,illustration ,illustration3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,ideal ,,section ,,of ,,earth',s ,,crust ,,eras ,,ages ,,periods ,,strata ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,terrace ,,bychozoic,,man ,,quaternary ,,champlain ,,glacial ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,pliocene ,,cenozoic ,,mammals ,,tertiary ,,miocene ,,eocene ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,birds ,,cretaceous ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,jurassic ,,reptiles ---------------------------------------- ,,triassic ,,mesozoic ---------------------------------------- ,,acrogens ,,permian ,,amphibians ,,carboniferous ,,carboniferous ,,sub-,,carboniferous ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,fishes ,,devonian ,,catskill1 ,,chemung ,,corniferous1 ,etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,silurian ,,low ,,helderberg ,,paleozoic ,,niagara ---------------------------------------- ,,invertebrates,,ordovician ,,lorraine1 ,,trenton ,,chazy ---------------------------------------- ,,cambrian ,,potsdam1 ,,acadian ,,georgia ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,kenesaw ,,algonkian ,,huronian1 ,etc4 ,,eozoic ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,archaean ,,laurentian1 ,etc4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,azoic ,,era ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,frontispiece4 ,nature ,readers4 ,,sea-,,side ,,and ,,way-,,side4 ,no4 #d4 ,,by ,,julia ,mc,n,a,i,r ,,wright4 8#8,come1 wander with me1' she said1 ,into regions yet untrod1 ,and read what is still unread ,in the manuscripts of ,god4'0 ,,longfellow1 ,poem on the fiftieth birthday of ,agassiz4 ,illustrated by ,c4 ,s4 ,king4 ,,boston1 ,u4,s4,a43 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,,publishers4 #ahib4 ,,copyright1 #ahia1 ,,by ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co4 ,,typography ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,cushing ,,co41 ,,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,presswork ,,by ,,berwick ,,smith1 ,,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface4 ,says ,cicero3 8,there is nothing so charming as the knowledge of that branch of literature which enables us to discover the immensity of nature1 the heavens1 the earth1 and the seas2 this is the branch which has taught us religion1 moderation1 and magnanimity1 and has rescued the soul from obscurity to make us see all things above1 below1 and between both40 ,such literature as this is now markedly in the ascendant4 ,natural science seems to be pre-eminently the coming pursuit of the coming man1 and natural science has been wonderfully popularized in books suited to those who without expecting to be specialists desire to be well informed and to look understandingly at the world which lies about them4 ,several decades have gone by since ,michelet1 with his marvellous books1 8,the ,bird0 and 8,the ,insect10 and ,hugh ,miller1 chaste1 graphic1 and enthusiastic in his 8,old ,red ,sandstone10 8,the ,cruise of the ,betsy10 and 8,the ,testimony of the ,rocks10 opened glorious new worlds before a rising generation4 ,that generation is now doing good work under the inspiration of the impetus then received4 ,our library shelves are to-day affluent in books that are handmaids of natural science4 ,tait and ,balfour ,stewart in their 8,unseen ,universe0 have brought marvels of world-building within range of our narrower ken4 ,argyle in his 8,unity of ,nature0 and 8,reign of ,law0 and 8,primeval ,man10 interpreted mighty and far-reaching harmonies4 ,principal ,sir ,william ,dawson1 in his 8,story of the ,earth and ,man10 brings the successive geologic ages before us with the vividness of some master-painter4 ,darwin and ,huxley1 detailing experiments1 have not scorned to come within the reach of the unlearned mind4 ,in botany1 the pleasing1 enthusiastic1 if often erroneous generalizations1 of ,grant ,allen have their use and place beside the stronger works of ,cooke1 ,gray1 ,jaegar1 ,taylor1 and others4 ,our ,gray1 taking a leading rank among systematic botanists1 did not disdain to write for children 8,how ,plants ,grow40 ,no man has done more toward popularizing natural science than ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood in his numerous works4 ,kingsley1 with his exquisite ,english1 has given us 8,town ,geology10 and ,tyndale has told us of 8,forms of ,water40 ,buckland and ,gosse have written what young and old have rejoiced to read4 ,the elders have sat down with the juniors to revel in ,arabella ,buckley's 8,fairy-,land of ,science0 and 8,life and ,her ,children10 while ,camille ,flammarion has made doubly eloquent to us the midnight skies4 ,it seems almost invidious to name a few out of the many authors who have written not merely technical books for study1 but popular works on natural science1 to be read on sea-shore and road-side1 on a bench in the garden1 or lying under orchard trees1 or sitting in the woods with a brook purling at our feet4 ,mc,cook has made many insects our daily friends and teachers4 ,thompson1 ,mrs4 ,treat1 and ,olive ,t4 ,miller have made the birds not only the guests of our maples1 but of our hearts4 ,the parent and teacher need no longer complain that they cannot find the information clearly given needed for replies to multitudinous hourly 8whys0 and 8hows03 the present age is prodigal to its children4 ,the ,nature ,readers have been written to direct the minds of our youth in their first studies to the pleasant ways of ,natural ,science4 ,their main object has been to cultivate the faculty of observation1 awaken enthusiasm1 and direct taste in noble lines4 ,the present volume is designed to open the way for severer studies in geology1 astronomy1 and biology4 ,,the ,,author4 ,,note4 ,natural ,science is so placed in the fore-front of the studies of the present age that no apology is needed for pressing it upon the schools4 ,to object to this pursuit is simply to write oneself a laggard behind the times4 ,we can do little that is better for our children than to teach them that the world is law-full to the core4 ,two methods of study are ardently advocated by those who instruct in natural science4 ,the one demands practical personal investigation1--nothing but investigation1--deprecates the use of text-books1 and insists upon the object only4 ,another1 perhaps a lazier fashion1 is to ignore the object and relegate the pupil only to the text-books4 ,but in medio tutissimus ibis holds here4 ,the child should indeed observe1 and1 if it can1 discover2 but let us by no means deprive it of the inheritance of the ages4 ,why should we set the fortunate child of the nineteenth century in the condition of the child of the first or fourteenth centuries8 ,let us give the pupil the benefit of the best that has been discovered and detailed4 ,and what benefit shall he derive from such study8 ,let us quote from the ,report of the ,british ,royal ,education ,committee3 8,if the object of education is the fitting of pupils for those duties they will be called on to perform1 then instruction in science is second only in importance to instruction in reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,no subject is better calculated to awaken the interest and intelligence of pupils than the study of ,natural ,science40 ,,contents4 ,,lesson ,,page ,i4 ,,earth-,,building #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,first ,,continent #i ,,iii4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,crabs ,,and ,,corals #ae ,,iv4 ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,the ,,pines ,,and ,,the ,,reptiles #bd ,v4 ,,the ,,palm ,,and ,,the ,,max #cb ,,vi4 ,,the ,,starry ,,heavens #ch ,,vii4 ,a ,,fragment ,,of ,,the ,,milky ,,way #df ,,viii4 ,,plan ,,and ,,progression #ef ,,ix4 ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,day #fd ,x4 ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,the ,,night #gb ,,xi4 ,,vanished ,,fauna #gh ,,xii4 ,a ,,mountain ,,of ,,fossils #he ,,xiii4 ,,written ,,in ,,rocks #ic ,,xiv4 ,,footprints ,,in ,,the ,,sand #ajj ,,xv4 ,,the ,,winter ,,of ,,the ,,world #ajg ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,first ,,crustaceans #aae ,,xvii4 ,,stone ,,fish ,,and ,,stone ,,lilies #abb ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,buried ,,reptiles #abi ,,xix4 ,,the ,,birds ,,of ,,other ,,days #ach ,,xx4 ,,the ,,early ,,mammals #ade ,,xxi4 ,a ,,very ,,old ,,family #aeb ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,marvel ,,in ,,mail #aei ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,builder #aff ,,xxiv4 ,,an ,,opossum ,,hunt #agd ,,xxv4 ,a ,,new ,,fashion ,,of ,,pappoose #aha ,,xxvi4 ,,low ,,down ,,in ,,the ,,scale #ahi ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,mallangong #aie ,,xxviii4 ,,beside ,,australian ,,rivers #bjj ,,xxix4 ,a ,,walk ,,among ,,wonder-,,trees #bjf ,,xxx4 ,,still ,,in ,,the ,,wonder-,,grove #bac ,,xxxi4 ,a ,,noisy ,,family #bba ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,frog',s ,,cousin #bbi ,,xxxiii4 ,,salamanders #bcf ,,xxxiv4 ,a ,,denizen ,,of ,,the ,,marsh ,,lands #bdb ,,xxxv4 ,a ,,stranger ,,from ,,mexico #bdg ,,xxxvi4 ,,some ,,merry ,,little ,,friends #beb ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,monster #bfj ,,xxxviii4 ,,el ,,lagarto #bfg ,,xxxix4 ,,wiser ,,than ,,any ,,beast ,,of ,,the ,,field #bgb ,,xl4 ,,our ,,common ,,enemy #bhj ,,xli4 ,,with ,a ,,house ,,on ,,his ,,back #bhe ,,xlii4 ,a ,,real ,,live ,,mermaid #bia ,,xliii4 ,,great ,,whales ,,also #big ,,xliv4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,seal-,,skin ,,coat #cjc ,,xlv4 ,a ,,flying ,,mammal #cac ,,xlvi4 ,,order ,,out ,,of ,,confusion #cba ,,xlvii4 ,a ,,remarkable ,,family #cbh ,,xlviii4 ,,the ,,gnawers #cce ,,xlix4 ,,odd ,,toes #cdb ,l4 ,,even ,,toes #cea ,illustration3 ,,phases ,,of ,,earth-,,building4 ,,sea-,,side ,,and ,,way-,,side4 ,,lesson ,i4 ,,earth-,,building4 8,fair world6 these puzzled souls of ours grow weak ,with beating their bruised wings against the rim ,that bounds their utmost flying1 when they seek ,the distant and the dim4 8,contentment comes not therefrom2 still there lies ,an outer distance when the first is hailed2 ,and still forever yawns before our eyes ,an utmost that is veiled40 --,,jean ,,ingelow1 ,honors4 ,the starry heavens do not exist merely for us or for our earth4 ,among the splendid orbs which roll in space1 earth is but one1 and it shines with pale and borrowed light4 ,unnumbered systems moved upon their courses before our globe was lighted by the sun4 ,but1 for us who live upon the earth the history of the ,universe opens with this small planet1 a part of which we see and know4 ,it seems to us1 when we begin to inquire about our earth-home1 that it must always have been a complete and finished world1 just as it now is4 ,science denies this4 ,geology leads us far back1 before time began to be reckoned here1 and shows us some of the processes of world-building4 ,time was when this firm1 beautiful1 and life-filled earth was a vast sphere of gas1 destitute of all its present order1 and without germs of life4 ,as the palace or the temple rises into beauty and harmony out of vast masses of material1 such as wood1 stone1 brick1 mortar1 iron1 and course after course is laid up in the building according to a definite pattern1 so along the process of earth-building1 force and matter1 power and material1 have been laying up the courses of the earth upon a uniform plan4 ,and is the earth now finished8 ,that we cannot say2 there may be many more astonishing changes yet in store for it4 ,we are now apt to call it the 8solid earth10 because those parts of it with which we are acquainted1 the soil and the rocks1 are the most solid things that we know2 but in plain fact the earth may still be partly liquid1 with the exception of a comparatively thin crust4 ,the distance through this ball1 our earth1 is nearly eight thousand miles1 and the surface1 or crust1 is perhaps nowhere over a hundred miles thick4 ,thus we might typify the world#a by a metal ball1 having a thin shell of solid metal1 and filled with melted metal4 ,but as this crust1 thin as it is in comparison1 has for many thousand years proved thick enough and safe enough for a dwelling-place for men1 ,i think we need not feel any anxiety because it is not thicker4 ,to read the story of this earth-building1 it has been necessary for science to begin at the end2 that is1 at the present time1 which is the last chapter of the story4 ,with long and patient care wise men have read back1 page by page1 the earth-building story2 we cannot say to its beginning1 but as far back as science has yet been able to go4 ,now we are able to take up the narrative at such beginning as has thus far been found1 and read it forward to our present day like a plain story4 ,will this be interesting8 ,it seems to me that it is like some magnificent fairy tale1 more marvellous than the story of ,aladdin's ,lamp1 or ,sinbad the ,sailor1 or ,the ,caliph of ,bagdad4 ,the nights of ,arabian story were not half so full of wonders as the days and nights1 the vast periods1 of geologic story4 ,our earth is a globe in rapid motion4 ,the motion is dual1 i4e41 double2 it rolls over and over upon its axis as you might spin a ball round on a knitting-needle thrust through its centre2 but the ball on the needle would stay in its place1 no matter how many times it whirled over4 ,the earth1 as it whirls1 rolls along a great path4 ,every time it turns over it measures off on this path a distance equal to its own circumference1 but at the same time it sweeps on with the motion of the whole system1 so that each day it travels over a million and a half of miles4 ,the earth's path is not in a straight line2 it is nearly circular2 it is what is called elliptical1 or partly egg-shaped4 ,as far back as we can trace earth-history1 the twofold motion and the globe shape have belonged to our planet4 ,in the earliest state of which we can speak1 our earth was a globe of gas at least two thousand times as large as it now is4 ,science has made a guess that1 before this1 our earth was a ring or layer of vapor around the sun4 ,this ring1 being spun off into space by the rapid motion of the sun1 took1 after a time1 the sphere shape1 and being held by the attraction of the sun from wandering farther off into space1 has ever since whirled around in a great path about its ancient source4 ,if this theory be true1 then all the other planets of our system were probably once cast off in their order by the sun1 as vast fiery rings4 ,that must have been an age of grand and splendid fireworks indeed6 ,if only one had been there to see6 ,why cannot we imagine that we were there to see8 ,can we not fancy ourselves back1 through all the wonderful ages1 until we reach the beginning of all things8 ,the ,arabians have a kind of fanciful being1 whom they call an ,afrite1 or ,afreet4 ,they say that this being is formed of pure heat1 smokeless flame4 ,did any of you ever see1 on a very scorching day1 the air quivering above a dry1 hot road8 ,that quivering of hot air is often seen on the desert1 and the ,arabians say it is the waving of an ,afrite's robe4 ,let us fancy we were ,afrites1 gigantic flame-spirits1 present when the earth1 from a fiery ring1 had just become a fiery ball4 ,heat1 such as we cannot imagine1 is the chief characteristic of our globe at this stage4 ,but being ,afrites1 and ourselves made of heat1 we shall not mind that4 ,we see that the whirling hot ball has in it all the atoms which will one day become solid rocks4 ,but these atoms are kept apart by heat1 and are in a state like gas4 ,as we ,afrites peer at the glowing1 whirling ball1 we see that there are two forces at work within it4 ,heat is one force1 keeping all particles expanded1 and not letting them come together2 but there is another force called gravitation at work also4 ,this is a force which causes all things to tend toward each other--to draw together4 ,it is this force of gravitation which first gives the gaseous ring its globe shape1 pulling its particles together2 and as ,afrites1 we watch with interest the results of this force by long and slow degrees condensing the matter of the globe4 ,while this is going on1 we perceive that two great changes are taking place4 ,first1 the sphere is growing cooler1 by radiating1 or throwing off its heat4 ,heat a poker red hot2 wave it in the air1 and it cools by giving off its heat to the air4 ,thus the hot globe throws off some of its heat as it whirls along its path in space4 ,but as the sphere cools1 the loss of heat allows the particles to shrink and come together and unite with each other4 ,the uniting of some of these various simple substances produces other substances1 and as the cooling and uniting go on1 the great globe becomes smaller and smaller4 ,as we are ,afrites1 and not afraid of heat1 we wander into this fluid ball1 and we find that by all this cooling1 condensing1 and uniting1 the material for future rocks is forming4 ,still imagining ourselves ,afrites1 the next change does not please us as well4 ,we find that the outer particles of vapor in our great hot ball1 as they ascend into space and cool1 unite with each other and become a vapor like steam1 and this steam cools and condenses into rain and mist4 ,if a plate is held before the nose of a tea-kettle from which steam is rushing out1 the steam condenses at once into drops of water4 ,if the plate with the water-drops on it is set out in sharply cold winter air1 it is at once covered with frost or ice4 ,thus it happened with the vapor about that hot sphere1 our world2 and the rain and mist fell back upon the glowing ball from which they had risen4 ,they helped to cool it and to increase the hardening1 but they were also reheated and sent off again as vapor1 to cool once more in space4 ,if at that time we1 as ,afrites1 had travelled to some other planet1 and taken a seat there to watch our world from a distance1 we should then have seen it in its greatest beauty as a heavenly body1 because in that age it was at its greatest size1 and was far larger than now3 also it must have shone as a clear and lovely star1 with a glory which has now almost passed away4 ,in the illustration at the head of this chapter the large ring represents the earth as a vast ball of hot vapor4 ,the very small ring in the centre shows the present size of the globe as compared with its first expansion4 ,the circle marked #a shows the earth as a simple sphere of vapor1 its earliest condition4 ,the circle #b shows us the stage where1 by the force of gravity1 and the cooling resulting from the radiation of heat1 the sphere of gas began to have a fluid centre1 or core4 ,we must understand that the condensing particles in the centre were not rendered solid1 but fluid1 as you may see the molten glass or iron at a glass-works or iron-foundry4 ,this fluid state probably still continues at the centre of the earth4 ,figure #c shows us the condensation going on4 ,as the globe cools1 a solid crust1 marked x1 is formed around the fluid centre1 and between the centre and the crust the matter of the globe is hardening1 while the outer envelope beyond the crust is still gas4 ,figure #d shows another change4 ,the vapor has cooled and condensed in space1 and has fallen back upon the globe in rain and snow4 ,these rains corrode and wash the surface of the crust1 and finally by their excess cover the whole crust of the earth with an ocean1 marked o4 ,thus the liquid centre and the solid crust are wrapped in a mantle of water4 ,this universal ocean is not cold and clear as are the oceans of to-day4 ,the intense heat of the globe has made these waters boil and send off dense clouds of steam1 and thus the water-wrapped world is further enveloped in a veil of mist4 ,would it then have been hidden from our sight if we had been ,afrites1 watching it as we sat on some far-off planet8 ,no2 we should have seen it still1 grown smaller and paler perhaps1 but the mist-veil would have caught and reflected the sunlight1 as the clouds do at sunset4 ,this was the reign of the waters upon the surface of the globe1 while the central fires were burning and rolling in the abyss beneath the waters and the hardened earth-crust4 ,when we say fires1 of this interior heat1 we must not think of flames1 but rather of such heat as that of molten metal in a furnace4 ,the universal ocean that wrapped the world at this time was full of salt and earthy matter and was turbid1 as a river in flood time4 ,from the deposit of this matter upon the earth-crust1 rock strata or layers were formed4 ,figure #e shows us still another stage of earth-building4 ,the reign of the waters is disputed by the long-imprisoned heat4 ,this heat exerts its force1 and tugs and lifts at the earth-crust until it bulges and cracks and rises up1 or1 as we say1 is elevated4 ,earthquakes and volcanoes alternately depress or upheave a part of the earth's surface4 ,great depressions are formed1 into which the waters gather1 while the thick earth-crust is tilted up into mountain chains1 marked z1 which are reared above the waters4 ,these wrinkling folds of the crust are the world's first dry land4#b ,at that time we1 as ,afrites1 would have flown from our distant planet back to the earth1 and have laughed to see the fire or heat driving away part of the water from the surface4 ,we should have danced with glee to see the volcanoes pouring out ashes and cinders1 and to watch the cinders crumbling and changing and beginning to form new rocks and lighter soil4 ,and so at last we should have seen our earth formed1 a rude earth1 rough and bare1 its seas warm and muddy1 its mountains treeless1 its fields without a single blade of green1 a veil of mist all about it4 ,and how long did it take to complete all this8 ,no one can answer4 ,no one can number the years of creative ages4 ,earth-building is not a process that can be hastened4 ,after the globe had reached the state which we have now indicated1 vast successive changes took place until our own time4 ,science has divided the succession of these changes into periods or ages1 and at these periods we shall now glance1 as at some marvellous panorama4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this theory is not universally accepted2 some consider that the interior of the earth by cooling and pressure may be in a much harder than molten state4 #b ,at the present time the interior of the earth has probably become much more solid than in the earlier building ages4 ,we really know little of it below a depth of a few miles from the surface4 ,,lesson ,,ii4 ,,the ,,first ,,continent4 8,as he who sets his willing feet ,in ,nature's footprints light and fleet1 ,and follows fearless where she leads40 --,,longfellow1 ,keramos4 ,for convenience in study1 scientists have divided the story of earth-building into vast epochs1 known as times4 ,the times are again divided into ages4 ,at first the names used for these times were derived from the ,latin1 and simply meant first1 second1 third1 and fourth times4#c ,the first time or period was that in which dry land first appeared above the waters4 ,the fourth time meant the period during which mammals1 fruit1 grain1 and man appeared4 ,the second and third periods or times of course divided the interval between these two4 ,other names1 made from ,greek words1 are now coming into general use to represent these building periods4#d ,if we put these new names into plain ,english1 they mean the time of first life1 or first living things1--the age of ancient life1 when most of the fossils1 or petrified plants and animals which we now find1 were buried up in the rocks2 then the middle time2 and finally the 8new time10 when man and most of the plants and animals that now belong in the world appeared4 ,such long hard names make the beginning of science seem dry and dull1 but we must not be alarmed3 a very beautiful garden has sometimes a rough and ugly gate4 ,illustration3 ,,looking ,,from ,,afar4 ,the ages into which the times were divided have their names either from what was produced in them1 or from the part of the world where their rocks chiefly appear on the present surface4 ,thus the ,carboniferous age is the carbon or coal age1 because then most of our coal-beds were formed4 ,the ,silurian age1 on the other hand1 takes its name from a part of ,wales1 where its rocks are most conspicuous1 and in this part of ,wales a people called ,silures used to live4 ,a study of the 8,table of ,earth-building10 which is the frontispiece of this book1 will show clearly these times and ages4 ,it is concluded that the first land which appeared was a range of rocks1 which is best known in the valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 and represents the oldest land on the globe4 ,we need not fancy that the new continent occupied a large part of the globe2 it was comparatively very small4 ,neither can we look for it to-day1 and find it as when it rose over the hot ocean4 ,the first land of the world lifted above the waters and sank again1 and so rose and sank more than once or twice in great lapses of time4 ,this rising and sinking was caused by the action of heat and steam in the interior of the earth1 which elevated and rent the crust4 ,from ,labrador to ,lake ,superior the old ,laurentian rocks crop out4 ,if you go to the ,adirondack ,mountains1 you stand on the first continent1 though it is now covered with a soil which did not exist in that early time of its uplifting4 ,there are spots of this old continent in ,nova ,scotia1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,bavaria1 and the ,hebrides4 ,these are then1 the oldest parts of the world1 and you could take your atlas1 and by sketching a continent1 long1 narrow1 and crooked1 that would cover these places with a few outlying islands to help it out1 you would have a fair idea of the first continent4 ,probably nothing grew on it1 but in the sea there were some plants and animals4 ,the beds of ,laurentian rocks in ,north ,america are sometimes thirty thousand feet thick4 ,these early rocks1 more than any others1 show the action of great heat4 ,the action of heat has changed the rocks from their first condition4 ,time and heat will turn sand1 lime1 and clay into crystal and marble4 ,for a long time the ,laurentian age was supposed to have been wholly destitute of any life1 and was called the azoic1 or life-lacking time4 ,but ,sir ,william ,dawson1 after long explorations among the ,laurentian rocks1 found in them the fossil remains of a once living creature4 ,he named this creature the ,dawn ,animal1 or ,eozon4 ,the name suggests that this is the most ancient animal yet discovered1 and represents the dawn of life on our planet4 ,what was this ,dawn ,animal like8 ,so far as can be judged from the fossil1 it was a very large creature1 soft and gelatinous like a jelly-fish4#e ,it had a stem by which it was fastened to the bottom of warm1 shallow seas4 ,thus it never moved from its place1 but swayed with the moving waters1 and perhaps had the power of expanding and contracting itself4 ,like the mollusks1#f the ,eozon wanted a house for its delicate body4 ,therefore1 as it swayed to and fro1 it collected from the water carbonate of lime1 and covered itself with a thin shell or crust4 ,as it continued to grow it continued to cover itself with crust after crust of lime4 ,this lime crust was not a solid mail over ,eozon2 it was rather like a fine net or sieve through the pores of which could pass the jelly-like threads or filaments whereby the creature collected lime and food4 ,but here we are led to another discovery4 ,if the ,eozon was a living animal1 it must have had food to nourish it1 and living creatures feed upon animal or vegetable substances4#g ,therefore in these warm seas there must have been minute animal or vegetable organisms which ,eozon could gather with its long nets or lines1 as it grew at the bottom of the sea4 ,was the ,eozon beautiful8 ,we cannot speak positively2 but as we find no age of the world when there was not beauty of form and color1 as we see beauty often followed as an end in creation1 we may suppose that the ,eozon had gay colors and looked like some great vivid flower waving upon its stem in the water4#h ,there are beds of limestone in the ,laurentian rocks1 which bear indications of former animal life4 ,also in the ,laurentian rocks there are beds of iron ore1 and these have been supposed to indicate that there was some vegetation in the ,laurentian period4 ,now as in the ,laurentian period the ,eozoic age shows us vast beds of iron1 graphite1 and limestone1 we may suppose that there were in the warm waters of that era great beds of eozon like the coral reefs of to-day4 ,in the deep seas of the present age there are myriads of little creatures called foraminifera2 and though we have found no trace of these in the earliest rocks1 it may be that the first ocean swarmed with them and that they were then busy building limestone strata just as they are busy now4 ,during the ,eozoic age the warm1 turbid ocean that nearly covered the globe constantly deposited sediment1 and at last the thin earth-crust gave way under the strain and weight upon it4 ,the earth-crust collapsed1 or fell in1 as a great floor which has been overburdened4 ,we sometimes hear of the floors of large rooms which give way under some heavy strain4 ,if we go to see a place where such an accident has occurred1 we shall notice how flooring and timbers do not fall flat1 as a whole1 but are crushed and crowded together sidewise or edgewise4 ,when the ,laurentian continent sank1 many of its ranges and beds of rock were bent and tilted in this fashion1 and we so find them to-day4 ,how long was this first or ,eozoic period8 ,that1 no one can tell4 ,if we should try to tell1 we should merely use numbers so great that1 as applied to years1 we cannot imagine them4 ,the ,dawn age seems a very good name for it1 as it was the age of the earliest continents1 and of the first animal and vegetable life4 ,as the study of the earth goes on1 and other and deeper-lying rocks are examined1 we may learn much more about this first world-building period4 ,now1 as we look far1 far back to it1 it strikes us1 ,i think1 chiefly as distant1 barren1 silent4 ,if we had been ,afrites1 and hovering over that early continent1 ,i think we should not have heard a sound1 except the lap of the warm waves on the rocks2 we should not have seen a living thing4 ,but if instead of ,afrites we had been ,pixies1 or water-sprites1 we should have gone down into the waters of that wide1 warm sea1 and what should we have found8 ,we can as well fancy ourselves ,pixies as ,afrites4 ,let us fancy ourselves in those seas4 ,i think we should have seen sea-weeds1 fine and small1 but of many curious shapes1 and millions of creatures with and without shells1 some large1 some small1 tinted like rainbows1 and lively and happy in their water-world4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,primary1 ,secondary1 ,tertiary1 ,quaternary4 #d ,eozoic1 ,paleozoic1 ,mesozoic1 ,cenozoic4 #e ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lessons #cf and #cg4 #f ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #a1 ,lesson #cg4 #g ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,lesson #a4 #h ,and after all so few and indefinite are the traces1 that ,eozon may not have been an animal form at all1 but a merely mineral structure4 ,,lesson ,,iii4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,crabs ,,and ,,corals4 8,and delving in the outworks of this world ,and little crevices that they could reach1 ,discovered certain bones laid up and furled ,under an ancient beach40 --,,ingelow4 ,the earth-building period which followed the dawn of life is called the 8time of ancient life40 ,our lesson about this period will be like unlocking the gate to some beautiful domain1 giving a glance at its delights1 but leaving the wayfarer whom we have brought thus far on his journey1 still standing without1 yet now1 no doubt1 with ability and desire to enter4 ,this ancient-life time is1 so far as we know1 the longest of all the earth-building periods4 ,it has the thickest deposits of rock1 and includes the most numerous ages1 or great successive changes4 ,it also retains in its rocks numerous fossils1 or casts of formerly living things1 both animal and vegetable4 ,in coming lessons we shall discuss what fossils are1 and describe some of these ancient plants and animals4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,water-,,sprites4 ,when this new age of the world opened1 we find that there was plenty of life1 and that there were many creatures akin to some that we have living to-day4 ,to enjoy that time of the world we should have been no longer ,afrites1 or flame-spirits1 for the reign of the fire was over2 we should have been ,pixies1 and able to wander at our will among the plants and animals in the water4 ,there we should have noticed that there were many animals of the articulate or jointed class--creatures that have no backbones2 and we should have seen that the plants were sea-weeds of various kinds4 ,as the ages of this great time moved on1 creatures with vertebr forming backbones appeared1 and the land had vegetation4 ,there were reeds1 rushes1 lichens1 ferns1 mosses1 plants of the toad-stool kind1 and great trees such as are now not found on the earth4 ,some of the rushes called calamites were larger than the great bamboo4 ,the first age of this great time is called the ,cambrian1 from the outcrop of its rocks in ,north ,wales1 the ancient ,cambria4 ,the name ,huronian has also been applied to it1 as these rocks largely appear in the region about ,lake ,huron4 ,in this age new land rose above the ocean4 ,the waters were still warm1 and the atmosphere was hazy and full of moisture1 hot1 but without clear sunlight4 ,the animals were corals and crabs2 the vegetables were sea-weeds4 ,the rocks of the ,cambrian are chiefly sandstone and slate1 and we find the fossils not scattered through all the rocks1 but in layers1 so that some ledges of rock are nearly destitute of organic remains1 and then come others crowded with fossils of animals and vegetables4 ,among the earliest and most curious of the fossils are the lingul4 ,these are bivalve#i shells1 about the size and shape of your finger-nail4 ,the lingula was fastened to the sand bed by a fleshy stem4 ,opening its valves1 it put forth a fine fringe which served it as fingers for gathering its food from the waters1 much as barnacles do4#aj ,the lingul belong to the group of lamp shells1 and have existed through all the ages from the ,cambrian until now1 as they swarm at the present day in the ,china seas4 ,along with the busy little lingul lived many varieties of crabs1 cuttle-fish1 star-fish1 and many kinds of corals4 ,probably there were not many insects in this period3 only a few fossils of large insects somewhat like dragon-flies and ,may-flies have been found4 ,there were no birds1 and the great forests of reeds and club-mosses were silent1 unless the few insects could produce a chirping sound4 ,possibly their wings and bodies were gaily colored as those of the dragon-flies are to-day4 ,no doubt1 also1 many of the crustaceans of this period were very ornate in their colors1 and in the arrangement of bands1 knobs1 and ridges on their shells4 ,the numerous corals building in the shallow seas1 and carrying their reefs up into the light on the surface1 waved purple1 orange1 and crimson filaments from their limestone towers1 until the waters looked like garden beds in full bloom4 ,among the earliest fossils are worm-casts1#aa from which we learn that even so long ago the worms were helping to build the world4 ,the sponges shared the shallow seas with the corals4 ,next came the ,silurian age1 named as we know from a part of ,wales where its rocks lie bare4 ,this was a very long age1 and is divided into upper and lower ,silurian4 ,during all this time the world was becoming richer and richer in life1 both of animals and vegetables1 and of both land and sea4 ,we find strangely beautiful fossils of this age1 as1 for instance1 the stone lilies4 ,no form of life seemed for a time so hardy and so rich in variety as these stone lilies4 ,these were not plants1 but animals1 and yet they looked more like beautiful snowy flowers than like animals4 ,in very deep water of the present day we find some few species of these crinoids1 or stone-lily animals1 and from them we can understand those of the ancient time4 ,they grew rooted in one place1 waved on long1 pliant stems1 and from their snowy cups spread forth filaments that looked like delicate stamens and pistils4 ,swimming about among the stone lilies1 went the nautilus1 relative of our 8paper nautilus0 of which the poet sings3-- 8,this is the ship of pearl1 which poets feign ,sails the unshadowed main-- ,the venturous bark which flings ,on the sweet summer wind its purpled wings1 ,in gulfs enchanted where the siren sings1 ,and coral reefs lie bare1 ,where the cold sea-maids rise to sun their streaming hair40 ,the nautilus of the ,silurian time perhaps looked quite as lovely and harmless1 yet really was a mighty monster1 devouring millions of its fellow-denizens of the deep4 ,to-day we see a relation of this old-time nautilus1 in our cuttle-fish1 sometimes called the devil-fish4 ,to the ,silurian age belong the written stones4 ,the tiny fossils imbedded in these rocks are like little coal-black stains1 which appear as minute writing in an unknown tongue4 ,these small cells are indeed writing1 and help us to learn the story of the ancient world4 ,the corals increased greatly in the ,silurian age1 and extended far up to the polar regions1 where corals are now unknown4 ,in these early ages the chief home of life was in the sea4 ,the waters brought forth living things before the earth produced them1 while the creatures of the air1 the birds and insects1 came later still4 ,two very important facts are here to be noted3 ,just as the ,silurian age was closing1 several kinds of fish-like creatures appeared1 the first vertebrate or backboned animals4 ,let us imagine ourselves back in that age1 as ,pixies1 or water-sprites4 ,suppose that we are in a warm1 shallow1 almost waveless sea1 over which the sunshine pours1 warm and mellow1 through thin haze4 ,we are sitting on a ledge of coral1 and from every tiny limestone tower about us opens and waves a radiant creature1 purple1 gold1 green1 or crimson4 ,among the corals grow the tall and stately stone lilies1 rolling back their petal-like valves1 and waving forth long white plumes4 ,we gather tiny live things from the water and offer them to the stone lilies1 and they grasp them in their snowy hands4 ,but now we see a monster coming towards us1 a new creature such as we have never seen before6 ,it swims strongly1 has a thick skin1 great jaws filled with big teeth1 and we perceive that it has its bones inside its body1 not outside1 as the crustaceans do4 ,it sweeps past a bed of pretty little lingul and crops off fifty of them at a mouthful6 ,it darts up to our lovely stone lily1 and bites it from its pearl-white stem6 ,yonder comes a crab swimming along at ease1 a prophecy of a king-crab1 that will come many ages after4 ,the fish-like monster takes him at a mouthful4 ,we ,pixies are angry at this devastation2 we cry1 8,we hope you will try to eat a trilobite#ab and choke yourself60 ,but here comes an unlucky trilobite1 and the new monster crushes it in its great jaws6 ,it would eat us1 only we are ,pixies1 creatures of myth1 mere bubbles4 ,as it is1 we hide in our coral groves1 and weep over our lost lingul and stone lilies4 ,these fish-like creatures reign as kings4 ,they multiply and devour1 and in the ,devonian age1 which comes next1 they become more like true fishes4 ,this ,devonian age comes with mighty changes4 ,we ,pixies feel the sea-beds rock with earthquakes4 ,we fly to the rivers1 and find the land rent with volcanoes4 ,we hasten to the crests of the waves1--for the torrents of lava rush along the shores and far out into the ocean1--and we see the ,afrites laughing to find vast plains of land where waters had been4 ,we hope that all these convulsions have destroyed the greedy1 cruel fish4 ,but no2 we go deep into our sea-homes1 and find most of the crabs and nautili and stone lilies gone1 and the fish more abundant than ever6 ,and now we ,pixies feel that the new age has come1 and we rise to the sea-surface to look about1 and we find new land in many lovely islands1 and there are vast swamps full of reeds and club-mosses4 ,green lowland jungles laugh in bright sunlight1 among warm1 clear1 blue seas1 where the corals that we love grow to their greatest glory4 ,no more soft-shelled crustaceans and trilobites3 have the fishes eaten them all8 ,if we make an excursion to the land to see if any fairies live there1 we find no flowers1 but there are very beautiful trees4 ,the great work of this ,devonian age seems to be the rapid laying down of beds of red sandstone4 ,this red sandstone1 deposited by the waters1 finally rises into vast continents1 joining island to island1 and spreading out a rich soil1 very fit for vegetable life4 ,vegetation creeps away beyond the polar circles2 for in this time the climate of the earth is nearly uniform4 ,let us fancy we meet an ,afrite1 and say to him1 8,of what use is all this land and vegetation80 ,he replies1 8,o ,pixy6 a new age is coming1--the age of coal4 ,in it vast beds of coal will be laid down to feed future fires for a creature called man4 ,these beds will have oil1 gas1 naphtha1 all things in which we ,afrites rejoice4 ,these carbon beds will be merely storehouses of well-cooked vegetation1 for warming and lighting a world40 ,but as we ,pixies stand and talk with ,afrites at the limit where land and water meet1 what do we see8 ,we see thousands of insects in the air and creeping on the ground1--cockroaches1 dragon-flies1 weevils4 ,and now1 oh1 wonder of wonders6 what fearful thing is this8 ,a ,,reptile ,,has ,,appeared6 ,frogs and toads of curious patterns have foreshadowed him1 but the true reptile was the first vertebrate lung-breathing animal4 ,you perceive it is a vast advance on earlier forms1 for a creature to have a nose1 to be able to inhale air through its nostrils6 ,the life-filled1 tree-filled ,carboniferous age1 with its continents was long1 very long2 and now1 when life seemed everywhere to dominate1 these continents slowly sank beneath the waters1 and the ,permian age came on1--the age of the death and burial of a busy world1--the last age of the ancient life time4 ,the sinking was slow at first1 so slow that trees grew above the buried trees2 but at last the sinking hastened1 and stones and sand and surf dashed and rolled above the forests1 and the ,coal age was drowned4 ,the reason of this sinking was1 that the interior of the globe had continued to cool and harden1 and with cooling shrank from the crust1 which collapsed in great wrinkles4 ,the collapse was slow1 because much of the interior rock was in a wax-like condition1 and crowded up to fill the rents left in the downward pressure of the earth-crust4 ,the heat1 pressure1 collapse1 half-fluid state1 explain to us many of the curiosities of geologic formations4 ,after these convulsions the surface again arose1 land lifted above the water1 and the ,permian age exhibited a flora very like that of the preceding age4 ,the great frogs1 toads1 and lizards increased in size and numbers4 ,the convulsions of the ,permian had not destroyed all land life1 and probably the sea-depths with their inhabitants had been but little effected4 ,the buried forests of the previous age were slowly changed into the coal-beds of to-day1 and in them we find1 held for our study1 seeds1 roots1 leaves1 insects1 and footprints1 belonging to the long-gone ancient life time4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #a1 ,lesson #ci4 #aj ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lesson #cc4 #aa ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lesson #ab4 #ab ,see ,lesson ,,xvi41 p4 #aai4 ,,lesson ,,iv4 ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,the ,,pines ,,and ,,the ,,reptiles4 8,a monster then1 a dream1 ,a discord4 ,dragons of the prime1 ,that tear each other in their slime1 ,were mellow music1 matched with him40-- --,,tennyson1 ,in ,memoriam4 ,illustration3 ,,gnomes ,,in ,a ,,cave ,,at ,,work4 ,we have now reached the middle period of the earth-building story4 ,we have thus far seen how from a great globe of burning gas1 our earth shrank1 cooled1 hardened1 became wrapped in waters1 uplifted continents and islands1 and through successive periods became filled with plants and animals of sea and land4 ,the period at which we have now arrived was the age of wonderful monsters1 of pines1 and of palms4 ,for the first time also the earth was splendid with flowers4 ,the seas grew constantly cooler1 and the earth crust as constantly thickened4 ,as the seas cooled less vapor rose into the air1 the atmosphere cleared1 and a bright sunshine poured over the continents4 ,the continents of this middle period of world-building were some of them larger than now4 ,probably ,north ,america stretched over much nearer to ,europe2 ,england was not an island1 but was joined to the mainland of ,europe1 and extended far south and west in what is now the sea4 ,the mountains were very high1 so high that it has been supposed that they had snow-covered tops1 and glaciers formed in their gorges1 and icebergs1 breaking from the glaciers1 sailed off to distant seas4 ,at this time the earth was green with ferns and grasses and dark with forests4 ,among the most noble of the trees were the cycads4 ,they were partly like pines1 and partly like palms4 ,beside the cycads grew great pines1 and probably pines were the distinguishing trees of this cycle4 ,the vegetation was more like the present vegetation of the tropics than like that of northern climates1 because the earth was warmer then than now4 ,in our last lesson we spoke of the red sandstone as a very rapid deposit of sand by water4 ,when the deposit is slow1 the red color is washed out of the sand by the action of air and water4 ,this red of the red sandstone is due to iron-rust1 which stains the sand as it does iron or steel4 ,when the deposit of these stained sands is rapid1 in thick beds1 the color does not have time to bleach out4 ,there are two vast layers of this red sandstone1 the old and the new4 ,the new is largely present in the beds of the middle period of world-building1 and sometimes gives the first age its name--the age of the ,new ,red ,sandstone4 ,the northern shore of ,scotland is banded by the old red sandstone1 as if held in a sandstone frame4 ,another rock of this time is called conglomerate1 or mixed stone4 ,some call it 8pudding-stone10 and say it looks like a pudding full of plums and lumps of suet4 ,such stone is very common1 various kinds of pebbles and rocks being held together as if they had been baked or boiled into one mass4 ,near the conglomerate we sometimes find limestone full of tiny broken shells1 and also beds of marl4 ,marl is a rich greenish earth1 which crumbles easily and is valued for enriching cultivated lands4#ac ,all these varieties of rock are interesting when we study them1 and can read the stories they tell of long-gone ages1 of fire1 volcanoes1 earthquakes1 floods1 storms1--where strange animals and plants lived and died4 ,do we ever stop to think what a treasure-house of wonders and of choice and beautiful things the earth is8 ,there are sands filled with grains of pure gold1 and rocks where gold glows in grains and veins and nuggets4 ,i have seen lumps of silver-bearing rock which look as if in some age of heat the pure silver had melted1 boiled1 and bubbled until now it lies in the stone in curious shapes1 like balls1 and stars1 and chains1 and moss1 and tiny trees1--all fantastic and pretty forms4 ,there are mines where diamonds1 and rubies1 and garnets1 and sapphires lie hid as if the gnomes1 or fabled earth-spirits1 had stored them away4 ,what crystals shine among the rocks1 and red bands of carnelian glow1 and purple amethysts and vivid carbuncles blaze6 ,kings have rooms full of such treasures kept for show2 but the silent earth hides in her bosom many more and far richer jewels4 ,come here1 and let me show you just one marvel made in the earth in some of these long building periods1 when heat was working wonders4 ,since you have been handling all these minerals and curiosities your hands are dirty4 ,take this towel and wipe them4 ,look at the towel4 ,what do you see8 8,just a coarse cotton towel10 you say2 8nothing fine about that40 8,very well4 ,have you wiped your hands8 ,here1 let me throw the towel into the fire40 ,you stare at that4 8,do you always burn your towels80 you ask4 8,i never burn them up4 ,i just wash them in fire4 ,look sharp60 ,you look4 ,the fire curls into and over and about the towel1 and it becomes red hot1 yet does not fall into ashes4 ,watch me4 ,i take the tongs and pick my towel from the fire4 ,as it is1 red hot1 ,i dip it into a pail of water4 ,now it is cool1 pray take it and examine it4 ,it is clean and whole as if new6 ,that towel is made of rock6 ,it is called asbestos4 ,it is a very hard rock1 and lies in layers of fine1 silky fibres4 ,you can pull these fibres or threads off1 and apart1 like flax2 they can be spun and woven4 ,plenty of it is found in ,canada4 ,see1 it looks like common cotton cloth4 ,found in thin sheets it is called 8mountain-leather10 in thick sheets it is named 8mountain-cork40 ,but it is all asbestos--a rock fibre4 ,and what do they do with it8 ,they mix fire-proof paints with it2 make boiler felting2 firemen's cloaks2 gloves for fire-workers4 ,long ago the ancients wrapped dead bodies in it1 so that their ashes might not be lost when they were burned upon the funeral pyre4 ,wonderful stuff1 is it not8 ,but the brown still earth is full of such wonders4 ,let us return to look at the products of the middle period of earth-building1 and see how the world grows more and more fit to be the home of the coming man4 ,we find now palm1 fig1 oak1 tulip1 walnut1 and sweet-gum trees4 ,as all these trees produce fruits1 seeds1 or nuts suitable for food for animals1 we should look for animals to feed upon them4 ,we find the fossil bones of some of the dwellers in these woods2 the rocks also retain their footprints4 ,the great creatures1 marching over the soft earth and mud1 made deep tracks1 and these remained like casts or moulds as the soil hardened2 then sand and other sediment were deposited over them1 and so the footprints were encased4 ,the deposit1 hardened into rock1 has preserved the footprints for thousands of years4 ,strange that a thing so fleeting as a footprint on sand should remain to tell a story for ages6 ,but what of the creatures that made these footprints8 ,these were huge1 two-legged animals with three-toed feet1 stalking through the woods1 and calmly browsing on the tree-tops6 ,science reconstructs some of these creatures1 and finds that they had small heads1 long necks1 huge tails1 and thick legs4 ,these were mild but hideous creatures1 and munched nuts and fruits4 ,they may have glistened in the colors of the rainbow for all we can tell1 but even color could not make beautiful a creature with a giraffe's neck1 an elephant's legs1 a crocodile's tail1 and a kangaroo's head4 ,i think we may be very glad that we did not live in that age4 ,who could have played in a wood filled with such fearful creatures8 ,who would have wished to go out in a row boat1 or for a little sail1 when the sea was full of monsters1 like sea-serpents1 and all the rivers swarmed with huge reptiles8 ,little beasts like rats and kangaroos began to run in the woods1 but there were no shy rabbits1 no squirrels with full1 waving tails and bright black eyes4 ,what would woods be worth to ramble in1 if not a bird flew1 sang1 or pecked upon a tree8 ,we can fancy that far down in the heart of the earth the fabulous creatures1 the gnomes1 were busy4 ,the ,danes and the ,germans have tales of queer little men1 called gnomes1 which live and work underground1 and have charge of all the metals and jewels in the earth4 ,the gnomes wear little pointed caps1 and shoes with pointed toes4 ,if in this far-off age we had been gnomes1 we should have seen in the earth beautiful crystals forming4 ,diamonds1 rubies1 emeralds1 all the precious gems and all the choice1 fine stones1 such as carnelian and agate1 are very hard and of close grain and can take a brilliant polish1 but as they lie in the earth they may look dull and pale1 and be covered with a crust or case of common stone or clay4 ,cutting and grinding bring out their clear light and beauty4 ,if we had been gnomes1 wandering through the interior of the earth1 we should have wondered who and what the coming creature could be1 for whom was stored up things so rich and rare and useful4 ,for whom were the vast beds of iron1 coal1 salt1 tin1 veins of precious metals and gems1 rivers of oil1 storehouses of gas8 ,and some day1 as we worked with tiny pick and crowbar1 we might hear coming to meet us the pick and spade of earth's new master--man6 ,but that would be long1 long after the ,mesozoic1 or ,middle age of world-building had passed away4 ,as the ages followed each other1 there would constantly be new treasures hidden for the gnomes to guard4 ,as one layer after another was buried by new material1 in the buried layers were left the bones1 teeth1 footprints1 and remains of the reptiles1 insects1 birds1 and land animals of the passing age4 ,every new earth-bed was a vast graveyard4 ,the last age of the middle building-time was called the ,cretaceous1 or ,chalk age1 because during it such vast quantities of chalk were built into rocks4 ,all the ,english coast along the ,channel is lined with chalk cliffs4 ,the chalk is soft and white and easily worked4 ,when1 in ,england1 we went down on the sand beach1 and wanted something to play with1 we would take a lump of the chalk cliff and whittle out balls with our knives4 ,when we were done playing we left the balls for the sea to carry off2 it was so easy to cut more4 ,i often saw stables1 cow stalls1 wagon sheds1 cut out of the chalk to save the farmer the trouble of building sheds of wood4 ,the chalk cliff made fine1 dry1 clean houses for the animals4 ,stuck all through this chalk1 like plums in a cake1 are hard flints or pebbles1 and these can be cut and polished into very pretty jewelry4 ,the ,chalk age was one of great and violent changes4 ,once more the continents began to sink4 ,the earth-crust could not uphold the mighty weight of deposit upon it4 ,the shrinking and cooling core caused the settling of vast stretches of land1 and the continents were depressed lower than they had been since the time of the first continent4 ,down1 down went the land1 and over it the waters flowed1 and where hills and forests had been1 creatures of the deepest depths of ocean played4 ,europe probably settled lower than ,america4 ,once more the globe was like a vast ocean1 above which rose what had been high ranges of mountains1 now forming long islands or reefs4 ,of these surrounding ridges might have been noted the hills of ,great ,britain1 the ,scandinavian ,mountains1 and the ,ural range4 ,in the ,western hemisphere the hills of the ,st4 ,lawrence and the ,appalachian ,mountains rose over the water1 and here and there a peak of the ,rockies or the ,andes4 ,why did the little hills of ,britain rise up when the great ,alps and the ,himalayas were not to be seen8 ,britain itself did not sink so low at that time1 and the ,alps and the ,himalayas were not yet born4 ,they rose at a later day4 ,the seas ebbed and flowed and deposited their chalk sediment over a drowned globe for a very long time4 ,then once more the earth crumpled1 and amid earthquakes and volcanoes the ,chalk age perished1 the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,alps1 and ,himalayas were crowded and tilted up to be the great mountain-ranges of the world1 and the last building-time of the earth had come4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,marl is also used with sand in making ,portland cement4 ,,lesson ,v4 ,,the ,,palm ,,and ,,the ,,man4 8,so careful of the type she seems1 ,so careless of the single life4 #8,so careful of the type8' but no1 ,from scarped cliff and quarried stone ,she cries1 #8,a thousand types are gone1 ,i care for nothing1 all shall go6'0 --,,tennyson1 ,in ,memoriam4 ,illustration3 ,,ready ,,for ,,man4 ,what have we thus far found to be the processes of earth-building8 ,first1 rocky crust uplifted into mountain ridges4 ,then deposit of sediment by the waters until islands and continents capable of maintaining animal and vegetable life are formed4 ,ages of increase and successive growth follow2 then sinking of the earth-crust1 accompanied by earthquakes and volcanoes2 after this1 fresh upheaval4 ,with these surface changes come changes in the plant and animal life1 especially in the former2 for plants seem not to have the happy faculty of animals in accommodating themselves to new conditions4 ,with the changing ages some animals entirely disappear1 and are known to us only by their fossil remains4 ,others are modified and fitted to their new home4 ,we must observe that in no period of sinking after the first land age was the land all covered by water1 nor were all the living things of any period destroyed4 ,there has been a continuance of animal life on the globe from the first earth-building time until now4 ,the ,permian and ,chalk ages were probably the periods of greatest changes4 ,during the ,chalk age certain of the later forms of life appeared4 ,the fruit trees1 and all the highest and most choice forms of vegetable life1 were present among the plants4 ,fishes and reptiles1 crabs and lobsters like those which now live1 and the first specimens of the great ,order of the ,mammals1 were found in the troubled seas of the ,chalk age4 ,it was with plants that are called exogens or outside growers1 having two seed-leaves1#ad such as our fruit trees1 and the oaks1 maples1 chestnuts1 and elms1 that modern plant life began4 ,when the mammalians came1 they were the advance guard of the higher class of animal life4 ,this class of mammalia includes all animals which have young which are nourished with milk by their mothers4 ,the first age of the ,neozoic1 or ,new ,life period1 is marked by a certain singular kind of limestone rock1 called nummulite or money-stone4 ,the stone receives this odd name from a great variety of flat shells which fill the rock1 and have been fancied to resemble pennies1 shillings1 and sixpences4 ,these nummulite shells are very curious2 some are so small that you can scarcely see them without a microscope2 others are as broad as the above-named coins4 ,each shell is made up of a great number of little cells1 set in rings1 beginning with a very small ring about the central cell1 and the next a little larger1 and so on4 ,the shells were the homes of creatures called foraminifera1 some of which are now living and building shells in the bottom of our seas4 ,when these creatures were alive these cells were filled with a soft substance such as we see in jelly-fish4#ae ,we can scarcely realize the vast amount of work done by these small1 feeble creatures1 in earth-building4 ,the nummulites were the stonemasons of continents4 ,the nummulite sandstone is found in beds1 sometimes thousands of feet thick4 ,imagination fails to compass the multitudes of tiny living creatures which piled up ten thousand feet of the ,swiss ,alps1 and built the snowy peaks of distant ,thibet1 and grain by grain laid up the long chains of the ,pyrenees4 ,little microscopic creatures1 close kin to these nummulites1 built the rocks in ,egypt of which the ,sphinx and ,pyramids are made1 and the enormous platform upon which they stand4 ,these little animals also laid up the vast beds of building stone of which nearly all the great city of ,paris is made4 ,how did they do this8 ,the little jelly-like creatures wanted covering for their frail bodies1 and so gathered from the sea-water particles of lime and built them into shells4 ,millions upon millions of these shells fell down in layers on the sea-floor1 and then water1 weight1 and heat became the forces to consolidate the myriads of shells into stone4 ,the processes of earth-building are slow and long4 ,the last world-building period1 the ,neozoic1 had five ages4 ,you will find their rather hard names on the plate which is our frontispiece4 ,we might look at them as a splendid panorama4 ,shall we imagine that as fairies flitting through the woods2 gnomes guarding the treasures of the earth2 fair ,pixies1 floating in the rivers and seas2 or giant ,afrites standing in the hottest sunshine on the desert1 we watch these five beautiful and wonderful ages roll on8 ,what shall we see8 ,palms first3 great tracts of palms1 waving their feathery tops against the sky4 ,the earth was warmer in those days than now1 and plants and animals1 now ranked as tropical1 were found as far north as ,england4 ,not only were there palms widely spread1 but cypress1 plane trees1 maples1 elms1 oaks1 red-woods1 figs1 sweet gums1 sour gums1 tupelos1 cinnamon and clove trees4 ,the cape jasmine swung its censers of perfume2 ferns and mosses made the woodland depths soft and green4 ,through these forests1 and over the grassy plains1 roved hyenas1 wolves1 bears1 elk1 antelopes4 ,the famous mastodon was there1 with many forms of deer1 and thick-skinned creatures of the elephant and rhinoceros tribes that are now known no more4 ,along the river sides1 among the sedges1 were great wading birds1 turtles1 tortoises1 crocodiles1 serpents4 ,insects and birds increased1 and here and there a monkey might be seen climbing among the tree-tops4 ,as time moved on1 a new1 strange change overtook the earth4 ,the climate in the ,northern hemisphere became colder and colder2 frost and snow held possession of lands that had hitherto been warm and sunny4 ,colder1 still colder2 what is called the ,glacial or ,frozen period was drawing on4 ,as the atmosphere and soil chilled1 fir1 pine1 birch1 and dwarf willow succeeded to the palms2 animals of woollier coats lived where the thick-skinned1 smooth-coated1 tropical animals had found a home4 ,the ice-sheet1 which at this day wraps the poles1 began to extend southward1 and an icy sea1 such as now washes the shores of ,greenland and the ,north ,cape1 rolled over the northern half of the globe4 ,the ,ice period has occasioned much dispute and wonderment among men of science4 ,its remaining traces are chiefly drift1 ice-markings such as ice-worn rocks and boulders1 with the bones of animals and the traces of ,arctic plants found far south of the regions which such organisms occupy at the present time1 or did occupy in an age earlier than the ,glacial4 ,they indicate a period when ice and cold had sway in lands now temperate4 ,in a future chapter we shall consider for a little the work of icebergs and glaciers in carving the world4 ,at present we can only say that geologists consider that the ice-cap came down to the #dj parallel of latitude north1 while others believe that the frequent ice-markings and boulders found throughout the temperate zone are the work of icebergs drifting in ,arctic currents1 and swept much further south than they are now seen4 ,up to this period we have considered red-hot worlds1 melted worlds1 drowned worlds2 the ,glacial age gives us a frozen world4 ,but the one great fact written over the face of the globe is change4 ,earth-building sweeps through great circles or periods of change4 ,that a certain state exists is1 it seems1 merely proof that presently it will not be1 but will have made room for some new and different state4 ,even the ,ice age was not to last forever4 ,frost was king for a time1 as fire had been king and water had been king4 ,but the ,ice age began at last to loosen its cold clasp upon the world4 ,the atmosphere grew warmer2 the land rose up above the icy seas2 the bergs sailed into equatorial regions and were dissolved in the warm currents of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,the ,northern hemisphere never returned to the warmth of climate it had enjoyed before the ,ice age came on1 but it gained the mild temperature of to-day4 ,as the ice-sheet slowly retreated plants sprang up on the earth1 the flora following the withdrawing edges of the ice4 ,there was an age when in ,england and ,ireland and ,france flowers bloomed which now are found only on the high ,alps4 ,after a time the flora of the earth became what it is now4 ,the mastodon and his associates disappeared1 and sheep1 horses1 and dogs1 and the bovine animals1--the animals that especially contribute to the comfort and service of man1--became numerous4 ,on the surface of the earth streams and rivers did their work1 and arable land was ready for coming harvests4 ,the ,ice age had been a bitter winter time2 it was followed by a spring4 ,centuries stormy as ,march1 and changeful as ,april1 and soft as ,may1 followed each other1 bringing the earth-building epochs to a close1 and putting on the globe the finishing touches to fit it for the home of humanity4 ,now at last were seen the cereals1 the corn-food of man1 the stately and golden maize1 the silver wheat1 the bearded barley4 ,with these came the gourd and lupine families1 bringing us all manner of melons1 cucumbers1 pumpkins1 peas1 lentiles1 and beans4 ,the hosts of the apple order of fruits were marshalled in array2 the peach1 plum1 cherry1 apple1 pear4 ,the vine and the olive covered the slopes2 earth was now a rich and splendid kingdom waiting for its destined king4 ,the king came1 and flora and fauna were at his service2 his name was ,,man4 ,,footnotes3 #ad ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 p4 #bc4 #ae ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b4 ,,lesson ,,vi4 ,,the ,,starry ,,heavens4 8,sit1 ,jessica3 ,look how the floor of heaven ,is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold2 ,there's not the smallest orb1 which thou beholdest1 ,but in his motion like an angel sings1 ,still quiring to the young-eyed cherubim40 --,merchant of ,venice1 ,act #e4 ,the kitten plays with its tail1 the lamb nibbles the grass1 the chick scratches on the ground for a living1 and none of them feel any curiosity about the reason of things around them4 ,but the smallest child begins to ask questions1 especially about the natural objects that surround it4 ,it is not satisfied with having water to drink2 it wants to know from whence water comes4 ,fruit is good1 but how do fruits grow8 ,no doubt the first human beings felt this same curiosity1 or rather desire for knowledge1 the food of the mind4 ,as soon as there was a man to observe natural objects1 what they were1 and how they came to be1 were questions that early presented themselves to his attention1 and afforded theme for the first legends and fables4 ,the wonders of the heavens were among the primary subjects of human thought4 ,the rising and setting of the sun1 and his splendid way through the sky2 the milder beauty of the moon2 the marshalled hosts of the stars aroused the admiration1 interest1 even worship1 of the earliest representatives of our race4 ,men concluded that the heavenly bodies were gods or men1 who for great deeds had been taken to shine in deathless glory in the skies4 ,with enlarging ideas they understood that the stars are worlds1 but they had no means of determining how large or how distant they might be4 ,the first students of the skies thought that the earth was the largest of the heavenly bodies1 and stood still1 while the others moved4 ,they considered also that the earth was flat1 and that the skies above it were a vast hemispherical dome4 ,such notions are instinctive even at the present time4 ,how natural it is for us to believe that the earth is the lower half of the universe1 and the skies the upper half6 ,we speak as if the heavens and the earth were two separate creations4 ,we are slow to recognize the fact that the earth is merely one little part of the heavens4 ,the heavens are about us on every side4 ,by the heavens we mean that part of space which seems to be star filled4 ,in these heavens our world is as a globe suspended1 and every star that we see is another globe suspended in space4 ,of these globes we can1 with the unaided eye1 see countless thousands2 millions more are reached only by powerful telescopes2 very likely myriads still exist which no glass is strong enough to bring into human sight4 ,in ancient times people fancied that the stars ruled the lives of men1 and from them came good or evil influences1 wars1 famines1 plagues4 ,they foretold the events of years by the stars that showed highest and brightest1 and cast the horoscopes of individuals by dividing the sky into 8houses0 or sections1 and considering the appearances of these houses at the hour when a child was born4 ,this pursuit was called astrology1 and it extended to the study of comets1 eclipses1 and all the appearances of the skies4 ,this astrology was an elaborate science1 and one of the most ancient studies of men1 and by degrees led the way to the present noble science of astronomy4 ,when we look at the skies they seem to be crowded with shining bodies sown thickly together without any particular order4 ,looking more carefully1 we see that in parts of the sky the stars are thickly clustered1 and that there seem to be empty spaces4 ,we observe too that there are differences in the size1 brightness1 and color of the stars4 ,some stars are red1 some white1 some blue1 some green or yellow3 some shine with a clear1 steady ray1 some quiver1 tremble1 disappear1 reappear4 ,during the day we cannot see the stars1 because of the greater brightness of the sunshine4 ,when the moon is full and bright at night the stars seem dim1 but on a cloudless1 moonless night the stars are well displayed4 ,the early observers divided the stars into constellations1 and traced upon the sky fanciful figures of chairs1 dragons1 sheep1 crowns1 bears1 persons1 each of these constellations having some few prominent stars and a number of smaller ones4 ,while the outlines of these objects are entirely fanciful1 the arrangement is of great use in helping us to find or describe stars4 ,distant in the starry space are vast shining clouds1 which were once supposed to be whirling masses of vapor or 8star dust10 and received the name of nebul1 or clouds4 ,better telescopes have revealed the true character of the nebul1 and we find that they are thickly crowded stars1 so immensely distant that their light mingles as one mass1 and the spaces between them are not seen4 ,it is also true that there are some nebul which are really 8cloud-masses of glowing gas40 ,wandering among the stars are seen at times brilliant bodies with long trains or tails of glowing vapor4 ,these are comets4 ,once their appearances caused great terror1 as indicating disaster to the human race1 and even now some persons are alarmed lest one of these sky wanderers should1 in his frantic flight1 run against our earth and dash the poor little globe to pieces6 ,but these comets are not such vagrants as they seem4 ,law reigns in all the universe1 and even comets are subject to it1 and come and go on a distinct track4 ,the motion of many comets has been determined1 and their return into the range of our vision is accurately foretold4 ,there are some comets which always remain in our own solar system2 others come from the depths of space1 pass about our sun1 and dash away into infinite distance to return no more4 ,various opinions are held as to the material of comets4 ,some consider that they are composed of myriads of small bodies like tiny meteors2 others consider them made of gas4 ,the head or nucleus is doubtless more solid than the tail1 and it has been found that tails of comets differ in composition2 they contain hydrogen1 carbon1 iron1 chlorine1 and other kinds of matter1 such as we have in our world4 ,the tails of comets always turn from the sun1 and as the comet nears the sun in its circuit the tail expands2 as it leaves the sun the tail decreases in size4 ,some comets have no tails1 some have several4 ,it is supposed that the tails of comets diminish and finally disappear1 from destruction of their expanded material by the sun's heat as they repeatedly draw near to the centre of our system4 ,some comets go and come in their orbits in three or four years1 others roam for centuries before they sweep again into our range of sight4 ,as marvellous as the comets1 are the temporary stars4 ,several instances are on record where stars have suddenly appeared where no star had been seen before4 ,they shone for a time with splendor1 then faded away4 ,in ,november1 #aegb1 a magnificent new star shone in the constellation of ,cassiopeia4 ,in eighteen months it vanished4 ,during the seventeenth century 8,kepler's ,star0 appeared in the constellation of ,the ,serpent ,bearer1 and surpassed all the finest stars near it in brightness4 ,it gradually lessened1 and in two years was lost to view4 ,other wonders of the heavens are the variable stars4 ,the light of these stars changes greatly4 ,week after week they brighten as the sun brightens from dawn to noon2 then for an equal period they pale and fade1 to revive in splendor and again to wane4 ,there are also stars that fix our attention by being binary or double4 ,these are twin stars situated very close together1 and revolving around each other4 ,after the binary stars were discovered1 it was found that there were also multiple stars2 that is1 three or four stars similarly situated in relation to each other1 and circling about each other4 ,these binary and multiple stars are usually of different colors1 as a green and a red1 an orange and a blue1 or blue1 green1 orange1 and red in a four-fold star4 ,most of the stars are so very far from us that we cannot learn