,,comput]s--,,! ,,ma*9es ,,we ,,?9k ,,) ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,comput]s-- ,,! ,,ma*9es ,,we ,,?9k ,,) ,d4 ,s4 ,,halacy1 ,,jr4 ,illu/ration ,,h>p] ,,r[1 ,,publi%]s ,,new ,,york1 ,,evan/on1 ,,& ,,london ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,comput]s--,,! ,,ma*9es ,,we ,,?9k ,,)4 ,copyright #aifb1 by ,daniel ,s4 ,halacy1 ,jr4 ,pr9t$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,all rights 9 ?is book are res]v$4 ,no "p ( ! book may be us$ or reproduc$ 9 any mann] :atsoev] )\t writt5 p]mission except 9 ! case ( brief quotations embodi$ 9 critical articles & reviews4 ,= in=mation address ,h>p] ,r[1 ,publi%]s1 ,incorporat$1 #di ,ea/ #ccrd ,/reet1 ,new ,york #af1 ,n4,y4 ,libr>y ( ,congress catalog c>d numb]3 #fb-adefd ,f-,s ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,cont5ts #a4 ,comput]s--,! ,ma*9es ,we ,?9k ,) #a #b4 ,! ,comput]'s ,pa/ #ah #c4 ,h[ ,comput]s ,"w #dh #d4 ,comput] ,c\s9s--,analog & ,digital #gb #e4 ,! ,b9>y ,boolean ,bit #if #f4 ,! ,electronic ,bra9 #aba #g4 ,uncle ,sam's ,comput]s #adg #h4 ,! ,comput] 9 ,bus9ess & ,indu/ry #aga #i4 ,! ,comput] & ,automation #bja #aj4 ,! ,academic ,comput] #bai #aa4 ,! ,road ,ahead #bea ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,comput]s--,,! ,,ma*9es ,,we ,,?9k ,,) ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #a3 ,comput]s--,! ,ma*9es ,we ,?9k ,) ,:ile y are read+ ?is s5t5ce1 an electronic comput] is p]=m+ #c million ma!matical op]ations6 ,be=e y read ?is page1 ano!r comput] c\ld translate x & sev]al o!rs into a =eign language4 ,electronic 8bra9s0 are tak+ ov] *ores t include ! calculation ( ev]y?+ f automobile p>k+ fees to z]o h\r = space missile laun*+s4 ,despite bitt] w9t] wea!r1 a rec5t conf]5ce on comput]s drew "s #d1jjj delegates to ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c42 indicat+ ! importance & scope ( ! new indu/ry4 ,! #aifb dome/ic m>ket = comput]s & associat$ equipm5t is e/imat$ at j "u #c billion1 ) m ?an #aej1jjj p employ$ 9 manufacture1 op]ation1 & ma9t5ance ( ! ma*9es4 ,9 ! %ort "t s9ce ! fir/ electronic comput] made its appe>ance1 ^! ?9k+ ma*9es h made su* fanta/ic /rides 9 s _m diff]5t directions t mo/ ( u are unaw>e h[ mu* our lives are already be+ affect$ by !m4 ,bank+1 = example1 employs complex ma*9es t process *ecks & h&le acc\nts s mu* fa/] ?an human bookkeep]s t !y d m ?an an h\r's "w 9 less ?an ?irty seconds4 ,illu/ration3 ,g5]al ,electric ,co41 ,comput] ,dept4 ,programm] at console ( comput] us$ 9 electronic process+ ( bank *eck+ acc\nts4 ,our gov]nm5t is "o ( ! l>ge/ us]s ( comput]s & 8data-process+ ma*9es40 ,! c5sus dep5ds on su* equipm5t1 & x play$ a "p 9 ! developm5t ( e>ly me*anical types ( comput]s :5 ,holl]i? inv5t$ a pun*$-c>d sy/em _m ye>s ago4 ,9 ano!r application1 ! po/ (fice uses lett] read]s t scan addresses & sort mail at spe$s fa/] ?an ! human eye c keep up )4 ,_m magaz9es h put ^! electronic read]s to "w :izz+ ?r\gh mail+ li/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,g5]al ,electric ,co41 ,comput] ,dept4 ,numb]s across bottom ( *eck are pr9t$ 9 magnetic ink & c be read by ! comput]4 ,9 ,sw$51 writ] ,a/rid ,l9dgr5 receiv$ additional royalties = "o ye> ( #i1jjj kronor because ( libr>y loans4 ,s9ce ?is 0 bas$ on #hej1jjj total loans ( h] books f ?\s&s ( s*ools & libr>ies1 ! bookkeep+ 0 possible only ) an electronic comput]4 ,comput]s are beg9n+ to take ov] control ( factories1 /eel mills1 bak]ies1 *emical plants1 & ev5 ! manufacture ( ice cream4 ,9 sci5tific rese>*1 comput]s are solv+ ma!matical & logical problems s complex t !y w\ld g =ev] unsolv$ if m5 _h to d ! "w4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/ comput+ sy/ems yet design$1 incorporat+ half a million transi/ors & millions ( o!r p>ts1 h&les ticket res]vations = ! airl9es4 ,o!rs d flight plann+ & air traffic control itself4 ,gigantic comput]iz$ air def5se sy/ems l ,,sage & ,,norad help gu>d u f enemy attack4 ,:5 ,john ,gl5n made 8 space flight1 giant comput]s on ! gr\nd made ! vital calculations to br+ him safely back4 ,t9y comput]s 9 space vehicles !mselves h prov$ !y c survive ! %ocks ( laun*+ & ! environm5t ( space4 ,^! airborne comput]s make possible ! op]ation ( ,pol>is1 ,atlas1 & ,m9uteman missiles4 ,su* applications are indicative ( ! scope ( comput] te*nology today2 ! gr\nd-bas$ ma*9es are huge1 tak+ up rooms & ev5 entire build+s :ile ^? tailor$ = missiles may fit 9 ! palm ( ! h&4 ,"o curr5t milit>y project is su* an airborne comput]1 ! size ( a pack ( cig>ettes yet able to p]=m ?\s&s ( ma!matical & logical op]ations a second4 ,comput]s are a vital "p ( automation1 & already !y are runn+ production l9es & railroads1 mak+ me*anical draw+s & wea!r pr$ictions1 & figur+ /ati/ics = insurance companies z well z odds = gambl]s4 ,electronic ma*9es p]mit ! bl9d to read a page ( ord9>y type1 & also control mat]ial patt]ns 9 knitt+ mills4 ,?is la/ use is ( p>ticul> int]e/ s9ce x repres5ts almo/ a full circle 9 comput] sci5ce4 ,oddly1 x 0 ! loom t inspir$ ! fir/ pun*$ c>ds inv5t$ & us$ to good advantage by ! ,fr5* design] ,jacqu>d4 ,^! homely =]unn]s ( /or$ in=mation sp>k$ ! sci5ce t n[ returns to control ! mills4 ,m5 v wisely are n[ lett+ comput]s design o!r comput]s1 & 9 "o rec5t project a ,bell ,laboratories comput] did a job 9 tw5ty-five m9utes t w\ld h tak5 a human design] a mon?4 ,ev5 m *all5g+ are ! mod]n-day 8robots0 p]=m+ precision op]ations 9 indu/rial plants4 ,"o su*1 call$ 8,unimate10 is simply guid$ ?r\gh ! me*anical op]ations "o "t1 & c !n h&le ! job alone4 8,transfe,robot #bjj0 is already do+ assembly-l9e "w 9 doz5s ( plants4 ,! hope has be5 express$ t comput] ext5sion ( our bra9p[] by a ?\s&fold w\ld give our c\ntry a lead ov] pot5tial enemies4 ,?is is a r va9 hope1 s9ce ! ,unit$ ,/ates has no corn] on ! comput] m>ket4 ,!re is worldwide int]e/ 9 comput]s1 & ma*9es are be+ built 9 ,russia1 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,g]many1 ,switz]l&1 ,holl&1 ,sw$51 ,africa1 ,japan1 & o!r c\ntries4 ,a rem>kable comput] 9 ,japan recognizes #h1jjj colors & analyzes !m in/antly4 ,comput] translation f "o language to ano!r has be5 m5tion$1 & "w is ev5 be+ done on ma*9es t w p]mit u to speak ,engli% into a phone 9 ?is c\ntry & h x come out ,fr5*1 or :atev] we w1 ov]seas6 ,( c\rse1 comput]s h a t]m9ology all _! own too2 words l analog & digital1 memory cores1 clock rates1 & s on4 ,! broad application ( comput]s has be5 call$ ! 8second indu/rial revolution40 ,:at ! /eam eng9e did = muscles1 ! mod]n comput] is beg9n+ to d = our bra9s4 ,9 _! sl[ climb f caveman days1 humans h enc\nt]$ ev] m problems2 "o ( ! bigge/ ( ^! problems ev5tually came to be m]ely h[ to solve all ! o!r problems4 ,at fir/ man c\nt$ on 8 f+]s1 & !n 8 toes4 ,z ! problems grew 9 size1 he us$ pebbles & /icks1 & f9ally beads4 ,^! became ! abacus1 a clev] calculat+ device /ill 9 con/ant use 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,only n[1 ) ! adv5t ( l[-co/ comput]s1 are ! ,japanese turn+ f ! soroban1 _! v]sion ( ! abacus4 ,! l>ge-scale comput]s we are becom+ famili> ) are n really z new z !y seem4 ,an ,engli%man nam$ ,babbage built :at he call$ a 8diff]5ce eng9e0 way back 9 #ahca4 ,?is complex me*anical comput] co/ a huge sum ev5 by today's /&>ds1 & al?\gh x 0 nev] complet$ to ,babbage's satisfaction1 x 0 ! =]unn] & model = ! successful l>ge comput]s t began to appe> a hundr$ ye>s lat]4 ,9 ! meantime1 ( c\rse1 electronics has come to ! aid ( ! design]4 ,today1 comput] swit*es op]ate at billion?s-(-a-second spe$s & ?us make possible ! rapid h&l+ ( quantities ( "w l ! #ad billion *ecks we ,am]icans wrote 9 #aifa4 ,!re are doz5s ( companies n[ 9 ! comput] manufactur+ field1 produc+ a v>iety ( ma*9es rang+ 9 price f less ?an a hundr$ doll>s total price to r5tal fees ( #ajj1jjj a mon? or m4 ,ev5 at ^! high] prices ! big problem ( "s manufactur]s is to keep up ) dem&4 ,a #a billion m>ket 9 #aifj1 ! comput] field is pr$ict$ to climb to #e billion by #aife1 & aft] t x is anyone's guess4 ,?us f> all exp]t pr$ictions h prov$ extremely cons]vative4 ,! pa? ( comput] progress is n always smoo?4 ,rec5tly a comput] :i* _h be5 in/all$ on a toll road to calculate *>ges 0 s badly treat$ by motori/s x _h to be remov$4 ,ano!r un=tunate occurr5ce happ5$ on ,wall ,/reet4 ,a clev] man juggl$ ! controls ( a l>ge comput] us$ 9 /ock-m>ket "w & 8made0 himself a qu>t] ( a million doll>s1 ?\gh he ultimately l&$ 9 jail = 8 illegal comput] button pu%+4 ,int]e/+ly1 !re is "o corrective in/itution :i* already (f]s a c\rse 9 comput] eng9e]+ = its inmates4 ,s great is ! impact ( comput]s t lawy]s rec5tly met = a ?ree-day conf]5ce on ! legal aspects ( ! new ma*9es4 ,po9ts tak5 up includ$3 ,c bus9ess records on magnetic tape or o!r /orage m$ia be us$ z evid5ce8 ,c companies be *>g$ ) mismanagem5t = n us+ comput]s 9 _! bus9ess8 ,h[ c confid5tial mat]ial be h&l$ satisfactorily on comput]s8 ,along ) comput+ ma*9es a :ole new te*nology is gr[+4 ,univ]sities & colleges--ev5 high s*ools--are tea*+ c\rses 9 comput]s4 ,& ! comput] itself is gett+ into ! tea*+ bus9ess too4 ,! 8tea*+ ma*9e0 is "o ( ! mo/ *all5g+ comput] developm5ts to come along s f>4 ,^! me*anical pr(essors range f simple 8programm$0 notebooks1 su* z ! ,book ( ,k & ,encyclop$ia ,britannica are exp]im5t+ )1 to complex comput]iz$ sy/ems su* z t develop$ by ,u4,s4 ,indu/ries1 ,inc41 = ! ,air ,=ce & o!rs4 ,! comput] z a tea*+ ma*9e imm$iately raises ! "q ( intellig5ce1 & :e!r or n ! comput] has any4 ,debate waxes hot on ?is subject2 b p]haps "o au?ority 0 only half jok+ :5 he said t ! comput] design]'s competition 0 a unit ab\t ! size ( a grapefruit1 us+ only a t5? ( a volt ( electricity1 ) a memory #aj1jjj times z ext5sive z any exi/+ electronic comput]4 ,?is is a brief description ( ! human bra91 ( c\rse4 ,:5 ! fir/ comput]s appe>$1 ^? l ,,eniac & ,,b9ac1 fiction writ]s & ev5 "s sci5ce writ]s _h a field day turn+ ! ma*9es into diabolical 8bra9s40 ,:e!r or n ! comput] really ?9ks rema9s a controv]sial "q4 ,"s top sci5ti/s claim t ! comput] w ev5tually be f> sm>t] ?an its human build]2 equally reputable au?orities are j z sure t no comput] w ev] h an orig9al ?\ght 9 its head4 ,p]haps a safe middle road is express$ ) ! title ( ?is book2 namely t ! ma*9e is simply an ext5sion ( ! human bra94 ,a high-spe$ abacus or slide rule1 if y w2 accurate & foolpro(1 b a moron none!less4 ,!re are "s int]e/+ ma*9e-bra9 p>allels1 ( c\rse4 ,besides its ability to d ma!matics1 ! comput] c p]=m logical reason+ & ev5 make decisions4 ,x c read & translate2 rememb]+ is a basic "p ( its function4 ,sci5ti/s are n[ ev5 talk+ ( mak+ comput]s 8dream0 9 an attempt to come up ) new ideas6 ,m simil>ities are be+ discov]$ or sugge/$4 ,= in/ance1 ! int]connections 9 a comput] are be+ comp>$ )1 & ev5 crudely patt]n$ aft]1 ! bra9's neurons4 ,a new sci5tific discipl9e1 call$ 8bionics10 conc]ns itself ) su* /udies4 ,f> f be+ a "o-way /reet1 bionics works bo? ways s t eng9e]s & biologi/s alike b5efit4 ,9 fact1 "s new c\rses be+ taught 9 univ]sities are design$ to 8bridge ! gap betwe5 eng9e]+ & biology40 ,at "o "t ! only le>n+ a comput] _h 0 8sold]$ 902 today ! ma*9es are be+ 8=c$0 to le>n by ! application ( puni%m5t or rew>d z necess>y4 8,free0 le>n+ 9 comput]s ( ! ,p]ceptron class is be+ exp]im5t$ )4 ,^! /udies1 & /atem5ts l ^? ( r5[n$ sci5ti/ ,l9us ,paul+ t he expects a 8molecul> !ory0 ( le>n+ 9 human be+s to be develop$1 are food = ?\ght z we consid] ! p>allels our electronic ma*9es %>e ) u4 ,psy*ologi/s at ! ,univ]sity ( ,london =esee comput]s n only tra9+ humans1 b actually wat*+ ov] !m & pr$ict+ imm95t n]v\s breakd[ns 9 _! *>ges6 ,illu/ration3 ,cornell ,a]onautical ,laboratory ,bank ( 8association0 units 9 ,m>k ,i ,p]ceptron1 a ma*9e t 8le>ns0 f exp]i5ce4 ,to demon/rate _! skill _m comput]s play games ( tick-tack-toe1 *eck]s1 *ess1 ,nim1 & ! l4 ,a simple electrome*anical comput] design$ = "y p to build c be programm$ to play tick-tack-toe exp]tly4 ,*eck]- & *ess-play+ comput]s are m sophi/icat$1 _m ( !m le>n+ z !y play & capable ( an occasional move class$ z brilliant by exp]t human play]s4 ,! ,,ibm #gjd comput] has be5 programm$ to inspect ! results ( its possible decisions sev]al moves ahead & to select ! be/ *oice4 ,at ! end ( ! game x pr9ts out ! w9n] & ?anks its oppon5t = ! game4 ,rat$ z polite1 b only an indiff]5t play] by exp]ts1 ! comput] is mu* l ! *eck]-play+ dog ^: ma/] sc(f$ at him = gett+ beat5 ?ree games out ( five4 ,*ess may well be an ultimate *all5ge = any k9d ( bra91 s9ce ! fa/e/ comput] 9 op]ation today c\ld n possibly "w out all ! possible moves 9 a game dur+ a human lifetime6 ,z evid5c$ 9 ! sci5ce-fiction treatm5t e>ly ma*9es got1 ! fir/ comput]s 7 mon/]s at lea/ 9 size4 ,pione]+ design ef=ts on ma*9es ) ! capacity ( ! bra9 l$ to plans = some?+ r\ghly ! size ( ! ,p5tagon1 equipp$ ) its own ,niag>a = p[] & cool+1 & a price tag ! _w c\ldn't af=d4 ,z (t5 seems to happ5 :5 a ne$ arises1 ?\gh1 new developm5ts h come along to (fset ! initial ob/acles ( size & co/4 ,"o su* developm5t 0 ! transi/or & o!r semiconductor devices4 ,t9y & rugg$1 ^! compon5ts require little p[]4 ,) ! old vacuum-tubes replac$1 comput]s %rank imm$iately & dramatically4 ,on ! heels ( ?is micro-m9iaturization h come new & ev5 small] devices call$ 8f]rite cores0 & 8cryotrons0 us+ magnetism & sup]cold temp]atures in/ead ( conv5tional electronic te*niques4 ,z a result1 an amaz+ numb] ( p>ts c be pack$ into a t9y volume4 ,s-call$ 8molecul> electronics0 n[ seems to be a possibility1 & design]s ( comput]s h a gleam 9 _! eyes z !y consid] progress be+ made t[>d mat*+ ! 8packag+ d5sity0 ( ! bra94 ,?is human comput] has an e/imat$ #ajj billion p>ts p] cubic foot6 ,we h talk$ ( read+ & translat+4 ,"s new comput]s c also accept voice comm&s & speak !mselves4 ,o!rs furni% in=mation 9 typ$ or pr9t$ =m1 pun*$ c>ds1 or a display on a tube or scre54 ,l u1 ! comput] c be fru/rat$ by a task beyond its capabilities4 ,a wrong comm& c set its p>ts click+ rapidly b 9 futile circles4 ,e>ly comput]s1 = example1 c\ld be panick$ by ! ord] to divide a numb] by z]o4 ,! solution to t problem ( c\rse is inf9ity1 & ! poor ma*9e _h a h>d "t try+ to make su* an answ] good4 ,illu/ration3 ,a]onutronic ,division1 ,=d ,motor ,co4 ,?is pr9t$-circuit c>d conta9s m ?an #cjj ,,biax memory elem5ts4 ,multiples ( su* c>ds m\nt$ 9 comput]s /ore l>ge am\nts ( in=mation4 ,!re are o!r1 qua9t] /ories l t ( ! pione] ,g5]al ,electric comput] t simply c\ld n function 9 ! d>k4 ,all day long x humm$ effici5tly1 b problems left ) x ov]night came out horribly bot*$ = no reason t eng9e]s c\ld discov]4 ,at la/ x 0 f\nd t a light _h to be left burn+ ) ! sc>y ma*9e6 ,neon bulbs 9 ! comput] 7 en\gh affect$ by light & d>kness t ! delicate electronic balance ( ! ma*9e _h be5 upset4 ,among ! comput]'s unusual tal5ts is ! ability to compose music4 ,su* music has be5 publi%$ & is ( a quality to give rise to ?\ghtful speculation t p]haps great compos]s are simply good selectors ( music4 ,9 o!r words1 all ! comb9ations ( notes & met] exi/3 ! compos] j picks ! "r ones4 ,no less an au?ority ?an ,a>on ,copl& sugge/s t 8we'll get our new music by fe$+ in=mation into an electronic comput]40 ,n cont5t ) m]ely writ+ music1 "s comput]s c ev5 play a tune4 ,at ,*ri/mas "t1 c>ols are r5d]$ by comput]s specially programm$ = ! task4 ,! result is n unlike a melody play$ on a pipe organ4 ,9 an int]e/+ swit* ( ?is musical ability on ! "p ( ! ma*9e1 ,russian eng9e]s *eck ! reliability ( _! comput]s by hav+ !m memorize ,moz>t & ,grieg4 ,ea* "p ( ! complex ma*9es is assign$ a def9ite musical value1 & :5 ! composition is 8play$ back0 by ! comput]1 ! eng9e] c spot any defects exi/+ 9 its circuitry4 ,su* comput] ma9t5ance w\ld seem to be an ideal field = ! music lov]4 ,9 a playful mood1 comput]s mat* p5nies ) visitors1 expla9 _! inn] work+s z !y :iz ?r\gh complex ma!matics1 & are ev5 capable ( :at is call$ heuri/ic reason+4 ,?is am\nts to play+ hun*es to rea* %ort-cut solutions to o!rwise unsolvable problems4 ,a ,r& ,corporation comput] nam$ ,,johnniac demon/rat$ ?is rec5tly4 ,x 0 giv5 "s basic axioms & ask$ to prove "s !orems4 ,,johnniac came up ) ! answ]s1 & 9 "o case produc$ a pro( t 0 simpl] ?an t giv5 9 ! text4 ,z "o sci5ti/ puts x1 8,if comput]s don't really ?9k1 !y at lea/ put on a pretty cr$itable imitation ( ! real ?+40 ,comput]s are "h to /ay2 ?is has be5 e/abli%$ beyond d\bt4 ,! only "q rema9+ is h[ fa/ ! pr$ictions made by dream]s & sci5ce-fiction writ]s--& n[ by sob] sci5ti/s--w come to be a reality4 ,:5 we consid] t 9 ! few ye>s s9ce ! #aiec crop ( comput]s1 _! capacity & spe$ has be5 increas$ m ?an fiftyfold1 & is expect$ to jump ano!r ?\s&fold 9 two ye>s1 ^! dreams beg9 to s\nd m & m plausible4 ,"o q probable use = comput]s is m$ical diagnosis & prescription ( treatm5t4 ,electronic equipm5t c already monitor an ail+ pati5t1 & s5d an al>m :5 help is ne$$4 ,we may "o day see comput]s ) a built-9 b$side mann] aid+ ! family doctor4 ,! accompli%$ inroads ( comput+ ma*9es 9 bus9ess are z no?+ to :at w ev5tually take place4 ,already comput] 8game-play+0 has ext5d$ to bus9ess managem5t1 & s]i\s executives p>ticipate to improve _! adm9i/rative ability4 ,we speak ( decision-mak+ ma*9es2 bus9ess decisions are logical applications = ?is ability4 ,comput]s h be5 giv5 ! job ( evaluat+ p]sonnel & assign+ sal>ies on a /rictly logical basis4 ,p]haps ?is is :y 9 surveys que/ion+ increas$ use ( ! ma*9es1 ea* executive level 9 g5]al t5ds to rate ! ma*9e's ability j bel[ its own4 ,o!r games play$ by ! comput] are w> games1 & comput]s l ,,sage are well kn[n4 ,?is sy/em n only monitors all air activity b also makes decisions1 assigns t>gets1 & !n ev5 flies ! int]ceptor planes & guid$ missiles on _! missions4 ,aga9 9 ! sky1 ! increase ( comm]cial air traffic has p]haps rea*$ ! limit ( human ability to control x4 ,comput]s are beg9n+ to take ov] "h too1 plann+ flights & lit]ally fly+ ! planes4 ,surface transport c also be comput]-controll$4 ,railroads are beg9n+ to use ! comput] te*niques1 & automatic highways are inevitable4 ,%ips also b5efit1 & special sy/ems c\pl$ to rad> c pr$ict c\rses & take corrective action :5 necess>y4 ,m5 seem to h tempor>ily giv5 up try+ to control ! wea!r1 b us+ comput]s1 meteorologi/s c take ! huge mass ( data f all ov] ! _w & make pr$ictions rapidly en\gh to be ( use4 ,we h talk$ ( ! comput]'s giant /rides 9 bank+4 ,its wide use 9 /ores is n f> (f4 ,an ,engli% comput] firm has design$ an automatic sup]m>ket t assembles ord]$ items1 prices !m1 & deliv]s !m to ! *eck /&4 ,at ! same "t x keeps a runn+ inv5tory1 price record1 & pr(it & loss /atem5t1 besides bill+ ! cu/om] ) p]iodic /atem5ts4 ,! /orekeep] w h only to wa% ! w9d[s & pay 8 electric p[] bill4 ,ev5 trad+ /amps may be sup]s$$ by comput] te*niques t keep track ( cu/om] pur*ases & cr$it him ) premiums z he e>ns !m4 ,cr$it c>ds h help$ pione] comput] use 9 bill+2 x is n f>fet*$ to =esee ! day :5 we are issu$ a lifetime1 all-inclusive cr$it c>d--p]haps ) our bir? c]tificate6--a c>d ) our ?umbpr9t on x1 t w buy our food1 pay our r5t & utilities & o!r bills4 ,a c5tral comput] sy/em w balance our exp5ses aga9/ deposits & f "t to "t let u "k h[ we /& f9ancially4 ,z ) _m o!r important inv5tions1 ! comput] & its te*nology 7 spurr$ by w> & are aid$ n[ by cont9u+ ?reats ( w>4 ,x is !re=e pleasant to ?9k on ! possibilities ( a comput] sy/em 8programm$0 = peace3 a gigantic1 worldwide sy/em ^: input includes all record$ hi/ory ( all nations1 all economic & cultural data1 all wea!r in=mation & o!r sci5tific k4 ,! output ( su* a ma*9e hopefully w\ld be a 8be/ plan0 = all ( u4 ,su* a comput] w\ld h no ax to gr9d & no selfi% int]e/s unless !y 7 f$ into x4 ,giv5 all ! facts1 x w\ld pun* out = u a set ( in/ructions t w\ld gu>antee u ! be/ life possible4 ,?is has long be5 a dream ( sci5ce writ]s4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells 0 "o ( ^!1 sugge/+ a _w cle>+h\se ( in=mation 9 8 book ,_w ,bra9 writt5 9 ! ?irties4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 sci5ti/ ,vannev> ,bu% sugge/$ a simil> comput] call$ 8,memex0 :i* c\ld /ore huge am\nts ( data & answ] que/ions put to x4 ,! huge am\nts ( in=mation--books1 articles1 spee*es1 & records ( all sorts--are beg9n+ to make x absolutely necess>y = an effici5t in=mation retrieval sy/em4 ,_m cases h be5 not$ 9 :i* mu* "t & ef=t are sp5t on a project :i* has already be5 complet$ b !n has become lo/ 9 ! welt] ( lit]ature cramm$ into libr>ies4 ,! comput] is a logical device = su* "w2 9 a rec5t te/ su* a ma*9e scor$ #hf p] c5t 9 its ef=ts to locate specific data on file4 ,tra9$ work]s rat$ only #ch p] c5t 9 ! same te/6 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,boe+ ,co4 ,eng9e]s us+ comput]s to solve complex problems 9 aircraft design4 ,! sci5ce ( communication is advanc+ along ) t ( comput]s1 & c help make ! dream ( a worldwide 8bra90 come true4 ,comput]s 9 di/ant cities are n[ l9k$ by telephone l9es or radio1 & high-spe$ te*niques p]mit ! transmission ( _m ?\s&s ( words p] second across ^! 8data l9ks40 ,an int]e/+ sidelight is ! fact t an ail+ comput] c be hook$ by telephone l9e ) a repair c5t] _m miles away & its ailm5ts diagnos$ by remote control4 ,communications satellites t are soon to be dott+ ! sky l t9y moons may well play a big "p 9 comput+ sy/ems ( ! future4 ,global wea!r pr$iction & worldwide coord9ation ( trade imm$iately come to m9d4 ,:ile we envision su* f>-rea*+ applications1 let's n lose sight ( ! possibilities = comput] use clos] to home--"r 9 our homes1 z a matt] ( fact4 ,j z e>ly inv5tors ( me*anical p[] devices did n =esee ! day :5 electric drills & saws = hobbyi/ w\ld be commonplace & ! gasol9e eng9e w\ld d su* ev]yday *ores z cutt+ ! grass 9 our y>ds1 ! mak]s ( comput]s today _c pr$ict h[ f> ! comput] w g 9 ?is direction4 ,p]haps we may "o day buy a 8,little ,d&y ,electro-,bra90 & plug x into ! wall socket = solv+ _m ( ! ev]yday problems we n[ (t5 guess wrong on4 ,illu/ration3 ,royal ,mc,bee ,corp4 ,/ud5ts at ,/aples ,high ,s*ool1 ,we/port1 ,connecticut1 att5d a summ] session to le>n ! te*niques ( programm+ & op]at+ an electronic comput]4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,saturday ,ev5+ ,po/ 8,h]b]t's be5 replac$ by an electronic bra9--"o ( ! simpl] types40 ,"s ye>s ago a gr\p ( exp]ts pr$ict$ t by #aifg ! _w *ampion *ess play] w\ld be an electronic comput]4 ,no "o has yet claim$ t we w\ld h a presid5t ( metal & wire1 b "s int]e/+ signpo/s are be+ put up4 ,comput]s are n[ us$ widely to pr$ict ! result ( elections4 ,comput]s c\nt ! votes1 & "s h sugge/$ t comput]s c\ld make x possible = u to vote at home4 ,! gov]nm5t is inve/igat+ ! effectiv5ess ( a decision-mak+ comput] z a /&-by aid = ! ,presid5t 9 ?is complex age we are mov+ into4 ,no man has ! ability to weigh e factor & to make decisions affect+ ! _w4 ,p]haps a comput] c s]ve 9 an advisory capacity to a presid5t or to a ,_w ,c\ncil2 p]haps-- ,x is com=t+ to rememb] t m5 w always tell ! comput] :at x is suppos$ to d4 ,no comput] w ev] run ! _w any m ?an ! cotton g9 or ! /eam eng9e or television runs ! _w4 ,& 9 an em]g5cy1 we c always pull out ! wallplug1 c't we8 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,hi/ory is b ! unroll$ scroll ( prophecy40 --,james ,a4 ,g>field #b3 ,! ,comput]'s ,pa/ ,al?\gh x seem$ to bur/ ^u u sudd5ly1 ! jet airplane c trace its beg9n+s back ?r\gh ! fabric w+s ( ! ,wrights to ! wax w+s ( ,ic>us & ,da$alus1 & ! /eam a]ophile ( ,h]o 9 anci5t ,greece4 ,! same ?+ is true ( ! comput]1 ! 8?9k+ ma*9e0 we are j n[ becom+ uncom=tably aw>e (4 ,no bra% up/>t1 x has a long & honorable hi/ory4 ,naturali/s tell u t man is n ! only animal t c\nts4 ,birds1 p>ticul>ly1 also h an idea ( numb]s4 ,birds1 incid5tally1 use tools too4 ,we seem to h done m ) ! discov]ies ?an our fea!r$ fri5ds2 at lea/ no "o has yet obs]v$ a rob9 ) a slide rule or a sn[y egret pun*+ ! controls ( an electronic digital comput]4 ,h[ev]1 ! v notion ( m]e birds be+ tool & numb] us]s does give u an idea ( ! antiquity & l5g?y h]itage ( ! comput]4 ,! comput] 0 inevitable :5 man fir/ began to make 8 own problems4 ,:5 he liv$ z an animal1 life 0 f> simpl]1 & all he _h to worry ab\t 0 f9d+ game & plants to eat1 & keep+ f be+ eat5 or o!rwise kill$ himself4 ,b :5 he began to dabble 9 agriculture & ! rais+ ( flocks1 :5 he began to ?9k consci\sly & to reflect ab\t ?+s1 man ne$$ help4 ,fir/ came ! h& tools t made him m p[]ful1 ! spe>s & b[s & arr[s & clubs t kill$ game & enemies4 ,!n came ! tools to aid 8 wak+ bra94 ,"s #be1jjj ye>s ago1 man began to c\nt4 ,?is 0 no mean a*ievem5t1 ! dim1 foggy dawn+ ( ! concept ( numb]1 p]haps 9 ! caves 9 ,europe :]e ! walls h be5 f\nd m>k$ ) reali/ic draw+s ( bison4 ,"s budd+ ma!matical g5ius 9 a sk9 g>m5t only slightly %aggi] ?an 8 mop ( hair />$ bl9k+ at ! draw+s ( two animals & !n dropp$ 8 gaze to 8 two h&s4 ,a crude1 t5tative connection jell$ 9 8 in*oate gray matt] & he %ook 8 head z if x hurt4 ,x 0 en\gh to hurt1 ?is discov]y ( 8numb]10 & p]haps ?is p>ticul> pione] nev] aga9 put two & two toge!r4 ,b o!rs did2 if n t ye>1 ! next4 ,arm$ ) 8 grasp ( numb]s1 man didn't ne$ to draw two ma/odons1 or %eep1 or :atev]4 ,two pebbles w\ld d1 or two leaves or two /icks4 ,he c\ld c\nt 8 *ildr5 on 8 f+]s--we reta9 ! expression 8a h&ful0 to ?is day1 ?\gh (t5 our *ildr5 are ano!r sort ( h&ful4 ,( c\rse1 ! caveman did n ( a sudd5 d sums & multiplications4 ,:5 he began to write1 p]haps #e1jjj ye>s lat]1 he _h =m$ ! concept ( 8"o10 8two10 8sev]al10 & 8_m40 ,besides c\nt+ 8 flock & 8 *ildr51 & ! numb] ( ! enemy1 man _h ne$ = c\nt+ 9 ano!r way4 ,!re 7 ! seasons ( ! ye>1 & a f>m] or bre$] _h to h a way ( reckon+ ! approa* ( new life4 ,8 cal5d> may well h be5 ! fir/ ma!matical device sophi/icat$ en\gh to be call$ a comput]4 ,x 0 natural t numb]s be associat$ ) sex4 ,! cal5d> 0 relat$ to ! seasons & ! be>+ ( "y4 ,! numb] ?ree1 = example1 took on my/ic & pot5t connotation1 repres5t+ z x did man's g5itals4 ,inde$1 numb]s !mselves came qua9tly to h sex4 ,"o1 ?ree1 & ! o!r odd numb]s 7 male2 ! symmetrical1 ev5 numb]s logically 7 female4 ,! notion t man us$ ! decimal sy/em because ( 8 t5 f+]s & toes is g5]al1 b x 0 "s "t be=e ?is ref9em5t took place4 ,"s e>ly peoples clung to a simpl] sy/em ) a base ( only two2 & int]e/+ly a tribe ( ,au/ralian aborig9es c\nts today ?us3 enea 7#a71 pet*aval 7#b71 enea pet*aval 7#c71 pet*aval pet*aval 7#d74 ,be=e we look d[n our noses at ?is nave sy/em1 let u consid] t high-spe$ electronic comput]s use only two values1 #a & #j4 ,b sl[ly symbols evolv$ = m & m numb]s1 numb]s t at fir/ 7 f+]s1 & !n p]haps knots ti$ 9 a /rip ( hide4 ,?is crude c\nt+ aid p]si/s today1 & c[boys sometimes keep r\gh tallies ( a h]d by knott+ a /r+ = e five t pass4 ,someh[ numb]s took on o!r mean+s1 l ^? t figure 9 c\rt%ip 9 c]ta9 ,nig]ian tribes4 ,9 _! language1 ! numb] six also means 8,i love y40 ,if ! ,african belle is ( a m9d :5 h] boyfri5d t5d]ly murmurs ! magic numb]1 %e replies 9 l tone1 8,eight601 :i* means 8,i feel ! same way60 ,f ! dawn ( hi/ory !re h app>5tly be5 two classes ( u human be+s1 ! 8haves0 & ! 8h nots40 ,n[adays we get bills or /atem5ts f our cr$itors2 9 e>ly days1 :5 a slate or clay tablet 0 ! docum5t1 a =]unn] ( ! c>bon copy or duplicate pap] develop$4 ,tallies 7 m>k$ = ! am\nt ( ! debt1 ! clay tablet 0 brok5 across ! m>ks1 & cr$itor & debtor ea* took half4 ,no *ance = *eat+1 s9ce a brok5 half w\ld fit only ! prop] mate6 ,numb]s at fir/ appli$ only to discrete1 or di/9ctly sep>ate1 ?+s4 ,! scrat*es on a cal5d>1 ! tallies signify+ ! c\nt ( a flock2 ^! 7 m easily reckon$4 ,! idea ( ano!r k9d ( numb] inspir$ ! fir/ clocks4 ,"h 0 a monum5tal break?r\gh 9 ma!matics4 ,nature provid$ ! sunrise t cle>ly m>k$ ! beg9n+ ( ea* day2 man himself ?\ght to break ! day into 8h\rs10 or p>ts ( ! :ole4 ,su* a division l$ ev5tually to measurem5t ( size & weight4 ,n[ e>ly man knew n only h[ _m goats he _h1 b h[ _m 8h&s0 high !y 71 & h[ _m 8/ones0 !y weigh$4 ,?is fur!r division orda9$ ano!r k9d ( me*anical comput] man mu/ som$ay contrive--! analog4 ,! fir/ c\nt+ ma*9es us$ 7 pebbles or sea %ells4 ,= ! ,/one ,age bus9essman to c>ry ar\nd a h&ful ( rocks = all 8 transactions 0 at times awkw>d1 & big deals may well h gone unconsummat$ = want ( a /one4 ,!n "s g5ius hit on ! idea ( /r++ %ells on a bit ( re$ or hide2 or m probably ! necklace came fir/ z adornm5t & ! utilit>ian spott$ x aft] ?is /yle note _h be5 add$4 ,at any rate1 ! portable add+ ma*9e became available & our e>ly day acc\ntant grew adroit at slid+ ! beads back & =? on ! /r+4 ,f "h x 0 only a small /ep1 tak5 p]haps z e>ly z #cjjj ,b4,c41 to ! rigid c\nt] kn[n z ! abacus4 ,! ^w 8c\nt]0 is "o we use 9 ev]yday conv]sation4 ,we buy /ock ov] ! c\nt]2 "s deals are "u ! c\nt]4 ,we all "k :at ! c\nt] itself is--t wide bo>d t holds ! ca% regi/] & sep>ates u f ! %opkeep]4 ,at "o "t ! ca% regi/] 0 ! c\nt]2 actually ! c\nt+ bo>d _h rods ( beads l ! abacus1 or at lea/ grooves 9 :i* beads c\ld be mov$4 ,! tott+ up ( a transaction 0 done on ! 8c\nt]02 x is /ill !re al?\gh we h =gott5 :5ce came its "n4 ,! mo/ successful comput] us$ = ! next #e1jjj ye>s1 ! portable c\nt]1 or ! abacus1 is a ma/]piece ( simplicity & effectiv5ess4 ,?\gh only a frame ) sev]al r[s ( beads1 x is sophi/icat$ en\gh t z late z #aidg ,kiyo%i ,matsuzake ( ! ,japanese ,m9i/ry ( ,communications1 arm$ ) ! ,japanese v]sion--a soroban1 be/$ ,private ,tom ,wood ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,army ( ,occupation pun*+ ! keys ( an up-to-!-m9ute electric calculat+ ma*9e 9 f\r ( five problem categories6 ,only rec5tly h ,japanese banks gone ov] to mod]n calculators1 & %opkeep]s !re & 9 o!r l&s /ill conduct bus9ess by ?is rule ( ?umb & =ef+]4 ,illu/ration3 ,! abacus1 anci5t me*anical comput]1 is /ill 9 use 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,"h is ! ,japanese v]sion1 ! soroban1 ) problem be+ set up4 ,! "n abacus comes to u by way ( ! ,greek abax1 mean+ 8du/40 ,s*ol>s inf] t e>ly sums 7 done s*oolboy fa%ion 9 ,greece ) a /ylus on a du/y slate1 & t ! ^w 0 c>ri$ ov] to ! me*anical c\nt]4 ,! design has *ang$ b little ov] ! ye>s & all abacuses be> a resemblance4 ,! major diff]5ce is ! numb] ( beads on ea* r[1 det]m9$ by ! ma!matical base us$ 9 ! p>ticul> c\ntry4 ,"s 9 ,india1 = example1 7 set up to h&le p\nds & %ill+s = use 9 %ops4 ,o!rs h a base ( twelve4 ,! majority1 h[ev]1 use ! decimal sy/em4 ,ea* r[ has sev5 beads1 ) a runn] sep>at+ "o or two beads f ! o!rs4 ,"s sy/ems use two beads on ! n>r[ side1 "s only "o2 ?is is a ma!matical consid]ation ) political implications1 incid5tally3 ,! ,japanese soroban has ! s+le-bead design2 ,korea's son pan uses two4 ,:5 ,japan took ov] ,korea ! two-bead models 7 tabu1 & w5t out ( use until ! ,koreans 7 lat] able to w9 _! indep5d5ce aga94 ,ab\t ! only ?+ add$ to ! anci5t abacus 9 rec5t ye>s is a movable arr[ = m>k+ ! decimal po9t4 ,w4 ,d4 ,loy pat5t$ su* a gadget 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,today ! abacus rema9s a useful device1 n only = bus9ess1 b also = ! tea*+ ( ma!matics to y\ng/]s1 :o c lit]ally 8grasp _! numb]s40 ,= t reason x ought also to be helpful to ! bl9d1 & z a !rapeutic aid = manual dext]ity4 ,app>5tly caught up 9 ! tr5d t[>d small] comput]s1 ! abacus has be5 m9iaturiz$ to ! ext5t t x c be worn z e>r+s or on a key *a94 ,ev5 ) me*anical c\nt]s1 e>ly ma!maticians ne$$ writt5 numb]s4 ,! caveman's /raight-l9e scrat*es gave way to hi]oglyphics1 to ! ,sum]ian cunei=m 8w$ges10 to ,roman num]als1 & f9ally to ,h9du & ,arabic4 ,until ! numb]s1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 & t mo/ wond]ful ( all1 #j or z]o1 computations ( any b ! simple/ type 7 apt to be labori\s & "t-consum+4 ,ev5 ?\gh ! ,romans & ,greeks _h evolv$ a decimal sy/em1 _! numb]+ 0 complex4 ,to c\nt to #iii 9 ,greek requir$ n t5 numb]s b tw5ty-sev54 ,! ,roman numb] = #hhh 0 ,,dccclxxxviii4 ,multiply+ ,,ccxvii times ,,xxix yield$ an answ] ( ,,mmmmmmccxciii1 to be sure1 b n )\t "s difficulty4 ,x requir$ an abacus to d any k9d ( multiplication or division4 ,inde$1 x 0 p]haps f ! abacus t ! clue to ,arabic simplicity came4 ,! ,babylonians1 ant$at+ ! ,greeks1 _h nev]!less gone !m "o bett] 9 ari?metic by us+ a 8place0 sy/em4 ,9 o!r words1 ! position ( a numb] d5ot$ its value4 ,! ,babylonians simply left an empty space betwe5 cunei=m numb] symbols to %[ an empty space 9 ?is positional sy/em4 ,sometime prior to #cjj ,b4,c4 a clev] ma!matician tir$ ( los+ track & pun*$ a dot 9 8 clay tablet to fill ! empty space & avoid possible error4 ,! abacus %[s ^! empty spaces on its r[s ( beads1 too1 & f9ally ! ,h9dus comb9$ _! n9e num]als ) a 8dot ) a hole 9 x0 & gave ! ma!matical _w ! z]o4 ,9 ,h9du x 0 sifr1 corrupt$ to zephirium 9 ,lat91 & gives u today bo? ciph] & z]o4 ,?is enigma ( no?+ness w\ld "o day be us$ by ,leibnitz to prove t ,god made ! _w2 x w\ld lat] become half ! input ( ! electronic comput]6 ,meantime1 x 0 develop$ indep5d5tly 9 v>i\s o!r p>ts ( ! _w2 ! anci5t ,mayans be+ "o example4 ,impress$ z we may be by an electronic comput]1 x may take "s *>ity to recognize its =ebe>s 9 ! scrat*+s on a rock4 ,to call ! cal5d> a comput]1 we mu/ 9 hone/y add a qualify+ t]m l 8passive40 ,! same applies to ! abacus despite its movable c\nt]s4 ,b "t1 :i* produc$ ! simple cal5d>1 also furni%$ ! inc5tive = ! fir/ 8active0 comput]s too4 ,! h\rglass is a primitive example1 z is ! sundial4 ,bo? _h an input1 a p[] s\rce1 & a read\t4 ,! clock int]e/+ly end$ up ) n a decimal s*eme1 b "o ) a base ( twelve4 ,e>ly a/ronom]s began conv5tionally bun*+ days into gr\ps ( t51 & locat$ diff]5t />s on ! horizon to m>k ! passage ( ! t5 days4 ,x 0 b a /ep f "h to use ^! 8decans10 z !y 7 call$1 to fur!r divide ea* night itself into segm5ts4 ,x turn$ out t #ab decans did ! trick1 & s9ce symmetry 0 a virtue ! daylight 0 simil>ly divid$ by twelve1 giv+ u a day ( #bd h\rs r ?an #aj or #bj4 ,f ! simple h\rglass & ! m complex wat] clocks1 ! ,greeks progress$ to "s truly rem>kable cele/ial motion comput]s4 ,"o ( ^!1 built almo/ a hundr$ ye>s be=e ! bir? ( ,*ri/1 0 rec5tly f\nd on ! sea bottom (f ! ,greek isl& ( ,antiky!ra4 ,x _h be5 abo>d a %ip :i* sank1 & its discov]y came z a surprise to s*ol>s s9ce hi/ory record$ no su* complex devices = t era4 ,! salvag$ ,greek comput] 0 design$ = a/ronomical "w1 %[+ locations ( />s1 pr$ict+ eclipses1 & describ+ v>i\s cycles ( heav5ly bodies4 ,compos$ ( doz5s ( ge>s1 %afts1 slip r+s1 & accurately inscrib$ plates1 x 0 a comput] 9 ! be/ s5se ( ! ^w & 0 n exce$$ te*nically = _m c5turies4 ,! ,greek eng9e] ,vitruvius made an int]e/+ obs]vation :5 he said1 8,all ma*9]y is g5]at$ by ,nature & ! revolution ( ! univ]se guides & controls4 ,our fa!rs took prec$5ts f ,nature--develop$ ! com=ts ( life by _! inv5tions4 ,!y r5d]$ "s ?+s m conv5i5t by ma*9es & _! revolutions40 ,h9dsight & language be+ :at !y are1 today we c make a nice play on ! ^w 8revolution0 z appli$ to ! ma*9e4 ,! ,antiky!ra comput] 0 a prime example ( :at ,vitruvius 0 talk+ ab\t4 ,a/ronomy 0 su* a complicat$ bus9ess t x 0 f> simpl] to make a model ( ! _m motions r ?an diagram !m or try to reta9 !m 9 8 m9d4 ,!re 71 ( c\rse1 "s die-h>d classici/s :o decri$ ! use ( ma*9es to d ! "w ( pure reason+4 ,ar*ytas1 :o probably inv5t$ ! screw--or at lea/ discov]$ its me*anical pr9ciple--attempt$ to apply su* me*anical devices to ! solv+ ( geometrical problems4 ,= ?is he 0 tak5 to task by puri/ ,plato :o s\ght to pres]ve ! di/9ct division betwe5 8m9d0 & 8ma*9e40 ,yet ! syllogi/ic philosoph]s !mselves1 ) _! major premise1 m9or premise1 & conclusion1 7 unwitt+ly sett+ ! /age = a diff]5t k9d ( comput]--! logic ma*9e4 ,plato w\ld be horrifi$ today to see crude decks ( c>ds1 or simple electrome*anical contrivances1 solv+ problems ( 8reason0 f> fa/] ?an he c\ld2 9 fact1 z fa/ z ! conditions c\ld be set into !m6 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,! ,me*anics ( ,reason ,ari/otle fa!r$ ! syllogism1 or at lea/ 0 fir/ to inve/igate x rigor\sly4 ,he def9$ x z a =mal argum5t 9 :i* ! conclusion foll[s logically f ! premises4 ,!re are f\r common /atem5ts ( ?is type3 ,all ,s 7= is ,p 7= subject7 pr$icate7 ,no ,s 7= subject7 is ,p ,"s ,s 7= is ,p subject7 ,"s ,s 7= is n ,p subject7 ,?us1 ,ari/otle might say 8,all m5 are mortal0 or 8,no m5 are immortal0 z 8 subject4 ,add+ an ,m 7middle t]m71 8,ari/otle is a man10 z a m9or premise1 he c\ld logically g on & conclude 8,ari/otle1 be+ a man1 is ?us mortal40 ,( c\rse ! syllogism unwisely us$1 z x (t5 is1 c lead to "s ridicul\sly silly answ]s4 8,all tables h f\r legs4 ,two m5 h f\r legs4 ,?us1 two m5 equal a table40 ,despite ! weaknesses ( ! syllogism1 nev]!less x l$ ev5tually to ! sci5ce ( symbolic logic4 ,! pa?way 0 circuit\s1 ev5 devi\s at times1 b sl[ly ! idea ( putt+ ?\ght d[n z lett]s or numb]s to be logically manipulat$ to rea* prop] conclusions ga9$ =ce & cr$5ce4 ,:ile ! ,greeks did n h ! f9al say1 !y did h words = ! subject z !y did = ne>ly ev]y?+ else4 ,let u leave ! subject ( pure logic = a mom5t & talk ( ano!r k9d ( comput+ ma*9e1 t ( ! me*anical do] ( "w4 ,9 ! ,iliad1 ,hom] has ,hephae/us1 ! god ( natural fire & metalwork+1 con/ruct tw5ty ?ree-:eel$ *>iots :i* propel !mselves to & fro br++ back messages & in/ructions f ! c\ncils ( ! gods4 ,^! e>ly automatons boa/$ pure gold :eels1 & h&les ( 8curi\s cunn+40 ,man has app>5tly be5 a lazy cuss f ! />t & began /raightway to dream ( me*anical s]vants to d 8 *ores4 ,9 an age ( magic & fe> ( ! sup]natural 8 dreams 7 fraught ) su* ma*9es t turn$ into evil mon/]s4 ,! ,hebrew 8golem0 0 made 9 ! %ape ( man1 b )\t a s\l1 & (t5 got out ( h&4 ,lit]ature has p]petuat$ ! idea ( ma*9es runn+ amok1 z ! broom 9 8,! ,sorc]]'s ,appr5tice10 b !re h be5 b5evol5t ma*9es too4 ,tik-,tok1 a latt]-day w9dup man 9 ,! ,road to ,oz1 c\ld ?9k & talk & d _m o!r ?+s m5 c\ld d4 ,he 0 n alive1 ( c\rse1 b he _h ! sav+ grace ( always do+ j :at he 80 w\nd up to d40 ,hav+ t\*$ on ! subject ( me*anical m51 let u n[ return to me*anical logic4 ,s9ce ! ,greeks1 _m m5 h travel$ ! road ( reason1 b "s /& out m brightly1 m colorfully1 ?an o!rs4 ,su* a /&\t 0 ! ,spani% monk ,ramn ,lull4 ,lull 0 born 9 #abcb4 ,a c\rt page1 he rose 9 influ5ce1 m>ri$ "y1 & _h two *ildr51 b did n settle d[n to m>ri$ dome/icity4 ,a wildly reckless romantic1 he 0 giv5 to su* /unts z gallop+ 8 horse into *ur* 9 pursuit ( "s lady :o caught 8 eye4 ,"o su* escapade l$ to a remorseful re-exam9ation ( himself1 & dramatic conv]sion to ,*ri/ianity4 ,he began to write books 9 conv5tional praise ( ,*ri/1 b e>ly 9 8 writ+s a preoccupation ) numb]s appe>s4 ,8 ,book ( ,contemplation1 = example1 actually conta9s five books = ! five w\nds ( ! ,savi\r1 & =ty subdivisions = ! days ,he sp5t 9 ! wild]ness4 ,!re are #cfe *apt]s = daily read+1 plus "o = read+ only 9 leap ye>s6 ,ea* *apt] has t5 p>agraphs1 symboliz+ ! t5 comm&m5ts1 & ?ree p>ts to ea* *apt]4 ,^! multipli$ give ?irty1 = ! pieces ( silv]4 ,beside religi\s & my/ical connotations1 geometric t]ms are also us$1 & "o int]e/+ device is ! symboliz+ ( words & ev5 phrases by lett]s4 ,?is ties 9 neatly ) syllogism4 ,a sample foll[s3 ''' div]sity is %[n 9 ! demon/ration t ! ,d makes ( ! ,e & ! ,f & ! ,g ) ! ,i & ! ,k1 !re=e ! ,h has c]ta9 sci5tific k ( ,?y holy & glori\s ,tr9ity4 ,?is 0 only prologue to ! ,ars ,magna1 ! 8,great ,art0 ( ,ramn ,lull4 ,9 #abgd1 ! dev\t pilgrim climb$ ,m\nt ,palma 9 se>* ( div9e help 9 8 writ+s4 ,! result 0 ! fir/ record$ attempt to use diagrams to discov] & to prove non-ma!matical tru?s4 ,specifically1 ,lull det]m9$ t he c\ld con/ruct me*anical devices t w\ld p]=m logic to prove ! validity ( ,god's ^w4 ,:]e =ce1 9 ! %ape ( ! ,crusades1 _h fail$1 ,lull 0 conv9c$ t logical argum5t w\ld w9 ov] ! infidels1 & he devot$ 8 life to ! task4 ,r5\nc+ 8 e/ate1 includ+ 8 wife & *ildr51 ,lull devot$ himself !nce=? solely to 8 ,great ,art4 ,z a result ( dreams he _h on ,m\nt ,palma1 ! basis = ?is "w 0 ! assumption ( simple premises or pr9ciples t are unque/ionable4 ,lull arrang$ ^! premises on rotat+ conc5tric circles4 ,! fir/ ( ^! :eels ( logic 0 call$ ,a1 /&+ = ,god4 ,arrang$ ab\t ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel 7 sixte5 o!r lett]s symboliz+ attributes ( ,god4 ,! out] :eel also conta9$ ^! lett]s4 ,rotat+ !m produc$ #bdj two-t]m comb9ations tell+ _m ?+s ab\t ,god & ,8 good4 ,o!r :eels prep>$ s]mons1 advis$ physicians & sci5ti/s1 & ev5 tackl$ su* /ump]s z 8,:]e does ! flame g :5 ! c&le is put out80 ,illu/ration3 ,f ! ,enciclop$ia univ]sal illu/rada1 ,b>celona1 #aibc ,lull's :eel4 ,un=tunately = ,lull1 ev5 div9e help did n gu>antee him success4 ,he 0 /on$ to dea? by infidels 9 ,bugia1 ,africa1 at ! age ( eighty-?ree4 ,all 8 :eelsp9n+ logic 0 to no avail 9 advanc+ ! cause ( ,*ri/ianity !re1 & mo/ ma!maticians s9ce h sc(f$ at 8 nave devices z hav+ no real m]it4 ,f> f accept+ ! ,ars ,magna1 mo/ s*ol>s h be5 8,lull$ into a secure s5se ( falsity10 f9d+ x z speci\s z indiscrim9ate syllogism4 ,yet ,lull did leave 8 m>k1 & _m copies ( 8 :eels h be5 made & f\nd useful4 ,:]e v>i\s p]mutations ( numb]s or o!r symbols are requir$1 su* a me*anical tool is (t5 ! fa/e/ way ( pair+ !m up4 ,ev5 9 ! field ( writ+1 a ,lullian device 0 popul> a few decades ago 9 ! =m ( ! 8,plot ,g5ii40 ,) ?is gadget ! w\ld-be au?or m]ely spun ! :eels to mat* up v>i\s *>act]s ) int]e/+ situations to arrive at /ory ideas4 ,o!r v]sions use c>ds to d ! same job1 & "o call$ ,plotto 0 us$ by its inv5tor ,william ,wallace ,cook to plot c\ntless /ories4 ,al?\gh ^! 7 p]haps n ideas = great lit]ature1 eag] writ]s paid z mu* z #ge = ! plot boil]4 ,n all s]i\s ?9k]s relegat$ ,lull to ! position ( fanatic dream] & gadgete]4 ,no less a m9d t ,gottfri$ ,wilhelm von ,leibnitz f\nd mu* to laud 9 ,lull's works4 ,! ,ars ,magna might well lead to a univ]sal 8algebra0 ( all k1 ?\ght ,leibnitz4 8,if controv]sies 7 to arise10 he !n mus$1 8!re w\ld be no m reason = philosoph]s to dispute ?an !re w\ld = acc\ntants60 ,leibnitz appli$ ,lull's "w to =mal logic1 con/ruct$ tables ( syllogisms f :i* he elim9at$ ! false1 & c>ri$ ! "w ( ! 8gift$ crank0 at bit ne>] to true symbolic logic4 ,leibnitz also ext5d$ ! circle idea to t ( ov]lapp+ !m 9 e>ly attempts at logical manipulation t =e%ad[$ ! "w t ,john ,v5n w\ld d lat]4 ,leibnitz also saw 9 numb]s a p[]ful argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,god1 he saw z ! num]al #a1 & #j 0 ! no?+ness f :i* ,he creat$ ! _w4 ,!re are ^?1 includ+ ,voltaire ^: ,c&ide satiriz$ ! notion1 :o "q t x is ! be/ ( all possible worlds1 b none c "q t 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury ,leibnitz =esaw ! com+ p[] ( ! b9>y sy/em4 ,he also built ari?metical comput]s t c\ld add & subtract1 multiply & divide4 ,a few ye>s e>li] ?an ,leibnitz1 ,blaise ,pascal 0 also int]e/$ 9 comput+ ma*9es4 ,z a te5-ag] work+ 9 8 fa!r's tax (fice1 ,pascal we>i$ ( add+ ! t$i\s figures s he built himself a ge>-driv5 comput] t w\ld add eight columns ( numb]s4 ,a tall figure 9 ! sci5tific _w1 ,pascal _h fa!r$ projective geometry at age sixte5 & lat] e/abli%$ hydrodynamics z a sci5ce4 ,to assi/ a gambl] fri5d1 he also develop$ ! !ory ( probability :i* l$ to /ati/ical sci5ce4 ,ano!r ma!matical innovation ( ! c5tury 0 t ( plac+ log>i?ms on a /ick by ! ,scot1 ,john ,napi]4 ,:at he _h done1 ( c\rse1 0 to make an analog1 or scale model ( ! ari?metical numb]s4 8,napi]'s bones0 quickly became :at we n[ call slide rules1 =]unn]s ( a :ole class ( analog comput]s t solve problems by be+ actual models ( size or quantity4 ,newton jo9$ ,leibnitz 9 contribut+ ano!r valuable tool t w\ld be us$ 9 ! comput]1 t ( ! calculus4 ,! ,comput] 9 ,lit]ature ,ev5 z ,plato _h view$ ) suspicion ! infr+em5t ( me*anical devices on man's doma9 ( high] ?\ght1 o!r m5 h cont9u$ to eye ! gr[? ( 8me*anisms0 ) m\nt+ al>m4 ,! sci5ti/ & inv5tor battl$ n m]ely te*nical difficulties1 b ! scornful satire & righte\s condemnation ( "s ( _! fell[ m54 ,jona?an ,swift1 ! ,iri% satiri/ :o took a swipe at _m ?+s t did n set well ) 8 views1 lamba/$ ! comput+ ma*9e z a sub/itute = ! bra94 ,9 ,*apt] ,v1 ,book ,?ree1 ( ,gulliv]'s ,travels1 ! good dean runs up aga9/ a s*em+ sci5ti/ 9 ,laputa3 ,! fir/ ,pr(essor ,i saw 0 9 a v l>ge ,room1 ) ,=ty ,pupils ab\t him4 ,aft] ,salutation1 obs]v+ me to look e>ne/ly ^u a ,frame1 :i* took up ! greate/ "p ( bo? ! ,l5g? & ,bread? ( ! ,room2 he said1 p]haps ,i might wond] to see him employ$ 9 a ,project = improv+ speculative k by practical & me*anical ,op]ations4 ,b ! ,_w w\ld soon be s5sible ( its ,usefulness2 & he flatt]$ himself1 t a m noble exalt$ ,?\ght nev] sprang 9 any o!r ,man's ,head4 ,e "o knew h[ labori\s ! usual ,me?od is ( atta9+ to ,arts & ,sci5ces2 :]eas by 8 ,contrivance1 ! mo/ ignorant ,p]son at a reasonable ,*>ge1 & ) a little bodily ,lab\r1 may write ,books 9 ,philosophy1 ,poetry1 ,politicks1 ,law1 ,ma!maticks1 & ,!ology1 )\t ! lea/ ,assi/ance f ,g5ius or ,/udy4 ,he !n l$ me to ! ,frame1 ab\t ! ,sides :]e( all 8 ,pupils /ood 9 ,ranks4 ,x 0 a ,tw5ty ,foot ,squ>e1 plac$ 9 ! ,middle ( ! ,room4 ,! ,sup]fices 0 compos$ ( sev]al ,bits ( ,wood1 ab\t ! ,bigness ( a ,dye1 b "s l>g] ?an o!rs4 ,!y 7 all l9k$ toge!r by sl5d] ,wires4 ,^! ,bits ( ,wood 7 cov]$ on e ,squ>e ) ,pap]s pa/$ on !m2 & on ^! ,pap]s 7 writt5 all ! ,words ( _! ,language 9 _! sev]al ,moods1 ,t5ses1 & ,decl5sions1 b )\t any ,ord]4 ,! ,pr(essor !n desir$ me to obs]ve1 = he 0 go+ to set 8 ,eng9e to "w4 ,! ,pupils at 8 ,comm& took ea* ! hold ( an ,iron ,h&le1 :]e( !re 7 ,=ty fix$ r\nd ! ,edges ( ! ,frame2 & giv+ !m a sudd5 ,turn1 ! :ole ,disposition ( ! ,words 0 entirely *ang$4 ,he !n comm&$ ,six & ,?irty ( ! ,lads to read ! sev]al ,l9es s(tly z !y appe>$ ^u ! ,frame2 & :]e !y f\nd ?ree or f\r ,words toge!r t might make ,"p ( a ,s5t5ce1 !y dictat$ to ! f\r rema9+ ,boys :o 7 ,scribes4 ,?is "w 0 repeat$ ?ree or f\r ,times1 & at e ,turn ! ,eng9e 0 s contriv$1 t ! ,words %ift$ into new ,places1 z ! squ>e ,bits ( ,wood mov$ upside d[n4 ,six h\rs a-day ! "y ,/ud5ts 7 employ$ 9 ?is ,lab\r2 & ! ,pr(essor %[$ me sev]al ,volumes 9 l>ge ,folio already collect$1 ( brok5 ,s5t5ces1 :i* he int5d$ to piece toge!r1 & out ( ^? ri* ,mat]ials to give ! ,_w a compleat ,body ( ,art & ,sci5ces2 :i* h[ev] might be /ill improv$1 & mu* exp$it$1 if ! ,publick w\ld raise a ,fund = mak+ & employ+ five ,hundr$ su* ,frames 9 ,lagado4444 ,=tunately = ,swift1 :o w\ld h be5 horrifi$ by x1 he nev] he>d ,russell ,maloney's classic /ory1 8,inflexible ,logic10 ab\t six monkeys p\nd+ away at typewrit]s & re-creat+ ! _w great lit]ature4 ,gulliv]'s ,travels is n li/$ 9 _! accompli%m5ts4 ,! ,fr5* ,revolution prompt$ no less an orator ?an ,edmund ,burke to deliv] 9 #agij an address titl$ 8,reflections on ! ,fr5* ,revolution10 9 :i* he extols ! virtues ( ! dy+ feudal ord] 9 ,europe4 ,x gall$ ,burke t 8,! ,age ( ,*ivalry is gone4 ,t ( sophi/s1 economi/s1 & calculators has succe$$1 & ! glory ( ,europe is ext+ui%$ =ev]40 ,sev5ty ye>s lat] ano!r em95t ,engli%man nam$ ,d>w9 publi%$ a book call$ ,on ! ,orig9 ( ,species t 9 ! eyes ( _m read]s did little to glorify man himself4 ,samuel ,butl]1 bett] kn[n = 8 novel1 ,! ,way ( ,all ,fle%1 wrote too ( ! me*anical be+1 & 0 "o ( ! fir/ to po9t out j :at sort ( future ,d>w9 0 sugge/+4 ,9 ! satirical ,ere:on1 he describ$ ! ma*9es ( ?is my/]i\s l& 9 "s ( ! mo/ prophetic writ+ t has be5 done on ! subject4 ,x 0 almo/ a hundr$ ye>s ago t ,butl] wrote ! fir/ v]sion1 call$ 8,d>w9 ,among ! ,ma*9es10 b ! words r+ l ^? ( a #aifb worri] ov] ! electronic bra94 ,butl]'s "* w>ns3 ,!re is no security aga9/ ! ultimate developm5t ( me*anical consci\sness 9 ! fact ( ma*9es possess+ little consci\sness n[4 ,reflect ^u ! extraord9>y advance :i* ma*9es h made dur+ ! la/ few hundr$ ye>s1 & note h[ sl[ly ! animal & vegetable k+doms are advanc+4 ,! m highly organiz$ ma*9es are creatures n s mu* ( ye/]day1 z ( ! la/ five m9utes1 s to speak1 9 comp>ison ) pa/ "t4 ,d n let me be misund]/ood z liv+ 9 fe> ( any actually exi/+ ma*9e2 !re is probably no kn[n ma*9e :i* is m ?an a prototype ( future me*anical life4 ,! pres5t ma*9es are to ! future z ! e>ly ,saurians to man 444 :at ,i fe> is ! extraord9>y rapidity ) :i* !y are becom+ some?+ v diff]5t to :at !y are at pres5t4 ,butl] envision$ ! day :5 ! pres5t rude cries ) :i* ma*9es call out to "o ano!r w h be5 develop$ to a spee* z intricate z our own4 ,aft] all1 8444 take man's vaunt$ p[] ( calculation4 ,h we n eng9es :i* c d all mann] ( sums m quickly & correctly ?an we c8 ,:at prizeman 9 ,hypo!tics at any ( our ,colleges ( ,unreason c comp>e ) "s ( ^! ma*9es 9 _! own l9e80 ,not+ ano!r diff]5ce 9 man & 8 creation1 ,butl] says1 444 ,our sum-eng9es nev] drop a figure1 nor our looms a /it*2 ! ma*9e is brisk & active1 :5 ! man is we>y1 x is cle>-head$ & collect$1 :5 ! man is /upid & dull1 x ne$s no slumb]4444 ,may n man himself become a sort ( p>asite ^u ! ma*9es8 ,an affectionate ma*9e-tickl+ aphid8 ,x c be answ]$ t ev5 ?\gh ma*9es %\ld he> nev] s well & speak nev] s wisely1 !y w /ill always d ! "o or ! o!r = our advantage1 n _! own2 t man w be ! rul+ _s & ! ma*9e ! s]vant4444 ,?is is all v well4 ,b ! s]vant glides by imp]ceptible approa*es into ! ma/]1 & we h come to su* a pass t1 ev5 n[1 man mu/ suff] t]ribly on ceas+ to b5efit ! ma*9es4 ,if all ma*9es 7 to be annihilat$ 444 man %\ld be left z x 7 nak$ ^u a des]t isl&1 we %\ld become ext9ct 9 six weeks4 ,is x n pla9 t ! ma*9es are ga9+ gr\nd ^u u1 :5 we reflect on ! increas+ numb] ( ^? :o are b\nd d[n to !m z slaves1 & ( ^? :o devote _! :ole s\ls to ! advancem5t ( ! me*anical k+dom8 ,butl] consid]s ! argum5t t ma*9es at lea/ _c copulate1 s9ce !y h no reproductive sy/em4 8,if ?is be tak5 to mean t !y _c m>ry1 & t we are nev] likely to see a f]tile union betwe5 two vapor-eng9es ) ! "y ones play+ ab\t ! door ( ! %$1 h[ev] greatly we might desire to d s1 ,i w readily grant x4 ,b surely if a ma*9e is able to reproduce ano!r ma*9e sy/ematically1 we may say t x has a reproductive sy/em40 ,butl] repeats 8 ma9 !me4 8444 8 man's organization nev] advanc$ ) any?+ l ! rapidity ) :i* t ( ! ma*9e is advanc+4 ,?is is ! mo/ al>m+ feature ( ! case1 & ,i mu/ be p>don$ = insi/+ on x s frequ5tly40 ,!n !re is a />tl+ly cle> vision ( ! ma*9es 8reg>d$ z a "p ( man's own physical nature1 be+ really no?+ b extra-corporeal limbs4 ,man 444 z a ma*9ate mammal40 ,?is 0 fe>$ z lead+ to ev5tual weakness ( man until we f9ally f\nd 8man himself be+ no?+ b s\l & me*anism1 an intellig5t b passionless pr9ciple ( me*anical action40 ,& s ! ,ere:onians 9 self-def5se de/roy$ all inv5tions discov]$ 9 ! prec$+ #bga ye>s6 ,e>ly ,me*anical ,devices ,dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury1 weav+ 0 "o ( ! mo/ competitive indu/ries 9 ,europe1 & new inv5tions 7 (t5 closely gu>d$ secrets4 ,j su* an idea 0 t ( ,fr5*man ,joseph ,m4 ,jacqu>d1 an idea t automat$ ! loom & w\ld lat] become ! basis = ! fir/ mod]n comput]s4 ,a big problem 9 weav+ 0 h[ to control a multiplicity ( fly+ ne$les to create ! desir$ patt]n 9 ! mat]ial4 ,!re 7 ways ( do+ ?is1 ( c\rse1 b all ( !m 7 unwieldy & co/ly4 ,!n ,jacqu>d hit on a clev] s*eme4 ,if he took a c>d & pun*$ holes 9 x :]e he want$ ! ne$les to be actuat$1 x 0 simple to make ! ne$les d 8 bidd+4 ,to *ange ! patt]n took only ano!r c>d1 & c>ds 7 *eap4 ,pat5t$ 9 #ahja1 !re 7 soon ?