,,transcrib]',s ,,note ,italic text is d5ot$ by und]scores4 ,footnote an*ors are d5ot$ by numb]1 & ! footnotes h be5 plac$ at ! end ( ! book4 ,! tables 9 ?is book are be/ view$ us+ a monospace font4 ,"s m9or *anges to ! text are not$ at ! end ( ! book4 ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,climate ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,climate ,,by ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 ,,brooks1 ,m4,sc41 ,f4,r4,a4,i41 ,f4,r4,met4,soc4 ,,) ,a ,,preface ,,by ,g4 ,c4 ,,simpson1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,director ,,( ,,! ,,meteorological ,,(fice ,,london3 ,,b5n ,,bro!rs1 ,,limit$ #h ,,b\v]ie ,,/reet1 ,e4,c4#d #aibb ,,preface ,geologi/s v e>ly 9 ! hi/ory ( _! sci5ce1 9 fact z soon z fossils began to be exam9$1 f\nd indisputable evid5ce ( great v>iations 9 climate4 ,! vegetation :i* result$ 9 ! coal measures c\ld h gr[n only 9 a sub-tropical climate1 :ile ov] ^! are va/ rema9s ( ice-worn b\ld]s & scrat*$ rocks :i* obvi\sly h be5 left by ice exi/+ "u pol> conditions4 ,su* records 7 n f\nd only 9 "o region1 b cropp$ up 9 juxtaposition 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,rema9s ( sub-tropical vegetation 7 f\nd 9 ,spitzb]g51 & rema9s ( an ext5sive ice-%eet mov+ at sea-level f ! s\? 7 cle>ly recogniz$ 9 c5tral & nor!rn ,india4 ,at fir/ x 0 simply notic$ t ! old] fossils g5]ally indicat$ a w>m] climate1 & x 0 consid]$ t ! e>ly climate ( a globe cool+ f ! molt5 /ate w\ld be w>m & moi/1 & s acc\nt = ! obs]v$ conditions4 ,x 0 recogniz$ t ! ice rema9s 7 relatively rec5t1 & s f> z a cause = ! ,ice ,age 0 s\ght x 0 consid]$ t a/ronomical *anges w\ld be suffici5t4 ,x 0 only :5 geologi/s began to f9d records ( ice ages f> ant]ior to ! ,c>bonif]\s ,age1 & a/ronom]s prov$ by incontrov]tible obs]vations & calculations t *anges 9 ! e>?'s orbit1 or its incl9ation to t orbit1 c\ld n acc\nt = ! ice ages1 t ! importance & inexplicability ( ! geological evid5ce = *anges ( climate came to be cle>ly recogniz$4 ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s mu* /udy has be5 giv5 to 8paloclimatology10 b su* a /udy is extremely difficult4 ,only a v small fraction ( ! total surface ( ! e>? c be geologically exam9$1 & ( t fraction a /ill small] proportion has up to ! pres5t be5 /udi$ 9 detail4 ,!re has be5 a great t5d5cy to /udy int5tly a small region & !n to g5]alize4 ,! me?od ( /udy :i* has to be employ$ is extremely dang]\s4 ,a geological horizon is det]m9$ by ! fossils x conta9s4 ,:]ev] fossils ( a c]ta9 type are f\nd ! /rata are giv5 ! same label4 ,isolat$ pat*es correlat$ by _! fossils are f\nd 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 & x is frequ5tly assum$ n only t ^! rocks 7 laid d[n at ! same "t1 b t ! conditions :i* !y indicate exi/$ ov] ! :ole ( ! e>?'s surface simultane\sly4 ,?us geologi/s tell u t ! climate ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,age 0 w>m & damp2 ( ! ,devonian ,age cool & dry2 ( ! ,eoc5e ,age v w>m2 ( ! ,ice ,age v cold4 ,b has ! geologi/ giv5 suffici5t att5tion to ! climatic zones dur+ ! v>i\s geological climates8 ,x is true t ! geologi/ has def9itely express$ ! view t 9 c]ta9 ages climatic zones did n exi/2 b f a meteorological po9t ( view x is difficult to see h[ ! climate c\ld h be5 ev5 approximately ! same 9 all p>ts ( ! _w if sol> radiation det]m9$ 9 ! pa/ z 9 ! pres5t ! temp]ature ( ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,! climatic zones ( ! v>i\s geological p]iods w ne$ mu* clos] /udy 9 ! future2 ! data h>dly exi/ at pres5t1 & ! great area cov]$ by ! ocean w always make ! /udy difficult & ! conclusions d\btful4 ,admitt+1 = ! sake ( argum5t only1 l>ge *anges 9 av]age conditions1 b ) zonal v>iations ( ! same ord] ( magnitude z ^? exi/+ to-day1 ! sl[ *anges f p]iod to p]iod w cause any giv5 climatic /ate to travel sl[ly ov] ! surface ( ! e>?1 & ?is w s complicate ! problem z to make x d\btful :e!r any conclusions c be rea*$ s long z ! same crit]ia are us$ to det]m9e bo? ! geological epo* & ! climatic conditions4 ,^! consid]ations apply m p>ticul>ly to ! e>li] records1 :ile ,mr4 ,brooks has conf9$ 8 "w *iefly to ! lat] records1 beg9n+ ) ^? ( ! ,great ,ice ,age1 9 :i* climatic zones are cle>ly indicat$ by ! limits ( ! ice2 b 9 ?is problem "o _c conf9e "o's att5tion to a portion ( ! record1 = ! te/ ( any explanation mu/ be its suffici5cy to expla9 all ! pa/ *anges ( climate4 ,"o w n be satisfi$ ) an explanation ( ! ,great ,ice ,age :i* does n expla9 at ! same "t ! records ( e>li] ice ages1 ( :i* !re is indubitable evid5ce 9 ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s & ,pre-,cambrian p]iods1 & ! records ( widespread tropical or sub-tropical conditions 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,eoc5e ,ages4 ,:e!r ,mr4 ,brooks' !ory = ! cause ( ! rec5t *anges ( climate satisfies ?is crit]ion mu/ be left to ea* read] to decide4 ,z ,mr4 ,brooks says1 ! lit]ature on ?is subject is n[ imm5se1 & x is mo/ unsatisfactory lit]ature to dige/ & summ>ize4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 _m ( ! orig9al obs]vations :i* c be us$ 9 ! /udy ( pa/ climates are hidd5 away 9 masses ( purely geological descriptions1 & a great deal ( m9+ has to be done to extract ! climatic ore4 ,!n1 aga91 mo/ ( ! writ]s :o h made a special /udy ( climatic *anges h _h _! own !oretical ideas & mo/ ( _! evid5ce has be5 ex p>te4 ,to take a s+le example1 = "o pap] discuss+ dispassionately ! evid5ce = *anges 9 climate dur+ ! hi/orical p]iod1 !re h be5 t5 to prove ei!r t ! climate has /eadily improv$1 /eadily det]iorat$1 *ang$ 9 cycles or rema9$ un*ang$4 ,x is extremely difficult to arrive at ! tru? f su* mat]ial1 & /ill m difficult to summ>ize ! pres5t /ate ( op9ion on ! subject4 ,x may be compla9$ t ,mr4 ,brooks has himself adopt$ ?is same me?od & has writt5 8 book ar\nd 8 own !ory4 ,b 0 !re any alt]native8 ,!re are s _m !ories & radically diff]5t po9ts ( view t no writ] c\ld conf9e himself to ! obs]vations & say :at ^! indicate1 = ! indications are s v diff]5t accord+ to ea* !ory 9 turn4 ,& new !ories are always be+ prop\nd$2 s9ce ,mr4 ,brooks comm5c$ to write ?is book1 ,weg5] has put =w>d 8 revolution>y !ory accord+ to :i* ! pol> axis has no /ability1 & ! cont95ts are travell+ ov] ! face ( ! globe l debris on a flood4 ,:]e is !re solid gr\nd f :i* to discuss climatic *anges if ! cont95ts !mselves c travel f ! equator to ! pole & back aga9 9 ! %ort p]iod ( "o or two geological epo*s8 ,mr4 ,brooks has /udi$ deeply geology1 an?ropology1 & meteorology1 & he has consid]able ma!matical ability4 ,by apply+ ! latt] to ! results ( 8 /udies he has develop$ a !ory = ! cause ( climatic *anges bas$ on *anges ( l& & sea area1 & on *anges ( elevation ( l& surfaces1 & naturally he has made ?is !ory ! basis ( 8 "w4 ,t !re w be "s :o are n able to agree ) him z to ! suffici5cy ( ! causes he invokes1 or :o may ev5 "q :e!r he also has n tak5 = grant$ :at o!rs dispute1 goes )\t say+2 b all w agree t he has pres5t$ a difficult subject 9 a cle> & concise way1 & t meteorologi/s 7& may ,i add geologi/s87 owe to him a deep debt ( gratitude4 ,g4 ,c4 ,,simpson4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,preface #e ,,introduction #aa ,i4 ,,factors ,,( ,,climate ,,& ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,climatic ,,fluctuations #ae ,,ii4 ,,! ,,climatic ,,record ,,z ,a ,,:ole #cb ,,iii4 ,,conditions ,,be=e ,,! ,,quat]n>y ,,ice ,,age #db ,,iv4 ,,! ,,great ,,ice ,,age #dg ,v4 ,,! ,,glacial ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,nor!rn ,,& ,,c5tral ,,europe #ee ,,vi4 ,,! ,,m$it]ranean ,,regions ,,dur+ ,,! ,,glacial ,,p]iod #fh ,,vii4 ,,asia ,,dur+ ,,! ,,glacial ,,p]iod #gf ,,viii4 ,,! ,,glacial ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,nor? ,,am]ica #hf ,,ix4 ,,c5tral ,,& ,,s\? ,,am]ica #ig ,x4 ,,africa #ajc ,,xi4 ,,au/ralia ,,& ,,new ,,zeal& #aji ,,xii4 ,,! ,,glaciation ,,( ,,ant>ctica #aad ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,close ,,( ,,! ,,ice ,,age--,,! ,,cont95tal ,,phase #aah ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,po/-,,glacial ,,optimum ,,( ,,climate #abg ,,xv4 ,,! ,,=e/ ,,p]iod ,,( ,,we/]n ,,europe #acf ,,xvi4 ,,! 8,,classical0 ,,ra9fall ,,maximum1 #ahjj ,b4,c4 ,,to ,a4,d4 #ejj #adj ,,xvii4 ,,! ,,climatic ,,fluctuations ,,s9ce ,a4,d4 #ejj #adi ,,xviii4 ,,climatic ,,fluctuations ,,& ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,man #aei ,,xix4 ,,climate ,,& ,,hi/ory #afb ,,app5dix--,,! ,,factors ,,( ,,temp]ature #aff ,,index #afi ,,introduction ,! foll[+ /udy is an attempt to recon/ruct 9 "s detail ! sequ5ce ( climatic *anges ?r\gh :i* ! _w pass$ dur+ t important /age ( its geological hi/ory :i* is v>i\sly kn[n z ! ,ice ,age or ,glacial ,p]iod1 ! ,plei/oc5e1 ! ,quat]n>y1 or ! ,human ,p]iod4 ,t "t saw ! gr[? ( humanity f a primitive /age b little remov$ f ! high] animals to ! beg9n+s ( a complicat$ civilization1 & x saw t human life spread f its cradle or cradles to ! ends ( ! e>?2 x saw ! configuration ( ! globe pass+ ?r\gh a s]ies ( modifications :i* end$ by e/abli%+ ! physical geography ( ! pres5t day4 ,f9ally1 x saw a s]ies ( />tl+ *anges ( climate :i* almo/ m]it ! t]m 8,revolutions0 ( ! old cata/rophic geologi/s1 at ! conclusion ( :i* we c trace ! gradual developm5t ( ! climatic conditions ( ! pres5t day4 ,9 %ort1 x is a p]iod ( imm5se int]e/ :i* has a p]sonal application lack+ 9 ! remot] p>ts ( geological "t1 & = t reason x is wor?y ( ! fulle/ /udy4 ,on ! geological side ! lit]ature ( ! ,ice ,age is imm5se1 & is beyond ! p[] ( any "o man to ma/]4 ,volumes might be1 & n infrequ5tly h be51 writt5 on ! glacial geology ( areas limit$ to a few squ>e miles1 or ev5 on ! deposits ( a s+le section4 ,on ! ar*ological side ! lit]ature is n yet s volum9\s1 b is te*nical & conflict+ 9 a high degree4 ,x is only :5 we seek ! contributions ( compet5t meteorologi/s t we f9d a s]i\s gap 9 ! lit]ature4 ,nor is ?is surpris+1 = meteorologi/s are /ill s mu* occupi$ ) ! pres5t vag>ies ( ! wea!r1 t few ( !m h "t to ext5d _! rese>*es into ! geological pa/4 ,yet ?is is em95tly a case :]e ! pa/ is ! key to ! pres5t1 & x may be t ! solution ( _m problems :i* meteorologi/s h hi!rto fac$ 9 va9 w yet be sugge/$ by /udies ( ! climatic *anges ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,! writ]'s excuse = sett+ d[n 8 views is t he is int5sely int]e/$ 9 all ?ree sci5ces--geology1 an?ropology1 & meteorology4 ,! comb9ation ( ^! ?ree subjects naturally end$ 9 specialization on _! common meet+ place1 & l$ him to hope t he c\ld assi/ 8 fell[ geologi/s & an?ropologi/s by acqua9t+ !m ) "s ( ! be>+s ( meteorology on _! subject1 & c\ld op5 out to 8 fell[ meteorologi/s a fasc9at+ bran* ( _! sci5ce4 ,! ,quat]n>y1 h[ev]1 0 n ! only geological p]iod to exhibit ! ph5om5a ( an ,ice ,age1 & 9 ord] t we may m fully und]/& ! /atus ( ! ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age 9 ! long succession ( geological climates1 & also to avoid ! *>ge ( pres5t+ "p ( ! evid5ce only1 a brief discussion ( ! climates ( ! e>li] p]iods has be5 attempt$4 ,! plan ( ! "w is z foll[s3 ,*apt] ,i deals g5]ally ) ! causes ( climatic fluctuations & ) ! meteorology ( an ,ice ,age4 ,*apt] ,,ii gives a brief acc\nt ( ! climatic record z a :ole1 & ,*apt] ,,iii deals ) ! ,t]ti>y p]iod consid]$ z lead+ up to ! ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age4 ,*apt] ,,iv discusses ! subdivisions ( ! ,glacial p]iod1 & ! conflict betwe5 advocates ( "o & ( repeat$ glaciations4 ,*apt]s ,v to ,,xii give brief acc\nts1 f ! /&po9t ( a meteorologi/1 ( ! glacial hi/ory ( ,nor!rn ,europe1 ! ,m$it]ranean ,region1 ,asia1 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 & ! ,s\? ,pol> regions4 ,9 ,*apt]s ,,xiii to ,,xv po/-,glacial climatology is consid]$4 ,*apt]s ,,xvi & ,,xvii deal ) ! major climatic fluctuations ( ! 8hi/oric0 p]iod1 & f9ally1 9 ,*apt]s ,,xviii & ,,xix1 is a %ort discussion ( ! influ5ce ( climate on ! evolution & hi/ory ( man4 ,a brief bibliography concludes ea* *apt]4 ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,climate ,,*apt] ,i ,,factors ,,( ,,climate ,,& ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,climatic ,,fluctuations ,! climate ( any po9t on ! e>?'s surface dep5ds on a complex ( factors1 "s ( !m due to influ5ces arriv+ f outside ! e>?1 & o!rs purely t]re/rial4 ,s9ce any v>iations ( climate mu/ be due to a *ange 9 "o or m ( ^!1 x is necess>y1 be=e we c discuss *anges ( climate1 to consid] briefly :at ! factors are4 ,! only important extra-t]re/rial factor ( climate is ! am\nt ( radiant en]gy :i* rea*es ! bord]s ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e f ! heav5ly bodies--t is1 f ! sun1 = ! moon & />s c be ignor$ 9 ?is connexion4 ,! only o!r conceivable factor is ! arrival ( meteorites1 br++ k9etic en]gy :i* is conv]t$ into heat1 & introduc+ cosmic du/ into ! atmosph]e2 b x is highly improbable t ?is is ( appreciable effect4 ,! am\nt ( sol> radiation#a :i* rea*es ! e>? dep5ds 9 ! fir/ place on ! total radiation emitt$ by ! sun1 & 9 ! second place on ! di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun1 bo? ( :i* quantities are v>iable4 ,x has be5 calculat$ t if o!r factors rema9$ un*ang$ an increase ( t5 p] c5t4 9 ! sol> radiation w\ld raise ! mean temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface by ab\t #g ,c41 or betwe5 #ab & #ac ,f41 )1 ( c\rse1 a correspond+ fall = a decrease4 ,aft] ! sun's radiation rea*es ! out] limits ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e its nature & int5sity are modifi$ by ! composition ( ! air ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,9 g5]al ! air itself is v transp>5t to ! small wave-l5g?s :i* make up ! sol> rays1 b ! pres5ce ( f9e du/1 :e!r ( volcanic or ( cosmic orig91 has be5 %[n by ,humphreys to be a di/9ct h9drance to _! passage1 s t volcanic eruptions ( an explosive nature1 su* z t ( ,krakatoa 9 #ahhc1 ,la ,s\frire 7,/4 ,v9c5t7 9 #aijb1 or ,katmai 7,alaska7 9 #aiab1 may result 9 a fall ( temp]ature ov] ! _w z a :ole4 ,! temp]ature ( ! e>? is det]m9$ by ! balance betwe5 ! radiation receiv$ f ! sun & ! t]re/rial radiation to space1 & a decrease 9 ! latt] w\ld be z effective 9 rais+ ! mean temp]ature z an increase 9 ! =m]4 ,! use ( glass = gre5h\ses dep5ds on ?is pr9ciple2 = glass is transp>5t to heat rays ( small wave-l5g?1 b is l>gely opaque to ! rays ( great] wave-l5g? :i* make up t]re/rial radiation4 ,c]ta9 con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e1 especially wat]-vap\r1 c>bon dioxide & ozone1 are effective 9 ?is way1 & v>iations 9 ! am\nt ( ^! gases pres5t may affect ! temp]ature4 ,! angle at :i* ! sun's rays /rike ! e>?'s surface is a highly important factor4 ,)9 ! ,tropics ! sun at midday is ne>ly v]tical ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 & ! mean temp]ature 9 ^! regions is correspond+ly high2 on ! o!r h&1 dur+ ! long pol> night ! sun is n se5 = half ! ye>1 & v l[ temp]atures prevail4 ,!re is ?us a seasonal v>iation ( ! heat receiv$ f ! sun 9 middle & high latitudes1 ! ext5t ( :i* dep5ds on ! 8obliquity ( ! ecliptic10 i4e4 ! incl9ation ( ! e>?'s axis to ! plane ( its orbit r\nd ! sun1 & any *anges 9 ?is factor mu/ alt] ! seasonal v>iation ( climate4 ,fur!r1 s9ce ! climate ( any place dep5ds s closely on its latitude1 x foll[s t if ! latitude *anges ! climate w *ange4 ,a %ip c *ange its latitude at w1 b we are accu/om$ to reg>d ! position ( ! 8firm gr\nd b5ea? our feet0 relatively to ! poles z fix$ )9 n>r[ limits4 ,?is /ability has1 h[ev]1 be5 que/ion$ f "t to "t1 ma9ly on evid5ce d]iv$ f paloclimatology1 & !ories ( climatic *ange h be5 bas$ on ! w&]+s ( cont95ts & oceans4 ,f9ally1 local climate is intimately b\nd up ) ! di/ribution ( l& & sea1 & ! m>9e & atmosph]ic curr5ts result+ !refrom1 & on elevation above sea-level1 bo? ( :i* factors1 z we %all see1 h suff]$ v wide v>iations 9 ! geological pa/4 ,ne>ly all ! !ories :i* h be5 put =w>d to acc\nt = geological *anges ( climate1 & especially ! occurr5ce ( ! la/ or ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age1 are bas$ on ! abnormal v>iation ( "o or o!r ( ! above factors1 & we may consid] !m briefly 9 turn4 ,v few h ev] be5 tak5 s]i\sly4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we c at once dismiss fluctuations 9 ! radiation emitt$ by ! sun z a cause ( great *anges ( climate4 ,x is true t _m small fluctuations are traceable directly to ?is cause1 su* z ! elev5-ye> p]iodicity ( temp]ature & ra9fall2 b ^! fluctuations are1 & mu/ be1 great] at ! equator ?an at ! poles1 :ile ! fall ( temp]ature dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod rea*$ its maximum ne> ! poles & 0 lea/ at ! equator4 ,moreov]1 !re is n ! slighte/ direct evid5ce 9 support ( su* a !ory1 & x c only be admitt$ :5 all o!r hypo!ses h fail$4 ,! 8a/ronomical0 !ory ( ! cause ( climatic fluctuations is associat$ *iefly ) ! "n ( ,james ,croll4 ,croll's !ory connects abnormal v>iations ( climate ) v>iations1 fir/ly ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 & secondly ( ! ecliptic4 ,9 p]iods ( high ecc5tricity ! hemisph]e ) w9t] 9 aphelion is cold because ! long sev]e w9t] is f> f be+ balanc$ by ! %ort hot summ]2 at ! same "t ! opposite hemisph]e enjoys a mild equable climate4 ,?is !ory comm&$ in/ant respect1 & /ill f9ds a place 9 ! text-books1 b difficulties soon began to appe>4 ,! evid5ce /rongly sugge/s t glacial p]iods did n alt]nate 9 ! two hemisph]es1 b 7 simultane\s ov] ! :ole e>?2 ev5 on ! equator ! sn[-l9e 0 br\ght l[ d[n4 ,moreov]1 on ,m>s ! l>ge/ sn[-cap appe>s on ! hemisph]e ) its w9t] 9 p]ihelion4 ,al?\gh ,croll's reason+ 0 beautifully +5i\s he gave v few figures2 :ile ! date :i* he gives = ! conclusion ( ! ,ice ,age1 #hj1jjj ye>s ago1 has be5 %[n by rec5t rese>* to be f> too remote1 #ae1jjj ye>s be+ ne>] ! m>k4 ,croll's !ory has rec5tly be5 reviv$ 9 an alt]$ =m by ,r4 ,spital]1 a ,cze*o-,slovakian meteorologi/1 :o calculat$ ! probable alt]ation 9 ! mean temp]ature ( ea* latitude "u maximum ecc5tricity 7#j4ggge7 & maximum obliquity 7#bg #dh71 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] rema9+ un*ang$4 ,! results are %[n 9 ! atta*$ table1 :]e - means t ! temp]ature 0 s mu* bel[ ! pres5t mean1 & t x 0 s mu* above4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,aphelion ,decemb]4 ,aphelion ,june4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,w9t]4 ,summ]4 ,ye>4 ,w9t]4 ,summ]4 ,ye>4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,f4 ,f4 ,f4 ,f4 ,f4 ,f4 ,n4 #fj -#i #ae -#a -#e -#d -#a #cj -#ac #ac -#b #a -#h -#b ,equator -#h #d -#b #a -#f -#b ,s4 #cj -#f #a -#b #c -#e -#b #fj -#b -#a -#a #a -#b -#a ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,spital] claims t ^! diff]5ces are suffici5t to cause a glacial p]iod 9 ! hemisph]e ) w9t] 9 aphelion1 b f ?is po9t 8 !ory dep>ts widely f ,croll's4 ,dur+ ! long sev]e w9t] great volumes ( sea wat] are br\ght to a l[ temp]ature1 &1 ow+ to _! great] weight1 s9k to ! bottom ( ! ocean1 :]e !y rema9 cold & accumulate f ye> to ye>4 ,b ! wat] w>m$ dur+ ! %ort hot summ] rema9s on ! surface1 :]e its heat is dissipat$ by evaporation & radiation4 ,?us1 ?r\gh\t ! cold p]iod1 la/+ ab\t #aj1jjj ye>s1 ! ocean 9 t hemisph]e is /eadily gr[+ cold]1 & ?is mass ( cold wat] is suffici5t to ma9ta9 a l[ temp]ature ?r\gh ! :ole ( ! foll[+ p]iod ( #aj1jjj ye>s ) w9t] 9 p]ihelion1 :i* w\ld o!rwise be a g5ial int]val4 ,9 ?is way a p]iod ( great ecc5tricity becomes a glacial p]iod ov] ! :ole e>?1 b ) cre/s ( maximum int5sity alt]nat+ 9 ! two hemisph]es4 ,un=tunately ! num]ical basis ( ?is !ory is n pres5t$1 & x seems incr$ible t a defici5cy ( temp]ature c\ld be ?us ma9ta9$ ?r\gh s long a p]iod4 ,fur!r1 ! difficulty ab\t *ronology rema9s1 & ! "w br+s ! a/ronomical !ory no ne>] to be+ a solution ( ! ,ice ,age problem ?an 0 ,croll's4 ,! !ory :i* connects fluctuations ( climate on a geological scale ) *anges 9 ! composition ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e is due to ,tyndall & ,arrh5ius1 & 0 elaborat$ by ,*amb]l94 ,! !ory suppos$ t ! e>?'s temp]ature is ma9ta9$ by ! 8blanket+0 effect ( ! c>bon dioxide 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,?is acts l ! glass ( a gre5h\se1 all[+ ! sun's rays to ent] unh9d]$1 b absorb+ ! heat radiat$ f ! e>?'s surface & return+ "s ( x to ! e>? in/ead ( lett+ x pass ?r\gh to be lo/ 9 space4 ,consequ5tly1 any dim9ution 9 ! am\nt ( c>bon dioxide pres5t w\ld cause ! e>? to radiate away its heat m freely1 s r$uc+ its temp]ature4 ,b x is n[ kn[n t ! t]re/rial radiation :i* ?is gas is capable ( absorb+ is tak5 up equally readily by wat]-vap\r1 ( :i* !re is always suffici5t pres5t1 & v>iations ( c>bon dioxide _c h any appreciable effect4 ,brief m5tion may be made "h ( a !ory put =w>d by ,humphreys1 :o attribut$ glaciation to ! pres5ce ( great quantities ( volcanic du/ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x w\ld require an enorm\s output ( volcanic du/ to r$uce ! temp]ature suffici5tly2 b 9 any case ! relation1 if any1 betwe5 vulcanicity & temp]ature dur+ ! geological ages is r ! rev]se ( t suppos$ by ,humphreys1 p]iods ( maximum volcanic action co9cid+ m frequ5tly ) high temp]atures ?an ) l[4 ,p]haps ! be/ comm5t on ,humphreys' !ory is t 9 #aijb ,f4 ,fre* produc$ its exact opposite1 w>m p]iods be+ associat$ ) an excess ( vulcanicity & cold p]iods ) a dim9ution4 ,! !ory :i* attributes climatic *anges 9 v>i\s c\ntries to v>iations 9 ! position ( ! poles has be5 adduc$ 9 two ma9 =ms4 ,! fir/ is kn[n z ! ,p5dulation ,!ory1 & supposes ! exi/5ce ( two 8oscillation poles0 9 ,ecuador & ,sumatra4 ,! latitude ( ^! po9ts rema9s un*ang$1 & ! geographical poles sw+ backw>ds & =w>ds along ! m]idian ( #aj ,e4 midway betwe5 !m4 ,v>y+ di/ances f ! pole cause *anges ( climate1 & ! movem5ts ( ! ocean1 :i* adju/s itself to ! *ange ( pole m rapidly ?an ! l&1 causes ! great transgressions & regressions ( ! sea & ! elevation & subsid5ce ( ! l&4 ,an alt]native =m put =w>d by ,p4 ,krei*gau]1 & rec5tly br\ght up aga9 by ,weg5]1 expla9s ! app>5t v>iations 9 ! position ( ! pole1 n ?r\gh a motion ( ! e>?'s axis1 b by ! assumption t ! firm cru/ has mov$ ov] ! e>?'s core s t ! axis1 rema9+ firm 9 its position1 passes ?r\gh diff]5t po9ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! cause ( ^! movem5ts is ! c5trifugal =ce ( ! great masses ( ! cont95ts1 :i* are di/ribut$ symmetrically ab\t ! e>?4 ,imag9e a s+le l>ge cont95t re/+ on a sub-fluid magma 9 temp]ate latitudes4 ,c5trifugal =ce act+ on ?is cont95t t5ds to drive x t[>ds ! equator4 ,!re is ?us a t5d5cy = ! latitude ( ,europe to decrease4 ,simil> =ces act+ ?r\gh geological ages h caus$ ! poles & equator to w&] at l>ge ov] ! e>?'s surface1 & also caus$ ! cont95ts to %ift _! positions relatively to "o ano!r4 ,accord+ to ,weg5]1 9 ! ,oligoc5e !re 0 only a s+le enorm\s cont95t1 ,am]ica be+ unit$ to ,europe & ,africa on ! "o h&1 & ?r\gh ,ant>ctica to ,au/ralia on ! o!r2 :ile ! ,deccan /ret*$ s\?-we/w>ds ne>ly to ,africa4 ,! poles 7 9 ,alaska & nor? ( ! ,falkl& ,isl&s4 ,! treatm5t 9 ,krei*gau]'s orig9al book is speculative & at times fanciful2 ,weg5]'s treatise appe>s to dem& m respectful att5tion1 b is op5 to "s vital objections4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !ories ( ?is class dem& t ! glaciation occurr$ 9 diff]5t regions at widely diff]5t times1 :]eas we %all see 9 ! foll[+ pages t ! evid5ce po9ts v /rongly to a d\ble glaciation dur+ ! ,quat]n>y occurr+ simultane\sly ov] ! :ole e>?4 ,?is objection1 :i* 0 fatal to ,croll's !ory 9 its orig9al =m1 is equally fatal to !ories ( pole-w&]+ z an explanation ( ! ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age4 ,secondly1 we "k t ! la/ phase ( ?is glaciation1 kn[n z ! ,wiscons9 /age 9 ,am]ica & ! ,wurmian 9 ,europe1 0 highly develop$ only #bj1jjj ye>s ago1 & probably rea*$ its maximum n m ?an #cj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,9 ! la/ #ejjj ye>s !re has be5 no appreciable *ange ( latitude1 at lea/ 9 ,eurasia2 & x seems impossible = ! ext5sive alt]ations requir$ 9 ! geography ( ! _w by ,weg5]'s !ory to h tak5 place 9 s %ort a "t4 ,! great glaciation ( ! ,p]mian p]iod1 ref]r$ to 9 ! next *apt]1 is a totally diff]5t matt]4 ,dur+ ?is "t ! ice-%eets appe> to h rea*$ _! maximum area1 & to h ext5d$ to sea-level1 9 c\ntries :i* are at pres5t close to ! equator1 :ile l&s n[ 9 high latitudes rema9$ unglaciat$4 ,x is true t at ! pres5t day glaci]s exi/ at high latitudes "u ! equator itself1 & giv5 a ridge suffici5tly /eep & a sn[fall suffici5tly heavy su* glaci]s w\ld possibly ext5d to sea-level2 b ev5 ^! conditions w\ld n give rise to ! enorm\s deposits ( true b\ld]-clay :i* h be5 discov]$1 & !re seems no way ( avoid+ ! supposition ( an enorm\s diff]5ce 9 ! position ( ! pole relatively to ! cont95ts at ?is "t4 ,weg5]'s !ory alone1 h[ev]1 requires t glaciation %\ld always h be5 proce$+ 9 "s "p ( ! globe 7unless bo? poles 7 surr\nd$ by wide expanses ( ocean71 :i* is h>d to reconcile ) ! extremely def9ite & limit$ glaciations :i* geological rese>* has demon/rat$4 ,9 ^! circum/ances we may t5tatively expla9 ! pre-,t]ti>y glacial p]iods by comb9+ ,weg5]'s !ory ( ! movem5ts ( cont95ts & oceans z a :ole ) ! !ory ( *anges ( elevation & ( l& & sea di/ribution :i* is outl9$ bel[4 ,t is to say1 we may suppose t ! positions ( ! cont95ts & oceans h *ang$1 relatively bo? to ea* o!r & to ! poles1 sl[ly b m or less cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t geological "t2 :ile at c]ta9 p]iods ! l& & sea di/ribution became fav\rable = ext5sive glaciation ( ! regions :i* at t "t 7 9 high latitudes4 ,! geographical !ory1 :i* /ates t ! ,ice ,age 0 br\ght ab\t by elevation 9 high latitudes1 & by *anges 9 ! l& & sea di/ribution1 ?\gh nev] s]i\sly *all5g$1 has suff]$ until rec5tly f a lack ( precision4 ,! pres5t au?or attempt$ to rem$y ?is by a close ma!matical /udy ( ! relation ( temp]ature to l& & sea di/ribution at ! pres5t day4 ,! me?od at attack 0 z foll[s3 f ! be/ available iso!rmal *>ts ( all c\ntries ! mean temp]ature r$uc$ to sea-level 0 read (f = ea* int]section ( a t5-degree squ>e ( latitude & longitude1 = ,janu>y & ,july1 f #gj ,n4 to #fj ,s4 latitude2 ?is gave #ejd values ( temp]ature = ea* ( ^! mon?s4 ,r\nd ea* po9t 0 next drawn a circle ) an angul> radius ( t5 degrees1 divid$ into ea/ & we/ semicircles4 ,! area ( ea* semicircle 0 tak5 z #ajj1 & by means ( squ>$ pap] ! p]c5tage ( l& to ! ea/ & l& to ! we/ 7 calculat$2 f9ally1 9 ea* mon? ! p]c5tage ( ! :ole circle occupi$ by l&1 ice1 or froz5 sea 0 calculat$1 ?is figure naturally be+ great] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,! projection us$ 0 t ( ! 8octagonal globe10 publi%$ by ! ,meteorological ,(fice1 :i* %[s ! _w 9 five sections1 ! error n[h]e exce$+ six p] c5t4 ,^! figures 7 !n analys$ ma!matically1 & f !m ! effects on temp]ature ( l& to ! ea/1 l& to ! we/1 & ice 7 calculat$4 ,! detail$ num]ical results are set out 9 an ,app5dix2 x is suffici5t "h to give ! foll[+ g5]al conclusions3 7#a7 ,9 w9t] ! effect ( l& to ! we/ is always to l[] temp]ature4 7#b7 ,9 w9t] ! effect ( l& to ! ea/ is almo/ negligible1 t is to say1 ! ea/]n %ore ( a cont95t is almo/ z cold z ! c5tre ( ! cont95t4 ,! only important exception to ?is rule is #gj ,n41 :i* may be consid]$ z com+ )9 a belt ( pol> ea/ w9ds4 7#c7 ,9 summ] ! g5]al effect ( l&1 :e!r to ! ea/ or we/1 is to raise temp]ature1 b ! effect is n[h]e any?+ l s m>k$ z ! opposite effect 9 w9t]4 7#d7 ,! effect ( ice is always to l[] temp]ature4 7#e7 ,= e latitude a 8basal temp]ature0 c be f\nd4 ,?is is ! temp]ature f\nd ne> ! c5tre ( an ocean 9 t latitude4 ,?is 8basal temp]ature0 is a function ( ! am\nt ( l& 9 ! belt ( latitude4 ,polew>d ( latitude #bj an increase ( l& 9 ! belt l[]s ! w9t] basal temp]atures v rapidly & raises ! summ] basal temp]ature to a less ext5t4 ,! 8basal temp]ature0 is important1 s9ce x is ! datum l9e f :i* we set out to calculate ! w9t] & summ] temp]atures ( any po9t1 by ! addition or subtraction ( figures repres5t+ ! local effect ( l& 9 a neighb\r+ #aj circle4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! scale ( ! temp]ature v>iations :i* may be due to geographical *anges1 suppose t ! belt betwe5 #ej & #gj ,n4 is entirely above ! sea4 ,!n we h ! foll[+ !oretical temp]atures2 = a po9t on #fj ,n4 at sea-level3 ,janu>y -#cj ,f42 ,july #gb ,f4 ,data = calculat+ ! effect ( ice are r scanty1 b ! foll[+ probable figures c be giv51 suppos+ t ! belt 9 "q 7 entirely ice-cov]$3 ,janu>y -#cj ,f4 7z = l&72 ,july #bc ,f4 ,suppos+ t ! belt 7 entirely oceanic1 ! mean temp]ature 9 #fj ,n4 w\ld be3 ,janu>y #bi ,f42 ,july #da ,f4 ,^! figures %[ h[ enorm\sly effective ! l& & sea di/ribution really is4 ,f ,app5dix x is easy to calculate ! probable temp]ature di/ribution result+ f any arrangem5t ( l& & wat] masses4 ,s9ce ! geography ( ! m rec5t geological p]iods is n[ kn[n 9 "s detail1 we h ?us a means ( re/or+ pa/ climates & discuss+ ! di/ribution ( animals & plants 9 ! light ( ?is k4 ,( c\rse x is n pret5d$ t no o!r possible causes ( great climatic v>iation exi/1 b no o!rs capable ( s]i\sly modify+ temp]ature ov] long p]iods are kn[n to h be5 9 op]ation4 ,z we %all see lat]1 !re are sol> & o!r a/ronomical causes capable ( modify+ climate slightly = a few decades or ev5 c5turies1 b ^! are insignificant comp>$ ) ! mighty fluctuations ( geological "t4 ,9 apply+ ! results ( ?is 8cont95tality0 /udy to =m] geological p]iods ! me?od adopt$ is t ( diff]5ces4 ,! pres5t climate is tak5 z a /&>d1 & ! temp]atures (1 = in/ance1 ! ,glacial p]iod are calculat$ by add+ to or subtract+ f ! pres5t temp]atures am\nts calculat$ f ! *ange 9 ! l& & sea di/ribution4 ,?is has ! advantage ( cons]v+ ! pres5t local peculi>ities1 su* z ^? due to ! pres5ce ( ! ,gulf ,drift1 b su* a proc$ure w\ld be inapplicable = a totally diff]5t l& & sea di/ribution1 su* z prevail$ dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,t x is applicable = ! ,quat]n>y is p]haps be/ %[n by ! foll[+ comp>ison ( temp]atures calculat$ f ! di/ribution ( l&1 sea & ice ) ! actual temp]atures ( ! ,ice ,age z e/imat$ by v>i\s au?orities 7inf]r$ fall73 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,calculat$ ,fall4 ,locality4 ,au?or4 ,inf]r$ ,fall4--------------- ,jan4,july4,mean4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,f4 ,f4 ,f4 ,f4 ,sc&9avia ,j4 ,geikie ,m ?an #bj #cf #ah #bg ,ea/ ,anglia ,c4 ,reid #bj #ah #ac #ae ,alps ,p5ck & ,brckn] #aa #ac #i #aa ,japan ,simotomai #g #i #e #g ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,x is se5 t ! agreem5t is q good4 ,!re is "o o!r po9t to consid]1 ! effect ( height4 ,! exi/5ce ( a great l&-mass g5]ally implies t "p ( x at lea/ has a consid]able elevation1 p]haps #aj1jjj or #bj1jjj feet1 & ^! high l&s lave a v diff]5t climate to ! neighb\r+ l[l&s4 ,meteorologi/s h measur$ ?is diff]5ce 9 ! case ( temp]ature & f\nd t ! av]age fall ) height is at ! rate ( #a ,f4 9 #cjj feet4 ,9 ! l[] levels ! fall is usually great] 9 summ] ?an 9 w9t]1 b at #cjjj feet x is fairly uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,consequ5tly1 q ap>t f any *ange 9 climate due to ! increas$ l& area1 an elevation ( #cjjj feet w\ld result 9 a fall ( temp]ature ( #aj ,f41 w9t] & summ] alike4 ,?is re9=ces ! effect ( increas$ l& area & aids 9 ! developm5t ( ice-%eets or glaci]s4 ,! effect ( geographical *anges on ! di/ribution ( ra9fall are mu* m complicat$4 ,! op5 sea is ! great s\rce ( ! wat]-vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e1 & s9ce evaporation is v mu* great] 9 ! hot ?an 9 ! cold p>ts ( ! globe1 = consid]able precipitation ov] ! _w z a :ole !re mu/ be l>ge wat] areas 9 ! ,tropics4 ,9 temp]ate latitudes ! wat]-vap\r is c>ri$ ov] ! l& by on%ore w9ds1 & "s ( x is precipitat$ :]e ! air is =c$ to rise along ! slopes ( hills or m\nta9s4 ,"s ra9 falls 9 ?und]/orms & simil> local %[]s1 b ! great] "p ( ! ra9 9 mo/ temp]ate c\ntries is associat$ ) ! passage ( 8depressions40 ,^! are our famili> w9d- & ra9-/orms2 a depression consi/s ess5tially ( w9ds bl[+ 9 an anti-clockwise direction r\nd an area ( l[ pressure4 ,^! c5tres ( l[ pressure move ab\t m or less irregul>ly1 b almo/ inv>iably f we/ to ea/ 9 ! temp]ate regions4 ,!y are usually g5]at$ ov] seas or oceans1 &1 s9ce a supply ( moi/ air is ess5tial = _! cont9u$ exi/5ce1 !y t5d to keep to ! neighb\rhood ( wat] masses or1 fail+ t1 ( l>ge riv] valleys4 ,9 a l>ge dry area depressions weak5 or disappe>4 ,_! tracks are also v l>gely gov]n$ by ! positions ( areas ( high pressure or anticyclones1 :i* !y t5d to avoid1 mov+ f we/ to ea/ on ! pol> side ( a l>ge anticyclone & f ea/ to we/ on ! equatorial side4 ,s9ce anticyclones are develop$ ov] ! great l& areas 9 w9t]1 ?is fur!r re/ricts ! pa?s ( depressions to ! neighb\rhood ( ! oceans at t season4 ,= all ^! reasons ! tracks ( depressions1 & !re=e ! ra9fall1 are intimately connect$ ) ! di/ribution ( l& & sea4 ,9 w9t] !re is little ra9fall 9 ! int]ior ( a great l&-mass1 except :]e x is p5etrat$ by an arm ( ! sea l ! ,m$it]ranean2 on ! o!r h&1 ! coa/s receive a great deal ( ra9 or sn[4 ,! int]ior receives its ra9 mo/ly 9 spr+ or summ]2 if ! coa/al l&s are ( no great elevation ?is w be pl5tiful1 b if ! coa/s are m\nta9\s ! int]ior w be arid1 l ! c5tral bas9s ( ,asia4 ,! developm5t ( an ice-%eet is equival5t to introduc+ p]petual w9t] 9 ! area occupi$ by ! ice4 ,! l[ temp]ature ma9ta9s high pressure1 & /orm-tracks are unable to cross ! ice4 ,at ! pres5t day depressions r>ely p5etrate beyond ! out] fr+e ( ! ,ant>ctic cont95t1 & only ! s\!rn extremity ( ,gre5l& is affect$ by !m4 ,s9ce ! total en]gy 9 ! atmosph]e is increas$ by ! pres5ce ( an ice-%eet1 :i* af=ds a great] contra/ ( temp]ature betwe5 cold pole & equator1 /orms w increase 9 frequ5cy & _! tracks mu/ be cr[d$ toge!r on ! equatorial side ( ! ice-%eet4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e we h great /orm9ess 9 ! 