,,computers--,,the ,,machines ,,we ,,think ,,with ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,computers-- ,,the ,,machines ,,we ,,think ,,with ,d4 ,s4 ,,halacy1 ,,jr4 ,illustration ,,harper ,,row1 ,,publishers ,,new ,,york1 ,,evanston1 ,,and ,,london ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,computers--,,the ,,machines ,,we ,,think ,,with4 ,copyright #aifb1 by ,daniel ,s4 ,halacy1 ,jr4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,all rights in this book are reserved4 ,no part of the book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews4 ,for information address ,harper ,row1 ,publishers1 ,incorporated1 #di ,east #ccrd ,street1 ,new ,york #af1 ,n4,y4 ,library of ,congress catalog card number3 #fb-adefd ,f-,s ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,contents #a4 ,computers--,the ,machines ,we ,think ,with #a #b4 ,the ,computer's ,past #ah #c4 ,how ,computers ,work #dh #d4 ,computer ,cousins--,analog and ,digital #gb #e4 ,the ,binary ,boolean ,bit #if #f4 ,the ,electronic ,brain #aba #g4 ,uncle ,sam's ,computers #adg #h4 ,the ,computer in ,business and ,industry #aga #i4 ,the ,computer and ,automation #bja #aj4 ,the ,academic ,computer #bai #aa4 ,the ,road ,ahead #bea ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,computers--,,the ,,machines ,,we ,,think ,,with ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #a3 ,computers--,the ,machines ,we ,think ,with ,while you are reading this sentence1 an electronic computer is performing #c million mathematical operations6 ,before you read this page1 another computer could translate it and several others into a foreign language4 ,electronic 8brains0 are taking over chores that include the calculation of everything from automobile parking fees to zero hour for space missile launchings4 ,despite bitter winter weather1 a recent conference on computers drew some #d1jjj delegates to ,washington1 ,d4,c42 indicating the importance and scope of the new industry4 ,the #aifb domestic market for computers and associated equipment is estimated at just under #c billion1 with more than #aej1jjj people employed in manufacture1 operation1 and maintenance of the machines4 ,in the short time since the first electronic computer made its appearance1 these thinking machines have made such fantastic strides in so many different directions that most of us are unaware how much our lives are already being affected by them4 ,banking1 for example1 employs complex machines that process checks and handle accounts so much faster than human bookkeepers that they do more than an hour's work in less than thirty seconds4 ,illustration3 ,general ,electric ,co41 ,computer ,dept4 ,programmer at console of computer used in electronic processing of bank checking accounts4 ,our government is one of the largest users of computers and 8data-processing machines40 ,the census depends on such equipment1 and it played a part in the development of early mechanical types of computers when ,hollerith invented a punched-card system many years ago4 ,in another application1 the post office uses letter readers that scan addresses and sort mail at speeds faster than the human eye can keep up with4 ,many magazines have put these electronic readers to work whizzing through mailing lists4 ,illustration3 ,general ,electric ,co41 ,computer ,dept4 ,numbers across bottom of check are printed in magnetic ink and can be read by the computer4 ,in ,sweden1 writer ,astrid ,lindgren received additional royalties for one year of #i1jjj kronor because of library loans4 ,since this was based on #hej1jjj total loans of her books from thousands of schools and libraries1 the bookkeeping was possible only with an electronic computer4 ,computers are beginning to take over control of factories1 steel mills1 bakeries1 chemical plants1 and even the manufacture of ice cream4 ,in scientific research1 computers are solving mathematical and logical problems so complex that they would go forever unsolved if men had to do the work4 ,one of the largest computing systems yet designed1 incorporating half a million transistors and millions of other parts1 handles ticket reservations for the airlines4 ,others do flight planning and air traffic control itself4 ,gigantic computerized air defense systems like ,,sage and ,,norad help guard us from enemy attack4 ,when ,john ,glenn made his space flight1 giant computers on the ground made the vital calculations to bring him safely back4 ,tiny computers in space vehicles themselves have proved they can survive the shocks of launching and the environment of space4 ,these airborne computers make possible the operation of ,polaris1 ,atlas1 and ,minuteman missiles4 ,such applications are indicative of the scope of computer technology today2 the ground-based machines are huge1 taking up rooms and even entire buildings while those tailored for missiles may fit in the palm of the hand4 ,one current military project is such an airborne computer1 the size of a pack of cigarettes yet able to perform thousands of mathematical and logical operations a second4 ,computers are a vital part of automation1 and already they are running production lines and railroads1 making mechanical drawings and weather predictions1 and figuring statistics for insurance companies as well as odds for gamblers4 ,electronic machines permit the blind to read a page of ordinary type1 and also control material patterns in knitting mills4 ,this last use is of particular interest since it represents almost a full circle in computer science4 ,oddly1 it was the loom that inspired the first punched cards invented and used to good advantage by the ,french designer ,jacquard4 ,these homely forerunners of stored information sparked the science that now returns to control the mills4 ,men very wisely are now letting computers design other computers1 and in one recent project a ,bell ,laboratories computer did a job in twenty-five minutes that would have taken a human designer a month4 ,even more challenging are the modern-day 8robots0 performing precision operations in industrial plants4 ,one such1 called 8,unimate10 is simply guided through the mechanical operations one time1 and can then handle the job alone4 8,transfe,robot #bjj0 is already doing assembly-line work in dozens of plants4 ,the hope has been expressed that computer extension of our brainpower by a thousandfold would give our country a lead over potential enemies4 ,this is a rather vain hope1 since the ,united ,states has no corner on the computer market4 ,there is worldwide interest in computers1 and machines are being built in ,russia1 ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 ,holland1 ,sweden1 ,africa1 ,japan1 and other countries4 ,a remarkable computer in ,japan recognizes #h1jjj colors and analyzes them instantly4 ,computer translation from one language to another has been mentioned1 and work is even being done on machines that will permit us to speak ,english into a phone in this country and have it come out ,french1 or whatever we will1 overseas6 ,of course1 computers have a terminology all their own too2 words like analog and digital1 memory cores1 clock rates1 and so on4 ,the broad application of computers has been called the 8second industrial revolution40 ,what the steam engine did for muscles1 the modern computer is beginning to do for our brains4 ,in their slow climb from caveman days1 humans have encountered ever more problems2 one of the biggest of these problems eventually came to be merely how to solve all the other problems4 ,at first man counted on his fingers1 and then his toes4 ,as the problems grew in size1 he used pebbles and sticks1 and finally beads4 ,these became the abacus1 a clever calculating device still in constant use in many parts of the world4 ,only now1 with the advent of low-cost computers1 are the ,japanese turning from the soroban1 their version of the abacus4 ,the large-scale computers we are becoming familiar with are not really as new as they seem4 ,an ,englishman named ,babbage built what he called a 8difference engine0 way back in #ahca4 ,this complex mechanical computer cost a huge sum even by today's standards1 and although it was never completed to ,babbage's satisfaction1 it was the forerunner and model for the successful large computers that began to appear a hundred years later4 ,in the meantime1 of course1 electronics has come to the aid of the designer4 ,today1 computer switches operate at billionths-of-a-second speeds and thus make possible the rapid handling of quantities of work like the #ad billion checks we ,americans wrote in #aifa4 ,there are dozens of companies now in the computer manufacturing field1 producing a variety of machines ranging in price from less than a hundred dollars total price to rental fees of #ajj1jjj a month or more4 ,even at these higher prices the big problem of some manufacturers is to keep up with demand4 ,a #a billion market in #aifj1 the computer field is predicted to climb to #e billion by #aife1 and after that it is anyone's guess4 ,thus far all expert predictions have proved extremely conservative4 ,the path of computer progress is not always smooth4 ,recently a computer which had been installed on a toll road to calculate charges was so badly treated by motorists it had to be removed4 ,another unfortunate occurrence happened on ,wall ,street4 ,a clever man juggled the controls of a large computer used in stock-market work and 8made0 himself a quarter of a million dollars1 though he ultimately landed in jail for his illegal computer button pushing4 ,interestingly1 there is one corrective institution which already offers a course in computer engineering for its inmates4 ,so great is the impact of computers that lawyers recently met for a three-day conference on the legal aspects of the new machines4 ,points taken up included3 ,can business records on magnetic tape or other storage media be used as evidence8 ,can companies be charged with mismanagement for not using computers in their business8 ,how can confidential material be handled satisfactorily on computers8 ,along with computing machines a whole new technology is growing4 ,universities and colleges--even high schools--are teaching courses in computers4 ,and the computer itself is getting into the teaching business too4 ,the 8teaching machine0 is one of the most challenging computer developments to come along so far4 ,these mechanical professors range from simple 8programmed0 notebooks1 such as the ,book of ,knowledge and ,encyclopedia ,britannica are experimenting with1 to complex computerized systems such as that developed by ,u4,s4 ,industries1 ,inc41 for the ,air ,force and others4 ,the computer as a teaching machine immediately raises the question of intelligence1 and whether or not the computer has any4 ,debate waxes hot on this subject2 but perhaps one authority was only half joking when he said that the computer designer's competition was a unit about the size of a grapefruit1 using only a tenth of a volt of electricity1 with a memory #aj1jjj times as extensive as any existing electronic computer4 ,this is a brief description of the human brain1 of course4 ,when the first computers appeared1 those like ,,eniac and ,,binac1 fiction writers and even some science writers had a field day turning the machines into diabolical 8brains40 ,whether or not the computer really thinks remains a controversial question4 ,some top scientists claim that the computer will eventually be far smarter than its human builder2 equally reputable authorities are just as sure that no computer will ever have an original thought in its head4 ,perhaps a safe middle road is expressed with the title of this book2 namely that the machine is simply an extension of the human brain4 ,a high-speed abacus or slide rule1 if you will2 accurate and foolproof1 but a moron nonetheless4 ,there are some interesting machine-brain parallels1 of course4 ,besides its ability to do mathematics1 the computer can perform logical reasoning and even make decisions4 ,it can read and translate2 remembering is a basic part of its function4 ,scientists are now even talking of making computers 8dream0 in an attempt to come up with new ideas6 ,more similarities are being discovered or suggested4 ,for instance1 the interconnections in a computer are being compared with1 and even crudely patterned after1 the brain's neurons4 ,a new scientific discipline1 called 8bionics10 concerns itself with such studies4 ,far from being a one-way street1 bionics works both ways so that engineers and biologists alike benefit4 ,in fact1 some new courses being taught in universities are designed to 8bridge the gap between engineering and biology40 ,at one time the only learning a computer had was 8soldered in02 today the machines are being 8forced0 to learn by the application of punishment or reward as necessary4 8,free0 learning in computers of the ,perceptron class is being experimented with4 ,these studies1 and statements like those of renowned scientist ,linus ,pauling that he expects a 8molecular theory0 of learning in human beings to be developed1 are food for thought as we consider the parallels our electronic machines share with us4 ,psychologists at the ,university of ,london foresee computers not only training humans1 but actually watching over them and predicting imminent nervous breakdowns in their charges6 ,illustration3 ,cornell ,aeronautical ,laboratory ,bank of 8association0 units in ,mark ,i ,perceptron1 a machine that 8learns0 from experience4 ,to demonstrate their skill many computers play games of tick-tack-toe1 checkers1 chess1 ,nim1 and the like4 ,a simple electromechanical computer designed for young people to build can be programmed to play tick-tack-toe expertly4 ,checker- and chess-playing computers are more sophisticated1 many of them learning as they play and capable of an occasional move classed as brilliant by expert human players4 ,the ,,ibm #gjd computer has been programmed to inspect the results of its possible decisions several moves ahead and to select the best choice4 ,at the end of the game it prints out the winner and thanks its opponent for the game4 ,rated as polite1 but only an indifferent player by experts1 the computer is much like the checker-playing dog whose master scoffed at him for getting beaten three games out of five4 ,chess may well be an ultimate challenge for any kind of brain1 since the fastest computer in operation today could not possibly work out all the possible moves in a game during a human lifetime6 ,as evidenced in the science-fiction treatment early machines got1 the first computers were monsters at least in size4 ,pioneering design efforts on machines with the capacity of the brain led to plans for something roughly the size of the ,pentagon1 equipped with its own ,niagara for power and cooling1 and a price tag the world couldn't afford4 ,as often seems to happen when a need arises1 though1 new developments have come along to offset the initial obstacles of size and cost4 ,one such development was the transistor and other semiconductor devices4 ,tiny and rugged1 these components require little power4 ,with the old vacuum-tubes replaced1 computers shrank immediately and dramatically4 ,on the heels of this micro-miniaturization have come new and even smaller devices called 8ferrite cores0 and 8cryotrons0 using magnetism and supercold temperatures instead of conventional electronic techniques4 ,as a result1 an amazing number of parts can be packed into a tiny volume4 ,so-called 8molecular electronics0 now seems to be a possibility1 and designers of computers have a gleam in their eyes as they consider progress being made toward matching the 8packaging density0 of the brain4 ,this human computer has an estimated #ajj billion parts per cubic foot6 ,we have talked of reading and translating4 ,some new computers can also accept voice commands and speak themselves4 ,others furnish information in typed or printed form1 punched cards1 or a display on a tube or screen4 ,like us1 the computer can be frustrated by a task beyond its capabilities4 ,a wrong command can set its parts clicking rapidly but in futile circles4 ,early computers1 for example1 could be panicked by the order to divide a number by zero4 ,the solution to that problem of course is infinity1 and the poor machine had a hard time trying to make such an answer good4 ,illustration3 ,aeronutronic ,division1 ,ford ,motor ,co4 ,this printed-circuit card contains more than #cjj ,,biax memory elements4 ,multiples of such cards mounted in computers store large amounts of information4 ,there are other1 quainter stories like that of the pioneer ,general ,electric computer that simply could not function in the dark4 ,all day long it hummed efficiently1 but problems left with it overnight came out horribly botched for no reason that engineers could discover4 ,at last it was found that a light had to be left burning with the scary machine6 ,neon bulbs in the computer were enough affected by light and darkness that the delicate electronic balance of the machine had been upset4 ,among the computer's unusual talents is the ability to compose music4 ,such music has been published and is of a quality to give rise to thoughtful speculation that perhaps great composers are simply good selectors of music4 ,in other words1 all the combinations of notes and meter exist3 the composer just picks the right ones4 ,no less an authority than ,aaron ,copland suggests that 8we'll get our new music by feeding information into an electronic computer40 ,not content with merely writing music1 some computers can even play a tune4 ,at ,christmas time1 carols are rendered by computers specially programmed for the task4 ,the result is not unlike a melody played on a pipe organ4 ,in an interesting switch of this musical ability on the part of the machine1 ,russian engineers check the reliability of their computers by having them memorize ,mozart and ,grieg4 ,each part of the complex machines is assigned a definite musical value1 and when the composition is 8played back0 by the computer1 the engineer can spot any defects existing in its circuitry4 ,such computer maintenance would seem to be an ideal field for the music lover4 ,in a playful mood1 computers match pennies with visitors1 explain their inner workings as they whiz through complex mathematics1 and are even capable of what is called heuristic reasoning4 ,this amounts to playing hunches to reach short-cut solutions to otherwise unsolvable problems4 ,a ,rand ,corporation computer named ,,johnniac demonstrated this recently4 ,it was given some basic axioms and asked to prove some theorems4 ,,johnniac came up with the answers1 and in one case produced a proof that was simpler than that given in the text4 ,as one scientist puts it1 8,if computers don't really think1 they at least put on a pretty creditable imitation of the real thing40 ,computers are here to stay2 this has been established beyond doubt4 ,the only question remaining is how fast the predictions made by dreamers and science-fiction writers--and now by sober scientists--will come to be a reality4 ,when we consider that in the few years since the #aiec crop of computers1 their capacity and speed has been increased more than fiftyfold1 and is expected to jump another thousandfold in two years1 these dreams begin to sound more and more plausible4 ,one quite probable use for computers is medical diagnosis and prescription of treatment4 ,electronic equipment can already monitor an ailing patient1 and send an alarm when help is needed4 ,we may one day see computers with a built-in bedside manner aiding the family doctor4 ,the accomplished inroads of computing machines in business are as nothing to what will eventually take place4 ,already computer 8game-playing0 has extended to business management1 and serious executives participate to improve their administrative ability4 ,we speak of decision-making machines2 business decisions are logical applications for this ability4 ,computers have been given the job of evaluating personnel and assigning salaries on a strictly logical basis4 ,perhaps this is why in surveys questioning increased use of the machines1 each executive level in general tends to rate the machine's ability just below its own4 ,other games played by the computer are war games1 and computers like ,,sage are well known4 ,this system not only monitors all air activity but also makes decisions1 assigns targets1 and then even flies the interceptor planes and guided missiles on their missions4 ,again in the sky1 the increase of commercial air traffic has perhaps reached the limit of human ability to control it4 ,computers are beginning to take over here too1 planning flights and literally flying the planes4 ,surface transport can also be computer-controlled4 ,railroads are beginning to use the computer techniques1 and automatic highways are inevitable4 ,ships also benefit1 and special systems coupled to radar can predict courses and take corrective action when necessary4 ,men seem to have temporarily given up trying to control the weather1 but using computers1 meteorologists can take the huge mass of data from all over the world and make predictions rapidly enough to be of use4 ,we have talked of the computer's giant strides in banking4 ,its wide use in stores is not far off4 ,an ,english computer firm has designed an automatic supermarket that assembles ordered items1 prices them1 and delivers them to the check stand4 ,at the same time it keeps a running inventory1 price record1 and profit and loss statement1 besides billing the customer with periodic statements4 ,the storekeeper will have only to wash the windows and pay his electric power bill4 ,even trading stamps may be superseded by computer techniques that keep track of customer purchases and credit him with premiums as he earns them4 ,credit cards have helped pioneer computer use in billing2 it is not farfetched to foresee the day when we are issued a lifetime1 all-inclusive credit card--perhaps with our birth certificate6--a card with our thumbprint on it1 that will buy our food1 pay our rent and utilities and other bills4 ,a central computer system will balance our expenses against deposits and from time to time let us know how we stand financially4 ,as with many other important inventions1 the computer and its technology were spurred by war and are aided now by continuing threats of war4 ,it is therefore pleasant to think on the possibilities of a computer system 8programmed0 for peace3 a gigantic1 worldwide system whose input includes all recorded history of all nations1 all economic and cultural data1 all weather information and other scientific knowledge4 ,the output of such a machine hopefully would be a 8best plan0 for all of us4 ,such a computer would have no ax to grind and no selfish interests unless they were fed into it4 ,given all the facts1 it would punch out for us a set of instructions that would guarantee us the best life possible4 ,this has long been a dream of science writers4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells was one of these1 suggesting a world clearinghouse of information in his book ,world ,brain written in the thirties4 ,in this country1 scientist ,vannevar ,bush suggested a similar computer called 8,memex0 which could store huge amounts of data and answer questions put to it4 ,the huge amounts of information--books1 articles1 speeches1 and records of all sorts--are beginning to make it absolutely necessary for an efficient information retrieval system4 ,many cases have been noted in which much time and effort are spent on a project which has already been completed but then has become lost in the welter of literature crammed into libraries4 ,the computer is a logical device for such work2 in a recent test such a machine scored #hf per cent in its efforts to locate specific data on file4 ,trained workers rated only #ch per cent in the same test6 ,illustration3 ,the ,boeing ,co4 ,engineers using computers to solve complex problems in aircraft design4 ,the science of communication is advancing along with that of computers1 and can help make the dream of a worldwide 8brain0 come true4 ,computers in distant cities are now linked by telephone lines or radio1 and high-speed techniques permit the transmission of many thousands of words per second across these 8data links40 ,an interesting sidelight is the fact that an ailing computer can be hooked by telephone line with a repair center many miles away and its ailments diagnosed by remote control4 ,communications satellites that are soon to be dotting the sky like tiny moons may well play a big part in computing systems of the future4 ,global weather prediction and worldwide coordination of trade immediately come to mind4 ,while we envision such far-reaching applications1 let's not lose sight of the possibilities for computer use closer to home--right in our homes1 as a matter of fact4 ,just as early inventors of mechanical power devices did not foresee the day when electric drills and saws for hobbyist would be commonplace and the gasoline engine would do such everyday chores as cutting the grass in our yards1 the makers of computers today cannot predict how far the computer will go in this direction4 ,perhaps we may one day buy a 8,little ,dandy ,electro-,brain0 and plug it into the wall socket for solving many of the everyday problems we now often guess wrong on4 ,illustration3 ,royal ,mc,bee ,corp4 ,students at ,staples ,high ,school1 ,westport1 ,connecticut1 attend a summer session to learn the techniques of programming and operating an electronic computer4 ,illustration3 ,the ,saturday ,evening ,post 8,herbert's been replaced by an electronic brain--one of the simpler types40 ,some years ago a group of experts predicted that by #aifg the world champion chess player would be an electronic computer4 ,no one has yet claimed that we would have a president of metal and wire1 but some interesting signposts are being put up4 ,computers are now used widely to predict the result of elections4 ,computers count the votes1 and some have suggested that computers could make it possible for us to vote at home4 ,the government is investigating the effectiveness of a decision-making computer as a stand-by aid for the ,president in this complex age we are moving into4 ,no man has the ability to weigh every factor and to make decisions affecting the world4 ,perhaps a computer can serve in an advisory capacity to a president or to a ,world ,council2 perhaps-- ,it is comforting to remember that men will always tell the computer what it is supposed to do4 ,no computer will ever run the world any more than the cotton gin or the steam engine or television runs the world4 ,and in an emergency1 we can always pull out the wallplug1 can't we8 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,history is but the unrolled scroll of prophecy40 --,james ,a4 ,garfield #b3 ,the ,computer's ,past ,although it seemed to burst upon us suddenly1 the jet airplane can trace its beginnings back through the fabric wings of the ,wrights to the wax wings of ,icarus and ,daedalus1 and the steam aerophile of ,hero in ancient ,greece4 ,the same thing is true of the computer1 the 8thinking machine0 we are just now becoming uncomfortably aware of4 ,no brash upstart1 it has a long and honorable history4 ,naturalists tell us that man is not the only animal that counts4 ,birds1 particularly1 also have an idea of numbers4 ,birds1 incidentally1 use tools too4 ,we seem to have done more with the discoveries than our feathered friends2 at least no one has yet observed a robin with a slide rule or a snowy egret punching the controls of an electronic digital computer4 ,however1 the very notion of mere birds being tool and number users does give us an idea of the antiquity and lengthy heritage of the computer4 ,the computer was inevitable when man first began to make his own problems4 ,when he lived as an animal1 life was far simpler1 and all he had to worry about was finding game and plants to eat1 and keeping from being eaten or otherwise killed himself4 ,but when he began to dabble in agriculture and the raising of flocks1 when he began to think consciously and to reflect about things1 man needed help4 ,first came the hand tools that made him more powerful1 the spears and bows and arrows and clubs that killed game and enemies4 ,then came the tools to aid his waking brain4 ,some #be1jjj years ago1 man began to count4 ,this was no mean achievement1 the dim1 foggy dawning of the concept of number1 perhaps in the caves in ,europe where the walls have been found marked with realistic drawings of bison4 ,some budding mathematical genius in a skin garment only slightly shaggier than his mop of hair stared blinking at the drawings of two animals and then dropped his gaze to his two hands4 ,a crude1 tentative connection jelled in his inchoate gray matter and he shook his head as if it hurt4 ,it was enough to hurt1 this discovery of 8number10 and perhaps this particular pioneer never again put two and two together4 ,but others did2 if not that year1 the next4 ,armed with his grasp of numbers1 man didn't need to draw two mastodons1 or sheep1 or whatever4 ,two pebbles would do1 or two leaves or two sticks4 ,he could count his children on his fingers--we retain the expression 8a handful0 to this day1 though often our children are another sort of handful4 ,of course1 the caveman did not of a sudden do sums and multiplications4 ,when he began to write1 perhaps #e1jjj years later1 he had formed the concept of 8one10 8two10 8several10 and 8many40 ,besides counting his flock and his children1 and the number of the enemy1 man had need for counting in another way4 ,there were the seasons of the year1 and a farmer or breeder had to have a way of reckoning the approach of new life4 ,his calendar may well have been the first mathematical device sophisticated enough to be called a computer4 ,it was natural that numbers be associated with sex4 ,the calendar was related to the seasons and the bearing of young4 ,the number three1 for example1 took on mystic and potent connotation1 representing as it did man's genitals4 ,indeed1 numbers themselves came quaintly to have sex4 ,one1 three1 and the other odd numbers were male2 the symmetrical1 even numbers logically were female4 ,the notion that man used the decimal system because of his ten fingers and toes is general1 but it was some time before this refinement took place4 ,some early peoples clung to a simpler system with a base of only two2 and interestingly a tribe of ,australian aborigines counts today thus3 enea 7#a71 petchaval 7#b71 enea petchaval 7#c71 petchaval petchaval 7#d74 ,before we look down our noses at this nave system1 let us consider that high-speed electronic computers use only two values1 #a and #j4 ,but slowly symbols evolved for more and more numbers1 numbers that at first were fingers1 and then perhaps knots tied in a strip of hide4 ,this crude counting aid persists today1 and cowboys sometimes keep rough tallies of a herd by knotting a string for every five that pass4 ,somehow numbers took on other meanings1 like those that figure in courtship in certain ,nigerian tribes4 ,in their language1 the number six also means 8,i love you40 ,if the ,african belle is of a mind when her boyfriend tenderly murmurs the magic number1 she replies in like tone1 8,eight601 which means 8,i feel the same way60 ,from the dawn of history there have apparently been two classes of us human beings1 the 8haves0 and the 8have nots40 ,nowadays we get bills or statements from our creditors2 in early days1 when a slate or clay tablet was the document1 a forerunner of the carbon copy or duplicate paper developed4 ,tallies were marked for the amount of the debt1 the clay tablet was broken across the marks1 and creditor and debtor each took half4 ,no chance for cheating1 since a broken half would fit only the proper mate6 ,numbers at first applied only to discrete1 or distinctly separate1 things4 ,the scratches on a calendar1 the tallies signifying the count of a flock2 these were more easily reckoned4 ,the idea of another kind of number inspired the first clocks4 ,here was a monumental breakthrough in mathematics4 ,nature provided the sunrise that clearly marked the beginning of each day2 man himself thought to break the day into 8hours10 or parts of the whole4 ,such a division led eventually to measurement of size and weight4 ,now early man knew not only how many goats he had1 but how many 8hands0 high they were1 and how many 8stones0 they weighed4 ,this further division ordained another kind of mechanical computer man must someday contrive--the analog4 ,the first counting machines used were pebbles or sea shells4 ,for the ,stone ,age businessman to carry around a handful of rocks for all his transactions was at times awkward1 and big deals may well have gone unconsummated for want of a stone4 ,then some genius hit on the idea of stringing shells on a bit of reed or hide2 or more probably the necklace came first as adornment and the utilitarian spotted it after this style note had been added4 ,at any rate1 the portable adding machine became available and our early day accountant grew adroit at sliding the beads back and forth on the string4 ,from here it was only a small step1 taken perhaps as early as #cjjj ,b4,c41 to the rigid counter known as the abacus4 ,the word 8counter0 is one we use in everyday conversation4 ,we buy stock over the counter2 some deals are under the counter4 ,we all know what the counter itself is--that wide board that holds the cash register and separates us from the shopkeeper4 ,at one time the cash register was the counter2 actually the counting board had rods of beads like the abacus1 or at least grooves in which beads could be moved4 ,the totting up of a transaction was done on the 8counter02 it is still there although we have forgotten whence came its name4 ,the most successful computer used for the next #e1jjj years1 the portable counter1 or the abacus1 is a masterpiece of simplicity and effectiveness4 ,though only a frame with several rows of beads1 it is sophisticated enough that as late as #aidg ,kiyoshi ,matsuzake of the ,japanese ,ministry of ,communications1 armed with the ,japanese version--a soroban1 bested ,private ,tom ,wood of the ,u4 ,s4 ,army of ,occupation punching the keys of an up-to-the-minute electric calculating machine in four of five problem categories6 ,only recently have ,japanese banks gone over to modern calculators1 and shopkeepers there and in other lands still conduct business by this rule of thumb and forefinger4 ,illustration3 ,the abacus1 ancient mechanical computer1 is still in use in many parts of the world4 ,here is the ,japanese version1 the soroban1 with problem being set up4 ,the name abacus comes to us by way of the ,greek abax1 meaning 8dust40 ,scholars infer that early sums were done schoolboy fashion in ,greece with a stylus on a dusty slate1 and that the word was carried over to the mechanical counter4 ,the design has changed but little over the years and all abacuses bear a resemblance4 ,the major difference is the number of beads on each row1 determined by the mathematical base used in the particular country4 ,some in ,india1 for example1 were set up to handle pounds and shillings for use in shops4 ,others have a base of twelve4 ,the majority1 however1 use the decimal system4 ,each row has seven beads1 with a runner separating one or two beads from the others4 ,some systems use two beads on the narrow side1 some only one2 this is a mathematical consideration with political implications1 incidentally3 ,the ,japanese soroban has the single-bead design2 ,korea's son pan uses two4 ,when ,japan took over ,korea the two-bead models were tabu1 and went out of use until the ,koreans were later able to win their independence again4 ,about the only thing added to the ancient abacus in recent years is a movable arrow for marking the decimal point4 ,w4 ,d4 ,loy patented such a gadget in the ,united ,states4 ,today the abacus remains a useful device1 not only for business1 but also for the teaching of mathematics to youngsters1 who can literally 8grasp their numbers40 ,for that reason it ought also to be helpful to the blind1 and as a therapeutic aid for manual dexterity4 ,apparently caught up in the trend toward smaller computers1 the abacus has been miniaturized to the extent that it can be worn as earrings or on a key chain4 ,even with mechanical counters1 early mathematicians needed written numbers4 ,the caveman's straight-line scratches gave way to hieroglyphics1 to the ,sumerian cuneiform 8wedges10 to ,roman numerals1 and finally to ,hindu and ,arabic4 ,until the numbers1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 and that most wonderful of all1 #j or zero1 computations of any but the simplest type were apt to be laborious and time-consuming4 ,even though the ,romans and ,greeks had evolved a decimal system1 their numbering was complex4 ,to count to #iii in ,greek required not ten numbers but twenty-seven4 ,the ,roman number for #hhh was ,,dccclxxxviii4 ,multiplying ,,ccxvii times ,,xxix yielded an answer of ,,mmmmmmccxciii1 to be sure1 but not without some difficulty4 ,it required an abacus to do any kind of multiplication or division4 ,indeed1 it was perhaps from the abacus that the clue to ,arabic simplicity came4 ,the ,babylonians1 antedating the ,greeks1 had nevertheless gone them one better in arithmetic by using a 8place0 system4 ,in other words1 the position of a number denoted its value4 ,the ,babylonians simply left an empty space between cuneiform number symbols to show an empty space in this positional system4 ,sometime prior to #cjj ,b4,c4 a clever mathematician tired of losing track and punched a dot in his clay tablet to fill the empty space and avoid possible error4 ,the abacus shows these empty spaces on its rows of beads1 too1 and finally the ,hindus combined their nine numerals with a 8dot with a hole in it0 and gave the mathematical world the zero4 ,in ,hindu it was sifr1 corrupted to zephirium in ,latin1 and gives us today both cipher and zero4 ,this enigma of nothingness would one day be used by ,leibnitz to prove that ,god made the world2 it would later become half the input of the electronic computer6 ,meantime1 it was developed independently in various other parts of the world2 the ancient ,mayans being one example4 ,impressed as we may be by an electronic computer1 it may take some charity to recognize its forebears in the scratchings on a rock4 ,to call the calendar a computer1 we must in honesty add a qualifying term like 8passive40 ,the same applies to the abacus despite its movable counters4 ,but time1 which produced the simple calendar1 also furnished the incentive for the first 8active0 computers too4 ,the hourglass is a primitive example1 as is the sundial4 ,both had an input1 a power source1 and a readout4 ,the clock interestingly ended up with not a decimal scheme1 but one with a base of twelve4 ,early astronomers began conventionally bunching days into groups of ten1 and located different stars on the horizon to mark the passage of the ten days4 ,it was but a step from here to use these 8decans10 as they were called1 to further divide each night itself into segments4 ,it turned out that #ab decans did the trick1 and since symmetry was a virtue the daylight was similarly divided by twelve1 giving us a day of #bd hours rather than #aj or #bj4 ,from the simple hourglass and the more complex water clocks1 the ,greeks progressed to some truly remarkable celestial motion computers4 ,one of these1 built almost a hundred years before the birth of ,christ1 was recently found on the sea bottom off the ,greek island of ,antikythera4 ,it had been aboard a ship which sank1 and its discovery came as a surprise to scholars since history recorded no such complex devices for that era4 ,the salvaged ,greek computer was designed for astronomical work1 showing locations of stars1 predicting eclipses1 and describing various cycles of heavenly bodies4 ,composed of dozens of gears1 shafts1 slip rings1 and accurately inscribed plates1 it was a computer in the best sense of the word and was not exceeded technically for many centuries4 ,the ,greek engineer ,vitruvius made an interesting observation when he said1 8,all machinery is generated by ,nature and the revolution of the universe guides and controls4 ,our fathers took precedents from ,nature--developed the comforts of life by their inventions4 ,they rendered some things more convenient by machines and their revolutions40 ,hindsight and language being what they are1 today we can make a nice play on the word 8revolution0 as applied to the machine4 ,the ,antikythera computer was a prime example of what ,vitruvius was talking about4 ,astronomy was such a complicated business that it was far simpler to make a model of the many motions rather than diagram them or try to retain them in his mind4 ,there were1 of course1 some die-hard classicists who decried the use of machines to do the work of pure reasoning4 ,archytas1 who probably invented the screw--or at least discovered its mechanical principle--attempted to apply such mechanical devices to the solving of geometrical problems4 ,for this he was taken to task by purist ,plato who sought to preserve the distinct division between 8mind0 and 8machine40 ,yet the syllogistic philosophers themselves1 with their major premise1 minor premise1 and conclusion1 were unwittingly setting the stage for a different kind of computer--the logic machine4 ,plato would be horrified today to see crude decks of cards1 or simple electromechanical contrivances1 solving problems of 8reason0 far faster than he could2 in fact1 as fast as the conditions could be set into them6 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,the ,mechanics of ,reason ,aristotle fathered the syllogism1 or at least was first to investigate it rigorously4 ,he defined it as a formal argument in which the conclusion follows logically from the premises4 ,there are four common statements of this type3 ,all ,s 7for is ,p 7for subject7 predicate7 ,no ,s 7for subject7 is ,p ,some ,s 7for is ,p subject7 ,some ,s 7for is not ,p subject7 ,thus1 ,aristotle might say 8,all men are mortal0 or 8,no men are immortal0 as his subject4 ,adding an ,m 7middle term71 8,aristotle is a man10 as a minor premise1 he could logically go on and conclude 8,aristotle1 being a man1 is thus mortal40 ,of course the syllogism unwisely used1 as it often is1 can lead to some ridiculously silly answers4 8,all tables have four legs4 ,two men have four legs4 ,thus1 two men equal a table40 ,despite the weaknesses of the syllogism1 nevertheless it led eventually to the science of symbolic logic4 ,the pathway was circuitous1 even devious at times1 but slowly the idea of putting thought down as letters or numbers to be logically manipulated to reach proper conclusions gained force and credence4 ,while the ,greeks did not have the final say1 they did have words for the subject as they did for nearly everything else4 ,let us leave the subject of pure logic for a moment and talk of another kind of computing machine1 that of the mechanical doer of work4 ,in the ,iliad1 ,homer has ,hephaestus1 the god of natural fire and metalworking1 construct twenty three-wheeled chariots which propel themselves to and fro bringing back messages and instructions from the councils of the gods4 ,these early automatons boasted pure gold wheels1 and handles of 8curious cunning40 ,man has apparently been a lazy cuss from the start and began straightway to dream of mechanical servants to do his chores4 ,in an age of magic and fear of the supernatural his dreams were fraught with such machines that turned into evil monsters4 ,the ,hebrew 8golem0 was made in the shape of man1 but without a soul1 and often got out of hand4 ,literature has perpetuated the idea of machines running amok1 as the broom in 8,the ,sorcerer's ,apprentice10 but there have been benevolent machines too4 ,tik-,tok1 a latter-day windup man in ,the ,road to ,oz1 could think and talk and do many other things men could do4 ,he was not alive1 of course1 but he had the saving grace of always doing just what he 8was wound up to do40 ,having touched on the subject of mechanical men1 let us now return to mechanical logic4 ,since the ,greeks1 many men have traveled the road of reason1 but some stand out more brightly1 more colorfully1 than others4 ,such a standout was the ,spanish monk ,ramn ,lull4 ,lull was born in #abcb4 ,a court page1 he rose in influence1 married young1 and had two children1 but did not settle down to married domesticity4 ,a wildly reckless romantic1 he was given to such stunts as galloping his horse into church in pursuit of some lady who caught his eye4 ,one such escapade led to a remorseful re-examination of himself1 and dramatic conversion to ,christianity4 ,he began to write books in conventional praise of ,christ1 but early in his writings a preoccupation with numbers appears4 ,his ,book of ,contemplation1 for example1 actually contains five books for the five wounds of the ,saviour1 and forty subdivisions for the days ,he spent in the wilderness4 ,there are #cfe chapters for daily reading1 plus one for reading only in leap years6 ,each chapter has ten paragraphs1 symbolizing the ten commandments1 and three parts to each chapter4 ,these multiplied give thirty1 for the pieces of silver4 ,beside religious and mystical connotations1 geometric terms are also used1 and one interesting device is the symbolizing of words and even phrases by letters4 ,this ties in neatly with syllogism4 ,a sample follows3 ''' diversity is shown in the demonstration that the ,d makes of the ,e and the ,f and the ,g with the ,i and the ,k1 therefore the ,h has certain scientific knowledge of ,thy holy and glorious ,trinity4 ,this was only prologue to the ,ars ,magna1 the 8,great ,art0 of ,ramn ,lull4 ,in #abgd1 the devout pilgrim climbed ,mount ,palma in search of divine help in his writings4 ,the result was the first recorded attempt to use diagrams to discover and to prove non-mathematical truths4 ,specifically1 ,lull determined that he could construct mechanical devices that would perform logic to prove the validity of ,god's word4 ,where force1 in the shape of the ,crusades1 had failed1 ,lull was convinced that logical argument would win over the infidels1 and he devoted his life to the task4 ,renouncing his estate1 including his wife and children1 ,lull devoted himself thenceforth solely to his ,great ,art4 ,as a result of dreams he had on ,mount ,palma1 the basis for this work was the assumption of simple premises or principles that are unquestionable4 ,lull arranged these premises on rotating concentric circles4 ,the first of these wheels of logic was called ,a1 standing for ,god4 ,arranged about the circumference of the wheel were sixteen other letters symbolizing attributes of ,god4 ,the outer wheel also contained these letters4 ,rotating them produced #bdj two-term combinations telling many things about ,god and ,his good4 ,other wheels prepared sermons1 advised physicians and scientists1 and even tackled such stumpers as 8,where does the flame go when the candle is put out80 ,illustration3 ,from the ,enciclopedia universal illustrada1 ,barcelona1 #aibc ,lull's wheel4 ,unfortunately for ,lull1 even divine help did not guarantee him success4 ,he was stoned to death by infidels in ,bugia1 ,africa1 at the age of eighty-three4 ,all his wheelspinning logic was to no avail in advancing the cause of ,christianity there1 and most mathematicians since have scoffed at his nave devices as having no real merit4 ,far from accepting the ,ars ,magna1 most scholars have been 8,lulled into a secure sense of falsity10 finding it as specious as indiscriminate syllogism4 ,yet ,lull did leave his mark1 and many copies of his wheels have been made and found useful4 ,where various permutations of numbers or other symbols are required1 such a mechanical tool is often the fastest way of pairing them up4 ,even in the field of writing1 a ,lullian device was popular a few decades ago in the form of the 8,plot ,genii40 ,with this gadget the would-be author merely spun the wheels to match up various characters with interesting situations to arrive at story ideas4 ,other versions use cards to do the same job1 and one called ,plotto was used by its inventor ,william ,wallace ,cook to plot countless stories4 ,although these were perhaps not ideas for great literature1 eager writers paid as much as #ge for the plot boiler4 ,not all serious thinkers relegated ,lull to the position of fanatic dreamer and gadgeteer4 ,no less a mind that ,gottfried ,wilhelm von ,leibnitz found much to laud in ,lull's works4 ,the ,ars ,magna might well lead to a universal 8algebra0 of all knowledge1 thought ,leibnitz4 8,if controversies were to arise10 he then mused1 8there would be no more reason for philosophers to dispute than there would for accountants60 ,leibnitz applied ,lull's work to formal logic1 constructed tables of syllogisms from which he eliminated the false1 and carried the work of the 8gifted crank0 at bit nearer to true symbolic logic4 ,leibnitz also extended the circle idea to that of overlapping them in early attempts at logical manipulation that foreshadowed the work that ,john ,venn would do later4 ,leibnitz also saw in numbers a powerful argument for the existence of ,god4 ,god1 he saw as the numeral #a1 and #j was the nothingness from which ,he created the world4 ,there are those1 including ,voltaire whose ,candide satirized the notion1 who question that it is the best of all possible worlds1 but none can question that in the seventeenth century ,leibnitz foresaw the coming power of the binary system4 ,he also built arithmetical computers that could add and subtract1 multiply and divide4 ,a few years earlier than ,leibnitz1 ,blaise ,pascal was also interested in computing machines4 ,as a teen-ager working in his father's tax office1 ,pascal wearied of adding the tedious figures so he built himself a gear-driven computer that would add eight columns of numbers4 ,a tall figure in the scientific world1 ,pascal had fathered projective geometry at age sixteen and later established hydrodynamics as a science4 ,to assist a gambler friend1 he also developed the theory of probability which led to statistical science4 ,another mathematical innovation of the century was that of placing logarithms on a stick by the ,scot1 ,john ,napier4 ,what he had done1 of course1 was to make an analog1 or scale model of the arithmetical numbers4 8,napier's bones0 quickly became what we now call slide rules1 forerunners of a whole class of analog computers that solve problems by being actual models of size or quantity4 ,newton joined ,leibnitz in contributing another valuable tool that would be used in the computer1 that of the calculus4 ,the ,computer in ,literature ,even as ,plato had viewed with suspicion the infringement of mechanical devices on man's domain of higher thought1 other men have continued to eye the growth of 8mechanisms0 with mounting alarm4 ,the scientist and inventor battled not merely technical difficulties1 but the scornful satire and righteous condemnation of some of their fellow men4 ,jonathan ,swift1 the ,irish satirist who took a swipe at many things that did not set well with his views1 lambasted the computing machine as a substitute for the brain4 ,in ,chapter ,v1 ,book ,three1 of ,gulliver's ,travels1 the good dean runs up against a scheming scientist in ,laputa3 ,the first ,professor ,i saw was in a very large ,room1 with ,forty ,pupils about him4 ,after ,salutation1 observing me to look earnestly upon a ,frame1 which took up the greatest part of both the ,length and ,breadth of the ,room2 he said1 perhaps ,i might wonder to see him employed in a ,project for improving speculative knowledge by practical and mechanical ,operations4 ,but the ,world would soon be sensible of its ,usefulness2 and he flattered himself1 that a more noble exalted ,thought never sprang in any other ,man's ,head4 ,every one knew how laborious the usual ,method is of attaining to ,arts and ,sciences2 whereas by his ,contrivance1 the most ignorant ,person at a reasonable ,charge1 and with a little bodily ,labour1 may write ,books in ,philosophy1 ,poetry1 ,politicks1 ,law1 ,mathematicks1 and ,theology1 without the least ,assistance from ,genius or ,study4 ,he then led me to the ,frame1 about the ,sides whereof all his ,pupils stood in ,ranks4 ,it was a ,twenty ,foot ,square1 placed in the ,middle of the ,room4 ,the ,superfices was composed of several ,bits of ,wood1 about the ,bigness of a ,dye1 but some larger than others4 ,they were all linked together by slender ,wires4 ,these ,bits of ,wood were covered on every ,square with ,papers pasted on them2 and on these ,papers were written all the ,words of their ,language in their several ,moods1 ,tenses1 and ,declensions1 but without any ,order4 ,the ,professor then desired me to observe1 for he was going to set his ,engine to work4 ,the ,pupils at his ,command took each the hold of an ,iron ,handle1 whereof there were ,forty fixed round the ,edges of the ,frame2 and giving them a sudden ,turn1 the whole ,disposition of the ,words was entirely changed4 ,he then commanded ,six and ,thirty of the ,lads to read the several ,lines softly as they appeared upon the ,frame2 and where they found three or four ,words together that might make ,part of a ,sentence1 they dictated to the four remaining ,boys who were ,scribes4 ,this work was repeated three or four ,times1 and at every ,turn the ,engine was so contrived1 that the ,words shifted into new ,places1 as the square ,bits of ,wood moved upside down4 ,six hours a-day the young ,students were employed in this ,labour2 and the ,professor showed me several ,volumes in large ,folio already collected1 of broken ,sentences1 which he intended to piece together1 and out of those rich ,materials to give the ,world a compleat ,body of ,art and ,sciences2 which however might be still improved1 and much expedited1 if the ,publick would raise a ,fund for making and employing five ,hundred such ,frames in ,lagado4444 ,fortunately for ,swift1 who would have been horrified by it1 he never heard ,russell ,maloney's classic story1 8,inflexible ,logic10 about six monkeys pounding away at typewriters and re-creating the world great literature4 ,gulliver's ,travels is not listed in their accomplishments4 ,the ,french ,revolution prompted no less an orator than ,edmund ,burke to deliver in #agij an address titled 8,reflections on the ,french ,revolution10 in which he extols the virtues of the dying feudal order in ,europe4 ,it galled ,burke that 8,the ,age of ,chivalry is gone4 ,that of sophists1 economists1 and calculators has succeeded1 and the glory of ,europe is extinguished forever40 ,seventy years later another eminent ,englishman named ,darwin published a book called ,on the ,origin of ,species that in the eyes of many readers did little to glorify man himself4 ,samuel ,butler1 better known for his novel1 ,the ,way of ,all ,flesh1 wrote too of the mechanical being1 and was one of the first to point out just what sort of future ,darwin was suggesting4 ,in the satirical ,erewhon1 he described the machines of this mysterious land in some of the most prophetic writing that has been done on the subject4 ,it was almost a hundred years ago that ,butler wrote the first version1 called 8,darwin ,among the ,machines10 but the words ring like those of a #aifb worrier over the electronic brain4 ,butler's character warns3 ,there is no security against the ultimate development of mechanical consciousness in the fact of machines possessing little consciousness now4 ,reflect upon the extraordinary advance which machines have made during the last few hundred years1 and note how slowly the animal and vegetable kingdoms are advancing4 ,the more highly organized machines are creatures not so much of yesterday1 as of the last five minutes1 so to speak1 in comparison with past time4 ,do not let me be misunderstood as living in fear of any actually existing machine2 there is probably no known machine which is more than a prototype of future mechanical life4 ,the present machines are to the future as the early ,saurians to man 444 what ,i fear is the extraordinary rapidity with which they are becoming something very different to what they are at present4 ,butler envisioned the day when the present rude cries with which machines call out to one another will have been developed to a speech as intricate as our own4 ,after all1 8444 take man's vaunted power of calculation4 ,have we not engines which can do all manner of sums more quickly and correctly than we can8 ,what prizeman in ,hypothetics at any of our ,colleges of ,unreason can compare with some of these machines in their own line80 ,noting another difference in man and his creation1 ,butler says1 444 ,our sum-engines never drop a figure1 nor our looms a stitch2 the machine is brisk and active1 when the man is weary1 it is clear-headed and collected1 when the man is stupid and dull1 it needs no slumber4444 ,may not man himself become a sort of parasite upon the machines8 ,an affectionate machine-tickling aphid8 ,it can be answered that even though machines should hear never so well and speak never so wisely1 they will still always do the one or the other for our advantage1 not their own2 that man will be the ruling spirit and the machine the servant4444 ,this is all very well4 ,but the servant glides by imperceptible approaches into the master1 and we have come to such a pass that1 even now1 man must suffer terribly on ceasing to benefit the machines4 ,if all machines were to be annihilated 444 man should be left as it were naked upon a desert island1 we should become extinct in six weeks4 ,is it not plain that the machines are gaining ground upon us1 when we reflect on the increasing number of those who are bound down to them as slaves1 and of those who devote their whole souls to the advancement of the mechanical kingdom8 ,butler considers the argument that machines at least cannot copulate1 since they have no reproductive system4 8,if this be taken to mean that they cannot marry1 and that we are never likely to see a fertile union between two vapor-engines with the young ones playing about the door of the shed1 however greatly we might desire to do so1 ,i will readily grant it4 ,but surely if a machine is able to reproduce another machine systematically1 we may say that it has a reproductive system40 ,butler repeats his main theme4 8444 his man's organization never advanced with anything like the rapidity with which that of the machine is advancing4 ,this is the most alarming feature of the case1 and ,i must be pardoned for insisting on it so frequently40 ,then there is a startlingly clear vision of the machines 8regarded as a part of man's own physical nature1 being really nothing but extra-corporeal limbs4 ,man 444 as a machinate mammal40 ,this was feared as leading to eventual weakness of man until we finally found 8man himself being nothing but soul and mechanism1 an intelligent but passionless principle of mechanical action40 ,and so the ,erewhonians in self-defense destroyed all inventions discovered in the preceding #bga years6 ,early ,mechanical ,devices ,during the nineteenth century1 weaving was one of the most competitive industries in ,europe1 and new inventions were often closely guarded secrets4 ,just such an idea was that of ,frenchman ,joseph ,m4 ,jacquard1 an idea that automated the loom and would later become the basis for the first modern computers4 ,a big problem in weaving was how to control a multiplicity of flying needles to create the desired pattern in the material4 ,there were ways of doing this1 of course1 but all of them were unwieldy and costly4 ,then ,jacquard hit on a clever scheme4 ,if he took a card and punched holes in it where he wanted the needles to be actuated1 it was simple to make the needles do his bidding4 ,to change the pattern took only another card1 and cards were cheap4 ,patented in #ahja1 there were soon thousands of ,jacquard looms in operation1 doing beautiful and accurate designs at a reasonable price4 ,to show off the scope of his wonderful punched cards1 ,jacquard had one of his looms weave a portrait of him in silk4 ,the job took #bj1jjj cards1 but it was a beautiful and effective testimonial4 ,and fatefully a copy of the silk portrait would later find its way into the hands of a man who would do much more with the oddly punched cards4 ,at about this same time1 a ,hungarian named ,wolfgang von ,kempelen decided that machines could play games as well as work in factories4 ,so von ,kempelen built himself a chess-playing machine called the ,maelzel ,chess ,automaton with which he toured ,europe4 ,the inventor and his machine played a great game1 but they didn't play fair4 ,hidden in the innards of the ,maelzel ,automaton was a second human player1 but this disillusioning truth was not known for some time4 ,thus von ,kempelen doubtless spurred other inventors to the task1 and in a short while machines would actually begin to play the royal game4 ,for instance1 a ,spaniard named ,l4 ,torres y ,quevedo built a chess-playing machine in #aiad4 ,this device played a fair 8end game0 using several pieces1 and its inventor predicted future work in this direction using more advanced machines4 ,charles ,babbage was an ,english scientist with a burning desire for accuracy4 ,when some mathematical tables prepared for the ,astronomical ,society proved to be full of errors1 he angrily determined to build a machine that would do the job with no mistakes4 ,of course calculating machines had been built before2 but the machine ,babbage had in mind was different4 ,in fact1 he called it a 8difference engine0 because it was based on the difference tables of the squares of numbers4 ,the first of the 8giant computers10 it was to have hundreds of gears and shafts1 ratchets and counters4 ,any arithmetic problem could be set into it1 and when the proper cranks were turned1 out would come an answer--the right answer because the machine could not make a mistake4 ,after doing some preliminary work on his difference engine1 ,babbage interested the government in his project since even though he was fairly well-to-do he realized it would cost more money than he could afford to sink into the project4 ,babbage was a respected scientist1 ,lucasian ,professor of ,mathematics at ,cambridge1 and because of his reputation and the promise of the machine1 the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer promised to underwrite the project4 ,for four years ,babbage and his mechanics toiled4 ,instead of completing his original idea1 the scientist had succeeded only in designing a far more complicated machine1 one which would when finished weigh about two tons4 ,because the parts he needed were advanced beyond the state of the art of metalworking1 ,babbage was forced to design and build them himself4 ,in the process he decided that industry was being run all wrong1 and took time out to write a book4 ,it was an excellent book1 a sort of forerunner to the modern science of operations research1 and ,babbage's machine shop was doing wonders for the metalworking art4 ,undaunted by the lack of progress toward a concrete result1 ,babbage was thinking bigger and bigger4 ,he was going to scrap the difference engine1 or rather put it in a museum1 and build a far better computer--an 8analytical engine40 ,if ,jacquard's punched cards could control the needles on a loom1 they could also operate the gears and other parts of a calculating machine4 ,this new engine would be one that could not only add1 subtract1 multiply1 and divide2 it would be designed to control itself4 ,and as the answers started to come out1 they would be fed back to do more complex problems with no further work on the operator's part4 8,having the machine eat its own tail60 ,babbage called this sophisticated bit of programming4 ,this mechanical cannibalism was the root of the 8feedback0 principle widely used in machines today4 ,echoing ,watt's steam governor1 it prophesied the coming control of machines by the machines themselves4 ,besides this innovation1 the machine would have a 8store10 or memory1 of one thousand fifty-digit numbers that it could draw on1 and it would actually exercise judgment in selection of the proper numbers4 ,and as if that weren't enough1 it would print out the correct answers automatically on specially engraved copper plates6 ,illustration3 ,space ,technology ,laboratories 8,as soon as an ,analytical ,engine exists1 it will necessarily guide the future course of science4 ,whenever any result is sought by its aid1 the question will then arise--by what course of calculation can these results be arrived at by the machine in the shortest time80 ,charles ,babbage--,the ,life of a ,philosopher1 #ahfa4 ,it was a wonderful dream2 a dream that might have become an actuality in ,babbage's own time if machine technology had been as advanced as his ideas4 ,but for ,babbage it remained only a dream1 a dream that never did work successfully4 ,the government spent #ag1jjj1 a huge sum for that day and time1 and bowed out4 ,babbage fumed and then put his own money into the machine4 ,his mechanics left him and became leaders in the machine-tool field1 having trained in ,babbage's workshops4 ,in despair1 he gave up on the analytical engine and designed another difference engine4 ,an early model of this one would work to five accurate places1 but ,babbage had his eyes on a much better goal--twenty-place accuracy4 ,a lesser man would have aimed more realistically and perhaps delivered workable computers to the mathematicians and businessmen of the day4 ,there is a legend that his son did finish one of the simpler machines and that it was used in actuarial accounting for many years4 ,but ,babbage himself died in #ahga unaware of how much he had done for the computer technology that would begin to flower a few short decades later4 ,singlehandedly he had given the computer art the idea of programming and of sequential control1 a memory in addition to the arithmetic unit he called a 8mill10 and even an automatic readout such as is now standard on modern computers4 ,truly1 the modern computer was 8,babbage's dream come true40 ,symbolic ,logic ,concurrently with the great strides being made with mechanical computers that could handle mathematics1 much work was also being done with the formalizing of the logic4 ,as hinted vaguely in the syllogisms of the early philosophers1 thinking did seem amenable to being diagrammed1 much like grammar4 ,augustus ,de ,morgan devised numerical logic systems1 and ,george ,boole set up the logic system that has come to be known as ,boolean algebra in which reasoning becomes positive or negative terms that can be manipulated algebraically to give valid answers4 ,john ,venn put the idea of logic into pictures1 and simple pictures at that4 ,his symbology looks for all the world like the three interlocking rings of a well-known ale4 ,these rings stand for the subject1 midterm1 and predicate of the older ,aristotelian syllogism4 ,by shading the various circles according to the major and minor premises1 the user of ,venn circles can see the logical result by inspection4 ,implicit in the scheme is the possibility of a mechanical or electrical analogy to this visual method1 and it was not long until mathematicians began at least on the mechanical kind4 ,among these early logic mechanizers1 surprisingly1 was ,lewis ,carroll who of course was mathematician ,charles ,l4 ,dodgson before he became a writer4 ,carroll1 who was a far busier man than most of us ever guess1 marketed a 8,game of ,logic10 with a board and colored cardboard counters that handled problems like the following3 ,all teetotalers like sugar4 ,no nightingale drinks wine4 ,by arranging the counters on ,carroll's game board so that3 ,all ,m are ,x1 and ,no ,y is not-,m1 we learn that ,no ,y is not-,x6 ,this tells the initiate logician that no nightingale dislikes sugar2 a handy piece of information for bird-fancier and sugar-broker alike4 ,illustration3 ,lewis ,carroll's 8,symbolic ,logic40 ,charles1 the third ,earl ,stanhope1 was only slightly less controversial than his prime minister1 ,william ,pitt4 ,scientifically he was far out too1 writing books on electrical theory1 inventing steamboats1 microscopes1 and printing presses among an odd variety of projects2 he also became interested in mechanical logic and designed the 8,stanhope ,demonstrator10 a contrivance like a checkerboard with sliding panels4 ,by properly manipulating the demonstrator he could solve such problems as3 ,eight of ten children are bright4 ,four of these children are boys4 ,what are the minimum and maximum number of bright boys8 ,a simple sliding of scales on the ,stanhope ,demonstrator shows that two must be boys and as many as four may be4 ,this clever device could also work out probability problems such as how many heads and tails will come up in so many tosses of a coin4 ,in #ahfi ,william ,s4 ,jevons1 an ,english economist and expert logician1 built a logic machine4 ,his was not the first1 of course1 but it had a unique distinction in that it solved problems faster than the human brain could6 ,using ,boolean algebra principles1 he built a 8logical abacus0 and then even a 8logical piano40 ,by simply pressing the keys of this machine1 the user could make the answer appear on its face4 ,it is of interest that ,jevons thought his machine of no practical use1 since complex logical questions seldom arose in everyday life6 ,life1 it seems1 was simpler in #ahfi than it is today1 and we should be grateful that ,jevons pursued his work through sheer scientific interest4 ,more sophisticated than the ,jevons piano1 the logic machine invented in ,america by ,allan ,marquand could handle four terms and do problems like the following3 ,there are four schoolgirls1 ,anna1 ,bertha1 ,cora1 and ,dora4 ,when ,anna or ,bertha1 or both1 remain home1 ,cora is at home4 ,when ,bertha is out1 ,anna is out4 ,whenever ,cora is at home1 ,anna is too4 ,what can we tell about ,dora8 ,the machine is smart enough to tell us that when ,dora is at home the other three girls are all at home or out4 ,the same thing is true when ,dora is out4 ,the ,census ,taker ,moving from the sophistication of such logic devices1 we find a tremendous advance in mechanical computers spurred by such a mundane chore as the census4 ,the #ahhj ,united ,states census required seven years for compiling2 and that with only #ej million heads to reckon4 ,it was plain to see that shortly a ten-year census would be impossible of completion unless something were done to cut the birth rate or speed the counting4 ,dr4 ,herman ,hollerith was the man who did something about it1 and as a result the #ahij census1 with #fb million people counted1 took only one-third the time of the previous tally4 ,hollerith1 a statistician living in ,buffalo1 ,new ,york1 may or may not have heard the old saw about statistics being able to support anything--including the statisticians1 but there was a challenge in the rapid growth of population that appealed to the inventor in him and he set to work4 ,he came up with a card punched with coded holes1 a card much like that used by ,jacquard on his looms1 and by ,babbage on the dream computer that became a nightmare4 ,but ,hollerith did not meet the fate of his predecessors4 ,not stoned1 or doomed to die a failure1 ,hollerith built his card machines and contracted with the government to do the census work4 8,it was a good paying business10 he said4 ,it was indeed1 and his early census cards would some day be known generically as 8,,ibm cards40 ,while ,jacquard and ,babbage of necessity used mechanical devices with their punched cards1 ,hollerith added the magic of electricity to his card machine1 building in essence the first electrical computing machine4 ,the punched cards were floated across a pool of mercury1 and telescoping pins in the reading head dropped through the holes4 ,as they contacted the mercury1 an electrical circuit was made and another ,american counted4 ,hollerith did not stop with census work4 ,sagely he felt there must be commercial applications for his machines and sold two of the leading railroads on a punched-card accounting system4 ,his firm merged with others to become the ,computing-,tabulating-,recording ,company1 and finally ,international ,business ,machines4 ,the term 8,hollerith ,coding0 is still familiar today4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,hollerith tabulating machine of #ahij1 forerunner of modern computers4 ,edison was illuminating the world and the same electrical power was brightening the future of computing machines4 ,as early as #aiae the ,ford ,instrument ,company was producing in quantity a device known as 8,range ,keeper ,mark ,i10 thought to be the first electrical-analog computer4 ,in #aibj1 ,general ,electric built a 8short-circuit calculating board0 that was an analog or model of the real circuits being tested4 ,westinghouse came up with an 8alternating-current network analyzer0 in #aicc1 and this analog computer was found to be a powerful tool for mathematics4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,a vertical punched-card sorter used in #aijh4 ,while scientists were putting the machines to work1 writers continued to prophesy doom when the mechanical man took over4 ,mary ,w4 ,shelley's ,frankenstein created a monster from a human body2 a monster that in time would take his master's name and father a long horrid line of other fictional monsters4 ,ambrose ,g4 ,bierce wrote of a diabolical chess-playing machine that was human enough to throttle the man who beat him at a game4 ,but it remained for the ,czech playwright ,karel apek to give the world the name that has stuck to the mechanical man4 ,in apek's #aiba play1 ,r4,u4,r41 for ,rossum's ,universal ,robots1 we are introduced to humanlike workers grown in vats of synthetic protoplasm4 ,robota is a ,czech word meaning compulsory service1 and apparently these mechanical slaves did not take to servitude1 turning on their masters and killing them4 ,robot is generally accepted now to mean a mobile thinking machine capable of action4 ,before the advent of the high-speed electronic computer it had little likelihood of stepping out of the pages of a novel or movie script4 ,as early as #ahhe1 ,allan ,marquand had proposed an electrical logic machine as an improvement over his simple mechanically operated model1 but it was #aicf before such a device was actually built4 ,in that year ,benjamin ,burack1 a member of ,chicago's ,roosevelt ,college psychology department1 built and demonstrated his 8,electrical ,logic ,machine40 ,able to test all syllogisms1 the ,burack machine was unique in another respect4 ,it was the first of the portable electrical computers4 ,the compatibility of symbolic logic and electrical network theory was becoming evident at about this time4 ,the idea that yes-no corresponded to on-off was beautifully simple1 and in #aich there appeared in one of the learned journals what may fairly be called a historic paper4 ,appearing in ,transactions of the ,american ,institute of ,electrical ,engineers1 8,a ,symbolic ,analysis of ,relay and ,switching ,circuits10 was written by ,claude ,shannon and was based on his thesis for the ,m4,s4 degree at the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology a year earlier4 ,one of its important implications was that the programming of a computer was more a logical than an arithmetical operation4 ,shannon had laid the groundwork for logical computer design2 his work made it possible to teach the machine not only to add but also to think4 ,another monumental piece of work by ,shannon was that on information theory1 which revolutionized the science of communications4 ,the author is now on the staff of the electronics research laboratory at ,m4,i4,t4 ,two enterprising ,harvard undergraduates put ,shannon's ideas to work on their problems in the symbolic logic class they were taking4 ,called a ,kalin-,burkhart machine for its builders1 this electrical logic machine did indeed work1 solving the students' homework assignments and saving them much tedious paperwork4 ,interestingly1 when certain logical questions were posed for the machine1 its circuits went into oscillation1 making 8a hell of a racket0 in its frustration4 ,the builders called this an example of 8,russell's paradox40 ,a typical logical paradox is that of the barber who shaved all men who didn't shave themselves--who shaves the barber8 ,or of the condemned man permitted to make a last statement4 ,if the statement is true1 he will be beheaded2 if false1 he will hang4 ,the man says1 8,i shall be hanged10 and thus confounds his executioners as well as logic1 since if he is hanged1 the statement is indeed true1 and he should have been beheaded4 ,if he is beheaded1 the statement is false1 and he should have been hanged instead4 ,world ,war ,,ii1 with its pressingly complex technological problems1 spurred computer work mightily4 ,men like ,vannevar ,bush1 then at ,harvard1 produced analog computers called 8differential analyzers0 which were useful in solving mathematics involved in design of aircraft and in ballistics problems4 ,a computer built by ,general ,electric for the gunsights on the ,world ,war ,,ii ,b-#bi bomber is typical of applications of analog devices for computing and predicting1 and is also an example of early airborne use of computing devices4 ,most computers1 however1 were sizable affairs4 ,one early ,general ,electric analog machine1 described as a hundred feet long1 indicates the trend toward the 8giant brain0 concept4 ,even with the sophistication attained1 these computers were hardly more than extensions of mechanical forerunners4 ,in other words1 gears and cams properly proportioned and actuated gave the proper answers whether they were turned by a manual crank or an electrical motor4 ,the digital computer1 which had somehow been lost in the shuffle of interest in computers1 was now appearing on the scientific horizon1 however1 and in this machine would flower all the gains in computers from the abacus to electrical logic machines4 ,the ,modern ,computer ,many men worked on the digital concept4 ,aiken1 who built the electromechanical ,mark ,i at ,harvard1 and ,williams in ,england are representative4 ,but two scientists at the ,university of ,pennsylvania get the credit for the world's first electronic digital computer1 ,,eniac1 a #cj-ton1 #aej-kilowatt machine using vacuum tubes and semiconductor diodes and handling discrete numbers instead of continuous values as in the analog machine4 ,the modern computer dates from ,,eniac1 ,electronic ,numerical ,integrator ,and ,computer4 ,illustration3 ,remington ,rand ,,univac ,,eniac in operation4 ,this was the first electronic digital computer4 ,shannon's work and the thinking of others in the field indicated the power of the digital1 yes-no1 approach4 ,a single switch can only be on or off1 but many such switches properly interconnected can do amazing things4 ,at first these switches were electromechanical2 in the ,eckert-,mauchly ,,eniac1 completed for the government in #aidf1 vacuum tubes in the ,eccles-,jordan 8flip-flop0 circuit married electronics and the computer4 ,the progeny have been many1 and their generations faster than those of man4 ,,eniac has been followed by ,,binac and ,,maniac1 and even ,,johnniac4 ,,univac and ,,recomp and ,,stretch and ,,larc and a whole host of other machines have been produced4 ,at the start of #aifb there were some #f1jjj electronic digital computers in service2 by year's end there will be #h1jjj4 ,the golden age of the computer may be here1 but as we have seen1 it did not come overnight4 ,the revolution has been slow1 gathering early momentum with the golden wheels of ,homer's mechanical information-seeking vehicles that brought the word from the gods4 ,where it goes from here depends on us1 and maybe on the computer itself4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,theory is the guide to practice1 and practice is the ratification and life of theory40 --,john ,weiss #c3 ,how ,computers ,work ,in the past decade or so1 an amazing and confusing number of computing machines have developed4 ,to those of us unfamiliar with the beast1 many of them do not look at all like what we imagined computers to be2 others are even more awesome than the wildest science-fiction writer could dream up4 ,on the more complex1 lights flash1 tape reels spin dizzily1 and printers clatter at mile-a-minute speeds4 ,we are aware1 or perhaps just take on faith1 that the electronic marvel is doing its sums at so many thousand or million per second1 cranking out mathematical proofs and processing data at a rate to make mere man seem like the dullest slowpoke4 ,just how computers do this is pretty much of a mystery unless we are of the breed that works with them4 ,actually1 in spite of all the blurring speed and seeming magic1 the basic steps of computer operation are quite simple and generally the same for all types of machines from the modestly priced electromechanical do-it-yourself model to ,,stretch1 ,,muse1 and other ten-million-dollar computers4 ,it might be well before we go farther to learn a few words in the lexicon of the computer1 words that are becoming more and more a part of our everyday language4 ,the following glossary is of course neither complete nor technical but it will be helpful in following through the mechanics of computer operation4 ,,computer ,,dictionary ,,access ,,time--,time required for computer to locate data and transfer it from one computer element to another4 ,,adder--,device for forming sums in the computer4 ,,address--,specific location of information in computer memory4 ,,analog ,,computer--,a physical or electrical simulator which produces an analogy of the mathematical problem to be solved4 ,,arithmetic ,,unit--,unit that performs arithmetical and logical operations4 ,,binary ,,code--,representation of numbers or other information using only one and zero1 to take advantage of open and closed circuits4 ,,bit--,a binary digit1 either one or zero2 used to make binary numbers4 ,,block--,group of words handled as a unit1 particularly with reference to input and output4 ,,buffer--,storage device to compensate for difference in input and operation rate4 ,,control ,,unit--,portion of the computer that controls arithmetic and logical operations and transfer of information4 ,,delay ,,line--,memory device to store and later reinsert information2 uses physical1 mechanical1 or electrical techniques4 ,,digital ,,computer--,a computer that uses discrete numbers to represent information4 ,,flip-,,flop--,a circuit or device which remains in either of two states until the application of a signal4 ,,gate--,a circuit with more than one input1 and an output dependent on these inputs4 ,an ,,and gate's output is energized only when all inputs are energized4 ,an ,,or gate's output is energized when one or more inputs are energized4 ,there are also ,,not-,,and gates1 ,,exclusive-,,or gates1 etc4 ,,logical ,,operation--,a nonarithmetical operation1 i4e41 decision-making1 data-sorting1 searching1 etc4 ,,magnetic ,,drum--,rotating cylinder storage device for memory unit2 stores data in coded form4 ,,matrix--,circuitry for transformation of digital codes from one type to another2 uses wires1 diodes1 relays1 etc4 ,,memory ,,unit--,that part of the computer that stores information in machine language1 using electrical or magnetic techniques4 ,,microsecond--,one millionth of a second4 ,,millisecond--,one thousandth of a second4 ,,nanosecond--,one billionth of a second4 ,,parallel ,,operation--,digital computer operation in which all digits are handled simultaneously4 ,,programming--,steps to be executed by computer to solve problem4 ,,random ,,access--,a memory system that permits more nearly equal access time to all memory locations than does a nonrandom system4 ,magnetic core memory is a random type1 compared with a tape reel memory4 ,,real ,,time--,computer operation simultaneous with input of information2 e4g41 control of a guided missile or of an assembly line4 ,,register--,storage device for small amount of information while1 or until1 it is needed4 ,,serial ,,operation--,digital computer operation in which all digits are handled serially4 ,,storage--,use of drums1 tapes1 cards1 and so on to store data outside the computer proper4 ,the ,computer's ,parts ,looking at computers from a distance1 we are vaguely aware that they are given problems in the form of coded instructions and that through some electronic metamorphosis this problem turns into an answer that is produced at the readout end of the machine4 ,there is an engineering technique called the 8black box0 concept1 in which we are concerned only with input to this box and its output4 ,we could extend this concept to 8black-magic box0 and apply it to the computer1 but breaking the system down into its components is quite simple and much more informative4 ,there are five components that make up a computer3 input1 control1 arithmetic 7or logic7 unit1 memory1 and output4 ,as machine intelligence expert1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,ross ,ashby1 points out1 we can get no more out of a brain--mechanical or human--than we put into it4 ,so we must have an input4 ,the kind of input depends largely on the degree of sophistication of the machine we are considering4 ,with the abacus we set in the problem mechanically1 with our fingers4 ,using a desk calculator we punch buttons3 a more refined mechanical input4 ,punched cards or perforated tapes are much used input methods4 ,as computers evolve rapidly1 some of them can 8read0 for themselves and the input is visual4 ,there are also computers that understand verbal commands4 ,input should not be confused with the control portion of the computer's anatomy4 ,we feed in data1 but we must also tell the computer what to do with the information4 ,shall it count the number of cards that fly through it1 or shall it add the numbers shown on the cards1 record the maximum and minimum1 and print out an average8 ,control involves programming1 a computer term that was among the first to be assimilated into ordinary language4 ,the arithmetic unit--that part of the computer that the pioneer ,babbage called his 8mill0--is the nuts and bolts end of the business4 ,here are the gears and shafts1 the electromechanical relays1 or the vacuum tubes1 transistors1 and magnetic cores that do the addition1 multiplication1 and other mathematical operations4 ,sometimes this is called the 8logic0 unit1 since often it manipulates the ,,ands1 ,,ors1 ,,nors1 and other conjunctives in the logical algebra of ,boole and his followers4 ,the memory unit is just that2 a place where numbers1 words1 or other data are stored and ready to be called into use whenever needed4 ,there are two broad types of memory1 internal and external1 and they parallel the kind of memory we use ourselves4 ,while our brain can store many1 many facts1 it does have a practical limit4 ,this is why we have phone books1 logarithm tables1 strings around fingers1 and so on4 ,the computer likewise has its external memory that may store thousands of times the capacity of its internal memory4 ,babbage's machine could remember a thousand fifty-digit numbers2 today's large computers call on millions of bits of data4 ,illustration3 ,conversion of problem to machine program4 ,after we have dumped in the data and told the computer what to do with them1 and the arithmetic and memory have collaborated1 it remains only for the computer to display the result4 ,this is the output of the computer1 and it can take many forms4 ,if we are using a simple analog computer such as a slide rule1 the answer is found under the hairline on the slide4 ,an electronic computer in a bank prints out the results of the day's transactions in neat type at hundreds of lines a minute4 ,the ,,sage defense computer system displays an invading bomber and plots the correct course for interceptors on a scope2 a computer in a playful mood might type out its next move--,king to ,q#g and checkmate4 ,with this sketchy over-all description to get us started1 let us study each unit in a little more detail4 ,it is interesting to compare these operations with those of our human computer1 our brain1 as we go along4 ,illustration3 ,remington ,rand ,,univac ,a large computer1 showing the different parts required4 ,input ,an early and still very popular method of getting data into the computer is the punched card4 ,jacquard's clever way of weaving a pattern got into the computer business through ,hollerith's census counting machines4 ,today the ubiquitous ,,ibm card can do these tasks of nose counting and weaving1 and just about everything else in between4 ,jacquard used the punched holes to permit certain pins to slide through4 ,hollerith substituted the mercury electrical contact for the loom's flying needles4 ,today there are many other ways of 8reading0 the cards4 ,metal base plate and springs1 star wheels1 even photoelectric cells are used to detect the presence or absence of the coded holes4 ,a human who knows the code can visually extract the information2 a blind man could do it by the touch system4 ,so with the computer1 there are many ways of transferring data4 ,illustration3 ,remington ,rand ,,univac ,the ,computer's ,basic ,parts4 ,an obvious requirement of the punched card is that someone has to punch the holes in the first place4 ,this is done with manually operated punches1 power punches1 and even automatic machines that handle more than a hundred cards a minute4 ,punched cards1 which fall into the category called computer 8software10 are cheap1 flexible1 and compatible with many types of equipment4 ,particularly with mathematical computations and scientific research1 another type of input has become popular1 that of paper tape4 ,this in effect strings many cards together and puts them on an easily handled roll4 ,thus a long series of data can be punched without changing cards1 and is conveniently stored for repeated use4 ,remember the old player-piano rolls of music8 ,these actually formed the input for one kind of computer1 a musical machine that converted coded holes to musical sounds by means of pneumatic techniques4 ,later in this chapter we will discuss some modern pneumatic computers4 ,more efficient than paper is magnetic tape1 the same kind we use in our home recording instruments4 ,anyone familiar with a tape recorder knows how easy it is to edit or change something on a tape reel4 ,this is a big advantage over punched cards or paper tapes which are physically altered by the data stored on them and cannot be corrected4 ,besides this1 magnetic tape can hold many more 8bits0 of information than paper and also lends itself to very rapid movement through the reading head of the computer4 ,for example1 standard computer tape holds seven tracks1 each with hundreds of bits of information per inch4 ,since there are thousands of feet on a ten-inch reel1 it is theoretically possible to pack #dj million bits on this handful of tape6 ,since the computer usually can operate at a much higher rate of speed than we can put information onto tape1 it is often the practice to have a 8buffer0 in the input section4 ,this receiving station collects and stores information until it is full1 then feeds it to the computer which gobbles it up with lightning speed4 ,keeping a fast computer continuously busy may require many different inputs4 ,never satisfied1 computer designers pondered the problem of all the lost time entailed in laboriously preparing cards or tapes for the ravenous electronic machine4 ,the results of this brain-searching are interesting1 and they are evident in computers that actually read man-talk4 ,computers used in the post office and elsewhere can optically read addresses as well as stamps2 banks have computers that electrically read the coded magnetic ink numbers on our checks and process thousands of times as many as human workers once did4 ,this optical reading input is not without its problems1 of course4 ,many computers require a special type face to be used1 and the post office found that its stamp recognizer was mistaking ,christmas seals for foreign stamps4 ,improved read heads now can read hand-printed material and will one day master our widely differing human scrawls4 ,this is of course a boon to the 8programmer0 of lengthy equations who now has to translate the whole problem into machine talk before the machine can accept it4 ,if a machine can read1 why can't it understand verbal input as well8 ,lazy computer engineers have pushed this idea1 and the simplest input system of all is well on the way to success4 ,computers today can recognize numbers and a few words1 and the ,japanese have a typewriter that prints out the words spoken to it6 ,these linguistic advances that electronic computers are making are great for everyone1 except perhaps the glamorized programmer1 a new breed of mathematical logician whose services have been demanded in the last few years4 ,illustration3 ,magnetic ,tape - ,paper ,tape - ,,ibm ,card - ,magnetic ,ink ,characters ,control ,before we feed the problem into the machine1 or before we give it some 8raw0 data to process1 we had better tell our computer what we want it to do4 ,all the fantastic speed of our electrons will result in a meaningless merry-go-round1 or perhaps a glorious machine-stalling short circuit unless the proper switches open and close at the right time4 ,this is the job of the control unit of the computer1 a unit that understands commands like 8start10 8add10 8subtract10 8find the square root10 8file in ,bin ,b10 8stop10 and so on4 ,the key to all the computer's parts working together in electronic harmony is its 8clock40 ,this timekeeper in effect snaps its fingers in perfect cadence1 and the switches jump at its bidding4 ,since the finger-snapping takes place at rates of millions of snaps a second1 the programmer must be sure he has instructed the computer properly4 ,the ideal programmer is a rare type with a peculiarly keen brain that sometimes takes seemingly illogical steps to be logical4 ,programmers are likely to be men--or women1 for there is no sex barrier in this new profession--who revel in symbolic logic and heuristic or 8hunch0 reasoning4 ,without a program1 the computer is an impressively elaborate and frighteningly expensive contraption which cannot tell one number from another4 ,the day may come when the mathematician can say to the machine1 8,prove ,fermat's last theorem for me1 please10 or the engineer simply wish aloud for a ceramic material that melts at #ae1jjj ,c4 and weighs slightly less than ,styrofoam4 ,even then the human programmer will not start drawing unemployment insurance1 of course4 ,if he is not receiving his ,social ,security pension by then he will simply shift to more creative work such as thinking up more problems for the machine to solve4 ,just as there are many jobs for the computer1 so there are many kinds of programs4 ,on a very simple1 special-purpose computer1 the program may be 8wired-in10 or fixed1 so that the computer can do that particular job and no other4 ,on a more flexible machine1 the program may still be quite simple1 perhaps no more than a card entered in a desk unit by an airline ticket agent to let the computer arrange a reservation for three tourist seats on ,american ,airlines jet flight from ,phoenix to ,chicago at #h3bj ,a4,m4 four days from now4 ,on a general-purpose machine1 capable of many problems1 the program may be unique1 a one-of-a-kind highly complex set of instructions that will make the computer tax its huge memory and do all sorts of mental 8nip-ups0 before it reaches a solution4 ,a computer that understands about sixty commands has been compared to a ,siamese elephant used for teak logging2 the animal has about that many words in its vocabulary4 ,vocabulary is an indication of computer as well as human sophistication4 ,the trend is constantly toward less-than-elephant size1 and more-than-elephant vocabulary4 ,the programmer's work can be divided into four basic phases3 analysis of the problem2 application or matching problem requirements with the capabilities of the right computer2 flow charting the various operations using symbolic diagrams2 and finally1 coding or translating the flow chart into language the computer knows4 ,the flow chart to some extent parallels the way our own brains solve logic problems1 or at least the way they ought to solve them4 ,for example1 a computer might be instructed to select the smallest of three keys4 ,it would compare ,a and ,b1 discard the larger1 and then compare with ,c1 finally selecting the proper one4 ,this is of course such a ridiculously simple problem that few of us would bother to use the computer since it would take much longer to plot the flow chart than to select the key by simple visual inspection4 ,but the logical principle is the same1 even when the computer is to be told to analyze all the business transactions conducted by a large corporation during the year and advise a program for the next year which will show the most profit4 ,from the symbolic flow chart1 the programmer makes an operational flow chart1 a detailed block diagram1 and finally the program itself4 ,suitably coded in computer language1 this program is ready for the computer's control unit4 ,with a problem of complex nature1 such as one involving the firing of a space vehicle1 programmers soon learned they were spending hours1 or even days1 on a problem which the computer proceeded to zip through in minutes or seconds4 ,it was something like working all year building an elaborate ,fourth of ,july fireworks display1 touching the match1 and seeing the whole thing go up in spectacular smoke for a brief moment4 ,of course the end justifies the means in either case1 and as soon as the computer has quit whirring1 or the skyrockets faded out1 the programmer gets back to work4 ,but some short cuts were learned4 ,even a program for a unique problem is likely to contain many 8subroutines0 just like those in other problems4 ,these are used and re-used2 some computers now have libraries of programs they can draw on much as we call on things learned last week or last year4 ,with his work completed1 the programmer's only worry is that an error might exist in it1 an error that could raise havoc if not discovered4 ,one false bit of logic in a business problem2 a slight mathematical boner in a design for a manned missile1 could be catastrophic since our technology is so complicated that the mistake might be learned only when disaster struck4 ,so the programmer checks and rechecks his work until he is positive he has not erred4 ,how about the computer8 ,it checks itself too2 so thoroughly that there is no danger of it making a mistake4 ,computer designers have been very clever in this respect4 ,one advanced technique is 8majority rule0 checking4 ,not long ago when the abacus was used even in banking1 the ,japanese were aware that a single accountant might make a false move and botch up the day's tally4 ,but if two operators worked the same problem and got the same answer1 the laws of probability rule that the answer can be accepted4 ,if the sums do not agree1 though1 which man is right8 ,to check further1 and save the time needed to go through the whole problem again1 three abacuses1 or abaci1 are put through their paces4 ,now if two answers agree1 chances are they are the right solution4 ,if all three are different1 the bank had better hire new clerks6 ,illustration3 ,remington ,rand ,,univac ,a word picture 8flow chart0 of the logical operation of selecting the proper key4 ,arithmetic or ,logic ,now that our computer has the two necessary ingredients of input and control1 the arithmetic or logic unit can get busy4 ,babbage called this the 8mill10 and with all the whirring gears and clanking arms his engine boasted1 the term must have been accurate4 ,today's computer is much quieter since in electronic switches the only moving parts are the electrons themselves and these don't make much of a racket4 ,such switches have another big advantage in that they open and close at a great rate1 practically the speed of light4 ,the fastest computers use switches that act in nanoseconds1 or billionths of a second4 ,in one nanosecond light itself travels only a foot4 ,the computer may be likened to someone counting on two of his fingers4 ,instead of the decimal or ten-base system1 most computers use binary arithmetic1 which has a base of two4 ,but fingers that can be counted in billionth parts of a second can handle figures pretty fast1 and the computer has learned some clever tricks that further speed things up4 ,it can only add1 but by adroit juggling it subtracts by using the complement of the desired number1 a technique known to those familiar with an ordinary adding machine4 ,there are also some tricks to multiplying that allow the computer again to simply add and come up with the answer4 ,with pencil and paper we can multiply #aag times #hce easily4 ,remember1 though1 that the computer can only add1 and that it was once called a speedy imbecile4 ,the most imbecilic computer might solve the problem by adding #aag to itself #hce times4 ,a smarter model will reverse the procedure and handle only #aag numbers4 ,the moron type of computer is a bit more clever and sets up the problem this way3 #hce #hce #hce #hce #hce #hce #hce #hcej #hcejj ---- #igfie ,a moment's reflection will show that this is the same as adding #g times #hce1 #aj times #hce1 and #ajj times #hce4 ,and of course the computer arrives at the answer in about the time it takes us to start drawing the line under our multiplier4 ,illustration3 ,the ,bendix ,corp41 ,computer ,division ,assembly of printed-circuit component 8packages0 into computer4 ,perhaps smarting under the unkind remarks about its mental ability1 the computer has lately been trying some new approaches to the handling of complex arithmetical problems4 ,instead of adding long strings of numbers1 it will take a guess at the result1 do some smart checking1 adjust its figures1 and shortly arrive at the right solution4 ,for nonarithmetical problems1 the computer substitutes yes and no for #a and #j and blithely solves problems in logic at the same high rate of speed4 ,memory ,when we demonstrated our superiority earlier in multiplying instead of adding the numbers in the problem1 we were drawing on our memory3 recalling multiplication tables committed to memory when we were quite young4 ,babbage's 8store0 in his difference engine1 you will recall1 could memorize a thousand fifty-digit numbers1 a feat that would tax most of us4 ,the grandchildren of the ,babbage machine can call on as many as a billion bits of information stored on tape4 ,as you watch the reels of tape spinning1 halting abruptly1 and spinning again so purposefully1 remember that the computer is remembering4 ,in addition to its large memory1 incidentally1 a computer may also have a smaller 8scratch-pad0 memory to save time4 ,early machines used electromechanical relays or perhaps vacuum-tube 8flip-flops0 for memory4 ,punched-card files store data too4 ,to speed up the access to information1 designers tried the delay-line circuit1 a device that kept information circulating in a mercury or other type of delay4 ,magnetic drums and discs are also used4 ,magnetic tape on reels is used more than any other memory system for many practical reasons4 ,there is one serious handicap with the tape system1 however4 ,information on it1 as on the drum1 disc1 file card1 or delay line1 is serial1 that is1 it is arranged in sequence4 ,to reach a certain needed bit of data might require running through an entire reel of tape4 ,even though the tape moves at very high speed1 time is lost while the computer's arithmetic unit waits4 ,for this reason the designers of the most advanced computers have gone to 8random access0 instead of sequential memory for part of the machine4 ,tiny cores of ferrite material which has the desired magnetic properties are threaded on wires4 ,these become memory elements1 as many as a hundred of them in an area the size of a postage stamp4 ,each core is at the intersection of two wires1 one horizontal and one vertical4 ,each core thus has a unique 8address0 and because of the arrangement of the core matrix1 any address can be reached in about the same amount of time as any other4 ,thus1 instead of spinning the tape several hundred feet to reach address number #f1efd1 the computer simply closes the circuit of vertical row #fe and horizontal row #fd1 and there is the desired bit of information in the form of a magnetic field in the selected core4 ,hot on the heels of the development of random-access core memories came that of thin metallic film devices and so-called cryogenic or supercold magnetic components that do the same job as the ferrite cores but take only a fraction of the space4 ,some of these advanced devices also lend themselves to volume production and thus pave the way for memories with more and more information-storage capability4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,magnetic core plane1 the computer's memory4 ,in the realm of 8blue-sky0 devices1 sometimes known as 8journalistors10 are molecular block memories4 ,these chunks of material will contain millions of bits of information in cubic inches of volume1 and some way of three-dimensional scanning of the entire block will be developed4 ,with such a high-volume memory1 the computer of tomorrow will fit on a desk top instead of requiring rows and rows of tape-filled machines4 ,today1 tape offers the cheapest 8per bit0 storage1 and it is necessary to use the external or peripheral type of information storage4 ,this is not much of a problem except for the matter of space4 ,since most computers are electronic1 all that is required to tie the memory units to the arithmetic unit is wire connections4 ,douglas ,aircraft ties computers in its ,california and ,north ,carolina plants with #b1djj miles of telephone hookup4 ,sometimes even wires are not necessary4 ,in the ,los ,angeles area1 ,north ,american ,aviation has a number of plants separated by as many as forty miles4 ,each plant is quite capable of using the computers in the other locations1 with a stream of digits beamed by microwave radio from one to the other4 ,information can be transferred in this manner at rates up to #fe1jjj bits per second4 ,output ,once the computer has taken the input of information1 been instructed what to do1 and used its arithmetic and memory1 it has done the bulk of the work on the problem4 ,but it must now reverse the procedure that took place when information flowed into it and was translated into electrical impulses and magnetic currents4 ,it could convey the answer to another machine that spoke its language1 but man would find such information unintelligible4 ,so the computer has an output section that translates back into earth language4 ,babbage's computer was to have printed out its answers on metal plates1 and many computers today furnish punched cards or tape as an output4 ,others print the answers on sheets of paper1 so rapidly that a page of this book would take little more than a second to produce6 ,one of the greatest challenges of recent years is that of producing printing devices fast enough to exploit fully the terrific speeds of electronic computing machines4 ,there would be little advantage in a computer that could add all the digits in all the phone books in the world in less than a minute if it took three weeks to print out the answer4 ,impact printers1 those that actually strike keys against paper1 have been improved to the point where they print more than a thousand lines of type1 each with #abj characters in it1 per minute4 ,but even this is not rapid enough in some instances1 and completely new kinds of printers have been developed4 ,one is the ,charactron tube1 a device combining a cathode-ray tube1 something like the ,,tv picture tube1 with an interposed #fd-;character matrix about half an inch in diameter4 ,electrical impulses deflect the electron beam in the tube so that it passes through the proper matrix character and forms that image on the face of the tube4 ,this image then is printed electrostatically on the treated paper rather than with a metal type face4 ,with no moving parts except the paper1 and of course the electrons themselves1 the ,charactron printer operates close to the speed of the computer itself1 and produces #ajj1jjj words a minute4 ,this entire book could be printed out in about forty-five seconds in this manner4 ,illustration3 ,minneapolis-,honeywell1 ,electronic ,data ,processing ,division ,a high-speed printer is the output of this computer4 ,it prints #ijj lines a minute4 ,there are many other kinds of outputs4 ,some are in the form of payroll checks1 rushing from the printer at the rate of #aj1jjj an hour4 ,some are simply illuminated numbers and letters on the face of the computer4 ,as mentioned earlier1 the ,,sage air defense computer displays the tracks of aircraft and missiles on large screens1 each accurately tagged for speed1 altitude1 and classification4 ,the computer may even speak its answer to us audibly4 ,general ,electric engineers have programmed computers to play music1 and come up with a clever giveaway record titled 8,christmas ,carols in #baj ,time10 la pipe-organ solo4 ,some more serious musical work is now being done in taking a musical input fed to a computer1 programming it for special effects including the reverberant effect of a concert hall1 and having that played as the output4 ,a more direct vocal output is the spoken word4 ,some computers have this capability now1 with a modest vocabulary of their own and an extensive tape library to draw from4 ,as an example1 ,gilfillan ,radio has produced a computerized ground-control-approach system that studies the radar return of the aircraft being guided1 and 8tells0 the pilot how to fly the landing4 ,all the human operator does is monitor the show4 ,the system uses the relatively simple method of selecting the correct words from a previously tape-recorded human voice4 ,more sophisticated systems will be capable of translating code from the computer directly into an audible output4 ,one very obvious advantage of such an automatic landing system is that the computer is never subject to a bad day1 nerves1 or fright4 ,it will talk the aircraft down calmly and dispassionately1 albeit somewhat mechanically4 ,these then are the five basic parts of a computer or computer system3 input1 control1 arithmetic-logic1 memory1 and output4 ,remember that this applies equally to simple and complex machines1 and also to computers other than the more generally encountered electronic types4 ,for while the electronic computer is regarded as the most advanced1 it is not necessarily the final result of computer development4 ,let us consider some of the deviants1 throwbacks1 and mutations of the computer species4 ,illustration3 ,kearfott ,division1 ,general ,precision1 ,inc4 ,the tiny black box is capable of the same functions as the larger plastic laboratory model pneumatic digital computer4 ,packaging densities of more than #b1jjj elements per cubic inch are expected4 ,another ,kind of ,computer ,we have discussed mechanical1 electromechanical1 electrical1 and electronic computers4 ,there are also those which make use of quite different media for their operation3 hydraulics1 air pressure1 and even hot gases4 ,the pneumatic is simplest to explain1 and also has its precedent in the old player-piano mentioned earlier4 ,just as an electric or electronic switch can be open or closed1 so can a pneumatic valve4 ,the analogy carries much further4 ,some of the basic electronic components used in computers are diodes1 capacitors1 inductors1 and 8flip-flop0 circuits which we have talked of4 ,each of these1 it turns out1 can be approximated by pneumatic devices4 ,the pneumatic diode is the simplest component1 being merely an orifice or opening through which gas is flowing at or above the speed of sound4 ,under these conditions1 any disturbance in pressure 8upstream0 of the orifice will move 8downstream0 through the orifice1 but any such happening downstream cannot move upstream4 ,this is analogous to the way an electronic diode works in the computer1 a one-way valve effect4 ,the electrical capacitor with its stored voltage charge plays an important part in computer circuitry4 ,a plenum chamber1 or box holding a volume of air1 serves as a pneumatic capacitor4 ,similarly1 the effect of an inductor1 or coil1 is achieved with a long pipe filled with moving air4 ,the only complicated element in our pneumatic computer building blocks is the flip-flop1 or bistable element4 ,a system of tubes1 orifices1 and balls makes a device that assumes one position upon the application of pneumatic force1 and the other upon a successive application1 similar to the electronic flip-flop4 ,pneumatic engineers use terms like 8pressure drop0 and 8pneumatic buffering10 comparable to voltage drop and electrical buffering4 ,a good question at this point is just why computer designers are even considering pneumatic methods when electronic computers are doing such a fine job4 ,there are several reasons that prompt groups like the ,kearfott ,division of ,general ,precision ,inc41 ,ai,research1 ,,ibm's ,swiss ,laboratory1 and the ,army's ,diamond ,ordnance ,fuze ,laboratory to develop the air-powered computers4 ,one of these is radiation susceptibility4 ,diodes and transistors have an ,achilles heel in that they cannot take much radiation4 ,thus in military applications1 and in space work1 electronic computers may be incapable of proper operation under exposure to fallout or cosmic rays4 ,a pneumatic computer does not have this handicap4 ,high temperature is another bugaboo of the electronic computer4 ,for operation above #ajj ,c41 for instance1 it is necessary to use expensive silicon semiconductor elements4 ,the cryogenic devices we talked of require extremely low temperatures and are thus also ruled out in hot environments4 ,the pneumatic computer1 on the other hand1 can actually operate on the exhaust gases of a rocket with temperatures up to #bjjj ,f4 ,there may be something humanlike in this ability to operate on hot air1 but there are more practical reasons like simplicity1 light weight1 and low cost4 ,the pneumatic computer1 of course1 has limitations of its own4 ,the most serious is that of speed1 and its top limit seems to be about #ajj kilocycles a second4 ,although this sounds fast--a kilocycle being a thousand cycles1 remember--it is tortoise-slow compared with the #ej-megacycle speed of present electronic machines4 ,but within its limitations the pneumatic machine can do an excellent job4 ,kearfott plans shrinking #c1jjj pneumatic flip-flops and their power supply and all circuitry into a one-inch cube2 and packing a medium-size general-purpose digital computer complete with memory into a case #e-a_/b inches square and an inch thick4 ,such a squeezing of components surely indicates compressed air as a logical power supply6 ,going beyond the use of air as a medium1 ,army researchers have worked with 8fluid0 flip-flops capable of functioning at temperatures ranging from minus #ajj to plus #g1jjj ,f46 ,the limit is dictated only by the material used to contain the fluid1 and would surely meet requirements for the most rigorous environment foreseeable4 ,the fluid flip-flop operates on a different principle from its pneumatic cousin1 drawing on fluid dynamics to shift from one state to the other4 ,fluid dynamics permits the building of switches and amplifiers that simulate electronic counterparts adequately1 and the ,army's ,diamond ,ordnance ,fuze ,laboratory has built such oscillators1 shift registers1 and full adders1 the flesh and bones of the computer4 ,researchers believe components can be built cheaply and that ultimately a complete fluid computer can be assembled4 ,the ,x-#ae is cited as an example of a good application for fluid-type computing devices4 ,the hypersonic aircraft flies so fast it glows1 and a big part of its problem is the cooling of a large amount of electronic equipment that generates additional heat to compound the difficulty4 ,missiles and space vehicles have similar requirements4 ,tomorrow's computer may use liquid helium or a white-hot plasma jet instead of electronics or gas as a medium4 ,it may use a medium nobody has dreamed of yet1 or one tried earlier and discarded4 ,regardless of what it uses1 it will probably work on the same basic theory and principles we've outlined here4 ,and try as we may1 we will get no more out of it than we put in4 ,illustration3 ,by ,herbert ,goldberg #aifa ,saturday ,review 8,is this your trouble80 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,it is the machines that make life complicated1 at the same time that they impose on it a high tempo40 --,carl ,lotus ,becker #d3 ,computer ,cousins--,analog and ,digital ,there are many thousands of computers in operation today--in enough different outward varieties to present a hopeless classification task to the confused onlooker4 ,actually there are only two basic types of computing machines1 the analog and the digital4 ,there is also a third computer1 an analog-digital hybrid that makes use of the better features of each to do certain jobs more effectively4 ,the distinction between basic types is clear-cut and may be explained in very simple terms4 ,again we go to the dictionary for a starting point4 ,webster says3 8,analogue4--,that which is analogous to some other thing40 ,even without the terminal ue1 the analog computer is based on the principle of analogy4 ,it is actually a model of the problem