\s&s ( ,jacqu>d looms 9 op]ation1 do+ beautiful & accurate designs at a reasonable price4 ,to %[ (f ! scope ( 8 wond]ful pun*$ c>ds1 ,jacqu>d _h "o ( 8 looms weave a portrait ( him 9 silk4 ,! job took #bj1jjj c>ds1 b x 0 a beautiful & effective te/imonial4 ,& fatefully a copy ( ! silk portrait w\ld lat] f9d its way into ! h&s ( a man :o w\ld d mu* m ) ! oddly pun*$ c>ds4 ,at ab\t ?is same "t1 a ,hung>ian nam$ ,wolfgang von ,kempel5 decid$ t ma*9es c\ld play games z well z "w 9 factories4 ,s von ,kempel5 built himself a *ess-play+ ma*9e call$ ! ,maelzel ,*ess ,automaton ) :i* he t\r$ ,europe4 ,! inv5tor & 8 ma*9e play$ a great game1 b !y didn't play fair4 ,hidd5 9 ! inn>ds ( ! ,maelzel ,automaton 0 a second human play]1 b ?is disillusion+ tru? 0 n kn[n = "s "t4 ,?us von ,kempel5 d\btless spurr$ o!r inv5tors to ! task1 & 9 a %ort :ile ma*9es w\ld actually beg9 to play ! royal game4 ,= in/ance1 a ,spani>d nam$ ,l4 ,torres y ,quev$o built a *ess-play+ ma*9e 9 #aiad4 ,?is device play$ a fair 8end game0 us+ sev]al pieces1 & its inv5tor pr$ict$ future "w 9 ?is direction us+ m advanc$ ma*9es4 ,*>les ,babbage 0 an ,engli% sci5ti/ ) a burn+ desire = accuracy4 ,:5 "s ma!matical tables prep>$ = ! ,a/ronomical ,society prov$ to be full ( errors1 he angrily det]m9$ to build a ma*9e t w\ld d ! job ) no mi/akes4 ,( c\rse calculat+ ma*9es _h be5 built be=e2 b ! ma*9e ,babbage _h 9 m9d 0 diff]5t4 ,9 fact1 he call$ x a 8diff]5ce eng9e0 because x 0 bas$ on ! diff]5ce tables ( ! squ>es ( numb]s4 ,! fir/ ( ! 8giant comput]s10 x 0 to h hundr$s ( ge>s & %afts1 rat*ets & c\nt]s4 ,any ari?metic problem c\ld be set into x1 & :5 ! prop] cranks 7 turn$1 out w\ld come an answ]--! "r answ] because ! ma*9e c\ld n make a mi/ake4 ,aft] do+ "s prelim9>y "w on 8 diff]5ce eng9e1 ,babbage int]e/$ ! gov]nm5t 9 8 project s9ce ev5 ?\gh he 0 fairly well-to-d he realiz$ x w\ld co/ m money ?an he c\ld af=d to s9k into ! project4 ,babbage 0 a respect$ sci5ti/1 ,lucasian ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics at ,cambridge1 & because ( 8 reputation & ! promise ( ! ma*9e1 ! ,*ancellor ( ! ,ex*equ] promis$ to und]write ! project4 ,= f\r ye>s ,babbage & 8 me*anics toil$4 ,in/ead ( complet+ 8 orig9al idea1 ! sci5ti/ _h succe$$ only 9 design+ a f> m complicat$ ma*9e1 "o :i* w\ld :5 f9i%$ weigh ab\t two tons4 ,because ! p>ts he ne$$ 7 advanc$ beyond ! /ate ( ! art ( metalwork+1 ,babbage 0 =c$ to design & build !m himself4 ,9 ! process he decid$ t indu/ry 0 be+ run all wrong1 & took "t out to write a book4 ,x 0 an excell5t book1 a sort ( =]unn] to ! mod]n sci5ce ( op]ations rese>*1 & ,babbage's ma*9e %op 0 do+ wond]s = ! metalwork+ art4 ,undaunt$ by ! lack ( progress t[>d a concrete result1 ,babbage 0 ?9k+ bigg] & bigg]4 ,he 0 go+ to scrap ! diff]5ce eng9e1 or r put x 9 a museum1 & build a f> bett] comput]--an 8analytical eng9e40 ,if ,jacqu>d's pun*$ c>ds c\ld control ! ne$les on a loom1 !y c\ld also op]ate ! ge>s & o!r p>ts ( a calculat+ ma*9e4 ,?is new eng9e w\ld be "o t c\ld n only add1 subtract1 multiply1 & divide2 x w\ld be design$ to control itself4 ,& z ! answ]s />t$ to come out1 !y w\ld be f$ back to d m complex problems ) no fur!r "w on ! op]ator's "p4 8,hav+ ! ma*9e eat its own tail60 ,babbage call$ ?is sophi/icat$ bit ( programm+4 ,?is me*anical cannibalism 0 ! root ( ! 8fe$back0 pr9ciple widely us$ 9 ma*9es today4 ,e*o+ ,watt's /eam gov]nor1 x prophesi$ ! com+ control ( ma*9es by ! ma*9es !mselves4 ,besides ?is innovation1 ! ma*9e w\ld h a 8/ore10 or memory1 ( "o ?\s& fifty-digit numb]s t x c\ld draw on1 & x w\ld actually ex]cise judgm5t 9 selection ( ! prop] numb]s4 ,& z if t w]5't en\gh1 x w\ld pr9t out ! correct answ]s automatically on specially engrav$ copp] plates6 ,illu/ration3 ,space ,te*nology ,laboratories 8,z soon z an ,analytical ,eng9e exi/s1 x w necess>ily guide ! future c\rse ( sci5ce4 ,:5ev] any result is s\ght by its aid1 ! "q w !n arise--by :at c\rse ( calculation c ^! results be arriv$ at by ! ma*9e 9 ! %orte/ "t80 ,*>les ,babbage--,! ,life ( a ,philosoph]1 #ahfa4 ,x 0 a wond]ful dream2 a dream t might h become an actuality 9 ,babbage's own "t if ma*9e te*nology _h be5 z advanc$ z 8 ideas4 ,b = ,babbage x rema9$ only a dream1 a dream t nev] did "w successfully4 ,! gov]nm5t sp5t #ag1jjj1 a huge sum = t day & "t1 & b[$ out4 ,babbage fum$ & !n put 8 own money into ! ma*9e4 ,8 me*anics left him & became lead]s 9 ! ma*9e-tool field1 hav+ tra9$ 9 ,babbage's work%ops4 ,9 despair1 he gave up on ! analytical eng9e & design$ ano!r diff]5ce eng9e4 ,an e>ly model ( ?is "o w\ld "w to five accurate places1 b ,babbage _h 8 eyes on a mu* bett] goal--tw5ty-place accuracy4 ,a less] man w\ld h aim$ m reali/ically & p]haps deliv]$ workable comput]s to ! ma!maticians & bus9essm5 ( ! day4 ,!re is a leg5d t 8 son did f9i% "o ( ! simpl] ma*9es & t x 0 us$ 9 actu>ial acc\nt+ = _m ye>s4 ,b ,babbage himself di$ 9 #ahga unaw>e ( h[ mu* he _h done = ! comput] te*nology t w\ld beg9 to fl[] a few %ort decades lat]4 ,s+leh&$ly he _h giv5 ! comput] art ! idea ( programm+ & ( sequ5tial control1 a memory 9 addition to ! ari?metic unit he call$ a 8mill10 & ev5 an automatic read\t su* z is n[ /&>d on mod]n comput]s4 ,truly1 ! mod]n comput] 0 8,babbage's dream come true40 ,symbolic ,logic ,concurr5tly ) ! great /rides be+ made ) me*anical comput]s t c\ld h&le ma!matics1 mu* "w 0 also be+ done ) ! =maliz+ ( ! logic4 ,z h9t$ vaguely 9 ! syllogisms ( ! e>ly philosoph]s1 ?9k+ did seem am5able to be+ diagramm$1 mu* l gramm>4 ,augu/us ,de ,morgan devis$ num]ical logic sy/ems1 & ,george ,boole set up ! logic sy/em t has come to be kn[n z ,boolean algebra 9 :i* reason+ becomes positive or negative t]ms t c be manipulat$ algebraically to give valid answ]s4 ,john ,v5n put ! idea ( logic into pictures1 & simple pictures at t4 ,8 symbology looks = all ! _w l ! ?ree int]lock+ r+s ( a well-kn[n ale4 ,^! r+s /& = ! subject1 midt]m1 & pr$icate ( ! old] ,ari/otelian syllogism4 ,by %ad+ ! v>i\s circles accord+ to ! major & m9or premises1 ! us] ( ,v5n circles c see ! logical result by inspection4 ,implicit 9 ! s*eme is ! possibility ( a me*anical or electrical analogy to ?is visual me?od1 & x 0 n long until ma!maticians began at lea/ on ! me*anical k9d4 ,among ^! e>ly logic me*aniz]s1 surpris+ly1 0 ,lewis ,c>roll :o ( c\rse 0 ma!matician ,*>les ,l4 ,dodgson be=e he became a writ]4 ,c>roll1 :o 0 a f> busi] man ?an mo/ ( u ev] guess1 m>ket$ a 8,game ( ,logic10 ) a bo>d & color$ c>dbo>d c\nt]s t h&l$ problems l ! foll[+3 ,all teetotal]s l sug>4 ,no night+ale dr9ks w9e4 ,by arrang+ ! c\nt]s on ,c>roll's game bo>d s t3 ,all ,m are ,x1 & ,no ,y is n-,m1 we le>n t ,no ,y is n-,x6 ,?is tells ! initiate logician t no night+ale dislikes sug>2 a h&y piece ( in=mation = bird-fanci] & sug>-brok] alike4 ,illu/ration3 ,lewis ,c>roll's 8,symbolic ,logic40 ,*>les1 ! ?ird ,e>l ,/anhope1 0 only slightly less controv]sial ?an 8 prime m9i/]1 ,william ,pitt4 ,sci5tifically he 0 f> out too1 writ+ books on electrical !ory1 inv5t+ /eamboats1 microscopes1 & pr9t+ presses among an odd v>iety ( projects2 he also became int]e/$ 9 me*anical logic & design$ ! 8,/anhope ,demon/rator10 a contrivance l a *eck]bo>d ) slid+ panels4 ,by prop]ly manipulat+ ! demon/rator he c\ld solve su* problems z3 ,eight ( t5 *ildr5 are bright4 ,f\r ( ^! *ildr5 are boys4 ,:at are ! m9imum & maximum numb] ( bright boys8 ,a simple slid+ ( scales on ! ,/anhope ,demon/rator %[s t two mu/ be boys & z _m z f\r may be4 ,?is clev] device c\ld also "w out probability problems su* z h[ _m heads & tails w come up 9 s _m tosses ( a co94 ,9 #ahfi ,william ,s4 ,jevons1 an ,engli% economi/ & exp]t logician1 built a logic ma*9e4 ,8 0 n ! fir/1 ( c\rse1 b x _h a unique di/9ction 9 t x solv$ problems fa/] ?an ! human bra9 c\ld6 ,us+ ,boolean algebra pr9ciples1 he built a 8logical abacus0 & !n ev5 a 8logical piano40 ,by simply press+ ! keys ( ?is ma*9e1 ! us] c\ld make ! answ] appe> on its face4 ,x is ( int]e/ t ,jevons ?\ght 8 ma*9e ( no practical use1 s9ce complex logical que/ions seldom arose 9 ev]yday life6 ,life1 x seems1 0 simpl] 9 #ahfi ?an x is today1 & we %\ld be grateful t ,jevons pursu$ 8 "w ?r\gh %e] sci5tific int]e/4 ,m sophi/icat$ ?an ! ,jevons piano1 ! logic ma*9e inv5t$ 9 ,am]ica by ,allan ,m>qu& c\ld h&le f\r t]ms & d problems l ! foll[+3 ,!re are f\r s*oolgirls1 ,anna1 ,b]?a1 ,cora1 & ,dora4 ,:5 ,anna or ,b]?a1 or bo?1 rema9 home1 ,cora is at home4 ,:5 ,b]?a is out1 ,anna is out4 ,:5ev] ,cora is at home1 ,anna is too4 ,:at c we tell ab\t ,dora8 ,! ma*9e is sm>t en\gh to tell u t :5 ,dora is at home ! o!r ?ree girls are all at home or out4 ,! same ?+ is true :5 ,dora is out4 ,! ,c5sus ,tak] ,mov+ f ! sophi/ication ( su* logic devices1 we f9d a trem5d\s advance 9 me*anical comput]s spurr$ by su* a mundane *ore z ! c5sus4 ,! #ahhj ,unit$ ,/ates c5sus requir$ sev5 ye>s = compil+2 & t ) only #ej million heads to reckon4 ,x 0 pla9 to see t %ortly a t5-ye> c5sus w\ld be impossible ( completion unless some?+ 7 done to cut ! bir? rate or spe$ ! c\nt+4 ,dr4 ,h]man ,holl]i? 0 ! man :o did some?+ ab\t x1 & z a result ! #ahij c5sus1 ) #fb million p c\nt$1 took only "o-?ird ! "t ( ! previ\s tally4 ,holl]i?1 a /ati/ician liv+ 9 ,buffalo1 ,new ,york1 may or may n h he>d ! old saw ab\t /ati/ics be+ able to support any?+--includ+ ! /ati/icians1 b !re 0 a *all5ge 9 ! rapid gr[? ( population t appeal$ to ! inv5tor 9 him & he set to "w4 ,he came up ) a c>d pun*$ ) cod$ holes1 a c>d mu* l t us$ by ,jacqu>d on 8 looms1 & by ,babbage on ! dream comput] t became a nightm>e4 ,b ,holl]i? did n meet ! fate ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,n /on$1 or doom$ to die a failure1 ,holl]i? built 8 c>d ma*9es & contract$ ) ! gov]nm5t to d ! c5sus "w4 8,x 0 a good pay+ bus9ess10 he said4 ,x 0 inde$1 & 8 e>ly c5sus c>ds w\ld "s day be kn[n g5]ically z 8,,ibm c>ds40 ,:ile ,jacqu>d & ,babbage ( necessity us$ me*anical devices ) _! pun*$ c>ds1 ,holl]i? add$ ! magic ( electricity to 8 c>d ma*9e1 build+ 9 ess5ce ! fir/ electrical comput+ ma*9e4 ,! pun*$ c>ds 7 float$ across a pool ( m]cury1 & telescop+ p9s 9 ! read+ head dropp$ ?r\gh ! holes4 ,z !y contact$ ! m]cury1 an electrical circuit 0 made & ano!r ,am]ican c\nt$4 ,holl]i? did n /op ) c5sus "w4 ,sagely he felt !re mu/ be comm]cial applications = 8 ma*9es & sold two ( ! lead+ railroads on a pun*$-c>d acc\nt+ sy/em4 ,8 firm m]g$ ) o!rs to become ! ,comput+-,tabulat+-,record+ ,company1 & f9ally ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es4 ,! t]m 8,holl]i? ,cod+0 is /ill famili> today4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,holl]i? tabulat+ ma*9e ( #ahij1 =]unn] ( mod]n comput]s4 ,edison 0 illum9at+ ! _w & ! same electrical p[] 0 bright5+ ! future ( comput+ ma*9es4 ,z e>ly z #aiae ! ,=d ,in/rum5t ,company 0 produc+ 9 quantity a device kn[n z 8,range ,keep] ,m>k ,i10 ?\ght to be ! fir/ electrical-analog comput]4 ,9 #aibj1 ,g5]al ,electric built a 8%ort-circuit calculat+ bo>d0 t 0 an analog or model ( ! real circuits be+ te/$4 ,we/+h\se came up ) an 8alt]nat+-curr5t network analyz]0 9 #aicc1 & ?is analog comput] 0 f\nd to be a p[]ful tool = ma!matics4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,a v]tical pun*$-c>d sort] us$ 9 #aijh4 ,:ile sci5ti/s 7 putt+ ! ma*9es to "w1 writ]s cont9u$ to prophesy doom :5 ! me*anical man took ov]4 ,m>y ,w4 ,%elley's ,frank5/e9 creat$ a mon/] f a human body2 a mon/] t 9 "t w\ld take 8 ma/]'s "n & fa!r a long horrid l9e ( o!r fictional mon/]s4 ,ambrose ,g4 ,bi]ce wrote ( a diabolical *ess-play+ ma*9e t 0 human en\gh to ?rottle ! man :o beat him at a game4 ,b x rema9$ = ! ,cze* playwright ,k>el apek to give ! _w ! "n t has /uck to ! me*anical man4 ,9 apek's #aiba play1 ,r4,u4,r41 = ,rossum's ,univ]sal ,robots1 we are introduc$ to humanlike work]s gr[n 9 vats ( syn!tic protoplasm4 ,robota is a ,cze* ^w mean+ compulsory s]vice1 & app>5tly ^! me*anical slaves did n take to s]vitude1 turn+ on _! ma/]s & kill+ !m4 ,robot is g5]ally accept$ n[ to mean a mobile ?9k+ ma*9e capable ( action4 ,be=e ! adv5t ( ! high-spe$ electronic comput] x _h little likelihood ( /epp+ out ( ! pages ( a novel or movie script4 ,z e>ly z #ahhe1 ,allan ,m>qu& _h propos$ an electrical logic ma*9e z an improvem5t ov] 8 simple me*anically op]at$ model1 b x 0 #aicf be=e su* a device 0 actually built4 ,9 t ye> ,b5jam9 ,burack1 a memb] ( ,*icago's ,roosevelt ,college psy*ology dep>tm5t1 built & demon/rat$ 8 8,electrical ,logic ,ma*9e40 ,able to te/ all syllogisms1 ! ,burack ma*9e 0 unique 9 ano!r respect4 ,x 0 ! fir/ ( ! portable electrical comput]s4 ,! compatibility ( symbolic logic & electrical network !ory 0 becom+ evid5t at ab\t ?is "t4 ,! idea t yes-no correspond$ to on-(f 0 beautifully simple1 & 9 #aich !re appe>$ 9 "o ( ! le>n$ j\rnals :at may fairly be call$ a hi/oric pap]4 ,appe>+ 9 ,transactions ( ! ,am]ican ,in/itute ( ,electrical ,eng9e]s1 8,a ,symbolic ,analysis ( ,relay & ,swit*+ ,circuits10 0 writt5 by ,claude ,%annon & 0 bas$ on 8 !sis = ! ,m4,s4 degree at ! ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology a ye> e>li]4 ,"o ( its important implications 0 t ! programm+ ( a comput] 0 m a logical ?an an ari?metical op]ation4 ,%annon _h laid ! gr\ndwork = logical comput] design2 8 "w made x possible to tea* ! ma*9e n only to add b also to ?9k4 ,ano!r monum5tal piece ( "w by ,%annon 0 t on in=mation !ory1 :i* revolutioniz$ ! sci5ce ( communications4 ,! au?or is n[ on ! /aff ( ! electronics rese>* laboratory at ,m4,i4,t4 ,two ent]pris+ ,h>v>d und]graduates put ,%annon's ideas to "w on _! problems 9 ! symbolic logic class !y 7 tak+4 ,call$ a ,kal9-,burkh>t ma*9e = its build]s1 ?is electrical logic ma*9e did inde$ "w1 solv+ ! /ud5ts' homework assignm5ts & sav+ !m mu* t$i\s pap]work4 ,int]e/+ly1 :5 c]ta9 logical que/ions 7 pos$ = ! ma*9e1 its circuits w5t into oscillation1 mak+ 8a hell ( a racket0 9 its fru/ration4 ,! build]s call$ ?is an example ( 8,russell's p>adox40 ,a typical logical p>adox is t ( ! b>b] :o %av$ all m5 :o didn't %ave !mselves--:o %aves ! b>b]8 ,or ( ! condemn$ man p]mitt$ to make a la/ /atem5t4 ,if ! /atem5t is true1 he w be behead$2 if false1 he w hang4 ,! man says1 8,i %all be hang$10 & ?us conf\nds 8 execution]s z well z logic1 s9ce if he is hang$1 ! /atem5t is inde$ true1 & he %\ld h be5 behead$4 ,if he is behead$1 ! /atem5t is false1 & he %\ld h be5 hang$ in/ead4 ,_w ,w> ,,ii1 ) its press+ly complex te*nological problems1 spurr$ comput] "w mightily4 ,m5 l ,vannev> ,bu%1 !n at ,h>v>d1 produc$ analog comput]s call$ 8diff]5tial analyz]s0 :i* 7 useful 9 solv+ ma!matics involv$ 9 design ( aircraft & 9 balli/ics problems4 ,a comput] built by ,g5]al ,electric = ! gunsights on ! ,_w ,w> ,,ii ,b-#bi bomb] is typical ( applications ( analog devices = comput+ & pr$ict+1 & is also an example ( e>ly airborne use ( comput+ devices4 ,mo/ comput]s1 h[ev]1 7 sizable affairs4 ,"o e>ly ,g5]al ,electric analog ma*9e1 describ$ z a hundr$ feet long1 indicates ! tr5d t[>d ! 8giant bra90 concept4 ,ev5 ) ! sophi/ication atta9$1 ^! comput]s 7 h>dly m ?an ext5sions ( me*anical =]unn]s4 ,9 o!r words1 ge>s & cams prop]ly proportion$ & actuat$ gave ! prop] answ]s :e!r !y 7 turn$ by a manual crank or an electrical motor4 ,! digital comput]1 :i* _h someh[ be5 lo/ 9 ! %uffle ( int]e/ 9 comput]s1 0 n[ appe>+ on ! sci5tific horizon1 h[ev]1 & 9 ?is ma*9e w\ld fl[] all ! ga9s 9 comput]s f ! abacus to electrical logic ma*9es4 ,! ,mod]n ,comput] ,_m m5 work$ on ! digital concept4 ,aik51 :o built ! electrome*anical ,m>k ,i at ,h>v>d1 & ,williams 9 ,engl& are repres5tative4 ,b two sci5ti/s at ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania get ! cr$it = ! _w's fir/ electronic digital comput]1 ,,eniac1 a #cj-ton1 #aej-kil[att ma*9e us+ vacuum tubes & semiconductor diodes & h&l+ discrete numb]s in/ead ( cont9u\s values z 9 ! analog ma*9e4 ,! mod]n comput] dates f ,,eniac1 ,electronic ,num]ical ,integrator ,& ,comput]4 ,illu/ration3 ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac ,,eniac 9 op]ation4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ electronic digital comput]4 ,%annon's "w & ! ?9k+ ( o!rs 9 ! field indicat$ ! p[] ( ! digital1 yes-no1 approa*4 ,a s+le swit* c only be on or (f1 b _m su* swit*es prop]ly int]connect$ c d amaz+ ?+s4 ,at fir/ ^! swit*es 7 electrome*anical2 9 ! ,eck]t-,mau*ly ,,eniac1 complet$ = ! gov]nm5t 9 #aidf1 vacuum tubes 9 ! ,eccles-,jordan 8flip-flop0 circuit m>ri$ electronics & ! comput]4 ,! prog5y h be5 _m1 & _! g5]ations fa/] ?an ^? ( man4 ,,eniac has be5 foll[$ by ,,b9ac & ,,maniac1 & ev5 ,,johnniac4 ,,univac & ,,recomp & ,,/ret* & ,,l>c & a :ole ho/ ( o!r ma*9es h be5 produc$4 ,at ! />t ( #aifb !re 7 "s #f1jjj electronic digital comput]s 9 s]vice2 by ye>'s end !re w be #h1jjj4 ,! gold5 age ( ! comput] may be "h1 b z we h se51 x did n come ov]night4 ,! revolution has be5 sl[1 ga!r+ e>ly mom5tum ) ! gold5 :eels ( ,hom]'s me*anical in=mation-seek+ vehicles t br\ght ! ^w f ! gods4 ,:]e x goes f "h dep5ds on u1 & maybe on ! comput] itself4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,!ory is ! guide to practice1 & practice is ! ratification & life ( !ory40 --,john ,weiss #c3 ,h[ ,comput]s ,"w ,9 ! pa/ decade or s1 an amaz+ & confus+ numb] ( comput+ ma*9es h develop$4 ,to ^? ( u unfamili> ) ! bea/1 _m ( !m d n look at all l :at we imag9$ comput]s to be2 o!rs are ev5 m awesome ?an ! wilde/ sci5ce-fiction writ] c\ld dream up4 ,on ! m complex1 lights fla%1 tape reels sp9 dizzily1 & pr9t]s clatt] at mile-a-m9ute spe$s4 ,we are aw>e1 or p]haps j take on fai?1 t ! electronic m>vel is do+ its sums at s _m ?\s& or million p] second1 crank+ out ma!matical pro(s & process+ data at a rate to make m]e man seem l ! dulle/ sl[poke4 ,j h[ comput]s d ?is is pretty mu* ( a my/]y unless we are ( ! bre$ t works ) !m4 ,actually1 9 spite ( all ! blurr+ spe$ & seem+ magic1 ! basic /eps ( comput] op]ation are q simple & g5]ally ! same = all types ( ma*9es f ! mode/ly pric$ electrome*anical d-x-y\rself model to ,,/ret*1 ,,muse1 & o!r t5-million-doll> comput]s4 ,x might be well be=e we g f>!r to le>n a few words 9 ! lexicon ( ! comput]1 words t are becom+ m & m a "p ( our ev]yday language4 ,! foll[+ gloss>y is ( c\rse nei!r complete nor te*nical b x w be helpful 9 foll[+ ?r\gh ! me*anics ( comput] op]ation4 ,,comput] ,,diction>y ,,access ,,"t--,"t requir$ = comput] to locate data & transf] x f "o comput] elem5t to ano!r4 ,,add]--,device = =m+ sums 9 ! comput]4 ,,address--,specific location ( in=mation 9 comput] memory4 ,,analog ,,comput]--,a physical or electrical simulator :i* produces an analogy ( ! ma!matical problem to be solv$4 ,,ari?metic ,,unit--,unit t p]=ms ari?metical & logical op]ations4 ,,b9>y ,,code--,repres5tation ( numb]s or o!r in=mation us+ only "o & z]o1 to take advantage ( op5 & clos$ circuits4 ,,bit--,a b9>y digit1 ei!r "o or z]o2 us$ to make b9>y numb]s4 ,,block--,gr\p ( words h&l$ z a unit1 p>ticul>ly ) ref]5ce to input & output4 ,,buff]--,/orage device to comp5sate = diff]5ce 9 input & op]ation rate4 ,,control ,,unit--,portion ( ! comput] t controls ari?metic & logical op]ations & transf] ( in=mation4 ,,delay ,,l9e--,memory device to /ore & lat] re9s]t in=mation2 uses physical1 me*anical1 or electrical te*niques4 ,,digital ,,comput]--,a comput] t uses discrete numb]s to repres5t in=mation4 ,,flip-,,flop--,a circuit or device :i* rema9s 9 ei!r ( two /ates until ! application ( a signal4 ,,gate--,a circuit ) m ?an "o input1 & an output dep5d5t on ^! inputs4 ,an ,,& gate's output is en]giz$ only :5 all inputs are en]giz$4 ,an ,,or gate's output is en]giz$ :5 "o or m inputs are en]giz$4 ,!re are also ,,n-,,& gates1 ,,exclusive-,,or gates1 etc4 ,,logical ,,op]ation--,a non>i?metical op]ation1 i4e41 decision-mak+1 data-sort+1 se>*+1 etc4 ,,magnetic ,,drum--,rotat+ cyl9d] /orage device = memory unit2 /ores data 9 cod$ =m4 ,,matrix--,circuitry = trans=mation ( digital codes f "o type to ano!r2 uses wires1 diodes1 relays1 etc4 ,,memory ,,unit--,t "p ( ! comput] t /ores in=mation 9 ma*9e language1 us+ electrical or magnetic te*niques4 ,,microsecond--,"o million? ( a second4 ,,millisecond--,"o ?\s&? ( a second4 ,,nanosecond--,"o billion? ( a second4 ,,p>allel ,,op]ation--,digital comput] op]ation 9 :i* all digits are h&l$ simultane\sly4 ,,programm+--,/eps to be execut$ by comput] to solve problem4 ,,r&om ,,access--,a memory sy/em t p]mits m ne>ly equal access "t to all memory locations ?an does a nonr&om sy/em4 ,magnetic core memory is a r&om type1 comp>$ ) a tape reel memory4 ,,real ,,"t--,comput] op]ation simultane\s ) input ( in=mation2 e4g41 control ( a guid$ missile or ( an assembly l9e4 ,,regi/]--,/orage device = small am\nt ( in=mation :ile1 or until1 x is ne$$4 ,,s]ial ,,op]ation--,digital comput] op]ation 9 :i* all digits are h&l$ s]ially4 ,,/orage--,use ( drums1 tapes1 c>ds1 & s on to /ore data outside ! comput] prop]4 ,! ,comput]'s ,p>ts ,look+ at comput]s f a di/ance1 we are vaguely aw>e t !y are giv5 problems 9 ! =m ( cod$ in/ructions & t ?r\gh "s electronic metamorphosis ?is problem turns into an answ] t is produc$ at ! read\t end ( ! ma*9e4 ,!re is an eng9e]+ te*nique call$ ! 8black box0 concept1 9 :i* we are conc]n$ only ) input to ?is box & its output4 ,we c\ld ext5d ?is concept to 8black-magic box0 & apply x to ! comput]1 b break+ ! sy/em d[n into its compon5ts is q simple & mu* m in=mative4 ,!re are five compon5ts t make up a comput]3 input1 control1 ari?metic 7or logic7 unit1 memory1 & output4 ,z ma*9e intellig5ce exp]t1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,ross ,a%by1 po9ts out1 we c get no m out ( a bra9--me*anical or human--?an we put into x4 ,s we mu/ h an input4 ,! k9d ( input dep5ds l>gely on ! degree ( sophi/ication ( ! ma*9e we are consid]+4 ,) ! abacus we set 9 ! problem me*anically1 ) our f+]s4 ,us+ a desk calculator we pun* buttons3 a m ref9$ me*anical input4 ,pun*$ c>ds or p]=at$ tapes are mu* us$ input me?ods4 ,z comput]s evolve rapidly1 "s ( !m c 8read0 = !mselves & ! input is visual4 ,!re are also comput]s t und]/& v]bal comm&s4 ,input %\ld n be confus$ ) ! control portion ( ! comput]'s anatomy4 ,we fe$ 9 data1 b we mu/ also tell ! comput] :at to d ) ! in=mation4 ,%all x c\nt ! numb] ( c>ds t fly ?r\gh x1 or %all x add ! numb]s %[n on ! c>ds1 record ! maximum & m9imum1 & pr9t out an av]age8 ,control involves programm+1 a comput] t]m t 0 among ! fir/ to be assimilat$ into ord9>y language4 ,! ari?metic unit--t "p ( ! comput] t ! pione] ,babbage call$ 8 8mill0--is ! nuts & bolts end ( ! bus9ess4 ,"h are ! ge>s & %afts1 ! electrome*anical relays1 or ! vacuum tubes1 transi/ors1 & magnetic cores t d ! addition1 multiplication1 & o!r ma!matical op]ations4 ,sometimes ?is is call$ ! 8logic0 unit1 s9ce (t5 x manipulates ! ,,&s1 ,,ors1 ,,nors1 & o!r conjunctives 9 ! logical algebra ( ,boole & 8 foll[]s4 ,! memory unit is j t2 a place :]e numb]s1 words1 or o!r data are /or$ & ready to be call$ into use :5ev] ne$$4 ,!re are two broad types ( memory1 int]nal & ext]nal1 & !y p>allel ! k9d ( memory we use ourselves4 ,:ile our bra9 c /ore _m1 _m facts1 x does h a practical limit4 ,?is is :y we h phone books1 log>i?m tables1 /r+s ar\nd f+]s1 & s on4 ,! comput] likewise has its ext]nal memory t may /ore ?\s&s ( times ! capacity ( its int]nal memory4 ,babbage's ma*9e c\ld rememb] a ?\s& fifty-digit numb]s2 today's l>ge comput]s call on millions ( bits ( data4 ,illu/ration3 ,conv]sion ( problem to ma*9e program4 ,aft] we h dump$ 9 ! data & told ! comput] :at to d ) !m1 & ! ari?metic & memory h collaborat$1 x rema9s only = ! comput] to display ! result4 ,?is is ! output ( ! comput]1 & x c take _m =ms4 ,if we are us+ a simple analog comput] su* z a slide rule1 ! answ] is f\nd "u ! hairl9e on ! slide4 ,an electronic comput] 9 a bank pr9ts out ! results ( ! day's transactions 9 neat type at hundr$s ( l9es a m9ute4 ,! ,,sage def5se comput] sy/em displays an invad+ bomb] & plots ! correct c\rse = int]ceptors on a scope2 a comput] 9 a playful mood might type out its next move--,k+ to ,q#g & *eckmate4 ,) ?is sket*y ov]-all description to get u />t$1 let u /udy ea* unit 9 a little m detail4 ,x is int]e/+ to comp>e ^! op]ations ) ^? ( our human comput]1 our bra91 z we g along4 ,illu/ration3 ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac ,a l>ge comput]1 %[+ ! diff]5t p>ts requir$4 ,input ,an e>ly & /ill v popul> me?od ( gett+ data into ! comput] is ! pun*$ c>d4 ,jacqu>d's clev] way ( weav+ a patt]n got into ! comput] bus9ess ?r\gh ,holl]i?'s c5sus c\nt+ ma*9es4 ,today ! ubiquit\s ,,ibm c>d c d ^! tasks ( nose c\nt+ & weav+1 & j ab\t ev]y?+ else 9 betwe54 ,jacqu>d us$ ! pun*$ holes to p]mit c]ta9 p9s to slide ?r\gh4 ,holl]i? sub/itut$ ! m]cury electrical contact = ! loom's fly+ ne$les4 ,today !re are _m o!r ways ( 8read+0 ! c>ds4 ,metal base plate & spr+s1 /> :eels1 ev5 photoelectric cells are us$ to detect ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! cod$ holes4 ,a human :o kn[s ! code c visually extract ! in=mation2 a bl9d man c\ld d x by ! t\* sy/em4 ,s ) ! comput]1 !re are _m ways ( transf]r+ data4 ,illu/ration3 ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac ,! ,comput]'s ,basic ,p>ts4 ,an obvi\s requirem5t ( ! pun*$ c>d is t someone has to pun* ! holes 9 ! fir/ place4 ,?is is done ) manually op]at$ pun*es1 p[] pun*es1 & ev5 automatic ma*9es t h&le m ?an a hundr$ c>ds a m9ute4 ,pun*$ c>ds1 :i* fall into ! category call$ comput] 8s(tw>e10 are *eap1 flexible1 & compatible ) _m types ( equipm5t4 ,p>ticul>ly ) ma!matical computations & sci5tific rese>*1 ano!r type ( input has become popul>1 t ( pap] tape4 ,?is 9 effect /r+s _m c>ds toge!r & puts !m on an easily h&l$ roll4 ,?us a long s]ies ( data c be pun*$ )\t *ang+ c>ds1 & is conv5i5tly /or$ = repeat$ use4 ,rememb] ! old play]-piano rolls ( music8 ,^! actually =m$ ! input = "o k9d ( comput]1 a musical ma*9e t conv]t$ cod$ holes to musical s\nds by means ( pneumatic te*niques4 ,lat] 9 ?is *apt] we w discuss "s mod]n pneumatic comput]s4 ,m effici5t ?an pap] is magnetic tape1 ! same k9d we use 9 our home record+ in/rum5ts4 ,anyone famili> ) a tape record] kn[s h[ easy x is to edit or *ange some?+ on a tape reel4 ,?is is a big advantage ov] pun*$ c>ds or pap] tapes :i* are physically alt]$ by ! data /or$ on !m & _c be correct$4 ,besides ?is1 magnetic tape c hold _m m 8bits0 ( in=mation ?an pap] & also l5ds itself to v rapid movem5t ?r\gh ! read+ head ( ! comput]4 ,= example1 /&>d comput] tape holds sev5 tracks1 ea* ) hundr$s ( bits ( in=mation p] in*4 ,s9ce !re are ?\s&s ( feet on a t5-in* reel1 x is !oretically possible to pack #dj million bits on ?is h&ful ( tape6 ,s9ce ! comput] usually c op]ate at a mu* high] rate ( spe$ ?an we c put in=mation onto tape1 x is (t5 ! practice to h a 8buff]0 9 ! input section4 ,?is receiv+ /ation collects & /ores in=mation until x is full1 !n fe$s x to ! comput] :i* gobbles x up ) lightn+ spe$4 ,keep+ a fa/ comput] cont9u\sly busy may require _m diff]5t inputs4 ,nev] satisfi$1 comput] design]s pond]$ ! problem ( all ! lo/ "t entail$ 9 labori\sly prep>+ c>ds or tapes = ! rav5\s electronic ma*9e4 ,! results ( ?is bra9-se>*+ are int]e/+1 & !y are evid5t 9 comput]s t actually read man-talk4 ,comput]s us$ 9 ! po/ (fice & else:]e c optically read addresses z well z /amps2 banks h comput]s t electrically read ! cod$ magnetic ink numb]s on our *ecks & process ?\s&s ( times z _m z human work]s once did4 ,?is optical read+ input is n )\t its problems1 ( c\rse4 ,_m comput]s require a special type face to be us$1 & ! po/ (fice f\nd t its /amp recogniz] 0 mi/ak+ ,*ri/mas seals = =eign /amps4 ,improv$ read heads n[ c read h&-pr9t$ mat]ial & w "o day ma/] our widely diff]+ human scrawls4 ,?is is ( c\rse a boon to ! 8programm]0 ( l5g?y equations :o n[ has to translate ! :ole problem into ma*9e talk be=e ! ma*9e c accept x4 ,if a ma*9e c read1 :y c't x und]/& v]bal input z well8 ,lazy comput] eng9e]s h pu%$ ?is idea1 & ! simple/ input sy/em ( all is well on ! way to success4 ,comput]s today c recognize numb]s & a few words1 & ! ,japanese h a typewrit] t pr9ts out ! words spok5 to x6 ,^! l+ui/ic advances t electronic comput]s are mak+ are great = ev]yone1 except p]haps ! glamoriz$ programm]1 a new bre$ ( ma!matical logician ^: s]vices h be5 dem&$ 9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,magnetic ,tape - ,pap] ,tape - ,,ibm ,c>d - ,magnetic ,ink ,*>act]s ,control ,be=e we fe$ ! problem into ! ma*9e1 or be=e we give x "s 8raw0 data to process1 we _h bett] tell our comput] :at we want x to d4 ,all ! fanta/ic spe$ ( our electrons w result 9 a mean+less m]ry-g-r\nd1 or p]haps a glori\s ma*9e-/all+ %ort circuit unless ! prop] swit*es op5 & close at ! "r "t4 ,?is is ! job ( ! control unit ( ! comput]1 a unit t und]/&s comm&s l 8/>t10 8add10 8subtract10 8f9d ! squ>e root10 8file 9 ,b9 ,b10 8/op10 & s on4 ,! key to all ! comput]'s p>ts work+ toge!r 9 electronic h>mony is its 8clock40 ,?is timekeep] 9 effect snaps its f+]s 9 p]fect cad5ce1 & ! swit*es jump at its bidd+4 ,s9ce ! f+]-snapp+ takes place at rates ( millions ( snaps a second1 ! programm] mu/ be sure he has in/ruct$ ! comput] prop]ly4 ,! ideal programm] is a r>e type ) a peculi>ly ke5 bra9 t sometimes takes seem+ly illogical /eps to be logical4 ,programm]s are likely to be m5--or wom51 = !re is no sex b>ri] 9 ?is new pr(ession--:o revel 9 symbolic logic & heuri/ic or 8hun*0 reason+4 ,)\t a program1 ! comput] is an impressively elaborate & fright5+ly exp5sive contraption :i* _c tell "o numb] f ano!r4 ,! day may come :5 ! ma!matician c say to ! ma*9e1 8,prove ,f]mat's la/ !orem = me1 please10 or ! eng9e] simply wi% al\d = a c]amic mat]ial t melts at #ae1jjj ,c4 & weighs slightly less ?an ,/yr(oam4 ,ev5 !n ! human programm] w n />t draw+ unemploym5t insurance1 ( c\rse4 ,if he is n receiv+ 8 ,social ,security p5sion by !n he w simply %ift to m creative "w su* z ?9k+ up m problems = ! ma*9e to solve4 ,j z !re are _m jobs = ! comput]1 s !re are _m k9ds ( programs4 ,on a v simple1 special-purpose comput]1 ! program may be 8wir$-910 or fix$1 s t ! comput] c d t p>ticul> job & no o!r4 ,on a m flexible ma*9e1 ! program may /ill be q simple1 p]haps no m ?an a c>d ent]$ 9 a desk unit by an airl9e ticket ag5t to let ! comput] arrange a res]vation = ?ree t\ri/ seats on ,am]ican ,airl9es jet flight f ,pho5ix to ,*icago at #h3bj ,a4,m4 f\r days f n[4 ,on a g5]al-purpose ma*9e1 capable ( _m problems1 ! program may be unique1 a "o-(-a-k9d highly complex set ( in/ructions t w make ! comput] tax its huge memory & d all sorts ( m5tal 8nip-ups0 be=e x rea*es a solution4 ,a comput] t und]/&s ab\t sixty comm&s has be5 comp>$ to a ,siamese elephant us$ = teak logg+2 ! animal has ab\t t _m words 9 its vocabul>y4 ,vocabul>y is an indication ( comput] z well z human sophi/ication4 ,! tr5d is con/antly t[>d less-?an-elephant size1 & m-?an-elephant vocabul>y4 ,! programm]'s "w c be divid$ into f\r basic phases3 analysis ( ! problem2 application or mat*+ problem requirem5ts ) ! capabilities ( ! "r comput]2 fl[ *>t+ ! v>i\s op]ations us+ symbolic diagrams2 & f9ally1 cod+ or translat+ ! fl[ *>t into language ! comput] kn[s4 ,! fl[ *>t to "s ext5t p>allels ! way our own bra9s solve logic problems1 or at lea/ ! way !y ought to solve !m4 ,= example1 a comput] might be in/ruct$ to select ! smalle/ ( ?ree keys4 ,x w\ld comp>e ,a & ,b1 disc>d ! l>g]1 & !n comp>e ) ,c1 f9ally select+ ! prop] "o4 ,?is is ( c\rse su* a ridicul\sly simple problem t few ( u w\ld bo!r to use ! comput] s9ce x w\ld take mu* long] to plot ! fl[ *>t ?an to select ! key by simple visual inspection4 ,b ! logical pr9ciple is ! same1 ev5 :5 ! comput] is to be told to analyze all ! bus9ess transactions conduct$ by a l>ge corporation dur+ ! ye> & advise a program = ! next ye> :i* w %[ ! mo/ pr(it4 ,f ! symbolic fl[ *>t1 ! programm] makes an op]ational fl[ *>t1 a detail$ block diagram1 & f9ally ! program itself4 ,suitably cod$ 9 comput] language1 ?is program is ready = ! comput]'s control unit4 ,) a problem ( complex nature1 su* z "o involv+ ! fir+ ( a space vehicle1 programm]s soon le>n$ !y 7 sp5d+ h\rs1 or ev5 days1 on a problem :i* ! comput] proce$$ to zip ?r\gh 9 m9utes or seconds4 ,x 0 some?+ l work+ all ye> build+ an elaborate ,f\r? ( ,july fireworks display1 t\*+ ! mat*1 & see+ ! :ole ?+ g up 9 spectacul> smoke = a brief mom5t4 ,( c\rse ! end ju/ifies ! means 9 ei!r case1 & z soon z ! comput] has quit :irr+1 or ! skyrockets fad$ out1 ! programm] gets back to "w4 ,b "s %ort cuts 7 le>n$4 ,ev5 a program = a unique problem is likely to conta9 _m 8subr\t9es0 j l ^? 9 o!r problems4 ,^! are us$ & re-us$2 "s comput]s n[ h libr>ies ( programs !y c draw on mu* z we call on ?+s le>n$ la/ week or la/ ye>4 ,) 8 "w complet$1 ! programm]'s only worry is t an error might exi/ 9 x1 an error t c\ld raise havoc if n discov]$4 ,"o false bit ( logic 9 a bus9ess problem2 a slight ma!matical bon] 9 a design = a mann$ missile1 c\ld be cata/rophic s9ce our te*nology is s complicat$ t ! mi/ake might be le>n$ only :5 disa/] /ruck4 ,s ! programm] *ecks & re*ecks 8 "w until he is positive he has n err$4 ,h[ ab\t ! comput]8 ,x *ecks itself too2 s ?or\ghly t !re is no dang] ( x mak+ a mi/ake4 ,comput] design]s h be5 v clev] 9 ?is respect4 ,"o advanc$ te*nique is 8majority rule0 *eck+4 ,n long ago :5 ! abacus 0 us$ ev5 9 bank+1 ! ,japanese 7 aw>e t a s+le acc\ntant might make a false move & bot* up ! day's tally4 ,b if two op]ators work$ ! same problem & got ! same answ]1 ! laws ( probability rule t ! answ] c be accept$4 ,if ! sums d n agree1 ?\gh1 :i* man is "r8 ,to *eck fur!r1 & save ! "t ne$$ to g ?r\gh ! :ole problem aga91 ?ree abacuses1 or abaci1 are put ?r\gh _! paces4 ,n[ if two answ]s agree1 *ances are !y are ! "r solution4 ,if all ?ree are diff]5t1 ! bank _h bett] hire new cl]ks6 ,illu/ration3 ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac ,a ^w picture 8fl[ *>t0 ( ! logical op]ation ( select+ ! prop] key4 ,ari?metic or ,logic ,n[ t our comput] has ! two necess>y +r$i5ts ( input & control1 ! ari?metic or logic unit c get busy4 ,babbage call$ ?is ! 8mill10 & ) all ! :irr+ ge>s & clank+ arms 8 eng9e boa/$1 ! t]m mu/ h be5 accurate4 ,today's comput] is mu* quiet] s9ce 9 electronic swit*es ! only mov+ p>ts are ! electrons !mselves & ^! don't make mu* ( a racket4 ,su* swit*es h ano!r big advantage 9 t !y op5 & close at a great rate1 practically ! spe$ ( light4 ,! fa/e/ comput]s use swit*es t act 9 nanoseconds1 or billion?s ( a second4 ,9 "o nanosecond light itself travels only a foot4 ,! comput] may be lik5$ to someone c\nt+ on two ( 8 f+]s4 ,in/ead ( ! decimal or t5-base sy/em1 mo/ comput]s use b9>y ari?metic1 :i* has a base ( two4 ,b f+]s t c be c\nt$ 9 billion? p>ts ( a second c h&le figures pretty fa/1 & ! comput] has le>n$ "s clev] tricks t fur!r spe$ ?+s up4 ,x c only add1 b by adroit juggl+ x subtracts by us+ ! complem5t ( ! desir$ numb]1 a te*nique kn[n to ^? famili> ) an ord9>y add+ ma*9e4 ,!re are also "s tricks to multiply+ t all[ ! comput] aga9 to simply add & come up ) ! answ]4 ,) p5cil & pap] we c multiply #aag times #hce easily4 ,rememb]1 ?\gh1 t ! comput] c only add1 & t x 0 once call$ a spe$y imbecile4 ,! mo/ imbecilic comput] might solve ! problem by add+ #aag to itself #hce times4 ,a sm>t] model w rev]se ! proc$ure & h&le only #aag numb]s4 ,! moron type ( comput] is a bit m clev] & sets up ! problem ?is way3 #hce #hce #hce #hce #hce #hce #hce #hcej #hcejj ---- #igfie ,a mom5t's reflection w %[ t ?is is ! same z add+ #g times #hce1 #aj times #hce1 & #ajj times #hce4 ,& ( c\rse ! comput] arrives at ! answ] 9 ab\t ! "t x takes u to />t draw+ ! l9e "u our multipli]4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,b5dix ,corp41 ,comput] ,division ,assembly ( pr9t$-circuit compon5t 8packages0 into comput]4 ,p]haps sm>t+ "u ! unk9d rem>ks ab\t its m5tal ability1 ! comput] has lately be5 try+ "s new approa*es to ! h&l+ ( complex ari?metical problems4 ,in/ead ( add+ long /r+s ( numb]s1 x w take a guess at ! result1 d "s sm>t *eck+1 adju/ its figures1 & %ortly arrive at ! "r solution4 ,= non>i?metical problems1 ! comput] sub/itutes yes & no = #a & #j & bli!ly solves problems 9 logic at ! same high rate ( spe$4 ,memory ,:5 we demon/rat$ our sup]iority e>li] 9 multiply+ in/ead ( add+ ! numb]s 9 ! problem1 we 7 draw+ on our memory3 recall+ multiplication tables committ$ to memory :5 we 7 q "y4 ,babbage's 8/ore0 9 8 diff]5ce eng9e1 y w recall1 c\ld memorize a ?\s& fifty-digit numb]s1 a feat t w\ld tax mo/ ( u4 ,! gr&*ildr5 ( ! ,babbage ma*9e c call on z _m z a billion bits ( in=mation /or$ on tape4 ,z y wat* ! reels ( tape sp9n+1 halt+ abruptly1 & sp9n+ aga9 s purposefully1 rememb] t ! comput] is rememb]+4 ,9 addition to its l>ge memory1 incid5tally1 a comput] may also h a small] 8scrat*-pad0 memory to save "t4 ,e>ly ma*9es us$ electrome*anical relays or p]haps vacuum-tube 8flip-flops0 = memory4 ,pun*$-c>d files /ore data too4 ,to spe$ up ! access to in=mation1 design]s tri$ ! delay-l9e circuit1 a device t kept in=mation circulat+ 9 a m]cury or o!r type ( delay4 ,magnetic drums & discs are also us$4 ,magnetic tape on reels is us$ m ?an any o!r memory sy/em = _m practical reasons4 ,!re is "o s]i\s h&icap ) ! tape sy/em1 h[ev]4 ,in=mation on x1 z on ! drum1 disc1 file c>d1 or delay l9e1 is s]ial1 t is1 x is arrang$ 9 sequ5ce4 ,to rea* a c]ta9 ne$$ bit ( data might require runn+ ?r\gh an entire reel ( tape4 ,ev5 ?\gh ! tape moves at v high spe$1 "t is lo/ :ile ! comput]'s ari?metic unit waits4 ,= ?is reason ! design]s ( ! mo/ advanc$ comput]s h gone to 8r&om access0 in/ead ( sequ5tial memory = "p ( ! ma*9e4 ,t9y cores ( f]rite mat]ial :i* has ! desir$ magnetic prop]ties are ?read$ on wires4 ,^! become memory elem5ts1 z _m z a hundr$ ( !m 9 an area ! size ( a po/age /amp4 ,ea* core is at ! int]section ( two wires1 "o horizontal & "o v]tical4 ,ea* core ?us has a unique 8address0 & because ( ! arrangem5t ( ! core matrix1 any address c be rea*$ 9 ab\t ! same am\nt ( "t z any o!r4 ,?us1 in/ead ( sp9n+ ! tape sev]al hundr$ feet to rea* address numb] #f1efd1 ! comput] simply closes ! circuit ( v]tical r[ #fe & horizontal r[ #fd1 & !re is ! desir$ bit ( in=mation 9 ! =m ( a magnetic field 9 ! select$ core4 ,hot on ! heels ( ! developm5t ( r&om-access core memories came t ( ?9 metallic film devices & s-call$ cryog5ic or sup]cold magnetic compon5ts t d ! same job z ! f]rite cores b take only a fraction ( ! space4 ,"s ( ^! advanc$ devices also l5d !mselves to volume production & ?us pave ! way = memories ) m & m in=mation-/orage capability4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,magnetic core plane1 ! comput]'s memory4 ,9 ! realm ( 8blue-sky0 devices1 sometimes kn[n z 8j\rnali/ors10 are molecul> block memories4 ,^! *unks ( mat]ial w conta9 millions ( bits ( in=mation 9 cubic in*es ( volume1 & "s way ( ?ree-dim5sional scann+ ( ! entire block w be develop$4 ,) su* a high-volume memory1 ! comput] ( tomorr[ w fit on a desk top in/ead ( requir+ r[s & r[s ( tape-fill$ ma*9es4 ,today1 tape (f]s ! *eape/ 8p] bit0 /orage1 & x is necess>y to use ! ext]nal or p]iph]al type ( in=mation /orage4 ,?is is n mu* ( a problem except = ! matt] ( space4 ,s9ce mo/ comput]s are electronic1 all t is requir$ to tie ! memory units to ! ari?metic unit is wire connections4 ,d\glas ,aircraft ties comput]s 9 its ,cali=nia & ,nor? ,c>ol9a plants ) #b1djj miles ( telephone hookup4 ,sometimes ev5 wires are n necess>y4 ,9 ! ,los ,angeles area1 ,nor? ,am]ican ,aviation has a numb] ( plants sep>at$ by z _m z =ty miles4 ,ea* plant is q capable ( us+ ! comput]s 9 ! o!r locations1 ) a /ream ( digits beam$ by micr[ave radio f "o to ! o!r4 ,in=mation c be transf]r$ 9 ?is mann] at rates up to #fe1jjj bits p] second4 ,output ,once ! comput] has tak5 ! input ( in=mation1 be5 in/ruct$ :at to d1 & us$ its ari?metic & memory1 x has done ! bulk ( ! "w on ! problem4 ,b x mu/ n[ rev]se ! proc$ure t took place :5 in=mation fl[$ into x & 0 translat$ into electrical impulses & magnetic curr5ts4 ,x c\ld convey ! answ] to ano!r ma*9e t spoke its language1 b man w\ld f9d su* in=mation un9telligible4 ,s ! comput] has an output section t translates back into e>? language4 ,babbage's comput] 0 to h pr9t$ out its answ]s on metal plates1 & _m comput]s today furni% pun*$ c>ds or tape z an output4 ,o!rs pr9t ! answ]s on %eets ( pap]1 s rapidly t a page ( ?is book w\ld take little m ?an a second to produce6 ,"o ( ! greate/ *all5ges ( rec5t ye>s is t ( produc+ pr9t+ devices fa/ en\gh to exploit fully ! t]rific spe$s ( electronic comput+ ma*9es4 ,!re w\ld be little advantage 9 a comput] t c\ld add all ! digits 9 all ! phone books 9 ! _w 9 less ?an a m9ute if x took ?ree weeks to pr9t out ! answ]4 ,impact pr9t]s1 ^? t actually /rike keys aga9/ pap]1 h be5 improv$ to ! po9t :]e !y pr9t m ?an a ?\s& l9es ( type1 ea* ) #abj *>act]s 9 x1 p] m9ute4 ,b ev5 ?is is n rapid en\gh 9 "s in/ances1 & completely new k9ds ( pr9t]s h be5 develop$4 ,"o is ! ,*>actron tube1 a device comb9+ a ca?ode-ray tube1 some?+ l ! ,,tv picture tube1 ) an int]pos$ #fd-;"* matrix ab\t half an in* 9 diamet]4 ,electrical impulses deflect ! electron beam 9 ! tube s t x passes ?r\gh ! prop] matrix "* & =ms t image on ! face ( ! tube4 ,?is image !n is pr9t$ electro/atically on ! treat$ pap] r ?an ) a metal type face4 ,) no mov+ p>ts except ! pap]1 & ( c\rse ! electrons !mselves1 ! ,*>actron pr9t] op]ates close to ! spe$ ( ! comput] itself1 & produces #ajj1jjj words a m9ute4 ,?is entire book c\ld be pr9t$ out 9 ab\t =ty-five seconds 9 ?is mann]4 ,illu/ration3 ,m9neapolis-,honeywell1 ,electronic ,data ,process+ ,division ,a high-spe$ pr9t] is ! output ( ?is comput]4 ,x pr9ts #ijj l9es a m9ute4 ,!re are _m o!r k9ds ( outputs4 ,"s are 9 ! =m ( payroll *ecks1 ru%+ f ! pr9t] at ! rate ( #aj1jjj an h\r4 ,"s are simply illum9at$ numb]s & lett]s on ! face ( ! comput]4 ,z m5tion$ e>li]1 ! ,,sage air def5se comput] displays ! tracks ( aircraft & missiles on l>ge scre5s1 ea* accurately tagg$ = spe$1 altitude1 & classification4 ,! comput] may ev5 speak its answ] to u audibly4 ,g5]al ,electric eng9e]s h programm$ comput]s to play music1 & come up ) a clev] giveaway record titl$ 8,*ri/mas ,c>ols 9 #baj ,"t10 la pipe-organ solo4 ,"s m s]i\s musical "w is n[ be+ done 9 tak+ a musical input f$ to a comput]1 programm+ x = special effects includ+ ! rev]b]ant effect ( a conc]t hall1 & hav+ t play$ z ! output4 ,a m direct vocal output is ! spok5 ^w4 ,"s comput]s h ?is capability n[1 ) a mode/ vocabul>y ( _! own & an ext5sive tape libr>y to draw f4 ,z an example1 ,gilfillan ,radio has produc$ a comput]iz$ gr\nd-control-approa* sy/em t /udies ! rad> return ( ! aircraft be+ guid$1 & 8tells0 ! pilot h[ to fly ! l&+4 ,all ! human op]ator does is monitor ! %[4 ,! sy/em uses ! relatively simple me?od ( select+ ! correct words f a previ\sly tape-record$ human voice4 ,m sophi/icat$ sy/ems w be capable ( translat+ code f ! comput] directly into an audible output4 ,"o v obvi\s advantage ( su* an automatic l&+ sy/em is t ! comput] is nev] subject to a bad day1 n]ves1 or fright4 ,x w talk ! aircraft d[n calmly & dispassionately1 albeit some:at me*anically4 ,^! !n are ! five basic p>ts ( a comput] or comput] sy/em3 input1 control1 ari?metic-logic1 memory1 & output4 ,rememb] t ?is applies equally to simple & complex ma*9es1 & also to comput]s o!r ?an ! m g5]ally enc\nt]$ electronic types4 ,= :ile ! electronic comput] is reg>d$ z ! mo/ advanc$1 x is n necess>ily ! f9al result ( comput] developm5t4 ,let u consid] "s ( ! deviants1 ?r[backs1 & mutations ( ! comput] species4 ,illu/ration3 ,ke>fott ,division1 ,g5]al ,precision1 ,inc4 ,! t9y black box is capable ( ! same functions z ! l>g] pla/ic laboratory model pneumatic digital comput]4 ,packag+ d5sities ( m ?an #b1jjj elem5ts p] cubic in* are expect$4 ,ano!r ,k9d ( ,comput] ,we h discuss$ me*anical1 electrome*anical1 electrical1 & electronic comput]s4 ,!re are also ^? :i* make use ( q diff]5t m$ia = _! op]ation3 hydraulics1 air pressure1 & ev5 hot gases4 ,! pneumatic is simple/ to expla91 & also has its prec$5t 9 ! old play]-piano m5tion$ e>li]4 ,j z an electric or electronic swit* c be op5 or clos$1 s c a pneumatic valve4 ,! analogy c>ries mu* fur!r4 ,"s ( ! basic electronic compon5ts us$ 9 comput]s are diodes1 capacitors1 inductors1 & 8flip-flop0 circuits :i* we h talk$ (4 ,ea* ( ^!1 x turns out1 c be approximat$ by pneumatic devices4 ,! pneumatic diode is ! simple/ compon5t1 be+ m]ely an orifice or op5+ ?r\gh :i* gas is fl[+ at or above ! spe$ ( s\nd4 ,"u ^! conditions1 any di/urbance 9 pressure 8up/ream0 ( ! orifice w move 8d[n/ream0 ?r\gh ! orifice1 b any su* happ5+ d[n/ream _c move up/ream4 ,?is is analog\s to ! way an electronic diode works 9 ! comput]1 a "o-way valve effect4 ,! electrical capacitor ) its /or$ voltage *>ge plays an important "p 9 comput] circuitry4 ,a pl5um *amb]1 or box hold+ a volume ( air1 s]ves z a pneumatic capacitor4 ,simil>ly1 ! effect ( an inductor1 or coil1 is a*iev$ ) a long pipe fill$ ) mov+ air4 ,! only complicat$ elem5t 9 our pneumatic comput] build+ blocks is ! flip-flop1 or bi/able elem5t4 ,a sy/em ( tubes1 orifices1 & balls makes a device t assumes "o position ^u ! application ( pneumatic =ce1 & ! o!r ^u a successive application1 simil> to ! electronic flip-flop4 ,pneumatic eng9e]s use t]ms l 8pressure drop0 & 8pneumatic buff]+10 comp>able to voltage drop & electrical buff]+4 ,a good "q at ?is po9t is j :y comput] design]s are ev5 consid]+ pneumatic me?ods :5 electronic comput]s are do+ su* a f9e job4 ,!re are sev]al reasons t prompt gr\ps l ! ,ke>fott ,division ( ,g5]al ,precision ,inc41 ,ai,research1 ,,ibm's ,swiss ,laboratory1 & ! ,army's ,diamond ,ordnance ,fuze ,laboratory to develop ! air-p[]$ comput]s4 ,"o ( ^! is radiation susceptibility4 ,diodes & transi/ors h an ,a*illes heel 9 t !y _c take mu* radiation4 ,?us 9 milit>y applications1 & 9 space "w1 electronic comput]s may be incapable ( prop] op]ation "u exposure to fall\t or cosmic rays4 ,a pneumatic comput] does n h ?is h&icap4 ,high temp]ature is ano!r bugaboo ( ! electronic comput]4 ,= op]ation above #ajj ,c41 = in/ance1 x is necess>y to use exp5sive silicon semiconductor elem5ts4 ,! cryog5ic devices we talk$ ( require extremely l[ temp]atures & are ?us also rul$ out 9 hot environm5ts4 ,! pneumatic comput]1 on ! o!r h&1 c actually op]ate on ! exhau/ gases ( a rocket ) temp]atures up to #bjjj ,f4 ,!re may be some?+ humanlike 9 ?is ability to op]ate on hot air1 b !re are m practical reasons l simplicity1 light weight1 & l[ co/4 ,! pneumatic comput]1 ( c\rse1 has limitations ( its own4 ,! mo/ s]i\s is t ( spe$1 & its top limit seems to be ab\t #ajj kilocycles a second4 ,al?\gh ?is s\nds fa/--a kilocycle be+ a ?\s& cycles1 rememb]--x is tortoise-sl[ comp>$ ) ! #ej-megacycle spe$ ( pres5t electronic ma*9es4 ,b )9 its limitations ! pneumatic ma*9e c d an excell5t job4 ,ke>fott plans %r9k+ #c1jjj pneumatic flip-flops & _! p[] supply & all circuitry into a "o-in* cube2 & pack+ a m$ium-size g5]al-purpose digital comput] complete ) memory into a case #e-a_/b in*es squ>e & an in* ?ick4 ,su* a squeez+ ( compon5ts surely indicates compress$ air z a logical p[] supply6 ,go+ beyond ! use ( air z a m$ium1 ,army rese>*]s h work$ ) 8fluid0 flip-flops capable ( function+ at temp]atures rang+ f m9us #ajj to plus #g1jjj ,f46 ,! limit is dictat$ only by ! mat]ial us$ to conta9 ! fluid1 & w\ld surely meet requirem5ts = ! mo/ rigor\s environm5t =eseeable4 ,! fluid flip-flop op]ates on a diff]5t pr9ciple f its pneumatic c\s91 draw+ on fluid dynamics to %ift f "o /ate to ! o!r4 ,fluid dynamics p]mits ! build+ ( swit*es & amplifi]s t simulate electronic c\nt]p>ts adequately1 & ! ,army's ,diamond ,ordnance ,fuze ,laboratory has built su* oscillators1 %ift regi/]s1 & full add]s1 ! fle% & bones ( ! comput]4 ,rese>*]s believe compon5ts c be built *eaply & t ultimately a complete fluid comput] c be assembl$4 ,! ,x-#ae is cit$ z an example ( a good application = fluid-type comput+ devices4 ,! hyp]sonic aircraft flies s fa/ x gl[s1 & a big "p ( its problem is ! cool+ ( a l>ge am\nt ( electronic equipm5t t g5]ates additional heat to comp\nd ! difficulty4 ,missiles & space vehicles h simil> requirem5ts4 ,tomorr['s comput] may use liquid helium or a :ite-hot plasma jet in/ead ( electronics or gas z a m$ium4 ,x may use a m$ium nobody has dream$ ( yet1 or "o tri$ e>li] & disc>d$4 ,reg>dless ( :at x uses1 x w probably "w on ! same basic !ory & pr9ciples we've outl9$ "h4 ,& try z we may1 we w get no m out ( x ?an we put 94 ,illu/ration3 ,by ,h]b]t ,goldb]g #aifa ,saturday ,review 8,is ?is y\r tr\ble80 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,x is ! ma*9es t make life complicat$1 at ! same "t t !y impose on x a high tempo40 --,c>l ,lotus ,beck] #d3 ,comput] ,c\s9s--,analog & ,digital ,!re are _m ?\s&s ( comput]s 9 op]ation today--9 en\gh diff]5t outw>d v>ieties to pres5t a hopeless classification task to ! confus$ onlook]4 ,actually !re are only two basic types ( comput+ ma*9es1 ! analog & ! digital4 ,!re is also a ?ird comput]1 an analog-digital hybrid t makes use ( ! bett] features ( ea* to d c]ta9 jobs m effectively4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 basic types is cle>-cut & may be expla9$ 9 v simple t]ms4 ,aga9 we g to ! diction>y = a />t+ po9t4 ,web/] says3 8,analogue4--,t :i* is analog\s to "s o!r ?+40 ,ev5 )\t ! t]m9al ue1 ! analog comput] is bas$ on ! pr9ciple ( analogy4 ,x is actually a model ( ! problem we wi% to solve4 ,a tape measure is an analog device2 s is a slide rule or ! spe$omet] 9 y\r c>4 ,^! ( c\rse are v simple analogs1 b ! pr9ciple ( ! m complex ones is ! same4 ,! analog comput]1 !n1 simulates a physical problem & deals 9 quantities :i* x c measure4 ,"s writ]s feel t ! analog ma*9e is n a comput] at all 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w1 b actually a laboratory model ( a physical sy/em :i* may be /udi$ & measur$ to le>n c]ta9 implicit facts4 ,illu/ration3 ,m9neapolis-,honeywell ,comput] ,c5t] ,a multimillion doll> a]ospace comput] facility4 ,on left is an array ( #af analog comput]s2 at "r is a l>ge digital data-process+ sy/em4 ,! facility c p]=m sci5tific & bus9ess tasks simultane\sly4 ,! diction>y also gives u a good clue to ! digital comput]3 8,digital4--,( ! f+]s or digits40 ,a digital ma*9e deals 9 digits1 or discrete units1 9 its calculations4 ,= in/ance1 if we ask x to multiply #b times #b1 x answ]s t ! product is exactly #d4 ,a slide rule1 :i* we h said is an analog device1 might yield an answ] ( #c4ih or #d4jb1 dep5d+ on ! quality ( its workman%ip & our eyesight4 ,! t]m 8discrete0 describes ! units us$ by ! digital ma*9e2 an analog ma*9e deals ) 8cont9u\s0 quantities4 ,:5 y wat* ! po9t] on y\r spe$omet] y see t x moves cont9u\sly f z]o to z fa/ z y c or d>e drive4 ,! gas gauge is a graphic pres5tation ( ! am\nt ( fuel 9 ! tank1 j z ! spe$omet] is a picture ( y\r c>'s spe$4 ,= conv5i5ce we int]polate ! numb]s #aj1 #bj1 #cj1 #a_/d1 #a_/b1 & s on4 ,:at we d1 !n1 is to conv]t f a cont9u\s analog pres5tation to a digital answ] ) our eyes & bra94 ,?is analog-to-digital conv]sion is n )\t complications lead+ to spe$+ tickets & ! inconv5i5ce ( runn+ out ( gas f> f a s\rce ( supply4 ,a little ?