---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,a number of long horizontal and vertical brackets are simulated4 ,superscripted characters are preceded by #8'1 and if multiple characters are raised1 they are delimited by #8'4 ,footnotes have been moved to follow the sections in which they are referenced4 ,minor errors1 attributable to the printer1 have been corrected4 ,please see the transcriber's note at the end of this text for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,decline ,,of ,,the ,,west ,illustration ,,the ,,decline ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,form ,,and ,,actuality ,,by ,,oswald ,,spengler ,,authorized ,,translation ,,with ,,notes ,,by ,,charles ,,francis ,,atkinson ,,london3 ,,george ,,allen ,,unwin ,,ltd4 ,,ruskin ,,house1 #dj ,,museum ,,street1 ,w4,c4 #a ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,this ,,translation ,,is ,,dedicated ,,to ,,ellinor ,,james ,a ,,friend ,wenn im ,unendlichen dasselbe ,sich wiederholend ewig fliesst1 ,das tausendfltige ,gewlbe ,sich krftig ineinander schliesst2 ,strmt ,lebenslust aus allen ,dingen1 ,dem kleinsten wie dem grssten ,stern1 ,und alles ,drngen1 alles ,ringen ,ist ewige ,ruh in ,gott dem ,herrn4 --,,goethe4 ,,translator',s ,,preface ,it must be left to critics to say whether it was ,destiny or ,incident-- using these words in the author's sense--that ,spengler's 8,untergang des ,abendlandes0 appeared in ,july1 #aiah1 that is1 at the very turning-point of the four years' ,world-,war4 ,it was conceived1 the author tells us1 before #aiad and fully worked out by #aiag4 ,so far as he is concerned1 then1 the impulse to create it arose from a view of our civilization not as the late war left it1 but 7as he says expressly7 as the coming war would find it4 ,but inevitably the public impulse to read it arose in and from post-war conditions1 and thus it happened that this severe and difficult philosophy of history found a market that has justified the printing of #ij1jjj copies4 ,its very title was so apposite to the moment as to predispose the higher intellectuals to regard it as a work of the moment--the more so as the author was a simple ,oberlehrer and unknown to the world of authoritative learning4 ,spengler's was not the only1 nor indeed the most 8popular10 philosophical product of the ,german revolution4 ,in the graver conjunctures1 sound minds do not dally with the graver questions--they either face and attack them with supernormal resolution or thrust them out of sight with an equally supernormal effort to enjoy or to endure the day as it comes4 ,even after the return to normality1 it is no longer possible for men--at any rate for ,western men--not to know that these questions exist4 ,and1 if it is none too easy even for the victors of the struggle to shake off its sequel1 to turn back to business as the normal and to give no more than amateur effort and dilettantish attention to the very deep things1 for the defeated side this is impossible4 ,it goes through a period of material difficulty 7often extreme difficulty7 and one in which pride of achievement and humility in the presence of unsuccess work dynamically together4 ,so it was with sound minds in the post-,jena ,germany of ,jahn and ,fichte1 and so it was also with such minds in the ,germany of #aiai-aibj4 ,to assume the rle of critic and to compare ,spengler's with other philosophies of the present phase of ,germany1 as to respective intrinsic weights1 is not the purpose of this note nor within the competence of its writer4 ,on the other hand1 it is unconditionally necessary for the reader to realize that the book before him has not only acquired this large following amongst thoughtful laymen1 but has forced the attention and taxed the scholarship of every branch of the learned world4 ,theologians1 historians1 scientists1 art critics--all saw the challenge1 and each brought his apparatus criticus to bear on that part of the ,spengler theory that affected his own domain4 ,the reader who is familiar with ,german may be referred to ,manfred ,schroeter's 8,der ,streit um ,spengler0 for details2 it will suffice here to say that ,schroeter's index of critics' names contains some #djj entries4 ,these critics are not only1 or even principally1 general reviewers1 most of them being specialists of high standing4 ,it is1 to say the least1 remarkable that a volcanically assertive philosophy of history1 visibly popular and produced under a catchy title 7,reklamtitel7 should call forth1 as it did1 a special number of ,logos in which the ,olympians of scholarship passed judgment on every inaccuracy or unsupported statement that they could detect4 7,these were in fact numerous in the first edition and the author has corrected or modified them in detail in the new edition1 from which this translation has been done4 ,but