,transcriber's ,notes3    ,text enclosed
 by underscores is in italics 7italics71
 and text  enclosed by equal signs is in
 bold 7bold74    ,the whole number part 
of a mixed fraction is separated from   
the  fractional part with -1 for        
example1 #b-a_/b4    ,additional        
,transcriber's ,notes are at the end4   
,how to ,become an ,inventor4           
,,containing    ,experiments in         
,photography1 ,hydraulics1    ,galvanism
 and ,electricity1    ,,magnetism1      
,,heat1    ,,and ,,the    ,wonders of   
the ,microscope4      ,,also ,,giving   
,instruction in the ,use of ,tools      
,,and    ,,optical ,,instruments4       
,,new ,,york3    ,,frank ,,tousey1      
,publisher1    #bi ,,west #bf,,th       
,,street4           99       99       99
       99       99    ,entered according
 to ,act of ,congress1 in the year      
#ahih1 by    ,,frank ,,tousey1    in the
 ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress 
at ,washington1 ,d4,c4          ,how to 
,become an ,inventor4      ,nothing is  

more useful to a youth than to be able  
to do a little  carpentering4 ,to be    
handy with a chisel and saw1 a nail and 
a hammer1  saves many a dollar in the   
course of the year4 ,if you call in a   
carpenter for a little work he is sure  
to spin out a 8regular job40 ,i         
remember once buying some oak saplings1 
which cost me fifteen cents  a stick2   
and wanting to build a summer-house1 ,i 
required eight of  them to be sawn      
through1 so ,i applied to a carpenter1  
and the sticks  were cut1 but1 to my    
astonishment1 four dollars was charged  
for this  little 8job10 although the    
wood cost me only one dollar and thirty 
cents4 ,i found out afterwards that the 
proper price for sawing would  have     
amounted to about one dollar1 so that   
three dollars profit was  clapped on for
 the benefit of my experience4 ,i just  
mention this to  show my young friends  
that if they wish to make summer-houses 
for their  gardens1 cages for their     
birds1 fowl-houses1 rabbit-hutches1 or  

boxes  for their books1 they must learn 
to make them for themselves4 ,i shall   
therefore offer them a little advice    
upon 8carpentering40      ,,the ,,shop  
,,and ,,bench4    ,endeavor to procure  
some small outhouse1 in which you may   
erect what is  called a carpenter's or  
joiner's bench4 ,these may very often be
 bought  second-hand1 or if not1 can    
easily be procured at a reasonable rate4
  ,i am very particular in recommending 
a bench1 as without it you will  find   
many obstacles to your work4 ,you must  
also provide yourself with  a set of    
tools1--gimlets1 hammers1 planes1 saws1 
gouges1 files1 nails1  screws1 and such 
articles of use4    ,the bench is       
composed of a platform or top1 supported
 by four stout  legs2 supplied with a   
bench hook2 this ought to be fitted in  
tight1 so  as to move up and down with a
 hammer only4 ,the use of it is to keep 
any  wood steady you may have to plane2 
the bench screw is used for keeping  any
 wood firm and steady you may have to   

saw1 which is to be put in  the grip and
 screwed tight4 ,sometimes the edges of 
wood require to be  planed1 and then the
 wood is put in the grip or cheeks of   
the bench and  held tight while you     
plane it4 ,make holes in the side of the
 bench1 for  the insertion of a movable 
pin to support the end of the board you 
have to plane or saw1 which is not in   
the screw4 ,the height of your  bench   
should be about #b feet #h inches4 ,the 
common length is from #aj to  #ab feet1 
and the breadth about #c feet #f inches4
    ,the jack plane is the first to be  
used4 ,it is about #ag inches in        
length1 and is used to take the rough   
parts from a piece of wood4 ,it  should 
be held steadily by fixing the right    
hand at the handle1 and the  left over  
the top and side1 and pushed forward on 
the wood1 when the  knife will take off 
a shaving which runs through the hole1  
and falls on  the side4 ,in using the   
plane the endeavor should be to take off
 a clean  shaving1 which is done by     

using the instrument uniformly and      
steadily  over every surface to be      
planed4    ,there is another kind of    
plane1 called the trying plane1 having a
  double top or handle4 ,it is used to  
regulate and smooth to a higher  degree1
 the surface of the wood that had       
previously been smoothed from  the rough
 by the jack plane4 ,its length is about
 #bb inches1 and it is  broader than the
 jack plane4 ,there is another plane    
called the long  plane1 which is used   
for facing a piece of stuff1 which it   
does with  the greatest exactness2 its  
length is about #b feet #d inches4      
,there is  also the joiner's plane1     
which is the longest of all the planes1 
being  #cj inches long4 ,but the most   
handy of the planes to the boy carpenter
  is the smoothing plane4 ,it is the    
last plane used in joining1 and gives   
the utmost degree of smoothness to the  
surface of a piece of finished  work2 it
 is about #g inches in length1 the sides
 of the stock are  curved1 and resemble 

in figure a coffin2 it is used in a     
similar way to  the other4      ,,saws4 
,there are many kinds of saws1 but the  
most useful one is what is called  the  
8hand saw40 ,it has a blade or plate    
about #bh inches long2 the teeth  of    
which are so formed as to allow you to  
cut the wood crossways as  well as      
lengthways4 ,the handle of the saw is   
made so as to allow a full  yet free    
grasp of the hand1 either for a pull or 
a thrust4    ,the panel saw4 ,this saw  
has a plate nearly of the same size as a
 hand  saw1 and is used for cutting very
 thin boards1 which the rough teeth of  
the hand saw would not cut through      
without breaking them4    ,the tenon saw
 is of a different shape to the others1 
and is made  to cut across the grain of 
the wood so as to leave the ends nicely 
even1 that it may fit to the piece it is
 joined to1 which is called a  shoulder1
 being that part which comes in contact 
with the fiber of the  wood4 ,to do this
 it requires that the teeth should be   

much smaller1  and they are therefore   
placed so close as eight or ten to the  
inch1  according to the length of the   
blade4    ,the dovetail saw4 ,there is  
another most useful saw it would be of  
advantage for the young carpenter to    
have1 namely1 the dovetail saw4  ,it is 
about #i inches long1 and contains at   
least fifteen teeth in the  inch4 ,it is
 used for cutting the dovetails of      
boxes4 ,its plate is very  thin1 and it 
requires some care in using4 ,it has a  
back for the purpose  of strength1      
formed of a thin piece of brass or iron1
 let in so as to  give the blade the    
requisite firmness necessary in using   
it4    ,the compass saw4 ,the plate of  
this kind of saw is very narrow1 and    
not more than one inch wide at the      
broadest part1 gradually diminishing  to
 about a quarter of an inch at the lower
 end4 ,it is about #ae inches  in       
length1 and used for cutting a piece of 
wood into a circular form1  and the     
plate being narrow allows it to follow  

the foot of the compass  to a very small
 diameter4    ,the keyhole saw4 ,the    
keyhole saw is much smaller than the    
above4 ,it  is used for cutting short   
curves1 small holes1 c41 such as a      
keyhole4  ,the handle is the same form  
as that of the chisel1 a small slit     
being  cut through from end to end4 ,it 
has a screw on one side1 in order that  
the blade may be set to any length1     
according to the circumference of  the  
hole to be cut4      ,,the ,,spoke      
,,shave4    ,this is a very useful tool4
 ,it is employed for smoothing the edges
 of  round pieces1 or other ends        
requiring to be shaved down4 ,it is a   
narrow  plane made of boxwood1 and has  
generally a steel blade let into it to  
cut2 it is used by taking hold of each  
end with a hand1 and moving it  to and  
fro over the wood to be shaved down4    
,,stock ,,and ,,bits4    ,there are     
about thirty-six bits to a set1 all of  
different shapes  and sizes2 but our    
young friends need not get quite so     

many2 if they  provide themselves with a
 couple of a medium size1 this will be  
sufficient1 such as the center bit and  
the auger bit4 ,the center bit  will cut
 holes varying from a quarter of an inch
 to three quarters of  an inch in       
diameter1 and is used by pressing the   
knob end against the  chest1 and        
twirling the center part round with the 
hand4 ,it cuts a hole  very clean1      
leaving it quite smooth inside4 ,the    
auger bit is for the  same purpose1 and 
is used in the same manner4 ,another    
bit1 called the  taper shell bit1 is    
used for making holes wider1 and is a   
very useful  implement4      ,,how ,,to 
,,make ,a ,,wheelbarrow4    ,one of the 
handiest things in a garden is a        
wheelbarrow1 and one of the  prettiest  
for the young carpenter to exercise his 
ingenuity upon4 ,to  make one1 take a   
wide plank or board about an inch and a 
quarter thick4  ,proceed to your bench1 
and having fitted it to its proper      
position1  take your jack plane and     

plane off the rough1 next use your      
smoothing  plane to make it smooth4     
,then take your pencil and draw upon its
 side  the figure of a wheelbarrow4     
,then take your compass saw and cut     
round  the marks you have made3 to do   
this you will have to fix your board  in
 the screw of your bench4 ,when this is 
done take your spoke shave1  and shave  
the edges all round till they are very  
smooth and even1 and  you have one side 
of your barrow4 ,lay this on another    
piece of board1  and mark the shape of  
it with your pencil2 cut and shave it   
exactly  as you did the first side1 so  
that when finished the two will exactly 
correspond2 then cut a piece off another
 board for the back and front  of the   
barrow1 by the same method you cut the  
sides1 and plane and  finish them up in 
a similar way4 ,cut some tenons at the  
end of each  exactly to correspond with 
the mortices on the sides1 let them be a
  trifle larger than the mortices1 so   
that they will drive in tight4 ,then    

cut the bottom out neatly1 and nail it  
to the sides4 ,having proceeded  thus   
far1 cut out the legs of your barrow1   
and nail one on each side4  ,give each  
leg a shoulder for the sides to rest    
upon4    ,to make the wheel4 ,take a    
piece of board1 and strike a circle upon
  it the size you wish your wheel to be 
of1 and with the compass saw cut  close 
round to the stroke2 cut out a square   
hole in the center for the  nave to     
join4 ,then get the blacksmith to put an
 iron rim round the  wheel to keep it   
from splitting1 and a round pin in each 
side of the  nave1 and put a staple in  
each side of the barrow to keep the     
wheel in  its place4 ,paint the whole of
 any color you choose1 and you will have
 a  wheelbarrow4      ,,the ,,way ,,to  
,,make ,a ,,box4    ,first ascertain the
 size you wish your box to be of4 ,then 
cut off your  stuff1 but take care to   
cut it a quarter of an inch longer than 
the  size of your box from outside to   
outside4 ,should you want it deeper or  

broader than the length of a deal1 the  
widest of which is generally  only      
eleven inches2 suppose1 for instance1   
you wish your box to be  #ah inches     
deep1 and you have only #i-;inch deal to
 make it with1 you  will of course have 
to join two together1 or make what is   
called in  carpentering a gluejoint4    
,first1 then1 after you have cut off    
your  stuff1 take your jack plane and   
8scuffle the rough off10 then put your  
board edgeways into the bench-screw1 and
 take your trying plane or  long plane  
to get the edge of the deals that are to
 be glued together  perfectly straight  
and even2 and lastly use the joiner     
plane1 which  will take off a nice      
uniform shaving of the whole length of  
the board4  ,proceed exactly in the same
 manner with the other board to be      
joined  to the first4 ,then1 after      
having made each thoroughly smooth1 clap
 the  two together and see if they will 
lie close in every part2 if not you     
must plane them till they do1 taking    

care to plane the edges perfectly       
square1 or at right angles to the       
surface of the board1 for if you are    
not careful in this particular1 when    
your boards are glued together  they    
will be of this form4 ,when you have    
joined them properly for  glueing1 let  
your glue be nicely hot and not too     
thick1 and hold both  edges of the      
boards together so that you can with a  
brush put the glue  on both at one time1
 put the two together very quickly1 let 
one of them  be in the bench-screw1 and 
while there rub the other backwards and 
forwards until the glue sets1 which it  
will soon do if well joined4 ,let  the  
whole dry1 and then the glued part will 
be as strong as any other  part of the  
board4    ,after your sides1 ends1      
bottom1 and top are thus prepared1 you  
must  then plane them up nicely1 so that
 they are perfectly smooth and          
straight4 ,use first the jack plane1    
then the trying plane4 ,when this  is   
done you have to proceed to a nice      

little job1 namely1 to dovetail  the    
corners together so as to form your box4
 ,in this process much  depends upon the
 planing and squaring of the stuff1 for 
if you have not  done this nicely the   
dovetailing will be very imperfectly    
performed4  ,assuming that everything   
has been well done1 then take the two   
ends of  the box1 and see that each is  
perfectly square and true to the other4 
,then allow one-eighth of an inch more  
than the thickness of your sides1  and  
set out the ends1 squaring it over on   
both sides1 which when the  dovetails   
are cut out will form the inside of the 
box4      ,,to ,,cut ,,the ,,dovetails4 
,take one 8end-piece0 of the box1 and   
place it endways into the  bench-screw1 
and mark out the dovetails on the edge  
of the board  inside1 then with your    
dovetail saw cut in into the marks down 
to the  lines squared over on the flat  
side4 ,then with a chisel cut out that  
part of the wood that is crossed1 and   
leave the other part1 this being  the   

part which will form the pins or tails4 
,then take one side of your  box and lay
 it flat on the bench1 the inside       
uppermost2 then place the  end you have 
cut on it1 keeping the edges flush1 and 
mark round the  shape of the pins1 which
 will leave their form on the side      
piece1 the  black places being the      
mortices which are to be cut out4 ,in   
cutting out  these you must be careful  
to cut within side of the stroke1 so    
that the  mortices will be a little     
smaller than the pins1 which will admit 
of  their being driven in quite tight1  
and will allow the glue to adhere to    
them 7for you have to glue these when   
you fix them74 ,when you have thus  put 
the ends and sides together let them    
stand till the glue gets dry1  then take
 your planes and plane the quarter of an
 inch off the pins  which you allowed to
 be a little longer than the length of  
the box1 and  you have then made the    
body of your box4      ,,the ,,bottom   
,,of ,,the ,,box4    ,cut your bottom   

the exact size of the box1 nail the     
bottom on1 and 8get  out0 a piece of    
wood 7by cutting and planing in the     
usual manner7 to  nail round so as to   
form a skirting to it1 and at the same  
time hide  the joints of the bottom2    
8get out0 a similar piece of wood to    
nail  round the top which will form the 
lid4 ,then get a pair of box joints  and
 a lock1 and having put them on by a    
stroke of your own ingenuity1  you will 
have a 8box40          ,,galvanism1 ,,or
 ,,voltaic ,,electricity4               
8,to play with fire    ,they say is     
dangerous2 what is it then    ,to shake 
hands with the lightning1 and to sport  
,with thunder80--,,tyler4    ,galvanism1
 or electricity of quantity1 in         
contradistinction to  frictional        
electricity1 called electricity of      
intensity1 owes its name  to the        
experiments on animal irritability made 
in #agij by ,m4 ,galvani1  a professor  
of anatomy at ,bologna4 ,these          
experiments were suggested by  the      

following circumstances4      ,,origin  
,,of ,,galvanism4    ,it happened that  
the wife of ,galvani1 who was           
consumptive1 was advised  to take as an 
article of food some soup made of the   
flesh of frogs4  ,several of these      
creatures were killed and skinned1 and  
were lying on  the table in the         
laboratory close to an electrical       
machine1 with which  a pupil of the     
professor was making experiments4 ,while
 the machine  was in action1 he chanced 
to touch the bare nerve of the leg of   
one  of the frogs with the blade of the 
knife that he had in his hand1  when    
suddenly the whole limb was thrown into 
violent convulsions4  ,galvani was not  
present when this occurred2 but being   
informed of it1  he immediately set     
himself to investigate the cause4 ,he   
found that it  was only when a spark was
 drawn from the prime conductor1 and    
when the  knife or any other good       
conductor was in contact with the nerve1
 that  the contracting took place2 and  

after a time he discovered that the     
effect was independent of the electrical
 machine1 and might be equally  well    
produced by making a metallic           
communication between the outside       
muscle and the crural nerve4            
,,simple ,,experiment ,,to ,,excite     
,,galvanic ,,action4    ,if the young   
experimenter will obtain a piece of zinc
 of the size  of half a dollar and place
 it on the top of his tongue1 and place 
a  half-dollar beneath it1 and bring the
 edges of the half-dollar and zinc  in  
contact in front of his tongue1 he will 
notice a peculiar sensation  in the     
nerves of this organ1 and some taste    
will be imparted to his  mouth at the   
moment of contact4      ,,with ,,metal  
,,plates ,,in ,,water4    ,if we take   
two plates of different kinds of metal1 
platinum 7or copper7  and zinc for      
example1 and immerse them in pure water1
 having wires  attached to them above1  
then if the wire of each is brought into
  contact in another vessel of water1 a 

galvanic circle will be formed1  the    
water will be slowly decomposed1 its    
oxygen will be fixed on the  zinc wire1 
and at the same time a current of       
electricity will be  transmitted through
 the liquid to the platina or copper    
wire1 on the  end of which the other    
element of water1 namely1 the hydrogen1 
will  make its appearance in the form of
 minute gas bubbles4 ,the electrical    
current passes back again into the zinc 
at the points of its contact  with the  
platina1 and thus a continued current is
 kept up1 and hence  it is called a     
galvanic circle4 ,the moment the circuit
 is broken by  separating the wires the 
current ceases1 but is again renewed by 
making them touch either in or out of   
the water4 ,if a small quantity  of     
sulphuric acid be added to the water1   
the phenomenon will be more  apparent4  
,the end of the wire attached to the    
piece of platinum or  copper is called  
the positive pole of the battery1 and   
that of the wire  attached to the zinc  

the negative pole4    ,the current of   
electricity here generated will be      
extremely feeble2  but this can be      
easily increased by multiplying the     
glasses and the  number of the pieces of
 metal4 ,if we take six such glasses    
instead of  one1 partially fill them    
with dilute sulphuric acid1 and put a   
piece  of zinc and copper into each1    
connecting them by means of copper wire 
from glass to glass through the whole   
series1 a stronger current of           
electricity will be the result4 ,the    
experimenter must be careful not to  let
 the wire and zinc touch each other at  
the bottom of the tumblers1  and must   
also remember that the copper of glass  
#a is connected with the  zinc of glass 
#b1 and so on4      ,,to ,,make ,a      
,,magnet ,,by ,,the ,,voltaic ,,current4
    ,to effect this1 make a connection  
between the poles of the above or any   
excited battery with the two ends of a  
wire formed into a spiral coil1  by     
bending common bonnet-wire closely round

 a cylinder1 or tube1 of  about an inch 
in diameter2 into this coil introduce a 
needle or piece  of steel wire1 laying  
it lengthways down the circles of the   
coil4 ,in  a few minutes after the      
electric fluid has passed through the   
spiral  wire1 and consequently round the
 needle or wire1 the latter will be     
found to be strongly magnetized1 and to 
possess all the properties of a  magnet4
      ,,effects ,,of ,,galvanism ,,on ,a
 ,,magnet4    ,if a galvanic current1 or
 any electric current1 be made to pass  
along a  wire under which1 and in a line
 with it1 a compass is placed1 it will  
be found that the needle will no longer 
point north and south1 but will  take a 
direction nearly across the current1 and
 point almost east and  west4           
,,change ,,of ,,color ,,by ,,galvanism4 
,put a teaspoonful of sulphate of soda  
into a cup1 and dissolve it in  hot     
water2 pour a little cabbage blue into  
the solution1 and put a  portion into   
two glasses1 connecting them by a piece 

