 ,triple ,alliance1 ,entente1 concert of powers4 #d4 ,make a diagram showing the organization of the ,league of ,nations4 ,explain by means of this diagram the contrasts between the ,league's organization and that of a federal government4 #e4 ,what are the weak features in the ,league organization8 #f4 ,summarize the provisions which were placed in the ,covenant for the prevention of future wars and give your opinion as to the value of each4 #g4 ,explain the relation of the ,league to 7a7 labor problems1 7b7 health protection1 7c7 the suppression of the drug traffic4 #h4 ,make a list of the chief ,american objections to the ,league and indicate how much importance you attach to each4 #i4 ,do you regard the refusal of the ,united ,states as a death-blow to the success of the ,league8 ,give your reasons4 #aj4 ,if the ,league fails1 how can international peace be best secured8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,a scheme of universal arbitration should be substituted for the ,league of ,nations4 #b4 ,the ,united ,states should call another conference to effect an international agreement for the reduction of armies4 ----- ,footnote #cja3 ,it is said that the ,thirty ,years' ,war reduced the population in some sections of the warring states to one-half or one-third of what it had been when the struggle began4 ,the losses of all the countries engaged in the ,world ,war have been estimated to be almost ten millions1 more than the entire population of ,canada from ocean to ocean4 ,millions more died from famine and under-nourishment at home4 ,is it not strange that nations should work for years with might and main to increase the size and prosperity of their populations1 then turn around and undo a large part of what they have been able to accomplish8 ,in peace nations labor to alleviate each others' distress2 in war they labor to cause it4 ,patiently through the decades men of science wrestle with the problem of relieving pain and suffering2 then1 in an instant1 all their skill is devoted to killing1 maiming1 and suffocating men by the million6 ,there is no wisdom like the wisdom of man1 and no folly like it either4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,the covenant was made an integral part of the peace treaty1 largely at ,president ,wilson's insistence1 for two reasons3 ,first1 because it was believed that this would be a surer way of obtaining the assent of all the great nations to the provisions of the covenant2 second1 because many of the terms of the treaty 7for example1 those relating to boundaries and mandates7 were framed on the assumption that a ,league of ,nations would be in existence to carry them into effect4 ,taken together1 the treaty and the covenant make the longest international document ever framed1 a printed book of #hg1jjj words--about half the size of this text-book4 ,nearly a thousand diplomats1 experts1 and clerks spent more than three months in drafting it4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,invitations were not extended to ,germany1 ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,bulgaria1 ,turkey1 ,russia1 or ,mexico4 ,austria1 however1 has since been admitted to membership4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,when1 for example1 a typhus epidemic broke out in ,poland1 and the ,polish authorities found themselves unable to control it1 the ,league sent a commission of health experts to assist them4 ,footnote #cje3 ,this is because not only ,great ,britain herself but ,india1 ,canada1 ,australia1 ,south ,africa1 and ,new ,zealand are members of the ,league4 ,it was assumed that the six ,british votes in the ,assembly would always be cast together2 but1 as a matter of fact1 the various ,british dominions insisted upon having separate votes in order that they might vote according to their own particular interests4 ,in most international matters the interests of ,canada1 ,australia1 and ,south ,africa are not at all certain to coincide with those of ,england4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,since the treaty and the covenant were joined together1 the objections to one applied to the other4 ,concerning ,shantung1 see also p4 #fbj4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,political ,,and ,,economic ,,reconstruction ,the purpose of this chapter is to discuss some present-day problems of world democracy4 ,sidenote3 ,why the people are now thinking new thoughts4 ,the ,war and the ,new ,era4--,the world has spent the years since the war in a condition of political and economic unrest4 ,this is not surprising because this herculean contest rocked the foundations of civilized society4 ,it let loose the primitive passions of men1 hurled monarchs from their thrones1 turned industry upside down1 drew millions of men out of life's normal routine1 and wasted as much wealth as the whole world can create in twenty or thirty years4 ,small wonder it is that people should ask themselves whether a social order which permitted all this to happen is in reality the best type of organization for the civilized countries of the world4 ,self-examination usually takes place among men and nations after a great disaster4 ,things which have been assumed to be true are inspected2 old traditions are overhauled1 and new proposals receive a more ready welcome than at other times4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,the ,,graduate4 ,by ,edwin ,h4 ,blashfield ,from a ,copley ,print1 copyright by ,curtis ,cameron1 ,boston4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,,the ,,graduate ,by ,edwin ,h4 ,blashfield ,from the mural painting in the ,great ,hall of the ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,wisdom sits enthroned1 a globe in her hands4 ,her placid head1 covered with a fold of her mantle1 is lighted from below by the flame on the altar at her feet4 ,the light also illumines the globe which she holds4 ,on either side of her pedestal1 in a long curved row1 sit the great centers of learning 7,paris1 ,rome1 ,oxford1 etc47 represented by graceful female forms1 and in front of them are some illustrious representatives of the arts and sciences--,petrarch1 ,galileo1 ,shakespeare1 and others4 ,in the immediate foreground are young men of today--students on the right and aspirants on the left4 ,directly in front of the altar is the ,graduate1 with academic cap and gown4 ,beside him stands ,alma ,mater1 handsome and dignified1 in a figured ,venetian mantle1 bearing a shield with a seal of the college and holding a scroll4 ,she bids the young graduate go forth into the world1 bearing the torch which he has lighted at the altar of ,wisdom4 ,in front of both1 and a little to the right1 is ,discipline1 or ,self ,control1 holding in one hand a scourge and in the other a sword4 ,she stands ready to accompany the young graduate on his journey through life4 ,below the picture is the inscription3 8,doth not ,wisdom cry8 ,she standeth in the top of the high places1 by the way of the places of the paths4 ,she crieth at the gates at the entry of the city1 at the coming in at the doors40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,the ,growth of ,radicalism4--,two working principles have hitherto furnished the basis for political and economic organizations in such countries as the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 and ,france4 ,sidenote3 ,democracy and individualism4 ,democracy1 by which we mean the control of government by the whole people1 acting chiefly through their representatives1 has been the accepted basis of political institutions4 ,individualism1 by which we mean an economic system founded upon the individual ownership of private property and1 through private property1 the individual control of industry has been in general the recognized foundation of economic institutions4 ,by the masses of the people in all free countries the principles prefigured by these two words1 democracy and individualism1 have been tacitly accepted for fifty years or more as the groundwork of political and economic activity4 ,both were challenged from certain quarters2 the socialists1 for example1 attacked the whole system of economic individualism2 but in no country was the policy of individualism overthrown4 ,sidenote3 ,should they be displaced8 ,during and after the war1 however1 the demand for a reconstruction of the world's entire political and economic structure became more insistent4 ,radical ideas as to what ought to be done1 and radical proposals as to how it ought to be done were brought forth and spread4 ,the world found itself1 almost in a day1 face to face with demands for the complete repudiation of democracy as an ideal and of individualism as a principle of economic organization4 ,proposals for state socialism1 guild socialism1 communism1 and a dictatorship of the proletariat were put forth aggressively on every hand4 ,no country proved to be immune from this radical movement1 although in some it made far greater headway than in others4 ,the ,soviet ,plan of ,government in ,theory4#cjg--;,among the various countries1 ,russia has gone the farthest1 of course1 in the radical demolition of the old political and economic order4 ,the overthrow of the ,czarist empire was presently followed by the establishment of soviet government and a system of economic communism4 ,this action naturally attracted world-wide attention and it has exerted1 during the past few years1 a profound influence upon the attitude of men toward political and economic problems everywhere4 ,sidenote3 ,why should ,americans care to know anything about it8 ,it has given new inspiration to radicalism in the ,united ,states4 ,we ought1 therefore1 to know something about this extraordinary overturning of the old political and economic structure in ,russia2 otherwise we cannot grasp the far-reaching significance of radical movements in our own country4 ,what is the soviet form of government and what is meant by communism as applied to industry8 ,the soviet form of government is a repudiation of the entire scheme of government which has been described in this book4 ,sidenote3 ,why the ,bolshevists object to democracy4 ,its supporters regard democracy as a mere weapon of the capitalist by means of which he exploits the worker4 ,the only way in which the workers can obtain their rights1 they declare1 is by establishing a 8dictatorship of the proletariat01 in other words1 a government absolutely dominated by themselves to the exclusion of all others4 ,this1 in the first instance1 must be done by violence2 but1 eventually1 they hold1 the people will accept it peaceably4 ,sidenote3 ,the difference between soviet and democratic government4 ,soviet government differs from democratic government in two all-important respects4 ,in a democracy all adult citizens1 whatever their occupation1 are equally entitled to a share in the control of the government4 ,democracy stands on the principle of universal1 direct1 and secret suffrage4 ,the soviet form of government repudiates the doctrine of political equality4 ,it asserts that all power must be vested in the hands of the peasants and workers1 and that the bourgeoisie 7by which they mean capitalists1 storekeepers1 employers of any kind1 including even farmers who employ hired labor7 are entitled to no share in the control of the government4 ,democracy and equal suffrage1 the soviet apologists proclaim1 are merely