we wish to solve4 ,a tape measure is an analog device2 so is a slide rule or the speedometer in your car4 ,these of course are very simple analogs1 but the principle of the more complex ones is the same4 ,the analog computer1 then1 simulates a physical problem and deals in quantities which it can measure4 ,some writers feel that the analog machine is not a computer at all in the strict sense of the word1 but actually a laboratory model of a physical system which may be studied and measured to learn certain implicit facts4 ,illustration3 ,minneapolis-,honeywell ,computer ,center ,a multimillion dollar aerospace computer facility4 ,on left is an array of #af analog computers2 at right is a large digital data-processing system4 ,the facility can perform scientific and business tasks simultaneously4 ,the dictionary also gives us a good clue to the digital computer3 8,digital4--,of the fingers or digits40 ,a digital machine deals in digits1 or discrete units1 in its calculations4 ,for instance1 if we ask it to multiply #b times #b1 it answers that the product is exactly #d4 ,a slide rule1 which we have said is an analog device1 might yield an answer of #c4ih or #d4jb1 depending on the quality of its workmanship and our eyesight4 ,the term 8discrete0 describes the units used by the digital machine2 an analog machine deals with 8continuous0 quantities4 ,when you watch the pointer on your speedometer you see that it moves continuously from zero to as fast as you can or dare drive4 ,the gas gauge is a graphic presentation of the amount of fuel in the tank1 just as the speedometer is a picture of your car's speed4 ,for convenience we interpolate the numbers #aj1 #bj1 #cj1 #a_/d1 #a_/b1 and so on4 ,what we do1 then1 is to convert from a continuous analog presentation to a digital answer with our eyes and brain4 ,this analog-to-digital conversion is not without complications leading to speeding tickets and the inconvenience of running out of gas far from a source of supply4 ,a little thought will reveal that even prior to computers there were two distinct types of calculating2 those of measuring 7analog7 and of counting 7digital74 ,unless we are statisticians1 we encounter #b-a_/b men or #c-a_/b women about as frequently as we are positive that there is exactly #aj gallons of fuel in the gas tank4 ,in fact1 we generally use the singular verb with such a figure since the #aj gallons is actually an arbitrary measurement we have superimposed on a quantity of liquid4 ,counting and measuring1 then1 are different things4 ,because of the basic differences in the analog and digital computers1 each has its relative advantages and disadvantages with respect to certain kinds of problems4 ,let us consider each in more detail and learn which is better suited to particular tasks4 ,using alphabetical protocol1 we take the analog first4 ,the ,analog ,measuring ,stick ,we have mentioned the slide rule1 the speedometer1 and other popular examples of analog computers4 ,there are of course many more4 ,one beautiful example occurs in nature1 if we can accept a bit of folklore4 ,the caterpillar is thought by some to predict the severity of the winter ahead by the width of the dark band about its body4 ,even if we do not believe this charming relationship exists1 the principle is a fine illustration of simulation1 or the modeling of a system4 ,certainly there are reverse examples in nature not subject to any speculation at all4 ,the rings in the trunk of a tree are accurate pictures of the weather conditions that caused them4 ,these analogies in nature are particularly fitting1 since the analog computer is at its best in representing a physical system4 ,while we do not generally recognize such homely examples as computers1 automatic record-changers1 washing machines1 electric watt-hour meters1 and similar devices are true analogs4 ,so of course is the clock1 one of the earliest computers made use of by man4 ,while ,babbage was working with his difference engine1 another ,englishman1 ,lord ,kelvin1 conceived a brilliant method of predicting the height of tides in various ports4 ,he described his system of solving differential equations invented in #ahgf in the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society4 ,a working model of this 8differential analyzer10 which put calculus on an automated basis1 was built by ,kelvin's brother1 ,james ,thomson4 ,thomson used mechanical principles in producing this analog computer1 whose parts were discs1 balls1 and cylinders4 ,illustration3 ,science ,materials ,center ,a simple analog computer designed to be assembled and used by teen-agers4 ,calculo performs multiplication and division within #e per cent accuracy1 and is a useful demonstration device4 ,early electrical analogs of circuits built around #aibj in this country have been discussed briefly in the chapter on the computer's past4 ,the thing that sparked their development was an engineer's question1 8,why don't we build a little model of these circuits80 ,solving problems in circuitry was almost like playing with toys1 using the circuit analyzers1 although the toys grew to sizable proportions with hundreds of components4 ,some of the direct-current analog type are still operating in ,schenectady1 ,new ,york1 and at ,purdue ,university4 ,a simple battery-powered electric analog gives us an excellent example of the principle of all analog machines4 ,using potentiometers1 which vary the resistance of the circuit1 we set in the problem4 ,the answer is read out on a voltmeter4 ,quite simply1 a known input passing through known resistances will result in a proportional voltage4 ,all that remains is assigning values to the swing of the voltmeter needle1 a process called 8scaling40 ,for instance1 we might let one volt represent #ajj miles1 or #ej pounds1 or #ij degrees4 ,obviously1 as soon as we have set in the problem1 the answer is available on the voltmeter4 ,it is this factor that gives the analog computer its great speed4 ,general ,electric and ,westinghouse were among those building the direct-current analyzer1 and the later alternating-current network type which came along in the #aicj's4 ,the mechanical analogs were by no means forgotten1 even with the success of the new electrical machines4 ,dr4 ,vannevar ,bush1 famous for many other things as well1 started work on his analog mechanical differential analyzer in #aibg at the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4 ,bush drew on the pioneering work of ,kelvin and other ,englishmen1 improving the design so that he could do tenth-order calculations4 ,following ,bush's lead1 engineers at ,general ,electric developed further refinements to the 8,kelvin wheels10 using electrical torque amplifiers for greater accuracy4 ,the complexity of these computers is indicated in the size of one built in the early #aidj's for the ,university of ,california4 ,it was a giant1 a hundred feet long and filled with thousands of parts4 ,not merely huge1 it represented a significant stride ahead in that it could perform the operation of integration with respect to functions other than just time4 ,instead of being a 8direct0 analog1 the new machine was an 8indirect0 analog1 a model not of a physical thing but of the mathematics expressing it4 ,engineers realized that the mechanical beast1 as they called it1 represented something of a dinosaur in computer evolution and could not survive4 ,because of its size1 it cost thousands of dollars merely to prepare a place for its installation4 ,besides1 it was limited in the scope of its work4 ,during ,world ,war ,,ii1 however1 it was all we had1 and beast or not1 it worked around the clock solving engineering problems1 ballistics equations1 and the like4 ,england did work in this field1 and ,meccano--counterpart of the ,gilbert ,erector ,set firm in the ,united ,states--marketed a do-it-yourself differential analyzer4 ,the ,russians too built mechanical differential analyzers as early as #aidj4 ,electronics came to the rescue of the outsized mechanical analog computers during and after the war4 ,paced by firms like ,reeves ,instrument and ,goodyear ,aircraft1 the electronic analog superseded the older mechanical type4 ,there was of course a transitional period1 and an example of this stage is the ,general ,electric fire-control computer installed in the ,b-#bi4 ,it embraced mechanical1 electrical1 and electronic parts to do just the sort of job ideally suited to the analog type of device3 that of tracking a path through space and predicting the future position of a target so that the gunsight aims at the correct point in space for a hit4 ,another military analog computer was the ,q-#e1 used by the ,signal ,corps to locate enemy gun installations4 ,from the track of a projectile on a radar screen1 the ,q-#e did some complicated mathematics to figure backwards and pinpoint the troublesome gun4 ,there were industrial applications as well for the analog machine4 ,in the #aiej's1 ,general ,electric built computers to solve simultaneous linear equations for the petroleum industry4 ,to us ultimate users1 gasoline poses only one big mathematical problem--paying for a tankful4 ,actually1 the control operations involved in processing petroleum are terribly involved1 and the special analog computer had to handle twelve equations with twelve unknown quantities simultaneously4 ,this is the sort of problem that eats up man-years of human mathematical time2 even a modern digital computer has tough and expensive going1 but the analog does this work rapidly and economically4 ,another interesting analog machine was called the ,psychological ,matrix ,rotation ,computer4 ,this implemented an advanced technique called multiple-factor analysis1 developed by ,thurston of the ,university of ,illinois for use in certain psychological work4 ,multiple-factor analysis is employed in making up the attribute tests used by industry and the military services for putting the right man in the right job4 ,an excellent method1 it was too time-consuming for anything but rough approximations until the analog computer was built for it4 ,in effect1 the computer worked in twelve dimensions1 correlating traits and aptitudes4 ,it was delivered to the ,adjutant ,general's ,office and is still being used1 so ,army men who wonder how their background as baker qualifies them for the typing pool may have the ,psychological ,matrix ,rotation ,computer to thank4 ,in the early #aiej's1 world tension prompted the building of another advanced analog computer1 this one a jet engine simulator4 ,prior to its use1 it took about four years to design1 build1 and test a new jet engine4 ,using the simulator1 the time was pared to half that amount4 ,it was a big computer1 even though it was electronic4 ,more than #f1jjj vacuum tubes1 #a1gjj indicator lights1 and #b1gej dials were hooked up with more than #be miles of wire1 using about #djj1jjj interconnections4 ,all of this required quite a bit of electrical power1 about what it would take to operate fifty kitchen ranges4 ,but it performed in 8real0 time1 and could keep tabs on an individual molecule of gas from the time it entered the jet intake until it was ejected out the afterburner6 ,other analog computers were developed for utility companies to control the dispatching of power to various consumers in the most efficient manner4 ,again the principle was simply to build a model or analog of an actual physical system and use it to predict the outcome of operation of that system4 ,from our brief skim of the history of the analog computer we can recognize several things about this type of machine4 ,since the analog is a simulator in most cases1 we would naturally expect it to be a special-purpose machine4 ,in other words1 if we had a hundred different kinds of problems1 and had to build a model of each1 we would end up with a hundred special-purpose computers4 ,it follows too that the analog computer will often be a part of the system it serves1 rather than a separate piece of equipment4 ,illustration3 ,the ,boeing ,co4 ,analog machine used as flight simulator for jet airliner2 a means of testing before building4 ,there are general-purpose analog computers1 of course1 designed for solving a broad class of problems4 ,they are usually separate units1 instead of part of the system4 ,we can further break down the general-purpose analog computer into two types2 direct and indirect4 ,a direct analog is exemplified in the tank gauge consisting of a float with a scale attached4 ,an indirect analog1 such as the ,general ,electric monster built for the ,university of ,california mentioned earlier1 can use one dependent variable1 such as voltage1 to represent all the variables of the prototype4 ,such an analog machine is useful in automatic control and automation processes4 ,finally1 we may subdivide our direct analog computer one further step into 8discrete0 analogs or 8continuous0 analogs4 ,the term 8discrete0 is the quality we have ascribed to the digital computer1 and a discrete analog is indicative of the overlap that occurs between the two types4 ,another example of this overlap is the representation of 8continuous0 quantities by the 8step-function0 method in a digital device4 ,as we shall see when we discuss hybrid or analog-digital computers1 such overlap is as beneficial as it is necessary4 ,illustration3 ,general ,motors ,corp4 ,large analog computer in rear controls car1 subjecting driver to realistic bumps1 pitches1 and rolls1 for working out suspension problems of car4 ,we are familiar now with mechanical1 electromechanical1 and fully electronic analogs4 ,early machines used rods of certain lengths1 cams1 gears1 and levers4 ,fully electronic devices substitute resistors1 capacitors1 and inductances for these mechanical components1 adding voltages instead of revolutions of shafts1 and counting turns of wire in a potentiometer instead of teeth on a gear4 ,engineers and technicians use terms like 8mixer10 8integrator10 and 8rate component10 but we may consider the analog computer as composed of passive networks plus amplifiers where necessary to boost a faint signal4 ,some consideration of what we have been discussing will give us an indication of the advantages of the analog computer over the digital type4 ,first and most obvious1 perhaps1 is that of simplicity4 ,a digital device for recording temperature could be built2 but it would hardly improve on the simplicity of the ordinary thermometer4 ,speed is another desirable attribute of most analog computers4 ,since operation is parallel1 with all parts of the problem being worked on at once1 the answer is reached quickly4 ,this is of particular importance in 8on-line0 application where the computer is being used to control1 let us say1 an automatic machining operation in a factory4 ,even in a high-speed electronic digital computer there is a finite lag due to the speed of electrons4 ,this 8slack0 is not present in a direct analog and thus there is no loss of precious time that could mean the difference between a rejected and a perfect part from the lathe4 ,it follows from these very advantages that there are drawbacks too4 ,the analog computer that automatically profiles a propeller blade in a metalworking machine cannot mix paint to specifications or control the speed of a subway train unless it is a very special kind of general-purpose analog that would most likely be the size of ,grand ,central ,station and sell for a good part of the national debt4 ,most analogs have one particular job they are designed for2 they are specialists with all the limitations that the word implies4 ,there is one other major disadvantage that our analog suffers by its very nature4 ,we can tolerate the approximate answer #c4ih instead of #d1 because most of us recognize the correct product of #b times #b4 ,but few production managers would want to use #cih rivets if it took #djj to do the job safely--neither would they want to use #djb and waste material4 ,put bluntly1 the analog computer is less accurate than its digital cousin4 ,it delivers answers not in discrete units1 but approximations1 depending on the accuracy of its own parts and its design4 ,calculo1 an electrical-analog computer produced for science students1 has an advertised accuracy of #e per cent at a cost of about #bj4 ,the makers frankly call it an 8estimator40 ,this is excellent for illustrating the principles of analog machines to interested youngsters1 but the students could have mathematical accuracy of #ajj per cent from a digital computer called the abacus at a cost of less than a dollar4 ,greater accuracy in the analog computer is bought at the expense of costlier components4 ,up to accuracies of about #a per cent error it is usually cheaper to build an analog device than a digital1 assuming such a degree of accuracy is sufficient1 of course4 ,analog accuracies ten times the #a per cent figure are feasible1 but beyond that point costs rise very sharply and the digital machine becomes increasingly attractive from a dollars and cents standpoint4 ,designers feel that accuracies within #j4ja per cent are pushing the barriers of practicality1 and #j4jja per cent probably represents the ultimate achievable4 ,thus the digital computer has the decided edge in accuracy1 if we make some realistic allowances4 ,for example1 the best digital machine when asked to divide #aj by #c can never give an exact answer1 but is bound to keep printing #c's after the decimal point6 ,there are other differences between our two types of computers1 among them being the less obvious fact that it is harder to make a self-checking analog computer than it is to build the same feature into the digital4 ,however1 the most important differences are those of accuracy and flexibility4 ,for these reasons1 the digital computer today is in the ascendant1 although the analog continues to have its place and many are in operation in a variety of chores4 ,we have mentioned fire control and the ,b-#bi gunsight computer in particular4 ,this was a pioneer airborne computer1 and proved that an analog could be built light enough for such applications4 ,however1 most fire-control computers are earthbound because of their size and complexity4 ,a good example is the ballistic computer necessary for the guns on a battleship4 ,in addition to the normal problem of figuring azimuth and elevation to place a shell on target1 the gun aboard ship has the additional factors of pitch1 roll1 and yaw to contend with4 ,these inputs happen to be ideal for analog insertion1 and a properly designed computer makes corrections instantaneously as they are fed into it4 ,a fertile field for the analog computer from the start was that of industrial process control4 ,chemical plants1 petroleum refineries1 power generating stations1 and some manufacturing processes lend themselves to control by analog computers4 ,the simplicity and economy of the 8modeling0 principle1 plus the instantaneous operation of the analog1 made it suitable for 8on-line0 or 8on-stream0 applications4 ,the analog computer has been described as useful in the design of engines2 it also helps design the aircraft in which these engines are used1 and even simulates their flight4 ,a logical extension of this use is the training of pilots in such flight simulators4 ,one interesting analog simulator built by ,goodyear ,aircraft ,corporation studied the reactions of a pilot to certain flight conditions and then was able to make these reactions itself so faithfully that the pilot was unaware that the computer and not his own brain was accomplishing the task4 ,the disciplines of geometry1 calculus1 differential equations1 and other similar mathematics profit from the analog computer which is able to make a model of their curves and configurations and thus greatly speed calculations4 ,since the analog is so closely tied to the physical rather than the mental world1 it cannot cope with discrete numbers1 and formal logic is not its cup of tea4 ,surely1 progress has been made and improvements continue to be designed into modern analog computers4 ,repetitive operations can now be done automatically at high speed1 and the computer even has a memory4 ,high-speed analog storage permits the machine to make sequential calculations1 a job once reserved for the digital computer4 ,but even these advances cannot offset the basic limitations the analog computer is heir to4 ,fewer analog machines are being built now1 and many in existence do not enjoy the busy schedule of the digital machines4 ,as the mountains of data pile up1 created incidentally by computers in the first place1 more computers are needed to handle and make sense of them4 ,it is easier to interpret1 store1 and transmit digital information than analog2 the digital computer therefore takes over this important task4 ,even in control systems the digital machine is gaining popularity2 its tremendous speed offsets its inherent cumbersomeness and its accuracy tips the scales more in its favor4 ,these advantages will be more apparent as we discuss the digital machine on the next pages and explain the trend toward the hybrid machine1 ever becoming more useful in the computer market place4 ,of course1 there will always be a place for the pure analog--just as there has always been for any specialist1 no matter what his field4 ,the ,digital ,counter ,the digital computer was first on the scene and it appears now that it will outnumber and perhaps outlive its analog relative4 ,a simple computer of this type is as old as man1 though it is doubtful that it has been in use that long4 ,proof of this claim to its pioneering are the words digit and calculi1 for finger and pebbles1 respectively4 ,we counted 8how many0 before we measured 8how large10 and the old ,romans tallied on fingers until they ran out and then supplemented with pebbles4 ,perhaps the first computations more complex than simple counting of wives or flocks came about when some wag found that he could ascertain the number of sheep by counting legs and dividing by four4 ,when it was learned that the thing worked both ways and that the number of pickled pigs feet was four times the number of pigs processed1 arithmetic was born4 ,the important difference between analog and digital1 of course1 is that the latter is a means of counting1 a dealing with discrete numbers rather than measuring4 ,this kind of computation was taxed sorely when such things as fractions and relationships like pi came along1 but even then man has managed to continue dealing with numbers themselves rather than quantity4 ,just as the slide rule is a handy symbol for the analog computer1 the abacus serves us nicely to illustrate the digital type1 and some schools make a practice of teaching simple arithmetic to youngsters in this manner4 ,our chapter on the history of the computer touched on early efforts in the digital field1 though no stress was laid on the distinction between types4 ,we might review a bit1 and pick out which of the mechanical calculating devices were actually digital4 ,the first obviously was the abacus4 ,it was also the only one for a long time4 ,having discovered the principle of analogy1 man leaned in that direction for many centuries1 and clocks1 celestial simulators1 and other devices were analog in nature4 ,purists point out that even the counting machines of ,pascal and ,leibnitz were analog computers1 since they dealt with the turning of shafts and gears rather than the manipulation of digits4 ,the same reasoning has caused some debate about ,babbage's great machines in the #ahjj's1 although they are generally considered a digital approach to problem-solving4 ,perhaps logicians had as much as anyone to do with the increasing popularity of the digital trend when they pointed out the advantages of a binary or two-valued system4 ,with the completion in #aidf by ,eckert and ,mauchly of the electronic marvel they dubbed ,,eniac1 the modern digital computer had arrived and the floodgates were opened for the thousands of descendants that have followed4 ,for every analog computer now being built there are dozens or perhaps hundreds of digital types4 ,such popularity must be deserved1 so let us examine the creature in an attempt to find the reason4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,national ,science ,foundation ,the computer family tree4 ,its remarkable growth began with government-supported research1 continued in the universities2 and the current generation was developed primarily in private industry4 ,we said that by its nature the analog device tended to be a special-purpose computer4 ,the digital computer1 perhaps because its basic operation is so childishly simple1 is best suited for general-purpose work4 ,it is simple1 consisting essentially of switches that are either on or off4 ,yet ,leibnitz found beauty in that simplicity1 and even the explanation of the universe4 ,proper interconnection of sufficient on-off switches makes possible the most flexible of all computers--man's brain4 ,by the same token1 man-made computers of the digital type can do a wider variety of jobs than can the analog which seemingly is more sophisticated4 ,a second great virtue of the digital machine is its accuracy4 ,even a trial machine of ,babbage had a #e-place accuracy4 ,this is an error of only one part in ten thousand1 achievable in the analog at great expense4 ,this was of course only a preliminary model1 and the ,english inventor planned #bj-place accuracy in his dream computer4 ,present electronic digital computers offer #aj-place accuracy as commonplace1 a precision impossible of achievement in the analog4 ,we pointed out in the discussion of analog computers that the complexity and expense of increased accuracy was in direct proportion to the degree of accuracy desired4 ,happily for the digital machine1 the reverse is true in its case4 ,increasing accuracy from five to six figures requires a premium of one-fifth1 or #bj per cent4 ,but jumping from #aj-place to #aa-place precision costs us only #aj per cent1 and from #bj-place to #ba-place drops to just #e per cent4 ,actually1 such a high degree of accuracy is not necessary in most practical applications4 ,for example1 the multiplication of #aj-;digit numbers may yield a #bj-;digit answer4 ,if we desired1 we could increase the capability of our digital computer to twenty digits and give an accuracy of one part in #aj million trillion6 ,however1 we simply 8round off0 the last ten digits and leave the answer in ten figures1 an accuracy no analog computer can match4 ,the significant point is that the analog can never hope to compete with digital types for accuracy4 ,a third perhaps not as important advantage the digital machine has is its compactness4 ,we are speaking now of later computers1 and not the pioneer electromechanical giants1 of course4 ,the transistor and other small semiconductor devices supplanted the larger tubes1 and magnetic cores took the place of cruder storage components4 ,now even more exotic devices are quietly ousting these1 as magnetic films and cryotrons begin to be used in computers4 ,illustration3 ,science ,materials ,center ,,brainiac1 another do-it-yourself computer4 ,this digital machine is here being programmed to solve a logic problem involving a will4 ,this drastic shrinking of size by thinking small on the part of computer designers increases the capacity of the digital computer at no sacrifice in accuracy or reliability4 ,the analog1 unfortunately1 cannot make use of many of these solid-state devices4 ,again1 the bugaboo of accuracy is the reason2 let's look further into the problem4 ,the most accurate and reliable analog computers are mechanical in nature4 ,we can cut gears and turn shafts and wheels to great accuracy and operate them in controlled temperature and humidity4 ,paradoxically1 this is because mechanical components are nearer to digital presentations than are electrical switches1 magnets1 and electronic components4 ,a gear can have a finite number of teeth2 when we deal with electrons flowing through a wire we leave the discrete and enter the continuous world4 ,a tiny change in voltage or current1 or magnetic flux1 compounded several hundred times in a complex computer1 can change the final result appreciably if the errors are cumulative1 that is1 if they are allowed to pile up4 ,this is what happens in the analog computer using electrical and electronic components instead of precisely machined cams and gears4 ,the digital device1 on the other hand1 is not so penalized4 ,though it uses electronic switches1 these can be so set that even an appreciable variation in current or voltage or resistance will not affect the proper operation of the switch4 ,we can design a transistor switch1 for example1 to close when the current applied exceeds a certain threshold4 ,we do not have to concern ourselves if this excess current is large or small2 the switch will be on1 no more and no less4 ,or it will be completely off4 ,just as there is no such thing as being a little bit dead1 there is no such thing as a partly off digital switch4 ,so our digital computer can make use of the more advanced electronic components to become more complex1 or smaller1 or both4 ,the analog must sacrifice its already marginal accuracy if it uses more electronics4 ,the argument here is simplified1 of course2 there are electronic analog machines in operation4 ,however1 the problem of the 8drift0 of electronic devices is inherent and a limiting factor on the performance of the analog4 ,these1 then1 are some of the advantages the digital computer has over its analog relative4 ,it is more flexible in general--though there are some digital machines that are more specialized than some analog types2 it is more accurate and apparently will remain so2 and it is more amenable to miniaturization and further complexity because its designer can use less than perfect parts and produce a perfect result4 ,in the disadvantage department the digital machine's only drawback seems to be its childish way of solving problems4 ,about all it knows how to do is to add #a and #a and come up with #b4 ,to multiply1 it performs repetitive additions1 and solving a difficult equation becomes a fantastically complex problem when compared with the instantaneous solution possible in the analog machine4 ,the digital computer redeems itself by performing its multitudinous additions at fabulous speeds4 ,because it must be fed digits in its input1 the digital machine is not economically feasible in many applications that will probably be reserved for the analog4 ,a digital clock or thermometer for household use would be an interesting gimmick1 but hardly worth the extra trouble and expense necessary to produce4 ,even here1 though1 first glances may be wrong and in some cases it may prove worth while to convert analog inputs to digital with the reverse conversion at the output end4 ,one example of this is the airborne digital computer which has taken over many jobs earlier done by analog devices4 ,there is another reason for the digital machines ubiquitousness1 a reason it does not seem proper to list as merely a relative advantage over the analog4 ,we have described the analog computer used as an aid to psychological testing procedures1 and its ability to handle a multiplicity of problems at once4 ,this perhaps tends to obscure the fact that the digital machine by its very on-off1 yes-no nature is ideally suited to the solving of problems in logic4 ,if it achieves superiority in mathematics in spite of its seemingly moronic handling of numbers1 it succeeds in logic because of this very feature4 ,while it might seem more appropriate that music be composed by analogy1 or that a chess-playing machine would likely be an analog computer1 we find the digital machine in these roles4 ,the reason may be explained by our own brains1 composed of billions of neurons1 each capable only of being on or off4 ,while many philosophers build a strong case for the yes-no-maybe approach with its large areas of gray1 the discipline of formal logic admits to only two states1 those that can so conveniently be represented in the digital computer's flip-flop or magnetic cores4 ,the digital computer1 then1 is not merely a counting machine1 but a decision-maker as well4 ,it can decide whether something should be added1 subtracted1 or ignored4 ,its logical manipulations can by clever circuitry be extended from ,,and to ,,or1 ,,not1 and ,,nor4 ,it thus can solve not only arithmetic1 but also the problems of logic concerning foxes1 goats1 and cabbages1 or cannibals and missionaries that give us human beings so much trouble when we encounter them4 ,the fact that the digital computer is just such a rigorously logical and unbending machine poses problems for it in certain of its dealings with its human masters4 ,language ideally should be logical in its structure4 ,in general it probably is1 but man is so perverse that he has warped and twisted his communications to the point that a computer sticking strictly to book logic will hit snags almost as soon as it starts to translate human talk into other human talk1 or into a logical machine command or answer4 ,for instance1 we have many words with multiple meanings which give rise to confusion unless we are schooled in subtleties4 ,there are stories1 some of them apocryphal but nonetheless pointing up the problem1 of terms like 8water goat0 cropping up in an ,english-to-,russian translation4 ,investigation proved that the more meaningful term would have been 8hydraulic ram40 ,in another interesting experiment1 the expression1 8the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak0 was machine translated into ,russian1 and then that result in turn re-translated back into ,english much in the manner of the party game of 8,telephone0 in which an original message is whispered from one person to another and finally back to the originator4 ,in this instance1 the final version was1 8,the vodka is strong1 but the meat is rotten40 ,it is a fine distinction here as to who is wrong1 the computer or man and his irrational languages4 ,chances are that in the long run true logic will prevail1 and instead of us confusing the computer it will manage instead to organize our grammar into the more efficient tool it should be4 ,with proper programming1 the computer may even be able to retain sufficient humor and nuance to make talk interesting and colorful as well as utilitarian4 ,we can see that the digital machine with its flexibility1 accuracy1 and powerful logical capability is the fair-haired one of the computer family4 ,starting with a for abacus1 digital computer applications run through practically the entire alphabet4 ,its take-over in the banking field was practically overnight2 it excels as a tool for design and engineering1 including the design and engineering of other computers4 ,aviation relies heavily on digital computers already1 from the sale of tickets to the control of air traffic4 ,gaming theory is important not only to the ,saturday night poker-player and the ,las ,vegas casino operator1 but to military men and industrialists as well4 ,manufacturing plants rely more and more on digital techniques for controls4 ,language translation1 mentioned lightly above1 is a prime need at least until we all begin speaking ,esperanto1 ,io1 or ,computerese4 ,taxation1 always with us1 may at least be more smoothly handled when the computers take over4 ,insurance1 the arrangement of music1 spaceflight guidance1 and education are random fields already dependent more or less on the digital computer4 ,we will not take the time here to go thoroughly into all the jobs for which the computer has applied for work and been hired2 that will be taken up in later chapters4 ,but from even a quick glance the scope of the digital machine already should be obvious4 ,this is why it is usually a safe assumption that the word computer today refers to the digital type4 ,hybrid ,computers ,we have talked of the analog and the digital2 there remains a further classification that should be covered4 ,it is the result of a marriage of our two basic types1 a result naturally hybrid4 ,the analog-digital computer is third in order of importance1 but important nonetheless4 ,illustration3 ,minneapolis-,honeywell ,nerve center of ,philadelphia ,electric ,company's digital computer-directed automatic economic dispatch system is this console from which power directors operate and supervise loading of generating units at minimum incremental cost4 ,necessity1 as always1 mothered the invention of the analog-digital machine4 ,we have talked of the relative merits of the two types2 the analog is much faster on a complex problem such as solving simultaneous equations4 ,the digital machine is far more accurate4 ,as an example1 the ,psychological ,matrix ,rotator described earlier could solve its twelve equations practically instantaneously4 ,a digital machine might take seconds--a terribly long time by computer standards4 ,if we want an accurate high-speed differential analyzer1 we must combine an analog with a digital computer4 ,because the two are hardly of the same species1 this breeding is not an easy thing4 ,but by careful study1 designers effected the desired mating4 ,the hybrid is not actually a new type of computer1 but two different types tied together and made compatible by suitable converters4 ,the composite consists of a high-speed general-purpose digital computer1 an electronic analog computer1 an analog-to-digital converter1 a digital-to-analog and a suitable control for these two converters4 ,the converters are called 8transducers0 and have the ability of changing the continuous analog signal into discrete pulses of energy1 or vice versa4 ,sometimes called digital differential analyzers1 the hybrid computers feature the ease of programming of the analog1 plus its speed1 and the accuracy and much broader range of the digital machine4 ,bendix among others produced such machines several years ago4 ,the ,national ,bureau of ,standards recently began development of what it calls an analog-digital differential analyzer which it expects to be from ten to a hundred times more accurate than earlier hybrid computers4 ,the ,,nbs analyzer will be useful in missile and aircraft design work4 ,despite its apparent usefulness as a compromise and happy medium between the two types1 the hybrid would seem to have as limited a future as any hybrid does4 ,pure digital techniques may be developed that will be more efficient than the stopgap combination1 and the analog-digital will fall by the wayside along the computer trail4 ,summary ,historically1 the digital computer was first on the scene4 ,the analog came along1 and for a time was the more popular for a variety of reasons4 ,one of these was the nave1 cumbersome mode of operation the digital computer is bound to2 another its early lack of speed4 ,both these drawbacks have been largely eliminated by advances in electronics1 and apparently this is only the beginning4 ,in a few years the technology has progressed from standard-size vacuum tubes through miniature tubes and the shrinking of other components1 to semiconductors and other tinier devices1 and now we have something called integrated circuitry1 with molecular electronics on the horizon4 ,these new methods promise computer elements approaching the size of the neurons in our own brains1 yet with far faster speed of operation4 ,such advances help the digital computer more than the analog1 barring some unexpected breakthrough in the accuracy problem of the latter4 ,digital building blocks become ever smaller1 faster1 cheaper1 and more reliable4 ,computers that fit in the palm of the hand are on the market1 and are already bulky by comparison with those in the laboratory4 ,the analog-digital hybrid most likely will not be new life for the analog1 but an assimilating of its better qualities by the digital4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8#8,what's one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one8' #8,i don't know1' said ,alice4 #8,i lost count4' #8,she can't do ,addition1' the ,red ,queen interrupted40 --,lewis ,carroll #e3 ,the ,binary ,boolean ,bit ,in this world full of 8bigness10 in which astronomical numbers apply not only to the speed of light and the distance to stars but to our national debt as well1 it is refreshing to recall that some lucky tribes have a mathematical system that goes1 8,one--two--plenty60 ,such an uncluttered life at times seems highly desirable1 and we can only envy those who lump all numbers from three to billions as simply 8plenty40 ,instead we are faced today with about as many different number systems as there are numbers1 having come a long way from the dawn of counting when an even simpler method than 8one--two--plenty0 prevailed4 ,man being basically self-centered1 he first thought in terms of 8me10 or one4 ,two was not a concept1 but two 8ones02 likewise1 three 8ones0 and so on4 ,pebbles were handy1 and to represent the ten animals slain during the winter1 a cave man could make ten scratches on the wall or string out that many stones4 ,it is said that the ancient cabbies in ,rome had a taximeter that dropped pebbles one by one onto a plate as the wheels turned the requisite number of revolutions4 ,this plate of stones was presented to the passenger at the end of his ride--perhaps where we get the word 8fare06 ,prices have risen so much that it would take quite a bag of pebbles in the taximeter today4 ,using units in this manner to express a sum is called the unitary system4 ,it is the concept that gives rise to the 8if all the dollars spent in this country since such and such a time were laid end to end--0 analogies4 ,put to practice1 this might indeed have a salutary effect1 but long ago man learned that it was not practical to stick to a one-for-one representation4 ,how long it was before we stumbled onto the fact that we had a 8handy0 counting system attached to our wrists is not positively known1 but we eventually adopted the decimal system4 ,in some places the jump from one to ten was not made completely4 ,the ,pueblo ,indians1 for instance1 double up one fist each time a sum of five is reached4 ,thus the doubled fist and two fingers on the other hand signifies seven4 ,in the mathematician's language1 this is a modulo-#e system4 ,the decimal system is modulo-#aj2 in other words we start over each time after reaching #aj4 ,besides the word digit in our vocabulary to tie fingers and numbers1 the ,roman numerals ,v and ,x are graphic representations of one hand with thumb widespread1 and two hands crossed1 respectively4 ,a point worth remembering is that the decimal system was chosen arbitrarily because we happen to have ten digits4 ,there is no divine arithmetical significance in the number #aj2 in fact mathematicians would prefer #ab1 since it can be divided more ways4 ,the ancient ,mayans1 feeling that if #aj were ten times as good as #a1 then surely #bj would be twice the improvement of the decimal system4 ,so they pulled off their boots and added toes to fingers for a modulo-#bj number system4 ,their word for #bj1 then1 is the same as that for 8the whole man0 for very good reason4 ,other races adopted even larger base systems1 the base of #fj being an example4 ,if we look to natural reasons for the development of number systems1 we might decide that the binary1 or two-valued system1 did not attain much prominence in nave civilizations because there are so few one-legged1 two-toed animals6 ,only when man built himself a machine uniquely suited to two-valued mathematics did the binary system come into its own4 ,numbers are merely conventions1 rigorous conventions to be sure with no semantic vagueness4 ,god did not ordain that we use the decimal system1 as evidenced in the large number of other systems that work just fine4 ,some abacuses use the biquinary system1 and there are septal1 octal1 and sexagesimal systems4 ,we can even express numbers in an ,,abc or ,,xyz notation4 ,so a broad choice was available for the computer designer when he began to look about for the most efficient system for his new machine4 ,considering only the question of a radix1 or base1 which will permit the fewest elements to represent the desired numbers1 mathematicians can show us that a base of not #aj1 or #ab1 or any other whole number is most efficient1 but the fraction #b4gahbh4 ,the ideal model is not found in man1 then1 since man does not seem to have #b4gahbh of anything4 ,however1 the strange-looking number does happen to be the base of the system of natural logarithms4 ,now a system of mathematics based on #b4gahbh might make the most efficient use of the components of the computer1 but it would play hob with other factors1 including the men who must work with such a weird set of numbers4 ,as is often done1 a compromise was made between ideal and practical choices4 ,since the computer with the most potential seems to be the electronic computer1 and since its operation hinges on the opening and closing of simple or sophisticated switches1 a two-valued mathematical system1 the binary system1 was chosen4 ,it wasn't far from the ideal #b4gahbh1 and there was another even more powerful reason for the choice4 ,logic is based on a yes-no1 true-false system4 ,here1 then1 was the best of all possible number systems3 the lowly1 apparently far-from-sophisticated binary notation4 ,as one writer exclaimed sadly1 a concept which had been hailed as a monument to monotheism ended up in the bowels of a robot6 ,the ,binary ,system ,it is believed from ancient writings that the ,chinese were aware of the binary or two-valued system of numbers as early as #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,however1 this fact was lost as the years progressed1 and ,leibnitz thought that he had discovered binary himself almost #e1jjj years later4 ,in an odd twist1 ,leibnitz apprised his friend ,grimaldi1 the ,jesuit president of the ,tribunal of ,mathematics in ,china1 of the religious significance of binary #a and #j as an argument against ,buddhism6 ,a legend in ,india also contains indications of the power of the binary system4 ,the inventor of the game of chess was promised any award he wanted for this service to the king4 ,the inventor asked simply that the king place a grain of wheat on the first square of the board1 two on the second1 and then four1 eight1 and so on in ascending powers of two until the sixty-four squares of the board were covered4 ,although the king thought his subject a fool1 this amount of wheat would have covered the entire earth to a depth of about an inch6 ,we are perhaps more familiar with the binary system than we realize4 ,morse code1 with its dots and dashes1 for example1 is a two-valued system4 ,and the power of a system with a base of two is evident when we realize that given a single one-pound weight and sufficient two-pound weights we can weigh any whole-numbered amounts4 ,at first glance1 however1 binary numbers seem a hopeless conglomeration of ones and zeros4 ,this is so only because we have become conditioned to the decimal system1 which was even more hopeless to us as youngsters4 ,we may have forgotten1 with the contempt of familiarity1 that our number system is built on the idea of powers4 ,in grade school we learned that starting at the right we had units1 tens1 hundreds1 thousands1 and so on4 ,in the decimal number #aaa1 for example1 we mean #a times #ajb1 plus #a times #aja1 plus #a4 ,we have handled so many numbers so many times we have usually forgotten just what we are doing1 and how4 ,the binary system uses only two numbers3 #a and #j4 ,so it is five times as simple as the decimal system4 ,it uses powers of two rather than ten1 again far simpler4 ,let's take the binary number #aaa and break it down just as we do a decimal number4 ,starting at the left1 we have #a times #bb1 plus #a times #ba1 plus #a4 ,this adds up to #g1 and there is our answer4 ,the decimal system is positional2 this is what made it so much more effective in the simple expression of large numbers than the ,roman numeral system4 ,binary is positional too1 and for larger numbers we continue moving toward the left1 increasing our power of two each time4 ,thus #aaaa is #bc plus #bb plus #ba plus #a4 ,illustration3 ,system ,development ,corp4 ,a computer teaching machine answering a question about the binary system4 ,we are familiar with decimal numbers like #aja4 ,this means #a hundred1 no tens1 and #a unit4 ,likewise in binary notation #aja means one #d1 no #b's1 and one #a4 ,for all its seeming complexity1 then1 the binary system is actually simpler than the 8easy0 decimal one we are more familiar with4 ,but despite its simplicity1 the binary system is far from being inferior to the decimal system4 ,you can prove this by doing some counting on your fingers4 ,normally we count1 or tally1 by bending down a finger for each new unit we want to record4 ,with both hands1 then1 we can add up only ten units1 a quite limited range4 ,we can add a bit of sophistication1 and assign a different number to each finger2 thus #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj4 ,now1 believe it or not1 we can tally up to #ee with our hands6 ,as each unit is counted1 we raise and lower the correct finger in turn4 ,on reaching #aj1 we leave that finger--thumb1 actually--depressed1 and start over with #a4 ,on reaching #i1 we leave it depressed1 and so on4 ,we have increased the capacity of our counting machine by #e-a_/b times without even taking off our shoes4 ,the mathematician1 by the way1 would say we have a capability of not #ee but #ef numbers1 since all fingers up would signify #j1 which can be called a number4 ,thus our two hands represent to the mathematician a modulo-#ef counter4 ,this would seem to vanquish the lowly binary system for good1 but let's do a bit more counting4 ,this time we will assign each finger a number corresponding to the powers of #b we use in reading our binary numbers4 ,thus we assign the numbers #a1 #b1 #d1 #h1 #af1 #cb1 #fd1 #abh1 #bef1 and #eab4 ,how many units can we count now8 ,not #aj1 or #ee1 but a good bit better than that4 ,using binary notation1 our ten digits can now record a total of #a1jbc units4 ,true1 it will take a bit of dexterity1 but by bending and straightening fingers to make the proper sums1 when you finally have all fingers down you will have counted #a1jbc1 or #a1jbd if you are a mathematical purist4 ,once convinced that the binary method does have its merits1 it may be a little easier to pursue a mastery of representing numbers in binary notation1 difficult as it may seem at the outset4 ,the usual way to convert is to remember1 or list1 the powers of #b1 and start at the left side with the largest power that can be divided into the decimal number we want to convert4 ,suppose we want to change the number #ejj into binary4 ,first we make a chart of the positions3 ,power of #b #h #g #f #e #d #c #b #a #j ,decimal ,number #bef #abh #fd #cb #af #h #d #b #a ,binary ,number #a #a #a #a #a #j #a #j #j ,since #bef is the largest number that will go into #ejj1 we start there1 knowing that there will be nine binary digits1 or 8bits0 in our answer4 ,we place a #a in that space to indicate that there is indeed an eighth power of #b included in #ejj4 ,since #abh will go into the remainder1 we put a #a in that space also4 ,continuing in this manner1 we find that we need #a's until we reach the 8#h0 space which we must skip since our remainder does not contain an #h4 ,we mark a #a in the #d space1 but skip the #b and the #a4 ,our answer1 then1 in binary notation is #aaaaajajj4 ,this number is called 8pure binary40 ,it can also lead to pure torture for human programmers whose eyes begin to bug with this 8bit chasing10 as it has come to be called4 ,everything is of course relative1 and the ancient ,roman might gladly have changed ,,dccclxxxviii to binary #aajaaaajjj1 which is two digits shorter4 ,there is a simpler way of converting that might be interesting to try out4 ,we'll start with our same #ejj4 ,since it is an even number1 we put a #j beneath it4 ,moving to the left1 we divide by two and get #bej4 ,this also is an even number1 so we mark down a #j in our binary equivalent4 ,the next division gives #abe1 an odd number1 so we put down a #a4 ,we continue to divide successively1 marking a zero for each even remainder1 and a #a for the odd4 ,although it may not be obvious right away1 we are merely arriving at powers of two by a process called mediation1 or halving4 ,decimal #a #c #g #ae #ca #fb #abe #bej #ejj ,binary #a #a #a #a #a #j #a #j #j ,obviously we can reverse this procedure to convert binary numbers to their decimal equivalents4 ,there is an interesting extension of this process called duplication by which multiplication can be done quite simply4 ,let us multiply #ie times #cf4 ,we will halve our #ie as we did in the earlier example1 while doubling the #cf4 ,this time when we have an even number in the left column1 we will simply cancel out the corresponding number in the right column4 #ie #cf #dg #gb #bc #add #aa #bhh #e #egf #b 99999999 #a #bcjd ---- #cdbj ,this clever bit of mathematics is called ,russian peasant multiplication1 although it was also known to early ,egyptians and many others4 ,it permits unschooled people1 with only the ability to add and divide1 to do fairly complex multiplication problems4 ,actually it is based on our old stand-by1 the binary system4 ,what we have done is to represent the #ie 8dyadically10 or by twos1 and to multiply #cf successively by each of these powers as applicable4 ,we will not digress further1 but leave this as an example of the tricks possible with the seemingly simple binary system4 ,even after we have learned to convert from the decimal numbers we are familiar with into binary notation almost by inspection1 the results are admittedly unwieldy for human handling4 ,an employee who is used to getting #aje a week would be understandably confused if the computer printed out a check for him reading #aajajja4 ,for this reason the computer programmer has reached a compromise with the machine4 ,he speaks decimal1 it speaks binary2 they meet each other halfway with something called binary-coded decimal4 ,here's the way it works4 ,a little thought will show that the decimal numbers from #j through #i can be presented in binary using four bits4 ,thus3 ,decimal ,binary #j #j #a #a #b #aaj #c #aaa #d #aajj #e #aaja #f #aaaj #g #ajaaa #h #aajjj #i #aajja ,in the interest of uniformity we fill in the blanks with #j's1 so that each decimal number is represented by a four-digit block1 or word1 of binary code4 ,now when the computer programmer wants to feed the number #efj into the computer in binary he breaks it into separate words of #e1 #f1 and #j2 or #jaja1 #jaaj1 and #jjjj4 ,in effect1 we have changed #e words into four-bit words6 ,the computer couldn't care less1 since it handles binary digits at the rate of millions a second2 and the human is better able to keep his marbles while he works with the computer4 ,of course1 there are some computers that are classed as pure binary machines4 ,these work on mathematical problems1 with none of the restrictions imposed by human frailty4 ,for the computer the pure binary system is more efficient than the binary decimal compromise4 ,the four-digit words can be made to represent not only numbers1 but letters as well4 ,when this is done it is called an alpha-numeric or alphameric code4 ,incidentally1 it is conceivable that language could be made up of only #a's and #j's1 or perhaps a's and b's would be better4 ,all it would take would be the stringing together of enough letters to cover all the words there are4 ,the result would be rather dull1 with words like aabbababaabbaaba1 bbaabbaabababaaabab1 and aaaaaaaaabaaa2 it is doubtful that the computer will make much headway with a binary alphabet for its human masters4 ,in the early days of binary computer work1 the direct conversion to binary code we have discussed was satisfactory1 but soon the designers of newer machines and calculating methods began to juggle the digits around for various reasons4 ,for one thing1 a decimal #j was represented by four binary #j's4 ,electrically1 this represents no signal at all in the computer's inner workings4 ,if trouble happened1 say a loose connection1 or a power failure for a split second1 the word #jjjj might be printed out and accepted as a valid zero when it actually meant a malfunction4 ,so the designers got busy trying other codes than the basic binary4 ,one clever result is the 8excess-#c0 code4 ,in this variation #c is added to each decimal number before conversion4 ,a decimal #cj is then represented by the word #jjaa instead of #jjjj4 ,there is1 in fact1 no such computer word as #jjjj in excess-#c code4 ,this eliminates the possibility of an error being taken for a #j4 ,excess-#c does something else too4 ,if each digit is changed1 that is1 if #a's become #j's and #j's become #a's1 the new word is the 8#i's complement0 of the original4 ,for example1 the binary code for #d in excess-#c is #jaaa4 ,changing all the digits1 we get #ajjj1 which is decimal #e4 ,this is not just an interesting curiosity1 but the #i's complement of #d 7#i minus #d74 ,anyone familiar with an adding machine is used to performing subtraction by using complements of numbers4 ,the computer cannot do anything but add2 by using the excess-#c code it can subtract by adding4 ,thus1 while the computer cannot subtract #jaaj from #ajjj1 it can quite handily add #ajja to #ajjj to get the same result4 ,there are many other reasons for codes1 among them being the important one of checking for errors4 8,casting out nines0 is a well-known technique of the bookkeeper for locating mistakes in work4 ,certain binary codes1 containing what is called a 8parity bit10 have the property of self-checking1 in a manner similar to casting out nines4 ,a story is told of some pioneer computer designers who hit on the idea of another means of error checking not as effective as the code method4 ,the idea was clever enough1 it being that identical computers would do each problem and compare answers1 much like the pairs of abacus-wielders in ,japan's banks4 ,in case both computers did not come up with the same answer1 a correction would be made4 ,with high hopes1 the designers fed a problem into the machines and sat back to watch4 ,soon enough a warning light blinked on one machine as it caught an error4 ,but simultaneously a light blinked on the other4 ,after that1 chaos reigned until the power plugs were finally pulled4 ,although made of metal and wires1 the computers demonstrated a remarkably human trait2 each thought the other was wrong and was doing its best to change its partner's answer6 ,the solution1 of course1 was to add a third computer4 ,binary decimal1 as we have pointed out1 is a wasteful code4 ,the decimal number #ajj in binary decimal coding is #jjja #jjjj #jjjj1 or #ab digits4 ,pure binary is #aajjajj1 or only #g digits4 ,by going to a binary-octal code1 