of linen or cotton  cloth previously    
moistened in the same solution4 ,on     
putting one of the  wires of the        
galvanic pole into each glass1 the acid 
accumulates in the  one1 turning the    
blue to a red1 and the alkali in the    
other1 rendering  it green4 ,if the     
wires be now reversed1 the acid         
accumulates eventually  in the glass    
where the alkali appeared1 while the    
alkali passes to the  glass where the   
acid was4      ,,the ,,galvanic ,,shock4
    ,if the ends of the wires of a small
 galvanic battery are connected with  a 
proper electro-magnetic coil1 which may 
now be purchased at a very  cheap rate1 
and the wires from the coil be placed in
 separate basins  of water1 then1 on    
dipping the fingers of each hand in the 
basin1 a  smart shock will be felt1 with
 a particular aching accompanied with   
trembling4 ,with a strong battery and   
larger coil this effect is felt as  high
 as the shoulders4 ,the shock will also 
be felt by simply holding  the wires of 

a powerful galvanic battery1 one in each
 hand1 provided  the hands be moistened 
with salt and water4 ,several persons   
may receive  the shock from the battery 
and coil together by joining hands4     
,,the ,,electrotype4    ,the            
electro-galvanic current has in no case 
been more interestingly  employed than  
in the process of electrotyping4 ,it    
consists of a mode  of obtaining the    
copy of coins1 medals1 engraved plates1 
and other  objects1 which may be easily 
illustrated4      ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,an
 ,,electrotype ,,apparatus4    ,take an 
earthen jar and a porous tube2 fill the 
tube with ten parts of  water and one of
 sulphuric acid2 put it into the jar1   
into which pour  as much of a solution  
of sulphate of copper 7blue vitriol7 as 
will  fill three parts of it2 place in  
the tube a piece of zinc1 to which a    
copper wire is soldered and bent round1 
so that one end be immersed in  the     
sulphate of copper2 and a deposit of the
 copper will be immediately  formed upon

 the wire4 ,if there be plenty of acid  
and water1 so as to  allow of the action
 enduring for a long time1 this process 
will go on  till it has deposited all   
the copper4 ,this is the principle upon 
which  electrotyping proceeds--a        
principle referable to electro-chemical 
decomposition4      ,,to ,,obtain ,,the 
,,copy ,,of ,a ,,coin ,,or ,,medal4     
,never place the original medal in the  
apparatus1 or the deposited  copper may 
adhere so tightly to it that the removal
 destroys the beauty  of the medal4     
,having taken an impression in          
sealing-wax1 cover the  latter with     
black-lead1 and attach a wire so that it
 is in contact  with the black-lead4 ,to
 the wire and cast thus arranged a piece
 of  sheet or cast zinc1 amalgamated    
with mercury1 must be attached1 and  we 
are at once furnished with the materials
 for the battery1 as the  object to be  
copied supplies the place of the copper4
 ,the medal must  always be placed      
horizontally4 ,now let the apparatus be 

charged with  the solution1 by pouring  
into the outer vessel a portion of the  
coppery  solution1 so that it will stand
 about an inch above the medal2 then    
pour in the glass the dilute acid to the
 same height as the former2 now         
introduce the zinc into the acid1 and   
the object to be copied into the        
solution of copper1 which will          
immediately be deposited on the medal1  
and when of a sufficient thickness may  
be taken off4          ,,heat4          
,,heat1 ,,or ,,caloric4    ,the chief   
agent in causing the repulsion or       
separation of the particles  of bodies  
from each other is heat1 or more        
correctly caloric1 by  which is         
understood the unknown cause of the     
effect called heat4  ,philosophers are  
not agreed upon the nature of this      
wonderful agent4 ,it  pervades all      
nature1 is the cause of nearly all the  
changes that take  place both in organic
 and inorganic matter1 and has great    
influence in  the meteorological        

phenomena which we observe in the       
atmosphere that  surrounds our planet4  
,it appears to be intimately connected  
with light1  electricity1 and           
magnetism--subjects which the genius of 
,faraday and  others have investigated1 
and by their discoveries brought us     
nearer to  the knowledge of the real    
nature of these most wonderful forces4  
,caloric1 then1 exists in all bodies1   
and has a constant tendency to  equalize
 itself1 as far at least as its outward 
manifestation1 called  temperature1 is  
concerned2 for if a hot body be brought 
near colder  ones1 it will give up heat 
to them1 until by its loss and their    
gain  they all become of the same       
temperature2 and this proceeds more or  
less rapidly1 according as the original 
difference of temperature  was greater  
or less4 ,some other circumstances also 
influence this  equalization4 ,the      
converse will take place on introducing 
a cold body  among warmer ones1 when    
heat will be abstracted from all the    

bodies  within reach of its influence1  
until it has absorbed sufficient caloric
  to bring its own temperature to an    
equality with theirs4 ,this is the  true
 explanation of the apparent production 
of cold4 ,when1 for  instance1 an       
iceberg comes across a ship's course1 it
 appears to give  out cold1 whereas it  
has abstracted the heat from the air and
 sea in  its neighborhood1 and they in  
turn act upon the ship and everything in
  it1 until one common temperature is   
produced in all the neighboring  bodies4
    ,it does not follow that the bodies 
thus equalized in temperature  contain  
equal quantities of caloric2 far from   
it4 ,each body requires  a particular   
quantity of caloric to raise its        
temperature through a  certain number of
 degrees2 and such quantity is called   
its specific  caloric4 ,a pound of      
water1 for instance1 will take just     
twice as much  caloric as a pound of    
olive oil1 to raise its temperature     
through the  same number of degrees2 the

 specific caloric of water is therefore 
double that of oil4 ,mix any quantity of
 oil at #fj deg4 of temperature  with an
 equal weight of water at #ij deg41 and 
you will find the  temperature of the   
mixture to be nearly #hj deg41 instead  
of only #gd  deg4 or #ge deg41 showing  
that while the water has lost only #aj  
deg4  of caloric1 the mixture has risen 
#bj deg4 ,if the oil be at #ij deg41    
and the water at #fj deg41 the resulting
 temperature will be only #gj  deg41 or 
thereabouts1 instead of #ge deg41 the   
mean2 thus1 here the hot  oil has lost  
#bj deg41 while the mixture has risen   
only #aj deg42 the  water1 then1        
contains at the same temperature twice  
as much caloric  as the oil2 its        
specific caloric is double that of the  
oil4 ,this  mean temperature does result
 when equal weights of the same body at 
different temperatures are mixed        
together4    ,the sensations called heat
 and cold are by no means accurate      
measures  of the real temperature of any

 substances1 for many causes influence  
these sensations1 some belonging to the 
substances themselves1 others  to the   
state of our organs at the time4 ,every 
one has remarked that  metals in a warm 
room feel warmer1 and in a cold room    
colder than  wooden articles1 and these 
again than woolen or cotton articles of 
dress or furniture2 this arises from    
metals being what is termed better      
conductors of heat than wood1 and this  
better than wool1 c41 that  is1 they    
give out or absorb caloric more rapidly 
than these last4 ,some  philosophers1   
wishing to ascertain how much heat the  
human body could  endure1 had a room    
heated with stoves1 every crevice being 
carefully  stopped1 until the           
temperature rose so high that a         
beefsteak placed  on the table was      
sufficiently cooked to be eaten4 ,they  
were dressed  in flannel1 and could with
 impunity touch the carpets1 curtains1  
c41 in the room2 but the iron handles1  
fire-irons1 and all metallic            

substances1 burnt their fingers2 and one
 who wore silver spectacles was  obliged
 to remove them to save his nose4 ,the  
fallacy of our sensations  may be easily
 shown by taking two basins1 placing in 
one some water at  #ajj deg41 in another
 some water at as low a temperature as  
can easily  be procured--hold the right 
hand in one1 the left in the other1 for 
a  few minutes1 and then mix them1 and  
place both hands in the mixture2 it     
will feel quite cold to the hand that   
had been in the hotter water1  and hot  
to the other4    ,in order to arrive at 
a correct estimate of the temperature of
 bodies1  instruments are made use of   
called thermometers1 or measurers of    
heat1 which show increase or diminution 
of temperature by the rising  or falling
 of a column of some fluid in a tube of 
glass1 one end of  which is expanded    
into a bulb1 and the other hermetically 
sealed4  ,this effect is produced by the
 expansion or swelling of the fluid as  
caloric is added to1 and its contraction

 when caloric is abstracted  from it4   
,colored spirits of wine1 or            
quicksilver1 are the most usual         
thermometric fluids1 and the tube       
containing them is fixed to a wooden  or
 metallic frame1 on which certain       
divisions are marked1 called  degrees4  
,that in general use in ,america is     
called ,fahrenheit's from the name  of  
the person who first introduced that    
particular scale4 ,in this  thermometer1
 the point at which the mercury in the  
tube stands when  plunged into melting  
ice1 is marked #cb degrees1 and the     
distance  between that point and the    
point to which the mercury rises in     
boiling  water is divided into #ahj     
equal parts1 called degrees2 so that    
water is  said to boil at #bab degrees  
#ahj degrees  #cb degrees4 ,there are   
two  other scales of temperature used in
 different parts of the world1 but  it  
is not worth while to notice them here4 
,not only do different bodies at the    
same degree of temperature contain  very

 different quantities of caloric1 but   
this also is the case with  the same    
body in different forms4 ,ice1 water1   
and steam are three forms  of the same  
body1 but ice at #cb degrees contains   
much less caloric  than water at the    
same temperature1 and water at #bab     
degrees contains  much less caloric than
 steam 7or water in a state of vapor7 at
 that  temperature4    ,place in a jar  
any given quantity of snow1 or small    
pieces of ice1 at  #cb degrees1 and in  
another the same weight of water at #cb 
degrees1 pour  on each an equal weight  
of water at #agb degrees1 and you will  
find  that in the first case the ice    
will be melted1 but the temperature     
will remain at #cb degrees1 or          
thereabouts1 while the temperature  of  
the water in the other vessel will have 
risen to #ajj degrees or  thereabouts1  
being as near as possible the half of   
the excess of the  temperature of the   
hot water1 #adj degrees over that of the
 cold1 namely  #gj degrees added to #cb 

degrees1 the original temperature4 ,now1
 what  has become of the heat which was 
added to the ice1 and is apparently     
lost8--it is absorbed by the ice in its 
passage to the fluid state2  so that    
water may be said to be a compound of   
ice and caloric4    ,again1 take #aj    
ounces of water at about #ej degrees1   
and add #a oz4 of  water at #bab        
degrees1 and the temperature of the     
mixture will be about  #ff degrees2 then
 condense some steam at #bab degrees    
into another #aj oz4  of water until it 
has become #aa oz41 and you will find   
the temperature  will be nearly #bab    
degrees4 ,why does the ounce of steam at
 #bab degrees  raise the temperature of 
the water so much higher than the ounce 
of  water at the same temperature8      
,obviously because it contains hidden in
  its substance a vast quantity of      
caloric1 not to be detected by the      
thermometer2 in fact1 that steam is a   
compound of water and caloric1  as water
 is a compound of ice and caloric2 and  

this caloric which  exists1 more or     
less1 in all bodies without producing   
any obvious  effect1 is called latent   
caloric1 from the ,latin verb lateo1 to 
lie hid4 ,the quantity of caloric thus  
absorbed1 as it were1 by various        
bodies1 differs for each body1 and for  
the same body in different  forms1 as   
mentioned above4      ,,expansion4      
,as a general rule1 all bodies1 whether 
solid1 liquid1 or gaseous1 are  expanded
 by caloric4 ,this may be shown by      
experiments in each form of  matter4    
,have a small iron rod made1 which when 
cold just passes through a hole  in a   
plate of metal2 heat it1 and it will no 
longer pass2 after a time  the rod will 
return to its former temperature1 and   
then will go through  the hole as       
before4 ,the rod increases in length as 
well as width2 if  you have a gauge     
divided into #a_/ajj of an inch1 and    
place the rod in it  when cold1 noting  
its position1 on heating it will extend 
to a greater  length in the gauge1      

returning to its former place when cool4
    ,the effect of caloric in causing   
fluids to expand is actually employed   
as a measure of quantity in the         
thermometer1 the rise of the fluid  in  
the tube when heated depending on the   
increased bulk of the fluid  occasioned 
by the addition of caloric4 ,the same   
fact is to be noticed  every day when   
the cook fills the kettle1 and places it
 on the fire4 ,as  the water becomes    
warmer it expands1 that is1 takes up    
more room than  it did before1 and the  
water escapes by slow degrees1          
increasing as the  heat increases1 up to
 the point of boiling1 when a sudden    
commotion  takes place from the         
condensation of a portion of the water  
into steam4    ,but it is in the form of
 vapor or gas 7which1 by the bye1 is not
 the  same thing71 that the expansive   
force of caloric is most obvious4 ,the  
gigantic powers of the steam-engine     
depend entirely on the tendency of      
vapor to expand on the addition of      

caloric2 and this force of expansion    
appears to have no limit2 boilers made  
of iron plates an inch or even  more in 
thickness1 and the buildings or ships   
containing them1 having  been torn to   
pieces and scattered in all directions  
by the expansive  power of steam4 ,take 
a bladder and fill it about half-full of
 air1 and  tie the neck securely2 upon  
holding it to the fire it will swell out
  and become quite tense from the       
expansion of the contained air4    ,the 
principal source of caloric is the sun1 
whose beams1 diffused  through all      
nature by the refractive property of the
 atmosphere1  are the source of vitality
 both to vegetables and animals1 and    
when  concentrated by a large convex    
lens1 produce the most intense heat1    
sufficient to light a piece of diamond1 
and melt platinum4 ,caloric  is also    
produced or evolved by combustion1 by   
friction1 percussion1  chemical         
combination1 electricity1 and galvanism4
    ,the evolution of heat by friction  

may be witnessed daily in a  thousand   
instances4 ,lucifer matches are lighted 
by rubbing the highly  inflammable      
substances with which they are tipped   
against a piece of  sand-paper4 ,nearly 
all savage people procure fire by       
rubbing a piece  of hard wood violently 
against a softer piece4 ,the axle-trees 
of  steam-engines1 and even of          
carriages1 have been known to be so     
heated  by friction as to endanger      
burning the carriage2 and it is very    
usual  to be obliged to pour a quantity 
of cold water on the iron axle of the   
carriages of an express train after an  
hour of constant and rapid work4  ,if   
you merely rub the blade of a knife     
rapidly on a piece of wood it  will     
become hot enough to burn your hand4    
,percussion is merely a more energetic  
kind of friction1 and is often  resorted
 to by the blacksmith to light his      
furnace4 ,he places a nail or  other    
piece of soft iron on his anvil1 and    
beats it rapidly with the  hammer1 when 

it becomes actually red hot4 ,the       
production of sparks by  striking flint 
against steel1 or two pieces of flint   
one against the  other1 are familiar    
instances of heat produced by           
percussion4    ,one of the most powerful
 means of producing heat is the process 
of  combustion4    ,combustion1 as the  
word imports1 is the burning together of
 two or  more substances1 a chemical    
union of oxygen generally with carbon   
and hydrogen in some shape or other4 ,in
 our ordinary fires we burn  coal1 a    
hydro-carbon as it is called2 and the   
gas which is now so  universally used   
for the purpose of illumination1 is a   
compound of the  same bodies--so wax1   
tallow1 oil of various kinds1 both of   
animal and  vegetable origin1 are all   
hydro-carbons4    ,on the application of
 a sufficient heat1 and a free access of
  atmospheric air1 or of some other gas 
containing oxygen in a certain  state of
 combination1 these bodies take fire1   
and continue to burn  either with flame1

 or a red or even white heat without    
flame1  until they are consumed2 that   
is1 until they have entered into new    
combinations with the oxygen1 and are   
converted into carbonic acid and  water1
 the carbon forming the first product1  
the hydrogen the other4    ,the         
following experiment shows the          
productions of heat by chemical  action 
alone4 ,bruise some fresh prepared      
crystals of nitrate of copper1  spread  
them over a piece of tin foil1 sprinkle 
them with a little  water2 then fold up 
the foil tightly as rapidly as possible1
 and in a  minute or two it will become 
red-hot1 the tin apparently burning     
away4  ,the heat is produced by the     
energetic action of the tin on the      
nitrate  of copper1 taking away its     
oxygen in order to unite with the       
nitrate  acid1 for which1 as well as for
 the oxygen1 the tin has a much greater 
affinity than the copper has4           
,combustion without flame may be shown  
in a very elegant and agreeable  manner1

 by making a coil of platinum wire by   
twisting it round the stem  of a        
tobacco-pipe1 or any cylindrical body1  
for a dozen times or so1  leaving about 
an inch straight1 which should be       
inserted into the wick  of a            
spirit-lamp2 light the lamp1 and after  
it has burnt for a minute  or two       
extinguish the flame quickly2 the wire  
will soon become red-hot1  and1 if kept 
from draughts of air1 will continue to  
burn until all the  spirit is consumed4 
,spongy platinum1 as it is called1      
answers rather  better than wire1 and   
has been employed in the formation of   
fumigators  for the drawing-room1 in    
which1 instead of pure spirits1 some    
perfume1  such as lavender water1 is    
used2 by its combustion an agreeable    
odor is  diffused through the apartment4
 ,these little lamps were much in vogue 
a  few years ago1 but are now nearly out
 of fashion4    ,experiments on         
combustion might be multiplied almost to
 any amount1 but  the above will be     

sufficient for the present4 ,when we    
come to treat of  the properties of the 
gases and some other substances1 we     
shall have  occasion to recur to this   
subject4    ,the production of caloric  
by chemical combination may be exhibited
 by  mixing carefully one part of oil of
 vitriol with two of water1 when        
sufficient heat will be produced to boil
 some water in a thin and  narrow tube1 
which may be used as a rod to stir the  
mixture4    ,the production of heat by  
electric and galvanic agency belongs to 
another subject4          ,,hydraulics4 
,the science of ,hydraulics comprehends 
the laws which regulate  non-elastic    
fluids in motion1 and especially water1 
etc4    ,water can only be set in motion
 by two causes--the pressure of the     
atmosphere1 or its own gravity4 ,the    
principal law concerning fluids  is1    
that they always preserve their own     
level4 ,hence water can be  distributed 
over a town from any reservoir that is  
higher than the  houses to be supplied2 

and the same principle will enable us to
  form fountains in a garden1 or other  
place4 ,should any of our young  readers
 wish to form a fountain1 they may1 by  
bringing a pipe from a  water-tank1     
which should be at the upper part of the
 house1 convey  the water down to the   
garden4 ,then1 by leading it through the
 earth1  underneath the path or         
grass-plot1 and turning it to a         
perpendicular  position1 the water will 
spring out1 and rise nearly as high as  
the  level of that in the tank4 ,the    
pipe should have a faucet1 so that the  
water may be let on or shut off at      
pleasure4      ,,the ,,syphon4    ,the  
syphon is a bent tube1 having one leg   
shorter than the other4 ,it  acts by the
 pressure of the atmosphere4 ,in order  
to make a syphon  act1 it is necessary  
first to fill both legs quite full of   
the fluid1  and then the shorter leg    
must be placed in the vessel to be      
emptied4  ,immediately upon withdrawing 
the finger from the longer leg1 the     

liquor  will flow4      ,,the ,,pump4   
,the action of the common pump is as    
follows3 ,when the handle is  raised1   
the piston-rod descends1 and brings the 
piston-valve--called  the sucker1 or    
bucket--to another valve1 which is      
fixed1 and opens  inward towards the    
piston4 ,when the handle is drawn down1 
the piston  is raised1 and1 as it is    
air-tight1 a vacuum is produced between 
the  two valves2 the air in the barrel  
of the pump1 betwixt the lower valve    
and the water1 then forces open the     
lower valve1 and rushes through to  fill
 up this vacuum2 and the air in the pump
 being less dense than the  external    
atmosphere1 the water is forced a short 
way up the barrel4  ,when the piston    
again descends to the lower valve1 the  
air between  them is again forced out by
 forcing open the upper valve2 and when 
the  piston is raised1 a vacuum is again
 produced1 and the air below the  lower 
valve rushes up1 and the water in       
consequence is again raised a  little   