much about them4 ,what we call our own solar system embraces our sun and a certain number of planets1 which depend on our sun for heat and light1 and constantly move about the sun in great and nearly circular paths4 ,by means of telescopes and other instruments we are able to study our own sun and his system of dependent planets4 ,when we examine distant stars they seem to us to be like our sun1 and so we conclude that like him they may be centres of systems and have planets wheeling about them4 ,if there were such planets we could not see them1 owing to the greatness of the distances4 ,planets are dark in themselves1 as our world is1 and shine only by reflected light from their suns4 ,these suns are the stars of the field of heaven4 ,suns are stationary with respect to their accompanying planets1 but with respect to other systems it is probable that each system is in motion and moves about some distant centre1 led by its sun along some path which no mind can calculate4 ,as we look upon the heavens we can consider that all these glowing bodies are moving on some majestic path through infinite space4 ,the star ,alcyone1 in the ,pleiades1 has been conjectured by ,mdler of ,dorpat to be the centre of gravity1 or central sun of all the known universe4#af ,the ,pleiades1 often called 8,the ,seven ,stars10 are a grape-shaped cluster1 of which six stars are large and beautiful1 while many smaller ones appear like a soft1 golden haze4 ,ancient poets said that once there were seven ,pleiads1 but one wept itself out at the fall of the city of ,troy4 ,that is a pretty fancy2 but if one of those so distant stars had gone out when ,troy fell1 its light might yet be shining for us1 and certainly would have shone on ,ovid1 who told the tale4 ,a poet has written truly3-- 8,were a star quenched on high1 ,for ages would its light ,still travelling downward through the sky1 ,fall on our mortal sight40 ,so vast are these star-distances that it takes hundreds of years for the light of a star to reach us1 and yet light moves one hundred and eighty-six thousand miles a second6 ,this is much faster than ,puck1 who could 8put a girdle roundabout the earth in forty minutes60 ,what an immensity is this about us6 ,all that void amid the starry systems we call stellar or inter-stellar space4 ,lit by so many splendid suns1 is it not then glowing with the light of high noon a million times multiplied8 ,no4 ,the higher we rise above the earth1 the darker becomes the color of the sky1 until it hangs like a pall of unspeakable blackness4 ,why is this8 ,why is light not light8 ,why this absolute darkness among so many1 many suns8 ,it is simply lack of dust6 ,there must be something to throw back and scatter the rays of light before it can be visible4 ,unless far up in stellar space there is dust1 star-dust1 a whirl of motes or stones to seize and throw back the light1 then all must be very dark4 ,here on our own little globe the glorious sunbeams lighten us1 thanks to dust in our atmosphere4 ,the sunshine reveals to us the dust1 but the dust makes the sunshine visible4 ,sunbeams and dust1 each one invisible without the other6 ,,footnotes3 #af ,this1 of course1 is merely a conjecture1 which it would need ages of observation to confirm4 ,,lesson ,,vii4 ,a ,,fragment ,,of ,,the ,,milky ,,way4 8,and now the still stars make all heaven sightly4 ,one1 in the low west1 like the sky ablaze2 ,the ,swan1 that with her shining ,cross floats nightly1 ,and ,bears that slowly walk along their ways4 ,there is the golden ,lyre1 and there the crown of fire3 ,thank ,god for nights so fair to these bright days40 --,,lowell1 ,summer ,nightfall4 ,looking up into the heavens we cannot fail to notice a broad1 shining band that crosses the sky4 ,we are early told that this is the ,milky ,way1 receiving its name from its pale1 silvery light and its path-like track across the firmament4 ,all the heavenly bodies are arranged in clusters or nebul2 no one of them is isolated4 ,the ,milky ,way is one of these nebul4 ,its shape is that of a wide1 irregular ribbon deeply notched at one end4 ,the reason of the white and shining appearance of the entire nebula1 is that it is densely crowded with stars1 and is so immensely distant that the spaces between the stars are lost to view4 ,about one hundred years ago ,herschel endeavored to count the stars in the ,milky ,way4 ,he found eighteen millions of stars in the central belt alone4 ,how long is this nebula8 ,light starting from one limit of its longest diameter1 and travelling one hundred and eighty-six thousand miles a second1 would travel fifteen thousand years before it reached the last shining star in the ,milky ,way6 ,such distances as this are beyond our power to imagine4 ,the ,milky ,way is a gigantic cluster of suns1 and if each sun has its planetary system about it1 each system rides like a shining archipelago in these seas of space4 ,earth and all other planets1 being dark in themselves1 do not count in these burning distances4 ,so then our sun is but a star1 and the ,milky ,way is made up of millions of such stars4 ,more than this1 our sun is one of the many stars that compose this wonderful band of light4 ,we have now found our place in the heavens--we are a portion of the ,milky ,way4 ,illustration3 ,,hung ,,in ,,space4 ,all the large stars which grace our most brilliant nights belong to this same great cluster4 ,we are ourselves lying near its centre4 ,among all these suns our own appears to us to be the largest and most magnificent4 ,this is because it is nearest to us1 and it is to us the source of life1 light1 and heat4 ,there may be other suns of tenfold splendor1 and there may be other nebul far larger and more crowded with suns than the ,milky ,way4 ,there are other nebul which have received different names1 from the shape of their outlines1 as globular1 annular1 spiral1 double1 multiple2 the ,crab1 the ship ,argo1--which is shaped like a comet1--the ,magellanic clouds1 and so on4 ,these lie like splendid islands rocking in distant space1 so far away1 that if we travelled with the inconceivable speed of light1 we might be millions of years in reaching them4 ,many of the greatest human minds have1 during many ages1 been occupied in studying our solar system1 investigating its laws1 measuring its distances4 ,the discoveries so made have been applied to other systems1 and in this way1 by long and slow but sure degrees1 the science of astronomy has been built up4 ,from ancient times it has been the custom to divide the stars into classes according to their apparent size4 ,this apparent size depends chiefly upon their nearness to us1 and evidently1 as the few only are near1 and the many are far off1 stars of the first magnitude are few in number1 and as they diminish in apparent size the number embraced in the successive classes increases4 ,thus we find but eighteen stars of the first magnitude2 but of the third there are one hundred and seventy1 of the fourth five hundred1 and thus on4 ,when we look upward in a starry winter night we fancy we can see millions of stars4 ,in truth with the unaided eye we can see only six thousand at most1 and it needs very strong eyes to see more than four thousand4 ,but when we turn a telescope upon the sky we begin to count stars by millions4 ,all the stars are in apparent motion2 they have their rising and their setting as does the sun2 the constellations appear above the horizon1 and move swiftly down the sky4 ,only one star is1 as viewed from our world1 immovable1 remaining forever fixed in its place2 we call it the ,north ,star1 or the ,pole ,star1 because to us of the ,northern hemisphere it seems to be always watching above the ,northern ,pole4 ,but1 while unalterable as regards us1 the ,pole ,star is not released from the general law of motion which rules the stars4 ,when we begin to trace out constellations1 we usually take the ,pole ,star as our starting-point4 ,the ,pole ,star is in the tail of the constellation of the ,little ,bear1 and we find it by imagining a straight line drawn from the two upper stars in the square of the ,great ,dipper4 ,the ,great ,dipper we shall easily find1 as it is composed of seven large1 bright stars1 four of which form an irregular four-sided figure and from one corner of this square three others extend in a slightly curved line4 ,this constellation1 seen from any place north of ,new ,orleans1 ,la41 never sets1 but slowly turns around the fixed ,pole ,star4 ,in ancient times the ,great ,dipper was sometimes called the ,chariot1 or ,david's ,chariot1 and among ,english country people it is known as ,charles's ,wain1 a wain being an old ,english name for a wagon4 ,the ,chinese name the ,great ,dipper 8,the ,god of the ,north02 the ,mohammedans often call it 8,the ,hand of ,god40 ,it is also called the ,great ,bear4 ,of all the stars the one nearest us is in the southern constellation of the ,centaur2 but that is so far off that its distance is beyond our comprehension1 being over two hundred and eleven thousand times as far distant as the sun4 ,if we could take a ray of light for our steed we must ride three years and six months to reach this sun that is nearest to our sun in the starry hosts4 ,but is light for a steed all that is wanted for such a trip among the stars8 ,no2 for a very little way from our earth we should be in want of an atmosphere1 or air to breathe1 and also in want of light and heat4 ,light1 heat1 and air are probably alike lacking in starry space4 ,before we consider the orbs which compose our own solar system1 their motions and relationships1 which we shall do in another chapter1 let us consider for a little the theory of the origin of systems1 taking our own for a sample of the rest4 ,tennyson the poet1 puts the story of system-building thus3-- 8,this world was once a fluid haze of light ,till toward the centre set the starry tides1 ,and eddied into suns that wheeling cast ,the planets40 ,we saw in a previous lesson that our world was once a vast ball of fiery vapor4 ,the great astronomer ,laplace1 after many years of study1 published a theory about system-making1 called the 8,nebular ,hypothesis10 which1 as simply as we can put it1 is this3 ,first1 there is a great cloud of glowing vapor1 the various particles of which are by the law of gravitation drawn toward a single centre4 ,as the particles press equally to the centre from all sides1 it is evident that the first result will be a ball of constantly increasing solidity4 ,this nebulous mass possesses also a motion of rotation1 or turning over on its own axis4 ,as the ball grows smaller and more dense1 it will spin round faster and faster4 ,the gaseous matter of the sphere having become fluid or partly fluid1 the ball still whirls on1 and we must now notice a second motion1 called centrifugal or tangental1 which has become more apparent as the rotation increases in velocity4 ,while by the force of gravity all atoms seek the centre1 by this centrifugal force atoms are driven from the centre4 ,this tangental motion is familiarly seen in the case of mud on a wheel-tire1 the mud being flung off from the wheel by a motion created by rotation4 ,so from the spinning globe a ring of matter will be detached and fly off into space4 ,if this ring were equally hard and thick in all its parts1 and exactly poised about the globe from which it sprung1 it might keep the ring shape4 ,but in nearly all cases the ring when flung off would be irregular1 and would consequently break up4 ,as it broke1 the largest fragments1 keeping the wheeling motion and made spherical by gravity1 would draw into themselves the smaller near fragments4 ,then1 after a while1 following the example of the globe from which they spun off1 these new globes would cast off rings of matter which would contract and harden into globes1 and become their satellites or attendants1 as they1 held by the force of gravity1 remain attendants upon the first great globe4 ,this is the nebular theory of system-building4 ,we see that in it three things are pre-supposed1 or taken for granted2 first1 matter in a state of slowly rotating glowing vapor2 second1 a law of gravitation2 third1 a law of tangental motion4 ,in the one hundred years since this hypothesis was first developed by ,laplace1 no one has ever seen the glowing vapor consolidating to suns4 ,these processes are far too long to have been within any human observation1 but long and careful study has enabled man to learn some of the wonderful laws by which the universe is governed4 ,let us see if this explanation of ,laplace fits anything which we find in our solar system4 ,has any great globe rings wheeling about it8 ,yes2 the huge planet ,saturn has a triple ring4 ,besides this ring1 ,saturn has eight moons1 as if some other ring had broken up1 and its parts had come together into satellites4 ,the planet ,jupiter has four satellites1 ,mars has two1 ,uranus has four1 ,neptune one1 and our earth has one1 called the moon4 ,there are also in our system a number of very small planets1 closely grouped1 called asteroids4 ,in the nebular hypothesis these asteroids might represent matter cast off at first in rings1 breaking and finally condensing into spheres4 ,here we find in our solar system between the larger planets ,mars and ,jupiter a splendid zone of minor planets4 ,comets are also explained by this theory1 as large masses of material1 too evenly balanced among the planets to yield to the attraction of any one of them1 but owning the attraction of the sun1 the centre of gravity of our entire system1 and wheeling about it in vast elliptical orbits4 ,finally it is supposed by some that the general speed of our entire system is slackening4 ,this 8slowing up0 of the system is supposed to be due to the friction of ether which pervades all space1 and also to a great depth of hot and expanded material more thin than air1 which extends about the sun1 wrapping it in a vast1 fine mantle of gas1 as our atmosphere surrounds our globe4 ,but if it is true that the motion of our system is growing slower1 it will be many millions of years before the change will be great enough to notice2 just as1 granting that the sun is losing its heat1 it will be many millions of years before it ceases to shine upon and warm our globe4 ,in fact the lessening of speed in the solar system1 and the lessening of sun heat1 are as yet only theories and not proved facts4 ,the sun will shine on1 and the worlds will whirl around it1 through time which no human mind can calculate4 ,attraction1 the attraction of the sun over the planets1 and the planets for each other1 has been several times mentioned4 ,what is this attraction8 ,attraction is a 8drawing to40 ,if a magnet be held near steel filings it attracts the particles of steel1 and they adhere to the magnet2 this attractive power is magnetic attraction4 ,the attraction or pulling power which bodies have for each other1 is called the attraction of gravity or of gravitation4 ,all bodies have this attraction for each other1 but in small bodies we do not observe it4 ,its force is due to the weight or mass of the bodies1 and diminishes as their distance from each other increases4 ,it is by this force1 or attraction of gravitation1 that whatever is thrown into the air falls towards the earth4 ,if you throw up a ball it moves upward1 obeying the force you put into your throw1 but soon that force is used up1 and the earth pulls the ball back4 ,you jump1 and you rise from the earth by the force expended by your legs in the act of jumping1 but that force is used up soon1 and the earth pulls you down4 ,you jump from a tree or roof1 and down you come to the earth1 pulled by the force or attraction of gravitation4 ,this force or attraction1 exerted by the great strong sun over our earth and all other planets1 keeps them travelling in nearly round paths about the sun4 ,this attraction1 exerted by the earth over the moon1 keeps the moon travelling in a nearly circular path about the earth4 ,and does not the moon then attract the earth8 ,oh1 yes1 all bodies attract each other2 but the moon is of much less weight or mass than the earth1 and her pull is weak in comparison2 she cannot pull the earth out of her orbit4 ,she does pull something however1 and what do you suppose she pulls8 ,she pulls the water that is on the earth1 heaping it up in the tides6 ,the tide is simply the ocean obeying the attraction of the moon4 ,it seems a pity that in a few simple lessons on the solar system1 we should use any terms that are hard to be understood4 ,but some few such terms we have been obliged to use4 8,attraction of gravitation0 is one of these which we have tried to make a little plainer4 8,inclination of plane to orbit0 is another4 ,what does that mean8 ,can we make it clear8 ,let us set a lamp on the table1 and call it the sun4 ,now take an orange and call it the world4 ,call the stem-place1 and the spot opposite1 the poles of this world4 ,next run a knitting-needle through the orange1 from pole to pole1 to represent the axis on which the earth turns4 ,as we spin our earth-orange around on its axis1 let us move our needle around the lamp1 in a lemon-shaped path4 ,this shape is called an ellipse4 ,thus we represent the earth turning around on its axis1 or over and over1 and at the same time travelling around the sun4 ,now it is clear that we can hold our knitting-needle straight out1 horizontally1 or we can hold it straight up and down1 perpendicularly1 as it moves around the sun-lamp4 ,but neither of these straight positions would represent the direction of the axis of the earth2 we must tip the needle a little1 so as to hold it in a slanting position4 ,now if we held the needle exactly up and down1 or exactly straight out1 the sun-lamp would shine on just half of the orange1 as divided from pole to pole4 ,but when we tip the needle you see we bring our orange-world in such a position that1 as it passes around the sun-lamp1 the light falls now more around one pole1 now more around the other2 this tipped position is 8inclination to the plane of orbit40 ,,lesson ,,viii4 ,,plan ,,and ,,progression4 8,they rise in joy1 the starry myriads burning-- ,the shepherd greets them from his mountains free2 ,and from the silvery sea ,to them the sailor's wakeful eye is turning-- ,unchanged they rise--0 --,,hemans4 ,we have now found that our earth is one among several planets revolving around a great central star which we name the sun4 ,the sun and his attendant planets and their satellites form what is called the solar system4 ,we have also found that the heavens are filled with such systems1 and that these are gathered together in nebul or clusters4 ,prominent among these clusters is the ,milky ,way1 near the centre of which our system is placed4 ,the bodies which in our system revolve about the sun1 are called planets4 ,with respect to the sun and other great stars the planets are small1 but considered in themselves they are enormous bodies4 ,they are all dark spheres1#ag having no light in themselves4 ,is it true that the moon with her silvery radiance and ,venus and ,mars with their steadfast beams1 are dull and dark as burnt-out cinders8 ,this is indeed true2 the planets receive their light and heat from the sun1 and it is as they reflect back this light that they shine so brilliantly4 ,as an example of such reflection take a new tin plate2 it has no light in itself2 shut it in a dark room1 it gives out no light2 but hold it where a broad ray of sunshine strikes it1 and at once the light is reflected back from the tin with such burning splendor that the eyes can scarcely look upon it4 ,so we have observed windows struck by the light of the setting sun1 and at once blazing forth like fires4 ,the planet nearest to the sun is named ,mercury4 ,it is distant from the sun about thirty-five millions of miles1#ah and is the smallest of the eight major planets4 ,mercury is so close to the sun that it is nearly always lost in the sun's light1 and can be seen by the naked eye only occasionally1 immediately after a clear sunset1 or before a clear sunrise4 ,the telescope shows us that ,mercury has phases as the moon has2 possesses1 as far as known1 no satellites1 and its path is not so nearly in a circle as that of other planets4 ,to the naked eye it appears as a small star1 with a white light faintly tinted with red4 ,lying so near to the sun it receives much more light and heat than we do4 ,its day is twenty-four hours long2 its year has but eighty-eight days1 and each of its seasons is but twenty-two days long4 ,the shortness of the year and of the seasons is the result of the nearness of the planet to the sun1 which so shortens its path that it can be traversed in less than three of our months4 ,the next planet in order of distance from the sun is ,venus1 the most beautiful of what we popularly call stars4 ,but ,venus is a planet1 not a star4 ,venus is visible nearly all the year1 and is often the first star to shine forth in the evening or the last one to fade away in the morning4 ,it has even been seen shining at noon-day4 ,this dazzling light of ,venus is supposed to be caused by a dense layer of cloud1 which wraps the planet about1 and proves an admirable reflector of the sun's rays4 ,the day of ,venus is about half an hour shorter than our own2#ai its year is two hundred and twenty-four days4 ,the ,french astronomer1 ,flammarion1 tells us that mountains1 much higher than any on our earth1 have been measured on the planet ,venus4 ,the changes of temperature on ,venus are much more sudden than on our earth2 but it has no ice at the poles1 for its winter does not last long enough for ice to accumulate as it does at the earth's poles4 ,as the orbit of ,venus is between the earth and the sun1 it happens that at certain times ,venus lies between the sun and the earth1 and so shows us its dark side4 ,again1 when it is to the right or left of the sun1 we see only a crescent formed by its quarter1#bj and it is at this phase that its mountains have been measured4 ,venus is sixty-six millions of miles from the sun1 and when nearest us about twenty-six million miles from the earth1 being1 with the exception of the moon1 our nearest neighbor in the skies4 ,the third planet from the sun is our earth1 ninety-two million miles from the source of its light and heat4 ,circling around the earth1 and moving with it in its orbit1 goes the moon4 ,the earth rotates on its axis once in about twenty-four hours1 giving us day and night in that period of time1 according as1 during its revolution1 a part of the surface is turned to or from the sun4 ,as the earth rolls over upon itself1 it also rolls along its orbit1 or sky-path4 ,the path of the earth about the sun is travelled over in three hundred and sixty-five and a quarter days1 giving us our change of seasons by the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit4 ,next removed beyond the earth from the sun1 is the splendid planet ,mars1 which is easily distinguishable by its red light4 ,it is in some parts of its path only seven millions of miles further from the earth than ,venus4 ,mars has a day of about the same length as ours1 and its seasons are of nearly the same intensity2 but while a season is three months long with us1 on ,mars it is very nearly six months1 for ,mars takes almost two of our years to travel round the sun4 ,mars has a snow or ice-cap at each pole2 it has also an atmosphere1 as with a telescope we can observe clouds drifting across its sky1 the clouds being formed as clouds here1 by the evaporation of water from the surface of the globe1 which moisture1 being carried up in invisible vapor1 is condensed by colder currents of air and forms clouds4 ,the red light of ,mars is supposed to be produced by the color of its surface1 and by some it is considered that the vegetation on ,mars may be red1 as ours is green1 and that to an observer on ,mars1 our planet would shine with a green light1 as to us ,mars shines in red4 ,the poles of ,mars are always white4 ,next after the moon ,mars is the planet best known to us1 because sometimes1 as our globe and ,mars pursue their paths through space1 they come upon the same side of their path at the same time1 which shortens the distance between them1 and enables close observations to be taken4 ,between ,mars and the next planet ,jupiter there is a very great space1 so great that astronomers considered that it could not be empty1 but must have in it planets too small for easy observation4 ,they therefore resolved to search that part of the sky constantly and carefully with telescopes4 ,on the first day of this century a small planet was seen in this space1 and was named ,ceres4 ,this was the first-found asteroid4 ,from their small size these planets are called asteroids or starlets4 ,others were found1 slowly at first1 and then more and more2 in ,april1 #ahia1 the #cjith was discovered by ,dr4 ,palisa4 ,ceres1 the first-found asteroid1 is so small that one hundred and twenty-five thousand little worlds of its size could be made out of our own world4 ,fifty little globes like ,ceres1 set side by side1 would form a line as long as the diameter of our world4 ,as the mass of ,ceres is so much less than that of our world1 the attraction of gravity is less--anything is fifty times as heavy on our world as it would be on ,ceres4 ,so if a boy could live on ,ceres1 and have as much muscular force as he has here1 he could play easily with a ball that here weighs a quarter of a ton4 ,a baby on ,ceres could tumble about a cannon-ball as easily as a baby here plays with a rubber ball4 ,if a house fell over on a man1 he could set it up as easily as here he could set up a fallen peach-basket4 ,of course it is only a play of fancy that there are men1 boys1 or babies on ,ceres4 ,perhaps there is no living thing there4 ,if there are living creatures1 all their habits and ways of life must be very different from ours4 ,but if people from our earth could go to ,ceres1 why would they find such wonderful differences there in weights1 and in the effect of an output of strength8 ,we have seen that ,ceres is very much smaller than our earth2 its mass is greatly less1 and just in proportion to the smallness of its mass is the force of the pull it exerts over objects1 or the attraction of gravitation2 this attraction is dependent upon the mass of the body exercising it1 and upon the distance of the body attracted4 ,when the distance between two bodies is great the attraction is weaker1 and when a body is small its attracting power is less in proportion4 ,ceres is such a small planet that its pull over objects is small4 ,similarly1 we might say of the planet ,mars that its mass is so small1 as compared with that of the earth1 that a body which on the earth would weigh one hundred pounds would weigh much less on ,mars2 and where you could jump up five feet here1 you could rise many feet there4 ,the best athlete who can make a jump here1 can rise only a few feet into the air2 then down he comes1 pulled by the force of gravity1 the attraction of the earth4 ,but on ,ceres attraction is so small an affair that a man could jump over a dome as high as ,st4 ,peter's or ,st4 ,paul's without creating any excitement4 ,in fact1 on ,ceres a man would weigh only one-fiftieth part what he weighs here1 and the same output of muscular activity as is used here would have a fifty-fold value4 ,much the same conditions exist on the other asteroids4 ,when first discovered it was supposed that the asteroids were fragments of some very large planet which had gone to pieces4 ,that theory has been disproved1 and now the nebular hypothesis of ,laplace is generally admitted to account satisfactorily for these little planets4 ,after passing the asteroids in our system1 we come to ,jupiter1 the largest of the planets4 ,jupiter often shines more brightly than ,venus4 ,it is more than one thousand times larger than the earth1 and is seen during most of the year4 ,the year of ,jupiter2 that is1 the time which is required for its journey around the sun1 is almost twelve of our years4 ,day and night are equal1 and of about five hours each1 and there is probably no change of seasons4 ,but ,jupiter seems to be to-day a still highly heated body1 as our earth was very many ages ago1 and its surface is disturbed by terrific storms4 ,jupiter is accompanied by four moons1 and its globe is surrounded by several dark belts1 which seem variable in number1 but apparently belong to its surface4 ,the belts somewhat resemble sun-spots1 and indeed the whole planet is considered by astronomers to be much more like the sun than like our earth4 ,the reason that ,jupiter does not have changes of season is that the inclination of the planet to its orbit is very slight4 ,when we consider that ,jupiter turns on its axis in less than half the time that our earth requires for a rotation1 and is also so very much greater in diameter than our earth1 we will realize how marvellously rapid its daily motion must be4 ,next to ,jupiter in place1 and next also in size1 is ,saturn1 the sixth planet from the sun4 ,ancient astronomers supposed that with ,saturn our solar system ended4 ,saturn has eight moons placed at different distances1 and is further distinguished by a very beautiful triple ring surrounding the entire planet on its equatorial line4 ,within this glowing triple ring the planet turns1 and the rings themselves are carried round the planet in a circular movement of still greater swiftness4 ,these rings are not always visible1 as they1 like their planet1 shine by the reflection of sunlight1 and so are seen only when the sun and earth are both on the same side of the planet4 ,in #agha ,sir ,william ,herschel1 the ,english astronomer1 who had made for himself a very fine telescope1 discovered another planet4 ,at first he supposed this was not a planet but a comet4 ,finally it was received into the family of the planets and named ,uranus4 ,uranus is much smaller than ,saturn1 but many times larger than the earth4 ,a year on ,uranus is eighty-four of our years2 that is1 it takes ,uranus eighty-four years to make its circuit of the sun4 ,with the discovery of ,uranus astronomers began to hope that yet other bodies belonged to our solar system4 ,they saw that the motion of ,uranus was often disturbed1 as if some other planet near it exercised over it some attracting force4 ,searching carefully1 a planet was finally found1 about one hundred times larger than the earth1 and so far from the sun that to an observer placed upon it the sun must appear like a large star2 even the planet's day would be no brighter than twilight4 ,this new-found planet was named ,neptune1 and is thus far the last known planet of our sun system4 ,its place was determined in #ahdf4 ,neptune is the only great planet that has been discovered by a set search in the heavens for it1 based on reasoning that such a planet ought to exist4 ,a ,frenchman and an ,englishman discovered ,neptune almost simultaneously4 ,the planet has one moon4 ,uranus and ,neptune are so exceedingly distant from our earth1 and from the sun1 that the study of them has afforded very little of interest4 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,professor ,newcomb considers ,jupiter partly self-luminous4 #ah ,sir ,b4 ,ball says #cf millions2 others #ce millions2 ,newcomb makes mean distance #dj millions4 #ai ,sir ,r4 ,s4 ,ball4 ,story of the ,heavens1 p4 #afa4 #bj ,these phases can be observed only through a telescope4 ,,lesson ,,ix4 ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,day4 8,in them hath he set a ,tabernacle for the sun1 ,which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber1 ,and rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race1 ,there is nothing hid from the heat thereof40 --,psalm ,,xix4 ,if it should happen that the sun were blotted out1 our earth would at once cease to be habitable4 ,within forty-eight hours the globe would be covered with a deluge of rain1 and buried in piles of snow1 owing to the condensation of all the moisture in our suddenly chilled atmosphere1 while more than ,arctic cold would freeze the oceans to their depths4 ,in this reign of cold and darkness all animal and vegetable life would perish4 ,all the planets of our system would share the same fate1 and as the light with which they shine is reflected from the sun1 they would become invisible1 rolling on through space in total darkness4 ,how far from us is this sun1 so important to us as the centre of light1 heat1 and attraction8 ,ninety-two millions of miles4 ,but how far is that8 ,an engine running thirty miles an hour1 without once slacking speed1 could go around our globe in thirty-five days4 ,start it off for a trip to the moon1 and with the same speed it would reach there in eleven months4 ,and then send it from the earth to the sun1 at an equal rate of travel3 year after year it must rush on1 until three hundred and fifty-one years were passed before it could reach the sun4 ,but so much faster does light travel than a railroad train1 that light comes to us from the sun in eight minutes and nineteen seconds6 ,illustration3 8,,the ,,light ,,and ,,the ,,night40 ,the sun is the centre of our planetary system1 and holds all the planets in their proper orbits by the force of his attraction4 ,we have seen in our glance at the asteroid ,ceres1 that the attraction of gravity depends upon the distance and the weight or mass of the body exercising it4 ,if our earth should suddenly grow lighter it could not hold the moon in its present orbit2 if its attractive power over the moon ceased1 the moon would go tumbling off into space4 ,the sun exercises immense attractive force by virtue of its enormous mass4 ,if all the planets were put into one pan of a pair of scales1 the sun in the other would outweigh them seven hundred times over4 ,three hundred and fifty thousand such globes as we live upon would be needed to balance the sun4 ,this gives us some idea of the mass or weight of the sun4 ,what is its size8 ,our world is nearly eight thousand miles in diameter at the equator2 over two hundred and forty thousand miles distant from the earth the moon revolves around it2 but if a circle as large as the sun could be drawn1 the earth might be placed in the centre1 the moon rolled in her proper path around it1 and beyond this orbit to the line representing the circumference of the sun would be a distance of nearly two hundred thousand miles more4 ,this vast orb shines with no borrowed ray4 ,it is a great fountain of burning light which shines now as it shone long before the building of our world began4 ,no light is so powerful and intense as sunlight4 ,a flash of lightning is scarcely seen across a sunny sky2 the light of lamps is not visible in strong sunshine2 no invented light can approach sunshine in brilliancy4 ,twenty millions of the brightest stars would not shed upon the earth the radiance poured out by the sun4 ,according to the nebular hypothesis of ,laplace1 the sun not only provides the planets with light and heat1 but is the source and parent from which they sprung into space4 ,thus the most distant planets1 as ,neptune and ,uranus1 were the ones first thrown off1 and the earth1 as only in the third remove from its source1 is one of the latest of the sun children4 ,we know that in the far-off ages1 when the earth was being built into a habitable globe1 the sun shone just as it does to-day4 ,we know this from the eyes of fossil animals1 which show that they were formed to receive sunlight just as eyes do to-day4 ,also the petrified rain-marks1 of which we spoke in a former chapter1 tell the same story2 for without the sun there would have been no rain1 nor would imprints have dried or baked so rapidly4 ,the heat and light of the sun are indispensable to the production and growth of all vegetation4 ,age after age the genial rays of the sun nourished on this earth an improving and enlarging vegetable growth1 which on its decay left added soil for generations of plants to come4 ,thus the sun was not only the parent but the cherishing nurse of our little globe4 ,we have seen that in the coal period of earth-building1 the atmosphere of the world was heavily charged with carbonic acid gas1 but under the stimulating effects of sunshine1 vegetation continually increased1 used up most of the carbonic acid gas1 and the atmosphere became constantly richer in oxygen1#ba and more and more fitted for the use of animals4 ,thus we see the sun1 as a prudent householder1 storing up in the world supplies of coal1 and purifying at the same time the air4 ,meanwhile1 by the action of sun rays on the salt1 shallow seas1 vast salt beds were produced and buried1 providing a mineral especially needful to man4 ,our dependence upon the sun awakens a desire to know something about the orb itself2 but how can a body so intensely bright be studied8 ,smoked and colored glass plates are used1 through which the sun can be observed with comfort1 and there are certain occasions when the study of this vast1 glowing1 and distant body can be favorably pursued4 ,these especial occasions favorable to sun-study are during an eclipse1 and when the planets ,mercury and ,venus cross the sun's disk4 ,such a crossing is called a transit4 ,it was once supposed that the sun was no larger than the moon is1 and as near to the earth as that planet is2 both sun and moon were believed to be much smaller than the earth1 and very near to it1 and revolving in an orbit about it4 ,to us the sun appears to rise above the horizon1 move across the heavens1 and sink beneath the horizon1 and return after a few hours' absence to pursue the same path4 ,meanwhile1 the earth does not appear to us to move4 ,this is not the only case in which our eyes deceive us until we call reason to their aid4 ,when we are on a swiftly moving train of cars1 it seems to us that trees1 posts1 telegraph-poles1 go rushing by us1 while we remain at rest4 ,although no one now questions that the earth moves1 and that with regard to the earth the sun remains fixed in one place1 we still use the language that fits appearances rather than facts1 and we say1 8the sun rises1 the sun sets10 when in truth the earth is merely turning over and over1 and so constantly bringing a different part of its surface under the sun's rays4 ,as the various planets move about the sun1 in paths which we may call concentric circles1 or rings set one inside the other1 it is evident that there may be occasions when the different planets will come between the sun and some planet with an orbit beyond their own4 ,for instance1 ,mercury is a planet travelling in a circle around the sun1 but a circle smaller than that in which the earth travels4 ,mercury may then sometimes pass across the face of the sun at a time when the earth is on the same side of the sun1 and in that case we can observe ,mercury moving like a little black ball across the glowing front of the ,king of the ,day4 ,to see such an occurrence we must use smoked or darkened glasses1 else ,mercury would simply be lost in the unshaded splendor of the sunlight4 ,why is not such a transit of ,mercury seen every year8 ,every year ,mercury must cross the disk of the sun1 and the reason we do not see a transit yearly is that the orbits of ,mercury and the earth differ in plane1 and long periods will elapse between the occasions when the sun1 ,mercury1 and the earth come into line thus3 ,illustration ,as ,venus overtakes the earth in its journey around the sun once every nineteen months1 shall we have the benefit of a transit at each time of passing8 ,no2 because ,venus is usually either above or below the line of the earth's orbit4 ,but when at long intervals such an event as a transit of ,venus does occur1 no astronomical incident can be more valuable1 because it gives us the best means of measuring the distance between the earth and the sun4 ,a grand opportunity for studying the sun is afforded by an eclipse4 ,an eclipse of the sun is occasioned by the moon's passing between the earth and the sun4 ,children are frequently warned that it is discourteous to pass between a person and the fire or light2 our child1 the moon1 happily for us1 often passes between us and our fire1 the sun1 and on the fortunate occasions when this can be observed out come the glasses for sun-study4 ,as the moon revolves about the earth1 she sometimes stands between the sun and the earth4 ,when the moon passes between us and the sun on a clear day1 between sunrise and sunset1 the day grows dark1 a twilight comes over the world1 and continues until the moon has crossed the disk of the sun4 ,how can so small a body as the moon obscure so great a body as the sun1 and how can the moon pass in seven minutes across a disk nearly a million of miles in extent8 ,all this can be explained by the nearness of the moon to our globe1 and consequently the moon's great distance from the sun4 ,any one of us can hide the sun from us by a dinner-plate1 or even a dime1 if we hold it close enough to our eyes4 ,so we can move a dinner-plate across the disk of the sun1 by one sweep of the arm4 ,all depends upon the nearness to ourselves of the screen used4 ,now as the moon is so near us in time of eclipse1 she hides the sun from us2 the eclipse may last for an hour1 but will be total only for a few moments4 ,every year there must be more than one eclipse of the sun4 ,the greatest number possible in a year is five1 the least two2 but these will not all be visible from the same part of the globe4 ,astronomers call an eclipse partial when the moon passes over one or the other side of the sun's disk4 ,an annular or ring eclipse is one where the moon is at such a distance from the earth1 that she hides only the central part of the sun's disk1 while around the dark shadow thus cast appears a ring of splendid light4 ,a total eclipse of the sun is where the moon is so near us that she hides the entire face of the sun4 ,this can happen only at long intervals for any given locality4 ,thus1 when there is a total eclipse of the sun visible from ,new ,york ,city1 it may be hundreds of years before such an eclipse is again seen from there4 ,when the sun is in total eclipse a glorious halo of clear light called a corona1 or crown1 rays out on all sides behind the black body of the moon4 ,horns1 cones1 and streamers of violet1 scarlet1 orange1 and pink light rise up from this crown1 and seem to toss and whirl like clouds in a storm4 ,in the careful study of the sun with telescopes1 it has been found that there are spots on its surface1 which look as if the outer portion of the sun were torn4 ,now by watching these spots a very wonderful fact has been discovered4 ,what do you think that is8 ,why1 that the sun turns over on its axis1 as the earth does4 ,but while the earth rotates once in twenty-four hours1 it takes the huge sun about twenty-five days to turn around once4 ,not only is the sun turning over on its axis1 but it has a great path along which it travels in space1 and as it goes on it draws with it all the planets and satellites of our system1 each held in its proper path by the great force of the sun's attraction4 ,thus we have learned that from the sun these great globes1 the planets1 were thrown off into space1 by tangental force1 and lest they should go too far away they are held in their paths by his strong attractive force4 ,,footnotes3 #ba ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #dj-db4 ,,lesson ,x4 ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,the ,,night4 8,that orbd maiden1 with white fire laden1 ,whom mortals call the moon1 ,glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like flow1 ,by the midnight breezes strewn40 --,,shelley1 ,the ,cloud4 ,no orb in the sky has attracted more attention than the moon4 ,beautiful names have been given to this lesser light that rules the night1 and poets have sung some of their sweetest songs1 and artists have painted some of their finest pictures1 to depict the wonderful charm of moonlight4 ,the moon is in our minds associated with peace1 silence1 rest2 the silver radiance causes no pain to the eyes1 and like charity1 while revealing objects1 it adds to their beauty1 and subdues defects4 ,much that by the light of day seems harsh and ugly appears picturesque and fascinating in the delicate splendor of the moonlight4 ,of moonlight rather than sunset might the poet sing3-- 8,the splendor falls on castle walls ,and snowy summits old in story1 ,the long light shakes across the lakes1 ,and the wild cataract leaps in glory40 ,those nations who have worshipped the sun as god of the day1 have paid similar worship to the moon as goddess of the night4 ,the ancient myths spoke of the moon as a pure and lonely maiden1 fond of silence1 hunting1 and the forest shades4 ,increasing knowledge has shown us the moon as neither goddess nor maiden1 but as a satellite of the earth1 from which many ages ago it was cast off into space1 and by the attraction of which it is held as by invisible and unbreakable chains4 ,being so much nearer to us than any other heavenly body1 the moon was one of the earliest and best understood1 and to it1 about two hundred and fifty years ago1 the first telescopes were turned with eager expectations of wonderful discoveries4 ,the moon1 at the nearest point in its orbit1 is distant from us about two hundred and twenty-five thousand miles1 only about twenty-eight times the diameter of the earth4 ,those travellers1 who have again and again made the circuit of the earth1 have in the aggregate passed over a greater distance than lies between us and the moon4 ,steam could take us there in less than a year2 but if the man in the moon should begin to pelt stones at the earth1 they would hit their mark in a little less than three days and two hours4 ,shining large and fair in the heavens1 the moon seems1 as a queen1 to lead forth the hosts of the stars1 but if we watch its course each of the twenty-seven days which it requires for its journey around the earth1 we shall see that it continually falls behind the progress of the shining hosts1 and possesses a motion entirely independent of them4 ,the moon1 like the earth1 shines by the reflected light of the sun1 and this causes the lunar or moon phases4 ,thus sometimes we see the full moon2 then by slowly lessening degrees1 which we call waning1 we see the half1 and the quarter1 and the little crescent1 or octant4 ,then we lose sight of the moon1 and again it becomes visible as a slim crescent1 the hornd moon it is called1 and so waxes to the full4 ,in the circle which the moon describes about our earth1 the moon passes between us and the sun once in about thirty days1 and so presents us a dark side1 which is called the new moon4 ,in fifteen days more it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun1 and shows us its entire disk illuminated1 which we call full moon2 passing still about us1 in fifteen days after full moon1 having changed from full to gibbous1 and to the third quarter1 half1 and second quarter1 once more we are presented with the slim octant of the hornd moon4 ,generally the moon in its orbit passes a little above or below the disk of the sun1 but sometimes it moves exactly across the face of the sun1 and so occasions an eclipse of the sun4 ,again1 sometimes the moon1 as it passes behind the earth1 comes within the cone of shadow cast by the earth1 and so an eclipse of the moon1 either total or partial1 is caused4 ,there are many nights when we say 8there is no moon40 ,we should not understand by this that the moon is not in the sky2 the simple fact is that in the progression of its rising1 the moon has come to a time when she moves during the day through the part of the heavens that is visible to us4 ,so sometimes toward sunset1 we see the moon high in the sky1 and during part of the day1 when the nights are moonless1 we see the moon when not obscured by the greater light of the sun4 ,in all these various changes of its life1 if we study the moon with telescopes1 we shall find it to be a globe1 opaque1 lit up by the sun1 having mountains and valleys on its surface4 ,those dark lines and spots which with the naked eye we see on the full moon1 are ranges of volcanic mountains4 ,the surface of the moon has been mapped out by astronomers1 who have given names to the various eminences and depressions1 and from a study of the moon much has been learned of planets in general4 ,for1 while the moon is so small a body and has its orbit around the earth1 which is its centre of attraction1 it is not to be considered as a mere satellite1 but is to be respectfully ranked among the planets4 ,there have been many foolish myths about the moon3 its ray has been considered poisonous to sleepers2 the full moon has been regarded as a source of disease and madness1 and has been supposed to affect the growth of plants1 the medicinal properties of herbs1 and the fortunes of human lives4 ,the moon owes all these slanders to its nearness to us4 ,in size the moon is about one-fourth the diameter of the earth1 and its volume is but one-fiftieth that of our planet4 ,the days and nights of the moon are not twelve hours long1 but three hundred and sixty hours1 equal1 therefore1 to fifteen of our twenty-four hour days4 ,only a little more than one side1 or face1 of the moon is ever seen by us4 ,there have been many romantic fancies about what may be on the other side of the moon1 but probably the side we do not see is very similar to the side which we do see4 ,what is the past history of the moon8 ,the first condition of any planet is that of burning vapor or gas1 which must slowly cool and form a nucleus of solid or half-fluid matter4 ,it is evident that the smaller the planet the more rapidly it will cool and become solid1 and the greater the planet the longer it will remain in a partly fluid state4 ,thus ,jupiter and ,saturn will require much longer time to cool than ,mercury or ,venus4 ,the sun1 being by far the largest body in our system1 will be gaseous or semi-fluid long after all the planets which he cast into space have cooled and hardened2 while the moon1 being one of the smallest planets1 hardened long before the great planets1 and before the earth4 ,thus the sun is still in the early stages of its existence1 and the moon has run the course of its changes and is a burnt-out and aged world4 ,no doubt the stages of moon-building were very like those of earth-building1 with variations due to the much smaller size of the sphere4 ,the nucleus would partially solidify1 there would be a hardened crust which at intervals would crush in from the withdrawal of interior molten matter1 or would be suddenly torn and flung up by the pressure of boiling lava from within4 ,the condensing atmosphere no doubt sent down water upon the moon1 but by long degrees the heated volcanic surface has parted with its seas1 and we find the map of the moon now presenting us not with oceans1 but empty sea-beds1 volcano craters1 and strange and arid depressions4 ,the moon has no atmosphere2 no rain falls on her barren surface2 no clouds move above her2 no tempests howl in her caverns2 no snows crown her volcanic peaks2 no sunsets shine in gorgeous colors2 there are no violet and crimson skies at dawn4 ,the moon is the kingdom of eternal calm1 and sleep1 and stillness4 ,if any blow disturbs the lunar surface1 it is from the fall of meteors rained upon it through space4 ,it is to our atmosphere we owe the glories of the clouds1 the beneficence of waters1 the magic of frost changes1 the rush of storms1 the balmy breezes1 the sky4 ,as it has no seas and no air1 it follows that the moon has no sky4 ,the lovely blue we see above us1 is merely caused by many miles of air1 but from the moon one would merely look away into immensity2 and day1 and night1 sun1 moon1 stars1 comets1 and meteors could not be seen1 while instead of the lovely blue dome above us1 where stars innumerable shine and tremble1 space1 as seen from the moon1 is a perpetual1 limitless1 black abyss4 ,we have found the moon destitute of both air and water2 it is evident that it is also destitute of all vegetation2 in fact of all life4 ,as there is darkness above1 so there is silence below4 ,the moon is a desert land where no foliage rustles1 where no flowers bloom1 where no bird builds or sings4 ,no feet climb the lofty mountains1 or explore the gaping craters of moon-land4 ,no voice causes an echo in the vast yawning caves that penetrate moon-mountains4 ,a curious fact about these mountains in the moon is that they are annular or ring-shaped4 ,they are skeleton mountains1 burnt-out craters1 mighty hollow cones thrust up1 so that if one might climb to the top of a moon-mountain1 he could walk around the rim1 as a fly walks around the edge of a cup2 or he could go down1 down1 down1 on the inside to the level of the plain from which he began his ascent4 ,the surface of the moon changes1 not by the motions of life and growth1 but by a slow decay2 for changes in the moon's face are occasioned by the crumbling of mountains and the falling down of lands4 ,thus we see the moon to be a dumb1 dead1 deserted planet1 wheeling on in its orbit around the earth1 and carried with the earth in its greater orbit around the sun4 ,silvery sweet and fair1 this queen of the night is a planet that long1 long ago passed its childhood and its prime1 and fell1 in its old age1 a prey to fire4 ,,lesson ,,xi4 ,,vanished ,,fauna4 8,i said3 #8,when first the world began ,young ,nature through five cycles ran1 ,and on the sixth1 she moulded--man4'0 --,,tennyson1 ,the ,two ,voices4 ,the old fairy tales inform us of genii1 and gnomes1 and brownies that live underground1 and in rocks and caves1 guarding treasures of gold and of gems4 ,let us fancy that there are truly genii and gnomes that have lived from the time when life began until now4 ,in every passing age each country has had its peculiar forms of animal life3 these are called its fauna4 ,the plant-life of an age or country is called its flora4 ,as each age of earth-building came1 it brought its especial fauna and flora4 ,as the age passed away1 this plant and animal life went away with it1 and returned no more4 ,but from every age some form or type has lingered until now4 ,the pretty little lamp shells of the ,china seas come from the far-off second period of world-building4 ,some of these forms that have lived through all the ages have changed much to suit the conditions of new times2 others have scarcely changed at all4 ,and from all these periods1 hidden in rocks and earth-beds1 are frail remains of things that lived and perished long ago4 ,let us fancy that gnomes and genii keep these wonderful treasures4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lost ,,beasts4 ,in the distribution of the plants and animals of past ages we read much of the earth's history4 ,for instance1 when we find buried under the later soil of ,england1 the bones of elephants and hyenas1 and the leaves and fruits of palms or other tropical plants1 we decide1 on reasonable grounds1 that at some period the climate of ,england has been warmer than it is to-day4 ,similarly1 when in layers above these tropical specimens we find the relics of an ,arctic vegetation1 and the skeletons of elk and bears that belong only to polar or subpolar regions1 we conclude that the days of tropical warmth in ,england were succeeded by days of polar cold4 ,again1 when we find under the warm plains of ,south ,france the remains of animals and vegetables now belonging to ,siberia1 we say1 8,in former ages ,france had a reign of ,siberian weather1 for a period sufficiently long to permit the growth of ,siberian plants and animals40 ,when we trace in regular succession the remains of such organisms back to the edge of the ,polar circle1 we say1 8,this northern cold1 which once dominated all the hemisphere1 slowly retreated to its present limits1 and with it went its appropriate flora and fauna40 ,in all these instances the animals afford better indications than the plants1 for plants have less capability than animals of adjusting themselves to new and untoward circumstances4 ,if exposed to unusual cold or heat the plants die out1 but many of the animals take thinner or thicker coats1 to suit their new environment4 ,very nearly all the species of plants and animals belonging to the five cycles of earth-building preceding our own have perished4 ,no doubt there were many of the early living organisms which disappeared and left no trace2 the first ages may have been far more abundant in varieties than we imagine them to have been4 ,many hundred of different families have been found1 and perhaps as many more flourished and utterly disappeared4 ,we observe1 concerning all these old-world families1 that when once they perished they are1 as we say1 8gone for good02 a type does not disappear and reappear4 ,as one description of animals became extinct1 another was ready to take its place4 ,this constant succession of animal types represents a constant approach to those creatures best fitted to occupy the earth with man4 ,we have now on the earth large and destructive animals1 as the rhinoceros1 the hippopotamus1 the lion1 tiger1 alligator1 boa-constrictor1 and others1 but all of these 8are tamed1 or have been tamed1 of mankind10 and constantly recede before the advancing demands of the human race for territory4 ,but many of the earlier forms of life were so enormous and so destructive1 that man could by no possibility have debated with them the empire of the globe4 ,the battle would have gone the wrong way for man4 ,it is well that various changes removed these creatures before man appeared4 ,another consideration is here of great interest2 the forms of life which survived their respective cycles1 and came down nearly unchanged to our day1 were not the strongest and largest creatures1 apparently best able to fight their battle and live2 but many of the feebler and smaller creatures1 which1 if we had been spectators of those ancient times1 we should have expected to see perish under the encroachments of monsters and dragons of their day4 ,as1 for instance1 the large1 strong1 numerous1 armor-plated trilobites#bb of the second earth-age perished ages ago1 while the little lamp shells live on until now4 ,far back in the reptile time1 little mammal quadrupeds1 scarcely larger than rats1 ran in the woods1 and these types have been continued with various adaptations in the marsupial or pouched animals1 like the opossum of our own day1 while the vast scale-dressed giants have only left a few of their scattered bones to tell their story4 ,the dragon-fly survives1 very like his ancestors of the ,triassic period1 while the mighty pterodactyles1#bc a kind of reptile bat that pursued the dragon-flies as part of its prey1 have gone never to return4 ,the flying reptile has left us only his enormous lithograph upon the ancient rocks1 while still each year the jewel-like dragon-fly1 once the big beast's defenceless prey1 bursts his brown case1 and comes forth informed with light and life4#bd ,as the poet tells his story3-- 8,to-day ,i saw the dragon-fly ,come from the wells where he did lie1-- ,an inner impulse rent the veil1 ,of his old husk2 from head to tail ,came out clear plates of sapphire mail4 ,he dried his wings1 like gauze they grew2 ,thro' copse and pastures wet with dew1 ,a living flash of light he flew40 ,we should not forget that each one of the earth-building ages had some particular form of animal life which seemed in that age to be king1 and conquer the other animals4 ,also in its own age each of these forms reached its greatest strength and perfection4 ,then in after ages1 when some new type was dominant1 the former types that still survived became smaller and more feeble4 ,we have crabs and other crustacea now-a-days1 but none so enormous as in the second world-building age when they first appeared4 ,the mollusks1#be which you call shell-fish1#bf were largest and most numerous in the upper ,silurian time4 ,the sea-weeds that flourished with these crabs and mollusks were larger and more splendid than any sea-weeds now1 for this is the age of man1 and grass1 and corn1 not of crabs and sea-weeds4 ,before man came into the world the woods and waters swarmed with great reptiles4 ,there are none such now-a-days1--reptiles with long legs1 reptiles with wide wings6 ,shall we see what they were like8 ,the great objection to them is that they have such hard names4 ,among distinguished examples of the 8vanished fauna0 was the llaps1 which from its relics we conclude to have been a ferocious land-lizard1 fierce and huge2 but as yet its form and habits have not been fully decided4 ,we know more of the reptile bat1 a fellow-citizen of the llaps1 and well-fitted to hold his own in the society of that grim monster1 for to ferocity and size it added the accomplishment of flight4 ,was it then a bird8 ,no2 it was more like a bat4 ,the largest pterodactyles found have been discovered in ,kansas1 and the remains suggest animals perhaps eighteen feet in extent of wing4 ,it is singular that the smaller forms of these creatures had teeth1 and the larger ones were toothless4 ,the legs and feet were very weak and had small claws4 ,in our bats the tip of the wings has a claw1 sharp and hooked2 the pterodactyles seem to have had no claws on the wings4 ,some think that the bodies of these flying creatures were well covered with scales1 but there is no clear evidence of this fact4 ,the upper-arm bone was of moderate length2 the forearm1 of about the same length1 had two bones1 and had claws on the first three fingers1 and then the fourth finger stretched out to several feet in length and sustained the membrane that formed the wing4 ,the flight must have been jerky and uneven like that of bats4 ,the famous roc1 seen by ,sinbad the sailor1 fades into insignificance before this creature out of ,nature's wonder-book2 and the great vulture of the ,alps1#bg which carried off lambs and even babies1 and is now happily extinct1 must have been1 compared with the ancient reptile bat1 a small and gentle flying thing4 ,another wonderful family of animals that now-a-days exists only among the rock treasures of the genii were the mosasaurs1 whose nature and habits were long subjects of dispute4 ,specimens of these creatures have been found over eighty feet long1 with a skull more than a yard long1 and the jaws set with strong1 cone-shaped teeth4 ,the trunk of this reptile was ribbed like that of a snake1 and it possessed two pairs of webbed feet1 or paddles1 to guide its course in the water4 ,on land it must have moved with the wave-like motions of a serpent4 ,it was covered with small scales1 and was driven through the water by strokes of its mighty tail4 ,no animals perhaps are of more interest among the vanished forms than the ancestors of the horse4 ,we first trace it several ages before man appeared1 as a small creature not larger than a fox1 with four toes on each foot1 and the rudiments of a fifth toe2 it had also two bones in the lower part of the leg4 ,after this little creature came a horse-like animal as large as a sheep1 with only three toes1 the middle one being much longer and broader than the others1 while the two bones of the lower leg began to unite4 ,the next age shows us a horse as large as a ,shetland pony2 the two bones of the lower leg are merged into one2 the big middle toe occupies nearly all of the foot4 ,and finally1 shortly before human beings came into the world1 we find a true horse4 ,the big middle toe had come to occupy almost the whole foot4 ,its nail had enlarged and strengthened to a hoof4 ,thus we see that the horse really stands on the tip of a single toe of each foot4 ,meanwhile1 as the lower leg and the foot thus modified1 the horse gained his present size1 symmetry1 beauty1 and strength4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,for description of trilobite1 see p4 #aai4 #bc ,pronounced ,ter-o-dak'-tils4 #bd ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lesson #dc4 #be ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #a1 ,lesson #cd4 #bf ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #a1 ,lesson #cd4 #bg ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 page #bch4 ,,lesson ,,xii4 ,a ,,mountain ,,of ,,fossils4 8,the bleakest rock1 upon the loneliest heath1 ,feels in its barrenness some touch of spring1 ,and in the ,april dew1 or beam of ,may1 ,as moss and lichen freshen and revive40 --,,beaumont4 ,each successive age of the world brought forth its children1 nourished them to their prime1 accompanied them in the stages of their decay1 and laid them in the tomb4 ,each new age rocked its cradles above the cemeteries of the age that had preceded it4 ,some sea-bed swarming with corals and mollusks was slowly lifted2 in the shallow waters1 sand1 chalk1 or clay were deposited1 and gradually formed thick beds above the 8swarmers10 which had suffocated in the mud1 or1 having lived out their span1 had failed to reproduce their like4 ,so in successive strata the present surface of the world was built1 and sometimes in throes of uplifting1 some long-buried stratum was doubled upon itself1 and having been thrust up through deposits lying above it1 once more reached sunlight4 ,but it spread out into the sunlight not living creatures1 but their sepulchres4 ,let us now make a journey to one of the world's wonderful graveyards4 ,it is1 in the first instance1 wonderful for its great age4 ,is it then that acre on ,coles' ,hill1 sown with the graves of those who came in the ,mayflower1 with sweet ,rose ,standish in their midst8 ,no2 that in comparison is but of yesterday4 ,is it the graveyard at ,battle ,abbey1 where1 after the defeat of ,harold the ,saxon1 ,norman and ,saxon lay down together in the peace of death8 ,no2 that in comparison is most modern4 ,is it the rock tombs of the ,pharaohs before ,moses8 ,no2 those tombs compared with this graveyard are newest possible fashions4 ,the dead ,pharaohs lie in their tombs in ,egypt1 with their servants and even the beasts and birds of their day1 all turned into mummies4 ,these mummies are so hard that many thousands of them have been chopped up for fuel by the ,egyptians4 ,this is a queer use for dead kings6 ,the creatures laid in the burial-ground where we shall now go1 are turned not into wood1 but stone4 ,i think ,i see the little genii and gnomes guarding them well through all the countless ages since they died4 ,come then to this very ancient burial-ground4 ,we trot briskly over a long1 level stretch of prairie land1 and now our stout horses fall from trotting to walking slowly up the steep hill4 ,the wheels grind on the bare rocks2 on the road-sides among the gray stones gleam patches of cinquefoil1 blue-grass1 and strawberry4 ,now the long faces of the horses no longer front the ascent1 but the sharp crest is reached1 and they look down upon the narrow valley into which the road suddenly falls4 ,across the valley lifts another range of hills1 and these are colored like a map of various countries1 by the masses of white dog-wood1 rosy red-bud1 purple birch in its soft springtime haze1 green of young maple leaves1 and the gold1 rose1 and bronze of the unfolding oak leaves4 ,just here1 in the midst of this flowery beauty1 the roving eye detects on the road-side a gravestone with a well-cut inscription4 ,lo6 here we are in one of the world's most ancient burial-grounds4 ,here are the monuments2 here the mummy-cases2 here are the unburied bones4 ,we can scoop them up by handfuls4 ,how old is this graveyard8 ,who can tell8 ,how long are the ages of geology8 ,no doubt these dead were laid down here hundreds of thousands of years ago4 ,most ancient then is it not1 and well worthy of our visit8 ,but quite as wonderful as the antiquity of this graveyard is the place where we find it4 ,here we stand3 nine hundred miles to the east of us1 as the crow flies1 the ,atlantic surges beat upon the coast1 and wear away and rebuild the boundaries of our land4 ,two thousand miles to the west1 lies the ,pacific2 nine hundred miles south1 the ,gulf of ,mexico warms the ,gulf ,stream in its sunny bosom4 ,three thousand miles to the north1 the ,arctic ,ocean1 which no keel has ever crossed1 groans and growls under the ice-floes4 ,very far from the seas are we not8 ,what station could be more truly inland8 ,and yet this graveyard is built up of corals and sea-shells and strange sea-creatures lie buried here4 ,over this height where we stand the waves have thundered4 ,here was 8a yellow beach of sand02 here the busy coral polyp built its palaces up1 up1 up1 from sea-bottom to sunshine4 ,these are not pebbles crunching here beneath our feet1 but sea-shells1 mollusks of the prime4 ,this is the burial-ground of fishes and of zophytes4 ,is not this burial-ground wonderful for its locality8 ,and again it is wonderful for the distance which we must travel to find it4 ,what is that8 ,did we not come here in a carriage1 driving over a few easy miles1 in a ,may morning8 ,let us see about that4 ,let me take you by the hand and lead you the real distance you must travel to reach this ancient burial-ground4 ,brace up your nerves1 for we have to journey with the speed of thought1 which is swifter even than light4 ,our starting-point is this modern age of the world1 the age which has brought forth grasses1 palms1 fruits1 the higher mammals--man4 ,swiftly we traverse this age1 and leave its landmarks far behind us1 as we pass them with our faces set toward the old1 old world4 ,this modern age is one of the five divisions of the ,neozoic1 or new period4 ,through all the five we go1 and at the gate of the one called the ,eocene we pass out from under the palm shadows1 from the mammals ranging in the forests and feeding on the green savannahs1 and now we are back in the middle time1 the age of the reptiles4 ,the forests are dark with cycads and pines4 ,crocodiles1 alligators1 salamanders of very old-fashioned patterns1 swarm the brakes and the bayous4 ,rushing above our heads go skin-winged flying things1 with the tails and hands of lizards1 and they crowd and cry about us for three ages more4 ,we must needs be brave as knights as we go back deeper still into mystery and antiquity1 and by the door of the earliest reptilian age we find our way into the longest of the epochs1 the time with six ages1 the age which saw the coal-beds laid down and so many fossils locked up in rock--the ,paleozoic#bh time4 ,we now find about us tree-ferns1 club-mosses1 reeds1 calamites1 lichens4 ,there are fishes swarming in the warm seas2 a few insects and spiders crawl among the ferns2 here and there are toads1 newts1 and scorpions of curious patterns4 ,one1 two1 three1 four1 five ages back we wander1 and now the mosses and pines1 the fishes and reptiles have disappeared1 and we are in the age of sea-weeds and corals1 crabs and mollusks1 such as have few types in the modern world4 ,and here1 in the lower-,silurian1 we have arrived at our ancient burial-ground4 ,have we not come a long way to find it8 ,is there no shorter way to reach it8 ,we have come here by the every-day style of a carriage over a few miles of plain and hill4 ,we have come here also by a dash in imagination through three great times and thirteen busy ages of world-building4 ,we can take yet a third way4 ,go yonder to the valley and sink a shaft for seven hundred feet1 and you will pass through these ages and times and reach the era of this burial-ground4 ,there it is hidden seven hundred feet deep2 here it crops out into the sunshine2 here have been tumult and convulsion1 and what in some places might be thousands of feet below the surface1 is here thrust up among modern methods1 among apple trees1 and bleating sheep1 and white cottages1 and little children at their play4 ,there is still another method of reaching this same burial-ground4 ,go into the valley and wander five miles toward the mouth of the little creek that divides it4 ,as you touch its grassy bank you stand in the modern age of the present earth-building time4 ,as you travel down the creek1 the successive beds or stages of earth-building are laid bare1 one after another1 until at the end of five miles you stand on the lower-,silurian stratum of this burial-ground4 ,take a pamphlet1 fold the first leaf over one half1 the next a little less1 and so on for thirteen pages1 and you have a pattern of the manner in which the spring and autumn torrents flushing the brook have laid bare the rock strata1 and shown them as they lie here closely crowded upon each other4 ,this is1 however1 an unusual case1 for each of these ages has in many places left deposits thousands of feet in thickness4 ,here the uncovering has been rapid1 deposit light1 and we can turn over the geologic pages in a volume a few hundreds of feet thick4 ,and having reached this ancient burial-ground by all these various lines of travel1 what do we find here8 ,stoop and gather a handful of these little gray stones--small pebbles did you call them8 ,the frost and rain of the past winter have washed away the sand and light soil which had hidden them4 ,why6 these are shells1 not pebbles4 ,stone shells1 fossil shells6 ,see how perfect every delicate fluting is1 how sharply the hinge of the long-perished bivalve is defined4 ,some are of a delicate pale gray1 others almost white2 but long ago in the ,silurian seas perhaps they shone in brown and yellow1 red1 pink1 buff1 and maroon1 as gaily as the scallop shells of to-day1 which in shape they much resemble4 ,what is this lump of stone covered with little star-shaped knobs8 ,trace the lines along the side where it was broken from some larger fragment1 and they seem to branch2 is it like the veins on a leaf8 ,no2 rather like the branches of coral1 and in fact that is just what we have found1--a lump of fossilized coral of the ,silurian age4 ,the lower-,silurian was the age when coral was king4 ,when after the two earlier epochs with their meagre fauna the ,silurian age opened1 suddenly the seas swarmed with life4 ,they were warm tropic seas1 warmer than any on the globe to-day1 and in them these industrious coral-polyps built