instruments by which the strong oppress the weak4 ,for a system of government by the people1 they would substitute government by a portion of the people4 ,in ,russia this has meant1 as a matter of fact1 government by a very small fraction of the people4 ,the soviet system also differs from democracy as respects the way in which the officials of government are chosen4 ,representation in democracies is based upon areas of territory4 ,sidenote3 ,the soviet basis of representation4 ,all the voters of a town1 country1 or district join in electing a single representative4 ,the people who live in a given territorial area are assumed to have a common interest by reason of their living close together4 ,under the soviet system this is considerably changed4 ,occupation as well as territory is the basis of representation4 ,groups of voters unite in choosing delegates because they work at the same trade1 not because they live in the same neighborhood4 ,for example1 all the workers in a particular factory1 or all the farmers in a certain district begin by choosing one or more representatives4 ,these representatives come together and form the city workers' soviet or the township soviet4 ,the city workers' soviet is made up of one or more delegates from every factory4 ,each local soviet1 moreover1 appoints delegates to higher soviets and these1 in turn1 choose delegates to the ,all-,russian ,congress of ,soviets1 which is the supreme governing body4 ,as this congress is too large to do the routine work of government1 it delegates this function to a cabinet or ,council of ,peoples' ,commissars4#cjh ,the ,soviet ,plan of ,government in ,practice4--,this is the theory of soviet government4 ,the supreme political authority is constituted by the workers alone1 through a long process of indirect election4 ,the national executive is several steps removed from the control of the people4 ,he is not directly responsible to the people as in the ,united ,states4 ,in actual fact1 moreover1 this elaborate plan of indirect representation has become1 in ,russia1 little more than a scheme on paper4 ,many of the provincial ,soviets have chosen no delegates at all4 ,there is no assurance that those who now hold the reins of power in ,russia are the real representatives of the masses of the people4 ,to keep themselves in office the ,commissars have throttled all opposition4 ,sidenote3 ,some results of the soviet rule4 ,they have set at naught all the securities for personal liberty which exist in democratic countries4 ,arrests have been made without warrants1 thousands of them2 men and women have been held in prison and put to death without public trial2 freedom of speech1 freedom of the press1 and freedom of assembly have been denied4 ,the soviet leaders admit all this but argue that these measures are necessary in order to prevent a counter-revolution4 ,the ,economic ,aspects of ,communism4--,the ,russian revolution did not confine itself to political reconstruction alone4 ,it was an economic revolution as well4 ,sidenote3 ,relation of communism to industry4 ,all private trade1 of whatever sort1 was1 in theory at least1 abolished throughout ,russia and all industries taken over by the government4 ,the factories1 shops1 stores1 and all other instrumentalities of business were placed in charge of officials to be managed for the benefit of the workers4 ,these workers were assigned to the various industries by the soviet authorities1 compulsory labor being decreed by law and a fixed standard of wages established4 ,trade unions and co-operative societies were put under the ban4 ,workers received their pay in the form of requisitions or orders on the government stores for food and other supplies4 ,strikes were forbidden on penalty of imprisonment4 ,all land was declared to be owned by the state1 but the peasant farmers were allowed to retain their farms upon giving the government a share in the produce4 ,sidenote3 ,breakdown of communism in ,russia4 ,although the government did its best to carry through the foregoing program1 economic communism in ,russia broke down4#cji ,factories and stores went out of business2 the peasants could not be coerced into supplying food for cities2 foreign trade stopped almost entirely2 the railroads failed to function2 everywhere there was misery and starvation4 ,so the soviet authorities in #aiba decided upon a partial return to the system of privately-managed industry4 ,factories and shops1 to some extent1 have been reopened under individual ownership2 the trade unions have been permitted to reorganize2 the rules relating to compulsory labor have been relaxed2 and differences in the rate of wages paid to different workers are once more permitted4 ,the country has swung back to a modified form of individualism and capitalistic production4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,russian lesson4 ,the great lesson of communism in ,russia is that no system of economic organization can long survive unless it succeeds in producing enough to feed1 clothe1 and shelter the people4 ,when the incentive of private gain is taken away1 some equally strong incentive to production must be put in its place2 otherwise production will decline and there will not be enough to go around4 ,that is what happened in ,russia4 ,neither compulsion nor appeals to the loyalty of the worker availed to keep production up4 ,fewer goods were produced and there was less to distribute4 ,equality of distribution avails nothing when there is too little to be distributed4 ,the ,international ,aims of the ,communists4--,communism is not merely national in its aim2 it is international4 ,its motto is3 8,workers of the ,world1 ,unite60 ,its goal is the violent overturning of the existing political and economic organization in all countries so that soviet governments may be established and all private industry abolished4 ,sidenote3 ,program of the ,third ,international4 ,this is the program of the ,third ,international1 a body made up of communist delegates from all over the world4 ,in order to promote this program the ,russian authorities have endeavored to carry on a propaganda in all other countries1 sending out literature and agents wherever possible4 ,the communists realize1 however1 that the prospects for such a revolution are not good in countries like the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 and ,france so long as the trade union movement makes progress and gains advantages for organized labor4 ,hence they aim to secure the destruction of unions1 to promote 8outlaw0 strikes1 and to encourage every form of industrial discontent4 ,sidenote3 ,socialism and communism are widely different4 ,moderate ,socialism and ,communism ,distinguished4--,communism1 as it has been exemplified in ,russia during the past few years1 should be distinguished from socialism as the latter term is commonly understood1 although extreme forms of socialism may go substantially as far4 ,socialists do not propose that all except the workers shall be excluded from a share in government4 ,they do not propose to wipe out the political rights of the individual1 or to destroy trade unionism1 or to provide for labor conscription4 ,orthodox socialism does not aim at a 8dictatorship0 of any kind4 ,sidenote3 ,socialism defined4 ,state ,socialism4--,the program of the moderate socialists is commonly known as state socialism4 ,briefly stated1 it proposes that all the land1 the mines1 the forests1 the factories1 the railroads1 and every other instrumentality of production or distribution should be managed in the interests of the whole people4 ,under the system of individualism1 according to the socialist argument1 these things are now managed primarily in the interest of private owners4 ,the worker creates values in far greater proportion than the wages he receives4 ,this surplus value goes to the employer in the form of profits4 ,the socialist would abolish profits4 ,the entire net earnings would go to the worker4 ,the basis of government would not1 however1 be revolutionized4 ,with some changes to make democracy more effective 7for example1 the wider use of the initiative and referendum71 state socialism would leave government about as it is4 ,the workers1 being in the majority1 would control government through their numerical superiority at the polls2 they would not deny the suffrage to non-socialists4 ,state socialism proposes the doing of all this through the ballot-box1 not by violence or armed revolution4 ,the ,case for ,socialism4--,many books have been written in advocacy of state socialism and many arguments advanced in its behalf4 ,the case for socialism rests largely upon certain propositions which may be briefly stated as follows3 ,sidenote3 ,the present industrial injustice4 ,wealth is largely the product of labor1 yet labor does not get its rightful share in the product4 ,capital and management1 on the other hand1 get more than their rightful share4 ,hence the rich are growing richer1 and the poor are growing poorer4 ,the control of industry1 and with it the well-being of many million workers1 is passing steadily into the hands of a very few men4 ,inequalities of wealth lead to discontent2 the present organization of industry results in unemployment2 and men are engaged in a perpetual class war with one another4 ,great wastes1 moreover1 result from the system of competition4 ,several milkmen1 for instance1 go up and down the same street1 each serving a few families4 ,think of what the postage rates would be if we had a similar state of affairs under free competition in furnishing postal service6 ,socialism1 it is claimed1 would unify production and distribution1 thus preventing waste4 ,sidenote3 ,what socialism proposes as a remedy4 ,now the remedy for this is to abolish private capitalism1 to have the government take over the industries1 divide the earnings fairly1 giving every worker his rightful share1 thus securing a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and happiness4 ,by this means1 also1 poverty and unemployment would be abolished4 ,if all the products of labor were given to the worker 7rent1 interest1 and profits being abolished71 there would be enough to give everybody a reasonable day's work and a comfortable living4 ,there would be steady employment for all4 ,the great majority of the people are workers4 ,their welfare should be the first care of organized society2 but their welfare can never be secured so long as practically complete power over the conditions under which the workers labor and live is exercised by the private owners of industry4 ,socialists also claim that a moral gain would result1 inasmuch as the present class conflict would give way to a recognition of human brotherhood4 ,co-operation1 not conflict1 would be the watchword of industrial society4 ,the ,case ,against ,socialism4--,the advocates of socialism1 in their arguments1 frequently assume something which they have not been able to prove4 ,sidenote3 ,are the poor growing poorer8 ,they proclaim that the rich are growing richer and the poor are growing poorer1 that the middle class is being crushed out1 and that soon there will be only two groups1 the very rich and the very poor4 ,it is true that wealth is increasing and that there are more rich men today than ever before in the history of the world2 but it is also true that the middle class is more numerous and the worker much better off than at