,,blackwood',s ,,edinburgh ,,magazine4 ,,no4 ,,dlxxi4 ,,may #ahfc4 ,,vol4 ,,xciii4 ,,contents4 ,,wilson',s ,,prehistoric ,,man1 #ebe ,,caxtoniana4--,,part ,,xvi41 #ede ,,no4 ,,xxii4--,,on ,,certain ,,principles ,,of ,,art ,,in ,,works ,,of ,,imagination4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,general ,,sir ,,howard ,,douglas1 ,,bart41 #efa ,,italian ,,brigandage1 #egf ,,ludwig ,,uhland1 #ehf ,,my ,,investment ,,in ,,the ,,far ,,west1 #eie ,,the ,,landscape ,,of ,,ancient ,,italy1 ,,as ,,delineated ,,in ,,the ,,pompeian ,,paintings1 #fac ,,american ,,state ,,papers1 #fbh ,,the ,,budget1 #fde ,,edinburgh3 ,,william ,,blackwood ,,sons1 #de ,,george ,,street4 ,,and #cg ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london4 ,to whom all ,communications 7post paid7 must be addressed4 ,,sold ,,by ,,all ,,the ,,booksellers ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom4 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,blackwood ,,and ,,sons1 ,,edinburgh4 ,,blackwood',s ,,edinburgh ,,magazine ,,no4 ,,dlxxi4 ,,may #ahfc4 ,,vol4 ,,xciii4 ,,wilson',s ,,prehistoric ,,man4#a ,the title of #8,prehistoric ,man' in ,mr ,wilson's book applies not only to those races who lived and expired before any history whatever was written1 but to all races1 even those who are contemporary with us1 who are incapable of delivering a history of themselves to other nations or their own posterity4 ,they are rather the un-historic1 the speechless people--speechless so far as their posterity is concerned1 on whom his inquiries are directed4 ,in fact1 that portion of the development of mankind which pertains to savage life1 or to the very earliest stages of civilisation1 is the subject of ,mr ,wilson's book4 ,the subject is far from being new1 but far from being exhausted2 and our author's archological knowledge has enabled him to invest it with a novel interest4 ,his position is somewhat singular in its advantages4 ,a ,european archologist and antiquarian1 he finds himself in that new world where forms of human life are still lingering akin to those which he has been hitherto studying by the light only of such remains as have been preserved for ages buried in the earth4 ,his stone1 his bronze1 his iron periods are all found living about him4 ,the flint weapon dug up in ,london or ,glasgow from the lowest strata of human remains1 has1 in this new world1 hardly fallen from the hand of the native4 ,the men of the stone period are still alive1 though half a century more may see them either absorbed in the more civilised races1 or altogether extinguished4 ,this combination of the knowledge of the antiquarian with the observations of the traveller has a singular charm for us3 but there is another combination which is still more attractive2 it is where the philosophical historian1 familiar with the myths of antiquity1 traces in the living barbarians around him the same play of fancy1 or the same curious development of thought1 that he has been accustomed to study in the obscure records of a dead language4 ,mr ,wilson is an historian as well as an archologist1 and is in both capacities an enlightened student of such living antiquity as may still exist in that continent1 where the earliest and the latest forms of civilisation were destined to meet and to recognise each other4 ,our author might1 we think1 have put his materials together in a more compact form1 and arranged them more carefully4 ,the headings of the several chapters lead us to expect a more definite arrangement than we find in the book itself3 and this must be partly our excuse if our own observations should seem to be of a miscellaneous character4 ,it must be confessed1 also1 that there is sometimes a want of precision and accuracy of language on just those occasions where precision is most needed1 and that this is not compensated by a rather too lavish display of a florid species of eloquence1 better fitted for the lecture-room than the written composition4 ,it is good of its kind1 but there is too much of it4 ,we presume that a large portion of the book was written originally for the lecture-room4 ,but notwithstanding these minor defects1 we confidently recommend these volumes as replete with information on a variety of interesting topics1 and suggestive of many trains of reflection4 ,they will assuredly repay an attentive perusal4 ,mr ,wilson commences with a glance at that problem of the 8antiquity of man0 which ,sir ,charles ,lyell has still more lately and more fully treated4 ,perhaps1 if he had written after the publication of ,sir ,charles ,lyell's work1 he would have expressed himself with more distinctness on the subject2 yet he seems substantially to have arrived at whatever safe conclusions the evidence hitherto collected enables us to rest in4 ,he has said all that can really be said at present on the matter4 ,he observes that 8the closing epoch of geology must be turned to for the initial chapters of archology and ethnology40 ,it is plain that man could not make his appearance upon the earth till the earth was fitted for his habitation2 and it is a reasonable conjecture that it would not long be so prepared for him before1 in some part of the world1 he made his appearance4 ,mr ,wilson is not disposed to be incredulous as 8to the traces of fossil human bones mingling with those of the extinct mammals of the drift20 but we gather from his work that he would be slow to rest his belief on the great antiquity of man solely on the discovery of such flint implements as have been dug out of the valley of the ,somme and elsewhere4 ,we think that1 notwithstanding the confidence of certain experts who have pronounced that these flints have received their form from the hand of man1 there is a well-founded suspicion that1 after all1 they may have been broken into their present shape by natural or physical forces4 ,they are not ground to a point1 it must be remembered1 nor sharpened to an edge1 only chipped into a wedge-like form4 ,when we read of great numbers of these flints being discovered in a certain spot1 and that a selection is made of such as seem to have been chipped by the hand of man1 and that this selection is a matter of acknowledged difficulty1 we may be excused for suspending our judgment as to the fact whether any one of them was ever the tool or implement of a human being4 ,we may be excused if1 in the present state of the evidence1 we require that this testimony of the flints be confirmed by other testimony1--by the presence of human bones1 or of indisputable works of human art in the same post-pliocene formation4#b ,we do not presumptuously reject their evidence altogether2 we do not take it upon ourselves to say that not one of the stones collected from the valley of the ,somme has been fashioned by man2 we have little trust in our own judgment upon such a matter2 but it is not evidence which can stand alone4 ,this ,sir ,charles ,lyell admits himself1 though in some passages of his work he seems to forget his own admission4 ,but such antiquity as we can assign to man on other evidence--by the discovery in certain positions of human remains or indisputable relics of human art--is very great1 and sufficient for all the purposes of the ethnologist4 ,the elaborate1 and1 to the geologist1 highly interesting work of ,sir ,charles ,lyell demands a separate and careful examination2 we here merely content ourselves with remarking that the very great antiquity of man--that which would compel us to believe that he existed for some almost immeasurable period in the condition of the savage--rests hitherto on unsatisfactory grounds4 ,the ethnologist who believes1 as ,mr ,wilson does1 in the unity of the human race1 requires a long period of time for the development of those varieties which had become permanent prior to the epoch of the building of the ,egyptian ,pyramids4 ,mr ,wilson takes what he requires1 but does not1 as matters stand at present1 contest for more4 ,to those who1 on the grounds of the sacred text1 would dispute his right to even this modest inroad upon the illimitable ,past1 he answers1--that the chronology popularly supposed to be that of the ,bible is in fact the chronology only of certain learned interpreters1 and that there is nothing in the sacred text to exclude the supposition that a much longer interval may have passed than is generally supposed between the creation of ,adam and1 let us say1 the appearance of ,abraham4 ,interpreting the ,noachian ,deluge as partial--as not1 in the literal sense of the term1 universal--he finds scope enough within the limits of the sacred text for that slow and gradual development of civilised man which his archology has taught him to believe in4 ,nor does he find any difficulty whatever in reconciling this slow progress from the savage to the civilised man with what is recorded of the creation of ,adam1 or the attributes of our first parents4 ,their superior excellence1 he considers1 consisted in their perfect morality1 in the predominance of the benevolent affections1 and in that reason which is one with self-knowledge3 it could not have consisted1 he argues1 in knowledge of the arts and sciences2 certainly not in the knowledge of arts quite needless in the warmth1 abundance1 and security of the garden of ,paradise4 ,when1 therefore1 their descendants1 deprived of this high moral excellence1 found themselves scattered abroad upon the earth1 what could they1 in fact1 have become but ignorant savages8 ,they would have to evolve from their own natural sagacity those arts of life which their new relation to the external world rendered necessary4 ,they would have to commence that long and toilsome ascent to civilisation which the speculative historian has so often attempted to describe4 ,we feel persuaded that our author would be unwilling that1 in any notice of his work1 these explanations should be omitted1 and therefore it is that we give them here so prominent a place4 ,for ourselves1 so confident are we that scientific truth and religious truth will be found in the end to be inextricably combined1 and to be reciprocally sustaining each other1 that we are not very solicitous to patch up hasty and perhaps needless reconciliations4 ,at present we have to settle our science2 when this is done1 it will be time to ask ourselves what it is that needs reconcilement4 ,although the archologist can point with triumph to the evidence of successive tombs1 or cromlechs1 as proving the sequence of his three ages of stone and bronze and iron1 he can nowhere carry us back to the first stone period1 and from this to the first development of the bronze and the iron4 ,he can show us that on a certain spot--say the soil on which ,london stands--there have been generations of men distinguished by the kind of tools they had framed for themselves4 ,but it is the history of men on that spot which his materials enable him to write2 they do not enable him to write the history of the progress of man from his earliest condition of existence4 ,for the first men who lived on the banks of the ,thames had come1 we presume1 from other countries2 they had had a history1 and were the products of some kind of human society before they settled there2 and the generations that followed might have received their arts1 as in one case we know they did1 from foreign nations4 ,it is1 after all1 therefore1 from a priori speculation--from what we infer must have been the course of things--that we describe mankind as proceeding from the rudest modes of existence to the more civilised4 ,the testimony which the archologist appeals to confirms these speculations2 it can do no more4 ,it never brings us to the real history of human art4 ,we have still to guess how men lived at first1 whether on the fruits of the earth or by the chase2 we have still to guess how men discovered the use of fire1 how they elaborated mere vocal signs into a grammatical language2 we have still to conjecture when or where the first canoe or the first house was built4 ,we make this remark not to detract from the labours of the archologist1 but simply to put the subject on its right basis4 ,we have nowhere that kind of evidence which takes us back to the first developments of the human intellect2 the nature of these must still be matter of inference4 ,we still argue1 to a great extent1 in a purely speculative manner2 we conclude that a progress like that which history and historical monuments enable us to trace1 was the kind of progress which the first families of the earth passed through2 but we know nothing historically of that early progress4 ,in the old ,european or ,asiatic continent we had been accustomed to regard the earliest generations of mankind as entirely lost in the mists of antiquity2 but1 till lately1 we looked on the continent of ,america as being1 in respect of its population1 far more recent1 and as affording a more simple subject for ethnological speculation4 ,the civilisation of ,mexico and ,peru1 destroyed by the ,spaniards1 was traced to ,egypt1 or to some other portion of the ,old ,world4 ,the vagrant tribes of savages that lived upon the chase were the still more degenerate children of ,europe4 ,but this new continent is now found to have been the habitation of man at so remote a period1 that the civilisations of ,mexico and ,peru1 however they originated 7and they were probably native71 must rank amongst its modern events4 ,ruins of more ancient cities are found buried in its forest1 and monuments of some forgotten worship are traced upon the banks of its rivers4 ,the remains of man himself--parts of the human skeleton--have been found in positions which suggest an antiquity far beyond that of the cities of the ,nile or the ,euphrates4 ,some of these cases are well known1 and well known on account of the disputes and discussions they have given occasion to2 others1 from which 7geologically speaking7 only a modest antiquity has been inferred1 seem to our author to be worthy of credit4 ,he says3-- 8,in the post-pliocene formations of ,south ,carolina1 exposed along the bed of the ,ashley ,river1 remains of the megatherium1 megalodon1 and other gigantic extinct mammals1 occur1 not only associated with existing species peculiar to the ,american continent1 but also apparently with others hitherto believed to have been domesticated and introduced for the first time by modern ,european colonists4 ,but1 still more interesting for our present purpose1 as possibly indicating the contemporaneous existence of some of those strange extinct mammals with man1 are notices of the remains of human art in the same formation4 ,professor ,holmes1 in exhibiting a collection of fossils from the post-pliocene of ,south ,carolina before the ,academy of ,natural ,science at ,philadelphia1 remarked3--#8,dr ,klipstein1 who resides near ,charleston1 in digging a ditch for the purpose of reclaiming a large swamp1 discovered and sent to me the tooth of a mastodon1 with the request that ,i should go down and visit the place1 as there were indications of the bones and teeth of the animal still remaining in the sands which underlie the peat-bed4 ,accordingly1 with a small party of gentlemen1 we visited the doctor1 and succeeded not only in obtaining several other teeth and bones of this animal1 but nearly one entire tusk2 and immediately alongside of the tusk discovered the fragment of pottery which ,i hold in my hand1 and which is similar to that manufactured at the present time by the ,american ,indians4' 8,it would not be wise10 continues ,mr ,wilson1 8to found hasty theories on such strange juxtaposition of relics1 possibly of very widely separated periods4 ,the ,ashley ,river has channeled for itself a course through the eocene and post-pliocene formations of ,south ,carolina1 and where these are exposed on its shores the fossils are washed from their beds1 and become mingled with the remains of recent indigenous and domestic animals1 and objects of human art4 ,but the discovery of ,dr ,klipstein was made in excavating an undisturbed1 and1 geologically speaking1 a comparatively recent formation40 ,after alluding to the magnificent skeleton of the ,mastodon ,ohioticus which is now in the ,british ,museum1 and in companionship with which an ,indian flint arrow-head was found1 he adds3-- 8,another remarkable account1 preserved in the #8,american ,journal of ,science1' describes the bones of a mastodon1 with considerable portions of the skin1 found in ,missouri1 associated with stone spear-heads1 axes1 and knives1 under circumstances which suggest the idea that it had been entangled in a bog1 and there stoned to death1 and partially consumed by fire4 ,such contiguity of the works of man with those extinct diluvial giants warns us at least to be upon our guard against any supercilious rejection of indications of man's ancient presence in the ,new ,world as well as the ,old4 ,if the evidence is inconsequential or untruthful1 future discoveries will not fail to bring it to nought2 if1 on the contrary1 it involves glimpses of an unseen truth1 no organised scepticism will prevent the ultimate disclosure of its amplest revelations40 ,had man1 during the whole of this early prehistoric epoch1 whatever its duration may have been1 lived like the savage1 in what we call the stone period8 ,or had the use of metals and other arts been discovered and lost again--lost1 perhaps1 because human societies had not attained that coherence and stability necessary to the preservation of the arts8 ,however this may be1 it cannot be doubted that the use of the metal tool forms an important era in the progress of civilisation4 ,and ,mr ,wilson mentions a fact which enables us to understand very readily the transition from the use of stone to the use of metal4 ,copper is still found in the ,new ,world1 and probably was at first found in the ,old ,world1 in a pure state--in nuggets1 as an ,australian gold-digger would call them--and these could at once be beaten into the shape of an axe by stone hammers without the application of fire4 ,the fragment of copper was to the ,indian a new kind of stone1 which had the fortunate property of malleability4 8,in the veins of the copper region of ,lake ,superior1 the native metal occurs in enormous masses weighing hundreds of tons2 and many loose blocks of considerable size have been found on the lake shore1 or lying detached on the surface1 besides smaller pieces exposed on and mingled with the superficial soil in sufficient quantities to supply all the wants of the nomade hunter4 ,this1 accordingly1 he wrought into chisels and axes1 armlets and personal ornaments of various kinds1 without the use of the crucible and any knowledge of metallurgic arts2 and1 indeed1 without recognising any precise distinction between the copper which he mechanically separated from the mass1 and the unmalleable stone or flint out of which he had been accustomed to fashion his spear and arrow heads40 ,whilst applauding the metal tool1 copper or iron1 and acknowledging what we owe to it1 let us not pass over the stone--that handful of rock or flint by the aid of which the metal1 in the first instance1 was wrought and fashioned--without its meed of gratitude4 ,it seems a slight unnoticeable fact that there should be these manageable fragments of hard substance ready to the hand of man2 that the whole earth was not divided between the bed of rock and the bed of sand or clay2 that there should have been there mere stones 7mere litter1 you would say71 of which the floor of the earth had better have been swept clean4 ,yet those nodules of flint formed slowly in the chalk--yet those rolled stones upon the deserted beach1 that the sea has fashioned for the human palm1 and left high and dry upon the land--seem to have entered as much into the preparation for man as the fauna or the flora amongst which he was to live4 ,who first applied fire to the metal1 and thus made it plastic as the clay and sharper than the stone8 who first discovered fire itself8 ,no one knows2 nor is the question worth asking4 ,but there is one thing well worth noticing3 it is the answer given to the question1 and that in the rudest of times and amongst many various nations4 ,some god bestowed it4 ,this tendency to look for a supernatural giver is very soon and very widely developed4 ,and what is more1 the idea of a giver has called forth amongst rude selfish people struggling for existence1 the desire to manifest their gratitude by some act of worship which should also be some act of self-denial4 ,on a certain day of the year all lights shall be extinguished1 and one man amongst them 7endowed for the very purpose with imaginary sanctity7 shall rekindle the flame1 thus acknowledging by this symbol its reception from the divine ,giver4 ,the ancient ,peruvians drew their fire on this solemn occasion at once from the sun2 they collected its rays into a focus by a concave mirror of polished metal1 and thus ignited some dried cotton1 or bark1 or fungus4 ,nothing could be more expressive and appropriate than such a symbolic act4 ,it is a pity that the historian has to record that other symbolic acts 7if such they are to be considered7 were of a cruel and hideous description4 ,the savage is not accustomed only to thank ,god2 he has1 he thinks1 to propitiate ,his favour2 and as he has nothing to give1 he destroys in honour of the universal ,bestower4 ,the worship of the ,american ,indian is tainted more than any other we read of with the rite of human sacrifice4 ,various methods for obtaining fire have been invented1 but the earliest seems to have been by the friction of two dry pieces of wood4 ,it was a progressive step1 we presume1 when the bark of a certain tree or a dried fungus was used for tinder4 ,however produced1 it was to the savage1 in the first instance1 itself a tool1 the immediate instrument he employed to cut down the tree which would have resisted a long while his flint hatchet4 ,we thought that all known people had made discovery of fire and converted it to their own purposes2 but the inhabitants of the ,ladrones1 when discovered by the ,spaniards1 are said to have shrunk from fire as from a thing they simply feared3 8they called it a devil1 a god that bit fiercely when it was touched1 and lived on wood1 which they saw it devour40 ,mr ,wilson entitles the chapter which treats on this subject #8,the ,promethean ,instinct3 ,fire4' ,the next chapter is headed #8,the ,maritime ,instinct3 the ,canoe4' ,then we have #8,the ,technological ,instinct1' and so on4 ,why this ostentatious use of the term ,instinct8 ,did men hunt after fire even before they had seen it1 as an animal might be supposed to hunt after food even before it had eaten8 ,do men build canoes as birds their nests or beavers their dams8 ,what is the leading idea of ,mr ,wilson when he thus liberally applies to us the term ,instinct8 ,we have desires and we have intelligence suggesting means to an end4 ,is it the desire that is instinctive1 or the apprehension of the means whereby the desire can be gratified8 ,men have a desire to pass from one side of the river to the other2 perhaps the animal they were in chase of has swam the stream2 they have observed that wood will float1 that a large piece of wood will float with a man on it2 they procure such piece of wood1 and paddle themselves across4 ,the knowledge which the man displays in all this follows from his previous perceptions4 ,perception1 memory1 judgment1 are all exercised in a quite normal manner1 and the desire to float across the stream has arisen from the peculiar circumstances in which the man was placed4 ,what element of mystery is there in this transaction which calls for the name of ,instinct8 ,for the word ,instinct is applied to certain actions of animals because the ordinary laws of psychology are1 or seem1 inadequate to explain them--because a certain mystery hangs over the event which we mark by the name ,instinct4 ,when we see animals acting1 without the teaching of experience1 in the same sort of way in which we act after that teaching of experience1 we1 perplexed to explain this anomaly1 pronounce the action instinctive4 ,the bee and the bird build in this inexplicable manner4 ,probably a more minute investigation may enable us to resolve whatever we call ,instinct into some delicacy of the senses1 or some rapidity of the judgment1 peculiar to the animal4 ,meanwhile the term is serviceable as marking a class of unexplained phenomena4 ,but how is it applicable to man in his capacity of boat-builder8 ,the sort of canoe he will build1 the materials he will use1 the tools he will work with1 are all determined for him by existing circumstances1 and the actual amount of his knowledge4 ,or is it the vague desire to put to sea1 prompting some manner of boat-building1 that ,mr ,wilson calls our 8maritime instinct80 ,are we driven to sea like ducks to a pond8 ,the peasantry of an inland country are not conscious of any such instinct1 and would be very unfortunate if they possessed it4 ,we have no wish to expel the terms instinct and instinctive from our popular diction1 even when applied to human actions4 ,there are cases when men act with a suddenness and decision which remind us of the animal in his promptest moods1 and we naturally apply to these the term instinctive2 and sometimes we apply the term to a tendency or desire which we cannot at the time trace to our senses1 or to the usual operations of the mind4 ,but when an author formally--in the very titles of his chapters--supplies us with 8,promethean and maritime instincts10 we may be excused if we ask for some precise definition of the term4 8,speech is one of the instincts of man1 but it is by the voluntary exercise of his intellectual faculties1 as we conceive1 that he is enabled to develop it into language40 ,this sounds oracular1 but1 like most oracles1 it is very obscure4 ,what does ,mr ,wilson mean by speech as contrasted with language8 ,is speech the mere giving of names to things1 and language the formation of a grammar8 ,but grammar is only a naming of a more complex kind1 a naming of things and events in their more complicated relations4 ,and what speech was ever formed that had not some grammar1 that was not also a language8 ,if by speech1 in contrast to language1 is meant the mere utterance of articulate sounds which have no meaning attached to them1 then what proof have we that men ever passed through a stage of unmeaning gibberish8 or could anything so purposeless be dignified with the name of an instinct8 ,the desire to speak1 or to communicate our thoughts or our wants1 is sometimes spoken of as an instinct4 ,but the need man has of co-operation1 and the ability he has to co-operate1 and those general sympathies and affections which render him a social being1 are sufficient to explain this desire4 ,such a desire may be contemplated as existing apart and prior to the possession of language1 but there can be no reason for applying the term instinct to it1 unless we apply that term to all our desires4 ,so strong and inevitable is this desire to express our thoughts1 that we have not the least doubt that1 if the human larynx had not been fitted for speech1 man would have invented a language of signs4 ,his hands and feet would have talked1 if his tongue and palate did not4 ,his larynx being mute and all other faculties remaining the same1 he would have talked with his fingers and written as the ,chinese write1 whose characters are signs for things1 not for words4 ,the maritime or boat-building instinct has1 at all events1 been very much under the control of circumstances4 ,sometimes the tree was felled and hollowed1 sometimes the bark was stretched over wicker-work1 or skins of beasts were employed1 or planks were made into a raft4 ,the ,egyptian bound some of his water-jugs together and made a raft of them4 ,some tribes have limited themselves to the paddle or the oar2 some have spread the sail1 and spread it very boldly4 ,the ,malay hoists his large sail over a couple of planks of wood sewed together with bark1 and balances this fragile craft by means of two long spars fastened athwart and projecting to windward4 ,in such a vessel as this he will scud fearlessly through tempestuous seas from one island to another4 ,we may boast1 and very justly1 of our steam-engines1 our electric telegraphs1 and of other triumphant employments of the powers of nature2 but even to this day there is not a more pleasing or thrilling spectacle1 or a more glorious instance of the powers of nature turned to the service of man1 than when some solitary boatman sits1 at the helm with sail outspread1 borne by the wind along the surface of the sea4 ,the water floats him1 the wind speeds him2 he is for the moment master of the two great elements4 ,verily the savage has his joy1 his hour of pride and exultation4 ,it is curious that the natives of ,north ,america limited themselves to the oar or the paddle4 ,the ,peruvians appear to have been the only people of this continent who1 at the time of its discovery by ,columbus1 employed the sail4 ,this is a striking instance of the very general fact1 almost amounting to a law1 that when a people have attained to a certain proficiency in the arts1 sufficient to render life tolerable1 there ensues a long pause in the career of progress4 ,it requires the stimulus of an urgent want to set at work the inventive faculties of the savage2 and when his invention has secured to him an agreeable existence1 or what he considers such1 there intervenes the force of habit and the attachment to familiar customs4 ,fortunately the differences of climate1 or other external circumstances1 require or suggest different inventions1 even in this early stage of society1 and thus one barbarian may be able to teach another4 ,a people who had brought the canoe propelled by oars to perfection1 would probably rest contented with it2 they could not have invented the sail themselves2 they might receive it from another people with whom it had been1 from the commencement1 their favourite mode of traversing the sea4 ,our 8technological instincts10 as ,mr ,wilson calls them1 go to sleep in the savage when he is no longer pinched by hunger or cold1 or other pressing inconvenience4 ,they awake again in the civilised man1 with whom invention itself has become an agreeable effort or an intellectual triumph4 ,some sort of culinary vessels are wanted1 and if these have been once shaped out of clay1 the same kind of pottery will content a people for ages4 ,if nature has thrown them the calabash1 a ready-made vessel1 their instinct of pottery will not be developed at all2 they will content themselves with the calabash4 ,mr ,wilson brings together in a very pictorial manner the two extremes of this human art of boat-building3-- 8,on the banks of the ,scottish ,clyde the modern voyager from the ,new ,world looks with peculiar interest on the growing fabrics of those huge steamers1 with ribs of steel1 and planks1 not of oak1 but of iron1 which have made the ocean1 that proved so impassable a barrier to the men of the fifteenth century1 the easy highway of commerce and pleasure to us4 ,the roar of the iron forge1 the clang of the forehammer1 the intermittent glare of the furnaces1 and all the novel appliances of iron shipbuilding1 tell of the modern era of steam2 but meanwhile1 underneath these very shipbuilders' yards1 lie the memorials of ancient ,clyde fleets1 in which we are borne back up the stream of human industry far into prehistoric times4 ,the earliest recorded discovery of a ,clyde canoe took place in #aghj1 at a depth of twenty-five feet below the surface1 on a site known by the apt designation of ,st ,enoch's ,croft4 ,this primitive canoe1 hewn out of a single oak1 rested in a horizontal position on its keel2 and within it1 near the prow1 there lay a curiously suggestive memorial of the mechanical arts of the remote era to which the ancient ship of the ,clyde must be assigned4 ,this was a beautifully finished stone axe or celt1 doubtless one of the simple implements of the allophylian ,caledonian to whom the canoe belonged1 if not1 indeed1 the tool with which it had been fashioned into shape40 ,from the hollowed trunk of a tree1 hewn with a stone axe by this 8allophylian10 as ,mr ,wilson delights in calling him1 to the iron steam-vessel that would have carried him and all his tribe across the ,atlantic1 the advance is great indeed4 ,and a very curious sentiment must arise in the man who has seen this canoe dug up from under the busy streets of ,glasgow1 and then afterwards in another continent1 on some lake or river not yet quite appropriated by the white man1 has watched some prowling ,indian paddling about in a canoe not much unlike it4 ,the past and the present seem to live together before him3 it is not the ends of the earth only that are brought together for him2 he appears to embrace the first and the last of the generations of mankind4 ,we turn from the rude arts of men to their still ruder thinking--to customs springing from some sentiment or some strange imagination4 ,of these the most universal and the most significant are customs connected with the burial of the dead4 ,to the habit of interring with the dead man the implements he most valued in life--his tools or weapons--we owe the little knowledge we possess of our very primitive ancestors4 ,it is generally said that these articles were buried with the man1 that he might have them ready for use in another world2 and1 no doubt1 some vague idea of this kind has extensively prevailed3 but if we may speculate on a subject so obscure as the imaginations of the savage1 we should say that this idea grew out of the custom of burying with the dead man his own previous possessions1 and that the custom itself at first originated in simple regret and respect for the dead4 ,we cannot have any strong sentiment without feeling the desire in some way to manifest it4 ,the dead man was loudly lamented--wept and wailed over--and the mourners often cut and wounded themselves as an exhibition of their grief4 ,well1 at such a moment1 instead of appropriating to themselves the possessions of the deceased1 the survivors threw them into the grave with him4 ,they were still in a manner his property4 ,it would manifest a disrespect to the dead if at once1 as soon as the hand of his chief was cold1 another man had seized upon his spear and carried it to his own hut4 ,thus this one passionate desire to manifest grief and respect to a late friend or chief would sufficiently account for the act of interring with the body the instruments or weapons he had been in the habit of using4 ,the custom once adopted1 superstition would step in and enforce it1 and the imagination would invest it with a new significance4 ,some poet of the land would first suggest that1 if the dead man rose from his tomb1 he would find himself equipped for the chase or for war4 ,sometimes the buried arms1 vessels1 or other implements1 were broken before they were deposited in the grave1 which does not seem to accord with the idea that they were laid there for any future use4 ,it looks like the interpretation of a subsequent generation when it is said that the savage expected the broken tool or perforated vessel1 like the decayed human body1 to be restored again and made fit for his use4 ,here is an ,indian1 a ,chinook1 buried in his canoe4 ,within the canoe a broken sword is deposited4 ,am ,i to gather that the ,chinook expected a maritime life hereafter1 and even to revive floating upon the waters8 ,does not the whole act seem1 at least in its initiation1 to be symbolical8 ,all was at an end4 ,the man would float no more--would fight no more4 ,the canoe was buried1 the sword was broken4 ,but whether we are right or not in our supposition as to the origin of this idea--namely1 that the articles buried in the tomb with the deceased would be useful to him in an after life--it is plain that such an idea has been entertained1 and certainly all our learned writers upon these ancient customs of burial attribute this motive to our imaginative forefathers4 ,when1 in the old pagan burrows of the wold of ,yorkshire or elsewhere1 some ,british or ,saxon charioteer has been exhumed1 with the iron wheel-tires and bronzed horse-furniture 7the wreck of the decayed war-chariot71 and the skeletons of the horses1 eloquent antiquarians have not failed to say 7as ,mr ,wilson does7 that the dead chief was buried thus 8that he might enter the ,valhalla of his gods1 proudly borne in the chariot in which he had been wont to charge amid the ranks of his foes40 ,we presume they find themselves justified in this interpretation4 ,here1 again1 we find that the new continent sets almost before the eyes of our traveller scenes similar to those which1 as a ,european archologist1 he had been laboriously endeavouring to reconstruct in some remote antiquity4 8,upwards of forty years since1 ,black ,bird1 a famous chief of the ,omahaws1 visited the city of ,washington1 and on his return was seized with smallpox1 of which he died on the way4 ,when the chief found himself dying1 he called his warriors around him1 and1 like ,jacob of old1 gave commands concerning his burial1 which were as literally fulfilled4 ,the dead warrior was dressed in his most sumptuous robes1 fully equipped with his scalps and war-eagle's plumes1 and borne about sixty miles below the ,omahaw village to a lofty bluff on the ,missouri1 which towers far above all the neighbouring heights1 and commands a magnificent extent of landscape4 ,to the summit of this bluff a beautiful white steed1 the favourite war-horse of ,black ,bird1 was led2 and there1 in presence of the whole nation1 the dead chief was placed with great ceremony on its back1 looking towards the river1 where1 as he had said1 he could see the canoes of the white men as they traversed the broad waters of the ,missouri4 ,his bow was placed in his hand1 his shield and quiver1 with his pipe and medicine-bag1 hung by his side4 ,his store of pemmican and his well-filled tobacco-pouch were supplied1 to sustain him on the long journey to the hunting-grounds of the great ,manitou1 where the spirits of his fathers awaited his coming4 ,the medicine-men of the tribe performed their most mystic charms to secure a happy passage to the land of the great departed2 and all else being completed1 each warrior of the chiefs own band covered the palm of his right hand with vermilion1 and stamped its impress on the white sides of the devoted war-steed4 ,this done1 the ,indians gathered turfs and soil1 and placed them around the feet and the legs of the horse4 ,gradually the pile arose under the combined labour of many willing hands1 until the living steed and its dead rider were buried together under the memorial mound2 and high over the crest of the lofty tumulus which covered the warrior's eagle plumes a cedar post was reared1 to mark more clearly to the voyagers on the ,missouri the last resting-place of ,black ,bird1 the great chief of the ,omahaws40 ,but there is one passage in ,mr ,wilson's book which1 we think1 to the student of the ancient myth or religious legend must be replete with interest4 ,it occurs in the chapter which treats on the use of tobacco and that custom of smoking which we have imported from the savage1 much to the delectation1 no doubt1 of those who inhale the fumes of what they are pleased to call the fragrant weed1 and much1 assuredly1 to the disgust and suffering of those who are involved1 most unwillingly1 in the smoke which others are exhaling around them4 ,never were two parties more sharply divided than the smokers and the non-smokers4 ,the first will doubtless agree with the ,indian in the belief that tobacco was of divine origin4 ,did not two hunters of the ,susquehannas share their venison with a lovely squaw who mysteriously appeared before them in the forest8 and did they not1 8on returning to the scene of their feast thirteen moons after1 find the tobacco-plant growing where she had sat80 and do not ,indians tell us that the ,great ,spirit freely indulges in the intoxicating fumes which they themselves love so well8 ,the non-smokers hold a different faith4 ,they see no celestial gift in this black1 fuliginous amusement2 and if they do not ascribe to it a devilish origin1 they assert that it is enjoyed with a devilish indifference to those to whom their beloved smoke is but stench and sickness4 ,into this custom of tobacco-smoking ,mr ,wilson enters at large1 and bestows much learning on the inquiry2 but it is especially to the institution of the pipe of peace amongst the ,indians that we would now direct the attention of the reader4 ,we have1 as ,mr ,wilson tells the story1 the complete dissection of a myth2 we see how a legend arises1 or may arise1 partly from the most trivial causes1 and partly from generous impulses and high imaginations4 ,between the ,minnesota and the ,missouri rivers there stands a bold perpendicular cliff1 8beautifully marked with distinct horizontal layers of light grey and rose or flesh-coloured quartz40 ,near this a famous red pipe-stone is procured2 a material1 we presume1 better fitted than any other for making pipes4 ,traces of both ancient and modern excavation prove that it has been the resort1 during many generations1 of ,indian tribes1 seeking this famous red pipe-stone4 ,a spot to which independent tribes came for this purpose1 and for this only1 became neutral ground2 became a spot on which they might meet in peace--perhaps to discuss their points of difference4 ,but in process of time it became a sacred spot1 and the peace between hostile tribes was preserved by a religious sanction4 ,there are marks on the rock resembling the track of a large bird4 ,these were converted into the footsteps of the ,great ,spirit4 ,the ,great ,spirit1 therefore1 at one time descended upon the rock and taught--what else could he be supposed to teach8--the sacred neutrality of the spot1 and the privilege and duty of all tribes to renew their pipes there1 and especially the calumet1 or pipe of peace4 ,the last version of the tradition runs thus3-- 8,many ages10 say the ,sioux1 8after the red men were made1 when all the different tribes were at war1 the ,great ,spirit called them all together at the ,red ,rocks4 ,he stood on the top of the rocks1 and the red nations were assembled in infinite numbers in the plain below4 ,he took out of the rock a piece of the red stone1 and made a large pipe4 ,he smoked it over them all2 told them that it was part of their flesh2 that though they were at war they must meet at this place as friends2 that it belonged to them all2 that they must make their calumets from it1 and smoke them to him whenever they wished to appease him or get his goodwill4 ,the smoke from his big pipe rolled over them all1 and he disappeared in the cloud40 ,the ,sioux1 notwithstanding this good teaching of the very tradition which they still repeat to the stranger1 have1 by the right of the strongest1 taken possession of the sacred neutral ground2 and they1 and all other tribes of the red race1 are either being absorbed into the white population or exterminated by it4 ,the development of the myth and the people of the myth has been therefrom alike arrested4 ,but how clearly we see its growth and formation6 ,to what a mystical faith that flesh-coloured quartz was conducting6 ,and what mingling of the divine and human would have been suggested by the act recorded of the ,great ,spirit6 ,if these ,indian tribes had finally coalesced in one nation1 the myth would have been exalted1 and the ,great ,spirit would have taught them an eternal bond of peace and brotherhood4 ,if civilisation and culture had still further advanced1 this peace and brotherhood would have embraced all mankind1 and assumed the form of the highest moral teaching4 ,a considerable portion of ,mr ,wilson's book is occupied with those ancient remains1 whether in the valley of the ,mississippi or in the forests of ,central ,america1 which speak of a civilisation1 or at least of nations and of cities that had existed and left their ruins behind them1 anterior to what we call the discovery of the ,new ,world4 ,the subject is highly interesting1 and it loses none of its interest in the hands of our author4 ,he speaks very decidedly on the great antiquity of the mounds and the earthworks of the valley of the ,mississippi2 less decidedly on the antiquity of the monumental pillars and other architectural remains which were first brought to the knowledge of the ,english public through the travels of ,mr ,stephens in ,central ,america4 ,the work of ,mr ,squiers still contains1 we believe1 the fullest account we possess of those vast circular mounds1 and other extraordinary earthworks1 discovered within the territory of the ,united ,states4 ,both these writers1 ,mr ,stephens and ,mr ,squiers1 produced at the time of the publication of their several works a very vivid impression on the reading public of ,england4 ,both of them broke ground into quite new fields of inquiry1 but both of them left the mind rather excited than informed4 ,this was to be expected when the subject was of so novel and surprising a character4 ,mr ,squiers saw evidences of serpent-worship and of other religious rites which his study of the antiquities of the ,old ,world had made familiar to his imagination1 in the circular mounds which he traced in the open field3 and ,mr ,stephens1 as he broke his way through the forests1 saw the ruins of another ,egypt stand before him4 ,that no tradition should exist amongst the present race of ,indians with respect to these primitive 8mound-builders10 is not surprising2 nor would this alone indicate any very great antiquity4 ,mr ,wilson thinks the state in which the skeletons were found within the tumuli--crumbling to dust on being touched--is sufficient proof of their great age4 ,one must know all the circumstances of the burial1 all the influences to which the skeleton has been exposed1 before any safe conclusion can be drawn from this fact4 ,but1 leaving undetermined the antiquity of these remains1 we think it plain that the first discoverers of them1 whether of the mounds or of the ruined cities1 have1 with the natural enthusiasm pertaining to all discoverers1 exaggerated the evidence they display of civilisation1 or progress in the arts4 ,after all1 the soundest opinion seems to be that the 8mound-builders0 and the builders of the deserted cities were but the intellectual progenitors of those half-civilised ,mexicans and ,peruvians whom the ,spaniards encountered and destroyed4 ,it is not likely that any higher or equal state of civilisation had been attained and lost before the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,the quite circular form of an extensive mound or earthwork is thought to imply a knowledge of geometry or trigonometry1 because a modern surveyor would proceed in a certain scientific manner to lay out such a circle4 ,but the slow process of measuring a number of radii from a given centre1 and connecting their terminal points1 would probably have sufficed for all that these early geometers executed4 ,or they might have drawn a smaller circle1 in the first instance1 by a movable radius1 and then traced a larger and a larger one outside of this1 till they had obtained one of the requisite magnitude4 ,time and labour will accomplish much1 and with very little help from art or science4 ,but where imagination seems to play the subtlest tricks with our antiquarians is in their appreciation of the beautiful in such relics of the fine arts as are discovered in these mounds and cities4 ,we have prints given us here of carved pipes found in the tombs1 which we are told are very beautiful4 ,to our eye they do not look beautiful at all1 and very little in advance of other prints which represent pipes carved by the present race of ,red ,indians4 ,but it is when the antiquarian critic finds himself amongst the remains of the rude sculptures of ,central ,america that he shows himself most under the influence of this glamour4 ,if we had not the pictures or engravings by which to check the text1 we should think that ,thebes and ,memphis had been long ago outrivalled on the other side of the ,atlantic4 ,our readers1 we are sure1 have not forgotten ,mr ,stephens's book of travels2 they will remember how he entered with his guide into what seemed an untrodden forest at ,copan1 apparently undisturbed from its very creation2 and how1 as he made his way with his axe through the brushwood1 he found himself face to face with an upright column of stone elaborately carved4 ,in the centre of this a human face of gigantic proportions stared out upon him4 ,some of these monuments had been overpowered by the vigorous growth of the surrounding trees1 and displaced from their upright position by huge branches that half encircled them2 others lay upon the ground1 as if bound down by the vines and other great creepers of the ,american forest4 ,nothing disturbed the solitude of the scene except a grimacing procession of monkeys1 who from the branches of the trees were looking alternately at the traveller1 and at the mysterious objects which had attracted the traveller's attention4 ,as he proceeded he came upon a truncated pyramid1 with a flight of steps leading to a broad surface1 on which evidently some other structure had been raised2 and then again he entered a square enclosure with steps1 which might have been intended for seats1 running up on all sides1 reminding him of a ,roman amphitheatre4 ,no books had told him of the existence even of this ruined city4 ,who had built it1 who had lived in it1 no one could say4 ,the people of the country could only answer him with their 8,quien sabe80 who knows8--an answer always sufficient for themselves4 ,there was not even a tradition1 not even a palpable lie1 to be heard4 ,men were as silent about these cities as the forest itself4 ,what wonder that the enthusiasm of the traveller should be excited1 and that he should see more than the eye--as a simple optical instrument--disclosed to him8 ,assuredly his enthusiasm as to the beauty of the sculpture is not supported by the drawings he has given us4 ,he commends to us these drawings of the artist as being1 8next to the stones themselves10 the most perfect materials on which to form our judgment4 ,and of one thing we may be certain1 that a modern artist1 trained to the correct representation of the human figure1 would err1 if he erred at all1 by improving the drawing in these grotesque sculptures4 ,it would require a distinct effort in the modern artist to depart from the true outline and proportions of the human form2 and whenever his attention relaxed1 he would infallibly become more correct than his original4 ,well1 we see in the delineation here given us a mere pillar1 in the centre of which is carved a human face1 and lower down two fat arms1 which the imagination is to connect with the unmeaning face above them2 and we are told in the text 8that the character of this image is grand1 and it would be difficult to exceed the richness of the ornament40 ,we turn the page and see another gigantic head1 with huge saucer eyes1 such as a child would draw1 and we are told that 8the style is good10 and that 8the great expansion of the eyes seems intended to inspire awe40 ,so are the masks sold in our toy-shops to mischief-loving boys4 ,but very silly savages must those have been in whom such absurd figures could have inspired awe4 ,mr ,stephens is constantly being 8arrested by the beauty of the sculpture40 ,the bas-reliefs at ,palenque are indeed superior to anything he met with at ,copan1 and some drawings from these exhibit an unexpected grace1 and an outline perhaps unconsciously improved by the hand of the artist4 ,but here also we are startled at the discrepancy between the description of the enraptured traveller and the representation in the engravings4 ,we have1 in one of them1 a figure sitting cross-legged upon a narrow bench2 his legs are tucked up under him painfully tight1 and his balance must be preserved with great difficulty2 his large nose is in manifest danger of breaking itself upon the floor4 ,we are told that this figure sits 8on a couch1 ornamented with two leopards' heads10 and that 8the attitude is easy1 and the expression calm and benevolent40 ,the first discoverer must evidently have looked with something of a lover's eye4 ,the learned antiquarian has been nowhere more exposed to delusion than in this ,new ,world4 ,mr ,wilson gives us an amusing account of the inscription on the ,dighton ,rock1 which has received so many various interpretations4 ,it stands in ,new ,england2 and at a time when it was a favourite speculation of its theologians1 that the ,phnicians had been the earliest colonists of ,america1 and that the accursed race of ,canaan had been banished there1 this inscription was decided to be ,punic4 ,dr ,stiles1 ,president of ,yale ,college1 when preaching in #aghc before the ,governor and ,state of ,connecticut1 appealed to the ,dighton ,rock1 graven1 as he believed1 in the old ,punic or ,phnician character and language1 in proof that the ,indians were of the cursed seed of ,canaan1 and were to be displaced and rooted out by the ,european descendants of ,japhet6 8,the ,phnicians10 says ,dr ,stiles1 8charged the ,dighton and other rocks in ,narraganset ,bay with ,punic inscriptions remaining to this day1 which last ,i myself have repeatedly seen and taken off at large1 as did ,professor ,sewell4 ,he has lately transmitted a copy of this inscription to ,m4 ,gebelin of the ,parisian ,academy of ,sciences1 who1 comparing them with the ,punic palography1 judges them to be ,punic1 and has interpreted them as denoting that the ancient ,carthaginians once visited these distant regions40 ,various copies1 all professing to be most carefully executed1 of this inscription1 were sent to antiquarian societies1 to museums1 to colleges1 as well in ,europe as in ,america4 ,a learned ,colonel ,vallency1 of the ,london ,antiquarian ,society1 undertook to prove that the inscription was neither ,phnician nor ,punic1 but ,siberian4 ,then it became the fashion to look upon the ,danes and the ,northmen as the first discoverers of ,america1 or its first colonists1 and the ,punic was changed into a ,runic inscription4 ,the names of ,thorfinn and other ,norse heroes were plainly read in this wild scrawl upon the ,dighton ,rock4 ,learned ,danes themselves found no difficulty in deciphering the name at least of the chief hero who conducted the expedition of which this is a memorial1 though they confess that the names of his associates are not quite so legible4 8,surely no inscription10 continues ,mr ,wilson1 8ancient or modern1 not even the ,behistun cuneatics or the trilingual ,rosetta ,stone1 ever received more faithful study4 ,but the most curious matter relating to this written rock is1 that after being thus put to the question by learned inquisitors for a hundred and fifty years1 it did at length yield a most surprising response4 ,mr ,schoolcraft tested the origin and significance of the ,dighton ,rock inscription1 by submitting a copy of it to ,chingwauk1 an intelligent ,indian chief1 familiar with the native system of picture-writing4 ,the result was an interpretation of the whole as the record of an ,indian triumph over some rival native tribe1 and the conviction on ,mr ,schoolcraft's part that the graven rock is simply an example of ,indian rock-writing1 attributable to the ,wabenakies of ,new ,england4444 ,and such is the conviction reluctantly formed in the mind of the most enthusiastic believer in the discovery and colonisation of ,new ,england by the ,northmen40 ,we are in danger of losing our way entirely amongst the multitude of interesting subjects which ,mr ,wilson's two thick volumes present to us--and present1 it must be confessed1 in a somewhat confused array4 ,a rather pleasant effect is produced by the bringing together the knowledge of the ,european archologist with the observations of the modern traveller2 but this leads to a discursive style4 ,in spite of the distinct titles of the several chapters1 we never know precisely what we are discussing1 and where to look for anything a second time which we may remember to have read4 ,we are now engaged with the wild ,indians1 and are reminded of such human curiosities as the 8,flatheads10 who glory in producing a deformed skull by a distressing pressure on the infant's head1 of which process we have a gilded picture strangely ornamenting our learned volumes4 ,these ,flatheads are plainly uninjured in their intellects by this distortion of the skull2 so as there is room left for the development of the cerebrum1 all seems right2 and even when nature keeps the formation of the skull in her own hands1 we apprehend this is all that is wanted4 ,these ,flatheads contrive to make slaves of the neighbouring round-headed ,indians1--who1 by the way1 are not permitted to flatten the heads of their children1 this being jealously guarded as a sign of freedom and aristocratic privileges4 ,they are said to look with contempt on the whites1 as bearing in the shape of their heads the hereditary mark of slaves4 ,after contemplating for a time these unprogressive natives1 some railroad car comes whizzing past1 or the posts of the electric telegraph remind the author of the go-ahead ,american who is gradually appropriating all the soil to himself4 ,we have a highly characteristic trait mentioned of the new race4 ,not only does he cut down forests and break up the prairie1 but he trades in water-lots--in land still covered with water2 appropriates and sells half the soil of a lake which has yet to be reduced to the economical proportion he intends to allow it4 ,the two races cannot plainly long reside on the same continent2 but ,mr ,wilson brings before us a fact which will probably be new to most ,english readers4 ,it is almost as much an absorption into the white race as a process of extinction that is now going on amongst the ,red ,indians4 ,wherever the whites1 whether they are ,french1 or ,english1 or ,scotch1 have been long settled in the neighbourhood of ,indian tribes1 there has grown up a mixed race or half-breed4 ,this half-breed1 in some instances1 remains in the settlement of the whites1 but in others it still follows the mode of life of its ,indian parent1 and a race grows up that is neither ,european nor ,indian4 ,whole tribes seem now to be constituted of this half-breed1 and they are distinguished for their power of endurance and their greater faculty for social organisation4 ,but in proportion as they approximate to the ,european1 the less likelihood is there that they will long remain distinct and separated from the ,european by their mode of life4 8,the idea10 says ,mr ,wilson1 8of the absorption of the ,indian into the ,anglo-,american race will not1 ,i am aware1 meet with a ready acceptance1 even from those who dwell where its traces are most perceptible2 but fully to appreciate its extent1 we must endeavour to follow down the course of events by which the continent has been transferred to the descendants of its ,european colonists4 ,at every fresh stage of colonisation or pioneering into the wild west1 the work has necessarily been accomplished by the hardy youths1 or the hunters and trappers of the clearing4 ,rarely indeed did they carry with them their wives or daughters2 but where they found a home amongst savage-haunted wilds1 they took to themselves wives of the daughters of the soil4 ,to this mingling of blood1 even in its least favourable aspects1 the prejudices of the ,indian presented little obstacle4 ,henry1 in his narrative of travel among the ,cristineaux1 says1 #8,one of the chiefs assured me that the children borne by their women to ,europeans were bolder warriors and better hunters than themselves4' ,the fact is unquestionable that all along the widening outskirts of the newer clearings1 and wherever an outlying trading or hunting post is established1 we find a fringe of half-breed population1 marking the transitional border-land which is passing away from its aboriginal claimants4444 ,at all the white settlements near those of the ,indians the evidence of admixture is abundant1 from the pure half-breed to the slightly-marked remoter descendant of ,indian maternity1 discoverable only by the straight black hair1 and a singular watery glaze in the eye1 not unlike that of the ,english gypsy4 ,there they are to be seen1 not only as fishers1 trappers1 and lumberers1 but engaged on equal terms with the whites in the trade and business of the place4 ,in this condition the population of all the frontier settlements exists2 if1 as new settlers come in1 the mixed element disappears1 it does so purely by absorption4 8,nor are such traces confined to the frontier settlements4 ,i have recognised the semi-,indian features in the gay assemblies at a ,canadian ,governor-,general's receptions1 in the halls of the ,legislature1 among the undergraduates of ,canadian universities1 and mingling in the selectest social circles4 ,and this is what has been going on in every new ,american settlement for upwards of three centuries1 under every diversity of circumstance40 ,this is a far more agreeable idea than that the ,indians are being everywhere starved out of existence by the encroachments of the ,european4 ,but that portion of the mixed offspring which adhered to the ,indian tribe1 and became ,indian in its habits1 affords a still more interesting subject of speculation4 ,on the ,red ,river there is a settlement of half-breeds1 numbering about six thousand4 ,a marked difference1 we are told1 8is observable1 according to their white paternity4 ,the ,french half-breeds are more lively and frank in their bearing1 but also less prone to settle down to drudgery of farming1 or other routine duties of civilised life1 than those chiefly of ,scottish descent40 ,if in