further4 ,this operation continues until
 the water rises above  the lower valve2
 at every stroke afterwards1 the water  
passes through  the valve of the        
descending piston1 and is raised by it1 
on its ascent1  until it issues out of  
the spout4      ,,the ,,hydraulic       
,,dancer4    ,make a little figure of   
cork1 in the shape of a dancing         
mountebank1  sailor1 etc4 ,in this      
figure place a small hollow cone1 made  
of thin  leaf brass4 ,when this figure  
is placed upon any jet1 such as that of 
the fountain recommended to be          
constructed1 it will be suspended on the
  top of the water1 and perform a great 
variety of amusing motions4 ,if a       
hollow ball of very thin copper1 of an  
inch in diameter1 be placed on a        
similar jet1 it will remain suspended1  
turning round and spreading the  water  
all about it4          ,,magnetism4     
,the attractive power of the loadstone  
has been known from a very  remote      
period4 ,the natural magnet appears     

native in a gray iron ore  in octahedral
 crystals1 composed of #afh parts of    
iron1 and #fd parts  of oxygen4 ,its    
properties seem to have been studied in 
,europe during  the dark ages and a     
directive power is alluded to by        
,cardinal ,james de  ,vitri1 who        
flourished about the year #abjj1 who    
observed that it was  indispensable to  
those who travel much by sea4    ,in    
modern times1 the history as well as the
 nature of the magnet has  engaged      
remarkable attention2 and it has been   
determined beyond all  dispute that the 
magnet was used by the ,chinese under   
the name of  the tche-chy 7directing    
stone7 about #bfjd years before ,christ4
 ,it  passed from them to the ,arabs1   
and was first used in ,europe after the 
crusades2 and ,ludi ,vestomanus asserts 
that about the year #aejj he saw  a     
pilot in the ,east ,indies direct his   
course by a magnetic needle like  those 
now in use4      ,,to ,,make            
,,artificial ,,magnets4    ,this may be 

done by stroking a piece of hard steel  
with a natural or  artificial magnet4   
,take a common sewing needle and pass   
the north pole  of a magnet from the eye
 to the point1 pressing it gently in so 
doing4  ,after reaching the end of the  
needle the magnet must not be passed    
back  again towards the eye1 but must be
 lifted up and applied again to that    
end1 the friction being always in the   
same direction4 ,after repeating  this  
for a few times the needle will become  
magnetized1 and attract  iron filings1  
etc4      ,,how ,,to ,,magnetize ,a     
,,poker4    ,hold it in the left hand in
 a position slightly inclined from the  
perpendicular1 the lower end pointing to
 the north1 and then strike it  smartly 
several times with a large iron hammer1 
and it will be found  to possess the    
powers of a magnet1 although but        
slightly4      ,,to ,,show ,,magnetic   
,,repulsion ,,and ,,attraction4         
,suspend two short pieces of iron wire1 
so that they will hang in  contact in a 

vertical position4 ,if the north pole of
 a magnet be now  brought to a moderate 
distance between the wires1 they will   
recede from  each other4    ,the ends   
being made south poles by induction from
 the north pole1 will  repel each other1
 and so will the north poles4 ,this     
separation of the  wires will increase  
as the magnet approaches them1 but there
 will be  a particular distance at which
 the attractive force overcomes the     
repulsive force of the poles1 and causes
 the wires to converge4      ,,north    
,,and ,,south ,,poles ,,of ,,the        
,,magnet4    ,each magnet has its poles1
 north and south--the north or south    
poles  of one magnet repel the north and
 south pole of another4 ,if a magnet  be
 dipped in some iron filings1 they will 
be immediately attracted to  one end4   
,supposing this to be the north pole1   
each of the ends of the  filings1 not in
 contact with the magnet1 will become   
north poles1 while  the ends in contact 
will by induction become south poles4   

,both will  have a tendency to repel    
each other1 and the filings will stand  
on the  magnet4      ,,polarity ,,of    
,,the ,,magnet4    ,the best method of  
proving this is to take a magnet or a   
piece of steel  rendered magnetic1 and  
to place it on a piece of cork by laying
 it in  a groove cut to receive it4 ,if 
the cork be placed in the center of a   
basin of water1 and allowed to swim     
freely on its surface1 so that it  is   
not attracted by the sides of the basin1
 it will be found to turn  its north    
pole to the north1 and its south pole to
 the south1 the same  as the mariner's  
compass4 ,if you fix two magnets in two 
pieces of cork1  and place them also in 
a basin of water1 and they are in a     
parallel  position with the same poles  
together1 that is1 north to north1 and  
south to south1 they will mutually repel
 each other2 but if the  contrary poles 
point to one another1 as north to south1
 they will be  attracted4      ,,the    
,,magnetic ,,fish4    ,fish are to be   

purchased at the toy-stores1 by which   
the young  8magntique0 may perform this 
experiment2 they are made hollow1 and   
will float on the water4 ,in the mouth  
of each should be inserted a  piece of  
magnetic wire4 ,the angling rod is like 
any other rod1 and has  a silken thread 
for a line1 and an iron hook also       
strongly magnetized4  ,to catch the fish
 it is only necessary to put the hook in
 contact with  the noses of the fish1   
and they will be taken without any bait4
      ,,the ,,magnetic ,,swan4    ,the  
figure of a swan should be cut in cork1 
and within its beak a small  strongly   
magnetized piece of steel should be     
placed4 ,the swan should  then be       
covered with a coating of white wax1 and
 fashioned further into  the shape of a 
swan1 and glass beads may be placed in  
its head for  eyes4 ,this should be     
placed in a small tub or large basin of 
water1 and  to make it swim about1 you  
should place in a white stick about nine
  inches long a magnetic bar1 on which  

the north and south poles are  marked4  
,if you wish to bring the swan towards  
you1 present to him the  north pole of  
the wand1 if you wish it to retire1     
present the south  pole1 and thus you   
may direct the swan to any part you     
desire4      ,,to ,,suspend ,a ,,needle 
,,in ,,the ,,air ,,by ,,magnetism4      
,place a magnet on a stand to raise it a
 little above the table2 then  bring a  
small sewing needle containing a thread1
 within a little of the  magnet1 keeping
 hold of the thread to prevent the      
needle from attaching  itself to the    
magnet4 ,the needle in endeavoring to   
fly to the magnet1  and being prevented 
by the thread1 will remain curiously    
suspended in  the air1 reminding us of  
the fable of ,mahomed's coffin4         
,,to ,,make ,,artificial ,,magnets      
,,without ,,the ,,aid ,,either ,,of     
,,natural ,,loadstones  ,,or            
,,artificial ,,magnets4    ,take an iron
 poker and tongs1 or two bars of iron1  
the larger and the  older the better1   

and fixing the poker upright1 hold to it
 with the  left hand near the top by a  
silk thread1 a bar of soft steel about  
three inches long1 one-fourth of an inch
 broad and one-twentieth  thick2 mark   
one end1 and let this end be downwards4 
,then grasping the  tongs with the right
 hand a little below the middle1 and    
keeping them  nearly in a vertical line1
 let the bar be rubbed with the lower   
end of  the tongs1 from the marked end  
of the bar to its upper end about ten   
times of each side of it4 ,by this means
 the bar will receive as much  magnetism
 as will enable it to lift a small key  
at the marked end2 and  this end of the 
bar being suspended by its middle1 or   
made to rest on  a joint1 will turn to  
the north1 and is called its north pole1
 the  unmarked end being the south pole4
 ,this is the method recommended by     
,mr4 ,caxton1 in his process1 which he  
regarded superior to those in  former   
use1 and of which a more detailed       
account will be found in his            

interesting volume4      ,,horse-,,shoe 
,,magnets4    ,the form of a horse-shoe 
is generally given to magnetized bars1  
when  both poles are wanted to act      
together1 which frequently happens in   
various experiments1 such as for lifting
 weights by the force of  magnetic      
attraction1 and for magnetizing steel   
bars by the process of  double touch1   
for which they are exceedingly          
convenient4 ,the following  is the      
method of making a powerful magnetic    
battery of the horse-shoe  form4 ,twelve
 bars or plates of steel are to be      
taken1 and having  been previously bent 
to the required form1 that is1 the      
horse-shoe  shape1 they are then bound  
together by means of rivets at their    
ends2  before being finally fastened    
they are each separately magnetized and 
afterwards finally united4              
,horse-shoe magnets should have a short 
bar of soft iron adapted to  connect the
 two poles1 and should never be laid by 
without such a piece  of iron adhering  

to them4 ,bar magnets should be kept in 
pairs with  their poles turned in       
contrary directions1 and they should be 
kept from  rust4 ,both kinds of magnets 
have their power not only preserved but 
increased1 by keeping them surrounded   
with a mass of dry filings of  soft     
iron1 each particle of which will re-act
 by its induced magnetism  upon the     
point of the magnet to which it adheres1
 and maintain in that  point its        
primitive magnetic state4               
,,experiment ,,to ,,show ,,that ,,soft  
,,iron ,,possesses ,,magnetic           
,,properties ,,while  ,,it ,,remains    
,,in ,,the ,,vicinity ,,of ,a ,,magnet4 
,let a magnet and a key be held         
horizontally near one of its poles1 or  
near its lower edge4 ,then if another   
piece of iron1 such as a small  nail1 be
 applied to the other end of the key1   
the nail will hang  from the key1 and   
will continue to do so while the magnet 
is slowly  withdrawn2 but when it has   
been removed beyond a certain distance1 

the  nail will drop from the key1       
because the magnetism induced in the key
  becomes at that distance too weak to  
support the weight of the nail4  ,that  
this is the real cause of its falling   
off may be proved by taking  a still    
lighter fragment of iron1 such as a     
piece of very slender wire1  and        
applying it to the key4 ,the magnetism  
of the key will still be  sufficiently  
strong to support the wire1 though it   
cannot the nail1  and it will continue  
to support it even when the magnet is   
yet further  removed2 at length1        
however1 it drops off4                  
,,electro-,,magnetism4    ,the identity 
of magnetism with electricity alluded to
 in a former  paragraph1 has led to the 
formation of a new science under the    
above  name1 and to some of the         
interesting experiments connected with  
it1 we  shall briefly allude for the    
amusement of the young reader4          
,,power ,,of ,,the ,,electro-,,magnet4  
,the same influence which affects the   

magnetic needle already described1  will
 also communicate magnetism to soft     
iron4 ,if a bar of that metal  bent1 be 
surrounded with a common bonnet wire1 or
 a copper wire  prevented from touching 
the iron by a winding of cotton or      
thread1 and  then if a current of       
voltaic electricity be sent through the 
wire1 the  bar becomes a powerful       
magnet1 and will continue so as long as 
the  connection with the battery is     
preserved4 ,on breaking the contact1 the
  magnetism disappears4 ,this experiment
 may be easily made by the young  reader
 with a horse-shoe magnet1 surrounded by
 several coils of wire4      ,,the      
,,mariner',s ,,compass ,,and            
,,experiments ,,with ,a ,,pocket        
,,compass4    ,the mariner's compass is 
an artificial magnet fitted in a proper 
box1 and consists of three parts--the   
box1 the card or fly1 and the  needle4  
,the box is suspended in a square wooden
 case1 by means of two  concentric brass
 circles called gimbals1 so fixed by    

brazen axes to the  two boxes1 that the 
inner one1 or compass-box1 retains a    
horizontal  position in all motions of  
the ship4 ,the card is a circular piece 
of  paper which is fastened upon the    
needle1 and moves with it4 ,the outer   
edge of the card is divided into        
thirty-two points1 called points of  the
 compass4 ,the needle is a slender bar  
of hardened steel1 having a  hollow     
agate cup in the center1 which moves    
upon the point of a pivot  made of      
brass4      ,,variation ,,of ,,the      
,,needle4    ,the magnetic needle does  
not point exactly north and south1 but  
the  north pole of the needle takes a   
direction to the west of the true       
north4 ,it is constantly changing1 and  
varies at different parts of the  earth1
 and at different times of the day4     
,,dip ,,of ,,the ,,needle4    ,another  
remarkable and evident manifestation of 
the influence of the  magnetism of the  
earth upon the needle is the inclination
 or dip of the  latter which is a       

deviation from its horizontal place in a
 downward  direction in northern regions
 of its north1 and in southern regions  
of  its south pole4 ,in balancing the   
needle on the card1 on account of this  
dipping1 a small weight or movable piece
 of brass is placed on one end  of the  
needle1 by the shifting of which either 
nearer to or further  from the center1  
the needle will always be balanced4     
,,useful ,,amusement ,,with ,,the       
,,pocket ,,compass4    ,pocket compasses
 are to be bought for from #ej cents to 
#a1 and may  be used in many ways4 ,in  
traveling over mountains or a wide      
extended  plain1 they are indispensably 
necessary1 and no one should go on a    
tour  without such a companion2 it will 
be a very useful and amusing exercise   
for any young person to take the        
bearings of his own or some particular  
locality1 and make out what may be      
called a bearing card4 ,this he may     
easily do in the following manner3      
,supposing he wishes1 for instance1  to 

take the bearings of his own house1 he  
has nothing to do but set his  pocket   
compass upon a map of the district1--a  
county map will do very  well1 unless   
his house stands on the verge of a      
county1 then two county  maps will be   
necessary4 ,he must make the north of   
the map exactly  coincide with the      
north1 as indicated by his compass1 and 
having fixed  his map in this situation1
 he should take a ruler and piece of    
paper1  and dot down the exact bearings 
of each important town1 or place1 or    
village1 around him4 ,let him suppose   
himself1 for instance1 in the town  of  
,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 and laying down his   
map as indicated by the compass1  north 
to north and south to south1 he will    
find the following places  due north1   
,balston ,spa2 ,hudson1 south2          
,schoharie1 west4 ,the other  points of 
the compass may be filled up in the same
 manner4 ,should1  therefore1 our young 
friend be upon any other elevated       
situation near  his own dwelling1 or    

upon any other elevated spot from which 
the  bearings have been taken1 he will  
be able to inform his young friends     
that such and such a place lies in such 
a direction1 that this place  lies due  
north1 the other north-west1 a third    
south-east1 the fourth  south-west1     
etc41 etc4      ,,interesting           
,,particulars ,,concerning ,,the        
,,magnet4    ,fire-irons which have     
rested in an upright position in a room 
during  the summer months are often     
highly magnetic4    ,iron bars standing 
erect1 such as the gratings of a prison 
cell1 or the  iron railings before      
houses1 are often magnetic4    ,great   
iron-clad ships are powerfully magnetic1
 and therefore affect  the compass by   
which the vessel is steered2 ingenious  
arrangements are  therefore made to     
correct the effect of the local         
attraction1 so that  the man-of-war may 
be steered correctly4    ,magnetism may 
be made to pass through a deal board2 to
 exhibit which1  lay a needle on the    

smooth part above1 and run a magnet     
along the under  side1 and the needle   
will be found to follow the course of   
the magnet4  ,a magnet dipped into      
boiling water loses part of its         
magnetism1 which1  however1 returns upon
 its cooling4    ,a sudden blow given to
 a magnet often destroys its magnetic   
power4          ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a  
,,photographer4      ,associated with   
the use of iodine and bromine is an art 
which every  intelligent boy may        
practice1 if he will attend to the      
following  precise details kindly       
furnished by an experienced             
photographer4      ,,how ,,to ,,make    
,,the ,,negative ,,on ,,glass1 ,,using  
,,collodion ,,bromoiodized ,,for  ,,iron
 ,,development4    #a4 ,the edges of the
 glass should be ground all round1 also 
slightly  on the surface of the edges4  
,this prevents contraction of the film1 
enabling it to resist the action of a   
heavy stream of water4 ,mark  one side  
in the corner with a diamond1 and upon  

this side bestow the  greatest care4    
#b4 ,to clean the glass1 if new4--,make 
a mixture of spirits of wine  and       
solution of ammonia1 equal parts2 render
 it as thick as cream with  tripoli2    
with a piece of cotton-wool kept for    
this purpose rub a small  quantity over 
that side marked as described1 wash well
 under a tap of  water1 and wipe dry    
with a piece of old linen1 washed       
without soap1 and  kept scrupulously    
clean for this purpose4 ,plates should  
not1 however1  be cleaned in the        
operating room with the above mixture2  
the vapor of  ammonia might prove       
injurious to the chemicals4    #c4 ,now 
polish with an old white silk           
handkerchief4 ,if this latter           
precaution be not taken1 small particles
 of linen will be left upon the  plate3 
these are perhaps only seen when        
draining off the collodion2  they form  
nuclei and eddies1 checking the         
collodion in its course4  ,some of these
 minute fibers are washed off1 and      

contaminate the next  picture4 ,to all  
lovers of clean pictures our advice     
therefore is1  having well dried the    
plate with old linen1 lay it1 clean side
 upwards1  upon a few sheets of common  
glazed demy paper 7not blotting71 and   
rub it hard with the silk until sensibly
 warm2 this has the double  advantage of
 dispersing fibers and moisture1 for all
 glass plates are  slightly in a        
hygrometric condition4 ,double the silk 
rubber up to form  a pad1 and with this 
the glass must be firmly dusted down    
just before  pouring on the collodion1  
which will then run most evenly2 if the 
coated plate is now viewed by           
transmitted light1 not a speck or       
blemish  will be seen upon it4 ,when a  
plate cleaned as above described is     
breathed upon1 the moisture does not    
evaporate slowly1 but flies off4  ,do   
not be afraid of putting the glass into 
an electrical condition with  the silk  
rubber2 on this account objections have 
been raised to the use  of silk2        

practically1 however1 ,i find it a most 
valuable auxiliary in  this             
starting-point of the process1 the      
perfect manipulation of which  makes an 
important difference in the value of the
 finished picture4  ,what can be more   
inartistic and annoying to an educated  
eye than spots1  patches1 stars1 and    
sky-rockets1 the forms and shapes of    
which rival1  in numberless variety1 a  
display of fireworks8 ,let us not1      
therefore1  be contented with pictures1 
however good in other respects1         
presenting  these deformities--so many  
blots on the photographic escutcheon4   
,to clean a glass after having used it1 
when not varnished4--,wash off  the     
collodion film with water1 then clean   
the marked side with plain  tripoli and 
water1 and dry as above4    ,to coat the
 plate4--,first remove all the particles
 of dried collodion  from the mouth of  
the bottle4 ,now pour upon the center of
 the cleaned  glass as much collodion as
 it will hold4 ,do not perform this     

operation  hurriedly1 take time1 and    
systematically incline the plate in such
 a  manner that the collodion may run   
into each corner in succession2 when    
perfectly covered1 pour off gently the  
excess into the bottle at one of  the   
corners nearest to you2 with observation
 and practice dexterity is  easily      
acquired4 ,there are many ways of       
coating the plate2 each person  will    
adopt that which practice teaches him is
 best4 ,the pneumatic  plate-holder is a
 convenient little instrument to use for
 holding the  plate whilst pouring on   
the collodion2 it may be used for both  
small  and large plates4    ,keep the   
corner of the glass plate in contact    
with the neck of the  bottle whilst     
pouring off the collodion2 otherwise the
 film will be  wavy in places4    #d4   
,as soon as the collodion ceases to run1
 plunge the prepared glass  gently1     
without stopping1 into the nitrate of   
silver bath1 which is  prepared as      
follows3 ,into a #bj-oz4 stoppered      