it should be emphasized that the author has not1 in this second edition1 receded in any essentials from the standpoint taken up in the first47 ,the conspicuous features in this first burst of criticism were1 on the one hand1 want of adequate critical equipment in the general critic1 and1 on the other1 inability to see the wood for the trees in the man of learning4 ,no one1 reading ,schroeter's book 7which by the way is one- third as large as ,spengler's first volume itself71 can fail to agree with his judgment that notwithstanding paradoxes1 overstrainings1 and inaccuracies1 the work towers above all its commentators4 ,and it was doubtless a sense of this greatness that led many scholars--amongst them some of the very high--to avoid expressing opinions on it at all4 ,it would be foolish to call their silence a 8sitting on the fence02 it is a case rather of reserving judgment on a philosophy and a methodology that challenge all the canons and carry with them immense implications4 ,for the very few who combine all the necessary depth of learning with all the necessary freedom and breadth of outlook1 it will not be the accuracy or inaccuracy of details under a close magnifying-glass that will be decisive4 ,the very idea of accuracy and inaccuracy presupposes the selection or acceptance of co-ordinates of reference1 and therefore the selection or acceptance of a standpoint as 8origin40 ,that is mere elementary science--and yet the scholar-critic would be the first to claim the merit of scientific rigour for his criticisms6 ,it is1 in history as in science1 impossible to draw a curve through a mass of plotted observations when they are looked at closely and almost individually4 ,criticism of quite another and a higher order may be seen in ,dr4 ,eduard ,meyer's article on ,spengler in the ,deutsche ,literaturzeitung1 ,no4 #be of #aibd4 ,here we find1 in one of the great figures of modern scholarship1 exactly that large-minded judgment that1 while noting minor errors--and visibly attaching little importance to them--deals with the ,spengler thesis fairly and squarely on the grand issues alone4 ,dr4 ,meyer differs from ,spengler on many serious questions1 of which perhaps the most important is that of the scope and origin of the ,magian ,culture4 ,but instead of cataloguing the errors that are still to be found in ,spengler's vast ordered multitude of facts1 ,eduard ,meyer honourably bears testimony to our author's 8erstaunlich umfangreiches1 ihm stndig prsentes1 ,wissen0 7a phrase as neat and as untranslatable as ,goethe's 8exakte sinnliche ,phantasie074 ,he insists upon the fruitfulness of certain of ,spengler's ideas such as that of the 8,second ,religiousness40 ,above all1 he adheres to and covers with his high authority the basic idea of the parallelism of organically-living ,cultures4 ,it is not necessarily ,spengler's structure of the ,cultures that he accepts--parts of it indeed he definitely rejects as wrong or insufficiently established by evidences--but on the question of their being an organic structure of the ,cultures1 a morphology of ,history1 he ranges himself frankly by the side of the younger thinker1 whose work he sums up as a 8bleibendez und auf lange ,zeit hinaus nachhaltig wirkendes ,besitz unserer ,wissenschaft und ,literatur40 ,this last phrase of ,dr4 ,meyer's expresses very directly and simply that which for an all-round student 7as distinct from an erudite specialist7 constitutes the peculiar quality of ,spengler's work4 ,its influence is far deeper and subtler than any to which the conventional adjective 8suggestive0 could be applied4 ,it cannot in fact be described by adjectives at all1 but only denoted or adumbrated by its result1 which is that1 after studying and mastering it1 8one finds it nearly if not quite impossible to approach any culture-problem--old or new1 dogmatic or artistic1 political or scientific--without conceiving it primarily as #8morphological4'0 ,the work comprises two volumes--under the respective sub-titles 8,form and ,reality0 and 8,world-historical ,perspectives0--of which the present translation covers the first only4 ,some day ,i hope to have the opportunity of completing a task which becomes--such is the nature of this book--more attractive in proportion to its difficulty4 ,references to ,volume ,,ii are1 for the present1 necessarily to the pages of the ,german original2 if1 as is hoped1 this translation is completed later by the issue of the second volume1 a list of the necessary adjustments of page references will be issued with it4 ,the reader will notice that translator's foot-notes are scattered fairly freely over the pages of this edition4 ,in most cases these have no pretensions to being critical annotations4 ,they are merely meant to help the reader to follow up in more detail the points of fact which ,spengler1 