using eight numbers instead of ten1 the words can be #c-;bit instead of #d-;bit4 ,this is called an 8economy0 code1 and finds some application4 ,there are also 8,gray0 codes1 reflected binary codes1 and many more1 each serving a particular purpose4 ,fortunately for the designer1 he can be prodigal with his use of codes4 ,with #d-;bit words1 #bi billion codes are available1 so a number of them are still unused4 ,having translated our decimal numbers into code intelligible to our computer1 we still have the mathematical operations to perform on it4 ,with a little practice we can add1 subtract1 multiply1 and divide our binary numbers quite easily1 as in the examples that follow4 ,addition3 #aajj 7#ab7 #jaaa 7 #g7 ---- ---- #ajjaa 7#ai7 ,subtraction3 #ajaj 7#aj7 - #jjaj 7 #b7 ------ ---- #ajjj 7#h7 ,multiplication3 #jaaj 7#f7 #jjaa 7#c7 ------ ----- #jaaj #jaaj #jjjj #jjjj ------ #ajjaj 7#ah7 ,,tn#a ,division3 #ajaj #aj #jaja 7#aj #b #e7 ,the rules should be obvious from these examples4 ,just as we add #e and #e to get #j with #a to carry1 we add #a and #a and get #j with #a to carry in binary4 ,adding #a and #j gives #a1 #j and #j gives #j4 ,multiplying #a times #a gives #a1 #a times #j gives #j1 and #j times #j gives #j4 ,one divides into #a once1 and into #j no times4 ,thus we can manipulate in just the manner we are accustomed to4 ,the computer does not even need to know this much4 ,all it is concerned with is addition3 #a plus #a gives #j and #a to carry2 #a plus #j gives #a2 and #j plus #j gives #j4 ,this is all it knows1 and all it needs to know4 ,we have described how it subtracts by adding complements4 ,it can multiply by repetitive additions1 or more simply1 by shifting the binary number to the left4 ,thus1 #jjja becomes #jjaj in one shift1 and #jajj in two shifts1 doubling each time4 ,this is of course just the way we do it in the decimal system4 ,shifting to the right divides by two in the binary system4 ,the simplest computer circuitry performs additions in a serial manner1 that is1 one operation at a time4 ,this is obviously a slow way to do business1 and by adding components so that there are enough to handle the digits in each row simultaneously the arithmetic operation is greatly speeded4 ,this is called parallel addition4 ,both operations are done by parts understandably called adders1 which are further broken down into half-adders4 ,there are refinements to basic binary computation1 of course4 ,by using a decimal point1 or perhaps a binary point1 fractions can be expressed in binary code4 ,if the position to the left of the point is taken as #b to the zero power1 then the position just to the right of the point is logically #b to the minus one1 which if you remember your mathematics you'll recognize as one-half4 ,two to the minus two is then one-fourth1 and so on4 ,while we are on the subject of the decimal point1 sophisticated computers do what is called 8floating-point arithmetic10 in which the point can be moved back and forth at will for much more rapid arithmetical operations4 ,no matter how many adders we put together and how big the computer eventually gets1 it is still operating in what seems an awkward fashion4 ,it is counting its fingers1 of which it has two4 ,the trick is in the speed of this counting1 so fast that one million additions a second is now a commonplace4 ,try that for size in your own decimally trained head and you will appreciate the computer a little more4 ,the ,logical ,algebra ,we come now to another most important reason for the effectiveness of the digital computer2 the reason that makes it the 8logical0 choice for not only mathematics but thinking as well4 ,for the digital computer and logic go hand in hand4 ,logic1 says ,webster1 is 8the science that deals with canons and criteria of validity in thought and demonstration40 ,he admits to the ironic perversion of this basic definition2 for example1 8artillery has been called the #8logic of kings1'0 a kind of logic to make 8argument useless40 ,omar ,khayym had a similar thought in mind when he wrote in ,the ,rubiyt1 ,the grape that can with logic absolute1 ,the ,two-and-,seventy ,sects confute4 ,other poets and writers have had much to say on the subject of logic through the years1 words of tribute and words of warning4 ,some1 like ,lord ,dunsany1 counsel moderation even in our logic4 8,logic1 like whiskey10 he says1 8loses its beneficial effect when taken in too large quantities40 ,and ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes asks1 ,have you heard of the wonderful one-hoss shay ,that was built in such a logical way ,it ran a hundred years to the day8 ,the words logic and logical are much used and abused in our language1 and there are all sorts of logic1 including that of women1 which seems to be a special case4 ,for our purposes here it is best to stick to the primary definition in the dictionary1 that of validity in thought and demonstration4 ,symbolic logic1 a term that still has an esoteric and almost mystical connotation1 is perhaps mysterious because of the strange symbology used4 ,we are used to reasoning in words and phrases1 and the notion that truth can be spelled out in algebraic or other notation is hard to accept unless we are mathematicians to begin with4 ,we must go far back in history for the beginnings of logic4 ,aristotelian logic is well known and of importance even though the old syllogisms have been found not as powerful as their inventors thought4 ,modern logicians have reduced the #bef possible permutations to a valid #ae and these are not as useful as the newer kind of logic that has since come into being4 ,leibniz is conceded to be the father of modern symbolic logic1 though he probably neither recognized what he had done nor used it effectively4 ,he did come up with the idea of two-valued logic1 and the cosmological notion of #a and #j1 or substance and nothingness4 ,in his ,characteristica ,universalis he was groping for a universal language for science2 a second work1 ,calculus ,ratiocinator1 was an attempt to implement this language4 ,incidentally1 ,leibnitz was not yet twenty years old when he formulated his logic system4 ,unfortunately it was two centuries later before the importance of his findings was recognized and an explanation of their potential begun4 ,in ,england1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton began to refine the old syllogisms1 and is known for his 8quantification of the predicate40 ,augustus ,de ,morgan1 also an ,englishman1 moved from the quantification of the predicate to the formation of thirty-two rules or propositions that result4 ,the stage was set now for the man who has come to be known as the father of symbolic logic4 ,his name was ,george ,boole1 inventor of ,boolean algebra4 ,in #ahed1 ,boole published 8,an ,investigation of the ,laws of ,thought on which are ,founded the ,mathematical ,theories of ,logic and ,probabilities40 ,in an earlier pamphlet1 ,boole had said1 8,the few who think that there is that in analysis which renders it deserving of attention for its own sake1 may find it worth while to study it under a form in which every equation can be solved and every solution interpreted40 ,he was a mild1 quiet man1 though nonconformist religiously and socially1 and his 8,investigation0 might as well have been dropped down a well for all the immediate splash it made in the scientific world4 ,it was considered only academically interesting1 and copies of it gathered dust for more than fifty years4 ,only in #aiaj was the true importance given to ,boole's logical calculus1 or 8algebra0 as it came to be known4 ,then ,alfred ,north ,whitehead and ,bertrand ,russell made the belated acknowledgment in their ,principia ,mathematica1 and ,russell has said1 8,pure mathematics was discovered by ,boole1 in a work he called #8,the ,laws of ,thought4'0 ,while his praise is undoubtedly exaggerated1 it is interesting to note the way in which mathematics and thought are considered inseparable4 ,in #aibh1 the first text on the new algebra was published4 ,the work of ,hilbert and ,ackermann1 ,mathematical ,logic1 was printed first in ,german and then in ,english4 ,what was the nature of this new tool for better thinking that ,boole had created8 ,its purpose was to make possible not merely precise1 but exact analytical thought4 ,historically we think in words1 and these words have become fraught with semantic ditches1 walls1 and traps4 ,boole was thinking of thought and not mathematics or science principally when he developed his logic algebra1 and it is indicative that symbolic logic today is often taught by the philosophy department in the university4 ,russell had hinted at the direction in which symbolic logic would go1 and it was not long before the scientist as well as the mathematician and logician did begin to make use of the new tool4 ,one pioneer was ,shannon1 mentioned in the chapter on history4 ,in #aich1 ,claude ,shannon was a student at ,m4,i4,t4 ,he would later make scientific history with his treatise on and establishment of a new field called information theory2 his early work was titled 8,a ,symbolic ,analysis of ,relay and ,switching ,circuits40 ,in it he showed that electrical and electronic circuitry could best be described by means of ,boolean logic4 ,shannon's work led to great strides in improving telephone switching circuits and it also was of much importance to the designer of digital computers4 ,to see why this is so1 we must now look into ,boolean algebra itself4 ,as we might guess1 it is based on a two-valued logic1 a true-false system that exactly parallels the on-off computer switches we are familiar with4 ,the ,biblical promise 8,ye shall know the truth1 and the truth shall make you free0 applies to our present situation4 ,the best way to get our feet wet in the ,boolean stream is to learn its so-called 8truth tables40 ,conjunctive ,boolean ,operation ,a and ,b equal ,c ,a ,b ,c 7,a ,b ,c7 ------ #j #j #j #a #j #j #j #a #j #a #a #a ,disjunctive ,boolean ,operation ,a or ,b equals ,c ,a ,b ,c 7 ,b ,c7 ------ #j #j #j #a #j #a #j #a #a #a #a #a ,in the truth tables1 #a symbolizes true1 #j is false4 ,in the conjunctive ,,and operation1 we see that only if both ,a and ,b are true is ,c true4 ,in the disjunctive ,,or operation1 if either ,a or ,b is true1 then ,c is also true4 ,from this seemingly nave and obvious base1 the entire ,boolean system is built1 and digital computers can perform not only complex mathematical operations1 but logical ones as well1 including the making of decisions on a purely logical basis4 ,before going on to the few additional conditions and combinations that complete the algebra1 let's study some analogies that will make clear the ,,and_/,,or principles of operation4 ,we can think of ,,and as two bridges in sequence over two rivers4 ,we can reach our destination only if both bridges are working4 ,however1 suppose there are two parallel bridges and only one river4 ,we can then cross if either or both of the bridges is working4 ,a closer example is that of electrical switches4 ,current will flow through our ,,and circuit if--and only if--both switches are closed4 ,when the switches are in parallel--an ,,or circuit--current will flow if either1 or both1 are closed4 ,the truth tables resemble the bridge or switch arrangements4 ,we can proceed across the line of #a's and #j's in the first table only if both switches are closed4 ,the symbol #a means that the switch is closed1 so we can cross only the bottom line4 ,in the second table1 we are told we can proceed across the line if either switch is closed4 ,thus we can cross lines #b1 #c1 and #d4 ,we can use many symbols in our two-valued system4 ,symbol ,bridge ,no ,bridge ,power ,no ,power #a #j ,true ,false ,a little imagination suggests a logic computer of sorts with one switch1 a battery1 and a light bulb4 ,suppose we turn on the switch when we drive into our garage4 ,a light in the hallway then indicates that the car is available4 ,by using two switches we can indicate that a second car is also in the garage2 or that either of them is1 simply by choosing between ,,and logic and ,,or logic4 ,childish as this seems1 it is the principle of even our most complex thinking processes4 ,you will remember that the brain is considered a digital computer1 since neurons can only be on or off4 ,all it takes is #aj billion neuron switches6 ,illustration3 ,remington ,rand ,,univac ,,and and ,,or gates in series4 ,switches #a and #b1 plus #c or #d1 are needed to light the bulb4 ,in addition to the conjunctives ,,and and ,,or1 ,boolean algebra makes use of the principle of negation4 ,this is graphically illustrated thus3 ,original ,negation ,a #a #j #j #a ,the negation device used in computer circuitry is called an inverter1 since it changes its input from a #a to a #j1 or vice versa4 ,the usefulness of such an element is obvious when we remember the computer trick of subtracting by adding complements4 ,the inverter circuit used with a code like the excess-#c readily forms these complements4 ,further sophistication of the basic ,boolean forms leads to units other than the ,,and and ,,or gates4 ,possible are ,,not1 ,,nor1 and exclusive-,,or forms4 ,in the latter1 there is an output if one and only one input is present4 ,the ,,nor circuit is interesting in that it was made possible with the introduction of the transistor2 the vacuum tube does not permit this configuration4 ,illustration3 ,computer ,control ,co4 ,the functions of two binary variables4 ,present-day symbolic logic is not the pure ,boolean as presented back in #ahed4 ,boole's ,,or was the exclusive1 one and only one1 type4 ,today the logician generally assumes the either-or connotation4 ,the logic has also been amplified1 using the commutative1 associative1 and distributive laws much like those of conventional algebra4 ,we are indebted to ,de ,morgan for most of this work1 showing that ,a and ,b equals ,b and ,a2 ,a and 7,a and ,b7 equals 7,a and ,b7 and ,a2 and so on4 ,while these seem intuitively true1 the implications are nonetheless of great importance both in pure logic and its practical use in circuitry4 ,a graphic representation of the metamorphosis from symbolic to actual implementation of ,boolean equations follows3 ,the implication of importance is that logic applies equally well whether we are making a qualifying statement such as 8,a man must have strength and courage to win a barehanded fight with a lion10 or wiring a defensive missile so that it will fire only if a target is within range and is unfriendly4 ,in the early period of computer design the engineer was faced with the problem of building his own switches and gates4 ,today many companies offer complete 8packaged0 components--,,and gates1 ,,or gates1 and the other configurations4 ,this is the modular approach to building a computer and the advantages are obvious4 ,the designer can treat the components simply as 8black boxes0 that will respond in a prescribed way to certain input conditions4 ,if he wants1 the engineer can go a step further and buy a ready-built logic panel consisting of many components of different types4 ,all he need do to form various logic circuits is to interconnect the proper components with plug-in leads4 ,this brings us to the point of learning what we can do with these clever gates and switches now that we have them available and know something about the way they work4 ,we talked about the computer adder circuit earlier in this chapter4 ,it is made up of two half-adders1 remember1 with perhaps an additional ,,or gate1 flip-flop1 etc4 ,each half-adder is composed of two ,,and gates and an ,,or gate4 ,so we have put together several basically simple parts and the result is a piece of equipment that will perform addition at a rate to make our heads swim4 ,there are other things we can do with ,boolean logic besides arithmetic4 ,a few gates will actuate a warning signal in a factory in case either of two ventilators is closed and the temperature goes up beyond a safe point2 or in case both vents are closed at the same time4 ,we can build a logic computer that will tell us when three of four assembly lines are shut down at the same time1 and also which three they are4 ,illustration3 ,general ,electric ,co41 ,computer ,dept4 ,electronic computers are built up of many 8building blocks0 like this one4 ,logic problems abound in puzzle books1 and many of us spend sleepless nights trying to solve them in our heads4 ,an example is the 8,farnsworth ,car ,pool0 problem4 ,rita ,farnsworth asks her husband if someone in his car pool can drive for him tomorrow so that she may use the car4 ,joe ,farnsworth replies1 8,well1 when ,i asked ,pete if he would take my turn he said he was flying to ,kansas ,city today1 but he'd be glad to drive tomorrow if he didn't have to stay over and that his wife has been staying home lately and he will drive her car if she doesn't go to work4 ,oscar said that since his own car is due back from the garage tomorrow he can drive it even if his wife does use hers1 provided the garage gets his back to him4 ,but if this cold of mine gets any worse ,i'm going to stay home even if those fellows have to walk to work1 so you can certainly have the car if ,i don't go to work40 ,this dialogue of ,joe's confuses ,rita and most of us are in the same state4 ,illustration3 ,autonetics ,division1 ,north ,american ,aviation1 ,inc4 ,testing an assembled digital computer4 ,the instruction manual for ,,brainiac1 a do-it-yourself computer that sells for a few dollars1 gives a simple wiring diagram for solving ,rita's dilemma4 ,electrically the problem breaks down into three ,,or gates and one ,,and gate4 ,all ,mrs4 ,farnsworth has to do is set in the conditions and watch the indicator light4 ,if it glows1 she gets the car6 ,these are of course simple tasks and it might pay to hire a man to operate the vents1 and ride to work on the bus when the car pool got complicated4 ,but even with relatively few variables1 decision-making can quickly become a task requiring a digital computer operating with ,boolean logic principles4 ,illustration3 ,science ,materials ,center ,problem in logic reduced to electrical circuits4 ,the ,smith-,jones-,robinson type of problem in which we must find who does what and lives where is tougher than the car pool--tough enough that it is sometimes used in aptitude tests4 ,lewis ,carroll carried this form of logical puzzler to complicated extremes involving not just three variables but a dozen4 ,to show how difficult such a problem is1 an ,,ibm #gjd required four minutes to solve a ,carroll puzzle as to whether any magistrates indulge in snuff-taking4 ,the computer did it the easy way1 without printing out a complete 8truth table0 for the problem--the method a man would have to use to investigate all the combinations of variables4 ,this job would have taken #ac hours6 ,while the question of the use of snuff is perhaps important only to tobacconists and puzzle-makers1 our technical world today does encounter similar problems which are not practical of solution without a high-speed computer4 ,a recent hypothetical case discussed in an electronics journal illustrates this well4 ,a missile system engineer has the problem of modifying a ,nike-,ajax launching site so that it can be used by the new ,nike-,hercules missile4 ,he must put in switching equipment so that a remote control center can choose either an ,ajax system1 or one of six ,hercules systems4 ,to complicate things1 the newer ,hercules can be equipped with any of three different warheads and fly either of two different missions4 ,when someone at the control center pushes a button1 the computer must know immediately which if any of the missiles are in acceptable condition to be fired4 ,this doesn't sound like too big a problem4 ,however1 since there are twelve on-off signals to be considered1 and since each has two possible states1 there are #d1jif possible missile combinations4 ,not all these are probable1 of course1 but there is still sufficient variation to make it humanly impossible to check all of them and close a firing switch in the split second the control center can allow4 ,the answer lies in putting ,boolean algebra on the job1 with a system of gates and inverters capable of juggling the multiplicity of combinations4 ,then when the word comes requesting a missile launch1 the computer handles the job in microseconds without straining itself unduly4 ,just as ,shannon pointed out twenty-five years ago1 switching philosophy can be explained best by ,boolean logic1 and the method can be used not only to implement a particular circuit1 but also to actually design the circuit in the first place4 ,a simple example of this can be shown with the easy-to-understand ,,and and ,,or gates4 ,a technician experimenting with an ,,and gate finds that if he simply reverses the direction of current1 he changes the gate into an ,,or gate4 ,this might come as a surprise to him if he is unfamiliar with ,boolean logic1 but a logician with no understanding of electrical circuits could predict the result simply by studying the truth tables for ,,and and ,,or4 ,reversing the polarity is equivalent to changing a #a to a #j and vice versa4 ,if we do this in the ,,and gate table1 we should not be surprised to find that the result looks exactly like the ,,or table6 ,it acts like it too1 as the technician found out4 ,boolean logic techniques can be applied to existing circuits to improve and_/or simplify them4 ,problems as simple as wiring a light so that it can be turned on and off from two or more locations1 and those as complex as automating a factory1 yield readily to the simple rules ,george ,boole laid down more than a hundred years ago4 ,watching a high-speed electronic digital computer solve mathematical problems1 or operate an industrial control system with speed and accuracy impossible for human monitors1 it is difficult to believe that the whole thing hinges on something as simple as switches that must be either open or closed4 ,if ,leibnitz were alive1 he could well take this as proof of his contention that there was cosmological significance in the concept of #a and #j4 ,maybe there is1 after all6 ,illustration3 ,industrial ,electronic ,engineering ,maintenance 8,luckily ,i brought along a #8loaner' for you to use while ,i repair your computer40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,whatever that be which thinks1 understands1 wills1 and acts1 it is something celestial and divine40 --,cicero #f3 ,the ,electronic ,brain ,the idea of a man-made 8brain0 is far from being new4 ,back in #ahea1 ,dr4 ,alfred ,smee of ,england proposed a machine made up of logic circuits and memory devices which would be able to answer any questions it was asked4 ,doctor ,smee was a surgeon1 keenly interested in the processes of the mind4 ,another ,britisher1 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 wrote a book called ,giant ,brain in #aich which proposed much the same thing3 a machine with all knowledge pumped into it1 and capable of feeding back answers to all problems4 ,if it was logical to credit 8human0 characteristics to the machines man contrived1 the next step then was to endow the machine with the worst of these attributes4 ,in works including ,butler's ,erewhon1 the diabolical aspects of an intelligent machine are discussed4 ,the ,lionel ,britton play1 ,brain1 produced in #aicj1 shows the machine gradually becoming the master of the race4 ,a more physical danger from the artificial brain is the natural result of giving it a body as well4 ,we have already mentioned apek's ,r4,u4,r4 and the ,ambrose ,bierce story about a chess-playing robot without a built-in sense of humor1 who strangles the human being who beats him at a game4 ,with these stories as models1 other writers have turned out huge quantities of work involving mechanical brains capable of all sorts of mischief4 ,most of these authors were not as well-grounded scientifically as the pioneering ,dr4 ,smee who admitted sadly that his 8brain0 would indeed be a giant1 covering an area about the size of ,london6 ,the idea of the giant brain was given new lease by the early electronic computers that began appearing in the #aidj's4 ,these vacuum-tube and mechanical-relay machines with their rows of cabinets and countless winking lights were seized on gleefully by contemporary writers1 and the 8brain0 stories multiplied gaudily4 ,many of the acts of these fictional machines were monstrous1 and most of the stories were calculated to make scientists ill4 ,many of these gentlemen said the only correct part of the name 8giant brain0 was the adjective2 that actually the machine was an idiot savant1 a sort of high-speed moron4 ,this opinion notwithstanding1 the name stuck4 ,one scholar says that while it is regrettable that such a vulgar term has become so popular1 it is hardly worth while campaigning against its use4 ,an amusing contemporary fiction story describes an angry crowd storming a laboratory housing a 8giant brain10 only to be placated by a calm1 sensibly arguing scientist4 ,the mob dispersed1 he goes back inside and reports his success to the machine4 ,the 8brain0 is pleased1 and issues him his next order4 8,nonsense60 scoff most computer people4 ,a recent text on operation of the digital computer says1 8,where performance comparable with that of the human brain is concerned1 man need have little fear that he will ever be replaced by this machine4 ,it cannot think in any way comparable to a human being40 ,note the cautious use of 8little10 however4 ,another authority admits that the logic machines of the monk ,ramn ,lull were very clever in their proof of ,god's existence1 but points out that the monk who invented them was far cleverer since no computer has ever invented a monk who could prove anything at all6 ,the first wave of ridiculous predictions has run its course and been followed by loud refutations4 ,now there is a third period of calmer and more sensible approach4 ,a growing proportion of scientists take a middle-of-the-stream attitude1 weighing both sides of the case for the computer1 yet some read like science fiction4 ,cyberneticist ,norbert ,wiener1 more scientist than fictioneer1 professes to foresee computerized robots taking over from their masters1 much as a ,greek slave once did4 ,mathematician ,john ,williams of the ,rand ,corporation thinks that computers can1 and possibly will1 become more intelligent than men4 ,equally reputable scientists take the opposite view4 ,neuro-physiologist ,gerhard ,werner of ,cornell ,medical ,college doubts that computers can ever match the creativity of man4 ,he seems to share the majority view today1 though many who agree will add1 tongue in cheek1 that perhaps we'd better keep one hand on the wall plug just in case4 ,thinking ,defined ,the first step in deciding whether or not the computer thinks is to define thinking4 ,far from being a simple task1 this definition turns out to be a slippery thing4 ,in fact1 if the computer has done no more than demand this sort of reappraisal of the human brain's working1 it has justified its existence4 ,webster lists meanings for 8think0 under two headings1 for the transitive and intransitive forms of the verb4 ,these meanings1 respectively1 start out with 8,to form in the mind10 and 8,to exercise the powers of judgment 444 to reflect for the purpose of reaching a conclusion40 ,even a fairly simple computer would seem to qualify as a thinker by these yardsticks4 ,the storing of data in a computer memory may be analogous to forming in the mind1 and manipulating numbers to find a square root certainly calls for some sort of judgment4 ,learning is a part of thinking1 and computers are proving that they can learn--or at least be taught4 ,recall of this learning from the memory to solve problems is also a part of the thinking process1 and again the computer demonstrates this capability4 ,one early psychological approach to the man-versus-machine debate was that of classifying living and nonliving things4 ,in ,outline of ,psychology1 the ,englishman ,william ,mc,dougall lists seven attributes of life4 ,six of these describe 8goal-seeking0 qualities2 the seventh refers to the ability to learn4 ,in general1 psychologist ,mc,dougall felt that purposive behavior was the key to the living organism4 ,thus any computer that is purposive--and any commercial model had better be6--is alive1 in ,mc,dougall's view4 ,a restating of the division between man and machine is obviously in order4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,ross ,ashby1 a ,british scientist now working at the ,university of ,illinois1 defines intelligence as 8appropriate selection0 and goal-seeking as the intelligent process par excellence1 whether the selecting is done by a human being or by a machine4 ,ashby does split off the 8non goal-seeking0 processes occurring in the human brain as a distinct class3 8natural0 processes neither good nor bad in themselves and resulting from man's environment and his evolution4 ,intelligence1 to ,ashby1 who long ago demonstrated a mechanical 8homeostat0 which showed purposive behavior1 is the utilization of information by highly efficient processing to achieve a high intensity of appropriate selection4 ,intelligent is as intelligent does1 no distinction being made as to man or machine4 ,humanoid and artificial would thus be meaningless words for describing a computer4 ,ashby makes another important point in that the intelligence of a brain or a machine cannot exceed what has been put into it1 unless we admit the workings of magic4 ,ashby's beliefs are echoed in a way by scientist ,oliver ,selfridge of ,lincoln ,laboratory4 ,asked if a machine can think1 ,selfridge says1 8,certainly2 although the machine's intelligence has an elusive1 unnatural quality40 8,think1 ,hell1 ,,compute60 reads the sign on the wall of a computer laboratory4 ,but much of our thinking1 perhaps some of the 8natural0 processes of our brains1 doesn't seem to fit into computational patterns4 ,that part of our thinking1 the part that includes looking at pretty girls1 for example1 will probably remain peculiar to the human brain4 ,the ,human ,brain ,mundy ,peale1 president of ,republic ,aviation ,corporation1 addressing a committee studying the future of manned aircraft1 had this to say3 ,until someone builds1 for #ajj or less with unskilled labor1 a computer no larger than a grapefruit1 requiring only a tenth of a volt of electricity1 yet capable of digesting and transmitting incoming data in a fraction of a second and storing #aj1jjj times as much data as today's largest computers1 the pilots of today have nothing to worry about4 ,the human brain is obviously a thing of amazing complexity and fantastic ability4 ,packed into the volume ,mr4 ,peale described are some #aj billion neurons1 the nerve cells that seem to be the key to the operation of our minds4 ,hooked up like some ultra-complicated switchboard1 the network of interconnections stores an estimated #bjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj bits of information during a lifetime6 ,by comparison1 today's most advanced computers do seem pathetically unimpressive4 ,we have discussed both analog and digital computers in preceding chapters4 ,it is interesting to find that the human brain is basically a digital type1 though it does have analog overtones as well4 ,each of the neurons is actually a switch operated by an electric current on a go_/no-go1 all-or-nothing basis4 ,thus a neuron is not partly on or partly off4 ,if the electrical impulse exceeds a certain 8threshold0 value1 the switch operates4 ,tied to the neurons are axons1 the long 8wires0 that carry the input and output4 ,the axons bring messages from the body's sensors to the neurons1 and the output to other neurons or to the muscles and other control functions4 ,this grapefruit-size collection of electrochemical components thus stores our memories and effects the operation we call thinking4 ,since brain impulses are electrical in nature1 we speak of them in electrical terms4 ,the impulses have an associated potential of #ej millivolts1 that is1 fifty thousandths of a volt4 ,the entire brain dissipates about #aj watts1 so that each individual neuron requires only a billionth of a watt of power4 ,this amount is far less than that of analogous computer parts4 ,a neuron may take a ten-thousandth of a second to respond to a stimulus4 ,this seemingly rapid operation time turns out to be far slower than present-day computer switches1 but the brain makes up for this by being a 8parallel operation0 system4 ,this means that many different connections are being made simultaneously in different branches1 rather than being sequential1 or a series of separate actions4 ,packaging #aj billion parts in a volume the size of a grapefruit is a capability the computer designer admires wistfully4 ,since the brain has a volume of about #a1jjj cubic centimeters1 #aj million neurons fit into a space of one cubic centimeter6 ,a trillion would fit in one cubic foot1 and man-made machines with even a million components per cubic foot are news today4 ,even when we are resting1 with our eyes closed1 a kind of stand-by current known as the alpha rhythm is measurable in our brains4 ,this current1 which has a frequency of about #aj cycles per second1 changes when we see or feel something1 or when we exercise the power of recall4 ,it disappears when we sleep soundly1 and is analogous to the operating current in a computer4 ,also1 there is 8power0 available locally at the neurons to 8amplify0 weak signals sufficiently to trigger off following branches of neurons4 ,philosophers have proposed two general concepts of the human brain and how it functions4 ,the a priori theory presupposes a certain amount of 8wired-in0 knowledge3 instincts1 ideals1 and so on4 ,the other theory1 that of the tabula rasa or clean slate new brain1 argues that each of us organizes an essentially random net of nerves into ordered intelligence4 ,both theories are being investigated with computers1 and as a result light is beginning to be shed on the workings of our brains4 ,illustration3 ,the ,upjohn ,company1 ,ezra ,stoller ,associates ,photo 8,a moment at a concert0 is diagrammed by brain model1 showing eyes1 ears1 nerves1 and structures analogous to brain4 ,picture at top represents perception4 ,there is another division of philosophical thought in the mechanistic versus elan vital argument4 ,in other words1 is the entire mind to be found in its constituent parts1 or is there an intangible extra something that really breathes life into us8 ,whatever the correct concept1 the brain does record impressions it can later recall4 ,no one yet knows just how this is done1 but several theories have been advanced4 ,one of these describes a 8chain circuit0 set up in a neuron network by messages from the body's sensors4 ,this circuit1 once started1 continues to circle through the brain and is on tap whenever that particular experience needs to be recalled4 ,the term 8reverberate0 is used in connection with this kind of memory1 seeming to be a good scientific basis for the poetic 8echoes of the past40 ,reverberation circuits also provide the memory for some computers4 ,among other explanations of memory is that of conditioning the neurons to operate more 8easily10 so that certain paths are readily traversed by brain impulses4 ,this could be effected by chemical changes locally1 and such a technique too is used in computers4 ,however the brain accomplishes its job1 it is certain that it evolved in its present form as a result of the environment its cells have had to function in for billions of years4 ,its prime purpose has been one of survival1 and for this reason some argue that it is not particularly well adapted to abstract reasoning4 ,although the brain can do a wide variety of things from dreaming to picking out one single voice amid the hubbub of noise at a social gathering--a phenomenon scientists have given the descriptive name of 8cocktail party effect0--men like ,ashby consider it a very inflexible piece of equipment not well suited to pure logic4 ,as a test of your brain as a logical device1 consider the following problem from the ,litton ,industries 8,problematical ,recreations40 ,if ,sara shouldn't1 then ,wanda would4 ,it is impossible that the statements3 8,sara should0 and 8,camille couldn't0 can both be true at the same time4 ,if ,wanda could1 then ,sara should and ,camille could4 ,therefore ,camille could4 ,is this conclusion valid8 ,if your head starts to swim1 you are not alone4 ,very few humans solve such problems easily4 ,interestingly1 those who do1 make good computer programmers4 ,the ,computer's ,brain ,just as we have an anthropomorphic ,god1 many people have done their best to endow the computer with human characteristics4 ,not only in fiction but also in real life1 the electronic brains have been described as neurotic and frustrated on occasion1 and also as being afraid and even having morning sickness6 ,a salesman for a line of computers was asked to explain in understandable terms the difference between two computers whose specifications confused a customer4 8,let's put it this way10 the salesman said1 8,the #gdj thinks the #fij is a moron60 ,we can begin to investigate the question of computer intelligence by again looking up a definition4 ,the word 8compute0 means literally to think1 or reckon1 with4 ,early computers such as counting sticks1 the abacus1 and the adding machine are obviously something man thinks with4 ,even though we may know the multiplication tables1 we find it easier and safer to use a mechanical device to remember and even to perform operations for us4 ,these homely devices do not possess sufficient 8intelligence0 to raise any fears in our minds4 ,the abacus1 for example1 displays only what we might charitably call the property of memory4 ,it has a certain number of rows1 each row with a fixed number of beads4 ,while it is not fallible1 as is the human who uses it1 it is far more limited in scope4 ,all it can ever do is help us to add or subtract1 and if we are clever1 to multiply1 divide1 do square roots1 and so on4 ,if we are looking for purposive behavior in computing machines1 it is only when we get to the adding machine that a glimmer appears4 ,when a problem is set in and the proper button pushed1 this device is compelled to go through the gear-whirring or whatever required to return it to a state of equilibrium with its problem solved4 ,so far we might facetiously describe the difference in the goal-seeking characteristics of man and machine by recalling that man seeks lofty goals like climbing mountains simply because they are there1 while the computer seeks its goal much like the steel ball in the pinball machine1 impelled by gravity and the built-in springs and chutes of the device4 ,when we come to a more advanced computer1 however1 we begin to have difficulty in assessing characteristics4 ,for the ,,johnniac1 built by ,rand and named for ,john von ,neumann1 can prove the propositions in the ,principia ,mathematica of ,whitehead and ,russell4 ,it can also 8learn0 to play a mediocre game of chess4 ,if we investigate the workings of a digital computer1 we find much to remind us of the human brain4 ,first is the obvious similarity of on-off1 yes-no operation4 ,this implies a power source1 usually electrical1 and a number of two-position switches4 ,the over-all configuration of the classic computer resembles1 in principal if not physical appearance1 that of the human brain and its accessories4 ,as we have learned1 the electronic computer has an input section1 a control1 an arithmetic 7or logic7 section1 a memory1 and an output4 ,looking into the arithmetic and memory sections1 we find a number of comparisons with the brain4 ,the computer uses power1 far more than the brain4 ,a single transistor1 which forms only part of a neuron1 may use a tenth of a watt2 the brain is ahead on this score by a factor of millions to one4 ,electronic switches have an advantage over the neuron in that they are much faster acting4 ,so fast have they become that engineers have had to coin new terms like nanosecond and picosecond1 for a billionth and a trillionth of a second4 ,thus1 the computer's individual elements are perhaps #ajj1jjj times faster than those of the brain4 ,there is no computer in existence with the equivalent of #aj billion neurons4 ,one ambitious system of computers does use half a million transistors1 plus many other parts1 but even these relatively few would not fit under a size #g-a_/b hat4 ,one advanced technique1 using a 8#b-;,d0 metal film circuitry immersed in liquid helium for supercooling1 hopefully will yield a packaging density of about #c-a_/b million parts per cubic foot in comparison with the brain's trillion-part density4 ,we have mentioned the computer memory that included the 8delay line10 remindful of the 8chain circuit0 in the brain4 ,electrical impulses were converted to acoustic signals in mercury1 traversed the mercury1 and were reconverted to electrical impulses4 ,early memory storage systems were 8serial0 in nature1 like those stored on a tape reel4 ,to find one bit of information required searching the whole reel4 ,now random-access methods are being used with memory core storage systems so wired that any one bit of information can be reached in about the same amount of time4 ,this magnetic core memory stores information as a magnetic field1 again analogous to a memory theory for the human brain except that the neuron is thought to undergo a chemical rather than magnetic change4 ,illustration3 ,general ,electric ,co41 ,computer ,dept4 ,tiny ferrite cores like these make up the memory of some computers4 ,each core stores one 8bit0 of information4 ,until recently1 computers have been primarily sequential1 or serially operating1 machines4 ,as pointed out earlier1 the brain operates in parallel and makes up for its slower operating individual parts in this way4 ,designers are now working on parallel operation for computers1 an improvement that may be even more important than random-access memory4 ,bionics ,it is obvious that while there are many differences in the brain and the computer there are also many striking similarities4 ,these similarities have given rise to the computer-age science of 8bionics40 ,a coinage of ,major ,j4 ,e4 ,steele of the ,air ,force's ,wright ,air ,development ,center1 bionics means applying knowledge of biology and biological techniques to the design of electronic devices and systems4 ,the ,air ,force and other groups are conducting broad research programs in this field4 ,as an indication of the scope of bionics1 ,dr4 ,steele himself is a flight surgeon1 primarily trained as neurologist and psychiatrist1 with graduate work in electronics and mathematics4 ,those engaged in bionics research include mathematicians1 physical scientists1 embryologists1 philosophers1 neurophysiologists1 psychologists1 plus scientists and engineers in the more generally thought of computer fields of electronics and other engineering disciplines4 ,a recent report from ,m4,i4,t4 is indicative of the type of work being done3 8,what the ,frog's ,eyes ,tell the ,frog40 ,a more ambitious project is one called simply 8,hand10 which is just that4 ,developed by ,dr4 ,heinrich ,ernst1 8,hand0 is a computer-controlled mechanical hand that is described as the first artificial device to possess a limited understanding of the outside world4 ,although it will undoubtedly have industrial and other applications1 8,hand0 was developed primarily as a study of the cognitive processes of man and animals4 ,besides the ,air ,force's formal bionics program1 there are other research projects of somewhat similar nature4 ,at ,harvard1 psychologists ,bruner and ,miller direct a ,center for ,cognitive ,studies1 and among the scientists who will contribute are computer experts4 ,oddly1 man knows little of his own cognitive or learning process despite the centuries of study of the human mind4 ,it has been said that we know more about ,pavlov's dog and ,skinner's pigeons than we do about ourselves1 but now we are trying to find out4 ,some find it logical that man study the animals or computer rather than his own mind1 incidentally1 since they doubt that an intelligence can understand itself anyway4 ,as an example of the importance placed on this new discipline1 the ,university of ,california at ,los ,angeles recently originated a course in its medical school entitled 8,introduction to the ,function and ,structure of the ,nervous ,system10 designed to help bridge the gap between engineering and biology4 ,in ,russia1 ,m4 ,livanov of the ,soviet ,academy ,research ,institute of ,physiology in ,higher ,nervous ,activity has used a computer coupled with an electric encephaloscope in an effort to establish the pattern of cortical connections in the brain4 ,while many experts argue that we should not necessarily copy the brain in designing computers1 since the brain is admittedly a survival device and somewhat inflexible as a result of its conditioning1 it looks already as if much benefit has come from the bionics approach4 ,the circuitry of early computers comprised what is called 8soldered0 learning4 ,this means that the connections from certain components hook up to certain other components1 so that when switches operated in a given order1 built-in results followed4 ,one early teaching device1 called the ,electric ,questionnaire1 illustrates this built-in knowledge4 ,a card of questions and answers is slipped over pegs that are actually terminals of interconnected wires4 ,probes hooked to a battery are touched to a question and the supposed correct answer4 ,if the circuit is completed1 a light glows2 otherwise the learner tries other answers until successful4 ,more sophisticated systems are those of 8forced0 learning and free association4 ,pioneer attempts at teaching a computer to 8perceive0 were conducted at ,cornell ,university under contract with the ,air ,force to investigate a random-network theory of learning formulated by ,dr4 ,frank ,rosenblatt4 ,specifically1 the ,perceptron learns to recognize letters placed in front of its 8eyes10 an array of #djj photocells4 ,the human brain accomplishes perception in several steps1 though at a high enough rate of operation to be thought of as a continuous1 almost instantaneous1 act4 ,stimuli are received by sense organs2 impulses travel to neurons and form interconnections resulting in judgment1 action if necessary1 and memory4 ,the ,perceptron machine functions in much the same manner4 ,illustration3 ,electronics ,simplified version of a mammalian visual system 7,a7 and ,perceptron simulating the biological network 7,b74 ,the forced learning technique1 in which ,perceptron was told when it correctly identified a letter1 and when it missed1 was used first4 ,later it was found that 8corrective0 or reinforced teaching1 which notes only errors1 was more effective4 ,after ,perceptron had seen each letter fifteen times and received proper correction1 it could subsequently identify all the letters correctly4 ,announcement of ,perceptron triggered many wild headlines and a general misconception in the public mind4 ,dr4 ,rosenblatt and other developers wisely refuse to comment on the potential of his machine1 but the number of experiments being conducted indicates wide scientific interest1 and perceptron has attained the prestige of an uncapitalized generic term4 ,however1 the theory of its random process has been questioned by scientists including ,theodore ,kalin1 one of the builders of an early electrical logic machine4 ,kalin feels that intelligence presupposes a certain minimum of a priori knowledge3 the wired-in learning of the computer or the instincts or inherited qualities of animals4 ,this of course echoes the thoughts of ,kant who deplored the notion as similar to all the books and papers in a library somehow arranging themselves properly on the shelves and in filing cabinets4 ,indeed1 the whole idea of finding human intelligence mirrored in the electronic innards of the computer has been flatly denounced at some scientific symposiums4 ,computers given an intelligence test at the ,university of ,michigan 8flunked10 according to researchers4 ,another charge is that the reaction of the brain's neuron depends on its history and thus cannot be compared with the computer4 ,however1 other researchers seem to have anticipated this weakness and are working on electronic or electrochemical neurons that also are conditioned by their input4 ,despite criticism1 the bionics work proceeds on a broad front4 ,more recently a machine called ,cybertron has been developed by the ,raytheon ,company4 ,this more sophisticated machine is being trained to recognize sonar sounds1 using the corrective technique4 ,if ,cybertron errs1 the teacher pushes a 8goof0 button4 ,when the machine is fully developed1 ,raytheon feels it will be able to recognize all typical ,american word sounds1 using its #aib learning elements1 and to type them out4 ,computers generally do 8logical0 operations4 ,many human problems do not seem to be logical1 and can be solved only by experience1 as the mathematician ,gdel demonstrated some years ago4 ,since ,cybertron solves such 8alogical0 problems1 its builders prefer not to call it a computer1 but rather a self-organizing data-processor that adapts to its environment4 ,among the variety of tasks that ,cybertron could perform are the grading of produce and the recognition of radar signals4 ,raytheon foresees wide application for ,cybertron as a master learner with apprentice machines incapable of learning but able to 8pick the brains0 of ,cybertron and thus do similar tasks4 ,illustration3 ,cornell ,aeronautical ,laboratory ,with the letter ,c in its field of view1 ,perceptron's photocells at top center are activated4 ,simultaneously1 response units in panel at right identify the letter correctly4 ,the assembly of machines like ,perceptron and ,cybertron requires elements that simulate the brain's neuron4 ,one such component which has evolved from bionics research is the ,artron1 or artificial neuron4 ,inside the ,artron are logic gates and inhibit gates4 ,by means of reward or punishment1 the ,artron learns to operate a 8statistical switch0 and send impulses to other ,artrons or to a readout4 ,there are two interesting parallels here besides the operation of a simulated neural net4 ,one is the statistical approach to decisions and learning4 ,the late ,john von ,neumann theorized that the brain's actions might be statistical1 or based on probability4 ,second1 the designers of ,artron see a similarity in its operation and ,darwin's theory of natural selection4 ,another new component in the bionics approach is the 8neuristor40 ,this semiconductor diode simulates the axon1 the nerve fiber that connects with the neuron4 ,another device is the 8memistor10 unique in that it uses electrochemical phenomena to function as a memory unit4 ,a different kind of artificial neuron called ,,mind is made up of magnetic cores4 ,there is another plus factor in this duplication of what we think is the system used by the brain4 ,while one neuron may not be as reliable as a vacuum tube or transistor1 the complete brain is millions of times more dependable than any of its single parts4 ,this happy end result is just the reverse of what man has come up with in his complex computer systems4 ,for instance1 individual parts in the ,minuteman missile must have a reliability factor of #ii4iiic so that the system will have a fair chance of working properly4 ,duplication of the brain's network may well lead to electronic systems that are many times more reliable than any of their individual parts4 ,bionics is apparently a fruitful approach1 both for benefiting computer technology and for learning more about the human brain4 ,as an example1 consider the fact that work with the ,perceptron indicated that punishment was more effective in the learning process than punishment and reward together4 ,this of course does not say that such a method would work best with a human subject1 but if separate tests with human beings proved a similar result1 it might then be safe to infer some similarity between the human and computer brain4 ,one of the biggest roadblocks to implementation of a humanlike neural net is economic4 ,since there are some #aj billion neurons in the brain1 and early electronic neurons consisted of several components including transistors which are a bargain at #b each1 building such a computer might double our national debt4 ,bionics workers have been thinking dreamily in terms of something like one cent per artificial neuron4 ,this is a ridiculously low figure1 but even at that a one-tenth brainpower computer with only a billion penny neurons would cost #aj million for those components alone6 ,illustration3 ,cornell ,aeronautical ,laboratory ,random wiring network between the ,mark ,i ,perceptron's #djj photocell sensors and the machine's association units4444 ,the ,mark ,i has ten sensory output connections to each of its #eab association units4 ,not yet whipped1 researchers are now thinking in terms of mass-producing lattices of thin metal1 in effect many thousands of elements in a microscopic space1 and propagating electrochemical waves rather than an electrical current through them4 ,illustration3 ,raytheon ,co4 ,when ,cybertron doesn't catch on to a new lesson1 engineers push the goof button to punish the machine4 ,when it learns correctly it is allowed to continue its studies with no interruption1 thus it constantly improves its skill4 ,other ideas include getting down to the molecular level for components4 ,if this is achieved it will be a downhill pull1 for even the human neuron consists of many molecules4 ,farfetched as these ideas seem1 packaging densities of #ajj billion per cubic foot are being talked of as foreseeable in less than ten years4 ,this is only about ten times as bulky as the goal1 the human brain1 and when it is achieved the computer will be entitled to a big head4 ,the ,computer as a ,thinker ,about the time ,johnny was having all his trouble reading1 a computer named ,,johnniac was given the basic theorems needed1 and then asked to prove the propositional calculus in the ,principia ,mathematica1 a task certainly over the heads of most of us4 ,the computer waded through the job with no particular strain1 and even turned in one proof more elegant than human brains had found before4 ,when the same problems were given to an engineer unfamiliar with that branch of mathematics1 his verbalized problem-solving technique paralleled that of ,,johnniac4 ,asked if he had been thinking1 the engineer said he 8surely thought so60 ,in his interesting department in ,scientific ,american1 mathematical gamester ,martin ,gardner describes a simple set of punched cards for solving the type of logic problem discussed earlier in this chapter4 ,using these cards and a simple digital type of manipulation1 we happily learn that ,camille surely could4 ,the problem is a simple1 three-premise type in two-valued logic and can be solved by any self-respecting digital computer in a split second4 ,a few demonstrations like this give a rather disconcerting insight into our brain's limitations and build more respect for the computer's intelligence4 ,when we hear of expensive computers apparently frittering away their valuable time playing games we may well wonder how come4 ,but games1 it turns out1 are an ideal testing ground for problem-solving ability and hence intelligence4 ,back in #aieg1 computer experts ,simon and ,newell predicted that in ten years the chess champion of the world would be a computer4 ,master players most likely laughed up their sleeves1 and thus far the electronic machine has done no better than play a routine game against a human amateur4 ,this1 of course1 is not a mean achievement4 ,wise heads are supposed to have responded to the prediction with 8,so what80 ,illustration3 ,photo at left from ,organization of the ,cerebral ,cortex1 by ,d4 ,a ,sholl1 ,j4 ,wiley and ,sons4 ,right1 ,general ,electric ,research ,laboratory ,photo at right shows a 8crossed-film cryotron0 shift register--an advanced computer element4 ,the separation of active crossovers shown is comparable to the separation of nerve cells in the section of cat brain shown at left4 ,alex ,bernstein of ,,ibm worked out a program for the #gjd computer in which the machine looks ahead four moves before each of its plays4 ,even this limited look ahead requires #b1hjj calculations1 and the #gjd takes eight minutes deliberating4 ,occasionally it makes a move the experts rate as masterful4 ,chess is a far more complex game even than it appears to those of us on the sidelines4 ,in an average game there are forty moves and each has about thirty possibilities4 ,so far this sounds innocuous1 but mathematics shows that there are thus #ajabj possible moves in any one game4 ,this number is a #a followed by #abj zeros1 and to underline its size it has been estimated that even if a million games a second were played1 the possibilities would not be exhausted in our lifetime6 ,obviously human chess wizards do not investigate all possible moves4 ,instead they use heuristic reasoning1 or hunch playing1 to cut corners4 ,the ,,johnniac computer is investigating such approaches to computer-playing chess1 in a movement away from rigorously programmed routines or 8algorithms40 ,algorithms are formulas or equations such as the quadratic equation used in finding roots4 ,if indeed the computer does dethrone the human chess champ by #aifg1 it will be exceedingly hard to argue that the machine is not thinking4 ,the word 8heuristic0 comes from the ,greek heuriskein1 meaning to discover or invent4 ,an example of what it is and how important it is can be seen in the recent disproving of a famous conjecture made by the mathematician ,euler some #ahj years ago4 ,euler was interested in the properties of so-called 8magic squares0 in which letters are arranged vertically and horizontally4 ,while it is possible to arrange the letters a1 b1 c1 d1 and e in such a square so that all are present in each row and in different order1 ,euler didn't think such was the case with a square having six units on a side4 ,he tried it1 visualizing officers of different rank arranged in rows4 ,convinced that it would not work1 he extended his educated guess to squares having units of ten1 fourteen1 and other even numbers not divisible by four4 ,he didn't actually prove his conjecture1 because the amount of paperwork makes it practically impossible4 ,in #aija a mathematician did try all the possible configurations of the square of six units and found that ,euler was indeed correct4 ,it was assumed that ten was impossible too1 until #aieh when three ,american mathematicians spoiled ,euler's theory by finding workable magic squares having ten units per side4 ,they did not do this by exhausting all the possibilities1 for such a