\ght w reveal t ev5 prior to comput]s !re 7 two di/9ct types ( calculat+2 ^? ( measur+ 7analog7 & ( c\nt+ 7digital74 ,unless we are /ati/icians1 we enc\nt] #b-a_/b m5 or #c-a_/b wom5 ab\t z frequ5tly z we are positive t !re is exactly #aj gallons ( fuel 9 ! gas tank4 ,9 fact1 we g5]ally use ! s+ul> v]b ) su* a figure s9ce ! #aj gallons is actually an arbitr>y measurem5t we h sup]impos$ on a quantity ( liquid4 ,c\nt+ & measur+1 !n1 are diff]5t ?+s4 ,because ( ! basic diff]5ces 9 ! analog & digital comput]s1 ea* has its relative advantages & disadvantages ) respect to c]ta9 k9ds ( problems4 ,let u consid] ea* 9 m detail & le>n :i* is bett] suit$ to p>ticul> tasks4 ,us+ alphabetical protocol1 we take ! analog fir/4 ,! ,analog ,measur+ ,/ick ,we h m5tion$ ! slide rule1 ! spe$omet]1 & o!r popul> examples ( analog comput]s4 ,!re are ( c\rse _m m4 ,"o beautiful example occurs 9 nature1 if we c accept a bit ( folklore4 ,! cat]pill> is ?\ght by "s to pr$ict ! sev]ity ( ! w9t] ahead by ! wid? ( ! d>k b& ab\t its body4 ,ev5 if we d n believe ?is *>m+ relation%ip exi/s1 ! pr9ciple is a f9e illu/ration ( simulation1 or ! model+ ( a sy/em4 ,c]ta9ly !re are rev]se examples 9 nature n subject to any speculation at all4 ,! r+s 9 ! trunk ( a tree are accurate pictures ( ! wea!r conditions t caus$ !m4 ,^! analogies 9 nature are p>ticul>ly fitt+1 s9ce ! analog comput] is at its be/ 9 repres5t+ a physical sy/em4 ,:ile we d n g5]ally recognize su* homely examples z comput]s1 automatic record-*ang]s1 wa%+ ma*9es1 electric watt-h\r met]s1 & simil> devices are true analogs4 ,s ( c\rse is ! clock1 "o ( ! e>lie/ comput]s made use ( by man4 ,:ile ,babbage 0 work+ ) 8 diff]5ce eng9e1 ano!r ,engli%man1 ,"l ,kelv91 conceiv$ a brilliant me?od ( pr$ict+ ! height ( tides 9 v>i\s ports4 ,he describ$ 8 sy/em ( solv+ diff]5tial equations inv5t$ 9 #ahgf 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,a work+ model ( ?is 8diff]5tial analyz]10 :i* put calculus on an automat$ basis1 0 built by ,kelv9's bro!r1 ,james ,?omson4 ,?omson us$ me*anical pr9ciples 9 produc+ ?is analog comput]1 ^: p>ts 7 discs1 balls1 & cyl9d]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,sci5ce ,mat]ials ,c5t] ,a simple analog comput] design$ to be assembl$ & us$ by te5-ag]s4 ,calculo p]=ms multiplication & division )9 #e p] c5t accuracy1 & is a useful demon/ration device4 ,e>ly electrical analogs ( circuits built ar\nd #aibj 9 ?is c\ntry h be5 discuss$ briefly 9 ! *apt] on ! comput]'s pa/4 ,! ?+ t sp>k$ _! developm5t 0 an eng9e]'s "q1 8,:y don't we build a little model ( ^! circuits80 ,solv+ problems 9 circuitry 0 almo/ l play+ ) toys1 us+ ! circuit analyz]s1 al?\gh ! toys grew to sizable proportions ) hundr$s ( compon5ts4 ,"s ( ! direct-curr5t analog type are /ill op]at+ 9 ,s*5ectady1 ,new ,york1 & at ,purdue ,univ]sity4 ,a simple batt]y-p[]$ electric analog gives u an excell5t example ( ! pr9ciple ( all analog ma*9es4 ,us+ pot5tiomet]s1 :i* v>y ! resi/ance ( ! circuit1 we set 9 ! problem4 ,! answ] is read out on a voltmet]4 ,q simply1 a kn[n input pass+ ?r\gh kn[n resi/ances w result 9 a proportional voltage4 ,all t rema9s is assign+ values to ! sw+ ( ! voltmet] ne$le1 a process call$ 8scal+40 ,= in/ance1 we might let "o volt repres5t #ajj miles1 or #ej p\nds1 or #ij degrees4 ,obvi\sly1 z soon z we h set 9 ! problem1 ! answ] is available on ! voltmet]4 ,x is ?is factor t gives ! analog comput] its great spe$4 ,g5]al ,electric & ,we/+h\se 7 among ^? build+ ! direct-curr5t analyz]1 & ! lat] alt]nat+-curr5t network type :i* came along 9 ! #aicj's4 ,! me*anical analogs 7 by no means =gott51 ev5 ) ! success ( ! new electrical ma*9es4 ,dr4 ,vannev> ,bu%1 fam\s = _m o!r ?+s z well1 />t$ "w on 8 analog me*anical diff]5tial analyz] 9 #aibg at ! ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology4 ,bu% drew on ! pione]+ "w ( ,kelv9 & o!r ,engli%m51 improv+ ! design s t he c\ld d t5?-ord] calculations4 ,foll[+ ,bu%'s lead1 eng9e]s at ,g5]al ,electric develop$ fur!r ref9em5ts to ! 8,kelv9 :eels10 us+ electrical torque amplifi]s = great] accuracy4 ,! complexity ( ^! comput]s is indicat$ 9 ! size ( "o built 9 ! e>ly #aidj's = ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia4 ,x 0 a giant1 a hundr$ feet long & fill$ ) ?\s&s ( p>ts4 ,n m]ely huge1 x repres5t$ a significant /ride ahead 9 t x c\ld p]=m ! op]ation ( integration ) respect to functions o!r ?an j "t4 ,in/ead ( be+ a 8direct0 analog1 ! new ma*9e 0 an 8indirect0 analog1 a model n ( a physical ?+ b ( ! ma!matics express+ x4 ,eng9e]s realiz$ t ! me*anical bea/1 z !y call$ x1 repres5t$ some?+ ( a d9osaur 9 comput] evolution & c\ld n survive4 ,because ( its size1 x co/ ?\s&s ( doll>s m]ely to prep>e a place = its in/allation4 ,besides1 x 0 limit$ 9 ! scope ( its "w4 ,dur+ ,_w ,w> ,,ii1 h[ev]1 x 0 all we _h1 & bea/ or n1 x work$ ar\nd ! clock solv+ eng9e]+ problems1 balli/ics equations1 & ! l4 ,engl& did "w 9 ?is field1 & ,meccano--c\nt]p>t ( ! ,gilb]t ,erector ,set firm 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--m>ket$ a d-x-y\rself diff]5tial analyz]4 ,! ,russians too built me*anical diff]5tial analyz]s z e>ly z #aidj4 ,electronics came to ! rescue ( ! outsiz$ me*anical analog comput]s dur+ & aft] ! w>4 ,pac$ by firms l ,reeves ,in/rum5t & ,goodye> ,aircraft1 ! electronic analog sup]s$$ ! old] me*anical type4 ,!re 0 ( c\rse a transitional p]iod1 & an example ( ?is /age is ! ,g5]al ,electric fire-control comput] in/all$ 9 ! ,b-#bi4 ,x embrac$ me*anical1 electrical1 & electronic p>ts to d j ! sort ( job ideally suit$ to ! analog type ( device3 t ( track+ a pa? ?r\gh space & pr$ict+ ! future position ( a t>get s t ! gunsight aims at ! correct po9t 9 space = a hit4 ,ano!r milit>y analog comput] 0 ! ,q-#e1 us$ by ! ,signal ,corps to locate enemy gun in/allations4 ,f ! track ( a projectile on a rad> scre51 ! ,q-#e did "s complicat$ ma!matics to figure backw>ds & p9po9t ! tr\blesome gun4 ,!re 7 indu/rial applications z well = ! analog ma*9e4 ,9 ! #aiej's1 ,g5]al ,electric built comput]s to solve simultane\s l9e> equations = ! petroleum indu/ry4 ,to u ultimate us]s1 gasol9e poses only "o big ma!matical problem--pay+ = a tankful4 ,actually1 ! control op]ations involv$ 9 process+ petroleum are t]ribly involv$1 & ! special analog comput] _h to h&le twelve equations ) twelve unkn[n quantities simultane\sly4 ,?is is ! sort ( problem t eats up man-ye>s ( human ma!matical "t2 ev5 a mod]n digital comput] has t\gh & exp5sive go+1 b ! analog does ?is "w rapidly & economically4 ,ano!r int]e/+ analog ma*9e 0 call$ ! ,psy*ological ,matrix ,rotation ,comput]4 ,?is implem5t$ an advanc$ te*nique call$ multiple-factor analysis1 develop$ by ,?ur/on ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,ill9ois = use 9 c]ta9 psy*ological "w4 ,multiple-factor analysis is employ$ 9 mak+ up ! attribute te/s us$ by indu/ry & ! milit>y s]vices = putt+ ! "r man 9 ! "r job4 ,an excell5t me?od1 x 0 too "t-consum+ = any?+ b r\gh approximations until ! analog comput] 0 built = x4 ,9 effect1 ! comput] work$ 9 twelve dim5sions1 correlat+ traits & aptitudes4 ,x 0 deliv]$ to ! ,adjutant ,g5]al's ,(fice & is /ill be+ us$1 s ,army m5 :o wond] h[ _! backgr\nd z bak] qualifies !m = ! typ+ pool may h ! ,psy*ological ,matrix ,rotation ,comput] to ?ank4 ,9 ! e>ly #aiej's1 _w t5sion prompt$ ! build+ ( ano!r advanc$ analog comput]1 ?is "o a jet eng9e simulator4 ,prior to its use1 x took ab\t f\r ye>s to design1 build1 & te/ a new jet eng9e4 ,us+ ! simulator1 ! "t 0 p>$ to half t am\nt4 ,x 0 a big comput]1 ev5 ?\gh x 0 electronic4 ,m ?an #f1jjj vacuum tubes1 #a1gjj indicator lights1 & #b1gej dials 7 hook$ up ) m ?an #be miles ( wire1 us+ ab\t #djj1jjj int]connections4 ,all ( ?is requir$ q a bit ( electrical p[]1 ab\t :at x w\ld take to op]ate fifty kit*5 ranges4 ,b x p]=m$ 9 8real0 "t1 & c\ld keep tabs on an individual molecule ( gas f ! "t x ent]$ ! jet intake until x 0 eject$ out ! aft]burn]6 ,o!r analog comput]s 7 develop$ = utility companies to control ! dispat*+ ( p[] to v>i\s consum]s 9 ! mo/ effici5t mann]4 ,aga9 ! pr9ciple 0 simply to build a model or analog ( an actual physical sy/em & use x to pr$ict ! outcome ( op]ation ( t sy/em4 ,f our brief skim ( ! hi/ory ( ! analog comput] we c recognize sev]al ?+s ab\t ?is type ( ma*9e4 ,s9ce ! analog is a simulator 9 mo/ cases1 we w\ld naturally expect x to be a special-purpose ma*9e4 ,9 o!r words1 if we _h a hundr$ diff]5t k9ds ( problems1 & _h to build a model ( ea*1 we w\ld end up ) a hundr$ special-purpose comput]s4 ,x foll[s too t ! analog comput] w (t5 be a "p ( ! sy/em x s]ves1 r ?an a sep>ate piece ( equipm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,boe+ ,co4 ,analog ma*9e us$ z flight simulator = jet airl9]2 a means ( te/+ be=e build+4 ,!re are g5]al-purpose analog comput]s1 ( c\rse1 design$ = solv+ a broad class ( problems4 ,!y are usually sep>ate units1 in/ead ( "p ( ! sy/em4 ,we c fur!r break d[n ! g5]al-purpose analog comput] into two types2 direct & indirect4 ,a direct analog is exemplifi$ 9 ! tank gauge consi/+ ( a float ) a scale atta*$4 ,an indirect analog1 su* z ! ,g5]al ,electric mon/] built = ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia m5tion$ e>li]1 c use "o dep5d5t v>iable1 su* z voltage1 to repres5t all ! v>iables ( ! prototype4 ,su* an analog ma*9e is useful 9 automatic control & automation processes4 ,f9ally1 we may subdivide our direct analog comput] "o fur!r /ep into 8discrete0 analogs or 8cont9u\s0 analogs4 ,! t]m 8discrete0 is ! quality we h ascrib$ to ! digital comput]1 & a discrete analog is indicative ( ! ov]lap t occurs betwe5 ! two types4 ,ano!r example ( ?is ov]lap is ! repres5tation ( 8cont9u\s0 quantities by ! 8/ep-function0 me?od 9 a digital device4 ,z we %all see :5 we discuss hybrid or analog-digital comput]s1 su* ov]lap is z b5eficial z x is necess>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,g5]al ,motors ,corp4 ,l>ge analog comput] 9 re> controls c>1 subject+ driv] to reali/ic bumps1 pit*es1 & rolls1 = work+ out susp5sion problems ( c>4 ,we are famili> n[ ) me*anical1 electrome*anical1 & fully electronic analogs4 ,e>ly ma*9es us$ rods ( c]ta9 l5g?s1 cams1 ge>s1 & lev]s4 ,fully electronic devices sub/itute resi/ors1 capacitors1 & inductances = ^! me*anical compon5ts1 add+ voltages in/ead ( revolutions ( %afts1 & c\nt+ turns ( wire 9 a pot5tiomet] in/ead ( tee? on a ge>4 ,eng9e]s & te*nicians use t]ms l 8mix]10 8integrator10 & 8rate compon5t10 b we may consid] ! analog comput] z compos$ ( passive networks plus amplifi]s :]e necess>y to boo/ a fa9t signal4 ,"s consid]ation ( :at we h be5 discuss+ w give u an indication ( ! advantages ( ! analog comput] ov] ! digital type4 ,fir/ & mo/ obvi\s1 p]haps1 is t ( simplicity4 ,a digital device = record+ temp]ature c\ld be built2 b x w\ld h>dly improve on ! simplicity ( ! ord9>y !rmomet]4 ,spe$ is ano!r desirable attribute ( mo/ analog comput]s4 ,s9ce op]ation is p>allel1 ) all p>ts ( ! problem be+ work$ on at once1 ! answ] is rea*$ quickly4 ,?is is ( p>ticul> importance 9 8on-l9e0 application :]e ! comput] is be+ us$ to control1 let u say1 an automatic ma*9+ op]ation 9 a factory4 ,ev5 9 a high-spe$ electronic digital comput] !re is a f9ite lag due to ! spe$ ( electrons4 ,?is 8slack0 is n pres5t 9 a direct analog & ?us !re is no loss ( preci\s "t t c\ld mean ! diff]5ce betwe5 a reject$ & a p]fect "p f ! la!4 ,x foll[s f ^! v advantages t !re are drawbacks too4 ,! analog comput] t automatically pr(iles a propell] blade 9 a metalwork+ ma*9e _c mix pa9t to specifications or control ! spe$ ( a subway tra9 unless x is a v special k9d ( g5]al-purpose analog t w\ld mo/ likely be ! size ( ,gr& ,c5tral ,/ation & sell = a good "p ( ! national debt4 ,mo/ analogs h "o p>ticul> job !y are design$ =2 !y are speciali/s ) all ! limitations t ! ^w implies4 ,!re is "o o!r major disadvantage t our analog suff]s by its v nature4 ,we c tol]ate ! approximate answ] #c4ih in/ead ( #d1 because mo/ ( u recognize ! correct product ( #b times #b4 ,b few production manag]s w\ld want to use #cih rivets if x took #djj to d ! job safely--nei!r w\ld !y want to use #djb & wa/e mat]ial4 ,put bluntly1 ! analog comput] is less accurate ?an its digital c\s94 ,x deliv]s answ]s n 9 discrete units1 b approximations1 dep5d+ on ! accuracy ( its own p>ts & its design4 ,calculo1 an electrical-analog comput] produc$ = sci5ce /ud5ts1 has an adv]tis$ accuracy ( #e p] c5t at a co/ ( ab\t #bj4 ,! mak]s frankly call x an 8e/imator40 ,?is is excell5t = illu/rat+ ! pr9ciples ( analog ma*9es to int]e/$ y\ng/]s1 b ! /ud5ts c\ld h ma!matical accuracy ( #ajj p] c5t f a digital comput] call$ ! abacus at a co/ ( less ?an a doll>4 ,great] accuracy 9 ! analog comput] is b\ght at ! exp5se ( co/li] compon5ts4 ,up to accuracies ( ab\t #a p] c5t error x is usually *eap] to build an analog device ?an a digital1 assum+ su* a degree ( accuracy is suffici5t1 ( c\rse4 ,analog accuracies t5 times ! #a p] c5t figure are feasible1 b beyond t po9t co/s rise v %>ply & ! digital ma*9e becomes increas+ly attractive f a doll>s & c5ts /&po9t4 ,design]s feel t accuracies )9 #j4ja p] c5t are pu%+ ! b>ri]s ( practicality1 & #j4jja p] c5t probably repres5ts ! ultimate a*ievable4 ,?us ! digital comput] has ! decid$ edge 9 accuracy1 if we make "s reali/ic all[ances4 ,= example1 ! be/ digital ma*9e :5 ask$ to divide #aj by #c c nev] give an exact answ]1 b is b\nd to keep pr9t+ #c's aft] ! decimal po9t6 ,!re are o!r diff]5ces betwe5 our two types ( comput]s1 among !m be+ ! less obvi\s fact t x is h>d] to make a self-*eck+ analog comput] ?an x is to build ! same feature into ! digital4 ,h[ev]1 ! mo/ important diff]5ces are ^? ( accuracy & flexibility4 ,= ^! reasons1 ! digital comput] today is 9 ! asc5dant1 al?\gh ! analog cont9ues to h its place & _m are 9 op]ation 9 a v>iety ( *ores4 ,we h m5tion$ fire control & ! ,b-#bi gunsight comput] 9 p>ticul>4 ,?is 0 a pione] airborne comput]1 & prov$ t an analog c\ld be built light en\gh = su* applications4 ,h[ev]1 mo/ fire-control comput]s are e>?b\nd because ( _! size & complexity4 ,a good example is ! balli/ic comput] necess>y = ! guns on a battle%ip4 ,9 addition to ! normal problem ( figur+ azimu? & elevation to place a %ell on t>get1 ! gun abo>d %ip has ! additional factors ( pit*1 roll1 & yaw to cont5d )4 ,^! inputs happ5 to be ideal = analog ins]tion1 & a prop]ly design$ comput] makes corrections in/antane\sly z !y are f$ into x4 ,a f]tile field = ! analog comput] f ! />t 0 t ( indu/rial process control4 ,*emical plants1 petroleum ref9]ies1 p[] g5]at+ /ations1 & "s manufactur+ processes l5d !mselves to control by analog comput]s4 ,! simplicity & economy ( ! 8model+0 pr9ciple1 plus ! in/antane\s op]ation ( ! analog1 made x suitable = 8on-l9e0 or 8on-/ream0 applications4 ,! analog comput] has be5 describ$ z useful 9 ! design ( eng9es2 x also helps design ! aircraft 9 :i* ^! eng9es are us$1 & ev5 simulates _! flight4 ,a logical ext5sion ( ?is use is ! tra9+ ( pilots 9 su* flight simulators4 ,"o int]e/+ analog simulator built by ,goodye> ,aircraft ,corporation /udi$ ! reactions ( a pilot to c]ta9 flight conditions & !n 0 able to make ^! reactions itself s fai?fully t ! pilot 0 unaw>e t ! comput] & n 8 own bra9 0 accompli%+ ! task4 ,! discipl9es ( geometry1 calculus1 diff]5tial equations1 & o!r simil> ma!matics pr(it f ! analog comput] :i* is able to make a model ( _! curves & configurations & ?us greatly spe$ calculations4 ,s9ce ! analog is s closely ti$ to ! physical r ?an ! m5tal _w1 x _c cope ) discrete numb]s1 & =mal logic is n its cup ( tea4 ,surely1 progress has be5 made & improvem5ts cont9ue to be design$ into mod]n analog comput]s4 ,repetitive op]ations c n[ be done automatically at high spe$1 & ! comput] ev5 has a memory4 ,high-spe$ analog /orage p]mits ! ma*9e to make sequ5tial calculations1 a job once res]v$ = ! digital comput]4 ,b ev5 ^! advances _c (fset ! basic limitations ! analog comput] is heir to4 ,few] analog ma*9es are be+ built n[1 & _m 9 exi/5ce d n enjoy ! busy s*$ule ( ! digital ma*9es4 ,z ! m\nta9s ( data pile up1 creat$ incid5tally by comput]s 9 ! fir/ place1 m comput]s are ne$$ to h&le & make s5se ( !m4 ,x is easi] to int]pret1 /ore1 & transmit digital in=mation ?an analog2 ! digital comput] !re=e takes ov] ?is important task4 ,ev5 9 control sy/ems ! digital ma*9e is ga9+ popul>ity2 its trem5d\s spe$ (fsets its inh]5t cumb]som5ess & its accuracy tips ! scales m 9 its favor4 ,^! advantages w be m app>5t z we discuss ! digital ma*9e on ! next pages & expla9 ! tr5d t[>d ! hybrid ma*9e1 ev] becom+ m useful 9 ! comput] m>ket place4 ,( c\rse1 !re w always be a place = ! pure analog--j z !re has always be5 = any speciali/1 no matt] :at 8 field4 ,! ,digital ,c\nt] ,! digital comput] 0 fir/ on ! sc5e & x appe>s n[ t x w outnumb] & p]haps outlive its analog relative4 ,a simple comput] ( ?is type is z old z man1 ?\gh x is d\btful t x has be5 9 use t long4 ,pro( ( ?is claim to its pione]+ are ! words digit & calculi1 = f+] & pebbles1 respectively4 ,we c\nt$ 8h[ _m0 be=e we measur$ 8h[ l>ge10 & ! old ,romans talli$ on f+]s until !y ran out & !n supplem5t$ ) pebbles4 ,p]haps ! fir/ computations m complex ?an simple c\nt+ ( wives or flocks came ab\t :5 "s wag f\nd t he c\ld asc]ta9 ! numb] ( %eep by c\nt+ legs & divid+ by f\r4 ,:5 x 0 le>n$ t ! ?+ work$ bo? ways & t ! numb] ( pickl$ pigs feet 0 f\r times ! numb] ( pigs process$1 ari?metic 0 born4 ,! important diff]5ce betwe5 analog & digital1 ( c\rse1 is t ! latt] is a means ( c\nt+1 a deal+ ) discrete numb]s r ?an measur+4 ,?is k9d ( computation 0 tax$ sorely :5 su* ?+s z fractions & relation%ips l pi came along1 b ev5 !n man has manag$ to cont9ue deal+ ) numb]s !mselves r ?an quantity4 ,j z ! slide rule is a h&y symbol = ! analog comput]1 ! abacus s]ves u nicely to illu/rate ! digital type1 & "s s*ools make a practice ( tea*+ simple ari?metic to y\ng/]s 9 ?is mann]4 ,our *apt] on ! hi/ory ( ! comput] t\*$ on e>ly ef=ts 9 ! digital field1 ?\gh no /ress 0 laid on ! di/9ction betwe5 types4 ,we might review a bit1 & pick out :i* ( ! me*anical calculat+ devices 7 actually digital4 ,! fir/ obvi\sly 0 ! abacus4 ,x 0 also ! only "o = a long "t4 ,hav+ discov]$ ! pr9ciple ( analogy1 man lean$ 9 t direction = _m c5turies1 & clocks1 cele/ial simulators1 & o!r devices 7 analog 9 nature4 ,puri/s po9t out t ev5 ! c\nt+ ma*9es ( ,pascal & ,leibnitz 7 analog comput]s1 s9ce !y dealt ) ! turn+ ( %afts & ge>s r ?an ! manipulation ( digits4 ,! same reason+ has caus$ "s debate ab\t ,babbage's great ma*9es 9 ! #ahjj's1 al?\gh !y are g5]ally consid]$ a digital approa* to problem-solv+4 ,p]haps logicians _h z mu* z anyone to d ) ! increas+ popul>ity ( ! digital tr5d :5 !y po9t$ out ! advantages ( a b9>y or two-valu$ sy/em4 ,) ! completion 9 #aidf by ,eck]t & ,mau*ly ( ! electronic m>vel !y dubb$ ,,eniac1 ! mod]n digital comput] _h arriv$ & ! floodgates 7 op5$ = ! ?\s&s ( desc5dants t h foll[$4 ,= e analog comput] n[ be+ built !re are doz5s or p]haps hundr$s ( digital types4 ,su* popul>ity mu/ be des]v$1 s let u exam9e ! creature 9 an attempt to f9d ! reason4 ,illu/ration3 ,c\rtesy ( ! ,national ,sci5ce ,f\ndation ,! comput] family tree4 ,its rem>kable gr[? began ) gov]nm5t-support$ rese>*1 cont9u$ 9 ! univ]sities2 & ! curr5t g5]ation 0 develop$ prim>ily 9 private indu/ry4 ,we said t by its nature ! analog device t5d$ to be a special-purpose comput]4 ,! digital comput]1 p]haps because its basic op]ation is s *ildi%ly simple1 is be/ suit$ = g5]al-purpose "w4 ,x is simple1 consi/+ ess5tially ( swit*es t are ei!r on or (f4 ,yet ,leibnitz f\nd beauty 9 t simplicity1 & ev5 ! explanation ( ! univ]se4 ,prop] int]connection ( suffici5t on-(f swit*es makes possible ! mo/ flexible ( all comput]s--man's bra94 ,by ! same tok51 man-made comput]s ( ! digital type c d a wid] v>iety ( jobs ?an c ! analog :i* seem+ly is m sophi/icat$4 ,a second great virtue ( ! digital ma*9e is its accuracy4 ,ev5 a trial ma*9e ( ,babbage _h a #e-place accuracy4 ,?is is an error ( only "o "p 9 t5 ?\s&1 a*ievable 9 ! analog at great exp5se4 ,?is 0 ( c\rse only a prelim9>y model1 & ! ,engli% inv5tor plann$ #bj-place accuracy 9 8 dream comput]4 ,pres5t electronic digital comput]s (f] #aj-place accuracy z commonplace1 a precision impossible ( a*ievem5t 9 ! analog4 ,we po9t$ out 9 ! discussion ( analog comput]s t ! complexity & exp5se ( increas$ accuracy 0 9 direct proportion to ! degree ( accuracy desir$4 ,happily = ! digital ma*9e1 ! rev]se is true 9 its case4 ,increas+ accuracy f five to six figures requires a premium ( "o-fif?1 or #bj p] c5t4 ,b jump+ f #aj-place to #aa-place precision co/s u only #aj p] c5t1 & f #bj-place to #ba-place drops to j #e p] c5t4 ,actually1 su* a high degree ( accuracy is n necess>y 9 mo/ practical applications4 ,= example1 ! multiplication ( #aj-;digit numb]s may yield a #bj-;digit answ]4 ,if we desir$1 we c\ld increase ! capability ( our digital comput] to tw5ty digits & give an accuracy ( "o "p 9 #aj million trillion6 ,h[ev]1 we simply 8r\nd (f0 ! la/ t5 digits & leave ! answ] 9 t5 figures1 an accuracy no analog comput] c mat*4 ,! significant po9t is t ! analog c nev] hope to compete ) digital types = accuracy4 ,a ?ird p]haps n z important advantage ! digital ma*9e has is its compactness4 ,we are speak+ n[ ( lat] comput]s1 & n ! pione] electrome*anical giants1 ( c\rse4 ,! transi/or & o!r small semiconductor devices supplant$ ! l>g] tubes1 & magnetic cores took ! place ( crud] /orage compon5ts4 ,n[ ev5 m exotic devices are quietly ou/+ ^!1 z magnetic films & cryotrons beg9 to be us$ 9 comput]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,sci5ce ,mat]ials ,c5t] ,,bra9iac1 ano!r d-x-y\rself comput]4 ,?is digital ma*9e is "h be+ programm$ to solve a logic problem involv+ a w4 ,?is dra/ic %r9k+ ( size by ?9k+ small on ! "p ( comput] design]s increases ! capacity ( ! digital comput] at no sacrifice 9 accuracy or reliability4 ,! analog1 un=tunately1 _c make use ( _m ( ^! solid-/ate devices4 ,aga91 ! bugaboo ( accuracy is ! reason2 let's look fur!r into ! problem4 ,! mo/ accurate & reliable analog comput]s are me*anical 9 nature4 ,we c cut ge>s & turn %afts & :eels to great accuracy & op]ate !m 9 controll$ temp]ature & humidity4 ,p>adoxically1 ?is is because me*anical compon5ts are ne>] to digital pres5tations ?an are electrical swit*es1 magnets1 & electronic compon5ts4 ,a ge> c h a f9ite numb] ( tee?2 :5 we deal ) electrons fl[+ ?r\gh a wire we leave ! discrete & ent] ! cont9u\s _w4 ,a t9y *ange 9 voltage or curr5t1 or magnetic flux1 comp\nd$ sev]al hundr$ times 9 a complex comput]1 c *ange ! f9al result appreciably if ! errors are cumulative1 t is1 if !y are all[$ to pile up4 ,?is is :at happ5s 9 ! analog comput] us+ electrical & electronic compon5ts in/ead ( precisely ma*9$ cams & ge>s4 ,! digital device1 on ! o!r h&1 is n s p5aliz$4 ,?\gh x uses electronic swit*es1 ^! c be s set t ev5 an appreciable v>iation 9 curr5t or voltage or resi/ance w n affect ! prop] op]ation ( ! swit*4 ,we c design a transi/or swit*1 = example1 to close :5 ! curr5t appli$ exce$s a c]ta9 ?re%old4 ,we d n h to conc]n ourselves if ?is excess curr5t is l>ge or small2 ! swit* w be on1 no m & no less4 ,or x w be completely (f4 ,j z !re is no su* ?+ z be+ a little bit dead1 !re is no su* ?+ z a p>tly (f digital swit*4 ,s our digital comput] c make use ( ! m advanc$ electronic compon5ts to become m complex1 or small]1 or bo?4 ,! analog mu/ sacrifice its already m>g9al accuracy if x uses m electronics4 ,! argum5t "h is simplifi$1 ( c\rse2 !re are electronic analog ma*9es 9 op]ation4 ,h[ev]1 ! problem ( ! 8drift0 ( electronic devices is inh]5t & a limit+ factor on ! p]=mance ( ! analog4 ,^!1 !n1 are "s ( ! advantages ! digital comput] has ov] its analog relative4 ,x is m flexible 9 g5]al--?\gh !re are "s digital ma*9es t are m specializ$ ?an "s analog types2 x is m accurate & app>5tly w rema9 s2 & x is m am5able to m9iaturization & fur!r complexity because its design] c use less ?an p]fect p>ts & produce a p]fect result4 ,9 ! disadvantage dep>tm5t ! digital ma*9e's only drawback seems to be its *ildi% way ( solv+ problems4 ,ab\t all x kn[s h[ to d is to add #a & #a & come up ) #b4 ,to multiply1 x p]=ms repetitive additions1 & solv+ a difficult equation becomes a fanta/ically complex problem :5 comp>$ ) ! in/antane\s solution possible 9 ! analog ma*9e4 ,! digital comput] r$eems itself by p]=m+ its multitud9\s additions at fabul\s spe$s4 ,because x mu/ be f$ digits 9 its input1 ! digital ma*9e is n economically feasible 9 _m applications t w probably be res]v$ = ! analog4 ,a digital clock or !rmomet] = h\sehold use w\ld be an int]e/+ gimmick1 b h>dly wor? ! extra tr\ble & exp5se necess>y to produce4 ,ev5 "h1 ?\gh1 fir/ glances may be wrong & 9 "s cases x may prove wor? :ile to conv]t analog inputs to digital ) ! rev]se conv]sion at ! output end4 ,"o example ( ?is is ! airborne digital comput] :i* has tak5 ov] _m jobs e>li] done by analog devices4 ,!re is ano!r reason = ! digital ma*9es ubiquit\sness1 a reason x does n seem prop] to li/ z m]ely a relative advantage ov] ! analog4 ,we h describ$ ! analog comput] us$ z an aid to psy*ological te/+ proc$ures1 & its ability to h&le a multiplicity ( problems at once4 ,?is p]haps t5ds to obscure ! fact t ! digital ma*9e by its v on-(f1 yes-no nature is ideally suit$ to ! solv+ ( problems 9 logic4 ,if x a*ieves sup]iority 9 ma!matics 9 spite ( its seem+ly moronic h&l+ ( numb]s1 x succe$s 9 logic because ( ?is v feature4 ,:ile x might seem m appropriate t music be compos$ by analogy1 or t a *ess-play+ ma*9e w\ld likely be an analog comput]1 we f9d ! digital ma*9e 9 ^! roles4 ,! reason may be expla9$ by our own bra9s1 compos$ ( billions ( neurons1 ea* capable only ( be+ on or (f4 ,:ile _m philosoph]s build a /rong case = ! yes-no-maybe approa* ) its l>ge areas ( gray1 ! discipl9e ( =mal logic admits to only two /ates1 ^? t c s conv5i5tly be repres5t$ 9 ! digital comput]'s flip-flop or magnetic cores4 ,! digital comput]1 !n1 is n m]ely a c\nt+ ma*9e1 b a decision-mak] z well4 ,x c decide :e!r some?+ %\ld be add$1 subtract$1 or ignor$4 ,its logical manipulations c by clev] circuitry be ext5d$ f ,,& to ,,or1 ,,n1 & ,,nor4 ,x ?us c solve n only ari?metic1 b also ! problems ( logic conc]n+ foxes1 goats1 & cabbages1 or cannibals & mission>ies t give u human be+s s mu* tr\ble :5 we enc\nt] !m4 ,! fact t ! digital comput] is j su* a rigor\sly logical & unb5d+ ma*9e poses problems = x 9 c]ta9 ( its deal+s ) its human ma/]s4 ,language ideally %\ld be logical 9 its /ructure4 ,9 g5]al x probably is1 b man is s p]v]se t he has w>p$ & twi/$ 8 communications to ! po9t t a comput] /ick+ /rictly to book logic w hit snags almo/ z soon z x />ts to translate human talk into o!r human talk1 or into a logical ma*9e comm& or answ]4 ,= in/ance1 we h _m words ) multiple mean+s :i* give rise to confusion unless we are s*ool$ 9 subtleties4 ,!re are /ories1 "s ( !m apocryphal b none!less po9t+ up ! problem1 ( t]ms l 8wat] goat0 cropp+ up 9 an ,engli%-to-,russian translation4 ,inve/igation prov$ t ! m mean+ful t]m w\ld h be5 8hydraulic ram40 ,9 ano!r int]e/+ exp]im5t1 ! expression1 8! _s is will+ b ! fle% is weak0 0 ma*9e translat$ into ,russian1 & !n t result 9 turn re-translat$ back into ,engli% mu* 9 ! mann] ( ! p>ty game ( 8,telephone0 9 :i* an orig9al message is :isp]$ f "o p]son to ano!r & f9ally back to ! orig9ator4 ,9 ?is in/ance1 ! f9al v]sion 01 8,! vodka is /rong1 b ! meat is rott540 ,x is a f9e di/9ction "h z to :o is wrong1 ! comput] or man & 8 irrational languages4 ,*ances are t 9 ! long run true logic w prevail1 & in/ead ( u confus+ ! comput] x w manage in/ead to organize our gramm> into ! m effici5t tool x %\ld be4 ,) prop] programm+1 ! comput] may ev5 be able to reta9 suffici5t humor & nuance to make talk int]e/+ & colorful z well z utilit>ian4 ,we c see t ! digital ma*9e ) its flexibility1 accuracy1 & p[]ful logical capability is ! fair-hair$ "o ( ! comput] family4 ,/>t+ ) a = abacus1 digital comput] applications run ?r\gh practically ! entire alphabet4 ,its take-ov] 9 ! bank+ field 0 practically ov]night2 x excels z a tool = design & eng9e]+1 includ+ ! design & eng9e]+ ( o!r comput]s4 ,aviation relies heavily on digital comput]s already1 f ! sale ( tickets to ! control ( air traffic4 ,gam+ !ory is important n only to ! ,saturday night pok]-play] & ! ,las ,vegas cas9o op]ator1 b to milit>y m5 & indu/riali/s z well4 ,manufactur+ plants rely m & m on digital te*niques = controls4 ,language translation1 m5tion$ lightly above1 is a prime ne$ at lea/ until we all beg9 speak+ ,esp]anto1 ,io1 or ,comput]ese4 ,taxation1 always ) u1 may at lea/ be m smoo?ly h&l$ :5 ! comput]s take ov]4 ,insurance1 ! arrangem5t ( music1 spaceflight guidance1 & education are r&om fields already dep5d5t m or less on ! digital comput]4 ,we w n take ! "t "h to g ?or\ghly into all ! jobs = :i* ! comput] has appli$ = "w & be5 hir$2 t w be tak5 up 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,b f ev5 a quick glance ! scope ( ! digital ma*9e already %\ld be obvi\s4 ,?is is :y x is usually a safe assumption t ! ^w comput] today ref]s to ! digital type4 ,hybrid ,comput]s ,we h talk$ ( ! analog & ! digital2 !re rema9s a fur!r classification t %\ld be cov]$4 ,x is ! result ( a m>riage ( our two basic types1 a result naturally hybrid4 ,! analog-digital comput] is ?ird 9 ord] ( importance1 b important none!less4 ,illu/ration3 ,m9neapolis-,honeywell ,n]ve c5t] ( ,philadelphia ,electric ,company's digital comput]-direct$ automatic economic dispat* sy/em is ?is console f :i* p[] directors op]ate & sup]vise load+ ( g5]at+ units at m9imum increm5tal co/4 ,necessity1 z always1 mo!r$ ! inv5tion ( ! analog-digital ma*9e4 ,we h talk$ ( ! relative m]its ( ! two types2 ! analog is mu* fa/] on a complex problem su* z solv+ simultane\s equations4 ,! digital ma*9e is f> m accurate4 ,z an example1 ! ,psy*ological ,matrix ,rotator describ$ e>li] c\ld solve its twelve equations practically in/antane\sly4 ,a digital ma*9e might take seconds--a t]ribly long "t by comput] /&>ds4 ,if we want an accurate high-spe$ diff]5tial analyz]1 we mu/ comb9e an analog ) a digital comput]4 ,because ! two are h>dly ( ! same species1 ?is bre$+ is n an easy ?+4 ,b by c>eful /udy1 design]s effect$ ! desir$ mat+4 ,! hybrid is n actually a new type ( comput]1 b two diff]5t types ti$ toge!r & made compatible by suitable conv]t]s4 ,! composite consi/s ( a high-spe$ g5]al-purpose digital comput]1 an electronic analog comput]1 an analog-to-digital conv]t]1 a digital-to-analog & a suitable control = ^! two conv]t]s4 ,! conv]t]s are call$ 8transduc]s0 & h ! ability ( *ang+ ! cont9u\s analog signal into discrete pulses ( en]gy1 or vice v]sa4 ,sometimes call$ digital diff]5tial analyz]s1 ! hybrid comput]s feature ! ease ( programm+ ( ! analog1 plus its spe$1 & ! accuracy & mu* broad] range ( ! digital ma*9e4 ,b5dix among o!rs produc$ su* ma*9es sev]al ye>s ago4 ,! ,national ,bureau ( ,/&>ds rec5tly began developm5t ( :at x calls an analog-digital diff]5tial analyz] :i* x expects to be f t5 to a hundr$ times m accurate ?an e>li] hybrid comput]s4 ,! ,,nbs analyz] w be useful 9 missile & aircraft design "w4 ,despite its app>5t usefulness z a compromise & happy m$ium betwe5 ! two types1 ! hybrid w\ld seem to h z limit$ a future z any hybrid does4 ,pure digital te*niques may be develop$ t w be m effici5t ?an ! /opgap comb9ation1 & ! analog-digital w fall by ! wayside along ! comput] trail4 ,summ>y ,hi/orically1 ! digital comput] 0 fir/ on ! sc5e4 ,! analog came along1 & = a "t 0 ! m popul> = a v>iety ( reasons4 ,"o ( ^! 0 ! nave1 cumb]some mode ( op]ation ! digital comput] is b\nd to2 ano!r its e>ly lack ( spe$4 ,bo? ^! drawbacks h be5 l>gely elim9at$ by advances 9 electronics1 & app>5tly ?is is only ! beg9n+4 ,9 a few ye>s ! te*nology has progress$ f /&>d-size vacuum tubes ?r\gh m9iature tubes & ! %r9k+ ( o!r compon5ts1 to semiconductors & o!r t9i] devices1 & n[ we h some?+ call$ integrat$ circuitry1 ) molecul> electronics on ! horizon4 ,^! new me?ods promise comput] elem5ts approa*+ ! size ( ! neurons 9 our own bra9s1 yet ) f> fa/] spe$ ( op]ation4 ,su* advances help ! digital comput] m ?an ! analog1 b>r+ "s unexpect$ break?r\gh 9 ! accuracy problem ( ! latt]4 ,digital build+ blocks become ev] small]1 fa/]1 *eap]1 & m reliable4 ,comput]s t fit 9 ! palm ( ! h& are on ! m>ket1 & are already bulky by comp>ison ) ^? 9 ! laboratory4 ,! analog-digital hybrid mo/ likely w n be new life = ! analog1 b an assimilat+ ( its bett] qualities by ! digital4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8#8,:at's "o & "o & "o & "o & "o & "o & "o & "o & "o & "o8' #8,i don't "k1' said ,alice4 #8,i lo/ c\nt4' #8,%e c't d ,addition1' ! ,r$ ,que5 int]rupt$40 --,lewis ,c>roll #e3 ,! ,b9>y ,boolean ,bit ,9 ?is _w full ( 8bigness10 9 :i* a/ronomical numb]s apply n only to ! spe$ ( light & ! di/ance to />s b to our national debt z well1 x is refre%+ to recall t "s lucky tribes h a ma!matical sy/em t goes1 8,"o--two--pl5ty60 ,su* an unclutt]$ life at times seems highly desirable1 & we c only envy ^? :o lump all numb]s f ?ree to billions z simply 8pl5ty40 ,in/ead we are fac$ today ) ab\t z _m diff]5t numb] sy/ems z !re are numb]s1 hav+ come a long way f ! dawn ( c\nt+ :5 an ev5 simpl] me?od ?an 8"o--two--pl5ty0 prevail$4 ,man be+ basically self-c5t]$1 he fir/ ?\ght 9 t]ms ( 8me10 or "o4 ,two 0 n a concept1 b two 8ones02 likewise1 ?ree 8ones0 & s on4 ,pebbles 7 h&y1 & to repres5t ! t5 animals sla9 dur+ ! w9t]1 a cave man c\ld make t5 scrat*es on ! wall or /r+ out t _m /ones4 ,x is said t ! anci5t cabbies 9 ,rome _h a taximet] t dropp$ pebbles "o by "o onto a plate z ! :eels turn$ ! requisite numb] ( revolutions4 ,?is plate ( /ones 0 pres5t$ to ! pass5g] at ! end ( 8 ride--p]haps :]e we get ! ^w 8f>e06 ,prices h ris5 s mu* t x w\ld take q a bag ( pebbles 9 ! taximet] today4 ,us+ units 9 ?is mann] to express a sum is call$ ! unit>y sy/em4 ,x is ! concept t gives rise to ! 8if all ! doll>s sp5t 9 ?is c\ntry s9ce su* & su* a "t 7 laid end to end--0 analogies4 ,put to practice1 ?is might inde$ h a salut>y effect1 b long ago man le>n$ t x 0 n practical to /ick to a "o-=-"o repres5tation4 ,h[ long x 0 be=e we /umbl$ onto ! fact t we _h a 8h&y0 c\nt+ sy/em atta*$ to our wri/s is n positively kn[n1 b we ev5tually adopt$ ! decimal sy/em4 ,9 "s places ! jump f "o to t5 0 n made completely4 ,! ,pueblo ,indians1 = in/ance1 d\ble up "o fi/ ea* "t a sum ( five is rea*$4 ,?us ! d\bl$ fi/ & two f+]s on ! o!r h& signifies sev54 ,9 ! ma!matician's language1 ?is is a modulo-#e sy/em4 ,! decimal sy/em is modulo-#aj2 9 o!r words we />t ov] ea* "t aft] rea*+ #aj4 ,besides ! ^w digit 9 our vocabul>y to tie f+]s & numb]s1 ! ,roman num]als ,v & ,x are graphic repres5tations ( "o h& ) ?umb widespread1 & two h&s cross$1 respectively4 ,a po9t wor? rememb]+ is t ! decimal sy/em 0 *os5 arbitr>ily because we happ5 to h t5 digits4 ,!re is no div9e ari?metical significance 9 ! numb] #aj2 9 fact ma!maticians w\ld pref] #ab1 s9ce x c be divid$ m ways4 ,! anci5t ,mayans1 feel+ t if #aj 7 t5 times z good z #a1 !n surely #bj w\ld be twice ! improvem5t ( ! decimal sy/em4 ,s !y pull$ (f _! boots & add$ toes to f+]s = a modulo-#bj numb] sy/em4 ,_! ^w = #bj1 !n1 is ! same z t = 8! :ole man0 = v good reason4 ,o!r races adopt$ ev5 l>g] base sy/ems1 ! base ( #fj be+ an example4 ,if we look to natural reasons = ! developm5t ( numb] sy/ems1 we might decide t ! b9>y1 or two-valu$ sy/em1 did n atta9 mu* prom95ce 9 nave civilizations because !re are s few "o-legg$1 two-to$ animals6 ,only :5 man built himself a ma*9e uniquely suit$ to two-valu$ ma!matics did ! b9>y sy/em come into its own4 ,numb]s are m]ely conv5tions1 rigor\s conv5tions to be sure ) no semantic vagu5ess4 ,god did n orda9 t we use ! decimal sy/em1 z evid5c$ 9 ! l>ge numb] ( o!r sy/ems t "w j f9e4 ,"s abacuses use ! biqu9>y sy/em1 & !re are septal1 octal1 & sexagesimal sy/ems4 ,we c ev5 express numb]s 9 an ,,abc or ,,xyz notation4 ,s a broad *oice 0 available = ! comput] design] :5 he began to look ab\t = ! mo/ effici5t sy/em = 8 new ma*9e4 ,consid]+ only ! "q ( a radix1 or base1 :i* w p]mit ! fewe/ elem5ts to repres5t ! desir$ numb]s1 ma!maticians c %[ u t a base ( n #aj1 or #ab1 or any o!r :ole numb] is mo/ effici5t1 b ! fraction #b4gahbh4 ,! ideal model is n f\nd 9 man1 !n1 s9ce man does n seem to h #b4gahbh ( any?+4 ,h[ev]1 ! /range-look+ numb] does happ5 to be ! base ( ! sy/em ( natural log>i?ms4 ,n[ a sy/em ( ma!matics bas$ on #b4gahbh might make ! mo/ effici5t use ( ! compon5ts ( ! comput]1 b x w\ld play hob ) o!r factors1 includ+ ! m5 :o mu/ "w ) su* a weird set ( numb]s4 ,z is (t5 done1 a compromise 0 made betwe5 ideal & practical *oices4 ,s9ce ! comput] ) ! mo/ pot5tial seems to be ! electronic comput]1 & s9ce its op]ation h+es on ! op5+ & clos+ ( simple or sophi/icat$ swit*es1 a two-valu$ ma!matical sy/em1 ! b9>y sy/em1 0 *os54 ,x wasn't f> f ! ideal #b4gahbh1 & !re 0 ano!r ev5 m p[]ful reason = ! *oice4 ,logic is bas$ on a yes-no1 true-false sy/em4 ,"h1 !n1 0 ! be/ ( all possible numb] sy/ems3 ! l[ly1 app>5tly f>-f-sophi/icat$ b9>y notation4 ,z "o writ] exclaim$ sadly1 a concept :i* _h be5 hail$ z a monum5t to mono!ism end$ up 9 ! b[els ( a robot6 ,! ,b9>y ,sy/em ,x is believ$ f anci5t writ+s t ! ,*9ese 7 aw>e ( ! b9>y or two-valu$ sy/em ( numb]s z e>ly z #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,h[ev]1 ?is fact 0 lo/ z ! ye>s progress$1 & ,leibnitz ?\ght t he _h discov]$ b9>y himself almo/ #e1jjj ye>s lat]4 ,9 an odd twi/1 ,leibnitz appris$ 8 fri5d ,grimaldi1 ! ,jesuit presid5t ( ! ,tribunal ( ,ma!matics 9 ,*9a1 ( ! religi\s significance ( b9>y #a & #j z an argum5t aga9/ ,buddhism6 ,a leg5d 9 ,india also conta9s indications ( ! p[] ( ! b9>y sy/em4 ,! inv5tor ( ! game ( *ess 0 promis$ any aw>d he want$ = ?is s]vice to ! k+4 ,! inv5tor ask$ simply t ! k+ place a gra9 ( :eat on ! fir/ squ>e ( ! bo>d1 two on ! second1 & !n f\r1 eight1 & s on 9 asc5d+ p[]s ( two until ! sixty-f\r squ>es ( ! bo>d 7 cov]$4 ,al?\gh ! k+ ?\ght 8 subject a fool1 ?is am\nt ( :eat w\ld h cov]$ ! entire e>? to a dep? ( ab\t an in*6 ,we are p]haps m famili> ) ! b9>y sy/em ?an we realize4 ,morse code1 ) its dots & da%es1 = example1 is a two-valu$ sy/em4 ,& ! p[] ( a sy/em ) a base ( two is evid5t :5 we realize t giv5 a s+le "o-p\nd weight & suffici5t two-p\nd weights we c weigh any :ole-numb]$ am\nts4 ,at fir/ glance1 h[ev]1 b9>y numb]s seem a hopeless conglom]ation ( ones & z]os4 ,?is is s only because we h become condition$ to ! decimal sy/em1 :i* 0 ev5 m hopeless to u z y\ng/]s4 ,we may h =gott51 ) ! contempt ( famili>ity1 t our numb] sy/em is built on ! idea ( p[]s4 ,9 grade s*ool we le>n$ t />t+ at ! "r we _h units1 t5s1 hundr$s1 ?\s&s1 & s on4 ,9 ! decimal numb] #aaa1 = example1 we mean #a times #ajb1 plus #a times #aja1 plus #a4 ,we h h&l$ s _m numb]s s _m times we h usually =gott5 j :at we are do+1 & h[4 ,! b9>y sy/em uses only two numb]s3 #a & #j4 ,s x is five times z simple z ! decimal sy/em4 ,x uses p[]s ( two r ?an t51 aga9 f> simpl]4 ,let's take ! b9>y numb] #aaa & break x d[n j z we d a decimal numb]4 ,/>t+ at ! left1 we h #a times #bb1 plus #a times #ba1 plus #a4 ,?is adds up to #g1 & !re is our answ]4 ,! decimal sy/em is positional2 ?is is :at made x s mu* m effective 9 ! simple expression ( l>ge numb]s ?an ! ,roman num]al sy/em4 ,b9>y is positional too1 & = l>g] numb]s we cont9ue mov+ t[>d ! left1 increas+ our p[] ( two ea* "t4 ,?us #aaaa is #bc plus #bb plus #ba plus #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corp4 ,a comput] tea*+ ma*9e answ]+ a "q ab\t ! b9>y sy/em4 ,we are famili> ) decimal numb]s l #aja4 ,?is means #a hundr$1 no t5s1 & #a unit4 ,likewise 9 b9>y notation #aja means "o #d1 no #b's1 & "o #a4 ,= all its seem+ complexity1 !n1 ! b9>y sy/em is actually simpl] ?an ! 8easy0 decimal "o we are m famili> )4 ,b despite its simplicity1 ! b9>y sy/em is f> f be+ inf]ior to ! decimal sy/em4 ,y c prove ?is by do+ "s c\nt+ on y\r f+]s4 ,normally we c\nt1 or tally1 by b5d+ d[n a f+] = ea* new unit we want to record4 ,) bo? h&s1 !n1 we c add up only t5 units1 a q limit$ range4 ,we c add a bit ( sophi/ication1 & assign a diff]5t numb] to ea* f+]2 ?us #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj4 ,n[1 believe x or n1 we c tally up to #ee ) our h&s6 ,z ea* unit is c\nt$1 we raise & l[] ! correct f+] 9 turn4 ,on rea*+ #aj1 we leave t f+]--?umb1 actually--depress$1 & />t ov] ) #a4 ,on rea*+ #i1 we leave x depress$1 & s on4 ,we h increas$ ! capacity ( our c\nt+ ma*9e by #e-a_/b times )\t ev5 tak+ (f our %oes4 ,! ma!matician1 by ! way1 w\ld say we h a capability ( n #ee b #ef numb]s1 s9ce all f+]s up w\ld signify #j1 :i* c be call$ a numb]4 ,?us our two h&s repres5t to ! ma!matician a modulo-#ef c\nt]4 ,?is w\ld seem to vanqui% ! l[ly b9>y sy/em = good1 b let's d a bit m c\nt+4 ,?is "t we w assign ea* f+] a numb] correspond+ to ! p[]s ( #b we use 9 read+ our b9>y numb]s4 ,?us we assign ! numb]s #a1 #b1 #d1 #h1 #af1 #cb1 #fd1 #abh1 #bef1 & #eab4 ,h[ _m units c we c\nt n[8 ,n #aj1 or #ee1 b a good bit bett] ?an t4 ,us+ b9>y notation1 our t5 digits c n[ record a total ( #a1jbc units4 ,true1 x w take a bit ( dext]ity1 b by b5d+ & /raight5+ f+]s to make ! prop] sums1 :5 y f9ally h all f+]s d[n y w h c\nt$ #a1jbc1 or #a1jbd if y are a ma!matical puri/4 ,once conv9c$ t ! b9>y me?od does h its m]its1 x may be a little easi] to pursue a ma/]y ( repres5t+ numb]s 9 b9>y notation1 difficult z x may seem at ! outset4 ,! usual way to conv]t is to rememb]1 or li/1 ! p[]s ( #b1 & />t at ! left side ) ! l>ge/ p[] t c be divid$ into ! decimal numb] we want to conv]t4 ,suppose we want to *ange ! numb] #ejj into b9>y4 ,fir/ we make a *>t ( ! positions3 ,p[] ( #b #h #g #f #e #d #c #b #a #j ,decimal ,numb] #bef #abh #fd #cb #af #h #d #b #a ,b9>y ,numb] #a #a #a #a #a #j #a #j #j ,s9ce #bef is ! l>ge/ numb] t w g into #ejj1 we />t !re1 kn[+ t !re w be n9e b9>y digits1 or 8bits0 9 our answ]4 ,we place a #a 9 t space to indicate t !re is inde$ an eigh? p[] ( #b includ$ 9 #ejj4 ,s9ce #abh w g into ! rema9d]1 we put a #a 9 t space also4 ,cont9u+ 9 ?is mann]1 we f9d t we ne$ #a's until we rea* ! 8#h0 space :i* we mu/ skip s9ce our rema9d] does n conta9 an #h4 ,we m>k a #a 9 ! #d space1 b skip ! #b & ! #a4 ,our answ]1 !n1 9 b9>y notation is #aaaaajajj4 ,?is numb] is call$ 8pure b9>y40 ,x c also lead to pure torture = human programm]s ^: eyes beg9 to bug ) ?is 8bit *as+10 z x has come to be call$4 ,ev]y?+ is ( c\rse relative1 & ! anci5t ,roman might gladly h *ang$ ,,dccclxxxviii to b9>y #aajaaaajjj1 :i* is two digits %ort]4 ,!re is a simpl] way ( conv]t+ t might be int]e/+ to try out4 ,we'll />t ) our same #ejj4 ,s9ce x is an ev5 numb]1 we put a #j b5ea? x4 ,mov+ to ! left1 we divide by two & get #bej4 ,?is also is an ev5 numb]1 s we m>k d[n a #j 9 our b9>y equival5t4 ,! next division gives #abe1 an odd numb]1 s we put d[n a #a4 ,we cont9ue to divide successively1 m>k+ a z]o = ea* ev5 rema9d]1 & a #a = ! odd4 ,al?\gh x may n be obvi\s "r away1 we are m]ely arriv+ at p[]s ( two by a process call$ m$iation1 or halv+4 ,decimal #a #c #g #ae #ca #fb #abe #bej #ejj ,b9>y #a #a #a #a #a #j #a #j #j ,obvi\sly we c rev]se ?is proc$ure to conv]t b9>y numb]s to _! decimal equival5ts4 ,!re is an int]e/+ ext5sion ( ?is process call$ duplication by :i* multiplication c be done q simply4 ,let u multiply #ie times #cf4 ,we w halve our #ie z we did 9 ! e>li] example1 :ile d\bl+ ! #cf4 ,?is "t :5 we h an ev5 numb] 9 ! left column1 we w simply cancel out ! correspond+ numb] 9 ! "r column4 #ie #cf #dg #gb #bc #add #aa #bhh #e #egf #b 99999999 #a #bcjd ---- #cdbj ,?is clev] bit ( ma!matics is call$ ,russian peasant multiplication1 al?\gh x 0 also kn[n to e>ly ,egyptians & _m o!rs4 ,x p]mits uns*ool$ p1 ) only ! ability to add & divide1 to d fairly complex multiplication problems4 ,actually x is bas$ on our old /&-by1 ! b9>y sy/em4 ,:at we h done is to repres5t ! #ie 8dyadically10 or by twos1 & to multiply #cf successively by ea* ( ^! p[]s z applicable4 ,we w n digress fur!r1 b leave ?is z an example ( ! tricks possible ) ! seem+ly simple b9>y sy/em4 ,ev5 aft] we h le>n$ to conv]t f ! decimal numb]s we are famili> ) into b9>y notation almo/ by inspection1 ! results are admitt$ly unwieldy = human h&l+4 ,an employee :o is us$ to gett+ #aje a week w\ld be und]/&ably confus$ if ! comput] pr9t$ out a *eck = him read+ #aajajja4 ,= ?is reason ! comput] programm] has rea*$ a compromise ) ! ma*9e4 ,he speaks decimal1 x speaks b9>y2 !y meet ea* o!r halfway ) some?+ call$ b9>y-cod$ decimal4 ,"h's ! way x works4 ,a little ?\ght w %[ t ! decimal numb]s f #j ?r\gh #i c be pres5t$ 9 b9>y us+ f\r bits4 ,?us3 ,decimal ,b9>y #j #j #a #a #b #aaj #c #aaa #d #aajj #e #aaja #f #aaaj #g #ajaaa #h #aajjj #i #aajja ,9 ! int]e/ ( uni=mity we fill 9 ! blanks ) #j's1 s t ea* decimal numb] is repres5t$ by a f\r-digit block1 or ^w1 ( b9>y code4 ,n[ :5 ! comput] programm] wants to fe$ ! numb] #efj into ! comput] 9 b9>y he breaks x into sep>ate words ( #e1 #f1 & #j2 or #jaja1 #jaaj1 & #jjjj4 ,9 effect1 we h *ang$ #e words into f\r-bit words6 ,! comput] c\ldn't c>e less1 s9ce x h&les b9>y digits at ! rate ( millions a second2 & ! human is bett] able to keep 8 m>bles :ile he works ) ! comput]4 ,( c\rse1 !re are "s comput]s t are class$ z pure b9>y ma*9es4 ,^! "w on ma!matical problems1 ) none ( ! re/rictions impos$ by human frailty4 ,= ! comput] ! pure b9>y sy/em is m effici5t ?an ! b9>y decimal compromise4 ,! f\r-digit words c be made to repres5t n only numb]s1 b lett]s z well4 ,:5 ?is is done x is call$ an alpha-num]ic or alpham]ic code4 ,incid5tally1 x is conceivable t language c\ld be made up ( only #a's & #j's1 or p]haps a's & b's w\ld be bett]4 ,all x w\ld take w\ld be ! /r++ toge!r ( en\gh lett]s to cov] all ! words !re are4 ,! result w\ld be r dull1 ) words l aabbababaabbaaba1 bbaabbaabababaaabab1 & aaaaaaaaabaaa2 x is d\btful t ! comput] w make mu* headway ) a b9>y alphabet = its human ma/]s4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( b9>y comput] "w1 ! direct conv]sion to b9>y code we h discuss$ 0 satisfactory1 b soon ! design]s ( new] ma*9es & calculat+ me?ods began to juggle ! digits ar\nd = v>i\s reasons4 ,= "o ?+1 a decimal #j 0 repres5t$ by f\r b9>y #j's4 ,electrically1 ?is repres5ts no signal at all 9 ! comput]'s inn] work+s4 ,if tr\ble happ5$1 say a loose connection1 or a p[] failure = a split second1 ! ^w #jjjj might be pr9t$ out & accept$ z a valid z]o :5 x actually meant a malfunction4 ,s ! design]s got busy try+ o!r codes ?an ! basic b9>y4 ,"o clev] result is ! 8excess-#c0 code4 ,9 ?is v>iation #c is add$ to ea* decimal numb] be=e conv]sion4 ,a decimal #cj is !n repres5t$ by ! ^w #jjaa in/ead ( #jjjj4 ,!re is1 9 fact1 no su* comput] ^w z #jjjj 9 excess-#c code4 ,?is elim9ates ! possibility ( an error be+ tak5 = a #j4 ,excess-#c does some?+ else too4 ,if ea* digit is *ang$1 t is1 if #a's become #j's & #j's become #a's1 ! new ^w is ! 8#i's complem5t0 ( ! orig9al4 ,= example1 ! b9>y code = #d 9 excess-#c is #jaaa4 ,*ang+ all ! digits1 we get #ajjj1 :i* is decimal #e4 ,?is is n j an int]e/+ curiosity1 b ! #i's complem5t ( #d 7#i m9us #d74 ,anyone famili> ) an add+ ma*9e is us$ to p]=m+ subtraction by us+ complem5ts ( numb]s4 ,! comput] _c d any?+ b add2 by us+ ! excess-#c code x c subtract by add+4 ,?us1 :ile ! comput] _c subtract #jaaj f #ajjj1 x c q h&ily add #ajja to #ajjj to get ! same result4 ,!re are _m o!r reasons = codes1 among !m be+ ! important "o ( *eck+ = errors4 8,ca/+ out n9es0 is a well-kn[n te*nique ( ! bookkeep] = locat+ mi/akes 9 "w4 ,c]ta9 b9>y codes1 conta9+ :at is call$ a 8p>ity bit10 h ! prop]ty ( self-*eck+1 9 a mann] simil> to ca/+ out n9es4 ,a /ory is told ( "s pione] comput] design]s :o hit on ! idea ( ano!r means ( error *eck+ n z effective z ! code me?od4 ,! idea 0 clev] en\gh1 x be+ t id5tical comput]s w\ld d ea* problem & comp>e answ]s1 mu* l ! pairs ( abacus-wield]s 9 ,japan's banks4 ,9 case bo? comput]s did n come up ) ! same answ]1 a correction w\ld be made4 ,) high hopes1 ! design]s f$ a problem into ! ma*9es & sat back to wat*4 ,soon en\gh a w>n+ light bl9k$ on "o ma*9e z x caught an error4 ,b simultane\sly a light bl9k$ on ! o!r4 ,aft] t1 *aos reign$ until ! p[] plugs 7 f9ally pull$4 ,al?\gh made ( metal & wires1 ! comput]s demon/rat$ a rem>kably human trait2 ea* ?\ght ! o!r 0 wrong & 0 do+ its be/ to *ange its p>tn]'s answ]6 ,! solution1 ( c\rse1 0 to add a ?ird comput]4 ,b9>y decimal1 z we h po9t$ out1 is a wa/eful code4 ,! decimal numb] #ajj 9 b9>y decimal cod+ is #jjja #jjjj #jjjj1 or #ab digits4 ,pure b9>y is #aajjajj1 or only #g digits4 ,by go+ to a b9>y-octal code1 us+ eight numb]s in/ead ( t51 ! words c be #c-;bit in/ead ( #d-;bit4 ,?is is call$ an 8economy0 code1 & f9ds "s application4 ,!re are also 8,gray0 codes1 reflect$ b9>y codes1 & _m m1 ea* s]v+ a p>ticul> purpose4 ,=tunately = ! design]1 he c be prodigal ) 8 use ( codes4 ,) #d-;bit words1 #bi billion codes are available1 s a numb] ( !m are /ill unus$4 ,hav+ translat$ our decimal numb]s into code intelligible to our comput]1 we /ill h ! ma!matical op]ations to p]=m on x4 ,) a little practice we c add1 subtract1 multiply1 & divide our b9>y numb]s q easily1 z 9 ! examples t foll[4 ,addition3 #aajj 7#ab7 #jaaa 7 #g7 ---- ---- #ajjaa 7#ai7 ,subtraction3 #ajaj 7#aj7 - #jjaj 7 #b7 ------ ---- #ajjj 7#h7 ,multiplication3 #jaaj 7#f7 #jjaa 7#c7 ------ ----- #jaaj #jaaj #jjjj #jjjj ------ #ajjaj 7#ah7 ,,tn#a ,division3 #ajaj #aj #jaja 7#aj #b #e7 ,! rules %\ld be obvi\s f ^! examples4 ,j z we add #e & #e to get #j ) #a to c>ry1 we add #a & #a & get #j ) #a to c>ry 9 b9>y4 ,add+ #a & #j gives #a1 #j & #j gives #j4 ,multiply+ #a times #a gives #a1 #a times #j gives #j1 & #j times #j gives #j4 ,"o divides into #a once1 & into #j no times4 ,?us we c manipulate 9 j ! mann] we are accu/om$ to4 ,! comput] does n ev5 ne$ to "k ?is mu*4 ,all x is conc]n$ ) is addition3 #a plus #a gives #j & #a to c>ry2 #a plus #j gives #a2 & #j plus #j gives #j4 ,?is is all x kn[s1 & all x ne$s to "k4 ,we h describ$ h[ x subtracts by add+ complem5ts4 ,x c multiply by repetitive additions1 or m simply1 by %ift+ ! b9>y numb] to ! left4 ,?us1 #jjja becomes #jjaj 9 "o %ift1 & #jajj 9 two %ifts1 d\bl+ ea* "t4 ,?is is ( c\rse j ! way we d x 9 ! decimal sy/em4 ,%ift+ to ! "r divides by two 9 ! b9>y sy/em4 ,! simple/ comput] circuitry p]=ms additions 9 a s]ial mann]1 t is1 "o op]ation at a "t4 ,?is is obvi\sly a sl[ way to d bus9ess1 & by add+ compon5ts s t !re are en\gh to h&le ! digits 9 ea* r[ simultane\sly ! ari?metic op]ation is greatly spe$$4 ,?is is call$ p>allel addition4 ,bo? op]ations are done by p>ts und]/&ably call$ add]s1 :i* are fur!r brok5 d[n into half-add]s4 ,!re are ref9em5ts to basic b9>y computation1 ( c\rse4 ,by us+ a decimal po9t1 or p]haps a b9>y po9t1 fractions c be express$ 9 b9>y code4 ,if ! position to ! left ( ! po9t is tak5 z #b to ! z]o p[]1 !n ! position j to ! "r ( ! po9t is logically #b to ! m9us "o1 :i* if y rememb] y\r ma!matics y'll recognize z "o-half4 ,two to ! m9us two is !n "o-f\r?1 & s on4 ,:ile we are on ! subject ( ! decimal po9t1 sophi/icat$ comput]s d :at is call$ 8float+-po9t ari?metic10 9 :i* ! po9t c be mov$ back & =? at w = mu* m rapid ari?metical op]ations4 ,no matt] h[ _m add]s we put toge!r & h[ big ! comput] ev5tually gets1 x is /ill op]at+ 9 :at seems an awkw>d fa%ion4 ,x is c\nt+ its f+]s1 ( :i* x has two4 ,! trick is 9 ! spe$ ( ?is c\nt+1 s fa/ t "o million additions a second is n[ a commonplace4 ,try t = size 9 y\r own decimally tra9$ head & y w appreciate ! comput] a little m4 ,! ,logical ,algebra ,we come n[ to ano!r mo/ important reason = ! effectiv5ess ( ! digital comput]2 ! reason t makes x ! 