,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,bold text is denoted by equal signs4 ,footnote anchors are denoted by number1 and the footnotes have been placed after the ,index at the end of the book4 ,the tables in this book are best viewed using a monospace font4 ,basic fractions are displayed as etc2 other fractions are shown in the form a-b_/c1 for example #a-h_/aj or #a_/ab4 ,some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,a ,,brief ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,teaching ,,process ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,brief ,course ,series in ,education ,,edited ,,by ,,paul ,,monroe1 ,,ph4,d4 ,,brief ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,education4 ,,paul ,,monroe1 ,,ph4,d41 ,professor of the ,history of ,education1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,,brief ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,teaching ,,process4 ,,george ,d4 ,,strayer1 ,,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,educational ,administration1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,,brief ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,education4 ,,john ,,dewey1 ,,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,philosophy1 ,columbia ,university4 ,in preparation4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,a ,,brief ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,teaching ,,process ,,by ,,george ,,drayton ,,strayer1 ,,ph4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,educational ,,administration1 ,,formerly ,,adjunct ,,professor ,,of ,,elementary ,,education ,,teachers ,,college1 ,,columbia ,,university ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aiaf ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,october1 #aiaa4 ,reprinted ,january1 ,march1 ,april1 ,september1 #aiab2 ,january1 ,july1 ,november1 ,december1 #aiac2 ,october1 ,december1 #aiad2 ,may1 #aiae2 ,january1 #aiaf4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,to ,,my ,,wife ,,preface ,this book is the direct outcome of experience in trying to help teachers grow in skill in the art of teaching and in power to appreciate the work in which they are engaged4 ,in the following pages have been treated as concretely as possible the problems which the teacher faces day after day in the classroom4 ,theories of education have not been discussed at any great length1 but rather those processes through which these fundamental principles find their expression in actual teaching4 ,terminology which it is difficult for teachers to understand has been avoided4 ,although the results of studies in educational psychology and in experimental pedagogy have been included in the interpretation of the problems discussed1 it has not been thought advantageous to discuss at any length any one of these investigations4 ,many of the books which have been written for teachers have discussed theories of teaching method without indicating clearly the application of these principles in typical classroom exercises4 ,in other volumes a single type of teaching has been emphasized to the exclusion of other equally valid methods of instruction4 ,in this book each of the several typical methods of instruction has been treated1 and the validity of the particular practice indicated in terms of the end to be accomplished1 as well as the technique to be used4 ,since the technique of teaching method is not the only element in determining the efficiency of the teacher1 there is included in this book a discussion of those other aspects of the teacher's work which determine the contribution which she makes to the education of the children with whom she works4 ,in the chapter on lesson plans are given a number of illustrations which conform to the types of exercises discussed earlier in the book4 ,one of the greatest needs in working with teachers is met by this very definite provision for demonstrating the validity of the types of teaching discussed4 ,the exercises given at the end of each chapter are intended to supplement the discussions of the book by calling for an interpretation of the thought there presented in terms of situations with which teachers are commonly familiar4 ,to ,professors ,f4 ,m4 ,mc,murry1 ,naomi ,norsworthy1 and ,l4 ,d4 ,coffman1 each of whom has read the manuscript1 ,i am indebted for many valuable suggestions4 ,to ,miss ,kirchwey of the ,horace ,mann ,school1 ,miss ,steele and ,miss ,wright of the ,speyer ,school1 to ,miss ,tall1 ,supervisor of ,grammar ,grades in ,baltimore ,county1 ,maryland1 and to ,dr4 ,lida ,b4 ,earhart of the ,new ,york ,city ,schools1 ,i am indebted for lesson plans4 ,the outlines for the study of ,english1 arithmetic1 geography1 and history which are given in the appendix are published with the permission of the authors and of the ,teachers ,college ,bureau of ,publications4 ,,george ,,drayton ,,strayer4 ,,teachers ,,college1 ,,columbia ,,university1 ,august #aj1 #aiaa4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,education ,,pages ,education measured by differences brought about in individuals-- ,various statements of the aim--,the individualistic point of view has been emphasized--,the social aim of education--,aim realized in various types of education--,various teaching processes contribute to the realization of the aim--,test of the teacher's work the present realization of the aim #a-aa ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,factors ,,conditioning ,,the ,,teaching ,,process ,success in realizing the aim of education depends upon a clear realization of the conditioning factors--,the increased responsibility of the school--,the necessity for knowledge of the home life of children--,the instinctive equipment of children-- ,play--,constructiveness--,imitation--,e mulation--,pugnacity--,curiosity-- ,ownership--,the social instinct--,wonder--,the importance of interest in instruction--,the danger of divided interest--,interest as means and as end--,heredity--,individual differences #ab-ca ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,teaching ,,process ,teaching a process of controlling adjustments--,types of adjustment--,the common element in these situations1 satisfaction--,types of attention corresponding to types of adjustment--,passive1 active1 and secondary passive attention-- ,illustrations of the types of attention--,the problem of securing continued attention--,the importance of the problem in teaching #cb-dj ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,drill ,,lesson ,the necessity for drill--,the question of motive--,clear ideas of the habit to be formed essential--,repetition with attention essential in drill work--,attention held by initial motive1 by varying the procedure1 by placing time limits1 and by appealing to emulation--,necessity for accuracy in practice--,the periods elapsing between repetitions or series of repetitions should be gradually lengthened--,danger of the cramming method--,in a series of responses to be made automatic each member of the series must be included--,drill especially on work that presents peculiar difficulty #da-ej ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,inductive ,,lesson ,the importance of thinking--,preparation should end with statement of the problem by children--,the gathering of data the work of pupils in so far as is possible--,suggestions for conducting excursions--,the hypothesis in relation to comparison and abstraction--,not everything can be developed--,respect for the expert to be developed--,danger of helping children too much--,the steps of the process cannot be sharply differentiated--,teaching by types #ea-fi ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,deductive ,,lesson ,the complete process of thought involves both induction and deduction--,the frequency of deductive thinking--,the teacher in relation to the thinking of children--,reflection--,the problem as essential in deductive as in inductive thinking--,the search for the principle or law which explains--,the meaning of inference--,the importance of verification #gj-gg ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,lesson ,,for ,,appreciation ,education should enable one to enjoy life--,power of appreciation should be developed in our schools--,necessity for power of appreciation on the part of the teacher--,the relation of command of technique involved in creation to power of appreciation--,the necessity for a right emotional attitude on part of children at the beginning of such an exercise--,expression of feeling should not be forced--,the teacher as interpreter--,creative work by children--,appreciation in fields other than those involving the sthetic emotions #gh-he ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,study ,,lesson ,the importance of independent work--,children must become conscious of the methods which can be most efficiently employed--,statement of problem essential for study--,assignments--,children must be taught how to collect data--,taking notes--,critical attitude developed--,reflection--,the importance of the habit of verification-- ,teaching children to memorize by wholes--,importance of thought in memory work--,children can be taught how to form habits #hf-ajj ,,chapter ,,ix ,,review ,,or ,,examination ,,lesson ,an examination involves a review--,a review a summary and a new view--,value of reviews--,an abstract or topical outline a good review--,a review by application--,the only real test of the teacher's work found in children's everyday action--,examinations as a test of the success of teaching--,the needs for scales of measurement #aja-ajf ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,recitation ,,lesson ,the weakness of this type of exercise as commonly conducted--,the topical recitation--,the value of outlines prepared by pupils--,pupils should learn how to use books--,the danger of being satisfied with words--,provision for supplementing the text--,danger of accepting vague or incoherent answers--,the danger in developing an ultra-individualistic attitude--,the recitation lesson not comparable in importance to other types of exercises discussed #ajg-aac ,,chapter ,,xi ,,questioning ,the importance of good questions--,types of questions--,a lack of scope a common fault in questions--,careful planning necessary--,the novelty of the form in which the question is put important--,the method of shock--,the technique of questioning--,the mistake of asking questions in a definite order1 of repeating questions1 of repeating answers--,questioning by pupils--,importance of writing pivotal questions to be used in the recitation #aad-abh ,,chapter ,,xii ,,social ,,phases ,,of ,,the ,,recitation ,social aim of education realized in the classroom--,motives commonly operating in schools--,children naturally work together--,changes in school work demanded by the aim of education--,illustrations of coperation in schools--,opportunity in manual work for group work--,plan for individual contribution in all subjects--,all kinds of school exercises may lend themselves to the development of the social spirit--,need for more purposeful work for children-- ,the social motive important in stimulating intellectual activity #abi-ach ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,physical ,,welfare ,,of ,,children ,the importance of physical efficiency--,the teacher should know something of the standards of lighting1 heating1 and ventilating--,right habits of posture under the control of teachers--,the schoolroom and infectious diseases--,the teacher's responsibility for discovering defects of sight1 hearing1 and the like--,the teacher and the movement for better health conditions in the community--,the teacher's right to health #aci-add ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,moral ,,training ,intellectual and moral training cannot be separated--,school conditions offer advantages for moral training--,increased responsibility of schools for moral training--,individual differences1 due to heredity1 environment1 and age important in moral training--,physical condition and morality--,direct and indirect method of moral instruction--,morality and taste-- ,importance of calling for an exercise of the moral judgment-- ,the reform of the wrong doer--,the influence of the teacher #ade-aef ,,chapter ,,xv ,,class ,,management ,class management as a means and as an end--,conditions under which management should result in habit--,situations which demand self-control--,pupil participation in school government--,the daily program--,group instruction--,children should be individualized--,individual instruction will not make children equal in ability nor in accomplishment--,management in relation to teaching #aeg-aff ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,lesson ,,plans ,necessity for planning work--,teacher's lack of interest in work often repeated--,change in subject matter--,preparation1 not inspiration1 counts in teaching--,importance of good questions1 illustrations and illustrative material1 reference material1 plans for constructive work--,the elements in a good plan-- ,organization--,pivotal questions--,provision for summaries-- ,assignment #afg-bbc ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,teacher ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,supervision ,the purpose of supervision--,criticism1 its various types--,when to discuss work with supervisors--,school exhibits--,visiting within and outside of the system in which one works--,examinations and supervision--,the function of teachers' meetings--,institutes1 the better type--,supervision and growth #bbd-bca ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,teacher ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,study ,the course of study as a taskmaster--,the real purpose of the course of study--,provisions for minimum1 alternative1 and optional work--,how the course of study may help the teacher--,the teacher's contribution to the making of the course of study--,the interpretation of the course of study to children--,the doctrine of formal discipline--,the vitalization of the curriculum #bcb-bdf ,,chapter ,,xix ,,measuring ,,results ,,in ,,education ,efficiency demands that we evaluate our results--,progress by the method of trial and success--,reasons why scientific work in education has progressed slowly--,results already achieved in measuring the results of our practice--,education means change1 and these changes are measurable--,lack of adequate units of measurement not an argument against measurement--,the steps in scientific investigation--,the teacher in relation to scientific work in education--,the school a laboratory #bdg-bfe ,a ,,brief ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,teaching ,,process ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,education ,education is worth just the difference it makes in the activities of the individual who has been educated4 ,the question is not how many books did we compel the child to read2 how much does he know of arithmetic1 geography1 history1 music1 art1 and the like3 but rather what use does he make of this knowledge2 how is he different from the person who does not possess this information2 and1 still more important1 are these differences in his activity desirable from the point of view of the group in which he lives4 ,it is important1 then1 that we should consider1 before we discuss the function of teacher in bringing about changes in children1 the ends which it is desirable to attain4 ,the aim of education has been variously stated4 ,in the popular mind the aim of education is usually interpreted in terms of knowledge1 or the ability to make a living4 ,the theorists have been more apt to define the purpose of education in terms of the development of the abilities of the individual1 of growth1 of culture1 or of morality4 ,it might be interesting to examine each of the aims which has been advanced in some detail4 ,it may be as significant to note the element common to all4 ,it is safe to assume that the advocates of each statement of aim believed that their conception was broad enough to insure success for the individual educated in accordance with the particular ideal embodied in their statement of purpose4 ,no aim would be at all acceptable which did not take account of the society in which the individual must work4 ,the education in a tribal society1 which consisted in learning how to protect one's self and to provide for one's physical needs1 the acquaintance with tribal ceremonies and tribal lore1 quite as truly as our modern education1 fitted the individual to get on in life4 ,the individualistic point of view has been constantly emphasized4 ,it has been a case of earning a living for one's self1 of getting culture for the satisfaction that it might bring1 of acquiring knowledge for the sake of the advancement which was thus made possible1 of moral growth for the sake of individual salvation4 ,more recently it has been common to state the aim of education in terms of social efficiency4 ,it is the purpose of this discussion of aim to examine this concept in order to make clear its significance4 ,when society reaches that stage of development in which progress is definitely sought and planned for1 the stage of conscious evolution1 it is not enough that the individual be educated simply so that he may attain his own selfish ends4 ,each individual is a part of the organic whole1 and in his functioning it is the good of the whole which is of paramount importance4 ,the aim of education must1 then1 be broad enough to include both the welfare of the individual and the good of society4 ,is there any real opposition between these ends8 ,if we think most of all of the welfare of the whole organism1 must we sacrifice the interests of the constituent parts8 ,no one can do the most for the group of which he is a member who has not realized in his education the development of those abilities with which he is peculiarly endowed4 ,the nurture of those abilities upon which society places a premium1 and the inhibition of non-social tendencies1 means greater opportunity for the exercise of whatever strength the individual possesses1 greater individual growth and development1 than would otherwise be possible4 ,it is only through participation in social life that the highest individual development is possible1 and it is true that 8he who loseth his life0 for the good of the group 8shall find it40 ,there is1 then1 no opposition between that view of education which declares that the welfare of society is of paramount importance1 and that which demands individual well-being4 ,if we are successful in obtaining the former1 we must have secured the latter4 ,if the analysis of the relation of the individual to society is correct1 we are justified in claiming that any adequate statement of the aim of education must point unmistakably to the idea of the common good4 ,education aims so to adjust the individual to the group that the welfare of society as a whole may be advanced4 ,this adjustment can be brought about only through participation in social activities1 and thus the aim is constantly realized in the process4 ,in our democratic society1 which makes possible free education for all of its members1 there can be no question of the right of society to demand that education aim to develop men and women who work for the common good4 ,it is necessary1 then1 to analyze this aim of social efficiency in terms of our society4 ,the equality of opportunity which we profess to offer is to be thought of in terms of possible service which may be rendered4 ,in any community the contribution to the general welfare which may be made by any one of its members is conditioned by the interests which the individual has in the general good4 ,the unsocial individual1 the one who seldom responds to the needs of the group1 is out of sympathy with social problems1 and contributes little to social welfare4 ,but it is not enough that the individual be interested in the common welfare4 ,interest may lead him to do that which is harmful rather than helpful1 or it may be that his interest may have no result except to give him certain pleasurable emotions4 ,there must be added to sympathy1 knowledge4 ,interest or sympathy in the welfare of society may furnish the propelling force1 but knowledge is necessary for effective action4 ,the world is full of men and women with the best intentions who hinder rather than advance the common good4 ,since each is responsible not only for his own conduct1 but also for the welfare of the whole group1 it is necessary that our education provide opportunity for growth in intelligence4 ,our schools have always emphasized this element in education4 ,we have often defined the aim of education in terms of the development of citizenship4 ,usually the chief qualification of the citizen has been interpreted to be that knowledge which would enable him to exercise the right of suffrage with intelligence4 ,we do well1 however1 to remember that intelligence must be exercised in all of the activities of life4 ,our education must strive constantly to develop men and women who will be rational at all times4 ,but we may not forget that our schools have been so much concerned with the intellectual side of education that they have tended to neglect other elements which are equally significant from the standpoint of social welfare4 ,there is still another element which must be added1 the habit of acting on behalf of the group4 ,we all know people who know just what is demanded in a given social situation2 they profess to be interested in the welfare of the group2 but they never act4 ,when their own private interests are involved they are quick to seize the opportunity for improving their condition2 but in social matters they are inactive4 ,it is in this particular1 rather than in any other1 that our schools fall short4 ,we do much to arouse the sympathy of children in the general welfare2 we give them the knowledge by which their action may be guided2 but we give them little opportunity to form the habit of social service4 ,this is due to the fact that we so often think of adult social activities as the only ones that are worth while1 forgetting that for the child the important thing is social activity now and in his society1 that the only way to prepare for adult social effectiveness is to secure social efficiency on the part of the child4 ,these questions still remain3 how can we1 through education1 produce the individual who1 because of social sympathy1 knowledge1 and activity1 will tend to advance the welfare of all2 and what kinds of education meet the demands of the aim which we have set up4 ,first of all1 we must endeavor to produce the individual who is sound physically4 ,modern education recognizes the fact that a man's usefulness is conditioned by his bodily condition1 and is also coming to find that physical activity is not without its effect on the mental development and life of the individual4 ,there is1 therefore1 one large division of our work which we may call physical education4 ,on the side of mental development1 education consists in preserving and stimulating the child's interest in the materials and processes with which he may come in contact4 ,intellectual training aims to develop the man or woman who is mentally alert1 active in investigation1 and controlled by reason4 ,it is to this intellectual education that our schools have devoted the larger part of their time4 ,the school is the agency set aside by society for transmitting culture1 and the teacher must always concern herself largely with the intellectual life of children4 ,our modern view of education is leading us to stress1 along with physical and intellectual education1 a kind of training which aims to develop the individual whose moral standards are positive rather than negative4 ,moral-social education should establish ideals of social service as well as standards of individual righteousness4 ,along with physical1 moral-social1 and intellectual-cultural education1 there is need for that type of training which will enable each individual to do some particular work with a high degree of efficiency4 ,this type of education we commonly call vocational4 ,it is only recently that we have come to realize that it is not enough to train an individual with respect to general intelligence and morality1 but that it is also just as fundamental that our education provide the training necessary for success in the particular calling which each individual is to enter4 ,for the preparation of clergymen1 doctors1 lawyers1 teachers1 and engineers1 whose vocations require a maximum of intellectual achievement1 it is true that we have long had our vocational schools4 ,we are coming now to appreciate the fact that equality of opportunity demands that special training be given to those who are to enter the industries4 ,indeed1 our vocational schools must multiply until there is training offered for each and every calling before we can claim to provide that training which is essential for social efficiency4 ,another problem is that of the training for leisure4 ,in society as at present constituted1 it is possible for many individuals1 and it should ultimately be possible for all1 to have a considerable amount of leisure time4 ,the contribution of each individual in his special line of work1 and his general interest in the whole community1 will depend in a considerable degree upon the proper use of leisure time4 ,our education must1 therefore1 attempt to equip men with interests and ideals which make for the nobler enjoyments4 ,keeping in mind the sympathetic1 wise1 active social individual1 made so by the process of acquiring experience or making of adjustments1 both physical and mental1 we have yet to reduce our aim to the terms of schoolroom practice4 ,what can a teacher hope to do in this hour1 with this group of children to work with8 ,first of all the teacher can work for the formation of habits which are socially desirable and for the inhibition of those which are undesirable4 8,education is for behavior1 and habits are the stuff of which behavior consists40#a ,the school may be a very important factor in the formation of habits in each of the fields of education mentioned above4 ,if the school is organized on a rational social basis1 it must continually present opportunities for actions which should become habitual1 and the future efficiency of the learner depends upon gaining such control of much of the knowledge which we teach that the response desired becomes habitual4 ,the social virtues of promptness1 regularity1 helpfulness1 industry1 fidelity1 honesty1 truthfulness1 cleanliness1 both physical and mental1 patriotism1 and the like1 should be made habitual in connection with the situations which demand their exercise4 ,the physical habits acquired in childhood are of the utmost significance throughout life4 ,much of arithmetic1 spelling1 writing1 geography1 history1 and even of literature and art1 will be significant in proportion as we have reduced our knowledge to the automatic basis of habit4 ,one cannot stop to reason everything out2 life is too short4 ,we gain time and energy for the higher activities of life in proportion as we reduce the responses which occur frequently to the basis of habits4 ,in vocational schools one of the chief aims is the formation of habits of skill4 ,later we shall want to discuss in detail the methodology of habit formation4 ,every teacher recognizes that one of the ends which must be achieved by the school is knowledge4 ,we shall not here enter into the discussion of the problem of what knowledge is of most worth1 since for the teacher this choice is usually made and prescribed in the course of study4 ,one cannot1 however1 refrain from suggesting that much that is taught would be eliminated1 if we kept constantly in mind the end for which we strive4 ,the following criteria1 proposed by ,professor ,frank ,m4 ,mc,murry1 will be suggestive from the standpoint of teaching1 whether the teacher determines the curriculum or not4 8,we hold to the following propositions in the rejection of subject matter4#b 8#a4 ,whatever cannot be shown to have a plain relation to some real need of life1 whether sthetic1 ethical1 or utilitarian in the narrower sense1 must be dropped4 8#b4 ,whatever is not reasonably within the child's comprehension4 8#c4 ,whatever is unlikely to appeal to his interest2 unless it is positively demanded for the first very weighty reason4 8#d4 ,whatever topics and details are so isolated or irrelevant that they fail to be a part of any series or chain of ideas1 and therefore fail to be necessary for the appreciation of any large point4 ,this standard1 however1 not to apply to the three ,r's and spelling40 ,these criteria indicate clearly that knowledge can never be in itself an end of teaching4 ,it is not that the child may have knowledge merely1 but that he shall have knowledge which will function4 ,this knowledge which we seek to have the child master will concern his physical life1 his social relationships1 his vocation2 and in each field the knowledge he possesses will limit his intellectual activity4 ,the school must keep alive1 or1 in some cases1 awaken those interests which are socially desirable4 ,it is not enough that habits have been formed and knowledge acquired4 ,much of the usefulness of the individual after he leaves school will depend on his interests which lead him to acquire new knowledge1 or to attempt some new activity4 ,it has sometimes been asserted that the school1 as at present organized1 tends to kill rather than to preserve those interests which are common to little children4 ,it is probable that the passing interests in things due to curiosity must disappear1 regardless of the education which we give2 but it is a poor sort of education which leaves the child without abiding interests which will help him not only in making a living1 but also in enjoying his life4 ,here1 as elsewhere in education1 we may be satisfied with the result only when we get the corresponding action4 ,that child has an interest in good literature who reads good literature4 ,we can be sure that the boy is interested in natural phenomena when he is willing to spend his leisure time finding out more about nature's ways4 ,the only test that we have of an abiding interest in the welfare of others is the fact that the child is now active on behalf of others4 ,in like manner are we to judge of our success in arousing and maintaining those other interests which are desirable4 ,judgments of fact are called for constantly in acquiring knowledge and in our everyday activity2 but no less important in the life of individuals are judgments of worth4 ,education must concern itself with the ideals1 purposes1 and standards which should be acquired by children4 ,there is no field in which greater skill is demanded in teaching than in bringing children to appreciate those things which are good1 true1 and beautiful4 ,ideals1 or1 for those who do not agree with them1 prejudices1 will always be of tremendous importance4 ,they determine the course of action a man will take4 ,because of their ideals men have been willing to labor incessantly for a cause which they considered just1 to give up personal good in the pursuance of public duty1 to lose all1 if they might but retain their honor1 yes1 even to lose their lives because they felt that this extreme service was demanded of them4 ,the awakening and nurturing of ideals of work 7or industry71 of honor1 of duty1 of purity1 of service is the greatest contribution of the best teacher4 ,there is one other aim which the teacher should have constantly in mind1 included possibly in the above1 but which needs to be stated separately for the sake of emphasis1 i4e4 that children should be taught how to work independently4 ,the best teacher is the one who is constantly striving to render her services unnecessary4 ,there is nothing that the school can do which will take the place of giving the child knowledge of the most economical means to be employed in achieving desirable ends4 ,is it a matter of knowledge1 the child should be made conscious of the methods whereby truth may be established2 is it the need of establishing a new habit1 or the breaking up of the old one1 we should make available for the pupil the principles of habit formation so that he may apply them to his own case2 in matters of right and wrong1 the school should have supplied standards of reference which will help in the difficult situation4 ,possibly the great weakness of many teachers in imparting this knowledge of methods of work is best illustrated by citing the well-known fact that children of high school1 or even college age1 are found very frequently who do not know how to read a book1 or study a lesson assigned4 ,this problem will be treated in considerable detail when we come to consider the study lesson4 ,pupils at work forming habits of thought1 feeling1 and action2 acquiring knowledge of nature and of society2 forming ideals which make for social well-being2 and learning in all of this work to act independently1 to function in the society of which they are a part3 this is education1 and these are the goals which we should strive to achieve every day and every hour that we teach4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,nicholas ,murray ,butler1 ,the ,meaning of ,education1 ,chapter ,i4 ,w4 ,c4 ,bagley1 ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,how would you hope to contribute to the realization of the aim of education in the teaching of ,english1 arithmetic1 cooking1 geography1 or other school subjects8 #b4 ,how would you determine whether or not the children in your grade are socially efficient8 #c4 ,what are the most important subjects1 or parts of subjects1 which you teach8 ,why8 #d4 ,how would an application of the aim of education as discussed in this chapter modify the work commonly done in arithmetic8 ,in nature study8 #e4 ,it has been claimed that education should provide for the harmonious development of all of the powers4 ,criticize this statement of aim4 #f4 ,could you defend the statement that 8the aim of education is to produce socially efficient men and women10 and at the same time deny that the greatest individual good comes from working for the general welfare8 #g4 ,why should education be free in a democracy8 #h4 ,is society justified in offering special education to the deficient and the delinquent8 ,to the especially capable8 ,why8 #i4 ,is the excessive rivalry which we sometimes foster in our schools compatible with the aim of social efficiency8 #aj4 ,of the several types of education1 physical1 intellectual1 moral-social1 vocational1 and education for leisure1 which is most neglected8 #aa4 ,how do you account for the fact that many children cease to inquire1 to investigate1 or even to ask questions1 although they are regularly taught in our schools8 #ab4 ,why do you teach school8 ,what do you hope to accomplish8 #ac4 ,can you name specific instances of changes brought about in children under your instruction which justify you in believing that you have fulfilled the aim of education in your teaching8 #ad4 ,what justification is there for music1 drawing1 or literature in the curriculum8 #ae4 ,state briefly the aim of education4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,factors ,,conditioning ,,the ,,teaching ,,process ,if it is essential that the teacher approach her work with a clear view of the ends which it is desirable for her to achieve1 it is quite as necessary that she be conscious of the factors which condition the teaching process4 ,the school1 with its limitations and its advantages1 the community and home life of the child1 and1 above all else1 the child himself1 his instincts1 impulses1 and abilities must be the subject of most careful study4 ,much progress has been made in recent years because of a better understanding and a more sympathetic attitude toward children4 ,teachers are beginning to see that education has its beginning in1 and that it is always conditioned by1 the life of the child outside of the school building4 ,the possibilities of the school as an institution for the education of children are just beginning to be realized4 ,while it is true that the school shares with the home1 the church1 and the community at large the education of children1 no one can fail to recognize the fact that the responsibilities and the activities of the school have been very greatly augmented during the past few decades4 ,where other institutions have lost or have become less effective1 the school has gained1 or has been forced to accept new responsibilities4 ,changed industrial conditions and life in cities have made it impossible for the home to continue to hold the important place which it once occupied in preparing its members for efficient participation in the productive activities4 ,whether we like it or not1 we are forced to admit that the church no longer exerts the power over the lives and conduct of men that it once did4 ,along with the specialization of function which is so characteristic of our modern life1 citizenship in our democracy has come to require less of that type of participation in public affairs which was once a great educative factor in our community life4 ,as these changes in the effectiveness of other institutions have taken place1 men have looked to the schools to make good the deficiency4 ,the schools have responded to the demand made upon them4 ,our curriculum no longer consists of the three ,r's4 ,cooking1 sewing1 gardening1 and many other kinds of manual work1 music1 physical training1 and fine art are already found in our courses of study4 ,we are coming to recognize the need for more systematic training in morals and civics1 and vocational training is being introduced4 ,what is the significance of these changes for teachers8 ,is it not true that they must teach whatever is demanded by the course of study2 and is not this the only difference in the teacher's function brought about by changed conditions8 ,the answer is1 most emphatically1 no4 ,the situation which has already made necessary the change in curriculum demands also changes in method quite as revolutionary4 ,it is more essential to-day than ever before that the school present opportunities for coperation and for group work1 a chance for pupils to work together for common ends1 because there is so much less demand of this sort made upon children outside of school than was formerly the case4 ,we ought to do more than we do to develop the independence and the self-reliance which were so characteristic of the boy and girl who lived in an environment which constantly made heavy demands upon their strength1 skill1 and ingenuity4 ,the responsibility for taking the initiative1 and of measuring the success of one's efforts by the results produced1 is all too uncommon in the lives of our children4 ,the school must1 if it is to adequately meet its enlarged responsibility1 develop those habits of thought and action which enable one to get along with his fellows4 ,the school life of the child must1 in so far as this is possible1 present such opportunities1 make such demands1 and judge results by standards essentially social4 ,the child must learn in school to serve1 to accept responsibility1 and to produce results socially valuable4 ,we could do much to increase the efficiency of the school if we planned more carefully to have schoolroom activities find their application in the homes of children4 ,school education begins not with the ignorance of children1 but with their knowledge4 ,children come to us with a great wealth of experience4 ,our work as teachers is to enlarge and to interpret this experience1 to give it greater meaning and significance4 ,can any one question1 then1 the necessity for acquaintance with the life of the child outside of school8 ,and this study of the out-of-school environment must continue as long as the child is in school1 if the teacher's work is to be most effective4 ,it makes a great deal of difference when you wish to teach nature study that your children have always lived in the city1 at a considerable distance from a park4 ,the problem of teaching a great commercial center to children living on farms presents some difficulty4 ,but it is not alone these more gross differences in the lives of children which demand our attention4 ,there are differences in ideals1 differences in social custom1 in short1 in ways of thinking1 feeling1 and acting1 which one must know if one would claim any adequate knowledge of the child to be taught4 ,probably the best opportunity to gain this intimate knowledge of the lives of children whom we teach is to be had in the work with parents and older brothers and sisters which should be carried on in the school building when the smaller children are not present4 ,the school which is a center of community life1 a place for study1 for recreation1 for physical development1 and for social intercourse is the school that is fulfilling its mission in the life of the people2 and the teacher who works in such a school will know her children4 ,there is one other responsibility which we as teachers must acknowledge which again leads us beyond the schoolroom4 ,we should work for the welfare of our children during the time that they are not with us4 ,no other body of men and women knows the needs of these children better than we do4 ,our work is conditioned by the life of the child before he comes under our influence4 ,our work is ofttime of no effect because of the adverse conditions outside of the school4 ,what does it matter that we try to develop morality in children1 when the forces of immorality in the streets more than counteract our influence8 what does it matter that we strive earnestly to provide hygienic conditions for work during five hours of the day1 when filth and disease are doing their deadly work outside of the school for nineteen hours a day8 ,who knows better than we that children with starved bodies cannot do great things intellectually8 ,if we were only organized to improve these conditions1 we could do much for the welfare of the community4 ,the time is coming when it will be considered as legitimate for a body of teachers to discuss the problems of impure food supply1 of relief for the poor1 of means for the suppression of vice1 and of better hygienic conditions for the children of our cities1 as it is to discuss the problems of method or the organization of school work4 ,what we need1 if we are to be effective in the work1 is better organization1 more craft consciousness4 ,we now possess potentially great power for social betterment4 ,we are exercising this power in the school1 and1 as individuals1 outside of the school4 ,we will1 let us hope1 in time1 recognize the larger social demand and perform the larger social service4 ,the children with whom we work come to us equipped with many native reactions or tendencies to behave4 ,in any situation the child will react in accordance with some native tendency or habit which has grown out of the original tendency4 ,success in teaching depends upon a recognition of these instinctive tendencies1 the development of some1 the grafting of new but similar reactions on others1 and the inhibition of the native reaction and substitution of another in still other cases4 ,the instincts which are of importance in education have been variously named2 among these those of greatest significance for the work of the teacher are play1 constructiveness1 imitation1 emulation1 pugnacity1 curiosity1 ownership1 including the collecting instinct1 sympathy1 wonder4 ,we shall deal briefly with each of these in relation to the work of the teacher4 ,play3 ,possibly the lesson which teachers need most to learn is that play has real educative value4 ,before the school age has been reached1 the child has learned chiefly by playing4 ,in play the child gets his first experience in those activities which are later to make possible a happy1 useful life in the community4 ,the number of possible reactions possessed by a child of six is largely determined by the opportunity he has had to play4 ,this is why we value so much a life free from restraint1 and in contact with nature1 for little children4 ,contact with the trees1 the rocks1 the birds1 the flowers1 and association with other children mean possibilities of learning for the child which no amount of instruction or exercise of authority can equal4 ,the child plays now with this object and again with that2 and in consequence comes to know not only the objects1 but his own power4 ,in an imaginative way he experiences all of the adult activities about him1 sowing1 reaping1 building1 cooking1 cleaning1 hauling1 fighting2 and he is wiser and better prepared for the period of struggle1 which must come later1 because of these activities4 ,nor should this period of play end when the child enters school4 ,the skillful teacher makes a game of many of the exercises of the school1 which might be otherwise drudgery4 ,the desire to win is common to children six years of age1 and many a hard task will become play1 if the element of competition is introduced and sufficient variety in procedure is provided for4 ,by playing1 children may learn to work4 ,to achieve the ends desired in a game may involve the overcoming of difficulties which require the most earnest effort4 ,there can be no better preparation for life than the playing of games where team work1 self-restraint1 and fairness are demanded4 ,we need more careful study on the part of teachers of children's games1 and more planning that all may secure the benefits which come from this sort of activity4 ,in the schoolroom1 wherever it is possible1 the spirit of play should pervade the work4 ,there will be cases enough where results will depend upon the exercise of authority4 ,let us never forget that the reaction of play may mean just as valuable results as the reaction of necessity1 and that the ideal life is the one in which all work is play4 ,constructiveness3 ,closely connected with the play instinct is the instinct to make out of the material at one's command that which will represent some element in the play4 ,in the beginning1 gestures1 sounds1 and whatever objects are present suffice in the make-believe world of the child4 ,but soon the materials are rearranged or shaped into some new form in order to represent the object desired4 ,materials become to the child just what he can make out of them4 ,and it is not simply in power to construct or to represent that the child grows because of this activity4 ,to make something1 to work out in materials one's idea1 means growth in definiteness and control of ideas4 ,the one adequate test of ideas must always be some sort of expression2 and1 for the adult as well as for the child1 construction is one of the most important forms of expression4 ,we would gain much in all of our school work in clearness and definiteness1 if we resorted oftener to construction as a test4 ,of course1 construction is not to be limited to the making of things of three dimensions4 ,the map1 plan1 or artistic representation belongs to the same group1 and is developed from the same instinctive tendency4 ,just one more word of caution needs to be given with regard to work of this kind4 ,in constructive work1 whether with wood or clay1 or with pencil or brush1 the point of departure should be the child's idea1 not the model or pattern provided by an adult4 ,after the child has made his attempt1 then let him see where he has failed by reference to the object which he has tried to represent4 ,and we can afford to be satisfied in the beginning with a crude product1 so long as it satisfies the child4 ,as for technique1 there will come a time when the desire for a better product will call for greater skill and will furnish the very best possible motive for the necessary practice4 ,imitation3 ,in both play and constructive work a most important element is the instinct to imitate4 ,the child constantly imitates adult activities in play1 and in construction he represents the objects about him4 ,as has already been indicated1 it is in this way that he clarifies his ideas1 that he gains experience4 ,in imitation1 which is truly instructive1 the child does not consciously plan to imitate2 it is enough that the model is present4 ,this kind of imitation is sometimes called spontaneous imitation1 in contradistinction to the other type of imitation1 in which the individual persistently tries to reproduce the activity of another4 ,in the latter case he is conscious of the process2 and this type is sometimes called voluntary imitation4 ,this distinction is important for teachers in many phases of school work4 ,there are cases where the only satisfactory response is that which accords with the model1 the standard which society imposes4 ,we do not want a child to try to spell a word without being conscious of the form commonly accepted4 ,he will succeed in spelling because he has studied this word1 or is able to build it up from his knowledge of its constituent parts4 ,on the other hand1 wherever creative work is to be done1 wherever originality is required1 the educational value of the exercise is inversely proportioned to the degree in which conscious imitation of a model has entered to produce the result4 ,in such subjects as ,english composition1 constructive work1 science work involving observation and experiment1 what we want above all else is the attempt on the part of the learner to express his own ideas2 and it is only after this expression that any adequate appreciation of model or of criticism can be hoped for4 ,there is one other factor in connection with imitation which is of great importance in teaching2 namely1 that children persistently imitate what they admire4 ,this has a double significance for the teacher4 ,those things which can be made less attractive will tend to be less imitated2 and1 conversely1 that which is held up as worthy of great respect will be much imitated4 ,if we were only wise1 we would devote our attention to the leader of the group1 trying to secure the appropriate or desired reaction upon his or her part1 rather than devoting ourselves equally to the whole group4 ,we can depend upon it1 the crowd will follow the leader whom they admire4 ,our appeals often mean little to children1 and the models which we set up have little effect1 because1 however admirable these standards may seem to us1 they are beyond the power of children to comprehend or admire4 ,instead of giving a boy a letter of ,jefferson as a model1 better give him the one written by his classmate4 ,do not expect the girl to imitate the noblest women in history1 but make your appeal on the basis of the virtue of the girl she likes4 ,emulation3 ,much that has been said above under imitation might quite as well have been written under the head of emulation4 ,as social beings1 we tend to do what others do4 ,consciousness of kind compels us to lay great store upon our ability to do as others do4 ,when in ,rome the difficult thing is not to do 8as ,romans do10 but to do otherwise4 ,the desire to do not only as well as others1 but to accomplish more1 is responsible for much that is achieved in the world4 ,if we did not have others with whom we are constantly comparing ourselves1 few of us would do as well as we now do4 ,rivalry will always be one of the greatest means of bringing about improvement or advancement in social conditions4 ,in school1 as well as in the world at large1 rivalry1 if kept free from jealousy and envy1 will justify its existence by the results produced4 ,the boy or girl who is anxious to distance his fellows in school is apt to be the man of ambition and of success in later life4 ,pugnacity3 ,more prominent in boys than in girls1 but present in some degree in every individual1 is the instinct to fight1 the desire not to be overcome either by persons or conditions which surround us4 ,in so far as this instinct leads to physical encounter1 for all except the unusually strong physically1 the correction comes by way of defeat4 ,for all1 the substitution of games which involve physical prowess for fighting1 and the substitution of victories of intellect for the victories of physical combat1 point to the utilization of this instinct in education4 ,it is sometimes possible to appeal to this instinct when discouragement and defeat in school tasks seem inevitable4 ,no boy likes to be told that he has been downed by the task in long division1 or that he has failed to make good in spelling or geography4 ,the whole world hates a quitter1 and normal1 healthy children are no exception to the rule4 ,curiosity3 ,children are proverbially curious about things4 ,they want to know more1 to enlarge and make more definite their experience4 ,this desire shows itself in their actions in handling materials1 in making and unmaking1 in questions asked1 in reasoning1 in play1 and in imitating others4 ,the most striking characteristic in the mental life of children is the breadth of their interests1 due to this instinct of curiosity4 ,most adults think along very narrow and restricted lines2 not so with children4 ,while it is true that they do little abstract thinking1 there is scarcely an object or an action which comes within the range of their senses that is not followed by the desire to find out more4 ,children have the spirit of inquiry1 have many problems1 in short1 are mentally active to a degree most uncommon among adults4 ,the problem of the teacher is how to keep alive this spirit of inquiry1 how to insure a continuance of this mental alertness4 ,much of our school work has certainly tended in the opposite direction4 ,reciting what is written in books1 without thought or question1 has too often been characteristic of recitations4 ,the appeal to authority1 whether of the teacher or of the book1 instead of the appeal to experience1 to observation and experiment1 or to other methods of establishing truth1 tends to kill rather than to strengthen the spirit of inquiry4 ,we should place greater value upon the intelligent question than upon the parrot-like answer4 ,respect for the problems of children1 even when they seem of little account to us1 rather than ridicule or evasion1 will tend to keep alive this most precious heritage4 ,of course it is not wise to encourage the scatter-brained boy or girl who never thinks about the same thing for two minutes in succession4 ,one great function of the teacher is to help children to concentrate upon the main issue1 to show a child that his question is irrelevant to the problem under consideration1 and to guide him on the path which makes thinking pleasant and profitable4 ,it would be a good thing for every teacher to ask herself whether while under her direction the children whom she teaches are usually mentally alert1 thinking1 asking questions1 or whether they concern themselves only with repeating the thoughts of others4 ,if there be any doubt with regard to the children's natural aptitude1 let her observe them when out of school and contrast the result4 ,mental laziness is a habit acquired in spite of our initial advantage1 in spite of our desire for knowledge and the pleasure which comes from thinking4 ,the school and the teacher must always be judged by their success in keeping children awake mentally2 for it is power to learn rather than knowledge which counts in later years1 and learning is most of all dependent upon the initial impulses toward inquiry4 ,ownership3 ,very early in the life of the child the idea of personal ownership develops4 ,there can be no doubt concerning the importance of this instinct in its effect upon the achievements of men1 but we are concerned chiefly1 in dealing with children1 with one aspect of this tendency which is commonly known as the collecting instinct4 ,this desire to have the most complete collection of buttons1 postage stamps1 pictures1 birds' eggs1 shells1 arrowheads1 or whatever else it may be1 may often be utilized to great advantage4 ,illustrative material for work in history1 geography1 nature study1 and to some degree for other subjects can be had in this way4 ,such a collection will mean not only a much greater interest in the work1 but also a livelier appreciation of the subject1 more images upon which to base its generalizations4 ,i have never seen a class that learned more geography in a short time than was mastered by a class who followed the ,american fleet around the world1 collecting pictures1 products1 and stamps for each of the countries visited1 and writing a full account of the country visited to accompany these illustrations4 ,another class made most interesting collections in connection with their study of colonial history4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that ready-made collections will answer the same purpose4 ,they may illustrate better1 but the added interest and enthusiasm growing out of the exercise of the collecting instinct will be wanting4 ,the collecting instinct may be utilized in work which deals with ideas rather than things4 ,children may be just as keen in collecting ideas about a subject in which they are much interested as in making their collection of stones1 or birds4 ,the transition from the one type of collecting to the other is apparent1 in collections which are interesting mainly for the ideas which they suggest4 ,the ,social ,instinct3 ,the school has often overemphasized the individualistic point of view4 ,competition is a legitimate motive2 but if all of school life centers around this motive1 the child has lost much in the non-exercise of that peculiarly human instinct which demands coperation and sympathy4 ,at the foundation of our society is the idea of working together for the common good4 ,boys and girls who are to be most useful to their fellows1 who are to do the most for society1 i4e4 those who are truly educated1 must have kept alive and developed this spirit1 more than altruistic1 which sees in the good of society the greatest individual gain4 ,in a later chapter this topic will be dealt with in considerable detail2 suffice it to say here that many opportunities should be found for group projects1 for service on the part of each member of the group of the sort that he is particularly qualified to render4 ,wonder3 ,the instinct of wonder or awe1 closely related to or possibly identified with the religious instinct1 is one that our modern critically scientific attitude tends to discourage4 ,no one who has had the experience can doubt the value of this element in mental life4 ,to wonder at the glory of the heavens will doubtless make more difference in the lives of most men and women than the smattering of astronomy they may acquire4 ,the man who wonders at the manifestation of the power of the forces of nature may get more real joy out of life than he who feels that he has solved all of her mysteries4 ,we are not as a people remarkable for our reverence4 ,it may be well urged that our schools have often been responsible for the opposite attitude4 ,this instinct of wonder will thrive only in a sympathetic atmosphere4 ,no teacher can directly inculcate or develop it4 ,only that teacher who has preserved and nurtured the instinct in her own life can hope to be effective in keeping alive the same spirit in children4 ,in the first chapter it was claimed that teachers should work to develop the socially sympathetic1 intelligent1 and active individual1 and that the ends to be expected from any exercises might be classified as habits1 knowledge1 interests1 ideals or appreciations1 and methods of work4 ,in our discussion of the native reactions of children1 we have endeavored to show that the possibilities of such accomplishment are the common possession of normal children4 ,it is for the teacher who would accomplish these ends most economically to discover the instinctive basis for the habit to be formed1 the knowledge to be acquired1 interest to be awakened1 or appreciation to be aroused4 ,the instinctive interests of children will furnish the most powerful motives1 and will serve as a basis for the most lasting results4 ,even when the native reaction is undesirable1 the successful process may depend not merely upon negation1 but upon a grafting upon the original tendency of one that is socially desirable2 or1 in other cases1 the substitution of another reaction based upon some other instinctive tendency4 ,we may not always follow where instinct seems to lead1 but we can never ignore these native tendencies4 ,whether we blindly ignore or attempt to work against nature1 or wisely utilize the instincts1 the fact remains that all of our work is conditioned by the native equipment4 ,it has become more or less the fashion in recent years to decry the theory of those who discuss the teaching process from the standpoint of the child's native tendencies1 and with due regard to his interests4 ,the reactionary who continually harks back to the good old times is still with us4 ,the term of ridicule most commonly used in lieu of argument is 8soft pedagogy40 ,we are told that the only way to develop men and women of strength is to begin by making sure that we make our appeal on the basis of our superior authority1 or even brute strength1 instead of finding the foundation for our work in the instinctive curiosity and tendency to mental activity with which children come to us4 ,it is presumed by those who argue on the side of the importance of authority that1 unless children are compelled by others to do hard tasks1 they will never attempt anything that involves effort4 ,again1 they interpret interest to mean the blind following of the child's instinctive tendencies4 ,in our previous discussion we endeavored to show that education concerns itself quite as much with the inhibition of undesirable tendencies as with the encouragement of those which lead to desirable activity4 ,the process is not one of following where children lead1 but rather of availing ourselves of the native tendencies in order that the ends we desire to achieve may be accomplished with the least waste of time or energy4 ,in reality1 the choice between the two positions is not whether we will have regard for childish instincts and capacities1 but rather whether we shall approach our task from the standpoint of one who has faith in an appeal to the lower motive of fear1 or whether we believe that children are best prepared for later activity who work out their own problems4 ,the best teaching can never consist in driving pupils to tasks which they do not understand and which have little significance for them4 ,the standard of efficiency is found in ability to present to the child a need1 a purpose1 or a problem which solicits his attention4 ,it may be that we shall be but imperfectly able to accomplish this result1 but1 nevertheless1 this must be our ideal4 ,and it is not for reasons of sentiment that we adopt it4 ,the learning process is explained in this way only4 ,we make a new adjustment1 reconstruct our experience only in a situation which makes such a demand upon us4 ,when a child is compelled to do a piece of school work without realizing the significance of that which he does1 there is substituted for this realization of need or problem an artificial need2 namely1 to avoid an unpleasant consequence4 ,there is another important argument which must not be overlooked4 ,when a child works under compulsion1 he usually gives just as little attention to his work as may be necessary to escape painful results4 ,it is not uncommon for children to divide their attention most skillfully between distasteful school tasks and the out-of-school activities in which they are vitally interested4 ,this lack of undivided attention to the work in hand results in a habit of work which cannot fail to be disastrous to the highest intellectual attainment4 ,it is true also that children who have been subjected to such treatment come to look upon books and lessons as something of a nightmare1 and are only too glad when the opportunity presents itself to leave school and go to work4 ,the child's attitude1 growing out of his school experience1 is quite as important as any result which we may achieve in knowledge4 ,professor ,dewey's summary of the relation of interest and effort defines most adequately interest in its true significance1 and indicates the place of effort in educative process4 ,he says3-- 8,genuine interest in education is the accompaniment of the identification1 through action1 of the self with some object or idea1 because of the necessity of that object or idea for the maintenance of self-expression4 ,effort1 in the sense in which it may be opposed to interest1 implies a separation between the self and the fact to be mastered or the task to be performed1 and sets up an habitual division of activities4 ,externally1 we have mechanical habits with no psychical end or value4 ,internally1 we have random energy or mind-wandering1 a sequence of ideas with no end at all because not brought to a focus in action4 ,interest1 in the sense in which it is opposed to effort1 means simply an excitation of the sense organ to give pleasure1 resulting in strain on one side and listlessness on the other4 8,but when we recognize there are certain powers within the child urgent for development1 needing to be acted upon1 in order to secure their own due efficiency and discipline1 we have a firm basis upon which to build4 ,effort arises normally in the attempt to give full operation1 and thus growth and completion1 to these powers4 ,adequately to act upon these impulses involves seriousness1 absorption1 definiteness of purpose1 and results in formation of steadiness and persistent habit in the service of worthy ends4 ,but this effort never degenerates into drudgery1 nor mere strain of dead lift1 because interest abides--the self is concerned throughout40#c ,interest1 as ,professor ,dewey defines it1 is intrinsic4 ,the pupil does his work not because he hopes to escape some punishment or get a high mark1 but because the work of itself commands his attention4 ,the teacher must constantly choose whether she will work for interest of this type1 which depends upon the recognition of the worth of the task to be performed1 or resort to an interest which has no relation to the work to be done4 ,shall she appeal to the child through his instinctive delight in finding out1 in constructive work1 or other form of expression1 or shall she appeal to his instinct of fear of a whipping or dislike of ridicule or nagging8 ,it is true that1 after the teacher has done her best to appeal on the basis of the child's needs for growth and development1 not all children will respond equally1 and so1 as in the larger society outside of school1 the child will need to be kept from interfering with others1 and required to do that which those who are wiser have decided that it is advantageous for him to do4 ,but this resort to authority1 an acknowledgment of lack of ability on our part or the result of unfavorable conditions1 must come last2 it should never be the point of departure4 ,there is one other distinction which it is well to keep in mind when we think of interest4 ,our discussion thus far has considered interest as a means for securing certain desirable ends4 ,we may not forget that to secure interest which will persist in many of the types of activity found in the school should be considered as an end worthy in itself4#d ,we may hope to have a boy interested in his history lesson in order that he may gain the knowledge contained in this subject4 ,interest is the means we employ to secure the desired result4 ,on the other hand1 we may hope that the boy we teach will continue to be interested in history throughout his life4 ,in this latter case the interest which we hope to secure in history becomes an end for which we work4 ,as a result of any system of education1 we are justified in expecting1 not only an increase in the command of facts and in a knowledge of the best method of procedure in working in subjects taught1 but also in hoping for the development of lasting interests which will make for a continuance of the period of education and for greater joy in life4 ,heredity in ,education3 ,an inquiry into opposing theories of heredity is not relevant to our main purpose2 but we are concerned with certain facts1 commonly accepted1 which condition our work4 ,no one will dispute the fact that the children assembled in any schoolroom differ in native capacity1 as well as in experience4 ,whether genius or its lack are apt to be reproduced in the children of gifted or dull parents is not the question the teacher has to solve4 ,for her the demand is too often that she turn out a uniform product from a group of individuals who range from the genius to the dullard or mental defective4 ,it is well for teachers to realize that in any non-selected group the majority of individuals may be expected to be of ordinary ability1 and that a few will range above this standard1 and a few will fall below4 ,the important thing to remember is that a group of normal children cannot be ranged in ability in two or three distinct groups with clearly defined boundaries1 but that if any adequate test be given1 we will find that they distribute themselves over a wide range1 with small rather than large differences between individuals4 ,for example3 if a searching test in fundamental operations of arithmetic is given1 we know that some child will probably get nearly all of the work done correctly1 and1 even with our care in grading1 some child in the group will probably fail in more than half of the work2 and that between these two extremes we will have almost every grade of ability represented1 with a tendency for a considerable number to group themselves at about that point which we consider ordinary or average ability4#e ,not only is it true that individuals differ in ability of any particular sort1 but it is also true that the child who has little ability in one direction may be up to the average or have more than usual ability in some other direction4 ,in our teaching we should have a minimum standard of efficiency for all who are not mentally defective1 and we should strive earnestly to have all reach this goal4 ,if wisely selected1 this minimum will include that which is absolutely necessary for further advancement along the line of work pursued4 ,the majority of the class should achieve results beyond this minimum1 and for the exceptionally bright child the maximum should be fixed only by the child's ability and the requirements of good health4 ,it is useless to attempt to make all alike2 it is wrong to limit the accomplishment of the gifted by the capacity of the majority2 these are the lessons which the consideration of the capacities of any group of children should teach4 ,we cannot furnish ability1 but we may create an attitude of listlessness and mental laziness1 if we do not give the bright child enough to do4 ,education demands a recognition of peculiar abilities and their nurture4 ,we can never create genius from mediocre ability1 and we may not assume that genius is irrepressible4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike1 ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapters ,v and ,,vi4 ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike1 ,individuality4 ,e4 ,a4 ,kirkpatrick1 ,fundamentals of ,child ,study1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,what institutions contribute to the education of children8 #b4 ,why has the responsibility of the school increased during the past century8 #c4 ,how would you justify compulsory education8 ,medical examination8 ,compulsory dental treatment8 #d4 ,why do changed social conditions demand changed methods of instruction as well as a different curriculum8 #e4 ,why does the teacher need to know the home life of the children in her class8 #f4 ,what is the significance of parents' and mothers' clubs1 or any other organization of the teachers and the patrons of the school8 #g4 ,why should teachers participate in the campaign against tuberculosis8 #h4 ,give instances from your own experience of the educative value of play4 #i4 ,why can a boy write a better composition about making a kite than on 8,honesty is the best policy08 #aj4 ,what is the objection to providing children with model compositions and asking them to write on closely related themes8 #aa4 ,give examples of a proper appeal to the instinct of emulation4 #ab4 ,how do you account for the fact that in some classes children seldom ask questions8 #ac4 ,what value is there in a collection of birds' nests1 flowers1 minerals1 woods1 and the like1 which one finds in some schoolrooms8 #ad4 ,how would you hope to develop the social instinct in the pupils you teach8 #ae4 ,give the children in your class ten problems in addition1 score one for each column added correctly1 and compare the results4 ,can a teacher create ability8 #af4 ,in a city school system forty per cent of the children have been retarded one or more years during their school life4 ,do you think that differences in ability justify the repeating of work one or more years by so large a percentage of the children8 #ag4 ,should we try to have children develop equal ability in all of their studies1 or rather encourage them to do especially well in one or two subjects8 #ah4 ,should a pupil who receives only forty per cent in his arithmetic examination be compelled to repeat the grade8 #ai4 ,state the argument of those who believe that disagreeable1 uninteresting work is most valuable in educating children4 #bj4 ,what reasons can you give for the demand that teachers secure the interest of their pupils in school work8 #ba4 ,why is it bad intellectually for a child to divide his interest between his school work and some other activity while doing school work8 #bb4 ,there is always some motive present when work is accomplished in the school4 ,if the pupil is not interested in his work1 what motives will you be apt to find in operation8 #bc4 ,does the demand that children take an interest in their work mean that we will require them to do only the sort of work which is easy for them8 #bd4 ,name three situations in school work in which you would seek to use interest as a means4 ,three cases in which you would consider interests as ends4 #be4 ,in which situation will a boy write the better letter3 when asked to write a letter as a class exercise1 or when he writes to his uncle about their plans for his summer vacation8 #bf4 ,the ends which we desire to attain may be relatively near or remote4 ,classify the following aims presented to children according to 7#a7 the remoteness of the end to be achieved1 7#b7 the interest which you would expect children to take in the work for which these aims are supposed to furnish some motive4 ,suppose the class to be a seventh-grade group of boys4 #a4 ,learn how to build a boat4 #b4 ,become a writer of good ,english4 #c4 ,gain in skill in the process of dovetailing4 #d4 ,write for a catalog of sets of tools for boys4 #e4 ,find out why ,england maintains the largest navy in the world4 #f4 ,prepare a description of the building of the ,panama ,canal4 #g4 ,decide why so many ,russians come to the ,united ,states4 #h4 ,make the drawings for a sled to be built for his own use4 #i4 ,make a rabbit trap from plans furnished by the teacher4 #aj4 ,study algebra to get ready to go to college4 #aa4 ,write a story of an interclass basket-ball game for the school paper4 #ab4 ,enjoy one of ,kipling's stories4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,teaching ,,process ,education means change1 growth1 development4 ,the process is one of adjustment in which the individual is not only affected by his environment1 but is also capable1 in turn1 of changing or even in a measure creating the situation in which he lives4 ,the experience of any individual grows in meaning and significance through successive demands for new adjustments4 ,among the lower animal forms there are those who have very little power of adjustment2 regardless of the situation presented1 they can react only in one way1 or1 as the animal structure increases in complexity1 in a very few ways4 ,the power of adjustment being small1 the possibilities of learning and of education are small4 ,as has already been indicated in our discussion of instincts1 human beings are equipped with many tendencies to react1 and with power to react in a very great variety of ways4 ,man has power beyond all other animals to profit by experience1 and is distinguished from them by his power to learn by means of ideas1 not simply by the process of trial and error4 ,our problem is1 then1 to inquire concerning the conditions under which a situation demands adjustment1 under which experience is reconstructed1 and1 further1 to discuss the manner in which socially desirable reactions may be made the permanent possession of the learner1 while those inimical to social welfare are eliminated4 ,in general adjustments are made in response to one of the following situations3 7#a7 when satisfaction of some instinctive need results2 7#b7 when satisfaction of an idea of an end to be reached1 the attainment of which will satisfy some instinctive or acquired need1 results2 7#c7 when satisfaction of an acquired need1 functioning at the time the adjustment is made1 is the immediate result4 ,in these cases a type of adjustment not instinctively demanded and not originally in itself pleasing reaches a point where it is in itself satisfying4 ,the value of the experience is intrinsic4 ,little need be said concerning the first class of adjustments in addition to our discussion of instincts in the previous chapter4 ,when one finds himself in a situation which threatens bodily harm1 he instinctively tries to get out of the way4 ,in the presence of materials1 children instinctively handle them1 or make a noise with them1 or attempt to construct something4 ,the schoolboy1 with his questions1 his collection of stamps1 his adherence to his gang1 is making adjustments which satisfy instinctive needs4 ,under the second class are included reactions in which the satisfaction of the instinctive need is not the immediate result1 and those cases where satisfaction may be explained only by reference to an acquired need4 ,the essential characteristic of this class of adjustments is the fact that the idea intervenes4 ,it is for the satisfaction of our idea of an end which may be remote for which the adjustment is made4 ,a pupil may try to read well because he has the idea that reading well pleases the teacher4 ,the end desired may be simply to get along with the teacher without the discomfort of a scolding1 or because of his instinctive desire for praise4 ,a boy may labor diligently in building a sled because of his idea of the pleasure which will result to himself or possibly to others4 ,a group of children may save their pennies to buy books1 instead of satisfying their desire for candy1 because of their idea of satisfaction to be derived from the books to be bought4 ,a man may endure many hardships because of his idea of future wealth1 political preferment1 fame1 or other good which he hopes will result4 ,after a time activities which were stimulated by the idea of a satisfactory end to be achieved may be repeated for their own sake4 ,this gives us our third class of adjustments4 ,the boy may find it very difficult to spend five hours a day with books1 while the man finds his chief delight in this form of activity1 altogether aside from a result beyond his present satisfaction4 ,a child may begin to read because of the authority of the teacher and his fear of unpleasant consequences1 and yet may later come to find great delight in reading4 ,in teaching we should strive to bring as many as possible of the adjustments to be made under this last category4 ,the boy or girl who finds his greatest satisfaction in making the adjustments1 in gaining the experience1 in doing the work that the school provides1 is getting the best possible preparation for the life of the man or woman who finds his own greatest joy in his everyday