chore would have been humanly impossible4 ,in fact1 a computer labored for #ajj hours and completed only a tiny fraction of the job4 ,the square-seekers concluded that it would take even the high-speed computer upwards of a century to do the job1 so instead they used hunches or inspired guesses1 working out a heuristic for the task4 ,the point of importance is that not only man1 but the computer as well1 despite its fantastic speed1 must learn to use heuristic reasoning rather than blindly plowing through all possible solutions4 ,there are just too many numbers6 ,computers play other games too1 from tick-tack-toe and ,nim1 which it plays flawlessly1 to ,go and checkers4 ,dr4 ,arthur ,samuel of ,,ibm has taught the #gjd computer to play checkers well enough to beat him regularly1 though ,dr4 ,samuel1 scientist that he is1 admits he is not a great checker-player4 ,he has used two types of learning in the program3 8rote0 and 8generalization40 ,so far these have been used separately1 while human players use both types of learning in a game4 ,american scientists visiting ,russia recently reported that the ,russians1 like some of us1 were amazed to hear that computer time was allotted to the mere playing of games4 ,the real goal in all this game-playing is to learn how to do other more important things4 ,gaming is being applied to war strategy and to business management4 ,corporation executives are playing games with computers that simulate the operation of their firms1 both to improve methods and to learn about themselves and their employees4 ,a ,general ,problem-,solver computer is being developed too2 one which can solve problems like the cannibals and the missionaries and then do mathematical equations and other types of thinking4 ,as was pointed out1 when the computer's method of solving a problem is compared with the protocol used by a person 7by having him think aloud as he goes through the problem7 it is seen that both use pretty much the same tricks and short cuts4 ,as the computer keeps closing the gap1 we can push the goal back by redefining our terms4 ,this is much like dangling a carrot on a stick1 and with the computer doggedly taking the part of the donkey1 it is a pretty good technological flail4 ,by making the true test of intelligence something like artistic creativity1 we can rule out the machine unless it can write poetry1 compose music1 or paint a picture4 ,so far the computer has done the first two1 and the last poses no particular problem1 though debugging the machine might be a messy operation4 ,true1 the machine's poetry is only about beatnik level3 ,,children ,sob suddenly1 the bongos are moving4 ,or could we find that tall child8 ,and dividing honestly was like praying badly1 ,and while the boy is obese1 all blast could climb4 ,first you become oblong1 ,to weep is unctious1 to move is poor4 ,this masterpiece1 produced by a computer in the ,librascope ,laboratory for ,automata ,research1 is not as obscure as an ,eliot or a ,nostradamus4 ,computer music has not yet brought audiences to their feet in ,carnegie ,hall4 ,the machine's detractors may well claim that it has produced nothing truly great2 nothing worthy of an ,einstein or ,keats or ,vermeer4 ,but then1 how many of us people have8 ,there is yet another way we can ban the computer from membership in our human society4 ,while human beings occasionally think they are machines1 and ,dr4 ,bruno ,bettelheim has documented a case history of 8,joey0 who was so convinced that he was a machine that he had to keep himself plugged in to stay alive1 no machine has yet demonstrated that it is consciously aware of itself1 as human beings are4 ,machines are1 hopefully1 objective4 ,consciousness seems to be subjective in the extreme2 indeed1 some feel that it is a thing one of us cannot hope to convey as intelligence to another and thus has no scientific importance4 ,it is also noted that the thinking and learning processes can be carried out with no need for consciousness of what we are doing4 ,an example given is that of the cyclist who learns1 without being 8aware0 of the fact1 that to turn his machine left he must first make a slight swing to the right in order to keep from falling outward during his left turn4 ,this observation in itself is not final proof of the pudding1 of course1 unless we are aiming only to make a mechanical bike-rider1 but many of our other actions are carried out more or less mechanically without calling attention to themselves4 ,just as certainly1 however1 the thing called consciousness plays a vital role in human thinking4 ,perhaps the machine must learn to do this before it can be truly creative4 ,although we have described some fairly 8exotic0 devices1 it should be remembered that the computers in use outside of the laboratory today are fairly old-fashioned second-generation models4 ,they have progressed from vacuum tubes or mechanical relays to 8solid-state0 components4 ,when ,artrons and neuristors and memistors and other more sophisticated parts are standard1 we can look for a vast increase in the brain power of computers4 ,the ,gilfillan radar ground-controlled-approach system for aircraft that 8sees0 the plane on the radar scope1 computes the proper path for it to follow1 and then selects the right voice commands from a stored-tape memory seems to be thinking and acting already4 ,the addition of eyes and ears plus limbs and locomotion to the computer1 foreseen now in the photocell eyes of ,perceptron1 the ears of ,cybertron1 and dexterity of ,mobot and ,hand1 will move the computer from mere brain to robot4 ,some people profess to worry about what will happen when the computer itself realizes that it is thinking1 calling to mind the apocryphal story of the machine that was asked if there was a ,god4 ,after brief cogitation1 it said1 8,now there is40 ,to offset such a chilling possibility1 it is comforting to recall the post-office electronic brain that mistook the ,christmas seals on packages for foreign stamps1 and the ,army computer that ordered millions of dollars worth of supplies that weren't needed4 ,or perhaps it isn't comforting1 at that6 ,the question of whether or not a computer actually thinks is still a controversy1 though not as much so as it was a few years ago4 ,the computer looks and acts as if it is thinking1 but the true scientist prefers to reserve judgment in the spirit of one shown a black sheep some distance away4 8,this side is black10 he admitted1 8but let's investigate further40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,for forms of government let fools contest1 ,that which is best administered is best40 --,pope #g3 ,uncle ,sam's ,computers ,the modern electronic version of the computer is about fifteen years old1 and like most teen-agers1 it is a precocious child4 ,to list all the applications in which it has made a place for itself would take several pages and an inclusive listing from ,airlines to ,zoology4 ,there are hundreds of different types1 priced from less than one hundred dollars to more than ten millions4 ,the latter are so expensive that outright purchase is not usually possible for users4 ,rental or leasing arrangements are therefore available2 and there are a growing number of computer centers to which the customer can take or send his work and have it done4 ,there are also do-it-yourself computer facilities1 much like those for laundry1 dry cleaning1 and so forth1 as well as installations in trailers that move from place to place4 ,most require a source of conventional electric power1 but there are some portable models that operate on batteries4 ,scanning the list of jobs the computer now does1 it would seem impossible to classify the varied tasks4 ,since many machines are versatile1 general-purpose types1 it is even more difficult to definitely categorize the computer4 ,dr4 ,john ,r4 ,pierce1 an expert at the ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories1 describes some of the chores done by a digital computer in a typical session at ,bell3 ,check parts of a computer program used in connection with machine methods for processing manufacturing information4 ,process and analyze data on telephone transmission which have been transmitted to the laboratories by teletypewriter and automatically punched on cards for computer processing4 ,solve a partial differential equation4 ,compute details of the earth's magnetic field4 ,check part of a program used to handle programming cards4 ,fit curves to data by translating numerical information into graphs4 ,locate an error in a program designed to process psychological data4 ,these 8simple0 problems required but three minutes of the computer's time4 ,a larger task1 something like solving #cej mathematical logic theorems from ,principia ,mathematica1 takes a bit longer--eight and a half minutes1 to be exact4 ,despite this versatility1 it is generally possible to break the computer's capabilities down into broad classifications4 ,first we can say that it does either simple data-processing1 or scientific computations4 ,each of these can then be further subdivided ad infinitum4 ,examples will be seen as we describe uses of computers on the following pages4 ,since the government was the first user of computers1 beginning back in #ahij with ,hollerith's punched-card machines1 we would do well to see what other work it has put the computer to in the years that have elapsed4 ,the ,computer in ,washington ,an inventory of electronic computers installed in the ,federal ,government by the end of #aifa totaled #hjj1 with #bjj more on order4 ,these figures are exclusive of those for tactical and classified use by the ,department of ,defense4 ,some #de1jjj people are engaged in computer operations in the government1 and a total expenditure of about #a4e billion is estimated4 ,an indication of the importance accorded the computer by ,washington is the ,interagency ,data ,processing ,committee1 concerned with questions of sharing of computers in geographic areas1 setting up of a 8library0 of applications1 and assurance of continued computer operation in the event of attack or other emergency4 ,users of computers1 in addition to the ,department of ,defense1 are the ,atomic ,energy ,commission1 ,department of ,commerce1 ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,agency1 ,federal ,aviation ,agency1 ,post ,office ,department1 and others for a total of #dc agencies4 ,the ,peace ,corps1 for example1 recently announced that it would acquire a computer for use in its work4 ,red tape is not the only output from ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,not long ago the ,hoover ,commission estimated that our ,federal ,government also produces #be billion pieces of paper each year6 ,someone else converted this already impressive statistic into the more startling information that placed end to end these papers would reach the moon four times--in triplicate1 of course6 ,data-processing1 then1 the handling of information1 would seem to be the major part of the computer's work for ,uncle ,sam4 ,the ,census ,bureau was the first government user of the computer1 and it continues to handle its work in this way4 ,in #aiea the government procured a ,,univac ,i to take over this onerous chore from its predecessors4 ,beginning with the #aiej census1 the computer has been in operation practically twenty-four hours a day1 seven days a week4 ,in its first ten years it performed more than #eaj billion mathematical operations in keeping pace with our exploding population4 ,we are producing more than paperwork1 it seems4 ,the #aiej census required four years to process4 ,with newer computers the #aifj count will take only half as long despite the population explosion4 ,information-handling computers make possible another important phase of the government's work4 ,in #aicf1 machines began to process ,social ,security records1 which are becoming a monumental pile of paperwork themselves with close to #ajj million accounts that must be kept up to date4 ,social ,security numbers recently turned up in government computers handling another job--that of income-tax bookkeeping4 ,the ,u4,s4 ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 ,mortimer ,caplin1 put a pilot system of computer accounting of tax records into operation in ,january of #aifb in the ,atlanta region4 ,in #aifc1 the ,philadelphia ,center will follow suit1 and by #aiff all income-tax accounting will whiz through tape reels into computers4 ,the figures on tax greenbacks laid end to end are not available1 but it is known that #djj miles of magnetic tape will be needed to hold all the records4 ,the new system will make it tough on the income-tax chiseler4 ,caplin points out that not only the withholding-tax information from the employer1 and forms from the employee1 but also dividend statements and other supplementary income information will funnel automatically into ,john ,doe's portion of the tape4 ,if ,john is moonlighting1 holding down a second job he might forget to mention1 the computer will spot it and charge a tax on it4 ,the apprehended tax-dodger may well call the computer an infernal revenue machine4 ,there are of course many other ways the computer is helping out in the complex problems of government1 both ,federal and local4 ,the computer has already figured in national elections1 making predictions well in advance as to the outcome4 ,now the machines are being used in the actual voting procedure4 ,in #aieb an ,,ibm computer predicted ,eisenhower's victory within two hours after the first polls closed4 ,in the early days of computer predictions1 the men using them were overly cautious and afraid to accept the machine's word4 ,techniques and confidence have improved with practice1 and in #aifj ,,ibm's ,,ramac predicted victory for ,kennedy at #h3ab ,p4,m4 election night4 ,to make accurate predictions1 the computer is given information from preceding elections4 ,in #aifj it was fed the results of the #aief1 #aieb1 #aidh1 and #aibh 7because of the religious considerations7 elections4 ,forecasters were able to ask the computer such questions as1 8,how is ,nixon doing compared with ,eisenhower's showing in #aieb80 8,how is ,kennedy doing compared with ,al ,smith back in #aibh80 8,is labor voting as a bloc80 and 8,how solid is the ,south80 ,the computer is now an accepted part of network equipment for election reporting4 ,,abc used the ,remington ,rand ,,univac2 ,,cbs1 ,,ibm ,,ramac and other machines2 and ,,nbc the ,,rca #eja4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,computers are used to predict the results of elections4 ,in addition to forecasting results1 computers are beginning to do other election work4 ,los ,angeles ,county experimented with a computer method of counting votes in #aifj4 ,greene ,county1 ,ohio1 used punched cards for ballots for #ej1jjj voters in a pioneering computer voting system4 ,the cards were processed in a ,,univac computer at ,dayton ,air ,force ,depot4 ,a bolder suggestion is that of political scientist ,r4 ,m4 ,goldman of ,michigan ,state ,university3 actual voting by telephone-operated computer6 ,to solve another problem area in voting1 the use of computers was recently proposed at a state congressional hearing in ,boston4 ,redistricting1 the bugaboo that led to 8gerrymandering10 might well be done by 8unbiased0 computers which would arrive at an optimum redistricting plan4 ,these unbiased results would be 8beyond politics and in the best interests of the voters and the ,state10 according to the computer expert who proposed the plan4 ,moving from voting to a more complicated problem1 that of urban renewal1 the ,university of ,washington is conducting a survey under federal grant on the extent of deterioration and the causes of decay in ,spokane residential1 commercial1 and industrial areas4 ,the ,,ibm #gji computer makes possible an accurate and extensive survey expected to shed light on areas of arrested development1 and on the amount of tax revenue lost because of existing blight4 ,electronic ,legal ,eagle ,some writers see the clearest evidence of the victory of the computer--if indeed we admit to there ever having been any real battle--in the admission by the legal profession that it must begin to chart the legal seas of the computer age4 ,in #aifa the ,american ,law ,institute and the ,american ,bar ,association1 feeling that the computer will cast its 8automated shadow on every phase of society10 conducted a joint three-day seminar in ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,titled 8,legal ,problems in the ,use of ,electronic ,data ,processing in ,business1 ,industry and ,law10 the seminar discussed 8function and operation of computers and their impact on tort1 tax1 corporation1 labor1 contract1 banking1 sales1 antitrust1 patent and copyright law1 as well as on the law of evidence and trial practice40 ,lawyer ,roy ,freed of the ,philadelphia ,bar1 in a booklet called 8,a ,lawyer's ,guide ,through the ,computer ,maze10 describes the working of the machine and then poses some challenging legal questions4 ,what duty does the company acting as a computer service organization have to preserve the confidential nature of the data it processes for its customers8 ,can business records placed on magnetic tape be used in evidence1 or must the original records be preserved8 ,how long can corporate management lag behind others in their industry in adopting machine data-processing systems before they expose themselves to a mismanagement charge8 ,to what extent should the manufacturer of a complex product that has a potential for causing harm try to minimize his liability as a maker by anticipating design defects through simulated operation on the computer8 ,other legal experts asked other questions4 ,if an electronically processed check is bounced erroneously1 who is responsible8 ,if a noncomputerized railroad has a train wreck1 can the road be sued on the premise that the accident would not have occurred with modern traffic controls8 ,or if the reverse occurs1 can an anticomputer claimant win a suit against the machine8 ,applications of the computer in patent law may lead to more thorough search in addition to higher speed4 ,this could well clear another bottleneck by issuing fewer and faster patents4 ,but copyright violation problems lie in the possibility of making copies of tapes or other media suitable for the computer's use4 ,the altering or falsification of computer data also poses a tricky legal problem2 there is already a precedent in the ,wall ,street man who juggled the punched cards on the computer to his own advantage4 ,perhaps there was one question none of the lawyers present had the courage to bring up3 what if the day comes when the court itself is a computer1 and the case is presented to it as a stack of cards1 or a prepunched or magnetized tape8 ,such a mechanized justice was fancifully depicted on a television thriller by ,ray ,bradbury4 ,computers in ,khaki ,despite the low ,,iq it has been accused of1 it was inevitable that the computer be drafted4 ,in the #dj's we were desperate4 ,included in government use of computers are military research1 development1 and tactical and strategic methods4 ,world ,war ,,ii was a different kind of war1 a complicated1 electronic war that required advanced methods of operation4 ,at ,eastertime in #aidb1 ,,ibm answered an urgent call from ,washington and gathered all available data-processing machines for use by the military4 ,punched cards kept track of allotments1 insurance1 and the logistics of running a war4 ,mobile computing machines operated close to the front lines1 and were important enough that a captured ,german officer was carrying urgent orders to bring in one of these units4 ,illustration3 ,motorola1 ,inc41 ,military ,electronics ,division ,technician checks circuitry of airborne digital computer4 ,besides the mundane effort of mere data-processing1 wartime computers did important cloak-and-dagger work as well4 ,a report came in from ,allied intelligence that the ,germans were working on a frightening new development--an electrically powered cannon4 ,if it were successful we would need some kind of counterweapon4 ,but the dike was leaking in a hundred other places too1 and there was not time or equipment to do everything it seemed we might have to do4 ,the answer was to feed some complex mathematics to an ,,ibm computer called the ,automatic ,sequence ,controlled ,calculator--mathematics describing the new cannon4 ,the computer cogitated briefly and decided that the ,germans were on the wrong track2 that the gun would not work4 ,we therefore ignored the threat1 letting the ,germans waste their valuable time going down the blind alley1 and turned our efforts elsewhere4 ,we have said that ,world ,war ,,ii was a different kind of war4 ,one new development to bear out this difference was called 8,operations ,research0--the reduction of any program to mathematical formulas and the investigation of these formulas rather than a conventional1 intuitive approach4 ,the technique was pioneered in ,england1 spread to the ,united ,states1 and is now one of the most powerful tools not only of the military but also of government and business4 ,the computer has made operations research a more powerful technique by permitting the analysis of thousands or millions of possibilities in hours instead of lifetimes4 ,back in the days of bows and arrows1 the soldier had no need for a computer4 ,even the rifleman required little more than a simple sight and maybe a bit of ,kentucky windage4 ,with the coming of long-range artillery1 computers became desirable1 and now we have moved into an age of warfare that would be impossible without high-speed computing machines4 ,in #aidh ,,ibm introduced a computer known as ,,ssec for ,selective ,sequence ,electronic ,calculator4 ,this machine was put to work on a problem for the ,los ,alamos ,atomic ,energy ,laboratory1 a problem called 8,hippo40 ,hippo was as unwieldy as its name1 requiring some nine million involved mathematical operations that would have taken about #a1ejj man-years of skilled time4 ,that many mathematicians or that much time was not available1 of course1 and ,,ssec clicked through the job in #aej hours by itself4 ,another computer1 the ,,maniac1 designed by ,john von ,neumann1 is credited with beating the ,russians to the punch with the hydrogen bomb4 ,as an outgrowth of operations research1 the simulation of war games has become an important part of military work4 ,a number of firms1 including ,system ,development ,corporation1 ,technical ,operations1 ,inc41 and others1 devote much of their time to 8playing games0 to work out the optimum strategy and tactics for war in case we find it necessary again4 ,it is perhaps not paradoxical that war be considered a game4 ,as ,william ,cowper said1 8,war's a game1 which were their subjects wise1 ,kings would not play at40 ,the game of chess1 conversely1 stems from war and its tactics4 ,indeed1 the term checkmate1 for victory1 comes from the ,persian words shah mat1 the king is dead4 ,through the years many war games have been developed1 games which eliminate the physical conflict but preserve the intellectual maneuvering necessary for waging 8war40 ,john von ,neumann was one of the more recent to turn his great genius to this subject in the development of his 8minimax0 theory4 ,this is an outline of a situation in which consequences of decisions depend on the actions of an opponent4 ,we have seen that the computer1 though not yet world champion1 can play chess2 the minimax theory is more grist for its electronic mill4 ,tech-ops operates the ,combat ,operations ,research ,group for the ,u4,s4 ,continental ,army ,command at ,fort ,monroe1 ,virginia4 ,among the games played here with computers are ,,syntac1 in which field-experienced officers evaluate new weapons and tactics1 and ,,autotag1 a computer simulation of tank-antitank combat4 ,other projects of this firm include air battle simulations1 ship loading and other logistics problems1 fallout studies1 and defense against missile attacks4 ,the beauty of such schemes is that we will not make the mistake of the ,germans with their electric cannon4 ,when the computer blinks 8,tilt0 or an equivalent1 the engineers may have red faces1 but no huge amount of time or money will have been spent before they sigh1 8,back to the old drawing board60 ,illustration3 ,aeronutronic ,division1 ,ford ,motor ,co4 ,,artoc 7,army ,tactical ,operations ,central7 uses computer techniques for battlefield display and communications to aid field commanders4 ,at ,picatinny ,arsenal1 computers evaluate ammunition by simulating as many as a thousand battles per item4 ,design and management studies for projects like ,nike-,zeus and ,davy ,crockett are also conducted at ,picatinny4 ,a mobile computer1 called ,,mobidic1 is designed for field combat use and has been moved in three #cj-;foot trailers to location with the ,seventh ,army in ,europe4 ,there it handles requisitions for rockets1 guided missiles1 electronic equipment1 and other items4 ,,mobidic is just part of the ,army's ,,fieldata family of computers that includes helicopter-transported equipment to provide field commanders with fast and accurate data on which to base their risk decisions4 ,another concept is ,,artoc1 for ,army ,tactical ,operations ,central1 an inflatable command post in which computers receive and process information for display on large screens4 ,this is a project of ,aeronutronic4 ,in #aifa an ,,ibm #gjij computer was installed at ,ispra1 ,italy1 for use by the ,european ,atomic ,energy ,commission 7,,euratom74 ,the computer would have as its duties the cataloging of technical information on atomic energy1 the translation of technical publications1 and use in basic research on solutions of ,boltzmann equations and other advanced physics used in atomic work4 ,in this country1 the ,national ,science ,foundation has acknowledged the importance of the computer in scientific investigation by underwriting costs for such equipment for research centers in need of them4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,command post of ,,sage1 the most complex computer application to date4 ,in the ,air ,beyond the realm of war gaming1 the computer also forms the heart of the hardware that such simulation and studies develop4 ,,sage is an example of this1 a complex warning system that protects our country from attack4 ,the acronym ,,sage is a more dignified and impressive name than the words it stands for--,semi-,automatic ,ground ,environment1 an environment that by #aife will have cost #fa billion6 ,sage is not a single installation1 but a vast complex of centers feeding information from ,ballistic ,missile ,early ,warning ,site radar and airborne radar1 from ships1 ,texas towers1 and ground-based radar1 and from weather stations into a central control4 ,this control sends the proper signals to defensive rockets1 missiles1 and aircraft for action against an invader4 ,it does this with one hand1 while with the other it keeps tabs on normal military and commercial air traffic4 ,the ,system ,development ,corporation designed and ,,ibm built the ,,sage computer1 a computer already old-fashioned since it uses vacuum tubes instead of the newer transistor devices4 ,despite this shortcoming1 it does a fantastic job of tracking all the aircraft and missiles in its ken1 labeling them for speed1 heading1 altitude1 as well as the vital information of friend or foe1 and continuously plans a defense4 ,since it can monitor civilian traffic as well1 ,,sage may one day take over control of that too4 ,thus the money spent will yield a bonus in addition to the protection ,,sage has already afforded in its military role4 ,the ,air ,force uses airborne computers by the thousands4 ,indeed1 the need for small lightweight computers for applications in aircraft led to early work in the miniaturization of components that made possible tiny computers for missile and space use4 ,small digital computers were built for 8drone0 aircraft navigation2 now more advanced computers provide 8air data10 air-speed1 altitude1 flight attitude1 pressure1 and other information4 ,other ,air ,force computers1 used in ,,bmews radar1 take the place of human observers4 ,these smart computers can recognize radar tracks that are potential missile trajectories1 discriminate among these tracks to select hostile trajectories1 and project them to impact points and times4 ,called ,,mips1 for ,missile ,impact ,predictor ,set1 the computer takes over from its human forerunner who just can't seem to perform the #bjj1jjj operations a second required to do the job4 ,another space-tracking computer called ,,spadats has been installed at ,,norad ,combat ,operations ,center at ,colorado ,springs4 ,this computer has the assignment of around-the-clock cataloging of all man-made objects in space1 a sizable and growing task4 ,at ,vandenberg ,air ,force ,base1 the ,air ,force maintains an ,,edp1 or ,electronic ,data ,processing project with a more earth-bound job of cataloging4 ,started back in #aieg1 this project has as its primary task the efficient allocation of manpower for the global ,strategic ,air ,command team4 ,at nearby ,edwards ,air ,force ,base1 an ,,ibm #gjij computer is helping to develop the ,dyna-,soar manned space glider4 ,this computer is also doing work for the ,x-#ae program1 and research on fuels1 lunar probes1 rocket nozzles1 and nose cones4 ,at ,tinker ,air ,force ,base in ,oklahoma1 a new system of keeping track of jet engine parts1 so that they go back on the proper engine1 uses a recorder 8gun0 wired to a central control computer4 ,engine parts are metal tagged with coded letters which the recorder 8reads0 and transmits to the computer for filing4 ,computers play a big part in the 8largest and most sophisticated logistic data and message communications system in the world40 ,delivered to the ,air ,force in ,january of #aifb1 8,comlognet0 connects #dej different air bases and other installations4 ,this system started out modestly1 handling about #aj million punched cards a day1 and is heralded as only a forerunner of an automatic system which will some day take care of the complete interflow of data among widely separated military and civilian locations4 ,besides being part of complex navigation and bombing systems1 computers help the ,air ,force to score the results of practice bombing missions4 ,computers control the launching of ,sidewinder missiles from aircraft and also permit accurate 8toss-bombing0 of nuclear payloads from fighter bombers4 ,these computers do all the mathematics and let the pilot approach his target from any direction1 at any speed and altitude4 ,the new ,skybolt ballistic missile1 launched from the ,b-#eb bomber1 has its own guidance computer1 which is actually a digital differential analyzer1 a hybrid device like that described in an earlier chapter4 ,one of the largest single computers in the ,air ,force is that called ,finder4 ,using #gj1jjj transistors1 it does analytical work on electronic countermeasures4 ,today there are some #aaj1jjj aircraft flying the skies in this country1 about double the number ten years ago4 ,not only the quantity but also the speed of aircraft has increased1 and the job of the aircraft controller has become a nightmare4 ,with the lives of air travelers in his hands1 this overworked ,,faa employee has until recently used the same equipment that served in the days of #ahj miles-per-hour piston-engine transports4 ,we have discussed some examples of the computer as a director of air traffic2 the automatic ground-controlled-approach system that lands planes in bad weather without human help is one1 the mighty ,,sage defense system is another4 ,,sage may one day take over commercial air traffic3 in the meantime1 the ,federal ,aviation ,agency relies heavily on smaller computers in locations all over the country4 ,originally1 general-purpose business computers were put to work processing the vast quantities of data needed to keep traffic flowing along the airways4 ,new1 special designs1 including those of the ,librascope ,division of ,general ,precision1 ,inc41 are being added as they become available4 ,remington ,rand ,,univac is also working on the problem1 and ,,univac equipment has been tested on ,strategic ,air ,command round-robin flights4 ,it has posted as many as eighty in-flight ,axes for one mission1 a feat that the unaided human controller can only gasp at4 ,obviously1 control of aircraft cannot be turned over pell-mell from human to computer4 ,the ,,faa is proceeding cautiously1 and a recent report from an industry fact-finding board recommended a 8,project ,beacon0 approach which will continue to rely heavily on radar plus human controllers4 ,but when the problems of communication between man and machine are worked out1 no human being can keep track of so many aircraft so accurately1 or compute alterations in course to prevent collision and ensure an optimum use of air space as can the computer4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,on the ,sea ,the ,navy uses computers too4 ,at the ,david ,taylor ,test ,basin in ,maryland1 a ,,univac ,,larc is busy doing design work on ship hulls4 ,other computers mounted in completed ,navy vessels perform navigation and gun-ranging functions4 ,at ,new ,london1 ,connecticut1 a ,minneapolis-,honeywell computer simulates full scale naval battles4 ,radar and sonar screens in mock submarine command posts show the maneuvering of many ships in realistic simulations4 ,polaris submarines depend on special computers to launch their missiles1 and the missiles themselves mount tiny computers that navigate ,polaris to its target4 ,another computer task was the 8sea testing0 of the nuclear submarine 8,sea ,wolf0 before it was launched6 ,illustration3 ,photo courtesy of ,litton ,systems1 ,inc4 ,airborne computer-indicator system in ,hawkeye naval aircraft4 ,this equipment performs task of surveillance1 tracking1 command and control4 ,computers are being used by the ,navy in a project that has tremendous applications not only for military application but for civilian use as well4 ,mark ,twain to the contrary1 a lot of people have tried to do something about the weather1 among them an ,englishman named ,richardson4 ,back in #aibb he came up with the idea of predicting the weather for a good-sized chunk of ,england4 ,basically his ambitious scheme was sound4 ,drawing on weather stations for the data1 he determined to produce a #bd-;hour forecast4 ,unfortunately for ,mr4 ,richardson1 the ,english1 and the world in general1 the mathematics required was so complicated that he labored for three months on that first prediction4 ,by then it had lost much of its value--and it was also wrong6 ,the only solution that ,richardson could think of was to enlist the aid of about #fj1jjj helpers who would be packed into a huge stadium4 ,each of these people would be given data upon which to perform some mathematical operation1 and then pass on to the next person in line4 ,pages would transfer results from one section of the stadium to another1 and a 8conductor10 armed with a megaphone undoubtedly along with his baton1 would 8direct0 the weather symphony1 or perhaps cacaphony4 ,as he lifted his baton1 the helpers were to calculate like crazy1 when he lowered it they would pass the result along4 ,what ,richardson had invented1 of course1 was the first large-scale computer1 a serial computer with human components4 ,for a number of reasons1 this colossal machine was never completed4 ,it was obviously much easier to simply damn the weatherman4 ,actually1 ,richardson had stumbled onto something big4 ,he had brought into being the idea of 8numerical weather prediction40 ,it is known that weather is caused by the movement of air and variations in its pressure4 ,basically it is simple1 knowing pressure conditions yesterday and today1 to project a line or extrapolate the conditions for tomorrow4 ,if we know the conditions tomorrow1 we can then predict or forecast the temperature1 precipitation1 and winds4 ,illustration3 ,u4,s4 ,navy ,weather map prepared and printed out by computer gives data in graphical form4 ,enlarged view of weather 8picture0 7above7 shows how it is formed by printed digits representing the pressure at reporting stations4 ,there was even the mathematics to make this possible in ,richardson's day3 the so-called 8primitive equations0 of the pioneer mathematician ,euler4 ,these are six partial differential equations involving velocity1 pressure1 density1 temperature1 and so on4 ,but though the principle is simple1 the practical application is hopelessly involved--unless you have a stadium filled with #fj1jjj willing mathematicians or a fast computer of some other type4 ,in #aiej the stage was finally set for the implementation of numerical weather prediction4 ,first1 electronic computers were available4 ,second1 and importantly1 mathematician ,c4 ,g4 ,rossby had worked some magic with the original primitive equations and reduced them to a single neat equation with only four terms4 ,the new tool is called the ,rossby equation4 ,meteorologists and mathematicians at ,princeton's ,institute for ,advanced ,study decided to combine the ,rossby equation1 the ,,maniac computer1 and some money available from the ,office of ,naval ,research4 ,the result was ,,jnwpu1 ,joint ,numerical ,weather ,prediction ,unit1 later to become ,,nanwep1 for ,navy ,numerical ,weather ,problems ,group4 ,it is too bad that pioneer ,richardson did not live to see the exploitation of his dream4 ,what ,,nanwep does is to take the meteorological data from some #c1jjj reporting stations1 compare them with those existing yesterday1 and print out a weather map for the ,northern ,hemisphere for tomorrow4 ,because there are so many more stations reporting than the handful that ,richardson used1 the number of computations has risen to the astronomical total of about #cjj1jjj1jjj4 ,despite this1 a ,control ,data ,corporation #afjd digital computer does the job in a good bit less time than the three months it took ,richardson4 ,,nanwep prints out its weather maps #dj minutes from the time all data are in4 ,teletype reports come in from the thousands of weather stations2 these are punched on tape and fed to the #afjd4 ,since the information includes geographical position in addition to meteorological data1 the computer prints out numbers that form a map of weather coming up4 ,although the meteorologist adds some clarifying lines by connecting points of equal pressure1 the 8raw0 map with its distinctive shaded areas is meaningful even to the layman4 ,further refinements are in the offing4 ,as many as #aj1jjj weather stations may eventually report to the central computer1 which may also learn to accept the teletype information directly with no need for the intermediate step of punching a tape4 ,although it will be a long time before a positive forecast1 exact in every detail1 is possible1 ,,nanwep already has lifted weather prediction from the educated guesswork of the older meteorologists to truly scientific forecasting4 ,it turns out that numerical weather prediction brings with it some bonuses4 ,,nanwep can predict the action of ocean waves three days in advance1 in addition to its regular wind1 temperature1 and precipitation information4 ,so it is now being put to work preparing optimum routes for ships4 ,here's the way it would work4 ,a ship sailing from ,california to ,japan requests the best routes for the voyage4 ,initially the computer is given the ship's characteristics and told how it will perform in various sea conditions4 ,it then integrates this information with the predicted sea conditions for the first day's leg1 and plots several different courses4 ,distances the ship would travel on each of these courses are plotted1 and a curve is drawn to connect them4 ,now the computer repeats the process for the next day1 so that each of the tentative courses branches out with its own alternates4 ,the process is repeated for each of the five days of the voyage4 ,then the computer works backward1 picking the best route for the entire voyage1 and gives the course to be followed for optimum time4 ,if that isn't sufficiently informative for the captain1 he can request and receive not one but three courses3 one for the fastest trip regardless of sea condition1 another for the fastest trip with waves of only a certain height1 and finally a course for the fastest trip through calm water6 ,the advantages of such a service are immediately obvious and give a hint at many other applications of the technique to air travel1 truck transport1 and so on4 ,,nanwep is ground-based1 of course4 ,there are also airborne weather computers like those of the ,u4,s4 ,weather ,bureau's ,national ,severe ,storm ,research ,aircraft ,project4 ,the ,weather ,bureau has jumped its computer budget from #a4e to #b4e million to extend this and other projects4 ,the compact airborne computers ride along in ,,dc-#f and ,b-#eg aircraft to monitor hurricanes off ,florida and tornadoes in the ,great ,plains area4 ,the computers gather forty different kinds of information and convert it to digital form at thousands of characters a second4 ,such monitoring of violent weather by means of computers suggests an intriguing use of the machine4 ,man has long considered the prospect of going the step beyond weather recording and prediction to actually changing or even creating his own weather4 ,he has done a few rather startling things of this kind1 admittedly on a small scale but with tremendous implications4 ,cloud-seeding experiments are samples1 as attempts both to induce precipitation and to create or destroy storms4 ,these experiments1 though inconclusive1 have led to results--including precipitation of lawsuits and ill feeling4 ,meteorologists attempted to divert a hurricane along the ,atlantic coast line once1 apparently with results4 ,but the storm swerved too far and the weathermen incurred the justifiable wrath of those living in the area affected4 ,why not simulate such an experiment in the computer8 ,besides being safer1 it is also far cheaper4 ,in the long run1 we may do something about the weather at that4 ,computers in ,space ,there are many points in history when seemingly fortuitous happenings take place4 ,the invention of the printing press appears to have occurred at a fork in the road as literature flowered4 ,the discovery of gasoline and the automobile went hand in hand4 ,so it is with the electronic computer and the spacecraft4 ,is the computer here because it was needed for such an application1 or did it actually cause the advent of space flight8 ,our conclusions must depend on our belief or disbelief in such things as causality4 ,a realistic view might be merely to applaud and appreciate the confluence of two important streams of thought to make a river that will one day flow to the other planets and finally out of the solar system entirely4 ,putting even something so unsophisticated as a brick into orbit would require the plotting of an exact trajectory handily done only by a computer4 ,sending the ,mercury capsule aloft obviously requires a more refined aiming system1 and its re-entry into the atmosphere demands a nicety of calculation measured in a fraction of a degree4 ,the same is true for the ,russian achievements in sending a space vehicle around the moon1 and manned capsules in prolonged orbit4 ,such navigation can be planned and carried out only by the sophisticated mathematics of a computer4 ,dr4 ,wernher von ,braun has said that any effective space-vehicle firing program would be impossible without computers and computing techniques4 ,not long ago1 the mariner could leisurely brace himself on the deck of his vessel and take a noon sight with his sextant4 ,it mattered little if it took him some time to work out the computations2 his ship traveled at only a few knots and in only two dimensions4 ,today the space capsule or missile moves as far in a single minute as a ship might in an entire day1 and it moves not across the practically flat surface of the sea but through three-dimensional space in which that third degree of freedom is of vital importance4 ,not only must the navigation be done with fantastic precision1 it must be done in 8real time0 to be of any value4 ,this is true whether the mathematics is being done by a ,mercury capsule or one of our antimissile missiles4 ,just as ,richardson's weather prediction three months after the fact was of little use1 the trajectory of an invading missile will avail us nothing if it takes us thirty minutes to compute4 ,the problem by then1 for the survivors1 will be one of fallout and not blast4 ,for this reason a computer is aboard practically every space vehicle that leaves the earth4 ,the ,atlas and ,titan1 the ,minuteman and ,polaris1 all are controlled by tiny digital computers in their innards1 supplemented by more complex machines on the ground4 ,these ground computers calculate the trajectory1 then monitor the missile to correct its course if necessary4 ,complex as these functions seem1 they are childishly simple by comparison with the kind of calculations that are necessary for lunar or planetary flight4 ,a mathematician who knew his astronomy could work out the figures necessary to launch a space craft on its flight to ,venus1 but he would have to start some time before launching day4 ,in fact1 it would take forty generations of mathematicians to do the job4 ,the trip itself would consume about four months4 ,at the ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratories of the ,california ,institute of ,technology1 this #hjj-year project is planned and flown in thirty seconds by an ,,ibm #gjij computer4 ,for example1 the computer tells us that if we had blasted off bright and early on ,august #ag1 #aifb1 we could make it to the ,clouded ,planet at #aj3ji ,a4,m41 ,december #i4 ,the curved trip through space would cover #cb1fhg1jjj miles4 ,the computer1 then1 not only can perform in real time but can even shrink time4 ,the ,venus trip is simulated daily at the ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratories1 and tapes stored in the computer cabinets also bear the names ,moon1 ,mars1 ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 and so on4 ,when the day comes to make the actual voyage1 the odds are good that because of what scientists have learned from the computer the trip will go as smoothly as all the simulations4 ,rather than the planetary voyages1 which are still some time off1 lunar soft landings will be among the first to demonstrate the accuracy of simulations now being made by ,general ,dynamics1 whose ,atlas-,centaur will put the lunar rover ,surveyor on the moon shortly4 ,apollo1 the three-man lunar spaceship1 won't be far behind4 ,not long ago a computer was put to work to see if it could pare down the costs of the ,atlas and ,thor rocket engines4 ,we have to have such defensive weapons1 but the cheaper we can make them the more we can afford4 ,the economy program worked1 reducing costs more than a third4 ,summary ,the computer is on the ,washington payroll to stay1 and it may well move up the hierarchical ladder there4 ,it was not a comedian but an ,m4,i4,t4 professor who recently suggested that the computer will replace the bureaucrat4 ,contending that the computer is inherently more flexible than the bureaucrat1 ,professor ,john ,mc,carthy told an ,institute of ,radio ,engineers meeting that the machines will not regiment us4 8,on the contrary1 ,i think we can expect a great deal more politeness from machines than we have gotten from humans10 he said4 ,his views were debated by other panelists1 but the gauntlet seems to have been flung4 ,with a party affiliation1 the computer may well run for president someday6 ,illustration3 ,lichty1 ,field ,enterprises1 ,inc4 8,it ,,is human1 men6444 ,besides solving our problems of global strategy1 it's also beginning to jot down its memoirs60 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,business may not be the noblest pursuit1 but it is true that men are bringing to it some of the qualities which actuate the explorer1 scientist1 artist3 the zest1 the open-mindedness1 even the disinterestedness1 with which the scientific investigator explores some field of research40 --,earnest ,elmo ,calkins #h3 ,the ,computer in ,business and ,industry ,the government1 of course1 is not the only user of the electronic computer4 ,business is faced with the same problems as government1 plus others perhaps1 and can use the same techniques in planning1 producing1 merchandising1 and keeping track of its products4 ,to ,general ,electric goes the distinction of first installing the large-scale electronic computer for its business-data processing4 ,this was done quite recently1 in #aied4 ,commenting on the milestone1 the ,harvard ,business ,review said in part3 ,the revolution starts this summer at ,general ,electric ,company's new ,appliance ,park near ,louisville1 ,kentucky4 ,the management planning behind the acquisition of the first ,,univac to be used in business may eventually be recorded by historians as the foundation of the second industrial revolution2 just as ,jacquard's automatic loom in #ahja or ,frederick ,w4 ,taylor's studies of the principles of scientific management a hundred years later marked turning points in business history4 ,it is early yet for comment from historians1 but the growth of the business computers from the pioneer ,,univac bears out the theme of the ,harvard ,business ,review suggestion4 ,in #aifa there were #f1jjj large electronic computers in use2 ,general ,electric alone has more than #ajj4 ,one big reason for this is the fact that government is not alone in its output of paperwork4 ,it has been estimated that one-sixth of our ,gross ,national ,product1 or about #he billion1 is devoted to paper-handling4 ,in the time it takes to read this chapter1 for example1 ,americans are writing #d million checks1 and this is only a small part of the paperwork involved in the banking business4 ,illustration3 ,general ,electric ,co41 ,computer ,dept4 ,first ,national ,bank of ,arizona personnel operate sorters during initial operation of a new ,,ge-#baj computer-controlled data-processing system4 ,the sorters process bank checks at the rate of #gej per minute as printer 7foreground7 prints bank statements at #ijj lines per minute4 ,wholesale banks have been called fiscal intelligence agencies1 doing business by the truckload1 and measuring the morning mail by the ton4 ,yet this information is dealt with not only in volume1 but in precise and accurate detail4 ,if a client asks about the rating of a customer who has just ordered several million dollars worth of goods1 the bank may be called on to furnish this information in a very short time1 even though the customer resides halfway around the world4 ,since they deal in figures1 it is logical that banks were among the first businesses to be computerized4 ,many of us are aware of those stylized numbers now on the bottom of most of our checks1 and vaguely conscious that through some mysterious juggling by computers called ,,erma and other such names banks balance our accounts at electronic speed4 ,insurance companies were next in line as computer candidates4 ,like banking1 insurance is believed to have been available to ,babylonian merchants thousands of years ago4 ,in those days there were fewer people1 and probably claims were fewer2 the abacus was the only computer needed to keep pace4 ,but since insurance was introduced on the ,north ,american continent1 coincidentally in the same state1 ,pennsylvania1 as banking1 it has been threatened with drowning in a sea of its own policies4 ,the computer is ideally suited for doing the work of the insurance business4 ,there is no question today that the computer has taken over from the insurance clerk4 ,one firm installed computers in #aiec and since then has doubled its accounts and tripled dollar volume1 without hiring the #bej additional people who normally would have been required for such an increase4 ,eight outlying offices have been closed1 yet service is better and faster1 agents' commissions are paid twice a month instead of only once1 and actuarial computations that once took six months are now done in a week4 ,a computerized world is of course not without its problems4 ,the computer system is so efficient1 in fact1 that the same outcry is going up from labor as was heard in the days of the first industrial revolution4 ,it has been said with some truth that automation upgrades jobs1 and not the workers themselves4 ,the change-over from quill pen to pushbutton console will take some time and cause some pain1 but in the end our gain will be as great a stride as we have made since the days of the introduction of the first factories with their more efficient production methods4 ,surely the business worker already has been freed from the tedium of adding columns of figures and much filing1 and given pleasanter work in exchange4 ,the ,shopper's ,friend ,after banking and insurance1 which businesses yield to the lure of high-speed automatic data-processing8 ,department stores are dabbling1 and supermarkets too are beginning to use the computer4 ,the ,a ,p stores are studying such a system1 as is the ,liggett ,drug ,company4 ,at first the computer looked attractive as an inventory and ordering tool2 now it is headed in the direction of automating the actual shopping operation4 ,in ,paris1 a retail grocer made merchandising history by displaying more than #c1jjj different items in a floor space of only #bcj square feet4 ,the trick is in a punched-card system that automatically registers and prices any item the buyer selects4 ,at the check stand the card is run through a computer which figures the bill and orders the groceries1 which are automatically selected from the warehouse and delivered in a cart to the purchaser at the door6 ,a similar automatic supermart system is being pushed by ,solartron--,john ,brown1 ,ltd41 in ,england4 ,the computerized scheme works much like the ,french one4 ,the shopper inserts a card in the slot beside the item she wants and a punch marks it in alpha-numeric code for item and price4 ,if more than one item is desired the card is reinserted4 ,with each punch1 the machine slices off a bit of the edge of the card so that it slides deeper into the slot next time4 ,at the cashier's station1 the card is placed in a computer4 ,fifteen seconds after she has paid for them1 the shopper is delivered her groceries4 ,besides the saving in time for the shopper1 there is a saving for the grocer in floor space and also the elimination of the loss through shoplifting4 ,about the only thing that might seem to be against the new system is the psychology of the large display1 which motivation researchers tell us stimulates volume buying4 ,with this factor in mind1 an official of ,thompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc41 has suggested retaining the large stocks on display1 but coding them with fluorescent paint of certain wavelengths to correspond to price4 ,the shopper fills her cart even as in the conventional store1 but at the mechanized checkstand an electronic eye on the computer scans and prices the items while they are being automatically packaged4 ,the doubting ,thomases say of this system that the packager will probably put the eggs on the bottom1 along with the tomatoes and ice cream6 ,the advertising journal ,commercial ,art comments sadly on this accepted fact of automation in the market place3 ,the checkout clerk is doomed1 that last survivor of human warmth in most of today's supermarkets4 ,his eventual executioner will be the electronic computer1 of course4 ,pilot systems using computers for automatic checkouts are already drawing a bead on the jovial little man in the green smock4 ,eventually even he will disappear from the faceless canyons of our sleek supermarkets4 ,but the writer finds a ray of hope in the conclusion of his editorial4 ,skilfully designed packages can strike an emotional chord in the consumer1 can create strong brand preferences even in the absence of product differences4 ,supermarkets can give the appearance of being a friendly1 8human0 place to shop even if the only humans visible are the customers4 ,to make more complete the rout of conventional merchandising by the computer-oriented system is the plan to automate even the trading stamp4 ,american ,premium ,systems1 ,inc41 a ,texas firm1 is developing a plan in which the customer receives a coded plastic card instead of a stamp book4 ,when he makes a purchase1 a card is punched with the number of credits he has earned4 ,by means of a centralized computer1 an ,,ibm #adja in this instance1 records are kept continuously1 and when the customer has accrued #a1ejj points he receives a premium automatically4 ,the obvious advantage here is to the customer1 who is spared the messy task of licking thousands of evil-tasting multicolored stamps1 and the danger of losing the book before redemption4 ,but the storekeeper profits too4 ,he does not risk the loss or theft of stamps1 nor does he buy stamps for people who are not going to save them4 ,the complete system will call for an ,,ibm #gjgd and represents an outlay of about #c million to service some #f million customer accounts4 ,before leaving the area of merchandising1 it might be well to mention inventory management in general and the effect of the computer upon it4 ,applying what is known as 8conceptual order analysis10 one marketer who is using computers in his business talks of 8warehousing without bricks or mortar40 ,with a confidence born of actual testing1 his firm expects one day to have no inventory except that on his production lines or in transit to a customer4 ,this revolutionary idea is based on practically instantaneous inventorying1 production ordering1 and delivery scheduling4 ,while the warehouse without bricks or mortar is not yet a fact1 research discloses many manufacturers who have already cut their standing inventories1 from small amounts to as much as #ej per cent1 while maintaining customer service levels4 ,this was done using what by now are 8standard0 electronic information-handling methods4 ,the implication here is of the computer not merely as a data-handler1 but as a business organizer and planner as well4 ,electronic ,ticker ,tape ,the stock market lends itself to the use of high-speed data-processing1 even though a ,wall ,street man achieved notoriety some time back as the first embezzler to use computer techniques4 ,admittedly it is harder to track down the hand in the till when it pushes buttons and leaves no telltale fingerprints or handwriting1 but computerization continues despite this possible drawback4 ,the same firm has added digital computers to one of its offices for faster service4 ,the ,american ,stock ,exchange installed #c million worth of new processing equipment to provide instantaneous automatic reports on open1 high1 