8logical0 *oice = n only ma!matics b ?9k+ z well4 ,= ! digital comput] & logic g h& 9 h&4 ,logic1 says ,web/]1 is 8! sci5ce t deals ) canons & crit]ia ( validity 9 ?\ght & demon/ration40 ,he admits to ! ironic p]v]sion ( ?is basic def9ition2 = example1 8artill]y has be5 call$ ! #8logic ( k+s1'0 a k9d ( logic to make 8argum5t useless40 ,om> ,khayym _h a simil> ?\ght 9 m9d :5 he wrote 9 ,! ,rubiyt1 ,! grape t c ) logic absolute1 ,! ,two-&-,sev5ty ,sects confute4 ,o!r poets & writ]s h _h mu* to say on ! subject ( logic ?r\gh ! ye>s1 words ( tribute & words ( w>n+4 ,"s1 l ,"l ,dunsany1 c\nsel mod]ation ev5 9 our logic4 8,logic1 l :iskey10 he says1 8loses its b5eficial effect :5 tak5 9 too l>ge quantities40 ,& ,oliv] ,w5dell ,holmes asks1 ,h y he>d ( ! wond]ful "o-hoss %ay ,t 0 built 9 su* a logical way ,x ran a hundr$ ye>s to ! day8 ,! words logic & logical are mu* us$ & abus$ 9 our language1 & !re are all sorts ( logic1 includ+ t ( wom51 :i* seems to be a special case4 ,= our purposes "h x is be/ to /ick to ! prim>y def9ition 9 ! diction>y1 t ( validity 9 ?\ght & demon/ration4 ,symbolic logic1 a t]m t /ill has an esot]ic & almo/ my/ical connotation1 is p]haps my/]i\s because ( ! /range symbology us$4 ,we are us$ to reason+ 9 words & phrases1 & ! notion t tru? c be spell$ out 9 algebraic or o!r notation is h>d to accept unless we are ma!maticians to beg9 )4 ,we mu/ g f> back 9 hi/ory = ! beg9n+s ( logic4 ,ari/otelian logic is well kn[n & ( importance ev5 ?\gh ! old syllogisms h be5 f\nd n z p[]ful z _! inv5tors ?\ght4 ,mod]n logicians h r$uc$ ! #bef possible p]mutations to a valid #ae & ^! are n z useful z ! new] k9d ( logic t has s9ce come into be+4 ,leibniz is conc$$ to be ! fa!r ( mod]n symbolic logic1 ?\gh he probably nei!r recogniz$ :at he _h done nor us$ x effectively4 ,he did come up ) ! idea ( two-valu$ logic1 & ! cosmological notion ( #a & #j1 or sub/ance & no?+ness4 ,9 8 ,*>act]i/ica ,univ]salis he 0 grop+ = a univ]sal language = sci5ce2 a second "w1 ,calculus ,ratioc9ator1 0 an attempt to implem5t ?is language4 ,incid5tally1 ,leibnitz 0 n yet tw5ty ye>s old :5 he =mulat$ 8 logic sy/em4 ,un=tunately x 0 two c5turies lat] be=e ! importance ( 8 f9d+s 0 recogniz$ & an explanation ( _! pot5tial begun4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton began to ref9e ! old syllogisms1 & is kn[n = 8 8quantification ( ! pr$icate40 ,augu/us ,de ,morgan1 also an ,engli%man1 mov$ f ! quantification ( ! pr$icate to ! =mation ( ?irty-two rules or propositions t result4 ,! /age 0 set n[ = ! man :o has come to be kn[n z ! fa!r ( symbolic logic4 ,8 "n 0 ,george ,boole1 inv5tor ( ,boolean algebra4 ,9 #ahed1 ,boole publi%$ 8,an ,inve/igation ( ! ,laws ( ,?\ght on :i* are ,f\nd$ ! ,ma!matical ,!ories ( ,logic & ,probabilities40 ,9 an e>li] pamphlet1 ,boole _h said1 8,! few :o ?9k t !re is t 9 analysis :i* r5d]s x des]v+ ( att5tion = its own sake1 may f9d x wor? :ile to /udy x "u a =m 9 :i* e equation c be solv$ & e solution int]pret$40 ,he 0 a mild1 quiet man1 ?\gh noncon=mi/ religi\sly & socially1 & 8 8,inve/igation0 might z well h be5 dropp$ d[n a well = all ! imm$iate spla% x made 9 ! sci5tific _w4 ,x 0 consid]$ only academically int]e/+1 & copies ( x ga!r$ du/ = m ?an fifty ye>s4 ,only 9 #aiaj 0 ! true importance giv5 to ,boole's logical calculus1 or 8algebra0 z x came to be kn[n4 ,!n ,alfr$ ,nor? ,:itehead & ,b]tr& ,russell made ! belat$ ackn[l$gm5t 9 _! ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 & ,russell has said1 8,pure ma!matics 0 discov]$ by ,boole1 9 a "w he call$ #8,! ,laws ( ,?\ght4'0 ,:ile 8 praise is und\bt$ly exagg]at$1 x is int]e/+ to note ! way 9 :i* ma!matics & ?\ght are consid]$ insep>able4 ,9 #aibh1 ! fir/ text on ! new algebra 0 publi%$4 ,! "w ( ,hilb]t & ,ack]mann1 ,ma!matical ,logic1 0 pr9t$ fir/ 9 ,g]man & !n 9 ,engli%4 ,:at 0 ! nature ( ?is new tool = bett] ?9k+ t ,boole _h creat$8 ,its purpose 0 to make possible n m]ely precise1 b exact analytical ?\ght4 ,hi/orically we ?9k 9 words1 & ^! words h become fraught ) semantic dit*es1 walls1 & traps4 ,boole 0 ?9k+ ( ?\ght & n ma!matics or sci5ce pr9cipally :5 he develop$ 8 logic algebra1 & x is indicative t symbolic logic today is (t5 taught by ! philosophy dep>tm5t 9 ! univ]sity4 ,russell _h h9t$ at ! direction 9 :i* symbolic logic w\ld g1 & x 0 n long be=e ! sci5ti/ z well z ! ma!matician & logician did beg9 to make use ( ! new tool4 ,"o pione] 0 ,%annon1 m5tion$ 9 ! *apt] on hi/ory4 ,9 #aich1 ,claude ,%annon 0 a /ud5t at ,m4,i4,t4 ,he w\ld lat] make sci5tific hi/ory ) 8 treatise on & e/abli%m5t ( a new field call$ in=mation !ory2 8 e>ly "w 0 titl$ 8,a ,symbolic ,analysis ( ,relay & ,swit*+ ,circuits40 ,9 x he %[$ t electrical & electronic circuitry c\ld be/ be describ$ by means ( ,boolean logic4 ,%annon's "w l$ to great /rides 9 improv+ telephone swit*+ circuits & x also 0 ( mu* importance to ! design] ( digital comput]s4 ,to see :y ?is is s1 we mu/ n[ look into ,boolean algebra itself4 ,z we might guess1 x is bas$ on a two-valu$ logic1 a true-false sy/em t exactly p>allels ! on-(f comput] swit*es we are famili> )4 ,! ,biblical promise 8,ye %all "k ! tru?1 & ! tru? %all make y free0 applies to our pres5t situation4 ,! be/ way to get our feet wet 9 ! ,boolean /ream is to le>n its s-call$ 8tru? tables40 ,conjunctive ,boolean ,op]ation ,a & ,b equal ,c ,a ,b ,c 7,a ,b ,c7 ------ #j #j #j #a #j #j #j #a #j #a #a #a ,disjunctive ,boolean ,op]ation ,a or ,b equals ,c ,a ,b ,c 7 ,b ,c7 ------ #j #j #j #a #j #a #j #a #a #a #a #a ,9 ! tru? tables1 #a symbolizes true1 #j is false4 ,9 ! conjunctive ,,& op]ation1 we see t only if bo? ,a & ,b are true is ,c true4 ,9 ! disjunctive ,,or op]ation1 if ei!r ,a or ,b is true1 !n ,c is also true4 ,f ?is seem+ly nave & obvi\s base1 ! entire ,boolean sy/em is built1 & digital comput]s c p]=m n only complex ma!matical op]ations1 b logical ones z well1 includ+ ! mak+ ( decisions on a purely logical basis4 ,be=e go+ on to ! few additional conditions & comb9ations t complete ! algebra1 let's /udy "s analogies t w make cle> ! ,,&_/,,or pr9ciples ( op]ation4 ,we c ?9k ( ,,& z two bridges 9 sequ5ce ov] two riv]s4 ,we c rea* our de/9ation only if bo? bridges are work+4 ,h[ev]1 suppose !re are two p>allel bridges & only "o riv]4 ,we c !n cross if ei!r or bo? ( ! bridges is work+4 ,a clos] example is t ( electrical swit*es4 ,curr5t w fl[ ?r\gh our ,,& circuit if--& only if--bo? swit*es are clos$4 ,:5 ! swit*es are 9 p>allel--an ,,or circuit--curr5t w fl[ if ei!r1 or bo?1 are clos$4 ,! tru? tables resemble ! bridge or swit* arrangem5ts4 ,we c proce$ across ! l9e ( #a's & #j's 9 ! fir/ table only if bo? swit*es are clos$4 ,! symbol #a means t ! swit* is clos$1 s we c cross only ! bottom l9e4 ,9 ! second table1 we are told we c proce$ across ! l9e if ei!r swit* is clos$4 ,?us we c cross l9es #b1 #c1 & #d4 ,we c use _m symbols 9 our two-valu$ sy/em4 ,symbol ,bridge ,no ,bridge ,p[] ,no ,p[] #a #j ,true ,false ,a little imag9ation sugge/s a logic comput] ( sorts ) "o swit*1 a batt]y1 & a light bulb4 ,suppose we turn on ! swit* :5 we drive into our g>age4 ,a light 9 ! hallway !n indicates t ! c> is available4 ,by us+ two swit*es we c indicate t a second c> is also 9 ! g>age2 or t ei!r ( !m is1 simply by *oos+ betwe5 ,,& logic & ,,or logic4 ,*ildi% z ?is seems1 x is ! pr9ciple ( ev5 our mo/ complex ?9k+ processes4 ,y w rememb] t ! bra9 is consid]$ a digital comput]1 s9ce neurons c only be on or (f4 ,all x takes is #aj billion neuron swit*es6 ,illu/ration3 ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac ,,& & ,,or gates 9 s]ies4 ,swit*es #a & #b1 plus #c or #d1 are ne$$ to light ! bulb4 ,9 addition to ! conjunctives ,,& & ,,or1 ,boolean algebra makes use ( ! pr9ciple ( negation4 ,?is is graphically illu/rat$ ?us3 ,orig9al ,negation ,a #a #j #j #a ,! negation device us$ 9 comput] circuitry is call$ an inv]t]1 s9ce x *anges its input f a #a to a #j1 or vice v]sa4 ,! usefulness ( su* an elem5t is obvi\s :5 we rememb] ! comput] trick ( subtract+ by add+ complem5ts4 ,! inv]t] circuit us$ ) a code l ! excess-#c readily =ms ^! complem5ts4 ,fur!r sophi/ication ( ! basic ,boolean =ms leads to units o!r ?an ! ,,& & ,,or gates4 ,possible are ,,n1 ,,nor1 & exclusive-,,or =ms4 ,9 ! latt]1 !re is an output if "o & only "o input is pres5t4 ,! ,,nor circuit is int]e/+ 9 t x 0 made possible ) ! introduction ( ! transi/or2 ! vacuum tube does n p]mit ?is configuration4 ,illu/ration3 ,comput] ,control ,co4 ,! functions ( two b9>y v>iables4 ,pres5t-day symbolic logic is n ! pure ,boolean z pres5t$ back 9 #ahed4 ,boole's ,,or 0 ! exclusive1 "o & only "o1 type4 ,today ! logician g5]ally assumes ! ei!r-or connotation4 ,! logic has also be5 amplifi$1 us+ ! commutative1 associative1 & di/ributive laws mu* l ^? ( conv5tional algebra4 ,we are indebt$ to ,de ,morgan = mo/ ( ?is "w1 %[+ t ,a & ,b equals ,b & ,a2 ,a & 7,a & ,b7 equals 7,a & ,b7 & ,a2 & s on4 ,:ile ^! seem intuitively true1 ! implications are none!less ( great importance bo? 9 pure logic & its practical use 9 circuitry4 ,a graphic repres5tation ( ! metamorphosis f symbolic to actual implem5tation ( ,boolean equations foll[s3 ,! implication ( importance is t logic applies equally well :e!r we are mak+ a qualify+ /atem5t su* z 8,a man mu/ h /r5g? & c\rage to w9 a b>eh&$ fight ) a lion10 or wir+ a def5sive missile s t x w fire only if a t>get is )9 range & is unfri5dly4 ,9 ! e>ly p]iod ( comput] design ! eng9e] 0 fac$ ) ! problem ( build+ 8 own swit*es & gates4 ,today _m companies (f] complete 8packag$0 compon5ts--,,& gates1 ,,or gates1 & ! o!r configurations4 ,?is is ! modul> approa* to build+ a comput] & ! advantages are obvi\s4 ,! design] c treat ! compon5ts simply z 8black boxes0 t w respond 9 a prescrib$ way to c]ta9 input conditions4 ,if he wants1 ! eng9e] c g a /ep fur!r & buy a ready-built logic panel consi/+ ( _m compon5ts ( diff]5t types4 ,all he ne$ d to =m v>i\s logic circuits is to int]connect ! prop] compon5ts ) plug-9 leads4 ,?is br+s u to ! po9t ( le>n+ :at we c d ) ^! clev] gates & swit*es n[ t we h !m available & "k some?+ ab\t ! way !y "w4 ,we talk$ ab\t ! comput] add] circuit e>li] 9 ?is *apt]4 ,x is made up ( two half-add]s1 rememb]1 ) p]haps an additional ,,or gate1 flip-flop1 etc4 ,ea* half-add] is compos$ ( two ,,& gates & an ,,or gate4 ,s we h put toge!r sev]al basically simple p>ts & ! result is a piece ( equipm5t t w p]=m addition at a rate to make our heads swim4 ,!re are o!r ?+s we c d ) ,boolean logic besides ari?metic4 ,a few gates w actuate a w>n+ signal 9 a factory 9 case ei!r ( two v5tilators is clos$ & ! temp]ature goes up beyond a safe po9t2 or 9 case bo? v5ts are clos$ at ! same "t4 ,we c build a logic comput] t w tell u :5 ?ree ( f\r assembly l9es are %ut d[n at ! same "t1 & also :i* ?ree !y are4 ,illu/ration3 ,g5]al ,electric ,co41 ,comput] ,dept4 ,electronic comput]s are built up ( _m 8build+ blocks0 l ?is "o4 ,logic problems ab\nd 9 puzzle books1 & _m ( u sp5d sleepless nights try+ to solve !m 9 our heads4 ,an example is ! 8,f>nswor? ,c> ,pool0 problem4 ,rita ,f>nswor? asks h] husb& if someone 9 8 c> pool c drive = him tomorr[ s t %e may use ! c>4 ,joe ,f>nswor? replies1 8,well1 :5 ,i ask$ ,pete if he w\ld take my turn he said he 0 fly+ to ,kansas ,city today1 b he'd be glad to drive tomorr[ if he didn't h to /ay ov] & t 8 wife has be5 /ay+ home lately & he w drive h] c> if %e doesn't g to "w4 ,osc> said t s9ce 8 own c> is due back f ! g>age tomorr[ he c drive x ev5 if 8 wife does use h]s1 provid$ ! g>age gets 8 back to him4 ,b if ?is cold ( m9e gets any worse ,i'm go+ to /ay home ev5 if ^? fell[s h to walk to "w1 s y c c]ta9ly h ! c> if ,i don't g to "w40 ,?is dialogue ( ,joe's confuses ,rita & mo/ ( u are 9 ! same /ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,autonetics ,division1 ,nor? ,am]ican ,aviation1 ,inc4 ,te/+ an assembl$ digital comput]4 ,! in/ruction manual = ,,bra9iac1 a d-x-y\rself comput] t sells = a few doll>s1 gives a simple wir+ diagram = solv+ ,rita's dilemma4 ,electrically ! problem breaks d[n into ?ree ,,or gates & "o ,,& gate4 ,all ,mrs4 ,f>nswor? has to d is set 9 ! conditions & wat* ! indicator light4 ,if x gl[s1 %e gets ! c>6 ,^! are ( c\rse simple tasks & x might pay to hire a man to op]ate ! v5ts1 & ride to "w on ! bus :5 ! c> pool got complicat$4 ,b ev5 ) relatively few v>iables1 decision-mak+ c quickly become a task requir+ a digital comput] op]at+ ) ,boolean logic pr9ciples4 ,illu/ration3 ,sci5ce ,mat]ials ,c5t] ,problem 9 logic r$uc$ to electrical circuits4 ,! ,smi?-,jones-,rob9son type ( problem 9 :i* we mu/ f9d :o does :at & lives :]e is t\gh] ?an ! c> pool--t\gh en\gh t x is sometimes us$ 9 aptitude te/s4 ,lewis ,c>roll c>ri$ ?is =m ( logical puzzl] to complicat$ extremes involv+ n j ?ree v>iables b a doz54 ,to %[ h[ difficult su* a problem is1 an ,,ibm #gjd requir$ f\r m9utes to solve a ,c>roll puzzle z to :e!r any magi/rates indulge 9 snuff-tak+4 ,! comput] did x ! easy way1 )\t pr9t+ out a complete 8tru? table0 = ! problem--! me?od a man w\ld h to use to inve/igate all ! comb9ations ( v>iables4 ,?is job w\ld h tak5 #ac h\rs6 ,:ile ! "q ( ! use ( snuff is p]haps important only to tobacconi/s & puzzle-mak]s1 our te*nical _w today does enc\nt] simil> problems :i* are n practical ( solution )\t a high-spe$ comput]4 ,a rec5t hypo!tical case discuss$ 9 an electronics j\rnal illu/rates ?is well4 ,a missile sy/em eng9e] has ! problem ( modify+ a ,nike-,ajax laun*+ site s t x c be us$ by ! new ,nike-,h]cules missile4 ,he mu/ put 9 swit*+ equipm5t s t a remote control c5t] c *oose ei!r an ,ajax sy/em1 or "o ( six ,h]cules sy/ems4 ,to complicate ?+s1 ! new] ,h]cules c be equipp$ ) any ( ?ree diff]5t w>heads & fly ei!r ( two diff]5t missions4 ,:5 someone at ! control c5t] pu%es a button1 ! comput] mu/ "k imm$iately :i* if any ( ! missiles are 9 acceptable condition to be fir$4 ,?is doesn't s\nd l too big a problem4 ,h[ev]1 s9ce !re are twelve on-(f signals to be consid]$1 & s9ce ea* has two possible /ates1 !re are #d1jif possible missile comb9ations4 ,n all ^! are probable1 ( c\rse1 b !re is /ill suffici5t v>iation to make x humanly impossible to *eck all ( !m & close a fir+ swit* 9 ! split second ! control c5t] c all[4 ,! answ] lies 9 putt+ ,boolean algebra on ! job1 ) a sy/em ( gates & inv]t]s capable ( juggl+ ! multiplicity ( comb9ations4 ,!n :5 ! ^w comes reque/+ a missile laun*1 ! comput] h&les ! job 9 microseconds )\t /ra9+ itself unduly4 ,j z ,%annon po9t$ out tw5ty-five ye>s ago1 swit*+ philosophy c be expla9$ be/ by ,boolean logic1 & ! me?od c be us$ n only to implem5t a p>ticul> circuit1 b also to actually design ! circuit 9 ! fir/ place4 ,a simple example ( ?is c be %[n ) ! easy-to-und]/& ,,& & ,,or gates4 ,a te*nician exp]im5t+ ) an ,,& gate f9ds t if he simply rev]ses ! direction ( curr5t1 he *anges ! gate into an ,,or gate4 ,?is might come z a surprise to him if he is unfamili> ) ,boolean logic1 b a logician ) no und]/&+ ( electrical circuits c\ld pr$ict ! result simply by /udy+ ! tru? tables = ,,& & ,,or4 ,rev]s+ ! pol>ity is equival5t to *ang+ a #a to a #j & vice v]sa4 ,if we d ?is 9 ! ,,& gate table1 we %\ld n be surpris$ to f9d t ! result looks exactly l ! ,,or table6 ,x acts l x too1 z ! te*nician f\nd out4 ,boolean logic te*niques c be appli$ to exi/+ circuits to improve &_/or simplify !m4 ,problems z simple z wir+ a light s t x c be turn$ on & (f f two or m locations1 & ^? z complex z automat+ a factory1 yield readily to ! simple rules ,george ,boole laid d[n m ?an a hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,wat*+ a high-spe$ electronic digital comput] solve ma!matical problems1 or op]ate an indu/rial control sy/em ) spe$ & accuracy impossible = human monitors1 x is difficult to believe t ! :ole ?+ h+es on some?+ z simple z swit*es t mu/ be ei!r op5 or clos$4 ,if ,leibnitz 7 alive1 he c\ld well take ?is z pro( ( 8 cont5tion t !re 0 cosmological significance 9 ! concept ( #a & #j4 ,maybe !re is1 aft] all6 ,illu/ration3 ,indu/rial ,electronic ,eng9e]+ ,ma9t5ance 8,luckily ,i br\ght along a #8loan]' = y to use :ile ,i repair y\r comput]40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,:atev] t be :i* ?9ks1 und]/&s1 wills1 & acts1 x is some?+ cele/ial & div9e40 --,cic]o #f3 ,! ,electronic ,bra9 ,! idea ( a man-made 8bra90 is f> f be+ new4 ,back 9 #ahea1 ,dr4 ,alfr$ ,smee ( ,engl& propos$ a ma*9e made up ( logic circuits & memory devices :i* w\ld be able to answ] any que/ions x 0 ask$4 ,doctor ,smee 0 a surgeon1 ke5ly int]e/$ 9 ! processes ( ! m9d4 ,ano!r ,briti%]1 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 wrote a book call$ ,giant ,bra9 9 #aich :i* propos$ mu* ! same ?+3 a ma*9e ) all k pump$ into x1 & capable ( fe$+ back answ]s to all problems4 ,if x 0 logical to cr$it 8human0 *>act]i/ics to ! ma*9es man contriv$1 ! next /ep !n 0 to end[ ! ma*9e ) ! wor/ ( ^! attributes4 ,9 works includ+ ,butl]'s ,ere:on1 ! diabolical aspects ( an intellig5t ma*9e are discuss$4 ,! ,lionel ,britton play1 ,bra91 produc$ 9 #aicj1 %[s ! ma*9e gradually becom+ ! ma/] ( ! race4 ,a m physical dang] f ! artificial bra9 is ! natural result ( giv+ x a body z well4 ,we h already m5tion$ apek's ,r4,u4,r4 & ! ,ambrose ,bi]ce /ory ab\t a *ess-play+ robot )\t a built-9 s5se ( humor1 :o /rangles ! human be+ :o beats him at a game4 ,) ^! /ories z models1 o!r writ]s h turn$ out huge quantities ( "w involv+ me*anical bra9s capable ( all sorts ( mis*ief4 ,mo/ ( ^! au?ors 7 n z well-gr\nd$ sci5tifically z ! pione]+ ,dr4 ,smee :o admitt$ sadly t 8 8bra90 w\ld inde$ be a giant1 cov]+ an area ab\t ! size ( ,london6 ,! idea ( ! giant bra9 0 giv5 new lease by ! e>ly electronic comput]s t began appe>+ 9 ! #aidj's4 ,^! vacuum-tube & me*anical-relay ma*9es ) _! r[s ( cab9ets & c\ntless w9k+ lights 7 seiz$ on gleefully by contempor>y writ]s1 & ! 8bra90 /ories multipli$ gaudily4 ,_m ( ! acts ( ^! fictional ma*9es 7 mon/r\s1 & mo/ ( ! /ories 7 calculat$ to make sci5ti/s ill4 ,_m ( ^! g5tlem5 said ! only correct "p ( ! "n 8giant bra90 0 ! adjective2 t actually ! ma*9e 0 an idiot savant1 a sort ( high-spe$ moron4 ,?is op9ion not)/&+1 ! "n /uck4 ,"o s*ol> says t :ile x is regrettable t su* a vulg> t]m has become s popul>1 x is h>dly wor? :ile campaign+ aga9/ its use4 ,an amus+ contempor>y fiction /ory describes an angry cr[d /orm+ a laboratory h\s+ a 8giant bra910 only to be placat$ by a calm1 s5sibly argu+ sci5ti/4 ,! mob disp]s$1 he goes back inside & reports 8 success to ! ma*9e4 ,! 8bra90 is pleas$1 & issues him 8 next ord]4 8,nons5se60 sc(f mo/ comput] p4 ,a rec5t text on op]ation ( ! digital comput] says1 8,:]e p]=mance comp>able ) t ( ! human bra9 is conc]n$1 man ne$ h little fe> t he w ev] be replac$ by ?is ma*9e4 ,x _c ?9k 9 any way comp>able to a human be+40 ,note ! cauti\s use ( 8little10 h[ev]4 ,ano!r au?ority admits t ! logic ma*9es ( ! monk ,ramn ,lull 7 v clev] 9 _! pro( ( ,god's exi/5ce1 b po9ts out t ! monk :o inv5t$ !m 0 f> clev]] s9ce no comput] has ev] inv5t$ a monk :o c\ld prove any?+ at all6 ,! fir/ wave ( ridicul\s pr$ictions has run its c\rse & be5 foll[$ by l\d refutations4 ,n[ !re is a ?ird p]iod ( calm] & m s5sible approa*4 ,a gr[+ proportion ( sci5ti/s take a middle-(-!-/ream attitude1 weigh+ bo? sides ( ! case = ! comput]1 yet "s read l sci5ce fiction4 ,cyb]netici/ ,norb]t ,wi5]1 m sci5ti/ ?an fictione]1 pr(esses to =esee comput]iz$ robots tak+ ov] f _! ma/]s1 mu* z a ,greek slave once did4 ,ma!matician ,john ,williams ( ! ,r& ,corporation ?9ks t comput]s c1 & possibly w1 become m intellig5t ?an m54 ,equally reputable sci5ti/s take ! opposite view4 ,neuro-physiologi/ ,g]h>d ,w]n] ( ,cornell ,m$ical ,college d\bts t comput]s c ev] mat* ! creativity ( man4 ,he seems to %>e ! majority view today1 ?\gh _m :o agree w add1 tongue 9 *eek1 t p]haps we'd bett] keep "o h& on ! wall plug j 9 case4 ,?9k+ ,def9$ ,! fir/ /ep 9 decid+ :e!r or n ! comput] ?9ks is to def9e ?9k+4 ,f> f be+ a simple task1 ?is def9ition turns out to be a slipp]y ?+4 ,9 fact1 if ! comput] has done no m ?an dem& ?is sort ( reappraisal ( ! human bra9's work+1 x has ju/ifi$ its exi/5ce4 ,web/] li/s mean+s = 8?9k0 "u two head+s1 = ! transitive & intransitive =ms ( ! v]b4 ,^! mean+s1 respectively1 />t out ) 8,to =m 9 ! m9d10 & 8,to ex]cise ! p[]s ( judgm5t 444 to reflect = ! purpose ( rea*+ a conclusion40 ,ev5 a fairly simple comput] w\ld seem to qualify z a ?9k] by ^! y>d/icks4 ,! /or+ ( data 9 a comput] memory may be analog\s to =m+ 9 ! m9d1 & manipulat+ numb]s to f9d a squ>e root c]ta9ly calls = "s sort ( judgm5t4 ,le>n+ is a "p ( ?9k+1 & comput]s are prov+ t !y c le>n--or at lea/ be taught4 ,recall ( ?is le>n+ f ! memory to solve problems is also a "p ( ! ?9k+ process1 & aga9 ! comput] demon/rates ?is capability4 ,"o e>ly psy*ological approa* to ! man-v]sus-ma*9e debate 0 t ( classify+ liv+ & nonliv+ ?+s4 ,9 ,outl9e ( ,psy*ology1 ! ,engli%man ,william ,mc,dougall li/s sev5 attributes ( life4 ,six ( ^! describe 8goal-seek+0 qualities2 ! sev5? ref]s to ! ability to le>n4 ,9 g5]al1 psy*ologi/ ,mc,dougall felt t purposive behavior 0 ! key to ! liv+ organism4 ,?us any comput] t is purposive--& any comm]cial model _h bett] be6--is alive1 9 ,mc,dougall's view4 ,a re/at+ ( ! division betwe5 man & ma*9e is obvi\sly 9 ord]4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,ross ,a%by1 a ,briti% sci5ti/ n[ work+ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,ill9ois1 def9es intellig5ce z 8appropriate selection0 & goal-seek+ z ! intellig5t process p> excell5ce1 :e!r ! select+ is done by a human be+ or by a ma*9e4 ,a%by does split (f ! 8non goal-seek+0 processes occurr+ 9 ! human bra9 z a di/9ct class3 8natural0 processes nei!r good nor bad 9 !mselves & result+ f man's environm5t & 8 evolution4 ,intellig5ce1 to ,a%by1 :o long ago demon/rat$ a me*anical 8homeo/at0 :i* %[$ purposive behavior1 is ! utilization ( in=mation by highly effici5t process+ to a*ieve a high int5sity ( appropriate selection4 ,intellig5t is z intellig5t does1 no di/9ction be+ made z to man or ma*9e4 ,humanoid & artificial w\ld ?us be mean+less words = describ+ a comput]4 ,a%by makes ano!r important po9t 9 t ! intellig5ce ( a bra9 or a ma*9e _c exce$ :at has be5 put into x1 unless we admit ! work+s ( magic4 ,a%by's beliefs are e*o$ 9 a way by sci5ti/ ,oliv] ,selfridge ( ,l9coln ,laboratory4 ,ask$ if a ma*9e c ?9k1 ,selfridge says1 8,c]ta9ly2 al?\gh ! ma*9e's intellig5ce has an elusive1 unnatural quality40 8,?9k1 ,hell1 ,,compute60 reads ! sign on ! wall ( a comput] laboratory4 ,b mu* ( our ?9k+1 p]haps "s ( ! 8natural0 processes ( our bra9s1 doesn't seem to fit into computational patt]ns4 ,t "p ( our ?9k+1 ! "p t includes look+ at pretty girls1 = example1 w probably rema9 peculi> to ! human bra94 ,! ,human ,bra9 ,mundy ,peale1 presid5t ( ,republic ,aviation ,corporation1 address+ a committee /udy+ ! future ( mann$ aircraft1 _h ?is to say3 ,until someone builds1 = #ajj or less ) unskill$ labor1 a comput] no l>g] ?an a grapefruit1 requir+ only a t5? ( a volt ( electricity1 yet capable ( dige/+ & transmitt+ incom+ data 9 a fraction ( a second & /or+ #aj1jjj times z mu* data z today's l>ge/ comput]s1 ! pilots ( today h no?+ to worry ab\t4 ,! human bra9 is obvi\sly a ?+ ( amaz+ complexity & fanta/ic ability4 ,pack$ into ! volume ,mr4 ,peale describ$ are "s #aj billion neurons1 ! n]ve cells t seem to be ! key to ! op]ation ( our m9ds4 ,hook$ up l "s ultra-complicat$ swit*bo>d1 ! network ( int]connections /ores an e/imat$ #bjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj bits ( in=mation dur+ a lifetime6 ,by comp>ison1 today's mo/ advanc$ comput]s d seem pa!tically unimpressive4 ,we h discuss$ bo? analog & digital comput]s 9 prec$+ *apt]s4 ,x is int]e/+ to f9d t ! human bra9 is basically a digital type1 ?\gh x does h analog ov]tones z well4 ,ea* ( ! neurons is actually a swit* op]at$ by an electric curr5t on a g_/no-g1 all-or-no?+ basis4 ,?us a neuron is n p>tly on or p>tly (f4 ,if ! electrical impulse exce$s a c]ta9 8?re%old0 value1 ! swit* op]ates4 ,ti$ to ! neurons are axons1 ! long 8wires0 t c>ry ! input & output4 ,! axons br+ messages f ! body's s5sors to ! neurons1 & ! output to o!r neurons or to ! muscles & o!r control functions4 ,?is grapefruit-size collection ( electro*emical compon5ts ?us /ores our memories & effects ! op]ation we call ?9k+4 ,s9ce bra9 impulses are electrical 9 nature1 we speak ( !m 9 electrical t]ms4 ,! impulses h an associat$ pot5tial ( #ej millivolts1 t is1 fifty ?\s&?s ( a volt4 ,! entire bra9 dissipates ab\t #aj watts1 s t ea* individual neuron requires only a billion? ( a watt ( p[]4 ,?is am\nt is f> less ?an t ( analog\s comput] p>ts4 ,a neuron may take a t5-?\s&? ( a second to respond to a /imulus4 ,?is seem+ly rapid op]ation "t turns out to be f> sl[] ?an pres5t-day comput] swit*es1 b ! bra9 makes up = ?is by be+ a 8p>allel op]ation0 sy/em4 ,?is means t _m diff]5t connections are be+ made simultane\sly 9 diff]5t bran*es1 r ?an be+ sequ5tial1 or a s]ies ( sep>ate actions4 ,packag+ #aj billion p>ts 9 a volume ! size ( a grapefruit is a capability ! comput] design] admires wi/fully4 ,s9ce ! bra9 has a volume ( ab\t #a1jjj cubic c5timet]s1 #aj million neurons fit into a space ( "o cubic c5timet]6 ,a trillion w\ld fit 9 "o cubic foot1 & man-made ma*9es ) ev5 a million compon5ts p] cubic foot are news today4 ,ev5 :5 we are re/+1 ) our eyes clos$1 a k9d ( /&-by curr5t kn[n z ! alpha rhy?m is measurable 9 our bra9s4 ,?is curr5t1 :i* has a frequ5cy ( ab\t #aj cycles p] second1 *anges :5 we see or feel some?+1 or :5 we ex]cise ! p[] ( recall4 ,x disappe>s :5 we sleep s\ndly1 & is analog\s to ! op]at+ curr5t 9 a comput]4 ,also1 !re is 8p[]0 available locally at ! neurons to 8amplify0 weak signals suffici5tly to trigg] (f foll[+ bran*es ( neurons4 ,philosoph]s h propos$ two g5]al concepts ( ! human bra9 & h[ x functions4 ,! a priori !ory presupposes a c]ta9 am\nt ( 8wir$-90 k3 in/9cts1 ideals1 & s on4 ,! o!r !ory1 t ( ! tabula rasa or clean slate new bra91 argues t ea* ( u organizes an ess5tially r&om net ( n]ves into ord]$ intellig5ce4 ,bo? !ories are be+ inve/igat$ ) comput]s1 & z a result light is beg9n+ to be %$ on ! work+s ( our bra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,upjohn ,company1 ,ezra ,/oll] ,associates ,photo 8,a mom5t at a conc]t0 is diagramm$ by bra9 model1 %[+ eyes1 e>s1 n]ves1 & /ructures analog\s to bra94 ,picture at top repres5ts p]ception4 ,!re is ano!r division ( philosophical ?\ght 9 ! me*ani/ic v]sus elan vital argum5t4 ,9 o!r words1 is ! entire m9d to be f\nd 9 its con/itu5t p>ts1 or is !re an intangible extra some?+ t really brea!s life into u8 ,:atev] ! correct concept1 ! bra9 does record impressions x c lat] recall4 ,no "o yet kn[s j h[ ?is is done1 b sev]al !ories h be5 advanc$4 ,"o ( ^! describes a 8*a9 circuit0 set up 9 a neuron network by messages f ! body's s5sors4 ,?is circuit1 once />t$1 cont9ues to circle ?r\gh ! bra9 & is on tap :5ev] t p>ticul> exp]i5ce ne$s to be recall$4 ,! t]m 8rev]b]ate0 is us$ 9 connection ) ?is k9d ( memory1 seem+ to be a good sci5tific basis = ! poetic 8e*oes ( ! pa/40 ,rev]b]ation circuits also provide ! memory = "s comput]s4 ,among o!r explanations ( memory is t ( condition+ ! neurons to op]ate m 8easily10 s t c]ta9 pa?s are readily trav]s$ by bra9 impulses4 ,?is c\ld be effect$ by *emical *anges locally1 & su* a te*nique too is us$ 9 comput]s4 ,h[ev] ! bra9 accompli%es its job1 x is c]ta9 t x evolv$ 9 its pres5t =m z a result ( ! environm5t its cells h _h to function 9 = billions ( ye>s4 ,its prime purpose has be5 "o ( survival1 & = ?is reason "s argue t x is n p>ticul>ly well adapt$ to ab/ract reason+4 ,al?\gh ! bra9 c d a wide v>iety ( ?+s f dream+ to pick+ out "o s+le voice amid ! hubbub ( noise at a social ga!r+--a ph5om5on sci5ti/s h giv5 ! descriptive "n ( 8cocktail p>ty effect0--m5 l ,a%by consid] x a v inflexible piece ( equipm5t n well suit$ to pure logic4 ,z a te/ ( y\r bra9 z a logical device1 consid] ! foll[+ problem f ! ,litton ,indu/ries 8,problematical ,recreations40 ,if ,s>a %\ldn't1 !n ,w&a w\ld4 ,x is impossible t ! /atem5ts3 8,s>a %\ld0 & 8,camille c\ldn't0 c bo? be true at ! same "t4 ,if ,w&a c\ld1 !n ,s>a %\ld & ,camille c\ld4 ,!re=e ,camille c\ld4 ,is ?is conclusion valid8 ,if y\r head />ts to swim1 y are n alone4 ,v few humans solve su* problems easily4 ,int]e/+ly1 ^? :o d1 make good comput] programm]s4 ,! ,comput]'s ,bra9 ,j z we h an an?ropomorphic ,god1 _m p h done _! be/ to end[ ! comput] ) human *>act]i/ics4 ,n only 9 fiction b also 9 real life1 ! electronic bra9s h be5 describ$ z neurotic & fru/rat$ on occasion1 & also z be+ afraid & ev5 hav+ morn+ sickness6 ,a salesman = a l9e ( comput]s 0 ask$ to expla9 9 und]/&able t]ms ! diff]5ce betwe5 two comput]s ^: specifications confus$ a cu/om]4 8,let's put x ?is way10 ! salesman said1 8,! #gdj ?9ks ! #fij is a moron60 ,we c beg9 to inve/igate ! "q ( comput] intellig5ce by aga9 look+ up a def9ition4 ,! ^w 8compute0 means lit]ally to ?9k1 or reckon1 )4 ,e>ly comput]s su* z c\nt+ /icks1 ! abacus1 & ! add+ ma*9e are obvi\sly some?+ man ?9ks )4 ,ev5 ?\gh we may "k ! multiplication tables1 we f9d x easi] & saf] to use a me*anical device to rememb] & ev5 to p]=m op]ations = u4 ,^! homely devices d n possess suffici5t 8intellig5ce0 to raise any fe>s 9 our m9ds4 ,! abacus1 = example1 displays only :at we might *>itably call ! prop]ty ( memory4 ,x has a c]ta9 numb] ( r[s1 ea* r[ ) a fix$ numb] ( beads4 ,:ile x is n fallible1 z is ! human :o uses x1 x is f> m limit$ 9 scope4 ,all x c ev] d is help u to add or subtract1 & if we are clev]1 to multiply1 divide1 d squ>e roots1 & s on4 ,if we are look+ = purposive behavior 9 comput+ ma*9es1 x is only :5 we get to ! add+ ma*9e t a glimm] appe>s4 ,:5 a problem is set 9 & ! prop] button pu%$1 ?is device is compell$ to g ?r\gh ! ge>-:irr+ or :atev] requir$ to return x to a /ate ( equilibrium ) its problem solv$4 ,s f> we might faceti\sly describe ! diff]5ce 9 ! goal-seek+ *>act]i/ics ( man & ma*9e by recall+ t man seeks l(ty goals l climb+ m\nta9s simply because !y are !re1 :ile ! comput] seeks its goal mu* l ! /eel ball 9 ! p9ball ma*9e1 impell$ by gravity & ! built-9 spr+s & *utes ( ! device4 ,:5 we come to a m advanc$ comput]1 h[ev]1 we beg9 to h difficulty 9 assess+ *>act]i/ics4 ,= ! ,,johnniac1 built by ,r& & nam$ = ,john von ,neumann1 c prove ! propositions 9 ! ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica ( ,:itehead & ,russell4 ,x c also 8le>n0 to play a m$iocre game ( *ess4 ,if we inve/igate ! work+s ( a digital comput]1 we f9d mu* to rem9d u ( ! human bra94 ,fir/ is ! obvi\s simil>ity ( on-(f1 yes-no op]ation4 ,?is implies a p[] s\rce1 usually electrical1 & a numb] ( two-position swit*es4 ,! ov]-all configuration ( ! classic comput] resembles1 9 pr9cipal if n physical appe>ance1 t ( ! human bra9 & its accessories4 ,z we h le>n$1 ! electronic comput] has an input section1 a control1 an ari?metic 7or logic7 section1 a memory1 & an output4 ,look+ into ! ari?metic & memory sections1 we f9d a numb] ( comp>isons ) ! bra94 ,! comput] uses p[]1 f> m ?an ! bra94 ,a s+le transi/or1 :i* =ms only "p ( a neuron1 may use a t5? ( a watt2 ! bra9 is ahead on ?is score by a factor ( millions to "o4 ,electronic swit*es h an advantage ov] ! neuron 9 t !y are mu* fa/] act+4 ,s fa/ h !y become t eng9e]s h _h to co9 new t]ms l nanosecond & picosecond1 = a billion? & a trillion? ( a second4 ,?us1 ! comput]'s individual elem5ts are p]haps #ajj1jjj times fa/] ?an ^? ( ! bra94 ,!re is no comput] 9 exi/5ce ) ! equival5t ( #aj billion neurons4 ,"o ambiti\s sy/em ( comput]s does use half a million transi/ors1 plus _m o!r p>ts1 b ev5 ^! relatively few w\ld n fit "u a size #g-a_/b hat4 ,"o advanc$ te*nique1 us+ a 8#b-;,d0 metal film circuitry imm]s$ 9 liquid helium = sup]cool+1 hopefully w yield a packag+ d5sity ( ab\t #c-a_/b million p>ts p] cubic foot 9 comp>ison ) ! bra9's trillion-"p d5sity4 ,we h m5tion$ ! comput] memory t includ$ ! 8delay l9e10 rem9dful ( ! 8*a9 circuit0 9 ! bra94 ,electrical impulses 7 conv]t$ to ac\/ic signals 9 m]cury1 trav]s$ ! m]cury1 & 7 reconv]t$ to electrical impulses4 ,e>ly memory /orage sy/ems 7 8s]ial0 9 nature1 l ^? /or$ on a tape reel4 ,to f9d "o bit ( in=mation requir$ se>*+ ! :ole reel4 ,n[ r&om-access me?ods are be+ us$ ) memory core /orage sy/ems s wir$ t any "o bit ( in=mation c be rea*$ 9 ab\t ! same am\nt ( "t4 ,?is magnetic core memory /ores in=mation z a magnetic field1 aga9 analog\s to a memory !ory = ! human bra9 except t ! neuron is ?\ght to und]go a *emical r ?an magnetic *ange4 ,illu/ration3 ,g5]al ,electric ,co41 ,comput] ,dept4 ,t9y f]rite cores l ^! make up ! memory ( "s comput]s4 ,ea* core /ores "o 8bit0 ( in=mation4 ,until rec5tly1 comput]s h be5 prim>ily sequ5tial1 or s]ially op]at+1 ma*9es4 ,z po9t$ out e>li]1 ! bra9 op]ates 9 p>allel & makes up = its sl[] op]at+ individual p>ts 9 ?is way4 ,design]s are n[ work+ on p>allel op]ation = comput]s1 an improvem5t t may be ev5 m important ?an r&om-access memory4 ,bionics ,x is obvi\s t :ile !re are _m diff]5ces 9 ! bra9 & ! comput] !re are also _m /rik+ simil>ities4 ,^! simil>ities h giv5 rise to ! comput]-age sci5ce ( 8bionics40 ,a co9age ( ,major ,j4 ,e4 ,/eele ( ! ,air ,=ce's ,wright ,air ,developm5t ,c5t]1 bionics means apply+ k ( biology & biological te*niques to ! design ( electronic devices & sy/ems4 ,! ,air ,=ce & o!r gr\ps are conduct+ broad rese>* programs 9 ?is field4 ,z an indication ( ! scope ( bionics1 ,dr4 ,/eele himself is a flight surgeon1 prim>ily tra9$ z neurologi/ & psy*iatri/1 ) graduate "w 9 electronics & ma!matics4 ,^? engag$ 9 bionics rese>* include ma!maticians1 physical sci5ti/s1 embryologi/s1 philosoph]s1 neurophysiologi/s1 psy*ologi/s1 plus sci5ti/s & eng9e]s 9 ! m g5]ally ?\ght ( comput] fields ( electronics & o!r eng9e]+ discipl9es4 ,a rec5t report f ,m4,i4,t4 is indicative ( ! type ( "w be+ done3 8,:at ! ,frog's ,eyes ,tell ! ,frog40 ,a m ambiti\s project is "o call$ simply 8,h&10 :i* is j t4 ,develop$ by ,dr4 ,he9ri* ,ern/1 8,h&0 is a comput]-controll$ me*anical h& t is describ$ z ! fir/ artificial device to possess a limit$ und]/&+ ( ! outside _w4 ,al?\gh x w und\bt$ly h indu/rial & o!r applications1 8,h&0 0 develop$ prim>ily z a /udy ( ! cognitive processes ( man & animals4 ,besides ! ,air ,=ce's =mal bionics program1 !re are o!r rese>* projects ( some:at simil> nature4 ,at ,h>v>d1 psy*ologi/s ,brun] & ,mill] direct a ,c5t] = ,cognitive ,/udies1 & among ! sci5ti/s :o w contribute are comput] exp]ts4 ,oddly1 man kn[s little ( 8 own cognitive or le>n+ process despite ! c5turies ( /udy ( ! human m9d4 ,x has be5 said t we "k m ab\t ,pavlov's dog & ,sk9n]'s pigeons ?an we d ab\t ourselves1 b n[ we are try+ to f9d out4 ,"s f9d x logical t man /udy ! animals or comput] r ?an 8 own m9d1 incid5tally1 s9ce !y d\bt t an intellig5ce c und]/& itself anyway4 ,z an example ( ! importance plac$ on ?is new discipl9e1 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,los ,angeles rec5tly orig9at$ a c\rse 9 its m$ical s*ool entitl$ 8,introduction to ! ,function & ,/ructure ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em10 design$ to help bridge ! gap betwe5 eng9e]+ & biology4 ,9 ,russia1 ,m4 ,livanov ( ! ,soviet ,academy ,rese>* ,in/itute ( ,physiology 9 ,high] ,n]v\s ,activity has us$ a comput] c\pl$ ) an electric encephaloscope 9 an ef=t to e/abli% ! patt]n ( cortical connections 9 ! bra94 ,:ile _m exp]ts argue t we %\ld n necess>ily copy ! bra9 9 design+ comput]s1 s9ce ! bra9 is admitt$ly a survival device & some:at inflexible z a result ( its condition+1 x looks already z if mu* b5efit has come f ! bionics approa*4 ,! circuitry ( e>ly comput]s compris$ :at is call$ 8sold]$0 le>n+4 ,?is means t ! connections f c]ta9 compon5ts hook up to c]ta9 o!r compon5ts1 s t :5 swit*es op]at$ 9 a giv5 ord]1 built-9 results foll[$4 ,"o e>ly tea*+ device1 call$ ! ,electric ,que/ionnaire1 illu/rates ?is built-9 k4 ,a c>d ( que/ions & answ]s is slipp$ ov] pegs t are actually t]m9als ( int]connect$ wires4 ,probes hook$ to a batt]y are t\*$ to a "q & ! suppos$ correct answ]4 ,if ! circuit is complet$1 a light gl[s2 o!rwise ! le>n] tries o!r answ]s until successful4 ,m sophi/icat$ sy/ems are ^? ( 8=c$0 le>n+ & free association4 ,pione] attempts at tea*+ a comput] to 8p]ceive0 7 conduct$ at ,cornell ,univ]sity "u contract ) ! ,air ,=ce to inve/igate a r&om-network !ory ( le>n+ =mulat$ by ,dr4 ,frank ,ros5blatt4 ,specifically1 ! ,p]ceptron le>ns to recognize lett]s plac$ 9 front ( its 8eyes10 an array ( #djj photocells4 ,! human bra9 accompli%es p]ception 9 sev]al /eps1 ?\gh at a high en\gh rate ( op]ation to be ?\ght ( z a cont9u\s1 almo/ in/antane\s1 act4 ,/imuli are receiv$ by s5se organs2 impulses travel to neurons & =m int]connections result+ 9 judgm5t1 action if necess>y1 & memory4 ,! ,p]ceptron ma*9e functions 9 mu* ! same mann]4 ,illu/ration3 ,electronics ,simplifi$ v]sion ( a mammalian visual sy/em 7,a7 & ,p]ceptron simulat+ ! biological network 7,b74 ,! =c$ le>n+ te*nique1 9 :i* ,p]ceptron 0 told :5 x correctly id5tifi$ a lett]1 & :5 x miss$1 0 us$ fir/4 ,lat] x 0 f\nd t 8corrective0 or re9=c$ tea*+1 :i* notes only errors1 0 m effective4 ,aft] ,p]ceptron _h se5 ea* lett] fifte5 times & receiv$ prop] correction1 x c\ld subsequ5tly id5tify all ! lett]s correctly4 ,ann\ncem5t ( ,p]ceptron trigg]$ _m wild headl9es & a g5]al misconception 9 ! public m9d4 ,dr4 ,ros5blatt & o!r develop]s wisely refuse to comm5t on ! pot5tial ( 8 ma*9e1 b ! numb] ( exp]im5ts be+ conduct$ indicates wide sci5tific int]e/1 & p]ceptron has atta9$ ! pre/ige ( an uncapitaliz$ g5]ic t]m4 ,h[ev]1 ! !ory ( its r&om process has be5 que/ion$ by sci5ti/s includ+ ,!odore ,kal91 "o ( ! build]s ( an e>ly electrical logic ma*9e4 ,kal9 feels t intellig5ce presupposes a c]ta9 m9imum ( a priori k3 ! wir$-9 le>n+ ( ! comput] or ! in/9cts or inh]it$ qualities ( animals4 ,?is ( c\rse e*oes ! ?\ghts ( ,kant :o deplor$ ! notion z simil> to all ! books & pap]s 9 a libr>y someh[ arrang+ !mselves prop]ly on ! %elves & 9 fil+ cab9ets4 ,inde$1 ! :ole idea ( f9d+ human intellig5ce mirror$ 9 ! electronic inn>ds ( ! comput] has be5 flatly d5\nc$ at "s sci5tific symposiums4 ,comput]s giv5 an intellig5ce te/ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan 8flunk$10 accord+ to rese>*]s4 ,ano!r *>ge is t ! reaction ( ! bra9's neuron dep5ds on its hi/ory & ?us _c be comp>$ ) ! comput]4 ,h[ev]1 o!r rese>*]s seem to h anticipat$ ?is weakness & are work+ on electronic or electro*emical neurons t also are condition$ by _! input4 ,despite criticism1 ! bionics "w proce$s on a broad front4 ,m rec5tly a ma*9e call$ ,cyb]tron has be5 develop$ by ! ,ray!on ,company4 ,?is m sophi/icat$ ma*9e is be+ tra9$ to recognize son> s\nds1 us+ ! corrective te*nique4 ,if ,cyb]tron errs1 ! tea*] pu%es a 8go(0 button4 ,:5 ! ma*9e is fully develop$1 ,ray!on feels x w be able to recognize all typical ,am]ican ^w s\nds1 us+ its #aib le>n+ elem5ts1 & to type !m out4 ,comput]s g5]ally d 8logical0 op]ations4 ,_m human problems d n seem to be logical1 & c be solv$ only by exp]i5ce1 z ! ma!matician ,gdel demon/rat$ "s ye>s ago4 ,s9ce ,cyb]tron solves su* 8alogical0 problems1 its build]s pref] n to call x a comput]1 b r a self-organiz+ data-processor t adapts to its environm5t4 ,among ! v>iety ( tasks t ,cyb]tron c\ld p]=m are ! grad+ ( produce & ! recognition ( rad> signals4 ,ray!on =esees wide application = ,cyb]tron z a ma/] le>n] ) appr5tice ma*9es incapable ( le>n+ b able to 8pick ! bra9s0 ( ,cyb]tron & ?us d simil> tasks4 ,illu/ration3 ,cornell ,a]onautical ,laboratory ,) ! lett] ,c 9 its field ( view1 ,p]ceptron's photocells at top c5t] are activat$4 ,simultane\sly1 response units 9 panel at "r id5tify ! lett] correctly4 ,! assembly ( ma*9es l ,p]ceptron & ,cyb]tron requires elem5ts t simulate ! bra9's neuron4 ,"o su* compon5t :i* has evolv$ f bionics rese>* is ! ,artron1 or artificial neuron4 ,inside ! ,artron are logic gates & inhibit gates4 ,by means ( rew>d or puni%m5t1 ! ,artron le>ns to op]ate a 8/ati/ical swit*0 & s5d impulses to o!r ,artrons or to a read\t4 ,!re are two int]e/+ p>allels "h besides ! op]ation ( a simulat$ neural net4 ,"o is ! /ati/ical approa* to decisions & le>n+4 ,! late ,john von ,neumann !oriz$ t ! bra9's actions might be /ati/ical1 or bas$ on probability4 ,second1 ! design]s ( ,artron see a simil>ity 9 its op]ation & ,d>w9's !ory ( natural selection4 ,ano!r new compon5t 9 ! bionics approa* is ! 8neuri/or40 ,?is semiconductor diode simulates ! axon1 ! n]ve fib] t connects ) ! neuron4 ,ano!r device is ! 8memi/or10 unique 9 t x uses electro*emical ph5om5a to function z a memory unit4 ,a diff]5t k9d ( artificial neuron call$ ,,m9d is made up ( magnetic cores4 ,!re is ano!r plus factor 9 ?is duplication ( :at we ?9k is ! sy/em us$ by ! bra94 ,:ile "o neuron may n be z reliable z a vacuum tube or transi/or1 ! complete bra9 is millions ( times m dep5dable ?an any ( its s+le p>ts4 ,?is happy end result is j ! rev]se ( :at man has come up ) 9 8 complex comput] sy/ems4 ,= in/ance1 individual p>ts 9 ! ,m9uteman missile mu/ h a reliability factor ( #ii4iiic s t ! sy/em w h a fair *ance ( work+ prop]ly4 ,duplication ( ! bra9's network may well lead to electronic sy/ems t are _m times m reliable ?an any ( _! individual p>ts4 ,bionics is app>5tly a fruitful approa*1 bo? = b5efit+ comput] te*nology & = le>n+ m ab\t ! human bra94 ,z an example1 consid] ! fact t "w ) ! ,p]ceptron indicat$ t puni%m5t 0 m effective 9 ! le>n+ process ?an puni%m5t & rew>d toge!r4 ,?is ( c\rse does n say t su* a me?od w\ld "w be/ ) a human subject1 b if sep>ate te/s ) human be+s prov$ a simil> result1 x might !n be safe to inf] "s simil>ity betwe5 ! human & comput] bra94 ,"o ( ! bigge/ roadblocks to implem5tation ( a humanlike neural net is economic4 ,s9ce !re are "s #aj billion neurons 9 ! bra91 & e>ly electronic neurons consi/$ ( sev]al compon5ts includ+ transi/ors :i* are a b>ga9 at #b ea*1 build+ su* a comput] might d\ble our national debt4 ,bionics work]s h be5 ?9k+ dreamily 9 t]ms ( some?+ l "o c5t p] artificial neuron4 ,?is is a ridicul\sly l[ figure1 b ev5 at t a "o-t5? bra9p[] comput] ) only a billion p5ny neurons w\ld co/ #aj million = ^? compon5ts alone6 ,illu/ration3 ,cornell ,a]onautical ,laboratory ,r&om wir+ network betwe5 ! ,m>k ,i ,p]ceptron's #djj photocell s5sors & ! ma*9e's association units4444 ,! ,m>k ,i has t5 s5sory output connections to ea* ( its #eab association units4 ,n yet :ipp$1 rese>*]s are n[ ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( mass-produc+ lattices ( ?9 metal1 9 effect _m ?\s&s ( elem5ts 9 a microscopic space1 & propagat+ electro*emical waves r ?an an electrical curr5t ?r\gh !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,ray!on ,co4 ,:5 ,cyb]tron doesn't cat* on to a new lesson1 eng9e]s pu% ! go( button to puni% ! ma*9e4 ,:5 x le>ns correctly x is all[$ to cont9ue its /udies ) no int]ruption1 ?us x con/antly improves its skill4 ,o!r ideas include gett+ d[n to ! molecul> level = compon5ts4 ,if ?is is a*iev$ x w be a d[nhill pull1 = ev5 ! human neuron consi/s ( _m molecules4 ,f>fet*$ z ^! ideas seem1 packag+ d5sities ( #ajj billion p] cubic foot are be+ talk$ ( z =eseeable 9 less ?an t5 ye>s4 ,?is is only ab\t t5 times z bulky z ! goal1 ! human bra91 & :5 x is a*iev$ ! comput] w be entitl$ to a big head4 ,! ,comput] z a ,?9k] ,ab\t ! "t ,johnny 0 hav+ all 8 tr\ble read+1 a comput] nam$ ,,johnniac 0 giv5 ! basic !orems ne$$1 & !n ask$ to prove ! propositional calculus 9 ! ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 a task c]ta9ly ov] ! heads ( mo/ ( u4 ,! comput] wad$ ?r\gh ! job ) no p>ticul> /ra91 & ev5 turn$ 9 "o pro( m elegant ?an human bra9s _h f\nd be=e4 ,:5 ! same problems 7 giv5 to an eng9e] unfamili> ) t bran* ( ma!matics1 8 v]baliz$ problem-solv+ te*nique p>allel$ t ( ,,johnniac4 ,ask$ if he _h be5 ?9k+1 ! eng9e] said he 8surely ?\ght s60 ,9 8 int]e/+ dep>tm5t 9 ,sci5tific ,am]ican1 ma!matical game/] ,m>t9 ,g>dn] describes a simple set ( pun*$ c>ds = solv+ ! type ( logic problem discuss$ e>li] 9 ?is *apt]4 ,us+ ^! c>ds & a simple digital type ( manipulation1 we happily le>n t ,camille surely c\ld4 ,! problem is a simple1 ?ree-premise type 9 two-valu$ logic & c be solv$ by any self-respect+ digital comput] 9 a split second4 ,a few demon/rations l ?is give a r disconc]t+ insight into our bra9's limitations & build m respect = ! comput]'s intellig5ce4 ,:5 we he> ( exp5sive comput]s app>5tly fritt]+ away _! valuable "t play+ games we may well wond] h[ come4 ,b games1 x turns out1 are an ideal te/+ gr\nd = problem-solv+ ability & h5ce intellig5ce4 ,back 9 #aieg1 comput] exp]ts ,simon & ,newell pr$ict$ t 9 t5 ye>s ! *ess *ampion ( ! _w w\ld be a comput]4 ,ma/] play]s mo/ likely laugh$ up _! sleeves1 & ?us f> ! electronic ma*9e has done no bett] ?an play a r\t9e game aga9/ a human amateur4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is n a mean a*ievem5t4 ,wise heads are suppos$ to h respond$ to ! pr$iction ) 8,s :at80 ,illu/ration3 ,photo at left f ,organization ( ! ,c]ebral ,cortex1 by ,d4 ,a ,%oll1 ,j4 ,wiley & ,sons4 ,"r1 ,g5]al ,electric ,rese>* ,laboratory ,photo at "r %[s a 8cross$-film cryotron0 %ift regi/]--an advanc$ comput] elem5t4 ,! sep>ation ( active crossov]s %[n is comp>able to ! sep>ation ( n]ve cells 9 ! section ( cat bra9 %[n at left4 ,alex ,b]n/e9 ( ,,ibm work$ out a program = ! #gjd comput] 9 :i* ! ma*9e looks ahead f\r moves be=e ea* ( its plays4 ,ev5 ?is limit$ look ahead requires #b1hjj calculations1 & ! #gjd takes eight m9utes delib]at+4 ,occasionally x makes a move ! exp]ts rate z ma/]ful4 ,*ess is a f> m complex game ev5 ?an x appe>s to ^? ( u on ! sidel9es4 ,9 an av]age game !re are =ty moves & ea* has ab\t ?irty possibilities4 ,s f> ?is s\nds innocu\s1 b ma!matics %[s t !re are ?us #ajabj possible moves 9 any "o game4 ,?is numb] is a #a foll[$ by #abj z]os1 & to und]l9e its size x has be5 e/imat$ t ev5 if a million games a second 7 play$1 ! possibilities w\ld n be exhau/$ 9 our lifetime6 ,obvi\sly human *ess wiz>ds d n inve/igate all possible moves4 ,in/ead !y use heuri/ic reason+1 or hun* play+1 to cut corn]s4 ,! ,,johnniac comput] is inve/igat+ su* approa*es to comput]-play+ *ess1 9 a movem5t away f rigor\sly programm$ r\t9es or 8algori?ms40 ,algori?ms are =mulas or equations su* z ! quadratic equation us$ 9 f9d+ roots4 ,if inde$ ! comput] does de?rone ! human *ess *amp by #aifg1 x w be exce$+ly h>d to argue t ! ma*9e is n ?9k+4 ,! ^w 8heuri/ic0 comes f ! ,greek heuriske91 mean+ to discov] or inv5t4 ,an example ( :at x is & h[ important x is c be se5 9 ! rec5t disprov+ ( a fam\s conjecture made by ! ma!matician ,eul] "s #ahj ye>s ago4 ,eul] 0 int]e/$ 9 ! prop]ties ( s-call$ 8magic squ>es0 9 :i* lett]s are arrang$ v]tically & horizontally4 ,:ile x is possible to arrange ! lett]s a1 b1 c1 d1 & e 9 su* a squ>e s t all are pres5t 9 ea* r[ & 9 diff]5t ord]1 ,eul] didn't ?9k su* 0 ! case ) a squ>e hav+ six units on a side4 ,he tri$ x1 visualiz+ (fic]s ( diff]5t rank arrang$ 9 r[s4 ,conv9c$ t x w\ld n "w1 he ext5d$ 8 educat$ guess to squ>es hav+ units ( t51 f\rte51 & o!r ev5 numb]s n divisible by f\r4 ,he didn't actually prove 8 conjecture1 because ! am\nt ( pap]work makes x practically impossible4 ,9 #aija a ma!matician did try all ! possible configurations ( ! squ>e ( six units & f\nd t ,eul] 0 inde$ correct4 ,x 0 assum$ t t5 0 impossible too1 until #aieh :5 ?ree ,am]ican ma!maticians spoil$ ,eul]'s !ory by f9d+ workable magic squ>es hav+ t5 units p] side4 ,!y did n d ?is by exhau/+ all ! possibilities1 = su* a *ore w\ld h be5 humanly impossible4 ,9 fact1 a comput] labor$ = #ajj h\rs & complet$ only a t9y fraction ( ! job4 ,! squ>e-seek]s conclud$ t x w\ld take ev5 ! high-spe$ comput] upw>ds ( a c5tury to d ! job1 s in/ead !y us$ hun*es or inspir$ guesses1 work+ out a heuri/ic = ! task4 ,! po9t ( importance is t n only man1 b ! comput] z well1 despite its fanta/ic spe$1 mu/ le>n to use heuri/ic reason+ r ?an bl9dly pl[+ ?r\gh all possible solutions4 ,!re are j too _m numb]s6 ,comput]s play o!r games too1 f tick-tack-toe & ,nim1 :i* x plays flawlessly1 to ,g & *eck]s4 ,dr4 ,ar?ur ,samuel ( ,,ibm has taught ! #gjd comput] to play *eck]s well en\gh to beat him regul>ly1 ?\gh ,dr4 ,samuel1 sci5ti/ t he is1 admits he is n a great *eck]-play]4 ,he has us$ two types ( le>n+ 9 ! program3 8rote0 & 8g5]alization40 ,s f> ^! h be5 us$ sep>ately1 :ile human play]s use bo? types ( le>n+ 9 a game4 ,am]ican sci5ti/s visit+ ,russia rec5tly report$ t ! ,russians1 l "s ( u1 7 amaz$ to he> t comput] "t 0 allott$ to ! m]e play+ ( games4 ,! real goal 9 all ?is game-play+ is to le>n h[ to d o!r m important ?+s4 ,gam+ is be+ appli$ to w> /rategy & to bus9ess managem5t4 ,corporation executives are play+ games ) comput]s t simulate ! op]ation ( _! firms1 bo? to improve me?ods & to le>n ab\t !mselves & _! employees4 ,a ,g5]al ,problem-,solv] comput] is be+ develop$ too2 "o :i* c solve problems l ! cannibals & ! mission>ies & !n d ma!matical equations & o!r types ( ?9k+4 ,z 0 po9t$ out1 :5 ! comput]'s me?od ( solv+ a problem is comp>$ ) ! protocol us$ by a p]son 7by hav+ him ?9k al\d z he goes ?r\gh ! problem7 x is se5 t bo? use pretty mu* ! same tricks & %ort cuts4 ,z ! comput] keeps clos+ ! gap1 we c pu% ! goal back by r$ef9+ our t]ms4 ,?is is mu* l dangl+ a c>rot on a /ick1 & ) ! comput] dogg$ly tak+ ! "p ( ! donkey1 x is a pretty good te*nological flail4 ,by mak+ ! true te/ ( intellig5ce some?+ l arti/ic creativity1 we c rule out ! ma*9e unless x c write poetry1 compose music1 or pa9t a picture4 ,s f> ! comput] has done ! fir/ two1 & ! la/ poses no p>ticul> problem1 ?\gh debugg+ ! ma*9e might be a messy op]ation4 ,true1 ! ma*9e's poetry is only ab\t beatnik level3 ,,*ildr5 ,sob sudd5ly1 ! bongos are mov+4 ,or c\ld we f9d t tall *ild8 ,& divid+ hone/ly 0 l pray+ badly1 ,& :ile ! boy is obese1 all bla/ c\ld climb4 ,fir/ y become oblong1 ,to weep is uncti\s1 to move is poor4 ,?is ma/]piece1 produc$ by a comput] 9 ! ,librascope ,laboratory = ,automata ,rese>*1 is n z obscure z an ,eliot or a ,no/radamus4 ,comput] music has n yet br\ght audi5ces to _! feet 9 ,c>negie ,hall4 ,! ma*9e's detractors may well claim t x has produc$ no?