both cases the half-breed has been entirely educated by its ,indian parent1 this would be a good instance of the influence of race as separable from the influence of education4 ,these half-breeds are generally superior in physical as well as mental qualities1 and have greater powers of endurance than any of the native tribes exhibit4 ,mr ,wilson assures us 8that the last traces of the ,red blood will disappear1 not by the extinction of the ,indian tribes1 but by the absorption of the half-breed minority into the new generations of the predominant race40 ,of the warlike tribes of native ,indians some have been induced to settle down as agriculturists4 ,some are ,roman ,catholics1 some ,protestants4 ,but we believe it may be stated that all signal amendments or progressive changes have been accompanied by a mixture of ,european blood4 ,to this very day the full-blooded ,indian despises the civilisation of the white man1 or at least thinks it something that may be good for the white man1 but by no means good for him4 ,the fierce tribes that constituted the famous confederacy of the ,iroquois1 and who have settled in ,canada1 have been all more or less tamed1 but they have all lost the purity of their race2 and when we hear of the hunter of the prairies taking upon himself the mode of life of ,european colonists1 we may be sure that this change has been facilitated by an intermixture of the two races4 ,some of these tribes have forgotten their own language1 and speak only a ,french patois4 ,we do not imply by this observation that the native ,indian would have been incapable of advancing by a slow and natural progression of their own on the road of civilisation3 on the contrary1 we believe that the civilisation of the ,aztecs and the ,peruvians may be seen in its earliest stage amongst the ,iroquois4 ,but when the ,european encounters the savage1 there is a gap between them which the latter cannot suddenly traverse4 ,the intermediate steps are not presented to him4 ,the time is not given him by which slow-changing habits can be formed and transmitted4 ,he is required to proceed at a faster pace than his savage nature can accomplish4 ,now1 as every generation that has advanced upon its predecessors1 transmits1 together with its knowledge1 some increasing aptitude for the acquisition of such knowledge1 there is no difficulty in believing that the savage would be expedited in his career of civilisation as well by an intermixture of race as by a participation of knowledge4 ,the whole chapter of ,mr ,wilson on the ,red ,race is well worthy of perusal4 ,the reader will find in it many interesting details1 which1 of course1 our space will not permit us to allude to4 ,we shall conclude our notice by some reference to a topic especially interesting when we speak of the progress of civilisation--namely1 the mode of transmitting ideas1 the art of writing1 or letters4 ,our author1 according to his favourite phraseology1 entitles his chapter on this subject #8,the ,intellectual ,instinct3 ,letters4' ,the origin of language may be open to discussion4 ,its gradual growth from the wants1 the social passions1 the organisation1 the mimetic and reasoning powers of man1 may to many persons seem an unsatisfactory account4 ,but no one disputes that writing is an invention of man4 ,even if the steps of this invention had not been traced1 we should have been unable to frame any other hypothesis with regard to an art possessed by one people and not possessed by another4 ,we may define writing to be the transmission of ideas by visible and permanent signs1 instead of by momentary sounds and gestures4 ,the art of writing1 it must be remembered1 is not complete till the characters upon the paper1 or the parchment1 or the plaster of the wall1 or the graven rock1 interpret themselves to one who knows the conventional value of the several signs4 ,so long as any picture-writing or symbolic figures act merely as aids to the memory1 in retaining a history of events which is1 in fact1 transmitted by oral tradition1 writing is not yet invented4 ,the picture1 however faithful1 gives its meaning only to those who know many other facts which are not in the picture itself4 ,when a system of signs has been invented1 by which alone the ideas of one person1 or one generation1 can be communicated to another person or another generation1 then the art has been attained1 whether those signs are hieroglyphics or alphabetical1 whether they are signs of things or signs of words4 ,this is necessary to be borne in mind1 because there is a certain use of pictorial and symbolic signs which is in danger of being confounded with the perfect hieroglyph2 and we are inclined to think this confusion has been made with regard to some of the sculptured remains discovered in ,central ,america4 ,we doubt if these 8hieroglyphics10 which scholars are invited to study and to interpret1 are hieroglyphics as the word is understood by the ,egyptologist4 ,granting that they always have a meaning1 and are not introduced1 in some cases1 as mere ornaments 7just as we introduce the heads of stags or the figures of little children on any vase we desire to ornament71 still it may be a meaning of that kind which could be only intelligible to one who from other sources knew the history or the fable it was intended to bring to remembrance4 ,a representation of this kind1 half pictorial and half symbolic1 would help to keep alive the memory of an event2 but1 the memory of it once extinct1 it could not revive the knowledge of the event to us4 ,we should waste our ingenuity in vain attempts to read what was not1 in fact1 any kind of writing4 ,the ,peruvians had manifestly not advanced beyond a system of mnemonics1 a kind of memoria technica4 ,with certain knots in strings of different colours they had associated certain ideas4 ,a ,peruvian woman could show you a bundle of knotted strings and tell you her whole life 8was there40 ,to her it was1 but to no one else4 ,if all the ,peruvians agreed to associate the history of ,peru with other bundles of knotted cords1 their quipus would still be only an aid to memory2 the history itself must be conveyed from one mind to another by oral communication4 ,some of the ,north ,american ,indians had their wampum1 their many-coloured belt1 into which they talked their treaty1 or any other matter it was desirable to remember4 ,the ,mexicans had mingled symbols with their picture-writing1 but they had not wrought the hieroglyphic into a system1 by means of which alone ideas could be conveyed from one generation to another4 ,with them it could not be said that the art of writing was known4 ,but antiquarians have formed1 it seems1 a different opinion of the mixture of symbol and picture discovered in the ruins of ,copan and ,palenque2 and1 partly on this ground1 they arrived at the conclusion that these cities were built and inhabited by a people in advance of the ,mexicans or ,aztecs discovered by the ,spaniards4 ,mr ,wilson says very distinctly of those mysterious sculptures3 8,they are no rude abbreviations1 like the symbols either of ,indian or ,aztec picture-writing2 but rather suggest the idea of a matured system of ideography in its last transitional stage1 before becoming a word-alphabet like that of the ,chinese at the present day40 ,we should be open to the charge of great presumption1 if1 with nothing before us but a few engravings by which to guide our judgment1 we ventured to offer an opinion opposed to that of ,mr ,wilson1 or of others who have made the subject one of especial study4 ,but opposite to the very page 7p4 #adj1 vol4 ii47 from which we take this last sentence we have quoted1 ,mr ,wilson gives us an engraving of what are denominated 8hieroglyphics40 ,it appears to us as if the pillar here represented had been divided into compartments1 and each compartment had been filled by the artist with some appropriate subject1 generally some human figure whose action and attitude are unintelligible to us2 but the whole conveys the idea1 not of a series of hieroglyphics1 but of individual representations1 each of which has its own independent meaning4 ,other engravings1 indeed1 approximate more nearly to the hieroglyphic2 the arbitrary sign is more conspicuous1 and there is a more frequent repetition of the same subject2 but when we consider the poverty of invention that even in later times afflicts the arts1 and the tendency to repeat and to copy which is very noticeable in rude times1 we are not surprised that the same subject is often found on the same monument1 or that it has spread from ,copan to ,palenque4 ,there is nothing in the engravings before us1 or in the account given of them1 which proves that a really hieroglyphic system had been invented2 and we cannot but suspect that those who undertake the task of deciphering them will inevitably fail1 not because the key cannot be found1 but because no key ever existed4 ,suppose a monument erected or a medal struck in honour of one of our own excellent missionaries2 suppose it represented the missionary-standing with one foot on a broken image1 or idol1 and that by his side knelt some half-naked savage with a cross in his hands--this mixture of picture and of symbol would tell its tale very intelligibly to us1 for we have heard before of the labours of the missionary4 ,but suppose this and other pictures of the same kind were handed down to a remote posterity1 who had no information except what the pictures themselves conveyed by which to understand them1 what hopeless perplexities would they for ever remain6 ,and the use of the repeated symbol might lead to the persuasion that they were composed on some hieroglyphic system4 ,we might imagine learned men toiling for ever over such representation1 and never coming to any satisfactory result4 ,what different impressions the same pictorial representation may convey to two different persons1 we have many an amusing instance of in the history of our ,egyptian discoveries1 or efforts at discovery4 ,we borrow an example from the pages before us4 ,on the wall of the temple at ,phil1 at the first cataract of the ,nile1 a figure is seen seated at work on what seems a potter's wheel1 and there is a group of hieroglyphics over its head4 ,one learned translator reads and explains thus3--8,kaum the ,creator1 on his wheel1 moulds the divine members of ,osiris 7the type of man7 in the shining house of life1 or the solar disk40 ,another learned man1 ,mr ,birch of the ,british ,museum1 soars1 if possible1 still higher for a meaning3--8,phtah ,totonem1 the father of beginnings1 is setting in motion the egg of the sun and moon1 director of the gods of the upper world40 ,mr ,wilson1 we presume1 in accordance with a still later interpretation1 calls this figure simply the 8ram-headed god ,kneph10 without explaining what he is doing with his wheel4 ,if the picture and the hieroglyphic together lead to such various results1 we may easily conceive what wild work would be made by an attempt to interpret a pictorial representation alone4 ,we hesitate to assign to the inscriptions discovered in these ruined cities the true character of hieroglyphics2 that is1 of a system of symbols by means of which1 independently of oral tradition1 the ideas of one generation could be conveyed to another4 ,but our readers would probably prefer to have ,mr ,wilson's matured judgment to our own conjectures4 ,he says3-- 8,on the sculptured tablets of ,copan1 ,quirigua1 and ,palenque1 as well as on the colossal statues at ,copan and other ancient sites in ,central ,america1 groups of hieroglyphic devices occur arranged in perpendicular or horizontal rows1 as regularly as the letters of any ancient or modern inscription4 ,the analogies to ,egyptian hieroglyphics are great1 for all the figures embody1 more or less clearly defined1 representations of objects in nature or art4 ,but the differences are no less essential1 and leave no room to doubt that in these columns of sculptured symbols we witness the highest development to which picture-writing attained1 in the progress of that indigenous ,american civilisation so singularly illustrative of the intellectual unity which binds together the divers races of man4 ,a portion of the hieroglyphic inscription which accompanies the remarkable ,palenque sculpture of a figure offering what has been assumed to represent an infant before a cross1 will best suffice to illustrate the characteristics of this form of writing40 ,what is the antiquity of these ruined cities8 ,the first tendency was to carry them back into some very remote period1 far beyond the memory or knowledge of the ,mexicans and ,peruvians4 ,this was the first impression of ,mr ,stephens2 afterwards he was disposed to bring them nearer the epoch of the ,spanish conquest4 ,he had lent a credulous ear to the story of some good padre1 who had assured him that a native ,indian city1 greater than ,copan could have ever been1 still existed in a flourishing and populous condition1 in some district untrodden by the ,european traveller4 ,and this faith1 that a ,copan still existed1 naturally induced him to believe that the ruined ,copan1 not belonging to an extinct civilisation1 might not be so old as he first presumed it to be4 ,he seems to have thought it possible that some of these cities might have been inhabited at the time of the ,spanish conquest1 and that others at that period were already a heap of ruins4 ,war appears to have been incessant amongst almost all the tribes of the native ,americans4 ,on this account it appears to us very probable that many cities may have been built and destroyed1 and a partial civilisation won and lost in them1 prior to the epoch of the ,spanish conquest4 ,such oscillations1 very likely1 occurred in the progress of ,american civilisation4 ,and in some of these oscillatory movements a nearer approach might have been made to the art of writing than in that one phase of this civilisation in which the ,european discovered and destroyed it for ever4 ,but our impression is1 that1 viewing the history of this continent as a whole1 there has been a slow irregular progress1 which had reached its highest point in the epoch of ,montezuma and the ,incas of ,peru4 ,the earliest stages of human progress are very slow1 and much interrupted by wars of conquest and extermination4 ,we find no difficulty1 therefore1 in assigning a great antiquity to some of these ruined cities1 and a still greater antiquity to the curious mounds and earthworks in the valley of the ,mississippi1 without necessarily inferring that these are the remains of any civilisation superior to what history has made known to us4 ,and before these mounds were constructed1 there might have passed a long epoch in which man wandered wild by the rivers and in the forests of this continent4 ,this last-mentioned epoch of mere savage existence1 some of our speculative philosophers would extend to an enormous duration4 ,we are not disposed1 by any evidence yet submitted to us1 to expand this period to what we must not call a disproportionate length1 because we have not the whole life of the human race before us2 but which1 arguing on those progressive tendencies which1 notwithstanding the impediments and checks they receive1 constitute the main characteristic of the species1 seems an improbable length4 ,let the geologist1 however1 to whom this part of the problem must be handed over1 pursue his researches1 and we need not say we shall be happy to receive whatever knowledge of the now forgotten past he can bring to light4 ,,caxtoniana3 ,a ,,series ,,of ,,essays ,,on ,,life1 ,,literature1 ,,and ,,manners4 ,by the ,author of #8,the ,caxton ,family4' ,,part ,,xvi4 ,,no4 ,,xxii4--,,on ,,certain ,,principles ,,of ,,art ,,in ,,works ,,of ,,imagination4 ,every description of literature has its appropriate art4 ,this truth is immediately acknowledged in works of imagination4 ,we speak1 in familiar phrase1 of the ,dramatic ,art1 or the ,art of ,poetry4 ,but the presence of art is less generally recognised in works addressed to the reason4 ,nevertheless1 art has its place in a treatise on political economy1 or in a table of statistics4 ,for in all subjects1 however rigidly confined to abstract principles or positive facts1 the principles and facts cannot be thrown together pell-mell2 they require an artistic arrangement4 ,expression itself is an art4 ,so that even works of pure science cannot dispense with art1 because they cannot dispense with expression4 ,what is called method in ,science is the art by which ,science makes itself intelligible4 ,there is exquisite art in the arrangement of a problem in ,euclid4 ,if a man have a general knowledge of the fact that all lines drawn from the centre of a circle to the circumference are equal1 but has never seen that fact proved by ,euclid1 let him attempt to prove it in his own way1 and then compare his attempt with the problem in ,euclid which demonstrates the fact1 and he will at once acknowledge the master's art of demonstration4 ,pascal is said to have divined1 by the force of his own genius1 so large a number of ,euclid's propositions1 as to appear almost miraculous to his admirers1 and wholly incredible to his aspersers4 ,yet that number did not exceed eighteen4 ,in fact1 art and science have their meeting-point in method4 ,and though ,kant applies the word genius 7ingenium7 strictly to the cultivators of ,art1 refusing to extend it to the cultivators of ,science1 yet the more we examine the highest orders of intellect1 whether devoted to science1 to art1 or even to action1 the more clearly we shall observe the presence of a faculty common to all such orders of intellect1 because essential to completion in each--a faculty which seems so far intuitive or innate 7ingenium7 that1 though study and practice perfect it1 they do not suffice to bestow--viz41 the faculty of grouping into order and symmetrical form1 ideas in themselves scattered and dissimilar4 ,this is the faculty of ,method2 and though every one who possesses it is not necessarily a great man1 yet every great man must possess it in a very superior degree1 whether he be a poet1 a philosopher1 a statesman1 a general2 for every great man exhibits the talent of organisation or construction1 whether it be in a poem1 a philosophical system1 a policy1 or a strategy4 ,and without method there is no organisation nor construction4 ,but in art1 method is less perceptible than in science1 and in familiar language usually receives some other name4 ,nevertheless1 we include the meaning when we speak of the composition of a picture1 the arrangement of an oration1 the plan of a poem4 ,art employing method for the symmetrical formation of beauty1 as science employs it for the logical exposition of truth3 but the mechanical process is1 in the last1 ever kept visibly distinct2 while1 in the first1 it escapes from sight amid the shows of colour and the curves of grace4 ,and though1 as ,i have said1 ,art enters into all works1 whether addressed to the reason or to the imagination1 those addressed to the imagination are works of ,art par emphasis1 for they require much more than the elementary principles which ,art has in common with ,science4 ,the two part company with each other almost as soon as they meet on that ground of ,method which is common to both1--,science ever seeking1 through all forms of the ideal1 to realise the ,positive--,art1 from all forms of the ,positive1 ever seeking to extract the ,ideal4 ,the beau ideal is not in the reason--its only existence is in the imagination4 ,to create in the reader's mind images which do not exist in the world1 and leave them there1 imperishable as the memories of friends with whom he has lived1 and of scenes in which he has had his home1 obviously necessitates a much ampler and much subtler ,art than that which is required to make a positive fact clear to the comprehension4 ,the highest quality of ,art1 as applied to literature1 is therefore called 8the ,creative40 ,nor do ,i attach any importance to the cavil of some over ingenious critics1 who have denied that genius in reality creates2 inasmuch as the forms it presents are only new combinations of ideas already existent4 ,new combinations are1 to all plain intents and purposes1 creations4 ,it is not in the power of man to create something out of nothing4 ,and though the ,deity no doubt can do so now--as those who acknowledge that the ,divine ,creator preceded all created things1 must suppose that ,he did before there was even a ,chaos--yet1 so far as it is vouchsafed to us to trace ,him through ,nature1 all that we see in created ,nature is combined out of what before existed4 ,art1 therefore1 may be said to create when it combines existent details into new wholes4 ,no man can say that the watch which lies before me1 or the table on which ,i write1 were not created 7that is1 made7 by the watchmaker or cabinetmaker1 because the materials which compose a watch or a table have been on the earth1 so far as we know of it1 since the earth was a world fit for men to dwell in4 ,therefore1 neither in ,nature nor in ,art can it be truly said that that power is not creative which brings into the world a new form1 though all which compose a form1 as all which compose a flower1 a tree1 a mite1 an elephant1 a man1 are1 if taken in detail1 as old as the gases in the air we breathe1 or the elements of the earth we tread4 ,but the ,creative ,faculty in ,art requires a higher power than it asks in ,nature2 for ,nature may create things without life and mind--,nature may create dust and stones which have no other life and mind than are possessed by the animalcules that inhabit them4 ,but the moment ,art creates1 it puts into its creations life and intellect2 and it is only in proportion as the life thus bestowed endures beyond the life of man1 and the intellect thus expressed exceeds that which millions of men can embody in one form1 that we acknowledge a really great work of ,art--that we say of the ,artist1 centuries after he is dead1 8,he was indeed a ,poet10 that is1 a creator3 ,he has created a form of life which the world did not know before1 and breathed into that form a spirit which preserves it from the decay to which all of man himself except his soul is subjected4 ,achilles is killed by ,paris2 ,homer re-creates ,achilles--and the ,achilles of ,homer is alive to-day4 ,by the common consent of all educated nations1 the highest order of ,art in ,literature is the ,narrative1 that is the ,epic2 and the next to it in eminence is the ,dramatic4 ,we are1 therefore1 compelled to allow that the objective faculty--which is the imperative essential of excellence in either of these two summits of the #8forked ,parnassus'--attains to a sublimer reach of art than the subjective--that is1 in order to make my scholastic adjectives familiar to common apprehension1 the artist who reflects vividly and truthfully1 in the impartial mirror of his mind1 other circumstances1 other lives1 other characters than his own1 belongs to a higher order than he who1 subjecting all that he contemplates to his own idiosyncrasy1 reflects but himself in his various images of nature and mankind4 ,we admit this when we come to examples4 ,we admit that ,homer is of a higher order of art than ,sappho2 that ,shakespeare's #8,macbeth' is of a higher order of art than ,shakespeare's ,sonnets2 #8,macbeth' being purely objective--the ,sonnets being the most subjective poems which the ,elizabethan age can exhibit4 ,but it is not his choice of the highest order of art that makes a great artist4 ,if one man says 8,i will write an epic10 and writes but a mediocre epic1 and another man says 8,i will write a song10 and writes an admirable song--the man who writes what is admirable is superior to him who writes what is mediocre4 ,there is no doubt that ,horace is inferior to ,homer--so inferior that we cannot apportion the difference4 ,the one is epic1 the other lyrical4 ,but there is no doubt also that ,horace is incalculably superior to ,tryphiodorus or ,sir ,richard ,blackmore1 though they are epical and he is lyrical4 ,in a word1 it is perfectly obvious1 that in proportion to the height of the art attempted must be the powers of the artist1 so that there is the requisite harmony between his subject and his genius2 and that he who commands a signal success in one of the less elevated spheres of art must be considered a greater artist than he who obtains but indifferent success in the most arduous4 ,nevertheless1 ,narrative necessitates so high a stretch of imagination1 and so wide a range of intellect1 that it will always obtain1 if tolerably well told1 a precedence of immediate popularity over the most exquisite productions of an inferior order of the solid and staple qualities of imagination--so much so that1 even where the first has resort to what may be called the brick and mortar of prose1 as compared with the ivory1 marble1 and cedar of verse1 a really great work of ,narrative in prose will generally obtain a wider audience1 even among the most fastidious readers1 than poems1 however good1 in which the imagination is less creative1 and the author rather describes or moralises over what is1 than invents and vivifies what never existed4 ,the advantage of the verse lies in its durability4 ,prose1 when appealing to the imagination1 has not the same characteristics of enduring longevity as verse2--first and chiefly1 it is not so easily remembered4 ,who remembers twenty lines in #8,ivanhoe'8 ,who does not remember twenty lines in the #8,deserted ,village'8 ,verse chains a closer and more minute survey to all beauties of thought expressed by it than prose1 however elaborately completed1 can do4 ,and that survey is carried on and perpetuated by successive generations4 ,so that in a great prose fiction1 one hundred years after its date1 there are innumerable beauties of thought and fancy which lie wholly unobserved2 and in a poem1 also surveyed one hundred years after its publication1 there is probably not a single beauty undetected4 ,this holds even in the most popular and imperishable prose fictions1 read at a time of life when our memory is most tenacious1 such as #8,don ,quixote' or #8,robinson ,crusoe1' #8,gulliver's ,travels' or the #8,arabian ,nights4' ,we retain1 indeed1 a lively impression of the pleasure derived from the perusal of those masterpieces2 of the salient incidents in story2 the broad strokes of character1 wit1 or fancy2 but quotations of striking passages do not rise to our lips as do the verses of poets immeasurably inferior1 in the grand creative gifts of ,poetry1 to those fictionists of prose4 ,and hence the ,verse ,poet is a more intimate companion throughout time than the ,prose ,poet can hope to be4 ,in our moments of aspiration or of despondency1 his musical thoughts well up from our remembrance4 ,by a couple of lines he kindles the ambition of our boyhood1 or soothes into calm the melancholy contemplations of our age4 ,cteris paribus1 there can be no doubt of the advantage of verse over prose in all works of the imagination4 ,but an artist does not select his own department of art with deliberate calculation of the best chances of posthumous renown4 ,his choice is determined partly by his own organisation1 and partly also by the circumstances of his time4 ,for these last may control and tyrannise over his own more special bias4 ,for instance1 in our country1 at present1 it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that there is no tragic drama--scarcely any living drama at all2 whether from the want of competent actors1 or from some disposition on the part of our public and our critics not to accord to a successful drama the rank which it holds in other nations1 and once held in this1 ,i do not care to examine2 but the fact itself is so clear1 that the ,drama1 though in reality it is1 in itself1 the highest order of poem1 next to the ,epic1 seems to have wholly dropped out of our consideration as belonging to any form of poetry whatsoever4 ,if any ,englishman were asked by a foreigner to name even the minor poets of his country who have achieved reputation since the death of ,lord ,byron1 it would not occur to him to name ,sheridan ,knowles--though perhaps no poet since ,shakespeare has written so many successful dramas2 nay1 if he were asked to quote the principal poets whom ,england has produced1 ,i doubt very much whether ,ben ,jonson1 ,beaumont1 ,fletcher1 or ,otway1 would occur to his mind as readily as ,collins or ,cowper4 ,we have forgotten1 in short1 somehow or other1 except in the single instance of ,shakespeare1 that dramas in verse are poems1 and that where we have a great dramatist1 who can hold the hearts of an audience spell-bound1 we have a poet immeasurably superior1 in all the great qualities of poetry1 to three-fourths of the lyrical1 and still more of the didactic versifiers who1 lettered and bound as ,british poets1 occupy so showy a range on our shelves4 ,it is not thus anywhere except in our country4 ,ask a ,frenchman who are the greatest poets of ,france1 he names her dramatists immediately--,corneille1 ,racine1 ,molire4 ,ask a ,german1 he names ,goethe and ,schiller2 and if you inquire which of the works of those great masters in all variety of song he considers their greatest poems1 he at once names their dramas4 ,but to return2 with us1 therefore1 the circumstances of the time would divert an author1 whose natural bias might otherwise lead him towards dramatic composition1 from a career so discouraged2 and as the largest emoluments and the loudest reputation are at this time bestowed upon prose fiction1 so he who would otherwise have been a dramatist becomes a novelist4 ,i speak here1 indeed1 from some personal experience1 for ,i can remember well1 that when ,mr ,macready undertook the management of one of those two great national theatres1 which are now lost to the national drama1 many literary men turned their thoughts towards writing for the stage1 sure that in ,mr ,macready they could find an actor to embody their conceptions2 a critic who could not only appreciate1 but advise and guide2 and a gentleman with whom a man of letters could establish frank and pleasant understanding4 ,but when ,mr ,macready withdrew from an experiment which probably required more capital than he deemed it prudent to risk in the mere rental of a theatre1 which in other countries would be defrayed by the ,state1 the literary flow towards the drama again ebbed back1 and many a play1 felicitously begun1 remains to this day a fragment in the limbo of neglected pigeon-holes4 ,the circumstances of the time1 therefore1 though they do not arrest the steps of genius1 alter its direction4 ,those departments of art in which the doors are the most liberally thrown open1 will necessarily most attract the throng of artists1 and it is the more natural that there should be a rush toward novel-writing1 because no man and no woman who can scribble at all1 ever doubt that they can scribble a novel4 ,certainly1 it seems that the kinds of writing most difficult to write well1 are the easiest to write ill4 ,where are the little children who cannot write what they call poetry1 or the big children who cannot write what they call novels8-- 8,scribimus indocti doctique poemata passim10 says ,horace of the writers of his day4 ,in our day the saying applies in most force to that class of poemata1 which pretends to narrate the epic of life in the form of prose4 ,for the docti as well as the indocti--men the most learned in all but the art of novel-writing--write novels1 no less than the most ignorant2 and often with no better success4 ,one gentleman wishing to treat us with a sermon1 puts it into a novel2 another gentleman1 whose taste is for political disquisition1 puts it into a novel2 ,high ,church and ,low ,church and no ,church at all1 ,tories and ,radicals1 and speculators on ,utopia1 fancy that they condescend to adapt truth to the ordinary understanding1 when they thrust into a novel that with which a novel has no more to do than it has with astronomy4 ,certainly it is in the power of any one to write a book in three volumes1 divide it into chapters1 and call it a novel2 but those processes no more make the work a novel1 than they make it a ,history of ,china4 ,we thus see many clever books by very clever writers1 which1 regarded as novels1 are detestable4 ,they are written without the slightest study of the art of narrative1 and without the slightest natural gift to divine it4 ,those critics who1 in modern times1 have the most thoughtfully analysed the laws of sthetic beauty1 concur in maintaining that the real truthfulness of all works of imagination--sculpture1 painting1 written fiction--is so purely in the imagination1 that the artist never seeks to represent the positive truth1 but the idealised image of a truth4 ,as ,,hegel well observes1 8that which exists in nature is a something purely individual and particular4 ,art1 on the contrary1 is essentially destined to manifest the general40 ,a fiction1 therefore1 which is designed to inculcate an object wholly alien to the imagination1 sins against the first law of art2 and if a writer of fiction narrow his scope to particulars so positive as polemical controversy in matters ecclesiastical1 political1 or moral1 his work may or not be an able treatise1 but it must be a very poor novel4 ,religion and politics are not1 indeed1 banished from works of imagination2 but to be artistically treated1 they must be of the most general and the least sectarian description4 ,in the record of the ,fall of ,man1 for instance1 ,milton takes the most general belief in which all ,christian nations concur1--nay1 in which nations not ,christian still acknowledge a myth of reverential interest4 ,or again1 to descend from the highest rank of poetry to a third rank in novel-writing2 when ,mr ,ward1 in his charming story of #8,tremaine1' makes his very plot consist in the conversion of an infidel to a belief in the immortality of the soul1 he does not depart from the artistic principle of dealing1 not with particulars1 but with generals4 ,had he exceeded the point at which he very wisely and skilfully stops1 and pushed his argument beyond the doctrine on which all theologians concur1 into questions on which they dispute1 he would have lost sight of art altogether4 ,so in politics--the general propositions from which politics start--the value of liberty1 order1 civilisation1 c4--are not only within the competent range of imaginative fiction1 but form some of its loftiest subjects2 but descend lower into the practical questions that divide the passions of a day1 and you only waste all the complicated machinery of fiction1 to do what you could do much better in a party pamphlet4 ,for1 in fact1 as the same fine critic1 whom ,i have previously quoted1 says1 with admirable eloquence3-- 8,man1 enclosed on all sides in the limits of the finite1 and aspiring to get beyond them1 turns his looks towards a superior sphere1 more pure and more true1 where all the oppositions and contradictions of the finite disappear--where his intellectual liberty1 spreading its wings1 without obstacles and without limits1 attains to its supreme end4 ,this region is that of art1 and its reality is the ideal4 ,the necessity of the beau-ideal in art is derived from the imperfections of the real4 ,the mission of art is to represent1 under sensible forms1 the free development of life1 and especially of mind40 ,what is herein said of ,art more especially applies to the art of narrative fiction1 whether it take the form of verse or prose4 ,for1 when we come to that realm of fiction which1 whether in verse or prose1 is rendered most alluring to us1 either by the fashion of our time or the genius of the artist1 it is with a desire to escape1 for the moment1 out of this hard and narrow positive world in which we live2 to forget1 for a brief holiday1 disputes between ,high and ,low ,church1 ,tories and ,radicals--in fine1 to lose sight of particulars in the contemplation of general truths4 ,we can have our real life1 in all its harsh outlines1 whenever we please it2 we do not want to see that real life1 but its ideal image1 in the fable land of art4 ,there is another error common enough in second-rate novelists1 and made still more common because it is praised by ordinary critics--viz41 an attempt at the exact imitation of what is called ,nature2 one writer will thus draw a character in fiction as minutely as he can1 from some individual he has met in life--another perplexes us with the precise patois of provincial mechanics--not as a mere relief to the substance of a dialogue1 but as a prevalent part of it4 ,now ,i hold all this to be thoroughly antagonistic to art in fiction--it is the relinquishment of generals for the servile copy of particulars4444 ,it cannot be too often repeated that art is not the imitation of nature2 it is only in the very lowest degree of poetry--viz41 the ,descriptive1 that the imitation of nature can be considered an artistic end4 ,even there1 the true poet brings forth from nature more than nature says to the common ear or reveals to the common eye4 ,the strict imitation of nature has always in it a something trite and mean--a man who mimics the cackle of the goose or the squeak of a pig1 so truthfully1 that for the moment he deceives us--attains but a praise that debases him4 ,nor this because there is something in the cackle of the goose1 and the squeak of pig1 that in itself has a mean association2 for as ,kant says truly1 8,even a man's exact imitation of the song of the nightingale displeases us when we discover that it is a mimicry1 and not the nightingale40 ,art does not imitate nature1 but it founds itself on the study of nature--takes from nature the selections which best accord with its own intention1 and then bestows on them that which nature does not possess--viz41 the mind and the soul of man4 ,just as he is but a ,chinese kind of painter1 who seeks to give us1 in exact prosaic detail1 every leaf in a tree1 which1 if we want to see only a tree1 we could see in a field much better than in a picture2 so he is but a prosaic and mechanical pretender to imagination who takes a man out of real life1 gives us his photograph1 and says1 8,i have copied nature40 ,if ,i want to see that kind of man ,i could see him better in ,oxford ,street than in a novel4 ,the great artist deals with large generalities1 broad types of life and character1 and though he may take flesh and blood for his model1 he throws into the expression of the figure a something which elevates the model into an idealised image4 ,a porter sate to ,correggio for the representation of a saint2 but ,correggio so painted the porter1 that the porter1 on the canvass1 was lost in the saint4 ,some critics have contended that the delineation of character artistically--viz41 through the selection of broad generalities in the complex nature of mankind1 rather than in the observation of particulars by the portraiture of an individual--fails of the verisimilitude and reality--of the flesh-and-blood likeness to humanity--which all vivid delineation of human character necessarily requires4 ,but this objection is sufficiently confuted by a reference to the most sovereign masterpieces of imaginative literature4 ,the principal characters in ,homer--viz41 ,achilles1 ,hector1 ,ulysses1 ,nestor1 ,paris1 ,thersites1 c4--are so remarkably the types of large and enduring generalities in human character1 that1 in spite of all changes of time and manners1 we still classify and designate individuals under those antique representative names4 ,we call such or such a man the ,ulysses1 or ,nestor1 or ,achilles1 or ,thersites of his class or epoch4 ,virgil1 on the contrary1 has1 in neas1 but a feeble shadow reflected from no bodily form with which we are familiar1 precisely because neas is not a type of any large and lasting generality in human character1 but a poetised and half-allegorical silhouette of ,augustus4 ,there is1 indeed1 an antagonistic difference between fictitious character and biographical character4 ,in biography1 truth must be sought in the preference of particulars to generals2 in imaginative creations truth is found in the preference of generals to particulars4 ,we recognise this distinction more immediately with respect to the former4 ,in biography1 and indeed in genuine history1 character appears faithful and vivid in proportion as it stands clear from all sthetic purposes in the mind of the delineator4 ,the moment the biographer or historian seeks to drape his personages in the poetic mantle1 to subject their lives and actions to the poetic or idealising process1 we are immediately and rightly seized with distrust of his accuracy4 ,when he would dramatise his characters into types1 they are unfaithful as likenesses4 ,in like manner1 if we carefully examine1 we shall see that when the ,poet takes on himself the task of the ,biographer1 and seeks to give minute representations of living individuals1 his characters become conventional--only partially accurate--the accuracy being sought by exaggerating trivial peculiarities into salient attributes1 rather than by the patient exposition of the concrete qualities which constitute the interior nature of living men4 ,satire or eulogy obtrudes itself unconsciously to the artist2 and mars the catholic and enduring truthfulness which1 in works of imagination1 belongs exclusively to the invention of original images for sthetic ends4 ,goethe1 treating of the drama1 has said1 that 8to be theatrical a piece must be symbolical2 that is to say1 every action must have an importance of its own1 and it must tend to one more important still40 ,it is still more important1 for dramatic effect1 that the dramatis person should embody attributes of passion1 humour1 sentiment1 character1 with which large miscellaneous audiences can establish sympathy2 and sympathy can be only established by such a recognition of a something familiar to our own natures1 or to our conception of our natures1 as will allure us to transport ourselves for the moment into the place of those who are passing through events which are not familiar to our actual experience4 ,none of us have gone through the events which form the action of ,othello or ,phdre2 but most of us recognise in our natures1 or our conceptions of our natures1 sufficient elements for ardent love or agonising jealousy1 to establish a sympathy with the agencies by which1 in ,othello and ,phdre1 those passions are expressed4 ,thus1 the more forcibly the characters interest the generalities of mankind which compose an audience1 the more truthfully they must represent what such generalities of mankind have in common--in short1 the more they will be types1 and the less they will be portraits4 ,some critics have supposed that1 in the delineation of types1 the artist would fall into the frigid error of representing mere philosophical abstractions4 ,this1 however1 is a mistake which the poet who comprehends and acts upon the first principle of his art--viz41 the preference of generals to particulars--will be the less likely to commit1 in proportion as such generals are vivified into types of humanity4 ,for he is not seeking to personate allegorically a passion2 but to show the effects of the passion upon certain given forms of character under certain given situations3 ,and he secures the individuality required1 and avoids the lifeless pedantry of an allegorised abstraction1 by reconciling passion1 character1 and situation with each other2 so that it is always a living being in whom we sympathise4 ,and the rarer and more unfamiliar the situation of life in which the poet places his imagined character1 the more in that character itself we must recognise relations akin to our own flesh and blood1 in order to feel interest in its fate4 ,thus1 in the hands of great masters of fiction1 whether dramatists or novelists1 we become unconsciously reconciled1 not only to unfamiliar1 but to improbable1 nay1 to impossible situations1 by recognising some marvellous truthfulness to human nature in the thoughts1 feelings1 and actions of the character represented1 granting that such a character could be placed in such a situation4 ,the finest of ,shakespeare's imaginary characters are essentially typical4 ,no one could suppose that the poet was copying from individuals of his acquaintance in the delineations of ,hamlet1 ,macbeth1 ,othello1 ,iago1 ,angelo1 ,romeo4 ,they are as remote from portraiture as are the conceptions of ,caliban and ,ariel4 ,in fine1 the distinctive excellence of ,shakespeare's highest characters is that1 while they embody truths the most subtle1 delicate1 and refining in the life and organisation of men1 those truths are so assorted as to combine with the elements which humanity has most in common4 ,and it is obvious to any reader of ordinary reflection1 that this could not be effected if the characters themselves1 despite all that is peculiar to each1 were not1 on the whole1 typical of broad and popular divisions in the human family4 ,turning to prose fiction1 if we look to the greatest novel which ,europe has yet produced 7meaning by the word novel a representation of familiar civilised life7--viz41 #8,gil ,blas'--we find the characters therein are vivid and substantial1 capable of daily application to the life around us1 in proportion as they are types and not portraits--such as ,ambrose ,lamela1 ,fabricio1 the ,archbishop of ,toledo1 c42 and the characters that really fail of truth and completion are those which were intended to be portraits of individuals--such as ,olivares1 the ,duke de ,lerma1 the ,infant of ,spain1 c4 ,and if it be true that1 in ,sangrado1 ,le ,sage designed the portrait of the physician ,hecquet 7the ingenious author of the 8,systme de la ,trituration710 and1 in the poetical charlatan ,triaquero1 aimed at a likeness of ,voltaire1 all we can say is1 that no two portraits can be more unfaithful to the originals2 and whatever belongs to the characters worthy the genius of the author is to be found in those strokes and touches by which the free play of humour involuntarily destroys the exactitude of portraiture4 ,again1 with that masterpiece of prose romance or fantasy #8,don ,quixote1' the character of the hero1 if it could be regarded as that of an individual whom ,cervantes found in life1 would be only an abnormal and morbid curiosity subjected to the caricature of a satirist4 ,but regarded as a type of certain qualities which are largely diffused throughout human nature1 the character is psychologically true1 and artistically completed2 hence we borrow the word 8,quixotic0 whenever we would convey the idea of that extravagant generosity of enthusiasm for the redress of human wrongs1 which1 even in exciting ridicule1 compels admiration and conciliates love4 ,the grandeur of the conception of #8,don ,quixote' is its fidelity to a certain nobleness of sentiment1 which1 however latent or however modified1 exists in every genuinely noble nature4 ,and hence1 perhaps1 of all works of broad humour1 #8,don ,quixote' is that which most approximates the humorous to the side of the sublime4 ,the reflective spirit of our age has strongly tended towards the development of a purpose in fiction1 symbolical in a much more literal sense of the word than ,goethe intended to convey in the extract ,i have quoted on the symbolical nature of theatrical composition4 ,besides the interest of plot and incident1 another interest is implied1 more or less distinctly or more or less vaguely1 which is that of the process and working out of a symbolical purpose interwoven with the popular action4 ,instead of appending to the fable a formal moral1 a moral signification runs throughout the whole fable1 but so little obtrusively1 that1 even at the close1 it is to be divined by the reader1 not explained by the author4 ,this has been a striking characteristic of the art of our century4 ,in the former century it was but very partially cultivated1 and probably grows out of that reaction from materialism which distinguishes our age from the last4 ,thus--to quote the most familiar illustrations ,i can think of--in ,goethe's novel of #8,wilhelm ,meister1' besides the mere interest of the incidents1 there is an interest in the inward signification of an artist's apprenticeship in art1 of a man's apprenticeship in life4 ,in #8,transformation1' by ,mr ,hawthorne1 the mere story of outward incident can never be properly understood1 unless the reader's mind goes along with the exquisite mysticism which is symbolised by the characters4 ,in that work1 often very faulty in the execution1 exceedingly grand in the conception1 are typified the classical sensuous life1 through ,donato2 the ,jewish dispensation1 through ,miriam2 the ,christian dispensation1 through ,hilda1 who looks over the ruins of ,rome from her virgin chamber amidst the doves4 ,to our master novelists of a former age--to ,defoe1 ,fielding1 ,richardson1 and ,smollett--this double plot1 if so ,i may call it1 was wholly unknown4 ,swift1 indeed1 apprehended it in #8,gulliver's ,travels1' which ,i consider the greatest poem--that is1 the greatest work of pure imagination and original invention--of the age in which he lived2 and ,johnson divined it in #8,rasselas1' which1 but for the interior signification1 would be the faulty and untruthful novel which ,lord ,macaulay has1 ,i venture to opine1 erroneously declared it to be4 ,lord ,macaulay censures #8,rasselas' because the ,prince of ,abyssinia does not talk like an ,abyssinian4 ,now1 it seems to me that a colouring faithful to the manners of ,abyssinia1 is a detail so trivial in reference to the object of the author of a philosophical romance1 that it is more artistic to omit than to observe it4 ,rasselas starts at once1 not from a positive but from an imagined world--he starts from the ,happy ,valley to be conducted 7in his progress through actual life1 to the great results of his search after a happiness more perfect than that of the ,happy ,valley7 to the ,catacombs4 ,this is the interior poetical signification of the tale of #8,rasselas'--the final result of all departure from the happy land of contented ignorance is to be found at the grave4 ,there1 alone1 a knowledge happier than ignorance awaits the seeker beyond the catacombs4 ,for a moral so broad1 intended for civilised readers1 any attempt to suit colouring and manners to ,abyssinian savages would have been1 not an adherence to1 but a violation of1 ,art4 ,the artist here wisely disdains the particulars--he is dealing with generals4 ,thus ,voltaire's #8,zadig' is no more a ,babylonian than ,johnson's #8,rasselas' is an ,abyssinian4 ,voltaire's object of philosophical satire would have been perfectly lost if he had given us an accurate and antiquarian transcript of the life of the ,chaldees2 and1 indeed1 the worst parts in #8,zadig' 7speaking artistically71 are those in which the author does1 now and then1 assume a quasi antique oriental air1 sadly at variance with meanings essentially modern1 couched in irony essentially ,french4 ,but the writer who takes this duality of purpose--who unites an interior symbolical signification with an obvious popular interest in character and incident--errs1 firstly1 in execution1 if he render his symbolical meaning so distinct and detailed as to become obviously allegorical--unless1 indeed1 as in the #8,pilgrim's ,progress1' it is avowedly an allegory2 and1 secondly1 he errs in artistic execution of his plan1 whenever he admits a dialogue not closely bearing on one or the other of his two purposes1 and whenever he fails in merging the two into an absolute unity at the end4 ,now1 the fault ,i find chiefly with novelists is their own contempt for their craft4 ,a clever and scholarlike man enters into it with a dignified contempt4 8,i am not going to write10 he says1 8a mere novel40 ,what1 then1 is he going to write8 ,what fish's tail will he add to the horse's head8 ,a tragic poet might as well say1 8,i am not going to write a mere tragedy40 ,the first essential to success in the art you practise is respect for the art itself4 ,who could ever become a good shoemaker if he did not have a profound respect for the art of making shoes8 ,there is an ideal even in the humblest mechanical craft4 ,a shoemaker destined to excel his rivals will always have before his eye the vision of a perfect shoe1 which he is always striving to realise1 and never can4 ,it was well said by ,mr ,hazlitt1 8,that the city prentice who did not think the ,lord ,mayor in his gilded coach was the greatest of human beings would come to be hanged40 ,whatever our calling be1 we can never rise in it unless we exalt1 even to an exaggerated dignity1 the elevation of the calling itself4 ,we are noble peasants or noble kings just in proportion as we form a lofty estimate of the nobility that belongs to peasants or the nobility that belongs to kings4 ,we may despair of the novelist who does not look upon a novel as a consummate work of art--who does not apply to it1 as ,fielding theoretically1 as ,scott practically1 did1 the rules which belong to the highest order of imagination4 ,of course he may fail of his standard1 but he will fail less in proportion as the height of his standard elevates his eye and nerves his sinews4 ,the first object of a novelist is to interest his reader2 the next object is the quality of the interest4 ,interest in his story is essential1 or he will not be read2 but if the quality of the interest be not high1 he will not be read a second time4 ,and if he be not read a second time by his own contemporaries1 the chance is that he will not be read once by posterity4 ,the degree of interest is for the many--the quality of interest for the few4 ,but the many are proverbially fickle1 the few are constant4 ,steadfast minorities secure1 at last1 the success of great measures1 and confirm1 at last1 the fame of great writings4 ,i have said that many who1 in a healthful condition of our stage1 would be dramatists1 become novelists4 ,but there are some material distinctions between the dramatic art and the narrative--distinctions as great as those between the oratorical style and the literary4 ,theatrical effects displease in a novel4 ,in a novel much more than in a drama must be explained and accounted for4 ,on the stage the actor himself interprets the author2 and a look1 a gesture1 saves pages of writing4 ,in a novel the author elevates his invention to a new and original story2 in a drama1 ,i hold that the author does well to take at least the broad outlines of a story already made4 ,it is an immense advantage to him to find the tale he is to dramatise previously told1 whether in a history1 a legend1 a romance1 or in the play of another age or another land2 and the more the tale be popularly familiarised to the audience1 the higher will be the quality of the interest he excites4 ,thus1 in the ,greek tragedy1 the story and the characters were selected from the popular myths4 ,thus ,shakespeare takes his story either from chronicles or novels4 ,thus ,corneille1 ,racine1 and ,voltaire take1 from scenes of antiquity the most familiarly known1 their fables and their characters4 ,nor is it only an advantage to the dramatist that the audience should come to the scene somewhat prepared by previous association for the nature of the interest invoked2 it is also an advantage to the dramatist that his invention--being thus relieved from the demand on its powers in what1 for the necessities of the dramatic art1 is an unimportant if not erroneous direction of art--is left more free to combine the desultory materials of the borrowed story into the harmony of a progressive plot--to reconcile the actions of characters1 whose existence the audience take for granted1 with probable motives--and1 in a word1 to place the originality there where alone it is essential to the drama--viz41 in the analysis of the heart1 in the delineation of passion1 in the artistic development of the idea and purpose which the drama illustrates through the effects of situation and the poetry of form4 ,but in the narrative of prose fiction an original story is not an auxiliary or erroneous1 but an essential1 part of artistic invention2 and even where the author takes the germ of his subject and the sketch of his more imposing characters from ,history1 he will find that he will be wanting in warmth of interest if the tale he tells be not distinct from that of the history he presses into his service--more prominently brought forward1 more minutely wrought out--and the character of the age represented1 not only through the historical characters introduced1 but those other and more general types of life which he will be compelled to imagine for himself4 ,this truth is recognised at once when we call to mind such masterpieces in historical fiction as #8,ivanhoe1' #8,kenilworth1' #8,quentin ,durward1' and #8,i ,promessi ,sposi4' ,in the tragic drama1 however1 historical subjects appear to necessitate a different treatment from that which most conduces to the interest of romantic narrative4 ,there is a dignity in historical characters which scarcely permits them to be transferred to the stage without playing before the audience the important parts which they played in life4 ,when they enter on the scene they excite a predominating interest1 and we should not willingly see them deposed into secondary agencies in the conduct of the story4 ,they ought not to be introduced at all1 unless in fitting correspondence with our notions of the station they occupied and the influence they exercised in the actual world2 and thus1 whether they are made fated victims through their sufferings1 or fateful influences through their power1 still1 in the drama1 it is through them that the story moves3 them the incidents affect--them the catastrophe involves--whether for their triumph or their fall4 ,the drama not necessitating an original fable nor imaginary characters1 that which it does necessitate in selecting a historical subject is1 the art of so arranging and concentrating events in history as to form a single action1 terminating in a single end1 wrought through progressive incidents clearly linked together4 ,it will be seen that the dramatic treatment is1 in this respect1 opposed to the purely historical treatment2 for in genuine history there are innumerable secondary causes tending to each marked effect1 which the dramatist must wholly eliminate or set aside4 ,he must1 in short1 aim at generals to the exclusion of particulars4 ,and thus1 as his domain is the passions1 he must seek a plot which admits of situations for passion1 and characters in harmony with such situations4 ,great historical events in themselves are rarely dramatic--they are made so on the stage by the appeal to emotions with which1 in private life1 the audience are accustomed to sympathise4 ,the preservation of the ,republic of ,venice from a conspiracy would have an interest in history from causes appealing to political reasoning1 that would be wholly without interest on the stage4 ,the dramatist1 therefore1 places the preservation of ,venice in the struggle of a woman's heart between the conflicting passions1 with which1 in private life1 the audience could most readily sympathise4 ,according as ,belvidera acts1 as between her husband and her father1 ,venice will be saved or lost4 ,this is dramatic treatment--it is not historical4 ,all delineations of passion involve the typical2 because whoever paints a passion common to mankind presents us with a human type of that passion1 varied1 indeed1 through the character of an individual and the situations in which he is placed2 but still1 in the expression of the passion itself1 sufficiently germane to all in whom that passion exists1 whether actively or latently1 to permit the spectator to transfer himself into the place and person of him who represents it4 ,hence the passions of individuals1 though affecting only themselves1 or a very confined range of persons connected with them1 command1 in reality1 a far wider scope in artistic treatment than the political events affecting millions in historical fact4 ,for political events1 accurately and dispassionately described1 are special to the time and agents--they are traced through the logic of the reason1 which only a comparative few exercise1 and even the few exercise it in the calm of their closets1 they do not come into the crowd of a theatre for its exercise4 ,but the passions of love1 ambition1 jealousy--the conflict between opposing emotions of affection and duty--expressed in the breast of an individual1 are not special1--they are universal4 ,and before a dramatic audience the safety of a state is merged or ignored in the superior interest felt in the personation of some emotion more ardent than any state interest1 and only more ardent because universal amongst mankind in all states and all times4 ,if the domestic interest be the strongest of which the drama is capable1 it is because it is the interest in which the largest number of human breasts can concur1 and in which the poet who creates it can most escape from particulars into generals4 ,in the emancipation of ,switzerland from the ,austrian yoke1 history can excite our interest in the question whether ,william ,tell ever existed--and in showing the large array of presumptive evidence against the popular story of his shooting the apple placed on his son's head4 ,but in the drama ,william ,tell is the personator of the ,swiss liberties2 and the story of the apple1 in exciting the domestic interest of the relationship between father and son1 is that very portion of history which the dramatic artist will the most religiously conserve1--obtaining therein one incalculable advantage for his effect--viz41 that it is not his own invention1 and therefore of disputable probability2 but1 whether