with his 8stndig prsentes ,wissen10 sweeps along in his course4 ,this being their object1 they take the form1 in the majority of cases1 of references to appropriate articles in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 which is the only single work that both contains reasonably full information on the varied 7and often abstruse7 matters alluded to1 and is likely to be accessible wherever this book may penetrate4 ,every reader no doubt will find these notes1 where they appertain to his own special subject1 trivial and even annoying1 but it is thought that1 for example1 an explanation of the mathematical ,limit may be helpful to a student who knows all about the ,katharsis in ,greek drama1 and vice versa4 ,in conclusion ,i cannot omit to put on record the part that my wife1 ,hannah ,waller ,atkinson1 has taken in the work of translation and editing4 ,i may best describe it by saying that it ought perhaps to have been recorded on the title page instead of in this place4 ,c4 ,f4 ,a4 ,january1 #aibf4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,revised ,,edition ,at the close of an undertaking which1 from the first brief sketch to the final shaping of a complete work of quite unforeseen dimensions1 has spread itself over ten years1 it will not be out of place to glance back at what ,i intended and what ,i have achieved1 my standpoint then and my standpoint to-day4 ,in the ,introduction to the #aiah edition--inwardly and outwardly a fragment--,i stated my conviction that an idea had now been irrefutably formulated which no one would oppose1 once the idea had been put into words4 ,i ought to have said3 once that idea had been understood4 ,and for that we must look--as ,i more and more realize--not only in this instance but in the whole history of thought--to the new generation that is born with the ability to do it4 ,i added that this must be considered as a first attempt1 loaded with all the customary faults1 incomplete and not without inward opposition4 ,the remark was not taken anything like as seriously as it was intended4 ,those who have looked searchingly into the hypotheses of living thought will know that it is not given to us to gain insight into the fundamental principles of existence without conflicting emotions4 ,a thinker is a person whose part it is to symbolize time according to his vision and understanding4 ,he has no choice2 he thinks as he has to think4 ,truth in the long run is to him the picture of the world which was born at his birth4 ,it is that which he does not invent but rather discovers within himself4 ,it is himself over again3 his being expressed in words2 the meaning of his personality formed into a doctrine which so far as concerns his life is unalterable1 because truth and his life are identical4 ,this symbolism is the one essential1 the vessel and the expression of human history4 ,the learned philosophical works that arise out of it are superfluous and only serve to swell the bulk of a professional literature4 ,i can then call the essence of what ,i have discovered 8true0--that is1 true for me1 and as ,i believe1 true for the leading minds of the coming time2 not true in itself as dissociated from the conditions imposed by blood and by history1 for that is impossible4 ,but what ,i wrote in the storm and stress of those years was1 it must be admitted1 a very imperfect statement of what stood clearly before me1 and it remained to devote the years that followed to the task of correlating facts and finding means of expression which should enable me to present my idea in the most forcible form4 ,to perfect that form would be impossible--life itself is only fulfilled in death4 ,but ,i have once more made the attempt to bring up even the earliest portions of the work to the level of definiteness with which ,i now feel able to speak2 and with that ,i take leave of this book with its hopes and disappointments1 its merits and its faults4 ,the result has in the meantime justified itself as far as ,i myself am concerned and--judging by the effect that it is slowly beginning to exercise upon extensive fields of learning--as far as others are concerned also4 ,let no one expect to find everything set forth here4 ,it is but one side of what ,i see before me1 a new outlook on history and the philosophy of destiny--the first indeed of its kind4 ,it is intuitive and depictive through and through1 written in a language which seeks to present objects and relations illustratively instead of offering an army of ranked concepts4 ,it addresses itself solely to readers who are capable of living themselves into the word-sounds and pictures as they read4 ,difficult this undoubtedly is1 particularly as our awe in face of mystery--the respect that ,goethe felt--denies us the satisfaction of thinking that dissections are the same as penetrations4 ,of course1 the cry of 8pessimism0 was raised at once by those who live eternally in yesterday 7,ewiggestrigen7 and greet every idea that is intended for the pathfinder of to-morrow only4 ,but ,i have not written for people who imagine that delving for the springs of action is the same as action itself2 those who make definitions do not know destiny4 ,by understanding the world ,i mean being equal to the world4 ,it is the hard reality of living that is the essential1 not the concept of life1 that the ostrich-philosophy of idealism propounds4 ,those who refuse to be bluffed by enunciations will not regard this as pessimism2 and the rest do not matter4 ,for the benefit of serious readers who are seeking a glimpse at life and not a definition1 ,i have--in view of the far too great concentration of the text--mentioned in my notes a number of works which will carry that glance into more distant realms of knowledge4 ,and now1 finally1 ,i feel urged to name once more those to whom ,i owe practically everything3 ,goethe and ,nietzsche4 ,goethe gave me method1 ,nietzsche the questioning faculty--and if ,i were asked to find a formula for my relation to the latter ,i should say that ,i had made of his 8outlook0 7,ausblick7 an 8overlook0 7berblick74 ,but ,goethe was1 without knowing it1 a disciple of ,leibniz in his whole mode of thought4 ,and1 therefore1 that which has at last 7and to my own astonishment7 taken shape in my hands ,i am able to regard and1 despite the misery and disgust of these years1 proud to call a ,german philosophy4 ,,oswald ,,spengler4 ,blankenburg am ,harz1 ,december1 #aibb4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition ,the complete manuscript of this book--the outcome of three years' work-- was ready when the ,great ,war broke out4 ,by the spring of #aiag it had been worked over again and--in certain details--supplemented and cleared up1 but its appearance in print was still delayed by the conditions then prevailing4 ,although a philosophy of history is its scope and subject1 it possesses also a certain deeper significance as a commentary on the great epochal moment of which the portents were visible when the leading ideas were being formed4 ,the title1 which had been decided upon in #aiab1 expresses quite literally the intention of the book1 which was to describe1 in the light of the decline of the ,classical age1 one world-historical phase of several centuries upon which we ourselves are now entering4 ,events have justified much and refuted nothing4 ,it became clear that these ideas must necessarily be brought forward at just this moment and in ,germany1 and1 more1 that the war itself was an element in the premisses from which the new world-picture could be made precise4 ,for ,i am convinced that it is not merely a question of writing one out of several possible and merely logically justifiable philosophies1 but of writing the philosophy of our time1 one that is to some extent a natural philosophy and is dimly presaged by all4 ,this may be said without presumption2 for an idea that is historically essential--that does not occur within an epoch but itself makes that epoch--is only in a limited sense the property of him to whose lot it falls to parent it4 ,it belongs to our time as a whole and influences all thinkers1 without their knowing it2 it is but the accidental1 private attitude towards it 7without which no philosophy can exist7 that--with its faults and its merits--is the destiny and the happiness of the individual4 ,,oswald ,,spengler4 ,munich1 ,december1 #aiag4 ,,contents ,,of ,,volume ,i ,,translator',s ,,note ix ,,author',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,revised ,,edition xiii ,,author',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition xv ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction #a ,scope of the work1 p4 #c4 ,morphology of ,world-,history1 a new philosophy1 p4 #e4 ,for whom is ,history8 p4 #h4 ,classical and ,indian mankind ahistorical1 p4 #i4 ,the ,egyptian mummy and the burning of the dead1 p4 #ac4 ,the conventional scheme of ,world-,history 7ancient1 medival1 modern71 p4 #ae4 ,its origin1 p4 #ah4 ,its breakdown1 p4 #bb4 ,europe not a centre of gravity1 p4 #bc4 ,the only historical method is ,goethe's1 p4 #be4 ,ourselves and the ,romans1 p4 #bf4 ,nietzsche and ,mommsen1 p4 #bh4 ,the problem of ,civilization1 p4 #ca4 ,imperialism the last phase1 p4 #cf4 ,the necessity and range of our basic idea1 p4 #ci4 ,its relation to present-day philosophy1 p4 #da4 ,philosophy's last task1 p4 #de4 ,the origin of this work1 p4 #df4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,numbers #ea ,fundamental notions1 p4 #ec4 ,numbers as the sign of delimitation1 p4 #ef4 ,every ,culture has its own ,mathematic1 p4 #ei4 ,number as magnitude in the ,classical world1 p4 #fd4 ,aristarchus1 p4 #fh4 ,diophantus and ,arabian number1 p4 #ga4 ,number as ,function in the ,western ,culture1 p4 #gd4 ,world-fear and world-longing1 p4 #gh4 ,geometry and arithmetic1 p4 #ha4 ,the ,limit idea1 p4 #hf4 ,visual limits transcended2 symbolical space worlds1 p4 #hf4 ,final possibilities1 p4 #hg4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,world-,,history4 7#a7 ,,physiognomic ,,and ,,systematic #ia ,copernican methods1 p4 #ic4 ,history and ,nature1 p4 #id4 ,form and ,law1 p4 #ig4 ,physiognomic and ,systematic1 p4 #ajj4 ,cultures as organisms1 p4 #ajd4 ,inner form1 tempo1 duration1 p4 #ajh4 ,homology1 p4 #aaa4 ,what is meant by 8contemporary10 p4 #aab4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,world-,,history4 7#b7 ,,the ,,destiny-,,idea ,,and ,,the ,,causality-,,principle #aae ,logic1 organic and inorganic1 p4 #aag4 ,time and ,destiny1 p4 #aai4 ,space and ,causality1 p4 #aai4 ,the problem of ,time1 p4 #aba4 ,time a counter-conception to ,space1 p4 #abf4 ,the symbols of ,time--tragedy1 time reckoning1 disposal of the dead1 p4 #acj4 ,care 7sex1 the ,state1 works71 p4 #acf4 ,destiny and ,incident1 p4 #aci4 ,incident and ,cause1 p4 #ada4 ,incident and ,style of existence1 p4 #adb4 ,anonymous and personal epochs1 p4 #adh4 ,direction into the future and ,image of the ,past1 p4 #aeb4 ,is there a ,science of ,history8 p4 #aee4 ,the new enunciation of the problem1 p4 #aei4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,makrokosmos4 7#a7 ,,the ,,symbolism ,,of ,,the ,,world-,,picture ,,and ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,space #afa ,the ,macrocosm as the sum total of symbols referred to a ,soul1 p4 #afc4 ,space and ,death1 p4 #afe4 8,alles vergngliche ist nur ein ,gleichnis10 p4 #afg4 ,the space problem 7only ,depth is space- forming71 p4 #afi4 ,depth as ,time1 p4 #agb4 ,the world-idea of a ,culture born out of its prime symbol1 p4 #agd4 ,classical ,body1 ,magian ,cavern1 ,western ,infinity1 p4 #agd4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,makrokosmos4 7#b7 ,,apollinian1 ,,faustian1 ,,and ,,magian ,,soul #aha ,prime symbol1 architecture1 divinities1 p4 #ahc4 ,the ,egyptian prime symbol of the path1 p4 #ahh4 ,expression-language of art3 ,ornamentation and ,imitation1 p4 #aia4 ,ornament and early architecture1 p4 #aif4 ,the window1 p4 #aii4 ,the grand style1 p4 #bjj4 ,the history of a ,style as organism1 p4 #bje4 ,on the history of the ,arabian style1 p4 #bjg4 ,psychology of art-technique1 p4 #bad4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,music ,,and ,,plastic4 7#a7 ,,the ,,arts ,,of ,,form #bag ,music one of the arts of form1 p4 #bai4 ,classification of the arts impossible except from the historical standpoint1 p4 #bba4 ,the choice of particular arts itself an expression-means of the higher order1 p4 #bbb4 ,apollinian and ,faustian art-groups1 p4 #bbd4 ,the stages of ,western ,music1 p4 #bbf4 ,the ,renaissance an anti- ,gothic and anti-musical movement1 p4 #bcb4 ,character of the ,baroque1 p4 #bcf4 ,the ,park1 p4 #bdj4 ,symbolism of colours1 p4 #bde4 ,colours of the ,near and of the ,distance1 p4 #bdf4 ,gold background and ,rembrandt brown1 p4 #bdg4 ,patina1 p4 #bec4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,music ,,and ,,plastic4 7#b7 ,,act ,,and ,,portrait #beg ,kinds of human representation1 p4 #bei4 ,portraiture1 ,contrition1 ,syntax1 p4 #bfa4 ,the heads of ,classical statuary1 p4 #bfd4 ,portrayal of children and women1 p4 #bff4 ,hellenistic portraiture1 p4 #bfi4 ,the ,baroque portrait1 p4 #bgb4 ,leonardo1 ,raphael and ,michelangelo overcome the ,renaissance1 p4 #bgc4 ,victory of ,instrumental ,music over ,oil-,painting1 corresponding to the victory of ,statuary over ,fresco in the ,classical1 p4 #bhb4 ,impressionism1 p4 #bhe4 ,pergamum and ,bayreuth1 p4 #bia4 ,the finale of ,art1 p4 #bic4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,soul-,,image ,,and ,,life-,,feeling4 7#a7 ,,on ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,soul #big ,soul-image as function of ,world-image1 p4 #bii4 ,psychology of a counter-physics1 p4 #cjb4 ,apollinian1 ,magian and ,faustian soul- image1 p4 #cje4 ,the 8,will0 in ,gothic space1 p4 #cjh4 ,the 8inner0 mythology1 p4 #cab4 ,will and ,character1 p4 #cad4 ,classical posture tragedy and ,faustian character tragedy1 p4 #cag4 ,symbolism of the drama-image1 p4 #cbj4 ,day and ,night ,art1 p4 #cbd4 ,popular and esoteric1 p4 #cbf4 ,the astronomical image1 p4 #cbi4 ,the geographical horizon1 p4 #ccb4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,soul-,,image ,,and ,,life-,,feeling4 7#b7 ,,buddhism1 ,,stoicism1 ,,and ,,socialism #cci ,the ,faustian morale purely dynamic1 p4 #cda4 ,every ,culture has a form of morale proper to itself1 p4 #cde4 ,posture-morale and will- morale1 p4 #cdg4 ,buddha1 ,socrates1 ,rousseau as protagonists of the dawning ,civilizations1 