+ truly great2 no?+ wor?y ( an ,e9/e9 or ,keats or ,v]me]4 ,b !n1 h[ _m ( u p h8 ,!re is yet ano!r way we c ban ! comput] f memb]%ip 9 our human society4 ,:ile human be+s occasionally ?9k !y are ma*9es1 & ,dr4 ,bruno ,bettelheim has docum5t$ a case hi/ory ( 8,joey0 :o 0 s conv9c$ t he 0 a ma*9e t he _h to keep himself plugg$ 9 to /ay alive1 no ma*9e has yet demon/rat$ t x is consci\sly aw>e ( itself1 z human be+s are4 ,ma*9es are1 hopefully1 objective4 ,consci\sness seems to be subjective 9 ! extreme2 inde$1 "s feel t x is a ?+ "o ( u _c hope to convey z intellig5ce to ano!r & ?us has no sci5tific importance4 ,x is also not$ t ! ?9k+ & le>n+ processes c be c>ri$ out ) no ne$ = consci\sness ( :at we are do+4 ,an example giv5 is t ( ! cycli/ :o le>ns1 )\t be+ 8aw>e0 ( ! fact1 t to turn 8 ma*9e left he mu/ fir/ make a slight sw+ to ! "r 9 ord] to keep f fall+ outw>d dur+ 8 left turn4 ,?is obs]vation 9 itself is n f9al pro( ( ! pudd+1 ( c\rse1 unless we are aim+ only to make a me*anical bike-rid]1 b _m ( our o!r actions are c>ri$ out m or less me*anically )\t call+ att5tion to !mselves4 ,j z c]ta9ly1 h[ev]1 ! ?+ call$ consci\sness plays a vital role 9 human ?9k+4 ,p]haps ! ma*9e mu/ le>n to d ?is be=e x c be truly creative4 ,al?\gh we h describ$ "s fairly 8exotic0 devices1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! comput]s 9 use outside ( ! laboratory today are fairly old-fa%ion$ second-g5]ation models4 ,!y h progress$ f vacuum tubes or me*anical relays to 8solid-/ate0 compon5ts4 ,:5 ,artrons & neuri/ors & memi/ors & o!r m sophi/icat$ p>ts are /&>d1 we c look = a va/ increase 9 ! bra9 p[] ( comput]s4 ,! ,gilfillan rad> gr\nd-controll$-approa* sy/em = aircraft t 8sees0 ! plane on ! rad> scope1 computes ! prop] pa? = x to foll[1 & !n selects ! "r voice comm&s f a /or$-tape memory seems to be ?9k+ & act+ already4 ,! addition ( eyes & e>s plus limbs & locomotion to ! comput]1 =ese5 n[ 9 ! photocell eyes ( ,p]ceptron1 ! e>s ( ,cyb]tron1 & dext]ity ( ,mobot & ,h&1 w move ! comput] f m]e bra9 to robot4 ,"s p pr(ess to worry ab\t :at w happ5 :5 ! comput] itself realizes t x is ?9k+1 call+ to m9d ! apocryphal /ory ( ! ma*9e t 0 ask$ if !re 0 a ,god4 ,aft] brief cogitation1 x said1 8,n[ !re is40 ,to (fset su* a *ill+ possibility1 x is com=t+ to recall ! po/-(fice electronic bra9 t mi/ook ! ,*ri/mas seals on packages = =eign /amps1 & ! ,army comput] t ord]$ millions ( doll>s wor? ( supplies t w]5't ne$$4 ,or p]haps x isn't com=t+1 at t6 ,! "q ( :e!r or n a comput] actually ?9ks is /ill a controv]sy1 ?\gh n z mu* s z x 0 a few ye>s ago4 ,! comput] looks & acts z if x is ?9k+1 b ! true sci5ti/ pref]s to res]ve judgm5t 9 ! _s ( "o %[n a black %eep "s di/ance away4 8,?is side is black10 he admitt$1 8b let's inve/igate fur!r40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,= =ms ( gov]nm5t let fools conte/1 ,t :i* is be/ adm9i/]$ is be/40 --,pope #g3 ,uncle ,sam's ,comput]s ,! mod]n electronic v]sion ( ! comput] is ab\t fifte5 ye>s old1 & l mo/ te5-ag]s1 x is a precoci\s *ild4 ,to li/ all ! applications 9 :i* x has made a place = itself w\ld take sev]al pages & an inclusive li/+ f ,airl9es to ,zoology4 ,!re are hundr$s ( diff]5t types1 pric$ f less ?an "o hundr$ doll>s to m ?an t5 millions4 ,! latt] are s exp5sive t outright pur*ase is n usually possible = us]s4 ,r5tal or leas+ arrangem5ts are !re=e available2 & !re are a gr[+ numb] ( comput] c5t]s to :i* ! cu/om] c take or s5d 8 "w & h x done4 ,!re are also d-x-y\rself comput] facilities1 mu* l ^? = laundry1 dry clean+1 & s =?1 z well z in/allations 9 trail]s t move f place to place4 ,mo/ require a s\rce ( conv5tional electric p[]1 b !re are "s portable models t op]ate on batt]ies4 ,scann+ ! li/ ( jobs ! comput] n[ does1 x w\ld seem impossible to classify ! v>i$ tasks4 ,s9ce _m ma*9es are v]satile1 g5]al-purpose types1 x is ev5 m difficult to def9itely categorize ! comput]4 ,dr4 ,john ,r4 ,pi]ce1 an exp]t at ! ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories1 describes "s ( ! *ores done by a digital comput] 9 a typical session at ,bell3 ,*eck p>ts ( a comput] program us$ 9 connection ) ma*9e me?ods = process+ manufactur+ in=mation4 ,process & analyze data on telephone transmission :i* h be5 transmitt$ to ! laboratories by teletypewrit] & automatically pun*$ on c>ds = comput] process+4 ,solve a p>tial diff]5tial equation4 ,compute details ( ! e>?'s magnetic field4 ,*eck "p ( a program us$ to h&le programm+ c>ds4 ,fit curves to data by translat+ num]ical in=mation into graphs4 ,locate an error 9 a program design$ to process psy*ological data4 ,^! 8simple0 problems requir$ b ?ree m9utes ( ! comput]'s "t4 ,a l>g] task1 some?+ l solv+ #cej ma!matical logic !orems f ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 takes a bit long]--eight & a half m9utes1 to be exact4 ,despite ?is v]satility1 x is g5]ally possible to break ! comput]'s capabilities d[n into broad classifications4 ,fir/ we c say t x does ei!r simple data-process+1 or sci5tific computations4 ,ea* ( ^! c !n be fur!r subdivid$ ad inf9itum4 ,examples w be se5 z we describe uses ( comput]s on ! foll[+ pages4 ,s9ce ! gov]nm5t 0 ! fir/ us] ( comput]s1 beg9n+ back 9 #ahij ) ,holl]i?'s pun*$-c>d ma*9es1 we w\ld d well to see :at o!r "w x has put ! comput] to 9 ! ye>s t h elaps$4 ,! ,comput] 9 ,wa%+ton ,an inv5tory ( electronic comput]s in/all$ 9 ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t by ! end ( #aifa total$ #hjj1 ) #bjj m on ord]4 ,^! figures are exclusive ( ^? = tactical & classifi$ use by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,def5se4 ,"s #de1jjj p are engag$ 9 comput] op]ations 9 ! gov]nm5t1 & a total exp5diture ( ab\t #a4e billion is e/imat$4 ,an indication ( ! importance accord$ ! comput] by ,wa%+ton is ! ,int]ag5cy ,data ,process+ ,committee1 conc]n$ ) que/ions ( %>+ ( comput]s 9 geographic areas1 sett+ up ( a 8libr>y0 ( applications1 & assurance ( cont9u$ comput] op]ation 9 ! ev5t ( attack or o!r em]g5cy4 ,us]s ( comput]s1 9 addition to ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,def5se1 are ! ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission1 ,dep>tm5t ( ,comm]ce1 ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,ag5cy1 ,f$]al ,aviation ,ag5cy1 ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t1 & o!rs = a total ( #dc ag5cies4 ,! ,peace ,corps1 = example1 rec5tly ann\nc$ t x w\ld acquire a comput] = use 9 its "w4 ,r$ tape is n ! only output f ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,n long ago ! ,hoov] ,commission e/imat$ t our ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t also produces #be billion pieces ( pap] ea* ye>6 ,someone else conv]t$ ?is already impressive /ati/ic into ! m />tl+ in=mation t plac$ end to end ^! pap]s w\ld rea* ! moon f\r times--9 triplicate1 ( c\rse6 ,data-process+1 !n1 ! h&l+ ( in=mation1 w\ld seem to be ! major "p ( ! comput]'s "w = ,uncle ,sam4 ,! ,c5sus ,bureau 0 ! fir/ gov]nm5t us] ( ! comput]1 & x cont9ues to h&le its "w 9 ?is way4 ,9 #aiea ! gov]nm5t procur$ a ,,univac ,i to take ov] ?is on]\s *ore f its pr$ecessors4 ,beg9n+ ) ! #aiej c5sus1 ! comput] has be5 9 op]ation practically tw5ty-f\r h\rs a day1 sev5 days a week4 ,9 its fir/ t5 ye>s x p]=m$ m ?an #eaj billion ma!matical op]ations 9 keep+ pace ) our explod+ population4 ,we are produc+ m ?an pap]work1 x seems4 ,! #aiej c5sus requir$ f\r ye>s to process4 ,) new] comput]s ! #aifj c\nt w take only half z long despite ! population explosion4 ,in=mation-h&l+ comput]s make possible ano!r important phase ( ! gov]nm5t's "w4 ,9 #aicf1 ma*9es began to process ,social ,security records1 :i* are becom+ a monum5tal pile ( pap]work !mselves ) close to #ajj million acc\nts t mu/ be kept up to date4 ,social ,security numb]s rec5tly turn$ up 9 gov]nm5t comput]s h&l+ ano!r job--t ( income-tax bookkeep+4 ,! ,u4,s4 ,commission] ( ,int]nal ,rev5ue1 ,mortim] ,capl91 put a pilot sy/em ( comput] acc\nt+ ( tax records into op]ation 9 ,janu>y ( #aifb 9 ! ,atlanta region4 ,9 #aifc1 ! ,philadelphia ,c5t] w foll[ suit1 & by #aiff all income-tax acc\nt+ w :iz ?r\gh tape reels into comput]s4 ,! figures on tax gre5backs laid end to end are n available1 b x is kn[n t #djj miles ( magnetic tape w be ne$$ to hold all ! records4 ,! new sy/em w make x t\gh on ! income-tax *isel]4 ,capl9 po9ts out t n only ! )hold+-tax in=mation f ! employ]1 & =ms f ! employee1 b also divid5d /atem5ts & o!r supplem5t>y income in=mation w funnel automatically into ,john ,doe's portion ( ! tape4 ,if ,john is moonlight+1 hold+ d[n a second job he might =get to m5tion1 ! comput] w spot x & *>ge a tax on x4 ,! appreh5d$ tax-dodg] may well call ! comput] an inf]nal rev5ue ma*9e4 ,!re are ( c\rse _m o!r ways ! comput] is help+ out 9 ! complex problems ( gov]nm5t1 bo? ,f$]al & local4 ,! comput] has already figur$ 9 national elections1 mak+ pr$ictions well 9 advance z to ! outcome4 ,n[ ! ma*9es are be+ us$ 9 ! actual vot+ proc$ure4 ,9 #aieb an ,,ibm comput] pr$ict$ ,eis5h[]'s victory )9 two h\rs aft] ! fir/ polls clos$4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( comput] pr$ictions1 ! m5 us+ !m 7 ov]ly cauti\s & afraid to accept ! ma*9e's ^w4 ,te*niques & confid5ce h improv$ ) practice1 & 9 #aifj ,,ibm's ,,ramac pr$ict$ victory = ,k5n$y at #h3ab ,p4,m4 election night4 ,to make accurate pr$ictions1 ! comput] is giv5 in=mation f prec$+ elections4 ,9 #aifj x 0 f$ ! results ( ! #aief1 #aieb1 #aidh1 & #aibh 7because ( ! religi\s consid]ations7 elections4 ,=eca/]s 7 able to ask ! comput] su* que/ions z1 8,h[ is ,nixon do+ comp>$ ) ,eis5h[]'s %[+ 9 #aieb80 8,h[ is ,k5n$y do+ comp>$ ) ,al ,smi? back 9 #aibh80 8,is labor vot+ z a bloc80 & 8,h[ solid is ! ,s\?80 ,! comput] is n[ an accept$ "p ( network equipm5t = election report+4 ,,abc us$ ! ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac2 ,,cbs1 ,,ibm ,,ramac & o!r ma*9es2 & ,,nbc ! ,,rca #eja4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,comput]s are us$ to pr$ict ! results ( elections4 ,9 addition to =eca/+ results1 comput]s are beg9n+ to d o!r election "w4 ,los ,angeles ,c\nty exp]im5t$ ) a comput] me?od ( c\nt+ votes 9 #aifj4 ,gre5e ,c\nty1 ,ohio1 us$ pun*$ c>ds = ballots = #ej1jjj vot]s 9 a pione]+ comput] vot+ sy/em4 ,! c>ds 7 process$ 9 a ,,univac comput] at ,dayton ,air ,=ce ,depot4 ,a bold] sugge/ion is t ( political sci5ti/ ,r4 ,m4 ,goldman ( ,mi*igan ,/ate ,univ]sity3 actual vot+ by telephone-op]at$ comput]6 ,to solve ano!r problem area 9 vot+1 ! use ( comput]s 0 rec5tly propos$ at a /ate congressional he>+ 9 ,bo/on4 ,r$i/rict+1 ! bugaboo t l$ to 8g]rym&]+10 might well be done by 8unbias$0 comput]s :i* w\ld arrive at an optimum r$i/rict+ plan4 ,^! unbias$ results w\ld be 8beyond politics & 9 ! be/ int]e/s ( ! vot]s & ! ,/ate10 accord+ to ! comput] exp]t :o propos$ ! plan4 ,mov+ f vot+ to a m complicat$ problem1 t ( urban r5ewal1 ! ,univ]sity ( ,wa%+ton is conduct+ a survey "u f$]al grant on ! ext5t ( det]ioration & ! causes ( decay 9 ,spokane resid5tial1 comm]cial1 & indu/rial areas4 ,! ,,ibm #gji comput] makes possible an accurate & ext5sive survey expect$ to %$ light on areas ( arre/$ developm5t1 & on ! am\nt ( tax rev5ue lo/ because ( exi/+ blight4 ,electronic ,legal ,eagle ,"s writ]s see ! cle>e/ evid5ce ( ! victory ( ! comput]--if inde$ we admit to !re ev] hav+ be5 any real battle--9 ! admission by ! legal pr(ession t x mu/ beg9 to *>t ! legal seas ( ! comput] age4 ,9 #aifa ! ,am]ican ,law ,in/itute & ! ,am]ican ,b> ,association1 feel+ t ! comput] w ca/ its 8automat$ %ad[ on e phase ( society10 conduct$ a jo9t ?ree-day sem9> 9 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,titl$ 8,legal ,problems 9 ! ,use ( ,electronic ,data ,process+ 9 ,bus9ess1 ,indu/ry & ,law10 ! sem9> discuss$ 8function & op]ation ( comput]s & _! impact on tort1 tax1 corporation1 labor1 contract1 bank+1 sales1 antitru/1 pat5t & copyright law1 z well z on ! law ( evid5ce & trial practice40 ,lawy] ,roy ,fre$ ( ! ,philadelphia ,b>1 9 a booklet call$ 8,a ,lawy]'s ,guide ,?r\gh ! ,comput] ,maze10 describes ! work+ ( ! ma*9e & !n poses "s *all5g+ legal que/ions4 ,:at duty does ! company act+ z a comput] s]vice organization h to pres]ve ! confid5tial nature ( ! data x processes = its cu/om]s8 ,c bus9ess records plac$ on magnetic tape be us$ 9 evid5ce1 or mu/ ! orig9al records be pres]v$8 ,h[ long c corporate managem5t lag beh9d o!rs 9 _! indu/ry 9 adopt+ ma*9e data-process+ sy/ems be=e !y expose !mselves to a mismanagem5t *>ge8 ,to :at ext5t %\ld ! manufactur] ( a complex product t has a pot5tial = caus+ h>m try to m9imize 8 liability z a mak] by anticipat+ design defects ?r\gh simulat$ op]ation on ! comput]8 ,o!r legal exp]ts ask$ o!r que/ions4 ,if an electronically process$ *eck is b\nc$ errone\sly1 :o is responsible8 ,if a noncomput]iz$ railroad has a tra9 wreck1 c ! road be su$ on ! premise t ! accid5t w\ld n h occurr$ ) mod]n traffic controls8 ,or if ! rev]se occurs1 c an anticomput] claimant w9 a suit aga9/ ! ma*9e8 ,applications ( ! comput] 9 pat5t law may lead to m ?or\gh se>* 9 addition to high] spe$4 ,?is c\ld well cle> ano!r bottl5eck by issu+ few] & fa/] pat5ts4 ,b copyright violation problems lie 9 ! possibility ( mak+ copies ( tapes or o!r m$ia suitable = ! comput]'s use4 ,! alt]+ or falsification ( comput] data also poses a tricky legal problem2 !re is already a prec$5t 9 ! ,wall ,/reet man :o juggl$ ! pun*$ c>ds on ! comput] to 8 own advantage4 ,p]haps !re 0 "o "q none ( ! lawy]s pres5t _h ! c\rage to br+ up3 :at if ! day comes :5 ! c\rt itself is a comput]1 & ! case is pres5t$ to x z a /ack ( c>ds1 or a prepun*$ or magnetiz$ tape8 ,su* a me*aniz$ ju/ice 0 fancifully depict$ on a television ?rill] by ,ray ,bradbury4 ,comput]s 9 ,khaki ,despite ! l[ ,,iq x has be5 accus$ (1 x 0 inevitable t ! comput] be draft$4 ,9 ! #dj's we 7 desp]ate4 ,includ$ 9 gov]nm5t use ( comput]s are milit>y rese>*1 developm5t1 & tactical & /rategic me?ods4 ,_w ,w> ,,ii 0 a diff]5t k9d ( w>1 a complicat$1 electronic w> t requir$ advanc$ me?ods ( op]ation4 ,at ,ea/]time 9 #aidb1 ,,ibm answ]$ an urg5t call f ,wa%+ton & ga!r$ all available data-process+ ma*9es = use by ! milit>y4 ,pun*$ c>ds kept track ( allotm5ts1 insurance1 & ! logi/ics ( runn+ a w>4 ,mobile comput+ ma*9es op]at$ close to ! front l9es1 & 7 important en\gh t a captur$ ,g]man (fic] 0 c>ry+ urg5t ord]s to br+ 9 "o ( ^! units4 ,illu/ration3 ,motorola1 ,inc41 ,milit>y ,electronics ,division ,te*nician *ecks circuitry ( airborne digital comput]4 ,besides ! mundane ef=t ( m]e data-process+1 w>time comput]s did important cloak-&-dagg] "w z well4 ,a report came 9 f ,alli$ intellig5ce t ! ,g]mans 7 work+ on a fright5+ new developm5t--an electrically p[]$ cannon4 ,if x 7 successful we w\ld ne$ "s k9d ( c\nt]weapon4 ,b ! dike 0 leak+ 9 a hundr$ o!r places too1 & !re 0 n "t or equipm5t to d ev]y?+ x seem$ we might h to d4 ,! answ] 0 to fe$ "s complex ma!matics to an ,,ibm comput] call$ ! ,automatic ,sequ5ce ,controll$ ,calculator--ma!matics describ+ ! new cannon4 ,! comput] cogitat$ briefly & decid$ t ! ,g]mans 7 on ! wrong track2 t ! gun w\ld n "w4 ,we !re=e ignor$ ! ?reat1 lett+ ! ,g]mans wa/e _! valuable "t go+ d[n ! bl9d alley1 & turn$ our ef=ts else:]e4 ,we h said t ,_w ,w> ,,ii 0 a diff]5t k9d ( w>4 ,"o new developm5t to be> out ?is diff]5ce 0 call$ 8,op]ations ,rese>*0--! r$uction ( any program to ma!matical =mulas & ! inve/igation ( ^! =mulas r ?an a conv5tional1 intuitive approa*4 ,! te*nique 0 pione]$ 9 ,engl&1 spread to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & is n[ "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful tools n only ( ! milit>y b also ( gov]nm5t & bus9ess4 ,! comput] has made op]ations rese>* a m p[]ful te*nique by p]mitt+ ! analysis ( ?\s&s or millions ( possibilities 9 h\rs in/ead ( lifetimes4 ,back 9 ! days ( b[s & arr[s1 ! soldi] _h no ne$ = a comput]4 ,ev5 ! rifleman requir$ little m ?an a simple sight & maybe a bit ( ,k5tucky w9dage4 ,) ! com+ ( long-range artill]y1 comput]s became desirable1 & n[ we h mov$ into an age ( w>f>e t w\ld be impossible )\t high-spe$ comput+ ma*9es4 ,9 #aidh ,,ibm introduc$ a comput] kn[n z ,,ssec = ,selective ,sequ5ce ,electronic ,calculator4 ,?is ma*9e 0 put to "w on a problem = ! ,los ,alamos ,atomic ,en]gy ,laboratory1 a problem call$ 8,hippo40 ,hippo 0 z unwieldy z its "n1 requir+ "s n9e million involv$ ma!matical op]ations t w\ld h tak5 ab\t #a1ejj man-ye>s ( skill$ "t4 ,t _m ma!maticians or t mu* "t 0 n available1 ( c\rse1 & ,,ssec click$ ?r\gh ! job 9 #aej h\rs by itself4 ,ano!r comput]1 ! ,,maniac1 design$ by ,john von ,neumann1 is cr$it$ ) beat+ ! ,russians to ! pun* ) ! hydrog5 bomb4 ,z an outgr[? ( op]ations rese>*1 ! simulation ( w> games has become an important "p ( milit>y "w4 ,a numb] ( firms1 includ+ ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corporation1 ,te*nical ,op]ations1 ,inc41 & o!rs1 devote mu* ( _! "t to 8play+ games0 to "w out ! optimum /rategy & tactics = w> 9 case we f9d x necess>y aga94 ,x is p]haps n p>adoxical t w> be consid]$ a game4 ,z ,william ,c[p] said1 8,w>'s a game1 :i* 7 _! subjects wise1 ,k+s w\ld n play at40 ,! game ( *ess1 conv]sely1 /ems f w> & its tactics4 ,inde$1 ! t]m *eckmate1 = victory1 comes f ! ,p]sian words %ah mat1 ! k+ is dead4 ,?r\gh ! ye>s _m w> games h be5 develop$1 games :i* elim9ate ! physical conflict b pres]ve ! intellectual maneuv]+ necess>y = wag+ 8w>40 ,john von ,neumann 0 "o ( ! m rec5t to turn 8 great g5ius to ?is subject 9 ! developm5t ( 8 8m9imax0 !ory4 ,?is is an outl9e ( a situation 9 :i* consequ5ces ( decisions dep5d on ! actions ( an oppon5t4 ,we h se5 t ! comput]1 ?\gh n yet _w *ampion1 c play *ess2 ! m9imax !ory is m gri/ = its electronic mill4 ,te*-ops op]ates ! ,combat ,op]ations ,rese>* ,gr\p = ! ,u4,s4 ,cont95tal ,army ,comm& at ,=t ,monroe1 ,virg9ia4 ,among ! games play$ "h ) comput]s are ,,syntac1 9 :i* field-exp]i5c$ (fic]s evaluate new weapons & tactics1 & ,,autotag1 a comput] simulation ( tank-antitank combat4 ,o!r projects ( ?is firm include air battle simulations1 %ip load+ & o!r logi/ics problems1 fall\t /udies1 & def5se aga9/ missile attacks4 ,! beauty ( su* s*emes is t we w n make ! mi/ake ( ! ,g]mans ) _! electric cannon4 ,:5 ! comput] bl9ks 8,tilt0 or an equival5t1 ! eng9e]s may h r$ faces1 b no huge am\nt ( "t or money w h be5 sp5t be=e !y sigh1 8,back to ! old draw+ bo>d60 ,illu/ration3 ,a]onutronic ,division1 ,=d ,motor ,co4 ,,artoc 7,army ,tactical ,op]ations ,c5tral7 uses comput] te*niques = battlefield display & communications to aid field comm&]s4 ,at ,picat9ny ,ars5al1 comput]s evaluate ammunition by simulat+ z _m z a ?\s& battles p] item4 ,design & managem5t /udies = projects l ,nike-,zeus & ,davy ,crockett are also conduct$ at ,picat9ny4 ,a mobile comput]1 call$ ,,mobidic1 is design$ = field combat use & has be5 mov$ 9 ?ree #cj-;foot trail]s to location ) ! ,sev5? ,army 9 ,europe4 ,!re x h&les requisitions = rockets1 guid$ missiles1 electronic equipm5t1 & o!r items4 ,,mobidic is j "p ( ! ,army's ,,fieldata family ( comput]s t includes helicopt]-transport$ equipm5t to provide field comm&]s ) fa/ & accurate data on :i* to base _! risk decisions4 ,ano!r concept is ,,artoc1 = ,army ,tactical ,op]ations ,c5tral1 an inflatable comm& po/ 9 :i* comput]s receive & process in=mation = display on l>ge scre5s4 ,?is is a project ( ,a]onutronic4 ,9 #aifa an ,,ibm #gjij comput] 0 in/all$ at ,ispra1 ,italy1 = use by ! ,european ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission 7,,euratom74 ,! comput] w\ld h z its duties ! catalog+ ( te*nical in=mation on atomic en]gy1 ! translation ( te*nical publications1 & use 9 basic rese>* on solutions ( ,boltzmann equations & o!r advanc$ physics us$ 9 atomic "w4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 ! ,national ,sci5ce ,f\ndation has ackn[l$g$ ! importance ( ! comput] 9 sci5tific inve/igation by und]writ+ co/s = su* equipm5t = rese>* c5t]s 9 ne$ ( !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,comm& po/ ( ,,sage1 ! mo/ complex comput] application to date4 ,9 ! ,air ,beyond ! realm ( w> gam+1 ! comput] also =ms ! he>t ( ! h>dw>e t su* simulation & /udies develop4 ,,sage is an example ( ?is1 a complex w>n+ sy/em t protects our c\ntry f attack4 ,! acronym ,,sage is a m dignifi$ & impressive "n ?an ! words x /&s =--,semi-,automatic ,gr\nd ,environm5t1 an environm5t t by #aife w h co/ #fa billion6 ,sage is n a s+le in/allation1 b a va/ complex ( c5t]s fe$+ in=mation f ,balli/ic ,missile ,e>ly ,w>n+ ,site rad> & airborne rad>1 f %ips1 ,texas t[]s1 & gr\nd-bas$ rad>1 & f wea!r /ations into a c5tral control4 ,?is control s5ds ! prop] signals to def5sive rockets1 missiles1 & aircraft = action aga9/ an invad]4 ,x does ?is ) "o h&1 :ile ) ! o!r x keeps tabs on normal milit>y & comm]cial air traffic4 ,! ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corporation design$ & ,,ibm built ! ,,sage comput]1 a comput] already old-fa%ion$ s9ce x uses vacuum tubes in/ead ( ! new] transi/or devices4 ,despite ?is %ortcom+1 x does a fanta/ic job ( track+ all ! aircraft & missiles 9 its k51 label+ !m = spe$1 head+1 altitude1 z well z ! vital in=mation ( fri5d or foe1 & cont9u\sly plans a def5se4 ,s9ce x c monitor civilian traffic z well1 ,,sage may "o day take ov] control ( t too4 ,?us ! money sp5t w yield a bonus 9 addition to ! protection ,,sage has already af=d$ 9 its milit>y role4 ,! ,air ,=ce uses airborne comput]s by ! ?\s&s4 ,inde$1 ! ne$ = small lightweight comput]s = applications 9 aircraft l$ to e>ly "w 9 ! m9iaturization ( compon5ts t made possible t9y comput]s = missile & space use4 ,small digital comput]s 7 built = 8drone0 aircraft navigation2 n[ m advanc$ comput]s provide 8air data10 air-spe$1 altitude1 flight attitude1 pressure1 & o!r in=mation4 ,o!r ,air ,=ce comput]s1 us$ 9 ,,bmews rad>1 take ! place ( human obs]v]s4 ,^! sm>t comput]s c recognize rad> tracks t are pot5tial missile trajectories1 discrim9ate among ^! tracks to select ho/ile trajectories1 & project !m to impact po9ts & times4 ,call$ ,,mips1 = ,missile ,impact ,pr$ictor ,set1 ! comput] takes ov] f its human =]unn] :o j c't seem to p]=m ! #bjj1jjj op]ations a second requir$ to d ! job4 ,ano!r space-track+ comput] call$ ,,spadats has be5 in/all$ at ,,norad ,combat ,op]ations ,c5t] at ,colorado ,spr+s4 ,?is comput] has ! assignm5t ( ar\nd-!-clock catalog+ ( all man-made objects 9 space1 a sizable & gr[+ task4 ,at ,v&5b]g ,air ,=ce ,base1 ! ,air ,=ce ma9ta9s an ,,edp1 or ,electronic ,data ,process+ project ) a m e>?-b\nd job ( catalog+4 ,/>t$ back 9 #aieg1 ?is project has z its prim>y task ! effici5t allocation ( manp[] = ! global ,/rategic ,air ,comm& team4 ,at ne>by ,edw>ds ,air ,=ce ,base1 an ,,ibm #gjij comput] is help+ to develop ! ,dyna-,so> mann$ space glid]4 ,?is comput] is also do+ "w = ! ,x-#ae program1 & rese>* on fuels1 lun> probes1 rocket nozzles1 & nose cones4 ,at ,t9k] ,air ,=ce ,base 9 ,oklahoma1 a new sy/em ( keep+ track ( jet eng9e p>ts1 s t !y g back on ! prop] eng9e1 uses a record] 8gun0 wir$ to a c5tral control comput]4 ,eng9e p>ts are metal tagg$ ) cod$ lett]s :i* ! record] 8reads0 & transmits to ! comput] = fil+4 ,comput]s play a big "p 9 ! 8l>ge/ & mo/ sophi/icat$ logi/ic data & message communications sy/em 9 ! _w40 ,deliv]$ to ! ,air ,=ce 9 ,janu>y ( #aifb1 8,comlognet0 connects #dej diff]5t air bases & o!r in/allations4 ,?is sy/em />t$ out mode/ly1 h&l+ ab\t #aj million pun*$ c>ds a day1 & is h]ald$ z only a =]unn] ( an automatic sy/em :i* w "s day take c>e ( ! complete int]fl[ ( data among widely sep>at$ milit>y & civilian locations4 ,besides be+ "p ( complex navigation & bomb+ sy/ems1 comput]s help ! ,air ,=ce to score ! results ( practice bomb+ missions4 ,comput]s control ! laun*+ ( ,sidew9d] missiles f aircraft & also p]mit accurate 8toss-bomb+0 ( nucle> payloads f fight] bomb]s4 ,^! comput]s d all ! ma!matics & let ! pilot approa* 8 t>get f any direction1 at any spe$ & altitude4 ,! new ,skybolt balli/ic missile1 laun*$ f ! ,b-#eb bomb]1 has its own guidance comput]1 :i* is actually a digital diff]5tial analyz]1 a hybrid device l t describ$ 9 an e>li] *apt]4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/ s+le comput]s 9 ! ,air ,=ce is t call$ ,f9d]4 ,us+ #gj1jjj transi/ors1 x does analytical "w on electronic c\nt]measures4 ,today !re are "s #aaj1jjj aircraft fly+ ! skies 9 ?is c\ntry1 ab\t d\ble ! numb] t5 ye>s ago4 ,n only ! quantity b also ! spe$ ( aircraft has increas$1 & ! job ( ! aircraft controll] has become a nightm>e4 ,) ! lives ( air travel]s 9 8 h&s1 ?is ov]work$ ,,faa employee has until rec5tly us$ ! same equipm5t t s]v$ 9 ! days ( #ahj miles-p]-h\r pi/on-eng9e transports4 ,we h discuss$ "s examples ( ! comput] z a director ( air traffic2 ! automatic gr\nd-controll$-approa* sy/em t l&s planes 9 bad wea!r )\t human help is "o1 ! mighty ,,sage def5se sy/em is ano!r4 ,,sage may "o day take ov] comm]cial air traffic3 9 ! meantime1 ! ,f$]al ,aviation ,ag5cy relies heavily on small] comput]s 9 locations all ov] ! c\ntry4 ,orig9ally1 g5]al-purpose bus9ess comput]s 7 put to "w process+ ! va/ quantities ( data ne$$ to keep traffic fl[+ along ! airways4 ,new1 special designs1 includ+ ^? ( ! ,librascope ,division ( ,g5]al ,precision1 ,inc41 are be+ add$ z !y become available4 ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac is also work+ on ! problem1 & ,,univac equipm5t has be5 te/$ on ,/rategic ,air ,comm& r\nd-rob9 flights4 ,x has po/$ z _m z eighty 9-flight ,axes = "o mission1 a feat t ! unaid$ human controll] c only gasp at4 ,obvi\sly1 control ( aircraft _c be turn$ ov] pell-mell f human to comput]4 ,! ,,faa is proce$+ cauti\sly1 & a rec5t report f an indu/ry fact-f9d+ bo>d recomm5d$ a 8,project ,beacon0 approa* :i* w cont9ue to rely heavily on rad> plus human controll]s4 ,b :5 ! problems ( communication betwe5 man & ma*9e are work$ out1 no human be+ c keep track ( s _m aircraft s accurately1 or compute alt]ations 9 c\rse to prev5t collision & ensure an optimum use ( air space z c ! comput]4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,on ! ,sea ,! ,navy uses comput]s too4 ,at ! ,david ,taylor ,te/ ,bas9 9 ,m>yl&1 a ,,univac ,,l>c is busy do+ design "w on %ip hulls4 ,o!r comput]s m\nt$ 9 complet$ ,navy vessels p]=m navigation & gun-rang+ functions4 ,at ,new ,london1 ,connecticut1 a ,m9neapolis-,honeywell comput] simulates full scale naval battles4 ,rad> & son> scre5s 9 mock subm>9e comm& po/s %[ ! maneuv]+ ( _m %ips 9 reali/ic simulations4 ,pol>is subm>9es dep5d on special comput]s to laun* _! missiles1 & ! missiles !mselves m\nt t9y comput]s t navigate ,pol>is to its t>get4 ,ano!r comput] task 0 ! 8sea te/+0 ( ! nucle> subm>9e 8,sea ,wolf0 be=e x 0 laun*$6 ,illu/ration3 ,photo c\rtesy ( ,litton ,sy/ems1 ,inc4 ,airborne comput]-indicator sy/em 9 ,hawkeye naval aircraft4 ,?is equipm5t p]=ms task ( surveillance1 track+1 comm& & control4 ,comput]s are be+ us$ by ! ,navy 9 a project t has trem5d\s applications n only = milit>y application b = civilian use z well4 ,m>k ,twa9 to ! contr>y1 a lot ( p h tri$ to d some?+ ab\t ! wea!r1 among !m an ,engli%man nam$ ,ri*>dson4 ,back 9 #aibb he came up ) ! idea ( pr$ict+ ! wea!r = a good-siz$ *unk ( ,engl&4 ,basically 8 ambiti\s s*eme 0 s\nd4 ,draw+ on wea!r /ations = ! data1 he det]m9$ to produce a #bd-;h\r =eca/4 ,un=tunately = ,mr4 ,ri*>dson1 ! ,engli%1 & ! _w 9 g5]al1 ! ma!matics requir$ 0 s complicat$ t he labor$ = ?ree mon?s on t fir/ pr$iction4 ,by !n x _h lo/ mu* ( its value--& x 0 also wrong6 ,! only solution t ,ri*>dson c\ld ?9k ( 0 to enli/ ! aid ( ab\t #fj1jjj help]s :o w\ld be pack$ into a huge /adium4 ,ea* ( ^! p w\ld be giv5 data ^u :i* to p]=m "s ma!matical op]ation1 & !n pass on to ! next p]son 9 l9e4 ,pages w\ld transf] results f "o section ( ! /adium to ano!r1 & a 8conductor10 arm$ ) a megaphone und\bt$ly along ) 8 baton1 w\ld 8direct0 ! wea!r symphony1 or p]haps cacaphony4 ,z he lift$ 8 baton1 ! help]s 7 to calculate l crazy1 :5 he l[]$ x !y w\ld pass ! result along4 ,:at ,ri*>dson _h inv5t$1 ( c\rse1 0 ! fir/ l>ge-scale comput]1 a s]ial comput] ) human compon5ts4 ,= a numb] ( reasons1 ?is colossal ma*9e 0 nev] complet$4 ,x 0 obvi\sly mu* easi] to simply damn ! wea!rman4 ,actually1 ,ri*>dson _h /umbl$ onto some?+ big4 ,he _h br\ght into be+ ! idea ( 8num]ical wea!r pr$iction40 ,x is kn[n t wea!r is caus$ by ! movem5t ( air & v>iations 9 its pressure4 ,basically x is simple1 kn[+ pressure conditions ye/]day & today1 to project a l9e or extrapolate ! conditions = tomorr[4 ,if we "k ! conditions tomorr[1 we c !n pr$ict or =eca/ ! temp]ature1 precipitation1 & w9ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,u4,s4 ,navy ,wea!r map prep>$ & pr9t$ out by comput] gives data 9 graphical =m4 ,enl>g$ view ( wea!r 8picture0 7above7 %[s h[ x is =m$ by pr9t$ digits repres5t+ ! pressure at report+ /ations4 ,!re 0 ev5 ! ma!matics to make ?is possible 9 ,ri*>dson's day3 ! s-call$ 8primitive equations0 ( ! pione] ma!matician ,eul]4 ,^! are six p>tial diff]5tial equations involv+ velocity1 pressure1 d5sity1 temp]ature1 & s on4 ,b ?\gh ! pr9ciple is simple1 ! practical application is hopelessly involv$--unless y h a /adium fill$ ) #fj1jjj will+ ma!maticians or a fa/ comput] ( "s o!r type4 ,9 #aiej ! /age 0 f9ally set = ! implem5tation ( num]ical wea!r pr$iction4 ,fir/1 electronic comput]s 7 available4 ,second1 & importantly1 ma!matician ,c4 ,g4 ,rossby _h work$ "s magic ) ! orig9al primitive equations & r$uc$ !m to a s+le neat equation ) only f\r t]ms4 ,! new tool is call$ ! ,rossby equation4 ,meteorologi/s & ma!maticians at ,pr9ceton's ,in/itute = ,advanc$ ,/udy decid$ to comb9e ! ,rossby equation1 ! ,,maniac comput]1 & "s money available f ! ,(fice ( ,naval ,rese>*4 ,! result 0 ,,jnwpu1 ,jo9t ,num]ical ,wea!r ,pr$iction ,unit1 lat] to become ,,nanwep1 = ,navy ,num]ical ,wea!r ,problems ,gr\p4 ,x is too bad t pione] ,ri*>dson did n live to see ! exploitation ( 8 dream4 ,:at ,,nanwep does is to take ! meteorological data f "s #c1jjj report+ /ations1 comp>e !m ) ^? exi/+ ye/]day1 & pr9t out a wea!r map = ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e = tomorr[4 ,because !re are s _m m /ations report+ ?an ! h&ful t ,ri*>dson us$1 ! numb] ( computations has ris5 to ! a/ronomical total ( ab\t #cjj1jjj1jjj4 ,despite ?is1 a ,control ,data ,corporation #afjd digital comput] does ! job 9 a good bit less "t ?an ! ?ree mon?s x took ,ri*>dson4 ,,nanwep pr9ts out its wea!r maps #dj m9utes f ! "t all data are 94 ,teletype reports come 9 f ! ?\s&s ( wea!r /ations2 ^! are pun*$ on tape & f$ to ! #afjd4 ,s9ce ! in=mation includes geographical position 9 addition to meteorological data1 ! comput] pr9ts out numb]s t =m a map ( wea!r com+ up4 ,al?\gh ! meteorologi/ adds "s cl>ify+ l9es by connect+ po9ts ( equal pressure1 ! 8raw0 map ) its di/9ctive %ad$ areas is mean+ful ev5 to ! layman4 ,fur!r ref9em5ts are 9 ! (f+4 ,z _m z #aj1jjj wea!r /ations may ev5tually report to ! c5tral comput]1 :i* may also le>n to accept ! teletype in=mation directly ) no ne$ = ! int]m$iate /ep ( pun*+ a tape4 ,al?\gh x w be a long "t be=e a positive =eca/1 exact 9 e detail1 is possible1 ,,nanwep already has lift$ wea!r pr$iction f ! educat$ guesswork ( ! old] meteorologi/s to truly sci5tific =eca/+4 ,x turns out t num]ical wea!r pr$iction br+s ) x "s bonuses4 ,,nanwep c pr$ict ! action ( ocean waves ?ree days 9 advance1 9 addition to its regul> w9d1 temp]ature1 & precipitation in=mation4 ,s x is n[ be+ put to "w prep>+ optimum r\tes = %ips4 ,"h's ! way x w\ld "w4 ,a %ip sail+ f ,cali=nia to ,japan reque/s ! be/ r\tes = ! voyage4 ,initially ! comput] is giv5 ! %ip's *>act]i/ics & told h[ x w p]=m 9 v>i\s sea conditions4 ,x !n integrates ?is in=mation ) ! pr$ict$ sea conditions = ! fir/ day's leg1 & plots sev]al diff]5t c\rses4 ,di/ances ! %ip w\ld travel on ea* ( ^! c\rses are plott$1 & a curve is drawn to connect !m4 ,n[ ! comput] repeats ! process = ! next day1 s t ea* ( ! t5tative c\rses bran*es out ) its own alt]nates4 ,! process is repeat$ = ea* ( ! five days ( ! voyage4 ,!n ! comput] works backw>d1 pick+ ! be/ r\te = ! entire voyage1 & gives ! c\rse to be foll[$ = optimum "t4 ,if t isn't suffici5tly in=mative = ! capta91 he c reque/ & receive n "o b ?ree c\rses3 "o = ! fa/e/ trip reg>dless ( sea condition1 ano!r = ! fa/e/ trip ) waves ( only a c]ta9 height1 & f9ally a c\rse = ! fa/e/ trip ?r\gh calm wat]6 ,! advantages ( su* a s]vice are imm$iately obvi\s & give a h9t at _m o!r applications ( ! te*nique to air travel1 truck transport1 & s on4 ,,nanwep is gr\nd-bas$1 ( c\rse4 ,!re are also airborne wea!r comput]s l ^? ( ! ,u4,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau's ,national ,sev]e ,/orm ,rese>* ,aircraft ,project4 ,! ,wea!r ,bureau has jump$ its comput] budget f #a4e to #b4e million to ext5d ?is & o!r projects4 ,! compact airborne comput]s ride along 9 ,,dc-#f & ,b-#eg aircraft to monitor hurricanes (f ,florida & tornadoes 9 ! ,great ,pla9s area4 ,! comput]s ga!r =ty diff]5t k9ds ( in=mation & conv]t x to digital =m at ?\s&s ( *>act]s a second4 ,su* monitor+ ( viol5t wea!r by means ( comput]s sugge/s an intrigu+ use ( ! ma*9e4 ,man has long consid]$ ! prospect ( go+ ! /ep beyond wea!r record+ & pr$iction to actually *ang+ or ev5 creat+ 8 own wea!r4 ,he has done a few r />tl+ ?+s ( ?is k9d1 admitt$ly on a small scale b ) trem5d\s implications4 ,cl\d-se$+ exp]im5ts are samples1 z attempts bo? to induce precipitation & to create or de/roy /orms4 ,^! exp]im5ts1 ?\gh inconclusive1 h l$ to results--includ+ precipitation ( lawsuits & ill feel+4 ,meteorologi/s attempt$ to div]t a hurricane along ! ,atlantic coa/ l9e once1 app>5tly ) results4 ,b ! /orm sw]v$ too f> & ! wea!rm5 incurr$ ! ju/ifiable wra? ( ^? liv+ 9 ! area affect$4 ,:y n simulate su* an exp]im5t 9 ! comput]8 ,besides be+ saf]1 x is also f> *eap]4 ,9 ! long run1 we may d some?+ ab\t ! wea!r at t4 ,comput]s 9 ,space ,!re are _m po9ts 9 hi/ory :5 seem+ly =tuit\s happ5+s take place4 ,! inv5tion ( ! pr9t+ press appe>s to h occurr$ at a =k 9 ! road z lit]ature fl[]$4 ,! discov]y ( gasol9e & ! automobile w5t h& 9 h&4 ,s x is ) ! electronic comput] & ! spacecraft4 ,is ! comput] "h because x 0 ne$$ = su* an application1 or did x actually cause ! adv5t ( space flight8 ,our conclusions mu/ dep5d on our belief or disbelief 9 su* ?+s z causality4 ,a reali/ic view might be m]ely to applaud & appreciate ! conflu5ce ( two important /reams ( ?\ght to make a riv] t w "o day fl[ to ! o!r planets & f9ally out ( ! sol> sy/em entirely4 ,putt+ ev5 some?+ s unsophi/icat$ z a brick into orbit w\ld require ! plott+ ( an exact trajectory h&ily done only by a comput]4 ,s5d+ ! ,m]cury capsule al(t obvi\sly requires a m ref9$ aim+ sy/em1 & its re-entry into ! atmosph]e dem&s a nicety ( calculation measur$ 9 a fraction ( a degree4 ,! same is true = ! ,russian a*ievem5ts 9 s5d+ a space vehicle ar\nd ! moon1 & mann$ capsules 9 prolong$ orbit4 ,su* navigation c be plann$ & c>ri$ out only by ! sophi/icat$ ma!matics ( a comput]4 ,dr4 ,w]nh] von ,braun has said t any effective space-vehicle fir+ program w\ld be impossible )\t comput]s & comput+ te*niques4 ,n long ago1 ! m>9] c\ld leisurely brace himself on ! deck ( 8 vessel & take a noon sight ) 8 sextant4 ,x matt]$ little if x took him "s "t to "w out ! computations2 8 %ip travel$ at only a few knots & 9 only two dim5sions4 ,today ! space capsule or missile moves z f> 9 a s+le m9ute z a %ip might 9 an entire day1 & x moves n across ! practically flat surface ( ! sea b ?r\gh ?ree-dim5sional space 9 :i* t ?ird degree ( fre$om is ( vital importance4 ,n only mu/ ! navigation be done ) fanta/ic precision1 x mu/ be done 9 8real "t0 to be ( any value4 ,?is is true :e!r ! ma!matics is be+ done by a ,m]cury capsule or "o ( our antimissile missiles4 ,j z ,ri*>dson's wea!r pr$iction ?ree mon?s aft] ! fact 0 ( little use1 ! trajectory ( an invad+ missile w avail u no?+ if x takes u ?irty m9utes to compute4 ,! problem by !n1 = ! survivors1 w be "o ( fall\t & n bla/4 ,= ?is reason a comput] is abo>d practically e space vehicle t leaves ! e>?4 ,! ,atlas & ,titan1 ! ,m9uteman & ,pol>is1 all are controll$ by t9y digital comput]s 9 _! inn>ds1 supplem5t$ by m complex ma*9es on ! gr\nd4 ,^! gr\nd comput]s calculate ! trajectory1 !n monitor ! missile to correct its c\rse if necess>y4 ,complex z ^! functions seem1 !y are *ildi%ly simple by comp>ison ) ! k9d ( calculations t are necess>y = lun> or planet>y flight4 ,a ma!matician :o knew 8 a/ronomy c\ld "w out ! figures necess>y to laun* a space craft on its flight to ,v5us1 b he w\ld h to />t "s "t be=e laun*+ day4 ,9 fact1 x w\ld take =ty g5]ations ( ma!maticians to d ! job4 ,! trip itself w\ld consume ab\t f\r mon?s4 ,at ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratories ( ! ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology1 ?is #hjj-ye> project is plann$ & fl[n 9 ?irty seconds by an ,,ibm #gjij comput]4 ,= example1 ! comput] tells u t if we _h bla/$ (f bright & e>ly on ,augu/ #ag1 #aifb1 we c\ld make x to ! ,cl\d$ ,planet at #aj3ji ,a4,m41 ,decemb] #i4 ,! curv$ trip ?r\gh space w\ld cov] #cb1fhg1jjj miles4 ,! comput]1 !n1 n only c p]=m 9 real "t b c ev5 %r9k "t4 ,! ,v5us trip is simulat$ daily at ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratories1 & tapes /or$ 9 ! comput] cab9ets also be> ! names ,moon1 ,m>s1 ,saturn1 ,jupit]1 & s on4 ,:5 ! day comes to make ! actual voyage1 ! odds are good t because ( :at sci5ti/s h le>n$ f ! comput] ! trip w g z smoo?ly z all ! simulations4 ,r ?an ! planet>y voyages1 :i* are /ill "s "t (f1 lun> s(t l&+s w be among ! fir/ to demon/rate ! accuracy ( simulations n[ be+ made by ,g5]al ,dynamics1 ^: ,atlas-,c5taur w put ! lun> rov] ,surveyor on ! moon %ortly4 ,apollo1 ! ?ree-man lun> space%ip1 won't be f> beh9d4 ,n long ago a comput] 0 put to "w to see if x c\ld p>e d[n ! co/s ( ! ,atlas & ,?or rocket eng9es4 ,we h to h su* def5sive weapons1 b ! *eap] we c make !m ! m we c af=d4 ,! economy program work$1 r$uc+ co/s m ?an a ?ird4 ,summ>y ,! comput] is on ! ,wa%+ton payroll to /ay1 & x may well move up ! hi]>*ical ladd] !re4 ,x 0 n a com$ian b an ,m4,i4,t4 pr(essor :o rec5tly sugge/$ t ! comput] w replace ! bureaucrat4 ,cont5d+ t ! comput] is inh]5tly m flexible ?an ! bureaucrat1 ,pr(essor ,john ,mc,carthy told an ,in/itute ( ,radio ,eng9e]s meet+ t ! ma*9es w n regim5t u4 8,on ! contr>y1 ,i ?9k we c expect a great deal m polit5ess f ma*9es ?an we h gott5 f humans10 he said4 ,8 views 7 debat$ by o!r paneli/s1 b ! gauntlet seems to h be5 flung4 ,) a p>ty affiliation1 ! comput] may well run = presid5t som$ay6 ,illu/ration3 ,li*ty1 ,field ,ent]prises1 ,inc4 8,x ,,is human1 m56444 ,besides solv+ our problems ( global /rategy1 x's also beg9n+ to jot d[n its memoirs60 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,bus9ess may n be ! noble/ pursuit1 b x is true t m5 are br++ to x "s ( ! qualities :i* actuate ! explor]1 sci5ti/1 arti/3 ! ze/1 ! op5-m9d$ness1 ev5 ! dis9t]e/$ness1 ) :i* ! sci5tific inve/igator explores "s field ( rese>*40 --,e>ne/ ,elmo ,calk9s #h3 ,! ,comput] 9 ,bus9ess & ,indu/ry ,! gov]nm5t1 ( c\rse1 is n ! only us] ( ! electronic comput]4 ,bus9ess is fac$ ) ! same problems z gov]nm5t1 plus o!rs p]haps1 & c use ! same te*niques 9 plann+1 produc+1 m]*&is+1 & keep+ track ( its products4 ,to ,g5]al ,electric goes ! di/9ction ( fir/ in/all+ ! l>ge-scale electronic comput] = its bus9ess-data process+4 ,?is 0 done q rec5tly1 9 #aied4 ,comm5t+ on ! mile/one1 ! ,h>v>d ,bus9ess ,review said 9 "p3 ,! revolution />ts ?is summ] at ,g5]al ,electric ,company's new ,appliance ,p>k ne> ,l\isville1 ,k5tucky4 ,! managem5t plann+ beh9d ! acquisition ( ! fir/ ,,univac to be us$ 9 bus9ess may ev5tually be record$ by hi/orians z ! f\ndation ( ! second indu/rial revolution2 j z ,jacqu>d's automatic loom 9 #ahja or ,fr$]ick ,w4 ,taylor's /udies ( ! pr9ciples ( sci5tific managem5t a hundr$ ye>s lat] m>k$ turn+ po9ts 9 bus9ess hi/ory4 ,x is e>ly yet = comm5t f hi/orians1 b ! gr[? ( ! bus9ess comput]s f ! pione] ,,univac be>s out ! !me ( ! ,h>v>d ,bus9ess ,review sugge/ion4 ,9 #aifa !re 7 #f1jjj l>ge electronic comput]s 9 use2 ,g5]al ,electric alone has m ?an #ajj4 ,"o big reason = ?is is ! fact t gov]nm5t is n alone 9 its output ( pap]work4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t "o-six? ( our ,gross ,national ,product1 or ab\t #he billion1 is devot$ to pap]-h&l+4 ,9 ! "t x takes to read ?is *apt]1 = example1 ,am]icans are writ+ #d million *ecks1 & ?is is only a small "p ( ! pap]work involv$ 9 ! bank+ bus9ess4 ,illu/ration3 ,g5]al ,electric ,co41 ,comput] ,dept4 ,fir/ ,national ,bank ( ,arizona p]sonnel op]ate sort]s dur+ initial op]ation ( a new ,,ge-#baj comput]-controll$ data-process+ sy/em4 ,! sort]s process bank *ecks at ! rate ( #gej p] m9ute z pr9t] 7=egr\nd7 pr9ts bank /atem5ts at #ijj l9es p] m9ute4 ,:olesale banks h be5 call$ fiscal intellig5ce ag5cies1 do+ bus9ess by ! truckload1 & measur+ ! morn+ mail by ! ton4 ,yet ?is in=mation is dealt ) n only 9 volume1 b 9 precise & accurate detail4 ,if a cli5t asks ab\t ! rat+ ( a cu/om] :o has j ord]$ sev]al million doll>s wor? ( goods1 ! bank may be call$ on to furni% ?is in=mation 9 a v %ort "t1 ev5 ?\gh ! cu/om] resides halfway ar\nd ! _w4 ,s9ce !y deal 9 figures1 x is logical t banks 7 among ! fir/ bus9esses to be comput]iz$4 ,_m ( u are aw>e ( ^? /yliz$ numb]s n[ on ! bottom ( mo/ ( our *ecks1 & vaguely consci\s t ?r\gh "s my/]i\s juggl+ by comput]s call$ ,,erma & o!r su* names banks balance our acc\nts at electronic spe$4 ,insurance companies 7 next 9 l9e z comput] c&idates4 ,l bank+1 insurance is believ$ to h be5 available to ,babylonian m]*ants ?\s&s ( ye>s ago4 ,9 ^? days !re 7 few] p1 & probably claims 7 few]2 ! abacus 0 ! only comput] ne$$ to keep pace4 ,b s9ce insurance 0 introduc$ on ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 co9cid5tally 9 ! same /ate1 ,p5nsylvania1 z bank+1 x has be5 ?reat5$ ) dr[n+ 9 a sea ( its own policies4 ,! comput] is ideally suit$ = do+ ! "w ( ! insurance bus9ess4 ,!re is no "q today t ! comput] has tak5 ov] f ! insurance cl]k4 ,"o firm in/all$ comput]s 9 #aiec & s9ce !n has d\bl$ its acc\nts & tripl$ doll> volume1 )\t hir+ ! #bej additional p :o normally w\ld h be5 requir$ = su* an increase4 ,eight outly+ (fices h be5 clos$1 yet s]vice is bett] & fa/]1 ag5ts' commissions are paid twice a mon? in/ead ( only once1 & actu>ial computations t once took six mon?s are n[ done 9 a week4 ,a comput]iz$ _w is ( c\rse n )\t its problems4 ,! comput] sy/em is s effici5t1 9 fact1 t ! same outcry is go+ up f labor z 0 he>d 9 ! days ( ! fir/ indu/rial revolution4 ,x has be5 said ) "s tru? t automation upgrades jobs1 & n ! work]s !mselves4 ,! *ange-ov] f quill p5 to pu%button console w take "s "t & cause "s pa91 b 9 ! end our ga9 w be z great a /ride z we h made s9ce ! days ( ! introduction ( ! fir/ factories ) _! m effici5t production me?ods4 ,surely ! bus9ess work] already has be5 fre$ f ! t$ium ( add+ columns ( figures & mu* fil+1 & giv5 pleasant] "w 9 ex*ange4 ,! ,%opp]'s ,fri5d ,aft] bank+ & insurance1 :i* bus9esses yield to ! lure ( high-spe$ automatic data-process+8 ,dep>tm5t /ores are dabbl+1 & sup]m>kets too are beg9n+ to use ! comput]4 ,! ,a ,p /ores are /udy+ su* a sy/em1 z is ! ,liggett ,drug ,company4 ,at fir/ ! comput] look$ attractive z an inv5tory & ord]+ tool2 n[ x is head$ 9 ! direction ( automat+ ! actual %opp+ op]ation4 ,9 ,p>is1 a retail groc] made m]*&is+ hi/ory by display+ m ?an #c1jjj diff]5t items 9 a floor space ( only #bcj squ>e feet4 ,! trick is 9 a pun*$-c>d sy/em t automatically regi/]s & prices any item ! buy] selects4 ,at ! *eck /& ! c>d is run ?r\gh a comput] :i* figures ! bill & ord]s ! groc]ies1 :i* are automatically select$ f ! w>eh\se & deliv]$ 9 a c>t to ! pur*as] at ! door6 ,a simil> automatic sup]m>t sy/em is be+ pu%$ by ,sol>tron--,john ,br[n1 ,ltd41 9 ,engl&4 ,! comput]iz$ s*eme works mu* l ! ,fr5* "o4 ,! %opp] ins]ts a c>d 9 ! slot beside ! item %e wants & a pun* m>ks x 9 alpha-num]ic code = item & price4 ,if m ?an "o item is desir$ ! c>d is re9s]t$4 ,) ea* pun*1 ! ma*9e slices (f a bit ( ! edge ( ! c>d s t x slides deep] into ! slot next "t4 ,at ! ca%i]'s /ation1 ! c>d is plac$ 9 a comput]4 ,fifte5 seconds aft] %e has paid = !m1 ! %opp] is deliv]$ h] groc]ies4 ,besides ! sav+ 9 "t = ! %opp]1 !re is a sav+ = ! groc] 9 floor space & also ! elim9ation ( ! loss ?r\gh %oplift+4 ,ab\t ! only ?+ t might seem to be aga9/ ! new sy/em is ! psy*ology ( ! l>ge display1 :i* motivation rese>*]s tell u /imulates volume buy+4 ,) ?is factor 9 m9d1 an (ficial ( ,?ompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc41 has sugge/$ reta9+ ! l>ge /ocks on display1 b cod+ !m ) fluoresc5t pa9t ( c]ta9 wavel5g?s to correspond to price4 ,! %opp] fills h] c>t ev5 z 9 ! conv5tional /ore1 b at ! me*aniz$ *eck/& an electronic eye on ! comput] scans & prices ! items :ile !y are be+ automatically packag$4 ,! d\bt+ ,?omases say ( ?is sy/em t ! packag] w probably put ! eggs on ! bottom1 along ) ! tomatoes & ice cream6 ,! adv]tis+ j\rnal ,comm]cial ,art comm5ts sadly on ?is accept$ fact ( automation 9 ! m>ket place3 ,! *eck\t cl]k is doom$1 t la/ survivor ( human w>m? 9 mo/ ( today's sup]m>kets4 ,8 ev5tual execution] w be ! electronic comput]1 ( c\rse4 ,pilot sy/ems us+ comput]s = automatic *eck\ts are already draw+ a bead on ! jovial little man 9 ! gre5 smock4 ,ev5tually ev5 he w disappe> f ! faceless canyons ( our sleek sup]m>kets4 ,b ! writ] f9ds a ray ( hope 9 ! conclusion ( 8 editorial4 ,skilfully design$ packages c /rike an emotional *ord 9 ! consum]1 c create /rong br& pref]5ces ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( product diff]5ces4 ,sup]m>kets c give ! appe>ance ( be+ a fri5dly1 8human0 place to %op ev5 if ! only humans visible are ! cu/om]s4 ,to make m complete ! r\t ( conv5tional m]*&is+ by ! comput]-ori5t$ sy/em is ! plan to automate ev5 ! trad+ /amp4 ,am]ican ,premium ,sy/ems1 ,inc41 a ,texas firm1 is develop+ a plan 9 :i* ! cu/om] receives a cod$ pla/ic c>d in/ead ( a /amp book4 ,:5 he makes a pur*ase1 a c>d is pun*$ ) ! numb] ( cr$its he has e>n$4 ,by means ( a c5traliz$ comput]1 an ,,ibm #adja 9 ?is in/ance1 records are kept cont9u\sly1 & :5 ! cu/om] has accru$ #a1ejj po9ts he receives a premium automatically4 ,! obvi\s advantage "h is to ! cu/om]1 :o is sp>$ ! messy task ( lick+ ?\s&s ( evil-ta/+ multicolor$ /amps1 & ! dang] ( los+ ! book be=e r$emption4 ,b ! /orekeep] pr(its too4 ,he does n risk ! loss or !ft ( /amps1 nor does he buy /amps = p :o are n go+ to save !m4 ,! complete sy/em w call = an ,,ibm #gjgd & repres5ts an outlay ( ab\t #c million to s]vice "s #f million cu/om] acc\nts4 ,be=e leav+ ! area ( m]*&is+1 x might be well to m5tion inv5tory managem5t 9 g5]al & ! effect ( ! comput] ^u x4 ,apply+ :at is kn[n z 8conceptual ord] analysis10 "o m>ket] :o is us+ comput]s 9 8 bus9ess talks ( 8w>eh\s+ )\t bricks or mort>40 ,) a confid5ce born ( actual te/+1 8 firm expects "o day to h no inv5tory except t on 8 production l9es or 9 transit to a cu/om]4 ,?is revolution>y idea is bas$ on practically in/antane\s inv5tory+1 production ord]+1 & deliv]y s*$ul+4 ,:ile ! w>eh\se )\t bricks or mort> is n yet a fact1 rese>* discloses _m manufactur]s :o h already cut _! /&+ inv5tories1 f small am\nts to z mu* z #ej p] c5t1 :ile ma9ta9+ cu/om] s]vice levels4 ,?is 0 done us+ :at by n[ are 8/&>d0 electronic in=mation-h&l+ me?ods4 ,! implication "h is ( ! comput] n m]ely z a data-h&l]1 b z a bus9ess organiz] & plann] z well4 ,electronic ,tick] ,tape ,! /ock m>ket l5ds itself to ! use ( high-spe$ data-process+1 ev5 ?\gh a ,wall ,/reet man a*iev$ notoriety "s "t back z ! fir/ embezzl] to use comput] te*niques4 ,admitt$ly x is h>d] to track d[n ! h& 9 ! till :5 x pu%es buttons & leaves no telltale f+]pr9ts or h&writ+1 b comput]ization cont9ues despite ?is possible drawback4 ,! same firm has add$ digital comput]s to "o ( its (fices = fa/] s]vice4 ,! ,am]ican ,/ock ,ex*ange in/all$ #c million wor? ( new process+ equipm5t to provide in/antane\s automatic reports on op51 high1 l[1 close1 bid1 ask$1 & volume-to-!-mom5t figures4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,on ! floor ( ! ,new ,york ,/ock ,ex*ange1 repres5tatives ( ,?omson ,mc,kinnon & ,,ibm discuss a model ( ! comput+ sy/em :i* w spe$ transactions f ! (fices ( ! brok]age h\ses 9 #da cities to ! ,new ,york & ,am]ican /ock ex*anges4 ,! /ock m>ket's ne$ = ! comput] lies 9 ! usual two factors3 trem5d\s pap]work & increas+ pressure = spe$4 ,trad+ ( /ock am\nts to ab\t ?ree-f\r?s ( a billion %>es 9 a ye>1 & occasionally #c million %>es a day *ange h&s4 ,a major brok]age h\se has confirmations to h&le on ?\s&s ( trades1 divid5ds to cr$it to ne>ly half a million active acc\nts1 & security position & ca% balances to compute = ea* cu/om]4 ,! increas+ am\nt ( bus9ess1 plus ! dem& = m spe$ & accuracy1 make ! comput] ! only solution4 ,simply report+ ! results ( ! day's m>ket+ 9 ! newspap]s is a monum5tal task4 ,! ,associat$ ,press is in/all+ a sy/em bas$ on an ,,ibm #afbj comput]1 9 :i* tick] in=mation w also be giv5 9 ! comput] = sort+1 comp>ison1 tabulation1 & /orage4 ,at ! correct "t1 ! ma*9e w pr9t out ! =mat = publication 9 ! press at ! rate ( #d1ejj words a m9ute4 ,) a memory ( #bj million *>act]s & a capacity = #fjj1jjj logical decisions ea* m9ute1 ! comput] keeps up ) /ock in=mation practically z fa/ z x is receiv$1 & ev5 a late tick] w n mean a miss$ newspap] deadl9e4 ,associat$ ,press expects to be able to transmit ! /ock-m>ket results to its pap]s )9 fifte5 seconds aft] ! tick] closes4 ,n j 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates b 9 ,japan z well1 ! comput] is invad+ ! /ock m>ket4 ,! abacus is out1 & n[ ! ex*ange 9 ,tokyo is us+ an advanc$ ,,univac solid-/ate comput] to process transactions4 ,v]satile ,executive ,x is ?is high-volume capacity1 spe$1 & accuracy t makes ! comput] a welcome new employee 9 mo/ bus9ess op]ations4 ,an example is ! ,johnson's ,wax sy/em l9k+ its facilities = rapid managem5t reaction to *ang+ conditions4 ,headqu>t]s is l9k$ to tw5ty ?ree w>eh\ses & sales (fices1 & today's "w is bas$ on ye/]day's inv5tory in/ead ( la/ mon?'s4 ,comput]s s*$ule hotel res]vations1 & h&le acc\nts payable & receivable = ! hotel indu/ry4 ,auto-p>k+1 n[ a #ejj million a ye> bus9ess1 leans ev] m heavily on comput]s = ticket-issu+1 c>-c\nt+1 traffic direction1 *>ge-figur+1 & collection4 ,! freeway too has its comput]s1 ?