8ro>+ =ties02 s\? ( ,gre5l& ! ,newf\ndl& banks are a region ( great /orm9ess4 ,h5ce1 :5 an ice-%eet cov]$ nor!rn & c5tral ,europe ! ,m$it]ranean region mu/ h _h a m>k$ increase ( /orm9ess ) probably ra9 9 summ] z well z 9 w9t]4 ,b if sn[-be>+ depressions _c p5etrate an ice-%eet1 x may be ask$ h[ ! ice-%eet c live4 ,! answ] dep5ds on ! nature ( ! und]ly+ c\ntry4 ,a l& ( high relief su* z ,ant>ctica is1 & z ,gre5l& probably is1 ris+ to a maximum elevation ( _m ?\s& feet ne> its c5tre1 draws its n\ri%m5t *iefly f ! upp] curr5ts :i* fl[ inw>d on all sides to replace ! cool$ air :i* fl[s outw>ds ne> ! surface4 ,^! upp] curr5ts c>ry a c]ta9 am\nt ( moi/ure1 p>tly 9 ! =m ( vap\r1 b p>tly cond5s$ z cirrus & ev5 cumulus cl\d4 ,at l[ temp]atures air is able to hold only a negligible am\nt ( wat]-vap\r1 & ?is curr5t1 com+ 9 contact ) ! extremely cold surface ( ! ice1 is suck$ dry1 & its moi/ure add$ to ! ice-%eet4 ,probably !re is little true sn[fall1 b ! cond5sation takes place *iefly close to ! surface1 =m+ a froz5 mi/ resembl+ ! 8ice-mi/0 ( ,sib]ia4 ,ev5 if ! c5tral l& is n high en\gh to rea* into ! upp] curr5t at its normal level1 ! surface outfl[ ( cold air w draw ! curr5t d[n to ! level ( ! ice4 ,?is w w>m x by compression1 b ! ice-surface is s cold t su* w>m+ makes little diff]5ce 9 ! end4 ,?is process ( cond5sation ensures t aft] ! ice rea*es a c]ta9 ?ickness x becomes indep5d5t ( topography1 & 9 fact ! c5tre ( ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet lay n along ! m\nta9 axis1 b "s di/ance to ! ea/ ( x4 ,x is probably only on ! edges ( ! ice-%eet1 & especially 9 areas ( consid]able local relief1 t sn[fall ( ! ord9>y type takes place1 associat$ ) moi/ w9ds bl[+ 9 ! front section ( depressions :i* skirt ! ice-edge4 ,b :5 conditions are fav\rable ?is s\rce ( supply is suffici5t to enable ^! local ice-%eets to ma9ta9 an indep5d5t life1 m]ely fus+ ) ! edges ( ! l>g] %eet :]e !y meet4 ,examples ( su* local c5tres 9 ,europe 7 ! ,iri% & ,scotti% glaci]s1 & at a lat] /age ! ,l(ot5 glaci]s ( ! we/ ( ,norway1 & 9 ,am]ica ! ,cordill]an glaci]s ( ,columbia4 ,p5ck & ,brckn] h demon/rat$ t 9 ! ,alps ! increase ( glaciation 0 due to a fall ( temp]ature & n to an increase ( sn[fall4 ,! argum5t is ?reefold3 fir/ly1 ! l[]+ ( ! sn[-l9e 0 uni=m ov] ! :ole ,alp9e area1 in/ead ( be+ irregul> z x w\ld be if x dep5d$ on v>iations ( sn[fall2 secondly1 ! area & dep? ( ! p>5t sn[-fields :i* f$ ! glaci]s rema9$ un*ang$1 h5ce ! increas$ l5g? ( ! glaci]s mu/ h be5 due to decreas$ melt+ bel[ ! sn[-l9e1 i4e4 to l[] temp]atures2 ?irdly1 ! upp] limit ( tree-gr[? 9 ,europe sank by ab\t ! same am\nt z ! sn[-l9e4 ,! same conclusion holds = ! great ,sc&9avian & ,nor? ,am]ican ice-%eets1 ! ext5sion ( :i* 0 und\bt$ly due to a great fall ( temp]ature4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,alps ! int]e/+ po9t has come to light t ! fall ( temp]ature1 ?\gh due 9 "p to increas$ elevation1 is ma9ly acc\nt$ = by ! pres5ce ( ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet1 :i* ext5d$ its influ5ce = _m miles beyond ! actual limits ( glaciation1 s t its wax+s & wan+s are fai?fully reproduc$ 9 ^? ( ! ,alp9e glaci]s1 ev5 to ! details ( ! f9al retreat aft] ! la/ maximum4 ,x is only :5 we turn to tropical & sub-tropical regions t we f9d v>iations ( temp]ature unable to acc\nt = increas$ glaciation4 ,n only 7 ! *anges ( l& & sea di/ribution on a v mu* small] scale ?an fur!r nor?1 b ! ,app5dix %[s t ! temp]ature value ( a correspond+ *ange ( l& area is also v mu* less4 ,b ! high int]tropical m\nta9s--! ,&es & ,k5ya & ,kilimanj>o 9 c5tral ,africa--:i* to-day be> glaci]s1 9 ,quat]n>y times c>ri$ mu* great] ones4 ,we _c call 9 a fall ( temp]ature1 = ! reason above /at$1 & also because at l[] levels !re is no evid5ce ( cold] conditions4 ,9 ! ,glacial p]iod ! m>9e fauna 0 ! same z to-day1 & m\nta9s :i* n[ fall %ort ( ! sn[-l9e by a few hundr$ feet 7 /ill unglaciat$ ev5 !n4 ,! only alt]native is increas$ sn[fall on ! high] m\nta9s4 ,=tunately ?is fits 9 well ) meteorological !ory4 ,! ra9 & sn[fall ( tropical regions dep5ds1 fir/ ( all1 on ! evaporation ov] ! oceans4 ,b evaporation is pr(\ndly influ5c$ by ! velocity ( ! w9d2 & ! w9d1 :i* 9 ! ,tropics repres5ts ! /r5g? ( ! atmosph]ic circulation1 dep5ds on ! !rmal gradi5t betwe5 ! equator & ! poles2 s9ce !re is no evid5ce ( any appreciable *ange ( temp]ature ov] ! ,tropics z a :ole1 :ile !re 0 a v great fall 9 cold temp]ate & pol> regions1 ! !rmal gradi5t1 & !re=e1 ultimately1 ! tropical & sub-tropical1 ra9 & sn[fall mu/ h be5 v greatly increas$4 ,h5ce ! increas$ glaciation ( high m\nta9s ne> ! equator1 & h5ce also ! evid5ce ( 8,pluvial p]iods0 9 ! sub-tropical arid regions on ei!r side ( ! equator4 ,?us dur+ ,glacial p]iods we h3 7#a7 ,elevation 9 high latitudes caus$ a great increase ( l& areas !re4 7#b7 ,bo? elevation & increase ( l& area result$ 9 a l[]+ ( temp]ature1 mat]ially increas$ by ! gradual developm5t ( great ice-%eets4 7#c7 ,^! ice-%eets caus$ ! developm5t ( subsidi>y ice-%eets on _! s\!rn & we/]n bord]s4 7#d7 ,! l[]+ ( temp]ature 9 high latitudes increas$ ! !rmal gradi5t betwe5 equator & poles1 result+ 93 7a7 ,increas$ sn[fall1 & h5ce increas$ glaciation on high m\nta9s ne> ! equator4 7b7 ,pluvial p]iods 9 ! sub-tropical arid regions4 ,,bibliography ,humphreys1 ,w4 ,j4 8,physics ( ! air40 ,philadelphia1 #aibj4 ,pt4 #d1 pp4 #eef-fbi4 ,*amb]l91 ,t4 ,c4 8,an attempt to frame a work+ hypo!sis ( ! cause ( glacial p]iods on an atmosph]ic basis40 ,j\rnal ( ,geology 7,am]ican71 ,vol4 #g1 #ahii1 pp4 #ede-hd1 #ffg-he1 #gea-hg4 ,c>bon dioxide !ory4 ,croll1 ,j4 8,climate & "t 9 _! geological relations40 ,london1 #ahge4 8,discussions on climate & cosmology40 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,ecc5tricity ( e>?'s orbit4 ,spital]1 ,r4 8,das ,klima des ,eiszeitalt]s40 ,prag1 #aiba4 ,li?ograph$4 ,ecc5tricity ( e>?'s orbit4 ,review$ 9 ! ,meteorological ,magaz9e1 ,london1 ,septemb]1 #aiba4 ,simro?1 ,h4 8,die ,p5dulation/heorie40 ,leipzig1 #aijh4 ,krei*gau]1 ,p4 8,die ,aequatorfrage 9 d] ,geologie40 ,/eyr1 #aijb4 ,weg5]1 ,a4 8,die ,ent/ehung d] ,cont95te und ,ozeane40 ,die ,wiss5s*aft1 ,bd4 #ff1 ,brauns*weig1 #aibj4 ,kpp51 ,w4 8,ueb] ,a5d]ung5 d] geographis*5 ,breit5 und des ,klimas 9 geologis*] ,zeit40 ,/ockholm1 ,geografiska ,annal]1 #b1 #aibj1 pp4 #bhe-ii4 ,brooks1 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 8,cont95tality & temp]ature40 ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,royal ,meteorological ,society1 ,vol4 #dc1 #aiag1 p4 #afi2 & #dd1 #aiah1 p4 #bec4 ,influ5ce ( l& & sea di/ribution4 ,enqui/1 ,f4 8,e9e ,!orie b] die ,ursa*e d] ,eiszeit und die geographis*5 ,konsequ5z5 d]selbe40 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,in/41 ,upsala1 #ac1 #aiae1 ,no4 #b4 ,influ5ce ( l& & sea di/ribution4 ,hobbs1 ,w4 ,h4 8,*>act]i/ics ( exi/+ glaci]s40 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,glacial anticyclone4 ,,table ,,( ,,geological ,,=mations ,rec5t ,,quat]n>y ,plei/oc5e ,plioc5e ,,t]ti>y or ,mioc5e ,,ca9ozoic ,oligoc5e ,eoc5e ,cretace\s ,,mesozoic or ,jurassic ,,second>y ,triassic ,p]mian ,c>bonif]\s ,devonian ,,pal,,ozoic ,silurian ,ordovician ,cambrian ,,prot]ozoic ,pre-,cambrian ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,climatic ,,record ,,z ,a ,,:ole ,x is a rem>kable fact t "o ( ! olde/ kn[n s$im5t>y rocks is glacial 9 orig91 & indicat$ ! pres5ce ( an ice-%eet at a v e>ly /age 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,?is is a 8tillite10 or b\ld]-clay1 discov]$ by ,pr(4 ,coleman at ! base ( ! ,l[] ,huronian 7,e>ly ,prot]ozoic7 ( ,canada4 ,x ext5ds 9 an ea/ & we/ direction = #ajjj miles across nor!rn ,ont>io1 & nor?w>d f ! nor!rn %ore ( ,lake ,huron = #gej miles4 ,x re/s on a scrat*$ or poli%$ surface ( v>i\s rocks1 & ! includ$ b\ld]s are n always local1 b "s h be5 br\ght f a consid]able di/ance4 ,all ^! *>act]s po9t to a l>ge ice-%eet4 ,traces ( ,prot]ozoic glaciations h be5 discov]$ 9 v>i\s o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 & "s ( ^! may be ( ! same age z ! ,canadian ice-%eet1 b !y _c yet be dat$ exactly4 ,an int]e/+ example is we/]n ,scotl&1 :i* ,j4 ,geikie consid]$ to h be5 glaciat$ by ice f ! nor?-we/ :i* has s9ce sunk into ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,o!r glacial rema9s h no d\bt be5 de/roy$ or deeply buri$1 :ile "s may /ill await discov]y1 & at pres5t we mu/ be cont5t to note ! occurr5ce ( a glacial p]iod at ?is "t )\t attempt+ any description ( ! di/ribution ( climates ov] ! globe4 ,foll[$ a long p]iod ( mild] climate indicat$ 9 ,am]ica by ?ick deposits ( lime/one ) ! rema9s ( reef-build+ organisms & o!r m>9e life4 ,?is p]iod may h be5 int]rupt$ at lea/ once by ! recurr5ce ( glacial conditions1 b ! evid5ce = ?is is d\btful4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! duration ( ! ,prot]ozoic 0 v great1 at lea/ z long z all subsequ5t "t1 :ile ! relics ( x :i* are n[ kn[n to u are few & scatt]$1 s t mu* :i* happ5$ dur+ t "t is a clos$ book4 ,x is n until ! v close ( ! ,prot]ozoic t we aga9 f9d indisputable evid5ce ( widespread glacial action4 ,?is second great glaciation 0 plac$ orig9ally 9 ! e>lie/ ,cambrian 7see table ( geological =mations at ! end ( ,*apt] ,i71 b lat] evid5ce %[s t x is slightly old] ?an ! olde/ deposit :i* c be ref]r$ to ?is s]ies1 & x may be designat$ ! ,pre-,cambrian glaciation4 ,tillites ( ?is age h be5 f\nd 9 ! middle ,yangtse region ( ,*9a & 9 ,s\? ,au/ralia 7:]e !y ext5d f #bj miles s\? ( ,adelaide to #ddj miles nor?1 ) an ea/-we/ ext5sion ( #bjj miles74 ,glacial deposits :i* probably ref] to ?is p]iod h be5 f\nd also 9 ,india1 bo? 9 ! ,deccan & ne> ,simla1 ov] a wide area 9 ,s\? ,africa1 & 9 ! extreme nor? ( ,norway4 ,?is di/ribution sugge/s ! pres5ce ( two c5tres ( glaciation1 "o betwe5 ,*9a1 ,india & ,au/ralia1 & ! o!r nor?-we/ ( ,europe4 ,! s\?-ea/]n ( ^! 0 ! mo/ ext5sive1 & probably indicates a r+ ( glaciat$ cont95ts surr\nd+ ! pole1 r ?an a s+le enorm\s ice-%eet4 ,dur+ ! ,cambrian all evid5ce ( glacial action ceases1 & we h1 in/ead1 evid5ce ( a w>m1 fairly uni=m climate 9 ! abundant m>9e life4 ,?is cont9u$ dur+ ! ,ordovician & became acc5tuat$ dur+ ! ,silurian p]iod1 :5 reef corals liv$ 9 ! seas ( all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,t]re/rial deposits are curi\sly lack+ 9 all ?is s]ies1 & ?is sugge/s t 9 ! abs5ce ( any great m\nta9-build+ & elevation %all[ seas ext5d$ ov] almo/ ! :ole ( ! surface1 accompani$ by mild oceanic climates ext5d+ to high latitudes4 ,at ! close ( ! ,silurian !re 0 a p]iod ( m\nta9-build+ & ! =mation ( cont95ts4 ,! ext9ction ( num]\s species ( m>9e organisms & ! rapid evolution ( o!rs po9t to ! seas becom+ cool] & ! /ress ( life m acute4 ,9 ! succe$+ ,devonian p]iod !re is evid5ce ( glacial conditions 9 ,s\? ,africa 9 ! =m ( a ?ick s]ies ( qu>tzites ) /riat$ pebbles up to fifte5 in*es long1 b no typical b\ld]-clay has be5 discov]$4 ,!re are also "s d\btful traces f ,engl&4 ,! mo/ notewor?y developm5t ( ! ,devonian 9 ! ,briti% ,isles is1 h[ev]1 a ?ick deposit ( r$ s&/one 7,old ,r$ ,s&/one7 ( ! type t is =m$ 9 %all[ lagoons or inclos$ bas9s1 & sugge/+ des]t conditions1 s t ! ra9fall ( ! ,briti% ,isles 0 probably slight4 ,^! cont95tal conditions pass$ away t[>ds ! close ( ! ,devonian p]iod1 & once aga9 ext5sive w>m oceans appe> to h spread ov] a l>ge "p ( ! globe1 associat$ ) ! developm5t ( reef-build+ corals4 ,climate cont9u$ w>m & equable ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,! important feature ( ?is p]iod is ! great sy/em ( coal-b$s :i* ext5ds ?r\gh ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe to ,*9a1 ) nor!rn & s\!rn limits 9 #hj ,n4 7nor?-ea/ ,gre5l& & ,spitzb]g57 & #ae ,s4 7,zambesi ,riv]74 ,weg5]1 summ+ up ! evid5ce1 & consid]+ especially ! abs5ce ( annual r+s 9 ! trees1 concludes t ! coal-b$s are ! rema9s ( ! tropical ra9-=e/ :5 ! equator lay across ,europe "s #cj degrees nor? ( its pres5t position4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod great m\nta9-build+ set 91 result+ 9 ! =mation ( ! fam\s ,gondwanal&1 includ+ s\? & c5tral ,africa1 s\!rn ,asia1 "p ( ,au/ralia & possibly ,brazil4 ,f a consid]ation ( ! glacial evid5ce1 h[ev]1 x appe>s1 z w be se5 lat]1 t ?is 0 probably a r+ ( neighb\r+ & p>tly adjo9+ l& areas r ?an a s+le enorm\s cont95t4 ,at ! same "t ! climate became cool]1 & a h>di] vegetation1 kn[n z ! ,glossopt]is flora1 develop$ 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 includ+ woody trees ) annual r+s indicat+ seasons4 ,! l>ge insects ( ! coal =e/s :i* did n und]go a metamorphosis 7 replac$ by small] types :i* did pass ?r\gh su* a /age2 ?is *ange ( habit is consid]$ to be due to ! w9t]s hav+ become sev]e1 s t ! insects le>nt to hib]nate ?r\gh !m4 ,9 ! e>ly ,p]mian1 ,gondwanal& 0 occupi$ by great ice-%eets1 rema9s ( :i* 9 ! =m ( tillites ( great ?ickness1 ice-worn surfaces & /riat$ b\ld]s h be5 f\nd 9 ,s\? ,africa1 ,belgian ,congo1 & ,togol&1 ,tasmania & widely sep>at$ p>ts ( ,au/ralia1 p59sul> & nor?-we/]n ,india1 & probably also ,afghani/an4 ,9 ,india ! glacial /ri %[ t ! ice-%eet 0 mov+ nor?1 :ile 9 ,s\? ,africa x 0 mov+ s\?1 i4e4 away f ! pres5t equator 9 bo? cases4 ,widespread glacial rema9s h be5 f\nd also 9 ,brazil1 nor!rn ,arg5t9e & ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & !re are probable traces ne> ,bo/on 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ,arm5ia1 ! ,urals & ! ,alps1 & possibly also 9 ,engl&4 ,weg5]'s recon/ruction ( ! geography ( ?is p]iod places ! s\? pole a little to ! s\?-ea/ ( ,s\? ,africa1 surr\nd$ by a great cont95t compos$ ( ! junction ( ,africa1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,ant>ctica1 ,au/ralia1 & an ext5d$ ,deccan add$ to by smoo?+ out ! folds ( ! ,himalayas4 ,?is great circumpol> cont95t he consid]s to h be5 ! site ( an imm5se ice-cap4 ,! ,nor? ,pole lay 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean1 s t almo/ all ! rema9+ l& areas enjoy$ temp]ate or tropical climates4 ,x is admitt$ t ?is peculi> di/ribution ( glacial rema9s app>5tly necessitates a position ( ! pole some:]e ne> t describ$ by ,weg5]1 b ! !ory ( a s+le pol> ice-cap ext5d+ beyond #ej latitude on ne>ly all sides pres5ts difficulties4 ,f ! me*anism ( ! supply ( sn[ to an ice-%eet describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] x foll[s t1 except close to ! edges1 all ! moi/ure precipitat$ mu/ be br\ght 9 by upp] curr5ts4 ,b ev5 if we take into acc\nt ! increase 9 ! /r5g? ( ! atmosph]ic circulation due to ! introduction ( an ice-cap1 !re is a limit to ! supply ( moi/ure by ?is process4 ,all su* moi/ure has to cross ! p]iph]y1 & ) increas+ radius2 ! numb] ( squ>e miles ( area to ea* mile ( p]iph]y becomes great]1 sl[ly at fir/1 !n m & m rapidly4 ,we %all see 9 ,*apt] ,,viii t ev5 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,quat]n>y ice-%eet became unwieldy f ?is cause1 & suff]$ sev]al *anges ( c5tre4 ,h5ce x seems t ! rappro*em5t ( ! cont95ts 9 ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s times ne$ n h be5 s complete z ,weg5] supposes1 ! glacial ph5om5a be+ m readily explicable by a r+ ( cont95ts surr\nd+ a pol> sea1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,quat]n>y glaciation ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! local ,p]mian glaciations ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 "s ( :i* fell close to ,weg5]'s equator1 are easily explicable z due to m\nta9 glaci]s simil> to ^? ( ,ruw5zori & o!r tropical m\nta9s dur+ ! ,quat]n>y4 ,!re 7 int]glacial p]iods 9 ,s\? ,africa1 ,brazil & ,new ,s\? ,wales1 :i* increase ! resemblance betwe5 ! ,p]mian & ,quat]n>y ,ice ,ages4 ,9 ,upp] ,p]mian times !re 0 a widespread developm5t ( arid climates1 especially 9 ! pres5t temp]ate p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,weg5] attributes ?is to ! nor!rly position ( ! equator br++ ! sub-tropical des]t belt 7,sah>a1 ,arizona7 to ^! regions4 ,9 ! ,trias ^! conditions gradually gave place to ano!r p]iod ( widespread w>m %all[ seas1 ) abundant m>9e life & corals ext5d+ ov] a l>ge "p ( ! _w1 ev5 to ,arctic ,alaska4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re are ! rema9s ( ! =e/s ( ?is p]iod1 9 :i* ! tree-trunks %[ v little evid5ce ( annual r+s1 indicat+ t ! seasonal *anges 7 slight1 s t ! climate _h aga9 become mild & oceanic4 ,9 ! ,lias 7,l[] ,jurassic71 !re 0 cru/al movem5t & volcanic action accompani$ by l&-=mation & a gradual l[]+ ( temp]ature4 ,!re 0 a great r$uction 9 ! abundance & geographical range ( corals1 & mo/ ( ! species ( insects are ( dw>f types4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no evid5ce ( glacial action4 ,! ,upp] ,jurassic p]iod appe>s to h be5 w>m] ?an ! ,lias4 ,insects ( a l>ge size & corals aga9 atta9$ a v wide di/ribution1 b !re is en\gh diff]5ce 9 ! m>9e faunas ( diff]5t regions to indicate a great] developm5t ( climatic zones ?an 9 ! extremely oceanic p]iods su* z ! late ,triassic4 ,s*u*]t po9ts out t ! plants ( ,l\is ,philippe ,l& 9 #fc ,s4 are ! same1 ev5 to species1 z ^? ( ,york%ire4 ,9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod ! climate 0 at fir/ simil> to t ( ! ,jurassic1 & trees grew 9 ,alaska1 ,gre5l& & ,spitzb]g54 ,^! trees1 h[ev]1 %[ m>k$ annual r+s1 indicat+ a consid]able diff]5tiation ( seasons1 :ile trees ( ?is age f\nd 9 ,egypt are devoid ( r+s4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,cretace\s !re 7 _m cru/al movem5ts & great volcanic outbur/s1 accompani$ by a consid]able r$uction ( temp]ature1 :i* l$ to ! ext9ction ( _m =ms ( life & ! rapid evolution ( o!rs4 ,!re is no evid5ce ( glacial action dur+ ! ,cretace\s1 h[ev]1 ?\gh at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,eoc5e !re 0 a local glaciation ( ! ,san ,juan ,m\nta9s ( ,colorado4 ,accord+ to ,w4 ,w4 ,atwood ?is glaciation 0 d\ble1 ! fir/ /age be+ ( ! ,alp9e m\nta9 glaci] type1 sep>at$ by an int]glacial f ! second /age1 :i* 0 ( ! ,pi$mont type 7m\nta9 glaci]s spread+ out on ! pla9 at ! foot ( ! m\nta974 ,?is ,eoc5e glaciation has be5 f\nd n[h]e else1 h[ev]1 & ! climate ( ! ,t]ti>y1 :i* is discuss$ m fully 9 ! next *apt]1 0 9 g5]al w>m & oceanic1 becom+ rigor\s t[>ds its close4 ,summ+ up1 we f9d t 9 ! geological hi/ory ( ! e>? two ma9 types ( climate seem to h alt]nat$4 ,foll[+ on p]iods ( great cru/al movem5t1 & ! =mation ( l>ge l& areas1 ! g5]al climate 0 cool1 ) a m>k$ zonal di/ribution ( temp]ature1 culm9at+ dur+ at lea/ f\r p]iods 9 ! developm5t ( great %eets ( inl& ice4 ,x is 9 su* a p]iod1 ?\gh1 =tunately1 n at its wor/1 t we are liv+ at pres5t4 ,dur+ quiesc5t p]iods1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 ^! cont95ts l>gely disappe>$ b5ea? ! sea1 climate became mild & equable1 & approa*$ uni=mity ov] a great "p ( ! _w4 ,at ^! times1 z soon z ! surface wat] ( ! sea 9 high latitudes began to cool1 x sank to ! bottom1 & its place 0 tak5 by w>m] wat] f l[] latitudes4 ,! oceanic circulation 0 v complete1 b !re 7 practically no cold surface curr5ts4 ,in/ead1 !re 0 probably a g5]al drift ( ! surface wat]s f l[ to high latitudes 7) an ea/]ly tr5d ow+ to rotation ( ! e>?71 & a return drift ( cool$ wat] along ! floor ( ! ocean4 ,! =mation ( sea-ice ne> ! poles became impossible1 :ile ! widespread di/ribution ( m>9e life 0 facilitat$4 ,! alt]nation ( p]iods ( cru/al de=mation ) p]iods ( quiesc5ce has frequ5tly be5 notic$1 & has be5 t]m$ ! 8geological rhy?m40 ,x may be attribut$ to ! gradual accumulation ( small /ra9s dur+ a quiesc5t p]iod until ! break+ po9t is rea*$1 :5 e>?-movem5ts take place until equilibrium is re/or$1 :5 ! process is repeat$4 ,! gradual erosion ( ! l& by riv] & wave-action & ! consequ5t %ift+ ( ! load provides a c]ta9 am\nt ( /ress2 b ?is is local1 & calls = local readju/m5ts only4 ,a m g5]ally effective ag5cy may be ! gradual sl[+ d[n ( ! e>?'s rotation "u ! influ5ce ( tidal friction4 ,! me*anism ( ?is process 0 describ$ by ,a4 ,e4 ,h4 ,love 78,nature10 #id1 #aiad1 p4 #bed73 8,! surface ( ! ocean1 ap>t f waves & tides1 is at any "t a figure ( equilibrium answ]+ to ! spe$ ( rotation at ! "t1 m oblate :5 ! spe$ is great]1 less oblate :5 x is sl[]4 ,let u imag9e t ! li?osph]e also is at "s "t a figure ( equilibrium answ]+ to ! spe$ ( rotation at t "t4 ,if ! spe$ rema9$ con/ant1 ! li?osph]e w\ld reta9 ?is figure1 & ! matt] )9 x w\ld rema9 always 9 ! same configuration )\t hav+ to support any int]nal tang5tial /ress4 ,n[ suppose t ! spe$ ( rotation gradually dim9i%es4 ,! surface ( ! ocean w gradually become less & less oblate4 ,! li?osph]e also w gradually become less oblate1 b n to su* an ext5t z to make x a figure ( equilibrium answ]+ to ! dim9i%$ spe$ ( rotation1 :ile ! matt] )9 x w get into a /ate ( gradually increas+ int]nal tang5tial /ress4 ,! effect on ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] w be t ! dep? ( ! ocean w gradually dim9i% 9 l[] latitudes & increase 9 high] latitudes1 ! latitudes ( no *ange be+ #ce #af ,n4 & ,s4 8,! int]nal tang5tial /ress 9 ! matt] )9 ! li?osph]e may increase s mu* t x c no long] be support$4 ,if ?is happ5s a s]ies ( local fractures w take place1 cont9u+ until ! li?osph]e is aga9 adju/$ mu* m ne>ly to a figure ( equilibrium1 :i* w be less oblate ?an ! orig9al figure4 ,! effect on ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] w be t ! dep? ( ! ocean w increase r rapidly & spasmodically 9 l[] latitudes & dim9i% 9 high] latitudes4 8,accord+ly1 ! k9d ( geological *ange :i* ! !ory ( tidal friction w\ld lead u to expect is a sort ( rhy?mic sequ5ce1 involv+ long p]iods ( comp>ative quiesc5ce1 m>k$ by :at ,suess calls #8positive movem5ts ( ! /r&1' 9 ! high] latitudes1 & #8negative movem5ts' 9 ! l[]1 alt]nat+ ) comp>atively %ort p]iods ( great] activity1 m>k$ by rise ( ! l& ar\nd ! poles & subsid5ces 9 ! equatorial regions40 ,! ma9 p]iods ( adju/m5t "u ?is s*eme fall at ! beg9n+ & end ( ! ,prot]ozoic1 9 ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s & 9 ! ,quat]n>y4 ,! two latt] at lea/ 7 p]iods ( great e>?-movem5t1 :ile ! two =m] 7 also cont95tal p]iods1 s9ce ! l&-masses 7 l>ge & high en\gh to develop ice-%eets4 ,! difficult "q rais$ by ! l[ latitudes 9 :i* ! ,pre-,cambrian & ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s glaciations 7 *iefly develop$ _c yet be reg>d$ z solv$1 b ! geological facts speak /rongly 9 fav\r ( ice-%eets r ?an m\nta9 glaci]s1 & practically speak+ x is meteorologically impossible = l>ge ice-%eets to ext5d to sea-level 9 ! ,tropics :ile ! re/ ( ! _w enjoys a temp]ate climate4 ,! only escape seems to be to assume a position ( ! ,s\? ,pole some:]e betwe5 ,africa1 ,india & ,au/ralia ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! ,prot]ozoic & ,palozoic p]iods4 ,on ! o!r h&1 f ! ,jurassic onw>ds1 !re is no real support to ! hypo!sis t ! positions ( ! poles 7 o!r ?an !y are n[4 ,weg5]'s explanation ( ! ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age we h se5 to be unt5able4 ,! p]iod ( transition appe>s to lie 9 ! lat] ,p]mian & ,triassic4 ,! ,prot]ozoic & ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s glacial p]iods 7 mu* less def9ite 9 ! nor? ?an 9 ! s\?-ea/2 b su* z !y 7 !y appe> to h be5 mo/ sev]e 9 ! ea/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e ! ice 0 com+ f ! nor?2 !re are also "s glacial traces 9 ,europe4 ,?is indicates t ! position ( ! ,nor? ,pole _c h be5 9 ! ,nor? ,pacific ,ocean1 :i* is antipodal to ! ,s\? ,indian ,ocean4 ,h5ce x seems t :at we h to consid] is n s mu* ! w&]+s ( ! poles at l>ge among ! cont95ts z ! break-(f at ! close ( ! ,palozoic p]iod ( portions ( ! ,ant>ctic cont95t & _! drift nor?w>ds t[>ds ! equator4 ,)\t go+ into ! ma!matics ( ! "q1 x seems j possible t ! p]iodic ov]load+ ( circumpol> cont95ts by l>ge ice-masses c\ld h ?is effect 9 ! c\rse ( "t1#b b ! sugge/ion is put =w>d t5tatively = consid]ation r ?an z a def9ite hypo!sis4 ,we mu/ be ?ankful t 9 ! next *apt] we are on saf] gr\nd4 ,,bibliography ,coleman1 ,a4 ,p4 8,climates & physical conditions ( ! e>ly ,pre-,cambrian40 ,geol4 ,mag4 7#f71 ,vol4 #a1 #aiad1 p4 #dff4 ,eck>dt1 ,w4 ,r4 8,paloklimatologie40 ,sammlung ,gos*51 ,leipzig1 #aiaj4 ,geikie1 ,j4 8,! ,evolution ( ,climate40 ,ed9burgh1 ,scot4 ,geogr4 ,mag4 7#f71 #ahij1 p4 #eg4 ,grabau1 ,a4 ,w4 8,pr9ciples ( ,/ratigraphy40 ,new ,york1 #aiac1 pp4 #gd1 et seq4 ,neumayr1 ,m4 8,ueb] klimatis*5 ,zon5 whr5d d] ,jura- und ,kreidezeit40 ,wi51 ,d5ks*r4 ,ak4 ,sci41 #dg1 #ahhc1 p4 #baa4 ,ramsay1 ,w4 8,orog5esis und ,klima40 ,(v]s af ,f9ska ,vet5skaps4 ,soc4 ,=b41 #eb1 #aiji-aj1 ,a1 ,no4 #aa4 ,hels+=s1 #aiaj4 ,s*u*]t1 ,c4 8,climates ( ,geologic ,"t1 ,93 ,! climatic factor z illu/rat$ 9 arid ,am]ica10 by ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton4 ,wa%+ton1 #aiad1 ,pt4 #b4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,conditions ,,be=e ,,! ,,quat]n>y ,,ice ,,age ,! ?ird ( ! great p]iods into :i* ! geological record is divid$ is kn[n z ! ,t]ti>y4 ,?r\gh\t mo/ ( its l5g? x appe>s to h be5 *>act]iz$ by rem>kably mild & equable climatic conditions ext5d+ into comp>atively high latitudes1 s t ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 = in/ance1 _h a flora ( almo/ sub-tropical aspect4 ,s9ce ! plants 9 "q--*iefly palms & cycads--are n ( id5tical species ) _! pres5t-day repres5tatives1 x is unsafe to base num]ical e/imates ( ! temp]ature ^u !m1 b x is at lea/ obvi\s t ^! regions 7 w>m] ?an !y are at pres5t4 ,let u glance = a mom5t at ! geography ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! mo/ noticeable po9t is a great expanse ( sea ov] s\?-ea/]n ,europe1 includ+ ! ,m$it]ranean c\ntries1 ext5d+ away ov] ! ,black ,sea & ,caspian1 & /ret*+ 9 a great arm to ! ,arctic ,ocean1 s\? ( ,novaya ,zemlya4 ,! geology ( ! ar*ipelago nor? ( ,canada is n yet well kn[n1 b x seems probable t !re 0 a consid]able area ( ,t]ti>y ocean !re also4 ,! sea fur!r encroa*$ on ! pres5t b\nd>ies ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 bo? ea/ & we/1 & on ! nor?-ea/]n coa/ ( ,asia4 ,be>+ 9 m9d ! pr9ciples set out 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 we c inf] f ^! *anges a great increase 9 ! w9t] temp]ature ( ! regions along ! ,arctic circle4 ,! increase rea*$ a maximum on ! we/ ( ,gre5l& & 9 we/]n ,sib]ia1 b ! we/ coa/ ( ,alaska also _h a decid$ly w>m climate 9 ! late ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e4 ,! bas9 ( ! ,arctic ,ocean1 :i* already exi/$ at t /age1 0 rais$ to a temp]ature consid]ably high] ?an ! pres5t by ?ree great /reams ( w>m wat] fl[+ into x4 ,if1 z seems probable1 ! ,b]+ ,/rait 0 deep]1 & ! subm>9e ridge across ! ,nor? ,atlantic less pron\nc$1 ! ob/acles to ! outfl[ ( cold wat] along ! ocean floor 7 mu* less ?an n[4 ,f9ally1 ! w9t] temp]atures ( ! l&-masses to ! s\?1 & especially ,sib]ia1 be+ already v mu* less sev]e ow+ to ! sea ov] ,europe1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] ( ! great riv]s fl[+ into ! ,arctic 0 n s l[4 ,= ^! reasons ! developm5t ( ice 9 ! ,arctic ,ocean 0 v mu* dim9i%$1 & possibly entirely abs5t1 all[+ a great amelioration ( ! climate ( ,gre5l&1 ! rigor ( :i* is at pres5t mu* enhanc$ by ! ice :i* fl[s d[n ! ,gre5l& ,sea & r\nd ,cape ,f>ewell4 ,! cumulative effect ( all ^! *anges--great] wat] area1 great] infl[ ( w>m surface wat]1 less infl[ ( cold riv] wat]1 less ice-developm5t--mu/ h be5 a mild equable ra9y climate1 entirely suitable to a ri* vegetation4 ,! sub-tropical aspect ( t vegetation %\ld n be /ress$1 = x 0 probably z mu* an expression ( ! geological age ( ! p]iod 9 "q z ( its climate4 ,! objection may be rais$ t at ! pres5t "t ! sub-ant>ctic isl&s 9 ! great ,s\!rn ,ocean h ! mo/ m>itime climate 9 ! _w1 b are n by any means places ( opul5t vegetation4 ,! diff]5ce is entirely acc\nt$ = by ! pres5ce ( ! great ice-be>+ ,ant>ctic cont95t4 ,its effect is tw(old4 ,fir/ly1 ! glaci]s %$ into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean an imm5se quantity ( ice & ice-cold wat] annually1 :i* mu/ h an appreciable effect on temp]ature4 ,secondly1 ! pres5ce ( ?is ice-cov]$ cont95t & ! float+ ice 9 its neighb\rhood ext5d+ z f> z ! sixtie? p>allel1 by =m+ a m>k$ contra/ ) ! w>m] wat]s fur!r nor?1 greatly int5sifies ! /r5g? ( ! atmosph]ic circulation 9 ^! regions1 result+ 9 ! developm5t ( a great succession ( sev]e /orms :i* sweep ! sub-ant>ctic isl&s4 ,!re are no great l&-masses to break ! =ce ( ! w9d1 & ^! latitudes are among ! /ormie/1 w9die/ regions ( ! e>?--gale succe$+ gale1 w9t] & summ] alike2 & x is l>gely to ! extraord9>y p[] ( ! w9d t we mu/ attribute ! desolate appe>ance ( ! isl&s4 ,! picture we h drawn ( ! high nor!rn latitudes 9 e>ly ,t]ti>y times is va/ly diff]5t4 ,a great w>m ocean occupi$ ! ,arctic regions1 f$ by ?ree ocean curr5ts analog\s to ! ,gulf ,drift1 & ! fall ( temp]ature 0 gradual f ! tropic to ! pole4 ,! return cold] curr5ts 7 ma9ly along ! ocean floor & ) little ice-=mation ! /orms 7 few & n sev]e4 ,on ! we/]n %ores ( ! cont95ts mild ra9-be>+ s\?-we/ w9ds prevail$1 & a quiet moi/ w>m atmosph]e exi/$ :i* 0 especially fav\rable to plant life4 ,?is fav\rable /ate ( affairs la/$ until well on 9 ! ,mioc5e1 & !n *anges set 94 ,! l& & sea di/ribution und]w5t ess5tial modifications4 ,! great ,t]ti>y cont95t or ar*ipelago :i* is believ$ to h exi/$ 9 ! we/]n ,pacific1 & ^: la/ rema9+ summits n[ =m ! scatt]$ isl&s ( t ocean1 gradually subsid$1 & 9 its place elevation began 9 high] latitudes4 ,b]+ ,/rait became n>r[ & %all[1 & 0 probably = a "t entirely clos$1 :ile ! connexion betwe5 ! ,arctic & ,indian ,oceans 0 clos$ p]man5tly1 leav+ 9 its l[e/ areas a *a9 ( great inl& seas & lakes1 ( :i* ! ,caspian & ,aral ,seas are n[ ! greate/ repres5tatives4 ,! ,canadian ,ar*ipelago 0 probably rais$ above its pres5t level1 & =m$ a great nor!rn ext5sion ( ! ,am]ican cont95tal area4 ,! *anges 9 ! ,atlantic also 7 v ext5sive4 ,! ,we/ ,indies 7 ! site ( a l>ge & l(ty ,antillean cont95t2 fur!r nor? a consid]able l&-mass exi/$ ea/ ( ,newf\ndl&2 ,gre5l& 0 jo9$ on ! we/ to ! ext5d$ ,am]ican cont95t1 & consid]ably enl>g$ to ! s\?-ea/4 ,icel&1 ?\gh x rema9$ an isl&1 0 elevat$ & probably ne>ly d\bl$ 9 area1 & betwe5 ,icel& & ! nor? ( ,scotl& 0 develop$ a great subm>9e ridge1 :i* may or may n h ris5 above ! sea 9 places4 ,! ,briti% ,isles became a solid block ( l&1 unit$ ) cont95tal ,europe across ! ,engli% ,*annel & ! great pla9 :i* is n[ ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,sc&9avia 0 elevat$ by m ?an a ?\s& feet1 & ! elevation ext5d$ at lea/ z f> z ,spitzb]g54 ,! ,murman area _h a consid]able ext5sion4 ,9 ea/]n ,asia ! ,sea ( ,okhotsk 0 l& & ,japan 0 unit$ to ! ma9l&4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e our k is n ne>ly s detail$4 ,! pres5ce ( m>9e ,middle-,t]ti>y b$s ) temp]ate mollusca 9 ,graham ,l& & ( plant-be>+ b$s 9 ,seym\r ,isl& po9t to a small] ,ant>ctic cont95t & v mu* w>m] conditions at ?is "t 9 ! ,s\? z well z 9 ! ,nor? ,pol> regions4 ,= ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y1 h[ev]1 we h /rong gr\nds 9 ! di/ribution ( animals & plants = assum+ t ! ,ant>ctic cont95t 0 greatly increas$ 9 size1 ) promontories unit+ x to ,au/ralia on ! "o h& & to ,s\? ,am]ica on ! o!r4 ,new ,zeal& 0 l>gely increas$ 9 area1 & ,s\? ,africa probably ext5d$ fur!r polew>ds4 ,! sub-ant>ctic isl&s atta9$ a mu* great] area4 ,conditions 7 ripe = ! ,ice ,age 9 ! s\!rn z well z ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,,bibliography ,k]n] von ,m>ilaun1 ,f4 8,syn!se d] morphog55 ,w9t]klimate ,europas zur ,t]tirzeit40 ,wi51 ,sitz,ber4 ,k4 ,akad4 ,wiss1 #abb1 #aiac1 pp4 #bcc-ih4 ,osborn1 ,h4 ,f4 8,! age ( mammals 9 ,europe1 ,asia & ,nor? ,am]ica40 #hvo4 ,new ,york1 #aiaj4 ,na?or/1 ,a4 ,g4 8,on ! fossil floras ( ! ,arctic regions z evid5ce ( geological climates40 ,london1 ,bot4 ,j4 #b1 #aiac1 pp4 #aig-bjb2 & ,wa%+ton1 ,report ,smi?sonian ,in/41 #aiaa4 ,dall1 ,w4 ,h4 8,on climatic conditions at ,nome1 ,alaska1 dur+ ! ,plioc5e40 ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci41 s]4 #d1 ,vol4 #bc1 #aijg1 p4 #deg4 ,nans51 ,f4 8,! ba?ymetrical features ( ! ,nor? ,pol> seas1 ) a discussion ( ! cont95tal %elves & previ\s oscillations ( ! %ore-l9e40 ,norwegian ,n4 ,pol> ,exp$41 #ahic-if4 ,sci5tific ,results1 ,vol4 #d4 ,sp5c]1 ,j4 ,w4 8,recon/ruction ( ! ,antillean cont95t40 ,bull4 ,am]4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #f1 #ahie1 pp4 #ajc-dj4 ,wilck5s1 ,d4 8,die ,mollusk5 d] ant>ktis*5 ,t]tir=mation40 ,wiss4 ,ergebn4 d] ,s*w$4 ,sudpol> ,exp$41 #aija-c1 ,bd4 #c1 #aiaa4 ,h$ley1 ,c4 8,! palographical relations ( ,ant>ctica40 ,london1 ,proc4 ,l9nan ,soc41 #abd1 #aiaa-b1 p4 #hj4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,great ,,ice ,,age ,z ! l& began to rise1 ! fir/ effect 0 an increas$ sn[fall on ! high] summits1 & increas$ ra9fall on ! ris+ coa/ l&s4 ,! riv]s _h an increas+ fall t[>ds ! sea1 & rapidly c>v$ out deep n>r[ valleys1 :i* 7 lat] develop$ by ! ice into ! great fiords ( ,norway & o!r heavily glaciat$ regions4 ,b on ! :ole ! fir/ beg9n+s ( ! ,ice ,age occurr+ t[>ds ! close ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod are obscure1 & are likely always to rema9 s1 = ! simple reason t ! advanc+ & retreat+ ice-%eets h wip$ out mo/ ( ! evid5ce ( ! conditions :i* imm$iately prec$$ _! adv5t4 ,! det]iorations ( ! climate _h begun long be=e ! geographical *anges outl9$ at ! close ( ! la/ *apt] 7 complete1 = mollusca ( ! ,plioc5e b$s 9 ,ea/ ,anglia indicate progressive refrig]ation ( ! ,nor? ,sea at ! same "t z x became increas+ly %all[4 ,at ! close we h great %ell-banks ) nor!rn species :i* mu/ h be5 pil$ up by p[]ful ea/]ly w9ds2 ^! ea/]ly w9ds %[ t ! /orm-tracks _h be5 driv5 s\? ( _! pres5t c\rse & sugge/ t ! glacial anticyclone already exi/$ ov] ,sc&9avia4 ,at ! pres5t day simil> %ell-banks are =m+ on ! coa/ ( ,holl& "u ! influ5ce ( ! prevail+ we/]ly w9ds4 ,! next s]ies ( deposits 9 ?is region are fre%-wat] 8=e/ b$s10 attribut$ to a greatly ext5d$ ,rh9e1 & belong to ! p]iod :5 ! ,nor? ,sea _h become a pla94 ,x is no "p ( ! plan ( ?is "w to g ov] ! geological gr\nd ( ! ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age1 :i* has already be5 s frequ5tly & s effici5tly cov]$4 ,all ,i c hope to d is to give a brief g5]al acc\nt ( ! succession ( climatic *anges involv$1 necess>ily incomplete s9ce s mu* ( ! _w is at pres5t insuffici5tly explor$ = glacial traces4 ,b a c]ta9 am\nt ( explanatory introduction is necess>y4 ,9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica !re are di/9ct traces ( sev]al sep>ate glaciations ) 8int]glacial0 p]iods :5 ! climate approa*$ or became ev5 w>m] ?an ! pres5t4 ,! "t-relations ( ^! glaciations are n yet fully work$ out1 b !re seems little d\bt t !y 7 contemporane\s 9 ! two cont95ts4 ,! correlation is n p]fect1 h[ev]1 s9ce ! ,unit$ ,/ates geologi/s recogniz$ altoge!r five glaciations4 ,! explanation appe>s to be t ! equival5t ( ! ,rissian glaciation 9 ,am]ica is d\ble2 two /ages1 ! ,ill9oian & ,i[an1 be+ recognizable1 sep>at$ by a retreat ( ! ice4 ,! s]ies is z foll[s3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,alps4 ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,date4 ,b4,c4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,i ,gunz 8 ,j]seyan or 8 ,nebraskan ,,ii ,m9del ,l[] ,diluvium ,kansan #dcj1jjj-cgj1jjj ,,iii ,riss ,middle ,diluvium ,ill9oian #acj1jjj-ajj1jjj ,i[an ,,iv ,wurm ,upp] ,diluvium ,wiscons9 #dj1jjj- #ah1jjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,! correlation is bas$ on ! am\nt ( wea!r+ & erosion :i* ! v>i\s deposits h und]gone4 ,! "t :i* has elaps$ s9ce ! glaci]s ( ! la/ or ,wurm /age 7 9 active retreat has be5 e/imat$ by comp>+ ! gr[? ( peat-bogs1 riv]-deltas1 etc41 dur+ hi/orical times ) t s9ce ! la/ retreat ( ! ice4 ,b ! mo/ conclusive me?od is due to ! ,sw$i% geologi/ ,b>on de ,ge]1 :o has actually c\nt$ ! ye>s s9ce ! ice 9 its f9al retreat left any p>ticul> po9t betwe5 ,ragunda & ! s\? ( ,sw$54 ,! "w is bas$ on ! idea t ! lam9ation obs]v$ 9 c]ta9 m>9e & lacu/r9e clays 9 ,sw$5 is seasonal1 ! ?ick co>se lay]s be+ due to ! floods produc$ by ! rapid melt+ ( ! ice 9 summ]1 & ! ?9n] & f9] lay]s be+ due to ! p>tial cessation ( melt+ 9 w9t]4 ,by correlat+ "o section ) ano!r x is possible to date any p>ticul> lay] ) great exactness1 & fur!r to prove ! exi/5ce ( sev]al great climatic fluctuations dur+ ! retreat4 ,! topmo/ limit ( ! section is giv5 by ! surface ( ! old floor ( ,lake ,ragunda 9 ,jemtl&1 :i* receiv$ its wat]s f "o ( ! p]man5t glaci]s & 0 accid5tally dra9$ 9 #agif4 ,de ,ge] f9ds t ! edge ( ! la/ great ice-%eets lay ov] s\!rn ,scania ab\t #ab1jjj ye>s ago1 & fur!r e/imates #hjjj ye>s = ! retreat across ! ,baltic4 ,^! results are 9 g5]al agreem5t ) ^? obta9$ by o!r me?ods1 & we may accord+ly1 ) "s confid5ce1 put ! date :5 ! ice-%eet ( ! ,wurm glaciation f9ally left ! coa/ ( ,g]many at ab\t #ahjjj ,b4,c4 ,?is p]iod fix$1 we h a datum = e/imat+ ! duration ( ! int]glacial p]iods4 ,! mora9es ( ! ,wurm glaciation pres5t ev]y:]e a v fre% appe>ance1 & ! *emical *ange :i* ! b\ld]s !y conta9 h und]gone is slight1 :ile wea!r+ ext5ds to a dep? ( sc>cely a foot4 ,! mora9es ( ! ,riss glaciation are wea!r$ some:at m deeply1 & ^? ( ! ,m9del glaciation v mu* m4 ,assum+ t *emical wea!r+ has proce$$ uni=mly dur+ ! int]glacial p]iods & ceas$ dur+ ! glaciations1 ,p5ck & ,brckn]1 :o h /udi$ exhau/ively ! glaciation ( ! ,alps1 f9d t ! ,riss-,wurm int]glacial la/$ ab\t ?ree times z long z ! int]val betwe5 ! ,wurm glaciation & ! pres5t day1 or #fj1jjj ye>s1 & ! ,m9del-,riss int]glacial ab\t twelve times z long1 or #bdj1jjj ye>s4 ,no data are available = ! ,gunz-,m9del int]glacial1 b x is provisionally made equal to ! ,riss-,wurm1 ano!r #fj1jjj ye>s4 ,no possibility ( su* direct measurem5t ( ! duration ( ! glacial p]iods !mselves has yet be5 f\nd4 ,p5ck & ,brckn] assume t ! duration equall$ t ( ! ,riss-,wurm int]glacial1 or #fj1jjj ye>s 9 ea* case4 ,?is seems unnecess>ily long4 ,! ,yoldia ,sea1 ! deepe/ "p ( :i* co9cid$ ) ! c5tre ( ! ,sc&9avian glaciation1 appe>s to h rea*$ its greate/ dep? n m ?an #fjjj ye>s aft] ! maximum ( glaciation1 indicat+ a lag ( ?is p]iod4 ,! subsid5ce ( ! l& due to ! weight ( ! ice-%eet may h comm5c$ "s "t be=e ! maximum ( glaciation1 b ! duration ( ! subsid5ce c h>dly h be5 m ?an #aj1jjj ye>s1 & ?is is ! limit = ! second half ( ! ,wurm glacial p]iod4 ,fur!r1 we "k t dur+ ! gr[? ( ! ice-%eets !re 0 comp>atively little melt+1 = ! riv]s !n _h little p[] ( c>ry+ debris4 ,rec5t measurem5ts 9 ,gre5l& give ! rate ( ice-gr[? on ! surface ( ! ice-%eet z #dj cm41 or #ae in*es a ye>2 let u say a foot1 & assume a m>g9al loss equival5t to half ?is am\nt ov] ! :ole ice-%eet4 ,?is gives u an av]age increase ( six in*es a ye>1 or #aj1jjj ye>s = gr[? to a maximum ?ickness ( #ejjj feet4 ,on ^! gr\nds ! e/imat$ duration ( ! ,rissian glacial p]iod has be5 r$uc$ to #cj1jjj ye>s1 & t ( ! ,wurm p]iod to #bb1jjj ye>s4 ,only 9 ! case ( ! long & complicat$ ,m9delian p]iod1 :i*1 z w be se5 lat]1 0 virtually a s]ies ( ov]lapp+ glaciations f v>i\s c5tres1 has ! figure ( #fj1jjj ye>s be5 accept$4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k no e/imate ( ! duration ( ! ,gunz-,m9del int]glacial c h any value1 & ! dates are accord+ly c>ri$ back only to ! ,m9delian4 ,9 ?is way we obta9 ! "t-scale giv5 on page #dh4 ,! f\rfold glaciation has be5 recogniz$ ) c]ta9ty only 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ev5 9 ^! c\ntries !re is consid]able d\bt :e!r ! nor!rn ice-%eets %rank back z f> z _! pres5t n>r[ limits dur+ ! int]glacial p]iods4 ,! long ,m9del-,riss int]glacial1 :i* 0 probably ! ,*ellean /age ( fl9t indu/ry1#c 0 *>act]iz$ by a v w>m?-lov+ fauna1 & x is possible1 ev5 probable1 t dur+ ?is p]iod ! glaci]s melt$ completely away1 except on ! v highe/ summits4 ,( ! climate ( ! ,gunz-,m9del int]glacial 7t]m$ by ,j4 ,geikie ! 8,norfolkian10 f ! ,crom] ,=e/ ,b$71 we h comp>atively little evid5ce4 ,if ! sugge/ion put =w>d 9 ! foll[+ *apt] is correct1 ! ,gunz-,m9del int]glacial 0 m]ely a local incid5t 9 ! glaciation ( ! ,alps1 & n a true int]glacial at all4 ,ev5 ! ,crom] ,=e/ ,b$ itself is n conclusive1 s9ce x is a riv] deposit l>gely compos$ ( mat]ial drift$ f l[] latitudes4 ,! ,riss-,wurm int]glacial 7,j4 ,geikie's 8,neudeckian07 n[h]e gives u evid5ce ( a climate z w>m z ! pres5t1 & z reg>ds ! ,sc&9avian & ,canadian ice-%eets may h be5 m]ely an ext5sive & prolong$ oscillation ( ! ice-edge4 ,z reg>ds ! glaciation ( ,norway1 ! "q has be5 inve/igat$ rec5tly by ,h4 ,w4 son ,ahlmann1 :o has publi%$ a long & detail$ pap] 9 ,engli% 9 volumes #a & #b ( ! ,sw$i% ,geographiska ,annal54 ,he concludes t ! morphology ( ,norway1 )\t ref]5ce to /ratigraphical or biological data1 gives conclusive evid5ce ( two glaciations4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 0 ! great]1 & betwe5 t "t & ! second small] glaciations !re occurr$ an int]glacial p]iod ( su* consid]able l5g? t ! great] "p ( ! pres5t gorges 0 !n =m$ by fluvial erosion4 ,we may1 accord+ly1 consid] ! ,ice ,age z f\rfold or d\ble1 accord+ to ! po9t ( view f :i* we reg>d x4 ,9 ! ,alps & o!r m\nta9 ranges on ! bord]s ( ! great nor!rn ice-%eets1 :i* respond v readily to small *anges1 x 0 f\rfold4 ,9 ! p]iph]al regions ( ! nor!rn ice-%eets !mselves x has an appe>ance ( be+ ?reefold or f\rfold4 ,9 ! m c5tral regions ( ^! great ice-%eets1 :]e response to climatic *ange is v sl[1 !re is no evid5ce ( m ?an two glaciations2 b 9 ^! regions1 :]e ! de/ructive effect ( ! ice rea*$ its maximum1 x is only by ! m]e/ *ance t evid5ce ( int]glacial p]iods is pres]v$ at all4 ,& f9ally1 9 all o!r p>ts ( ! _w we h evid5ce ( only two glaciations at mo/4 ,!re is "o deposit :i* is ( consid]able importance 9 ! /udy ( int]glacial climates1 & t is ! loess4 ,loess is an exce$+ly f9e-gra9$ homog5e\s deposit result+ f ! gradual accumulation ( w9d-bl[n du/ on a surface sp>sely cov]$ ) vegetation4 ,x is to be se5 accumulat+ at ! pres5t day 9 p>ts ( s\?-ea/ ,russia & c5tral ,asia4 ,its =mation1 except 9 clos$ bas9s1 ne$s a climate ( ! /eppe "*1 ) n mu* ra9fall1 & especially ) a long dry season4 ,n[ loess 0 v ext5sively develop$ 9 ,europe dur+ ! ,quat]n>y4 ,its occurr5ce is peculi>1 s9ce x is f\nd mo/ widely develop$ re/+ on ! deposits ( ! ,rissian glaciation1 & is nev] f\nd re/+ on ! mora9es ( ! ,wurm glaciation4 ,a little loess is f\nd bel[ ! ,riss mora9es1 & x has also be5 f\nd betwe5 ! ,riss & ,wurm mora9es4 ,9 ! pre-,rissian loess an implem5t ( ,a*eulian age 0 discov]$ 9 #aiaj at ,a*5heim 7,alsace71 by ,r4 ,r4 ,s*midt & ,p4 ,w]n]t1 indicat+ t ! deposit 0 =m$ t[>ds ! close ( ! ,*ellean indu/ry1 :5 ! climate 0 already cold & dry4 ,9 ! same section ! y\ng] loess seems to fill completely ! ,riss-,wurm int]glacial1 s9ce ,m\/]ian implem5ts 7 f\nd at ! base & ,aurignacian implem5ts 9 ! middle4 ,! y\ng] loess conta9s rema9s ( ! j]boa & o!r rod5ts at pres5t inhabit+ ! ,sib]ian /eppes4 ,x is !re=e reasonable to conclude t /eppe conditions prevail$ 9 c5tral ,europe ?r\gh practically ! :ole ( ! ,riss-,wurm int]glacial1 & ! same probably applies to ! correspond+ pre-,wiscons9 int]glacial 9 ,am]ica4 ,b if a /eppe climate prevail$ 9 c5tral ,g]many !re mu/ h be5 v sev]e conditions 9 ,sc&9avia1 & probably ! ice-%eet ma9ta9$ a q consid]able area !re ?r\gh\t ! :ole p]iod1 ?\gh )\t encroa*+ on ! ,baltic bas94 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! loess 0 deposit$ by we/]ly w9ds1 indicat+ t ! ice-developm5t 0 n suffici5t to impose anticyclonic conditions 9 place ( ! pres5t prevail+ we/]ly w9ds1 & ! same appe>s to be true ( ,europe4 ,simil> climatic conditions 7 develop$ = a %ort "t at ! close ( ! ,wurm glaciation1 b )\t any appreciable developm5t ( loess4 7,see ,*apt] ,,xiii47 ,,bibliography ,wright1 ,w4 ,b4 8,! ,quat]n>y ,ice-age40 ,london1 ,macmillan1 #aiad4 ,brooks1 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 8,! correlation ( ! ,quat]n>y deposits ( ! ,briti% ,isles ) ^? ( ! cont95t ( ,europe40 ,ann4 ,rep4 ,smi?sonian ,in/41 #aiag1 pp4 #bgg-cge4 de ,ge]1 ,g4 8,a !rmographical record ( ! late ,quat]n>y climate40 ,b]4 ,int]nat4 ,geolog5kongr41 ,/ockholm1 #aiaj4 8,die ,v]nd]ung5 des ,klimas10 p4 #cjc4 ----4 8,a geo*ronology ( ! la/ #ab1jjj ye>s40 ,b]4 ,int]nat4 ,geolog5kongr41 ,/ockholm1 #aiaj1 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #bda4 ,p5ck1 ,a41 & ,brckn]1 ,e4 8,die ,alp5 9 ,eiszeitalt]40 ,leipzig1 #c ,vols41 #aija-i4 ,ahlmann1 ,h4 ,w41 son4 8,geomorphological /udies 9 ,norway40 ,/ockholm1 ,geografiska ,annal]1 #a1 #aiai1 pp4 #a-aeg1 #aic-beb4 ,ri*?(51 ,f4 8,on ! mode ( orig9 ( ! loess40 ,geol4 ,mag41 #ahhb1 p4 #bic4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,glacial ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,nor!rn ,,& ,,c5tral ,,europe ,! lit]ature ( ! glacial p]iod 9 ,europe is /up5d\s & is1 fur!r1 ( a highly contradictory nature4 ,space does n p]mit ( any summ>y ( ! great conflict betwe5 ! monoglaciali/s & ! polyglaciali/s2 x is suffici5t to say t ! latt] (t5 w5t to extremes & s laid !mselves op5 to defeat1 b ! tw(old nature ( ! glaciation is n[ widely accept$4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t ! foll[+ summ>y repres5ts ! views ( a c]ta9 section ( geologi/s only1 views :i* are n univ]sally held4 ,9 ! ,briti% ,isles especially1 :]e ! rema9s ( ! maximum glaciation completely dom9ate ^? ( all ! o!rs1 ! !ory ( a s+le glaciation /ill l>gely prevails4 ,:5 ice began to accumulate on ! ris+ ,sc&9avian plateau x naturally =m$ at fir/ on ! ,norwegian m\nta9s ne> ! ,atlantic1 :i* 0 ! *ief s\rce ( sn[fall4 ,^! m\nta9 glaci]s spread rapidly d[n ! /eep seaw>d slopes to ! we/ & m sl[ly d[n ! g5tl] l&w>d slopes to ! ea/4 ,at ?is /age ! c5tre ( ! ice-%eet1 & consequ5tly ! c5tre ( ! glacial anticyclone1 z soon z ! latt] develop$ a def9ite exi/5ce1 lay q ne> ! ,norwegian coa/4 ,"u anticyclonic conditions ! circulation ( ! w9ds r\nd ! c5tre is 9 ! same direction z ! motion ( ! h&s ( a wat*1 comb9$ ) an outw>d incl9ation at an angle ( ab\t ?irty to =ty-five degrees4 ,consequ5tly1 :ile ! c5tre lay 9 ,norway1 due nor? ( ! ,alps1 ! prevail+ w9ds 9 ! latt] mu/ h be5 f nor?-ea/1 & !re=e v cold4 ,accord+ly1 ?is /age is probably contemporane\s ) ! ,gunz glaciation ( ! ,alps4 ,9 ! same way1 ov] ! ,nor? ,sea area ! w9ds mu/ h be5 ea/]ly1 caus+ ! curr5ts :i* pil$ up ! great %ell-banks ( ! ,ea/ ,anglian coa/1 already ref]r$ to z m>k+ ! end ( ! ,t]ti>y & beg9n+ ( ! ,quat]n>y p]iod4 ,b ! ice :i* rea*$ ! nor!rn ,nor? ,sea broke up into iceb]gs n f> f ! coa/1 & float$ away1 :ile t :i* mov$ ea/ into ! nor? ( ,sw$5 c\ld only be dissipat$ by melt+ & ablation1 processes :i* we h reason to believe w5t on v sl[ly4 ,h5ce ice began to accumulate & spread ov] a wide area ea/ ( ! ma9 ,sc&9avian m\nta9 *a94 ,fre% sn[ 0 deposit$ directly on ?is ice-surface1 until x gradually ov]topp$ ! m\nta9s :i* orig9ally gave rise to x1 & rev]s$ ! fl[1 s t ! ice actually mov$ uphill across ! m\nta9 *a94 ,z ! c5t] ( ! ice-%eet mov$ ea/w>d ! glacial anticyclone mov$ ) x1 & ?is new position to ! ea/w>d caus$ an alt]ation 9 ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds ov] ! re/ ( ,europe4 ,! ,alps 7 n[ s\?-we/ ( ! anticyclonic c5tre1 & ! w9ds 9 t di/rict accord+ly became ea/]ly in/ead ( nor?-ea/]ly4 ,( c\rse1 ! glacial anticyclone 0 n[ m int5se1 b 9 summ] 9 c5tral ,europe ea/]ly w9ds are naturally s mu* w>m] ?an nor?-ea/]ly w9ds t at fir/ ?is increase 9 int5sity 0 n en\gh to c\nt]balance ! *ange 9 direction1 & !re 0 a slight improvem5t 9 ! ,alp9e climate4 ,9 ! same way1 ov] ! ,nor? ,sea di/rict ! prevail+ w9ds _h n[ become s\?-ea/]ly in/ead ( ea/]ly1 :i* w\ld make = a slight rise ( temp]ature1 z also w\ld ! occasional depressions :i* w\ld be able to make _! way 9 f ! we/w>d1 br++ w>m moi/ air f ! ,atlantic & occasional ra9fall4 ,by ?is "t ! process ( elevation _h conv]t$ ! ,nor? ,sea floor into an ext5sive pla94 ,f ,sw$5 & ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia ! ice spread out 9 all directions1 ext5d+ 9 ! ea/ to ! foot ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 :i* =m$ an indep5d5t c5tre ( glaciation2 9 ! s\?-ea/ ov] a l>ge "p ( ,european ,russia1 :]e x rea*$ z f> s\? z latitude #dj 9 ! ,dniep] valley2 9 ! s\? ov] almo/ ! :ole ( ,g]many z f> z ! ,ries5gebirge & ,h>z ,m\nta9s2 & 9 ! s\?-ea/ ov] ! :ole ( ,holl& & ! ,nor? ,sea bas94 ,x %\ld be not$ t ,holl& & ,d5m>k 7 glaciat$1 n by ,norwegian ice1 b by ice f ! ,baltic %eet :i* _h cross$ s\!rn ,sw$54 ,! ,nor? ,sea glaci] ext5d$ across ,ea/ ,anglia z f> z ,cambridge1 :ile a nor!rn bran* ( x swept across ,cai?ness & ! ,orkney & ,%etl& ,isl&s1 b mo/ ( ! ,briti% ,isles 7 glaciat$ f indep5d5t c5tres--! ,scotti% ,highl&s1 ! ,p5n9es1 ,cumb]l&1 ,wales & nor!rn ,irel&4 ,) ! gr[? ( ! glaciat$ area1 & p>ticul>ly ) its ext5sion s\?-we/w>d across ! ,nor? ,sea1 ! ,alp9e climate aga9 became v sev]e1 & ! local glaci]s & ,pi$mont ice-%eets ( ! ,alps rea*$ _! maximum developm5t 9 ! ,m9delian4 ,at ! same "t ! c5tral plateau ( ,france develop$ a local plateau glaci] ( its own1 & ! ,pyr5ees und]w5t _! fir/ & greate/ glaciation1 no traces ( ! ,gunzian hav+ be5 f\nd 9 ?is range4 ,! ,briti% ,isles %[ an int]e/+ outw>d migration ( ! local c5tres ( maximum ice-developm5t4 ,! ,sc&9avian glaci] :i* invad$ ,ea/ ,anglia ext5d$ arctic anticyclonic conditions across ! ,nor? ,sea1 & induc$ a heavy sn[fall ov] ! high l&s ( ,great ,brita94 ,^!1 9 consequ5ce1 develop$ indep5d5t glaci]s1 :i* on _! ea/]n sides fus$ ) ! ,sc&9avian glaci] &1 p>tly by deflect+ its fl[1 p>tly by int]cept+ "s ( its sn[fall1 pu%$ x back into ! ,nor? ,sea pla94 ,! ,scotti% glaci]s became /rong en\gh to encroa* on ,irel&1 p>tly 9 ! nor?-ea/1 & p>tly by way ( ! ,iri% ,sea & ,/4 ,george's ,*annel 7!n a valley7 on to ! s\?-ea/4 ,?is fur!r ext5sion ( ! cold area enabl$ ! ,iri% glaci]s to develop1 & ^! 9 turn pu%$ back ! ,scotti% glaci]s until ,irel& 0 solely glaciat$ by ,iri% ice4 ,! s\!rn m>g9 ( ! ice-%eet did n ext5d beyond ! ,?ames valley1 b at "s /age ! ,engli% ,*annel c>ri$ float+ ice1 :i* =m$ ! deposits ( ice-borne b\ld]s1 ( :i* t at ,selsey is a well-kn[n example4 ,?is great ice-%eet n[h]e =m$ m>k$ t]m9al mora9es1 b its deposits fade away 9 ?9 b$s ( /iff b\ld]-clay4 ,?is abs5ce ( mora9es is probably connect$ ) ! great ?ickness ( ! ice-%eets1 :i* did n leave any appreciable nunataks or rocky 8isl&s0 expos$ 9 its pa?1 s t !re 0 no?+ to give rise to detritus on ! surface ( ! ice4 ,all ! transportation _h to be c>ri$ on b5ea? ! ice-%eets1 & ^!1 p5etrat+ into comp>atively l[ latitudes :]e ! sun is p[]ful 9 summ]1 w\ld suff] gradual melt+ & ablation = "s di/ance f _! m>g9s4 ,ne> ! actual ice-limit ! motion mu/ h be5 sl[ & ! ?ickness ( ! ice small1 s t conditions 7 aga9/ ! accumulation ( ?ick b$s ( detritus4 ,on ! bord]s ( ! ice-%eet ! climate _c h be5 ov]-rigor\s1 = pre-,*ellean man 0 able to live almo/ up to ! ice-edge4 ,! air mu/ h be5 extremely cold1 & !re 0 a belt ( high arctic climate r\nd ! ice1 b 9 ! s\? & s\?-we/ ?is appe>s to h be5 v n>r[1 & sub-arctic conditions1 no worse ?an ^? 9 :i* _m races live to-day1 prevail$ n v f> f ! ice4 ,! configuration ( ! ice-surface l>gely expla9s ?is4 ,a high /eeply slop+ wall ( ice causes int5sely viol5t w9ds1 c>ry+ d5se cl\ds ( drift-sn[--blizz>ds1 9 fact1 simil> to ^? n[ exp]i5c$ 9 p>ts ( ,ant>ctica "u simil> circum/ances1 :i* sweep ! l& b>e ( all life = a consid]able di/ance4 ,b a l[ & gradually slop+ surface1 su* z seems to h exi/$ ne> ! bord]s ( ! maximum glaciation1 fav\rs in/ead comp>atively g5tle w9ds )\t mu* drift sn[4 ,x is only on ! nor?-we/ ice-ridge1 :]e ice-cliffs front$ ! sea & :]e sev]e /orms f ! ,atlantic 7 frequ5t 9 w9t]1 t blizz>ds occurr$4 ,:5 ! l& 9 ,sc&9avia began to s9k "u ! ice-load m rapidly ?an ! supply ( sn[ c\ld build up ! surface ( ! ice-%eet ! =ce :i* pu%$ out ! ice 9 all directions f ! c5tre gradually di$ away1 & ! ice-masses ov] ! ,nor? ,sea area--n[ probably aga9 bel[ sea-level--& ! l[ gr\nds ( ,europe 7 left d]elict1 ) no res\rces b ! sn[fall on _! own surfaces4 ,"u ^! conditions !y melt$ away m or less rapidly4 ,:ile ^! d]elict ice-masses 7 /ill l>ge1 ! auxili>y p]iph]al c5tres 9 ! ,alps1 ,pyr5ees & ,briti% ,isles ma9ta9$ an indep5d5t exi/5ce = a :ile1 probably ) fluctuations simil> to ^? :i* m>k$ ! close ( ! la/ glaciation 9 ! ,alps1 ?\gh ! evid5ce ( ^! has n[ be5 wip$ away4 ,x is ev5 likely t ! beg9n+s ( ! weak5+ ( ! c5tral s\rce ( supply help$ ! ,briti% ice to div]t ! ,sc&9avian ice into ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,_h !re be5 any p[]ful riv]s be>+ great masses ( detritus f ! s\?1 z !re are 9 ,sib]ia1 "s ( ^! d]elict ice-%eets might h be5 pres]v$ = a "t1 at lea/1 z 8fossil ice10 b 9 we/]n ,europe conditions 7 n fav\rable = ?is4 ,) ! disappe>ance ( ! ice-%eets ! g5]al climate ( ,europe mu/ h pass$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( /ages ( amelioration1 ( :i* traces c be f\nd "h & !re1 ?\gh ! details are lo/ to u4 ,ultimately temp]ate conditions aga9 prevail$2 & = a v long "t1 approa*+ a qu>t] ( a million ye>s1 ,europe _c h diff]$ greatly f pres5t climatic conditions4 ,9 ,sc&9avia ! mammo? roam$ 9 =e/s ( bir*1 p9e & spruce2 fur!r s\? ! mammo? is abs5t1 & we f9d in/ead m s\!rn =ms--,elephas antiquus1 resembl+ ! ,indian elephant1 ,rh9oc]os m]ckii1 a s\!rn =m1 ! sabre-too!d tig]1 cave-lion1 cave-be> & cave-hyna1 wolf1 beav]1 horse & v>i\s =ms ( de]1 :ile ! flora includ$ ev5 su* w>m?-lov+ trees z ! fig4 ,obvi\sly1 dur+ "p ( ?is int]glacial p]iod1 ! climate mu/ h be5 ev5 w>m] ?an ! pres5t4 ,let u glance = a mom5t at ! probable conditions4 ,"o ( ! dom9ant features 9 ! pres5t wea!r ( ,europe is ! accumulation ( float+ ice 9 ! ,arctic bas94 ,?is keeps ! temp]ature l[ & ! pressure high--=ms 9 fact dur+ ! spr+ & summ] mon?s a tempor>y glacial anticyclone simil> 9 k9d to1 ?\gh ( less int5sity ?an1 t :i* has be5 describ$ z cov]+ ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet4 ,?is anticyclone ma9ta9s on its s\!rn edges a belt ( ea/]ly w9ds1 & ^! w9ds ent] into ! g5]al circulation ( ! e>?4 ,_! effect is to pu% s\?w>d ! p]man5t /orm-c5tres normally situat$ ne> ,icel& & ! ,aleutian ,isl&s1 & x is ^! /orm-c5tres :i* play a l>ge "p 9 caus+ ! ra9y wea!r ( nor!rn & c5tral ,europe4 ,b occasionally--z 9 ! rem>kable spr+ & summ] ( #aiba--^! conditions break d[n4 ,! ,arctic ,ocean becomes unusually ice-free & w>m1 ! pressure falls1 & 9 consequ5ce ! /orm-c5tres move nor?w>d4 ,europe comes "u ! influ5ce ( ! p]man5t anticyclones ( sub-tropical latitudes1 ra9-be>+ /orms pass f> to ! nor?w>d1 & we h a dry w>m summ] ( ! ,m$it]ranean type4 ,?is is presumably :at happ5$ dur+ ! long w>m ,m9del-,riss int]glacial4 ,= "s reason1 possibly connect$ ) a tempor>y wid5+ & deep5+ ( ! ,b]+ ,/rait1 ! wat]s ( ! ,arctic ,ocean became w>m] & ! am\nt ( float+ ice less4 ,pressure became l[] 9 ! pol> bas9 & !re=e high] ov] ! ,atlantic & ,europe1 & f9e w>m conditions prevail$ 9 ,europe z ! normal climate in/ead ( only z an occasional ev5t4 ,?is w>m int]val 0 f9ally br\ght to a close by ! r5ew$ elevation ( ,sc&9avia1 & ! ice-%eets began to develop aga91 h]ald$ by a p]iod ( dry /eppe climate4 ,?is "t1 h[ev]1 ! conditions 7 diff]5t2 ! elevation 0 n s great1 & 0 m local4 ,h5ce ! result+ glaciation 0 less int5se2 x fill$ ! ,baltic bas9 & ext5d$ "s di/ance on to ! ,nor? ,g]man pla9 & into ,holl&4 ,x fail$ to rea* ! coa/ ( ,brita91 b t x ext5d$ "s way across ! ,nor? ,sea pla9 is indicat$ by ! peculi> di/ribution ( ! ,new] ,drift ( ,brita91 to be ref]r$ to lat]4 ,9 ! nor? ( ,norway ! slope ( ! ice t[>ds ! sea 0 v /eep1 s t _m ( ! coa/al hills ext5d$ above x z nunataks4 ,! ice ext5d$ into ! *annel betwe5 ! ma9l& & ! ,l(ot5 ,isl&s 7!n a p59sula71 b accord+ to ,ahlmann ^! isl&s 7 an indep5d5t c5tre ( local glaciation1 z ! ,briti% ,isles _h be5 dur+ ! prec$+ p]iod1 & ! local ice met ! ma9 ice-%eet 9 ! fiords4 ,on ! coa/ ( ,nordl& suffici5t l& lay b>e to h>b\r a small ,arctic flora1 & ,va]o1 ! s\!rnmo/ isl& ( ,l(ot51 _h only small hang+ sn[-banks4 ,! int]pretation ( ! ,briti% glacial deposits is /ill v mu* "u discussion1 b x seems probable t ! ,scotti% highl&s =m$ a subsidi>y c5tre :i* glaciat$ ! :ole ( ,scotl& & nor?-ea/ ,engl&1 s5d+ a /ream s\?-ea/w>d1 :i* 0 prev5t$ f spread+ across ! ,nor? ,sea pla9 by ! pres5ce ( ,sc&9avian ice to ! ea/ & imp+$ on ! coa/ ( ,york%ire & ,l9coln%ire1 j rea*+ ! nor!rn extremity ( ,norfolk4 ,_m ,briti% geologi/s reg>d ?is developm5t z ! conclud+ phase ( a s+le glaciation ( ,brita91 b ! diff]5ces 9 ! am\nt ( wea!r+ und]gone are aga9/ su* an int]pretation4 ,at ! same "t !re 7 local glaci]s 9 ,cumb]l&1 ,wales & ,irel&4 ,9 ,engl& limits ( ?is glaciation are *>act]iz$ by a well-m>k$ s]ies ( end-mora9es1 :i* indicate t ! ice c>ri$ mu* surface detritus1 & probably end$ 9 a /eep cliff4 ,9 ,sc&9avia1 on ! o!r h&1 ! c5tre ( glaciation aga9 lay ov] ! l[ gr\nd well to ! ea/ ( ! m\nta9s1 & ! ice :i* rea*$ ,g]many & ,d5m>k 0 /ill l>gely free ( surface detritus1 & s did n =m m>k$ end-mora9es4 ,!re 0 a diff]5ce1 h[ev]4 ,on ?is occasion1 ow+ to ! local nature ( ! elevation 9 ,sc&9avia1 ! ice-%eet did n ext5d its bord]s s f> to ! ea/w>d1 & ! glaciation ( ,asia1 z describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii1 0 slight4 ,europe came m "u ! influ5ce ( cold nor?-ea/]ly & nor!rly w9ds1 & life on ! ice-bord]s 0 n s easy z dur+ ! prec$+ glaciation4 ,man c\ld /ill live ne> ! ice1 b he took to mak+ 8 home 9 caves1 & to clo?+ himself 9 sk9s = w>m?4 ,aft] ! ice _h rea*$ its ,rissian maximum ( glaciation ! climate improv$ some:at4 ,! ice-edge retreat$1 leav+ ,d5m>k & ! ,g]man coa/1 & vacat+ ! ,baltic bas91 b n disappe>+ altoge!r f ,sc&9avia4 ,at ,rixdorf1 ne> ,b]l91 !re is a b$ ( gravel deposit$ 9 ?is 8int]glacial10 conta9+ num]\s & well-pres]v$ bones ( ! mammo?1 woolly rh9oc]os1 auro*s1 bison1 horse1 re9de]1 r$ de] & o!r species ( ,c]vus1 musk ox & wolf--a cold temp]ate to sub-arctic fauna4 ,9 s\? ,g]many fre%-wat] mollusca indicate t ! summ]s 9 t di/rict 7 almo/ z w>m z at pres5t1 b ! w9t]s 7 probably sev]e4 ,z describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] ?is 8int]glacial0 0 ! "t ( loess =mation p> excell5ce1 ) a cont95tal climate & /eppe conditions ov] mu* ( c5tral ,europe4 ,inve/igations at ,skrumh$e 9 ,d5m>k %[ t ?is recession ( ! ice 0 accompani$ by1 & presumably due to1 a fall 9 ! level ( ! l& relatively to t ( ! sea1 = at ! beg9n+ ( ! oscillation ! l& lay ab\t #cej feet above its pres5t level1 s9k+ gradually to only #cj feet above pres5t4 ,ev5 at its be/ dur+ ?is int]glacial ! climate 0 almo/ sub-arctic 9 ,d5m>k4 ,9 nor!rn ,f9l&1 on ! ea/]n edge ( ! ice-%eet1 !re 0 also an 8int]glacial10 ) a slight improvem5t 9 ! climate accompany+ a tempor>y subm]g5ce4 ,b 9 ,sc&9avia !re are no traces ( any int]glacial deposits ( ?is p]iod1 & consid]+ ! cold climates :i* prevail$ 9 ,d5m>k & ,nor? ,g]many1 x seems probable t ,sc&9avia cont9u$ to be glaciat$ dur+ ! :ole p]iod4 ,! mode ( life among ,m\/]ian m51 :o liv$ dur+ ?is 8int]glacial10 also po9ts to a sev]e climate4 ,= at ?is "t man did n live 9 ! op51 b 9 caves & rock-%elt]s1 & ! practice ( we>+ ! fur sk9s ( animals z a protection aga9/ ! cold1 begun 9 ! prec$+ ,rissian glacial p]iod1 0 n discont9u$4 ,aft] ! tempor>y subsid5ce _h ceas$1 elevation aga9 set 91 caus+ a readvance ( ! ice-%eets & glaci]s4 ,! limits fell %ort ( ^? ( ! prec$+ maximum1 & ! climate 0 n s sev]e1 b 9 its g5]al "* x resembl$ t ( ! prec$+ maximum1 b 0 mu* /ormi]1 & !re 7 probably frequ5t blizz>ds ( ! ,ant>ctic type1 c>ry+ drift-sn[4 ,! new ice-%eet c>ri$ m surface detritus ?an its pr$ecessors1 presumably because all ! high gr\nd 0 n cov]$1 & x =m$ high t]m9al mora9es4 ,! close association ( cold ice & irregul> masses ( b>e s& & /ones1 /rongly heat$ by ! summ] sun1 set up a belt ( p[]ful convection v fav\rable = ! developm5t ( blizz>ds2 possibly !re 0 some?+ 9 ! nature ( an ice-cliff d[n :i* ! cold w9ds c\ld bl[ ) great /r5g?4 ,at any rate1 man f\nd ! ne> neighb\rhood ( ! ice unpleasant1 & w5t1 s t !re are no contemporane\s human implem5ts ne> ! mora9es4 ,! limits ( ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet ran f ! ,norwegian coa/ across ,d5m>k f nor? to s\?1 ?r\gh ,nor? ,g]many & nor!rn ,russia1 & includ$ ,f9l&4 ,! ice probably did n ext5d f> across ! ,nor? ,sea pla91 & 9 ! ,briti% ,isles !re 0 no ice-%eet1 b ! high m\nta9s ( ,scotl&1 ,irel&1 ,wales & ,cumb]l& bore small local glaci]s1 :i* 7 long en\gh to rea* ! sea 9 ! ,scotti% highl&s4 ,! ,alps bore consid]able glaci]s1 indicat+ a depression ( ! sn[-l9e ( ab\t #cejj feet1 correspond+ to a temp]ature #aa ,f4 l[] ?an ! pres5t4 ,aft] ?is ice-developm5t _h rea*$ its maximum limits & rema9$ !re = p]haps a ?\s& ye>s1 retreat set 91 & ! ,sc&9avian ice once m )drew f ,g]many & ,d5m>k to ! ,baltic bas94 ,b its edge 0 nev] f> f ! ,g]man coa/1 & occasionally readvanc$ across x1 = num]\s fossilif]\s deposits are int]calat$ 9 b\ld]-clay4 ,! fauna & flora1 :i* are well kn[n1 po9t to an arctic climate4 ,at its be/ ! mean temp]ature ( ,july rose to ab\t #ej ,f41 & !re 0 a vegetation p]iod ( ?ree or f\r mon?s ) an av]age temp]ature ( ab\t #dj ,f41 b ^! relatively mild conditions la/$ at mo/ = a few decades or p]haps a c5tury at a "t1 & ! w9t]s 7 sev]e ?r\gh\t4 ,! duration ( ! :ole ( ?is 8,baltic ,int]/adial0 0 f "o to two ?\s& ye>s4 ,next foll[$ ! f9al readvance ( ! ice =m+ ! great 8,baltic0 mora9es :i* fr+e ! ,baltic coa/ ( ,g]many1 turn+ nor?w>d 9 ! we/ into ,d5m>k & 9 ! ea/ into ,f9l&4 ,!re 0 a correspond+ re-developm5t ( glaci]s 9 ! ,alps 7,bhl /age7 & 9 ! m\nta9s ( ,irel& & ,scotl&1 ?\gh ^! probably fail$ to rea* ! sea ev5 9 ,scotl&4 ,?is p]iod gave u a repetition ( ! climate ( ! prec$+ maxima4 ,9 ?is case we h def9ite evid5ce ( ! pres5ce ( a belt ( ea/]ly w9ds on ! s\!rn side ( ! ice-%eet1 9 a s]ies ( 8b>kans0 or fossil dunes 9 ,holl&1 ,g]many & ,galicia4 ,^! dunes 7 =m$ ( f9e ice-deposit$ mat]ial1 & !y are cresc5t-%ap$1 ) _! convexities to ! ea/1 indicat+ t !y 7 built by /rong ea/]ly w9ds4 ,a mom5t's consid]ation w %[ ! tru? ( ! latt] /atem5t4 ,suppose !re is an isolat$ r\nd hillock ( s& expos$ to /rong ea/]ly w9ds4 ,! s& gra9s w travel up ! ea/]ly w9dw>d slope ( ! hillock & roll d[n ! we/]ly leew>d side4 ,9 ?is way ! :ole hillock w advance v sl[ly we/w>ds4 ,b 9 ! c5tre1 :]e ! hillock rea*es its greate/ height1 ! gra9s w take long] to rea* ! highe/ po9t ?an ne> ! edges1 :]e !y h n to rise s high4 ,at ! edges a /rong gu/ w c>ry "s ( ! heavi] gra9s "r ov] ! dune1 :ile ne>] ! c5tre !y w be left half-way1 & :5 ! gu/ ceases w p]haps roll back to _! orig9al position4 ,9 ?is way ! m>g9s ( ! dune w advance we/w>d m rapidly ?an ! c5tre1 produc+ ! cresc5t %ape ) ! convex side to ! ea/4 ,at ! "t ( _! =mation ^! dunes mu/ h _h _! /eepe/ side to ! we/w>d1 b ! we/]ly w9ds :i* h prevail$ dur+ ! la/ few ?\s& ye>s h succe$$ 9 modify+ t detail1 )\t de/roy+ ! g5]al %ape ( ! dunes1 & ! /eepe/ slopes are n[ on ! ea/]n side4 ,! pres]vation ( ! orig9al %ape1 9 spite ( ! subsequ5t developm5t ( we/]ly w9ds1 is due 9 "p to ! coat+ ( vegetation1 :i* protect$ ! dunes z soon z m fav\rable conditions occurr$1 & probably 9 "p to ! less] velocity ( ! we/]lies4 ,if ! p]iod ( ea/ w9ds & dune =mation _h be5 long en\gh1 we might h _h ano!r deposit ( loess1 b x 0 %ort1 & vegetation1 :i* is necess>y to ! g5esis ( true loess1 _h no "t to e/abli% itself be=e ! climate *ang$ aga9 ) ! f9al retreat ( ! ice4 ,! climate ( ?is p]iod 9 ,rumania has be5 ably describ$ by ,g4 ,murgoci3 8,9 g5]al ! prevail+ climate ( ! "t ( ! =mation ( loessoid soils & bl[n s&s mu/ h be5 t :i* is nam$ by ,e4 de ,m>tonne ! aralian climate1 a dry climate ) "s ra9 9 spr+ to call =? a poor & transi5t vegetation & to ma9ta9 ! fl[+ wat] 9 riv]s & lakes4 ,! temp]ature ) great extremes1 9 summ] up to #abj ,f4 & 9 w9t] bel[ #bj ,f41 0 ! *>act]i/ic ( ?is climate2 ! atmosph]e 0 v dry 9 ! hot season1 b 9 ! re/ ( ! ye> !re 0 "s humidity 9 ! air & moi/ure 9 ! soil1 ! wat] ( ! subsoil be+ n v deep4 ,! atmosph]ic precipitation 9 ?is region 0 caus$ by ! s\?-we/ w9d j z at pres5t2 b ! dom9ant w9d giv+ ! "* ( a dry cont95tal climate 0 ! nor?-ea/ w9d 7,crivat7 :i* has left its traces 9 ! fossil dunes ( ! ,b>agan40 ,a hi/ory ( ! *anges ( climate 9 ,europe :i* foll[$ ! maximum ( ! la/ readvance ( ! ice-%eet mu/ be left to lat] *apt]s4 ,,bibliography ,brooks1 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 8,! correlation ( ! ,quat]n>y deposits ( ! ,briti% ,isles ) ^? ( ! cont95t ( ,europe40 ,ann4 ,rep4 ,smi?sonian ,in/41 #aiag1 pp4 #bgg-cge4 ,full li/ ( ref]5ces4 ,p5ck1 ,a41 & ,brckn]1 ,e4 8,die ,alp5 9 ,eiszeitalt]40 #c ,vols4 ,leipzig1 #aija-i4 ,gagel1 ,c4 8,die ,beweise fr e9e mehrfa*e ,v]eisung ,norddeuts*l&s 9 diluvial] ,zeit40 ,geol4 ,runds*au1 #d1 #aiac1 p4 #ci4 ,wahns*affe1 ,f4 8,die ,ob]fl*5ge/altung des norddeuts*5 ,fla*l&es40 ,/uttg>t1 #aiaj4 ,sva/os1 ,r4 8,le po/glaci>e dans l',europe c5trale du nord et ori5tale40 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,univ4 ,jassy1 #d1 #aijh1 p4 #dh4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,m$it]ranean ,,regions ,,dur+ ,,! ,,glacial ,,p]iod ,our k ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,m$it]ranean bas9 dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod is n ne>ly s complete z is t ( ! m nor!rn regions1 *iefly = ! reason t dur+ mo/ ( ! p]iod ! l& lay above its pres5t level1 & except = local glaci]s 9 ! m\nta9 regions !re 0 no ice to leave u a record ( ! *ang+ climates4 ,mo/ ( :at we d "k relates to ! relatively brief p]iods ( subm]g5ce4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,glacial p]iod ! sea lay "s #ejj feet above its pres5t level1 & we c trace ! fir/ appe>ance ( a nor!rn m>9e fauna4 ,?is /age is kn[n z ! ,calabrian2 x is divid$ into two horizons--a l[]1 9 :i* nor!rn =ms are /ill r>e1 & an upp]1 9 :i* !y are becom+ abundant4 ,! mo/ typical species are two mollusca ^: pres5t habitat is ! coa/ ( ,icel&--,*lamys 7,pect57 isl&icus & ,cypr9a isl&ica4 ,! ,calabrian bea* is n f\nd on ! coa/ ( ,spa9 or at ,gibralt>1 & 9 ,alg]ia x probably occurs at a l[] level4 ,?is sugge/s t ! subsid5ce at ?is p]iod 0 local1 & ! we/]n l&s /ood up z a b>ri] aga9/ ! ,atlantic4 ,!re mu/ h be5 a *annel ( "s sort1 h[ev]1 on ! site ( ! pres5t ,/raits ( ,gibralt>1 to provide an inlet = ! immigrat+ nor!rn mollusca4 ,9 ! ,m>itime ,alps1 & aga9 9 ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean1 ! ,calabrian bea*es are at a mu* great] height ow+ to local elevation4 ,aft] ! =mation ( ! ,calabrian bea* ! :ole ,m$it]ranean region 0 elevat$ above its pres5t level4 ,?is elevation mu/ be contemporane\s ) ! p]iod ( maximum elevation 9 nor?