activity4 ,we need not be discouraged because of the seeming impossibility of the task1 since its achievement would indicate perfection1 toward which we strive1 and which1 because it is perfection1 we never achieve4 ,adjustments are to be made1 experiences must be had2 and our appeal1 whether based upon the satisfaction of instinctive tendencies1 the idea of ends near or remote1 or the satisfaction of acquired needs which are socially advantageous1 must be the highest appeal which can now be made with the assurance that the resulting reaction will be secured4 ,there is one point which all of these situations which call for adjustment have in common2 that is1 satisfaction4 ,this fact is fundamental in teaching4 ,not only are we limited in our work by native tendencies and capacities1 but the results must give satisfaction1 else the reaction induced will tend not to be repeated4 ,of course satisfaction or pleasure is a relative term2 possibly it would be fairer to say that the individual reacts in the way which will result in the least dissatisfaction or pain4 ,a boy may dislike to write in a copybook1 but he may prefer that to a whipping or to being kept after school4 ,there is one other possible misconception which must be guarded against4 ,that which the individual considers most satisfactory may not be best for his well-being1 nor for the welfare of others with whom he associates4 ,it is the work of the teacher to encourage adjustments which are socially desirable1 and to make unpleasant the results which are socially disadvantageous1 even though they originally gave satisfaction to the individual4 ,corresponding to the types of adjustment mentioned above are the types of attention4 ,when the adjustment is made in response to an instinctive tendency to react1 we have what is called passive or involuntary attention4 ,the boy who looks at the door when it opens1 who makes a paper boat instead of doing his work in arithmetic1 or who talks to his neighbor about the ball game they are to play after school1 is passive so far as any attempt to control his mental activities is concerned4 ,he is following the line of least resistance4 ,he does not will to make these adjustments1 or to attend to these things2 hence we say that he attends involuntarily1 that he is passive in the situation4 ,a second type of attention is that in which the individual makes an adjustment1 follows a given line of activity1 voluntarily4 ,he is active in his determination to accomplish certain ends1 and in order to secure these results he resists the tendency to wander1 to give his attention to other elements in the situation which may be natively more attractive4 ,this type of attention we call active4 ,we have this type of attention wherever the individual works for the satisfaction of his idea of an end worthy to be accomplished4 ,it corresponds to the second class of adjustments mentioned above4 ,through the exercise of active attention over a considerable period1 the necessity for effort1 for the exercise of the will in order that we may not wander from the main purpose1 becomes less and less1 until finally a passive attitude is again reached4 ,this type of attention is designated as secondary passive attention4#f ,it corresponds to the third type of adjustments named above4 ,in teaching1 we begin most frequently with passive attention2 we work most earnestly to secure and to hold active attention2 and if our work is successful1 children will reach the stage of secondary passive attention1 at least with reference to some of the activities found in the school4 ,in the first grade1 in the beginning reading class1 the teacher appeals to the children on the basis of their instinctive delight in movement1 their desire to be like or to excel others1 their pleasure in drawing with pencil or crayon1 their love of a good story1 and other like instinctive tendencies to react4 ,the adjustments made are in response to instinctive needs1 and the attention is largely passive4 ,gradually1 as the work progresses1 the ends to be achieved will become more remote1 and instead of immediate satisfaction of instinctive needs1 the children will work for the satisfaction of their ideas of ends which are desirable1 whether based on instinctive or acquired needs4 ,they may work diligently in the phonic or word drill because they have the idea that this must be done in order to read the story1 and the end ultimately to be satisfied may be to give pleasure to others4 ,the adjustment is made here in response to the idea of an end to be secured1 which represents the satisfaction of a need which probably has been acquired in the school or at home4 ,later in the history of these same children they may read1 overcoming whatever difficulties may present themselves1 simply because this process is for them in itself worth while4 ,here we have the adjustment which gives immediate satisfaction of an acquired need1 and the type of attention which has been designated as secondary passive4 ,the problem for the teacher is to secure continued attention to one thing4 ,almost any exercise which the school offers will be interesting for a brief time because it is something new4 ,the difficult task is not to get attention1 but to hold it4 ,children attend to the situation at hand just as long as it proves more attractive than some other4 ,the boy who is called inattentive may be most attentive to the plan he is making to earn money to go to the circus4 ,the teacher must endeavor to discover ends sufficiently attractive to command the active attention of children for a considerable period4 ,the child must be willing to exert himself1 and the motive for his effort must be strong enough to bring him back to the task in hand every time that he tends to wander4 ,often the success of the work will depend upon a recognition of the fact that it is very difficult to attend for any considerable period to a situation in which the elements do not vary4 ,we may secure continued concentrated attention by recognizing the fact that variety in procedure1 or in appeal1 will make it possible for the child to keep his attention fixed4 ,take1 for example1 a topic in geography4 ,the teacher will question to bring out different aspects of a topic1 show the children pictures or use illustrative materials1 have children read the map1 tell a story or incident relating to the situation under consideration1 and in this manner keep children actively thinking on one topic for half an hour4 ,we shall discuss at some length the problem of aim1 in connection with the inductive development lesson4 ,suffice to say here that often we fail to secure the continued attention of children because we ask them to attend to that which for them lacks interest or significance4 ,children work hardest when the problem to be solved is one that they recognize as their own4 ,they make adjustments which mean immediate satisfaction1 or which they believe will ultimately give satisfaction4 ,our difficulty is often that the end we set up is too remote4 ,the idea of becoming a well educated man will not ordinarily be powerful enough to keep a boy at work on a composition1 but the desire to be the author of a paragraph in the school paper1 to write to a boy in another city or country1 or to compose part of a drama which the class will act for their friends1 may mean the hardest sort of work1 the most concentrated attention of which he is capable4 ,the children with whom we work come to us with tendencies to react1 and are capable of reacting in a great variety of ways4 ,they learn by making adjustments to a great variety of situations4 ,the teaching process consists in providing the situations and the stimuli to action1 in guiding the individual in such a way that the undesirable reactions will be eliminated by disuse or because the results are unpleasant1 in making permanent desirable native reactions or those which have been grafted upon or derived from them by making the results pleasant4 ,the teaching process is1 in general1 as described above2 but the actual work of the teacher varies greatly as she strives now for one end and again for another4 ,there is a methodology of habit formation which the teacher must command if she is to do successful work in equipping her pupils with desirable habits4 ,if our problem is one that lends itself to the inductive method1 we have one sort of procedure2 while if the thinking involved is deductive1 certain other elements enter4 ,there is a kind of work in which we aim primarily for appreciation1 and at another time we are chiefly concerned in teaching children how to study4 ,the proper conduct of a review or examination1 and the type of exercise commonly known as a recitation lesson1 need to be discussed in some detail4 ,in the chapters which immediately follow1 each of these types of schoolroom exercises will be considered4 ,success in teaching consists quite as much in working definitely for well defined ends which may be accomplished in this fifteen minutes1 this half hour1 or during this week1 as in keeping in mind the more general aims of education4 ,indeed1 the only way in which we can secure the larger ends is by successfully achieving the lesser tasks4 ,the teacher who knows that she has fixed this desirable habit of thought1 feeling1 or action1 that this bit of knowledge has taken its place in a usable system1 that this ideal or purpose has been awakened1 that certain methods of work are available for the group of children whom she is teaching1--that teacher can be sure that she is fulfilling her mission4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,e4 ,j4 ,swift1 ,mind in the ,making1 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,e4 ,a4 ,kirkpatrick1 ,genetic ,psychology1 ,chapter ,x4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,when a teacher raps her pencil against a desk and the children look toward her1 what is the type of adjustment made8 ,when will they cease to pay attention to the rap of the pencil8 ,what suggestion would you offer concerning the danger which may be found in rapping the pencil against the desk1 ringing a bell1 clapping the hands1 shouting 8be quiet08 #b4 ,name some exercises in arithmetic in which you may depend somewhat upon instinctive adjustments to insure progress4 #c4 ,where do you think you will find the most instinctive adjustments1--in geography1 arithmetic1 drawing1 ,english composition1 or physical training8 #d4 ,a boy who had done poor work in algebra improved greatly when changed from a class taught by a man to one taught by a woman4 ,how would you account for the change1 taking it for granted that the teachers were equally competent8 ,what type of adjustment did the boy make8 #e4 ,why is it that any new subject will prove attractive for a short time1 and children will later show a lack of interest in the work8 #f4 ,is there any difference between making a class period interesting and finding a motive which appeals to children which will lead them to desire to cover the material which you have assigned8 #g4 ,which is the better1 to have a girl study her geography lesson to please the teacher or to have her at work trying to solve a problem in which she is interested8 #h4 ,what sort of results do teachers secure who compel children to learn their lessons through fear of being ridiculed or otherwise punished8 ,if these children know as much as other children whose teacher has them at work satisfying their idea of pleasure1--which will result in being able to read well to the class1 prepare their part of the class drama1 or investigate in fields in which they are much interested1--would you1 then1 consider the first sort of teaching as satisfactory as the second8 #i4 ,to what degree can you depend upon the awakening of intellectual interests to provide a motive for good work on the part of pupils8 #aj4 ,do you think the following list of questions would prove intellectually stimulating to a group of sixth-grade pupils3-- 8,where is ,philadelphia8 ,what is the capital of ,new ,york8 ,what are the principal rivers of the ,middle ,atlantic states8 ,where is ,pittsburgh8 ,for what is ,pittsburgh noted8 ,what river forms the eastern boundary of ,pennsylvania8 ,bound ,virginia4 ,locate the capitals of the states in this group4 ,name two valuable products raised near the coast4 ,describe the surface of this group of states40 #aa4 ,how many children in your class find satisfaction in their school work sufficient to keep them at it if no marks were given and no one compelled them to attend school8 ,are there some subjects or parts of subjects where you secure this sort of enthusiasm for school work8 ,why do you succeed better in these phases of school work than in others8 #ab4 ,what is wrong with the boy who is quiet during the recitation1 apparently absorbed in the work1 but who gets nothing out of it8 #ac4 ,why does the teacher who speaks in a loud tone of voice in order to compel attention have to speak louder and louder as the day advances8 #ad4 ,what is wrong with a class which does good work in long division at the beginning of the arithmetic period1 and very poor work at the end of thirty minutes8 #ae4 ,give examples of passive attention1 active attention1 and secondary passive attention1 from your own classroom work4 #af4 ,describe the situations in which you believe your children did the best intellectual work4 ,how do you account for the excellence of this work8 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,drill ,,lesson ,many responses of thought and action must be reduced to an automatic basis4 ,it is the function of the drill lesson to accomplish this result4 ,in some schools this type of work has been overemphasized1 while in others it has been neglected4 ,it is a mistake to spend the whole of a child's time and energy drilling him upon that which some one else has thought4 ,he must think for himself while a child1 if he is to show intellectual strength as a man4 ,and it is just as much a mistake to believe that the greatest progress in thought or action can be achieved without careful attention to the formation of desirable habits4 ,probably there is little need to-day to argue against this conception of teaching1 which makes the teacher simply and solely a drill master4 ,our respect for the native tendencies and for the experiences of children1 our emphasis upon doing1 our belief that the best preparation for future efficiency is to be found in present childish efficiency1 all refute any such narrow view of the educative process4 ,there is1 however1 in some quarters a danger that this insistence upon thinking and doing may be construed to mean that drill work is no longer necessary4 ,there are children who are terribly handicapped in their later work because they have not learned to spell common words1 to write a legible hand1 to give without hesitation the addition combinations1 to reproduce the multiplication tables1 to use without much thought the processes commonly employed in arithmetic work4 ,they find difficulty in reading1 because they lack that knowledge of phonetics which would make easy the recognition of unfamiliar words in their reading2 they stumble in geography1 fail in music1 lack ability to comprehend their work in nature study or history1 all because facts essential to further progress1 once presented and understood1 were not reduced to an automatic basis by carefully conducted drill exercises4 ,if it is clear that much of the knowledge which children acquire must be reduced to the basis of habit1 we may next inquire just how this drill work is to be related to the other part of the school work4 ,question of motive3 ,in the formation of habits not provided for by native tendencies to react1 the occasion for making the adjustment is1 as in the case of our thinking1 the recognition of a need4 ,our first attempts to talk or to use our limbs were due solely to the compelling force of instinct1 but later we learned a foreign language or achieved success in the high jump because we had a definite aim in mind4 ,so far as the teacher is concerned with habit formation1 she can hope to utilize instinctive tendencies1 but may not depend upon them alone to secure the result4 ,a motive must be provided for the work4 ,the stronger this incentive1 the greater will be the attention given to the work in hand and the sooner will the desired result be secured4 ,very much of the drill work which is done is well-nigh futile because it is imposed upon children4 ,they do not see its significance1 and feel little interest in the accomplishment of the results demanded4 ,ideally1 drill lessons should come when the children see that their future progress is conditioned by successful formation of the habits involved4 ,and this is not so impossible of accomplishment as might appear at first sight4 ,if the material given to children to read in the first grade is of such a nature that they really care to read it1 they are very quick to see that word drill1 and later phonetic drill1 will help them to secure the end desired4 ,of course the reply may be made3 8,what is the use of bothering one's self with this attempt to make a rational appeal to children8 ,they will be completely satisfied if you simply keep them at it4 ,it is a game for them4 ,they enjoy it simply because they delight in accomplishment40 ,one might reply to such a statement by calling to mind the fact that the school exists to develop rationality4 ,you may be perfectly sure that frequently enough the children1 and later the men and women1 will be driven or led without any appeal to reason4 ,it will undoubtedly be true that we shall have to appeal to motives other than rational2 but surely this appeal to reason should be made1 and1 if our education is successful1 should be increasingly potent as we advance from grade to grade4 ,even when a rational motive has been made the point of departure1 we shall have to use many devices to keep alive the child's original intention4 ,but let us frankly admit1 both to ourselves and to the children1 that these subsidiary aims are merely aids in helping us to achieve the more worthy aim4 ,if such a standard of motive were applied throughout our work1 we should probably find it necessary to postpone certain activities which we insist upon for no reason which a child can understand1 until there was some real use for the habit to be formed4 ,we might even find ourselves compelled to eliminate much which finds no application in real life4 ,the occasion for drill is found in the demand for automatic control of thought or action1 and much of the later success of the children in thinking and doing will be conditioned by the quality of the work done in these drill exercises4 ,knowing what to do3 ,a clear idea of the result to be accomplished is1 of course1 involved in the notion or aim as it has been discussed above4 ,the importance of this element in habit formation cannot be overemphasized4 ,it may seem superfluous to call attention to the fact that every child should have a clear idea of what is to be done before the drill work begins2 but it sometimes happens that the teacher takes too much for granted4 ,children stumble and fail1 or do nothing at all1 simply because they do not know what it is all about4 ,it would seem impossible that any group of pupils should be asked to commit to memory anything which they did not understand1 and yet we are constantly reminded by their later interpretations that they have not understood4 ,such logical organization is not always possible1 nor1 indeed1 even desirable1 as1 for example1 in learning addition combinations4 ,in such a case the value of the habit is largely due to the fact that we no longer attempt to rationalize the process nor attempt to fix it in a logical series4 ,but whether the task be the memorizing of a poem1 the learning of addition combinations1 the formation of the habit of neatness1 or the gaining of skill in handling a saw1 it is essential that the child know just what is to be done and that he be provided with an adequate motive for doing it4 ,repetition with attention3 ,after a child knows what to do1 has the right idea1 and the greatest possible motive for doing has been provided1 the teacher's problem consists in keeping alive the desire to achieve the result while the process of repetition is going on4 ,a child learns to spell a word not simply because he repeats the letters or writes them in the correct order a hundred times4 ,we all have knowledge of cases in which this sort of repetition has seemingly resulted in no advancement4 ,the most economical method of learning to spell requires that the maximum of attention be given while the letters are repeated4 ,the story of the boy who1 after he had written after school the phrase 8,i have gone0 a hundred times1 wrote at the bottom of his paper for the information of the teacher1 who had left the room1 8,i have went home10 is a case in point4 ,the trouble with this boy was not that he had not repeated the correct form often enough1 but that he had not attended to it4 ,he had failed to realize the significance of what he was doing4 ,doubtless his attention1 instead of being fixed on the work in hand1 was more largely given to the game of baseball his companions were playing1 or to the prospect of the delights of the swimming pool4 ,much of the concert work that one hears shows a lack of attention on the part of the larger part of the class except in so far as is necessary to follow the leaders4 ,such work is undoubtedly helpful to those who lead1 but it is of little use to the others who take part4 ,it is a very good plan to test concert work by listening closely to distinguish those who are carrying the burden1 have them stop1 and measure the success of the work by the result which can then be had4 ,means of holding attention3 ,no matter how strong the motive with which we start1 any one of us will grow weary when the task imposed requires many repetitions4 ,it is even more difficult for children to keep their attention fixed for any considerable length of time4 ,we must1 therefore1 plan carefully to conduct the drill in such a way that the maximum of attention may be secured4 ,among the devices which are employed1 one of the most important is variation in procedure4 ,suppose1 for example1 we wish to spend ten minutes in drilling children on addition combinations4 ,the best results will not be secured by spending the whole time in either oral or written work4 ,probably the maximum of attention and consequently of result could be secured by dividing the period into three parts3 one devoted to oral work1 holding every one responsible for every answer2 one to written work on a series of problems provided on number cards or mimeographed sheets2 and one to work of the same sort placed on the blackboard4 ,of course there is nothing peculiarly good in the order of exercises suggested above1 beyond the fact that they give variety4 ,the next day the teacher would want to change the order or to introduce a new type of exercise4 ,another means of securing the maximum of attention is to place a time limit4 ,have the children see how many problems they can solve1 how many stanzas they can commit to memory1 or how many words they can learn to spell in a period of ten minutes4 ,it makes a very great difference whether the teacher says 8work on this task for ten minutes10 or 8see how much you can get done in ten minutes40 ,this leads us to consider a third means commonly employed to secure earnest work1 the appeal to emulation4 ,the desire of a pupil to do as well as other members of his class1 or the desire of a class to equal the record of another class of the same grade1 will do much to keep attention fixed on the work4 ,neither the devices mentioned nor any others will avail unless the teacher is wide-awake and alert herself4 ,the greatest single reason for lack of interest and attention on the part of the class is found in the indifference and lack of energy on the part of the teacher4 ,it is useless to expect vigorous action on the part of pupils1 when the teacher is half asleep or otherwise either physically or mentally incapacitated for good work4 ,it is possible at times for a teacher to arouse her own flagging interest by just such appeals as have been suggested above as applying to children4 ,necessity for accuracy in practice3 ,our nervous system is so constructed that to do anything once leaves a tendency to do the same thing the same way when next we are placed in a similar situation4 ,it is bad to allow careless work or random guessing1 not simply because the result in this one case may be wrong1 but more especially because the tendency to the wrong reaction is there and must be overcome before the correct action can be fixed as a habit4 ,if a child1 the day after he has studied the word foreign1 has occasion to write the word and does not know how to spell it1 it is a mistake to permit the word to be written incorrectly4 ,it would be better to have the child discover for himself or find out from the teacher the correct form before attempting to write the word4 ,it is well to insist on the necessity for absolute accuracy4 ,better by far discontinue the drill while every one is still fresh enough to give close attention to the work in hand and while the responses are accurate1 than to make the serious mistake of allowing the work to be done carelessly or to flatter one's self that approximately accurate results are good enough4 ,better be sure that in the drill work on the multiplication table to-day the children have invariably given the correct response when we have asked them how many are six times three and six times four1 than to have attempted to teach the whole table with the knowledge that one fourth of the answers have been wrong4 ,we should not be misled2 the child who gave us a wrong answer is not simply wrong this time1 but1 what for us is more important1 will tend to be wrong ever after4 ,we have more than doubled the task we set out to accomplish4 ,we must now get rid of the tendency to give the wrong answer1 and then teach the correct one4 ,in our later consideration of the moral life of the child1 we shall have occasion again to point out the significance of this principle4 ,the periods elapsing between repetitions or series of repetitions should be gradually lengthened3 ,the fixing of a habit so that it shall always thereafter be available to determine our thought or action requires that we do more than arrive at a point where the response can be readily secured in a given situation4 ,the word which your pupils spell so readily1 the table which they recite so glibly1 the poem which they have so completely mastered1 will apparently have completely disappeared next week or next month4 ,of course the work you have done is not without effect4 ,it will be easier to learn the word1 table1 or poem again4 ,but the child should command these results for which we labored now4 ,there is a body of knowledge1 a group of actions1 which ought to be available automatically at any time4 ,if we are to succeed in fixing this body of habits1 if they are to be made permanently available1 we must recognize the fact that when we have first secured the result desired we have only begun the process4 ,the boy who recites ,lincoln's ,gettysburg ,address without any mistakes to-day has made a good beginning2 but if that address is worth remembering always1 he must recite it several times during the next week1 and go over it again next month1 next term1 and next year4 ,there will come a time1 depending upon his native retentiveness and upon his method of memorizing1 when it will no longer be necessary to repeat it for the sake of fixing the address in memory4 ,it will not take a great deal of time to recall that which we believe we have fixed permanently last week or last month1 and by doing this we shall add greatly to the probability of possible recall a year or ten years from now1 and incidentally discover1 much to our surprise1 how much has already escaped4 ,teachers often unconsciously follow the cramming method in their attempt to have children advance rapidly2 and1 as is always the case when this method is employed1 what has apparently been learned is soon forgotten4 ,fortunately for all concerned1 many of the responses which need to be reduced to an automatic basis are demanded over and over again as the child progresses from grade to grade1 and are thus provided for4 ,but much that is now lost could be retained1 and each succeeding teacher could accomplish more than is now customary1 if only this principle of habit formation were commonly observed4 ,in the case of a series of responses to be made automatic1 be careful to include each member of the series3 ,much of our work is weak because it lacks system4 ,if we are engaged in teaching addition combinations1 we should be absolutely certain that we have taught every possible combination4 ,if we want to be sure that children know how to write numbers up to one million1 we must have given them drill on all of the possible difficulties4 ,if children are always to respond correctly when problems involving two steps in reasoning are presented1 we must have been careful to provide for the purpose of drill all of the combinations of situations involving addition1 multiplication1 subtraction1 and division which can occur4 ,for any other similar field1 the same care must be exercised4 ,the greater part of the time should be spent in drilling upon that part of the work which presents special difficulty4 ,there is no use in spending one's time equally on all of the words included in any list4 ,some of them can probably be spelled with little or no drill1 while others may require very careful study and many repetitions4 ,in any other field the same situation will be found4 ,many of the responses desired will be reduced to the basis of habit readily1 and a few will require continued attention4 ,it is the function of the teacher to discover these special difficulties as soon as possible1 to clear up any obscurity in ideas which may stand in the way1 and then to drill with special reference to these special cases4 ,briefly summarized1 it is the function of the teacher in guiding pupils in the formation of habits to see to it that they have the correct idea of the thing to be done2 to secure the maximum of motive and to maintain the maximum of attention during the process2 to guard against carelessness and lapses by insisting upon the accuracy or the adequacy of the responses2 to provide occasion for repetitions from time to time with gradually lengthened intervals2 to be careful not to omit any of a group or series of responses equally important2 to spend the greater part of the time and energy of both herself and pupils upon those cases which present special difficulty4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,w4 ,c4 ,bagley1 ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,s4 ,h4 ,rowe1 ,habit ,formation and the ,science of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,name the subjects or parts of subjects in which drill work is essential4 #b4 ,what was there of value in the old-fashioned method of choosing sides and 8spelling down08 #c4 ,name some of the devices which you have used in drill work1 and justify their use4 #d4 ,what argument can you advance for postponing the beginning of writing lessons until the middle of the first year or later8 #e4 ,which would be better3 to present the multiplication table in regular series 7#c #a #c2 #c #b #f2 #c #c #i1 etc471 or in some other order8 7#c #e #ae2 #c #b #f2 #c #g #ba2 #c #d #ab1 etc47 #f4 ,if a boy was writing a composition and wanted to use a word that he did not know how to spell1 what would you expect him to do8 #g4 ,what are the objections to learning rules of spelling8 #h4 ,in a drill lesson in arithmetic1 which would you consider the better3 to have the children work as individuals for the highest score1 or to divide them into groups and have one group try to do better than the other8 #i4 ,criticize the following lesson1 as a fourth-grade exercise in spelling4 ,the teacher placed the following list of words on the board1 and told the pupils to study them4 believe conduct have forget agriculture manufacture store plow wagon cultivate harness exports crops dairy freight drought fertilizer transport depot wheat #aj4 ,a teacher who spent a large part of her time having the class recite the multiplication tables in concert was distressed to find that a majority of the class did not know the tables when examination time came4 ,what was the explanation8 #aa4 ,in a school where the children had a forty-minute period for a writing lesson1 the results during the last ten minutes were invariably poorer than during the first quarter of the period4 ,how could you hope to change the result8 #ab4 ,in some schools the teachers always spend two weeks before the examination period in review of the term's work4 ,why are such reviews necessary in some cases1 while children do just as well in examinations in other schools which do not have this review period8 #ac4 ,a teacher taught children that they could always tell how much nine times any number was by subtracting one from that number for the tens place1 then adding a number which will make nine for the units place 7e4g4 #e #i 8 #e - #a #d 7tens72 #d #e #i4 #e is the number of units1 and #e #i #de74 ,is this a good way to teach this table8 #ad4 ,how can you know when it is wise to discontinue drill work8 #ae4 ,do you think it necessary to plan for a drill lesson8 #af4 ,could you plan your work so that your pupils will know at the end of the year all of the poems you have taught during the previous eight or ten months8 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,inductive ,,lesson ,we are skeptical to-day of that sort of teaching which aims mainly to equip children with a body of accepted knowledge in order that they may some time find use for this body of information in later life4 ,we emphasize1 rather1 the control of mental activity which makes for the discovery of truth and the avoidance of error4 ,thinking of this sort is purposeful4 ,we control or direct our ideas toward some end1 toward the solution of some problem4 ,one great purpose of teaching must be to provide the opportunity and the stimulus for this kind of thinking4 ,we may not be able to lay down any fixed order of procedure1 nor to devise any set of rules whereby children may be trained to be good reasoners2 but we can consider what is involved in the process1 point out the possibilities of interference1 and suggest some of the means to be employed in encouraging this type of mental activity on the part of children4 ,in this chapter we shall confine ourselves to that type of reasoning which we call inductive4 ,this type of schoolroom exercise has usually been treated as composed of five steps2 namely1 preparation1 presentation1 comparison and abstraction1 generalization1 and application4 ,we shall employ this classification to guide us in our discussion of the process4 ,preparation3 ,to prepare a child to reason in a given situation from the data in hand to the conclusions which must of necessity follow1 it is first of all necessary that he should see that the situation presents a problem4 ,we reason only when we have some aim or purpose which can be satisfied by the process4 ,but if consciousness of aim or problem is at the foundation of this type of thinking1 and if we are to deal with children in groups1 it is essential that the situation which involves the problem be made the common possession of all4 ,the step of preparation presents these two problems to the teacher3 7#a7 to find a basis in experience already had1 or to provide the experience which involves the problem to be considered2 7#b7 to make the children feel the necessity for the solution1 i4e4 to make the problem vital to them4 ,in considering the necessity for common experience as a basis for discovering the problem to children1 we are dealing with the principle of apperception4 ,briefly stated1 it is this1--that any object or situation has meaning for us only as it connects itself with and is interpreted by our previous experience4 ,suppose1 for example1 that a group of first-grade children were asked to tell what made seeds grow4 ,it is possible that some of them would not know1 could not interpret from past experience1 the meaning of seeds4 ,if the class were at work in a large city1 we could be sure that many had never been conscious that growing plants had any connection with seeds1 and there would be few1 if any1 who had ever noticed the conditions under which such growth takes place4 ,the first problem for the teacher in this case would be solved only when1 through recall of past experiences1 observations1 or experiments1 the experience 8seeds growing0 became the common possession of the group4 ,this is an extreme case1 one in which the experience which involves the problem is entirely wanting4 ,at the other end of the series1 we may have a problem for consideration1 the basis for which is found in experiences common to all children4 ,but even though this be the case1 there will still be need for the recall of the experience and for making prominent some factor heretofore unnoticed before the children will be ready to reason4 ,we may suppose that all children have had experience with streets or roads1 but we shall want to recall many of these experiences in order to make significant the problem of transportation which we wish to consider in the class in home geography4 ,the step of preparation has only partially accomplished its purpose when the experience necessary to the realization of the problem has been recalled or provided4 ,still greater skill is required in making the child conscious of the problem4 ,indeed1 it may well be argued that in the curriculum as it is at present organized1 very many of the problems that we ask children to solve are problems for them only because we1 as teachers1 require that that certain piece of work be done4 ,often the child's problem consists mainly in avoiding1 as far as possible1 the work which we require1 which has little or no significance for him4 ,children would do much more thinking if we were only more careful to give them childish problems to solve4 ,too frequently the organization of knowledge which we impose is influenced exclusively by our adult logical conceptions4 ,not that children should be illogical1 but rather that child logic and the child's ability to reason depend upon his ability to appreciate problems1 upon his experience1 and upon his ability to interpret that experience4 ,when we impose our adult point of view upon him1 when we ask him to take our problem and with the data that we supply ask him to work out our solution1 whatever else may be said of the exercise1 it may not be called an exercise in reasoning by children4 ,if we do respect the child's experience and point of view1 the task still remains of making all of the group of children we teach conscious of the aim as their problem4 ,there is no greater test of teaching skill than this4 ,can the teacher1 after having brought to mind the experiences which are relevant to the work she wishes the children to do1 make them conscious of a lack in this experience2 can she awaken the need for further consideration of past experience and a desire to reconstruct and to amplify it8 ,in proportion as she is able to accomplish this result1 we may be sure that children are reasoning upon problems which are vital to them1 and that the motive has been provided which will secure the maximum of controlled intellectual activity on their part4 ,the best single test of the accomplishment of this ideal is to require that the statement of aim be made by the children themselves as a result of the guidance we have given4 ,this conception of the meaning and significance of the aim suggests the solution of the difficulty which some people find in harmonizing the idea of instruction with the doctrine of self-activity4 ,instruction1 when properly conducted1 does not impose the ideas1 the problems1 or the conclusions of adults upon children4 ,rather we are concerned in instruction with the child's experience1 his tendency to react1 his need of adjustment2 and our function as teachers is to guide him1 to stimulate him to his own best efforts1 to insure the maximum of self-activity while we guide this activity toward the accomplishment of ends which are desirable4 ,the difficulty is1 of course1 that the problem for solution at any given time may not be equally vital to every member of the group4 ,here is where the element of control enters somewhat in opposition to the self-activity of the individual4 ,but this condition of affairs is necessarily true both in school and out of it1 for society sets up for us certain norms or standards of experience which must be realized by all1 and we must for the sake of economy handle children in groups4 ,if the problem is not beyond the child's comprehension1 if it deals with situations which are significant to him1 if the solution derived has some bearing on his future action1 if he has carefully scrutinized his experience in the light of the problem stated and has brought to bear those elements which are significant for its solution1 we may be confident that the activity resulting is closely akin to that which is found in the controlled thinking of men the world over4 ,in order that it may be more easy for children to focus their attention upon the problem in hand1 there is considerable advantage in a clear1 concise1 concrete1 and preferably a brief statement of the aim4#g ,a problem is half solved when one can state it clearly4 ,so long as the problem is not sufficiently well defined to admit of accurate statement on the part of pupils1 there is danger that there may be much wandering in its consideration4 ,one of the great lessons to be taught in work of this sort is the need of examining the ideas as they suggest themselves to see whether or not they are relevant4 ,the argument as it has been stated above points to the statement of aim as the culmination of the step of preparation4 ,this does not mean that a considerable period must always elapse in the conduct of an exercise of this type before the aim can be stated4 ,there are occasions1 and when the teaching has been good they should be frequent1 when the lesson should begin with the statement of the problem discovered in a previous lesson and made clear in the assignment of work4 ,in other cases the same aim may hold for several days2 i4e4 until the problem is solved4 ,in general1 as we advance through the grades1 the ends for which children work should become relatively more remote1 and the achievement of these ends should require a longer period of work4 ,there is an advantage in setting up subsidiary aims which will make steps of progress in the realization of the larger purpose4 ,another distinction that it is well to keep in mind concerns the development of intellectual interests on the part of children4 ,the characteristic aim for a first-grade child may make its appeal chiefly to his desire for satisfaction1 which has little intellectual significance2 but education fails if it does not make for an increase of interest in intellectual activity4 ,for example1 a first-grade boy may be led to count because he wants to be able to tell how many marbles he has1 or how to measure the materials he uses in constructive work2 while the mathematician may work night and day upon a problem of mathematics because of a purely speculative interest in the result4 ,we may not hope to produce the great mathematician in the elementary school1 but we may hope after a certain point has been reached in our study of arithmetic that a boy will recognize the necessity for drill in addition simply because he realizes that in the ordinary affairs of life this knowledge is required4 ,presentation3 ,the full realization of the problem to be solved involves a consideration of data already at hand in experience4 ,when we have the problem clearly in mind1 we examine this experience more carefully to see what bearing it may have upon the solution1 or we gather further data1 observe more critically or more extensively1 or experiment in such a manner as to involve the solution of our problem4 ,what is the function of the teacher during this part of the process8 ,there is no single answer to this question4 ,sometimes the work of the teacher will consist almost wholly in helping children to recall their past experience and to apply it to the question at hand4 ,at another time1 when experience is lacking1 the teacher must direct children to the sources of data1 guide them in their observations or experiments1 or even give them outright all of the data that she can bring to bear on the situation4 ,it will not always be economical to wait for children to gather the data for themselves1 just as it is not always feasible to require them to reach conclusions for themselves4 ,there are times when the best teaching consists in demonstration1 and occasions arise when the only feasible course for the teacher is to literally flood the children with data from which they may draw their conclusions4 ,again the problem of gathering data becomes the problem of memory4 ,we want children to think1 and we should insist that they gather facts with reference to the solution of some problem2 but the solution may not always be immediate4 ,we may suspend judgment while we gather further facts and organize them4 ,the facts gathered for one purpose1 when rearranged with reference to a new problem1 take on a new meaning4 ,if this be true1 we may not in our zeal for clear thinking neglect the tools with which we work4 ,there may be some people who have a great many facts and who reason little1 but no one can reason without data4 ,our ability to think logically upon any topic is conditioned by our ability to see facts in new relations1 to reorganize our data with reference to new problems2 but facts we must have1 and a memory stored with facts is one of the greatest aids to thinking4 ,one of the means mentioned above for the gathering of data was observation4 ,it is necessary that we appreciate the fact that observation involves something more than having the thing present to the senses4 ,our observations are significant for our thinking when we have clearly in view the problem which the observations are to help solve4 ,teachers sometimes make the mistake of supposing that when children have objects with which to work they have a problem4 ,it is not unusual to hear teachers speak of objective work as concrete work4 ,now the concreteness of a situation is not at all dependent upon the presence of objects4 ,logically a situation may be concrete1 and yet present no objects to the senses4 ,on the other hand1 objects may be present1 children may be directed to use them1 and yet in the absence of any real problem the work done may be of the most abstract sort4 ,objects help to make a situation concrete when the problem under consideration demands their presence1 or when they help to make clear the situation under consideration4 ,for example1 children may have peas or beans in solving problems in addition2 they serve to present objectively the reality which is symbolized by the teacher or pupils in their written work1 but this does not make the work in addition concrete4 ,the concreteness of these exercises will depend upon the need which children feel of the ability to find the sum of two or more numbers4 ,the beans will be significant1 beyond their use as objects1 to illustrate the one-to-one correspondence between symbolic representation and reality1 only if the problem of summation which at that time engages their attention concerns the sum of certain numbers of beans4 ,indeed1 it may be claimed that the use of one set of objects continuously to illustrate a process in arithmetic hinders rather than helps the child in his ability to reason in this situation1 since he may come to consider this chance relationship of beans and addition as essential4 ,he may think that he ought always to add when he is given beans4 ,a good illustration of the necessity for a well defined problem for guidance when observations are to be made is found in the futility of much work that is done1 or rather left undone1 when children are taken on excursions4 ,the directions which follow for the conduct of excursions are those which should be followed whenever work in observation is required1 those which have reference to the handling of a large group of children in the field being added4 #a4 ,the teacher must have clearly defined in her own mind the purpose of the observation4 ,if the teacher has not definitely formulated the problem1 the observation of the children will surely be purposeless4 #b4 ,it is not enough that the teacher know just what data she expects the children to gather toward the solution of a particular problem2 she must know exactly what data are available under the conditions governing the observation4 #c4 ,the preliminary work must have prepared children for their observations by giving them very definite problems to solve4 ,often it will be advantageous to have these problems written in notebooks4 #d4 ,children not only need to want to see1 but also need to be directed while they are observing4 ,nothing is easier than to look and not see that which is essential4 #e4 ,it is always advisable to test the success of the observations while they are being made4 ,there is nothing more difficult than to correct a misconception growing out of careless or inadequate observations4 #f4 ,it is well to remember that not merely number of observations counts in the solution of a problem4 ,it is rather observations under varying conditions which give weight to our conclusions4 ,one intensive observation may be worth a thousand careless ones4 #g4 ,when children are taken on excursions1 great care must be exercised to keep them under proper guidance and control4 ,the organization of children into smaller groups with leaders who are made responsible for their proper observance of directions will help4 ,these leaders should have been over the ground with the teacher before the excursion4 ,the assistance of parents1 teachers1 or of older pupils will at times be necessary4 #h4 ,there should be definite work periods during the excursion1 just as in the schoolroom or laboratory4 #i4 ,a whistle1 as a signal for assembling at one point1 will help in out-of-door work1 provided it is clearly understood that this signal must be obeyed immediately1 and under all circumstances4 ,comparison and abstraction3 ,with the problem clearly defined and the data provided1 the next step consists of comparison and the resulting abstraction of the element present in all of the cases which makes for the solution of the problem4 ,in the ordinary course of our thinking the sequence is as follows3 ,we find ourselves in a situation which presents a problem which demands an adjustment2 we make a guess or formulate an hypothesis which furnishes the basis for our work in attempting to solve the problem2 we gather data in the light of the hypothesis assumed1 which1 through comparison and abstraction1 leads us to believe our hypothesis correct or false2 if the hypothesis seems justified by the data gathered1 it is further tested or verified by an appeal to experience2 i4e4 we endeavor to see whether our conclusion holds in all cases2 if this test proves satisfactory1 we generalize or define2 and lastly this generalization or definition is used as a point of reference or truth to guide in later thinking or activity4 ,there is danger that we may overlook the very great importance of inference in this process4 ,we cannot say just when this step in the process will be possible1 but it is possibly the most significant of all4 ,a situation presents a problem4 ,our success in solving the problem depends upon our ability to infer from the facts at our command4 ,often many inferences will be necessary before we succeed in finding the one that will stand the test4 ,again with the problem in mind we may be conscious of a great lack of data and may postpone our inference while we collect the needed information4 ,there is one fallacy that must be carefully guarded against in dealing with children1 as also with adults2 namely1 the tendency once the inference has been made to admit only such data as are found to support this particular hypothesis4 ,it is this ability to infer1 to formulate a workable hypothesis1 which distinguishes the genius from the man of mediocre ability4 ,it is the ability to see facts in new relations1 the giving of new meaning to facts which may be the common possession of all1 that characterizes the great thinker4 ,other people knew many of the facts2 but it took the mind of a ,newton to discover the relationship existing among these data which he formulated in the law that all bodies attract each other directly in proportion to their weight and inversely in proportion to the square of the distance separating them4 ,as we teach children we should encourage the intelligent guess4 ,we would not1 of course1 encourage mere random guessing1 which may be engaged in by children to have something to say or to blind the teacher4 ,a child who offers a guess or hypothesis should be asked to give his ground for the inference1 should show that his guess has grown out of his consideration of the data in hand4 ,it is fallacious to suppose that this kind of thinking is beyond the power of children4 ,they have been forming their inferences and testing them in action from the time that they began to act independently4 ,there is one element in the consideration of the step of comparison which cannot be too much emphasized1 and that is that it is not the comparison of things or situations which present striking likenesses which gives rise to the highest type of thinking4 ,to look at a dozen horses and then to conclude that all horses have four legs is merely a matter of classification2 to observe that the sun1 chemical action1 electricity1 and friction produce heat1 and to arrive at the generalization from these cases1 apparently so unlike1 that heat is a mode of motion is the work of a genius4 ,in general1 it is safe to say that we would greatly strengthen our teaching if we were only more careful to see to it that our basis for generalization is found in situations presenting as many variations as possible4 ,for example1 if we want to teach a principle in arithmetic1 the way to fix it and to make it available for further use by our pupils is not to get a number of problems all of which are alike in form and statement2 but rather we should seek as great a variety as is possible in the language used or symbols employed that is compatible with the application of the principle to be taught4 ,in an interesting article on reasoning in primary arithmetic1 ,professor ,suzzallo has pointed out the fact that children's difficulty in reasoning is often one of language4#h ,the trouble has been that teachers have always used a set form1 or a very few forms of expression1 when they described situations which involved any one of the arithmetical processes4 ,later when the child is called upon to solve a problem involving this process he does not know which process to apply because he is unfamiliar with the form of expression used4 ,to succeed in teaching children when to add involves the presentation of the situations which call for addition with as great a variation as is possible1 i4e4 by using not one form1 but all of the words or phrases which may be used to indicate summation4 ,in like manner in other fields the examples for comparison will be valuable in proportion as they present variety rather than uniformity in those elements which are not essential4 ,equally good illustration can be had from any other field4 ,if we want pupils to get any adequate conception of the function of adjectives1 we should use examples which involve a variety of adjectives in different parts of sentences4 ,in geography the concept 8river0 will be clear only when the different types of rivers have been considered and the non-essential elements disregarded4 ,generalization3 ,when we feel that we have solved the problem1 we are ready to state our generalization4 ,there is considerable advantage in making such a statement4 ,one can never be quite sure that he has solved his problem until he finds himself able to state clearly the results of his thinking4 ,to attempt to define or to generalize is often to realize the inadequacy of our thought on the problem4 ,children should be encouraged to give their own definition or generalization before referring to that which is provided by the teacher or the book4 ,indeed1 the significance of a generalization for further thinking or later action depends not simply upon one's ability to repeat words1 but rather upon adequate realization of the significance of the conclusion reached4 ,the best test of such comprehension is found in the ability of the pupil to state the generalization for himself4 ,there is very great danger1 if definitions or generalizations are given ready-made to children1 that they will learn to juggle with words4 ,the parrot-like repetition of rules of syntax1 or principles of arithmetic1 never indicates real grasp of these subjects4 ,children think most when the requirement for thinking is greatest1 and none are readier than they to take advantage of laxness on the part of the teacher in this respect4 ,it is not only when the formal statement of principles or definitions is called for that the teacher needs to be on her guard4 ,at any stage of the process1 if the teacher will only take their words and read meaning into them1 some children will be found ready to substitute words for thought4 ,it is really a mistake to tell a child that you know what he means even though he did not say it4 ,language is the instrument which he employs in thinking1 and1 if his statement lacked clearness or definiteness1 the chances are very great that his thinking has failed in these same particulars4 ,instead of encouraging children in loose thinking by accepting any statement offered1 it would be much better to raise the question of the real significance of the statement1 to inquire just what was meant by the words used4 ,such procedure will help to make children more careful in expressing themselves1 and will inevitably tend to clearer thinking4 ,application3 ,whatever conclusions we have reached1 whatever truths we have satisfactorily established1 influence us in our later thought and action4 ,but even though this is true1 there is a decided advantage in providing for a definite application of the results of the thinking which children have done as soon as possible and in as many different ways as is feasible4 ,in the first place1 such application makes clearer the truth itself1 and helps to fix it in mind4 ,again1 the conclusion arrived at to-day is chiefly significant as a basis for our thinking of to-morrow1 and it is as we apply our conclusions that new problems arise to stimulate us to further thought4 ,then1 too1 the satisfaction which comes when one feels his power over situations as a result of thinking is the very best possible stimulus to further intellectual activity4 ,finally1 we need to show children the application of that which they have learned to the life which they live outside of the school4 ,we are not apt to err on the side of too frequent or too varied application of the generalizations we have led children to make4 ,rather we shall have to study diligently to provide enough applications to fix for the child the habit of verification by an appeal to experience4 ,a few words by way of caution concerning the inductive lesson may not be out of place4 ,first3 ,not all school work can be undertaken on this general plan4 ,there are times when the end to be accomplished is distinctly not the discovery of some new truth1 but rather the fixing of some habit4 ,there are exercises which are distinctively deductive1 some which aim to produce habits1 and others which seek to secure appreciation4 ,but more of this is in the succeeding chapters4 ,second3 ,even when we seek to establish truth1 we cannot always develop it by an appeal to the experience of children nor to observations which they can make4 ,we shall have1 on some occasions1 to supply the data1 and in still other cases it will be most economical to demonstrate the truth of the position which we desire to have them take4 ,there are occasions when the solution of the problem is not possible for children4 ,in this last instance we shall have to provide the authoritative statement4 ,indeed1 it may be argued that one of the lessons which we all need to learn is respect for the expert4 ,we cannot settle all of the problems which arise1 but we may choose from among those who profess to have found a solution4 ,our education ought to help us to avoid the quack and the charlatan4 ,the habit of logical thinking on the part of children1 and expert knowledge in some field1 however small1 is the only protection which the school can give against the pretensions of those who represent themselves as the dispensers of truth4#i ,third3 ,there is a grave danger that we may help children too much4 ,some teachers interpret the inductive development lesson to mean that each step in the thinking required must be carefully prepared for and quickly passed4 ,they consider that they have taught the best lesson when there has been no hitch in the progress from the statement of aim to the wording of the generalization4 ,the suggestive question which makes thinking on the part of children unnecessary is a favorite measure employed4 ,if we stop to consider what thinking means1 we cannot fail to see the fallacy of such work4 ,we all do our best thinking1 not when the problem to be solved is explained by some one else and all of the difficulties removed1 but rather when we find the problem most difficult of solution4 ,if children are at work on problems which are vital to them1 we may expect them to continue to work even though they make mistakes4 ,indeed1 the best recitation may be the one that leaves the children not with a solution skillfully supplied for them by the teacher1 but rather with a keen realization of the problem1 and with a somewhat clearer idea of the direction in which the solution may be sought4 ,it is the teacher's work to help the child to see the problem1 and1 seeing the problem herself from the child's point of view1 to stimulate the child to his best effort4 ,the teacher must know not only the pupil's attitude of mind toward the problem and how his mind is most likely to react1 but also the mental activity required to master properly the issue that has been raised4 ,on the one hand1 the teacher's equipment consists of a knowledge of the minds of the children whom she teaches1 and on the other a knowledge of the subject to be taught1 not simply as a body of knowledge more or less classified or organized1 but as a mode of mental growth4#aj ,what the teacher needs is a clear realization of the difficulties which the pupils must meet1 and the way in which childish minds may best overcome these obstacles4 ,when such sympathy exists between teacher and pupil1 we may expect that pupils will constantly grow stronger in their ability to think logically1 instead of becoming more and more dependent upon the teacher4 ,and this is our great work as teachers1 to render our services unnecessary4 ,fourth3 ,no teacher should attempt to outline her work on the basis of the steps indicated in the discussion of the inductive method without a clear realization of the fact that these steps cannot be sharply differentiated1 that they are not mutually exclusive4 ,to define a problem adequately may mean that we have passed through the whole process4 ,at any step in the process after the problem is defined1 and some hypothesis formed1 we may wish to verify our guess by an appeal to known facts1 and often we shall find it necessary to abandon the hypothesis already formed and provide another as a basis for further thinking4 ,it is true that the natural movement of the mind is roughly indicated by the steps named2 but it must be remembered that no mind can possibly arrive at the solution of a real problem by adhering to a fixed order of procedure4 ,we do not by our teaching create the power of logical thought2 we rather guide a mind that naturally operates logically4 ,we can never teach children to reason1 but we can provide the occasion for logical thinking1 and can guard against the common fallacies4 ,our success will depend upon a clear realization of the possibilities of the child mind and of the subjects we teach as part of their growth and development4 ,teaching by ,types3 ,teaching by means of types is sometimes discussed as a separate method1 while in reality it is simply one form of the inductive process4 ,as was indicated in our discussion of observation above1 there are times when the consideration of a single situation or object in detail may be worth more than a thousand careless observations4 ,it is especially true that a thoroughly adequate knowledge of one object or case of a class prepares in the best possible way for future observations of members of the same class4 ,familiarity with the life history of one animal or plant will help us greatly to understand other animals and plants1 because that which is most essential in all has been carefully observed in the case considered4 ,now let us suppose that several plants and animals have been studied4 ,if the cases which are considered are truly typical1 it may be possible for the student to appreciate not simply the individuals belonging to the classes studied1 but also something of the interrelation of the several classes4 ,this illustration1 given because it represents in a general way something of the method followed in the study of science1 represents a very common method of procedure in the ordinary affairs of life4 ,none of us can hope to support our conclusions by a careful scrutiny of all possible cases4 ,we take something on authority2 namely1 that the individual case considered is representative of a large group1 then after we have investigated the one case we apply our conclusions to the whole group4 ,of course there is one great danger4 ,we may be overhasty in our generalizations4 ,no fallacy is more common than the emphasis placed upon non-essentials by those whose observations have been limited4 ,the stories of the traveler who generalizes1 after seeing one red-headed child or after eating at one hotel1 concerning the children and hotels of the country visited1 are too common to need repetition here4 ,where observations are necessarily limited1 the important consideration is to get cases that seem as different as possible in order that that which is essential may be differentiated from the non-essential or accidental4 ,teaching by types in our ordinary school work has been applied most frequently to the subject of geography4 ,applying the principle stated above1 we shall be careful in teaching rivers1 mountains1 cities1 commerce1 or any other geographical notion to see to it that the individual cases considered are as widely different as possible4 ,to teach ,new ,york ,city1 ,philadelphia1 and ,chicago only would give children a very erroneous idea of the concept 8city40 ,they are all exceptionally large1 all ,american1 all modern4 ,there are cities smaller1 with peculiarities due to age1 to location1 and to the ideas and resources of the people building them4 ,a better selection would be ,new ,york ,city1 ,london1 ,tokyo1 ,venice1 ,cairo1 and ,munich4 ,objection could still very well be offered that this list is too short to include all classes4 ,there can be no doubt that to have taught any city carefully will aid greatly in understanding the notion 8city0 and in appreciating other cities1 but manifestly any final generalization concerning cities must wait until our knowledge of geography has been widely extended4 ,the same conclusion would be reached were any other notion of geography1 or any other study1 subjected to the same test4 ,there is1 however1 no harm in forming tentative judgments4 ,indeed1 we must all do this every day of our lives4 ,the main issue is to see to it that there is no mistake as to the tentative character of the conclusions reached1 that the open-minded attitude be preserved4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,c4 ,a4 and ,f4 ,m4 ,mc,murry1 ,the ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapters ,,vi to ,,ix inclusive4 ,john ,dewey1 ,how ,we ,think1 ,chapters ,,xii to ,,xv inclusive4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,what is the purpose of the step of preparation in the inductive lesson8 ,when would you begin an inductive lesson with a statement of aim or problem8 ,what value is there in having children state the aim of a lesson8 ,when during the lesson should the aim be referred to8 #b4 ,how would you hope to have country children get a clear idea of a city8 ,could you develop this idea with sufficient definiteness by asking questions8 #c4 ,what preparation would you think necessary for a class that were taking their first trip to a dairy8 #d4 ,what was wrong in the class where1 after a trip to the country1 a small child said1 8,a cow is a small animal with four legs that likes to live in the mud and grunt08 #e4 ,would you allow a boy to perform an experiment in nature study that you knew would result unsatisfactorily8 #f4 ,a teacher used the following sentences in her attempt to teach the function of an adjective2 criticize the list given4 ,the red apple is sweet4 ,the green grass is soft4 ,the yellow house is large4 ,the tall man is sick4 ,the largest horse is fast4 ,suggest a better list of sentences for the purpose indicated4 #g4 ,in what sense is it true that an induction begins with a generalization8 ,how do you proceed when you modify a generalization which you once held as true8 #h4 ,a pupil defined a river as a stream of water flowing through the land4 ,how would you hope to secure a more accurate generalization from him8 #i4 ,what is the function of a lecture on ,germany to a group of children studying the geography of ,europe8 ,do you think such a lecture would be as valuable as a lesson in which the pupils are asked to find out why ,german commerce has developed so rapidly during the past twenty years8 #aj4 ,under what conditions would you require children to commit to memory the definitions found in their textbooks8 #aa4 ,if your pupils were reading ,kipling's ,jungle ,book1 would you try to make your lessons inductive8 #ab4 ,what difficulties would you encounter in trying to teach children who live in the ,mississippi ,valley the meaning of the term mountain8 ,how could you hope to overcome these difficulties8 #ac4 ,the following illustrative problems were used by a teacher who was presenting the subject of percentage to a class for the first time4 ,can you improve the list8 ,a man who had #aj1jjj lost #be per cent of his money4 ,how much did he lose8 ,a horse which cost #bej was sold at a loss of #aj per cent4 ,how much did the owner lose8 ,a house which cost #be1jjj was burned4 ,it was insured for #ej per cent of its value4 ,how much did the owner receive from the insurance company8 ,a suit of clothes which cost the dealer #ah was sold at a gain of #be per cent4 ,how much did the dealer gain on the suit8 #ad4 ,which would be better1 to tell a group of children of a trip which you took to a cattle ranch1 show them pictures1 and possibly read a description of ranch life1 or spend the same amount of time questioning these same children in the hope of developing some adequate idea of this type of life8 ,if you follow the first method1 could you be sure that children had derived accurate ideas from your description8 #ae4 ,write a series of questions which you would use in developing the generalization1 8,men who live in cities are dependent upon those who live in the country for the necessities of life40 #af4 ,how would you defend the following statement3 ,it is more important that a pupil should have worked out the solution of a single problem in which he is interested1 than that he should have learned1 without solving the problems for himself1 the answers to a dozen problems from books which he is asked to read4 #ag4 ,why do most lessons in which pupils recite from the material assigned in textbooks require little thinking8 ,how can such lessons be made to stimulate thinking8 #ah4 ,would you ever allow children to accept an incomplete generalization as a result of their own experience and thought8 ,an incorrect generalization8 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,deductive ,,lesson ,the complete process of thought involves both induction and deduction4 ,every general principle1 unless it is self-evident1 must either be arrived at through the process of induction1 or be accepted without any attempt at verification4 ,having formed our generalizations1 we use them as a basis for further thinking4 ,if we find that the principle always holds1 we are satisfied with its validity4 ,in this testing of the generalization tentatively made1 the process of thought is deductive4 ,the fact is that in the process which we designate as induction1 deduction enters to verify our inference4 ,in the face of the problem which can be settled only by reference to some established principle1 we find ourselves questioning the generalizations formerly accepted1 and the process of thought in solving our problem will involve induction as well as deduction4 ,for convenience we treat the problems of teaching under the two heads1 the inductive and the deductive lesson1 according as one or the other type of thought seems to predominate in reasoning required to solve the problem involved4 ,every one thinks deductively who has had sufficient experience to form any generalizations4 ,in the early life of the child we find the psychological basis for deduction in the tendency to act in accordance with ideas4 ,children define things in terms of their function4 ,thus a hat is something to wear on the head2 a drawer something to pull out and push in2 a shovel something to move the sand with2 and so for the other objects in the child world4 ,a child makes a dog in clay1 draws a picture of a flower1 makes a house of his blocks--and in this way tests his ideas4 ,not all deductive thinking ends in motor activity2 but we can never be satisfied with our deductions until we have established them experimentally4 ,the question concerning our ideas always is1 will they work8 ,whenever we offer an explanation of our ideas or of our actions1 the process of thought is deductive4 ,not that either adults or children often state the general principle upon which they base their statement or action4 ,we are all only too prone to assume the general principle4 ,the foolish answers which children give may be logical enough4 ,from his very limited experience a boy may have generalized that grass is something to look at and not to be walked on1 and that people always live in houses from four to ten stories high1 with many families in a house4 ,now1 if such erroneous generalizations have been developed1 the way to handle the boy is not to laugh at his deductions from these premises1 but rather to require him to state the generalizations upon which he has based his thinking1 and to lead him to discover their inadequacy4 ,it matters not what group of children one works with1 this same need for a declaration of the principle upon which the argument is based1 the generalization which covers the situation under consideration1 will be found essential4 ,that teacher does much for the children who frequently pushes them back to a statement of what they assume to be true4 ,this statement is not always easy to make4 ,even with adults it is very common to explain action by reference to some feeling or attitude which it is assumed has some basis in reason4 ,some instinctive tendency1 or a mode of feeling1 thinking1 or acting which has become habitual1 frequently explains1 but fails to justify our actions4 ,the ability to state clearly what one assumes1 and to claim as valid only such conclusions as are based on premises which are admitted to be true1 is the mark of the man of unusual rationality4 ,there is no set of rules which a teacher may follow in order to make the children she teaches logically minded4 ,on the other hand1 all of her activity tends in some degree to encourage or to eliminate the logical habit of mind4 ,the teacher who dogmatizes continually in her teaching can do little to overcome a like tendency in the children by conducting exercises logically correct4 ,the wrong emphasis on correctness of the result1 instead of correctness of the method employed in getting the result1 encourages much illogical work and develops careless habits of thought4 ,and it is just as true that an open-minded attitude on the part of the teacher will be reflected in the children4 ,the teacher who insists upon the verification of generalizations1 who asks children frequently to give the ground for the statements which they make1 and who encourages reflection1 will engender logical habits of thought4 ,to recognize the wide application of the deductive method in our thinking1 one has only to consider what is meant by reflection4 ,it is well also in this connection to remember that the habit of reflection distinguishes the educated from the uneducated man4 ,it is not the number of experiences which makes the difference between men1 but rather the use that has been made of those experiences4 ,when we reflect1 we think over1 organize1 and relate our past experiences4 ,suppose1 for example1 that some one makes the statement that corporal punishment should be banished from all schools4 ,if you reflect upon such a thesis1 you bring to bear your experiences1 whether of action1 observation1 or thought stimulated by reading what some one else has said2 and1 as a result of your thinking1 you consciously or unconsciously assume a general principle under which you feel satisfied that this question of discipline falls2 and then you will refer all of your experiences to this principle1 testing its validity by seeing whether or not it does uniformly hold4 ,the process of thinking which you have employed is essentially deductive4 ,if stated in the form of a syllogism1 it might be expressed somewhat as follows3-- #a4 ,any action which tends to brutalize either pupil or teacher should not be permitted in any school4 #b4 ,corporal punishment tends to brutalize both teacher and pupil4 #c4 ,hence corporal punishment should be banished from all schools4 ,the process of thought employed has led you to search for a general principle which you accept as true and which offers an explanation of the position which you take in agreeing that corporal punishment should be banished4 ,if you are really reflecting1 you will not stop with this reference to a generalization apparently true4 ,rather you will inquire whether in your experience the infliction of corporal punishment has tended to brutalize you4 ,you will also ask yourself whether this is true of others1 and to what degree4 ,you will recall specific cases of punishment of this sort1 and will try to decide whether the disadvantages or evil outweighed the good4 ,only after such careful thought is the process of reflection complete1 and it is only then that you can feel satisfied of the soundness of the position which you have taken4 ,it will be noted that the process of thought has been both inductive and deductive4 ,if children are to learn to reflect1 they must have leisure to think over their past experiences4 ,there is danger that in our desire for more knowledge and more activity on the part of our pupils1 we may give them little time for reflection4 ,to ask a child to state the significance of what he has done1 to encourage him to examine every assumed truth in the light of his experience1 and to state somewhat formally the result of his