their towers4 ,they built up from the sea-bottom to sunshine1 and from each of these star-like towers a living creature unfurled itself like a flower1 just beneath the surface of the sea4 ,in orange1 scarlet1 purple1 white1 and pink1 they expanded their coronals of filaments1 and waved to and fro with the warm tides4 ,no flower-garden ever bloomed more gorgeously than did these gardens of the sea in the ,silurian age4 ,plume-like1 fine as the stamens of a flower1 these myriads of living things leaned from the towers and palaces themselves had built1 and drank and fished in these clear seas under the glow of the sun4 ,meanwhile among and around about these coral towers1 cuttle-fish and nautili darted1 while mailed crustaceans chased each other1 fought and frolicked and devoured each other4 ,see1 we have another fossil in the rock1 the beautiful stone lilies2 they must have a chapter to themselves2 and here again are lamp shells and other and different mollusks of the ,silurian time4 ,here they were crowded1 swimming and playing in these living coral bowers4 ,how they were dashed by thousands upon this beach of sand6 ,and by and by when life was in its prime1 what strange mishaps overtook them all8 ,did the seas grow too hot or too cold8 ,did the bed of ocean rise8 ,did great sand-waves roll in among the coral bowers8 ,they had had their day1 another age was drawing on2 there would be mollusks and crabs and crustaceans still1 but these must perish and be locked up in this burial-ground4 ,o gnomes and genii1 keep your treasures well6 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,pay-lee-o-zo-ic4 ,,lesson ,,xiii4 ,,written ,,in ,,rocks4 8,there rolls the deep where grew the tree1 ,o earth1 what changes thou hast seen6 ,there where the long street roars1 hath been ,the eternal stillness of the sea4 8,the hills are shadows1 and they flow ,from form to form1 and nothing stands2 ,they melt like mist1 these solid lands1 ,like clouds they shape themselves and go40 --,,tennyson1 ,in ,memoriam4 ,we have been studying for some time about earth-building4 ,we have learned a little of how the rocks and the soil of our globe were formed4 ,what is that study of earth-building called8 ,it is called ,ge-ology1 which means earth-lore or history1 for the old ,greeks called the earth ,ge1 and ge-ology just means the story of earth-making4 ,but in these lessons we have been talking not of the rocks and earth-beds1 but of the gnome-treasures hidden therein1 the bones1 patterns1 stone images1 burial cases of things that lived long ago4 ,this is a new study1 and is a very important branch of geology2 for unless we learn about these old organisms and understand what they tell us1 we cannot well learn our geology4 ,these fossils shut up in the rocks are the writings or pictures which keep the story of the long ago4 ,this study has been given the long name of ,palontology--it merely means the study or lore of fossils4 ,but pray what are fossils8 ,we have heard much about them4 ,what are they8 ,the word fossil really means a thing 8dug up40 ,once it was applied to any kind of mineral substance4 ,now we mean by fossil organized substances or their imprints1 which have been preserved in any natural fashion1 that is1 not by the art of man1 but by nature4 ,the study of fossils embraces the study of all forms1 from the most ancient here in the rocks of the ,dawn1 or first period1 to those which may have only been buried for a few score of years4 ,thus you may see in a cabinet a bit of limestone full of ancient foraminifer1 and near it a fossil clam from some bed in southern ,new ,jersey1 which was producing living clams one or two hundred years ago4 ,the study of fossils does not assert any limit as to the grade of an organism4 ,a fossil may be some large and curious fish1 a rare bird1 a beautiful stone lily1 or merely a lump of resin which long ago dropped from some tree of the coal period4 ,so also1 we have fossil leaves1 fruits1 roots1 fossil rain-marks1 fossil footprints1 fossil worm-casts and burrows1 and little fossil cases of caddis-worms4 ,some very valuable fossils are called coprolites2 these are the droppings of digested or partly-digested food of animals1 and they are valuable because they often contain traces or portions of plants or animals1 upon which these other creatures fed1 and which now would be entirely unknown unless preserved in this way4 ,the vulture has a habit of swallowing mice1 little birds1 and similar prey1 with small ceremony of breaking or tearing2 they go into the vulture's maw feathers1 fur1 bones1 and all4 ,when fully gorged1 the vulture sits in a meditative manner on a tree1 and finally1 in the process of digestion1 the food parts of what it has eaten separates from the bone and feather refuse1 and this latter is rolled into a ball and disgorged by the vulture4 ,i have found such balls1 probably a year or two old1 bleached white and dry1 and unrolling them have laid bare tiny skeletons1 perfect1 and white as ivory1 of the feet and heads of mice4 ,now if mice had disappeared1 it is evident that their skeletons1 found in portions in such remains would be valuable1 affording us a knowledge of an otherwise unknown creature4 ,so the coprolites tell us their tale of the smaller fauna of the ancient lands and oceans4 ,the term fossil is not limited to any especial method or state of preservation4 ,in regard to preservation there are three principal varieties of fossils4 ,first3 ,all or nearly all the animal matter may have disappeared1 and mineral matter may have taken its place2 so that the organism is mineralized or petrified4 ,this is the condition of the majority of fossils4 ,second3 ,it may have happened that the entire organism has decayed1 and as the animal matter when it perished was not rebuilt with mineral deposit1 only a cast or natural lithograph of the former living thing remains in the rock4 ,third3 ,the animal or plant may have been preserved unchanged for hundreds or thousands of years1 so that the very creature1 with its bones1 flesh1 hair1 even the soft portions of the body1 as the brain and eye-ball1 may remain complete4 ,this has happened in a few instances1 as where ice or frozen mud has been the preserving agent1 so that in ,siberia certain animals1 as the mammoth1 have been disentombed after a burial of thousands of years4 ,of course as soon as these frozen fossils have been exposed to air and moisture1 they begin to fall to pieces1 and speedily only the hard parts1 as the bones1 are left4 ,in most animal fossils only the bony or shelly portions1 which consist largely of lime1 have been petrified4 ,thus we find many fossil skeletons4 ,sometimes there has been a change on this wise3 the action of water has carried off1 grain by grain1 the lime as well as the animal matter of the organism1 and while it thus took the object to pieces1 it rebuilt it in a similar way1 adding grain by grain of flinty matter1 or even of metal1 so that in countries where silver abounds1 fossil plants have been found cased in silver4 ,i have seen some fossil bones of recent origin1 as they were taken from an ancient burial-mound1 and the marrow of the bones had been carried off by the action of water and replaced by delicate1 shining crystals1 so that the hollow or marrow portions of the bones shone as if filled with broken glass4 ,the chief agents in the decay of animal and plant organisms are air1 rain-water1 and atmospheric moisture1 as dew1 mist1 and frost4 ,we can see the destructive effects of air in the case of canned meats or fruits4 ,if the sealing of the can is imperfect1 the air penetrates1 and carries some germ which corrupts the contents4 ,all the vegetable remains that cover the ground each autumn1 do not accumulate year after year1 but speedily decay and become soil4 ,the animals and insects1 large and small1 that die in the fields and woods each year1 do not long remain where they fell2 carnivorous birds and small animals1 especially ants and beetles1 devour the soft portions1 and a few years of exposure to air and moisture reduce the bony skeletons to powder4 ,as the thing that is1 is generally the thing that hath been1 and shall be1 we may conclude that nearly all the animals and plants of each age perished with their age1 and that what remain as fossils are but a small fragment of the whole1 and have been preserved in unusually favorable circumstances4 ,ice1 as we have seen1 has served as a wonderful preservative1 but the instances where animals or plants have been subjected to the ice-process are naturally few4 ,next to ice1 peat mosses have exhibited remarkable preserving qualities1 and have kept entire remains1 as deer1 bison1 oxen1 buried in them4 ,heavy beasts becoming mired in the peat1 have sunk into it to a great depth1 and were hermetically sealed from the oxygen of the air1 and from spores called bacteria#bi which are the chief agents of decay4 ,many fossil organisms are preserved in the silt or dbris at the mouths of rivers1 where the deposit of earthy matter carried down the stream is rapid1 and speedily buries up whatever is dropped upon it4 ,on the floors of lakes also1 there are often deep deposits of marl1 peat1 and sand1 and these sometimes bury and preserve the bodies of birds or other animals1 and the seeds1 branches1 or entire plants1 that have been swept into the water4 ,caverns1 especially those in limestone or chalk rock1 have proved famous treasure-houses of fossils4 ,where1 in these caverns1 there is a dripping of water charged with lime or chalk1 it speedily encloses objects in a safe case which effectually preserves them4 ,sometimes also these bone caves1 ancient homes of wild beasts1 have been closed up by silt or earth-falls1 and have retained many specimens of large1 ancient fauna now extinct4 ,illustration3 ,,done ,,in ,,stone4 ,but no place has proved so favorable for fossil remains as the bed of the sea4 ,the rapid deposit of sediment on the ocean floor and the remoteness from changes of heat and cold1 have made the old ocean beds1 such as we visited in our mountain of fossils1 a wonderful storehouse of the life-forms of distant ages4 ,the mollusks1 corals1 and crinoids furnish us the most varied and beautiful fossil remains1 and in some cases the preservation is so perfect1 that traces are retained of even the former colorings of the shells of mollusks and the scales of fishes that lived in the remotest times4 ,the grand march of life has been an ascending series1 and for our knowledge of this line of ascent we are indebted to fossils1 which tell in successive strata of the earth the history1 not only of the changes in the earth's crust1 but of the animal and vegetable life of different periods4 ,no doubt only a very1 very few of the fossils that are hidden in the treasure-houses of earth and sea1 have ever been found4 ,there are millions of strange and beautiful things that have never met mortal eye4 ,let us sleep and dream4 ,let us dream that we have built a great and splendid museum1 and lined it with shelves and cases4 ,let us dream that we have found a ring that once belonged to ,king ,solomon1 which gives us power over all gnomes and genii4 ,let us dream that we open wide all the doors and windows of our museum and stand in the midst and clap our hands1 and command the genii and gnomes to bring us the treasures hidden in rock1 sand1 and sea1 in lake and river and peat moss and earth beds4 ,they come6 ,they come6 ,they fly through the air1 gnomes1 pixies1 afrites1 fairies1 genii1 and they fill every shelf and case of our museum with fossil forms and pictured rocks and sands1 and give us examples of every animal and vegetable that lived so long ago4 ,how rich and happy now are we6 ,we wake3 our dream has fled3 the airy walls and shelves and cases of our museum are gone3 the gnomes and their brethren1 the treasures untold1 are vanished with our sleep4 ,what have we left8 ,nothing8 ,yes1 the best that we can have2 industry and observation--these are better than the magic ring and seal of ,solomon4 ,,footnotes3 #bi ,bac-tee-re-a4 ,these are really unicellular plants4 ,,lesson ,,xiv4 ,,footprints ,,in ,,the ,,sand4 8,so where some trivial creature played of old ,the warm soft clay received the tiny dint2 ,we cleave the rock's deep bosom1 and behold ,deep in its core1 the immemorial print4 ,men marvel such frail record should outline ,the vanished forests and the trees o'erhurled40 ,a teacher and his class sat one day upon some tree-trunks which had fallen across a bed of bare1 slightly-sloping rocks4 ,the teacher1 with his head between his hands1 looked steadfastly down4 8,what are you thinking of80 demanded a pupil4 8,i am reading10 said the teacher4 8,and what do you read8 ,is the rock your book80 8,i read that this stratum of rock was once a beach of sand4 ,it was just such sand as a child likes to play in2 just such sand as it is fabled that the ,sibyl took in her hands when she asked long life of ,apollo40 8,and how did it become rock80 8,you must know that all new rocks are made of the wear and tear of older rocks1 reconstituted and relaid4 ,this sandstone was once sand1 and the sand was chiefly tiny quartz crystals1 the residue left after the softer mineral portions of certain ground-up older rocks had been carried away4 ,these quartz crystals could not be melted1 nor held in solution by water2 being heavy they could not be held in suspension by water4 ,so the water which was carrying about the rubbish of the older rocks1 dropped the sand1 and it formed long beaches1 such as we see to-day4 ,observe that sand seems to be more plentiful than any other substance in the earth's crust4 ,most soil is largely composed of it4 ,if it were not for the sand in the soil to keep its particles loose and allow the percolation of water1 and the growth of roots1 the soil would soon become packed so heavily that almost nothing could grow4 ,the sea-shore1 the river-beds1 the great ,sahara1 are sand1 sand1 sand4 ,as sand is the most plentiful loose material in the earth now1 so no doubt it has always been1 and we find that sandstone1 namely1 rock made of sand1 is the most abundant in the structure of the globe4 ,the grains of quartz themselves are naturally gray or white1 but they are covered with a film or crust which takes different hues from coloring matter mixed with it4 ,in iron regions the sandstone is red1 and in anthracite coal regions the sandstone is dark gray or nearly black4 ,other sandstones are brown1 yellow1 or purple1 according as they are mixed with other coloring matter4 8,but you asked me how the loose sand became rock4 ,understand that the most important factor in the process was an indefinitely long time1 while the agents required were very simple--great pressure and the presence of water4 ,the water carrying with it silica1 or some kindred material1 formed a cement about each grain1 and thus aided by pressure and a certain amount of heat--for in this world nothing is done without heat--the individual grains were finally consolidated into massive rock40 8,what else have you read80 asked other pupils1 as they too began earnestly to contemplate the ledge of sandstone4 8,that was only the preface1 or first chapter4 ,i remember that the grains of sand1 composed largely of silica or tiny quartz crystals1 were heaped up here by water1 which washed from the crystals and then carried away1 little particles of lighter matter1 as mud4 ,when ,i look at these long1 gently sloping ledges of sandstone1 ,i read that they were once a beach4 ,the ravine and the hills1 the cornfields and the forests are now here1 but once--the sea4 ,warm salt waters ebbed and flowed here1 and shells were rolled up on this beach and were carried out again by the tides40 8,can you read any thing further80 8,yes3 ,one day1 long ago1--was it at the close of the ,carboniferous or the beginning of the ,permian age8--there was a rain-storm here4 ,it came up with a strong wind1 from the south2 the drops fell heavily1 and were very large4 ,i think it must have been what we call a #8black squall4' ,it soon passed1 and the sun shone out hot40 8,oh1 oh6 now you are guessing at what might have been60 8,not at all4 ,i am reading what really was4 ,are not these rocks my books8 ,look now at this ledge4 ,here is a thin layer of mud-rock1 as well as of sandstone4 ,here was some marl-mud laid down4 ,i think that here must have been an inlet4 ,observe here on this exposed surface1 these pits or dents4 ,you can put your finger tip in them4 ,see how they slant from the south1 and how deeply they are driven into the sand4 ,suppose now that we stood by a low level beach of sand and marl-mud1 and a sharp shower1 driven by a strong wind1 came up from the south1 and the big rain-drops pelted violently on the sand and mud4 ,would they not leave marks identical with these8 ,so we know that here were big rain-drops from a southerly gust4 ,we know that it was soon over2 for if rain had fallen long1 all the surface of the sand would have been washed and saturated1 and prints of individual drops would have been obliterated4 ,we know that the shower was followed by a hot sun1 and as the sun was very hot1 we infer that the time was somewhere in the middle of the day1 between ten and four1 the time when the sun rays are most powerful4 ,we know that the sun was hot1 because these rain-marks dried quickly1 before they had time to lose the sharpness of their imprint4 ,it is also evident that such delicate markings must have been quickly covered up1 else the next heavy mist or drizzle of rain1 or creeping tide1 would have smoothed them out4 ,therefore1 ,i make a guess that when the marks had dried hard1 being sun-baked as some bricks are1 a strong breeze came up1 sweeping sand before it1 and so buried the prints under sufficient sand to protect them2 or1 possibly1 a fresh layer of ooze1 or mud and sand mixed1 came down the estuary and rolled gently over these rain-prints and cased them safely40 8,who would have thought of reading all that in sand60 8,do we not daily read footprints in sand in this fashion8 ,as we came here we crossed the road lying deep in summer dust4 ,there in the dust were the prints of a three-toed foot4 ,we recognized the size and shape2 it was the track of a hen's foot2 a large fat hen we judged1 because the prints were large and deeply indented4 ,around her tracks were the small delicate marks of the feet of young chicks4 ,there were many of them2 evidently the hen had a large brood with her4 ,here she had scratched in the dust where some grain or meal had been scattered3 here was a deep hollow where the dust was flirted about on all sides2 the hen had been taking a dust-bath4 ,here were some much larger marks of three-toed feet1 their distance apart showing a longer stride3 we felt quite certain that a big rooster had marched that way4 ,we knew about the hen1 the chicks1 the cock1 the feeding1 the wallowing1 as well as if we had watched the birds themselves and their performances4 ,but we had only seen footprints in the sand4 ,has any one of us wondered at ,robinson ,crusoe's conclusions when on the beach he found the print of a naked human foot80 ,the pupils admitted the justice of this reasoning4 8,what else have you read80 they questioned4 8,shortly after the shower an animal passed this way2 a two-legged animal with three-toed feet1 and a stride six feet in length4 ,such a creature would make an ostrich seem small4 ,whether it was a bird or a lizard ,i cannot tell1 at all events it has neither kindred nor descendants in the modern era4 ,if a bird1 it was of that antique type which had teeth and no feathers and wore a lizard's tail4 ,it was probably a wader of some kind1 and ate mollusks and fish4 ,i say that it passed this way about the time of the shower1 because ,i find its footprints near the rain-marks1 and on the same level of rock1 and because they seem to have been covered up about the same time1 and in the same manner40 8,do you suppose if we broke up some of this rock we should find remains of the living creatures that moved over it80 8,no2 sandstone is not rich in fossils4 ,perhaps the oxide of iron that frequently accompanies the sand has destroyed plant and animal organisms1 or it may be that when the heavy quartz grains dropped out of the water1 the plant and animal remains were carried off by tides or currents4 ,still1 in some parts of the world fossils are found in sandstones40 8,do all the strata of sandstone tell this same story80 8,each varies the story somewhat to suit its own circumstances4 ,some tell us which way the tides flowed and the rivers ran that brought them to their resting places long ago40 8,are all sandstones alike1 except in color80 8,no2 some sandstone1 especially that lying near the surface of the ground is soft1 and the grains are loosely held together1 and are large and distinct4 ,other sandstone has been pressed together into a mass nearly as hard as marble or granite4 ,flagstone is sandstone laid down in thin beds1 and capable of being readily split into flags or slabs4 ,freestone is a soft sandstone which is capable of being readily cut in any direction2 buhrstone is a particularly hard1 rough sandstone1 of which grindstones for mills are made4 ,roll yonder great1 rough stone here4 ,what do you think of it80 8,it looks like plum-duff10 said one of the pupils1 8only the plums are rather large and numerous1 and the dough is very hard and scanty40 8,it is conglomerate10 said the teacher1 8and conglomerate differs from sandstone in the size of its grains4 ,where sandstone has tiny quartz crystals for grains1 conglomerate has pebbles1 fastened together with mud hardened like cement4 ,coarse sandstone closely resembles fine conglomerate4 ,another kind of sandstone is called greywacke4 ,greywacke often exhibits the ripples and sun-cracks of the ancient beach4 ,in greywacke the grains are rounded1 or nearly rounded1 are uncolored1 and are cemented together by a very hard paste of chalk or silica4 ,if you look at a piece of greywacke you might think it a portion of igneous or fire-made rock1 it is so fine and hard4 ,you must remember that rocks which have been--let us say1 well cooked1 by the earth's internal fires1 are very hard and compact2 they have been fused together and then cooled1 and the process has made them very strongly coherent4 ,but sandstone in all its varieties is a water-made1 not a fire-made rock4 ,these water-made rocks are called fragmental1 while fire-made rocks are termed igneous4 ,whatever heat has been applied to sandstone has served only to melt and harden the fine cement1 but has not been sufficient to fuse the grains4 ,the term fragmental1 as applied to rocks1 means that the parts are easily divisible1 and are largely individual and fragmentary4 ,clay rocks are fragmental1 and so are limestone rocks4 ,there are also a few of the fragmental rocks which have been very greatly heated1 and indeed were once flung out of volcanoes in a red-hot or melted state4 ,but as they are in a loose condition much like cinder and ashes1 they are classed among the fragmental rocks4 ,among these are tufa1 breccia1 volcanic conglomerate1 and two or three others40 8,it needs much learning to read so much from a few footprints in sand10 said one of the pupils1 as they rose to go homeward4 8,say1 rather10 said the teacher1 8that by close observation and by comparison of observed facts1 we may gather more or less valuable information4 ,pupils are too ready to depend for information rather upon memorizing what is in books than upon the cultivation of the faculties of observation4 ,now1 the books are very valuable as giving us the knowledge amassed by many minds1 and also they help us to reason judiciously upon what we see4 ,but the information gathered from books is much more easily forgotten than that which comes to us from observation1 and we must1 in the study of natural science1 yoke the book to practical observation1 and closet study to out-of-doors study40 ,,lesson ,,xv4 ,,the ,,winter ,,of ,,the ,,world4 8,hark to that mighty crash6 ,the loosened ice-ridge breaks away-- ,seaward the glittering mountain rides1 ,while down its green translucent sides ,the foaming torrents dash40 --,,bryant4 ,once upon a time the ,north ,polar region1 where all is now snow and ice1 intense cold and six months of night1 was a land of warmth and sunshine4 ,at that time1 how long ago it was we cannot tell1 the ,north ,polar ,circle was a green and luxuriant flower-garden4 ,the beech1 oak1 poplar1 maple1 and walnut grew there4 ,the fragrant lime tree and the beautiful magnolia were there4 ,before this flora appeared1 plants of the carboniferous era had flourished there1--pines1 club-mosses1 tree-ferns1 cycads2 and these had so abounded that a bed of coal thirty feet thick was laid down4 ,over this buried coal-bed the spruce1 pine1 fir1 birch1 cypress1 elm1 hazel1 and viburnum grew in the ,arctic zone4 ,these trees were not the only representatives of the plant world2 on the plains the grasses grew1 on the ponds the water-lilies rocked1 and reeds and sedges fringed in dainty beauty the borders of the pools4 ,many families of plants then growing in northern ,greenland had at the same time their representatives in ,central ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,when ,,ice ,,was ,,king4 ,evidently at that date the ,arctic zone had a mild climate1 and day and night of moderate length4 ,that the above numerated plants and almost two hundred other species grew within nine degrees of the ,north ,pole is proved by finding their remains in all stages of growth1 from seed to matured plant1 from root to fruit1 scattered over an extensive area of country4 ,how did this happen8 ,what occasioned the change8 ,how came ,greenland then to be a warm and smiling land8 ,these are questions to which no answer can at present be given4 ,no one knows how this could have been4 ,over against this marvel of a mild climate1 luxuriant vegetation1 and nearly equal days and nights within the ,polar ,circle1 we may set that other wonder of the glacial or ice age--the time when the polar cold wandered beyond its bounds and came down into the temperate zone to stay1 for how long we cannot tell2 for very long indeed1 no doubt1 though not for as long as a world-building epoch4 ,the ,glacial age was only a portion of the age that came just before the human period4 ,this ,glacial period is also one of the problems which continue to puzzle the geologist4 ,why was the ,northern hemisphere then so cold8 ,what occasioned the change from tropic warmth to nipping frost8 ,how suddenly did this change come on8 ,how far did it extend1 and how long did it last8 ,all these queries cannot be answered1 but some of the wonders of that strange1 forbidding age we can unfold4 ,we know that the northern half of the world grew colder and colder1 and that in this chilling climate the flora and fauna greatly changed4 ,the plants could not accommodate themselves to the cold and most of them perished1 and their places were taken by flowers and trees which belonged to colder climates4 ,instead of palms1 figs1 cinnamon trees1 and magnolias1 grew dwarf birch1 the willow1 and pines1 while the less hardy vegetation left representatives only in the tropics4 ,the animals also changed1 but more slowly than the plants4 ,some migrated to the south1 others lessened in size and put on thicker coats of fur or feathers2 many species perished entirely4 ,still the cold increased4 ,vast snow fields loaded the ,alps and the ,pyrenees1 and all the plains and valleys of northern and middle ,europe and ,north ,america began to be filled with glaciers4 ,here let us pause to consider that three-fourths of the surface of our globe is water4 ,as we have seen from the study of the moon1 a waterless globe is also a lifeless globe1 bereft of plant or animal1 and we owe in a large part the habitable character of the earth to its abundant water4 ,this water has many forms1 as lakes1 seas1 ponds1 springs1 rivers4 ,it is salt and fresh1 and varies in temperature from the boiling springs or geysers1 to the icy seas of the poles4 ,water has changes of state2 from the liquid form it changes by loss of heat to solid ice2 moisture1 frozen as it falls through the air1 becomes crystals of snow2 water diffused in the air is mist and dew2 partially condensed in the air it forms clouds2 and dew in a frozen state is frost4 ,let us now see what was the work of water in its forms of ice and snow in the ,ice age4 ,here we do not wander in uncertainties2 for what we see to be now the work and changes of ice and snow in the ,high ,alps and the frozen oceans of the north1 we may accurately account to have been the work of the same agents in the ,ice period4 ,let us therefore reason from the present to the past4 ,a vast region such as ,greenland or ,spitzbergen or the high ,alpine country is covered deep with snow1 which falls upon it nearly every month in the year4 ,for a little time in the summer the sun partially melts the snow even on the heights1 so that floods of snow-water begin to run into the valleys4 ,but freezing generally takes place in the night1 and the melting period is short1 so that the higher plains and valleys become filled with beds of ice2 yet from beneath some of these ice-beds water runs out and descends to the lower plains and valleys1 becoming in their warmer temperature broad rivers to water the land4 ,as you look from the distance upon the snow-covered ,alps1 you see broad spaces flashing and shining like silver4 ,these are the glaciers or ice-rivers between the snowy peaks4 ,these glaciers seem as you observe them to be stationary1 but when they are measured they are found to have a steady motion4 ,thus1 you set a post in the glacier and a post in line with it upon the rocks on each side of the glacier4 ,even in a day or two you will see that instead of three posts in line1 thus ,illustration they stand in this fashion ,illustration1 and in a few weeks the central post will seem to have travelled some distance down the glacier4 ,but no2 the glacier has been sliding along in its bed and carrying the post with it4 ,as the glacier of the ,alps moves down1 down1 down1 it comes into warmer levels1 melts and crumbles away1 and feeds rivers4 ,but the glacier of the ,polar circle when it reaches the limit of its bed has not found a warmer level2 it breaks off by its own weight1 with a tremendous crash1 and falls into the ,polar sea1 among floes of moving ice4 ,the fallen fragment of glacier settles into the water for about eight-ninths of its entire height1 and now takes a new name1--it is an iceberg4 ,the iceberg is often of great height above water2 some bergs weigh hundreds of millions of tons4 ,the air1 sun1 and dashing water cut the berg into beautiful and fantastic shapes of domes1 pinnacles1 and towers1 from which the sun flashes back as from molten metal4 ,the iceberg floats about the ,polar sea1 and finally may be carried by the currents southward into warmer waters and a milder climate4 ,then the melting process goes on swiftly1 and when the lower portion becomes so much lessened as to destroy the equilibrium of the floating mountain1 it turns over1 or portions of it break away and fall into the sea4 ,thus the history of the marvellous mountain of ice is3 first snow falling upon high lands2 then from the melting and freezing of the snow1 glaciers or ice-rivers2 then the glacier moving beyond its bed1 breaks off into a berg1 and the vagrant of the ,polar seas drifts to its destruction in warmer climes4 ,now let us go back to the snow mountains and the forming glaciers4 ,as these rivers of ice grind and crowd down their ravines they tear and crush the sides of the mountains and the face of the valley1 so that they have beneath them what we may call another stream1 and that not of ice1 but of broken stones of all sizes4 ,these are frozen to the bottom of the glacier and are dragged along with it as it slides down the ravine4 ,the bottom of the glacier moves a little more slowly#cj than the surface2 finally it comes down upon the valleys in something of the shape of a ,v1 or the share of a plow4 ,thus entering the valley it drives a vast amount of dbris1 as boulders and pebbles1 before it1 and carries a vast amount more clinging to its upper and lower surfaces4 ,now it is evident that as the glacier melts rapidly in the warm valley it will drop the load of stone that it carried with it in its descent from the heights4 ,such a bed of glacier-driven stone is termed a moraine1 and when people have once seen a moraine they will not fail to recognize one wherever they find it1 even if it is thousands of miles away from any glaciers4 ,they will say3 8,here is a moraine2 once there must have been a glacier slowly moving here40 ,however warm the climate may now be1 when we see a moraine we may be assured that once it was cold enough for snow mountains and for glaciers4 ,it is as certain as that every peach-stone we see must once have been in a peach4 ,again in the present glacier-districts we find that when glaciers and icebergs slide over beds of rock or masses of stone1 they cut and groove them1 chisel them in a peculiar fashion2 and when on any rock we find these chisel-marks of the ice1 they are unmistakable1 and we know that ice heavy and strong enough to cut the rock has been there4 ,when we see a name or initial cut in a tree we know that some person with a knife has been there and cut the letters4 ,we recognize the glacier-work just as clearly on the rock as the human work on the tree4 ,once more1 to go back to our glaciers1 we find that they tear from the rocks large masses or lumps of stone2 and these fragments being ground and dragged in the ice-bed1 lose the sharpness of their edges and become rounded and smooth4 ,the icebergs1 as they break from the glacier1 carry away these stones frozen to their lower surface1 and as the ice melts the stones are let fall4 ,these peculiar stones are called boulders1 and some name them 8lost stones10 as they are found so far away from their original rocks4 ,these boulders1 or lost stones1 are scattered over a large portion of the ,northern hemisphere4 ,on high hills1#ca in wide fields1 and deep valleys1 they lie as the ice left them4 ,some are lodged in the most singular places4 ,when we see a boulder on the crest of some high hill it may be hard to believe that once an icy sea rolled over such an eminence and covered it so deep that icebergs with their enormous masses had rocked above it in the cold1 dark waves2 but so it truly was4 ,sometimes we see a wide field covered with boulders lying so closely together that very little vegetation can grow among them4 ,in this field1 long ago1 some iceberg grounded in the shallow waters and1 melting away there1 left its load of stones4 ,there are some geologists who consider that a solid cap or sheet of ice covered nearly the whole of the ,northern hemisphere at some distant time1 and that the boulders and boulder-clay were the deposit of this ice-sheet1 and were not dropped by floating bergs4 ,it is very likely that there were not only floating bergs carrying boulders1 but also an ice-sheet extending below the ,polar circle4 ,altogether the drift1 the moraines1 the ice-scratched rocks1 and the boulders lying solitary hundreds of miles from the rocks of which they once formed a part1 point out clearly to us what were the general features of the ,glacial age of the world4 ,,footnotes3 #cj ,the bottom of an ice-stream moves more slowly than the surface3 this is the case with any stream2 thus the surface projects at last beyond the bottom and breaks off in bergs2 while at last the lower part enters the valley something like the share of a plow4 #ca ,on the bluffs of the ,missouri ,river1 ,howard ,county1 ,mo41 are ice markings1 and a lump of copper weighing #bc-a_/b pounds was found on these bluffs4 ,this copper was a 8lost0 lump brought by ice from the coast of ,lake ,superior4--,j4 ,b4 ,s4 ,,lesson ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,first ,,crustaceans4 8,look on this beautiful world1 and read the truth ,in her fair page3 see every season brings ,new change to her of everlasting youth2 ,still the green soil with joyous living things ,swarms1 the wide air is full of joyous wings1 ,and myriads still1 as happy1 in the sleep ,of ocean's azure gulf1 and where he flings ,the restless surge40 --,,bryant4 ,in those long ages when there were no human beings in the world and the lower orders of animals had the globe all to themselves1 each successive period of change was distinguished by some special class of living creatures1 which were then chief in numbers and importance4 ,each of these in its own age reached its prime in size and dominion4 ,but while these particular families passed away at the close of their earth age1 the classes to which they belonged frequently survived in changed forms1 which have continued to the present4 ,these late descendants of the old time possessors of the world have generally decreased in size and numbers1 and increased in beauty and in capacity for ministering in some way to humanity4 ,illustration3 ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,dawn4 ,but there are some ancient classes of living creatures which have changed very little1 and are to-day practically what they were at their origin4 ,thus the foraminifera were among the very earliest of living creatures1 as they were also among the smallest1 the most simple in structure1 and the most widely distributed4 ,their work seemed to be first to collect material from sea-water to build into their own forms1 and then to bequeath themselves to the formation of rock4 ,there is no family of creatures so ancient1 for beside them all other fossils seem modern4 ,as living animals they still survive in almost unchanged conditions1 and abound everywhere except in the ,polar seas4 ,in the tropics they are found in shallower waters than in the temperate zones4 ,the hard name of these creatures comes from the word foramen1 a little hole like the eye of a needle4 ,now these queer animals were made of a soft substance like jelly or glue in shells with many divisions4 ,the walls of the lime-cells or rooms were full of tiny holes like the holes in a sieve1 and through these the jelly part of the animal poured itself1 and so filled and pervaded all the chambers or cells4 ,many of these creatures can be seen only through a microscope4 ,in a former lesson we spoke of the nummulites1 large specimens of this same order1 and of their work in stone-making4 ,we found that most of the building-stone of ,paris1 vast beds of stone in ,india1 and a large part of the chalk rocks are nummulitic4 ,the great pyramids of ,egypt and the enormous terraces upon which they stand are built of the same nummulitic limestone1 while many other vast ledges of limestone rock are composed of the minute shells of foraminifera4 ,in most ancient times the coral polyps were building up their towers1 and were perhaps larger and more plentiful in the lower ,silurian age than at any other period2 but coral polyps are still busy on the ,pacific sea building their beautiful islands or atolls4 ,the mollusks1 or shell-fish1 with single or bivalve shells1 with heads or without1#cb were1 no doubt1 larger and more abundant in the ,silurian epoch than ever after2 but they remain plentiful now1 as all collectors of shells are glad to realize1 and though in many orders they have decreased in size1 they have increased in beauty of form and coloring4 ,the crustaceans1 or crab family1 were among the earliest of living creatures4 ,the class survives in many varieties1 but some of its earliest families have entirely perished4 ,in the age in which they first appeared1 the crustaceans were the most numerous of living things4 ,the crustaceans are of the ringed class of animals1 to which also insects belong1#cc and here we find that the ringed creatures of the sea preceded by a long time the ringed creatures of the air and land2 for crabs of many kinds crawled in the shallow seas and were cast upon the rocky shores of the earliest continents and islands long before a solitary dragon-fly or cockroach found life1 or could have found a wooded or grassy piece of land upon which to rest4 ,the first of the ancient crustaceans which we shall mention is represented by a very numerous class of fossils called trilobites4 ,there are no living trilobites1 but the creatures now nearest them are the isopods4 ,the trilobite was more like an isopod in its larva state than like a full-grown one4 ,the trilobite had a hard plate or shell over his head and the front part of his body4 ,this piece of armor was shaped nearly like the large front portion of the shell of a horseshoe or king-crab4 ,the king-crab uses this shell as a mud-plough to plough its way through the slime1 where it finds its food and deposits its eggs4 ,some of the ancient trilobites were as small as a split pea1 and some were a foot across their head-plate2 but large or small they all had the head-shell and used it for the same purposes not only for protection1 but as a mud-plough for digging burrows in the ooze below the shallow seas or on the shores4 ,on the sides of this hard buckler were placed the eyes1 which were large1 prominent1 and compound1 or furnished with many lenses1 as we find in the eyes of insects4#cd ,these round1 prominent eyes are a very marked feature of a fossil trilobite2 they seem to be staring at creation still1 though the creature has been dead thousands of years4 ,the body of the trilobite was composed of numerous rings or segments1 and each of these rings was divided into three lobes1 from which it receives its name1 tri-lobe-ite1 or three-lobed animal4 ,all the rings of the body were so joined that the trilobite could roll itself into a ball1 doubling its tail forward under its head1 and so bringing all parts of its body under the protection of the horny shield4 ,have you never1 in turning over earth or breaking a decayed stump1 found numbers of small1 oval1 soft1 gray1 ridged creatures called slaters or wood-lice8 ,have you noticed how as soon as they are disturbed they roll themselves into an apparently lifeless coil8 ,in this fashion some of the trilobites were like the wood-louse4 ,for a long time it was supposed that the trilobite had no legs2 but at last it was found that they had a number of small1 thin-jointed legs1 like those of a young spider-crab4 ,thus we see that in its head-shield and eye-placement1 the trilobite was like a horseshoe crab1 or limulus1 which is no doubt its near relation2 in general form it was like a young isopod2 in its method of rolling itself up for rest or safety1 it was like a wood-louse2 in its long1 thin legs it was like a small spider-crab4 ,during one earth-building age1 the trilobite was the chief representative of the crabs1 and many hundred species of trilobites have been discovered4 ,we find that their patterns varied much in the days when they were the leading order of the earth4 ,the track of the trilobite in the mud in which it lived was peculiar1 and has gained the name of 8ladder footprints40 ,these footprints have been preserved in the hardened mud1 as have rain-drop prints and birds' tracks4 ,the slim1 sharp-toed feet of the trilobite made little rows of dots1 and on each side of these was a deep groove1 the rows of dots looking like the rounds1 and the grooves like the sides of a ladder4 ,this double groove was caused by the dragging edges of the shield or head-plate1 and the ladder footprint is much like the track of a king-crab4 ,floating above the primordial mud1 in good fellowship no doubt with the trilobite1 was the brachiopod1 or 8arm-footed0 creature4 ,this name was given because of numerous slim finger-like appendages1 such as the barnacle uses for its fishing apparatus4#ce ,the bra-chi-o-pod was partly like the crustaceans and partly like the mollusks1 while some learned men have concluded it to be closely related to worms and star-fish6 ,in fact these ancient families of animals had many points in common4 ,perhaps the ancient lamp shells were the representatives of the brachiopods when all these first families of the world lived together in the ,cambrian seas4 ,the brachiopods had two valved shells of very lovely shapes4 ,they were a prophecy of the wonderful beauty that was to appear in the world4 ,some of the shells were only a quarter of an inch across1 others were four inches1 and a few varieties have been found with shells a foot wide4 ,these were giants of their class4 ,the outer surface of these shells was exquisitely chiselled1 as a jeweller ornaments gold and silver plate1 and the beauty of the shell was increased by brilliant colors4 ,red1 green1 yellow1 blue-black1 and rose-pink were the hues in which these pretty creatures disported themselves before the big staring eyes of the trilobites4 ,many of these animals moored themselves by peduncles to rocks or to other creatures1 as barnacles do1 and thus holding fast1 they fished for their dinners with their fine net of filaments2 for these delicate threads were not for locomotion1 but were mouth appendages to catch something to satisfy the creature's hunger4 ,the brachiopods were1 next to the trilobites1 the most numerous and important group in the ,cambrian age4 ,but1 while the trilobites died out with their age1 some of the representatives of their pretty neighbors have existed ever since1 and1 no doubt1 in the ,silurian days they lived as contentedly among the corals1 as they now live among coral groves in the ,south ,pacific4 ,observation of a living animal of this class shows that having fastened itself by its peduncle to some firm holding place1 it can very rapidly fold and unfold its finger-like filaments1 creating around itself a little whirlpool1 which inclines towards its mouth1 and draws its food within reach4 ,,footnotes3 #cb ,see ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #a1 ,lessons #cd-cf4 #cc ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lesson #a4 #cd ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lesson #ag4 #ce ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lesson #cd4 ,,lesson ,,xvii4 ,,stone ,,fish ,,and ,,stone ,,lilies4 8,the floor is sand like the mountain drift1 ,and the pearl-shells spangle the flinty snow2 ,from coral rocks the sea-plants lift ,their boughs1 where the tides and billows flow2 ,the water is calm and still below1 ,for the winds and waves are absent there1 ,and the sands are bright as the stars that glow ,in the motionless fields of the upper air40 --,,percival1 ,the ,coral ,grove4 ,it was not an unusual incident that a lawn gate should have been carelessly left open1 and1 the gate being open1 it was not surprising that a stray cow should turn in thither to feast on blue grass4 ,given the open gate and the intruding cow1 it was in the usual order of affairs that ,scroggins1 our black boy1 should arrive upon the scene1 gesticulating and loudly remonstrant4 ,scroggins seized a large lump of hard clay and flung it at our neighbor's ,alderney1 by way of emphasizing his objurgations4 ,the cow was already hastening her departure1 and the lumps of clay struck not the retreating cow1 but the granite horse-block1 and so fell to pieces4 ,at that instant ,i came by1 and oh1 joy6 as the coarse matrix of clay crumbled1 there fell out of it the most perfect crinoid1 or stone lily1 ,i had ever seen4 ,white and clean1 its sharp ridges1 or folds1 perfect1 an inch of stem in good preservation--8,scroggins6 ,tell me quickly1 where you found the clay which you have brought to level up that hollow in the lawn80 8,i done fotch him from ,hopkins' quarry1 missey4 ,a clay bank jest clost along side dat quarry1 suah40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,stone ,,lilies4 ,verily then there are fossil crinoids to be found in that quarry2 therefore let us take a hammer1 and some one strong-armed to wield it1 and away to ,hopkins' quarry4 ,the rock of ,hopkins' quarry is of the lower ,silurian4 ,here and there we search among the fragments torn out by blasting1 and lo1 plenty of portions of crinoids4 ,the crinoid found in the clay had evidently been broken from the rock in some blast1 and had been flung over into the soft clay of the bank1 which had hardened about it4 ,at last we carefully chisel from the rock a stem a foot long1 and another fair1 cup-shaped1 fluted stone lily4 ,as the rock is cut away we indulge in some meditations on this beautiful form of ancient life1 the animal water-lilies of the olden time4 ,they came first in the lower ,silurian1 when coral was king1 and in their enormous numbers they soon divided the empire of the sea with the busy polyps4 ,moored to the sea-bottom1 waving on their long flexible stems1 as fleets of pond-lilies now ride at anchor1 stretching out their plume-like arms1 more like flowers than animals1 grew the ,silurian crinoids4 ,a few of them now remain in the deep seas1 but with these few exceptions the crinoid has vanished from the living world1 but has left its representative descendants in the great order to which the star-fish1 sea-urchins1 and sea-cucumbers belong4#cf ,the adult crinoid of the ,silurian was very like the larval comatula of the present age4#cg ,the comatula is attached to a stalk that grows upon a rock or some other fixed substance1 but at the age of six months the comatula detaches itself from this stalk and swims off4 ,in this it differs from the barnacle which1 as you may remember1 is free and vagrant as a larva1 and attached when adult4 ,the crinoids of the ,silurian were always fastened and grew each in its individual place1 as firmly as the lilies from which they take their name4 ,the stem of our crinoid as it is laid bare in the rock1 exhibits a series of little disks or plates4 ,these are set one above the other to form the stem1 which is often several feet long4 ,through all these little plates there ran a soft solid substance1 like an elastic cord4 ,as the stone which holds the fossil is laid open by our chisel1 and the crinoid stem and flower-cup are well displayed1 they remind us of the spinal column and brain of vertebrate animals4 ,the great ,german scholar and poet1 ,goethe1 remarked that the spinal marrow threaded through the closely united vertebr enters the skull by an opening at its base1 and expands1 or blooms out1 into the brain4 ,goethe considered this a growth like a lily2 the spinal cord being the stem1 and the brain the perfect flower4 ,this white stone lily looks like a prophecy in stone of the spinal cord and its brain expansion4 ,when this crinoid was alive1 these valves or petals1 which now in the petrified specimen form a solid cup1 were capable of opening or unfolding1 and from them the long feathery filaments spread forth4 ,following our crinoid down the ages have come all the marvellous families of the radiates4 ,it has become a common form of speech to call nearly every animal that lives in the sea1 a fish4 ,thus we speak of star-fish1 meaning members of the radiate family which have nothing in common with true fishes1 except the habit of living in water2 we call mollusks shell-fish1 but they are very far removed in structure from the fish-class2 also we call whales1 dugongs1 and their kin1 fish1 when instead they belong to the mammals1 as we shall find when we come to study them4 ,these star-fish1 as we wrongly call them1 belong to the same class as their ancient forerunners the crinoids1 and the crinoids were living with the corals long before there were any fish in the ancient world4 ,the ,silurian period was almost at its close#ch before a single fish appeared in the swarming life of the ancient ocean4 ,the progress of life from its beginning until now has been upward1 and in the main the latest forms of life are the highest forms2 but this is a rule which has many exceptions4 ,we have seen many of the lowest and earliest forms of life continue living and reproducing themselves in the present age1 and also we have seen the many types of life remain which are not now in their highest development1 but are degenerated examples of higher forms that existed long ago4 ,the noblest type of life is found in vertebrate animals2 but the vertebrates have many families1 and it is only when we finally reach the chief class of vertebrates that we find the highest type of life4 ,the first vertebrates that appeared were fish4 ,in their distinguishing characteristic1 the backbone composed of many vertebr1 they were a prophecy of all the wonderful orders of vertebrate animals4 ,the fish were of several species1 and had not sprung from any preceding type of animals4 ,in their vertebrate construction they were something entirely new in animal life4 ,the first fish of which we have any knowledge were not poor little weaklings1 hardly capable of maintaining existence2 on the contrary1 they came bravely into a world swarming with great crustaceans and polyps and long-armed cuttle-fish1 another fish-named creature which is not at all a fish4 ,among these huge and ravenous animals the new specimen held its own1 and asserted its higher condition4 ,when most of the great forms of life which had witnessed its arrival had perished with the closing of the age1 the fish continued into the next era1 and there thrived exceedingly1 and had their turn at being world-masters4 ,with each advancing age of the world the fish-class has gone on increasing and reaching new forms of beauty and excellence4 ,the crustaceans1 polyps1 crinoids1 and nautili1 which preceded the fish1 had their bony structure upon the outside1 and the soft parts of the body securely placed within this covering4 ,the fish came with its bones inside its body1 thus depending for safety upon its agility and its teeth4 ,the first fishes had thick1 tough skins1 without scales4 ,their skeletons were rather of cartilage1 or gristle1 than of bone1 but their spines were long1 and their teeth were particularly large and strong4 ,they were about the size of a dog-fish1#ci and were probably even more hideous to behold4 ,among these fish1 however1 and perhaps the oldest of them all1 were some that1 while having no scales1 wore great bony plates1 like the side plates of a sturgeon4#dj ,from the coprolites found with these fossil fish we discover that they ate sea-snails1 crinoids1 which were unceremoniously bitten from their swaying slender stems1 and lingul1 which they tore off the submerged rocks1 as cheerfully as a boy helps himself to cherries or blackberries4 ,the first fragment of a fossil fish ever found1 was in a bed of sandstone near ,ludlow1 ,england1 and geologists have been eagerly searching ever since for more complete specimens1 and to discover1 if possible1 traces of fish in the earlier rocks4 ,finally the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey has found earlier fish remains in ,colorado4 ,one of the most ardent students of fossil fishes was the noble man of science1 ,agassiz1 who even as a young lad began a valuable collection of fish fossils4 ,when we consider how many organisms must moulder away and perish entirely1 for every one which survives1 we need not wonder that comparatively few fossils have been found1 but should rather wonder that so many have fallen into sufficiently favorable circumstances to survive4 ,with the next age after the upper ,silurian1 fish became very abundant1 and in that and every age succeeding1 they predominate in the waters1 where the older animal forms begin to disappear4 ,one peculiarity about the fossil fishes of the ,devonian era is1 that they are often found in hard1 flattened1 oblong concretions4 ,when one of these lumps1 like pebbles1 is given a smart tap with a hammer1 it splits open1 and a fish or part of a fish1 is found in the centre4 ,hugh ,miller1 the ,scotch geologist1 graphically describes in several of his works the joy with which he secured perfect specimens of fish from such pebbles4 ,in the ,devonian age fish improved in fashion1 and began to wear scales4 ,sometimes fossil scales are found tinged with the beautiful iris-hues which they wore in the ancient waters4 ,sometimes in the rocks of this and the succeeding age there are found whole beds or thick strata of fish-fragments4 ,when these beds are opened they give forth a faint odor1 like decayed fish1 but all the soft parts of the fish have been destroyed long ago1 and merely the bones1 scales1 and especially the wonderful teeth remain4 ,,footnotes3 #cf ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lessons #cg-dj4 #cg ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #abg4 #ch ,in the last months of #ahij1 fish remains were found in rocks at ,caon ,city1 ,colorado1 belonging to the first ,silurian series4 ,new discoveries constantly change such statements as that in the text4 #ci ,the dog-fish here meant is the dog-fish of the sea1 well known on the ,atlantic coast4 ,the 8dog-fish0 of the rivers is a very different specimen4 #dj ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,lesson #dj ad fine4 ,,lesson ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,buried ,,reptiles4 8,hamlet4 ,do you see yon cloud1 that's almost the shape of a camel8 ,polonius4 ,by the mass1 'tis like a camel indeed4 ,hamlet4 ,methinks it is like a weasel4 ,polonius4 ,it is backed like a weasel4 ,hamlet4 ,or like a whale8 ,polonius4 ,very like a whale40 --,,shakespeare1 ,hamlet4 ,what is the chief bone in the human body8 ,does any one say the arm1 or leg1 or breast-bone8 ,no1 it is the backbone1 or spinal column4 ,that is a wonderful bone that gives the name of vertebrate or backboned animals to all creatures which possess it4 ,this spinal column1 or backbone1 is made up of a number of little bones or joints called vertebr4 ,these are threaded together like beads on a string4 ,the spinal cord runs through them1 enters the skull1 and expands or blooms out into a brain4 ,bend your body every way1 backward1 sidewise1 forward1 how flexible is this many-jointed spinal column6 ,this wonderful backbone marked the creatures that possessed it as a class higher than the jointed creatures or articulates4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,the ,,pine4 ,we have found that the first vertebrate animals were fishes4 ,the fish of the ,devonian age were not only numerous and greedy1 but instead of scales the majority of them wore large bony plates1 which served them as armor while they fought1 not merely for existence1 but for conquest4 ,at present there are only about thirty species of plate-wearing or ganoid fish in the world1 and nine thousand species without this heavy armor4 ,but in the age when fishes were kings of creation1 this proportion was reversed1 and the plate-wearing fish were the more numerous4 ,the fishes were the only representatives of the backboned animals until the ,coal age was well advanced4 ,then a new vertebrate of a still higher type arrived in the world4 ,these new creatures aped the fish in their backbones1 or spinal columns1 their thick skins1 and their plate armor4 ,but they were of a higher type than the fishes2 for they were in possession of legs1 toed-feet1 and had lungs instead of gills for a breathing apparatus4 ,in the earliest representatives of this higher stage of life1 the lungs were an air sac associated with gills1 but the next form dropped the gills entirely1 and had well-developed lungs4 ,the possession of lungs gave them power to live out of the water1 which hitherto had been the home of nearly all living things4 ,the new vertebrates were amphibians1 and no doubt the earliest of them found themselves better fitted to live in the water than on the land1 as their legs were feeble1 and their strong tails served them well in swimming2 but like the amphibians of the present1 they made themselves at home in any place4 ,the reptiles marked the introduction of a higher animal class than had previously existed1 and being of a higher type1 their destiny was to live and thrive and assert themselves4 ,almost immediately we note in the class two branches1 or fashions1 which continue to distinguish them4 ,some became very large1 had enormous heads and jaws1 and terrible teeth1 resembling the present crocodiles4 ,these1 living on the shore1 preyed upon fish or other animals4 ,the second division comprised smaller and more delicate reptiles4 ,they had better developed limbs and lungs1 large ribs1 beautiful1 brightly colored scales and skins1 lived on land1 and fed on insects1 spiders1 and snails4 ,thus in the latter part of the ,coal-making age1 we may imagine the shores and bayous swarming with great reptiles ten feet long1 furnished with thick armor and monstrous teeth2 while the forests of tree-ferns1 club-mosses1 reeds1 and other plants1 were rustling with the agile feet of gayly colored1 active little beasts1 from a few inches to a foot in length4 ,here at last was an animal with a pair of nostrils through which it could inflate a pair of lungs4 ,the reptile with his improved breathing apparatus and convenient feet had come into creation to stay4 ,individuals and families would indeed perish and leave only fossil remains to exhibit their characteristics1 but the class was to remain4 ,when the ,coal period passed away1 we find that the first lizards accommodated themselves in improved varieties1 to the demands of the new time2 their teeth1 limbs1 lungs1 and tails1 were better developed1 and they could claim to be highly organized creatures2 in fact1 the reptiles became the leading animals of the epoch1 which from them is often called the age of the reptiles4 ,the crustaceans1 corals1 mollusks1 and fish had had their day of being the rulers or leading families of the world2 now came the turn of the reptiles2 while certain groups1 previously chief1 sank into lower places4 ,these crustaceans1 polyps1 crinoids1 and others which we have mentioned1 were the predecessors of the reptiles4 ,they did not disappear when the reptiles arrived1 nor have they disappeared yet4 ,no doubt all these creatures1 and others which have come into existence1 will survive and share the globe1 as long as the globe lasts4 ,no researches have discovered any animals created since the arrival in the world of man4 ,while the foraminifera1 crabs1 corals1 mollusks1 fish1 and other creatures came successively into the world of life1 there is nothing to prove that any one class descended from the class preceding4 ,there is no evidence that any mollusk1 crinoid1 or fish1 though in existence a few thousand years before the reptiles1 could claim to be the reptiles' grandfather1 and there is no likelihood that the inside skeleton of the backboned animal was developed out of the outside skeleton of the mollusk4 ,we must take these successive classes as we find them3 we see each class in itself1 developing into higher and better types2 then1 some maintain this improved development1 some dwindle away and disappear4 ,there will always be many things in nature which we cannot understand1 but this need not discourage us in efforts to know2 for the old saying is a good one--8,he who grasps after a gold coat1 is likely to get at least a sleeve40 ,in those old ages before man arrived1 there were new things in the world4 ,since man came1 there is nothing new under the sun3 the facts which we learn and call new1 are all old1 very old4 ,the reptiles were of the improving classes of animals4 ,to be in full harmony with their habitations1 and not miss any of the possibilities of their kingdom1 we find the reptiles accommodating themselves to the earth1 the air1 and the sea4 ,there was1 for instance1 the hadrosaurus1 a two-legged reptile1 which had long1 strong hind legs1 and a strong1 pointed tail4 ,these legs and the tail formed a tripod1 like the three legs of a milking-stool1 or the two legs and cane whereon an aged man supports himself4 ,the enormous body of the hadrosaurus was upheld by the strong hind legs1 and it paced slowly about3 then when it wished to rest1 or seat itself at ease1 while with its small1 hand-like fore-paws1 it picked fruits and leaves from the tree-tops1 it brought its strong tail into play1 and rested on this and its legs4 ,thus we see the lucky hadrosaurus always carried about its own camp-stool4 ,this creature was a land-living1 herb-eating reptile4 ,one very great reptile of the sea was the ichthyosaur1 or fish reptile4 ,this creature had paddles and a very strong tail-fin for swimming4 ,the ichthyosaur could roll in the heavy billows like a porpoise1 and liked to be far out on the sea busy at fishing4 ,as it chased fish at sea1 it held its head high above the water and breathed air with true lungs4 ,probably no fish could hold its own against a monster twenty-five feet long and protected by broad1 solid plates of armor4 ,the empire of the fish had finally departed4 ,a third wonderful reptilian form was fitted for airy flights2 the pterodactyl was the reptile monarch of the air4 ,while its cousins1 the biped reptile and the fish reptile1 were ravaging the land and sea1 the flying reptile1 or bat reptile1 whichever we choose to call it1 spread its parchment-like wings1 lifted itself far above the trees1 and swooped from its height upon fish1 land animals1 or the few stray insects of the period4 ,the flying reptile was a prophecy of the coming bird1 which arrived in the middle part of this period4 ,when true birds came1 they introduced a class that was very closely related to the reptiles4 ,the lady who holds a pet canary on her finger1 offers it sugar with her lips1 kisses its pretty yellow head1 and considers it one of the most dainty and delightful of living things would1 perhaps1 shriek wildly if a lizard ran across her foot1 or upon her sleeve1 and would call the innocent little reptile1 hideous1 disgusting1 hateful4 ,some one says the bird is a 8glorified reptile40 ,there is similarity of structure1 but the bird class is not descended from the reptile class4 ,the backboned animals are divided into the class of the fishes2 the amphibians2 the sauropsida1 or class containing birds and reptiles1 which you see are put together2 and the highest class of all--the mammalians--to which we ourselves belong4 ,some years ago it was usual to class together as 8four-legged creatures that lay eggs10 all turtles1 tortoises1 newts1 salamanders1 snakes1 toads1 frogs1 lizards1 and crocodiles4 ,the great naturalist1 ,linnus1 named all these creatures amphibia1 because they can live with equal ease in the water or on the land4 ,after this some of the ,french naturalists concluded that the creeping method of locomotion of these animals was a more general characteristic than their amphibious habit1 and called them reptiles1 or crawling creatures4 ,but as these animals have been more closely studied1 wider differences have been noted between them1 and the toads1 frogs1 newts1 and salamanders have been set in a class by themselves4 ,the study of nearly all forms of life has two branches1 the investigation of living objects1 and the similar investigation and classification of fossil specimens4 ,thus the study of fishes embraces not only the examination of those species now to be found in the waters of the world1 but of the fossil fish found whole or in parts1 in the treasure-house of the rocks1 and these fossil fish have very numerous varieties4 ,botany also regards not only plants now growing1 but the varieties which have become extinct1 during the five earlier earth-building periods4 ,of the ten orders into which it is common among scientists to divide reptiles1 five are now extinct1 and remain to us only as fossils4 ,but so learned and accurate do some ardent students of fossil remains become1 that from only a single bone1 tooth1 or scale1 they are able to decide to what class and family the creature of which it was a part belonged1 provided1 of course1 that the creature itself has become known4 ,no ancient creature seems to have accommodated itself more closely to its circumstances than the reptile4 ,it appeared to be equally at home in the water1 on land1 or in the air2 it ate fish1 flesh1 and vegetables2 walked on two legs1 or crawled on four4 ,the biped land reptile had many of the characteristics of the present kangaroo2 the bat reptile had many of the qualities of a bird2 and the sea reptile was probably more like a whale than a fish4 ,in fact the reptile seems to have been as complaisant as ,polonius the courtier-friend of ,prince ,hamlet in ,shakespeare's play4 ,let us now write out a little table for reference1 showing the improving scale of life in plants and animals1 from their first appearance until the reptiles came4 ,,animals4 ,amoeba4 ,foraminifera4 ,crustaceans4 ,polyps4 ,mollusks4 ,fishes4 ,amphibia4 ,reptiles4 ,crinoids4 ,spiders4 ,scorpions4 ,dragon-flies4 ,cockroaches4 ,kangaroo-rats4 ,,plants4 ,sea-weeds4 ,mosses4 ,ferns4 ,reeds4 ,pines4 ,cycads4 ,the amphibia and reptiles brought into the world not only those famous backbones1 but lungs and noses4 ,the amphibia had at first gills and lung-sacs1 but the reptiles had true lungs and drew air through their nostrils4 ,try it3 draw in your breath and fill your lungs until your chest rises and expands2 now breathe it forth again4 ,very simple that1 do you say8 ,so it seems2 it is very common now-a-days1 but there were many ages when not a living creature had a pair of lungs and a pair of nostrils1 when such breathing apparatus would have been a marvellous affair4 ,these reptiles introduced a brand-new fashion4 ,each advancing age was richer in both flora and fauna than the ages that had preceded it1 because the soil1 climate1 and atmosphere of the earth became more and more favorable to both animal and vegetable existence4 ,nothing in all this succession lived or died in vain4 ,the plants freed the air of carbon and enriched it with oxygen2#da the decay of animal and vegetable matter increased and enriched the soil4 ,,footnotes3 #da ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,lessons #f1 #g4 ,,lesson ,,xix4 ,,the ,,birds ,,of ,,other ,,days4 8,thy flitting form comes ghostly dim and pale1 ,as driven by a beating storm at sea2 ,thy cry is weak and scared1 as if thy mates had shared ,the doom of us3 thy wail--what does it bring to me80 --,,dana4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,fashions ,,in ,,feathers4 ,it was an often-repeated saying of the great ,linnus that 8,nature never makes a leap40 ,by this he meant that the law of nature is a law of gradations1 and that in the long up-growth of organisms1 the steps are short between the various classes of living things4 ,the work of creation is harmonious1 and moves from one grade of organization to another1 with the easy transition of carefully shaded colors1 or the ascent of the scale from note to note4 ,but this creative harmony began very long ago1 and in the innumerable ages which have rolled by with their train of living things1 many types have been lost4 ,enough remain to fill us with wonder and admiration1 when we see how the organism of one creature has been changed and adapted in some other succeeding animal4 ,we quoted in the last lesson the remark1 8a bird is but a glorified reptile02 and1 far apart in type as we might at first glance consider an eagle and a crocodile1 or a lizard and a dove1 it is not very difficult to trace1 by the help of fossil forms1 the similarity of organism and the steps in the process of change4 ,reptiles and birds belong to the class vertebrates2 the backbone is then the first distinguishing feature4 ,in the reptile1 the spinal column with well-defined vertebr passes from the head to the tail4#db ,in the bird we find the vertebr of the neck well marked1 and more numerous than in the reptile2 the shoulder-plates1 breast-bone and hip-bones are largely developed1 forming the box-like body of the bird1 and embracing the backbone4 ,in a similar fashion we often find certain insects in which one of the rings of which the jointed body is composed is developed far more than any of the others4 ,in the tail of the bird1 we find the vertebr flattened and crowded together into a triangular stump1 while the tail of the reptile is extended1 pointed1 and supple4 ,the reptile has four limbs2 in the bird the two front limbs--the hands of the reptile--are changed to wings4 ,the long-toothed jaws of the reptile become the horny beak of the bird4 ,the reptile has scales and the bird has feathers1 but there are spots on the reptile bare of scales1 and on the bird bare of feathers4#dc ,the sea had its inhabitants long before the land was populated1 and the first vertebrates1 the fish1 were citizens of the sea4 ,before the earliest reptiles came1 there were amphibians1 which lived more readily in the water than on the land2 then followed land reptiles1 and finally flying reptiles4 ,in like manner1 the first birds were chiefly aquatic or swimming birds2 then came huge1 unwieldy walking birds1 and finally flying birds4 ,the earliest birds also diminish the distance between themselves and the reptiles1 by the possession of teeth4 ,in regard to feathers1 we find that the plumage of the first birds was coarse and scanty1 and consisted chiefly of quill feathers4 ,the legs of all birds are covered with true scales such as the reptiles have4#dd ,when we look at the reptile and the bird1 the differences that seem most startling are between the wings of the bird and the fore-feet of the reptile1 and between the scales of the reptile and the feathers of the bird4 ,when we find the fossil form of one of the first flying creatures1 we see that the huge wings were made of parchment-like skin1 stretched upon the arm and fourth finger1 which extended in claws in front of the membrane4 ,if we examine that curious flying mammal1 the bat1 we shall see a similar construction1 one finger of the bat's fore-leg extending beyond the wing into a hooked claw1 by which it can hang itself up for rest1 or upon which it can walk1 going on all fours1 in a clumsy fashion4 ,now1 if we take the bones of a bird's wing1 we shall find that it has a large1 thick upper bone1 corresponding to the upper bone in our own arm2 then the next section has two smaller bones1 one slightly