-we/ ,europe associat$ ) ! great ,m9delian glaciation4 ,x is sugge/$ t ! 8sill0 ( ! outlet *annel at ,gibralt> 0 rais$ above ! level ( ! ,atlantic1 & ! ,m$it]ranean became1 fir/ a clos$ salt lake1 & !n a pair ( lakes1 ! ea/]n fre% dra9+ into ! we/]n1 :i* 0 salt1 ! two be+ sep>at$ by a ridge ( l& betwe5 ,italy & ,tunis4 ,?is p]iod ( elevation 0 long en\gh = a great deal ( d5udation to take place4 ,ev5 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ?is 0 a "t ( sev]e climate4 ,on ! ea/]n side ( ,gibralt> !re are breccias1 kn[n z ! 8,old] ,lime/one ,agglom]ate10 :i* rea* a ?ickness ( #ajj feet 9 places1 & are n[ mu* wea!r$4 ,simil> agglom]ates are f\nd 9 ,malta4 ,^! resemble ! 8head0 ( ! s\? ( ,engl&1 & appe> to be due to fro/ action 9 a sev]e climate4 ,9 ,corsica !re are traces ( f\r p]iods ( m\nta9 glaciation1 & ! two olde/ ( ^! are provisionally correlat$ ) ! ,gunzian & ,m9delian ( ! ,alps4 ,9 ! ,balkan highl&s !re are traces ( two di/9ct glaciations3 ! old]1 :i* 0 ! m g5]al & rea*$ ! great] int5sity1 probably correspond+ to ! ,m9delian4 ,9 ! ,atlas ,m\nta9s !re are great b\ld] mora9es :i* seem to belong to ?ree di/9ct glaciations1 ! olde/ ext5d+ to ab\t #bjjj feet above sea-level1 & ! second t]m9at+ at ab\t #djjj feet1 :ile ! ?ird glaciation consi/$ ( small valley glaci]s only4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,m9delian glacial p]iod ! l& sank or ! ocean rose aga91 & ! wat]s ( ! ,atlantic p\r$ 91 br++ ) !m a great numb] ( high nor!rn & ,arctic mollusca4 ,! !ory has be5 put =w>d t ?is influx 0 9 ! nature ( a debacle & c>v$ out a deep gorge ?r\gh ! pres5t ,/raits ( ,gibralt>4 ,! bea*es deposit$ by ?is sea lie at a height ( #bej to #ccj feet above ! pres5t sea-level4 ,! fauna resembles t inhabit+ ! nor!rnmo/ p>ts ( ,europe at ! pres5t day1 & ! wat]s mu/ h be5 sev]al degrees cold] ?an at pres5t4 ,?is /age is t]m$ ! ,sicilian4 ,z ! climate improv$ ! l& gradually rose aga91 & ! next g5]al rais$ bea* lies at a height ( only ab\t #ajj feet 9 s\!rn ,italy 7except :]e x has be5 elevat$ by local e>?-movem5ts74 ,fur!r we/ x lies /ill ne>] ! pres5t sea-level--tw5ty feet 9 ! ,bale>ic ,isl&s & only sev5 feet on ! coa/ ( ,spa94 ,on ! coa/ ( ,alg]ia & ,tunis ?is bea* is f\nd at a height ( ab\t =ty-five feet4 ,! bea* conta9s no trace ( ! nor!rn fauna f\nd 9 ! ,sicilian /age2 in/ead x is m>k$ by an assemblage ( mollusca ( a sub-tropical aspect1 includ+ ,/rombus bubonius1 ,mytilus s5egal5sis & ,c>dita s5egal5sis4 ,! bones ( l>ge mammals are also f\nd1 includ+ ! hippopotamus & s\!rn =ms ( elephant 7,e4 antiquus7 & rh9oc]os 7,rh4 m]ckii74 ,?is w>m /age corresponds to ! ,*ellean int]glacial fauna ( nor!rn ,europe1 ?\gh s f> z ,i am aw>e no ,*ellean implem5ts h be5 f\nd associat$ ) x4 ,ab\t ?is "t ! ,old] ,lime/one ,agglom]ate ( ,gibralt> _h be5 worn into caves1 9 :i* are f\nd ! bones ( ibex1 wild bo>1 leop>d1 spott$ hy5a1 ,rh9oc]us leptorh9us1 ,elephas m]idionalis1 lion1 s\!rn lynx1 be>1 wolf1 /ag1 horse1 etc41 s t ! rock mu/ h be5 cov]$ by a ri* vegetation1 & mu/ h _h a great] ext5t ?an n[1 & a connexion ) ! cont95t ( ,africa4 ,?is is said to h be5 foll[$ by a subm]g5ce ( ab\t #gjj feet ) num]\s oscillations4 ,?is subm]g5ce1 if x is really attributable to ! int]glacial1 mu/ h be5 extremely local1 & possibly x is mu* old]4 ,aft] ! w>m ,*ellean p]iod ! ,m$it]ranean region rose aga91 probably contemporane\sly ) ! rise :i* caus$ ! ,rissian glaciation ( nor!rn ,europe4 ,b ! climate 0 no?+ l s sev]e z 9 ! ,sicilian4 ,we h no old bea*es conta9+ a molluscan fauna ( ?is p]iod1 b at ! ,grotte au ,pr9ce ne> ,m5tone1 inve/igat$ by ,m4 ,b\le1 ! ,/rombus bea* is ov]la9 by a b$ ( cem5t$ pebbles & 8he>?s0 conta9+ ,m\/]ian implem5ts & bones ( a temp]ate fauna4 ,! ,new] ,lime/one ,agglom]ate on ! ea/ ( ,gibralt> may h be5 =m$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,! ,m$it]ranean l&s rema9$ above _! pres5t level until ! close ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,ea* glaciation ( nor!rn ,europe mu/ h be5 a "t ( great] ra9fall z well z ( l[] temp]ature 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! glacial anticyclone 9 ! nor? displac$ ! /orms f ! ,atlantic1 :i* n[ mo/ly ei!r skirt ! nor?-we/ coa/ ( ,norway or pass across ,d5m>k into ! ,baltic4 ,^! /orms _h to take a m s\!rly c\rse1 & ent]$ ! ,m$it]ranean bas9 ei!r across ! s\? ( ,france or 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,gibralt>3 tracks :i* are /ill occasionally foll[$ 9 w9t]4 ,^! /orms br\ght a ra9fall mu* heavi] ?an ! pres5t1 & ( a diff]5t "*4 ,! ,m$it]ranean is n[ a 8w9t] ra9 region10 & ! nor? ( ,africa is entirely ra9less = sev]al mon?s 9 ! summ]4 ,b dur+ ! 8,pluvial p]iods0 x is probable t ra9 fell ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 ?\gh ! w9t] /ill _h m ?an ! summ]4 ,! w9t] ra9s 7 9 ! =m ( /eady falls ( long duration1 su* z we exp]i5ce n[ 9 ,engl&1 :ile ! summ] ra9s fell 9 %ort1 heavy %[]s1 p]haps accompani$ by ?und]4 ,! ,old] ,pluvial p]iod1 :i* corresponds to ! ,m9delian glaciation1 _h ^! conditions 9 _! greate/ developm5t4 ,depressions _c live long )\t a supply ( moi/ure1 ei!r f ! sea or f transpir+ vegetation1 & at pres5t su* w9t] /orms z ent] ! ,m$it]ranean are almo/ conf9$ to its surface1 & on ! ,african side r>ely p5etrate m ?an "o hundr$ miles inl&4 ,b at ! p]iod ( greate/ elevation ! %runk5 ,m$it]ranean (f]$ no su* great attraction1 & ) a comp>atively well-wat]$ ,sah>a ! /orms 7 able to pass mu* fur!r s\?4 ,consequ5tly1 nor!rn ,africa possess$ a numb] ( l>ge & p]man5t riv]s :i* rea*$ ! sea4 ,x 0 along ^! riv]s & _! banks t ! fauna /ill inhabit+ ! ,sah>an oases made its way1 to be isolat$ !re by ! decrease ( ! ra9fall1 s t crocodiles & _m species ( fi% n[ live 9 isolat$ pools & 9 riv]s :i* lose !mselves 9 ! s&4 ,9 ,egypt & ,syria ! fir/ ,pluvial p]iod is d\ble1 correspond+ to ! ,gunz & ,m9del glaciations1 ) an int]v5+ phase ( feeble des]t conditions1 dur+ :i*1 h[ev]1 ! ra9fall rema9$ great] ?an ! pres5t4 ,! second /age1 correspond+ to ! ,m9delian1 indicates v great activity2 at ?is "t ! ,jordan ,sea 7,dead ,sea7 rea*$ its greate/ area1 ext5d+ to ! nor!rn end ( ! ,sea ( ,tib]ias4 ,conditions 9 ,egypt at ?is "t are v int]e/+4 ,s\? ( ,cairo ! alluvial ,nile muds are at mo/ ?irty to ?irty-five feet ?ick1 & t5 feet ( ?is ?ickness has be5 deposit$ s9ce ! "t ( ,ramesis ,,ii4 ,if ! rate ( deposition has be5 uni=m1 ?is gives a p]iod ( only #ad1jjj ye>s = ! deposition ( ! :ole ?ickness ( ! muds4 ,! !ory put =w>d by ,hume & ,craig 7,briti% ,association ,report1 #aiaa1 p4 #chb7 is briefly z foll[s3 ,! mud deposits ( ! ,nile valley are c>ri$ d[n ) ! flood wat]s ( ! ,blue ,nile1 ,atb>a1 etc4 ,^! riv]s rise 9 ! highl&s ( ,abyss9ia1 :]e !y are f$ by ! ra9s ( ! s\?-we/ monsoon4 ,! incid5ce ( ! monsoon is det]m9$ by a numb] ( factors1 prom95t among :i* is ! temp]ature ( s\!rn ,asia4 ,dur+ ! w9t]1 at pres5t1 ! l[ temp]ature ( ! ,himalayan & ,tibetan region results 9 a great outfl[ ( cold air1 :i* /rikes ! coa/ ( ,africa z ! cool dry nor?-ea/ monsoon4 ,dur+ ?is "t !re is v little ra9 9 ,abyss9ia4 ,x is only :5 ! ,asiatic l&-mass w>ms up 9 summ] t ! s\?-we/ monsoon is e/abli%$4 ,b dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod1 z we %all see1 !re 0 a great developm5t ( sn[ & ice on ! ,himalayas4 ,! result 0 t w9t] conditions1 i4e4 ! nor?-ea/ monsoon1 prevail$ m or less ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 & ! riv]s :i* fe$ ! ,nile conta9$ only a small volume ( wat]4 ,h5ce !y lo/ !mselves 9 ! des]t be=e rea*+ ,cairo1 & ! ,nile 9 its pres5t =m did n exi/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! we/]ly w9ds :i* at pres5t br+ a mod]ate w9t] ra9fall to ! coa/ ( ,syria 7 greatly increas$ 9 int5sity & ext5d$ fur!r s\?1 replac+ ! dry nor? & s\? w9ds n[ occupy+ ! ,nile valley4 ,! nor!rly w9ds prevail+ 9 ! ,nile valley 9 summ] are associat$ ) ! l[ pressure area ov] ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 :i* 9 turn is due to ! extremely high temp]ature exp]i5c$ !re4 ,ev5 at ! pres5t day ! highe/ hills ( ,s9ai p5etrate above ! nor? w9ds into a we/]ly curr5t1 & a mod]ate fall ( temp]ature ov] ! ,p]sian ,gulf w\ld inhibit ! nor? w9ds 9 ! ,nile valley altoge!r & all[ ! we/]ly w9ds to rea* ! surface4 ,^! /rong we/]ly w9ds br\ght a heavy ra9fall to ! hills1 n[ almo/ ra9less1 betwe5 ! ,nile & ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,p[]ful /reams desc5d$ ! we/]n slopes ( ^! hills1 br++ great quantities ( debris1 :i* =m$ delta-t]races =ty ( fifty feet ?ick :]e ! /reams deb\*$ on to ! ,egyptian pla94 ,^! are especially well develop$ at ,o9a1 ! meet+ place ( sev]al dry valleys f ! hills1 & x is rem>kable t !y actually cross ! pres5t site ( ! ,nile valley & rea* ! des]t on its we/]n side1 additional evid5ce t ! ,nile 0 n !n 9 exi/5ce4 ,^! gravel t]races conta9 num]\s /one implem5ts ( e>ly 7pre-,*ellean7 types1 %[+ t at ?is "t ,egypt _h suffici5t ra9fall ( its own to support human life4 ,! moi/ we/]ly w9ds c>ri$ ! climate ( ! ,m$it]ranean coa/ f> into ! des]t4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! oasis ( ,kh>geh1 9 latitude #be1 grew ! ev]gre5 oak & o!r plants n n[ f\nd s\? ( ,corsica & s\!rn ,france4 ,! ,m9delian ,pluvial p]iod 0 foll[$ by a long dry p]iod correspond+ to ! ,*ellean1 :5 des]t conditions sup]v5$4 ,! ,nile z we "k x fir/ appe>$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,t]races 7 =m$ on ! sides ( ! valley1 probably dur+ ! subm]g5ce :i* produc$ ! ,/rombus bea*es ( ! we/]n ,m$it]ranean2 ^! conta9 ,*ellean implem5ts4 ,dur+ ! succe$+ elevation ! ,nile cut its b$ bel[ ! pres5t level4 ,! ,rissian glaciation ( nor!rn ,europe is repres5t$ 9 ,egypt by a second ra9y p]iod1 ! ,less] ,pluvial p]iod4 ,ra9 aga9 fell on ! ,r$ ,sea hills1 =m+ a new] set ( gravel t]races1 b ^! are mu* small] ?an ! great ,m9delian t]races4 ,no t]races are kn[n repres5t+ ! ,wurmian p]iod1 & ! c\ntry does n seem to h be5 inhabit$ at ?is "t4 ,probably ! climate 0 semi-des]t1 ) n en\gh ra9fall ( its own to support human life1 & yet )\t ! f]tiliz+ ,nile floods to enable human life to exi/ )\t ra9fall4 ,z has be5 said1 ! pres5t regime did n beg9 until ! la/ glaciation 0 ne>ly ov]1 ab\t #ab1jjj ,b4,c4 ,,bibliography ,gign\x1 ,m4 8,les =mations m>9es pliocnes et quat]naires de l',italie du ,sud et de la ,sicilie40 ,ann4 l',univ4 ,lyon1 n4a41 ,vol4 #a1 fasc4 #cf1 ,p>is1 #aiaa1 pp4 #fic4 ,depret1 ,c4 8,les anci5nes lignes de rivage de la cte franaise de la ,m$it]rane40 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,geol4 de ,france1 s]4 #d1 ,vol4 #f1 pp4 #bjg-cj4 ,d\vill1 ,r4 8,espagne10 ,h&bu* regional ,geol41 ,h4 #g1 #aiaa4 7,includes ,gibralt> & ,bale>ic ,is47 ,hume1 ,w4 ,f41 & ,craig1 ,j4 ,i4 8,! ,glacial p]iod & climatic *ange 9 ,nor?-ea/ ,africa40 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc41 #aiaa1 p4 #chb4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,asia ,,dur+ ,,! ,,glacial ,,p]iod ,! great area ( ,asia is at pres5t b little explor$ = glacial traces1 b a c]ta9 am\nt ( evid5ce has be5 collect$1 & ! data f ! v>i\s m\nta9 di/ricts are consi/5t en\gh to map out ! g5]al tr5d ( ! hi/ory ( ! cont95t dur+ ! ,ice ,age4 ,! e>?-movem5ts :i* br\ght ab\t ! pres5t configuration ( ,asia 7 complet$ z reg>ds _! major details by ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,^! movem5ts left a numb] ( great bas9s clos$ 9 on all sides by enorm\s m\nta9 walls2 at fir/ all ^! bas9s conta9$ lakes1 & ! subsequ5t geographical hi/ory has consi/$ l>gely 9 ! gradual silt+ up ( ! lakes & ! developm5t ( m & m arid conditions4 ,! fluctuations ( ! ,ice ,age 7 sup]pos$ on ?is secul> desiccation1 b except 9 nor!rn ,sib]ia ! "p play$ by glaciation 9 ! hi/ory ( ! c\ntry has be5 relatively small4 ,consid] = a mom5t ! relief ( ,asia4 ,! orographic c5tre may be tak5 z ! great ,pamir plateau1 ! 8,ro( ( ! ,_w10 ) an av]age elevation exce$+ ! height ( ,mont ,blanc1 div]sifi$ by ranges ( m\nta9s exce$+ #be1jjj feet 9 places4 ,ea/ ( ?is is ! great plateau ( ,tibet1 #aj1jjj to #ag1jjj feet1 b\nd$ on ! s\? by ! mighty ,himalayas1 & on ! nor? by ! m\nta9s ( ,ku5 ,lun4 ,on ! nor? ! ,pamir plateau is b\nd$ by ! ,alai range1 pass+ nor?-ea/ into ! ,tian-,%an m\nta9s1 ris+ to #bd1jjj feet 9 ,khan-t5gri4 ,/ill fur!r nor?-ea/ comes ! ,altai range1 ) an elevation ( #ijjj feet4 ,ea/ ( ,lake ,baikal lie a s]ies ( ranges av]ag+ #hjjj feet 9 height1 & pass+ into ! ,/anovoi range ( ea/]n ,sib]ia & ! m\nta9s ( ,kam*atka4 ,! ,himalayas1 ow+ to _! heavy sn[fall d]iv$ f ! s\?-we/ monsoon1 be> num]\s great glaci]s1 b ) ! s]ies ( ranges ext5d+ f ! ,pamirs to nor?-ea/ ,sib]ia ! case is diff]5t4 ,^! ranges all rise above ! sn[-l9e 9 places1 b ow+ to ! scanty sn[fall !y be> at mo/ a few small glaci]s on _! nor!rn sides1 & none at all on ! slopes :i* face t[>ds ! des]ts ( we/]n ,*9a1 & 9 all cases ! glaciation is v slight 9 comp>ison ) _! elevation4 ,?is di/ribution 0 *>act]i/ic also ( ! ,ice ,age4 ,9 ! ,pamirs !re is evid5ce ( two p]iods :5 ! glaci]s _h a great] ext5t2 9 ! fir/ !y ext5d$ to a level ( #ejjj feet1 9 ! second to #gjjj feet4 ,! pres5t limit ( ! glaci]s lies at ab\t #aj1jjj feet4 ,! fir/ glaciation 0 remote1 = ! mora9es are worn & wea!r$1 b ! second 0 mu* m rec5t1 = ! mora9es are fre%1 & 9 "s cases !re are /ill masses ( 8dead0 ice buri$ b5ea? great accumulations ( debris & occasionally expos$ by slips4 ,9 ! ,tian-,%an m\nta9s !re are rema9s ( two glaciations4 ,! e>li] 0 ! great]1 & ! glaci]s desc5d$ well bel[ #aj1jjj feet4 ,?is glaciation 0 foll[$ by a long int]val1 :5 ! erosion ( ! riv]s conv]t$ ! ,u-%ap$ glacial valleys into ,v-%ap$ gorges4 ,a second glaciation desc5d$ to a level ( #aj1jjj feet1 & aga9 develop$ ,u-valleys to ?is level2 ! end-mora9es ( ^! glaci]s are "y & fre%-look+4 ,9 ! ,altai range !re 7 also two glacial p]iods4 ,9 ! old] & great] ! sn[-l9e 0 depress$ by #cjjj feet4 ,! glaci]s atta9$ a l5g? ( twelve miles & desc5d$ to a level ( only #cjjj feet above ! sea4 ,! second glaciation 0 less ext5sive4 ,s f> we h be5 deal+ ) small m\nta9 glaci]s only4 ,b 9 nor?-ea/]n ,sib]ia we f9d a diff]5t /ate ( affairs4 ,! ,/anovoi & ,v]khoiansk m\nta9s 7 heavily glaciat$1 & dur+ ! fir/ glaciation 7 probably ! c5tre ( an actual ice-%eet simil> to t ( ,sc&9avia4 ,! ice desc5d$ ! valleys ( ! riv]s ,yana1 ,indijirka & ,kolyma & cov]$ ! ,new ,sib]ian ,isl&s1 :i* 7 at t "t connect$ ) ! ma9l&4 ,! upp] valley ( ! ,l5a 0 also heavily glaciat$ by an ice-%eet mov+ s\?w>d1 probably f ! ,patom highl&s4 ,:5 ?is glaciation drew to a close ! s\rce ( supply among ! m\nta9s ceas$1 & ! ice on ! l[l&s & 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! riv] valleys 0 left /r&$ z 8dead0 ice4 ,:5 ! m\nta9s became free ( ice1 ! re-born riv]s c>ri$ great quantities ( mora9e-clay & o!r debris ) !m1 & flood+ ! ice-surface ov] wide areas deposit$ _! load above ! ice4 ,9 c\rse ( "t ! rema9s ( ! ice-%eet 7 deeply cov]$ by a lay] ( e>? & /ones1 :i* prev5t$ ! ice f melt+ & pres]v$ x to ! pres5t day4 ,?is is ! probable orig9 ( ! well-kn[n 8fossil ice0 ( ,sib]ia4 ,o!r !ories h be5 put =w>d1 su* z ! freez+ ( gr\nd wat] dur+ ! w9t]1 b none are satisfactory1 & t giv5 "h 0 g5]ally adopt$ by ,russian geologi/s4 ,dur+ ! long w>m int]glacial :i* foll[$1 ! surface ( ! ?ick e>?-lay] cov]+ ! ice bore l[-gr[+ h]bage 9 ! same way z any o!r e>?-surface4 7,a p>allel to ?is is f\nd 9 ,alaska1 :]e ! glaci]s t]m9ate among ! =e/s1 :i* actually gr[ ov] ! mora9es cov]+ _! sn\ts47 ,! riv]s cut _! way d[n ?r\gh ! e>? & ice1 expos+ ice-cliffs1 :i* 7 quickly buri$ by talus f above4 ,! mammo? & woolly rh9oc]os roam$ ! l&1 & _! tusks rema9 9 great numb]s z ! 8fossil ivory0 ( ,sib]ia & ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,/ill m rem>kable is ! fact t mammo?s h be5 f\nd buri$ entire1 & pres]v$ by ! froz5 gr\nd to ! pres5t day4 ,x is difficult to say h[ ! animals rea*$ su* a position1 b mo/ probably !y sank into swamps =m$ dur+ ! summ] & 7 quickly froz54 ,9 we/]n ,europe ! mammo? & woolly rh9oc]os are reg>d$ z indications ( sev]e climate1 b _! pres5ce 9 nor?-ea/]n ,sib]ia 9 l>ge numb]s is evid5ce ( a climate probably some:at w>m] ?an t ( ! pres5t day1 especially z reg>ds ! l5g? ( ! vegetation p]iod4 ,probably ! w9t] sn[fall also 0 less ?an n[4 ,x is difficult to see h[ ! fauna c\ld h mov$ f1 say1 ! ,new ,sib]ian isl&s into a w>m] climate ea* w9t]1 = ! w9t] climate becomes m>k$ly m sev]e z "o p5etrates s\? f ! ,arctic coa/ into ! int]ior4 ,x is possible t ! mammo? & woolly rh9oc]os hib]nat$ dur+ ! w9t]4 ,aft] ?is int]glacial !re came a recrudesc5ce ( glacial conditions4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! ,/anovoi & ,v]khoiansk m\nta9s & ! ,patom highl&s 7 n buri$ 9 an ice-%eet1 b became ! c5tre ( great valley glaci]s1 :i* reproduc$ ! well-kn[n glacial ph5om5a--corries1 glacial t]races1 ,u-valleys1 etc4 ,! ice ext5d$ d[n ! great riv] valleys1 leav+ a typical mora9e l&scape on ei!r side1 & aga9 rea*$ ! ,new ,sib]ian isl&s4 ,9 c\rse ( "t ! climate ameliorat$1 aga9 comm5c+ 9 ! s\?1 & aga9 ! ice ( ! glaci]s 0 buri$4 ,9 ! ,new ,sib]ian isl&s ! happ5+s are summ>iz$ v expressively by a rock-section describ$ by ,vollossovits*4 ,! bottom ( ! section is =m$ by ! old] lay] ( 8fossil ice40 ,above ?is is a s&y clay ) rema9s ( mead[ vegetation & %rubs1 foll[$ by a f9e clay ) rema9s ( ald] & :ite bir*1 & ! bones ( mammo? & rh9oc]os4 ,above ?is comes ano!r lay] ( 8fossil ice10 foll[$ by clay ) ! dw>f bir*1 ,arctic will[1 & bones ( musk ox1 horse & lat] mammo?4 ,aft] ?is ! coa/al regions sank b5ea? ! sea = a "t & m>9e clays 7 =m$ 9 a climate some:at w>m] ?an ! pres5t4 ,:5 ! l& rose aga9 ! conditions resembl$ ^? n[ prevail+4 ,?\gh n "p ( ,asia1 ref]5ce may be made "h to ! glaciation ( ,spitzb]g51 :i* runs /rictly p>allel ) t ( nor!rn ,sib]ia4 ,! fir/ glaciation 0 ( ! 8ice-%eet0 type1 orig9at+ 9 ! region nor? ( ,/orfjiord1 fill+ ! :ole ( t fiord & ext5d+ s\? ( ,s\? ,cape4 ,b>5tz ,l& & ,/ans ,=el& 7 at lea/ p>tially ice-cov]$4 ,! ice-floor ( ,spitzb]g51 :i* resembles t ( ,sib]ia1 may h orig9at$ dur+ ?is glaciation4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by subsid5ce to #bcj feet bel[ pres5t level1 & ! ice retreat$1 giv+ place to an 8int]glacial10 dur+ :i* fro/ 0 v active & l>gely oblit]at$ ! traces ( ! ice-%eet4 ,?is 8int]glacial0 0 foll[$ by a second ext5sion ( ! ice1 :i* affect$ ! valleys & fiords only1 leav+ ! plateaux free4 ,?is aga9 0 foll[$ by subsid5ce & a w>m p]iod4 ,9 s\!rn ,kam*atka !re 0 a great developm5t ( ice1 b 9 ! =m ( a network ( glaci]s r ?an ( an inl& ice-%eet4 ,9 ! ea/ ! ice rea*$ ! sea1 b on ! we/ x left a zone =ty to sixty miles broad1 & up to a ?\s& feet high unglaciat$1 s t !re 0 ! same diff]5ce !n z n[ betwe5 ! ra9y ea/ side & ! dri] we/ side ( ! p59sula4 ,! pres5t sn[-l9e 9 ! c5tre ( s\!rn ,kam*atka is ab\t #eejj feet1 & at ! maximum ( ! glaciation x mu/ h be5 fully #cjjj feet l[]4 ,?is glaciation 0 foll[$ aft] an int]val by a second1 :i* 0 conf9$ to ! m\nta9s4 ,! mora9es ( ?is glaciation are mu* fre%] ?an are ^? ( ! e>li] "o4 ,9 ,japan ! m\nta9s 7 only j high en\gh = glaci]s to develop 9 ! nor?4 ,! mora9es are old & wea!r$1 & _! mean+ has be5 disput$2 b rec5t "w by ,simotomai & ,oseki seems to h e/abli%$ _! glacial orig94 ,! depression ( ! sn[-l9e necess>y to produce !m--ab\t #cjjj feet--fits 9 v well ) t obs]v$ 9 adjo9+ p>ts ( ! cont95t4 ,! ph5om5a 7 conf9$ to small hang+ glaci]s 9 ! ,hida m\nta9s :i* cut out corries & desc5d$ to a level ( ab\t #hjjj feet1 leav+ small mora9ic ridges4 ,?is glaciation 0 probably contemporane\s ) ! e>li] & great] glaciation ( ,sib]ia4 ,to ! succe$+ int]glacial may be attribut$ ! m>9e deposits f\nd ne> ,tokio conta9+ corals1 at pres5t liv+ "s di/ance fur!r s\?4 ,no trace ( any subsequ5t glaciation ( ,japan has yet be5 f\nd4 ,j4 ,s4 ,lee has rec5tly call$ att5tion to ! exi/5ce ( a glaciat$ area 9 nor!rn ,*9a1 ! evid5ce = :i* consi/s ( mora9es & /riat$ slabs f\nd 9 s\!rn ,*i-li1 & a glaciat$ valley ) travell$ b\ld]s 9 ! nor? ( ,%an-si4 ,! glacial deposits 9 ,*i-li are closely associat$ ) a lay] ( qu>tzite pebbles :i* cont9ues s\?w>d b5ea? ! loess on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,tai-hang range1 & is attribut$ to ei!r torr5tial ra9 or ! melt+ ( glaci]s4 ,j4 ,geikie _h long ago /at$ t !re once exi/$ ice-masses all ov] nor!rn ,*9a1 & consid]$ t ! ice came f ! ,himalayas4 ,?is orig9 is impossible1 ! probable s\rce ( ! ice be+ ! ,yablonoi m\nta9s 9 s\!rn ,mongolia4 ,9 ! ,himalayas ! glaci]s =m]ly _h a mu* great] ext5sion4 ,! glaci]s at pres5t ext5d d[nw>ds to #aa-ac1jjj feet1 b old mora9es are f\nd at #gjjj feet1 & ne> ,dalh\sie on ! s\!rn slopes ( ! ,dholad> range to #dgdj feet4 ,on ! nor!rn side ( ! ,himalayas !re 0 a great developm5t ( ice ov] ,tibet1 b !re 0 n a real ice-%eet su* z occurr$ fur!r nor?4 ,oldham records ?ree sep>ate p]iods ( glaciation 9 ,ka%mir1 b x is n yet possible to discuss ! glacial hi/ory ( ! ,himalayas 9 detail4 ,! latt] is likely to prove complicat$1 s9ce ! range is /ill ris+1 & has probably be5 do+ s ei!r cont9ually or int]mitt5tly ?r\gh\t ! ,quat]n>y4 ,! great developm5t ( ice 9 ,tibet1 :i* is n[ semi-arid1 ow+ to int]ception ( ! ra9-be>+ w9ds by ! ,himalayan range1 sugge/s a consid]able alt]ation 9 ! pres5t meteorological conditions4 ,! ,tibetan sn[fall 0 probably due to ! ,m$it]ranean /orms1 :i* n[ give a small w9t] ra9fall 9 nor?-we/ ,india1 & :i* dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod greatly increas$ 9 /r5g? & frequ5cy & occurr$ ?r\gh\t ! ye> 7,*apt]s ,,iv & ,,vi71 giv+ ! ,pluvial p]iod ( ,nor? ,africa4 ,^! /orms w\ld pass across ,p]sia & cont9ue to ! nor? ( ! ,himalayas1 probably break+ up ov] ! ,tibetan plateau4 ,x is evid5t t1 tak+ nor!rn ,asia z a :ole1 !re h be5 two g5]al glaciations1 ( :i* ! fir/ 0 ! m sev]e1 sep>at$ by a long int]glacial1 dur+ :i*1 9 ,japan at lea/1 ! climate became appreciably w>m] ?an ! pres5t4 ,! fir/ glaciation is relat$ to elevation 9 ! ,arctic bas91 :i* clos$ ,b]+ ,/rait & unit$ ! ,new ,sib]ian isl&s to ! ma9l&4 ,x 0 almo/ c]ta9ly contemporane\s ) ! fir/ glaciation 7,gunz-,m9del7 ( ,europe4 ,! ice began z glaci]s on ! m\nta9s z 9 ,sc&9avia1 b1 ow+ to ! scanty supply ( sn[1 develop$ m sl[ly & only rea*$ ! dignity ( ice-%eets 9 nor?-ea/ ,sib]ia4 ,!n foll[$ subsid5ce bel[ ! pres5t level1 wid] op5+ ( ! ,b]+ ,/rait1 w>m ocean curr5ts & a long int]glacial4 ,aft] ?is !re 0 aga9 elevation & a re-developm5t ( ice-%eets1 b app>5tly once only1 & n twice z 9 ,europe4 ,?is glaciation probably correspond$ 9 po9t ( "t m or less ) ! ,rissian1 = ! po/-glacial dry ( c5tral ,asia appe>s to h be5 ( enorm\s p]iod l5g?4 ,!re is "o o!r ph5om5on :i* mu/ be consid]$ 9 connexion ) ! glacial hi/ory ( ,asia1 & t is ! loess4 ,loess has already be5 ref]r$ to 9 connexion ) ! glaciation ( ,europe1 b 9 ,*9a its developm5t is mu* great]4 ,ri*?(51 :o fir/ /udi$ ?is deposit att5tively1 & to :om we owe ! olian !ory ( its orig91 f\nd t x 0 =m]ly deposit$ 9 ,*9a ov] a mu* great] area ?an t ov] :i* x is accumulat+ at pres5t1 & attributes ?is cessation ( gr[? to ! heavi] ra9fall br\ght by ! ,glacial p]iod1 :i* enabl$ ! riv]s to cut back _! valleys & dra9 "s ( ! m\nta9 bas9s1 =m]ly enclos$4 ,he consid]$ t loess c accumulate m rapidly 9 a clos$ bas91 :]e occasional floods leave beh9d !m lay]s ( b>e s& & mud1 easily dri$ to du/1 ?an 9 a well-dra9$ riv] valley :]e floods are r>e4 ,9 we/]n ,asia outside ! limits ( glaciation we h fur!r evid5ce ( at lea/ "o ,pluvial p]iod 9 ! =m] f> great] ext5t ( all ! enclos$ lakes1 due p>tly to great] precipitation & p>tly to decreas$ evaporation4 ,! ,caspian ,sea & ,aral ,sea 7 ext5d$ to sev]al times _! pres5t size & unit$ into a s+le %eet ( inl& wat]4 ,lake ,lop-,nor 0 greatly increas$ 9 size1 & _m ( ! des]t bas9s1 at pres5t dry1 7 ! sites ( salt lakes4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 c5tral ,p]sia1 :]e !re 7 l>ge salt or bracki% lakes4 ,^! ,pluvial conditions h n yet be5 correlat$ ) ! glaciations ( ,asia1 b1 by analogy ) ! conditions 9 ,am]ica discuss$ 9 ! next *apt]1 !re is little d\bt t !y 7 contemporane\s ) "o at lea/ ( ! glaciations1 & probably !re 7 two ma9 ,pluvial p]iods co9cid+ ) ! two ,glacial p]iods4 ,at ,baku1 on ! %ores ( ! ,caspian riv]1 ,pumpelly has f\nd old %ore l9es at heights ( #fjj1 #ejj1 & #cjj feet above ! pres5t level ( ! wat]4 ,/ill m int]e/+ are ! conditions f\nd by ,sv5 ,h$9 9 ! ,kavir bas9 ( ,p]sia4 ,"h !re are lacu/r9e clays & silts ref]able to a ,pluvial p]iod cov]$ by b$s ( almo/ pure salt1 sugge/+ a rapid & complete dry+ up ( ! lake4 ,above ?is aga9 are fur!r silts indicat+ a return ( ,pluvial conditions4 ,9 addition to ?is ! succession ( silts & clays %[ t !re 7 sev]al m9or fluctuations sup]pos$ on ! ma9 wet p]iods1 giv+ t5 moi/ phases altoge!r4 ,,bibliography ,_m ( ! m important ref]5ces are 9 ,russian1 & = ^! ref]5ce is made to summ>ies 9 o!r languages4 ,seva/ianov1 ,d4 ,p4 8,on ! glaciation ( ! extreme nor?-ea/ ( ,sib]ia40 ,j4 #ab ,congr4 ,russ4 ,nat41 ,mosc[1 #aiaj1 ,no4 #aj1 p4 #dia4 7,russian1 see ,geol4 ,c5tralblatt1 #ae1 p4 #bje47 ,riesnits*anko1 ,w4 8,anci5t & mod]n glaci]s ( ! s\?-we/]n ,altai40 ,mem4 ,russ4 ,geogr4 ,soc41 #dh1 #aiab1 p4 #ceg4 7,russian1 see ,geol4 ,c5tralblatt1 #ai1 p4 #aca47 ,kom>ov1 ,w4 8,on ! ,quat]n>y glaciation ( ,kam*atka--,travels 9 ,kam*atka 9 #aijh-i10 ,vol4 #a 7,russian1 see ,n4 ,j4 ,m941 #aiae1 ,pt4 #b1 ,p4 #aag74 ,m]zba*]1 ,g4 8,zur ,eiszeitfrage 9 d] nordwe/li*5 ,mongolei40 ,pet]m4 ,mitt41 ,go?a1 #eg1 #aiaa1 p4 #ah4 ,pr9z1 ,gyula4 8,die ,v]glets*]ung des nrdli*5 ,teiles des z5tral5 ,ti5-s*an-,gebirges40 ,wi51 ,mitt4 ,k4 ,k4 geogr4 ,gesells*1 #eb1 #aiji1 p4 #aj4 ,obruts*ev1 ,w4 ,a4 8,geological map ( ,l5a gold-be>+ region40 ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 #aijg4 ,text 9 ,russian2 see ,geol4 ,c5tralblatt1 #ab1 pp4 #ejg-i4 ,simotomai1 ,h4 8,die diluviale ,eiszeit 9 ,japan40 ,b]l91 ,zs4 ,ges4 ,erdkunde1 #aiad1 p4 #ef4 ,oseki1 ,k4 8,"s notes on ! glacial ph5om5a 9 ! ,nor? ,japanese ,alps40 ,ed9burgh1 ,scot4 ,geogr4 ,mag41 #ca1 #aiae1 p4 #aac4 ,lee1 ,j4 ,s4 8,note on traces ( rec5t ice-action 9 ,nor? ,*9a40 ,geol4 ,mag41 #ei1 #aibb1 p4 #ad4 ,burr>d1 ,s4 ,g41 & ,hayd51 ,h4 ,h4 8,a sket* ( ! geography & geology ( ! ,himalaya ,m\nta9s & ,tibet40 ,calcutta1 #aijg-h4 ,hogbm1 ,g4 8,bidrag till ,isfjordsomradets kv>t>geologi40 ,geol4 ,=54 ,/ockholm ,=b41 #aiaa4 7,spitsb]g52 rsum 9 ,g]man47 ,ri*?(51 ,f4 ,freih4 von4 8,*9a40 #e ,vols41 #aijg-ab4 7,loess1 see ,vol4 #a1 p4 #gd ff47 ,h$91 ,sv54 8,"s physico-geographical indications ( po/-,pluvial climatic *anges 9 ,p]sia40 ,int]nat4 ,geol4 ,congr41 ,/ockholm1 #aiaa4 8,die ,v]nd]ung des ,klimas40 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,glacial ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,nor? ,,am]ica ,! glaciation ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 ev5 great] & m complicat$ ?an 0 t ( ,europe4 ,x spread f ?ree ma9 c5tres1 ! ,cordill]an or ,rocky ,m\nta9 c5tre1 ! ,keewat9 c5tre we/ ( ,hudson ,bay1 & ! ,labradorean c5tre4 ,vanc\v] ,isl& 9 ! we/ & ,new ,brunswick & ,newf\ndl& 9 ! ea/1 7 also indep5d5t c5tres ( glaciation1 & ice f ! latt] may h rea*$ ! coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 places4 ,! ice cov]$ an area ( ab\t #d1jjj1jjj squ>e miles1 & ! ma9 ice-%eet ext5d$ to #ch ,n41 or twelve degrees fur!r s\? ?an ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet4 ,n9e /ages are recogniz$ by ,am]ican geologi/s1 ?\gh op9ion is divid$ z to :e!r all ! /ages ( 8deglaciation0 repres5t real int]glacial p]iods4 ,! sequ5ce is z foll[s3 #a4 ,nebraskan1 ,j]seyan or pre-,kansan glaciation4 #b4 ,aftonian deglaciation4 #c4 ,kansan glaciation4 #d4 ,y>m\? deglaciation4 #e4 ,ill9oian glaciation4 #f4 ,sangamon deglaciation4 #g4 ,i[an glaciation4 #h4 ,peorian deglaciation4 #i4 ,wiscons9 glaciation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s !re is evid5ce ( only two ,glacial p]iods1 sep>at$ by a s+le long int]glacial1 ?\gh p]haps ! second glaciation 0 d\ble4 ,fur!r s\?1 out ( rea* ( ! ma9 ice-%eets1 !re are traces ( two & 9 places ?ree sep>ate developm5ts ( valley glaci]s resembl+ ^? ( ! ,alps4 ,z 9 ! case ( ,europe1 ! lit]ature ( ! subject is ext5sive & conflict+1 b ! foll[+ summ>y ( ! c\rse ( ev5ts repres5ts ! views ( mo/ mod]ate ,am]ican geologi/s4 ,! ,quat]n>y p]iod op5$ ) ext5sive elevation ( ! :ole ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 :i* rais$ ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s sev]al ?\s& feet above _! pres5t level & ext5d$ ! cont95tal area ov] mu* ( ! nor!rn ar*ipelago4 ,9 ! ea/ ,newf\ndl& is consid]$ to h be5 rais$ at lea/ #ajjj feet1 a movem5t :i* conv]t$ ! banks into dry l& & int]pos$ a l>ge cold area 9 ! pa? ( ! moi/ure-be>+ s\!rly w9ds4 ,z 9 nor!rn ,europe ! high m\nta9s ( ! we/ 7 ! fir/ to develop l>ge glaci]s1 :i* coalesc$ into an ice-%eet1 fill+ ! valleys & ris+ up ! slopes ( ! m\nta9s until x rea*$ a ?ickness ( #ejjj feet4 ,9 ,puget ,s\nd ! ice 0 #djjj feet ?ick1 b seaw>ds ! slope is v rapid & ! ice 0 unable to ext5d f> f ! %ore4 ,?is ice-%eet ext5d$ s\?-ea/w>ds "s di/ance into ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 =m+ ! fir/ gr\nd-mora9e ( t di/rict4 ,probably :ile ?is ,cordill]an glaciation 0 /ill 9 progress ice began to spread outw>ds also f ! ,labradorean c5tre1 =m+ ! olde/ drift ( t region4 ,^! olde/ deposits are1 h[ev]1 n yet well und]/ood4 ,?is olde/ b\ld]-clay is sep>at$ f ! mora9es ( ! ma9 glaciation ne> its s\!rn limit by riv] gravels conta9+ ! rema9s ( mollusca & l>ge h]bivor\s mammals--ext9ct species ( horse1 ! hairy mammo? ( ! old _w 7,elephas primig5ius71 & two o!r ext9ct species ( elephant1 & also ! true ,am]ican mammo?4 ,?is is ! ,aftonian fauna1 :i* has be5 claim$ z evid5ce ( an ,int]glacial p]iod4 ,t x evid5ces a retreat ( ! ice-edge 9 t p>ticul> region is c]ta91 b t ! climate became really temp]ate is v d\btful4 ,m probably x corresponds to ! ,gunz-,m9del 8int]glacial0 ( ! ,alps1 & 0 =m$ :5 ! ,cordill]an ice-%eet 0 retreat+1 b be=e ! ,keewat9 %eet _h rea*$ its maximum4 ,! ,aftonian /age 0 foll[$ by ! ,kansan glaciation1 :5 ! ice-%eets rea*$ _! maximum area ov] ! great] "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! *ief c5tre ( glaciation at ?is /age 0 ! ,keewat91 we/ ( ,hudson ,bay4 ,:ile x is c]ta9 t ! ,keewat9 c5tre rea*$ its maximum lat] ?an ! ,cordill]an1 geological op9ion 9 ,am]ica is divid$ z to :e!r or no ! two ice-%eets ev] coalesc$1 b x is difficult to und]/& h[ an indep5d5t ice-%eet c\ld h gr[n up on ! comp>atively l[ gr\nd ( ! ,keewat9 c5tre4 ,mo/ probably ! c\rse ( ev5ts "h 0 an exact p>allel ( t 9 ! bett]-kn[n ,sc&9avian region--! ,cordill]an ice-%eet ext5d$ ea/w>ds ov] ! l[] gr\nd until a glacial anticyclone develop$ ea/ ( ! ,rockies4 ,:5 ?is happ5$ ! supply ( moi/ure to ! we/]n "p ( ! ice-%eet fell (f some:at1 & ! ea/]n "p took on an indep5d5t life1 ultimately becom+ ! ma9 c5tre ( glaciation4 ,x 0 :ile ^! *anges 7 9 progress t ! s\!rn limit ( ! ice retreat$ nor?w>ds & ! 8,aftonian0 deposits 7 =m$4 ,! next /age 7,kansan7 occurr$ :5 ! ice f ! ,keewat9 c5tre spread outw>ds 9 all directions1 & 9 ! s\? rea*$ ! maximum limits ( glaciation 9 ,am]ica4 ,9 ! we/ ?is %eet ov]lapp$ on to ! gr\nd-mora9e ( ! =m] ,cordill]an ice1 b ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s 7 too f> away & too high = ,keewat9 ice to dom9ate !m & ov]fl[ !m f ea/ to we/4 ,in/ead ^! m\nta9s mu/ h ma9ta9$ an ext5sive glaciation ( _! own4 ,) ! gr[? ( ! ,keewat9 c5tre ! ,labradorean also decreas$1 b m sl[ly1 & ?is *ange 0 n associat$ ) a retreat ( ! s\!rn ice-edge1 s t !re 0 no correspond+ 8int]glacial0 9 ! ea/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! mora9es ( ^! old] glaciations resemble ^? ( ! e>ly ice-%eets ( ,europe 9 pres5t+ only featureless level surfaces ( b\ld]-clay )\t mora9ic ridges1 lakes & ! o!r *>act]i/ics ( ice-be>+ surface detritus1 & !re is no d\bt t conditions at ! s\!rn edge 7 simil>--! climate 0 sev]e 9 w9t]1 b n insupportable 9 summ]4 ,at ! same "t x 0 decid$ly m sev]e ?an ! pres5t1 ev5 z f> s\? z ,florida1 :]e !re are colonies ( nor!rn plants1 :i* migrat$ s\?w>ds dur+ ! ,ice ,age1 /ill liv+ on local cold slopes ) a nor!rly aspect4 ,aft] ! maximum ( glaciation ! disappe>ance ( ! ice took place gradually & *iefly by ablation1 = !re are none ( ! ext5sive riv] gravels & flood t]races :i* we %\ld f9d _h ! melt+ be5 rapid4 ,x is only 9 ! valleys ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s t su* deposits occur1 te/ify+ to conditions su* z obta9$ 9 ! ,alps4 ,! succe$+ ,y>m\? /age ( deglaciation 0 v long1 correspond+ 9 ?is respect to ! ,m9del-,riss int]glacial ( ,europe4 ,! ,kansan mora9e 0 wea!r$ to a dep? ( t5 or tw5ty feet1 & f\r-fif?s ( its surface 0 remov$ by ! erosion ( /reams & riv]s4 ,9 ! m\nta9 di/ricts ! side /reams :i* _h be5 left occupy+ 8hang+ valleys0 by ! ov]-deep5+ ( ! heavily glaciat$ ma9 valleys1 _h "t to cut out uni=mly grad$ broad ,v-%ap$ valleys desc5d+ to ! level ( ! ma9 /ream4 ,9 ! ,great ,bas9 also1 :]e ! p]iods ( high wat]-level are consid]$ to correspond to ! ma9 glaciations1 ! int]val ( l[ wat] correspond+ to ! ,y>m\? /age 0 v long4 ,a r\gh e/imate ( its l5g? is ab\t #bjj1jjj ye>s--some:at %ort] ?an ! ,m9del-,riss4 ,actually1 ?