bottle put nitrate of  silver1 #a-a_/d  
ozs42 distilled water1 #d ozs42         
dissolve4 ,to this solution  add iodide 
of potassium1 #d grs41 dissolved in one 
drachm of distilled  water4 ,mix these  
two solutions2 the precipitate 7iodide  
of silver7  thus formed is by shaking   
entirely dissolved4 ,add #af ozs4 of    
distilled  water1 when the excess of    
iodide of silver is again thrown down1  
but  in such a finely divided state as  
to render the saturation of the bath    
with iodide of silver perfect4 ,now drop
 in sufficient of the oxide of  silver  
to turn the turbid yellow solution a    
dirty brown color2 so long  as this     
effect is produced the quantity of oxide
 of silver1 however  much in excess1 is 
of no consequence2 shake the bottle well
 for ten  minutes or so at intervals2   
then add alcohol1 #cj minims1 and       
filter2 to  the filtered solution add   
dilute nitric acid of the strength      
stated1 #e  minims4 ,the bath is now    
ready for use1 and should be quite      

neutral4    #e4 ,allow the prepared     
glass to remain in this bath from five  
to ten  minutes1 according to the       
temperature4 ,move it up and down three 
or  four times whilst in the bath1 in   
order to get rid of the greasy          
appearance on the surface2 drain it1 but
 not too closely4 ,when in the  frame1  
place upon the back a piece of common   
blotting-paper1 to absorb  moisture1 and
 the two lower silver wires should also 
be covered with  slips of               
blotting-paper2 after which the sooner  
it is placed in the  camera the better4 
#f4 ,the time of exposure can only be   
ascertained by practice--no rules  can  
be laid down2 and ,i am unacquainted    
with any royal road1 but that  of       
experience1 leading to constant success 
in this most important point4    #g4    
,the plate having been taken from the   
camera and placed upon a  leveled stand1
 or held in the hand1 develop           
immediately the latent  image with the  
following solution3    ,iron developing 

solution4--,protosulphate of iron1 #a_/d
 oz42 glacial  acetic acid1 #a_/d oz42  
spirits of wine1 #a_/b oz42 distilled   
water1 #h  ozs42 mix4 ,pour on of this  
solution only enough to cover the plate 
easily1 commencing at that edge of the  
negative which stood uppermost  in the  
camera2 move the solution to and fro    
until it has become  intimately mixed   
with the silver on the plate2 then pour 
off into the  developing glass1 and at  
once return it on to the plate4 ,when as
 much  intensity has been obtained as   
possible with the iron developer1 it    
should be thoroughly removed by washing 
with water4 ,any intensity may  be      
obtained afterwards by using either of  
the following solutions3    #h4         
,intensifying solution4--,pyrogallic    
acid1 #f grs42 glacial acetic  acid1    
#a_/d oz42 distilled water1 #f ozs42    
mix4 ,a few drops of a #cj-;gr4         
solution of nitrate of silver1 the      
quantity to be regulated according  to  
the intensity required1 to be added1 at 

the moment of using1 to as  much of the 
pyrogallic solution as may be necessary4
    ,intensifying solution 7another     
form74--#a4 ,pyrogallic acid1 #h grs42  
citric acid1 #bj grs42 distilled water1 
#b ozs4 #b4 ,nitrate of silver1 #h      
grs42 distilled water1 #b ozs4 ,mix     
small quantities of the solutions #a    
and #b1 in equal portions1 the moment   
before using4    ,the pyrogallic        
solution1 made with good acetic acid1   
may be kept for  a month or more in a   
cool place4 ,nevertheless1 if the       
conditions of  light and situation are  
unfavorable1 ,i should prefer this      
solution just  made4 ,the iron solutions
 act best when freshly prepared4    ,it 
is supposed by some that a prolonged    
action of the iron developer  produces  
fogginess4 ,this may be the case when   
impure or improperly  prepared collodion
 is used1 but certainly not when the    
preparation is  pure and of the proper  
quality4    ,when the image is          
sufficiently intense1 wash freely with  

common  filtered water2 then pour on a  
saturated solution of hyposulphate of   
soda1 which should immediately remove   
the iodide of silver3 wash again  well  
with water2 allow as much as the plate  
will hold to soak in for  at least a    
quarter of an hour1 changing the water  
occasionally1 to  remove all traces of  
hyposulphate2 lastly1 wash the plate    
with a little  distilled water1 stand up
 to dry1 and1 if required1 varnish      
either with  spirit or amber varnish4   
,the following solution is also very    
commonly used for fixing the            
negative3--,cyanide of potassium1 #a_/d 
oz42 water1 #ab ozs4    ,attention to   
the following rules and cautions will   
assist the operator  in the production  
of perfect pictures3--    #a4 ,do not   
disturb the deposit which will          
occasionally be found at the  bottom of 
the bottle containing the collodion4    
#b4 ,remove all particles of dried film 
from the neck of the bottle  before     
pouring the collodion on the plate4     

#c4 ,never use damp cloths1 leathers1 or
 buffs1 for giving the final  polish to 
the plate4 ,negatives with an indistinct
 and muddy surface are  frequently      
produced from this cause4    #d4 ,let   
the film set properly before immersion  
in the nitrate of silver  bath3 its     
condition can be ascertained by gently  
touching the lower  part of the coated  
plate with the end of the finger4    #e4
 ,never omit to pass a broad camel-hair 
brush over the plate just  before       
pouring on the collodion4    #f4 ,bear  
in mind that1 as light is the producing 
agent1 so will it prove  a destructive  
one3 not less than four folds of yellow 
calico should be  used to obstruct white
 light2 and in that case the aperture   
covered  should be no larger than is    
necessary to admit sufficient light for 
working by4 ,examine occasionally the   
yellow calico3 when this material  is   
used to exclude white light1 it becomes 
bleached by constant  exposure4 ,do not 
trust alone to any colored glass2 no    

glass yet made is  anti-actinic under   
all aspects of light and conditions of  
exposure4    #g4 ,when the negative     
requires intensifying1 carefully wash   
off  all traces of the first developing 
solution before proceeding to           
intensify4 ,this operation may be       
performed either before or after the    
iodide is removed by fixing4    #h4     
,glass baths are preferable to          
porcelain1 ebonite1 or gutta-percha     
baths for solution of nitrate of silver4
    #i4 ,in using either spirit or amber
 varnish1 before pouring it off1 keep   
the plate horizontal a few seconds4     
,this gives time for soaking in1  and   
prevents the formation of a dull surface
 arising from too thin a  coating4      
#aj4 ,rub the lenses occasionally with a
 soft and clean wash-leather1 the       
rapidity of action is much influenced by
 the brightness of the lenses3  their   
surfaces are constantly affected by     
moisture in the atmosphere1  which      
condensing1 destroys the brilliancy of  

the image4    #aa4 ,the white           
blotting-paper used for some            
photographic purposes is not  suitable  
for filtering solutions2 that only      
should be employed which is  made for   
this purpose1 and is sold under the name
 of filtering-paper4    #ab4            
,hyposulphate of soda4--,a great deal of
 rubbish is sold under  the name of this
 salt4 ,as a test of its quality1       
#a-a_/b drachms should  entirely        
dissolve in #a drachm of water1 and this
 solution should  dissolve rather more  
than #d-a_/b grains of iodide of silver4
    #ac4 ,chemicals4--,the purity of    
photographic chemicals cannot be too    
strongly urged2 the cheapest are not    
always the most economical4  ,the       
commercial preparations are generally   
not to be depended upon1  as these1     
though perhaps unadulterated1 are1      
strictly speaking1 not  chemically pure4
 ,it is best to procure them from       
well-known chemists1  who understand the
 purpose for which they are intended1   

and make the  preparation of these      
substances peculiarly a branch of their 
business4    #ad4 ,never leave chemical 
solutions exposed in dishes3 when done  
with1  pour them back into              
glass-stoppered bottles1 and decant for 
use from  any deposit1 or filter if     
necessary4    #ae4 ,in all photographic 
processes it is absolutely necessary to 
be  chemically clean2 and this sometimes
 is not easy4 ,as a rule1 never be      
satisfied with cleanly appearances only1
 but take such measures as  shall insure
 the absence of all extraneous matter in
 preparing the  solutions1 cleaning the 
glasses1 dishes1 etc4    #af4 ,all      
stains on the hands1 linen1 etc41 may be
 removed by means of  cyanogen soap or  
cyanide of potassium1 which should be   
applied without  water at first1 then   
thoroughly washed off4 ,to assist the   
operation1  the hands may be now gently 
rubbed with a fine piece of             
pumice-stone1  when the stains quickly  
disappear4    ,for more perfect and     

complete directions1 the reader is      
referred to any  complete work on       
photography4          ,,mechanics4      
,there is no subject of such importance 
as ,mechanics1 as its principles  are   
founded upon the properties of matter   
and the laws of motion2 and  in knowing 
something of these1 the tyro will lay   
the foundation of all  substantial      
knowledge4    ,the properties of matter 
are the following3 ,solidity 7or        
,impenetrability71 ,divisibility1       
,mobility1 ,elasticity1 ,brittleness1   
,malleability1 ,ductility1 and          
,tenacity4    ,the laws of motion are as
 follows3--    #a4 ,every body continues
 in a state of rest or of uniform       
rectilineal  motion1 unless affected by 
some extraneous force4    #b4 ,the      
change of motion is always proportionate
 to the impelling force4    #c4 ,action 
and reaction are always equal and       
contrary4      ,,experiment ,,of ,,the  
,,law ,,of ,,motion4    ,in shooting at 
8taw10 if the marble be struck 8plump10 

as it is called1  it moves forward      
exactly in the same line of direction2  
but if struck  sideways1 it will move in
 an oblique direction1 and its course   
will be  in a line situated between the 
direction of its former motion and that 
of the force impressed4 ,this is called 
the resolution of forces4               
,,balancing4    ,the center of gravity  
in a body is that part about which all  
the other  parts equally balance each   
other4 ,in balancing a stick upon the   
finger1  or upon the chin1 it is        
necessary only to keep the chin or      
finger  exactly under the point which is
 called the center of gravity4          
,,the ,,prancing ,,horse4    ,cut out   
the figure of a horse1 and having fixed 
a curved iron wire to  the under part of
 its body1 place a small ball of lead   
upon it4 ,place  the hind legs of the   
horse on the table1 and it will rock to 
and fro4  ,if the ball be removed1 the  
horse would immediately tumble1 because 
unsupported1 the center of gravity being

 in the front of the prop2  but upon the
 ball being replaced1 the center of     
gravity immediately  changes as         
position1 and is brought under the prop1
 and the horse is  again in equilibrio4 
,,to ,,construct ,a ,,figure1 ,,which   
,,being ,,placed ,,upon ,a ,,curved     
,,surface1 ,,and  ,,inclined ,,in ,,any 
,,position1 ,,shall1 ,,when ,,left ,,to 
,,itself1 ,,return ,,to ,,its  ,,former 
,,position4    ,the feet of the figure  
rest on a curved pivot1 which is        
sustained  by two loaded balls below2   
for the weight of these balls being much
  greater than that of the figure1 their
 effect is to bring the center of       
gravity of the whole beneath the point  
on which it rests2 consequently  the    
equilibrium will resist any slight force
 to disturb it4      ,,to ,,make ,a     
,,carriage ,,run ,,in ,,an ,,inverted   
,,position ,,without ,,falling4    ,it  
is pretty well known to most boys1 that 
if a tumbler of water be  placed within 
a broad wooden hoop1 the whole may be   

whirled round  without falling1 owing to
 the centrifugal force4 ,on the same    
principle1  if a small carriage be      
placed on an iron band or rail1 it will 
ascend  the curve1 become inverted1 and 
descend again1 without falling4         
,,to ,,cause ,a ,,cylinder ,,to ,,roll  
,,by ,,its ,,own ,,weight ,,up-,,hill4  
,procure a coffee-canister1 and loading 
it with a piece of lead1 which  may be  
fixed in with solder1 the position of   
the center of gravity is  thus altered4 
,if a cylinder so constructed be placed 
on an inclined  plane1 and the loaded   
part above1 it will roll up-hill without
  assistance4      ,,the ,,balanced     
,,stick4    ,procure a piece of wood1   
about nine inches in length1 and about  
half  an inch in thickness1 and thrust  
into its upper end the blades of two    
pen-knives1 on either side one4 ,place  
the other end upon the tip of the       
fore-finger1 and it will keep its place 
without falling4      ,,the ,,chinese   
,,mandarin4    ,construct out of the    

pith of the elder a little mandarin2    
then provide  a base for it to sit in1  
like a kettle drum4 ,into this put some 
heavy  substance1 such as half a leaden 
bullet2 fasten the figure to this1 and  
in whatever position it may be placed1  
it will1 when left to itself1           
immediately return to its upright       
position4      ,,to ,,make ,a ,,shilling
 ,,turn ,,on ,,its ,,edge ,,on ,,the    
,,point ,,of ,a ,,needle4    ,take a    
bottle1 with a cork in its neck1 and    
place in it1 in a  perpendicular        
position1 a middle-sized needle4 ,fix a 
shilling into  another cork1 by cutting 
a nick in it2 and stick into the same   
cork  two small table-forks1 opposite   
each other1 with the handles inclining  
outwards and downwards4 ,if the rim of  
the shilling be now poised on  the point
 of the needle1 it may easily be made to
 spin round without  falling1 as the    
center of gravity is below the center of
 suspension4      ,,the ,,dancing ,,pea4
    ,if you stick through a pea1 or     

small ball of pith1 two pins at right   
angles and defend the points with pieces
 of sealing-wax1 it may be kept  in     
equilibrio at a short distance from the 
end of a straight tube1 by  means of a  
current of breath from the mouth1 which 
imparts a rotary  motion to the pea4    
,,obliquity ,,of ,,motion4    ,cut a    
piece of pasteboard into a circular     
shape1 and describe on it a  spiral     
line2 cut this out with a pen-knife1 and
 then suspend it on a  large skewer or  
pin4 ,if the whole be now placed on a   
warm stove1 or  over the flame of a     
candle or lamp1 it will revolve with    
considerable  velocity4 ,the card1 after
 being cut into the spiral1 may be made 
to  represent a snake or dragon1 and    
when in motion will produce a very      
pleasing effect4          ,,pneumatics4 
,the branch of the physical sciences    
which relates to the air and its        
various phenomena is called ,pneumatics4
 ,by it we learn many curious           
particulars4 ,by it we find that the air

 has weight and pressure1  color1       
density1 elasticity1 compressibility1   
and some other properties  with which we
 shall endeavor to make the young reader
 acquainted by  many pleasing           
experiments1 earnestly impressing upon  
him to lose no  opportunity of making   
physical science his study4    ,the     
common leather sucker by which boys     
raise stones will show the  pressure of 
the atmosphere4 ,it consists of a piece 
of soft but firm  leather having a piece
 of string drawn through its center4    
,the leather  is made quite wet and     
pliable1 and then its under part is     
placed on the  stone and stamped down by
 the foot4 ,this pressing excludes the  
air from  between the leather and the   
stone1 and by pulling the string a      
vacuum  is left underneath its center2  
consequently the leather is firmly      
attached to the stone1 which enables you
 to lift it4      ,,weight ,,of ,,the   
,,air ,,proved ,,by ,a ,,pair ,,of      
,,bellows4    ,shut the nozzle and      

valve-hole of a pair of bellows1 and    
after having  squeezed the air out of   
them1 if they are perfectly air-tight1  
we  shall find that a very great force1 
even some hundreds of pounds1 is        
necessary for separating the boards4    
,they are kept together by the  weight  
of the air which surrounds them in the  
same manner as if they  were surrounded 
by water4      ,,the ,,pressure ,,of    
,,the ,,air ,,shown ,,by ,a             
,,wine-,,glass4    ,place a card on a   
wine-glass filled with water1 then      
invert the glass2  the water will not   
escape1 the pressure of the atmosphere  
on the  outside of the card being       
sufficient to support the water4        
,,another4    ,invert a tall glass jar  
in a dish of water1 and place a lighted 
taper  under it2 as the taper consumes  
the air in the jar1 the water1 from  the
 pressure without1 rises up to supply   
the place of the oxygen  removed by the 
combustion4 ,in the operation of cupping
 the operator  holds the flame of a lamp

 under a bell-shaped glass4 ,the air    
within  this being rarefied and         
expanded1 a considerable portion is     
given  off4 ,in this state the glass is 
placed upon the flesh1 and as the air   
within it cools it contracts1 and the   
glass adheres to the flesh by the       
difference of the pressure of the       
internal and external air4              
,,elasticity ,,of ,,the ,,air4    ,this 
can be shown by a beautiful             
philosophical toy1 which may easily be  
constructed4 ,procure a glass jar and   
put water into it4 ,then mold three  or 
four little figures in wax1 and make    
them hollow within1 and having  each a  
minute opening at the heel1 by which    
water may pass in and  out4 ,place them 
in the jar1 and adjust them by the      
quantity of water  admitted to them1 so 
that in specific gravity they differ a  
little from  each other4 ,the mouth of  
the jar should now be covered with a    
piece of  skin or india-rubber1 and     
then1 if the hand be pressed upon the   

top  or mouth of the jar1 the figures   
will be seen to rise or descend as  the 
pressure is gentle or heavy2 rising and 
falling or standing still1  according to
 the pressure made4      ,,reason ,,for 
,,this4    ,the reason of this is1 that 
the pressure on the top of the jar      
condenses the air between the cover and 
the water surface2 this  condensation   
then presses on the water below1 and    
influences it through  its whole extent1
 compressing also the air in the        
figures1 forcing as  much more water    
into them as to render them heavier than
 water1 and  therefore heavy enough to  
sink4      ,,the ,,air-,,pump4    ,the  
time was1 and that not very long ago1   
when the air-pump was only  obtainable  
by the philosophical professor or by    
persons of enlarged  means4 ,but now1   
owing to our 8cheap way of doing        
things10 a small  air-pump may be       
obtained for about #e1 and we would     
strongly advise  our young friends to   
procure one1 as it will be a source of  

endless  amusement to them2 and1        
supposing that they take our advice1 we 
suggest  the following experiments4     
,the air-pump consists of a bell glass1 
called the receiver1 and a stand  upon  
which is a perforated plate4 ,the hole  
in this plate is connected  with two    
pistons1 the rods of which are moved by 
a wheel handle  backwards and forwards1 
and thus pumps the air out of the       
receiver4  ,when the air is thus taken  
out1 a stop-cock is turned1 and then the
  experiments may be performed4         
,under the receiver of an air-pump1 when
 the air has been thoroughly  exhausted1
 light and heavy bodies fall with the   
same swiftness4 ,animals  quickly die   
for want of air1 combustion ceases1 a   
bell sounds faint1  and water and other 
fluids change to vapor4      ,,to       
,,prove ,,that ,,air ,,has ,,weight4    
,take a florence flask1 fitted up with a
 screw and fine oiled silk  valve4      
,screw the flask on the plate of the    
air-pump1 exhaust the air1  take it off 

the plate1 and weigh it4 ,then let in   
the air1 and again  weigh the whole1 and
 it will be found to have increased by  
several  grains4      ,,to ,,prove ,,air
 ,,elastic4    ,place a bladder out of  
which all the air has apparently been   
squeezed  under the receiver1 upon it   
lay a weight1 exhaust the air1 and it   
will  be seen that the small quantity of
 air left within the bladder will  so   
expand itself as to lift the weight4    
,put a corked bottle into the  receiver1
 exhaust the air1 and the cork will fly 
out4      ,,sovereign ,,and ,,feather4  
,place a nicely-adjusted pair of forceps
 at the top of the receiver1            
communicating with the top of the       
outside through a hole1 so that they    
may be opened by the fingers4 ,then     
place on each of the little plates  a   
sovereign and a feather4 ,exhaust the   
air from the receiver3 and  having done 
so1 detach the objects1 so that they may
 fall4 ,in the open  air the sovereign  
will fall long before the feather1 but  

in vacuo1 as  in the receiver now       
exhausted of its air1 they will fall    
both together1  and reach the bottom of 
the glass at the same instant4          
,,air ,,in ,,the ,,egg4    ,take a fresh
 egg1 and cut off a little of the shell 
and film from  its smaller end2 then put
 the egg under a receiver1 and pump out 
the  air2 upon which all the contents of
 the egg will be forced out by the      
expansion of the small bubble of air    
contained in the great end between  the 
shell and the film4      ,,the          
,,descending ,,smoke4    ,set a lighted 
candle on the plate1 and cover it with a
 tall receiver4  ,the candle will       
continue to burn while the air remains1 
but when  exhausted1 will go out1 and   
the smoke from the wick1 instead of     
rising1  will descend in dense clouds   
towards the bottom of the glass1 because
  the air which would have supported it 
has been withdrawn4      ,,the          
,,soundless ,,bell4    ,set a bell on   
the pump-plate1 having a contrivance so 

as to ring it at  pleasure1 and cover it
 with a receiver2 then make the clapper 
sound  against the bell1 and it will be 
heard to sound very well2 now exhaust   
the receiver of air1 and then when the  
clapper strikes against the  sides of   
the bell the sound can be scarcely      
heard4      ,,the ,,floating ,,fish4    
,if a glass vessel containing water1 in 
which a couple of fish are put1  be     
placed under the receiver1 upon         
exhausting the air the fish will be     
unable to keep at the bottom of the     
glass owing to the expansion of  the air
 within their bodies1 contained in the  
air bladder4 ,they will  consequently   
rise and float1 belly upwards1 upon the 
surface of the  water4      ,,the       
,,diving ,,bell4    ,the diving bell is 
a pneumatic engine1 by means of which   
persons can  descend to great depths in 
the sea1 and recover from it valuable   
portions of wrecks and other things4    
,its principle may be well  illustrated 
by the following experiment4 ,take a    

glass tumbler1 and  plunge it into the  
water with the mouth downwards1 and it  
will be  found that the water will not  
rise much more than half way in the     
tumbler4 ,this may be made very evident 
if a piece of cork be suffered  to float
 inside the glass on the surface of the 
water4 ,the air  within the tumbler does
 not entirely exclude the water1 because
 air  is elastic1 and consequently      
compressible1 and hence the air in the  
tumbler is what is called condensed4    
,the diving bell is formed upon the     
above principle2 but instead of being   
glass it is a wooden or metal  vessel1  
of very large dimensions1 so as to hold 
three or four persons1  who are supplied
 with air from above by means of        
powerful pumps1 whilst  the excess of   
air escapes at the bottom of the bell4  
,,experiments4    #a4 ,place a cylinder 
of strong glass1 open at both ends1 on  
the plate  of the air-pump1 and put your
 hand on the other end1 and you will of 
course be able to remove it at pleasure4