curved and one straight1 to match the bones in our arm from the elbow to the wrist2 and then in that small1 pointed first section1 we find three finger-bones4 ,if we lay all these bones in their order we shall find a very good arm and hand4 ,but now take these bones and construct from them a leg1 and we shall notice that any arm is a modified and reduced leg4 ,in nearly all animals the fore-legs are smaller and more symmetrical than the hind-legs4 ,in the reptile family the fore-leg looks very like an arm and hand4 ,to return to the case of the bird and the reptile1 we find that the first bird-like flying creatures1 were not birds but reptiles of a bat-like construction2 while the first biped creatures1 supposed from their footprints to be birds1 were not birds but biped reptiles4 ,an enormous space of time separated biped reptiles from real birds4 ,the remains of the earliest birds seem to have been less well circumstanced for preservation than those of other animals1 for very few are found2 and of the first animal that can really be called a bird1 for many years only part of a single specimen1 and that lacking nearly all the head and breast-bone1 was known4 ,enough1 however1 of the specimen remained stamped on the ,bavarian slate to show that this had been a feathered flying creature1 with two slender legs1 and feet suitable for perching upon trees4 ,it was of about the size of a crow1 and had a very singular tail4 ,this tail was long and formed of extended vertebr like the tail of a lizard1 and from every joint grew a pair of large quill feathers4 ,such a tail must have greatly hindered the creature's flight1 and in fact in the many years that passed before the existence of the next birds of which fossil forms remain1 a new fashion of tails had come in2 the huge court-train had vanished1 and birds appeared with the closely crowded vertebr of the tail1 only sufficient to support the tail feathers4 ,but the print on ,bavarian slate is not the only fossil of our long-tailed bird of early days4 ,a feather was also found imprinted on stone1 and then about #ahhj1 a very complete specimen1 showing that the jaws had teeth1 and that the bird had claws4 8,a fearsome fowl1 surely60 ,the bird next found was aquatic1 about the size of the nearly extinct penguin1 but wingless4 ,in the chalk shale of ,kansas1 birds of the size of pigeons1 with short wings1 but especially remarkable for having teeth in the old reptile fashion1 have been found4 ,modern birds have lost their teeth1 finding it more convenient to depend upon gizzards for crushing their food6 ,a bird very nearly the size of a swan has been taken from the ,new ,jersey marl4 ,it is only when the first age of the last world-building period opened1 that we find a huge bird as large as an ostrich4 ,this bird was not alone as a giant of the race2 there seem to have been other species1 too bulky to fly1 but able to swim1 and no doubt capable of running swiftly on land1 aided by the rowing motion of their wings4 ,as the ages move on1 more birds appear1 having affinities with yet existing types4 ,in some1 the jaws had bony points and serrated edges1 showing that the birds were fish-eaters1 aquatic in their habits1 and possessed of webbed feet4 ,birds allied to the gulls and kingfishers were numerous1 and shortly after them came specimens of the flamingo tribe2 and still we see that the aquatic birds1 the birds that had their living from the all-bountiful sea1 were most numerous4 ,it must not be concluded that of all these birds perfect specimens have been found4 ,in some cases eggs1 feathers1 nests1 footprints1 or stray bones have been the only traces4 ,the extinct bird frequently has had to be reconstructed from small portions of its body4 ,each succeeding age of the last world-building period has produced new birds4 ,in ,france the strata from the first age of this period have yielded many species4 ,the ancient beds of lakes have been especially rich in bird remains1 as lying in the undisturbed ooze1 the fragile bodies were less exposed to destruction4 ,very many of these birds of ancient days represented forms now living1--as barn-yard fowls1 storks1 woodcock1 crows1 and falcons4 ,possibly the birds were not more numerous in the ,miocene than in the succeeding age1 but its numerous lake beds1 and other circumstances may have been more favorable to the preservation of the remains4 ,a great many fossil birds and remains of birds have been found in the caves of the succeeding eras4 ,many varieties of birds are still given to inhabiting caves1 or any quiet and shady place4 ,no doubt 8the temple haunting martlet0 haunted caves before temples were built1 and swallows that now multiply in chimneys and eaves must have gone for shelter to the crevices of the rocks in ages before men displayed architectural talent4 ,thus the caves of the ancient world had numerous bird inhabitants1 while the captured bodies of birds were no doubt carried to their cave-dens by carnivorous animals4 ,the division of 8sub-fossil birds0 embraces birds that have existed during the human period1 but have now disappeared4 ,in what are called the 8kitchen-middens0#de of ,denmark1 and in the lake dwellings of ,switzerland1 in recent fens and peat mosses1 and in various islands1 as ,madagascar1 ,new ,zealand1 and the ,canaries1 the remains of the great auk1 the capercallzie1 the dodo1 the crested parrot1 and in ,new ,zealand the huge dinornis have been found4 ,within the historic period various other birds have been exterminated1 and are now represented only by ancient drawings1 stuffed skins1 or relics of their nests and eggs4#df ,,footnotes3 #db ,these differential characteristics apply only to existing species of birds and reptiles4 #dc ,see ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,lessons #bh-cj4 #dd ,this adaptation does not indicate any descent of the bird from the reptile4 #de ,the word means 8kitchen refuse heap0 and is applied to shell-heaps mingled with bones1 found along shores and recognized as traces of ancient human habitations4 #df ,see ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,lesson #ci4 ,,lesson ,,xx4 ,,the ,,early ,,mammals4 8',tis there the otter dives1 the beaver feeds1 ,where pensive osiers dip their willowy weeds1 ,and there the wild-cat purrs amid her brood1 ,and trains them in the sylvan solitude1 ,to watch the squirrels leap1 or mark the mink ,paddling the water by the quiet brink40 --,,brainard4 ,illustration3 ,,companions ,,and ,,friends4 ,the last nine lessons have been occupied with brief descriptions of some of the fauna of the first five world-building periods4 ,a knowledge of these early forms of life is not only pleasing in itself1 but valuable1 as giving us clearer ideas of the past ages1 and because the animals and plants that then existed have a close relationship to those of our own day4 ,the earliest animals described were the foraminifera1 from which class we have our most ancient fossils4 ,we might infer from this fact that the foraminifera were the first forms of animal life4 ,but no2 even these had predecessors1 but of groups from which no fossils remain4 ,the foraminifera1 minute as they were1 had shells4 ,there is no doubt that they were preceded in the scale of creation by tiny creatures without shells1 creatures that with neither arms nor legs1 heads nor stomachs1 yet could provide themselves with arms in an emergency1 and were all mouth and stomach4 ,such an animal has been named a proteus from its constant changes of shape1 ,proteus in the classic fable being a sea-god who was constantly changing his form4 ,the amba1 or proteus1 belonged to the class protozoa1 and may be described as a minute drop of a jelly-like substance1 never at rest1 but ceaselessly changing its shape4 ,imagine such a particle of jelly held suspended in a glass of water4 ,now it seems to extend or pour itself out on one side1 into what we may call an arm1 because it is reaching for an atom of food4 ,this extended portion is drawn back1 and whenever it returns into the drop1 there the food is received and digested4 ,therefore we say the amba is all mouth and all stomach1 because it can receive and digest food in any part of its substance4 ,the earliest of the protozoa was probably a jelly-like drop composed of a single cell4 ,sometimes a number of these cells1 or individuals1 clung together in a loosely united mass or community4 ,when a new individual was formed the process was by 8budding10 the single cell becoming two1 dividing and parting1 so that each individual was complete in itself2 and which was the new one1 and which was the old one1 or whether both were part new and part old1 certainly they themselves did not know4 ,parallel with this group of one-celled jelly-like animals1 was a group of one-celled jelly-like plants4 ,each of these groups stood at the beginning of a great and constantly ascending series2 the two groups were different in their nature and in their method of nutrition1 yet each so like the other1 that it is very difficult to distinguish them4 ,thus when we consider the dawn of life we must put the shelless protozoa ages back before the busy shell-housed foraminifera4 ,yet in so placing the shelless amb we must not fancy them extinct4 ,by no means3 in myriad millions they still exist1 and have through all the ages1 and there is no pond to-day that has not its restless kaleidoscopic representatives of life's lowest grade4 ,it was a long1 long journey from this formless speck of jelly to the highest grade of life--the mammalian form2 and up this long ascent1 conducted on a definite plan1 life moved without faltering or contradictions4 ,let us then in our last look at vanished fauna1 regard some of the fossil remains of that crowning class of animal life at the head of which stands man--8,time's noblest offspring and the last40 ,our knowledge of the earliest mammals is very incomplete1 and is constantly changing1 as the discovery of new beds of fossils shows to us new forms1 and supplies new information concerning their relationships4 ,the mammals were late in their arrival upon the earth4 ,they could afford to wait1 for they had come to stay and to possess the kingdom of nature4 ,the first mammals lived in the first age of the ,reptilian time4 ,they were nearly the size of large rats or squirrels1 and curiously enough their teeth and jawbones are the portions of their bodies which have survived decay to tell their story4 ,the teeth of mammals differ in construction from the teeth of all other animals1 and thus if only one single tooth is found we may be sure that it is a part of a mammalian creature2 and1 being a mammal1 we know certain facts in regard to it1 as for instance that it was born alive1#dg and while young was cared for and suckled by its mother4 ,when the teeth are molar1 or grinding teeth1 we know that the animal lived on grain or herbs--and thus from the formation we may decide that it was a grazing animal2 sharp-pointed canine1 or dog-like teeth1 show a meat-eating animal1 a hunting1 flesh-seeking creature2 worn teeth1 teeth with the enamel ground down1 tell us that the animal was old4 ,among the teeth found1 some suggest mammals that lived on insects1 fruit1 and roots1 and some teeth found in the ancient rocks are very like those of the kangaroo rat2 so that by observing the present animals of this type1 we can in general arrive at the habits of these long extinct creatures4 ,probably the rat and squirrel families1 capable of living on roots and nuts1 and small enough to hide in crevices1 in decayed trees1 and under stumps1 where the large reptiles could not follow to destroy them1 were the earliest mammalian forms4 ,it is a singular fact that the rocks of the ,chalk age1 the last era of the time before the last world-building period1 have afforded no fossil mammals4 ,this is evidently not because there were no mammals in that age of the world2 for the rocks of the succeeding periods have yielded abundant forms of many species1 showing that mammals had extended1 multiplied1 and improved exceedingly4 ,either the circumstances of the close of this age were not favorable to the preservation of such remains1 or there are in the chalk rocks fossils which will yet be found4 ,in the earlier ages of the present or last building-time1 the mammals were not only numerous1 but far exceeded in size any now existing4 ,indeed1 it seems that as the type improved the more bulky forms passed away2 the higher animals being less unwieldy4 ,still this suggestion must at once be met by exceptions3 for in the case of the horse1 as the model improved1 the size of the animal constantly increased4 ,the mammals had finally become world-masters1 and before them the gigantic reptiles perished4 ,for a time mammals and reptiles of equally stupendous proportions seemed to face each other1 but the new type gained the victory over the old4 ,the mammals1 as well as the reptiles1 had the faculty of adaptation2 they seemed suited to a wide variety of conditions4 ,they fed on fish1 flesh1 herbs1 fruits1 and fowl4 ,some of them had bare tough skins2 others wore long scanty hair2 others again were clad in fur1 or heavy wool4 ,some of them burrowed in the ground2 some lived in caves and dens2 some were tree dwellers1 or arboreal2 others wandered over wide savannahs or in the forests1 careless of other shelter than trees or reedy jungles4 ,next after the rat-like families came a tribe of insect-eating creatures like the present ant-eaters1 but far exceeding them in size1 some of them being nearly as large as a rhinoceros4 ,the mylodon was a fruit-eater and so large and strong that it was able to tear down the trees which bore the fruit it coveted2 certainly a destructive fashion of fruit-gathering1 proving the mylodon much more barbarous than a ,saracen4#dh ,meantime1 while these mammals flourished on the land there were numerous others in the sea1 and these of a very large size1 although no fossils have yet shown that the sea-mammals preceded those of the land4 ,the whales and the sirens seem to have appeared many years ago1 and have since continued4 ,enormous armadillos1 covered with mail and very like the tortoise family of reptiles1 marched about the woods or sunned themselves upon the shores4 ,when twilight settled over the ancient woods and savannahs the mammals of the air came forth1 and bats flew zigzagging about1 hunting after insects or little birds4 ,the bone-caves of the age before man came have abundant bones of mammals2 bones which represent the pursuers and the pursued1 hunters and hunted1--some the relics of the meat-eating1 hunting beasts1 and some1 the gnawed remains of their prey4 ,among the vertebrate vegetable-eating animals we note the elephant1 the great woolly elephant now extinct1 and the mighty mammoth1 known only by its remains1 yet very well known1 because the frozen mud of ,siberia has preserved for us the entire animal1 even to its eye-balls4 ,we have in another lesson indicated the life history of the horse-like animals which belonged to these successive periods4 ,there were also many families related to the tapirs1 deer1 bears1 and musk-oxen of the present day4 ,in fact the majority of the mammalian forms of the earlier ages have their modified representatives in the present age2 while others1 as the mastodon and many more1 have made way for more modern families and are known only by fossil remains4 ,the ,ice period no doubt made a great change in the fauna of the globe4 ,during its desolation and cold many families of animals perished4 ,other creatures changed their homes1 migrating from the formerly temperate polar regions to the tropics1 retreating to warmer latitudes as the ice-sheet advanced4 ,some of the carnivora especially were capable of resisting the cold by increasing the thickness of their coats2 but animals dependent upon a vegetable diet must either perish with the flora of the regions they inhabited1 or follow the changed lines of vegetable growth1 as the northerly plants perished and vegetation flourished only in the warm southerly lands4 ,the last of the mammals to appear in the brute creation were the quadrumana or monkey tribe1 which hold the highest place in the brute creation4 ,,footnotes3 #dg ,a later lesson will describe a mammal that comes from an egg6 #dh ,the ,mohammedan soldiers were forbidden to destroy fruit trees4 ,,lesson ,,xxi4 ,a ,,very ,,old ,,family4 8',twas when the world was in its prime1 ,when the fresh stars had just begun ,their race of glory1 and young ,time ,told his first birth-days by the sun40 --,,moore4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,aristocracy4 ,one ,june morning ,i was sitting by the ocean4 ,the tide was out and was unusually low1 laying bare beds of sand that were seldom uncovered4 ,the stone on which ,i sat had been dried by breeze and sun1 but living barnacles fretted its sides1 and wet bladder-weed draped its edges1 indicating that usually the waters flowed above it4 ,a little farther out1 a multitude of small black sea-snails lay1 each with tightly closed operculum to retain moisture sufficient until the sea returned2 but now and then some few crawled to a more favorable position2 and here and there a pale pink foot shod with a little black shoe reached forth1 and taking hold upon the sand the creature pulled itself over by a muscular contraction4 ,near me on the right the sand disappeared under a bed of dark ooze2 for here was the mouth of an inlet1 and twice each day the tide hurrying back through its intricacies brought black mud from the marshes to deposit upon the beach4 ,in this layer of pasty soil ,i presently discovered a track very like what we call 8ladder footprints0 in fossils4 ,there were numerous holes as if made by some slim1 sharp instrument1 and on each side a furrow4 ,i rose and traced this track until it disappeared under a fresh deposit of mud4 ,as ,i turned seaward again ,i saw at the edge of the water a dark-brown shining object over a foot in diameter1 with rounded front and convex surface1 moving laboriously along the slime4 ,after it had travelled some yards from the water to a place where the mud-bank overlaid the sand by two or three feet1 the creature came to a pause and presently began to disappear4 ,the large1 rounded shield entered plow-like into the mud-bank1 sank lower and lower1 and then the triangular hinder shield vanished1 and finally the long spiked tail4 ,this animal was a limulus1 or horseshoe crab1 and he was now plowing his way about in the mud1 seeking for his dinner4 ,the previous day the tide had been very high1 and ,i knew that in the high tides of ,june the female limulus comes up to lay her eggs on the margin of the sand4 ,i further reflected that numerous boulders and small sharp rocks were strewn along this coast1 and that the high tide had been accompanied by a violent wind4 ,from these facts ,i concluded that ,i might find a dead limulus among the rubbish at high-water mark4 ,at the summit of the beach was a long swath of sea-weed1 empty and broken shells1 bits of wood1 and the flotsam that is cast up by the sea4 ,all this dbris was dry atop1 but thoroughly wet a few inches below the surface1 and there 8beach fleas0 were hopping actively1 and scallop shells lay tightly closed1 and certain hapless crustaceans were on their backs entangled4 ,being sorry for these poor creatures1 likely to die long before the lagging tide returned for them1 ,i spent some minutes in flinging back into the water the scallops and crabs which had been cast out4 ,as ,i pursued these benevolent labors1 ,i saw in the wreck heap1 the long1 spiked1 serrated tail indicating a limulus1 or horseshoe1 or king crab4 ,removing the rubbish ,i disentombed a limulus1 full twenty inches across the widest part of the shield1 and that shield so hard and thick and dark1 that it resembled a piece of sheet iron rather than a portion of an animal4 ,but hard as it was1 some wave flinging it upon a sharp rock had wrought its destruction1 and a large break on one side told how ,madame ,limulus had perished4 ,the animal was remarkably heavy1 but dragging it to my rock1 ,i made it the theme of my meditation4 ,what ancient family of humans in all this world1 ,mistress ,limulus1 but is modern as the last new fashion1 compared with your hoary antiquity of lineage8 ,mongol or ,hindoo1 ,russian or ,saracen1 ,emperor of ,austria or ,king of ,italy1 who of them can count grandfathers with you8 ,compared to you all ,adam's line are but of yesterday4 ,if you had been a reasoning being1 and capable of handing down traditions1 all the lore of all the ages might now be hidden under that vast head-shield4 ,limulus1 or horseshoe crab1 or king crab1 whichever you prefer to be called1 do you know that the last age of your race has come1 and you are bearing down on extinction8 ,the seas of ,china and ,japan1 and this ancient eastern coast of ,north ,america1 still cherish you and your relatives2 but the hapless fortunes of the times1 the elements1 and man the pitiless1 have doomed you1 and soon the day will come when not a limulus of you all will survive1 except in the cases of museums4 ,the doom of your old-time1 far-off cousins1 the trilobites1 is upon you4 ,let me trace you back to your origin2 for the rocks1 more faithful than your dull and imperfect brain-cell1 hold your history4 ,very modestly1 as if hesitating whether you would be entertained in the world's great hostelry1 one small and insignificant species of your race arrived in the ,upper ,silurian age4 ,you found the seas warm1 the sunshine tempered by vapors1 the stone lilies white as that then unknown thing1 snow2 the coral polyps like rainbows shimmered in the waters4 ,you ate1 swam1 and were happy4 ,you throve2 you lived unobserved through ,devonian days1 and1 ah1 what vast mud beds1 black with the decay of moss and ferns1 awaited you in the ,coal period6 ,seven species more came into your enlarging race1 but you were humble still1 and remained small and unobtrusive1 lest some vast reptile should end your family line in his capacious maw4 ,one of your species1 however1 seized with ambition1 developed beyond all the rest1 and here in ,america grew into the size and shape you wear to-day4 ,fortune favored the bold1 and the enterprising ,yankee limulus stands at the head of your tribes until now4 ,back there in the ,coal period your family were most of them weak1 and wore the form not of adult king crabs1 but of larv1 with all the segments of the hinder shield free of each other2 and that brave tail was but a rudimentary thorn4 ,perhaps this very humility1 intense as that of ,uriah ,heep1 has engineered you through the convulsions of the ages1 to be the fellow citizens1 and alas6 the victims of the human race4 ,but now the anatomy rather than the history of my limulus attracts me4 ,one of the ringed creatures you are1 ,o crab1 but your first ring has become enormously developed into the vast head shield with rounded front and beautifully bevelled edge1 sweeping back into sharp and spiny corners1 which1 dragging upon the sand or mud1 make the furrow on each side of your footprints4 ,here is this hinder shield1 a rude triangle with the apex cut out to admit the insertion of the great tail2 and this triangular shield is also made of rings1 but they have grown together into one single piece4 ,still we can count them from the free1 horny points4 ,this sword-formed tail1 my limulus1 did not belong to you when1 first free of the egg-case1 you sported in the water4 ,it appeared only at your second moult4 ,in this you were like your progenitors of the ,coal period1 who wore no tails2 tails being then1 no doubt1 the royal insignia of the reigning line of reptiles1 upon which meaner animals might not venture4 ,your eyes are fitted into your head shield1 and so are well protected4 ,let me turn you over and look at your feet4 ,this great head shield it appears1 houses not only your eyes1 but all your walking and eating apparatus1 which seem to be closely connected4 ,when you were in the larval state you could double under the rings of your hinder shield1 which then were not soldered together1 so that you were neatly encased1 and how safe you were6 ,your legs are wondrous small for your size1 and1 ,o singular creature1 you use not only your legs1 but your hands and your antenn and your maxillars for walking4 ,and what is this8 ,at the base of them all you have jaws4 ,so away you travel on your numerous limbs1 and whichever lucky member finds a morsel of food1 behold a pair of jaws right at its base to devour it6 ,therefore are you rightly named a 8mouth-footed0 creature4 ,there are certain mollusks with heads1 which also have their heads and mouths and stomach in their feet4 ,we hope1 meeting them in the ocean1 you do not hold yourself superior to them1 for they are of lineage yet more ancient than your own4 ,yesterday1 ,madame ,limulus1 you met your death as you came up the beach heavily laden with eggs1 which you intended to deposit in the sand4 ,if ,i state that a million of eggs now lie under your enormous shield1 ,i do not think ,i shall over-estimate the number4 ,you meant1 as for many years past you have done twice each year1 to come near high-water mark and place your eggs in the sand1 where twice daily1 as the tide was low1 the heat of the sun would strike the eggs and warm them into life4 ,what was your own infant experience1 my limulus8 ,fifty days1 or seventy days1 perhaps more1#di you lay hidden in the egg1 because all those changes which other crustaceans undergo after hatching1 the royal limulus completes in the privacy of its elastic case4 ,change1 change1 still change1 within the curtains of the cradle1 and at last1 out comes the living limulus1 tailless1 large-eyed1 its hinder segments free of each other4 ,spiny1 tiny1 pale brown1 glossy1 a shell finer than a human baby's most delicate finger nail1 able to swim1 to find your own food1 to double up and protect yourself1 such you were1 ,o limulus1 on coming out of the egg4 ,you needed no parent to guard you1 or forage for you2 the sun had warmed you into life1 and the ocean was your food-bringing mother4 ,child of the sun and sea6 ,such the ancients fabled ,venus1 the queen of beauty1 and you1 ,o my limulus1 are one of the most uncomely of living things4 ,when first you found your egg-case cleft away1 and came out upon the wave1 six pairs of feet were ready for your walking1 swimming1 and food-grasping apparatus4 ,so well endowed with members for use1 and with no brain capable of large ambitions1 content with to-day1 and ignorant that there was ever a yesterday1 or that there will be a to-morrow1 you1 no more than a child of the house of ,hapsburg1 expected beauty to be united to the splendor of-- ,a ,very ,ancient ,line4 ,,footnotes3 #di ,dr4 ,lockwood kept some king-crab eggs in a dark place1 three hundred and sixty days before they hatched4 ,,lesson ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,marvel ,,in ,,mail4 8,the woods decay1 the woods decay and fall1 ,the vapors weep their burden to the ground1 ,man comes and tills the fields and lies beneath1 ,and after many a summer dies the swan1 ,us only cruel immortality consumes40 --,,tennyson4 ,the first five lessons in this ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #d1 were devoted to a description of some of the prominent facts of the periods during which our globe was built up from an immense sphere of fiery gas1 to the compact and inhabited earth which we know to-day4 ,the next theme of study was the solar system1 under the laws governing which our world exists1 part of which it is1 and upon the members of which1 the sun and the moon1 we are so dependent that without them life on our globe would be impossible4 ,that magic power whereby the plant world grows and ripens its fruits abides in the sunlight4 ,it is the sun's heat which raises water from the earth in vapor1 which returns to us in showers and dew4 ,it is that same forceful heat1 poured out on vast continents1 that gives rise to the winds that cool our summers and speed the sails of our commerce4 ,during how many ages has this lavish sunlight stored up coal for our use1 that coal which flames in our grates and stoves1 glows in our gas-lights1 and drives the engines of our age of steam6 ,that lesser light which rules the night1 the silver moon1 not only serves to inspire poets and artists1 and to light so many otherwise dark hours1 but with mysterious attraction controls the tide in ebb and flow4 ,after our brief glance at the solar system1 we have learned1 by means of fossils hidden in the rocks1 something of the wonderful progress of life through all the earth-building ages4 ,as we have traced this slow ascent of life from its far-off1 simple beginning1 we have found that the first home of life was the ocean4 ,when the world was wrapped in a mantle of seas1 before the first continent thrust its rocky ridges above the waves1 no doubt those warm waves swarmed with busy life4 8,the waters brought forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life02 and to-day1 as in all previous ages1 the sea is the headquarters and busy home of living things4 ,in every zone the waters teem with animal organisms1 so numerous that we doubt whether the sands on the shores1 or the stars that fill space equal them for multitude4 ,after the survey of some of the vanished fauna that peopled the earth in past epochs1 the next step suggested is to make acquaintance with yet remaining animal life1 such as is more nearly related to extinct species than to any other surviving families4 ,there are even now animals more or less common1 that have altered little in the slow lapse of ages1 and have their nearest affinities with fossil types4 ,such an one we have found in that most venerable of crustaceans1 the limulus1 or king crab6 ,coming into creation some thousands or even some hundreds of thousands of years later than the crustaceans1 the reptiles have left one of their early representatives1 a conservative which has adapted itself to no new fashions1 accommodated itself to no living species1 but maintained its integrity as a near relation of a family of fossil lizards1 whose remains are found in ,england near ,warwick1 in ,scotland at ,elgin1 in ,central ,india1 and in ,south ,africa1 indicating that in their palmy days they were citizens of the world1 widely spread1 numerous1 and nicely adjusted to the conditions of their age4 ,this scion of a most ancient family whom we now introduce1 claiming for it the regard due to long lineage1 is named the sphenodon1 or hatteria4 ,at present the hatteria holds aloof from general society1 and unless forced to exhibit in zoological gardens1 confines itself to a very limited haunt in ,new ,zealand4 ,in ,new ,zealand a score or two of years ago1 the hatteria crawled about with the slowness proper to long years and high dignity1 and enjoyed a numerous family and a comfortable independence4 ,behold him1 then1 honorably divested of foolish pride in his pedigree1 but carefully adhering to all the manners and traditions of his venerable line4 ,what a wonder is this1 that a frail and short-lived creature should have maintained itself unaltered1 generation after generation1 while1 with mighty convulsions the face of nature has changed1 and changed1 and changed again2 the whole surface of the globe undergoing transformations which left unaffected this one little reptile4 ,the hatteria belongs to the lizard-like reptiles with tails and scales2 is possessed of four legs1 the front pair being hand-like in structure4 ,the creature suggests to us some venerable grandparent who has divided a large part of his patrimony among numerous descendants and collaterals2 for the other four orders of reptiles all share some of the characteristics of the hatteria1 as if it had divided its traits among them4 ,we might write them thus3-- ,snakes4 ,crocodiles4 ,,hatteria4 ,fossil ,saurians and ,lizards4 ,lizards4 ,turtles4 ,so there is the hatteria1 or sphenodon1 a link between the new and the old4 ,to explain all the points of likeness and difference would be to write an elaborate treatise on comparative osteology1 or the science of skeletons4 ,while passing over in silence the matter of the bones1 we can note a few plain points of likeness between the sphenodon and other reptiles4 ,when the tail or any part of the tail is broken it is renewed as the crustaceans renew a leg or claw2#ej this power it holds in common with some of the lizards1 which have very brittle tails4 ,the vertebr of the tail are made in two portions1 and the line of junction in each vertebra is the weakest part2 so if the tail is broken it is broken on this line1 and not between two vertebr2 and on this line it is renewed4 ,the famous philosopher1 ,aristotle1 and that other famous ancient student of nature1 ,pliny1 seem to have been much impressed with this ability to renew broken tails4 ,the skull of the hatteria is more like that of a crocodile than like that of any other reptile2 but on the other hand its legs are like those of the lizard1 so that a description of the bones of the leg and foot of a lizard1 would answer almost equally well for a sphenodon4 ,the hatteria has nine more vertebr in its tail than in all the rest of its body and its head together2 and to aid it in its motions while impeded by this long tail1 it has some especial muscles1 such as are very prominently developed in the serpent family4 ,as the hatteria grows old its teeth wear down to a simple cutting edge1 as do those of snakes4 ,the ,new ,zealand native name for the hatteria is rather pretty--tuatera4 ,strangely enough the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand have a superstitious horror of the creature1 and turn pale and shiver with abject fear if they merely see one4 ,does the tuatera merit their aversion8 ,not at all4 ,it is not handsome1 some call it exceedingly unpleasing in appearance1 but no creature is so absolutely harmless4 ,it is without weapons of offence or defence1 and without energy to use such weapons if it possessed them4 ,the hatteria1 or tuatera1 now lives in only one place in the world1 and that place is a small rocky islet called ,karenha1 in the ,bay of ,plenty1 in ,new ,zealand4 ,formerly1 the creature was abundant all along the rocky coasts of ,new ,zealand1 living in crevices of the rock1 or in little burrows dug by itself4 ,the settlers in ,new ,zealand took a fancy to the hatteria as an article of food1 and the hogs which the settlers brought with them1 shared the taste of their masters1 so that between men and swine1 the poor creatures have nearly become extinct4 ,their sole chance of maintaining existence is to confine themselves strictly to ,karenha1 where not a shrub1 nor blade of grass1 nor lichen grows1 and where not a fresh-water spring is known4 ,on this desolate island the hatterias lie1 clinging to the bare rock1 absolutely quiet1 apparently unconscious1 and alike indifferent to the whipping of sharp1 cold spray driven by a strong wind1 and to the fierce beating of the sun4 ,the hatteria is from eight to twenty inches long1 is of a bronze or olive-green color1 spotted with yellow above1 and fading into greyish white below4 ,down the back and along the tail1 are sharp spines or bristles in a ridge or crest1 which the creature can erect at will4 ,its eyes are golden1 and instead of the vivid quickness of the jewel-like eyes of many lizards1 these organs in the hatteria have the dull stare of glass eyes4 ,also1 instead of the flash-like motions of many lizards1 the hatteria is the slowest of living things4 ,hour after hour1 day after day1 it will lie like an animal fashioned of wax1 desiring neither food nor drink1 and seeming to need almost no air4 ,often people stand for a long time before the glass case of the hatterias in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens1 and from the absolute quiet of the creatures1 conclude that they are stuffed4 ,but finally they see the head turning1 or the body sliding forward1 with an almost imperceptible motion1 slow as that of the minute hand of a clock4 ,or1 looking a little closer1 the motion of the heart may be recognized by the slow palpitating of the loose skin near the forearm4 ,the hatteria seems as contented when kept in a glass case1 as when extended on its native rocks4 ,one wonders how a creature can possess so few of the evidences and the needs of life4 ,it makes no noise1 shows neither fear1 hope1 affection1 nor anxiety2 one might think that the accumulated age of all its long race had invaded its cold veins1 and that it was verging on petrifaction4 ,the hatteria in one single small specimen is the sole living representative of the genus1 family1 and order to which it belongs4 ,its fossil relatives partook of characteristics now scattered among members of different classes4 ,one of them approached the birds1 in having no teeth and a beak-like projection of the jaws2 others were like fish1 in having teeth set not only in their jaws1 but also1 as some fish do1 8in the velvet10#ea namely1 all down the sides of the throat4 ,the great value of the hatteria now1 is the light which it throws on obscure points in the structure of its fossil relatives4 ,helpless and inert1 it seems to belong rather to past ages and to the dead1 than to to-day and the living4 ,,footnotes3 #ej ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #a1 ,lessons #a-f4 #ea ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,lesson #de4 ,,lesson ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,builder4 8,again the mossy earth looks forth1 again the streams run clear2 ,the fox his hillside cell forsakes1 the musk rat leaves his nook1 ,the blue-bird in the meadow brakes is singing with the brook2 #8,bear up1 ,o mother nature1' cry bird1 breeze1 and streamlet free1 #8,our winter voices prophesy of summer days to thee4'0 --,,whittier4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wonderful ,,builder4 ,one of the most celebrated animals in the world is the beaver4 ,this creature belongs to the mammalian order1 ,rodentia1 or the 8gnawers40 ,the mammals of this order are distinguished by their strong1 chisel-shaped front teeth4 ,they have a greater number of species1 and a wider distribution over the earth than any other terrestrial mammals4 ,to this order belong squirrels1 rabbits1 rats1 mice1 and many other species1 and the order1 as a whole1 will be briefly described in a later chapter4 ,at present we must fix our attention upon the beaver1 which ,buffon said constituted such a link between quadrupeds and fishes1 as is the bat between quadrupeds and birds4 ,in fact neither bat nor beaver is a link between different orders1 but the beaver is nearly as aquatic in its habits as a fish1 and its tail is about as well covered with scales as is the body of a fish4 ,the beaver is an animal of great geologic age3 its fossil remains have been found freely distributed over northern ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,at present it has entirely disappeared from many countries where formerly it abounded4 ,in some places in ,europe it has abandoned many of its most peculiar and interesting habits of life1 and sunk slowly to nearly the condition of its distant relative1 the water-rat4 ,in truth1 the beaver1 like the king-crab1 is a creature evidently doomed to extinction4 ,the cause of the rapid disappearance of the beaver is the value of its fur1 which has caused it to be hunted with a reckless disregard of the danger of destroying the entire family4 ,the story of the fate of the goose which laid golden eggs is not wholly a fable1 but holds true of many valuable and beautiful plants and animals1 which human greed has ruthlessly destroyed4 ,the beaver no doubt had a very happy time building its huts and dams1 feeding on roots and bark1 and swimming merrily in the rivers1 before men were known upon the earth4 ,the beaver is the largest of the rodents except the capybara or water-hog of ,south ,america4 ,the beaver is sometimes three feet long1 exclusive of the tail1 and a very large beaver will occasionally weigh as much as sixty pounds4 ,the oval1 flattened tail is about ten inches long1 and is covered with scales4 ,about this tail1 as about the habits of the beaver1 many foolish stories have been repeated4 ,it has been stated that he uses it as a little cart whereon to drag loads of stone and mud for his dam2 also that he uses it as a trowel to smooth in nicest mason-fashion the earth walls of his house4 ,neither of these tales of a tail is true4 ,the scaly tail of the beaver is of especial use in helping to support his body when he stands on his hind-legs cutting down trees4 ,one of its uses is that of sounding an alarm when disturbed in his retreats3 then the beaver rounds up his back1 and brings down his tail on the water with a blow which can be heard for a long distance4 ,the hind feet of the beaver are webbed up to the toe nails1 like those of a duck or gull4 ,in swimming the beaver uses only the hind feet1 the front feet1 which are small and serve almost exclusively as hands1 are kept hanging close by his side while he moves in the water4 ,the head of the beaver is short and rounded1 and its upper lip is cleft1 probably for convenience in using its powerful incisors in cutting down trees and stripping off bark4 ,the front teeth of the beaver are very remarkable2 they are long and chisel-shaped1 with a sharp1 cutting edge4 ,the outer layer is made of very hard orange-colored enamel2 the inner portion is softer and wears away by the constant use of the teeth2 and thus a chisel-like edge is left4 ,as the four front teeth wear down they are reproduced1 growing up constantly from the roots4 ,the teeth of the beaver are so sharp and hard that the ,indians formerly used them1 fastened into handles1 for cutting their bone implements4 ,the eyes of the beaver are small1 and the ears are inconspicuous4 ,when swimming or diving the beaver can draw its ears close to its head1 closing the orifice against the admission of water4 ,the whole appearance of the animal is without beauty1 as the soft1 silky brownish fur is hidden by a growth of long coarse reddish-brown hairs4 ,in ,america the beavers still live in communities and build homes1 but in ,europe1 where they cannot find secluded and undisturbed ponds and rivers1 they have changed their habit and live solitary and in burrows1 their huts and dams being now known only in one place in ,europe4 ,in ,america there are found some few beavers living alone in burrows2 these are called 8idlers10 or 8bachelors40 ,they are supposed to have left the colony because their mates have been killed4 ,in their natural state beavers live chiefly on the bark of shrubs and trees such as birch1 alder1 poplar1 willow1 while a favorite article of food is the root and stem of the yellow water-lily4 ,in captivity they eat bread and raw vegetables1 and while they greatly enjoy water for a bath or a swim1 they will learn to content themselves without it4 ,it is a pity that any web-footed creature should be held in captivity1 where it cannot be provided with an abundance of its natural and favorite element4 ,in summer the beaver leaves his home1 and setting off as if intent upon having a merry time1 spends the warm season in roving about the streams and banks1 feasting on fresh herbs1 and playing with his fellow-citizens of the stream4 ,during ,august1 with provident care he cuts down trees for the repair of his home and dam1 but does not begin their renovation until the frosts come4 ,this delay probably does not arise from mere idleness1 for the beaver is not the tramp of the brute creation1 who keeps the roads until forced by the cold to seek shelter4 ,the late repair has its advantages4 ,the last coat of mud applied to the habitation presently freezes hard as a stone1 and neither wolves nor wolverines can break up the roof and disturb the repose of the owners of the house4 ,the beaver is an inhabitant of north temperate climates1 where the winters are long and the cold sharp3 he is a creature of solitudes where wild carnivorous animals share with him the woodlands and the banks1 and to them as to man1 he is likely to fall a prey4 ,the hunters and trappers as well as the wolves consider the beaver's flesh a toothsome morsel1 and not only is his fur an article of commerce1 but a substance called castoreum found in two small sacs in his body is used to some extent in medicine and perfumery4 ,against the wild beasts1 the well-built wigwam and the doorways entirely under water1 in a measure protect the beaver2 but the trappers secure him by traps set in his pathways or near his door4 ,no wonder that the beaver always abandons a locality as soon as it is settled by his chief enemy--man4 ,and now what of this dwelling which the beaver constructs for himself1 provisions1 and makes his winter quarters8 ,wonderful tales have been told of it1 as that it is well built of logs and interlaced wattles1 plastered securely1 and that a proper depth of water over its entrance is secured by the construction of a dam1 so large1 strong1 and well-built1 that a man on horseback can ride over it where it lifts above the water4 ,unhappily much of this is fiction4 ,let us sift out the truth4 ,the natural home of the beaver is not a burrow like that of a water-rat1 but a wigwam above ground1 built of heaped-up poles1 branches1 and roots1 filled in with short sticks1 stones1 and sods4 ,the shape is that of a low dome-like brush heap4 ,inside the irregular dome which is some eight or nine feet in diameter1 is a small room which is the living room of the beavers4 ,several of these huts are placed near together and each has but one compartment2 the tales of homes of many rooms have arisen from finding the various separate homes of the colony resting against each other4 ,in each of these huts from four to eight beavers live4 ,in the sides of the room are the beds of leaves1 each beaver having a bed of its own4 ,the centre of the apartment where they gnaw the bark from the short sticks which they bring in serves as a dining-room4 ,they are very cleanly1 and carry out all rubbish and refuse4 ,the beaver house has no opening above ground4 ,the two doors to the wigwam are in the floor1 opening into long underground galleries1 one connecting with the piled-up store of food branches1 the other leading out toward the bank4 ,thus there is no approach to the home of the beaver except by passing under the water1 and it is to secure a depth of from twenty inches to three feet of water over the entrance passages that the beaver builds a dam4 ,if the bank or island where the home is built is so placed that a proper current and depth of water over the passages to the food pile can always be had1 the beaver builds no dam4 ,if the water is likely to run low the dam is built4 ,the dam is a loosely constructed barrier1 seldom in water over three feet deep1 and generally rising but little above the surface4 ,as the parts of trees of which it is built are of kinds which easily take root from rods or wands1 as willow1 birch1 and alder1 these sometimes shoot up and spread1 growing into a kind of hedge1 which1 catching dbris coming down stream1 constantly increases the strength and size of the structure4 ,slight and low as the beaver dam is1 it is marvellous that a brute should construct it1 and its size is by no means contemptible4 ,one giant dam1 seven feet high and a quarter of a mile long1 is mentioned by ,h4 ,p4 ,wells1 an accurate observer4 ,especially is it marvellous that in the places where there is little current the dam is carried straight across the stream1 while in those where the current is strong the structure has a deep curve down stream1 and is thus capable of resisting the force of the water4 ,in building1 the beaver trusts to the water for the conveyance of most of its materials1 but it carries roots1 stones1 sod1 and mud1 by holding these between its chin and fore-paws4 ,it floats its wood wherever it wishes to have it by swimming behind it4 ,not only this1 but this wonderful builder is shrewd enough to cut down trees with its strong1 chisel-like teeth4 ,it selects those near the stream bank1 and is sufficiently skilled in woodcraft to make the tree fall toward the stream1 by cutting into it most deeply on the water-ward side4 ,the beaver works almost entirely at night2 but whether under the direction of some one skilled beaver architect1 or whether like the ants and bees1#eb all work guided by a common instinct that produces harmonious labor1 is not known4 ,quite as wonderful as the dam building is the canal making4 ,this work they undertake in order to facilitate the moving of food and building material4 ,canals are described by ,wells which are three feet wide1 over two hundred feet long1 and which carry from eighteen inches to two feet of water4 ,in the huts in winter the mother beaver suckles and rears her young ones4 ,when the family in one cabin becomes too large the young beavers move off and build a home of their own1 not too far from the original dwelling1 to share the advantages of the same dam4 ,frequently remains of old beaver dams are found in fields now grassy or under cultivation1 but which were formerly ponds or wide curves in the beds of streams4 ,while to the casual glance these may appear to be natural ridges1 their regular sweep1 equal strength in all parts1 and their material prove them to be the work of this ancient family of builders4 ,,footnotes3 #eb ,see ,nature ,readers1 #a and #b1 ,lessons on ,bees and ,ants4 ,,lesson ,,xxiv4 ,,an ,,opossum ,,hunt4 8,within the twilight come forth tender snatches ,of birds' song from beneath their darkened eaves2 ,but now a noise of poor ground dwellers matches ,this dimness2 neither loves1 nor joys1 nor grieves4 ,a piping slight and shrill1 and coarse dull chirpings1 fill ,the ear1 that all day's stronger1 finer music leaves40 --,,lowell4 8,if you want to find out anything about 'possums1 go to ,uncle ,d'rius2 he knows all about them0--this was the universal opinion in ,f---- and one day1 when my mind was greatly exercised about opossums1 ,i repaired for information to 8,uncle ,d'rius40 ,i found that mine of didelphian wisdom seated at his front door1 with his hands on his knees4 8,uncle ,darius10 ,i said1 8,i want you to tell me all about opossums40 ,the old negro rubbed his gray head3 8',possums60 he cried1 his bleared eyes lighting at his favorite theme1 8'possums6 'possum am 'bout de bes' thing in des y'ere worl'1 w'en h'it am roasted60 8,but tell me something about them alive10 ,i urged4 8',live8 ',possum am a mighty onconsideratin' animal when h'it 'live4 ,an' w'en a man kin ketch 'possum any time he go fur him1 he am a berry sma'at man1 fo' sho6 ,dere's ony one sech man in dese y'ere pa'ats1 an' h'it am ,uncle ,d'rius w'en he was young an' spry40 ,and that was all ,uncle ,darius could tell me about opossums4 ,certainly he knew very much more4 ,he had hunted them1 and eaten them1 and brought home baby opossums to bring up for pets--but unluckily1 ,uncle ,d'rius had not habits of observation1 nor any gift for telling what he knew4 ,fortunately ,i had other means of learning something about opossums4 ,let us first indulge in a few plain statements about the opossum1 and then devote a little time to some of its interesting habits4 #a4 ,the opossum1 like the beaver1 is a very ancient animal2 its fossils are plentifully found in the strata of the ,eocene age1 the first age of the last world-building period4#ec #b4 ,the opossum is entirely an ,american animal2 is unknown in ,europe and ,asia2 and is found from the northern part of the ,southern ,states to the north boundary of ,patagonia4 #c4 ,it belongs to the mammalian order of marsupials1 or pouched animals1 furnished with a pouch or pocket for carrying the young4 #d4 ,its nearest relatives are found in ,australia4 #e4 ,with one exception it is the lowest of the mammalian orders4 #f4 ,its scientific name is ,didelphys4 #g4 ,this family has two groups3 first1 a very large group to which the opossums and their nearest kin belong2 the other group has but one species of animal1 the yapock1 which thus claims a whole genus for itself4 ,the yapock is a little creature with webbed feet1 aquatic in its habits3 it feeds on fish and small crabs2 its home is in ,guatemala and ,brazil2 its fur is gray marked with brown4 ,having disposed of the genus represented only by the yapock1 let us describe the opossum and the general characteristics of its kindred4 ,the animal is small1 varying from the size of a mouse to that of a large cat4 ,it has several very marked characteristics4 ,first1 the opossum has a great number of teeth1 fully fifty4 ,these are fitted for tearing and eating flesh1 for grinding up the horny bodies of insects1 and also for devouring roots1 berries1 eggs1 and fruits4 ,while belonging to the carnivorous class of feeders1 the opossum is thoroughly omnivorous1 and seldom finds any variety of food which he disdains to taste4 ,the second marked peculiarity is the pouch1 formed of a large fold of the skin of the under part of the mother opossum's body4 ,this fold makes a bag1 supported by two slender but strong bones1 from which the order receives its name--didelphys4 ,in this bag the mother opossum stows her little ones1 and carries them about with her until they are old enough to be weaned1 and can look out for themselves4 ,the third notable mark of the opossum is its tail1 which is long and supple1 and has its terminal half bare of fur and covered with scales4 ,this tail is called prehensile1 because hand-like it can clasp itself closely about any object with which the creature would serve itself as a support4 ,a few turns of this lithe tail about a branch will bear the weight of even a mother opossum loaded with her pouch full of little ones2 and a vigorous shaking of the branch cannot dislodge her4 ,the fourth remarkable characteristic is to be found in the feet of the opossum4 ,these have each five toes1 and on the hind feet the large toes are without nails1 and are set thumb-like in opposition to the other four1 so that these hind feet are really strong and supple hands4 ,finally1 the opossum is distinguished by the large number of its progeny4 ,a cow marches about followed by a single calf2 a sheep but seldom has twin lambs2 the lion never has more than two whelps2 but the prolific opossum goes skipping around with fifteen or sixteen little furry children gambolling after her1 or thrusting their sharp noses from her warm pouch4 ,the nose of the opossum is sharp1 long1 and well provided with whiskers1 as is that of a cat2 the eyes are dark1 sleepy looking by day1 but bright and alert by night1 for the opossum is a night-prowler2 the ears are erect1 large1 and leaf-like4 ,the fur is coarse and of a light gray color2 occasionally a pure white opossum is found1 while the smallest of all the species is dressed in bright red4 ,this soldier-dressed opossum is no larger than a house mouse1 and is a native of ,mexico4 ,in ,brazil there is another small species which looks much like a 8chipmunk10 having a reddish gray coat with three black bands down the back4 ,one very interesting member of the family is called 8,lord ,derby's opossum02 it is a native of ,south ,america1 and is rather larger than a gray squirrel2 its fur is short and close1 its tail is entirely covered with scales2 and usually the mother is without the pouch for the young4 ,to make up for this lack1 she arches her long tail forward1 puts all her children on her back1 and they curl their limber little tails about the over-arching tail of their mother2 thus1 secure from falling1 they ride around in state on their soft1 fur coach4 ,an extreme love for its numerous offspring is an eminent trait of the opossum4 ,the mother does not1 like many human mothers1 leave her children alone1 or in the streets1 or with a nurse1 while she goes visiting1 shopping1 or feasting4 ,she always takes the children with her1 and is never happy unless her furry brood is close beside her4 ,the largest and best known of all the opossum tribe is the ,virginia opossum1 a common variety in many parts of ,north ,america4 ,although it is of too nervous and irritable a disposition to be made a pet1 it frequently lives in towns4 ,hiding by day on the roof or in the sewers1 and coming forth at night for food1 it acts as a scavenger4 ,the little opossums are born in the spring1 and the mother packs them all in her fur pocket1 and carries them about with her until they are able to run1 and to feed themselves4 ,when they begin to go alone they keep near the mother1 and if alarmed rush to her and try to nestle back in their safe early quarters4 ,the ,virginia opossum is particularly fond of the banana-shaped fruit of the pawpaw tree1 and on the moonlight nights in the autumn when these are ripe1 the opossums gather from far and near about the low1 wide-spreading trees1 and have a grand picnic4 ,it is useless to try to shake the animals from the trees2 for1 wrapping their flexible tails about the branches1 they hold on with a persistency that defies the rudest jar4 ,when caught1 the opossum feigns death1 and no abuse1 less than putting a live coal to its nose1 will cause it to give sign of life4 ,happily this cruel test cannot often be applied4 ,many an opossum1 caught robbing a poultry yard1 has been left for dead by the farmer1 and as soon as his back was turned has nimbly picked itself up and glided away4 ,so1 too1 many a negro has brought home from a 8'possum hunt10 a captive1 which he designed for his favorite feast2 but as he kneeled by the hearth to stir up the smouldering fire1 the wily opossum lying where it had been flung on the floor1 stealthily opened one eye to investigate the situation1 then like a flash leaped from door or window1 and was back to the woods4 ,opossums live in clefts of rocks1 holes in the earth1 and in hollow trees4 ,when hunted they take refuge in the first hollow tree they can find1 and many a tree is felled by the 'possum hunters that they may cut the animal out of its retreat4 ,the flavor of the flesh is much like that of a young pig4 ,in ,south ,america the opossum seems to fill the place of an insect eater1 occupied in other countries by the true insectivora1--the hedge-hog1 mole1 and shrew4 ,probably in countries where they are plentiful1 the opossum eats more insects than all other insect eaters put together4 ,its teeth are provided with numerous little points which enable them to grind1 as in a mill1 the horny bodies of insects4 ,young birds1 and young barn-yard fowls1 eggs1 such little animals as mice1 moles1 toads1 and the young of rabbits and hares1 tempt the appetite of the opossum1 who is a general depredator4 ,in return1 either for vengeance1 or to obtain its flesh for food1 the opossum is preyed upon1 and were it not for its enormous yearly increase would soon be exterminated4 ,in ,australia a little animal named a phalanger1 or fingered animal1 is called an opossum1 and1 indeed1 closely resembles the real opossums1 though it is of a different family4 ,its size1 pouch1 and general habits might lead it to be mistaken for one of the opossum tribe4 ,many of these phalangers have the skin stretched as we see it in a flying squirrel1 on each side the body between the front and hind-legs4 ,extending this as they spring from tree to tree1 they are up-borne and can make enormous leaps4 ,one of these flying-squirrel phalangers is often called 8the most beautiful of all mammals02 its shape is so graceful1 its fur so rich1 and its tail so long and handsome4 ,another phalanger is called the acrobat1 on account of its wonderful jumping3 it is smaller than a mouse1 and lives daintily upon honey and certain honey-seeking insects2 thus its appetite offers a strong contrast to that of the greedy opossum4 ,,footnotes3 #ec ,the chart which serves as frontispiece should be often consulted to fix these periods in the pupil's mind4 ,,lesson ,,xxv4 ,a ,,new ,,fashion ,,of ,,pappoose4 8,still this great solitude is quick with life2 ,myriads of insects1 gaudy as the flowers ,they flutter over1 gentle quadrupeds1 ,and birds1 that scarce have learned the fear of man ,are here1 and sliding reptiles underground40 --,,bryant4 ,the opossum was chosen as the first representative of the pouched animals1 not because it is the most remarkable1 but because it is the best known1 and because living specimens of it may be easily obtained if desired4 ,in our study of the opossum we spoke of ,australian animals1 because the opossum has its kinship with the quadrupeds of that great island continent4 ,australia is the country of ancient forms of animal life1 and most of its quadrupeds are marsupials4 ,zoologists have wondered why the types of animal life in ,australia are so few and so ancient1 and have endeavored to find the explanation of these facts in considering that during many geological ages ,australia has been divided1 as it now is1 from the ,asiatic continent and that the great series of creatures which have arisen since that division took place1 including all the higher mammals1 never reached ,australia1 until recently introduced by ,europeans4 ,thus1 as the stronger and more dominant creatures did not appear to disturb or displace them1 there was nothing to hinder the continuous development of pouched forms2 and families became permanent which in more crowded localities have been forced out of existence4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,queer ,,pappoose4 ,chief among all the ,australian marsupials stands the kangaroo4 ,this is really a beautiful animal2 wonderful in its structure1 interesting in its habits2 amiable1 and gentle1 yet courageous in disposition2 readily acclimated when carried to other countries2 capable of being tamed1 and finally1 with flesh as useful and agreeable for food as beef or mutton4 ,the kangaroo receives its scientific name from its feet2 the family title1 syndactyla1#ed means 8toes together10 because the second and third toes of its hind feet are united under the same skin up to the nails4 ,the generic name1 macropus1 or 8big foot10 is given because of the enormous length of the hind feet4 ,in truth the fore-paws of the kangaroo are rather hands than feet4 ,at first sight of this animal it is the remarkable disproportion between the shoulders and fore-legs and the hind-legs with their enormous haunches1 which chiefly impresses the beholder4 ,it is as if the head and shoulders of a rabbit or hare had been united to the hinder part of a creature as large as a pony4 8,this must be a very ill-shapen creature0 we might conjecture from such a description4 ,but no2 the remarkably large tail1 the strong1 active motions1 the thick fur1 the bright and gentle expression of the eyes1 the erect posture of the kangaroo1 unite to make it a very attractive animal4 ,the kangaroo does not go on all fours except when it lowers itself for grazing2 it holds itself up2 its fore-paws hang before it like arms at rest and it moves by rapid leaps4 ,when standing quietly1 it supports itself upon its long1 strong tail as well as upon the hind-legs4 ,that ancient lizard1 the iguanodon1 which used his two hind-legs and his strong1 pointed tail as a tripod whereon to seat himself1 set the fashion1 it seems1 to some of those little marsupials which were crawling and jumping around his feet1 and might have been crushed under his mighty tread4 ,but these frail and unpromising families of mammals have survived the iguanodon and his race by countless generations4 ,the adult kangaroo weighs some two hundred pounds2 but of kangaroos there are a number of species1 and these differ in size1 one species being no larger than a hare and weighing less than four pounds4 ,this little creature is called the hare kangaroo and is the most agile of the family1 making without difficulty1 jumps eight or ten feet high4 ,fossils of the kangaroo type have been found in ,australia1 which suggest that the family formerly had monstrous members4 ,some were perhaps as large as the mastodon4 ,when the kangaroo is spoken of in general1 reference is had to the distinguished and most common variety1 ,macropus giganteus1 8the giant big foot40 ,the kangaroo was entirely unknown to the civilized world until #aggj1 when ,captain ,cook put into the river ,endeavor on the northeast coast of ,australia4 ,while he was delaying there to repair his ship which had been damaged by a storm1 a number of large and singular animals appeared from the woods and stood erect1 gazing at the men and ship with mild curiosity4 ,they were too timid to permit approach1 and darted away in long bounds across the grass when people went toward them4 ,the natives1 when asked about them1 replied with a strange word which the ,englishmen pronounced and spelled kangaroo1 or kanguru4 ,such a word is now unknown in any native ,australian dialect1 and it is uncertain whether it was intended as the name of the creature in question1 or merely signified 8,don't know40 ,however1 the word has come into general use among all nations as the common name of this animal4 ,finally one of ,captain ,cook's party1 ,mr4 ,gore1 went out gunning and shot one of the strange creatures4 ,then several more were killed1 and ,captain ,cook took home the skins4 ,these were examined by naturalists of different countries1 and ,schreber1 a ,german1 pronounced them animals more closely allied to the ,american opossums than to any other creatures2 for at that time opossums were the only known pouched animals4 ,in his work on mammals ,schreber called the kangaroo the gigantic didelphys4 ,in #agia ,dr4 ,shaw1 being better informed about the kangaroo1 called it the giant macropus1 or big foot1 and that has since been its scientific name4 ,the kangaroos are vegetable eaters1 thus differing very greatly from the carnivorous opossums4 ,they feed on grass1 roots1 and nearly all green herbs4 ,sometimes as they browse they get down on all fours and move slowly about in this position1 which is as awkward to them as creeping is to a full-grown man4 ,but while browsing in this posture1 they frequently raise themselves on their hind-legs and look about to see if enemies are approaching2 for they are exceedingly timid4 ,when alarmed they take refuge in flight1 being almost as inoffensive in their dispositions as sheep4 ,the fore-feet of the kangaroo have five toes1 each furnished with a large1 strong nail2 the hind-feet are exceedingly long and have but one really well-developed toe2 this one corresponding to the fourth toe of a human foot4 ,this toe is very large and strong and has a long curved nail1 furnishing the kangaroo's chief weapon4 ,there is no great toe on the hind-foot2 the second and third toes are very slim and small and are enclosed in a common sheath up to the nails4 ,they are used only to scratch and clean1 comb-wise1 the animal's fur4 ,just outside the large fourth toe is a smaller one which is serviceable in walking1 and also in fur-cleaning4 ,while usually mild and timid the kangaroo1 especially the adult male1 or the mother with a little one in her pouch to fight for1 will arouse herself to great courage and give battle4 ,at such a crisis the kangaroo will seize a dog in its fore-paws and squeeze it to death1 or tear it to pieces with the large toes of the hind-feet4 ,a kangaroo is also able to wield its tail with the strength and precision with which a man uses his arm4 ,when chased by dogs the kangaroo will sometimes1 with this long1 heavy tail1 strike its pursuer a blow so severe as to stun or kill it4 ,occasionally adult male kangaroos will have a battle or duel4 ,they stand face to face1 bracing themselves by their tails1 and simply claw at each other until they have satisfied their anger4 ,sometimes when hunted by men or wild beasts the kangaroo is brought to bay1 and defends itself in a peculiar fashion4 ,it secures a position against a tree1 or some object high enough to rest upon1 clasping it with its fore-paws2 then it braces itself firmly by its tail and lashes out with its hind-legs1 armed with the immense toe and nail4 ,in such circumstances an angry kangaroo is a very dangerous animal to approach4 ,the place to lean upon while showing fight in this fashion is indispensable1 because the kangaroo lifts both its hind-legs at once4 ,it cannot make a stepping motion1 lifting first one leg and then the other2 nor can it rest upon one leg and kick with the other3 the motion of the two legs must be similar and simultaneous4 ,the kangaroo differs from the opossum in the number of its teeth1 having but thirty-four instead of fifty4 ,these teeth are formed entirely for cutting and grinding vegetable substances4 ,the kangaroo differs from the opossum as much in the number of its family as in the number of its teeth4 ,at the most two little ones complete the litter1 and these when born are almost the tiniest of quadrupeds1 are blind1 helpless1 and with bare skins instead of such warm fur coats as furnish forth little kittens4 ,these feeble babies are snugly tucked in the fur pouch of their mother1 and there1 kept warm and well fed1 they grow rapidly4 ,the mother meantime rambles around1 feeding and attending to her affairs with all the indifference of an ,indian squaw with her pappoose tied to her back4 ,the squaw's pappoose is hung over her shoulders1 so that it looks out on the world from her back2 the kangaroo's far older style of pappoose is carried in a front pocket1 where it is always within reach of its mother's hands and under her eyes4 ,when the kangaroo pappoose has been for some weeks tucked snugly away1 it finally gets its eyes open1 is covered with a lovely1 soft coat1 and begins to feel an interest in the world at large4 ,then it thrusts from the pouch its head1 which is a funny little copy of the maternal head above it4 ,like its mother it has large1 erect ears1 bright eyes1 and an intent expression4 ,the sight1 smell1 and hearing of the kangaroo are extremely well developed1 and1 owing to its timidity1 the creature is always on the alert to discover if enemies are near4 ,it stands a picture of attention1 its eyes gazing steadfastly1 its ears erect and set toward the wind to catch the first note of danger1 the flexible nostril quivering as it scents now here1 now there1 for warning of a foe4 ,this timidity also causes the kangaroo to avoid solitude2 they neither go singly1 nor in pairs2 but in little groups1 each group or herd under the charge of some strong and wise old male kangaroo4 ,these bands are often made up of an old father and mother kangaroo and their children4 ,one1 and sometimes two1 little ones are born at one time1 but as they attain their growth they linger about their parents4 ,thus the adult pair will be followed by a train of eight1 ten1 or twelve children of all ages and sizes1 from full-grown specimens1 seven or eight years old1 down to the keen-eyed little creature peering out of its good mamma's fur pocket4 ,it was formerly the custom of that nearly extinct animal1 the bison1 to go in herds1 led by the oldest and strongest fighters4 ,kangaroos prefer to graze in the vicinity of woods2 for they are good climbers1 and given to taking refuge in trees4 ,when the jump1 for which the kangaroo is famous1 is made1 it is by muscular contraction of the great hind-legs1 and with this effort they droop the head and shoulders1 and balance them by the long tail1 which during the jump is held horizontally backward4 ,when full grown the coat of the kangaroo is silky on the head1 shoulders1 and tail1 and woolly on the body4 ,the skin1 especially of the legs and haunches1 is thick and tough1 and makes good leather4 ,the avidity with which these animals are hunted in ,australia will soon make them as scarce as bison have become from the same reckless slaughter2 and unless means for their preservation are taken1 the nineteenth century is likely to see the extinction of this remarkable1 ancient macropus family4 ,the kangaroo is so easily acclimated that some effort is being made in ,europe to breed kangaroos4 ,as they are readily kept it is thought that1 domesticated and carefully reared1 they would be as useful for hides and flesh1 as cattle or sheep4 ,,footnotes3 #ed ,pronounced sin-dak-tilla4 ,,lesson ,,xxvi4 ,,low ,,down ,,in ,,the ,,scale4 8,parts relate to whole2 ,one all extending1 all preserving soul ,connects each being1 greatest with the least2 ,made beast in aid of man1 and man of beast2 ,all served1 all serving1 nothing stands alone2 ,the chain holds on1 and where it ends--unknown40 --,,pope4 ,careful and pains-taking observation has lain at the beginning of most great discoveries2 the busy miner1 not the careless idler1 finds the gold4 ,a course of accurate study in some particular department of science has often opened up new views1 and afforded new data in some very different and equally important subject4 ,thus diligent investigations in the flora and fauna of various countries have not only revealed facts connected with plants and animals1 but have unfolded new chapters in the history of earth-building4 ,a very minute study of the plant and animal life of ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,south ,america1 and some of the ,south ,pacific islands has made clear the fact that certain types are common to all those localities1 and are not found elsewhere4 ,does some one say1 8,what is curious about that8 ,that is nothing60 ,to the ardent disciple of science1 whose mind is keenly at work on the problems of nature1 this fact means much4 ,the first deduction from such a fact is that these lands must once have been very nearly united1 while widely separated from the rest of the world1 and that over them plants and animals have spread from a common centre4 ,following the hint thus given1 it has been concluded after more extended observation1 that at some former time there was around the ,south ,pole a great ,antarctic continent1 or a vast archipelago with its islands closely strewn upon the ,south ,polar sea1 which then was not a desolate waste of ice-floes1 diversified by glittering icebergs1 but was mild and beautiful as