p4 #cea4 ,tragic and plebeian morale1 p4 #ced4 ,return to ,nature1 ,irreligion1 ,nihilism1 p4 #cef4 ,ethical ,socialism1 p4 #cfa4 ,similarity of structure in the philosophical history of every ,culture1 p4 #cfd4 ,the ,civilized philosophy of the ,west1 p4 #cfe4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,faustian ,,and ,,apollinian ,,nature-,,knowledge #cge ,theory as ,myth1 p4 #cgg4 ,every ,natural ,science depends upon a preceding ,religion1 p4 #cia4 ,statics1 ,alchemy1 ,dynamics as the theories of three ,cultures1 p4 #chb4 ,the ,atomic theory1 p4 #chd4 ,the problem of motion insoluble1 p4 #chh4 ,the style of causal process and experience1 p4 #cia4 ,the feeling of ,god and the knowing of ,nature1 p4 #cib4 ,the great ,myth1 p4 #cid4 ,classical1 ,magian and ,faustian numina1 p4 #cig4 ,atheism1 p4 #djh4 ,faustian physics as a dogma of force1 p4 #daa4 ,limits of its theoretical 7as distinct from its technical7 development1 p4 #dag4 ,self- destruction of ,dynamics1 and invasion of historical ideas2 theory dissolves into a system of morphological relationships1 p4 #dbj4 ,,index ,following page #dbh ,,tables ,,illustrating ,,the ,,comparative ,at end of volume ,,morphology ,,of ,,history ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,i ,in this book is attempted for the first time the venture of predetermining history1 of following the still untravelled stages in the destiny of a ,culture1 and specifically of the only ,culture of our time and on our planet which is actually in the phase of fulfilment--the ,west- ,european-,american4 ,hitherto the possibility of solving a problem so far-reaching has evidently never been envisaged1 and even if it had been so1 the means of dealing with it were either altogether unsuspected or1 at best1 inadequately used4 ,is there a logic of history8 ,is there1 beyond all the casual and incalculable elements of the separate events1 something that we may call a metaphysical structure of historic humanity1 something that is essentially independent of the outward forms--social1 spiritual and political--which we see so clearly8 ,are not these actualities indeed secondary or derived from that something8 ,does world-history present to the seeing eye certain grand traits1 again and again1 with sufficient constancy to justify certain conclusions8 ,and if so1 what are the limits to which reasoning from such premisses may be pushed8 ,is it possible to find in life itself--for human history is the sum of mighty life-courses which already have had to be endowed with ego and personality1 in customary thought and expression1 by predicating entities of a higher order like 8the ,classical0 or 8the ,chinese ,culture10 8,modern ,civilization0--a series of stages which must be traversed1 and traversed moreover in an ordered and obligatory sequence8 ,for everything organic the notions of birth1 death1 youth1 age1 lifetime are fundamentals--may not these notions1 in this sphere also1 possess a rigorous meaning which no one has as yet extracted8 ,in short1 is all history founded upon general biographic archetypes8 ,the decline of the ,west1 which at first sight may appear1 like the corresponding decline of the ,classical ,culture1 a phenomenon limited in time and space1 we now perceive to be a philosophical problem that1 when comprehended in all its gravity1 includes within itself every great question of ,being4 ,if therefore we are to discover in what form the destiny of the ,western ,culture will be accomplished1 we must first be clear as to what culture is1 what its relations are to visible history1 to life1 to soul1 to nature1 to intellect1 what the forms of its manifestation are and how far these forms--peoples1 tongues and epochs1 battles and ideas1 states and gods1 arts and craft-works1 sciences1 laws1 economic types and world-ideas1 great men and great events--may be accepted and pointed to as symbols4 ,,ii ,the means whereby to identify dead forms is ,mathematical ,law4 ,the means whereby to understand living forms is ,analogy4 ,by these means we are enabled to distinguish polarity and periodicity in the world4 ,it is1 and has always been1 a matter of knowledge that the expression- forms of world-history are limited in number1 and that eras1 epochs1 situations1 persons are ever repeating themselves true to type4 ,napoleon has hardly ever been discussed without a side-glance at ,csar and ,alexander--analogies of which1 as we shall see1 the first is morphologically quite inacceptable and the second is correct--while ,napoleon himself conceived of his situation as akin to ,charlemagne's4 ,the ,french ,revolutionary ,convention spoke of ,carthage when it meant ,england1 and the ,jacobins styled themselves ,romans4 ,other such comparisons1 of all degrees of soundness and unsoundness1 are those of ,florence with ,athens1 ,buddha with ,christ1 