any previous time4 ,the standard of living among ,american wage-earners today is higher than it was among well-to-do people a hundred years ago4 ,the average worker is better housed1 better clothed1 better fed1 and has more of the comforts of life than the employer of a century ago4 ,sidenote3 ,the chief argument against socialism4 ,but apart from this the crucial question concerns the way in which production would be maintained and how the earnings would be distributed under a socialist system4 ,today the main incentive to work is the expectation of reward4 ,most men work because they expect to be paid for it4 ,cut down their pay and they will usually stop work and try to persuade other people from working4 ,there are exceptions to the rule1 of course2 but when men and women work hard and try to do their best it is because they hope to get promoted1 to get their wages raised1 to secure an easier job at higher pay4#caj ,socialism would abolish this exact relation between skill and wages4 ,everyone would work at whatever task he was best fitted to perform and would be given enough to live on comfortably4 ,or1 as the socialists put it1 everyone would produce according to his ability and be paid according to his needs4 ,sidenote3 ,some practical questions4 ,this1 however1 begs some very important questions of a practical nature4 ,who would determine the work that you or ,i should do8 ,who would determine that you must labor in the coal mines while ,i go abroad1 as a foreign ambassador8 ,who will determine your needs and mine1 so that we may be rewarded accordingly8 ,sidenote3 ,socialism and compulsion4 ,the answer is that authorities would have to be established with power to settle these things and to apply compulsion where necessary4 ,we would have industrial autocracy4 ,men and women would have no complete freedom to choose their own occupations4 ,the socialists say that if the existing wage system were abolished everyone would do his best to increase production in order to make the new plan a success2 but where socialistic experiments have been tried the contrary is true2 the workers do less and produce less4 ,let us remember1 also1 the increased danger of corruption which would come if the authorities were given so great an increase in power4 ,the whole resources of the country would be placed in the control of an official class2 the entire labor-force of the nation would be put at their disposal4 ,the socialist answers that if officials proved arbitrary or corrupt the people would turn them out of office4 ,does our experience with other forms of government warrant any such expectation8 ,sidenote3 ,socialism and human nature4 ,two methods of getting work done have been tried by the world at one time or another4 ,in ancient and medival times most of the work was done by slaves4 ,the slave got no wages2 he did his work because he was compelled to do it4 ,in modern times1 since slavery and serfdom no longer exist among civilized people1 most of the work is done by free men who do it because they expect to be paid for doing it4 ,and since there are differences in the abilities of different men1 some get more pay than others1 even though the opportunities be the same for all4 ,if the capable worker were not paid more than the less competent1 he would not exert himself to do his best4 ,to get the best out of any free man he must be given the hope of a reward in proportion to his efficiency1 and for the great majority of people this means a reward in dollars and cents4 ,that is human nature4 ,sidenote3 ,can human nature be changed8 ,it is sometimes said that human nature may change and that1 in a new environment1 men might work unselfishly for the common welfare without reference to their rate of wages or profits4 ,true enough the motives of men may and do change somewhat2 but when we trace the course of human history through twenty centuries we find that the dominant traits of mankind have altered very little in all that time4 ,human nature itself affords the greatest obstacle to the success of a socialist system4 ,socialism and ,liberty4--,liberty does not include political freedom alone4 ,it comprises the right of the individual to choose his own career1 to make his own bargains1 and to become his own employer if he can4 ,an industrial system in which all men are compelled to do as some higher authority dictates would establish the very negation of liberty4 ,under socialism the complete control of all economic life would be vested in some supreme authority4 ,it matters little how that authority might be chosen2 the concentration of such vast powers anywhere1 in the hands of any group of men1 would make individual liberty a meaningless expression4 ,it may be replied that under our present system of private industry the worker has in fact very little liberty2 that many employers are despots and that the worker is subjected to tyranny4 ,that is to a certain extent true4 ,but in so far as there is an undue and needless restriction under present conditions of industry the remedy is to promote the liberty of the worker through the power of his own organizations and by the laws of the land4 ,socialism and ,democracy4--,socialism and democracy can never be good friends4 ,democracy is government by the people2 in other words it is government by amateurs4 ,it is not government by a professional class4 ,the government of the ,german ,empire before the war was largely in the hands of a professional class1 a bureaucracy it was called4 ,now a democratic government1 being managed by the rank and file of the people1 is often wasteful and clumsy in its handling of business affairs4 ,we have had some notable examples of this in the ,united ,states2 for example1 the building of airplanes and ships during the war1 the operation of the railroads during #aiah-aibj1 and the construction of public buildings4 ,a bureaucratic government1 conducted by professional administrators1 is much more efficient4 ,sidenote3 ,socialism would professionalize the government4 ,it is not improbable1 therefore1 that socialism1 by placing upon the public authorities the entire management of every form of industry1 including factories and shops as well as railroads and telegraphs1 would mean the breakdown of the democratic ideal and the professionalizing of government4 ,the entire industrial system of the country could not be successfully managed by amateurs4 ,to save it from collapse under socialism the government would have to be reorganized on bureaucratic lines4 ,can ,democracy ,solve ,its ,problems8--,but if not socialism1 what then8 ,certain it is that we are facing great problems both at home and abroad today2 and these problems must be solved in the interest of human happiness4 ,we cannot close our eyes to them and trust that somehow or other they will work out their own solution4 ,can democracy and our present system of private industry master them8 ,well1 democracy and our present industrial system have overcome a great many obstacles in the past and it is only by studying the past that we can make any forecast of the future4 ,the land surveyor1 when he wants to project a straight line from a given point1 walks back some distance so that he may align his pickets in the ground4 ,let us for a moment pursue the same plan1 walk back a dozen decades in ,american history and take a sight along the great landmarks to the present time4 ,what have democracy and individualism contributed to the well-being and happiness of the ,american people8 ,sidenote3 ,democracy and ,american progress4 ,what ,america ,has ,done4--,in the past one hundred and twenty years the people of the ,united ,states have increased their territories ten-fold1 their numbers twenty-fold1 and their wealth at least a thousand-fold4 ,they have1 with one great exception1 composed their internal quarrels peaceably during the whole of this long period4 ,they have developed a government based upon the consent of the governed and have placed the capstone upon it by the grant of universal suffrage4 ,they have kept the various branches of government within their own respective fields and have thus prevented the growth of despotic power anywhere4 ,the people's direct control over the policy of the government1 moreover1 has been greatly augmented during the past generation4 ,it is indeed doubtful whether ,washington1 ,hamilton1 and ,madison1 if they were to arise from their graves1 would recognize the present government of the ,united ,states as their own handiwork1 so far has it moved along lines of greater democracy4 ,in the states and the cities this steady drift to more direct popular control has been very marked4 ,one need only mention such things as the initiative1 referendum and recall1 direct primaries1 popular election of senators1 the short ballot1 the commission and city-manager forms of government1 and the extension of suffrage to women--all of which are the product of the last twenty-five years--to indicate how strong has been the tide of popular control4 ,most striking of all ,american achievements1 however1 has been the wide diffusion of material comforts among the masses of the people4 ,in no other country is there anything approaching it4 ,the standard of living among wage-earners is higher than it is anywhere else1 much higher4 ,the average ,american worker is better housed and better provided with food than is the typical workman in any other country4 ,he and his children get better educational opportunities and a better chance to rise in the world4 ,the way in which immigrants have been flocking to our shores during the past hundred years is a proof that millions of men and women have looked upon ,america as a land of opportunity4 ,this is not to imply1 by any means1 that there are no slums in ,american cities1 no poverty1 no misery1 and no industrial oppression4 ,we have1 in truth1 far too much of all these things4 ,but it is also the truth that we have relatively less of them than any of the other great industrial lands4 ,not all of this progress and prosperity is due1 of course1 to the political and economic system which ,america has maintained during the past century4 ,the rich natural resources of the country and the steady industry of its people have been fundamental factors4 ,but no matter how vast their resources or how unremitting their industry a people cannot achieve lasting prosperity and contentment unless they possess a political system and an economic organization which is well suited to their needs4 ,what ,democracy ,has ,failed to ,do4--,it would be idle to regard democratic government everywhere as an unqualified success4 ,no scheme of political organization will of itself secure a government which is both efficient and popular4 ,the active efforts of the people are required to achieve this end4 ,not merely the consent of the governed but the participation of the governed is essential4 ,by reason of popular indifference the institutions of democracy in ,america have frequently been perverted and abused by men whom the people have placed in power4 ,sidenote3 ,some examples4 ,what passes for public opinion is at times nothing but propaganda1 organized to promote some selfish interest4 ,democracy has not yet succeeded1 moreover1 in preventing wars or inducing all nations to deal justly with one another4 ,it has not prevented the rise of opposing classes among the people1 or kept groups of