 ,now exhaust the air from the  interior
 of the cylinder1 and at each stroke of 
the pump you will feel  your hand       
pressed tighter and tighter on the      
cylinder1 until you will  not be able to
 remove it3 as soon as the air is again 
admitted to the  interior of the        
cylinder1 the pressure within will be   
restored1 and the  hand again be at     
liberty4    #b4 ,tie a piece of         
moistened bladder very firmly over one  
end of a  similar glass cylinder1 and   
place the open end on the plate of the  
pump4 ,as soon as you begin to exhaust  
the air from the interior1 the  bladder1
 which was previously quite horizontal1 
will begin to bulge  inwards1 the       
concavity increasing as the exhaustion  
proceeds1 until the  bladder1 no longer 
able to bear the weight of the          
superincumbent air1  breaks with a loud 
report4    #c4 ,the elasticity of air1  
or indeed of any gaseous body1 may be   
shown  by introducing under the air-pump
 receiver a bladder containing a very   

small quantity of air1 its mouth being  
closely tied4 ,as you exhaust  the air  
from the receiver1 that portion         
contained in the bladder being  no      
longer pressed upon by the atmosphere1  
will gradually expand1  distending the  
bladder until it appears nearly full3 on
 readmitting the  air into the receiver1
 the bladder will at once shrink to its 
former  dimensions4    ,a shriveled     
apple placed under the same conditions  
will appear plump  when the air is      
removed from the receiver1 and resume   
its former  appearance on the           
readmission of the air4    #d4 ,there is
 a very pretty apparatus made for the   
purpose of showing  the pressure of the 
atmosphere1 consisting of a hollow globe
 of brass1  about three inches in       
diameter1 divided into two equal parts1 
which  fit very accurately together4 ,it
 is furnished with two handles2 one of  
them screwed into a hollow stem1        
communicating with the interior of the  
globe1 and fitting on to the air-pump2  

the other is attached to a short  stem  
on the opposite side of the globe4 ,in  
the natural state the globe  may easily 
be separated into its two hemispheres by
 one person pulling  the handles1 but   
after the air has been exhausted from   
the interior it  requires two very      
strong men to separate the parts1 and   
they will often  fail to do so4 ,by     
turning the stop-cock1 and readmitting  
the air into  the interior of the globe1
 it will come asunder as easily as at   
first4    ,we are indebted to the weight
 of the atmosphere for the power we     
possess of raising water by the common  
pump2 for the piston of the pump        
withdrawing the air from the interior of
 the pipe1 which terminates in  water1  
the pressure of the atmosphere forces   
the water up the pipe to  supply the    
place of the air withdrawn4 ,it was soon
 found1 however1 that  when the column  
of water in the pipe was more than      
thirty feet high1  the pump became      
useless1 for the water refused to rise  

higher4 ,why8  ,it was found that a     
column of water about thirty feet high  
exerted a  pressure equal to the weight 
of the atmosphere1 thus establishing an 
equilibrium between the water in the    
pipe and the atmospheric pressure4      
,this is the principle on which the     
barometer1 or measurer of weight1  as   
its name imports1 is constructed4 ,the  
metal ,mercury is about  thirteen and a 
half times heavier than water2          
consequently1 if a column  of water     
thirty feet high balances the pressure  
of the atmosphere1 a  column of mercury 
thirty inches high ought to do also--and
 this is  in fact the case4 ,if you take
 a glass tube nearly three feet long1   
and  closed at one end1 and fill it with
 mercury2 then1 placing your finger  on 
the open end1 invert the tube into a    
basin or saucer containing  some of the 
same metal2 upon removing your finger   
7which must be  done carefully1 while   
the mouth of the tube is completely     
covered by  the mercury71 it will be    

seen that the fluid will fall a few     
inches1  leaving the upper part of the  
tube empty4 ,such a tube with a         
graduated  scale attached is in truth a 
barometer1 and as the weight of the     
atmosphere increases or decreases1 so   
the mercury rises or falls in  the tube4
 ,this instrument is of the greatest    
value to the seaman1 for  a sudden fall 
of the barometer will often give notice 
of an impending  storm when all is fine 
and calm1 and thus enable the mariner to
 make  the preparations necessary to    
meet the danger4    ,it was discovered  
by an ,italian philosopher named        
,torricelli1 and from  him the vacuum   
formed in the upper end of the tube     
above the surface  of the mercury has   
been called the ,torricellian vacuum4   
,it is by far  the most perfect vacuum  
that can be obtained1 containing        
necessarily  nothing but a minute       
quantity of the vapor of mercury4       
,,experiment4    ,pass a little ether   
through the mercury in the tube1 and as 

soon as  it reaches the empty space it  
will boil violently1 depressing the     
mercury1 until the pressure of its own  
vapor is sufficient to prevent  its     
ebullition4 ,if you now cool the upper  
part of the tube1 so as to  condense the
 vapor1 the pressure being thus removed1
 the ether will  again begin to boil1   
and so alternately1 as often as you     
please4 ,in  order to show this fact    
with effect1 the bore of the tube should
 not be  less than half an inch in      
diameter4      ,,experiment4    ,to show
 that the heat abstracted by the boiling
 of one liquid will  freeze another1    
fill a tall narrow glass about half full
 of cold water  7the colder the better71
 and place in it a thin glass tube      
containing  some ether4 ,put them under 
the receiver of an air-pump4 ,as you    
exhaust  the air1 the ether will begin  
to boil1 until at length1 by continuing 
the exhaustion1 the water immediately   
surrounding the tube of ether  will     
freeze1 and a tolerably large piece of  

ice may thus be obtained4    ,ether     
evaporates so rapidly even under the    
pressure of the atmosphere1  that a     
small animal1 such as a mouse1 may be   
actually frozen to  death by constantly 
dropping ether upon it4 ,if poured on   
the hand1  it produces a degree of cold 
that soon becomes1 to say the least1    
unpleasant4      ,,experiment4    ,place
 a flat saucer containing about a pound 
of oil of vitriol under  the receiver of
 the air-pump1 and set in it a watch    
glass containing  a little water1       
supported on a stand with glass legs4   
,exhaust the  receiver1 when the water  
will evaporate1 but without boiling2 and
 the  vapor being absorbed as it forms  
by the oil of vitriol1 the vacuum  is   
preserved1 and the evaporation          
continues1 until the vapor has          
abstracted so much caloric from the     
remainder of the water that it is  all  
at once converted into ice4    ,in most 
elementary works on chemistry may be    
found a long table of  freezing         

mixtures1 as they are called1 some with 
and others without  ice or snow4 ,we    
have selected a few from each division4 
,,with ,,ice ,,or ,,snow4      ,snow or 
powdered ice          #b parts4         
,powdered common salt          #a   8   
,snow                          #e   8   
,powdered common salt          #b   8   
,powdered sal ammoniac         #a   8   
,snow                          #c   8   
,dilute sulphuric acid         #b   8   
,snow                          #b   8   
,crystallized muriate of lime  #c   8   
,,without ,,snow ,,or ,,ice4            
,sulphate of soda    #c parts4          
,dilute nitric acid  #b   8             
,nitrate of ammonia  #a   8    ,water   
#a   8      ,phosphate of soda   #b   8 
,dilute nitric acid  #a   8             
,sulphate of soda    #b   8    ,muriatic
 acid       #a   8    ,the effects of   
most of these mixtures may be           
considerably increased  by previously   
cooling the ingredients separately in   
other freezing  mixtures4    ,in        

connection with this branch of science1 
and especially with  chemistry1 the     
youthful philosopher should practice the
 art of  decanting air from one jar to  
another standing over water1 beginning  
by passing it from a small to a larger  
jar1 then with two of equal  size2 and  
when he can accomplish the transfer     
without permitting even  one bubble to  
escape1 he may essay the much more      
difficult task of  transferring the air 
from a large to a smaller jar4    ,he   
should also practice using the blowpipe 
until he can keep up a  steady and      
uninterrupted flame for ten minutes or a
 quarter of an hour1  without stopping  
for breath4 ,it is quite possible to    
replenish wind  in the mouth1 which     
alone ought to be used1 without         
interrupting the  breathing for an      
instant1 but it requires some practice4 
,,how ,,to ,,become ,,an ,,optician4    
,optics is the science of light and     
vision4 ,concerning the nature  of      
light1 two theories are at present very 

ably maintained by their  respective    
advocates4 ,one is termed the ,newtonian
 theory1 and the  other the ,huygenean4 
,the ,newtonian theory considers light  
to consist  of inconceivably small      
bodies emanating from the sun1 or any   
other  luminous body4 ,the ,huygenean   
conceives it to consist in the          
undulations  of a highly elastic and    
subtle fluid1 propagated round luminous 
centers  in spherical waves1 like those 
arising in a placid lake when a stone is
  dropped into the water4      ,,light  
,,as ,,an ,,effect4    ,light follows   
the same laws as gravity1 and its       
intensity or degree  decreases as the   
square of the distance from the luminous
 body  increases4 ,thus1 at the distance
 of two yards from a candle we shall    
have four times less light than we      
should have were we only one yard  from 
it1 and so on in the same proportion4   
,,refraction4    ,bodies which suffer   
the rays of light to pass through them1 
such as  air1 water1 or glass1 are      

called refracting media4 ,when rays of  
light  enter these1 they do not proceed 
in straight lines1 but are said  to be  
refracted1 or bent out of their course4 
,but if the ray falls  perpendicularly  
on the glass1 there is no refraction1   
and it proceeds  in a direct line2      
hence1 refraction only takes place when 
rays fall  obliquely or aslant on the   
media4      ,,the ,,invisible ,,coin    
,,made ,,visible4    ,if a coin be      
placed in a basin1 so that on standing  
at a certain  distance it be just hid   
from the eye of an observer by the rim  
or edge  of the basin1 and then water be
 poured in by a second person1 the first
  keeping his position2 as the water    
rises the coin will become visible1  and
 will appear to have moved from the side
 to the middle of the basin4      ,,the 
,,multiplying ,,glass4    ,the          
multiplying glass is a semicircular     
piece of glass cut into facets  or      
distinct surfaces2 and in looking       
through it we have an illustration  of  

the laws of refraction1 for if a small  
object1 such as a fly1 be  placed at the
 further end1 a person will see as many 
flies as there are  surfaces or facets  
on the glass4      ,,transparent        
,,bodies4    ,transparent bodies1 such  
as glass1 may be made of such form as to
  cause all the rays which pass through 
them from any given point to  meet in   
any other given point beyond them1 or   
which will disperse them  from the given
 point4 ,these are called lenses1 and   
have different  names according to their
 form4 #a4 ,is called the plano-convex  
lens4 #b4  ,plano-concave4 #c4 ,double  
convex4 #d4 ,double concave4 #e4 ,a     
meniscus1 so  called from its resembling
 the crescent moon4      ,,the ,,prism4 
,the prism is a triangular solid of     
glass1 and by it the young optician  may
 decompose a ray of light into its      
primitive and supplementary  colors1 for
 a ray of light is of a compound nature4
 ,by the prism the  ray is divided into 
its three primitive colors1 blue1 red1  

and yellow2  and their four             
supplementary ones1 violet1 indigo1     
green1 and orange4  ,the best way to    
perform this experiment is to cut a     
small slit in a  window-shutter1 on     
which the sun shines at some period of  
the day1 and  directly opposite the hole
 place a prism2 a beam of light in      
passing  through it will then be        
decomposed1 and if let fall upon a sheet
 of  white paper1 or against a white    
wall1 the seven colors of the rainbow   
will be observed4      ,,composition    
,,of ,,light4    ,the beam of light     
passing through the prism is decomposed1
 and the  spaces occupied by the colors 
are in the following proportions3 ,red1 
#f2  orange1 #d2 yellow1 #g2 green1 #h2 
blue1 #h2 indigo1 #f2 violet1 #aa4 ,now1
  if you paste a sheet of white paper on
 a circular piece of board about  six   
inches in diameter1 and divide it with a
 pencil into fifty parts1  and paint    
colors in them in the proportions given 
above1 painting them  dark in the center

 parts1 and gradually fainter at the    
edges1 till they  blend with the one    
adjoining4 ,if the board be then fixed  
to an axle1  and made to revolve        
quickly1 the colors will no longer      
appear separate  and distinct1 but      
becoming gradually less visible they    
will ultimately  appear white1 giving   
this appearance to the whole surface of 
the  paper4      ,a ,,natural ,,camera  
,,obscura4    ,the human eye is a camera
 obscura1 for on the back of it on the  
retina  every object in a landscape is  
beautifully depicted in miniature4 ,this
  may be proved by the      ,,bullock',s
 ,,eye ,,experiment4    ,procure a fresh
 bullock's eye from the butcher1 and    
carefully thin the  outer coat of it    
behind3 take care not to cut it1 for if 
this should  be done the vitreous humor 
will escape1 and the experiment cannot  
be  performed4 ,having so prepared the  
eye1 if the pupil of it be directed  to 
any bright objects1 they will appear    
distinctly delineated on the  back part 

precisely as objects appear in the      
instrument we are about to  describe4   
,the effect will be heightened if the   
eye is viewed in a dark  room with a    
small hole in the shutter1 but in every 
case the appearance  will be very       
striking4      ,,the ,,camera ,,obscura4
    ,this is a very pleasing and        
instructive optical apparatus1 and it   
may  be easily made by the young        
optician4 ,procure an oblong box1 about 
two  feet long1 twelve inches wide1 and 
eight high4 ,in one end of this a  tube 
must be fitted containing a lens1 and be
 made to slide backwards  and forwards  
so as to suit the focus4 ,within the box
 should be a plain  mirror reclining    
backwards from the tube at an angle of  
forty-five  degrees4 ,at the top of the 
box is a square of unpolished glass1    
upon  which from beneath the picture    
will be thrown1 and may be seen by      
raising the lid4 ,to use the camera     
place the tube with the lens on it      
opposite to the object1 and having      

adjusted the focus1 the image will  be  
thrown upon the ground-glass as above   
stated1 where it may be easily  copied  
by a pencil or in colors4    ,the camera
 obscura used in a public exhibition is 
a large wooden box  stained black in the
 inside1 and capable of containing from 
one to  eight persons4 ,it contains a   
sliding piece1 having a sloping mirror  
and a double convex lens which may with 
the mirror be slid up or down  so as to 
accommodate the lens to near and distant
 objects4 ,when the  rays proceeding    
from an object without fall upon the    
mirror they are  reflected upon the     
lens1 and brought to fall on the bottom 
of the box1  or upon a table placed     
horizontally to receive them1 which may 
be seen  by the spectator4      ,,the   
,,magic ,,lantern4    ,this is one of   
the most pleasing of all optical        
instruments1 and it  is used to produce 
enlarged pictures of objects1 which     
being painted  on a glass in various    
colors are thrown upon a screen or white

 sheet  placed against the wall of a    
large room4 ,it consists of a sort of   
tin  box1 within which is a lamp1 the   
light of which passes through a great   
plano-convex lens fixed in the front4   
,this strongly illuminates the  objects 
which are painted on the slides or slips
 of glass1 and placed  before the lens  
in an inverted position1 and the rays   
passing through  them and the lens fall 
on a sheet or other white surface1      
placed to  receive the image4 ,the      
glasses on which the figures are drawn  
are  inverted1 in order that the images 
of them may be erect4      ,,painting   
,,the ,,slides4    ,the slides          
containing the objects usually shown in 
a magic lantern1  are to be bought at   
opticians with the lantern1 and can be  
procured  cheaper and better in this way
 than by any attempt at manufacturing   
them4 ,should1 however1 the young       
optician wish to make a few slides of   
objects of particular interest to       
himself1 he may proceed as follows3     

,draw first on paper the figures you    
wish to paint1 lay it on the table1  and
 cover it over with a piece of glass of 
the above shape2 now draw  the outlines 
with a fine camel's hair pencil in black
 paint mixed with  varnish1 and when    
this is dry fill up the other parts with
 the proper  colors1 shading with bister
 also mixed with varnish4 ,the          
transparent  colors are alone to be used
 in this kind of painting4      ,,to    
,,exhibit ,,the ,,magic ,,lantern4      
,the room for the exhibition ought to be
 large1 and of an oblong shape4  ,at one
 end of it suspend a large sheet so as  
to cover the whole of the  wall4 ,the   
company being all seated1 darken the    
room1 and placing the  lantern with its 
tube in the direction of the sheet1     
introduce one  of the slides into the   
slit1 taking care to invert the figures2
 then  adjust the focus of the glasses  
in the tube by drawing it in or out as  
required1 and a perfect representation  
of the object will appear4              