primitive ,christianity with modern ,socialism1 the ,roman financial magnate of ,csar's time with the ,yankee4 ,petrarch1 the first passionate archologist 7and is not archology itself an expression of the sense that history is repetition87 related himself mentally to ,cicero1 and but lately ,cecil ,rhodes1 the organizer of ,british ,south ,africa1 who had in his library specially prepared translations of the classical lives of the ,csars1 felt himself akin to the ,emperor ,hadrian4 ,the fated ,charles ,,xii of ,sweden used to carry ,quintus ,curtius's life of ,alexander in his pocket1 and to copy that conqueror was his deliberate purpose4 ,frederick the ,great1 in his political writings--such as his ,considrations1 #agch--moves among analogies with perfect assurance4 ,thus he compares the ,french to the ,macedonians under ,philip and the ,germans to the ,greeks4 8,even now10 he says1 8the ,thermopyl of ,germany1 ,alsace and ,lorraine1 are in the hands of ,philip10 therein exactly characterizing the policy of ,cardinal ,fleury4 ,we find him drawing parallels also between the policies of the ,houses of ,habsburg and ,bourbon and the proscriptions of ,antony and of ,octavius4 ,still1 all this was only fragmentary and arbitrary1 and usually implied rather a momentary inclination to poetical or ingenious expressions than a really deep sense of historical forms4 ,thus in the case of ,ranke1 a master of artistic analogy1 we find that his parallels of ,cyaxares and ,henry the ,fowler1 of the inroads of the ,cimmerians and those of the ,hungarians1 possess morphologically no significance1 and his oft-quoted analogy between the ,hellenic city- states and the ,renaissance republics very little1 while the deeper truth in his comparison of ,alcibiades and ,napoleon is accidental4 ,unlike the strict mathematician1 who finds inner relationships between two groups of differential equations where the layman sees nothing but dissimilarities of outward form1 ,ranke and others draw their historical analogies with a ,plutarchian1 popular-romantic1 touch1 and aim merely at presenting comparable scenes on the world-stage4 ,it is easy to see that1 at bottom1 it is neither a principle nor a sense of historic necessity1 but simple inclination1 that governs the choice of the tableaux4 ,from any technique of analogies we are far distant4 ,they throng up 7to-day more than ever7 without scheme or unities1 and if they do hit upon something which is true--in the essential sense of the word that remains to be determined--it is thanks to luck1 more rarely to instinct1 never to a principle4 ,in this region no one hitherto has set himself to work out a method1 nor has had the slightest inkling that there is here a root1 in fact the only root1 from which can come a broad solution of the problems of ,history4 ,analogies1 in so far as they laid bare the organic structure of history1 might be a blessing to historical thought4 ,their technique1 developing under the influence of a comprehensive idea1 would surely eventuate in inevitable conclusions and logical mastery4 ,but as hitherto understood and practised they have been a curse1 for they have enabled the historians to follow their own tastes1 instead of soberly realizing that their first and hardest task was concerned with the symbolism of history and its analogies1 and1 in consequence1 the problem has till now not even been comprehended1 let alone solved4 ,superficial in many cases 7as for instance in designating ,csar as the creator of the official newspaper71 these analogies are worse than superficial in others 7as when phenomena of the ,classical ,age that are not only extremely complex but utterly alien to us are labelled with modern catchwords like ,socialism1 ,impressionism1 ,capitalism1 ,clericalism71 while occasionally they are bizarre to the point of perversity--witness the ,jacobin clubs with their cult of ,brutus1 that millionaire-extortioner ,brutus who1 in the name of oligarchical doctrine and with the approval of the patrician senate1 murdered the ,man of the ,democracy4 ,,iii ,thus our theme1 which originally comprised only the limited problem of present-day civilization1 broadens itself into a new philosophy--the philosophy of the future1 so far as the metaphysically-exhausted soil of the ,west can bear such1 and in any case the only philosophy which is within the possibilities of the ,west-,european mind in its next stages4 ,it expands into the conception of a morphology of world history1 of the world-as-history in contrast to the morphology of the world-as- nature that hitherto has been almost the only theme of philosophy4 ,and it reviews once again the forms and movements of the world in their depths and final significance1 but this time according to an entirely different ordering which groups them1 not in an ensemble picture inclusive