individuals from setting themselves in antagonism to each other4 ,democracy has not reconciled labor and capital2 it has not carried its principles very far into our industrial organization4 ,these are serious failings1 no doubt2 but the friends of democracy can fairly say1 8,would any other system have done better80 ,democracy is what the people make it1 and its faults point to the defects of human nature4 ,the ,citizen's ,duty in a ,democracy4--,no form of government gives the citizen so much as democracy1 and none makes greater demands upon him in return4 ,we are far too much concerned about the rights of men and women2 far too little concerned about their obligations to society1 to the state1 and to their fellow-men4 ,voting at elections is but a small part of the citizen's duty4 ,his share in the forming of a sound and enlightened public opinion constitutes an obligation upon him every day in the year4 ,when public opinion takes an unwise course it is because the people make up their minds hastily1 without careful thought1 and without the guidance which should be provided by the educated men and women of the land4 ,every individual is a unit in the forming of public sentiment2 he can be a helpful factor if he will4 ,education is the chief corner-stone of democratic government1 and it must also be the chief prop to any plan of industrial democracy which hopes to be successful and permanent4 ,education makes men and women tolerant of other people's opinions1 gives them confidence in mankind1 and faith in what mankind can accomplish4 ,democracy has passed through many raging storms4 ,in the dark days of the ,civil ,war there were many who feared that in ,america it was about to perish utterly4 ,but it survived and grew stronger than before4 ,without the faith of the people in it1 and the work which is the exemplification of faith1 democracy can accomplish nothing2 with these things there is no problem that it need fear to face4 ,general ,references ,e4 ,m4 ,,friedman1 ,american ,problems of ,reconstruction1 pp4 #de-ee2 ,,bertrand ,,russell1 ,proposed ,roads to ,freedom1 pp4 #ahf-bab2 ,r4 ,c4 ,k4 ,,ensor 7editor71 ,modern ,socialism1 pp4 #fe-hi2 ,n4 ,p4 ,,gilman1 ,socialism and the ,american ,spirit1 pp4 #df-hi2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells1 ,what is ,coming1 pp4 #if-abd2 ,o4 ,d4 ,,skelton1 ,socialism3 ,a ,critical ,analysis1 pp4 #af-fa2 ,,john ,,spargo1 ,social ,democracy ,explained1 pp4 #a-di2 ,c4 ,j4 ,,bullock1 ,selected ,readings in ,economics1 pp4 #ffh-gje2 ,j4 ,r4 ,,commons1 ,industrial ,government1 pp4 #aaj-acd2 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,,joseph ,,schafer1 ,democracy in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #afe-aib2 ,,sidney and ,,beatrice ,,webb1 ,a ,constitution for the ,socialist ,commonwealth of ,great ,britain1 passim2 ,,william ,,macdonald1 ,a ,new ,constitution for a ,new ,america1 pp4 #abg-aci4 ,group ,problems #a4 ,what industrial democracy means4 ,the traditional organization of industry4 ,relations of employer and employee4 ,the representation of the workers in the management of industry4 ,methods of securing this representation4 ,shop councils4 ,merits and defects of the plan4 ,other proposals4 ,effects of industrial democracy upon production4 ,references3 ,g4 ,d4 ,h4 ,,cole1 ,guild ,socialism ,re-stated1 pp4 #db-gg2 ,ibid41 ,self-,government in ,industry1 pp4 #bd-dg2 ,r4 ,w4 ,,sellars1 ,the ,next ,step in ,democracy1 pp4 #bdf-bgb2 ,j4 ,r4 ,,commons1 ,industrial ,government1 pp4 #gg-aji2 ,,ida ,m4 ,,tarbell1 ,new ,ideals in ,business1 pp4 #acd-afb2 ,,sidney and ,,beatrice ,,webb1 ,a ,constitution for the ,socialist ,commonwealth of ,great ,britain1 pp4 #adg-afg4 #b4 ,the worker in the socialist state4 ,references3 ,,hartley ,,withers1 ,the ,case for ,capitalism1 pp4 #ach-afh2 ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells and others1 ,socialism and the ,great ,state1 pp4 #fi-aai2 ,r4 ,w4 ,,sellars1 ,the ,next ,step in ,democracy1 pp4 #ace-aef2 ,o4 ,d4 ,,skelton1 ,socialism3 ,a ,critical ,analysis1 pp4 #agg-bai2 ,,john ,,spargo1 ,social ,democracy ,explained1 pp4 #ej-hd4 #c4 ,the newer problems of democracy4 ,references3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,cleveland and ,,joseph ,,schafer1 ,democracy in ,reconstruction1 pp4 #be-ff2 ,e4 ,m4 ,,friedman1 ,american ,problems of ,reconstruction1 pp4 #ddg-dfd2 ,f4 ,j4 ,c4 ,,hearnshaw1 ,democracy at the ,crossways1 pp4 #aa-gh2 ,,graham ,,wallas1 ,our ,social ,heritage1 pp4 #aeh-ahf2 ,l4 ,t4 ,,hobhouse1 ,democracy and ,reaction1 pp4 #afg-ahg2 ,h4 ,f4 ,,ward1 ,the ,new ,social ,order1 pp4 #ce-ge2 ,j4 ,h4 ,,tufts1 ,our ,democracy2 its ,origins and its ,tasks1 pp4 #bfh-bih4 ,short ,studies #a4 ,how the workers manage business enterprises4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,fay1 ,cooperation at ,home and ,abroad1 pp4 #bbb-bcg4 #b4 ,anarchism3 its teachings and methods4 ,,bertrand ,,russell1 ,proposed ,roads to ,freedom1 pp4 #cb-ee2 ,f4 ,j4 ,c4 ,,hearnshaw1 ,democracy at the ,crossways1 pp4 #bfb-bhg4 #c4 ,syndicalism3 its organization and aims4 ,,john ,,spargo1 ,social ,democracy ,explained1 pp4 #bdd-bgg2 ,j4 ,g4 ,,brooks1 ,american ,syndicalism1 pp4 #gc-aje4 #d4 ,communism4 ,,leo ,,pasvolsky1 ,the ,economics of ,communism1 pp4 #a-ag2 #dh-hc4 #e4 ,bolshevism4 ,r4 ,w4 ,,postgate1 ,the ,bolshevik ,theory1 pp4 #ac-da2 ,,bertrand ,,russell1 ,the ,practice and ,theory of ,bolshevism1 pp4 #aai-aef2 ,,john ,,spargo1 ,bolshevism1 pp4 #bfb-cbc4 #f4 ,the soviet experiment in ,russia4 ,h4 ,n4 ,,brailsford1 ,the ,russian ,workers' ,republic1 pp4 #cg-gi2 ,,frank ,,comerford1 ,the ,new ,world1 pp4 #aah-afi2 #bha-cje4 #g4 ,guild socialism4 ,g4 ,d4 ,h4 ,,cole1 ,guild ,socialism ,re-,stated1 pp4 #i-da2 ,,hartley ,,withers1 ,the ,case for ,capitalism1 pp4 #ahi-bce2 ,,graham ,,wallas1 ,our ,social ,heritage1 pp4 #ajb-aba4 #h4 ,marxian socialism4 ,b4 ,l4 ,,brasol1 ,socialism vs4 ,civilization1 pp4 #fa-aaj2 ,,john ,,spargo1 ,socialism ,explained1 pp4 #abc-aeg4 #i4 ,state socialism3 the arguments for and against4 ,,hartley ,,withers1 ,the ,case for ,capitalism1 pp4 #ach-afh2 ,a4 ,e4 ,,davies1 ,the ,case for ,nationalization1 pp4 #ab-bi4 #aj4 ,the individual and the new society4 ,a4 ,b4 ,,hart 7editor71 ,problems of ,readjustment ,after the ,war1 pp4 #ih-abh4 #aa4 ,women in the new social order4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells1 ,what is ,coming1 pp4 #aei-ahh2 ,h4 ,a4 ,,hollister1 ,the ,woman ,citizen1 pp4 #adb-agh4 #ab4 ,fiscal reconstruction4 ,e4 ,m4 ,,friedman1 ,american ,problems of ,reconstruction1 pp4 #dbg-ddf4 ,questions #a4 ,why has the movement for political and social reconstruction become stronger in recent years8 #b4 ,explain how 8the soviet form of government is a repudiation of the entire scheme of government which has been described in this book04 #c4 ,make a diagram showing the organization of the soviet government in ,russia4 ,show how much more direct is the control of the people over their government in the ,united ,states4 #d4 ,what is the lesson of the economic breakdown in ,russia8 #e4 ,explain what is meant by the ,international4 ,what are its aims8 #f4 ,state any arguments for socialism which are not given in the text4 ,any arguments against socialism4 ,is it true that 8as a general rule there are only two ways of getting work done in this world08 ,in a socialist state what would be the incentive to work8 ,would it be sufficient8 #g4 ,would the establishment of socialism necessarily involve the abandonment of democracy8 ,argue the point4 #h4 ,name the principal achievements of ,american democracy during the past hundred years4 ,which of them do you regard as the most important and why8 #i4 ,name some present-day political and economic injustices which you would like to see set right4 ,suggest what might be done about them4 #aj4 ,are you a more earnest or a less earnest believer in democracy by reason of your having studied ,social ,civics8 ,topics for ,debate #a4 ,representation in government should be based on occupations rather than on territorial divisions4 #b4 ,the laborers should be given a voice in the management of their respective industries4 #c4 ,the condition of the laborer is better under private capitalism than it would be under socialism4 ----- ,footnote #cjg3 ,the term 8soviet0 means council or meeting4 ,the constitution of the ,russian ,socialist ,federated ,soviet ,republic may be found in ,,frank ,,comerford1 ,the ,new ,world1 pp4 #bha-cje4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,nikalai ,lenin is now the head of this ,council2 ,leon ,trotzky is ,minister of ,war in it4 ,each member of the ,council is head of a department4 ,footnote #cji3 ,the breakdown was due in part1 no doubt1 to the disorganization wrought by the war and the internal revolts which broke out in ,russia after the war4 ,to make matters worse there were crop failures1 with resulting famines1 in some of ,russia's best grain-producing regions4 ,footnote #caj3 ,it is quite true that some men and women work because they like to work and dislike to be idle1 or because they feel that what they do is of value to the community1 or for some other reason not directly connected with their pay4 ,they form1 however1 a very small fraction of the total body of wage-earners4 ,,appendix ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,preamble ,we1 the people of the ,united ,states1 in order to form a more perfect ,union1 establish justice1 insure domestic tranquillity1 provide for the common defence1 promote the general welfare1 and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity1 do ordain and establish this ,constitution for the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,,article ,i ,,legislative ,,department ,section #a4 ,two ,houses #a4 ,all legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a ,congress of the ,united ,states1 which shall consist of a ,senate and ,house of ,representatives4 ,section #b4 ,house of ,representatives #a4 ,the ,house of ,representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states1 and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors#caa of the most numerous branch of the state legislature4 #b4 ,no person shall be a ,representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years1 and been seven years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and who shall not1 when elected1 be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen4 #c4 ,representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this ,union1 according to their respective numbers1 which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons1 including those bound to service for a term of years1 and excluding ,indians not taxed1 three-fifths of all other persons#cab4 ,the actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 and within every subsequent term of ten years1 in such manner as they shall by law direct4 ,the number of ,representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand1 but each state shall have at least one ,representative2 and1 until such enumerations shall be made1 the state of ,new ,hampshire shall be entitled to choose three1 ,massachusetts eight1 ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations one1 ,connecticut five1 ,new ,york six1 ,new ,jersey four1 ,pennsylvania eight1 ,delaware one1 ,maryland six1 ,virginia ten1 ,north ,carolina five1 ,south ,carolina five1 and ,georgia