the ,pacific4 ,we have seen that once the ,north ,polar lands enjoyed a temperate climate and abundant vegetation4 ,no doubt the ,south ,polar regions were blessed with a similar golden age4 ,since this ,antarctic continent stretched out to join1 or nearly join1 ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,south ,america1 and certain of the ,south ,pacific islands1 its fruits1 flowers1 birds1 beasts1 and fresh-water fishes were distributed among all these countries4 ,when climatic changes came to the ,antarctic land2 when1 perhaps1 much of its shores were submerged2 when deep and icy waters flowed where reefs and shallows had been2 when whole islands sank beneath the waves never to rise again1--then ,australia and ,new ,zealand were for long ages parted from the rest of the world4 ,the attention of explorers has been directed to the ,arctic1 rather than to the ,antarctic regions2 thrilling adventures at the north have provoked ardent minds to seek adventures yet more thrilling4 ,the search for sperm whales and for a ,northwest ,passage has diverted interest from the ,antarctic land1 where marvels as great and rewards as rich1 no doubt1 await the explorer4 ,now that interest in these unknown regions has been roused it may not be long before we learn the secrets hidden for ages in ice-caskets in the south4 ,the tide of modern civilized life set but slowly toward those great continent-like islands which lie far to the south of ,asia4 ,thus it happened that the plants1 animals1 birds1 and insects that follow the progress of civilized man across the world were long unknown in these localities1 while their own plants repeated themselves seed-time after seed-time1 and the helpless1 clumsy1 old-fashioned fauna kept their race intact1 living undisturbed in the methods of their earliest ancestors4 ,the hunter's dog and gun were unknown3 the teeth of hogs turned loose to revert to the manners of wild boars1 and the claws of cats relapsing from domestication to the state of savage feline tribes1 did not molest the defenceless ancient families of ,australian beasts4 ,so it has happened that this country and ,new ,zealand have preserved some marvellous types of life4 ,when travellers first described the curious creatures that they had found living in the ,antipodes1 their accounts were met by that disbelief which has often waited upon the first proclamation of truths4 ,the facts that the world is round2 that1 with regard to the earth1 the sun is stationary while the earth moves2 that far to the north the sun continues for weeks above the horizon in a long day without a night2 that one can pass the ,straits of ,gibraltar--then called the pillars of ,hercules--and sailing south can circumnavigate the extremity of ,africa1--were long ago received as idle tales unfit for belief4 ,in fact1 some of these statements were thought to be so false that the very announcement of them was criminal4 ,the poet tells us that the discoverer of the ,north ,cape1 the ,norseman ,othere1 went to the court of ,king ,alfred to relate to him the wonders of the far north and the mighty walrus hunt held there4 ,king ,alfred could not believe the tale4 8#8,four days ,i sailed to eastward1 ,four days without a night3 ,round in a fiery ring ,went the great sun1 ,o ,king1 ,with red and lurid light4' 8,here ,alfred1 ,king of the ,saxons ,ceased writing for a while2 ,and raised his eyes from his book1 ,with a strange and puzzled look1 ,and an incredulous smile4 8#8,there were six of us all together1 ,norsemen of ,helgoland2 ,in two days and no more ,walrus we killed three score1 ,and dragged them to the strand4' 8,here ,alfred the ,truth-,teller ,suddenly closed his book1 ,and lifted his blue eyes1 ,with doubt and strange surmise ,depicted in their look40#ee ,such doubts from honest souls have attended the declaration of new truths1 and strangely enough1 extraordinary fictions have usually been more willingly received than extraordinary facts4 ,when the early travellers in ,australia declared that they had there found animals like none other in creation1 mammalian creatures that laid eggs and suckled their young2 four legged1 fur or quill-wearing animals1 that were toothless1 had duck's bills1 were aquatic in their habits1 built nests1 and had webbed feet1 the description was received with a howl of derision4 ,when skins of the marvellous creatures were sent home for inspection doubt still remained1 and it was said that by some skillful manipulation the 8head of a new kind of duck had been fastened to the body of a new kind of beaver to deceive science with a new kind of animal60 ,wider zoological knowledge might have suggested that these creatures which were esteemed mere myths not only existed but were exactly what was to be expected4 ,for as 8,nature makes no leaps10 it was in entire harmony with the plan and progress of creation1 that the order which was lowest in the scale of its class should share the characteristics of the next lower and less highly organized classes4 ,the new world had already surprised the old with the marsupial opossums1 and later ,australia had contributed many other families of pouched animals4 ,these had been placed in the lowest order of mammalian life4 ,but here was a new type evidently lying still lower in the scale2 and whereas some others of the newly discovered creatures bore some of the traits of ancient reptiles1 these seemed to ally themselves to birds4 ,it was hard to be believed4 ,when at last the disputed animals had been caught1 tamed1 and sent to ,england and ,germany for examination1 great was the amazement of the scientific world4 ,articles were written1 pictures were made1 and for a time the new beasts were the theme of general discussion4 ,the first name given to the first specimen was the platypus1 and duck-billed platypus was the common designation for a time from #agii4 ,the colonists in ,australia meanwhile named the duck-billed and beaver-like animal a 8water-mole10 from the fashion of its feet4 ,the name platypus1 however1 was dropped because it had already been conferred on another creature4 ,then more learned heads were put together1 and a name was produced so long and hard in ,latin1 that ,i dare not quote it4 ,it meant1 however1 8bird-beaked-paradox40#ef ,probably the reason the poor thing has survived such a name is that it knows nothing about it4 ,the finding of these curious animals made it necessary to erect another order in the mammalian class1 an order that should embrace creatures lower in the scale than the marsupials4 ,four species under this order have been found1 and probably there are no others4 ,the duck-bill and the echidna1 or 8thorny0 creature1 are the two most interesting1 and with most marked characteristics2 to them we will now devote our attention4 ,we shall see that no name more apt than that of 8paradox10 could be given to creatures with such apparently contradictory characteristics4 ,,footnotes3 #ee ,longfellow1 8,the ,discoverer of ,the ,north ,cape40 #ef 8,ornithorhynchus paradoxus40 ,,lesson ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,mallangong4 8,i'm truly sorry man's dominion ,has broken nature's social union1 ,and justifies that ill opinion ,which makes thee startle40 --,,burns4 ,english settlers had not been long in ,australia before they were told by the natives of a very curious animal1 the description of which seemed rather that of an imaginary than of a possible creature4 ,the animal was called by the ,australian natives a mallangong1 and was said to be very shy and secretive in its habits4 ,the traders who heard these stories concluded that they dealt with some fabulous beasts1 such as appear in the folk-lore of nearly all countries4 ,but one day a trader who was interested in natural science was standing on the bank of a pond1 when suddenly a new animal rose to the surface of the water and swam noiselessly about4 ,the creature had the soft thick fur of a beaver or otter1 now apparently black1 as it was wet and clung closely to the skin4 ,four legs the trader counted1 and as the feet came to the surface they showed that they were webbed and pink-palmed like a mole's feet4 ,stranger still1 the small1 pointed head appeared to have neither eyes nor ears1 yet bore above the water a large1 flat duck's bill4 ,as the excited trader looked1 the beast sank noiselessly out of sight4 ,he realized that he was the first white man who had seen a mallangong1 and that the strange tales were true tales4 ,the ,australian wonder must be taken from the domain of folk-lore and handed over to the investigations of science4 ,but you must first catch your mallangong4 ,he consulted the people who came to his trading-house1 and they told him that he must find a regular hunter of the mallangong2 for the beast was wary and scarce4 ,at last an old native was brought to him1 who said that he knew how to get the desired prey2 and at once a hunting party was organized and armed under the old man's direction4 ,what weapons did they take8 ,guns and knives8 ,not at all4 ,the old hunter had for his equipment a long1 tough1 slender stick1 pointed at one end4 ,this was for prodding1 not the mallangong1 but the ground4 ,two or three others of the party were given drills and shovels1 or pick-axes1 and so prepared they set out1 the old man leading the way to the bank of a little stream4 ,as he slowly moved along he thrust his rod into the ground and twisted it about4 ,the others of the party considered this very dull hunting4 8,i have found him60 cried the old man4 8,dig6 dig6 ,behold the mallangong60 ,the shovels soon laid bare a little tunnel1 which the guide said was made by the animal and led to its nest4 ,with some eagerness the men followed up this tunnel1 digging carefully4 ,the process was long4 ,the tunnel wound about and seemed to have no end4 ,at last1 with a cry of triumph1 the guide laid open a small circular chamber1 and picked up a ball of fur4 8,lo1 the mallangong60 ,the animal was rolled up1 its long1 flat bill being turned about so that it rested on the fur-clad back4 ,the feet were drawn up under the body so as to be invisible1 and the captive seemed either dead or very sound asleep4 ,the trader carried his prize home1 and soon it became lively and friendly4 ,almost all creatures like sugar and milk2 very few disdain bread4 ,the prisoner accepted kindly the novel food offered to it2 enjoyed the sunlight2 lost all fear of humanity when it was not treated with inhumanity2 recognized the voice of its master2 came at his call2 and when he seated himself in a chair promptly climbed to his shoulder and surveyed its new surroundings with great interest4 ,now that it was out of the water it was found to have nostrils in the extremity of its bill1 small1 bead-like eyes shining from the mass of fur1 and ears acute enough1 though they were merely holes hidden in the depths of the fur4 ,the hind-feet1 while webbed like those of a duck1 were palmed like those of a mole1 and spurred like those of a rooster4 ,while it enjoyed the warmth of the sunshine1 in which it would lie curled up in a ball1 as we sometimes see a cat or a dog1 it preferred darkness for its explorations4 ,at night it crawled about the room1 worked its way up the wall by bracing against the furniture1 and rummaged everywhere with its busy feet and broad bill4 ,perhaps it was searching for its friends1 its native stream1 and some soft earth wherein to burrow4 ,a pile of shavings or raw cotton and straw afforded the nearest approach to an earth bank that it could find in the warehouse1 and in such a heap it would dig until it reached the wall1 and then it would curl itself up and take some comfort in being securely hidden4 ,a rat or squirrel in such a case would have gnawed through the wooden wall and departed without taking formal leave2 but the mallangong could not break prison in this fashion1 because it has no true teeth1 only several horny protuberances on each jaw4 ,examined at leisure1 the marvellous animal was found to have cheek pouches something like those of a squirrel1 and evidently very convenient as baskets for carrying food through the long tunnel which led to its room4 ,the temper of the creature seemed gentle2 it made no noise either for joy or pain1 but a low whining sound1 or1 if irritated1 a soft growl4 ,at first its owner thought it entirely defenceless1 but the old native showed him the spurs1 and gave instances where when angered the animal kicked out with its hind feet and inflicted a long deep scratch1 which was followed by symptoms of poisoning4 ,on examination it was found that the spur was traversed through all its length by a tiny canal1 which led to a gland or sac at the upper part of the leg2 the whole arrangement being very like the poison gland and fang of a snake4 ,this spur is present in a rudimentary state in all young mallangongs2 in the grown females it disappears1 and in the males it very greatly enlarges1 no doubt because they are expected to do the fighting for the entire family4 ,this animal1 popularly called by foreigners a 8duck-bill10 and by scientific people a 8bird-nosed-paradox10 is about twenty inches in entire length2 it has its bill covered with tough skin1 and finished where it joins the head with a fold or ruffle of skin2 the fur is soft1 fine1 thick1 deep-brown above1 and paler on the under part of the body4 ,the web in the hind-feet falls short of the strong toe nails1 but on the front feet it extends beyond the toes1 so that when the feet strike upon the water a broad surface is produced1 enabling it to swim and dive swiftly and silently4 ,the duck-bill is entirely aquatic in its habits and never lives far from water1 making its tunnel with the round chamber1 in the bank of a pond or stream1 so that it can come from its front door and betake itself instantly to its favorite element4 ,its manner of digging is like that of a mole4 ,while digging it contracts or folds back the superfluous skin or web of its fore-feet4 ,the burrow has two doors1 one just above1 the other below the water-line4 ,the tunnel is from twenty to fifty feet long1 and the room at the end is lined with dried grass and leaves1 affording a soft bed for the young1 which are there reared until they are able to swim and forage for themselves in the water4 ,the food of the duck-bill1 or mallangong1 is generally found in the bottom of the stream or pond2 the animal dives1 turns over the stones with its spade-like bill1 and finds in the ooze worms1 small crabs1 the larv of beetles1 and water insects4 ,filling its cheek pouches with this prey it ascends to the surface and swims quietly about1 while it carefully grinds its food into pulp with the bony1 tooth-like projections of the jaws4 ,in this careful mastication the lowest of the mammals sets some of the highest of the mammals a fine example4 ,the tail of the duck-bill is short1 thick1 and pointed2 it is of very little use in swimming1 and for that matter the hind-feet are also little used in the water1 the broadly webbed fore-feet being the chief paddles4 ,for almost three quarters of a century the question of the young of the duck-bill paradox was undecided4 ,report was that the creature laid eggs2 but then it was a mammal and fed its little ones with milk3 how could any mammal lay eggs8 ,in #ahhd the matter was finally settled by indisputable proofs4 ,the duck-bill mother lays two eggs1 less than an inch long and cased in strong but flexible shells4 ,when the little ones emerge from the shell they are exceedingly small1 and are fed with milk from milk-glands in the skin of the mother1 to which they attach themselves4 ,they grow rapidly1 and when they are weaned are given insect-food4 ,shortly after this they are led out of the tunnel1 and at once swim with ease4 ,,lesson ,,xxviii4 ,,beside ,,australian ,,rivers4 8,he can behold ,things manifold ,that have not yet been wholly told-- ,have not been wholly sung or said40 --,,longfellow4 ,the famous mallangong has a cousin almost as marvellous as itself4 ,its common name is the porcupine ant-eater2 its scientific name is ,echidna4 ,when first the habits and anatomy of the duck-bill had been investigated the question arose3 ,was this a lonely species1 having resemblances to many animals and close relationships with none2 sole representative of its order2 as isolated as the hatteria8 ,a search among the animals of ,australia brought to light another relative4 ,illustration3 8,,low ,,down ,,in ,,the ,,scale40 ,the new animal inhabited the rocky districts and was plentiful in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,there1 among the mountains1 it burrowed in loose sand brought down by the water-courses1 or hid in crevices of the rock4 ,it wore the quill overcoat of the sea-urchin1 and when coiled to sleep looked not unlike a large specimen of that remarkable star-fish4#eg ,in size the echidna is about like the ,european hedge-hog 7not our porcupine72 it wears spurs like a rooster2 it has the toothless jaws and the long flexible tongue of the ant-eater4 ,it is entirely insectivorous in its diet1 and from that and its quills1 like a porcupine1 it has its common name1 8the porcupine ant-eater40 ,the head of the echidna is small and pointed1 its eyes are nearly hidden under its quills2 so are its ears1 which are merely holes without external appendages4 ,the frontal bone of the skull is prolonged into a slim snout not unlike a slender bill4 ,near the end of this snout are the nostrils4 ,this snout is mostly covered with thin skin4 ,the mouth orifice is small1 but large enough for all the creature's needs2 its manner of eating is to thrust out a long1 flexible1 delicate tongue covered with a glue-like substance4 ,to this insects adhere1 and the tongue being drawn in1 the insects are swallowed4 ,the echidna has no teeth2 as its food is ants and small flies it needs none4 ,the tongue and palate are covered with fine spines which no doubt crush the insect food4 ,on account of its diet this creature was formerly called the ant-eater1 but that name has been dropped1 as it belongs to a very different creature1 the true ant-eater of the order ,edentata4 ,the legs of the echidna are short and strong4 ,the feet are not webbed1 but are furnished with very powerful claws1 and are admirably fitted for digging4 ,the hind-feet have such a spur as was described in the chapter on the duck-bill4 ,the body of the echidna is covered with a close short fur2 among this fur grow long spines thickly set1 which project above the fur and entirely hide it4 ,these spines are directed from the head backwards1 but along the upper part of the body a large number of spines are also turned inward2 thus they cross each other1 and form a thorny1 nearly impenetrable covering4 ,the tail is very short1 and is entirely hidden by projecting spines4 ,when the echidna rolls itself up the spines stand out like a bristling thorn hedge all over the ball which it forms1 and this sharp armor is ample defence4 ,the mouth of a dog1 or the hand of a man endeavoring to seize the curled up echidna would be speedily withdrawn1 pricked and bleeding4 ,the echidna seems quite aware of the defensive quality of its coat1 for when alarmed it tranquilly curls up and defies attack4 ,sometimes1 however1 it prefers to take refuge in burrowing1 and it will disappear as quickly as a mole or a razor-shell clam4 ,the echidna is less easily tamed than the mallangong2 it is restive1 and constantly tries to burrow out a path of escape4 ,on the other hand it seems of a hardier constitution2 it has been carried across the sea1 and has lived for some years in foreign zoological gardens4 ,the mallangong has never survived an ocean voyage1 and has been seen in captivity only in its native country4 ,when travelling at sea the echidna is deprived of its natural insect-diet1 but lives very comfortably on sweet liquids4 ,the habits of the echidna are nocturnal4 ,it generally sleeps most of the day1 and comes out at dark to prowl for insects4 ,we might at first consider this strange conduct1 as the insects on which it feeds fly or crawl about during the day and hide by night4 ,but this is just what our prickly hunter wishes4 ,he is not content to pick up a toiling ant here1 and another there4 ,when the ants are snugly housed after sundown the echidna searches out their hills1 tears open a hole in one side1 thrusts in his long nose1 and then running out his slim1 limber tongue he twists it here and there1 and the ants and their white larv#eh bundles are collected by scores on its viscid surface4 ,having gone from one ant-hill to another until its hunger is satisfied1 or the morning dawns1 or it grows weary1 the echidna retires to its burrow or rock crevice4 ,on the road it takes a drink of water1 and makes a dessert of a liberal quantity of sand and mud4 ,as fowls need some sharp bits of stone or shell in their gizzards to help grind up their food1 the echidna seems to need in its stomach gritty material to grind the oily1 insect bodies and keep them from packing4 ,this need of some coarse substance with food is not confined to fowls and the echidna4 ,any sheep farmer will tell you that his sheep must be given what he calls 8roughness0 with their food4 ,the 8roughness0 is ground or finely cut straw4 ,if this is not given with corn and wheat1 the sheep1 however well fed1 will become thin and weak1 because their food is too rich to be well assimilated4#ei ,when sheep are grazed and not fed1 they gather their 8roughness0 for themselves1 in dry leaves1 roots1 stems1 and little twigs4 ,in disposition the echidna is sluggish2 seems to have no playfulness2 does not object to having its nose gently stroked1 but makes no friends1 and except for its wonderful construction is not an interesting creature4 ,in ,tasmania there is the short-spined echidna1 which has much shorter and weaker spines and much thicker fur than the one just described4 ,in #ahgg a new species living on a mountain thirty-five hundred feet high was discovered in ,new ,guinea4 ,it also had fewer spines and thicker1 rougher fur4 ,this mountaineer of the echidna family is much larger than his relatives of lower regions4 ,no fossil remains of any great age have been found to prove that these animals are of distant antiquity4 ,we cannot tell in what age they entered into existence4 ,no remains of types connecting them with lower vertebrates on the one hand1 or higher mammals on the other1 have been discovered4 ,the only fossil portion of an echidna that has been thus far secured is a shoulder-bone1 found in a bed of bones belonging to extinct species of marsupial1 or pouched animals4 ,this shoulder-bone indicated an animal larger than any living echidna4 ,one echidna1 called the tachyglossus of ,van ,dieman's land1 eats grass and tender leaves as well as insects4 ,it lives less among rocks1 as it is very fond of burrowing4 ,this specimen of the echidna is a marvellous digger4 ,if disturbed it begins to make a great tearing of earth with its five-toed feet1 and sinks out of sight almost as if it went down in water4 ,perhaps you have seen a crab perform this feat1 keeping its eyes fixed on you until1 presto6 it has vanished as if by enchantment4#fj ,the echidna1 like its relatives1 is a milk-giving1 egg-laying animal4 ,only one egg is laid at a time1 and that is very small4 ,the egg is tucked into a fold of the mother's skin1 not a pouch such as the marsupials have1 but a long fold4 ,here it is kept warm until it hatches4 ,until it has attained over one-third of its growth the mother nourishes the young creature with milk4 ,the ,echidnid have all very quick tongues1 which dart in and out of their tube-like mouths rapid as the play of a snake's forked tongue4 ,their mouths are very soft and delicate1 and in burrowing the nose is carefully shielded1 while the claw-armed fore-feet do most of the work4 ,owing to the quick movements of the tongue some naturalists have abandoned the name echidna1 which refers to the thorny coat1 and give the name tachy-glossus1 8quick-tongued10 to the entire family4 ,,footnotes3 #eg ,see ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lesson #dj4 #eh ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 ,lesson #b4 #ei ,cows fed entirely on grain and roots will gnaw at fence-posts and palings in an effort to get the woody1 coarse substance supplied by coarse grass stems in their ordinary hay food4 #fj ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #a1 ,lessons #a-e4 ,,lesson ,,xxix4 ,a ,,walk ,,among ,,wonder ,,trees4 8,the groves of ,eden1 vanished now so long1 ,live in description and look green in song4 ,these1 were my breast inspired with equal flame1 ,like them in beauty1 should be like in fame40 --,,pope4 ,we know that vegetable life has accompanied and probably preceded all animal life4 ,the long successions of animal existences have been attended in their march through time by an equally long succession of plants4 ,all those ancient and wonderful living creatures which we have noted have been and are now matched by equally wonderful vegetable organisms4 ,illustration3 ,,before ,,blossoms4 ,a few of the wonderful plants of the world we now propose to set as in a garden1 and walk forth among them in fancy1 and note their marvels4 ,come then1 let us take a walk among wonder trees4 ,who is there that enjoys the strange1 the unique1 the rare1 the grand in nature8 ,let him come and walk slowly through this wonder grove with us1 and his passion for the strange and the unexpected may be satisfied4 ,our first wonder tree is notable only for its great age and vast size4 ,it is the ,cowthorpe oak of ,yorkshire1 ,england4 ,john ,evelyn1 the pleasing writer and true gentleman of ,charles ,second's time1 celebrates this oak in his book called 8,sylva40 ,this noble tree is fully fifteen hundred years old4 ,not the oldest tree in the world then1 for some of the olives in ,gethsemane1 near ,jerusalem1 are supposed to be older than that by several hundred years4 ,the girth of the ,cowthorpe oak at the ground is seventy-eight feet4 ,forty persons can stand inside its hollow hole4 ,one of its main branches broke off in a gale1 and being cut up1 yielded five tons of timber4 ,in ,evelyn's time the branches shaded half an acre of ground4 ,the circumference of this tree is greater than that of the ,eddystone light-house4 ,that famous light-house was modelled after an oak tree1 as giving the best pattern of a well-rooted1 firmly resisting column4 ,this ,cowthorpe oak is not the largest tree in the world4 ,there is a tree in ,south ,america with a girth of one hundred and twelve feet1 and a ,california red-wood is known that measures one hundred feet around just above the ground4 ,the red-woods belong to an ancient order of vegetation1 and doubtless it could be said of the trees of the ,carboniferous1 and next two or three world-building periods1 8,there were giants in the earth in those days40 ,australia is a land of wonders1 animal and vegetable1 and one of its curiosities stands next in our grove--the bottle tree4 ,the name is given because of the shape of the tree1 which resembles a gigantic bottle4 ,this tree is sixty feet high2 the bark is brown1 smooth1 shining1 like thick glass4 ,the girth of the tree is greatest just above the root1 where it is forty feet in circumference2 it tapers very little until about forty feet above the ground1 where it narrows suddenly into a shape like the neck of a bottle2 and in this neck the branches have their base4 ,the branches are rather the long1 pliant stems of compound leaves than real branches2 and the slender1 numerous1 small leaves give a light1 feathery effect to the foliage4 ,this leafy crown forms the fantastic cork1 or stopper1 of this quaint bottle4 ,the leaf-stalks rise and then bend over in a dome1 or umbrella shape4 ,the bottle trees grow in groves of about thirty each1 and stand a hundred feet apart1 as regularly as if planted by the hand of a gardener4 ,be careful and do not tread on our next tree1 the very pigmy of trees2 perfect in root1 trunk1 branches1 leaves1 flowers1 fruit1--a dwarf cherry tree from ,japan4 ,are the trees of ,japan then even more diminutive than the little1 olive-skinned1 and almond-eyed people8 ,how did the skilful ,japanese gardeners succeed in making this tiny tree8 ,for it is dwarfed not by nature1 but by the art of man4 ,i once saw one of these dwarfed cherry trees4 ,it was a foot high and had a trunk about as thick as a lead pencil4 ,the leaves were as small as those of the clipped box plants which bordered the flower-beds in my grandmother's garden4 ,there were perhaps twenty or thirty small1 red cherries upon it2 but the cherries were large in proportion to the tree4 ,this is a curiosity merely1 and artificial2 we admit it for the sake of contrast1 and pass it by for a mighty tree that stands next1--bo1 the 8god tree0 from ,ceylon4 ,the bo tree is famous for its long life and the reverence paid to it by its ,ceylonese worshippers4 ,perhaps it was the vigor and stately beauty of the bo tree which suggested to the ,ceylonese that it was either divine1 or the especial dwelling-place of a divinity4 ,alone the bo tree stood1 and for two thousand years had been the idol of tree-worshippers4 ,in #ahhg a tremendous storm swept the island of ,ceylon and prostrated the ancient idol tree4 ,the fragments were gathered by the people and cremated with all the pomp awarded to dead kings4 ,the next specimen in our wonder grove comes from ,africa1 the famous and beneficent rain tree4 ,this is a tall and beautiful tree1 with widely spreading branches1 gifted with the astonishing power of extracting water out of apparently the driest soil and atmosphere4 ,while the earth seems absolutely parched1 and the air is like the breath of a furnace1 the blessed rain tree draws from somewhere abundant moisture1 which it distills in a heavy shower from its leaves1 saturating all the earth beneath4 ,what could be more grateful to a hot and thirsty traveller than this tree1 bringing moisture from the very air of the burning desert8 ,closely allied to the ,african rain tree is our next tree1 brought to our grove from ,ferro1 the smallest island of the ,canary group4 ,this island is so dry that scarcely a rivulet or spring is found there1 but on its rocks grows a tree with narrow leaves that are green all the year4 ,a constant dewy cloud surrounds this tree1 and is condensed1 dripping from the leaf points like the swift patter of a summer shower4 ,under the branches the natives place cisterns and great jars1 which are kept always full by the copious supply provided by these trees4#fa ,coming from the ,south ,sea ,islands1 where there are so many marvels1 see next in our wonder grove the bread tree4 ,the tree is of moderate height1 with large glossy leaves4 ,the fruit is of about the size of a ,hubbard squash1 and tastes like bread that has a little sugar in it4 ,it is eaten raw1 and is also cooked in various ways4 ,the natives usually roast it in the ashes1 as the negroes of the ,south roast yams4 ,the bread fruit forms the most important food staple of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 but is not so nourishing as the yam1 wheat1 or corn2 children fed entirely upon it lose flesh and strength4 ,the bread tree never finds an 8off year0 in bearing1 nor a dull season2 it is laden with good fruit every year and all the year4 ,from the timber the natives can build their boats1 and they make cloth from the bark4 ,so with a rain tree1 a milk tree1 and a bread-fruit tree one could do very well for food1 drink1 shelter1 and clothing4 ,as we have here in our wonder grove a bread tree1 it is proper to put a milk tree close by its side4 ,water1 bread1 milk1 these three trees of our collection afford all that is needful to support life4 ,but the milk-producer1 the cow tree1 is not a native of ,africa2 it grows in ,south ,america1 on the dry plains of ,venezuela1 where food and drink are alike hard to obtain4 ,blessed then be the shadow of this admirable tree1 the hope of the perishing4 ,the cow tree rises to a noble height4 ,its straight smooth trunk lifts into the air seventy or eighty feet before a branch springs from it4 ,then the wide arms extend in fair proportions on every side1 until the topmost twig is more than a hundred feet from the ground4 ,tap the trunk anywhere1 and an abundant sap1 having the appearance and taste of rich new milk or cream1 flows to revive the thirsty4 ,the sap of our sugar maple runs freely only in early spring1 the sap of the cow tree is always ready4 ,what more appropriate than to place the butter tree beside the milk tree8 ,so we have placed it in our wonder grove1 but nature planted it elsewhere1 for the butter tree grows in ,africa4 ,the butter of this tree does not flow spontaneously4 ,if people want butter it seems they must take the trouble to make it1 even if it comes from a tree4 ,the butter tree produces a fruit with a very rich kernel4 ,when this kernel is ground1 the oil exudes and hardens into a fine quality of butter1 which will keep sweet for a year4 ,david ,livingstone1 the celebrated missionary traveller1 made known to the world the virtues of the butter tree4 ,next let us have a tree that produces a fashion of confectionery4 ,the manna tree grows in ,calabria and ,sicily4 ,in ,august the tree is tapped1 and the sap slowly exudes1 hardening under the hot southern sun to the consistency of fig paste4 ,the flavor of the manna while sweet is sickish to those unaccustomed to it4 ,a taste for it seems to come by habit4 ,the product of the manna tree is by no means so rich and useful as that of our beautiful sugar maple1 but the sap of the maple must be prepared for use by boiling4 ,next to the confectionery tree let us place in our grove a medicine tree4 ,who has not seen camphor1 the clear white aromatic gum1 so useful in medicine and in the arts8 ,this is the product of the camphor tree of ,japan4 ,in ,borneo1 ,china1 and the ,malay ,peninsula1 the camphor trees have the gum formed in the trunk in large lumps4 ,the camphor of other countries is obtained by boiling the wood of the camphor trees1 and then crystallizing the camphor so obtained4 ,,footnotes3 #fa ,this tree1 called by the natives the ,til-tree1 has almost entirely disappeared4 ,,lesson ,,xxx4 ,,still ,,in ,,the ,,wonder ,,grove4 8,thus the seer ,with vision clear ,sees forms appear and disappear2 ,in the perpetual round of strange ,mysterious change40 --,,longfellow4 ,the wonders of our grove are not yet exhausted4 ,indeed we might spend a lifetime here1 if we studied thoroughly its curiosities4 ,we can only look cursorily at a few more marvellous plants4 ,here is a tree from ,jamaica1 called the life tree because it grows so readily1 and is so tenacious of existence4 ,the life tree will grow in a wet place or in a dry one2 it cannot be killed by cutting down1 for every fibre of its roots seems to possess power to renew the tree4 ,cut the leaves from the plant one by one1 and where you drop them on the ground they grow1 sending forth a root from any one of the severed ribs or veins4 ,cut the leaves into fragments and the fragments will grow4 ,this power in leaves to send forth rootlets and start a new plant1 is not confined to the life tree4 ,gardeners will tell you that the plants of the begonia tribe are grown by cutting off a portion of one of the large handsome leaves which distinguish the begonias1 and sticking it in a little damp sandy soil4 ,it soon roots and sends up vigorous leaf-stems4 ,beside the life tree behold its complement the death plant of ,java1 called by the ,javanese the kali-mujah4 ,this is a beautiful plant1 growing nearly four feet high1 with long1 slender stems having upon them thorns an inch in length4 ,these stems are crowded with broad leaves1 thick1 smooth as satin1 heart-shaped1 on one side a delicate emerald green1 and on the other a vivid crimson marked with cream-color4 ,from the midst of the leaf-stems rise the flower scapes1 well guarded about the blossom with fine1 briar-like thorns4 ,the blossoms are milk-white1 about the size and shape of a large cup4 ,these beautiful flowers pour out a strong perfume1 which1 though agreeable1 is overpowering and has poisonous qualities4 ,if persons inhale this fragrance for several minutes1 they become faint1 and then unconscious2 if shut up with the plant in a close room even a strong man would soon die4 ,insects that hover about the flower fall dead1 and birds that come1 attracted by its red1 white1 and green splendors1 wheel dizzily about it and drop unconscious4 ,even at a distance of three feet the breath of the kali-mujah will kill a bird or insect1 and will give a man a severe headache with convulsive twitching of the muscles of the face4 ,other plants seem to avoid the kali-mujah1 for none will grow in its vicinity4 ,but here is a more cheerful specimen4 ,it should be the joy of all boys1--the whistling tree from ,nubia4 ,day and night1 year in and year out1 this merry tree whistles tunes of its own composing--chorister of trees6 ,the leaves and stems are so constructed that this tree becomes a shrill musical instrument1 whistling loud and clear1 even when no wind seems to be stirring4 ,we have all noticed the shiver and murmur in a grove of pines1 even in the hot stillness of a summer noontide2 the whistling tree like the pine never ceases its peculiar music4 ,our next wonder plant grows in water2 it is a cousin of our white pond-lily1 it is the ,victoria regia which grows in still pools in the ,amazon region4 ,the leaves are round1 and are from six to eight feet in diameter4 ,they are sharply turned up at the edge to form a rim1 so that each leaf is like a plate1 the under surface is crimson1 the upper surface green with fine lines2 on this elegant plate the flower lies4 ,let us watch a blossom open4 ,about half-past eight in the evening the bud has slowly lifted itself above the pond1 where it had grown submerged4 ,once free from the water it shakes and quivers1 as if endowed with conscious life1 and presently from the folded flower one petal flies open2 then for a little it rests2 then is again agitated1 and a second petal expands4 ,then the agitation continues1 the bud flutters and trembles1 and petal after petal spreads out2 then a dozen at a time are released from their close clasping1 and at last behold the great flower1 two feet wide across its snow and gold centre1 a hundred snow-white petals composing the perfected bloom4 ,from the whole blossom exhales a delicate1 rich1 delicious perfume1 harmless as the breath of violets4 ,the sun rises2 the white petals bend together1 and1 rocked on the parent pool1 the ,victoria regia sleeps4 ,but as night draws on again the royal lily awakes4 ,now it is in its perfection2 the perfume is more subtle2 the petals take a flush of the palest pink2 it rocks on the water and queens it through the night4 ,and so with a few waking and sleeping nights and days1 the royal lily's life is done4#fb ,when the splendid blossoms and the vast green leaves have perished the seed boxes or pods of the plant rise above the water and ripen1 and the ,indians call them water maize1 and eat them4 ,next to the lovely ,regia let us place the century plant4 ,the old notion was that this 8,american aloe0 bloomed only after one hundred years of growth4 ,agave ,americana is its true name1 and when growing in a cool climate it is very slow in attaining maturity4 ,at any time between ten and seventy years of age1 it may send up a very tall flower stalk1 covered with large greenish yellow blossoms1 which continue open for several months4 ,as soon as it has finished flowering it dies4 ,there are many members of the cactus and orchid families which might appropriately be planted in our grove of wonders1 to light it up with their beauty1 and amaze us with the marvels of their structure4 ,but for that matter not a plant that grows lacks mysteries and marvels4 ,of all strange1 abnormal plants the carnivorous1 or flesh-eating1 are the most singular4 ,several members of this family were described in ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c4 ,those were all small and pretty plants1 green with dull red or yellow marks or tinges1 and fatal only to little insects which were lured by the glittering bait of honey drops spread out for them4 ,now let us introduce a native of ,australia1 called the stinging tree4 ,no wasp1 or hornet1 ever had a sharper sting4 ,dreaded by all who know it1 the stinging tree is yet a beautiful object4 ,it is only twelve feet high and has dark1 glossy1 green leaves1 and large bunches of scarlet berries4 ,the tree grows always in a cone shape and reminds one of a ,christmas-tree lighted with red candles4 ,but at the tip of each projection of the green1 saucer-shaped leaf grows a deadly thorn4 ,the least touch of one of these thorns fills a man or beast with a terrible pain4 ,beasts act as if seized with hydrophobia2 human beings stung by this tree are partly paralyzed1 and suffer agony for days1 or even weeks4 ,the dry leaf1 wind-blown1 is able to effect as serious a sting as the leaf still on the cruel tree4 ,dogs and horses that have come in contact with one of these thorns must be killed at once1 as in their pain they become dangerous4 ,let us turn from this cruel stinging tree to one more useful and pleasant1 the soap tree of ,chili4 ,this is a large1 handsome tree with dark green leaves1 casting a delightful shade4 ,when the rough1 outer bark is stripped away1 behold under it a smooth1 white bark1 which1 ground to powder1 affords a soap nearly as good as any that you can buy4 ,who need have dirty hands or soiled clothing when a soap tree grows close beside his door8 8,odd bark that10 do you say8 ,come to this next tree and we will show you a yet more wonderful bark4 ,have you any jugs or bottles to cork8 ,do you want some cork soles8 ,here is the tree on which they grow4 ,this is the great cork tree of ,spain4 ,it is found in many parts of ,south ,europe and on the ,north ,african coast1 but ,spain is the land where cork collecting is a chief industry4 ,when you take a cork in your hand1 let it be as the enchanted stone1 to carry you away to the warm hills of ,spain1 where you may see the laughing1 black-eyed ,spanish boys and girls running about to help the cork gatherers4 ,our cork tree is thirty feet high1 with well-spread branches1 and a trunk very stout in proportion to the size of the tree4 ,this trunk is covered with a thick1 tough1 elastic bark1 which is constantly increased from within1 growing thicker and thicker4 ,when the trees are between fifteen and twenty years old1 the bark is stripped off for the first time4 ,this first bark is coarse and is used only for tanning1 and for rough work4 ,after eight or ten years the bark is stripped off again1 and this time it is finer1 and good enough for net-floats1 and other coarse work1 as life-preservers and buoys4 ,however1 in eight or ten years more another coat can be stripped off1 and this is fine and beautiful cork that will bring a good price4 ,a cork tree will live for one hundred and fifty years1 during which time the bark may be regularly stripped at intervals of eight or ten years4 ,the stripping is done in ,july and ,august by making a cut entirely around the stem1 just above the ground1 and a second cut just below the branches1 then three cuts are made lengthwise the tree1 and the bark is taken off in long strips4 ,the greatest care is used to avoid injuring the inner bark4 ,these slabs of bark are heated and slightly scorched2 this causes them to flatten1 closes up the pores1 and gives toughness to the whole material4 ,what should we do without cork for jackets1 cork legs and arms1 cork apparatus in lifeboats1 and other appliances for saving people from drowning8 ,our cork tree with its marvellous bark is by no means the least valuable specimen in our wonder grove4 ,what is this beautiful tree1 tall and stately1 with delicate oblong leaves1 lovely flowers1 and fruit like a plum8 ,it is the tree from which our gutta percha comes1 and without that valuable product what should we do for many instruments1 for piping1 and for a good covering for telegraph wires8 ,as the ,chinese and ,malays always cut down these noble trees to get the juice which hardens into gutta percha1 sometimes three or four millions of the trees are killed each year4 ,at that rate they will all soon be gone4 ,what next8 ,why1 the tree that bears india-rubber toys1 overshoes1 and water-proof coats4 ,by good luck the people of ,south ,america1 ,central ,america1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 where the varieties of india-rubber1 or caoutchouc1 producing trees are found1 have learned to tap the trees and take care of them and do not kill them for a single harvest4 ,the rubber is the hardened juice of the tree2 when it first runs out it is like milk or cream1 and hardens very quickly4 ,it is sent to market in flat cakes called 8biscuits40 ,trees producing various kinds of 8rubber0 abound in most tropical countries4 ,now1 finally1 here is yet another specimen in our grove1 a small shrub1 only a tree by courtesy1 but one of the wonders of the world1 nevertheless1 and happily a harmless curiosity1--if let alone6 ,this is the electric plant4 ,we have long known of the electric eel1 and the electric fish1 that can give a powerful shock to anything touching them4 ,a ,french naturalist has found and investigated1 in the forests of ,india1 a shrub endowed with amazing magnetic powers4 ,at a distance of six yards it affects the magnetic needle4 ,if you break a leaf from the plant1 you receive a powerful shock4 ,touch it with the tips of your fingers1 and you receive a shock as from an induction coil4 ,no birds or insects light upon it1 they know the result too well2 it would be certain death4 ,how do birds and insects learn what is safe and what is dangerous for them to do8 ,i cannot tell you4 ,no electric metals are found in the vicinity of this shrub4 ,the electricity belongs solely to the plant4 ,at two in the afternoon the electricity is at its height2 at night the plant nearly loses its curious properties4 ,this is no doubt owing to the dewy dampness of night2 for during a rain the electricity is also lost1 and one can then break off a leaf with impunity4 ,during an electric storm its intensity redoubles1 so that the shrub becomes nearly as dangerous as an electric wire4 ,,footnotes3 #fb ,some of the highest authorities state that in its native waters the ,regia blossom lasts but one day and two nights4 ,,lesson ,,xxxi4 ,a ,,noisy ,,family4 8,when the hounds of spring are on winter's traces1 ,the mother of months in meadow or plain ,fills the shadows and windy places ,with lisp of leaves and ripple of rain40 --,a4 ,c4 ,,swinburne4 ,illustration3 ,,brother ,,hop ,o' ,,my ,,thumb4 ,passing one day beside one of those shallow basins that are dug out of the clay soil of the west1 to collect the rainfall and to serve as watering-places for stock1 ,i saw a strange sight4 ,above the brown and turbid water projected a row of green and yellow roundish knobs4 ,these were placed at intervals eight or ten inches apart1 nearly around the edge of the basin4 ,looking closer1 ,i saw that at the base of each knob were two bright1 prominent eyes4 ,i laughed1 as who would not1 considering this living wreath encircling the pond4 ,i had never before seen frogs drawn up in such orderly array4 ,for frogs these were1 silent and alert4 ,whether fear or the heat of the day had driven them to this position ,i could not tell4 ,presently one of the bronze-green knobs elevated itself a little1 became evident head and shoulders1 rose above the surface of the water with a hop1 and paused on the muddy edge of the basin for further observations4 ,watching carefully ,i saw that all the knobs moved now and again with a quick1 bobbing motion4 ,connecting this motion with the sudden and final disappearance of numerous insects flying low over the water1 ,i discovered that the neatly ambushed frogs were taking their supper4 ,presently ,i tossed a stone lightly into the pond1 and at once1 with a plash all the noses vanished4 ,a little later1 as twilight fell1 a loud clangor of dissonant voices told that my frogs were engaged in their evening concert4 ,a family of vocalists are these frogs4 ,the other day ,i passed this same pond4 ,a winter of sunny weeks1 with neither rain nor snow1 had caused the water to dry away until only a few inches lay over the mud in the centre of the hollow4 8,where are all our frogs80 asked ,hermie4 8,frogs hibernate10 ,i said4 8,as winter closes in they bury themselves in masses in the mud under the water4 ,some degree of moisture is needful to them at all times1 and the mud affords all the dampness and warmth necessary4 ,if the pond dries away1 and the mud hardens about them1 so that they cannot get out1 they may live in their imprisonment for a number of months40 8,i have heard10 said ,hermie1 8that frogs have lived shut up in lumps of coal1 in rocks1 and in trees1 for a great many years4 ,do you believe that80 8,i should want more reliable witnesses and more accurate information than have ever yet appeared in behalf of these tales4 ,experiments have shown that frogs and toads soon die if entirely shut away from air and food1 though with a very little air and food they can live a long time shut up in wood or clay4 ,an old man told me he had seen a frog taken out of a rock1 where it had been buried five hundred years1 and when it came out it howled4 ,now ,i know that a frog cannot howl1#fc and ,i concluded that one part of this marvellous tale was as untrue as the other40 ,the frogs1 whose scientific name is ,ranid1 belong to the lower vertebrates1 and are the largest family of their order4 ,they are scarcely known in ,australia and ,south ,america1 and reach their highest state in the ,east ,indies4 ,among the best known of the ,ranid in ,england and ,north ,america is the bull-frog1 noted for his large size1 his noisy voice1 his green coat laced with gold1 and his silvery vest4 ,the most curious forms of frogs are found in ,south ,america4 ,the ,oceanic ,islands usually have very few examples of the order4 ,frogs can endure great changes of heat and cold1 and can live on land as well as in water1 provided they have the amount of moisture needed to preserve the suppleness of the skin2 but salt water is fatal to the frog in any stage of its existence4 ,for the study of the ,ranid let us return to the representative best known to us1 the lusty croaker of the summer pond4 ,the frog dressed in green1 silver1 bronze1 and gold is an expert swimmer1 a mighty leaper1 an ear-splitting vocalist1 aquatic in his tastes1 never wandering far from his native pond except when sent to market1 and thence served up at the table as a dainty4 ,but on the table we should not know him for our frog2 only his hind quarters appear1 and these skinned and fried are much like the legs of a spring chicken4 ,a most harmless1 timid1 and interesting beastie is the frog1 and often most unfortunate1 being considered a legitimate mark for all the stones that can be thrown at him by urchins wandering around his native pool4 ,moreover1 he is filled with mortal terror when with stately progress a swan or a goose sails over the water or searches in the herbage where he hides4 ,what can we do to give this victim of geese and small boys a certain human interest1 and win for him from the boys respect and friendship1 rather than pelting8 ,let us look at him4 ,we have described the colors of his skin1 which is smooth1 having no scales or plates4 ,the yellow color is laid upon the bronze-green ground in stripes and spots1 the stripes extending from the nose to the end of the back with a shorter stripe on each side4 ,the front feet or hands are divided into four fingers1 and the front legs are much shorter1 smaller1 and weaker than the hind ones1 which are largely developed1 and are used in swimming and leaping4 ,the feet of the hind legs are webbed and have five fingers or toes4 ,the frog has a backbone1 but no ribs4 ,as he is ribless he cannot expand and contract his chest in breathing1 so that he must swallow what air he wants4 ,in swallowing air he must close his mouth and take the air in only by the nostrils2 therefore1 oddly enough1 if his mouth is forcibly kept open he may be smothered4#fd ,the frog's breathing is partly through its skin1 which gives off carbonic acid gas2 and moisture is as needful to a frog's skin as to the gills of a fish4#fe ,the frog likes damp1 rainy weather1 and is as fond as a child of playing in a puddle4 ,as soon as rain falls out come the frogs4 ,the frog's skin absorbs moisture1 which it stores up in an internal reservoir4 ,when a frog is alarmed by being suddenly seized1 it ejects some of this water4 ,people have fancied that such water was poisonous1 but it is not4 ,frogs have no poison sacs1 and no weapons4 ,toads also give out a fluid from the skin4 ,open our frog's mouth4 ,there are a few tiny teeth on the upper jaw and palate2 these are for partially grinding up horny insects4 ,see this odd tongue2 it is fastened at the front end to the mouth1 and the hinder part is free and hangs down the creature's throat4 ,this tongue is covered with a glue-like secretion1 and when an insect is to be captured the tongue is snapped forward from the mouth1 and the insect adheres as to bird-lime4 ,some frogs have cheek-pouches1 and some drum-like throat-plates1 wherewith to make their loud croak4 ,what is the life history of our frog8 ,from seed to seed is plant-life story2 from egg to egg is frog story4 ,the eggs of the frog are deposited in roundish masses attached to sticks lying in water1 or to the stems and leaves of submerged water-plants4 ,the creature which comes from this egg is no more like a frog1 than a caterpillar is like a butterfly4 ,it has a big head and no limbs1 and what of it is not head seems to be tail4 ,in fact1 in this stage the creature is more like a fish than a frog1 and has branched gills4 ,the gills are nearly covered by a fold of skin4 ,have you seen it8 ,it is a tadpole4 ,this tadpole can live only in water1 and swims and feeds from the first instant of its free life4 ,change in its shape begins almost immediately3 the branched gills are drawn within the neck and hidden2 a pair of fore-legs begin to bud1 and then a pair of hind-legs bud and push out faster than the fore-legs4 ,as the legs grow the tail is gradually absorbed and disappears4 ,meanwhile the interior of the body changes2 the lungs and heart become like those of a reptile4 ,when first the tadpole emerged from the egg it ate the jelly-like egg cover3 then1 by means of a pair of little horny jaws1 it ate soft animal or vegetable matter4 ,when its gills and tail are gone1 and its legs are fully formed1 it hops out of the water a perfectly formed frog4 ,tadpoles feed on insects and also on each other4 ,they are admirable preparers of small skeletons4 ,try the tadpole at this trade2 drop into his pond a dead mouse1 or bird1 or frog1 or squirrel4 ,soon you will find a clean1 white skeleton1 nice enough to put in any museum4 ,the food of the adult frog is chiefly insects4 ,less hungry than when in the tadpole state1--for the tadpole like the child must not only eat to live but to grow--the frog is not often tempted to vary his diet4 ,the frog1 seated in cool leaf shadows1 watches with his great1 black1 gold-ringed eyes for such insects as good fortune shall send past his retreat4 ,as one hovers near1 out flies his limber1 sticky1 notched1 ribbon-like tongue1 true to its mark4 ,the insect adheres to the viscous surface of the projected ribbon1 and is gently deposited in the open throat4 ,during this process the frog maintains a calm1 superior1 self-satisfied expression1 as if in this still hunt he not so much satisfied an appetite1 as fulfilled a mission of ridding nature of superfluous insects4 ,he seems to have no malice toward the insects2 he is merely giving them an honorable burial1 and saving them from the further perplexities of life4 ,the common frog attains a length of three or four inches4#ff ,he has glandular ridges down the skin of his back1 and these1 with his colors1 singularly fit him for his home3 the darker ridges imitating plant-stems2 the green coat1 leafage2 the silver vest1 the glimmer of water2 the brownish feet and markings1 the moist earth2 while the yellow markings add to the protective display1 in being like the stamens and pistils of surrounding flowers1 and of the hue of many buds and blossoms4 ,thus the frog in his native haunts is protected by his garments1 and is little likely to be seen unless he moves1 or is betrayed by his full1 bright eyes or the palpitations of his breast4 ,while the common frog represents the aquatic ,ranid1 his cousin1 the wood-frog1 represents a branch of the widely distributed family which prefers dry dwellings1 except in the breeding season1 when the eggs must be deposited in water4 ,the wood-frog is smaller than the bull-frog1 and is dressed in olive-green and shades of brown1 like the colors of dead leaves and dry twigs4 ,there is a large black patch on the side of the head around the big ear-drum4 ,the wood-frog takes such enormous leaps that it is very difficult to catch4 ,it is shy1 and makes a prodigious jump at the first hint of danger4 ,when it drops to the ground it is scarcely discernible from the dry vegetation about it4 ,the wood-frog maintains the moisture of its skin by hiding in damp moss or in decayed logs1 and in little hollows in the ground4 ,it avoids the sunshine1 and keeps close to the earth4 ,the tree-frog is another curious frog4 ,smaller than its cousins1 it is dressed in bright green1 spotted with black1 and has a membrane stretched between its toes1 which gives its feet a broad1 flat surface1 and helps to sustain it as it leaps from branch to branch1 somewhat in the fashion of a flying squirrel4 ,in tropical lands1 where many trees are decked with gorgeous blossoms1 tree-frogs appear very gaily colored1 the splendor of the coat being protective in such surroundings4 ,the swamp-frog is dressed in black and light brown1 and lives in marshes in the ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,its voice is a prolonged croak4 ,the clamata1 or 8bawling-frog10 lives about cold1 damp springs1 and is very noisy4 ,the resounding roar of the bull-frog is a well-known sound4 ,no wonder that ,horace1 the ,roman poet1 wrote that 8the noisy frogs from the marshes drive away sleep40 ,cats1 geese1 owls1 vultures1 hawks1 otters1 and other creatures eat frogs1 and the luckless creatures can hardly appear without finding an enemy4 ,to balance this destruction of their forces they produce great numbers of eggs4 ,when tadpoles first reach the frog state they are black4 ,i have seen hundreds of them together1 so that the pond mud seemed alive and crawling4 ,,footnotes3 #fc ,frogs and toads sometimes squeal or cry with pain or terror4 #fd ,as these animals respire also through the skin they may live sometime without breathing through the nostrils4 #fe ,see ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,lesson #dj4 #ff ,our large bull-frog is eight or twelve inches long4 ,frogs even one or two feet long 7,holder's ,zology7 have been found1 but such a size is very unusual4 ,,lesson ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,frog',s ,,cousin4 8,sweet are the uses of adversity1 ,which like a toad1 ugly and venomous1 ,wears yet a precious jewel in his head40 --,as ,you ,like ,it4 ,belonging to the same class of vertebrates as the frog1 to the same order also1 but to a different sub-order1 are the toads1 the cousins of the frogs4 ,as the frog is well known about the ponds1 so the toad is a constant inhabitant of our groves and gardens4 ,we introduce the frog to an admiring public as ,mr4 ,rana1 the toad as ,mr4 ,bufo4 ,the order to which the frogs and toads belong is divided according to the structure of the base of the skull and the shape of the shoulder girdle4 ,in general anatomy the frogs and toads are alike4 ,the eggs and young are closely similar1 and the stages of growth from egg to the adult form are nearly identical4 ,when the adult form is reached the frogs and toads are yet very tiny creatures1 but small as they are the most casual observer can distinguish them from each other by the shape of the snout1 and by the far larger development of the hind-legs of the frog4 ,the chief differences to be noted between ,mr4 ,rana and his cousin1 ,mr4 ,bufo1 are these3 the toad has no teeth1 but the frog1 as we have seen1 has teeth on the upper jaw and palate4 ,the attachment of the tongue is the same1 but the free end of the frog's tongue is forked1 and the toad's is not4 ,the toad's skin is usually warty1 the frog's is smooth2 the toad has a rounder body1 shorter hind-legs1 and its feet are less fully webbed2 its snout is more rounded than that of the frog4 ,we find1 let us say1 a toad and a frog in our morning ramble4 ,we notice the soft1 moist skin and say1 8,these are amphibians40 ,we see that they are tailless1 and we say they are anurans1 or tailless amphibians4 ,then having placed them together thus far1 we note their differences1 and we say of the frog1 8,this belongs to the ,ranid10 and of the smaller cousin1 8,here is one of the ,bufonid40 ,of the two1 we may find the toad the more interesting animal1 as among its kinsfolk are some very remarkable families4 ,mr4 ,bufo is a citizen of the world1 except of the severely cold polar regions4 ,he hops through the tropics and the temperate zones1 and goes pretty well up into the polar regions2 an inoffensive1 gentle1 humble1 useful1 and generally utterly silent creature4 ,no person is faultless1 and ,bufo is not superior to humans in that no evil may be laid to his charge4 ,he does eat bees4 ,happy is ,mr4 ,bufo when1 brigand-like1 he can stand by the highway of the bees returning laden with wealth of honey and entering their waxen city4 ,he holds his captives for no ransom1 he scarcely stays to kill them1 but swallows them alive and whole1 and digests them later4 ,as far as we know1 this bee-eating is ,bufo's one fault2 to counterbalance it he devours millions of harmful insects1 and so assuredly saves the world thousands of bushels of fruit and vegetables4 ,we will not say that ,bufo is greedy in eating4 ,it is true that he swallows insects ceaselessly and swiftly1 so much so that a grasshopper's legs1 or some other creature's antenn1 may sometimes be seen sticking out of a toad's mouth1 while the carcass is well down his throat--but we will not be hard on him2 we call this--zealous attention to business4 ,the ,french gardeners appreciate ,bufo's usefulness1 and he is brought alive to market to be sold to those who need his help in their gardens4 ,bufo can be tamed and taught to eat from your hand4 ,he can be beguiled with sugar1 and with bread soaked in milk4 ,as to this last dainty1 like a captious child1 he eats out the middle of the slice and leaves the crust6 ,there are three myths about the toad3 first1 that he can live during centuries shut up in clay or stone2 this is no more true of ,bufo than of his cousin ,rana4 ,the second myth is that his skin when handled causes warts1 and that the fluid he discharges is poisonous2 this is an idle tale4 ,the third allegation is1 that he has a jewel in his head4 ,this has been believed from very ancient times2 perhaps the story rose from the beauty of his eyes1 with their iris of flame-color4 ,the eggs of the toad are deposited closely set side by side in a long transparent tube which is dropped into water1 and sinking to the bottom coils up until the eggs hatch4 ,the young tadpoles are jet black and very active4 ,they make all their changes very early and in the same manner as the frog1 and are quite small when they arrive at the perfect toad-shape4 ,as soon as they have produced four legs and their tails have been absorbed1 they leave the water and set off on long journeys2 for the toad is a born vagrant1 and not1 like the frog1 a home-stayer4 ,avoiding the sun's heat they travel chiefly by night1 and by day hide under stones or herbage4 ,if clouds cover the sky they take heart and hop forth on their pilgrimage4 ,during a long drought they disappear1 but if a rain comes they suddenly swarm out by hundreds1 and thus have arisen the tales of a 8shower of toads40 ,going one day into my garden1 ,i saw under my favorite rose tree a little hollow in the loose earth4 ,it looked just like the cup-shaped impression made by an egg half buried in the ground4 ,an hour later1 ,i found a toad seated in this place1 which he had evidently fashioned for himself in order to preserve the moisture of his body1 while he hunted for his dinner4 ,his keen1 black eyes were fixed on the drooping stem and leaves of the rose-bush1 and out and in played his little ribbon-like tongue1 capturing an insect at every dart4 ,the toad feeds on worms as well as flies1 and when after a rain the worms and toads are mutually inspired to take their walks abroad1 many a luckless worm finds its way into the toad's maw4 ,he never eats a dead insect4 ,in winter the toad hibernates like the frog1 and since the young toad reaches its adult size in the autumn1 it passes the first period of its grown-up life in a sleep1 or coma1 in some hole or burrow which it has found or fashioned in the earth4 ,sometimes toads creep into rock-crevices or into hollows in logs and trees1 and being found in these places early in the spring1 are hastily supposed to have been prisoners for many years4 ,the toad1 as well as the frog1 casts its skin in the process of growth4 ,when the skin has become too small1 and the shedding approaches1 the white1 green1 and brown colors of the coat become dull1 and a peculiar dryness appears4 ,a new skin is forming under the outgrown one1 which presently splits in half down the middle of the back and the under part of the body4 ,the toad now begins to twist and twitch1 and the old skin wrinkles and folds along the sides4 ,then the toad tucks a hind-leg under his forearm1 and gives a good pull1 and lo1 he is out of that leg of his trousers4 ,then the other leg comes off in the same style4 ,next he puts one of his hands in his mouth1 and giving a jerk1 off comes the covering of that hand and arm1 like a discarded glove4 ,then off with the other4 ,now then1 what8 ,why1 he rolls the outgrown skin into a neat ball and swallows it4 ,no second-hand clothes sold or given away by ,mr4 ,bufo4 ,the frog strips off and disposes of his skin in the same way4 ,toads and frogs can change to some extent the color of their skins to suit their homes4 ,toads kept in the dark with dark surroundings become dark in color2 and those kept in light with white or light accessories become lighter2 but the color of the toad changes more slowly than that of the frog4 ,the arrangement of the color does not alter2 the change is merely from light to dark4 ,let us now look at some curious specimens of the ,bufonid4 ,the pipa1 or ,surinam toad1 does not lay its eggs in water4 ,the mother toad places the eggs on her back1 and a fold of skin rising up encloses each egg in a separate cell1 until the young have not only hatched1 but have passed through all their metamorphoses1 and come out fully formed4 ,another toad1 common in ,europe and ,asia1 is largely colored with bright crimson1 and the father toad carries the little ones in separate cells fastened to his hind-legs like chains4 ,in these cells the little ones change to their perfect shape1 when the cells wither away and the young toads hop out able to take care of themselves4 ,we said that toads were generally silent2 a little toad about three inches long1 called a 8natter-jack10 is common in ,england and is a noted singer1 for a toad4 ,his 8gluck-gluck1 gluck-k-k10 can be heard any night4 ,the 8green toad10 well known on the continent1 is not so noisy as the natter-jack1 but has a low1 moaning cry4 ,all the true tree-toads1 or ,hylid1 have clear1 shrill voices1#fg and are fond of singing serenades4 ,like tree-frogs1 tree-toads have the ends of the toes dilated into flat plates1 or disks1 which render their footing more secure as they hop among the branches4 ,our ,american ,hylid are small1 green-colored with brown markings1 but in ,asia they are often brightly colored4 ,one very pretty little ,hyla lives near ponds1 and seated on the hard leaves of water-plants sings its shrill monotonous song4 ,all summer1 from early ,april1 the ,hylid trill and sing1 but as the autumn frosts come1 their songs begin earlier and last longer4 ,as the red and yellow leaves fall in showers from the trees1 and the golden-rod and asters begin to faint and die among the sere grasses1 the ,hylid seem to be singing their requiem1 and bewailing the coming of winter4 ,another toad with a voice is the spade-foot4 ,this toad is rare though widely distributed2 it is remarkable for its feet1 shaped for digging1 its subterranean habits1 and its curious way of appearing and disappearing very suddenly4 ,after a rainy season the spade-foot will come out from some hiding-place1 attract attention by loud cries1 swarm by hundreds about ponds1 lay innumerable eggs1--and vanish4 ,but while thousands of eggs are laid1 scores only hatch1 for most of them perish from being laid so near the water's edge that the subsidence of the water leaves them to dry up4 ,while scores hatch1 only tens grow up2 for the spade-foot tadpoles devour one another1 and are so greedy that very few survive4 ,these few are most ravenous in their appetites4 ,a spade-foot tadpole will seize a grasshopper1 and being too small to swallow over half his prey1 will calmly lie waiting for the swallowed half to digest in order that he may gulp down the remainder4 ,as soon as a spade-foot tadpole becomes a 8hopper10 getting four legs and losing its tail1 it leaves the pond and indulges its digging instincts4 ,it scrapes out a house for itself1 from eight inches to two feet in length1 and cheerfully takes up an underground residence4 ,thus we find that toads have three different methods of life1 some being arboreal1 or tree dwellers1 seldom appearing on the ground2 some subterranean1 or underground dwellers seldom appearing on the surface2 some dwellers on the ground1 hiding among grass and other herbage when asleep1 or when the sun is too hot for their comfort4 ,but all toads1 except the two varieties mentioned above1 which carry their young on their bodies1 go to the water to drop their eggs1 and the young live in the water until they reach the adult state4 ,,footnotes3 #fg ,in the spring the common toad takes to the water and there sings loudly4 ,the loud continuous trill that we hear in swamps in springtime is made by toads1 not by frogs1 as is commonly supposed4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,salamanders4 8,the rarest things with wayward will ,beneath the covert hide them still2 ,the rarest things to break of day ,look shortly forth1 and hie away40 --,,joanna ,,baillie4 ,frogs and toads belong to the class ,batrachia1 a division of vertebrates which stands intermediate between fishes and reptiles1 partaking in the different stages of their lives of some of the characteristics of both these classes4 ,the eggs of batrachians are generally laid in water or damp places1 and the young breathe1 not through lungs but through gills4 ,to the class ,batrachia belong not only frogs and toads1 but sirens1 mud-fish1 8water-dogs10 and salamanders1 all of which are interesting animals4 ,among them there is a species of salamander which is distinguished from all other batrachians1 because its young ones are born alive4 ,i remember reading when ,i was a child1 of a very remarkable beast called a salamander1 which could live in fire2 and one of my books had a thrilling description of one of these little animals which had come forth from a burning log in the midst of a blaze1 and ran cheerfully about in the flames1 sporting and enjoying itself4 ,this myth of the superiority of the salamander to fire is wide-spread and ancient4 ,it is a common saying that a person who is not easily affected by heat is 8a perfect salamander40 ,the stories of some old-time naturalists about the salamanders are amusing4 ,we are told that the creature can not only live in fire1 but is born in it2 that passing through a fire it extinguishes it2 that smiths finding the forge fires going out1 always knew that a salamander was playing therein1 and mended the fire by killing the animal4 ,another myth was that the salamander was the most poisonous of all creatures2 if it crawled over a person's foot that person's entire body was poisoned1 the hair fell out1 and lingering death was the result2 wood1 over which a salamander had crept was poisonous2 the creature's breath was a deadly poison4 ,some thought the animal wore hair1 others that it wore feathers or fur1 but all agreed that cloth woven of its coat was fire-proof4 ,belief in these fantastic stories long survived4 ,what is the truth8 ,the salamander is not at all poisonous2 on the contrary1 like most other batrachians1 it is harmless and helpless1 and obtains its bad name no doubt from its general lack of beauty1 of either shape or color4 ,it is ugly and therefore venomous1 is the reasoning4 ,this is hard4 ,what if we should reason that a person is unhandsome and therefore vicious8 ,the skin of the salamander is glandular1 and is capable of secreting much fluid1 and when the creature is terrified or excited this secretion increases1 and the fluid covers the skin4 ,owing to this fluid1 a salamander which by any means finds itself in a fire1 might move about for a minute or two looking for an exit from the flames1 and get out scatheless1 thanks to its watery coat4 ,besides1 these cold-blooded animals are to a certain extent insensitive upon the surface of the body1 and would suffer little pain in a brief sojourn in a flame4 ,the stories of salamanders suddenly appearing in a fire as if born there1 can be explained by the fact that they hide and sleep in decayed logs1 under stones1 or among dry1 dead sticks1 and so might