\gh ! ,kansan & ,m9delian glaciations 7 approximately contemporane\s1 ! subsequ5t recurr5ce ( glaciation 9 ,am]ica appe>s to h prec$$ slightly t 9 ,europe4 ,( ! climate ( ?is /age we h un=tunately little evid5ce4 ,old l& surfaces ( ?is age are kn[n1 conta9+ deposits ( peat & bones ( ! wood rabbit & common skunk1 b bo? ( ^! animals h a wide range4 ,p]haps ! climate resembl$ ! pres5t dur+ mo/ ( ! p]iod2 !re is no evid5ce t x 0 ev] w>m]1 & x appe>s q likely t ice-%eets ma9ta9$ _! exi/5ce 9 ! f> nor? ?r\gh ! :ole ( ?is /age4 ,aft] ?is int]glacial !re set 9 a p]iod ( r5ew$ elevation 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & 9 ! ,labrador-,newf\ndl& c5tres1 :i* br\ght ab\t a recurr5ce ( ! glaciation4 ,9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s ! ice 0 n s ?ick z 9 ! prec$+ /age1 b all ! valleys 7 occupi$ to a consid]able dep? & ! ice spread out to ! ea/w>d4 ,! ,labrador ice-%eets also develop$ aga91 =m+ ! ,ill9oian glaciation1 ! mora9es ( :i* are f\nd z f> we/ z ,ill9ois1 b no mora9es are kn[n ( ?is age due to ! ,keewat9 ice-%eet4 ,! latt] develop$ lat]1 & is class$ by "s ,am]ican geologi/s z a sep>ate glaciation1 ! ,i[an1 :i* is only c]ta9ly f\nd 9 nor!rn ,i[a1 b may be repres5t$ fur!r ea/ by a ?9 %eet ( b\ld]-clay ov]lapp+ ! ,ill9oian mora9e4 ,! suppos$ int]glacial betwe5 ! ,ill9oian & ,i[an1 ! 8,sangamon ,/age10 is repres5t$ only by l& surfaces =m$ ( ! ,ill9oian mora9e & cov]$ by ! loess or locally by ! equival5t ( ! ,i[an mora9e1 & !re is no evid5ce t ! ice-edge retreat$ f>4 ,o!r ,am]ican geologi/s1 includ+ ,f4 ,lev]ett1 d n recognize ! exi/5ce ( a sep>ate ,i[an glaciation1 & z ! am\nt ( wea!r+ & d5udation und]gone by ! two mora9es diff]s v little1 ?is seems ! m natural view4 ,! natural explanation seems to be t ?is 0 ano!r case ( 8glacial piracy10 ! ,keewat9 ice-%eet1 ow+ to its less] sn[fall1 develop+ m gradually1 & f9ally div]t+ ! supply ( moi/ure f ! ,labradorean ice-%eet1 until x rea*$ a maximum aft] ! latt] 0 already on ! wane4 ,bo? ^! %eets ( drift pres5t simil> flat features to ! ,kansan %eet1 )\t mora9ic ridges4 ,lev]ett's int]pretation ( ! succession is z foll[s3 ,! ?ird 7,ill9oian-,i[an7 glaciation 0 foll[$ by a p]iod ( moi/ climate1 :5 peat-bogs 7 =m$ on level poorly-dra9$ surfaces1 :ile else:]e conif]\s =e/s develop$4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by a p]iod ( dry /eppe-l conditions ) a cold temp]ate climate1 :5 ! great ,am]ican loess %eet 0 deposit$4 ,?is loess %eet ext5ds nor?w>ds1 ov]lapp+ ! ,i[an mora9e1 & 9 places pass+ "u ! ,wiscons9 drift4 ,! mat]ial has come f ! we/1 & probably mo/ l>gely f ! dry pla9s ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 f :i* x dim9i%es 9 ?ickness ea/w>ds4 ,b unlike ,europe ?is phase ( /eppe conditions 0 foll[$ 9 ,am]ica by a def9ite int]glacial1 :5 ! climate seems to h become r w>m] ?an ! pres5t4 ,9 ! nor!rn ,/ates an old l&-surface =m$ on ! loess1 &1 t]m$ ! ,peorian /age1 is ov]la9 by ! ,wiscons9 drift2 b ne> ,toronto1 on ! %ores ( ,lake ,ont>io & 9 ! ,don valley1 ! gap repres5t$ by ?is l&-surface is p>tly fill$ by a rem>kable s]ies ( lacu/r9e deposits kn[n z ! ,toronto /age4 ,! ,lake ,ont>io b$s indicate a climate slightly cold] ?an ! pres5t1 b ! ,don valley b$s conta9 plants & animals liv+ 9 ! c5tral ,/ates1 & ref] to conditions m fav\rable ?an ^? n[ f\nd 9 ! di/rict4 ,! duration ( ?is int]glacial has be5 work$ out 9 a rem>kable way by ,a4 ,p4 ,coleman1 :o on ! basis ( wave-action e/imat$ x z #fb1jjj ye>s1 :i* agrees v closely ) ! #fj1jjj ye>s f\nd by ,p5ck & ,brckn] 9 ! ,alps4 ,?is p]iod 0 n long en\gh = /reams 9 ! 8hang+ valleys0 to cut out uni=mly grad$ valleys d[n to ! ma9 riv]s1 & 0 consequ5tly mu* %ort] ?an ! prec$+ int]glacial4 ,! la/ glaciation ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 ! ,wiscons91 :i* closely resembles ! ,wurmian ( ,europe bo? 9 its relations to ! old] glaciations & 9 ! r\gh topography & unworn "* ( its mora9es4 ,x ext5d$ )9 ! limits ( ! ,kansan drift across fully two-?irds ( ! cont95t1 f ,nantucket & ,cape ,cod ?r\gh ,long ,isl&1 nor!rn ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 s\!rn ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 ,mi*igan1 ,wiscons91 ,m9nesota1 ,i[a & ! ,dakotas1 ,manitoba1 ,saskat*ewan & ,alb]ta4 ,at ! same "t ! ,cordill]an c5tre probably bore increas$ local valley glaci]s4 ,l ! ,wurm glaciation1 ! ,wiscons9 0 d\ble4 ,! old] mora9es are well-m>k$1 & 9 places are cov]$ by a foot or two ( loess1 ?\gh ?is deposit rea*es no?+ l ! ?ickness ( t ov]ly+ ! mora9es ( ! e>li] glaciations4 ,! mora9e "u ?is loess is v little wea!r$1 s t ! "t int]val 0 v %ort2 possibly ?is loess is r$i/ribut$ old] loess associat$ ) glacial ea/ w9ds4 ,! ice ( ! fir/ glaciation melt$ v sl[ly & !re is v little gravel outwa% to ! mora9es4 ,b 8aft] ! ,wiscons9 ice-%eet _h rea*$ a position a little outside ! limits ( ! ,great ,lakes ! retreat became mu* m rapid1 & l>ge outwa% aprons 7 =m$ f :i* valley tra9s ( gravel l$ f> d[n ! dra9age l9es4 ,f ?is position 444 ! mora9es are practically free f loess-l silts40#d ,f ?is po9t onw>ds ! glacial hi/ory ( ,am]ica is "o ( irregul> retreat1 ) occasional halts or ev5 readvances resembl+ ^? ( ! ,sc&9avian ice4 ,b&$ clays are f\nd simil> to ^? us$ s successfully by ,b>on de ,ge] 9 dat+ ! retreat /ages ( ,sc&9avia1 & ?is geologi/ has rec5tly be5 inve/igat+ !m1 b until 8 results are work$ out no correlation ) ,europe c be attempt$4 ,a natural clock ( ano!r type is provid$ by ,niag>a ,falls1 :i* are cutt+ _! way back up ! gorge at a rate :i* has be5 def9itely asc]ta9$4 ,tak+ into acc\nt ! v>y+ am\nts ( wat] :i* h pass$ ov] ! falls at diff]5t /ages ( po/-glacial geography1 ! duration s9ce ! region became free ( ice has be5 calculat$ at ab\t #bj1jjj ye>s1 :i* agrees closely ) ! "t elaps$ s9ce ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet left ! ,nor? ,g]man coa/4 ,be=e leav+ ,nor? ,am]ica x is necess>y to give a brief acc\nt ( ! ph5om5a outside ! ma9 c5tres ( glaciation1 & especially ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,great ,bas9 betwe5 ! ,si]ra ,nevada & ,wasat* ,m\nta9s4 ,! l[e/ levels ( ?is bas9 are at pres5t occupi$ by sev]al salt lakes )\t outfl[1 ( :i* ! l>ge/ is ! ,great ,salt ,lake1 ! level ( ! wat] be+ det]m9$ by ! balance betwe5 infl[ ( ! riv]s & evaporation f ! surface4 ,twice 9 ! pa/ ?is balance has be5 decid$ly m fav\rable1 & !n ! lakes grew to _m times _! pres5t size4 ,! two greate/ ( ^! old lakes h be5 fully describ$ "u ! names ( ,lake ,bonneville 7( :i* ! ,great ,salt ,lake is a ve/ige7 & ,lake ,lahontan1 fur!r to ! we/4 ,! inve/igations h %[n t be=e ! ,glacial p]iod1 & ext5d+ back into an unkn[n pa/1 !re 0 a p]iod ( great aridity4 ,to ?is succe$$ a long p]iod ( high wat]1 dur+ :i*1 h[ev]1 nei!r ( ! lakes ov]fl[$4 ,?is /age 0 foll[$ by a v long p]iod ( great aridity1 dur+ :i* ! lakes dri$ up completely1 & all _! soluble matt] 0 deposit$ & buri$ by alluvial mat]ial4 ,?is p]iod 0 foll[$ by a return ( moi/ conditions1 dur+ :i* ! wat] rea*$ a high] level ?an be=e1 & 9 ! case ( ,lake ,bonneville actually ov]fl[$ into ! ,snake riv]1 cutt+ a deep gorge4 ,?is p]iod1 h[ev]1 0 %ort] ?an ! prec$+ moi/ p]iod4 ,x 0 foll[$ by an irregul> fall int]sp]s$ ) occasional slight rises1 b ultimately bo? lakes desc5d$ bel[ _! pres5t level & probably aga9 dri$ up completely4 ,bo? lakes sugge/ t ?is l[ level 0 foll[$ by a ?ird rise to a height v slightly above ! pres5t level1 foll[$ by a sl[ fall 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,! relations ( ! p]iods ( high wat] to ! glaciations are n cle> 9 ^! l>ge lakes1 b 9 ! ,mono ,bas91 a small bas9 fur!r we/1 !re is no d\bt t ! two 7 almo/ contemporane\s1 high wat] accompany+ ! maxima ( glaciation & ext5d+ "s way into ! retreat phase4 ,! v long int]val betwe5 ! fir/ & second p]iod ( high wat]1 sev]al times t s9ce ! second p]iod1 agrees ) ?is correlation4 ,we f9d !n t s\?-we/ ( ! ma9 glaciat$ area !re 0 a di/rict ( great] precipitation or less evaporation1 or m probably bo?4 ,?is is confirm$ by ! valley mora9es ( all ?is region--,si]ra ,nevada1 ,u9ta & ,wasat* m\nta9s1 ,m$ic9e ,b[ ,range ( nor!rn ,colorado1 etc41 all ( :i* indicate two glaciations1 ( :i* ! fir/ 0 ! great]1 sep>at$ by a v long int]val4 ,9 sev]al ranges ! mora9es ( ! second glaciation are d\ble1 & "s geologi/s consid] t !re 7 ?ree ,glacial p]iods 9 ^! regions4 ,9 ! extremely arid region ( ,arizona1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* is consid]ably fur!r s\?1 ! evid5ce ( ! ,gila conglom]ates indicates t :ile fro/ 0 v active1 ! increase ( precipitation1 ?\gh und\bt$ly pres5t1 0 comp>atively slight4 ,?is %[s t ! climatic balance 0 n greatly di/urb$1 ! *ief effect be+ an important l[]+ ( temp]ature1 probably due to cold nor!rly w9ds4 ,! ,gila conglom]ates are d\ble1 sep>at$ by a p]iod repres5t+ pres5t-day conditions4 ,summ+ up ! evid5ces ( glacial climate 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 we f9d a /rik+ simil>ity to ,europe4 ,9 ! nor? elevation & increas$ l& area caus$ ! developm5t ( l>ge ice-%eets1 :i* appe>$ fir/ 9 ! m\nta9\s regions ) a heavy sn[fall1 & lat] spread ov] ! dri] pla9s & plateaux ( ! int]ior4 ,?is fir/ glaciation 0 long & complex4 ,ow+ to ! anticyclonic conditions :i* =m$ ov] ! ice1 ! ra9- & sn[-be>+ depressions 7 =c$ to pass fur!r s\?w>d1 caus+ great] sn[fall on ! m\nta9s & high wat]-level 9 ! lake bas9s4 ,?is great] sn[fall1 toge!r ) ! cold conditions due to ! exi/5ce ( ! ice-%eets to ! nor?1 caus$ ! developm5t ( m\nta9 glaci]s s\? ( ! ma9 glaciat$ region4 ,9 ! ea/ !re 7 cold nor!rly w9ds :i* c>ri$ a sev]e climate z f> s\? z ,florida4 ,?is ,glacial p]iod 0 foll[$ by subsid5ce1 & a long spell ( dry1 mod]ately w>m climate la/+ p]haps #bjj1jjj ye>s1 aft] :i* elevation & glacial conditions aga9 set 94 ,^! conditions 7 n s sev]e z ! fir/1 & _! duration 0 mu* less1 :ile !y 7 brok5 up by sev]al int]vals ( tempor>y recession ( ! ice1 "o ( :i*1 correspond+ to ! ,riss-,wurm p]iod1 la/$ = #fj1jjj ye>s1 & p]haps %\ld be consid]$ z an 8int]glacial40 ,?is p]iod 0 m>k$ 9 its e>ly /ages by ! deposition ( ! curi\s olian deposit kn[n z 8loess10 indicat+ /eppe conditions4 ,aft] ! la/ glaciation !re set 9 a /age ( irregul> retreat4 ,,bibliography ,lev]ett1 ,f4 8,comp>ison ( ,nor? ,am]ican & ,european glacial deposits40 ,zs4 f4 ,glets*]knde #d1 #aiaj1 pp4 #bhj1 #cbc4 ,wright1 ,w4 ,b4 8,! ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age40 ,london1 #aiad1 ,*s4 #h-i4 ,attwood1 ,w4 ,w4 8,! glaciation ( ! ,u9ta ,m\nta9s40 ,j4 ,geol41 #ae1 #aijg1 p4 #gij4 ,h5d]son1 ,j4 8,ext9ct glaci]s ( ,colorado40 ,colo4 ,univ4 ,/udies1 #c1 #aije1 p4 #ci4 ,gilb]t1 ,g4 ,k4 8,lake ,bonneville40 ,wa%+ton1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey ,monograph ,i1 #ahij4 ,russell1 ,i4 ,c4 8,! geological hi/ory ( ,lake ,lahontan40 ,wa%+ton1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey ,monograph ,,xi1 #ahhe4 ,coleman1 ,a4 ,p4 8,an e/imate ( po/-,glacial & int]glacial "t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica40 ,rep4 #ab ,int]nat4 ,congr4 ,geol41 #aiac1 p4 #dce4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,c5tral ,,& ,,s\? ,,am]ica ,! sc>city ( data :i* 0 bewail$ 9 deal+ ) ,asia is /ill m m>k$ 9 ! case ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 & x w be necess>y to pres5t ! glacial hi/ory ( t cont95t 9 ! b>e/ outl9e only4 ,?is is ! m un=tunate z ! *a9 ( ! ,&es1 ext5d+ f nor? ( ! equator to high s\!rn latitudes1 is ( enorm\s importance 9 glacial !ory1 & especially 9 ! "q ( simultaneity ( glaciation 9 ! two hemisph]es4 ,! beg9n+s ( glaciation 9 ,s\? ,am]ica are obscure4 ,! di/ribution ( animals %[s t t[>ds ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y ! ,falkl& ,isl&s 7 greatly elevat$ & 7 unit$ to ,ti]ra del ,fuego & ,patagonia1 & ?is enl>g$ l& area 0 connect$ 9 "s way ) ,au/ralia & ,tasmania1 b ! mode ( ?is latt] connexion is n def9itely kn[n4 ,?is "q w be discuss$ m fully 9 ,*apt] ,,xi2 x is suffici5t to say "h t ! am\nt ( elevation may h rea*$ #ab1jjj feet 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego4 ,equatorw>ds ! elevation dim9i%$1 & ne> ! equator ! l& probably lay some:at l[] ?an n[4 ,9 ,s\? ,georgia ! pres5t glaci]s greatly exp&$1 until practically ! :ole isl& 0 buri$ 9 ice1 & ! same is true ( ! ,falkl& ,isl&s & ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 only ! highe/ peaks rema9+ above ! ice4 ,9 ! latt] di/rict !re is "s evid5ce ( two glaciations sep>at$ by an int]glacial1 ! e>li] glaciation be+ due to a regional ice-%eet & ! lat] to small] valley glaci]s4 ,! intricate coa/-l9e ( ! ,falkl& ,isl&s & ,ti]ra del ,fuego po9ts to fiord erosion by ice :i* ext5d$ well beyond ! pres5t limits ( ! l&1 & c only h occurr$ dur+ consid]able elevation4 ,z to ! "* ( ! int]glacial1 little is kn[n4 ,9 ! ,falkl&s !re is a b$ ( black vegetable soil full ( tree-trunks1 indicat+ ! exi/5ce ( luxuriant =e/s & a temp]ate climate4 ,?is deposit is ov]la9 by b\ld]-clay1 & may be ei!r int]glacial or pre-glacial1 b s9ce x 0 =m$ :5 ! l& /ood at a comp>atively l[ level1 :ile we h reason to believe 7see ,*apt] ,,xii7 t dur+ ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod ^! isl&s 7 greatly elevat$1 x is probably an int]glacial =mation1 & indicates a great amelioration ( climate4 ,9 ,gable ,isl&1 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 ,halle f\nd b5ea? b\ld]-clay a ,quat]n>y fauna ( b>nacles & m>9e mollusca indicat+ a climate slightly w>m] ?an ! pres5t1 & ?is probably belongs to ! same p]iod4 ,to ! conclud+ /ages ( ! ,glacial p]iod 9 ! ,falkl&s belong ! curi\s 8/one riv]s10 great /reams ( moss-gr[n b\ld]s :i* fill ! valleys1 & "u ! influ5ce ( temp]ature *anges are probably /ill sl[ly advanc+4 ,pass+ fur!r nor? to ! ,&es1 betwe5 #ci & #dd s\? latitude1 ! glaciation 0 n s sev]e1 & its records are !re=e cle>]4 ,! fir/ result ( elevation 0 ! cutt+ ( deep canyons by ! riv]s4 ,?is 0 foll[$1 possibly )\t mu* fur!r elevation1 by a fall ( temp]ature1 :i* 9 ?is connexion may be attribut$ to ! ext5sion ( ! ,ant>ctic & ,ti]ra del ,fuego ice-%eets4 ,glaci]s n[ develop$ & spread d[n ! canyons1 leav+ mora9es ( great volume & height1 associat$ ) all ! o!r crit]ia ( glaciation4 ,! sn[-fields f :i* ^! glaci]s orig9at$ lay betwe5 #ejjj & #fjjj feet above ! sea1 & ! sn[-l9e lay at ab\t #cjjj feet in/ead ( above #fjjj z at pres5t4 ,?is glaciation 0 foll[$ by a long int]glacial1 dur+ :i* ! glaci]s retreat$ to ! highe/ summits ( ! ,&es4 ,! l5g? ( ?is p]iod is indicat$ by ! fact t ! e>li] mora9es h be5 erod$ to su* an ext5t t !y no long] pres5t di/9ctly ! typical features ( glacial topography1 :ile ! mat]ials ( :i* !y are compos$ are decay$ to some:at ! same ext5t z ! old] mora9es ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! granite b\ld]s especially be+ rott5 & friable4 ,?is int]glacial 0 foll[$ by a re-developm5t ( ! glaci]s1 b to no?+ l ! same ext5t z =m]ly2 _! mora9es are small] & fre%-look+1 indicat+ t ?is glaciation 0 comp>atively rec5t4 ,/ill fur!r nor?1 9 latitude #bj-be ,s41 we come to a region ( v slight sn[fall1 :]e ! sn[-l9e lies high] ?an any:]e else on ! face ( ! e>?4 ,! glaciation "h 0 comp>atively unimportant1 ! sn[-l9e desc5d+ only #afjj to #bejj feet4 ,"h ,keidel f\nd mora9es ( ?ree glacial advances1 & f 8 description x appe>s probable t ! e>lie/ & greate/ 0 sep>at$ by a consid]able int]val f ! two y\ng]1 ! int]glacial betwe5 :i* 0 %ort & n *>act]iz$ by a return to pres5t-day climatic conditions1 s9ce dur+ ?is int]val !re 0 v little wea!r+4 ,probably we h "h to d ) two glaciations1 ( :i* ! second 0 d\ble4 ,9 fact1 "s writ]s h describ$ no less ?an five glacial advances 9 ! ,arg5t9e ,&es1 b mo/ ( ^! are probably m]ely retreat /adia4 ,9 ,p]u1 ,w4 ,siev]s reports ! exi/5ce ( two glaciations sep>at$ by a consid]able int]val4 ,! pres5t limit ( ! glaci]s is ab\t #ae1bjj feet2 dur+ ! fir/ glaciation !y desc5d$ to ab\t #aa1jjj feet1 & dur+ ! second to #ab1hjj feet4 ,! evid5ce is v complete4 ,9 ,ecuador1 ,h4 ,mey] records a simil> bip>tition4 ,! olde/ glaciation is repres5t$ by tr\gh-l valleys1 enorm\s gravel t]races1 & old mora9es mu* wea!r$2 ! limits are f> bel[ ! pres5t limits ( glaci]s1 b h be5 mu* obscur$ by subsequ5t erosion4 ,?is glaciation 0 foll[$ by a long p]iod ( /eppe climate resembl+ ! pres5t1 dur+ :i* ! loess-l ,cangagua =mation 0 deposit$4 ,?is 9 turn 0 foll[$ by a readvance ( ! glaci]s to a level ab\t #bgjj feet bel[ ! pres5t limit4 ,?is glaciation is associat$ ) cresc5t-%ap$ mora9es1 corrie lakes1 hang+ valleys & gravel t]races1 cov]$ ) vegetation1 b o!rwise fre%-look+4 ,! sn[-l9e lay ab\t #afjj feet bel[ ! pres5t4 ,probably dur+ ! fir/ glaciation ! ,&es 7 invad$ by num]\s m\nta9 plants & animals relat$ to ,nor? ,am]ican =ms--a valuable piece ( evid5ce :i* indicates t ! glaciation 0 contemporane\s ) t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ,columbia & ,v5ezuela !re are traces ( ,glacial p]iods1 b ^! h n yet be5 /udi$ 9 detail4 ,! mo/ nor!rly evid5ce ( a ,glacial p]iod comes f ! ,si]ra ,nevada de ,santa ,m>ia1 ne> ! nor? coa/ ( ,v5ezuela 9 #aa ,n4 ,except 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego & ,patagonia ! ice did n ext5d f> f ! m\nta9s4 ,b 9 ! ea/]n ,arg5t9e !re is a great s]ies ( ,quat]n>y deposits kn[n z ! ,pampean4 ,?is =mation cov]s #bjj1jjj squ>e miles1 & consi/s ( at lea/ n9ety feet ( f9e loam )\t a s+le pebble 7except = a few ?9 calc>e\s lay]s71 b conta9+ l>ge numb]s ( complete skeletons ( mammals4 ,x raises sev]al int]e/+ problems4 ,app>5tly x repres5ts ! :ole c\rse ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,by "s geologi/s x is consid]$ to be a delta deposit ( ! comb9$ ,p>ana & ,p>aguay riv]s1 b ! abs5ce ( mollusca1 except 9 a m>9e int]calation ne> its summit1 is aga9/ ?is view1 & ,/e9mann attributes x to olian ag5cies & comp>es x to ! loess ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,if ?is view is correct ! ,pampean repres5ts /eppe conditions prevail+ on ! equatorial side ( ! ,patagonia-,falkl& ,isl&s ice-%eet4 ,app>5tly be=e ! incom+ ( ! greate/ cold ! ,pampas 7 9 "p at lea/ =e/-clad1 = 9 ! old] b$s are f\nd peculi> =ms ( gr\nd-slo?s :i* 7 adapt$ = =e/ life & h be5 f\nd also 9 cave-deposits ( ,brazil4 ,at ! maximum ( glacial conditions ! ,pampas probably _h a /eppe climate1 b ! disappe>ance ( ! =e/s is to be attribut$ r to dr\ght ?an to cold4 ,elevat$ glaci]-be>+ ,&es to ! we/ & ice-%eets to ! s\? w\ld r5d] ! ,arg5t9e extremely arid1 & ?is acc\nts = ! gradual ext9ction ( s _m giant =ms ^: rema9s are f\nd 9 ! ,pampean deposits4 ,conditions ultimately became too sev]e ev5 = ! horse1 :i* di$ out 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! m>9e transgression :i* left its m>k ne> ! top ( ! ,pampean is probably po/-glacial4 ,9 ,brazil1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is no evid5ce t ! climate has ev] be5 dri] ?an ! pres5t1 & 9 ! semi-arid regions ( ! nor?-ea/ x is ev5 probable t dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod ! climate 0 moi/]1 presumably ow+ to ! great] /r5g? ( ! ra9-be>+ ea/ & nor?-ea/ w9ds4 ,fur!r we/ 9 ! ,&es ! exi/5ce ( ?is wet p]iod is borne out by ! =m] great] size ( ,lake ,titicaca1 & !re seems to be additional evid5ce to ! same effect 9 ! ,*ilian des]ts4 ,,bibliography ,/e9mann1 ,j4 8,diluvium 9 ,sdam]ika40 ,zs4 d4 ,d4 ,geol4 ,gesells*41 #eh1 #aijf1 p4 #bae4 ,mey]1 ,h4 8,9 d5 ,ho*&5 von ,ekuador40 ,b]l91 #aijg4 ,siev]s1 ,w4 8,reise 9 ,p]u und ,ecuador1 ausgefhrt #aiji40 ,mn*5 und ,leipzig1 #aiad4 ,keidel1 ,h4 8,ueb] d5 ,anteil d] ,qu>t>5 ,klimas*wankung5 an d] ,ge/altung d] ,gebirgsob]fl*e 9 dem ,trock5gebiete d] mittl]5 und nrdli*5 ,arg5t9is*5 ,&540 ,congr4 ,geol4 ,int]nat41 #ab1 ,canada1 #aiac1 p4 #geg4 ,willis1 ,bailey4 8,physiography ( ! ,cordill]a de los ,&es betwe5 latitudes #ci & #dd ,s40 ,congr4 ,geol4 ,int]nat41 #ab1 ,canada1 #aiac1 ,p4 #gcc4 ,halle1 ,t4 ,g4 8,on ,quat]n>y deposits & *anges ( level 9 ,patagonia & ,ti]ra del ,fuego40 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,in/41 ,upsala1 #i1 #aijh-i1 p4 #ic4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,africa ,! ,quat]n>y hi/ory ( ,africa c un=tunately be dismiss$ 9 a v few words4 ,! glaciation ( ! ,atlas ,m\nta9s has already be5 ref]r$ to 9 connexion ) ! ,m$it]ranean region4 ,fur!r s\? we h no great m\nta9 *a9 su* z ! ,&es ext5d+ above ! sn[-l9e ov] ! :ole ext5t ( ! c\ntry1 b m]ely a few isolat$ peaks4 ,?ree ( ^!1 all close to ! equator1 are kn[n to %[ traces ( a greatly ext5d$ glaciation 9 ! pa/3 ,ruw5zori1 j nor? ( ! equator1 on ! bord]s ( ,ug&a & ! ,congo1 rea*+ an elevation ( #af1gid feet1 ) ! pres5t sn[-l9e at #ae1jjj feet1 & glaci]s ext5d+ to #aj1jjj feet1 =m]ly bore glaci]s ext5d+ d[n z f> z #ebjj feet2 ,k5ya1 on ! equator 9 ,k5ya ,colony1 height #ag1jdj feet1 pres5t sn[-l9e ab\t #ae1jjj feet1 pa/ sn[-l9e #ab1jjj feet1 & old mora9es at #aj1jjj feet2 f9ally1 ,kilimanj>o1 #c ,s41 on ! bord]s ( ,tanganyika t]ritory1 height #ai1cbj feet1 pres5t limit ( glaci]s #ac1fej feet1 pa/ limit #dhgj feet4 ,fur!r s\?1 ! ,drak5sb]g ,m\nta9s1 betwe5 ,basutol& & ,natal1 7 glaciat$ on _! high] summits4 ,9 none ( ^! cases h ! rema9s ( m ?an "o glaciation be5 describ$1 b ! m\nta9s are /ill v little kn[n & ?is negative evid5ce is n conclusive4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,ruw5zori !re are sev]al peaks1 :i* approa* #ab1jjj feet1 b ^! 7 n glaciat$1 po9t+ to a sn[-l9e above ?is level4 ,un=tunately ! latt] piece ( evid5ce is ( d\btful validity s9ce ^! m\nta9s are volcanic & possibly ( po/-glacial age2 we may consid]1 h[ev]1 t ! glaciation ( ! c5tral ,african m\nta9s 0 *>act]iz$ by a great increase 9 ! l5g? ( ! glaci]s ) only a slight depression ( ! sn[-l9e1 conditions %[+ t ! glaciation 0 due *iefly to an increase ( sn[fall1 & only 9 a m9or degree to a fall ( temp]ature4 ,?is conclusion is borne out by ! l[-level b$s1 :i* n[h]e %[ an appreciably l[] temp]ature1 b ab\nd 9 indications ( a =m] greatly increas$ ra9fall4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is ! =m] great] size ( ! ,african great lakes4 ,abyss9ia1 z we h se51 0 probably dri] ?an at pres5t1 b fur!r s\? ! ra9fall mu/ h be5 consid]ably great]4 ,lake ,kioga /ood #fjj feet above its pres5t level & 0 connect$ ) ,lake ,victoria4 ,lake ,victoria & ! small] lakes 7 twice _! pres5t size1 & mo/ ( ! broad valleys 7 fill$ ) wat]4 ,lake ,magadi is ! att5uat$ relic ( a va/ %eet ( wat]1 & o!r great lakes h disappe>$ entirely4 ,"o ( ^!1 9 ! ,rift valley1 s\? ( ,lake ,naiva%a1 has be5 mapp$ by ,pr(essor ,gregory & nam$ aft] ,pr(essor ,suess4 ,"p ( ?is decrease ( ! lakes has und\bt$ly tak5 place )9 hi/oric times1 & "p may be attribut$ to *anges 9 ! dra9age1 b !re rema9s en\gh evid5ce to %[ t "s "t 9 ! ,ice ,age ! great lakes 7 v mu* l>g] ?an ! pres5t4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,wayl&1 ! ,gov]nm5t ,geologi/ ( ,ug&a1 in=ms me t 9 ! old bas9 ( ,victoria ,nyanza !re are masses ( gravel :i* may be two or ?ree miles 9 bread?1 ! surface ( :i* =ms two t]races at diff]5t levels4 ,above ! level ( ^! is an old p5epla9 ) anci5t bea* gravels4 ,mr4 ,wayl& consid]s t ?is p5epla9 0 =m$ probably dur+ ! ,plioc5e by ! fir/ ,victoria ,nyanza occupy+ a bas9 betwe5 folds4 ,! initial high level 0 due to ! want ( an outlet1 b may h be5 amplifi$ by o!r causes4 ,! level ( ! lake !n sank gradually to a consid]ably l[] level1 aft] :i* x rose aga9 ne>ly to its old level & rema9$ !re = a consid]able "t4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ! great gravel deposits 7 =m$2 !y conta9 flood deposits1 especially ne> _! base4 ,! level ( ! lake !n sank aga9 & ?is "p ( ! bas9 0 conv]t$ into a valley occupi$ by a riv]4 ,subsequ5tly ! level rose aga9 suffici5tly to c>ve out ! l[] t]race 9 ! gravels4 ,mr4 ,wayl& consid]s t ! upp] t]race may also repres5t a /age di/9ct f t 9 :i* ! gravels 7 actually deposit$1 b ! upp] t]race may be ! orig9al surface ( ! gravels4 ,?us !re is evid5ce ( two ,pluvial p]iods 9 c5tral ,africa1 ( :i* ! fir/1 probably correspond+ ) ! great ext5sion ( ! m\nta9 glaci]s1 0 ! great]4 ,f ! ar*ological evid5ce x appe>s to correspond ) ! ,m9delian glaciation ( ,europe4 ,a second l9e ( evid5ce has be5 po9t$ out by ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley4 ,at ! entrance to ,kil9di ,h>b\r1 ,mombasa1 !re is a gap 9 ! coral b>ri] ?r\gh :i* ! fre% wat] f ! riv] f9ds its way4 ,^! gaps are always f\nd opposite ! m\?s ( riv]s1 & are due to ! inability ( ! coral polyp to live 9 fre% or bracki% wat]4 ,9 ,plei/oc5e times ! l& /ood "s sev5ty feet l[] relatively to ! sea1 & ! old *annel ?r\gh ! reef at ?is height is almo/ d\ble ! wid? ( ! pres5t *annel1 %[+ t ! riv] !n _h a great] volume1 i4e4 ! ra9fall 9 its bas9 0 great]4 ,b ,africa is notewor?y *iefly = its des]ts1 & ! mo/ important evid5ce ( climatic *ange is f\nd 9 ! des]ts ( ,sah>a & ,kalah>i4 ,f ! "t ( ! anci5t ,greeks x _h be5 believ$ t ! ,sah>a 0 =m]ly ! site ( a great inl& sea1 & ! pres5ce ( ?is sea _h ev5 be5 sugge/$ z ! cause ( ! ,ice ,age 9 ,europe1 b rec5t inve/igations h %[n t ?is is n s2 ! ,sah>a has be5 l& at lea/ ?r\gh\t ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 abundant evid5ce t dur+ ! ,quat]n>y ! ra9fall 0 consid]ably great] ?an ! pres5t4 ,! pres5ce ( num]\s animals closely associat$ ) wat]1 su* z ! hippopotamus & ev5 ! crocodile1 9 oases n[ entirely isolat$1 %[s t ^! oases 7 =m]ly connect$ ) ! big riv]s4 ,! mo/ def9ite evid5ce1 h[ev]1 comes f ,lake ,t*ad4 ,?is 0 =m]ly ( mu* great] area1 b ,*udeau & ,freyd5b]g h made out a :ole s]ies ( *anges f des]t conditions 9 ! ,t]ti>y ?r\gh pluvial conditions 9 ! ,quat]n>y back to des]t conditions ( ! pres5t4 ,! sequ5ce is z foll[s3 #a4 ,a regime ( dunes4 #b4 ,a sl[ transgression caus+ a long m>%y p]iod1 dur+ :i* num]\s plants ^: rema9s are f\nd liv$ 9 ! p]iod4 #c4 ,a sl[ regression4 #d4 ,a rapid transgression 7grey loam74 #e4 ,a sl[ regression 7clayey :ite loam ) traces ( roots74 #f4 ,a transgression 7:ite loam74 #g4 ,e/abli%m5t ( a new dune regime4 ,9 ! ,*>i bas9 ea/ ( ,lake ,t*ad are ! rema9s ( fi% & %ells1 & also small pebbles ( s&/one & *alc$ony1 :i* are n local1 b mu/ h be5 br\ght f ! m\nta9s ( ,tibe/i by ! riv]s ,egnei & ,toro :5 _! curr5t 0 mu* /rong] ?an at pres5t4 ,9 ,s5egal1 s\? ( ! #ae? p>allel1 ! pres5t dune s&s are und]la9 by an alluvial soil1 indicat+ moi/] conditions prec$+ ! pres5t climate4 ,!re is no means ( dat+ ! moi/ p]iods indicat$ by ^! ph5om5a1 b x is reasonable to correlate !m ) ! =m] ext5sion ( ! c5tral ,african lakes4 ,pass+ s\? to ! ,kalah>i1 we f9d evid5ce ( a numb] ( moi/ /ages sep>at$ by dri] int]vals1 b !y c app>5tly be gr\p$ into two ma9 ,pluvial p]iods1 sep>at$ by a long int]pluvial ) /eppe-l conditions4 ,"o at lea/ ( ^! ,pluvial p]iods mu/ be correlat$ ) ! =m] imm5se ext5sion ( ,lake ,ngami & ! ,eto%a ,pan4 ,f ,cape ,colony1 !re is "s evid5ce ( moi/] conditions 9 ! pa/1 b ! ,quat]n>y v>iations _c be sep>at$ f ^? ( hi/oric times4 ,be=e leav+ ,africa "s ref]5ce mu/ be made to an int]e/+ sugge/ion by ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 z to ! me*anism ( climatic *ange 9 tropical c\ntries4 ,he notes t ! nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/ monsoons ext5d to a height ( only a few ?\s& feet4 ,above !m are ! v /eady 8trade w9ds0 connect$ ) ! g5]al circulation ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ,k5ya ,colony ^! bl[ f ea/ or a little s\? ( ea/4 8,_! effect is v m>k$ on ! high m\nta9s ( ! int]ior1 su* z ,k5ya1 ,kilimanj>o & ,elgon2 9 ! e>ly morn+ !y are g5]ally q cle>1 b ab\t #aj a4m4 ! cl\ds sweep up f ! ,s4,s4,e4 & collect on ! m\nta9s & blot !m out f view = ! re/ ( ! day4 ,^! are believ$ to be cl\ds borne inl& by ! trade w9ds1 & ! moi/ure !y c>ry is precipitat$ ma9ly on ! s\? & s\?-ea/ sides ( ! m\nta9s40 ,hobley sugge/s t !re 0 =m]ly a ne>ly cont9u\s ridge ( high l& ext5d+ nor? & s\?1 & ?is caught ! moi/ure f ! trade w9ds1 s caus+ ! ,pluvial p]iod1 ! evid5ce = ?is ridge be+ ! di/ribution ( alp9e plants on ! n[ isolat$ high m\nta9s4 ,an alt]native explanation is t ! great] /r5g? ( ! e>?'s circulation dur+ glacial times caus$ ! trade w9ds to be mu* /rong] & also to ext5d to a l[] level at ! exp5se ( ! monsoons1 j z ! we/ w9ds ext5d$ to a l[] level 9 nor!rn ,egypt4 ,?is w\ld br+ a great deal m moi/ure to be precipitat$ on ! m\nta9s1 increas+ ! l5g? ( ! glaci]s & also ! volume ( ! riv]s4 ,,bibliography ,scott ,elliott1 ,g4 ,f4 8,! geology ( ,m\nt ,ruw5zori & "s adjo9+ regions ( tropical ,africa40 ,q4,j4,g4,s41 #ea1 #ahie1 p4 #ffi4 ,hobley1 ,c4 ,w4 8,! alleg$ desiccation ( ,ea/ ,africa40 ,geogr4 ,j\rn41 #dd1 #aiad1 p4 #dfg4 ,freyd5b]g1 ,h4 8,le ,t*ad et le ,bass9 du ,*>i40 ,diss4 ,p>is1 #aijh4 ,pass>ge1 ,h4 8,die ,kalah>i40 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,au/ralia ,,& ,,new ,,zeal& ,! cont95t ( ,au/ralia has a relatively l[ relief1 only ris+ above ! sn[-l9e 9 ,m\nt ,kosciusko1 & glacial traces h a relatively unimportant developm5t4 ,! hi/ory ( ! region appe>s to be z foll[s3 ,9 late ,t]ti>y times ! %ore-l9e lay "s di/ance to ! ea/ t[>ds ,new ,zeal&1 ?is be+ a relic ( a mu* e>li] connexion betwe5 ! two l&s4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y e>?-movem5ts set 91 :i* elevat$ ! m\nta9 belt ( ea/]n ,au/ralia & =m$ a l& connexion ) ,tasmania & ! ,ant>ctic cont95t4 ,at ! same "t ! l& to ! ea/ & ! clos$ bas9s ( c5tral ,au/ralia 7 also probably develop$ ab\t ?is "t4 ,! climate 0 !n some:at w>m] ?an ! pres5t1 at lea/ on ! ea/ coa/1 = ! ,au/ralian b>ri] reef ext5d$ fur!r s\?4 ,probably at ?is "t ! ,ant>ctic ice-%eet did n rea* ! sea1 & !re 0 none ( ! float+ ice :i* is su* an important factor 9 cool+ ! ,s\!rn ,ocean4 ,! next /age 0 ! l[]+ sn[-l9e on ,kosciusko to ab\t #cjjj feet bel[ ! pres5t & ! developm5t ( ext5sive glaci]s1 :i* desc5d$ to #eejj feet above ! sea1 & atta9$ an area ( #hj to #ajj squ>e miles & a ?ickness ( at lea/ #ajjj feet4 ,tasmania 0 also ext5sively ice-cov]$1 probably by glaci]s :i* coalesc$ at l[ levels1 =m+ :at is kn[n z a 8pi$mont0 ice-%eet1 :i* possibly rea*$ ! sea4 ,! l[]+ ( ! sn[-l9e 9 ,tasmania is e/imat$ z #fjjj feet1 correspond+ to a fall 9 temp]ature ( #ah ,f4 ,probably a l>ge "p ( ?is fall is acc\nt$ = by ! increas$ elevation1 :i* may h be5 sev]al ?\s& feet 9 ,tasmania & m ?an a ?\s& feet ev5 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales4 ,?is glaciation1 :i* 0 probably dep5d5t on ! gr[? ( ! ,ant>ctic ice-%eet1 0 foll[$ by a v long int]glacial1 ! duration ( :i* has be5 e/imat$ by ,pr(essor ,david z #ajj1jjj to #bjj1jjj ye>s4 ,! old mora9es are mu* wea!r$ & d5ud$1 resembl+ 9 ?is respect ! old] mora9es ( ,europe4 ,no in=mation is available z to ! climate ( ?is int]glacial p]iod4 ,possibly "s ( ! ,quat]n>y rais$ bea*es ) w>m?-lov+ mollusca f\nd 9 unglaciat$ p>ts ( ,au/ralia belong to ?is p]iod1 & if s ! climate 0 w>m] ?an ! pres5t = at lea/ "p ( ! "t4 ,! int]glacial 0 foll[$ by uplift & a second mu* less sev]e ,glacial p]iod1 *>act]iz$ by valley glaci]s on ,kosciusko & 9 ,tasmania1 rea*+ ! sea 9 places on ! latt] isl&4 ,x 0 at ! close ( ?is ,glacial p]iod t man rea*$ ,tasmania2 its conclusion is dat$ by ,pr(4 ,david at ab\t #aj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,x 0 t]m9at$ by a p]iod ( depression bel[ ! pres5t level ) a w>m climate4 ,9 ! dry int]ior ( ,au/ralia !re is evid5ce t at "o "t1 probably dur+ ! maximum glaciation1 ! ra9fall 0 heavi] ?an ! pres5t1 & num]\s lakes 7 develop$ :i* h n[ be5 dry = a v long "t4 ,x is possible t ! artesian wat] supply ( ,au/ralia1 :i* ,gregory consid]s to be 8fossil wat]0 accumulat$ "u diff]5t conditions f ! pres5t1 is a ve/ige ( ! ra9fall ( ?is p]iod4 ,fur!r nor?1 9 ,java1 ! b$s 9 :i* ! fam\s ,pi!can?ropus skeleton 0 f\nd1 believ$ to be l[] glacial1 conta9 also plant rema9s simil> to ^? n[ f\nd 9 ! ,khassian m\nta9s ( ,assam1 "o ( ! ra9ie/ climates 9 ! _w4 ,! climate ( ,java dur+ ! maximum glaciation 0 ?us decid$ly ra9i]1 & probably some:at cool] ?an ! pres5t4 ,an extraord9>y f9d :i* may be ref]r$ to "h is t ( ,pr(essor ,neuhauss1 :o discov]$ giant erratics1 scrat*$ & poli%$1 & mora9es at sea-level at ! we/]n end ( ,huon ,gulf1 ,new ,gu9ea4 ,! region is v un/able1 & is kn[n to h /ood at a v mu* high] level1 p]haps #aj1jjj feet or m1 9 ,quat]n>y times1 & if ! mora9es indicate glaci]s t]m9at+ at #aj1jjj feet above ! sea !y are explicable by a slight fall ( temp]ature & increase ( sn[fall4 ,turn+ n[ to ,new ,zeal&1 we f9d ext5sive glacial rema9s on ,s\? ,isl&1 ?