three4 #d4 ,when vacancies happen in the representation from any state1 the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies4 #e4 ,the ,house of ,representatives shall choose their ,speaker and other officers2 and shall have the sole power of impeachment4 ,section #c4 ,senate #a4 ,the ,senate of the ,united ,states shall be composed of two ,senators from each state chosen by the legislature thereof#cac for six years2 and each ,senator shall have one vote4 #b4 ,immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election1 they shall be divided1 as equally as may be1 into three classes4 ,the seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year2 of the second class1 at the expiration of the fourth year2 and of the third class1 at the expiration of the sixth year2 so that one-third may be chosen every second year2 and if vacancies happen by resignation1 or otherwise1 during the recess of the legislature of any state1 the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature1 which shall then fill such vacancies4#cad #c4 ,no person shall be a ,senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years1 and been nine years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 who shall not1 when elected1 be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen4 #d4 ,the ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states shall be ,president of the ,senate1 but shall have no vote1 unless they be equally divided4 #e4 ,the ,senate shall choose their other officers1 and also a ,president pro tempore1 in the absence of the ,vice-,president1 or when he shall exercise the office of ,president of the ,united ,states4 #f4 ,the ,senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments4 ,when sitting for that purpose1 they shall be on oath or affirmation4 ,when the ,president of the ,united ,states is tried1 the ,chief ,justice shall preside2 and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present4 #g4 ,judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office1 and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor1 trust1 or profit1 under the ,united ,states2 but the party convicted shall1 nevertheless1 be liable and subject to indictment1 trial1 judgment1 and punishment1 according to law4 ,section #d4 ,elections and ,meetings of ,congress #a4 ,the times1 places1 and manner1 of holding elections for ,senators and ,representatives1 shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof3 but the ,congress may at any time1 by law1 make or alter such regulations1 except as to the places of choosing ,senators4 #b4 ,the ,congress shall assemble at least once in every year1 and such meeting shall be on the first ,monday in ,december1 unless they shall by law appoint a different day4 ,section #e4 ,powers and ,duties of the ,houses #a4 ,each ,house shall be the judge of the elections1 returns1 and qualifications of its own members1 and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business2 but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day1 and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members1 in such manner1 and under such penalties1 as each ,house may provide4 #b4 ,each ,house may determine the rules of the proceedings1 punish its members for disorderly behavior1 and1 with the concurrence of two-thirds1 expel a member4 #c4 ,each ,house shall keep a journal of its proceedings1 and1 from time to time1 publish the same1 excepting such parts as may1 in their judgment1 require secrecy2 and the yeas and nays of the members of either ,house1 on any question1 shall1 at the desire of one-fifth of those present1 be entered on the journal4 #d4 ,neither ,house1 during the session of ,congress1 shall1 without the consent of the other1 adjourn for more than three days1 nor to any other place than that in which the two ,houses shall be sitting4 ,section #f4 ,privileges of and ,restrictions on ,members #a4 ,the ,senators and ,representatives shall receive a compensation for their services1 to be ascertained by law1 and paid out of the treasury of the ,united ,states4 ,they shall1 in all cases1 except treason1 felony1 and breach of the peace1 be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective ,houses1 and in going to1 and returning from1 the same2 and for any speech or debate in either ,house1 they shall not be questioned in any other place4 #b4 ,no ,senator or ,representative shall1 during the time for which he was elected1 be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the ,united ,states1 which shall have been created1 or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time2 and no person1 holding any office under the ,united ,states1 shall be a member of either ,house during his continuance in office4 ,section #g4 ,revenue ,bills3 ,veto of ,president #a4 ,all bills for raising revenue shall originate in the ,house of ,representatives2 but the ,senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills4 #b4 ,every bill which shall have passed the ,house of ,representatives and the ,senate1 shall1 before it become a law1 be presented to the ,president of the ,united ,states2 if he approve1 he shall sign it1 but if not1 he shall return it1 with his objections1 to that ,house in which it shall have originated1 who shall enter the objections at large on their journal1 and proceed to reconsider it4 ,if1 after such reconsideration1 two-thirds of that ,house shall agree to pass the bill1 it shall be sent1 together with the objections1 to the other ,house1 by which it shall likewise be reconsidered1 and1 if approved by two-thirds of that ,house1 it shall become a law4 ,but in all such cases the votes of both ,houses shall be determined by yeas and nays1 and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively4 ,if any bill shall not be returned by the ,president within ten days 7,sundays excepted7 after it shall have been presented to him1 the same shall be a law1 in like manner as if he had signed it1 unless the ,congress1 by their adjournment1 prevent its return1 in which case it shall not be a law4 #c4 ,every order1 resolution1 or vote1 to which the concurrence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives may be necessary 7except on a question of adjournment71 shall be presented to the ,president of the ,united ,states2 and before the same shall take effect1 shall be approved by him1 or1 being disapproved by him1 shall be repassed by two-thirds of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill4 ,section #h4 ,legislative ,powers of ,congress ,the ,congress shall have power3 #a4 ,to lay and collect taxes1 duties1 imposts1 and excises1 to pay the debts1 and provide for the common defence and general welfare1 of the ,united ,states2 but all duties1 imposts1 and excises1 shall be uniform throughout the ,united ,states3 #b4 ,to borrow money on the credit of the ,united ,states3 #c4 ,to regulate commerce with foreign nations1 and among the several states1 and with the ,indian tribes3 #d4 ,to establish a uniform rule of naturalization1 and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies1 throughout the ,united ,states3 #e4 ,to coin money1 regulate the value thereof1 and of foreign coin1 and fix the standard of weights and measures3 #f4 ,to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the ,unites ,states3 #g4 ,to establish post-offices and post-roads3 #h4 ,to promote the progress of science and useful arts1 by securing1 for limited times1 to authors and inventors1 the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries3 #i4 ,to constitute tribunals inferior to the ,supreme ,court3 #aj4 ,to define and punish piracies and felonies1 committed on the high seas1 and offences against the law of nations3 #aa4 ,to declare war1 grant letters of marque and reprisal1 and make rules concerning captures on land and water3 #ab4 ,to raise and support armies2 but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years3 #ac4 ,to provide and maintain a navy3 #ad4 ,to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces3 #ae4 ,to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the ,union1 suppress insurrections1 and repel invasions3 #af4 ,to provide for organizing1 arming1 and disciplining the militia1 and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the ,united ,states1 reserving to the states respectively the appointment of the officers1 and the authority of training the militia1 according to the discipline prescribed by ,congress3 #ag4 ,to exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever1 over such district 7not exceeding ten miles square7 as may1 by cession of particular states1 and the acceptance of ,congress1 become the seat of the government of the ,united ,states1 and to exercise like authority over all places1 purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be1 for the erection of forts1 magazines1 arsenals1 dock-yards1 and other needful buildings3--,and #ah4 ,to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers1 and all other powers vested by this ,constitution in the government of the ,united ,states1 or in any department or officer thereof4 ,section #i4 ,prohibitions upon the ,united ,states #a4 ,the migration or importation of such persons1 as any of the states1 now existing1 shall think proper to admit1 shall not be prohibited by the ,congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight2 but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation1 not exceeding ten dollars for each person4 #b4 ,the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended1 unless when1 in cases of rebellion or invasion1 the public safety may require it4 #c4 ,no bill of attainder1 or ex post facto law1 shall be passed4 #d4 ,no capitation1 or other direct tax1 shall be laid1 unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken4#cae #e4 ,no tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state4 #f4 ,no preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another2 nor shall vessels bound to1 or from1 one state1 be obliged to enter1 clear1 or pay duties1 in another4 #g4 ,no money shall be drawn from the treasury1 but in consequence of appropriations made by law2 and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time4 #h4 ,no title of nobility shall be granted by the ,united ,states2 and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall1 without the consent of the ,congress1 accept of any present1 emolument1 office1 or title1 of any kind whatever1 from any king1 prince1 or foreign state4 ,section #aj4 ,prohibitions upon the ,states #a4 ,no state shall enter into any treaty1 alliance1 or confederation2 grant letters of marque and reprisal2 coin money2 emit bills of credit2 make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts2 pass any bill of attainder1 ex post facto law1 or law impairing the obligation of contracts1 or grant any title of nobility4 #b4 ,no state shall1 without the consent of the ,congress1 lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports1 except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws2 and the net produce of all duties and imposts1 laid by any state on imports or exports1 shall be for the use of the treasury of the ,united ,states2 and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the ,congress4 ,no state shall1 without the consent of ,congress1 lay any duty of tonnage1 keep troops1 or ships of war1 in time of peace1 enter into any