low1 close1 bid1 asked1 and volume-to-the-moment figures4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,on the floor of the ,new ,york ,stock ,exchange1 representatives of ,thomson ,mc,kinnon and ,,ibm discuss a model of the computing system which will speed transactions from the offices of the brokerage houses in #da cities to the ,new ,york and ,american stock exchanges4 ,the stock market's need for the computer lies in the usual two factors3 tremendous paperwork and increasing pressure for speed4 ,trading of stock amounts to about three-fourths of a billion shares in a year1 and occasionally #c million shares a day change hands4 ,a major brokerage house has confirmations to handle on thousands of trades1 dividends to credit to nearly half a million active accounts1 and security position and cash balances to compute for each customer4 ,the increasing amount of business1 plus the demand for more speed and accuracy1 make the computer the only solution4 ,simply reporting the results of the day's marketing in the newspapers is a monumental task4 ,the ,associated ,press is installing a system based on an ,,ibm #afbj computer1 in which ticker information will also be given in the computer for sorting1 comparison1 tabulation1 and storage4 ,at the correct time1 the machine will print out the format for publication in the press at the rate of #d1ejj words a minute4 ,with a memory of #bj million characters and a capacity for #fjj1jjj logical decisions each minute1 the computer keeps up with stock information practically as fast as it is received1 and even a late ticker will not mean a missed newspaper deadline4 ,associated ,press expects to be able to transmit the stock-market results to its papers within fifteen seconds after the ticker closes4 ,not just in the ,united ,states but in ,japan as well1 the computer is invading the stock market4 ,the abacus is out1 and now the exchange in ,tokyo is using an advanced ,,univac solid-state computer to process transactions4 ,versatile ,executive ,it is this high-volume capacity1 speed1 and accuracy that makes the computer a welcome new employee in most business operations4 ,an example is the ,johnson's ,wax system linking its facilities for rapid management reaction to changing conditions4 ,headquarters is linked to twenty three warehouses and sales offices1 and today's work is based on yesterday's inventory instead of last month's4 ,computers schedule hotel reservations1 and handle accounts payable and receivable for the hotel industry4 ,auto-parking1 now a #ejj million a year business1 leans ever more heavily on computers for ticket-issuing1 car-counting1 traffic direction1 charge-figuring1 and collection4 ,the freeway too has its computers1 though there have been minor setbacks like that on the ,new ,jersey ,turnpike where an automatic toll-card dispenser was mistaken by slow-thinking people for a collector and its working was jammed with coins and battered by abuse when no change was forthcoming6 ,man will take some educating as the machine finds wider employment4 ,the computer has been seen in the publishing business primarily as a tool for searching lists and printing addresses4 ,now it is beginning to take over more important duties such as typesetting4 ,the new daily ,arizona ,journal is the first newspaper to make use of this technique4 ,from use in other businesses1 the computer has grown to fostering a business of its own4 ,an example is in the production of payroll checks by specialty firms1 and safeguarding against bad checks with such services as ,telecredit1 a computer-run system that spots bad checks upon interrogation from its member stores4 ,in ,waterbury1 ,connecticut1 a computer helps home-buyers and realtors by listing all available homes in the area4 ,three reports are produced3 a total listing1 a listing by style1 and a listing by price4 ,bell ,telephone in ,new ,york uses a computer system to deliver its #i million directories to subscribers in the city and suburbs4 ,the rapid system permits changing of delivery orders even while the books are at the printers4 ,a computer method of making sausage recipes is now available to all packers4 ,remington ,rand developed this application at its ,,univac ,center on the campus of ,southern ,methodist ,university4 ,communication ,communication is a vital part of all business1 and the digital computer finds another application here4 ,a technique known as adaptive control was recently presented at a symposium by scientists from ,,ibm4 ,special-purpose computers integrated into communication networks would make possible the 8time-sharing0 of channels and cut costs per message sharply4 ,another digital computer1 an inexpensive 8decision threshold0 device1 is being pushed as a means of reducing errors in the transmission of messages4 ,these logical uses of the computer were presaged in the #cj's when ,shannon wrote his pioneering circuit-logic paper1 and in the late #dj's with his work on information theory4 ,,tv ,station ,,knxt in ,los ,angeles uses a digital computer to control the complicated switching necessary during station breaks4 ,this electronic juggling of live shows1 commercials1 and network programming is called ,,tascon1 for ,television ,automatic ,sequence ,control4 ,it can be programmed hours before use1 and then needs only the push of the button instead of frantic manual switching that occasionally throws the human operator4 ,not just the mechanics of transmitting the commercials on ,,tv1 but even the billing and other accounting functions are a major computer project4 ,to handle close to #gjj million a year in payments1 an ,,ibm #gjij computer is being used4 ,there are more than #e1jjj ,,tv stations in the country1 with billings dependent on a complicated structure of #ahj different rates4 ,as a result1 there is an undesirable lag in payment4 ,putting records on tape and feeding them to the computer is expected to clear up the trouble and provide a bonus in the form of advising stations on discount rates for programming on a current basis4 ,the computer isn't content with skirting the edges of the advertising game1 of course4 ,a heated battle is going on now in this industry over the growing use of the computer to plan campaigns and actually evaluate ads1 a task held by some to be the exclusive domain of the human adman with his high creative ability4 ,the ,industrial ,advertising ,research ,institute triggered the fight by using a computer to study #a1acj advertisements appearing in the industrial journal ,machine ,design and select the best black-and-white and the best color ads4 ,while diehards snorted ridicule1 the computer made its choices4 ,,iari then compared its selections with those made by two of the largest and most experienced rating firms4 ,on color ads1 the computer scored #ff per cent1 rating two out of three ads practically the same as the human selectors4 ,with black-and-white it did even better1 scoring #ga per cent4 ,its detractors1 assuming of course that the human raters were infallible1 gloated that the computer was a flop1 that it could pick only the average ads accurately and fell down on excellent and poor ones4 ,the agency of ,batten1 ,barton1 ,durstine ,osborn thought otherwise and is using the computer in its advertising4 ,as a tool for media selection and scheduling1 ,,bbdo likened the computer to a power shovel instead of a spade4 ,the new method makes it possible to compare thousands of combinations a second4 ,another firm1 the ,simulmatics ,corporation1 agrees with ,,bbdo4 ,the computer1 it says1 will permit advertising campaigns far more effective than those waged at present1 since the most efficient campaign may be too complex to be devised without artificial aid4 ,the key to the ,simulmatics system is the 8media mix model0 in which a hypothetical campaign can be tried out in advance in the computer4 ,young ,rubicam differs hotly with computer advocates4 ,a spokesman leveled a low blow at the computer1 suggesting that it will have difficulties forming motivational research based on ,freudian analyses6 ,the firm says no way has yet been found to transpose 8,viennese fatuities0 into ,arabic numerals4 ,it deplores the turning of a media-planner into a rubber stamp as media selection becomes an automatic reiteration which 8those with an abacus could pipe to a stale and sterile tune40 ,the battle rages1 but the outcome seems to be a foregone conclusion4 ,either the computer will sway ,madison ,avenue from ,viennese fatuities1 or it will learn about sex4 ,industry ,we have discussed the computer in business2 perhaps it would be well to stress that this includes industry as well4 ,the computer not only functions in the bank and brokerage house1 insurance office1 and supermart1 but also is found increasingly in jobs with oil refineries1 chemical plants1 surveying teams1 knitting mills 7a likely application when we remember ,jacquard71 and steel mills4 ,as automation takes over factories1 it brings the computer with it to plan and operate the new production methods4 ,transportation too is making good use of the computer4 ,freight-handling in the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,england1 and the ,u4,s4,s4,r4 is using machine techniques4 ,our high-speed airplanes are already more aimed than flown1 and less and less seen and seen from4 ,mach-#c aircraft are on the drawing boards now1 aircraft that will fly at three times the speed of sound or about #b1jjj miles per hour4 ,an airliner taking off from ,london must already be cleared to land in ,new ,york4 ,so authorities on both sides of the ocean are concerned4 ,in ,england1 giant computers like the ,ferranti ,apollo and others are on order4 ,there is talk in that country too of integrating military and commercial aviation into one traffic control system4 ,in the next ten years the sky population may double again1 in addition to flying faster1 further crowding the airlanes and particularly the space adjacent to airports4 ,the only solution to this aerial traffic jam lies in the electronic computer4 ,not as spectacular as air traffic control1 but important nonetheless1 is the job of planning the route an airliner will fly4 ,united ,air ,lines uses a ,bendix ,g-#ae to select flight plans for its big ,,dc-#h's4 ,in a manner similar to the ,,nanwep course-planning described for surface vessels1 the computer examines a number of possible routes for the big transports1 considering distance flown1 wind1 temperature1 weight and fuel requirements1 and time schedules4 ,this flight-planning was originally done by manual computation and required an hour to work out details for only one possible flight plan4 ,the computer method was demanded because of the increased speed of the big jets and their sensitivities to weather conditions en route4 ,the computer examines a number of tentative plans in minutes and selects the one which will make the optimum use of winds aloft1 temperatures1 weather1 and so on4 ,if weather changes en route require it1 the pilot can call the planning center no matter where he is and request that the computer work out a new flight plan4 ,once the optimum flight plan has been figured1 an electronic computer in the aircraft itself may one day assure that the desired flight path is actually flown4 ,the ,,asn-#bd computer1 developed by ,librascope1 ,incorporated1 and the ,air ,force1 weighs only thirty-one pounds1 yet performs more than #bj million computation steps in a six-hour flight4 ,the electronic navigator1 with information from ,doppler equipment and other navigation aids1 evaluates which is the best 8fix10 weighing for example the relative accuracies of a ,loran fix and a dead-reckoning fix4 ,the computer even shoots celestial fixes and plots the results6 ,obviously faster than its human monitor1 the electronic navigation computer solves navigation problems with an error as small as one part in #cb million4 ,a broader use of the computer in aircraft is proposed by the ,convair ,division of ,general ,dynamics4 ,because today's airplane is far more complicated than those ten years ago1 and those ten years hence will extend this trend1 the firm feels that checkout of the aircraft will require electronic computers4 ,while adding about #c per cent to the total cost of the plane1 such equipment could perform a variety of functions including maintenance analysis and would add an hour a day to the profit-making flight time4 ,there would be no profit for the airlines with the best flight planning and in-flight control in the world if there were no passengers aboard2 the 8traffic problem0 extends from the sky to the ticket counter4 ,for this reason most airlines have already recruited the computer for another important job--that of ticket reservation clerk4 ,an example1 recently installed by ,united ,airlines1 is the 8,instamatic10 a giant1 far-flung system weighing #aej tons and requiring #ab1jjj miles of circuits4 ,instamatic cost #af million and can handle #edj1jjj reservations in a single day4 ,so complex is the computer system that it requires #dj1jjj printed-circuit boards1 #ejj1jjj transistors1 and #b1jjj1jjj ferrite memory cores4 ,but it gets the job done1 and any one of #c1jjj agents all over the country can confirm space on any flight1 anytime1 within seconds6 ,there are other systems used by competing lines1 systems called ,sabre1 ,teleflite1 and so on4 ,but ,remington ,rand ,,univac has proposed an over-all system that will make any of them look like a child's do-it-yourself walkie-talkie4 ,the ,,univac plan is for a single interline reservation system1 used by all twenty-four domestic airlines4 ,called ,,aid1 for ,airline ,interline ,development1 the new scheme would cost the airlines only #ab cents per message1 and could be tied in with foreign carriers for international bookings4 ,illustration3 ,remington ,rand ,,univac ,console for airlines reservation system permits pushbutton booking of space4 ,present methods of reservations among airlines require from less than a minute for easy bookings to several hours for the tough ones4 ,the ,,aid system uses a dial phone1 with direct lines to a central computer in ,chicago4 ,the response to the dialed request is an immediate voice answer4 ,if space is available1 the computer also stores all the needed information for the reservation and transmits a teletype message to the boarding point of the proper airline4 ,to go back another step1 the aircraft on which the computer confirms seat space was most likely built with the help of another computer4 ,a typical production system is that used by ,lockheed in its ,marietta1 ,georgia1 plant4 ,there an ,,ibm #cje ,,ramac computer keeps track of #de1jjj parts orders continuously4 ,the result is better and faster operation1 and a saving to ,lockheed of #c1ejj a month4 ,in ,california1 ,lockheed is using a computerized data acquisition system called ,,edge1 for ,electronic ,data ,gathering ,equipment1 that feeds production information directly into a computer memory for analysis and action orders4 ,remote reporting stations can be operated by production-line workers and will relay production data to the central computer4 ,although the ,lockheed ,,edge system will cost more than #fjj1jjj a year1 officials feel that it will save the company three times that at the outset1 and perhaps more when wider use is made of its potential4 ,an interesting feature is the tying together of ,lockheed's widely separated plants at ,sunnyvale1 ,palmdale1 and ,van ,nuys1 ,california4 ,north ,american ,aviation links its complex of plants in the ,los ,angeles area by microwave1 even bouncing beams of data from reflectors atop ,oat ,mountain where there is no direct line-of-sight path between the different locations4 ,douglas ,aircraft maintains a data link between ,california and ,charlotte1 ,north ,carolina1 to permit use of computers over a distance of #b1djj miles4 ,the airlines are also using computer inventory systems to control their stock of spare parts4 ,material costs represent #fj per cent of airline revenue and are rising2 some larger carriers have investments of as much as #ge million in spare parts4 ,it takes the computer to control the flow of repairable parts through the shop efficiently1 schedule the removal of those requiring periodic checks1 spot high-use items1 and so on4 ,as an example of the complexity a large airline faces in its maintenance1 ,,twa stocks #h1jjj different replaceable items4 ,when such parts are needed1 they must be on hand where they are needed1 but overstocking can lead to financial ruin4 ,to match increasing competition1 airlines find it necessary to resort to the laws of probability and other sophisticated statistical techniques in stocking parts4 ,fed such equations1 the computer can match ten to twelve man-years of work in three hours1 and mean the difference between an oversupply of parts in ,new ,york with outages in ,los ,angeles1 and properly balanced stocks4 ,the ramifications of the computer in the airplane industry are far-reaching4 ,for example1 ,boeing has recorded the lessons it learned on its ,bomarc missile program in computers so that it can retain and apply them on its ,minuteman and ,dyna-,soar programs4 ,the computer will thus keep track of men and their projects and warn them of previous mistakes4 ,modern management techniques such as ,,pert and ,,pep1 favored by the government1 make good use of the computer4 ,the ,mc,donnell ,aircraft ,corporation is primarily a builder of planes and space vehicles1 but it has found itself in the computer business too as a data-processing center4 ,installing computers for its own engineering and business uses1 ,mc,donnell soon began selling computer time in off hours to banks and other businesses4 ,it now has a computer valuation of about #aj million and operates around the clock4 ,the ,designing ,computer ,it seems strange that the computer was a bookkeeper and clerk for years before anyone seriously considered that it might be an engineer as well1 yet the men who themselves designed the computer were loath to use it in their other work4 ,part of this resistance stems from the high premium placed on the creativity of research and design work4 ,the engineer uses science in his work1 to be sure1 but he professes to use it as an artist1 or with the personal touch of1 say1 a brewmaster4 ,there is another possible reason for the lag in computer use by the men who should appreciate its ability the most4 ,in the early days of the computer1 it clacked away all week figuring payrolls1 and perhaps writing checks4 ,that's what it was ordered for1 and that's where the money was--in the businessman's application of the computer4 ,to be sure1 the military was using the computer for other purposes1 but the average scientist or engineer not employed by ,uncle ,sam had access to an electronic computer only on ,sunday1 if at all1 when the big machine had done its primary work and could take a breathing spell4 ,to further compound excuses for the foot-dragging engineer1 there was a difference in needs in payroll computation and scientific mathematical calculation4 ,commercial computers are designed for a high rate of input and output1 with a relatively slow arithmetic going on inside4 ,the engineer1 on the other hand1 might need only several minutes of computer time1 but it could take him a couple of days to put the problem into a form the machine could digest4 ,slowly1 however1 enough engineers fought the battle of translation and forewent ,sunday pursuits like church1 picnics1 and golf to learn haltingly how to use the electronic monster4 ,it took courage1 in addition to sacrifice1 because the computer was pooh-poohed by some sharp scientific brains as an idiot savant at best4 ,behind the inertia there could have been a touch of concern too--concern that the machine just might not be as stupid as everybody kept saying it was4 ,heavy industry made use of the machines4 ,the steel plants1 petroleum and chemical plants1 and even the designers of highways were among the early users of computer techniques4 ,there was of course good reason for this phenomenon4 ,faced with problems involving many variables and requiring statistical and probabilistic approaches1 these people could make the best use of machines designed for repetitive computations4 ,the refiner with a new plant in mind could simulate it in the computer and get an idea of how1 or if1 it would work before building his pilot plant4 ,today the notion of dispensing with even the pilot plant is getting serious consideration4 ,one program used by a gasoline producer analyzed thirty-seven variables and thirty-seven restrictions1 a matrix that could never be evaluated by ordinary methods4 ,textile fiber research is another example1 with thread tests run on dozens of samples and averaged statistically for valid conclusions4 ,b4 ,f4 ,goodrich put the computer to work in its laboratories at such tasks as multiple-regression studies of past production of processes like polymerization and the running of a batch of new material on the computer4 ,these applications were accomplishing a two-fold benefit4 ,first1 years were being telescoped into weeks or even days2 second1 complete investigation rather than sketchy sampling was possible4 ,optimum solutions took the place of the guesswork once necessary because of the lack of sufficient brainpower to run down all the possibilities4 ,still there were scientists and designers in other fields who shook their heads loftily and said1 8,not for me1 thanks40 ,the computer was but a diligent clerk1 they held1 relieving the engineer of some onerous chores4 ,it could do nothing really creative2 that must be left to man and his brain4 ,by now many industrial firms had purchased or rented computers for the technical people so that they would not have to fight for a place in line at the payroll computer4 ,civil engineering agencies1 perhaps a hundred strong1 used computers to design bridges and plan and lay out highways4 ,designers at the ,tudor ,engineering ,company of ,san ,francisco put its ,bendix ,g-#ae;,d to work planning the highway that ,contra ,costa ,county will need in #aihj4 ,almost all of our fifty states now use computers in their highway departments4 ,in #aifj1 ,georgia solved more than a thousand highway bridge design problems in its computers4 ,besides doing the work faster and cheaper1 the computer produces a safer product4 ,for example1 if substandard materials are programmed in1 the computer will print out a warning or even stop working altogether so that the error can be corrected4 ,steel companies1 like ,jones ,laughlin1 use computers not only to run production mills1 but also as research tools4 ,three hours of operation of a new furnace can be simulated in the computer in thirty seconds4 ,tracing the steel back to its ore1 the computer is used again4 ,the ,bureau of ,mines has used the machines for several years2 they are helpful in problems ranging from open-pit operation1 grades of ore1 drill-core data logging1 reserve calculations1 and process control4 ,illustration3 ,general ,electric ,co41 ,computer ,dept4 ,computer operation of ,jones ,laughlin steel mill4 ,gradually1 then1 the resistance was worn down4 ,grudgingly at first1 and accepting the computer only as an assiduous moron1 engineers in other fields put it to work4 ,complex machine operations like gear-shaping were planned and carried out by computers that even punched out tapes for controlling the production tools4 ,optics designers switched from desk calculators to electronic computers4 ,mechanical engineers in jobs from ultrasonic vibrators to tractor design became users of computers4 ,mass spectrometry1 heat-exchanger design1 and waterworks design joined the jobs the computer could do4 ,the computer had figured in plotting trajectories for missiles1 and in the production of aircraft2 engineers found it could design them too4 ,back in #aide1 an analysis of twenty-one different flight conditions at each of twelve stations of an airplane fuselage took #cc days and cost more than #ag1jjj4 ,today1 by using a high-speed computer instead of a desk calculator1 the analysis is completed in a day and a half1 at a cost of #bjj6 ,the last of the diehards seemed to be the electronics people themselves4 ,a survey conducted by a technical journal in the field showed that in #aifj many designers were not using computers in their work4 ,admitting that the computer was a whiz just about everywhere else1 the electronics engineer still could say1 8,the machine is great on paperwork1 but ,i do creative work4 ,the computer can't help me40 ,other reasons were that computers were expensive1 took much time to program1 and were helpful only with major design problems4 ,fortunately1 all designers do not feel that way1 and progress is being made to put the computer to work in the electronics field4 ,it is helping in the design of components 7,bendix saves ten man-hours in computing a tenth-order polynomial and associated data7 and of networks 7,lenkurt ,electric saves close to #bej engineering hours a week in filter network design74 ,bell ,telephone uses the computer approach in circuit analysis1 and ,westinghouse in the design of radar circuitry4 ,it is interesting that as we move up the design scale1 closer to what the engineer once considered the domain of human creativity1 the computer still is of great value4 ,in systems design it is harder at the outset to pin down the saving in time and the improvement in the system 7the latter is perhaps hard to admit67 but firms using computers report savings in this field too4 ,one interesting job given the computer was that of designing the magnetic ink characters to be used in its own 8reading0 applications4 ,this project1 conducted by ,stanford ,research ,institute1 is typical of the questions we have begun to ask the computer about its needs and ways to improve it4 ,a larger scale application of this idea is that of letting the computer design itself4 ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories developed such a system1 called ,,blades1 for ,bell ,laboratories ,automatic ,design ,system1 to design a computer used in the ,nike-,zeus antimissile defense system4 ,a wag once noted that the computer would one day give birth to an electronic baby4 ,his prophecy came true perhaps quicker than he anticipated1 but there is one basic difference in that the progeny is not necessarily a smaller machine4 ,the giant ,,larc1 for instance1 was designed by lesser computers4 ,as ,a4 ,m4 ,turing has pointed out1 it is theoretically possible for a simple computer to produce a more complex one4 ,this idea is borne out in nature1 of course1 and man is somewhat advanced over the amoeba4 ,thus the implication in the computer-designed computer is far more than merely the time and money saved1 although this was certainly a considerable amount4 ,the ,,blades system in twenty-five minutes produced information for building a subassembly1 a job that required four weeks of manual computation4 ,notable improvements in the general-purpose computer are doing much to further its use as a technical tool4 ,present machines do jobs as varied as the following3 personnel records1 inventorying1 pattern determination1 missile system checkout1 power-plant control1 system simulation1 navigation1 ballistic trajectory computations1 and so on4 ,special computers are also provided now for the engineer2 and among these is the ,stromberg-,carlson ,s-,c #djbj microfilm recorder4 ,engineering specifications are put into the computer and the machine can then produce on request mechanical drawings as required by the engineer4 ,data stored in the memory is displayed on a ,charactron tube4 ,there is little resistance to this type of computer1 since the engineer can say it is doing work below his level of ability6 ,of course1 the draftsman may take a dim view of computers that can do mechanical drawing4 ,illustration3 ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories ,engineer checks design information for first computer built from complete information furnished by another computer4 ,shown is a subassembly of the computer1 which will be used in the ,army's ,nike-,zeus antimissile defense system4 ,after a rather hard to explain slow start1 then1 the computer is now well established as a scientific and engineering tool4 ,blue-sky schemes describe systems in which the engineer simply discusses his problem with the machine1 giving specifications and the desired piece of equipment4 ,the machine talks back1 rejecting certain proposed inputs and suggesting alternatives1 and finally comes up with the finished design for the engineer's approval4 ,if he laughs overly loud at this possibility1 the engineer may be trying to cover up his real feelings4 ,at any rate the computer has added a thinking cap to its wardrobe of eyeshade and work gloves4 ,digital ,doctor ,medical electronics is a fairly well-known new field of science1 but the part being played in medicine by the computer is surprising to those of us not close to this work4 ,indicative of the use of the computer by medical scientists is a study of infant death rates being conducted by the ,american ,medical ,research ,foundation4 ,under the direction of ,dr4 ,sydney ,kane1 this research uses a ,,univac computer and in #aifa had already processed information on #ej1jjj births in ninety participating hospitals4 ,punched-card data include the mother's age1 maternal complications1 type of delivery1 anesthetics used1 and other pertinent information4 ,dr4 ,kane believes that analysis by the computer of this information may determine causes of deaths1 after-birth pathological conditions1 and incapacity of babies to reach viability4 ,a reduction in infant mortality of perhaps #ab1jjj to #ad1jjj annually is believed possible as a result of the studies4 ,another killer of mankind1 cancer1 is being battled by the computer4 ,researchers at the ,university of ,philadelphia1 supported in part by the ,american ,cancer ,society1 are programming electronic computers to act as cancer cells6 ,the complexity of the problem is seen in the fact that several man-years of work and #ejj hours of computer programming have barely scratched the surface of the problem4 ,a third of a million molecules make up the genes in a human cell1 and the actions of these tiny components take place many times faster than even the high-speed computer can operate4 ,despite the problems1 some answers to tough chemical questions about the cancer cells are being found by using the computer1 which is of course thousands of times faster than manual computation4 ,if you were discharged from a hospital in #aifb1 there is a chance that your records are being analyzed by a computer at ,ann ,arbor1 ,michigan as part of the work of the ,commission on ,professional and ,hospital ,activity4 ,information on #b-a_/b million patients from thirty-four states will be processed by a ,honeywell #djj computer to evaluate diagnostic and hospital care and to compare the performance of the various institutions4 ,in the first phase of a computerized medical literature analysis and retrieval system for the ,national ,library of ,medicine1 the ,u4,s4 ,public ,health ,service contracted with ,general ,electric for a system called ,,medlars1 ,m,e,dical ,literature ,analysis and ,retrieval ,system4 ,,medlars will process several hundred thousand pieces of medical information each year4 ,new ,york ,university's ,college of ,engineering has formed a biomedical computing section to provide computer service for medical researchers4 ,using an ,,ibm #fej and a ,control ,data ,corporation #afjd1 the computer section has already done important work1 including prediction of coronary diseases in men under forty4 ,the success of computers in these small-scale applications to the problems of medicine has prompted the urging of a national biomedical computer system4 ,it is estimated that as yet only about #e per cent of medical research projects are using computer techniques1 but that within ten years the figure will jump to between #ej and #ge per cent4 ,an intriguing possibility is the use of the computer as a diagnostic tool4 ,small office machines1 costing perhaps only #ej1 have been suggested1 not by quacks or science-fiction writers1 but by scientists like ,vladimir ,zworykin of the ,rockefeller ,institute of ,medical ,research4 ,zworykin is the man who fathered the iconoscope and kinescope that made television possible4 ,the simple diagnostic computer he proposes would use information compiled by a large electronic computer which might eventually catalog the symptoms of as many as #aj1jjj diseases4 ,using an ,,rca #eja computer1 a pilot project of this technique has already gathered symptoms of #ajj hematological diseases4 ,another use of the computer is in the ,,hipo system4 ,despite its frightening acronymic name1 this is merely a plan for the automated dispensing of the right medicine at the right time to the right patient1 thus speeding recoveries and preventing the occasional tragic results of wrong dosage4 ,more exotic is a computer called the ,heikolator which is designed to substitute for the human brain in transmitting messages to paralyzed limbs that could otherwise not function4 ,the simulation of body parts by the computer for study is already taking place4 ,some researchers treat the flow of blood through arteries as similar to the flow of water through a rubber tube1 analyze these physical actions1 and use them in computer simulation of the human system4 ,the ,air ,force uses a computer to simulate the physical chemistry of the entire respiratory and circulatory systems1 a task that keeps track of no less than fifty-three interdependent variables4 ,dr4 ,kinsey of the ,kresge ,eye ,institute in ,detroit is directing computer work concerning the physiology of the eye4 ,according to ,kinsey it was impossible previously to approximate the actual composition of cell substances secreted from the blood into the eye4 ,even those whose eyes no longer serve them are being benefited by computer research4 ,the ,battelle ,memorial ,institute in ,columbus1 ,ohio1 uses an ,,ibm computer to develop reading devices for the blind4 ,these complicated readers use a digital computer to convert patterns of printed letters into musical tones4 ,further sophistication could lead to an output of verbalized words4 ,interestingly1 it is thought that the research will also yield applications of use in banking1 postal service1 and other commercial fields4 ,russia is also aware of the importance of the computer in the medical field4 ,a neurophysiologist reported after a trip to ,russia that the ,soviet ,union is training its brightest medical students in the use of the computer4 ,such a philosophy is agreed to by medical spokesmen in this country who state that no other field can make better use of the computer's abilities4 ,among advanced ,russian work with computers in the biomedical field is a study of the effects on human perception of changes in sound and color4 ,visionary ideas like those of radio transmitters implanted in patients to beam messages to a central computer for continuous monitoring and diagnosis are beginning to take on the appearance of distinct possibilities4 ,some are beginning to wonder if after it has learned a good bedside manner1 the computer may even ask for a scalpel and a ,,tv series4 ,music ,the computer has proved itself qualified in a number of fields and professions1 but what of the more artistic ones8 ,not long ago ,,rca demonstrated an electronic computer as an aid to the musical composer4 ,based on random probability1 this machine is no tongue-in-cheek gadget but has already produced its own compositions based on the style of ,stephen ,foster4 ,instead of throwing up their hands in shocked horror1 modern composers like ,aaron ,copland welcome the music 8synthesizer0 with open arms4 ,bemoaning only the price of such a computer--about #aej1jjj--;,copland looks to the day when the composer will feed in a few rough ideas and have the machine produce a fully orchestrated piece4 ,the orchestration1 incidentally1 will include sounds no present instruments can produce4 8,imagine what will happen when every combination of eighty-eight keys is played10 ,copland suggests4 ,many traditionalists profess to shudder at the thought of a machine producing music1 but mathematical compositions are no novelty4 ,even random music was 8composed0 by ,mozart1 whose 8,a ,musical ,dice ,game0 is chance music with a particularly descriptive title1 and ,dr4 ,john ,pierce of ,bell ,laboratories has extended such work4 ,illustration3 ,taken from 8,illiac ,suite10 by ,l4 ,a4 ,hiller and ,l4 ,m4 ,isaacson1 copyrighted #aieg1 by ,theodore ,presser ,co4 ,used by permission4 ,random chromatic music produced by ,,illiac computer resembles the compositions of some extreme modern composers4 ,in #aiee1 ,lejaren ,a4 ,hiller1 ,jr41 and ,l4 ,m4 ,isaacson began to program the ,,illiac computer at the ,university of ,illinois to compose music4 ,the computer actually published its work1 including 8,illiac ,suite for ,string ,quartet10 ,copyright #aieg1 ,new ,music ,editions1 done in the style of ,palestrina4 ,all music lies somewhere between the complete randomness of1 say1 the hissing of electrons in vacuum tubes and the orderliness of a sustained tone4 ,no less a master than ,stravinsky has called composition 8the great technique of selection10 and the computer can be taught to select in about any degree we desire4 ,hiller describes the process1 in which the machine is given fourteen notes representing two octaves of the ,c-major scale1 and restricted to 8first-species counterpoint40 ,by means of this screening technique1 the computer 8composed0 by a trial-and-error procedure that may be analogous to that of the human musician4 ,each note was examined against the criteria assigned2 if it passed1 it was stored in memory2 if not1 another was tried4 ,if after fifty trials no right note was found1 the 8composition0 was abandoned1 much as might be done by a human composer who has written himself into a corner1 and a new start was made4 ,in an hour of such work1 ,,illiac produced several hundred short melodies--a gold mine for a ,tin ,pan ,alley tunesmith6 ,it was then told to produce two-voice counterpoint for the basic melodies4 8,illiac ,suite0 is compared1 by its programmers at least1 with the modern music of ,bartok4 ,purists whose sensibilities are offended by the very notion of computer music point out that music is subjective--a means of conveying emotion from the heart of the composer to that of the listener4 ,be that as it may1 the composition itself is objective and can be rigorously analyzed mathematically1 before or after the fact4 ,from a technical standpoint there seems to be only one question about this new music--who composed it1 the programmer or the computer8 ,an interesting sidelight to computer music is its use to test the acoustics of as yet unbuilt auditoriums4 ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories has devised such a machine in its ,acoustical and ,visual ,research ,department4 ,the specifications of the new auditorium are fed into the computer1 followed by music recorded on tape4 ,the computer's output is then this music as it will sound in the new hall4 ,critical experts listen and decide if the auditorium acoustics are all right1 or if some redesign is in order4 ,the ,machine at ,play ,the computer's game-playing ability in chess and other games has been described4 ,it is getting into the act in other fields1 spectator sports as well4 ,baseball calls on the computer to plan season strategy and predict winners4 ,when ,roger ,maris began his home-run string1 an ,,ibm #adja predicted that he had #ee chances in #ajj of beating ,ruth's record4 ,workers at ,m4,i4,t4 have developed a computer program that answers questions like 8,did the ,red ,sox ever win six games in a row80 and 8,did every ,american ,league team play at least once in each park in every month80 ,an ,,ibm ,,ramac computer is handling the management of ,new ,york's ,aqueduct race track1 and promises to do a better job than the human bosses1 thus saving money for the owners and the ,state of ,new ,york ,tax ,commission4 ,the ,fifteenth ,annual ,powderpuff ,derby1 the all-women transcontinental air race1 was scored by a ,royal ,precision ,,lgp-#cj computer1 and sports car enthusiasts have built their own 8rally0 computers to gauge their progress4 ,the ,winter ,olympics at ,innsbruck1 ,austria1 will be scored by ,,ibm's ,,ramac1 and even bowling gets an assist from the computer in the form of a scoring device added to the automatic pin-setter1 bad news to scorekeepers who fudge to boost their points4 ,an ,,ibm #gjd has proved a handy tool for blackjack players with a system for winning #ii per cent of the time1 and rumor has it that a ,los ,angeles manufacturer plans to market a computer weighing only two pounds and costing #e1 for horse-players4 ,showing that the computer can be programmed with tact is the demonstrator that answers a man's age correctly if he answers ten questions but announces only that a woman is over twenty-one4 ,proof that the computer has invaded just about every occupation there is comes to light in the news that a ,frankfurt travel agency uses a computer called ,zuse ,l#bc as an agent4 ,the traveler simply fills out a six-question form1 and in a few seconds ,zuse picks the ideal vacation from a choice of #ejj4 ,computers1 it seems1 are already telling us where to go4 ,business ,outlook ,the computer revolution promises to reach clear to the top of the business structure1 rather than find its level somewhere in middle management4 ,the book1 ,management ,games lists more than #cj1jjj business executives who have taken part in electronic computer management 8games0 in some hundred different versions4 ,the first widely used such game was developed in #aief by the ,american ,management ,association4 ,while such games are for educational purposes1 their logical extension is the actual conduct of business by a programmed computer4 ,in his book1 ,industrial ,dynamics1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,forrester points out that a high-speed digital computer can be used in analyzing as many as #b1jjj variables such as costs1 wages1 sales1 and employment4 ,this is obviously so far beyond human capability that the advantage of computer analysis becomes evident4 ,a corollary benefit is the speed inherent in the computer which makes it possible to test a new policy or manufacturing program in hours right in the computer1 rather than waiting for months or years of actual implementation and possible failure4 ,for these reasons another expert has predicted that most businesses will be using computer simulations of their organizations by #aiff4 ,regardless of the timetable1 it is clear that the computer has jumped into business with both its binary digits and will become an increasingly powerful factor4 ,illustration3 ,lichty1 ,field ,enterprises1 ,inc4 8,our new #8brain' recognizes the human factor1 doctor6444 ,after feeding it the symptoms1 it gives the diagnosis and treatment4444 ,but ,,you set the fee60 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8,men have become the tools of their tools40 --,thoreau #i3 ,the ,computer and ,automation ,in his movie1 ,city ,lights1 ,charlie ,chaplin long ago portrayed the terrible plight of the workman in the modern factory4 ,now that the machine is about to take over completely and relieve man of this machinelike existence1 it is perhaps time for ,charlie to make another movie pointing up this new injustice of civilization or machine's inhumanity to man4 ,it seems to be damned if it does and damned if it doesn't4 ,for some strange reason1 few of us become alarmed at the news of a computer solving complex mathematics1 translating a book1 or processing millions of checks daily1 but the idea of a computer controlling a factory stimulates union reprisals1 editorials in the press against automation1 and much general breast-beating and soul-searching4 ,perversely we do not seem to mind the computer's thinking as much as we do its overt action4 ,it is well to keep sight of the fact that automation is no new revolution1 but the latest development in the garden variety of industrial revolution that began a couple of centuries ago in ,england3 ,mechanization was the first step in that revolution1 mechanization being the application of power to supplement the muscles of men4 ,mass production came along as the second step at the turn of this century4 ,it was simply an organization of mechanized production for faster1 more efficient output4 ,automation is the latest logical extension of the two earlier steps1 made possible by rapid information handling and control4 ,recent layoffs in industry triggered demonstrations1 including television programs1 that would indicate we suspect automation of having a rather cold heart4 ,the computer is the heart of automation4 ,illustration3 ,remington ,rand ,,univac ,control operations require 8real-time0 computers that perform calculations and make necessary decisions practically instantaneously4 ,none of these steps is as clear-cut or separate as it may seem without some digging into history and an analysis of what we find4 ,for example1 while we generally consider that the loom was simply mechanized during the dawn of industrial revolution1 the seeds of computer control were sown by ,jacquard with punched-card programming of the needles in his loom4 ,neither is it sufficient to say that the present spectacle of automated pushbutton machines producing many commodities is no different from the introduction of mass-produced tractors4 ,tractors1 after all1 displaced horses2 the computer-controlled factory is displacing men who don't always want to be put out to pasture4 ,automation is radically changing our lives4 ,it is to be hoped that intelligent and humane planning will facilitate an orderly adjustment to this change4 ,certainly workers now toil in safer and pleasanter surroundings4 ,it is reported that smashed toes and feet1 hernia1 eye trouble1 and similar occupational accidents have all but disappeared in automated automobile plants4 ,unfortunately other occupational hazards are reportedly taking the place of these1 and the psychological trauma induced by removal of direct contact with his craft has given more than one worker stomach ulcers4 ,let us investigate this transfer of contact from man to computer-controlled machine4 ,a paper presented at the ,first ,congress of the ,international ,federation of ,automatic ,control1 held in ,moscow in #aifj1 uses as its introductory sentence1 8,automatic control always involves computing40 ,the writer then points out that historically the computing device was analog in nature and tied so closely with the measuring and control elements as to be indistinguishable as an actual computer4 ,in more recent history1 however1 the trend has been to separate the computer4 ,with this trend is another important change1 that of using the digital computer in automatic control4 ,one of the first papers to describe this separate computer function is 8,instrument ,engineering1 ,its ,growth and ,its ,promise10 by ,brown1 ,campbell1 and ,marcy1 published in #aidi4 8,naturally10 the authors state1 8a computer will be used to control the process40 ,not a shop foreman or an engineer1 but a computer4 ,watt's 8flyball0 governor pioneered the field2 more recent and more obvious examples of control by computers include ships guided by 8,iron ,mike0 and airplanes flown by the automatic pilot4 ,these were analog devices1 and the first use of a digital computer as a control was in #aieb1 quite recently in our history4 ,this airborne digital control computer was built by ,hughes and was called 8,digitac40 ,since most industries have been in existence for many years1 far antedating aviation1 electronics1 and the modern computer1 the general incorporation of such control has been difficult both because of the physical problem of altering existing machines and the mental phenomenon of inertia4 ,factory management understandably is slow to adopt a revolutionary technique1 and most control systems now in use in industry are still analog in nature4 ,however1 where new plants are built from the ground up for computer control1 the results are impressive4 ,designed by ,united ,engineering1 the ,great ,lakes #hj-;inch hot strip mill automatically processes #be-ton slabs of steel4 ,more than #a1jjj variables are controlled1 and #bjj analog signals and #ajj digital computer-generated signals are used in the process4 ,the steel sheets are shot out of the rolls at some #de miles an hour1 or about #ff feet a second6 ,a human supervisor would have a difficult job just watching the several hundred signals related to thickness1 temperature1 quality1 and so on1 much less trying to think what to do if he noticed something out of specifications4 ,this would be roughly analogous to an editor trying to proofread a newspaper as it flashes by on the press and making corrections back in the linotype room before any typographical errors were printed4 ,the new computer-controlled mill has an output of about #dej1jjj tons a month1 twice that of the next largest in operation4 ,american control experts who attended the ,moscow conference brought back the information that ,russian effort in computer control is greater than that in the ,united ,states1 and that the ,russians are more aware of what we are doing in the field than we are of their progress4 ,their implementation of modern computer control may be made easier because their industries are newer and do not represent such a long-established and expensive investment in hard-to-modify existing equipment4 ,basically1 at least1 computer control is simple and can be compared to the feedback principle that describes many physical systems including the workings of our own bodies4 ,in practice1 the computer can be put in charge of producing something1 and by sampling the output of its work can constantly make corrections or improvements that are desired4 ,this is of course an extreme simplification1 and the control engineer speaks of 8on-line0 operation1 of adaptive systems that adjust to a changing environment1 of predictive control1 and so on4 ,one vital requirement of the computer involved in a control process1 obviously1 is that it cannot take its time about its computations4 ,the control computer is definitely operating 8on the line02 that is1 in real time1 or perhaps even looking ahead by a certain amount so that it can not only keep up with production but also predict forthcoming changes and make corrections in time to be of use4 ,the human process controller is stuck with methods like those of the cook who mixes up his recipe with a spoonful of this1 and three pinches of that1 sniffs or tastes the batter subjectively1 and may end up with a masterpiece or a flop4 ,computer control processes the same batter through the pipes at a thousand gallons a minute and catches infinitesimal variations in time to correct them before the hotcakes are baked4 ,in effect it makes hindsight into foresight by compressing time far more than man could hope to do4 ,early applications of the computer in industrial processes were simply those of data 8loggers10 or monitors4 ,it was still up to the human operator to interpret what the computer observed and recorded1 and to throw the switch1 close the valve1 or push the panic button as the case demanded4 ,actual computer control1 the 8closing of the loop0 as the engineers call it1 is the logical next step4 ,this replaces the human operator1 or at least relegates him to the role of monitor4 ,the ,great ,lakes hot-rolling steel mill has been mentioned as an example of complete computer control4 ,in ,hayange1 ,france1 the first ,european completely automated steel-beam mill is slated to go into operation late in #aifb4 ,the ,jones ,laughlin ,steel ,corporation in this country uses a digital computer system to control continuous annealing in its ,aliquippa1 ,pennsylvania1 plant1 and is evaluating an ,,rca computer-controlled tin-plating line operating at #c1jjj feet a minute4 ,newer computer-control applications in the offing include sintering and other metal production operations4 ,illustration3 ,minneapolis-,honeywell ,boston ice cream makers1 ,h4 ,p4 ,hood ,sons1 use computer to make pushbutton ice cream4 ,analog computer thinks out recipes1 punches them on cards to operate valves4 ,to those of us who consume it1 ice cream may not seem a likely candidate for computer control4 ,however1 the firm of ,h4 ,p4 ,hood ,sons uses computer control in its blending operation1 finding it #bj1jjj times as fast1 and more accurate than when handled by human operators1 since computer controls hold mixes within one-tenth of #a per cent accuracy4 ,automation is a significant breakthrough in this industry1 whose history goes back #aaj years1 and in baking1 which is a little older4 ,the ,sara ,lee bakeries use the computer too in assembling the ingredients for their goodies4 ,to bake such cakes1 ,mother will have to get herself a computer4 ,minneapolis-,honeywell furnished the computer for the ice-cream control2 this same company delivered a system for the ,celanese ,corporation of ,america's multimillion dollar acetyl manufacturing plant at ,bay ,city1 ,texas4 ,the new plant produces a petrochemical used in plastics1 paint1 synthetic rubber1 dye1 fibers1 and other products4 ,going 8on-stream0 in #aifb1 the ,celanese plant will produce half a billion pounds of chemicals annually4 ,russia has been mentioned as active in industrial computer control4 ,a case in point is the soda plant at ,slavyansk in the ,donets ,basin1 which was recently test-operated for a continuous period of #dh hours by computer4 ,an unusual feature of this test was that the computer was in ,kiev1 almost #djj miles away4 ,a wire link between the two cities permitted monitoring and control of the plant from ,kiev in what the ,russians claim as the first remote automatic operation of such a plant4 ,other ,soviet achievements include two large-scale automatically controlled installations4 ,in oil-field operation at ,tataria1 gas and oil outputs from many wells are monitored and controlled from a central station1 dropping the work force required from #fjj to #ajj4 ,the other installation controls irrigation servicing #i1jjj acres4 ,a desktop control handles the pumping of water from the ,syr ,darya ,river through underground pipes1 and distribution to ,uzbekistan cotton fields4 ,the ,russians have also designed an automatic distillation unit for the ,hungarians4 ,with an annual capacity of a million tons1 the unit was installed in the large ,szoeny refinery and scheduled for operation by #aifb4 ,refineries in the ,united ,states are also employing automatic controls in their operations4 ,phillips ,petroleum installed a digital computer control system in its ,sweeney1 ,texas1 plant to achieve maximum efficiency in its thermal cracking process4 ,in the first step of an experimental program1 ,phillips1 working with ,autonetics computer engineers1 used a digital computer to plan optimum furnace operation4 ,an initial #aj per cent improvement was achieved in this way1 and a further #f per cent gain resulted when a digital computer was installed on-line to operate the cracking furnace4 ,the ,standard ,oil ,company of ,california is using an ,,ibm #gjij in ,san ,francisco to control its catalytic or 8cat0 cracking plant in ,el ,segundo1 some #dej miles away4 ,the need for computer speed and accuracy is shown by the conditions under which the cracking plant must operate continuously with no shutdowns except for repair4 ,each day1 two million gallons of petroleum is mixed in the cracker with the catalyst1 a metallic clay4 ,the mixing takes place at incandescent heat of #a1jjj ,f41 and the resulting inferno faces operators with more than a hundred changing factors to keep track of1 a job feasible only with computer help4 ,another use of computer control in the petroleum industry is that of automatic gasoline blending1 as done by the ,gulf ,oil ,corporation4 ,a completely electronic system is in operation at ,santa ,fe ,springs1 ,california4 ,the system automatically delivers the prescribed quantities of gasoline for the desired blend4 ,in case of error or malfunction of equipment1 the control alerts the human supervisor with warning lights and an audible alarm4 ,if he does not take proper action the control system automatically shuts itself off4 ,from the time the war-inspired industry of synthetic rubber production began in #aidj until very recently1 it has been almost entirely a manual operation4 ,then in #aifa ,goodyear ,tire ,rubber introduced computer control into the process at its ,plioflex plant in ,houston1 ,texas4 ,goodyear expects the new system to increase its 8throughput0 and also to improve the quality of the product through tighter1 smoother control of the complicated operation4 ,other chemical processors using computer control in their plants include ,dow ,chemical1 ,du,pont1 ,monsanto1 ,union ,carbide1 ,sun ,oil1 and ,the ,texas ,company4 ,adept at controlling the flow of material through pipes1 the computer can also control the flow of electricity through wires4 ,an example of this application is the use of digital computers in electric-utility load-control stations4 ,a typical installation is that of the ,philadelphia ,electric ,company in ,philadelphia1 the first to be installed4 ,serving #c-a_/b million customers1 the utility relies on a ,minneapolis-,honeywell computer to control automatically and continuously the big turbine generators that supply electric power for the large industrial area4 ,the memory of the computer stores data about the generators1 transmission-line losses1 operating costs1 and so on4 ,besides controlling the production of power for most economy1 the computer in its spare time performs billing operations for exchange of power carried on with ,pennsylvania-,new ,jersey-,maryland ,interconnection and ,delaware ,power ,light ,company and ,atlantic ,city ,electric ,company4 ,other utilities using computer control are the ,riverside ,power ,station of the ,gulf ,states ,utilities ,company1 ,southern ,california ,edison1 and the ,louisiana ,power ,light ,company's ,little ,gypsy station in ,new ,orleans4 ,another industry that makes use of a continuous flow of material is now being fitted for computer control1 and as a result papermakers may soon have a better product to sell4 ,,ibm has delivered a #agaj computer to ,potlach ,forests1 ,inc41 in ,idaho for control of a paperboard machine #ejj feet long4 ,papermaking up to now has been more art than science because of the difficulty of controlling recipes4 ,with the computer1 ,potlach expects to make better paper1 have less reject material1 and spend less time in changing from one product run to another4 ,showing that automatic control