\gh !re h be5 m9or setbacks l t on ! ,new ,j]sey ,turnpike :]e an automatic toll-c>d disp5s] 0 mi/ak5 by sl[-?9k+ p = a collector & its work+ 0 jamm$ ) co9s & batt]$ by abuse :5 no *ange 0 =?com+6 ,man w take "s educat+ z ! ma*9e f9ds wid] employm5t4 ,! comput] has be5 se5 9 ! publi%+ bus9ess prim>ily z a tool = se>*+ li/s & pr9t+ addresses4 ,n[ x is beg9n+ to take ov] m important duties su* z typesett+4 ,! new daily ,arizona ,j\rnal is ! fir/ newspap] to make use ( ?is te*nique4 ,f use 9 o!r bus9esses1 ! comput] has gr[n to fo/]+ a bus9ess ( its own4 ,an example is 9 ! production ( payroll *ecks by specialty firms1 & safegu>d+ aga9/ bad *ecks ) su* s]vices z ,telecr$it1 a comput]-run sy/em t spots bad *ecks ^u int]rogation f its memb] /ores4 ,9 ,wat]bury1 ,connecticut1 a comput] helps home-buy]s & realtors by li/+ all available homes 9 ! area4 ,?ree reports are produc$3 a total li/+1 a li/+ by /yle1 & a li/+ by price4 ,bell ,telephone 9 ,new ,york uses a comput] sy/em to deliv] its #i million directories to subscrib]s 9 ! city & suburbs4 ,! rapid sy/em p]mits *ang+ ( deliv]y ord]s ev5 :ile ! books are at ! pr9t]s4 ,a comput] me?od ( mak+ sausage recipes is n[ available to all pack]s4 ,rem+ton ,r& develop$ ?is application at its ,,univac ,c5t] on ! campus ( ,s\!rn ,me?odi/ ,univ]sity4 ,communication ,communication is a vital "p ( all bus9ess1 & ! digital comput] f9ds ano!r application "h4 ,a te*nique kn[n z adaptive control 0 rec5tly pres5t$ at a symposium by sci5ti/s f ,,ibm4 ,special-purpose comput]s integrat$ into communication networks w\ld make possible ! 8"t-%>+0 ( *annels & cut co/s p] message %>ply4 ,ano!r digital comput]1 an inexp5sive 8decision ?re%old0 device1 is be+ pu%$ z a means ( r$uc+ errors 9 ! transmission ( messages4 ,^! logical uses ( ! comput] 7 presag$ 9 ! #cj's :5 ,%annon wrote 8 pione]+ circuit-logic pap]1 & 9 ! late #dj's ) 8 "w on in=mation !ory4 ,,tv ,/ation ,,knxt 9 ,los ,angeles uses a digital comput] to control ! complicat$ swit*+ necess>y dur+ /ation breaks4 ,?is electronic juggl+ ( live %[s1 comm]cials1 & network programm+ is call$ ,,tascon1 = ,television ,automatic ,sequ5ce ,control4 ,x c be programm$ h\rs be=e use1 & !n ne$s only ! pu% ( ! button in/ead ( frantic manual swit*+ t occasionally ?r[s ! human op]ator4 ,n j ! me*anics ( transmitt+ ! comm]cials on ,,tv1 b ev5 ! bill+ & o!r acc\nt+ functions are a major comput] project4 ,to h&le close to #gjj million a ye> 9 paym5ts1 an ,,ibm #gjij comput] is be+ us$4 ,!re are m ?an #e1jjj ,,tv /ations 9 ! c\ntry1 ) bill+s dep5d5t on a complicat$ /ructure ( #ahj diff]5t rates4 ,z a result1 !re is an undesirable lag 9 paym5t4 ,putt+ records on tape & fe$+ !m to ! comput] is expect$ to cle> up ! tr\ble & provide a bonus 9 ! =m ( advis+ /ations on disc\nt rates = programm+ on a curr5t basis4 ,! comput] isn't cont5t ) skirt+ ! edges ( ! adv]tis+ game1 ( c\rse4 ,a heat$ battle is go+ on n[ 9 ?is indu/ry ov] ! gr[+ use ( ! comput] to plan campaigns & actually evaluate ads1 a task held by "s to be ! exclusive doma9 ( ! human adman ) 8 high creative ability4 ,! ,indu/rial ,adv]tis+ ,rese>* ,in/itute trigg]$ ! fight by us+ a comput] to /udy #a1acj adv]tisem5ts appe>+ 9 ! indu/rial j\rnal ,ma*9e ,design & select ! be/ black-&-:ite & ! be/ color ads4 ,:ile dieh>ds snort$ ridicule1 ! comput] made its *oices4 ,,i>i !n comp>$ its selections ) ^? made by two ( ! l>ge/ & mo/ exp]i5c$ rat+ firms4 ,on color ads1 ! comput] scor$ #ff p] c5t1 rat+ two out ( ?ree ads practically ! same z ! human selectors4 ,) black-&-:ite x did ev5 bett]1 scor+ #ga p] c5t4 ,its detractors1 assum+ ( c\rse t ! human rat]s 7 infallible1 gloat$ t ! comput] 0 a flop1 t x c\ld pick only ! av]age ads accurately & fell d[n on excell5t & poor ones4 ,! ag5cy ( ,batt51 ,b>ton1 ,dur/9e ,osborn ?\ght o!rwise & is us+ ! comput] 9 its adv]tis+4 ,z a tool = m$ia selection & s*$ul+1 ,,bbdo lik5$ ! comput] to a p[] %ovel in/ead ( a spade4 ,! new me?od makes x possible to comp>e ?\s&s ( comb9ations a second4 ,ano!r firm1 ! ,simulmatics ,corporation1 agrees ) ,,bbdo4 ,! comput]1 x says1 w p]mit adv]tis+ campaigns f> m effective ?an ^? wag$ at pres5t1 s9ce ! mo/ effici5t campaign may be too complex to be devis$ )\t artificial aid4 ,! key to ! ,simulmatics sy/em is ! 8m$ia mix model0 9 :i* a hypo!tical campaign c be tri$ out 9 advance 9 ! comput]4 ,"y ,rubicam diff]s hotly ) comput] advocates4 ,a spokesman level$ a l[ bl[ at ! comput]1 sugge/+ t x w h difficulties =m+ motivational rese>* bas$ on ,freudian analyses6 ,! firm says no way has yet be5 f\nd to transpose 8,vi5nese fatuities0 into ,arabic num]als4 ,x deplores ! turn+ ( a m$ia-plann] into a rubb] /amp z m$ia selection becomes an automatic reit]ation :i* 8^? ) an abacus c\ld pipe to a /ale & /]ile tune40 ,! battle rages1 b ! outcome seems to be a =egone conclusion4 ,ei!r ! comput] w sway ,madison ,av5ue f ,vi5nese fatuities1 or x w le>n ab\t sex4 ,indu/ry ,we h discuss$ ! comput] 9 bus9ess2 p]haps x w\ld be well to /ress t ?is includes indu/ry z well4 ,! comput] n only functions 9 ! bank & brok]age h\se1 insurance (fice1 & sup]m>t1 b also is f\nd increas+ly 9 jobs ) oil ref9]ies1 *emical plants1 survey+ teams1 knitt+ mills 7a likely application :5 we rememb] ,jacqu>d71 & /eel mills4 ,z automation takes ov] factories1 x br+s ! comput] ) x to plan & op]ate ! new production me?ods4 ,transportation too is mak+ good use ( ! comput]4 ,freight-h&l+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,canada1 ,engl&1 & ! ,u4,s4,s4,r4 is us+ ma*9e te*niques4 ,our high-spe$ airplanes are already m aim$ ?an fl[n1 & less & less se5 & se5 f4 ,ma*-#c aircraft are on ! draw+ bo>ds n[1 aircraft t w fly at ?ree times ! spe$ ( s\nd or ab\t #b1jjj miles p] h\r4 ,an airl9] tak+ (f f ,london mu/ already be cle>$ to l& 9 ,new ,york4 ,s au?orities on bo? sides ( ! ocean are conc]n$4 ,9 ,engl&1 giant comput]s l ! ,f]ranti ,apollo & o!rs are on ord]4 ,!re is talk 9 t c\ntry too ( integrat+ milit>y & comm]cial aviation into "o traffic control sy/em4 ,9 ! next t5 ye>s ! sky population may d\ble aga91 9 addition to fly+ fa/]1 fur!r cr[d+ ! airlanes & p>ticul>ly ! space adjac5t to airports4 ,! only solution to ?is a]ial traffic jam lies 9 ! electronic comput]4 ,n z spectacul> z air traffic control1 b important none!less1 is ! job ( plann+ ! r\te an airl9] w fly4 ,unit$ ,air ,l9es uses a ,b5dix ,g-#ae to select flight plans = its big ,,dc-#h's4 ,9 a mann] simil> to ! ,,nanwep c\rse-plann+ describ$ = surface vessels1 ! comput] exam9es a numb] ( possible r\tes = ! big transports1 consid]+ di/ance fl[n1 w9d1 temp]ature1 weight & fuel requirem5ts1 & "t s*$ules4 ,?is flight-plann+ 0 orig9ally done by manual computation & requir$ an h\r to "w out details = only "o possible flight plan4 ,! comput] me?od 0 dem&$ because ( ! increas$ spe$ ( ! big jets & _! s5sitivities to wea!r conditions en r\te4 ,! comput] exam9es a numb] ( t5tative plans 9 m9utes & selects ! "o :i* w make ! optimum use ( w9ds al(t1 temp]atures1 wea!r1 & s on4 ,if wea!r *anges en r\te require x1 ! pilot c call ! plann+ c5t] no matt] :]e he is & reque/ t ! comput] "w out a new flight plan4 ,once ! optimum flight plan has be5 figur$1 an electronic comput] 9 ! aircraft itself may "o day assure t ! desir$ flight pa? is actually fl[n4 ,! ,,asn-#bd comput]1 develop$ by ,librascope1 ,incorporat$1 & ! ,air ,=ce1 weighs only ?irty-"o p\nds1 yet p]=ms m ?an #bj million computation /eps 9 a six-h\r flight4 ,! electronic navigator1 ) in=mation f ,doppl] equipm5t & o!r navigation aids1 evaluates :i* is ! be/ 8fix10 weigh+ = example ! relative accuracies ( a ,loran fix & a dead-reckon+ fix4 ,! comput] ev5 %oots cele/ial fixes & plots ! results6 ,obvi\sly fa/] ?an its human monitor1 ! electronic navigation comput] solves navigation problems ) an error z small z "o "p 9 #cb million4 ,a broad] use ( ! comput] 9 aircraft is propos$ by ! ,convair ,division ( ,g5]al ,dynamics4 ,because today's airplane is f> m complicat$ ?an ^? t5 ye>s ago1 & ^? t5 ye>s h5ce w ext5d ?is tr5d1 ! firm feels t *eck\t ( ! aircraft w require electronic comput]s4 ,:ile add+ ab\t #c p] c5t to ! total co/ ( ! plane1 su* equipm5t c\ld p]=m a v>iety ( functions includ+ ma9t5ance analysis & w\ld add an h\r a day to ! pr(it-mak+ flight "t4 ,!re w\ld be no pr(it = ! airl9es ) ! be/ flight plann+ & 9-flight control 9 ! _w if !re 7 no pass5g]s abo>d2 ! 8traffic problem0 ext5ds f ! sky to ! ticket c\nt]4 ,= ?is reason mo/ airl9es h already recruit$ ! comput] = ano!r important job--t ( ticket res]vation cl]k4 ,an example1 rec5tly in/all$ by ,unit$ ,airl9es1 is ! 8,in/amatic10 a giant1 f>-flung sy/em weigh+ #aej tons & requir+ #ab1jjj miles ( circuits4 ,in/amatic co/ #af million & c h&le #edj1jjj res]vations 9 a s+le day4 ,s complex is ! comput] sy/em t x requires #dj1jjj pr9t$-circuit bo>ds1 #ejj1jjj transi/ors1 & #b1jjj1jjj f]rite memory cores4 ,b x gets ! job done1 & any "o ( #c1jjj ag5ts all ov] ! c\ntry c confirm space on any flight1 anytime1 )9 seconds6 ,!re are o!r sy/ems us$ by compet+ l9es1 sy/ems call$ ,sabre1 ,teleflite1 & s on4 ,b ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac has propos$ an ov]-all sy/em t w make any ( !m look l a *ild's d-x-y\rself walkie-talkie4 ,! ,,univac plan is = a s+le int]l9e res]vation sy/em1 us$ by all tw5ty-f\r dome/ic airl9es4 ,call$ ,,aid1 = ,airl9e ,int]l9e ,developm5t1 ! new s*eme w\ld co/ ! airl9es only #ab c5ts p] message1 & c\ld be ti$ 9 ) =eign c>ri]s = int]national book+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac ,console = airl9es res]vation sy/em p]mits pu%button book+ ( space4 ,pres5t me?ods ( res]vations among airl9es require f less ?an a m9ute = easy book+s to sev]al h\rs = ! t\gh ones4 ,! ,,aid sy/em uses a dial phone1 ) direct l9es to a c5tral comput] 9 ,*icago4 ,! response to ! dial$ reque/ is an imm$iate voice answ]4 ,if space is available1 ! comput] also /ores all ! ne$$ in=mation = ! res]vation & transmits a teletype message to ! bo>d+ po9t ( ! prop] airl9e4 ,to g back ano!r /ep1 ! aircraft on :i* ! comput] confirms seat space 0 mo/ likely built ) ! help ( ano!r comput]4 ,a typical production sy/em is t us$ by ,lockhe$ 9 its ,m>ietta1 ,georgia1 plant4 ,!re an ,,ibm #cje ,,ramac comput] keeps track ( #de1jjj p>ts ord]s cont9u\sly4 ,! result is bett] & fa/] op]ation1 & a sav+ to ,lockhe$ ( #c1ejj a mon?4 ,9 ,cali=nia1 ,lockhe$ is us+ a comput]iz$ data acquisition sy/em call$ ,,edge1 = ,electronic ,data ,ga!r+ ,equipm5t1 t fe$s production in=mation directly into a comput] memory = analysis & action ord]s4 ,remote report+ /ations c be op]at$ by production-l9e work]s & w relay production data to ! c5tral comput]4 ,al?\gh ! ,lockhe$ ,,edge sy/em w co/ m ?an #fjj1jjj a ye>1 (ficials feel t x w save ! company ?ree times t at ! outset1 & p]haps m :5 wid] use is made ( its pot5tial4 ,an int]e/+ feature is ! ty+ toge!r ( ,lockhe$'s widely sep>at$ plants at ,sunnyvale1 ,palmdale1 & ,van ,nuys1 ,cali=nia4 ,nor? ,am]ican ,aviation l9ks its complex ( plants 9 ! ,los ,angeles area by micr[ave1 ev5 b\nc+ beams ( data f reflectors atop ,oat ,m\nta9 :]e !re is no direct l9e-(-sight pa? betwe5 ! diff]5t locations4 ,d\glas ,aircraft ma9ta9s a data l9k betwe5 ,cali=nia & ,*>lotte1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 to p]mit use ( comput]s ov] a di/ance ( #b1djj miles4 ,! airl9es are also us+ comput] inv5tory sy/ems to control _! /ock ( sp>e p>ts4 ,mat]ial co/s repres5t #fj p] c5t ( airl9e rev5ue & are ris+2 "s l>g] c>ri]s h inve/m5ts ( z mu* z #ge million 9 sp>e p>ts4 ,x takes ! comput] to control ! fl[ ( repairable p>ts ?r\gh ! %op effici5tly1 s*$ule ! removal ( ^? requir+ p]iodic *ecks1 spot high-use items1 & s on4 ,z an example ( ! complexity a l>ge airl9e faces 9 its ma9t5ance1 ,,twa /ocks #h1jjj diff]5t replaceable items4 ,:5 su* p>ts are ne$$1 !y mu/ be on h& :]e !y are ne$$1 b ov]/ock+ c lead to f9ancial ru94 ,to mat* increas+ competition1 airl9es f9d x necess>y to resort to ! laws ( probability & o!r sophi/icat$ /ati/ical te*niques 9 /ock+ p>ts4 ,f$ su* equations1 ! comput] c mat* t5 to twelve man-ye>s ( "w 9 ?ree h\rs1 & mean ! diff]5ce betwe5 an ov]supply ( p>ts 9 ,new ,york ) outages 9 ,los ,angeles1 & prop]ly balanc$ /ocks4 ,! ramifications ( ! comput] 9 ! airplane indu/ry are f>-rea*+4 ,= example1 ,boe+ has record$ ! lessons x le>n$ on its ,bom>c missile program 9 comput]s s t x c reta9 & apply !m on its ,m9uteman & ,dyna-,so> programs4 ,! comput] w ?us keep track ( m5 & _! projects & w>n !m ( previ\s mi/akes4 ,mod]n managem5t te*niques su* z ,,p]t & ,,pep1 favor$ by ! gov]nm5t1 make good use ( ! comput]4 ,! ,mc,donnell ,aircraft ,corporation is prim>ily a build] ( planes & space vehicles1 b x has f\nd itself 9 ! comput] bus9ess too z a data-process+ c5t]4 ,in/all+ comput]s = its own eng9e]+ & bus9ess uses1 ,mc,donnell soon began sell+ comput] "t 9 (f h\rs to banks & o!r bus9esses4 ,x n[ has a comput] valuation ( ab\t #aj million & op]ates ar\nd ! clock4 ,! ,design+ ,comput] ,x seems /range t ! comput] 0 a bookkeep] & cl]k = ye>s be=e anyone s]i\sly consid]$ t x might be an eng9e] z well1 yet ! m5 :o !mselves design$ ! comput] 7 loa? to use x 9 _! o!r "w4 ,"p ( ?is resi/ance /ems f ! high premium plac$ on ! creativity ( rese>* & design "w4 ,! eng9e] uses sci5ce 9 8 "w1 to be sure1 b he pr(esses to use x z an arti/1 or ) ! p]sonal t\* (1 say1 a brewma/]4 ,!re is ano!r possible reason = ! lag 9 comput] use by ! m5 :o %\ld appreciate its ability ! mo/4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( ! comput]1 x clack$ away all week figur+ payrolls1 & p]haps writ+ *ecks4 ,t's :at x 0 ord]$ =1 & t's :]e ! money 0--9 ! bus9essman's application ( ! comput]4 ,to be sure1 ! milit>y 0 us+ ! comput] = o!r purposes1 b ! av]age sci5ti/ or eng9e] n employ$ by ,uncle ,sam _h access to an electronic comput] only on ,sunday1 if at all1 :5 ! big ma*9e _h done its prim>y "w & c\ld take a brea?+ spell4 ,to fur!r comp\nd excuses = ! foot-dragg+ eng9e]1 !re 0 a diff]5ce 9 ne$s 9 payroll computation & sci5tific ma!matical calculation4 ,comm]cial comput]s are design$ = a high rate ( input & output1 ) a relatively sl[ ari?metic go+ on inside4 ,! eng9e]1 on ! o!r h&1 might ne$ only sev]al m9utes ( comput] "t1 b x c\ld take him a c\ple ( days to put ! problem into a =m ! ma*9e c\ld dige/4 ,sl[ly1 h[ev]1 en\gh eng9e]s f\ght ! battle ( translation & =ew5t ,sunday pursuits l *ur*1 picnics1 & golf to le>n halt+ly h[ to use ! electronic mon/]4 ,x took c\rage1 9 addition to sacrifice1 because ! comput] 0 pooh-pooh$ by "s %>p sci5tific bra9s z an idiot savant at be/4 ,beh9d ! in]tia !re c\ld h be5 a t\* ( conc]n too--conc]n t ! ma*9e j might n be z /upid z ev]ybody kept say+ x 04 ,heavy indu/ry made use ( ! ma*9es4 ,! /eel plants1 petroleum & *emical plants1 & ev5 ! design]s ( highways 7 among ! e>ly us]s ( comput] te*niques4 ,!re 0 ( c\rse good reason = ?is ph5om5on4 ,fac$ ) problems involv+ _m v>iables & requir+ /ati/ical & probabili/ic approa*es1 ^! p c\ld make ! be/ use ( ma*9es design$ = repetitive computations4 ,! ref9] ) a new plant 9 m9d c\ld simulate x 9 ! comput] & get an idea ( h[1 or if1 x w\ld "w be=e build+ 8 pilot plant4 ,today ! notion ( disp5s+ ) ev5 ! pilot plant is gett+ s]i\s consid]ation4 ,"o program us$ by a gasol9e produc] analyz$ ?irty-sev5 v>iables & ?irty-sev5 re/rictions1 a matrix t c\ld nev] be evaluat$ by ord9>y me?ods4 ,textile fib] rese>* is ano!r example1 ) ?read te/s run on doz5s ( samples & av]ag$ /ati/ically = valid conclusions4 ,b4 ,f4 ,goodri* put ! comput] to "w 9 its laboratories at su* tasks z multiple-regression /udies ( pa/ production ( processes l polym]ization & ! runn+ ( a bat* ( new mat]ial on ! comput]4 ,^! applications 7 accompli%+ a two-fold b5efit4 ,fir/1 ye>s 7 be+ telescop$ into weeks or ev5 days2 second1 complete inve/igation r ?an sket*y sampl+ 0 possible4 ,optimum solutions took ! place ( ! guesswork once necess>y because ( ! lack ( suffici5t bra9p[] to run d[n all ! possibilities4 ,/ill !re 7 sci5ti/s & design]s 9 o!r fields :o %ook _! heads l(tily & said1 8,n = me1 ?anks40 ,! comput] 0 b a dilig5t cl]k1 !y held1 reliev+ ! eng9e] ( "s on]\s *ores4 ,x c\ld d no?+ really creative2 t mu/ be left to man & 8 bra94 ,by n[ _m indu/rial firms _h pur*as$ or r5t$ comput]s = ! te*nical p s t !y w\ld n h to fight = a place 9 l9e at ! payroll comput]4 ,civil eng9e]+ ag5cies1 p]haps a hundr$ /rong1 us$ comput]s to design bridges & plan & lay out highways4 ,design]s at ! ,tudor ,eng9e]+ ,company ( ,san ,francisco put its ,b5dix ,g-#ae;,d to "w plann+ ! highway t ,contra ,co/a ,c\nty w ne$ 9 #aihj4 ,almo/ all ( our fifty /ates n[ use comput]s 9 _! highway dep>tm5ts4 ,9 #aifj1 ,georgia solv$ m ?an a ?\s& highway bridge design problems 9 its comput]s4 ,besides do+ ! "w fa/] & *eap]1 ! comput] produces a saf] product4 ,= example1 if sub/&>d mat]ials are programm$ 91 ! comput] w pr9t out a w>n+ or ev5 /op work+ altoge!r s t ! error c be correct$4 ,/eel companies1 l ,jones ,laughl91 use comput]s n only to run production mills1 b also z rese>* tools4 ,?ree h\rs ( op]ation ( a new furnace c be simulat$ 9 ! comput] 9 ?irty seconds4 ,trac+ ! /eel back to its ore1 ! comput] is us$ aga94 ,! ,bureau ( ,m9es has us$ ! ma*9es = sev]al ye>s2 !y are helpful 9 problems rang+ f op5-pit op]ation1 grades ( ore1 drill-core data logg+1 res]ve calculations1 & process control4 ,illu/ration3 ,g5]al ,electric ,co41 ,comput] ,dept4 ,comput] op]ation ( ,jones ,laughl9 /eel mill4 ,gradually1 !n1 ! resi/ance 0 worn d[n4 ,grudg+ly at fir/1 & accept+ ! comput] only z an assidu\s moron1 eng9e]s 9 o!r fields put x to "w4 ,complex ma*9e op]ations l ge>-%ap+ 7 plann$ & c>ri$ out by comput]s t ev5 pun*$ out tapes = controll+ ! production tools4 ,optics design]s swit*$ f desk calculators to electronic comput]s4 ,me*anical eng9e]s 9 jobs f ultrasonic vibrators to tractor design became us]s ( comput]s4 ,mass spectrometry1 heat-ex*ang] design1 & wat]works design jo9$ ! jobs ! comput] c\ld d4 ,! comput] _h figur$ 9 plott+ trajectories = missiles1 & 9 ! production ( aircraft2 eng9e]s f\nd x c\ld design !m too4 ,back 9 #aide1 an analysis ( tw5ty-"o diff]5t flight conditions at ea* ( twelve /ations ( an airplane fuselage took #cc days & co/ m ?an #ag1jjj4 ,today1 by us+ a high-spe$ comput] in/ead ( a desk calculator1 ! analysis is complet$ 9 a day & a half1 at a co/ ( #bjj6 ,! la/ ( ! dieh>ds seem$ to be ! electronics p !mselves4 ,a survey conduct$ by a te*nical j\rnal 9 ! field %[$ t 9 #aifj _m design]s 7 n us+ comput]s 9 _! "w4 ,admitt+ t ! comput] 0 a :iz j ab\t ev]y:]e else1 ! electronics eng9e] /ill c\ld say1 8,! ma*9e is great on pap]work1 b ,i d creative "w4 ,! comput] c't help me40 ,o!r reasons 7 t comput]s 7 exp5sive1 took mu* "t to program1 & 7 helpful only ) major design problems4 ,=tunately1 all design]s d n feel t way1 & progress is be+ made to put ! comput] to "w 9 ! electronics field4 ,x is help+ 9 ! design ( compon5ts 7,b5dix saves t5 man-h\rs 9 comput+ a t5?-ord] polynomial & associat$ data7 & ( networks 7,l5kurt ,electric saves close to #bej eng9e]+ h\rs a week 9 filt] network design74 ,bell ,telephone uses ! comput] approa* 9 circuit analysis1 & ,we/+h\se 9 ! design ( rad> circuitry4 ,x is int]e/+ t z we move up ! design scale1 clos] to :at ! eng9e] once consid]$ ! doma9 ( human creativity1 ! comput] /ill is ( great value4 ,9 sy/ems design x is h>d] at ! outset to p9 d[n ! sav+ 9 "t & ! improvem5t 9 ! sy/em 7! latt] is p]haps h>d to admit67 b firms us+ comput]s report sav+s 9 ?is field too4 ,"o int]e/+ job giv5 ! comput] 0 t ( design+ ! magnetic ink *>act]s to be us$ 9 its own 8read+0 applications4 ,?is project1 conduct$ by ,/an=d ,rese>* ,in/itute1 is typical ( ! que/ions we h begun to ask ! comput] ab\t its ne$s & ways to improve x4 ,a l>g] scale application ( ?is idea is t ( lett+ ! comput] design itself4 ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories develop$ su* a sy/em1 call$ ,,blades1 = ,bell ,laboratories ,automatic ,design ,sy/em1 to design a comput] us$ 9 ! ,nike-,zeus antimissile def5se sy/em4 ,a wag once not$ t ! comput] w\ld "o day give bir? to an electronic baby4 ,8 prophecy came true p]haps quick] ?an he anticipat$1 b !re is "o basic diff]5ce 9 t ! prog5y is n necess>ily a small] ma*9e4 ,! giant ,,l>c1 = in/ance1 0 design$ by less] comput]s4 ,z ,a4 ,m4 ,tur+ has po9t$ out1 x is !oretically possible = a simple comput] to produce a m complex "o4 ,?is idea is borne out 9 nature1 ( c\rse1 & man is some:at advanc$ ov] ! amoeba4 ,?us ! implication 9 ! comput]-design$ comput] is f> m ?an m]ely ! "t & money sav$1 al?\gh ?is 0 c]ta9ly a consid]able am\nt4 ,! ,,blades sy/em 9 tw5ty-five m9utes produc$ in=mation = build+ a subassembly1 a job t requir$ f\r weeks ( manual computation4 ,notable improvem5ts 9 ! g5]al-purpose comput] are do+ mu* to fur!r its use z a te*nical tool4 ,pres5t ma*9es d jobs z v>i$ z ! foll[+3 p]sonnel records1 inv5tory+1 patt]n det]m9ation1 missile sy/em *eck\t1 p[]-plant control1 sy/em simulation1 navigation1 balli/ic trajectory computations1 & s on4 ,special comput]s are also provid$ n[ = ! eng9e]2 & among ^! is ! ,/romb]g-,c>lson ,s-,c #djbj micr(ilm record]4 ,eng9e]+ specifications are put into ! comput] & ! ma*9e c !n produce on reque/ me*anical draw+s z requir$ by ! eng9e]4 ,data /or$ 9 ! memory is display$ on a ,*>actron tube4 ,!re is little resi/ance to ?is type ( comput]1 s9ce ! eng9e] c say x is do+ "w bel[ 8 level ( ability6 ,( c\rse1 ! draftsman may take a dim view ( comput]s t c d me*anical draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories ,eng9e] *ecks design in=mation = fir/ comput] built f complete in=mation furni%$ by ano!r comput]4 ,%[n is a subassembly ( ! comput]1 :i* w be us$ 9 ! ,army's ,nike-,zeus antimissile def5se sy/em4 ,aft] a r h>d to expla9 sl[ />t1 !n1 ! comput] is n[ well e/abli%$ z a sci5tific & eng9e]+ tool4 ,blue-sky s*emes describe sy/ems 9 :i* ! eng9e] simply discusses 8 problem ) ! ma*9e1 giv+ specifications & ! desir$ piece ( equipm5t4 ,! ma*9e talks back1 reject+ c]ta9 propos$ inputs & sugge/+ alt]natives1 & f9ally comes up ) ! f9i%$ design = ! eng9e]'s approval4 ,if he laughs ov]ly l\d at ?is possibility1 ! eng9e] may be try+ to cov] up 8 real feel+s4 ,at any rate ! comput] has add$ a ?9k+ cap to its w>drobe ( eye%ade & "w gloves4 ,digital ,doctor ,m$ical electronics is a fairly well-kn[n new field ( sci5ce1 b ! "p be+ play$ 9 m$ic9e by ! comput] is surpris+ to ^? ( u n close to ?is "w4 ,indicative ( ! use ( ! comput] by m$ical sci5ti/s is a /udy ( infant dea? rates be+ conduct$ by ! ,am]ican ,m$ical ,rese>* ,f\ndation4 ,"u ! direction ( ,dr4 ,sydney ,kane1 ?is rese>* uses a ,,univac comput] & 9 #aifa _h already process$ in=mation on #ej1jjj bir?s 9 n9ety p>ticipat+ hospitals4 ,pun*$-c>d data include ! "m's age1 mat]nal complications1 type ( deliv]y1 ane/hetics us$1 & o!r p]t95t in=mation4 ,dr4 ,kane believes t analysis by ! comput] ( ?is in=mation may det]m9e causes ( dea?s1 aft]-bir? pa?ological conditions1 & incapacity ( babies to rea* viability4 ,a r$uction 9 infant mortality ( p]haps #ab1jjj to #ad1jjj annually is believ$ possible z a result ( ! /udies4 ,ano!r kill] ( mank9d1 canc]1 is be+ battl$ by ! comput]4 ,rese>*]s at ! ,univ]sity ( ,philadelphia1 support$ 9 "p by ! ,am]ican ,canc] ,society1 are programm+ electronic comput]s to act z canc] cells6 ,! complexity ( ! problem is se5 9 ! fact t sev]al man-ye>s ( "w & #ejj h\rs ( comput] programm+ h b>ely scrat*$ ! surface ( ! problem4 ,a ?ird ( a million molecules make up ! g5es 9 a human cell1 & ! actions ( ^! t9y compon5ts take place _m times fa/] ?an ev5 ! high-spe$ comput] c op]ate4 ,despite ! problems1 "s answ]s to t\gh *emical que/ions ab\t ! canc] cells are be+ f\nd by us+ ! comput]1 :i* is ( c\rse ?\s&s ( times fa/] ?an manual computation4 ,if y 7 dis*>g$ f a hospital 9 #aifb1 !re is a *ance t y\r records are be+ analyz$ by a comput] at ,ann ,arbor1 ,mi*igan z "p ( ! "w ( ! ,commission on ,pr(essional & ,hospital ,activity4 ,in=mation on #b-a_/b million pati5ts f ?irty-f\r /ates w be process$ by a ,honeywell #djj comput] to evaluate diagno/ic & hospital c>e & to comp>e ! p]=mance ( ! v>i\s in/itutions4 ,9 ! fir/ phase ( a comput]iz$ m$ical lit]ature analysis & retrieval sy/em = ! ,national ,libr>y ( ,m$ic9e1 ! ,u4,s4 ,public ,heal? ,s]vice contract$ ) ,g5]al ,electric = a sy/em call$ ,,m$l>s1 ,m,e,dical ,lit]ature ,analysis & ,retrieval ,sy/em4 ,,m$l>s w process sev]al hundr$ ?\s& pieces ( m$ical in=mation ea* ye>4 ,new ,york ,univ]sity's ,college ( ,eng9e]+ has =m$ a biom$ical comput+ section to provide comput] s]vice = m$ical rese>*]s4 ,us+ an ,,ibm #fej & a ,control ,data ,corporation #afjd1 ! comput] section has already done important "w1 includ+ pr$iction ( coron>y diseases 9 m5 "u =ty4 ,! success ( comput]s 9 ^! small-scale applications to ! problems ( m$ic9e has prompt$ ! urg+ ( a national biom$ical comput] sy/em4 ,x is e/imat$ t z yet only ab\t #e p] c5t ( m$ical rese>* projects are us+ comput] te*niques1 b t )9 t5 ye>s ! figure w jump to betwe5 #ej & #ge p] c5t4 ,an intrigu+ possibility is ! use ( ! comput] z a diagno/ic tool4 ,small (fice ma*9es1 co/+ p]haps only #ej1 h be5 sugge/$1 n by quacks or sci5ce-fiction writ]s1 b by sci5ti/s l ,vladimir ,zworyk9 ( ! ,rockefell] ,in/itute ( ,m$ical ,rese>*4 ,zworyk9 is ! man :o fa!r$ ! iconoscope & k9escope t made television possible4 ,! simple diagno/ic comput] he proposes w\ld use in=mation compil$ by a l>ge electronic comput] :i* might ev5tually catalog ! symptoms ( z _m z #aj1jjj diseases4 ,us+ an ,,rca #eja comput]1 a pilot project ( ?is te*nique has already ga!r$ symptoms ( #ajj hematological diseases4 ,ano!r use ( ! comput] is 9 ! ,,hipo sy/em4 ,despite its fright5+ acronymic "n1 ?is is m]ely a plan = ! automat$ disp5s+ ( ! "r m$ic9e at ! "r "t to ! "r pati5t1 ?us spe$+ recov]ies & prev5t+ ! occasional tragic results ( wrong dosage4 ,m exotic is a comput] call$ ! ,heikolator :i* is design$ to sub/itute = ! human bra9 9 transmitt+ messages to p>alyz$ limbs t c\ld o!rwise n function4 ,! simulation ( body p>ts by ! comput] = /udy is already tak+ place4 ,"s rese>*]s treat ! fl[ ( blood ?r\gh art]ies z simil> to ! fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh a rubb] tube1 analyze ^! physical actions1 & use !m 9 comput] simulation ( ! human sy/em4 ,! ,air ,=ce uses a comput] to simulate ! physical *emi/ry ( ! entire respiratory & circulatory sy/ems1 a task t keeps track ( no less ?an fifty-?ree int]dep5d5t v>iables4 ,dr4 ,k9sey ( ! ,kresge ,eye ,in/itute 9 ,detroit is direct+ comput] "w conc]n+ ! physiology ( ! eye4 ,accord+ to ,k9sey x 0 impossible previ\sly to approximate ! actual composition ( cell sub/ances secret$ f ! blood into ! eye4 ,ev5 ^? ^: eyes no long] s]ve !m are be+ b5efit$ by comput] rese>*4 ,! ,battelle ,memorial ,in/itute 9 ,columbus1 ,ohio1 uses an ,,ibm comput] to develop read+ devices = ! bl9d4 ,^! complicat$ read]s use a digital comput] to conv]t patt]ns ( pr9t$ lett]s into musical tones4 ,fur!r sophi/ication c\ld lead to an output ( v]baliz$ words4 ,int]e/+ly1 x is ?\ght t ! rese>* w also yield applications ( use 9 bank+1 po/al s]vice1 & o!r comm]cial fields4 ,russia is also aw>e ( ! importance ( ! comput] 9 ! m$ical field4 ,a neurophysiologi/ report$ aft] a trip to ,russia t ! ,soviet ,union is tra9+ its brighte/ m$ical /ud5ts 9 ! use ( ! comput]4 ,su* a philosophy is agre$ to by m$ical spokesm5 9 ?is c\ntry :o /ate t no o!r field c make bett] use ( ! comput]'s abilities4 ,among advanc$ ,russian "w ) comput]s 9 ! biom$ical field is a /udy ( ! effects on human p]ception ( *anges 9 s\nd & color4 ,vision>y ideas l ^? ( radio transmitt]s implant$ 9 pati5ts to beam messages to a c5tral comput] = cont9u\s monitor+ & diagnosis are beg9n+ to take on ! appe>ance ( di/9ct possibilities4 ,"s are beg9n+ to wond] if aft] x has le>n$ a good b$side mann]1 ! comput] may ev5 ask = a scalpel & a ,,tv s]ies4 ,music ,! comput] has prov$ itself qualifi$ 9 a numb] ( fields & pr(essions1 b :at ( ! m arti/ic ones8 ,n long ago ,,rca demon/rat$ an electronic comput] z an aid to ! musical compos]4 ,bas$ on r&om probability1 ?is ma*9e is no tongue-9-*eek gadget b has already produc$ its own compositions bas$ on ! /yle ( ,/eph5 ,fo/]4 ,in/ead ( ?r[+ up _! h&s 9 %ock$ horror1 mod]n compos]s l ,a>on ,copl& welcome ! music 8syn!siz]0 ) op5 arms4 ,bemoan+ only ! price ( su* a comput]--ab\t #aej1jjj--;,copl& looks to ! day :5 ! compos] w fe$ 9 a few r\gh ideas & h ! ma*9e produce a fully or*e/rat$ piece4 ,! or*e/ration1 incid5tally1 w include s\nds no pres5t in/rum5ts c produce4 8,imag9e :at w happ5 :5 e comb9ation ( eighty-eight keys is play$10 ,copl& sugge/s4 ,_m traditionali/s pr(ess to %udd] at ! ?\ght ( a ma*9e produc+ music1 b ma!matical compositions are no novelty4 ,ev5 r&om music 0 8compos$0 by ,moz>t1 ^: 8,a ,musical ,dice ,game0 is *ance music ) a p>ticul>ly descriptive title1 & ,dr4 ,john ,pi]ce ( ,bell ,laboratories has ext5d$ su* "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,tak5 f 8,illiac ,suite10 by ,l4 ,a4 ,hill] & ,l4 ,m4 ,isaacson1 copyright$ #aieg1 by ,!odore ,press] ,co4 ,us$ by p]mission4 ,r&om *romatic music produc$ by ,,illiac comput] resembles ! compositions ( "s extreme mod]n compos]s4 ,9 #aiee1 ,lej>5 ,a4 ,hill]1 ,jr41 & ,l4 ,m4 ,isaacson began to program ! ,,illiac comput] at ! ,univ]sity ( ,ill9ois to compose music4 ,! comput] actually publi%$ its "w1 includ+ 8,illiac ,suite = ,/r+ ,qu>tet10 ,copyright #aieg1 ,new ,music ,editions1 done 9 ! /yle ( ,pale/r9a4 ,all music lies some:]e betwe5 ! complete r&omness (1 say1 ! hiss+ ( electrons 9 vacuum tubes & ! ord]l9ess ( a su/a9$ tone4 ,no less a ma/] ?an ,/rav9sky has call$ composition 8! great te*nique ( selection10 & ! comput] c be taught to select 9 ab\t any degree we desire4 ,hill] describes ! process1 9 :i* ! ma*9e is giv5 f\rte5 notes repres5t+ two octaves ( ! ,c-major scale1 & re/rict$ to 8fir/-species c\nt]po9t40 ,by means ( ?is scre5+ te*nique1 ! comput] 8compos$0 by a trial-&-error proc$ure t may be analog\s to t ( ! human musician4 ,ea* note 0 exam9$ aga9/ ! crit]ia assign$2 if x pass$1 x 0 /or$ 9 memory2 if n1 ano!r 0 tri$4 ,if aft] fifty trials no "r note 0 f\nd1 ! 8composition0 0 ab&on$1 mu* z might be done by a human compos] :o has writt5 himself into a corn]1 & a new />t 0 made4 ,9 an h\r ( su* "w1 ,,illiac produc$ sev]al hundr$ %ort melodies--a gold m9e = a ,t9 ,pan ,alley tunesmi?6 ,x 0 !n told to produce two-voice c\nt]po9t = ! basic melodies4 8,illiac ,suite0 is comp>$1 by its programm]s at lea/1 ) ! mod]n music ( ,b>tok4 ,puri/s ^: s5sibilities are (f5d$ by ! v notion ( comput] music po9t out t music is subjective--a means ( convey+ emotion f ! he>t ( ! compos] to t ( ! li/5]4 ,be t z x may1 ! composition itself is objective & c be rigor\sly analyz$ ma!matically1 be=e or aft] ! fact4 ,f a te*nical /&po9t !re seems to be only "o "q ab\t ?is new music--:o compos$ x1 ! programm] or ! comput]8 ,an int]e/+ sidelight to comput] music is its use to te/ ! ac\/ics ( z yet unbuilt auditoriums4 ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories has devis$ su* a ma*9e 9 its ,ac\/ical & ,visual ,rese>* ,dep>tm5t4 ,! specifications ( ! new auditorium are f$ into ! comput]1 foll[$ by music record$ on tape4 ,! comput]'s output is !n ?is music z x w s\nd 9 ! new hall4 ,critical exp]ts li/5 & decide if ! auditorium ac\/ics are all "r1 or if "s r$esign is 9 ord]4 ,! ,ma*9e at ,play ,! comput]'s game-play+ ability 9 *ess & o!r games has be5 describ$4 ,x is gett+ into ! act 9 o!r fields1 spectator sports z well4 ,baseball calls on ! comput] to plan season /rategy & pr$ict w9n]s4 ,:5 ,rog] ,m>is began 8 home-run /r+1 an ,,ibm #adja pr$ict$ t he _h #ee *ances 9 #ajj ( beat+ ,ru?'s record4 ,work]s at ,m4,i4,t4 h develop$ a comput] program t answ]s que/ions l 8,did ! ,r$ ,sox ev] w9 six games 9 a r[80 & 8,did e ,am]ican ,league team play at lea/ once 9 ea* p>k 9 e mon?80 ,an ,,ibm ,,ramac comput] is h&l+ ! managem5t ( ,new ,york's ,aqu$uct race track1 & promises to d a bett] job ?an ! human bosses1 ?us sav+ money = ! own]s & ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york ,tax ,commission4 ,! ,fifte5? ,annual ,p[d]puff ,d]by1 ! all-wom5 transcont95tal air race1 0 scor$ by a ,royal ,precision ,,lgp-#cj comput]1 & sports c> en?usia/s h built _! own 8rally0 comput]s to gauge _! progress4 ,! ,w9t] ,olympics at ,innsbruck1 ,au/ria1 w be scor$ by ,,ibm's ,,ramac1 & ev5 b[l+ gets an assi/ f ! comput] 9 ! =m ( a scor+ device add$ to ! automatic p9-sett]1 bad news to scorekeep]s :o fudge to boo/ _! po9ts4 ,an ,,ibm #gjd has prov$ a h&y tool = blackjack play]s ) a sy/em = w9n+ #ii p] c5t ( ! "t1 & rumor has x t a ,los ,angeles manufactur] plans to m>ket a comput] weigh+ only two p\nds & co/+ #e1 = horse-play]s4 ,%[+ t ! comput] c be programm$ ) tact is ! demon/rator t answ]s a man's age correctly if he answ]s t5 que/ions b ann\nces only t a woman is ov] tw5ty-"o4 ,pro( t ! comput] has invad$ j ab\t e occupation !re is comes to light 9 ! news t a ,frankfurt travel ag5cy uses a comput] call$ ,zuse ,l#bc z an ag5t4 ,! travel] simply fills out a six-"q =m1 & 9 a few seconds ,zuse picks ! ideal vacation f a *oice ( #ejj4 ,comput]s1 x seems1 are already tell+ u :]e to g4 ,bus9ess ,outlook ,! comput] revolution promises to rea* cle> to ! top ( ! bus9ess /ructure1 r ?an f9d its level some:]e 9 middle managem5t4 ,! book1 ,managem5t ,games li/s m ?an #cj1jjj bus9ess executives :o h tak5 "p 9 electronic comput] managem5t 8games0 9 "s hundr$ diff]5t v]sions4 ,! fir/ widely us$ su* game 0 develop$ 9 #aief by ! ,am]ican ,managem5t ,association4 ,:ile su* games are = educational purposes1 _! logical ext5sion is ! actual conduct ( bus9ess by a programm$ comput]4 ,9 8 book1 ,indu/rial ,dynamics1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,=re/] po9ts out t a high-spe$ digital comput] c be us$ 9 analyz+ z _m z #b1jjj v>iables su* z co/s1 wages1 sales1 & employm5t4 ,?is is obvi\sly s f> beyond human capability t ! advantage ( comput] analysis becomes evid5t4 ,a coroll>y b5efit is ! spe$ inh]5t 9 ! comput] :i* makes x possible to te/ a new policy or manufactur+ program 9 h\rs "r 9 ! comput]1 r ?an wait+ = mon?s or ye>s ( actual implem5tation & possible failure4 ,= ^! reasons ano!r exp]t has pr$ict$ t mo/ bus9esses w be us+ comput] simulations ( _! organizations by #aiff4 ,reg>dless ( ! timetable1 x is cle> t ! comput] has jump$ into bus9ess ) bo? its b9>y digits & w become an increas+ly p[]ful factor4 ,illu/ration3 ,li*ty1 ,field ,ent]prises1 ,inc4 8,our new #8bra9' recognizes ! human factor1 doctor6444 ,aft] fe$+ x ! symptoms1 x gives ! diagnosis & treatm5t4444 ,b ,,y set ! fee60 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,m5 h become ! tools ( _! tools40 --,?oreau #i3 ,! ,comput] & ,automation ,9 8 movie1 ,city ,lights1 ,*>lie ,*apl9 long ago portray$ ! t]rible plight ( ! workman 9 ! mod]n factory4 ,n[ t ! ma*9e is ab\t to take ov] completely & relieve man ( ?is ma*9elike exi/5ce1 x is p]haps "t = ,*>lie to make ano!r movie po9t+ up ?is new inju/ice ( civilization or ma*9e's inhumanity to man4 ,x seems to be damn$ if x does & damn$ if x doesn't4 ,= "s /range reason1 few ( u become al>m$ at ! news ( a comput] solv+ complex ma!matics1 translat+ a book1 or process+ millions ( *ecks daily1 b ! idea ( a comput] controll+ a factory /imulates union reprisals1 editorials 9 ! press aga9/ automation1 & mu* g5]al brea/-beat+ & s\l-se>*+4 ,p]v]sely we d n seem to m9d ! comput]'s ?9k+ z mu* z we d its ov]t action4 ,x is well to keep sight ( ! fact t automation is no new revolution1 b ! late/ developm5t 9 ! g>d5 v>iety ( indu/rial revolution t began a c\ple ( c5turies ago 9 ,engl&3 ,me*anization 0 ! fir/ /ep 9 t revolution1 me*anization be+ ! application ( p[] to supplem5t ! muscles ( m54 ,mass production came along z ! second /ep at ! turn ( ?is c5tury4 ,x 0 simply an organization ( me*aniz$ production = fa/]1 m effici5t output4 ,automation is ! late/ logical ext5sion ( ! two e>li] /eps1 made possible by rapid in=mation h&l+ & control4 ,rec5t lay(fs 9 indu/ry trigg]$ demon/rations1 includ+ television programs1 t w\ld indicate we suspect automation ( hav+ a r cold he>t4 ,! comput] is ! he>t ( automation4 ,illu/ration3 ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac ,control op]ations require 8real-"t0 comput]s t p]=m calculations & make necess>y decisions practically in/antane\sly4 ,none ( ^! /eps is z cle>-cut or sep>ate z x may seem )\t "s digg+ into hi/ory & an analysis ( :at we f9d4 ,= example1 :ile we g5]ally consid] t ! loom 0 simply me*aniz$ dur+ ! dawn ( indu/rial revolution1 ! se$s ( comput] control 7 s[n by ,jacqu>d ) pun*$-c>d programm+ ( ! ne$les 9 8 loom4 ,nei!r is x suffici5t to say t ! pres5t spectacle ( automat$ pu%button ma*9es produc+ _m commodities is no diff]5t f ! introduction ( mass-produc$ tractors4 ,tractors1 aft] all1 displac$ horses2 ! comput]-controll$ factory is displac+ m5 :o don't always want to be put out to pa/ure4 ,automation is radically *ang+ our lives4 ,x is to be hop$ t intellig5t & humane plann+ w facilitate an ord]ly adju/m5t to ?is *ange4 ,c]ta9ly work]s n[ toil 9 saf] & pleasant] surr\nd+s4 ,x is report$ t sma%$ toes & feet1 h]nia1 eye tr\ble1 & simil> occupational accid5ts h all b disappe>$ 9 automat$ automobile plants4 ,un=tunately o!r occupational haz>ds are report$ly tak+ ! place ( ^!1 & ! psy*ological trauma induc$ by removal ( direct contact ) 8 craft has giv5 m ?an "o work] /oma* ulc]s4 ,let u inve/igate ?is transf] ( contact f man to comput]-controll$ ma*9e4 ,a pap] pres5t$ at ! ,fir/ ,congress ( ! ,int]national ,f$]ation ( ,automatic ,control1 held 9 ,mosc[ 9 #aifj1 uses z its introductory s5t5ce1 8,automatic control always involves comput+40 ,! writ] !n po9ts out t hi/orically ! comput+ device 0 analog 9 nature & ti$ s closely ) ! measur+ & control elem5ts z to be indi/+ui%able z an actual comput]4 ,9 m rec5t hi/ory1 h[ev]1 ! tr5d has be5 to sep>ate ! comput]4 ,) ?is tr5d is ano!r important *ange1 t ( us+ ! digital comput] 9 automatic control4 ,"o ( ! fir/ pap]s to describe ?is sep>ate comput] function is 8,in/rum5t ,eng9e]+1 ,its ,gr[? & ,its ,promise10 by ,br[n1 ,campbell1 & ,m>cy1 publi%$ 9 #aidi4 8,naturally10 ! au?ors /ate1 8a comput] w be us$ to control ! process40 ,n a %op =eman or an eng9e]1 b a comput]4 ,watt's 8flyball0 gov]nor pione]$ ! field2 m rec5t & m obvi\s examples ( control by comput]s include %ips guid$ by 8,iron ,mike0 & airplanes fl[n by ! automatic pilot4 ,^! 7 analog devices1 & ! fir/ use ( a digital comput] z a control 0 9 #aieb1 q rec5tly 9 our hi/ory4 ,?is airborne digital control comput] 0 built by ,hughes & 0 call$ 8,digitac40 ,s9ce mo/ indu/ries h be5 9 exi/5ce = _m ye>s1 f> ant$at+ aviation1 electronics1 & ! mod]n comput]1 ! g5]al incorporation ( su* control has be5 difficult bo? because ( ! physical problem ( alt]+ exi/+ ma*9es & ! m5tal ph5om5on ( in]tia4 ,factory managem5t und]/&ably is sl[ to adopt a revolution>y te*nique1 & mo/ control sy/ems n[ 9 use 9 indu/ry are /ill analog 9 nature4 ,h[ev]1 :]e new plants are built f ! gr\nd up = comput] control1 ! results are impressive4 ,design$ by ,unit$ ,eng9e]+1 ! ,great ,lakes #hj-;in* hot /rip mill automatically processes #be-ton slabs ( /eel4 ,m ?an #a1jjj v>iables are controll$1 & #bjj analog signals & #ajj digital comput]-g5]at$ signals are us$ 9 ! process4 ,! /eel %eets are %ot out ( ! rolls at "s #de miles an h\r1 or ab\t #ff feet a second6 ,a human sup]visor w\ld h a difficult job j wat*+ ! sev]al hundr$ signals relat$ to ?ickness1 temp]ature1 quality1 & s on1 mu* less try+ to ?9k :at to d if he notic$ some?+ out ( specifications4 ,?is w\ld be r\ghly analog\s to an editor try+ to pro(read a newspap] z x fla%es by on ! press & mak+ corrections back 9 ! l9otype room be=e any typographical errors 7 pr9t$4 ,! new comput]-controll$ mill has an output ( ab\t #dej1jjj tons a mon?1 twice t ( ! next l>ge/ 9 op]ation4 ,am]ican control exp]ts :o att5d$ ! ,mosc[ conf]5ce br\ght back ! in=mation t ,russian ef=t 9 comput] control is great] ?an t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & t ! ,russians are m aw>e ( :at we are do+ 9 ! field ?an we are ( _! progress4 ,_! implem5tation ( mod]n comput] control may be made easi] because _! indu/ries are new] & d n repres5t su* a long-e/abli%$ & exp5sive inve/m5t 9 h>d-to-modify exi/+ equipm5t4 ,basically1 at lea/1 comput] control is simple & c be comp>$ to ! fe$back pr9ciple t describes _m physical sy/ems includ+ ! work+s ( our own bodies4 ,9 practice1 ! comput] c be put 9 *>ge ( produc+ some?+1 & by sampl+ ! output ( its "w c con/antly make corrections or improvem5ts t are desir$4 ,?is is ( c\rse an extreme simplification1 & ! control eng9e] speaks ( 8on-l9e0 op]ation1 ( adaptive sy/ems t adju/ to a *ang+ environm5t1 ( pr$ictive control1 & s on4 ,"o vital requirem5t ( ! comput] involv$ 9 a control process1 obvi\sly1 is t x _c take its "t ab\t its computations4 ,! control comput] is def9itely op]at+ 8on ! l9e02 t is1 9 real "t1 or p]haps ev5 look+ ahead by a c]ta9 am\nt s t x c n only keep up ) production b also pr$ict =?com+ *anges & make corrections 9 "t to be ( use4 ,! human process controll] is /uck ) me?ods l ^? ( ! cook :o mixes up 8 recipe ) a spoonful ( ?is1 & ?ree p9*es ( t1 sniffs or ta/es ! batt] subjectively1 & may end up ) a ma/]piece or a flop4 ,comput] control processes ! same batt] ?r\gh ! pipes at a ?\s& gallons a m9ute & cat*es inf9itesimal v>iations 9 "t to correct !m be=e ! hotcakes are bak$4 ,9 effect x makes h9dsight into =esight by compress+ "t f> m ?an man c\ld hope to d4 ,e>ly applications ( ! comput] 9 indu/rial processes 7 simply ^? ( data 8logg]s10 or monitors4 ,x 0 /ill up to ! human op]ator to int]pret :at ! comput] obs]v$ & record$1 & to ?r[ ! swit*1 close ! valve1 or pu% ! panic button z ! case dem&$4 ,actual comput] control1 ! 8clos+ ( ! loop0 z ! eng9e]s call x1 is ! logical next /ep4 ,?is replaces ! human op]ator1 or at lea/ relegates him to ! role ( monitor4 ,! ,great ,lakes hot-roll+ /eel mill has be5 m5tion$ z an example ( complete comput] control4 ,9 ,hayange1 ,france1 ! fir/ ,european completely automat$ /eel-beam mill is slat$ to g into op]ation late 9 #aifb4 ,! ,jones ,laughl9 ,/eel ,corporation 9 ?is c\ntry uses a digital comput] sy/em to control cont9u\s anneal+ 9 its ,aliquippa1 ,p5nsylvania1 plant1 & is evaluat+ an ,,rca comput]-controll$ t9-plat+ l9e op]at+ at #c1jjj feet a m9ute4 ,new] comput]-control applications 9 ! (f+ include s9t]+ & o!r metal production op]ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,m9neapolis-,honeywell ,bo/on ice cream mak]s1 ,h4 ,p4 ,hood ,sons1 use comput] to make pu%button ice cream4 ,analog comput] ?9ks out recipes1 pun*es !m on c>ds to op]ate valves4 ,to ^? ( u :o consume x1 ice cream may n seem a likely c&idate = comput] control4 ,h[ev]1 ! firm ( ,h4 ,p4 ,hood ,sons uses comput] control 9 its bl5d+ op]ation1 f9d+ x #bj1jjj times z fa/1 & m accurate ?an :5 h&l$ by human op]ators1 s9ce comput] controls hold mixes )9 "o-t5? ( #a p] c5t accuracy4 ,automation is a significant break?r\gh 9 ?is indu/ry1 ^: hi/ory goes back #aaj ye>s1 & 9 bak+1 :i* is a little old]4 ,! ,s>a ,lee bak]ies use ! comput] too 9 assembl+ ! +r$i5ts = _! goodies4 ,to bake su* cakes1 ,"m w h to get h]self a comput]4 ,m9neapolis-,honeywell furni%$ ! comput] = ! ice-cream control2 ?is same company deliv]$ a sy/em = ! ,celanese ,corporation ( ,am]ica's multimillion doll> acetyl manufactur+ plant at ,bay ,city1 ,texas4 ,! new plant produces a petro*emical us$ 9 pla/ics1 pa9t1 syn!tic rubb]1 dye1 fib]s1 & o!r products4 ,go+ 8on-/ream0 9 #aifb1 ! ,celanese plant w produce half a billion p\nds ( *emicals annually4 ,russia has be5 m5tion$ z active 9 indu/rial comput] control4 ,a case 9 po9t is ! soda plant at ,slavyansk 9 ! ,donets ,bas91 :i* 0 rec5tly te/-op]at$ = a cont9u\s p]iod ( #dh h\rs by comput]4 ,an unusual feature ( ?is te/ 0 t ! comput] 0 9 ,kiev1 almo/ #djj miles away4 ,a wire l9k betwe5 ! two cities p]mitt$ monitor+ & control ( ! plant f ,kiev 9 :at ! ,russians claim z ! fir/ remote automatic op]ation ( su* a plant4 ,o!r ,soviet a*ievem5ts include two l>ge-scale automatically controll$ in/allations4 ,9 oil-field op]ation at ,tat>ia1 gas & oil outputs f _m wells are monitor$ & controll$ f a c5tral /ation1 dropp+ ! "w =ce requir$ f #fjj to #ajj4 ,! o!r in/allation controls irrigation s]vic+ #i1jjj acres4 ,a desktop control h&les ! pump+ ( wat] f ! ,syr ,d>ya ,riv] ?r\gh und]gr\nd pipes1 & di/ribution to ,uzbeki/an cotton fields4 ,! ,russians h also design$ an automatic di/illation unit = ! ,hung>ians4 ,) an annual capacity ( a million tons1 ! unit 0 in/all$ 9 ! l>ge ,szo5y ref9]y & s*$ul$ = op]ation by #aifb4 ,ref9]ies 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are also employ+ automatic controls 9 _! op]ations4 ,phillips ,petroleum in/all$ a digital comput] control sy/em 9 its ,swe5ey1 ,texas1 plant to a*ieve maximum effici5cy 9 its !rmal crack+ process4 ,9 ! fir/ /ep ( an exp]im5tal program1 ,phillips1 work+ ) ,autonetics comput] eng9e]s1 us$ a digital comput] to plan optimum furnace op]ation4 ,an initial #aj p] c5t improvem5t 0 a*iev$ 9 ?is way1 & a fur!r #f p] c5t ga9 result$ :5 a digital comput] 0 in/all$ on-l9e to op]ate ! crack+ furnace4 ,! ,/&>d ,oil ,company ( ,cali=nia is us+ an ,,ibm #gjij 9 ,san ,francisco to control its catalytic or 8cat0 crack+ plant 9 ,el ,segundo1 "s #dej miles away4 ,! ne$ = comput] spe$ & accuracy is %[n by ! conditions "u :i* ! crack+ plant mu/ op]ate cont9u\sly ) no %utd[ns except = repair4 ,ea* day1 two million gallons ( petroleum is mix$ 9 ! crack] ) ! cataly/1 a metallic clay4 ,! mix+ takes place at inc&esc5t heat ( #a1jjj ,f41 & ! result+ inf]no faces op]ators ) m ?an a hundr$ *ang+ factors to keep track (1 a job feasible only ) comput] help4 ,ano!r use ( comput] control 9 ! petroleum indu/ry is t ( automatic gasol9e bl5d+1 z done by ! ,gulf ,oil ,corporation4 ,a completely electronic sy/em is 9 op]ation at ,santa ,fe ,spr+s1 ,cali=nia4 ,! sy/em automatically deliv]s ! prescrib$ quantities ( gasol9e = ! desir$ bl5d4 ,9 case ( error or malfunction ( equipm5t1 ! control al]ts ! human sup]visor ) w>n+ lights & an audible al>m4 ,if he does n take prop] action ! control sy/em automatically %uts itself (f4 ,f ! "t ! w>-inspir$ indu/ry ( syn!tic rubb] production began 9 #aidj until v rec5tly1 x has be5 almo/ entirely a manual op]ation4 ,!n 9 #aifa ,goodye> ,tire ,rubb] introduc$ comput] control into ! process at its ,pli(lex plant 9 ,h\/on1 ,texas4 ,goodye> expects ! new sy/em to increase its 8?r\ghput0 & also to improve ! quality ( ! product ?r\gh tight]1 smoo!r control ( ! complicat$ op]ation4 ,o!r *emical processors us+ comput] control 9 _! plants include ,d[ ,*emical1 ,du,pont1 ,monsanto1 ,union ,c>bide1 ,sun ,oil1 & ,! ,texas ,company4 ,adept at controll+ ! fl[ ( mat]ial ?r\gh pipes1 ! comput] c also control ! fl[ ( electricity ?r\gh wires4 ,an example ( ?is application is ! use ( digital comput]s 9 electric-utility load-control /ations4 ,a typical in/allation is t ( ! ,philadelphia ,electric ,company 9 ,philadelphia1 ! fir/ to be in/all$4 ,s]v+ #c-a_/b million cu/om]s1 ! utility relies on a ,m9neapolis-,honeywell comput] to control automatically & cont9u\sly ! big turb9e g5]ators t supply electric p[] = ! l>ge indu/rial area4 ,! memory ( ! comput] /ores data ab\t ! g5]ators1 transmission-l9e losses1 op]at+ co/s1 & s on4 ,besides controll+ ! production ( p[] = mo/ economy1 ! comput] 9 its sp>e "t p]=ms bill+ op]ations = ex*ange ( p[] c>ri$ on ) ,p5nsylvania-,new ,j]sey-,m>yl& ,int]connection & ,delaw>e ,p[] ,light ,company & ,atlantic ,city ,electric ,company4 ,o!r utilities us+ comput] control are ! ,riv]side ,p[] ,/ation ( ! ,gulf ,/ates ,utilities ,company1 ,s\!rn ,cali=nia ,edison1 & ! ,l\isiana ,p[] ,light ,company's ,little ,gypsy /ation 9 ,new ,orleans4 ,ano!r indu/ry t makes use ( a cont9u\s fl[ ( mat]ial is n[ be+ fitt$ = comput] control1 & z a result pap]mak]s may soon h a bett] product to sell4 ,,ibm has deliv]$ a #agaj comput] to ,potla* ,=e/s1 ,inc41 9 ,idaho = control ( a pap]bo>d ma*9e #ejj feet long4 ,pap]mak+ up to n[ has be5 m art ?an sci5ce because ( ! difficulty ( controll+ recipes4 ,) ! comput]1 ,potla* expects to make bett] pap]1 h less reject mat]ial1 & sp5d less "t 9 *ang+ f "o product run to ano!r4 ,%[+ t automatic control c "w j ab\t any:]e1 ! ,engli% firm ( ,cliffe ,hill ,granite ,company 9 ,m>kfield1 ,leice/]%ire1 controls its grad+ & bat*+ ( granite aggregate f a c5tral location4 ,besides rock-cru%]s1 cem5t plants l ,riv]side ,cem5t ,company use comput] control 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?us f> mo/ ( ! comput] control op]ations we h discuss$ are 9 ! cont9u\s-process+ fields ( *emicals or o!r uni=m mat]ials4 ,! comput] is mak+ headway 9 ! ma*9e %op too1 al?\gh its "w is less likely ( notice !re s9ce ! control panel is less impressive ?an ! l>ge ma*9e tool x is direct+4 ,aptly call$ ,,apt1 = ,automatically ,programm$ ,tools1 ! new te*nique is ! bra9*ild ( ,m4,i4,t4 eng9e] ,d\glas ,ross4 ,automatic control elim9ates ! ne$ = drill jigs & o!r special setup tools & results 9 *eap]1 fa/]1 & m accurate ma*9e "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,controll$ by in/ructions g5]at$ by ,,ibm's ,,autoprompt1 a ,pratt ,:itney ,num]ic-,kell] cont9u\s-pa? mill+ ma*9e %apes a raw alum9um block 7upp] left7 into ! saddle-%ap$ piece %[n at "r4 ,! surface is a portion ( a geometric %ape call$ a hyp]bolic p>aboloid4 ,a cod$ tape1 g5]at$ by a comput]1 controls ! mill+ ma*9e1 drill press1 or %ap] m accurately ?an ! human ma*9i/ c\ld4 ,9 effect1 ! comput] /udies a bluepr9t & pun*es out in/ructions on tape t tell ! ma*9e :at x is to d1 h[ mu* ( x1 & = h[ long4 ,huge %ap+ & cont\r+ ma*9es mun* *unks ( metal f blanks to =m !m into complex ?ree-dim5sional %apes4 ,rem+ton ,r& ,,univac & ,,ibm are among ! companies produc+ comput]s = ?is purpose4 ,! tr5d is to simpl]1 m flexible control s t ev5 small %ops c avail !mselves ( ! new te*nique4 ,9 a typical example ( ! sav+s possible ) 8num]ical0 tape control1 ^! 7 ! comp>ative co/s3 ,illu/ration3 ,control ,eng9e]+ ,op]ation ( comput]-controll$ freight y>d 9 ,engl&4 ,conv5tional ,tape ,control ,tool+ #gee #de ,setup "t #ae m94 #ae m94 ,"w "t #ae m94 #aa m94 ,co/ p] #b4if #a4ha "p ,beyond ! automat$ s+le- or multipurpose tool is ! completely comput]-controll$ assembly l9e4 ,complete automation ( products l automobiles may be "s di/ance (f1 b !re is no?+ basically unworkable ab\t ! idea4 ,simpl] ?+s w be made fir/1 & to promote ?9k+ along ^! l9es1 ,we/+h\se set up an automatic assembly l9e = pap]weights4 ,an op]ator typ$ ! initials ( manufactur+ dep>tm5t manag]s on a comput]1 :i* transf]r$ ! in/ructions to a mill+ ma*9e4 ,! ma*9e cut ! initials 9 alum9um blocks :i* 7 !n automatically f9i%$1 pa9t$1 & packag$ = %ipm5t z complet$ pap]weights4 ,ano!r firm1 ,day/rom1 ,inc41 is design+ a comput] control sy/em = assembly l9es :i* w adju/ itself = ! 