fable or truth in the eyes of the historical critic1 so popularly received and acknowledged as a truth1 that the audience are prepared to enter into the emotions of the father1 and the peril of the son4 ,it is1 then1 not in the invention of a story1 nor in the creation of imaginary characters1 that a dramatist proves his originality as an artist1 but in the adaptation of a story1 found elsewhere1 to a dramatic purpose2 and in the fidelity1 not to historical detail1 but to psychological and metaphysical truth with which he reconciles the motives and conduct of the characters he selects from history1 to the situations in which they are placed1 so as to elicit for them1 under all that is peculiar to their nature or their fates1 the necessary degree of sympathy from emotions of which the generality of mankind are susceptible4 ,but to the narrator of fiction--to the story-teller--the invention of fable and of imaginary character is obviously among the legitimate conditions of his art2 and a fable purely original has in him a merit which it does not possess in the tragic or comic poet4 ,on the other hand1 the skilful mechanism of plot1 though not without considerable value in the art of narrative1 is much less requisite in the ,novelist than in the ,dramatist4 ,many of the greatest prose fictions are independent of plot altogether4 ,it is only by straining the word to a meaning foreign to the sense it generally conveys1 that we can recognise a plot in #8,don ,quixote1' and scarcely any torture of the word can make a plot out of #8,gil ,blas4' ,it is for this reason that the novel admits of what the drama never should admit--viz41 the operation of accident in the conduct of the story3 the villain1 instead of coming to a tragic close through the inevitable sequences of the fate he has provoked1 may be carried off1 at the convenient time1 by a stroke of apoplexy1 or be run over by a railway train4 ,nevertheless1 in artistic narrative1 accident1 where it affects a dnouement1 should be very sparingly employed4 ,readers1 as well as critics1 feel it to be a blot in the story of #8,rob ,roy' when the elder brothers of ,rashleigh ,osbaldistone are killed off by natural causes unforeseen and unprepared for in the previous train of events narrated1 in order to throw ,rashleigh into a position which the author found convenient for his ultimate purpose4 ,a novel of high aim requires1 of course1 delineation of character1 and with more patient minuteness1 than the drama2 and some novels live1 indeed1 solely through the delineation of character2 whereas there are some tragedies in which the characters1 when stripped of theatrical costume1 are very trivial1 but which1 despite the poverty of character1 are immortal1 partly from the skill of the plot1 partly from the passion which is wrought out of the situations1 and principally1 perhaps1 from the beauty of form--the strength and harmony of the verse4 ,this may be said of the ,french drama generally1 and of ,racine in especial4 ,the tragic drama imperatively requires passion--the comic drama humour or wit2 but a novel may be a very fine one without humour1 passion1 or wit--it may be made great in its way 7though that way is not the very highest one7 by delicacy of sentiment1 interest of story1 playfulness of fancy1 or even by the level tenor of everyday life1 not coarsely imitated1 but pleasingly idealised4 ,still mystery is one of the most popular and effective sources of interest in a prose narrative1 and sometimes the unravelling of it constitutes the entire plot4 ,every one can remember the thrill with which he first sought to fathom the dark secret in #8,caleb ,williams' or #8,the ,ghost-,seer4' ,even in the comic novel1 the great founder of that structure of art has obtained praise for perfection of plot almost solely from the skill with which ,tom ,jones's parentage is kept concealed2 the terror1 towards the end1 when the hero seems to have become involved in one of the crimes from which the human mind most revolts1 and the pleased surprise with which that terror is relieved by the final and unexpected discovery of his birth1 with all the sense of the many fine strokes of satire in the commencement of the tale1 which are not made clear to us till the close4 ,to prose fiction there must always be conceded an immense variety in the modes of treatment--a bold licence of loose capricious adaptation of infinite materials to some harmonious unity of interest1 which even the most liberal construction of dramatic licence cannot afford to the drama4 ,we need no lengthened examination of this fact2 we perceive at once that any story can be told1 but comparatively very few stories can be dramatised4 ,and hence some of the best novels in the world cannot be put upon the stage2 while some1 that have very little merit as novels1 have furnished subject-matter for the greatest plays in the modern world4 ,the interest in a drama must be consecutive1 sustained1 progressive--it allows of no longueurs4 ,but the interest of a novel may be very gentle1 very irregular--may interpose long conversations in the very midst of action--always provided1 however1 as ,i have before said1 that they bear upon the ulterior idea for which the action is invented4 ,thus we have in #8,wilhelm ,meister' long conversations on art or philosophy just where we want most to get on with the story--yet1 without those conversations1 the story would not have been worth the telling2 and its object could not1 indeed1 be comprehended--its object being the accomplishment of a human mind in the very subjects on which the conversations turn4 ,so1 in many of the most animated tales of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 the story pauses for the sake of some historical disquisition necessary to make us understand the altered situations of the imagined characters4 ,i need not say that all such delays to the action would be inadmissible in the drama4 ,hence an intelligent criticism must always allow a latitude to artistic prose fiction which it does not accord to the dramatic1 nor indeed to any other department of imaginative representation of life and character4 ,i often see in our ,reviews a charge against some novel1 that this or that is 8a defect of art10 which is1 when examined1 really a beauty in art--or a positive necessity which that department of art could not avoid--simply because the ,reviewer has been applying to the novel rules drawn from the drama1 and not only inapplicable1 but adverse1 to the principles which regulate the freedom of the novel4 ,now1 in reality1 where genius is present1 art cannot be absent4 ,unquestionably1 genius may make many incidental mistakes in art1 but if it compose a work of genius1 that work must be a work of art on the whole4 ,for just as virtue consists in a voluntary obedience to moral law1 so genius consists in a voluntary obedience to artistic law4 ,and the freedom of either is this1 that the law is pleasing to it--has become its second nature4 ,both human virtue and human genius must err from time to time2 but any prolonged disdain1 or any violent rupture1 of the law by which it exists1 would be death to either4 ,there is this difference to the advantage of virtue 7for1 happily1 virtue is necessary to all men1 and genius is but the gift of few71 that we can lay down rules by the observance of which any one can become a virtuous man2 but we can lay down no rules by which any one can become a man of genius4 ,no technical rules can enable a student to become a great dramatist or a great novelist2 but there is in art an inherent distinction between broad general principles and technical rules4 ,in all genuine art there is a sympathetic1 affectionate1 and often quite unconscious adherence to certain general principles4 ,the recognition of these principles is obtained through the philosophy of criticism2 first1 by a wide and patient observation of masterpieces of art1 which are to criticism what evidences of fact are to science2 and next1 by the metaphysical deduction1 from those facts1 of the principles which their concurrence serves to establish4 ,by the putting forth of these principles we cannot make bad writers good1 nor mediocre writers great2 but we may enable the common reader to judge with more correctness of the real quality of merit1 or the real cause of defect1 in the writers he peruses2 and by directing and elevating his taste1 rectify and raise the general standard of literature4 ,we may do more than that--we may much facilitate the self-tuition that all genius has to undergo before it attains to its full development1 in the harmony between its freedom and those elements of truth and beauty which constitute its law4 ,as to mere technical rules1 each great artist makes them for himself2 he does not despise technical rules1 but he will not servilely borrow them from other artists2 he forms his own4 ,they are the by-laws which his acquaintance with his special powers lays down as best adapted to their exercise and their sphere4 ,apelles is said to have made it a by-law to himself to use only four colours in painting3 probably ,apelles found his advantage in that restraint1 or he would not have imposed it on his pallet4 ,but if ,zeuxis found that he1 ,zeuxis1 painted better by using a dozen colours than by confining himself to four1 he would have used a dozen1 or he would not have been ,zeuxis4 ,on careful and thoughtful examination we shall find1 that neither in narrative nor dramatic fiction do great writers differ on the principles of art in the works which posterity accepts from them as great--whereas they all differ more or less in technical rules4 ,there is no great poetic artist1 whether in narrative or the drama1 who1 in his best works1 ever represents a literal truth rather than the idealised image of a truth--who ever condescends to servile imitations of nature--who ever prefers the selection of particulars1 in the delineation of character or the conception of fable1 to the expression of generals--who does not aim at large types of mankind rather than the portraiture of contemporaries--or1 at least1 wherever he may have been led to reject these principles1 it will be in performances that are allowed to be beneath him4 ,but merely technical rules are no sooner laid down by the critics of one age1 than they are scornfully violated by some triumphant genius in the next4 ,technical rules have their value for the artist who employs them1 and who usually invents and does not borrow them4 ,those that he imposes on himself he seldom communicates to others4 ,they are his secret--they spring from his peculiarities of taste2 and it is the adherence to those rules which constitutes what we sometimes call his style1 but more properly his manner4 ,it is by such rules1 imposed on himself1 that ,pope forms his peculiar csura1 and mostly closes his sense at the end of a couplet4 ,when this form of verse becomes trite and hackneyed1 up rises some other poet1 who forms by-laws for himself1 perhaps quite the reverse4 ,all that we should then ask of him is success3 if his by-laws enable him to make as good a verse as ,pope's in another way1 we should be satisfied2 if not--not4 ,one main use in technical rules to an author1 if imposed on himself1 or freely assented to by himself1 is this--the interposition of some wholesome impediment to the over-facility which otherwise every writer acquires by practice4 ,and as this over-facility is naturally more apt to be contracted in prose than in verse1 and in the looseness or length of the novel or romance1 than in any other more terse and systematic form of imaginative fiction--so ,i think it a wise precaution in every prolific novelist to seek rather to multiply1 than emancipate himself from1 the wholesome restraints of rules2 provided always that such rules are the natural growth of his own mind1 and confirmed by his own experience of their good effect on his productions4 ,for if ,art be not the imitator of ,nature1 it is still less the copyist of ,art4 ,its base is in the study of ,nature--not to imitate1 but first to select1 and then to combine1 from ,nature those materials into which the artist can breathe his own vivifying idea2 and as the base of ,art is in the study of ,nature1 so its polish and ornament must be sought by every artist in the study of those images which the artists before him have already selected1 combined1 and vivified2 not1 in such study1 to reproduce a whole that represents another man's mind1 and can no more be born again than can the man who created it2 but again to select1 to separate1 to recombine--to go through the same process in the contemplation of ,art which he employed in the contemplation of ,nature2 profiting by all details1 but grouping them anew by his own mode of generalisation1 and only availing himself of the minds of others for the purpose of rendering more full and complete the realisation of that idea of truth or beauty which has its conception in his own mind4 ,for that can be neither a work of art 7in the sthetic sense of the word7 nor a work of genius in any sense of the word1 which does not do a something that1 as a whole1 has never been done before2 which no other living man could have done2 and which never1 to the end of time1 can be done again--no matter how immeasurably better may be the other things which other men may do4 #8,ivanhoe' and #8,childe ,harold' were produced but the other day2 yet already it has become as impossible to reproduce an #8,ivanhoe' or a #8,childe ,harold' as to reproduce an #8,iliad4' ,a better historical romance than #8,ivanhoe1' or a better contemplative poem than #8,childe ,harold1' may be written some day or other2 but1 in order to be better1 it must be totally different4 ,the more a writer is imitated the less he can be reproduced4 ,no one of our poets has been so imitated as ,pope1 not because he is our greatest or our most fascinating poet1 but because he is the one most easily imitated by a good versifier4 ,but is there a second ,pope1 or will there be a second ,pope1 if our language last ten thousand years longer8 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,general ,,sir ,,howard ,,douglas1 ,,bart4#c ,when the announcement first appeared that a biography of the late ,sir ,howard ,douglas was in progress1 the impression made upon our minds was anything but favourable to the enterprise4 ,of the good and gifted man himself1 as he mixed in general society1 our recollections were indeed of the most pleasurable kind4 ,he stood before us with his kindly manner1 his noble appearance1 his high bearing1 his generous nature1 the perfect model of what an ,english officer and gentleman ought to be4 ,and casting our eyes across the room to the shelf on which his #8,naval ,gunnery' and #8,military ,bridges' were ranged1 we thought of him as a man of science more than ordinarily well read in his profession4 ,but not all our desire to find in connection with him materials for a consecutive history1 helped us to any other conclusion than this1 that the story of his life1 if told at length1 must be a dull one4 ,we acknowledge1 less with shame than with satisfaction and some surprise1 that we were quite mistaken4 ,sir ,howard ,douglas's career had more of romance about it than that of many a man who has filled a much larger space in the world's observation4 ,it was successful as far as it carried him1 because a sound judgment controlled good abilities1 and directed them to a wise end4 ,and1 above all1 it reads this lesson to coming generations1 that he who honestly seeks the wellbeing of others rarely fails1 sooner or later1 to secure his own4 ,nor must we omit to render to ,sir ,howard's biographer the commendation which he deserves4 ,mr ,fullom has executed his task well2 neither overlaying his narrative with details1 which sometimes weary1 nor keeping back anything which might conduce to its completeness1 he has given us one of the pleasantest books which1 for some time past1 has come under our notice4 ,the house of ,douglas has from the earliest times been renowned in ,scottish story4 ,its alliance with the royal family began in the fourteenth century1 when the ,lord of ,dalkeith took to wife ,mary the fifth daughter of ,james ,i4 ,on this same ,lord of ,dalkeith the earldom of ,morton was not long afterwards conferred by his brother-in-law1 ,james ,,ii4 ,from father to son1 or from uncle to nephew1 the earldom passed through twelve generations1 and narrowly escaped coming in the thirteenth to the father of ,sir ,howard4 ,but ,charles ,douglas1 if he missed a coronet1 won for himself a baronetcy and great distinction as a ,british sailor4 ,he it was who1 when ,arnold and ,montgomery besieged ,quebec1 forced his squadron through the ice on the ,st ,lawrence and relieved the place4 ,he it was who first of all constructed a flotilla for himself1 and then swept the ,canadian lakes of the rebel gunboats2 and by-and-by1 on the #abth of ,april #aghb1 he caught1 as if by inspiration1 that idea1 the application of which enabled ,admiral ,rodney to break the enemy's line1 and to save at a critical moment the honour of the ,british fleet4 ,of this ,sir ,charles ,douglas1 ,howard was the eldest son by a second marriage4 ,sir ,charles's first wife1 a foreign lady1 had brought him two sons and a daughter1 so that ,howard's prospects1 so far as title and fortune were concerned1 could not have been in his infancy very bright3 and they would have been entirely overcast by the early death of his mother1 had not her place been well supplied by a maternal aunt4 ,under the roof of this lady1 ,mrs ,bailey of ,olive ,bank1 near ,musselburgh1 the little fellow grew and prospered1 repaying all the tenderness with which he was reared by his affectionate and gentle disposition1 as well as by his industry and success over his books4 ,howard's brothers both entered the navy4 ,this was natural1 and it was perhaps equally so that ,howard should desire to follow their example2 but ,sir ,charles considered that1 if his three sons were all to embrace the same profession1 the chances were that they would only stand in each other's way4 ,he gave directions1 therefore1 that ,howard should be educated for a different walk in life1 and the boy ascended in due time from the charge of the governess to the grammar-school4 ,yet the child's tastes were entirely naval all the while4 ,he built toy ships1 and sailed them on a pond in the garden2 he made friends of the fisher-lads and cabin-boys along the coast1 and became so initiated into the mysteries of their craft that none among them could better manage than he a fishing-boat or a ship's yawl4 ,it thus became clear to ,sir ,charles ,douglas1 who visited his sister in #aghi1 previously to assuming the command on a foreign station1 that nature had designed his youngest son for a career similar to his own1 and he made up his mind to take ,howard with him1 and to rate him as a midshipman on board the flag-ship4 ,but the coveted flag he was never destined to hoist4 ,a sudden illness carried him off while the guest of his sister1 and ,howard's lot was cast for him in the army4 ,the ,royal ,academy at ,woolwich was more easily entered in those days than it is now4 ,a pass examination was1 however1 required2 and young ,douglas1 strange to say1 in spite of his marked bias for practical mechanics1 failed in the elements of geometry4 ,but he had made so good a figure in other respects1 and appeared so cast down by the circumstance1 that the examiner1 ,dr ,hutton1 encouraged him to try again2 and three weeks spent with a clever crammer sufficed to bring him up to the mark4 ,he therefore presented himself a second time1 passed1 and was admitted4 ,there is one defect in ,mr ,fullom's history which puts his readers to considerable inconvenience--he is not very accurate in his dates4 ,we do not quite make out1 for example1 when young ,douglas made his way into the ,academy1 or how long he continued a cadet2 but we are told1 what is extremely probable in itself1 that he was much beloved by his contemporaries1 and that he soon took the lead among them both in the playground and in the class-room4 ,his passion for naval affairs continued as strong as ever1 and he indulged it by frequent boat excursions on the ,thames4 ,he swam1 also1 like a duck1 and paid many a furtive visit to ,deptford dockyard1 where he studied by fits and starts the art of shipbuilding4 ,his vacations he spent in ,scotland1 passing to and from ,leith in one of the smacks2--an intense delight to him1 because he was instructed by the crews in the arts of knotting and splicing1 of plaiting points and gaskets1 of making gammets1 and heaving the lead4 ,it is not often that a youth displays such unmistakable aptitude for a career which he is not destined to follow2 and it still more rarely happens that the amusements of the boy1 whom circumstances in after life place in a groove apparently wide apart from them1 turn out to have been by no means the least useful branches of his education1 either to himself or to others4 ,after completing his college course1 ,douglas received a lieutenant's commission1 and in #agie assumed the command of a small artillery corps in the north of ,england4 ,his headquarters were in ,tynemouth ,castle1 and he had detachments at ,sunderland1 ,hartlepool1 and ,berwick-upon-,tweed4 ,his entire force in gunners fell short of fifty men2 yet this was at a time when the risk of invasion appeared to be imminent1 and ,douglas and his gunners were necessarily exposed to bear the brunt of it4 ,the young lieutenant felt how perfectly inefficient his force was1 and cast about to devise some means of increasing it4 ,he asked first for a reinforcement of artillerymen1 which could not be afforded4 ,he then suggested to the general officer of the district the propriety of drilling a portion of his infantry to the great-gun exercise2 and himself1 with unwearied diligence1 instructed thirty men from each of the regiments quartered within many miles of ,tynemouth4 ,he was not1 however1 satisfied even with this--the thought struck him that he might enlist the sympathies of the fishermen and coasting sailors in the cause which he had at heart2 and having obtained through ,general ,balfour the sanction of the ,government1 he invited them to form themselves into companies of volunteer artillery4 ,upwards of five hundred fine fellows answered to the call2 and the thoughtful lad had soon the satisfaction of knowing that danger1 if it did come1 would not find him unprepared1 and that the merit of having provided a remedy for a great and acknowledged evil was entirely his own4 ,it is not to be supposed that the young man was so given up to serious matters as to turn away from the recreations common to his age and profession3 on the contrary1 ,douglas seems to have been at ,tynemouth the gayest of the gay4 ,he danced well1 rode well1 established a yacht in which he made many adventurous cruises1 and won the hearts of young and old by his frank and graceful manners4 ,but sterner work awaited him1 and the romance of his existence began4 ,early in ,august #agie he received orders to take charge of a detachment of troops1 which1 with women and children1 were to proceed from ,woolwich to ,quebec4 ,he joined the ,phillis transport at ,gravesend1 and found himself the senior officer1 with six subalterns besides himself on board4 ,to him the prospect of a voyage across the ,atlantic was a positive delight4 ,what cared he about the inadequacy of accommodation1 or the wretched nature of the food which was then issued to soldiers embarked8 ,his thoughts were entirely given up to the great object of his boyish fancy--the actual navigation of a ship out of sight of land1 and all the enterprise and excitement incident thereto4 ,never neglecting his own proper duties1 he accordingly found time to make himself one of the crew1 and1 sharing their labours1 and evincing perfect intelligence of all that was required1 he won more than the goodwill1 the confidence and respect of every one on board4 ,the ,phillis was a slow sailer4 ,she encountered various changes of weather1 behaving1 upon the whole1 tolerably well1 though sometimes uneasy and always uncomfortable4 ,at last1 however1 a tempest overtook her about forty leagues to the east of the southern entrance of the ,gulf of ,st ,lawrence1 and the sea swept over her decks1 knocking the boats from their fastenings4 ,the gale lasted all that day and throughout the night2 but a lull came in the morning1 and the women and children1 who had been kept below1 were allowed to come on deck4 ,the same evening the officers entertained the skipper1 and all were rejoicing in the prospect of escape from danger1 when the mate suddenly broke into the cabin and requested the captain to follow him4 ,douglas guessed from the manner of the two men that something must be wrong4 ,he ran up the companion-stair1 and heard--for he could see nothing--the roar of breakers close ahead4 ,the ship had drifted before the wind1 and was already in imminent danger4 ,immediately the soldiers were ordered up1 and1 with their assistance1 the best bower anchor was let go4 ,but though it seemed to check the vessel for a moment1 it soon began to drag2 and1 with breakers on the bow1 practised eyes discovered that there was land on both quarters--that the ship was embayed4 ,it was evident1 under such circumstances1 that the single chance of saving the lives of those on board was to force the ,phillis1 if possible1 round a projecting reef on her lee bow4 ,but this could be done only by making more sail1 and to go aloft at that moment and shake out reefs was a service of the utmost hazard4 ,the seamen ordered to do so hung back1 whereupon ,douglas sprang into the shrouds1 and1 followed by two cabin-boys1 accomplished the operation4 ,the consequence was that the ,phillis bore up and cleared the point1 though very narrowly2 but it was a mere respite from danger4 ,the storm grew more and more tremendous4 ,the boats could with difficulty be moved1 and one of them 7the long-boat7 was scarce got over the side ere she went to pieces4 ,the ship was now upon the rocks1 and another boat was lowered chiefly by the exertions of the soldiers4 ,but she in her turn seemed in danger of being broken to pieces2 whereupon ,douglas1 followed by two officers1 sprang in1 hoping to fend her off from the ship's side4 ,already she was more than half full of water1 which compelled the three youths to spring back1 in doing which ,douglas missed his footing and fell into the sea4 ,happily he had divested himself of most of his clothing1 and his skill as a swimmer stood him in good stead1 for he rose upon the top of a wave1 and one of his friends1 seizing his collar at the moment1 dragged him on to the deck4 ,shipwreck under any circumstances is an awful thing4 ,the wreck of the ,phillis went on1 so to speak1 through two days and as many nights4 ,men and women went overboard2 children died from exposure in their mothers' arms4 ,one poor fellow struck out in despair for the land1 and was lost among the breakers4 ,the first raft which the survivors constructed carried two of their number to the shore1 who1 regardless of the fate of their companions1 immediately deserted4 ,a second raft was put together1 and on that ,mr ,douglas reached the land4 ,he had carried a rope with him1 and began immediately to construct a bridge4 ,fortunately the wind lulled at this moment1 and the wreck was cleared of its living occupants4 ,but scarcely was this done ere the ,phillis went to pieces without an opportunity having been afforded of securing the means of subsistence even for a single day4 ,the sufferings of these poor people on the barren cliff to which they escaped were dreadful4 ,happily the waves brought ashore some pieces of cloth as well as a cask of wine and a quantity of smoked pork4 ,but the sailors seized the wine and drank it2 and the first night was spent in cold and misery1 for the snow lay deep on the ground1 and there was no fuel with which to make a fire4 ,all lay down and slept--a sleep from which they would probably never have wakened had not ,douglas been roused by a fearful scream1 to which the wife of his servant gave utterance4 ,she had gone mad from privations and excitement1 and died shrieking to the last1 so that her voice was heard over the wind and rain4 ,she had outlived all the women who went on board at ,gravesend1 and not a child survived4 ,mr ,douglas was at this time barely nineteen years of age1 yet such was the force of his character that all about him1 seamen as well as soldiers1 looked to him for instructions4 ,he rescued a second cask of wine from being broached this time by soldiers1 though not without a struggle4 8,we are all equals now10 said the leader of the mutineers2 8we'll take no orders from you or anybody else40 8,won't you60 cried ,douglas1 springing at his throat with a knife2 8you are under my command2 and if you don't obey1 by heavens1 ,i'll kill you60 ,the man yielded2 the small stock of provisions and wine was secured1 and after a vain attempt to penetrate through the forest1 the whole party returned again to the cliff--there to wait till either help should come from the sea1 or famine do its work and destroy them4 ,a feeling of despair was beginning to gain the mastery1 when one day the cry was heard1 8,a sail6 a sail60 ,they had already set up a spar1 and hoisted a piece of cloth upon it2 but the object was small1 and might not be discerned from a distance1 and then what a fate awaited them6 ,it was not1 however1 so ordered4 ,the sail approached2 she was a small schooner trading between ,st ,john and ,great ,jarvis2 and the crew gave back the cheer which the poor castaways raised in their agony1 crowding at the same time to the beach4 ,they were all taken off and carried to the place whither the schooner was bound1 and spent the winter1 roughly but not unhappily1 among the honest fishermen who had there established themselves4 ,the winter seemed long1 the days being very short in that latitude4 ,not ungrateful1 but tired of the monotony1 ,douglas purchased a whale-boat1 and1 having fitted it with a deck1 determined1 as soon as the season should advance a little1 to risk a voyage to the ,west ,indies4 ,several of his brother officers agreed to share the danger with him1 and they got a ,st ,lawrence pilot and a seaman from ,newfoundland to join them4 ,but a succession of heavy gales hindered them from starting till ,april was far spent4 ,at last1 just as their preparations were completed1 there arrived in the harbour a schooner bound from ,halifax to ,st ,john1 the commander of which had heard of their misfortunes1 and gone out of his way to offer them assistance4 ,adventurous as they were1 ,douglas and his friends did not hesitate to abandon their own project1 and to avail themselves of the superior accommodation thus placed at their disposal4 ,they were accordingly conveyed in the first instance to ,st ,john1 ,mr ,douglas doing seaman's duty throughout the voyage1 and by-and-by to ,halifax1 whither1 after discharging cargo1 the schooner returned4 ,the ,duke of ,kent1 the father of her present ,majesty1 was at that time ,governor and ,commander-in-,chief in ,nova ,scotia4 ,he had heard of the fate of the ,phillis1 and of the sufferings of the crew and passengers1 and sent an aide-de-camp to request that such of the officers as might be in a state to be moved1 should present themselves at ,government ,house4 ,douglas and his friend ,mr ,forbes obeyed the summons1 and were most kindly treated by the ,royal ,duke4 ,but their destination was ,quebec1 whither1 as soon as means of transport could be found1 they proceeded4 ,the reception awarded them there1 and especially ,mr ,douglas1 was gratifying in the extreme4 ,the important services rendered by the father to the colony had not yet passed out of men's minds1 and they believed that they saw in the son qualities which proved him worthy of his parentage4 ,he was taken at once1 so to speak1 to the hearts of the people1 and had the still higher gratification to find that the authorities1 civil and military1 entertained a just appreciation of his talents1 and were determined to make use of them4 ,there was an alarm of a ,french fleet hovering near the coast1 and not a single cruiser lay in the ,st ,lawrence4 ,the ,governor became anxious1 and having often observed ,mr ,douglas guiding with remarkable adroitness a sailing-boat in boisterous weather about the bay1 he bethought him that the nautical skill of the young officer might be applied to better purposes than those of mere amusement4 ,douglas was sent for1 and asked if he would be disposed to take command of an armed coaster1 and go off as far as the ,banks of ,newfoundland in search of the enemy4 ,he accepted the trust without a moment's hesitation2 and1 carrying with him1 in addition to a good crew1 artillerymen enough to man his ten guns1 he hoisted his pennant on board a schooner of #bej tons burden1 and stood out to sea4 ,though never coming up with the ,french fleet--which1 indeed1 had steered in a different direction--he found more than one opportunity of showing how well qualified he was1 under trying circumstances1 to manage a ship of war1 and probably to fight her4 ,and many a time in after life he used to tell the story1 adding that1 8after all1 a naval life was that for which nature had peculiarly fitted him40 ,so passed a year in ,lower ,canada1 at the close of which the roster of service carried ,mr ,douglas to ,toronto1 where he still found vent for his marine propensities on ,lake ,ontario4 ,he became likewise a great sportsman1 as well with the gun as with the fishing-rod1 and made frequent incursions into the forests in search of game4 ,this brought him more than once in contact with the ,red men1 over whom1 by his cool courage and endurance of fatigue1 he acquired a remarkable ascendancy4 ,among other circumstances worth noticing was his encounter in the bush with a young white girl1 of surpassing beauty1 who had lived among the ,indians from her infancy4 ,he states in his note-book that she had been carried off by a party of warriors who had ravaged a settlement1 and that they treated her1 as she grew up1 with the utmost kindness and respect4 8,a strange chance discovered her to her brother1 and he entreated her to return home2 but she refused1 declaring that she was perfectly happy1 and could not support a different existence40 ,in the autumn of #agih1 tidings reached ,mr ,douglas of the death of the elder of his half-brothers4 ,the event rendered necessary his immediate return to ,england1 and he took a passage in the last ship of the season1 a little brig1 timber-laden and bound for ,greenock4 ,it seems to have been his destiny never to go to sea without encountering danger and difficulty4 ,one night1 shortly after clearing the ,bay of ,st ,lawrence1 ,mr ,douglas was awakened by the vessel giving a sudden lurch1 for which he could not account otherwise than by supposing she had struck on some sunken rock4 ,he jumped out of bed1 and1 staying only to throw a greatcoat about him1 ran upon deck4 ,a brisk gale was blowing1 and the brig1 having got into the trough of the sea1 staggered under single-reefed topsails1 main-top-gallant-sails1 and jib1 and fore-and-aft main-sail1 with the wind on the beam4 ,the mate1 whose watch it was1 had got drunk1 and gone below1 and the helmsman seemed quite at a loss how to guide the rudder4 ,douglas saw that there was not a moment to be lost4 ,he took the command of the ship1 called up all hands1 issued with clearness and promptitude orders which were instantly obeyed1 and kept the vessel from foundering4 ,the tumult brought the captain on deck1 who stood by astonished and speechless4 ,no sooner1 however1 had he satisfied himself of the untrustworthiness of the mate1 than he directed the vessel to be put about1 and would have returned to ,quebec had not ,mr ,douglas volunteered to do mate's duty during the remainder of the passage4 ,there could be no hesitation on the captain's part1 after what he had just seen1 to accede to this proposal3 so the brig held her course1 and arrived safe in the ,clyde1 where1 with protestations of mutual respect and esteem1 he and his friendly skipper parted4 ,mr ,douglas had not been long in ,scotland before he fell in love1 and soon afterwards married ,miss ,anne ,dundas1 a young lady of great personal beauty and cultivated mind4 ,he obtained his promotion likewise in #agii2 and having done duty for a while as adjutant of a battalion1 he was subsequently posted to the horse-artillery4 ,but better things than the command of a troop were in store for him4 ,the military authorities had established at ,high ,wyckham a cadet school1 with a senior department attached to it1 in which officers might be instructed for the ,staff2 and ,general ,zamy1 an old aide-de-camp of ,frederick the ,great1 being appointed commandant1 it was proposed to ,captain ,douglas that he should undertake the superintendence of the ,staff ,college4 ,captain ,douglas was not unnaturally reluctant to give up the proper line of his profession1 but finding the ,duke of ,york bent upon the arrangement1 and being tempted to accede to it by the offer of a step of rank1 he passed from the artillery into the line as a major1 and took the place for which both his natural talents and acquired information eminently fitted him4 ,from #ahjd up to #ahad ,douglas continued to be connected with the educational department of the army4 ,it would be impossible to overestimate the importance of the services which he rendered4 ,he not only instructed candidates for ,staff employment by lessons gathered from the past1 but deduced1 from his own clear perception of things1 hints and suggestions which were then entirely new4 ,he had many differences because of this habit with ,general ,zamy1 who1 like veterans in general1 was slow to believe that the tactics and strategy of his own youth could be improved upon4 ,but in #ahjf the old man retired1 and ,douglas1 with the rank of lieutenant-colonel1 took his place at the head of the establishment4 ,a fresh impulse was immediately given to the course of study4 ,not surveying only1 but pontooning1 artillery1 and the theory of the whole art of war1 were taught1 and those brilliant ,staff officers sent out who in the ,peninsular struggle gave to the ,great ,duke such efficient support4 ,sir ,howard1 however--for he had by this time succeeded by the death of another brother to the baronetcy--yearned for active employment in the field4 ,he applied for and obtained permission to join ,sir ,john ,moore's army1 which he overtook just as the retreat from ,benevente began2 and he shared its fortunes both in the painful marches which it accomplished1 and in the battle near ,corunna1 which enabled it to re-embark without dishonour4 ,by-and-by1 when the expedition to the ,scheldt was fitted out1 ,sir ,howard prevailed upon the ,duke of ,york to appoint him to the ,staff of ,lord ,chatham's army as ,deputy ,quartermaster-,general4 ,the enterprise grievously failed2 and the loss by disease among the troops and ships' companies engaged was very severe4 ,but even under such circumstances ,sir ,howard proved of great service to his chief3 for having kept a journal of each day's proceedings as it occurred1 he was able to show1 when examined concerning the causes of the failure1 that by far the largest share of blame rested with the navy1 or rather with the officer whom the ,admiralty had placed at its head4 ,for two years subsequently to his return from ,walcheren1 ,sir ,howard led a quiet and useful life as head of the ,military ,college4 ,in #ahaa1 however1 a fresh opportunity was found for employing him abroad4 ,the ,government of that day put a far higher value on the services of the ,spanish guerillas than they deserved1 and were incredulous of ,lord ,wellington's assurances1 that on the regular armies of ,spain no dependence could be placed4 ,it seemed to ,lord ,liverpool and his colleagues that the ,spaniards1 if properly armed and supplied1 were capable by their own valour of driving the ,french beyond the ,pyrenees2 and they made choice of ,sir ,howard ,douglas to go among them1 because they believed that he possessed talents and energy enough to awaken them to a sense of their duty4 ,he received instructions1 therefore1 towards the end of ,july1 to proceed without delay to ,lord ,wellington's headquarters1 and to arrange with him all details respecting his future proceedings4 ,perhaps there is no interval in the long and useful career of ,sir ,howard ,douglas which afforded him more frequent opportunities of doing good service to his country than that which1 extending over little more than a year1 was spent by him in ,spain2 but the tale is one which will not bear condensation4 ,after conferring with ,lord ,wellington on the ,portuguese frontier1 ,sir ,howard rode across the country to ,oporto1 and thence took a passage by sea to ,corunna4 ,he entered there into relations with ,spanish juntas1 ,spanish generals1 and the chiefs of guerilla bands1 and found them all1 with the exception of one or two individuals belonging to the latter class1 even more impracticable than he had been led to expect4 ,he gave them first arms1 money1 clothing1 and had the mortification to learn that the best battalions and batteries1 as soon as they became fit for war1 were shipped off for ,south ,america4 ,he turned next to the irregulars1 and succeeded in getting a levy en masse set on foot1 which very much perplexed1 and gave constant occupation to1 the ,french troops scattered over that and the adjoining provinces4 ,but the circumstance which more than any other affected his own fortunes1 was a combined attack on the fortified convent of ,st ,cintio ,rey by ,sir ,home ,popham's squadron from the sea1 and the guerilla band of ,don ,gaspar on shore4 ,it was while watching the effect of the ,venerable's fire that ,sir ,howard became struck with the ignorance of the first principles of gunnery which manifested itself both among officers and men1 and that he conceived the idea of applying1 should leisure ever be afforded him1 a proper remedy to the evil4 ,from that idea emanated his first great treatise1 to which the ,british navy owes so much1 and of which the rulers of the ,british navy1 the ,lords of the ,admiralty1 did not condescend1 for many months after it had been submitted to them1 even to acknowledge the receipt4 ,there can be no doubt that to ,sir ,howard's activity in ,galicia the successful issues of ,lord ,wellington's campaign1 in the early summer of #ahab1 were greatly owing4 ,had he not managed to find employment for two whole divisions of ,french infantry1 these1 with a division of cavalry1 must have joined ,marmont's army2 in which case the battle of ,salamanca would have either not been fought at all1 or it might have ended less triumphantly than it did4 ,but no man can work impossibilities2 and the time arrived when1 having accomplished the main purpose of his mission1 ,sir ,howard received orders to return to ,england4 ,he could not quit the ,peninsula1 however1 without once again communicating with ,lord ,wellington1 whom he found just about to undertake the siege of the ,castle of ,burgos4 ,to ,douglas's practised eye the place appeared of immense strength in proportion to the means disposable for its reduction2 and a private reconnaissance led him to conclude that the whole plan of attack was faulty4 ,in both opinions he stood alone2 yet such was the respect in which his judgment was held1 that the chiefs of artillery and engineers communicated what he had said to ,lord ,wellington1 and ,lord ,wellington sent for him4 ,the following is ,mr ,fullom's account of this interview3--8#8,well1 ,sir ,howard1 you have something to say about the siege8' #8,i think the place is stronger than we supposed1 my ,lord4' #8,yes1 by ,g--2 but our way is to take the hornwork1 and from there breach the wall1 and then assault over the two advanced profiles4' #8,i would submit to your ,lordship whether our means are equal to such an attack8' #8,i am not satisfied about our ammunition1' replied ,lord ,wellington4 #8,the enemy's guns are #bd-pounders1 my ,lord1 and we have only three #ah-pounders and five #bd-pound howitzers4 ,the #ah-pounders will not breach the wall1 and our fire must be overpowered1 unless your ,lordship brings up some guns from the ships at ,santander4' #8,how would you do that8' #8,with draught oxen as far as the mountains1 and then drag them on by hand2 we can employ the peasantry1 and put a hundred men to a gun4' #8,it would take too long4' #8,i think the place may be captured1 with our present means1 from the eastern front1 my ,lord1' returned ,sir ,howard2 and he disclosed his plan1 with his reasons for thinking it the most practicable4 ,lord ,wellington made no remark4 ,possibly he saw the defects of his own plan1 but it had been deliberately adopted1 and he was not convinced that it ought to be abandoned40 ,mr ,fullom has not told this anecdote quite correctly4 ,sir ,howard was more closely questioned as to the mode of conveyance for the guns1 and answered more pertinently1 than is here set down4 ,he suggested that the #bd-pounders should be dismounted1 the guns placed in the boles of trees hollowed out1 and the carriages run forward by themselves4 ,thus the narrowest track through woods and round rocks would suffice for the conveyance of the former1 while the latter1 being comparatively light1 would offer no formidable resistance wherever men or bullocks could travel4 ,lord ,wellington1 however1 adhered to his own plan1 and sustained the only reverse which marks the progress of an experience in war extending wellnigh over a quarter of a century4 ,it is just towards both parties to observe1 that the baffled hero was too magnanimous not to acknowledge his error4 8,douglas was right10 he exclaimed1 as he mounted his horse to begin the retreat2 8he was the only man who told me the truth40 ,sir ,howard returned to ,england1 and there resumed his occupations as a military instructor2 but his mind was full of a project for forcing attention to gunnery on the chiefs of the navy2 and the disastrous results of the first frigate-actions in the ,american war not a little quickened his zeal4 ,he had a more herculean task before him1 however1 than he himself imagined4 ,strange to say1 his disinclination to the study of pure mathematics had never been overcome2 and now he found himself obliged to master all the arcana of the science1 so far as these had any relation to the movement of a vessel through water under all possible contingencies4 ,while pursuing these studies he effected such improvements in the reflecting circle and semicircle for land and marine surveying as attracted the attention of the ,royal ,society1 which immediately elected him a member2 and then he gave himself up steadily to the object for which all this abstruse study had been only the preparation4 ,he produced a treatise in which every point connected with the theory and practice of artillery was handled4 ,he discussed not only the power and range of various kinds of ordnance1 with the uses of their several parts1 and the effects of transit1 windage1 recoil1 and suchlike1 but he explained how a school of naval gunnery could be established1 and submitted the whole in ,,ms4 for the consideration of the ,lords of the ,admiralty4 ,weeks and months passed by1 however1 without bringing him so much as a written acknowledgment of its receipt2 and then1 and not till then1 he wrote privately to his friend ,sir ,graham ,moore4 ,sir ,graham made such apology as the case would admit of1 and did his best to fix upon the subject the attention of his colleagues2 but a year elapsed before any decided steps were taken4 ,at last the scheme was adopted2 and in #ahai1 ,sir ,howard1 having first of all obtained the sanction of the ,government1 gave his valuable treatise to the world4 ,it attracted at once the attention of scientific men both at home and abroad1 and led to frequent correspondence between the author and all persons capable of appreciating and taking an interest in so important a matter4 ,promoted to the rank of ,major-,general1 ,sir ,howard was nominated in #ahbd to the ,governorship of ,new ,brunswick1 and to the command of the troops stationed there1 and in ,nova ,scotia1 ,cape ,breton1 ,prince ,edward ,island1 ,newfoundland1 and ,bermuda4 ,mr ,fullom tells an amusing story of ,sir ,howard being met on the pier at ,halifax by ,mr ,justice ,haliburton1 which fails in this respect1 that it happens unfortunately not to be accurate4 ,it was not ,sam ,slick1 but his cousin of the same name1 who in #agif had served in the ,fusiliers1 and in #ahbd greeted his old comrade as ,governor of ,new ,brunswick4 ,but there is so much of vraisemblance in the matter1 that the anecdote may very well remain where it is4 ,on the other hand1 ,mr ,fullom's narrative of ,sir ,howard's administration of the province is not only correct to the letter1 but extremely interesting4 ,it came to pass while he was there that one of those fires occurred1 of the appalling effects of which we in this old world of ,europe can form no conception4 ,it was an unusually dry summer1 the third of a succession of such1 when first in the town1 and by-and-by far off in the forest1 flames suddenly broke out4 ,government ,house was the first to be burned down2 then whole streets ignited at once2 and just as a line began to be drawn between what remained of the town and the ashes of dwellings consumed1 a lurid glare1 seen afar off1 gave warning that even a worse calamity was in progress4 8,several days elapsed before the fire subsided1 and then it became masked by a smoke which darkened the whole country4 ,but night proved that it had not burned out2 for showers of flame shot up at intervals1 and trees stood glaring in the dark1 while the mingled black and red of the sky seemed its embers overhead4 ,thus a week passed1 when ,sir ,howard determined to penetrate the forest1 and visit the different settlements4 ,a friend has described his parting with ,lady ,douglas and his daughters1 whose pale faces betrayed their emotion1 though they forbore to oppose his design1 knowing that nothing would keep him from his duty4 ,but this was not understood by others1 and the gentlemen of the town gathered round his rough country waggon at the door1 and entreated him to wait a few days1 pointing to the mountains of smoke1 and declaring that he must be suffocated if he escaped being burned4 ,he thanked them for their good feeling1 grasped their hands1 and mounted the waggon4 ,it dashed off at a gallop1 and wondering eyes followed it to the woods1 where it disappeared in the smoke4 8,the devastation he met exceeded his worst fears2 for the settlements he went to visit no longer existed4 ,the fire seems to have burst in every quarter at once2 for it broke out at ,miramichi the same moment as at ,fredericktown1 though one hundred and fifty miles lay between4 ,but here its aspect was even more dreadful1 and its ravages more appalling1 as ,miramichi stood in the forest completely girt round except where escape was shut off by the river4 ,many were in bed when they heard the alarm2 many were first startled by the flames1 or were suffocated in their sleep1 leaving no vestige but charred bones2 others leaped from roof or window1 and rushed into the forest1 not knowing where they went1 or took fire in the street1 and blazed up like torches4 ,a number succeeded in gaining the river1 and threw themselves in boats or on planks1 and pushed off from the banks1 which the fire had almost reached1 and where it presently raged as fiercely as in the town4 ,one woman was aroused from sleep by the screams of her children1 whom she found in flames1 and caught fire herself as she snatched up an infant and ran into the river1 where mother and child perished together4 ,then came the hurricane1 tearing up burning trees and whirling them aloft1 lashing the river and channel to fury1 and snapping the anchors of the ships1 which flew before it like chaff1 dashing on the rocks1 and covering the waves with wreck4 ,blazing trees lighted on two large vessels1 and they fired like mines1 consuming on the water1 which became so hot in the shallows that large salmon and other fish leaped on shore1 and were afterwards found dead in heaps along the banks of the river4 ,what can be said of such horrors1 combining a conflagration of one thousand miles with storm and shipwreck1 and surprising a solitary community at midnight8 ,happily the greater number contrived to reach ,chatham by the river2 but floating corpses showed how many perished in the attempt1 and nearly three hundred lost their lives by fire or drowning40 ,no small portion of ,sir ,howard's time henceforth was spent in devising means for the relief of the unfortunate people whom this calamity had ruined4 ,he made strong appeals to the benevolence of the ,british public1 which were not disregarded1 and he advanced from his own funds more than he could well spare4 ,nor was he inattentive to other matters4 ,he made a voyage from harbour to harbour throughout the extent of his military command1 and1 with his usual luck1 twice narrowly escaped shipwreck4 ,indeed1 so completely was his name up as a ,jonah1 that the captain of the ,niemen frigate1 with whom he had been a passenger1 took the alarm4 8,the following day0 7the day after one of these mishaps7 8brought ,captain ,wallace to dine with the ,governor1 and it came out that he had been hearing tales about his ,excellency which he did not consider to his advantage1 for he suddenly asked him if he had not once been shipwrecked4 ,sir ,howard replied by telling the story1 and the captain's face became longer as he proceeded1 though he made no remark till the close4 ,he then observed that his regard for him was very great1 and he valued their interchange of hospitality in port and ashore1 but should never like to take him to sea again2 for he had been twenty years afloat without mishap1 except on the two occasions when they had been together2 and he should now look upon his appearance in his ship as a passenger as a very bad omen indeed40 ,on both occasions the ship had struck for lack of proper beacons1 and ,sir ,howard at once applied the remedy4 ,he caused lighthouses to be built where they were most required2 and in order to improve the internal communications of the province1 he made roads1 and proposed a plan for connecting by a canal the ,bay of ,fundy with the ,gulf of ,st ,lawrence4 ,meanwhile he was not neglectful of the intellectual wants of the colonists1 as yet very imperfectly attended to4 ,he founded1 endowed1 and1 after a good deal of opposition1 obtained a charter for the ,university of ,fredericktown1 of which1 in #ahbi1 he became the first ,chancellor1 giving at the same time his own name to the ,college4 ,these were works of peace2 and he was equally careful in guarding against the chances of war4 ,the treaty of #aghc had left the boundary-line between ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states very imperfectly defined2 and as the inhabitants of the latter country increased in number1 they began to encroach on the territories of the former4 ,a good many squatters had forced themselves into ,new ,brunswick1 and been driven away1 till at last a person named ,baker1 bolder than the rest1 took possession of an outlying portion of land1 and hoisted the ,american standard4 ,the proceeding was much approved by the ,government of ,maine1 and strong parties of the militia were turned out in anticipation of a collision with the garrison of ,fredericktown4 ,sir ,howard ,douglas1 however1 knew better than to precipitate hostilities4 ,he contented himself with sending a civil message to ,baker1 requesting him to withdraw2 and when no attention was paid to it1 he gave such orders to the troops as would bring them to the frontier in a few hours should their presence be required4 ,this done1 a parish constable was desired to perform his duty2 and the man1 coming upon ,baker without any fuss or parade1 cut down the flag-staff1 seized the squatter1 and carried him off in a waggon to the capital of the province4 ,all ,maine was thrown into a ferment4 ,the ,governor threatened1 and demanded that ,baker should be set at liberty4 ,sir ,howard refused so much as to see the messenger intrusted with this demand1 justly alleging that he could hold communication on such subjects only with the ,central ,government at ,washington4 ,the result was1 that ,baker1 being put upon his trial1 was found guilty1 and sentenced to pay a fine2 which fine1 after an enormous amount of bluster1 was duly paid4 ,for his firm yet judicious conduct throughout this awkward affair ,sir ,howard received the approbation of the ,home ,government1 becoming at the same time more than ever an object of enthusiastic admiration to the people whom he governed4 ,while approving all that their representative had done1 the ,british ,government saw that it would be impossible with safety to leave the boundary question longer unsettled4 ,arrangements were accordingly made with the ,united ,states for referring the points at issue to arbitration2 and the ,king of the ,netherlands being accepted as arbitrator1 ,sir ,howard was requested to return to ,europe1 and to watch proceedings4 ,the ,king's decision gave1 however1 little satisfaction to either party4 ,england1 indeed1 would have acquiesced in it1 though feeling herself wronged2 but ,america failed to get all that she coveted1 and refused to be bound4 ,it remained for her1 by sharp practice at a future period1 to gain her end2 and for ,england1 under the management of ,lord ,ashburton and ,sir ,robert ,peel1 to be made a fool of4 ,the part played by ,sir ,howard ,douglas during the progress of this negotiation was every way worthy of his high reputation2 but that which strikes us most is the sagacity with which1 so early as #ahbh1 he foretold events in the ,states themselves1 which have since come to pass4 ,in a paper addressed to the ,secretary for the ,colonies1 which points out endless grounds of quarrel between the ,federal ,government and the ,governments of the several ,states1 he thus expresses himself3-- 8,here we may see the manner in which the ,union will be dissolved--viz41 the secession of any ,state which1 considering its interest1 property1 or jurisdiction menaced1 may no longer choose to send deputies to ,congress4 ,this is a great defect in the ,bond of ,union1 which has not1 perhaps1 been very generally noticed1 cloaked as it is under article #ast1 section #eth of the ,constitution1 which states #8that where there are not present1 of either ,house1 members sufficient to form a quorum to do business1 a smaller number may be authorised1 for the purpose of forming one1 to compel the attendance of absent members4' ,but this appears only to be authorised for the purpose of forming a quorum1 and only extends over members actually sworn in1 who1 being delegated to ,congress by the ,states they represent1 are subjected to whatever rules of proceeding and penalties each ,house may provide1 with the concurrence of two-thirds of its members4 ,but there is nothing obligatory upon the several #8,sovereign ,states' to send members to ,congress1 or to prevent those sent from being withdrawn4 ,the #8,sovereign ,states' have never bound themselves to do either2 so that the process of dissolution in this way is very simple1 and the danger imminent of a separation being thus effected1 whenever the interests of any particular ,state or ,states are touched by the ,government1 or brought into discussion in ,congress1 although those interests may be outvoted by the preponderating influence of other ,states having different interests4 ,but the ,state or ,states which are to suffer will not1 it is clear1 send members to vote their own injury or ruin2 and it may safely be pronounced1 from what ,i have shown in this paper1 that this is the manner in which the ,american ,union will come to a natural death40 ,sir ,howard returned to ,england from the ,hague1 to find the ,government bent on equalising the duties on foreign and colonial timber1 and thereby depriving the people of ,new ,brunswick of one of the most lucrative branches of their trade4 ,he could not sit still and see done what he himself regarded as an act of great injustice4 ,he made immense exertions1 therefore1 personally and through the press1 to defeat the ,ministerial measure1 and he succeeded4 ,it was impossible1 under such circumstances1 to return to ,new ,brunswick1 and he therefore resigned the government4 ,not even their satisfaction at the victory which he had achieved for them could reconcile the ,new ,brunswickers to the loss of their ,governor2 and they marked their gratitude for all that he had done by presenting him with a magnificent service of plate4 ,indeed1 it is very touching to remember how1 up to the latest day of his life1 every person connected with ,new ,brunswick1 on visiting ,england1 sought him out as if he had been a private friend1 and laid open to him matters1 not of public only1 but of private business4 ,the ,whig ,ministers1 on the other hand1 naturally piqued at their defeat1 left him for four years without any employment4 ,hence it was not till #ahce1 when ,sir ,robert ,peel acceded to office1 that ,sir ,howard received the appointment of ,lord ,high ,commissioner of the ,ionian ,islands4 ,it was again his fate to be mixed up with calamities brought on by natural causes1 and with political difficulties of no common order4 ,there arrived one day from ,ireland1 at ,government ,house1 a ,right ,rev4 ,dr ,hynes1 a protg of ,daniel ,o',connell1 who introduced himself to ,sir ,howard as ,bishop of ,corfu1 and handed him a letter from ,lord ,glenelg1 