can work just about anywhere1 the ,english firm of ,cliffe ,hill ,granite ,company in ,markfield1 ,leicestershire1 controls its grading and batching of granite aggregate from a central location4 ,besides rock-crushers1 cement plants like ,riverside ,cement ,company use computer control in the ,united ,states4 ,thus far most of the computer control operations we have discussed are in the continuous-processing fields of chemicals or other uniform materials4 ,the computer is making headway in the machine shop too1 although its work is less likely of notice there since the control panel is less impressive than the large machine tool it is directing4 ,aptly called ,,apt1 for ,automatically ,programmed ,tools1 the new technique is the brainchild of ,m4,i4,t4 engineer ,douglas ,ross4 ,automatic control eliminates the need for drill jigs and other special setup tools and results in cheaper1 faster1 and more accurate machine work4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,controlled by instructions generated by ,,ibm's ,,autoprompt1 a ,pratt ,whitney ,numeric-,keller continuous-path milling machine shapes a raw aluminum block 7upper left7 into the saddle-shaped piece shown at right4 ,the surface is a portion of a geometric shape called a hyperbolic paraboloid4 ,a coded tape1 generated by a computer1 controls the milling machine1 drill press1 or shaper more accurately than the human machinist could4 ,in effect1 the computer studies a blueprint and punches out instructions on tape that tell the machine what it is to do1 how much of it1 and for how long4 ,huge shaping and contouring machines munch chunks of metal from blanks to form them into complex three-dimensional shapes4 ,remington ,rand ,,univac and ,,ibm are among the companies producing computers for this purpose4 ,the trend is to simpler1 more flexible control so that even small shops can avail themselves of the new technique4 ,in a typical example of the savings possible with 8numerical0 tape control1 these were the comparative costs3 ,illustration3 ,control ,engineering ,operation of computer-controlled freight yard in ,england4 ,conventional ,tape ,control ,tooling #gee #de ,setup time #ae min4 #ae min4 ,work time #ae min4 #aa min4 ,cost per #b4if #a4ha part ,beyond the automated single- or multipurpose tool is the completely computer-controlled assembly line4 ,complete automation of products like automobiles may be some distance off1 but there is nothing basically unworkable about the idea4 ,simpler things will be made first1 and to promote thinking along these lines1 ,westinghouse set up an automatic assembly line for paperweights4 ,an operator typed the initials of manufacturing department managers on a computer1 which transferred the instructions to a milling machine4 ,the machine cut the initials in aluminum blocks which were then automatically finished1 painted1 and packaged for shipment as completed paperweights4 ,another firm1 ,daystrom1 ,inc41 is designing a computer control system for assembly lines which will adjust itself for the 8best0 product as an output4 ,president ,tom ,jones described the principle in which the computer will begin production1 then move valves1 switches1 or other controls a small amount4 ,measuring the finished product1 it will decide if the change is in the right direction1 and proceed accordingly4 ,once it finds the optimum point1 it will lock in this position and settle down to business4 ,an excellent example of the computerized assembly line is the ,western ,electric ,company carbon resistor production line at its ,winston-,salem plant4 ,a digital computer with a #d1jif-word memory is used for the programming1 setup1 and feedback control of the eleven-station line4 ,it can accept a month's scheduling requirements for deposited carbon high-quality resistors in four power ratings and almost any desired resistance values4 ,production rate is #a1bjj units per hour4 ,the computer keeps track of the resistors as they are fabricated1 rejecting those out of specification and adjusting the process controls as necessary4 ,operations include heating1 deposition of carbon1 contact sputtering1 welding1 grooving1 and inspecting4 ,the ,robots ,most of these automated factory operations are doing men's work1 but it is only when we see the robot in the shape of ourselves that cold chills invade our spines4 ,children's ,christmas toys lately have included mechanical men who stride or roll across the floor and speak1 act1 and even 8think0 in more or less humanoid fashion1 some of them hurling weapons in a rather frightening manner4 ,there is an industrial robot in operation today which may recall the dread of ,frankenstein1 though its most worried watchers are perhaps union officials4 ,called ,unimate1 this factory worker has a single arm equipped with wrist and hand4 ,it can move horizontally through #bbj degrees1 and vertically for #fj degrees1 and extend its arm from #c feet to #g feet at the rate of #b-a_/b feet a second4 ,without a stepladder1 it can reach from the floor to a point nearly #i feet above it4 ,unimate can pick up #ge pounds1 and its #d-;inch fingers can clamp together on an iron bar or a tool with a force of up to #cjj pounds4 ,the robot weighs close to a ton and a half1 but can be moved from job to job on a fork-lift truck4 ,its designers have turned up a hundred different jobs that ,unimate could do1 including material loading1 packaging1 welding1 spray painting1 assembly work1 and so on4 ,the robot has a memory and can retain the #af1jjj 8bits0 of information necessary for #bjj operations4 ,to teach it a new task1 it is only necessary to 8help0 it manually through each step one time4 ,unimate can be instructed to wait for an external signal during its task1 such as the opening of a press or a furnace door4 ,advantages of a robot are many and obvious4 ,pretty girls passing by will not distract it1 nor will it require time for lunch or coffee breaks1 or trips to the washroom4 ,if necessary it will work around the clock without asking for double power for overtime4 ,high temperatures1 noxious gases1 flying sparks1 or dangerous liquids will not be a severe hazard1 and ,unimate never gets tired or forgets what it is doing4 ,but ,unimate has some drawbacks that are just as obvious4 ,it can't tell one color from another1 and thus might paint parts the wrong color and never know the difference4 ,it is not readily movable1 and not very flexible either4 ,it costs #be1jjj1 and will need about #a1cjj in maintenance a year4 ,some industry spokesmen say that this is far too much1 and ,unimate has a long way to go before it puts any people out of work4 ,others say it is a step in the right direction1 and this is probably a fair evaluation4 ,apparently ,united ,states ,industries1 ,inc41 whose ,auto,tutor teaching machines are pacing the field1 has made another step in the right direction with its 8,transfe,robot #bjj40 ,this mechanical assembly-line worker is an 8off-the-shelf0 item1 and currently in use by about fifty manufacturers4 ,transfe,robot uses its own electronic brain1 coupled with a variety of magnetic1 mechanical1 or even pneumatic fingers to pick up1 position1 insert1 remove1 and do other necessary operations on small parts4 ,besides these capabilities1 ,transfe,robot controls secondary operations such as drilling1 embossing1 stamping1 welding1 and sealing4 ,it is now busy building things like clocks1 typewriters1 automobile steering assemblies1 and electrical parts4 ,no one-job worker1 it can be re-programmed for other operations when a new product is needed1 or quickly switched to another assembly line if necessary4 ,billed as a new hand for industry1 ,transfe,robot obviously has its foot in the door already4 ,united ,states ,industries estimates current yearly sales of its small automation equipment at about #c million4 ,illustration3 ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology ,dr4 ,heinrich ,ernst1 ,swiss graduate student at ,,mit1 watches his computer-controlled 8hand0 pick up a block and drop it in the box4 ,the robots in apek's play ,r4,u4,r4 looked like their human makers1 but scientist ,claude ,shannon is more realistic4 8,these robots will probably be something squarish and on wheels1 so they can move around and not hurt anybody and not get hurt themselves4 ,they won't look like the tin-can mechanical men in comic strips4 ,but you'll want them about man-size1 so their hands will come out at table-top or assembly-line level40 ,since ,professor ,shannon is the man who sparked the implementation of symbolic logic in computers1 his ideas are not crackpot1 and the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology's ,hand project is a good start toward a real robot4 ,dr4 ,heinrich ,ernst1 a young ,swiss1 developed ,hand with help from ,shannon4 ,controlled by a digital computer1 the hand moves about and exercises judgment as it encounters objects4 ,such research will make true robots of the remotely manipulated machines we have become familiar with in nuclear power experiments1 underwater exploration1 and so forth4 ,hughes ,aircraft's 8,mobot0 is a good example1 and it is obvious that the robot's bones1 muscles1 and nerves are available4 ,all they need is the brain to match4 ,while we wait fearfully for more robots which look the way we think robots should1 the machine quietly takes over controlling more and more even bigger projects4 ,the computer does a variety of tasks1 from the simple one of cutting rolling-mill stock into optimum lengths to minimize waste1 to that of running an electronic freight yard in which cars are classified and made up automatically4 ,the computer in this application not only measures the car and weighs it1 but also computes its rollability4 ,using radar as its eyes1 the computer gauges the speed and distance between cars as they are being made up and regulates their speed to prevent damaging bumps4 ,to the chagrin of veteran human switchmen1 the computer system has proved it can 8hump0 cars--send them coasting to a standing car for coupling--without the occasional resounding crash caused by excessive speed4 ,about all that is holding up similarly automated subway trains in the ,united ,states is approval from the union4 ,soviet ,russia claims she already has computer-run subways and even ships4 ,the latter application took place on the oil tanker ,engineer ,pustoshkin plying the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the main complaint of the director of this research work1 ,p4 ,strumpe1 is that ships are not yet designed for computer control and will change for the better when their designers realize the error of their ways4 ,illustration3 ,hughes ,aircraft ,company ,mobot ,mark ,,ii1 carrying a ,geiger counter in its 8hands10 demonstrates how it can substitute for men in dangerously radiated areas4 ,minneapolis-,honeywell in this country is working toward the complete automation of buildings1 pointing out that they are as much machines as structures4 ,a #cc-story skyscraper in ,houston will use a central computer to check #djj points automatically and continuously4 ,temperature and humidity will be monitored1 as well as doors and windows4 ,presence of smoke and fire will be automatically detected1 and all mechanical equipment will be monitored and controlled4 ,equipped with cost figures1 the central computer will literally 8run0 the building for optimum efficiency and economy4 ,harvard ,university has a central control for seventy-six campus buildings1 and in ,denver work is being done toward a central control for a number of large buildings4 ,it is fitting that automation of buildings be carried on1 since historically it was in the home that self-control of machines was pioneered with automatic control of furnaces with thermostats4 ,illustration3 ,robodyne ,division1 ,u4,s4 ,industries1 ,inc4 ,transfe,robot assembly-line worker installs clockwork parts with speed and precision4 ,in this country our traffic is crying for some kind of control1 and ,new ,york is already using punched-card programming to control part of the city's traffic4 ,the ,federal administration is studying a bold proposal from ,,rca1 ,bendix1 ,general ,motors1 and ,westinghouse for an automatically controlled highway4 ,the reason8 ,traffic is getting to be too much for the human brain to deal with4 ,a better one has to be found1 and the computer is applying for the job4 ,the coming of automation has been likened to a tidal wave4 ,it is useless to shovel against it1 and the job would seem to be to find suitable life preservers to keep us afloat as it sweeps in over the world4 ,one approach is that of a nonprofit foundation to study the impact of automation on workers4 ,this group1 a joint ,united ,states ,industries1 ,inc41 and ,international ,association of ,machinists organization1 has already come up with a scheme for collecting 8dues0 from the machines1 in annual amounts of from #be to #a1jjj1 depending on the work output of the machine4 ,a key project of the foundation is a study of effective retraining of workers to fit them for jobs in the new1 computerized factory4 ,such studies may well have to be extended from the assembly line to the white-collar worker and executive as well4 ,the computer can wear many different kinds of hats6 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,teaching ,machine ,age ,lilyn ,e4 ,carlton in ,saturday ,review 8,in the good old-fashioned school days1 ,days of the golden rule1 ,teacher said1 #8,good morning1 class1' ,and so she started school4 ,alas6 ,how different things are now1 ,the school day can't begin ,till someone finds the socket ,and plugs the teacher in40 #aj3 ,the ,academic ,computer ,it was inevitable that the computer invade1 or perhaps 8infiltrate0 is the better word1 our education system4 ,mark ,i and ,,eniac were university-born and -bred1 and early research work was done by many institutions using computers4 ,a logical development was to teach formal courses in using the computer4 ,while application of the machine in mathematical and scientific work came first1 its application to business and to the training of executives for such use of the computer was soon recognized4 ,as an example1 one of two computers installed by ,u4,c4,l4,a4 in #aieg was for use exclusively in training engineering executives as well as undergraduates in engineering economy4 ,early courses were aimed at those already in industry1 in an attempt to catch them up with the technology of computer-oriented systems in business and science4 ,as special courses1 many of these carried a high tuition fee4 ,next came the teaching of professors and deans of engineering institutions in techniques of computer education for undergraduates4 ,today the computer is being taught to many students in many schools4 ,new ,york ,university has a #c million computer at its ,courant ,institute of ,mathematical ,sciences1 being used by students in basic and applied research on projects ranging from the design of bridges to the analysis of voting patterns in ,congress4 ,m4,i4,t4 recently added a digital computer to teach its students the operation of electronic data-processing equipment4 ,another computer is used in more sophisticated work including speech analysis1 study of bioelectrical signals1 and the simulation of automata as in the 8,hand0 project4 ,at the computing center of the ,university of ,michigan a second generation of computers is being installed4 ,students in some one hundred different courses use these computers1 programming them with a language developed at the ,university and called ,,mad1 for ,michigan ,algorithm ,decoder4 ,these are typical examples of perhaps two hundred schools using computers4 ,that knowledge of computer techniques is essential for the engineering graduate is evident in the fact that of a recent class of such students at ,purdue1 #a1fjj used the computer during the term4 ,less known is the integration of computer courses in secondary education4 ,the ,royal ,mc,bee ,corporation teaches a special course on the computer to youngsters at ,staples ,high in ,westport1 ,connecticut4 ,at the end of the first four-week session it was found that the students1 fifteen to seventeen years old1 had learned faster than adults4 ,at ,new ,york's ,st4 ,vincent ,ferrer ,catholic ,high ,school1 #djj girls participated in a similar project conducted by ,royal ,mc,bee4 ,other high schools are following suit1 and computers are expected to appear in significant numbers in high schools before the end of #aifb4 ,textbooks on computers1 written for high-school students1 are available4 ,as an example of the ability of young people in this field1 ,david ,malin of ,walter ,johnson ,high ,school in ,rockville1 ,maryland1 read his own paper on the use of computers to simulate human thought processes to science experts attending the #aifa ,eastern ,joint ,computer ,conference held in ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,the use of the computer in the classroom encompasses not only colleges and high schools1 but extends even to prisons4 ,twenty inmates of a ,pennsylvania state institution attended a pilot program teaching computer techniques with a ,,univac machine4 ,illustration3 ,datamation ,seventeen-year-old ,david ,malin who presented a paper on computers at the ,eastern ,joint ,computer ,conference in #aifa4 ,the ,united ,states is not alone in placing importance on the computer in schools4 ,our ,department of ,commerce has published details of ,russian work in this direction1 noting that it began in #aiee and places high priority on the training of specialists in computer research1 machine translation1 automation1 and so on4 ,the ,department of ,commerce feels that these courses1 taught at the graduate1 undergraduate1 and even high-school level1 are of high quality4 ,teaching ,machines ,thus far we have talked of the computer only as a tool to be studied and not as an aid to learning in itself4 ,in just a few years1 however1 the 8teaching machine0 has become familiar in the press and controversial from a number of standpoints1 including those of being a 8dehumanizer0 of the process of teaching and a threat to the apple business6 ,actually1 the computer has functioned for some time outside the classroom as a teaching machine4 ,early applications of analog computers as flight simulators were true 8teaching machines0 although perhaps the act was not as obvious as classroom use of a computer to teach the three ,r's4 ,even today1 there are those who insist that such use of the computer by the military or industry offers more potential than an academic teaching machine4 ,assembly workers have been taught by programmed audiovisual machines such as ,hughes ,aircraft's ,videosonic trainer1 and the government has taught many technicians by computer techniques4 ,a shrewd observer1 however1 noting that the computer is called stupid1 bluntly points out that any untaught student is in the same category1 and that perhaps it takes one to teach one4 ,a strong motivation for looking to the machine as a public teaching tool is the desperation occasioned by the growing shortage of teachers4 ,if the teaching machine could take over even some of the more simple chores of the classroom1 early advocates said1 it would be worth the effort4 ,formal study of machine methods of teaching have a history of forty years or more4 ,in the #bj's1 ,sydney ,pressey designed and built automatic teaching--or more precisely1 testing--machines at ,ohio ,state ,university4 ,these were simply multiple-choice questions so mechanized as to be answered by the push of a button rather than with a pencil mark4 ,a right answer advanced the machine to the next question1 while an error required the student to try again4 ,pressey wisely realized the value in his machines2 the student could proceed at his own pace1 and his learning was also stimulated by immediate recognition of achievement4 ,to further enforce this learning1 some of the teaching machines dispensed candy for a correct answer4 ,using this criterion1 it would seem that brighter students could be recognized by their weight4 ,unfortunately1 ,pressey's teaching machines did not make a very big splash in the academic world1 because of a combination of factors4 ,the machines themselves had limitations in that they did not present material to be learned but were more of the nature of a posteriori testing devices4 ,too1 educators were loath to adopt the mechanized teachers for a variety of reasons1 including skepticism1 inertia1 economics1 and others4 ,however1 machine scoring of multiple-choice tests marked with special current-conducting pencils became commonplace4 ,another researcher1 ,b4 ,f4 ,skinner1 commenced work on a different kind of teaching machine thirty years ago at ,harvard4 ,basically his method consists of giving the subject small bits--not computer 8bits10 but the coincidence is interesting--of learning at a time1 and reinforcing these bits strongly and immediately4 ,skinner insists that actual 8recall0 of information is more important than multiple-choice 8recognition10 and he asks for an answer rather than a choice4 ,called 8operant reinforcement10 the technique has been used not only on man1 but on apes1 monkeys1 rats1 dogs1 and surprisingly1 pigeons4 ,during ,world ,war ,,ii1 ,dr4 ,skinner conducted 8,project ,pigeon0 for the military4 ,in this unusual training program1 the feathered students were taught to peck at certain targets in return for which they received food as a reward4 ,this combination of apt pupils and advanced teaching methods produced pigeons who could play ping-pong4 ,this was in the early days of missile guidance1 and the pigeons next went into training as a homing system for these new weapons6 ,to make guidance more reliable1 not one but three pigeons were to be carried in the nose of the device4 ,lenses in the missile projected an image before each pigeon1 who dutifully pecked at his 8target40 ,if the target was in the center of the cross hairs1 the missile would continue on its course2 if off to one side1 the pecking would actuate corrective maneuvers4 ,as ,project 8,orcon10 for ,organic ,control1 this work was carried on for some time after the end of the war4 ,fortunately for the birds1 however1 more sophisticated1 inorganic guidance systems were developed4 ,the implications of the pigeon studies in time led to a new teaching method for human beings4 ,shortly after ,skinner released a paper on his work in operant reinforcement with the pigeons1 many workers in the teaching field began to move in this direction4 ,for several years ,skinner and ,james ,holland have been using machines of this type to teach some sections of a course in human behavior to students at ,radcliffe and ,harvard4 ,rheem ,califone manufactures the ,,didak machine to ,skinner's specifications4 ,to the reasons advanced by those who see teacher shortages looming1 ,skinner adds the argument that a machine can often teach better4 ,too much time1 he feels1 has been spent on details that are not basic to the problem4 ,better salaries for teachers1 more teachers1 and more schools do not in themselves improve the actual teaching4 ,operant reinforcement1 ,skinner contends1 does get at the root of the problem and1 in addition to relieving the teacher of a heavy burden1 the teaching machine achieves better results in some phases of teaching4 ,it also solves another problem that plagues the educator today4 ,it is well known that not all of us can learn at the same rate4 ,since it is economically and culturally impossible except in rare cases to teach children in groups of equal ability1 a compromise speed must be established4 ,this is fine for the 8average0 child1 of whom there may actually be none in the classroom2 it penalizes the fast student1 and the slow student perhaps even more4 ,the teaching machine1 its proponents feel1 takes care of this difficulty and lets each proceed at his own rate4 ,since speed in itself is no sure indicator of intelligence1 the slow child1 left to learn as he can1 may reach heights not before dreamed possible for him4 ,many educators agree that automated teaching is past due4 ,james ,d4 ,finn1 ,professor of ,education at the ,university of ,southern ,california1 deplores the lack of modern technology in teaching4 8,technology during the period from #aijj to #aiej only washed lightly on the shores of instruction10 he says4 8,the cake of custom proved to be too tough and the mass production state1 at least #ajj years behind industry1 was not entered except here and there on little isolated islands40 ,illustration3 ,educational ,science ,division1 ,u4,s4 ,industries1 ,inc4 ,auto,tutor teaching machine has programs for teaching many subjects4 ,these little isolated islands are now getting bigger and closer together4 ,the ,air ,force has for some time trained technicians at ,keesler ,field with ,u4,s4 ,industries ,auto,tutor machines1 and also uses them at the ,wright ,air ,development ,center4 ,the ,post ,office ,department has purchased fifty-five ,u4,s4 ,industries' ,digiflex trainers4 ,following this lead1 public education is beginning to use teaching machines4 ,san ,francisco has an electronic computer version that not only teaches1 tests1 and coaches1 but even sounds an alarm if the student tries to 8goof off0 on any of the problems4 ,the designers of the machine selected a sure-fire intellectual acronym1 ,,plato1 for ,programmed ,logic for ,automatic ,teaching ,operations4 ,the ,system ,development ,corporation1 the operations firm that designed the ,,sage computer1 calls its computer-controlled classroom teacher simply ,,class4 ,this machine uses a ,bendix ,g-#ae computer to teach twenty youngsters at a time4 ,to show the awareness of the publishers of texts and other educational material1 firms like ,book of ,knowledge1 ,encyclopedia ,britannica ,films1 and ,,tmi ,grolier are in the 8teaching machine0 business1 and the ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,company and ,thompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc41 have teamed to produce computerized teaching machines and the programs for them4 ,other publishers using 8programming0 techniques in their books include ,harcourt-,brace with its #bfjj series 7for #b1fjj programmed steps the student must negotiate71 ,prentice-,hall1 and ,d4 ,c4 ,heath4 ,entirely new firms like ,learning1 ,incorporated1 are now producing 8programs0 on many subjects for teaching machines4 ,subjects available in teaching machine form include algebra1 mathematics1 trigonometry1 slide rule fundamentals1 electronics1 calculus1 analytical geometry1 plane geometry1 probability theory1 electricity1 ,russian1 ,german1 ,spanish1 ,hebrew1 spelling1 music fundamentals1 management science1 and even ,goren's bridge for beginners4 ,while many of these teaching machines are simply textbooks programmed for faster learning1 the conversion of such material into computer-handled presentation is merely one of economics4 ,for example1 a ,doubleday ,tutor,text book costs only a few dollars2 an automatic ,auto,tutor ,mark ,,ii costs #a1bej because of its complex searching facility that requires several thousand branching responses4 ,however1 the ,auto,tutor is faster and more effective and will operate twenty-four hours a day if necessary4 ,with sufficient demand the machine may be the cheaper in the long run4 ,the ,system ,development ,corporation feels that its general concept of automated group education will be feasible in the near future despite the high cost of advanced electronic digital computers4 ,it cites pilot studies being conducted by the ,state of ,california on data-processing for a number of schools through a central facility4 ,using this same approach1 a single central computer could serve several schools with auxiliary lower-priced equipment4 ,even a moderately large computer used in this way could teach a thousand or more students simultaneously and individually1 the ,corporation feels4 ,after school hours1 the computer can handle administrative tasks4 ,illustration3 ,system ,development ,corp4 ,the ,,class facility incorporates an administrative area1 hallway1 combined observation and counseling area1 and a large classroom area divided by a folding wall4 ,in the ,,class system developed by the ,system ,development ,corporation1 the 8branching0 concept is used4 ,in a typical lesson program1 if the student immediately answers that ,america was discovered by ,christopher ,columbus1 he will be told he is correct and will then be branched to the next item4 ,if he answers ,leif ,ericson1 the computer takes time out to enlighten the pupil on that score4 ,next1 it reinforces the correct date in the student's mind before asking another question4 ,although it would seem that a lucky student could progress through the programmed lesson on guesswork alone1 the inexorable laws of probability rule this out4 ,he cannot complete the lesson until he has soaked up all the information it is intended to impart4 ,he can do this without an error1 in a very short time1 or he can learn by the trial-and-error process1 whichever is better suited to his speed and mental ability4 ,making up the program for the teaching machine is a difficult task and requires the services of technical expert1 psychologist1 and programmer4 ,an ,english-like language is used in preparing a ,,class program for the computer4 ,put on magnetic tape1 the program goes into the memory of the computer and is called out by proper responses from the student as he progresses through the lesson4 ,illustration3 ,system ,development ,corp4 ,students in ,,class are learning ,french in a group mode of automated instruction4 ,complex as the programming is1 entries from the student's control are processed into the computer in about one-tenth of a second1 and an answer is flashed back in about the same amount of time4 ,remember that the ,,class computer is handling twenty students at a time1 and that in addition to teaching it is keeping a complete record of how the student fared at each step of the lesson4 ,it is obvious that the binary or yes-no logic of the computer ties in with the concept put forth by ,skinner and others of presenting small bits of information at a time4 ,we can use the game of #bj ,questions as a good analogy4 ,even getting only simple yes-no answers1 skilled players can elicit an amazing amount of information in often far less than the permitted number of questions4 ,thus even complex subjects can be broken down into simple questions answerable by discrete choices from the student4 ,the automated group education system of the ,system ,development ,corporation is made up of the following components3 a digital computer to control and select the material presented and to analyze responses1 a magnetic tape storage unit1 a typewriter for printing out data analysis1 a slide projector and screen for presenting educational materials1 and individual desks with keyboards for the students' responses4 ,we have pointed out that even though it is possible to break down educational material into multiple-choice or yes-no answers to which are assigned intrinsic values1 the ideal system permits answers on a linear scale4 ,in other words1 instead of picking what he considers the most nearly correct1 a student writes his own answer4 ,some experts feel that the advances being made in optical scanning1 or 8reading0 techniques for computers1 will result in linear programming of the teaching machines within the next ten years4 ,such a development will do much to alleviate the complaint that the machine exerts a rigid mechanizing effect on the teaching process4 ,while fear of displacement motivates some teachers to distrust the machine1 an honest belief that the human touch is necessary in the schoolroom is also a large factor against acceptance4 ,yet these same wary teachers generally use flash cards1 flip charts1 and other mechanical aids with no qualms4 ,the electronic computer is a logical extension of audiovisual techniques1 and in time the teacher will come to accept it for what it is4 ,the human teacher will continue to be an indispensable element in education1 but he must recognize that as our technology becomes more complex he will need more and more help4 ,in #aifj there were about #dd million students in our classrooms1 and about #ace1jjj too few teachers4 ,by #aife it is estimated there will be #dh million students and #bej1jjj teachers fewer than we need4 ,parallel with this development is the rapidly growing need for college graduates4 ,one large industrial firm which employs #aej1jjj hires only #cjj college graduates a year at present1 but will need #g1jjj when it automates its plants4 ,the pressure of need thus is forcing our educational system to make use of the most efficient means of educating our students4 ,beyond simply taking its place with other aids1 however1 the computer will make great changes in our basic concepts of teaching1 according to ,dr4 ,skinner4 ,he asks the question 8,are the students who learn in spite of a confusing presentation of a subject better for the experience1 or were they better students at the outset80 ,he advances this argument to say that perhaps 8easy0 learning is actually the best2 that we would do well to analyze the behavior called thinking and then produce it according to these specifications4 ,the traditional teacher finds the prospect alarming and questions the soundness of minimizing failure and maximizing success4 ,there is not yet definite agreement by other psychologists with ,skinner's contention that recall rather than recognition is the desired method4 ,neither is it sure that the negative reinforcement of a number of incorrect choices may result in remembering wrong answers4 ,and of course the division between rote learning and creativity is an important consideration4 ,the answers may well lie in the computer1 which when properly programmed is about the most logical device we have available to us4 ,thus the machine may determine the best teaching methods and then use them to teach us4 ,regardless of these as yet unanswered questions1 however1 the future of the teaching machine seems to be assured4 ,one authority has predicted that it will be a #ajj million market by #aife4 ,an intriguing use of computer techniques in teaching is being investigated by ,corrigan ,communications1 which scores students answering questions on telecourses4 ,this work is being done with a course in medicine1 and with the rapid growth of educational television the implications of combining it and teaching machine techniques are of great importance4 ,classroom teaching is not the only educational application for the teaching machine4 ,a computer-controlled library is an interesting thought1 with the patron requesting information from a central computer and having it presented instantaneously on a viewing screen in front of him4 ,such a system could conceivably have access to a national library hookup1 constantly updated with new material4 ,such a service would also be available for use during school study hall1 or by the teacher during class4 ,visitors to the ,world's ,fair in ,seattle previewed the computerized information center of the future4 ,called ,library #ba1 it is considered a prototype of the next century's core libraries which will be linked to smaller branches by communications networks4 ,many computers were displayed1 tied in with teaching machines1 language laboratories1 and information from the ,great ,books1 tailored to the individual questioner's sex1 personality1 and mental level4 ,also shown was a photo process that reduces a #djj-page book to the size of a postage stamp for storage4 ,with this kind of progress1 we can in the foreseeable future request and receive up-to-date information of any kind of human knowledge anywhere--in language we can understand4 ,another computer application sure to come is that of handling correspondence courses4 ,the teaching of extension courses in the home1 through television and some sort of response link1 has been mentioned1 and it is not impossible that the school as a physical plant may one day no longer be necessary4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,this system supplies legal information in minutes1 with insertion of punched-card query 7top74 ,using inquiry words1 computer prints citations of statutes 7middle72 then1 on request1 full text 7below74 ,since the computer itself does not 8teach10 but merely acts as a go-between for the man who prepared the lesson or program and the student who learns1 it would seem that some of our teachers may become programmers4 ,the ,system ,development ,corporation has broken the teaching machine program into three phases3 experimenting with the effects of many variables on teaching machine effectiveness1 developing a simplified teaching machine1 and finally1 analyzing the educational system to find where and how the machine fits4 ,research is still in the first phase1 that of experiment4 ,but it is known that some programs produced so far show better results than conventional teaching methods1 and also that teaching machines can teach any subject involving factual information4 ,thus it is evident they will be useful in schools and also in industry and military training programs4 ,language ,if man is to use the computer to teach himself1 he must be able to converse with it4 ,in the early days of computers it was said with a good deal of justification that the machine was not only stupid but decidedly insular as well4 ,in other words1 man spoke to it in its own language or not at all4 ,a host of different languages1 or 8compilers0 as they are often called1 were constructed and their originators beat the drums for them4 ,with tongues like ,,algy1 ,,algol1 ,,cobol1 ,,fact1 ,,flowmatic1 ,,fortran1 ,,intercom1 ,,it1 ,,jovial1 ,,loglan1 ,,mad1 ,,pice1 and ,,prolan1 to name a few1 the computer has become a tower of ,babel1 and a programmer's talents must include linguistics4 ,one language called ,,algol1 for ,algorithmic ,oriented ,language1 had pretty smooth sailing1 since it consists of algebraic and arithmetic notation4 ,out of the welter of business languages a compromise ,common ,business ,oriented ,language1 or ,,cobol1 evolved4 ,what ,,cobol does for programming computer problems is best shown by comparing it with instructions once given the machine4 ,the sample below is typical of early machine language3 ,illustration3 ,,subtract ,,quantity-,,sold ,,from ,,balance-,,on-,,hand4 ,,if ,,balance-,,on-,,hand ,,is ,,not ,,less ,,than ,,reorder-,,level ,,then ,,go ,,to ,,balance-,,ok ,,else ,,compute ,,quantity-,,to-,,buy ,,total-,,sales-#c-,,mos_/#c4 ,recommended by a task force for the ,department of ,defense1 industry1 and other branches of the government1 ,,cobol nevertheless has had a tough fight for acceptance1 and there is still argument and confusion on the language scene4 ,new tongues continue to proliferate1 some given birth by ,,algol and ,,cobol themselves4 ,examples of this generation are ,,gecom1 ,,balgol1 and ,,tabsol4 ,one worthy attempt at a sort of machine ,esperanto is called a pun-inviting ,,uncol1 for ,universal ,computer-,oriented ,language and seems to be a try for the computer's vote4 ,one harried machine-language user has suggested formation of an 8,,algolics ,anonymous0 group for others of his ilk1 while another partisan accuses his colleagues in ,arizona of creating a new language while 8maddened by the scent of saguaro blossoms40 ,it was recently stated that perhaps by the time a decision is ultimately reached as to which will be the general language1 there will be no need of it because by then the computer will have learned to read and write1 and perhaps to listen and to speak as well4 ,recent developments bear out the contention4 ,although it has used intermediate techniques1 the computer has proved it can do a lot with our language in some of the tasks it has been given4 ,among these is the preparation of a ,bible concordance1 listing principal words1 frequency of appearance1 and where they are found4 ,the computer tackled the same job on the poems of ,matthew ,arnold4 ,for this chore1 ,professor ,stephen ,maxfield ,parrish of ,cornell worked with three colleagues and two technicians to program an ,,ibm #gjd data-processing system4 ,in addition to compiling the list of more than #aj1jjj words used most often by ,arnold1 the computer arranged them alphabetically and also compiled an appendix listing the number of times each word appeared4 ,to complete the job1 the computer itself printed the #ife-page volume4 ,the ,dead ,sea ,scrolls and the works of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas have also been turned over to the computer for preparation of analytical indexes and concordances4 ,at ,columbia ,university1 graduate student ,james ,mc,donough gave an ,,ibm #fej the job of sleuthing the author of ,the ,iliad and ,the ,odyssey4 ,since the computer can detect metric-pattern differences otherwise practically undiscoverable1 ,mc,donough felt that the machine could prove if ,homer had written both poems1 or if he had help on either4 ,thus far he is sure the entire ,iliad is the work of one man1 after computer analysis of its #aab1jjj words4 ,the project is part of his doctoral thesis4 ,a recent article in a technical journal used a title suggested by an ,,rca #eja1 and suspicion is strong that the machines themselves are guilty of burning midnight kilowatts to produce the acronyms that abound in the industry4 ,the computer is even beginning to prove its worth as an abstracter4 ,other literary jobs the computer has done include the production of a book of fares for the ,international ,air ,transport ,association4 ,the computer compiled and then printed out this #dbj-page book which gives shortest operating distances between #a1fjj cities of the world4 ,now newspapers are beginning to use computers to do the work of typesetting4 ,these excursions into the written language of human beings1 plus its experience as a poet and in translation from language to language1 have undoubtedly brought the computer a long way from its former provincialism4 ,as pointed out1 computer work with human language generally is not accomplished without intermediate steps4 ,for example1 in one of the concordances mentioned1 although the computer required only an hour to breeze through the work1 a programmer had spent weeks putting it in the proper shape4 ,what is needed is a converter which will do the work directly1 and this is exactly what firms like ,digitronics supply to the industry4 ,this computer-age ,berlitz school has produced converters for ,merrill ,lynch1 ,pierce1 ,fenner ,smith for use in billing its stock-market customers1 ,wear-,ever as an order-taking machine1 ,reader's ,digest for mailing-list work1 and ,schering ,corporation for rat-reaction studies in drug research1 to mention a few4 ,the importance of such converters is obvious4 ,prior to their use it was necessary to type ,english manually into the correct code1 a costly and time-consuming business4 ,converters are not cheap1 of course1 but they operate so rapidly that they pay for themselves in short order4 ,merrill ,lynch's machine cost #abj1jjj1 but paid back two-thirds of that amount in savings the first year4 ,there is another important implication in converter operation4 ,it can get computer language out of ,english--or ,japanese1 or even ,swahili if the need arises4 ,a more recent ,digitronics' converter handles information in ,english or ,japanese4 ,if the computer has its language problems1 man has them also1 to the nth degree4 ,there are about #c1jjj tongues in use today2 mercifully1 scientific reports are published in only about #ce of these4 ,even so1 at least half the treatises published in the world cannot be read by half the world's scientists4 ,unfortunately1 ,,unesco estimates that while #ej per cent of ,russian scientists read ,english1 less than #a per cent of ,united ,states scientists return the compliment6 ,the ramifications of these facts we will take up a little later on2 for now it will be sufficient to consider the language barrier not only to science but also to culture and the international exchange of good will that can lead to and preserve peace4 ,esperanto1 ,io1 and other tongues have been tried as common languages4 ,one recent comer to the scientific scene is called ,interlingua and seems to have considerable merit4 ,it is used in international medical congresses1 with text totaling #cjj1jjj words in the proceedings of one of these4 ,but a truly universal language is1 like prosperity1 always just around the corner4 ,even the scientific community1 recognizing the many benefits that would accrue1 can no more adopt ,interlingua or another than it can settle on the metric system of measurement4 ,our integration problems are not those of race1 color1 and creed only4 ,before ,sputnik our interest in foreign technical literature was not as keen as it has been since4 ,one immediate result of the satellite launching by the ,russians was amendment of ,u4,s4 ,public ,law #dhj to permit money from the sale of ,american farm equipment abroad to be used for translation of foreign technical literature4 ,we are vitally concerned with ,russia1 but have also arranged for thousands of pages of scientific literature from ,poland1 ,yugoslavia1 and ,israel4 ,communist ,china is beginning to produce scientific reports too1 and ,japanese capability in such fields as electronics is evident in the fact that the revolutionary 8tunnel diode0 was invented by ,esaki in ,japan4 ,it is understandable that we should be concerned with the output of ,russian literature1 and much attention has been given to the ,russian-,english translator developed by ,,ibm for the ,air ,force4 ,it is estimated that the ,russians publish a billion words a year1 and that about one-third of this output is technical in nature4 ,conventional translating techniques1 in addition to being tedious for the translators1 are hopelessly slow1 retrieving only about #hj million words a year4 ,thus we are falling behind twelve years each year6 ,outside of a moratorium on writing1 the only solution is faster translation4 ,the ,air ,force translator was a phenomenal achievement4 ,based on a photoscopic memory--a glass disc #aj inches in diameter capable of storing #ee1jjj words of ,russian-,english dictionary in binary code--the system used a 8one-to-one0 method of translation4 ,the result initially was a translation at the rate of about #dj words per minute of ,russian into an often terribly scrambled and confusing ,english4 ,the speed was limited not by the memory or the computer itself but by the input1 which had to be prepared on tape by a typist4 ,subsequently a scanning system capable of #b1djj words a minute upped the speed considerably4 ,impressive as the translator was1 its impact was dulled after a short time when it was found that a second 8translation0 was required of the resulting pidgin ,english1 particularly when the content was highly technical4 ,as a result1 work is being done on more sophisticated translation techniques4 ,making use of predictive analysis1 and 8lexical buffers0 which store all the words in a sentence for syntactical analysis before final printout1 scientists have improved the translation a great deal4 ,in effect1 the computer studies the structure of the sentence1 determining whether modifiers belong with subject or object1 and checking for the most probable grammatical form of each word as indicated by other words in the sentence4 ,the advanced nature of this method of translation requires the help of linguistics experts4 ,among these is ,dr4 ,sydney ,lamb of the ,university of ,california at ,berkeley who is developing a computer program for analysis of the structure of any language4 ,one early result of this study was the realization that not enough is actually known of language structure and that we must backtrack and build a foundation before proceeding with computer translation techniques4 ,dr4 ,lamb's procedure is to feed ,english text into the computer and let it search for situations in which a certain word tends to be preceded or followed by other words or groups of words4 ,the machine then tries to produce the grammatical structure1 not necessarily correctly4 ,the researcher must help the machine by giving it millions of words to analyze contextually4 ,what the computer is doing in hours is reproducing the evolution of language and grammar that not only took place over thousands of years1 but is subject to emotion1 faulty logic1 and other inaccuracies as well4 ,also working on the translation problem are the ,national ,bureau of ,standards1 the ,army's ,office of ,research and ,development1 and others4 ,the ,army expects to have a computer analysis in #aifb that will handle #ie per cent of the sentences likely to be encountered in translating ,russian into ,english1 and to examine foreign technical literature at least as far as the abstract stage4 ,difficult as the task seems1 workers in the field are optimistic and feel that it will be feasible to translate all languages1 even the ,oriental1 which seem to present the greatest syntactical barriers4 ,an indication of success is the announcement by ,machine ,translations ,inc4 of a new technique making possible contextual translation at the rate of #fj1jjj words an hour1 a rate challenging the ability of even someone coached in speed-reading6 ,the remaining problem1 that of doing the actual reading and evaluation after translation1 has been brought up4 ,this considerable task too may be solved by the computer4 ,the machines have already displayed a limited ability to perform the task of abstracting1 thus eliminating at the outset much material not relevant to the task at hand4 ,another bonus the computer may give us is the ideal international and technical language for composing reports and papers in the first place4 ,a logical question that comes up in the discussion of printed language translation is that of another kind of translation1 from verbal input to print1 or vice versa4 ,and finally from verbal ,russian to verbal ,english4 ,the speed limitation here1 of course1 is human ability to accept a verbal input or to deliver an output4 ,within this framework1 however1 the computer is ready to demonstrate its great capability4 ,a recent article in ,scientific ,american asks in its first sentence if a computer can think4 ,the answer to this old chestnut1 the authors say1 is certainly yes4 ,they then proceed to show that having passed this test the computer must now learn to perceive1 if it is to be considered a truly intelligent machine4 ,a computer that can read for itself1 rather than requiring human help1 would seem to be perceptive and thus qualify as intelligent4 ,even early computers such as adding machines printed out their answers4 ,all the designers have to do is reverse this process so that printed human language is also the machine's input4 ,one of the first successful implementations of a printed input was the use of magnetic ink characters in the ,magnetic ,ink ,character ,recognition 7,,micr7 system developed by ,general ,electric4 ,this technique called for the printing of information on checks with special magnetic inks4 ,processed through high-speed 8readers10 the ink characters cause electrical currents the computer can interpret and translate into binary digits4 ,close on the heels of the magnetic ink readers came those that use the principle of optical scanning1 analogous to the method man uses in reading4 ,this breakthrough came in #aifa1 and was effected by several different firms1 such as ,farrington ,electronics1 ,national ,cash ,register1 ,philco1 and others1 including firms in ,canada and ,england4 ,we read a page of printed or written material with such ease that we do not realize the complex way our brains perform this miracle1 and the optical scanner that 8reads0 for the computer requires a fantastically advanced technology4 ,as the material to be read comes into the field of the scanner1 it is illuminated so that its image is distinct enough for the optical system to pick up and project onto a disc spinning at #aj1jjj revolutions per minute4 ,in the disc are tiny slits which pass a certain amount of the reflected light onto a fixed plate containing more slits4 ,light which succeeds in getting through this second series of slits activates a photoelectric cell which converts the light into proportionate electrical impulses4 ,because the scanned material is moving linearly and the rotating disc is moving transversely to this motion1 the character is scanned in two directions for recognition4 ,operating with great precision and speed1 the scanner reads at the rate of #bdj characters a second4 ,national ,cash ,register claims a potential reading rate for its scanner of #aa1jjj characters per second1 a value not reached in practice only because of the difficulty of mechanically handling documents at this speed4 ,used in post-office mail sorting1 billing1 and other similar reading operations1 optical scanners generally show a perfect score for accuracy4 ,badly printed characters are rejected1 to be deciphered by a human supervisor4 ,it is the optical scanner that increased the speed of the ,russian-,english translating computer from #dj to #b1djj words per minute4 ,in post-office work1 the ,farrington scanner sorts mail at better than #i1jjj pieces an hour1 rejecting all handwritten addresses4 ,since most mail--#he per cent1 the ,post ,office ,department estimates--is typed or printed1 the electronic sorter relieves human sorters of most of their task4 ,mail is automatically routed to proper bins or chutes as fast as it is read4 ,the electronic readers have not been without their problems4 ,a drug firm in ,england had so much difficulty with one that it returned it to the manufacturer4 ,we have mentioned the one that was confused by ,christmas seals it took for foreign postage stamps4 ,and as yet it is difficult for most machines to read anything but printed material4 ,an attempt to develop a machine with a more general reading ability1 one which recognizes not only material in which exact criteria are met1 but even rough approximations1 uses the gestalt or all-at-once pattern principle4 ,using a dilating circular scanning method1 the 8line drawing pattern recognizer0 may make it possible to read characters of varying sizes1 handwritten material1 and material not necessarily oriented in a certain direction4 ,a developmental model recognizes geometric figures regardless of size or rotation and can count the number of objects in its scope4 ,such experimental work incidentally yields much information on just how the eye and brain perform the deceptively simply tasks of recognition4 ,once #aigj had been thought a target date for machine recognition of handwritten material1 but researchers at ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories have already announced such a device that reads cursive human writing with an accuracy of #ij per cent4 ,the computer1 a backward child1 learned to write long before it could read and does so at rates incomprehensible to those of us who type at the blinding speed of #ej to #fj words a minute4 ,a character-generator called ,,vidiac comes close to keeping up with the brain of a high-speed digital computer and has a potential speed of #bej1jjj characters1 or about #ej1jjj words1 per second4 ,it does this1 incidentally1 by means of good old binary1 #a-j technique4 ,to add to its virtuosity1 it has a repertoire of some #cjj characters4 ,researchers elsewhere are working on the problems to be met in a machine for reading and printing out #a1jjj1jjj characters per second6 ,none of us can talk or listen at much over #bej words a minute1 even though we may convince ourselves we read several thousand words in that period of time4 ,a simple test of ability to hear is to play a record or tape at double speed or faster4 ,our brains just won't take it4 ,for high-speed applications1 then1 verbalized input or output for computers is interesting in theory only4 ,however1 there are occasions when it would be nice to talk to the computer and have it talk back4 ,in the early1 difficult days of computer development1 say when ,babbage was working on his analytical engine1 the designer probably often spoke to his machine4 ,he would have been stunned to hear a response1 of course1 but today such a thing is becoming commonplace4 ,,ibm has a computer called 8,shoebox10 a term both descriptive of size and refreshing in that is not formed of initial capitals from an ad writer's blurb4 ,you can speak figures to ,shoebox1 tell it what you want done with them1 and it gets busy4 ,this is admittedly a baby computer1 and it has a vocabulary of just #af words4 ,but it takes only #ca transistors to achieve that vocabulary1 and jumping the number of transistors to a mere #b1jjj would increase its word count to #a1jjj1 which is the number required for ,basic ,english4 ,the ,russians are working in the field of speech recognition too1 as are the ,japanese4 ,the latter are developing an ambitious machine which will not only accept voice instructions1 but also answer in kind4 ,to make a true speech synthetizer1 the ,japanese think they will need a computer about #e1jjj times as fast as any present-day type1 so for a while it would seem that we will struggle along with 8canned0 words appropriately selected from tape memory4 ,we have mentioned the use of such a tape voice in the computerized ground-controlled-approach landing system for aircraft1 and the airline reservation system called ,unicall in which a central computer answers a dialed request for space in less than three seconds--not with flashing lights or a printed message but in a loud clear voice4 ,it must pain the computer to answer at the snail-like human speed of #aej words a minute1 so it salves its conscience by handling #b1ajj inputs without getting flustered4 ,the writer's dream1 a typewriter that has a microphone instead of keys and clacks away merrily while you talk into it1 is a dream no longer4 ,scientists at ,japan's ,kyoto ,university have developed a computer that does just this4 ,an early experimental model could handle a hundred ,japanese monosyllables1 but once the breakthrough was made1 the ,japanese quickly pushed the design to the point where the 8,sonotype0 can handle any language4 ,at the same time1 ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories works on the problem from the other end and has come up with a system for a typewriter that talks4 ,not far behind these exotic uses of digital computer techniques are such things as automatic translation of telephone or other conversations4 ,information ,retrieval ,it has been estimated that some #dde trillion words are spoken in each #af-;hour day by the world's inhabitants1 making ours a noisy planet indeed4 ,to bear out the 8noisy0 connotation1 someone else has reckoned that only about #a per cent of the sounds we