,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,magic ,,lantern4 
,most extraordinary effects may be      
produced by means of the magic  lantern2
 one of the most effective of which is a
      ,,tempest ,,at ,,sea4    ,this is 
effected by having two slides painted1  
one with the tempest as  approaching on 
one side1 and continuing in intensity   
till it reaches  the other4 ,another    
slide has ships painted on it1 and while
 the lantern  is in use1 that containing
 the ships is dexterously drawn before  
the  other1 and represents ships in the 
storm4    ,the effects of sunrise1      
moonlight1 starlight1 etc41 may be      
imitated  also1 by means of double      
slides1 and figures may be introduced   
sometimes of fearful proportions4       
,heads may be made to nod1 faces to     
laugh2 eyes may be made to roll1  teeth 
to gnash2 crocodiles may be made to     
swallow tigers2 combats may  be         
represented2 but one of the most        
instructive uses of the slides is  to   
make them illustrative of astronomy1 and

 to show the rotation of  the seasons1  
the cause of eclipses1 the mountains in 
the moon1 spots  on the sun1 and the    
various motions of the planetary bodies1
 and their  satellites4      ,,the      
,,phantasmagoria4    ,between the       
phantasmagoria and the magic lantern    
there is this  difference3 in common    
magic lanterns the figures are painted  
on  transparent glass1 consequently the 
image on the screen is a circle of      
light having figures upon it2 but in the
 phantasmagoria all the glass  is made  
opaque1 except the figures1 which1 being
 painted in transparent  colors1 the    
light shines through them1 and no light 
can come upon the  screen except that   
which passes through the figure4        
,there is no sheet to receive the       
picture1 but the representation  is     
thrown on a thin screen of silk or      
muslin placed between the  spectators   
and the lantern4 ,the images are made to
 appear approaching  and receding by    
removing it further from the screen1 or 

bringing it  nearer to it4 ,this is a   
great advantage over the ordinary       
arrangements  of the magic lantern1 and 
by it the most astonishing effects are  
often  produced4      ,,dissolving      
,,views4    ,the dissolving views1 by   
which one landscape or scene appears to 
pass  into the other while the scene is 
changing1 are produced by using two     
magic lanterns placed side by side1 and 
that can be a little inclined  towards  
each other when necessary1 so as to mix 
together the rays of  light proceeding  
from the lenses of each1 which produces 
that confusion  of images1 in which one 
view melts as it were into the other1   
which  gradually becomes clear and      
distinct2 the principle being the       
gradual  extinction of one picture1 and 
the production of another4      ,,how   
,,to ,,raise ,a ,,ghost4    ,the magic  
lantern1 or phantasmagoria1 may be used 
in a number of  marvelous ways1 but in  
none more striking than in raising an   
apparent  specter4 ,let an open box1    

about three feet long1 a foot and a half
  broad1 and two feet high1 be prepared4
 ,at one end of this place a small      
swing dressing-glass1 and at the other  
let a magic lantern be fixed  with its  
lenses in a direction towards the glass4
 ,a glass should now  be made to slide  
up and down in the groove1 to which a   
cord and pulley  should be attached1 the
 end of the cord coming to the back part
 of the  box4 ,on this glass the most   
hideous specter that can be imagined may
  be painted1 but in a squat or         
contracted position1 and when all is    
done1 the lid of the box must be        
prepared by raising a kind of gable at  
the end of the box1 and in its lower    
part an oval hole should be cut         
sufficiently large to suffer the rays of
 light reflected from the glass  to pass
 through them4 ,on the top of the box   
place a chafing-dish1 upon  which put   
some burning charcoal4 ,now light the   
lamp in the lantern1  sprinkle some     
powdered camphor or white incense on the

 charcoal1 adjust  the slide on which   
the specter is painted1 and the image   
will be thrown  upon the smoke4 ,in     
performing this feat the room must be   
darkened1 and  the box should be placed 
on a high table1 that the hole through  
which  the light comes may not be       
noticed4      ,,the ,,thaumatrope4      
,this word is derived from two ,greek   
words1 one of which signifies  wonder1  
and the other to turn4 ,it is a very    
pretty philosophical  toy1 and is       
founded upon the principle in optics    
that an impression  made upon the retina
 of the eye lasts for a short interval  
after the  object which produced it has 
been withdrawn4 ,the impression which   
the  mind receives lasts for about the  
eighth part of a second1 as may  be     
easily shown by whirling round a lighted
 stick1 which if made to  complete the  
circle within that period1 will exhibit 
not a fiery point1  but a fiery circle  
in the air4      ,,the ,,bird ,,in ,,the
 ,,cage4    ,cut a piece of cardboard of

 the size of a penny piece1 and paint on
  one side a bird1 and on the other a   
cage2 fasten two pieces of thread1  one 
on each side at opposite points of the  
card1 so that the card can  be made to  
revolve by twirling the threads with the
 finger and thumb3  while the toy is in 
its revolution1 the bird will be seen   
within the  cage4 ,a bat may in the same
 manner be painted on one side of the   
card1  and a cricketer upon the other1  
which will exhibit the same phenomenon1 
arising from the same principle4        
,,construction ,,of ,,the               
,,phantasmascope4    ,the above named   
figure is a ,thaumatrope1 as much as the
 one we are  about to describe1 although
 the term ,phantasmascope is generally  
applied to the latter instrument2 which 
consists of a disc of darkened          
tin-plate1 with a slit or narrow opening
 in it1 about two inches in  length4 ,it
 is fixed upon a stand1 and the slit    
placed upwards1 so that  it may easily  
be looked through4 ,another disc of     

pasteboard1 about a  foot in diameter1  
is now prepared and fixed on a similar  
stand1 but  with this difference1 that  
it is made to revolve round an axis in  
the  center4 ,on this pasteboard disc1  
paint in colors a number of frogs in    
relative and progressive positions of   
leaping2 make between each figure  a    
slit of about a quarter of an inch deep3
 and when this second disc  is made to  
revolve at a foot distance behind the   
first1 and the eye is  placed near the  
slit1 the whole of the figures1 instead 
of appearing  to revolve with the disc1 
will all appear in the attitudes of     
leaping  up and down1 increasing in     
agility as the velocity of the motion is
  increased4 ,it is necessary1 when     
trying the effect of this instrument1   
to stand before a looking-glass1 and to 
present the painted face of the  machine
 toward the glass4    ,a very great     
number of figures may be prepared to    
produce similar  effects--horses with   
riders in various attitudes of leaping1 

toads  crawling1 snakes twisting and    
writhing1 faces laughing and crying1    
men dancing1 jugglers throwing up balls1
 etc42 all of which1 by the  peculiar   
arrangement above detailed1 will seem to
 be in motion4 ,a  little ingenuity     
displayed in the construction and       
painting of the  figures upon the       
pasteboard disc will afford a great fund
 of amusement4      ,,curious ,,optical 
,,illusions4    ,one of the most curious
 facts relating to the science of vision
 is  the absolute insensibility of a    
certain portion of the retina to the    
impression of light1 so that the image  
of any object falling on that  point    
would be invisible4 ,when we look with  
the right eye1 this point  will be about
 fifteen degrees to the right of the    
object observed1 or  to the right of the
 axis of the eye1 or the point of most  
distinct  vision4 ,when looking with the
 left eye1 the point will be as far to  
the  left4 ,the point in question is the
 basis of the optic nerve1 and its      

insensibility to light was first        
observed by the ,french philosopher1    
,mariotte4 ,this remarkable phenomenon  
may be experimentally proved in  the    
following manner3--    ,place on a sheet
 of writing-paper1 at the distance of   
about three  inches apart1 two colored  
wafers2 then1 on looking at the         
left-hand  wafer with the right eye1 at 
the distance of about a foot1 keeping   
the  eye straight above the wafer1 and  
both eyes parallel with the line  which 
forms the wafers1 the left eye being    
closed1 the right-hand wafer  will      
become invisible2 and a similar effect  
will take place if we close  the right  
eye1 and look with the left4            
,,another4    ,cut a circular piece of  
white paper1 about two inches in        
diameter1 and  affix it to a dark wall4 
,at the distance of two feet on each    
side1 but  a little lower1 make two     
marks2 then place yourself directly     
opposite  the paper1 and hold the end of
 your finger before your face1 so that  

when the right eye is open it shall     
conceal the mark on your left1 and  when
 the left eye is open the mark on your  
right4 ,if you then look with  both eyes
 at the end of your finger the paper    
disc will be invisible4      ,,another4 
,fix a similar disc of paper1 two inches
 in diameter1 at the height of  your eye
 on a dark wall2 a little lower than    
this1 at the distance  of two feet on   
the right hand1 fix another of about    
three inches in  diameter2 now place    
yourself opposite the first sheet of    
paper1 and1  shutting the left eye1 keep
 the right eye still fixed on the first 
object1 and when at the distance of     
about ten feet1 the second piece of     
paper will be invisible4      ,,the     
,,picture ,,in ,,the ,,air4    ,one of  
the numerous optical illusions which    
have from time to time been  evolved by 
scientific minds1 is that of making an  
image or picture  appear in the air4    
,this is produced by means of a mirror1 
and an object  in relief1 upon which a  

strong light is thrown--the mirror being
 set at  such an angle as to throw up   
the reflection of the image to a certain
  point in the view of the spectator4   
,this illusion is produced as  follows3 
,let a screen be constructed in which is
 an arched aperture1  the center of     
which may be five feet from the floor2  
behind the screen  is placed a large    
mirror of an elliptical form4 ,an object
 is now placed  behind the screen1 upon 
which the light of a strong lamp is     
thrown from  a point above the mirror1  
and is received by the mirror and       
reflected  to the center of the arched  
cavity in the screen1 where it will     
appear  to the spectator4 ,care should  
be taken to place the image in an       
inverted position1 and the light1 which 
must be very powerful1 should  be so    
placed that none of it may reach the    
opening4      ,,to ,,show ,,that ,,rays 
,,of ,,light ,,do ,,not ,,obstruct      
,,each ,,other4    ,make a small hole in
 a sheet of pasteboard1 and placing it  

upright  before three candles1 placed   
closely together1 it will be found that 
the images of all the candle flames will
 be formed separately on a  piece of    
paper1 laid on the table to receive     
them4 ,this proves that the  rays of    
light do not obstruct each other in     
their progress1 although  all cross in  
passing through the hole4      ,,optics 
,,of ,a ,,soap-,,bubble4    ,if a       
soap-bubble be blown up1 and set under a
 glass1 so that the motion  of air may  
not affect it1 as the water glides down 
the sides and the  top grows thinner1   
several colors will successively appear 
at the top1  and spread themselves from 
thence down the sides of the bubble1    
till  they vanish in the same order in  
which they appeared4 ,at length a black 
spot appears at the top1 and spreads    
till the bubble bursts4      ,,the      
,,kaleidoscope4    ,if any object be    
placed between two plane mirrors1       
inclined towards  each other at an angle
 of thirty degrees1 three several images

 will  be perceived in the circumference
 of a circle4 ,on this principle is     
formed the kaleidoscope1 invented by    
,sir ,david ,brewster1 and by means  of 
which the reflected images viewed from a
 particular point exhibit  symmetrical  
figures1 under an infinite arrangement  
of beautiful forms  and colors4 ,the    
kaleidoscope may be bought at any       
novelty store1 but  it is requisite that
 every young person should be able to   
construct  one for himself4 ,he must1   
therefore1 procure a tube of tin or     
paper1  of about ten inches in length1  
and two and a half or three inches in   
diameter4 ,one end of this should be    
stopped up with tin or paper1  securely 
fastened1 in which is to be made a hole1
 about the size of a  small pea1 for the
 eye to look through4 ,two pieces of    
well-silvered  looking-glass are now to 
be procured2 they must be not quite so  
long  as the tube1 and they should be   
placed in it lengthways1 at an angle  of
 #fj degrees1 meeting together in a     

point1 and separating to an angle  wide 
enough to insert the third piece2 the   
polished surfaces looking  inwards4 ,a  
circular piece of the glass is now to be
 laid on the top of  the edges of the   
reflectors2 which1 by their not being   
quite so long as  the tube1 will allow  
room for its falling in1 and it will be 
supported  by the edges of the tube1    
which may be slightly bent over1 to     
prevent  the glass from falling out4    
,this having been done1 now proceed to  
make  the 8cap0 of the instrument4 ,a   
rim of tin or pasteboard must be cut1   
so as to fit over the glass end of the  
tube2 and in this1 on the outer  side1 a
 piece of ground glass must be fastened1
 so that the whole may  fit on the tube 
like the lid of a pill-box4 ,then1      
before putting it  on1 obtain some small
 pieces of broken glass of various      
colors1 beads1  little strips of wire1  
or any other object1 and place them in  
the  cap2 and by passing it over the    
end1 so that the broken glass1 etc41    

has free motion1 the instrument is      
complete4 ,to use it1 apply the eye  to 
the small hole1 and1 on turning it1 the 
most beautiful forms will  appear1 in   
the most wonderful combinations4    ,the
 following curious calculation has been 
made of the number of  changes this     
instrument will admit of4 ,supposing it 
to contain #bj small  pieces of glass1  
and that you make #aj changes in a      
minute1 it will  take an inconceivable  
space of time1 i4e4 #dfb1hhj1hii1egf    
years1 and  #cfj days1 to go through the
 immense number of changes of which it  
is  capable4      ,,simple ,,solar      
,,microscope4    ,having made a circular
 hole in a window-shutter1 about three  
inches  in diameter1 place in it a glass
 lens of about twelve inches focal      
distance4 ,to the inside of the hole    
adapt a tube1 having at a small         
distance from the lens a slit1 capable  
of receiving one or two very  thin      
plates of glass1 to where the object to 
be viewed must be affixed  by means of a

 little gum-water exceedingly           
transparent4 ,into this tube  fit       
another1 furnished at its extremity with
 a lens half-an-inch focal  distance4   
,place a mirror before the hole of the  
window-shutter on the  outside1 in such 
a manner as to throw the light of the   
sun into the  tube1 and you will have a 
solar magic lantern4    ,the method of  
employing this arrangement of lenses for
 microscopic  purposes is as            
follows3--,having darkened the room1 and
 by means of the  mirror reflected the  
sun's rays on the glasses in a direction
 parallel  to the axis1 place some small
 object between the two movable plates  
of glass1 or affix it to one of them    
with very transparent gum-water1  and   
bring it exactly into the axis of the   
tube2 if the movable tube be  then      
pushed out or drawn in1 till the object 
be a little beyond the  focus1 it will  
be seen painted very distinctly on a    
card1 or piece of  white paper1 held at 
a proper distance1 and will appear to be

 greatly  magnified4 ,a small insect    
will appear as a large animal1 a hair as
 big  as a walking-stick1 and the almost
 invisible eels in paste or vinegar  as 
large as common eels4          ,,the    
,,microscope4      ,at any time of the  
year or hour of the day there are few   
pursuits more  interesting1 and at the  
same time instructive1 than the study of
 ,nature  by means of the microscope4   
,all of us must admire the more than    
awful grandeur of that universe  whereof
 we form so infinitesimal a part1       
wherein the stars are  scattered as the 
sand on the sea-shore1 and every star a 
sun1 the  center of a system of orbs too
 distant for the eye of man to perceive4
  ,looking at our nearest planet1 and   
observing on her face vast              
mountain-chains1 ravines into which the 
light of the sun can never  penetrate1  
and volcanoes whose craters are so wide 
that they would  take in the whole of   
,new ,york1 the whole of ,philadelphia1 
and all the  country between them1 we   

can judge by analogy of the unseen      
wonders  which must exist in the world  
beyond our ken4    ,but to him who can  
read ,nature rightly1 the microscope is 
a teacher as  grand as its sister       
instrument1 and the awful magnificence  
of ,nature  is as evident in a midge's  
wing as in the more patent glories of   
the  sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,in the      
following pages we hope to put the      
readers  of this book in the way to read
 their microscope rightly--possibly  to 
make it--and to show that much can be   
done with small means when  8there's a  
will10 and to indicate to them that     
objects of no small  interest can be    
found without stirring from the room in 
which we sit1  or even from the table on
 which our microscope is placed4        
,some of our readers may say1 when they 
read the heading of this paper1  that   
they should like a microscope very much1
 but that they have no  money to buy it1
 and that their parents cannot afford   
one4    ,this is just the feeling which 

we used to have when a boy1 for in      
those day microscopes were microscopes  
indeed1 and you had your choice  between
 a little instrument1 with a series of  
brass cups1 having  glasses in them1    
which magnified slightly but defined    
clearly1 or a  great composition of     
brass and iron1 looking like a          
rocket-tube1 with  an eye-piece at one  
end and a glass shot at the other4 ,it  
was very  costly1 very imposing1 and    
magnified very highly2 but it strained  
the  eyes painfully1 had no defining    
capacities1 and made all the objects    
look as if they were seen through a     
thick fog4 ,practically1 therefore1  the
 former was the only instrument that was
 available4    ,a still more useful     
instrument1 however1 was that which can 
always be  obtained for a dollar or so1 
and which is now made wonderfully cheap 
and wonderfully good2 we mean the double
 or treble pocket-lens4 ,so  we say1 if 
you cannot afford a really good         
microscope1 do not waste  your money    

upon inferior and pretentious           
instruments1 but get a sound            
pocket-lens4    ,it has a thousand      
advantages4 ,it is portable1 and is even
 more useful  in the fields than in the 
house4 ,it defines very clearly1 and    
needs  little trouble in manipulation4  
,we need not say how difficult is the   
task of getting a complicated instrument
 to define properly1 how  impossible    
with a bad one4 ,the object and the     
glass can be held in any  light1--a     
matter of no small consideration when   
examining anything  new1 and trying to  
make out its structure4 ,it is not      
easily put out  of order1 and if treated
 with the most ordinary care1 will last 
for a  lifetime4    ,you can push it    
under water1 and it will magnify as well
 as in the  air2 and if you are         
wandering on the river-side1 you can lie
 down  on the bank1 dip the upper part  
of your head in water1 together  with   
the glass1 and watch carefully the      
sub-aquatic objects without  removing   

them4 ,the water will not hurt the eye  
in the least1 though  a non-swimmer may 
perhaps find a little difficulty in his 
first  attempt4 ,it makes a good        
burning-glass1 should fire be needed1   
and no  other means of procuring a spark
 be at hand4 ,it can be used so as to   
show the principle of a camera obscura1 
and to illustrate the manner  in which  
photographic portraits are taken4 ,it   
can be made into an  admirable          
dissecting microscope1 and needs        
scarcely any practice in  the           
manipulation4 ,these are some of its    
advantages1 and there are many  others  
which need not be mentioned4    ,even if
 you should be able to procure a good   
microscope1 get a  pocket-lens as well1 
for you will want them both1 and we may 
say that  the most practiced            
microscopists1 and those who are        
possessors of the  most elaborate       
instruments1 are the very men who are   
the most certain  to have a pocket-lens 
about them1 and to use it most          

frequently4  ,practice well with the    
pocket-lens before you meddle with the  
compound  microscope4 ,you will waste no
 time1 but will rapidly gain by it2 for 
you will be learning the rudiments of a 
new science1 and laying a solid         
foundation on which to build4    ,one or
 two practical remarks on the proper    
handling of the pocket-lens  may be of  
use4 ,do not always employ the same eye 
in looking through the  lens1 but use   
the eyes alternately4 ,there is always a
 temptation to  employ the same eye1    
which receives a kind of training in    
vision2 but  it is a temptation always  
to be resisted4 ,with some persons the  
right  eye is most in favor1 and with   
others the left2 and when the favorite  
eye gets all the work1 it too frequently
 suffers4 ,whether you look with  the   
right or the left eye1 keep both eyes   
open4    ,at first the beginner will    
find a little difficulty in restricting 
his  vision to one eye while the other  
remains open1 just as a beginner  on the