at that time ,colonial ,secretary4 8#8,you seem not to be aware that there is already a ,bishop in ,corfu1' remarked ,sir ,howard4 ,dr ,hynes intimated that he was a ,catholic ,bishop appointed by the ,pope4 #8,i know of but one ,bishop here1 sir1' replied ,sir ,howard1 #8and no other could be recognised4' ,dr ,hynes remonstrated1 and pointed out the importance to ,england of the ,roman ,catholic interest in the islands2 but ,sir ,howard could not be persuaded that the ,british ,government was not strong enough to hold its ground without this bulwark4 ,the prelate appealed to the letter of the ,minister of the ,colonies1 but was shown that this was no recognition1 nor could such be given without the sanction of the ,ionian ,senate4 ,he declared he would assume his functions1 and abide the consequences2 but met a firmness surpassing his own1 and learned that he would not be permitted to remain on the island4 ,he denied that he could be expelled1 and warned the ,lord ,high ,commissioner that his conduct must be answered in ,england4 #8,i have only to say1' was the reply1 #8that you will be removed by the police if you are not gone within twenty-four hours4'0 ,the ,bishop was unable to resist such an argument as this1 and ,papal aggression received a temporary check in ,corfu4 ,but ,sir ,howard had another battle to fight1 and he fought it to a successful issue4 ,wherever he exercised authority1 his great object seems to have been to promote the physical and moral wellbeing of society1 and he applied himself with this view to compile a sound code of laws for the ,ionians4 ,nothing could be more offensive to those who profited by bad laws2 and the priests in particular1 set on by the ,patriarch of ,constantinople1 as he was set on by ,russia1 offered all the opposition in their power4 ,sir ,howard's mode of defeating this move of the ,hellenistic faction proved at once novel and effective4 ,he waited till the preparations for revolt 7for open revolt was meditated7 were complete2 and then surrounded the house where the chief conspirators sat1 arrested them all1 and took possession of papers which placed the complicity of the ,patriarch beyond doubt4 ,these he sent to the ,british ,minister at ,constantinople1 who obtained without difficulty the deposition of the ,patriarch1 and the setting up of a successor less disposed to become a tool in the hands of ,russia4 ,of the great earthquake which shook ,zante to its centre the memory will not soon pass away4 ,it began just as ,sir ,howard entered the harbour on one of his tours of inspection1 and continued1 with shocks recurring at narrow intervals1 for a whole fortnight4 ,the people1 paralysed with terror1 knew not what to do1 or whither to betake themselves1 till the ,lord ,high ,commissioner appeared among them1 calm and collected4 ,he gave the necessary orders for extricating the wounded from the ruins3 he directed men1 women1 and children where to go2 caused temporary barracks to be erected for their shelter2 and appeared to them as a guardian angel in their hour of need4 ,his good offices on that occasion1 as well as a brief experience of the working of his laws1 brought about a thorough change of opinion both with regard to them and to him4 ,when he resigned his office1 which he was obliged to do in consequence of the not very generous conduct towards him of ,lord ,john ,russell1 then ,colonial ,secretary1 he left scarce one enemy in the island1 and had the honour of having an obelisk erected to him1 by vote of the ,senate1 bearing this inscription3 8,howard ,douglas1 ,cavalier1 and ,general1 ,high ,commissioner1 ,benefactor of the ,ionian ,islands40 ,sir ,howard sat in ,parliament for ,liverpool during ,sir ,robert ,peel's last administration1 and spoke and voted on all occasions like a sound yet thoughtful ,conservative4 ,in #ahdg he retired from the ,house of ,commons1 and thenceforth applied his energies to the service of the country as a writer on professional and scientific subjects4 ,his treatise on #8,naval ,gunnery' had already gone through several editions1 as did his volume on #8,fortification2' and he now compiled and published his #8,military ,bridges1' perhaps the most generally interesting1 if not the most important1 of all his works4 ,but it was not thus alone that he continued to be useful4 ,his opinions were sought and freely given to each successive ,government on every question connected with the improvement of arms1 the selection of points to be fortified1 the management of the navy1 and the steps to be taken for putting the country in a state of defence4 ,it is extremely interesting to know that1 like the great ,duke of ,wellington1 ,sir ,howard laid aside all party feeling whenever the honour or interests of the country came to be considered2 and that he possessed1 as he deserved1 the entire confidence of ,whigs not less than of ,tories4 ,his opinions as to the relative value of iron and wooden ships are well known2 he was entirely opposed to the former1 though he did not object to the process of casing the latter with mail2 while in his #8,naval ,warfare with ,steam' he advocated a system of tactics which should bring the management of fleets very much into the same category with the management of armies in the day of battle4 ,thus1 honoured and beloved1 ,sir ,howard grew old1 without losing one jot of the elasticity of spirit which had characterised him in earlier days4 ,he was very happy also in his family till death began to cut it short1 and blow after blow fell so heavily1 that1 brave as he was1 he sometimes reeled4 ,in #ahed a grandson1 the bearer of his own name1 died2 then came tidings of the decease of his eldest son1 ,charles1 far away2 then his second son left him2 then two of his daughters1 ,mrs ,harcourt and ,mrs ,murray ,gartshore4 ,the loss of ,mrs ,gartshore affected him very deeply2 and well it might1 for she was one of those gifted and beautiful creatures who shed light around them wherever they go1 seeming too pure and noble for earth4 ,and scarcely were his tears dry when ,lady ,douglas1 his companion for fifty-seven years1 followed her daughters4 ,two daughters and one son alone remained to him1 and one of these daughters was a widow2 the other kept his house1 and was1 indeed1 everything to him4 ,but she likewise was taken from him1 in a manner as trying as could be to his ,christian patience and courage4 ,she had been in apparent health and cheerful with him at dinner one day1 and next morning was found dead in her bed4 ,if the old man's head had fallen into the dust1 who could have wondered8 ,but it did not4 8,no one can tell10 he observed to ,mr ,bateman1 the medical gentleman who was called in1 8what a loss she is to me3 she has devoted herself to me2 but ,i must do what is to be done4 ,she will sleep beside her mother1 where ,i will soon join them40 ,in this manner the sun went gradually down till it sank beneath the horizon4 ,not that he suffered himself to be unmanned by sorrow2 quite otherwise4 ,but the physical frame felt the shock1 and yielded to it perceptibly4 8,sir ,howard enjoyed excellent health up to ,miss ,douglas's death4 ,all his teeth were sound2 he walked three or four miles a-day1 and obtained eight hours' sleep at night4 ,but that event gave his system a shock1 and the controversy about armour-ships wore it more1 showing his friends a marked change4 ,his sleep was less regular and composed1 and he frequently recited the lines of our great poet-- #8,oh1 sleep6 oh1 gentle sleep6 ,nature's soft nurse1 how have ,i frighted thee1 ,that thou no more wilt weigh mine eyelids down1 ,and steep my senses in forgetfulness8 ,wilt thou upon the high and giddy mast ,seal up the ship-boy's eyes1 and rock his brains ,in cradle of the rude imperious surge1 ,and in the visitation of the winds1 ,who take the ruffian billows by the top1 ,curling their monstrous heads1 and hanging them ,with deafening clamours in the slippery clouds1 ,that with the hurly death itself awakes4' 8,but he hid his sorrows1 appearing calm and cheerful1 though his manner was subdued and his conversation less animated4 ,his vivacity revived at times1 particularly when he spoke of ,scotland1 the theme he liked best2 or when he recalled his early life in ,america1 and described the pathless forests1 the villages of wigwams1 or the falls of ,niagara1 reciting ,thomson's lines-- #8,smooth to the shelving brink a copious flood ,rolls fair and placid1' c4 8,he derived little benefit from the ,folkstone breezes on his last visit1 though enjoying his walks on the promenade1 which he pronounced the noblest platform in ,europe4 ,its attractions were just to his taste1 for he could here see the coast of ,france1 against which he had raised such bulwarks1 watch the yachts and shipping in harbour and ,channel1 and glance around at the military strollers4 ,shorncliff ,camp was within reach1 as well as the ,military ,school at ,hythe1 in which he took great interest1 highly appreciating ,general ,hay4 ,he supported the ,volunteer movement1 and aided in its organisation1 addressing a letter of advice to the ,national ,rifle ,association through his friend ,general ,hay1 and receiving an acknowledgment in his election as an honorary member4 ,so well did he keep abreast with the age4 ,he showed the same interest in the movements at the ,camp1 and attended any display1 though not always to commend4 ,he particularly censured a sham fight1 representing an attack on an enemy who had landed in a bay near ,hythe4 ,the troops were marched down1 and skirmishers thrown out on the beach1 when the whole body fell back on the heights1 holding them to cover their retreat4 #8,what an absurd proceeding6' remarked ,sir ,howard to ,mr ,bateman1 who was by his side2 #8the movement ought to be exactly reversed4 ,they should have brought down every man and gun as quickly as possible if the enemy had landed1 and attacked him1 and driven him into the sea4 ,there would be some sense in that4' 8,sir ,howard looked a soldier to the last1 retaining his erect bearing1 and walking with a firm step1 though cautiously1 and with looks bent on the ground4 ,his sight had begun to fail1 and cataracts were forming on both his eyes1 but he did not submit them to medical treatment4 #8,they will last my time1' he remarked to the author4 ,he contrived to write by never raising his pen1 forming the letters by habit1 and all were plain to one acquainted with his hand4 ,a career of threescore years and ten left his character much what it first appeared1 with all its elements of dash1 vigour1 enterprise1 aptitude1 and perception1 its habits of industry1 its generous instincts1 and its warm sympathies4 ,neither heart nor mind showed the wear of life1 and he is the same at eighty-five as at seventeen2 inspiring the ,volunteers at ,hythe as he inspired them at ,tynemouth1 and exercising the inventive genius which scared the rats in improving the screw propeller4 ,the hand that caught up the child in the shipwreck1 obeyed the same impulse still2 and ,mr ,bateman saw him walking up the street at ,folkstone with a loaded basket which he had taken from a poor little girl4 #8,my dear1 give that to me1' he said1 as he saw her bending under the weight2 #8,i am better able to carry it than you4' ,the words were reported by a lady who heard them in passing1 as the ,general of eighty-five and the poor child of five walked away together40 ,we are not going to draw an elaborate character of one whose life may be said to have formed his epitaph4 ,sir ,howard ,douglas needs no panegyrist to tell the world what he was4 ,chivalrous1 truthful1 high-minded1 brave1 he secured the esteem1 not less than he commanded the respect1 of all who approached him4 ,had circumstances so ordered it that he had ever directed the movement of troops in the field1 we take it upon us to say1 that among ,english generals few would have attained to higher eminence than he4 ,as it was1 he did more for the ,british army1 and navy too1 in his books and by his teaching1 than either army or navy1 or the heads of both branches of the service1 have ever had the grace to acknowledge4 ,to these more shining qualities of head and temperament he added the faith and humility of a ,christian man3 a humility which was far too real to be obtruded on careless observers2 a faith which had not one shade of hypocrisy or fanaticism about it4 ,rest to his noble spirit6 it will be long before we look upon his like again4 ,,italian ,,brigandage4 ,terrorism1 in one shape or other1 is the bane of ,italy4 ,by a system of organised terrorism the princes of ,italy have governed their states1 and by means of terror the peoples have replied to their rulers4 ,from the wide diffusion of this sentiment throughout the nation1 secret societies took their root in the land1 and men became banded together for attack1 protection1 resistance1 or revenge4 ,there was none so high in character or so elevated by station that he might not be denounced2 there was not one so degraded that he might not be associated with the secret acts of the ,government4 ,the only idea of rule was through the instrumentality of a secret police4 ,all were suspected--all were watched4 ,the report of the secretary was entertained as to the character and the acts of the minister1 and the secretary was himself under the close inspection of some underling in his office4 ,the work of the ,state went on under the assumption that no man was honest2 and it was really curious to see how all the complicated questions of a ,government could be dealt with by a system whose first principle was that there was no truth anywhere4 ,it impaired nothing of a man's position or influence that he was known to take bribes4 ,corruption was the rule1 from the star-covered courtier beside the throne1 down to the half-naked lazzarone on the ,mole4 8,take care of your pockets1 gentlemen1 there's a minister coming10 was the decorous pleasantry of ,king ,ferdinand at one of his last receptions1 and the speech had a significance which all could appreciate4 ,it was especially in ,southern ,italy that this corruption prevailed the most4 ,amongst a race long enervated and demoralised1 the work of ,government went easily on by means of such agency4 ,the great efforts of the rulers were directed1 not to repress crimes against property and offences against society1 but to meet political disaffection and discontent4 ,the noted thief would be leniently dealt with1 while the ,liberal journalist would be sentenced to the ergastolo4 ,assassination and robbery went on increasing1 and none seemed to feel terrified2 while the imprisonment of one man for some expression of ,liberal opinions1 or some half-implied censure of the ,government1 was sure to strike terror into many a heart4 ,the 8,government0 was1 in fact1 very little else than an organised conspiracy against the spread of all civilisation4 ,its efforts were directed to keeping the people in a degraded ignorance--the slaves of priestly superstition1 thinking little of the present and utterly regardless about the future4 ,the ,neapolitan temperament was well suited for such a system4 ,caring wonderfully little how life was sustained1 so that no labour was exacted for its maintenance1--light-hearted1 even to recklessness--indifferent to almost all privations1--such a people were neither subject to the same fears nor stirred by the same hopes as the ,northern ,italian4 ,they asked1 in fact1 for little beyond the permission to exist4 ,discontent1 in its political significance1 had no place among them2 they had never heard of any better liberty than idleness1 and if they had1 they could not have prized it4 ,with natural acuteness1 however1 they saw the corruption that surrounded them--how the minister took bribes from the contractor1 and how the contractor cheated the ,state--how the customs officer was bribed by the smuggler1 and how the first merchants of the capital filled their warehouses with contraband goods4 ,they saw that no man's integrity ever interfered to his disadvantage1 but that self-interest was the mainspring of every action2 and could a people so acute to learn be slow to profit by the lesson they acquired8 ,out of this system of terror1 for it was and is a system1 grew two institutions in ,southern ,italy--,brigandage and the ,camorra4 ,the former of these asserted its influence over the country at large2 the latter1 which was an 8organised blackmail10 limited its operations to towns and cities4 ,brigandage is no new pestilence in ,italy2 it has existed for centuries4 ,from the character of the country1 so difficult to travel and so interlaced with cross paths only known to the inhabitants1 all pursuit of these robbers has been rendered difficult2 but besides this1 another and far greater obstacle has presented itself in the sympathy of the peasantry1 who1 partly from affection and partly from fear1 have always taken part with the brigands to protect or to conceal them4 ,the same disposition of the country people to side with those who break the law that we see every day in ,ireland1 is recognisable here4 ,like the ,irish1 the lower ,italians have never regarded the law but as a harsh and cruel tyranny4 ,they only know it in its severity and in its penalties--they have never had recourse to it for protection or defence2 it has never been to them a barrier against the exactions of the great man1 or the unjust pressure of the powerful man2 they have felt it in its moods of vengeance1 and never in its moments of commiseration4 ,elevated above their fellows by a certain wild and savage chivalry1 the brigands have long exercised a terror over the people of the ,south4 ,their lives were full of marvellous adventures1 of terrible incidents and hairbreadth escapes1 sure to excite interest in the minds of an uneducated and imaginative race1 who grew to regard the relators in the light of heroes4 ,nor did the ,church itself scruple to accept the ill-gotten gains of the highwayman3 and the costly robe of the ,virgin1 and the rich gems that decked her shrine1 have often and often displayed the spoils that have been torn from the luckless traveller4 ,in this mixture of religious superstition with a defiance of all human law1 we see again a resemblance between the ,italian and the ,irishman1 whose traits have indeed an almost unerring similarity in everything4 ,that 8wild justice0 of which the great ,irish rhetorician once spoke1 is the rule of each4 ,assuming that society has formed a pact against them1 they have taken up arms in their own defence2 and whether it be the landlord or the traveller1 it matters little who shall pay the penalty4 ,it is next to impossible to deal with crime where the general sentiment favours the criminal4 ,the boasted immunity of the policeman in ,england is but another name for the ascendancy of the law4 ,how comes it otherwise that one man armed with a mere truncheon dares to arrest a thief in the midst of his accomplices and associates1 while we see in ,italy ninety thousand soldiers unable to repress ,brigandage in two provinces of the ,south1 where the number of the brigands is set down as four hundred8 ,such in substance is the report lately furnished to the ,chamber of ,deputies at ,turin by the order of ,general ,lamarmora4 ,the forces for the repression of ,brigandage amount to ninety thousand well-armed and well-disciplined soldiers1 and the enemy are stated as four hundred half-naked and scarcely armed wretches1 as destitute of courage as of food4 ,such is the picture given of them2 and we are left in utter astonishment to guess why1 with such a disparity of numbers1 the curse of ,brigandage should yet be known in the land4 ,why cannot ninety thousand deal with four hundred1 even were the cause at issue less one of equity and justice8 ,if1 as has often been asserted1 the ,brigandage has been fed from ,rome--if the gold of ,francis ,,ii4 and the blessing of the ,pope go with those who cross the frontier to maintain the disturbance in ,southern ,italy--what should be easier1 with such a superiority of numbers1 than to cut off the communication8 ,with sixty thousand men a cordon could be drawn from the ,mediterranean to the ,adriatic in which each sentinel could hail his neighbour4 ,were the difficulty to lie here1 could it not be met at once8 ,it was declared a few weeks back by ,mr ,odo ,russell1 that a whole regiment1 armed and clothed in some resemblance to ,french soldiers1 passed over to the south2 and we are lost in amazement why such resources should be available in the face of an army greater than ,wellington ever led in ,spain or conquered with at ,waterloo4 ,to understand a problem so difficult1 it is first of all necessary to bear in mind that this same ,brigandage is neither what the friends of the ,bourbons nor what the advocates of united ,italy have pronounced it4 ,if the ,basilicata and the ,capitanata are very far from being ,la ,vende1 they are also unlike what the friends of ,piedmontism would declare--countries well affected to the ,house of ,savoy under the temporary dominion of a lawless and bloody tyranny from which they are utterly powerless to free themselves4 ,if ,brigandage is not in its essence a movement of the reactionists1 it has nevertheless been seized upon by them to prosecute their plans and favour their designs4 ,to render the ,neapolitan ,states ungovernable--to exhibit to the eyes of ,europe a vast country in a state of disorganisation1 where the most frightful cruelties are daily practised--where horrors that even war is free from are hourly perpetrated--was a stroke of policy of which the friends of the late dynasty were not slow to avail themselves4 ,by this they could contrast the rule of the present ,government with that of the former ones2 and while the press of ,europe still rang with the cruelties of the ,bourbons1 they could ask1 ,where is the happy change that you speak of8 ,is it in the proclamations of ,general ,pinelli--the burning of villages1 and the indiscriminate slaughter of their inhabitants8 ,do the edicts which forbid a peasant to carry more than one meal to his daily labour1 tell of a more enlightened rule8 ,do the proclamations against being found a mile distant from home1 savour of liberty8 ,are the paragraphs we daily read in the ,government papers1 where the band of this or that brigand chief has been captured or shot1 the only evidences to be shown of a spirit which moves ,italians to desire a united nation8 ,you tell us of your superior enlightenment and cultivation1 say the ,bourbonists1 and the world at large listens favourably to your claims4 ,but why1 if it be true1 have the last two years counted more massacres than the forty which have preceded them8 ,why are thousands wandering homeless and shelterless through the mountains1 while the ruins of their dwellings are yet smoking from the ruthless depredations of your soldiery8 ,if ,brigandage numbers but four hundred followers1 why are such wholesale cruelties resorted to8 ,the simple fact is this3 the ,brigandage of ,southern ,italy is not a question of four hundred1 or four thousand1 or four hundred thousand followers1 but of a whole people utterly brutalised and demoralised1 who1 whatever peril they attach to crime1 attach no shame or disgrace to it4 ,the labourers on one of the ,southern ,italian lines almost to a man disappeared from work1 and on their return to it1 some days after1 frankly confessed they had spent the interval with the brigands4 ,they were not robbers by profession nor from habit2 but they saw no ignominy in lending themselves to an incidental massacre and bloodshed4 ,the ,national ,guards of the different villages1 and the ,syndics themselves1 are frequently charged with a want of energy and determination2 but the truth is1 these very people are the very support and mainspring of ,brigandage4 ,the brigands are the brothers1 the sons1 or the cousins of those who affect to move against them4 ,so far from feeling the ,piedmontese horror of the brigand1 these men are rather irritated by the discipline that bands them against him4 ,they have none of that military ardour which makes the ,northern ,italian proud of being a soldier4 ,their blood has not been stirred by seeing the foreigner the master of their capital cities2 their pride has not been outraged by the presence of the hated ,croat or the rude ,bohemian at their gates4 ,to them the call to arms has been anything but a matter of vain glory4 ,besides this1 there seems in the unrelenting pursuit of the ,brigandage a something that savours of the hate of the ,north for the ,south4 ,under the ,bourbons the brigand met a very different measure1 as he did under the ,french rule1 and in the time of ,murat4 ,men of the most atrocious lives1 stained with many and cruel murders1 were admitted to treat with the ,government1 and the negotiations were carried on as formally as between equals4 ,when a ,capo ,briganti desired to abandon his lawless and perilous life1 he had but to intimate his wish to some one in authority4 ,his full conditions might not at first or all be acceded to1 but he was sure to be met with every facility for his wish2 and in more than one case was such a man employed in a situation of trust by the ,state2 and there yet lives one1 ,geosaphat ,talarico1 who has for years enjoyed a ,government pension as the reward of his submission and reformation4 ,under the old ,bourbon rule1 all might be pardoned1 except an offence against the throne4 ,to the political criminal alone no grace could be extended4 ,the people saw this1 and were not slow to apply the lesson4 ,let it also be borne in mind1 that the brigand himself often met a very different appreciation from those who knew him personally to that he received at the hands of the ,state4 ,the assassin denounced in wordy proclamations1 and for whose head a price was offered1 was in his native village a 8gran' ,galantuomo10 who had done scores of fine and generous actions4 ,to revolutionise feeling in such a matter is not an easy task4 ,let any one1 for instance1 fashion to his mind how he would proceed to turn the sympathies of the ,irish peasant against the ,rockite and in favour of the landlord1 to hunt down the criminal and to favour his victim4 ,it would be a similar task to endeavour to dispose the peasant of the ,abruzzi to look unfavourably on ,brigandage4 ,brigandage was1 in fact1 but another exercise of that terrorism which they saw universally around them4 ,was the ,capo ,briganti more cruel than the tax-gatherer8 was he not often more merciful8 and did he ever press upon the poor8 ,were not his exactions solely from the rich8 ,was he not generous1 too1 when he was full-handed8 ,how many a benevolent action could be recorded to his credit6 ,if this great ,government1 which talked so largely of its enlightenment1 really wished to benefit the people1 why did it not lighten the imposts1 cheapen bread1 and diminish the conscription8 instead of which we had the taxes quadrupled1 food at famine prices1 and the levies for the services more oppressive than ever4 ,they denounced ,brigandage2 but there were evils far worse than ,brigandage1 which1 after all1 only pressed a little heavily on the rich1 and took from them what they could spare well and easily4 ,it is thus the ,neapolitan reasons and speaks of that pestilence which is now eating like a cancer into the very heart of his country1 and taxing the last energy of her wisest and best to meet with success4 ,at this moment ,southern ,italy is no more under the control of the ,italian ,government than are the ,states of the ,confederacy under the sway of ,president ,lincoln1 and all the powerful energies of the ,north are ineffectual to eradicate a disease which is not on the surface1 but in the very heart of the people4 ,the ,italian ,brigand1 like the ,irish ,rockite1 is by no means of necessity the most depraved or most wicked of his native village4 ,perhaps his fearlessness is his strongest characteristic4 ,he is in other respects pretty much like those around him4 ,he has no great respect for laws1 which he has often seen very corruptly administered4 ,he has been familiar with perjury all his life4 ,he has never seen the rites of the ,church denied to the blackest criminals1 and he has come to believe that1 except in the accidents of station1 men are almost alike1 and the great difference is1 that the filchings of the minister are less personally hazardous than the spoils of the highwayman4 ,that these men take pay and accept service from the ,bourbonist is easy enough to conceive4 ,to cry ,viva ,francesco ,secondo1 when they stop the diligence or pillage a farmhouse1 is no difficult task2 but that they are in any sense followers1 or care for the ,king or his cause1 is utterly and ridiculously untrue4 ,the reactionists affect to believe so1 for it gives them the pretext of a party4 ,the ,french like to believe so1 for it proclaims1 what the press continues unceasingly to assert1 that the ,north has no footing in the ,south1 and that no sympathy ever has existed1 or ever will exist1 between peoples so totally and essentially dissimilar4 ,the ,piedmontese1 too1 unwilling to own that the event they have so ineffectually struggled against has not all the force of a great political scheme1 declare that the ,brigandage is fed from ,rome1 and would not have a day's existence1 if the ex-,king were compelled to leave that capital1 and the favour of the ,papal ,court withdrawn from its support4 ,that the present rulers of ,italy pursue the brigands with an energy1 and punish them with a severity never practised before1 is cause even to prefer the reign of the ,bourbons to that of the ,piedmontese4 ,there is no need for them to enter upon the difficult questions of freedom and individual liberty1 to contrast the rights enjoyed under one government with those available under another4 ,it is quite sufficient that they see what was once tolerated will no longer be endured1 and that the robber chief who once gave the law to the district he lived in is now hunted down with the remorseless severity that will only be satisfied with his extermination4 ,it may be asked1 ,how could the people feel any sympathy for a system from which they were such heavy sufferers1 or look unfavourably on those who came to rid them of the infliction8 ,the answer is1 that long use and habit1 a sense of terror ingrained in their natures1 and1 not less than these1 a reliance in the protective power of the brigand1 disposed the peasant to prefer his rule to that of the more unswerving discipline of the ,state4 ,the brigand was at least one of his class1 if not of his own kindred4 ,he knew and could feel for the peculiar hardships which pressed upon the poor man4 ,if he took from the proud man1 he spared the humble one2 and1 lastly1 he possessed the charm which personal daring and indifference to danger never fail to exercise over the minds of the masses4 ,let us again look to ,ireland1 to see how warmly the sympathies of the peasant follow those who assume to arraign the laws of the ,state1 and establish a wild justice of their own--how naturally they favour them1 with what devotion they will screen them1 and at what personal peril they will protect them2 and if we have to confess that centuries have seen us vainly struggling with the secret machinery which sustains crime amongst ourselves1 let us be honest enough to spare our reproaches to those who have not yet suppressed brigandage in ,southern ,italy4 ,it is not1 in fact1 with the armed and mounted robber that the ,state is at issue1 but with a civilisation which has created him4 ,he is not the disease1 he is only one of its symptoms2 and to effect a cure of the malady the remedies must go deeper4 ,nor is the question an easy one to resolve2 for though ,garibaldi with a few followers sufficed to overthrow a dynasty1 the whole force of a mighty army1 backed by a powerful public opinion1 has not succeeded in firmly establishing a successor4 ,piedmont is not loved in the ,south4 ,there is not a trait in the ,piedmontese character which has not its antitype in the ,neapolitan2 and they whose object it was to exhibit the sub-,alpine ,italian in the most unfavourable colours1 could not lack opportunity to do so4 ,the severities practised towards the brigands--which were not always1 nor could they be1 exercised with discrimination--furnished ample occasion for these attacks4 ,many of these assumed a ,garibaldian1 or even ,mazzinian tone1 and affected indignation at cruelties of which the people--the caro popolo--were always the victims4 ,one of the chief brigands1 ,chiavone1 pretended to imitate ,joseph ,garibaldi2 and in dress1 costume1 and a certain bold1 frank manner1 assumed to represent the great popular leader4 ,amongst his followers he counted ,frenchmen1 ,spaniards1 ,germans1 ,belgians1 and1 it is said1 ,irish4 ,one of these foreigners was a man of high rank and ancient lineage1 ,count ,alfred de ,trazgnies--a near relative of ,m4 de ,merode's3 he was taken prisoner and shot4 ,another was the famous ,borjs1 from whom was taken the instructions given him by ,general ,clary1 and1 more interesting still1 a journal written in his own hand4 ,though his 8instructions0 are full of grandiloquent descriptions of battalions and squadrons and batteries--horse1 foot1 and dragoons--with exact directions given as to the promotions1 the staff appointments1 the commissariat1--let us hear how he himself describes the first steps of his enterprise4 ,having with great difficulty succeeded in obtaining about twenty muskets at ,malta1 he saw himself in some embarrassment as to getting away from the island1 where intimations as to his project were already about4 ,he succeeded1 however1 in getting on board of a small coasting vessel with his officers1 and landed after a two days' voyage at ,brancaleone4 8,the shore10 he says1 8was totally deserted1 no trace of habitation to be seen2 and1 directed at last by the glimmer of a solitary light1 we came upon the hut of a shepherd1 who received us kindly and hospitably4 ,the next day he guided us to the little town of ,precacore1 where we were met by the curate1 and amidst cries of ,viva ,francesco ,secondo conducted into the ,piazza4 ,i was cheered by this10 says he1 8and deemed it a lucky augury4 ,about twenty peasants enrolled themselves here under my command1 and we moved on to ,caraffa1 where ,i was told a friendly welcome awaited me4 ,on passing1 however1 near ,st ,agata1 a company of the mobilised ,national ,guard1 about sixty in number1 opened a sharp fire on us1 and my new recruits took to their heels1 leaving me alone with my officers4 ,sustained1 however1 by a strong position1 we held our own for an hour and a half1 after which a deputation from ,caraffa came to offer me the hospitality of that city--an offer ,i was fortunate enough to refuse1 for another and far more serious ambuscade was prepared for me there40 ,at ,cirella he came up with a ,bourbon partisan named ,mittica1 with one hundred and twenty men under him1 but who refused to accept him as a leader1 and in fact treated him and his officers as spies and prisoners4 ,after many dangers and much suffering1 deserted by ,mittica and his band1 ,borjs found himself in ,tovre1 8where an old soldier of the #c;d ,cacciatori offered to accompany me--the only follower ,i have met with up to this day40 ,his narrative1 simply and unaffectedly written1 is one of the most extraordinary records of suffering1 privation1 and peril1 and at the same time of devotion to his enterprise and zeal in the cause of the ex-,king4 ,he firmly believes that the mass of the people are 8royalist10 that he only needs five hundred men1 well armed and disposed to obey him1 to 8overthrow the revolution0 and restore the sovereign4 ,he met his death like a brave man4 ,he was surprised with some of his followers at a farmhouse in the very last village before crossing the ,roman frontier1 to which he was hastening4 ,a young ,piedmontese ,major1 ,franchini1 with a detachment of ,bersaglieri and some mounted gendarmes1 surrounded the house and at last set fire to it1 on which ,borjs surrendered and was immediately shot4 8,i was on my way to tell the ,king10 said he with his last words1 8that he has nothing but cowards and scoundrels to defend him--that ,crocco is a villain and ,langlais a fool40 ,then turning to the ,major he added1 8,thank fortune for it that ,i did not start one hour earlier this morning1 for ,i should have gained the ,roman frontier1 and you would have heard more of me40 ,the ,piedmontese have been severely blamed for the execution of ,borjs4 ,indeed he has found no less an advocate than ,victor ,hugo1 who would not consent to have him ranked with ,crocco1 ,ninco ,nancho1 and the rest1 mere brigands and robbers on the highway4 ,that the popular sentiment of ,italy was not disposed in his favour may be assumed from the indignation felt by all the villages of the frontier when ,general ,lamarmora consented that the body of ,borjs should be exhumed and conveyed to ,rome4 ,there is little doubt1 however1 that his being a ,spaniard influenced this feeling4 ,in no country of ,europe is the foreigner regarded with the same jealousy and distrust4 ,while the report of ,general ,lamarmora shows that no disparity of force1 not even ninety thousand to four hundred1 is sufficient to deal with the ,neapolitan ,brigandage1 it affects to explain why4 ,in fact1 the report is one insinuated accusation of the ,french1 who by their occupation of ,rome supply arms and money to the reactionists1 and feed a movement which1 if left to its own resources1 must perish of inanition4 ,the report shrinks from the avowal that the whole inhabitants of two great provinces are friends and sympathisers with the brigands2 that however little political reasons enter into the issue1 the priests have contrived to give a political colouring to the struggle1 and by contrasting the immunities of the past with the severities of the present1 have made the peasant believe that the rule of the ,bourbon was more favourable to him than that of the ,house of ,savoy4 ,it is not merely in the conscription for the regular army that the pressure is felt1 but in the very enrolment for the ,national ,guard1 which1 liable as it is to being 8mobilised10 exacts all the services and all the privations of soldiering4 ,so much as #cjjj francs have been paid for a substitute1 rather than serve in a force which compels the shopkeeper to desert his business or the farmer his fields for eight or ten months of the year6 ,if we have heard much of the personal unpopularity of the ,piedmontese in ,southern ,italy1 it is a theme which cannot be exaggerated4 ,there is not1 perhaps1 throughout ,europe a people who have less in common than the sub-,alpine and the ,south ,italian4 ,if ,garibaldi and his followers came as liberators1 the ,piedmontese entered ,naples as conquerors4 ,the ,garibaldians won all the suffrages of a people who loved their free-and-easy manners1 their indiscipline1 that 8disinvoltura0 so dear to the ,italian heart2--their very rags had a charm for them4 ,the rigid1 stiff1 unbending ,piedmontese1 almost unintelligible in speech and repulsive in look1 were the very reverse of all this4 ,naples was gay1 animated1 and happy under the sway of the same lawless band of red-shirted adventurers1 but she felt crushed and trampled down by the regular legions of the ,king4 ,in the great offices of the ,state1 and in the ,prefectures1 it was easy enough for the ,piedmontese to appoint their own partisans2 but how do this throughout the rural districts1 the small towns1 and the villages8 ,in these the choice lay between a ,royalist--that is1 a ,bourbonist--and a ,mazzinian4 ,if you would not accept a follower of the late ,king1 you must take one who disowned sympathies with all royalty4 ,the ,syndics and 8,maires0 of the smaller cities have been almost to a man the enemies of the ,northern ,italian4 ,it is through these all the difficulties of propagating 8union0 sentiments have been experienced4 ,it is by their lukewarmness1 if not something worse1 that ,brigandage is able still to hold its ground1 not so much because they are well affected to the ,bourbons1 or that they cherish sentiments of ,mazzinianism1 but simply that they disliked ,northern ,italy1 nor could any rule be so distasteful to them as that which came from that quarter4 ,that the ,french occupation of ,rome has tended to maintain and support ,brigandage cannot for a moment be disputed4 ,the policy of ,france1 from the very hour of the treaty of ,villafranca1 has been to perpetuate the difficulties of ,italian rule--to exhibit the country in a state of permanent disorder1 and the people unquiet1 dissatisfied1 and unruly--to reduce the peninsula to that condition1 in fact1 in which not only would the occupation of ,rome be treated as a measure of security to ,europe at large1 but the graver question urged whether a more extended occupation of territory might not be practicable and possible4 ,if ,garibaldi's expedition had not terminated so abruptly at ,aspromonte1 it is well known the ,french would have occupied ,naples4 ,when they would have left it again1 it is not so easy to say4 ,it is clear enough then to see1 how little soever the ,french may like that ,brigandage that now devastates the ,south1 they are not averse to the distress and trouble it occasions to the ,italian ,government1 all whose ambitions have been assumed as so many menaces against ,france4 ,had you been content with the territory we won for you--had you remained satisfied with a kingdom of six millions1 who spoke your own language1 inherited your own traditions1 and enjoyed your own sympathies1 you might have had peace and prosperity1 say the oracles of the ,tuileries2 but you would be a great nation1 and you are paying the penalty4 8,this comes of listening to ,england1 who never aided you1 instead of trusting to us who shed our blood in your cause40 ,france never has consented to a united ,italy2 whether she may yet do so is1 however improbable1 still possible2 one thing is1 however1 clear--until she does give this consent1 not in mere diplomatic correspondence1 but in heart and wish1 the southern provinces of the peninsula will remain unconquered territories1 requiring the presence of a large force1 and even with that defying the power of the ,government to reduce them to obedience4 ,brigandage is but the open expression of a discontent which exists in every class and every condition in the districts it pervades4 ,it is the assertion of the ,catholic for the ,pope1 of the ,royalist for the ,bourbon1 of the ,revolutionist against a discipline1 and last of all1 of the ,southern ,italian against being ruled by that ,northern race whose intelligence he despises1 and for whose real qualities of manliness he has neither a measure nor a respect4 ,one word as to the ,camorra before we conclude3 and first of all what is this ,camorra of which men talk darkly and in whispers1 and whose very syllables are suppressed while the servants are in the room8 ,the ,camorra is an organised blackmail1 which1 extending its exactions to every trade and industry1 carries the penalties of resistance to its edicts even to death4 ,the ,camorra has its agents everywhere4 ,on the ,mole1 where the boatman hands over the tenth of the fare the passenger has just paid him--at the door of the hotel1 where the porter counts out his gains and gives over his tithe--at the great restaurant1 at the theatre1 at the gaming-table--some one is sure to present himself as the emissary of this dreaded society1 and in the simple words1 8for the ,camorra10 indicate a demand that none have courage to resist4 ,the jails are1 however1 the great scenes for the exercise of this system4 ,there the ,camorra reigns supreme4 ,in the old ,bourbon days the whole discipline of the prisons was maintained by the ,camorristi1 who demanded from each prisoner as he entered the usual fees of the place4 ,the oil for the lamp in honour of the ,madonna had to be paid for1 then came a sort of fee for initiation1 after which came others in the shape of taxes on the income of the prisoner and his supposed means1 with imposts upon leave to smoke1 to drink1 or to gamble4 ,his incomings too were taxed1 and a strict account demanded of all his gains1 from which the tenth was rigidly subtracted4 ,to resist the imposts was to provoke a quarrel1 not unfrequently ending fatally2 for the ,camorristi ruled by terror1 and well knew all the importance of maintaining their 8prestige40 ,the revenues of the ,camorra1 amounting to sums almost incredibly large1 are each week handed over to the treasurer of the district1 and distributed afterwards to the followers of the order by the ,capo di ,camorra1 according to the rank and services of each1 any concealment or malversation of funds being punished with death4 ,the society itself not only professes to protect those who belong to it1 but to extend its influence over all who obey its edicts2 and thus the poor creature who sells his fruit at the corner of the street sees his wares under the safeguard of one of these mysterious figures1 who glide about here and there1 half in listlessness1 and whose dress may vary from the patched rags of almost mendicancy to the fashionable attire of a man of rank and condition4 ,in the cafs where men sit at chess and dominoes1 the ,camorrist appears1 and with his well-known whisper demands his toll4 ,in vain to declare that the play is not for money2 it is for the privilege to play at all that his demand is now made4 ,the newly appointed clerk in a public office1 the secretary to the minister1 it is said1 have been applied to1 and have not dared to dispute a claim which would be settled otherwise by the knife4 ,recognised by the old police of ,naples1 tolerated and even employed to track out the crimes of those who did not belong to the order1 the ,camorrists acquired all the force and consideration of an institution4 ,men felt no shame at yielding to a terror so widespread2 nor would it have been always safe to speak disparagingly of a sect whose followers sometimes lounged in royal antechambers as well as sought shelter under the portico of a church4 ,it has been more than once asserted that ,ferdinand ,,ii4 was a sworn member of the order1 and that he contributed largely to its funds4 ,certain it is the ,camorra in his reign performed all the functions of a secret police1 and was the terror of all whose ,liberalism made them suspected by the ,government4 ,to the ,camorra1 too1 were always intrusted those displays of popular enthusiasm by which the ,king was wont to reply to the angry remonstrances of ,french or ,english envoys4 ,the ,camorra could at a moment's notice organise a demonstration in honour of royalty which would make the monarch appear as the loved and cherished father of his people4 ,it was1 however1 by the ,liberals themselves the ,camorra was first introduced into political life1 and ,liberio ,romano intrusted the defence of the capital to these men as the surest safeguard against the depredations of the disbanded soldiers of the ,king2 and1 strange to say1 the hazardous experiment was a perfect success1 and for several weeks ,naples had no other protectors than the members of a league who combined the atrocities of ,thuggee with the shameless rapine of the highwayman4 ,the stern discipline of ,piedmont would not1 however1 condescend to deal with such agents2 and ,lamarmora has waged a war1 open and avowed1 against the whole system of the ,camorra4 ,hundreds of arrests have been made1 and the jails are crowded with ,camorrists2 but men declare that all these measures are in vain--that the magistracy itself is not free from the taint3 and certain it is that the system prevails largely in the army and navy1 and has its followers in what is called the world of fashion and society4 ,the ,mezzo ,galantuomo is the most terrible ingredient in the constitution of a people4 ,the man who is too bad for society but a little too good for the gallows1 is a large element in this land1 and it will require something more than mere statecraft to deal with him4 ,a ,parliamentary ,commission is at present engaged in the investigation of the whole question of ,brigandage1 and their 8,report0 will probably be before the world in a few days4 ,it is very doubtful1 however1 if that world will be made much the wiser by their labours4 ,there is1 in fact1 no mystery as to the nature of this pestilence1 its source1 or its progress4 ,it may suit the views of a party to endeavour to connect it with ,bourbonism1 but it would be equally true to assert that the peasant-murderers in ,ireland were adherents of the ,stuarts6 ,the men who take to the mountains in the ,capitanata are not politicians4 ,they have no other 8cause0 at heart than their own subsistence1 for which they would rather provide at the risk of their heads than by the labour of their hands4 ,all that they know of civilisation is taxation and the conscription4 ,in these respects the old rgime was less severe than the present2 neither the imposts were so heavy1 nor the levies so large2 not to add that1 under the ,bourbons1 soldiers led lives of lounging indolence1 and 8no one was ever cruel enough to lead them against the ,austrians40 ,the ,bourbon ,government of ,naples had many faults1 but the ,piedmontese rule has had no successes4 ,there is that of ungeniality in the ,northern temperament that renders even favours at their hands little better than burdens1 and their justice has a smack of severity in it that wonderfully resembles revenge4 ,what may be the future fate of ,southern ,italy it is not easy to say2 but one thing at least is certain1 the influence of ,piedmont has not obtained that footing there which promises to make her cause their cause1 or her civilisation their civilisation4 ,if the ,bourbons governed badly1 their successors do not govern at all6 ,,ludwig ,,uhland4 ,incontestably1 since the death of ,goethe1 ,ludwig ,uhland has been1 at least in the hearts of the people1 the ,laureate of ,germany4 ,he is not a poet who took the world by storm with his earliest productions2 but he has been gradually growing in favour and general acceptance1 until his death is now deplored as a national affliction4 ,he died quietly at ,tbingen1 the place of his birth1 on the #acth of ,november #ahfb1 in his seventy-sixth year1 having been born on the #bfth of ,april #aghg4 ,he was said never to have known a day's illness until his last1 which was occasioned by his attending the funeral of a friend and brother poet1 ,justin ,kerner1 in inclement weather4 ,the parents of the poet were ,johann ,friedrich ,uhland1 ,secretary to the ,university of ,tbingen1 and ,elizabeth 7born7 ,hoser1 daughter of one ,hoser who held a similar office4 ,he had a brother1 ,fritz1 who died in his ninth year1 and a sister1 ,luise1 who married ,meyer1 the pastor of ,pfullingen1 near ,reutlingen4 ,his education conduced to bringing out the talent that was latent in him1 as it was the custom of ,kauffmann1 the rector of the ,tbingen school1 to give free themes to be worked out in prose or verse1 according to the inclinations of his scholars2 and the young ,uhland generally chose the latter1 and was early distinguished in his choice4 ,even at school he was known as an enthusiastic student of ,german and ,scandinavian antiquities4 ,at the age of sixteen and seventeen he produced many compositions of merit1 but only two1 #8,der ,sterbender ,held1' and #8,der ,blinder ,knig1' found their way into that collection of his poems which was published in #ahae4 ,at this time he was hesitating between the professions of law and medicine4 ,as a youth1 though given to long walks alone in the beautiful neighbourhood of ,tbingen1 he was distinguished by his love of social manly exercises1 particularly of skating4 ,two of his earliest poetical friends were ,schrder1 who was afterwards drowned in the ,baltic1 and ,harpprecht1 who fell in the ,russian campaign of ,napoleon4 ,this is the friend who is alluded to in the exquisite poem of #8,die ,ueberfahrt' as 8brausend vor uns allen10 while the fatherly friend spoken of there is ,uhland's maternal uncle1 ,hoser1 the pastor of ,schmiden4 ,he was also much influenced in his tastes by ,haug of ,stuttgard1 and ,gortz1 ,professor of ,ancient ,literature in ,tbingen4 ,later he became acquainted with ,justin ,kerner1 whose talent he placed above his own1 ,oehlenschlger the ,danish poet1 and ,varnhagen von ,ense the historian4 ,goethe he had seen once when a boy in #agig1 and he records his impressions in the #8,mnstersage4' ,in #ahaj ,uhland went to ,paris1 in order to work at the treasures of ,romance literature contained in the ,imperial ,library4 ,on his return he applied himself to practice as an advocate at ,stuttgard1 without remitting his poetic labours4 ,his tragedy1 #8,herzog ,ernst von ,schwaben1' which belongs to this period1 elicited the warm admiration of ,goethe4 ,in #ahai he was elected a deputy of the ,wrtemberg ,states4 ,in #ahbj he married ,emma ,vischer1 a daughter1 by a former marriage1 of a celebrated woman1 ,frau ,emilie ,pistorius1 to whose memory ,rckert dedicated a poem called #8,rosen auf das ,grab einer edlen ,frau4' ,in #ahcd he was made ,professor of ,german ,literature at ,tbingen4 ,he distinguished himself as a political character in #ahdh1 though without joining the extreme ,liberal party1 and on one occasion presented an address to the ,king of ,wrtemberg1 praying for the restoration of the ,constitution1 the prayer of which was immediately granted1 as most prayers of the kind were at that particular time1 from prudential motives4 ,he had already resigned1 in #ahcc1 his office of deputy1 finding it incompatible with his professorship1 and had returned to his residence at ,tbingen4 ,his marriage with ,emma ,vischer was in many respects a fortunate one4 ,he appears to have lived with her in great harmony till his death1 and the dowry she brought him1 though not large1 was sufficient to keep from his door the anxieties which usually beset a priest of the ,muses4 ,on the other hand1 the marriage was not blest by children4 ,there are old pictures extant of ,uhland as a child1 with a fair honest face and powdered hair4 ,his later face is now familiar to the ,germans4 ,its first impression is decidedly heavy4 ,the upper-lip is long1 the cheekbones high1 the eyes not large1 the forehead broad over the brows1 and narrower above--altogether an ordinary honest man's face1 nothing more4 ,a phrenologist in a steamboat1 to whom the poet was unknown1 once guessed him to be a watchmaker1 adding1 to console him1 that every one could not be a poet4 ,uhland's manners appear to have been plain and unpretending--rather those of a man who makes friends than acquaintances4 ,yet those who knew him1 knew him as a hearty and even jovial companion4 ,he was shy1 and shunned publicity1 and could not bear to be treated as a literary lion4 ,on one occasion1 when he was presented with a crown of laurel1 he hung it and left it on an oak beside the road4 ,his habits were early and healthy4 ,in summer he lived in his open garden-house1 and at ten o'clock every morning used to go out for a long walk1 prefaced by a plunge in the ,neckar when the weather was genial4 ,at ,tbingen1 which is a very pretty quaint little university town1 lying in that finely-broken country which intervenes between the ,black ,forest and the ,alps1 he owned a plain house on the country side of the ,neckar bridge1 only ornamented by ,corinthian pilasters in front2 behind it was his garden1 arranged in terraces1 and his 8,weinberg10 from which he made his own ordinary supply of wine4 ,he was of social habits1 but1 at the same time1 fond of musing and solitude4 ,the homely but intellectual society of ,tbingen fully sufficed him4 ,he was not a man to care for that of those above him in station1 as his sterling independence shrank from patronage in the same way in which his diffidence shrank from general notoriety4 ,politically1 ,uhland was a people's man without being a ,radical4 ,his love of medieval literature imbued his mind with respect for hereditary rank1 station1 and honours1 while his love of freedom and optimist views of the future of his country and mankind in general1 made him a sturdy opponent of any attempt to infringe on what he called 8the good old right40 ,in ,england he might have been a ,tory or ,conservative ,whig4 ,in ,germany1 it has pleased the powers that be to count him with the ,democratic party2 hence the admiration or policy which prompted ,louis ,napoleon to make a national affair of the funeral of ,branger1 was wanting in the case of ,uhland1 who was buried1 as he had lived1 in privacy4 ,although this does not tell well for the temper of the ,government of ,wrtemberg1 and fully accounts for the hatred of ,englishmen which is said to be dominant at ,stuttgard1 the deceased poet would probably not have wished it otherwise4 ,no doubt he was1 as far as the honours that proceed from the great are concerned1 to the end of his life an unacknowledged and unappreciated man4 ,but he had all he wanted--robust health1 self-respect1 and the respect of those he loved1 sufficient worldly means1 and that divine gift which ,homer himself thought a full compensation even for blindness4 ,the uneventfulness of ,uhland's life1 his unpretending presence1 his very look and bearing1 his intense love for nature1 the simplicity of his habits1 his steady domestic character1 and unaffected religious feeling1 all bring to mind our own ,wordsworth2 and in his poems1 as in those of ,wordsworth1 the gems are to be sought among the shorter compositions4 ,but ,wordsworth made it his business to sit down at the ,lakes and paint nature in words1 as the pre-,raphaelite or naturalistic school of landscape painters sit down and paint her in colours4 ,wordsworth wooed the beauty of nature immediately and for itself4 ,his human figures are merely put in roughly to help out the foreground4 ,but ,uhland rarely paints nature directly2 he rather uses natural scenery as a background to his 8genre0 pictures1 which interest chiefly by presenting the phases of human feeling1 and the joys and sorrows of mankind4 ,all his poems are alive with the breath of ,spring--fresh1 luminous1 and joyous2 but we are aware of his surroundings rather from the effects they produce upon him than from any actual descriptions4 ,his poems have the ring of the true singer2 an internal melody permeates his verse1 capricious rather than monotonous1 changing its airs and cadences like the voice of a bird1 rather than flowing on with the mechanical jingling of a musical box4 ,this is the quality which gives the bardic stamp to the compositions of a ,burns1 a ,branger1 a ,tennyson1 and a want of which is felt in the glowing rhetoric of ,byron1 and in 8,the beauty for ever unchangingly bright1 ,like the soft sunny lapse of a summer day's light10 which belongs to the poetry of ,moore4 ,in matter and choice of subject1 and in some measure in respect of treatment1 he has much in common with ,walter ,scott4 ,his preparatory studies were much of the same nature1 consisting in the history1 scenery1 and legends of his own country4 ,he has done for ,germany what even ,schiller and ,goethe with all their greatness omitted to do in the same degree4 ,he has immortalised her local recollections4 ,second only to the man who leads an army to rescue his country from the stranger1 such a man is a patriot of the true kind1 whatever the colour of his politics may be4 ,some poems he has written are like those exquisite ancient miniature pictures on a gold ground1 best to be understood and appreciated by the educated connoisseur1 while others are so plain in language and sentiment that they have sunk into the hearts of the people1 and will flow for ever from the lips of the people in the shape of national songs4 ,uhland differs most from the twin stars of ,germany--,schiller and ,goethe--in that his poetry is more exclusively objective than theirs4 ,goethe was all wrapt in his glorious self1 and his all-absorbing devotion to art4 ,like ,horace's hero1 a world might have fallen in ruins about him and he would not have quailed2 and1 indeed1 all the crash of empires and clash of armies in which he lived left his brow as serene as that of one of the gods of ,epicurus4 ,but ,uhland could not sing through the humiliation of his country1 and his voice sank within him through the ,french occupation2 but when ,germany arose at length1 and with incredible hardihood pushed back the flood of invasion1 ,uhland1 like ,krner and others1 did manful service1 not by fighting and falling among the foremost1 as ,krner did1 but with even better judgment1 as husbanding his gifts1 becoming the ,tyrtus of the ,liberation ,war4 ,his songs of that time have a deep and manly note peculiarly their own1 and they are such as no lesser circumstances could have called forth4 ,uhland1 again1 as distinguished from ,schiller and ,goethe1 was the prominent poet of the ,romantic school4 ,but he was to them what ,socrates was to the ,sophists--counted with them1 but not of them4 ,from whatever source he derived his inspirations1 he always remained fast rooted in truth and nature4 ,the unreal and morbid sentimentality of ,tieck and ,novalis was unknown to him2 nor did he share the ,romeward tendencies of ,friedrich ,schlegel1 while fully appreciating the beauty of the ,roman ,catholic ritual and associations1 and freely interweaving them with the golden tissue of his compositions4 ,on the whole1 he is the most ,german of ,german poets1 as he owes none of his inspiration to 8the gods of ,greece10 and little to any foreign source1 except those old ,romance writers whom he studied at ,paris2 but then it must be borne in mind that the early threads of history