make are real information4 ,the rest are extraneous1 incidentally telling us the sex of the speaker1 whether or not he has a cold1 the state of his upper plate1 and so on4 ,it is perhaps a blessing that most of these trillions of words vanish almost as soon as they are spoken4 ,the printed word1 however1 isn't so transient2 it not only hangs around1 but also piles up as well4 ,the pile is ever deeper1 technical writings alone being enough to fill seven #bd-volume encyclopedias each day1 according to one source4 ,as with our speech1 perhaps only #a per cent of this outpouring of print is of real importance1 but this does not necessarily make what some have called the ,information ,explosion any less difficult to cope with4 ,the letters ,,ir once stood for infra-red2 but in the last year or so they have been appropriated by the words 8information retrieval10 one of the biggest bugaboos on the scientific horizon4 ,it amounts to saving ourselves from drowning in the fallout from typewriters all over the earth4 ,there are those cool heads who decry the pushing of the panic button1 professing to see no exponential increase in literature1 but a steady #h per cent or so each year4 ,the button-pushers see it differently1 and they can document a pretty strong case4 ,the technical community is suffering an embarrassment of riches in the publications field4 ,while a doubling in the output of technical literature has taken the last twelve years or so1 the next such increase is expected in half that time4 ,perhaps the strongest indication that ,,ir is a big problem is the obvious fact that nobody really knows just how much has been1 is being1 or will be written4 ,for instance1 one authority claims technical material is being amassed at the rate of #b1jjj pages a minute1 which would result in far more than the seven sets of encyclopedias mentioned earlier4 ,no one seems to know for sure how many technical journals there are in the world2 it can be 8pinpointed0 somewhere between #ej1jjj and #ajj1jjj4 ,selecting one set of figures at random1 we learn that in #aifj alone #a1cjj1jjj different technical articles were published in #fj1jjj journals4 ,of course there were also #fj1jjj books on technical subjects1 plus many thousands of technical reports that did not make the formal journals1 but still might contain the vital bit of information without which a breakthrough will be put off1 or a war lost4 ,our research expenses in the ,united ,states ran about #ac billion in #aifj1 and the guess is they will more than double by #aigj4 ,an important part of research should be done in the library1 of course1 lest our scientist spend his life re-inventing the wheel1 as the saying goes4 ,to back up this saying are specific examples4 ,for instance1 a scientific project costing #bej1jjj was completed a few days before an engineer came across practically the identical work in a report in the library4 ,this was a ,russian report incidentally1 titled 8,the ,application of ,boolean ,matrix ,algebra to the ,analysis and ,synthesis of ,relay ,contact ,networks40 ,in another1 happier case1 information retrieval saved ,esso ,research ,engineering ,co4 a month of work and many thousands of dollars when an alert--or lucky--literature searcher came across a ,swedish scientist's monograph detailing ,esso's proposed exploration4 ,another literature search obviated tests of more than a hundred chemical compounds4 ,unfortunately not all researchers do or can search the literature in all cases4 ,there is even a tongue-in-cheek law which governs this phenomenon--8,mooer's0 ,law states1 8,an information system will tend not to be used whenever it is more painful for a customer to have information than for him not to have it40 ,as a result1 it has been said that if a research project costs less than #ajj1jjj it is cheaper to go ahead with it than to conduct a rigorous search of the literature4 ,tongue in cheek or not1 this state of affairs points up the need for a usable information retrieval system4 ,fortune magazine reports that #aj per cent of research and development expense could be saved by such a system1 and #aj per cent in #aifj1 remember1 would have amounted to #a4c billion4 ,thus the prediction that ,,ir will be a #ajj million business in #aife does not seem out of line4 ,the ,center for ,documentation at ,western ,reserve ,university spends about #f-a_/b simply in acquiring and storing a single article in its files4 ,in #aieh it could search only thirty abstracts of these articles in an hour and realized that more speed was vital if the ,center was to be of value4 ,as a result1 a ,,ge #bbe computer ,,ir system was substituted4 ,now researchers go through the entire store of literature--about #ej1jjj documents in #aifj--;in thirty-five minutes1 answering up to fifty questions for 8customers40 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,the document file of this ,,walnut information retrieval system contains the equivalent of #c1jjj books4 ,a punched-card inquiry system locates the desired filmstrip for viewing or photographic reproduction4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,this image converter of the ,,walnut system optically reduces and transfers microfilm to filmstrips for storage4 ,each strip contains #ii document images4 ,as a document image is transferred from microfilm to filmstrip1 the image converter simultaneously assigns image file addresses and punches these addresses into punched cards controlling the conversion process4 ,the key to information retrieval lies in efficient abstracting4 ,it has been customary to let people do this task in the past because there was no other way of getting it done4 ,unfortunately1 man does not do a completely objective job of either preparing or using the abstract1 and the result is a two-ended guessing game that wastes time and loses facts in the process4 ,a machine abstracting system1 devised by ,h4 ,peter ,luhn of ,,ibm1 picks the words that appear most often and uses them as keys to reduce articles to usable1 concise abstracts4 ,a satisfactory solution seems near and will be a big step toward a completely computerized ,,ir system4 ,for several years there has been a running battle between the computer ,,ir enthusiast and the die-hard 8librarian0 type who claims that information retrieval is not amenable to anything but the human touch4 ,it is true that adapting the computer to the task of information retrieval did not prove as simple as was hoped4 ,but detractors are in much the same fix as the man with a shovel trying to build a dike against an angry rising sea1 who scoffs at the scoop-shovel operator having trouble starting his engine4 ,the wise thing to do is drop the shovel and help the machine4 ,there will be a marriage of both types of retrieval1 but ,verner ,clapp1 president of the ,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,council on ,library ,resources1 stated at an ,,ir symposium that computers offer the best chance of keeping up with the flood of information4 ,one sophisticated approach to ,,ir uses symbolic logic1 the forte of the digital computer4 ,in a typical reductio ad logic1 the following request for information3 ,an article in ,english concerning aircraft or spacecraft1 written neither before #aicg or after #aieg2 should deal with laboratory tests leading to conclusions on an adhesive used to bond metal to rubber or plastic2 the adhesive must not become brittle with age1 must not absorb plasticizer from the rubber adherent1 and must have a peel-strength of #bj lbs_/in2 it must have at least one of these properties--no appreciable solution in fuel and no absorption of solvent4 becomes the logical statement3 ,k,ka,vbc,pde,cfg1 and ,k,ahi,k,k,k,nj,nkl,smn4 ,armed with this symbolic abbreviation1 the computer can dig quickly into its memory file and come up with the sought-for article or articles4 ,it has been suggested that the abstracting technique be applied at the opposite end of the cycle with a vengeance amounting to birth control of new articles4 ,a ,lockheed ,electronics engineer proposes a technical library that not only accepts new material1 but also rejects any that is not new4 ,here1 of course1 we may be skirting danger of the type risked by human birth control exponents--that of unwittingly depriving the world of a president1 or a powerful scientific finding4 ,perhaps the screening1 the function of 8garbage disposal10 as one blunt worker puts it1 should be left as an after-the-fact measure4 ,despite early setbacks1 the computer is making progress in the job of information retrieval4 ,figures of a #cjj per cent improvement in efficiency in this new application are cited over the last several years4 ,operation ,,haystaq1 a ,patent ,office project in the chemical patent section accounting for one-fifth of all patents1 showed a #ej per cent improvement in search speed and #ajj per cent in accuracy as a result of using automated methods4 ,desk-size computer systems with solid-state circuits are being offered for information retrieval4 ,the number of scientific information centers in this country1 starting with one in #ahcj1 reached #ei in #aidj and now stands at #add4 ,significantly1 of #b1jjj scientists and engineers working at these centers1 #cha are computer people4 ,some representative information retrieval applications making good use of computer techniques are the selection of the seven astronauts for the ,mercury ,project from thousands of jet pilots1 ,procter ,gamble's ,technical ,information ,service1 demonstration of an electronic law library to the ,american ,bar ,association1 and ,food ,machinery and ,chemical ,corporation's ,central ,research ,laboratory4 ,the ,national ,science ,foundation1 the ,national ,bureau of ,standards1 and the ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office are among the government agencies in addition to the military services that are interested in electronic information retrieval4 ,summary ,the impact of the computer on education1 language and communication1 and the handling of information is obviously already strongly felt4 ,these inroads will be increased1 and progress hastened in the years ahead of us4 ,perhaps of the greatest importance is the assigning to the machine functions closer to the roots of all these things4 ,rather than simply read or translate language1 for example1 the computer seems destined to improve on it4 ,the same applies to the process of teaching and to the storage and retrieval of data4 ,the electronic computer has shown that it is not a passive piece of equipment1 but active and dynamic in nature4 ,it will soon be as much a part of the classroom and library as books2 one day it may take the place of books themselves4 ,illustration3 ,lichty1 ,field ,enterprises1 ,inc4 8,how come they spend over a million on our new school1 ,miss ,finch1 and then forget to put in computer machines80 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 8',tis one and the same ,nature that rolls on her course1 and whoever has sufficiently considered the present state of things might certainly conclude as to both the future and the past40 --,montaigne #aa3 ,the ,road ,ahead ,in ,book ,one of ,les ,miserables1 ,cosette says1 8,would you realize what ,revolution is1 call it ,progress2 and would you realize what ,progress is1 call it ,tomorrow40 ,victor ,hugo's definitions apply well to what has been termed by some the computer revolution and by others simply the natural evolution of species4 ,the computer has a past and a present1 differentiated mainly by the slope of the line plotting progress against time4 ,its future1 which blurs somewhat with the present1 will obviously be characterized by a line approaching the vertical4 ,the intelligent machine has been postulated for years1 first by the scientist1 then by the science-fiction writer1 and now again by the scientist4 ,norbert ,wiener of cybernetics fame1 ,ashby and his homeostat1 ,grey ,walter and his mechanical turtles1 ,a4 ,m4 ,turing1 ,john von ,neumann1 and others1 have recently been joined by men like ,ramo1 ,samuel1 ,newell1 et al41 who1 if not actually beating the drums for machine intelligence1 do more than admit to the possibility4 ,for each such pro there are cons1 of course1 from sincere1 intelligent authorities who in effect holler 8,get a horse60 at those who say the computer is coming4 ,the ,royal ,society in ,england met its stiffest opposition from otherwise intelligent people who deplored naturalism in any form4 ,perhaps such detractors are a necessary goad1 a part of progress4 ,at any rate1 science survived the ,nicholas ,gimcrack jibes of the ,popes and ,addisons and ,swifts4 ,darwin was more right than ,butler1 though the latter probably made more money from his work4 ,today1 we find a parallel situation in that there are those who refuse to accept the computer as an intelligent machine1 though it is interesting to watch these objectors regroup and draw another line the machine dare not go past4 ,the writers of science and pseudo-science have often been accused of fantasy and blue-sky dreams4 ,a case in point in the electronics field is the so-called 8journalistor0 or marvelous successor to the transistor4 ,such riding off in all directions with each new laboratory experiment may be justified in that it prods the scientist who must keep up with the press and his advertising department6 ,this theory apparently works1 and now it seems that the most startling and fantastic stories come not from writers1 but from the scientists themselves4 ,in #aifj the ,western ,joint ,computer ,conference was held in ,san ,francisco1 and one session was devoted to the fanciful design and use of a computer with the problem-solving capability of an intelligent man and the speed and capacity of a high-speed data-processor4 ,it was proposed to use 8tunnel-effect tetrodes0 with a switching time of one ten-billionth of a second as the logic and storage elements4 ,these would be fabricated of thin-film materials by electron beam micromachining1 and #ajj billion of them could be packed into a cubic inch volume4 ,with these tiny components and new circuit modes a supercomputer could be built1 stored with information1 and programmed to solve what one of the participants called the most difficult problem the human being faces today--that of bargaining4 ,this computer has not yet been built2 it won't be for some time4 ,but design and fabrication are moving in that direction on a number of fronts4 ,one of these fronts is that of hardware1 the components used in building up the computer circuitry4 ,in a decade we moved from vacuum tubes to transistors to thin-film devices4 ,examples of shrinkage on a gross scale are shown in the use of a single ferrite core to replace some twenty conventional 7relatively speaking67 components4 ,memory circuits once were mechanical relays or tube circuits4 ,briefly they were transistorized1 and then ferrite cores4 ,magnetic thin-film circuits have now been developed1 making random-access storage almost as compact as the sequential tape reel4 ,as circuits grow smaller the major problem is manipulating them1 or even seeing them1 and a sneeze can be disastrous in today's electronics plant4 ,one early journalistor was the molecular circuit4 ,many scientists and engineers working in the field scoffed at or derided such a visionary scheme4 ,but the industry has indeed progressed into the integrated-circuit technology--a sort of halfway point--and is now on the fringe of actual functional block techniques in which the individual components are not discernible4 ,electronic switching and other action at the molecular level is close to reality1 and hardheaded scientists now speak calmly of using a homogeneous block of material as a memory1 scanning its three dimensions with the speed of light to locate any one or more of billions of bits of data in a few inches of volume4 ,writing on the head of a pin was a prophetic bit of showmanship1 and pinhead-size computers will not necessarily have pinhead mentalities4 ,this progress toward a seemingly hopeless goal takes on an inexorable quality when the writings of von ,neumann are compared with the state of the art today4 ,starting out much faster but much larger than similar elements of the brain1 computer components have been made even faster while simultaneously shrinking dramatically toward the dimensions necessary to produce quantitative equivalence4 ,it happens that these goals work out well together1 the one helping the other4 ,circuitry is now at the point where speed is ultimately dependent on that limiter of all physical activity1 the speed of light1 or of electrons through a conductor4 ,only by putting elements closer together can speed be increased2 thus one quality is not achieved at the sacrifice of the other4 ,illustration3 ,international ,business ,machines ,corp4 ,this experimental 8memory plane0 consists of #ace cryotron devices built up in a #ai-layer 8sandwich40 ,produced automatically1 it is an example of continued shrinking of computer elements4 ,as an example of the progress being made toward speeding up computers1 speakers at the recent ,winter ,general ,meeting of the ,american ,institute of ,electrical ,engineers described a coming generation of 8gigacycle0 computers now on the drawing boards4 ,present electronic machines operate at speeds in the megacycle range1 with #ej million cycles per second representing the most advanced state of the art4 ,giga means billion2 thus the new round of computers will be some thousand times as fast as those now operating4 ,among the firms who plan such ultraspeed computers are ,,rca1 ,,ibm1 and ,sperry ,rand ,corporation4 ,to achieve such a great increase in speed requires faster electronic switches4 ,transistors have been improved1 and more exotic devices such as tunnel diodes1 thin-film cryotrons1 magnetic thin-films1 parametrons1 and traveling-wave tubes are now coming into use4 ,much of the development work is being supported by the ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,ships4 ,operational gigacycle computers are expected within two years6 ,not just the brickmaker1 but the architect too has been busy in the job of optimizing the computer4 ,the science of bionics and the study of symbolic logic lead to better ways of doing things4 ,the computer itself comes up with improvements for its next generation1 making one part do the work of five1 and eliminating the need for whole sections of circuitry4 ,most computers have a fixed 8clock02 that is1 they operate at a certain cyclic rate4 ,now appearing on the scene are 8asynchronous0 computers which don't stand around waiting when one job is done1 as their predecessors did4 ,one advanced notion is the 8growing0 of complex electronic circuitry1 in which a completed amplifier1 or array of amplifiers1 is pulled from the crystal furnace much the way material for transistors is now grown4 ,pooh-poohed at first as ridiculous1 the notion has been tried experimentally4 ,since a computer is basically a multiplicity of simple units1 the idea is not far off at that4 ,it is conceivable that crystal structure can be exploited to produce millions of molecules of the proper material properly aligned for the desired electronic action4 ,with this shrinking come the benefits of small size1 low power consumption1 low cost1 and perhaps lower maintenance4 ,the computer will be cheap enough for applications not now economically feasible4 ,as this happens1 what will the computer do for us tomorrow8 ,a figure of #g per cent is estimated for the amount of paperwork the computer has taken over in the business world4 ,computer men are eyeing a market some five times that amount4 ,it does not take a vivid imagination to decide that such a percentage is perhaps conservative in the extreme4 ,computer sales themselves promise to show a fourfold increase in the five-year period from #aifj to #aife1 and in the past predictions have been exceeded many times4 ,as population grows and business expands in physical size and complexity1 it is obvious that the computer and its data-processing ability will be called upon more and more4 ,there is another factor1 that of the internationalizing of business4 ,despite temporary setbacks of war1 protective tariffs1 insular tendencies1 and the like1 in the long run we will live in one integrated world shrunk by data links that can get information from here to there and back again so fast it will be like conversing with someone across the room4 ,already planners are talking worldwide computerized systems4 ,as a mathematical whiz1 the computer will relieve us of our money worries4 ,coupled with the credit card1 perhaps issued to us at birth1 a central computer will permit us to make purchases anywhere in the world and to credit our account with wages and other income4 ,if we try to overdraw1 it may even flash a warning light as fast as we put the card in the slot6 ,this project interests ,general ,dynamics researchers4 ,of more importance than merely doing bookkeeping is the impact the computer will have on the planning and running of businesses4 ,although it is found in surveys that every person thinks computer application reaches to the level just below his in the management structure1 pure logic should ultimately win out over man's emotional frailties at all levels4 ,operations research1 implemented by the computer1 will make for more efficient businesses4 ,decisions will increasingly be made not by vice-presidents but by digital computers4 ,at first we will have to gather the necessary information for these electronic oracles1 but in time they will take over this function themselves4 ,business is tied closely to education1 and we have had a hint of the place the computer will make for itself in education4 ,the effect on our motivation to learn of the little need for much learning will be interesting4 ,but then1 is modern man a weaker being because he kills a tiger with a high-powered rifle instead of club or bare hands--or has no need to kill the tiger in the first place8 ,after having proved itself as a patent searcher1 the computer is sure to excel as inventor4 ,it will invade the artistic field2 computers have already produced pleasing patterns of light4 ,music has felt the effect of the computer2 the trend will continue4 ,some day not far off the hi-fi enthusiast will turn on his set and hear original compositions one after the other1 turned out by the computer in as regular or random form as the hearer chooses to set the controls4 ,each composition will bring the thrill of a new1 fresh experience1 unless we choose to go back in the computer's memory for the old music4 ,the computer will do far more in the home than dream up random music for listening pleasure4 ,the recorded telephone answerer will give way to one that can speak for us1 making appointments and so on1 and remembering to bring us up to date when we get home4 ,a small computer to plug in the wall may do other things like selecting menus and making food purchases for next week1 planning our vacations1 and helping the youngsters with their homework4 ,it is even suggested that the computer may provide us with child-guidance help1 plus psychological counsel for ourselves and medical diagnoses for the entire family4 ,the entire house might be computerized1 able to run itself without human help--even after people are gone1 as in the grimly prophetic story by ,ray ,bradbury in which a neat self-controlled home is shown as the curtains part in the morning4 ,a mechanical sweeper runs about gathering up dust1 the air conditioning1 lighting1 and entertainment are automatic1 all oblivious to the fact that one side of the house is blackened from the blast of a bomb4 ,perhaps guarding against that eventuality is the most important job the computer can do4 ,applications of computing power to government have been given2 and hints made of the sure path from simple tasks like the census and income tax1 ,peace ,corps work1 and so on to decision-making for the president4 ,just as logic is put to work in optimizing business1 it can be used to plan and run a taut ship of state4 ,at first such an electronic cabinet member will be given all available information1 which it will evaluate so as to be ready to make suggestions on policy or emergency action4 ,there is more reason for it going beyond this status to become an active agent1 than there is against4 ,government has already become so complex that perhaps a human brain1 or a collection of them1 cannot be depended on to make the best possible decision4 ,as communications and transportation are speeded up1 the problem is compounded4 ,where once a commander-in-chief could weigh the situation for days before he had to commit himself and his country to a final choice1 he may now be called upon to make such a far-reaching decision in minutes--perhaps minutes from the time he is awakened from a sound sleep4 ,the strongest opposition to this delegation of power is man's own vanity4 ,no machine can govern1 even if it can think1 the politician exclaims4 ,the soldier once felt the same way2 but operations research has given him more confidence in the machine1 and ,,sage and ,,norad prove to him that survival depends on the speed and accuracy of the electronic computer4 ,incurable romanticism is found even among our scientific community4 ,the ,national ,bureau of ,standards describes a computer called ,,adam1 for ,absolutely ,divine ,automatic ,machine4 ,but the scientists also know that ,,adam1 or man1 needs help4 ,rather than consider the machine a tool1 or even an extension of man's mind1 some are now concerned with a kind of marriage of man and machine in which each plays a significant part4 ,dr4 ,simon ,ramo1 executive vice president of ,thompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc41 has termed this mating of the minds 8intellectronics40 ,the key to this combination of man's intellect and that of electronics is closer rapport between the team members4 ,illustration3 ,department of ,defense ,computer use in defense is typified in this ,,birdie system of the ,united ,states ,army4 ,the man-machine concept has grown into a science called1 for the present at least1 8synnoetics10 a coinage from the ,greek words syn and noe meaning 8perceive0 and 8together40 ,this science is defined as the treating of the properties of composite systems1 consisting of configurations of persons1 mechanisms1 plant or animal organisms1 and automata1 whose main attribute is that their ability to invent1 to create1 and to reason--their mental power--is greater than the mental power of their components4 ,we get a not-too-fanciful look into the future in a paper by ,dr4 ,louis ,fein presented in the summer #aifa issue of ,american ,scientist1 titled 8,computer-related ,sciences 7,synnoetics7 at a ,university in #aige40 ,dr4 ,fein is an authority on computers1 as builder of ,,raydac in #aieb1 and as founder and president of the ,computer ,control ,company4 ,the paper ostensibly is being given to alumni some years hence by the university president4 ,dr4 ,fein tells us that students in the ,department of ,synnoetics study the formal languages used in communication between the elements of a synnoetic system1 operations research1 game theory1 information storage1 organization and retrieval1 and automatic programming4 ,one important study is that of error1 called ,hamartiology1 from the ,greek word meaning 8to miss the mark40 ,the speaker tells us that this field was variously called cybernetics1 information science1 and finally computer-related science before being formally changed to the present synnoetics4 ,a list of the courses available to undergraduates includes3 ,von ,neumann ,machines and ,turing ,machines ,elements of ,automatic ,programming ,theory1 ,design1 and ,construction of ,compilers ,algorithms3 ,theory1 ,design1 and ,applications ,foundations of the ,science of ,models ,the ,theory1 ,design1 and ,application of ,non-,numeric ,models ,heuristics ,self-,programming ,computers ,advice ,giving--,man to ,machine and ,machine to ,man ,simulation3 ,principles and ,techniques ,pattern ,recognition and ,learning by ,automata ,the ,grammar1 ,syntax1 and ,use of ,formal ,languages for ,communication ,between ,machine and ,machine and ,between ,man and ,man ,man-,automaton ,systems3 ,their ,organization1 ,use1 and ,control ,problem-,solving3 an ,analysis of the ,relationship ,between the ,problem-,solver1 the ,problem1 and the ,means for ,solution ,measurements of the ,fundamental ,characteristics of the ,elements of ,synnoetic ,systems ,of course1 synnoetics spills over into the other schools1 as shown in the following typical courses taught3 ,botany ,department ,machine-,guided ,taxonomy in ,botany ,business ,school ,synnoetic 8,business ,executives0 ,engineering ,school ,theory of ,error and ,equipment ,reliability ,design of ,analog and ,digital ,computers ,humanities ,department ,theory of ,creative ,processes in the ,fine ,arts ,law ,school ,patent and ,precedence ,searches with ,computers ,the ,effect of ,automata on the ,legislative and ,judicial ,process ,mathematics ,department ,the ,theory of ,graphs and the ,organization of ,automata ,medical ,school ,computer-,aided ,medical ,diagnosis and ,prescription for ,treatment ,philosophy ,the ,relationships between ,models and the ,phenomena ,that ,are ,modeled ,psychology ,department ,studies in ,intuition and ,intellect of ,synnoetic ,systems ,simulation in the ,behavioral ,sciences ,sociology ,department ,synnoetics in ,modern ,society ,the speaker proudly refers to the achievement of the faculty mediator and a computer in settling the 8famous0 strike of #aigj4 ,he simply got both sides first to agree that each would benefit by concentrating attention--not on arguing and finally settling the issues one at a time--but on arguing and finally settling on a program for an automaton4 ,this program would evaluate the thousands of alternative settlements and would recommend a small class of settlements each of which was nearly optimum for both sides4 ,the automaton took only #cj minutes to produce the new contract last year4 ,it would have taken one year to do this manually1 and even then it would have been done less exhaustively4 ,agreeing on the program took one week4 ,of course1 you have already heard that in many areas where people are bargaining or trying to make optimum decisions such as in the ,world ,nations ,organization1 in the ,world ,court1 and in local1 federal1 and world legislative bodies1 there is now serious consideration being given to convincing opposing factions to try to agree on a program and having once agreed on it1 the contract or legislation or judgment or decision produced with the program would be accepted as optimum for both sides4 ,automata may also be provided to judges and juries to advise them of the effects of such factors as weight of evidence on verdicts in civil cases4 ,dr4 ,fein makes an excellent case for the usefulness of the science of synnoetics2 the main point of challenge to his paper might be that its date is too conservatively distant4 ,of interest to us here is the idea of man and machine working in harmony for the good of both4 ,another paper1 8,the ,coming ,technological ,society10 presented by ,dr4 ,simon ,ramo at the ,university of ,california at ,los ,angeles1 ,may #a1 #aifa1 also discusses the possible results of man-machine cooperation during the remainder of the twentieth century4 ,he lists more than a dozen specific and important applications for intellectronics in the decades immediately ahead of us4 ,law1 medicine1 engineering1 libraries1 money1 and banking are among these4 ,pointing out that man is as unsuited for 8putting little marks on pieces of paper0 as he was for building pyramids with his own muscles1 he suggests that our thumbprints and electronic scanners will take care of all accounting4 ,tongue in cheek1 he does say that there will continue to be risks associated with life2 for instance1 a transistor burning out in ,kansas ,city may accidentally wipe out someone's fortune in ,philadelphia4 ,the making of reservations is onerous busywork man should not have to waste his valuable time on1 and the control of moving things too is better left to the machine for the different reason that man's unaided brain cannot cope with complex and high-speed traffic arteries1 be they in space or on ,los ,angeles freeways4 ,business and military management will continue to be aided by the electronic machine4 ,but beyond all these benefits are those more important ones to our brains1 our society1 and culture4 ,teaching machines1 says ,dr4 ,ramo1 can make education ten times more effective1 thus increasing our intellect4 ,and this improved intellect1 multiplied by the electronic machine into intellectronic brainpower1 is the secret of success in the world ahead4 ,instead of an automated1 robotlike regimented world that some predict1 ,ramo sees greater democracy resulting4 ,using the thumbprint again1 and the speed of electronics1 government of our country will be truly by the people as they make their feelings known daily if necessary4 ,intellectronic legislation will extend beyond a single country's boundaries in international cooperation4 ,it will smash the language and communication barriers4 ,it will permit and implement not only global prediction of weather1 but global control as well4 ,because of the rapid handling of vast amounts of information1 man can form more accurate and more logical concepts that will lead to better relations throughout the world4 ,summing up1 ,dr4 ,ramo points out that intellectronics benefits not only the technical man but social man as well3 ,the real bottleneck to progress1 to a safe1 orderly1 and happy transition to the coming technological age1 lies in the severe disparity between scientific and sociological advance4 ,having discussed technology1 with emphasis on the future extension of man's intellect1 we should ask3 ,will intellectronics aid in removing the imbalance8 ,will technology1 properly used1 make possible a correction of the very imbalance which causes technology to be in the lead8 ,i believe that the challenging intellectual task of accelerating social progress is for the human mind and not his less intellectual partner4 ,but perhaps there is hope4 ,if the machines do more of the routine1 everyday1 intellectual tasks and insure the success of the material operation of the world1 man's work will be elevated to the higher mental domains4 ,he will have the time1 the intellectual stature1 and hence the inclination to solve the world's social problems4 ,we must believe he has the capability4 ,illustration3 ,thompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc4 ,information in many forms can be displayed with 8polymorphic0 data-processing systems4 ,antedating synnoetics and intellectronics is another idea of such a relationship4 ,in his book ,the ,world1 ,the ,flesh and the ,devil1 ,j4 ,d4 ,bernal considers man's replacement of various of his body's parts with mechanical substitutes until the only organic remains would be his brain4 ,this is a sort of wrong-end-to synnoetics1 but in #aibi when the book was published there was already plenty of raw material for such a notion4 ,wooden legs and hooks or claws for hands1 metal plates for bone material1 for example2 and the artificial heart already being developed4 ,more recently we have seen the artificial kidney used1 along with other organs4 ,we have also added electronic gear to our organic components1 for example the 8pacemaker0 implanted in many laggard hearts to keep them beating in proper cadence1 plastic plumbing1 and the like4 ,there is a word for this sort of part-organic1 part-mechanical man3 the name 8cyborg0 for cybernetic organism was proposed by two ,new ,york doctors4 ,their technical definition of cyborg is 8an exogenously extended organizational complex functioning as a homeostatic system40 ,there is of course strong precedent in nature for the idea of such a beneficial combination3 symbiosis1 the co-existence or close union of two dissimilar organisms4 ,the shark and his buddy1 the pilot fish1 are examples2 as are man and the many parasites to which he is host4 ,the idea of man being part of machine harks back to youthful rides in soapbox racers1 and later experiences driving cars or flying aircraft4 ,the pilot who flew 8by the seat of his pants0 in the early days easily felt himself part of the machine4 ,as planes--and cars--grew bigger and more complex1 this 8one-manship0 became more remote and harder to identify4 ,the jet transport pilot may well have the feeling of handling a train when he applies force to his controls and must wait for it to be amplified through a servo system and finally act on the air stream4 ,in the space age the man-machine combination not only survives but also flourishes4 ,arthur ,c4 ,clarke writes in a science-fiction story of a legless space man who serves well and happily in the weightlessness of his orbiting satellite station4 ,we have two stages of development1 then1 not necessarily sequential3 man working with the machine and man as part of the machine4 ,several writers have suggested a third stage in which the machine gradually supplants the weaker human being much as other forms eased out the dinosaur of old4 ,william ,o4 ,stapledon's book1 ,last and ,first ,men1 describes immortal and literal giant brains4 ,many writers believe that these 8brains0 will not be man's1 but those of the machine1 since frail humanity cannot survive in its increasingly hostile environment4 ,arthur ,c4 ,clarke is most articulate in describing what he calls the evolutionary cycle from man to machine4 ,as the discovery of tools by pre-man created man1 so man's invention of thinking machines set about the workings that will make him extinct4 ,clarke theorizes that this breakthrough by man may well be his last1 and that his machines will 8think0 him off the face of the earth6 ,illustration3 ,hughes ,aircraft ,company ,withstanding underwater pressures1 at depths too great for human divers1 a ,mobot vehicle demonstrates in this artist's concept how it can perform salvage and rescue operations at the bottom of the ocean4 ,as we move into a technology that embraces communication at a distance of millions of miles1 survival under death-dealing radiation1 and travel at fantastic speeds1 man's natural equipment falters and he must rely on the machine both as muscle and brain4 ,intelligence arose from life but does not necessarily need life1 in the sense we think of it1 to continue4 ,thus the extension of man's intellect by electronics as hailed by ,dr4 ,ramo will lead ultimately to our extinction4 ,clarke feels that the man-machine partnership we have entered1 while mutually benevolent1 is doomed to instability and that man with his human shortcomings will fall by the wayside1 perhaps in space1 which may well be the machine's true medium4 ,what will remain will be the intelligent machine1 reduced as time goes on to 8pure0 intelligence free to roam where it will and do what it wants1 a matterless state of affairs that even ,clarke modestly disclaims the imagination to speculate upon4 ,before writing man off as a lost cause1 we should investigate a strong argument against such a take-over by the machine4 ,man stands apart from other creatures in his consciousness of himself4 ,he alone seems to have the ability to ponder his fate1 to reflect1 and to write books about his thoughts and dreams4 ,lesser animals apparently take what comes1 do what they have to do1 and get through this life with a minimum of changing their environment and themselves4 ,thus far the machines man has built do not seem to be conscious of themselves4 ,while 8rational beings10 perhaps1 they do not have the 8ability to laugh0 or otherwise show conscious awareness of their fate4 ,a term applied to primitive mechanical beings is 8plugsuckers40 ,they learn to seek out a wall socket or other form of energy and nourish themselves much as animals must do4 ,just where man himself switched from plugsucking and began to rewire his own world is a fuzzy demarcation1 but he seems to have accomplished this4 ,consciousness is subjective in the extreme1 and thus far only in fiction have computers paused to reflect and consider what they have done and its effect on them4 ,however1 the machine-builder1 if not yet the machine itself1 is aware of this consciousness problem4 ,the ,hoffman ,electronics ,corporation recently published an advertisement in the form of a science-fiction story by ,a4 ,e4 ,van ,vogt4 ,the hero is a defense vehicle1 patrolling the ,pacific more effectively because it thinks it is king of the ,philippine ,deep4 ,its name is ,itself1 and it has a built-in alter ego4 ,hoffman admits it has not produced a real ,itself--yet1 but points out calmly that the company's business is the conversion of scientific fiction to scientific fact4 ,it has been suggested that mechanical consciousness may evolve when the computer begins to reproduce itself1 a startling conception blessed in theory by logicians and mathematicians1 as well as philosophers4 ,a crude self-replicating model has been built by scientists--a toy train that reproduces itself by coupling together the proper cars to copy the parent train1 a whimsical reflection of ,samuel ,butler's baby engines playing about the roundhouse door4 ,self-reproducing machines may depend on a basic 8cell0 containing a blueprint of what it should look like when complete1 which simply hunts around for the proper parts and assembles itself4 ,in the process it may even make an improvement or two4 ,having finished1 it will make a carbon copy of its blueprint and start another 8baby0 machine on the way4 ,writers on this subject--some under the guise of science-fiction--wonder at what point the machines will begin to wonder about how they came to be4 ,will they produce philosophic or religious literature1 or will this step in evolution prove that consciousness was a bad mutation1 like seven fingers or three heads1 and drop it from the list of instructions8 ,clarke admits that the take-over by the machines is centuries off2 meantime we can enjoy a golden age of intellectronic partnership with the machine4 ,linus ,pauling1 pointing out that knowledge of molecular structure has taken away the mystery of life1 hopes that a 8molecular theory of thinking0 will be developed and so improve man that he may remake his thoughts and his world4 ,mathematician ,john ,williams believes that existing human intelligence can preserve its distinction only by withdrawing from competition with the machine and defining human intelligence rigorously enough to exclude that of the machines4 ,he suggests using the computer not just for a molecular theory of thinking1 but also in the science of genetics to design our children6 ,whatever lies ahead1 it seems obvious that one of the most important things the computer can help us think about is the computer itself4 ,it is a big part of our future4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,index ,abacus1 #e1 #ba1 #bb1 #fj1 #he1 #abi1 #agh1 #aha ,abstracting computer1 #bde1 #bdh ,accuracy analog computer1 #hb digital computer1 #hg ,ackerman1 #aaj ,,adam computer1 #beh ,adaptive principle1 #bje ,adders1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aae ,adding machine1 #abi ,addition1 computer1 #ajf ,address1 computer1 #fc ,advertising1 use of computer1 #ahj ,,aid1 #ahc1 #ahd ,,aiee1 #bed ,aiken1 #df ,air ,force1 #f1 #acb1 #acc1 #aea1 #afj1 #ahb1 #bbe ,airborne computer1 #ij1 #aed1 #aeh1 #afb ,ai,research ,mfg4 ,co41 #fi ,airline reservations1 computer1 #eh1 #ahc1 #ahd ,algebra1 ,boolean1 #h1 #aaj1 #aai ,alpha rhythm1 #abf ,alphanumeric code1 #ajd ,american ,premium ,systems1 ,inc41 #age ,analog computer1 #ba1 #de1 #gb1 #gd1 #hj1 #abe1 #bjc direct1 #gf1 #gi direct-current1 #gf discrete1 #hj indirect1 #gf1 #gi mechanical differential analyzer1 #gf scaling1 #gf ,analytical engine1 #cf1 #cg ,,and gate1 #aab1 #aac1 #aag1 #aai ,antikythera computer1 #be ,apollo computer1 #ahb space vehicle1 #afi ,applications1 digital computer1 #ib ,a priori concept1 #abf1 #ace ,,apt computer1 #bji ,aquinas1 ,st4 ,thomas1 #bce ,arabic numbers1 #bc ,archytas1 #be ,arithmetic unit1 computer1 #ea1 #fj ,aristotle1 #bf ,aristotelian logic1 #aji ,arizona ,journal1 #agi ,army1 ,u4 ,s41 #ba1 #gh1 #adf1 #bei ,ars ,magna1 #bh1 #bi ,,artoc1 #aeg ,artron1 #acf ,ashby1 ,w4 ,ross1 #ea1 #abd1 #abh1 #bea ,,asc computer1 #aee ,associated ,press computer system1 #agg ,asynchronous computer1 #bee ,athena computer1 #eb ,atlas missile1 #d1 #afh ,atlas-,centaur missile1 #afi ,atomic ,energy ,commission1 ,u4 ,s41 #adi ,automatic control1 #hj1 #bjc pilot1 #bjc ,automation1 #bf1 #hj1 #agc1 #aha1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #baa1 #bag ,automaton1 #bf ,auto-parking1 use of computer1 #agh ,autonetics1 #bjg ,,autoprompt computer1 #baj ,,autotag1 #aef ,auto,tutor teaching machine1 #bac1 #bbe ,b-#bi1 #de1 #gg1 #hb ,babbage1 #e1 #ce1 #cg1 #da1 #ea ,babylonian arithmetic1 #bc ,ballistic computer1 #hc ,banking1 #a1 #agb1 #agc ,bar ,association1 ,american1 #aeb1 #bdi ,battelle ,memorial ,institute1 #aie ,batten1 ,barton1 ,durstine1 ,osborn1 #ahj ,bell ,telephone ,laboratories1 #d1 #adg1 #bda ,bendix ,corp41 #ahb1 #aij1 #bah ,bendix ,g-#ae computer1 #ahc1 #ahh ,bernal1 ,j4 ,d41 #bfd ,bernstein1 ,alex1 #ada ,bettelheim1 ,bruno1 #add ,,biax memory units1 #aj ,bierce1 ,ambrose1 #dc1 #aba ,,binac computer1 #g1 #dg ,binary1 #ih digit1 #ee1 #ajd notation1 #aja1 #ajc pure1 #ajb1 #ajd system1 #he1 #ig1 #ii variables1 #aad ,bionics1 #g1 #acb1 #ace1 #bee ,,birdie1 #bei ,birds1 counting1 #ah ,bit1 #ee1 #ajd 8,black box0 concept1 #ej1 #aae ,,blades system1 #aia ,block diagram1 #eh ,,bmews1 #aei ,boeing ,airplane ,co41 #ahf ,boltzmann equation1 #aeh ,bomarc missile1 #ahf ,book of ,contemplation1 #bg ,book of ,knowledge1 #f1 #bbf ,boole1 ,george1 #ch1 #aaj ,boolean algebra1 #ch1 #aaj1 #aai ,bradbury1 ,ray1 #aec1 #beg ,brain1 #aba ,brain computer1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj human1 #hg1 #abe1 #abh ,,brainiac computer1 #hh1 #aag ,britton1 ,lionel1 #aba ,buffer computer1 #ee lexical1 #bch ,buildings1 automation of1 #bag ,burack1 ,benjamin1 #dd ,bureau of ,mines1 ,u4 ,s41 #ahi ,bureau of ,ships1 ,u4 ,s41 #bee ,burke1 ,edmund1 #cb ,burkhart1 ,william1 #de ,bush1 ,vannevar1 #ac1 #de1 #gf ,business1 computer in1 #aga ,business management1 use of computer1 #ab1 #adc ,butler1 ,samuel1 #cb1 #cc1 #aba1 #beb1 #bfh ,,calculo computer1 #ge ,calculus ,ratiocinator1 #aji ,calendars as computers1 #bd ,california ,institute of ,technology1 #afi ,cancer ,society1 ,american1 #aic ,candide1 #cj ,capek1 ,karel1 #dc1 #aba1 #bae ,caplin1 ,mortimer1 #aej ,carroll1 ,lewis1 #ch1 #aah ,,cdc #afjd computer1 #afe ,celanese ,corp4 of ,america1 #bjg ,celestial simulator1 #he ,census1 #da ,census ,bureau1 ,u4 ,s41 #adi ,chain circuit1 #abg ,characteristica ,universalis1 #aji ,charactron tube1 #ff ,checkers 7game71 #h1 #adc ,checking1 computer1 #fj ,checkout computer1 #ahc ,chemical ,corp41 #bdi ,chess1 #h1 #i1 #af1 #ce1 #ii1 #adb1 #aef ,circuit chain1 #abg delay-line1 #fc flip-flop1 #fc1 #aae molecular1 #i1 #bec printed1 #fb reverberation1 #abh ,clapp1 ,verner1 #bdh ,clarke1 ,arthur ,c41 #bfe ,,class teaching machine system1 #bbf-bbh ,clock1 #bj1 #bd1 #ef1 #he ,,cobol language1 #bcd ,code1 computer binary-coded decimal1 #ajc1 #ajf binary-octal1 #ajf economy1 #ajf excess-#c1 #aje1 #aad 8,gray10 #ajf reflected binary1 #ajf self-checking1 #aje ,color computer1 #d ,commercial ,art1 #age ,commission on ,professional and ,hospital ,activity1 #aid ,communication1 use of computers1 #agi ,computer ,,adam1 #beh addition1 #ajf airborne1 #ij1 #aed1 #aeh1 #afb analog1 #ba1 #de1 #gb1 #gd1 #hj1 #abe1 #bjc direct1 #gf1 #gi direct-current1 #gf discrete1 #hj indirect1 #gf1 #gi mechanical differential analyzer1 #gf scaling1 #gf ,antikythera1 #be ,apollo1 #ahb space vehicle1 #afi applications1 digital1 #ib ,,ascc1 #aee asynchronous1 #bee ,athena1 #eb ballistic1 #hc ,bendix ,g-#ae1 #ahc1 #ahh ,,binac1 #g1 #dg ,,brainiac1 #hh1 #aag ,,calculo1 #ge ,,class1 #bbf-bbh code1 binary-coded decimal1 #ajc1 #ajf color1 #d definition1 #abi dictionary1 #di1 #ej difference engine1 #e1 #ce digital1 #ah1 #de1 #gc1 #hd1 #abe1 #bjc division1 #ajg do-it-yourself1 #ge1 #hh1 #aag1 #adg electrical-analog1 #ge electronic1 #a1 #df1 #abb1 #aea ,,eniac1 #g1 #dj1 #df1 #he1 #bae ,,erma1 #agc family tree1 #hf ,,finder system1 #afa flow chart1 #eh1 #ei ,,ge #baj1 #agb ,,ge #bbe1 #bde general-purpose1 #ed1 #ha1 #aia gigacycle1 #bed 8,hand10 #acb1 #bad1 #bae household1 #ae1 #beg hybrid1 #hj1 #hd1 #ib ,,illiac1 #aig input1 #ea1 #ed1 #abe ,,johnniac1 #aa1 #dg1 #abi1 #adj1 #adb language1 #bcc ,,larc1 #dg1 #afb1 #aia ,,lgp-#cj1 #aih limitations1 #hi ,,maniac1 #dg1 #aef1 #afe ,memex1 #ac mill1 #ch1 #ea1 #fj ,,mips1 #aei ,,mobidic1 #aeg ,,muse1 #dh music1 #aa1 #ib1 #aif1 #beg on-line1 #ha1 #bje on-stream1 #hc1 #bjg output1 #ea1 #fe1 #abe parts1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec problem-solving1 #adj1 #adc ,psychological ,matrix ,rotation1 #gh1 #id ,q-#e1 #gg ,,ramac1 #aej1 #aea1 #aih1 #aii ,range ,keeper ,mark ,i1 #db ,,raydac1 #bfj ,,rca #eja1 #aea 8real-time10 #gh1 #afh1 #bjb1 #bje ,,recomp1 #dg revolution1 #bea ,sabre1 #ahc ,,sage1 #c1 #ab1 #cg1 #ec1 #aeh1 #aei1 #bbf1 #bei sequential1 #abf 8,shoebox10 #bdb 8software10 #ed spaceborne1 #afg special-purpose1 #gi ,,ssec1 #aee1 #aef ,stone ,age1 #ba store1 #cf1 #fb ,,stretch1 #dg1 #dh subtraction1 #ajf testing1 #aag ,,univac1 #dg1 #adi1 #aea1 #aga1 #bba ,,vidiac1 character-generator1 #bdb ,zuse ,l#bc1 #aii ,computer ,control ,co41 #bfj ,conjunctive operation1 #cg1 #ea1 #aaj ,consciousness1 #add1 #ade1 #bfg ,continuous analog computer1 #hj ,continuous digital computer1 #hj ,continuous quantity1 #gc ,control1 computer1 #ea1 #ef ,control ,data ,corp41 #aid ,conversion analog-to-digital1 #gd digital-to-analog1 #gd ,converters1 #id ,cook1 ,william ,w41 #bi ,copland1 ,aaron1 #aa1 #aif ,cornell ,medical ,college1 #abc ,cornell ,university1 #acc ,corrigan ,communications1 #bca ,council on ,library ,resources1 #bdh ,counting ,australian1 #bj birds1 #ah boards1 #bj digital1 #hd machines1 #bj man1 #ai modulo-1 #ig1 #aja ,credit card1 #ac1 #bef ,cryogenics1 #gj components1 #fc ,cryotron1 #i1 #hh1 #ada1 #bed1 #bee ,cybertron1 #ace1 #aci ,cyborg1 #bfe ,daedalus1 #ah ,darwin1 ,charles1 #cb1 #acg1 #beb ,data link1 #ad1 #ahe1 #bef logger1 #bje processing1 #bb1 #aga1 #bfd recording media1 #eg ,daystrom1 ,inc41 #baa ,dead ,sea ,scrolls1 #bce ,decimal system1 #ai ,decision-making1 #ia ,defense1 use of computer1 #bei ,delay-line circuit1 #fc ,de,morgan1 ,augustus1 #ch1 #aaj1 #aae ,department of ,commerce1 ,u4 ,s41 #adi1 #bba ,department of ,defense1 ,u4 ,s41 #adh1 #bcd ,design1 use of computer1 #ad1 #agb1 #ahf1 #bfh ,desk calculator1 #ea ,diagnostic use of computer1 #aid ,diamond ,ordnance ,fuze ,laboratory1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army1 #fi ,dictionary1 computer1 #di1 #ej ,,didak teaching machine1 #bbd ,difference engine1 #e1 #ce ,digiflex trainer1 #bbe ,digital computer1 #ah1 #de1 #gc1 #hd1 #abe1 #bjc ,digital differential analyzer1 #id ,digitronics1 #bcf ,discrete quantity1 #gc ,disjunctive operation1 #aaj ,division1 computer1 #ajg ,dodgson1 ,charles ,l41 #ch ,do-it-yourself computer1 #ge1 #hh1 #aag1 #adg ,douglas ,aircraft ,co41 #fe ,dow ,chemical ,corp41 #bjh ,du ,pont ,corp41 #bjh ,dunsany1 ,lord1 #ajh ,eccles-,jordan circuit1 #dg ,eckert1 ,j4 ,presper1 #dg1 #he ,,edge computer system1 #ahe ,education1 use of computers1 #bai ,elan vital1 #abg ,election1 use of computers1 #aej ,electric ,questionnaire1 #acc ,electric utilities1 use of computers1 #ic1 #bjh ,electrical-analog computer1 #ge ,electrical logic machine1 #dd ,electronic computers1 #a1 #df1 #abb1 #aea ,elephant1 compared with computer1 #ef ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 #f1 #bbf ,,eniac computer1 #g1 #dj1 #df1 #he1 #bae ,erewhon1 #cb1 #aba ,,erma computer1 #agc ,ernst1 ,heinrich1 #acb1 #bae ,euler1 #adb1 #adc1 #afc ,,euratom1 #aeh ,family tree1 computer1 #hf ,farnsworth ,car ,pool logic problem1 #aaf1 #aah ,farrington ,electronics1 ,inc41 #bdj ,federal ,aviation ,authority1 #adi1 #afa ,federal ,government1 #adh ,feedback principle1 #cf1 #bjd ,fein1 ,louis1 #bfj ,fermat's theorem1 #ef ,ferranti1 ,ltd41 #ahb ,ferrite cores1 #i1 #fc1 #aca1 #bec ,,fieldata computer family1 #aeg ,,finder computer system1 #afa ,finn1 ,james ,d41 #bbd ,flexibility of digital computer1 #hi ,flight simulator1 #hc ,flip-flop circuit1 #dg1 #fc1 #aae fluid1 #gj ,floating-point arithmetic1 #ajh ,flow chart1 computer1 #eh1 #ei ,flyball governor1 #cf1 #bjc ,fluid computer1 #gj ,food ,machinery ,corp41 #bdi ,ford ,instrument ,co41 #db ,forrester1 ,j4 ,w41 #aii ,fortune1 #bde ,frankenstein1 #db1 #bab ,freed1 ,roy1 #aeb ,free learning1 #g ,freight trains controlled by computer1 #baa ,game-playing1 #h1 #ab1 #adc ,gaming theory1 #ib ,gardner1 ,martin1 #adj ,,ge #baj computer1 #agb ,,ge #bbe computer1 #bde ,general ,dynamics ,corp41 #afi1 #ahc1 #bef ,general ,electric ,co41 #aj1 #de1 #fg1 #gf1 #gg1 #gi1 #aga1 #agb1 #bdj ,general ,motors 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,reader's ,digest1 #bcf ,real estate1 #agi 8,real-time0 computers1 #gh1 #afh1 #bjb1 #bje ,,recomp computer1 #dg ,reeves ,instrument ,co41 #gg ,republic ,aviation ,corp41 #abe ,reservations1 airline1 #c ,reverberation circuit1 #abh ,revolution1 computer1 #bea ,rheem ,califone1 #bbd ,richardson1 ,l4 ,f41 #afc ,road to ,oz1 ,the1 #bg ,robot1 #dd1 #bab ,rockefeller ,institute for ,medical ,research1 #aid ,roman numerals1 #bc1 #ig ,rosenblatt1 ,frank1 #acc1 #ace ,ross1 ,douglas1 #bji ,rossby1 ,c4 ,g41 #afe ,royal ,mc,bee1 ,corp41 #bbj ,royal ,society1 #bea ,rubiyt1 #ajh ,r4,u4,r41 #dd1 #aba ,russia1 #aa1 #gg1 #acc1 #adc1 #aie1 #bjg1 #bae1 #bba1 #bcf1 #bdb ,russian peasant multiplication1 #ajc ,russell1 ,bertrand1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #acj ,sabre computer1 #ahc ,,sac1 #afj1 #afa ,,sage computer1 #c1 #ab1 #cg1 #ec1 #aeh1 #aei1 #bbf1 #bei ,samuel1 ,arthur1 #bea ,sara ,lee ,bakeries1 #bjf ,sausage making by computer1 #agi ,scaling1 analog computer1 #gf ,scientific ,american1 #adj1 #bci 8,sea ,wolf0 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#bjg ,stanhope1 ,earl of1 #ci demonstrator1 #dj ,stapledon1 ,olaf1 #bfe ,steel mill1 #ahi1 #bjd ,steele1 ,j4 ,e41 #acb ,stock ,exchange1 ,american1 #agf ,stock market1 #agf1 #agg ,stone ,age computer1 #ba 8,store0 computer1 #cf1 #fb ,stravinsky1 ,igor1 #aig ,,stretch computer1 #dg1 #dh ,stromberg-,carlson1 #aia 8,subroutine0 computer program1 #ei ,subtraction1 computer1 #ajf ,sumerian cuneiform1 #bc ,sundial1 #bd ,sun ,oil ,co41 #bjh ,supermarket1 use of computers1 #ac1 #agd ,surveyor space vehicle1 #afi ,swift1 ,jonathan1 #cj ,switch1 statistical1 #acg ,syllogism1 #bf1 #aji ,symbiosis1 #bfe ,symbolic logic1 #ch1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aae1 #bdh1 #bee ,synnoetics1 #bfj ,,syntac1 #aej ,synthetic rubber production1 #bjh ,system ,development ,corp41 #aef1 #bbj1 #bbf ,szoeny refinery1 #bjg ,tabula rasa1 #abf ,tallies1 #bj ,tape memory1 #fd magnetic1 #ed paper1 #ed ,,tascon1 #ahj ,taylor1 ,frederick ,w41 #aga ,teaching machines1 #f1 #ajj1 #bbb1 #bbe ,auto,tutor1 #bac1 #bbe ,,class1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh ,,didak1 #bbd ,digiflex1 #bbe ,,plato1 #bbf ,pressey1 ,s41 #bbb ,skinner1 ,b4 ,f41 #acc1 #bbc1 #bcj ,videosonic1 #bbb ,technical ,information ,service1 #bdi ,technical ,operations1 ,inc41 #aej ,telecredit1 #agi ,teleflite1 #ahc ,testing computers1 #aag ,texas ,company1 ,the1 #bjh ,thinking1 #abc molecular theory of1 #bfh ,thompson ,ramo ,wooldridge1 ,inc41 #bbf1 #beh ,thomson1 ,james1 #ge ,thomson ,mc,kinnon1 #agg ,thor missile1 #afg ,tick-tack-toe1 #h1 #adc ,tik-,tok1 #bg ,titan missile1 #afh ,,tmi ,grolier1 #bbf ,torres y ,quevedo1 ,l41 #ce ,trading stamps with computers1 #age ,traffic control1 #bah ,trains1 #bae ,transcontinental ,western ,air ,lines1 #ahf ,transfe,robot1 #d1 #bac1 #bag ,transportation1 #aha ,transistors1 #i1 #hg1 #add ,translation computer1 #ia1 #ib1 #bcg ,traveling-wave tube1 #bee ,truth tables1 #aaj1 #aab ,tunnel diode1 #beete ,turing1 ,a4 ,m41 #aia ,tutor,text1 #bbf ,,unesco1 #bcf ,unimate1 #d1 #bab1 #bac ,union ,carbide1 #bjh ,unitary system1 #ig ,unicall1 #bdc ,united ,air ,lines1 #ahb1 #ahc ,united ,states ,industries1 ,inc41 #bac1 #bah1 #bbe ,,univac computer1 #dg1 #adi1 #aea1 #aga1 #bba ,university of ,california1 #gf ,university of ,california at ,berkeley1 #bch ,university of ,california at ,los ,angeles1 #acc1 #bai ,university of ,illinois1 #gh ,university of ,london1 #h ,university of ,michigan1 #ace1 #bbj ,university of ,pennsylvania1 #df ,university of ,philadelphia1 #aic ,university of ,southern ,california1 #bbe ,university of ,washington1 #aeb ,upjohn ,co41 ,the1 #abg ,vacuum tubes1 #i1 #fc1 #aad1 #abb van ,vogt1 ,a4 ,e41 #bfg ,venn1 ,john1 #bi1 #ch ,videosonic trainer1 #bbb ,,vidiac character-generator1 #bdb ,vitruvius1 #be ,vocal computer1 #fg ,voltaire1 #bi ,voltmeter1 #gf von ,braun1 ,wernher1 #afh von ,kempelen1 ,wolfgang1 #ce von ,neumann1 ,john1 #acj1 #acg1 #aef1 #bea1 #bec ,wall ,street1 #f1 #agf ,walter1 ,grey1 #bea ,walnut information retrieval system1 #bdf1 #bdg ,war strategy1 #adc ,water clock1 #bd ,watt1 ,james1 #cf1 #bjc ,way of ,all ,flesh1 ,the1 #cb ,wearever ,aluminum ,co41 #bcf ,weather ,bureau1 ,u4 ,s41 #aff ,weather map1 #afd ,weather prediction1 #ae1 #afc ,wells1 ,h4 ,g41 #ac1 #aba ,werner1 ,gerhard1 #abc ,western ,electric ,co41 #bab ,western ,reserve ,university1 #bde ,westinghouse ,corp41 #gf1 #baa1 #bah ,whitehead1 ,a4 ,n41 #aaj1 #acj ,wiener1 ,norbert1 #abc1 #bea ,williams1 ,john1 #bfh ,wood1 ,tom1 #ba ,world ,brain1 #ac ,wright ,brothers1 #ah ,x-#ae aircraft1 #ga1 #afj ,young ,rubicam1 #aha ,zero1 concept of1 #bd ,zuse ,l#bc computer1 #aii ,zworykin1 ,vladimir1 #aid ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,new original cover art included with this e,book is granted to the public domain4 ,the example of binary division on page #ajg couldn't accurately be drawn with ,,html characters4 ,some formulas and tables that could not replicated well in ,,html were replaced by page images from the printed book4 ,missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected4 ,typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book4 ,text that3 was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics72 was in bold by is enclosed by 8equal0 signs 7bold74 ,the use of a caret 77 before a letter1 or letters1 shows that the following letter or letters was intended to be a superscript1 as in #ajth ,century4 ,superscripts are used to indicate numbers raised to a power4 ,in this plain text document1 they are represented by characters like this3 8,p#c0 or 8#ajah01 i4e4 ,p cubed or #aj to the #ahth power4 ,variables in formulas sometimes use subscripts1 which look like this3 8,a#j04 ,this would be read 8,a sub #j04