be very likely to wake up in a fire kindled out of doors4 ,the largest of all the salamanders belongs in ,asia1 and is found in ,thibet and ,japan4 ,it is the largest of the batrachians1 and is about three feet in length4 ,i once saw perhaps the largest specimen ever found1 the giant of salamanders4 ,it was two feet1 five inches high1 from its soles to the top of the arch of its back1 and three feet1 five inches long from nose to tail tip4 ,its color was a rusty black1 and its skin was covered with thick knobs or granulations1 making it look as if dressed in very hard and old embossed leather armor4 ,the head of the salamander is large and rounded2 the tail is stiff and elongated2 the legs very short2 the hind feet are five-toed1 the front feet have only four toes4 ,the legs and feet are thick and clumsy1 and the larger salamanders are heavy and inert in their motions4 ,far from finding fire their native or preferred element1 the salamanders like cold1 damp places2 their eggs are dropped in water and hatch there1 except those of the spotted salamander of ,spain4 ,the young of these ,spanish salamanders are at birth about half or three quarters of an inch long1 with branched gills4 ,they look like tadpoles or 8pollywogs10 and at once take to the water and remain there until they reach the adult form4 ,the salamander larv grow to considerable size before they make their final change of form4 ,their gills are very large1 and as they swim about they look as if they had trimmed their necks with foliage4 ,in the water they find themselves very comfortable until they approach the adult period4 ,then they become restless and dig holes for themselves in the mud or sand of the streams or ponds where they live4 ,these lairs exactly fit their bodies1 and are so placed that as they lie there with their heads out of water every slight rise or ripple of the water will overflow them and keep the lairs well wet4 ,thus they breathe in the water by their gills1 and at the same time practice air-breathing2 for their gills are now shrivelling away1 and they are progressing toward the air-breathing condition of the true salamander state4 ,a salamander much like the spotted one1 but having no lighter spots on its skin1 lives in high lands where there are no stagnant waters fit for a resting-place for its eggs4 ,this black salamander's young ones are born two at a time1 and are in all respects except size1 precisely like their parents4 ,the ash-colored salamander is common in the woods of the ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,it is only a few inches long1 but is not so small as its cousin the 8microscopic salamander10 a native of the ,mississippi ,valley1 a lithe1 brisk little creature1 of a gray color1 fond of hiding in logs and under bark or stones4 ,black1 gray and dust-color are the usual shades of a salamander's coat1 but in the ,rocky ,mountains some may be found adorned with red1 yellow1 and green spots and stripes4 ,a very common variety in the ,united ,states is the red-banded salamander1 distinguished not only for the red band down his back1 but for his activity in climbing4 ,shut him in a room and he darts up the wall lightly as a sailor goes up a mast4 ,put him in a glass case1 he runs up the glass with the ease of a fly1 and hangs from the plate at the top back downward1 moving his dumpy head from side to side4 ,you almost fancy a grin on his wide mouth1 and a leer in his bright1 black eyes1 as if he said1 8,how does this strike you80 ,the secret of these feats is1 that he can adhere to smooth surfaces by means of a moisture diffused over the lower part of his body and the soles of his feet4 ,the red-banded salamander may sometimes be found in the woods lying coiled on the tip of a branch or a large fern frond1 the red line on his back showing like a coil of scarlet ribbon4 ,if he is alarmed this coil snaps out straight1 and by that motion he has cast himself several feet distant1 and is gone among the grass4 ,commend us to a red-banded salamander or a wood-toad for a sudden and effective jump4 ,nothing is more curious than to see this dainty little red-banded beast climbing up a rush1 or a long1 stiff spear of grass1 or the graceful1 plumed stalk of a golden-rod4 ,the very prettiest of all the salamanders is found in the red-wood forests of ,california2 it is of a vivid salmon-color and has very prominent1 bright eyes4 ,salamanders are found from ,mexico to ,siberia1 and in general it may be stated that those of the warm latitudes are smaller1 more active1 and more gaily colored2 those of colder climates are larger1 duller1 dark colored1 and very slow in motion4 ,in the ,british ,islands there are no salamanders4 ,the red-woods of ,california belong to a very ancient class of tree-vegetation3 the salamanders are of an ancient class of living things4 ,i have sometimes wondered looking at one of those little1 brilliant1 salmon-hued salamanders1 with its staring bright eyes that see everything1 whether it has received by tradition from its elders1 tales of a time when intrusive mammals with man at their head were unknown1 and they and the red-woods had their world to themselves4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiv4 ,a ,,denizen ,,of ,,the ,,marsh ,,lands4 8,but the cold-blooded snake in the edge of the brake ,sits amid the rank grass1 half asleep1 half awake2 ,and the ashen white snail1 with the slime in its trail1 ,moves wearily on1 like a life's tedious tale40 --,r4 ,s4 ,,nichols4 ,if the question 8,what is a siren80 were suddenly put to a class of pupils1 ,i think it probable that the boys would reply1 8a steam whistle10 and the girls1 8a fabulous monster with a beautiful voice1 which she used to lure people to destruction40 ,possibly some few observant lads from ,georgia1 ,texas1 and ,south ,carolina1 might say3 8,an animal something like a lizard2 it lives in the marshes40 ,the girls would be right1 and the boys right1 but this last would be the answer wished for in natural history4 ,a siren is an amphibious animal closely allied to the salamanders4 ,there are four families of amphibians1 or batrachians1 which are so closely connected that in some of their stages of development they can scarcely be told one from the other4 ,in these the young of some present almost exactly the adult conditions of the others1 and the larv of the lower forms have been known to undergo transformations that have changed them from the likeness of their parents to the fashions of the allied species4 ,thus the adult sirens are scarcely distinguishable from the aquatic larv of the salamanders4 ,siren larv have developed into the condition of adult salamanders1 while the young of the salamanders greatly resemble tadpoles1 or larval toads and frogs4 ,the adult menobranch has a skull like that of a tadpole1 or a salamander in the larval state4 ,in fact1 wherever the young of one of these families diverge from the form of their parents1 it is simply to trench upon the form of some of the allied species4 ,we have noted that frogs and toads have the tongue fastened at the front of the mouth1 and hanging free down the throat4 ,some of the salamanders have the tongue fastened in the middle of the under side1 so that it resembles a broad1 flat mushroom on a short1 thick stem1 while the teeth are set in a fine brush above it on the roof of the mouth4 ,in the sirens the tongue is free in front2 there are no teeth on the jaws1 and the jaws are cased in a horny sheath like a beak2 but down the throat there are two patches of sharp little teeth pointed backwards4 ,let us take a look at a siren4 ,at first one might call it a fish or an eel1 wearing queer plumes at the back of the head1 and also endowed with little legs and feet4 ,this is the 8lizard-formed siren10 and the largest specimen ever found was about three feet long3 most of them do not exceed twenty inches in length4 ,the body is long and slim1 like that of an eel2 the skin is smooth and nearly black1 besprinkled with little white dots4 ,from the shoulders1 near the head1 come a pair of small1 feeble legs1 the feet being divided into four fingers4 ,these feet aid the movements of the creature on the sand or mud when it emerges from the water1 and serve to elevate the neck a little in catching and swallowing prey4 ,the motion of the siren in the water is sinuous1 like that of an eel2 the legs may help a little as paddles1 but the action from side to side1 such as we have all noticed in a water-snake1 is that by which it progresses4 ,well1 let us look1 for the hind-legs1 now that we have seen the front ones4 ,where are they8 ,gone altogether6 ,nature seems to have concluded that a little beast which would let its front legs dwindle away from want of use1 might as well be deprived of the hind ones entirely4 ,the head of the siren is small2 it seems to have as little use for brains as for feet4 ,the snout is short and broad1 with the nostrils near the tip2 and as for eyes6--they are the tiniest little dots2 evidently our siren does not depend much on taking observations of its surroundings4 ,on the other hand the mouth of the creature is disproportionately large1 opening across the entire head4 ,the beastie lives to eat1 and his mouth is1 it seems1 his chief organ4 ,this ugly head sits close on an eel-like body which finishes up in a point at the tail1 where there is a fin1 as a fish has4 ,the most conspicuous feature of the siren is the appendage placed branch-like on each side of the neck4 ,these appendages have three divisions1 each one with a separate attachment1 and under each one is a small slit or opening into the siren's throat4 ,what are these branches waving like plumes8 ,they are external gills1 and very pretty they are1 the only pretty things about a siren2 these gills are of a pale rose-color shaded with gray1 and waving and catching the light as the creature swims1 they redeem him from absolute ugliness4 ,i have often wondered why this animal has been named a siren1 after the beautiful and fatal creature of fable4 ,beauty1 song1 malice2 these were the three characteristics of the sirens of which old ,homer sung1 and not one of these endowments belongs to the siren of the marshes1--ugly1 silent1 harmless4 ,he is hungry1 and he eats1 and his food is toads1 frogs1 insects1 any animal organism he can find in the water4 ,he merely opens his mouth and takes his prey in2 he neither lulls it nor lures it with music4 ,a first cousin of this lizard-formed siren1 is the striped siren of ,georgia4 ,this has only one gill branch1 and is distinguished by a broad1 yellow band on each side1 and a narrower one on the under part of the body4 8,a mud-eel0 it is popularly called4 ,it is very scarce1 and valuable accordingly4 ,few of the museums or zological gardens have specimens of this siren4 ,no doubt ignorant and careless people1 finding this odd and helpless creature in its native haunts1 ruthlessly kill it1 just because they can1 and leave to decay specimens which1 if taken living1 or carefully preserved in alcohol1 would have been of great value4 ,the siren sometimes suffers the loss of its pretty gills in a queer way4 ,fishes1 attracted by their roseate color1 nibble them off4 ,in such cases the siren can breathe by coming to the surface of the water1 and taking in mouthfuls of air1 which it suffers to escape through the slits at the neck4 ,this method of breathing is evidently inconvenient and difficult to the creature1 but allows it to maintain life until new gill-branches grow1 a process which requires some eight weeks to accomplish4 ,some sirens wear a little gold-colored band about the lips and face1 which band shines like molten metal in the water1 and gives them a gay appearance4 ,the sirens are quiet and hardy animals1 and small ones could be easily kept for pets in a glass aquarium box1 if provided with a little mud and sand under the water1 and with some stones upon which the creatures could crawl when they wished to be above water4 ,like all the carnivorous amphibians the sirens will eat bread and milk and raw veal1 instead of their usual food4 ,while chiefly confined to marshy places or still waters of the ,south1 occasional specimens of the siren families have been found as far north as ,illinois1#fh and no doubt could live in any locality in the ,united ,states1 if protected from their enemies4 ,for their own part they are helpless1 and fall a prey to whatever attacks them4 ,their teeth are far down in the throat so they cannot bite2 their tails are weak so they cannot strike2 they have even no nails on their toes wherewith to scratch4 ,instead of nails they have a little horny cap on each of the toes1 rendering it broader1 and so less likely to stick fast in the mud when they crawl out upon a bank4 ,,footnotes3 #fh ,the menobranchus abounds in all the 8five ,great ,lakes10 especially in ,lake ,michigan4--,o4 ,s4 ,,westcott4 ,,lesson ,,xxxv4 ,a ,,stranger ,,from ,,mexico4 8,and he banned the water goblin's spite ,for he saw around in the sweet moonshine1 ,their little wee faces above the brine1 ,giggling and laughing with all their might1 ,at the piteous leap of the fairy wight40 --,,drake4 ,one day when ,i was studying in the ,brighton ,aquarium1 ,england1 ,i had been examining fish-scales through a powerful microscope1 and turned to lay my paper of notes on a glass case near at hand4 ,as ,i did so ,i remarked 8that there were three fish in the case swimming around some kind of a leafless plant1 on which hung a few round1 small pods40 ,illustration3 ,,pearl ,,cradles4 ,when ,i returned to the microscope ,i found my mind obstinately fixed on the contents of the glass case4 8,that was surely not a stiff sea-plant1 but the dead branch of a land-plant40 8,i wonder what fish those were80 8,those were very odd-looking little pods60 ,so ,i thought1 until ,i concluded to take a second look at the objects so obtrusively present to my mind4 ,lo6 the branch had not merely a few little pods1 but some pods were on every one of the numerous tine divisions of the branch1 except one long one near the bottom4 ,these pods were pearly1 flat1 semi-transparent1 of the size of shirt buttons1 and in the centre of each was a black dot answering to the button's eye4 ,as ,i observed them1 the three 8fish0 kept swimming round and round the branch1 in and out1 and ,i noticed that this piece of dry plant was securely fastened to the bottom of the tank4 ,but what6 ,the lately bare lower twig had now four pellucid pods upon it6 ,surely the fish were placing these upon the twigs6 ,the pods were then egg-cases4 ,so1 my good fish1 ,i said1 you are hanging your babies upon a tree-top1 are you8 ,that very bad mother1 the dog-fish1 does the same4#fi ,but her cradles are black and horny2 yours are like pearls6 ,who are you8 ,whence do you come8 ,what is your place and name among all the fish families8 ,stop3 ,what is this ,i see growing from each side of your neck1 like enormous whiskers8 ,by this ,i perceive that you are not fish at all1 but batrachians4 ,these plumes are your external gills4 ,and what are these8 ,why1 truly1 small legs and feet neatly drawn back as you swim2 five webbed toes on the hind feet2 four webbed toes on the front feet4 ,ah1 but you are an interesting animal6 ,kindly stop swimming for a little until ,i count up your gifts and graces4 ,a blunt head1 shaped like the end of an ear of maize2 a wide mouth2 nostrils close to the lips2 two little eyes also set close to the upper lip4 ,ah6 ,i know you now--bone of contention among the scientific1 most unexpected in your behavior1 specimen of the order ,urodela1 spotted ,amblystoma1 oh1 why cannot you have at least one simple and easy name1 ,mexican axolotl6 ,a curious little child of ,mexico is this denizen of the lakes of that warm southern land--a mild1 silent1 unhandsome1 small beast1 given to surprising people4 ,the chief peculiarity of the creature is that it obstinately refuses ever to grow up1 and remains in the larval state1 instead of properly putting on the form of an adult4 ,nature's perpetual child6 ,and when it does grow up by chance1 as1 to be more surprising1 some individuals do grow up1 why then1 it is no longer itself--but something else6 ,now my interest was greatly quickened in this creature1 and ,i began to admire it4 ,its scaleless skin was of a dark drab or steel color1 of a velvet-like softness2 the gills were three on each side of the head1 finely divided into soft1 thick plumes1 which waved to and fro1 expanded1 closed1 half-folded1 spread wide4 ,no ,spanish belle ever handled a fan more beautifully than this little swimmer used its gill-branches4 ,observe now the method of placing those translucent pearl cradles1 the egg-pods4 ,twice about the twig the axolotl swims1 eying it closely1 as if considering of its fitness4 ,then she takes the twig1 or the long1 lithe stem of water-weed between her little webbed hands to steady it1 and glides softly up the stem1 and as she goes attaches the little pearl balls like seed-pods in a row4 ,nothing can be prettier than a long withe of green weed set with these pearly cradles shimmering in the sunlight2 for not only do they hang as fair round pearls against the green in the water1 but they are powdered all over with gold dust4 ,this is a combination of green1 pearl1 and gold that any artist might envy4 ,the egg itself is the dark dot in the centre of that gold-besprinkled cradle4 ,at first the inclosing jelly is but a small rim1 but it expands immediately1 remaining firmly attached to the stem4 ,the little axolotl comes out of the egg perfectly formed1 a minute copy of its parent2 for we must remember that this parent is never grown-up1 but remains always in the incomplete or larval state of its existence4 ,the newly hatched axolotls grow rapidly to six or eight inches in length1 and except for the branching gills closely resemble their near cousins1 the salamanders4 ,until #ahfe the axolotls had never been closely studied4 ,in ,mexico they are abundant1 are sold as an article of food in the markets and are eaten1 8no questions being asked40 ,they are to the ,mexican buyers1 axolotls1 and that is enough4 ,when taken to ,european museums the axolotls were supposed from their imperfect development to be larv1 which one day would metamorphose into their adult form4 ,for several years the first specimens in ,paris remained just as when they had been brought from their native lakes4 ,then1 a change being made in their tank giving them more healthful conditions1 what did they do but select some spears of grass and weed and decorate them with egg-cases6 ,for thirty days the egg-cases adhered to the twigs1 then the little ones hatched out1 larv1 like their parents4 ,after this curious circumstance had been discussed for a time1 some scientific people thought they would try and force these axolotls to grow up4 ,they were gradually removed from the water and accustomed more and more to breathe in the air4 ,as this process continued1 some of the creatures died1 some made no change in their state1 but some began to accommodate themselves to air-breathing without the help of water2 the gills began to wither or waste away1 as often happens to unused members of a living body2 after a time these external gills dropped off entirely and the axolotl breathed through the slit at the bottom of the branchial stump4 ,as soon as this was accomplished1 behold1 not an axolotl at all1 but a salamander1 for meantime the legs also had developed and strengthened4 ,a ,german lady secured in this way the change of young axolotls to salamanders1 or at least to salamandral form and habits4 ,it has therefore been held that axolotls may be a class of salamanders1 which from the conditions of their life have never dropped their gills or accustomed themselves to a land life4 ,others think that as the young salamanders and axolotls are so alike1 mistakes have been made in handling the larv1 and that those which developed as salamanders were hatched salamanders4 ,so little is really known of the habits and life history of these creatures that they offer a pretty clear field for observation and experiment4 ,it would be easy for some of our scientifically inclined young ,americans to secure specimens from ,mexico1 and rearing the young from the eggs1 note all their changes4 ,nothing is more attractive than original investigation4 ,some call the axolotl the 8fish-formed siren10 as it has a fin-like membrane down the middle of the back1 around the tail1 and so on along part of the under portion of the body4 ,this fin enables it to balance itself admirably in the water4 ,axolotls eat worms1 snails1 tadpoles1 insects1 bread-crumbs1 bits of meat1 or any small larv found in the water4 ,,footnotes3 #fi ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,lesson #dd4 ,,lesson ,,xxxvi4 ,,some ,,merry ,,little ,,friends4 8,the heedless lizard in his gambols1 peeped ,upon the guarded nest1 from out the flowers1 ,but paid the instant forfeit of his life40 --,,montgomery4 ,in calling the hideous and ill-tempered alligator el lagarto1 the lizard1 ,i think the ,spanish explorers were guilty of a crying injustice to the lizard family1 many of the members of which are the most delightful little creatures imaginable4 ,how often in ,italy1 seated by some ancient ruin or on a stone wall draped in rose vines1 ,i have watched the merry little lizards1 dressed in crimson1 orange1 or green1 darting among the gray stones like flashes of living light1 or running along the trailing vines like animated blossoms4 ,how often in the warm fragrant silence of the ,tuscan hills1 have ,i seen1 thrust from the chinks of a pile of crumbling masonry1 a pert little head1 with a pair of diamond-bright eyes1 watching me with intent interest4 ,friendly1 graceful1 entirely harmless1 these little lizards seem to suit the beauty-loving ,italians4 ,i have never seen the smallest or rudest ,italian boy throw a stone at one of them1 or try in any way to hurt them4 ,illustration3 ,,knights ,,errant4 ,the lizards in our own country are no less friendly and beautiful1 but it seems to me our people are less in harmony with nature than some others1 and cherish more unjust traditions2 for certainly among us the lizards are received in less hearty good-fellowship1 and are very wrongly feared and esteemed harmful4 ,but some people know how to treat my dear lizards with courtesy4 ,a young friend in ,florida has made pets of sundry emerald-green lizards4 ,no creatures are more capable of maintaining an absolute stillness if they are suited with their circumstances4 ,like most of the cold-blooded reptiles1 they delight in warmth4 ,my young friend often placed a little green lizard in the knot of lace at the throat of her evening dress1 where1 delighted with the softness and warmth of the lace and its owner's neck1 it would lie motionless for an entire evening4 ,it was often mistaken for a piece of jeweller's work in rich green enamel1 upon the beauty of which her friends sometimes commented4 ,one of these little lizards would remain for hours1 twined bracelet-wise about my young friend's wrist4 ,inoffensive in disposition and unprovided with weapons of attack as lizards are1 ,i have often admired nature's protective methods in their behalf4 ,walking once in a wood in ,new ,jersey1 ,i was surprised to observe a fragment of the bark of a tree some two feet from me1 run round the tree and appear on the farther side4 ,here was a little lizard of the exact color and markings of the bark of the tree which it frequented2 it was only by its motion that it could be discovered when it clung against the trunk or branches4 ,when at rest its little1 bright1 jet-black eyes were the only noticeable part of it4 ,in that same wood ,i was equally startled by seeing a dead leaf run away from a heap of leaves as ,i approached1 and a little twig in my path darted out of danger just as ,i was about to put my foot upon it4 ,these also were lizards1 with their slender bodies dressed in gray and brown1 with little markings of black and white1 a coat closely simulating the colors of dry and decaying vegetation4 ,while capable of lying for hours in entire quiet1 still as if fashioned out of gems or metal1 the lizard1 when it moves1 is remarkable for the swiftness of its motions3 it darts with the rapidity of an arrow2 it seems to have no hesitancy1 no afterthought1 no change of mind2 its spring is with the precision of entire certainty4 ,perhaps its sure-footedness has something to do with this2 on wall or wood1 tree1 stone1 grass1 who ever saw a lizard slip or lose its footing8 ,in the lizard family there is a large variety in habits and appearance4 ,we say that they are quick of motion--but then1 what is more dull and sluggish than a hatteria8 ,we assert that they are pretty and attractive1 but what is more undeniably ugly in appearance than the horned toad of ,texas1 which is really a lizard8 ,while in general the body of a lizard is slender and long1 supported by four legs1 in some species the legs are mere rudiments1 and in others gone altogether4 ,when present the feet and legs are sometimes weak1 so that the body drags upon the ground4 ,the chameleons have their feet designed for grasping and climbing3 the geckos of ,asia have their feet changed into sucking disks1 by which they can run up smooth walls2 other lizards1 which are chiefly aquatic1 have feet formed for swimming2 others still live in the ground and have hands fashioned like those of a mole1 for digging4 ,as for homes1 some lizards are tree-dwellers2 others live on the ground1 hiding in stone or rubbish heaps2 some live in the ground in burrows2 others abide by rivers1 and spend most of their time in the water4 ,the lizards are citizens of the world1 and are found in nearly all lands1 but are most numerous and most brilliantly colored in hot countries4 ,wherever they are1 some have so evidently the lizard characteristics that one who has ever seen any of the family would not fail to recognize their relationships at once2 but others1 as for example1 the horned toad of ,texas1 might be thought at first sight to belong to some quite different order of animals4 ,some lizards have scales2 others have no scales1 but thick1 granulated skins3 some have no eyelids2 others have eyelids1 but their eyelids differ1 some are nearly transparent1 admitting light when they are closed2 while yet other lizards1 as the chameleons1 have lids surrounding the entire eye1 so that they can be drawn together and admit light at merely a tiny opening4 ,in cold and temperate lands lizards lie dormant during the winter months2 this is called hibernating4 ,at the return of spring they come forth from their hiding-places4 ,in tropical countries1 while there is no cold to drive the lizards to a state of torpor1 they still sink into a long sleep1 or half-conscious condition1 which lasts for some weeks4 ,nearly all lizards lay eggs1 which are warmed into life by the sun1 and the young ones are able to take care of themselves as soon as hatched4 ,but even in this part of its life-history the lizard shows the changefulness of its race1--as variable in all things as a chameleon's coat4 ,some lizards have living young1 which they nurse with assiduous care4 ,a description of curious lizards would fill a volume2 we can note only a few of the less well-known varieties4 ,the geckos are a very interesting family1 living chiefly in ,asia4 ,the 8croaking gecko0 is a lizard which distinguishes himself by breaking the spell of silence which lies upon his order1 and making a loud noise almost as unpleasant as that raised by a frog4 ,the 8flying gecko10 like the flying squirrel1 has a wing-like expansion of the skin1 and widely webbed feet1 which enable it to support itself in the air as it leaps from tree to tree4 ,another ,oriental lizard is named 8the frilled10 because he wears a large quilled collar1 or ruff1 all around his neck2 upon his head is a crest deeply indented1 and down his back from head to tail-tip a full ruffle like a cloak close folded1 or a court train4 ,in fact1 whenever ,i have seen a frilled lizard ,i have had a laugh1 not only at its truly pert and comic appearance1 but because he seems such a jolly little caricature of stately ,queen ,bess in her head tire1 ruff1 farthingale1 and court train4 ,then1 too1 other ideas come to heighten my mirth over a frilled lizard4 ,you must know that lizards' tails are very brittle and not infrequently break off2 when this happens the organ grows again just as a crab's claw does4 ,i wonder if the tail of the frilled lizard is apt to break off1 and how long it takes such a cumbersome appendage to grow4 ,then1 again1 here is my other little joke over him3 all lizards1 as they grow cast their skins2 toads and frogs do this also1 and crabs cast their shells4 ,the process is far from unusual1 but the lizards like the toads swallow their worn-out garments1 and how can my frilled lizard swallow such an amount of frilling and furbelow and flouncing6 ,i should say he must choke6 ,it would be as bad as being obliged to eat a birthday cake1 candles1 wreaths of flowers1 and all4 ,but when ,i stand before a frilled lizard1 and laugh at all these queer notions concerning him1 what does he do but bob and move his head and neck1 until all his ruffles quiver and curl in a most threatening way1 as if he meant to alarm me by his ferocious appearance4 ,but he is really a timid creature1 and would rather fly than fight4 ,if you persecute him and drive him into a corner he will now and then turn at bay1 and bite with some sharp little teeth that he has4 ,the 8flying dragon0 is another odd lizard1 provided with an extended membrane to serve as a parachute1 and by which he flies--a little4 ,but why call the dear little beast a dragon8 ,his colors are wonderfully beautiful1 as if he had been dipped in a melted rainbow1 or in the stuff that peacock's plumes are made of4 ,we think that dragons are fierce creatures1 but this 8flying-dragon0 lizard lives in trees and daintily feeds upon gay-colored insects1 as pretty as itself4 ,another lizard is called the 8horrid ,moloch0 from an ancient idol-god4 ,this1 with perhaps the exception of the 8horned toad10 is one of the most hideous creatures known4 ,it is covered with large conical projections over the entire body2 its feet are clawed1 and the projections develop into horns on the top of the head and neck4 ,these projections are merely a thick growth of the skin1 each tipped with horny plates1 and entirely intended for defensive armor1 but they give the creature a formidable appearance4 ,still another variety of the lizard tribe is the pygopus of ,australia1 a lizard with only one pair of legs1 and these are scaly and footless4 ,indeed they look merely like fleshy fins1 and as the animal is very long and slim1 and is covered with scales1 at first sight it is almost impossible to consider it a lizard at all2 it looks more like a snake4 ,the iguana is a lizard of tropical countries3 it is large1 harmless1 perhaps we had better say it is useful2 for the natives of the countries where it lives are fond of its flesh for food1 and think as well of a fried or roasted iguana as we do of roast chicken4 ,perhaps of the entire lizard family the most famous is the basilisk1 about which much has been said and sung4 ,the ancients had as many odd myths about the basilisk1 as they had about the salamander4 ,they said it was the king of all reptiles and wore a crown of gold3 from its body diffused a poison which filled the air and killed not only animals but plants3 the glance of its eye was so terrible that all living things fled from it--unless they fell dead on the spot1 infected by its poison4 ,the basilisk was afraid of only one living creature1 and that creature was--a cock4 ,the crowing of a cock filled the king of all reptiles with an awful terror4 ,but what is the truth about the basilisk8 ,the creature has been investigated by modern science4 ,what does science report of it8 ,science says the basilisk is one of the prettiest and gentlest little creatures known4 ,it is crested1 and that crest is the famous 8golden crown0 of the ancient story2 it is clawed1 because it is a tree-climber2 its eyes are large1 gentle1 lustrous2 its skin is striped2 its toes are much like the toes of a bird2 its food is insects2 it has no poison1 and as for a cock's crow--it pays no heed to it whatever4 ,the ,hilas are another family of lizards1 embracing one with an ominous title1 8,the ,gila monster40 ,this is not inaptly named1 for it is uncouth in appearance1 large1 and1 unlike most lizards1 has a poisonous bite4 ,though this bite is painful1 it is not fatal4 ,the skinks are earth-burrowing lizards1 not prettily shaped but handsomely colored1 and especially noted for wearing vivid shades of blue1 a tint unusual in reptiles4 ,the ancients had myths about the skink as well as about the poor basilisk4 ,they said it poisoned cattle1 and was ever on the alert to do harm to man or beast4 ,the fact is the skink is alert only for slugs1 insects1 and worms which it eats4 ,nearly all lizards are insect-eaters1 though in captivity they will eat cake and bread4 ,,lesson ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,monster4 8,the various terrors of that horrid shore1-- ,those blazing suns that dart a downward ray1 ,and fiercely shed intolerable day2 ,those matted woods1 where birds forget to sing1 ,and silent bats in drowsy clusters cling2 ,those poisonous fields1 rich with luxuriance crowned ,where the dark scorpion gathers death around40 --,,goldsmith4 ,the word reptile seems to be in such bad repute1 and to raise such disagreeable associations in the minds of many people1 that in introducing a few specimens of the class reptilia we began1 not by describing the characteristics of the class1 but by introducing some of its most pleasing members--the lizards4 ,let us now turn for a little to the distinguishing features of the class1 and then to the animal which is its leading representative4 ,the class reptilia stands next to the class batrachia4 ,reptiles are cold-blooded1 vertebrate animals1 which breathe by the means of lungs4 ,the form of the body is generally like that of the batrachians1 between which and the birds1 the reptiles find their place in nature4 ,thus the horned toad and the 8horrid ,moloch0 are lizards1--reptiles which look very much more like toads than like their reptile brethren1--while the 8frilled lizard0 and the 8flying dragon10 gayly colored tree-dwellers1 are more suggestive of birds than of some other lizards4 ,the body of most reptiles performs the chief part in locomotion1 moving with an undulatory action from side to side4 ,the spinal column is therefore strong and stiff1 and the tail is long1 while the head and shoulders are comparatively small and narrow4 ,some of the reptiles1 as the serpent tribe1 have no feet1 but the tortoise family have well-developed feet1 and move by means of them1 and not by serpentine undulations of the body4 ,most of the reptiles are voracious feeders1 and are well provided with teeth4 ,the skull is always depressed1 with a small cavity for the brain1 and the standard of reptilian intelligence is comparatively low4 ,no class varies more greatly in the size of its representatives4 ,we find tiny chameleons and lizards but a very few inches long1 and great crocodiles many feet in length4 ,there are snakes no longer than one's little finger1 and boa-constrictors large enough to swallow a man or a cow4 ,there are little turtles of the diameter of a twenty-five-cent piece1 and huge turtles that weigh eight hundred pounds4 ,when we name these species we are reminded what a wide variety there is in the families of the reptilian class4 ,there are four methods of securing safety1 or life-preservation1 known among the reptiles2 the most common1--because the small creatures to which it pertains are happily the most numerous of their group--is imitation in form and color4 ,we have noted this in the lizards4 ,the second method is the wearing of natural armor1 by the thickening of the skin or hide4 ,thus1 in the serpents1 the skin is often covered with scales2 the scale-plate of crocodiles and alligators is generally bullet-proof2 in the turtle family the body is protected by a hard1 solid box of united plates neatly and closely put together4 ,a third means of preservation is found in weapons of defence1 as great teeth and huge1 lashing tails1 as in the crocodilia2 or violent poison in fangs1 as in many snakes4 ,lastly1 the greater reptiles have often no weapon but their vast strength1 as most of the boas2 no creature desires to cope with them or go within reach of their mighty coils4 ,to make closer acquaintance with the most prominent and notable of all reptiles1 we must go to the torrid zone4 ,the hot breath of the desert smites us1 as the sun's rays are like fierce thrusts1 the noon-day is scorching1 still1 breathless2 the green of summer seems to have been burned away1 as in a furnace blast4 ,there1 stretched his lazy length on the black ooze1 beside the famous river of ,africa1 lying in the full glare of the sun1 his little eyes sleepily shut1 heedless alike of the insects that cluster about him1 and of the birds which dart down to carry them off1 lies the monster that was in ancient times often worshipped as a god--the crocodile4 ,the crocodile gives his name to his order1 crocodilia2 which order1 happily for human convenience1 has but few representatives4 ,the characteristics of this order are3 aquatic habits1 firmly planted teeth1 skin thick and furnished with armor-plates1 a long tail1 four short legs1 and feet with toes4 ,the crocodile's limbs are muscular and active1 well articulated or put together1 and end in fingers or toes1 whichever we may choose to call them4 ,the strong1 bony plates are chiefly on the creature's back4 ,a peculiarity of the teeth is that they are cone or wedge shaped1 and a pair on the lower jaw are much longer than the others1 and fit into notches in the upper jaw when the mouth is closed4 ,what is the use of these big teeth8 ,it is to seize and hold firmly the prey of the monster1 so that by no struggles can it escape when held by these cruel prongs4 ,the crocodilia are all inhabitants of hot countries1 and are found in ,asia1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and tropical ,america4 ,we chiefly associate them in our thoughts with the ,nile and the ,ganges rivers1 where they particularly abound1 and were once paid divine honors4 ,the gavial1 or crocodile of ,india1 often reaches twenty-five feet in length1 and is the giant of its order4#gj ,it is distinguished from the true ,nile crocodiles and the alligators by its very long and narrow snout1 the jaws of which are set with fifty-four teeth above and fifty-two below1 presenting the appearance of a terrible pair of huge double saws4 ,each of these great cone-shaped teeth has beneath it1 slowly growing for future use1 two or three other teeth1 which1 as the tooth in use is worn out1 grow up and displace it1 and so continue the perfection of the entire set4 ,the shape of the nose or snout of the crocodile changes with its age2 a young crocodile's snout is depressed1 and the animal cannot remain under water so long as an old one4 ,the male gavials have a large1 prominent swelling in front of the nostril4 ,africa is the original home of the true crocodile1 and there it has been feared and deified from remote antiquity4 ,pictures and sculptures of it are to be found on the oldest monuments4 ,with the terror of the crocodile the ,african mothers frighten their children into obedience1 and often in the end the crocodile gets both mother and child if they venture too near the water4 ,in the ,upper ,nile region the beasts abound1 and are seen lying basking in the sun1 8placed side by side like rows of felled tree trunks10 says one traveller4 ,they abound thus because the number of eggs deposited is enormous4 ,no creature is more subject to enemies3 men1 turtles1 and fish1 besides wild animals1 seek out and devour the crocodile eggs4 ,as soon as the little monsters are hatched1 fish1 wild beasts1 birds of prey1 and the large male crocodiles wait to devour them4 ,a baby crocodile has no friend or defender but its mother1 and through all its life it is the foe of nearly every living thing1 and consequently hated and attacked by everything that is capable of doing it injury4 ,the crocodiles are entirely carnivorous in their habits4 ,they prefer putrid flesh to fresh1 and thus they are valuable river scavengers1 eating every carcass that appears4 ,travellers tell us that in attacking prey the crocodile prefers to give first a good blow with his tail1 and so render the victim unconscious4 ,then he drags it under water and devours it2 or1 if not pressingly hungry1 buries it in the mud until it partly decays4 ,the monsters lie in wait at fords1 or at the drinking places where cattle and wild beasts come at evening to drink4 ,then they seize the stooping prey and pull it under the water4 ,antelopes1 cows1 and human beings seem to be the crocodile's favorite food4 ,the creature is cowardly and will draw off if a person shows fight when it appears4 ,owing to its habit of eating putrid flesh1 the eyes1 mouth1 and throat of the crocodile are infested with swarms of large meat flies4 ,the 8,nile bird10 an agile and pretty insectivorous bird1 follows the crocodile about1 and1 dashing even into his open jaws1 picks off the flies4 ,the brute seems to understand the good offices of the bird1 and never snaps at it or closes his mouth upon it4 ,thus the ,nile bird is the only friend of the crocodile1 and the only living thing that does not fear him4 ,the tongue of the crocodile is attached all round to the bottom of the mouth1 and cannot be protruded4 ,the neck is so formed with rib-like processes that it can be moved but little1 so the giant reptile has no means of ridding itself of its persistent insignificant torments1 the flies1 and is at the mercy of the ,nile bird's appetite to get relief4 ,the mother crocodile lays her eggs in the sand1 which she heaps over them1 and leaves the sun to warm them into life4 ,a recent traveller says that he took seventy-nine eggs from a crocodile's place of deposit near the bank of an ,african river4 ,there was no effort to make a nest1 but the mother had chosen a spot a few paces from the bank of the river1 and had made it clear of plants in a circle of several yards in diameter4 ,to do this she had placed herself on the spot and wheeled her heavy body round a number of times1 making the earth clear4 ,then she had laid down a few branches1 as if to prevent the eggs from rolling away4 ,next she dug out four pits1 each about two feet deep1 obliquely set4 ,the eggs were laid twenty or twenty-five each day1 until a hundred had been placed in the pits1 one pit being dug and filled before another was made4 ,after the eggs are laid the mother crocodile remains asleep near them a great part of the time1 basking in the sun1 and leaving the place of deposit only to go to the water and seek food4 ,the egg-laying occurs but once a year1 about the opening of ,january4 ,it is two months before the young hatch out1 and about the time they appear the rainy season sets in4 ,as they come from the hatching place they take to the water by instinct1 and there the mother is waiting to give them what defence she can1 for the male adult crocodiles are ready to devour them1 and wild beasts of various kinds make them a prey4 ,the young crocodiles show their fierce disposition at once1 fighting1 biting1 and making themselves generally disagreeable as soon as they get into the water4 ,,footnotes3 #gj ,specimens even longer than this have been noted4 ,,lesson ,,xxxviii4 ,,el ,,lagarto4 ,basking upon a log he lies2 ,around him skim the dragon flies2 ,above the squirrel drums his tune2 ,the rabbit steals along the brake1 ,and trembles lest his footsteps wake ,the tyrant of the still lagoon4 ,illustration3 ,,lurking4 ,the alligator is an ,american crocodile4#ga ,the order crocodilia1 which includes the gavial of ,india1 the true crocodile of the ,nile1 the cayman of the ,orinoco region1 and the ,american alligator1 is plentiful in ,florida and some of our other ,southern ,states1 and takes its scientific name from the ,mississippi ,river1#gb one of its favorite homes4 ,the name alligator is of ,spanish origin1 el lagarto1 the lizard1 and was given by the early ,spanish explorers of our ,southern ,states because this was the greatest lizard they had ever seen4 ,this ,american crocodile1 the alligator1 is one of the best-known creatures in the world4 ,being easily caught1 and easily reared1 it is seen in the cheapest shows1 museums1 and menageries1 and in many public aquariums and zoological gardens4 ,for my own part ,i never felt a deeper sympathy with any wretched beast than ,i did with a pair of alligators in the ,brighton ,aquarium1 ,england4 ,lying in a grotto1 where all that could be done in the way of providing them with a few inches of water1 and a certain amount of damp heat had been done to testify to the general good will of their keepers1 were those miserable exiles from their hot1 native lagoons4 ,i fancied that among the mists and raw cold of 8,john ,bull's tight little island0 these creatures longed1 as ,i did1 for the vivid blaze of a southern sun4 ,while an alligator basking on a log in hot sunshine1 deep water close at hand to slip into for safety1 is a picture of intense lazy enjoyment1 an alligator blinking at an electric light in an aquarium1 a chilly beast stretched upon wet stones1 seems in his stillness a picture of apathetic misery4 ,i doubt if either of the beasts in the aquarium could have roused to enough interest in life to snap at its favorite food1 a puppy1 had one ventured near4 ,they did not even show appreciation of the fact that a person like myself1 with a toleration for dog-days1 and a hearty longing for palmettoes1 trumpet-creepers1 magnolias1 and red-birds1 was looking at them with sympathy and a gleam of kindness6 ,the adult alligator is easily taken prisoner by being seized from behind as it lies basking2 its legs are securely bound1 its mouth muzzled1 and then--away to a showman's cage6 ,the ,orinoco cayman and the ,mississippi alligator are often captured in the following curious fashion4 ,a hook baited with some small animal1 which the alligator especially likes as food1 is dropped into the water1 and when seized by the alligator1 the hook which is not sharp1 but blunt and double1 is arranged to expand and fill the creature's throat1 but will not pierce or tear it4 ,then by pulling at the chain or rope attached to this hook1 the brute is drawn ashore4 ,a strong man next leaps on its back1 grasps its fore-legs and draws them bridle-wise back to serve as reins4 ,thus mounted the captor maintains his seat as on a fractious horse1 during all the creature's plunges and tail-lashing1 until finally it succumbs1 fairly worn out by its own battle4 ,once entirely exhausted1 it becomes weak1 mild1 and obedient4 ,the food of the alligator is squirrels1 rabbits1 water-rats1 water-fowl1 fish1 hares1 and young dogs1 but it will attack men and kill children if it has opportunity4 ,its method of preying is much like that of the ,nile crocodile2 the victim is first pulled under the water and drowned1 and then eaten at leisure4#gc ,the alligator seems to know that while he is merely enjoying a little agreeable change under the surface of the water1 his prey will drown4 ,why does not the water rush into the lungs of the alligator1 and so smother it1 as the alligator is a lung-breathing animal8 ,because it has at the base of its tongue an interior collar which expands and guards the passages to the lungs when it is under water4 ,when it wants a mouthful of air it elevates its head above water while its hands hold its victim below the surface4 ,the alligator is a smaller animal than the crocodile1 its length being from five to ten feet2 its head is shorter and broader than that of the crocodile1 and its snout is more obtuse4 ,the large1 long teeth on the lower jaw do not1 as in the crocodile1 fit into external furrows on the upper jaw1 but into pits made there to receive them4 ,the hind legs and feet of a crocodile have a jagged fringe which the alligator does not have2 the alligator's hind feet are webbed only about half way up the toes1 and the crocodile's hind feet are webbed to the very tip4 ,despite the strong musky odor of the alligator's flesh1 it has sometimes been eaten3 so also there are people who will eat crocodile's flesh and eggs4 ,to a civilized appetite no flesh could be more loathsome4 ,the alligator's bill of fare is not confined to the living creatures we have just mentioned as furnishing its favorite food4 ,alert for its breakfast1 this pirate of the lagoons and bayous gathers up fish1 flesh1 and fowl for its table1 but swallows1 as a condiment1 whatever comes handy4 ,an old rubber shoe floating in the water1 an empty soda-water bottle1 a lost jack-knife1 a battered tin can1 a stone as big as an orange1 part of a broken lamp1--any of these are welcomed as serving to fill the yawning vacancy in its stomach1 and to aid in grinding up more digestible food4 ,similarly an ostrich will swallow a horseshoe1 a table-knife1 a spoon1 a leather strap and buckle1 a few spools of thread1 or any other trifle left in its way1 seeming to consider its stomach1 as a school-boy does his pocket1 a general receptacle for almost anything that comes to hand6 ,baby alligators make rather amusing pets for a number of months1 before they begin to exhibit hereditary traits1 when they at once fail to be agreeable4 ,they will eat eggs1 raw or cooked meat1 rats1 mice1 birds1 frogs1 toads4 ,they learn to come when they are called1 enjoy hearing a whistle1 and1 on rare occasions1 show some slight degree of gratitude and affection1 amiable characteristics which they speedily outgrow4 ,when these baby alligators are a few months old1 they must be killed or put back into the water where their relatives live4 ,alligators are usually silent animals1 but in the spring1 when the eggs are being laid1 they all become noisy and excited1 and bellow like buffaloes4 ,a number of adult alligators roaring together make a sound like distant heavy thunder4 ,the mother alligator builds with her front feet a mound of mud1 or sand1 though if she finds a mound just to her taste1 she takes that1 and saves herself trouble4 ,in the mound she places her eggs1 and in due time the sun hatches them4 ,the eggs of reptiles are not enclosed in hard1 brittle shells1 as those of birds1 but in a thick1 tough1 elastic skin1 as if the white skin that lines a bird's egg-shell had grown parchment-like and served instead of shell4 ,the eggs are the size of hen's eggs1 but more pointed4 ,as soon as the little alligators come from the egg1 they scuttle off to the water and are ready to fight their enemies and begin their predatory lives4 ,as they are smaller and less fierce than the gavials1 caymans1 or true crocodiles1 they are far less destructive4 ,an alligator of twelve feet long is a giant of his kind4 ,not only are the alligators smaller than crocodiles1 but they have fewer teeth1 and are 8less handy with their tails10 not being able to strike out quite so vigorously4 ,the alligator is among the animals that are disappearing before perpetual hunting and the presence of men about their old haunts4 ,they are still numerous1 but fewer than they were some years ago4 ,they will die out speedily unless people undertake to raise them on alligator farms4 ,and why should people do that8 ,for the sake of their skins4 ,alligator skins make a strong and handsome leather1 very beautiful for bags1 portmanteaus1 purses1 boots1 portfolios2 and for the sake of their skins they should be reared4 ,,footnotes3 #ga ,a true ,crocodilus ,americanus1 long overlooked or mistaken for an alligator1 has been discovered in ,america4 #gb ,alligator ,mississippiensis4 #gc ,the alligator1 like the crocodile1 can close the nostril opening and remain under water for some time4 ,,lesson ,,xxxix4 ,,wiser ,,than ,,any ,,beast ,,of ,,the ,,field4 8,beyond the shadows of the ship ,i watched the water snakes2 ,they moved in tracks of shining white2 ,and when they reared1 the elfish light ,fell off in hoary flakes40 --,,coleridge1 ,ancient ,mariner4 ,between man and the snake there seems to be placed an instinctive and unappeasable enmity4 ,the snake1 seeing any human being1 either glides off in haste1 or coils itself up and hisses1 or throws itself forward in attack4 ,the human being1 on the other hand1 experiences fear1 disgust1 aversion1 and seizes stick or stone1 or makes use of his heel1 if well protected1 to kill the snake4 8,war to the death1 and no quarter10 seems to be the cry between the highest of the mammals and the serpent tribe4 ,illustration3 ,,our ,,natural ,,enemy4 8,as hideous as a snake0 is a common phrase1 born of the hatred between man and the ophidian order1 but in point of fact1 were enmity left out of the question1 the creatures of the serpent tribe are not hideous4 ,a lithe1 long1 cylindrical body1 coated with glittering scales1 and splendid with all the colors of the rainbow1 elegantly arranged in rings1 lines1 or dots2 bright eyes2 graceful motions2 a tongue that plays to and fro like lightning in an open throat1 often of vivid flame color2 a head sometimes crested as if bearing a royal crown1--these are some of the characteristics of that serpent family1 which instinctively we call 8hideous0 and 8hateful40 ,to the above briefly noted particulars we may add that the eyes of snakes are lidless and the sight somewhat feeble2 the sense of smell is better developed1 and the nostrils are placed close to the mouth4 ,the mouth is large proportionately1 and opens widely2 the tongue is the organ of touch2 there are no external ears1 and snakes seem to be deficient in hearing4 ,snakes have no external limbs1 except in two or three species1 where there are mere rudiments of hind-legs visible4 ,the snake's body is elastic and capable of enormous distention4 ,it is furnished with a spinal column1 and with numerous ribs4 ,the ribs and scutes1 or large scales1 are the chief organs of locomotion4 ,the method of crawling shown by the worm1 as described in ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #b1 is very much like that of some snakes4 ,there are three ways in which snakes make their progression4 ,first1 they may glide forward with a perfectly straight motion1 by pushing with the scutes1 or large scale-like plates of the under part of the body1 to which the ends of the ribs are attached4 ,second1 these scutes may open out as the scales of a fish when scraped backward from head to tail1#gd and on the edges of these opened scute-plates1 the snake may walk4 ,third1 they may go forward by pushing2 stretching out the body1 and then contracting it1 and making the same motion over again1 these motions being sinuous1 or wave-like1 from side to side4 ,the light1 smooth body of the snake1 provided with numerous small1 powerful muscles1 renders its progress by any of these methods exceedingly rapid4 ,water snakes swim1 waving the body from side to side1 and using the tail as an oar is used in sculling4 ,no serpent can move on a perfectly smooth surface1 as glass2 it must have some ridges1 or roughness to resist the motions of the scales and ribs4 ,serpents are dumb except for their hiss1 which is produced by driving the air swiftly from the lungs4 ,in some snakes the hiss is varied to a whine or hum4 ,serpents1 like the batrachians1 cast off their skins and come out in gleaming new skins which have grown under the old ones4 ,if the serpent for any reason cannot cast its skin at the proper time1 it sickens and dies4 ,the cast coat is perfect in form1 but is generally turned inside out4 ,cast snake-skins are sometimes found in the woods by sharp-eyed boys4 ,sometimes the lucky boy finds a whole skin2 at other times the cast skin has been partly destroyed by ants1 beetles1 or the effects of the weather4 ,some snakes swallow their cast-off skins4 ,snakes usually move about and hunt in the day-time1 and sleep at night4 ,they hibernate1 or take a long winter sleep1 as the lizards do4 ,for hibernation they retire to caves1 to holes in logs or in the ground1 and may be found torpid1 a number rolled closely together4 ,at such times the most poisonous snakes1 as the viper and rattlesnake1 may be handled without danger4 ,in the spring they begin to revive with the first warm weather4 ,i remember that when ,i was a little girl a very beautiful hollow or cave in the river-bank not far from ,niagara ,falls was called 8,the ,rattlesnake's ,cove10 because so many snakes lived there4 ,in summer the place was carefully avoided4 ,in early spring1 before the snakes awoke from their sleep1 this cove was a favorite place for picnics1 and the school-boys often went there armed with knives1 hatchets1 picks1 and hoes1 and hunted for the torpid snakes and killed them by scores4 ,in hot countries1 where there is no winter to send them off to sleep1 the snakes are for some part of the year stupid and drowsy1 and lie for several weeks in a nearly comatose condition4 ,in this state they are too dull to be either timid or ill-tempered4 ,on the other hand1 when casting their skins1 they are exceedingly nervous and vicious4 ,all snakes are flesh eaters1 and have very hearty appetites4 ,they drink a large amount of water1 and when a captive snake is well supplied with water1 it can live for several weeks without food4 ,however1 it is doubtless hungry1 and the experiment is a cruel one to try even on a snake4 ,the serpents have many teeth1 sharp1 cone-like1 and pointing backward4 ,these teeth grow constantly2 when they become at last old and worthless1 they are at once renewed4 ,lucky snakes6 no toothless gums1 no worn-out1 broken teeth1 no aching teeth1 no dentist's bills4 ,nature keeps their teeth perfect from infancy to old age4 ,snakes lay eggs1 and with the one exception of the python1 which carries her eggs in a fold of her body1 they deposit the eggs in safe places1 leave them to hatch by sun heat1 and let the little ones take care of themselves as soon as they come forth from the eggs4 ,there are also a few species of snakes which have their little ones born alive1 not in the egg4 ,snakes' eggs are enclosed in a leathery skin like those of turtles4 ,there is a widely spread story that the young of some kinds of snakes accompany their mother1 and in time of danger she stretches open her mouth1 and they take refuge in her throat1 where they remain safely until the danger is passed4 ,the keepers of the 8snake-house0 in the ,london ,zoological ,garden told me they had never known a case of the kind1 and the best scientific writers have found no proofs that such story is true4 ,therefore this tale is open to grave doubts4 ,the snake is a creature about which fables have been gathering from the earliest times4 ,the snake was one of the first objects of false worship2 coiled in a ring with its tail in its mouth1 it was taken as a symbol of eternity4 ,the ,magi of the ,east used it as the emblem of their order and their arts2 a serpent twined on a stick was also the emblem of physicians1 and of the art of healing4 ,it is strange that a creature exhibiting so many deadly varieties should have been chosen as the insignia of the physician1 and not less strange that to the serpent should have been attributed great wisdom4 ,snakes exhibit fear and anger1 but almost no wisdom or anything that seems like reason4 ,nearly all domestic animals--ants1 bees1 spiders1 and many fishes--show far more forecast1 ingenuity1 architectural ability1 than any snake4 ,and yet 8crafty as a snake10 8wise as a serpent10 are frequent expressions4 ,snakes vary greatly in their habits3 there are snakes which live on the ground1 hiding under stones1 leaves1 or brush1 and in rock crevices2 other snakes live chiefly in the water1 making their holes in the bank below water-mark2 others live in trees1 and some others almost entirely underground4 ,to this tribe surrounded by enemies1 nature has given abundant means of self-preservation1--swiftness of motion2 instinct of instant flight2 poison1 sometimes deadly to its enemies2 vast size and strength1 as in some boas and pythons1 and especially colorations1 which closely imitate their surroundings4 ,thus ground snakes have1 especially on the back and sides1 brown1 gray1 black1 and white in spots and markings1 which together look much like earth1 twigs1 pebbles1 and dead leaves1 so that the snake can scarcely be distinguished from its bed or home4 ,tree snakes1 and snakes that live in grass or mosses1 are usually green1 marbled1 or streaked with black and brown4 ,snakes from the marshes or muddy banks are nearly black2 among the abundant flowers and gayly colored shrubs of the tropics1 snakes take very brilliant hues4 ,snakes of temperate climates are also often tricked out with scarlet1 or white or orange stripes and bands4 ,snakes are largest1 most numerous1 and most brightly colored in hot countries4 ,like all the cold-blooded vertebrates1 they delight in hot sunshine1 and will lie motionless1 basking for hours4 ,in taking a position for this sun-bath1 they select a place where they will not be conspicuous4 ,i have often noticed that while a gray snake will stretch itself out in the sun on a bare rock1 a green snake never chooses such a post4 ,instead1 the green snake extends itself on a bed of moss1 or close1 short grass1 or if slim and light of body1 will crawl up the midrib of a big leaf1 or the stalk of a fern frond1 where its color is scarcely discernible from the vegetation about it4 ,a dark brown or black snake seems to know that it is tolerably secure lying upon a fallen1 decaying tree-trunk4 ,so a gray1 or black and white snake1 may often be seen sunning himself on a fence-rail1 or on the top of a stone wall4 ,there seems to be a common notion that because a creature is a snake1 it must be dangerous and poisonous4 ,this is quite wrong1 for in point of fact1 very few of the numerous serpent families are venomous4 ,the greater number of their species are quite harmless4 ,one of the most dangerous of all snakes1 the boa-constrictor1 does not kill its prey by poisoning1 but by crushing it4 ,in general1 the head of the harmless snake is rounded and oblong1 while the poisonous species have heads flat and triangular4 ,snakes prey upon birds1 toads1 rats1 mice1 frogs1 gophers1 and destroy much harmful vermin4 ,the common snakes1 called 8milk snakes0 and 8garter snakes10 which frequent barns1 are not at all poisonous1 but1 on the contrary1 are useful1 destroying rats and mice4 ,nearly all snakes are very fond of milk1 and will glide up to a bowl of bread and milk1 especially if it is warmed1 and eat it with great relish4 ,black snakes are seldom harmful to people1 but are cruel enemies of birds1 devouring the young and the eggs1 and tearing up the nests4 ,snakes seem to be able to 8charm0 or mesmerize small animals1 and sometimes even human beings1 by fixing their gaze steadfastly upon them4 ,the victim appears to be smitten dumb and motionless with terror1 and a bird thus charmed will presently flutter straight toward the open mouth of the snake4 ,i have seen one case of a snake so charming a bird1 but ,i had a better opportunity to study a cat charming a bird1 and probably the process is much alike in both4 ,the cat placed itself on the outside sill of my window1 near to a pine tree4 ,a bird presently alighted on the pine tree1 no doubt not observing the cat4 ,the cat fixed its attention on the bird4 ,the cat's eyes were widely opened1 and shone with a peculiar brightness2 its head was raised and intent1 the fur on its neck and about its face slowly stood up1 as if electrified4 ,except for this rising of the fur1 and a certain intensity of life in the whole attitude of the beast1 it was as still as if cut from stone4 ,the bird quivered1 trembled1 looked fixedly at the cat1 and finally1 with a feeble shake of the wings1 fell toward the cat1 which bounded to seize it4 ,,footnotes3 #gd ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,scales and ,teeth4 ,,lesson ,,xl4 ,,our ,,common ,,enemy4 8,within the shadow of the ship ,i watched their rich attire1 ,blue1 glossy green1 and velvet black1 ,they coiled and shone1 and every track ,was a flash of golden fire60 --,,coleridge4 ,one day while sitting at dinner ,i heard a loud outcry from some bluebirds1 especial pets of mine1 which had their nest in a little grove of dwarf oaks near my house4 ,hurrying out to inquire into the troubles of my favorites1 ,i saw the mother bird sitting on a twig1 her wings dropped wide and slack1 her tail drooping1 her head stretched forward1 quivering with fear2 the father bird was flying about crying wildly1 while on a limb of the oak1 and approaching the nest1 was a large black snake4 ,the nest was full of nearly hatched eggs4 ,to throw a big stone at the snake was the first performance4 ,then some one ran for a cane to beat the monster2 but the snake had concluded that discretion was the better part of valor1 and waited only to receive one good blow1 before he glided off among the bushes so swiftly that we could not find him4 ,where these big climbing snakes are numerous1 the birds have a hard time to raise a brood1 for the snakes destroy the nests1 and devour alike parents and fledglings4 ,except for their attacks on the birds1 tree-climbing snakes are usually of the harmless kind1 and are sometimes even useful4 ,there is1 however1 a tree snake in hot countries1 which seems to have a spiteful disposition1 and darts from the branches at the eyes and faces of passers-by1 often inflicting a sharp1 though not poisonous wound4 ,i once formed the acquaintance of a girl who acted as 8snake-charmer0 in a museum4 ,she astonished the public by going into a glass cage filled with snakes1 which she handled and played with4 ,she held the snakes in her lap1 twined them about her neck and arms1 and made free with them in many ways4 ,she told me confidentially1 that while these snakes looked as if they were terrible monsters1 they were the most of them fangless and of harmless varieties4 ,those which were of poisonous species had been rendered safe playthings by having their fangs cut out4 ,the poisonous snakes have a poison sac or bag1 which empties into a little duct or canal running along each side of the jaw to a large tooth or fang2 by an action of the throat muscles1 the serpent presses poison from the sac through the canal1 and ejects it through the tooth as it bites4 ,by cutting out the fangs the snake is rendered harmless1 but only for the time being4 ,the poison apparatus reproduces itself1 and unless the process of growth is watched and the fang again cut out1 the lately harmless snake may suddenly become harmful1 and the snake-charmer be fatally wounded4 8,the poisonous ones do not keep from biting because ,i charm them1 or because they like me10 said the snake-charmer frankly4 8,snakes never know or like anybody1 so far as ,i can see2 it is only that they can't bite1 that's all4 ,folks think the snakes love me because they coil about me4 ,it is only because ,i am warm that they do that4 ,they are cold creatures1 the snakes1 and they like the heat of my arms1 neck1 and lap1 that's all40 ,among the snakes without poison glands are the pythons1 the species that watches over and incubates its eggs4 ,the mother python coils herself round and over the eggs1 and for three months retains this position1 until the little ones are hatched4 ,she seems to be very fond of her young1 and is the model mother of all the snake tribe4 ,the larger pythons eat birds1 cats1 rabbits1 hares1 frogs1 and dogs4 ,they seldom meddle with human beings in any way4 ,the sand snakes are nearly related to the pythons and are also non-poisonous4 ,the largest of all snakes1 the boa-constrictor1 belongs to the same sub-order as the python1 and would be harmless if it were not for its rabid appetite1 which tempts it to devour every living thing which it sees1 while its great strength enables it to master almost any prey4 ,thus it will wind about a man1 an ox1 or a horse1 and crush such victims to death1 and feed upon them at leisure4 ,the boas and most of the pythons are natives of hot countries4 ,a man who had long been a sailor gave me an account of the capture of a boa-constrictor1 which is now in the ,london ,zoological ,garden4 ,this sailor wanted to go to the interior of the island of ,java1 to see the country4 ,when he landed in ,java he met an ,english gentleman1 ,sir ,henry ----1 who was fond of travel and hunting1 and had come to ,java intending to capture some wild animals to present to the ,regent's ,park ,zoological ,garden4 ,a rajah of ,java had invited ,sir ,henry to go to his bungalow in the central part of the island1 and have a big hunt4 ,sir ,henry offered to take the sailor along to aid him4 ,they caught a tiger and several other beasts1 and ,i will describe to you the way in which they captured a boa-constrictor4 ,they found a place in the forest1 where the crushed grass and brush showed that a boa frequently passed by4 ,then at evening1 they fastened a goat to a tree that its crying might attract the big snake4 ,for two or three nights something carried off the goat1 or it managed to escape4 ,finally they chained the goat4 ,the hunters were watching and waiting some way off4 ,at last they heard cries from the goat1 which cries the natives said meant that a snake was coming4 ,then all was still1 and they said that meant that the boa was eating the goat4 ,accordingly they hurried to the spot4 ,there1 stretched out his full length1 lay a huge boa2 he had swallowed the goat1 which distended the front part of his body so that he would have had hard work to move1 even if he had not been held by the chain attached to the swallowed goat4 ,this chain was fastened to a plane tree1 and held the boa fast1 as he could not disgorge the goat4 ,the boa does not dismember or chew its food2 it crushes it1 and swallows it whole4 ,then it lies quiet1 and waits for the mass to digest4 ,thus the boa was captured by the chain down its throat4 ,several strong natives now leaped upon the monster's tail and held it down4 ,others laid a long1 thick bamboo on each side of the boa1 from head to tail4 ,then with strong1 new ropes they wound and bound the snake to the bamboos until he was stiffly imprisoned4 ,next they released the chain from the tree1 and left the end dangling from the snake's greedy mouth4 ,then a dozen or more strong natives picked up the bamboo sticks1 with the great serpent between them1 and marched off to the coast1 where a cage had been prepared for it on an ,english ship4 ,the sub-order which includes the greatest snakes in the world1 as the boas1 pythons1 and anacondas1 includes also some of the very smallest1 tiny creatures not over an inch in diameter and a few inches in length4 ,these snakes exhibit every variety of color and marking1--green1 gold1 crimson1 white1 black1 brown1 violet1 yellow2 they gleam in the splendors of the rainbow4 ,i remember once on a crest of the ,lehigh ,mountains ,i was looking up some of the lower vertebrates1 when1 happening to glance over the side of a big stone on which ,i was sitting1 ,i saw the most beautiful little snake that ,i could imagine4 ,it was coiled up in the sun1 and was only about ten inches long1 and less than one inch in diameter4 ,it was of a vivid emerald green color1 and as the sun touched its tiny scales they seemed bordered and powdered with gold4 ,the under part of its body paled to pea green and silver white1 a few dots of red glittered about its neck and shoulders1 like coral beads4 ,its wide-open mouth was reddish and bordered with yellow4 ,its tiny tongue played like lightning to and fro1 caught the sunshine1 and gleamed as if dipped in gold4 ,alarmed at seeing me1 and afraid to leave its retreat on the sunny side of the stone1 it erected its head with a low hiss1 darted it from side to side1 and seemed to try to frighten me away4 ,almost as pretty as this little dweller on the mountains are some of the water snakes1 which are often iridescent1 and change in tints of red1 purple1 crimson1 orange1 and green4 ,good swimmers and fishers1 they pass a happy life among the lily-pads4 ,,lesson ,,xli4 ,,with ,a ,,house ,,on ,,his ,,back4 ,and through the mossy wood-paths slow ,i see the silent tortoise go4 ,the flecks of light1 the shadows dim1 ,the springing flowers1 are naught to him2 ,the dry pine needles are his bed1 ,his house is always o'er his head1 ,the fungus is his table spread4 ,several years ago1 walking one morning in a wood in ,pennsylvania1 ,i surprised a wood turtle or box tortoise1 eating his breakfast4 ,the season had been rainy and many varieties of large fungus had attained a prodigal growth4 ,the woods were full of what are popularly called toad-stools2 many of them were of the diameter of a tea-plate1 and stood five or six inches high4 ,as ,i walked through the wood ,i observed that many of these fungi had been gnawed off evenly1 as if cut by a knife1 leaving only the central pillar intact4 ,what had done this8 ,i soon discovered2 for moving noiselessly over the mossy earth1 ,i came to a little opening1 where grew one of the finest of these toad-stools1 and there was a wood turtle taking his breakfast4 ,the animal had already made one or two rounds of his plate1 and was eating with praiseworthy deliberation4 ,he would bite off a mouthful of toad-stool1 chew it carefully until he had extracted all the juice1 then open his mouth and drop out the chewed fibre1 and take a fresh mouthful1 not biting inward toward the stem1 but breaking off the morsel next beside that which he had just eaten4 ,he paced round and round the fungus as he took his bites1 eating his plate like neas and the other ,trojans1#ge and as the fungus decreased in regular circles1 the circle of chewed fragments increased4 ,in three-quarters of an hour he had eaten all the disk of the fungus to the stem