reflection is worth much more than the new experiences which might have been gained in the same length of time4 ,the habit of reflection will be developed only when sufficient time is given for children to stop and take account of the experience which they have had1 when respect is accorded the experiences of the individual1 and when the teacher requires such work and guides children in the process4 ,an attempt has been made in the preceding pages to indicate in a general way the significance of the deductive method in our school work4 ,it remains to indicate briefly the method of procedure in the conduct of class exercises which are essentially deductive in their nature4 ,such exercises will be found in any subject in which there is developed a body of general principles4 ,for example1 the real test of a pupil's knowledge of a principle of arithmetic is found1 not in familiarity with the process of induction by which the principle is derived1 nor in his ability to apply this principle to the problems given in the book1 immediately following the rule1 all of which fit the generalization1 but rather in his ability1 when a miscellaneous list of problems is given1 to pick out the principle which applies to this one case4 ,the test of one's knowledge of geography is found not simply in the facts which he knows1 but also in his ability to explain phenomena or to anticipate situations by reference to a body of general principles4 ,the problem3 ,from what has already been said it is clear that in deductive thinking1 as well as when the process is inductive1 the occasion for thought is found in a problem to be solved4 ,we wish to know why a certain region is arid or what the possibilities of agriculture are in another1 and we1 therefore1 recall our knowledge of the principles of geography in order to solve our problem4 ,a moral situation confronts us2 we need to act2 and in response to this necessity we endeavor to refer the situation to some norm or standard of conduct which we accept as fundamental4 ,the success of our work in securing clear thinking by children will always be conditioned by our success in enabling them to realize the significance of the problem presented for solution4 ,finding the generalization or principles which fit the situation to be accounted for or explained is the next step4 ,in order to accomplish this part of the process successfully one must be able to discover that which is essential and to neglect the non-essential in the problem to be solved4 ,suppose1 for example1 that the problem is3 ,why has the greater part of ,africa not been settled by civilized men8 ,the factor which is significant is the climate of this region1 and it will be of no use for the pupil to recall the size of the continent1 the color of its inhabitants1 the fact that ,livingstone made a journey across it1 except that by eliminating these facts he may be brought to realize that none of them determine the situation1 and hence he need no longer pay any attention to them4 ,it is the function of the teacher to suggest to the pupil a number of alternatives and then to guide him in his search for the determining factor4 ,for example1 the teacher might ask3 ,is it because of the savage inhabitants1 because of a lack of means of transportation1 because the country is overrun by dangerous wild animals1 or because of climate8 ,each of these classes of facts may be known to the pupils1 and each in turn may be eliminated as non-determining factors until he comes finally to the last4 ,he must then1 provided he decides that climate may determine the availability of a region as a habitation for civilized man1 discover under what condition of climate civilized man fails to make advance4 ,he has thus fitted his situation1 his problem1 to the generalization under which it falls1 and has1 in fact1 taken the next step in the process4 ,inference3 ,the inference that the greater part of ,africa is not inhabited by civilized men because of adverse climatic conditions is arrived at just as soon as the pupil settles upon climate as the essential factor4 ,just as in the inductive process we pass immediately from the step of comparison and abstraction to the statement of the generalization1 so in the deductive lesson1 when once we have related the particular case under consideration to the principle which explains the situation1 we are ready to state our inference4 ,there is real value in making such a statement4 ,the further process of verification depends upon a clear and definite statement of the inference2 and the best test we have of the completion of the preceding step is the ability which the pupil shows to state his inference4 ,verification3 ,when the inference has been made1 we have yet to satisfy ourselves concerning the validity of our reasoning by an appeal to known facts4 ,following the illustration already used1 we should ask ourselves what has happened in the past to civilized men who have gone to ,central ,africa4 ,we will be satisfied that our reasoning has been correct1 only if all of the facts we are able to discover point unmistakably to the conclusion that the climate of the larger part of ,africa is unendurable by civilized men4 ,the element which needs most emphasis in deductive teaching is the realization on the part of the teacher that the success of the process is directly proportional to the independence with which the pupil discovers for himself that which is essential in the situation under consideration1 his attempt to fit or relate the particular case to the principle or generalization by which it will be explained1 and his willingness1 when he discovers his error by an attempted verification1 to repeat the process4 ,we do not think logically by having some one else do our thinking for us1 nor is our growth measured by the uniformity with which we hit upon the correct solution of the problem at the first attempt4 ,rather we may measure success by the power of our pupils to criticize the reasoning which appears plausible until carefully scrutinized1 and by their readiness to retrace their steps and to search for firmer ground when they have of their own accord given up a scheme of reasoning which has proved invalid4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,w4 ,c4 ,bagley1 ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,,xx4 ,i4 ,e4 ,miller1 ,the ,psychology of ,thinking1 ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,a class is engaged in deriving inductively the generalization that multiplying the numerator of a fraction by any number multiplies the fraction by that number2 will there be any occasion for deductive thinking as the work proceeds8 #b4 ,a history teacher has tried to develop the generalization that taxation without representation is tyranny4 ,a girl in the class says that this proves that women should have the right to vote4 ,analyze the process of thought by which the girl arrived at her conclusion4 ,was the process essentially inductive or deductive8 #c4 ,some people pride themselves upon the fact that they never change their minds4 ,what comment would you feel justified in making concerning their processes of thought8 #d4 ,why can the leader of a mob influence his followers to most unreasonable action8 #e4 ,an eighth-grade boy remarked that he thought that we should forbid all foreigners to come to the ,united ,states4 ,how would you lead such a boy to change his point of view by means of his own thought on the subject8 #f4 ,a class in grammar was required to commit to memory fifty rules of syntax and later to correct sentences in which the mistakes in syntax were covered by the rules already learned4 ,could you suggest a better way to teach ,english syntax8 #g4 ,what is the value of the miscellaneous problems given at the end of each section of the arithmetic8 ,a teacher of arithmetic went through one of these lists and had the class indicate opposite each problem the case1 or rule1 which was involved4 ,was this a good thing to do8 #h4 ,what sort of reasoning is demanded of a class in parsing8 #i4 ,do you consider your teaching of arithmetic1 in so far as it involves reasoning1 mainly inductive or deductive8 #aj4 ,in what sense is it true that in deduction we begin with a particular rather than with a generalization8 ,compare the significance of the problem in induction and deduction4 #aa4 ,in some textbooks in geometry1 the problem is stated1 and then the proof is presented step by step with a reference wherever need be to the principles involved in developing the proof2 what is the weakness of this sort of an exercise8 #ab4 ,how can the teacher best help children who are unable to refer a problem in arithmetic to any one of the principles which have been learned8 #ac4 ,children often make mistakes in reasoning which seem ridiculous to teachers2 how can teachers be most helpful in such situations8 #ad4 ,do you think it possible to teach children the meaning and significance of reflection8 ,how would you attempt to secure such insight8 #ae4 ,why would it be valuable for us many times to write the reasons for our action before carrying into effect our plans8 #af4 ,what can you do as a teacher that will stimulate children to do their best thinking8 ,is it possible that you may actually interfere or discourage them in this part of their work8 ,how8 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,lesson ,,for ,,appreciation ,education aims not only to enable one to avoid error1 to discover truth1 and to equip him with desirable habits1 but also to develop the power to appreciate and to enjoy that which is beautiful1 whether in literature1 painting1 sculpture1 art1 or music4 ,it is not enough that a man be able to make a living2 he ought1 as a result of his education1 to be able to enjoy life4 ,matthew ,arnold's definition of culture1 8the acquainting ourselves with the best that has been known and said in the world10 embodies much that is essential in modern education4 ,the ability to enjoy a drama of ,shakespeare1 a picture of ,millet1 or an opera of ,wagner1 means the possibility of noble pleasure1 of leisure time spent in such a way that inspiration and strength1 instead of possible waste1 or1 even worse1 degradation and weakness1 result4 ,it is1 then1 a vital part of our school work to give opportunity for and to encourage in every way possible the development of power of appreciation4 ,some of our schoolroom exercises ought to aim primarily to develop power of appreciation in the several fields mentioned above4 ,not that appreciation can be taught directly1 but because there are conditions which are negative in their influence4 ,no one will ever learn to appreciate music or literature or art because some one tells him that he ought and that this is worthy and that unworthy4 ,this sort of teaching will result in hypocrisy and cant4 ,on the other hand1 the best guarantee of development along these lines is found in association with those who do genuinely appreciate4 ,it is in this fact that we find our first suggestion for work of this kind4 ,do not try to teach any one else to enjoy that which you do not fully appreciate yourself4 ,the fundamental qualification for the teacher is power to appreciate4 ,she must enjoy to the full that which she hopes to make appear beautiful in the eyes of her pupils4 ,it is useless to ask children to enjoy one of ,stevenson's child rhymes1 if you find yourself unable to enter into the spirit of the poem4 ,pictures may be hung on the wall and religiously taught2 but children will not want to buy good pictures1 nor are they apt to frequent the art galleries1 unless they have associated with those for whom pictures are a genuine source of pleasure4 ,the best preparation for the teacher who feels that her teaching is inadequate in those phases of her work which involve appreciation is to plan to do what she can to insure her own growth in this particular4 ,read more poetry1 and especially read it with those who derive great pleasure therefrom1 if you wish to teach poetry better4 ,if you are familiar with the great musicians1 and have through your acquaintance with their work developed some measure of appreciation for this type of expression and for the method by which the musician has been able to build up his wonderful composition1 then you may rest assured that your pupils will not find music uninteresting4 ,the question most frequently asked concerning the teaching of those subjects in which we seek to develop appreciation is whether one must command the technique involved in creation in order to grow in power to enjoy the work of the masters4 ,for example1 must one be able to read music in order to appreciate music2 must one be able to state the rhetorical excellence of ,stevenson's narratives in order to enjoy his stories2 is it essential that one fully appreciate the technique of painting in order to get the most out of ,corot8 ,in general1 the answer is that such knowledge of technique may either help or hinder one in his actual power of appreciation4 ,it will hinder1 if the consideration of technique is constantly uppermost in one's mind2 it will help in so far as knowledge of technique gives one the feeling of excellence or perfection of form1 provided always that it is this beauty of the product which most engages the attention1 and that interest in technique is subsidiary4 ,to express the same idea in another way3 if one's knowledge of technique makes him overcritical or oversensitive1 he is apt to lose all enjoyment in his concentration upon the technique1 in looking for weaknesses1 or in his feeling of discomfort because of imperfection4 ,what significance1 it may be asked1 has this for our teaching8 ,mainly this1 that we must remember that appreciation is in large measure a matter of the emotions1 and that any attempt to overintellectualize the process will defeat the end we desire to secure4 ,there is no other kind of work in which the attitude of the individual at the beginning of the exercise is as important4 ,there is a story told of a teacher who wished to teach a beautiful poem1 the burden of which was the beauty of kindness to birds4 ,she began with the birds that the children knew--sparrows4 ,in a short time the children developed the notion1 and very justly1 that sparrows were a pest1 that they had driven away our song birds1 and that it would be a good thing to exterminate them4 ,the children were ready to go forth to the slaughter2 and then came the poem with its admonition to kindness toward birds4 ,these children would1 of course1 have been more impressed had this preparatory work been omitted entirely4 ,very frequently for work of this kind1 the very best preparation is found in placing children directly in contact with that which you hope to have them appreciate4 ,read the poem1 play the music1 expose the picture to view1 and allow them to do their work4 ,later a somewhat more detailed treatment1 possibly involving many repetitions1 will give opportunity for increased appreciation4 ,children should not be forced to give expression to the feeling awakened4 ,the teacher may accept gladly such expression as comes spontaneously4 ,she may at times ask for a selection of the part most enjoyed4 ,especially to be avoided are expressions such as3 8,don't you think this beautiful80 8,don't you enjoy this80 and the like4 ,children under such stimulation are apt to say that they enjoy whether they do or not4 ,they are just as anxious to do the right thing as are some of their elders4 ,to be constantly directed1 always told what to admire1 means lack of confidence in one's own ability to judge of excellence1 or1 even worse1 the attitude of the hypocrite who admires that which he thinks it fashionable to favor4 ,it is probably safer to judge of the success of work of this kind by the expression on the faces of the children than by the words you may persuade them to use4 ,in a lesson of this type the teacher does the best work when she acts as interpreter4 ,success depends not so much upon initiative on the part of the children as upon the ability of the teacher to sympathize with the childish point of view1 and to lead them to greater heights by the force of suggestion growing out of her own joy in that which she presents4 ,it is by voice1 by gesture1 by suggestion1 and by explanation1--in all1 by providing the most favorable opportunity possible for appreciation1 keeping herself as much as possible in the background1--that the teacher makes provision for the development of this power by children4 ,much is gained in power of appreciation by giving opportunity for creative work on the part of children4 ,the group of children who have composed a song1 and who have labored diligently to make the music which they have written fit the spirit and rhythm of the words1 will find a new meaning in the lullaby which they are asked to learn to-morrow4 ,music will mean so much more than pitch1 time1 notes of different value1 and the like4 ,through their own attempt they will have realized in the best possible way the fact that the music of the song is intended to express feeling in harmony with the words that they sing4 ,the child who has attempted to draw a landscape will by virtue of that fact grow in power to enjoy the landscape placed on the wall for his enjoyment4 ,and so for any other field in which we seek to develop power of appreciation2 to attempt to create for himself will give the child a better understanding of the elements which go to make up excellence1 and the contrast between his own effort and that of the master will greatly enhance the value of the latter in his eyes4 ,thus far in our discussions of the lesson for appreciation we have interpreted it to mean the development of the sthetic emotions4 ,there is another sort of appreciation which involves rather more of the intellectual element1 but which1 so far as teaching method is concerned1 may probably be treated to greatest advantage in this same connection4 ,indeed1 there are cases1 as in literature1 where both elements are involved4 ,in the study of a drama of ,shakespeare we are concerned not only with the beauty of expression1 but quite as much with the portrayal of the lives of men and women as they have acted and reacted on each other in their common environment4 ,in history we have this drama extended to include a nation or the nations of the world in their relations to each other4 ,in either case we have the record of cause and effect1 an account of social experience fundamentally akin to our own4 ,appreciation here involves the ability to follow the logical relations which are recorded4 ,in proportion as one becomes aware of the motives which have actuated men1 the relationships which have existed among them1 the organization and outcome of their activities1 he has widened his own experience4 ,this possibility of a vicarious extension of the child's social experience is one of the reasons for giving history and literature a place in our school curriculum4 ,let us inquire what is involved in securing appreciation of this type4 ,take1 for example1 the appreciation of the period just preceding the ,civil ,war4 ,how are we to understand this remote situation8 ,we cannot observe directly2 we cannot1 as is the case in the solution of a problem in our present experience1 gather data by means of observation2 nor can we test our conclusions by experiment4 ,our first great need is to have presented all of the facts possible4 ,we may read the historian's account1 or have it read to us2 we may get hold of the newspapers published at that time2 read the debates which took place in ,congress2 peruse the letters of men and women who lived and wrote at that time2 make inquiry concerning the number of slaves1 and the value of the ,southern plantations worked by them2 try to find out why slavery had been abolished in the ,north1 and by every means possible familiarize ourselves with what men said and did and the conditions under which they worked at that time4 ,we must have this material made accessible to the children through books or by word of mouth before we ask them to follow the logical relations established among these facts by the historian4 ,appreciation has its beginning in the abundance of data supplied which makes possible the imagery with which the children are to work1 and is consummated when the child has1 through his own efforts and by following the development of another1 come to understand the play of cause and effect1 the organization and relationship existing among these human activities4 ,work of this sort has in the last step something in common with the inductive lesson1 but with this difference1 that the children are in the main concerned with appreciation of facts and of the relationships established among them by some one else1 presumably the expert historian4 ,it is more a matter of understanding than the discovery of new truth4 ,of course1 there are lessons in history in which the problem is just as distinct as in any science1 and where the work can be best described as inductive or deductive reasoning4 ,and so likewise for literature4 ,the author presents the situation1 and draws his conclusions1 supposedly true to the logic of human action4 ,the teacher may need to supply details which are missing1 may need to guide the children in their attempt to follow the interpretation of the author1 but it must be mainly interpretation of facts provided2 and presumably1 if great literature is studied1 the appreciation of the author's interpretation of the human relations is of vastly greater importance than the attempt at interpretation which the children may make4 ,appreciation does not mean quiescence1--far from it4 ,neither does it concern itself primarily with the discovery of new truth or excellence4 ,rather we aim to understand1 and to enjoy1 when the sthetic emotions are involved1 the work of the masters4 ,if we can1 even in some degree1 lead children to think their thoughts1 to interpret human activity and human feeling as they have interpreted it1 we shall have most signally widened and enriched their experience1 and shall have made available for them for all their lives a source of recreation and enjoyment1 a storehouse of wisdom1 which may constitute their greatest indebtedness to our efforts in their behalf4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike1 ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,e4 ,a4 ,kirkpatrick1 ,the ,fundamentals of ,child ,study1 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,why is it worth while to train children to enjoy literature1 music1 or painting8 #b4 ,do those who look at the pictures in the art gallery which have been specially mentioned in the catalogue or guide book necessarily show any power of appreciation of good pictures8 ,what would be a better test of such power8 #c4 ,why is it essential that you should enjoy a poem which you try to teach to children8 #d4 ,what advantage is there in changing the pictures on the walls of the schoolroom from time to time8 #e4 ,is there any good argument for having children write poetry8 #f4 ,what could you do to grow in ability to teach art appreciation8 #g4 ,does your technical knowledge of music interfere with your enjoyment of good music8 #h4 ,what advantage is there in having children compose the music for a song which they have written8 #i4 ,why is it important that we arrange our poetry1 music1 and pictures with reference to the seasons8 #aj4 ,how would you hope to discover whether or not children enjoyed a new picture8 #aa4 ,why ask children to choose from among three or four poems the one that they will commit to memory1 instead of requiring that they all memorize the same one8 #ab4 ,what value is there in reading great literature to children without comment8 #ac4 ,in what way may a good history lesson differ from an inductive lesson in geography8 #ad4 ,do you think it essential that children should always have problems to solve in their lessons in literature8 #ae4 ,choose a poem which you teach in your grade4 ,tell what it means to you4 ,what may it mean to the children8 ,write four questions which you would ask to help bring out meaning which might escape the pupils4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,study ,,lesson ,that it is the main business of the teacher to render her services unnecessary cannot be too often reiterated4 ,to be able to reason clearly one's self2 to have control of one's habits2 in short1 to know how to use one's energies to best advantage when the problems of life are encountered1 is the greatest benefit to be derived from education4 ,we shall concern ourselves in this discussion with study as it involves controlled thinking1 whether inductive or deductive2 with the most economical method of making knowledge more available for use by increasing the possibility of recall2 and with the possibility of reducing certain knowledge or responses1 whether physical or mental1 to the basis of habit4 ,in general1 our problem in teaching children to study consists in making them conscious of the best methods to be employed in logical thinking1 or in the formation of habits1 and then in giving sufficient practice in the use of these methods to make them the habitual manner of reaction1 as far as this is possible4 ,it is true1 of course1 that one who applies the logical method to a question of mathematics or geography may be swayed by prejudice when the question concerns politics or religion2 and that the man who knows best how to form desirable habits may be so bound by some other that he will fail to achieve that which he knows to be desirable4 ,be this as it may1 if the school makes the child conscious of the most economical methods of work1 the chances for later efficiency are greatly increased4 ,strangely enough1 what we have been prone to call good teaching has not always accomplished this desired result4 ,it has too often happened that the direction and help offered by the teacher have tended to make the child dependent1 utterly unable to do a piece of work for himself4 ,even when children have supposedly been required to do much thinking1 the teacher has sometimes weakened her work by continually stepping in to propose the next step whenever a critical point has been reached4 ,the argument which proves conclusively that children do not learn to work independently is found in their inability in the upper grades1 in the high school1 and even in the college to use their time to good advantage4#aa ,in teaching children how to study1 the first step involves a clear statement of the problem to be solved4 ,the teacher who says 8take the next five pages0 cannot expect that the children will do anything more1 so far as learning how to study is concerned1 than waste time in fulfilling her demands4 ,we think hard when we have a problem to solve4 ,if it be true that children need to have an aim clearly in mind when they are at work with the teacher1 it is much more essential that they should have clearly in mind the goal toward which they are striving when they work alone4 ,whenever children are expected to do any work at their seats or at home1 the type of assignment becomes a determining factor4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that a minute or two at the end of a recitation will be sufficient to make clear to the pupils the problem involved in the work to be accomplished during the study hour4 ,the best time to make assignments is when1 as the subject is developed1 a problem arises which cannot then be solved4 ,a good recitation ought to culminate in the statement of the questions yet to be answered quite as much as in a statement of what has been accomplished4 ,if the class has been kept intellectually alert1 there ought to be raised by the children many questions1 which may be assigned either to the whole class or to individuals for report at a succeeding recitation4 ,a very good incentive to study is found in making assignments to individuals or groups for report to the whole class4 ,even if the problem itself is not of surpassing interest1 the desire to contribute one's share to the group project1 and the wish to do as well as one's neighbor1 will stimulate to greater effort4 ,it would be well if teachers tested their own work and the children's comprehension of the assignments made by asking frequently during the study period for a statement of the problem4 ,to read a book intelligently1 to perform an experiment to advantage1 children must know what they seek4 ,the attitude which we hope to develop should lead a child to ask1 when in doubt1 such questions as these3 8,what am ,i to try to find out from reading this chapter80 8,what am ,i to look for on the excursion80 8,what is the problem which we are now discussing80 8,is the report which has just been made to the point80 8,did ,john's answer have anything to do with the question we are discussing80 and the like4 ,when children have learned to expect to work toward the accomplishment of some definite result in thought as well as in action1 when they hold to the main issue regardless of the allurements of subsidiary problems which should be held for later investigation1 when they become critical of the contributions offered by books or by their companions1 then1 and not until then1 have they taken the first step in learning to study4 ,when children have become conscious of the meaning of the aim or problem as an element in successful study1 and when their practice is guided by this consciousness1 they will meet with another difficulty in learning how to secure the data adequate for the solution of the problem4 ,before leaving the elementary school1 children should know how to use dictionaries1 encyclopedias1 gazetteers1 year books1 and the like4 ,it is passing strange that college students often seem not to know the purpose either of the table of contents or of the index in the books which they use4 ,it is pitiful to see a person leafing through a book trying to find information on some question at issue1 when in a minute he could find in the index just the page or section in which this topic is treated1 and so spend the time gathering data instead of wasting it in a random search for the information desired4 ,it is necessary to teach children to consult the indices and tables of contents of books1 and to give them frequent practice in work of this kind1 if they are commonly to employ this device or method4 ,another help to the collection of data might very well begin to be used in the intermediate grades of the elementary school2 it is the practice of noting1 when more than one book or source of information is used1 just where the information is to be found1 and something of its nature4 ,if the pupil consults more than one authority1 the one read last may raise questions which must be answered by a return to those used earlier1 and one ought to be able to turn directly to the sources formerly consulted4 ,or it may be that a similar problem1 or one having much in common with it1 will arise a week or a month later1 when a record of the sources of information consulted before will lighten the work by half4 ,a record of this sort could be kept in notebooks1 or1 as is done by older people who know how to work1 in a card index4 ,of course work of this kind presupposes the use of some books other than a single textbook2 and to go very far in giving children the command of the technique of study we shall have to provide ourselves with more than a single book for a subject4 ,another way by which children can be greatly helped is teaching them how to take notes and how to annotate4 ,there is no exercise more valuable to the student1 so far as his future work is concerned1 than practice in writing in a very few words the gist of a paragraph or page4 ,as they reflect later1 they may want to know the argument of this authority or that1 but they must have it in condensed form or they will be little better off than when they began their work4 ,a very helpful exercise is to have children to abstract1 either orally or in writing1 a page or two of a book which they are studying1 and to compare results4 ,in this work the problem is that which confronts the thinker at every stage of his work1 the selection of that which is relevant and the discarding of that which is less significant4 ,if we think logically1 among the mass of possible data we must always choose that which in our judgment is relatively most valuable for our purpose4 ,the teacher in the organization of material for presentation in any subject is confronted constantly with the problem of relative values4 ,not all can be presented1 even though relevant to the issue involved2 hence1 choice must be made4 ,and just so1 if the child learns to study1 to conduct his own investigations1 he must be made conscious of this need of discrimination1 and he must be given practice in its exercise4 ,adequate study demands not simply that an abundance of data which bear on the problem be secured1 but that the validity of the data be brought into question4 ,children ought not to accept blindly the statements of books or even of the teacher4 ,the one thing which characterizes the student is his search for truth1 his attitude of inquiry as opposed to an appeal to authority4 ,it is well for children at times to question the statements found in their books when experience suggests the doubt4 ,it is equally important1 of course1 that they be willing to acknowledge their mistake1 should proof be forthcoming in support of the book4 ,if a child really studies1 he must1 even as an adult1 find statements of fact1 the records of observations or experiments1 which are at variance with the evidence which he already possesses4 ,it is just in this particular that the student differs from ordinary men who allow others to do their thinking for them4 ,the student may not be able to settle the question1 and so forms a judgment which is frankly tentative4 ,children ought to have the experience of finding that there are some questions to which a definite answer cannot1 in the present state of knowledge1 be given4 ,they should be shown1 wherever possible1 how the conclusions of men on some of the most important problems that have been studied have changed from time to time4 ,they can at times be made to realize the folly of overhasty generalization4 ,no one has learned how to study who has not been trained to reflect upon his experience1 whether the experience has been recently acquired with the express purpose of solving his problem1 or is some more remote element in experience which may shed light on the question in hand4 ,a skillful teacher can guide in this process of reflection1 and will later tell them what is meant1 and demonstrate for them something of the value of the practice4 ,it is quite worth while for a student to know when he has concentrated his attention upon a problem1 and just what is meant by reflection4 ,many older people deceive themselves into thinking that they are exercising themselves in these directions when a slight acquaintance with the elements involved in fixing attention or in reflection might awaken them to the futility of their practices4 ,there need be nothing occult or hard to understand about the practice of study4 ,it is not a matter of terminology nor of a systematic course in psychology1 but rather consists in guiding the individual in his practice of the art1 and then making known to him the elements in his experience which have meant success or failure4 ,it may be enlightening to compare the emphasis upon careful examination of data1 the formation of tentative rather than fixed judgments1 the guarding against hasty generalizations1 and the emphasis upon reflection with the steps of presentation1 of comparison and abstraction1 and of generalization in the inductive lesson1 and with the corresponding steps of the deductive lesson4 ,the conviction will probably be deepened that when the teacher instructs the student in the art of study she is making available for him the method which she employs in instruction4 ,this must be the relationship2 for the teacher can do nothing more than take account of the way the child learns1 and adapt her method to his possibilities4 ,the habit of verification is one of the most important from the point of view of learning how to study4 ,the questions which the student must constantly ask himself are3 8,can the conclusions be applied80 8,do they always hold80 8,does it work80 ,fine-spun theories are of little avail1 however much satisfaction the originator of them may have found in deriving them4 ,at every step in the progress of his thought the conclusions must be tested by an appeal to known facts4 ,the teacher cannot too frequently insist upon this step as the criterion of the worth of the thinking which has been done4 ,and the insistence will be necessary1 for it seems natural for human beings to become so enamored of their theories that they hesitate to expose them to the test which may prove them false4 ,teaching children to memorize3 ,throughout the school life of the child1 memorizing is a regular part of his work4 ,if practice alone were necessary1 every child should soon learn how to do this kind of work in the most economical manner4 ,the great difficulty is that often neither teacher nor pupil has given any thought to the method employed1 their attention having been wholly engrossed with success or failure in achieving the result4 ,it is a well established principle of psychology that the possibility of recall is conditioned by the system of ideas with which that which we wish to recall has been identified4 ,the more associations made1 or the more perfect our control of any system of ideas which involves that which we wish to remember1 the greater the probability of bringing to mind the fact when we need it4 ,as ,professor ,james puts it3 8,of two men with the same outward experience1 the one who thinks over his experiences most1 and weaves them into the most systematic relations with each other1 will be the one with the best memory40 ,and along with this fact is another equally important for the teacher3 that we may not hope to increase the native power of retentiveness4 ,the child whom we teach may be endowed by nature with little or much power of this sort1 and we cannot change it2 but we can improve his method of memorizing4 ,the first step in memorizing is to understand4 ,if we try to commit to memory the words of a book when we do not fully comprehend the meaning1 we are depending very largely on our desultory memory1 i4e4 upon our ability to remember the things because they have been once present in mind2 and our efficiency will depend wholly upon our quality of native retentiveness4 ,but1 unfortunately1 for want of knowledge of a better method1 children are frequently satisfied that they are doing adequate work when they are repeating over and over again the words which they have made little attempt to comprehend4 ,even when the sense of the words to be memorized is fairly clear1 it is uneconomical to employ this method of accretion4 ,the child who studies the poem by saying first the first line1 then the second1 then the first and second1 then the third1 then the first1 the second1 and the third1 depends upon mere repetition1 not upon thinking1 for the persistence of the impression4 ,it has been demonstrated that on the basis of the amount of time required this method is uneconomical4 ,add to this the fact that after the first complete repetition1 later successful recall depends upon the efficiency of the system of associated ideas which have been established2 and there can be no doubt of the folly of such a method of procedure4 ,it is no wonder that children who commit to memory in this way forget so readily4 ,they may have understood what they said when they first repeated the poem2 but the method they employed almost precludes the building up of a system of associated ideas on the basis of careful thinking4 ,if the child has read aloud and understands the selection to be memorized1 the next thing to be done is to analyze it into its principal thought units2 and then each of these large units of thought may be again carefully scrutinized until a full appreciation of the thought has been accomplished4 ,the thought of the whole may then be stated1 using as far as possible the words of the author1 and then each of the subdivisions or thought units may be examined in more detail in order to get the shade of meaning that is brought out by this or that word1 by relationship of cordination or subordination of clause1 or the modification indicated by this word or phrase4 ,it will be necessary1 as the work progresses on the large thought units into which the selection has been divided1 to return constantly to the whole thought in order to keep clear the relationship of the part to the whole1 and to establish the part in the system of ideas which we seek to build up4 8,all the evidence we have goes to show that the method of memorizing by wholes is most economical40#ab ,if children were taught to work in this way1 there would be little drudgery about memorizing4 ,the careful1 thoughtful study once completed1 memorization has been accomplished4 ,the energy and attention of the child have not been centered upon a merely technical process1 but he has been concerned mainly in trying to appreciate fully the thought that he is to make his own4 ,memory work of this kind is highly educative1 not merely because of the product1 but also because of the process employed4 ,suppose1 for example1 you wish children to memorize ,stevenson's ,bed in ,summer3-- ,in winter ,i get up at night ,and dress by yellow candle-light4 ,in summer1 quite the other way1 ,i have to go to bed by day4 ,i have to go to bed and see ,the birds still hopping on the tree1 ,or hear the grown-up people's feet ,still going past me in the street4 ,and does it not seem hard to you1 ,when all the sky is clear and blue1 ,and ,i should like so much to play1 ,to have to go to bed by day8 ,you would begin by reading the whole poem1 calling to mind the experiences of the children in going to bed before dark on the long summer evenings and of the cold1 dark winter mornings when they may have dressed before it was light4 ,the number and the kind of explanations which will need to be made will1 of course1 depend upon the previous experience of the children and the time of the year4 ,then the poem might be read again a time or two4 ,after this preliminary work has been done1 you might ask some one to tell you the story4 ,let us suppose that the reply was about as follows3 8,a little boy had to get up before it was light in the winter1 and go to bed before it was dark in the summer4 ,in summer when he went to bed he heard the birds hopping on the trees and the people walking past him in the street4 ,he thought it was hard to have to go to bed when it was still daylight1 when he wanted so much to play40 ,if the main facts were less well told1 or if there were notable omissions1 it would be necessary to get at least an outline of the main thought before proceeding4 ,now we are ready to call the attention of the children to three main thoughts1 each told in a stanza4 ,first1 the difference between getting up in winter and going to bed in summer4 ,second1 what did the boy in the story see and hear when he went to bed before dark8 ,third1 how do you feel when you have to go to bed in summer while the sky is still so clear and blue1 and you would like so much to play8 ,it will be very easy to get the thought of the first stanza impressed in the words of the author4 ,it will help to read the whole poem again1 the teacher meanwhile asking the children to pay particular attention to the way the author says it4 ,possibly there will be some difficulty with 8quite the other way10 but skillful questioning will get the correct form4 ,and so for the second and third stanzas2 if the thought is clear1 the words will follow very easily4 ,after each thought has been thus carefully developed1 with the whole story always in mind1 and the words of the author have been made the vehicle of expressing the thought by the children1 it will be advantageous to have the poem repeated several times by individual members of the class4 ,in this repetition the dramatic element should enter as far as possible4 ,to suit the action to the word1 to really feel what one recites1 helps greatly to strengthen the impression1 and thus aids recall4 ,it may be thought that the illustration used was particularly well adapted to illustrate the theory advanced4 ,or some teacher may say that children would memorize ,bed in ,summer without teaching4 ,it may1 therefore1 not be out of place to suggest that the best way to discover for one's self the value of the method is to try it4 ,it will work equally well if the subject is ,lincoln's ,gettysburg ,address1 a selection from the ,declaration of ,independence1 the ,twenty-third ,psalm1 or any other masterpiece of ,english4 ,the principles to be applied are essentially the same even when verbatim memorization is not required4 ,to get lasting control of the facts of geography or of history1 one must have reduced them to a system4 ,there must be a relating of less important facts to more important1 a clustering of important points of reference to any other facts which are logically related4 ,this1 indeed1 is just what scientific organization means1 and the main purpose of such organization is to render facts more available1 to save labor4 ,the memory is relieved of much of its burden when once we have established the relationship of cause and effect1 of equivalence1 of similarity1 or of analogy among facts4 ,it is this association of ideas on a logical basis which counts most in the possibility of recall4 ,it is quite possible for children1 very early in their school life1 to begin to apply these principles and to become conscious of the fact that the way they do their work has an important bearing upon the ease with which it is accomplished and the permanency of the results gained4 ,the work of the teacher is not done by merely dictating the method1 even though that may help greatly to establish right habits of study2 our best assurance that the method will be employed when the teacher is not present to direct the work is found in our knowledge that the children not only habitually1 but also when a question arises or there is a suggestion of another way1 consciously employ the right method4 ,teaching children how to form habits3 ,our next problem is to inquire how children may be led consciously to employ the principles of habit formation when their school work involves work of this type4 ,they can be taught the function of drill or repetition1 and can be led to see under what conditions such work will prove most successful4 ,it is not difficult to prove to a boy that his listless1 half-hearted work in repeating the spelling of the words he has missed is making little improvement in his ability to spell them4 ,a boy can be led to see by an illustration in which he himself is the chief actor that concentrated attention will make much difference4 ,let him see how much he can accomplish in ten minutes1 and thus get him in the habit of using this means when he finds that he is not working up to his normal capacity4 ,show him that a new impetus will be given and that attention will be easier if he reverses the order1 writes instead of spelling orally1 or closes his eyes and attempts to visualize the words4 ,no matter what motive the boy has for the attempt he is making1 he will welcome the suggestions which make the task easier4 ,later you can teach this same boy the need of verification before drilling himself whenever a question of fact is raised4 ,in the beginning1 of course1 the doubt or question will be raised by the teacher1 and it will be the chief work of the child to find an authority and assure himself that he has the right idea or form before proceeding4 ,a big step in the education of a child has been taken when he is able to say1 8,i know ,i am right1 because ,i have consulted the commonly accepted authority40 ,occasions will arise constantly in the study of any subject where1 instead of asking the teacher or being satisfied with information which is of questionable validity1 the child should1 as a matter of habit1 turn to the authority for verification4 ,it is not at all unusual for children to have misgivings1 but they too frequently end by going ahead and ignoring their doubt4 ,to respect one's doubts1 to be somewhat critical1 is significant for education only when one is led thereby to endeavor to discover the truth4 ,children will work to advantage when they realize that these steps of doubt1 verification1 repetition1 with undivided attention1 are essential to good work4 ,children can be taught the necessity of accuracy in practice4 ,any day's work in a schoolroom will furnish illustrations of the danger of lapses and the necessity of guarding against them4 ,the fallacy of the notion that 8this one doesn't count0 can be made just as clear to children as to adults4 ,so1 too1 the mistaken notion that cramming may be substituted for systematic work day in and day out can be brought to the attention of pupils4 ,it would be a good plan for every teacher to ask herself questions like the following3 8,what would the children do if ,i did not carefully direct their work80 8,how much better able are they now to work independently than they were at the beginning of the year80 8,can they take a book and find in it the part which bears upon the topic assigned for study1 and do they do it with the least possible waste of time and energy80 8,do they know how to memorize2 what it means to concentrate their attention2 how to reflect80 8,are they more open-minded or more dogmatic on account of the year spent with me80 8,have they established the habit of verification80 8,do they appreciate the method to be employed in habit formation80 ,to answer these questions honestly will give the teacher some idea of her success as a teacher1 for the teacher's goal is realized in proportion as her pupils have advanced in power to work independently of her guidance or control4 ,in teaching children how to study1 it will be well to devote whole periods to this type of exercise4 ,the teacher will gain much in the progress which her class will make by taking a period frequently during which she studies with the children4 ,by example rather than by precept1 by guiding children in correct methods of study and then making them conscious that they have done their work to the best possible advantage1 rather than by telling them what to do1 she will secure the maximum of results in her endeavor to teach children how to study4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,f4 ,m4 ,mc,murry1 ,how to ,study4 ,lida ,b4 ,earhart1 ,teaching ,children to ,study1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,what is the relation between a knowledge of the principles of teaching and the attempt to teach children how to study8 #b4 ,how would you teach a boy to study his spelling lesson8 #c4 ,what exercises would you give your pupils to make them able to use books to the best advantage8 #d4 ,state five problems which you have assigned to your pupils which seem to you to have furnished a sufficient motive for study4 #e4 ,which would be better as an assignment for a class in history3 8,study the topic of slavery for to-morrow02 or1 8,try to find out why slaves were not kept in the ,northern states02 or1 8,did all of the people in the ,northern states believe that slavery should be abolished80 #f4 ,what is the advantage in individual or group assignments8 ,give a list of such assignments which you have recently given to your class4 #g4 ,why is it necessary in studying to restate the problem under consideration at frequent intervals8 #h4 ,when children study1 should they try to remember all that they read in their books8 #i4 ,is it wise to have children critical of each other's contributions during a recitation8 #aj4 ,how could you hope to train children to discriminate between the material of greater and of less importance when they read books to find the answers to their problems8 #aa4 ,what do you think of the success of a study period where ten problems are given1 each independent of the others8 #ab4 ,how would you expect children to verify the conclusions which they reach in solving their problems in geography1 nature study1 or arithmetic8 #ac4 ,take any poem of from four to ten stanzas1 and have your pupils commit it to memory as a whole by reading it over and discussing the thought as often as may be necessary4 ,take another poem of equal length and of equal difficulty1 according to your judgment1 and have them commit it to memory line by line and stanza by stanza4 7,a good plan would be to take four stanzas for each test from the same long poem47 ,three weeks after each selection is learned1 without suggesting to the pupils that the selection is to be called for again1 find out what part of each selection can be recalled4 #ad4 ,how could you teach your pupils that the repetitions which count when studying a spelling lesson are the ones which are made with attention concentrated upon the work in hand8 #ae4 ,is a study period in the schoolroom properly regarded as a rest period for teachers and pupils8 #af4 ,are the children you teach better able to get along without a teacher than they were when they came to you8 ,what evidence can you give to show that they can work independently8 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,review ,,or ,,examination ,,lesson ,the review or the examination1 in so far as methods of teaching are concerned1 present the same problem4 ,we seek by means of exercises of this type to bring about a better organization of knowledge1 to test the efficiency of our work by finding out whether or not pupils can1 when put to the test1 utilize the knowledge or habits which we have labored to make available for them1 whether they are actuated by the ideals and purposes which we have sought to inculcate1 whether they do actually employ the most economical methods of work when they meet a situation which challenges their strength4 ,it will be recognized at once that work of this sort is a part of every recitation4 ,but for our own satisfaction1 and1 possibly1 in order to meet the requirements which may be imposed by those higher in authority1 we may at times feel the need for a stated exercise of this sort4 ,a review should mean a new view1 a placing of facts in their true relationship4 ,it should mean a clearer view of the topic or the subject which the children have been studying4 ,it avails little to go over the ground that has already been covered more rapidly4 ,the purpose to be accomplished is not to fix in mind a series of unrelated facts4 ,in our discussion of memory we had occasion to call attention to the fact that recall of past experiences was conditioned by the number and the quality of the associations which had been established4 ,and it is not simply a matter of recall4 ,the use that we can make of a fact depends upon our ability to relate it logically to other facts4 ,it is quite possible that a man of great native retentiveness might be able to recall thousands of facts1 and yet be stupid1 utterly unable to do the thinking required for effective action4 ,to bring about such an organization of ideas demands that from day to day the new facts or principles that are learned be consciously related to the old4 ,it will not be economical to put off all reviewing until the end of the month1 or quarter1 or term4 ,the step taken in advance to-day can be properly appreciated only when it is seen in relation to that which has gone before2 and the work of the past week or month will1 in turn1 by this additional effort be seen in truer perspective4 ,there are1 however1 convenient units into which subjects naturally divide themselves2 and when one of these units has been completed1 it may be well to take a period or two for the express purpose of review4 ,we may then clear up any misconceptions1 give a chance for additional verification and application of the knowledge thus far gained4 ,it cannot be too strongly emphasized that the review which really counts is one in which the teacher works with the children1 guides them and instructs them1 rather than sits in judgment over them4 ,there is nothing more disastrous to the best type of work than the idea on the part of children that the review lesson is the teacher's opportunity to ask catch questions1 or to overemphasize unimportant details4 ,children respond very quickly in such a situation by their endeavor to cram1 with little or no effort at organization1 all of the facts that they have been taught4 ,a convenient stimulus to the proper sort of review is found in the requirement that pupils prepare an abstract or topical outline of the ground which has been covered1 and submit it1 preferably from memory1 for class criticism and discussion4 ,if the teacher asks questions1 she should be very careful to see that they are questions of large scope which demand organization1 or still better the application of organized knowledge4 ,this brings us to the problem of testing4 ,the only adequate test of school education1 as of all other education1 is action4 ,the nearer we can in our tests reproduce the conditions which will confront the child in actual life1 the better4 ,not that we can always have him actually present in the situation2 but when that is impossible1 we can present for his consideration ideal situations which correspond to those which he will later find4 ,the possibilities of presenting precisely the test which he will meet and is meeting in life are1 ,i believe1 much greater than most examiners suspect4 ,we have discovered after many years that the best test of a child's ability to spell in the only situation in which he will ever need to spell is to test him in that situation2 i4e4 by judging his ability in writing words in connected discourse4 ,the way to discover whether one can speak or write grammatically is to listen to him speaking or reading what he has written1 and not to ask him to recite rules of grammar4 ,the only real test of a child's ability to give adequate oral expression to the story or poem is to see whether or not he can make clear the thought and furnish enjoyment to others1 preferably to those who have not before heard the selection which he reads4 ,we can assure ourselves that we have awakened an interest in literature and history1 when we know that children read good books other than those which we compel them to read4 ,the success of manual work1 the time spent in art or music1 ought certainly to be measured by ability to make and to decorate1 the singing of songs1 and the desire to hear music1 or to see pictures4 ,the more occasions that can be found for the application of the arithmetic we teach in actual measurements and computations which have real significance to children1 the better will children understand their work1 and the more certain we can be of their future efficiency4#ac ,it is coming to be a recognized principle of nature study that the common things1 the animals and plants which are significant for our living1 are the ones which should engage our attention2 and we expect that children will1 on account of the teaching1 enjoy more1 take better care of1 and utilize to better advantage the plant and animal life with which they come in contact4 ,even in such subjects as history and geography1 one can hope to find just such applications while the child is studying as are apt to occur in his later life4 ,the presentation of the results of the study of a country to a school assembly with the aid of pictures and a lantern1 or the interpretation of current events in the light of their geographic setting will afford no mean test of the children's knowledge of geography4 ,the comparison of to-day's happenings in the light of the events of a decade or a century ago2 the explanation of the historical reference in the period devoted to literature2 the writing and presentation of a historical drama1 will afford as great application of one's knowledge as most of us ever make4 ,work of the sort indicated above will not only serve to test the value of the work that children have done1 but will also add greatly to the interest and enthusiasm with which children do their work4 ,we can scarcely hope that all examinations will satisfy this ideal2 but of this we can be sure1 the more work of this kind we do with our pupils1 the firmer will be their grasp upon their work and the greater is apt to be their power to satisfy even less adequate tests4 ,examinations have another function which we as teachers should not overlook4 ,any adequate test of children's abilities is also a test of our teaching4 ,it will probably not be best for us to try to defend ourselves by pleading the inadequacy of the test1 nor the backwardness of the pupils when they come to us1 nor their parentage1 nor any other less common reason4 ,if children do not write as well as they should1 if they misspell words they commonly use in their written work1 if they cannot tell the story1 recite the poem1 solve the problem1 describe the geographical area1 or relate the events of the historic period1 we had better inquire whether we have helped them to work to best advantage1 whether we have clearly differentiated the several aspects of our work and have then applied the methods suitable to accomplish the desired result4 ,there may be mistakes made1 but1 all things else being equal1 the teacher who gets results is the best teacher4 ,we shall do better work1 children1 teachers1 and supervisors1 when we have provided for our use more definite standards or scales by which to measure our results4 ,there is no reason why we should not have a scale which would enable us to tell with a fair degree of accuracy just what the standing of this group of children is in writing1 in ability to perform the fundamental operations in arithmetic1 in spelling1 in writing compositions1 in discussing the geography of ,north ,america1 in decorating a cover for a notebook1 or in any other subject or aspect of their school work4 ,beginnings have been made in this direction1 and we may hope for more as time passes4#ad ,as these units of measure are perfected and applied in examining the results of school work1 we will1 of course1 hear the cry of those who will tell us that the best things that a teacher does cannot be measured4 ,the obvious reply will be that efficiency in accomplishing results which can be measured need not in any way prevent a teacher from exercising that influence or doing that sort of work which is not recorded on examination sheets4 ,rather it will be found1 ,i venture1 that the efficient teachers1 as measured by the results which we can test1 are1 on the whole1 the teachers that are doing the noblest work4 ,strength of personality1 appreciation of child nature1 a life which by its example makes for truth and beauty in other lives1 are qualities not uncommon in the teacher who is glad to be judged by the results which pupils can demonstrate4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,w4 ,c4 ,bagley1 ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,w4 ,w4 ,charters1 ,methods of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,what is the purpose of an examination8 #b4 ,would you be willing1 in a review of a large topic in history1 to demand fewer details than in the original study of the topic8 #c4 ,what is the value of an outline prepared by pupils as a part of their review work8 #d4 ,which is the better test of a boy's ability in ,english1 a high mark in an examination in grammar1 or a well written story of a fishing trip written for a school paper8 #e4 ,prepare a series of questions which you think might be used to advantage in the examination of a class that has been studying the geography of ,europe4 #f4 ,give as many illustrations as you can of the application of the knowledge gained in school to situations in which the pupils use their information or skill to satisfy needs comparable to those which one meets in everyday life4 #g4 ,what is meant by saying that a review should mean a new view8 #h4 ,do children commonly fail in examinations when they have been well taught8 #i4 ,should children be promoted solely upon the marks made in examinations8 #aj4 ,a boy's average in an examination was #fg per cent4 ,an examination of the marks he received showed the following results3 geography #hj per cent1 history #ajj per cent1 composition #hj per cent1 spelling #gj per cent1 arithmetic #dj per cent1 grammar #dj per cent1 and drawing #fj per cent4 ,the passing mark was #gj per cent2 would you have promoted the boy8 #aa4 ,how often should reviews be conducted8 #ab4 ,should children be notified in advance that examinations will be held on certain days or weeks of the term8 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,recitation ,,lesson ,the recitation lesson as commonly conducted consists in having children tell what they have read in their textbooks4 ,sometimes the teacher accepts or even demands that the pupils recite by repeating the words of the book4 ,better teaching requires rather that they render the thought of the author in their own language4 ,in this chapter we shall discuss some of the worthy ends which may be accomplished by such an exercise1 some of the common deficiencies in work of this type1 and the modifications which are advisable in the light of the principles already enunciated4 ,the recitation lesson commonly tests the pupil's memory for facts4 ,the questions asked and answered serve to reveal to the teacher the knowledge or lack of it on the part of the pupil4 ,in a way this testing also gives the teacher some idea of the amount of work done by the pupil4 ,the great weakness of work of this kind is found in the tendency to demand and to accept words1 the rehearsing of facts unrelated and unorganized4 ,of course this need not be true1 since it is entirely within the power of the teacher to frame her questions in such a way that the pupil's grasp on the whole topic rather than his memory for isolated facts is tested4 ,the recitation which tests the pupil's ability to present in orderly fashion the substance of the thought found in the sections assigned in the book for study is of genuine value4 ,the topical recitation affords an opportunity to develop on the part of children the ability to stand on their feet and speak to a question for some minutes4 ,and it may be suggested in this connection that we should develop more power of this sort than is commonly found in our schools4 ,the ability to express one's self adequately on the topic under consideration will always make for effectiveness in social life4 ,it would be well to test the progress of our pupils from grade to grade by their ability to speak more effectively and for a longer period as they advance through the school1 on some topic connected with their school work4 ,when pupils are required not simply to recite on some topic which is presented for their consideration1 but are required to furnish their own outline and to recite on the basis of their own organization of the selections which they have read1 the recitation may become a valuable exercise in thinking4 ,the success of work of this kind will depend upon the definiteness with which the problem or aim of the work has been provided4 ,it will not require much thought simply to follow the paragraph headings or marginal notes of the author and to present the organization as a basis for recitation4 ,if1 however1 a problem has been suggested the solution of which may be found in the pages assigned for study1 then the recitation may test the pupil's power to analyze and organize the material which the book provides4 ,and this is the only test of a thorough mastery of the book4 ,we do not read to find out everything that an author says4 ,our needs may demand a very different ordering of facts1 we may use facts in entirely new relations1 and may ignore much that was essential from a different point of view4 ,children have read their textbooks thoroughly when they have derived from these texts the facts or ideas which are essential in the solution of their problem1 the satisfaction of the aim which they hope to realize4 ,this ability to use to best advantage a book is a very valuable accomplishment4 ,when the recitation lesson accomplishes this result1 it justifies its use4 ,too frequently we find adults who seem to feel that they must try to gather all of the knowledge and must try to follow none other than the author's point of view in their reading4 ,these persons read one book1 and1 as a result1 believe one theory4 ,it seems not to disturb them greatly that the next book they read takes the opposite point of view and that they range themselves on that side of the question4 ,books are1 or at least ought to be1 our servants1 not our masters1 and in the handling of books in his regular school work the child ought to come to realize their true function4 ,there is no greater proof of a lack of thought than the ready acceptance of whatever one finds in print4 ,there is great danger in the use of textbooks that children and teachers will become satisfied with words1 that they will come to think that the repetition of the formula of the textbook is proof of knowledge4 ,textbooks are all too often merely books of texts4 ,they have been made frequently enough by those who possess a very wide knowledge of the field in which they write2 and by some strange process of thought they have apparently reached the conclusion that the way to make a subject simple is to condense it4 ,many of our most used textbooks are merely summaries or outlines of the subject treated4 ,they lack richness of detail1 and state conclusions instead of furnishing a large number of experiences1 from which one may1 through processes of logical thought1 derive the generalizations of the subject4 ,take1 for example1 most of the textbooks in history for elementary schools1 and read carefully upon any topic selected at random1 and then ask yourself just what these words mean to twelve-year-old children2 or1 better still1 ask these children who repeat so glibly the words or reproduce the statements of the book just what they mean by the words they use4 ,try to discover whether they have any adequate knowledge of facts1 or any command of images1 which would make possible the generalizations which they give as a result of the process of thought4 ,remember that a textbook is not logical for children because it has been logically arranged by the scholar4 ,the test is rather to be found in the pupil's ability to reproduce in his own thinking the steps which have made possible the conclusions of the author4 ,any wide-awake teacher can make her work more interesting and more significant for children1 if she will carefully provide for the enrichment of the text4 ,the sources from which data can be gathered1 regardless of the subject under consideration1 are almost without number4 ,especially to be recommended are the standard works in the subjects4 ,it will be interesting to discover that children would rather read ,parkman than to study the text in which some less competent person has endeavored to tell his story in a few paragraphs which mean absolutely nothing to the child4 ,the magazines which publish articles of wide social interest will furnish much helpful material4 ,there is no school that may not greatly enrich its work by an appeal to the actual experiences of the children and by carefully directed observations and experiments4 ,we need our textbooks as a summary1 as a convenient condensed outline1 or as books of reference2 but we must provide as best we can other books of reference which will furnish the details which are impossible in the limited number of pages allowed to the text4 ,in every room of every school a library of books1 pamphlets1 magazine articles1 and illustrative material should be found1 and every teacher should expect to increase this collection and to improve its quality as the years go by4 ,it will give new meaning to notebooks and note-taking1 if both teacher and children realize that the books thus prepared are a real addition to the texts used4 ,a comparison of the work done by different members of the class will add interest in the work4 ,one of the greatest deficiencies of the recitation lesson is the danger that nothing new will be presented4 ,it is not intellectually stimulating to listen to others who repeat simply the thought with which you are already familiar4 ,where good notebook work is done and reported upon1 the chance for new ideas1 the stimulus to thought1 through the presentation of new material1 will greatly strengthen the work4 ,a tendency in work of this type to accept vague and indefinite answers is another argument against the recitation lesson which consists merely in rehearsing the words of the book4 ,statements are apt to be vague when ideas are vague1 and we may not expect ideas to be very clear when the child lacks experience4 ,the child's power of expression1 aside from the difference in original talent in this direction1 is conditioned first of all by his acquaintance with things and processes4 ,the recitation lesson1 as it is ordinarily conducted1 gives little opportunity for this sort of firsthand knowledge4 ,to work at the sand table1 to construct with wood1 clay1 paper1 or yarn1 to experiment1 and to observe carefully the working of nature may mean more for the command of language than much more time devoted to so-called language lessons4 ,but the effective use of such experience for language growth depends in a measure upon the requirement that the teacher makes for adequate expression4 ,the teacher who accepts the vague and indefinite answer encourages slovenly habits of expression and incidentally slovenly habits of thought4 ,it is usually a mistake to say to a child3 8,i know what you mean even though you have not said it40 ,children are often lazy enough to allow the teacher to do their thinking for them1 if the teacher willingly accepts the burden4 ,thinking is necessary for expression2 language is the tool of thought2 we can do no greater service to children than to hold them for what they say1 give them credit for the thought which they express and no more4 ,words for children1 as well as for adults1 are used to conceal ignorance as well as to reveal thought4 ,a child is quick to take advantage of the teacher who will accept any sort of an answer and interpret it as a statement containing thought4 ,indeed1 it is possible that a child may even come to think that his incoherent statements1 his word juggling1 really represent thought4 ,another danger in the recitation lesson is found in the tendency to develop the purely individualistic attitude4 ,if excellence consists in endeavoring to repeat more of the book statement than any one else1 manifestly it is your advantage to hinder rather than to help others in their work4 ,the attitude of excessive competition on the one hand1 and of indifference on the other1 are both avoided when children work together for common ends4 ,the standard of the school should be coperation and helpfulness4 ,the recitation lesson in its least desirable aspects will not disappear until all of our teachers realize that teaching does not consist in hearing lessons4 ,the broader the training of the teacher1 the better her understanding of child nature and of the meaning of education1 the less likely is she to resort to this method to any considerable degree4 ,we shall1 it is true1 so long as we use textbooks1 take occasion to discover what use children have made of them2 but this testing will be incidental to our teaching1 and not the sum and substance of it4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,w4 ,c4 ,bagley1 ,the ,educative ,process1 ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,why is a recitation in which the teacher asks fifty questions which test the pupil's knowledge of the facts recorded in the book not particularly valuable8 #b4 ,why ask pupils to recite by topics rather than ask questions which will bring out the facts concerning each topic treated in the book8 #c4 ,discuss the use of the textbook in teaching from the point of view of both teacher and pupil4 #d4 ,when have you read a book thoroughly8 ,ought we ever to try to remember all that the book tells8 #e4 ,it is essential in a democracy that people think for themselves2 how would you develop this independent attitude in children8 #f4 ,when children say that they know but cannot tell1 how well do they know2 how clearly have they thought8 #g4 ,if a pupil recites the words of the book1 does he know the subject8 ,how would you test further the extent of his knowledge8 #h4 ,find examples in some textbook which you use of statements which mean little to children who use the books4 #i4 ,how would you plan to supplement the textbooks which you use8 ,give examples8 #aj4 ,why do children show a lack of interest in recitations where the teacher tests the class on their knowledge of the facts recorded in the text8 ,how can the situation be improved8 #aa4 ,why is it generally a mistake to interpret to the class the answers given by the pupil reciting8 #ab4 ,under what conditions is it better to have books open in class than to test pupils on their knowledge of the facts recorded in the text8 #ac4 ,if a pupil reproduces accurately a line of reasoning recorded in his book1 has he necessarily thought through the situation for himself8 #ad4 ,what do the following paragraphs mean to a class of pupils from twelve to fourteen years of age8 ,have they definite images8 ,do they fully understand what the author means8 8,the ,puritans4--,the ,new ,england colonies were founded by ,english ,puritans who left ,england because they could not do as they wished in the home land4 ,all ,puritans were agreed in wishing for a freer government than they had had in ,england under the ,stuart kings1 and in state matters were really the liberals of their time4 ,in religious matters1 however1 they were not all of one mind4 ,some of them wished to make only a few changes in the church4 ,these were called ,non-,conformists4 ,others wished to make so many changes in religion that they could not stay in the ,english ,state ,church4 ,these were called ,separatists4 ,the settlers of ,plymouth were ,separatists2 the settlers of ,boston and neighboring towns were ,non-,conformists40 8,unlike the poor humble ,pilgrims were the founders of ,massachusetts4 ,they were men of wealth and social position1 as1 for instance1 ,john ,winthrop and ,sir ,richard ,saltonstall4 ,they left comfortable homes in ,england to found a ,puritan state in ,america4 ,they got a tract of land extending from the ,merrimac to the ,charles1 and westward across the continent4 ,hundreds of colonists came over in the year #afbi-afcj4 ,they settled ,boston1 ,salem1 and neighboring towns4 ,in the next ten years thousands more joined them4 ,from the beginning ,massachusetts was strong and prosperous4 ,among so many people there were some who did not get on well with the rulers of the colony40#ae ,professor ,johnson asks1 8,do the children see or feel anything but words8 ,do they see ,puritans8 ,do they see anything that the ,puritans might change or any reason for changing it8 ,do they see anything that happened in ,america8444 ,but what do the words actually tell about the circumstances of the ,puritans8444 ,can any one think that such statements really convey information about the ,puritans to one who is being introduced to them for the first time80#af ,,chapter ,,xi ,,questioning ,in all teaching much depends upon the skill with which the teacher stimulates and guides the class by means of the questions which she asks4 ,occasionally one finds a teacher who seems to think that the sole purpose of questioning is to test the knowledge of her pupils4 ,she asks hundreds of questions which can be answered merely by an appeal to the memory4 ,this sort of testing is valuable for review1 but it