agreement or compact with another state1 or with a foreign power1 or engage in war1 unless actually invaded1 or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay4 ,,article ,,ii ,,executive ,,department3 ,,the ,,president ,,and ,,vice-,,president ,section #a4 ,term3 ,election3 ,qualifications3 ,salary3 ,oath of ,office #a4 ,the ,executive power shall be vested in a ,president of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,he shall hold his office during the term of four years1 and together with the ,vice-,president1 chosen for the same term1 be elected as follows3 #b4 ,each state shall appoint1 in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct1 a number of ,electors1 equal to the whole number of ,senators and ,representatives1 to which the state may be entitled in the ,congress2 but no ,senator or ,representative1 or person holding an office of trust or profit1 under the ,united ,states1 shall be appointed an ,elector4 #c4 ,the ,electors shall meet in their respective states1 and vote by ballot for two persons1 of whom one1 at least1 shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves4 ,and they shall make a list of all the persons voted for1 and of the number of votes for each2 which list they shall sign and certify1 and transmit1 sealed1 to the seat of the ,government of the ,united ,states1 directed to the ,president of the ,senate4 ,the ,president of the ,senate shall1 in the presence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 open all the certificates1 and the votes shall then be counted4 ,the person having the greatest number of votes shall be the ,president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of ,electors appointed2 and if there be more than one1 who have such majority1 and have an equal number of votes1 then the ,house of ,representatives shall immediately choose1 by ballot1 one of them for ,president2 and if no person have a majority1 then1 from the five highest on the list1 the said ,house shall1 in like manner1 choose the ,president4 ,but in choosing the ,president1 the votes shall be taken by states1 the representation from each state having one vote2 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states1 and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice4 ,in every case1 after the choice of the ,president1 the person having the greatest number of votes of the ,electors shall be the ,vice-,president4 ,but if there should remain two or more who have equal votes1 the ,senate shall choose from them1 by ballot1 the ,vice-,president4#caf #d4 ,the ,congress may determine the time of choosing the ,electors1 and the day on which they shall give their votes2 which day shall be the same throughout the ,united ,states4 #e4 ,no person1 except a natural-born citizen1 or a citizen of the ,united ,states at the time of the adoption of this ,constitution1 shall be eligible to the office of ,president2 neither shall any person be eligible to that office1 who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years1 and been fourteen years a resident within the ,united ,states4 #f4 ,in case of the removal of the ,president from office1 or of his death1 resignation1 or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office1 the same shall devolve on the ,vice-,president1 and the ,congress may by law provide for the case of removal1 death1 resignation or inability1 both of the ,president and ,vice-,president1 declaring what officer shall then act as ,president1 and such officer shall act accordingly1 until the disability be removed1 or a ,president shall be elected4 #g4 ,the ,president shall1 at stated times1 receive for his services a compensation1 which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected1 and he shall not receive1 within that period1 any other emolument from the ,united ,states1 or any of them4 #h4 ,before he enter on the execution of his office1 he shall take the following oath or affirmation3 #i4 8,i do solemnly swear 7or affirm71 that ,i will faithfully execute the office of ,president of the ,united ,states1 and will1 to the best of my ability1 preserve1 protect1 and defend the ,constitution of the ,united ,states40 ,section #b4 ,president's ,executive ,powers #a4 ,the ,president shall be ,commander-in-,chief of the army and navy of the ,united ,states1 and of the militia of the several states1 when called into the actual service of the ,united ,states2 he may require the opinion1 in writing1 of the principal officer in each of the executive departments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices1 and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the ,united ,states1 except in cases of impeachment4 #b4 ,he shall have power1 by and with the advice and consent of the ,senate1 to make treaties1 provided two-thirds of the ,senators present concur2 and he shall nominate1 and1 by and with the advice and consent of the ,senate1 shall appoint ambassadors1 other public ministers1 and consuls1 judges of the ,supreme ,court1 and all other officers of the ,united ,states whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for1 and which shall be established by law2 but the ,congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers1 as they think proper1 in the ,president alone1 in the courts of law1 or in the heads of departments4 #c4 ,the ,president shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the ,senate1 by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session4 ,section #c4 ,president's ,executive ,powers 7continued7 #a4 ,he shall1 from time to time1 give to the ,congress information of the state of the ,union1 and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient2 he may1 on extraordinary occasions1 convene both ,houses1 or either of them1 and in case of disagreement between them1 with respect to the time of adjournment1 he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper2 he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers2 he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed1 and shall commission all the officers of the ,united ,states4 ,section #d4 ,impeachment #a4 ,the ,president1 ,vice-,president1 and all civil officers of the ,united ,states1 shall be removed from office on impeachment for1 and conviction of1 treason1 bribery1 or other high crimes and misdemeanors4 ,,article ,,iii ,,judicial ,,department ,section #a4 ,courts3 ,terms of ,office #a4 ,the judicial power of the ,united ,states shall be vested in one ,supreme ,court1 and in such inferior courts as the ,congress may from time to time ordain and establish4 ,the judges1 both of the ,supreme and inferior courts1 shall hold their offices during good behavior1 and shall1 at stated times1 receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office4 ,section #b4 ,jurisdiction #a4 ,the judicial power shall extend to all cases1 in law and equity1 arising under this ,constitution1 the laws of the ,united ,states1 and treaties made1 or which shall be made1 under their authority2 to all cases affecting ambassadors1 other public ministers1 and consuls2 to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction2 to controversies to which the ,united ,states shall be a party2 to controversies between two or more states1 between a state and citizens of another state1#cag between citizens of different states1 between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states1 and between a state1 or the citizens thereof1 and foreign states1 citizens1 or subjects4 #b4 ,in all cases affecting ambassadors1 other public ministers and consuls1 and those in which a state shall be a party1 the ,supreme ,court shall have original jurisdiction4 ,in all the other cases before mentioned1 the ,supreme ,court shall have appellate jurisdiction1 both as to law and fact1 with such exceptions and under such regulations as the ,congress shall make4 #c4 ,the trial of all crimes1 except in cases of impeachment1 shall be by jury2 and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed2 but when not committed within any state the trial shall be at such place or places as the ,congress may by law have directed4 ,section #c4 ,treason #a4 ,treason against the ,united ,states shall consist only in levying war against them1 or in adhering to their enemies1 giving them aid and comfort4 ,no person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act1 or on confession in open court4 #b4 ,the ,congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason1 but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture1 except during the life of the person attainted4 ,,article ,,iv ,,relations ,,of ,,states ,section #a4 ,public ,records #a4 ,full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts1 records1 and judicial proceedings of every other state4 ,and the ,congress may1 by general laws1 prescribe the manner in which such acts1 records1 and proceedings shall be proved1 and the effect thereof4 ,section #b4 ,rights in ,one ,state of ,citizens of ,another ,state #a4 ,the citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states4#cah #b4 ,a person charged in any state with treason1 felony1 or other crime1 who shall flee from justice1 and be found in another state1 shall1 on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled1 be delivered up1 to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime4 #c4 ,no person held to service or labor in one state1 under the laws thereof1 escaping into another1 shall1 in consequence of any law or regulation therein1 be discharged from such service or labor1 but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due4 ,section #c4 ,new ,states3 ,territories #a4 ,new states may be admitted by the ,congress into this ,union2 but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state1 nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states1 or parts of states1 without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the ,congress4 #b4 ,the ,congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the ,united ,states2 and nothing in this ,constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the ,united ,states1 or of any particular state4 ,section #d4 ,protection to ,states by the ,nation #a4 ,the ,united ,states shall guarantee to every state in this ,union a republican form of government1 and shall protect each of them against invasion2 and on application of the legislature1 or of the executive 7when the legislature cannot be convened71 against domestic violence4 ,,article ,v ,,amendment #a4 ,the ,congress1 whenever two-thirds of both ,houses shall deem it necessary1 shall propose amendments to this ,constitution1 or1 on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states1 shall call a convention for proposing amendments1 which1 in either case1 shall be valid1 to all intents and purposes1 as part of this ,constitution1 when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states1 or by conventions in three-fourths thereof1 as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the ,congress3 provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first ,article2 and that no state1 without its consent1 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the ,senate4 ,,article ,,vi ,,national ,,debts3 ,,supremacy ,,of ,,national ,,law3 ,,oath #a4 ,all debts contracted and engagements entered into1 before the adoption of this ,constitution1 shall be as valid against the ,united ,states under