\gh n on ,nor? ,isl&4 ,z 9 s _m o!r c\ntries1 ! ,quat]n>y op5$ ) great elevation1 :i* rea*$ at lea/ #aejj feet ov] ! :ole gr\p4 ,nor? & ,s\? ,isl&s 7 unit$ ) ea* o!r1 ) ,/ew>t ,isl& & probably also ! outly+ isl&s1 ev5 includ+ ! ,*a?am ,isl&s1 =m+ a great l&-mass sev]al times ! pres5t area ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,on ! s\!rn "p ( ?is l&-mass ext5sive glaci]s 7 =m$2 on ! ea/ ^! did n rea* ! pres5t sea-level1 b on ! sn[y s\?-we/ !y ext5d$ f> bel[ x1 s t ! t]m9al mora9es are n[ completely subm]g$2 possibly !y 7 nev] =m$1 b ! debris 0 float$ away seaw>d on iceb]gs4 ,fur!r nor? mora9es are f\nd ne> ! pres5t %ore-l9e at _m places betwe5 ,mil=d ,s\nd & ,hokitika1 & mora9ic m\nds cov] a l>ge "p ( ! l[ gr\nd4 ,/ill fur!r nor? !y retreat inl&1 & 9 ! ,nelson ,prov9ce are n f\nd bel[ a level ( #bjjj feet at ! foot ( ,lake ,rotoiti4 ,9 ! s\?-ea/ a great mora9e has be5 describ$ at ! s\? end ( ,lake ,wakatipu & o!rs at ! nor?-ea/ ends ( ,lakes ,manap\ri & ,te ,anau1 b none are f\nd ne>] ! sea-coa/4 ,! glaciat$ area ( ,new ,zeal& 0 at lea/ t5 times ! pres5t ice-cov]$ area1 & ! ,tasman1 ! longe/ glaci] 9 ,new ,zeal&1 0 exp&$ f its pres5t l5g? ( #af miles to at lea/ #cj miles4 ,mu* ( ! app>5t fall ( temp]ature %[n by ?is glaciation 0 probably due to ! great elevation1 b ap>t f ?is ! ice _h a m>k$ influ5ce on climate4 ,outside ! limits ( glaciation on ! ea/ is a ?ick deposit ( typical loess1 :i* ext5ds up to a level ( #ajjj feet on ! flanks ( ! hills4 ,! occurr5ce ( ?is loess po9ts to a /eppe climate ) dry1 cold1 s\!rly w9ds on ! lee side ( ! glaciat$ m\nta9s1 & is probably also connect$ ) ! increase ( l& area4 ,fur!r nor?1 nor? ( ,auckl& 9 ,nor? ,isl&1 ! pres5t treeless pla9s 7 cov]$ by =e/s2 = ,kauri gum1 app>5tly v old1 has be5 f\nd4 ,! sub-ant>ctic isl&s--,campbell1 ,antipodes1 etc4--7 n cov]$ by ei!r ,new ,zeal& or ,ant>ctic ice1 b 7 ! c5tres ( local sev]e glaciations ( _! own4 ,! next /age 0 a great subsid5ce1 dur+ :i* ! glaci]s retreat$4 ,! l& sank bel[ its pres5t level1 rais$ bea*es probably ( int]glacial age be+ f\nd at v>i\s heights rang+ f #aj feet above ! sea at ,manukau 9 ! c5tre ( ,nor? ,isl& to #aej feet at ,t>anaki1 #bjj feet at ,cape ,pallis]1 #djj feet on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,isl&1 #ejj feet at ,amuri ,bluff1 & ev5 #hjj feet 9 ! entrances to ! s\?-we/]n s\nds4 ,?is great subm]g5ce 0 associat$ ) ! deposition ( ext5sive gravel deposits by ! riv]s4 ,! int]glacial 0 foll[$ by a second p]iod ( elevation4 ,x is n c]ta9 h[ f> ?is w5t4 ,subm]g$ peat-bogs h be5 f\nd at a dep? ( ne>ly #fjj feet bel[ sea-level ne> ,cant]bury1 b ^! may belong to ! e>ly /ages ( ! int]glacial & n to ! po/-,glacial p]iod4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! subm]g$ =e/s :i* are f\nd at _m po9ts on ! coa/ ( ,new ,zeal& are evid5tly po/-glacial & indicate a slight rise above pres5t level4 ,at ! same "t !re 0 a r5ewal ( ! glacial conditions1 b ! ice 0 conf9$ to ! valleys & _h a mu* less ext5t ?an 9 ! fir/ glaciation4 ,?is p]iod seems to h be5 foll[$ by a slight subm]g5ce & a tempor>y w>m p]iod4 ,,bibliography ,david1 ,t4 ,w4 ,e4 8,au/ralasie4 ,les conditions du climat aux poques gologiques40 ,rep4 ,congr4 ,geol4 ,int]nat41 #aj1 #aijf1 pp4 #bge-ih4 ,sssmil*1 ,c4 ,a4 8,an introduction to ! geology ( ,new ,s\? ,wales40 ,sydney1 #aiad4 ,gagel1 ,c4 8,beitrge zur ,geologie von ,kais]-,wilhelms ,l&40 ,beitr4 geol4 ,er=s*4 deuts*4 ,s*utzgebiet51 ,b]l91 #aiac1 ,h4 #d4 ,m>%all1 ,p4 8,! glaciation ( ,new ,zeal&40 ,trans4 ,new ,zeal& ,in/41 #db1 #aiji1 p4 #ccd4 ,sal5ka1 ,m4 ,l4 et al4 8,die ,pi!can?ropuss*i*t5 auf ,java40 ,geol4 und ,palol4 ,ergebnisse d] ,tr9ilexp$ition 7#aijg und #aijh74 ,leipzig1 #aiaa4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,glaciation ,,( ,,ant>ctica ,! great ,ant>ctic cont95t (f]s a unique problem to ! glacial climatologi/1 = "h we h a l& area ) ! !oretical sn[-l9e already at sea-level1 & accord+ly cov]$ ) a ?ick ice-%eet t leaves only a few m\nta9 ranges & nunataks expos$ above its surface1 & yet 9 ! pa/ ^! ice-%eets & glaci]s h atta9$ a ?ickness sev]al ?\s& feet great]1 & h ext5d$ fur!r nor?4 ,v>i\s sugge/ions h be5 made to acc\nt = ?is =m] ext5sion1 p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable be+ t x co9cid$ ) a mild] & !re=e sn[i] climate4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is unt5able1 = ! ,glacial p]iod ( ,graham ,l& & ! ,s\? ,orkneys is obvi\sly a s\?w>d ext5sion ( ! ,glacial p]iod ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 :i* 0 obvi\sly due to a cold] climate1 & c be trac$ nor?w>d along ! ,&es into tropical regions4 ,a m fruitful sugge/ion is t z "o ( ! mo/ pot5t factors 9 prev5t+ ! accumulation ( sn[ is at pres5t ! w9d1 x 0 a decrease 9 ! /r5g? ( ! w9d :i* enabl$ ! ice to rea* a great] ?ickness4 ,?is is probably true 9 a s5se1 ! decrease ( w9d =ce be+ due to a great increase 9 ! area ( ! ,ant>ctic cont95t dur+ ! ,quat]n>y4 ,we h se5 t 9 ! e>ly ,quat]n>y !re 0 great elevation 9 ! s\? ( ,s\? ,am]ica & also 9 ,au/ralia & ,new ,zeal&4 ,! am\nt ( ?is elevation increas$ s\?w>d & 0 v great ne> ! pol> circle4 ,?is is borne out by consid]ations bas$ on ! di/ribution ( liv+ & fossil animals1 :i* po9t v def9itely to a l& connexion betwe5 ,au/ralia & ,s\? ,am]ica 9 ,t]ti>y & e>ly ,quat]n>y times1 mo/ probably by way ( ,ant>ctica4 ,! fir/ l9e ( evid5ce is ! di/ribution ( ! m>supials1 liv+ & ext9ct4 ,z is well kn[n ! *ief home ( ?is type ( mammal is n[ 9 ,au/ralia & ,new ,gu9ea1 b 9 ,t]ti>y deposits 9 ,patagonia rema9s ( ext9ct =ms kn[n z ,dasyurids h be5 f\nd1 :i* are alli$ to ,au/ralian =ms1 & c only h come f ,au/ralia1 probably via ,tasmania4 ,secondly1 !re are two peculi> families ( fre%-wat] fi%es1 ! ,haplo*itonid & ,galaxiid1 ! fir/ common to ,au/ralia & ,s\? ,am]ica1 :ile "o species ( ! second is f\nd 9 ,new ,zeal&1 ,tasmania1 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s & ,patagonia4 ,?irdly1 ,b$d>d has f\nd an intimate relation betwe5 ! e>?worms ( ,new ,zeal&1 ,ea/]n ,au/ralia & ,patagonia4 ,f9ally !re is a curi\s simil>ity betwe5 ! slugs ( ,patagonia & ^? ( ,polynesia4 ,:at is ! explanation ( ^! relation%ips8 ,assum+ t !re has be5 a l& connexion1 x c h be5 ei!r by way ( ,ant>ctica or ,polynesia4 ,! e>?worms _c endure a v sev]e climate1 b on ! o!r h& !re is a total abs5ce ( any tropical =ms common to ,au/ralia & ,s\? ,am]ica1 & ! g5]al dissimil>ity ( ! faunas %[s t ! connexion _c h be5 available = a v long p]iod4 ,a /udy ( ! oceanic dep?s sugge/s t ! ,ant>ctic connexion is ! m probable4 ,a comp>atively slight elevation w\ld connect ,patagonia & ! ,falkl& ,isl&s ) ! ,s\? ,%etl&s & ,graham ,l&1 & an elevation ( #ab1jjj feet w\ld give a l>ge l& connexion betwe5 ,au/ralia & ! opposite coa/ ( ,ant>ctica via ,k]guel54 ,=bes ev5 po/ulates an imm5se ,t]ti>y ,ant>ctica 9 :i* sev]al =ms ( animals & plants 7 able to evolve1 b except possibly 9 ! case ( ! ed5tates ?is supposition is n necess>y4 ,! c\rse ( ev5ts may provisionally be tak5 z foll[s3 ,9 late ,t]ti>y times an elevation ( at lea/ #ab1jjj feet 9 ! ,s\? ,pol> regions caus$ a great increase 9 ! area ( ,ant>ctica1 :i* 0 unit$ to ,s\? ,am]ica on ! "o h& & ,au/ralia on ! o!r4 ,! nor!rn %ores ( ?is cont95t 7 f> to ! nor? ( _! pres5t position1 & ?\gh ! int]ior 0 v cold ! coa/ l&s _h at fir/ a mod]ate temp]ature1 & = a %ort "t all[$ animals to migrate f ,au/ralia to ,s\? ,am]ica or vice v]sa4 ,b ! high m\nta9s ( ! int]ior 7 already glaciat$1 & ice-%eets gradually crept d[n _! slopes4 ,ow+ to ! small precipitation ! advance ( ! ice-%eets 0 sl[1 b ultimately1 probably 9 late ,t]ti>y times1 !y approa*$ ! coa/1 & ! track along :i* migrations _h tak5 place 0 clos$4 ,! di/ribution ( animals & plants %[s q cle>ly t ! l& connexion 0 ma9ta9$ into ! p]iod ( refrig]ation4 ,! %ores ( ! cont95t be+ fur!r nor?1 ! pressure gradi5t betwe5 ! pole & ! pres5t coa/ 0 less1 & consequ5tly ! w9ds 7 light]4 ,?is & ! dim9i%$ loss by calv+ into glaci]s all[$ ! ice to become ?ick] ?an x is n[4 ,h$ley app>5tly consid]s t ! migrations ref]r$ to above took place 9 an int]glacial p]iod1 b ! ,patagonian b$s 9 :i* ! fossil m>supials are f\nd are ,t]ti>y & n ,quat]n>y4 ,no direct evid5ce ( an int]glacial p]iod has be5 f\nd 9 ,ant>ctica1 nor1 consid]+ ! int5sity ( ! glaciation :i* ! c\ntry is ev5 n[ und]go+1 is any su* to be expect$1 & we c only inf] f ! bip>tition ( ! ,glacial p]iod 9 ,au/ralia1 ,new ,zeal& & ,s\? ,am]ica--:i*1 9 ,new ,zeal& at lea/1 0 associat$ ) subm]g5ce--t !re 0 probably a simil> bip>tition 9 ,ant>ctica4 ,nord5skjold /ates t ! subm>9e relief %[+ riv] erosion :i*1 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 0 develop$ p>tly at lea/ 9 ! int]glacial p]iod1 is also develop$ 9 ,we/ ,ant>ctica4 ,x is improbable t ! ice ev] entirely vani%$ f ! cont95t4 ,we %all see 9 ,*apt] ,,xiv t ev5 ! comp>atively brief w>m p]iod kn[n z ! po/-glacial climatic optimum ext5d$ to ! ,ant>ctic coa/1 & ?is is additional argum5t = ext5d+ ! mu* great] int]glacial oscillation s\?w>d beyond its kn[n limits 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 ,au/ralia & ,new ,zeal&1 b "h ! matt] mu/ be left4 ,,bibliography ,h$ley1 ,c4 8,! palographical relations ( ,ant>ctica40 ,london1 ,proc4 ,l9nan ,soc41 #abd1 #aiaa-b1 p4 #hj4 ,lydekk]1 ,r4 8,a geographical hi/ory ( mammals40 ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #ahif1 pp4 #abe ff4 ,david1 ,t4 ,w4 ,e4 8,ant>ctica & "s ( its problems40 ,london1 ,geogr4 ,j4 #dc1 #aiad1 pp4 #fje-cj4 ,nord5skjold1 ,o4 8,ant>ktis40 ,h&bu* ,regional ,geologie1 ,heft #ae1 #aiac4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,! ,,close ,,( ,,! ,,ice ,,age--,,! ,,cont95tal ,,phase ,9 ,*apt] ,v we left ! climatic hi/ory ( nor!rn ,europe at ! po9t :]e ! ice 9 its f9al readvance _h once m rea*$ ! ,g]man coa/4 ,b ,sc&9avia 0 n[ s9k+1 & ! m>g9 ( ! ice soon began to retreat aga94 ,at ! same "t ! ,alp9e glaci]s dim9i%$ 9 size1 :ile ! ,iri% & ,scotti% glaci]s disappe>$4 ,?is is ! critical p]iod 9 ! *ange f glacial to temp]ate conditions1 &1 ?anks to ! rese>*es ( ! ,sw$i% geologi/s1 & especially ,g4 de ,ge]1 ,h4 ,mun! & ,gunn> ,&]sson1 we are v well acqua9t$ ) x4 ,! *ange 0 n uni=m2 at fir/ ! recession 0 v sl[1 & !re 7 p]iods :5 = scores ( ye>s ! ice-edge rema9$ /ation>y or ev5 readvanc$1 b on ! :ole ! "t 0 "o ( p]si/5t amelioration4 ,! foll[+ description is bas$ *iefly on ,w4 ,b4 ,wright's summ>y ( de ,ge]'s "w4 ,aft] leav+ ! coa/ ( ,g]many ! ice-edge appe>s to h rema9$ 9 ! we/]n ,baltic1 retreat+ sl[ly = "s #hjjj ye>s4 ,ab\t #aj1jjj ,b4,c4 x lay along ! s\!rn coa/ ( ,sw$51 & dur+ ! next #bjjj ye>s x )drew to ab\t #ei ,n4 ,?is 0 ! ,gotiglacial /age4 ,"h came a pause1 :51 = #bjj ye>s1 ab\t #hjjj ,b4,c41 ow+ presumably to a *ange = ! worse 9 ! climate1 ! ice-edge rema9$ 9 "o position1 =m+ a great mora9e4 ,!n came ano!r p]iod ( v rapid retreat1 ! ,f9iglacial occupy+ ne>ly #cjjj ye>s1 foll[$ by a fur!r halt ( "s duration ne> ,ragunda1 ab\t #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,aft] ?is ! ice-%eet split into two portions1 & ! ,glacial p]iod is reg>d$ z ov]4 ,9 ! ,alps !re 7 simil> p]iods ( regression & ( halt+ or readvance4 ,! fir/1 kn[n z ! ,bhl/adium1 correspond$ to ! ,baltic readvance 7,*apt] ,v74 ,! second1 ! ,gs*nitz-/adium1 ) a sn[-l9e #bjjj feet bel[ ! pres5t 7i4e4 mean temp]ature ab\t #f ,f4 l[] ?an n[71 has n be5 dat$1 b probably occurr$ ab\t #hjjj ,b4,c4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by a w>m] p]iod1 probably z w>m z & dri] ?an ! pres5t1 aft] :i* ! glaci]s readvanc$ ab\t #ejjj ,b4,c4 9 ! ?ird or ,daun-/adium1 :5 ! sn[-l9e 0 depress$ #ajjj feet 7temp]ature #c ,f4 l[] ?an n[74 ,9 ! l[] ,nile valley ! deposition ( gravel ceas$1 & t ( mud began ab\t #hjjj ,b4,c41 indicat+ t at ?is "t ! climate ( nor?-ea/ ,africa rea*$ its pres5t /ate ( dryness4 ,x is at pres5t difficult to give m ?an a t5tative explanation ( ^! oscillations ( climate dur+ ! ,retreat ,phase4 ,nor!rn ,europe 0 at ! "t pass+ ?r\gh a complicat$ s]ies ( geographical *anges4 ,z ! ice left ! ,baltic bas9 ! latt] became ! site ( a cold ice-lake1 ) n>r[ outlets to ! ,atlantic by way ( ! ,s\nd & ! ,belts4 ,at ?is "t ! recession 0 sl[4 ,!n ! retreat ( ! ice op5$ a connexion ) ! ,:ite ,sea1 & elevation clos$ ! outlet to ! we/4 ,?is probably made ! wat]s /ill cold]1 & ! ,f5nosc&ian pause occurr$4 ,elevation n[ clos$ ! connexion ) ! ,:ite ,sea1 & an entirely clos$-9 ice-lake result$4 ,dur+ ?is /age ! retreat 0 sl[1 until betwe5 #gjjj & #fjjj ,b4,c41 :5 ! ice-%eet vacat$ ,scania1 & direct communication betwe5 ! ,baltic & ! ,atlantic 0 op5$ across ,lakes ,w5] & ,wett]1 & ! climate1 ?\gh /ill arctic at fir/1 became appreciably w>m] by #fjjj ,b4,c4 ,= m ?an #aj1jjj ye>s ( ! retreat1 or until #fjjj ,b4,c41 ! ice-%eet 0 /ill suffici5tly l>ge & p[]ful to ma9ta9 a bord] ( ,arctic anticyclonic conditions on its s\!rn edge4 ,dur+ ! retreat ! mean annual temp]ature ( s\!rn ,sw$5 increas$ f #ag ,f4 to #ce ,f41 equival5t to a *ange f ,nor?-ea/ ,gre5l& to ,s\? ,gre5l&4 ,! ,july temp]ature rose to ab\t #dc ,f4 ,on ! ,nor? ,g]man ,pla9 /ill liv$ ! re9de] & ! fauna & flora ( ! sub-,arctic tundras2 ! mean annual temp]ature rose to #de ,f4 by ! close ( ! p]iod4 ,! l& flora 9 ,sw$5 0 entirely x]ophil\s1 indicat+ a slight ra9fall4 ,!re is also geological evid5ce ( a small annual ra9fall on ! s\?-we/ coa/ ( ,norway4 ,?is p]iod cov]s ! transition f ,paloli?ic to ,neoli?ic culture4 ,x seems probable t ! cont95tal "* ( ! climate ( ! f9al /ages ( ! retreat phase 0 slightly increas$ by a/ronomical causes1 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic be+ probably ne>ly "o degree great] ab\t #gejj ,b4,c4 ?an x is n[4 ,9 ,g]many & ,sw$5 ?is w\ld h ! effect ( l[]+ ! w9t] temp]ature & rais+ ! summ] temp]ature by r m ?an #a ,f4 ,:ile ! l& 0 /ill fall+ rapidly 9 ! nor? ( ,sc&9avia & ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 ! coa/s ( ,g]many & ,d5m>k began to rise1 & ab\t #fjjj ,b4,c4 aga9 clos$#e ! outlet ( ! ,baltic1 conv]t+ x into a l>ge fre%-wat] lake1 ! ,ancylus lake4 ,a simil> lake 0 =m$ f>!r ea/ 9 c5tral ,f9l&4 ,at ?is "t ! s\?-we/ ,baltic l&s /ood m ?an #ajj feet high] ?an at pres5t4 ,! l& 0 probably /ill l>gely "u ! influ5ce ( dry ea/]ly w9ds1 & ! %utt+ out ( ! ,atlantic acc5tuat$ ! cont95tal conditions1 & ?is /age 9 ! climatic hi/ory ( ,europe is kn[n z ! 8,cont95tal ,phase40 ,! w9t] climate 0 sev]e2 at fir/ ! summ]s 7 n especially w>m 7,july temp]ature ab\t #ed ,f4 9 s\!rn ,sw$574 ,?is is probably ! p]iod ( =mation ( ! ,ragunda mora9es1 & ( a readvance ( ! glaci]s on ! ,norwegian side ( ! divide1 :5 ! sn[-l9e lay #bjj-cjj metres l[] ?an at pres5t2 x 0 also ! "t ( ! ,daun readvance 9 ! ,alps4 ,b z ! l& sank 9 ! nor? & rose 9 ! s\?1 ! wat]s ( ! ,ancylus lake retreat$ f>!r & f>!r nor?1 & ! summ]s became hot & du/y1 ) a mean ,july temp]ature ( ab\t #fj ,f4 ,ev]y:]e 9 ! ,baltic regions ! old] ,ancylus b$s %[ a monoton\s p9e-wood1 b 9 ! upp] ,ancylus ^! are foll[$ closely by a numb] ( plants & %rubs ( s\!rn type--black ald]1 curl$ bir*1 l9d51 etc4 ,! temp]ature cont9u$ to rise1 & oak1 ,norway maple1 a%1 & f9ally1 9 ! s\!rnmo/ p>ts ( ,sw$51 ! common maple appe>$4 ,! la/-nam$ plant has be5 f\nd bel[ ! pres5t level ( ! sea 9 ,y/ad ,h>b\r4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ^! conditions ! remnant ( ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet aga9 decreas$ 9 size1 until x split into two portions1 ! break occurr+ at ,ragunda1 & ?is is consid]$ by ,sc&9avian geologi/s to m>k ! end ( ! ,ice ,age 9 ,europe4 ,gunn> ,&]sson comp>es ! climate ( s\!rn ,sw$5 at ?is "t to ! ,b>aba ,/eppes 9 we/]n ,sib]ia1 ) an annual ra9fall ( #ab to #af in*es1 b ?is seems an extreme e/imate4 ,! 8,k>/0 flora ( ! lime/one areas ( s\?-ea/ ,europe immigrat$ into ea/]n ,sw$5 dur+ ?is p]iod1 & s\?-ea/ ,europe probably gives a bett] idea ( ! climate ( ,sw$5 dur+ ! cont95tal phase4 ,f>!r ea/1 9 ,f9l&1 ,kupff] describes ! climate z resembl+ t ( c5tral ,russia4 ,9 c5tral ,g]many ! climate 0 dry1 ) a mean temp]ature 9 ! f\r summ] mon?s ( #fc ,f42 x resembl$ t ( s\?-we/ ,russia4 ,?is p]iod ( w>m summ]s began e>li] 9 ,g]many ?an 9 ,sw$51 & ?r\gh\t ?is phase ,sc&9avia 0 occupi$ by a ri* =e/ flora4 ,! hazel ext5d$ sev]al degrees nor? ( its pres5t position1 & to high] levels1 indicat+ a ,july temp]ature ab\t #g ,f4 high] ?an ! pres5t4 ,9 s\!rn ,norway ! p9e ext5d$ to mu* great] heights4 ,b ! ivy & yew1 ^: limits dep5d on ! w9t] r ?an on ! summ] temp]ature1 %[$ no su* ext5sion1 indicat+ t ! w9t]s rema9$ sev]e4 ,9 ,d5m>k !re 0 a dry climate1 fairly w>m at ! close1 ) fir =e/s1 ?\gh we/]n ,d5m>k is n[ too wet = ?is tree4 ,on ! coa/ ( ,norway ! seas 7 /ill cold1 s t !re is a contra/ betwe5 ! animal life ( ! sea & ! plant life ( ! l&4 ,! ,alps also became w>m & dry1 & 7 occupi$ by a x]ophil\s flora4 ,z ! glacial anticyclone decreas$ 9 int5sity1 depressions f ! ,atlantic began to take a m nor!rly c\rse1 b 7 held up ne> ! ,briti% ,isles & mat]ially increas$ ! ra9fall4 ,?is is ! fir/ peat-bog p]iod ( ^! isl&s1 :5 ! bir* & p9e =e/s :i* _h cov]$ ! non-glaciat$ l&s dur+ ! cold dry p]iod gave way to ext5sive gr[?s ( peat-bogs4 ,s\!rn & ea/]n ,engl&1 h[ev]1 l>gely escap$ ?is damp p]iod1 %>+ 9 ! dry climate ( ! ,cont95t4 ,! abs5ce ( /orms (f ! nor?-we/ coa/ ( ,norway is %[n by ! =e/s :i* at ?is p]iod cov]$ all ! out]mo/ isl&s ( ,norway z f> z ,+o ,isl&1 (f ,nor? ,cape4 ,^! isl&s are n[ b>r51 & _! af=e/ation indicates a dri] & especially a less /ormy climate ?an ! pres5t1 ) a decreas$ frequ5cy ( w9ds f ! sea4 ,^! conditions 7 well develop$ ab\t #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,?is is ! ,e>ly ,neoli?ic p]iod4 ,ow+ to ! great developm5t ( =e/s1 ?is p]iod is sometimes call$ ! ,e>ly ,=e/ p]iod4 ,! late-glacial hi/ory ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 equally complicat$4 ,consid] fir/ ! region ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,e/u>y & ! ,great ,lakes4 ,z ! ,wiscons9 ice-%eet retreat$ across ! pres5t site ( ! ,lakes1 ! latt] und]w5t a rem>kable s]ies ( fluctuations ( area & outfl[1 :i* h be5 made ! subject ( brilliant /udies by sev]al ,am]ican geologi/s4 ,! op5+ /age began :5 ! ice ab&on$ ! high gr\nd s\? ( ! lakes1 leav+ depressions b\nd$ on ! s\? by ! hills & on ! nor? by ! ice4 ,! e>lie/ ( ^! 9 ! bas9s ( ,lakes ,erie & ,huron are kn[n z ! fir/ & second ,lake ,maumee4 ,^! gradually grew 9 size & coalesc$1 =m+ sev]al s]ies ( connect$ lakes1 to :i* v>i\s names h be5 giv52 ?us ,lake ,w>r5 ext5d$ well outside ! pres5t limits ( ,lake ,erie & s\!rn ,huron1 & 0 held up by ice ov] ,lake ,ont>io & nor!rn ,huron4 ,at a lat] /age an enorm\s ,lake ,algonqu9 ext5d$ beyond ! comb9$ limits ( ,lakes ,sup]ior1 ,mi*igan & ,huron1 & communicat$ by broad *annels ) an enl>g$ ,lake ,ont>io kn[n z ,lake ,iroquois1 & ) ,lake ,erie4 ,b ev5 be=e ?is "t ! nor!rn %ores ( ! lakes1 reliev$ ( ! major portion ( _! ice-load1 _h begun to rise rapidly1 & ultimately r$uc$ ! lakes to _! pres5t size4 ,^! great areas ( ice-cold wat]1 ba?+ ! s\!rn edges ( ! ice-%eet1 mu/ h _h an unfav\rable influ5ce on ! climate1 keep+ x cold & damp1 & prev5t+ dry cont95tal conditions f becom+ e/abli%$4 ,!y probably ret>d$ ! ice-retreat 9 ^! regions q consid]ably1 s t a lobe ( ice 0 left "h long aft] ! edge _h retreat$ nor?w>ds on ei!r side4 ,at ! same "t ! climate fur!r s\? 0 dry1 ) olian deposits2 b z ! anticyclonic w9ds blew (f ! ,atlantic ! evid5ce ( dr\ght is n s m>k$ z 9 ,europe4 ,aft] ?is sl[ retreat _h be5 9 progress = a consid]able "t a subm]g5ce1 kn[n z ! 8,*ampla9 /age0 set 91 rea*+ a dep? ( at lea/ #fjj feet & op5+ ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce regions wide to ! ,atlantic1 :i* p5etrat$ into ,lake ,ont>io4 ,! ice n[ retreat$ rapidly "u ! influ5ce ( a m>itime climate little cold] ?an ! pres5t4 ,9 phase ?is p]iod corresponds to ! second ,yoldia ,sea /age ( ,sc&9avia2 9 po9t ( "t x 0 probably some:at e>li]4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by elevation1 ! fir/ result ( :i* 0 to cut (f ! w>m wat] & cause a %>p fall ( temp]ature exactly analog\s to t ( ! ,ragunda mora9es1 b a few ?\s& ye>s e>li] & probably m m>k$4 ,! cont9uance ( elevation br\ght on a long cont95tal p]iod ( extreme aridity1 :5 trees grew on ! peat-bogs ( ! ea/]n ,/ates1 :ile ! lakes ( ! ,great ,bas9 fur!r we/ 7 almo/ or :olly dri$ up4 ,at ! maximum ( ! cont95tal conditions ! summ]s at lea/ 7 w>m] ?an at pres5t1 z indicat$ by ! nor?w>d ext5sion ( v>i\s species ( plants & fre%-wat] mollusca4 ,! w9t]s 7 probably m sev]e4 ,possibly ! great aridity ( ?is p]iod 0 p>tly due to a sub-glacial cont95tal anticyclone ob/ruct+ ! pa? ( depressions across ,am]ica f we/ to ea/4 ,! dra9age area ( ! ,great ,bas9 receiv$ h>dly any ra9fall & 0 a hopeless des]t1 b ! ,atlantic ,/ates 7 able to gr[ trees on ! old peat-bogs1 probably ) ra9fall d]iv$ f ! ,atlantic4 ,by ref]5ce to ! cutt+ ( ,niag>a gorge1 we c inf] t ! w>m dry p]iod began ab\t #fjjj ,b4,c41 s t x corresponds exactly ) ! cont95tal phase 7,ancylus /age7 ( ,europe4 ,?is p]iod ( aridity 0 f9ally end$ by a fre% subm]g5ce1 ! 8,micmac10 :i* c>ri$ ! l& ab\t tw5ty feet bel[ its pres5t level4 ,9 ,yukon & ,alaska1 :]e ! glaciation 0 n ne>ly s sev]e z fur!r to ! s\?-ea/1 ! depression ( ! l& by ! ice-load & consequ5tly ! subsequ5t rise on its removal 7 n great4 ,!re 7 no complicat$ geographical *anges1 & correspond+ly !re appe> to h be5 no fluctuations ( climate1 b only a gradual passage to pres5t conditions4 ,ev5 9 ,icel& !re are indications ( a dry p]iod foll[+ ! la/ glacial maximum1 = tree-trunks1 buri$ 9 ! peat-bogs1 %[ t ! bir* =m]ly _h a mu* great] ext5sion4 ,x is also q possible t !re 0 an acc5tuation ( des]t conditions 9 ,asia dur+ ! retreat ( ! glaci]s 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* may h play$ a "p 9 ! wave ( ,neoli?ic migration t appe>s to h ov]:elm$ ! arti/ic ,paloli?ic races ( we/]n ,europe2 b ( ?is we h z yet no direct evid5ce4 ,! ,neoli?ic invasion ( ,europe took place along two ma9 r\tes1 ! ,nordics pass+ f ! c5tre ( ,asia nor? ( ! ,caspian1 across ,russia to ! ,baltic %ores1 :]e !y became ! ,kit*5-midd5 p2 & ! ,alp9e race pass+ f ,transbaikalia1 s\? ( ! ,caspian & ,black ,sea1 into s\!rn ,europe4 ,! ,nordics drove be=e !m an old] race1 *>act]iz$ by ! transitional ,maglemose culture1 :i* pass$ f ea/ ( ,russia to ! %ores ( ! ,baltic & ultimately to ,engl&1 :]e h>poons ( ,maglemose type h be5 f\nd b5ea? ! peat ( ,hold]ness4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e ! cont95tal phase does n appe> to h be5 s well develop$4 ,! upp]mo/ "p ( ! ,pampean loess is possibly po/-glacial2 m c]ta9ly s are ! s&-dunes on ! coa/ ne> ,bu5os ,aires1 9 :i* human rema9s h be5 f\nd 9 association ) ! bones ( "s ext9ct animals4 ,9 ,new ,s\? ,wales1 aft] ! retreat ( ! glaci]s1 !re 0 a p]iod ) l& a little above its pres5t level1 s t ! /ools ( ,eucalyptus trees are n[ f\nd t5 feet bel[ sea-level2 b !re is no evid5ce z to ! climate ( ?is /age4 ,9 ,new ,zeal& we h no def9ite po/-glacial b$s ( cont95tal type4 ,! occurr5ce ( x]ophil\s plants1 su* z ,aciphylla1 /ill liv+ 9 a climate :i* is n[ decid$ly moi/1 may be a remnant ( a cont95tal phase 9 ,new ,zeal&1 or may date back to ! /eppe conditions ( ! loess4 ,z to ,ant>ctica1 we h1 ( c\rse1 no evid5ce4 ,,bibliography ,brooks1 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 8,! evolution ( climate 9 nor?-we/ ,europe40 ,london1 ,q4 ,j4 ,r4 ,meteor4 ,soc41 #dg1 #aiba1 p4 #agc4 ,wright1 ,w4 ,b4 8,! ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age40 ,london1 #aiad4 7,*4 #ag1 ,late-glacial *anges ( level 9 ,nor? ,am]ica47 ,b]i*t ,int]nat4 ,geolog5kongress1 ,/ockholm1 #aiaj4 8,die ,v]nd]ung5 des ,klimas seit d] ,maximum des letzt5 ,eiszeits40 ,num]\s pap]s1 deal+ ) ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,mun!1 ,h4 8,/udies 9 ! ,late-,quat]n>y hi/ory ( s\!rn ,sw$540 ,/ockholm1 ,geol4 ,=54 i ,=h41 #bb1 #aiaj1 pp4 #aaig-abib4 ,antevs1 ,e4 ,on ! late-glacial & po/-glacial hi/ory ( ! ,baltic4 ,geogr4 ,rev41 ,new ,york1 #ab1 #aibb1 p4 #eba4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,! ,,po/-,,glacial ,,optimum ,,( ,,climate ,9 mo/ ( ! pol> & temp]ate regions ( ! _w ! ,glacial p]iod seems to h be5 sep>at$ f ! pres5t by a %ort int]val ( slightly m m>itime climate4 ,! exi/5ce ( ?is phase 0 ! *ief po9t br\ght out 9 ! great collection ( pap]s communicat$ to ! ,/ockholm meet+ ( ! ,int]national ,geological ,congress1 :i* has frequ5tly be5 ref]r$ to 9 ?is volume4 ,! pione] "w on ! subject has be5 done by ! ,sc&9avian geologi/s1 & we may comm5ce ) a discussion ( ?is p]iod 9 ! c\ntries bord]+ on ! ,baltic4 ,ab\t #djjj ,b4,c41 at ! conclusion ( ! cont95tal phase ref]r$ to 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 a rapid movem5t ( subm]g5ce set 9 ov] ! :ole ( ! s\!rn ,baltic1 & %ortly aft]w>ds ! l&-b> :i* _h =m]ly sep>at$ ! fre% wat]s ( ! ,ancylus lake f ! ,atlantic gave place to a wide /rait1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat]s ( ! ocean fl[$ into ! ,baltic across s\!rn ,sw$54 ,ultimately ?is *annel became wid] ?an ! pres5t outlet betwe5 ,sw$5 & ,d5m>k1 & m>itime influ5ces p5etrat$ to all p>ts ( ! ,baltic4 ,9 recognition ( ?is influ5ce ! p]iod 0 t]m$ by ,blytt ! 8,atlantic /age40 ,! mu* great] fre$om ) :i* ! wat]s ( ! ,atlantic 7 able to ent] is %[n by a comp>ison ( ! 8isohal9es0 ( ?is p]iod ) ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,isohal9es indicate ! degree ( saltness ( ! wat]2 ^? ( to-day c1 ( c\rse1 be measur$ directly1 & %[ t 9 ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia ! wat] becomes cont9ually less salt z we g nor?w>d1 = :i* reason _m species ( m>9e mollusca are unable to live4 ,by /udy+ ! di/ribution ( ! mollusca 9 ! ,littor9a ,sea ! isohal9es ( t p]iod h be5 recon/ruct$ also1 & %[ t ! salt cont5t 0 mu* great] ?an at ! pres5t day1 indicat+ a great] influx ( oceanic wat]s4 ,if we take a map %[+ a recon/ruction ( ! geography ( ,littor9a "t1 & apply to x ! =mul giv5 9 ! ,app5dix1 comp>+ our results ) ! inf]5ces ( ,sc&9avian & nor? ,g]man geologi/s z to ! temp]ature1 we f9d t !re is a rem>kably good agreem5t4 ,_m ( ! palo-botani/s comm5t on ! prolongation ( ! autumn into ! pres5t w9t]1 :i* is especially *>act]i/ic ( a m insul> climate4 ,! am\nts ( *ange 9 ea* case are also 9 good agreem5t1 except p]haps 9 ! ,*ri/iania region & 9 nor? ,d5m>k1 :]e ! geologi/s require a great] *ange ?an t calculat$ f ! l& & sea di/ribution2 ?is is probably acc\nt$ = by a high] temp]ature 9 ! wat]s ( ! ,atlantic4 ,! maximum *ange z calculat$ is %[n 9 s\?-we/ ,f9l& 7w9t] #f ,f4 w>m]1 summ] #b ,f4 cool]74 ,f9l& is describ$ z hav+ at t "t ! climate ( we/]n ,europe1 :i* we may take z mean+ w9t] #h w>m]1 summ] #c-d cool]4 ,!re 0 ?us a great *ange f ! extreme climate ( ! cont95tal phase ) its hot summ]s & sev]e w9t]s & little ra91 to an extremely temp]ate climate ) cool summ]s1 mild w9t]s & a heavy ra9fall4 ,! w>m?-lov+ plants :i* _h begun to immigrate dur+ ! lat] "p ( ! cont95tal phase cont9u$ to spread1 & probably ! highe/ av]age temp]atures 7 rea*$ at ! "t ( maximum subm]g5ce1 b n[ !y 7 accompani$ by plants = :i* a l>ge ra9fall is necess>y1 & x seems t ! av]age ra9fall ( s\!rn ,sw$5 mu/ h be5 ab\t #dj in*es a ye>4 ,! oak began to dom9ate ! =e/s 9 place ( ! hazel1 & ! peat-bogs1 :i* dur+ ! prec$+ dry p]iod _h h>d5$ into a firm surface on :i* bir* & p9e 7 able to take root1 aga9 became moi/1 s t ! trees 7 *ok$ by gr[?s ( bog-plants4 ,on ! %ores liv$ m5 ( ! ,transition & ,e>ly ,neoli?ic4 ,z ! l& rose aga9 & ! ,littor9a ,sea decreas$ 9 area ! climate aga9 became dri] & m rigor\s4 ,9 ,d5m>k ! =e/s ( ! ,ancylus p]iod gave place to oak z ! l& sank1 & !re are also rema9s ( two wat] plants1 ! wat]-nut 7,trapa natans71 :i* is no long] f\nd 9 ,d5m>k1 & ,najas m>9a1 /ill liv+ 9 "o isolat$ locality4 ,nor!rn ,d5m>k 0 brok5 up into isl&s1 among :i* m>9e deposits 7 =m$1 conta9+ ! rema9s ( s\!rn mollusca1 _m ( :i* are f\nd 9 ! kit*5-midd+s4 ,mo/ ( ! wood us$ by ,neoli?ic man 0 oak2 !re is little fir & no bee*4 ,9 ,norway ! "w ( ,c4 ,brgg] has made u famili> ) ! ,tapes b$s1 :i* correspond 9 po9t ( "t to ! ,littor9a /age ( ! ,baltic4 ,tapes decussatus is itself a s\!rn species ( mollusc1 & x is associat$ ) a v ri* w>m?-lov+ fauna4 ,9 s\!rn ,norway ! geographical conditions 7 diff]5t f ^? 9 ,sw$51 = ! l& rea*$ its l[e/ level relatively to ! sea ab\t ! close ( ! ,glacial p]iod1 & has be5 ris+ ?r\gh\t ! po/-glacial4 ,! seas %[ a progressive rise ( temp]ature f #h ,f4 bel[ pres5t at ! close ( ! ,glacial p]iod to #d ,f4 above ! pres5t 9 ! old] ,tapes b$s4 ,! littoral climate at ?is /age resembl$ t prevail+ at pres5t on ! coa/ ( nor!rn ,engl&4 ,aft] ?is1 z ! l& approa*$ its pres5t level1 ! temp]ature fell aga91 & 9 ! upp] ,tapes /age 0 only #b ,f4 above ! pres5t4 ,! w>m p]iod repres5t$ by ! ,tapes b$s is f\nd at int]vals along ! we/ coa/ ( ,norway1 & we aga9 f9d evid5ce ( a subm]g5ce ( ! l& contempor>y ) ! maximum temp]ature4 ,^! conditions ext5d ev5 z f> nor? z ,troms1 )9 ! ,arctic circle4 ,9 ,spitzb]g5 !re are rais$ bea*es #cj to #hj feet above ! sea1 conta9+ rema9s ( molluscs & a species ( ,fucus1 none ( :i* are n[ liv+ s f> nor?4 ,on ! l& !re are old peat-bogs ( great ?ickness1 ?\gh peat-mosses _c n[ gr[1 s9ce ! gr\nd nev] ?aws bel[ a dep? ( #f-aj in*es4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out t a great numb] ( ! plants n[ liv+ 9 ,spitzb]g5 are unable to rip5 _! se$s "u pres5t climatic conditions1 ?\gh !y mu/ h done s 9 ! pa/4 ,ripe se$s ( "s species1 9 fact1 h be5 f\nd 9 ! peat-bogs1 :i* are contemporane\s ) ! rais$ bea*4 ,!re is ?us evid5ce ( a v well-m>k$ w>m p]iod associat$ ) subm]g5ce 9 ,spitsb]g54 ,9 ,franz ,josef ,l&1 ,nans5 f\nd rais$ bea*es ) mussels #aj to #bj feet above ! pres5t level2 ?is %ell does n n[ live s f> nor?4 ,9 ! ,:ite ,sea & on ! ,murman coa/ !re are also rais$ bea*es ) a s\!rn fauna4 ,! w>m p]iod %[n 9 ! b$s ( ! ,new ,sib]ian ,isl&s has already be5 ref]r$ to 7p4 #gi74 ,return+ to ! ,briti% ,isles we f9d t 9 ! s\? ! l& 0 above its pres5t level ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! po/-glacial p]iod4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a #be-;foot bea* is f\nd 9 nor?-we/ ,engl& 7,=mby & ,leas[e m>9e b$s71 b )\t any evid5ce z to climate2 ! same applies to ! #be-;foot bea* ( ,scotl&4 ,x is only :5 we come to ! nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& t we f9d evid5ce ( conditions appreciably w>m] ?an ! pres5t1 9 ! section ( ! ,alex&ra ,dock1 ,belfa/1 :]e m>9e clays ov]lie b$s ( grey s& & peat4 ,! l[] e/u>9e clay is ess5tially a littoral clay1 kn[n z ! ,scrobicul>ia zone4 ,x is br[ni%-blue & s&y1 & conta9s 9 abundance ! roots & leaves ( ! grass-wrack 7,zo/]a m>9a71 & a va/ numb] ( %ells ( a few species :i* live betwe5 tide-m>ks1 indicat+ t ! l& /ood #aj feet or s above its pres5t level at fir/1 :ile ! climate _c h diff]$ greatly f t prevail+ at ! pres5t day4 ,x mu/ h be5 =m$ dur+ a p]iod ( gradual depression1 = ?r\gh\t its six feet or m ( ?ickness x pres]ves id5tical littoral *>act]s4 ,aft] a "t ?is depression became m rapid1 & ! upp] e/u>9e clay began to =m--a light blue clay1 v pure & unctu\s1 ) a v ri* & well-pres]v$ fauna1 kn[n z ! ,?racia zone4 ,! fauna has a decid$ly s\!rn aspect1 & indicates t ! coa/s ( nor?-ea/ ,irel& _h ! pres5t temp]ature ( ,bantry ,bay--an increase ( at lea/ #c ,f4 9 ! mean annual temp]ature4 ,! ,?racia zone is foll[$ by a b$ ( yell[ %ore s&1 indicat+ re-elevation to ab\t sev5 feet above ! pres5t level4 ,correspond+ to ! upp] e/u>9e clay are rais$ bea*es at a height ( #be feet 9 nor?-ea/ ,irel&1 fall+ to #ae feet at ,dubl91 & to only #f or #g feet 9 we/]n ,donegal & ,sligo4 ,! mollusca indicate a some:at high] temp]ature ?an ! pres5t4 ,9 ! bea*es h be5 f\nd fl9t scrap]s & arr[heads ( e>ly ,neoli?ic type4 ,look+ fur!r we/w>ds1 we f9d t ,icel&1 :i* _h und]gone a slight elevation dur+ ! cont95tal phase1 s t peat 0 =m$ bel[ pres5t sea-level1 aga9 subsid$1 fall+ to #aj or #ab feet bel[ its pres5t level4 ,dur+ ?is subsid5ce ! temp]ature rose1 ! greate/ w>m? co9cid+ ) ! l[e/ level ( ! l&4 ,species f ! s\?-we/ %ores1 :]e ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is directly influ5c$ by ! ,gulf ,drift1 ext5d$ to ! cold nor!rn coa/4 ,9 "s places ! m>9e clays ( ?is p]iod h be5 pl\gh$ up by a subsequ5t readvance ( ! glaci]s4 ,f ,gre5l& comes abundant evid5ce ( a po/-glacial w>m p]iod co9cid5t ) a subsid5ce ( ab\t #hj feet4 ,rais$ bea*es all along ! we/ coa/ conta9 mollusca1 "s species ( :i* are n n[ liv+ nor? ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce e/u>y4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s nor!rn species :i* liv$ (f ! we/ coa/ dur+ ! glacial maximum retreat$ nor?w>ds dur+ ?is p]iod1 & h n re-e/abli%$ !mselves1 ?