in ,france and ,germany are closely interwoven1 and the empire of the ,franks in particular belonged as much to one as to the other4 ,in attempting to present to the ,english reader some of the best of the poems of ,uhland1 we must premise that to translate a perfect poem from one language into another is simply an impossibility1 and difficult exactly in proportion to the degree in which any poem approaches perfection4 ,the special difficulty of translating ,german poetry into ,english1 and vice vers1 consists in this1 that though the two languages are not in their basis much more than dialects of the same original stock1 yet ,german is as generally dissyllabic as ,english is monosyllabic1 owing in part to ,english having discarded inflection where ,german retains it4 ,we are aware that many of ,uhland's poems are already known through very good translations1 one of those most highly spoken of being that of ,mr ,platt4 ,longfellow has also done freely into ,english verse the #8,castle by the ,sea1' #8,the ,black ,knight1' the #8,luck of ,edenhall1' and others1 and has succeeded admirably in catching the spirit of the original4 ,not having ,mr ,platt's translations before us1 as we write in ,germany1 we must apologise1 in our zeal for ,uhland's memory1 for attempts of our own in the same direction1 in which we have tried to reproduce as nearly as we can the ideas of the original in the metres in which they appeared4 ,it is impossible to find a song in the whole collection more perfect than #8,der ,wirthin ,tchterlein4' ,there is not a word or thought one would wish changed4 ,the pathos is expressed1 without a single pathetic epithet1 solely by the situation4 ,this poem has been interpreted politically1 as alluding to the different feelings with which three classes of patriots regard the corpse of ,german liberty4 ,but to our mind this spoils the simplicity of the picture4 ,it is more likely to be true that the poem was occasioned by an incident of ,uhland's youth1 since it is said that he once stopped some students who were singing it under his window1 telling them not to end it1 as the end had too close a personal interest for him4 ,if this be true1 the poem is more complimentary to the memory of the fair maid of the inn than to the lady who became ,frau ,uhland4 ,but poets will be poets1 as boys will be boys4 ,,the ,,landlady',s ,,daughter4 ,three students they hied them over the ,rhine1 ,and there they turned in at a landlady's sign4 8,landlady1 hast thou good beer and wine8 ,and where is that beauteous daughter of thine80 8,my beer and wine are fresh and clear2 ,my daughter she lies on the funeral-bier40 ,and when they did enter the inner room1 ,there lay she all white in a shrine of gloom4 ,the first from her face the veil he took1 ,and1 gazing upon her with sorrowful look1 8,oh1 wert thou living1 thou fairest maid1 ',tis thee ,i would love from this hour10 he said4 ,the second let down on the face that slept ,the veil1 and turned him away and wept3 8,alas for thee there on the funeral-bier6 ,for thee ,i have loved full many a year40 ,the third1 he lifted again the veil1 ,and kissed her upon the mouth so pale3 8,i loved thee before1 ,i love thee to-day1 ,and ,i will love thee for ever and aye60 ,the last line1 8,und werde dich lieben in ewigkeit10 would be more correctly rendered1 8,and ,i will love thee in eternity40 ,and we are equally aware that our 8landlady's sign0 is objectionable1 as the original is simply1 8,they turned in there to a landlady's40 ,but it would be hard to render it otherwise without losing the quadruple rhyme1 which has a certain mournful elegance4 #8,the ,landlady's ,daughter' naturally leads us to #8,the ,goldsmith's ,daughter4' ,in this poem we must not suppose that the hero and heroine meet for the first time4 ,the maiden has fallen in love with the knight1 her superior in station1 but scarcely dares even confess it to herself1 till the knight agreeably surprises her by adorning her as his bride1 taking her acceptance for granted4 ,we would not spoil the romance by hinting that it may not have been an uncommon case in the middle ages for young noblemen of small fortune to seek their brides from the rich bourgeoisie of the ,free ,towns4 ,,the ,,goldsmith',s ,,daughter4 ,a goldsmith stood within his stall1 ,mid pearl and precious stone3 ,of all the gems ,i own1 of all1 ,thou art the best1 ,helna1 ,my daughter1 darling one4 ,one day came in a knight so fine3 8,good morrow1 maiden fair2 ,good morrow1 worthy goldsmith mine2 ,make me a costly crownlet1 ,for my sweet bride to wear40 ,the crown was made1 the work was good1 ,it shone the eye to charm1 ,but ,helen hung in pensive mood 7,i trow1 when none was by her7 ,the trinket on her arm4 8,ah6 happy happy she to bear ,this glittering bridal toy2 ,would that true knight give me to wear ,a crownlet but of roses1 ,how full were ,i of joy60 ,ere long the knight came in again1 ,did well the crown approve3 8,now make me1 goldsmith1 best of men1 ,a ring with diamonds set1 ,to deck my lady-love40 ,the ring was made1 the work was good1 ,the diamonds brightly shone1 ,but ,helen drew #8t in pensive mood 7,i trow1 when none was by her7 ,her finger half-way on4 8,ah1 happy happy she to bear ,this other glittering toy2 ,would that true knight give me to wear ,but of his hair a ringlet1 ,how full were ,i of joy60 ,ere long the knight came in again1 ,did well the ring approve3 8,thou'st made me1 goldsmith1 best of men1 ,the gifts with rarest cunning1 ,for my sweet lady-love4 8,yet would ,i prove them how they sit2 ,so prithee1 maiden1 here ,let me on thee for trial fit ,my darling's bridal jewels3 ,in beauty she's thy peer40 ',twas on a ,sunday morn betime2 ,it happed the maiden fair1 ,expectant of the matin chime1 ,had donned her best of raiment ,with more than wonted care40 ,with coyness all aglow1 behold ,the maid before him stand2 ,he crowns her with the crown of gold1 ,the ring upon her finger ,he sets1 then takes her hand4 8,helna sweet1 ,helna true1 ,i've ended now the jest2 ,that fairest bride is none but you1 ,by whom ,i would the crownlet ,and ring should be possest4 8,mid gold and pearl and jewel fine ,hath been thy childhood's home2 ,be this to thee a welcome sign ,that thou to heights of honour ,with me shalt duly come40 ,there is a great dramatic beauty in the accident of the girl having put on her best apparel to make ready to go to church1 so that the knight has only to furnish her with the bridal accessaries to prepare her at a moment's notice to go to church with him4 ,a ferry-boat is a favourite subject for painters2 and the navigation of his native ,neckar has been to ,uhland the occasion of some of his sweetest verse-pictures4 ,in the poem called #8,the ,boat' he shows how a freight of people1 before unacquainted with each other1 and therefore silent1 struck up an intimacy1 and parted with regret1 when some improvised music had once furnished an introduction4 ,,the ,,boat4 ,the boat is swiftly going1 ,adown the river's flowing2 ,no word beguiles the labour1 ,for no one knows his neighbour4 ,what pulls from coat the stranger1 ,the tawny forest-ranger8 ,a horn that sounds so mildly1 ,the stream-banks echo wildly4 ,then haft and stopper screwing1 ,his staff to flute undoing1 ,another1 deftly playing1 ,chimes with the cornet's braying4 ,shy sat the maid1 self-chidden1 ,as speech were thing forbidden1 ,now blend her accents willing ,with flute and cornet's trilling4 ,the rowers with new pleasure ,pull strokes that match the measure2 ,the boat the stream divideth1 ,and1 lulled by music1 glideth4 ,it strikes with shock the landing1 ,the folk are all disbanding2 8,may we again meet1 brother1 ,on board this boat or other60 ,the companion to this little cabinet picture of the boat going with the stream is the crossing of the ferry4 ,the poet offers the ferryman three times his fare1 because the spirits of two friends1 now dead1 who crossed the same ferry with him in past years1 are supposed to have gone with him4 ,,the ,,ferry4 ,many years have passed for ever ,since ,i came across the river2 ,here's the tower1 in evening's blushing1 ,there1 as erst1 the weir is rushing4 ,then with me the boat did carry ,two companions o'er the ferry1 ,one a friend1 a father seeming1 ,one a youth with high hopes beaming4 ,that one lived a peaceful story1 ,and is gone in peace to glory2 ,this1 of all most fiery-hearted1 ,hath in fight and storm departed4 ,so when ,i1 mid blessing cherished1 ,dare to think on seasons perished1 ,must ,i still to sorrow waken1 ,missing friends that ,death hath taken4 ,friendship may not be united1 ,save when soul to soul is plighted3 ,full of soul those hours went by me1 ,still to souls a bond doth tie me4 ,ferryman1 ,i gladly proffer ,thrice the fare that others offer1 ,since two spirits thou didst carry ,at my side across the ferry4 ,longfellow1 in his #8,hyperion1' has beautifully rendered the spirit of this poem1 if he has somewhat missed its cadence4 ,the fine elegy on the death of ,tell belongs to ,uhland's #8,songs of ,freedom1' ,tell's death is undemonstrative1 and he characteristically comes by it1 by rescuing a child from a torrent4 #8,the ,sunken ,crown' stands before it in the collection1 probably by way of introduction3-- ,,the ,,sunken ,,crown4 ,there1 over on the hill-top1 ,a little house doth stand2 ,one gazes from the threshold ,on all the lovely land4 ,there sits a free-born peasant ,upon the bench at even2 ,he whets his scythe so blithely1 ,and sings his thanks to ,heaven4 ,there1 under in the hollow1 ,where glooms the mere of old1 ,there lieth deeply sunken ,a proud rich crown of gold3 ,though in it gleam at nightfall ,carbuncle and sapphire1 ,since ages grey it lies there1 ,to seek it none desire4 ,in his neighbouring ,switzerland the poet seems to see the image of his ideal freedom1 modest and self-respecting2 founded on the laws of decency and order2 possessing its ancient charters and title-deeds2 no ephemeral offspring of democratic chaos2 a gentle and serene goddess of justice holding the exact balance between despotism and universal suffrage4 ,such freedom as this1 in many grand patriotic strains1 he desires for ,wrtemberg--a country whose praises he enumerates in soil1 products1 climate1 scenery1 and manners1 only lamenting one want1 without which it would be a paradise1 the want of 8,good ,right40 ,he is certainly justified in his praise of his country1 which1 with the ,grand-,duchy of ,baden1 forms a corner in the map of ,europe which is a garden of fertility1 a museum of antiquities1 and a labyrinth of natural grandeur2 but we question whether ,uhland is not over-sensitive as to its political misery4 ,when we pass from his #8,songs of ,freedom' to his #8,songs of the ,affections1' we find the same moderation and purity of sentiment4 ,uhland always seems afraid of saying too much4 ,his exquisite taste is a constant check upon him4 ,he leaves the lines of his sketches to speak for themselves1 and shrinks from too much elaboration4 ,the imaginative reader may1 if he pleases1 supply for himself much of the inessential detail4 ,what a picture of a bashful old-world lover he gives us in his poem called #8,resolution6' ,,resolution4 ,she comes to walk in this sweet wild2 ,to-day ,i'll banish all alarm2 ,why should ,i tremble at a child ,that does no living creature harm8 ,all give her greeting near and far2 ,i would1 but dare not do the same2 ,and to my soul's transcendent star ,i cannot lift my eyes for shame4 ,the flowers that bend as she doth fare1 ,the birds with their voluptuous song1-- ,all these their love so well declare1 ,why must ,i only feel it wrong8 ,to highest ,heaven ,i oft prefer ,through livelong nights a bitter plaint2 ,yet would ,i say three words to her1 8,i love thee10 then my heart is faint4 ,in wait behind the tree ,i'll stay ,she passes in her daily walk1 ,and whisper 8,my sweet life0 to-day1 ,as if in dreaming ,i did talk4 ,i will--but oh the fright ,i feel6 ,she comes1 and she will see me sure2 ,so here into the bush ,i'll steal1 ,and ,i shall see her pass secure4 ,for pathetic simplicity1 perhaps none of his love-poems stands higher than ,die ,mhderin--the #8,female ,mower4' ,there is a pathos in the very fact of the delicate girl--delicate at least in feeling--being engaged in rude masculine toil1 a case but too common in many countries2 then1 again1 in her hopeless attachment to the son of the rich farmer2 then in her overtasking her strength in mowing the whole field without refreshment or repose1 because the avaricious and selfish old man has promised her his son's hand as the price2 and again1 in the killing deception at the close4 ,she dies a martyr to the combined effects of the labour and the disappointment1 and the old man has virtually murdered her to prevent her marrying his son and for selfish gain4 ,another example of a deep and simple pathos1 produced by two pictures of the same place1 is #8,the ,castle on the ,sea2' it is a dioramic change of effect produced by a dialogue4 ,first the castle stands superb in rising or setting sunlight1 towering to heaven and bowing to the deep2 the king and queen walk on the terrace in their royal insignia1 and a beautiful princess walks with them3 the scene changes to a weird moonlight effect1 where the castle stands in ghostly grandeur2 the king and queen are there on the terrace1 but without their robes or crowns2 they are in mourning1 and the princess is no longer with them4 ,this ballad has been effectively translated by ,longfellow4 ,though verging on the impossible in subject1 #8,the ,mournful ,tournament' is a grand tragic sketch4 ,seven knights came to joust for the favour of the king's daughter1 but as they came in through the castle gate they heard the knell of her funeral4 ,they persist in the tournament2 for the one who loves her most truly1 holds that still1 though dead1 she is worthy to be fought for1 the victor gaining her wreath and ring4 ,all fall in the fight but he1 and he is mortally wounded1 but1 as the prize of victory1 is buried with his lady-love4 ,similar in actual improbability of subject1 but demonstrating its bare possibility by its tragic truth1 is the ballad of #8,three ,young ,ladies4' ,the father brings to mind the ,greek bandit1 the hero of ,about's #8,roi des ,montagnes1' who keeps his daughter at school at ,athens1 and when she wants a new piano1 harries a village4 ,as he returns from his rides1 or raids1 the three maidens ask this feudal tyrant what he has brought for them4 ,the first1 he knows1 loves gold and finery2 he has killed a knight for her1 and brought her the spoil4 ,but the dead knight was her lover2 she strangles herself with the stolen chain1 and dies beside his body4 ,two maidens only welcomed the father on his next return4 ,the second1 he knows1 loves the chase2 so he brings her a hunting-lance with a gold band1 having killed a wild huntsman to obtain it4 ,the wild huntsman was her lover1 and she falls on the lance and dies beside him4 ,one maiden only greets him the next time4 ,flowers are her passion2 so he brings her flowers1 having slain the bold gardener to obtain them4 ,she takes the flowers and seeks the body of the dead gardener1 who was also her lover2 but flowers can inflict no wounds1 so she stays beside him till the flowers wither1 and she withers with them4 #8,the ,black ,knight' has been done full justice to by ,longfellow4 ,the practice of wearing visors in the ages of chivalry made such tales a poetic possibility4 ,death comes to joust in a king's court1 like a knight in black armour on black steed2 he kills all the champions1 dances with the king's daughter1 pours out a draught for the prince and princess1 from which they quickly grow pale and sink4 ,the old king begs him to take him also1 but he says that 8he only breaks flowers in spring10 and stalks away4 ,in the #8,luck of ,edenhall' ,uhland gets upon ,english ground4 ,his own preserves are so well stocked that he had no need to poach on those of the minstrels of the ,scottish ,border4 ,but the offence is a single one1 and may be forgiven for its admirable success and the world-wide interest of the beautiful ,cumbrian legend4 ,the trumpet-like bray and strange metre of this poem render it one of the most difficult for a translator to grapple with2 ,longfellow1 however1 has done it almost without fault1 the only exception we might take being to the repetition of the 8crystal tall10 and the expression 8the cup to praise0 instead of 8the cup to honour40 ,but in sonorous cadence his rendering equals the original4 ,there is a thrilling solemnity in the remark at the end1 that the world will one day be dashed to pieces like the shattered ,luck of ,edenhall4 ,in a note below ,longfellow's translation it is said1 8,the tradition on which this ballad is founded1 and the #8shards of the ,luck of ,edenhall1' still exist in ,england4 ,the goblet is in the possession of ,sir ,christopher ,musgrave1 ,bart4 of ,edenhall1 ,cumberland1 and is not so entirely shattered as the ballad leaves it40 ,if not the very best of all the ballads1 at least the most characteristic of the poet's ethical bent1 is #8,the ,singer's ,curse4' ,with this we may fitly conclude our specimens1 as it is a declaration of the greatness and holiness of the poet's mission1 and a prophecy of the annihilation of all earthly pomp that is founded on injustice and wrong1 which it is the poet's highest duty to raise his voice against4 ,it might also be entitled #8,the ,martyr-,minstrel4' ,,the ,,singer',s ,,curse4 ,in days of old a castle stood1 it stood so haught and high1 ,wide o'er the lands it shone to where the blue sea met the sky2 ,all round it lush flower-gardens a perfumed girdle made1 ,wherein with radiance rainbow-arched reviving fountains played4 ,sat there a proud king rich in spoil of war and rich in land1 ,upon his ancient throne he sat so gaunt and grimly grand2 ,for all he thinks is ,terror1 and all he looks is ,hate1 ,and all he speaks is ,scourging1 and all he writes is ,fate4 ,once did a noble minstrel pair up to this castle go1 ,the one with golden ringlets1 the other with locks of snow2 ,the old man with the harp he sat on a goodly steed astride1 ,the while his blooming comrade tript gaily at his side4 ,spake to the youth the old man1 8,my son1 be strong to-day2 ,our deepest songs remember1 attune thy fullest lay2 ,knit all the nerves of music1 the joy1 the pain1 in one2 ,our task it is to-day to touch the tyrant's heart of stone40 ,now stand the singers twain within the lofty pillared house1 ,and high upon his throne the king sits with his royal spouse2 ,the king so fiercely splendid1 like blood-red northern light1 ,but sweet and mild the queen as looks the full moon on the night4 ,then smote the strings the old man right wondrously and well1 ,that full and fuller on the ear the tides of music swell2 ,and then angelically clear the young man's voice did flow ,in the elder's pauses1 like a choir of spirits1 weird and low4 ,they sing of spring and true love1 of an age of golden youth1 ,of freedom and of manhood1 of holiness and truth2 ,they sing of every sweetness that makes man's bosom soft1 ,they sing of every greatness that bears man's heart aloft4 ,forthwith the courtier circle unlearns the courtly sneer1 ,the king's disdainful warriors bow down to ,god and fear4 ,then1 as her soul with tender pain and rapture overflows1 ,the queen before the singers from her bosom flings the rose4 8,ye have beguiled my people--will ye bring my wife to shame80 ,so cries the king in fury1 quivering through all his frame2 ,he hurls his sword1 that flashing strikes through the stripling's heart2 ,now from the source of golden songs a blood-jet high doth start4 ,strewn as by sudden tempest is all the listening swarm1 ,the youth hath sobbed his life out upon his master's arm2 ,upon his horse he sets him1 wound in his mantle's fold1 ,and fastly binds him upright1 and quits with him the hold4 ,but at the high gate halting1 the old man stands sublime1 ,his harp he seizes wildly1 of harps the peerless prime2 ,against a marble column he hath dashed its strength in twain1 ,then cries aloud that garden and castle peal amain4 8,woe1 woe to you1 proud halls1 no more echo melodious word ,through all your vaulted hollows1 nor ever song or chord2 ,no1 moans alone and wailing1 and coward step of slaves1 ,till sprites of vengeance trample you to dust and mould of graves4 8,woe to you1 odorous gardens1 in ,may-tide's lovely light1 ,as ye behold this dead face1 so sadly changed to sight2 ,even so untimely wither1 with every fountain dry1 ,and naked all and turned to stone through coming ages lie4 8,woe to thee1 murderer accurst1 of minstrel-craft the bane1 ,for crowns of savage glory strive on1 and strive in vain2 ,and be thy name forgotten1 in endless midnight sunk1 ,and pass as into vain air that last death-rattle shrunk40 ,the old man's voice hath pealed it1 and ,heaven hath heard on high2 ,the mighty walls are levelled1 the halls in ruin lie2 ,one pillar lone and lofty still tells of vanished power2 ,ev'n that is cloven1 and may fall before the morning hour4 ,around for perfumed gardens is a heath of desert land1 ,no tree sheds welcome shadow1 no spring leaps in the sand4 ,that king he perished all unnamed in hero-scroll or verse1 ,forgotten1 blindly overwhelmed6--so wrought the singer's curse4 ,shortly before his death ,uhland wrote a little epigram on the death of a young child1 which it would be inexcusable to attempt to give in any other language than the original1 especially as it has not yet appeared in any collected edition of his works4 ,,auf ,,den ,,tod ,,eines ,,kindes4 ,du kamst1 du gingst mit leiser ,spur1 ,ein flcht'ger ,gast in ,erdenland ,woher8 ,wohin8--wir wissen nur ,aus ,gottes ,hand in ,gottes ,hand4 ,in these lines the childlike spirit of the old poet may have conceived a fitting epitaph for himself1 so calm and simple was his life and death4 ,but the 8mit leiser ,spur10 8with faint footfall10 could not have been applied to his own case except by his own modesty2 for1 unmistakably1 if ever man did so1 to use the language of his admirer1 ,longfellow1 ,ludwig ,uhland has left some very enduring 8footsteps on the sands of ,time40 ,,my ,,investment ,,in ,,the ,,far ,,west4 8,a golden opportunity1 sir2 ,fortune knocking at your door1 as she knocks but once in a man's lifetime2 and if you refuse to let her in1 excuse me1 sir1 but you will repent it--you will40 ,such were the persuasive words of ,colonel ,coriolanus ,sling1 as he cracked his filberts and sipped his sherry in the snug dining-room of my villa at ,stamford ,hill4 ,the ,colonel1 as his name indicates pretty clearly1 was an eminent citizen of the model republic1 not long arrived on ,british ground1 and the bearer of an introductory letter from my esteemed friend ,cassius ,corkey1 a late ,secretary of ,legation4 ,i had given a little dinner in honour of my new acquaintance2 the repast had gone off pleasantly enough1 and the ladies had left us four gentlemen to our wine and politics1 when the ,colonel uttered the above remarks4 ,it was early autumn1 and1 if the flower-beds of the garden were somewhat faded1 the shrubberies of ,magnolia ,villa had still a cheerful aspect2 and the lawn1 as seen through the ,french windows1 was smooth and trim as a gigantic piece of ,genoa velvet4 ,not a weed1 not a withered leaf1 marred the neatness of the bright gravel of the walks3 the fountain was in full play1 liberally sprinkling the goldfish in the little marble basin2 and the transparent walls of the conservatory showed a wealth of many-tinted flowers within4 ,there may be larger and more stately residences than ,magnolia ,villa1 but ,i flatter myself that few proprietors could make more of four and a half acres of ground1 imperial measurement1 than your humble servant1 ,george ,bulkeley4 ,we were1 as ,i have said1 four in company--the ,colonel2 young ,tom ,harris of the ,stock ,exchange2 a friend and countryman of the ,colonel's1 by name ,dr ,titus ,a4 ,c4 ,bett2 and myself4 8,why1 ,colonel ,sling10 answered ,i1 doubtfully1 8,i don't quite know about that4 ,the distance1 you see1 is great1 and the risk may be----0 8,nothing at all60 interrupted my guest1 warmly2 8,i pledge you the honour1 sir1 of a free-born citizen of the ,u-nited ,states1 nothing at all6 ,the plum1 sir1 is ripe1 and ready to drop into your mouth spontaneous2 and ,i may safely assure you1 sir1 that nothing but my gratitude for your hospitality would have induced me to promulgate a scheme so out-and-out auriferous as the ,great ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway will eventuate40 ,i did not always find it in my power to follow the ,colonel through all the windings of an argument4 ,his exuberant diction was occasionally too much for me2 but the drift of what he said was pretty clear1 and ,i was greatly struck with it4 ,tom ,harris1 who had been staring at the ,colonel with his round eyes very wide open1 here ventured to say that he supposed there would be considerable expenditure before any returns could be expected4 8,guess you'd better shut up10 said1 or rather snuffled1 ,dr ,titus ,a4 ,c4 ,bett4 8,i have documents in my pocket to substantiate the number of miles metalled1 and the bridges1 and the viaducts1 and general plant4 ,a mere flea-bite of outlay1 sir1 would suffice to establish another of those mighty arteries of communication in respect to which ,america1 it's pretty much admitted1 whips the world2 and none but a soft-horn1 sir1 would have the least dubiosity about it40 ,the ,doctor and the ,colonel were compatriots1 one being a ,boston man and the other a ,new-,yorker1 but they were very unlike each other in aspect and manner4 ,for whereas the ,colonel was six feet two inches high1 at the very least computation1 and had an eagle beak1 keen dark eyes1 and a forest of lank black hair streaming around his sallow face2 the ,doctor was a little man of five feet three1 or thereabouts1 with weak eyes1 spectacles1 a head almost bald1 and a little wizened countenance4 ,furthermore1 the ,colonel was a soft-spoken man1 with conciliatory manners and a peculiarly honeyed tone2 and though he smoked prodigiously1 he consumed tobacco in no other way4 ,the ,doctor1 on the other hand1 was quarrelsome and warlike to a degree1 capped every anecdote1 contradicted everybody1 hummed and buzzed in society like an angry wasp1 and kept a silver box full of quids in his coat-pocket4 ,these two were partners4 ,ill-natured people were malicious enough to say that the ,colonel's department was cajolery1 and the ,doctor's bullying1 in the joint interest of the firm4 ,i gave no ear to these unkind rumours1 and indeed ,i justly considered the ,colonel to be a man of superior abilities and remarkable eloquence4 ,he did not omit1 on this occasion1 to spread a little soothing salve on the wounds which his countryman's rudeness had inflicted4 8,excuse the worthy ,doctor10 he murmured1 in bland accents1 to ,tom ,harris1 whose face was very red with awkward indignation1 8he is accustomed to the free discussions of our colossal country1 where the restrictive etiquette of older and more despotic lands is spurned beneath the boot-heels of enlightenment4 ,do not be riled1 ,i beseech you1 at the freedom of his remarks2 truth inspires them4 ,you do not know1 gentlemen0 7here the orator's voice swelled into a sonorous fulness7--8you cannot know--the resources of our glorious country3 none but ,american citizens can fully appreciate the mines of profitable pro-duce always awaiting the civilising pick-axe of the hardy western pioneer4 ,but never1 never since first our ,pilgrim ,fathers began to improve the ,indians off the face of nature--never since ,manhattan changed its name to ,new ,amsterdam1 afterwards to be ,new ,york--has such a speculation as this1 of which ,i am the felicitous herald1 been going a-begging4 ,hail1 ,columbia1 happy land6 as our inspired bard1 who whips your ,swan of--ahem60 ,and here the ,colonel ended in some confusion1 and hid his fluent lips for a moment in his wine-glass4 ,tom ,harris was quite appeased4 ,he was not a bright personage1 ,tom1 but he did very well on the ,stock ,exchange1 to which he may be said to have been born and bred4 ,he was the only son of the well-known old ,peter ,harris1 the man who made so much1 as a bear1 at the time of the ,nore mutiny4 ,he1 ,tom--not old ,peter--had inherited a great deal of money2 and though he set up for a sporting man1 and generally hedged so artfully1 and made up such ingenious books on the races that his alternative was between great losses and small ones1 he was richer than when he came into his father's fortune4 ,for money accrues to money1 as a snowball gathers in rolling2 and it no more requires a genius to thrive in the ,stock ,market than it does to rule in a ,cabinet1 if ,chancellor ,oxenstiern tells the truth4 ,and ,tom had married a young lady of property1 ,miss ,mungle1 daughter of ,chuttnee and ,mungle1 or rather of the junior partner in that great firm4 ,tom ,harris1 therefore1 was wild for lucrative investments1 and so1 in a qualified way1 was ,i2 and money was plentiful in the ,city1 as the #8,times' correspondent daily informed the reading public4 ,we therefore already began to nibble at the tempting bait which the ,colonel placed before us so dexterously4 8,but10 said ,i1 8is the traffic certain to be remunerative8 ,the line runs through rather a thinly-peopled tract of country1 doesn't it80 ,colonel ,coriolanus ,sling slapped his leathery palm upon the polished mahogany with an emphasis that made the glasses ring4 8,sir10 said he1 8you are the most sensible man ,i have met in this benighted--,i mean this beautiful kingdom4 ,you have hit the exact point1 my dear ,mr ,bulkeley1 on which the eligibility of the whole affair pivots1 only you must look at it from that sublimely piercing elevation from which the ,american intellect surveys it4 ,sir1 we must create a population3 sir1 we must found cities3 sir1 it must be ours to people the western solitudes and to implant the germs of a nascent commerce1 a new learning1 a fresh community1 where now the coon and the prairie dog dwell unmolested and alone3 and1 sir1 future ages will decree to us colossal statues of imperishable brass2 while in this we shall realise the applause of our consciences and of our bankers40 ,here the ,colonel stopped1 overpowered by his feelings1 and blew his nose with a martial dissonance4 8,by ,jove60 said ,tom ,harris1 8,i'll speak to old ,muggins about it3 if he says #8all right1' ,i'll take a thousand shares in the concern40 8,muggins1 sir6 who is ,muggins80 demanded the ,doctor1 waspishly3 8is ,muggins1 sir1 a fit judge when such an enterprise is in question--an enterprise to reflect eternal honour1 sir1 on its spirited and high-feluting projectors1 with the finger of ignominy to point at the craven that draws back4 ,muggins6 some stony-hearted ,london capitalist--some toad-eater at the beck of a bloated aristocracy--some miserable haunter of the gilded saloons of a ,chancellor of the ,exchequer0 7the doctor was not very particular as to the authenticity of the accusations he flung broadcast74 8,muggins1 indeed60 ,tom ,harris was an ingenuous youth4 ,he looked excessively ashamed of his allusion to ,muggins1 and was quite borne down by the volubility of his transatlantic opponent4 ,thus it came about that a meeting was arranged for the next day at ,colonel ,sling's chambers1 at which we were to discuss the propriety of forming a company to work out the concession of the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway1 of which our ,american friends were the fortunate owners4 ,i was an older man than ,tom ,harris1 and had necessarily seen more of the world4 ,and ,i had been 8bit10 as the phrase goes1 once or twice1 by ,mexican ,debentures1 ,spanish ,deferred1 and unsaleable ,scrip4 ,i therefore asked1 as delicately as ,i could1 why my new acquaintances had not raised among the enlightened capitalists of their own country a sufficient amount to pay all preliminary expenses1 thus keeping the golden fruit entirely among ,americans4 ,but the ,colonel had an answer ready for me4 ,he frowned1 pursed up his month1 bit his lips1 and assumed very much the air of a conspirator4 8,hush60 he uttered1 in tragic tones2 then rushing to the door1 whisked it open1 putting to rout ,adolphus the page1 who always is listening at keyholes1 in spite of repeated corporal punishment4 ,adolphus scuttled away across the hall in great dismay1 and the ,colonel returned to his seat with an expression that ,iago might have envied4 8,hush60 said he1 8walls have auriculars1 and spies are always on the watch to re-port the words of ,columbia's children4 ,it is well known that your arbitrary ,government has long adopted the wicked maxim due to the crafty forethought of your ,pitt1 ,earl of ,holland1 that #8,america's danger is ,england's opportunity4'0 ,i could not help laughing as ,i answered1 8,i am afraid1 ,colonel1 your memory has not rendered the passage in exactly its original form40 8,excuse me10 croaked the ,doctor1 8but nothing is more wonderful than the ignorance which prevails in ,britain1 with regard to the sayings and doings of your grandees and public persons40 8,allow me1 ,doctor10 said the ,colonel1 oracularly1 8to finish my explanation4 ,you see1 gentlemen1 we might have offered this concession in ,wall ,street in the ,empire ,city1 and ,wall ,street would have snapped it up2 yes1 sir1 as an alligator would chaw pork40 ,this was a forcible simile1 but it did not quite content us4 8,why didn't you80 was trembling on the lips of both ,tom ,harris and myself1 but politeness restrained us from uttering what our looks must have plainly said4 ,the ,colonel answered our looks thus3 8,because1 squires1 there was this difficulty in the way1--,buck1 you know1 is our old man40 8,i beg your pardon10 said ,tom1 reddening again2 8but ,i don't quite catch your meaning4 ,buck1 did you call the gentleman80 8,buck6 the old man6 ,white ,house--deputations--soirees--soft sawder10 explained the ,doctor2 and then we discovered that ,president ,buchanan was the object of discourse4 8,well10 pursued the ,colonel1 8,buck's very far gone--notice to quit--time nearly up4 ,his successor is sure to be ,abe ,lincoln1 if the little giant don't beat him at the election4 ,nobody else has got a chance4 ,caucuses all at work6 dark as moles4 ,now1 sir1 we have plugged the platform40 8,you've done what80 exclaimed ,tom ,harris4 8,we've made it all safe1 and ,lincoln stands to win10 exclaimed the ,colonel1 condescendingly4 8,now we suspect those ,southerners mean to ride rusty if they get an anti-slavery man1 like old ,abe1 to be ,president over them2 and though our folks air screamers1 and that's a fact1 the ,south's an ugly customer1 and our line of railway is too close to ,missouri ,state to be safe1 if owned by ,northerners4 ,but in the smartest row the ,south can make1 you ,britishers are sure to be handled as tenderly as a hoosier handles a squirrel's skin2 and so it's best the property should be in the name of ,british subjects1 not free citizens4 ,don't you see80 ,we did see1 and we resolved that on the morrow we would sift the matter thoroughly4 8,try the claret1 ,colonel10 said ,i2 8you have been drinking nothing but sherry1 and this is ,chateau ,margaux that ,i got at ,bilkingham's sale4 ,those are pretty good peaches1 ,doctor1 of my own growing40 8,don't talk of peaches10 said the ,doctor1 who1 ,i will own1 was anything but an agreeable guest2 8you must cross the broad ,atlantic before you talk of peaches1 ,i reckon4 ,i've fed pigs with better than your dukes and earls could show4 ,i've bought in the market twenty-nine big peaches for thirty cents1 ,i have4 ,we do crow over you in peaches1 as in most1 only your national vanity won't permit you to see it40 ,the ,colonel jumped from his chair4 8,you be quiet60 said he2 8the ,doctor is a glowing patriot1 ,mr ,bulkeley2 but ,i know he admires your delightful snuggery1 embellished by art and high-flying taste1 as much as ,i do myself4 ,some day1 as a director of the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska1 you may1 if you please1 build a palace on the site of ,magnolia ,villa that will take the shine out of the sumptuous halls of your nobility4 ,but enough of business4 ,gentlemen1 if you have liquored sufficiently1 we will join the ladies40 ,we did join the ladies4 ,we found them strolling over the lawn in the cool of a ,september evening1 and presently we all went in to coffee4 ,i noticed that the ,colonel was very polite and attentive1 not only to my wife1 but to young ,mrs ,harris1 who was exceedingly stupid and plain of feature4 ,as for ,mrs and ,miss ,jarman1 they were entertained by the ,doctor with an amusing dissertation on the difference between ,america and ,england1 and especially between ,london and ,new ,york4 ,if ,mrs ,jarman had hitherto cherished a belief in the pre-eminence of ,london1 as she apparently had1 she must have received a considerable shock as the ,doctor informed her that ,belgravia was but a poor place to ,fourth and ,fifth ,avenue1 and that we were benighted creatures in all matters of elegance and taste4 8,not a mahogany door1 ,i guess1 have ,i seen in this smoky beggarly town of yours10 said ,dr ,bett1 with both thumbs in the pockets of his black satin vest2 8and as for silver knockers and bell-pulls1 ,i might as well look for liberty in your institutions1 or for sincerity in your press4 ,the helps are enough to disgust all free-born men2 to see them in plush and powder1 with gold-sticks and nosegays1 standing behind the gilt vehicles of an effete aristocracy1 is alone a spectacle that beats earthquakes2 and your ,life ,guards would sing small1 ,i guess1 by the side of the ,brooklyn ,volunteers40 ,the ,colonel1 however1 could be complimentary and gentle1 if his brother republican could not2 and so well did he play his cards1 that when the company drove off1 and the last grinding of their carriage-wheels upon the gravel had died away1 my wife and daughters turned to me with beaming faces1 and began to sing the praises of their departed guest4 8,a most superior1 well-informed1 gentlemanly man1 is ,colonel ,sling10 said the partner of my joys1 emphatically4 8,a delightful man60 lisped ,georgina1 my eldest4 8,quite an ,admirable ,crichton10 said ,selina1 my second1 who is a bit of a blue4 8,delightful6 he has so much conversation1 and makes one laugh so60 cried artless ,lucy1 the third and youngest of my daughters4 ,so he had pleased them all1 and1 ,i admit1 he had pleased me too2 but he mostly showed his tact in winning the suffrages of the feminine members of my household4 ,for ,mrs ,bulkeley is not a cipher by any means1 even in my business transactions1 and she has an amiable habit of warning me against entering into commercial relations with any one she mistrusts or dislikes4 ,the next day beheld assembled in the showy ,pall ,mall chambers of ,colonel ,sling the same quartette that had closed around the mahogany in ,magnolia ,villa on the preceding day4 ,tom ,harris and ,i drove down there together from the ,city1 and we found the two ,americans awaiting us with a hearty welcome4 ,there were maps on a great table1 and plans1 and minerals1 and parchments1 and heaps of papers1 carefully stacked and docqueted1 and files of letters with great red seals to them that would have carried conviction home to the most incredulous4 ,and the ,colonel1 after the first salutations were over1 and after tenderly inquiring about the health of my womankind1 commenced a lucid explanation of the exact position of the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway--its position1 ,i mean1 in a pecuniary point of view1 not its geographical position4 ,the latter1 we ascertained by a glance at the map1 to be in the free ,state of ,iowa1 skirting ,missouri1 and with one terminus in ,illinois ,state and the other in ,nebraska ,territory4 ,but information now came showering upon us1 and the ,colonel was extremely careful to prove every fresh axiom which he laid down by an appeal to documents of the most incontrovertible character4 ,there was the original concession of the line1 approved by the ,state ,legislature1 signed by the governor1 registered by the ,state's law officers and by the ,federal attorney of the district4 ,there were similar documents1 to which the autographs of the governors of ,nebraska and ,illinois were attached4 ,there were the reports of surveyors1 the accounts of contractors1 subcontractors1 architects1 machinists1 and ironmasters4 ,moreover1 there were specimens of minerals found in the immediate neighbourhood of the line1 and within the liberal grant of land which the ,state had made--which specimens the ,colonel showed us1 in rather a careless way1 as mere incidental advantages4 ,but the eyes of ,tom ,harris and myself sparkled at the sight2 for although we were not adepts in geology1 we knew iron ore1 and copper ore1 and limestone1 and hornblende1 and fine marble1 when we saw them2 and visions of mines and quarries to be worked at vast profit1 or leased for high rentals1 flitted brilliantly before us4 ,what wonder that1 on hearing the generous terms on which the two ,american gentlemen were willing to admit us to a full participation of their advantages1 ,tom and ,i shook hands most heartily with ,doctor and ,colonel1 and devoted ourselves from that moment to the establishment of the projected ,company8 ,and then ,colonel ,coriolanus rang the bell for lunch1 and we all drank1 over and over again1 in creaming bumpers of ,clicquot1 prosperity and success to the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway4 ,two day after1 out came our prospectus to dazzle the ,city4 ,a more flowery manifesto1 or one more fertile in temptations1 ,i have seldom seen4 ,it proved1 moreover1 as plainly as that two and two make four1 that the investment was as secure as the bank1 if not more so1 and a hundred-fold more remunerative4 ,never was there such a railway2 never were there directors so opulent1 so respectable1 so conscientious1 so experienced2 never was there a line on which the expenses were so trifling1 the traffic so enormous1 or the dividend so princely1 as that of the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska4 ,iowa was a ,state of boundless fertility1 of inexhaustible resources--cereal1 mineral1 commercial4 ,the line would be part of a main highway to the ,far ,west1 and the ,old ,world and the ,new ,world pour tribute into the cornucopia of its matchless wealth4 ,cities were to spring up1 fair and flourishing provinces were to blossom1 where the virgin soil now awaited the spade and the ploughshare3 we were to carry tobacco1 madder1 corn1 cattle1 immigrants1 and ore4 ,the gigantic fortunes we were to make were thrown into the shade by the benefits we were to confer on posterity and our contemporaries4 ,unborn millions were to canonise the projectors of the ,grand ,nauvoo and ,nebraska2 and we were not only to insure for ourselves the smiles and blessings of ages yet to come1 but were to feather our nests pretty handsomely in a few short months4 ,not only were we to take rank as philanthropists of the first water1 but to rig the market as well4 ,nor were the advantages of the new railroad confined to the eminent and clear-sighted capitalists who had first embarked in it4 ,no2 in that good cause the widow's mite was welcome4 ,never1 it was pointed out1 was so admirable an opportunity offered to ladies of limited income1 to struggling professional men1 to decayed gentry or others1 to double or treble their little store by means of the splendid dividends1 the bonuses1 premiums1 and other good things1 to be expected from the ,company4 ,who has not read many such glowing proclamations as this1 promising to realise the dreams of an ,el ,dorado for the lucky speculator1 bolstering up each statement by an imposing array of figures1 and always concluding by the recommendation that 7to prevent disappointment7 immediate application be made at the office for shares8 ,we had a secretary and cashier1 and ,dr ,titus ,a4 ,c4 ,bett was so kind as to undertake the latter responsible position2 while the celebrated ,wyldrake ,flam1 ,esq41 a gentleman who had been concerned with a good many companies in his time1 was happily secured for the former situation4 ,sir ,george ,gullings1 ,m4,p41 a rich banker who had earned his baronetcy by his long course of voting for a ,whig ,ministry1 was our chairman2 and1 of course1 ,tom ,harris1 ,colonel ,sling1 and ,i1 were among the managing directors4 ,we took a great many shares amongst us2 but1 of course1 by far the greater number were submitted to public competition1 and the frequenters of the money market bit with tolerable freedom4 ,but there were some wary old fish who refused so much as to nibble at the glittering bait1 and foremost amongst them was old ,muggins1 that veteran stockbroker of whom ,tom ,harris had made mention at my table4 ,muggins was a character1 and disagreeably outspoken4 ,one day ,i met him at the ,royal ,exchange1 and taking him playfully by the button1 ,i asked him why he gave our ,company the cold shoulder4 8,mr ,bulkeley1 sir1 ,i'll tell you10 said ,muggins1 with a frown3 8,i shirk your ,company1 sir1 because ,i can't afford to lose my property in duck-and-drake fashion among those swindling ,yankees4 ,i hate bubbles1 sir1 and this is worse1 for it is a cruel robbery40 8,sir1 sir6 ,mr ,muggins60 said ,i1 choking with anger4 ,what did this remarkable man proceed to say8 ,just this3 8,george ,bulkeley1 ,i have known you from a boy1 and you are an honest man1 though not very bright 7,i was speechless at his effrontery74 ,when ,i call this affair a swindle1 ,i don't impute blame to you1 for ,i am aware that you are a dupe1 not a duper4 ,but ,i don't pity you for losing some pen-feathers out of your wings1 as you will do2 ,i keep my pity for the poor wretches who will be plucked bare1 and who can least spare the little savings or capital your fine prospectus has wheedled them into investing1--,i mean the widows and old maids1 the half-pay officers1 the needy clergymen1 that your ,company is to ruin4 ,i wish ,i could see your ,american friends in the pillory1 ,i know6 ,good-day40 ,and off he went1 leaving me very angry1 but a little dismayed as well4 ,after all1 old ,muggins passed for an oracle in the city2 and seriously1 had ,i examined sufficiently into the foundation of all the alluring statements we had published with the sanction of our names8 ,what ,muggins had said about the widows and poor helpless folks gave me an unpleasant twinge in my heart1 and conscience came and whispered1 8,george ,bulkeley1 the accomplice of rogues1 is not very far from being a rogue himself1 is he80 ,i made a bold resolution4 ,i determined to go out myself to ,america1 and1 on the spot1 thoroughly to investigate the condition and prospects of the line of railway4 ,when ,i broached this proposal at the next meeting of the ,board1 ,colonel ,sling and the ,doctor were found to be violently opposed to it1 and to be inclined to resent such interference on my part as an insult4 ,and the influence of the two ,americans was very considerable with the committee1 partly because all our information was derived from the authority of ,colonel ,sling1 and partly because the transatlantic gentlemen had a custom of putting down and pooh-poohing whatever any one but themselves happened to say4 ,but ,i was firm this time2 and besides1 as ,i offered to go out without putting the ,company to any expense whatever1 the opposition to my departure could not decently be continued4 ,then1 to my surprise1 ,colonel ,coriolanus ,sling very kindly offered to accompany me1 and to save me all trouble and inconvenience by lending me the aid of his perfect knowledge of the localities4 ,the ,doctor1 as cashier1 must of course remain at his post2 but the ,colonel could be spared1 he felt assured he could be spared1 and indeed he proposed that we should go as a deputation1 and at the cost of the ,company4 ,why not8 ,our shares were at a premium4 ,money was flowing in4 ,all went prosperously with us4 ,why not8 ,the ,colonel's proposition was carried nem4 con41 and it was agreed that ,george ,bulkeley1 ,esq41 and ,colonel ,coriolanus ,sling1 should proceed at once to ,iowa1 there to survey1 report1 and inspect4 ,mrs ,bulkeley's consent was procured2 and indeed1 but for the terrors of sea-sickness1 she would have insisted on accompanying me4 ,the ,cunard packet1 ,mersey1 was to sail from ,liverpool on the #agth of the month2 our berths were engaged on board her2 and it was duly agreed that the ,colonel and ,i were to go down together on the day preceding that of embarkation4 ,i never thoroughly understood why the gallant ,american officer did not keep his appointment4 ,he wrote me a hurried note1 saying that important business detained him in town1 and that he would join me in ,liverpool2 but ,i believe a dinner at the ,star and ,garter1 at ,richmond1 was the engagement in question4 ,at any rate ,i travelled alone2 alone ,i embarked2 and though ,i looked out for the ,colonel till the last moment1 till the bell rang1 and the plank was withdrawn1 and the huge paddlewheels began to revolve1 no ,colonel came4 ,and we went to sea with his name in the roll of passengers1 but without his corporeal presence on deck or in cabin4 ,i cannot say that ,i was altogether sorry4 ,i felt instinctively that ,i was by far more likely to form an unbiassed judgment when alone4 ,i felt that in company with a man so plausible1 so fluent of speech1 and so experienced in all the ways of the singular country for which ,i was bound1 ,i should be in danger of seeing all objects through the rose-coloured haze in which it was the ,colonel's policy to mask them4 ,but1 at the same time1 ,i was a little nervous at the prospect of exploring the ,far ,west without a ,mentor2 and the weight of the responsibility attaching to my report was not exactly reassuring4 ,the packet was crowded1 for many were desirous of making use of the last week or two of fine still weather1 before the ,november gales should begin to expend their fury upon the vast breadth of the ,atlantic4 ,there were but few ,britons on board2 but there were ,dons in abundance2 and great numbers of pallid ladies1 with ,parisian toilettes and faulty teeth1 and of sallow lean-visaged men in tail-coats and varnished boots1 returning from a tour of ,european baths and cities4 ,also1 there were plenty of keen-looking persons1 who eyed all mankind with suspicious scrutiny1 who had memorandum-books sticking out of the pockets of their black satin vests1 and who were probably not unconnected with commercial pursuits and the cotton trade4 ,aware that ,i was on my way to a new world in more senses of the word than one1 a world whose standard of morality was wholly novel1 ,i took every opportunity of acquiring information which might afterwards prove invaluable4 ,i therefore associated exclusively with natives of the ,western ,continent1 studied their sentiments1 and stored up every scrap of information bearing on traffic and transit4 ,i will own that my pride met with frequent abrasions2 that my deepest-rooted convictions were rudely assaulted2 and that ,i was unable to avoid observing that my neighbours would have been all the better for a little more attention to the precepts of ,lord ,chesterfield4 ,we are not always very fastidious in the city3 ,i am constantly obliged to bargain1 dine1 and converse1 with uncommonly rough diamonds2 but ,i do not think that any ,cockney alive can contrive to render vulgarity so glaringly offensive as his ,yankee congener4 ,i was most unlucky in my fellow-passengers1 some of whose habits were distressing to a degree1 and did not show any remarkable improvement since the days when ,mrs ,trollope and ,captain ,hamilton crossed the ,atlantic4 ,i began to owe ,sir ,walter a grudge for his discovery of tobacco1 since tobacco1 chewed to pulp1 and lubricating the deck and cabin-stairs with its nicotian extract1 became the bugbear of my existence4 ,besides1 ,i prefer to see gentlemen sit with their feet in a more normal position than an undue elevation of the boot soles can afford4 ,i wish our transatlantic brothers would smoke a little less and wash a little more2 and ,i never could entirely pardon young ,mr ,tips for whittling my portmanteau4 ,mr ,tips--young ,mr ,tips1 that is--,minos ,blackstone ,story ,tips--was the sharer of what was facetiously called my state-room4 ,the latter was a wedge of a cabin1 with two little berths in it1 not quite so spacious as the box-beds in an old-fashioned ,highland cottage1 and was naturally meant to accommodate two passengers4 ,under ordinary circumstances1 ,colonel ,sling would have held divided empire over this den with myself2 and ,i believe that1 in strict justice1 the whole should have been mine1 seeing that ,i had signed the cheque in payment for both passages4 ,but berths were at a premium3 several passengers had come on board at the last1 and had to shift for their quarters as they might1 and among them the ,tips family4 ,now1 although the 8state-room0 was rightfully mine1 yet ,i was easily induced to permit the installation of young ,mr ,tips in the undermost berth1 though ,i admit that my temper was sorely tested when ,i found him in bed1 one rather blusterous afternoon1 very sick1 and beguiling the tedious hours1 by operating with a sharp penknife on the glossy leather of my new portmanteau--,allen's best1 fitted for ,india and the colonies4 ,also this delightful youth--a lawyer from the cradle1 as his names imply--was fond of using my pet razor1 and borrowing my scissors and brushes2 was not over partial to soap and water2 and sang queer nasal songs at untimely hours1 besides smoking in bed4 ,i might have had a pleasanter companion1 but ,i had let him in1 and there was no help for it1 while1 after all1 the voyage was but for ten days4 ,why had ,i let him in8 ,for two reasons3 firstly1 because exclusiveness is most unpopular among ,republicans2 and the old sentiment which dictated the ,new ,york proverb1 that 8,a man must be a hog to want a bed all to himself10 still exists in a modified form4 ,another reason was1 that ,i wanted to make friends1 and get letters of introduction to some ,western citizens who would be able to tell me all about the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway1 and perhaps a little about ,colonel ,sling4 ,i knew that ,americans1 amongst each other at least1 were most generous in this respect4 ,i was aware that few retired storekeepers or land-jobbers brought over their charming families without being provided with introductions from ex-ministers and secretaries to half the peers and princes of ,europe2 that ,american diplomacy was subservient to any one who could influence an election2 and that very queer folks indeed had the honour of figuring at royal levees and state balls under the wing of ,franklin's eagle4 ,i determined1 therefore1 to be as conciliatory as possible in all my dealings with the citizens and citizenesses of the model commonwealth4 ,i had the pleasure of making acquaintance with old ,mr ,tips1--,judge ,tips1 of ,salem1 ,mass4--his ,christian name was ,magnentius1--in rather a curious manner4 ,he sat next to me at the general dinner in the best cabin or saloon4 ,the table was crowded1 but there were three below me1 on the same side of the long board4 ,the dinner was a capital one3 the ,cunard directors are famous for good feeding2 and ,judge ,tips1 father to my young companion1 played an excellent knife and fork4 ,a dish of peas came round1 the last of the marrow-fats1 the latest peas of summer2 and indeed ,i cannot conceive from what remote market the steamboat purveyors had imported them1 seeing that ,covent ,garden had been barren1 in respect to this vegetable1 for some weeks4 ,i am very fond of peas1 and was rejoiced to see my favourites once again2 and ,i anxiously awaited their arrival4 ,miss ,tips1 ,miss ,julia ,tips1 and ,tips mre1 as the ,french would say1 had each taken a decorous spoonful from the flying dish1 and now the black waiter was offering the delicacy to ,tips himself1 enough being left for five persons at least4 ,what was my horror to behold the ,judge deliberately monopolise the whole--sweep1 as ,i live1 every pea into his own plate--and then turning to me1 with a greasy smile1 remark1 8,i guess1 stranger1 ,i'm a whale at peas40#d ,yes1 ,mr ,bright tells sterling truth4 ,there are some matters in which the most acquisitive of us all are distanced by an ,american4 ,judge ,tips was obliging enough to favour me with a good deal of his improving conversation1 and by meekness and affability ,i won his heart4 ,he not only invited me to visit him at ,salem1 but when ,i hinted that ,i was on my way to the ,west1 and should be glad to make the acquaintance of any notable citizens of ,illinois or ,iowa1 he gave me the coveted letters of introduction to more than one magistrate1 sheriff1 and popular preacher4 ,nor did any accident mar the even tenor of our agreeable passage to ,new ,york4 ,we had almost uniform good weather2 and before the evening of the eleventh day1 we were standing on the wooden landing-places of the ,empire ,city1 surrounded by ,german porters1 ,irish car-drivers1 and ,yankee touts4 ,the latter race1 wise in their generation1 prefer head-work to the toil of actual muscle1 and permit old ,europe to furnish them with soldiers and foremast-men1 stevedores1 navvies1 and dock labourers2 while they supply officers1 foremen1 mates1 and overlookers1 to regulate and profit by the exertions of their hirelings4 ,the ,astor ,house is not what it was4 ,it has been distanced by more gigantic competitors2 and as for the ,tremont1 it is left high and dry1 like a stranded whale1 by the tide of fashion4 ,nevertheless1 ,i bestowed my patronage on the latter1 perhaps for ,sam ,slick's sake1 and spent a couple of days under its hospitable roof while recovering from the sensation of cramp1 tedium1 and nausea quite inseparable from a sea voyage4 ,then ,i set out for the ,west4 ,the journey1 as far as ,fort ,madison1 on the western boundary of the ,state of ,illinois1 ,i performed by railway1 expeditiously perhaps1 and not very uncomfortably1 in spite of the amount of rocking and swinging due to a carelessly-metalled 8permanent way10 if ,i may employ the phraseology of engineering4 ,but ,i could not1 with a clear conscience1 agree with the enthusiastic comments of my fellow-travellers1 as to the immense superiority1 in speed and accommodation1 of ,american railroads over those of ,britain4 ,after being jolted and swung till one's bones ached1 all the time1 perhaps1 being at a net speed of thirty miles an hour1 it was rather provoking to listen to such remarks as the following3-- 8,wall1 mister1 ,i expect our flying locomotives do rayther astonish you4 ,they kinder take the conceit out of ,old ,england1 ,i some think40 ,or1 more gravely1 8,i believe1 sir1 it's pretty universally admitted that ,america whips the world for speed4 ,we have beaten your yachts1 we have licked your racers1 and our trains must make you think small beer of your expresses4 ,we go ahead1 we do60 ,i take great praise to myself that ,i was always able to keep my temper1 and to abstain from polemics4 ,but argument would have been useless4 ,i had to do with a people who saw the outer world through the spectacles of their journalists1 and who would no more admit the imperfections of ,america than a lover will see a blemish in his mistress4 ,to them ,america was all in all2 and the mightiest countries in ,europe were esteemed by them as rotten and worthless1 only existing by the sufferance of the ,giant ,republic4 ,as for my praise of the ,british ,constitution1 they simply laughed at it1 assuring me that ,i knew nothing about the matter1 and that there could be no liberty where a plain man was not allowed to go to court in his working dress if he chose4 ,but ,i had not crossed the ocean to argue3 ,i had come to pluck out the heart of the mystery concerning the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway4 ,and ,i was very careful at dinner-tables1 bars1 cafs1 and railway cars1 to elicit all available information with respect to the resources of the ,west4 ,what ,i heard was1 of course1 vague2 but on the whole it contained some comfort4 ,it appeared certain that a great trade was carried on by land and water2 that towns started up with incredible quickness in the midst of desolate prairies1 or1 like ,chicago1 on piles in a swamp2 and that hardy men were taming the wilderness4 ,so far so good4 ,but it did not appear to me that security to life and property went in exactly the same ratio as the increase of wealth4 ,i heard odd stories about regulators1 vigilance committees1 and ,judge ,lynch4 ,mob-law seemed paramount to written statutes2 and the fiat of a legal court required to be backed by the good pleasure of a majority before its execution could be guaranteed4 ,besides1 the moral standard of the community did not rank as high as perhaps a very delicate sense of honour required4 ,commercial tricks were spoken of as 8clever10 or 8ingenious10 which in other lands would have engaged the serious attention of the law-officers of the ,crown2 and the most unprincipled ruse was mentioned with laughter and indulgence1 if not with approbation4 ,all this augured badly1 methought1 for the prospects of the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway4 ,and yet ,i did not despair1 and still less did ,i drop a hint of my suspicions to any casual acquaintance4 ,it was not for me1 a managing director1 to denounce the project with which my name was1 alas6 inextricably linked1 until it should be proved a bubble on the very clearest evidence4 ,i reached ,fort ,madison1 the most remote point to which the steam-horse could convey me1 and had1 at any rate1 the satisfaction of knowing that ,i was within a few miles of ,nauvoo4 ,i hired a mule-waggon for the journey1 and sitting down to dinner at the public table of the hotel1 ,i inquired what sort of a place ,nauvoo might be8 8,nauvoo1 mister10 said a tall gaunt man whom his friends addressed as 8,major10 8,nauvoo is a pretty considerable sprig of a city4 ,it is a tall place1 sir4 ,there air good points and great developments about ,nauvoo4 ,do you settle down there1 stranger8 ,i could sell you a lot of land awful cheap40 8,thank you10 said ,i1 8,i have no intention of becoming a resident at ,nauvoo2 ,i merely wish to visit it40 8,i see10 observed another guest2 8you want to have a peep at the great temple the ,mormons built before ,joe ,smith was shot at ,springfield4 ',tain't much you'll see1 though1 stranger1 for the place is all to ruin4 ,the bhoys were not soft enough to let so much cedar-pine and dressed limestone stand1 when houses were costing hat-fulls of dollars4 ,but ,nauvoo has some fine bluffs1 con-sidered aiqual to any scenery the old ,rhine can show40 8,air you in the hardware line8 ,if so1 we might trade1 ,i guess20 said a little man at my elbow4 8,no1 no20 ,i returned1 8my journey is not of a commercial character1 exactly40 8,political1 eh80 asked the ,major3 8picking up news1 perhaps1 for your ,downing ,street wiseacres1 and feeling ,uncle ,sam's pulse to know when the old gentleman is at fever heat1 eh1 mister80 8,not at all10 said ,i2 8,i have no mission of the sort2 nor1 indeed1 do ,i believe the ,british ,government to entertain any peculiar anxiety on the subject you mention40 ,a cough and shrug of disapprobation pervaded the assembly4 8,it is well known1 sir10 said the tall ,major1 8that the ,government of your benighted land is ever on the watch for the expression of ,american opinion4 ,american opinion1 sir1 has great weight in your ,house of ,commons40 8,i was not aware of it1 ,i give you my word20 ,i answered with a smile4 8,perhaps not1 sir1 perhaps not10 replied the ,major1 pityingly4 8,do you never read the #8,evening ,planet1' sir1 when you are at home80 ,i winced4 ,the truth was1 that ,i did take in the #8,evening ,planet1' and heedfully perused therein the valuable dicta of its eloquent proprietor1 a celebrated parliamentary and platform orator4 ,and ,i had been accustomed to give credence to the confident assurance of this gentleman1 that we were miles behind the ,northern ,states of the ,american ,union in all that was useful and good1 and that we could not do better than copy so shining a model in all things4 ,i had read and heard the bold statement1 made in defiance of statistics1 that ,america was floating peacefully on the tide of prosperity into the haven of universal empire--an empire won by bloodless means1 of course2 for what nation1 unsaddled with an aristocracy1 would dream of war1 while ,britain was sinking into decrepitude and decay6 ,all this1 and much more1 had ,i heard and read1 and ,i had believed that ,britannia ought to sit at the feet of her flighty offspring for instruction1 and to remodel her old institutions after a republican pattern4 ,but1 as not seldom happens1 a nearer view of the ,united ,states did not precisely confirm the loud assertions of the ,americanising party in the ,british press and senate1 and ,i was gradually losing my ideal admiration for transatlantic liberty and customs4 ,after the rapid dinner1 and the more leisurely supplement of juleps and brandy-cobblers imbibed in the bar-room of the hotel1 ,i asked a coloured waiter if my waggon and mules were forthcoming1 as ,i was desirous of reaching ,nauvoo before dark4 8,iss1 massa60 answered the negro1 and whisked off with his napkin to inquire after the lingering equipage4 ,the ,major said he was going to ,nauvoo too1 and begged the favour of a lift1 which ,i willingly conceded4 ,the mules and waggon1 with their whipcracking teamster1 soon rattled up to the door2 my bill was promptly paid1 my baggage transferred to the vehicle2 the ,major and ,i climbed into our places1 and we started4 8,how comes it1 ,major10 said ,i1 8that there is no line open to ,nauvoo80 ,the ,major knocked the ashes off his cigar as he replied1 8,wall1 ,i suppose it wouldn't pay4 ,rail to ,fort ,madison is all right and spry1 because ,uncle ,sam has property there2 but ,i guess not a dime could be drawed from ,washington treasury to make a line on to ,nauvoo40 8,and from ,nauvoo1 westward through ,iowa1 say to ,nebraska10 observed ,i1 with affected carelessness2 8what should you say to the prospects of a railroad in that direction80 ,my heart throbbed audibly as ,i spoke1 for all my feigned indifference1 and ,i listened with anxiety for the ,major's reply4 ,i had not long to wait4 8,that depends10 said my fellow-traveller1 with sagacious deliberation1 8on the sort of rail you talk about4 ,is it a line to go no farther than ,wall ,street1 and perhaps your ,london ,capel ,court1 that you are speaking of1 mister80 8,wall ,street and ,capel ,court6 ,upon my life1 ,i hardly comprehend you10 returned ,i4 8,moonshine1 flummery1 make-believe1 sleepers1 rails1 stations1 all of paper1 that's what ,i mean1 stranger20 rejoined the ,major1 somewhat impatiently4 8,but ,i spoke of a bona fide concern--of a real railway1 honestly made and fairly worked10 answered ,i2 8what would you say to that80 8,say60 replied the ,major1 with infinite contempt1 8say6 ,let me see the gonies4 ,trot 'em up to me1 sir4 ,just let me have a look at the simple ones that are at the head of the business1 and ,i'll tell them what ,i think1 fast enough4 ,no1 ,nauvoo is a rising place1 a neat location1 but it can wait for a rail one while1 unless every sage plant on the prairie turns to silver dollars40 ,after this ,i asked the ,major no more questions4 ,we reached ,nauvoo1 and through the dusk ,i espied the shingled roofs of its houses1 the bold bluffs of limestone1 the rushing coffee-coloured river1 and the unfinished building-lots with their heaps of wreck and rubbish4 ,we put up at the ,general ,jackson ,hotel4 ,i had a letter of introduction to ,squire ,park of ,nauvoo1 a gentleman in the flatboat interest1 who owed his title of ,squire to his being in the commission of the peace4 ,but on repairing to his house ,i was doomed to disappointment--the more vexatious because ,mr ,park had been eulogised by ,judge ,tips as a man who knew the ,west thoroughly4 ,squire ,park was gone to ,cairo on business1 and was not expected back before the end of the month4 ,on consulting the map ,i carried1 ,i found that a place called ,keosauque was the nearest of the few towns in ,iowa to the line of railway1 real or imaginary1 in connection with which my name1 and those of other men of respectability and substance1 were flaming1 in advertisements and on the broadsheets of a prospectus1 throughout the ,british metropolis4 ,i set off to ,keosauque1 mounted on an ,indian pony1 and accompanied by a guide in the shape of a wiry backwoodsman1 in an enduring costume of leather1 and who gave accommodation to my portmanteau behind his saddle4 ,for some miles we rode in silence over the apparently boundless sea of grass1 mottled with weeds and flowers1 and occasionally studded with lone farmhouses and maize fields1 or by herds of grazing cattle4 ,those half-reclaimed mustangs are not the most pleasant mount for a timid rider1 nor am ,i1 ,george ,bulkeley of ,stamford ,hill1 a very adventurous horseman2 and before we had got far1 ,i began to wish the brute ,i rode would desist from what seemed an alternation of starts and stumbles4 ,my guide1 a good-humoured wild man1 observed my embarrassment1 and undertook its removal4 8,see here1 ,colonel10 said he--strangers in the ,west are usually decorated with visionary epaulettes--8you mustn't keep the rein so slack as that1 nor yet hold your hand up level with your cravat1 or1 scalp me1 but you'll be spilt6 ,mustangs want a tight grip on the bit4 ,so--steady now4 ,stick in your knees1 ,colonel1 and scorn to ketch hold of the pummel--so4 ,do as you see me do2 give him a touch of the spur1 but mind his kicking--for mustangs can kick1 they can4 ,you'll do nicely1 now40 ,ichabod was a skilful riding-master1 by instinct1 ,i suppose2 and1 thanks to his forcible instructions1 ,i was soon on better terms with my refractory quadruped4 ,on we rode1 over the waving grass1 through the rank weeds1 through the belts of cottonwood timber and maples that skirted every streamlet1 and past the swampy bottoms where sluggish waters wound like wounded snakes4 ,we dined on dried venison1 jerked beef1 parched corn1 and hominy1 at a farm which did duty for an inn1 and slept at another house of the same character4 ,next day we resumed our route2 and as we rode towards ,keosauque1 ,i ventured to ask ,ichabod if he had ever heard of the ,great ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway4 ,i had been hitherto averse to propounding this query2 for how could ,i tell whether the interests of my informant might conflict with mine8--but with this rough frontiersman ,i felt ,i was safe4 ,he1 at least1 was no rival speculator--no shareholder in a competing line--no steamboat proprietor1 or lord of many stage-waggons4 ,but his first answer was not satisfactory4 ,it was comprised in the one word1 8,anan60 8,the ,railway0--asked ,i again--8from ,nauvoo to ,nebraska3 not a finished thing1 of course2 but you surely must have seen or heard of the works--the bridges1 the embankments1 and the rest of the preparations80 ,ichabod shook his head4 8,you're talking ,greek to me1 ,colonel1 and that air a fact40 8,how is it possible10 cried ,i1 in an agony1 8that there can have been a railway begun in this country1 and the settlers unaware of it8 ,surely you must be a stranger to this part of the ,state yourself60 8,you're wrong there1 ,colonel10 answered ,ichabod2 8,i'm ,illinois born1 but ,i'm ,iowa bred4 ,in this ,state ,i was raised2 and ,i don't believe there's a thing happened over the border sin' ,i could mount a horse1 be it buffler or deer1 loping ,indian1 runaway nigger1 or ,yankee pedlar1 without my hearing on't4 ,stop0 7and he smote his knee with a palm as hard as iron7--8,i've got it4 ,you're talking of ,harvey's ,folly40 ,and ,i thought the young backwoodsman would have tumbled off his horse in the extravagant burst of mirth which this discovery produced4 8,who-whoop60 cried he2 8,i've seen queer sights1 but never did ,i think to see a stranger come out in a bee-line from the old country--no offence1 ,colonel6--to ax about ,harvey's ,folly4 ,i'd nigh forgot that the thing existed at all4 ,wah6 but it beats coon-catching60 ,with some trouble ,i got an explanation4 ,it appeared from the borderer's statement that1 years ago1 a speculative individual of the name of ,harvey had undertaken to construct a railway from ,nebraska to ,nauvoo1 with a branch linking it to the ,central ,illinois line4 ,he had obtained the usual charter and grant of land from the ,state1 and had actually commenced operations between ,keosauque and ,new ,buda1 two little towns not far from the ,missouri boundary4 ,but he had soon desisted from the ,sisyphean task1 ruined1 disheartened1 or disappointed of the aid on which he had somewhat sanguinely reckoned2 and thenceforth no more had been said of the scheme or the schemer4 8,but the property10 groaned ,i1 8the works1 surely they must remain80 8,why10 said ,ichabod1 meditatively1 8,i kinder think there's rails laid down a bit--yes1 for some miles ,i guess1 and they'll be there still4 ,the cussed ,indians can't have stampedoed them1 like they do the cattle4 ,there's a tidy bridge over a creek or two ,harvey built1 and some sheds and scantling2 and that's about all40 8,all10 said ,i1 8think again1 ,ichabod4 ,surely there must be more plant than that1 and then the rolling stock80 ,the frontiersman laughed4 8,we know more about gunstocks than rolling stocks1 out here on the pararas10 said he2 8and ,i never heard of plants1 onless 'twas hickory or sumach4 ,but ,i've kinder catalogued the hull fixings for you1 ,colonel1 without 'tis a pile of rusty iron1 or a few waggon-loads of logs--neat bits of oak timber they were1 trimmed and dressed1 and shaped mighty like a saddle-tree1 that ,harvey left on the ground40 8,the sleepers1 ,i suppose10 returned ,i2 8are they there still80 8,well1 ,colonel1 mebbe some of 'em are taking a nap there still10 replied ,ichabod1 8but parara men often camp thereabouts1 hunting1 cattle-tending1 or prospecting1 and firewood being mortal scarce on the plains1 'twasn't to be expected the bhoys wouldn't make free with some chips to cook with4 ,i may have had a chop at those logs with my tomahawk1 when ,i wanted a broil1 onst or twice1 myself40 ,i groaned again4 ,the ,great ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway was evidently as brittle a speculation as ,alnaschar's basket of glass4 ,i finished the ride to ,keosauque in moody reverie4 ,there was no other guest to share such rugged plenty as the wooden tavern1 called by courtesy the ,eagle ,hotel1 could afford2 and as the landlord was absent1 and the landlady busy in the management of her children and ,irish helps1 no one talked to me1 and ,i sat sullen and dejected the whole evening4 ,next day1 tired as ,i was1 ,i set out again1 under ,ichabod's guidance1 to visit what he persisted in naming ,harvey's ,folly4 ,we reached the spot at last4 ,a swampy level1 intersected by runlets of water1 and with a good deal of thorny brake1 and here and there a clump of cottonwood poplars diversifying the scene1 had been selected by ,mr ,harvey for the site of his preliminary operations4 ,why he had chosen that wet ground at all1 when so much dry prairie lay beyond1 of very tolerable smoothness1 it is difficult to conjecture2 but perhaps the more accurate level had tempted him4 ,there were rails1 certainly there were rails1 half-hidden by the growth of hemlocks and rank grass2 but on dismounting ,i discovered that1 for lack of proper metal trams1 the rails had been constructed of wood1 covered with a thin slip of iron--not an unusual device in out-of-the-way parts of ,america1 as ,i was afterwards told4 ,the fastenings were very defective1 the sleepers loose1 and the whole concern had a crazy haphazard look4 ,such as they were1 these precious rails were continued for about #e miles--#e miles out of #cej6--;and then they terminated in a mass of ruin and confusion4 ,there were roofless sheds1 scantlings and screens blown down by hurricane gusts1 heaps of rusty iron1 broken tools1 damaged wheelbarrows1 and a shattered truck with only one wheel left4 ,also there were a quantity of sleepers of dressed oak1 and the fragments of many more1 split by the axe and charred to coal1 as they lay around the blackened spots of burnt turf1 where many a camp-fire had been lit by the frontiersmen4 ,that was all the valuable property left at the disposal of the directors4 ,the sight sickened me4 8,harvey's ,folly10 muttered ,i between my teeth1 8say rather ,bulkeley's ,folly--,bulkeley's credulity1 idiocy1 weakness6 ,and not only mine1 but ,tom ,harris's1 and that of all of us4 ,what a long-eared pack were we to be lured by the crafty piping of such a dissembling knave as that glib ,colonel60 ,i rode away1 sad and careworn4 ,ichabod's quaint talk was unnoticed4 ,i had another companion that claimed my undivided attention1 and that was ,care1 ,black ,care1 which sat crouching behind my saddle4 ,i was haunted by a ghastly phantom of impending bankruptcy4 ,the ,london ,gazette spread its ill-omened sheet before me1 and in its fatal columns ,i read1 in flaming characters1 8,george ,bulkeley1 of ,cannon ,street in the ,city of ,london1 and ,stamford ,hill1 ,middlesex1 to surrender at ,portugal ,street on ,monday the #adth inst4 ,official ,assignee1 ,mr ,wilks60 ,that it should have come to this6 ,ruin1 ruin1 ruin4 ,ruin and disgrace to us all1 the duped directors of this wretched swindle4 ,were we not responsible for the debts of the undertaking8 ,was not the paid-up capital in the treacherous hands of our ,yankee cashier1 ,dr ,titus ,a4 ,c4 ,bett1 and could there be a doubt that it was lost for ever8 ,plainly the whole business was a fraudulent trick from the first--a net to catch gold-fish6 ,ah6 already with my mind's eye ,i saw the broker's men in possession of ,magnolia ,villa2 ,i saw my costly furniture1 the cellar of wines ,i had been so proud of1 carriages1 pictures1 everything1 submitted to public competition by a smirking auctioneer4 ,i heard the hammer fall1 knocking down my ,lares and ,penates to the highest bidder4 ,going1 going1 gone6 the accursed formula rang in my ears with baleful clearness4 ,magnolia ,cottage to let6 ,my family hiding in poor lodgings in ,boulogne6 ,george ,bulkeley1 a moody bankrupt1 slinking about the pier of that refuge for insolvency1 and afraid to face the ,stock ,exchange6 ,even though the ,court might declare me blameless1 even though the commissioner might whitewash me into commercial purity1 my conscience was less complaisant1 and sternly refused me even a third-class certificate4 ,i might have had the right to ruin myself and family1 but what right had ,i to make desolate the hearths of many helpless and confiding people8 ,how about those shareholders ignorant of business1 those pinched vicars1 needy widows1 poor old half-pay officers1 and the rest1 who had been dazzled by our prospectus1 and had invested their savings in the pocket of ,dr ,titus ,a4 ,c4 ,bett8 ,it was my respectable name1 in common with those of my fellows in the ,direction1 which had baited the hook for such poor prey as these4 ,my heart--even ,city men have hearts sometimes--was heavy and mournful with a grief not wholly selfish4 ,plump6 fluff6 down went the mustang on his knees1 his feet having plunged into the holes that led to the dwellings of some 8prairie-dogs0--interesting little brutes that burrow all over the plains--and over the animal's head ,i flew with the force of a sky-rocket4 ,lighting with a great thump on the hard turf1 ,i ran no trifling risk of a broken neck2 but my hat saved me1 at the expense of its own demolition1 and ,i was only stunned4 ,but when ,ichabod hurried to the rescue he found me bruised and faint1 and with a sprained thumb that caused me exquisite pain for the time4 ,so stupified was ,i by the shock1 that ,i did not hear the beat of hoofs upon the green carpet of the prairie1 nor the sound of friendly voices1 and was surprised1 on looking up1 to see that ,i was surrounded by a large party of equestrians1 who were surveying me from the saddle with every appearance of interest4 ,riding-habits and side-saddles here in prairie-land6 hats and feathers1 too1 of most ladylike elegance1 and a pair of pretty1 rather pale faces under the shadow of those plumed felts4 ,besides the two girls1 there were a grey-haired elderly man1 two younger gentlemen1 and three or four mounted blacks in suits of striped cotton1 one of whom led a couple of hounds in a long leash1 while another had a buck strapped behind him on the horse4 8,is the poor gentleman much hurt80 asked one of the young ladies in a sweet kind voice4 ,ichabod1 as bold as a lion in general1 was awkward and bashful when addressed by a lady1 and seemed to be weighing the words of his answer1 when ,i felt it necessary to reply for myself4 ,on discovering that ,i was a stranger in the land1 ,general ,warfield insisted that ,i should accompany the party to his house1 just across the ,missouri border1 where my injured thumb should receive every attention1 and where he and his family would gladly welcome me4 ,yielding willingly to this hospitable persuasion1 ,i permitted ,ichabod and one of the negroes to help me to remount my mustang1 and we rode towards the ,missouri boundary4 ,the family whose acquaintance ,i had just made in so singular a way1 bore no similarity to the travelling ,americans whom it had previously fallen to my lot to encounter4 ,general ,warfield1 his son1 daughters1 and nephew1 had the well-bred air and unobtrusive demeanour which ,i had hitherto deemed exclusively insular4 ,they asked me no abrupt questions as to my station or errand3 they indulged in no diatribes against my country1 nor in any extravagant laudations of their own2 and ,i might have fancied myself the guest of some long-descended family at home1 but for the wild scenes and unusual objects that met my eye as we rode along4 ,it turned out that ,general ,warfield1 a retired military officer1 not a militiaman1 was of an old ,virginian family1 and had migrated to the newer soil of ,missouri six years ago4 ,there his children had grown to be men and women1 in the hardy habits of that wild country1 a mere outpost of civilisation2 and indeed they were returning from a hunting expedition into ,iowa when they stumbled upon me in my prostrate condition4 ,three hours' ride brought us to the ,general's house1 a large building of mingled wood and stone1 with a pretty garden on one hand1 and on the other the farm-buildings1 the corrals for horses and cattle1 and the negro huts4 ,within ,i found furniture of old-fashioned dark mahogany1 partridge-wood1 and bird's-eye maple1 old family pictures1 pretty knickknacks picked up during a three years' residence in ,europe1 and the massive silver plate which had been handed down from father to son ever since the ancestral ,warfield settled in ,virginia in the reign of ,charles ,i4 ,i never knew anything so un-,american1 in respect to the usual standard of comparison1 as the mode of life1 the bearing1 and tastes1 of ,general ,warfield and his high-spirited and amiable children4 ,here was no exaggeration of sentiment1 no outrageous national vanity1 no rude indifference to the feelings of others1 no prying1 no pretension4 ,i felt1 as ,i conversed with them1 how wide was the gulf that severed the ,north from the ,south4 ,it was not diversity of interest alone1 but diversity of habits1 principles1 and aspirations4 ,wide apart in heart and mind as the poles from each other1 the citizens of the opposite ends of the ,union had but the feeble ,federal bond to delay that violent disruption and severance of which1 even then1 the signs of the times gave fearful warning4 ,but it is not my purpose to linger on the happy days ,i spent beneath the roof of my kind hosts4 ,let me rather relate the information ,i received from ,general ,warfield1 when his friendly hospitality had caused me to confide to his ear my errand to ,america1 and the ruin ,i had too much reason to anticipate4 8,my dear sir10 said the ,general1 8,i am glad you have told me of this--very glad4 ,i can help you in this matter40 ,the ,general then proceeded to tell me that1 in the first year of his residence in ,missouri1 ,harvey1 a notorious speculator1 had begun the railway whose miserable wreck ,i had visited4 ,he had given it up for want of funds1 had become insolvent1 and was reputed to have died in ,texas4 ,that he had received a real concession of land and authentic charters from the ,state legislatures1 was undoubted4 ,but the concession had been clogged by the express stipulation1 that in two years ,harvey should have a hundred and fifty miles in working order1 and that the whole should be completed in four years4 ,the condition not having been complied with1 the concession was null and void4 ,the ,great ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,railway ,company1 had no right to a corporate existence4 8,but10 said ,i1 8,i of course perused the papers4 ,i saw no mention of such a conditional clause40 ,the ,general smiled4 8,depend upon it1 ,mr ,bulkeley10 said he1 8that erasure and forgery have been practised to make the old deeds sufficiently tempting to effect the only purpose their present holders have in view--that of raising cash in the ,london market4 ,colonel ,sling--who1 by the way1 is no more a colonel1 even of militia1 than black ,csar there--is no novice at fraud4 ,he was convicted at ,jefferson city of a like offence1 and ,i was present at his trial1 and heard some of his antecedents2 indeed1 ,i was a witness in the case4 ,but if you will take my advice1 you will hasten back to ,england1 and1 if possible1 save the funds in the hands of this confederate of his1 this ,bett1 before the pair can abscond with their gains4 ,do not parley1 but apply to the police at once1 if1 indeed1 it be not too late40 ,finally1 ,general ,warfield was so good as to accompany me to the chief town of ,iowa ,state1 where he introduced me to the legal authorities1 by whom his statements were fully confirmed1 and the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska declared a transparent swindle4 ,in this town we suddenly came on 8,colonel0 ,sling1 who had come out by the next packet1 and was tracking me1 no doubt in the hope of hoodwinking or silencing me in some mode or other4 ,but when he saw the ,general1 his swaggering air collapsed1 a guilty crimson suffused his yellow cheeks1 and he slunk away and entered a tavern without accosting us4 ,and yet when1 after giving hearty thanks to my kindly ,virginian friend1 ,i hurried to embark at ,new ,york1 ,i had the honour of finding ,colonel ,coriolanus ,sling1 my fellow-passenger4 ,he now ventured to address me1 but by this time ,i was on my guard against his specious eloquence1 and he retired with an air of mingled effrontery and shame4 ,at ,liverpool1 as ,i took my seat in the train1 which ,i did without the loss of a moment1 ,i saw ,colonel ,sling dart into the telegraph office4 ,so busy was my brain with what was before me1 that ,i did not1 during the principal part of the journey1 attach any particular meaning to this proceeding of my treacherous ally4 ,when ,i did think of its probable object1 ,i struck my forehead1 and could have cursed my blind stupidity1 my dulness of conception4 ,after all my haste1 scampering as quickly as possible to the station at ,liverpool1 was ,i to be too late1 after all8 ,was this ,yankee rascal to be permitted to warn his brother knave in ,london through my inattention1 and was the paid-up capital to fatten the two harpies whose tools we had been8 ,heavy misgivings filled my heart as ,i arrived in ,london1 hurried to ,scotland ,yard1 and requested that a detective policeman might at once be ordered to accompany me to the residence of ,dr ,titus ,a4 ,c4 ,bett1 cashier to the ,nauvoo and ,nebraska ,company4 ,luckily ,i was a man of credit and character in the city2 my request was granted instantly1 and off whirled the hansom cab1 as fast as hansom cab could be impelled by the most lavish bribe1 on its way to ,piccadilly1 bearing me and a quiet man with a resolute1 thoughtful face1 in plain clothes4 ,ha6 there is a cab waiting at the door as we jump out--,i hot and breathless1 the policeman cool and steady4 ,the gaping servant-girl belonging to the lodgings comes quickly at our knock4 ,it is morning yet1 early morning1 from a ,london point of view--not much after nine4 8,is ,dr ,bett in80 8,yes1 sir10 replies the girl1 8but he's just a-going4 ,he sent me out for the cab five minutes ago1 and he's called away so sudden he won't take breakfast40 8,ah1 indeed60 says the detective2 8telegram1 ,i suppose1 eh80 8,yes1 sir10 replied the maid1 8and he swore hawful because ,i hadn't woke him up directly it came1 two hour ago1 along with the milk1 but ,i didn't dare1 'cause he always stops out late1 and always swears and scolds if ,i bring up his hot water before nine o'clock40 ,i could have hugged that maid1 ,mary ,ann1 ,eliza1 or ,susan1 no matter what1 for she was my preserver--a most valuable but unwitting ally4 ,i did give her a sovereign as ,i bade her show us up4 ,we found the ,doctor1 unshaved1 half dressed1 tugging at his boots1 and with a leather dressing-case weighty with gold and notes lying on the table at his elbow4 ,we rushed in with scant ceremony4 ,the detective tapped him on the shoulder and took him into custody with the magic formula of uttering her ,majesty's name4 ,the bubble burst1 but the funds were saved2 and after some expense1 ridicule1 and trouble1 we were able to return their money to the shareholders1 and ,i washed my hands most gladly of my ,american investment4 ,,the ,,landscape ,,of ,,ancient ,,italy1 ,,as ,,delineated ,,in ,,the ,,pompeian ,,paintings4 8,und aber nach zweitausend ,jahren ,kam ich desselbigen ,wegs gefahren40 8,et puis nous irons voir1 car dcadence et deuil ,viennent toujours aprs la puissance et l'orgueil1 ,nous irons voir44440 ,we are so much accustomed to depend on the four great literary languages for the whole body of our information and amusement1 that it occurs to few to consider that ignorance of other ,european dialects involves any inconvenience at all1 except to those who have occasion to visit the countries in which they are spoken4 ,yet there is much of really valuable matter which sees the light only in the minor tongues1 especially those of the industrious ,north1 and with which the world has never been made familiar through translation4 ,joachim ,frederic ,schouw1 the ,danish botanist1 is one of the writers of our day who has suffered most prejudicially both to his own fame and to the public from having employed only his native language4 ,for his writings are not only valuable in a scientific point of view1 but belong to the most popular order of scientific writing1 and would assuredly have been general favourites1 had not the bulk of them remained untranslated4 ,his #8,tableau du ,climat de l',italie' has1 however1 appeared in ,french1 and is a standard work4 ,a little collection of very brief and popular essays1 entitled #8,the ,earth1 ,plants1 and ,man1' has been translated both into ,german and ,english4 ,one of these1 styled #8,the ,plants of ,pompeii1' is founded on a rather novel idea4 ,the paintings on the walls of the disinterred houses of that city contain 7among other things7 many landscape compositions4 ,sometimes these are accessory to historical representations4 ,but they often merely portray the scenery of ordinary out-door life4 ,the old decorators of the ,pompeian chambers had indeed an evident taste for those trivial tricks of theatrical deception1 which are still very popular in ,italy4 ,their verdure1 sky1 and so forth1 seem often as if meant to impose on the spectator for a moment as realities2 and are1 therefore1 executed in a 8realistic0 though sketchy style4 8,consequently10 says ,schouw1 8the observation of the plants which are represented in these paintings will give1 as far as they go1 the measure of those which were familiar to the ancient eye1 and will help to show the identities and the differences between the vegetation of the ,campanian plains a hundred years after ,christ1 and that which adorns them now40 ,we propose to follow the ,professor through this confined but elegant little chapter of his investigations4 ,but by restraining ourselves to this alone1 we should be dealing with only part of a subject4 ,in most regions1 two thousand years have made considerable changes in the appearance of the vegetable covering of the earth2 but in that land of volcanic influences in which ,pompeii stood1 great revolutions have taken place1 during that time1 in the structure of the ground itself4 ,sea and land have changed places2 mountains have risen and sunk2 the very outlines and main landmarks of the scene are other than what they were4 ,let us for a moment imagine ourselves gazing with ,emperor ,tiberius from his 8specular height0 on precipitous ,capri1 at that unequalled panorama of sea and land formed by the ,gulf of ,naples1 as thence descried1 and note in what respects the visible face of things has changed since he beheld it4 ,the central object in his view1 as in that of the modern observer1 was ,vesuvius1 standing out a huge insulated mountain mass1 unconformable with the other outlines of the landscape1 and covered then1 as now1 with its broad mantle of dusky green4 ,then1 as now1 its volcanic soil was devoted to the cultivation of the vine4 ,but in other respects its appearance was widely different4 ,no slender1 menacing column of smoke rose perpetually from its summit4 ,nor was it lurid1 at night1 with that red gleam of the slow river of fire1 8,a cui riluce ,di ,capri la marina ,e di ,napoli il porto e ,mergellina40 ,it was an extinct volcano1 and had been so for unknown ages4 ,nor did it exhibit its present characteristic cone1 nor probably its double top2 ,vesuvius and ,somma were most likely one2 and the deep half-moon-shaped ravine of the ,atrio del ,cavallo1 which now divides them1 is thought to be a relic of the ancient crater4 ,that crater was a huge amphitheatrical depression1 several miles in circuit1 filled with pasture-lands and tangled woods4 ,spartacus and his servile army had used it not long before as a natural fortress4 ,but this feature was scarcely visible to the spectator at ,capri1 opposite the mountain1 to whom the summit must have appeared as a broad flat-topped ridge1 in shape and height very similar to the ,table ,mountain at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,at the time in question1 scarcely a few vague traditions remained to record the fact that the mountain had once 8burnt40 ,the fiery legends of ,magna ,grcia related to the country west of ,naples1 where volcanic action had been more recent3 the ,phlegran fields1 the ,market-place of ,vulcan 7,solfatara71 the cone of ,gnarime 7,ischia71 through which the imprisoned ,typhus breathed flame1 from whence he has been since transferred to ,vesuvius1 as a ,genoese monk informed us when we and he first looked on that volcano together4 ,vesuvius awoke from his sleep of unknown length1 as every one knows1 in ,a4,d4 #gi1 when he celebrated his resumption of authority by that grand 8extra night0 of the #bdth ,august1 which has had no rival since1 in the way of pyrotechnical entertainment1 except on the distant shores of ,iceland1 the ,west ,indies1 and the ,moluccas4 ,his period of activity lasted nearly a thousand years4 ,then he relapsed into lethargy for six hundred4 ,in #afca1 he had resumed 7as old prints show71 something nearly resembling the form which we have attributed to him in classical times4 ,his top1 of great height1 swollen up by the slow accumulation of burning matter1 without a vent1 was a level plateau1 with a pit-like crater1 filled with a forest of secular oaks and ilexes3 only a few 8fumaroles10 or smoke-holes1 remained here and there to attest his real character4 ,even the legends of his conflagrations had become out of date4 ,the old 8,orearch0 or mountain-spirit1 ,vesevus1 is portrayed by the local poet ,pontanus in the fifteenth century1 as a rustic figure1 with a bald head1 hump back1 and cincture of brushwood--all fiery attributes omitted4 ,even his terrible name was only known to the learned3 the people called him the 8,monte di ,somma40 ,the suburban features of a great luxurious city1 convents1 gardens1 vineyards1 hunting-grounds1 and parks of the nobility1 had crept again up the sides of the mountain1 until they almost mingled with the trees on the summit4 ,the approaching hour was not without its premonitory signs1 many and strange4 ,the phenomena which ,bulwer makes his witch of ,vesuvius recount1 by way of warning1 to ,arbaces1 are very closely borrowed from contemporary narratives of the eruption of #afca4 ,nor were the omens of superstition wanting1 accommodated to the altered feelings of the times4 ,at the ,plinian eruption1 the people imagined that the old giants buried in the ,phlegran fields had risen again1 and renewed their battle with the gods3 8for many phantoms of them10 says ,dio ,cassius1 8were seen in the smoke1 and a blast1 as of trumpets1 was heard40 ,in #afca1 carriages full of devils were seen to drive1 and battalions of diabolical soldiers to gather in marching array along the precipitous flanks of the mountain4 ,the footsteps of unearthly animals were tracked on the roads4 8,a peasant of the name of ,giovanni ,camillo0 7so we are informed by the ,jesuit ,giulio ,cesare ,recupito1 a contemporary71 8had passed ,easter ,eve at a farm-house of his own on the mountain4 ,there1 without having taken a mouthful of anything1 he was overtaken by a profound slumber1 from which awakening suddenly1 he saw no longer before his eyes the likeness of the place where he had fallen asleep1 but a new heaven1 a new soil1 a new landscape3 instead of a hill-side covered with wood1 there appeared a wall crossing the road1 and extending on each side for a great distance1 with a very lofty gate4 ,astonished at this new scene1 he went to the gate to inquire where he was4 ,there he found a porter of the order of ,st ,francis1 a young man in appearance4 ,many conjecture that this was ,st ,antony of ,padua4 ,the porter at first seemed to repulse him1 but afterwards admitted him into the courtyard1 and guided him about4 ,after a long circuit they arrived at a great range of buildings breathing fire from every window40 ,in short1 the poor peasant was conducted1 after the fashion of such visions1 through the mansions of hell and purgatory1 where he saw1 of course1 many of his acquaintance variously tormented4 8,at last1 on the following day1 he was restored to himself1 and to ,vesuvius3 and was ordered to inform his countrymen that a great ruin was impending over them from that mountain3 wherefore they should address their vows and prayers to ,god4 ,on ,easter ,day1 at noon1 he came home1 and was observed of many with his dress sprinkled with ashes1 his face burnt black1 as if escaped from a fire40 ,this was two years before the eruption1 and during the interval ,camillo always told the same story2 wherefore1 after passing a long time for either mad or drunk1 he was finally raised to the dignity of a prophet4 ,at last1 on the night of the #aeth ,december1 the ancient volcano signalised his awakening by a feat of unrivalled grandeur4 ,in forty-eight hours of terrific struggles1 he blew away the whole cap of the mountain2 so that1 on the morning of the #ahth1 when the smoke at last subsided1 the ,neapolitans beheld their familiar summit a thousand feet lower than it had been before2 while its southern face was seamed by seven distinct rivers of fire1 slowly rolling at several points into the sea4 ,since #afca1 the frequency1 if not the violence1 of the eruptions seems to have gradually increased1 and ,vesuvius is probably more 8active0 now1 in local language1 than at any former time in his annals1 having made the fortunes of an infinity of guides and miscellaneous waiters on ,providence within the last twelve years1 besides burning a forest or two1 and expelling the peasantry of some villages4 ,but his performances on a grand scale seem for the present suspended4 ,frequent eruptions prevent that accumulation of matter which produces great ones4 ,indeed1 the late ,mr ,laing1 whose #8,notes of a ,traveller' show him to have been that identical 8sturdy ,scotch ,presbyterian whig0 who visited ,oxford in company with ,lockhart's ,reginald ,dalton1 8reviling all things1 despising all things1 and puffing himself up with all things10 deliberately pronounced the volcano a humbug1 and believed the depth of its subterranean magazines to be extremely trifling4 ,still1 the curious traveller1 like that fabulous ,englishman who visited the lion-tamer every night for the chance of seeing him devoured1 cannot help looking with a certain eagerness for the occurrence of those two interesting catastrophes1 of which the day and hour are written down in the book of the ,fates--that combination of high tide1 west wind1 and land-flood1 which is to drown ,st ,petersburg2 that combination of south-east wind and first-class eruption which is to bury ,naples in ashes4 ,this finale seemed nearer in that recent eruption of ,december #ahfj1 which spent its fury on ,torre del ,greco1 than perhaps on any former occasion2 but once more the danger passed away4 ,to return1 however1 from this digression1 which has nothing to excuse it except the interest which clings even to often-repeated stories respecting the popular old volcano4 ,other features in that wonderful panorama1 seen from ,capri1 have undergone scarcely inferior changes since the time of ,tiberius4 ,yonder rich tract of level land at the mouth of the ,sarno1 between ,torre dell' ,annunziata and ,castellamare1 did not exist4 ,the sea has retreated from it4 ,tiberius saw1 instead of it1 a deep bay washing the walls of the compact little provincial city of ,pompeii4 ,but the neighbouring port of ,stabi is gone3 not a vestige of its site remains4 ,above it to the right1 ,monte ,sant',angelo1 and the limestone sierra of which it forms a part1 remain1 no doubt1 unchanged by time4 ,only that marvellous range of ,roman villas and gardens which lined its foot for leagues1 almost rivalling the structures of the opposite ,bay of ,bai for magnificence1 has disappeared1 no one knows how or when4 ,the diver off the coast of ,sorento can touch with his hand the long ranges of foundation-work1 brick and marble1 which now lie many feet beneath the deep clear water4 ,it was a strange fit of short-lived magnificence1 that which induced the grandest of millionnaires1 the chiefs of the ,augustan age1 to raise their palaces1 all round the ,gulf of ,naples1 on vaulted ranges of piles laid within the sea1 so that its luxurious ripple should be heard under the rooms in which they lived4 ,niebuhr1 who1 with all his curious insight into the ways of antiquity1 was not superior to the temptation of finding a new reason for everything1 asserts that they did so in order to escape the malaria4 ,but that mysterious evil influence extended some way beyond the shore4 ,the country craft will1 to this day1 keep as far as they can1 in the summer nights1 off the coast of the ,campagna1 while the quiet land-breeze is wafting death from the interior4 ,the real causes were1 doubtless1 what the writers of the time disclose4 ,the land close to the shore was dear and scanty1 and ill-accommodated for building1 from its steepness4 ,the first new-comer who set the fashion of turning sea into land1 was imitated by others in the mere wantonness of wealth1 until the whole shore became lined with palatial edifices1 like the ,grand ,canal of ,venice2 but not so durably4 ,these classical structures1 frequently delineated with more or less detail in the ,pompeian frescoes1 were as beautiful and as transitory as those of our dreams2 or like the vision which ,claude ,lorraine transferred to canvass in the most poetical of landscapes1 his #8,enchanted ,palace4' ,judging from the singular phenomena exhibited by the #8,temple of ,serapis1' and by other topographical records1 geologists have concluded that land and sea1 in this volcanic region1 wax and wane in long successions of ages4 ,thus the sea rose 7or rather the land sank7 on the coast of the ,bay of ,naples for about eleven centuries previous to ,a4,d4 #ajjj2 then the reverse movement took place until about ,a4,d4 #aejj3 and the land is now sinking again4 ,if so1 these marine palaces must have gradually subsided into the sea1 and their owners may have been driven out by the invasion of cuttle-fish and sea-hedgehogs1 and other monsters of the ,mediterranean shallows1 in their best bedrooms1 even before ,norman or ,saracen incursions had reduced them to desolation4 ,but whatever the cause of their disappearance1 they had vanished before modern history began3 nor has modern luxury1 in its most profuse mood1 ever sought to reproduce them4 ,their submarine ruins remain as memorials of ages when men were at all events more daring and earnest in their extravagance1 and the 8lust of the eye and the pride of life0 were deified on a grander scale1 than at any other epoch of the world's history4 ,naples herself1 the 8idle0 and the 8learned0 7for the ancients called her somewhat inconsistently by both epithets1 nor had she as yet acquired her more recent soubriquet of the 8beautiful071 formed a far less conspicuous object in the view than now2 it was a place of some twenty or thirty thousand souls1 according to ,niebuhr's conjectural estimate2 confined between the modern ,mole on the one hand1 and the ,gate del ,carmine on the other2 and nestling close in the neighbourhood of the sister city ,herculaneum4 ,the lofty line of the houses on the ,chiaia--of which you may now almost count the windows in the top storeys from the sea-level at ,capri1 through that pellucid atmosphere1 while the lower storeys are hidden by the earth's curvature--did not then exist4 ,but instead of it there extended the endless terraces and colonnades1 the cypress avenues and plane groves1 of that range of fortress-palaces erected by ,pollio and ,lucullus1 enlacing island1 and beach1 and ridge1 even to the point of ,posilippo1 with tracery of dazzling marble4 ,here1 however1 the mere natural changes have been small1 except that an island or two 7like that of the ,castel dell' ,uovo7 has since been joined to the continent4 ,but farther west1 round the ,bay of ,bai1 fire and water have dealt most fantastically with the scenery4 ,scarcely a prominent feature on which the ,roman eye rested remains unchanged4 ,quiet little ,nisida was a smoking semi-volcano4 ,yonder level dun-coloured shore1 from ,pozzuoli to the ,lucrine1 was under water1 and the waves dashed against a line of cliff now some miles inland4 ,that crater-shaped ,lake of ,agnano1 now the common resort of ,neapolitan holiday-makers1 did not exist2 it must have been formed by some unrecorded convulsion of the dark ages4 ,yonder neatly truncated cone1 rising five hundred feet above the plain1 seems as permanent a feature in the landscape as any other of the 8everlasting hills20 but it was the creation of a few days of violent eruption1 only three centuries ago--as its name of ,monte ,nuovo still indicates--whether by 8upheaval0 or by 8ejection10 philosophers dispute4 ,but the beautiful ,lucrine ,lake1 the station of ,roman fleets and the very central point of ,roman luxury1 disappeared in the same elemental commotion2 leaving a narrow stagnant pool behind4 ,only yon slight dyke or barrier of beach1 between this shrunken mere and the sea1 deserves respect2 for that has remained1 strange to say1 almost unaltered throughout4 ,it is one of the very oldest legendary spots of earth2 doubtless the very road along which ,hercules dragged the oxen of ,geryon2 the very 8narrow shore0 on which ,ulysses landed1 in order to call up the melancholy shades of the dead4 ,farther inland1 again1 ,avernus remains unchanged1 in shape at least2 but many and strange are the revolutions which it has undergone in other respects4 ,we first hear of it as a dark pool1 surrounded by forests2 the bed1 doubtless1 of an ancient crater filled with water1 and retaining much of volcanic action2 but not 7as commonly supposed7 fatal to the birds that flew over it4 ,that notion is not classical2 or rather1 it is founded on a misconception of classical authorities4 ,the pool is not called by the best writers 8lacus ,avernus0 but 8lacus ,averni10 the lake of the ,avernus4 ,what is an ,avernus8 ,lucretius tells us that it is a spot where noxious gases escape from the earth1 so that the birds which fly over it fall dead on the earth or into the lake if there happens to be a lake below them4 8,si forte lacus substratus ,averno est40 ,and ,virgil's description1 accurately construed1 gives exactly the same meaning4 8,spelunca alta fuit4444 4444tuta lacu nigro nemorum que tenebris1 ,quam super0 7not quem super1 over the cavern1 not the lake7 44448haud ull poterant impune volantes ,tendere iter pennis4444 ,unde locum0 7not lacum7 8,graii dixerunt nomine ,aornon40 ,it was the exhalations from the mysterious cavern that were deadly1 not those from the lake4 ,such an 8,avernus0 is the 8,gueva ,upas0 or ,valley of ,death1 in ,java1 to which condemned criminals were formerly sent to perish2 whence the romance about the ,upas ,tree4 ,and such an ,avernus1 on a small scale1 still exists on the shore of the peaceful little ,lake of ,laach in ,germany1 also an extinct crater3 there are spots on its beach where bird-corpses are to be found in numbers1 killed by mephitic exhalations4 ,but--to return to our lake--it must at that time have lain at or 7like some other extinct craters7 below the level of the sea2 for ,augustus's great engineering operation consisted in letting the sea into the lake4 8,tyrrhenusque fretis immittitur stus ,avernis40 ,fifteen hundred years afterwards1 and just before the ,monte ,nuovo eruption1 the place was visited by that painful old topographer1 ,leandro ,alberti1 the ,leland of ,italy4 ,the channel made by ,augustus was then gone2 but the lake was still on a level with the sea1 for he asserts that in storms the sea broke into it3 and the water1 as he expressly affirms1 was salt4 ,now1 its level is several feet above that of the sea1 and the water is fresh4 ,the upheaval must have been gradual and peaceful1 for the outline of the lonely mere is as perfectly rounded now as the poet ,lycophron described it2--but a portion only of that bewildering succession of changes of which this coast has been the theatre3 the latest vibration of that vast commotion figured in the legendary war of the ,giants4 ,nor is it quite so wild a conjecture as some have deemed it1 that the tradition which peopled this bright coast with ,cimmerians--then dwellers in the everlasting mist1 on the border-land between the dead and the living--had its origin in the tales of primeval navigators1 who had visited the neighbourhood during some mighty and prolonged eruption1 covering sea and shore with a permanent darkness which 8might be felt30 like the coast of ,iceland in #aghc1 when for a whole summer continual eruptions arose from the sea as well as the land3 when 8the noxious vapours that for many months infected the air1 enveloped the whole island in a dense fog which obscured the sun1 and was perceptible even in ,england and ,holland40 ,still farther westward in our panoramic view1 the confusion between past and present becomes even more undecipherable4 ,bai has disappeared2 a stately city of pleasure1 which1 to judge by its remaining foundations1 rose on a hillside in terraces1 something like its ,british counterpart ,bath1 but with its foot washed by the ,mediterranean instead of the ,avon3 so has ,misenum1 with its naval station3 and not only are these towns gone1 but the land on which they stood seems so to have changed its shape1 through earthquakes1 marine encroachments1 and the labour of men1 that its very outlines are altered1 until the eye rests at last on the peak of ,ischia1 which ends the semicircle4 ,thus much by way of introduction to the more immediate point of our inquiry3 the changes in the general aspect and character of the earth's vegetable covering which have taken place in the same period of two thousand years1 and in the same locality4 ,one of the greatest features of interest to the scientific botanist1 and even to the less instructed lover of nature1 which ,italy presents1 consists in the circumstance that the northern and southern types of vegetation--to speak more closely1 the northern-temperate and the sub-tropical--meet together1 especially in its warmer regions1 in stronger contrast than probably anywhere else4 ,the same remark is true1 no doubt1 of the ,mediterranean shores in general3 but those of ,france and of ,turkey approach more to the general northern aspect2 those of ,barbary to the tropical3 in favoured ,italy the two types seem sometimes to blend and sometimes to contrast in ever-changing and ever-striking variety4 ,the same was doubtless1 to some extent1 the case in ancient times4 ,but the northern character was probably far more prevalent than now4 ,the early ,greek settlers landed on a forest region1 where the common deciduous trees of the north1 now driven back to the scantily clothed gorges of the central ,apennines1 flourished in great abundance4 ,such a nature as this may still be observed in the few forest patches left in the higher ,abruzzi1 the ,sila of ,calabria1 and so forth4 8,the beech-forest10 says ,schouw1 8is called the symbol of the ,danish character4 ,but ,i have wandered in ,calabria through large and beautiful beech-woods1 on the higher plateaux of the ,apennines1 where the vegetation as well as the bracing air constantly reminded me of my home40 ,probably the wild shores of ,corsica1 or those of ,dalmatia1 with their shaggy growth of northern forest and their undergrowth of mixed northern and ,mediterranean shrubs1 present an aspect more resembling what the followers of ,ulysses and neas beheld when they landed1 than may elsewhere be found4 ,we may notice historical traces of the continued existence of this ruder and fresher nature1 not only in the agricultural writers of the ,romans1 who speak far more of deciduous trees than of the evergreen1 now deemed so characteristic of ,italy1 but in the well-known pages of ,virgil4 ,there is not in general much of 8local colour0 in the #8,eclogues' and #8,georgics3' that is a poetical artifice of later day4 ,but what there is1 represents the physiognomy1 not of the ,lombard plains where he was born1 but of the neighbourhood of ,naples in which he lived4 ,his sea-sand is 8black10 not brown or yellow1 like that of all other bards1--the volcanic sand of the bays of ,bai and ,naples--very coal-dust in appearance4 ,when he recommends the farmer to place his hives near a tree1 for the bees to swarm on1 it is a 8palm-tree1 or huge oleaster0--advice which he might as well have tendered to a ,scythian as to a colonus of his native ,mantua4 ,now1 the general idea which the verses of ,virgil convey of the region with which he is concerned1 is that of a sylvan country--not1 emphatically1 the 8land of the cypress and myrtle10 but of the oak1 ash1 linden1 wych-elm1 beech1 citizens of the great ,transalpine forests4 ,some of the trees of which he celebrates the grandeur are now not only become scarce in his country1 but it is difficult to ascertain with accuracy their real character4 ,the mighty sculus1 for example1 the noblest denizen of ,latian forests1 which formed of itself great woods1 8lata sculeta10 is a mere puzzle for antiquarian botanists3 no one knows what it was1 and there may be some question whether it has not disappeared from the face of earth1 or whether it survives only in some nearly extinct variety of oak4#e ,man has doubtless done much towards the effecting of this change1 the more valuable plants of the south having been gradually introduced1 and the indigenous woods cleared for their reception2 but ,nature has done much of herself4 ,in the remaining woodland districts of maritime ,italy--such as the ,maremme of ,tuscany and the ,latian ,campagna--the evergreen species seem to be gradually supplanting the deciduous1 the foreign the indigenous4 ,we talk familiarly of the hardy vegetation of the ,north2 but1 where the two meet on conditions of climate endurable by both1 the children of the tropical sun seem to show the greater hardihood1 and to come out survivors in the great battle for existence4 ,their every aspect1 their rough bark and leathery leaves1 seem indicative of a stronger vitality than that which animates the more majestic but more delicate structure of the leafy giants of the northern temperate zone4 ,a similar law--if the analogy does not appear too fanciful--seems to govern the migrations of trees and shrubs1 and of the human family itself4 ,the ,north produces the races of more commanding aspect3 it sends them forth conquering and to conquer2 they establish empires1 they subjugate the so-called feebler races of the ,south2 but1 in the midst of their conquests1 they sicken and perish1 and become extinct4 ,the children of the ,south gradually penetrate northwards1 and by their own more prolific multiplication1 as well as by crossing or intermixture1 in which their more essentially vigorous nature attains predominance1 they efface the type of the ,northern race1 and cause it ultimately to disappear4 ,what has become of the descendants of those hordes which swarmed from the populous ,north1 in the decline of the ,roman ,empire1 over all the regions adjacent to the ,mediterranean8 ,they have vanished1 or are scarcely recognised by antiquaries in a few problematical instances1 where small insulated communities1 thought to be of ,teutonic or ,gothic origin1 maintain a precarious existence among the descendants of their former subjects4 ,where are the historical ,gauls1 with their tall figures1 their fleshy frames1 their golden hair1 and eyes of truculent blue8 ,a few of them1 possibly1 to be found in ,flanders2 but anything less like the ,gaul of antiquity than the sinewy1 nervous1 agile1 undersized1 brown-skinned1 and black-haired biped1 who now inhabits some eighty out of the eighty-five departments of ,france1 can hardly be imagined4 ,what is become even of the purer ,northern breed of ,germany itself8 ,scarcely to be found1 except on the shores of the ,baltic3 elsewhere the ordinary ,european type prevails1 olive skin and cheveux chtains4 8,i sought for the fair population of classical ,germany in vain10 says ,niebuhr1 8until ,i found it in ,scandinavia40 ,on the other hand1 the ,greek in ,provence1 the ,moor in ,spain1 ,southrons1 transplanted into those countries in no very great numbers1 have impressed their type on the general population1 and1 as it were1 changed the very breed4 ,when dark and fair intermix1 the odds seem to be greatly in favour of the dark complexion prevailing in the offspring4 ,we heard lately of a society formed in ,france for the conservation of the 8,xanthous10 or yellow-haired variety of the human race1 which they regard as the true aristocracy of nature1 and rightly conceive to be threatened with extinction3 their object to be attained by portioning from time to time blonde maidens who might take to themselves husbands of the same complexion4 ,even so--to return to our trees--the meridional vegetation gradually drives back that of the ,north in the battlefield of species4 ,if we figure to ourselves the appearance of the plains of ,england two thousand years ago1 with their indigenous vegetable covering only--without the common elm1 the linden1 plane1 sycamore1 poplar1 acacia1 chestnut1 fruit-trees of every kind1 and cultivated plants in general--without1 probably1 a single species of pine or fir1 or indeed any evergreen but box1 yew1 and holly--and remember that every foreign plant has displaced a native1 we may gather some idea of the conquests which the ,south has effected even here1 not indeed without the aid of human industry1 but in part by sheer physical superiority4 ,but on the ,mediterranean coast these conquests have been much more marked4 ,take the following description of the change which two thousand years have made in the common flora of ,greece1 from the work of a ,german botanist 7,fraas1 ,klima und ,pflanzenwelt73-- 8,the following species from the flora known to ,theophrastus have either entirely disappeared from ,greece1 or have emigrated from the habitations which he assigns to them1 and withdrawn into the moister climate of more northerly regions2 the varieties commonly known to the ancients of the ,linden2 the ,yew1 that child of damp and shady hillsides1 of which rare and dwarfed specimens only are now to be found on the highest mountains2 the ,hornbeam1 the ,beech1 and ,alder of ,homer2 and1 with scanty exceptions1 the #8spear-furnishing' ,cornel and the tall ,ash4 ,instead of these1 another class of plants has conquered for itself greater space in the vegetable realm--thick-leaved1 hard-leaved1 down-covered1 thorny and prickly bushes1 evergreen for the most part1 and adding1 by their rich flowers1 great beauty to the spring4 ,this vegetation1 analogous to that of the ,american savannas and ,asiatic steppes1 has now replaced the ancient flowery meadows1 resembling those of middle ,europe1 with wastes of heath and pines1 carob-trees and grey oleasters4 ,together with these we have the various kinds of arbutus1 myrtle1 oleander1 philyre1 pistachios1 kermes-oaks1 rosemary1 thyme1 and the flora of dry mountain regions in general40 ,let us now see how far the historical indications furnished by the ,pompeian relics corroborate what has been already said respecting this 8intrusion of the climate of the ,south10 as ,fraas terms it1 into the regions north of the ,mediterranean4 ,in order to ascertain the plants known to the citizens of ,pompeii1 says ,schouw1 two records remain to us--namely1 the pictures discovered in its ruins1 and the remnants of plants themselves4 ,but1 he adds1 the use of the first requires some care3--8,many representations of plants are naturally so little precise that their particular species cannot be ascertained1 as would be the case in modern pictures of the same kind4 ,and1 if the plant be recognisable1 it does not follow as certain that it was known at ,pompeii1 for the plants of foreign countries are also occasionally represented4 ,thus the ,nile-nature is often delineated--marshy landscapes1 with the lotus and the nelumbium1 the hippopotamus1 ichneumon1 flocks of geese1 and date-palms at the water's edge2 as1 for instance1 in the lower rim of the famous mosaic supposed to represent ,alexander and ,darius4 ,frequently1 also1 the representations are fanciful--for instance1 a laurel growing out of a date-palm1 and even appearing to rise out of it as a shoot from the same root--a physiological impossibility1 unless1 perhaps1 it has reference to that strange practice of the ancients--the planting of different kinds so close to each other that they might appear to the eye connected40 ,after making these allowances1 we may safely arrive at the following conclusions4 ,among the trees which gave the ,neapolitan landscape its character were then 7as now7 the stone-pine