8be/0 product z an output4 ,presid5t ,tom ,jones describ$ ! pr9ciple 9 :i* ! comput] w beg9 production1 !n move valves1 swit*es1 or o!r controls a small am\nt4 ,measur+ ! f9i%$ product1 x w decide if ! *ange is 9 ! "r direction1 & proce$ accord+ly4 ,once x f9ds ! optimum po9t1 x w lock 9 ?is position & settle d[n to bus9ess4 ,an excell5t example ( ! comput]iz$ assembly l9e is ! ,we/]n ,electric ,company c>bon resi/or production l9e at its ,w9/on-,salem plant4 ,a digital comput] ) a #d1jif-^w memory is us$ = ! programm+1 setup1 & fe$back control ( ! elev5-/ation l9e4 ,x c accept a mon?'s s*$ul+ requirem5ts = deposit$ c>bon high-quality resi/ors 9 f\r p[] rat+s & almo/ any desir$ resi/ance values4 ,production rate is #a1bjj units p] h\r4 ,! comput] keeps track ( ! resi/ors z !y are fabricat$1 reject+ ^? out ( specification & adju/+ ! process controls z necess>y4 ,op]ations include heat+1 deposition ( c>bon1 contact sputt]+1 weld+1 groov+1 & inspect+4 ,! ,robots ,mo/ ( ^! automat$ factory op]ations are do+ m5's "w1 b x is only :5 we see ! robot 9 ! %ape ( ourselves t cold *ills invade our sp9es4 ,*ildr5's ,*ri/mas toys lately h includ$ me*anical m5 :o /ride or roll across ! floor & speak1 act1 & ev5 8?9k0 9 m or less humanoid fa%ion1 "s ( !m hurl+ weapons 9 a r fright5+ mann]4 ,!re is an indu/rial robot 9 op]ation today :i* may recall ! dread ( ,frank5/e91 ?\gh its mo/ worri$ wat*]s are p]haps union (ficials4 ,call$ ,unimate1 ?is factory work] has a s+le arm equipp$ ) wri/ & h&4 ,x c move horizontally ?r\gh #bbj degrees1 & v]tically = #fj degrees1 & ext5d its arm f #c feet to #g feet at ! rate ( #b-a_/b feet a second4 ,)\t a /epladd]1 x c rea* f ! floor to a po9t ne>ly #i feet above x4 ,unimate c pick up #ge p\nds1 & its #d-;in* f+]s c clamp toge!r on an iron b> or a tool ) a =ce ( up to #cjj p\nds4 ,! robot weighs close to a ton & a half1 b c be mov$ f job to job on a =k-lift truck4 ,its design]s h turn$ up a hundr$ diff]5t jobs t ,unimate c\ld d1 includ+ mat]ial load+1 packag+1 weld+1 spray pa9t+1 assembly "w1 & s on4 ,! robot has a memory & c reta9 ! #af1jjj 8bits0 ( in=mation necess>y = #bjj op]ations4 ,to tea* x a new task1 x is only necess>y to 8help0 x manually ?r\gh ea* /ep "o "t4 ,unimate c be in/ruct$ to wait = an ext]nal signal dur+ its task1 su* z ! op5+ ( a press or a furnace door4 ,advantages ( a robot are _m & obvi\s4 ,pretty girls pass+ by w n di/ract x1 nor w x require "t = lun* or c(fee breaks1 or trips to ! wa%room4 ,if necess>y x w "w ar\nd ! clock )\t ask+ = d\ble p[] = ov]time4 ,high temp]atures1 noxi\s gases1 fly+ sp>ks1 or dang]\s liquids w n be a sev]e haz>d1 & ,unimate nev] gets tir$ or =gets :at x is do+4 ,b ,unimate has "s drawbacks t are j z obvi\s4 ,x c't tell "o color f ano!r1 & ?us might pa9t p>ts ! wrong color & nev] "k ! diff]5ce4 ,x is n readily movable1 & n v flexible ei!r4 ,x co/s #be1jjj1 & w ne$ ab\t #a1cjj 9 ma9t5ance a ye>4 ,"s indu/ry spokesm5 say t ?is is f> too mu*1 & ,unimate has a long way to g be=e x puts any p out ( "w4 ,o!rs say x is a /ep 9 ! "r direction1 & ?is is probably a fair evaluation4 ,app>5tly ,unit$ ,/ates ,indu/ries1 ,inc41 ^: ,auto,tutor tea*+ ma*9es are pac+ ! field1 has made ano!r /ep 9 ! "r direction ) its 8,transfe,robot #bjj40 ,?is me*anical assembly-l9e work] is an 8(f-!-%elf0 item1 & curr5tly 9 use by ab\t fifty manufactur]s4 ,transfe,robot uses its own electronic bra91 c\pl$ ) a v>iety ( magnetic1 me*anical1 or ev5 pneumatic f+]s to pick up1 position1 ins]t1 remove1 & d o!r necess>y op]ations on small p>ts4 ,besides ^! capabilities1 ,transfe,robot controls second>y op]ations su* z drill+1 emboss+1 /amp+1 weld+1 & seal+4 ,x is n[ busy build+ ?+s l clocks1 typewrit]s1 automobile /e]+ assemblies1 & electrical p>ts4 ,no "o-job work]1 x c be re-programm$ = o!r op]ations :5 a new product is ne$$1 or quickly swit*$ to ano!r assembly l9e if necess>y4 ,bill$ z a new h& = indu/ry1 ,transfe,robot obvi\sly has its foot 9 ! door already4 ,unit$ ,/ates ,indu/ries e/imates curr5t ye>ly sales ( its small automation equipm5t at ab\t #c million4 ,illu/ration3 ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology ,dr4 ,he9ri* ,ern/1 ,swiss graduate /ud5t at ,,mit1 wat*es 8 comput]-controll$ 8h&0 pick up a block & drop x 9 ! box4 ,! robots 9 apek's play ,r4,u4,r4 look$ l _! human mak]s1 b sci5ti/ ,claude ,%annon is m reali/ic4 8,^! robots w probably be some?+ squ>i% & on :eels1 s !y c move ar\nd & n hurt anybody & n get hurt !mselves4 ,!y won't look l ! t9-c me*anical m5 9 comic /rips4 ,b y'll want !m ab\t man-size1 s _! h&s w come out at table-top or assembly-l9e level40 ,s9ce ,pr(essor ,%annon is ! man :o sp>k$ ! implem5tation ( symbolic logic 9 comput]s1 8 ideas are n crackpot1 & ! ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology's ,h& project is a good />t t[>d a real robot4 ,dr4 ,he9ri* ,ern/1 a "y ,swiss1 develop$ ,h& ) help f ,%annon4 ,controll$ by a digital comput]1 ! h& moves ab\t & ex]cises judgm5t z x enc\nt]s objects4 ,su* rese>* w make true robots ( ! remotely manipulat$ ma*9es we h become famili> ) 9 nucle> p[] exp]im5ts1 und]wat] exploration1 & s =?4 ,hughes ,aircraft's 8,mobot0 is a good example1 & x is obvi\s t ! robot's bones1 muscles1 & n]ves are available4 ,all !y ne$ is ! bra9 to mat*4 ,:ile we wait fe>fully = m robots :i* look ! way we ?9k robots %\ld1 ! ma*9e quietly takes ov] controll+ m & m ev5 bigg] projects4 ,! comput] does a v>iety ( tasks1 f ! simple "o ( cutt+ roll+-mill /ock into optimum l5g?s to m9imize wa/e1 to t ( runn+ an electronic freight y>d 9 :i* c>s are classifi$ & made up automatically4 ,! comput] 9 ?is application n only measures ! c> & weighs x1 b also computes its rollability4 ,us+ rad> z its eyes1 ! comput] gauges ! spe$ & di/ance betwe5 c>s z !y are be+ made up & regulates _! spe$ to prev5t damag+ bumps4 ,to ! *agr9 ( vet]an human swit*m51 ! comput] sy/em has prov$ x c 8hump0 c>s--s5d !m coa/+ to a /&+ c> = c\pl+--)\t ! occasional res\nd+ cra% caus$ by excessive spe$4 ,ab\t all t is hold+ up simil>ly automat$ subway tra9s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is approval f ! union4 ,soviet ,russia claims %e already has comput]-run subways & ev5 %ips4 ,! latt] application took place on ! oil tank] ,eng9e] ,pu/o%k9 ply+ ! ,caspian ,sea4 ,! ma9 compla9t ( ! director ( ?is rese>* "w1 ,p4 ,/rumpe1 is t %ips are n yet design$ = comput] control & w *ange = ! bett] :5 _! design]s realize ! error ( _! ways4 ,illu/ration3 ,hughes ,aircraft ,company ,mobot ,m>k ,,ii1 c>ry+ a ,geig] c\nt] 9 its 8h&s10 demon/rates h[ x c sub/itute = m5 9 dang]\sly radiat$ areas4 ,m9neapolis-,honeywell 9 ?is c\ntry is work+ t[>d ! complete automation ( build+s1 po9t+ out t !y are z mu* ma*9es z /ructures4 ,a #cc-/ory skyscrap] 9 ,h\/on w use a c5tral comput] to *eck #djj po9ts automatically & cont9u\sly4 ,temp]ature & humidity w be monitor$1 z well z doors & w9d[s4 ,pres5ce ( smoke & fire w be automatically detect$1 & all me*anical equipm5t w be monitor$ & controll$4 ,equipp$ ) co/ figures1 ! c5tral comput] w lit]ally 8run0 ! build+ = optimum effici5cy & economy4 ,h>v>d ,univ]sity has a c5tral control = sev5ty-six campus build+s1 & 9 ,d5v] "w is be+ done t[>d a c5tral control = a numb] ( l>ge build+s4 ,x is fitt+ t automation ( build+s be c>ri$ on1 s9ce hi/orically x 0 9 ! home t self-control ( ma*9es 0 pione]$ ) automatic control ( furnaces ) !rmo/ats4 ,illu/ration3 ,robodyne ,division1 ,u4,s4 ,indu/ries1 ,inc4 ,transfe,robot assembly-l9e work] in/alls clockwork p>ts ) spe$ & precision4 ,9 ?is c\ntry our traffic is cry+ = "s k9d ( control1 & ,new ,york is already us+ pun*$-c>d programm+ to control "p ( ! city's traffic4 ,! ,f$]al adm9i/ration is /udy+ a bold proposal f ,,rca1 ,b5dix1 ,g5]al ,motors1 & ,we/+h\se = an automatically controll$ highway4 ,! reason8 ,traffic is gett+ to be too mu* = ! human bra9 to deal )4 ,a bett] "o has to be f\nd1 & ! comput] is apply+ = ! job4 ,! com+ ( automation has be5 lik5$ to a tidal wave4 ,x is useless to %ovel aga9/ x1 & ! job w\ld seem to be to f9d suitable life pres]v]s to keep u afloat z x sweeps 9 ov] ! _w4 ,"o approa* is t ( a nonpr(it f\ndation to /udy ! impact ( automation on work]s4 ,?is gr\p1 a jo9t ,unit$ ,/ates ,indu/ries1 ,inc41 & ,int]national ,association ( ,ma*9i/s organization1 has already come up ) a s*eme = collect+ 8dues0 f ! ma*9es1 9 annual am\nts ( f #be to #a1jjj1 dep5d+ on ! "w output ( ! ma*9e4 ,a key project ( ! f\ndation is a /udy ( effective retra9+ ( work]s to fit !m = jobs 9 ! new1 comput]iz$ factory4 ,su* /udies may well h to be ext5d$ f ! assembly l9e to ! :ite-coll> work] & executive z well4 ,! comput] c we> _m diff]5t k9ds ( hats6 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,tea*+ ,ma*9e ,age ,lilyn ,e4 ,c>lton 9 ,saturday ,review 8,9 ! good old-fa%ion$ s*ool days1 ,days ( ! gold5 rule1 ,tea*] said1 #8,good morn+1 class1' ,& s %e />t$ s*ool4 ,alas6 ,h[ diff]5t ?+s are n[1 ,! s*ool day c't beg9 ,till someone f9ds ! socket ,& plugs ! tea*] 940 #aj3 ,! ,academic ,comput] ,x 0 inevitable t ! comput] invade1 or p]haps 8infiltrate0 is ! bett] ^w1 our education sy/em4 ,m>k ,i & ,,eniac 7 univ]sity-born & -br$1 & e>ly rese>* "w 0 done by _m in/itutions us+ comput]s4 ,a logical developm5t 0 to tea* =mal c\rses 9 us+ ! comput]4 ,:ile application ( ! ma*9e 9 ma!matical & sci5tific "w came fir/1 its application to bus9ess & to ! tra9+ ( executives = su* use ( ! comput] 0 soon recogniz$4 ,z an example1 "o ( two comput]s in/all$ by ,u4,c4,l4,a4 9 #aieg 0 = use exclusively 9 tra9+ eng9e]+ executives z well z und]graduates 9 eng9e]+ economy4 ,e>ly c\rses 7 aim$ at ^? already 9 indu/ry1 9 an attempt to cat* !m up ) ! te*nology ( comput]-ori5t$ sy/ems 9 bus9ess & sci5ce4 ,z special c\rses1 _m ( ^! c>ri$ a high tuition fee4 ,next came ! tea*+ ( pr(essors & deans ( eng9e]+ in/itutions 9 te*niques ( comput] education = und]graduates4 ,today ! comput] is be+ taught to _m /ud5ts 9 _m s*ools4 ,new ,york ,univ]sity has a #c million comput] at its ,c\rant ,in/itute ( ,ma!matical ,sci5ces1 be+ us$ by /ud5ts 9 basic & appli$ rese>* on projects rang+ f ! design ( bridges to ! analysis ( vot+ patt]ns 9 ,congress4 ,m4,i4,t4 rec5tly add$ a digital comput] to tea* its /ud5ts ! op]ation ( electronic data-process+ equipm5t4 ,ano!r comput] is us$ 9 m sophi/icat$ "w includ+ spee* analysis1 /udy ( bioelectrical signals1 & ! simulation ( automata z 9 ! 8,h&0 project4 ,at ! comput+ c5t] ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan a second g5]ation ( comput]s is be+ in/all$4 ,/ud5ts 9 "s "o hundr$ diff]5t c\rses use ^! comput]s1 programm+ !m ) a language develop$ at ! ,univ]sity & call$ ,,mad1 = ,mi*igan ,algori?m ,decod]4 ,^! are typical examples ( p]haps two hundr$ s*ools us+ comput]s4 ,t k ( comput] te*niques is ess5tial = ! eng9e]+ graduate is evid5t 9 ! fact t ( a rec5t class ( su* /ud5ts at ,purdue1 #a1fjj us$ ! comput] dur+ ! t]m4 ,less kn[n is ! integration ( comput] c\rses 9 second>y education4 ,! ,royal ,mc,bee ,corporation tea*es a special c\rse on ! comput] to y\ng/]s at ,/aples ,high 9 ,we/port1 ,connecticut4 ,at ! end ( ! fir/ f\r-week session x 0 f\nd t ! /ud5ts1 fifte5 to sev5te5 ye>s old1 _h le>n$ fa/] ?an adults4 ,at ,new ,york's ,/4 ,v9c5t ,f]r] ,ca?olic ,high ,s*ool1 #djj girls p>ticipat$ 9 a simil> project conduct$ by ,royal ,mc,bee4 ,o!r high s*ools are foll[+ suit1 & comput]s are expect$ to appe> 9 significant numb]s 9 high s*ools be=e ! end ( #aifb4 ,textbooks on comput]s1 writt5 = high-s*ool /ud5ts1 are available4 ,z an example ( ! ability ( "y p 9 ?is field1 ,david ,mal9 ( ,walt] ,johnson ,high ,s*ool 9 ,rockville1 ,m>yl&1 read 8 own pap] on ! use ( comput]s to simulate human ?\ght processes to sci5ce exp]ts att5d+ ! #aifa ,ea/]n ,jo9t ,comput] ,conf]5ce held 9 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,! use ( ! comput] 9 ! classroom encompasses n only colleges & high s*ools1 b ext5ds ev5 to prisons4 ,tw5ty inmates ( a ,p5nsylvania /ate in/itution att5d$ a pilot program tea*+ comput] te*niques ) a ,,univac ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,datamation ,sev5te5-ye>-old ,david ,mal9 :o pres5t$ a pap] on comput]s at ! ,ea/]n ,jo9t ,comput] ,conf]5ce 9 #aifa4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is n alone 9 plac+ importance on ! comput] 9 s*ools4 ,our ,dep>tm5t ( ,comm]ce has publi%$ details ( ,russian "w 9 ?is direction1 not+ t x began 9 #aiee & places high priority on ! tra9+ ( speciali/s 9 comput] rese>*1 ma*9e translation1 automation1 & s on4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,comm]ce feels t ^! c\rses1 taught at ! graduate1 und]graduate1 & ev5 high-s*ool level1 are ( high quality4 ,tea*+ ,ma*9es ,?us f> we h talk$ ( ! comput] only z a tool to be /udi$ & n z an aid to le>n+ 9 itself4 ,9 j a few ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! 8tea*+ ma*9e0 has become famili> 9 ! press & controv]sial f a numb] ( /&po9ts1 includ+ ^? ( be+ a 8dehumaniz]0 ( ! process ( tea*+ & a ?reat to ! apple bus9ess6 ,actually1 ! comput] has function$ = "s "t outside ! classroom z a tea*+ ma*9e4 ,e>ly applications ( analog comput]s z flight simulators 7 true 8tea*+ ma*9es0 al?\gh p]haps ! act 0 n z obvi\s z classroom use ( a comput] to tea* ! ?ree ,r's4 ,ev5 today1 !re are ^? :o insi/ t su* use ( ! comput] by ! milit>y or indu/ry (f]s m pot5tial ?an an academic tea*+ ma*9e4 ,assembly work]s h be5 taught by programm$ audiovisual ma*9es su* z ,hughes ,aircraft's ,videosonic tra9]1 & ! gov]nm5t has taught _m te*nicians by comput] te*niques4 ,a %rewd obs]v]1 h[ev]1 not+ t ! comput] is call$ /upid1 bluntly po9ts out t any untaught /ud5t is 9 ! same category1 & t p]haps x takes "o to tea* "o4 ,a /rong motivation = look+ to ! ma*9e z a public tea*+ tool is ! desp]ation occasion$ by ! gr[+ %ortage ( tea*]s4 ,if ! tea*+ ma*9e c\ld take ov] ev5 "s ( ! m simple *ores ( ! classroom1 e>ly advocates said1 x w\ld be wor? ! ef=t4 ,=mal /udy ( ma*9e me?ods ( tea*+ h a hi/ory ( =ty ye>s or m4 ,9 ! #bj's1 ,sydney ,pressey design$ & built automatic tea*+--or m precisely1 te/+--ma*9es at ,ohio ,/ate ,univ]sity4 ,^! 7 simply multiple-*oice que/ions s me*aniz$ z to be answ]$ by ! pu% ( a button r ?an ) a p5cil m>k4 ,a "r answ] advanc$ ! ma*9e to ! next "q1 :ile an error requir$ ! /ud5t to try aga94 ,pressey wisely realiz$ ! value 9 8 ma*9es2 ! /ud5t c\ld proce$ at 8 own pace1 & 8 le>n+ 0 also /imulat$ by imm$iate recognition ( a*ievem5t4 ,to fur!r en=ce ?is le>n+1 "s ( ! tea*+ ma*9es disp5s$ c&y = a correct answ]4 ,us+ ?is crit]ion1 x w\ld seem t bright] /ud5ts c\ld be recogniz$ by _! weight4 ,un=tunately1 ,pressey's tea*+ ma*9es did n make a v big spla% 9 ! academic _w1 because ( a comb9ation ( factors4 ,! ma*9es !mselves _h limitations 9 t !y did n pres5t mat]ial to be le>n$ b 7 m ( ! nature ( a po/]iori te/+ devices4 ,too1 educators 7 loa? to adopt ! me*aniz$ tea*]s = a v>iety ( reasons1 includ+ skepticism1 in]tia1 economics1 & o!rs4 ,h[ev]1 ma*9e scor+ ( multiple-*oice te/s m>k$ ) special curr5t-conduct+ p5cils became commonplace4 ,ano!r rese>*]1 ,b4 ,f4 ,sk9n]1 comm5c$ "w on a diff]5t k9d ( tea*+ ma*9e ?irty ye>s ago at ,h>v>d4 ,basically 8 me?od consi/s ( giv+ ! subject small bits--n comput] 8bits10 b ! co9cid5ce is int]e/+--( le>n+ at a "t1 & re9=c+ ^! bits /rongly & imm$iately4 ,sk9n] insi/s t actual 8recall0 ( in=mation is m important ?an multiple-*oice 8recognition10 & he asks = an answ] r ?an a *oice4 ,call$ 8op]ant re9=cem5t10 ! te*nique has be5 us$ n only on man1 b on apes1 monkeys1 rats1 dogs1 & surpris+ly1 pigeons4 ,dur+ ,_w ,w> ,,ii1 ,dr4 ,sk9n] conduct$ 8,project ,pigeon0 = ! milit>y4 ,9 ?is unusual tra9+ program1 ! fea!r$ /ud5ts 7 taught to peck at c]ta9 t>gets 9 return = :i* !y receiv$ food z a rew>d4 ,?is comb9ation ( apt pupils & advanc$ tea*+ me?ods produc$ pigeons :o c\ld play p+-pong4 ,?is 0 9 ! e>ly days ( missile guidance1 & ! pigeons next w5t into tra9+ z a hom+ sy/em = ^! new weapons6 ,to make guidance m reliable1 n "o b ?ree pigeons 7 to be c>ri$ 9 ! nose ( ! device4 ,l5ses 9 ! missile project$ an image be=e ea* pigeon1 :o dutifully peck$ at 8 8t>get40 ,if ! t>get 0 9 ! c5t] ( ! cross hairs1 ! missile w\ld cont9ue on its c\rse2 if (f to "o side1 ! peck+ w\ld actuate corrective maneuv]s4 ,z ,project 8,orcon10 = ,organic ,control1 ?is "w 0 c>ri$ on = "s "t aft] ! end ( ! w>4 ,=tunately = ! birds1 h[ev]1 m sophi/icat$1 inorganic guidance sy/ems 7 develop$4 ,! implications ( ! pigeon /udies 9 "t l$ to a new tea*+ me?od = human be+s4 ,%ortly aft] ,sk9n] releas$ a pap] on 8 "w 9 op]ant re9=cem5t ) ! pigeons1 _m work]s 9 ! tea*+ field began to move 9 ?is direction4 ,= sev]al ye>s ,sk9n] & ,james ,holl& h be5 us+ ma*9es ( ?is type to tea* "s sections ( a c\rse 9 human behavior to /ud5ts at ,radcliffe & ,h>v>d4 ,rheem ,califone manufactures ! ,,didak ma*9e to ,sk9n]'s specifications4 ,to ! reasons advanc$ by ^? :o see tea*] %ortages loom+1 ,sk9n] adds ! argum5t t a ma*9e c (t5 tea* bett]4 ,too mu* "t1 he feels1 has be5 sp5t on details t are n basic to ! problem4 ,bett] sal>ies = tea*]s1 m tea*]s1 & m s*ools d n 9 !mselves improve ! actual tea*+4 ,op]ant re9=cem5t1 ,sk9n] cont5ds1 does get at ! root ( ! problem &1 9 addition to reliev+ ! tea*] ( a heavy burd51 ! tea*+ ma*9e a*ieves bett] results 9 "s phases ( tea*+4 ,x also solves ano!r problem t plagues ! educator today4 ,x is well kn[n t n all ( u c le>n at ! same rate4 ,s9ce x is economically & culturally impossible except 9 r>e cases to tea* *ildr5 9 gr\ps ( equal ability1 a compromise spe$ mu/ be e/abli%$4 ,?is is f9e = ! 8av]age0 *ild1 ( :om !re may actually be none 9 ! classroom2 x p5alizes ! fa/ /ud5t1 & ! sl[ /ud5t p]haps ev5 m4 ,! tea*+ ma*9e1 its propon5ts feel1 takes c>e ( ?is difficulty & lets ea* proce$ at 8 own rate4 ,s9ce spe$ 9 itself is no sure indicator ( intellig5ce1 ! sl[ *ild1 left to le>n z he c1 may rea* heights n be=e dream$ possible = him4 ,_m educators agree t automat$ tea*+ is pa/ due4 ,james ,d4 ,f9n1 ,pr(essor ( ,education at ! ,univ]sity ( ,s\!rn ,cali=nia1 deplores ! lack ( mod]n te*nology 9 tea*+4 8,te*nology dur+ ! p]iod f #aijj to #aiej only wa%$ lightly on ! %ores ( in/ruction10 he says4 8,! cake ( cu/om prov$ to be too t\gh & ! mass production /ate1 at lea/ #ajj ye>s beh9d indu/ry1 0 n ent]$ except "h & !re on little isolat$ isl&s40 ,illu/ration3 ,educational ,sci5ce ,division1 ,u4,s4 ,indu/ries1 ,inc4 ,auto,tutor tea*+ ma*9e has programs = tea*+ _m subjects4 ,^! little isolat$ isl&s are n[ gett+ bigg] & clos] toge!r4 ,! ,air ,=ce has = "s "t tra9$ te*nicians at ,keesl] ,field ) ,u4,s4 ,indu/ries ,auto,tutor ma*9es1 & also uses !m at ! ,wright ,air ,developm5t ,c5t]4 ,! ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t has pur*as$ fifty-five ,u4,s4 ,indu/ries' ,digiflex tra9]s4 ,foll[+ ?is lead1 public education is beg9n+ to use tea*+ ma*9es4 ,san ,francisco has an electronic comput] v]sion t n only tea*es1 te/s1 & coa*es1 b ev5 s\nds an al>m if ! /ud5t tries to 8go( (f0 on any ( ! problems4 ,! design]s ( ! ma*9e select$ a sure-fire intellectual acronym1 ,,plato1 = ,programm$ ,logic = ,automatic ,tea*+ ,op]ations4 ,! ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corporation1 ! op]ations firm t design$ ! ,,sage comput]1 calls its comput]-controll$ classroom tea*] simply ,,class4 ,?is ma*9e uses a ,b5dix ,g-#ae comput] to tea* tw5ty y\ng/]s at a "t4 ,to %[ ! aw>5ess ( ! publi%]s ( texts & o!r educational mat]ial1 firms l ,book ( ,k1 ,encyclop$ia ,britannica ,films1 & ,,tmi ,groli] are 9 ! 8tea*+ ma*9e0 bus9ess1 & ! ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,company & ,?ompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc41 h team$ to produce comput]iz$ tea*+ ma*9es & ! programs = !m4 ,o!r publi%]s us+ 8programm+0 te*niques 9 _! books include ,h>c\rt-,brace ) its #bfjj s]ies 7= #b1fjj programm$ /eps ! /ud5t mu/ negotiate71 ,pr5tice-,hall1 & ,d4 ,c4 ,hea?4 ,entirely new firms l ,le>n+1 ,incorporat$1 are n[ produc+ 8programs0 on _m subjects = tea*+ ma*9es4 ,subjects available 9 tea*+ ma*9e =m include algebra1 ma!matics1 trigonometry1 slide rule fundam5tals1 electronics1 calculus1 analytical geometry1 plane geometry1 probability !ory1 electricity1 ,russian1 ,g]man1 ,spani%1 ,hebrew1 spell+1 music fundam5tals1 managem5t sci5ce1 & ev5 ,gor5's bridge = beg9n]s4 ,:ile _m ( ^! tea*+ ma*9es are simply textbooks programm$ = fa/] le>n+1 ! conv]sion ( su* mat]ial into comput]-h&l$ pres5tation is m]ely "o ( economics4 ,= example1 a ,d\bl$ay ,tutor,text book co/s only a few doll>s2 an automatic ,auto,tutor ,m>k ,,ii co/s #a1bej because ( its complex se>*+ facility t requires sev]al ?\s& bran*+ responses4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,auto,tutor is fa/] & m effective & w op]ate tw5ty-f\r h\rs a day if necess>y4 ,) suffici5t dem& ! ma*9e may be ! *eap] 9 ! long run4 ,! ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corporation feels t its g5]al concept ( automat$ gr\p education w be feasible 9 ! ne> future despite ! high co/ ( advanc$ electronic digital comput]s4 ,x cites pilot /udies be+ conduct$ by ! ,/ate ( ,cali=nia on data-process+ = a numb] ( s*ools ?r\gh a c5tral facility4 ,us+ ?is same approa*1 a s+le c5tral comput] c\ld s]ve sev]al s*ools ) auxili>y l[]-pric$ equipm5t4 ,ev5 a mod]ately l>ge comput] us$ 9 ?is way c\ld tea* a ?\s& or m /ud5ts simultane\sly & individually1 ! ,corporation feels4 ,aft] s*ool h\rs1 ! comput] c h&le adm9i/rative tasks4 ,illu/ration3 ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corp4 ,! ,,class facility incorporates an adm9i/rative area1 hallway1 comb9$ obs]vation & c\nsel+ area1 & a l>ge classroom area divid$ by a fold+ wall4 ,9 ! ,,class sy/em develop$ by ! ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corporation1 ! 8bran*+0 concept is us$4 ,9 a typical lesson program1 if ! /ud5t imm$iately answ]s t ,am]ica 0 discov]$ by ,*ri/oph] ,columbus1 he w be told he is correct & w !n be bran*$ to ! next item4 ,if he answ]s ,leif ,ericson1 ! comput] takes "t out to enlight5 ! pupil on t score4 ,next1 x re9=ces ! correct date 9 ! /ud5t's m9d be=e ask+ ano!r "q4 ,al?\gh x w\ld seem t a lucky /ud5t c\ld progress ?r\gh ! programm$ lesson on guesswork alone1 ! inexorable laws ( probability rule ?is out4 ,he _c complete ! lesson until he has soak$ up all ! in=mation x is int5d$ to imp>t4 ,he c d ?is )\t an error1 9 a v %ort "t1 or he c le>n by ! trial-&-error process1 :i*ev] is bett] suit$ to 8 spe$ & m5tal ability4 ,mak+ up ! program = ! tea*+ ma*9e is a difficult task & requires ! s]vices ( te*nical exp]t1 psy*ologi/1 & programm]4 ,an ,engli%-l language is us$ 9 prep>+ a ,,class program = ! comput]4 ,put on magnetic tape1 ! program goes into ! memory ( ! comput] & is call$ out by prop] responses f ! /ud5t z he progresses ?r\gh ! lesson4 ,illu/ration3 ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corp4 ,/ud5ts 9 ,,class are le>n+ ,fr5* 9 a gr\p mode ( automat$ in/ruction4 ,complex z ! programm+ is1 entries f ! /ud5t's control are process$ into ! comput] 9 ab\t "o-t5? ( a second1 & an answ] is fla%$ back 9 ab\t ! same am\nt ( "t4 ,rememb] t ! ,,class comput] is h&l+ tw5ty /ud5ts at a "t1 & t 9 addition to tea*+ x is keep+ a complete record ( h[ ! /ud5t f>$ at ea* /ep ( ! lesson4 ,x is obvi\s t ! b9>y or yes-no logic ( ! comput] ties 9 ) ! concept put =? by ,sk9n] & o!rs ( pres5t+ small bits ( in=mation at a "t4 ,we c use ! game ( #bj ,que/ions z a good analogy4 ,ev5 gett+ only simple yes-no answ]s1 skill$ play]s c elicit an amaz+ am\nt ( in=mation 9 (t5 f> less ?an ! p]mitt$ numb] ( que/ions4 ,?us ev5 complex subjects c be brok5 d[n into simple que/ions answ]able by discrete *oices f ! /ud5t4 ,! automat$ gr\p education sy/em ( ! ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corporation is made up ( ! foll[+ compon5ts3 a digital comput] to control & select ! mat]ial pres5t$ & to analyze responses1 a magnetic tape /orage unit1 a typewrit] = pr9t+ out data analysis1 a slide projector & scre5 = pres5t+ educational mat]ials1 & individual desks ) keybo>ds = ! /ud5ts' responses4 ,we h po9t$ out t ev5 ?\gh x is possible to break d[n educational mat]ial into multiple-*oice or yes-no answ]s to :i* are assign$ intr9sic values1 ! ideal sy/em p]mits answ]s on a l9e> scale4 ,9 o!r words1 in/ead ( pick+ :at he consid]s ! mo/ ne>ly correct1 a /ud5t writes 8 own answ]4 ,"s exp]ts feel t ! advances be+ made 9 optical scann+1 or 8read+0 te*niques = comput]s1 w result 9 l9e> programm+ ( ! tea*+ ma*9es )9 ! next t5 ye>s4 ,su* a developm5t w d mu* to alleviate ! compla9t t ! ma*9e ex]ts a rigid me*aniz+ effect on ! tea*+ process4 ,:ile fe> ( displacem5t motivates "s tea*]s to di/ru/ ! ma*9e1 an hone/ belief t ! human t\* is necess>y 9 ! s*oolroom is also a l>ge factor aga9/ acceptance4 ,yet ^! same w>y tea*]s g5]ally use fla% c>ds1 flip *>ts1 & o!r me*anical aids ) no qualms4 ,! electronic comput] is a logical ext5sion ( audiovisual te*niques1 & 9 "t ! tea*] w come to accept x = :at x is4 ,! human tea*] w cont9ue to be an indisp5sable elem5t 9 education1 b he mu/ recognize t z our te*nology becomes m complex he w ne$ m & m help4 ,9 #aifj !re 7 ab\t #dd million /ud5ts 9 our classrooms1 & ab\t #ace1jjj too few tea*]s4 ,by #aife x is e/imat$ !re w be #dh million /ud5ts & #bej1jjj tea*]s few] ?an we ne$4 ,p>allel ) ?is developm5t is ! rapidly gr[+ ne$ = college graduates4 ,"o l>ge indu/rial firm :i* employs #aej1jjj hires only #cjj college graduates a ye> at pres5t1 b w ne$ #g1jjj :5 x automates its plants4 ,! pressure ( ne$ ?us is =c+ our educational sy/em to make use ( ! mo/ effici5t means ( educat+ our /ud5ts4 ,beyond simply tak+ its place ) o!r aids1 h[ev]1 ! comput] w make great *anges 9 our basic concepts ( tea*+1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,sk9n]4 ,he asks ! "q 8,are ! /ud5ts :o le>n 9 spite ( a confus+ pres5tation ( a subject bett] = ! exp]i5ce1 or 7 !y bett] /ud5ts at ! outset80 ,he advances ?is argum5t to say t p]haps 8easy0 le>n+ is actually ! be/2 t we w\ld d well to analyze ! behavior call$ ?9k+ & !n produce x accord+ to ^! specifications4 ,! traditional tea*] f9ds ! prospect al>m+ & que/ions ! s\ndness ( m9imiz+ failure & maximiz+ success4 ,!re is n yet def9ite agreem5t by o!r psy*ologi/s ) ,sk9n]'s cont5tion t recall r ?an recognition is ! desir$ me?od4 ,nei!r is x sure t ! negative re9=cem5t ( a numb] ( incorrect *oices may result 9 rememb]+ wrong answ]s4 ,& ( c\rse ! division betwe5 rote le>n+ & creativity is an important consid]ation4 ,! answ]s may well lie 9 ! comput]1 :i* :5 prop]ly programm$ is ab\t ! mo/ logical device we h available to u4 ,?us ! ma*9e may det]m9e ! be/ tea*+ me?ods & !n use !m to tea* u4 ,reg>dless ( ^! z yet unansw]$ que/ions1 h[ev]1 ! future ( ! tea*+ ma*9e seems to be assur$4 ,"o au?ority has pr$ict$ t x w be a #ajj million m>ket by #aife4 ,an intrigu+ use ( comput] te*niques 9 tea*+ is be+ inve/igat$ by ,corrigan ,communications1 :i* scores /ud5ts answ]+ que/ions on telec\rses4 ,?is "w is be+ done ) a c\rse 9 m$ic9e1 & ) ! rapid gr[? ( educational television ! implications ( comb9+ x & tea*+ ma*9e te*niques are ( great importance4 ,classroom tea*+ is n ! only educational application = ! tea*+ ma*9e4 ,a comput]-controll$ libr>y is an int]e/+ ?\ght1 ) ! patron reque/+ in=mation f a c5tral comput] & hav+ x pres5t$ in/antane\sly on a view+ scre5 9 front ( him4 ,su* a sy/em c\ld conceivably h access to a national libr>y hookup1 con/antly updat$ ) new mat]ial4 ,su* a s]vice w\ld also be available = use dur+ s*ool /udy hall1 or by ! tea*] dur+ class4 ,visitors to ! ,_w's ,fair 9 ,seattle preview$ ! comput]iz$ in=mation c5t] ( ! future4 ,call$ ,libr>y #ba1 x is consid]$ a prototype ( ! next c5tury's core libr>ies :i* w be l9k$ to small] bran*es by communications networks4 ,_m comput]s 7 display$1 ti$ 9 ) tea*+ ma*9es1 language laboratories1 & in=mation f ! ,great ,books1 tailor$ to ! individual que/ion]'s sex1 p]sonality1 & m5tal level4 ,also %[n 0 a photo process t r$uces a #djj-page book to ! size ( a po/age /amp = /orage4 ,) ?is k9d ( progress1 we c 9 ! =eseeable future reque/ & receive up-to-date in=mation ( any k9d ( human k any:]e--9 language we c und]/&4 ,ano!r comput] application sure to come is t ( h&l+ correspond5ce c\rses4 ,! tea*+ ( ext5sion c\rses 9 ! home1 ?r\gh television & "s sort ( response l9k1 has be5 m5tion$1 & x is n impossible t ! s*ool z a physical plant may "o day no long] be necess>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,?is sy/em supplies legal in=mation 9 m9utes1 ) ins]tion ( pun*$-c>d qu]y 7top74 ,us+ inquiry words1 comput] pr9ts citations ( /atutes 7middle72 !n1 on reque/1 full text 7bel[74 ,s9ce ! comput] itself does n 8tea*10 b m]ely acts z a g-betwe5 = ! man :o prep>$ ! lesson or program & ! /ud5t :o le>ns1 x w\ld seem t "s ( our tea*]s may become programm]s4 ,! ,sy/em ,developm5t ,corporation has brok5 ! tea*+ ma*9e program into ?ree phases3 exp]im5t+ ) ! effects ( _m v>iables on tea*+ ma*9e effectiv5ess1 develop+ a simplifi$ tea*+ ma*9e1 & f9ally1 analyz+ ! educational sy/em to f9d :]e & h[ ! ma*9e fits4 ,rese>* is /ill 9 ! fir/ phase1 t ( exp]im5t4 ,b x is kn[n t "s programs produc$ s f> %[ bett] results ?an conv5tional tea*+ me?ods1 & also t tea*+ ma*9es c tea* any subject involv+ factual in=mation4 ,?us x is evid5t !y w be useful 9 s*ools & also 9 indu/ry & milit>y tra9+ programs4 ,language ,if man is to use ! comput] to tea* himself1 he mu/ be able to conv]se ) x4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( comput]s x 0 said ) a good deal ( ju/ification t ! ma*9e 0 n only /upid b decid$ly insul> z well4 ,9 o!r words1 man spoke to x 9 its own language or n at all4 ,a ho/ ( diff]5t languages1 or 8compil]s0 z !y are (t5 call$1 7 con/ruct$ & _! orig9ators beat ! drums = !m4 ,) tongues l ,,algy1 ,,algol1 ,,cobol1 ,,fact1 ,,fl[matic1 ,,=tran1 ,,int]com1 ,,x1 ,,jovial1 ,,loglan1 ,,mad1 ,,pice1 & ,,prolan1 to "n a few1 ! comput] has become a t[] ( ,babel1 & a programm]'s tal5ts mu/ include l+ui/ics4 ,"o language call$ ,,algol1 = ,algori?mic ,ori5t$ ,language1 _h pretty smoo? sail+1 s9ce x consi/s ( algebraic & ari?metic notation4 ,out ( ! welt] ( bus9ess languages a compromise ,common ,bus9ess ,ori5t$ ,language1 or ,,cobol1 evolv$4 ,:at ,,cobol does = programm+ comput] problems is be/ %[n by comp>+ x ) in/ructions once giv5 ! ma*9e4 ,! sample bel[ is typical ( e>ly ma*9e language3 ,illu/ration3 ,,subtract ,,quantity-,,sold ,,f ,,balance-,,on-,,h&4 ,,if ,,balance-,,on-,,h& ,,is ,,n ,,less ,,?an ,,reord]-,,level ,,!n ,,g ,,to ,,balance-,,ok ,,else ,,compute ,,quantity-,,to-,,buy ,,total-,,sales-#c-,,mos_/#c4 ,recomm5d$ by a task =ce = ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,def5se1 indu/ry1 & o!r bran*es ( ! gov]nm5t1 ,,cobol nev]!less has _h a t\gh fight = acceptance1 & !re is /ill argum5t & confusion on ! language sc5e4 ,new tongues cont9ue to prolif]ate1 "s giv5 bir? by ,,algol & ,,cobol !mselves4 ,examples ( ?is g5]ation are ,,gecom1 ,,balgol1 & ,,tabsol4 ,"o wor?y attempt at a sort ( ma*9e ,esp]anto is call$ a pun-invit+ ,,uncol1 = ,univ]sal ,comput]-,ori5t$ ,language & seems to be a try = ! comput]'s vote4 ,"o h>ri$ ma*9e-language us] has sugge/$ =mation ( an 8,,algolics ,anonym\s0 gr\p = o!rs ( 8 ilk1 :ile ano!r p>tisan accuses 8 colleagues 9 ,arizona ( creat+ a new language :ile 8madd5$ by ! sc5t ( sagu>o blossoms40 ,x 0 rec5tly /at$ t p]haps by ! "t a decision is ultimately rea*$ z to :i* w be ! g5]al language1 !re w be no ne$ ( x because by !n ! comput] w h le>n$ to read & write1 & p]haps to li/5 & to speak z well4 ,rec5t developm5ts be> out ! cont5tion4 ,al?\gh x has us$ int]m$iate te*niques1 ! comput] has prov$ x c d a lot ) our language 9 "s ( ! tasks x has be5 giv54 ,among ^! is ! prep>ation ( a ,bible concordance1 li/+ pr9cipal words1 frequ5cy ( appe>ance1 & :]e !y are f\nd4 ,! comput] tackl$ ! same job on ! poems ( ,mat!w ,arnold4 ,= ?is *ore1 ,pr(essor ,/eph5 ,maxfield ,p>ri% ( ,cornell work$ ) ?ree colleagues & two te*nicians to program an ,,ibm #gjd data-process+ sy/em4 ,9 addition to compil+ ! li/ ( m ?an #aj1jjj words us$ mo/ (t5 by ,arnold1 ! comput] arrang$ !m alphabetically & also compil$ an app5dix li/+ ! numb] ( times ea* ^w appe>$4 ,to complete ! job1 ! comput] itself pr9t$ ! #ife-page volume4 ,! ,dead ,sea ,scrolls & ! works ( ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as h also be5 turn$ ov] to ! comput] = prep>ation ( analytical indexes & concordances4 ,at ,columbia ,univ]sity1 graduate /ud5t ,james ,mc,donough gave an ,,ibm #fej ! job ( sleu?+ ! au?or ( ,! ,iliad & ,! ,odyssey4 ,s9ce ! comput] c detect metric-patt]n diff]5ces o!rwise practically undiscov]able1 ,mc,donough felt t ! ma*9e c\ld prove if ,hom] _h writt5 bo? poems1 or if he _h help on ei!r4 ,?us f> he is sure ! entire ,iliad is ! "w ( "o man1 aft] comput] analysis ( its #aab1jjj words4 ,! project is "p ( 8 doctoral !sis4 ,a rec5t article 9 a te*nical j\rnal us$ a title sugge/$ by an ,,rca #eja1 & suspicion is /rong t ! ma*9es !mselves are guilty ( burn+ midnight kil[atts to produce ! acronyms t ab\nd 9 ! indu/ry4 ,! comput] is ev5 beg9n+ to prove its wor? z an ab/ract]4 ,o!r lit]>y jobs ! comput] has done include ! production ( a book ( f>es = ! ,int]national ,air ,transport ,association4 ,! comput] compil$ & !n pr9t$ out ?is #dbj-page book :i* gives %orte/ op]at+ di/ances betwe5 #a1fjj cities ( ! _w4 ,n[ newspap]s are beg9n+ to use comput]s to d ! "w ( typesett+4 ,^! excursions into ! writt5 language ( human be+s1 plus its exp]i5ce z a poet & 9 translation f language to language1 h und\bt$ly br\ght ! comput] a long way f its =m] prov9cialism4 ,z po9t$ out1 comput] "w ) human language g5]ally is n accompli%$ )\t int]m$iate /eps4 ,= example1 9 "o ( ! concordances m5tion$1 al?\gh ! comput] requir$ only an h\r to breeze ?r\gh ! "w1 a programm] _h sp5t weeks putt+ x 9 ! prop] %ape4 ,:at is ne$$ is a conv]t] :i* w d ! "w directly1 & ?is is exactly :at firms l ,digitronics supply to ! indu/ry4 ,?is comput]-age ,b]litz s*ool has produc$ conv]t]s = ,m]rill ,lyn*1 ,pi]ce1 ,f5n] ,smi? = use 9 bill+ its /ock-m>ket cu/om]s1 ,we>-,ev] z an ord]-tak+ ma*9e1 ,read]'s ,dige/ = mail+-li/ "w1 & ,s*]+ ,corporation = rat-reaction /udies 9 drug rese>*1 to m5tion a few4 ,! importance ( su* conv]t]s is obvi\s4 ,prior to _! use x 0 necess>y to type ,engli% manually into ! correct code1 a co/ly & "t-consum+ bus9ess4 ,conv]t]s are n *eap1 ( c\rse1 b !y op]ate s rapidly t !y pay = !mselves 9 %ort ord]4 ,m]rill ,lyn*'s ma*9e co/ #abj1jjj1 b paid back two-?irds ( t am\nt 9 sav+s ! fir/ ye>4 ,!re is ano!r important implication 9 conv]t] op]ation4 ,x c get comput] language out ( ,engli%--or ,japanese1 or ev5 ,swahili if ! ne$ arises4 ,a m rec5t ,digitronics' conv]t] h&les in=mation 9 ,engli% or ,japanese4 ,if ! comput] has its language problems1 man has !m also1 to ! n? degree4 ,!re are ab\t #c1jjj tongues 9 use today2 m]cifully1 sci5tific reports are publi%$ 9 only ab\t #ce ( ^!4 ,ev5 s1 at lea/ half ! treatises publi%$ 9 ! _w _c be read by half ! _w's sci5ti/s4 ,un=tunately1 ,,unesco e/imates t :ile #ej p] c5t ( ,russian sci5ti/s read ,engli%1 less ?an #a p] c5t ( ,unit$ ,/ates sci5ti/s return ! complim5t6 ,! ramifications ( ^! facts we w take up a little lat] on2 = n[ x w be suffici5t to consid] ! language b>ri] n only to sci5ce b also to culture & ! int]national ex*ange ( good w t c lead to & pres]ve peace4 ,esp]anto1 ,io1 & o!r tongues h be5 tri$ z common languages4 ,"o rec5t com] to ! sci5tific sc5e is call$ ,int]l+ua & seems to h consid]able m]it4 ,x is us$ 9 int]national m$ical congresses1 ) text total+ #cjj1jjj words 9 ! proce$+s ( "o ( ^!4 ,b a truly univ]sal language is1 l prosp]ity1 always j ar\nd ! corn]4 ,ev5 ! sci5tific community1 recogniz+ ! _m b5efits t w\ld accrue1 c no m adopt ,int]l+ua or ano!r ?an x c settle on ! metric sy/em ( measurem5t4 ,our integration problems are n ^? ( race1 color1 & cre$ only4 ,be=e ,sputnik our int]e/ 9 =eign te*nical lit]ature 0 n z ke5 z x has be5 s9ce4 ,"o imm$iate result ( ! satellite laun*+ by ! ,russians 0 am5dm5t ( ,u4,s4 ,public ,law #dhj to p]mit money f ! sale ( ,am]ican f>m equipm5t abroad to be us$ = translation ( =eign te*nical lit]ature4 ,we are vitally conc]n$ ) ,russia1 b h also arrang$ = ?\s&s ( pages ( sci5tific lit]ature f ,pol&1 ,yugoslavia1 & ,israel4 ,communi/ ,*9a is beg9n+ to produce sci5tific reports too1 & ,japanese capability 9 su* fields z electronics is evid5t 9 ! fact t ! revolution>y 8tunnel diode0 0 inv5t$ by ,esaki 9 ,japan4 ,x is und]/&able t we %\ld be conc]n$ ) ! output ( ,russian lit]ature1 & mu* att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! ,russian-,engli% translator develop$ by ,,ibm = ! ,air ,=ce4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! ,russians publi% a billion words a ye>1 & t ab\t "o-?ird ( ?is output is te*nical 9 nature4 ,conv5tional translat+ te*niques1 9 addition to be+ t$i\s = ! translators1 are hopelessly sl[1 retriev+ only ab\t #hj million words a ye>4 ,?us we are fall+ beh9d twelve ye>s ea* ye>6 ,outside ( a moratorium on writ+1 ! only solution is fa/] translation4 ,! ,air ,=ce translator 0 a ph5om5al a*ievem5t4 ,bas$ on a photoscopic memory--a glass disc #aj in*es 9 diamet] capable ( /or+ #ee1jjj words ( ,russian-,engli% diction>y 9 b9>y code--! sy/em us$ a 8"o-to-"o0 me?od ( translation4 ,! result initially 0 a translation at ! rate ( ab\t #dj words p] m9ute ( ,russian into an (t5 t]ribly scrambl$ & confus+ ,engli%4 ,! spe$ 0 limit$ n by ! memory or ! comput] itself b by ! input1 :i* _h to be prep>$ on tape by a typi/4 ,subsequ5tly a scann+ sy/em capable ( #b1djj words a m9ute upp$ ! spe$ consid]ably4 ,impressive z ! translator 01 its impact 0 dull$ aft] a %ort "t :5 x 0 f\nd t a second 8translation0 0 requir$ ( ! result+ pidg9 ,engli%1 p>ticul>ly :5 ! cont5t 0 highly te*nical4 ,z a result1 "w is be+ done on m sophi/icat$ translation te*niques4 ,mak+ use ( pr$ictive analysis1 & 8lexical buff]s0 :i* /ore all ! words 9 a s5t5ce = syntactical analysis be=e f9al pr9t\t1 sci5ti/s h improv$ ! translation a great deal4 ,9 effect1 ! comput] /udies ! /ructure ( ! s5t5ce1 det]m9+ :e!r modifi]s belong ) subject or object1 & *eck+ = ! mo/ probable grammatical =m ( ea* ^w z indicat$ by o!r words 9 ! s5t5ce4 ,! advanc$ nature ( ?is me?od ( translation requires ! help ( l+ui/ics exp]ts4 ,among ^! is ,dr4 ,sydney ,lamb ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley :o is develop+ a comput] program = analysis ( ! /ructure ( any language4 ,"o e>ly result ( ?is /udy 0 ! realization t n en\gh is actually kn[n ( language /ructure & t we mu/ backtrack & build a f\ndation be=e proce$+ ) comput] translation te*niques4 ,dr4 ,lamb's proc$ure is to fe$ ,engli% text into ! comput] & let x se>* = situations 9 :i* a c]ta9 ^w t5ds to be prec$$ or foll[$ by o!r words or gr\ps ( words4 ,! ma*9e !n tries to produce ! grammatical /ructure1 n necess>ily correctly4 ,! rese>*] mu/ help ! ma*9e by giv+ x millions ( words to analyze contextually4 ,:at ! comput] is do+ 9 h\rs is reproduc+ ! evolution ( language & gramm> t n only took place ov] ?\s&s ( ye>s1 b is subject to emotion1 faulty logic1 & o!r inaccuracies z well4 ,also work+ on ! translation problem are ! ,national ,bureau ( ,/&>ds1 ! ,army's ,(fice ( ,rese>* & ,developm5t1 & o!rs4 ,! ,army expects to h a comput] analysis 9 #aifb t w h&le #ie p] c5t ( ! s5t5ces likely to be enc\nt]$ 9 translat+ ,russian into ,engli%1 & to exam9e =eign te*nical lit]ature at lea/ z f> z ! ab/ract /age4 ,difficult z ! task seems1 work]s 9 ! field are optimi/ic & feel t x w be feasible to translate all languages1 ev5 ! ,ori5tal1 :i* seem to pres5t ! greate/ syntactical b>ri]s4 ,an indication ( success is ! ann\ncem5t by ,ma*9e ,translations ,inc4 ( a new te*nique mak+ possible contextual translation at ! rate ( #fj1jjj words an h\r1 a rate *all5g+ ! ability ( ev5 someone coa*$ 9 spe$-read+6 ,! rema9+ problem1 t ( do+ ! actual read+ & evaluation aft] translation1 has be5 br\ght up4 ,?is consid]able task too may be solv$ by ! comput]4 ,! ma*9es h already display$ a limit$ ability to p]=m ! task ( ab/ract+1 ?us elim9at+ at ! outset mu* mat]ial n relevant to ! task at h&4 ,ano!r bonus ! comput] may give u is ! ideal int]national & te*nical language = compos+ reports & pap]s 9 ! fir/ place4 ,a logical "q t comes up 9 ! discussion ( pr9t$ language translation is t ( ano!r k9d ( translation1 f v]bal input to pr9t1 or vice v]sa4 ,& f9ally f v]bal ,russian to v]bal ,engli%4 ,! spe$ limitation "h1 ( c\rse1 is human ability to accept a v]bal input or to deliv] an output4 ,)9 ?is framework1 h[ev]1 ! comput] is ready to demon/rate its great capability4 ,a rec5t article 9 ,sci5tific ,am]ican asks 9 its fir/ s5t5ce if a comput] c ?9k4 ,! answ] to ?is old *e/nut1 ! au?ors say1 is c]ta9ly yes4 ,!y !n proce$ to %[ t hav+ pass$ ?is te/ ! comput] mu/ n[ le>n to p]ceive1 if x is to be consid]$ a truly intellig5t ma*9e4 ,a comput] t c read = itself1 r ?an requir+ human help1 w\ld seem to be p]ceptive & ?us qualify z intellig5t4 ,ev5 e>ly comput]s su* z add+ ma*9es pr9t$ out _! answ]s4 ,all ! design]s h to d is rev]se ?is process s t pr9t$ human language is also ! ma*9e's input4 ,"o ( ! fir/ successful implem5tations ( a pr9t$ input 0 ! use ( magnetic ink *>act]s 9 ! ,magnetic ,ink ,"* ,recognition 7,,micr7 sy/em develop$ by ,g5]al ,electric4 ,?is te*nique call$ = ! pr9t+ ( in=mation on *ecks ) special magnetic inks4 ,process$ ?r\gh high-spe$ 8read]s10 ! ink *>act]s cause electrical curr5ts ! comput] c int]pret & translate into b9>y digits4 ,close on ! heels ( ! magnetic ink read]s came ^? t use ! pr9ciple ( optical scann+1 analog\s to ! me?od man uses 9 read+4 ,?is break?r\gh came 9 #aifa1 & 0 effect$ by sev]al diff]5t firms1 su* z ,f>r+ton ,electronics1 ,national ,ca% ,regi/]1 ,philco1 & o!rs1 includ+ firms 9 ,canada & ,engl&4 ,we read a page ( pr9t$ or writt5 mat]ial ) su* ease t we d n realize ! complex way our bra9s p]=m ?is miracle1 & ! optical scann] t 8reads0 = ! comput] requires a fanta/ically advanc$ te*nology4 ,z ! mat]ial to be read comes into ! field ( ! scann]1 x is illum9at$ s t its image is di/9ct en\gh = ! optical sy/em to pick up & project onto a disc sp9n+ at #aj1jjj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,9 ! disc are t9y slits :i* pass a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! reflect$ light onto a fix$ plate conta9+ m slits4 ,light :i* succe$s 9 gett+ ?r\gh ?is second s]ies ( slits activates a photoelectric cell :i* conv]ts ! light into proportionate electrical impulses4 ,because ! scann$ mat]ial is mov+ l9e>ly & ! rotat+ disc is mov+ transv]sely to ?is motion1 ! "* is scann$ 9 two directions = recognition4 ,op]at+ ) great precision & spe$1 ! scann] reads at ! rate ( #bdj *>act]s a second4 ,national ,ca% ,regi/] claims a pot5tial read+ rate = its scann] ( #aa1jjj *>act]s p] second1 a value n rea*$ 9 practice only because ( ! difficulty ( me*anically h&l+ docum5ts at ?is spe$4 ,us$ 9 po/-(fice mail sort+1 bill+1 & o!r simil> read+ op]ations1 optical scann]s g5]ally %[ a p]fect score = accuracy4 ,badly pr9t$ *>act]s are reject$1 to be deciph]$ by a human sup]visor4 ,x is ! optical scann] t increas$ ! spe$ ( ! ,russian-,engli% translat+ comput] f #dj to #b1djj words p] m9ute4 ,9 po/-(fice "w1 ! ,f>r+ton scann] sorts mail at bett] ?an #i1jjj pieces an h\r1 reject+ all h&writt5 addresses4 ,s9ce mo/ mail--#he p] c5t1 ! ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t e/imates--is typ$ or pr9t$1 ! electronic sort] relieves human sort]s ( mo/ ( _! task4 ,mail is automatically r\t$ to prop] b9s or *utes z fa/ z x is read4 ,! electronic read]s h n be5 )\t _! problems4 ,a drug firm 9 ,engl& _h s mu* difficulty ) "o t x return$ x to ! manufactur]4 ,we h m5tion$ ! "o t 0 confus$ by ,*ri/mas seals x took = =eign po/age /amps4 ,& z yet x is difficult = mo/ ma*9es to read any?+ b pr9t$ mat]ial4 ,an attempt to develop a ma*9e ) a m g5]al read+ ability1 "o :i* recognizes n only mat]ial 9 :i* exact crit]ia are met1 b ev5 r\gh approximations1 uses ! ge/alt or all-at-once patt]n pr9ciple4 ,us+ a dilat+ circul> scann+ me?od1 ! 8l9e draw+ patt]n recogniz]0 may make x possible to read *>act]s ( v>y+ sizes1 h&writt5 mat]ial1 & mat]ial n necess>ily ori5t$ 9 a c]ta9 direction4 ,a developm5tal model recognizes geometric figures reg>dless ( size or rotation & c c\nt ! numb] ( objects 9 its scope4 ,su* exp]im5tal "w incid5tally yields mu* in=mation on j h[ ! eye & bra9 p]=m ! deceptively simply tasks ( recognition4 ,once #aigj _h be5 ?\ght a t>get date = ma*9e recognition ( h&writt5 mat]ial1 b rese>*]s at ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories h already ann\nc$ su* a device t reads cursive human writ+ ) an accuracy ( #ij p] c5t4 ,! comput]1 a backw>d *ild1 le>n$ to write long be=e x c\ld read & does s at rates incompreh5sible to ^? ( u :o type at ! bl9d+ spe$ ( #ej to #fj words a m9ute4 ,a "*-g5]ator call$ ,,vidiac comes close to keep+ up ) ! bra9 ( a high-spe$ digital comput] & has a pot5tial spe$ ( #bej1jjj *>act]s1 or ab\t #ej1jjj words1 p] second4 ,x does ?is1 incid5tally1 by means ( good old b9>y1 #a-j te*nique4 ,to add to its virtuosity1 x has a rep]toire ( "s #cjj *>act]s4 ,rese>*]s else:]e are work+ on ! problems to be met 9 a ma*9e = read+ & pr9t+ out #a1jjj1jjj *>act]s p] second6 ,none ( u c talk or li/5 at mu* ov] #bej words a m9ute1 ev5 ?\gh we may conv9ce ourselves we read sev]al ?\s& words 9 t p]iod ( "t4 ,a simple te/ ( ability to he> is to play a record or tape at d\ble spe$ or fa/]4 ,our bra9s j won't take x4 ,= high-spe$ applications1 !n1 v]baliz$ input or output = comput]s is int]e/+ 9 !ory only4 ,h[ev]1 !re are occasions :5 x w\ld be nice to talk to ! comput] & h x talk back4 ,9 ! e>ly1 difficult days ( comput] developm5t1 say :5 ,babbage 0 work+ on 8 analytical eng9e1 ! design] probably (t5 spoke to 8 ma*9e4 ,he w\ld h be5 /unn$ to he> a response1 ( c\rse1 b today su* a ?+ is becom+ commonplace4 ,,ibm has a comput] call$ 8,%oebox10 a t]m bo? descriptive ( size & refre%+ 9 t is n =m$ ( initial capitals f an ad writ]'s blurb4 ,y c speak figures to ,%oebox1 tell x :at y want done ) !m1 & x gets busy4 ,?is is admitt$ly a baby comput]1 & x has a vocabul>y ( j #af words4 ,b x takes only #ca transi/ors to a*ieve t vocabul>y1 & jump+ ! numb] ( transi/ors to a m]e #b1jjj w\ld increase its ^w c\nt to #a1jjj1 :i* is ! numb] requir$ = ,basic ,engli%4 ,! ,russians are work+ 9 ! field ( spee* recognition too1 z are ! ,japanese4 ,! latt] are develop+ an ambiti\s ma*9e :i* w n only accept voice in/ructions1 b also answ] 9 k9d4 ,to make a true spee* syn!tiz]1 ! ,japanese ?9k !y w ne$ a comput] ab\t #e1jjj times z fa/ z any pres5t-day type1 s = a :ile x w\ld seem t we w /ruggle along ) 8cann$0 words appropriately select$ f tape memory4 ,we h m5tion$ ! use ( su* a tape voice 9 ! comput]iz$ gr\nd-controll$-approa* l&+ sy/em = aircraft1 & ! airl9e res]vation sy/em call$ ,unicall 9 :i* a c5tral comput] answ]s a dial$ reque/ = space 9 less ?an ?ree seconds--n ) fla%+ lights or a pr9t$ message b 9 a l\d cle> voice4 ,x mu/ pa9 ! comput] to answ] at ! snail-l human spe$ ( #aej words a m9ute1 s x salves its consci5ce by h&l+ #b1ajj inputs )\t gett+ flu/]$4 ,! writ]'s dream1 a typewrit] t has a microphone in/ead ( keys & clacks away m]rily :ile y talk into x1 is a dream no long]4 ,sci5ti/s at ,japan's ,kyoto ,univ]sity h develop$ a comput] t does j ?is4 ,an e>ly exp]im5tal model c\ld h&le a hundr$ ,japanese monosyllables1 b once ! break?r\gh 0 made1 ! ,japanese quickly pu%$ ! design to ! po9t :]e ! 8,sonotype0 c h&le any language4 ,at ! same "t1 ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories works on ! problem f ! o!r end & has come up ) a sy/em = a typewrit] t talks4 ,n f> beh9d ^! exotic uses ( digital comput] te*niques are su* ?+s z automatic translation ( telephone or o!r conv]sations4 ,in=mation ,retrieval ,x has be5 e/imat$ t "s #dde trillion words are spok5 9 ea* #af-;h\r day by ! _w's inhabitants1 mak+ ours a noisy planet inde$4 ,to be> out ! 8noisy0 connotation1 someone else has reckon$ t only ab\t #a p] c5t ( ! s\nds we make are real in=mation4 ,! re/ are extrane\s1 incid5tally tell+ u ! sex ( ! speak]1 :e!r or n he has a cold1 ! /ate ( 8 upp] plate1 & s on4 ,x is p]haps a bless+ t mo/ ( ^! trillions ( words vani% almo/ z soon z !y are spok54 ,! pr9t$ ^w1 h[ev]1 isn't s transi5t2 x n only hangs ar\nd1 b also piles up z well4 ,! pile is ev] deep]1 te*nical writ+s alone be+ en\gh to fill sev5 #bd-volume encyclop$ias ea* day1 accord+ to "o s\rce4 ,z ) our spee*1 p]haps only #a p] c5t ( ?is outp\r+ ( pr9t is ( real importance1 b ?is does n necess>ily make :at "s h call$ ! ,in=mation ,explosion any less difficult to cope )4 ,! lett]s ,,ir once /ood = infra-r$2 b 9 ! la/ ye> or s !y h be5 appropriat$ by ! words 8in=mation retrieval10 "o ( ! bigge/ bugaboos on ! sci5tific horizon4 ,x am\nts to sav+ ourselves f dr[n+ 9 ! fall\t f typewrit]s all ov] ! e>?4 ,!re are ^? cool heads :o decry ! pu%+ ( ! panic button1 pr(ess+ to see no expon5tial increase 9 lit]ature1 b a /eady #h p] c5t or s ea* ye>4 ,! button-pu%]s see x diff]5tly1 & !y c docum5t a pretty /rong case4 ,! te*nical community is suff]+ an emb>rassm5t ( ri*es 9 ! publications field4 ,:ile a d\bl+ 9 ! output ( te*nical lit]ature has tak5 ! la/ twelve ye>s or s1 ! next su* increase is expect$ 9 half t "t4 ,p]haps ! /ronge/ indication t ,,ir is a big problem is ! obvi\s fact t nobody really kn[s j h[ mu* has be51 is be+1 or w be writt54 ,= in/ance1 "o au?ority claims te*nical mat]ial is be+ amass$ at ! rate ( #b1jjj pages a m9ute1 :i* w\ld result 9 f> m ?an ! sev5 sets ( encyclop$ias m5tion$ e>li]4 ,no "o seems to "k = sure h[ _m te*nical j\rnals !re are 9 ! _w2 x c be 8p9po9t$0 some:]e betwe5 #ej1jjj & #ajj1jjj4 ,select+ "o set ( figures at r&om1 we le>n t 9 #aifj alone #a1cjj1jjj diff]5t te*nical articles 7 publi%$ 9 #fj1jjj j\rnals4 ,( c\rse !re 7 also #fj1jjj books on te*nical subjects1 plus _m ?\s&s ( te*nical reports t did n make ! =mal j\rnals1 b /ill might conta9 ! vital bit ( in=mation )\t :i* a break?r\gh w be put (f1 or a w> lo/4 ,our rese>* exp5ses 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ran ab\t #ac billion 9 #aifj1 & ! guess is !y w m ?an d\ble by #aigj4 ,an important "p ( rese>* %\ld be done 9 ! libr>y1 ( c\rse1 le/ our sci5ti/ sp5d 8 life re-inv5t+ ! :eel1 z ! say+ goes4 ,to back up ?is say+ are specific examples4 ,= in/ance1 a sci5tific project co/+ #bej1jjj 0 complet$ a few days be=e an eng9e] came across practically ! id5tical "w 9 a report 9 ! libr>y4 ,?is 0 a ,russian report incid5tally1 titl$ 8,! ,application ( ,boolean ,matrix ,algebra to ! ,analysis & ,syn!sis ( ,relay ,contact ,networks40 ,9 ano!r1 happi] case1 in=mation retrieval sav$ ,esso ,rese>* ,eng9e]+ ,co4 a mon? ( "w & _m ?