does not necessitate thought4 ,when a teacher habitually asks these fact questions1 the children respond by trying to remember the words or the facts given in their books4 ,a type of question still less worthy is the direct question1--the one that can be answered by yes or no4 ,the teacher who asks1 8,is ,albany on the ,hudson ,river80 does not expect the children to think4 ,if they are fairly bright1 they will probably guess from her inflection whether the answer is yes or no4 ,in any event1 after one guess has been made there is only one alternative1 and the pupil who answers second often deceives both the teacher and himself into thinking that he really knew the answer4 ,the question which suggests an alternative is in effect the same as a direct question with its alternative answer of yes and no4 8,does the earth turn on its axis from east to west or from west to east80 is no better than to ask1 8,does the earth turn on its axis from west to east80 ,indeed1 the alternative question in the example given is worse than the direct form1 since it suggests a wrong answer which may make sufficient impression to confuse the pupils when the question arises again4 ,the leading or suggestive question is much used by teachers who attempt to develop with children generalizations for which they have no basis in knowledge4 ,it is perfectly possible to have children give some sort of expression to the most profound generalizations of science or philosophy1 if one is only skillful in suggesting the answers which they are to give4 ,as an example of this sort of questioning1 the following is taken almost verbatim from a teacher who thought she was having her children think about the growth of plants4 8,did you plant your flowers where the sun would shine on them8 ,do you think plants would grow in a very dark place8 ,what do plants need to help them to grow8 ,when the ground gets dry1 what will you sprinkle on the ground to help the plants to grow8 ,what do plants need besides light to make them grow8 ,would your plants grow if it was very cold8 ,what do plants need besides light and moisture to make them grow80 ,if such a series of suggestive questions is asked1 the responses will be prompt and the waving of hands most vigorous1 but surely there has been very little necessity for thinking on the part of the children4 ,this brings us to the crux of the whole problem4 ,a question in order to be most stimulating must be of sufficient scope to demand that the experience of the children be organized anew with reference to the problem under consideration4 ,the teacher who wants to test the quality of her questions ought frequently to ask herself whether her questions are of sufficient scope4 ,if all the children can answer every question asked immediately1 the questions have not been very successful from the standpoint of provoking thought4 ,it takes time to think4 ,the question of large scope will be followed1 not by a wild waving of hands1 but rather by a period of quiet reflection4 ,the teacher who was trying to have her pupils think about the conditions of plant growth should have asked one or two thought-provoking questions instead of the larger number of suggestive questions4 ,she might have put the following questions3 ,what have you known any one to do to get good1 strong1 healthy plants8 ,would it be possible to change any of these conditions and still have the best plants8 ,what is necessary for the growth of plants8 ,if questions similar to the above are asked1 one might naturally expect children to relate and to compare experiences1 in fact1 to solve the problem by bringing to bear as best they could the facts concerning plant growth which had been observed in their experience4 ,if the teacher wants the children to get some adequate idea of a mountain1 in their work in home geography she might tell them about it or read them a description2 but even after the best description she would want to question them in order to have them think about the facts which had been given4 ,she might ask3 ,how long do you think it would take a man to walk to the top of a mountain8 ,what would be the difficulties in getting to the top8 ,if you stood on the top and threw a stone1 how far down the mountain do you think it would go8 ,to ask good questions takes careful thought and planning on the part of the teacher4 ,a half dozen thoroughly good questions often make a recitation a most stimulating exercise in thinking1 while the absence of this preparation on the part of the teacher not infrequently results in the ordinary listless class period1 which may actually be harmful from the standpoint of the child's intellectual growth4 ,it would be well for every teacher to ask herself the following questions when she is dissatisfied with the results of her teaching3 ,were my questions clear and concise8 ,did they challenge the attention of all the members of the class8 ,did the children need to think1 to organize their experience with reference to the problem in hand before they answered8 ,was the sequence good8 ,was it possible for every child to answer some of the questions8 ,did each child have a chance to answer8 ,did the children ask questions8--,when children are active mentally1 they will have questions to ask4 ,in asking questions much depends upon the novelty of the form in which the question is put or of the issue which is presented4 ,the writer has enjoyed asking several groups of teachers why they teach4 ,the answers have been most varied1 and on the whole indicate the real attitude of these men and women toward their work4 ,a very different response is secured1 however1 when you ask the same groups to define the aim of education4 ,they will all profess that they hope to realize the aim of education in their teaching1 and that it is because they hope to participate in the development of socially efficient men and women that they teach2 always provided you have asked a question concerning the aim of education4 ,the difference in the two situations is accounted for by the difference in the wording of the question4 ,in the one case these teachers really asked themselves the question--why do ,i teach8 ,they answered in terms of their experience4 ,some taught for money1 some because it was a respectable calling1 some for want of anything better to do1 some because they liked children1 and some because of their appreciation of the significance of education in our modern democratic society4 ,in the other case1 the answers were given in words conveying ideas which were supposed to be those most acceptable to the teacher4 ,it is often helpful to state the opposite of the common expression of a generalization and to suggest that you are willing to maintain this point of view4 ,the best lesson that the writer ever conducted on induction and deduction was begun with the statement3 8,induction always begins with a generalization and moves to the consideration of particulars4 ,deduction always begins with a particular and moves to a generalization40 ,the class was excited because the usual form of expression had been reversed1 and1 before the period was over1 did some thinking about the commonly accepted definitions of induction and deduction4 ,these definitions had really been nothing but a lot of words to juggle with1 rather than the embodiment of clear ideas4 ,this method of shock through the unfamiliar form of the question1 or by means of a statement which challenges attention because it is seemingly contrary to the accepted formula1 is one of the surest means available to the teacher who would stimulate thought4 ,it may be objected by some teacher that the form of question indicated above gives little or no place to the necessary reciting from books2 that when one wants to discover whether the pupils have studied carefully the content of a text1 the one way to be sure is to ask the fact question4 ,in reply1 it may be said that questions which call for the use or organization of facts demand not only the knowledge demanded by the fact question1 but the more significant use of these data4 ,it is true that some teachers still hear lessons4 ,on the whole1 there is too much telling of what the book says and too little teaching4 ,the skillful teacher1 in the assignment of her lesson1 will give the children problems concerning which they can find information in their books4 ,the recitation will demand the answer to the questions that have been put previously1 as well as to such other questions as may be necessary in the development of these problems4 ,if the book is to be given a larger place1 the recitation may be topical4 ,here1 again1 the large topics which are assigned should demand not a repetition of the headings and paragraphs of the book1 but rather the outline furnished by the teacher1 or1 better still1 made by the class2 should necessitate a reorganization of the material of the text4 ,there is little use in trying to furnish children with the knowledge of an encyclopedia4 ,they will forget all except that which has become part of a system or scheme of ideas which have meaning and significance because of their organization4 ,it is true that facts are the raw material of thinking1 and it is equally true that those facts which have had some place in our thinking are the ones which we retain for future use4 ,aside from the form of the question1 the teacher must consider the technique of questioning4 ,one of the most common mistakes is to call on the bright children almost to the exclusion of the less capable4 ,the writer has repeatedly followed closely the distribution of questions among the members of a class1 only to discover that often from one fourth to two thirds of the class were not called upon at all1 and that generally three fourths or more of the questions were addressed to a very small number of children4 ,most teachers would find it interesting to keep a record for a few days of the number of questions assigned to each child4 ,such a score would help to explain the lack of interest and backwardness of some pupils4 ,one hesitates to suggest that questions should not be given to the pupils in any regular order from the beginning to the end of the class by rows of seats or otherwise4 ,of course the teacher who does this notifies the members of the class that they need not be troubled about the work until their turn comes4 ,almost as bad1 from the standpoint of maintaining the feeling of responsibility by the whole class1 is the method of asking questions which prefixes the question with the name of the child who is to answer4 ,when the teacher says1 8,george1 will you summarize the points which have just been made10 ,john1 ,henry1 ,mary1 ,catherine1 and all the rest realize that there is nothing for them to do4 ,the teacher should rather announce her question1 and then wait long enough for all to be active before calling on any one4 ,another source of lack of attention is found in the question which is repeated4 ,children soon come to know whether they must listen when the question is first put1 or whether they may wait until the second or third statement before they will be called upon4 ,there is another weakness often shown in repeating questions1 viz43 the question is varied in form1 which1 in some cases1 leads to confusion in the minds of attentive pupils1 or the different forms used enable the child to guess the answer which is desired4 ,to repeat questions is to acknowledge either that the form in which it was first put was not good or that the children were not expected to attend to the first statement of the problem4 ,either alternative will be avoided by a thoughtful1 well prepared teacher4 ,the besetting sin of most teachers is the practice of repeating the answers given by children4 ,if the recitation is a place where children are to discuss their problems together1 then every answer should be addressed to the whole class1 not to the teacher4 ,the teacher who repeats each answer cannot expect the children either to recite to the class or to pay attention to the one who is speaking4 ,here is another chance for an interesting experiment4 ,score one every time you repeat an answer1 and then try to see how soon you can eliminate this bad habit4 ,it is often helpful to stand or sit in some part of the room not directly in front of the class4 ,the fact that the teacher is among the class1 one of them at least in position in the room1 will make it somewhat easier for children to talk to the whole group4 ,this habit of repeating the answer really grows out of the feeling which so many teachers have that the function of questions is to test for facts1 and that in the recitation the answer should be addressed to the teacher and given by her to the class so that all may be made aware of the correct answer4 ,the position which has been maintained is that the main purpose of questioning is to stimulate thought4 ,even if questions were mainly useful as a means of testing for facts1 it would still be unwise to repeat the answers4 ,questioning by the teacher which does not lead to the asking of questions by pupils is unsatisfactory4 ,if the children are thinking1 really trying to solve the problem at issue1 they will have questions of their own4 ,if any single test were to be applied to the strength of the teacher's questions1 this would probably be best4 ,needless to say1 the questions which children ask should1 as a rule1 be addressed to the class1 or to some one member of the class1 and not to the teacher4 ,some of the best lessons are those which end with children's questions still unanswered1 these problems furnishing the point of departure for the study which is to precede the next day's work4 ,if any one thinks that questioning is a simple matter1 one that deserves less consideration than has been given to it1 let him sit down and write four or five good questions which might be used in teaching a first-grade lesson on the dog2 a fifth-grade lesson on the ,southern states2 a seventh-grade lesson on making jelly2 or a high school class on the law of gravity4 ,the teacher who will get some one to write down for her the questions which she asks in a single recitation will be surprised both at the number 7it will be almost unbelievably large7 and the quality of the product4 ,there is nothing more searching than to attempt to write down beforehand the half dozen or more pivotal questions which are to be used in a recitation4 ,when the attempt is made1 any weakness in knowledge1 in organization of subject matter1 or in appreciation of the pupil's point of view with relation to the material to be presented1 will become apparent4 ,there is no one thing that a teacher can do which will bring a greater reward in increased teaching power1 than systematically to prepare questions for one or more recitations each day4 ,if the writer could be sure that any group of teachers would try conscientiously to improve in the art of questioning1 he would be just as sure that these same teachers would be rated by any impartial critic as superior to those who are willing to trust to inspiration in this most important part of the teacher's work4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,j4 ,a4 ,h4 ,keith1 ,elementary ,education1 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,what is the chief function of questioning8 #b4 ,why is the direct question of little value in teaching8 #c4 ,give examples of leading questions4 ,why should a teacher avoid questions of this class8 #d4 ,write the questions which you would ask a class who had read a description of a glacier1 in order to stimulate their thought and test their knowledge of this topic4 #e4 ,how many questions did you ask during one hour's work8 ,observe some other teacher1 and score the number of questions4 #f4 ,why is it important to consider the form or the wording of the question you ask8 #g4 ,how can you challenge the attention of every member of your class by the questions which you ask8 #h4 ,why is it poor method to repeat the answer given by one of the pupils8 #i4 ,do your pupils recite to you1 or to the class8 #aj4 ,when would you expect children to ask questions8 ,to whom should such questions be addressed8 #aa4 ,criticize the questions used by the teacher in the following stenographic report of a high school recitation in ,english4 ,a lesson on the old ballads has been given before4 ,the text used was ,seward1 ,narrative and ,lyric ,poems1 pp4 #bj-ce4 ,teacher3 ,before we begin to talk about modern ballads1 let's see what you got from your first impression of the old ballads last time4 ,in the first place1 give four or five subjects that the old ballad writers were especially interested in4 ,pupil3 ,fighting1 principally1 and some romance4 ,teacher3 ,what do you mean by romance8 ,pupil3 ,romance--that is all4 ,teacher3 ,people meant different things--fighting1 or love--do you mean love8 ,pupil3 ,no1 fighting--romance4 7,teacher writes on board 8romance407 ,that is about all ,i know1 in the first--old ballads2 oh1 yes1 one gruesome one1 about c--4 ,teacher3 ,corbies8 ,pupil3 ,yes4 ,teacher3 ,horror1 perhaps4 ,pupil3 ,yes4 ,teacher3 ,elsworth8 ,elsworth3 ,it only happened once1--lovers separated and met again4 ,teacher3 ,yes4 7,writes 8,fighting1 ,tales of ,horror1 ,shipwreck1 ,parted ,lovers407 ,is that a fair list8 ,i should think so4 ,let us see about the spirit in which they were written1 that is1 the kind of qualities the people in those ballads showed1 and the kind of qualities in human nature people of that day liked4 ,pupil3 ,i think bravery4 ,teacher 7writing 8bravery073 ,anything else8 ,pupil3 ,a hero and a villain4 ,teacher3 ,hero and villain2 in other words1 you take sides8 ,pupil3 ,yes4 ,teacher3 ,what other qualities besides bravery8 ,pupil3 ,treachery1 of the kind in the ballad of ,johnnie ,armstrong4 ,teacher3 ,yes1 and the hero shows what quality8 ,pupil3 ,he believes in the king even when he is summoned before him4 ,teacher3 ,good faith on one side1 and treachery on the other4 ,anything else8 ,pupil3 ,honor4 ,teacher3 ,honor1 yes4 7,writes 8honor407 ,pupil3 ,a great deal of honor among themselves4 ,teacher3 ,loyalty to each other2 and as regards their enemies1 what8 ,pupil3 ,they used to fight for fun1 and they had certain rules2 they were not really angry1 they had to keep certain rules4 ,teacher3 ,in other words8 ,pupil3 ,they couldn't do just as they wanted to4 ,teacher3 ,there were rules of honor even toward your enemy1 a sort of amateur spirit4 ,pupil3 ,courtesy to their enemies4 ,teacher3 ,courtesy1--and perhaps we might say this includes being true to the rules4 ,could we say anything about the style in which these poems were written1 kind of language1 and kind of verse form8 ,pupil3 ,could be put to music4 ,teacher3 ,easy to sing1 for one thing8 ,pupil3 ,yes4 ,teacher3 ,complicated tunes1 or simple8 ,pupil3 ,simple4 ,teacher3 ,how about the words1 the ,english8 ,pupil3 ,old ,english and ,scotch4 ,teacher3 ,old ,english and ,scotch2 easy or hard to understand8 ,pupil3 ,after you have read two or three1 ,i don't think it is hard4 ,teacher3 ,if you had been an old ,scotchman of those times1 should you say they were written in hard or easy language8 ,pupil3 ,simple1--quaint4 ,teacher3 ,simple and quaint--old-fashioned4 ,let us turn to the ballads you had for to-day2 see how they compare with these old ones4 ,the first one1 ,lord ,ullin's ,daughter--as regards the subject matter1 is it the kind of story you think would appeal to ancient writers8 ,pupil3 ,it seems so2 this one was about an elopement1 they seem to write that kind of story4 ,teacher3 ,anything else8 ,pupil3 ,shipwreck4 ,teacher3 ,do you think the old ballad writers would have been satisfied with the way the story came out8 ,pupil3 ,i don't think so2 they liked to see their side win2 the lovers won in this case1 but were drowned2 ,i don't think they would have liked it that way4 ,teacher3 ,if they are going to get away from the father1 they ought to get away clear4 ,i think that is true2 things end simply in the old ballads1 it is an out-and-out tragedy or a happy ending4 ,pupil3 ,they had some death1 like ,johnnie ,armstrong1 where the hero was killed4 ,teacher3 ,how was he killed8 ,pupil3 ,by treachery4 ,teacher3 ,was there any here8 ,pupil3 ,no4 ,teacher3 ,were they killed through anybody's fault1 or by accident8 ,pupil3 ,by accident4 ,teacher3 ,how is it in the old ballads8 ,pupil3 ,in the first stories they were not1--a shipwreck4 ,teacher3 ,but in most cases it is a matter of somebody's treachery4 ,in ,sir ,patrick ,spence who gets drowned8 ,pupil3 ,the ,scotch nobles4 ,teacher3 ,there it is the lords and all those other fine noblemen4 ,as far as the style goes in ,lord ,ullin's ,daughter1 should you say that the story goes rapidly1 as rapidly as possible1 or should you say that if an old ballad singer were telling the story1 there is something that could be left out8 ,pupil3 ,i think so4 ,teacher3 ,can you see any group of verses that could be left out without breaking the story up8 ,pupil3 ,i think where it described the boat 7reads73-- 8,the boat has left a stormy land1 ,a stormy sea before her-- ,when1 oh6 too strong for human hand1 ,the tempest gather'd o'er her40 ,those descriptions could be left out2 and 7reads73-- 8,for sore dismay'd1 through storm and shade1 ,his child he did discover3-- ,one lovely hand she stretch'd for aid1 ,and one was round her lover40 ,teacher3 ,you think the picture of how she looked in the boat does not count8 ,pupil3 ,i like it1 but it could have been left out4 ,teacher3 ,the old ballad singers would have left out that part4 ,are there things in the earlier part of the poem that could be left out if you just wanted the story8 ,pupil3 ,the first verse4 ,teacher3 ,better if they got started at once1 perhaps4 ,miss ,weiss8 ,miss ,w43 ,the third verse3-- 8,and fast before her father's men ,three days we've fled together1 ,for should he find us in the glen1 ,my blood would stain the heather40 ,he says right after that that the horses are right behind him1 so he could have left that out4 ,teacher3 ,he spends too much time in talking to the boatman1 that is true4 ,pupil3 ,the seventh verse4 8,by this the storm grew loud apace1 ,the water-wraith was shrieking2 ,and in the scowl of ,heaven each face ,grew dark as they were speaking40 ,teacher3 ,you can't help wondering why they didn't get in the boat1 and stop talking4 ,the old ballad writers pared it all down to nothing but the story4 ,turn to the next one1--,lady ,clare2 would that have pleased the old ballad writers8 ,pupil3 ,i think it would have4 ,it is just the kind of love story they liked1--it all turned out well4 ,teacher3 ,turns out well in the end2 and in it the lovers show what kind of qualities8 ,pupil3 ,faithful4 ,teacher3 ,you like that8 ,pupil3 ,yes4 ,teacher3 ,the sort of things anybody would like1 all the admirable qualities of a good love story4 ,i wonder if any one noticed the language of this poem1 anything that would show that ,tennyson was trying to imitate the language of the old ballads8 ,pupil3 8,i trow they did not part in scorn40 ,teacher3 8,i trow0--that sounds old-fashioned4 ,anything else8 ,pupil3 ,the way he brings in the nurse3-- 8,in there came old ,alice the nurse1 ,said1 #8,who was this that went from thee8' #8,it was my cousin1' said ,lady ,clare2 #8,to-morrow he weds with me4'0 ,and 8thee0 and 8thou40 ,teacher3 ,how about the word 8,said02 has that any subject8 ,pupil3 8,alice the nurse0 is subject of both came and said4 ,teacher3 ,yes3 anything else8 ,pupil3 ,the last of that verse1 8,to-morrow he weds with me40 ,teacher3 ,that sounds old-fashioned2 anything else8 ,pupil3 ,some of the repetition4 ,teacher3 ,what line8 ,pupil3 8,are ye out of your mind1 my nurse1 my nurse80 ,teacher3 ,and 8,yet here's a kiss for my mother dear1 ,my mother dear1 if this be so10 sounds like the kind of repetition a man would make on a guitar1 or something like that4 8#8,play me no tricks1' said ,lord ,ronald1 #8,for ,i am yours in word and in deed4 ,play me no tricks1' said ,lord ,ronald1 #8,your riddle is hard to read4'0 ,it comes again and again4 ,when you come to ,lucy ,gray1 a poem which was very famous1 and which is1 perhaps1 a little hard to get the real spirit of at first2 did any one feel especially attracted by that8 ,miss ,graves8 ,what did you like about it8 ,miss ,g43 ,it was entirely different from the others1--the way it turned out1--well1 just the description in everything1--the snow1--then1 it seemed to go easier than the others4 ,teacher3 ,we have rather taken it for granted all along that all these were very easy1--easy to sing4 ,pupil3 ,i don't think the later ballads are nearly as easy to sing as others4 ,teacher3 ,you think this ,lucy ,gray is different1 you like the descriptive verses in it8 ,any special phrases or description that particularly struck you1 ,miss ,graves8 ,miss ,g43 ,i don't see any just now-- ,teacher3 ,any one happen to remember any8 ,pupil3 8,the minster-clock has just struck two40 ,teacher3 ,miss ,thibaut8 ,miss ,t43 8,her feet disperse the powdery snow1 ,that rises up like smoke40 ,teacher3 8,her feet disperse the powdery snow1 ,that rises up like smoke40 ,would that be in place in one of the old ballads8 ,they weren't interested in the appearance of the snow very much4 ,miss ,weiss8 ,miss ,w43 ,i think ,i like this ballad because it leaves something to the imagination1 the rest tell you everything2 it doesn't say surely that she is still alive1 it leaves it to you to think about it4 ,teacher3 ,do you think ,wordsworth himself thinks she is still alive8 ,pupil3 ,i think he does2 ,i don't know if he does1 but ,i think he does4 ,teacher3 ,in this remote country region1 the people who would maintain that she was alive would be--8 ,pupil3 ,the country people4 ,teacher3 ,what is ,wordsworth's attitude8 ,pupil3 ,i don't think he credits it very much2 ,i think he respects it1 but ,i don't think he credits it4 ,teacher3 ,he doesn't tell you whether he expects you to believe it or not2 but at any rate1 there is a fineness of feeling toward the country people that makes him respect the country superstition4 ,pupil3 ,i think she must have been lost1 because if she hadn't1 she might have come back to her mother and father4 ,teacher3 ,of course1 your imagination there is piecing it out2 ,wordsworth doesn't tell you out and out that she was drowned4 ,pupil3 ,i think he does2 he says her footsteps stopped in the middle of the plank1 and something must have happened there4 ,teacher3 ,the actual drowning was not described2 you cannot help feeling that in the old ballads they would have given you a full description1 like ,sir ,patrick ,spence2 the ballad ends how8 ,pupil3 ,wordsworth was not trying to imitate the old ballads1 was he8 ,teacher3 ,no2 it is a good deal further away from the old ballads than the others we have had2 it is a more imaginative poem1 more beauty of phrasing and thought4 ,any other questions or comments about ,lucy ,gray8 ,pupil3 ,i like this verse3-- 8,they follow'd from the snowy bank ,those footmarks1 one by one1 ,into the middle of the plank2 ,and further there were none40 ,teacher3 ,you think that is because of the things ,wordsworth does not say1 the fact that he keeps a certain amount to himself8 ,pupil3 ,yes4 ,teacher3 ,that quality of reticence1 isn't it8 ,how is it in modern times2 have you noticed how you respect people who do not say quite all they feel2 they keep their deepest feelings largely to themselves1 and you can only guess at it by what is left unsaid8 ,are the kind of people who are represented in this poem the sort of people you ordinarily encounter in the old ballads8 ,pupil3 ,i don't think we do2 the chief characters were the nobles and barons1 the highest people in ,england and ,scotland4 ,teacher3 ,these people were what8 ,pupil3 ,common people4 ,teacher3 ,you get that from what phrase in the poem8 ,any one8 ,pupil3 ,just after he asked her to go for her mother3 8,at this the father raised his hook02 he wouldn't have done that if he hadn't been a working man4 ,pupil3 ,i don't think he would have sent ,lucy ,gray after her mother in the snow2 they would have been riding in a coach and four4 ,teacher3 ,how is it with some of the other early writers8 ,was ,shakespeare more interested in common people or wealthy8 ,pupil3 ,wealthy4#ag ,the questions and answers quoted represent about two thirds of the work of a period4 ,note the number of questions1 their scope1 the amount of thought necessary on the part of the pupils1 the explanations offered by the teacher1 and the relative amount of talking done by teacher and pupils4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,social ,,phases ,,of ,,the ,,recitation ,emphasis has already been given to the social aim in education4 ,this chapter will discuss in some detail the possibility of realizing this aim through the conduct of the recitation4 ,the real advantage to be derived from grouping children in classes is found in the opportunity which is afforded for exchange of ideas4 ,a group of children seated with faces to the front responding to the teacher's questions and anxious only for her approval is an educational anomaly4 ,the recitation is more than a place for the teacher to test the knowledge of the children1 or to explain to them as a group some phase of their work with which they have had difficulty4 ,it may be well to inquire concerning the motives which operate1 the activities present1 and the results commonly achieved by the recitation4 ,in many classes children seem to feel that the main purpose of the recitation is to please the teacher4 ,nor is the teacher's attitude different4 ,she praises or blames in proportion as the children answer her questions or follow her directions4 ,of course there are times when it is the main business of the teacher to test children or to direct their activity2 but more commonly it is the office of the teacher to work as a member of a group who are working together for the realization of some worthy end4 ,both teacher and pupil should be pleased when progress is being made in the work at hand because of the active participation of all of the members of the group4 ,there are other motives commonly operating which are even less worthy than that of pleasing the teacher4 ,children not infrequently are somewhat attentive to the work of the class because they fear the punishment which follows failure4 ,the more ambitious1 on the other hand1 come to look upon the recitation as an opportunity to display their superiority4 ,they believe1 and too often they are right1 that the chief end of school work is to get ahead of some one else1--to get a higher mark4 ,in each of the cases mentioned1 the motive is essentially individualistic4 ,better have the boy at work in order to please the teacher than to have him idle2 better use punishments and rewards and secure some results in knowledge and habits than to fail of these desirable ends3 but the socialization of the boy and the maximum of intellectual activity for each member of the group can only be brought about in a situation which is genuinely social4 ,what could be more natural than that children should ask each other questions2 that they should exchange experiences2 that they should work in coperation for the satisfaction of a common end8 ,this presupposes that they have a problem or purpose which is genuine4 ,but that is only to assume that there is some real reason for intellectual activity4 ,or let us suppose that the children are at work in order that the product of their effort may be used in some social situation4 ,it is not particularly difficult under such conditions to get the liveliest kind of discussion1 to secure the most earnest coperation1 or to have pupils themselves accept in a considerable measure the responsibility for progress in their work4 ,this difference in attitude toward school work1 if once established1 is apparent in all subjects4 ,the work of a class in reading or literature will be transformed when children work together to understand and appreciate its content4 ,instead of the complaint that ,john has lost the place1 it will be discovered that he not infrequently has a question to ask1 or that he can contribute an explanation4 ,the writer has seen a class of third-grade children as active in questioning each other concerning a reading lesson as they were on the playground in inquiring concerning the games they played or the novel experiences in which they were interested4 ,the teacher had attained this result by making the children understand that they ought to ask each other questions when they did not understand the thought expressed in their books1 and that one of the best ways to explain was to tell of a similar experience which they had had4 ,in a class in nature study in a fourth grade a boy told a wonderful story of the activities of a squirrel4 ,ordinarily the teacher might have been expected to tell the boy that the story was untrue and that she did not want that kind of stories4 ,in this class1 however1 the children felt responsible for the contributions which were made4 ,the story had no sooner been told than the narrator was plied with questions4 ,where had he seen the squirrel8 ,on what kind of a tree8 ,what was the color of the squirrel8 ,just when did the events related happen8 ,the boy could not answer these questions satisfactorily1 and finally admitted that his story had a very slight basis in fact4 ,the rebuke thus administered by his classmates probably did more toward giving this boy respect for truth than a dozen statements by the teacher that his contribution was unsatisfactory4 ,in an eighth-grade class the children were discussing the panic of '#gc4 ,one of the boys maintained that the causes of panics were1 in general1 the same1 regardless of the activities of a few individuals occupying important positions in government or in the commercial world4 ,his contention was mainly that it was unfair to charge a president or a political party with the distress occasioned by a panic1 when in reality the cause was to be found in economic conditions over which neither president nor party had control4 ,one of the girls in the class objected1 and cited as proof the panic of '#cg1 which she claimed was caused by ,president ,jackson4 ,the teacher could have settled the question immediately by an authoritative statement1 which most classes of children would have accepted4 ,in this class1 however1 the teacher encouraged the class to participate in the discussion4 ,in the end the members of the class consulted textbooks and other more complete histories1 and reached their own decision with comparatively little help from the teacher4 ,the value of this work in history consisted mainly in the fact that the children1 having once discovered the problem1 felt responsible for its solution4 ,they were engaged in the liveliest kind of thinking and discussion4 ,they were learning where to go1 and what materials to use in the solution of this kind of problem4 ,possibly work in the industrial arts offers the very best chance for group work4 ,at every turn in work of this kind there is the demand for careful planning involving discussion of ways and means1 and for coperation in the execution of the plan4 ,a group of second-grade children were occupied most profitably with the partial furnishing and daily care of the teacher's rest room4 ,they had first of all to decide what they could do to make the room more comfortable or more beautiful4 ,they decided that they could make pillow1 table1 and couch covers1 and window curtains1 and that they could keep the room clean4 ,in determining materials and design1 as well as in the execution of the work itself1 there was need for coperation4 ,the children gained not only in appreciation of some of the elements of home-making1 but also in ability to plan and to work together4 ,they were being socialized both by the content of their work and by the method employed in executing it4 ,another group of children1 fifth grade1 spent a number of weeks working together in planning and building a playhouse for the first grade4 ,a wide-awake teacher enlisted the coperation of three grades in the making and selling of candy in order to get money enough to buy pictures for the school4 ,the preparation of a picnic luncheon1 or meal for guests invited by the cooking class1 the making of a large rug from many smaller rugs woven in such a way as to contribute to the pattern of the final product1 the building of window boxes1 the writing of the account of an excursion or other school exercise in order that the best results may be brought together in the final account which is to be used in a school paper1 are examples of the kind of work which may involve the kind of activity which makes for present social efficiency1 and1 therefore1 for that social efficiency which it is the ultimate purpose of education to achieve4 ,one of the best ways to transform the recitation from a place where lessons are heard to an active social group is to plan definitely for a variety of contributions from the individual members or small groups of the class4 ,when each member of the class studies the same pages of the same book1 there is little incentive either to try to tell well what the book contributes to the problem in hand1 or to listen to the recitation of one's classmates4 ,if1 however1 one group of children have been referred to one book1 another to a second book1 and still another to a magazine article1 to pictures1 or other objective representation1 there is some reason why each should do his best in reporting1 and a genuine motive for following closely the contribution of each member of the class during the recitation is provided4 ,work of this sort is easily available in history1 geography1 nature study1 or manual training4 ,in the subjects which seem to lend themselves less easily to variety in assignment1 many possibilities will be found by the teacher who is anxious to prove the efficiency of this method4 ,the best reading that the writer has ever seen in a third grade was done by children who read to each other4 ,they used the readers in the school and books from home and from the public library4 ,each child was permitted to make a selection and submit it to the teacher for approval4 ,then came the period of preparation1 extending often over two or three days or even a week4 ,during this time the child was supposed to study the selection carefully1 learn the pronunciation of difficult words1 and practice reading the selection so that he might give pleasure to those for whom the reading was done4 ,the one good reason for reading aloud is to read to an audience who cares to hear what you have to offer4 ,these children were participating in a social situation which demanded much of them1 and they enjoyed the hard work which was necessary because the motive back of it all was genuine4 ,in arithmetic1 if arithmetic deals with the quantitative aspect of the experiences which the children are having1 it will be possible to allow for some variety in the work which is assigned4 ,if the problems are real1 there will be a considerable interest manifested by the children in the solution of the problem and the results which are secured4 ,suppose a class were given a list of the articles which are to be put in a ,thanksgiving basket1 with instructions to find the cost of the basket so that a friend may pay for one of the donations which the class plans to distribute4 ,in such a situation the children will be most eager to compare prices and total cost when the class next meets for the arithmetic lesson4 ,of course the carping critic will say that it is easy to devise a few cases of the sort listed above1 but that in real school work you haven't time to make such plans4 ,the only answer is that the difference between superior teaching and the kind that one sees all too commonly is found in the ability and willingness of the artistic teacher to be more nearly true to her ideals than are others4 ,any teacher1 who is sufficiently interested1 can find many situations in which she can vary the work of the class in such a way that the recitation period shall become a place where each member of the class brings his individual contribution4 ,possibly the greatest need in our schools to-day is for more purposeful work for children4 ,we are so much concerned about the many things which children ought to know that we are tempted to spend most of the time drilling children on facts which have very little meaning for them4 ,the demand that the school be socialized is only another way of saying that the work of school children should function in the school itself and in their lives outside of school4 ,it has seemed possible1 in a few schools1 to give children opportunity in the industrial arts to work at making something which they really want for themselves1 or upon a project which may involve the welfare of the group1 as1 for example1 when they work upon school apparatus or furniture4 ,an eighth-grade group of boys made the furniture for the principal's office2 the children at ,hyannis1 ,massachusetts1 make baskets1 brooms1 hammocks1 raise vegetables1 build a boat or a fence1 as occasion demands4#ah ,at ,tuskegee the more mature students have even burnt the bricks and constructed the buildings for the school4 ,if a significant project in the industries is undertaken1 it may furnish the motive for doing work along many lines4 ,the raising of vegetables may involve arithmetic in the measuring of beds and the buying of seeds1 in finding the value of the product1 and1 if the product be sold1 in the keeping of a bank account4 ,the study of dairying might very well involve a visit to a farm2 the measuring of an acre2 the estimating of the cost of production of milk and butter2 and the return from the investment4 ,the cost and means of transportation might be studied2 a churn1 butter bowl1 and paddle might be constructed2 and finally a complete account of these many experiences might be written and printed4 ,if children are engaged in activities of this sort1 there will be no question of socializing the school4 ,by the very nature of their activities children will be led to question each other and their teachers2 they will of necessity coperate in those phases of the work which involve team work4 ,but it is not in the industrial arts alone that school work may deal with genuine situations4 ,a good teacher finds a hundred situations in which children can write for an audience4 ,the writer recently attended the closing exercises of an elementary school where the graduating class had composed a play which they presented4 ,the main plot of the story centered in a prize essay contest1 and1 as might be inferred1 the essays which were read were those which the children had written during the regular class work4 ,in geography the members of a sixth-grade class prepared talks to accompany pictures thrown on the screen from a lantern4 ,in history certain incidents of the period which a class was studying were dramatized and presented to the whole school4 ,the president of a water company in a middle-western city told the writer that they kept things in better shape at the water works since they had agreed to allow the children to come to visit the waterworks whenever a teacher chose to bring a class4 ,in the same city there is an unusual number of pianos in the schools1 school playgrounds are being established1 parents' associations are active in coperation with the teachers to improve school conditions4 ,if one were asked to explain why the schools in this city are better1 why they are so loyally supported and so proudly spoken of by all classes of people1 the answer would be found1 ,i believe1 in the fact that there is a closer relationship between the school and activities outside the school in home and city than in most other places4 ,if teachers more commonly had in mind the needs of the children during the time they are not in the school1 it would be easier to find situations in which the school activities would be significant because of the genuine needs which are felt by the children4 ,if there were nothing gained toward socializing children through activities involving the coperation of the whole group1 the fact would remain that the best type of intellectual activity can be secured only with this most genuine of all incentives4 ,most people1 even as adults1 think better when they have some one with whom to discuss the problem in hand4 ,it is true1 too1 that often the best teacher is one whose experience is somewhat similar to our own and whose attitudes and difficulties are similar to ours4 ,children can often interpret where teachers fail4 ,it cannot be too often reiterated that it is the chief business of every teacher to render her services unnecessary4 ,if the children taught are not at the end of any term's work better able to work for themselves1 more ready to take the initiative1 more capable in defining their problems1 in gathering data1 and in finding solutions than they were at the beginning of the period1 then the work has been a failure4 ,creative work#ai is not done when some one stands over the child and dictates his every step1 nor does thinking consist in answering the questions which a teacher may put concerning the facts recorded in a text4 ,there is entirely too much truth in the charge which is sometimes brought against our schools1 that they fail to keep alive the intellectual activity which is natural to childhood4 ,we must never lose sight of the fact that a child who is vigorous intellectually1 actively sympathetic with those causes which make for the general welfare1 and able and willing to work in coperation with others1 even though this may mean that he subordinate himself to others for the time being1 is the type of individual upon which our democracy depends for its perpetuation and for its future progress4 ,it is necessary to emphasize the social side of school life because we have1 in our anxiety to impart information and form habits1 neglected this aspect of school life4 ,the pity of it all is that in neglecting the child's social development we have done less efficient work in the fields we sought to emphasize because of the lack of genuine motive4 ,whether we are concerned with habits1 with the acquisition of knowledge1 with development in clear thinking1 or in fixing ideals1 the maximum of return will be secured in the genuinely social situation4 ,children working together on real problems are being socialized through participation in social activities4 ,there is no other way in which the school can contribute so certainly to the accomplishment of the aim of all education4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,john ,dewey1 ,moral ,principles in ,education1 and ,the ,school and ,society4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,what are the advantages to be derived from teaching a group rather than an individual8 #b4 ,what is the ideal relationship between teacher and pupils8 #c4 ,why should a pupil face his classmates when he recites8 #d4 ,how could you provide for class discussions with the pupils you teach8 #e4 ,name class projects which your class has undertaken which involve coperation and end in a product which children consider worth working for4 #f4 ,why do the household and industrial arts lend themselves especially well to the development of the social phases of the recitation8 #g4 ,when should it be wrong for one pupil to help another8 ,name as many occasions as you can where you would encourage coperation and helpfulness4 #h4 ,give an illustration of one project which may furnish an adequate motive for work in several school subjects4 #i4 ,of what value are associations of parents and teachers from the standpoint of increasing the efficiency of school work8 #aj4 ,why is a genuinely social situation the best for the development of intellectual vigor8 #aa4 ,do you think children ought to accept any social responsibility outside of the school and home8 #ab4 ,how may we hope to develop in children the desire to serve1 the willingness to work for the general good8 #ac4 ,how would you change your work in order to accomplish the most possible for the development of children who are now socially efficient8 #ad4 ,ought we to expect all children to accept the same social responsibilities1 either as to kind or degree1 in the school or in their out-of-school life8 #ae4 ,if children do not work together for common ends in our schools1 if the spirit of coperation and service is not present there1 ought we to be surprised at the non-social or anti-social attitude and practice of adults8 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,physical ,,welfare ,,of ,,children ,intellectual development1 and more especially intellectual efficiency1 are conditioned in no mean degree by one's physical condition4 ,schools have too frequently1 and with justice1 been accused of producing physical defects in children4 ,it is coming to be recognized that we must in increasing measure take account of the hygienic conditions under which school work is done1 as well as provide for the elimination or amelioration of physical defects4 ,we now have open-air schools for consumptives1 medical inspection1 and dental clinics4 ,there are some schools which provide school lunches at a nominal price or without cost to the pupils4 ,corrective physical training is coming to be recognized1 along with special playground work4 ,everywhere appreciation of the importance of physical health as a condition prerequisite to intellectual vigor is leading those who have the welfare of the community at heart to demand that active measures be taken to protect and nourish the bodies of school children4 ,it is the purpose of this chapter to indicate briefly the relation of teachers to this movement for physical well-being4 ,the demand that light be sufficient and that it come from the right direction is familiar to all teachers4 ,it may be argued that teachers cannot control the lighting of their rooms4 ,the author has known teachers who have had blinds properly placed1 walls and ceilings painted or papered with respect to proper distribution of light4 ,some teachers have even been instrumental in securing alterations in buildings or the erection of new buildings4 ,teachers who know that the area of windows should be one fourth of the floor space1 that the light should be admitted from one side of the room1 and that it should come over the children's left shoulders1 may not be able to meet all of these conditions2 but they can do all that is possible to ameliorate defects1 and can call attention to the dangers which the situation possesses for their pupils' eyesight by giving or having given tests and making known the results4 ,modern school buildings are built with artificial ventilating systems4 ,the success with which any system works depends in no inconsiderable measure upon the teacher4 ,by opening windows in one room the efficiency of the ventilation of all other rooms in the building may be impaired4 ,failure to note the temperature may mean that children and teacher are suffering from a condition easily remedied by the janitor or engineer4 ,every teacher should have the temperature of her room recorded on the blackboard1 where every one can see it1 at least twice during each school session4 ,needless to say1 the thermometer should be accurate1 and1 if possible1 hung in the center of the room1 not more than four or five feet from the floor4 ,teachers are responsible for right habits of posture4 ,if seats need to be adjusted1 the teacher should note the fact and notify the principal4 ,although special cases may demand expert advice and care1 the teacher must hold herself responsible for the posture of the majority of the class4 ,defects of vision may be either the cause or the effect of improper position of the body1 and should bring from the teacher an urgent appeal for careful examination and correction4 ,frequent rest periods should be provided1 the habit of correct posture insisted upon1 and simple corrective exercises given by the teacher4 ,schoolrooms are not infrequently the center of infection for the community4 ,any teacher can insist upon separate drinking cups1 if sanitary fountains are not provided in the building4 ,when a child appears with a rash1 with an abnormal temperature1 and not infrequently with only a cough1 the teacher should appeal to the principal1 the health inspector1 or others in authority for the elimination of the child from the group4 ,the author has been in schoolrooms where two or three children in the incipient stages of whooping cough were allowed to infect the whole class4 ,a school superintendent was distressed with what proved to be a veritable scourge of scarlet fever in one of his schools4 ,upon visiting the school he found one child on the playground proudly showing the other children how he could take flakes of skin from his arm4 ,no one expects teachers to be expert diagnosticians1 but any teacher should acquaint herself with the more common indications of childish diseases1 and should act promptly when her suspicion is aroused1 even though she prove to be wrong in half the cases4 ,if anything is wrong1 eliminate the child from the group1 suggest that a physician be consulted1 and await developments3 this is the only safe rule4 ,in addition to her activity in eliminating contagious diseases1 the teacher may often be the first to detect deficiencies in sight or hearing4 ,children who are inattentive and apparently dull may often be found to hear indistinctly4 ,a very simple test for hearing is to tap a pencil against a desk out of sight of the child1 and ask him to tell how many taps he hears4 ,headaches1 squinting1 the position in which the book is held1 often indicate to the teacher eye deficiency which parents have not suspected4 ,any child who gives indications of eye trouble should be tested by teacher or principal1 and1 if any indications of difficulty are found1 the parents should be urged to consult a competent oculist4 ,dr4 ,william ,h4 ,allen gives the following suggestions to teachers who would discover cases of adenoids and enlarged tonsils3#bj 8#a4 ,inability to breathe through the nose4 8#b4 ,a chronically running nose1 accompanied by frequent nosebleeds and a cough to clear the throat4 8#c4 ,stuffy speech and delayed learning to talk4 #8,common' is pronounced #8cobbed1' #8nose1' #8dose1' and #8song1' #8sogg4' 8#d4 ,a narrow upper jaw and irregular crowding of the teeth4 8#e4 ,deafness4 8#f4 ,chorea or nervousness4 8#g4 ,inflamed eyes and conjunctivitis40 ,any one who has known a child with a bad case of adenoids or enlarged tonsils1 and who has followed the progress of the same child after the removal of the defect1 will not think it too much trouble to insist that suspected cases receive the attention of a physician4 ,in these cases1 and where the child is suffering because of the ills superinduced by bad teeth1 the teacher must work with the parents4 ,often through mothers' clubs or parents' associations1 addressed by a physician and by teacher1 the necessity for action1 from a purely economic point of view1 if from no other1 can be impressed upon parents4 ,it is possible that we shall have to resort to an appeal to private charity to save the child1 or perhaps we shall in time have free compulsory dental1 surgical1 and medical clinics4 ,the children are society's greatest asset1 from whatever point of view we consider them1 and teachers should be most active in all movements which make for child welfare4 ,there is no other group of people better acquainted with the needs of children1 none other which stands in so strategic a position with relation to parents and the community at large4 ,parents should be taught the necessity of plenty of sleep1 wholesome food1 and clean skins for children4 ,better devote time and energy to this education of parents than attempt to teach children handicapped by the lack of proper living conditions4 ,the anti-tuberculosis campaign1 the pure milk crusade1 the demand for medical inspection1 should be earnestly supported1 if not instituted1 by the teachers of children4 ,health is not an individual matter4 ,the welfare of the whole group is bound up in conditions which spell disaster for the individual4 ,finally the teacher has a right to good health4 ,living under bad hygienic conditions1 with children who are unclean and diseased1 should not be demanded of any teacher4 ,the efficiency of the work which the teacher does1 no less than that of the children1 is conditioned by her health4 ,if it is true that the teacher may suffer because of diseased children1 it is none the less true that a teacher in poor physical condition injures all of the children she is pledged to help4 ,happy1 healthful lives for children and teachers is a condition which will be brought to pass when all teachers work for this end4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,s4 ,h4 ,rowe1 ,the ,physical ,nature of the ,child4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,how may the school superinduce physical defects in children8 #b4 ,why are schoolroom floors oiled and swept rather than scrubbed and swept8 #c4 ,what suggestions for the improvement of all schoolrooms do you gather from the establishment of open-air schools for the anemic and tubercular8 #d4 ,what would you do to provide relaxation and plenty of fresh air on a day so stormy that children could not go out of doors for recess8 #e4 ,what could a teacher do to help a near-sighted boy or girl8 #f4 ,is it safe to trust your feeling that it is too warm or too cold in regulating the temperature of the room8 #g4 ,when do you get your best work1 when it is too warm1 or when the thermometer is between #fe and #fh ,fahrenheit8 7,if there is sufficient moisture in the air1 a temperature as low as #fe will not seem colder than a temperature of #gj when the air carries very little moisture47 #h4 ,what is the reason for using only pencils with large1 soft lead or crayons for writing during the first year8 #i4 ,what can a teacher do to protect the community against contagious diseases8 #aj4 ,if the school has no playground1 what provision would you make for recreation in the schoolroom8 #aa4 ,a large percentage of children have decayed teeth2 how would you hope to provide that proper treatment should be given8 #ab4 ,why may we not consider health as an individual matter8 #ac4 ,why has the teacher a right to demand hygienic conditions in the schoolroom8 #ad4 ,why has the community a right to demand good health as a prerequisite for teaching8 #ae4 ,how might teachers hope to secure hygienic conditions for children in their homes8 #af4 ,if a schoolroom needs redecorating on account of improper lighting1 or a new heating and ventilating plant1 and the school board does not supply these necessities1 how would you hope to secure such improvements8 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,moral ,,training ,character building must always be recognized as a most important function of the school4 ,it is a mistake to divorce the intellectual training of children from growth in morality4 ,if our country demands increased industrial intelligence1 the training of men and women for leadership in manufacture1 trade1 and commerce1 much more must it demand citizens of sterling character4 ,industrial and intellectual supremacy can mean nothing to a nation unless righteousness prevails both in public and in private life4 ,the idea that the schools of our democracy are to train for citizenship has always been interpreted to mean an education which will fit for a life of service to the best interests of humanity4 ,the fact that religious instruction1 as such1 is barred from our schools1 does not mean that we are as a people irreligious1 much less that we undervalue the significance of the moral training of our children4 ,school conditions offer advantages for moral training1 even though the overemphasis on intellectual attainments may at times seem to give the teacher little opportunity for work in this direction4 ,the fact of a group of children who may learn to work together1 to help each other1 to respect each other's rights1 to serve the best interests of the whole group1 in fact a situation which demands just those virtues which are demanded in society outside the school1 makes the school in some respects an ideal situation for training in morality4 ,of course it is possible that the demand for intellectual attainment may so occupy the mind of the teacher that she will resort to repression in order to get results in habits and knowledge4 ,it is true1 too1 that the curriculum may be so narrow as to give less opportunity than might be desired for the type of activity which best lends itself to the development of social virtues4 ,but if adverse conditions hinder somewhat the work of the teacher1 they cannot deny a very important place to the school in the formation of character4 ,the increased responsibility of the school for the moral training of children becomes apparent at once when the influence of the home and the church of to-day are contrasted with the strength which these institutions once possessed4 ,regret it as much as we may1 neither home nor church is as potent in the development of morality as they once were4 ,before the dominance of the factory system the boy or girl who participated in the activities of the home gained in appreciation of necessity for coperation and in understanding of his responsibility to the group in a way that is denied the modern child4 ,to be a party to those industries through which food was secured1 clothing obtained1 and shelter provided meant the exercise of all of the social virtues4 ,it was fitting under such a rgime that the school should devote itself largely to the tools of learning4 ,but under our present conditions the demand is insistent that the school provide1 in some measure1 through its curriculum1 its organization1 and by means of its methods of instruction1 for the development of the attitude of responsibility1 and that positive morality which places a premium upon doing good4 ,let us inquire still more closely concerning the conditions under which moral training must be effected in the school4 ,first of all there is the fact of heredity4 ,the children with whom we work are different by nature1 and nothing that we can do will make them all alike4 ,then1 too1 there is the added factor of training before the school age4 ,many children come to school with bad habits and low ideals4 ,the one thing that every teacher ought to realize as fundamental in moral training is the fact that differences in children must be met by a corresponding difference of appeal on the part of the teacher4 ,over against the differences due to heredity and previous training1 there is to be found the common instinctive equipment4 ,children instinctively imitate1 construct1 collect1 inquire1 emulate1 sympathize1 contest1 wonder1 are proud1 and the like4 ,this instinctive equipment furnishes the basis for actions which in turn become habits4 ,the problem of the teacher is to use these instincts in securing desirable responses4 ,of course1 undesirable responses have their basis in instinct4 ,here it is the business of the teacher to make the undesirable response result in discomfort1 or1 better1 to substitute a desirable response4 ,to be too proud of one's attainment as contrasted with others may be unlovely1 but to be proud of work better done to-day than yesterday is a positive virtue resting upon the same instinctive foundation4 ,the teacher may be worried because of the imitation of that which is socially undesirable1 but she may use this same tendency to react to produce the social graces4 ,there are cases in which the attempt to substitute may fail1 and the necessity for inhibition by accompanying the undesirable response by unpleasant results arise4 ,the important thing is not to neglect this instinctive equipment4 ,the tendencies shown in childhood furnish the one basis for moral development1 and their neglect may result in lack of moral strength throughout the life of the individual4 ,besides the differences among individuals1 there are differences corresponding roughly to stages of development4 ,the authority which is accepted without question by children of six will be seriously questioned by the adolescent4 ,children grow not only in their ability to judge of the right action1 but also in their demand that authority be amenable to reason4 ,there can be no doubt but that rational morality is the type which the school should attempt to develop4 ,to this end it is essential that the responsibility of children for their own actions and for the welfare of the whole group should increase as they pass through the school4 ,there is a possibility of controlling little children through fear1 but the time comes when threats no longer avail4 ,it is a sorry spectacle to see a mature individual who must still be controlled by fear of the results which will follow misconduct4 ,it may be questioned whether the continued use of corporal punishment may not result in arrested development in morality4 ,the desire for social approval develops throughout the school period4 ,when children or adults fail to see the reasonableness of a demand1 this appeal to approval of the group may be most effective in securing desirable responses4 ,the rule which the teacher must follow is never to appeal to a lower motive when a higher may be used4 ,fear1 respect for authority1 faith in the wisdom of the one directing1 desire for social approval1 ability to pick out the essentially moral element in the situation1 and desire to act in accordance with one's best judgment1--thus runs the hierarchy of motives which control4 ,in any group some children can be appealed to by one motive and some by another4 ,the teacher who is developing moral strength in the group will constantly seek to appeal to the children on a plane just higher than that which they have hitherto occupied4 ,another factor which plays an important part in conditioning the work of the school in developing morality is the generally accepted standards of the community4 ,social heredity furnishes the basis for belief in the continued development of society4 ,the progress that has been made1 the standards once established1 become the common heritage of the members of the group4 ,drunkenness is no longer considered gentlemanly2 we do not lie to our enemies when they have a right to know the truth2 our ideal of civic righteousness demands that a man be as honest when he serves the whole people as he is when he deals with individuals4 ,the importance of this factor of environment in determining the moral life of the individual is admitted even by those who emphasize most strongly the importance of original nature4 ,for the school it gives hope because of the influences which may there be brought to bear upon the child2 and it adds a problem1 because the school may not ignore the home or the street from which the child comes4 ,it does not seem unreasonable to expect that teachers will at no far distant day become most active in all activities which make for better1 cleaner1 more worthy surroundings for the children whom they attempt to train during a relatively small part of their waking hours4 ,the physical condition of children and teacher has much to do with the possibility of effective school work1 and training in morality is not an exception to the rule4 ,there is not much use in trying to form moral habits1 nor in asking children to form moral judgments1 in a room filled with foul air1 with the temperature above seventy-five4 ,poor physical condition on the part of the teacher is often responsible for lack of control on the part of children4 ,a nervous1 worn-out teacher is apt to nag1 is almost sure to magnify insignificant acts1 and by virtue of her lack of control of herself is in no position to control or instruct children4 ,it would seem at times that we need medical care for teachers even more than for children4 ,one child in poor physical condition may be hard to manage1 and may fail to gain much either intellectually or morally from the school2 but one teacher in poor physical condition may do positive injury to a roomful of children4 ,a few days with a dyspeptic teacher may mean the formation of bad habits which it will take weeks or even months to eradicate4 ,we are beginning to realize that there is a direct relation between hygiene and morality4 ,the underfed1 overworked1 physically unfit are so frequently immoral that we had almost charged their condition to their immorality4 ,in doing so we were often confusing cause and effect4 ,however the problem may be solved so far as adults are concerned1 we are satisfied that children of school age are entitled to happy1 healthful lives in so far as it is possible to achieve this result4 ,the work done to secure better physical conditions1 both in school and at home1 is probably as significant for the morality of children as is any instruction that is given2 and such care for the physical welfare of children is the condition without which we have no right to expect them to grow morally strong4 ,while all are agreed as to the necessity for moral training in our schools1 there is a difference of opinion concerning the method to be used4 ,one school advocates direct moral instruction by means of fairy tales1 history1 and other stories1 and by moral precepts4 ,the advocates of this form of instruction believe that they can in this way make children understand clearly what is right1 and because of the emotional reaction produced by tale or story the children will not only know the right1 but will also want to do right4 ,those who believe in indirect instruction find in the regular work of the school1 in the teaching of all subjects1 as well as in the control of the children in school1 the best opportunity for moral instruction4 ,with regard to the direct method1 it seems to the writer that it is assumed that 8to know right is to do right40 ,so far as the emotion aroused by a story of bravery1 or honesty1 or temperance is concerned1 the chances are that it will have entirely evaporated before any occasion for action is found4 ,and right here is one very great danger in this sort of instruction4 ,to have the emotions aroused without any outlet in the corresponding action may result in developing individuals who are entirely satisfied with the emotion4 ,they learn to delight in emotions1 and lack efficiency in action4 ,the time to tell the story of bravery is when bravery is actually demanded2 or for the child who knows the story simply as a story and without any attempt to use it to teach morality1 the story may be referred to when this virtue is demanded4 ,likewise with the moral precept4 ,for one who has had some experience in acting in accordance with his best moral judgment1 the precept may be used as a significant generalization4 ,honesty may be the best policy after you have won in the struggle and have the approval of conscience1 and of those whose judgment you value4 ,you may be ashamed to be designated by the name of the unlovely character in the story1 when you are really guilty of his weakness of character4 ,it would seem safer1 from what we know of the emotions1 to assume that actions are responsible for emotions rather than to expect the emotion to produce the corresponding action4 ,in support of the indirect method of teaching morality1 it may be argued that the school presents continually a situation in which moral action is demanded4#ba ,it is possible1 of course1 to deny to children any considerable responsibility for their actions4 ,children who are hedged about by rules and regulations1 who are constantly directed and commanded by the teacher1 will grow little in power to form correct moral judgments4 ,but the ideal school is in fact a society1 and the demand for moral activity1 and consequently the chance to grow in morality1 is as great as in any other life situation4 ,it must be remembered1 too1 that the main purpose of the moral training which the school gives is to make moral growth continuous4 ,new situations will demand new adjustments1 and it is not possible to supply the child with a morality which will be sufficient for his future needs4 ,the one preparation which will certainly be effective in making possible later growth is to be found in the moral action of to-day4 ,the subjects of instruction lend themselves to moral training4 ,moral strength depends upon interest in those activities which make for social welfare1 in the exercise of judgment in determining the course of action which will contribute most to the general welfare1 and in action in accordance with the judgment rendered4 ,our course of study contains much which should result in increased appreciation and sympathy in the activities which characterize our modern society4 ,geography1 history1 nature study1 literature1 all deal with men in their relationship with one another in a common environment4 ,if teaching means anything more than gaining knowledge1 the method employed in school subjects cannot be without moral significance4 ,teachers who demand accuracy1 who are more interested in the truth of history than in a moral tale1 who are open-minded rather than dogmatic1 who seek to exalt the intellect and to hold the emotions under control1 are doing more effective moral teaching than those who preach by the hour4 ,as has already been indicated1#bb the ordinary school work lends itself to the development of positive moral virtues4 ,to work together1 to contribute to the welfare of the whole group1 to determine conduct in view of the possible effect on others1 is to exercise those virtues which are demanded in all social situations4 ,pride and joy in one's work and contempt for the shirker are as natural in school as in any other situation4 ,the so-called school virtues of punctuality1 regularity1 obedience1 and industry are virtues outside of schools by virtue of the same sanction which gives them validity in the school society4 ,it is important to realize that many of these virtues must be reduced to the basis of habit in order to be most effective4 ,acts of kindness1 courtesy1 punctuality1 repeated often enough1 become second nature4 ,they need no longer to be thought about4 ,in the field which requires judgment1 it is also true that one's attitude may become habitual4 ,much which we call morality can be accounted for by taste4 ,many boys and girls have been saved the struggle through which others pass by ideals and contempts which they have derived from their associates4 ,fortunate1 indeed1 is the boy or girl who can say3 8,the members of our set do not frequent saloons1 do not lie or cheat1 play fair1 work hard1 dare to do right40 ,all of us tend to derive our moral code from the group of people with whom we are constantly associated4 ,there is honor even among thieves1 because they have a code which they respect4 ,the teacher who secures the coperation of the leaders of the group can modify1 indeed transform1 the moral attitude of a class by this appeal to the code which the whole group accepts and upon which the leaders insist4 ,the highest type of moral action is that which involves judgments of worth4 ,when one asks himself the question1 is this right1 will it be for the general welfare1 and then acts in accordance with that judgment1 he has performed an essentially moral act4 ,training for this sort of action is of the same sort that is demanded wherever the judgment is involved4 ,the child must be taught to analyze the situation and to pick out the essentially moral element4 ,the writer once knew a high school class who habitually cheated in examinations4 ,they said that they were getting ahead of the teacher4 ,the principal explained that they were dishonest1 that cheating was stealing4 ,the attitude of the class changed4 ,they responded to this analysis of the situation which pointed out the moral element4 ,what we call thoughtlessness and the sowing of wild oats is often to be explained by the lack of analysis which makes prominent the moral significance of the contemplated action4 ,the school should give opportunity whenever possible1 whether in ordinary schoolroom work1 on the playground1 or with reference to extra-school activities1 for the exercise of the moral judgment4 ,power to analyze new situations and to act morally depends entirely upon previous judgments and actions4 ,any discussion of moral training would be incomplete which did not take account of the reformation of the wrong doer through school punishments or discipline4 8,discipline and punishment are teaching processes as much as are grammar or arithmetic lessons1 and when we remember that conduct and behavior is the whole of life1 we must welcome the occasions for discipline1 and even for punishment4 ,no sane person is glad that a child's instincts1 impulses1 and habits have taken wrong forms1 but the real teacher is glad that these forms manifest themselves1 so that they may be worked over into correct reactions40#bc ,the key to the situation is found in placing the responsibility with the child4 ,if a wrong has been committed1 either he has failed to think of the moral significance of his act1 or he has chosen to do wrong4 ,in the one case reformation may be brought about by making clear the nature of the act2 in the other the child must will to do differently1 and must by his own act regain his place in the group whose welfare he has transgressed4 ,what the ordinary situation demands is more of thinking on the part of children and less of resentment and anger on the part of teachers4 ,punishments need to be differentiated to fit the child4 ,the writer has known boys in active rebellion against school authority who would accept corporal punishment rather than give any evidence of intention to submit4 ,in such a case this form of punishment was justified4 ,happily such cases are rare with the teacher who knows how to work with children4 ,even in cases where the offense is seemingly identical1 the punishment must be varied to suit the individual to be reformed4 ,suggestion may suffice for one1 another may be persuaded1 and still another must be labored with at length in order that the judgment which the teacher has passed may be accepted by him as valid4 ,in any event it is the thoughtful individual1 who has the habit of analyzing the situation when in doubt1 and then acts in accordance with his judgment1 which it is the purpose of the school to develop4 ,the importance of the moral influence of the teacher has always been recognized4 ,at times1 however1 the negative rather than the positive factors have been emphasized4 ,it is well enough to demand that the teacher be free from vices1 petty or great2 but it is even more important to inquire concerning the positive virtues which characterize the instructor of children4 ,we may hope that our schools will develop open-minded children1 provided the teachers are not dogmatic4 ,courage1 industry1 integrity1 are fundamental virtues4 ,does the teacher possess them8 ,sympathy with all activities which make for public good is demanded of all in a democracy4 ,does the teacher participate1 is the teacher a factor1 in those movements which make for improvement in the community8 ,the ideal teacher is an intelligent1 hard-working public servant1 whose field of endeavor is limited only by the needs of the community which he serves4 ,the number of teachers who have thus exalted the office of teacher in the community is happily increasing4 ,the moral effect upon the lives of children of association with such a man or woman cannot be overestimated4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,moral ,training in ,public ,schools1 ,chapter ,i1 by ,c4 ,a4 ,rugh4 ,j4 ,mac,cunn1 ,the ,making of ,character4 ,the ,essentials of ,character1 by ,e4 ,o4 ,sisson4 ,exercise4 #a4 ,why is the school a good situation in which to train children in morality8 #b4 ,is the man who simply does not injure others to be thought of as living a moral life8 #c4 ,do you think any teacher