part1 and then he walked slowly off to look for another4 ,i found the crumbs that had fallen from his vanished table quite dry1 nothing nutritious being left in them4 ,why he rejected the central part of the fungus and the stem1 ,i could not imagine1 but he left it in every instance4 ,if he came upon a decayed or wormy portion of the toad-stool1 he did not 8bite round it10 but abandoned it altogether1 and went for a fresh one4 ,at another turn in this wood1 ,i found1 under a pine tree1 the shell and entire skeleton of a turtle1 from which every particle of flesh and muscle was gone4 ,the animal had died on his bed of pine needles1 and his decaying body had been devoured by ants1 which had left a delicately white skeleton4 ,the little horny jaw had a very close resemblance to the beaks of certain birds4 ,the turtle is a four-legged reptile1 with a short1 stout1 oval-shaped body1 encased in a bony frame or box1 from which the animal is able to protrude its head1 legs1 and tail1 and into which it can withdraw them at pleasure4 ,in different varieties of turtle1 the size and shape of the box-like covering varies4 ,the box tortoise can retire into its shell and close the under part into a groove of the upper edge1 and thus form for itself an impregnable retreat2 but there are varieties only partly encased by the shell1 which cannot bring their heads and feet under cover4 ,the turtle wanders about with its house on its back as the snail does1 and against its enemies it can close its doors and be emphatically 8not at home40 ,turtles have keen sight and hearing2 they have no teeth1 the jaws being simply cased in horn1 like those of birds4 ,many of them are capable of making loud sounds4 ,turtles lay eggs which are buried in earth or sand1 and left to themselves to hatch4 ,the sea turtle is the largest variety1 and will sometimes lay as many as two hundred eggs in a single heap4 ,sea turtles weighing a thousand pounds have been caught in tropical lands4 ,turtles of five or six hundred pounds weight have been captured on the ,united ,states coast4 ,in the four species of marine turtles1 the feet are flat and fin-shaped4 ,in one the shell is rather leathery than horny4 ,some of these marine turtles are carnivorous1 living on fish1 mollusks1 and crustaceans2 others are strictly vegetarian1 feeding only on roots and various sea-weeds4 ,the flesh of some of the sea turtles is rich and delicious1 and a favorite and costly article of food2 but of some others the flesh is coarse and strongly flavored1 so as to be quite uneatable4 ,the eggs are always sweet1 good1 and wholesome food4 ,the shell of the sea turtle is a valuable article of commerce1 boxes1 cases1 handles for knives1 jewelry and other delicate ornamental things being made from it2 it is susceptible of a high polish1 which brings out clearly its rich brown and golden shades and markings4 ,next to the marine turtles1 come the fresh-water or river turtles4 ,these eat both animal and vegetable food4 ,they enjoy lying in a bed of mud1 their heads lifted above the surface of the stagnant water1 their long necks moving snake-like to and fro as they take mouthfuls of air4 ,the fresh-water turtles are generally gregarious in their habits1 large numbers of them being found together4 ,they are fond of lying in the sun on logs or banks1 near the water1 into which they promptly slide at the first hint of danger4 ,they are timid creatures1 but if caught will snap and bite furiously4 ,salt and fresh water terrapins are a variety of turtle4 ,some scientists distinguish the turtle from the tortoise thus3 the turtle is a marine animal1 does not hibernate1 cannot draw its head and feet inside its shell4 ,the tortoise never goes to sea2 can draw itself entirely within its shell1 though only the box tortoise can close the shell fast when so withdrawn1 and finally1 the tortoise hibernates4 ,some of the best and latest writers on the subject call all these animals turtles1 giving the name tortoise to the box tortoise of the wood4 ,clumsy as turtles appear in their box-like covering1 they can walk rapidly on land1 are climbers of some distinction1 and all of them can swim4 ,the head1 neck1 and legs of a turtle are of a uniform color1--bronze1 blackish green1 or deep brown4 ,the shells or boxes are beautifully marked1 glossy1 ribbed1 ridged1 or carved1 and made up of closely united many-sided plates1 fitted upon a thickened1 lighter-colored1 uniform plate4 ,this shell is not brittle and lime-like1 as the shells of mollusks1 but is more like horn4 ,in general1 the shell or flat covering of the under part of the body is of a lighter color than the upper case1 being light brown1 yellow1 or cream color1 with yellow lines dividing the plates1 and bordering bands of red1 yellow1 or purple4 ,the upper shell is usually of a very dark color1 marked and lined with darker and lighter tints1 and often with a bevelled yellow edge4 ,the painted turtle receives its name from the beauty of its many-colored shell4 ,the spotted turtle1 often called the wood turtle1 is distinguished by fine yellow spots sprinkled over its black back4 ,the turtle which ,i saw feasting on the fungus was the common box tortoise4 ,this box tortoise prefers dry woods1 and dislikes the water4 ,it is a long-lived creature4 ,some specimens have been known to live over a hundred years4 ,a box tortoise that ,i had1 ate meat1 insects1 and bread and milk from my hand1 but if ,i put berries in its mouth it wiped them out with its front foot used hand-wise1 in a very funny way4 ,when it wanted to get away from the balcony1 it crawled along the edge looking over1 its neck outstretched2 when it seemed to decide to go over it suddenly drew itself close into its shell1 and making some quick jerk while quite shut up1 over it went1 came down safe in the grass1 and walked away4 ,i watched it do that many times and was never quite sure how it flung itself 8overboard0 after it was safely shut up4 ,the snapping turtle is a common variety4 ,it has a box or shell too small to close over it and hide it completely4 ,to make up for this lack1 it has a bold and hasty temper1 and snaps vigorously when disturbed4 ,the gopher is the turtle of the southern pine countries4 ,it is a large1 strong animal1 with a shell fifteen inches long4 ,these gopher turtles live in troops1 a number of families digging their dens or burrows near together4 ,the entrance to the den is about four feet long and expands into a spacious room4 ,in each burrow lives a single pair of gophers4 ,gophers' eggs are as large as pigeons' eggs1 and the eggs and flesh are prized by the negroes as food4 ,by day gophers stay at home1 by night they wander out and devour yams1 melons1 corn1 and other garden produce4 ,they dislike wet1 and go indoors when it rains4 ,a near relative of the gopher is found in ,europe1 and is often kept about the house for a pet4 ,if it can find its way into a garden in the autumn it digs a hole and hibernates1 coming forth in the spring4 ,a friend of mine in ,london had one of these animals which lived in the kitchen4 ,it was fond of creeping into the fire-place and getting under the grate1 where it would lie until the hot coals and ashes dropped upon its back and burnt its shell4 ,when winter came this little animal wanted to take its long sleep1 and dug so persistently into boxes1 baskets1 drawers1 and closets that finally a box of earth was given to it1 into which it worked its way until out of sight1 and there stayed until ,april4 ,it ate potatoes1 carrots1 turnips1 and bread and milk1 which it specially liked4 ,,footnotes3 #ge ,the harpies1 we are told1 frightened neas by saying he would be so hungry that he would eat his plate4 ,but as the ,trojans at one of their meals used big cakes of bread for plates1 the prophecy was harmlessly fulfilled4 ,,lesson ,,xlii4 ,a ,,real ,,live ,,mermaid4 8,the waters pushed1 the waters swelled1 ,a fisher sat near by1 ,and earnestly his line he held1 ,with tranquil heart and eye2 ,and while he sits and watches there ,he sees the waves divide1 ,and lo6 a maid with glistening hair ,springs from the troubled tide40 --,,goethe1 ,trans4 ,when ,i was a child ,i was greatly fascinated with tales of mermaids1 fabulous damsels who lived in the ocean4 ,they had beautiful faces and arms1 and long1 pale green hair1 which they combed with golden combs1 and decked with sea-weeds and pearls4 ,they swain like fish1 and sang most sweetly4 ,when ,i learned that mermaids were only creatures of fancy1 and did not really exist1 ,i felt as if ,i had been robbed of friends4 ,a few years later a bronzed1 wrinkled old fisherman restored to me my mermaids as real creatures1 even more interesting than the sea maids of myth4 ,and so there is a real live mermaid6 ,where shall we find her8 ,my old sailor said he first met her some miles out at sea1 in the latitude of ,florida4 ,she was swimming along at ease1 her head held above water1 and she carried on her arm her baby1 whose head she stuck up above the waves4 ,was she beautiful8 ,had she large1 lovely eyes8 ,no2 her face was something like that of a cow1 but instead of the large black eyes of a cow1 she had tiny eyes1 smaller than those of a pig4 ,but were not her arms beautiful8 ,no2 her arms were flat1 short1 somewhat of an oval shape2 in fact1 they were flippers rather than arms1 though she had free use of the elbow1 shoulder1 and wrist joints4 ,she had no hands1 no fingers1 but at the end of each flipper were three small1 flat nails4 ,had she long1 waving hair8 ,no2 she had a few coarse hairs about her face1 and a scanty covering of very fine1 short hairs over her body4 ,could she sing8 ,unfortunately all real mermaids are dumb4 ,finally1 was she of a sea-green color8 ,not at all2 her skin was very thick1 and of a dark gray1 finely wrinkled all over1 very like the skin of an elephant4 ,her upper lip was divided into two deep lobes1 and she had no lower limbs1 but instead a tail1 with a wide1 strong fin4 ,oh1 an ugly1 horrible creature6 ,by no means2 on the contrary1 as amiable1 mild1 gentle1 playful1 kindly a creature as ever drew breath4 ,a fish1 of course6 ,indeed not3 a mammal2 a mammal of the sea4 ,the class mammalia has orders of animals that live in the sea2 other orders of creatures that live mostly in the air1 and very many other creatures that live on the land1 and some that spend their lives under ground4 ,any animal that suckles its young is a mammal1 whether a swimming1 flying1 walking1 climbing1 or burrowing creature4 ,the sea mammals are the whales1 dolphins1 porpoises1 dugongs1 and this mermaid4 ,our mermaid is called by sailors a 8sea cow0 from the shape of its head and face2 a 8river calf0 from its size and habit of living in rivers2 the most common and best name for it is that given it by the early ,spanish colonists1 the manatee1 or handed animal1 because it can so skilfully use its fore limbs or flippers4 ,once there were manatees in many different parts of the world4 ,they were numerous in the ,indian ,ocean and in ,behring ,sea2 but they have been so recklessly slaughtered that now the creature is nearly unknown1 except a few in ,africa near ,cape ,verde and the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 some few along the coast of ,south ,america1 and those that inhabit the rivers of ,florida4 ,the manatee1 like the buffalo of the ,western plains1 is likely soon to be extinct4 ,the manatees of the ,eastern hemisphere seem to have been much larger than those of ,florida4#gf ,eight or ten feet is the usual length of the ,american manatee4 ,efforts have been made to raise the animals in captivity1 but they do not thrive4 ,one was kept sixteen months in the aquarium at ,brighton1 ,england1 and was fed on lettuce1 cabbage1 turnips1 thistles1 and dandelions4 ,let us now look at the animal in its favorite home1 the ,santa ,lucia ,river in ,florida4 ,manatees live in droves or herds1 and prefer shallow to deep water4 ,when they move up the river they keep well to the centre of the stream1 as they are very timid4 ,they rest near to the banks where they find plenty of grass and lily-pads to shelter them4 ,manatees come from the ,west ,indies and ,central and ,south ,america to the ,santa ,lucia ,river1 to rear their young among the thick vegetation4 ,they arrive early in ,may and remain until late in the autumn4 ,here is our manatee2 let us take a good look at it4 ,it has a gray wrinkled skin2 no fin on the back2 a stiff1 thick1 shovel-shaped tail1 with a flat tail-fin2 a moderate sized oval head with small eyes2 a very small under lip4 ,the nostrils are two slits of a half-moon shape2 the ear is a little orifice1 set not far behind the eye4 ,the sight of the manatee is good1 but its hearing is something extraordinary4 ,probably no other animal has ears so acute4 ,if a blade of grass or a leaf drops into the water the manatee hears it and darts away1 for it is as timid as it is harmless4 ,to the shoulders of the manatee are attached the flipper-like arms1 which it uses so readily4 ,when in shallow water the creature supports itself on the ends of the flippers and the tail1 and thus raising its body it moves slowly about the sandy river bottom4 ,its food is purely vegetable1 and it is interesting to watch it eat4 ,if you notice a caterpillar1 or a silkworm feeding on a leaf1 you get a notion of the method of the manatee in eating1 and its use of its odd double lip4 ,hold out a cabbage leaf to a manatee which has been kept in a tank as a pet--for though timid they are affectionate when kindly treated2 the gentle beast extends its head toward the leaf1 and in so doing parts the lobes of the upper lip1 leaving a wide gap4 ,as soon as the leaf is within this space1 the lip lobes come together and hold the leaf firmly with their bristly surfaces4 ,then the lobes draw backwards1 and the leaf is thus pushed into the mouth where there are some twelve teeth to chew it4 ,the mermaid has in all twenty-two teeth1 but some fall out before others come1 so it generally has twelve in its mouth at one time4 ,while the manatee lives constantly in the water1 it breathes air through its nostrils into its lungs4 ,to secure air it comes to the surface of the water once in every three or four minutes4 ,when it thus rises it will blow like a whale and send a spout of spray and water twelve or fifteen feet into the air4 ,it seems to enjoy this blowing2 it also enjoys rolling itself on the sand and fine pebbles in the bottom of the stream4 ,it rolls and plunges to cleanse its skin2 it is its way of making its toilet4 ,after a roll the manatee rises to the surface1 parts its lip lobes1 gives a good blow1 draws in all the air it can1 and returns below4 ,lily pods and pads1 bananas1#gg a coarse river grass called manatee grass1 are its favorite food4 ,a large manatee will eat three bushels of lily-pods in a day4 ,the manatee is a strong1 swift swimmer1 and dives with wonderful agility4 ,in its favorite haunt1 the ,santa ,lucia ,river1 the mermaid's babies are born among the lily-leaves1 and in that green and pleasant nursery1 the clean white sand for their bed1 the fragrant lilies rocking on the water1 the butterflies and dragon-flies darting out and in among the shadows1 and the birds singing and sporting above them1 they live for several weeks4 ,when they are quite small their mothers carry them around in their flippers if they seem tired or do not go fast enough1 but the manatee baby can swim as soon as it is born4 ,being now very scarce1 the manatee is largely increased in value4 ,one fifteen feet long would cost two or even three thousand dollars4 ,a large skeleton is worth a thousand dollars4 ,the hides and flesh have been so much sought after that the creatures have been hunted nearly out of existence4 ,formerly the ,indians made light1 strong1 and handsome canoes of manatee skins4 ,the manatee is very hard to kill2 being timid1 it darts away at the first alarm1 and its swimming speed is exceedingly rapid if it is frightened2 its thick skin1 remarkably large1 strong bones1 and a thick layer of fat under its skin protect it in a great measure from injury by a bullet4 ,the general method of securing the animal is to drive it into a very large1 strong net4 ,one side of the net is sunk to the river bottom1 the other rises to the top of the water1 and is then drawn about the hiding-place of the manatee4 ,after a little training it will come when it is called1 will eat from one's hand1 and likes to be petted and to have its head rubbed4 ,,footnotes3 #gf ,the rhytina and dugong are not1 as some suppose1 manatees1 but animals closely allied to true manatees4 #gg ,when in captivity4 ,,lesson ,,xliii4 ,,great ,,whales ,,also4 8,so far ,i live to ,northward ,no man lives ,north of me2 ,to the ,east are wild mountain chains1 ,and beyond them meres and plains2 ,to the ,westward1 all is sea40 --,,longfellow4 ,many people think that a whale is a huge fish1 the largest of the fish class4 ,this idea is entirely wrong2 a whale is not a fish1 but a mammal4 ,it belongs to the same class as the cow1 sheep1 horse1 lion1 monkey1 and man1 because all these widely differing creatures are born alive1 and not in an egg1 and when young are nourished by their mothers' milk4 ,the mammalian class1 distinguished in this way by suckling the young1 is divided into many orders1 and to one of these1 the cetacean1 or whale order1 the whales give their name4 ,the whale is the largest of all living mammals2 it is a mammal of the sea1 and has a fish-like body because its home is constantly in the waters4 ,a whale is entirely helpless when cast upon the land2 it is unable to move itself1 or to find anything to eat4 ,out of water it will soon die1 but not because it is unable to breathe air1 as is the case with the fishes4#gh ,the whale breathes air through its nostrils into lungs2 it does not have gills1 and therefore while in the water it must constantly come to the surface for air4 ,thus the principal motion of the whale in the water is up and down1 coming to the surface1 and then seeking the depths4 ,to aid it in this motion the whale's tail expands sidewise or horizontally1 and not up and down or vertically1 as do the tails of most fishes which chiefly swim straight forward1 or in large curves4 ,let us look at a whale4 ,its body is cone-shaped2 the head is very large1 sometimes one-third of the animal's entire length2 there is no notch of the body to mark the neck2#gi the body tapers to the tail1 which is widely expanded on each side into what are called flukes1 and thus becomes a very strong propeller4 ,just behind the head we find a pair of fore limbs1 called paddles or flippers4 ,these are flat and oval1 and have externally no marks of joints1 fingers1 or nails4 ,but if you examine the skeleton of a whale1 you will find that this limb is divided into arm and hand bones1 very much like those of your own arms and fingers4 ,there are no external signs of hind limbs1 but in some kinds of whales we find in the skeletons some small1 soft bones like a hint of legs4 ,the skin of the whale is smooth1 of a dark gray or black color1 and without hair except a few bristles around the mouth4 ,under the skin is spread a layer of several inches of fat1 called blubber4 ,this layer of blubber serves to keep the whale warm1 and also to render its huge body light1 so that it will float easily2 it also keeps it from being readily injured4 ,most whales have a low1 narrow fin down the centre of the back1 to aid them in keeping a proper position in the water4 ,let us now examine more particularly the whale's big head2 it has small eyes1 and a pair of tiny holes for ears4 ,these ears are close behind the eyes1 but the nostrils are usually placed on top of the head4 ,in nearly all varieties of whales we find teeth inside the large mouth4 ,in one very important species there are no teeth1 but instead1 we find a large number of horny plates4 ,the whale's mouth opens very wide1 and the lips are stiff and immovable1 not soft and flexible like our own4 ,most people have read of the blowing or spouting of the whale1 when it sends a double stream of water from its nostrils up into the air4 ,the general idea is that the whale takes this water in at the mouth1 and then spurts it up into the air through the nostrils1 as a matter of amusement4 ,this is not true4 ,when a whale comes to the surface he takes in a large amount of air1 and returns below2 most of this air becomes changed to steam or vapor1 as the animal remains below for some time4 ,then the whale comes up for more air1 and the first thing is to free his lungs of the heated1 vaporized air that is already in them4 ,the animal drives this air violently from its lungs through the nostrils1 and rising into the cold atmosphere it is at once changed to spray by condensation4 ,the whale frequently begins to blow before it reaches the top of the water1 and so drives surface-water up with the vapor which it expels from its lungs4 ,fishes1 we know1 have very little red blood2 reptiles are cold-blooded animals2 but whales have plenty of warm1 red blood4 ,they are very strong and active creatures in spite of their unwieldy size4 ,the lightness afforded by their blubber1 or sheath of fat1 and the large amount of air they can contain in their great lungs1 and the strength of the tail with its wide flukes1#hj enable them to dash through the water with amazing swiftness4 ,most of the 8true whales0 are flesh-eaters1 with very fierce appetites4 ,they devour fishes1 mollusks1 crustaceans1 and even seals or other whales4 ,they need enormous quantities of food to support such large bodies1 for a ,greenland sperm whale is sometimes seventy feet long1 and from twenty to thirty feet thick through the shoulders4 ,to secure the needed amount of food1 the vast mouth opens wide4 ,in some whales a man can stand upright between the extended jaws4 ,in the 8right whale10 which has no teeth1 the mouth is lined along the upper jaw with long1 narrow plates or flakes called baleen1 of which whalebone is made4 ,every piece of whalebone is a strip of this baleen1 from within the mouth of a right whale1 and every such piece has a wonderful history behind it1 for it has been floating1 perhaps for many years1 through the cold ,arctic seas4 ,it could tell us rare tales if it could speak4 ,these plates of baleen are sometimes seven yards long1 and the mouth of one whale has about seven hundred plates4 ,the chief food of this right1 or whalebone whale1 consists of very small brown crustaceans1 one of the numerous crab family4 ,these creatures are so abundant in the northern seas that they lie in banks many leagues long and several feet thick4 ,the whale feeds on these beds of living animals1 as a cow browses on grass or hay4 ,whales are mild and inoffensive in disposition1 unless greatly irritated by wounds and attack4 ,they seldom quarrel among themselves1 but are playful and affectionate1 while the mother shows intense fondness for her young4 ,whales are social animals1 and go in herds1 or groups2 one is seldom found alone4 ,in the spring the whales pair1 and move off together to find some place where they may rear their young4 ,as they travel together they seem very lively and happy2 they stop to feed1 and indulge in frolics1 leaping out of the water1 tumbling over and over each other1 turning somersaults1 and striving to show what they can do4 ,as they come to inlets or deep1 quiet bays1 which may afford them a safe home1 the male whale goes to explore their fitness1 or to see if the spot is already taken by some other couple4 ,this is the spring house-hunting of this famous family1 and while ,mr4 ,whale enters to make inquiries1 ,mrs4 ,whale waits outside4 ,finally1 an abode is selected1 and here the mother remains1 until in autumn1 one1 or at most two1 little baby whales are born4 ,compared with their big mother they are small1 but compared with human children they are giants4 ,to her little ones the mother whale gives devoted attention4 ,she suckles them for about two months1 at the end of which time they are able to feed on crustaceans and small fish4 ,then the mother sets off with her family to complete their education by taking them abroad in the water-world4 ,the baby whales can swim as soon as they are born1 but not so fast as their big mother1 and she carefully accommodates her pace to theirs4 ,if danger threatens1 she places herself between it and her child1 and hastens the little one's flight by pressing against it1 and so shoving it through the water4 ,if there is need to go still faster1 she sometimes grasps the young one between her flippers and her neck1 and so swims with all her might1 carrying the little one off4 ,if attacked1 she will sacrifice her life rather than abandon her baby4 ,when the baby whale is attacked1 the usually mild mother shows great fury4 ,a male whale also will defend his mate if she is attacked1 swimming round and round her1 blowing1 lashing the waves with his powerful tail1 and trying to overturn boats with his mighty head2 he will die rather than desert her4 ,such noble1 loyal qualities shown by these animals deepen our regret that through promiscuous slaughter1 they are rapidly diminishing in numbers1 and are likely to disappear from the ,northern hemisphere4 ,sharks1 narwhals1 and white bears are enemies of the whale1 but none of these brute hunters are as reckless and destructive in their warfare as men4 ,the sperm whale is more nearly allied to the porpoise than to the right whale4 ,from the sperm whale1 oil1 ivory1 ambergris1 and spermaceti are obtained1 but no whalebone4 ,the spermaceti1 from which this whale derives its name1 is found in a cistern-like reservoir over two yards deep1 placed near the brain cavity at the back of the whale's head4 ,this reservoir contains many gallons of spermaceti4 ,dolphins1 narwhals1 and rorquals1 all belong to the whale family4 ,the rorquals have larger fins than the other whales4 ,the blue whale is the largest of all the family4#ha ,the humpbacked whale is shorter and thicker than the other varieties1 has a queerly shaped back fin1 and large flippers4 ,,footnotes3 #gh ,see ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #bdc-d4 #gi ,neck or nick1 or notch4 ,notice etymology4 #hj ,a fluke is either half of the tail of a cetacean1 so called from the resemblance of the tail to an anchor1 as the teeth of an anchor are called flukes4 #ha ,this ,balnoptera sibbaldii gets its common name from its bluish gray color2 it is supposed to be the largest of living animals4 ,,lesson ,,xliv4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,seal-,,skin ,,coat4 8,and there we hunted the walrus1 ,the narwhal and the seal4 ,ha6 'twas a noble game6 ,and like the lightning's flame1 ,flew our harpoons of steel40 --,h4 ,w4 ,,longfellow1 in ,the ,discoverer of the ,north ,cape4 ,illustration3 ,,garments ,,of ,,price4 ,the ,arabian legends tell us of a magical carpet1 upon which one can seat himself1 and then1 wishing to be in a certain place1 the carpet rises into the air1 and safely and swiftly carries him where he would be4 ,when ,catherine showed to me a costly seal-skin coat1 her ,christmas gift1 ,i proposed to her that we should use it as a magic carpet1 and flying to the home of the fur seal1 should trace the coat through all the changes of its history4 8,let us go at once60 cried ,catherine4 8,if we go now10 ,i said1 8not a seal shall we behold1 for they are now far off at sea4 ,it will be useless to make our trip before the fifteenth of ,may40 ,on the fifteenth of ,may1 accordingly1 ,catherine and ,i spread out the seal-skin coat and began our journey4 ,we went northwest1 crossed the high ,rockies1 left behind us the new ,state of ,washington1 moved still west by north1 and finally arrived at three small islands in ,bering ,sea1 called the ,pribylov ,islands1 from a ,russian who discovered them in #aghf4 8,our fortune is good10 said ,i to ,catherine2 8this is just such weather as seals like4 ,they delight in cool1 moist1 foggy days1 so that the sun is obscured1 and casts no shadows4 ,this is the usual weather on the ,pribylov ,islands1 where the sun shines clearly but few days in the year4 ,seals spend about eight months in the water1 and four months chiefly on the land4 ,when they land they choose a dry locality of hard sand and pebbles1 shelving toward the sea1 so that no water or slime shall be left on the ground1 for if their fur becomes matted with mud it falls out at once40 8,here we are at ,st4 ,paul's ,island2 date1 ,may eighteenth2 day1 mild and hazy4 ,we stand on a ledge of rock1 and to the left of us we see five or six giant seals walking4 ,they come up on the rocky beach and calmly take their places on large rocks and sit looking seawards2 they are watching for their mates1 friends1 and neighbors to arrive4 ,we need not fear to approach them2 unless attacked1 even the largest seal is entirely gentle4 ,his eyesight is good1 but only for moderate distances1 but his sense of smell is as keen as the hearing of a manatee4 ,if we keep on the side to which the wind is blowing1 so that he cannot detect us by his sense of smell1 we may approach close to him4 8,look at him now4 ,he is seven feet long1 and weighs four hundred pounds4 ,he has a small1 round head1 the skull bones are thin and light1 and the brain fills almost the entire skull cavity1 for the seal is a highly organized and very intelligent animal4 ,the eyes are large1 of a bluish hazel1 and very beautiful2 the nose is like that of a ,newfoundland dog1 but the mouth has not loose skin like the dog's mouth1 but firm1 well-outlined1 human-like lips4 8,open the mouth and there are large1 sharp1 dog-like teeth4 ,a gray moustache ornaments the upper lip1 outdoing ,victor ,emmanuel's in length1 and sweeping down upon the breast4 ,at the back of the round head are two small1 pointed1 drooping ears4 ,the neck and shoulders are very large and heavy2 the tail is merely an apology for a tail1 being but four inches long4 ,the seal has four limbs or flippers4 ,the front flippers are hairless1 blue black1 ten inches broad at the body1 eighteen inches long1 and taper to a point4 ,there are no fingers1 and the arm and the forearm are embraced in the body1 and hidden under the skin and blubber4 ,in fact1 the flippers are only hands1 the arm part remaining enclosed in the covering of the chest4 ,these fore flippers are used as feet1 the seal stepping on them with alternate up and down movements1 and carrying his head three feet from the ground1 in an erect and graceful attitude4 8,the hind flippers are very odd4 ,they are much longer than the front ones1 light1 slender1 and ribbon-like2 they look like a pair of empty1 wrinkled1 black kid gloves4 ,they are twenty-two inches long1 and at a little distance from the ends have each three strong nails4 ,the heels are horny and projecting1 and on them the seal rests the hinder part of the body1 for the upper part of these hind flippers1 bones1 and joints are embraced in the body1 as are the fore limbs4 ,at every other step the seal pauses and gives his hind flippers a sidewise fling1 as if to keep them out of harm's way4 8,having slowly walked up the beach1 this seal1 who is an adult male1 seats himself and surveys the ocean1 his front flippers hang idly down1 but he fans himself in the most comical style with his long1 ribbon-like1 hind flippers4 ,he is exceedingly fat2 under his skin lie several inches of blubber1 and well it is for him that he is so provided1 for now that he has come out of the water1 he will not return there nor taste food or drink for the next three or four months4#hb ,all the time that he is on land he maintains an absolute fast4 ,in the water his food is fishes1 crustaceans1 and squids1#hc of which he eats enormous quantities40 8,but the fur60 cries ,catherine1 8the fur6 ,i see nothing on this beast like my lovely1 soft1 dark cloak4 ,this creature is covered with coarse gray hair40 8,step a little closer1 my ,catherine1 and let us examine into this important matter4 ,the seal wears two coats3 the outer one is this coarse1 grizzly hair1 the inner one is a short1 close1 soft1 elastic1 silky fur4 ,this fur is darkest on the back and shoulders1 lightest on the flanks and breast4 ,this adult male seal does not have that glossy nut-brown1 or that delicate light gray or cream-colored fur which belongs to young seals1 and to the females1 and which presently we shall see prepared for your use4 8,these big seals have come out of the water to make ready for spring housekeeping4 ,each one selects a dry1 sloping place which will suit the mothers and their little ones1 and this home he is prepared to defend against all intruders4 ,about the fifteenth of ,june the mother seals begin to come out of the water4 ,they are obliged to come out and nurse their little ones on land1 as even a human baby will not be more helpless in water1 or drown more quickly than a baby seal4 8,as we watch the mother seals swimming toward land and walking up the beach1 we shall see that they are only about one-sixth of the size of the big seals we have been examining4 ,they are of a much more slender and graceful make1 have remarkably handsome heads and necks1 and are not encumbered with the mass of blubber under the skin4 ,they do not need the blubber1 for they go regularly into the water to feed1 and even remain away two or three days1 leaving the male seals to keep house and defend the children4 ,meantime these big seals fast and use up their store of blubber to maintain their vitality4 8,the big seals meet the mothers coming up the beach1 and escort them to their homes and to comfortable seats among the rocks4 ,the mother seals sit down and fan themselves with their flippers1 and croon or sing4 ,they turn their pretty heads artlessly from side to side1 and croon to each other4 ,no mother seal will stay alone for a minute2 from six to fifty mothers always keep together in one home4 8,the big male seal has four distinct calls or notes4 ,he has a chuckling whistle whereby he converses with the mother seals2 a loud1 angry roar for any other big seal who meddles with his family2 a low growl1 with which he talks to himself2 and a sound like a cat spitting1 when he is alarmed4 ,mother seals have the crooning song for their mates1 and a bleat like a sheep for their little ones4 ,baby seals cry just like little lambs4 8,a mother seal seldom has more than one baby or 8puppy0 at a time4 ,these mothers are exceedingly gentle1 patient creatures1 and very quiet4 ,on shore they fan themselves1 croon1 and curl up for cosy naps1 but the big seals are nervous and restless1 and never sleep when ashore more than a few minutes at a time4 8,baby seals cannot swim4 ,they make their ba-a-a-ing cry all the time that they are awake4 ,their eyes are wide open at once2 they are not blind at first1 like kittens and puppies1 but they do not know their mothers from any other seals4 ,the mother seals know their own children by their cries1 though to human ears their looks and cries are all exactly alike4 ,no matter how far off the puppy may roll1 no matter how many scores of puppies are heaped into a warm1 furry ba-a-a-ing heap1 the good little mothers can find each her own4 ,perhaps the sense of smell aids them as well as the bleating cry4 8,the mother seal is not a very anxious nurse4 ,she pays no heed if any one picks up her baby1 carries it off1 or treads on it4 ,she leaves it for two or three days at a time1 while she is off in the water enjoying herself2 meantime the little one sleeps and ba-a-a-s1 and does not seem to suffer from hunger4 ,when the mother returns from her excursions she curls down by her baby and gives it plenty of rich milk4 ,these baby seals have dark blue eyes1 but the eyes become browner after a while4 ,all seals have long1 thick eyelashes4 8,as the baby seals grow older they begin to roll about the shore1 which from much trampling has been worn into hollows filled with tide-water4 ,these hollows are muddy and the seal mothers do not wish their babies to get into them4 ,the naughty little seals1 like frolicsome children1 trot to the puddles and go into them a dozen times a day1 and their mothers pull them out4 8,as the little ones reach the age of three months they go nearer the water's edge in their rambles and venture in4 ,at first they cannot swim1 and clamber out1 sputtering and spitting and crying ba-a-a at the top of their lungs4 ,still1 after a little nap1 they go back and try it again and again1 and in a few days they know how to swim2 but they are a full year old before they know how to dive1 swim1 fish1 roll1 and sleep in the water1 as well as the adults4 8,in swimming the seal carries his long hind flippers stretched backwards to serve as a rudder1 and uses the fore flippers for propulsion4 ,when the little ones can swim they are weaned1 and they betake themselves to the water to stay1 and are able to catch squids and crustaceans for themselves4 ,they are three or four months old when they thus go to the water to find a home1 and they do not come back for two years4 ,a seal can sleep as comfortably on the water as on shore4 ,to sleep it turns on its back1 holds its nose and feet above the surface1 and takes a profound nap1 gently rocked by the waves4 8,while the young seals are on shore the big seals defend them and take care of them so long as they keep at home4 ,if they wander away1 even though they do not go out of sight1 they pay no attention to them4 8,by the middle of ,september the homes are broken up and the seals return to the water to remain until ,may or ,june4 ,now1 my ,catherine1 that we have thus observed the seals in general1 let us look after the making of your coat4 ,the fur came neither from a big male seal1 a baby seal1 nor a mother seal4 ,then from what seal did it come8 8,let us1 on a ,july day1 turn our eyes from the crowded rookeries1 or seal homes on the rocks1 and at some distance off on the shore we shall see thousands of other seals which the ,indians call #8bachelors4' ,these are seals from two to six years old1 young males fresh from the water1 but not allowed by the big adult seals to approach the homes on the rocks4 ,they do not seem troubled by the decree of exile2 they are in good temper and high spirits1 and they have very jolly times at play4 ,they roll and tumble and gambol as do kittens and puppies4 ,they lie on the grass1 shut their eyes1 and roll to and fro2 they sit and fan themselves2 they stretch out and gently comb themselves with the nails on their hind flippers2 they take naps2 they run races2 they play leap-frog over each others' backs1 and snort and roar with great hilarity4 8,these young seals have the long1 coarse over-hair1 less gray than the big seals1 and the soft1 rich under-coat is silken and of a delicate brown color4 ,the down and feathers on a duck's breast are arranged much as the hair and fur on a seal4 ,in ,august seals begin to shed and renew their coats3 in ,june and ,july they are at their best4 ,these1 then1 are the seals from which the skins for commerce are to be taken1 and in ,june and ,july it must be done4 ,they are so docile and gentle that it is very easy to kill them4 8,the seal-killers are ,indian natives of the islands who understand their work4 ,a number of these natives go to a herd of bachelors1 and passing around them just at daybreak #8cut out' from one to two thousand1 just as a shepherd #8cuts out' a drove of sheep from a great flock4 ,surrounding and gently driving them1 they turn them to the slaughter-houses4 ,seals walk easily and quickly1 and they go as they are driven with the docility of sheep4 ,arrived at the houses1 they are allowed to lie down and rest and cool for half an hour4 8,then an expert man goes out with several others armed with clubs4 ,the expert points to different seals and says3 #8,don't kill him1 he is too young4' #8,don't kill that one1 he is shedding his coat4' #8,don't kill that one1 he is too old4' #8,let that one go1 he is sick4' ,and so on4 ,when he has thus pointed out the exceptions1 the men with the clubs lift the clubs high and bring down a crashing blow on the skull of each seal1 killing it instantly4 ,as the seal is killed it is dragged from the group1 laid on its back1 and bled at once4 ,if this is not done immediately the body heats very soon and the fur falls off4 8,then expert skinners strip off the skin1 making cuts around the snout1 tail1 and flippers4 ,next the skins are carried to the salt-house1 piled on each other in bins1 #8fur to fat1' in layers like piles of paper2 salt is thickly strewn on them1 and they are held in place by heavy planks4 ,in two or three weeks they are taken out1 rolled in bundles1 two skins together1 corded tightly1 and shipped to ,london to be dressed4 ,now1 my ,catherine1 we must leave the ,pribylov ,islands1 and go to ,london to follow the fortunes of your seal-skin coat4#hd 8,in the seal-skin dressing establishment the skins are carefully heated to loosen the coarse hair and not disturb the fur2 then the hair is very carefully combed out1 leaving the soft1 silky fur1 which is at once dyed to a rich1 even brown color4 ,the difference in the price of seal-skin garments arises chiefly from the greater or less labor and skill expended in combing and dyeing them4 8,the process of preparing the skins is this3 they are stretched on frames or beams1 and the flesh side is well scraped2 the skins are next washed to remove grease1 and are then dried1 tacked on frames to keep them smooth4 ,when dry they are again soaked and well cleaned with soap and water4 ,next the skin is dried by heat1 and while still warm the coarse hair is combed out1 the skin being kept warm and pliable1 so that the hairs will not break4 ,once more being dried1 the surface of the fur is shaved evenly4 ,then the skins are made soft by a fulling mill1 or by being covered with sawdust and then trodden upon until pliable4 8,after all this the skins are examined1 mended where torn1 and two skins are laid together fur to fur1 with paper fastened between4 ,in this way they are shipped to the ,united ,states4 ,it requires three skins to make your coat1 my ,catherine2 if the style demanded very long coats it would require five4 ,being safely at the furriers in the ,united ,states1 the skins are cut into coats and muffs and collars of the latest fashion1 beautifully lined with quilted silk1 and you1 my ,catherine1 walk forth defiant of the cold1 clad in the soft1 warm garments which a year ago were swimming1 rolling1 plunging1 feeding1 sleeping in ,bering ,sea40 ,,footnotes3 #hb ,see ,u4 ,s4 ,govt4 ,reports of the ,pribylov ,fisheries4 #hc ,a kind of cuttle-fish4 #hd ,many seal skins are also dressed and dyed in ,germany4 ,,lesson ,,xlv4 ,a ,,flying ,,mammal4 8,silent they rest in solemn salvatory1 ,sealed from the moth and the owl and the flitter-mouse40 --,,jean ,,ingelow4 ,we have been studying together these wonderful creatures1 the manatee1 the whale1 and the seal4 ,these are not the only mammals that live in the sea2 the sea-lion1 porpoise1 dolphin1 and others are also sea-mammals4 ,in a book like this we cannot discuss all the animals of any large order1 and now we turn from these huge citizens of the sea1 to learn something about a small but equally curious flying mammal1 a citizen of the air1--the bat4 ,it is a little beast1 universally disliked1 even feared2 let us hope to clear away some of the foolish notions which surround it1 and place it where it belongs1 among harmless and interesting animals4 ,one evening last summer1 as we sat on the veranda1 a dark1 winged creature with an uncertain1 zigzag flight swept above us4 8,oh6 ,oh6 the horrible thing10 screamed ,mabel1 putting her hands to her head2 8he will get tangled up in my hair4 ,bats always do that40 8,mabel10 ,i said1 8,i don't think you ever saw a person in whose hair a bat had become tangled4 ,i never did4 ,it would be as unusual an incident as to find that a toad had hopped into your pocket40 ,a few minutes after we saw in the moonlight1 on the gravel walk1 a small1 dark object1 moving in the most clumsy1 hobbling fashion4 8,it is that bat10 shouted ,rex4 8,where is a stick8 ,let me kill him40 8,let him be10 ,i said4 8,i can tell you some very delightful things about him40 ,in fact1 ,i told ,rex such wonders that he became interested in bats1 and happening the next day to find a young1 half-grown bat in the smoke-house1 he concluded to take it to school1 to ask for further information from his teacher4 ,to do this1 he put it in a pasteboard box1 with the cover left partly off to give the creature air4 ,the little bat cried1 and the mother bat came flying in haste to her child4 ,as she could not get into the box to her baby1 she clung to the outside with her head to the opening1 making little encouraging squeaks2 and thus ,rex actually carried both bats to school4 ,the teacher put them into a small cage1 and fed them bread1 milk1 and sugar for several days2 then one evening they were set free4 ,now let us see what ,rex learned about bats4 ,the bat has a number of names2 the ,english peasants call it a 8flitter-mouse10 from its jerky1 uneven flight4 ,the ,germans and ,dutch give it the same name2 the ,swedes call it a 8leather-mouse10 from its parchment-like wings2 ,goldsmith used to call it 8a mouse with wings40 ,the bat is a four-legged1 hairy creature1 with teeth set in sockets in the jaws2 it suckles its young2 in addition to these characteristics of a mammal1 it has wings and truly flies4 ,were it not for the wings it would have been put in the order of insect-eaters1 but its wings have secured for it an order for itself4 ,the name of this order is the 8wing-handed10 or 8hand winged10 and to it belong the bats1 vampires1 and flying foxes1 all of them truly bats1 under varied names4 ,the lemurs1 flying squirrels1 and a few other animals have extensions of the skin mantle-wise along the body and legs1 to bear them up for a little in the air1 as they make long leaps2 but they do not really fly4 ,the bat1 on the contrary1 has good wings1 and flies4 ,the bat reminds us a little of that winged reptile which was in the ancient world long before men appeared on the earth4 ,that was a reptile with a large1 skin-like wing2 a bat is a mammal with two skin-covered wings4 ,the structure of the bat's wing is very different from that of a bird4#he ,the bones and muscles of a bird's wing are set with stiff feathers1 which can be folded together as a fan is furled4 ,when spread they form an elastic instrument for beating the air1 and sending the bird forward1 upward1 downward1 wherever it may choose to direct its flight4 ,the body and head of the common bat are very like those of a mouse2 it has bright black eyes1 a mouth full of tiny white teeth1 a covering of gray or reddish hair over all its body4 ,a mouse has a long1 scaly tail2 a bat has a very short tail2 the ears of a mouse are small and pointed2 the bat's ears are large4 ,the nostrils have a fold or ruffle of skin about them1 which is supposed to improve the sense of smell4 ,the fore legs1 or rather the arms1 are very wonderful4 ,if we had the skeleton of a bat we should see that the bones of the arm and forearm are long and slender1 and instead of two bones in the lower part or forearm1 there is but one which represents the smaller bone in the human arm4 ,the bat's hand has five distinct fingers4 ,the first of them1 the thumb1 is short1 but the other four are very long1 much longer than all the rest of the bat1 and they are also very slim4 ,upon these fingers1 as upon a frame1 the thin1 leather-like double membrane of the wing is stretched on each side of the extended hand1 enclosing the finger-bones1 thus the two arms have become a pair of wings4 ,this membrane is extended from the fingers to the sides of the body1 then passes back to the hind legs1 and covers them up to the ankles1 and so round enclosing the little tail4 ,thus the bat has an enormous spread of wing for its size4 ,the long forefinger of the hand extends to the tip of the wing1 and the middle finger runs close to it1 making this part of the wing strong4 ,when the bat closes its wings the bony frame shuts together like the wires of an umbrella1 and the skin hangs in folds as the covering of the umbrella hangs in folds between the closed wires4 ,the thumb of the bat's hand is left free1 and the nail is a large1 hooked claw4 ,the flight of a bat is strong and tireless1 but it is not in straight lines1 nor in easy curves or sweeps like that of a bird2 it is restless and flitting1 with sharp turns and jerky motions4 ,when the bat alights on the ground1 as it but seldom does1 it shows itself a genuine quadruped4 ,it draws its fingers together1 throwing the membrane of the wing into folds1 and so the free1 strongly clawed thumb projects1 and on this claw1 and the hind feet which are free to the ankles1 the bat walks1 but as you might expect1 its gait is very awkward4 ,the bat is a night-flying creature4 ,its sight is better suited for night than daylight2 it prefers twilight1 or dark caverns4 ,like the owl and the moth it sleeps by day1 and comes out after sunset4 ,as it eats insects it frequents shady places where insects can be found2 during the day it rests in cool1 dark places where there is some rough surface to which it can cling4 ,thus1 dark woods1 hollow trees1 old barns1 abandoned houses1 church towers1 and caves are the choice haunts of the bat4 ,from its habit of hiding1 its night-flying1 its uncouth motion1 its mouse-like body and unfeathered wings1 which are so unhandsome that artists have copied them when they wish to show demons1 witches1 dragons1 harpies1 and evil angels with wings1 the poor bat has derived its unlucky reputation1 and the general dislike with which it is regarded4 ,in truth1 there is scarcely any creature so frail1 defenceless1 harmless1 friendly1 gentle1 and timid as a bat4 ,it has no weapons1 and its only hope of defence lies in its quick1 erratic flight4#hf ,during the day in its dark shelter1 the bat sleeps in a strange fashion4 ,it hangs itself up on some projecting stone or twig1 as you would hang a cloak on a peg1 or an umbrella by the crook on the handle4 ,it hangs head down1 using the large hooked claws on the hind-feet to cling by1 and queer as the position is1 it seems to suit very well4 ,bats are social in nature1 and live in large flocks or bands4 ,a cave or tower may have its walls quite covered with them1 hanging close together4 ,sometimes1 especially in winter1 they cling one to the other in a curious1 compact mass4 ,bats hibernate1 or sleep1 through cold weather1 hiding themselves in tree-caves or other dark places early in the autumn1 and coming forth when the spring is fully opened and has brought their insect food4 ,when the bat goes abroad it spends all its time in hunting for insects4 ,our common bat is a most useful creature1 destroying thousands of insects which would be harmful to our garden and fruit trees4 ,in a season1 a bat eats myriads of gnats1 midges1 moths1 beetles1 cockroaches1 crickets1 and grasshoppers4 ,the great bat1 or noctule1#hg has a spread of wing of twelve or fourteen inches1 while its body is only three inches long4 ,its mouth can open with a wide gap like that of a swallow4 ,when it catches a beetle1 it has to hold it to its mouth by its thumb claw while it eats it1 as a boy would eat a pear4 ,to bring the thumb around to its mouth the bat must partly close the wing2 as it does this it drops a foot or so2 then it gives a stroke or two of its wings as it chews the bite it has taken1 and rises again2 then it takes another bite of beetle1 and so on4 ,all the time it is hunting it gives shrill squeaks or cries4 ,not only is the free thumb of the bat's hand useful for holding food1 but it is of great service in walking1 as its method is to extend the arm1 catch hold of the ground by the claw of one free thumb1 and pull itself forward2 then make the same motion with the other arm and thumb1 the free feet following these movements4 ,thus it proceeds in a zigzag1 moving first to one side and then to the other4 ,although this is such an awkward method of progress the bat can run rapidly4 ,bats are not great travellers2 they haunt the same locality year after year4 ,the mother bat has seldom more than one young one at a time1 and this is born early in the spring1 before the bats begin to fly abroad4 ,the baby bat is smaller than a small bean1 is blind and hairless4 ,the mother bat folds up a part of her wing membrane into a cradle or nest for this tiny creature2 she seems very fond of it1 smooths and brushes it1 and keeps it warm and clean4 ,the little creature has from the first strong claws1 and uses them to hold fast to its mother4 ,for several weeks this little one clings to its mother1 is fed by her milk1 and when she goes out to hunt she carries it along and never lets it fall4 ,even after a young bat can fly and catch insects for itself1 it keeps near its mother1 and she watches over it1 and timid as she is by nature1 she will die in its defence4 ,bats are found in nearly all parts of the world1 and may be divided according to their food into insect-eating and fruit-eating bats4 ,the insect-eating bats belong generally to cold or mild climates1 and the fruit-eaters to the tropics4 ,the fruit-eating bats are much larger than the insect-eaters1 and they are destructive and troublesome1 while the common bats are useful4 ,the four most famous bats are the common bat1 which we have described2 the long-eared bat1 which has ears so enormous that they are as long as the creature's entire body2 the flying-fox1 a bat of ,india1 very lazy1 and having a fox-like face4 ,flying-foxes are found in ,india1 ,africa1 and the ,oceanic ,islands4 ,in ,java the fruit trees must be protected with bamboo nettings1 to prevent the depredations of these creatures4 ,the fourth notable bat is the vampire of ,southern and ,central ,america4 ,these are very large bats given to blood-sucking1 and while their bites and blood-sucking do not occasion death1 they are very troublesome to both men and beasts4 ,one of the most wonderful things about the bat is its ability to guide itself in flying in perfectly dark places1 and even when it is blind4 ,a blind bat flies just as swiftly and safely as one with good eyes4 ,it seems that the sense of touch is remarkably acute1 so that even without contact1 they can tell when a solid body1 even of small size1 is near them4 ,although the bat does not seem to need its sight to direct it in flying1 its eyes are remarkably keen1 as is shown by its insect-catching4 ,so the phrase 8as blind as a bat0 is a poor comparison4 ,bats can be easily tamed and become very friendly1 eating insects from one's hand1 coming when called1 perching on an extended finger1 and seeming quite at home in a room4 ,in captivity they eat insects1 raw meat1 sugar1 cake1 and bread soaked in milk4 ,,footnotes3 #he ,compare ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 ,lesson #bh4 #hf ,when alarmed by being caught and held1 bats sometimes bite1 but the bite is not very severe4 #hg ,common in ,england4 ,,lesson ,,xlvi4 ,,order ,,out ,,of ,,confusion4 8,o1 mickle is the powerful grace that lies ,in herbs1 plants1 stones1 and their true qualities1 ,for nought so vile that on this earth doth live1 ,but to the earth some special grace doth give40 --,,shakespeare4 ,we have now studied some of the mammals of the sea1 and a family of mammals which spend a large part of their time on the wing4 ,let us look next at a species which lives entirely underground1--the mole4 ,in describing the mole-cricket#hh and the 8duck-bill10 we noted certain resemblances between these creatures and the moles1 taking it for granted that moles1 being common and widely distributed creatures1 were well known4 ,but in point of fact1 what do we know of the structure and habits of this interesting little animal8 ,the mole is very nearly as unpopular as the bat4 ,gardeners complain bitterly that the moles destroy their lawns1 by raising long furrows which disturb the grass1 and that they ruin vegetables and cereal crops by eating the roots4 ,i think the mole must plead guilty to the first charge2 it does injure the lawns by raising its unsightly furrows1 but it does not eat roots or other vegetable food4 ,it sometimes draws down into the ground stalks of oats1 wheat1 or barley1 to line its nest2 it also serves some long-stemmed vegetable in the same way2 it also cuts off the roots of vegetables1 now and then1 if it finds them in its way as it digs its underground galleries4 ,but the food of a mole is animal--earth-worms1 beetles1 larv and pup of insects--and thus the mole offsets its errors and turns the scale of opinion in its own favor1 by being exceedingly useful as a destroyer of insects harmful to vegetation4 ,looking out on my lawn one morning1 ,i saw that it was badly marred by mole ridges4 ,tom1 the gardener1 went over them with the roller1 but the next day they were as bad as ever4 8,tom10 ,i said1 8you must catch that mole40 ,that afternoon ,tom came into the library1 carrying something which looked like a pretty fur purse1 held by a short cord4 8,i've caught him10 he said1 8and as you like such things1 ,i have brought him in alive40 ,so the pretty drab purse was the mole4 ,alive6 ,he did not look it4 ,alarmed at his situation1 as ,tom carried him by his short1 nearly bare tail1 the little beast had drawn his head1 hands1 and feet closely into his soft1 silky coat1 and exhibited only a rigid1 fur-covered cylinder4 ,i watched him a few moments1 ,tom keeping perfectly still1 and presently ,i saw a little red nose and a pair of pink hands stretched out from the fur1 as if feeling for something to take hold of4 ,tom laid his prize on my table1 and ,i proceeded to examine him1 as we shall now do4 ,the common mole1 which claims the short and pretty name of talpa1 has a cylindrical body about six inches long and three inches thick4 ,there is no apparent neck4 ,the head tapers quickly off from the line of the shoulders to a little snout of the shape of the tip of a blunt lead-pencil4 ,this snout is about a quarter of an inch long1 flexible1 of a deep red1 tough skin4 ,under this snout is the mouth1 which is very wide and furnished with twenty-two sharp white teeth on each jaw4 ,the two upper and two lower front teeth are long and lap over2 the others are smaller and pointed4 ,once people said that the mole had no eyes1 and needed none1 as it lived in the dark underground4 ,but it has two very small1 jet black eyes1 deeply hidden in its lovely thick fur and covered by a fold of skin4 ,the nostrils and ears of the mole are almost as closely hidden1 but internally well developed4 ,we may say then that the creature has sight1 somewhat limited and imperfect1 but sense of hearing and smell very keen4 ,we can see how wise it is that these delicate organs1 the eyes1 ears1 and nostrils1 should be well protected by the thick fur1 as the mole burrows underground4 ,the body of the mole is entirely covered with soft1 close1 even1 fine fur of a deep drab or mouse color1 nearly black4 ,no lady dressed in plush was ever more richly arrayed than this little burrower4 ,the tail is short and scantily covered with hair2 the legs are very short and strong1 and set close to the body4 ,the fore limbs or arms are furnished with broad1 flat1 five-fingered hands1 set with the palms turned outward1 so that as the mole digs1 it throws the earth to the right and left4 ,the palms of these hands are very singular2 they are somewhat callous1 of a rose pink1 and the fingers are webbed up to the strong1 curved nails4 ,when the animal is removed from the earth the snout and palms soon become peculiarly dry1 and this evidently causes pain and irritation4 ,the hind-feet are only about one-quarter the size of the hands4 ,they are webbed1 but are not so strong1 and have more slender nails4 ,the broad front feet1 or hands1 fitted for digging1 indicate the underground life of the mole2 the webbing of the hands and feet suggest1 what we find to be true1 that the mole is a good swimmer4 ,indeed1 it often goes from the mainland to islands in lakes1 rivers1 or ponds to dig out its home4 ,wet or stony land does not suit the mole1 because it cannot dig its rooms and galleries in such soil4 ,fertile fields that have been cultivated and loosened by spade and plough are its favorite haunts4 ,it is very wonderful that such a small1 soft creature can move and disturb so much earth4 ,every mole lives alone and builds for itself an elaborate and comfortable home4 ,this house consists of a central dome1 where the earth is well packed and beaten to prevent the percolation of water4 ,a bed made of leaves1 grass1 and vegetable stems is placed in this room4 ,around this dome wind and radiate seven or eight long galleries or tunnels1 which break off and pass into each other in a curious fashion1 so that there is no direct line of approach to the dome4 ,it is evident that this labyrinth of galleries is designed to make the dome safe from intruders1 and to enable the mole to elude pursuit4 ,the mother mole has from four to six little ones at a litter1 and she has two litters each year1 one in ,april and one in ,august4 ,thus we see that moles multiply rapidly4 ,the mother mole is very careful of her children4 ,the large domed room is their nursery1 and she makes them a soft bed4 ,the little moles grow quickly1 and in a few weeks are weaned1 as they have become able to feed themselves4 ,when they leave their nursery the digging instinct develops in them1 and they at once set about making a dome and galleries1 and going to housekeeping each one for itself4 ,while the fur of the mole is exceedingly pretty the skin is so small and delicate that very little use can be made of it1 though sometimes it is used for gloves1 purses1 bags1 caps1 and mittens4 ,in ,england1 where moles abound1 men called 8mole-catchers0 go about with spades and traps and catch and kill the moles4 ,the mole is the most hungry and ravenous in proportion to its size and weakness of all mammals4 ,hunger seems to be a madness with it4 ,moles eat snails and are very partial to frogs1 but oddly enough they will not touch toads4 ,a mole will eat the dead body of a bird1 mouse1 or small snake1 if it finds these in its rambles4 ,if two moles are shut up together without food one will kill and devour the other4 ,moles drink very freely4 ,these creatures seldom appear at the surface of the ground4 ,now and then they will come out of their galleries by night1 but strong light is painful to them4 ,except for attacking each other when imprisoned and very hungry1 moles are quiet and gentle in disposition4 ,no creature1 however1 is harder to tame and keep in captivity1 not because of any violence or uneasiness of disposition1 but because of its dislike for daylight1 and its need of darkness1 coolness1 and the slight moisture of the earth below the surface4 ,a mole shut up in a room or box seems seized with a terrible homesickness for its underground haunts1 pines away1 and soon dies4 ,it has been stated that a mole will die if left without food for ten or twelve hours1 and that moles eat only animal food1 refusing all vegetable substances4 ,though individual moles may have been found of which this is true1 the statements are incorrect as applied to all moles4 ,the mole which ,tom brought me1 ,i put into a thick pasteboard box with some air-holes cut in the cover4 ,i put in the box a little flat pan of water1 and ,tom insisted upon giving the animal some grains of corn and wheat4 ,the mole did not touch these grains1 but drank some water4 ,after it had fasted sixteen hours1 ,i gave it boiled rice1 which it refused4 ,in two hours more ,i gave it bread soaked in milk1 and of that it ate a little4 ,after twenty-four hours of captivity1 ,i gave it cracked oats1 uncooked1 but soaked in milk4 ,this it ate heartily4 ,after it had been thirty-six hours in the box1 ,i let it out in the room1 and it at once ran about looking for some place to dig4 ,i threw a large woollen mitten on the floor1 and that it soon found1 crept into it1 thrust its head into the thumb1 and remained quiet for some hours4 ,i kept it for several days1 during which time it drank water1 ate oats soaked in milk1 and also took a little raw meat4 ,it pulled and tore at the carpet and upholstery1 seeking for places to burrow1 but remained for the most of the time in the mitten4 ,a mole's skeleton is a nice curiosity for a museum1 and is easily prepared4 ,a mole can be quickly and painlessly killed by a sharp blow just back of the head4 ,after it is skinned1 lay the carcass near a large hill of ants1 or at the edge of a pond1 where there are plenty of tadpoles1 and soon only the clean white skeleton will remain4 ,wash this in hot water and ammonia1 and dry it in the sun2 then mount it carefully on a little board covered with black1 which will set the small white bones in good relief4 ,these studies of swimming1 flying1 and burrowing mammals suggest to us the diversity which exists in the great class of mammalian animals4 ,on the ground1 and under the ground1 in the water1 in the air1 on the trees1 we find the mammals1 and at first it might seem impossible to bring order out of this confusion1 and divide these almost innumerable creatures into their proper groups4 ,but a careful study of these varied forms has enabled scientists to divide them according to their most peculiar characteristics1 putting orders1 sub-orders1 and families together according to their closest relationships4 ,so1 when we study these animals1 we are able to decide upon their names and places in the class mammalia4 ,and like all else that is orderly1 this classification becomes presently clear and simple4 ,let us now set the various divisions of the vertebrate animals in a table which can be easily understood1 and will be found convenient for reference4 ,the vertebrate or backboned animals are divided into-- ,fishes1 ,amphibians1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 ,mammals4 ,the mammals are divided into various orders beginning with the monotremes1 the lowest form of mammalian life1 and closing with man1 the highest form4 ,so our table stands-- ,monotremes3 duck-bill1 echidna4 ,marsupials3 having a pouch for the young--kangaroo1 opossum4 ,edentata3 having no teeth on the front of the jaw2 sloth1 etc4 ,cetacea3 fish-like creatures1 eating animal food--whales1 dolphins4 ,sirenia3 fish-like creatures eating vegetable food4 ,insect-eaters3 mole1 hedge-hog1 etc4 ,hand-winged creatures3 the bats and vampires4 ,rodents1 or gnawers3 with chisel-like front teeth2 rats1 beavers1 etc4 ,ungulates or hoofed even-toed2 as cow1 sheep1 deer1 etc4 uneven-toed2 as hog1 horse1 elephant1 etc4 ,carnivora or flesh-eaters seals1 sea-lions4 dogs1 cats1 bears1 lions1 foxes1 tigers1 etc4 ,primates ,quadrumana1 or four-handed1 as apes and monkeys4 ,homo 7man74 ,,footnotes3 #hh ,see ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #c1 p4 #abc4 ,,lesson ,,xlvii4 ,a ,,remarkable ,,family4 8,he prayeth best who loveth best ,all things both great and small1 ,for the dear ,god who loveth us ,he made and loveth all40 --,s4 ,t4 ,,coleridge4 ,in our last lesson we enumerated the orders into which the mammalian class has been divided4 ,of six of these orders we have already studied representatives4 ,we have found in the duck-bill and two other animals1 the only species of the order of monotremes2 the opossum and kangaroo furnished us examples of the pouched animals4 ,the third order mentioned is that of the edentata1 or tooth-lacking creatures1 and some of its families we will now discuss4 ,the name toothless is only partly descriptive of this group of mammals1 because while some of them are really without any teeth1 there are others that have the enormous number of ninety-eight4 ,but all of the edentata are destitute of any teeth on the front of the jaws2 there is always a vacant space there2 and besides this1 all the teeth are more or less imperfect1 and have only one root4 ,that vacant space in the front of the jaws1 and the peculiarity of all the teeth being exactly alike1 are constant characteristics of the edentata4 ,all of these animals are slow and clumsy in their movements1 show very little intelligence1 and have sharp1 strong claws on all their toes4 ,they are all natives of warm countries1 and are most numerous in ,south ,america4 ,none of the living edentata are more than four feet long including the tail1 and some are no larger than rats4 ,but from rocks and shell-beds1 deep in the earth1 have been taken fossil remains of this family1 showing creatures which lived far back in the early periods of earth-building1 some of them as large as an ox1 or a rhinoceros1 or an elephant4 ,the first of the edentata which we shall examine is called the sloth4 ,it is a ,south ,american animal1 and was for a long time classed among the monkeys1 on account of its tree-climbing habits1 and the long hair which covers its body4 ,on the ground1 to which it seldom descends1 the sloth is the most ungainly of beasts4 ,its hind legs are very short1 and its arms or fore legs are very long2 its claws are strong and curved1 and the toes are buried in the skin up to the nails1 so that they can make no separate movements4 ,their leg joints turn outwards1 and when the creatures try to walk on the ground1 they are compelled to double up their fore legs and go on their knees4 ,moreover1 these sloths cannot bear strong light4 ,when placed on the earth in the sunshine they seem to be crippled and blind4 ,the sloth has no tail1 and no external ears4 ,the eyes are small and sleepy2 the motions of the creature are slow2 its intelligence is very limited2 in length it is about thirty inches1 and the body has the general proportions of a monkey4 ,is this beast1 then1 a poor deformity8 ,or1 in the noble plan of nature1 is there some place which it exactly fits and fills8 ,let us see4 ,now we shall place this queer little animal on its native trees4 ,at once all is changed4 ,why1 this sloth is all grace6 ,you could not see a more beautiful climber4 ,the short hind legs1 crooked claws1 long forearms1 are just suited to tree life1 for clambering safely and lightly from bough to bough4 ,the sloth1 thanks to its claws1 is as safe hanging back downwards as a bird is safe in its nest4 ,those weak eyes are suited to the soft shadows of the leaves2 the subdued light on the tree is just right for it4 ,the sloth is a vegetable feeder2 as it climbs about the tree it nibbles off the sap leaves and the delicate new bark and twigs2 hanging by the feet and one hand1 it reaches out the other long arm1 and picks fruit as dexterously as any school-boy2 then holding the fruit to its mouth it eats it daintily4 ,in museums or zoological gardens the sloths are furnished with a tree to climb upon1 and are fed on fruit1 vegetables1 and bread and milk4 ,the next of the edentata which we shall observe is the armadillo1 one of the most singular of animals4 ,at first sight you would feel sure it was not a mammal1 but a reptile of the lizard or turtle family1 for instead of being covered with hair or fur1 it wears a heavy case or armor of large scales4 ,these scales1 or bony plates1 are arranged in close bands about the body4 ,the plates over the head1 neck1 and tail are immovable1 but those on the centre of the back will lap1 so that the creature can roll itself into a ball1 bringing the nose1 feet1 and all parts of the body under protection of its horny armor4 ,the under part of the body has no scales1 but is covered with hair4 ,the armadillo has short legs with five-toed feet1 each toe being furnished with a strong claw4 ,the ears are very large2 the eyes are small2 the nostrils are set at the end of the long1 pointed snout4 ,the smallest of the species is about the size of a rat2 the great armadillo is a yard long1 and has in its widely opening mouth ninety-eight teeth4 ,instead of living on trees like the sloth1 it burrows in the ground2 the rooms and galleries which they fashion for themselves are like those of the mole1 only larger4 ,the strong1 curved claws are used to tear up the ground1 and they do this so effectually that the animal will disappear beneath the surface in a very short time4 ,when undisturbed1 the movement of the armadillo is a slow1 a dignified march1 suited to its short legs and heavy armor4 ,when pursued1 if it does not have opportunity to dig a burrow1 it can run1 and has been known to outstrip a man in a race4 ,when attacked the creature prefers to tear up the earth and sink away out of sight2 if it cannot do this1 it rolls itself into a ball1 and trusts to its armor4 ,as it paces about1 it feeds daintily on vegetables and fruit2 it waits under trees for the fruit to fall1 and then nibbles at it very contentedly4 ,still it does not reject animal substances1 not even carrion1 for when it discovers a decaying carcass it feeds upon it2 it also devours insects whenever it can get them4 ,a third curious specimen of this order is the ant-bear1 which is chiefly found in ,brazil and ,guiana1 but is not unknown in the other parts of ,south ,america4 ,the ant-eater or 8ant-bear0 is sometimes a yard and a half long not including the tail4 ,the most conspicuous part of this creature is its tail1 which is plume-like1 and carried over its back like that of a gray squirrel1 but is very large1 so that it overshadows most of the body1 like a great canopy of fine1 loose1 waving hairs4 ,the body is covered with long1 coarse1 dark hair2 the legs are long and very strong1 and the claws are deeply hooked and singularly powerful4 ,the ant-bear's head is small1 and tapers from the neck to a long1 curved snout1 at the end of which are the nostrils4 ,the ears are small and placed far back on the head2 the eyes are small and set half-way down the snout4 ,this snout is well worth looking at2 it is really a tube1 with a small1 round hole at the tip1 through which the ant-eater can thrust out his tongue4 ,the tongue is long1 slim1 round1 worm-like1 and covered with a sticky secretion4 ,the ant-bear has no teeth4 ,the chief food of this odd animal is ants1 and let us see its method