\gh ! climate is n[ suitable4 ,fur!r1 ,k4 ,/e5/rup describes ! occurr5ce ( 8dead ice0 at sev]al places 9 ,nor? ,gre5l&--masses ( ice :i* h become sep>at$ f _! p>5t glaci]s ow+ to rapid recession1 & are n[ buri$ 9 mora9ic matt]4 ,subsequ5tly ! ice aga9 advanc$1 & 9 "s cases a new glaci] has advanc$ ov] ^! masses ( 8dead ice40 ,pass+ to ! ma9l& ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 we f9d 9 ea/]n ,canada colonies ( s\!rn mollusca1 especially oy/]s & quohogs1 sep>at$ f _! ma9 area ( di/ribution s\? ( ,cape ,cod by a wide area ( cold seas--! ,gulf ( ,ma9e & ,bay ( ,fundy4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! w>m phase ! l& lay slightly bel[ its pres5t level1 b subsequ5tly rose above x4 ,! climate became /ill w>m]1 until its temp]ature resembl$ t ( ! middle ,new ,engl& ,/ates4 ,at ! same "t ! ra9fall dim9i%$ & ! peat-bogs 7 replac$ by =e/s ( h>dwood trees4 ,9 ! bas9 ( ! ,great ,lakes ! w>m p]iod is repres5t$ by gravel b$s 9 ! ,niag>a gorge1 :i* f _! position mu/1 accord+ to ! mo/ rec5t det]m9ations1 h be5 =m$ ab\t #djjj to #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,^! gravels conta9 %ells ( fre%-wat] mollusca1 especially species ( ,unio1 :i* are n n[ liv+ 9 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce sy/em1 b are f\nd 9 tribut>ies ( ! ,mississippi fur!r s\?4 ,fur!r s\? on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re are m>9e deposits indicat+ a slight subm]g5ce1 ) a climate some:at w>m] ?an ! pres5t4 ,pass+ to ,s\? ,am]ica1 we f9d 9 s\!rn ,patagonia & ,ti]ra del ,fuego exactly simil> evid5ce ( a po/-glacial subsid5ce ) a w>m] climate ?an ! pres5t4 ,rais$ bea*es at a height ( #ej feet conta9 mollusca1 "s ( :i* are n[ r>e or ext9ct 9 t locality1 & 9 %elt]$ situations plants are f\nd /ill liv+ ^: ne>e/ neighb\rs are "s way to ! nor?4 ,9 ! same way1 9 s\!rn & ea/]n ,au/ralia !re are bea*es a few feet above pres5t level1 conta9+ w>m?-lov+ species ( mollusca & indicat+ a po/-glacial w>m p]iod4 ,!re is "s evid5ce 9 ! di/ribution ( plants & m>9e mollusca t ?is w>m p]iod ext5d$ to ,new ,zeal&4 ,rais$ bea*es at a height ( #ej to #ahj feet are also kn[n f _m places 9 ,ant>ctica1 & ^! conta9 mollusca1 "s ( :i* are n n[ liv+ s\? ( ! sub-ant>ctic isl&s4 ,an int]e/+ confirmation ( ?is has be5 giv5 by ,e4 ,philippi1 f ! results ( an exam9ation ( ! sea-floor at f\r po9ts 9 ab\t #fc ,s41 #ge-ie ,e41 all )9 ! pres5t limit ( pack-ice4 ,! deposit at pres5t =m+ is poor 9 pelagic =am9if]a1 & consequ5tly conta9s little lime1 b ?is deposit is v ?91 & b5ea? x is a mu* m calc>e\s clay especially ri* 9 ,globig]9a4 ,! latt] deposit is /ill =m+ nor? ( ! limit ( pack-ice1 & ,philippi concludes t at no v di/ant date ! limits ( ice 7 fur!r s\?1 indicat+ w>m] conditions4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t a simil> sequ5ce has be5 f\nd 9 ! ,norwegian ,nor? ,sea1 ! br[n =am9if]\s deposit 79 ?is case conta9+ ,bilocul9a7 be+ kn[n to be und]la9 z well z ov]la9 by an unfossilif]\s grey clay attribut$ to ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,f9ally1 ) reg>d to ,cape ,colony1 ,a4 ,w4 ,rodg]s says3 8,x is possible t ! pres5ce ( m>9e mollusca belong+ to species t are only kn[n 9 ! liv+ /ate f ! coa/ nor? ( ,pondol&1 9 ! rais$ bea*es ( ,mossel & ,algoa ,bays1 indicates t ! sea on ! s\? coa/ 0 =m]ly w>m] ?an n[40 ,?us we h evid5ce ( a p]iod ( subm]g5ce & climates w>m] ?an ! pres5t f a l>ge numb] ( places1 includ+ ! ,arctic ,ocean & ,gre5l&1 ! temp]ate coa/s ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe1 ! ,s\!rn ,ocean & ,ant>ctica4 ,! /age appe>s to be miss+ on ! temp]ate coa/s ( ! ,pacific1 on bo? ! ,asiatic & ,nor? ,am]ican sides1 & f ! :ole ( ! ,tropics4 ,x is fairly c]ta9 t ! w>m p]iod occurr$ at ! same "t 9 ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica & we/]n ,europe2 9 ! case ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e we h no direct pro( ( ?is1 b 9 all cases ! deposits are comp>atively rec5t1 & s9ce !y obvi\sly ref] to a simil> /ate ( affairs we may assume t !y are ( ! same date4 ,9 ! ,baltic area we "k t ! great *ange ( level 0 due l>gely to a subsid5ce ( ! l& & only to a small ext5t to a rise ( ! sea4 ,b 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w ! am\nt ( subm]g5ce 0 rem>kably uni=m at places 9 ! same latitude1 & decreas$ /eadily f ! pol> regions to ab\t latitude #dj-ej1 :]e x became z]o4 ,n[ su* a g5]al *ange sugge/s t x 0 ! sea :i* rose r ?an ! l& :i* sank1 & po9ts to "s g5]al cause :i* pil$ up ! wat]s ( ! oceans 9 ! high] latitudes4 ,a possible cause ( ?is nature has be5 adduc$ by ,o4 ,pett]sson1 :i* he t]ms ! 8tide-g5]at+ =ce10 :i* rea*$ "o ( its maxima 9 an #ahjj-ye> cycle ab\t #cejj ,b4,c4 ,?is possibility w be dealt ) m fully 9 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,bibliography ,b]i*t ,int]nat4 ,geolog5kongress1 ,/ockholm1 #aiaj4 8,die ,v]nd]ung5 des ,klimas seit d] ,maximum des letzt5 ,eiszeits40 ,num]\s pap]s rang+ f ! ,arctic to ! ,ant>ctic4 ,brooks1 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 8,! evolution ( climate 9 nor?-we/ ,europe40 ,london1 ,q4 ,j4 ,r4 ,meteor4 ,soc41 #dg1 #aiba1 p4 #agc4 ,praeg]1 ,r4 ,ll4 8,report on ! e/u>9e clays ( ! nor?-ea/ ( ,irel&40 ,proc4 ,r4 ,iri% ,acad41 s]4 #c1 ,vol4 #b1 #ahib1 pp4 #bab-hi4 ,gold?wait1 ,j4 ,w4 8,! tw5ty-foot t]race & sea-cliff ( ! l[] ,/4 ,lawr5ce40 ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci5ce1 s]4 #d1 ,vol4 #cb1 #aiaa1 pp4 #bia-cag4 ,c[les1 ,h4 ,c4 8,a rem>kable colony ( nor!rn plants along ! ,apala*icola ,riv]1 ,florida1 & its significance40 ,rep4 #h ,int]nal4 ,geogr4 ,congress1 #aijd1 p4 #eii4 ,%im]1 ,h4 ,w4 8,po/-glacial hi/ory ( ,bo/on40 ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci5ce1 s]4 #d1 ,vol4 #dj1 #aiae1 pp4 #dcg-db4 ,halle1 ,t4 ,g4 8,on ,quat]n>y deposits & *anges ( level 9 ,patagonia & ,ti]ra del ,fuego40 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,in/41 ,upsala1 #i1 #aijh-i1 pp4 #ic-aag4 ,sssmil*1 ,c4 ,a4 8,an introduction to ! geology ( ,new ,s\? ,wales10 ,sydney1 #aiad4 ,m>%all1 ,p4 8,new ,zeal&40 ,h&bu* regional ,geologie1 ,heft #e1 #aiaa4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,! ,,=e/ ,,p]iod ,,( ,,we/]n ,,europe ,hi!rto we h be5 deal+ ) climatic *anges :i* c be recogniz$ ) m or less c]ta9ty ov] mo/ ( ! pol> & temp]ate regions ( ! _w1 b we h n[ to describe a /age :i* appe>s to h be5 peculi> to ,europe & possibly ,asia--! ,=e/ p]iod4 ,by #cjjj ,b4,c41 or t[>ds ! close ( ! ,neoli?ic p]iod1 consid]able elevation _h aga9 tak5 place ov] ! c5tral latitudes ( we/]n ,europe 7! nor!rn p>ts ( ,norway & ,sw$5 7 /ill sev]al hundr$ feet bel[ _! pres5t level74 ,! s\!rn "p ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 :i* _h rema9$ slightly elevat$ s9ce ! la/ ,glacial p]iod1 _h n[ em]g$ to a height ( ne>ly n9ety feet above its pres5t level2 ! area ( ,irel& _h increas$ appreciably & "p ( ! ,nor? ,sea 0 l&4 ,! geographical *anges 7 n great1 b !y 7 suffici5t to turn ! scale 9 ! direction ( a cont95tal climate 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,! m or less complete clos+ ( ! ,/raits ( ,dov]1 & ! consequ5t b> to ! free circulation ( ! ,gulf ,drift1 mu/ h _h an appreciable effect on ! climate 9 ! direction ( cont95tality4 ,at ! same "t ! l[ level ( nor!rn ,norway1 & possibly ! p]si/5ce ( w>m conditions 9 ! ,arctic bas91 m & m attract$ depressions to ! nor!rnmo/ track1 s t ! ,briti% ,isles especially1 & to a less] ext5t ,holl&1 ,g]many1 s\!rn ,sc&9avia & ,russia1 came m p]si/5tly "u ! influ5ce ( anticyclonic conditions4 ,! ra9fall ( ^! c\ntries dim9i%$1 & ! surface ( ! bogs dri$ suffici5tly to enable =e/s to gr[ 9 ! we/]n c\ntries2 9 ,g]many hea?-plants took ! place ( bog-plants1 :ile 9 ,russia /eppe conditions sup]v5$4 ,! normal meteorological conditions at ?is "t 9 fact resembl$ ^? ( ! memorable dr\ght ( #aiba1 :i* 0 *>act]iz$ by l[ pressure & /ormy conditions 9 ! ,arctic ,ocean & a belt ( high pressure & p]si/5tly f9e wea!r across c5tral ,europe4 ,dur+ ?is phase ! w9t]s may h be5 sev]e1 b ! summ]s 7 w>m] ?an ! pres5t1 = 9 ! peat-bogs ( ,irel& & ,scotl& are ! rema9s ( trees l>g] ?an any n[ f\nd 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,! ,iri% bogs dri$ s completely t !y 7 ext5sively inhabit$2 cord$ oak roads h be5 f\nd at ?is horizon1 :ile 9 #ahhc a two-/ory log h\se1 surr\nd$ by an enclosure1 0 f\nd 9 ,drumkel9 ,bog1 ,co4 ,donegal2 x 0 twelve feet squ>e & n9e feet 9 height1 & a roadway l$ to x across ! bog4 ,bo? h\se & roadway 7 entirely con/ruct$ ( oak4 ,) ! hut 7 f\nd a /one *isel & a fl9t arr[head4 ,b5ea? ! floor 7 f\rte5 feet ( bog1 & above ! floor tw5ty-six feet4 ,?is "t 0 also "o ( relatively little w9d movem5t1 = /ools occur ev5 9 expos$ positions on ! m\nta9 slopes ( we/]n ,irel&1 :]e trees w only gr[ n[ 9 %elt]$ positions ne> sea-level4 ,fur!r evid5ce ( ! v dry climate ( ?is phase is ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( trees app>5tly 9 situ b5ea? ! surface ( fre%-wat] lakes1 bo? 9 ,irel& & ,sc&9avia4 ,i 0 able to exam9e "o v good example ne> ,l\gh ,toome 9 nor?-we/ ,irel&4 ,an unusually dry spr+ _h l[]$ ! surface ( ! wat] & a l>ge numb] ( tree-/ools 7 expos$2 :5 ^! trees 7 gr[+ ! wat]-surface mu/ h be5 at lea/ two feet bel[ ! level ( ! pres5t outlet4 ,mo/ ( ! lakes 9 :i* ^! /ools are f\nd are %all[ upl& bas9s ) a small dra9age area1 & if ! pres5t climate became dri] !y w\ld m or less completely disappe>4 ,mr4 ,fairgrieve has not$ ! action ( bl[n s& on ! we/w>d side ( brok5-(f tree-/umps 9 a subm]g$ =e/ on ! %ore 9 s\? ,wales1 :i*1 ?\gh n conclusive1 sugge/s dry conditions4 ,mr4 ,fairgrieve also not$ ! direction ( fall ( tw5ty-"o trees1 & f\nd t 9 ! great majority ( cases !y 7 bl[n d[n by we/]ly w9ds4 ,! =e/ phase 0 %ort2 accord+ to ! late ,c4 ,reid ! l& aga9 began to subside %ortly aft] #cjjj ,b4,c41 & by #afjj ,b4,c41 9 ,brita9 at lea/1 _h rea*$ its pres5t level2 ?is c>ries u to ! beg9n+ ( ! ,bronze ,age4 ,9 connexion ) ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton's !ory t ! dampness ( ,irel& l[]s ! en]gy ( its inhabitants1 x is int]e/+ to note t ?is dry p]iod app>5tly corresponds to ! leg5d>y ,h]oic ,age1 :5 ! vig\r ( ! ,iri% rea*$ a level nev] s9ce atta9$4 ,civilization 9 ,sc&9avia also seems to h b5efit$ by ! dri] conditions1 = ,sc&9avian te*nique advanc$ rapidly to a high level ab\t #ahjj ,b4,c4 ,b ?\gh !re is evid5ce ( a consid]able sea-borne comm]ce ) ,brita9 & ,irel&1 !re appe>s to h be5 comp>atively little l& traffic betwe5 diff]5t p>ts ( ,sc&9avia at ?is "t4 ,9 fact1 to primitive man d5se =e/ ) ?ick und]gr[? 0 almo/ imp5etrable4 ,b at ! close ( ! =e/ phase & ! beg9n+ ( ! peat-bog phase ! trees 7 weak5+ "u conditions becom+ unfav\rable4 ,su* dy+ =e/s are m>k$ by ! abs5ce ( und]gr[? & "y trees1 & af=d safe & easy l& communication4 ,accord+ly we f9d t by #aejj ,b4,c4 a consid]able traffic _h develop$ across ,sc&9avia by l&4 ,al?\gh we h no direct evid5ce1 ! meteorological conditions sugge/ v /rongly t ! dry belt ext5d$ across ,russia into ,sib]ia z a m>k$ p]iod ( desiccation1 possibly worse ?an any dr\ghts ( ! hi/oric p]iod4 ,at pres5t ,sib]ia receives its ra9fall ma9ly f depressions :i* cross ,russia f ! ,baltic or ,black ,seas1 & foll[ a well-m>k$ track nor? ( ! c5tral ,asiatic m\nta9s4 ,b dur+ ! =e/ p]iod ^! tracks 7 ab&on$1 & ! majority ( ! depressions pass$ nor?-ea/w>d (f ! coa/ ( ,norway into ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,! result mu/ h be5 a great dim9ution ( ra9fall ov] ! cont95t4 ,we %all see lat] 7,*apt] ,,xix7 t ?is p]iod ( dr\ght 0 ( extraord9>y importance 9 human hi/ory4 ,= dur+ ! moi/ m>itime phase c5tral & ea/]n ,europe1 & probably also ,asia1 _h become ext5sively peopl$ by neoli?ic nomads ( ,aryan & ,semitic races1 :ile ! great riv] valleys ( ! s\? 7 9 ! possession ( d5se agricultural populations 9 a m advanc$ /ate ( civilization4 ,z ! climate became progressively dri] & ! pa/ure dim9i%$1 ! l& 0 unable to support su* a l>ge nomadic population1 & !re 0 a great outbur/ ( raid+ & conqu]+ exp$itions direct$ s\?w>ds & we/w>ds1 result+ 9 a succession ( empires 9 ! ri* ,mesopotamian regions & neighb\r+ c\ntries1 :i* =m ! beg9n+s ( our hi/ory4 ,! beg9n+s ( hi/ory 9 ,*9a also1 ab\t #bejj ,b4,c41 %[ t at ?is "t ! settl$ peoples ( t c\ntry 7 9 tr\ble ) ! nomads ( ! int]ior4 ,,bibliography ,reid1 ,c4 8,subm]g$ =e/s40 ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiac4 ,lewis1 ,f4 ,j4 8,! hi/ory ( ! ,scotti% peat-mosses & _! relation to ! ,glacial p]iod40 ,ed9burgh1 ,scot4 ,geogr4 ,mag41 #bb1 #aijf1 p4 #bda4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! 8,,classical0 ,,ra9fall ,,maximum1 #ahjj ,b4,c4 ,,to ,a4,d4 #ejj ,ab\t #ahjj ,b4,c41 or ! beg9n+ ( ! ,bronze ,age 9 ,brita91 ! subsid+ l& f9ally atta9$ approximately its pres5t level4 ,at ! same "t ! climate ( we/]n ,europe det]iorat$1 becom+ mu* m humid & ra9y1 & !re set 9 a p]iod ( int5se peat-=mation 9 ,irel&1 ,scotl& & nor!rn ,engl&1 ,sc&9avia & ,nor? ,g]many1 kn[n z ! ,peat-,bog ,p]iod or ,upp] ,turb>ian4 ,! peat-b$s *ok$ & kill$ ! =e/s :i* _h develop$ on ! old] peat-bogs1 & grew up above ! /ools & fall5 trunks1 s t we h two lay]s ( peat sep>at$ by an old =e/4 ,! =e/ level conta9s neoli?ic articles1 ! peat conta9s gold coll>s1 bronze swords & p9s1 & o!r objects ( ! ,bronze ,age4 ,?is gr[? also w5t on ev5 ov] high gr\nd1 :i* _h n previ\sly be5 cov]$ by peat1 = ,pr(essor ,h5ry in=ms u t on ,copp$ ,m\nta91 ne> ,enniskill51 & at o!r places 9 ,irel&1 ,bronze ,age cairns & tumuli are f\nd re/+ on rock & cov]$ by sev]al feet ( bog4 ,peat-b$s on ! ,frisian dunes betwe5 two lay]s ( bl[n s& are dat$ ab\t #ajj ,b4,c41 & "s bogs 9 nor!rn ,france 7 =m$ dur+ ! ,roman p]iod4 ,!re is also "s mu*-disput$ contempor>y ,lat9 evid5ce t at ! "t ( ! ,roman occupation ! climate ( ,brita9 0 damp & boggy1 :ile ,gibbon 78,decl9e & ,fall ( ! ,roman ,empire071 ref]r+ to ! climate ( c5tral ,europe at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 po9ts to "s evid5ce t ! climate 0 cold]4 ,?is is1 t ! ,rh9e & ! ,danube 7 frequ5tly froz5 ov]1 s t ! natives cross$ !m ) cavalry & wagons )\t difficulty1 al?\gh at ! pres5t "t ?is nev] happ5s4 ,x is possible t ?is sev]e climate is ref]r$ to 9 ! ,g]manic leg5d ( ! 8,twilight ( ! ,gods10 :5 fro/ & sn[ rul$ ! _w = g5]ations4 ,! ,norse sagas po9t to a simil> cold p]iod 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,?is lapse ( climate occurr$ 9 ! ,e>ly ,iron ,age1 ab\t #fej to #djj ,b4,c41 :5 !re 0 a rapid det]ioration f ! high ,sc&9avian civilization ( ! ,bronze ,age4 ,?is det]ioration ( culture 0 probably ! direct result ( ! increas$ sev]ity ( ! climate4 ,?is ,pluvial p]iod has be5 made ! subject ( special /udies by ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton 9 sev]al important books & pap]s2 he f9ds evid5ce ( a di/9ctly ,pluvial p]iod 9 ?ree regions--! ,m$it]ranean1 c5tral & s\?-we/]n ,asia1 & an area includ+ ! s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates & nor!rn ,mexico4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^!1 ! ,m$it]ranean1 ,hunt+ton consid]s t ! ,grco-,roman civilizations grew up 9 a p]iod ( increas$ ra9fall :i* la/$ f ab\t #ejj ,b4,c4 to ,a4,d4 #bjj4 ,^! /ates 7 able to develop 9 comp>ative peace because dur+ ?is "t !re 7 no great invasions ( nomadic peoples f ea/]n ,europe or c5tral ,asia1 a fact :i* po9ts to good ra9fall 9 ^! comp>atively dry regions1 s t _! inhabitants _h no ne$ to emigrate 9 que/ ( a liv+4 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean itself ! heavi] ra9fall all[$ a solid agricultural basis :i* produc$ a /urdy race ( peasants :o made good soldi]s4 ,ow+ to ! great] cyclonic control ( climate & consequ5t *angeable wea!r1 ^! inhabitants 7 m vigor\s 9 m9d & body1 = ,hunt+ton's rese>*es h demon/rat$ t long spells ( monoton\s wea!r1 ei!r f9e or ra9y1 are unfav\rable = human en]gy4 ,f9ally ! heavi] ra9fall ma9ta9$ a p]5nial fl[ 9 ! riv]s1 giv+ pl5tiful supplies ( good dr9k+ wat]4 ,^! conditions broke d[n e>li] 9 ,greece ?an 9 ,italy1 z ! latt] naturally has a heavi] ra9fall4 ,hunt+ton consid]s t ! decl9e ( ,greece 0 l>gely due to mal>ial poison+1 ! decreas+ ra9fall caus+ ! riv]-fl[ to break d[n 9 summ]1 leav+ isolat$ pools =m+ a bre$+ gr\nd = mosquitoes4 ,aft] ,a4,d4 #bjj ! climate ( ,italy also det]iorat$4 ,! decrease ( ra9fall1 comb9$ ) gradual exhau/ion ( ! soil1 made :eat-gr[+ m & m difficult = ! small agriculturali/1 & ! f>ms came into ! h&s ( l>ge l&[n]s1 :o work$ !m by slave lab\r1 & 9 place ( :eat ei!r grew v9es or olives or rais$ flocks & h]ds4 ,! agricultural population gravitat$ to ,rome & a few o!r l>ge cities1 & _h to be f$ by import$ :eat4 ,! decl9e 0 probably aid$ by ! introduction ( mal>ia1 z 9 ,greece4 ,9 nor? ,africa & ,pale/9e ! "q is m debatable4 ,c4 ,negro1 :o has inve/igat$ ! suppos$ desiccation ( ,cyr5aica1 concludes t !re has be5 no *ange ( climate s9ce ,roman times1 b a c>eful /udy ( 8 evid5ce sugge/s t 8 conclusions are op5 to criticism4 ,all t he has prov$ is t !re has be5 no m>k$ progressive decrease ( ra9fall s9ce ab\t ,a4,d4 #bjj2 he has ignor$ ! possibility ( great fluctuations be=e & s9ce t date4 ,9 nor? ,africa x seems difficult to believe t ! great cities ( antiquity c\ld h exi/$ "u pres5t climatic conditions1 b :5 we turn to ,palmyra 9 ! ,syrian des]t we h practically incontrov]tible pro( 9 ! great aqu$ucts1 built to c>ry f ! hill-spr+s to ! city l>ge volumes ( wat] :i* ^! spr+s no long] deliv]1 s t ev5 :]e !y are intact ! aqu$ucts n[ c>ry only ! m]e/ trickle4 ,9 ,p]sia we f9d num]\s ru9s1 :i* po9t to a mu* great] population two ?\s& or m ye>s ago4 ,?is population liv$ by agriculture1 & ! rema9s ( _! irrigation works are n[ f\nd 9 regions :]e runn+ wat] nev] comes4 ,ev5 ! scanty population ( to-day c h>dly live on ! pres5t ra9fall ( ! c\ntry1 & x is unbelievable t ! mu* great] population indicat$ by ^! ru9$ cities c\ld h exi/$ )\t a v mu* great] supply ( wat]4 ,! same condition is indicat$ by ! ru9$ cities ( ! great des]ts ( c5tral ,asia4 ,^! cities 7 inhabit$ by agriculturali/s1 & ! rema9s ( till$ fields1 t]races & irrigation works ab\nd 9 places :]e ! supply ( bracki% wat] w\ld n[ be b>ely suffici5t = dr9k+ purposes = su* a l>ge population4 ,hunt+ton has also made a c>eful /udy ( ! wat]-level ( ! ,caspian ,sea 9 classical times1 & f9ds t !re 0 a great p]iod ( high wat] ext5d+ f unkn[n antiquity to ab\t ,a4,d4 #djj4 ,!re is only "o region 9 c5tral ,asia :]e ! population appe>s to h be5 less 9 classical times ?an n[1 & t is ! high bas9 ( ,ka%mir4 ,hunt+ton po9ts out t ?is bas9 is at pres5t ne> ! upw>d limit ( agriculture1 & any fall ( temp]ature & increase ( sn[fall w\ld drive out ! inhabitants4 ,b local leg5ds po9t to su* a p]iod 9 ! remote pa/1 correspond+ to ! p]iod ( increas$ habitability ( ! c5tral ,asian des]ts2 at its close !re 7 ext5sive migrations f ,turke/an into ,ka%mir4 ,pass+ to ,am]ica1 we come to int]e/+ evid5ce ( a v diff]5t class--,i ref] to ! 8big trees0 7,sequoia7 ( ,cali=nia4 ,s9ce ^! trees live 9 a semi-arid climate1 ! am\nt ( ra9fall is ! *ief factor 9 _! gr[?1 :i* f9ds an expression 9 ! bread? ( ! annual r+s measur$ on ! /ump ( ! tree :5 x is cut d[n4 ,! me?od ( utiliz+ ! data 0 due to ,a4 ,e4 ,d\glass4 ,a c>eful comp>ison 0 fir/ made betwe5 ! measurem5ts ( r+s & ! ra9fall measur$ at neighb\r+ /ations1 & a =mula 0 develop$ by :i* ! ra9fall ( ea* ye> c\ld be recon/ruct$ f ! tree-gr[? ) a high degree ( accuracy4 ,9 extrapolat+ to f9d ! ra9fall = e>li] ye>s be=e ra9fall measurem5ts began1 v>i\s corrections _h to be appli$1 = in/ance trees gr[ m rapidly :5 "y ?an :5 !y are old1 :ile trees :i* are likely to live to a great age gr[ m sl[ly at fir/ ?an trees :i* die y\ng]4 ,^! me?ods 7 appli$ to ne>ly two ?\s& 8big trees10 "s ( :i* 7 f\nd to be f\r ?\s& ye>s old1 b x is po9t$ out t ! corrections elim9ate any progressive v>iation ( climate :i* may h occurr$1 s t ! results %[ only 8cycles0 ( great] or less] l5g?4 ,summ+ up1 ,hunt+ton says3 8,judg+ f :at we h se5 ( ! ra9fall ( to-day & its relation to ! gr[? ( ! ,sequoias1 high portions ( _! curve 7( gr[?7 seem to indicate p]iods :5 ! w9t]s 7 long] ?an n[1 :5 /orms began e>li] 9 ! fall & la/$ lat] into ! spr+1 & :5 mid-w9t] 0 *>act]iz$ by ! great developm5t ( a cold cont95tal high-pressure area1 :i* pu%$ ! /orms ( ! prevail+ zone ( we/]ly w9ds f> d[n into sub-tropical regions & ?us caus$ sub-tropical conditions to invade :at is n[ ! zone ( equatorial ra9s40 ,neglect+ lat] fav\rable p]iods1 :i* are relatively %ort & unimportant1 x is f\nd t ^! conditions prevail$ v m>k$ly betwe5 #abjj ,b4,c4 & ,a4,d4 #bjj1 ) maxima ab\t #aaej ,b4,c41 #gjj ,b4,c41 & f #dej ,b4,c4 to #bej ,b4,c4 ,?us ov] ! great] "p ( ! temp]ate regions ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e we h evid5ce ( an important ra9y p]iod betwe5 ! extreme limits ( #ahjj ,b4,c4 & ,a4,d4 #djj or #ejj4 ,?is p]iod 0 be/ develop$ f #abjj ,b4,c4 to ,a4,d4 #bjj1 & rea*$ its maximum ab\t #djj ,b4,c4 ,x con/itutes a rem>kable wave ( climatic v>iation1 :i* is hi!rto )\t adequate explanation4 ,a some:at simil>1 ?\gh less int5se1 wave :i* occurr$ ab\t ,a4,d4 #abjj-acjj1 & :i* is describ$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 0 associat$ by ,wolf to a great outbur/ ( sunspots :i* took place ab\t ,a4,d4 #abjj4 ,x is well kn[n t sunspots are an index ( sol> activity1 ! sun's radiation be+ great] at times ( spot maximum ?an at times ( spot m9imum4 ,great] sol> radiation increases ! evaporation ov] ! oceans1 s t ! air becomes m humid4 ,?is moi/ air is c>ri$ by atmosph]ic curr5ts ov] ! l&1 :]e ! moi/ure is cond5s$ into cl\ds & greatly increases ! ra9fall4 ,at ! same "t ! cl\d canopy %uts (f "s ( ! direct heat ( ! sun1 & we h ! curi\s p>adox t at times ( sunspot maximum1 or greate/ sol> radiation1 ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface is l[e/4 ,! connexion outl9$ above is1 h[ev]1 extremely problematical = temp]ate regions4 ,s9ce ! absolute sunspot maximum at ,a4,d4 #abjj is also v d\btful1 x w be realiz$ t ! evid5ce = ! sunspot hypo!sis ( ! m$ival ra9fall maximum is extremely sl5d]4 ,fur!rmore1 s9ce we "k no?+ :atev] ab\t ! sol> activity dur+ ! classical ra9fall maximum1 we are /ill less 9 a position to ext5d ! sunspot hypo!sis to t p]iod also4 ,! int]e/+ !ory rec5tly put =w>d by ,o4 ,pett]sson1 already allud$ to1 provides a plausible alt]native explanation ( ! sev]e /ormy climate ( ! ,peat-bog p]iod1 :i* rea*$ a maximum ne> #djj ,b4,c4 ,)\t go+ into details ?is !ory is t ! /r5g? ( ! tides dep5ds on ! relative positions ( ! sun & moon1 & ! tides are greate/ :5 ^! act 9 conjunction1 & also :5 !y are ne>e/ to ! e>?4 ,?is fluctuation ( /r5g? passes ?r\gh v>i\s cyclic v>iations ) p]iods ( n9e ye>s1 ab\t n9ety ye>s & ab\t #ahjj ye>s1 ?\gh ! l5g?s ( ! p]iods are n con/ant4 ,! latt] cycle is mo/ important to our purposes2 accord+ to ,pett]sson's calculations ! fluctuations ( ! 8tide-g5]at+ =ce0 7 z foll[3 ,maxima #cejj ,b4,c4 #bajj ,b4,c4 #cej ,b4,c4 ,a4,d4 #adcd ,m9ima #bhjj ,b4,c4 #abjj ,b4,c4 ,a4,d4 #ecj4 ,increas$ range ( ! tides means increas$ circulation 9 ! wat]s ( ! oceans1 especially an increas$ int]*ange betwe5 ! w>m ,nor? ,atlantic & ! cold ,arctic wat]s4 ,x also means ?an an unusual am\nt ( ice is br\ght d[n f high into l[ latitudes4 ,wide local v>iations ( temp]ature ( ! surface wat]s ( ! oceans cause increas$ cyclonic activity1 & h5ce we may expect a g5]ally increas$ /orm9ess at times ( maximum 8tide-g5]at+ =ce10 & ! rev]se at times ( m9imum4 ,= ! la/ maximum 7,a4,d4 #adcd7 ,pett]sson is able to adduce a good deal ( hi/orical evid5ce ( increas$ /orm9ess 9 nor?-we/ ,europe & bad ice-conditions ne> ,icel& & ,gre5l&1 :ile ,hunt+ton has f\nd an increase ( ra9fall %[n by ! big trees ( ,cali=nia4 ,! next prec$+ maximum1 t ( #cfj ,b4,c41 m>ks ! culm9at+ po9t ( ! ,peat-bog phase4 ,! ,norse sagas & ! ,g]manic my?s po9t to a sev]e climate ab\t #fej ,b4,c41 :i* de/roy$ an e>ly civilization4 ,?is 0 ! 8,twilight ( ! ,gods10 :5 fro/ & sn[ rul$ ! _w = g5]ations4 ,! p]iod 0 ! ,e>ly ,iron ,age1 :5 civilization det]iorat$ greatly 9 nor?-we/ ,europe4 ,( ! maximum ( #bajj ,b4,c4 !re is no trace4 ,x is possible t ! great ,atlantic subm]g5ce ( ! ,m>itime phase is connect$ ) ! tidal maximum ( #cejj ,b4,c41 b ! ph5om5a 7 on a scale s mu* great] ?an ^? ( ! m rec5t maxima t ?is c h>dly h be5 ! sole cause4 ,! m9ima %\ld h be5 *>act]iz$ by p]iods ( relatively quiet /able climate ) little ice ne> ,icel& & ,gre5l&4 ,t ! la/ m9imum1 9 ,a4,d4 #ecj1 0 su* a p]iod !re is consid]able evid5ce 9 ! high level rea*$ by civilization at t p]iod 9 ,sc&9avia & by ! revival 9 ,irel&4 ,aga91 ab\t #abjj ,b4,c41 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ,peat-bog phase1 !re is evid5ce ( consid]able traffic by sea betwe5 ,sc&9avia & ,irel&4 ,! ,iri% ,museum has lately discov]$ a ho>d ( gold objects dat$ ab\t #ajjj ,b4,c41 9 :i* ! designs %[ a ,sc&9avian orig94 ,! m9imum ( #bhjj ,b4,c41 :i* occurr$ 9 ! ,=e/ phase1 may h contribut$ to ! dry climate ( t p]iod1 b o!rwise has left no trace4 ,al?\gh at fir/ sight ! effect :i* ,pett]sson sets out to expla9 seems out ( all proportion to ! smallness ( 8 cause1 ! co9cid5ces aft] #bjjj ,b4,c4 are extremely int]e/+1 & sugge/ t aft] ! l& & sea di/ribution rea*$ its pres5t =m ! a/ronomical cause adduc$ by ,pett]sson 0 possibly effective1 b be=e t date ! a/ronomical cause1 if x exi/$1 0 mask$ by ! mu* great] climatic v>iations due to *anges 9 ! l& & sea di/ribution4 ,! op9ion has frequ5tly be5 express$ t ! 8,classical0 & 8,m$ival0 ra9fall maxima 7 ph5om5a simil> to ! ,glacial p]iod1 b less int5sive4 ,?is view is (t5 c>ri$ to its logical conclusion1 t ! ?irty-five-ye> cycle1 ! elev5-ye>1 & /ill small] cycles ( climate1 are also "p ( ! same s]ies1 & t ! ,glacial p]iod &1 let u say1 ! ?ree-ye> p]iodicity ( ra9fall are !re=e due to v>iations ( ! same ag5t1 9 ?is case ! sun4 ,?is logical ext5sion ( ! !ory is1 h[ev]1 completely unt5able4 ,! elev5-ye> p]iodicity is admitt$ly connect$ ) v>iations 9 ! sol> activity1 b !re are o!r cycles :i* are completely indep5d5t ( su* v>iations1 su* z1 = in/ance1 ! annual v>iation und]gone by all meteorological elem5ts1 :i* dep5ds entirely on ! incl9ation ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,!re is a well-m>k$ #d4h ye> p]iod 9 ! am\nt ( ice (f ,icel&1 ! half-cycle ( :i* is exactly equal to ! di/ance travell$ by ! wat] tak+ "p 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic circulation1 divid$ by ! velocity ) :i* x travels4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no a priori reason = assum+ t ! cause ( ! ,glacial p]iod 0 id5tical ) ! cause ( ! ,classical & ,m$ival ra9fall maxima4 ,fur!r1 9 ! latt] case1 ! *ief ph5om5on 0 ! increase ( ra9fall2 ! decrease ( temp]ature 0 m]ely incid5tal1 b 9 ! ,glacial p]iod ! out/&+ feature 0 a great l[]+ ( temp]ature 9 ! pol> & temp]ate regions1 & 9 ?is case x 0 ! increase ( ra9fall :i* 0 incid5tal4 ,,bibliography ,lewis1 ,f4 ,j4 8,! hi/ory ( ! ,scotti% peat-mosses & _! relation to ! ,glacial p]iod40 ,ed9burgh1 ,scot4 ,geogr4 ,mag41 #bb1 #aiaf1 p4 #bda4 ,brooks1 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 8,! correlation ( ! ,quat]n>y deposits ( ,great ,brita9 ) ^? ( ! ,cont95t ( ,europe40 ,ann4 ,rep4 ,smi?sonian ,in/41 #aiag1 p4 #bgg4 ,hunt+ton1 ,ellswor?4 8,! pulse ( ,asia40 ,bo/on & ,new ,york1 #aijg4 ----4 8,! climatic factor z illu/rat$ 9 arid ,am]ica40 ,wa%+ton1 ,c>negie ,in/itution1 #aiad4 ----4 8,_w p[] & evolution40 ,new ,hav51 #aiai1 pp4 #ahf-bjg4 ,pett]sson1 ,o4 8,climatic v>iations 9 hi/oric & prehi/oric "t40 ,sv5ska ,hydrogr4-,biol4 ,komm4 ,skrift]1 ,heft #e4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,! ,,climatic ,,fluctuations ,,s9ce ,a4,d4 #ejj ,! "q ( climatic *anges dur+ ! hi/oric p]iod has be5 ! subject ( mu* discussion1 & sev]al great meteorologi/s & geograph]s h endeav\r$ to prove t at lea/ s9ce ab\t #ejj ,b4,c4 !re has be5 no appreciable v>iation4 ,x is admitt$ t !re h be5 %ift+s ( ! c5tres ( population & civilization1 fir/ f ,egypt & ,mesopotamia to ! ,m$it]ranean regions1 & lat] to nor!rn & we/]n ,europe1 b ^! h be5 attribut$ *iefly to political causes1 & especially to ! rise ( ,islam & ! rule ( ! 8accurs$ ,turk40 ,rec5tly1 h[ev]1 !re has aris5 a class ( evid5ce :i* _c be expla9$ away on political gr\nds1 & :i* appe>s to h decid$ ! battle 9 fav\r ( ! support]s ( *ange2 ,i ref] to ! evid5ce ( ! trees1 expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,! conclusions d]iv$ f ! big trees ( ,cali=nia h fall5 admirably into l9e ) ar*ological "w 9 c5tral ,am]ica1 9 c5tral ,asia & o!r regions1 & h %[n t ! l>g] v>iations ev5 ( comp>atively rec5t times h be5 v ext5sive1 if n _w-wide1 9 _! developm5t4 ,let u consid] fir/ ! evid5ce ( ! trees4 ,^! indicate t aft] ! moi/ p]iod end+ ab\t ,a4,d4 #djj1 describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 ! ra9fall 0 g5]ally light until ab\t ,a4,d4 #ajjj1 :5 x %[$ a %>p rise1 probably to ! level atta9$ 9 ,a4,d4 #a4 7,! correction = age r5d]s an exact comp>ison betwe5 p]iods a ?\s& ye>s ap>t difficult47 ,?is p]iod ( abundant ra9fall la/$ "s fifty ye>s1 foll[$ by a gradual decl9e to a brief m9imum1 %ortly be=e ,a4,d4 #abjj4 ,ab\t #acjj occurr$ ano!r rapid rise1 rea*+ a maximum be=e #acej2 ! p]iod ( heavy ra9 cont9u$ a %ort :ile aft] #adjj1 :5 a decl9e set 91 rea*+ a m9imum at #aejj1 aft] :i* ! ra9fall recov]$ some:at1 & subsequ5tly ma9ta9$ approximately its pres5t level1 ) a slight maximum ab\t #afjj to #afde4 ,9 ! des]t ( ,arizona1 9 regions at pres5t too dry = agriculture1 !re are abundant ru9s1 :i* are attribut$ by ,hunt+ton to ?ree p]iods3 7a7 ,pueblo ru9s1 dat+ back to j be=e ! com+ ( ! ,spani>ds 7i4e4 ab\t ,a4,d4 #afjj71 & indicat+ m]ely an increase ( population at ! pres5t c5tres4 7b7 ,ru9s ( an old] civilization1 t]m$ by ,hunt+ton ! ,paj>itan1 dur+ :i* num]\s inhabitants liv$ 9 places :]e at pres5t no crops c be rais$4 8,^! p1 z appe>s f _! pott]y1 _! skulls & _! me?ods ( agriculture1 belong to a diff]5t civilization f t ( ! mod]n ,pueblos :o inhabit$ ,gran ,quiv]a at ! "t ( ! com+ ( ! ,spani>ds4 ,!y _h evid5tly disappe>$ long be=e t date1 z is evid5t f ! pres5t ru9s ( _! villages1 & f ! abs5ce ( any h9t ( _! exi/5ce 9 ! e>ly annals ( ! c\ntry0 7,geogr4 ,j\rnal1 #dj1 #aiab1 p4 #cif74 ,! l>ge/ ru9s ( ?is type inv>iably lie ne> ! ma9 l9es ( dra9age4 ,!y consi/ ( villages ) h\ses ( sev]al /oreys4 ,b digg+ d[n b5ea? ^! ru9s we f9d 7c7 traces ( an old] occupation1 & ru9s ( a primitive type are also f\nd on ! plateaus remote f any except small valleys4 8,!y are usually small1 & are greatly ru9$1 & seem to belong to a "t long ant]ior to ! ma9 l>ge ru9s40 ,hunt+ton t]ms ?is type ! ,hohokam2 un=tunately ?is & ! ,paj>itan occupations _c be accurately dat$1 b x is reasonable to connect !m ) ! ra9fall maxima %[n by ! trees1 ab\t ! "t ( ,*ri/1 & 9 ,a4,d4 #ajjj to ,a4,d4 #acjj4 ,a simil> succession has be5 f\nd 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,mexico ,city4 ,! e>lie/ trace ( occupation is a crude 8m\nta9 pott]y10 9 ord9>y riv] s& & gravel4 ,^! deposits are succe$$ by f9] s& ) bett] pott]y kn[n z ! 8,san ,juan0 type1 above :i* comes a culture lay] ) ! rema9s ( h\ses4 ,?is is cov]$ by a b$ ( 8tepetate10 a :ite calc>e\s deposit frequ5tly f\nd 9 dry regions :]e mu* wat] evaporates4 ,! gravels sugge/ ! occasional heavy ra9s ( arid c\ntries4 ,! ,san ,juan pott]y ext5ds ?r\gh\t ! 8tepetate10 :i* probably corresponds to ! dry p]iod ( ,a4,d4 #djj-ajjj 9 ,cali=nia4 ,hi/orical records 9 ,mexico date back to ! com+ ( ! ,aztecs 9 ,a4,d4 #acbe4 ,!y %[ t 9 #acbe & aga9 9 #addf ! level ( ! lake ( ,mexico 0 high1 b t[>ds ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury ! wat] 0 mu* l[]4 ,9 #aebj x 0 high aga92 9 #afjj x 0 l[1 b high f #afbi to #afcd4 ,f #afge to #agee 0 a long dry p]iod4 ,on ! :ole ! climate f #cjj to #fjj ye>s ago seems to h be5 moi/] ?an t ( to-day4 ,/ill fur!r s\? 9 ! ,p59sula ( ,yucatan rec5t explorations h yield$ results ( extreme int]e/4 ,yucatan lies )9 ! tropical ra9-belt1 & is cov]$ by almo/ imp5etrable =e/s4 ,! climate is en]vat+ & unheal?y1 & ! pres5t inhabitants are greatly lack+ 9 vig\r4 ,9 ! =e/1 h[ev]1 h be5 f\nd ! ru9s ( n9ety-two t[ns1 "s ( !m ( great size1 & all rem>kable = ! beauty z well z ! solidity ( _! ar*itecture4 ,^! ru9s belong to ! great ,mayan civilization4 ,mayan hi/ory has be5 briefly summ>iz$ by ,hunt+ton z foll[s3 8,fir/ we h a long p]iod ( active developm5t1 dur+ :i* ! cal5d> 0 evolv$ & ! arts ( ar*itecture & sculpture 7 gradually develop$4444 ,?is "t ( m>k$ gr[? mu/ h prec$$ ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,!n comes 444 ! build+ ( ! great cities ( ,copan1 ,quirigua1 ,tikal & o!rs4 ,^! fir/ great cities 7 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,maya area1 on ! bord]s ( ,honduras or 9 ea/]n ,guatemala4 ,!y la/$ p]haps ?ree or f\r c5turies2 !n quickly decl9$4 ,s f> z we h any evid5ce1 civilization nev] reviv$ 9 ?is s\!rn area1 = ! /ructures ( ! great p]iod h n be5 rebuilt by lat] inhabitants4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! p]iod ( greatness ! c5tre ( ,mayan culture mov$ nor?w>d4444 ,! great p]iod1 accord+ to ,b[dit*1 la/$ f #ajj ,b4,c4 to ,a4,d4 #cej 444 !n came a "t ( v l[ civilization1 la/+ = c5turies4444 ,a revival ensu$ ab\t ,a4,d4 #ijj or ,a4,d4 #ajjj1 & ar*itecture once m rea*$ a high pit*1 b 444 only 9 nor!rn ,yucatan2 all ! re/ ( ! c\ntry seems to h rema9$ 9 d>kness4 ,moreov]1 ?is m$ival revival 0 relatively %ortliv$4 ,s9ce t "t ! condition ( ! ,mayas has fluctuat$ m or less1 b on ! :ole !re has be5 a decl9e40 ,n[ at ! pres5t day ! d5se/ & mo/ progressive population 9 ,yucatan is f\nd 9 ! drie/ "p ( ! c\ntry1 :]e ! =e/ gives place to jungle4 ,if ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 jungle & =e/ 7 mov$ s\?w>d #cjj miles1 ! =m] w\ld include all ! di/ricts :]e ru9s are n[ f\nd4 ,we see f ! above summ>y t ! prosp]\s p]iods ( ,mayan hi/ory 7 j ^? p]iods :i* 9 ,cali=nia 7 moi/2 9 ,yucatan !y mu/ h be5 dry4 ,hunt+ton's explanation is ! !ory ( ! 