has a right to claim that she is not responsible for the moral training of her pupils8 ,why8 #d4 ,in what way do the instincts furnish the basis for moral training8 #e4 ,should you treat all of the children alike in situations which involve a moral issue8 #f4 ,how would you hope to have boys come to render the moral judgment that it is wrong to throw stones through the windows of a vacant house8 #g4 ,how may school spirit and school standards contribute to the development of morality8 #h4 ,name some troublesome things which boys do that might be explained by bad physical conditions in the school or in the home4 #i4 ,what do you understand by the direct method of moral instruction8 ,what is the strength and the weakness of this method8 #aj4 ,do you think the moral significance of a story or a poem should be taught in a lesson in literature8 #aa4 ,name school situations which involve moral judgments and which offer opportunity for training in morality4 #ab4 ,how would you hope to train children to form the habit of asking themselves whether a proposed line of action was right before acting8 #ac4 ,how may the one who does wrong in school provide the opportunity for the best sort of training in morality8 #ad4 ,is there ever any defense for corporal punishment8 #ae4 ,how important do you consider the influence of the teacher in developing morally sound boys and girls8 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,class ,,management ,in any discussion of class management it is necessary to distinguish clearly between organization and control as a means and as an end4 ,much of the discussion of school and class management assumes that its sole purpose is found in economizing time and energy for teacher and pupils4 ,class management1 from this point of view1 is important as the means without which effective work cannot be done in the school4 ,such a view neglects to consider the opportunity afforded in managing a class for growth on the part of pupils in the power of self-control4 ,any school which plans to reproduce in its life the conditions commonly found in life outside of the school must allow children to accept responsibility for their own acts1 and will1 therefore1 look upon management as an end4 ,the discussion has not been wholly one-sided4 ,at times there has been considerable controversy concerning the kind of management which was most to be desired in the schoolroom4 ,those who have thought of management as a means only have been apt to overemphasize routine2 while those who have thought only of the opportunity afforded for growth in self-control have neglected to realize the importance of habit in situations which are invariable4 ,the adherents of the one type of control want everything done at the tap of the bell1 in accordance with the rules which have been made by the teacher4 ,their opponents would do away with 8mechanized routine10 and would expect children to exercise their judgment as each question arises4 ,this difference in point of view is easily reconciled when we look at management now as a means and again as an end4 ,if a fire drill is to be effective1 every one must drop the work in hand when the signal is given and march out of the building in an order and by a route which has been determined previously and from which there is no variation4 ,here we have the best example of management as a means4 ,there can be no question in this situation concerning the right of the individual to exercise his judgment4 ,the safety of all depends upon the absolute following of rules1 upon the degree to which the response to the fire drill has become a matter of habit4 ,if we analyze this situation1 we will discover the elements which characterize situations in which we are to look upon management as a means4 ,in these situations we should strive to secure habitual responses4 ,in the first place the response demanded is invariable4 ,it will not do to march out of the building one way to-day and another to-morrow4 ,the class may not go before or after its place in the line4 ,the speed with which the building is emptied depends upon every individual4 ,here we have the second element3 the welfare of the whole group demands that the situation be followed always by a certain response4 ,let us examine now some of the schoolroom situations in the light of these criteria4 ,in passing books1 paper1 pencils1 and the like1 a definite order should be followed4 ,in this situation the end desired is invariable4 ,what is wanted is to place the desired material in the hands of each pupil with as little delay as is possible4 ,the welfare of the whole group depends upon this invariable response upon the part of each pupil4 ,if any one fails to do his part1 there is delay and loss of time in the work which it is desired to accomplish4 ,for the same reasons it is wise to have a definite order in getting wraps1 a rule concerning the manner of passing in the room1 the habit of rising and facing the majority of the class when reciting1 and the like4 ,let us now examine other situations which afford an opportunity for the exercise of self-control1 in which management is an end4 ,in some schools children are formed in lines five minutes before the hour and marched into the building4 ,there is no good reason why children should march into the building4 ,the end desired1 that they all be in their places promptly1 can be secured by ringing a warning bell and requiring that all enter the building as they see fit and be in their places on time4 ,in the latter instance they have a chance to act as normal human beings who accept and fulfill their responsibility to themselves and to the group4 ,the desired end is secured1 and1 far more important1 the children are learning to exercise that self-control which is demanded outside of school4 ,of course1 it may be objected that it is much easier to control the children1 if you march them into the building4 ,the answer is found by suggesting that the school does not exist primarily for the ease of teachers1 but rather for the development of socially efficient children4 ,a principal who had some difficulty in having the boys come from a somewhat distant playground promptly lined them up for a race to the schoolhouse4 ,they found that it took them little more than a minute to reach their schoolrooms4 ,the boys understood his suggestion that the warning bell1 rung five minutes before school opened1 afforded ample time to reach their rooms and be ready for work when school opened4 ,it would have required less thought on the part of the principal and less self-control on the part of the boys to have marched them to the schoolhouse at the right time each day4 ,many school situations offer similar opportunity4 ,passing through halls1 asking the teacher questions1 leaving one's seat for books or materials1 consulting with one's neighbor may1 in the hands of a skillful teacher1 become a most efficient means of training children in self-control4 ,in all such cases management is an end1 in the sense that these opportunities are sought by the teacher because of their value in training children4 ,pupil participation in school government has been much advocated of late as the best means of securing a feeling of responsibility on the part of pupils for the welfare of the whole group1 as well as in the exercise of self-control4 ,as long as these ideals control1 it matters little what particular form of organization is utilized to secure the ends desired4 ,what sometimes happens is an exaggeration of the importance of the machinery of government1 with a corresponding lack of self-control1 or exercise of social responsibility4 ,the writer once visited a school which was much talked of because of its system of 8pupil self-government40 ,he found there the worst bullying of small boys by those who held offices that he has ever seen in any school4 ,many of the children declared that they were not parties to the government supposedly in control of the school4 ,when the teachers were absent from their rooms1 the children droned over certain set exercises which were constantly before them and from which type of activity they were not permitted to depart4 ,now these defects in school management may not all be charged directly to the overemphasis of the machinery of government1 but they were due to the fact that this machinery1 this form1 had taken the place of genuine self-government on the part of the pupils4 ,a wise principal or teacher may secure good results by inaugurating a system of pupil participation in school government1 but the wise guide and counsellor must be there all of the time4 ,introducing children dramatically to the machinery of government will not place old heads on young shoulders4 ,children will still be childish in their judgments and in their ideas of punishment1 even though they be called senators1 aldermen1 policemen1 judges1 and the like4 ,the dramatization of city or state government will undoubtedly help in the understanding of the function of citizens and of their servants1 the officeholders4 ,this alone would be sufficient justification for introducing in the upper grades1 in dramatic form1 a system of government1 without expecting that it would in any considerable measure relieve teachers or principals of the necessity of guiding children in their development in power of self-control1 and in their acceptance of social responsibility4 ,the same system of pupil participation in school government will succeed with one principal and set of teachers and fail in another situation4 ,the results which are most worth while1 self-control and the exercise of social responsibility1 will be secured without any of the forms of civil government in one school1 while another principal will claim that success in his school is due to his system of 8pupil government40 ,no teacher need feel condemned because she cannot succeed with a particular scheme of government1 and none should be unduly elated because of the invention or use of some particular form of organization4 ,the essential element in school management is found in the spirit of coperation and helpfulness which should actuate teachers and pupils4 ,the questions of management considered above cover much of the ground usually considered under the head of school discipline4 ,the same problems1 especially from the standpoint of punishments and rewards1 are considered in the chapter which deals with the moral training of children4 ,it may be well to add here that the problem of discipline is largely one of good teaching4 ,children who are hard at work seldom worry the teacher4 ,right conditions for work may play an important part4 ,the consideration of some of the problems of organization is1 therefore1 in place in a chapter on management4 ,the ordering of the daily program is one of the most important elements in classroom management4 ,the desire for variety is strong in children1 and their power to concentrate their attention upon a single kind of work is correspondingly short4 ,in the primary grades periods of from eight to twelve minutes1 with a possible extension to fifteen1 will give sufficient opportunity for change of work4 ,these periods may be lengthened to thirty or even forty minutes in the upper grades4 ,the length of the period will depend upon the variety which may be found in the work of a single period4 ,in a reading lesson which includes word drill1 reading1 and oral composition1 the maximum period may be used1 while a period devoted to number drill may be worse than useless after the first five or six minutes4 ,it is undoubtedly better for children to work to the maximum of their capacity for short periods than to dawdle for twice the time4 ,in the upper grades twenty minutes may be as long as children can work on the development of a difficult problem in geography1 while they may be active and willing to continue work in a literature lesson after thirty-five or forty minutes4 ,the writer has seen a class of seventh-grade children who worked consistently for forty-five minutes on a history problem which involved discussion1 map work1 and the consulting of reference works4 ,group instruction has long been recognized by teachers of large classes as essential to the best work4 ,in a class of forty or fifty children1 however carefully they may have been graded at the beginning of the year1 there will appear differences in attainment which make it necessary to divide the class into two or more groups in some subjects1 in order to work to best advantage4 ,in the lower grades1 especially in the first1 where grading is least able to place children on the basis of their ability1 there is the greatest demand for group work4 ,as many as three or four classes in reading may be necessary in the first grade4 ,it must be remembered that such grouping should never be made to apply to all subjects1 nor is it necessary to apply the group plan to any subject without variation4 ,children divided into three groups for reading may do very well in two for arithmetic1 and may all work together in nature study or constructive work4 ,in reading it will be worth while to have all work together at times on work which is possible for the least capable and which may serve as a review for the more advanced group4 ,by the time the fourth or fifth grade is reached1 the pupils will be somewhat more evenly graded4 ,it will still be necessary1 however1 to group pupils in those subjects in which the sequence is such that the pupils' advance depends upon the complete mastery of the part of the subject already covered4 ,in arithmetic1 in the more formal part of the work in ,english composition1 and sometimes in geography or history1 two groups are advantageous4 ,when pupils all work together it is not expected that all will be able to do an equal amount of work4 ,it is especially important that provision be made for the brighter members of the class1 in order that they may have enough work to keep them active and alert4 ,it too often happens that in large classes the work is scaled down to meet the ability of the poorest half of the class1 in consequence of which the brighter pupils learn to loaf and tend to lose interest in school work4 ,however many groups the class may be divided into1 there will always be the necessity for individualizing the children of each section4 ,the brighter ones must be given assignments which are beyond the ability of the less capable1 while a minimum of achievement must be accepted when it represents the best effort and means the continued development of the pupil who is weaker intellectually4 ,good teachers provide for individual needs1 not only by grouping their classes on the basis of their ability1 but also by giving individual instruction4 ,no daily program should fail to provide a period during which the teacher can devote herself to the needs of those individuals who need special help4 ,it may be to help the boy or girl who has been absent on account of sickness1 to explain a difficult problem in arithmetic1 to help in the interpretation of a map or diagram1 or to teach the pupil how to study2 always there will be plenty for the teacher to do who thinks of her pupils as individuals during the half hour or more devoted to individual instruction4 ,the idea of providing individual instruction may be made the central idea in organizing the daily program1 as is done in the ,batavia system1#bd which allows one half of all school time for individual instruction4 ,there would seem to be little need for devoting so much time to individual instruction in a school having any adequate system of grading and promotion4 ,indeed1 as has already been pointed out in the discussion of social phases of the recitation1 there is a positive advantage in teaching in groups4 ,the extravagant claims sometimes made for particular systems of organization1 especially when it is declared possible by means of the system for all children to reach the same standard of excellence1 bear on their face the evidence of their fallacy4 ,any attempt to give group or individual instruction must be accompanied by provision for seat work for those who are not working with the teacher4 ,in the lower grades much has been accomplished by allowing children to express themselves with colored crayons and paints1 with scissors and paste1 as well as with the more common pencil and paper for copying1 or the letters and words for word and sentence building4 ,there is probably as much worth in the seat work which results in the expression of the ideas gained from a story by means of crayons or with scissors as there is in the conversation concerning the story in class4 ,as children advance1 more difficult problems in constructive work and in study may be assigned4 ,in the intermediate and upper grades the problem of having children occupied who are not directly under the supervision of the teacher is largely the problem of teaching these children to study4 ,a child in the fourth grade ought to be able to discover and note carefully the difficulties which the lesson assigned presents1 and he should1 in some measure at least1 be able to satisfy the problems which arise4 ,in succeeding grades1 if children are being taught to study1 they ought in increasing measure to be able to gather data1 organize it1 and proceed to the solution of their own problems4#be ,the conduct of the recitation has been discussed at length in preceding chapters4 ,it may be well to emphasize here the more essential criteria4 ,in a well managed recitation all of the children are responsible for the progress of the class all of the time4 ,to this end the teacher addresses her questions to the whole class before calling on any individual4 ,the pupils are held responsible for the answers which are given4 ,the teacher does not constantly repeat and explain answers4 ,when they do not understand1 children are expected to ask each other questions4 ,to secure these ends the class should1 when possible1 be seated so that the one reciting may easily face the other members of the class4 ,the ideal seating is found in the kindergarten circle4 ,in a room with sufficient space in front1 the children may be seated or may stand in such a way as to gain most of the advantages of the circle4 ,if pupils must sit in rows of seats with their backs to each other1 it may help to have the children reciting face the majority1 and to encourage those whose backs are toward the speaker to turn in their seats4 ,it would seem possible that we may sometime furnish our schoolrooms with reference to our ideals of education2 that a classroom may sometime become a place fitted for a group of children who are to work together in the solution of their problems4 ,the lack of proper management of a class may hinder the work of a teacher whose work is excellent in other respects2 but no skill in management1 however efficient in keeping children in order1 can take the place of good teaching4 ,most men and women who know how to teach learn to manage a room full of children4 ,there are still a few who call themselves teachers who exalt management unduly4 ,for them the essential elements in school teaching are discipline1 control1 organization4 ,to the young teacher1 or to the one who would grow1 the ideal of better teaching must constantly lead toward greater efficiency4 ,observe any successful teacher1 and you can discover the devices of management which allow her to work to best advantage1 and the use which she makes of the opportunities which the school presents to develop self-control and social responsibility on the part of her pupils4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,w4 ,c4 ,bagley1 ,classroom ,management1 ,chapters ,i to ,,viii inclusive4 ,j4 ,a4 ,h4 ,keith1 ,elementary ,education1 ,chapters ,,vi and ,,vii4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,distinguish between class management as a means and as an end4 ,give examples of each4 #b4 ,how would you hope to have pupils feel their responsibility for good order in the class8 #c4 ,why do schemes of 8pupil self-government0 sometimes fail8 #d4 ,what is the argument in favor of having pupils pass into or out of the building without marching in line8 #e4 ,why is it important not to have the class periods too long8 #f4 ,why do teachers sometimes divide their classes into two or more groups even though they are all of the same school grade8 #g4 ,can you ever expect to find a group of children all of whom will do equally well in all subjects8 ,are the weaker pupils necessarily lazy8 #h4 ,why is it important to make special provision for bright children8 #i4 ,what is the relation between the proper organization of class work and teaching children how to study8 #aj4 ,what do you think of a program which provides for class instruction during every period of the day8 #aa4 ,what criteria would you apply in judging your own class instruction8 #ab4 ,what is 8good order0 in a schoolroom8 #ac4 ,how would you judge of the success of a teacher in managing a class8 #ad4 ,name all of the activities of a class which in your judgment should be reduced to routine4 #ae4 ,what rules would you make on the first day of school for the guidance of your pupils8 #af4 ,what is the relation of good teaching to good class management8 #ag4 ,if a majority of the class are misbehaving1 where would you expect to find the cause8 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,lesson ,,plans ,the best teachers never reach the point where preparation for the day's work is unnecessary4 ,the teacher who stimulates her pupils to their best effort must herself be interested in the work in hand4 ,if nothing new in material or method is found to vary the work1 interest soon lags4 ,the lesson often repeated is as dry and lacking in power to interest or inspire as the proverbial sermon taken from the barrel4 ,even when a teacher has taught a most successful lesson1 it is dangerous to try to repeat that exercise in precisely the same way4 ,the two situations will not be alike4 ,the fact that she tries to repeat will take the edge off the lesson for the teacher1 and make it correspondingly dull for the pupils4 ,young and inexperienced teachers are often most successful because of the zest with which they attack the problems which are new to them4 ,the older teacher may be able to keep a class in order and teach them something with a minimum of preparation2 but her best work will be done only when she has planned as carefully as the novice for whom the need of preparation is so apparent4 ,the subject matter which should be drawn upon for any lesson constantly changes4 ,no two groups of children have had exactly the same varieties of experience2 hence the need for varying the approach1 as well as the demand for differences in observations1 experiments1 reading1 or other methods employed to bring the data necessary for the solution of their problem before children4 ,subject matter is growing1 is being made all of the time4 ,last year's discussion of the geography of ,europe1 of ,south ,america1 of ,africa1 or of ,asia will not suffice for this year1 because interesting and important events have occurred in these countries during the year intervening4 ,for the wide-awake teacher1 even that most exact of the sciences1 mathematics1 represented by arithmetic in our curriculum1 will change2 since the number aspect of children's experience will vary4 ,if spelling means the study of words which are needed for use in written expression1 the work in spelling will vary just as surely as the occasions for written expression vary among children4 ,no teacher could1 if she would1 repeat a series of lessons which deal with natural phenomena4 ,in any field1 the need for preparation becomes apparent for one who would command the material which should be made available for children4 ,in the preparation of a lesson plan the first and in some respects the most important step is to become acquainted with the subject to be taught4 ,there is no method of teaching which can take the place of a thoroughgoing knowledge of the material which bears upon the topic to be treated4 ,the teacher who finds in the life of the children outside of school1 in school activities1 in books1 pictures1 magazines1 in study and travel1 material for her daily class work1 will make any course of study vital and interesting to children4 ,in such an atmosphere pupils will grow not only in knowledge1 but also in the desire to inquire and investigate and in power to satisfy their intellectual craving4 ,after the teacher has in hand an abundance of interesting material1 the next step in the plan is to organize the data to be presented4 ,some organization is usually found in textbooks and courses of study1 and it is possible simply to try to fit any additional material which may have been collected to the scheme provided4 ,the difficulty with this ready-made organization is found in the fact that it has little or no relation to the needs or problems of the particular group of children to be taught4 ,any organization which is to be significant to children must take account of their point of view1 and attempt to present subject matter in response to the need which they feel for the material to be presented4 ,this is precisely what is meant by the difference between the logical and psychological methods of presenting subject matter4 ,not that the psychological method is illogical1 rather it takes account of the child's needs and is for him logical beyond the most complete adult logical scheme4 ,it may seem logical to the adult to teach the crayfish by calling attention to the large parts and then to the smaller parts in order1 or to deal with the structure of the skeleton1 nervous and circulatory systems1 connective tissues1 and the like4 ,to an eight-year-old child1 the problems which will probably be most logical1 most satisfying to his desire for investigation1 will deal with the way in which the crayfish gets his living1 how he protects himself from his enemies1 how he brings disaster by making holes in levees1 and how important he is as an article of food4 ,in satisfying these childish problems1 much of the information which might have been imparted1 had the adult scientific order been followed1 will be mastered by the pupils4 ,much more will be remembered1 because the information is associated with the solution of interesting problems4 ,it may seem logical in teaching ,india to a sixth-grade class to treat of prevailing winds1 surface features1 climate1 vegetation1 animals1 mineral products1 and people2 but the children whose teacher approached this subject by asking them to try to discover why they have had such terrible famines in ,india probably remember more of the geography of ,india to-day than those who followed the adult logical order4 ,in organization1 then1 the starting point is to get the child's point of view1 to discover his problems1 and to organize the material to be presented with reference to these childish aims4 ,good organization demands that material presented to satisfy the demand made by the child's problem be grouped around few cordinate heads4#bf ,many topics of equal value in an outline generally indicate a lack of organization1 a lack of appreciation of the relation of the various facts to be presented4 ,for example1 one might think of a great many facts about plant growth2 the seeds must be put in the earth1 the weather must be warm enough1 they must have water1 they need to be hoed1 the ground should be fertile1 they need air1 they grow best when they have sunlight1 they may have too much moisture1 in rocky ground the soil may not be deep enough1 they must not be too close together1 weeds and insects must be destroyed1 the roots should not be disturbed1 the choice of the seed is important1 and so on4 ,for a group of lower-grade children there are two problems2 namely1 7#a7 what kind of plants do we want1 and 7#b7 what can we do to make them grow well4 ,under the first head would come the plants which are suitable for our conditions of soil and climate1 and the question of seed selection4 ,under the second head the topics will be moisture1 sunlight1 air1 and cultivation1 including the destroying of insects or other pests4 ,each of these topics will be suggested in answer to the problems which have been raised 7what plants we want1 and how we can make them grow well7 by a group of children who have had any experience with growing plants4 ,if any important topic is omitted1 the teacher will call for it by a question which suggests the lack of a complete solution to the problem which is being considered4 ,this brings us to the next step in plan making4 ,a good lesson plan will include pivotal questions which will serve to call for the data as indicated by the main topics given in the organization of the subject matter4 ,the problem of questioning has been discussed at some length in a previous chapter4#bg ,in planning a lesson1 a question or two which will discover to the children the problem to be solved should come first in the plan4 ,with the problem before the children1 the function of the question is to stimulate thought in the direction of the solution of the problem4 ,the writer is familiar with the objection that questions cannot be prepared ahead of time4 ,it is true that the form of question may need to be varied because of progress or the lack of it1 not anticipated by the teacher1 but the question carefully prepared ahead of time will help rather than hinder in the formulation of a question to meet the situation4 ,it is true1 too1 that not all of the questions can be prepared ahead of time4 ,all the more reason for careful preparation of a few questions which will enable the teacher to prevent wandering by children during the development of the topic4 ,thought-provoking questions which guide and stimulate children in the solution of their problems are dependent upon the aim which has been established and upon the organization of material which it is desired to follow in the solution of the problem4 ,one might as well deny the need of organizing material1 as to question the value of preparing a few pivotal questions as a part of the plan4 ,lessons often fail because the ground covered during the period cannot be retraced by the children at the end of the exercise4 ,in a well-organized plan the teacher will provide for summaries as each main point is covered4 ,in general these summaries should aim to recall the subject matter covered from the beginning of the lesson4 ,it may be suggested that any good teacher summarizes her work as she passes from point to point in her teaching1 and that no artificial reminder is necessary4 ,the difficulty is that a good summary is not accomplished merely by asking for a recapitulation of the material covered4 ,the skillful teacher puts her question which involves a summary in such form that the pupils get a new view of the ground already covered4 ,in the experience of the writer1 questions which involve a summary of the work covered1 with the added element of a new view as a stimulus to further thought on the subject1 are more rare than good questions introducing new topics4 ,a good plan will include a list of illustrations1 illustrative material1 books including references to chapter or page1 maps or charts which are to be consulted during the recitation4 ,teacher and children are often disappointed because of the lack of materials which could have been at hand had the teacher only thought about the lesson before teaching it4 ,in like manner1 the opportunities for motor expression1 other than reciting or discussing1 should be noted in the plan4 ,dramatization1 constructive work1 graphic representation at the seat or on the blackboard1 may make the difference between success and failure in a recitation4 ,a lesson which has been well planned will naturally end in the assignment of work to be done in preparation for the next recitation4 ,in the discussion of any problem there must arise questions which cannot then be answered4 ,a good lesson is characterized not simply by the ability of children to report progress1 but quite as much by their statement of the questions still unanswered4 ,the direction sometimes given to call up again the question which is left unanswered during the recitation indicates a teacher whose assignments provide a real stimulus for study in preparation for the next day's work4 ,if it is necessary to have a live problem before children during the recitation conducted by the teacher1 obviously it is much more necessary to make assignments which involve real issues for children to meet4 ,in outline form the discussion of plan making given above would appear as given below4 ,this lesson on plan making may be taken as an illustration of the type of plan a teacher should prepare for a development lesson4 ,in this plan1 as in others1 it seems wise to keep the subject matter separate from the method of procedure4 ,a plan for teaching lesson plans3 ,their importance and the elements which enter into their composition4 ,teacher's aim3 ,to show the importance of plan making and to indicate the elements which enter into the construction of a good plan4 ,preparation 7which aims to get the problem before the class74 ,how do you prepare for your day's work8 ,do you think you would do better work if you planned your several recitations somewhat systematically8 ,pupil's aim3 ,why do ,i need to make plans1 and what are the elements of a good plan8 ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure ,do you ever grow tired of teaching ,i4 ,necessity for planning4 the same subject over and over again8 ,a4 ,lack of interest in old ,why does a sermon out of the work4 8barrel0 lack in interest or power to inspire8 ,b4 ,subject matter changes4 ,do you know a subject a4 ,subjects grow4 thoroughly to-day because you b4 ,the experiences of once studied it8 different groups of ,why do different groups of children children vary4 respond differently to the same material8 ,c4 ,not safe to depend upon ,formulate three good questions the inspiration of the which you might use in teaching a moment for lesson on the oak tree to a4 ,good questions4 second-grade children4 b4 ,illustrations and ,do you think you might have illustrative material4 asked better questions if you had c4 ,references to books or had time to think them over8 magazines4 ,what picture or other illustrative d4 ,plans for constructive material would you use in work and the like4 teaching this lesson8 ,do you think the children would gain by drawing a picture of the oak near by8 ,when do you think you will have had enough experience in teaching to be able to get along without making plans8 ,,ii4 ,the elements in a good plan4 7,the questions in this part of the plan will be few4 ,i should ,a4 ,a thoroughgoing knowledge expect questions1 suggestions1 of the subject matter4 and discussions on the part of the class4 ,i should probably use the ,b4 ,the organization of blackboard to show the organization material depends upon of subject matter as given under the problem to be subject matter47 solved by the children1 hence the necessity ,what would you do first1 if ,i for discovering a asked you to teach a lesson on problem to the pupils habit formation8 which can be satisfied by the subject ,what will determine the matter to be presented4 organization of the material which you are to present8 a4 ,problems essential to thinking4 b4 ,logical vs4 the psychological organization of material4 c4 ,organization involves sequence and the subordination of less important points4 ,mc,murry1 ,how to ,study1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,c4 ,pivotal questions4 a4 ,thought-provoking ,one cannot prepare all of the questions prepared in questions to be asked in advance4 advance in order to ,what is the function of those guide the children in questions which should be placed the development of in the plan8 the topic as well as to stimulate them to their best thinking4 ,d4 ,provision for summaries4 ,when children have been interested a4 ,a summary enables throughout the lesson1 children to keep sequence why are they sometimes unable to and gives new solve for themselves the problem point of view4 which has been discussed8 ,e4 ,illustrative material1 and ,what aids does a teacher need references noted on to use in teaching a lesson other the plan4 than the textbook and her own a4 ,materials prepared plan8 ahead of time4 b4 ,references to maps1 charts1 books indicated definitely to save time and conserve interest4 ,f4 ,provision for assignments4 a4 ,a good lesson makes ,what do you do with questions provision for definite which are not answered during the progress and makes recitation8 clear the questions yet unsolved4 b4 ,children need definite ,how do you prepare children to problems more when work at their seats1 or at home8 working by themselves at home than when with the teacher4 ,show class plans found in ,is plan making worth the time ,mc,murry1 ,method of the ,recitation1 and energy which it requires8 pp4 #cbi-cci2 ,third ,yearbook1 ,national ,society for the ,scientific ,study of ,education1 pp4 #fj-fd2 syllabus on ,theory and ,practice of ,teaching1 pp4 #ad-ah4 ,a ,,plan ,,for ,,teaching ,,the ,,topic ,,of ,,irrigation#bh ,teacher's aim3 ,to arouse or increase the interest of children in the development of the western part of the ,united ,states1 and to acquaint them with the problems of irrigation4 ,what effect would a long drought in this part of our country have upon the price of fruits and vegetables8 ,what would happen if the drought were to be continuous8 ,there are arid regions in the ,united ,states4 ,can they be made to raise good crops8 ,pupil's aim3 ,can the arid regions of the ,united ,states be made to raise good crops8 ,what effect would that have on the other parts of the country8 ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure ,i4 ,arid regions of the ,united ,in what parts of the ,united ,states4 ,states are the arid regions located8 ,a4 ,continuous drought4 ,look at your rainfall maps4 ,b4 ,size of area4 ,see maps4 ,name the states included4 ,c4 ,description of region4 ,compare the population of the plateau states with a like area ,dodge1 ,adv4 ,geog41 pp4 #dd4 ,tarr in the ,mississippi ,valley1 or on and ,mc,murry1 second book1 p4 #abj4 the ,atlantic coast4 ,,ii4 ,why should we desire to reclaim ,is it significant to the country arid lands8 as a whole that these regions remain unproductive8 ,a4 ,increase in population with consequent increased demands for food at home and abroad4 ,b4 ,capital seeks a good ,what would be the effects investment4 produced in case these large tracts of land could be brought ,,iii4 ,how arid regions are made under cultivation8 productive4 ,a4 ,conditions necessary for ,in order that plants in the garden plant growth4 or crops in the field may grow1 what conditions are necessary8 a4 ,fertile soil4 b4 ,heat and light4 c4 ,moisture4 ,b4 ,the effect of drought ,when the lawns or gardens in overcome4 our part of the country grow too a4 ,in limited areas--by dry1 how are they kept growing8 sprinkling4 ,what means must be employed to provide water in very large areas8 b4 ,in extensive areas--by ,are these means used in the irrigation4 ,plateau and ,pacific states8 7,class consult the references named47 ,tarr and ,mc,murry1 p4 #abj4 ,dodge1 ,adv4 ,geog41 p4 #aff4 ,king1 ,adv4 ,geog41 pp4 #ada-adf4 ,c4 ,sources of water supply4 ,where can the water be obtained for irrigating purposes in these a4 ,rivers4 dry areas8 b4 ,mountain streams fed by rain1 snow1 or glaciers4 7,conversation4 ,assignment to c4 ,artesian wells4 books in use by all of the class4 d4 ,lakes4 ,assign article in ,review of ,reviews1 #ca3gja-gjd1 to a pupil as a special topic47 ,tarr and ,mc,murry1 pp4 #abi-acc4 ,dodge1 ,adv4 ,geog41 p4 #agb4 ,king1 ,adv4 ,geog41 p4 #adb4 ,review of ,reviews1 #ca3gja-gjd4 ,d4 ,the process of irrigation4 ,how can the supply of water which falls during the rainy a4 ,water storage1 reservoirs1 season be kept for use during dams4 the dry season8 b4 ,ditches or canals4 7,assignment of special topics c4 ,surface irrigation4 relating to particular subjects47 d4 ,subirrigation4 ,how is the water in the reservoirs ,see geographies quoted under ,c1 or rivers distributed to the above4 fields when it is needed8 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 7,illustrate by an outdoor lesson2 #fg3fdh-fhf4 or if the nature of the country is not suited to illustrate the process1 use the sand table and construct a system of irrigation showing reservoir1 main canals1 and the distributing ditches4 ,assign subirrigation as a special topic47 ,e4 ,the reclamation service4 ,how does the ,united ,states a4 ,the nature of its work4 government aid in reclaiming the b4 ,the territory affected4 waste lands of the ,west8 7,see the ,world's ,work1 ,dec41 #aijg47 ,f4 ,how the government gets ,what disposition does the its money back4 government make of the reclaimed a4 ,sale of land in tracts lands8 not exceeding #afj acres to an individual4 b4 ,payment in ten equal annual installments4 ,ref4 the ,cosmopolitan1 #cg3gae-gbb4 ,the ,world's ,work1 ,dec41 #aijg4 ,g4 ,the effects of irrigation4 ,would it pay a man to buy a forty-acre tract in the irrigated a4 ,upon agriculture4 region8 ,what crops could he produce8 ,value of crops8 7,estimated47 ,where there are 7,see geographies quoted above2 prosperous farming communities1 also the ,cosmopolitan1 #cg3gah-gbb2 what other industries are the ,world's ,work1 ,dec41 #aijg47 possible8 ,are they found in the irrigated districts8 ,with agriculture1 fruit growing1 and b4 ,upon secondary industries other industries made possible and profitable1 what effect is c4 ,upon population in produced upon immigration to the areas irrigated4 the ,western states8 ,what problems did we set out to solve in 7,king1 ,adv4 ,geog41 pp4 #aeb-aed2 these lessons on irrigation8 also other geographies quoted ,what is the answer to each8 above2 the ,world's ,work1 ,dec41 #aijg47 ,further topics for class study3-- #a4 ,value of forests to systems of irrigation4 #b4 ,our relations to the irrigated regions4 #c4 ,advisability of introducing irrigation in the ,eastern states4 #d4 ,irrigation in ,egypt4 #e4 ,irrigation in ,india4 ,individual assignments3-- #a4 ,economy of water in irrigation4 #b4 ,fruit growing on irrigated land4 #c4 ,advantages and disadvantages of farming in the ,east and in the ,west4 #d4 ,relative value to a state of gold mining and of farming4 #e4 ,relation of irrigation in the ,west to the people of ,europe4 #f4 ,to the people of the ,eastern states4 ,the plan given above for the topic 8irrigation0 is typical of many plans which the teacher should make4 ,it indicates the development of the whole topic1 which will need the time of several recitations for its complete development4 ,the topics given at the end of the plan for class study and for individual assignment show that the teacher had thought over the problems which might arise as the subject was taught1 and that she was ready to make such assignments as the situation demanded from day to day4 ,if such a list of possible assignments has been prepared before the topic is taught1 the chances are that the ground will be much more thoroughly covered than would be the case if the teacher trusted to her ability to select an interesting problem at the end of each day's work4 ,lesson plans should1 as a rule1 cover a complete unit of work or topic4 ,one plan will commonly include inductive development work in the derivation of principles1 drill work to fix these generalizations or to give skill in their application1 and at times deductive work in the use of the principles derived to explain new situations4 ,a complete plan for teaching percentage in arithmetic would include all of the elements mentioned4 ,a lesson for appreciation or a recitation lesson may often be followed by drill work4 ,when the topic lesson plan has been prepared1 the teacher will need to consider from day to day the best method of proceeding with the subject4 ,she may wish to vary somewhat the approach or order of development4 ,a ,,plan ,,for ,a ,,drill ,,lesson ,the work indicated here can be done in one period4 ,the plan is given as an illustration of the principles involved in good drill work4 ,it is especially necessary1 in planning for lessons of this type1 to be ready to vary the exercises in order to maintain the interest and attention of the class4 ,repetition with attention is what counts for habit formation4 ,the children have been playing a game in which the score secured by throwing a bean bag in squares1 numbered from one to ten1 has been multiplied by two and later by three4 ,the class has been divided into sides1 and the competition has been keen4 ,they want to make larger scores1 and1 therefore1 have a compelling motive for studying the next table4 ,teacher's aim3 ,to teach multiplication by four4 ,if we are to make larger scores1 what table must we learn next8 ,how many think they can learn half of the table of fours to-day8 ,if you learn it1 we will play our game for ten minutes4 ,pupil's aim3 ,to learn the multiplication table of fours4 ,,subject ,,matter ,,method #d #d #af ,teacher writes the table on the blackboard1 as indicated under #d #b #h subject matter4 #d #f #bd ,how many are sure they know the first two8 ,look at me and #d #c #ab answer as ,i ask the results4 ,don't answer unless you are sure4 #d #e #bj ,now let us take the first three4 ,proceed as before4 ,i'll erase the first three4 ,look at them carefully4 ,now write them on your tablets4 #d #d #d #b #d #f ,don't write the answers unless you are sure you are right4 ,let four or five children read their answers4 ,margaret may ask for answers4 ,she drills on the first three combinations4 ,the other two are easy to remember1--four times three we know2 it is the same as three times four1 and four times five are twenty we can all remember4 ,look carefully2 ,i am going to erase them4 ,drill by teacher on last two combinations4 ,all combinations put on board again and read and written by children4 ,robert tries to discover whether there is any girl who has forgotten any part of the table4 ,katharine tries to catch the boys4 ,all write at the dictation of the teacher1 supplying the products4 ,the game is then played4 ,when any one makes a mistake in recording his score on the blackboard1 his side is penalized the amount of his mistake4 ,possibly all the plans the experienced teacher needs for the lesson outlined above are a few notes concerning the variations to be introduced from time to time in the drill4 ,she must plan1 however1 to put zest into the lesson by means of the variety which she introduces1 and she must1 if she is to get the best work1 provide some motive which will make the drill work seem worth while to the children4 ,a ,,lesson ,,essentially ,,deductive ,a part of a larger topic plan on taxation4 ,the children have begun the study of taxation by inquiring how policemen1 street cleaners1 firemen1 and other city employees are paid2 how money is secured to run the schools1 to provide water1 and the like4 ,teacher's aim3 ,to teach how to determine the amount of taxes to be paid when the assessed value of the property and the rate of taxation are known4 ,george1 did you find out the assessed valuation of your father's house and lot8 ,henry1 did you find the rate on real estate8 ,pupil's aim3 ,let us try to find out how much tax ,george's father must pay on his house and lot4 ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure ,a knowledge of percentage is ,if you want to find six per cent assumed4 of #cejj1 how do you proceed8 ,to find the percentage we ,if ,george's father pays #a4hj on multiply the base by the rate4 each hundred dollars1 how can you tell how much he must pay on ,house is worth #cejj4 ,rate of thirty-five hundred dollars8 taxation is #a4hj on the hundred dollars4 #a4hj on one hundred dollars ,do you discover in this example #ce times #a4hj would be the anything like the problems in ------ amount due on thirty-five which you find a certain per cent #ijj hundred4 of a given sum8 #edj ------ #fc4jj ,find 4#jah 7#a-h_/aj per cent7 of ,taxation is simply an application #cejj4 ,if you multiply the of percentage4 assessed value by the rate1 will you get the amount of the tax8 ,why must you point off two places8 ,do you think you can find the amount of the tax to be paid on any house and lot in the city1 if ,i tell you how much the assessed value of the house is8 ,houses worth #d1bej ,is the rate of taxation the same #ah1djj on all houses8 #a1bfj #a1ejj ,teacher gives problems to the #g1ejj whole class and has each explained #hjj in turn on the board4 #ab1jjj ,for to-morrow you may solve ,how much tax must each pay8 the following problems 7written on the board73-- ,,assessed ,,rate ,,of ,,value ,,taxation #d1bjj #b4bj #af1gej #a4ce #dbe1jjj #a4ij #a1jjj #j4gh #ef1jjj #a4fd #djj #b4ah ,,plan ,,for ,a ,,series ,,of ,,topics ,,in ,,history--,,sixth ,,grade ,a plan covering the work for several weeks given in the form of a topical outline with suggestions as to methods of treatment4 ,this general plan would need to be supplemented by definite additional preparation from day to day4 ,this plan was prepared by ,miss ,lida ,lee ,tall1 supervisor of grammar grades1 ,baltimore ,county1 ,maryland4 ,aim3 ,to teach the colonization of ,maryland and show its development as a part of ,england's colonial empire in the ,new ,world4 ,topical ,outline 7for the ,teacher7 ,i4 ,conditions in ,europe at the time of the settlement of ,maryland4 ,,ii4 ,conditions in the ,new ,world4 ,,iii4 ,life of ,george ,calvert4 a4 ,in ,england4 b4 ,in the ,new ,world4 ,,iv4 ,the settlement of ,maryland4 ,v4 ,the development of ,maryland4 ,textbooks ,any good history of ,england1 as ,walker's1 ,gardiner's1 or ,andrews'4 ,warren4 ,stories from ,english ,history4 ,harding4 ,stories of the ,english4 ,mowry4 ,first ,steps in the ,history of ,england4 ,browne4 ,maryland3 the ,history of a ,palatinate4 ,cheyney4 ,european ,background of ,american ,history4 ,cheyney4 ,a ,short ,history of ,england4 ,hall4 ,lords ,baltimore and the ,maryland ,palatinate4 ,gambrill4 ,leading ,events of ,maryland ,history 7class text74 ,coman and ,kendall4 ,history of ,england4 ,,topic ,i3 ,,conditions ,,in ,,europe ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure #a4 ,monarch4 ,king ,james4 ,much of the work can be developed from assigned readings for #b4 ,incidents of the reign that will which the pupils must be held help interpret the life of responsible4 ,where textbooks are the times3 not available the teacher1 or a pupil who reads well1 may read to ,religious the class4 ,of course1 the ,controversies ,political assignment must be very definite4 ,commercial4 ,for example3 vain a4 ,as you read see if you can arrogant tell from incidents in the weak story the kind of man ,king #c4 ,character of amiable ,james must have been4 the ,king loved peace at ,you must argue for what all costs you think about him4 ambitious approved b4 ,england was interested learning particularly in ,spain1 ,holland1 ,france1 and the ,new ,sir ,walter ,world4 ,as you read find out ,raleigh why this was so4 ,sir ,robert ,cecil ,half the class may be given the #d4 ,men of ,eng- ,george ,calvert first assignment1 the other half land ,cromwell the second4 ,guy ,fawkes ,robert ,carr ,when at the close of the study ,francis ,bacon period1 the teacher calls for the work1 it will be through her sequence of questions that the #e4 ,reason for ,england's interest subject matter will be organized in other countries3 according to the outline under 8,subject ,matter40 ,if the a4 ,trade4 discussions are lively and argumentative1 the spirit of the b4 ,spain's success in seventeenth century will be felt colonization in the ,new and the life of the time pictured4 ,world4 ,pictures of castles1 ,london streets1 ,ireland1 the continent1 c4 ,spain's usurpation of sea vessels1 etc41 will help to ,holland4 make impressions more vivid4 ,topic #f makes a good summary d4 ,increase in woolen and can be conducted in a way to manufacture in ,england4 make the work most attractive to the pupils4 #f4 ,topics of the day at the ,english court3 a4 ,spanish king and his power4 b4 ,spanish resources4 c4 ,new ,world4 d4 ,religion4 e4 ,england's ,stock companies4 trading ,proprietary companies privileges4 ,,topic ,,ii3 ,,conditions ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,world ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure #a4 ,spanish ,america4 ,assign readings from available #b4 ,french ,america4 textbooks4 #c4 ,english and ,dutch ,america4 ,a further assignment which correlates with geography is the following3 ,draw a map of the world2 show ,old ,world2 show ,new ,world2 color the part of the ,new ,world that belonged to ,spain1 to ,france4 ,also draw a map of ,europe2 show the ,catholic countries1 show the ,protestant countries4 ,as the teacher develops the lesson from the class1 by means of thought-provoking questions1 she can make an outline on the board1 the class helping2 then this outline may be copied by the pupils in notebooks used for history lessons only4 ,these outlines should serve as summaries and also as reviews as the lessons continue4 ,,topic ,,iii3 ,,life ,,of ,,george ,,calvert ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure #a4 ,george ,calvert in ,england at #a4 ,assigned reading for class3 this time4 ,gambrill1 pp4 #c-f4 a4 ,early life3 ,teacher may fill in with details from ,browne's ,maryland1 or ,born in ,yorkshire 7locate74 ,hall's ,lords ,baltimore and the ,palatinate4 ,much of this1 however1 ,educated at ,oxford 7picture may be developed4 ,by this time the of school74 class will have been put into a mental attitude1 both historically ,traveled on the ,continent and geographically1 to answer 7map showing university problems very intelligently4 towns74 b4 ,later life3 ,important position in ,england4 ,interests in the ,new ,assignment for map work3 ,world3 ,trade3 religion4 ,a map of ,england--locate ,yorkshire1 ,oxford1 ,london4 #b4 ,george ,calvert4 ,in the ,new ,a map of ,europe showing ,world3 ,george ,calvert's travels on the ,continent4 a4 ,newfoundland4 ,management4 #b4 7a7 ,draw a map of the ,new ,climate ,world showing ,newfoundland ,difficulties ,soil and other settlements of encountered ,the that time4 ,french ,disappointment and ,why was ,newfoundland bought8 departure4 b4 ,in ,virginia 7b7 ,why in ,virginia and not ,reception unwelcome because ,plymouth8 of religion1 character troubles1 business #c4 ,textbook assignment4 relations4 ,result4 #c4 ,his return to ,england4 ,new charter from ,charles ,i4 ,death of ,george ,calvert4 ,,topic ,,iv3 ,,the ,,settlement ,,of ,,maryland ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure #a4 ,cecilius ,calvert--,to carry #a4 ,assigned reading3 ,gambrill1 out his father's plan of pp4 #f-h4 making a settlement in the ,new ,world4 ,as has been indicated1 where no problem development is possible1 a4 ,conditions of the new use textbooks or the teacher's charter4 7,gambrill1 pp4 #f-h47 wealth of details to fill in the connecting links4 ,the texts should be read just when the need for the 7a7 ,rights and duties of information arises3 for instance1 the proprietor4 when it is necessary to know the conditions of the charter granted 7b7 ,rights and duties of to ,cecilius ,calvert1 the books the colonists4 should be opened1 the page found1 the page or paragraph read silently ,kind of man necessary to by the class1 and the information rule the colony wisely4 then given4 b4 ,preparation for the trip3 ,if the previous situations have been vividly presented1 then the ,hostility of problem of the difficulties of the old ,london getting such a trip under way that ,co4 confronted ,cecilius ,calvert should ,difficulties ,objections to be eagerly discussed by the class4 the charter ,there can be map work--,england3 by ,claiborne4 locate ,gravesend1 ,isle of ,wight2 also make the flag of ,england under which the expedition sailed4 ,getting ,the ,ark4 7,the flag of #afjh was the united ready at ,the ,dove1 flag of ,england and ,scotland1 ,gravesend ,nov41 #afcc4 the flag of ,st4 ,george and ,st4 ,andrew combined4 ,lord ,baltimore's ,men bound to own banner can be made service 7probably and colored1 though it was not ,protestants71 known to have been used until the #cjj4 battle of ,severn2 it was adopted ,men for the ,freemen 7probably as the state flag in #aijd47 expedition ,catholics71 #bj2 priests1 #b4 #b4 ,the voyage can be treated as ,members of the a recall of the knowledge ,calvert family4 gained from the celebration of a holiday like ,maryland ,day in a previous grade1 or an ,stop at the ,isle of ,wight4 outline map may be drawn and pupils may trace ,off for the voyage4 the route if they can4 #b4 ,the voyage4 7,more map work can follow to a4 ,the stop at the ,barbadoes4 indicate the stop at the ,barbadoes1 the route up the ,atlantic to ,old 7,it is necessary that ,point ,comfort1 another stop1 and the class understand on to ,blackiston ,island47 something of ,england's colonial territory a4 ,why was a stop at the at the time3 ,barbadoes planned8 ,england colonized ,barbadoes in #afbe1 b4 ,why was a stop at ,point after it had been ,comfort planned8 depopulated by the ,spanish4 ,the island had1 therefore1 been under ,english control #c1 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,from the landing on for eight years4 ,blackiston ,island to the ,it was possible that end of this topic the the ,ark and the method followed should ,dove carried mail be3 developing questions1 for the ,barbadoes4 with the use of a ,the colonists textbook which should stopped for three be read either before the weeks1 in that time lesson or after the repairing the vessels1 development in order to securing negro verify conclusions made2 slaves1 and buying but this must be left to supplies1 among the judgment of the which was seed corn teacher and her own for the ,maryland individual plan for dealing settlement47 with the subject4 ,assigned reading3 ,gambrill1 b4 ,the stop at ,point pp4 #ag-ai4 ,comfort4--,letters from ,cecilius ,calvert and #g4 ,for the life in the colonies1 the king were to be reading periods may be delivered with great occupied with readings respect1 by the hands from any good book that of a messenger who gives a graphic account was conformable of the times1 such as to the ,church of ,england1 ,alice ,morse ,earle's to ,sir ,john ,home ,life in the ,colonies4 ,harvie1 the governor ,if the sand table of the ,virginias4 is used1 the children should consult these #c4 ,the landing on ,blackiston's books4 ,another way to ,island1 ,march #be1 vary the procedure1 if #afcd4 ,why not a there are books enough1 suitable place for a is to assign readings and permanent settlement8 let the pupils bring to the class accounts of the #d4 ,the visit to the ,pascataway details of the life in the ,indians4 ,the sale colonies that seemed of the ,yaocomaco most interesting to them ,village4 ,the advantages individually4 of such an arrangement with ,in the ,affairs of ,interest native ,indians4 it will be necessary for the teacher to tell about the #e4 ,the settlement on ,st4 ,george's conditions in ,england4 ,creek1 afterward known as ,mowry1 ,guerber1 or ,st4 ,mary's ,creek4 ,the ,warren may have all settlement was named the information necessary ,augusta ,carolina4 for this purpose1 but ,cheyney's ,european #f4 ,the favorable conditions of ,background of ,american the settlement4 ,history should be studied by the teacher4 a4 ,spring of the year4 ,the ,european background can be very b4 ,houses of the ,indians 7log7 simply drawn4 could be occupied temporarily by the ,the ,kent ,island affair may settlers while deciding be read before being discussed1 upon sites for building4 but there is good problem work there1 and the better plan would be c4 ,aid of friendly ,indians3 to read the text last4 ,text3 ,gambrill1 pp4 #ba-be1 #a4 ,routes through the country4 #ii-aaa4 #b4 ,protection4 ,references3 ,tudor ,jenks1 ,when ,america #c4 ,education--corn was ,new4 ,chap4 ,,iv1 8,maryland planting1 harvesting1 and the ,dutch40 ,chap4 ,v1 8,new clipping tobacco1 ,world ,living40 ,chap4 ,,ix1 8,what hunting game1 fishing1 the ,colonists ,knew and ,thought40 climate4 #d4 ,land was already cleared and cultivated4 d4 ,condition of plantation grants3 ,wm4 ,h4 ,browne1 ,maryland1 ,the ,a man with five persons--#bjjj ,history of a ,palatinate4 acres4 ,alice ,morse ,earle1 ,home ,life in ,a man with less than five--#ajj ,colonial ,days4 acres for self2 #ajj acres for wife2 ,the chapters on ,virginia #ajj acres for each plantation life will serve child under sixteen to show the life in ,maryland years2 #ajj acres for colony also4 ,the each servant2 #ajj material is as follows3 acres for each laborer4 ,light1 ,kitchen1 ,fireside1 ,serving ,meals1 ,food of e4 ,physical features of country ,forest and ,sea1 ,indian for tobacco industry3 ,corn1 ,meat and ,drink1 ,flax ,culture1 ,wool ,culture ,tide water4 and ,spinning1 ,girls' ,occupation1 ,dress of the ,estuaries--wharves for ,colonists1 ,jack-knife ,industries1 each plantation4 ,travel1 ,transportation and ,taverns1 ,colonial #g4 ,life in the colony3 ,neighborliness1 ,sunday1 ,oldtime ,flower a4 ,plantation--extent1 ,gardens4 sheds for drying tobacco1 slave quarters1 barns1 rolling roads1 chapel1 house4 b4 ,food--wild turkey1 venison1 oysters1 hominy1 corn pone4 c4 ,amusements--hunting1 dancing1 singing by slaves4 d4 ,travel--boats1 horse4 e4 ,affairs of interest--,virginia news4 ,claiborne's trading post in the ,chesapeake4 ,relations with the ,indians4 ,english politics 7,charles ,i1 ,cromwell1 and ,parliament47 ,military arrangements in the settlement4 ,currency for trading4 ,need for an assembly to settle matters in a legal way4 f4 ,first ,assembly--#afce4 ,matters taken up--,boundaries1 ,military protection1 ,claiborne trouble1 ,framing laws to be sent to ,cecilius ,calvert1 the proprietor in ,england4 g4 ,sending back these laws2 also letters1 and products1 as well as the two ,indian arrows required by the king4 ,an interesting account of the arrival and departure of the trading ships can be given4 ,they came from ,november to ,january1 and the captains were entertained at the different plantations4 ,they brought new settlers1 indentured servants1 more slaves1 letters from ,england1 news of the world4 h4 ,trouble in the colony4 h4 ,textbook assignment3 ,gambrill1 pp4 #bg-cj1 #cd-dg4 ,claiborne on ,kent ,island4 ,virginia's hostility4 ,troubles with the ,indians-- ,susquehannoughs and ,pocomokes4 ,civil ,war in ,england4 ,,topic ,v3 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,country ,,and ,,representative ,,government ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure #a4 ,assemblies-- #a4 ,discuss the organization of the several assemblies4 ,first ,assembly in #afce4 ,explain hundreds4 ,second ,assembly in #afch4 ,why three years later ,textbook3 ,gambrill1 pp4 #ad-ai2 than first8 penal laws2 prisons1 #ba-bc2 judicial courts1 #fc-fh4 ,what was its organization8 ,freemen1 governor1 and ,council4 ,importance4 ,third ,assembly in #afei4 ,representatives from the hundreds making a ,house of ,burgesses1 governor1 and ,council4 #b4 ,the ,claiborne affair and its settlement4 #c4 ,the effect of the ,civil ,war #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,textbook in ,england upon the colonies3 ,assignments3 ,to be given by teacher4 a4 ,colonies in general3 #a4 ,increase or decrease in population according to the sentiments of the colonists regarding the questions in ,england4 #b4 ,strife in colonies4 ,councils called on to decide for or against king or ,parliament4 #c4 ,effect on commerce4 b4 ,upon ,maryland in particular3 #a4 ,increase in ,catholic population4 #b4 ,caused strife and dissension4 #c4 ,return of ,leonard ,calvert to ,england for advice2 ,giles ,brent left governor pro tem4 #d4 ,invasion of ,ingle4 #e4 ,ingle and ,claiborne4 #f4 ,leonard ,calvert's return from ,england4 #g4 ,leonard ,calvert's refuge in ,virginia4 #h4 ,return of ,calvert and restoration of the colony under his government4 #i4 ,death of ,leonard ,calvert1 ,june #i1 #afdg4 ,thomas ,greene made governor pro tem4 by ,leonard ,calvert on his deathbed4 #d4 ,the appointing of a new governor by the proprietor and the reorganization of the government3 ,factor in this--,civil ,war2 the ,protestants in power in ,england4 #a4 ,william ,stone appointed governor4 ,effect--he chose ,protestants for his ,council1 from those brought into ,maryland from ,virginia4 ,they made a settlement on ,severn ,river4 #e4 ,trouble with the ,puritans resulting in the battle of the ,severn4 #f4 ,reconcilement with ,virginia4 #g4 ,change in organization of government--,upper ,house4 ,lower ,house4 ,due to growth of colony2 freemen2 indentured slaves who became freemen4 #h4 ,removal of the capital to #h4 ,for 8,life in ,annapolis0 see ,annapolis4 ,churchill's ,richard ,carvel3 ,chapter on 8,christmas at ,carvel ,hall40 ,this should be read to the class4 ,note4--,here the development of the ,maryland colony may be closed because of the political difficulties which are entirely beyond the experience of the sixth-year child4 ,the ,french and ,indian ,wars might be studied2 also the opening up of western ,maryland by the coming of the ,germans2 but the main point has been accomplished4 ,the children have worked their way through the study by living in the conditions of the colony and solving ,leonard ,calvert's problems for him4 ,to work such a plan out in detail1 to give just enough to whet the appetite of the child and then make him think for himself1 to have him live as a colonist of the times1 interested particularly in the details of government that concern the colonists as a united body until finally a 8two house0 legislature is demanded because of the growth in population1 area occupied1 and interests represented1 is a task for the skill of the teacher1 and is worth while4 ,,lida ,,lee ,,tall1 ,baltimore ,county ,schools4 ,a ,,lesson ,,in ,,nature ,,study ,,involving ,a ,,real ,,problem ,this lesson was planned and taught very successfully in the third grade by ,miss ,roxana ,a4 ,steele of the ,speyer ,school1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,teacher's aims3-- #a4 ,to teach pupils why and how to transplant4 #b4 ,to prepare for the transplanting of the salvia plants in our school garden4 ,pupil's aims3 #a4 ,to be able to select good plants for transplanting4 #b4 ,to know how to transplant in order to plant salvia plants without help4 ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure ,box of young salvia plants for ,what are we planning to do with observation and comparison with our salvia plants when they are a cabbage and tomato plants4 little larger8 7,salvia plants to be transplanted ,why didn't we plant the salvia into garden later47 seeds in the garden8 ,advantages of transplanting3 ,what are some of the advantages ,plants get an early start4 of transplanting8 disadvantages8 ,opportunity for good arrangement4 ,disadvantages3 ,extra work4 ,extra care4 ,how many children feel that they know just the best way to transfer a plant8 7,pupils' ,aim47 ,do you think we can afford to practice with the salvia plants when we have so few8 ,who can suggest a good way to learn to transplant8 ,cabbage and tomato plants discarded ,let us look at those cabbage by ,teachers ,college gardener4 and tomato plants which ,i have brought from ,teachers ,college ,i4 ,choice of ,plants4 and see what we think about them4 ,very small plants3 ,these are from the box from ,do not root well4 which plants were selected by the ,are slow in getting started4 gardener last week4 ,large plants3 ,i shall divide the plants into ,stalks too long and weak4 small1 large1 and medium-sized4 ,bend very easily4 ,tell which you think are best for ,if used1 need to be planted transplanting and why4 deep4 ,roots have not had room ,why would you not select the enough in hotbed4 very small ones8 the very large ones8 ,medium-sized1 strong plants3 ,best for planting4 ,when a gardener has not enough ,good roots4 fine1 straight plants1 can you ,good stalk4 think of a way of planting by ,green leaves4 which he might use a crooked plant8 ,crooked plants4 ,can be straightened by the sun4 ,now that we know what kind of a plant to select1 can you think of something else we must learn before we are ready to transplant our salvia plants8 7,statement of ,pupils' ,aim47 ,,ii4 ,manner of ,planting4 ,can you think of some things ,preparation of hole4 which might help a very young ,water at roots4 plant to get a good start8 ,planted deep enough for ,has any child ever seen a farmer branching of first leaves to plant cabbage or tomato plants8 be but an inch or two above ,tell us exactly how he did it ground4 and why4 ,earth pressed firmly around plant4 ,practice planting of cabbage ,several children who can select and tomato plants in a box a good plant may plant them in of earth4 this box of earth4 ,the class will ,trowel4 decide whether they are good ,choice of plant4 gardeners4 ,water4 ,account of what is being done4 ,each child will have an opportunity to plant a salvia ,summary4 plant in the garden4 ,can you tell ,how to select a plant for which plants will be most liable transplanting4 to grow well8 ,how to plant it4 ,a ,,lesson ,,plan ,,in ,,geography ,,which ,,is ,,predominantly ,,deductive ,the study of maps forms the basis for inferences which are later verified by referring to the text4 ,this plan was written by ,miss ,mary ,f4 ,kirchwey of the ,horace ,mann ,school1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,this lesson was most successfully taught to sixth-grade pupils in the ,horace ,mann ,school4 ,teacher's aim3 ,to teach the geography of ,india and to give practice in the application of principles of geography known by the pupils4 ,children's aim3 ,why do they have such terrible famines in ,india8 ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure ,what is a famine8 ,sufficient conversation to impress upon the children the suffering attendant upon famine4 ,failure of crops--dense population ,what are some of the conditions directly dependent upon agriculture that bring about a famine8 for a living--lack of sufficient means of transportation4 ,we have abundant rainfall-- ,have you ever heard of famines temperature favorable to crops-- in our country8 ,why not8 great land area in proportion to our population4 ,in ,egypt--even as far back as ,in what part of the world have in the days of ,joseph 7,bible7--also you heard of famines8 in recent years4 ,nile's overflow less abundant ,what were some of the causes than usual--dense population4 of famine in ,egypt8 ,the ,indus ,valley in ,india is one of the regions that is subject to terrible famines4 ,let us see if we can find the reason for it4 ,location and approximate extent ,point out the ,indus on the map4 of the ,indus ,valley4 ,where does it rise8 ,where empty8 ,draw your pointer along the length of the valley--across it4 ,in what latitude is it8 ,between latitudes #bc and #cj ,n4 ,what temperature conditions the temperature is warm4 must prevail there8 ,what part of ,north ,america is in about the ,florida is in about the same same latitude8 ,what do you know latitude1 but the extremes of about the temperature of ,florida8 temperature are not so great owing ,do you think that the ,indus to the water mass that surrounds it ,valley has about the same and tempers both heat and cold4 temperature8 ,look carefully at the location of both places-- ,florida and the ,indus ,valley4 ,can you see any reason for thinking that temperature is not the same8 ,how are the summer and winter temperatures of ,florida affected by the waters about it8 ,how are the summer and winter temperatures of the ,indus ,valley affected by the land mass about it8 ,isothermal maps for ,january ,find out whether your conclusions and ,july verify the class are right4 conclusions4 ,,jan4 ,,july4 ,indus ,valley1 #dj-fj #ij ,florida #ej-fj #hj ,is the temperature of ,florida favorable or unfavorable to crops8 ,is a temperature somewhat hotter in summer and colder in winter unfavorable to crops8 ,is there anything1 then1 in the temperature of the ,indus ,valley that explains their famines8 ,rainfall4 ,we must evidently look for some other cause for the famines4 ,upon what other climatic conditions do crops depend8 ,indus ,valley is in the trade wind ,in what wind belt does the belt4 ,indus ,valley lie8 ,north of the equator the trades ,from what general direction blow from the northeast4 do the trades blow in the northern hemisphere8 ,the air over the land becomes ,let us see if there is ever any heated and expands4 ,the cooler exception to this rule4 ,how does air from the water blows in4 the temperature of the land compare with the temperature of the water in summer8 ,what effect has this upon the air over the land8 ,what naturally follows8 ,from a general southerly direction4 ,from what direction1 then1 do the winds blow in ,india8 ,arrows on map show that the winds come from the southwest4 ,turn to the map of the winds and find the exact direction4 ,these winds are called the ,southwest ,monsoons4 ,from the northeast in winter4 ,tell again from what direction the winds of ,india come4 ,from the southwest in summer4 ,there can be practically no ,what1 then1 do you conclude as rainfall in the ,indus ,valley in to the rainfall of the ,indus ,valley winter because the winds blow over in winter8 ,is there apt to be more the great land mass of eastern and or less rainfall in summer8 ,why8 south-central ,asia before reaching ,look at the map very carefully the ,indus and have lost their and see if it is likely that even moisture4 the summer winds bring much rainfall4 ,is the rainfall equally ,there is more rainfall in summer light all through the valley8 ,where because the winds from the southwest is it apt to be heaviest8 ,why8 come directly from the ocean4 ,the valley lies so low1 however1 that the winds sweep over the southern part of it without having much of their moisture condensed4 ,there is little condensation until they near the highlands on the north4 ,refer to rainfall maps which ,prove that your conclusions show well-watered regions in the are correct4 upper valley--desert in the lower4 ,generally favorable in the upper ,would you then say that the valley--unfavorable in the lower4 rainfall is favorable or unfavorable for agriculture8 ,does this mean1 necessarily1 that agriculture cannot be carried on in the lower valley8 ,the ,nile ,valley--,egypt4 ,what other river valley have you studied that is noted for its agriculture in spite of a very light rainfall8 ,the annual overflow of the ,what makes agriculture possible river4 in the ,nile ,valley8 ,the heavy precipitation in the ,to what is the overflow of the mountainous districts that feed its ,nile due8 tributaries4 ,indus has many tributaries that ,is there anything in the location rise in the ,himalayas4 ,in the of the ,indus that makes it summer1 when the snows on the likely that it1 too1 overflows8 mountains melt1 these tributaries carry to the main stream such a quantity of water that an inundation results4 ,overflow is less and a ,what is the result if the correspondingly smaller area rainfall is less abundant than productive4 usual8 ,character of the soil4 ,upon what beside temperature and rainfall does the productiveness of a region depend8 ,river valleys in general have a ,can you come to any conclusion rich soil4 ,a river that overflows in regard to the soil of the ,indus leaves a deposit of rich mud that ,valley8 makes its banks very fertile4 ,favorable--warm climate1 rich ,state again the conditions in soil1 overflow of the river4 the valley that are favorable to agriculture4 ,those that are ,unfavorable--scanty rainfall4 unfavorable4 ,crops grow so rapidly and easily ,what has been the effect of when rains do not fail1 that vast these physical conditions upon numbers of the people engage in the occupations of the people8 farming4 ,it is almost purely an agricultural region4 ,it has attracted vast numbers of ,what has been their effect upon people4 the density of population8 ,principal products--millet1 ,what crops would you expect rice1 cotton1 sugar cane1 wheat1 to find in the ,indus ,valley8 tea4 ,consult your textbooks and see what else is grown there4 ,practically all needed for home ,do you think that much is consumption4 exported8 ,why1 then1 do they have such terrible famines in ,india8 ,more railroads might be built ,can you suggest anything that in order that food products could might be done to lessen the danger be carried readily from one section of famine8 to another4 ,better methods of irrigation ,consult your textbooks and see might be employed4 what steps have already been taken in this direction4 ,more variety of occupation might be introduced1 so that fewer people would be directly dependent upon agriculture for a living4 ,a ,,lesson ,,for ,,appreciation ,a lesson for appreciation which includes creative and interpretative work4 ,the interpretation of the song in the dance1 or dramatic game4 ,this lesson was planned and taught to a group of second-grade children by ,miss ,eleanor ,wright of the ,speyer ,school1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,the lesson was based upon the little ,german folk song which follows3-- ,music3 ,das ,steckenpferd #a4 ,hopp1 hopp1 hopp6 ,pferd-chen1 lauf' ,ga-lopp1 #b4 ,tipp1 tipp1 tapp6 ,wirf mich ja nicht ab6 -ber ,stock1 und -ber ,stei-ne1 sonst be-kommst du ,peit-schen hie-be6 a-ber brich mir nicht die ,bei-ne6 ,pferd-chen1 thu' mir's ja zu lie-be2 im-mer im ,ga-lopp6 hopp1 hopp1 hopp1 hopp1 hopp6 wirf mich ja nicht ab6 tipp-ti1 tapp-ti1 tapp6 ,teacher's aims3-- #a4 ,to have the children make a dance which will be suitable to the music of ,das ,steckenpferd4 #b4 ,to help the children to appreciate this form of self-expression1--expression by means of the whole body4 ,pupils' aim3-- ,to make a little 8folk dance0 which they will present at the ,may ,festival for the entertainment of parents and friends4 ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure ,i4 ,a4 ,getting the problem before ,i4 ,a4 #a4 ,do you remember1 the children4 children1 that ,i promised you a great surprise this #a4 ,the surprise4 morning8 ,well1 this is it4 #b4 ,reason for doing this work4 #b4 ,one day1 not long ago1 ,miss ,s41 ,miss ,t41 and ,i were talking over our program for the ,may ,festival1 and we decided that the little people did not have enough to do4 ,the first-grade children are to play a little story1 and our two grades1 you know1 are to sing ,the ,little ,princess--so we thought that the second grade ought to have a little part of its own4 ,now what do you think it is to be8 ,i am going to tell you4 #c4 ,nature of the problem4 #c4 ,we are going to make our own little dance to the music of ,das ,pferdchen4 ,don't you think that will be very interesting8 ,b4 #a4 ,set the standard for #a4 ,when we made the judging the value tunes for our songs last of the work done3 winter1 what did the that is1 to have music always have to tell8 the dance tell the same story as the music4 ,just so1 as we make our dance to-day1 it must tell the same story as the folk song4 #b4 ,consider some other #b4 ,let us sing one of our familiar melodies1 little songs that we have and show1 in physical known for a long time1 expression1 and see if we can tell1 what they tell4 in a dance1 how that makes us feel4 a4 ,soldier ,song4 ,different children 7,bentley ,song ,primer47 may here give different1 individual interpretations4 ,encourage much freedom4 b4 ,bye-,low4 ,i am thinking of another 7,bentley ,song ,primer47 tune that is quite different from this one4 ,you may sing it with me if you like4 ,virginia may show us how that song makes her feel3 what she wishes to do when she hears it4 c4 ,old ,black ,joe4 7,handle these two songs in a manner similar d4 ,robin ,hood and ,little to that used for the ,john4 other two47 ,c4 ,choose those pupils to ,i am going to choose interpret a song to whom ,james to dance this1 