 piano-forte feels himself puzzled when 
he tries to make his  right hand go one 
way and his left hand another2 but in   
either case a  little practice and      
plenty of perseverance are sure to      
overcome all  obstacles1 and in a       
wonderfully short time the difficulty   
will not only  be overcome1 but         
forgotten4    ,we speak here with some  
feeling1 because1 while engaged on a    
work on  the microscope1 we were        
necessarily obliged to work much at     
night1  and inadvertently employed the  
left eye more than the right2 the       
consequence of which imprudence was that
 we have been obliged ever  since that  
time to give the left eye perfect rest1 
as far as artificial  vision goes1 and1 
except when looking through a binocular 
instrument1  we have not ventured to use
 it either to a microscope or a         
telescope4  ,the vision accommodates    
itself to circumstances with wonderful  
ease1 and the observer learns the       
curious art of cutting off all          

communication between the unused eye and
 the brain2 so that1 although  the      
objects around may imprint themselves   
upon the retina1 the mind is  as totally
 unconscious of them as if they had no  
existence4    ,if possible1 always      
examine an object without removing it1  
as thereby  you see it as it is1 without
 altering any of the conditions with    
which  it is surrounded4 ,should this   
not be practicable1 take the object to  
be viewed in the left hand and the lens 
in the right4 ,place the wrists  of the 
two hands together1 and then you will   
find that one supports  the other1 and  
that the lens can be held in the proper 
focus without  the least difficulty4    
,after you have used the lens for some  
little  time1 you will learn to hit upon
 the right focus almost to a hair's     
breadth1--so as to lose no time1 a      
matter of some importance when a  living
 creature is to be examined1 especially 
if it be in motion4    ,we are now about
 to suggest a very simple piece of      

mechanism1 by which  the pocket-lens can
 be converted into a microscope that    
will serve for  dissection and many     
other purposes4    ,melt three or four  
pounds of lead in an iron ladle1 and    
make a mold1  consisting of a hollow    
hemisphere of paper or cardboard1       
through the  center of which an iron rod
 has been passed4 ,the hollow of the    
paper  should resemble an ordinary      
saucer4 ,pour the lead into the saucer1 
and  let it cool4 ,the paper mold will  
be scorched by the heat and rendered    
useless1 but an outer coating of lead   
will be cool and hard before the  paper 
is quite destroyed4 ,next take a piece  
of stout brass wire and a  wine-cork2   
twist the wire round the cork several   
times2 cut off one end  close to the    
cork2 sharpen the other1 and turn it up4
    ,bore a hole through the cork1 just 
large enough to allow the upright  rod  
to slip through it1 and there is the    
8stand0 of your microscope4  ,now take  
your pocket-lens1 and get an optician to

 bore a hole through  one end of it1    
just large enough to receive the        
upturned end of the  wire2 slip the lens
 on the wire1 and the microscope is     
complete4    ,the cork1 though grasping 
the upright stem with tolerable         
firmness1  can be slid up and down so as
 to insure the correct focus1 and can be
  pushed aside whenever the object has  
to be viewed with the naked eye1  and   
must not be removed from its place4     
,this instrument is a capital  one for  
dissecting purposes1 and will answer    
quite as well as those  expensive       
affairs that are to be purchased in the 
shops4    ,if the object be transparent1
 and requires to be seen by transmitted 
light1 the following plan will          
answer3--,take a thin piece of wood1 cut
  or punch a round hole out of the      
middle1 and support it on four legs4    
,wires or wooden pegs fixed in corks    
will answer the purpose well1 and  if   
the corks be glued to the corners of the
 board1 the legs can be  inserted or    

removed at pleasure4 ,the wood of which 
cigar-boxes are  made will answer the   
purpose very well4 ,its dimensions      
should be about  three inches in length 
by two in width4 ,now buy one of the    
doll's  looking-glasses that are sold   
for a penny1 and put it under the stand4
  ,lay a flat piece of glass over the   
hole1 place the object upon it1 and     
direct the light through it by means of 
the mirror below4 ,if such a  mirror    
cannot be obtained1 it is easy enough to
 make one1 by mounting a  piece of      
looking-glass in a cork frame1 and      
making it swing on pivots1  like the    
glasses of our dressing-rooms4    ,the  
young microscopist must remember that   
when he is examining  any object by     
transmitted light1 he must arrange it as
 flatly as  possible on the glass4 ,in  
many cases1 a still neater manipulation 
is required--as1 for example1 when the  
petals of flowers are under             
examination4 ,thin glass is to be       
purchased at any optician's1 and if  cut

 in squares1 instead of circles1 is very
 much cheaper1 and quite as  useful for 
all practical purposes4 ,lay the petal  
on the glass plate1  place a piece of   
the thin glass upon it1 and press it    
gently while  examining it4 ,if it still
 remains thick and dull1 put a drop of  
pure  water on the petal1 and replace   
the thin glass1 when the structure will 
almost invariably be detected4          
,everything depends on the proper       
management of the object and the        
arrangement of the light4 ,some opaque  
objects can be seen best by  direct     
light1 and others by transmitted light4 
,if a leaf be examined1  particularly if
 it be a thick and heavy one1 like that 
of the ivy1  the upper and lower        
membranes must be stripped apart--a task
 which is  easily performed by tearing a
 small slit1 and then ripping it smartly
  across4 ,a pair of forceps will be    
required for this and other delicate    
work1 and may be obtained at a cheap    
rate4 ,care must be taken to keep  the  

points exactly even1 and if at any time 
one of them appears to be  shorter than 
the other1 they should be rubbed on a   
hone until they are  brought perfectly  
level4    ,these should be made of      
steel2 but the young microscopist will  
find  that a second pair1 made of brass1
 and much rougher in finish1 are        
invaluable aids as he takes his walks   
into the country4 ,by their aid  he can 
pick up minute objects1 draw insects out
 of crevices without  damaging them1 and
 pluck the tiniest flowers without      
harming their  petals4 ,they can be     
carried in the waistcoat pocket1 and the
 cost is  sixpence4 ,any lad who knows  
how to handle solder can make a pair for
  himself in a few minutes4    ,a       
penknife with one blade kept            
scrupulously sharp is essential1 and we 
have found an old lancet of the greatest
 service4 ,lancets have gone  so much   
out of fashion1 that the second-hand    
instrument shops abound  with them4 ,we 
did not allow our own lancet to be shut 

up1 but removed  the blade from the     
tortoise-shell handle1 and fixed it upon
 a wooden  handle1 about four inches in 
length1 so that it looked very clumsy1  
but  was extremely useful4    ,two pairs
 of scissors are needful1--one very fine
 and the other  moderately strong4 ,both
 pairs1 however1 must have very short   
blades  and very long handles1 and the  
scissors such as ladies use are of very 
little use1 the short handles causing   
the fingers of the right hand to  shade 
the object4 ,as to the fine pair1 it is 
hardly possible to have  the handles too
 long or the blades too short2 for if   
the points can be  separated a quarter  
of an inch1 nothing more is needed4 ,if 
a pair of  bent scissors can also be    
obtained1 they are extremely pleasant to
 work  with1 and save much trouble4     
,pill-boxes of various sizes are of very
 great service to the  microscopist4 ,we
 always have them arranged in 8nests10  
i4 e41 six or  seven inside each other1 
so that space is greatly economized1 as 

long  as they are not in absolute use4  
,all delicate objects should be placed  
in separate boxes1 and the predaceous   
insects must be treated in the  same    
manner1 or they will certainly destroy  
one another1 or1 at all  events1 inflict
 such injuries as will make them useless
 for microscopic  purposes4    ,when the
 insects are to be killed on the spot1  
we employ another and a  very simple    
plan4    ,we take one of the            
old-fashioned wooden lucifer-match      
boxes1 bore a  hole in the lid1 and push
 through the hole a swan-quill1 or the  
barrel  of one of the swan-quill steel  
pens4 ,a glass tube is still better1 but
  is too fragile4 ,beeswax is tightly   
worked into the junction of the tube    
with the wood1 so as to make it as      
nearly air-tight as possible4 ,a cork   
stopper is then cut to fit the tube4    
,when this is finished1 we take the     
smallest-sized pill-box1 bore a number  
of holes in it with a red-hot  needle1  
place a little piece of solid ammonia   

within it1 and inclose it  in the       
lucifer-box4 ,its effects are almost    
instantaneous2 for scarcely  has the    
insect touched the bottom of the box    
before it is helpless1 and  in a very   
few moments it is quite dead1 so        
powerful is ammonia towards  insects4   
,the reader will of course understand   
that the pill-boxes  must never have    
been used for pills1 and that the       
match-box must be  carefully cleaned    
before employing it in the microscopic  
service4  ,moreover1 any boxes that have
 been used for insects become useless1  
inasmuch as the scales always fall from 
the wings1 and cling to the  sides of   
the box1 so as to mix with succeeding   
objects1 and very much  puzzle the      
observer4    ,aquatic and marine objects
 require bottles1 and1 as a general     
rule1  these bottles ought always to    
have wide mouths4 ,indeed1 if there be  
no  shoulder at all1 their purpose will 
be better served1 as a small object  is 
very apt to be caught under the         

shoulder1 and to give much trouble      
before it can be removed without injury4
 ,wide and short test-tubes  answer     
admirably for collecting2 and it will   
always be advisable to  have a few small
 test-tubes ready fitted with corks1 for
 the purpose of  isolating those        
specimens which might receive or cause  
injury by being  mixed with others4     
,to remove minute objects from one      
vessel into another is a very easy      
process4 ,take a glass tube1 mark off a 
portion about eight inches in  length1  
cut a little notch with a file1 and bend
 it smartly1 when  it will break neatly 
across1 without leaving points or having
 the  regularity of its ends injured by 
gaps4 ,turn each end round and round  in
 the flame of the spirit-lamp1 and you  
have an ordinary 8pipette40  ,the object
 of placing the ends of the tube in the 
flame is to render  the edges quite     
smooth and rounded4    ,now mark off the
 same length of tube1 and place the     
marked portion  in the flame1 taking    

care to warm it well first1 lest the    
sudden  heat should crack the glass4    
,keep it continually turning between the
  fingers1 and when it is quite soft1   
and of a fine red heat1 draw the  hands 
smartly apart1 and you will produce a   
couple of tubes tapering  to very fine  
points4 ,break off the tapering portions
 at any convenient  point1 round the    
edges as before1 and you will then have 
pipettes  suitable for small objects4   
,as there are many specimens1 especially
 the  smaller animalcul1 which have a   
habit of retiring into the remotest     
corner1 it is necessary to bend another 
pipette1 so as to follow them4  ,for our
 own part1 we prefer the pipette to be  
bent nearly to a right  angle4    ,the  
mode of using these simple instruments  
is as follows3--,place the  forefinger  
or thumb firmly on the large end1 and   
push the point under  water4 ,when the  
opening is close to the sought-for      
object1 lift the  finger suddenly1 and  
admit the air into the tube4 ,the water 

will  immediately rush in at the lower  
end1 and if the orifice has been        
properly directed1 will carry the object
 into the tube4 ,the finger is  again   
applied to the mouth of the tube1 and   
the object can be then  carried off4    
,as with the pocket-lens almost every   
object is to be viewed by means  of     
direct light1 the young observer will   
find himself much aided by  a suitable  
background4 ,any small object1 such as a
 minute insect1 a  seed1 or a hair1     
becomes very indistinct if held up      
against the light1  or even when viewed 
against a broken background of trees1   
houses1 or  herbage4 ,the simplest plan 
of securing a proper background is to   
take  a disc of ivory or even of white  
cardboard1 and to blacken one side  of  
it4 ,the black paint which is used for  
this purpose must be without  gloss1 and
 have what is called a 8dead0 surface4  
,ink answers very well  for the purpose1
 and so does ivory-black2 but ,indian   
ink is too glossy  to be serviceable4   

,to procure specimens from the water is 
a matter of some difficulty if  managed 
badly1 but easy enough when the         
collector knows his business4  ,it is of
 course needful to attach the collecting
 vessel to the end  of a rod1 and to    
plunge it into the spots which look most
 favorable4  ,now even so simple a      
matter as this requires some little     
care1 if the  young microscopist really 
wishes to obtain the best specimens4 ,a 
common  walking-stick will answer most  
purposes2 but the most efficient rod for
  the purpose is one of the common      
walking-stick fishing-rods without the  
top joint1 as it can be carried without 
attracting attention1 and can  be       
lengthened at will by adding the        
different joints4    ,many methods have 
been proposed by which the vessel is to 
be attached  to the rod2 but that which 
,i am about to describe is certainly    
the simplest and most effective that ,i 
have tried4 ,get a piece of             
gutta-percha tubing1 just large enough  

to be slipped on the end of the  rod or 
stick2 mark off an inch or so1 and cut  
the tube nearly through1  then cut it   
away longitudinally1 so that a long     
tongue of gutta-percha  is left1 and the
 instrument is completed4    ,its       
application is as simple as its         
structure4 ,bend the tongue over1  so as
 to form a loop1 and push the end       
through the short tube4 ,slip  the neck 
of the bottle into the loop1 and draw   
the tongue until it is  tolerably tight4
 ,push the end of the stick into the    
tube1 taking care  to hold the tongue   
firmly in its place1 and the vessel will
 then be  fastened at right angles to   
the stick4    ,the method of collecting 
by means of this instrument is as       
follows3  ,immerse the vessel in the    
water1 with the mouth downwards1 so that
  no water may enter4 ,push it gently   
towards the spot which is to be         
investigated1 move it about a little1 so
 as to cause a disturbance1 and  then   
turn the vessel with its mouth upwards4 

,water will instantly rush  in1 carrying
 with it the objects which are to be    
examined4 ,the contents  of the vessel  
may then be transferred to the large    
bottle1 and another  dip made4          
,confervoid growths1 especially those   
which accumulate in a  kind of scum on  
the surface1 should be obtained very    
quietly1 without  previous disturbance  
of the water4    ,after the pond1 or    
stream1 or ditch has been well searched1
 the bottle  should be roughly examined1
 by means of a pocket-lens1 and the     
contents  sorted into the smaller tubes1
 as has already been mentioned4 ,this   
precaution is especially needful when   
any of the minute crustacea  called     
,entomostraca are captured1 as they are 
most voracious beings1  and will make   
sad havoc among other specimens1 unless 
they are placed  in separate bottles4   
,they are mostly large enough to be     
detected with  the naked eye1 and look  
something like little fleas as they move
 along4    ,as the ,entomostraca cast   

their shells repeatedly during their    
lives1  some species performing this    
operation every two days1 a beautiful   
series of objects can be obtained by    
gathering the cast shells and  preparing
 them for the microscope1 according to  
the directions that  will be found in   
the following pages4 ,these shells are  
peculiarly  valuable1 as they retain the
 chief external characteristics of the  
creature to which they belonged1 the    
limbs1 plumes1 and even the  delicate   
bristles being preserved entire4 ,it is 
in the power of the  microscopist to    
retard or hasten the change of shell1   
heat and light  aiding development1 and 
cold and darkness retarding it4 ,the    
remarkable  8ephippium10 or saddle1     
which is found on the backs of the      
,daphnia1 the  ,moina1 and other        
,entomostraca1 and which is used as a   
receptacle for  eggs1 should be searched
 for and preserved4    ,a very thin and 
a very flat bottle is a most useful     
assistance in  detecting the character  

of any unknown object1 especially if it 
be  living4 ,such a bottle may easily be
 made by heating one of the small  test 
tubes in the spirit lamp until it is of 
a glowing red heat1 and  then pressing  
the sides together4 ,some little        
neatness is required  in this process1  
as an unskillful operator is apt to     
press the sides  unequally1 and to leave
 a bulging projection at the end4       
,,the ,,compound ,,microscope4    ,we   
have already described the simpler forms
 of magnifying instruments1  together   
with the best method of using them4 ,we 
now purpose to describe  the more       
complicated instrument called the       
compound microscope1 and  hints will be 
given as to the best method of making   
preparations for it4    ,the great      
distinction between the simple and      
compound microscope is1  that whereas   
the former instrument magnifies the     
object1 the latter  magnifies the       
magnified image of the object4 ,in the  
least elaborate  form of this instrument

 there are two glasses1 one at each end 
of  a tube1 the small glass magnifying  
the object1 and being therefore  called 
the 8object-glass10 while the other1    
which magnifies the image  of the       
object1 is placed next to the eye1 and  
is therefore termed the  8eye-glass40   
,in practice1 however1 this arrangement 
is found to be so  extremely defective1 
that the instrument was quite useless   
except as  an experimental toy2 for the 
two enemies of the optician1 chromatic  
and spherical aberration1 prevailed so  
exceedingly1 that every object  appeared
 as if surrounded with prismatic colors1
 and every line was  blurred and        
indistinct4    ,in this uncertain state 
the compound microscope remained for    
many  years1 its superb capabilities    
being scarcely recognized4 ,the chief   
fault was thought to be in the material 
of which the object-glass was  made1 and
 for a long series of years all         
experiments were conducted  with a view 
to an improvement in this respect4      