8%ift+ ( climatic belts02 dur+ ! ra9y p]iod 9 ,cali=nia ! temp]ate /orm-tracks 7 %ift$ fur!r s\?w>d4 ,at ! same "t ! sub-tropical high-pressure belt1 :i* at pres5t lies ov] ! ,we/ ,indies1 0 also %ift$ s\?w>ds1 & ?is br\ght a dry cool w9t] to ,yucatan1 ) an increas$ contra/ ( seasons1 & consequ5tly a m invigorat+ climate4 ,9 ,asia1 ,hunt+ton & o!r explor]s h f\nd simil> traces ( pa/ v>iations ( climate1 a fasc9at+ acc\nt ( :i* is giv5 9 8,! ,pulse ( ,asia40 ,space w n p]mit ( a summ>y 9 detail1 b ! foll[+ g5]al conclusions may be quot$3#f 8,if we omit ! ,volga & ! ,european portions ( ! ,caspian dra9age area1 ! limits 7( ! six bas9s consid]$7 lie ov] sixte5 hundr$ miles ap>t f nor? to s\? & ov] ?ree ?\s& f ea/ to we/4 ,all ?is great area seems to h be5 subject to ! same great waves ( climatic *ange4 8,9 ! anci5t days :5 ! ,oxus ,riv] ent]$ ! ,scy?ian ,gulf ( ! exp&$ ,caspian ,sea1 & ,lake ,gyoljuk dis*>g$ p]man5tly to ! ,tigris1 ! lake ( ,seyi/an _h n be5 conv]t$ into dry l& by ! giants4 ,ka%mir 0 s cold & sn[y t agriculture 0 impossible4444 ,9 ! ,lop bas9 ! riv]s 7 full ( wat]2 ,lop-,nor 0 ! 8,great ,salt ,lake02 ! des]t 0 comp>atively small & ! zone ( vegetation ext5sive2 & on all sides !re 0 a d5sity ( population & a degree ( prosp]ity f> beyond ^? ( to-day4 ,& 9 ! ,turfan bas9 ! same 0 probably true4 8,a great *ange took place ?r\gh\t ! six bas9s dur+ ! e>ly c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,! lakes ( ,gyoljuk1 ,seyi/an1 ! ,caspian1 ,lop-,nor & presumably ,turfan 7 greatly r$uc$ 9 size4 ,9 ! case ( ! fir/ ?ree1 p>ts ( ! old lake-b$s 7 us$ z sites = villages4 ,except 9 ,ka%mir1 ! *ange ( climate appe>s to h br\ght disa/]4444 8,aga9 !re came a *ange 7ab\t ,a4,d4 #gjj74 ,! process ( desiccation gave place to a slight b important t5d5cy t[>d increas$ ra9fall & l[] temp]ature4 ,ka%mir became cold] & m sn[y1 & h5ce m isolat$2 ! riv]s ( ,lop & ,turfan ga9$ great] volume2 & ! lakes ( ,lop1 ! ,caspian & ,turfan exp&$ once m4 ,! habitability ( ! arid regions began to increase2 migrations came to an end2 & c5tral ,asia 0 prosp]\s = a "t4 ,f9ally 7ab\t #acej7 a late/ & slighte/ *ange took place 9 ! o!r direction1 & we seem to-day to be 9 ! mid/ ( an epo* ( comp>ative equilibrium1 ) no m>k$ t5d5cy t[>ds climatic *ange 9 ei!r direction40 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 a p]iod ( comp>atively high wat] 9 ! ,caspian 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,9 ,europe ! evid5ce = climatic *anges dur+ hi/orical times is m difficult to foll[1 s9ce v>iations ( ra9fall leave few] traces 9 a moi/ ?an 9 an arid or semi-arid c\ntry4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( mat]ial is giv5 by ,brckn] 9 8 8,klimas*wankung540 ,he f9ds t !re 0 a great advance ( ! ,alp9e glaci]s f #aeie to #afaj1 :ile two ,italian lakes )\t outlet1 ! ,lago di ,fuc9a & ,lake ,trasim5o1 atta9$ a high level ab\t ! same "t4 ,o!r evid5ce = we/]n ,europe is d]iv$ f ! date ( ! w9e-h>ve/ & f ! records ( sev]e w9t]s4 ,l ! gr[?-curves ( ! big trees1 !y ne$ a secul> correction to alt] ! g5]al slope ( ! curve1 especially 9 ! case ( sev]e w9t]s1 b ! l>g] irregul>ities probably correspond to real v>iations ( climate4 ,i h add$ 9 column #d ! numb]s ( w9t]s ) sea-ice on "s "p ( ! ,dani% coa/1 z tabulat$ f ! records compil$ by ,capta9 ,c4 ,i4 ,h4 ,spe]s*neid]4 ,! results are 9 g5]al agreem5t ) column #c1 p>ticul>ly z %[+ t ! p]iod #adja-ej 0 relatively mild2 b ! fir/ half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury is less in/ead ( great] ?an its two neighb\rs 9 ?is column4 ,! figures = ! w9e-h>ve/ ref] to ! av]age = ! p]iod #ahaf-hj2 - indicates t ! h>ve/ 0 s _m days e>li] ?an normal1 correspond+ to a high summ] temp]ature 7,may to ,augu/74 ,! table %[s t cold w9t]s 7 especially num]\s 9 ! fir/ half ( ! twelf? c5tury & aga9 9 ! ?irte5?4 ,! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury 0 m>k$ by hot summ]s & mild w9t]s1 or a w>m] climate2 ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury by cold 7presumably sn[y7 w9t]s & cool summ]s4 ,?us ! p]iods ( increas$ ra9fall 9 ! arid regions ( ,asia & ,am]ica 7 m>k$ by a cold] climate 9 ! ra9y regions ( we/]n ,europe4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 #e4 ,p]iod1 ,date ( ,no4 ,w9t]s ) #ej ye>s ,w9e ( ,sev]e,ice on ,dani% ,rem>ks4 ab\t4 ,h>ve/4 ,w9t]s4 coa/4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ #hbe #d #hge #g #ibe #e #ige #f #ajbe #f #ajge #aj #aabe #ae ,cold w9t]s #aage #aj #abbe #ac #abge #ac ,cold w9t]s #acbe #ac #g #acge #aa #d #adbe #e #ac #g #adge #a #g #b ,w>m #aebe #b4i #aj #e #aege #b4b #ad #ad #afbe #d4a #ag #aa ,cold #afge #b4g #ae #ad #agbe #j4a #aj #e #agge -#j4b -- #bb #ahbe -#j4i -- #ba ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,! date ( ! break up ( ! ,riv] ,dw9a at ,mitau 0 record$ int]mitt5tly f #aecj to #agji1 & regul>ly s9ce t date1 & ! figures h be5 discuss$ by ,rykat*ef4 ,reca/+ !m 9 our unit ( fifty ye>s we f9d ! mean dates to be3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #aeea-afjj #afja-ej #afea-agjj #agja-ej #agea-ahjj #ahja-ej ,m>* #bi ,m>* #cj ,m>* #e ,m>* #bf ,m>* #bf ,m>* #bh ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,?is aga9 po9ts to a cold p]iod ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,! climate ( ,icel& & ,gre5l& 9 ! ,middle ,ages has be5 ! subject ( mu* controv]sy1 ! view t !re 7 ext5sive *anges dur+ t p]iod be+ w>mly upheld by "o p>ty & z w>mly combat$ by ! o!r p>ty4 ,! case = climatic *ange has be5 well set out by ,o4 ,pett]sson#g4 ,! ,roman au?ors 7,pl9y1 ,sol9us1 etc47 wrote t !re 0 a froz5 sea ab\t ,?ule 7,icel&71 b a p>ty ( monks :o visit$ ! isl& ab\t ,a4,d4 #gie dur+ ! mon?s ( ,febru>y to ,augu/1 9 :i* ! ice is normally mo/ abundant 9 ,icel&ic wat]s1 f\nd ! coa/ free1 ?\gh !y met ) a froz5 sea a day's j\rney to ! nor?w>d4 ,9 ! n9? c5tury ! ,norsem5 visit$ ,icel& regul>ly1 & at times sail$ r\nd x1 app>5tly )\t int]f]5ce f ice4 ,! e>ly settl]s practis$ agriculture ) "s success4 ,9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 ! reports ( ice (f ,icel& became frequ5t--app>5tly ! conditions 7 worse ?an ^? ( ! pres5t day1 & mu* m s ?an 9 ! eigh? & n9? c5turies4 ,accord+ to ,rabot1 x appe>s f anci5t records t consid]able areas cultivat$ 9 ! t5? c5tury are n[ cov]$ ) ice4 ,! fir/ spread ( ! glaci]s took place 9 ! fir/ half ( ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,9 ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies ! climate ( ,icel& ameliorat$ some:at1 b 9 ! sev5te5? !re 0 a readvance1 :i* de/roy$ sev]al f>ms ab\t #afdj or #afej4 ,s9ce !n !re has be5 a slight retreat4 ,! ice-conditions ( ,gre5l& are closely relat$ to ^? ( ,icel&1 & ! records ( ! ,norse colonization ( ,gre5l& be> out ! conclusions drawn f ! latt] isl&4 ,up to ! close ( ! twelf? c5tury ice is h>dly ev] m5tion$ 9 ! acc\nts ( voyages1 ?\gh x is n[ a great h9drance4 ,eric1 ! pione] explor] ( ,we/ ,gre5l&1 sp5t ?ree successive w9t]s on ! isl&s 9 ,juliaanehaab ,bay 7latitude #fj #de ,n471 & explor$ ! c\ntry dur+ ! summ]2 8?is _c be expla9$ o!rwise ?an by assum+ t ! ,pol> ice did n rea* ,cape ,f>ewell & ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l& 9 ^? days40 ,9 ! ?irte5? c5tury ice is fir/ specifically m5tion$ z a dang] to navigation1 & at ! end ( ! f\rte5? c5tury ! old ,norse sail+ r\te 0 on acc\nt ( ice def9itely ab&on$ 9 fav\r ( "o fur!r s\?4 ,%ortly aft]w>ds ! ,norse colonies 7 wip$ out by a s\?w>d migration ( ! ,eskimos4 ,ev5 9 ,norway itself ! f\rte5? c5tury 0 a "t ( de>?1 %ort h>ve/s & political tr\bles1 :5 corn _h to be import$ f ,g]many in/ead ( be+ export$ to ,icel& z 9 =m] ye>s4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ,pett]sson's conclusions are consid]$ invalid by ,h4 ,h4 ,hildebr&sson#h on ! gr\nd ( ! incomplet5ess ( ! records4 ,= ! s\!rn hemisph]e our records are naturally mu* r>] & ( less antiquity ?an = ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & until ! tree-r+s are inve/igat$ we _c c>ry our /udy back beyond ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,f "s rese>*es into ! municipal ar*ives ( ,santiago de ,*ile1 latitude #cc ,s41 publi%$ by ,b4 ,v4 ,mack5na 9 #ahgg1 we c inf]1 h[ev]1 t ! g5]al c\rse ( v>iation s9ce #aebj 0 simil> to t ( correspond+ regions 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,santiago lies 9 a semi-arid region :]e a tempor>y %ortage ( wat] is sev]ely felt1 ! av]age annual ra9fall be+ only #cfd mm4 7#ad4c in*es74 ,! e>ly travell]s1 h[ev]1 make no specific m5tion ( dr\ght1 & 9 #aedj ,p$ro de ,valdivia cross$ ! des]t ( ,atacama ) a column ( troops & cattle )\t inconv5i5ce--a feat :i* w\ld be difficult n[adays4 ,9 #aedd !re 7 heavy ra9s & great floods 9 ,june4 ,! next record is = ! ye> #afji1 record+ ano!r heavy flood on ! ,mapo*o1 :i* 0 repeat$ n9e ye>s lat] 9 #afah4 ,! fir/ record$ dr\ght occurr$ 9 ! ye>s #afcg to #afdj2 !re 0 ano!r flood 9 #afdg1 aft] :i* came a s]ies ( sev]e dr\ghts int]rupt$ by occasional floods1 :i* la/$ until ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 aga9 comp>atively ra9y4 ,! records ?us indicate a wet p]iod c5tr$ ab\t #afjj1 foll[$ by a dry p]iod dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury1 exactly p>allel to ! records f ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,europe4 ,,bibliography ,hunt+ton1 ,e4 8,! climatic factor z illu/rat$ 9 arid ,am]ica40 ,wa%+ton1 ,c>negie ,in/itution1 #aiad4 ----4 8,! fluctuat+ climate ( ,nor? ,am]ica40 ,geogr4 ,j4 #dj1 #aiab1 pp4 #bfd1 #cib4 ----4 8,! pulse ( ,asia40 ,bo/on & ,new ,york1 #aijg4 ----4 8,_w p[] & evolution40 ,new ,hav51 #aiai4 ,pett]sson1 ,o4 8,climatic fluctuations 9 hi/oric & prehi/oric "t40 ,sv5ska ,hydrogr4-,biol4 ,komm4 ,skrift]1 ,h4 #e4 ,rabot1 ,*4 8,essai de *ronologie des v>iations glaciaires40 ,bull4 gogr4 hi/orique et descriptive1 ,no4 #b1 #aijb4 ,brckn]1 ,e4 8,klimas*wankung5 seit #agjj0 444 ,vi5na1 #ahij4 ,hildebr&sson1 ,h4 ,h4 8,sur le prt5du *angem5t du climat europen en temps hi/orique40 ,upsala1 ,nova ,actae ,regiae ,soc4 ,sci4 7#d71 ,vol4 #d1 ,no4 #e1 #aiae4 ,brooks1 ,c4 ,e4 ,p4 8,an hi/orical notice ( ! v>iations ( climate 9 ,*ile40 ,wa%+ton1 ,dept4 ,agric41 ,u4,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau1 ,mon?ly ,wea!r ,rev4 #dg1 #aiai1 p4 #fcg4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,climatic ,,fluctuations ,,& ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,man ,! orig9 ( man f an ape-l ance/or#i is g5]ally admitt$1 b ow+ to ! incomplet5ess ( ! palontological record we are /ill 9 ignorance z to ! circum/ances1 :ile ! place is g5]ally put vaguely z some:]e 9 ,asia1 & ! "t z ! late ,t]ti>y 7,pr(4 ,elliot ,smi? places x ne> ! ,siwalik hills 9 ! ,mioc5e74 ,= ?is e>ly p]iod we are r$uc$ to speculation1 9 :i* we may reasonably utilize ! facts :i* we h ga9$ ab\t climatic v>iation4 ,! *ief problem to be expla9$ is :y man's arboreal ance/or left ! safe %elt] & easy food supply ( 8 primval =e/ & v5tur$ =? into ! pla9s4 ,an article by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,b>rell1#aj ( ,yale ,univ]sity1 gives a plausible acc\nt ( ! *ange1 putt+ x d[n to necessity1 & n to *oice4 ,8 !ory is t ! human ance/or liv$ 9 ! =e/s spread ov] ,asia1 !n a va/ well-wat]$ pla91 dur+ ! middle-,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,!n ! gradual uplift+ ( ! ,himalayas & o!r m\nta9 ranges caus$ a decrease 9 ! ra9fall ( c5tral ,asia1 s t ultimately ! =e/s 7 unable to ?rive1 & gradually gave place to /eppe conditions4 ,! *ange 0 sl[ en\gh to give ! less specializ$ inhabitants ( ! =e/ "t to *ange _! habits & evolve into =ms suitable to a t]re/rial life1 & ! *ief ( ! animals :i* took advantage ( ?is p]iod ( grace 0 ! pre-human4 ,=c$ to live on ! gr\nd1 ) a dim9i%+ food supply1 only ! mo/ progressive individuals 7 able to survive1 & evolution 0 rapid4 ,! *ang+ type 0 sav$ f be+ subm]g$ 9 ! great mass ( ! orig9al type 9 ! =e/s :i* cont9u$ to exi/ fur!r s\? by ! impassable wall ( m\nta9s4 ,major ,*]ry#aa consid]s t !re is suffici5t evid5ce to prove t a portion ( ?is evolution took place on ! sea%ore1 an environm5t :i* w\ld h be5 mu* m fav\rable to a small ape-l animal ?an ! op5 /eppe w\ld h be54 ,x is q likely t ! e>lie/ migrations1 su* z t :i* c>ri$ ,pi!can?ropus to ,java1 took place along ! %ore4 ,b aft] a "t1 :5 increas+ bra9p[] & ! use ( primitive /one implem5ts enabl$ man to take ! (f5sive aga9/ ! l>g] animals1 ! c5tre ( activity *ang$ to ! /eppes4 ,a famili> view ( ! e>ly developm5t ( man 0 advocat$ by ,w4 ,d4 ,ma!w1#ab :o writes3 8,9 view ( ! data obta9able f hi/orical record1 f tradition1 f ! pres5t geographical di/ribution ( high] & l[] races ( m51 f ! physical & physiological adaptation ( all & especially ( ! high] races1 x seems fair to conclude t ! c5tre ( disp]sal ( mank9d 9 prehi/oric times 0 c5tral ,asia1 nor? ( ! great ,himalayan ranges1 & t :5 by progressive aridity t region became des]t x 0 transf]r$ to ! regions bord]+ x to ! ea/1 s\? & we/4 ,we may fur!r assume t ! environm5t 9 :i* man prim>ily evolv$ 0 n a moi/ tropical climate1 b a temp]ate & m or less arid "o1 progressively cold & dry dur+ ! c\rse ( 8 evolution4 ,9 ?is region & "u ^! conditions1 ! race fir/ atta9$ a dom9ance :i* enabl$ x to spread out 9 successive waves ( migration to ! mo/ remote p>ts ( ! e>?40 ,we d n "k any?+ ( ! migrations ( ! ,eoli?ic & e>li] ,paloli?ic races1 except t !y spread rapidly ov] a consid]able portion ( ! e>?4 ,bo? migration & evolution1 especially m5tal evolution1 mu/ h be5 accel]at$ by ! great *anges ( climate :i* 7 tak+ place4 ,9 ! ,m9del-,riss int]glacial p]iod we "k ( two types1 ! ,piltd[n man 7,eoan?ropus dawsoni7 & ! ,heidelb]g man 7,homo heidelb]g5sis71 ! latt] a true man1 ?\gh probably n on ! direct l9e ( evolution ( ,homo sapi5s4 ,! /ress ( ! succe$+ second ,glacial p]iod 0 too great = ,eoan?ropus1 :i* appe>s to h di$ out1 b ,homo1 probably an ,asiatic or ,african type simil> to ,h4 ,heidelb]g5sis1 surviv$4 ,! next =m1 associat$ ) ,m\/]ian implem5ts1 is ,ne&]?al man 7,h4 ne&]?al5sis71 :o closely resembl$ mod]n man1 & all ! rema9s ( races :i* liv$ subsequ5tly to ! la/ glaciation are ^? ( mod]n man 7,h4 sapi5s71 includ+ ! magnific5t ,cro-,magn>ds & ! negroid ,grimaldi race4 ,?us ea* glaciation has be5 m>k$ by a /ep upw>ds 9 ! scale ( humanity2 does ?is mean t ! com+ ( ! sup]-man is cont+5t on ano!r glacial epo*8 ,,bibliography ,b>rell1 ,j4 8,probable relations ( climatic *ange to ! orig9 ( ! ,t]ti>y ,ape-man40 ,sci5tific ,mon?ly1 ,new ,york1 #d1 #aiag1 p4 #af4 ,ma!w1 ,w4 ,d4 8,climate & evolution40 ,annals ,new ,york ,acad4 ,sci41 #bd1 #aiae1 p4 #bab4 ,london1 ,briti% ,museum4 8,a guide to ! fossil rema9s ( man44440 ,london1 #aiah4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,climate ,,& ,,hi/ory ,x is a rem>kable fact 9 human hi/ory t civilization began 9 regions :i* are at pres5t inhabit$ *iefly by backw>d races1 & ! c5tres ( progress h %ift$ f "o c\ntry to ano!r ) ! passage ( "t4 ,_m accid5tal factors--position on trade-r\tes1 possession ( special m9]al advantages1 & s on1 h und\bt$ly play$ a "p 9 ?is1 b x w n be difficult to %[ t climatic fluctuations h also _h _! %>e4 ,a brilliant /udy ( ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton#ac has %[n t !re are c]ta9 optimum conditions ( climate :i* are mo/ suitable = effici5t "w4 ,^! conditions1 :i* 7 det]m9$ by an analysis ( ! output ( "w 9 ,am]ican factories1 7 !n f\nd to be j ^? :i* prevail 9 ! mo/ progressive regions ( ! globe1 :i* are locat$ 9 ! temp]ate /orm-belts1 & x is %[n 9 c]ta9 in/ances t fluctuations 9 ! position ( ?is /orm-belt co9cid$ ) fluctuations 9 ! c5tres ( civilization4 ,a few additional examples ( ?is may be giv54 ,! beg9n+s ( civilization may reasonably be plac$ ) ! transition f ! ,paloli?ic to ! ,neoli?ic type1 a transition :i* involv$ mu* m ?an j ! poli%+ ( /one weapons4 ,x involv$ also ! beg9n+s ( agriculture1 crude pott]y1 & lat]1 ! dome/ication ( animals4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ ,neoli?ic cities kn[n is probably t ( ,anau1 ne> ,askabad 9 ,transcaspia1 excavat$ by ,pumpelly 9 #aijd4 ,f ! ?ickness ( ! accumulat$ debris ! date ( fir/ settlem5t is plac$ at or be=e #hjjj ,b4,c41 i4e4 #aj1jjj ye>s ago1 or dur+ ! p]iod :i* 9 ,europe is assign$ to ! conclud+ /ages ( ! ,wurm glaciation4 ,pumpelly's "t-e/imates are bas$ on c>eful comp>ison ) accumulations 9 ,m]v & o!r cities4 ,at pres5t ! mean annual ra9fall 9 t "p ( ,turke/an is bel[ t5 in*es a ye>1 & ! c\ntry is practically des]t1 & is entirely unfitt$ = agriculture4 ,b ) ! rema9s ( ! ice-%eet /ill ov] ,sc&9avia & depressions foll[+ a m s\!rly c\rse along ! ,m$it]ranean bas9 & into s\!rn ,asia1 ! ra9fall 0 consid]ably heavi]1 & ! climate 9 g5]al 0 m suit$ to a progressive race4 ,at ! outset we f9d ?is ,neoli?ic race liv+ 9 rectangul> h\ses built ( uni=m sun-dri$ bricks2 !y 7 skilful pott]s1 cultivat+ c]eals1 b at fir/ )\t dome/ic animals4 ,! beg9n+ ( ,neoli?ic civilization 9 ,crete is plac$ by ,evans at ab\t #abjjj ,b4,c41 :ile on ! basis ( excavations by de ,morgan at ,susa 9 ,p]sia1 ,montelius places ! orig9 ( ,neoli?ic culture 9 ?is "p ( ,asia z e>ly z ab\t #ahjjj ,b4,c4 ,at ,susa ! deposits are #acj feet ?ick1 & ( ^! ! upp] #dj feet cov] a p]iod ( #fjjj ye>s4 ,?us we see t :at may be consid]$ z ! great /ep f savag]y to civilization took place :ile ! pres5t c5tres ( progress 9 ,europe & ,am]ica 7 /ill 9 ! ,ice ,age4 ,at ?is "t ! climate ( s\!rn ,asia mu/ h resembl$ ! pres5t climate ( nor?-we/ ,europe 9 heavi] ra9fall & ! day-to-day fluctuations ( wea!r--9 fact1 ! di/ricts :]e civilization began probably _h at t "t ! mo/ /imulat+ climate 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,) ! vani%+ ( ! ice-%eets & ! sett+ 9 ( ! mild climate ( ! ,m>itime phase ! ,neoli?ic culture spread rapidly to ,europe1 & by #bjjj ,b4,c4 ev5 ! ,baltic regions 7 well inhabit$1 & x is probable t ! ,aryan race 0 develop+ 9 ! ,russian /eppes4 ,ab\t ?is "t ,anau 0 ab&on$ ow+ to increas+ aridity4 ,) ! com+ ( ! ,bronze ,age 9 we/]n ,europe1 ab\t #ahjj ,b4,c41 h[ev]1 ! climate aga9 became cold] & ra9i]1 correspond+ to ! ,peat-bog phase or 8,classical0 ra9fall maximum1 ! det]ioration culm9at+ 9 ! ,e>ly ,iron ,age4 ,?is p]iod 0 m>k$ by a great s\?w>d spread ( ! ,aryan peoples1 & u%]$ 9 ! ,h]oic ,age ( ,greece4 ,! races ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 z we h se51 cont9u$ to ?rive ?r\gh\t ?is ra9y p]iod1 & _! p[] did n dim9i% until its close1 ab\t ,a4,d4 #djj4 ,?is d[nfall 0 accel]at$ if n caus$ by ! pressure ( nomad peoples driv5 out ( ,asia by ! increas+ dr\ght4 ,^! ,asiatic migrations includ$ ! great m>*es ( ! ,t>t> hordes &1 aid$ by religi\s en?usiasm1 ! conque/s ( ! ,moslems4 ,! e>ly ,middle ,ages1 aft] ! d[nfall ( ,rome1 appe> to h be5 *>act]iz$ by a dry w>m climate4 ,?is 0 ! age ( ! ,vik+s1 :5 ! ,norse races rose to dom9ance 9 we/]n ,europe1 f9ally invad+ & occupy+ l>ge areas ( ,france & ,brita91 & ev5 ext5d+ _! p[] to ,sicily4 ,) ! increas+ cold & wet ( ! 8,m$ival0 ra9fall maximum came a f9al bur/ ( ,norse migration1 :i* left ! homel& poor & scantily populat$1 & ! c5tre ( activity & progress lay once aga9 ) ! ,m$it]ranean peoples1 & especially ) ,italy & ,spa94 ,! ,t>t> invasions ceas$1 & aga9/ ! increas+ p[] ( ,europe ! ,moslem wave broke & rec$$4 ,at ! close ( ?is ra9y p]iod political dom9ance aga9 mov$ nor?4 ,f t "t ! fluctuations ( climate h be5 ( m9or importance1 & correspond+ly !re h be5 no great %ift+s ( political p[] f latitude to latitude4 ,,bibliography4 ,tyl]1 ,j4 ,m4 8,! ,new ,/one ,age 9 ,nor!rn ,europe40 ,london1 #aiba4 ,hunt+ton1 ,ellswor?1 8,_w ,p[] & ,evolution40 ,new ,hav51 #aiai4 ,haddon1 ,a4 ,c41 8,! w&]+s ( peoples40 ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiai4 ,,app5dix ,,! ,,factors ,,( ,,temp]ature ,to calculate ! probable temp]ature ( ,janu>y or ,july at any po9t1 ! foll[+ proc$ure %\ld be adopt$3 ,draw a circle r\nd ! po9t ( angul> radius t5 degrees 7i4e4 set ! compass to cov] t5 degrees ( latitude7 & divide ?is into two halves by a l9e pass+ f nor? to s\? ?r\gh ! c5tre4 ,by means ( squ>$ trac+ pap]1 or o!rwise1 measure3 7a7 ! am\nt ( ice 9 ! :ole circle2 7b7 ! am\nt ( l& 9 ! we/]n half2 7c7 ! am\nt ( l& 9 ! ea/]n half4 7a7 is express$ z a p]c5tage ( ! area ( ! :ole circle2 7b7 & 7c7 z p]c5tages ( ! area ( a semicircle4 ,! t]m 8ice0 includes ice-%eets su* z t ( ,gre5l& or ,ant>ctica1 & also froz5 sea or sea closely cov]$ by pack-ice2 ! latt] figure may v>y 9 diff]5t mon?s4 ,! temp]ature 9 ,janu>y or ,july is !n calculat$ f ! foll[+ =mula3 ,temp]ature basal temp]ature ice coeff4 x p] c5t4 ( ice l& we/ coeff4 x p] c5t4 ( l& to we/ l& ea/ coeff4 x p] c5t4 ( l& to ea/4 ,! basal temp]atures & ! appropriate coeffici5ts are giv5 9 ! foll[+ table4 ,9 calculat+ ! effect ( a giv5 slight *ange ( l& & sea di/ribution1 x is n necess>y to employ ! basal temp]ature4 ,in/ead ! equation c be treat$ z a diff]5tial1 & ! *ange ( temp]ature due to ! *ange ( l& & ice calculat$ f ! figures 9 columns #c to #e4 ,! figures are giv5 9 degrees absolute1 #bgcj #cb ,f4 ,to conv]t diff]5ces to ,fahr5heit1 multiply by #ah4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,latitude4 ,basal ,temp4 ,ice ,coeff4 ,l&1 ,l&1 7,wat] ,zone74 ,we/ ,coeff4,ea/ ,coeff4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,jan4 a4 #gj ,n4 #bih4h -#j4di -#j4dc -#j4bj #fj #bgg4d -#j4jg -#j4ca -#j4ja #ej #bgf4h -#j4ji -#j4bi #j4ji #dj #bhb4e -- -#j4ag #j4jd #cj #bhi4f -- -#j4jh #j4jc #bj #bid4b -- -#j4ja -#j4ja #aj #bih4f -- -#j4ja #j4jc #j #bii4c -- #j4ja #j4jj #aj ,s4 #bih4b -- #j4jd -#j4ja #bj #bif4b -- #j4jg #j4jj #cj #bic4e -- #j4jf #j4jc #dj #bhi4c -- #j4ji -#j4jc ,july4 #gj ,n4 #bgi4c -#j4af #j4jb #j4jb #fj #bhj4g -- -#j4ja #j4aa #ej #bhe4h -- #j4jd #j4jf #dj #bia4a -- #j4je #j4jg #cj #bif4h -- #j4jh -#j4ja #bj #big4f -- #j4jg #j4jb #aj #bih4h -- #j4jc -#j4ja #j #bih4f -- #j4jb -#j4ja #aj ,s4 #bif4i -- #j4jd -#j4jc #bj #bic4a -- #j4jb -#j4jb #cj #bhh4b -- -#j4ja -#j4ja #dj #bhd4j -- #j4jj -#j4jc ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,9 ! case ( ! calculation ( ! effect ( comp>atively slight & irregul> *anges 9 l& & sea di/ribution 9 a limit$ area1 su* z ^? ( ! ,littor9a ,sea ref]r$ to on p4 #abh1 x may be f\nd t a t5-degree circle is too wide an area to employ1 ! *anges f l& to sea at "o po9t be+ nullifi$ by *anges f sea to l& at ano!r m di/ant po9t4 ,9 su* a case a small] unit su* z a circle ( five degrees radius c be employ$4 ,z a r\gh approximation x may be said t ! effect ( ! conv]sion ( a squ>e mile ( l& into sea1 or vice v]sa1 on ! temp]ature ( a neighb\r+ po9t is inv]sely proportional to its di/ance4 ,s9ce ! area ( a five-degree circle is "o-qu>t] t ( a t5-degree circle1 :ile ! av]age di/ance ( ! l& compos+ x is "o-half1 we h to divide our regression coeffici5ts by two 9 ord] to fit ! new data4 ,?is me?od 0 appli$ to obta9 ! probable temp]ature di/ribution on ! %ores ( ! ,littor9a ,sea at its maximum ext5sion1 & gave results :i* agre$ rem>kably well ) ^? calculat$ by geologi/s f ! animal & plant life ( ! "t4 ,see ,london ,q4 ,f4 ,r4 ,meteor4 ,soc41 #dc1 #aiag1 pp4 #afi-aga4 ,,index ,a4 ,a*eulian1 #eb ,aciphylla1 #abe ,africa1 #ajc1 #acc1 #adb ,aftonian1 #hg ,,ahlmann1 #ea1 #fa ,alaska1 #dc1 #abd ,algonqu91 ,lake1 #abc ,alps1 dry p]iod1 #abb glaciation1 #bi1 #eb1 #ef retreat /adia1 #aai ,altai ,m\nta9s1 #gg ,anau1 ru9s1 #afc ,ancylus1 #abj1 #abg ,,&]sson1 #aah1 #aba ,&es1 #ih ,ant>ctica1 #aad1 #acc ,anticyclonic circulation1 #ee ,antipodes ,is41 #aab ,aral ,sea1 #hc ,arg5t9e1 #ajj ,arizona1 #id1 #aej ,,arrh5ius1 #ai ,artesian wat] 7,au/ralia71 #aaj ,aryans1 #afd ,asia1 #gf1 #abe1 #aci1 #adc1 #aec ,a/ronomical !ory1 #ag ,atlantic ,/age1 #abf ,atlas ,m\nta9s1 #fi ,au/ralia1 #aji1 #abe1 #aee ,b4 ,bale>ic ,is41 #gj ,balkans1 #fi ,baltic ,int]/adial1 #fd ,b&$ clays1 #di1 #ic ,b>aba /eppes1 #aba ,b>kans1 #fe ,,b>rell1 #aei ,,b$d>d1 #aae ,belfa/1 #acj ,bilocul9a1 #acc ,,blytt1 #abg ,bonneville1 ,lake1 #ic ,brazil1 #aja ,briti% ,isles1 #eg1 #fb1 #fd1 #acf ,,br,,gg]1 #abi ,bronze ,age1 #ach ,,br,,ckn]1 #di1 #eg1 #aed ,bu5os ,aires1 s&-dunes1 #abe ,bhl/adium1 #aai ,c4 ,calabrian1 #fh ,cambrian1 #cc ,campbell ,is41 #ajb ,canada1 po/-glacial1 #acb ,cape ,colony1 rais$ bea*es1 #acc ,c>bon dioxide1 #ai ,c>bonif]\s1 #cd ,caspian1 #hc1 #adc1 #aec ,,*amb]l91 #ai ,*ampla9 ,/age1 #abc ,*ellean1 #ea ,,*]ry1 #afj ,*ile1 ra9fall fluctuations1 #aeg ,*9a1 #ha1 #aci ,*ronology1 #dh1 #ib ,,*udeau1 #ajf ,classical ,ra9fall ,maximum1 #adj ,climatic ,record1 #acb ,,coleman1 #ib ,colorado1 #id ,cont95tality1 #be ,cont95tal ,phase1 #abj ,cont95ts1 movem5t (1 #ba ,cordill]an glaciation1 #hg ,corsica1 #fi ,,craig1 #gb ,cretace\s1 #cg ,crete1 ,neoli?ic1 #afc ,,croll1 #ah ,cro-,magn>ds1 #afa ,cyr5aica1 desiccation1 #adb ,d4 ,daun-/adium1 #aai ,,david1 #aaj ,dead ice1 #acb ,d5m>k1 cont95tal phase1 #abb ,depressions1 pa? (1 #dg1 #fj1 #ga1 #abb1 #aci ,devonian1 #cd ,diluvium1 #dh ,don ,valley1 #ia ,,d\glass1 #adc ,drak5sb]g ,m\nta9s1 #ajc ,dr\ght 9 ,=e/ ,p]iod1 #aci ,drumkel9 ,bog1 #acg ,dunes1 fossil1 #fe ,frisian1 #adj ,e4 ,e>ly ,iron ,age1 #ada ,e>?'s ,orbit1 ecc5tricity (1 #ah ,e>?worms1 #aae ,ea/ ,anglia1 #dg1 #eg ,ecc5tricity ( ,e>?'s ,orbit1 #ah ,ecuador1 #ii ,egypt1 #gb ,eoan?ropus1 #afa ,eoc5e glaciation1 #cg ,eto%a ,pan1 #ajg ,europe1 #di1 #ee1 #aah1 #abg1 #acf1 #aed ,,evans1 #afc ,evolution ( ,man1 #aee ,f4 ,,fairgrieve1 #ach ,falkl& ,is41 #ig ,f5nosc&ian ,pause1 #aai ,f9iglacial1 #aah ,f9l&1 po/-glacial1 #abj1 #abh ,florida1 #ie ,=e/ b$1 #dg1 #ea p]iod1 #abb1 #acf ,=e/s1 subm]g$1 #acg ,=mby & ,leas[e ,b$s1 #acj ,fossil ice1 #ei1 #gh ,franz ,josef ,l&1 #acj ,,fre*1 #bj ,,freyd5b]g1 #ajf ,frisian dunes1 #adj ,fuc9o1 ,lago di1 #aed ,fucus 9 ,spitzb]g51 #acj ,g4 ,gable ,isl&1 #ih ,galaxiid1 #aae ,,ge]1 ,g4 ,,de1 #di1 #ic1 #aah ,,geikie1 ,j41 #ea1 #ha ,geographical !ory1 #bb ,geological =mations1 #ca rhy?ms1 #ch ,,gibbon1 #adj ,gibralt>1 #fi1 #gj ,gila conglom]ate1 #ie ,glacial anticyclone1 #ee /ages1 #dh ,globig]9a1 #acc ,glossopt]is1 #ce ,gondwanal&1 #cd1 #ce ,gotiglacial1 #aah ,graham ,l&1 glaciation1 #aad ,great ,bas91 ,am]ica1 #hi1 #ic1 #abd ,great ,lakes1 hi/ory1 #abc ,great ,salt ,lake1 #ic ,greece1 ,h]oic ,age1 #afd ,gre5l&1 #aca1 #aef ,,gregory1 #ajd ,grimaldi ,race1 #afa ,gs*nitz ,/adium1 #aai ,gunz ,glaciation1 #ef ,gunz-,m9del ,int]glacial1 #ej1 #ea1 #ef ,h4 ,haplo*itonid1 #aae ,hazel1 po/-glacial ext5sion1 #abb ,,h$ley1 #aaf ,heidelb]g ,man1 #afa ,height & temp]ature1 #bf ,,hildebr&sson1 #aeg ,himalayas1 #ha ,,hobley1 #aje1 #ajg ,hohokam1 #aej ,,hume1 #gb ,,humphreys1 #bj ,,hunt+ton1 #ada1 #add1 #aej1 #aec1 #afb ,i4 ,ice on ,dani% coa/s1 #aee ,icel&1 #abe1 #aef ,ill9oian glaciation1 #ij ,+o ,is41 =e/s1 #abb ,i[an ,glaciation1 #ij ,irel&1 glaciation1 #eg1 #fb1 #fd ,h]oic ,age1 #ach ,iroquois1 ,lake1 #abc ,isohal9es1 #abg ,j4 ,japan1 #ha ,jurassic1 #cg ,k4 ,kalah>i1 #ajg ,kam*atka1 #hj ,kansan1 #hh ,k>/ flora1 #aba ,ka%mir1 #adc1 #aec ,keewat91 #hh1 #ia ,,keidel1 #ii ,k5ya1 #ajc ,kilimanj>o1 #ajc ,kioga1 ,lake1 #ajd ,kit*5-midd51 #abe ,kosciusko1 #aji ,,krei*gau]1 #bj ,,kupff]1 #aba ,l4 ,labradorean ,glaciation1 #hg1 #hi1 #ij ,lahontan1 ,lake1 #ic ,l5a ,valley1 #gh ,,lev]ett1 #ia1 #ib ,lime/one ,agglom]ate1 #gj ,littor9a1 #abh ,loess1 #eb1 #hc1 #ia1 #aab ,l(ot5 ,isl&s1 #fa ,lop-,nor1 #hc1 #aec ,m4 ,,mack5na1 #aeg ,maglemose culture1 #abe ,malta1 #fi ,mammo?s1 froz51 #gi ,m>supials1 #aae ,,ma!w1 #afj ,maumee1 ,lake1 #abc ,maya ru9s1 #aea ,m$ival ,ra9fall ,maximum1 #afd ,m$ic9e ,b[ ,range1 #id ,m$it]ranean1 #fh1 #adb ,mesopotamia1 ,empires1 #aci ,mexico1 culture1 #aea ,,mey]1 #ii ,micmac ,/age1 #abd ,m9delian ,glaciation1 #di1 #fi ,m9del-,riss ,int]glacial1 #ej ,mioc5e1 #dd ,mombasa1 #aje ,mono ,bas91 #id ,,montelius1 #afc ,m\/]ian ,man1 #fc ,,mun!1 #aah ,,murgoci1 #ff ,murman coa/1 #acj ,n4 ,najas1 #abi ,ne&]?al ,man1 #afa ,,negro1 #adb ,neoli?ic1 #abb1 #aca1 #acf1 #afc migration1 #abe1 #afc ,neudeckian1 #ea ,,neuhauss1 #aaa ,newf\ndl&1 #hg1 #ij ,new ,gu9ea1 #aaa ,new ,sib]ian ,isl&s1 #gh ,new ,s\? ,wales1 #abe ,new ,zeal&1 #aaa1 #abe1 #acc ,ngami1 ,lake1 #ajg ,niag>a1 #ic1 #acb ,nile1 #gb1 #aai ,,nord5skjold1 #aag ,nordic ,race1 #abe ,norfolkian1 #ea ,nor? ,am]ica1 #hf1 #abb1 #acb1 #ada1 #adi ,nor? ,sea1 #ef1 #fa ,norway1 #ea1 #ee1 #abi ,o4 ,obliquity ( ,ecliptic1 #af1 #abj ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #cd ,optimum ( ,climate1 #abg ,ordovician1 #cc ,p4 ,paj>itan1 #aej ,palmyra1 #adb ,pamirs1 #gg ,pampean1 #ajj1 #abe ,patagonia1 po/-glacial1 #acc ,patom ,highl&s1 #gh ,peat-bog ,p]iod1 #adj ,,p5ck1 #di1 #ea ,p5dulation ,!ory1 #bj ,peorian1 #ia ,p]mian1 #ce ,p]sia1 #hd1 #adb ,p]u1 #ii ,,pett]sson1 #acd1 #ade ,pi$mont ice-%eets1 #eg1 #aji ,piltd[n ,man1 #afa ,pi!can?ropus1 #afj ,plioc5e1 #dg ,pluvial p]iods1 #ga1 #adj ,poles1 motion (1 #bj1 #dj ,pre-,cambrian ,glaciation1 #cc ,prot]ozoic ,glaciation1 #cb ,pueblo ru9s1 #aej ,pulse ( ,asia1 #aec ,,pumpelly1 #hd1 #afc ,pyr5ees1 #eg ,q4 ,quat]n>y ,ice ,age1 #dg ,r4 ,ragunda1 ,lake1 #di mora9es1 #aba ,,reid1 #ach ,retreat ( ! ,ice1 #di ,riss ,glaciation1 #di1 #fa ,riss-,wurm ,int]glacial1 #ej1 #ec ,rixdorf1 #fb ,,rodg]s1 #acc ,romania1 #ff ,ruw5zori1 #ajc ,s4 ,sagas1 #ada1 #adf ,sah>a1 #gd1 #aje ,sangamon1 #ij ,scania1 #di ,,s*midt1 #ec ,scotl&1 #eg1 #fa1 #fd ,scrobicul>ia ,zone1 #acj ,selsey1 #eh ,sequoia1 #adc ,%ell-banks1 #dg1 #ef ,sib]ia1 #gh ,sicilian1 #gj ,si]ra ,nevada1 #ic1 #id ,,siev]s1 #ii ,silurian1 #cc ,skrumh$e1 #fc ,slugs1 #aae ,,smi?1 ,,elliott1 #aei ,sol> radiation1 #ae ,s\? ,am]ica1 #ig1 #abe1 #acb1 #aeg ,s\? ,georgia1 #ig ,s\? ,orkneys1 #aad ,,spital]1 #ah ,spitzb]g51 #hj1 #acj ,/anovoi ,m\nta9s1 #gi ,/eppe climate1 #ec ,/one riv]s1 #ih ,subm]g$ =e/s1 #acg ,suess1 ,lake1 #ajd ,sunspots1 #ade ,susa1 ,neoli?ic1 #afc ,,sv5 ,,h$91 #hd ,sw$51 #di1 #ef1 #aah ,syria1 #gb ,t4 ,tapes1 #abi ,tasmania1 #aji ,t*ad1 #ajf ,t]ti>y1 #db1 #aaf ,?racia ,zone1 #aca ,tian-,%an ,m\nta9s1 #gg ,tibet1 #hb ,tidal friction1 #ci ,tide-g5]at+ =ce1 #acd1 #ade ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 #ig1 #acc ,tillite1 #cb ,titicaca1 ,lake1 #aja ,toronto ,/age1 #ia ,trapa1 #abi ,trasim5o1 ,lake1 #aed ,tree-r+s & ra9fall1 #adc ,turb>ian1 #adj ,triassic1 #cg ,,tyndall1 #ai ,u4 ,u9ta ,m\nta9s1 #id ,unio 9 ,niag>a1 #acb ,ural ,m\nta9s1 #eg ,v4 ,v5ezuela1 #ajj ,v]khoiansk ,m\nta9s1 #gi ,victoria ,nyanza1 #ajd ,vik+s1 #afd ,volcanic du/1 #af1 #bj ,,vollossovits*1 #gi ,w4 ,wales1 #eg1 #fd ,w>r51 ,lake1 #abc ,wasat* ,m\nta9s1 #ic1 #id ,,wayl&1 #ajd ,,weg5]1 #bj1 #cd ,,w]n]t1 #ec ,:ite ,sea1 #acj ,w9e h>ve/1 #aee ,w9t]s1 sev]e1 #aee ,wiscons9 ,glaciation1 #ia1 #ib ,,wolf1 #ade ,wurm ,glaciation1 #dh ,y4 ,y>m\? ,/age1 #hh ,yoldia ,sea1 #ej1 #abd ,yucatan1 #aea ,yukon1 #abd ,pr9t$ 9 ,great ,brita9 by ,j>rold ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,norwi*4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,by ?is t]m we %all 9 future und]/& only t "p ( x :i* is responsible = !rmal effects4 #b ,if ! figure ( ! e>? is adju/$ to its spe$ ( rotation be=e ! developm5t ( ice-%eets1 ! latt] r5d]s x too prolate1 & !re w be a t5d5cy = readju/m5t by ! transf]5ce ( mass t[>ds ! equator4 #c ,?is has be5 ! subject ( mu* discussion rec5tly4 ,= a summ>y see ,sci5ce ,progress1 #ag1 #aibb1 ,octob]1 p4 #bcc4 #d ,lev]ett1 ,f4 7see ,bibliography74 #e ,see ref]5ce to ,antevs 9 ?is connexion4 #f 8,! pulse ( ,asia10 p4 #cef4 ,see also a new "w by ,e4 ,hunt+ton1 entitl$3 8,climatic *anges40 #g 8,climatic v>iations 9 hi/oric & prehi/oric "t40 #h 8,sur le prt5du *angem5t du climat europen en temps hi/orique40 #i ,or lemur-l ance/or4 ,!re is evid5ce to %[ t man's ance/or 0 a nocturnal animal1 ^: food supply 0 gov]n$ by ! phases ( ! moon4 #aj 8,sci5tific mon?ly10 ,new ,york1 #d1 #aiag1 pp4 #af-bf4 #aa 8,sci5ce progress10 #ae1 #aibj1 p4 #gd4 #ab 8,climate & evolution40 #ac 8,civilization & climate40 ,,transcrib]',s ,,note ,obvi\s typographical errors & punctuation errors h be5 correct$ aft] c>eful comp>ison ) o!r occurr5ces )9 ! text & consultation ( ext]nal s\rces4 ,"s hyph5s 9 words h be5 sil5tly remov$1 "s add$1 :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ! orig9al book4 ,except = ^? *anges not$ bel[1 all misspell+s 9 ! text1 & inconsi/5t or ar*aic usage1 h be5 reta9$4 ,pg #fd3 #8p[]ful conviction' replac$ by #8p[]ful convection4 ,pg #ig3 #8& ,ti]ra del ,fuega' replac$ by #8& ,ti]ra del ,fuego'4 ,pg #ajc3 #8,drak5b]ge ,m\nta9s' replac$ by #8,drak5sb]g ,m\nta9s'4 ,pg #aej3 #8mod]n ,pueblas :o' replac$ by #8mod]n ,pueblos :o'4 ,pg #aff3 #8c(fieci5ts are' replac$ by #8coeffici5ts are'4