for it seems to appeal most4 he knows so much about soldiers4 #a4 ,soldier ,song--boys4 #b4 ,bye-,low--girls4 ,whom do you think #c4 ,robin ,hood--partners4 could best show us how ,bye-,low 8goes08 ,yes1 ,i believe the girls can4 ,henry may choose a little boy and girl to show us how this tune 7,robin ,hood7 seems to go4 ,,ii4 ,a4 ,das ,pferdchen4 ,,ii4 ,a4 ,our little song1 ,das ,pferdchen1 is very different from all these4 ,let us sing it together1 to 8la40 #a4 ,kind of song--gay4 #a4 ,what kind of song do you think it is8 ,how does it make you feel8 #b4 ,things a little horse #b4 ,this song is about would do4 a little horse4 ,now what can a little horse do8 a4 ,gallop4 b4 ,jump4 c4 ,trot4 d4 ,paw the earth4 e4 ,stamp4 f4 ,step very high4 g4 ,carry his head proudly4 h4 ,prance4 #c4 ,find any or all of these #c4 ,now we shall sing our movements in the song4 song again1 and this time you must listen very carefully so that you can tell what this little horse does4 #d4 ,analysis of stanzas4 #d4 ,is this stanza alike ,first stanza--#c parts4 throughout1 or are there different parts to it8 a4 ,jumping4 ,you may raise your hands when we come to b4 ,galloping4 the end of each part4 ,name each part4 c4 ,jumping lightly4 #e4 ,interpretation of each #e4 ,you may show us how part by several that first part makes you different children4 feel1 ,leland4 ,irving may show us his way of doing it4 #f4 ,criticism4 a4 ,suggestions and ,you have seen these constructive criticism two boys work2 have you of work done4 any suggestion to give8 b4 ,judgment of the ,which piece of work do you class as to the relative consider more appropriate8 values of work4 ,why8 c4 ,selection made for ,are you willing to accept permanent dance4 this for your finished dance8 #g4 a4 ,analysis of second ,now we have gotten the stanza--#c movements4 movements for our first stanza1 we shall see if the second stanza is very like it4 ,how many movements did you hear in it8 b4 ,contrast the general b4 ,is the general spirit spirit of first and of the second stanza just like second stanzas4 that of the first8 ,compare8 #h4 ,encourage timid pupils ,will you not show us1 to put forth effort4 ,josephine1 how that little ,have a very weak horse seems to go1 in one work with one this second stanza4 who is strong in this line4 ,now ,william is a very strong horse1 so we shall put you with him and make a fine 8team40 ,,iii4 ,a4 #a4 ,review the whole dance4 ,,iii4 ,a4 #a4 ,since we have gotten all our dance1 in parts1 maybe you would like to see some one dance it all the way through4 ,who will be strong enough to do this without any help8 ,we liked that very much4 #b4 ,give the incentive to #b4 ,but ,i wonder if you work upon this feel ready to give this at until it is a very the ,may ,festival1 just finished product4 as it is8 ,why not8 ,what will be necessary1 then1 before we can feel satisfied with it8 #c4 ,provide for a way of #c4 ,now we know how our getting on and off dance is to go after we the floor1 when the have gotten out on the dance is given4 floor1 but we have not said how we shall get to and from our places4 ,don't you think this is very important8 #d4 ,assignment4 #d4 ,i am going to ask you to be ready to answer this question on ,monday3 ,what will be the most suitable and pleasing way in which to get before our audience2 and also1 back to our places after our dance has been given4 ,a ,,lesson ,,in ,,arithmetic ,,based ,,on ,a ,,real ,,problem ,,which ,,was ,,interesting ,,to ,,children ,such a lesson gives little opportunity for practice in arithmetical computation1 but gives the very best possible motive for the drill work which is to follow4 ,this lesson was planned and taught in the third grade of the ,speyer ,school1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 by ,miss ,roxana ,a4 ,steele4 ,teacher's aims3 ,to have children appreciate the practical value of itemized bills4 ,to make children conscious of their need for the multiplication table of six4 ,pupil's aim3 ,to find the cost of the basket of food to be given to a poor family on ,thanksgiving ,day4 ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure ,thanksgiving baskets are sent ,how many children know about annually to the needy families of the ,thanksgiving baskets which the neighborhood4 are sent from the ,speyer ,school8 ,voluntary offerings of money1 ,you may tell the rest of the groceries1 help in preparing and class how this work is planned distributing4 for4 ,an offer to pay for a ,thanksgiving ,miss ,s4 was telling me yesterday basket if the value were that a gentleman offered to pay estimated4 for one of the baskets1 but she did not know the value of one4 ,she said that she knew the different articles which are put into the basket1 but did not know the value of each4 ,i thought ,grade ,,iii could find the cost for her4 ,would you like to try to do it8 7,pupils' ,aim47 ,list of things for the ,thanksgiving ,miss ,s4 gave me a list of the basket3 things which are to go into the basket4 #a squash4 #b cans of vegetables4 ,as ,i put the list on the board #c qt4 of potatoes4 try to think of the price of each #b qt4 of apples4 article4 #f lb4 of beef4 #a qt4 of cranberries4 ,we will choose the average price #a lb4 of sugar4 because our goods will be average #a lb4 of nuts4 goods4 ,market list prices3 ,small squash #ab ,large squash #ah ,canned vegetables #aj ,potatoes per qt4 #h ,apples per qt4 #ab ,cranberries per qt4 #ab ,sugar per lb4 #f ,nuts mixed per lb4 #ah ,small squash #ab ,how many are ready to tell the ,large squash #ah price of squash8 ,how can you ------- find the medium price8 ,you may #b 7 #cj record the squash4 ,who can fill ------- in the second line and explain ,medium squash #ae it8 ,class be ready to criticize4 #f lb4 of beef at #af 4#if ,same method with the other items except item about meat4 ,how can we find the cost of #f lb4 of beef at #af a pound8 4#af ,teacher do the multiplying1 4#af showing the practical value of 4#af 4#af a lb4 the knowledge of the #f table4 4#af #f ,which is the better way and why8 4#af ---- 4#af 4#if for #f lb4 ,is there any question before ---- finding the value of the basket 4#if as a whole8 ,suggestions4 ,who can give helpful suggestions to make sure that the answer is ,numbers in straight columns4 correct8 ,add up and down4 ,give proper name to answer4 ,board addition4 ,checking of results at board by pupil whose work is incorrect4 ,papers for ,miss ,s4 and the ,these three children may choose gentleman4 the two best papers and tell why they select them4 ,neat4 ,correct4 ,good writing4 ,cost of ,thanksgiving basket1 ,what have we found out in #b4ae4 to-day's lesson8 ,need of #f table4 ,what do you think we ought to do in the arithmetic lesson to-morrow8 7,problem to carry over47 ,aim for next lesson to be expressed by pupils4 ,we cannot always follow in every detail the plan which we make for a lesson4 ,it is interesting in this connection to read ,miss ,steele's accurate account of what actually happened when the lesson1 as planned above1 was taught4 ,the description which follows appeared in the ,atlantic ,educational ,journal for ,november1 #aiaj4 ,a ,,practical ,,lesson ,,in ,,arithmetic ,,by ,,roxana ,a4 ,,steele1 ,,speyer ,,school1 ,,teachers ,,college1 ,,columbia ,,university ,pupil's aim3 ,to find the cost of a ,thanksgiving dinner4 ,teacher's aim3 ,to make children conscious of their needs in arithmetic4 ,last fall ,grade ,three had been studying the wholesale market in industrial work4 ,the wholesale market was compared with the retail market1 prices contrasted1 etc41 and much language and arithmetic work was based upon this work4 ,a few days before ,thanksgiving a gentleman stepped into the school office and offered to pay for one of the ,thanksgiving baskets which the school sends out to poor families in the neighborhood4 ,no one seemed to know the exact value of one of the baskets1 so ,grade ,three was asked to make the estimate4 ,this could have been done by an adult in a few minutes1 but it would have been done no more accurately than the children were able to do it after having made a careful study of market lists4 ,the exercise also furnished an excellent child's aim for the arithmetic lesson4 ,the class felt its responsibility and was anxious to do good work4 ,the list of things generally put into one of the baskets was given to the class4 ,the children decided upon the average price of each item4 ,this called for an appreciation of the word average4 ,the work was done orally with class discussion4 ,for instance1 when the price of a squash was asked1 one child said 8twelve cents10 another1 8eighteen cents10 etc4 ,the class finally agreed that a medium-sized squash would cost about fifteen cents4 ,small squash #ab ,large squash #ah ---- #b 7 #cj ---- #ae ,the child who recorded the price of the squash on the board wrote fifteen cents--4#ae4 ,before the lesson was over1 several children had a little trouble in writing cents without dimes 74#jf71 keeping the money columns straight1 using the dollar mark and decimal point1 etc4 ,with suggestions from other members of the class1 the list was complete4 ,in the item 8#f lb4 of beef #af0 the class found that it was necessary to multiply by six4 ,as they had never had the six table1 ,i did not expect them to be able to do it1 but it chanced that one boy knew his six table and did the work readily4 ,marion ,thalman4 ,nov4 #bc1 #aiji4 ,the ,cost of a ,thanksgiving ,dinner #a squash 4#ae #b cans of vegetables #aj 4#bj #c qt4 of potatoes #h 4#bd #f lb4 of beef #af 4#if #b qt4 of apples #ab 4#bd #a qt4 cranberries 4#ab #a lb4 sugar 4#jf #a lb4 nuts 4#ah ---- #b4ae ,when the price of each item had been decided upon1 the children found the total cost at their seats1 and their results were compared4 ,the lesson closed with the question1 8,what did you find out in to-day's lesson80 ,the answers were3 8,the cost of a ,thanksgiving basket02 8,that ,russell is the only child who knows his six table02 8,that we need to write dollars and cents so that we won't make mistakes40 ,at the beginning of the arithmetic lesson the following day1 when the class was asked1 8,what do we need to do to-day80 there was a division of opinion as to whether the drill on dollars and cents or learning of the six table should come first4 ,the decision was in favor of the drill on writing money1 and the six table was presented later in the same period4 ,the result of the lesson on the cost of the dinner was sent to the principal4 ,the class received a note of thanks for the help which it had rendered4 ,the children were proud of their accomplishment and anxious to work out more real problems4 ,a ,,lesson ,,for ,,appreciation ,teacher's aim3 ,to help children to enjoy ,stevenson's ,bed in ,summer4 ,did any child in the room ever have to go to bed before it was dark8 ,did you ever get up in the morning before daylight8 ,stevenson remembered how he used to feel when he had to go to bed before dark1 and wrote a story about it4 ,would you like to hear the story8 ,children's aim3 ,to enjoy ,stevenson's story about going to bed before dark4 ,,subject ,,matter ,,method ,,of ,,procedure ,,bed ,,in ,,summer ,i want you to tell me all you can about the place where 8,in winter ,i get up at night ,stevenson lived1 when ,i am through ,and dress by yellow candle light2 reading the story4 ,in summer quite the other way1 ,i have to go to bed by day4 ,read the poem4 8,i have to go to bed and see ,who will describe the place ,the birds still hopping on the tree1 where he lived8 ,and hear the grown-up people's feet ,still going past me in the street4 ,were there other children who lived near by8 8,and does it not seem hard to you1 ,when all the sky is clear and blue1 ,were there any trees near the ,and ,i should like so much to play1 house8 ,to have to go to bed by day80 ,i'll read the poem again and you will see how many reasons ,stevenson had for not wanting to go to bed by day4 ,read the poem again twice4 ,why does he tell you that he has to get up at night in the winter8 ,when do the birds go to bed8 ,do the grown-up people go to bed when children do8 ,how was he able to see the birds in the trees8 ,do you think he ever got out of bed8 ,do you think all the children in the street had to go to bed as early as ,stevenson8 ,let me read the last stanza and see whether you can tell4 ,recall the ,mother ,goose ,rhyme3 8,girls and boys come out to play1 ,the moon doth shine as bright as day2 ,leave your supper and leave your sleep1 ,and come with your playfellows into the street40 ,how did ,stevenson know the other children were in the street8 ,read the last stanza4 ,i'll read the whole story again1 and then ask some one to tell me ,stevenson's story about going to bed in summer4 ,read the poem1 calling attention to the different scenes3 7#a7 ,the boy that gets up by night and dresses by yellow candle-light4 7#b7 ,in summer quite the other way1 he has to go to bed by day--he has to go to bed and see the birds still hopping on the tree and hear the grown-up people's feet still going past him in the street4 7#c7 ,the little boy lying in bed who feels very much abused4 ,and does it not seem hard to you1 etc48 ,let us see all of the pictures again4 ,read in same way again4 ,who will tell the story8 ,i am going to write it on the board1 so that we can tell the story as ,stevenson did4 ,after the treatment indicated above1 memorization will be very easily accomplished4 ,the preliminary study for appreciation will make the poem mean more to the children than it could have meant had the teacher simply read it to the children two or three times and then asked them to memorize it4 ,in a study lesson1 the plans will vary from a single exercise in finding the principal thought in a paragraph to a development lesson1 not dissimilar as to plan to other lessons of the same type4 ,the recitation lesson may be a development lesson1 inductive or deductive1 or a drill lesson4 ,the plans would therefore be similar to those given above4 ,in conclusion1 it may be suggested that any teacher who feels that it is impossible to plan all of her work will gain greatly if she will plan carefully for a single subject4 ,as facility is gained in plan making1 it will be possible to write plans for two or three or for more subjects4 ,a topic plan should result in definiteness in the work of both teacher and pupils4 ,good plans give the teacher more freedom in conducting her work1 and enable her to tell definitely the progress which the class has made4 ,plans are necessary in teaching4 ,no one has a right to pretend to teach without previous thought concerning the subject to be taught1 and the method to be employed in giving children command of this material4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,w4 ,w4 ,charters1 ,methods of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,xix4 ,c4 ,a4 and ,f4 ,m4 ,mc,murry1 ,the ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,exercises4 ,the plans which follow were offered to teachers as suggestions rather than as outlines of subject matter or of procedure to be followed absolutely4 ,reorganize these plans so as to show subject matter and method separately4 ,add to the subject matter or method wherever necessary4 ,if you think best1 change the organization of material1 the statement of aim1 the references to books1 and the like4 ,do not change the topic4 ,as a result of your work you should be ready to present a plan for which you are willing to stand4 ,,literature--,,third ,,grade ,,atalanta',s ,,race ,,note4--,the story of ,atalanta's ,race furnishes material for several lessons4 ,the following outline embraces the whole set of lessons4 ,aim3-- ,to teach the story of ,atalanta's ,race4 ,i4 ,division into parts4 #a4 ,atalanta4 #b4 ,hippomenes4 #c4 ,the ,race4 ,,ii4 ,outlining of each part4 #a4 ,atalanta4 a4 ,her home4 b4 ,swiftness of foot4 c4 ,beauty and grace4 ,desire of youths to win her4 d4 ,her determination4 #b4 ,hippomenes4 a4 ,who he was4 b4 ,his decision4 c4 ,his resort to strategy4 #c4 ,the ,race4 a4 ,atalanta's self-confidence4 b4 ,the first apple2 the result4 c4 ,the second apple2 the result4 d4 ,the third apple2 the result4 ,preparation3-- ,tell me of a game in which one child outruns another4 ,tell me of a story in which two animals played a game like this race of ,atalanta4 7,hare and ,tortoise47 ,let us play a game in which two boys run a race4 ,let us play the ,hare and the ,tortoise4 ,which is the faster runner1 the hare or the tortoise8 ,how1 then1 did the tortoise win the race8 ,presentation3-- ,let the teacher tell the story of the ,hare and the ,tortoise4 ,find in the ,atalanta story the person who takes the place of the hare1 and the one who takes the place of the tortoise4 ,by showing the picture in the book1 have the children solve the problem4 ,did ,atalanta expect to win the race8 ,why not8 ,how did this make her act8 ,did the hare expect to lose the race8 ,why not8 ,the teacher may tell the story of the girl going to market with a basket of eggs on her head4 ,she was so sure of getting sale for her eggs that she set to dreaming of the pretty things she would buy with the money she was to get for the eggs4 ,she would buy1 she thought1 a bright new dress and a new hat2 and then how mean and shabby she could make the other girls look2 and how she could walk past them all1 tossing her head in pride6 ,forgetting that she was still only on her way to market1 she then gave her head a proud little toss2 and--what do you think happened8 ,let the children give the story of the ,hare and the ,tortoise in their own words4 ,what is likely to happen to any one of us who is too sure of winning8 ,what will we say1 then1 of any one who is too sure of anything8 ,it has been said1 8,count not your chickens before they are hatched40 ,what does this mean8 ,,arithmetic--,,fifth ,,grade ,aim3-- ,to teach division of decimals4 ,the following is assumed as class knowledge upon which the process should be based4 #a4 ,ability to read and write decimals4 #b4 ,vivid knowledge of the relations of one hundred to ten1 ten to one unit1 one unit to one tenth1 one tenth to one hundredth1 etc4 #c4 ,knowledge of the process of division of whole numbers4 #d4 ,the principle3 multiplying or dividing both dividend and divisor by the same number does not change the quotient4 ,preparation3-- #a4 ,division by an integer4 a4 ,find the value of #a acre of land if #ae acres cost #ggaae4 #eada ------- #ae 7 #ggaae #ge --- #ba #ae --- #fa #fj --- #ae #ae b4 ,find the value of #a acre of land if #ae acres cost #gga4ae4 #ea4da ------- #ae 7 #gga4ae #ge --- #ba #ae ---- #f4a #f4j ---- 4#ae 4#ae ,compare the steps in 7b7 with the corresponding steps in 7a74 ,the pupil will experience no difficulty in telling the unit that each quotient figure represents1 for he knows that dividing any number into parts does not change its unit4 ,presentation3-- a4 #ab is contained in #cf how many times8 #ab 7 #cf -- #c b4 ,multiply both dividend and divisor in 7a7 by #b4 #bd is contained in #gb how many times8 #bd 7 #gb -- #c c4 ,multiply both dividend and divisor in 7a7 by #aj4 #abj is contained in #cfj how many times8 #abj 7 #cfj --- #c ,compare the quotients4 ,recall the principle3 ,multiplying both dividend and divisor by the same number does not change the quotient4 d4 4#b is contained in #b4d how many times8 ,multiplying both numbers by #aj1 to what is the divisor changed8 ,to a whole number4 #b is contained in #bd how many times8 #b 7 #bd -- #ab e4 4#bb is contained in #b4db how many times8 ,change 4#bb to a whole number1 by multiplying both the numbers by #ajj4 #bb is contained in #bdb how many times8 #aa --- #bb 7 #bdb #bb --- #bb #bb f4 4#jje is contained in 4#abe how many times8 ,by what shall both numbers be multiplied so that 4#jje may become the whole number #e8 #e is contained in #abe how many times8 #e 7 #abe --- #be g4 #b4hh is contained in #c4def how many times8 ,by what shall both numbers be multiplied so that #b4hh may become the whole number #bhh8 #bhh is contained in #cde4f how many times8 #a4b ----- #bhh 7 #cde4f #bhh ---- #eg4f #eg4f ,many such examples will enable the pupils to formulate the generalization3 8,to divide a decimal by a decimal1 multiply the dividend and divisor by the power of ten that will change the divisor to an integer1 then divide as in simple division40 ,,nature ,,study--,,fifth ,,grade ,,detailed ,,plan ,,for ,a ,,series ,,of ,,lessons ,topic3-- ,the horse4 ,materials3-- ,the horse seen on the street2 drinking fountains2 horsemanship observed2 harness2 shoes2 protection2 different kinds of vehicles2 printed matter issued by the ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals and by the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,aim3-- ,to train the children to meet sympathetically and intelligently their responsibilities to the horse4 ,preparation3-- ,years of interest in horses2 directed observation of other periods4 ,presentation3-- #a4 ,stories of horses known to the children--those owned by their parents1 fire horses1 horses of the mounted police1 showing their faithfulness1 intelligence1 strength1 training1 treatment4 ,in the city of ,baltimore the old fire horse is practically pensioned when unfit for further service4 ,this is one way in which right-minded people acknowledge their obligations to horses1 by providing for their comfort in their old age4 ,have stories like the ,pacing ,mustang read to the class2 allow the children to take the storybooks home1 and encourage them to bring to the class other stories about horses4 ,encourage the children to read brief histories of the great breeds of horses--the ,norman horses1 ,clydesdales1 etc4--horses that hold the world's records for speed4 #b4 ,observations to identify horses that show normal blood1 and discover their fitness of blood and temperament for the work they are doing4 ,are they strong enough for the work they are required to do8 ,are they disturbed by passing street cars8 ,if so1 how do they show it8 ,what is the effect upon them of the confusion of other city noises8 ,notice that while some horses are evidently distressed by the confusion of city life1 others love it and become homesick when sold for use in the country4 ,blanketing3-- ,call attention to the manner in which large firms so carefully blanket their horses4 ,why should a horse be blanketed when he is standing8 ,shoeing3-- ,notice the cause of slipping1 stumbling1 and falling on icy or wet pavements1 and therefore the necessity for rough shoes1 rubber shoes1 etc4 ,if possible1 bring into the class a specimen of a patent horseshoe2 the shoe and shield of a cart horse4 ,harness3-- ,is the horse easy in harness8 ,what sort of a checkrein would you use8 ,why8 ,why is the back pad used with the two-wheel cart8 ,what are the effects of an ill-fitting harness8 ,what do you think of the law which in some places punishes a man whose horses show galls8 ,horsemanship3-- ,have the children report critical situations which have happened within their observation and how they were met by drivers2 their observation of the affection shown by a horse toward his master4 ,general ,condition of ,horses3-- ,discuss the effect of grooming upon the horse's coat4 ,why should the horse be fed regularly8 ,why should ground food be given to an old horse whose teeth are poor8 ,discuss the necessity of allowing the horse freedom in traveling4 ,temporary lameness is frequently due to a stone in the foot2 how may it be removed8 ,what should be done for a horse that is seriously lame8 #c4 ,the economic value of such knowledge as the foregoing3-- ,horses are stiffened by standing unblanketed in the wind or cold4 ,foundering is caused by watering a horse when he is over-heated4 ,a properly fitted harness and a comfortable checkrein1 if any is used1 save the strength of the horse4 ,the selection of a horse whose strength and temperament fit him for his work adds to his value and usefulness4 ,skillful drivers1 especially those who like their teams1 can secure a great amount of work from them and yet save much of their energy4 ,it frequently happens that after a day's work one man will bring in a team comparatively fresh1 while under a different driver the same team will be worried into exhaustion4 #d4 ,knowledge of the work of the ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals3-- ,the work of this society demands judgment based on a fuller knowledge of conditions and causes than most children of their ages possess4 ,its work1 therefore1 is not intended for children1 but they should know what help they may give the society1 and be taught to use it4 #e4 ,knowledge of the city law for protecting horses4 ,seat ,work3-- ,sketches of horses' hoofs showing how a stone may cause lameness4 ,sketches of different kinds of shoes4 ,sketches of different kinds of checkreins3 the overdraw check and its effect2 side check and its effect4 ,different head and ear postures of horses indicative of their conditions and feelings4 ,getting records of observations into shape to present to class4 ,have each member of the class imagine himself to be his favorite horse1--a fire horse2 mounted policeman's horse2 a ,united ,railway repair wagon horse2 a hospital ambulance horse2 an express-wagon horse2 a carriage horse2 a broken-down carriage horse1 etc41--and write a story of his part in a fire1 a serious accident1 or some other situation4 ,give related language work4 ,,geography--,,fifth ,,grade ,,detailed ,,plan ,,for ,a ,,series ,,of ,,lessons ,topic3-- ,pittsburg as a trade center4 ,materials3-- ,pictures1 maps1 sand table1 specimens of iron ore1 coal1 coke1 limestone1 reference books1 railroad folders4 ,aim3-- ,to show how natural advantages have determined the location and growth of ,pittsburg2 to show the direction and extent of manufacturing and commerce in ,pittsburg4 ,preparation3-- #a4 ,study of coal mine1 iron mine1 blast furnace4 #b4 ,relation of iron mines to coal mines4 #c4 ,location of ,pittsburg-- 7a7 in coal region4 7b7 at junction of rivers which form the ,ohio ,river4 ,presentation3-- 7,following closely ,mc,murry's ,special ,method in ,geography47 #a4 ,advantages of ,pittsburg for iron and steel manufacturing4 ,illustrate with sand map4 7a7 ,coal region--rivers bring coal to ,pittsburg4 7b7 ,iron region near4 ,much iron ore brought from ,lake ,superior region via ,great ,lakes1 by railroad from ,lake ,erie4 ,in manufacture of steel more coal is used than iron ore2 it pays to bring iron ore to coal4 7c7 ,manufactured products--steel rails1 armor plate1 pig iron4 7d7 ,rank of ,pittsburg in regard to manufacture of iron and steel4 ,pittsburg makes #aj per cent of all iron and steel goods made in the ,united ,states4 #b4 ,neighboring manufacturing towns4 7a7 ,names--,allegheny1 ,carnegie1 ,homestead1 ,braddock1 etc4 7b7 ,how do their manufactures compare with those of ,pittsburg in kind8 in quantity8 in value8 #c4 ,coke ovens4 ,uses of coke4 ,kind of coal used2 where obtained4 ,amount of it put into each oven4 ,length of burning4 ,by-products4 ,drawing out and cooling4 ,extent of ovens4 ,effect on landscape4 #d4 ,blast furnaces4 #e4 ,other manufactures4 7a7 ,oil refining4 ,where oil comes from4 ,how it is pumped1 carried1 stored4 ,value of pipe lines4 ,how is oil brought to ,baltimore8 ,effect of oil tanks on landscape4 ,processes of refining4 ,dangers4 ,uses4 ,by-products4 7b7 ,glass making4 ,kinds of glass made4 ,materials used4 ,where found4 #f4 ,transportation by water4 ,illustrate with sand map4 7a7 ,need for means of transportation3 of raw material to ,pittsburg2 of manufactured products from ,pittsburg4 7b7 ,rivers4 ,the ,allegheny and ,monongahela bring raw materials to ,pittsburg4 ,the ,ohio carries raw materials and manufactured products away from ,pittsburg4 ,no tracks or roadbed to be laid for river1--river always ready2 ,ohio deep enough for large barges2 swiftness of current due to nature of slopes4 ,coal and iron carried by river as far as ,new ,orleans4 #g4 ,railroad center4 7a7 ,sections of country not reached by waterways4 ,how products are transported to those parts8 7b7 ,need of railroads for people who travel to and from ,pittsburg4 7c7 ,chief directions in which railroads lead from ,pittsburg4 ,what roads lead from ,baltimore to ,pittsburg8 ,from ,new ,york to ,pittsburg8 7d7 ,what supplies are brought by railroad besides those needed in manufacturing8 #h4 ,aspects of the city of ,pittsburg3-- ,wealth--opportunities for getting1 for spending4 ,education--what special class of schools likely to develop4 ,smoke and dirt--due to nature of manufactures4 ,seat ,work3-- ,illustrative drawings4 ,maps showing coal and iron regions1 course of rivers4 ,related language work4 ,reference reading4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,teacher ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,supervision ,teachers are generally responsible in some measure to one or more supervisory officers4 ,those who control the schools believe that better work will be done because of the supervision which is provided4 ,it may not be out of place1 therefore1 in a book devoted to the problems of the teacher to consider the relation to supervision and to those who supervise her work4 ,the fundamental purpose of supervision1 whether of schools or of other activities1 is increased efficiency of all who participate in the work4 ,supervisors are worthy of the name only when they do their best to increase the efficiency of every teacher with whom they come in contact4 ,happily1 this attitude of helpfulness characterizes most of those who are known as principals1 primary or grammar-grade supervisors1 subject supervisors1 assistant and associate superintendents1 and superintendents of schools4 ,it may be that because of the great number of teachers employed in a system of schools some of these officers can have little direct relationship with individual teachers2 but in the organization of the schools1 by means of regulations1 courses of study and the like1 or through those who come directly in contact with teachers1 these men and women seek to help each teacher to do better work4 ,it is important that all teachers realize clearly the significance of the supervisor's work1 and that she avail herself of the help and coperation which is thus provided4 ,one of the functions of the supervisor is to criticize the work which is being done by individual teachers4 ,it is especially difficult for some teachers to appreciate the purpose of such criticism1 or to avail themselves of the aid which is offered in this form4 ,let us examine the different kinds of criticism which one may expect to receive1 and try to discover how to get the most out of this instrument of supervision4 ,there are supervisors whose criticism is occasionally purely negative4 ,they come into the room1 observe some of the work1 and remark1 either at the time or later1 that the work was good1 or that it was poor4 ,it does not help one much1 except in a feeling of good will toward the supervisor1 when told that work is well done2 nor is it very significant for future work that one's efforts have been condemned4 ,when the supervisor indulges in this type of criticism1 the teacher has a right to ask him for the reasons which lead him to praise or to condemn4 ,if excellent work is to be repeated1 then the elements which have made for success should be pointed out4 ,one may try to repeat good work and fail miserably because the elements in the excellent work which made for success have been overlooked in the second effort4 ,likewise failure may occur1 even though it has been stamped as poor work1 because the teacher fails to see the essential weakness of her effort4 ,most supervisors are able to find strength of some sort in the work of every teacher4 ,it may be worth while for the teacher at times to ask for a discussion of the strong points in her work4 ,this constructive appreciative criticism may help her to receive with open mind the destructive criticism which may be needed to bring about the elimination of weakness4 ,any teacher should welcome the criticism which frankly points out the deficiencies of her work and suggests the remedies which should be applied4 ,we all want to do our best work4 ,unfortunately we cannot always see our teaching in true perspective4 ,the supervisor who comes in from the outside1 as it were1 with a wide range of experience in teaching and in observing teachers can often give the suggestion which will make work1 not only more efficient1 but also more pleasant4 ,it is a good rule for both supervisor and teacher to wait until the end of the day or even for two or three days after the visit before the criticism is given4 ,snap judgments are apt to be wrong on both sides4 ,the supervisor needs time to analyze the situation carefully in order to pick out the elements in the situation which are most significant and to overlook that which is trivial4 ,the teacher will often be able to analyze her own work and to point out its defects1 if time is given her to think it over4 ,if the teacher can discover her own inefficiency1 and if she is willing to talk frankly with the supervisor concerning these difficulties1 the work of criticism will give satisfaction to both4 ,a teacher has a right to ask for an appointment with a supervisor for the discussion of her work4 ,supervisors are1 as a rule1 only too willing to grant such a request4 ,criticism has not fulfilled its mission1 if it stops with discovering to the teacher her strength and her weakness together with the analysis of the situation which enables her to repeat successes and avoid failures4 ,a wide-awake teacher will be looking and asking for suggestions concerning new kinds of work4 ,suggestive criticism opens up the way for growth by giving the teacher the encouragement and help which are needed to undertake the new or unusual type of work4 ,many of the best teachers might have remained in the less efficient group1 had it not been for the help and inspiration which was imparted by a wise supervisor4 ,school exhibits are another means sometimes employed by the supervisory force to increase school efficiency4 ,here1 again1 the teacher should realize that the purpose of the supervisor is not to burden her with work1 but rather to offer the help which may come from an exchange of experiences4 ,the school exhibit which is most worth while does not require any special preparation of material on the part of the teacher4 ,the work regularly done by children without corrections or refinement constitutes a true exhibit of the results secured4 ,any other kind of an exhibit is merely a test of the teacher's ingenuity1 her skill in masquerading under the names of her children4 ,when a genuine exhibit of children's work is brought together1 it affords to teachers and supervisors alike a wealth of suggestion and help4 ,the writer remembers visiting an exhibit of drawing and constructive work in one of our large cities4 ,the supervisors of this work were in charge at regular hours each week4 ,a very large number of teachers came to see what was being done by other teachers in their grade4 ,a special feature of the exhibit was an abundance of suggestions for the work of the next week provided by the supervisors and taken from the work of previous years4 ,the consultation between supervisors and teachers concerning the work exhibited1 and with reference to the work both past and yet to be done1 was free from restraint and often lasted ten1 fifteen1 or even twenty minutes4 ,needless to say1 the results achieved in drawing and constructive work in this city were far above the average4 ,similar exhibits of work in ,english composition1 arithmetic1 some phases of the work in literature1 nature study1 history1 and geography are possible and cannot fail to help the teacher who is anxious to improve her work4 ,visiting the work of other teachers has one advantage not possessed by the exhibit3 it is possible to see not only the result but also the methods which are employed in securing the product4 ,a good supervisor should be able to tell teachers where to go to see the kind of work which is most helpful4 ,any teacher should welcome the opportunity to see the work of a teacher who is strong where she is weak4 ,random visiting is not worth much4 ,what counts is a visit to a teacher who has some help to offer1 in order to satisfy a real need4 ,often the most profitable visiting can be done within the system in which the teacher works4 ,not infrequently the greatest help can be secured from another teacher in the same building4 ,whenever or wherever a teacher visits1 the important thing is to look for the strong points in the work4 ,the teacher who goes for help will not be disappointed2 the one who looks for defects1 who is hypercritical1 will not profit by the time used4 ,after a visit to a teacher whose work is known by the supervisor1 a conference may be held1 or a report given by the visiting teacher4 ,if the visit is worth making1 it is worth some further consideration4 ,it will help the teacher to talk over the visit with the supervisor with particular reference to her own work4 ,the elements of strength in the work of the teacher visited can thus be determined1 and the modifications in the work of the visitor desired by the supervisor be made definite4 ,examinations have from time immemorial been used by supervisors to determine the success of school work4 ,teachers not infrequently seem to feel that they are an unnecessary hardship imposed without sufficient justification1 whether teacher or pupils are considered4 ,let us inquire what examinations should mean to the teacher4 ,first of all1 it may be worth while to remember that the command of some knowledge1 and the ability to use it when demanded1 should form a part of the equipment of children who are being educated4 ,it is well at times to stop and discover how much children know1 and what facility they show in using their knowledge4 ,it is a shock sometimes to discover that a room full of enthusiastic1 well-behaved children do not know their multiplication tables1 cannot add1 subtract1 or divide without making many mistakes1 cannot write an acceptable paragraph because of mistakes in form which they should have mastered long ago1 do not know on which side of the ,ohio ,river to locate the state of ,ohio2 but that is just what is apt to happen in a school where examinations are never given4 ,success or failure in an examination should not be all-important to children1 nor should it lead to undue praise or condemnation of teachers4 ,the wise teacher will try to find in the results of the examination evidence of the deficiencies of her teaching4 ,in the light of the work done by the children she can tell where she can depend upon their knowledge1 what part of the work needs to be reviewed1 which children need special help4 ,an examination should be a taking of stock which will enable teacher and pupil to do more and better work1 because each is acquainted with the needs of the situation better than before4 ,teachers' meetings are worth just about what each individual teacher is willing to put into them4 ,the teacher who comes to a meeting with her problems1 willing to acknowledge that she needs help1 and anxious to get it will not find these gatherings dull or uninteresting4 ,if the meeting is organized for study1 as is done in connection with reading circle work1 the meeting can be transformed from a perfunctory recitation of the ideas of the book into a live professional discussion1 by the activity of two or three earnest teachers4 ,if the meetings are not good1 individuals are at fault2 if these teachers become active1 if they try to make the most out of these discussions1 their attitude will change4 ,one of the best types of teachers' meetings is centered round the actual teaching of children by a member of the group1 to be followed by discussion of the work done4 ,there is no more certain way to grow professionally than to be willing to demonstrate your theory by practice1 or to discuss the work which is done by other members of the group4 ,in several of our cities these lessons1 taught sometimes by the supervisors and at other times by the teachers themselves1 have become a regular feature of the year's work4 ,the teacher who is most anxious to grow will be the first to avail herself of the opportunity to teach such a lesson4 ,supervisors sometimes hesitate to suggest this kind of a program for teachers' meetings1 because teachers are so unwilling to do their part in making the work a success4 ,it is a poor professional spirit which is not strong enough to lead a teacher to accept the criticism of her fellow teachers1 when she knows that therein lies the possibility of growth4 ,any group of teachers who will voluntarily participate in such work will find that the teachers' meeting1 instead of being a bore1 will come to be looked upon as the brightest spot in the whole week1 because of the help and inspiration which is derived from the hour's work4 ,institutes were once looked upon as places where teachers came to be entertained1 or1 possibly1 to be inspired4 ,there was a time when the best institutes were conducted on the 8pouring in0 plan4 ,a lecturer1 or several lecturers1 dispensed the truth1 and teachers sat in their places1 supposedly drinking deep draughts from these fountains of wisdom4 ,it is strange that all of the theory of teaching which was dispensed did not suggest that the manner of conducting the institute was wrong4 ,in our best institutes to-day teachers participate in discussion1 study and recite from books1 undertake the revision or organization of courses of study in coperation with their supervisors2 in short1 the institute has become a school for professional study4 ,in such an institute1 as in teachers' meetings1 those who come with real problems1 anxious to get help1 find the week or two all too short4 ,a group of teachers anxious to grow professionally can1 in most cases1 secure the coperation of supervisors in transforming an institute which is organized on the old basis4 ,if a teacher's supervisors are not helping her1 it may be well to inquire whose fault it is4 ,the teacher who meets the supervisor halfway1 the one who invites criticism1 who avails herself of the help and suggestion which may come from exhibits1 visiting1 teachers' meetings1 and institutes will1 in all probability1 grow strong enough to help others4 ,she may in her turn be called upon to accept the responsibilities1 the trials1 and the joys of a supervisor4#bi ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,the ,seventh ,yearbook of the ,national ,society for the ,scientific ,study of ,education4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,what is the purpose of supervision8 #b4 ,give illustrations of work done by the supervisors whom you have found most helpful4 #c4 ,name the types of criticism4 ,give illustrations of each type from your own experience4 #d4 ,what is wrong with the teacher who resents adverse criticism8 #e4 ,why wait a day or two after the supervisor has visited you before asking for criticism on your work8 #f4 ,if the supervisor does not volunteer criticism1 what would you do8 #g4 ,have you ever attended a school exhibit which has helped you in your work8 ,what kind of work should be sent to the exhibit8 ,why insist upon a continuous exhibit rather than one that lasts only a week8 #h4 ,how can you hope to get the most out of a day's visiting8 ,what help would you expect from the supervisor8 #i4 ,of what value are examinations to you8 #aj4 ,when a teacher says that she can get nothing from the teachers' meetings1 what is wrong8 #aa4 ,what help would you expect to get from the observation and discussion of actual class teaching8 ,have you ever taught a class for observers8 #ab4 ,what suggestions would you make for the improvement of your institute8 ,do you think changes could be made if teachers wanted to gain the most possible during the week or more devoted to the institute8 #ac4 ,what is wrong in a situation where teachers complain that their supervisors are hard taskmasters8 #ad4 ,if supervision is to make for professional growth1 what contribution must the teacher make8 #ae4 ,how do you explain the attitude of the teacher who says she wants no supervision8 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,teacher ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,study ,teachers sometimes look upon the course of study merely as a demand made by those in control of the school system for a large amount of work to be accomplished4 ,the course of study indicates that certain topics in ,english1 arithmetic1 nature study1 geography1 history1 industrial arts1 and the other subjects of the curriculum are assigned to the grade1 and the teacher expects that her pupils will be examined on this work at stated times during the year in order to determine the efficiency of her work and the fitness of the children for promotion4 ,from this point of view1 the course of study is an ever present taskmaster1 always urging that more work be accomplished4 ,let us inquire whether this is in reality the meaning of the course of study to the teacher4 ,in the first place1 all will admit that in any system of schools it is necessary to determine somewhat definitely the work to be done by a given grade4 ,if such provision were not made1 it would be impossible to transfer children from one school to another1 and very difficult for the supervisory force to render help to large numbers of teachers4 ,then1 too1 there is an order in the development of subjects1 which is necessary both from the standpoint of the subject and from the point of view of the child who is to gain the experience which the subject offers4 ,it is true that a course of study which is made to fit all of the children of a great city or state must be interpreted liberally1 if good teaching is to be done4 ,to this end1 our best courses of study demand that a minimum amount of work be done by all teachers1 and suggest alternative and optional work to meet the needs of children whose experiences are varied1 and whose needs are correspondingly different4 ,in any progressive school system1 the capable teacher has opportunity to vary the material presented under the head of the various subjects in such a manner as will satisfy the interests and the problems of the group of children for whose growth she is responsible4 ,a good course of study will save the teacher much time and energy by the organization of material which it presents4 ,in many of our larger cities a volume of from fifty to two hundred pages has been prepared for each subject4 ,these manuals suggest the order in which it has been found by experience that the topics can best be presented4 ,in many cases a helpful analysis of each large topic from the point of view of presenting it to children is included4 ,besides this organization of material1 references which will prove helpful to the teacher1 both from the standpoint of subject matter and of method1 are included in our best courses of study4 ,in many cases suggestions for teaching1 elaborated at times into complete lesson plans1 are given4 ,in the making of the course of study1 the teacher should welcome any opportunity to contribute her knowledge concerning the availability of material or the methods to be used in her grade4 ,any good course of study should be the joint product of at least three classes of people3 the expert in the subject1 the expert in supervision and administration of schools1 and the expert teacher4 ,the subject matter expert is needed to pass upon the material from the standpoint of fact and from the point of view of one who sees the beginnings of a subject in relation to the whole field4 ,the supervisor has to provide for the proper relation of the different subjects1 determines the amount of time to be devoted to the subject1 and the general method of procedure in teaching the subject4 ,the teacher needs to advise as to the practicability of the whole scheme4 ,she has in mind a particular group of children with certain experiences1 interests1 and abilities1 and her judgment is probably safer than either of the others as to the availability of any particular topic or phase of the subject4 ,in addition to this service1 any group of teachers can give most significant help with respect to the methods which have proved most helpful4 ,indeed1 our courses of study could be made much more helpful if teachers were only asked to give suggestions concerning the organization of material and methods of teaching1 which they are so well equipped to offer by reason of their experience in teaching the subject to children4 ,happily1 the practice of inviting the coperation of teachers in making the course of study is becoming more common in our cities4 ,any capable teacher who is anxious to participate in the organization of the curriculum will find opportunity to make her contribution4 ,possibly there are teachers who1 because of the very excellence of the courses of study provided1 feel that all that is required for them is to follow blindly the directions given4 ,instead of considering the course of study as a hard taskmaster1 they look upon it as a crutch upon which they lean heavily4 ,for these teachers there is little need for preparation4 ,the course of study and the textbooks have solved the problems of teaching4 ,let us inquire just what the curriculum of our schools stands for before attempting to decide just what relation the teacher bears to it4 ,a course of study is not so much knowledge to be poured in4 ,rather it represents possible experiences for which children may have need1 experiences which will aid them in the solution of their problems and make possible for them the realization of their purposes4 ,how did all of this knowledge come to be preserved1 and how did it happen to be arranged in groups labeled by certain names8 ,men have preserved from time to time1 by handing down by word of mouth or by records made on stone1 wood1 skin1 paper1 or other surfaces1 knowledge which they have found useful in meeting the problems which confront them4 ,for convenience of reference this knowledge has come to be grouped1 and to each group a name has been applied4 ,if we could only remember how we came to have this body of knowledge1 how it happened to be thought worth while to preserve the experiences which when grouped together we know as subjects1 it might make us a little more judicious in our attempt to acquaint children with their inheritance4 ,our schools have all too frequently acted upon the principle that children could assimilate the school subjects without reference to their past experience or their present needs4 ,it has been common to say1 teach so much of this or that subject1 just as if the child mind was a receptacle to be filled4 ,the difficulty of this attitude toward school subjects is twofold3 first1 the children fail to gain any appreciation of the experiences involved2 and1 second1 they fail to gain from the process the power of independent thought1 or the spirit of investigation which it is the purpose of education to impart4 ,the doctrine of formal discipline1 as commonly interpreted1 has been largely responsible for our wrong idea of the meaning of subjects of study4 ,the idea that any study1 especially if it proved disagreeable to the pupil1 and had no definite relationship either to his past experiences or present needs1 would mean most for his education1 has not yet entirely disappeared4 ,aside from the psychological fallacy involved1 that ability to do one kind of work would spread or be available for all other kinds of mental activity which we call by the same general name1 the devotees of the doctrine ignored the fact that the maximum of activity or hard mental work could be secured only under the stimulus of genuine interest4#cj ,possibly the introduction of the industrial arts#ca and the more rational approach which they demand1 may serve to illustrate the method to be used in teaching other subjects4 ,in cooking1 for example1 we would hardly expect to have a child begin by engaging in an exercise in beating eggs without reference to any problem which required this activity4 ,if children are to learn something of wood and its use in our industries1 we commonly expect them to gain some knowledge of the processes involved in the course of the construction of furniture for the playhouse1 a flower box for the window1 a sled1 a checkerboard1 or some other interesting project4 ,it is true that the industrial arts lend themselves more readily to the dominant interests of children to do and to make than do most school subjects4 ,if these activities1 which are essentially the activities characteristic of our modern civilization1 be used to best advantage1 they will offer many opportunities for making significant the other subjects4 ,any considerable participation in the processes which are fundamental to the great industries cannot fail to arouse an interest in the source of materials1 the development of the industry1 and a desire to express one's self with reference to the work which is being done4 ,from the interest in the source of materials grows naturally the work in nature study and geography4 ,the development of the industry takes us back even to the time of primitive man1 and history becomes significant4 ,the handling of materials in construction suggests the need of measurement1 and arithmetic is provided for4 ,in all of this work there will be a demand for communication1 the necessity to learn what others have recorded in books1 and the wish to express one's own experience in oral and written speech4 ,the experiences of people like ourselves1 as idealized in literature1 will make its appeal in spite of the worst our teaching can do4 ,it is not maintained that all subject matter groups itself naturally around industrial activities1 and that these activities should1 therefore1 form the center of the curriculum2 rather1 it is sought to emphasize the relationships to the real needs of children and the possibility of utilizing these genuine motives in the teaching of school subjects4 ,we teach the subjects of the curriculum in order that children may understand their environment1 be adjusted to it1 and1 as ,president ,butler puts it1 come into possession of their spiritual inheritance4 ,out of the work which is done1 these same children should gain power to adapt themselves to new conditions and should be equipped to render service in the progress which is yet to be made in our society4 ,now one's adjustment to the present environment must be an adjustment to his environment1 a solution of his problems as they at present exist4 ,future adaptability is conditioned by the experience which one has had in making such adjustments4 ,the ability to contribute to the progress in which each should participate is dependent1 not so much upon the number of facts one possesses1 as upon the attitude of investigation which characterizes him1 the respect for truth1 and ability to think straight which have been developed by his education4 ,from whatever point of view we approach the problem of teaching our subjects1 the answer is the same3 meet present situations1 solve present real1 vital problems1 make subject matter meet the needs of the children you are teaching4 ,this analysis of the curriculum makes apparent the important part to be played by the teacher in making available the experiences which the school subjects are organized to present4 ,the courses of study may present much that is helpful in the organization of material1 the suggestions for teaching may be gathered from the experience of many teachers1 and still the great problem of making these subjects vital to children remains as the work of every teacher4 ,motives which grow out of the experience which children have already had must be sought4 ,the material to be presented will be significant in the experience of these children only when they approach it in order to satisfy their real needs4 ,aside from the possibility of finding in one of the subjects1 as1 for example1 the industrial arts1 a motive for other work1 the school situation itself presents many opportunities for discovering real needs to children4 ,the school festival1 school parties for parents1 fairs and sales1 the general assembly1 excursions1 gardening or other industrial activity1 plays and games1 have in the hands of skillful teachers provided a compelling motive for a great variety of school work4 ,the author would not deny the power of intellectual interest1 but he knows1 as does every other teacher1 that with children in the elementary school this motive is only gradually developed4 ,the teacher who is alert to find some real need for the computations of arithmetic2 who gives a genuine opportunity for oral or written expression2 who appeals to the desire to use the knowledge gained in history and geography by means of the historical festival1 the article in the school paper1 and the like1 as well as to the curiosity of the child2 who allows children to make real things which satisfy their individual or collective needs in the industrial arts1--is the teacher who is teaching school subjects in the way that will mean most in the education of her pupils4 ,the demand that the teacher vitalize the curriculum does not lose sight of the necessity for drill1 or of the demand that children know1 as a result of their education4 ,as a matter of fact1 the more vital the experiences1 the more apparent it becomes to both teacher and pupil that the fixing of knowledge or the acquiring of skill is a necessary condition of present efficiency and of future progress4 ,the children who have the most genuine need for the multiplication table will be the first to learn it4 ,if you are to read to a whole school and want to have them enjoy with you the selection which you are to interpret1 you will have the best possible reason for good expression4 ,history means something1 if you really need to know the history of a period in order to reproduce accurately its language1 manners1 dress1 and the like in your festival4 ,the mistake which at times has been made by enthusiastic teachers of neglecting the drill side of the work1 has not been due to any difficulty which the situation presented from the standpoint of the children who are engaged in meaningful activities4 ,the teacher may not expect all children to gain equally in command of the experiences represented by the course of study4 ,for her there must literally be courses of study for each subject1 in that she must adapt her work in so far as is possible to individual needs4 ,the office of teacher may well be exalted1 for it is the teacher who must1 because of her insight1 provide for the needs of each child committed to her care1 and in rendering this service provide society with its greatest asset1 a truly educated human being4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,s4 ,t4 ,dutton and ,d4 ,snedden1 ,administration of ,public ,education in the ,united ,states1 ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,exercises4 ,the selections from courses of study are quoted by ,dr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,stone in his monograph on ,arithmetic ,abilities and ,some ,factors ,determining them4 ,in ,dr4 ,stone's study the pupils in twenty-six schools or school systems were tested4 ,one of the problems raised had reference to the excellence of the course of study4 ,the selections quoted represent a variety in excellence such as one will find in the courses of study prepared in any subject4 ,study these selections from the following points of view3-- #a4 ,do any of them give too little information to the teacher concerning the work required in the grade8 #b4 ,do any of them restrict the work of the teacher unduly8 #c4 ,which do you consider the best course of study8 #d4 ,are any of these statements so complete as to relieve the teacher of the necessity of reorganizing the work for her own class8 #e4 ,how would you modify any of these courses of study in order to make it more valuable to teachers8 #f4 ,indicate possible maximum1 minimum1 and optional work in the third-grade work in arithmetic4 ,,selections ,,illustrating ,,general ,,excellence ,from each of two systems ranking among the lowest five in course of study4 #c ,b4 ,speer work4 ,simple work in addition and subtraction1 following the plan in the ,elementary ,arithmetic4 #c ,a4 ,primary ,book4 ,first half page #bf1 second half page #da4 ,,grade ,,iii1 ,,number ,exercises1 mental and written1 in addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 and division of numbers4 ,the processes will be explained4 ,the multiplication table up to #ab will be made by the pupils and thoroughly committed to memory4 ,drill in rapid addition4 ,notation and numeration to five periods4 ,table of weights1 ,united ,states and ,english money4 ,problems in all tables learned4 ,square and cubic measure4 ,troy and apothecaries' weights4 ,principles of multiplication4 ,from the system standing best in course of study4 ,,grade ,,iii ,b ,scope3 ,review the work taught in preceding grades4 7,this review may require from four to six weeks47 ,addition and subtraction of numbers through twenty4 ,multiplication and division tables through #d's4 ,give much practice upon the addition of single columns4 ,abstract addition1 two columns2 the result of each column should not exceed twenty4 ,the writing of numbers through one thousand4 ,roman notation through one hundred4 ,fractions 1 1 and 4 ,the object of the work of this grade is to make pupils ready in the use of the simple fundamental processes4 ,book3 ,cook and ,cropsey's ,new ,elementary ,arithmetic 7for use of teacher71 pp4 #a to #df4 ,the chief difficulty in the work of this grade is in teaching the arithmetical forms as applied to concrete processes4 ,pupils should know very thoroughly the work given on pages #a to #bc1 ,cook and ,cropsey's ,arithmetic1 before any new forms are taught4 ,they have up to this time used the arithmetical signs and the sentence1 and have stated results only4 ,new forms for addition and subtraction are first applied to concrete processes on page #bd4 ,no other forms should be taught until pupils are very familiar with these4 ,a drill should be given showing that these two forms are identical and that we must first know what we wish to use them for1 if applied to problems4 ,write #i #b -- upon the board and indicate your thought by the signs and -4 #i #i #i apples #i apples #b - #b #b - #b --- --- --- --- #aa #g #aa #g apples ,pupils should be very familiar with these forms before any written concrete work is given4 ,when the new form for multiplication is introduced1 this drill should be repeated3 #i #i #i apples #b - #b #b --- --- --- #aa #g #ah ,nothing new should be added to this until pupils can use these forms without confusion4 ,when presenting the new forms for division and partition the same method may be used1 but pupils should use the form for division some weeks before using the same form for partition4 ,it is not necessary to use the division form for partition until the last four weeks of the term1 and not even then1 if there seems to be any danger of confusion in using the same form for both processes4 ,the terms division and partition should not be used4 ,the terms measure and finding one of the equal parts can be easily understood4 ,pupils should be able to read arithmetical forms well1 before any use is made of these forms in their application to written concrete work4 ,all concrete problems should be simple and within the child's experience4 ,,grade ,,iii ,a ,scope3 #a4 ,review the work of ,grade #c ,b4 #b4 ,abstract addition of three columns4 ,subtraction1 using abstract numbers through thousands4 ,addition and subtraction of ,united ,states money4 ,multiplication and division tables through #f's4 ,multiplication and division of abstract numbers through thousands1 using #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e as divisors4 ,addition and subtraction by 8endings0 through #b #i1 last month of term4 ,writing numbers through ten thousands4 ,roman notation through one hundred4 ,fractions 1 1 and 4 #c4 ,application of fundamental processes to simple concrete problems1 of one step4 #d4 ,measures used--inch1 foot1 yard1 square inch2 pint1 quart1 gallon2 peck1 bushel2 second1 minute1 hour1 day1 week1 month1 year4 ,use actual measures4 ,books3 7,in hands of pupils7 ,walsh's ,new ,primary ,arithmetic1 pp4 #a to #fh4 7,for teachers' use7 ,cook and ,cropsey's ,new ,elementary ,arithmetic1 pp4 #df to #he1 ,article #aje4 ,even with only the work of a single grade to judge from1 one has no difficulty in recognizing the wide difference in the excellence of these courses4 ,as may be seen from ,table ,,xxviii1 page #gc1 in the rating they stand about thirty steps apart1 i4e4 the one from which the third illustration was taken has a score of #fe1 while the others have scores of #cb and #ci1 respectively4 ,,selections ,,illustrating ,,excellence ,,in ,,drill ,,and ,,in ,,concreteness ,from the system ranking next to the best in drill4 ,,grade ,,iii ,b ,i4 ,objective4 #a4 ,work4 a4 ,fractions4 ,review previous work4 ,teach new fractions2 #gths1 #ajths1 and #abths4 b4 ,notation1 numeration1 addition and subtraction of numbers to #ajjj4 c4 ,liquid and dry measures4 d4 ,united ,states money4 e4 ,weights4 #b4 ,objects and ,devices4 a4 ,counting frame4 b4 ,splints1 disks for fractions1 etc4 c4 ,shelves4 d4 ,liquid and dry measure4 e4 ,united ,states money4 f4 ,scales4 ,,ii4 ,abstract4 #a4 ,work4 a4 ,counting to #ajj by #b's1 #aj's1 #c's1 #d's1 #i's1 #aa's1 #e's1 beginning with any number under #aj2 counting backwards by same numbers1 beginning with any number under #ajj4 b4 ,multiplication tables4 ,review tables already studied4 ,teach #g and #i4 c4 ,drill in recognizing sum of three numbers at a glance2 review combinations already learned2 #bj new ones4 #b4 ,devices4 a4 ,combination cards1 large and small4 b4 ,wheels4 c4 ,chart for addition and subtraction4 d4 ,fraction chart4 e4 ,miscellaneous drill cards4 f4 ,pack of 8three0 combination cards4 ,prince's ,arithmetic1 ,book ,,iii1 ,sects4 ,i and ,,ii4 ,speer's ,elementary ,arithmetic1 pp4 #a-ee4 ,shelves3 ,see ,,ii ,a4 ,combination ,cards3 large and small4 ,these cards should contain all the facts of multiplication tables #c1 #f1 #h1 #g1 and #i4 ,as3-- #g #a #b #g #g #a #ba #c #a #g #g #c #ad #b #ba #g1 etc4 #g #b #c #g #ad #g ,for use of these cards1 see directions in ,i ,b4 ,wheels for ,multiplication and ,division3 ,see directions under ,,ii ,a4 ,chart for ,adding and ,subtracting3 ,for directions1 see ,,ii ,b and ,,ii ,a4 ,add and subtract #b's1 #c's1 #d's1 #e's1 #i's1 #aj's1 #aa's1 #ab's1 #ae's1 and #bj's4 ,fraction ,chart shows1 1 1 1 1 #a_/f1 #a_/i1 #a_/ab4 ,miscellaneous ,drill ,cards3 ,for directions1 see ,i ,a4 8,three0 ,combination ,cards3 ,for use1 see ,i ,a4 ,,grade ,,iii ,a ,i4 ,objective4 #a4 ,work4 a4 ,fractions previously assigned4 b4 ,notation1 numeration1 addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 and division of numbers to #ajjj4 c4 ,long and square measures4 d4 ,weights4 #b4 ,objects and ,devices3 a4 ,counting frame4 b4 ,splints1 disks for fractions1 etc4 c4 ,shelves4 d4 ,scales4 ,,ii4 ,abstract4 #a4 ,work4 a4 ,counting to #ajj by any number from #b to #ab1 inclusive1 beginning with any number under #aj2 counting by same numbers backward1 beginning with any number under #ajj4 b4 ,multiplication tables--all tables4 c4 ,drill in recognizing sum of three numbers at a glance2 review combinations already learned2 #bj new ones4 #b4 ,devices4 a4 ,combination cards--large and small4 b4 ,wheels4 c4 ,chart for adding and subtracting4 d4 ,chart for fractions4 e4 ,miscellaneous drill cards4 f4 ,pack of 8three0 combination cards4 ,prince's ,arithmetic1 ,book ,,iii1 ,sects4 ,,iii to ,,vi1 inclusive4 ,speer's ,elementary ,arithmetic1 pp4 #ef-ajd4 ,shelves3 ,see ,,ii a4 ,combination ,cards3 large and small4 ,the cards should contain all the facts of the multiplication tables #aa and #ab1 also the most difficult combinations from the other multiplication tables4 ,as3-- #ab #a #ab #a #bd #b #a #ab #ab #ab #bd #ab1 etc4 #ab #b #ab #b #b #ab #ab #c ,for use of cards1 see directions in ,i ,b4 ,wheels for ,multiplication and ,division3 ,see directions under ,,ii ,a4 ,chart for ,adding and ,subtracting3 ,for directions1 see ,,ii ,b and ,,ii ,a4 ,add and subtract #f's1 #g's1 #h's1 #ac's1 #ad's1 #af's1 #ag's1 #ah's1 and #ai's4 ,review other numbers under #bj4 ,chart for ,fractions shows all fractions already assigned4 ,miscellaneous ,drill ,cards3 ,for directions1 see ,i ,a4 ,from the system ranking best in concreteness4 ,mathematics3 ,if the children are actually doing work which has social value1 they must gain accurate knowledge of the activities in which they are engaged4 ,they will keep a record of all expenses for materials used in the school1 and will do simple bookkeeping in connection with the store which has charge of this material4 ,in cooking1 weights and measures will be learned4 ,the children will also keep accounts of the cost of ingredients4 ,proportions will be worked out in the cooking recipes4 ,when the children dramatize the life of the trader1 in connection with history1 they have opportunity to use all standards of measurements4 ,number is demanded in almost all experimental science work2 for instance1 the amount of water contained in the different kinds of fruit1 or the amount of water evaporated from fruits under different conditions 7in drying fruits74 ,all plans for wood work will be worked to a scale and demand use of fractions4 ,when the children have encountered many problems which they must solve in order to proceed with their work1 they are ready to be drilled on the processes involved until they gain facility in the use of these4 ,the children should be able to think through the problems which arise in their daily work1 and have automatic use of easy numbers1 addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 short division1 and easy fractions4 ,as one reads these two samples of excellence he must find that each is so excellent in its one strong feature that it is not good2 that work according to either must suffer2 that what each needs is what the other has4 ,such a synthesis is represented in the next illustration4 ,a ,combination of ,excellences ,september4 #a4 ,measure height1 determine weight4 ,from records determine growth since ,september1 #aije4 #b4 ,learn to read thermometer4 ,make accurately1 scale one fourth inch representing two degrees on paper one inch broad4 ,find average temperature of different days of month4 ,practice making figures from #a to #ajj for the thermometer scale4 ,count #ajj by #b's4 #c4 ,make temperature chart4 #d4 ,measure and space calendar1 making figures of size appropriate to inch squares4 ,learn names of numbers to #cj4 #e4 ,make inch-wide tape measure for use in nature study1 number book and cubic-inch seed boxes4 #f4 ,review telling time4 ,a4 ,in addition to above2 analyze numbers from #aa to #dj into tens and ones4 ,walsh's ,primary ,arithmetic to top of page #aj4 ,october4 ,problems on calendar1--number of clear1 of cloudy1 and of rainy days in ,september4 ,compare with ,september1 #aije1 #aijd1 #aijc1 #aijb2 temperature chart and thermometer2 height and weight4 ,lay off beds for tree seeds2 plant the same4 ,make envelopes for report cards4 ,drill on combinations in the above4 ,make rod strings and hundred-foot strings for determining distance wing seeds are carried from plants4 ,practice making figures from #a to #ajj for thermometer scale4 ,develop table of tens4 ,a4 ,in addition to the above analyze numbers from #dj to #ej into tens and ones4 ,primary ,arithmetic1 pp4 #aj-bb4 ,teach pupils to add at sight4 ,november4 ,from wall calendar count number of clear days1 of cloudy days1 and rainy days in ,october4 ,compare with ,september2 with ,october of #aije1 of #aijf4 ,find average daily temperature2 #h4cj ,a4,m41 #a ,p4,m4 ,what kind of trees grow fastest8 ,measure growth of twigs of different kinds of trees4 ,compare this year's growth with that of last year and of year before last4 ,compare rate of growth of different kinds of trees1 as oak1 willow1 ,carolina poplar1 and elm4 ,develop table of #e's from lesson with clock dial2 review #b's and #aj's4 ,practice making figures from #a to #ajj for the thermometer scale4 ,learn words representing numbers as well as figures4 ,make seed envelope4 ,a4 ,analyze numbers from #fj to #fe into tens and ones4 ,primary ,arithmetic4 ,b1 pp4 #ag-bf2 ,a1 pp4 #ci-di4 ,last six weeks of first term4--,continue finding average daily temperature4 ,from wall calendar count number of clear1 of cloudy1 and of rainy days in ,november4 ,compare with ,november1 #aijf1 #aije4 ,continue measurements on growth of trees4 ,drill on telling time from clock dial4 ,practice making figures from #a to #ajj for thermometer scale4 ,continue learning words representing numbers4 ,review tables of #b's1 #e's1 #aj's2 learn table of #c's4 ,primary ,arithmetic4 ,b1 pp4 #bg-dj4 ,analyze numbers from #aa to #cj into tens and ones4 ,primary ,arithmetic4 ,a1 pp4 #di-fa4 ,analyze numbers from #ff to #ajj into tens and ones4 ,in ,january review all facts in number book4 ,drill on tables4 7,only the first one half of the third year's course shown47 ,the system from which this last selection is taken had the following remarkable rankings3 #c;d best in general excellence1 #b;d best in concreteness1 and #eth best in drill4 ,and as measured by the tests of this study1 this system stood #dth from the best in abilities1 and spent a little less than the medium amount of time4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,measuring ,,results ,,in ,,education ,efficiency in any line of human endeavor depends upon our ability to evaluate the results which are secured4 ,no one would question the progress which has been made in education during the past hundred years2 but one may very justly inquire concerning the efficiency of the work that has been done from the standpoint of the money which has been spent1 and the effort and devotion of those who have engaged in teaching4 ,in the mercantile pursuits it has been noted that seven out of every ten failures can be charged directly to a lack of knowledge of facts4 ,such investigations as we have had in education tend to prove that a like situation is to be found in this field4 ,the failures in education1 whether due to a lack of economical use of the funds available1 to an inefficient system of organization1 or to unintelligent practices in method1 are1 on the whole1 not to be charged to a lack of devotion on the part of those who have given their lives to the schools4 ,until it is possible to measure the results achieved1 the facts of success or failure cannot be established4 ,of course1 no one would deny that real progress is made by the process of trial and success1 both in the art of teaching and in the practice of administration4 ,it is true1 too1 that we shall have to depend in considerable measure upon demonstration as a means of bringing about improvement in current educational practice4 ,it is none the less true1 however1 that scientific work in education will furnish the basis for the more rapid elimination of the mistakes in current practice1 as well as point the way for improved organization of teaching4 ,the science of education will1 in its development1 occupy relatively the same position with reference to the art of teaching that the science of medicine occupies with respect to the art of healing4 ,the progress which has been made during the past twenty-five years in the art of farming would never have been possible without the scientific work that has been done in agriculture4 ,aside from the fact that we are only beginning to have a profession of education1 many other factors have entered to delay the progress in the direction of standardizing our work by means of accurate measurement of the results achieved4 ,one of the most comforting of the fallacies which are at times urged against the attempt to measure results is found in the popular statement that the only criterion by which the success of school work can be measured is found in the ultimate success of the individuals who are subjected to the process4 ,the most inefficient teacher in the most poorly equipped school1 if his period of service has been long enough1 will point to the success of a few of the boys who once attended that particular school1 as proof of the adequacy of the work which is now being done4 ,the failures are never brought to mind4 ,the fallacious reasoning found in such an appeal is all too common in our educational discussion4 ,to take a selected group of individuals1 who have1 because of native ability1 and possibly because of favorable environment1 achieved distinction2 and to claim that this success is due to our system of education1 may be satisfying to our pride1 but cannot appeal to our good judgment4 ,the only available measure of the success of the work done in any particular school is to be found in the changes which are brought about in boys and girls1 young men and young women1 during the period of their school life4 ,it has been argued1 too1 that that which is most worth while in education cannot be measured4 ,those who advance this argument speak continually in terms of 8atmosphere10 8spirit10 and the like4 ,there are two replies to be made to this contention4 ,the one is that any power which the teacher has1 whether it is called influence1 or ability to teach arithmetic1 must result in some change in the children who are taught4 ,another equally valid answer is to be found in the fact that the best teachers of arithmetic1 of literature1 of geography1 of history1 and the other studies are1 at the same time1 the teachers whose influence we value most in the school4 ,we have been hopeful that the sciences of biology1 psychology1 sociology1 and economics would1 in their development1 solve the problems of education4 ,no one would deny the significance of the work done in these fields as fundamental to the development of scientific work in education4 ,no one is fully equipped to undertake investigation in the field of education without preliminary training in these fundamental sciences4 ,progress in the science of education has come1 however1 through the efforts of those men of sound fundamental training who have attacked the problems of education as such1 rather than through the work of the biologist1 psychologist1 sociologist1 or economist4 ,if we should wait for the sciences mentioned to solve our problems1 progress would indeed be slow4 ,those who are unacquainted with modern statistical methods as applied in the social sciences have at times felt that it was impossible to measure large groups of individuals who differ in ability1 in interest1 and in environment4 ,it is impossible within the limits of a brief chapter to make clear the validity of such measurement4 ,it may be confidently asserted1 however1 that the measurement of a large group of individuals is1 on the whole1 more satisfactory than the attempt to measure a single individual4 ,we can be more sure of the accuracy of our results in comparing two groups of children of a thousand each1 than we could in the attempt to measure accurately a single individual with regard to ability in school subjects4 ,a most persistent objection to the measuring of results comes from those who feel that it is not fair to compare individuals or groups who are not alike in all particulars4 ,they would claim1 for example1 that we cannot compare children in spelling ability when one group comes from homes in which the ,english language is spoken1 while the other comes from the homes of those who speak a foreign language4 ,it is probable that this objection is due to a belief that measurement will result in a comparison of the present situation without any regard to the growth or development which has characterized the group4 ,if we derive units of measurement in spelling1 manifestly