of feasting4 ,during the day1 while ants work abroad1 this animal sleeps2 but it wanders out at night when the ants are in their hills4 ,the ant-eater puts his long snout into a hill1 and thrusting his sticky tongue into the rooms and galleries1 gathers upon it ants and pup4 ,then he draws his tongue into the tube1 swallows his prey1 and repeats the performance4 ,in like fashion the ant-eater will capture upon his slimy tongue other small insects4 ,this animal is mild in disposition1 slow and listless in its motions4 ,it prefers damp forests1 or reedy marshes1 for its home4 ,though quiet1 it is not timid1 and if attacked by a fox1 wild-cat1 or jaguar1 it will defend itself1 and often squeeze the enemy to death1 or tear it to pieces with its powerful claws4 ,owing to its lack of teeth and its tube-shaped mouth1 it is evident that the ant-eater cannot chew food1 but in addition to swallowing insects whole1 it can take food by sucking the juices1 as beetles and some other insects do4 ,in the ,london ,zoological ,gardens were two ant-eaters1 which not only ate insects when they could get them1 but sucked up raw eggs and bread and milk1 and would also suck the blood from raw meat4 ,the mother ant-eater is a fond and attentive parent4 ,she has but one little one at a time1 and she carries it about seated on her back4 ,she never leaves it for a moment4 ,there is one variety of the ant-eater which lives on trees4 ,this animal seldom comes to the ground2 it eats fruit and the insects which frequent trees1 and drinks the dew and rain from the leaves4 ,it is a pretty creature of about the size of a small squirrel4 ,this tree ant-eater does not carry her baby about on her back2 instead1 she finds a hole in the tree where she makes a nest of leaves1 and there she puts her child to sleep while she hunts about for food4 ,every few minutes she returns and puts her little head into the hole to see how her baby is coming on4 ,in ,india1 ,china1 ,java1 and the ,malay ,islands1 there is one of the edentata called a pangolin1 which wears an extraordinary coat1 from which it is sometimes called 8the scaly lizard40 ,this coat is composed of large1 leaf-like1 pointed scales1 set in the skin much in the fashion of the nails on your fingers4 ,these scales lap over each other like roofing-slates1 and extend from the nose to the tip of the tail4 ,a strip on the under side of the body is bare of scales4 ,like the armadillo1 the pangolin can roll itself into a ball if it is in danger4 ,also like the armadillo1 the pangolins have short1 strong legs1 strong1 curved claws1 and dig burrows4 ,but they are not so fond of burrowing as the armadillo1 and if they find a hollow in a tree they take that for a home4 ,while the armadillos are short and thick in body1 and much like a tortoise in shape1 the pangolins are slender and lizard-like4 ,the pangolin has no trace of teeth1 and its method of feeding is like that of the ant-bear4 ,the head is short and the tongue less slim than the ant-bear's1 but the manner of procuring food is the same4 ,it has the largest and brightest eyes of all its order4 ,there is no external ear1 but hidden under the scales on the head there is an ear opening4 ,when the pangolin wishes to defend itself1 it can erect its scales as the porcupine does its quills1 and so it looks very fierce4 ,all the motions of the pangolin are slow except the play of its tongue1 which darts in and out with great rapidity4 ,from a study of these animals we see1 that while the edentata differ remarkably in many respects1 they are alike in these particulars3 ,there are no teeth on the front of the jaws2 their toes have strong claws2 their motions are very slow2 their intelligence is small2 they are inhabitants of ,south ,america or the eastern part of ,asia4 ,,lesson ,,xlviii4 ,,the ,,gnawers4#hi 8,and the grumbling grew to a mighty rumbling1 ,and out of the homes the rats came tumbling3 ,great rats1 small rats1 lean rats1 brawny rats1 ,brown rats1 black rats1 gray rats1 tawny rats1 ,grave old plodders1 gay young friskers1 ,cocking tails and pricking whiskers60 --,r4 ,,browning1 ,pied ,piper4 ,in our chapter on the whales we have given examples of the fourth in our list of the mammalian orders4 ,the manatee stood as the representative of the next named order1 that of the sirenia4 ,then came the order of the insect-eaters1 or insectivora1 and little ,mr4 ,talpa1 the mole1 was described1 though perhaps he is not more interesting than his relations1 the shrews and the hedgehogs4 ,the seventh order in our list is that of the wing-handed creatures1 which is occupied entirely by the bats1 with their first cousins1 the vampires and flying foxes4 ,these animals might have been set with the edentata1 if they had not indulged in the peculiarity of wings4 ,our eighth order is the rodentia1 or gnawers4 ,no order of animals is better known1 or has more common examples4 ,hark6 in the stillness of the house at night you may hear a rush and a scuttle through the walls1 or a fine nibble in a corner2 these sounds proclaim the presence of two very unpopular rodents1 the rat and the mouse4 ,as ,i was sitting one day last summer in the shelter of a great rock1 a little animal appeared from a maple wood some hundred yards distant1 and with long hops came over the hillside towards me4 ,when about thirty yards from me1 he stopped--he had just discovered me4 ,this was our most beautiful rodent1 the large gray squirrel4 ,i concluded that bright as his eyes are he could not see so far as ,i could1 or he would have noticed me when he came out of the wood4 ,a little while after1 as ,i still sat silent and motionless1 another beautiful rodent came from an adjacent tree1 and1 deceived by my stillness and the color of my linen gown1 he came and sat down on the hem of the gown1 and holding himself erect on his haunches began to eat a nut4 ,this last was the pretty chipmunk1 wearing a reddish coat1 and having black velvet stripes down his back4 ,in introducing these four animals1 ,i have already indicated the creatures to be found in the order of rodents1 or gnawers4 ,one of its most famous and ancient members1 the beaver1 we have already described in a chapter by himself4 ,the order of gnawers is one of the most extensive of the mammalian class4 ,all of its members are small1 or of moderate size4 ,they are distinguished by having only two kinds of teeth1 incisors1 or cutting teeth1 and molars1 or grinding teeth4 ,the incisors1 generally two or four on the front of each jaw1 are long1 stout1 and curved4 ,they are covered with enamel on the front only1 and so the back part of the tooth wears away faster than the front part1 and thus constantly preserves a sharp1 knife-like edge1 which is as serviceable as the best tempered chisel in cutting any kind of wood4 ,the incisors never wear out4 ,they grow from the base just as fast as they wear off at the tip4 ,the rodents are furry1 four-legged animals1 with nails or claws upon their toes4 ,they have large bright eyes1 sharp1 well-set ears1 and all their senses are very acute4 ,they are also distinguished for intelligence1 and generally for amiable dispositions4 ,among them are to be found the rat1 mouse1 squirrel1 rabbit1 hare1 musk-rat1 dormouse1 jerboa1 chinchilla1 porcupine1 ground pig1 marmot1 and many others4 ,the porcupine and his family offer an exception to the other rodents in wearing quills among the fur4 ,the rodents differ widely in their homes2 some1 as the squirrels1 live in trees2 others in forms or lairs on the ground1 as rabbits and hares2 some1 as the beaver and musk-rat1 are chiefly aquatic4 ,the rodents also differ in their mode of life4 ,the squirrels1 rabbits1 hares1#ij and some of the mice1 work and eat by day and sleep at night2 others1 as the rats1 guinea-pigs1 and porcupines1 are principally nocturnal animals1 coming forth from their homes about sunset4 ,in general the rodents feed on roots1 vegetables1 seeds1 nuts1 bark1 leaves1 or fruit2 but some of them1 as the rats1 are fond of meat1 and indeed devour anything in the shape of food1 and are as ready to eat carrion as fresh diet4 ,all rodents are easily tamed1 and are often kept in captivity4 ,rabbits1 squirrels1 and guinea-pigs have always been favorites as pets2 even the rats and mice1 in their white specimens with red eyes1 have not been despised4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,nibblers4 ,the rodents include some animals with valuable fur1 as the gray ,siberian squirrel1 and the chinchillas of the ,peruvian and ,chilian mountain ranges4 ,the rodents are generally very prolific1 and to the great number of their progeny is due their continuance1 in despite of the multitudes of them killed every year by their enemies4 ,the hunter1 with his trap and gun1 seeks the rodents for fur or for food2 hawks1 vultures1 and owls prey upon them2 dogs1 cats1 and foxes constantly lie in wait for them4 ,rats also fight among themselves1 and prey upon each other1 for the victor feasts upon the vanquished4 ,rats are also hunted for their skins1 as thousands of dozens of kid gloves have been first on the backs1 not of kids1 but of rats4 ,as instances of the rapid increase of rodent families we may note that the mother rat has several litters of young each year1 and ten or twelve at a litter4 ,the fieldmouse has twelve little ones a year1 but all of the same litter4 ,the harvest mouse is the smallest and perhaps the prettiest of all the rodents4 ,its back is tan color1 brightening on the sides and legs1 while all the under part of the body is snow-white and silky4 ,it is not much over an inch long1 has bright eyes1 and a long1 hairy tail2 it lives upon grain1 and constructs one of the prettiest of nests for a home4 ,laying together1 with their long leaves1 three or four stalks of wheat1 oats1 or barley1 the harvest mouse weaves of grass and leaves a round1 beautiful nest1 about as large as that of a titmouse4 ,the nest is shaped like a ball1 and has a small opening on one side4 ,in this nest the tiny mother places her little ones4 ,she climbs up the wheat stems by means of her sharp claws1 but comes down as one slides down a rope1 holding on by one hand4 ,this round nest is the summer home of the harvest-mouse4 ,by the time the grain is ripe1 some wise instinct teaches her to remove her household to a new dwelling4 ,she either makes a burrow in the ground1 or builds a nest in a corn-crib or hay-rick4 ,another curious mouse is called the economic mouse1 because it lays up grain and seeds for winter use4 ,in this it resembles certain other rodents1 as the beaver1 which lays up a store of bark1 the squirrel1 which hoards nuts1 and the hamster1 which lays up grain1 beans1 peas1 and seeds4 ,sometimes fifty or a hundred pounds of grain and dried seeds have been taken from the burrows of these animals4 ,the squirrels1 and the 8pouched10 or earth-rats1 are provided with cheek pouches for carrying home their winter store of provisions4 ,others convey their booty in their mouths4 ,i had at one time a pair of chipmunks1 which made their home in the foundation wall of my house4 ,a row of wild cherry trees stood near the lawn1 and ,i found that the chipmunks laid up a large store of the cherry pits1 making many journeys daily to and from the trees1 and carrying off in their cheek pouches a number of pits each time4 ,the season was dry1 and one morning ,i had poured a pitcher of water over some plants near my porch1 when one of the chipmunks passed among them on his way to the cherry trees4 ,he stopped1 sat on his haunches1 took one of the wet leaves in his hand1 pressed the sides together to make a trough for the moisture1 and holding it to his mouth drank the water in the most comical fashion possible4 ,he drank from five or six leaves1 while ,i stood watching him4 ,when he went his way1 ,i filled a large saucer with water and placed it near the plants4 ,this was presently discovered1 and both my little chipmunks hereafter drank and washed regularly at this dish4 ,i made a practice of testing these pretty little fellows' knowledge of nuts4 ,when ,i gave them cracked hickory nuts1 they at once sat down1 picked out the meats1 and ate them4 ,cracked nuts were evidently not fit for storage4 ,sitting on their haunches1 holding the cracked nuts to their mouths with their hands and using their incisors for nut-picks1 these creatures were a pretty sight4 ,when ,i gave them whole nuts1 they tested them1 evidently by weight1 to see if they were sound4 ,sound nuts were promptly carried to the storehouse2 poor nuts were dropped4 ,i never knew these animals to make a mistake4 ,i cracked the rejected nuts1 and never found one of them good4 ,when walnuts or other hard-shelled nuts that have been emptied by squirrels are examined1 and the cleanness and accuracy of the cutting is noted1 we get some notion of those beautiful cutting tools1 the incisors4 ,likewise the wood chiselled by the beaver bears witness to the excellence of the tools bestowed upon this order of animals4 ,the gnawers are found in most parts of the world2 the deep snows of ,siberia are tracked by the agile feet of the squirrel1 the hamster1 and the economic mouse4 ,cold ,norway has hordes of rats1 as well as squirrels and rabbits4 ,italy is the only country free from the ravages of the fieldmouse4 ,in ,english gardens the dormice love to make their homes4 ,rats and mice live wherever men live4 ,africa possesses the sand rat and the brilliant mole rat1 which wears a scarlet coat shining with the iris tints of the rainbow4 ,the jerboas1 with their short fore legs1 and their curiously long hind legs1 jump about in ,tartary1 ,russia1 and the ,african forests4 ,south ,america has a monopoly of chinchillas and guinea-pigs4 ,the porcupine is an inhabitant of three-quarters of the globe4 ,once the beaver built its dams and burrows over nearly all ,north ,america1 and now every woodland abounds in squirrels and rabbits2 almost every river-side has its musk-rats2 every barn and nearly every house is infested with rats and mice4 ,thousands of hares are every winter brought into the ,english markets4 ,in fact1 wherever you go you can hear the busy teeth of the rodents1 gnawing their way through the world4 ,,footnotes3 #hi ,chapters #dh1 #di1 and #ej give but brief glimpses of numerous well-known mammals4 ,the object has been merely to call attention to peculiarities of structure and other points of interest1 and thus encourage the pupil to seek more extended information in larger works4 #ij ,hares are given to wandering about at night1 and porcupines often feed and travel by day4 ,,lesson ,,xlix4 ,,odd ,,toes4 8,a thousand horse1 and none to ride6 ,with flowing tail1 and flying mane1 ,wide nostrils never stretched by pain1 ,mouths bloodless of the bit or rein1 ,and feet that iron never shod60 --,,byron4 ,one great order of mammals1 is called the ungulata1 or hoofed-order4 ,the ungulates are animals well fitted for terrestrial life2 they are vegetable-eaters1 though now and then one of them1 as the hog1 may display some appetite for animal food1 and sheep and cows will eat fish1 especially if salted4 ,no order is more familiar to us1 as it contains all our best-known domestic animals1 and those wild animals most popular in all menageries or zoological gardens1 as the elephant1 camel1 and giraffe2 and finally all those animals most ardently pursued by hunters1 as the deer1 antelope1 and chamois4 ,the order ungulata embraces two animals so widely different from the others1 that they have been classified as sub-orders by themselves2 one of these species is that of perhaps the largest land animal1 the elephant2 the other is nearly the smallest of all the ungulates1 the hyrax1 or cony4 ,the hyrax is the cony mentioned in the ,bible1 and a verse of ,scripture very well describes it3 8,the conies are a feeble folk1 they have their dwellings in the rocks40 ,for a long time these little animals were a puzzle to zoologists1 and finally ,professor ,huxley set them off in a sub-order all to themselves4 ,why were they so difficult to arrange8 ,let us see4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,thick ,,skins4 ,in the first place there are very few of them1 and they are all found in ,africa1 near the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 except one species living in ,syria4 ,they are small creatures1 rabbit-like1 about eighteen inches long1 covered with thick fur interspersed with bristles4 ,first1 they were classed with the rodents1 because of their rabbit-like appearance4 ,but their teeth turned out to be like those of a rhinoceros1 and their skeletons like those of the hippopotamus family1 and therefore they were placed among the ungulata4 ,soon there were other claims made upon them2 their ribs and backbones were like those of that famous insect-eater1 the sloth4 ,these queer little beasts seemed to belong everywhere1 and to fit nowhere1 and they were set up by themselves4 ,the conies are gregarious animals2 they live in colonies4 ,they have no means of offence or defence1 and so they make their homes in holes in the rocks1 and stealing out from their stony citadels1 they eat grass1 fruit1 seeds1 and roots4 ,as they go forth to forage they leave a sentinel perched on a high rock1 to watch for danger and give the alarm4 ,in ,africa the lions are their greatest enemies1 and as soon as the warning of an approaching lion is given1 the conies dash off swift as the wind1 to hide in small crevices1 where their foe cannot follow them4 ,the other peculiar animal among the ungulates1 which demanded a sub-order all for itself1 is the elephant4 ,of this creature there are but two species now living1 the ,indian and the ,african elephants4 ,they are classed by themselves on account of the proboscis or trunk1 which no other animal possesses1 and which a little boy described as a 8big be-front tail1 so that the elephant could walk backwards or forwards all the same40 ,but this is a most unhappy description of an elephant4 ,the ,african elephant is the larger species1 being sometimes eleven feet high4 ,its ears are much larger than those of the ,asiatic species1 are differently set1 and there are also differences in the structure of the head and teeth4 ,the tusks of the elephant are two large curved1 bony appendages1 projecting from the mouth on either side of the trunk4 ,what are they8 ,why1 teeth to be sure6 ,teeth8 ,yes2 they are the two incisors such as ,i told you the beavers have1 but the odd thing about these teeth is1 that1 beginning to grow in the second year of the elephant's life1 they keep on growing as long as he lives4 ,of course they are soon too long to be kept within the shelter of the mouth1 and so they project and grow and grow1 until sometimes they become so enormous as to weigh from one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds each4 ,but these are exceptions2 from thirty to eighty pounds is a more usual weight4 ,sometimes the tusks turn upward2 sometimes they grow almost straight1 or with a downward inclination4 ,besides these huge incisors the elephant has six molars or grinding teeth on each side of each jaw4 ,as these molars are its only teeth useful in eating1 we see at once that the food of an elephant must be grass1 hay1 grain1 and fruit4 ,the tusks of the elephant are almost entirely the purest of ivory1 and as they are our main source of this valuable material1 thousands of elephants are slaughtered to secure the tusks4 ,as the elephant has the fewest young of any known animal1 the race of elephants cannot keep up with the rapid destruction produced by the ivory hunters1 and there is great danger that it will become extinct4 ,in ,africa elephants are not tamed and trained1 but in ,india for many hundred years they have been kept as beasts of burden1 as war animals1 and as ornaments to the state of kings4 ,the most notable characteristic of the elephant is its proboscis4 ,what is that8 ,as the tusks are two overgrown teeth1 so the proboscis is an overgrown nose and upper lip4 ,the nose and upper lip of the elephant are prolonged into a tube1 often six feet long1 tapering almost to a point4 ,at the extreme end of this organ the nostrils are situated1 and elephants often swim entirely under water1 by simply carrying the end of the proboscis above the surface4 ,the proboscis is composed chiefly of muscles1 four thousand of them we are told1 together with many nerves4 ,thus it is exceedingly strong1 flexible1 and very sensitive1 and an injury to it gives the animal intense pain4 ,the proboscis of the elephant is used by its owner with all the ease and skill of a human hand4 ,through it1 it can draw up water and pour it over its back1 or squirt it wherever it chooses2 it can use sand in the same way1 and by an arrangement of valves near the air-passages1 the water and sand while thus drawn up are kept out of the nostrils and air-tubes4 ,the tip of the trunk is prolonged into a finger and a thick knob which serves for a thumb4 ,with these the elephant can pick up even so small an object as a cherry or a pin4 ,with this hand-like extremity of the trunk1 the animal conveys food to its mouth4 ,to the elephant its proboscis is indispensable and invaluable2 clumsy in its motions1 with a very short neck1 which does not permit the head to bend to the ground1 and thick1 pillar-like legs1 difficult to bend1 what would it do without this long1 flexible appendage8 ,with it the elephant collects food and drink1 tears off fruit and leaves from the trees1 and taking a branch for a fan1 drives off the teasing insects which settle on its vast body4 ,a horse switches off insects with its tail1 but the tail of the elephant is small1 slim1 and bare1 very like that of the pig4 ,with the proboscis the elephant strikes down its enemies1 pumps water for its bath1 lifts a burden to or from its back1 defends its young1 and shrieks and roars1 as if braying through a trumpet when hurt or angry4 ,from this trumpeting noise1 the ,french have called the proboscis a 8tromp10 or trumpet1 which we have corrupted into that senseless name for a proboscis1 a trunk4 ,in a fight with a lion or tiger1 the elephant keeps its proboscis held aloft1 out of harm's way1 waving it like a banner1 and sounding an alarm1 and uses its tusks for a weapon1 wherewith to gore or toss its foe4 ,it also tramples on its enemies1 and crushes them with its enormous weight4 ,with its tusks the elephant also uproots trees when it wishes to secure dainty leaf-food1 too high up to pull down with its proboscis4 ,the skin of the elephant is bare1 exceedingly thick1 much wrinkled1 and of a dark lead color1 nearly black4 ,the head is large1 the eyes are small2 the mouth is set under the thick upper part of the trunk1 and is guarded by the tusks4 ,the legs are enormously large and clumsy1 and so are the feet1 which have live toes enclosed in a cushion of thick skin up to the nails4 ,elephants live from seventy-five to one hundred and thirty years4 ,the baby elephant is woolly about the head and shoulders4 ,it sucks its mother's milk not through the proboscis1 but with its mouth4 ,the mother is very fond of her big baby1 and is valiant in its defence4 ,elephants are enormous feeders1 consuming half a bushel of grain and two hundred pounds of green herbage a day4 ,the sagacity of the elephant has been the theme of many stories1 which have also celebrated its affection1 gratitude1 its sensibility to kindness1 its revengeful memory of affronts1 and its treacherous disposition1 given to sudden bursts of rage4 ,white elephants1 of which so much is said1 are not a separate species1 but albinos4 ,we have now seen the greatest of the ungulates4 ,with him in a menagerie we often find the tapir1 remarkable for its long nose1 and as being one of the oldest species of living mammals1 therefore of an ancient dignity of family to which the king-crab1 hatteria1 opossum1 and beaver may make their best bows4 ,the hippopotamus is a hoofed animal1 next in size to the elephant4 ,it is a hideous and dirty-looking animal1 but one that in a menagerie or garden moves our compassion1 for it is by its nature an amphibious creature1 born to live in the rivers1 and to spend the most of its time diving or swimming1 or standing neck deep in water2 and nothing can be more wretched than its appearance as it chews dry hay1 and panting waits for a keeper to throw a few pailfuls of water over its fevered skin4 ,the hippopotamus is a tusk-wearer like the elephant1 and while the ivory of its tusks is not quite so good as that furnished by the elephant1 it is yet in great demand4 ,the hide is also used in the manufacture of boots1 trunks1 and many instruments4 ,the rhinoceros is another big specimen of the ungulates1 with a bare1 smooth hide4 ,it is an aquatic animal1 wearing a single horn on the front of its snout4 ,in its native home1 this horn serves to root up river-plants1 on which it feeds2 it is also the weapon of war4 ,given in its natural haunts to spending hours in rolling in the mud or wading in water1 the rhinoceros suffers severely in confinement4 ,usually of a mild1 quiet temper1 it seems sometimes filled with homesickness and despair1 and with loud moans dashes its head against the walls of its prison as if wishing to end its miseries by breaking its skull4 ,no hoofed animal is better known1 whether dead or alive1 than the pig4 ,the pig is the direct descendant of the wild boar1 and owes the various changes in its appearance and conformation to ages of domestication4 ,the wild boar is an animal with long legs1 long bristles1 lean body1 a long snout1 and a pair of big tusks formed by the elongation of two canine teeth on each side of the mouth4 ,the two canine teeth on the lower jaw are much larger and stronger than those on the upper4 ,the boar has fiery little eyes1 a fierce and active disposition1 and great courage4 ,it has been said of the common pig1 that it is an animal 8manufactured by man1 and he makes it take such shapes as suit his wants best40 ,by careful feeding and breeding the tusks are lost1 the bristles decrease1 the head and legs diminish1 the body and haunches greatly develop4 ,fed and sheltered1 the pig is mild and lazy4 ,turned loose in the woods1 for several generations1 the snout and legs lengthen1 the body grows thinner1 and many of the characteristics of the boar return4 ,various famous breeds of pigs take their name from localities where they are reared1 as the ,berkshire1 ,suffolk1 ,norman1 ,pyrenean1 and ,perigord varieties4 ,the horse is the most noble of all the thick-skins1 and indeed of all brutes4 ,its immediate relatives are the ass1 quagga1 and zebra4 ,the curious stages and changes in the development of the horse have already been given4#ia ,docile and quick to learn1 the horse has been trained and used by men from the earliest antiquity4 ,only one of this species remains superior to domestication1 the wild ass of the ,himalaya regions4 ,the zebra also is restless and intractable1 and is not often reduced to a domestic state4 ,why of all the horse kind should the gentle1 tractable1 humble1 strong1 patient1 easily-fed donkey have been chosen as the constant recipient of scorn2 abuse1 and hard fare8 ,scant food and plentiful kicks and curses are the portion of one of the most useful and gentle of brutes4 ,much more hardy than his cousin1 the horse1 demanding only a little water and the coarsest fare1 the poor donkey gets many blows and few thanks for tireless service4 ,hats off to the donkey1 who always does the best he can4 ,,footnotes3 #ia ,lesson #e4 ,,lesson ,l4 ,,even ,,toes4 8,then bend your gaze across the waste--what see ye8 ,the giraffe ,majestic stalks toward the lagoon1 the turbid lymph to quaff2 ,with outstretched neck1 and tongue adust1 he kneels him down to cool ,his hot thirst with a welcome draught from foul and brackish pool40 --,f4 ,,freiligrath4 ,the order of ungulate has for its second sub-order the even-toed animals4 ,this group is distinguished by the power and habit1 which all its species have1 of bringing back into the mouth1 food already swallowed1 in order to re-chew it thoroughly4 ,this habit is called ruminating or chewing the cud4 ,we have all observed it in sheep1 kine1 and camels4 ,the most notable characteristic of these animals is the formation of the stomach1 which is divided into several compartments of different construction4 ,the second of these stomach compartments is small and lined with cells of a honey-combed appearance4 ,the slightly chewed food1 on reaching this receptacle1 is gradually moulded into pellets or small masses1 which1 instead of passing into the next lower division of the digestive apparatus1 rise into the throat1 are re-conveyed to the animal's mouth1 and are slowly chewed into a fine pulp4 ,any one who has watched a cow or sheep lying at ease1 calmly and steadily chewing the cud1 has seen a picture of quiet enjoyment4 ,the lowest division of the stomach of a cud-chewer is called the rennet-bag1 from a fluid called rennet1 which it contains1 which digests all the food4 ,rennet has the property of curdling milk1 or rather of making it partly solid without rendering it sour4 ,it is used in making cheese4 ,this rennet1 mingled with the well-masticated food of the cud-chewers1 completes the process of digestion4 ,all liquids swallowed by these animals find their way at once to the rennet-bag4 ,all cud-chewers feed upon vegetable substances1 and chiefly upon grass1 of which they eat the stalks and fibrous portions as well as the blades4 ,in a former lesson we spoke of the need of sheep for 8roughness10 as stock men call it--a need which is shared by all ruminants4 ,this roughness is the coarse and innutritious portions mixed with the richer parts of their food1 to enable them to chew the cud1 and to prevent indigestion1 which would be caused by too rich and compact diet4 ,the teeth of cud-chewers are especially formed for grazing2 there are no incisors or cutting teeth on the upper jaw1 except in the camel family4 ,the teeth are of two kinds1 incisors 7on the lower jaw7 and grinders1 or molars4 ,these grinders are wide teeth1 and as the jaws move1 the molars act upon each other from side to side1 the lower jaw grinding against the upper one4 ,watch a cow as she eats1 and you will observe this motion4 ,now let us look at these even-toed feet4 ,you will say that these animals have hoofs divided in the centre1 while the hoof of a horse is not divided at all4 ,the pig1 which does not ruminate1 has a hoof centrally divided1 like that of a sheep2 and the hare1 which chews the cud1 has several separate toes1 and belongs to the rodents4 ,amid all this diversity there is this constant characteristic1 that the cud-chewers of the ungulates have the toes of each foot collected under what is called a cloven hoof1 as if a solid hoof had been cleft into two4 ,there are four families of even-toed ruminants--the hollow-horned1 including kine1 sheep1 goats1 and antelopes1 the deer tribe1 the camel tribe1 and the camelopards4 ,to the hollow-horned family belong our most useful domestic animals1 and those earliest associated with man4 ,the cow family affords us beef1 our principal meat food1 also butter1 cheese1 and milk2 while the hides furnish our chief supply of leather4 ,the bones are used for making buttons1 combs1 knife-handles2 the hair is used in plaster2 glue and gelatine and calves' foot jelly are made from the hoofs4 ,oxen are largely used for draught purposes4 ,what1 then1 should we do without the bovine race8 ,the sheep was no doubt the first domesticated animal2 its gentle nature1 and the ease with which it can be reared1 made it an early associate with the homes of men2 its wool furnishes probably our chief clothing supply2 its flesh is a favorite food2 many nations drink its milk1 from which they make also cheese and butter4 ,thus we have in the sheep an animal indispensable to our civilization4 ,the goat is a third hollow-horn1 the flesh and milk of which are much used in many countries1 while the goat's long and silky hair is in demand for woven fabrics4 ,finally among the hollow-horns we find the famous animals of the antelope family1 the beautiful1 timid gazelle1 the fleet chamois1 the fierce1 untamable gnu1 the graceful ibex4 ,if we had time to describe all these1 we should find before us some of the most charming creatures in the world4 ,they live in high mountain districts1 and the ,swiss is never more happy than when he pursues the chamois over the steep crests and among the crags of his native land4 ,the largest and most untamable of the hollow-horns is that cousin of our patient1 useful ox1 the bison1 or buffalo1#ib an animal rapidly becoming extinct through cruel and wanton slaughter4 ,while few of us have seen the bison himself1 his shaggy pelt is well known in the buffalo robes of our sleighs and carriages1 and in the heavy overcoats made for northern travel4 ,next to the elephant and the rhinoceros1 the bison is the largest of land-mammals4 ,if we lived in ,arabia instead of ,america1 we should set beside the sheep1 as the special ally of men1 the camel4 ,we have all seen this creature in menageries and zoological gardens1--a tall1 awkward beast1 with long legs1 a shambling gait1 one or two humps on its oddly shapen back1 a small head1 the upper lip split in the centre1 a long neck1 small ears1 a dusty1 shaggy coat1 and a demeanor of patient endurance4 ,buffon says that 8the camel is the chief treasure of the ,east40 ,gentle and hardy1 demanding but little food1 and that of the coarsest description1--a few dates1 a few handfuls of grain1--capable of going for days without water1 a strong beast of burden1 this is one of the most important members of an ,arab family4 ,the milk of the camel affords the ,arab cheese1 and also a nourishing drink2 of the animal's long hair is woven cloth for clothing and for tent covering2 its flesh is used for food2 and across the long1 hot1 arid stretches of his desert land1 the ,arab rides in safety1 seated on his tent and household goods piled upon the back of this 8ship of the desert40 ,from the earliest times the camel has been the only means of conveying travellers and ,eastern commodities across the desert4 ,it travels thirty or forty miles a day1 under the hot sun1 carrying a burden of five hundred or six hundred pounds4 ,camels have broad1 callous soles over the bottoms of their feet4 ,these enable them to tread firmly without sinking in the desert sand4 ,there are also callous knobs on their knees and breasts1 which protect them as they kneel to receive burdens1 or sleep in a kneeling position4 ,the training of the young camel begins when it is but a few days old1 and it is taught to get along with the smallest possible allowance of food1 drink1 and sleep4 ,the stomach of the camel is provided with numerous little sacs1 called water-cells2 these drain off a considerable quantity of water when the camel is drinking1 and retain it for several days1 restoring it gradually to the stomach4 ,the camel seems to prefer coarse1 unsucculent1 dry food1 and burning sunshine2 it never seeks the shade4 ,it is perhaps apathetic1 rather than gentle2 it seems little impressed by kindness1 and1 like the elephant1 has a long memory for injuries4 ,following the camel in our menageries usually comes a very strange-looking beast1 the tallest of all animals4 ,with its long neck1 small head1 and its habit of browsing off the tree-tops1 it reminds us of what we have read of that fossil beast1 the iguanodon4 ,this is the giraffe1 often called the camelopard1 which name is given it because it has a somewhat camel-like form1 and the beautiful spotted skin of a leopard4 ,if we watch a giraffe in a menagerie1 we shall remark the beauty of its silky1 spotted coat1 the gentleness of its large1 eager eyes1 its two short horns covered with skin1 its ears turned backward1 its long1 dark tongue1 with which it constantly licks its lips and nostrils4 ,timid and mild1 the giraffe shows vexation only by pawing the ground rapidly with its fore hoofs2 it will bend its stately head to accept an apple or a carrot from a little child1 and seems to forget the days when it wandered through the ,african forests1 and browsed on fruit and leaves from the tops of the trees4 ,the giraffe is one of the swiftest of animals1 and it is almost impossible to take an adult alive4 ,they are generally captured while very young1 and brought up on camels' milk1 until old enough to eat grain and green fodder4 ,the ,western hemisphere gives us no animal corresponding to the giraffe4 ,in ,south ,america the llama in some measure represents and takes the place of the camel2 but the tall and beautiful giraffe stands alone of his kind4 ,we now turn to the fourth family of the ruminants1 distinguished by the fact that they shed and renew their horns4 ,the horns of the cow1 ox1 sheep1 antelope1 and goat are permanent4 ,if by any accident they are lost1 they are not renewed2 but the deer family shed their horns1 which indeed1 are not properly called horns1 but antlers4 ,antlers are a horny growth1 large and branching1 divided into what are called tines4 ,up to a certain age these antlers grow1 fall off1 and are renewed every year1 and there is no mammal peculiarity more wonderful than the rapid growth of these large frontal ornaments4 ,in many of the deer species the male alone wears the antlers4 ,in the reindeer family both males and females have these huge horny branches4 ,the deer family is distinguished for grace of movement and beauty of form4 ,they have smooth1 close1 hairy coats1 but on the breast of the male deer the hair grows long and is called a beard4 ,the eyes are large1 clear1 and bright1 full of gentle eagerness1 and furnished on the inner corner with a curious hollow1 or gland1 called the tear-pit4 ,they have small1 pointed ears1 and short tails2 their legs are slim1 and their hoofs are small1 the whole animal being built for lightness in running4 ,even the antlers are not nearly so heavy as they look1 for they are porous and full of air-cells4 ,the deer family is distributed over the entire world4 ,deer vary in size from the large elk or moose1 the royal stag1 and the magnificent wapiti1 to the small roe deer1 not so large as a sheep1 and the pigmy deer1 which is the smallest of all ruminants1 and indeed1 is not larger than a hare4 ,deer are vegetable-feeders1 and in the coldest climates are capable of living on lichens1 and the scantiest fare4 ,in the far north reindeer or caribous furnish the chief wealth of the people1 and serve instead of cows1 horses1 and sheep1 their flesh and milk being the chief food-supply1 and their skins furnishing clothing and bedding4 ,they serve also as draught animals1 and pull sledges over the snow with incredible swiftness4 ,deer generally live in herds2 the mother is a most vigilant and tender parent1 devoting herself to her twin children with tireless care4 ,deer are distinguished for the perfection of their senses of sight1 smell1 and hearing1 and as soon as one of a herd discovers anything that indicates danger1 the alarm is given1 and away they go4 ,the deer mothers1 while feeding1 are constantly alert1 and hurry their little ones off at the first hint of danger4 ,the general disposition of the deer is amiable1 but the old males sometimes fight furiously together1 and if brought to bay by hunters1 defend themselves valiantly with hoofs and horns4 ,passing now from the ungulates1 we reach a very well-known order of mammals1 called the carnivora1 or flesh-eaters4 ,this order is divided into two sub-orders1 the pinnipeds1 or 8fin-footed10 and the fissipeds1 or 8slit-footed40 ,in our study of the seal we have had the best example of the fin-footed1 or aquatic carnivora4 ,bring up your dog or your cat for a sample of the slit-footed flesh-eaters4 ,ponto1 set your foot down firmly1 and let us look at it4 ,all the toes are of equal length2 the foot looks as if a roundish foot had been deeply slit into toes1 which are hairy up to the nails4 ,the feet of web-footed animals would look like this if they were not webbed4#ic ,these slit-footed1 or fissiped creatures1 are divided into several species1 and there is considerable difference in their way of treading2 some1 as the cats1 walk on their toes4 ,come here1 kitty1 let us see your feet4 ,kitty can draw her claws close into the 8velvet10 or fur1 of her paw so that you would not know she had sharp nails4 ,as she does this she curls her foot up into a cushion1 and walks on the ends of her toes4 ,look at her foot when she stretches it2 how well you can see the slit-foot arrangement and the clawed toes4 ,kitty is a mild and domestic representative of the great1 feline race1 at the head of which stands the lion4 ,ponto1 on the other hand1 is a civilized and educated specimen of the canine race1 which numbers among its members the wolf4 ,while kitty draws in her claws and walks on her toes1 the bears are what is called plantigrade carnivora1 for they walk on the flat soles of their feet4 ,these carnivora are all flesh-eaters1 but when educated and refined1 like ,ponto and ,kitty1 they will eat any kind of food4 ,among the carnivora we enumerate lions1 tigers1 bears1 cougars1 hyenas1 panthers1 wolves1 jackals1 leopards1 cats1 dogs1 badgers1 and many more4 ,you see they embrace all the fiercest and most dangerous wild beasts1 as well as our domestic friends1 the cat and the dog4 ,if you will open ,kitty's mouth1 or ,ponto's1 you will see what style of teeth these carnivora have2 they are made for tearing flesh1 and are accompanied by sharp claws for holding fast the living prey4 ,all the carnivora are singularly strong1 agile1 and tenacious of life4 ,the carnivora are so varied and interesting1 that we leave them to be studied elsewhere1 and indeed so we must serve the final order of mammals--the primates4#id ,these primates are divided into two sub-orders1 the quadrumana1 or four-handed animals1 and the human race4 ,many scientists1 instead of the order primates1 with these two sub-orders1 give us the order quadrumana1 or monkeys1 and the order bimana1 or man1 and that is the better division4 ,the quadrumana1 or ape families1 contain a large number of curious and interesting animals1 all natives of tropical regions4 ,they are hairy creatures1 with three kinds of teeth1 and are adapted for eating nearly all kinds of food4 ,they are well known to us in menageries1 and are frequently seen on our streets1 fancifully dressed1 and in company with a man and an organ1 surrounded also by a group of admiring children4 8,how many children are there in your family1 ,pierre80 we one day asked a bright little ,italian boy4 8,four1 and the monkey1 signora40 8,but the monkey1 ,pierre1 does not count with the children40 8,o signora6 for care and trouble he counts more than the children6 ,he must have the warmest corner and the best food4 ,at night1 for warmth1 he sleeps in my father's arms4 ,he gets cold ten times as often as we do2 and if he gets a cold he must have the doctor1 for he is likely to die4 ,if he dies1 away go all our saved dollars for more monkey6 ,gracious6 ,o signora6 do you think our father would let our monkey run round in the streets and look out for his own dinner as ,marie and ,i do8 ,the thing is impossible60 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes3 #ib ,the animal called a buffalo in ,america is not a buffalo1 but a bison4 ,the buffalo of ,india and ,italy is the ,bubalus1 the buffalo of the ,western plains is the bison4 ,the large1 wild bison of ,germany is called the ,aurochs4 ,all these animals belong to the family ,bovid4 #ic ,if we examine the toes of the cat and dog1 we shall see that the skin extends web-like partly up the toe bones4 #id ,it has been impossible in so small a book to discuss with any minuteness the subjects noticed in the closing chapters4 ,it is hoped that the hints given will incite pupils to study and observe the domestic animals of which we see so much and know so little4 ,,sea-,,side ,,and ,,way-,,side4 ,,book ,i4 ,illustration3 ,illustration from ,,no4 #a4--,,mr4 ,,and ,,mrs4 ,,crab4 ,,contents4 ,,lesson4 ,i4 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,crab4 ,,ii4 ,mr4 ,crab and his ,house4 ,,iii4 ,more about ,mr4 ,crab4 ,,iv4 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,crab get ,new ,coats4 ,v4 ,what the ,crab does4 ,,vi4 ,mr4 ,crab and his ,friends4 ,,vii4 ,some ,other ,crabs4 ,,viii4 ,the ,hermit ,crab4 ,,ix4 ,the ,crab's ,enemies4 ,x4 ,the ,uses of ,crabs4 ,,xi4 ,mrs4 ,wasp and her ,home4 ,,xii4 ,what ,mrs4 ,wasp can do4 ,,xiii4 ,a ,look at ,mrs4 ,wasp4 ,,xiv4 ,mrs4 ,wasp's ,year4 ,,xv4 ,mrs4 ,wasp at ,home4 ,,xvi4 ,review4 ,,xvii4 ,the ,bee and the ,man4 ,,xviii4 ,how the ,bee is ,made4 ,,xix4 ,the ,bee at ,home4 ,,xx4 ,the ,bee ,babies4 ,,xxi4 ,the ,bee ,war4 ,,xxii4 ,the ,bee's ,work4 ,,xxiii4 ,the ,wise ,bees4 ,,xxiv4 ,earth ,bees4 ,,xxv4 ,other ,bees4 ,,xxvi4 ,more about ,bees4 ,,xxvii4 ,the ,spider and his ,dress4 ,,xxviii4 ,the ,spider at ,home4 ,,xxix4 ,the ,little ,nest4 ,,xxx4 ,the ,spider and his ,food4 ,,xxxi4 ,very ,queer ,spiders4 ,,xxxii4 ,review4 ,,xxxiii4 ,out of ,harm's ,way4 ,,xxxiv4 ,shell-,fish4 ,,xxxv4 ,the ,story of ,mr4 ,conch4 ,,xxxvi4 ,sea-,babies4 ,,xxxvii4 ,more about ,sea-,babies4 ,,xxxviii4 ,about ,mr4 ,drill4 ,,xxxix4 ,the ,story of a ,war4 ,,xl4 ,how ,shell-,fish ,feed4 ,,xli4 ,review4 ,,book ,i4 #ie pages4 #cb illustrations4 #cj cts4 ,,book ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,illustration from ,,no4 #b4--,,the ,,parasol ,,ants4 ,,contents4 ,,lesson4 ,i4 ,a ,look at an ,ant4 ,,ii4 ,the ,life of an ,ant4 ,,iii4 ,the ,ant's ,home4 ,,iv4 ,the ,ants at ,home4 ,v4 ,the ,ants on a ,trip4 ,,vi4 ,the ,farmer ,ants4 ,,vii4 ,ants and their ,trades4 ,,viii4 ,the ,slave ,ants4 ,,ix4 ,wonder ,ants4 ,x4 ,the ,ways of ,ants4 ,,xi4 ,mr4 ,worm and his ,family4 ,,xii4 ,the ,earth-worm at ,home4 ,,xiii4 ,mr4 ,worm at ,work4 ,,xiv4 ,mr4 ,worm's ,cottage by the ,sea4 ,,xv4 ,mr4 ,worm at ,home4 ,,xvi4 ,a ,look at a ,house-,fly ,,xvii4 ,how to ,look at a ,fly4 ,,xviii4 ,mrs4 ,fly and her ,foes4 ,,xix4 ,of what ,use are ,flies4 ,,xx4 ,a ,swarm of ,flies4 ,,xxi4 ,some ,queer ,flies4 ,,xxii4 ,in ,armor ,clad4 ,,xxiii4 ,when ,mr4 ,beetle was ,young4 ,,xxiv4 ,how to ,learn about ,beetles4 ,,xxv4 ,the ,rose ,beetle4 ,,xxvi4 ,princes and ,giants4 ,,xxvii4 ,the ,little ,sexton4 ,,xxxviii4 ,the ,story of the ,stag ,beetle4 ,,xxix4 ,mr4 ,beetle ,seeks for a ,home4 ,,xxx4 ,the ,little ,water-,men4 ,,xxxi4 ,whirligig ,beetles4 ,,xxxii4 ,what a ,fisherman ,told4 ,,xxxiii4 ,mr4 ,barnacle and his ,son4 ,,xxxiv4 ,a ,fishing ,party4 ,,xxxv4 ,a ,last ,look at ,mr4 ,barnacle4 ,,xxxvi4 ,flowers of the ,sea4 ,,xxxvii4 ,the ,life of a ,jelly-,fish4 ,,xxxviii4 ,sea-,stars4 ,,xxxix4 ,a ,sea-,change4 ,,xl4 ,the ,star-,fish with an ,overcoat4 ,,xli4 ,the ,flying ,flowers4 ,,xlii4 ,under the ,water4 ,,xliii4 ,a ,happy ,change4 ,,xliv4 ,the ,dragon-,fly and his ,cousins4 ,,xlv4 ,the ,wings of the ,dragon4 ,review ,lessons4 ,,book ,,ii4 #ahd pages4 #ci illustrations4 #dj cts4 ,,book ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,illustration from ,,no4 #c4--;,,beaks4 ,,contents4 ,,lesson4 ,i4 ,the ,great ,mother4 ,,ii4 ,the ,earth's ,eldest ,child4 ,,iii4 ,a ,look at a ,plant4 ,,iv4 ,a ,year in a ,plant's ,life4 ,v4 ,the ,growth of ,plants4 ,,vi4 ,the ,food of ,plants4 ,,vii4 ,seeds and ,leaves4 ,,viii4 ,the ,color of ,plants4 ,,ix4 ,the ,motion of ,plants4 ,x4 ,plants and their ,partners4 ,,xi4 ,air1 ,water1 and ,sand ,plants4 ,,xxii4 ,plants that eat ,animals4 ,,xiii4 ,weather ,prophet ,plants4 ,,xiv4 ,plant ,clocks4 ,,xv4 ,the ,school ,cabinet4 ,,xvi4 ,the ,old ,man of the ,meadow4 ,,xvii4 ,the ,life of the ,old ,man4 ,,xviii4 ,the ,robber ,cousin4 ,,xix4 ,the ,merry ,cousins4 ,,xx4 ,queer ,cricket4 ,,xix4 ,other ,hoppers4 ,,xxii4 ,a ,real ,live ,fairy4 ,,xxiii4 ,the ,child of the ,day4 ,,xxiv4 ,life ,among ,snow and ,roses4 ,,xxv4 ,joseph's ,coat4 ,,xxvi4 ,cousin ,moth4 ,,xxvii4 ,the ,child of the ,night4 ,,xxviii4 ,the ,bird4 ,,xxix4 ,beaks and ,claws4 ,,xxx4 ,trees1 ,ground1 and ,water ,birds4 ,,xxxi4 ,on the ,wing4 ,,xxxii4 ,nest ,building4 ,,xxxiii4 ,the ,bird at ,home4 ,,xxxiv4 ,birds of ,song4 ,,xxxv4 ,the ,other ,partner4 ,,xxxvi4 ,a ,brigade of ,birds4 ,,xxxvii4 ,the ,birds in the ,woods4 ,,xxxviii4 ,the ,birds in the ,house4 ,,xxxix4 ,the ,lost ,birds4 ,,xl4 ,the ,fin ,family ,,xli4 ,outside and ,inside4 ,,xlii4 ,where they live4 ,,xliii4 ,how they ,behave4 ,,xliv4 ,fry and ,school4 ,,xlv4 ,scales and ,teeth4 ,,xlvi4 ,big and ,little ,brothers4 ,,book ,,iii4 #cjj pages4 #bi illustrations4 #ej cts4 ,,book ,,iv4 ,illustration3 ,illustration from ,,no4 #d4--,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,the ,,pine4 ,,contents4 ,i4 ,earth ,building4 ,,ii4 ,the ,first ,continent4 ,,iii4 ,the ,age of ,crabs and ,corals4 ,,iv4 ,the ,pines and the ,reptiles4 ,v4 ,the ,palm and the ,man4 ,,vi4 ,the ,starry ,heavens4 ,,vii4 ,a ,fragment of the ,milky ,way4 ,,viii4 ,plan and ,progression4 ,,ix4 ,the ,king of the ,day4 ,x4 ,the ,queen of the ,night4 ,,xi4 ,vanished ,fauna4 ,,xii4 ,a ,mountain of ,fossils4 ,,xiii4 ,written in ,rocks4 ,,xiv4 ,footprints in the ,sand4 ,,xv4 ,the ,winter of the ,world4 ,,xvi4 ,fossil ,crabs4 ,,xvii4 ,stone-,fish and ,stone-,lilies4 ,,xviii4 ,long-,buried ,reptiles4 ,,xix4 ,birds of other ,ages4 ,,xx4 ,the ,early ,mammals4 ,,xxi4 ,very ,old ,families4 ,,xxii4 ,the ,marvel in ,mail4 ,,xxiii4 ,the ,wonderful ,builder4 ,,xxiv4 ,an ,opossum ,hunt4 ,,xxv4 ,a ,new ,fashion of ,pappoose4 ,,xxvi4 ,low ,down in the ,scale4 ,,xxvii4 ,with a ,duck's ,bill4 ,,xxviii4 ,in ,australian ,rivers4 ,,xxix4 ,a ,walk ,among ,wonder ,trees4 ,,xxx4 ,still in the ,wonder ,grove4 ,,xxxi4 ,a ,noisy ,family4 ,,xxxii4 ,the ,frogs' ,cousin4 ,,xxxiii4 ,salamanders4 ,,xxxiv4 ,a ,citizen of the ,marsh ,lands4 ,,xxxv4 ,a ,stranger from ,mexico4 ,,xxxvi4 ,some ,merry ,little ,friends4 ,,xxxvii4 ,the ,ancient ,monster4 ,,xxxviii4 ,el ,lagarto4 ,,xxxix4 ,wiser than any ,beast of the ,field4 ,,xl4 ,our ,common ,enemy4 ,,xli4 ,with a ,house on ,his ,back4 ,,xlii4 ,a ,real ,live ,mermaid4 ,,xliii4 ,great ,whales ,also4 ,,xliv4 ,a ,seal-,skin ,cloak4 ,,xlv4 ,flying ,mammals4 ,,xlvi4 ,order out of ,confusion4 ,,xlvii4 ,nibblers4 ,,xlviii4 ,gnawers4 ,,xlix4 ,the ,thick ,skins4 ,l4 ,the ,ruminants4 ,,book ,,iv4 #cgj pages4 #bh illustrations4 #fj cents4 ,,ricks' ,,natural ,,history ,,object ,,lessons4 ,,part ,i4--,,plants ,,and ,,animals4 ,,chapter4 ,i4 ,introduction4 ,,ii4 ,a ,typical ,plant4 ,,iii4 ,general ,classification of ,plants4 ,,iv4 ,minute ,structure of ,plants4 ,v4 ,roots and their ,functions4 ,,vi4 ,stems and their ,uses4 ,,vii4 ,leaves and ,buds4 ,,viii4 ,flowers1 their ,parts and ,uses4 ,,ix4 ,fruits and ,seeds4 ,x4 ,the ,palm ,trees4 ,,xi4 ,cereals1 the ,sugar-,cane1 etc4 ,,xii4 ,starches4 ,,xiii4 ,oils and ,fats4 ,,xiv4 ,gums1 ,resins1 ,gum-,resins1 etc4 ,,xv4 ,cotton1 ,hemp1 ,flax1 ,jute4 ,,xvi4 ,paper4 ,,xvii4 ,bleaching and ,dyeing4 ,,xviii4 ,tea1 ,coffee and ,chocolate4 ,,xix4 ,spices4 ,,xx4 ,opium1 ,quinine and ,camphor4 ,,xxi4 ,indigo1 ,oak-,galls1 etc4 ,,xxii4 ,classification of ,animals4 ,,xxiii4 and ,,xxiv4 ,classification of ,vertebrata4 ,,xxv4 ,classification of ,invertebrata4 ,,xxvi4 ,coverings of ,vertebrate ,animals4 ,,xxvii4 ,the ,bony ,skeleton and its ,modifications4 ,,xxviii4 ,teeth1--,varieties and ,uses4 ,,xxix4 ,tongues4 ,,xxx4 ,tails and their ,uses4 ,,xxxi4 ,the ,principal ,internal ,organs of ,animals4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,specimen ,,lessons4 ,,lesson4 ,i4 ,paws and ,claws4 ,,ii4 ,cocoa-,nut4 ,,iii4 ,cotton and ,wool4 ,,iv4 ,an ,egg4 ,v4 ,acorn and ,hazel-,nut4 ,,vi4 ,milk4 ,,vii4 ,onion1 ,turnip1 ,carrot4 ,,viii4 ,cat and ,dog4 ,,ix4 ,down4 ,x4 ,a ,quill ,feather4 ,,xi4 ,gutta ,percha4 ,,xii4 ,leaves4 ,,xiii41 ,,xiv4 and ,,xv4 ,starch4 ,,xvi4 ,the ,horse4 ,,xvii4 ,the ,cow and the ,sheep4 ,,xviii4 ,honey and ,wax4 ,,xix4 ,ivory4 ,,xx4 and ,,xxi4 ,seeds and ,seedlings4 ,,xxii4 ,olive ,oil4 ,,xxiii4 ,liber4 ,,xxiv4 ,mammals and ,birds4 ,,xxv4 ,reptiles and ,fishes4 ,,xxvi4 ,mammals4 ,,xxvii4 ,chewing the ,cud4 ,,xxviii4 ,horns and their ,uses4 ,,xxix4 ,parts of a ,flower4 ,,xxx4 ,birds' ,nests4 ,,xxxi4 ,the ,hedgehog4 ,,xxxii4 ,whale ,oil4 ,,xxxiii4 ,leather4 ,,xxxiv4 ,the ,mole4 ,,xxxv4 ,cotton4 ,,xxxvi4 ,vertebrata and ,invertebrata4 ,,xxxvii4 ,the ,cockroach4 ,,xxxviii4 ,the ,earthworm4 ,,xxxix4 ,spider's ,threads4 ,,xl4 ,bleaching4 ,,xli4 ,the ,rat and ,his ,relatives4 ,,xlii4 ,beaks of ,birds4 ,,xliii4 and ,,xliv4 ,snakes4 ,,xlv4 and ,,xlvi4 ,fishes4 ,,xlvii4 ,insects--,form and ,structure4 ,,xlviii4 ,insects--,benefits and ,injuries4 ,,xlix4 ,insects1--,metamorphosis4 ,l4 ,insects1 ,legs and ,feet4 ,,li4 ,insect and ,spider4 ,,lii4-,,liv4 ,legs and ,feet1--,mammals4 ,,lv4-,,lvi4 ,legs and ,feet1--,birds4 ,,lvii4 ,flour4 ,,lviii4 ,the ,frog4 ,,lix4 ,the ,frog1--,life ,history4 ,,lx4 and ,,lxi4 ,eggs4 ,,lxii4 ,snails4 ,,lxiii4 ,snails--,whelk and ,periwinkle4 ,,lxiv4 ,snails4 ,,lxv4 ,the ,amoeba and ,foraminifera4 ,,lxvi4 ,the ,hydra4 ,,lxvii4 ,sea ,anemones and ,corals4 ,,lxviii4 ,plant ,factories4 #ceb pages4 #aba illustrations and seven plates4 ,cloth #a4ej4 ,,elementary ,,science4 ,natural ,history ,object ,lessons4 ,a ,manual for ,teachers4 ,by ,,geo4 ,,ricks1 ,inspector of ,schools1 ,london ,school ,board4 ,cloth4 #ceb pages4 ,retail price1 #a4ej4 ,guides for ,science-,teaching4 ,published under the auspices of the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history4 ,for teachers who desire to practically instruct classes in ,natural ,history1 and designed to supply such information as they are not likely to get from any other source4 #bf to #bjj pages each4 ,paper4 ,i4 ,,hyatt',s ,,about ,,pebbles1 #aj cts4 ,,ii4 ,,goodale',s ,,few ,,common ,,plants1 #bj cts4 ,,iii4 ,,hyatt',s ,,sponges1 #bj cents4 ,,iv4 ,,agassiz',s ,,first ,,lesson ,,in ,,natural ,,history1 #be cts4 ,v4 ,,hyatt',s ,,coral ,,and ,,echinoderms1 #cj cts4 ,,vi4 ,,hyatt',s ,,mollusca1 #cj cts4 ,,vii4 ,,hyatt',s ,,worms ,,and ,,crustacea1 #cj cts4 ,,viii4 ,,hyatt',s ,,insects4 ,,xii4 ,,crosby',s ,,common ,,minerals ,,and ,,rocks1 #dj cts4 ,cloth1 #fj cts4 ,,xiii4 ,,richards' ,,first ,,lessons ,,in ,,minerals1 #aj cts4 ,,xiv4 ,,bowditch',s ,,hints ,,for ,,teachers ,,on ,,physiology1 #bj cts4 ,,xv4 ,,clapp',s ,,observations ,,on ,,common ,,minerals1 #cj cts4 ,note ,book4 ,to accompany ,science ,guide ,no4 ,,xv4 ,paper4 #dh pages1 ruled and printed4 ,price1 #ae cents4 ,science teaching in the ,schools4 ,by ,,wm4 ,n4 ,,rice1 ,prof4 of ,geology1 ,wesleyan ,univ41 ,conn4 ,paper4 #df pp4 ,price1 #be cts4 ,elementary ,course in ,practical ,zoology4 ,by ,b4 ,p4 ,,colton1 ,a4 ,m41 ,professor of ,science1 ,illinois ,normal ,university4 ,cloth4 #aif pages4 ,price by mail1 #he cts42 ,introduction price1 #hj cts4 ,first ,book of ,geology4 ,by ,n4 ,s4 ,,shaler1 ,professor of ,palontology1 ,harvard ,university4 #bgb pages1 with #acj figures in the text4 ,price by mail1 #a4aj2 ,introduction price1 #a4jj4 ,the ,teaching of ,geology4 ,by ,n4 ,s4 ,,shaler1 author of ,first ,book in ,geology4 ,paper4 #gd pages4 ,price1 #be cents4 ,astronomical ,lantern and ,how to ,find the ,stars4 ,by ,,rev4 ,,james ,,freeman ,,clarke4 ,intended to familiarize students with the constellations1 by comparing them with fac-similes on the lantern face4 ,price of the ,lantern1 in improved form1 with seventeen slides and a copy of 8,,how ,,to ,,find ,,the ,,stars10 #d4ej4 8,,how ,,to ,,find ,,the ,,stars10 separately4 ,paper4 #dg pages4 ,price #ae cts4 ,studies in ,nature and ,language ,lessons4 ,by ,,prof4 ,t4 ,,berry ,,smith1 of ,central ,college1 ,fayette1 ,mo4 ,a combination of simple natural-history object-lessons1 with elementary work in language4 ,boards4 #aba pages4 ,price1 #ej cts4 ,parts ,i4 and ,,ii4 ,boards4 #dh pages4 ,price1 #bj cts4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,boston1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,and ,,chicago4 ,,arithmetic4 ,aids to ,number4--,first ,series4 ,teachers' ,edition4 ,oral ,work--,one to ten4 #be cards with concise directions4 ,by ,,anna ,b4 ,,badlam1 ,principal of ,training ,school1 ,lewiston1 ,me41 formerly of ,rice ,training ,school1 ,boston4 ,retail price1 #dj cents4 ,aids to ,number4--,first ,series1 ,pupils' ,edition4 ,written work4--,one to ten4 ,leatherette4 ,introduction price1 #be cents4 ,aids to ,number4--,second ,series4 ,teachers' ,edition4 ,oral ,work4--,ten to ,one ,hundred4 ,with especial reference to multiples of numbers from #a to #aj4 #cb cards with concise directions4 ,retail price1 #dj cents4 ,aids to ,numbers4--,second ,series4 ,pupils' ,edition4 ,written ,work4--,ten to ,one ,hundred4 ,leatherette4 ,introduction price1 #be cents4 ,the ,child's ,number ,charts4 ,by ,,anna ,b4 ,,badlam4 ,manilla card1 #aa #ad inches4 ,price1 #e cents each2 #d4jj per hundred4 ,drill ,charts4 ,by ,c4 ,p4 ,,howland1 ,principal of ,tabor ,academy1 ,marion1 ,mass4 ,for rapid1 middle-grade practice work on the ,fundamental ,rules of ,arithmetic4 ,two cards1 #h #i inches4 ,price1 #c cents each2 or #b4dj per hundred4 ,review ,number ,cards4 ,by ,,ella ,m4 ,,pierce1 of ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,for ,second and ,third ,year ,pupils4 ,cards1 #g #i inches4 ,price1 #c cents each2 or #b4dj per hundred4 ,picture ,problems4 ,by ,,miss ,h4 ,a4 ,,luddington4 ,principal of ,training ,school1 ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i42 formerly ,teacher of ,methods and ,training ,teacher in ,primary ,department of ,state ,normal ,school1 ,new ,britain1 ,conn41 and ,training ,teacher in ,cook ,county ,normal ,school1 ,normal ,park1 ,ill4 #gj colored cards1 #d #e inches1 printed on both sides1 arranged in #i sets1 #f to #aj cards in each set1 with card of directions4 ,retail price1 #fe cents4 ,mathematical ,teaching and its ,modern ,methods4 ,by ,,truman ,,henry ,,safford1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,professor of ,astronomy1 ,williams ,college1 ,mass4 ,paper4 #dg pages4 ,retail price1 #be cents4 ,the ,new ,arithmetic4 ,by #cjj authors4 ,edited by ,,seymour ,,eaton1 with ,preface by ,t4 ,h4 ,,safford1 ,professor of ,astronomy1 ,williams ,college1 ,mass4 ,introduction price1 #ge cents4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,boston1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,and ,,chicago4 ,,music ,,and ,,drawing4 ,whiting's ,public ,school ,music ,course4 ,boards4 ,books ,i4 to ,v41 #aab pages each4 ,price each1 #be cents4 ,book ,,vi41 #bef pages4 ,price1 #ed cents4 ,part-,song and ,chorus ,book4 ,boards4 #bef pages4 ,price1 #if cents4 ,this ,course consists of a graded series of six elementary ,music ,readers 7thus giving new music for each grade7 and a ,high ,school ,reader1 with accompanying ,charts4 ,every device that would make the books useful has been adopted4 ,the exercises and songs are well adapted to the different grades and are all of a high order4 ,it is believed that this series is by far the most complete and useful one ever published in this country4 ,whiting's ,public ,school ,music ,charts4 ,first ,series1 #cj charts1 #f4jj2 ,second ,series1 #ad charts1 #c4jj2 charts separately 7two charts on a leaf71 #ej cents4 ,the ,first ,series is designed for the lowest primary grades1 which should be taught from the charts before they read from the ,first ,music ,reader4 ,the ,second ,series is designed for the lowest ,grammar ,grades1 and should precede the use of the ,second ,music ,reader4 ,these ,charts are well graded1 progressive1 educative1 and interesting4 ,whiting's ,complete ,music ,reader4 ,boards4 #bbd pages4 ,price1 #ge cents4 ,designed for ,mixed1 ,high1 and ,normal ,schools1 ,academies1 and ,seminaries4 ,a large variety of exercises and solfeggios are given for practice in connection with the ,rudimentary ,department1 which is quite complete4 ,two-1 three-1 and four-part songs constitute a very important part of the book4 ,supplementary ,music for ,public ,schools4 ,eight pages numbers1 #c cents2 ,twelve pages numbers1 #d cents2 ,sixteen pages numbers1 #e cents4 ,send for complete list4 ,new numbers are constantly being added4 ,whittlesey and ,jamieson's ,harmony in ,praise4 ,a collection of ,hymns for college and school chapel exercises1 and for families4 #ge cents4 ,thompson's ,educational and ,industrial ,drawing4 ,as at present proposed the entire system will consist of the following ,series of ,drawing ,books and ,manuals3 7#a7 ,manual ,training ,series2 ,two ,manuals4 7,ready4 ,price1 #be cents each47 7#b7 ,primary ,freehand ,series2 ,four ,books and ,manual4 7,ready4 ,price1 #a4jj dozen47 7#c7 ,advanced ,freehand2 ,four ,books and ,manual4 7,ready4 ,price1 #a4ej dozen47 7#d7 ,model and ,object2 ,three ,books and ,manual4 7,ready4 ,price1 #a4ge dozen47 7#e7 ,historical ,ornament2 ,three ,books and ,manual4 7,in press47 7#f7 ,decorative ,design2 ,three ,books and ,manual4 7#g7 ,geometrical2 ,two ,books and ,manual4 7#h7 ,orthographic ,projection2 ,two ,books and ,manual4 7#i7 ,perspective2 ,three ,books and ,manual4 ,this ,system of ,drawing is accompanied by an abundant supply of apparatus4 ,the author has had many years' experience in teaching from the lowest ,primary through the ,grammar1 ,high1 and ,technical ,schools1 and it is believed that the books are so well thought out both from a philosophical and from a practical point of view1 as to be adapted to all approved methods and views in the study of drawing4 ,send for full descriptive circulars and special introduction prices4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,boston1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,chicago1 ,,and ,,london4 ,,geography ,,and ,,maps4 ,redway's ,manual of ,geography4 ,,modern ,,facts ,,and ,,ancient ,,fancies4 ,cloth4 #age pages4 ,price1 #fe cents4 ,this book renders the latest discoveries in ,geography available for the use of teachers4 ,a part of the work is devoted to the discussion of old traditions that still cumber many text-books4 ,it is full of useful hints1 and of bright1 interesting information4 ,redway's ,reproduction of ,geographical ,forms4 ,i4 ,,sand ,,and ,,clay ,,modeling4 ,,ii4 ,,map-,,drawing ,,and ,,map-,,projection4 ,illustrated4 ,paper4 #hd pages4 ,price1 #cj cents4 ,nichols' ,topics in ,geography4 ,cloth4 #agf pages4 ,price1 #fe cents4 ,contains a comprehensive outline of all geographical facts usually taught in our best primary and grammar schools1 together with many excellent suggestions for increasing the interest of pupils1 and much information of interest not usually accessible to teachers4 ,jackson's ,earth in ,space1 or ,astronomical ,geography4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 #hj pages4 ,price1 #dj cents4 ,presents1 in a few simple lessons1 the main facts of this world's relation to other worlds4 ,picturesque ,geography4 ,twelve plates1 #ae #bj inches1 and descriptive pamphlet4 ,per set1 #c4jj2 mounted1 #e4jj4 ,intended to picture the natural divisions of land and water1 and at the same time to meet the modern demand for artistic and instructive pictures for decoration of schoolrooms4 ,progressive ,outline ,maps3 ,united ,states1 ,united ,states1 ,no4 #b 7with ,state boundaries71 ,world on ,mercator's ,projection99 7#ab #bj in472 ,north ,america1 ,south ,america1 ,europe1 ,central and ,western ,europe199 ,africa1 ,asia1 ,asia ,minor1 ,australia1 ,british ,isles199 ,england199 ,greece199 ,italy199 ,palestine499 ,new ,england1 ,middle ,atlantic ,states1 ,southern ,states1 ,southern ,states--western section1 ,central ,eastern ,states1 ,central ,western ,states1 ,pacific ,states1 ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,washington 7,state71 ,the ,great ,lakes1 7each #aj #ab in474 #b cts4 each2 per hundred1 #a4ej4 ,those marked with a star 7997 may be had with black outline for historical study4 ,samples sent on receipt of #aj cents4 ,circulars free4 ,heath's ,outline ,map of the ,united ,states4 ,small 7desk7 size1 #b cts4 each2 #a4ej per hundred4 ,intermediate size1 #bh #dj inches1 each #cj cts42 large size1 #ej cts42 mounted1 #c4jj4 ,roney's ,student's ,outline ,map of ,england4 ,for use in ,english ,history and ,literature1 to be filled in by pupils4 #e cts4 ,outline ,map of ,ancient ,history4 ,for recording historical growth and statistics 7#ad #ag in471 #c cts4 each2 per hundred1 #b4ej4 ,practical ,school ,maps4 ,printed from entirely new plates1 and including the latest geographical discoveries and political changes4 ,includes ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 ,north ,america1 ,south ,america1 ,hemispheres1 ,united ,states1 ,palestine1 and ,canaan4 ,in press1 ready soon4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 and ,london4 ,english ,language4 ,hyde's ,lessons in ,english1 ,book ,i4 ,for the lower grades4 ,contains exercises for reproduction1 picture lessons1 letter writing1 uses of parts of speech1 etc4 4#ce ,hyde's ,lessons in ,english1 ,book ,,ii4 ,for ,grammar schools4 ,has enough technical grammar for correct use of language 4#ej ,hyde's ,lessons in ,english1 ,book ,,ii4 with ,supplement4 ,has in addition to the above1 #aah pages of technical grammar 4#fj ,supplement bound alone 4#cj ,hyde's ,derivation of ,words 4#ae ,buckbee's ,primary ,word ,book 4#be ,badlam's ,suggestive ,lessons in ,language4 ,being ,part ,i4 and appendix of ,suggestive ,lessons in ,language and ,reading 4#ej ,smith's ,studies in ,nature1 and ,language ,lessons4 ,a combination of object lessons with language work 4#ej ,part ,i bound separately 4#bj ,meiklejohn's ,english ,language4 ,treats salient features with a master's skill and with the utmost clearness and simplicity #a4bj ,meiklejohn's ,english ,grammar4 ,also composition1 versification1 paraphrasing1 etc4 ,for high schools and colleges 4#hj ,meiklejohn's ,history of the ,english ,language4 #gh pages4 ,part ,,iii4 of ,english ,language1 above 4#cj ,williams' ,composition and ,rhetoric by ,practice4 ,for high school and college4 ,combines the smallest amount of theory with an abundance of practice4 ,revised edition 4#ij ,strang's ,exercises in ,english4 ,examples in ,syntax1 ,accidence1 and ,style for criticism and correction 4#ce ,hempl's ,old ,english ,grammar and ,reader4 ,in press4 ,huffcutt's ,english in the ,preparatory ,school4 ,presents as practically as possible some of the advanced methods of teaching ,english grammar and composition in the secondary schools 4#be ,woodward's ,study of ,english4 ,discusses ,english teaching from primary school to high collegiate work 4#be ,genung's ,study of ,rhetoric4 ,shows the most practical discipline of students for the making of literature 4#be ,in addition to the above we have text-books in ,english and ,american ,literature1 and many texts edited for use in ,english ,literature classes4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,,publishers4 ,,boston1 ,,new ,,york ,,chicago4 ,,reading4 ,wright's ,nature ,readers3 ,sea-side and ,way-side4 ,boards4 ,illustrated4 ,no4 ,i41 #ie pages4 ,price1 #be cents4 ,no4 ,,ii41 #ahd pages4 ,price1 #ce cents4 ,no4 ,,iii41 #cjj pages4 ,price1 #ej cents4 ,no4 ,,iv41 #jjj pages4 ,price1 #fj cents4 ,designed for schools and families4 ,intended to awaken in children a taste for scientific study1 to develop their powers of attention1 and to encourage observation1 by directing their minds to the living things that meet their eyes on the road-side1 at the sea-shore1 and about their homes4 ,the ,first ,reader treats of crabs1 wasps1 spiders1 bees1 and some mollusks4 ,the ,second ,reader treats of ants1 flies1 earth-worms1 beetles1 barnacles1 star-fish1 and dragon-flies4 ,the ,third ,reader has lessons in plant life1 grasshoppers1 butterflies1 and birds4 ,the ,fourth ,reader treats of world life in its different aspects and periods4 ,badlam's ,suggestive ,lessons in ,language and ,reading4 ,a ,manual for ,primary ,teachers4 ,cloth1 square4 #bhc pages4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,a thoroughly helpful book1 the outgrowth of a real experience1 and of such a suggestive character that its lessons cannot fail in their adaptability to the various grades4 ,the first part gives ,outline ,lessons for ,oral ,work1 specimens of stories told by children1 and simple fables for reproduction4 ,the second part is devoted to ,suggestive ,lessons for blackboard reading and word-building4 ,the plan embraces the best known features of the various methods of teaching4 ,badlam's ,primer4 ,in the series 8,stepping ,stones to ,reading40 ,illustrated4 ,boards4 #aca pages4 ,price1 #be cents4 ,its main features are its simplicity1 variety1 and gradual development of the lessons4 ,badlam's ,first ,reader4 ,illustrated4 ,boards4 #agj pages4 ,price1 #cj cts4 ,follows and develops the general plan of the ,primer4 ,fuller's ,illustrated ,primer4 ,illustrated4 ,boards4 #ajc pages4 #be cts4 ,this book presents the 8,word ,method0 in an attractive form for little children4 ,fuller's ,phonic ,drill ,charts4 ,three ,charts4 ,manilla paper4 #cj #db inches4 ,price1 unmounted1 #a4be2 mounted1 #b4be4 ,these charts have been prepared for the purpose of exercising pupils in making the elementary sounds and in combining these to form syllables and words4 ,smith's ,reading and ,speaking4 ,familiar ,talks to ,young ,men who would ,speak well in ,public4 ,cloth4 #aga pages4 ,price1 #fj cents4 ,a collection of suggestions to would-be speakers1 consisting of informal talks on matters of importance to all young men4 ,readers for ,home and ,school4 ,a series of volumes to be edited by ,professor ,,charles ,,eliot ,,norton1 of ,harvard ,university1 and ,miss ,,kate ,,stephens4 ,this series is to be of material from the standard imaginative literature of the ,english language4 ,it will draw freely upon the treasury of favorite stories1 poems1 and songs with which every child should become familiar1 and which have done most to stimulate the fancy and direct the sentiment of the best men and women of the ,english-speaking race4 ,in preparation4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 and ,london4 ,why should ,teachers ,read the ,literature of their ,profession8 #a4 ,because no man can stand high in any profession who is not familiar with its history and literature4 #b4 ,because it saves time which might be wasted in trying experiments that have already been tried and found useless4 ,compayr's ,history of ,pedagogy4 8,the best and most comprehensive history of ,education in ,english40--,dr4 ,g4 ,s4 ,,hall4 #a4ge ,compayr's ,lectures on ,teaching4 8,the best book in existence on the theory and practice of ,education40--,supt4 ,,macallister1 ,philadelphia4 #a4ge ,gill's ,system of ,education4 8,it treats ably of the ,lancaster and ,bell movement in ,education--a very important phase40--,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,,harris4 #a4be ,radestock's ,habit in ,education4 8,it will prove a rare #8find' to teachers who are seeking to ground themselves in the philosophy of their art40--,e4 ,h4 ,,russell1 ,worcester ,normal4 #j4ge ,rousseau's ,emile4 8,perhaps the most influential book ever written on the subject of ,education40--,r4 ,h4 ,,quick4 #j4ij ,pestalozzi's ,leonard and ,gertrude4 8,if we except #8,emile' only1 no more important educational book has appeared1 for a century and a half1 than #8,leonard and ,gertrude4'0--,the ,nation4 #j4ij ,richter's ,levana2 or the ,doctrine of ,education4 8,a spirited and scholarly book40--,prof4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,payne4 #a4dj ,rosmini's ,method in ,education4 8,the most important pedagogical work ever written40--,,thomas ,,davidson4 #a4ej ,malleson's ,early ,training of ,children4 8,the best book for mothers ,i ever read40--,,elizabeth ,p4 ,,peabody4 #j4ge ,hall's ,bibliography of ,pedagogical ,literature4 ,covers every department of ,education4 #a4ej ,peabody's ,home1 ,kindergarten and ,primary ,school ,education4 8,the best book outside of the ,bible ,i ever read40--,a ,,leading ,,teacher4 #a4jj ,newsholme's ,school ,hygiene4 ,already in use in the leading training colleges in ,england4 #j4ge ,de,garmo's ,essentials of ,method4 8,it has as much sound thought to the square inch as anything ,i know of in pedagogics40--,supt4 ,,balliet1 ,springfield1 ,mass4 #j4fe ,hall's ,methods of ,teaching ,history4 8,its excellence and helpfulness ought to secure it many readers40--,the ,nation4 #a4ej ,seidel's ,industrial ,education4 8,it answers triumphantly all objections to the introduction of manual training to the public schools40--,,charles ,h4 ,,ham1 ,chicago4 #j4ij ,badlam's ,suggestive ,lessons on ,language and ,reading4 8,the book is all that it claims to be and more4 ,it abounds in material that will be of service to the progressive teacher40--,supt4 ,,dutton1 ,new ,haven4 #a4ej ,redway's ,teachers' ,manual of ,geography4 8,its hints to teachers are invaluable1 while its chapters on #8,modern ,facts and ,ancient ,fancies' will be a revelation to many40--,,alex4 ,e4 ,,frye1 ,author of 8,the ,child in ,nature40 #j4fe ,nichols' ,topics in ,geography4 8,contains excellent hints and suggestions of incalculable aid to school teachers40--,oakland 7,cal47 ,tribune4 #j4fe ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,,boston1 ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,chicago4 ,illustration 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note ,in this version of the text1 the ,,strata column of the frontispiece is an illustration of what the layers of the strata looked like during that time4 ,minor punctuation errors have been changed without notice4 ,spelling has been retained as published4 ,also1 the minor errors on the ad pages have been retained4 ,inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized4 ,in ,footnote #ba the text3 8,no4 #c1 pp4 #dj-bd40 was corrected to 8,no4 #c1 pp4 #dj-db40 ,the following printer errors have been changed4 ,,changed ,,from ,,to ,page #db3 8constellation of ,cassiopea0 8constellation of ,cassiopeia0 ,page #ahb3 8agreeeable for food0 8agreeable for food0 ,page #cbc3 8somwhat limited and0 8somewhat limited and0 ,page #cdf3 8where-ever it chooses20 8wherever it chooses20