and the cypress4 ,the former is frequently represented1 with its peculiar branchless stems and cloud-like head--the product not only of close planting but of actual pruning in nurseries1 as may now be noticed in the neighbourhood of ,naples4 ,this tree was cultivated for its edible nuts2 and pine cones have been found among the charred objects in the shops of ,pompeii4 ,the beautiful cypress often occurs in the ,pompeian frescoes1 not unfrequently mingled with the pine1 and gracefully combining with the outlines of the fanciful villas and temples represented4 ,it is ,gilpin1 we think1 who points out the peculiar adaptation1 by contrast1 of the spiral cypress and poplar to the long horizontal lines of southern buildings2 while the square masses of the lime and elm combine well with the pointed ,gothic4 ,the 8,pinus halepensis10 adds ,schouw 7the common maritime pine of ,italy71 is also found in these pictures4 ,the vine1 of course1 occurs constantly--so does the olive4 ,they were1 no doubt1 as universal then as now2 and preferred respectively1 as they do now1 the volcanic and the calcareous hills in the vicinity of ,naples4 ,preserved olives were found in ,pompeii1 which even retained something of their taste4 ,the myrtle1 and the beautiful oleander1 or laurel-rose1 as the ,french call it--common shrubs of to-day--also appear in the frescoes4 ,add to these the laurel and bay tribe1 the ilex1 fig1 pomegranate1 the 8arundo donax0 or gigantic reed--cultivated then as now for its various uses1 and covering the marshy grounds with its dense brake1 strange to the northern eye1 are most of them recognisable also in these pictures4 ,and we are enabled to say that the common vegetable forms on which the eye of the ,pompeian citizen rested were1 to this extent1 similar to those on which his descendant gazes now4 ,but there were many species1 now common1 then rare or unknown1 some of which are mentioned by ,schouw in the little essay before us2 others1 we are able to add1 from different sources4 ,the aloe or agave1 and the ,indian fig 7figue de ,barbarie1 as the ,french call it71 are now among the familiar plants of maritime ,italy4 ,the former vigorously protrudes itself in every stony1 solitary spot1 from the old ramparts of ,genoa to the lava-fields of ,aeta2 the latter is half-cultivated in a careless sort of way for its luscious bulb2 and the two seem1 in many places1 to have almost extirpated the older vegetation4 ,both of these lusty children of the ,south are of quite modern origin in ,italy1 having come over from ,america4 ,some have fancied that the pineapple is represented in one ,pompeian fresco4 8,but this10 says our ,professor1 8is undoubtedly the edible crown of a young dwarf palm1 or chamrops humilis40 ,a still more important want of classical ages was that of the whole tribe of ,agrumi1 as the ,italians call them--the orange1 lemon1 citron1 and so forth4 8,italy was not then10 says our ,professor1 8the land ,wo die ,citronen blhn1 ,im dunkeln ,laub die gold-orangen glhn20 and was consequently without one of the favourite features with which sthetic ,northerns adorn their notions of ,italy4 ,they are of course absent from the frescoes4 ,they were known to ,pliny as foreign plants only4 ,the 8,median ,apple0 7citron7 was cultivated in ,italy no earlier than the third century after ,christ2 lemons came from the ,saracens2 oranges1 last of all1 were brought by the ,portuguese from the ,east4 ,the white1 or silk-worm mulberry1 now the commonest of all trees in the richer parts of ,italy1 was also unknown to the ,pompeians4 ,its cultivation on the peninsula began1 according to ,schouw1 in the sixth century4 ,silken fabrics were scarce and expensive1 and imported by the ,romans from the ,east4 ,voltaire somewhere makes the great superiority of a femme de chambre of ,madame de ,pompadour over the ,empress ,livia consist in the unlimited enjoyment of silk stockings4 ,it may1 however1 be questioned whether the ,empress would have appreciated such a luxury1 or whether1 as the audacious ,french traveller1 ,monsieur ,nodier1 asserted respecting the ,glasgow ladies not many years ago1 she would not have got rid of such incumbrances whenever free from the restraints of company4 ,the picturesque ,carouba tree 7,ceratonia siliqua71 which now forms groves along many parts of the ,italian coast1 is also probably of modern introduction4 ,we may add another more important plant which the ,professor has omitted--the chestnut4 ,not1 of course1 that this magnificent native of ,thessaly was unknown to ,roman antiquity4 ,it was1 on the contrary1 extensively cultivated in ancient ,italy for its fruit4 ,naples was particularly famous for the excellence of its chestnuts-- 8,quas docta ,neapolis creavit1 ,lento castaneas vapore tostas0-- such as ,martial appetisingly describes1 and such as that flneur of a poet had doubtless often purchased1 scalding hot1 from the tripod of some hag-granddaughter of ,canidia or ,sagana1 in the alleys of the learned city4 ,but it was probably as yet a fruit-tree only4 ,introduced but two centuries before ,christ1#f it had not had time to form forests2 to become1 as it now is1 the characteristic tree of the lower ,apennines1 supplanting its ancient but thriftless relative the beech1 and driving the latter back to the narrow domain which it still occupies on the top of ,monte ,sant' ,angelo4 ,the gnarled and twisted chestnut trunks1 with their pointed foliage1 under which ,salvator ,rosa studied his art when sojourning among the brigands at the back of ,amalfi1 have no counterpart in the drawings of ,pompeii any more than in the poetry of ,virgil4 ,of cultivated crops1 wheat and barley are represented in the ,pompeian frescoes1 and grains of them have been discovered in the houses4 ,in one pretty sketch a quail is picking at an ear of barley2 in another at a kind of millet4 ,other less known cereals seem to have been familiar to the ancients4 ,but two of the most important1 both in an economic and picturesque point of view1 are missing from these sketches1--maize and rice4 ,both are of modern introduction4 ,the 8polenta0 of the classical peasant was of barley4 ,cotton1 it need scarcely be added1 is of very modern introduction2 it now covers extensive fields at the southern foot of ,vesuvius4 ,after this long list of acquisitions1 we must turn to some few instances of vegetable forms familiar to the ancient eye1 and which the modern misses4 ,the absolute extinction of a species is indeed a rare thing4 ,decandolle1 in his #8,geographie ,botanique1' likens the changes in vegetation to those which take place in a language3 the appearance of a new word1 or a new species1 attracts observation at once2 the disappearance of an old one is very gradual1 and seldom total4 ,we have already spoken of the comparative scarcity at present of deciduous trees1 and of one--the sculus--which modern botanists have been unable to define4 ,but one or two ornamental foreigners1 introduced in old times1 have also disappeared1 or nearly so4 ,the most remarkable of these is the oriental ,plane4 ,every ,latin scholar is well aware of the modish passion for these trees which prevailed among the wealthy ,romans1 a preference not wholly sthetic2 it was partly a fashion1 borrowed like other fashions from the despotic ,east1 in days when republican millionaires at ,rome1 like those of ,washington1 had begun to discover that everything really meritorious came from lands possessing a 8strong government40 ,the ,platanus had been from hoary antiquity the object of veneration of ,persian monarchs and ,grecian heroes4 ,no tree had anything like the same amount of historic and fabulous tradition attached to it4 ,marsyas was hanged on one1 when duly skinned1 by ,apollo3 ,agamemnon and ,menelaus planted a couple1 each of which1 a monstrous relic1 was shown to ,pausanias in his travels4 ,xerxes had caused his whole host to halt before a noble specimen in ,lycia4 8,he was so enamoured of it10 says old ,evelyn1 8that for some days neither the concernment of his expedition1 nor interest of honour1 nor the necessary motion of his portentous army1 could persuade him from it4 ,he styled it his mistress1 his minion1 his goddess3 and when he was forced to part from it1 he caused a picture of it to be stamped on a model of gold1 which he continually wore about him40 ,as it is now the glory of ,ispahan and ,shiraz1 so it was of the ,greek cities of yore4 ,the groves of the ,academe and ,lyceum were composed of it4 8,by the ,plane ,tree0 was the favourite oath of ,socrates3 the more shame to him1 said his accuser ,melitus1 that he should blaspheme so fine a tree4 ,the famous ,plane of ,buyukdr on the ,bosphorus is popularly said to serve even now as a tent for the ,seraskier when he encamps there4 ,the ,romans took to it1 as we have said1 with that extravagant enthusiasm which characterised their follies2 8the only tree10 says ,pliny1 in his sententious stoical way1 8which ever was transplanted for the sake of its shade alone40 ,julius ,csar himself planted the first specimen in ,spain1 at ,corduba2 it was a noble tree in ,martial's time1 and flourished1 as he says1 by being irrigated with wine4 8,crevit et affuso ltior umbra mero40 ,it became so common in the ,roman pleasances1 that groves of planes1 as well as laurels1 are spoken of by the same poet as the ornaments of every citizen's place of ordinary pretensions4 8,daphnones1 platanones1 et ari cyparissi40 ,undoubtedly1 in fashionable ,campania1 it must have been so common as to form a familiar feature in the landscape4 ,but it perished with the remainder of that luxurious civilisation4 ,in a convent garden at ,naples--so a traveller tells us--there remains one enormous specimen1 of an antiquity which can only be conjectured3 the grandchild1 it may be1 of some forlorn ornament of a ruined villa1 which had seen the ,goths march into ,italy4 ,we have heard of no others of the genuine race4 ,of late years1 indeed1 the plane has begun to resume its popularity as an ornamental tree1 and for the same reasons--its delightful shade1 namely1 and its adaptation to the atmosphere of great cities2 being able to throw off the noxious residuum of coal smoke by the peeling of its bark4 ,planes are now the common trees of the market place in ,southern ,europe1 as they are in our ,london squares4 ,but1 unhappily1 the variety almost always seen is of new importation1 not of the old stock2 not the princely oriental1 but its plebeian cousin the occidental1 or button-wood of the ,united ,states2 faster in growth1 taller1--stronger perhaps--but incomparably uglier3 a melancholy instance of the encroachments of modern democracy4 ,to the ,oriental plane we must add the date-palm3 not indeed as strange now to the ,italian eye1 nor as very abundant in classical times2 but as certainly more abundant then than now2 an exception to the general law which we have indicated of the increasing prevalence of ,southern forms of vegetation4 ,the date-palm in ,italy is1 after all1 but an occasional exotic4 ,mayer1 the painstaking ,german author of a book on #8,naples and the ,neapolitans1' says there are scarcely a dozen or two of them in the gardens of that city and its suburbs4 ,there are eight or ten only in ,rome1 says ,m4 ,ampre4 ,it does not ripen its fruit4 ,it dwells uncomfortably1 in the uncongenial neighbourhood of the pine2 for in ,america and other unsophisticated regions1 the natural limit of the palm ends where that of the pine begins4 ,picturesque as its solitary form often is1 in the villa garden1 or behind the convent wall1 we cannot look at it without thinking of some poor captive ,saracen maiden1 shivering at the door of a ,northern crusading baron4 ,even on the coast of the ,riviera1 where it appears to thrive the most1 it affords a melancholy sight when writhing under the icy ,mistral1 which ever and anon turns the flank of the precarious barrier of the ,maritime ,alps1 and whirls its blasts of snow-dust against the broad leaves4 ,it appears in many of the ,pompeian frescoes4 ,schouw suggests that this does not prove it a native1 as the scenes represented may be foreign or symbolical4 ,but the caution is unnecessary4 ,the date-palm was certainly common of yore in maritime ,italy1 though no doubt in single specimens4#g 8,vulgo in ,itali1 sed steriles10 says ,pliny3 who accurately distinguishes it from the dwarf-palm or chamrops1 then1 as now1 more characteristic of ,sicily4 ,we have already noticed the use for which ,virgil recommends it in the #8,georgics4' ,varro1 #8,de ,re ,rustic1' is still more to the point1 when he classes the fibres of the palm along with flax1 hemp1 and reeds1 among materials grown on the farm1 which may be turned to account for making cordage4 8,thus we perceive10 concludes our naturalist1 8that the vegetable world1 and in particular the list of cultivated vegetables1 has undergone many changes since the age when ,pompeii flourished2 and that1 while the ancient ,pompeians enjoyed a great superiority over the moderns in respect of many enjoyments of life1 particularly those arising from the arts1 they lacked nevertheless some very valuable plants which increased geographical knowledge and extended commerce have procured for their descendants40 ,but however this may be1 no one can well contemplate in earnest these relics of a most curious and refined civilisation--in some respects perhaps the most curious and refined which the world has ever seen--and return with satisfaction to the coarse generalisation of the disciples of universal progress in the affairs of humanity1 with whose speculations we have been lately surfeited4 ,the feelings which such inquiries excite are assuredly more akin to those with which they inspired the proud and melancholy ,leopardi1 when he turned from them and from the wealth of conception and nobleness of sentiment with which the ancient world abounded1 to that long degradation of subsequent ages1 out of which humanity is in truth only now emerging4 ,very grand1 though profoundly sorrowful1 are those lines of his1 entitled #8,bruto minore1' in which he portrays the expiring patriot1 not as bewailing his present catastrophe1 nor calling on the gods for present revenge1 but as brooding1 in utter hopelessness of spirit1 over 8the dark forward and abysm of time0--the ,erebus-like blackness of that prospect of coming degeneracy and decay3 the trance of ages1 into which the human soul was about to fall4 8,in peggio ,precipitano i tempi3 e mal s'affida ,ai putridi nipoti ,l'onor d'egregie menti1 e la suprema ,de' miseri vendetta40 ,for the duration of that era of decline was indeed such as we are sufficiently accustomed to measure backwards1 in historical reflection2 but such as1 when contemplated as a future1 the conception shrinks from with a painful sense of incapacity4 ,thirteen centuries were to elapse ere the first ,italian could stretch his hand across the chasm to the last ,roman4 ,as the paradise of cultivation1 in which those ,campanian cities nestled1 was separated from the fertile aspect of the same region in modern times by a formidable blank of centuries of duration1 so was the ancient civilisation from the modern by a similar space of intellectual desert2 and in each instance alike1 the succeeding age can scarcely appreciate its predecessor as a reality4 8,credetne virm ventura propago1 ,cum segetes iterum1 cum jam hc deserta virebunt1 ,infra urbes populosque premi40 ,and yet there are those who persist in cramming us with that dry formula of ,positivism1 that each generation enjoys the 8accumulated knowledge0 of preceding ones6 ,ask those countless millions of ,chinese who vegetate1 generation after generation1 in the vast interior of their empire apart from all foreign influence1 how much of 8accumulated knowledge0 their community has gathered since the days of ,confucius2 ask the black nations of the interior of ,africa what amount of 8progress0 distinguishes them from their ancestors known to ,herodotus or to ,leo ,africanus2 ask the wretched remnants of tribes which wander over the ,american wilderness1 whether their progenitors1 the sons of those who came thither over the ocean1 were fewer and feebler and more ignorant than they8 ,for those who seek truth and not phrases1 8progress10 as the term is used in social science1 is an attribute not of mankind1 but of the ,european family alone2 and of that family only since the discovery of printing4 ,what that incomparably greatest of all merely human events may have done towards fixing the elements of social improvement1 and converting into a permanent advance that which was before only a precarious1 oscillatory movement1 we need not now consider4 ,it may be that the so-called triumphal march of humanity is now secured from repulse1 and that1 as some of our latest speculators seem to hold1 the powers of nature which we employ will begin of themselves to decay before our capability of employing them abates4 ,but all this1 if so1 does not annul the melancholy record of previous periods of loss and retreat4 ,it is extremely difficult1 no doubt1 for us to realise those periods4 ,in our healthy exuberance of life we can hardly conceive a state of chronic political ebb or decline--a state1 that is1 in which each generation1 instead of profiting by the 8accumulated knowledge0 of its predecessors1 lets something of the results of that knowledge drop from its enfeebled grasp2 is reduced in numbers1 less provided with the external comforts of life1 weaker against aggression1 poorer in substance1 feebler in spirit1 inferior in mental acquirements2 nevertheless1 such periods have been beyond all doubt4 ,the history of the ,byzantine empire furnishes one well known to all3 and many such have rolled drearily away in the dimmer ages of early time1 since the subjects of ,nimrod were dispersed on the plain of ,shinar4 ,but let us take the most familiar1 and at the same time the truest1 instance of what we mean1 and which happens also to be most germane to the matter in hand4 ,could a modern really do what many a visitor to ,pompeii has striven to do in intense eagerness of fancy2 could he restore those truncated columns and repeople those desolate streets1 and actually converse with some cultivated contemporary of ,pliny and ,juvenal1 or ,cicero and ,horace2 one can fancy that the feeling on both sides1 after the first strangeness of the meeting had been got over1 would be one of surprise1 that two specimens of humanity of such distant origin could have so much in common4 ,in moral and social philosophy2 in political speculation2 in appreciation of eloquence1 literature1 art1 they would really find themselves--some exceptions apart which would give zest to the conversation--almost on the same ground4 ,in respect of matters of still more intimate interest--the inner clothing1 as it were1 of civilised existence--in their estimate of physical and mental pursuits1 tendencies1 weaknesses1 pleasures1 and pains1 and their relation to each other--each would feel that he understood his companion2 each would be conscious1 as it were1 of possessing a key to many of the other's inmost feelings4 ,this would be partly owing1 no doubt1 to the circumstance that the ancients have been our tutors1 and that much of our mental furniture is derived directly from them4 ,but also1 in great measure1 to mere similarity of circumstances1 which engenders similarity of ideas4 ,civilisations so nearly resembling each other1 even in many points of minuteness1 as those of modern ,europe and of the ,rome of ,cicero or the ,athens of ,demosthenes1 must1 from the necessity of the case1 have strongly corresponding spiritual and mental emotions1 and corresponding language wherein to express them4 ,now let us alter the picture3 let the man of the nineteenth century wake up under the shadow of ,winchester or ,canterbury ,cathedral1 such as the ,saxons had reared them1 and1 to give him the best company of the day1 let him consort with a baron or an abbot of the time of the ,norman conquest4 ,except the subject of religion1 of which we would not now speak1 what single topic could they have in common8 ,would they not be separated from each other by a barrier as high and strong as any which divides contemporary civilised from savage man8 ,what object 7except possibly horses and dogs71 could they appreciate together8 ,what points of morals or science or politics1 small talk1 sentiment1 or humour1 would suit them both8 ,how could they argue on premises which one would assume as certain and the other would treat with contempt8 ,the medieval wight would certainly rate the modern at a very different value from his own estimate of himself2 and if the modern escaped with a whole skin from the interview1 which is greatly to be doubted of1 he would find his romantic respect for the baron1 or veneration for the ecclesiastic1 very little increased4 ,they would be denizens of alien spheres1 and would converse in utterly dissonant tongues4 ,and yet the ,norman was our countryman2 was nearer to us by many an age than the ,roman2 and possessed the 8accumulated knowledge0 7had such a thing really existed before the invention of printing71 of many an intervening generation4 ,but these were in truth generations of decline1 not of advance2 a decline often hardly sensible1 or arrested for a time1 but on the whole prodigious4 ,and if the enthusiastic disciple of progress chooses to count these ebbs as insignificant exceptions to his general theory of flow1 let us remember that a space of a thousand years1 however unimportant to a geologist1 is a considerable fraction of the historical existence of man4 ,and this1 as many have said1 though not many truly feel it1 is one of the most real advantages of classical study1 and one of the charms which make us turn back to it with recurring affection1 after resultless wanderings in company with the 8,positivists40 ,he who has imbibed its lessons deeply can hardly find his judgment much affected by those metaphors turned into arguments which pass commonly current1 likening the youth1 manhood1 and old age of the world to those of an individual2 nor will he readily adopt the formulas of a recent clever writer of the ,positive school1 that 8we may expect to find1 in the history of man1 each successive age incorporating into itself the substance of the preceding10 and that 8this power1 whereby the present ever gathers into itself the results of the past1 transforms the human race into a colossal man1 whose life reaches from the creation to the day of judgment40 ,classical study made men pedants1 after a fashion1 two centuries ago2 at present its effect is to preserve them from an equally tasteless and less innocent pedantry4 ,by bringing clearly before our view that magnificent phantasma of great communities entombed1 and great conceptions buried with them1 it weakens the ordinary temptation to overvalue ourselves and our age4 ,it displays to us the vast ocean of moral and intellectual being such as it really is1 subject to ons of rise and fall1 and not a steady onward current continually gaining ground2 and1 by so doing1 administers a reasonable check to that 8,excelsior0 tendency which elevates but often misleads us--an indiscriminating confidence in the destiny and powers of our species4 ,,american ,,state ,,papers4#h ,it is not probable that many of our readers will meet with the volumes1 lately published in ,washington1 containing the correspondence of ,american diplomatists during the period of the civil war2 but1 after perusing some of the specimens we shall offer1 they will no doubt agree with us in thinking it a pity that these productions should not be generally known4 ,under any circumstances1 most people would find something comical in a set of elderly gentlemen1 engaged in important business1 exchanging by letter moral sentiments suited to a schoolboy's theme4 ,but when the compositions thus embellished are of the kind known to the world as ,state ,papers1 and when the writers1 who thus aim1 like the interlocutors in a religious novel1 at the instruction of the universe through the medium of dialogue1 are ,american politicians1 the effect produced is such as few professed humorists could hope to rival4 ,for most people are aware nowadays that the atmosphere through which those politicians must pass before they can attain to that eminence1 one condition of which is the writing of state papers1 is much more likely to develop in them the wisdom of the serpent than the guilelessness of the dove4 ,remembering the pushing and scrambling1 the elbowing of vile competitors1 the truckling and corruption1 the wire-pulling and log-rolling1 the acquaintance with all the small and dirty ramifications of tickets and platforms1 which success in politics demands in the ,states1 the very last vein of composition we should expect to find these gentlemen especially cultivating would be that in which the sage ,imlac addresses ,rasselas1 or in which the good godmother improves every occasion in a children's story4 ,a difficulty to believe in the existence of craft or guile or self-interest as motives of political conduct1 yielding at last to a surprised and mournful conviction of the sad truth1 and a touching and simple style of moralising over human delinquency1 are the characteristics1 on paper1 of the diplomatists who have particularly distinguished themselves in the pleasing and pastoral pursuits we have attempted to enumerate4 ,everybody who has read ,american speeches must have noticed in them a tendency to flowery sentiment and to ancient and fish-like metaphors1 such as the audiences of the ,old ,world would reject4 ,why the not very immaculate or poetical classes who constitute a ,new ,york mob should especially relish this style of oratory1 we cannot explain2 but it is the fact that it seems to succeed in ,america whether the audience be a constituency1 or a house of assembly1 or the population of a ,boston lecture-room1 or the entertainers of an ,american celebrity1 or a jury in a criminal case--and all the scribes of their newspapers indulge in the same vein4 ,that it does succeed may appear to be a sufficiently good reason why the parliamentary and stump orators of ,america should habitually launch at their audiences such sentences as are1 on this side of the water1 never addressed to any but the galleries at a ,surrey melodrama4 ,but directly the speakers are placed in relation to foreign ,governments1 they think it necessary to engraft on the florid ,rosa-,matilda style which deals with 8star-spangled banners10 8great1 glorious1 and free people10 and 8the best ,government the world ever saw10 the virtuous didactic style we have attempted to describe1 and which we suppose they imagine to be particularly likely to influence the counsels of such guileless and simple-minded statesmen as ,gortchakoff1 ,rechberg1 ,russell1 ,palmerston1 and the ,emperor ,napoleon4 ,the principal agent in the pious attempt to inoculate mankind1 through their ,governments1 with virtuous principles1 is ,mr ,william ,henry ,seward4 ,the circumstances under which the benevolent sage perseveres in his philanthropic efforts are not such as are favourable to placid meditation or composition4 ,his lucubrations must have been disturbed not unfrequently by the booming of ,confederate cannon4 ,the sudden irruption on his privacy of a distracted ,finance ,minister1 a desperate ,war ,secretary1 or a bewildered ,president1 must have been extremely unfavourable to the prosecution of the task4 ,yet that he struggled successfully with those hostile influences is proved by the enormous volume of his essays1 which must1 we estimate1 be equal in bulk1 for one year1 to about four volumes of the original edition of #8,the ,rambler'--under which title1 indeed1 they might not inappropriately have been published4 ,seated at his desk1 with the copybooks of his boyhood at hand for quotation1 in a glow of philanthropy that cannot fail to warm what he would himself call the 8moral atmosphere0 of barbaric ,europe1 he can shut his eyes to passing events1 and find sermons in civil wars1 and good in everything4 ,immediately on his accession to office1 he begins a circular to all the ,ministers at foreign courts in the following style3 8,sir1--,the advocates of benevolence1 and the believers in human progress1 encouraged by the slow though marked meliorations of the barbarities of war which have obtained in modern times1 have been1 as you are well aware1 recently engaged10 c4 ,since that was written1 the advocates of benevolence and the believers in human progress have been further encouraged by the 8meliorations0 of stone fleets1 of corps of licensed plunderers1 of the submersion of great tracts of cultivated land1 of the devastation of half a ,state1 of the incitement to servile insurrection1 and of the rule of ,benjamin ,f4 ,butler at ,new ,orleans--illustrations of his remark1 which the eminent essayist probably did not at that time expect4 ,in the early part of his correspondence1 ,mr ,seward's opinions of the policy to be pursued towards the ,south are much more indulgent than at a later period4 8,the ,union10 he says1 on ,march #bb1 #ahfa1 8was formed upon popular consent1 and must always practically stand on the same basis40 ,he says1 on ,april #aj1 that ,secession is 8a bad enterprise10 and that the ,secessionists are 8a misguided portion of our fellow-citizens40 ,but he goes on to say that the ,president 8would not be disposed to reject a cardinal dogma of theirs 7the citizens of the ,southern ,states71 namely1 that the ,federal ,government could not reduce the seceding ,states to obedience by conquest1 even although he were disposed to question that proposition4 ,but1 in fact1 the ,president willingly accepts it as true4 ,only an imperial or despotic government could subjugate thoroughly disaffected and insurrectionary members of the ,state4 ,this ,federal republican system of ours is1 of all forms of government1 the very one which is most unfitted for such a labour40 ,and he goes on to suggest the following paternal method of bringing back the prodigal ,south1 and providing a fatted calf for it3-- 8,the system has within itself adequate peaceful1 conservative1 and recuperative forces4 ,firmness on the part of the ,government in maintaining and preserving the public institutions and property1 and in executing the laws where authority can be exercised without waging war1 combined with such measures of justice1 moderation1 and forbearance as will disarm reasoning opposition1 will be sufficient to secure the public safety until returning reflection1 concurring with the fearful experience of social evils1 the inevitable fruits of faction1 shall bring the recusant members cheerfully back into the family1 which1 after all1 must prove their best and happiest1 as it undeniably is their most natural1 home4 ,the constitution of the ,united ,states provides for that return by authorising ,congress1 on application to be made by a certain majority of the ,states1 to assemble a national convention1 in which the organic law can1 if it be needful1 be revised so as to remove all real obstacles to a reunion1 so suitable to the habits of the people1 and so eminently conducive to the common safety and welfare40 ,these be brave words and high sentiments2 but their value as an expression of conciliatory policy is a little diminished by the fact that1 as the seceding ,states were then seven out of thirty-four1 the concession spoken of1 being dependent on the 8application to be made by a certain majority of the ,states0 7two-thirds71 was an impossibility4 ,and in fact one of the best arguments in favour of ,secession is1 that the constitution provides no means whereby a minority1 or indeed anything but a large majority1 of ,states can obtain a remedy for their grievances1 should the interests of the remainder render them adverse4 ,on the #aith of ,june1 however1 a change has come over the spirit of the ,secretary's dream1 leading him to retract even this visionary compromise4 8,what is now seen in this country10 he tells ,mr ,adams1 8is the occurrence1 by no means peculiar1 but frequent in all countries1 more frequent even in ,great ,britain than here1 of an armed insurrection engaged in attempting to overthrow the regularly constituted and established ,government4 ,there is1 of course1 the employment of force by the ,government to suppress the insurrection1 as every other ,government necessarily employs force in such cases4 ,but these incidents by no means constitute a state of war impairing the sovereignty of the ,government1 creating belligerent sections1 and entitling foreign ,states to intervene or to act as neutrals between them1 or in any other way to cast off their lawful obligations to the nation thus for the moment disturbed4 ,any other principle than this would be to resolve government everywhere into a thing of accident and caprice1 and ultimately all human society into a state of perpetual war40 ,here the facts of the ,union1 founded on consent1 and of the ,president's acceptance of the dogma1 together with the unfitness of the ,federal system for the task of subjugation--a task proper to imperial or despotic governments--are suddenly lost sight of along with the benevolent scheme for calling on the misguided citizens to abandon their 8bad enterprise10 and return within the fold of the ,union2 and this great1 glorious1 and free ,government is driven to confess that its only alternative is the rude and barbarous one hitherto repudiated1 of force1 such as the most abject monarchy might adopt4 ,to such complexion must even the most beneficent institutions come under the pressure of necessity4 ,and this change of ,mr ,seward's tone is contemporaneous with his observation of the sudden appearance of inflexible and enthusiastic resolve on the part of the people of the ,north to put down the ,secession by military power4 ,at this time two objects are diligently prosecuted by the high-minded ,seward1 always on the highest grounds4 ,the one is the task of convincing the ,british ,government that it has fallen into a grave error in acknowledging the ,south as a belligerent1 and warning it against receiving the 8missionaries of the insurgents10 as he terms the commissioners of the ,southern ,confederacy4 8,the cause of the ,north10 he says1 8involves the independence of nations and the right of human nature40 8,we feel free to assume that it is the general conviction of men1 not only here1 but in all other countries1 that this ,federal ,union affords a better system than any other that could be contrived to assure the safety1 the peace1 the prosperity1 the welfare1 and the happiness of all the ,states of which it is composed40 8,it is a war10 he says elsewhere1 8against human nature20 and again1 8,the wit of man fails to suggest1 not merely a better political system1 having the same objects as the present ,union1 but even any possible substitute for it40 ,and on the #bast ,july1 8,i cannot leave the subject without endeavouring once more1 as ,i have so often done before1 to induce the ,british ,government to realise the conviction which ,i have more than once expressed in this correspondence1 that the policy of the ,government is one that is based on interests of the greatest importance and sentiments of the highest virtue1 and therefore is in no case likely to be changed1 whatever may be the varying fortunes of the war at home1 or the action of foreign nations on this subject1 while the policy of foreign ,states rests on ephemeral interests of commerce or ambition40 8,sure we are that the transaction now going on in our country involves the progress of civilisation and humanity1 and equally sure that our attitude in it is right1 and no less sure that our press and our statesmen are equal in ability and influence to any in ,europe40 ,manifestly1 to countenance any power hostile to so beneficent a system would be almost as bad as to acknowledge ,satan and the rebel angels as belligerents4 ,but lest 8the cupidity and caprice of ,great ,britain10 to which1 he says1 the disunionists will appeal1 should render her blind to such high considerations1 he takes a lower ground with her1 and delivers1 ,may #ba1 #ahfa1 the following ominous and prophetic warning3-- 8,great ,britain has but to wait a few months1 and all her present inconveniences will cease with our own troubles4 ,if she take a different course1 she will calculate for herself the ultimate as well as the immediate consequences1 and will consider what position she will hold when she shall have for ever lost the sympathies and affections of the only nation on whose sympathies and affections she has a natural claim40 ,it is a sad picture thus presented to us of the ,british ,pythias abandoned by the ,american ,damon1 and left alone and friendless in the world4 ,yet with that direful consequence we are threatened unless we accept the idea of neutrality entertained in common by ,mr ,seward and ,mr ,bright1 who regard it not as a 8cold and unfriendly10 but as a highly enthusiastic1 condition4 ,but1 as we said1 this was not the only point to which the high-minded ,secretary at this period directed his efforts4 ,at the ,congress of ,paris in #ahef the maritime ,powers of ,europe had come to an agreement in order to mitigate the severities of war1 by which1 among other stipulations1 privateering was abolished so far as the parties to the compact were concerned4 ,in this agreement ,america had refused to join1 unless an article1 specially favourable to herself1 should be introduced4 ,but the flame of philanthropy which glowed so ardently in ,mr ,seward's breast1 now lit up the question which had been buried in obscurity since #aheg1 and he proposed1 of course from the most elevated motives1 that ,america should now join the convention4 ,as provision had originally been made for the admission of parties wishing subsequently to accede to it1 no difficulty appeared1 and everything seemed to work smoothly--,ministers arranging and conceding1 conventions made ready for signature1 and all going merry as a marriage-bell4 ,but it had occurred to the suspicious mind of ,lord ,russell1 whose political morals had been debauched by long diplomatic intercourse with the barbaric ,cabinets of ,europe1 and who was incredulous of public virtue even in the immaculate statesmen of ,america1 that a great advantage would accrue to the ,northern ,government by joining in the ,declaration at this juncture1 because the abolition of privateering would exclude the ,south from all the ports of ,europe1 which would of course still be open to the regular navy of the ,north4 ,not that the proposals of ,mr ,seward were likely to inspire the suspicion2 for1 taking the lofty grounds of benefit to the human race1 his papers on the subject contained but two slight incidental allusions to the minor point4 ,the ,provisional ,government of the ,confederates had1 he said1 8taken the bad resolution to invite privateers to prey upon the peaceful commerce of the ,united ,states40 ,and on the #bast ,may he says to ,mr ,adams1 8,you already have our authority to propose to her our accession to that ,declaration4 ,if she refuse it1 it can only be because she is willing to become the patron of privateering when aimed at our devastation40 ,these are the only hints on the subject given to the ,american ,ministers4 ,towards foreign ,governments the elevated tone of public virtue was never for a moment jarred by the discordant note of immediate advantage4 ,but the crafty ,russell1 led by the low cunning of the ,european diplomatic mind1 had1 while appearing to accede with perfect frankness to the ,american proposal1 made this seemingly casual remark1 8,i need scarcely add that1 on the part of ,great ,britain1 the engagement will be prospective1 and will not invalidate anything already done0--meaning1 of course1 ,we shall be happy to receive your adhesion to the compact1 but the prohibition of privateering must not apply to the ,confederates1 whom we have already acknowledged as belligerents4 ,the manner in which the virtuous statesmen of the ,republic viewed this passage or 8implied reservation0 was highly characteristic4 ,incapable of guile themselves1 they could not suspect that they could be the objects of suspicion4 ,it was impossible to say what might be hidden behind the mysterious words4 ,mr ,seward professed himself totally in the dark1 and demanded explanation4 ,whereupon ,lord ,john declares 8that her ,majesty does not intend thereby to undertake any engagement which shall have any bearing1 direct or indirect1 on the internal differences now prevailing in the ,united ,states40 ,if the high-minded ,secretary was startled by the original passage1 he was deeply wounded by the explanation4 ,to suppose that the ,american ,government were aiming at any petty advantage over the ,confederates in the matter was a point beneath notice4 ,the ,minister appointed to conclude the convention says1 indeed-- 8,the natural effect of such an accompaniment would seem to be to imply that the ,government of the ,united ,states might be desirous at this time to take a part in the ,declaration1 not from any high purpose or durable policy1 but with the view of securing some small temporary object in the unhappy struggle which is going on at home4 ,such an inference would spoil all the value that might be attached to the act itself40 ,it might be supposed that the best way to restore the full value to the act would have been to reject the petty despised advantage by accepting the convention with the reservation4 ,but so deeply have the virtuous statesmen been wounded by the unworthy suspicion1 that they have no heart to proceed in the business4 ,they have done their best for humanity1 and failed4 ,the reservation was so unusual1 so informal1 and it so complicated the matter1 that the negotiation must be suspended1 said the ,american ,secretary--hoping1 however1 with habitual pathos1 that it might be resumed 8in some happier time40 ,britannia having thus1 by the refusal of the ,american ,government to proceed with the negotiation1 clearly constituted herself the patron of privateering1 and having also declined to accept ,mr ,seward's interpretation of neutrality1 must henceforth expect him to regard her as a ,puritan conscious of being in a state of grace would regard some wretched backslider still in the bonds of iniquity4 ,but in the midst of his homilies an event had occurred which had forced from him a very natural expression of alarm1 the effect of which in the state papers is very much as if ,mr ,spurgeon1 in the delivery of an eloquent sermon1 should howl with anguish on feeling a sharp twinge of the gout4 ,mr ,seward's howl being a short one1 we give it entire3-- 8,confidential4 ,,department ,,of ,,state1 ,,washington1 ,july #bf1 #ahfa4 8,,sir1--,my despatch1 ,no4 #db1 dated ,july #ba1 was delayed beyond the proper mail-day by circumstances entirely beyond my control4 ,i trust1 however1 that it will still be in time4 8,our army of the ,potomac on ,sunday last met a reverse equally severe and unexpected4 ,for a day or two the panic which had produced the result was followed by a panic that seemed to threaten to demoralise the country4 ,but that evil has ceased already4 ,the result is already seen in a vigorous reconstruction upon a scale of greater magnitude and increased enthusiasm4 8,it is not likely that anything will now be done here hastily or inconsiderately affecting our foreign relations4 8,i am1 sir1 respectfully1 your obedient servant1 ,,william ,h4 ,,seward4 ,,charles ,,francis ,,adams1 ,esq41 c4 c4 c40 ,an interval of three days sufficed1 however1 in a considerable degree1 to restore the elastic spirits of the buoyant ,secretary1 for on #bith ,july he says3-- 8,you will hear of a reverse of our arms in ,virginia4 ,the exaggerations of the result have been as great as the public impatience1 perhaps1 which brought it about4 ,but the affair will not produce any serious injury4 ,the strength of the insurrection is not broken1 but it is not formidable4 ,the vigour of the ,government will be increased1 and the ultimate result will be a triumph of the ,constitution4 ,do not be misled by panic reports of danger apprehended for the capital40 ,and on the #abth ,august ,seward's himself again1-- 8,the shock produced by the reverse of our arms at ,bull ,run has passed away4 ,the army is reorganised2 the elections show that reaction against disunion has begun in the revolutionary ,states1 and we may confidently look for a restoration of the national authority throughout the ,union4 ,if our foreign relations were once promptly reestablished on their former basis1 the disunion sentiment would languish and perish within a year40 ,in this way1 after each defeat1 or 8reverse of our arms10 he presently consoles himself by extracting a precious jewel1 in the shape of a moral1 from the front of adversity1 and transmitting it for the comfort of the ,american envoys4 ,we all remember the achievement which first made ,jackson famous1 of turning suddenly on ,banks at ,winchester and driving him headlong over the ,potomac1 previous to joining in the general movement against ,m#8,clellan on the ,chickahominy4 ,upon that event ,mr ,seward remarks to ,mr ,adams3-- 8,the defeat of ,general ,banks at ,winchester yesterday1 and his withdrawal across the ,potomac1 are just now the prominent incidents of the war4 ,a careful consideration of the affair results in the satisfactory conclusion that the movement of the enemy was one of merely energetic strategy40 ,what this can possibly mean1 or why it should be satisfactory to ,mr ,seward1 or what satisfaction it could convey to ,mr ,adams1 we are utterly at a loss to divine4 ,again1 on ,july #gth1 when ,m#8,clellan had been driven from the ,york to the ,james ,river1 he tells ,mr ,adams that-- 8,the efficiency of the army of the ,union is improved4444 ,if the representative parties had now to choose whether they would have the national army where it is and as it is1 or back again where it was and as it was1 it is not to be doubted that the insurgents would prefer to it the position and condition on the ,pamunkey1 and the friends of the ,union the one now attained on the banks of the ,james4444 ,the insurgents and the world abroad will see that the virtue of the people is adequate to the responsibilities which ,providence has cast upon them40 ,july #abth1 he states the cheering fact that a force is 8under the command of ,major-,general ,pope1 who has achieved great successes in the ,western ,states1 and is esteemed an officer of great ability40 ,july #bhth1 he says3 8,our assault upon ,richmond is for the moment suspended4 ,no great and striking movements or achievements are occurring1 and the ,government is rather preparing its energies for renewed operations than continuing to surprise the world with new and brilliant victories40 ,thus much in the way of particular information1 but the moral presently follows3-- 8,it is not upon isolated events1 much less upon transitory popular impulses1 that ,governments are expected to build their policies in regard to foreign countries4 ,what ,i think is important1 not less for foreign nations than for ourselves1 is always to hold our civil war under contemplation1 not merely as streams of unequal widths and intermitting currents1 but as one continuous river1 and so not to forget its source1 its direction1 and not only its immediate and local1 but also its ultimate and universal1 effects40 ,and before the reader can recover from this tremendous passage1 it is followed up by another3-- 8,it is only the reflecting observer who habitually considers the course of events occurring in any one country as being determined1 or at least materially influenced1 by natural causes lying wholly or in part outside of that country1 and which create a force commonly recognised under various names as the opinion of mankind1 or the spirit or the genius of the age or of the times40 ,after uttering this extraordinary sentence1 one might expect the oracle to become exhausted2 but not at all3 it continues to pour forth pages of reasoning equally close and clear on this same #bhth ,july4 ,and what do our readers think of this splendid passage1 written ,april #adth8-- 8,it is believed that this survey of the military position of the ,government may serve to satisfy ,great ,britain that those statesmen here and abroad who1 a year ago1 mistook a political syncope for national death and dissolution1 altogether misunderstood the resources1 the character1 and the energies of the ,american ,union4 ,the blood that at first retreated to the heart1 is now coursing healthily through all the veins and arteries of the whole system2 and what seemed at first to be a hopeless paralysis1 was in fact but the beginning of an organic change to more robust and vigorous health than the nation has ever before enjoyed40 ,and when ,m#8,clellan finally abandoned the peninsula with the wreck of his army1 it is announced to ,mr ,adams1 and to ,mr ,dayton1 the ,minister to ,france1 in this way3-- 8,general ,halleck1 upon taking command of the army1 made a careful survey of the entire military position1 and concluded thereupon to withdraw the army of the ,potomac from the peninsula1 and to combine all our forces in front of ,richmond4 ,it is believed to have been substantially accomplished without any casualty4 ,our new levies are coming in in great numbers and in fine spirits4 ,the gloom has passed away from the public mind4 ,although our arrangements for resuming offensive operations are yet incomplete1 we have much confidence in being able to do so speedily and with decisive effect4444 ,it is represented to us that the popular determination to maintain the ,union has at no time been as unanimous and as earnest as it is now40 ,and so on of all events1 whether promising success or ending in disaster2 the object being to persuade foreign ,governments what a mistake they made in countenancing such a failing business as ,secession4 ,and when the prospect is especially cheerful--when patriots under arms are counted by hundreds of thousands1 and when any successes call for a fresh enumeration of the triumphs of the ,republic--a judicious menace is insinuated in the despatch1 by hinting that as soon as the rebellion is crushed 7which it is always just going to be7 the shortcomings of those whose duty it was to assist the ,union in its 8hour of distress10 will not be forgotten by the victorious and thrice-potent ,northern people4 ,for instance1 on ,january #ca he says3-- 8,i have observed that the ,british people were satisfied with the vigour and the energy of the preparations which their ,government made for the war which they expected to occur between them and ourselves4 ,it may be profitable for us all to reflect that the military and naval preparations which have been made by this ,government to put down the insurrection have1 every day since the #ast of ,may last1 equalled1 if not surpassed1 the daily proportion of those war-preparations which were regarded as so demonstrative in ,great ,britain40 ,and again1 #b;d ,june #ahfb3-- 8,the ,president thinks it desirable that the ,government of ,great ,britain should consider1 before the war closes1 what are likely to be the sentiments of the two nations in regard to each other after that event shall have occurred40 ,we wonder whether it ever occurred to ,mr ,seward that if the imaginary injuries of one nation upon another are to be visited with such remote vindictiveness1 it may be probable that very real and deep sufferings may leave still more indelible rancour behind them2 and that there is a people at this moment not only undergoing treatment at the hands of the ,union which excites the horror of civilised nations1 but proving itself perfectly capable of executing future vengeance4 ,but in providing for the probability that ,great ,britain will be indifferent to the high moral ground which he indicates for giving her sympathies to the ,union1 ,mr ,seward does not trust entirely to threats4 ,a lower argument1 better suited to her defective moral sense1 consists in pointing out that it is the interest of ,european countries to see the war terminate as quickly as possible2 that it is also the interest of the ,union to terminate the war as quickly as possible3 ergo1 the way to attain the common object is to unite in procuring it4 ,but he omits to show why the same argument might not apply with equal force to an alliance with the ,south4 ,all this eloquence and logic has a double object--first1 to avert the recognition of the ,south1 followed by subsequent intervention2 and1 secondly1 and chiefly1 to induce the ,european ,powers to retrace the step they had taken of acknowledging the ,south as a belligerent4 ,the original protest against this step had been on the particular ground that the ,government had taken it more hastily than was needful1 and ought to have awaited the arrival of ,mr ,adams1 charged with the reasons which the ,federal ,government might urge in protesting against it4 ,as the measure was one of neutrality1 it was manifestly proper that it should be adopted without hearing the arguments of one side only4 ,however1 the ,north considered itself injured1 and expressed its sense of injury2 but until we read these papers we had thought that the precipitation of the measure was the chief ground on which it was complained of4 ,but so far from that being the case1 the measure itself constitutes1 down to the present time1 the chief point of dispute4 ,it is not going too far to say that1 had the ,federal ,government accepted the position of neutrality of foreign ,governments1 and conducted its relations with them on that basis1 the greater part of these despatches need never have been written4 ,nine-tenths of them are the result of looking at the same facts from two points of view--of looking at the war1 on the one side1 as a conflict between great sections1 each possessed of power sufficient to maintain itself against the other1 and to produce consequences highly important to neutrals2 on the other side1 as a domestic difficulty caused by a weak and failing faction1 and which should not be noticed by foreign ,powers any more than any other insignificant outbreak4 ,our ,government saw in it the division of the ,republic into portions1 strongly defined by a territorial line1 arming themselves for a conflict in which the balance of right was a subtle question open to opposite interpretations1 but in which1 it was evident1 the ,federal ,government could never be victorious consistently with its own principles4 ,the magnitude of the quarrel was such as powerfully to affect our own interests1 and to render the probability imminent that the ,queen's subjects would be involved in the struggle1 on the one side or the other1 in such a manner as to compromise themselves1 perhaps the ,government4 ,that the nature of the war was rightly estimated1 events have more than sufficiently proved2 that it was the first duty of the ,government to protect its own subjects will probably be admitted by most moralists4 ,but there is one moralist1 ,mr ,seward1 who thinks that the ,british ,government1 however bound to protect the interests of its own subjects1 as it might be1 he admits1 in an inferior degree1 is still more bound to consider the interests of the human race as involved in the maintenance of the ,federal ,union1--of the system1 be it remembered1 whose inevitable results have been to make a ,lincoln the chief magistrate1 and a ,seward the chief minister--a system which has for years been the most corrupt ever known1 and the inability of which to produce any kind of political merit is one of the wonders of the world4 ,mr ,seward's view1 which he insists that foreign ,governments should adopt1 is that they must not admit the existence of any war at all2 that ,bull's ,run and ,fredericksburg1 and all the disasters of ,m#8,clellan and ,pope1 are the work of a small insurrectionary faction2 that the inability of the ,federalists to recover authority in the ,south does not at all affect the integrity of the ,republic2 and that the millions of men whom he so complacently describes as determined to restore the ,union have been called to arms to quell a few 8misguided fellow-citizens0 who have taken the 8bad resolution0 of seceding from its authority4 ,but neither great defeats1 nor vast armaments1 nor huge debt1 nor impending dissolution1 can divert ,mr4 ,seward from his singular efforts to persuade foreign ,governments1 chiefly ours1 to adopt his extraordinary fiction as their rule of action4 ,if mere acquiescence in his view were all that he demanded1 it might be no great matter2 but he requires that we shall not merely admit the fictitious view1 but proceed to found thereon the extraordinary measures which we shall presently find indicated in his correspondence4 ,what the view itself is may be gathered from a few extracts4 #aith ,june #ahfa3-- 8,the ,united ,states are still solely and exclusively sovereign within the territories they have lawfully acquired and long possessed1 as they have always been4444 ,great ,britain1 by virtue of these relations1 is a stranger to parties and sections in this country1 whether they are loyal to the ,united ,states or not2 and ,great ,britain can neither rightfully qualify the sovereignty of the ,united ,states1 nor concede nor recognise any rights or interests or power of any party1 ,state1 or section1 in contravention to the unbroken sovereignty of the ,federal ,union40 #fth ,march #ahfb3-- 8,if ,great ,britain should revoke her decree conceding belligerent rights to the insurgents to-day1 this civil strife1 which is the cause of all the derangement of those relations1 and the only cause of all apprehended dangers of that kind1 would end to-morrow4 ,the ,united ,states have continually insisted that the disturbers of their peace are mere insurgents1 not lawful belligerents4 ,this ,government neither can nor is likely to have occasion to change this position2 but her ,majesty can1 and it would seem that she must1 sooner or later desire to relinquish her position4 ,it was a position taken in haste1 and in anticipation of the probable success of the revolution4 ,the failure of that revolution is sufficiently apparent4 ,why should not the position be relinquished1 and the peace of our country thus be allowed to be restored80 #ajth ,march #ahfb3-- 8,let the ,governments of ,great ,britain and ,france rescind the decrees which concede belligerent rights to a dwindling faction in this country1 and all their troubles will come to a speedy end40 #aeth ,march #ahfb3-- 444 8,we are brought to lament anew the precipitancy with which foreign ,powers so unnecessarily conceded to the insurrection belligerent rights4 ,the ,president trusts that you are sparing no efforts to convince ,earl ,russell that the time has come when that concession can be revoked with safety to ,great ,britain and advantage to the great material interests of that country40 ,to which ,mr ,adams responds1 #bgth ,march3-- 8,i am bound to notice in several of your late despatches a strong disposition to press upon the ,british ,government an argument for a retraction of its original error in granting to the rebels the rights of a belligerent4 ,there may come a moment when such a proceeding might seem to me likely to be of use4 ,but ,i must frankly confess that ,i do not see it yet40 ,we will now show by a few other extracts what consequences ,mr ,seward expected to follow the adoption of his view4 #fth ,march #ahfb--,mr ,seward to ,mr ,adams3-- 8,is it not worth your pains to suggest to him the inquiry whether it would not be wiser and better to remove the necessity for our blockade than to keep the two nations1 and even the whole world1 in debate about the rightfulness or the expediency of attempting to break it1 with all the consequences of so hostile a measure80 #b;d ,april3-- 8,it is a matter of deep regret to us that our troubles at home render it hazardous to withdraw a part of our great land and naval forces from operating here1 and send them to ,china to co-operate with the forces of the ,allies there4 ,as you are well aware1 the continuance of the insurrection in the ,united ,states is due to the attitudes of ,great ,britain and ,france towards our country4 ,it would seem to be desirable for those two ,states to have our co-operation in ,china in preserving a commerce of vast importance to them as well as to ourselves4 ,that co-operation we could give if we were relieved from the necessity for maintaining a blockade and siege of our southern ports40 ,whether ,mr ,seward desired that ,great ,britain should herself undertake the blockade of the ,southern ports1 or should pass a law1 and persuade other ,states to pass similar laws1 prohibiting all commercial intercourse with the ,south1 and should enforce the prohibition1 does not appear4 ,but that he desired one of these measures to be adopted is clear1 and the one would not be more extraordinary than the other4 ,another operation of the adoption of ,mr ,seward's fiction is seen in the case of the ,british ,consul at ,charleston4 ,the ,british and ,french ,governments agreed that it was expedient to communicate to the persons exercising authority in the ,confederate ,states the desire of those ,governments that certain articles of the ,declaration of ,paris should be observed by them in the prosecution of hostilities4 ,mr ,seward remarks thereupon-- 8,it is enough to say that in our view the proper agents of the ,british ,government to make known its interest here1 are the diplomatic1 not the consular agents of her ,majesty2 and that the only authority in this country to which any diplomatic communication whatever can be made is the ,government of the ,united ,states itself40 ,the articles to which ,france and ,england desired to call attention were those which relate to the capture of the property of neutrals at sea4 ,it was very necessary to the protection of our commerce that they should be made known1 and to do so was not in any way contrary to any of the pretensions of the ,federal ,government4 ,yet because the ,powers had chosen the ,english ,consul as their medium1 instead of the ,federal authorities1 who did not acknowledge or maintain communications with the ,southern ,government1 the ,consul's exequatur was withdrawn4 ,the case of the ,trent is too well known1 and that of the ,alabama is too recent1 to need recapitulation here4 ,it is only necessary to remind the reader that in the late debate in ,parliament it was shown that ,mr ,seward's demands could only be complied with by passing a special law1 having for its exclusive object to aid the ,federal ,government by stopping vessels1 not on evidence1 but on suspicion1 that they were intended to become ,confederate ships of war4 ,in the case of the ,emily ,st ,pierre he expressly tells us his views4 ,that vessel had been captured in attempting to run the blockade1 and had then been recaptured from the prize-crew and brought into ,liverpool4 ,whereupon the ,federal authorities demanded that she should be restored to them by the ,british ,government4 ,lord ,russell replied that 8neutral nations are not bound to punish their subjects for offences committed only against the laws of war as enforced by belligerents1 nor to restore property rescued by their subjects from foreign captors40 ,when our ,government communicated its decision declining to restore her1 ,mr ,seward remarked-- 8,i think it proper to observe at present that the reasons seem to be limited to a want of power vested in the ,government to restore1 and do not bear at all on the justice or legality of the demand4 ,under such circumstances this ,government has in more than one instance admitted the claim1 and appealed to legislative authority for the power to satisfy it1 and it has been promptly conferred and exercised40 ,the ,american ,minister was directed to press these demands for an alteration of the law4 ,in reply1 ,lord ,john ,russell1 after adverting to the injury sustained by ,england in the blockade1 says3-- 8,yet ,her ,majesty's ,government have never sought to take advantage of the obvious imperfections of this blockade1 in order to declare it ineffective4 ,they have1 to the loss and detriment of the ,british nation1 scrupulously observed the duties of ,great ,britain towards a friendly ,state4 ,but when ,her ,majesty's ,government are asked to go beyond this1 and to overstep the existing powers given them by municipal and international law1 for the purpose of imposing arbitrary restrictions on the trade of ,her ,majesty's subjects1 it is impossible to listen to such suggestions4444 ,if1 therefore1 the ,united ,states consider it for their interest to inflict this great injury on other nations1 the utmost they can expect is that ,european ,powers shall respect those acts of the ,united ,states which are within the limits of the law4 ,the ,united ,states ,government cannot expect that ,great ,britain should frame new statutes to aid the ,federal blockade1 and to carry into effect the restrictions on commerce which the ,united ,states for their own purposes have thought fit to institute1 and the application of which it is their duty to confine within the legitimate limits of international law40 ,mr ,seward's demand1 that we should adopt his interpretation of the character of the war1 would entail the consequences that we should ourselves enforce the ,federal blockade2 that we should refuse all ,southern vessels admission to our ports1 while allowing the freest use of them to the ,federal ships2 that we should stop all exports of commodities to the ,south1 while granting fullest commercial intercourse with the ,north3 and that we should alter our own laws for the purpose of making ourselves the agents of the belligerent interests of the ,federal ,government4 ,his interpretation of neutrality in affording supplies to the belligerents is amusingly1 though we daresay quite unintentionally1 illustrated by himself in a couple of sentences4 ,it will be recollected that1 at the time of the ,trent affair1 ,federal agents had bought up a great quantity of saltpetre here1 and that1 in expectation that this might be used against ourselves in case of war1 the export of the article was prohibited by an ,order in ,council4 ,this prohibition was withdrawn when the settlement of the ,trent affair removed the apprehension of war4 8,it affords me pleasure10 says ,mr ,seward thereupon1 8to know that the inhibition of saltpetre1 which was so unnecessary1 has been rescinded40 8,it has been only ,european sympathies and ,european aid10 he proceeds in the next sentence1 8that have enabled our disloyal citizens to prolong the civil war40 ,the coupling of his pleasure at getting munitions of war from ,england with his complaint against ,european aid to the ,south1 is too impudent not to be1 we hope1 accidental4 ,now1 does any foreign ,european statesman living think that it would be a light task to persuade ,england to restrain the liberty of her subjects1 or to change her laws8 ,would any such statesman think that he was labouring for a practicable object1 if he were to found his efforts on the assumption that such changes would be made at his suggestion8 ,would any ,european people1 of whose ,government he should be the agent1 regard such efforts with other feelings than derision8 ,yet there are ministers of potent ,governments who could show plausible reasons for expecting that their efforts might prevail1 and who could urge their arguments with skill and eloquence4 ,but even if1 confident in their long experience and profound knowledge of diplomacy1 they might venture on the experiment1 is it possible to suppose that1 when the failure should be manifest1 they would1 instead of abandoning the ground for surer footing1 continue to build an entire policy on the shadowy foundation1 though certain to see the baseless fabric sink as often as it should be raised8 ,yet such is the hopeless task in which the ,american ,secretary persists with dreary pertinacity4 ,some malign spell seems to rule his course like that by which ,michael ,scott compelled the devil to make ropes of sand1 and to bale out the sea with a limpet-shell4 ,all his arguments1 all his complaints1 all his homilies1 are based on the delusion that he can compel the ,british ,government1 by the marvellous force of his persuasive eloquence1 to occupy with him a cloudland of his own creation2 where a resolute people in arms is a dwindling faction2 where a strife that drenches a continent in blood is a waning insurrection2 where the victorious result always seems close1 yet is always receding2 where in the obstruction of a commercial system there is nothing which the partners in that system are entitled to take note of2 where the ,union1 repelled at all points1 and staggering under a load of debt1 is said to exercise authority in all but a few rebellious spots1 and to keep firm hold on the affections of all but a few misguided men2 and where nefarious contracts1 armies of mercenaries and deserters and plundering generals1 are bright examples of the virtue and patriotism of a great people elicited in the hour of trial4 ,all his instructions1 all his remonstrances1 all his prophecies1 proceed upon the assumption that these delusions are facts4 ,if it were not so1 the vast volume of despatches would shrink to the size of a pamphlet2 for every dispute1 every argument1 every feeling of injury1 has its root in the shadowy standing-ground which he chooses to occupy4 ,of this he appears sensible himself when he says3-- 8,i have not failed to see that every wrong this country has been called to endure at the hands of any foreign ,power has been a natural if not a logical consequence of the first grave error which that ,power committed in conceding to an insurrection1 which would otherwise have been ephemeral1 the rights of a public belligerent4 ,it has seemed1 therefore1 to be wise1 as well as more dignified1 to urge the retrogression upon that false step1 rather than to elaborate complaints of the injuries that have followed it40 ,it would have been well had he done so2 but instead he has1 without ceasing to urge retrogression1 indulged in ceaseless complaints4 ,wrapt in his delusions1 he drifts calmly on the tide of events that is bearing him and his despatches to chaos1 and takes the crack of doom for a wholesome thunderstorm which is to clear the political atmosphere4 ,nothing can surpass the feeble complacency with which he records his perpetual illusions as incontrovertible facts4 ,on ,feb4 #ai1 #ahfb1 he writes to ,mr ,adams3-- 8,i was just about instructing you how to answer the querulous complaints in ,parliament which you have anticipated1 the chief of which is the assumed incompetency of ,government to suppress the insurrection4 ,but a very shrewd observer1 a loyal1 and at present exiled ,virginian1 fell in at the moment1 and expressed to me the opinion that the end of the war is in sight2 that there will be a short and rapid series of successes over a disheartened conspiracy1 and then all will be over4 ,i give you these opinions as entitling us to what is sometimes granted by candid tribunals--namely1 a suspension of judgment40 ,it is a pity that the name of the shrewd observer has not been preserved4 ,so sagacious a man ought not to be anonymous4 ,on the #ajth of ,february he tells us3-- 8,the process of preparation has steadily gone on in the loyal ,states1 while that of exhaustion has been going on in the disloyal4444 ,we have the most satisfactory evidence that the ,union will be hailed in every quarter just as fast as the army shall emancipate the people from the oppression of the insurgent leaders40 ,march #ae--8,the financial and moral1 as well as the physical1 elements of the insurrection seem to be rapidly approaching exhaustion40 ,on #beth ,march it seems impossible to the sanguine ,secretary that the organisation of the insurgents can be longer maintained4 ,on #bhth ,april he asserts that 8to-day the country is assuming that the fate of this unnatural war is determined by the great event of the capture of ,new ,orleans40 ,on the #eth ,may the fiscal system of the insurgents must1 he calculates1 have exploded1 and their military connections be everywhere broken4 ,on #bhth ,may the ,federal ,government is said to possess the ,mississippi and all the other great natural highways4 ,and on ,june #b-- 8,the war in the ,mississippi valley may be deemed virtually ended4444 ,the army of ,general ,m#8,clellan will be rapidly strengthened1 although it is already deemed adequate to the capture of ,richmond4444 ,no ,american now indulges any doubt that the integrity of the ,union will be triumphantly maintained40 #bdth ,june3-- 8,you tell me that in ,england they still point to the delays at ,richmond and ,corinth1 and they enlarge upon the absence of displays of ,union feeling in ,new ,orleans and ,norfolk4 ,ah1 well6 scepticism must be expected in this world in regard to new political systems1 insomuch as even ,divine revelation needs the aid of miracles to make converts to a new religious faith40 ,on #gth ,july1 after ,m#8,clellan's disasters1 he says3-- 8,the military situation is clearly intelligible1 and ought to be satisfactory to the cool and candid judgment of the country4444 ,we have a rumour that ,vicksburg is actually taken4 ,but the report is premature1 though we have no doubt but the capture has before this time occurred40 ,and on the #ajth ,november1 just before the defeat of ,fredericksburg1 we find him 8apprehending no insurmountable obstacles to complete success40 ,nor are his prophecies addressed only to ,england4 ,on the #aeth ,april he tells ,mr ,dayton3-- 8,a few days will probably complete the opening of the ,mississippi river1 and restore to the country that national outlet of the great granary of ,america which disunion1 in its madness1 has temporarily attempted to obstruct1 in violation not more of political laws than of the ordinances of nature40 #bb;d ,april3-- 8,we have reason to expect ,savannah to come into our possession within the next ten days40 #eth ,may3-- 8,we shall have peace and union in a very few months1 let ,france and ,great ,britain do what they may4 ,we should have them in one month if either the ,emperor or the ,queen should speak the word1 and say1 ,if the life of this unnatural insurrection hangs on an expectation of our favour1 let it die4 ,to bring the ,emperor to this conviction is your present urgent duty40 ,on the #ajth ,may he has a vision of a ,yankee millennium3-- 8,less than a year will witness the dissolution of all the armies2 the ironclad navy will rest idly in our ports2 taxes will immediately decrease2 and new ,states will be coming into the ,confederacy1 bringing rich contributions to the relief and comfort of mankind40 ,on the #ajth ,july he says3-- 8,the reduction of ,vicksburg1 the possession of ,chattanooga1 and the capture of ,richmond1 would close the civil war with complete success4 ,all these three enterprises are going forward4 ,the two former will1 we think1 be effected within the next ten days40 ,and in ,september he actually bites his thumb at the ,emperor3-- 8,we have not been misled10 he says1 8by any of the semblances of impartiality or of neutrality which unfriendly proceedings towards us in a perilous strife have put on4 ,when any ,government shall incline to a new and more unfriendly attitude1 we shall then revise with care our existing relations towards that ,power1 and shall act in the emergency as becomes a people who have never yet faltered in their duty to themselves while they were endeavouring to improve the condition of the human race40 ,compared with these prophecies the ravings of ,mother ,shipton become respectable oracles4 ,yet on them was founded the entire foreign policy of the ,federal ,government2 the complaints that foreign statesmen and other sane persons would not confide in them were incessant2 and they were the lights by which ,american envoys were expected to steer4 ,these gentlemen1 with more or less sense and discretion1 all write in the stilted creaking style1 stuck over with hard metaphors1 which distinguishes the master-spirit ,seward1 and which appears to be the characteristic of ,american public compositions4 ,they seem to have caught1 and to express very honestly1 not only his style but his ideas1 and to represent perfectly the querulous1 arrogant1 exacting tone of the ,secretary4 ,it is not1 probably1 from a wish to do him homage that they thus accurately reflect him1 but rather because it is natural to ,american politicians to take abroad with them that idea of the pre-eminence of their country which they have passed their lives at home in asserting1 and because their habit of regarding ,england as the abode of a jealous aristocracy1 and as being always in the wrong1 places them in a position of natural antagonism to us in every case that can arise4 ,but1 granting this to be inevitable1 we may consider ourselves very fortunate that ,america is represented among us by a gentleman in every way so entitled to respect as ,mr ,adams4 ,the son of one ,president and the grandson of another1 both of whom were elected to the chief place in the ,republic at a time when something else besides obscurity and the absence of any quality which could excite the jealousy of aspiring men1 was demanded for the attainment of the position which ,washington had filled1 the claims of ,mr ,adams as a public man evidently rest on other grounds than those of ordinary ,american politicians4 ,we do not doubt that the expressions of goodwill and courtesy addressed to him from our ,foreign ,office are perfectly sincere and deserved4 ,it is true that the tone of his correspondence with that office is often captious1 and his demands are sometimes unreasonable4 ,without prompting from his own ,government he seems often to prejudge questions of international law with a bias that blinds him to the true bearing of the question1 as in the case of the ,emily ,st ,pierre1 and leads him to treat as an injury the denial of concessions which are denied because impossible to be granted4 ,but this is the traditionary character of ,american diplomacy3 it thus expresses the spirit of the people1 with the promptings of which a ,minister may think himself bound to comply2 and both ,mr ,adams and ,mr ,dayton1 ,minister to ,france1 appear in their correspondence to discharge their duties with great zeal and fidelity1 and1 moreover1 to display the virtue1 not by any means universal among their brethren1 of confining themselves to the business of their own legations4 ,we need not say that our remarks relate only to ,mr ,adams's share in the published correspondence1 and not to his later acts4 ,the extraordinary step he took on the #ith ,april1 in granting a permit to an ,english vessel enabling her to pass the blockade1 is fraught with consequences too important to be dwelt on here1 and1 if unexplained1 would force us largely to qualify our encomium4 ,it might be supposed that the ties between ,austria and ,america are neither numerous nor close1 and that consequently the ,minister to ,vienna would find but a narrow field for the display of his qualities as a diplomatist4 ,accordingly we find ,mr ,motley1 in the dearth of other matter1 falling back upon the grand resource of ,american politicians1 and discussing ,english affairs as the most natural topic possible to engage the attention of an envoy at ,vienna4 ,from that convenient point of observation1 then1 he proceeds to enlighten the ,washington ,cabinet on the disposition and intentions of the statesmen1 and organs of the press1 of ,great ,britain2 and as other ministers elsewhere imitate this course1 the ,government of ,mr ,lincoln has the advantage of seeing ,british policy represented1 not merely in the aspect in which it is seen by ,mr ,adams the special photographer1 but as it appears when viewed by amateurs from the various capitals of ,europe4 ,should a ,tory ,government succeed the present ,cabinet1 ,mr ,motley anticipates much trouble4 ,nothing1 he says1 can exceed the virulence with which the extreme ,conservative party regard ,america1 nor the delight with which they look forward to its extinction as a nation4 ,the hatred to the ,english ,radicals is1 he has discovered1 8the secret of the ferocity and brutality with which the #8,times1' the #8,saturday ,review1' and other ,tory organs of the press1 have poured out their insults upon ,america ever since the war began40 ,how the journals thus classified may approve being linked together as ,tory organs1 we cannot say4 ,to ourselves we1 of course1 see nothing personal in the general allusion1 our leaning to ,radicalism and ,republicanism being too notorious to admit of any mistake4 ,subsequently ,mr ,motley writes a long essay about ,british matters1 explaining the sentiments of the 8venerable ,premier of ,england0 and our ,foreign ,minister1 and criticising the speech made by ,mr ,gladstone at ,newcastle1 part of which makes him very angry1 and causes him to express a hope that that statesman's tongue may be blistered4 ,nor1 unusual as his style of diplomatic correspondence may appear1 does he stand quite alone in it4 ,it is possible that the godfathers and godmothers of ,mr ,cassius ,marcellus ,clay are1 in principal degree1 responsible for the efforts made by that gentleman to attain notoriety4 ,it would be mean to sneak obscurely about the world under such magnificent appellations4 ,better1 in such a case1 be called ,john ,thomas4 ,hence1 without any quality apparent that would entitle the bearer of these historic names to claim distinction amid the company of a pothouse1 his efforts to become known in the world have been as unceasing as if he were some wronged genius entitled to a hearing4 ,at the outbreak of hostilities he launched from ,paris a tremendous defiance against our unfortunate country4 ,then he published a letter in the #8,times1' telling us what we ought to do in the ,american quarrel1 and1 in case we should not comply1 threatening our great-grandchildren with the vengeance of we forget how many millions of unborn ,yankees4 ,at this time he was on his way to ,st ,petersburg as ,united ,states ,minister to ,russia4 ,for his guidance he had received one of ,mr ,seward's most elaborate moral essays1 beginning in this remarkable way3 8,sir1--,nations1 like individuals1 have three prominent wants3 first1 freedom2 secondly1 prosperity2 thirdly1 friends4 ,the ,united ,states early secured the two first objects by the exercise of courage and enterprise4 ,but1 although they have always practised singular moderation1 they nevertheless have been slow in winning friends40 ,fortified with a great deal of this kind of composition1 ,mr ,clay arrived in the ,russian capital4 ,from his own correspondence we learn that he found the ,emperor 8absent in the direction of ,moscow10 and being advised by the ,assistant-,secretary of ,state to await his ,majesty's return1 8,i presumed10 he says1 8it would not be agreeable to the ,emperor for me to follow on40 ,in a few days he had an interview with ,prince ,gortchakoff1 who 8asked after ,pickens0 7whether ,pickens is something1 or some place1 or somebody1 does not appear71 8my family1 and other things in a familiar way1 when ,i was dismissed by again shaking hands40 ,soon after we learn that he and 8his suite1 ,green ,clay1 ,william ,c4 ,goodloe1 and ,t4 ,williams10 set out for ,peterhoff1 where the ,emperor received them1 and addressed ,mr ,clay in a set speech1 which was delivered in ,russian1 though1 says he1 8the ,emperor spoke ,american mostly40 ,we are at liberty1 therefore1 to suppose that his ,majesty1 during great part of the interview1 spoke through his nose2 and1 no doubt1 ,prince ,gortchakoff1 who spoke only ,english1 beheld with wonder1 not unmixed with envy1 this exhibition of his ,imperial master's accomplishments as a linguist4 ,mr ,clay then addressed to the ,emperor an essay on the moral government of ,russia1 which1 from internal evidence1 we pronounce to have been learnt by heart from a prize paper by ,seward4 8,the ,emperor10 he says1 8seemed much gratified and really moved by this last remark10 possibly because it was the last2 and1 besides speaking ,russian and ,american1 ,alexander was so ostentatious as to conclude the interview by speaking ,english1 perhaps deeming it appropriate to the subject-matter4 8,he wanted to know if ,i thought ,england would interfere4 ,i told him we did not care what she did2 that her interference would tend to unite us the more2 that we fought the ,south with reluctance2 we were much intermarried and of a common history2 but that the course of ,england had aroused our sensibilities towards her in no very pleasant manner4 ,the ,emperor seemed to like my defiance of old ,john ,bull very much4 ,he wanted to know if ,i was a relative of ,henry ,clay1 and what was my military rank4 ,i told him ,i was only a distant relation of ,clay1 and that ,i wore the uniform of an ,american colonel0 7borrowed1 perhaps1 from another relation1 ,pipe ,clay71 8which rank ,i filled in my own country40 ,his ,majesty then shook hands twice with the ,ambassador1 and dismissed him4 ,before concluding the despatch from which we learn the foregoing interesting particulars1 it seems to have occurred to ,mr ,clay that it would be judicious to show ,mr ,seward that moralising on the war was a game which two could play at2 and he wound up in the following style3-- 8,i have already made this letter too long2 but ,i cannot conclude without saying how much more and more ,i value the great and inestimable blessings of our ,government1 and how ,i trust in ,god that no compromise will be made of the great idea for which we have so long fought1 but that ,general ,scott1 following out the programme of ,mr ,lincoln's inaugural1 will slowly and surely subdue the rebellion1 #8stock1 lock1 and gun-barrel1' #8hook and line1 bob and sinker1' and that we may all be spared to see once more the glorious old banner restored1--#8,liberty and union1 now and for ever--one and inseparable4'0 ,these extracts from the ,clay correspondence of #ahfa will no doubt cause the reader keenly to regret that we cannot give more4 ,but the fact is that1 whether ,mr ,seward was jealous of ,mr ,clay's native humour as displayed in these papers1 or considered him a formidable rival as a moral essayist1 or whatever the cause might be1 the omissions are so numerous that a great part of the ,ambassador's correspondence consists of asterisks1 leaving only the driest details1 such as any ordinary ,john ,thomas or ,green ,clay might have written4 ,so numerous are the stars between the stripes of print1 that the successive pages look like so many representations of the ,american banner4 ,but in ,january last year he wrote an essay on the subject of the perfidy and general villainy of ,great ,britain1 which has fortunately been preserved entire4 8,in this critical time10 he says1 8whether war or peace with ,england ensues1 ,i deem it my duty to give the ,president my impressions of ,european sentiment40 ,he then details the reasons why the monarchies and aristocracies of ,europe have always regarded his republic with jealousy4 8,their jealousy1 their secret hate1 their blind vengeance verges10 ,mr ,clay thinks1 8upon insanity24444 they renew with us the fable of the wolf and the lamb2 though we are below on the mountain stream1 we are accused of muddying the waters40 ,his method of dealing with ,secession is tersely expressed--8,i have always thought that the whole property of the rebels1 slaves and all1 should be summarily confiscated40 ,but before prescribing this treatment for the ,south1 he devotes a paragraph to the way in which ,england should be handled3-- 8,in case of war with ,england10 he says1 8,canada should be seized at all hazards4 ,a large force should be first placed in fortifications in some place suitable near the coast1 which would cut off reinforcements from ,england4 ,union with us1 with equal rights1 should be offered the ,canadians1 and the lives and property of friends secured4 ,men and money should be sent to ,ireland1 ,india1 and all the ,british dominions all over the world1 to stir up revolt4 ,our cause is just2 and vengeance will sooner or later overtake that perfidious aristocracy40 ,such was the esteem in which the ,cabinet of ,washington held either the practical qualities evinced in this essay1 or the diplomatic services veiled under the asterisks1 that they were considered to entitle him1 on his return to ,america1 to the position of a ,brigadier-,general4 ,in the records of the war we cannot1 however1 find that ,brigadier ,cassius ,marcellus ever performed any military achievement worthy either of the foe of ,csar or the foe of ,hannibal4 ,he seems to have worn his warlike honours with remarkable meekness1 and never to have done anything to fulfil his own aspiration that 8liberty and union may be for ever inseparable10 by taking the smallest step towards the subjugation of the enemy4 ,under these circumstances ,mr ,seward1 finding his military so inferior to his diplomatic talents1 seems to have thought that the ,brigadier who had failed to bid defiance to the ,south would find a more appropriate field of action in resuming his employment of gratifying the ,emperor of ,russia with other defiances of 8old ,john ,bull0--and accordingly we learn that the eminent statesman either is1 or is to be1 once more ,minister to ,st ,petersburg1 and may possibly be at this moment engaged in his favourite occupations of shaking the hand of the ,emperor1 and shaking his own hand at the ,british monarchy4 ,if it be so1 we may perhaps hope to read1 in another state paper1 of his second reception at the ,court of ,russia--which1 judging from the familiar cordiality displayed in the first1 may1 if the ,czar should again deign to express himself in the ,american language1 open something in this way1--8,wal1 ,cassius ,m4 ,clay1 how air you1 old hoss8 ,do you feel pretty brisk and spry1 sir8 ,how is it you ha'n't chawed up them rebels yet1 lock1 stock1 and gun-barrel1 hook and line1 bob and sinker8 ,what do you think of our insurrection to ,poland1 sir80 ,future volumes of these documents will probably reveal ,mr ,seward as still assuring his correspondents that the end of the rebellion is at hand2 that foreign ,governments will soon see dire reason to repent their hostility2 that the ,union is growing stronger with every 8reverse of our arms20 that discord and desertion and corruption are only 8fresh developments of patriotism20 and that the flooding of the lands on the ,mississippi1 far from being an act of barbarous vindictiveness1 will be as beneficent in its consequences as the overflowing of the ,nile4 ,we shall probably see1 too1 that ,american envoys1 addressing themselves1 not to ,mr ,seward1 but to the masses behind him1 his masters and theirs1 are still denouncing our perfidious aristocracy and jealous monarchy4 ,is it a comedy or a tragedy that these men are acting8 ,if unconscious absurdity and ludicrous unfitness for the conduct of grave affairs were all the elements of the exhibition1 we might well afford to laugh2 but1 unfortunately1 the grotesque display has its terrible side1 and incapacity and conceit only increase the tremendous power of mischief wielded by the principal characters in the burlesque4 ,meanwhile the course of foreign ,governments is not likely to be materially affected by the lucubrations of the ,american ,secretary of ,state2 and1 amidst the strange displays of weakness made by the ,north1 not the least strange will be the futility of its diplomacy4 ,,the ,,budget4 ,the soundness of the position taken up by the ,opposition last year in regard to the national finances1 has this year been fully established by the admissions and procedure of the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer4 ,it may seem remarkable that the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer should preface his financial statement by referring to a resolution of the ,house1 which was adopted at the instance of the ,opposition1--that he should avowedly base his present ,budget upon that resolution4 ,but ,mr ,gladstone is a ,minister of consummate ,parliamentary tact1 who avails himself of every plea which best serves his purpose for the time2 and1 as we shall see in the sequel1 he had a special reason for thus seeking to cover with the authority of ,parliament a ,budget which is not quite so accordant with the resolution of the ,house as he desires it to be thought4 ,the resolution1 which was adopted at the instance of the ,opposition1 and upon which the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer professedly bases his present ,budget1 insisted upon the necessity of reducing the national expenditure4 ,it was urged upon the ,government that the financial administration of the three previous years had been such as to trench deeply upon the extraordinary resources of the country1 and that1 while ostensibly adding to the military strength of the country1 we were really diminishing our power by exhausting the sources by which the expenses of war and national defence could be sustained4 ,it was pointed out that during these years we had not only abolished1 and put out of reach1 several important taxes for the remission of which there was no urgent necessity1 but that1 in order to do so1 we had actually incurred a considerable deficit4 ,of late years not only the leaders of the ,opposition1 but some of the highest financial authorities on the ,ministerial side of the ,house--including ,lord ,overstone1 ,lord ,monteagle1 and ,earl ,grey--had denounced as most impolitic the hand-to-mouth system pursued by ,mr ,gladstone1 and had urged the necessity of framing the estimates with a view to obtaining a substantial yearly surplus4 ,these were the considerations which led the ,house of ,commons last summer to adopt the resolution to which the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer now appeals in justification of his ,budget2 and they must not be forgotten when examining how far the financial programme of the present year is in accordance with that resolution4 ,a new critic now takes the field against ,mr ,gladstone1 and adds his protest to those which have already been made by the other leading financial authorities4 ,in a new edition of his work on ,taxation1 that veteran ,liberal and political economist1 ,mr ,m',culloch1 severely criticises the recent financial policy of the ,government1 and endorses with his high and obviously impartial authority the opinions by which that policy has been so often combated by the ,conservatives4 ,to all the special features of ,gladstonian finance ,mr ,m',culloch is opposed4 ,he is strongly in favour of the maintenance of a good yearly surplus1 as an indispensable feature of a prudent system of finance2 he condemns as most impolitic that narrowing of the area of taxation which ,mr ,gladstone extols as a 8simplification of the tariff20 and he moreover objects1 in the strongest terms1 to the manner in which that principle of 8simplification0 has been applied4 ,it is not surprising that the voice of protest should thus be raised from all quarters against the principles of ,mr ,gladstone's finance4 ,to begin with1 he has been a most prodigal financier1 and cares not a jot for the future4 ,at a time when the charges on the ,national ,debt were reduced by the falling-in of the terminable annuities1 to the extent of two millions a-year--when there was an unexpected repayment of a portion of the ,spanish loan1 and other windfalls--and when he found a surplus of considerable amount left to him by his predecessors in office1--then surely1 if ever1 the country had a right to expect from the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer a succession of good annual balance-sheets4 ,if the policy of maintaining a substantial surplus is not carried out under these favourable circumstances1 the fault must lie with the administrator of the national finances4 ,yet1 so far has ,mr ,gladstone been from adhering to the old and sound maxim of financial policy1 that he has not only given us no surplus1 but has recklessly incurred us a deficit1 of which he now makes no mention4 ,had this bad condition of the finances been incurred in consequence of an exceptional increase of the national expenditure which could only be met by the imposition of new taxes1 it might have been excusable4 ,but there was no such difficulty3 the revenue was sufficient1 if let alone1 to have more than kept pace with the expenditure4 ,the peculiar culpability of ,mr ,gladstone as a financial ,minister--the pernicious feature of his system which called forth the eloquent denunciation of ,lord ,overstone1 and the emphatic protest of ,earl ,grey and ,lord ,monteagle1 and of the ablest financial journal of the ,liberal party1 the #8,economist'--is1 that during this period of so-called exceptional expenditure he has deliberately thrown away the means which were at his disposal for meeting it4 ,he has abolished taxes against which there was no peculiar ground of complaint1 and he has reduced others in order to cheapen certain commodities for which there was no general demand4 ,this financial system of ,mr ,gladstone is1 unfortunately1 not a mere thing of the past4 ,its consequences weigh upon us now1 and there is no sign of his abandoning it4 ,it is a novel system--novel even to himself2 but he adheres to it with an obstinacy which threatens to embarrass us in the future not less than in the past4 ,a grave question must be at stake when the greatest financial authorities of the ,liberal party come forward prominently to side with the ,conservatives in opposing and denouncing the policy of the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer4 ,they feel strongly that the recent hand-to-mouth system of ,mr ,gladstone will not do1 and that in times of emergency it would entail grave disaster upon the national fortunes4 8,great nations--such1 for example1 as ,england and ,france10 says ,mr ,m',culloch1 8with colonies and dependencies in all parts of the world1 and with jealous and powerful neighbours1 must expect to be every now and then involved in difficulties2 and on that account they should have a considerable surplus revenue--i4 e41 a considerable surplus after defraying the cost of their usual establishments10 ,and he adds--8,had the affair in regard to the ,trent led1 as it was not unlikely to do1 to a war with the ,united ,states1 it would have found us in an awkward situation--without any surplus revenue1 with discredited customs and excise duties1 and nothing to fall back upon but an increase of the ,income-tax and loans40 ,we regret to say that the calamity from which we so narrowly escaped two years ago1 cannot be regarded as unlikely of occurrence now2 and there are also elements of strife sufficiently formidable on our own side of the ,atlantic to engage the thoughts of our statesmen1 and to invest with peculiar interest the at all times momentous subject of the national finances4 ,when we hear so old a ,liberal and so practised a political economist as ,mr ,m',culloch echoing ,lord ,castlereagh1 and charging the country in the very words of the ,tory statesman1 with an 8ignorant impatience of taxation10 we cannot but be confirmed in the views which we have repeatedly expressed in regard to the policy of the present ,chancellor of the ,exchequer2 and the country at large will do well to reconsider that policy and the principle upon which it is based4 ,on one occasion in #aheg1 when the late ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis--whose death is a loss alike to the country and to the ,ministry--referred to an opinion of one who had as good a knowledge of the practical working of taxation as any man either before or since1 ,mr ,gladstone exclaimed with the utmost contempt--8,he goes back to ,arthur ,young1 sir3 old ,arthur ,young he takes for his authority60 ,and when1 in his own recent ,budget speech1 ,mr ,gladstone1 with all the ingenuity of rhetoric1 was calling upon the ,house to stand amazed at the rapid increase in the nominal8 income of the country 7one-fifth during eight years71 which he claimed as the result of his policy1--and ,sir ,j4 ,packington quietly suggested that it is ,australia and the new gold mines that have caused the difference1--,mr ,gladstone rejoined1 8,australia6 ,oh no3 the right honourable gentleman is lost in the depths of heresy on that point40 ,this overbearing presumption is natural to ,mr ,gladstone1 who finds it a convenient way of summarily evading difficulties which are more easily scoffed at than answered4 ,but we take leave to think that there are few intelligent men in this country who1 for width of view and soundness of judgment1 would not have preferred the late ,sir ,george ,lewis to his more eloquent and ingenious colleague4 ,and for ourselves we entertain no doubt that ,sir ,j4 ,pakington was perfectly correct in his suggestion1 and that the great increase alike in the income of this country1 and in certain branches of the expenditure1 is in part attributable to the rise in the monetary value of property and labour in consequence of the new markets for our goods in ,australia1 and the great addition to the stock of gold4#i ,mr ,gladstone would probably treat ,mr ,m',culloch in the same contemptuous fashion1--especially as ,mr ,m',culloch's opinions and arguments1 if correct1 totally demolish the 8system0 which ,mr ,gladstone of late years1 and in contradiction to his former self1 has been labouring to establish4 ,but we shall give the public an opportunity of judging whether ,mr ,m',culloch's opinions are not as well founded as they are harmonious with those of the ,conservative party4 ,mr ,m',culloch maintains that it is more than doubtful whether any remission of taxation should take place unless the revenue exceed the ordinary expenditure by some #e or #aj per cent of its amount4 ,in other words1 he considers that1 with an expenditure equal to that of the ,united ,kingdom1 the estimates should always be so framed as to have a conjectural balance of four or five millions4 ,mr ,gladstone rarely aims at having a surplus of even a tenth of that amount2 and sometimes #hj1jjj or less seems to him enough to meet the chapter of accidents1 and sustain the moral power and financial credit of the country6 ,the following passage1 which appears in the new edition of ,mr ,m',culloch's work1 seems to have been written expressly in reference to the financial administration of the present ,chancellor of the ,exchequer3-- 8,in countries under free or constitutional governments the reduction or repeal of taxes is frequently proposed in the view of courting popularity1 or of favourably influencing public opinion4 ,and the desire to grasp an immediate advantage1 to be relieved of a burden1 without caring for the ultimate consequences of its extinction1 is so extremely prevalent1 that such projects1 though often very undeserving1 seldom fail to procure a less or greater share of the public sympathy for those by whom they are put forth4 ,statesmen1 however1 and those intrusted with the duties of government1 should take a less circumscribed view of such matters1 and are bound to inquire into the real character of the measures that come before them1 and to weigh and consider their more remote as well as their proximate results4 ,their duty is to oppose1 not to pander to the selfish and unfounded prejudices of the public4444 ,the real questions are1 can the tax be spared2 and1 if not1 can it be replaced by a less inconvenient or injurious tax8 ,if it can neither be spared nor replaced by another that is less objectionable1 its repeal would be as futile1 as inexpedient1 and as unadvised a measure as can well be imagined40 ,mr ,gladstone1 in his desire for popularity1 has carried the practice thus emphatically condemned by ,mr ,m',culloch to a most dangerous extreme4 ,he totally disregards the sound principle of ending every year with a surplus1 in order to meet sudden and unforeseen contingencies1 and he lavishes every spare pound upon the reduction of taxation4 ,moreover1 in making these reductions1 he has adopted a practice which1 although he presents it under the attractive guise of a 8simplification of the tariff10 is paving the way for a serious popular agitation against some of the indispensable elements of our fiscal system4 ,sir ,robert ,peel1 it is true1 simplified the tariff2 but he did so more wisely and prudently4 ,it was not merely for the sake of simplicity that he reduced the list of taxed commodities1 but because many of the taxes at that time vexed trade without appreciably swelling the revenue4 ,previous to his administration1 our customs tariff comprised above a thousand articles1 many of which were insignificant1 and all but unproductive to the ,state4 ,but ,mr ,gladstone has carried out the same practice on a very different principle4 ,the tariff1 as left by ,sir ,robert ,peel1 embraced above four hundred items2 now it is restricted to about forty4 ,indeed1 this branch of our revenue at present is raised almost entirely from sugar1 tea1 tobacco1 spirits1 wine1 beer1 corn1 coffee1 currants and raisins1 timber1 and pepper4 ,this is objectionable in many respects4 ,in the first place1 it renders our revenue liable to be much more seriously affected by the fluctuations of trade and the condition of the masses of the people1 than under the old system2 and by concentrating taxation upon a few commodities1 it makes the fiscal pressure more obvious and more felt1 and furnishes proportionately greater scope for popular agitation4 8,when the public attention is fixed exclusively on a few leading and indeed necessary articles10 says ,mr ,m',culloch1 8it is all but certain that the duties on them1 even should they be moderate1 will come to be looked upon as being1 in no ordinary degree1 objectionable and oppressive4 ,but were a great variety of articles1 suitable for the consumption of all classes1 subject to duties1 there would be but little probability of the public attention being concentrated on a few only40 ,and what are the few commodities which now furnish the principal part of our revenue8 ,as we have seen1 precisely those which are consumed in greatest quantity by the bulk of the people4 ,there is no real inequality in the distribution of our taxation2 for the ,income-,tax1 the ,succession-,duties1 c41 do not fall at all upon the lower classes1 and have been framed so as to keep the balance of taxation equal between the rich and the poor4 ,but we fear this fact will not be fairly considered by the masses1 who1 under the influence of demagogues like ,mr ,bright1 are too prone to think themselves unjustly dealt with4 ,two months ago we pointed out this feature of ,mr ,gladstone's financial policy1 as one eminently provocative of agitation against some branches of our revenue which it is indispensable to preserve4 ,mr ,m',culloch holds a similar opinion4 ,he says-- 8,when such duties apply to all kinds of things the raw materials of industry and the prime articles of food being excepted1 it is seen that they must affect1 in one way or other1 every class1 and1 indeed1 every individual1 and being merged in and forming a part of the price of the articles on which they are charged1 they attract little or no attention4 ,but such will not be the case with us in time to come4 ,consumption duties have ceased to be general1 and are now 7#ahfb7 unfortunately restricted to a few leading articles1 comprising some of the principal necessaries and luxuries of the labouring poor4 ,so striking and momentous a change cannot fail to rouse the public attention2 and will1 it is to be feared1 give rise to a belief that it is essentially partial and unfair4 ,and such belief will be better founded than it is at all desirable it should be2 for1 while we admit various luxuries of the rich and the great1 including the most recherch wines1 at very low duties1 and many more1 comprising1 among others1 the finest laces1 velvets1 porcelain1 tablecloths1 carpets1 silks1 gloves1 ornamental furniture1 bronzes1 and so forth1 free of all charge1 we lay heavy duties on the tea and sugar1 which are indispensable to the labouring poor1 and heavier still on the tobacco1 the spirits1 and the beer which constitute their luxuries4 ,is it to be supposed that such a policy should be considered by the bulk of the people as other than unfair and offensive80 ,it is a most important principle of judicious finance that the incidence of taxation should be as little felt as possible1 and also that it should not only be fair1 but be seen to be fair4 ,we believe that the present taxation of this country falls very equally on all classes2 but1 unfortunately1 under ,mr ,gladstone's 8reforms10 it has assumed an appearance of gross inequality4 ,we have largely increased the spirit duties1 and we have kept up the taxes on malt and beer1 yet we have greatly reduced the duties on wine4 ,moreover1 we have made the reduction of the duties on wines in such a way that the finest wines pay no more than the cheap wines4 ,several articles of luxury have likewise1 under the operation of the ,french treaty1 disappeared from the tariff1 and their absence1 though of no great importance as affecting the revenue1 gives a handle to demagogues who desire to excite the masses against the taxation of the country4 ,the 8,financial ,reform ,association10 and the ,radical party in general1 could have no better ally than ,mr ,gladstone2 and the chief result of his 8popular0 ,budgets will inevitably be to render our whole system of taxation extremely unpopular4 ,mr ,gladstone's new ,budget is less ingenious1 less experimental1 less obviously hazardous1 than those which have preceded it4 ,the balance is1 in appearance at least1 kept even between direct and indirect taxation3 and the twopence off the income-tax1 and the fivepence off the duties on tea1 reduce these taxes to the level at which they stood prior to the ,russian war4 ,the modification of the ,income-tax upon incomes between #ajj and #bjj a-year is an improvement4 ,mr ,gladstone has also done well in admitting a past error of his1 by abolishing the small charges on certain operations1 of trade which he imposed in #ahfj1 but which have been found exceedingly vexatious to commerce4 ,nor can any objection be taken to the change which he proposes to make on the taxation of railways1 by which the tax on the passenger traffic is reduced from #e to #c per cent1 while the exemption at present enjoyed by parliamentary and excursion trains is abolished4 ,his proposal to levy the ,income-tax upon the revenues of corporations which are expended in charity1 and on the income of endowed charities1 is more open to question2 and so are some of his other minor proposals2 but the interests affected are not sufficiently powerful to offer much opposition to the ,government4 ,the main facts of ,mr ,gladstone's financial statement are briefly as follows4 ,warned by the strong expression of opinion on the part of the ,house in favour of a reduction of expenditure1 the ,government resolved to anticipate farther opposition by curtailing the estimates which the ,house had so reluctantly voted1 and last year spent about #hjj1jjj less than they had taken power to do4 ,in respect to the ,revenue1 ,mr ,gladstone's estimates were singularly at fault4 ,as on previous occasions1 his estimate of the ,excise greatly exceeded the actual return1 which this year has fallen short of his estimate by more than a million sterling4 ,but the ,income-tax yielded nearly half a million more than he calculated1 and so have the ,customs2 and the total produce of the national taxes has been so favourable as to leave a surplus of about #djj1jjj above the estimate1 and an excess of #a1cjj1jjj above the expenditure4 ,the revenue of the past year amounted to #gj1fjc1jjj1 the expenditure was #fi1cjb1jjj3 surplus #a1cja1jjj4 ,if the taxes were to remain on the same footing this year1 they would yield 7according to ,mr ,gladstone7 #ga1dij1jjj2 and he proposes some trifling new taxes amounting to #acc1jjj3 together equal to #ga1fbc1jjj4 ,and as the estimated expenditure for the ensuing year is only #fg1gdi1jjj 7#a1eec1jjj less than last year's71 the surplus at the end of the ensuing year1 if the taxes were kept at their present rate1 would be #c1hgd1jjj4 ,but the proposed reductions of taxation1 chiefly on the ,income-tax and ,tea-duties1 will cause a loss of revenue in the ensuing year to the extent of #c1cdc1jjj2 so that the actual surplus1 as estimated by ,mr ,gladstone1 will be #eca1jjj4 ,the ,budget stands thus3 ,,revenue4 ,customs1 #bb1gcg1jjj ,excise1 #ag1feh1jjj ,stamps1 #i1jjj1jjj ,taxes1 #c1afj1jjj ,income-tax1 #h1fge1jjj ,post ,office1 #c1hjj1jjj ,crown ,lands1 #cjj1jjj ,miscellaneous1 #b1iej1jjj ---------------------- #fh1bhj1jjj ,,expenditure4 ,debt1 #bf1ccc1jjj ,consolidated ,fund1 #a1idj1jjj ,army1 #ae1jfj1jjj ,navy1 #aj1gcj1jjj ,collection1 #d1gba1jjj ,miscellaneous1 #h1ife1jjj ---------------------- #fg1gdi1jjj ,surplus1 #eca1jjj4 ,the surplus which ,mr ,gladstone thus reckons upon this year is far below the amount which our best financiers consider requisite for the maintenance of a sound system of finance4 ,it is true1 and we attach great weight to the consideration1 that the present depressed state of an important branch of national industry renders it desirable that the taxation of the country should be reduced as low as possible4 ,but this argument1 unhappily1 cuts two ways4 ,for the same depression of trade1 which calls for a minimum of taxation this year1 to at least a similar extent places in jeopardy the surplus which the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer reckons upon4 ,in his estimate of the produce of the excise1 especially1 we believe that he commits his usual mistake of being too sanguine4 ,but the really hazardous feature of his ,budget consists in this3 ,that only a part of the proposed reductions of taxation will take effect during the ensuing year2 and1 therefore1 the estimates which suffice for the financial year1 upon which we have entered1 will be inadequate for the year following4 ,the reductions of taxation which will take place before ,april next will1 as we have said1 amount to #c1cdc1jjj2 but the total yearly loss of revenue consequent upon the reductions proposed by the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 is #d1bdb1jjj2 so that if they took entire effect during the present year1 instead of a surplus of #eca1jjj1 there would be a deficit of #cfh1jjj4 ,but of the loss on the ,income-tax1 #hej1jjj will only fall on the following year 7#ahfd-e71 and #di1jjj of loss from the abolition of some petty taxes will likewise be passed on to next year4 ,thus we obtain a surplus of #eca1jjj for the present financial year only by passing on to next year a loss of #ijj1jjj4 ,if the finances had been in a thoroughly good condition1 and if the state of the country promised to be prosperous1 and our relations with other ,powers peaceful1 the heavy legacy of loss for the year #ahfd-e might be contemplated with less alarm2 for the experience of late years shows that1 in ordinary times1 the productiveness of the revenue tends to augment at the rate of #gjj1jjj a-year4 ,but this is not the case4 ,and1 moreover1 as ,mr ,gladstone's estimate of the miscellaneous receipts for the present year embrace half a million sterling of the ,china indemnity money--a payment which will not take place again--the deficit which we are preparing for the year #ahfd-e1 is an exceedingly formidable one #a1djj1jjj4 ,this is the weak point of ,mr ,gladstone's ,budget4 ,suppose his expectations are fully realised--suppose he have a surplus at the end of this year of half a million1 and that the productiveness of the taxes increase next year to the extent of #gjj1jjj 7which is not likely71--there would nevertheless be a deficit in the year #ahfd-e of #bjj1jjj4 ,such a result1 the most favourable that can be expected1 cannot be regarded with indifference4 ,but this is not all4 ,is it not a fact that the balances in the ,exchequer in ,march last year were #b1fhd1jjj less than they were in #ahfj1 when ,mr ,gladstone began his present financial administration8 ,and as he does not take any account of that deficit in his new ,budget1 the deficit remains unprovided for1 and of course renders his present financial programme doubly hazardous4 ,it was only by the help of the two and a half millions abstracted from the ,exchequer balances1 and also by creating new ,debt to the extent of #dfa1jjj1 that he escaped bankruptcy during the two first years of his financial administration3 and if he had been a ,minister of ordinary prudence1 he would have felt bound to replace those sums before he proceeded to make further reductions of taxation4 ,but he is determined to produce popular ,budgets1 however dear a price the country may have to pay for them in the long run4 ,he justifies anew the censure which ,mr ,m',culloch has passed upon such a system of finance4 ,he makes the show of a surplus for the ensuing year1 only by ignoring nearly three millions of deficit which he has accumulated in past years1 and by preparing a new deficit for the year #ahfd-e4 ,every proposal to reduce taxation is sure to be popular1--we are equally sure that the present reductions are exceedingly dangerous4 ,it is one thing to cut down expenditure--and this1 we conceive1 was what the ,conservatives last year urged upon the ,government3 it is quite another thing to dispense with a real surplus1 to resign ourselves to a past deficit1 and prepare for ourselves a new one4 ,the errors of ,mr ,gladstone's previous ,budgets now begin to weigh heavy upon the national fortunes4 ,the abandonment of the paper-duties has rendered our present financial position one of no ordinary embarrassment4 ,had these duties still been in operation1 the present reductions of taxation1 so desirable in themselves1 and so repeatedly called for by the ,conservative party1 could have been effected without any risk4 ,as it is1 we think the financial position of the country eminently unsatisfactory and unsafe4 ,not only must we experience a deficit in the year #ahfd-e1 but we are totally unprepared for any untoward contingencies in the present year4 ,the peace of ,europe 7if peace it may be called7 is obviously insecure2 hostilities seem impending between this country and ,japan2 and our relations with the ,federal ,states of ,north ,america are such as1 unhappily1 and from no fault of ours1 to render the occurrence of war between the two countries a contingency which cannot entirely be overlooked4 ,but if any exceptional expenditure be forced upon us1 how are we to meet it8 ,under ,mr ,gladstone's management1 the taxation of the country has been so concentrated upon a few articles of universal consumption1 and the duty upon some of those commodities 7such as spirits7 has been so obviously carried to the highest possible point1 that to increase the revenue from its present sources would be extremely difficult and unpopular4 ,we cannot reimpose the old duties on wines1 silks1 gloves1 and other articles embraced in the ,french treaty1 for in respect to these we have sold our freedom of taxation to a foreign power4 ,the paper duties are irretrievably abandoned2 for1 however impolitic may have been the abolition of those duties in times like the present1 their reimposition would be a great hardship and injustice to the manufacturers who have made new arrangements in accordance with the abolition4 ,a few months hence the same will be the case with the ,tea-duties4 ,a large increase of the ,income-tax1 and an issue of ,exchequer bonds1 are the only means by which we can hope to make head against an emergency4 ,the surplus is merely nominal--the balances in the ,exchequer cannot be further reduced1--and even the issue of ,exchequer bonds can be resorted to only to a small extent1 in consequence of ,mr ,gladstone's repeated postponement of paying off1 as they fell due1 the amounts already in circulation4 ,over the term of ,mr ,gladstone's present financial administration1 as over his previous one1 the country will yet have to write the words1 so damnatory of the reputation of a statesman1 ,improvidus futuri4 ,in the present aspect of affairs1 we begin to think anew of his ,budgets before the ,crimean ,war2 and we can only hope that the year #ahfd will not be like #ahed1 and that the country will not find itself again in straits and embarrassments like those which proved wellnigh overwhelming ten years ago4 ,printed by ,william ,blackwood ,sons1 ,edinburgh4 ----- ,footnote #a3 #8,prehistoric ,man2 ,researches into the ,origin of ,civilisation in the ,old and the ,new ,world4' ,by ,daniel ,wilson1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,professor of ,history and ,english ,literature in ,university ,college1 ,toronto2 ,author of the #8,archology and ,prehistoric ,annals of ,scotland1' c4 ,macmillan ,co41 ,cambridge4 ,footnote #b3 ,there is one instance of a fragment of human bone found in company with these flints1 but we have heard doubts thrown on the nature of this fragment4 ,footnote #c3 #8,the ,life of ,general ,sir ,howard ,douglas1 ,bart1 ,g4,c4,b41 ,g4,c4,m4,g41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,from his ,notes1 ,conversations1 and ,correspondence4' ,by ,s4 ,w4 ,fullom4 ,john ,murray1 ,london4 ,footnote #d3 ,fact4 ,footnote #e3 ,heldreich 7author of #8,an ,essay on the ,useful ,plants of ,greece'7 finds it in a single oak forest in ,elis4 ,footnote #f3 ,according to the prevalent opinion3 the high authority of ,decandolle is the other way2 he believes it indigenous in the ,south of ,europe generally2 but the contrary evidence is very strong4 ,footnote #g3 ,it was noted as something semi-prodigious that a palm-tree took root at ,rome1 in the temple of ,jupiter1 on the ,capitol1 during the war with ,perseus2 and another in the pavement of ,augustus's house on the ,palatine4--,ampre1 #8,l',histoire ,romaine ,rome4' ,footnote #h3 ,diplomatic ,correspondence1 #ahfa1 #ahfb4 ,washington4 ,footnote #i3 ,the ,times itself takes this view4 ,after stating that 8no one doubts that ,australia1 like ,india1 ,china1 and other countries1 has contributed to the prosperity of our trade by developing its own resources1 pastoral1 metallic1 or otherwise10 it makes this important admission3 8,it is also true that ,australia and ,california1 by increasing enormously the quantity of gold in the world1 have diminished its value2 so that1 even if the wealth of the country had not increased1 its amount1 as represented in gold i4 e4 its value in money would certainly have been larger40 ,this alteration in the value of money since #ahec is the main explanation of the fact which seems to ,mr ,gladstone 8so strange as to be almost incredible10 but which he coolly attributes to 8the legislation of ,parliament setting free the industry and intelligence of the ,british people40 ,this1 he says1 is 8the real and new cause that has been in operation10 and which has so marvellously increased the wealth of the country #bj per cent in eight years6 ,but if this were the case1 surely he need not cut his estimates so fine4 ,a nation that has grown so enormously rich in a few years' time could well afford to keep a good balance at its banker's--i4 e41 in the ,exchequer4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in spelling4 #b4 ,retained archaic1 non-standard1 and uncertain spellings as printed4 #c4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4