the attempt would be to measure the changes which have been brought about in any group in terms of units which are comparable4 ,if group one shows ability ten1 having advanced during the year from ability seven1 it will be considered just as satisfactory as the advance which has been made in group two1 which has moved from ability eight to ability eleven4 ,in other words1 the purpose of measurement is never to attempt to make all alike4 ,it is rather to discover differences and the reason for their existence2 but most of all to give us some adequate means of determining progress or change4 ,let us suppose again1 in a matter of business administration1 that one school shows a much higher per capita cost than another4 ,this does not prove that one school is more efficiently managed than another4 ,what it does do is to suggest that some adequate reason is to be found for the difference which exists4 ,in like manner1 one city may show a much higher cost for janitors' salaries than does another4 ,this may suggest investigation1 but it does not prove that the city with the higher cost for janitors' service is inefficiently managed or extravagant in its expenditures4 ,it may be that the city that spends a relatively large amount for janitorial service actually gets more per dollar for the money which it spends than does the city with the smaller cost4 ,it is always a purpose of measurement to discover discrepancies and to raise problems4 ,it has been contended that it is not important to derive scales or units of measurement on the ground that the scientific study of education is significant only in so far as it has to do with a careful investigation of the processes involved in growth4 ,those who make this contention seem to feel that a careful study of the way in which children come to form habits1 to grow in power of reasoning1 or in ability to appreciate1 will give us the final answer concerning the methods to be employed in teaching4 ,the difficulty with this point of view is that human beings1 even though they be trained in investigation1 are fallible4 ,the only final test of the success of any method1 however carefully derived1 and however much of it may depend upon a knowledge of the processes involved in growth in the particular aspect of mental life which is involved1 is to be found in the result achieved4 ,theoretically a method may seem to be perfect1 and yet in terms of the results which are secured it may prove to be a failure4 ,if the results are not accurately measured1 if we do not derive scales of measurement1 we can never be certain of our conclusions with regard to the method to be employed in bringing about any particular type of mental growth or development4 ,possibly the one element in the situation which has operated to retard development in the direction of accurate measurement of results1 more than any other1 is the tendency in education to appeal to authority1 and the corresponding lack of devotion to scientific investigation4 ,it is1 of course1 much easier to solve the problems which one meets by taking the opinion of those who have had experience in the field4 ,no one would deny the value of the judgment of our great educational leaders4 ,the fact remains1 however1 that these same leaders would be the last ones to place their own opinion in opposition to the results obtained from a careful scientific investigation4 ,indeed1 it is in no small measure due to the insistence of these leaders that we are coming to have adequate investigations with regard to our educational practice4 ,it has seemed necessary to discuss at some length the objections which have been made against the attempt to measure results in education1 rather than to devote more space to a discussion of the work which has already been done4 ,all students of education are familiar with the early work of ,rice1 and with the later contributions of ,thorndike1 ,ayres1 ,cornman1 and many others who have contributed to the literature of educational investigation4 ,possibly the most significant piece of work that has been done is ,thorndike's scale for measuring handwriting4#cb ,we may reasonably hope to have scales derived for the measurement of abilities in other subjects4 ,in administration1 considerable work has already been done with reference to the cost of education1 both as regards the relationship of expenditure for education to other expenditures1 the question of a proper distribution of money within the educational budget1 and of the proper distribution of state school funds4#cc ,we can1 of course1 hope for much more significant work in this field as more adequate systems of accounting are introduced and more satisfactory reports are issued4 ,it is noteworthy that in those school systems in which an attempt has been made to check up expenditures carefully1 remarkable savings have been made4 ,we have not yet reached the limit of possible reduction of expenditure without the sacrifice of our present efficiency4 ,much work has been done on problems of school organization1 yet the problems of retardation and elimination will be satisfactorily treated only as we secure more accurate records concerning attendance1 scholarship1 health1 promotions1 and demotions1 such as are provided for by the genetic records now kept in some of our more progressive school systems4 ,the problems of departmental work and individual instruction can never be satisfactorily solved until we measure accurately the results secured under different systems of organization4 ,implicit in all of the argument which has been advanced in favor of measuring results is the contention that education means change4 ,if changes are brought about in the children who are being educated1 then there must be the possibility of measurement4 ,these changes may take place in habit1 in knowledge1 in methods of work1 in interests and ideals1 and in power of appreciation4 ,probably no one would question the possibility of measuring the change which takes place in the formation of habits4 ,we have quite commonly been willing to measure growth in knowledge by tests which demand that students not only remember facts1 but that they show some ability to apply them4 ,whether or not a student commands a particular method of work can be determined by observation of his method of procedure as well as by the results that he secures4 ,if interests or ideals are changed1 there necessarily follows a change in activity4 ,any real power of appreciation will be accompanied by some change in expression4 ,the fact that we do not yet have scales or units of measurement which will enable us to evaluate accurately the results obtained in all of the different forms of school activity is not an argument against the possibility of measurement4 ,in any field the development of units of measurement is dependent upon careful investigation1 and upon a realization of the imperfection of the units already used4 ,it is only as we insist upon measurement that we can hope to have our units refined4 ,take for example the problem of grades or marks which are commonly assigned to students as a measure of their efficiency in doing school work4 ,any investigation of these units will show that there is very great variation in their application by different members of the teaching corps4 ,the way to bring about a remedy is not to abolish all marks or grades1 but rather to study the problem of the proper distribution of marks1 and1 if necessary1 to weigh differently the marks of different instructors4 ,the more imperfect the unit of measure which we now apply1 the greater the need for insisting upon accurate measurement4 ,the first step in the development of scientific inquiry in any field is found in accurate description of the phenomena involved4 ,the demand that we measure results in education is simply a demand that the basis for scientific investigation be made available by means of this accurate description of the situation as it exists4 ,some investigators in education have already been able to take the further steps in scientific inquiry which have enabled them to foretell with considerable accuracy the results which might be expected in education under given conditions4 ,further progress is1 however1 dependent upon that sort of measurement which will discover problems which are not now clearly defined or which have not yet been thought of4 ,of course1 as inferences are made in the light of the problems suggested1 there will be still further necessity for accurate measurement4 ,when those who are charged with the responsibility of determining educational policy appeal to fact rather than to opinion1 when we are able to evaluate accurately that which we achieve1 educational progress will be assured and a profession of education will have been established4 ,we shall always have most excellent work in teaching done by those for whom scientific investigation1 as such1 means little4 ,the investigations made will1 however1 modify the practice of these same teachers through changed demands and because of the demonstration of the validity of the new method of work by those who can appreciate the significance of results achieved by investigators4 ,it is certainly to be expected that open-minded teachers will experiment for themselves and will aid in the work of the expert who must use the schools as his laboratory4 ,much depends upon the coperation and good will of all who are engaged in teaching4 ,it is not too much to expect that the spirit of investigation will be found in large measure to characterize those whose privilege it is to provide the situation in which intellectual development is stimulated4 ,an example of a study involving the coperation of the pupils1 teachers1 and supervisory officers of twenty-six separate schools or school systems is ,dr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,stone's study on ,arithmetical ,abilities and ,some of the ,factors ,determining them4 ,the following quotations from ,dr4 ,stone's study indicate the type of result which we may hope to get from such investigations4 ,in ,reasoning ,the scores for the reasoning problems were determined from the results of two preliminary tests--one1 giving one hundred #fth grade pupils all the time they needed to do the problems as well as they could in the order as printed 7see page #aa72 and another1 giving one hundred #fth grade pupils all the time they needed to do the problems as well as they could in the reverse order from that as printed4 ,the results as tabulated below in table ,,ii show that scores for reasoning problems of ,grade ,,vi pupils can be very definitely arranged in a scale on the basis of relative difficulty4 ,just what the scale should be can only be determined by determining the form of distribution and the location of the zero point4 ,from what is known of these the scale of weighting shown in the last column of table ,,ii is believed to be the best1 and this is the one employed in the computations of this study4 ,however1 in order to enable the reader to satisfy himself as to which is the best method1 the scores of the twenty-six systems were calculated on each of three other bases--7#a7 counting each problem reasoned correctly a score of #a2 7#b7 counting each problem reasoned correctly a score based on the ratio of its difficulty as shown in the next to the last column of table ,,ii2 and 7#c7 counting the scores made on only the first six problems for which presumably all pupils of all systems had ample time4 ,see ,appendix1 p4 #ih4 ,in both reasoning and fundamentals the scores used as a measure of the achievement of a system were computed by combining the scores of one hundred pupils4 ,where more than one hundred pupils were tested1 the papers used were drawn at random1 the number drawn from each class being determined by the ratio of its number to the total number tested in the system4 ,where less than one hundred pupils were tested1 the combined scores made were raised to the basis of one hundred pupils4 ,,table ,,ii ,,preliminary ,,tests ,,reasoning--,,unlimited ,,time #ajj ,different ,pupils ,tested ,each ,time ,,number ,,of ,,reasoned ,,reasoned ,,average ,,weight ,,weight ,,used ,,problems ,,correctly ,,correctly ,,reasoned ,,according ,,to,,as ,,probably ,,as ,,printed,,as ,,reversed,,correctly ,,average ,,the ,,best ,,correct ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #a #ie #ib4f #ic4h #a #a #b #hf #hb4b #hd4a #a4a #a #c #id #hi #ia4e #a #a #d #hj #hc #ha4e #a4e #a #e #hh #hf #hg #a4a #a #f #fi #eg4d #fc4b #a4e #a4d #g #gj #hj #ge #a4be #a4b #h #bi #dd #cf4e #b4f #a4f #i #ai #ae4e #ag4b #e4de #b #aj #bd #bg4d #be4g #c4f #b #aa #ag #g4e #ab4c #g4f #b #ab #g #af4d #aa4g #h #b ,precautions observed to make the ,scoring ,accurate ,the simplicity of the tests made the scoring comparatively easy2 and with the observance of the following precautions it is believed that a high degree of accuracy was attained4 7#a7 ,in so far as practicable1 all the papers were scored by a single judge--only two persons being employed on any phase of the work for the entire twenty-six systems2 7#b7 each problem was scored through one hundred or more papers1 then the next followed through1 etc42 7#c7 the score for each part of each problem1 the errors1 etc41 were entered on a blank provided with a separate column for each item2 7#d7 where there was doubt as to how the score should be made1 the scorer made a written memorandum of how the case was finally decided and this memorandum served as the guide for all future similar cases4 ,what the ,scores ,measure ,as used in this study the words achievements1 products1 abilities1 except where otherwise qualified1 must necessarily refer to the results of the particular tests employed in this investigation4 ,that some systems may achieve other and possibly quite as worth-while results from their arithmetic work is not denied2 but what is denied is that any system can safely fail to attain good results in the work covered by these particular tests4 ,whatever else the arithmetic work may produce1 it seems safe to say that by the end of the sixth school year1 it should result in at least good ability in the four fundamental operations and the simple1 everyday kind of reasoning called for in these problems4 ,it does not then seem unreasonable1 in view of the precautions previously enumerated1 to claim that the scores made by the respective systems afford a reliable measure of the products of their respective procedures in arithmetic4 ,the ,data ,the source of the data used to help answer the above questions is some six thousand test papers gathered from twenty-six representative school systems4 ,copies of the tests may be found in ,part ,i1 pages #aj and #aa2 as may also a statement of conditions under which the tests were personally given by the author1 page #ac2 and the method of scoring1 pages #ae to #ah4 ,the achievements are considered from two standpoints--7#a7 the scores and mistakes of the systems as systems1 7#b7 the scores of individual pupils as individuals4 ,table ,,iii gives the scores made in reasoning by each of the twenty-six systems1 counting all the problems that were solved1 and weighting them according to the last column of table ,,ii4 ,the ,roman numerals used in the left-hand column to designate the systems are those that fell to each system by lot4 ,as seen by the column headed scores made1 the systems are arranged according to number of scores1 i4e4 system ,,xxiii made three hundred fifty-six points1 the lowest score1 and is placed first in the table2 system ,,xxiv made four hundred twenty-nine points1 and is placed second1 etc4 ,system ,v1 having made the highest score1 is placed last in the table4 ,,achievements ,,of ,,the ,,systems ,,as ,,systems ,,measured ,,by ,,scores ,,made ,,table ,,iii#cd ,,table ,,iv ,,scores ,,of ,,the ,,twenty-,,six ,,systems ,,in ,,scores ,,of ,,the ,,twenty-,,six ,,systems ,,reasoning ,,with ,,deviations ,,from ,,the ,,in ,,fundamentals ,,with ,,deviations ,,median4 ,,scores ,,from ,,all ,,problems ,,from ,,the ,,median4 ,,scores ,,from ,,all ,,problems ,m#ce #eea ,m #caaa ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,systems ,devia- ,systems ,devia- in ,devia- tions in in ,devia- tions in ,order of tions ,per ,cent,order of tions ,per ,cent ,achieve- ,scores from the of the ,achieve- ,scores from the of the ment ,made#cf ,median ,median ment ,made ,median ,median ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,xxiii #cef -#aie -#ce ,,xxiii #ahda -#abgj -#da ,,xxiv #dbi -#abb -#bb ,,xxv #bafg -#idd -#cj ,,xvii #ddd -#ajg -#ai ,,xx #bafh -#idc -#cj ,,iv #dfd -#hg -#af ,,xxii #bcaa -#hjj -#bf ,,xxv #dfd -#hg -#af ,,viii #bgdg -#cfd -#ab ,,xxii #dfh -#hc -#ae ,x #bgdi -#cfb -#ab ,,xvi #dfi -#hb -#ae ,,xv #bggi -#ccb -#aa ,,xx #dia -#fj -#aa ,,iii #bhde -#bff -#h ,,xviii #eji -#db -#h ,i #bice -#agf -#f ,,xv #ecb -#ai -#c ,,xxi #biea -#afj -#e ,,iii #ecc -#ah -#c ,,ii #bieh -#aec -#e ,,viii #ech -#ac -#b ,,xvii #cjdb -#fi -#b ,,vi #eej -#a -#b ,,xiii #cjdi -#fb -#b ,i #eeb #a #b ,,vi #cagc #fb #b ,x #fja #ej #i ,,xi #cbfa #aej #e ,,ii #fae #fd #ab ,,ix #cdjd #bic #i ,,xxi #fbg #gf #ad ,,xii #cdaj #bii #aj ,,xiii #fcf #he #ae ,,xxiv #ceac #djb #ac ,,xiv #ffa #aaj #ai ,,xiv #cefa #dej #ad ,,ix #fia #adj #bj ,,iv #cefc #deb #ad ,,vii #gcd #ahc #cc ,v #cefi #deh #ae ,,xii #gcf #ahe #cd ,,xxvi #cfhb #ega #ah ,,xi #gei #bjh #ch ,,xvi #cgjg #eif #ai ,,xxvi #gia #bdj #dd ,,xviii #cgeh #fdg #ba ,,xix #hdh #big #ed ,,vii #cghb #fga #bb ,v #iad #cfc #ff ,,xix #djii #ihh #ca ,the middle column gives the deviations from the median1 which is that measure above and below which one half the cases lie4 ,in this table the median is five hundred fifty-one4 ,these deviations serve to show the differences in scores made2 and they are also employed in computing the measures of variability and relationship4 ,the third column is the deviations in per cent of the median4 ,it affords another expression of the difference in size of scores made by the systems4 ,table ,,iv reads exactly as ,,iii1 the scores#cg being those made on all problems of the test in fundamentals4 ,these two tables give some general help on the nature of the product of the first six years of arithmetic work4 ,one very evident fact is the lack of uniformity among systems2 another is the lack of correspondence of relative position among the systems in the two tables4 ,with the exception of systems ,,xxiii and ,,xiv1 no system occupies the same relative position in the two tables1 e4g4 system ,,xxiv stands second from the lowest in reasoning and eighteenth from the lowest in fundamentals4 ,this fact is more accurately summarized in the coefficients of correlation1 table ,,xv1 p4 #cg4 ,as seen from its heading1 table ,,xxii gives the systems in order of achievements4 ,these serial standings are derived from tables ,,iii and ,,iv4 ,reading from the top1 system ,,xxiii has an average serial standing of one1 being lowest in both reasoning and fundamentals2 system ,,xxv ranks three in average serial standing1 being fourth from lowest in reasoning and second from lowest in fundamentals2 the readings for the other systems are similar4 ,column ,heading ,keys3 ,,sys ,,systems ,a ,average serial standing ,b ,serial standing in reasoning ,c ,serial standing in fundamentals ,d ,serial standing in time expenditure ,e ,week minutes devoted to arithmetic ,f ,week minutes devoted to all subjects ,g of time to arithmetic ,,table ,,xxii ,,table ,,xxiii ,,table ,,xxiv ,,comparative ,,comparative ,,time ,,time ,,distribution ,,achievements ,,expenditure ,,among ,,grades ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,lower numbers show week minutes devoted to arithmetic2 upper show of school time devoted to ,,sys arithmetic in each grade ----------------------------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,,iv ,v ,,vi ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,xxiii #g #f #ab #ae #ae #ae #a #a #a #ad #aaej #ifge #ab #ajj #ajj #bjj #bej #bej #bej ,,xxv #g #i #aj #i #ac #c #d #b #b #gbb #hgjj #h 44 #ajj #adj #aee #acj #aig ,,xxii #h #h #h #g #aa #d #e #d #a #ejg #gbjj #g 44 #ij #ij #ij #ij #adg ,,xx #g #aj #ab #ad #ae #ae #e #g #c #ae #aafa #hbjj #ad #hj #aac #baj #bdj #bfe #bec ,,xvii #b #ab #bj #bj #bd #bc #g #c #ab #ba #abhc #gejj #ag #bg #aeh #bej #beh #cjj #bij ,,viii #b #ad #ae #ae #ae #ae #h #aa #e #ah #abeh #ifjj #ac #be #bcc #bej #bej #bej #bej ,,xv #aa #ae #bj #ag #ah #h #i #g #af #aagc #hjbe #ae 44 #adg #bac #bib #bej #bga ,,iii #aj #i #aa #aa #ab #af #i #aj #h #f #idd #hjbe #ab #abe #abe #aej #aej #afe #bbi ,,xxiv #ad #ag #ag #ag #aj #b #ah #g #iej #hgge #aa 44 44 #bjj #bej #bej #bej ,x #g #ab #ab #ad #ah #aj #ad #f #e #iba #heej #aa 44 #hh #aed #ahd #baf #bgi ,i #i #ac #ad #ad #ae #aa #ac #i #i #ajfh #icge #aa 44 #acj #bac #bch #bch #bdi ,,iv #bh #bj #bj #bd #bj #bc #ab #d #bj #bf #ahed #hdjj #bb #bdi #cjj #cjf #cfa #cjj #cch ,,ii #h #ab #ad #ad #ae #af #ac #ae #aa #ag #abdg #iijj #ac #aba #aib #bag #bbe #bcc #bei ,,xxi #h #aj #aj #ab #ad #ac #ac #af #aj #d #hfe #gfej #aa #hj #ajj #ajj #ahj #baj #aie ,,vi #h #ab #ah #ah #ai #ac #ab #ad #aa #aabf #ijjj #ac 44 #abg #agg #bff #bff #bij ,,xvi #e #h #ac #ah #ag #af #ad #f #bc #ab #aabg #ijjj #ac #ge #aac #ahg #bfc #bea #bch ,,xiii #bf #bc #ah #ai #ai #ae #ag #ac #be #afbf #hdge #ai 44 #chh #cej #bhh #cjj #cjj ,,xviii #f #e #ae #bj #bj #ai #af #h #bd #ai #abfe #hgjj #ae #ge #ge #bbe #cjj #cjj #bij ,,ix #ac #ae #ah #ah #ah #ba #ag #ai #af #bb #aeei #ijjj #ag #bjj #bbe #bge #bge #bge #cji ,,xi #aa #ae #ah #ah #ah #ah #bb #ae #aj #aacj #hege #ac 44 #aeg #baf #bej #bej #beg ,,xiv #ae #af #ah #ai #ai #ai #ah #ah #aj #bc #aefj #hhej #ah #bbe #bde #bgj #bhj #bgj #bgj ,,xii #f #ah #af #ai #ai #ai #ba #ag #ac #aadh #hdjj #ad 44 #ha #bbf #bee #bhh #bih ,,xxvi #g #aj #aj #ac #ac #ag #bb #bc #bb #c #hcg #gbjj #ab #hj #abe #abe #aej #aej #bjg ,,vii #ac #ai #bb #bb #bb #ag #bb #bj #be #bd #aegc #ghjj #bj #age #bfb #cjj #cjj #cjj #bcf ,v #h #aj #aa #ab #ac #ac #bc #be #ba #h #iga #hgjj #aa #aac #aed #afg #age #ahc #agi ,,xix #h #aj #ag #ag #ac #bj #be #bd #bf #bj #abgf #ijjj #ad #abe #aej #bej #bej #bej #cja 44 no time assigned4 ,tables ,,xxiii and ,,xxiv keep the same order of systems and show the time expenditure4 ,the first line of table ,,xxiii reads1--system ,,xxiii ranks fourteenth from the lowest in time expenditure1 with #aaej week minutes devoted to arithmetic1 #ifge week minutes devoted to all subjects1 the #aaej week minutes devoted to arithmetic being #ab per cent of the #ifge week minutes devoted to all subjects4 ,similarly for the other systems1 e4g4 system ,,xxv with a serial standing in abilities of three1 and a serial standing in time expenditure of two1 spends #gbb week minutes on arithmetic1 and #hgjj week minutes on all subjects1 arithmetic costing #h per cent of all the school time4 ,the reader will recognize that the third column1 which gives the time devoted to all subjects for one week of each of the first six years1 gives the only new data of this table1 column two being the same as given in table ,,xxi and the first and fourth columns being derived from the others4 ,probably the first essential shown by this table is the lack of correspondence between the serial standing in time cost and the serial standing in abilities2 e4g4 the system with the lowest time cost is found by referring to table ,,xiii to be system ,,xxii1 which is seen in table ,,xxii to rank four and one-half in average abilities4 ,similarly1 the system that ranks fifteenth in time cost1 ranks fifth in abilities1 etc4 ,another noticeable showing is the wide variability in the school time of the systems4 ,it will be seen to vary from #gbjj to #iijj week minutes4 ,this time includes recesses1 and it means that lengths of school days vary from an average of four hours to five and one-half hours4 ,and if the names of the systems were given1 it would be recognized that almost invariably the longer school hours are accompanied by the least amount of variation in program1 such as physical education1 field trips1 assemblies1 etc4 ,perhaps the other most striking fact of this table is the wide variation in the per cent of time devoted to arithmetic4 ,it varies from #bb per cent for system ,,iv to #g per cent for system ,,xxii1 a difference of more than three to one4 ,as table ,,xxiv is part of the discussion of factors in time expenditure1 its sample readings are given under that heading1 page #fb4 ,the ,relation of ,time ,expenditure to ,abilities ,produced ,the reader found one indication of the relation1 or lack of relation1 between time cost and products in tables ,,xxii and ,,xxiii4 ,each of the three following tables expresses these same facts4 ,,table ,,xxv ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,achievements ,,of ,,the ,,systems ,,having ,,less ,,than ,,median ,,time ,,cost ,,with ,,those ,,having ,,more ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,combined ,,scores ,,of ,,the ,,thirteen ,,systems ---------------------------------------- --------- ,with less ,with more ,with less ,with more than median than median than median than median time cost time cost time cost time cost ---------------------------------------- --------- ,including home study ,without home study ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,reasoning #g1eai #g1hic #g1bgg #h1ace ,fundamentals #dj1gea #dj1bgc #cg1afe #dc1hei ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,table ,,xxvi ,,ratio ,,of ,,time ,,expenditures ,,to ,,abilities#ch ,,average ,,ratios ,,reasoning ,,ratios ,,fundamental ,,ratios ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,systems ,serial ,time ,cost ,serial ,time ,serial ,time ,cost ,standingto ,reasoning,standing ,cost ,standing to of and to of to of ,fundamen- ,systems ,fundamentals,systems ,reasoning,systems tals ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,iv #a #b4bf #a #c4ii #d 4#ebj ,,xxiii #b #a4ib #b #c4bb #a 4#fbd ,,xvii #c #a4fe #c #b4hh #g 4#dba ,,xiii #d #a4ed #d #b4ee #c 4#ecc ,,xx #e #a4de #g #b4cf #b 4#ece ,,xviii #f #a4da #e #b4dh #ac 4#ccf ,,xiv #g #a4dj #g #b4cf #f 4#dch ,,viii #h #a4ci #h #b4cc #e 4#deg ,,ix #i #a4cec #i #b4be #e 4#deg ,,xvi #aj #a4ceb #f #b4dj #ah 4#cjd ,,xv #aa #a4ca #aa #b4bj #h 4#dbb ,,vii #ab #a4bh #ab #b4ad #i 4#dae ,,xxiv #ac #a4bd #aj #b4ba #ba 4#bgj ,,ii #ad #a4bb #ad #b4jb #g 4#dba ,,vi #ae #a4bj #ac #b4jd #aa 4#ced ,i #af #a4ae #ae #a4ic #aj 4#cfc ,,iii #ag #a4je #af #a4gg #af 4#cca ,,xii #ah #j4idc #ag #a4ee #ac 4#ccf ,,xxv #ai #j4ida #ag #a4ee #ae 4#ccc ,x #bj #j4ic #ah #a4ec #ad 4#cce ,,xi #ba #j4iac #bj #a4dh #ab 4#cdf ,,xix #bb #j4ia #ai #a4ej #ag 4#caa ,,xxi #bc #j4hc #ba #a4cg #ai 4#bic ,v #bd #j4fg #bc #a4jf #bj 4#bgb ,,xxii #be #j4fe #bb #a4jh #bc 4#bai ,,xxvi #bf #j4fd #bd #a4je #bb 4#bbg ,the above details are compiled from the scores of individual systems as given in tables ,,iii and ,,iv1 the median cost being that given in table ,,xxi4 ,as measured by the time used in school1 the thirteen systems with less than the median cost stand slightly the better2 and as measured by the time including home study1 the thirteen systems with more than the median time cost stand somewhat the better4 ,the time used in school is doubtless the more exact measure1 but1 as shown in table ,,xxi1 some systems depend on home study to a considerable extent4 ,hence both measures are used4 ,the lack of relation indicated in this general way is shown more accurately in the table1 page #bfc1 in terms of coefficients of correlation4 ,the order of systems in this table is determined by the first column1 which gives the average serial standing as determined by the ratios of time to products4 ,the right-hand column under each heading gives the ratio of time expenditure to abilities produced1 and the left-hand column gives the serial order of that system as measured by the highness of the ratio1 i4e4 highness of cost per unit of product2 e4g4 in system ,,iv the ratio of time to reasoning is #c4ii 7see fourth column71 the highest ratio in reasoning 7determined by dividing the time cost1 #ahed week minutes1 by #dfd1 the points made in reasoning74 ,the ratio of time to fundamentals in this system is 4#eb2 giving an average ratio of #b4bf4 ,that is to say1 the ratio of time to abilities in system ,,iv is as #b4bf to #a1 the highest among the twenty-six systems4 ,that there is no direct ratio between time expenditure and abilities is again shown by this table4 ,for example1 system ,,xxii1 which spends the least amount of time 7see table ,,xxi71 ranks fourth from the lowest in abilities 7see table ,,xxii71 ranks #beth1 that is1 next to the highest1 in ratio of time cost to abilities produced2 and1 what is even more striking1 system ,,xxvi1 which spends third from the least amount of time1 ranks third from the highest in abilities and #bfth or highest in the ratio of time cost to abilities produced4 ,that a large amount of time expended is no guarantee of a high standard of abilities may again be convincingly seen by comparing the ratios of the five systems spending the smallest amount of time with the five spending the largest4 ,of the five spending the least time1 the average ratio is 4#hj1 which corresponds with the #bc;d or the #c;d from the best in ratio2 and of the five spending the greatest amount of time1 the average ratio is #a4eg1 which corresponds with the #dth poorest in ratio4 ,the last three tables have each shown the decided lack of relationship between time cost and abilities produced1 and hence for these systems it is evident that there is practically no relation between time expenditure and arithmetical abilities2 and1 in view of the representative nature of these twenty-six systems1 it is probable that this lack of relationship is the rule the country over4 ,this is not to say that a certain amount of time is not essential to the production of arithmetical abilities2 nor that1 given the same other factors1 operating equally well1 the product will not increase somewhat with an increased time expenditure4 ,what is claimed is that1 as present practice goes1 a large amount of time spent on arithmetic is no guarantee of a high degree of efficiency4 ,if one were to choose at random among the schools with more than the median time given to arithmetic1 the chances are about equal that he would get a school with an inferior product2 and conversely1 if one were to choose among the schools with less than the median time cost1 the chances are about equal that he would get a school with a superior product in arithmetic4#ci ,so far1 then1 as ability in arithmetic means ability to handle such foundation work as is measured by the tests in this study1 this 8essential0 has not necessarily suffered by the introduction of other subjects and the consequent reduction of its time allotment4 ,one would need to read the whole study to appreciate fully the nature of the investigation4 ,from the pages quoted1 however1 it must be apparent that3 7#a7 schools and school systems vary greatly in the results which they secure in arithmetic2 7#b7 the excellence of the work done is not directly proportional to the time expended4 ,we will find it necessary to revise our opinions with regard to the organization of school subjects1 the allotment of time1 the methods of teaching1 and the like1 in proportion as we have careful investigation in these several fields4 ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike1 ,the ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,appendix ,i4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,english ,,in ,,elementary ,,schools ,,by ,,franklin ,,thomas ,,baker1 ,a4,m4 ,i4 ,historical ,view of the ,subject #a4 ,,the ,,choice ,,of ,,reading ,,matter4 #a4 ,the school reader an expression of social ideals4 #b4 ,german primers and readers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 #c4 ,the 8moral tales0 of the eighteenth century4 #d4 ,the ,new ,england ,primer4 #e4 ,the oratorical and patriotic selections of the early nineteenth century4 #f4 ,the school readers of to-day2 their general characteristics4 #b4 ,,method4 #a4 ,the alphabetic method in use until modern times4 #b4 ,new ideas in the sixteenth century and later4 ,work of ,ickelsamer1 ,basedow1 ,pestalozzi1 ,comenius1 and ,jacotot4 #c4 ,gradual ascendency of the analytic over the alphabetic 7or synthetic7 method4 #d4 ,recognition of the importance of phonetics1 of association of ideas1 etc4 ,,references3 ,kehr1 ,geschichte des ,lese-,unterrichts in der ,volksschule1 ,gotha1 #ahhi4 ,fechner1 ,geschichte des ,volksschullesebuches1 ,gotha1 #ahhi4 ,ford1 ,the ,new ,england ,primer1 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,reeder1 ,historical ,development of the ,school ,reader1 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 ,hall1 ,how to ,teach ,reading1 ,new ,york1 #ahhf4 ,american ,journal of ,education1 ,vol4 ,v41 ,hartford and ,london1 #aheh4 ,russell1 ,german ,higher ,schools1 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 ,carpenter1 ,baker1 and ,scott1 ,the ,teaching of ,english1 ,new ,york1 #aijc4 ,huey1 ,psychology and ,pedagogy of ,reading1 ,new ,york1 #aijh4 ,,ii4 ,first ,steps in ,instruction #a4 ,,material4 #a4 ,material should be 7#a7 interesting1 7#b7 literary1 so far as possible1 7#c7 adapted to the capacities and tastes of children1 7#d7 of enough difficulty and sufficiently above their own ordinary thoughts to have value as instruction4 #b4 ,the best material 7#a7 folk stuff1 such as the classic fairy tales1 ,mother ,goose1 etc41 7#b7 tales of heroism and sacrifice1 7#c7 poetry of the simpler type1 like that of ,stevenson and ,christina ,rossetti4 #c4 ,much of the language work should be free conversation between the teacher and the children about their ordinary experiences4 #b4 ,,method4 #a4 ,during the first years much of the literary material must be given orally by the teacher4 ,oral work is to be held of great importance4 #b4 ,children to be encouraged to commit good things to memory4 #c4 ,all reading aloud by the pupils to be done as naturally as possible4 ,importance of reading by phrases and sentences1 rather than word by word4 #d4 ,value of the dramatic element in early work4 #e4 ,the conflict between the 8word method0 and the 8sentence method0 over4 ,modern teaching eclectic in method4 ,if any name can be given to the best way1 it might be1 perhaps1 8thought method40 #f4 ,use of script and print3 advantages of each as a first form4 ,value of printed cards and other devices for drill4 #g4 ,form of type for beginners' books3 not too large2 letters to have all differentiating marks distinct4 ,importance of right kind of paper1 width of columns1 etc4 ,kinds of pictures most serviceable4 #h4 ,when shall writing begin8 ,in general not to be forced on the child in the first year4 ,arguments for and against this arrangement4 ,should there be any fixed standard of accomplishment for the first year8 #i4 ,phonetic drill4 ,how many words must be known before it begins8 ,various plans equally successful4 ,the main thing1 perhaps1 is to have drill enough to give the pupils certainty in their work1 but to keep the drill subordinated to their interest in reading4 #aj4 ,the order of such drill4 8,normal words10 chosen for their meaning1 their frequency of occurrence1 and their similarity in form to other words either at their beginning or at their end4 ,many words1 however1 must be learned without relation to such a scheme4 #aa4 8,normal sentences0 those that partially help the reader to the recognition of words2 as1 8,the sun rises in the east1 and sets in the west40 ,for young children1 sentences involving the use of repetitive phrases must also be regarded as normal1 as in 8,the ,house that ,jack ,built40 #ab4 ,in general1 both analysis and synthesis to be used in word drill4 #ac4 ,importance of securing good habits as to intelligent reading1 correct spelling1 etc41 in the early years4 ,children can usually do better than they or their elders think they can4 #ad4 ,emphasis to be placed upon reading many of the good things over and over1 until they are known in whole and in part4 ,,references3 ,bryant1 ,how to tell ,stories to ,children4 ,carpenter1 ,baker1 and ,scott1 ,the ,teaching of ,english4 ,chubb1 ,the ,teaching of ,english4 ,colby1 ,literature in ,life and in ,school4 ,hall1 ,how to teach ,reading4 ,hinsdale1 ,teaching the ,language ,art4 ,huey1 ,psychology and ,pedagogy of ,reading4 ,arnold1 ,reading1 ,how to teach it4 ,laurie1 ,language and ,linguistic ,method4 ,dewey1 8,the ,primary ,education ,fetich10 in ,the ,forum1 ,may1 #ahih4 ,dewey1 ,the ,school and ,society4 ,dye1 ,story-,teller's ,art4 ,,iii4 ,the ,teaching of ,literature #a4 ,,general ,,problems4 #a4 ,can literature be taught8 ,or can pupils 8be taught through literature08 ,examples of such educational use of literature4 #b4 ,present aims in teaching literature3 entertainment1 portrayal of life1 acquaintance with the world of thought and feeling as presented in books1 cultivation of imagination and sense of beauty4 #c4 ,true interpretation implies grasping the central purpose1 idea1 or feeling of the piece4 #d4 ,various types of literature demand various treatment4 ,necessity of adapting the treatment to the class4 #e4 ,taste 7sense of beauty7 developed mainly by contact with good models4 ,instruction plays a minor part4 ,the love of good reading fostered by judicious selection of material1 and by example and influence4 #f4 ,how can the habit of good reading be cultivated8 #b4 ,,material4 #a4 ,the literature chosen must be suitable in its themes1 its action1 its feeling1 its simplicity4 #b4 ,literary histories and biographies3 their limited value in elementary work4 #c4 ,scientific and historical material in literature4 ,literary use of such material not to be confounded with science and history4 #d4 ,pictures and other illustrative material3 ,sometimes give intuitive basis for desired concepts2 sometimes interfere with the imagination4 #c4 ,,method4 #a4 ,reading aloud3 its value4 ,means of securing good results2 interest1 sense of reality1 consciousness of an audience4 #b4 ,analytic study1 of content1 form1 and general literary effects4 a4 ,must be adapted to the pupil's interest and his stage of development4 b4 ,must yield results of value appreciable by the pupil4 c4 ,effects of too much or too little such study4 #c4 ,correlation of literature with other work possible in limited degree4 ,a matter of class treatment rather than of the general arrangement of the course of study4 ,a problem for the teacher rather than the principal4 #d4 ,treatment of allusions1 historical1 literary1 etc4 ,the need of judicious selection4 #e4 ,treatment of figures of speech1 verse forms1 new words1 etc4 #f4 ,lesson plans3 their function and value4 a4 ,an outline should control and direct the work1 yet be flexible enough to allow freedom on the part of teacher and pupil4 b4 ,introductions3 their nature and function4 ,when necessary4 ,,references3 ,carpenter1 ,baker1 and ,scott1 ,laurie1 ,chubb1 ,hinsdale1 ,arnold and ,hall1 as cited4 ,scudder1 ,literature in ,schools4 ,c4 ,a4 ,mc,murry1 ,special ,method in ,reading4 ,bates1 ,talks on the ,study of ,literature4 ,colby1 ,literature in ,life and in ,school4 ,adler1 ,moral ,instruction of ,children4 ,,iv4 ,study of ,certain ,typical ,books #a4 ,,nursery ,,rhymes 7as ,mother ,goose1 ,stevenson's ,child's ,garden of ,verses74 a4 ,the nature of their appeal to children in sound1 imagery1 and ideas4 b4 ,their value in training the ear1 the powers of speech1 etc4 #b4 ,,grimm' 8,,fairy ,,tales40 a4 ,their source and relation to other folklore4 b4 ,the marvelous1 and its effect on children4 c4 ,action1 logical sequence1 local color4 d4 ,various types of myth4 e4 ,the ideal element1 poetic justice1 etc4 ,need the harsher elements be omitted8 f4 ,typical lessons4 #c4 8,,alice ,,in ,,wonderland40 a4 ,its origin and its place in literature4 b4 ,the nature of its reality3 based upon things in the child's world of imagination4 c4 ,its value as humor1 as a means of quickening the power of thought4 d4 ,what preparation is needed for the appreciation of it8 e4 ,typical lessons4 #d4 8,,robinson ,,crusoe40 a4 ,its origin and place in literature4 b4 ,fundamental characteristics as a piece of fiction4 c4 ,elements in it that appeal to children1 or fail so to appeal4 d4 ,justification of the abridged editions4 e4 ,its relation 7#a7 to the world of romance1 7#b7 to real life4 f4 ,how best presented4 ,typical lessons4 #e4 ,,longfellow',s 8,,hiawatha40 a4 ,its origin1 form1 popularity4 b4 ,its qualities1 epic and romantic4 c4 ,its treatment of the myth4 d4 ,its value as school reading2 parts best suited for this4 e4 ,general value of reading about primitive life4 f4 ,relation to handwork1 etc4 #f4 ,,hawthorne',s 8,,wonder ,,book0 ,,and 8,,tanglewood ,,tales40 a4 ,their origin and general literary qualities4 b4 ,romantic coloring given to classic stories2 compare ,kingsley's ,the ,heroes1 and ,bulfinch's ,age of ,fable1 and other versions of the myths4 c4 ,different types of myth and fairy story represented4 d4 ,artistic qualities of ,hawthorne's versions2 how far can these be shown in the school8 e4 ,the ethical element3 how treated8 f4 ,typical lessons4 #g4 ,,whittier',s 8,,snow ,,bound40 a4 ,its historical value as a presentation of a type of civilization3 occupation1 pleasures1 interests1 types of character4 b4 ,its literary value as an ideal treatment of its theme4 c4 ,the point of view that of an old man's retrospect4 ,how far is this appreciable by children8 d4 ,the study of this poem involves also attention to structure1 diction1 allusions1 poetic descriptions1 and metrical form4 e4 ,typical passages treated in lessons4 #h4 ,,longfellow',s 8,,evangeline40 a4 ,the poet's departure from historical fact2 its justification4 b4 ,the idyllic element2 the descriptions4 c4 ,the central theme1 and its treatment in the first and second parts of the poem4 d4 ,the different quality of the two parts2 predominance of description and the meditative element in the second4 e4 ,metrical structure4 f4 ,what things in the poem can be made especially interesting to young people8 #i4 ,,scott',s 8,,ivanhoe40 a4 ,its free treatment of historical fact4 ,the difference between historic and poetic truth4 b4 ,the historical novel3 its general relations to history2 to be regarded primarily as literature1 not as history4 c4 ,the portrayal of ideals and customs of a past age3 types of characters2 structure 7plot7 of the book built in accordance with this purpose4 d4 ,difficulties of language1 allusions1 etc4 e4 ,means of arousing interest in romantic literature4 ,comparisons with other books commonly read by children4 #aj4 ,,shakspere',s 8,,julius ,c,,sar40 a4 ,historical basis1 anachronisms1 etc4 b4 ,the nature of its appeal to young readers4 c4 ,treatment of verbal difficulties and of the dramatic form4 d4 ,the action1 the characters1 the dramatic motives and situations4 ,v4 ,composition #a4 ,,object ,,of ,,teaching ,,composition4 #a4 ,shall it be 8literary10 or aim merely at adequate expression8 #b4 ,,elements ,,involved ,,in ,,the ,,problem3 ,,form ,,and ,,subject ,,matter4 #a4 ,importance of subject matter in giving motive and interest1 and in determining form4 #b4 ,subjects for composition to include topics from school work and from daily life3 to be made real1 as far as possible4 ,reality dependent upon interest and the consciousness of an audience4 #c4 ,preparation for the work4 ,importance of oral treatment1 of the gathering and ordering of facts and ideas4 ,originality not to be expected4 #d4 ,composition units3 necessity of training in both sentence and paragraph4 ,value of outlines1 and of drill in sentences4 #e4 ,criticism of written work4 a4 ,general aims4 b4 ,means of making criticism effective4 c4 ,the object to make pupils self-critical without checking spontaneity4 ,,references3 ,laurie1 ,hinsdale1 ,chubb and ,carpenter1 ,baker and ,scott as cited above4 ,,vi4 ,grammar #a4 ,,historical ,,review4 #a4 ,historical changes in the idea of ,english grammar4 #b4 ,attempt1 in the ,renaissance period1 to ,latinize the grammar of ,english4 ,persistence of this point of view4 #c4 ,recent changes due to philological study4 #d4 ,what now constitutes ,english grammar8 #e4 ,what problems remain unsolved8 #b4 ,,objects ,,of ,,teaching ,,grammar4 #a4 ,various theories3 for correctness of expression and for discipline4 #b4 ,modern notions of authority in usage1 and of the province of grammar4 #c4 ,,amount ,,of ,,grammar ,,to ,,be ,,taught4 #a4 ,how much grammar shall be taught in the schools8 #b4 ,what things are of most value8 #c4 ,importance of syntax2 of study of forms4 #d4 ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,treatment4 #a4 ,syntax or etymology first8 #b4 ,a study of the methods of development adopted by some of the representative textbooks4 ,,references3 ,laurie1 ,hinsdale1 ,carpenter1 ,baker and ,scott1 and ,chubb4 ,liddell1 8,english ,historical ,grammar10 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,lxxxii4 ,sweet1 ,new ,english ,grammar1 ,part ,,ii4 ,barbour1 ,the ,teaching of ,english ,grammar2 ,goold ,brown1 ,grammar of ,grammars 7,introduction74 ,krapp1 ,syllabus of ,english ,language and ,grammar 7,columbia ,university ,extension ,syllabi1 ,series ,a1 ,no4 #e74 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,mathematics ,,in ,,elementary ,,schools ,,by ,,david ,,eugene ,,smith1 ,,ll4,d4 ,i4 ,the ,history of the ,subject #a4 ,,advantages ,,to ,a ,,teacher ,,in ,,studying ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,,taught4 #b4 ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,arithmetic4 #c4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,number ,,systems4 #d4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,arithmetic ,,as ,,known ,,at ,,present4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,the ,teaching of ,arithmetic1 ,new ,york1 #aiji1 chap4 i2 and in general the sections in this syllabus correspond to the chapters in this work4 ,the ,teaching of ,elementary ,mathematics1 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 ,ball1 ,a ,primer of the ,history of ,mathematics1 ,london1 #ahie1 and ,a ,short ,account of the ,history of ,mathematics1 ,london1 #dth edition1 #aijh4 ,fink1 ,history of ,mathematics1 translated by ,bennan and ,smith1 ,chicago1 #aijj4 ,cajori1 ,history of ,elementary ,mathematics1 ,new ,york1 #ahif1 and ,history of ,mathematics1 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,on ,greek ,arithmetic see ,gow1 ,history of ,greek ,mathematics1 ,cambridge1 #ahhd4 ,,ii4 ,the ,reasons for ,teaching ,arithmetic #a4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,point ,,of ,,view4 #b4 ,,content ,,of ,,the ,,primitive ,,logistic1 ,,or ,,art ,,of ,,calculation4 a4 ,early counting4 b4 ,early writing of numbers4 ,the development of notations4 c4 ,the ,influence of the ,hindu-,arabic notation4 #c4 ,,content ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,arithmetic1 ,,or ,,theory ,,of ,,numbers4 a4 ,connection with mysticism4 b4 ,contributions of ,pythagoras and his school4 c4 ,the effect upon modern arithmetic4 #d4 ,,the ,,reasons ,,for ,,teaching ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 a4 ,the ,church schools4 b4 ,the reckoning schools4 c4 ,the effect upon modern arithmetic4 #e4 ,,the ,,reasons ,,developed ,,by ,,the ,,renaissance4 a4 ,influence of commerce4 b4 ,influence of printing4 ,the crystallization of arithmetic4 c4 ,the effect upon the subject matter of modern arithmetic4 #f4 ,,the ,,reasons ,,of ,,to-,,day4 a4 ,the practical value4 ,whatever pretends to be practical in arithmetic should really be so4 b4 ,the question of 8mental discipline40 ,the rise of this doctrine4 ,the results of a psychological study of the question4 ,the tangible part of 8mental discipline40 c4 ,the interest in the subject for its own sake4 ,the game element of mathematics4 ,the historical development of the science of arithmetic from the primitive game4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,the ,teaching of ,arithmetic1 chap4 ii1 to the chapters of which no further reference will be made1 this syllabus being merely a synopsis of that work4 ,teaching of ,elementary ,mathematics1 pp4 #a-gj4 ,young1 ,the ,teaching of ,mathematics1 ,new ,york1 #aijg1 pp4 #da-eb1 #bjb-bef4 ,on the historical side1 consult ,fink1 ,history of ,mathematics1 ,chicago1 #ahih4 ,ball1 ,short ,history of ,mathematics1 ,new ,york1 #aijh4 ,cajori1 ,history of ,elementary ,mathematics1 ,new ,york4 ,jackson1 ,the ,educational ,significance of ,sixteenth ,century ,arithmetic1 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 ,branford1 ,a ,study of ,mathematical ,education1 ,oxford1 #aijh4 ,,iii4 ,what ,arithmetic should include #a4 ,,from ,,the ,,practical ,,standpoint4 a4 ,the utilities of arithmetic overrated4 ,a detailed consideration of the various topics usually studied4 b4 ,the effect of tradition upon the matter of arithmetic4 #b4 ,,from ,,the ,,standpoint ,,of ,,mental ,,discipline4 ,,discipline ,a ,,matter ,,of ,,method ,,rather ,,than ,,one ,,of ,,topics4 #c4 ,,from ,,the ,,standpoint ,,of ,,interest ,,in ,,the ,,subject ,,for ,,its ,,own ,,sake4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,teaching of ,elementary ,mathematics1 p4 #ai4 ,young1 pp4 #bc-bdb4 ,,iv4 ,the ,nature of the ,problem #a4 ,,the ,,great ,,change ,,in ,,recent ,,years ,,brought ,,about ,,by ,,two ,,causes4 a4 ,the study of social needs4 b4 ,the study of child psychology4 #b4 ,,the ,,peculiar ,,needs ,,of ,,america4 ,,the ,,bearing ,,of ,,these ,,needs ,,upon ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,arithmetic4 #c4 ,,child ,,psychology ,,and ,,the ,,problems ,,still ,,awaiting ,,solution4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,teaching of ,elementary ,mathematics1 p4 #ba4 ,young1 pp4 #ig-ajc1 #baj-bah4 ,saxelby1 ,practical ,mathematics1 and similar works4 ,v4 ,the ,arrangement of ,material #a4 ,,recent ,,changes ,,brought ,,about ,,from ,a ,,consideration ,,of ,,child ,,psychology4 #b4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,textbook4 a4 ,the ,treviso arithmetic of #adgh1 and the early arithmetics of ,italy1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,england1 and ,holland4 b4 ,the two-book series4 c4 ,the three-book series4 d4 ,the extreme spiral arrangement4 #c4 ,,the ,,modern ,,curriculum ,,in ,,arithmetic4 a4 ,its origin4 b4 ,its present status4 c4 ,improvements to be considered4 ,,references3 ,young1 pp4 #agh-ahh4 ,,vi4 ,method #a4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,method4 #b4 ,,how ,,the ,,ancients ,,probably ,,taught ,,calculation4 a4 ,various forms of the abacus4 b4 ,the abacus at the time of the ,renaissance4 c4 ,the effect upon arithmetic of abandoning the abacus in western ,europe4 #c4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,rule4 #d4 ,,revival ,,of ,,objective ,,teaching4 ,trapp 7#aghj71 von ,busse 7#aghf71 and ,pestalozzi 7about #ahjj74 #e4 ,,the ,,early ,,followers ,,of ,,pestalozzi4 ,tillich 7#ahjf71 ,krancke 7#ahai71 ,grube 7#ahdb74 #f4 ,,types ,,of ,,later ,,methods4 a4 ,counting4 b4 ,ratio4 c4 ,extreme spiral4 d4 ,pure concrete work as a basis4 e4 ,pure abstract work as a basis4 #g4 ,,the ,,ease ,,and ,,futility ,,of ,,creating ,,narrow ,,methods4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,teaching of ,elementary ,mathematics1 pp4 #ga-ig4 ,seeley1 ,grube's ,method of ,teaching ,arithmetic1 ,new ,york1 #ahhh4 ,soldan1 ,grube's ,method of ,teaching ,arithmetic1 ,chicago1 #ahgh4 ,c4 ,a4 ,mc,murry1 ,special ,method in ,arithmetic1 ,new ,york1 #aije4 ,mc,lellan and ,dewey1 ,the ,psychology of ,number1 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,young1 pp4 #ec-aej4 ,,vii4 ,mental or ,oral ,arithmetic #a4 ,,historical ,,status ,,of ,,oral ,,arithmetic4 #b4 ,,revival ,,under ,,pestalozzi',s ,,influence4 ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,warren ,,colburn ,,in ,,this ,,country4 #c4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,decline ,,of ,,this ,,form ,,of ,,work4 #d4 ,,the ,,claims ,,of ,,oral ,,arithmetic ,,upon ,,the ,,school ,,to-,,day4 ,,the ,,practical ,,and ,,psychological ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,problem4 #e4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,oral ,,work1--,,abstract ,,and ,,concrete4 #f4 ,,the ,,time ,,to ,,be ,,allowed ,,to ,,the ,,subject4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,teaching of ,elementary ,mathematics1 p4 #aag4 ,handbook to ,arithmetics1 p4 #f4 ,young1 p4 #bcj4 ,,viii4 ,written ,arithmetic #a4 ,,what ,,should ,,be ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,written ,,arithmetic8 #b4 ,,object ,,of ,,the ,,business ,,form ,,of ,,solution4 #c4 ,,object ,,of ,,written ,,analysis4 #d4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,recognizing ,,two ,,kinds ,,of ,,written ,,work4 #e4 ,,how ,,to ,,mark ,,papers4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,teaching of ,elementary ,mathematics1 pp4 #aba-abi4 ,,ix4 ,children's ,analyses #a4 ,,the ,,object ,,in ,,requiring ,,analyses4 #b4 ,,what ,,should ,,be ,,expected ,,of ,,children ,,in ,,this ,,respect8 #c4 ,,explanations ,,of ,,fundamental ,,operations4 ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,formal ,,rule4 #d4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,applied ,,problems4 #e4 ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,work ,,in ,,english4 #f4 ,,the ,,limit ,,of ,,primary ,,work1 8,,two-,,step ,,reasoning40 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,handbook to ,arithmetics1 p4 #i4 ,young1 p4 #bje4 ,x4 ,interest and ,effort #a4 ,,status ,,of ,,arithmetic ,,from ,,the ,,standpoint ,,of ,,interest4 #b4 ,,danger ,,of ,,overemphasis ,,upon ,,interest4 #c4 ,,lessening ,,of ,,interest ,,with ,,the ,,lessening ,,of ,,effort4 #d4 ,,safe ,,basis ,,for ,,increase ,,of ,,interest4 #e4 ,,effect ,,of ,a ,,genuine1 ,,spontaneous ,,interest ,,upon ,,increase ,,of ,,effort ,,and ,,of ,,power4 ,,xi4 ,improvements in the ,technique of ,arithmetic #a4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,improvement ,,in ,,symbolism4 #b4 ,,how ,,the ,,present ,,seeks ,,to ,,carry ,,on ,,this ,,improvement4 a4 ,the difficulties that are met4 b4 ,dangers of too much symbolism4 c4 ,the proper criterion for selection4 #c4 ,,the ,,equation ,,in ,,arithmetic4 a4 ,object4 b4 ,dangers to be avoided4 #d4 ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,subtraction ,,as ,a ,,type4 a4 ,the various historical methods considered4 b4 ,the criterion for a selection4 c4 ,the claims of the various processes to-day4 #e4 ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,division ,,as ,a ,,type4 a4 ,the history of division4 b4 ,present points at issue4 c4 ,the probable future4 #f4 ,,proportion ,,as ,a ,,type4 a4 ,history of proportion and the 8,rule of ,three40 b4 ,present symbolism and status4 c4 ,probable future of the subject4 #g4 ,,future ,,problems ,,relating ,,to ,,technique4 ,,xii4 ,certain ,great ,principles of ,teaching ,arithmetic ,a summary of the larger principles for the guidance of teachers4 ,,xiii4 ,general ,subjects for ,experiment #a4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,games4 #b4 ,,chief ,,interests ,,of ,,children4 #c4 ,,results ,,of ,,emphasizing3 a4 ,the abstract problem4 b4 ,the concrete problem4 #d4 ,,amount ,,of ,,time ,,to ,,be ,,assigned ,,to ,,arithmetic4 #e4 ,,relative ,,amount ,,of ,,time ,,to ,,be ,,devoted ,,to3 a4 ,oral arithmetic4 b4 ,written arithmetic4 #f4 ,,the ,,best ,,basis ,,of ,,arrangement ,,of ,,an ,,arithmetic4 ,,xiv4 ,details for ,experiment ,professor ,suzzallo's list of details as set forth in ,the ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,january1 #aiji1 p4 #dc1 and in ,smith1 ,the ,teaching of ,arithmetic1 chap4 xiv4 ,,xv4 ,the ,work of the ,first ,school ,year #a4 ,,arguments ,,for ,,and ,,against ,,no ,,formal ,,arithmetic ,,in ,,this ,,year4 #b4 ,,the ,,leading ,,mathematical ,,features ,,for ,,the ,,year4 #c4 ,,the ,,number ,,space ,,of ,,the ,,year4 a4 ,for counting4 b4 ,for operations4 #d4 ,,the ,,work ,,to ,,be ,,accomplished ,,in ,,addition4 #e4 ,,the ,,work ,,in ,,the ,,other ,,operations4 #f4 ,,the ,,fraction ,,concepts ,,to ,,be ,,considered4 a4 ,part of an object4 b4 ,part of a group4 c4 ,the idea of 8half as much40 #g4 ,,denominate ,,numbers4 #h4 ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,objects4 #i4 ,,symbolic ,,work ,,and ,,technical ,,expressions4 #aj4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,problems ,,of ,,this ,,year4 #aa4 ,,the ,,time ,,limit ,,upon ,,work4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,the ,teaching of ,elementary ,mathematics1 p4 #ii4 ,handbook to ,arithmetics1 p4 #aa4 ,c4 ,a4 ,mc,murry1 ,special ,method in ,arithmetic4 ,,xvi4 ,the ,work of the ,second ,school ,year #a4 ,,the ,,leading ,,mathematical ,,features4 #b4 ,,number ,,space ,,for ,,the ,,year4 #c4 ,,counting4 a4 ,the origin of the 8counting method40 b4 ,the extremes to which it may be carried4 c4 ,the proper use of counting in teaching4 #d4 ,,the ,,addition ,,table4 ,,relation ,,to ,,counting4 #e4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,treating ,,subtraction ,,reviewed4 #f4 ,,the ,,multiplication ,,table4 a4 ,arguments for and against learning tables4 b4 ,extent of the work for this year4 c4 ,relation to counting4 #g4 ,,division4 a4 ,relation to multiplication4 b4 ,arrangement of work in short division4 #h4 ,,fractions4 a4 ,extent of the work4 b4 ,nature of the objective work4 #i4 ,,denominate ,,numbers4 a4 ,extent of the work4 b4 ,use of the measures4 ,visualizing the great basal units4 #aj4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,symbols ,,to ,,be ,,considered4 #aa4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,problem ,,work4 a4 ,abstract4 b4 ,concrete4 ,,xvii4 ,the ,work of the ,third ,school ,year #a4 ,,peculiar ,,necessity ,,for ,,preparation ,,for ,,this ,,year',s ,,work4 #b4 ,,leading ,,mathematical ,,features4 a4 ,beginning of rapid written work4 b4 ,multiplication table completed4 c4 ,most important tables of denominate numbers4 d4 ,work extended to two-figure multipliers and the beginning of long division4 #c4 ,,number ,,space ,,may ,,extend ,,to #ajj1jjj4 #d4 ,,the ,,roman ,,numerals4 a4 ,extent to which this work should be carried in various school years4 b4 ,historical sketch of the system and of its uses4 #e4 ,,the ,,counting ,,method ,,further ,,considered4 ,,its ,,values ,,and ,,its ,,dangers4 #f4 ,,the ,,writing ,,of ,,united ,,states ,,money4 ,,operations4 #g4 ,,square ,,and ,,cubic ,,measure4 a4 ,extent4 b4 ,nature of objective work4 #h4 ,,suggestions ,,as ,,to ,,four ,,operations4 a4 ,addition4 ,practical value of checks on all operations4 b4 ,subtraction1 as discussed in section ,,xi4 c4 ,multiplication4 ,should the tables extend to #ab #ab8 ,devices4 d4 ,division4 ,algorism considered historically and practically4 e4 ,historical note as to the number of operations4 #i4 ,,extent ,,of ,,work ,,with ,,fractions4 #aj4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,problems4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,teaching of ,arithmetic1 chap4 xvii1 p4 #gc4 ,handbook to ,arithmetics1 p4 #bi4 ,,xviii4 ,the ,work of the ,fourth ,school ,year #a4 ,,leading ,,mathematical ,,features4 #b4 ,,number ,,space4 #c4 ,,the ,,four ,,operations4 a4 ,nature of the oral work4 b4 ,criteria for judging written work4 c4 ,speed versus accuracy4 #d4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,in ,,common ,,fractions4 a4 ,historical sketch of various fractions4 b4 ,change in the practical uses of common fractions4 #e4 ,,denominate ,,numbers4 a4 ,what tables are of value8 ,historical sketch of tables4 b4 ,visualizing the basal units4 c4 ,accuracy in reduction4 #f4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,problems4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,handbook to ,arithmetics1 p4 #dc4 ,,xix4 ,the ,work of the ,fifth ,school ,year #a4 ,,leading ,,mathematical ,,features4 #b4 ,,necessity ,,for ,,and ,,nature ,,of ,,preliminary ,,review4 #c4 ,,number ,,space4 ,,modern ,,tendencies ,,in ,,using ,,large ,,numbers4 #d4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,review ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,operations4 a4 ,suggestions for rapid addition and subtraction4 b4 ,checks on multiplication and division4 c4 ,twofold nature of division4 #e4 ,,common ,,fractions4 a4 ,nature of the theoretical explanations4 b4 ,what should be expected of children in this regard4 #f4 ,,denominate ,,numbers4 a4 ,extent of reductions4 b4 ,nature of the operations4 #g4 ,,how ,,to ,,solve ,,problems4 #h4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,percentage4 #i4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,problems4 ,,references3 ,smith1 ,handbook to ,arithmetics1 p4 #ec4 ,,xx4 ,the ,work of the ,sixth ,school ,year #a4 ,,leading ,,mathematical ,,features4 #b4 ,,the ,,general ,,solution ,,of ,,problems4 a4 ,how the world has solved problems4 b4 ,modern improvements4 #c4 ,,percentage4 a4 ,nature of the subject4 b4 ,history of the subject4 c4 ,suggestions for treatment4 d4 ,the most important applications4 #d4 ,,ratio ,,and ,,proportion4 a4 ,history4 b4 ,present value1 and probable future status4 #e4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,problems4 ,,xxi4 ,the ,work of the ,seventh ,school ,year #a4 ,,leading ,,mathematical ,,features4 #b4 ,,review ,,of ,,our ,,numbers4 ,,historical ,,notes4 #c4 ,,review ,,of ,,the ,,fundamental ,,operations4 #d4 ,,types ,,of ,,subjects ,,treated4 a4 ,longitude and time4 ,origin1 value1 new features4 b4 ,percentage4 ,what cases are the most important8 #e4 ,,introduction ,,of ,,algebraic ,,work ,,considered4 ,,nature ,,of ,,mensuration4 #f4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,problems4 ,,xxii4 ,the ,work of the ,eighth ,school ,year #a4 ,,leading ,,mathematical ,,features4 #b4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,business ,,applications4 a4 ,banking4 ,extent to which the work should be carried4 b4 ,partial payments4 ,historical view of the value of the subject4 c4 ,partnership4 ,value of the historical view4 d4 ,simple accounts4 e4 ,exchange4 ,wherein its value lies4 f4 ,taxes4 ,insurance4 g4 ,corporations4 ,arguments for and against the study of investments4 #c4 ,,the ,,metric ,,system4 a4 ,why taught4 ,historical view4 b4 ,extent of the work4 c4 ,practical suggestions in teaching4 #d4 ,,powers ,,and ,,roots4 a4 ,historical view4 b4 ,present values4 ,extent of the work4 #e4 ,,mensuration4 a4 ,extent to which it should be carried4 b4 ,geometry in the eighth year4 c4 ,the formula4 #f4 ,,algebra ,,in ,,the ,,eighth ,,year4 a4 ,historical view4 ,present values4 b4 ,extent to which it should be carried4 #g4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,problem4 #h4 ,a ,,comparison ,,of ,,american ,,and ,,foreign ,,schools4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,geography4 ,,by ,,richard ,,elwood ,,dodge1 ,a4,m4 ,i4 ,the ,scope and ,purpose of ,school ,geography #a4 ,,school ,,geography ,a ,,part ,,of ,,science ,,of ,,geography4 ,relation of elementary school work to that in secondary school and college4 #b4 ,,definition ,,of ,,geography4 ,meaning of this and growth of idea4 ,a4 8,study of earth in its relation to life40 ,b4 ,the emphasis of 8causal notion0 in school geography4 ,rational geography4 #c4 ,,scope ,,of ,,school ,,geography4 ,a4 ,possible scope as wide as the subject4 ,complexity of subject4 ,b4 ,practical scope determined by abilities and needs of children1 and by necessary sequence of steps in geography study4 ,c4 ,consequent difficulties for school teachers1 even in earlier years4 #d4 ,,school ,,geography ,,must ,,be3 ,a4 ,unit in each part and as a whole4 ,practical reasons for unity4 ,b4 ,usable at every step4 ,importance of this in early grades4 ,c4 ,closely related to nature work on one hand1 and secondary work on the other4 ,d4 ,based on children's experiences and earlier knowledge4 #e4 ,,purpose ,,of ,,school ,,geography ,,teaching3 ,a4 ,to teach children geography4 ,interpretation of this4 ,relation of subject to children4 ,approach to adults' point of view4 a4 ,knowledge of principles of geography4 b4 ,knowledge of facts that make principles clear4 c4 ,knowledge of facts necessary for daily life4 ,other facts that must be included4 ,b4 ,power4 a4 ,to use materials and results gained in classroom and elsewhere4 b4 ,to seek out1 organize and use new materials4 ,this suggests method of conducting a portion of class work4 c4 ,to think accurately and clearly4 ,importance of geography as a means of training in scientific thinking4 ,,references3 ,dodge1 ,r4 ,e41 ,the ,teaching of ,geography1 to which no further references will be made1 this syllabus being a synopsis of that work4 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,march1 #aija1 pp4 #c-i4 ,journal of ,geography1 ,november and ,december1 #aijd2 ,april1 #aije2 ,september1 #aijf4 ,mc,murry1 ,c4 ,a41 ,special ,method in ,geography1 chap4 i4 ,geikie1 ,a41 ,the ,teaching of ,geography1 chap4 i4 ,,ii4 ,the ,persons involved in ,school ,geography ,teaching #a4 ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,scientific ,,geographer4 ,a4 ,should help make content sound geographically4 ,he should be source of geography materials4 ,b4 ,should ascertain that work will insure good training in elements of geography4 ,adapted to pupils and valuable as foundation for good later work4 ,c4 ,should outline method in large so as to produce geographic progress4 ,d4 ,should assist in substituting good for bad details and help choose between essentials and non-essentials4 #b4 ,,the ,,obligations ,,of ,,the ,,supervisor ,,or ,,superintendent4 ,a4 ,must recognize goal to be reached from standpoint of good geography1 and relations of school geography to other phases of geographic education4 ,b4 ,should accept materials and larger plan of geographer4 ,arrange time of schedule4 ,c4 ,should see that children's general training is not sacrificed and special training is secured4 ,d4 ,should insure that work is practical and usable4 ,e4 ,must see that relations to other subjects are emphasized4 ,causal notion again4 #c4 ,,the ,,obligations ,,and ,,opportunities ,,of ,,the ,,teacher4 ,a4 ,must know more subject matter than he expects to give pupils4 ,b4 ,must know purposes and scope of course--his part in course as a whole4 ,also must know preparation furnished by earlier year's work4 ,c4 ,must know relations to other work in the curriculum as a whole and in geography particularly4 ,d4 ,must know ways subject must be organized and presented to his grade so as best to gain aims desired4 ,general and special method4 #d4 ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,children ,,in ,,reference ,,to ,,work4 ,a4 ,meaning of 8,to teach children geography40 ,b4 ,the preparation that may be expected in different grades4 ,c4 ,children's interest in work4 ,d4 ,pupils must be trained to work and think4 ,e4 ,goals are knowledge and power4 ,importance of rational repetition1 of reviews and map work4 ,,reference3 ,dodge1 ,journal of ,geography1 v1 p4 #che4 ,the ,opportunity of the ,geographer in ,promoting ,school ,geography4 ,,iii4 ,the ,organization of a ,course of ,study #a4 ,,course ,,as ,a ,,whole4 ,a4 ,must be capable of being judged as good by geographers4 ,b4 ,must lead to knowledge and power4 ,c4 ,must be arranged so as to lead from known to unknown along lines of least resistance but not least effort4 ,d4 ,method of approach of mature mind must not always be followed4 #b4 ,,some ,,fundamental ,,considerations4 ,a4 ,no one course available for all localities4 ,b4 ,course should start with home geography4 ,c4 ,should lead next to elementary knowledge of world whole4 ,d4 ,the emphasis to be given to continental work4 ,division of work by grades4 ,e4 ,disadvantages of teaching all continents twice4 ,the following compromise is suggested as in general workable3 a4 ,twice3 ,north ,america1 ,united ,states1 ,europe1 and perhaps portions of ,asia4 b4 ,once3 ,asia1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and ,south ,america4 ,present importance of ,south ,america4 ,f4 ,plan of intermediate work should differ from plan of upper grades4 8,concentric ,circles40 ,g4 ,the place of physical geography in the course of study3 a4 ,home geography3 observational side4 ,danger of overemphasis1 of giving wrong outlook4 b4 ,intermediate grades3 give setting to life side4 ,larger facts only4 c4 ,upper grade3 basis of work4 ,not to be taught as a topic by itself but as a means to an end4 ,h4 ,emphasis of industries and commercial side4 ,i4 8,following interests of children10--best meaning of phrase4 ,value and dangers4 ,recent interest in industrial education places a renewed obligation on geography to be practical and to be free from fads4 ,developing interest4 ,temporary and permanent interests4 ,,references3 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,march1 #aija1 pp4 #i-ae4 ,mc,murry1 ,c4 ,a41 ,special ,method in ,geography1 chap4 ii4 ,redway1 ,j4 ,w41 ,new ,basis of ,geography1 chap4 x4 ,bagley1 ,w4 ,c41 ,function of ,geography in ,elementary ,schools1 ,journal of ,geography1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bbb4 ,dodge1 ,richard ,e41 8,some ,suggestions ,concerning a ,course of ,study in ,geography10 ,journal of ,geography1 vii1 pp4 #g-ad4 ,,iv4 ,home ,geography and ,world ,whole #a4 ,,certain ,,general ,,considerations4 ,a4 ,home geography not a subject or a division of geography1 but a method of approach to field as a whole1--cannot have a uniform course for all places4 ,b4 ,method of procedure must be from known to unknown through analysis of experiences of pupils4 ,c4 ,work should not call for knowledge of distant places4 ,d4 ,lessons should become more intensive and scope more extensive4 ,e4 ,topics should be taken up in definite sequence so far as possible4 ,f4 ,definitions1 if any1 to be summaries at close of developed points and not points of departure4 ,g4 ,units developed to be good geography units which may be used as basis for comparison over world4 ,heat1 storms1 woods1 for instance1 are not good units4 ,crossroads or city corners good units4 ,h4 ,local history to be brought in as much as possible4 ,should be intimately related to geography and may often be point of departure4 ,i4 ,importance of observation of local conditions4 ,reasons for giving a certain place to processes of earth change4 #b4 ,,topics ,,in ,,home ,,geography4 ,a4 ,social3 a4 ,simple life groups and relations4 7#a7 ,home1 village1 city1 etc4 7#b7 ,needs and means of communication4 7#c7 ,need for government4 ,form not to be included4 7#d7 ,reasons for trade4 ,simple illustrations4 7#e7 ,industrial features4 7#f7 ,universality of similar features over world4 ,b4 ,earth3 a4 ,forms of landscape as related to life4 b4 ,forms of drainage as related to life4 c4 ,soils and their use4 ,classification a minor matter4 d4 ,simpler atmospheric phenomena4 e4 ,direction and distance4 f4 ,maps4 g4 ,gravity4 #c4 ,,topics ,,often ,,included4 ,a4 ,suitable to few localities3 ,volcanoes1 mountains1 ocean4 ,b4 ,not geographical3 a4 ,name and functions of officers of local government4 b4 ,building of a house or mechanical details of any trade4 c4 ,topics in geology such as formation of coal1 marble1 etc4 ,c4 ,beyond powers of pupils4 a4 ,form of earth1 relation of bodies in solar system4 b4 ,rotation and revolution of earth4 c4 ,theory of storms4 #d4 ,,summaries3 ,a4 ,must be simple and easily drawn from previous work4 ,b4 ,must be of such a nature that they can be expanded as years go on without overturning base learned in earlier years4 ,c4 ,examples of good summaries3 a4 ,wind is air moving horizontally4 b4 ,river is a stream of water and detritus flowing through the land4 ,d4 ,examples of bad summaries3 a4 ,a lake is a body of water surrounded by land4 b4 ,mountains are high elevations of land4 c4 ,a divide is the high land which separates two rivers4 d4 ,a river is a stream of water which flows into the sea4 e4 ,hollow places in the land filled with water are called lakes4 f4 ,a swamp is a tract of land soaked with water4 #e4 ,,some ,,simple ,,units ,,of ,,home ,,geography ,,to ,,indicate ,,basis ,,of ,,choice ,,of ,,topics4 ,a4 ,the home3 a4 ,simplest group of individuals which illustrates essentials of larger groups4 b4 ,a unit of government3 need of government in home and in any group4 c4 ,division of labor in home illustrates a world truth as to relations of individuals and groups4 ,b4 ,groups of homes4 a4 ,country four corners4 b4 ,village4 c4 ,city4 d4 ,location of such cities as ,vienna1 ,constantinople1 ,chicago4 ,c4 ,simpler surface features4 a4 ,why important1--travel over1 seen as landscape4 b4 ,why emphasize landscape and not forms first8 c4 ,plains1--why most important8 ,life relation to4 d4 ,rolling lands4--,relations to life4 e4 ,mountain regions4--,relations to life 7should1 in many localities1 be deferred to later work74 ,,references3 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,march1 #aija1 pp4 #ae-ag4 ,davis1 ,w4 ,m41 8,home ,geography10 ,journal of ,geography1 p4 #a4 ,geikie1 ,a41 ,the ,teaching of ,geography1 chap4 ii4 ,mc,murry1 ,c4 ,a41 ,excursions and ,lessons in ,home ,geography4 #f4 ,,first ,,knowledge ,,of ,,world ,,whole4 ,a4 ,expansion of home geography outward to ocean4 a4 ,how to present form of earth--relation to home1 necessities and luxuries4 b4 ,parts of earth that may be related to home in developing knowledge of world whole1 based on experience of pupils4 7#a7 ,northern ,north ,america and ,europe--furs4 7#b7 ,southern ,north ,america--bananas1 woods1 cacao4 7#c7 ,northern ,south ,america--,india rubber1 coffee1 ,brazil nuts4 7#d7 ,southern ,south ,america--hides1 and meat products4 7#e7 ,west ,central ,europe--embroideries1 wine1 cheese4 7#f7 ,southern ,europe--olives1 cork4 7#g7 ,southeastern ,asia--tea1 silks1 spices1 fire-crackers4 7#h7 ,central ,africa--ivory1 palm oil4 7#i7 ,southern ,africa--diamonds4 7#aj7 ,southwestern ,asia--rugs4 7#aa7 ,australia--wool4 #g4 ,,how ,,to ,,lead ,,up ,,to ,,climate ,,of ,,world4 ,a4 ,points to be brought out3 a4 ,direction and distance in time4 b4 ,similarity of purpose of life4 ,food1 clothing1 shelter4 c4 ,different ways of doing things amid different conditions4 ,homes1 dress1 travel1 kinds of food1 natural food1 weather conditions4 d4 ,interrelation of peoples4 ,b4 ,points which may be neglected3 a4 ,overmuch detail1 i4e4 ,details of home life or occupations4 ,scenery4 b4 ,curious and unimportant customs4 ,slanting eyes4 ,personal customs4 ,,references3 ,farnham1 ,a4 ,w41 8,oswego ,geography ,course10 ,journal of ,geography1 v1 p4 #aji4 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,march1 #aija1 pp4 #ag-bj1 #bd-bg4 ,v4 ,the ,point of ,view and ,method of ,approach in ,intermediate ,work #a4 ,,purposes4 ,knowledge of more important ,continents and ,countries1 lives of people and reasons therefor4 ,a4 ,knowledge of facts of everyday life4 ,consequences to causes1--physical features in the large as points of departure for giving setting4 ,follow political divisions because of practical advantage4 ,b4 ,industrial interrelations of regions to be brought out4 ,c4 ,causal location and non-causal location4 ,picturesque side and how secured4 ,permanent location in visual image4 ,temporary location for clearness and practice4 ,memory work in location4 ,d4 8,methods0 of approach3 a4 8,concentric0--disadvantages4 b4 8,journey0--when valuable--disadvantages4 c4 8,type0 method4 ,what this means in a large way4 d4 8,map drawing0 method4 e4 ,value of reversing method in upper grammar grades4 ,e4 ,the place of method4 a4 ,advantages and disadvantages of following a 8method10 centered about a personal point of view4 b4 ,value of subordinating 8methods0 to method4 ,,references3 ,bagley1 ,w4 ,c41 8,geography in ,intermediate ,grades10 ,journal of ,geography1 iv1 p4 #bii4 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,march1 #aija1 pp4 #bi-ce4 #b4 ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,type ,,method4 ,a4 ,what is a type8 8,a type is that individual of a species or genus which contains the largest number of features which are characteristic of the species or genus as a whole40 ,b4 ,types must be good geographic units1 and not mere instances4 ,the essentials of a good geographic unit4 ,c4 ,a typical instance is not3 a4 ,the most involved or striking example4 b4 ,the most interesting example4 ,d4 ,why types cannot easily be selected in geography4 ,advantages and difficulties of using types4 a4 ,examples of good types4 ,e4 ,ways in which teaching by types is actually used in various texts and courses of study4 ,f4 ,teaching by 8types0 does not readily lead to the bringing out of political features2 leads to overmuch detail and overemphasis of non-essentials4 ,,reference3 ,mc,murry1 ,c4 ,a41 ,special ,method in ,geography1 chap4 ix4 ,,vi4 ,industrial and ,commercial ,geography #a4 ,,present ,,emphasis ,,of ,,industrial ,,and ,,commercial ,,geography4 ,a4 ,reasons for that emphasis3 practical and educational4 ,b4 ,industrial geography deals with the geography underlying the principal human occupations3 that is1 the reason for the occurrence of industries in given localities4 ,c4 ,commercial geography deals with the elementary principles of trade and commerce1 and includes a study of geography of great regions of production and demand1 with causes4 ,emphasizes interrelation of commercial areas and reasons for same4 ,d4 ,industrial geography should be emphasized in intermediate years2 commercial geography in the upper grades4 ,e4 ,industrial geography should include the study of groupings of peoples according to occupations and lead up to a knowledge of the simpler reasons therefor4 ,these groups are agriculture1 grazing1 lumbering1 mining1 manufacturing1 commerce1 and 8scenic centers40 ,f4 ,geography does not call for study of technique of industries1 and should not include special study of details of industries4 ,futility of studying processes4 ,geographic side includes the reasons for industry and not the manner of it4 ,technique is largely result of human invention and is not geographic except possibly where some invention has revolutionized an industry and greatly changed relations of peoples to their geographic surroundings4 ,g4 ,geography underlying agriculture1 grazing1 and lumbering as examples of geographic influences4 ,h4 ,commercial geography should be based on knowledge of industrial and physical geography of earlier years1 and should be a part of regional geography--not a special topic4 ,it should include study of routes of trade1 areas of supply and consumption of chief foods1 textiles1 manufactured products1 raw materials1 etc41 and relative status of chief commercial nations1 and reasons4 ,i4 ,difficulties in teaching commercial geography are due to modernness of subject1 constant changes involved1 lack of illustrative materials and to difficulties of securing proper materials for class study4 ,j4 ,some recent successes in teaching commercial and industrial geography4 ,the development and purposes of commercial museums for schools4 ,,reference3 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,march1 #aija1 pp4 #bi-ce4 ,,vii4 ,the ,basis of ,work in the ,upper ,grades #a4 ,,geography ,,in ,,upper ,,grades ,,should ,,be ,,founded ,,on ,,good ,,working ,,knowledge ,,of ,,elementary ,,principles ,,of ,,geography4 ,a4 ,these principles should be elaborated summaries or generalizations of earlier work1 and should be developed only so fully as is necessary for clearness and for future good work4 ,b4 ,physical geography not as an end1 but as a means to an end4 ,c4 ,life consequences to be made prominent as illustrations at every step4 #b4 ,,this ,,work ,,should ,,include3 ,a4 ,earth's shape--simple proofs and effects4 ,b4 ,earth's motions--results4 ,c4 ,elements of climate and weather as related to earth's motions with effects4 ,importance of climate4 ,d4 ,simpler land forms and influence on life4 ,drainage4 ,e4 ,simpler features of oceans and oceanic movements as related to commerce