this ,constitution as under the ,confederation4 #b4 ,this ,constitution1 and the laws of the ,united ,states which shall be made in pursuance thereof1 and all treaties made1 or which shall be made1 under the authority of the ,united ,states1 shall be the supreme law of the land2 and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby1 anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding4 #c4 ,the ,senators and ,representatives before mentioned1 and the members of the several state legislatures1 and all executive and judicial officers1 both of the ,united ,states and of the several states1 shall be bound1 by oath or affirmation1 to support this ,constitution2 but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the ,united ,states4 ,,article ,,vii ,,establishment ,,of ,,constitution #a4 ,the ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for the establishment of this ,constitution between the states so ratifying the same4 ,,amendments#cai ,,article ,i ,,freedom ,,of ,,religion1 ,,of ,,speech1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,press3 ,,right ,,of ,,petition ,congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion1 or prohibiting the free exercise thereof2 or abridging the freedom of speech1 or of the press2 or the right of the people peaceably to assemble1 and to petition the government for a redress of grievances4 ,,article ,,ii ,,right ,,to ,,keep ,,arms ,a well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state1 the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed4 ,,article ,,iii ,,quartering ,,of ,,soldiers ,,in ,,private ,,houses ,no soldier shall1 in time of peace1 be quartered in any house1 without the consent of the owner2 nor1 in time of war1 but in a manner to be prescribed by law4 ,,article ,,iv ,,search ,,warrants ,the right of the people to be secure in their persons1 houses1 papers1 and effects1 against unreasonable searches and seizures1 shall not be violated2 and no warrants shall issue1 but upon probable cause1 supported by oath or affirmation1 and particularly describing the place to be searched1 and the persons or things to be seized4 ,,article ,v ,,criminal ,,proceedings ,no person shall be held to answer for a capital1 or otherwise infamous1 crime1 unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury1 except in cases arising in the land or naval forces1 or in the militia1 when in actual service1 in time of war1 or public danger2 nor shall any person be subject1 for the same offence1 to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb2 nor shall be compelled1 in any criminal case1 to be a witness against himself2 nor be deprived of life1 liberty1 or property1 without due process of law2 nor shall private property be taken for public use1 without just compensation4#cbj ,,article ,,vi ,,criminal ,,proceedings 7continued7 ,in all criminal prosecutions1 the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial1 by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed1 which district shall have been previously ascertained by law2 and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation2 to be confronted with the witnesses against him2 to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor2 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence4 ,,article ,,vii ,,jury ,,trial ,,in ,,civil ,,cases ,in suits at common law1 where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars1 the right of trial by jury shall be preserved2 and no fact1 tried by a jury1 shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the ,united ,states than according to the rules of the common law4 ,,article ,,viii ,,excessive ,,punishments ,excessive bail shall not be required1 nor excessive fines imposed1 nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted4 ,,article ,,ix ,,unenumerated ,,rights ,,of ,,the ,,people ,the enumeration in the ,constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people4 ,,article ,x ,,powers ,,reserved ,,to ,,states ,the powers not delegated to the ,united ,states by the ,constitution1 nor prohibited by it to the states1 are reserved to the states respectively1 or to the people4 ,,article ,,xi#cba ,,suits ,,against ,,states ,the judicial power of the ,united ,states shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity1 commenced or prosecuted against one of the ,united ,states by citizens of another state1 or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state4 ,,article ,,xii ,,election ,,of ,,president ,,and ,,vice-,,president #a4 ,the ,electors shall meet in their respective states1 and vote by ballot for ,president and ,vice-,president1 one of whom1 at least1 shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves2 they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as ,president1 and in distinct ballots the person voted for as ,vice-,president2 and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as ,president1 and of all persons voted for as ,vice-,president1 and of the number of votes for each1 which lists they shall sign1 and certify1 and transmit1 sealed1 to the seat of the ,government of the ,united ,states1 directed to the ,president of the ,senate2 the ,president of the ,senate shall1 in the presence of the ,senate and the ,house of ,representatives1 open all the certificates1 and the votes shall then be counted2 the person having the greatest number of votes for ,president shall be the ,president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of ,electors appointed2 and if no person have such a majority1 then1 from the persons having the highest numbers1 not exceeding three1 on the list of those voted for as ,president1 the ,house of ,representatives shall choose immediately1 by ballot1 the ,president4 ,but in choosing the ,president1 the votes shall be taken by states1 the representation from each state having one vote2 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states1 and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice4 ,and if the ,house of ,representatives shall not choose a ,president1 whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them1 before the fourth day of ,march next following1 then the ,vice-,president shall act as ,president1 as in case of the death1 or other constitutional disability1 of the ,president4#cbb #b4 ,the person having the greatest number of votes as ,vice-,president1 shall be the ,vice-,president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of ,electors appointed2 and if no person have a majority1 then1 from the two highest numbers on the list1 the ,senate shall choose the ,vice-,president2 a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of ,senators2 a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice4#cbb #c4 ,but no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of ,president shall be eligible to that of ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states1 ,,article ,,xiii#cbc ,,slavery ,section #a4 ,abolition of ,slavery ,neither slavery nor involuntary servitude1 except as a punishment for crime1 whereof the party shall have been duly convicted1 shall exist within the ,united ,states1 or any place subject to their jurisdiction4 ,section #b4 ,power of ,congress ,congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xiv#cbd ,,civil ,,rights3 ,,apportionment ,,of ,,representatives3 ,,political ,,disabilities3 ,,public ,,debt ,section #a4 ,civil ,rights ,all persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states1 and subject to the jurisdiction thereof1 are citizens of the ,united ,states and of the state wherein they reside4 ,no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the ,united ,states2 nor shall any state deprive any person of life1 liberty1 or property1 without due process of law1 nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws4 ,section #b4 ,apportionment of ,representatives ,representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers1 counting the whole number of persons in each state1 excluding ,indians not taxed4 ,but when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for ,president and ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states1 ,representatives in ,congress1 the executive and judicial officers of a state1 or the members of the legislature thereof1 is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state1 being twenty-one years of age1 and citizens of the ,united ,states1 or in any way abridged1 except for participation in rebellion or other crime1 the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state4 ,section #c4 ,political ,disabilities ,no person shall be a ,senator or ,representative in ,congress1 or elector of ,president and ,vice-,president1 or hold any office1 civil or military1 under the ,united ,states1 or under any state1 who1 having previously taken an oath1 as a member of ,congress1 or as an officer of the ,united ,states1 or as a member of any state legislature1 or as an executive or judicial officer of any state1 to support the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same1 or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof4 ,but ,congress may1 by a vote of two-thirds of each ,house1 remove such disability4 ,section #d4 ,public ,debt ,the validity of the public debt of the ,united ,states1 authorized by law1 including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion1 shall not be questioned4 ,but neither the ,united ,states nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the ,united ,states1 or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave2 but all such debts1 obligations1 and claims shall be held illegal and void4 ,section #e4 ,powers of ,congress ,the ,congress shall have power to enforce1 by appropriate legislation1 the provisions of this article4 ,,article ,,xv#cbe ,,right ,,of ,,suffrage ,section #a4 ,right of ,negro to ,vote ,the right of citizens of the ,united ,states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the ,united ,states or by any state on account of race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude4 ,section #b4 ,power of ,congress ,the ,congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xvi#cbf ,,income ,,tax ,the ,congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes1 from whatever source derived1 without apportionment among the several states1 and without regard to any census or enumeration4 ,,article ,,xvii#cbg ,,senate3 ,,election3 ,,vacancies ,the ,senate of the ,united ,states shall be composed of two ,senators from each state1 elected by the people thereof1 for six years2 and each ,senator shall have one vote4 ,the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislatures4 ,when vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the ,senate1 the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies3 ,provided1 ,that the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointment until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct4 ,this amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any ,senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the ,constitution4 ,,article ,,xviii#cbh ,,national ,,prohibition ,,section #a--;,after one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture1 sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors within1 the importation thereof into1 or the exportation thereof from the ,united ,states and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited4 ,,section #b--,the ,congress and the several ,states shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4 ,,section #c--,this article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the ,constitution by the legislatures of the several ,states1 as provided in the ,constitution1 within seven years of the date of the submission hereof to the ,states by ,congress4 ,,article ,,xix#cbi ,,woman ,,suffrage ,,section #a--,the right of citizens of the ,united ,states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the ,united ,states or by any ,state on account of sex4 ,,section #b--;,congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4 ----- ,footnote #caa3 ,voters4 ,footnote #cab3 ,annulled by the ,thirteenth and ,fourteenth ,amendments4 ,footnote #cac3 ,superseded by the ,seventeenth ,amendment4 ,footnote #cad3 ,see ,seventeenth ,amendment4 ,footnote #cae3 ,see ,sixteenth ,amendment4 ,footnote #caf3 ,superseded by the ,twelfth ,amendment4 ,footnote #cag3 ,modified by the ,eleventh ,amendment4 ,footnote #cah3 ,compare ,fourteenth ,amendment4 ,footnote #cai3 ,the first ten ,amendments1 known as the ,bill of ,rights1 were adopted in #agia4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,see ,amendment ,,xiv1 ,sec4 #a1 which extends part of this restriction to the ,states4 ,footnote #cba3 ,adopted in #agih to protect the sovereignty of the ,states4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,adopted in #ahjd1 superseding ,article ,,ii1 ,sec4 #a4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,adopted in #ahfe4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,adopted in #ahfh4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,adopted in #ahgj4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,adopted in #aiac4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,adopted in #aiac4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,adopted in #aiai4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,adopted in #aibj4 ,,index ,a ,accidents1 industrial1 #daa-dab ,admission of new states1 #bbg-bbh ,agriculture1 the federal ,department of1 #bii n scope and methods of1 #cci-cdb special characteristics of1 #cdc-cde improvements in1 #cde-cdf government encouragement of1 #cdf-cdh financial aids to1 #cdh-cdi problems of1 #cdi-ceb ,agricultural bloc1 in ,congress1 #bhb n1 #cej-cea ,alaska1 government of1 #bbi n ,albany ,congress1 #bdh ,ambassadors1 appointment and duties of1 #eia-eie ,amendments1 to state constitutions1 #bcb to national constitution1 #bfj-bfb ,american ,federation of ,labor1 #djc-djd ,americanization1 the public schools as agencies of1 #bh purpose and methods of1 #cc 8,american ,plan0 in industry1 #dji ,anti-,trust ,law4 ,see ,sherman ,act ,appointments to office1 methods of1 #ii-aja confirmation of1 #bgj-bga presidential1 #bic-bid ,appeals1 judicial1 #caa-cab ,appropriations in ,congress1 #dfc-dfe ,arbitration1 of labor disputes1 #dji-daj compulsory1 #daj-daa international1 #fja-fjb ,aristotle1 classification of governments by1 #ff-fg ,armaments1 the cost of1 #efc-efd ,army1 various divisions of the1 #efg-ega control of1 in war1 #ega-egb ,army in peace1 #egb-egc ,articles of ,confederation1 #bdi-bea1 #bhg ,assessments for taxation1 #def-deg ,athletics1 value of1 in training citizens1 #hf-hh ,attorney-,general1 office of1 #bii n ,australian ballot1 #acb ,b ,balance of power in ,europe1 #fbi ,ballot1 history of the1 #aca-acb reform of1 #acb-acc preferential1 #acc-acd ,banks1 functions of1 #dcd organization of1 #dce-dcg federal reserve1 #dcg-dci work of1 #dci-ddb ,see also ,farm ,loan ,banks ,bargaining1 collective1 #dje-djf ,billboards1 regulation of1 #bad-bae ,bill of ,rights1 #bfa ,bimetallism1 the controversy over1 #dbh-dcj ,blacklists1 industrial1 #djg ,blackstone's ,commentaries1 #cad n ,bloc4 ,see ,agricultural bloc ,blue-sky laws1 #ddf n ,boards1 in counties1 #afi-agj in cities1 #aib in state government1 #bch-bci of education1 #dih of health1 #ecd ,bonds1 defined and explained1 #dde n government1 #dff-dfg serial1 #dfi ,bonaparte1 ,napoleon1 on the qualities of a good constitution1 #beh ,bosses1 political1 their origin1 #bi their methods1 #afj-afa ,boycotts in labor troubles1 #djg ,brindell ,case1 #djd n ,bryan1 ,william ,j41 on free silver1 #dcj ,budgets1 how made1 #dfb-dfc in ,congress1 #dfc-dfe ,buildings1 public1 in cities1 #bab-bad ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 #cdg of ,foreign and ,domestic ,commerce1 #cgf of ,child ,welfare1 #dae n of ,education1 #dii of ,american ,republics1 #fag ,burke1 ,edmund1 on the function of a representative1 #ih-ii ,business taxes1 #bbb ,c ,cabinet1 organization and functions of1 #big-cjc ,campaign funds1 #afa-afb ,capital1 as a factor in production1 #dh-ej ,center of population in the ,united ,states1 #ba ,chancery4 ,see ,equity ,charters1 municipal1 #ahf-aij ,checks and balances1 #bcb-bcd ,child labor1 the restriction of1 #dad-dae ,chief justice1 duties of1 in presidential impeachments1 #bgj n ,china1 economic resources of1 #cce open door in1 #fah-fbj ,circuit courts1 #cac ,cities1 drift of population to1 #bb-bc growth of1 #ahc-ahd character of population in1 #ahd-ahf relation to state1 #ahf-aij government of1 #aij-aii administrative problems in1 #bjc-bbb taxation in1 #dee-deg ,city councils1 #aic-aid ,city government1 development of1 #ahb-ahd present organization of1 #ahd-aii ,see also ,municipal problems ,city-manager plan1 #aig-aih ,city planning1 #bjf-bih ,citizenship1 rights of1 #gi qualifications for1 #ha dual1 #hb n obligations of1 #hc-hd training for1 #hd-hh ,civil liberty1 origin and nature of1 #gh-ha relation of direct legislation to1 #aaa ,civil ,war1 effect of1 on relations between nation and states1 #bbg on the constitution1 #bfa-bfb martial law during1 #egd-ege naval progress during1 #ege n cost of pensions after1 #ehc danger of foreign intervention during1 #fjh ,civil service1 federal1 #ajd in counties1 #agc ,see also ,merit system ,clayton ,act1 #cia1 #djh ,cleveland1 adoption of city manager plan in1 #aig n ,grover1 use of armed forces in labor troubles by1 #egb-egc ,closed shop1 the question of1 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#aba-abb ,see also ,elections1 ,voting ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states1 its constitutional functions1 #bei-bfj its organization and influence1 #cjh-caa ,t ,tariffs and tariff policy1 #cfh-cgb ,taxation1 in cities1 #bbj-bbb the burden of1 #dej-dea the incidence of1 #dea-dec special nature of1 #dec-ded principles of1 #ded-dee local1 #dee-deg state1 #deg-deh national1 #deh-dei the two purposes of1 #dei-dfj exemptions from1 #dfj-dfa the reform of1 #dfa-dfb ,taxes1 on immigrants1 #cj as an element in the cost of production1 #eb ,teachers1 the training of1 #ejc-ejd ,tenements4 ,see ,housing ,territories1 the government of1 #bbi-bcj ,timber1 the conservation of1 #cca-ccb ,town government1 #age-agf ,towner-,sterling ,bill1 #dii n ,township government1 #agf-agg ,trade unions4 ,see ,organization of labor ,traffic zones1 #baj ,transportation ,act1 #cfd1 #cfg ,treasury1 ,department of the1 #bii n ,treaties1 ratification of1 by the ,senate1 #bga commercial1 #cgc how made1 #eif-eig ,trial by jury1 #cah-cba ,tribe1 its place in political evolution1 #ff ,triple ,alliance1 #fbh-fbi ,trusts1 industrial1 #chg ,tweed1 ,william ,m41 #afa n ,typhoid fever1 its cause and method of transmission1 #eag-eah ,u ,unemployment1 the problem of1 #dag-dah ,unions1 labor1 aims and methods of1 #dja-daj ,universal military training1 merits and defects of1 #egh ,usage1 development of constitution by1 #beh-bei ,utility1 the principle of1 in determining demand1 #dj-da ,utilities1 public1 #bae the nature of1 #dgd-dgf regulation of1 #dgj-dgg franchises of1 #dgg-dhj public ownership of1 #dha-dhh guild operation of1 #dhh-dhi ,v ,vaccination and inoculation1 effects of #ebc-ebd ,value1 definition of1 #ec ,versailles1 ,treaty of1 #faj1 #fca n ,vice president1 election of1 #bhh duties of1 #bgj n functions of the1 #bif-big ,veto power1 the ,president's1 #bid-bie ,vocation1 the choice of a1 #cif-cig ,vocational education1 #ejg-ejh ,see also ,guidance1 vocational ,volunteers1 use of1 in war1 #efi-egj ,voting1 preferential1 #acc-acd qualifications for1 #abb-abe absent1 #ach compulsory1 #ach-aci by machine1 #aci-adj in ,congress1 #bgh n ,see also ,registration of voters1 ,suffrage ,w ,wages1 factors affecting the rate of1 #dg-dh ,war1 the cost of1 #efc-efd the causes of1 #eff-efg preparedness for1 #egh-eha the laws of1 #ehh-ehi humanizing of1 #fja measures for the prevention of1 #fce-fcf ,see also ,arbitration1 ,hague ,conferences1 ,league of ,nations1 ,washington ,conference ,war ,industries ,board1 #ehb ,washington ,conference1 #ege n1 #egg1 #fai-fbj ,washington ,conference1 relation of ,league of ,nations to1 #fdj-fda ,washington1 ,george1 as a non-partisan ,president1 #ajb on the weakness of the ,confederation1 #beb at the constitutional convention1 #bed on two-house legislatures1 #bff advice on foreign policy1 #eig-eih1 #fjf n ,waste disposal1 methods of1 in cities1 #ebg-ebh ,water supply1 sources and methods of1 #ebi-ecj ,wealth1 definition of1 #ci ,weather ,bureau1 importance of its work1 #cdg ,wellington1 the ,duke of1 on the value of organized play1 #hg ,wider use of the school plant1 #eje-ejf ,whitehall1 ,indiana1 center of population1 #ba ,wilson1 ,woodrow1 on the aims of ,america in the ,world ,war1 #fji-faj ,see also ,fourteen ,points1 ,league of ,nations1 ,world ,war ,woman suffrage1 the winning of1 #bfb ,women1 in industry1 the protection of1 #dac-dad ,workman's compensation1 #dac ,world power1 the ,united ,states in relation to1 #fjf-fba ,world ,war1 rise of wages during1 #dh ,american agriculture during1 #cdb-cdc ,american labor during1 #dai-dbj public debts resulting from1 #dff powers of the government during1 #ehj-ehc ,america's part in1 #fjh-fji cost of1 #fab problems created by1 #fdf-ffa ,writs at law1 #cag n ,y ,year ,book of the ,department of ,agriculture1 #cdg ,footnotes ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note ,the index entry regarding the duties of the ,vice ,president refers to a note on p4 #bgj1 but no such note exists4 ,the index entry regarding compulsory arbitration in ,new ,zealand refers to a note on p4 #dai4 ,the note appears on p4 #dji4 ,other errors deemed most likely to be the printer's have been corrected1 and are noted here4 ,the references are to the page and line in the original4 ,where the error is in a footnote1 the original note is included and the line within it4 #ga4cb protect arg_/griculture ,transposed4 #hj4b ,it was a long and grim struggle ,restored4 #hb4cd ,in the case of the ,porto ,ricans1 citizenship ,added4 #aje4aj ,they are practical in their nature4 ,added4 #agi4cc and and the county-manager plans4 ,removed4 #aic4g that is_/t encourages ,replaced4 #bej4bf ,i_/it could act only ,replaced4 #caf4ac many states4 ,added4 #cbi4h restocking of lakes with fish74 ,added4 #cec4cc ,the ,non-,partisan ,league1 pp4#bfi-bhc2_/4 ,replaced4 #cgi4cc and future development4 ,added4 #dah4aj a certain pre_/ercentage of the total ,transposed4 #dfe4ab to the present taxpayers4 ,added4 #dfh4n#b4b life of a public in_/mprovement ,replaced4 #dgj4aj ,public ,finance1 pp4 #bfa-bhj4 ,added4 #dga4aa p4 #deg47 ,added4 #fah4f mastery of the ,pacific4 ,added4 #fgc4bi ,i do solemnly swear ,inserted4 #fhc4f a ,senator or ,representative ,inserted4