\s&s ( doll>s :5 an al]t--or lucky--lit]ature se>*] came across a ,sw$i% sci5ti/'s monograph detail+ ,esso's propos$ exploration4 ,ano!r lit]ature se>* obviat$ te/s ( m ?an a hundr$ *emical comp\nds4 ,un=tunately n all rese>*]s d or c se>* ! lit]ature 9 all cases4 ,!re is ev5 a tongue-9-*eek law :i* gov]ns ?is ph5om5on--8,moo]'s0 ,law /ates1 8,an in=mation sy/em w t5d n to be us$ :5ev] x is m pa9ful = a cu/om] to h in=mation ?an = him n to h x40 ,z a result1 x has be5 said t if a rese>* project co/s less ?an #ajj1jjj x is *eap] to g ahead ) x ?an to conduct a rigor\s se>* ( ! lit]ature4 ,tongue 9 *eek or n1 ?is /ate ( affairs po9ts up ! ne$ = a usable in=mation retrieval sy/em4 ,=tune magaz9e reports t #aj p] c5t ( rese>* & developm5t exp5se c\ld be sav$ by su* a sy/em1 & #aj p] c5t 9 #aifj1 rememb]1 w\ld h am\nt$ to #a4c billion4 ,?us ! pr$iction t ,,ir w be a #ajj million bus9ess 9 #aife does n seem out ( l9e4 ,! ,c5t] = ,docum5tation at ,we/]n ,res]ve ,univ]sity sp5ds ab\t #f-a_/b simply 9 acquir+ & /or+ a s+le article 9 its files4 ,9 #aieh x c\ld se>* only ?irty ab/racts ( ^! articles 9 an h\r & realiz$ t m spe$ 0 vital if ! ,c5t] 0 to be ( value4 ,z a result1 a ,,ge #bbe comput] ,,ir sy/em 0 sub/itut$4 ,n[ rese>*]s g ?r\gh ! entire /ore ( lit]ature--ab\t #ej1jjj docum5ts 9 #aifj--;9 ?irty-five m9utes1 answ]+ up to fifty que/ions = 8cu/om]s40 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,! docum5t file ( ?is ,,walnut in=mation retrieval sy/em conta9s ! equival5t ( #c1jjj books4 ,a pun*$-c>d inquiry sy/em locates ! desir$ film/rip = view+ or photographic reproduction4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,?is image conv]t] ( ! ,,walnut sy/em optically r$uces & transf]s micr(ilm to film/rips = /orage4 ,ea* /rip conta9s #ii docum5t images4 ,z a docum5t image is transf]r$ f micr(ilm to film/rip1 ! image conv]t] simultane\sly assigns image file addresses & pun*es ^! addresses into pun*$ c>ds controll+ ! conv]sion process4 ,! key to in=mation retrieval lies 9 effici5t ab/ract+4 ,x has be5 cu/om>y to let p d ?is task 9 ! pa/ because !re 0 no o!r way ( gett+ x done4 ,un=tunately1 man does n d a completely objective job ( ei!r prep>+ or us+ ! ab/ract1 & ! result is a two-end$ guess+ game t wa/es "t & loses facts 9 ! process4 ,a ma*9e ab/ract+ sy/em1 devis$ by ,h4 ,pet] ,luhn ( ,,ibm1 picks ! words t appe> mo/ (t5 & uses !m z keys to r$uce articles to usable1 concise ab/racts4 ,a satisfactory solution seems ne> & w be a big /ep t[>d a completely comput]iz$ ,,ir sy/em4 ,= sev]al ye>s !re has be5 a runn+ battle betwe5 ! comput] ,,ir en?usia/ & ! die-h>d 8libr>ian0 type :o claims t in=mation retrieval is n am5able to any?+ b ! human t\*4 ,x is true t adapt+ ! comput] to ! task ( in=mation retrieval did n prove z simple z 0 hop$4 ,b detractors are 9 mu* ! same fix z ! man ) a %ovel try+ to build a dike aga9/ an angry ris+ sea1 :o sc(fs at ! scoop-%ovel op]ator hav+ tr\ble />t+ 8 eng9e4 ,! wise ?+ to d is drop ! %ovel & help ! ma*9e4 ,!re w be a m>riage ( bo? types ( retrieval1 b ,v]n] ,clapp1 presid5t ( ! ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c41 ,c\ncil on ,libr>y ,res\rces1 /at$ at an ,,ir symposium t comput]s (f] ! be/ *ance ( keep+ up ) ! flood ( in=mation4 ,"o sophi/icat$ approa* to ,,ir uses symbolic logic1 ! =te ( ! digital comput]4 ,9 a typical r$uctio ad logic1 ! foll[+ reque/ = in=mation3 ,an article 9 ,engli% conc]n+ aircraft or spacecraft1 writt5 nei!r be=e #aicg or aft] #aieg2 %\ld deal ) laboratory te/s lead+ to conclusions on an adhesive us$ to bond metal to rubb] or pla/ic2 ! adhesive mu/ n become brittle ) age1 mu/ n absorb pla/iciz] f ! rubb] adh]5t1 & mu/ h a peel-/r5g? ( #bj lbs_/92 x mu/ h at lea/ "o ( ^! prop]ties--no appreciable solution 9 fuel & no absorption ( solv5t4 becomes ! logical /atem5t3 ,k,ka,vbc,pde,cfg1 & ,k,ahi,k,k,k,nj,nkl,smn4 ,arm$ ) ?is symbolic abbreviation1 ! comput] c dig quickly into its memory file & come up ) ! s\ght-= article or articles4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! ab/ract+ te*nique be appli$ at ! opposite end ( ! cycle ) a v5geance am\nt+ to bir? control ( new articles4 ,a ,lockhe$ ,electronics eng9e] proposes a te*nical libr>y t n only accepts new mat]ial1 b also rejects any t is n new4 ,"h1 ( c\rse1 we may be skirt+ dang] ( ! type risk$ by human bir? control expon5ts--t ( unwitt+ly depriv+ ! _w ( a presid5t1 or a p[]ful sci5tific f9d+4 ,p]haps ! scre5+1 ! function ( 8g>bage disposal10 z "o blunt work] puts x1 %\ld be left z an aft]-!-fact measure4 ,despite e>ly setbacks1 ! comput] is mak+ progress 9 ! job ( in=mation retrieval4 ,figures ( a #cjj p] c5t improvem5t 9 effici5cy 9 ?is new application are cit$ ov] ! la/ sev]al ye>s4 ,op]ation ,,hay/aq1 a ,pat5t ,(fice project 9 ! *emical pat5t section acc\nt+ = "o-fif? ( all pat5ts1 %[$ a #ej p] c5t improvem5t 9 se>* spe$ & #ajj p] c5t 9 accuracy z a result ( us+ automat$ me?ods4 ,desk-size comput] sy/ems ) solid-/ate circuits are be+ (f]$ = in=mation retrieval4 ,! numb] ( sci5tific in=mation c5t]s 9 ?is c\ntry1 />t+ ) "o 9 #ahcj1 rea*$ #ei 9 #aidj & n[ /&s at #add4 ,significantly1 ( #b1jjj sci5ti/s & eng9e]s work+ at ^! c5t]s1 #cha are comput] p4 ,"s repres5tative in=mation retrieval applications mak+ good use ( comput] te*niques are ! selection ( ! sev5 a/ronauts = ! ,m]cury ,project f ?\s&s ( jet pilots1 ,proct] ,gamble's ,te*nical ,in=mation ,s]vice1 demon/ration ( an electronic law libr>y to ! ,am]ican ,b> ,association1 & ,food ,ma*9]y & ,*emical ,corporation's ,c5tral ,rese>* ,laboratory4 ,! ,national ,sci5ce ,f\ndation1 ! ,national ,bureau ( ,/&>ds1 & ! ,u4,s4 ,pat5t ,(fice are among ! gov]nm5t ag5cies 9 addition to ! milit>y s]vices t are int]e/$ 9 electronic in=mation retrieval4 ,summ>y ,! impact ( ! comput] on education1 language & communication1 & ! h&l+ ( in=mation is obvi\sly already /rongly felt4 ,^! inroads w be increas$1 & progress ha/5$ 9 ! ye>s ahead ( u4 ,p]haps ( ! greate/ importance is ! assign+ to ! ma*9e functions clos] to ! roots ( all ^! ?+s4 ,r ?an simply read or translate language1 = example1 ! comput] seems de/9$ to improve on x4 ,! same applies to ! process ( tea*+ & to ! /orage & retrieval ( data4 ,! electronic comput] has %[n t x is n a passive piece ( equipm5t1 b active & dynamic 9 nature4 ,x w soon be z mu* a "p ( ! classroom & libr>y z books2 "o day x may take ! place ( books !mselves4 ,illu/ration3 ,li*ty1 ,field ,ent]prises1 ,inc4 8,h[ come !y sp5d ov] a million on our new s*ool1 ,miss ,f9*1 & !n =get to put 9 comput] ma*9es80 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8',tis "o & ! same ,nature t rolls on h] c\rse1 & :oev] has suffici5tly consid]$ ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s might c]ta9ly conclude z to bo? ! future & ! pa/40 --,montaigne #aa3 ,! ,road ,ahead ,9 ,book ,"o ( ,les ,mis]ables1 ,cosette says1 8,w\ld y realize :at ,revolution is1 call x ,progress2 & w\ld y realize :at ,progress is1 call x ,tomorr[40 ,victor ,hugo's def9itions apply well to :at has be5 t]m$ by "s ! comput] revolution & by o!rs simply ! natural evolution ( species4 ,! comput] has a pa/ & a pres5t1 diff]5tiat$ ma9ly by ! slope ( ! l9e plott+ progress aga9/ "t4 ,its future1 :i* blurs some:at ) ! pres5t1 w obvi\sly be *>act]iz$ by a l9e approa*+ ! v]tical4 ,! intellig5t ma*9e has be5 po/ulat$ = ye>s1 fir/ by ! sci5ti/1 !n by ! sci5ce-fiction writ]1 & n[ aga9 by ! sci5ti/4 ,norb]t ,wi5] ( cyb]netics fame1 ,a%by & 8 homeo/at1 ,grey ,walt] & 8 me*anical turtles1 ,a4 ,m4 ,tur+1 ,john von ,neumann1 & o!rs1 h rec5tly be5 jo9$ by m5 l ,ramo1 ,samuel1 ,newell1 et al41 :o1 if n actually beat+ ! drums = ma*9e intellig5ce1 d m ?an admit to ! possibility4 ,= ea* su* pro !re are cons1 ( c\rse1 f s9c]e1 intellig5t au?orities :o 9 effect holl] 8,get a horse60 at ^? :o say ! comput] is com+4 ,! ,royal ,society 9 ,engl& met its /iffe/ opposition f o!rwise intellig5t p :o deplor$ naturalism 9 any =m4 ,p]haps su* detractors are a necess>y goad1 a "p ( progress4 ,at any rate1 sci5ce surviv$ ! ,ni*olas ,gimcrack jibes ( ! ,popes & ,addisons & ,swifts4 ,d>w9 0 m "r ?an ,butl]1 ?\gh ! latt] probably made m money f 8 "w4 ,today1 we f9d a p>allel situation 9 t !re are ^? :o refuse to accept ! comput] z an intellig5t ma*9e1 ?\gh x is int]e/+ to wat* ^! objectors regr\p & draw ano!r l9e ! ma*9e d>e n g pa/4 ,! writ]s ( sci5ce & pseudo-sci5ce h (t5 be5 accus$ ( fantasy & blue-sky dreams4 ,a case 9 po9t 9 ! electronics field is ! s-call$ 8j\rnali/or0 or m>vel\s successor to ! transi/or4 ,su* rid+ (f 9 all directions ) ea* new laboratory exp]im5t may be ju/ifi$ 9 t x prods ! sci5ti/ :o mu/ keep up ) ! press & 8 adv]tis+ dep>tm5t6 ,?is !ory app>5tly works1 & n[ x seems t ! mo/ />tl+ & fanta/ic /ories come n f writ]s1 b f ! sci5ti/s !mselves4 ,9 #aifj ! ,we/]n ,jo9t ,comput] ,conf]5ce 0 held 9 ,san ,francisco1 & "o session 0 devot$ to ! fanciful design & use ( a comput] ) ! problem-solv+ capability ( an intellig5t man & ! spe$ & capacity ( a high-spe$ data-processor4 ,x 0 propos$ to use 8tunnel-effect tetrodes0 ) a swit*+ "t ( "o t5-billion? ( a second z ! logic & /orage elem5ts4 ,^! w\ld be fabricat$ ( ?9-film mat]ials by electron beam microma*9+1 & #ajj billion ( !m c\ld be pack$ into a cubic in* volume4 ,) ^! t9y compon5ts & new circuit modes a sup]comput] c\ld be built1 /or$ ) in=mation1 & programm$ to solve :at "o ( ! p>ticipants call$ ! mo/ difficult problem ! human be+ faces today--t ( b>ga9+4 ,?is comput] has n yet be5 built2 x won't be = "s "t4 ,b design & fabrication are mov+ 9 t direction on a numb] ( fronts4 ,"o ( ^! fronts is t ( h>dw>e1 ! compon5ts us$ 9 build+ up ! comput] circuitry4 ,9 a decade we mov$ f vacuum tubes to transi/ors to ?9-film devices4 ,examples ( %r9kage on a gross scale are %[n 9 ! use ( a s+le f]rite core to replace "s tw5ty conv5tional 7relatively speak+67 compon5ts4 ,memory circuits once 7 me*anical relays or tube circuits4 ,briefly !y 7 transi/oriz$1 & !n f]rite cores4 ,magnetic ?9-film circuits h n[ be5 develop$1 mak+ r&om-access /orage almo/ z compact z ! sequ5tial tape reel4 ,z circuits gr[ small] ! major problem is manipulat+ !m1 or ev5 see+ !m1 & a sneeze c be disa/r\s 9 today's electronics plant4 ,"o e>ly j\rnali/or 0 ! molecul> circuit4 ,_m sci5ti/s & eng9e]s work+ 9 ! field sc(f$ at or d]id$ su* a vision>y s*eme4 ,b ! indu/ry has inde$ progress$ into ! integrat$-circuit te*nology--a sort ( halfway po9t--& is n[ on ! fr+e ( actual functional block te*niques 9 :i* ! individual compon5ts are n disc]nible4 ,electronic swit*+ & o!r action at ! molecul> level is close to reality1 & h>dhead$ sci5ti/s n[ speak calmly ( us+ a homog5e\s block ( mat]ial z a memory1 scann+ its ?ree dim5sions ) ! spe$ ( light to locate any "o or m ( billions ( bits ( data 9 a few in*es ( volume4 ,writ+ on ! head ( a p9 0 a prophetic bit ( %[man%ip1 & p9head-size comput]s w n necess>ily h p9head m5talities4 ,?is progress t[>d a seem+ly hopeless goal takes on an inexorable quality :5 ! writ+s ( von ,neumann are comp>$ ) ! /ate ( ! art today4 ,/>t+ out mu* fa/] b mu* l>g] ?an simil> elem5ts ( ! bra91 comput] compon5ts h be5 made ev5 fa/] :ile simultane\sly %r9k+ dramatically t[>d ! dim5sions necess>y to produce quantitative equival5ce4 ,x happ5s t ^! goals "w out well toge!r1 ! "o help+ ! o!r4 ,circuitry is n[ at ! po9t :]e spe$ is ultimately dep5d5t on t limit] ( all physical activity1 ! spe$ ( light1 or ( electrons ?r\gh a conductor4 ,only by putt+ elem5ts clos] toge!r c spe$ be increas$2 ?us "o quality is n a*iev$ at ! sacrifice ( ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp4 ,?is exp]im5tal 8memory plane0 consi/s ( #ace cryotron devices built up 9 a #ai-lay] 8s&wi*40 ,produc$ automatically1 x is an example ( cont9u$ %r9k+ ( comput] elem5ts4 ,z an example ( ! progress be+ made t[>d spe$+ up comput]s1 speak]s at ! rec5t ,w9t] ,g5]al ,meet+ ( ! ,am]ican ,in/itute ( ,electrical ,eng9e]s describ$ a com+ g5]ation ( 8gigacycle0 comput]s n[ on ! draw+ bo>ds4 ,pres5t electronic ma*9es op]ate at spe$s 9 ! megacycle range1 ) #ej million cycles p] second repres5t+ ! mo/ advanc$ /ate ( ! art4 ,giga means billion2 ?us ! new r\nd ( comput]s w be "s ?\s& times z fa/ z ^? n[ op]at+4 ,among ! firms :o plan su* ultraspe$ comput]s are ,,rca1 ,,ibm1 & ,sp]ry ,r& ,corporation4 ,to a*ieve su* a great increase 9 spe$ requires fa/] electronic swit*es4 ,transi/ors h be5 improv$1 & m exotic devices su* z tunnel diodes1 ?9-film cryotrons1 magnetic ?9-films1 p>ametrons1 & travel+-wave tubes are n[ com+ into use4 ,mu* ( ! developm5t "w is be+ support$ by ! ,u4,s4 ,bureau ( ,%ips4 ,op]ational gigacycle comput]s are expect$ )9 two ye>s6 ,n j ! brickmak]1 b ! ar*itect too has be5 busy 9 ! job ( optimiz+ ! comput]4 ,! sci5ce ( bionics & ! /udy ( symbolic logic lead to bett] ways ( do+ ?+s4 ,! comput] itself comes up ) improvem5ts = its next g5]ation1 mak+ "o "p d ! "w ( five1 & elim9at+ ! ne$ = :ole sections ( circuitry4 ,mo/ comput]s h a fix$ 8clock02 t is1 !y op]ate at a c]ta9 cyclic rate4 ,n[ appe>+ on ! sc5e are 8asyn*ron\s0 comput]s :i* don't /& ar\nd wait+ :5 "o job is done1 z _! pr$ecessors did4 ,"o advanc$ notion is ! 8gr[+0 ( complex electronic circuitry1 9 :i* a complet$ amplifi]1 or array ( amplifi]s1 is pull$ f ! cry/al furnace mu* ! way mat]ial = transi/ors is n[ gr[n4 ,pooh-pooh$ at fir/ z ridicul\s1 ! notion has be5 tri$ exp]im5tally4 ,s9ce a comput] is basically a multiplicity ( simple units1 ! idea is n f> (f at t4 ,x is conceivable t cry/al /ructure c be exploit$ to produce millions ( molecules ( ! prop] mat]ial prop]ly align$ = ! desir$ electronic action4 ,) ?is %r9k+ come ! b5efits ( small size1 l[ p[] consumption1 l[ co/1 & p]haps l[] ma9t5ance4 ,! comput] w be *eap en\gh = applications n n[ economically feasible4 ,z ?is happ5s1 :at w ! comput] d = u tomorr[8 ,a figure ( #g p] c5t is e/imat$ = ! am\nt ( pap]work ! comput] has tak5 ov] 9 ! bus9ess _w4 ,comput] m5 are eye+ a m>ket "s five times t am\nt4 ,x does n take a vivid imag9ation to decide t su* a p]c5tage is p]haps cons]vative 9 ! extreme4 ,comput] sales !mselves promise to %[ a f\rfold increase 9 ! five-ye> p]iod f #aifj to #aife1 & 9 ! pa/ pr$ictions h be5 exce$$ _m times4 ,z population gr[s & bus9ess exp&s 9 physical size & complexity1 x is obvi\s t ! comput] & its data-process+ ability w be call$ ^u m & m4 ,!re is ano!r factor1 t ( ! int]nationaliz+ ( bus9ess4 ,despite tempor>y setbacks ( w>1 protective t>iffs1 insul> t5d5cies1 & ! l1 9 ! long run we w live 9 "o integrat$ _w %runk by data l9ks t c get in=mation f "h to !re & back aga9 s fa/ x w be l conv]s+ ) someone across ! room4 ,already plann]s are talk+ worldwide comput]iz$ sy/ems4 ,z a ma!matical :iz1 ! comput] w relieve u ( our money worries4 ,c\pl$ ) ! cr$it c>d1 p]haps issu$ to u at bir?1 a c5tral comput] w p]mit u to make pur*ases any:]e 9 ! _w & to cr$it our acc\nt ) wages & o!r income4 ,if we try to ov]draw1 x may ev5 fla% a w>n+ light z fa/ z we put ! c>d 9 ! slot6 ,?is project int]e/s ,g5]al ,dynamics rese>*]s4 ,( m importance ?an m]ely do+ bookkeep+ is ! impact ! comput] w h on ! plann+ & runn+ ( bus9esses4 ,al?\gh x is f\nd 9 surveys t e p]son ?9ks comput] application rea*es to ! level j bel[ 8 9 ! managem5t /ructure1 pure logic %\ld ultimately w9 out ov] man's emotional frailties at all levels4 ,op]ations rese>*1 implem5t$ by ! comput]1 w make = m effici5t bus9esses4 ,decisions w increas+ly be made n by vice-presid5ts b by digital comput]s4 ,at fir/ we w h to ga!r ! necess>y in=mation = ^! electronic oracles1 b 9 "t !y w take ov] ?is function !mselves4 ,bus9ess is ti$ closely to education1 & we h _h a h9t ( ! place ! comput] w make = itself 9 education4 ,! effect on our motivation to le>n ( ! little ne$ = mu* le>n+ w be int]e/+4 ,b !n1 is mod]n man a weak] be+ because he kills a tig] ) a high-p[]$ rifle in/ead ( club or b>e h&s--or has no ne$ to kill ! tig] 9 ! fir/ place8 ,aft] hav+ prov$ itself z a pat5t se>*]1 ! comput] is sure to excel z inv5tor4 ,x w invade ! arti/ic field2 comput]s h already produc$ pleas+ patt]ns ( light4 ,music has felt ! effect ( ! comput]2 ! tr5d w cont9ue4 ,"s day n f> (f ! hi-fi en?usia/ w turn on 8 set & he> orig9al compositions "o aft] ! o!r1 turn$ out by ! comput] 9 z regul> or r&om =m z ! he>] *ooses to set ! controls4 ,ea* composition w br+ ! ?rill ( a new1 fre% exp]i5ce1 unless we *oose to g back 9 ! comput]'s memory = ! old music4 ,! comput] w d f> m 9 ! home ?an dream up r&om music = li/5+ pleasure4 ,! record$ telephone answ]] w give way to "o t c speak = u1 mak+ appo9tm5ts & s on1 & rememb]+ to br+ u up to date :5 we get home4 ,a small comput] to plug 9 ! wall may d o!r ?+s l select+ m5us & mak+ food pur*ases = next week1 plann+ our vacations1 & help+ ! y\ng/]s ) _! homework4 ,x is ev5 sugge/$ t ! comput] may provide u ) *ild-guidance help1 plus psy*ological c\nsel = ourselves & m$ical diagnoses = ! entire family4 ,! entire h\se might be comput]iz$1 able to run itself )\t human help--ev5 aft] p are gone1 z 9 ! grimly prophetic /ory by ,ray ,bradbury 9 :i* a neat self-controll$ home is %[n z ! curta9s "p 9 ! morn+4 ,a me*anical sweep] runs ab\t ga!r+ up du/1 ! air condition+1 light+1 & ent]ta9m5t are automatic1 all oblivi\s to ! fact t "o side ( ! h\se is black5$ f ! bla/ ( a bomb4 ,p]haps gu>d+ aga9/ t ev5tuality is ! mo/ important job ! comput] c d4 ,applications ( comput+ p[] to gov]nm5t h be5 giv52 & h9ts made ( ! sure pa? f simple tasks l ! c5sus & income tax1 ,peace ,corps "w1 & s on to decision-mak+ = ! presid5t4 ,j z logic is put to "w 9 optimiz+ bus9ess1 x c be us$ to plan & run a taut %ip ( /ate4 ,at fir/ su* an electronic cab9et memb] w be giv5 all available in=mation1 :i* x w evaluate s z to be ready to make sugge/ions on policy or em]g5cy action4 ,!re is m reason = x go+ beyond ?is /atus to become an active ag5t1 ?an !re is aga9/4 ,gov]nm5t has already become s complex t p]haps a human bra91 or a collection ( !m1 _c be dep5d$ on to make ! be/ possible decision4 ,z communications & transportation are spe$$ up1 ! problem is comp\nd$4 ,:]e once a comm&]-9-*ief c\ld weigh ! situation = days be=e he _h to commit himself & 8 c\ntry to a f9al *oice1 he may n[ be call$ ^u to make su* a f>-rea*+ decision 9 m9utes--p]haps m9utes f ! "t he is awak5$ f a s\nd sleep4 ,! /ronge/ opposition to ?is delegation ( p[] is man's own vanity4 ,no ma*9e c gov]n1 ev5 if x c ?9k1 ! politician exclaims4 ,! soldi] once felt ! same way2 b op]ations rese>* has giv5 him m confid5ce 9 ! ma*9e1 & ,,sage & ,,norad prove to him t survival dep5ds on ! spe$ & accuracy ( ! electronic comput]4 ,incurable romanticism is f\nd ev5 among our sci5tific community4 ,! ,national ,bureau ( ,/&>ds describes a comput] call$ ,,adam1 = ,absolutely ,div9e ,automatic ,ma*9e4 ,b ! sci5ti/s also "k t ,,adam1 or man1 ne$s help4 ,r ?an consid] ! ma*9e a tool1 or ev5 an ext5sion ( man's m9d1 "s are n[ conc]n$ ) a k9d ( m>riage ( man & ma*9e 9 :i* ea* plays a significant "p4 ,dr4 ,simon ,ramo1 executive vice presid5t ( ,?ompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc41 has t]m$ ?is mat+ ( ! m9ds 8intellectronics40 ,! key to ?is comb9ation ( man's intellect & t ( electronics is clos] rapport betwe5 ! team memb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,dep>tm5t ( ,def5se ,comput] use 9 def5se is typifi$ 9 ?is ,,birdie sy/em ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,army4 ,! man-ma*9e concept has gr[n into a sci5ce call$1 = ! pres5t at lea/1 8synnoetics10 a co9age f ! ,greek words syn & noe mean+ 8p]ceive0 & 8toge!r40 ,?is sci5ce is def9$ z ! treat+ ( ! prop]ties ( composite sy/ems1 consi/+ ( configurations ( p]sons1 me*anisms1 plant or animal organisms1 & automata1 ^: ma9 attribute is t _! ability to inv5t1 to create1 & to reason--_! m5tal p[]--is great] ?an ! m5tal p[] ( _! compon5ts4 ,we get a n-too-fanciful look into ! future 9 a pap] by ,dr4 ,l\is ,fe9 pres5t$ 9 ! summ] #aifa issue ( ,am]ican ,sci5ti/1 titl$ 8,comput]-relat$ ,sci5ces 7,synnoetics7 at a ,univ]sity 9 #aige40 ,dr4 ,fe9 is an au?ority on comput]s1 z build] ( ,,raydac 9 #aieb1 & z f\nd] & presid5t ( ! ,comput] ,control ,company4 ,! pap] o/5sibly is be+ giv5 to alumni "s ye>s h5ce by ! univ]sity presid5t4 ,dr4 ,fe9 tells u t /ud5ts 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,synnoetics /udy ! =mal languages us$ 9 communication betwe5 ! elem5ts ( a synnoetic sy/em1 op]ations rese>*1 game !ory1 in=mation /orage1 organization & retrieval1 & automatic programm+4 ,"o important /udy is t ( error1 call$ ,ham>tiology1 f ! ,greek ^w mean+ 8to miss ! m>k40 ,! speak] tells u t ?is field 0 v>i\sly call$ cyb]netics1 in=mation sci5ce1 & f9ally comput]-relat$ sci5ce be=e be+ =mally *ang$ to ! pres5t synnoetics4 ,a li/ ( ! c\rses available to und]graduates includes3 ,von ,neumann ,ma*9es & ,tur+ ,ma*9es ,elem5ts ( ,automatic ,programm+ ,!ory1 ,design1 & ,con/ruction ( ,compil]s ,algori?ms3 ,!ory1 ,design1 & ,applications ,f\ndations ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,models ,! ,!ory1 ,design1 & ,application ( ,non-,num]ic ,models ,heuri/ics ,self-,programm+ ,comput]s ,advice ,giv+--,man to ,ma*9e & ,ma*9e to ,man ,simulation3 ,pr9ciples & ,te*niques ,patt]n ,recognition & ,le>n+ by ,automata ,! ,gramm>1 ,syntax1 & ,use ( ,=mal ,languages = ,communication ,betwe5 ,ma*9e & ,ma*9e & ,betwe5 ,man & ,man ,man-,automaton ,sy/ems3 ,_! ,organization1 ,use1 & ,control ,problem-,solv+3 an ,analysis ( ! ,relation%ip ,betwe5 ! ,problem-,solv]1 ! ,problem1 & ! ,means = ,solution ,measurem5ts ( ! ,fundam5tal ,*>act]i/ics ( ! ,elem5ts ( ,synnoetic ,sy/ems ,( c\rse1 synnoetics spills ov] into ! o!r s*ools1 z %[n 9 ! foll[+ typical c\rses taught3 ,botany ,dep>tm5t ,ma*9e-,guid$ ,taxonomy 9 ,botany ,bus9ess ,s*ool ,synnoetic 8,bus9ess ,executives0 ,eng9e]+ ,s*ool ,!ory ( ,error & ,equipm5t ,reliability ,design ( ,analog & ,digital ,comput]s ,humanities ,dep>tm5t ,!ory ( ,creative ,processes 9 ! ,f9e ,arts ,law ,s*ool ,pat5t & ,prec$5ce ,se>*es ) ,comput]s ,! ,effect ( ,automata on ! ,legislative & ,judicial ,process ,ma!matics ,dep>tm5t ,! ,!ory ( ,graphs & ! ,organization ( ,automata ,m$ical ,s*ool ,comput]-,aid$ ,m$ical ,diagnosis & ,prescription = ,treatm5t ,philosophy ,! ,relation%ips betwe5 ,models & ! ,ph5om5a ,t ,are ,model$ ,psy*ology ,dep>tm5t ,/udies 9 ,intuition & ,intellect ( ,synnoetic ,sy/ems ,simulation 9 ! ,behavioral ,sci5ces ,sociology ,dep>tm5t ,synnoetics 9 ,mod]n ,society ,! speak] pr\dly ref]s to ! a*ievem5t ( ! faculty m$iator & a comput] 9 settl+ ! 8fam\s0 /rike ( #aigj4 ,he simply got bo? sides fir/ to agree t ea* w\ld b5efit by conc5trat+ att5tion--n on argu+ & f9ally settl+ ! issues "o at a "t--b on argu+ & f9ally settl+ on a program = an automaton4 ,?is program w\ld evaluate ! ?\s&s ( alt]native settlem5ts & w\ld recomm5d a small class ( settlem5ts ea* ( :i* 0 ne>ly optimum = bo? sides4 ,! automaton took only #cj m9utes to produce ! new contract la/ ye>4 ,x w\ld h tak5 "o ye> to d ?is manually1 & ev5 !n x w\ld h be5 done less exhau/ively4 ,agree+ on ! program took "o week4 ,( c\rse1 y h already he>d t 9 _m areas :]e p are b>ga9+ or try+ to make optimum decisions su* z 9 ! ,_w ,nations ,organization1 9 ! ,_w ,c\rt1 & 9 local1 f$]al1 & _w legislative bodies1 !re is n[ s]i\s consid]ation be+ giv5 to conv9c+ oppos+ factions to try to agree on a program & hav+ once agre$ on x1 ! contract or legislation or judgm5t or decision produc$ ) ! program w\ld be accept$ z optimum = bo? sides4 ,automata may also be provid$ to judges & juries to advise !m ( ! effects ( su* factors z weight ( evid5ce on v]dicts 9 civil cases4 ,dr4 ,fe9 makes an excell5t case = ! usefulness ( ! sci5ce ( synnoetics2 ! ma9 po9t ( *all5ge to 8 pap] might be t its date is too cons]vatively di/ant4 ,( int]e/ to u "h is ! idea ( man & ma*9e work+ 9 h>mony = ! good ( bo?4 ,ano!r pap]1 8,! ,com+ ,te*nological ,society10 pres5t$ by ,dr4 ,simon ,ramo at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,los ,angeles1 ,may #a1 #aifa1 also discusses ! possible results ( man-ma*9e coop]ation dur+ ! rema9d] ( ! tw5tie? c5tury4 ,he li/s m ?an a doz5 specific & important applications = intellectronics 9 ! decades imm$iately ahead ( u4 ,law1 m$ic9e1 eng9e]+1 libr>ies1 money1 & bank+ are among ^!4 ,po9t+ out t man is z unsuit$ = 8putt+ little m>ks on pieces ( pap]0 z he 0 = build+ pyramids ) 8 own muscles1 he sugge/s t our ?umbpr9ts & electronic scann]s w take c>e ( all acc\nt+4 ,tongue 9 *eek1 he does say t !re w cont9ue to be risks associat$ ) life2 = in/ance1 a transi/or burn+ out 9 ,kansas ,city may accid5tally wipe out someone's =tune 9 ,philadelphia4 ,! mak+ ( res]vations is on]\s busywork man %\ld n h to wa/e 8 valuable "t on1 & ! control ( mov+ ?+s too is bett] left to ! ma*9e = ! diff]5t reason t man's unaid$ bra9 _c cope ) complex & high-spe$ traffic art]ies1 be !y 9 space or on ,los ,angeles freeways4 ,bus9ess & milit>y managem5t w cont9ue to be aid$ by ! electronic ma*9e4 ,b beyond all ^! b5efits are ^? m important ones to our bra9s1 our society1 & culture4 ,tea*+ ma*9es1 says ,dr4 ,ramo1 c make education t5 times m effective1 ?us increas+ our intellect4 ,& ?is improv$ intellect1 multipli$ by ! electronic ma*9e into intellectronic bra9p[]1 is ! secret ( success 9 ! _w ahead4 ,in/ead ( an automat$1 robotlike regim5t$ _w t "s pr$ict1 ,ramo sees great] democracy result+4 ,us+ ! ?umbpr9t aga91 & ! spe$ ( electronics1 gov]nm5t ( our c\ntry w be truly by ! p z !y make _! feel+s kn[n daily if necess>y4 ,intellectronic legislation w ext5d beyond a s+le c\ntry's b\nd>ies 9 int]national coop]ation4 ,x w sma% ! language & communication b>ri]s4 ,x w p]mit & implem5t n only global pr$iction ( wea!r1 b global control z well4 ,because ( ! rapid h&l+ ( va/ am\nts ( in=mation1 man c =m m accurate & m logical concepts t w lead to bett] relations ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,summ+ up1 ,dr4 ,ramo po9ts out t intellectronics b5efits n only ! te*nical man b social man z well3 ,! real bottl5eck to progress1 to a safe1 ord]ly1 & happy transition to ! com+ te*nological age1 lies 9 ! sev]e disp>ity betwe5 sci5tific & sociological advance4 ,hav+ discuss$ te*nology1 ) emphasis on ! future ext5sion ( man's intellect1 we %\ld ask3 ,w intellectronics aid 9 remov+ ! imbalance8 ,w te*nology1 prop]ly us$1 make possible a correction ( ! v imbalance :i* causes te*nology to be 9 ! lead8 ,i believe t ! *all5g+ intellectual task ( accel]at+ social progress is = ! human m9d & n 8 less intellectual p>tn]4 ,b p]haps !re is hope4 ,if ! ma*9es d m ( ! r\t9e1 ev]yday1 intellectual tasks & insure ! success ( ! mat]ial op]ation ( ! _w1 man's "w w be elevat$ to ! high] m5tal doma9s4 ,he w h ! "t1 ! intellectual /ature1 & h5ce ! incl9ation to solve ! _w's social problems4 ,we mu/ believe he has ! capability4 ,illu/ration3 ,?ompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc4 ,in=mation 9 _m =ms c be display$ ) 8polymorphic0 data-process+ sy/ems4 ,ant$at+ synnoetics & intellectronics is ano!r idea ( su* a relation%ip4 ,9 8 book ,! ,_w1 ,! ,fle% & ! ,devil1 ,j4 ,d4 ,b]nal consid]s man's replacem5t ( v>i\s ( 8 body's p>ts ) me*anical sub/itutes until ! only organic rema9s w\ld be 8 bra94 ,?is is a sort ( wrong-end-to synnoetics1 b 9 #aibi :5 ! book 0 publi%$ !re 0 already pl5ty ( raw mat]ial = su* a notion4 ,wood5 legs & hooks or claws = h&s1 metal plates = bone mat]ial1 = example2 & ! artificial he>t already be+ develop$4 ,m rec5tly we h se5 ! artificial kidney us$1 along ) o!r organs4 ,we h also add$ electronic ge> to our organic compon5ts1 = example ! 8pacemak]0 implant$ 9 _m lagg>d he>ts to keep !m beat+ 9 prop] cad5ce1 pla/ic plumb+1 & ! l4 ,!re is a ^w = ?is sort ( "p-organic1 "p-me*anical man3 ! "n 8cyborg0 = cyb]netic organism 0 propos$ by two ,new ,york doctors4 ,_! te*nical def9ition ( cyborg is 8an exog5\sly ext5d$ organizational complex function+ z a homeo/atic sy/em40 ,!re is ( c\rse /rong prec$5t 9 nature = ! idea ( su* a b5eficial comb9ation3 symbiosis1 ! co-exi/5ce or close union ( two dissimil> organisms4 ,! %>k & 8 buddy1 ! pilot fi%1 are examples2 z are man & ! _m p>asites to :i* he is ho/4 ,! idea ( man be+ "p ( ma*9e h>ks back to y\?ful rides 9 soapbox rac]s1 & lat] exp]i5ces driv+ c>s or fly+ aircraft4 ,! pilot :o flew 8by ! seat ( 8 pants0 9 ! e>ly days easily felt himself "p ( ! ma*9e4 ,z planes--& c>s--grew bigg] & m complex1 ?is 8"o-man%ip0 became m remote & h>d] to id5tify4 ,! jet transport pilot may well h ! feel+ ( h&l+ a tra9 :5 he applies =ce to 8 controls & mu/ wait = x to be amplifi$ ?r\gh a s]vo sy/em & f9ally act on ! air /ream4 ,9 ! space age ! man-ma*9e comb9ation n only survives b also fl\ri%es4 ,ar?ur ,c4 ,cl>ke writes 9 a sci5ce-fiction /ory ( a legless space man :o s]ves well & happily 9 ! weightlessness ( 8 orbit+ satellite /ation4 ,we h two /ages ( developm5t1 !n1 n necess>ily sequ5tial3 man work+ ) ! ma*9e & man z "p ( ! ma*9e4 ,sev]al writ]s h sugge/$ a ?ird /age 9 :i* ! ma*9e gradually supplants ! weak] human be+ mu* z o!r =ms eas$ out ! d9osaur ( old4 ,william ,o4 ,/apl$on's book1 ,la/ & ,fir/ ,m51 describes immortal & lit]al giant bra9s4 ,_m writ]s believe t ^! 8bra9s0 w n be man's1 b ^? ( ! ma*9e1 s9ce frail humanity _c survive 9 its increas+ly ho/ile environm5t4 ,ar?ur ,c4 ,cl>ke is mo/ articulate 9 describ+ :at he calls ! evolution>y cycle f man to ma*9e4 ,z ! discov]y ( tools by pre-man creat$ man1 s man's inv5tion ( ?9k+ ma*9es set ab\t ! work+s t w make him ext9ct4 ,cl>ke !orizes t ?is break?r\gh by man may well be 8 la/1 & t 8 ma*9es w 8?9k0 him (f ! face ( ! e>?6 ,illu/ration3 ,hughes ,aircraft ,company ,)/&+ und]wat] pressures1 at dep?s too great = human div]s1 a ,mobot vehicle demon/rates 9 ?is arti/'s concept h[ x c p]=m salvage & rescue op]ations at ! bottom ( ! ocean4 ,z we move into a te*nology t embraces communication at a di/ance ( millions ( miles1 survival "u dea?-deal+ radiation1 & travel at fanta/ic spe$s1 man's natural equipm5t falt]s & he mu/ rely on ! ma*9e bo? z muscle & bra94 ,intellig5ce arose f life b does n necess>ily ne$ life1 9 ! s5se we ?9k ( x1 to cont9ue4 ,?us ! ext5sion ( man's intellect by electronics z hail$ by ,dr4 ,ramo w lead ultimately to our ext9ction4 ,cl>ke feels t ! man-ma*9e p>tn]%ip we h ent]$1 :ile mutually b5evol5t1 is doom$ to in/ability & t man ) 8 human %ortcom+s w fall by ! wayside1 p]haps 9 space1 :i* may well be ! ma*9e's true m$ium4 ,:at w rema9 w be ! intellig5t ma*9e1 r$uc$ z "t goes on to 8pure0 intellig5ce free to roam :]e x w & d :at x wants1 a matt]less /ate ( affairs t ev5 ,cl>ke mode/ly disclaims ! imag9ation to speculate ^u4 ,be=e writ+ man (f z a lo/ cause1 we %\ld inve/igate a /rong argum5t aga9/ su* a take-ov] by ! ma*9e4 ,man /&s ap>t f o!r creatures 9 8 consci\sness ( himself4 ,he alone seems to h ! ability to pond] 8 fate1 to reflect1 & to write books ab\t 8 ?\ghts & dreams4 ,less] animals app>5tly take :at comes1 d :at !y h to d1 & get ?r\gh ?is life ) a m9imum ( *ang+ _! environm5t & !mselves4 ,?us f> ! ma*9es man has built d n seem to be consci\s ( !mselves4 ,:ile 8rational be+s10 p]haps1 !y d n h ! 8ability to laugh0 or o!rwise %[ consci\s aw>5ess ( _! fate4 ,a t]m appli$ to primitive me*anical be+s is 8plugsuck]s40 ,!y le>n to seek out a wall socket or o!r =m ( en]gy & n\ri% !mselves mu* z animals mu/ d4 ,j :]e man himself swit*$ f plugsuck+ & began to rewire 8 own _w is a fuzzy dem>cation1 b he seems to h accompli%$ ?is4 ,consci\sness is subjective 9 ! extreme1 & ?us f> only 9 fiction h comput]s paus$ to reflect & consid] :at !y h done & its effect on !m4 ,h[ev]1 ! ma*9e-build]1 if n yet ! ma*9e itself1 is aw>e ( ?is consci\sness problem4 ,! ,h(fman ,electronics ,corporation rec5tly publi%$ an adv]tisem5t 9 ! =m ( a sci5ce-fiction /ory by ,a4 ,e4 ,van ,vogt4 ,! h]o is a def5se vehicle1 patroll+ ! ,pacific m effectively because x ?9ks x is k+ ( ! ,philipp9e ,deep4 ,its "n is ,itself1 & x has a built-9 alt] ego4 ,h(fman admits x has n produc$ a real ,itself--yet1 b po9ts out calmly t ! company's bus9ess is ! conv]sion ( sci5tific fiction to sci5tific fact4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t me*anical consci\sness may evolve :5 ! comput] beg9s to reproduce itself1 a />tl+ conception bless$ 9 !ory by logicians & ma!maticians1 z well z philosoph]s4 ,a crude self-replicat+ model has be5 built by sci5ti/s--a toy tra9 t reproduces itself by c\pl+ toge!r ! prop] c>s to copy ! p>5t tra91 a :imsical reflection ( ,samuel ,butl]'s baby eng9es play+ ab\t ! r\ndh\se door4 ,self-reproduc+ ma*9es may dep5d on a basic 8cell0 conta9+ a bluepr9t ( :at x %\ld look l :5 complete1 :i* simply hunts ar\nd = ! prop] p>ts & assembles itself4 ,9 ! process x may ev5 make an improvem5t or two4 ,hav+ f9i%$1 x w make a c>bon copy ( its bluepr9t & />t ano!r 8baby0 ma*9e on ! way4 ,writ]s on ?is subject--"s "u ! guise ( sci5ce-fiction--wond] at :at po9t ! ma*9es w beg9 to wond] ab\t h[ !y came to be4 ,w !y produce philosophic or religi\s lit]ature1 or w ?is /ep 9 evolution prove t consci\sness 0 a bad mutation1 l sev5 f+]s or ?ree heads1 & drop x f ! li/ ( in/ructions8 ,cl>ke admits t ! take-ov] by ! ma*9es is c5turies (f2 meantime we c enjoy a gold5 age ( intellectronic p>tn]%ip ) ! ma*9e4 ,l9us ,paul+1 po9t+ out t k ( molecul> /ructure has tak5 away ! my/]y ( life1 hopes t a 8molecul> !ory ( ?9k+0 w be develop$ & s improve man t he may remake 8 ?\ghts & 8 _w4 ,ma!matician ,john ,williams believes t exi/+ human intellig5ce c pres]ve its di/9ction only by )draw+ f competition ) ! ma*9e & def9+ human intellig5ce rigor\sly en\gh to exclude t ( ! ma*9es4 ,he sugge/s us+ ! comput] n j = a molecul> !ory ( ?9k+1 b also 9 ! sci5ce ( g5etics to design our *ildr56 ,:atev] lies ahead1 x seems obvi\s t "o ( ! mo/ important ?+s ! comput] c help u ?9k ab\t is ! comput] itself4 ,x is a big "p ( our future4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,index ,abacus1 #e1 #ba1 #bb1 #fj1 #he1 #abi1 #agh1 #aha ,ab/ract+ comput]1 #bde1 #bdh ,accuracy analog comput]1 #hb digital comput]1 #hg ,ack]man1 #aaj ,,adam comput]1 #beh ,adaptive pr9ciple1 #bje ,add]s1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aae ,add+ ma*9e1 #abi ,addition1 comput]1 #ajf ,address1 comput]1 #fc ,adv]tis+1 use ( comput]1 #ahj ,,aid1 #ahc1 #ahd ,,aiee1 #bed ,aik51 #df ,air ,=ce1 #f1 #acb1 #acc1 #aea1 #afj1 #ahb1 #bbe ,airborne comput]1 #ij1 #aed1 #aeh1 #afb ,ai,research ,mfg4 ,co41 #fi ,airl9e res]vations1 comput]1 #eh1 #ahc1 #ahd ,algebra1 ,boolean1 #h1 #aaj1 #aai ,alpha rhy?m1 #abf ,alphanum]ic code1 #ajd ,am]ican ,premium ,sy/ems1 ,inc41 #age ,analog comput]1 #ba1 #de1 #gb1 #gd1 #hj1 #abe1 #bjc direct1 #gf1 #gi direct-curr5t1 #gf discrete1 #hj indirect1 #gf1 #gi me*anical diff]5tial analyz]1 #gf scal+1 #gf ,analytical eng9e1 #cf1 #cg ,,& gate1 #aab1 #aac1 #aag1 #aai ,antiky!ra comput]1 #be ,apollo comput]1 #ahb space vehicle1 #afi ,applications1 digital comput]1 #ib ,a priori concept1 #abf1 #ace ,,apt comput]1 #bji ,aqu9as1 ,/4 ,?omas1 #bce ,arabic numb]s1 #bc ,ar*ytas1 #be ,ari?metic unit1 comput]1 #ea1 #fj ,ari/otle1 #bf ,ari/otelian logic1 #aji ,arizona ,j\rnal1 #agi ,army1 ,u4 ,s41 #ba1 #gh1 #adf1 #bei ,ars ,magna1 #bh1 #bi ,,artoc1 #aeg ,artron1 #acf ,a%by1 ,w4 ,ross1 #ea1 #abd1 #abh1 #bea ,,asc comput]1 #aee ,associat$ ,press comput] sy/em1 #agg ,asyn*ron\s comput]1 #bee ,a!na comput]1 #eb ,atlas missile1 #d1 #afh ,atlas-,c5taur missile1 #afi ,atomic ,en]gy ,commission1 ,u4 ,s41 #adi ,automatic control1 #hj1 #bjc pilot1 #bjc ,automation1 #bf1 #hj1 #agc1 #aha1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #baa1 #bag ,automaton1 #bf ,auto-p>k+1 use ( comput]1 #agh ,autonetics1 #bjg ,,autoprompt comput]1 #baj ,,autotag1 #aef ,auto,tutor tea*+ ma*9e1 #bac1 #bbe ,b-#bi1 #de1 #gg1 #hb ,babbage1 #e1 #ce1 #cg1 #da1 #ea ,babylonian ari?metic1 #bc ,balli/ic comput]1 #hc ,bank+1 #a1 #agb1 #agc ,b> ,association1 ,am]ican1 #aeb1 #bdi ,battelle ,memorial ,in/itute1 #aie ,batt51 ,b>ton1 ,dur/9e1 ,osborn1 #ahj ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories1 #d1 #adg1 #bda ,b5dix ,corp41 #ahb1 #aij1 #bah ,b5dix ,g-#ae comput]1 #ahc1 #ahh ,b]nal1 ,j4 ,d41 #bfd ,b]n/e91 ,alex1 #ada ,bettelheim1 ,bruno1 #add ,,biax memory units1 #aj ,bi]ce1 ,ambrose1 #dc1 #aba ,,b9ac comput]1 #g1 #dg ,b9>y1 #ih digit1 #ee1 #ajd notation1 #aja1 #ajc pure1 #ajb1 #ajd sy/em1 #he1 #ig1 #ii v>iables1 #aad ,bionics1 #g1 #acb1 #ace1 #bee ,,birdie1 #bei ,birds1 c\nt+1 #ah ,bit1 #ee1 #ajd 8,black box0 concept1 #ej1 #aae ,,blades sy/em1 #aia ,block diagram1 #eh ,,bmews1 #aei ,boe+ ,airplane ,co41 #ahf ,boltzmann equation1 #aeh ,bom>c missile1 #ahf ,book ( ,contemplation1 #bg ,book ( ,k1 #f1 #bbf ,boole1 ,george1 #ch1 #aaj ,boolean algebra1 #ch1 #aaj1 #aai ,bradbury1 ,ray1 #aec1 #beg ,bra91 #aba ,bra9 comput]1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj human1 #hg1 #abe1 #abh ,,bra9iac comput]1 #hh1 #aag ,britton1 ,lionel1 #aba ,buff] comput]1 #ee lexical1 #bch ,build+s1 automation (1 #bag ,burack1 ,b5jam91 #dd ,bureau ( ,m9es1 ,u4 ,s41 #ahi ,bureau ( ,%ips1 ,u4 ,s41 #bee ,burke1 ,edmund1 #cb ,burkh>t1 ,william1 #de ,bu%1 ,vannev>1 #ac1 #de1 #gf ,bus9ess1 comput] 91 #aga ,bus9ess managem5t1 use ( comput]1 #ab1 #adc ,butl]1 ,samuel1 #cb1 #cc1 #aba1 #beb1 #bfh ,,calculo comput]1 #ge ,calculus ,ratioc9ator1 #aji ,cal5d>s z comput]s1 #bd ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology1 #afi ,canc] ,society1 ,am]ican1 #aic ,c&ide1 #cj ,capek1 ,k>el1 #dc1 #aba1 #bae ,capl91 ,mortim]1 #aej ,c>roll1 ,lewis1 #ch1 #aah ,,cdc #afjd comput]1 #afe ,celanese ,corp4 ( ,am]ica1 #bjg ,cele/ial simulator1 #he ,c5sus1 #da ,c5sus ,bureau1 ,u4 ,s41 #adi ,*a9 circuit1 #abg ,*>act]i/ica ,univ]salis1 #aji ,*>actron tube1 #ff ,*eck]s 7game71 #h1 #adc ,*eck+1 comput]1 #fj ,*eck\t comput]1 #ahc ,*emical ,corp41 #bdi ,*ess1 #h1 #i1 #af1 #ce1 #ii1 #adb1 #aef ,circuit *a91 #abg delay-l9e1 #fc flip-flop1 #fc1 #aae molecul>1 #i1 #bec pr9t$1 #fb rev]b]ation1 #abh ,clapp1 ,v]n]1 #bdh ,cl>ke1 ,ar?ur ,c41 #bfe ,,class tea*+ ma*9e sy/em1 #bbf-bbh ,clock1 #bj1 #bd1 #ef1 #he ,,cobol language1 #bcd ,code1 comput] b9>y-cod$ decimal1 #ajc1 #ajf b9>y-octal1 #ajf economy1 #ajf excess-#c1 #aje1 #aad 8,gray10 #ajf reflect$ b9>y1 #ajf self-*eck+1 #aje ,color comput]1 #d ,comm]cial ,art1 #age ,commission on ,pr(essional & ,hospital ,activity1 #aid ,communication1 use ( comput]s1 #agi ,comput] ,,adam1 #beh addition1 #ajf airborne1 #ij1 #aed1 #aeh1 #afb analog1 #ba1 #de1 #gb1 #gd1 #hj1 #abe1 #bjc direct1 #gf1 #gi direct-curr5t1 #gf discrete1 #hj indirect1 #gf1 #gi me*anical diff]5tial analyz]1 #gf scal+1 #gf ,antiky!ra1 #be ,apollo1 #ahb space vehicle1 #afi applications1 digital1 #ib ,,ascc1 #aee asyn*ron\s1 #bee ,a!na1 #eb balli/ic1 #hc ,b5dix ,g-#ae1 #ahc1 #ahh ,,b9ac1 #g1 #dg ,,bra9iac1 #hh1 #aag ,,calculo1 #ge ,,class1 #bbf-bbh code1 b9>y-cod$ decimal1 #ajc1 #ajf color1 #d def9ition1 #abi diction>y1 #di1 #ej diff]5ce eng9e1 #e1 #ce digital1 #ah1 #de1 #gc1 #hd1 #abe1 #bjc division1 #ajg d-x-y\rself1 #ge1 #hh1 #aag1 #adg electrical-analog1 #ge electronic1 #a1 #df1 #abb1 #aea ,,eniac1 #g1 #dj1 #df1 #he1 #bae ,,erma1 #agc family tree1 #hf ,,f9d] sy/em1 #afa fl[ *>t1 #eh1 #ei ,,ge #baj1 #agb ,,ge #bbe1 #bde g5]al-purpose1 #ed1 #ha1 #aia gigacycle1 #bed 8,h&10 #acb1 #bad1 #bae h\sehold1 #ae1 #beg hybrid1 #hj1 #hd1 #ib ,,illiac1 #aig input1 #ea1 #ed1 #abe ,,johnniac1 #aa1 #dg1 #abi1 #adj1 #adb language1 #bcc ,,l>c1 #dg1 #afb1 #aia ,,lgp-#cj1 #aih limitations1 #hi ,,maniac1 #dg1 #aef1 #afe ,memex1 #ac mill1 #ch1 #ea1 #fj ,,mips1 #aei ,,mobidic1 #aeg ,,muse1 #dh music1 #aa1 #ib1 #aif1 #beg on-l9e1 #ha1 #bje on-/ream1 #hc1 #bjg output1 #ea1 #fe1 #abe p>ts1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec problem-solv+1 #adj1 #adc ,psy*ological ,matrix ,rotation1 #gh1 #id ,q-#e1 #gg ,,ramac1 #aej1 #aea1 #aih1 #aii ,range ,keep] ,m>k ,i1 #db ,,raydac1 #bfj ,,rca #eja1 #aea 8real-"t10 #gh1 #afh1 #bjb1 #bje ,,recomp1 #dg revolution1 #bea ,sabre1 #ahc ,,sage1 #c1 #ab1 #cg1 #ec1 #aeh1 #aei1 #bbf1 #bei sequ5tial1 #abf 8,%oebox10 #bdb 8s(tw>e10 #ed spaceborne1 #afg special-purpose1 #gi ,,ssec1 #aee1 #aef ,/one ,age1 #ba /ore1 #cf1 #fb ,,/ret*1 #dg1 #dh subtraction1 #ajf te/+1 #aag ,,univac1 #dg1 #adi1 #aea1 #aga1 #bba ,,vidiac1 "*-g5]ator1 #bdb ,zuse ,l#bc1 #aii ,comput] ,control ,co41 #bfj ,conjunctive op]ation1 #cg1 #ea1 #aaj ,consci\sness1 #add1 #ade1 #bfg ,cont9u\s analog comput]1 #hj ,cont9u\s digital comput]1 #hj ,cont9u\s quantity1 #gc ,control1 comput]1 #ea1 #ef ,control ,data ,corp41 #aid ,conv]sion analog-to-digital1 #gd digital-to-analog1 #gd ,conv]t]s1 #id ,cook1 ,william ,w41 #bi ,copl&1 ,a>on1 #aa1 #aif ,cornell ,m$ical ,college1 #abc ,cornell ,univ]sity1 #acc ,corrigan ,communications1 #bca ,c\ncil on ,libr>y ,res\rces1 #bdh ,c\nt+ ,au/ralian1 #bj birds1 #ah bo>ds1 #bj digital1 #hd ma*9es1 #bj man1 #ai modulo-1 #ig1 #aja ,cr$it c>d1 #ac1 #bef ,cryog5ics1 #gj compon5ts1 #fc ,cryotron1 #i1 #hh1 #ada1 #bed1 #bee ,cyb]tron1 #ace1 #aci ,cyborg1 #bfe ,da$alus1 #ah ,d>w91 ,*>les1 #cb1 #acg1 #beb ,data l9k1 #ad1 #ahe1 #bef logg]1 #bje process+1 #bb1 #aga1 #bfd record+ m$ia1 #eg ,day/rom1 ,inc41 #baa ,dead ,sea ,scrolls1 #bce ,decimal sy/em1 #ai ,decision-mak+1 #ia ,def5se1 use ( comput]1 #bei ,delay-l9e circuit1 #fc ,de,morgan1 ,augu/us1 #ch1 #aaj1 #aae ,dep>tm5t ( ,comm]ce1 ,u4 ,s41 #adi1 #bba ,dep>tm5t ( ,def5se1 ,u4 ,s41 #adh1 #bcd ,design1 use ( comput]1 #ad1 #agb1 #ahf1 #bfh ,desk calculator1 #ea ,diagno/ic use ( comput]1 #aid ,diamond ,ordnance ,fuze ,laboratory1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army1 #fi ,diction>y1 comput]1 #di1 #ej ,,didak tea*+ ma*9e1 #bbd ,diff]5ce eng9e1 #e1 #ce ,digiflex tra9]1 #bbe ,digital comput]1 #ah1 #de1 #gc1 #hd1 #abe1 #bjc ,digital diff]5tial analyz]1 #id ,digitronics1 #bcf ,discrete quantity1 #gc ,disjunctive op]ation1 #aaj ,division1 comput]1 #ajg ,dodgson1 ,*>les ,l41 #ch ,d-x-y\rself comput]1 #ge1 #hh1 #aag1 #adg ,d\glas ,aircraft ,co41 #fe ,d[ ,*emical ,corp41 #bjh ,du ,pont ,corp41 #bjh ,dunsany1 ,"l1 #ajh ,eccles-,jordan circuit1 #dg ,eck]t1 ,j4 ,presp]1 #dg1 #he ,,edge comput] sy/em1 #ahe ,education1 use ( comput]s1 #bai ,elan vital1 #abg ,election1 use ( comput]s1 #aej ,electric ,que/ionnaire1 #acc ,electric utilities1 use ( comput]s1 #ic1 #bjh ,electrical-analog comput]1 #ge ,electrical logic ma*9e1 #dd ,electronic comput]s1 #a1 #df1 #abb1 #aea ,elephant1 comp>$ ) comput]1 #ef ,encyclop$ia ,britannica1 #f1 #bbf ,,eniac comput]1 #g1 #dj1 #df1 #he1 #bae ,ere:on1 #cb1 #aba ,,erma comput]1 #agc ,ern/1 ,he9ri*1 #acb1 #bae ,eul]1 #adb1 #adc1 #afc ,,euratom1 #aeh ,family tree1 comput]1 #hf ,f>nswor? ,c> ,pool logic problem1 #aaf1 #aah ,f>r+ton ,electronics1 ,inc41 #bdj ,f$]al ,aviation ,au?ority1 #adi1 #afa ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 #adh ,fe$back pr9ciple1 #cf1 #bjd ,fe91 ,l\is1 #bfj ,f]mat's !orem1 #ef ,f]ranti1 ,ltd41 #ahb ,f]rite cores1 #i1 #fc1 #aca1 #bec ,,fieldata comput] family1 #aeg ,,f9d] comput] sy/em1 #afa ,f9n1 ,james ,d41 #bbd ,flexibility ( digital comput]1 #hi ,flight simulator1 #hc ,flip-flop circuit1 #dg1 #fc1 #aae fluid1 #gj ,float+-po9t ari?metic1 #ajh ,fl[ *>t1 comput]1 #eh1 #ei ,flyball gov]nor1 #cf1 #bjc ,fluid comput]1 #gj ,food ,ma*9]y ,corp41 #bdi ,=d ,in/rum5t ,co41 #db ,=re/]1 ,j4 ,w41 #aii ,=tune1 #bde ,frank5/e91 #db1 #bab ,fre$1 ,roy1 #aeb ,free le>n+1 #g ,freight tra9s controll$ by comput]1 #baa ,game-play+1 #h1 #ab1 #adc ,gam+ !ory1 #ib ,g>dn]1 ,m>t91 #adj ,,ge #baj comput]1 #agb ,,ge #bbe comput]1 #bde ,g5]al ,dynamics ,corp41 #afi1 #ahc1 #bef ,g5]al ,electric ,co41 #aj1 #de1 #fg1 #gf1 #gg1 #gi1 #aga1 #agb1 #bdj ,g5]al ,motors ,corp41 #bah ,g5]al ,precision1 ,inc41 #fi ,g5]al-purpose comput]1 #ha1 #he1 #aia ,ge/alt pr9ciple1 #bda ,giant ,bra91 #aba ,gigacycle comput]1 #bed ,gilfillan ,radio1 #fg ,gl5n1 ,john1 #c ,g 7game71 #adc ,goal-seek+ behavior1 #abd ,gdel1 ,kurt1 #ace 8,golem10 #bg ,goodri* ,tire ,rubb] ,co41 #ahh ,goodye> ,aircraft ,corp41 #gg ,tire ,rubb] ,co41 #bjh ,gor51 ,*>les1 #bbf ,gov]nm5t1 #beh1 #bfc ,greek numb]s1 #bc ,grieg1 #aa ,grimaldi1 #ii ,gulliv]'s ,travels1 #cj ,half-add]1 #ajg1 #aae ,hamilton1 ,sir ,william1 #aji 8,h&0 comput]1 #acb1 #bad1 #bae ,h&writ+ read]1 #bda ,h>c\rt-,brace1 #bbf ,h>v>d ,bus9ess ,review1 #aga1 #agb ,h>v>d ,univ]sity1 #acb1 #bag1 #bbd ,hawkeye aircraft comput]1 #afb ,hea?1 ,d4 ,c41 & ,co41 #bbf ,,hay/aq1 #bdi ,heikolator comput]1 #aie ,h]o1 #ah ,heuri/ics1 #ef1 #adb ,high-s*ool comput] tra9+1 #ae1 #bbj ,high-temp]ature susceptibility1 #fi ,hilb]t1 ,david1 #aaj ,hill]1 ,lej>5 ,a41 ,jr41 #aig ,h9du numb]s1 #bc ,,hipo sy/em1 #aie ,hippo problem1 #aee ,h(fman ,electronics ,corp41 #bfg ,holl&1 ,james1 #bbd ,holl]i? cod+1 #db ,holl]i?1 ,h]man1 #b1 #da1 #ed1 #adh ,holmes1 ,oliv] ,w5dell1 #aji ,homeo/at1 #abd ,hom]1 #bf1 #dg ,hood1 ,h4 ,p4 ,sons1 #bjf ,hoov] ,commission1 #adi ,h\rglass1 #bd ,h\sehold comput]1 #ae1 #beg ,hughes ,aircraft ,co41 #bjc1 #bae1 #bbb ,hugo1 ,victor1 #bea ,hybrid comput]1 #hj1 #hd1 #ib ,,ibm c>ds1 #da ,,ibm #gjd comput]1 #h ,,ibm #adja comput]1 #age ,,ibm #afbj comput]1 #agg ,,ibm #gjgd comput]1 #age ,ic>us1 #ah ,ice cream1 comput]-made1 #bjf ,,illiac comput]1 #aig 8,illiac ,suite10 #aif1 #aig ,iliad1 #bf1 #bce ,india1 *ess leg5d1 #ii ,indu/rial ,adv]tis+ ,rese>* ,in/itute1 #ahj ,indu/rial revolution1 #agc ,indu/ry1 #aha 8,inflexible ,logic10 #cb ,in=mation explosion1 #bde ,in=mation retrieval1 #ad1 #bdc1 #bdf1 #bdg ,input1 comput]1 #ea1 #ed1 #abe ,in/amatic comput] sy/em1 #ahc ,insurance1 use ( comput]1 #ib1 #agc ,intellectronics1 #beh1 #bfb ,intellig5ce1 #abd1 #ace ,int]ag5cy ,data ,process+ ,committee1 #adh ,int]nal ,rev5ue ,dep>tm5t1 ,u4 ,s41 #aej ,int]national ,air ,transport ,association1 #bce ,int]national ,association ( ,ma*9i/s1 #bah ,int]national ,bus9ess ,ma*9es ,corp41 #fi1 #bcg1 #bdg1 #bee ,int]l+ua1 #bcg ,inv5tory1 #agf1 #ahe ,inv]t]1 #aad1 #aai ,,ire1 #agj ,isaacson1 ,l4 ,m41 #aig ,jacqu>d1 ,joseph ,m41 #d1 #cd1 #da1 #ed1 #bjb1 #bdb ,jet eng9e simulator1 #gh ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 #afi ,jevons1 ,william ,s41 #dj ,,johnniac comput]1 #aa1 #dg1 #abi1 #adj1 #adb ,johnson's ,wax ,co41 #agh ,jones ,laughl9 ,/eel ,corp41 #ahh1 #ahi1 #bje ,j\rnali/or1 #fd1 #beb ,kal91 ,!odore1 #de1 #ace ,kal9-,burkh>t ma*9e1 #de ,kane1 ,sydney1 #aic ,kant1 ,immanuel1 #ace ,kelv91 ,"l1 #ge ,kelv9 :eels1 #gf ,khayym1 ,om>1 #ajh ,,knxt1 television /ation1 #agi ,kresge ,eye ,in/itute1 #aie ,kyoto ,univ]sity1 #bdc ,lamb1 ,sydney1 #bch ,language1 comput]1 #bcc ,,l>c comput]1 #dg1 #afb1 #aia ,law1 #bcb ,law ,in/itute1 ,am]ican1 #aeb ,le>n+1 #abc =c$1 #acc1 #acd free1 #g1 #acc re9=c$1 #acd sold]$1 #g1 #acc ,le>n+1 ,inc41 #bbf ,leibnitz1 ,gottfri$1 #bd1 #bi1 #he1 #ii1 #aji1 #abj ,l5kurt ,electric ,co41 ,inc41 #aij ,,lgp-#cj comput]1 #aih ,libr>y1 use ( comput]s1 #bca ,limitations ( comput]s1 #hi ,l9coln ,laboratory1 #abd ,l9dgr51 ,a/rid1 #c ,lit]ature1 comput]s 91 #cj ,litton ,indu/ries1 #abh ,livanov1 ,m41 #acc ,lockhe$ ,aircraft ,corp41 #ahe1 #bdh ,log>i?ms1 #cj ,logic1 #ch1 #ij1 #ajh1 #bbi ,ari/otelian1 #aji ,f>nswor? problem1 #aaf1 #aah ma!matical1 #aaj symbolic1 #ch1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aae1 #bdh1 #bee unit1 #fj ,logical algebra1 #dj1 #ajh piano1 #dj ,loom1 ,jacqu>d1 #cd ,loy1 ,w4 ,d41 #bc ,luhn1 ,h4 ,p41 #bdg ,lull1 ,ramon1 #bg1 #bh1 #abb ,lull's :eel1 #bh ,ma*9e ,design1 #ahj ,ma*9e %op1 use ( comput]s1 #bji ,ma*9e ,translations1 ,inc41 #bci ,,mad1 comput] language1 #bbj ,maelzel *ess automaton1 #ce ,magic squ>es1 #adb ,magnetic cores1 #fd ,magnetic disc1 #fc ,magnetic drum1 #fc ,magnetic films1 #hh1 #bee ,magnetic ink1 #c1 #bdj ,magnetic tape1 #ee ,majority rule *eck+1 #fj ,mal91 ,david1 #bbj1 #bba ,maloney1 ,russell1 #cb ,managem5t games1 #aii ,,maniac comput]1 #dg1 #aef1 #afe ,man-ma*9e relation%ip1 #beh ,m>k ,i comput]1 #df1 #bai ,m>qu&1 ,allan1 #dj1 #dd ,matsuzake1 ,kiyo%i1 #ba ,mau*ly1 ,john1 #dg1 #he ,mayans1 #bd1 #ig ,mc,carthy1 ,john1 #agj ,mc,donnell ,aircraft ,corp41 #ahf ,mc,donough1 ,james1 #bce ,mc,dougall1 ,w41 #abd ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 #bbf ,me*anical-relay1 #abb ,m$iation pr9ciple1 #ajb ,m$ical diagnosis1 #beg ,m$ical ,rese>* ,f\ndation1 ,am]ican1 #aic ,m$ical use ( comput]s1 #aic ,,m$l>s sy/em1 #aid ,memex comput]1 #ac 8,memi/or10 #acg ,memory comput]1 #ea1 #fc1 #bed ,,biax1 #aj ,,m9d1 #acg molecul>1 #fd scrat*-pad1 #fc unit1 #fb ,m]cury space capsule1 #afh1 #bdi ,m]rill ,lyn*1 ,pi]ce1 ,f5n] ,smi?1 #bcf ,mi*igan ,/ate ,univ]sity1 #aea ,,micr1 #bdj 8,mill10 comput]1 #ch1 #ea1 #fj ,,m9d memory unit1 #acg ,m9neapolis-,honeywell ,co41 #afb1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baf ,m9imax !ory1 #aef ,m9uteman missile1 #d1 #acg1 #afh ,,mips comput]1 #aei ,,mit1 #dd1 #afi1 #bji1 #bae1 #bbj ,mobot1 #ade1 #bae1 #baf1 #bff ,,mobidic comput]1 #aeg ,model+ pr9ciple1 #hc ,modul> approa*1 #aae1 #aaf ,molecul> block memory1 #fd ,molecul> circuit1 #i1 #bec ,molecul> electronics1 #i ,monsanto ,*emical ,corp41 #bjh 8,moo]'s0 ,law1 #bde ,morse code1 #ii ,moz>t1 #aa1 #aig ,multiplication comput]1 #fa1 #ajg ,russian peasant1 #ajc ,,muse comput]1 #dh ,music1 #aa1 #ib1 #aif1 #beg ,nanosecond1 #fa ,,nanwep1 #afe ,napi]1 ,john1 #cj 8,napi]'s bones10 #cj ,national ,libr>y ( ,m$ic9e1 #aid ,,nasa1 #adi ,national ,bureau ( ,/&>ds1 #id1 #bci1 #bdi1 #beh ,national ,ca% ,regi/] ,co41 ,!1 #bdj ,national ,sci5ce ,f\ndation1 #aeh1 #bdi ,navigation1 use ( comput]1 #ahb ,navy1 ,u4 ,s41 #afb ,negation pr9ciple1 #aac1 #aad ,neuri/or1 #acg ,neurons human1 #ia1 #abe1 #abh1 #ace artificial1 #acf1 #ach ,newell1 ,all51 #ada1 #bea ,newton1 ,isaac1 #cj ,new ,york ,univ]sity1 #aid1 #bbj ,nike missile1 #aai1 #aeg1 #aia ,nim 7game71 #h1 #adc ,,norad1 #c1 #afj1 #beh ,nor? ,am]ican ,aviation ,corp41 #fe1 #ahe ,numb]s cunei=m1 #bc ,arabic1 #bc ,babylonian1 #bc b9>y1 #ee discrete1 #gc ,greek1 #bc ,h9du1 #bc pure b9>y1 #ajb1 #ajd ,roman1 #bc1 #ig ,num]ical control1 #baj ,num]ical wea!r pr$iction1 #afc ,odyssey1 #bce ,ohio ,/ate ,univ]sity1 #bbb ,on-l9e comput]s1 #ha1 #bje ,on-/ream comput]s1 #hc1 #bjg ,on ! ,orig9 ( ,species1 #cb ,op]ant re9=cem5t1 #bbc ,op]ations rese>*1 #cf1 #aee1 #bef ,optical scann+1 #bdj ,,or gate1 #aab1 #aac1 #aag1 #aai ,outl9e ( ,psy*ology1 #abd ,output1 comput]1 #ea1 #fe1 #abe ,packag+ d5sity1 #i1 #adj ,pap] tape1 #ed ,pap]mak+1 #bji ,p>adox1 #de ,p>allel addition1 #ajg ,p>allel op]ation1 #abf ,p>ametron1 #bee ,p>ity bit *eck+1 #aje ,p>ri%1 ,/eph5 ,maxfield1 #bce ,pascal1 ,blaise1 #cj1 #he ,pat5t ,(fice1 ,u4 ,s41 #bdi ,paul+1 ,l9us1 #g1 #bfh ,pavlov1 #acc ,peace ,corps1 #adi1 #beh ,peale1 ,mundy1 #abe 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missile1 #afh ,,tmi ,groli]1 #bbf ,torres y ,quev$o1 ,l41 #ce ,trad+ /amps ) comput]s1 #age ,traffic control1 #bah ,tra9s1 #bae ,transcont95tal ,we/]n ,air ,l9es1 #ahf ,transfe,robot1 #d1 #bac1 #bag ,transportation1 #aha ,transi/ors1 #i1 #hg1 #add ,translation comput]1 #ia1 #ib1 #bcg ,travel+-wave tube1 #bee ,tru? tables1 #aaj1 #aab ,tunnel diode1 #beete ,tur+1 ,a4 ,m41 #aia ,tutor,text1 #bbf ,,unesco1 #bcf ,unimate1 #d1 #bab1 #bac ,union ,c>bide1 #bjh ,unit>y sy/em1 #ig ,unicall1 #bdc ,unit$ ,air ,l9es1 #ahb1 #ahc ,unit$ ,/ates ,indu/ries1 ,inc41 #bac1 #bah1 #bbe ,,univac comput]1 #dg1 #adi1 #aea1 #aga1 #bba ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 #gf ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley1 #bch ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,los ,angeles1 #acc1 #bai ,univ]sity ( ,ill9ois1 #gh ,univ]sity ( ,london1 #h ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan1 #ace1 #bbj ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania1 #df ,univ]sity ( ,philadelphia1 #aic ,univ]sity ( ,s\!rn ,cali=nia1 #bbe ,univ]sity ( ,wa%+ton1 #aeb ,upjohn ,co41 ,!1 #abg ,vacuum tubes1 #i1 #fc1 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