and trade4 ,tides need not be elaborated4 ,f4 ,distribution of plants as related to causes1 especially climate4 ,g4 ,distribution of animals as related to causes4 ,this topic should be treated briefly4 ,h4 ,races of men and their distribution as related to climate and food supply4 ,i4 ,elements of commerce causally developed4 ,j4 ,elements of political geography--including meaning of nation1 of boundary1 origin of boundaries1 exchange of consuls1 ministers1 etc4 #c4 ,,topics ,,which ,,may ,,be ,,omitted3 ,a4 ,causes of tides4 ,b4 ,condition of interior of earth4 ,c4 ,causes of mountain growth4 ,d4 ,details of glaciation4 ,e4 ,geological development of continent4 #d4 ,,method ,,in ,,large4 ,a4 ,work should be developed1 as far as possible1 as result of map work and personal observations4 ,b4 ,principles should be illustrated as widely as possible to show general importance4 ,c4 ,some topics may readily be studied in association with study of ,africa or ,australia1 and thus training may be given in working from causes to consequences1 as preliminary to later use of definite causal order4 ,,reference3 ,redway1 ,new ,basis of ,geography1 chap4 viii4 ,,viii4 ,the ,topical ,method in ,upper ,grades #a4 ,,general ,,agreement ,,in ,,reference ,,to ,,teaching ,,continents ,,in ,,upper ,,grades ,,from ,,causes ,,to ,,consequences4 ,a4 ,principles should be used as basis of work4 ,b4 ,work should be largely based on map study1 especially maps of climate1 physical features1 distribution of trade routes1 peoples1 industries1 etc4 ,c4 ,work should not be too stereotyped1--that is1 order of procedure should not always be the same4 ,d4 ,training should be given in reasoning and in use of reference books1 texts1 atlases1 etc4 ,e4 ,topical method means to work from larger1 simple1 general features1 out to more detailed1 special and complex conditions4 ,possible modifications and advantages4 ,using an imaginary continent4 #b4 ,,an ,,example ,,of ,,topical ,,order3 ,,the ,,larger ,,features ,,of ,,north ,,america4 ,a4 ,location3 a4 ,by latitude and longitude4 b4 ,in reference to ocean4 c4 ,in reference to other continents4 d4 ,in reference to wind systems4 ,b4 ,larger surface features3 a4 ,cordilleran ,highland4 b4 ,appalachian ,highland4 c4 ,atlantic ,coastal ,plain4 d4 ,great ,central ,plain4 e4 ,height of ,land4 f4 ,influence and extent of glaciation4 g4 ,consequent lines of drainage3 7#a7 ,arctic drainage4 7#b7 ,pacific drainage4 7#c7 ,atlantic drainage4 7i7 ,direct4 7ii7 ,by ,st4 ,lawrence4 7iii7 ,by ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,c4 ,coast line3 a4 ,compare east and west coast as to3 7#a7 ,general form4 7#b7 ,number of harbors4 7#c7 ,availability of harbors4 7#d7 ,nearness to foreign ports4 ,d4 ,climate3 a4 ,position in reference to wind systems4 b4 ,summer and winter distribution and range of temperatures4 c4 ,relation to ocean and ocean currents4 d4 ,chief modifications due to surface4 e4 ,three climatic divisions3 east coastal1 west coastal1 and interior4 f4 ,rainfall in each as related to agriculture4 g4 ,the growing season conditions in each4 ,e4 ,vegetation3 a4 ,chief vegetation regions as related to climate and surface4 b4 ,distribution and characteristic features of tundra1 forests1 steppes1 and deserts4 c4 ,significance of vegetation distribution4 ,f4 ,animals3 ,briefly as related to climate and vegetation4 a4 ,domestic4 b4 ,wild4 ,g4 ,mineral products3 ,as related to surface4 ,h4 ,people3 ,distribution of people as related to surface1 climate1 drainage1 coast line1 and products4 7,follow this by summary of ,united ,states as related to ,north ,america1 and then by ,new ,england1 following order given and extending to occupations and commerce4 ,bring out location of leading cities causally47 ,i4 ,summarize continents by comparative study of reasons for commercial development of principal nations and of distribution of great world products4 ,,references3 ,farnham1 ,a4 ,w41 8,oswego ,geography ,course10 ,journal of ,geography1 v1 p4 #baa4 ,hotchkiss1 ,c4 ,w41 ,journal of ,school ,geography1 ii1 p4 #da4 ,reudiger1 ,w4 ,c41 8,suggestions for ,geography ,teaching in ,upper ,grades10 ,journal of ,geography1 iv1 p4 #dcc4 ,,ix4 ,the ,use of ,maps and ,textbooks #a4 ,,advantages ,,of ,a ,,text3 ,a4 ,outlines a course of study when none better is available4 ,b4 ,gives clear definitions and summaries4 ,c4 ,gives second exposition of subject matter of value to pupils who gain best impression through the eyes4 ,d4 ,shows relative values of different parts of subject4 ,e4 ,furnishes text1 maps1 and illustrations for study4 ,f4 ,gives chance for training in how to study4 ,g4 ,gives means of holding children responsible for certain work4 #b4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,text3 ,a4 ,text should be servant of teacher1 and not the teacher a slave of text4 ,b4 ,text used before recitation in association with outline or series of map questions where nature of materials or other conditions do not permit development4 ,advantages of assigning lessons in certain grades4 ,c4 ,text used in recitation to give training in how to study in intermediate grades4 ,d4 ,text used after recitation as means of summary and review in much of home geography and in certain parts of upper grade work4 ,teachers here use materials of book as 8texts0 or points of departure4 #c4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,maps4 ,a4 ,maps fundamental in geography4 ,b4 ,maps only clear and accurate means of representing certain classes of facts4 ,examples of such facts4 ,c4 ,essential points to be kept in mind in map use4 a4 ,cardinal directions indicated by meridians and parallels4 b4 ,top of map is not necessarily north4 c4 ,scale is necessary for getting ideas of distance and area4 d4 ,each map has special symbols adapted to special purpose of map4 e4 ,first maps studied should be maps of local region shown in a horizontal position and properly oriented4 ,d4 ,maps of most service in texts and classroom3 a4 ,political maps in all grades4 b4 ,physical maps of large areas only give relative conditions4 ,cannot give exact representation of country4 ,dangers in physical and relief maps4 c4 ,climatic maps3 annual1 seasonal1 special4 ,winds and heat belts4 d4 ,vegetation maps in upper grades4 e4 ,product and commercial maps as related to vegetation1 climate1 and surface4 ,,references3 ,redway1 ,j4 ,w41 ,new ,basis of ,geography1 chap4 ix4 ,calkins1 ,r4 ,c41 8,the ,text1 the ,course of ,study and the ,teacher10 ,journal of ,geography1 iv1 p4 #afd4 ,brown1 ,robert ,m41 8,map ,reading10 ,journal of ,geography1 iv1 pp4 #bgc-bhh4 ,x4 ,the ,relation of ,geography to ,other ,subjects in ,curriculum #a4 ,,place ,,of ,,geography4 ,a4 ,geography is considered by some as fundamental subject in curriculum1 as it gives basis for study of human activities4 ,b4 ,geography is rather an important subject to be studied in connection with other subjects so as to produce best results from curriculum as a whole4 ,c4 ,coperation between subjects does not mean parallelism in teaching or disorganization on one subject because of temporary possible cross relations to other subjects4 ,d4 ,unity of course of study as whole in any subject of more value than temporary mutual relations between subjects4 ,e4 ,geography closely related1 in many ways1 to nature study1 history1 language1 and arithmetic4 ,f4 ,geography may contribute to and receive help from industrial subjects4 #b4 ,,geography ,,and ,,nature ,,study4 ,a4 ,simpler elements of geography should be included sanely in nature study of ,grades ,i1 ,,ii1 and ,,iii4 ,b4 ,geography in ,grade ,,iii and perhaps ,,iv should be based on nature study of earlier years4 ,simpler aspects of home geography should be taught before ,grade ,,iii4 ,c4 ,geography contributes to nature study knowledge of conditions influencing distribution of plants and animals1 elements of weather1 soils1 slopes1 drainage1 simple land forms1 distance1 and other conditions affecting problems of food1 clothing1 and shelter4 ,d4 ,geography gives application to nature study in upper grades1 summarizes distribution of animals and plants1 and gives regional basis to nature study4 ,e4 ,nature study contributes to geography knowledge of plants and animals and their ecological relations1 physics and chemistry of soils1 water1 etc41 as related to agriculture1 grazing1 and lumbering4 ,f4 ,topics of doubtful value in nature study or elementary geography4 a4 ,formation of coal1 marble1 and rocks1 and similar topics4 b4 ,minerals1 except in localities where minerals may be found4 c4 ,earth's motions and similar large topics which cannot be studied through observation4 #c4 ,,geography ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,history4 ,a4 ,geography finds its best applications in history4 ,b4 ,geographic influences vs4 geographic controls in history4 ,c4 ,geography deals with the relation between physical environment and life in all its phases4 ,history deals with the interpretation of human movements4 ,d4 ,hence history finds its basis largely in geography both in reference to large facts and smaller details4 ,examples4 ,e4 ,suggested order of studying geography and history in the different grades4 ,history should aid in making political geography understandable4 #d4 ,,geography ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,arithmetic4 ,a4 ,problems in area1 distance1 time1 averages1 proportion1 etc41 may well be developed through use of facts of geography4 ,b4 ,graphic method of representing comparisons in geography should be developed in arithmetic4 ,c4 ,latitude and longitude to be developed in geography and applied in arithmetic4 #e4 ,,geography ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,language4 ,a4 ,geography finds much of its material in literature and its largest means of expression in language4 ,b4 ,geography should give landscape setting to poetry and prose4 ,c4 ,the study of literature should include material which is geographically sound4 ,d4 ,much geography is not expressed in good literary form1 and much literature is geographically unsound4 ,,references3 ,mc,murry1 ,c4 ,a41 ,special ,method in ,geography1 chap4 viii4 ,allen1 ,l4 ,r41 8,correlation of ,geography and ,history10 ,journal of ,geography1 ii1 p4 #djd4 ,woodice1 ,florence ,a41 and ,brown1 ,robert ,m41 8,an ,experiment with ,geography and ,history with a ,sixth ,grade10 ,journal of ,geography1 vii1 pp4 #a-g4 ,,xi4 ,geography and ,expression ,work #a4 ,,expression4 ,a4 ,chief and most important forms of expression are oral and written expression4 ,b4 ,danger and unfairness of considering expression work to be merely handwork4 #b4 ,,chief ,,ways ,,in ,,which ,,hand ,,work ,,can ,,be ,,used ,,in ,,geography4 ,through map drawing1 map filling1 sand or chalk modeling1 and freehand drawing4 ,a4 ,modeling3 a4 ,a means to an end of value if done skillfully and easily4 b4 ,dangers in representing scale and slopes4 c4 ,should involve small area as to details or merely general features of a large area4 ,first work in modeling should be devoted to features that children may observe as wholes4 ,b4 ,map ,drawing3 a4 ,too time-consuming as a rule4 b4 ,difficulties of projection and scale4 c4 ,over-refined product should not be called for4 d4 ,children's maps are a bad basis for visualization4 ,c4 ,map ,filling3 a4 ,makes use of best base map available and same base map for all4 b4 ,excellent means of review as test of knowledge gained4 c4 ,relative value of flat and relief outline maps4 ,d4 ,freehand ,drawing3 a4 ,an accessory to geography work1 not a way of making confused objects or relations clear4 b4 ,value of slope sketching1 of simple landscape work1 and of map coloring4 c4 ,hand work may borrow ideas and details from geography but adds little to value of geography as a subject4 ,,xii4 ,equipment in ,geography ,teaching #a4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,equipment4 ,maps1 globes1 and illustrations4 ,costly single pieces of apparatus to be avoided4 ,a4 ,maps3 a4 ,every schoolroom should contain the following wall maps3 7#a7 ,mercator map of world4 7#b7 ,map of ,north ,america or ,united ,states4 7#c7 ,map of continents to be studied4 b4 ,maps should be chosen for demonstration and recitation work and not for study4 c4 ,hence should be clear1 capable of being seen across the room1 not overcrowded with details3 rivers and cities not overemphasized4 d4 ,upper grades should have physical map of ,united ,states and ,europe for use in history and geography4 e4 ,the use of ,united ,states ,geological ,survey ,topographic ,maps4 f4 ,use and means of securing weather maps4 g4 ,blackboard outline maps1--value and use4 h4 ,difficulties of securing certain much desired wall maps4 ,b4 ,globes3 a4 ,one #aj or #ab inch political globe available in every room4 b4 ,globe to be of a size to be easily handled4 c4 ,political globe should be up-to-date2 not overcrowded4 d4 ,blackboard globes1--how used4 e4 ,small physical or political globes for individual use4 f4 ,the use of relief globes4 ,c4 ,apparatus3 a4 ,avoid large pieces and geographical diagrams4 b4 ,standard thermometer1 barometer1 compass1 and wind vane to be available4 c4 ,special pieces available for special purposes4 ,d4 ,illustrations3 a4 ,includes photographs1 cuts from magazines1 slides1 stereoscopic views4 b4 ,necessity of scheme for selection1 classification1 and storage of materials4 c4 ,value of a few good illustrations as compared with a host of poor illustrations4 d4 ,relative advantages of pictures1 slides and stereoscope for special purposes4 e4 ,mechanical difficulties incident to class use of illustrations4 ,,references3 ,redway1 ,j4 ,w41 ,new ,basis of ,geography1 chap4 xi4 8,equipment for ,geography ,teaching10 ,journal of ,geography1 v1 pp4 #bdb-bej4 ,whitbeck1 ,r4 ,h41 8,practical ,work in ,school ,geography10 ,journal of ,geography1 iii1 pp4 #cgd-cgi4 ,emerson1 ,p41 8,field ,work in the ,class-,room10 ,journal of ,geography1 i1 pp4 #ed-eg1 #ha-ih4 ,,xiii4 ,the ,geographic ,preparation of a ,teacher of ,geography ,it is neither possible nor desirable to have every grade school teacher a specialist in geography4 ,a4 ,the scope of work analyzed4 a4 ,larger portion of work will be the geography of continents in earlier or later grades4 b4 ,small portion of work will be development of principles of physical and life geography4 c4 ,the principles will be expected to be used in continental work4 ,b4 ,the requisite training of a teacher must then include3 a4 ,some study of larger principles so as to make these principles usable in all grades4 b4 ,special study of one or more continents so as to give point of view and method of studying a region causally4 c4 ,training in use of maps1 especially atlas and text maps1 weather maps and ,united ,states ,geological ,survey ,topographic ,maps4 d4 ,knowledge of larger principles underlying geography teaching in the grades and study of special difficulties in each phase of elementary school work4 ,knowledge of subject matter is an essential basis for study of methods of teaching4 e4 ,these requisites suggest the necessary content and order of procedure in geography courses in training classes4 ,c4 ,desirable training that teachers should be encouraged to secure4 a4 ,knowledge of geography beyond the minimum outlined above and sufficient to make them independent workers and possibly investigators in some phase of geography4 b4 ,good knowledge of history of ,united ,states and ,europe4 c4 ,knowledge of elements of anthropology1 economics1 and biology1 particularly along ecological lines4 d4 ,knowledge of modern industrial problems in the ,united ,states1 particularly along lines of agriculture1 manufacturing1 commerce1 and conservation of forests and water supply4 ,d4 ,opportunities for securing training in geography4 a4 ,larger and better normal schools and many colleges and universities now include well planned courses in geography4 b4 ,teachers in service will find splendid opportunities for geography work at the summer schools of colleges and normal schools4 ,also in some cases in certain phases of the subject1 work may be secured in extension and correspondence courses4 c4 ,teachers seeking summer school opportunities should go to institutions that have summer terms1 and not1 as a rule1 merely to summer institutions4 ,geography cannot be adequately taught without equipment1 and only those institutions which are in operation the year round can have adequate equipment4 ,,selected ,,reference ,,list ,,for ,,teachers ,general3-- ,longman's ,gazetteer4 ,longmans4 ,the authoritative pronouncing and spelling gazetteer of the world4 ,contains excellent brief descriptions of all important places4 ,lippincott's ,gazetteer4 ,a recent authoritative volume containing excellent brief descriptions of all places of any importance4 ,andree's ,hand ,atlas4 ,velhagen and ,klasing1 ,leipsig4 ,recent reference atlas containing excellent climatic maps and maps showing distribution of peoples1 religions1 plants1 animals1 etc4 ,stieler's ,hand ,atlas4 ,perthes1 ,gotha4 ,the leading reference atlas4 ,mill1 ,international ,geography4 ,appleton4 ,the best single volume reference book on general and regional geography4 ,stanford's ,compendia 7reissue74 ,stanford4 ,the leading reference books on the several continents4 ,two volumes each on ,asia1 ,australia1 ,north ,america1 ,central and ,south ,america1 ,africa and ,europe4 ,regional ,geography4 ,appleton4 ,accurate1 readable1 helpful volumes of first importance4 ,includes volumes on ,britain and the ,british ,seas1 ,central ,europe1 ,india1 ,the ,nearer ,east1 and ,north ,america4 ,herbertson1 ,senior ,geography4 ,a very useful volume summarizing geography of several continents in a causal order4 ,especially helpful for ,europe4 ,mill1 ,hints to ,teachers and ,students on the ,choice of ,geographical ,books for ,reference and ,reading4 ,longmans4 ,a very helpful reference list with brief comments on the individual references4 ,gives general and special references4 ,a new edition appeared early in #aiji4 ,the ,teaching of ,geography3-- ,geikie1 ,the ,teaching of ,geography4 ,macmillan4 ,a very suggestive book on the essentials of good geography teaching4 ,mc,murry1 ,c4 ,a41 ,special ,method in ,geography4 ,macmillan4 ,discusses the scope of geography and outlines a course emphasizing the teaching by types4 ,redway1 ,new ,basis of ,geography4 ,macmillan4 ,interesting and helpful for teachers in upper grades who need to teach continents from the practical standpoint4 ,physical ,geography3-- ,mill1 ,realm of ,nature4 ,scribners4 ,a very valuable and simple book on physical and mathematical geography and on biogeography4 ,davis1 ,physical ,geography4 ,ginn ,co4 ,an authoritative secondary school text1 particularly helpful in reference to the land features4 ,davis1 ,elementary ,meteorology4 ,ginn ,co4 ,the leading ,english book on weather and climate4 ,ward1 ,practical ,exercises in ,elementary ,meteorology4 ,ginn ,co4 ,very helpful to teachers who have to deal with weather phenomena4 ,gilbert and ,brigham1 ,introduction to ,physical ,geography4 ,appleton4 ,an interesting1 authoritative1 and well illustrated secondary text on physical geography4 ,tarr1 ,new ,physical ,geography4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,one of the newest and best high school books4 ,salisbury1 ,physiography4 ,henry ,holt ,company4 ,most inclusive and best illustrated volume available4 ,an indispensable library reference volume4 ,harrington1 ,mark ,w41 ,about the ,weather4 ,appleton4 ,very helpful for teachers in elementary grades4 ,dodge1 ,reader in ,physical ,geography for ,beginners4 ,longmans4 ,small volume on physical geography1 available as an introduction to the subject4 ,biogeography3-- ,ratzel1 ,history of ,mankind 7#c vols474 ,macmillan4 ,a very comprehensive book on the races of mankind1 the first volume being particularly valuable for its consideration of the problems of race distribution4 ,wallace1 ,island ,life4 ,macmillan4 ,classic book on animal distribution from geographic standpoint4 ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man4 ,scribners4 ,one of the older books1 and hence not written from a modern standpoint3 but still invaluable for presenting the relation of earth features to life4 ,herbertson1 ,man and ,his ,work4 ,a4 and ,c4 ,black4 ,a very usable and interesting small volume1 showing the manner of life of people living in different vegetation regions and amid different surface conditions4 ,lyddeker1 ,hutchinson and ,gregory1 ,living ,races of ,mankind4 ,hutchinson ,co4 ,two splendidly illustrated volumes on the races of men1 simple1 and popularly written4 ,commercial ,geography3-- ,adams1 ,commercial ,geography4 ,appleton4 ,an accurate1 well ordered1 and almost indispensable book on commercial geography4 ,maps and diagrams are very numerous and helpful for the teacher4 ,chisholm1 ,commercial ,geography4 ,longmans4 ,the most inclusive volume in the ,english language4 ,contains excellent abstracts of general geography of each country in a good causal order4 ,periodicals3-- ,journal of ,geography4 ,published by ,teachers ,college1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,only journal in the country devoted to teaching of geography4 ,geographical ,teacher4 ,phillips1 ,london4 ,similar in scope to above journal and contains much of value to ,american teachers4 ,national ,geographic ,magazine4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,leading popular journal of geography in country4 ,geographical ,journal4 ,london4 ,leading strictly geographical journal in ,english-speaking world4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,history ,,by ,,henry ,,johnson1 ,a4,m4 ,i4 ,what ,history is #a4 ,,the ,,word 8,,history0 ,,may ,,denote3 a4 ,past facts themselves4 b4 ,traces left by past facts4 c4 ,the study which investigates such traces4 d4 ,the knowledge thus obtained4 e4 ,an account or narrative in which such knowledge is embodied4 #b4 ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,historical ,,knowledge4 a4 ,primary sources4 #a4 ,material remains--roads1 buildings1 tools1 weapons1 clothing1 any material object shaped by man or associated with his life on the earth4 #b4 ,reports of conditions and events made by actual observers4 ,such reports may be oral1 written or printed1 pictorial4 b4 ,secondary sources--reports or accounts based upon primary sources4 c4 ,accounts based upon other accounts in varying degrees of removal even from secondary sources4 d4 ,existing sources relate to fragments only of man's total experience in the world4 #c4 ,,historical ,,criticism--,,the ,,foundation ,,for ,,the ,,determination ,,of ,,particular ,,facts ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,past4 a4 ,external criticism--investigation of the origin and transmission of sources2 a study of form1 language1 writing4 ,is the material remaining authentic8 ,who was the author of the document8 ,what did he say8 b4 ,internal criticism--investigation of the content of sources4 ,what did the author mean8 ,are his statements true8 c4 ,the need of historical criticism finds daily illustration in the schoolroom1 in ordinary conversation1 in the newspapers4 d4 ,historical criticism first formally applied by the ,greeks4 ,not fully developed until modern times4 #d4 ,,historical ,,synthesis--,,putting ,,the ,,facts ,,together ,,into ,a ,,body ,,of ,,organized ,,knowledge4 a4 ,the chronological order--facts arranged according to time of occurrence4 b4 ,the geographical order--facts arranged according to place of occurrence4 c4 ,the logical order--facts arranged according to their intrinsic nature4 d4 ,one order used exclusively4 #e4 ,,history ,,as ,,an ,,account ,,or ,,narrative4 a4 ,the subject embraced4 #a4 ,a single person4 #b4 ,a single people--whole known period or a part of it4 #c4 ,the whole world--universal history4 b4 ,general conceptions of history writing4 #a4 ,a narrative of memorable events4 ,aim1 mainly to please4 ,content determined by taste of authors and their public4 ,epic poets and story-tellers early contributors4 ,classical type fixed by ,herodotus1 the 8father of history40 #b4 ,a collection of precedents supposed to be useful to statesmen1 generals1 and others4 ,aim1 didactic4 ,content determined by the kind of examples or lessons needed4 ,but these1 according to early conceptions1 to be valuable must be true to the facts4 ,facts largely political and military4 ,a conception introduced by ,thucydides and developed by ,polybius4 #c4 ,scientific history4 ,aim1 to exhibit the past as it was and to explain how it came to be what it was4 ,content determined by what is regarded as significant in illustrating the idea of development in human affairs4 c4 ,these general conceptions correspond roughly to stages of human culture4 d4 ,history generally regarded merely as a branch of literature up to #ahej4 e4 ,side by side with scientific histories1 works of the older types are still being produced4 ,,references3 ,langlois and ,seignobos1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,history1 pp4 #fc-gj1 #baa-bca1 #bif-cba4 ,bernheim1 ,einleitung in die ,geschichtswissenschaft1 pp4 #e-ac1 #cc-dc1 #gb-gh4 ,fling1 ,outline of ,historical ,method1 pp4 #e-abd4 ,robinson1 ,history1 ,columbia ,university ,press1 #aijh4 ,rhodes1 in ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,lxxxv1 pp4 #aeh-afi4 ,winsor1 in ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,lxvi1 pp4 #bhi-big4 ,,ii4 ,the ,problem of ,adapting ,history to ,children #a4 ,,special ,,guidance ,,sought ,,in ,,the 8,,natural0 ,,tastes ,,and ,,interests ,,of ,,children4 a4 ,these determined by experiment4 b4 ,sometimes regarded as a final criterion4 c4 ,reinforced by the culture epoch theory4 d4 ,conclusion3 8,the childhood of history for the child1 the boyhood of history for the boy1 the youthhood of history for the youth1 the manhood of history for the man40 e4 ,the conclusion interpreted4 #a4 ,facts to be selected and arranged according to their cultural stages and not according to time or place of occurrence4 #b4 ,manner of treatment to accord in general with the conception of history first developed by the race4 #c4 ,scientific history thus excluded4 f4 ,general comment3 ,important to distinguish between the natural tastes and interests of children and the cultivated intelligence of children4 #b4 ,,approach ,,from ,,the ,,side ,,of ,,history4 a4 ,kinds of historical facts4 #a4 ,facts relating to physical appearance of men and their material environment4 a4 ,possibility of direct appeal to the senses4 b4 ,the simplest illustration of change in the world4 c4 ,material aspects of the past sufficiently unlike those of the present to be interesting4 #b4 ,facts relating to what men did4 a4 ,direct sense appeal not applicable4 b4 ,only actions now in progress can be observed4 c4 ,with these as a basis actions in progress in the past more or less readily imaged4 d4 ,that action appeals to children an axiom of history teaching4 #c4 ,facts relating to thoughts and feelings of men1 the motives that moved them to do or to say4 a4 ,known only through deeds and words4 b4 ,real understanding of the past measured by pupil's ability to enter this inner life of history4 c4 ,important to recognize difficulties and limitations4 d4 ,the mental states of a ,clovis1 a ,charlemagne1 a ,napoleon1 or even of a cave-man1 an ,indian1 a pioneer1 largely beyond the experience of children and of most adults4 #d4 ,in each of these groups the simplest facts relate to particular objects1 particular acts1 thoughts1 feelings4 #e4 ,collective facts1 facts relating to social groups1 to institutions1 to general causes that act in history1 much more difficult4 a4 ,how represent a wave of prosperity8 a panic8 a revolution8 society itself8 b4 ,such expressions made intelligible by resolving them1 so far as possible1 into their concrete elements4 b4 ,the kinds of facts enumerated common to literary1 didactic1 and scientific history4 c4 ,degree of difficulty presented by a given type of facts not essentially different for different kinds of history4 d4 ,a principle of grading thus suggested as applicable to one kind of history as to another4 #a4 ,any facts readily visualized possible material for school history4 #b4 ,clear visualization a factor in stimulating interest4 #c4 ,clear visualization of the man1 the act1 the situation1 a necessary key to his mental states4 #d4 ,elementary history1 therefore1 to be largely descriptive and narrative1 to be made up of concrete examples rather than generalized knowledge4 e4 ,time and place relations essential to the conception of any fact as historical4 ,as difficult for one kind of history as for another4 f4 ,special conditions imposed by scientific history4 #a4 ,facts in palpable conflict with present knowledge not to be regarded as historical4 #b4 ,facts to be characteristic of persons1 peoples1 places1 periods2 not exceptional1 abnormal1 bizarre4 #c4 ,facts to be so presented as to exhibit relations1 cause and effect1 continuity4 #d4 ,facts to be so presented as to arouse some consciousness of how we know what we know about the past and why we do not know more4 #e4 ,these conditions quite possible to meet within the limits suggested by the principle of grading already set forth4 ,,references3 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,november1 #aijh1 pp4 #a-be4 ,bernheim1 in ,neue ,bahnen1 ,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #bfe-cjj1 #ccg-ceg4 ,seignobos1 ,l',histoire dans l',enseignement secondaire1 pp4 #c-be4 ,muzzy1 in ,association of ,history ,teachers of the ,middle ,states and ,maryland1 #aijf1 pp4 #ac-bh1 especially #ag-ai4 ,channing1 in ,north ,central ,history ,teachers' ,association1 #aijg1 pp4 #ad-ah4 ,laurie1 in ,school ,review1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #fee-ffj4 ,salmon1 in ,year ,book ,society for ,scientific ,study of ,education1 #aijb1 pp4 #dg-ed2 ,mc,murry1 in same1 #aijc1 pp4 #dg-ea4 ,american ,historical ,association1 #aije1 pp4 #ace-ade4 ,hinsdale1 ,how to ,study and ,teach ,history1 pp4 #db-eb1 #fg-gd4 ,rice1 in ,educational ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 pp4 #afi-agi2 ,burnham1 in same1 ,vol4 ,,xxvii1 pp4 #eba-ebh4 ,peabody1 in ,national ,education ,association1 #ahic1 pp4 #bhd-bhe4 ,barnes1 ,studies in ,historical ,method1 pp4 #eg-aje4 ,mace1 ,method in ,history1 pp4 #bee-cjh4 ,suzzallo1 in ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,may1 #aijd1 pp4 #aa-ai2 ,marker1 in same1 pp4 #bj-cc4 ,,iii4 ,the ,question of ,aims and ,values #a4 ,,the ,,faith ,,of ,,educators ,,in ,,the ,,utility ,,of ,,history ,,attested ,,by ,,programs ,,in ,,the ,,subject ,,for ,,every ,,grade ,,of ,,instruction ,,from ,,the ,,kindergarten ,,to ,,the ,,university4 #b4 ,,current ,,discussions ,,confusing4 a4 ,aims sometimes defined without reference to the nature of history4 ,history then repudiated wherever it happens to interfere with 8the uses of history40 b4 ,aims sometimes inconsistent with each other4 c4 ,little to indicate that one of the aims of historical instruction is to teach history4 #c4 ,,aims ,,commonly ,,proposed4 a4 ,discipline--training of the memory1 the imagination1 the judgment4 b4 ,culture--8enriching the humanity of the pupil40 c4 ,inspiration--furnishing ideals of conduct1 patriotism1 social service4 d4 ,practical knowledge--teaching pupils how to act in the present4 e4 ,the illumination of other studies1 especially literature and geography4 f4 ,the cultivation of a taste for historical reading4 g4 ,the explanation of the present--nothing in the world to-day really intelligible apart from its history4 #d4 ,,special ,,modern ,,emphasis ,,upon ,,the ,,social ,,value ,,of ,,history4 a4 ,an application of a general point of view in education4 b4 ,special demands upon history4 #a4 ,must show in the form of concrete examples what society is and how it works4 #b4 ,must 8give a vivid and intense realization of social duties and obligations40 #e4 ,,pertinent ,,questions4 a4 ,are the aims proposed in fact promoted by a given kind of instruction8 b4 ,are they promoted as effectively as they might be by some other kind of instruction8 c4 ,are they the most useful of the possible ends that history might serve8 #f4 ,,observations ,,and ,,experiment ,,needed ,,to ,,furnish ,,data ,,for ,,answers4 ,,references3 ,mc,murry1 ,special ,method in ,history1 pp4 #a-ag4 ,kemp1 ,outline of ,method in ,history1 pp4 #ajd-aac4 ,barnes1 ,studies in ,historical ,method1 pp4 #ajf-aba4 ,lloyd1 in ,spencer1 ,aims and ,practice of ,teaching1 pp4 #ada-adh4 ,rice1 ,history and ,literature1 pp4 #c-bf1 #adi-aff4 ,woodward1 in ,essays on ,teaching of ,history by ,maitland and others1 pp4 #fi-gh4 ,hinsdale1 ,how to ,study and ,teach ,history1 pp4 #b-ag4 ,bourne1 ,teaching of ,history and ,civics1 pp4 #gg-ib4 ,year ,book1 ,herbart ,society1 #ahih1 pp4 #be-ef4 ,snedden1 in ,journal of ,pedagogy1 ,vol4 ,,xix1 pp4 #bei-bfh4 ,proceedings1 ,national ,education ,association1 #ahib1 pp4 #cdh-ceb2 #ahid1 pp4 #cig-dab2 #ahie1 pp4 #aci-adb1 #cjf-cjh2 #ahif1 pp4 #daj-dac4 ,report1 ,committee of ,seven1 pp4 #aeh-afb4 ,kirk1 in ,education1 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 pp4 #ae-ah2 ,crawford1 in same1 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #bha-bhf2 ,mc,mahon2 in same1 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 pp4 #aji-aad4 ,langlois and ,seignobos1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,history1 p4 #cca4 ,lea1 in ,american ,historical ,review1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #bcc-bdf4 ,harrison1 ,meaning of ,history1 pp4 #a-bc4 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,november1 #aiji1 pp4 #ee-ef4 ,,iv4 ,the ,history ,program for the ,elementary ,school #a4 ,,the ,,preparatory ,,period--,,the ,,first ,,three ,,or ,,four ,,years4 a4 ,myths1 fairy tales1 fables1 ,oriental1 ,greek1 ,roman1 later ,european4 ,some use of ,american folk lore4 b4 ,simple biographies from ,american or world history4 ,may or may not be arranged chronologically4 c4 ,stories connected with anniversaries1 birthdays1 ,thanksgiving1 ,christmas4 d4 ,stories from the ,bible4 e4 ,stories of primitive life4 f4 ,stories of inventions4 g4 ,stories from local history4 h4 ,various studies of a geographical or sociological character4 i4 ,several or all of these types of material may be represented in a single program4 j4 ,some schools carry this kind of work into higher grades4 #b4 ,,the ,,intermediate ,,stage--,,fifth ,,and ,,sixth ,,years4 a4 ,beginnings of textbook instruction4 b4 ,more attention to chronological order and geological setting4 c4 ,subject3 ancient history1 the ,middle ,ages1 ,english history1 ,american history4 ,chief emphasis on ,american history4 d4 ,material usually biographical4 e4 ,some schools begin this stage of work in the fourth year4 #c4 ,,the ,,last ,,two ,,years4 a4 ,subject usually the ,united ,states4 b4 ,the subject often divided4 #a4 ,colonial period for the seventh year4 #b4 ,later period for the eighth year4 c4 ,some schools have ,english history in the seventh year4 d4 ,civics frequently combined with history1 especially in the eighth year4 e4 ,occasionally some ,greek and ,roman or general ,european history in one or both of these years4 #d4 ,,the ,,program ,,proposed ,,by ,,the ,,committee ,,of ,,eight4 ,first grade3 ,indian life4 ,explanation of holidays4 ,second grade3 ,indian life4 ,holidays4 ,local history4 ,third grade3 ,heroes of other times4 ,holidays4 ,fourth grade3 ,historical scenes and persons in ,american history1 colonial period4 ,fifth grade3 ,historical scenes and persons in ,american history continued4 ,great industries of the present4 ,sixth grade3 ,european background of ,american history4 ,seventh grade3 ,american history to the ,revolution4 ,european background continued4 ,eighth grade3 ,the ,united ,states since the ,revolution4 ,great events in ,european history4 ,,references3 ,bourne1 ,teaching of ,history and ,civics1 pp4 #gb-gd1 #ajf-aad1 #cec-cfe4 ,reports of ,committees3 ,committee of ,ten1 pp4 #afc1 #agg-aha2 of ,fifteen1 pp4 #fb-fg2 of ,twelve1 pp4 #aga1 #agd-age2 of ,seven1 pp4 #afb-agb2 of ,eight1 pp4 #a-ia2 ,salmon1 in ,year ,book1 ,society for ,scientific ,study of ,education1 #aijb1 pp4 #ca-fj4 ,mc,murry1 ,special ,method in ,history1 pp4 #ah-cc1 #bch-bfh4 ,kemp1 ,outline of ,method in ,history1 pp4 #acc-bfc4 ,elementary ,school ,record1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #h1 pp4 #aii-baf4 ,rice1 ,history and ,literature1 pp4 #bg-gd4 ,magnusson1 in ,new ,york ,teachers ,monographs1 ,march1 #aijc1 pp4 #ij-ig4 ,greene1 ,history in the ,kindergarten4 ,warfield1 in ,education1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 pp4 #a-e4 ,gordy and ,twitchell1 ,pathfinder in ,american ,history1 ,part ,i1 pp4 #dc-ej2 ,part ,,ii1 pp4 #e-bj4 ,proceedings1 ,national ,education ,association1 #ahib1 pp4 #caj-caf2 #aije1 pp4 #cjd-cjh1 #cfj-cgj2 #ahig1 pp4 #eh-fg4 ,payne1 ,elementary ,school ,curricula1 pp4 #bb1 #bd-ci1 #ej4 ,v4 ,general ,methods of ,instruction #a4 ,,the ,,preparatory ,,period--,,the ,,first ,,three ,,or ,,four ,,years4 a4 ,presentation of material usually oral4 #a4 ,reading the story4 #b4 ,telling the story4 #c4 ,developing the story by questions4 #d4 ,pointing the moral4 b4 ,the children's part in the lesson4 #a4 ,telling the story4 #b4 ,writing the story4 #c4 ,solving problems suggested by the story4 c4 ,stories of the preparatory period may be so managed as to form a real basis for later history--training in putting things together1 in seeing simple relations1 in developing a sense of continuity4 #b4 ,,the ,,intermediate ,,stage--,,the ,,fifth ,,and ,,sixth ,,years4 a4 ,some oral presentation along the lines indicated for the preparatory period4 b4 ,the general tendency toward textbook work4 #a4 ,regular lessons assigned and recited4 #b4 ,the lesson read with the class during the history period4 c4 ,character of the textbooks4 #a4 ,rarely the work of historical experts4 #b4 ,aim to tell a story rather than history4 #c4 ,accuracy a minor consideration4 #d4 ,show little sense of historical proportion4 #e4 ,their merit is that children can understand them4 #f4 ,some recent books conceived in a more serious spirit and much better as history4 d4 ,the use of maps1 pictures1 and other special aids to visualization increasing4 ,still much to be desired4 #c4 ,,the ,,last ,,two ,,years4 a4 ,textbook work becomes more formal4 b4 ,types of textbook recitations4 #a4 8,hearing0 the lesson4 a4 ,teacher announces the heading of paragraph or opening words of sentence4 b4 ,pupil carries the story forward until relieved by 8next40 c4 ,a test of memory4 #b4 ,the question and answer method4 a4 ,teachers' questions suggest analysis of text4 b4 ,short answers by pupil4 c4 ,memory test prominent4 #c4 ,a good general plan4 a4 ,teacher announces topic4 b4 ,pupil tells what he knows about it4 c4 ,corrections1 additions1 and questions by other members of class4 d4 ,corrections and additions by teacher4 e4 ,questions by teacher designed to apply what has been learned4 #a4 ,comparison with other topics previously studied4 #b4 ,comparison with conditions in the present4 c4 ,the use of two or more textbooks4 #a4 ,the pupil prepares his lesson from two or more different books4 #b4 ,different pupils have different books4 #c4 ,aim to bring out difference in point of view or in statement of facts with a view to making pupils think4 d4 ,outside reading4 #a4 ,other textbooks4 #b4 ,poems and novels4 #c4 ,some references to standard histories and to simpler primary sources4 e4 ,notebooks4 #a4 ,making and keeping outlines4 #b4 ,reports of outside reading4 #c4 ,reports of class discussions4 f4 ,the use of maps1 pictures1 and other special aids increasing4 g4 ,character of the textbooks4 #a4 ,a number of recent books written by competent students of history4 #b4 ,reasonably good as history4 #c4 ,inferior to more elementary books as apparatus for teaching4 #d4 ,responsibility for the 8whole story0 tends to reduce textbooks to outlines and tempts to generalizations which are largely meaningless to children4 #e4 ,the class recitation thus in danger of becoming an exercise in mere words4 ,,references3 ,bryant1 ,how to ,tell ,stories to ,children1 pp4 #ac-ba1 #hc-aji4 ,mc,murry1 ,special ,method in ,history1 pp4 #ej-he4 ,hinsdale1 ,how to ,study and ,teach ,history1 pp4 #ec-ff4 ,bourne1 ,teaching of ,history and ,civics1 pp4 #adh-afh4 ,gordy and ,twitchell1 ,pathfinder in ,american ,history4 ,foltz1 zur ,methode des ,geschichtsunterrichts1 pp4 #agd-baf4 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,november1 #aijh1 pp4 #bf-cb4 ,,vi4 ,the ,biographical ,approach to ,history #a4 ,,what ,,the ,,biographical ,,method ,,is4 a4 ,the study of individual men and women as individuals4 b4 ,the study of individual men and women as representatives of movements1 periods1 social groups4 c4 ,the persons selected for study usually great or famous4 #b4 ,,reasons ,,for ,,prevalence ,,of ,,the ,,method4 a4 ,offers units that are simple1 concrete1 interesting4 b4 ,satisfies ethical demands made upon historical instruction4 c4 ,german experience a potent example4 d4 ,supported by 8great man theory0 of history4 #a4 8,the history of what man has accomplished in this world is at bottom the history of the great men who have worked here40--,,carlyle4 #b4 8,great men sum up and represent humanity40--,,renan4 #c4 ,,the ,,kinds ,,of ,,persons ,,that ,,interest ,,children4 a4 ,men of primitive instincts--cave-men1 ,indians4 b4 ,men who 8did things0--especially brigands1 pirates1 adventurers1 generals1 kings4 c4 ,these types fully exploited in books for children4 ,possibly cause as well as effect of children's tastes4 d4 ,relatively few tests of children's attitude toward scholars1 writers1 artists4 #d4 ,,general ,,criticism4 a4 ,personal element essential to school history4 b4 ,events can to some extent be grouped about individuals4 c4 ,but 8great man theory0 not well applied4 #a4 ,persons selected for study often not representative4 ,may be exceptional4 ,often at best merely picturesque4 #b4 ,historical characters often distorted for moral ends4 #c4 ,doubtful anecdotes used to excess4 d4 ,the 8great man theory0 not generally accepted by historians4 e4 ,individuals often more easily grouped about events than events about individuals4 f4 ,the general tendency of the biographical method is to leave a series of disconnected impressions4 ,,references3 ,kemp1 ,outline of ,method in ,history1 pp4 #bfd-bie4 ,hinsdale1 ,how to ,study and ,teach ,history1 pp4 #cj-ca1 #dd-de4 ,bourne1 ,teaching of ,history and ,civics1 pp4 #ah-bj1 #hf1 #cef4 ,mace1 ,method in ,history1 pp4 #bhi-bid4 ,lawless1 in ,nineteenth ,century1 ,vol4 ,l1 pp4 #gij-gih4 ,bernheim1 in ,neue ,bahnen1 ,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #cch-cdb4 ,,vii4 ,the ,social and ,economic ,point of ,view #a4 ,,great ,,men ,,not ,,excluded1 ,,but ,,the 8,,masses0 ,,included4 #b4 ,,emphasis ,,upon ,,social ,,and ,,economic ,,conditions1-- ,occupations1 industries1 inventions1 commerce1 manners and customs1 education1 amusements1 food1 dress1 upon whatever serves to illustrate the common life4 #c4 ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,departure4 a4 ,the daily life and material environment of the community in which the school is situated4 b4 ,the development of some special invention1 trade1 art1 industry1 related to the immediate neighborhood4 c4 ,the constructive activities of children--sewing1 weaving1 cooking1 making furniture4 d4 ,local history4 #d4 ,,application ,,to ,,history ,,in ,,general4 a4 ,limited by the nature of the material available4 b4 ,difficult to arrange a connected narrative4 c4 ,german experience--,biedermann's ,kulturbilder4 ,the conditions of ,german life at selected stages described1 compared1 and contrasted4 #e4 ,a ,,growing ,,recognition ,,of ,,the ,,general ,,point ,,of ,,view4 a4 ,influence of democratic ideals4 b4 ,industrial education an important factor in securing change of emphasis4 c4 ,an enlarged view of history4 #a4 ,carlyle's protest against the older historians4 #b4 ,macaulay's theory of history4 #c4 ,the work of ,john ,richard ,green4 #d4 ,mc,master's ,people of the ,united ,states4 d4 ,the economic interpretation of history4 e4 ,material supplied by ,documentary ,history of ,american ,industrial ,society1 #aj volumes1 to be published1 #aiji-aiaj4 ,,references3 ,dopp1 ,place of ,industries in ,education1 pp4 #ig-bfj4 ,rice1 in ,year ,book1 ,society for ,scientific ,study of ,education1 #aijc1 pp4 #i-ad4 ,wood1 ,report on ,teaching ,history1 pp4 #aa-ag4 ,lamprecht1 ,what is ,history8 pp4 #c-ce4 ,dodd1 in ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,lxiii1 pp4 #dah-dbd4 ,seligman1 ,economic ,interpretation of ,history4 ,biedermann1 ,geschichtsunterricht 444 nach ,kulturgeschichtlicher ,methode1 pp4 #e-de4 ,bernheim1 in ,neue ,bahnen1 ,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #bhe-cjj4 ,,viii4 ,making the ,past ,real #a4 ,,where ,,the ,,textbooks ,,fail4 a4 ,reading matter usually insufficient for clear images of material aspects of the past or for definite impressions of past mental states4 b4 ,within certain limits definiteness and simplicity secured by brevity of statement4 c4 ,but the principle of making a thing elementary by not saying much about it carried too far4 d4 ,stories inherently simple often expanded2 those inherently difficult often abridged4 ,school history would be more intelligible if the conditions were reversed4 #b4 ,,special ,,aids ,,to ,,visualization4 a4 ,material remains in vicinity of school4 ,visits to historic places4 b4 ,casts1 models1 pictures1 visualization charts1 maps4 c4 ,the stereoscope1 lantern1 and other similar apparatus4 ,moving pictures4 d4 ,illustrations in textbooks4 e4 ,historical albums4 #c4 8,,living ,,the ,,past40 a4 ,exaggerated views illustrated by demand that pupil 8identify himself completely with the thought1 passion and resolution of the time0 under consideration4 #a4 ,such a demand scarcely met by the most expert historians4 #b4 ,realism of this type not attainable by children and not even desirable4 b4 ,some impression of how men thought and felt essential4 c4 ,special aids4 #a4 ,a man's own words expressed in letters1 diaries1 personal reminiscences1 speeches1 state papers4 a4 ,value varies with character of person and circumstances of utterance4 b4 ,words often no clue to real sentiments of author4 #b4 ,characteristic stories and anecdotes4 #c4 ,dramatization of history4 a4 ,plays composed by children4 ,may be based on good historical material4 b4 ,ready-made plays less effective4 c4 ,historical pageants4 d4 ,historical drama of the professional stage4 #d4 ,imaginary letters1 diaries1 speeches1 prepared by pupils4 ,answering the questions3 8,how should ,i have felt80 8,what should ,i have said or done80 #e4 ,historical poems and novels4 a4 ,value for history easily exaggerated4 b4 ,a distinction to be made between those that ate contemporary with scenes represented and those that are merely later attempts at reconstruction4 c4 ,general use in school due in part to tradition which so long made history a mere branch of literature1 in part to more general acquaintance with this kind of material than with material more distinctly historical4 #f4 ,material supplied by detailed histories4 ,,references3 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,november1 #aijh1 pp4 #ab-be4 ,wilson1 ,mere ,literature1 pp4 #afa-ahf4 ,crothers1 ,gentle ,reader1 pp4 #afg-bjj4 ,stephens1 in ,california ,university ,chronicle1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #aei-afh2 ,french ,revolution1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfa4 ,matthews1 in ,forum1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 pp4 #gi-ia4 ,langlois and ,seignobos1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,history1 pp4 #bae-bbe1 #cja1 #cai1 note4 ,seignobos1 ,l',histoire dans l',enseignement secondaire1 pp4 #ae-ai4 ,,ix4 ,time and ,place ,relations #a4 ,,time ,,sense ,,in ,,children4 a4 ,rudimentary at age of entering school4 8,yesterday10 8last week10 8last month10 have a meaning4 8,one hundred years ago0 has not4 b4 ,the sense develops slowly4 ,even children of twelve or thirteen often measure short periods of time vaguely4 c4 ,from this an argument advanced against dating any events in distant past for children4 ,can mean only 8a long time ago40 d4 ,the difficulty in part removed by objective assistance--chart1 rolls1 knotted cords1 and other devices4 e4 ,dates properly introduced at least as early as the fifth year4 #b4 ,,dates ,,to ,,be ,,remembered4 a4 ,famous events4 b4 ,important events4 c4 ,a few in each year fixed as a permanent possession4 d4 ,evidence at present of recovery from extreme reaction against learning dates4 #c4 ,,the ,,place ,,relation4 a4 ,the way prepared by geography4 b4 ,maps to be introduced as soon as children have learned to read them4 c4 ,two kinds of historical geography4 #a4 ,contemporary maps4 #b4 ,modern maps4 d4 ,school history should show how events were influenced by geographic conditions4 ,natural features of the earth determine in great part3 #a4 ,climate1 productions1 physical development1 employments1 habits4 #b4 ,facilities for commerce4 #c4 ,advantages for military and naval defense or aggression4 #d4 ,intellectual tendencies1 but to a less extent4 e4 ,place relation to be fixed under same conditions as time relation4 ,,references3 ,hinsdale1 ,how to ,study and ,teach ,history1 pp4 #ge-ajj2 #aaa-abf4 ,vaughan1 in ,contemporary ,review1 ,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #bi-di4 ,turner1 in ,year ,book1 ,herbart ,society1 #ahii1 pp4 #g-da4 ,semple1 ,american ,history and its ,geographic ,conditions4 ,brigham1 ,geographic ,influence in ,american ,history ,report1 ,new ,england ,history ,teachers' ,association1 #aijg4 ,x4 ,school ,history and the ,historical ,method #a4 ,,history ,,for ,,school ,,purposes ,,usually ,,treated ,,as ,a ,,body ,,of ,,assured ,,knowledge4 a4 ,the problem of elementary instruction held to be interpretation and not criticism4 b4 ,controversial matters omitted so far as possible4 c4 ,little to indicate varying degrees of probability in historical facts4 d4 ,uncertainties covered by dogmatism of textbooks4 #b4 ,,raising ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,how ,,we ,,know4 a4 ,makes for more intelligent view of history4 b4 ,often adds to interest in the subject4 c4 ,affords material for exercise of reasoning power4 d4 ,directly related to everyday problems4 e4 ,the question usually excluded from elementary history on ground of the difficulties involved4 #c4 ,a ,,simple ,,approach ,,suggested4 a4 ,when anything has happened we may know about it because3 #a4 ,we were present when it happened--direct observation4 #b4 ,some one has told us--oral tradition4 #c4 ,we have read about it--written or printed tradition4 #d4 ,we have seen a picture of it--pictorial tradition4 b4 ,in how many ways may we know #a4 ,that ,john was absent from school yesterday8 #b4 ,that ,lincoln delivered an address at ,gettysburg in #ahfc8 #c4 ,that the 8,mayflower0 crossed the ,atlantic in #afbj8 c4 ,which is the best way to know about a thing that has happened8 ,is that way always possible8 ,why8 ,how do we get most of our knowledge of things that have happened8 d4 ,application to material remains4 ,in how many ways may we know about #a4 ,the spelling-books of our grandfathers8 #b4 ,the bows and arrows used by ,indians8 #c4 ,the house that ,george ,washington lived in at ,mount ,vernon8 #d4 ,,some ,,simple ,,illustrations ,,of ,,problems ,,connected ,,with ,,historical ,,method4 a4 ,the story of how the ,egyptians found out that they were not the oldest people in the world4 ,herodotus1 ,book ,,ii1 chapter #b4 #a4 ,how did ,herodotus know8 #b4 ,is the story true8 b4 ,petrarch's troubles in getting books copied4 ,robinson and ,rolfe1 ,petrarch1 p4 #bh4 c4 ,the adventures of the manuscript of ,bradford's ,history of ,plymouth ,plantation4 ,introduction to edition published by the ,state of ,massachusetts4 d4 ,the boundary provisions of a colonial charter4 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,november1 #aijh1 pp4 #dj-dc4 #e4 ,,such ,,exercises ,,necessarily ,,limited ,,in ,,number4 ,,references3 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,november1 #aijh1 pp4 #cc-dd4 ,historical ,sources in ,schools1 ,report to ,new ,england ,history ,teachers' ,association1 pp4 #a-ag4 ,bourne1 ,teaching of ,history and ,civics1 pp4 #afi-ahg4 ,,xi4 ,historical ,reading for ,children #a4 ,,books ,,designed ,,especially ,,for ,,children4 a4 ,principles of grading not well defined4 b4 ,many books needlessly inaccurate4 c4 ,literary style often bad4 d4 ,some unnecessary 8writing down0 to children4 #b4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,standard ,,histories4 a4 ,availability of historical works for school purposes not in inverse ratio to size and scientific value4 #a4 ,treatment of special topics often simpler and more concrete than treatment of same topics in textbooks4 #b4 ,many passages in detailed histories and biographies of special interest to children4 a4 ,some of these can be read by children4 b4 ,some can be read to children4 c4 ,a factor in cultivating taste for history4 d4 ,talks about writers of important works stimulate interest in the works4 #c4 ,real obstacles to more general use4 a4 ,cost of standard histories4 b4 ,lack of acquaintance with such works on the part of elementary teachers4 #d4 ,much good material available in abridgments and volumes of extracts4 #c4 ,,teaching ,,children ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,books4 a4 ,indexes and tables of contents4 b4 ,attention to marginal references and footnotes4 c4 ,special questions to give facility in finding and using books4 d4 ,the number of books need not be large4 #d4 ,,management ,,of ,,collateral ,,reading4 a4 ,class divisions4 b4 ,special library periods4 c4 ,books used outside of library periods4 d4 ,books taken home4 e4 ,references to be exact4 f4 ,references to be posted in library4 g4 ,pupil's record of readings4 #a4 ,full name of author4 #b4 ,full title of book4 #c4 ,publishers1 place1 and date of publication4 #d4 ,number of pages read4 #e4 ,personal impression4 ,,references3 ,andrews1 ,gambrill and ,tall1 ,bibliography of ,history for ,schools and ,libraries2 ,report of the ,committee of ,eight2 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,november1 #aijh1 pp4 #de-ej4 ,parsons in ,educational ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 pp4 #djj-djf4 ,mc,murry1 ,special ,method in ,history1 pp4 #bga-bia4 ,rice1 ,history and ,literature1 pp4 #afg-ahg4 ,mace1 ,method in ,history1 pp4 #cji-caa4 ,gordy and ,twitchell1 ,pathfinder in ,american ,history1 ,part ,i1 pp4 #aja-ajb2 ,part ,,ii1 pp4 #bce-bea4 ,sullivan1 in ,metropolitan ,teacher1 ,november1 #aijd1 pp4 #aic-aih4 ,,index ,accuracy in practice1 #df1 #ih4 ,adenoids1 signs of1 #ada4 ,adjustment1 types of1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd4 ,aim in inductive lesson1 #ee4 ,aim of education1 #a4 ,allen1 ,w4 ,h41 quoted1 #ada4 ,application1 #fc4 ,appreciation and emotion1 #hj4 ,in relation to study1 #hg1 #hh4 ,lesson for1 #gh-hd4 ,other than that involving the sthetic emotions1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd4 ,power of1 #gi4 ,assignments1 #agb4 ,association1 importance of in recall1 #aja4 ,attention1 types of1 #ce4 ,means of holding1 #de4 ,bagley1 ,w4 ,c41 referred to1 #afd4 ,baldwin1 ,w4 ,a41 referred to1 #ace4 ,cautions concerning the inductive lesson1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe4 ,class ,management1 #aeg4 ,as a means1 #aeh4 ,as an end1 #aei4 ,comparison and abstraction1 #ei4 ,concrete work1 #eg4 ,constructiveness1 #ag4 ,contagious and infectious diseases1 #adj4 ,contribution by children to discussion1 #acd4 ,coperation1 illustrations of1 #acb1 #acc4 ,of parents1 #acf1 #adb4 ,course of ,study1 #bcb4 ,making of1 #bcc4 ,creative work1 #ha4 ,criticism of teachers' work1 #bbe4 ,criticism1 types of1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,cubberley1 ,e4 ,p41 referred to1 #beb4 ,curiosity1 #bj4 ,daily program1 #afa4 ,data1 collection of by children1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij4 ,deductive lesson1 #gj4 ,demonstration1 #bbi4 ,dewey1 ,john1 quoted1 #bf4 ,referred to1 #fe4 ,direct instruction in morals1 #aej4 ,discussion by pupils1 #aca4 ,drill lesson1 #da4 ,earhart1 ,lida ,b41 referred to1 #hg4 ,eliot1 ,charles ,w41 referred to1 #fd4 ,elliott1 ,e4 ,c41 referred to1 #beb4 ,emulation1 #ai4 ,examination lesson1 #aja4 ,examinations1 #bbh4 ,as measure of teachers' work1 #ajd4 ,best type of1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,excursions1 #eh4 ,experience of children1 #ad4 ,reconstructed1 #cb4 ,experimentation by teachers1 #bed4 ,experts1 children as1 #fd4 ,expression slovenly1 #aaa4 ,formal discipline1 #bce4 ,generalization1 #fb4 ,group instruction1 #afb4 ,habit formation1 #dc4 ,habits1 teaching children how to form1 #ig4 ,heating and ventilating1 #adj4 ,heck1 ,w4 ,h41 referred to1 #bce4 ,heredity1 #bg4 ,hygiene and morality1 #adi4 ,ideals1 #i4 ,illustrative material1 #aga4 ,imitation1 #ah4 ,independent work1 #i1 #ac4 ,indirect instruction in morals1 #aej4 ,individual and society1 #b4 ,individual differences1 #bci4 ,individual instruction1 #afc4 ,individualistic attitude1 #aaa4 ,inductive lesson1 the1 #ea4 ,industrial arts1 #bcf4 ,opportunity in1 for coperation1 #acb4 ,inference1 #ge4 ,instincts1 #ae-bd4 ,institutes1 #bcj4 ,intellectual education1 #e4 ,interest1 and effort1 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #bg4 ,as an end1 #h4 ,interpreter1 teacher as1 #ha4 ,jackman1 ,w4 ,s41 referred to1 #acg4 ,james1 ,william1 quoted1 #f4 ,judgments1 tentative1 #fg1 #ij4 ,language1 in relation to reasoning1 #fa-fb4 ,vague1 #aaa4 ,leisure1 training for1 #f4 ,lesson ,plans1 #afg4 ,deductive lesson in arithmetic1 #aha4 ,deductive lesson in geography1 #aig4 ,for a drill lesson1 #ahj4 ,for appreciation1 #bjb1 #bab4 ,in arithmetic1 #agg4 ,in history1 #ahc4 ,in nature study1 #aie4 ,on irrigation1 #age4 ,reasons for1 #afg1 #afh4 ,lighting schoolrooms1 #aci4 ,mc,murry1 ,c4 ,a4 and ,f4 ,m41 referred to1 #ed4 ,mc,murry1 ,f4 ,m41 quoted1 #g4 ,referred to1 #hg1 #afi4 ,and ,smith1 ,d4 ,e41 referred to1 #ajc4 ,measuring results in education1 #bdg4 ,memorization1 #ib1 #ic4 ,by wholes1 #ic1 #id1 #ie4 ,moral-social education1 #e4 ,moral training1 #ade4 ,motives1 #db1 #acj1 #acf1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bch4 ,notes and annotating1 #hi4 ,objective work1 #eg4 ,observations1 #eh4 ,organization of material1 #afh1 #afi4 ,outline prepared by pupils1 #ajh4 ,ownership1 #ba4 ,physical condition and morality1 #adi4 ,physical education1 #e4 ,physical welfare of children1 #aci4 ,play1 #af4 ,preparatory step1 #ea-ef4 ,presentation1 #ef4 ,principles in deductive lesson1 #gd4 ,problems1 #aah4 ,children's1 #ec1 #afi4 ,in deductive lesson1 #gd4 ,in recitation lesson1 #ajh4 ,pugnacity1 #bj4 ,punishments1 #aed4 ,pupil participation in school government1 #afj4 ,pyle1 ,w4 ,h41 and ,snyder1 ,j4 ,c41 quoted1 #id4 ,questioning1 #aad4 ,direct1 #aad4 ,alternative1 #aad4 ,suggestive1 #aae4 ,large scope1 #aaf4 ,planning1 #aaf4 ,novelty of form1 #aag4 ,technique of1 #aai1 #abj4 ,by children1 #acj1 #aca4 ,questions1 pivotal1 #agj4 ,preparation of1 #aga4 ,pupils1 #abj4 ,recitation lesson1 the1 #ajg4 ,reflection1 #gb1 #ia4 ,repetition1 #dd4 ,responsibility1 increased1 of school1 #adf4 ,review for perspective1 #ajb4 ,review lesson1 #aja4 ,review1 purpose of1 #aja4 ,rugh1 ,c4 ,e41 quoted1 #aec4 ,russell1 ,jas4 ,e41 referred to1 #bce4 ,scales or units of measurement1 #bec4 ,school exhibits1 #bbf4 ,school1 the1 its functions1 #ab4 ,scientific work in education1 #bdi4 ,scott1 ,c4 ,a41 referred to1 #acg4 ,seat work1 #afd4 ,smith1 ,d4 ,e41 and ,mc,murry1 ,f4 ,m41 referred to1 #ajc4 ,snyder1 ,j4 ,c41 and ,pyle1 ,w4 ,h41 quoted1 #id4 ,social instinct1 #bb4 ,social phases of the recitation1 #abi4 ,standards in education1 #aje4 ,stevenson's ,bed in ,summer1 quoted1 #id1 #ie4 ,stone1 ,c4 ,w41 quoted1 #bee4 ,referred to1 #aje4 ,study lesson1 the1 #hf-ii4 ,study1 methods of1 in relation to methods of teaching1 #hf-ia4 ,summaries1 in plans1 #aga4 ,supervision1 the teacher in relation to1 #bbd4 ,supplementing the textbook1 #aaj4 ,suzzallo1 ,henry1 referred to1 #fa4 ,teacher1 influence of1 #aed4 ,teachers' meetings1 #bbi4 ,technique involved in creation related to appreciation1 #gi4 ,textbooks1 use of1 #ajh-aji4 ,thinking in relation to memorization1 #id4 ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l41 referred to1 #bg1 #bh1 #aje1 #bce1 #beb4 ,titchener1 referred to1 #ce4 ,topical outlines1 #ajb4 ,topical recitation1 #ajg4 ,types1 teaching by1 #ff4 ,verification1 #ge1 #ig4 ,the habit of1 #ib4 ,visiting1 school1 #bbg4 ,vocational education1 #e4 ,wonder1 #bc4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,james1 ,talks to ,teachers1 p4 #ff4 #b ,f4 ,m4 ,mc,murry1 8,advisable ,omissions from the ,elementary ,curriculum10 ,ed4 ,rev41 ,may1 #aijd4 #c ,dewey1 ,interest in ,relation to ,will1 p4 #ab4 #d ,thorndike1 ,principles of ,teaching1 ,chapter ,v4 #e ,for statistics and further argument concerning individual difference1 see ,thorndike1 ,educational ,psychology1 ,chapter ,,viii4 #f ,for this classification of attention1 see ,titchener1 ,primer of ,psychology1 ,chapter ,v4 #g ,mc,murry1 ,method of the ,recitation1 ,chapter ,,vi4 #h ,suzzallo1 in ,california ,education1 ,june1 #aijf4 #i ,for a full discussion of this point1 see ,eliot1 ,educational ,reform1 the essay on 8,the ,function of ,education in a ,democratic ,society40 #aj ,see ,dewey1 8,the ,relation of ,theory to ,practice in the ,education of ,teachers10 ,the ,third ,year ,book of the ,national ,society for the ,scientific ,study of ,education4 #aa ,for a discussion of this and other aspects of the problem1 see ,earhart1 ,teaching ,children to ,study2 ,mc,murry1 ,how to ,study1 and ,teaching ,how to ,study4 #ab ,w4 ,h4 ,pyle and ,j4 ,c4 ,snyder1 8,the ,most ,economical ,unit for ,committing to ,memory10 ,journal of ,educational ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #acc-adb4 #ac ,d4 ,e4 ,smith and ,f4 ,m4 ,mc,murry1 8,mathematics in the ,elementary ,school10 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #b2 ,d4 ,e4 ,smith1 8,the ,teaching of ,arithmetic10 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 ,x1 ,no4 #a4 #ad ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike1 8,handwriting10 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,no4 #b2 ,stone1 ,arithmetical ,abilities and ,some of the ,factors ,determining them4 #ae ,quoted by ,johnson in a monograph on 8,the ,problem of ,adapting ,history to ,children in the ,elementary ,school10 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #cai4 #af ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #cai-cbj4 #ag 8,stenographic ,reports of ,high ,school ,lessons10 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,september1 #aiaj1 pp4 #ah-bf4 #ah ,baldwin1 ,industrial ,school ,education4 ,a most helpful discussion of industrial work4 #ai ,w4 ,s4 ,jackman1 8,the ,relation of ,school ,organization to ,instruction10 ,the ,social ,education ,quarterly1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ee-fi2 ,scott1 ,social ,education4 #bj ,allen1 ,civics and ,health1 p4 #ec4 #ba ,dewey1 ,moral ,principles in ,education4 #bb ,see chapter on ,social ,phases of the ,recitation4 #bc ,moral ,training in the ,public ,schools1 p4 #da4 ,the essay by ,charles ,edward ,rugh4 #bd ,bagley1 ,classroom ,management1 ,chapter ,,xiv4 #be ,see discussion of the study lesson1 ante4 #bf ,mc,murry1 ,how to ,study1 ,chapter ,,iii4 #bg ,see ante1 ,chapter ,,xi4 #bh ,adapted from a plan prepared by ,lida ,b4 ,earhart1 ,ph4,d41 for the author's syllabus on ,theory and ,practice of ,teaching4 #bi ,some discussion of the course of study as an instrument in supervision is given in the chapter on 8,the ,teacher in ,relation to the ,course of ,study40 #cj ,for a discussion of the doctrine of formal discipline1 and for bibliography1 see ,thorndike1 ,educational ,psychology1 #aijc edition1 ,chapter ,,viii2 ,heck1 ,mental ,discipline4 #ca ,james ,e4 ,russell1 8,the ,school and ,industrial ,life10 ,educational ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xxxviii1 pp4 #dcc-dej4 #cb ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike1 8,handwriting10 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,no4 #b4 #cc ,cubberley1 ,school ,funds and their ,apportionment2 ,elliott1 ,fiscal ,aspects of ,education2 ,strayer1 ,city ,school ,expenditures4 #cd ,in proceeding to the part of the study that is necessarily largely composed of tables1 it may be well to state the position of the author regarding the partial interpretations offered in connection with the tables4 ,it is that the entire tables give by far the best basis for conclusions2 that for a thorough comprehension of the study they should be read quite as fully as any other part2 and that they should be regarded as the most important source of information rather than the brief suggestive readings which are liable to give erroneous impressions1 both because of the limitations of a single interpretation and the lack of space for anything like full exposition4 #ce ,m ,median1 which is the representation of central tendency used throughout this study4 ,it has the advantages over the average of being more readily found1 of being unambiguous1 and of giving less weight to extreme or erroneous cases4 #cf ,for reliability of measures of reasoning ability1 see ,appendix1 p4 #ajj4 #cg ,as stated in ,part ,i1 p4 #ag1 a score is arbitrarily set at one4 ,the fact that the zero point is unknown in both reasoning and fundamentals makes these scores less amenable to ordinary handling than they might at first thought seem4 ,hence1 entire distributions are either printed or placed on file at ,teachers ,college4 #ch ,for the data from which these calculations were made1 see first column of table ,,xxi1 p4 #eb1 and the first columns of tables ,,iii and ,,iv1 p4 #ba4 ,the absence of known zero points makes such computations inadvisable except in connection with the more reliable evidence of the preceding table4 #ci ,and it is the opinion of the author that the chances are much better that one would get a school with a superior product in education4 ,the following pages contain advertisements of ,macmillan books on education1 pedagogy1 etc4 ,a ,cyclopedia of ,education ,,edited ,,by ,,paul ,,monroe1 ,,ph4,d4 ,professor of the ,history of ,education4 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,author of 8,a ,text-,book in the ,history of ,education10 8,brief ,course in the ,history of ,education10 etc4 ,the need of such work is evidenced3 ,by the great mass of varied educational literature showing an equal range in educational practice and theory2 by the growing importance of the school as a social institution1 and the fuller recognition of education as a social process2 and by the great increase in the number of teachers and the instability of tenure which at the same time marks the profession4 ,the men who need it are3 ,all teachers1 professional men1 editors1 ministers1 legislators1 all public men who deal with large questions of public welfare intimately connected with education--every one who appreciates the value of a reference work which will give him the outlines of any educational problem1 the suggested solutions1 the statistical information1 and in general the essential facts necessary to its comprehension4 ,among the departmental ,editors associated with ,dr4 ,monroe are ,dr4 ,,elmer ,e4 ,,brown1 ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner of ,education1 ,prof4 ,e4 ,f4 ,,buchner1 of ,johns ,hopkins1 ,dr4 ,,wm4 ,h4 ,,burnham1 ,clark ,university1 ,m4 ,,gabriel ,,compayr1 ,inspector-,general of ,public ,instruction1 ,paris1 ,france1 ,prof4 ,,wilhelm ,m,,nch1 of ,berlin ,university1 ,germany1 ,prof4 ,,john ,,dewey1 of ,columbia ,university1 ,dr4 ,,ellwood ,p4 ,,cubberly1 ,stanford ,university1 ,cal41 ,prof4 ,,foster ,,watson1 of the ,university ,college of ,wales1 ,dr4 ,,david ,,snedden1 ,commissioner of ,education for the ,state of ,massachusetts1 and others4 ,send for a descriptive circular and list of contributors to ,volume ,i ,to be completed in five large octavo volumes1 each #e4jj ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,a ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,for ,,teachers ,published by ,the ,macmillan ,company ,,adams1 ,,john4 ,exposition and ,illustration in ,teaching4 ,cloth4 viii #dbh pages4 #a4be ,,armstrong1 ,,henry ,e4 ,the ,teaching of ,scientific ,method and ,other ,papers on ,education4 ,cloth4 xxvii #ejd pages4 #a4ge ,,arnold1 ,,felix4 ,a ,text-book of ,school and ,class ,management4 ,i4 ,theory and ,practice4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xxii #dji pages4 ,index4 #a4be ,,ii4 ,administration and ,hygiene4 ,cloth4 xii #bib pages4 #a4jj --,attention and ,interest4 ,cloth4 viii #bgb pages4 #a4jj ,,bagley1 ,,william ,,chandler4 ,classroom ,management3 ,its ,principles and ,technique4 ,by ,william ,chandler ,bagley1 ,director1 ,school of ,education1 ,university ,of ,illinois4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xvii #ceb pages4 #a4be --,the ,educative ,process4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xix #ceh pages4 #a4be ,,brown1 ,,john ,,franklin4 ,the ,american ,high ,school4 ,by ,john ,franklin ,brown1 ,ph4,d41 formerly ,professor in ,education and ,inspector of ,high ,schools for the ,state ,university of ,iowa4 ,cloth4 xii #dih pages4 #abmo4 #a4be ,,butler1 ,,nicholas ,,murray4 ,the ,meaning of ,education1 and ,other ,essays and ,addresses4 ,by ,nicholas ,murray ,butler1 ,president of ,columbia ,university4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xii #bcj pages4 #a4jj ,,chubb1 ,,percival4 ,the ,teaching of ,english4 ,by ,percival ,chubb1 ,principal of ,high ,school ,department1 ,ethical ,culture ,school1 ,new ,york4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xvii #daa pages4 #a4jj ,,collar1 ,,george1 ,,and ,,crook1 ,,charles ,w4 ,school ,management and ,methods of ,instruction4 ,by ,george ,collar and ,charles ,w4 ,crook1 ,london4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 viii #ccf pages4 #a4jj ,,cronson1 ,,bernard4 ,methods in ,elementary ,school ,studies4 ,by ,bernard ,cronson1 ,a4,b41 ,ph4,d41 ,principal of ,public ,school ,no4 #c1 ,borough of ,manhattan1 ,city of ,new ,york4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #afg pages4 #a4be --,pupil ,self-,government4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 ix #ajg pages4 4#ij ,,cubberley4 ,syllabus of ,lectures on the ,history of ,education4 ,with ,selected ,bibliographies and ,suggested ,readings4 ,by ,ellwood ,p4 ,cubberley4 ,second ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,in two parts4 ,part ,i1 v #abi pages1 #a4ej net2 ,part ,,ii1 xv #cfa pages1 #a4ej ,complete in one volume1 #b4fj ,,de ,,garmo1 ,,charles4 ,interest and ,education4 ,by ,charles ,de ,garmo1 ,professor of the ,science and ,art of ,education in ,cornell ,university4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xvii #bcj pages4 #a4jj --,the ,principles of ,secondary ,education4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,studies4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xii #bii pages4 #a4be ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,processes of ,instruction4 xii #bjj ,pages4 #a4jj ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,ethical ,training4 x #bbj pages4 #a4jj ,,dexter1 ,,edwin ,,grant4 ,a ,history of ,education in the ,united ,states4 ,by ,edwin ,grant ,dexter1 ,professor of ,education in the ,university of ,illinois4 ,cloth4 xxi #ffe pages4 #hvo4 #b4jj ,,huey1 ,,edmund ,b4 ,the ,psychology and ,pedagogy of ,reading4 ,by ,professor ,edmund ,b4 ,huey1 of the ,western ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xvi #dfi pages4 #a4dj ,,jones1 ,,olive ,m41 ,,leary1 ,,eleanor ,g41 and ,,quish1 ,,agnes ,e4 ,teaching ,children to ,study4 ,the ,group ,system applied4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 viii #aic pages4 #abmo4 4#hj ,,kilpatrick1 ,,van ,,evrie4 ,departmental ,teaching in ,elementary ,schools4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xiii #acj pages1 #afmo4 4#fj ,,kirkpatrick1 ,,edwin ,a4 ,fundamentals of ,child ,study4 ,by ,professor ,edwin ,a4 ,kirkpatrick1 ,principal of ,state ,normal ,school1 ,fitchburg1 ,mass4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 xxi #chd pages4 #a4be --,genetic ,psychology4 ,cloth1 xv #cgc pages4 #a4be ,,laurie1 ,s4 ,s4 ,institutes of ,education4 #c;d ed4 ,cloth4 xii #cia pages4 #a4ij ,,major1 ,,david ,r4 ,first ,steps in ,mental ,growth4 ,a ,series of ,studies in the ,psychology of ,infancy4 ,by ,david ,r4 ,major1 ,professor of ,education in the ,ohio ,state ,university4 ,cloth1 xiv #cfj pages4 #abmo4 #a4be ,,the ,mc,m,u,r,r,y ,,series ,each1 cloth1 #abmo4 ,general ,method --,the ,elements of ,general ,method4 ,by ,charles ,a4 ,mc,murry4 #cbc pages4 4#ij --,the ,method of the ,recitation4 ,by ,charles ,a4 ,mc,murry and ,frank ,m4 ,mc,murry1 ,professor of the ,theory and ,practice of ,teaching1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 xi #cbi pages4 4#ij ,special ,method4 ,by ,charles ,a4 ,mc,murry4 --,special ,method in ,primary ,reading and ,oral ,work with ,stories4 vii #ajc pages4 4#fj --,special ,method in the ,reading of ,english ,classics4 vi #bed pages4 4#ge --,special ,method in ,language in the ,eight ,grades4 viii #aib pages4 4#gj --,special ,method in ,history4 vii #bia pages4 4#ge --,special ,method in ,arithmetic4 vii #bbe pages4 4#gj --,special ,method in ,geography4 xi #bag pages4 4#gj --,special ,method in ,elementary ,science4 ix #bge pages4 4#ge --,nature ,study ,lessons for ,primary ,grades4 ,by ,mrs4 ,lida ,b4 ,mc,murry1 with an ,introduction by ,charles ,a4 ,mc,murry4 xi #aia pages4 4#fj ,course of ,study in the ,eight ,grades4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,grades ,i to ,,iv4 vii #bcf pages4 4#ge ,vol ,,ii4 ,grades ,v to ,,viii4 v #bbf pages4 4#ge ,,monroe1 ,,paul4 ,a ,brief ,course in the ,history of ,education4 ,by ,paul ,monroe1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor in the ,history of ,education1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,cloth4 #hvo4 xviii #dji pages4 #a4be ,the ,philosophy of ,education ,,by ,,herman ,,harrell ,,horne1 ,,ph4,d4 ,professor of the ,history of ,philosophy and of the ,history of ,education1 ,new ,york ,university ,cloth1 #hvo1 xvii #bie pages1 #a4ej ,a connected series of discussions on the foundations of education in the related sciences of biology1 physiology1 sociology1 and philosophy1 and a thoroughgoing interpretation of the nature1 place1 and meaning of education in our world4 ,the newest points of view in the realms of natural and mental science are applied to the understanding of educational problems4 ,the field of education is carefully divided1 and the total discussion is devoted to the philosophy of education1 in distinction from its history1 science1 and art4 ,the ,psychological ,principles of ,education ,,by ,,herman ,,harrell ,,horne1 ,,ph4,d4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 xiii #dce pages1 #a4ge ,the relationship of this book to the author's 8,philosophy of ,education0 is that1 whereas the first was mostly theory with some practice1 this is mostly practice with some theory4 ,this volume lays the scientific foundations for the art of teaching so far as those foundations are concerned with psychology4 ,the author is the 8middleman0 between the psychologist and the teacher1 taking the theoretical descriptions of pure psychology and transforming them into educational principles for the teacher4 ,in the ,introduction the reader gets his bearings in the field of the science of education4 ,the remainder of the book sketches this science from the standpoint of psychology1 the four parts of the work1 ,intellectual ,education1 ,emotional ,education1 ,moral ,education1 and ,religious ,education1 being suggested by the nature of man1 the subject of education4 ,a special feature is the attention paid to the education of the emotions and of the will4 ,idealism in ,education ,or ,first ,principles in the ,making of ,men and ,women ,,by ,,herman ,,harrell ,,horne1 ,,ph4,d4 ,author of 8,the ,philosophy of ,education0 and 8,the ,psychological ,principles of ,education0 ,cloth1 #abmo1 xxi #ahc pages1 index1 #a4be by mail1 #a4cd ,professor ,horne here discusses three things which he regards as fundamental in the building of human character1--,heredity1 ,environment1 and ,will4 ,his method of handling these otherwise heavy subjects1 makes the book of interest1 even to the general reader4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,,by ,,william ,,chandler ,,bagley ,director of the ,school of ,education1 ,university of ,illinois ,craftsmanship in ,teaching ,cloth1 #abmo1 #bdg pages1 #a4be ,readers of 8,the ,educative ,process0 and 8,classroom ,management0 by ,director ,w4 ,c4 ,bagley of the ,university of ,illinois will welcome the author's new book on 8,craftsmanship in ,teaching40 ,the book is made up of a series of addresses given before educational gatherings1 the subject of the first one giving the book its name4 ,in these addresses the personality of the author is more in evidence than is possible in his more systematic work1 but the same sane1 scientific point of view is apparent throughout4 ,classroom ,management ,cloth1 xvii #ccb pages1 #a4be ,this book considers the problems that are consequent upon the massing of children together for purposes of instruction and training4 ,it aims to discover how the unit-group of the school system--the 8class0--can be most effectively handled4 ,the topics commonly included in treatises upon school management receive adequate attention2 the first day of school2 the mechanizing of routine2 the daily programme2 discipline and punishment2 absence and tardiness1 etc4 ,the ,educative ,process ,cloth1 xix #ceh pages1 #a4be ,the book aims to prevent a waste of energy on the part of the young teacher by setting forth a systematic and comprehensive view of the task that is to be accomplished by the school1 with the working principles for the attainment of the end4 ,the best idea for the author's plan of treatment can be had from his division of the book4 ,part ,i discusses the function of education and of the school in biological and sociological terms4 ,part ,,ii continues the same topic from the psychological standpoint4 ,part ,,iii deals with the functioning of experience in its relation to the educative process4 ,part ,,iv treats of the relation of education to the three periods of child-development3 the transitional1 the formative1 the adolescent4 ,part ,v considers educational values and the necessity of ideals in the educative process1 and ,part ,,vi concludes with the technique of teaching4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,some hyphens in words have been silently removed1 some added1 when a predominant preference was found in the original book4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,pg #fi3 #8a singe problem' replaced by #8a single problem'4 ,pg #aac3 #8,professon ,johnson' replaced by #8,professor ,johnson'4 ,pg #acf3 #8find situtions' replaced by #8find situations'4 ,pg #aej3 #8actally demanded' replaced by #8actually demanded'4 ,pg #ahi3 #8was comformable' replaced by #8was conformable'4 ,pg #bcf3 #8genuine motive' replaced by #8genuine motives'4 ,pg #bdd3 #8,i4 ,abstract4' replaced by #8,,ii4 ,abstract4'4 ,pg #beh3 ,the note #8,footnotes on opposite page4' has been removed from the bottom of ,,table ,,iii4 ,pg #bfj3 #8,,xxii' 7first row in the table7 replaced by #8,,xxiii'4 ,pg #bgb3 #8,syntax of etymology' replaced by #8,syntax or etymology'4 ,pg #bgc3 #8c4' inserted in front of #8,the ,influence of the'4