,when1 however1 the  diamond had been   
employed as an object-glass1 and had    
failed equally  with those of less      
costly material1 attention was directed 
to the right  point--namely1 the        
arrangement of the different            
glasses1--and at length  opticians      
succeeded in obtaining a pitch of       
excellence which can be  almost termed  
perfection4 ,it would be impossible to  
describe the method  which is employed  
for this purpose1 and it must suffice to
 say that the  principle is that of     
playing off one defect against another1 
and so  making them mutually correct    
their errors4    ,the magnifying powers 
of the compound microscope can be very  
great1  and it is therefore necessary   
that extreme care should be taken in its
  manipulation4 ,it will be possible for
 a clumsy person to do more damage  to a
 good instrument in three minutes than  
can be repaired in as many  weeks4      
,before proceeding to the management of 
the microscope and the  construction of 

the 8slides10 we will briefly describe  
one or two chief  forms of the compound 
microscope4    ,the simplest form of the
 compound microscope1 as at present     
made1  consists of a stand and a sliding
 tube1 in which are set the glasses     
which magnify the object and its image4 
,at the top is the tube1 which  is      
capable of being slid up and down in the
 shoulder of the stand1 so  as to obtain
 the proper focus4 ,above is seen the   
eye-glass2 and the  object-glass is     
shown at the bottom of the tube4 ,below 
the object-glass  is the 8stage0 on     
which the object to be magnified is     
laid2 and lowest  of all is a mirror1   
which serves to reflect the light       
upwards through  the object1 and which  
can be turned by means of the knobs at  
the  sides4 ,the object-glass is        
composed of two pieces1 which can       
readily  be separated4 ,if both are     
used1 sufficient magnifying power is    
gained  to show the scales on a         
butterfly's wing and similar minute     

objects2  while1 if one is removed1 the 
object is not magnified to so great  an 
extent1 but a larger portion can be     
seen1 and the definition is  clearer4   
,the cost of this instrument1 together  
with a few accessories1  is about #b4ej4
    ,the proper light is our next point1
 and upon it rests the chief  beauty of 
the effect4 ,the light which will suit  
one object will not  suit another1 and  
even the same object should be examined 
under every  variety of light4 ,some    
objects are best shown when the light is
  thrown upon them from above1 and      
others when it is thrown through  them  
from below4 ,again1 the direction of    
light is of vast importance2  for it    
will easily be seen that an oblique     
light will exhibit minute  projections  
by throwing a shadow on one side and    
brilliancy on the  other1 while a       
vertical illumination would fail to show
 them4 ,on the  same principle1 one     
object will be shown better with the    
light in  front1 and another when it is 

on one side4    ,one of the most        
effective means of attaining this object
 is by using  the 8bull's-eye           
condenser10 which is sometimes fixed to 
the stage1 but  is usually detached4 ,as
 the upright stem is telescopic1 the    
glass can  be raised to a considerable  
height1 while the joint and sliding-rod 
permit the lens to be applied at any    
angle which promises the most  brilliant
 light4    ,as for the kind of light    
that is employed1 there is nothing which
  equals that of a white cloud2 but such
 clouds are rare1 and are at  the best  
extremely transient1 and can only be    
seen by day1 various  artificial methods
 of illumination have been invented4    
,novices  generally think that when the 
sky is bright and blue they will be very
  successful in their illumination1 and 
feel grievously disappointed  at finding
 that they obtained much more light from
 the clouds1 whose  disappearance they  
had anxiously been watching4 ,finding   
that the blue  sky gives scarcely any   

light at all1 they rush to the other    
extreme1  turn the mirror towards the   
sun1 and pour such a blaze of light upon
  the object1 that the eye is blinded by
 the scintillating refulgence1  and the 
object is often injured because the     
mirror is capable of  reflecting heat as
 well as light4    ,in the daytime there
 is nothing better than the 8white-cloud
  illuminator10 which is made easily    
enough by means of plaster of  ,paris4  
,a sheet of thin white paper fastened   
against a window-pane is  also useful2  
and the simple plan of dabbing the glass
 with putty will  have a beneficial     
effect in softening the light1 when the 
window has  a southern aspect4 ,in      
default of these conveniences1 it will  
be often  sufficient to fix a piece of  
white letter paper over the mirror1 or  
even to dull its surface with wax4 ,at  
all events1 he who aspires to  be a true
 microscopist must be ready with        
expedients1 and if he finds  himself in 
a difficulty1 he must summarily invent a

 method of obviating  it4    ,at night a
 lamp is necessary2 candles are useless1
 because they have  two faults--they    
flicker1 and they become lower as they  
burn4 ,the  latter defect can be cured  
by using a candle-lamp1 but no          
arrangement  will cure the flame of     
flickering2 it is peculiarly trying to  
the  eyes1 and destructive of accurate  
definition4 ,an ordinary moderator  lamp
 answers pretty well1 and a small one is
 even better for the  microscopist than 
one of large dimensions4 ,the chief     
drawback to the  moderator lamp is that 
the flame cannot be elevated or lowered1
 so  that the only way to procure a     
light at a higher elevation is to stand 
the lamp on a block of wood or a book4  
,small lamps are1 however1 made         
expressly for the microscope1 and1 if   
possible1 should be procured1 and  used 
for no other purpose1 and intrusted to  
no other hands4    ,if you want a really
 brilliant1 clear1 white light1 you must
 trim  the lamp yourself4 ,a small piece

 of pale blue or neutral-tint glass     
interposed between the lamp and the     
microscope has a wonderful effect  in   
diminishing the yellow hue which belongs
 more or less to all  artificial lights 
which are produced by the combustion of 
oil or fat4  ,we have no doubt but that 
in a few years we shall be rid of the   
clumsy  and dirty machines that we call 
lamps1 and have substituted for them    
the pure brilliancy of the electric     
light4    ,whatever lamp you use1 a     
shade is absolutely necessary1 in order 
to  defend the eyes4 ,let me here warn  
my young readers that they cannot  be   
too careful of their eyes4 ,in the      
exuberance of youthful strength  and    
health we are too apt to treat our eyes 
as unceremoniously as our  digestion1   
and in later years we awake to          
unavailing repentance4    ,another point
 which calls for extreme attention is   
the perfect  cleanliness of the glasses4
 ,it is astonishing how a tiny          
dust-mote1  or the least condensation of

 damp1 will diminish the powers of the  
microscope1 and how often the instrument
 is blamed for indistinctness  when the 
real fault lies in the carelessness of  
the operator4 ,even  when the greatest  
care is taken1 dust is sure to settle on
 the  glasses1 especially on the        
eye-piece1 and before using the         
microscope  the glasses ought to be     
carefully examined4 ,never wipe them    
with an  ordinary handkerchief1 but get 
a piece of new wash-leather2 beat it    
well until no dust issues from it1 and  
then put it into a box with a           
tightly-fitting cover4 ,use this1 and   
nothing else1 for cleaning the  glasses1
 and you will avoid those horrid        
scratches with which the  eye-glass and 
object-glass of careless operators are  
always disfigured4    ,moisture is very 
apt to condense on the glasses and to   
ruin their  clearness4 ,if the          
microscope be brought from a cold into a
 warm room1  the glasses will be        
instantly covered with moisture1 just as

 the  outside of a tumbler of cold water
 is always covered with fine dew  when  
brought into a warm room4 ,the          
microscope should therefore be  kept at 
least an hour in the room wherein it is 
to be used1 so that  the instrument and 
the atmosphere may be of the same       
temperature4  ,you should make the      
microscope a trifle warmer than the     
surrounding  atmosphere1 and so avoid   
all danger of condensation4 ,when       
changing  the object glass or eye-piece1
 always keep the hand as far away from  
the glass as possible1 and manipulate   
with the tip of the forefinger  and     
thumb4 ,the human skin always gives out 
so much exhalation1 that  even when the 
hand is cold the glasses will be dimmed2
 and it is a  peculiarity of such       
moisture1 that it adheres to the glasses
 with great  pertinacity1 and does not  
evaporate like the dew which is         
condensed  from the atmosphere4    ,in  
order to insure perfect success in this 
important particular1 the  young        

microscopist will do well to get the    
optician from whom he  purchased his    
instrument to explain its construction1 
and to give him a  lesson or two in the 
art of taking it to pieces and putting  
it together  again2 for unless each     
glass can be separately cleaned1 no one 
can be  quite sure that the instrument  
will perform as it ought to do4 ,the    
best  method of ascertaining whether it 
is quite clean is to throw the light    
upwards by means of the mirror1 and then
 to turn the eye-piece slowly  round4   
,if any dust or moisture has collected  
either upon the eye-glass  or the       
8field-glass10 which forms the second   
lens of the eye-piece1  it will be      
immediately detected4 ,turning the      
object-glass will in a  similar manner  
detect impurities upon its surface4     
,,the ,,end4           99       99      
99       99       99    ,useful and     
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,,become ,a ,,scientist4--,a useful and 
instructive book1 giving  a complete    

treatise on chemistry2 also1 experiments
 in acoustics1  mechanics1 mathematics1 
chemistry1 and directions for making    
fireworks1  colored fires1 and gas      
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,price #aj  cents4 ,for sale by all     
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full instruction for the use of         
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bars1 horizontal bars1 and various      
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,,gold6 ,,gold6 ,,gold6    ,young       
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 on ,el ,dorado        ,creek4     #d   
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#ae ,young ,klondike's ,arctic ,trail2  
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#ag ,young ,klondike's ,death ,trap2 or1
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of the ,yukon4    #bj ,young ,klondike's
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,no4       #a ,dick ,decker1 the ,brave 
,young ,fireman        by ,ex ,fire     
,chief ,warden     #b ,the ,two ,boy    
,brokers2 or1 ,from ,messenger ,boys    
to ,millionaires                        
by a ,retired ,banker     #c ,little    
,lou1 the ,pride of the ,continental    
,army4        ,a ,story of the ,american
 ,revolution       by ,general ,jas4 ,a4
 ,gordon     #d ,railroad ,ralph1 the   
,boy ,engineer                 by ,jas4 
,c4 ,merritt     #e ,the ,boy ,pilot of 
,lake ,michigan             by ,capt4   
,thos4 ,h4 ,wilson     #f ,joe ,wiley1  
the ,young ,temperance ,lecturer        
by ,jno4 ,b4 ,dowd     #g ,the ,little  

,swamp ,fox4 ,a ,tale of ,general       
,marion        and ,his ,men            
by ,general ,jas4 ,a4 ,gordon     #h    
,young ,grizzly ,adams1 the ,wild ,beast
 ,tamer4        ,a ,true ,story of      
,circus ,life                        by 
,hal ,standish     #i ,north ,pole ,nat2
 or1 ,the ,secret of the ,frozen        
,deep                                   
by ,capt4 ,thos4 ,h4 ,wilson    #aj     
,little ,deadshot1 the ,pride of the    
,trappers          by ,an ,old ,scout   
#aa ,liberty ,hose2 or1 ,the ,pride of  
,plattsville  by ,ex ,fire ,chief       
,warden    #ab ,engineer ,steve1 the    
,prince of the ,rail           by ,jas4 
,c4 ,merritt    #ac ,whistling ,walt1   
the ,champion ,spy4 ,a ,story of the    
,american ,revolution                   
by ,general ,jas4 ,a4 ,gordon    #ad    
,lost in the ,air2 or1 ,over ,land and  
,sea              by ,allyn ,draper     
#ae ,the ,little ,demon2 or1 ,plotting  
,against the ,czar    by ,howard ,austin
    #af ,fred ,farrell1 the ,barkeeper's

 ,son                   by ,jno4 ,b4    
,dowd    #ag ,slippery ,steve1 the      
,cunning ,spy of the        ,revolution 
by ,general ,jas4 ,a4 ,gordon    #ah    
,fred ,flame1 the ,hero of ,greystone   
,no4 #a     by ,ex ,fire ,chief ,warden 
#ai ,harry ,dare2 or1 ,a ,new ,york ,boy
 in the ,navy     by ,col4 ,ralph       
,fenton    #bj ,jack ,quick1 the ,boy   
,engineer                     by ,jas4  
,c4 ,merritt    #ba ,doublequick1 the   
,king ,harpooner2 or1 ,the ,wonder      
of the ,whalers                         
by ,capt4 ,thos4 ,h4 ,wilson    #bb     
,rattling ,rube1 the ,jolly ,scout and  
,spy4        ,a ,story of the           
,revolution                by ,general  
,jas4 ,a4 ,gordon    #bc ,in the ,czar's
 ,service2 or1 ,dick ,sherman        in 
,russia                                 
by ,howard ,austin    #bd ,ben o' the   
,bowl2 or1 ,the ,road to ,ruin          
by ,jno4 ,b4 ,dowd    #be ,kit ,carson1 
the ,king of ,scouts                    
by an ,old ,scout    #bf ,the ,school   

,boy ,explorers1 or1 ,among the ,ruins  
of ,yucatan                             
by ,howard ,austin    #bg ,the ,wide    
,awakes2 or1 ,burke ,halliday1 the      
,pride        of the ,volunteers        
by ,ex ,fire ,chief ,warden    #bh ,the 
,frozen ,deep2 or1 ,two ,years in the   
,ice  by ,capt4 ,thos4 ,h4 ,wilson      
#bi ,the ,swamp ,rats2 or1 ,the ,boys   
,who ,fought        for ,washington     
by ,gen4 ,jas4 ,a4 ,gordon    #cj       
,around the ,world on ,cheek            
by ,howard ,austin    #ca ,bushwhacker  
,ben2 or1 ,the ,union ,boys of          
,tennessee                              
by ,col4 ,ralph ,fenton    ,for sale by 
all newsdealers1 or sent to any address 
on receipt of  price1 #e cents per      
copy--#f copies for #be4 ,address       
,,frank ,,tousey1 ,publisher1 #bi ,west 
#bfth ,st41 ,n4 ,y4           99        
99       99       99       99    ,work  
and ,win4    ,an ,interesting ,weekly   
for ,young ,america4    ,,bright1       
,,catchy ,,stories4    ,beautiful       

,colored ,covers4    #cb ,pages4 ,price 
#e ,cents4    ,don't fail to read about 
,,fred ,,fearnot',s ,wonderful          
,adventures in ,,school1  at ,,college1 
on the ,,stage1 ,,out ,,west and as a   
,,detective4 ,they are ,,bright1        
,,interesting and ,,fascinating4        
,,complete ,,list4       #a ,fred       
,fearnot2 or1 ,school ,days at ,avon4   
#b ,fred ,fearnot1 ,detective2 or1      
,balking a ,desperate ,game4     #c     
,fred ,fearnot's ,daring ,rescue2 or1 ,a
 ,hero in ,spite of ,himself4     #d    
,fred ,fearnot's ,narrow ,escape2 or1   
,the ,plot ,that ,failed4     #e ,fred  
,fearnot at ,avon ,again2 or1 ,his      
,second ,term at ,school4     #f ,fred  
,fearnot's ,pluck2 or1 ,his ,race to    
,save a ,life4     #g ,fred ,fearnot as 
an ,actor2 or1 ,fame ,before the        
,footlights4     #h ,fred ,fearnot at   
,sea2 or1 ,a ,chase ,across the ,ocean4 
#i ,fred ,fearnot ,out ,west2 or1       
,adventures ,with the ,cowboys4    #aj  
,fred ,fearnot's ,great ,peril2 or1     

,running ,down the ,counterfeiters4     
#aa ,fred ,fearnot's ,double ,victory2  
or1 ,killing ,two ,birds ,with          
,one ,stone4    #ab ,fred ,fearnot's    
,game ,finish2 or1 ,his ,bicycle ,race  
to ,save a ,million4    #ac ,fred       
,fearnot's ,great ,run2 or1 ,an         
,engineer ,for a ,week4    #ad ,fred    
,fearnot's ,twenty ,rounds2 or1 ,his    
,fight to ,save ,his ,honor4    #ae     
,fred ,fearnot's ,engine ,company2 or1  
,brave ,work as a ,fireman4    #af ,fred
 ,fearnot's ,good ,work2 or1 ,helping a 
,friend in ,need4    ,for sale by all   
newsdealers or sent to any address on   
receipt of price1  #e cents per copy1 or
 #f copies for #be cents4      ,,frank  
,,tousey1 ,publisher1    #bi ,west #bfth
 ,st41 ,new ,york4           99       99
       99       99       99    ,,our #aj
 ,,cent ,,hand ,,books4    ,,useful1    
,,instructive ,,and ,,amusing4          
,containing valuable information on     
almost every subject1 such  as ,writing1
 ,speaking1 ,dancing1 ,cooking2 also1   

,rules of  ,etiquette1 ,the ,art of     
,ventriloquism1 ,gymnastic ,exercises1  
and ,the  ,science of ,self-,defense1   
etc41 etc4       #a ,,napoleons         
,,oraculum ,,and ,,dream ,,book4     #b 
,,how ,,to ,,do ,,tricks4     #c ,,how  
,,to ,,flirt4     #d ,,how ,,to ,,dance4
     #e ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,love4     #f
 ,,how ,,to ,,become ,,an ,,athlete4    
#g ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,birds4     #h    
,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,scientist4     
#i ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a               
,,ventriloquist4    #aj ,,how ,,to      
,,box4    #aa ,,how ,,to ,,write ,,love 
,,letters4    #ab ,,how ,,to ,,write    
,,letters ,,to ,,ladies4    #ac ,,how   
,,to ,,do ,,it2 ,or1 ,,book ,,of        
,,etiquette4    #ad ,,how ,,to ,,make   
,,candy4    #ae ,,how ,,to ,,become     
,,rich4    #af ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,a     
,,window ,,garden4    #ag ,,how ,,to    
,,dress4    #ah ,,how ,,to ,,become     
,,beautiful4    #ai ,,frank ,,tousey',s 
,u4 ,s ,,distance ,,tables1 ,,pocket    
,,companion ,,and ,,guide4    #bj ,,how 

,,to ,,entertain ,,an ,,evening ,,party4
    #ba ,,how ,,to ,,hunt ,,and ,,fish4 
#bb ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,second ,,sight4   
#bc ,,how ,,to ,,explain ,,dreams4      
#bd ,,how ,,to ,,write ,,letters ,,to   
,,gentlemen4    #be ,,how ,,to ,,become 
,a ,,gymnast4    #bf ,,how ,,to ,,row1  
,,sail ,,and ,,build ,a ,,boat4    #bg  
,,how ,,to ,,recite ,,and ,,book ,,of   
,,recitations4    #bh ,,how ,,to ,,tell 
,,fortunes4    #bi ,,how ,,to ,,become  
,,an ,,inventor4    #cj ,,how ,,to      
,,cook4    #ca ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a   
,,speaker4    #cb ,,how ,,to ,,ride ,a  
,,bicycle4    #cc ,,how ,,to ,,behave4  
#cd ,,how ,,to ,,fence4    #ce ,,how    
,,to ,,play ,,games4    #cf ,,how ,,to  
,,solve ,,conundrums4    #cg ,,how ,,to 
,,keep ,,house4    #ch ,,how ,,to       
,,become ,,your ,,own ,,doctor4    #ci  
,,how ,,to ,,raise ,,dogs1 ,,poultry1   
,,pigeons ,,and ,,rabbits4    #dj ,,how 
,,to ,,make ,,and ,,set ,,traps4    #da 
,,the ,,boys ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,end    
,,men',s ,,joke ,,book4    #db ,,the    

,,boys ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,stump        
,,speaker4    #dc ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a
 ,,magician4    #dd ,,how ,,to ,,write  
,,in ,,an ,,album4    #de ,,the ,,boys  
,,of ,,new ,,york ,,minstrel ,,guide    
,,and ,,joke ,,book4    #df ,,how ,,to  
,,make ,,and ,,use ,,electricity4    #dg
 ,,how ,,to ,,break1 ,,ride ,,and       
,,drive ,a ,,horse4    #dh ,,how ,,to   
,,build ,,and ,,sail ,,canoes4    #di   
,,how ,,to ,,debate4    #ej ,,how ,,to  
,,stuff ,,birds ,,and ,,animals4    #ea 
,,how ,,to ,,do ,,tricks ,,with ,,cards4
    #eb ,,how ,,to ,,play ,,cards4      
#ec ,,how ,,to ,,write ,,letters4    #ed
 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,and ,,manage       
,,pets4    #ee ,,how ,,to ,,collect     
,,stamps ,,and ,,coins4    #ef ,,how    
,,to ,,become ,,an ,,engineer4    #eg   
,,how ,,to ,,make ,,musical             
,,instruments4    #eh ,,how ,,to        
,,become ,a ,,detective4    #ei ,,how   
,,to ,,make ,a ,,magic ,,lantern4    #fj
 ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,photographer4 
#fa ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,bowler4    

#fb ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,west       
,,point ,,military ,,cadet4    #fc ,,how
 ,,to ,,become ,a ,,naval ,,cadet4      
#fd ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,electrical      
,,machines4    #fe ,,muldoon',s ,,jokes4
    #ff ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,puzzles4      
#fg ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,electrical        
,,tricks4    #fh ,,how ,,to ,,do        
,,chemical ,,tricks4    #fi ,,how ,,to  
,,do ,,sleight ,,of ,,hand4    #gj ,,how
 ,,to ,,make ,,magic ,,toys4    #ga     
,,how ,,to ,,do ,,mechanical ,,tricks4  
#gb ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,sixty ,,tricks    
,,with ,,cards4    #gc ,,how ,,to ,,do  
,,tricks ,,with ,,numbers4    #gd ,,how 
,,to ,,write ,,letters ,,correctly4     
#ge ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,conjurer4  
#gf ,,how ,,to ,,tell ,,fortunes ,,by   
,,the ,,hand4    #gg ,,how ,,to ,,do    
,,forty ,,tricks ,,with ,,cards4    #gh 
,,how ,,to ,,do ,,the ,,black ,,art4    
#gi ,,how ,,to ,,become ,,an ,,actor4   
,all the above books are for sale by    
newsdealers throughout the ,united      
,states and ,canada or they will be     

sent1 post-paid1 to your address1 on    
receipt of #aj;c4 each4    ,send ,your  
,name and ,address for ,our ,latest     
,illustrated ,catalogue4      ,,frank   
,,tousey1 ,publisher1    #bi ,,west     
#bfth ,,street1 ,,new ,,york4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,transcriber's ,notes3    ,punctuation  
has been made consistent4    ,variations
 in spelling and hyphenation were       
retained as they appear in  the original
 publication1 except that obvious       
typographical errors have  been         
corrected4    ,the notation #a-b for    
fractions has been standardized to the  
current  convention #a_/b4