of everything known1 but in a picture of life1 and presents them not as things-become1 but as things-becoming4 ,the world-as-history1 conceived1 viewed and given form from out of its opposite the world-as-nature--here is a new aspect of human existence on this earth4 ,as yet1 in spite of its immense significance1 both practical and theoretical1 this aspect has not been realized1 still less presented4 ,some obscure inkling of it there may have been1 a distant momentary glimpse there has often been1 but no one has deliberately faced it and taken it in with all its implications4 ,we have before us two possible ways in which man may inwardly possess and experience the world around him4 ,with all rigour ,i distinguish 7as to form1 not substance7 the organic from the mechanical world-impression1 the content of images from that of laws1 the picture and symbol from the formula and the system1 the instantly actual from the constantly possible1 the intents and purposes of imagination ordering according to plan from the intents and purposes of experience dissecting according to scheme2 and-- to mention even thus early an opposition that has never yet been noted1 in spite of its significance--the domain of chronological from that of mathematical number4#a ,consequently1 in a research such as that lying before us1 there can be no question of taking spiritual-political events1 as they become visible day by day on the surface1 at their face value1 and arranging them on a scheme of 8causes0 or 8effects0 and following them up in the obvious and intellectually easy directions4 ,such a 8pragmatic0 handling of history would be nothing but a piece of 8natural science0 in disguise1 and for their part1 the supporters of the materialistic idea of history make no secret about it--it is their adversaries who largely fail to see the similarity of the two methods4 ,what concerns us is not what the historical facts which appear at this or that time are1 per se1 but what they signify1 what they point to1 by appearing4 ,present-day historians think they are doing a work of supererogation in bringing in religious and social1 or still more art-history1 details to 8illustrate0 the political sense of an epoch4 ,but the decisive factor--decisive1 that is1 in so far as visible history is the expression1 sign and embodiment of soul--they forget4 ,i have not hitherto found one who has carefully considered the morphological relationship that inwardly binds together the expression-forms of all branches of a ,culture1 who has gone beyond politics to grasp the ultimate and fundamental ideas of ,greeks1 ,arabians1 ,indians and ,westerners in mathematics1 the meaning of their early ornamentation1 the basic forms of their architecture1 philosophies1 dramas and lyrics1 their choice and development of great arts1 the detail of their craftsmanship and choice of materials--let alone appreciated the decisive importance of these matters for the form- problems of history4 ,who amongst them realizes that between the ,differential ,calculus and the dynastic principle of politics in the age of ,louis ,,xiv1 between the ,classical city-state and the ,euclidean geometry1 between the space-perspective of ,western oil-painting and the conquest of space by railroad1 telephone and long-range weapon1 between contrapuntal music and credit economics1 there are deep uniformities8 ,yet1 viewed from this morphological standpoint1 even the humdrum facts of politics assume a symbolic and even a metaphysical character1 and-- what has perhaps been impossible hitherto--things such as the ,egyptian administrative system1 the ,classical coinage1 analytical geometry1 the cheque1 the ,suez ,canal1 the book-printing of the ,chinese1 the ,prussian ,army1 and the ,roman road-engineering can1 as symbols1 be made uniformly understandable and appreciable4 ,but at once the fact presents itself that as yet there exists no theory- enlightened art of historical treatment4 ,what passes as such draws its methods almost exclusively from the domain of that science which alone has completely disciplined the methods of cognition1 viz41 physics1 and thus we imagine ourselves to be carrying on historical research when we are really following out objective connexions of cause and effect4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the old-fashioned philosophy never imagined even the possibility of there being any other relation than this between the conscious human understanding and the world outside4 ,kant1 who in his main work established the formal rules of cognition1 took nature only as the object of reason's activity1 and neither he himself1 nor anyone after him1 noted the reservation4 ,knowledge1 for ,kant1 is mathematical knowledge4 ,he deals with innate intuition-forms and categories of the reason1 but he never thinks of the wholly different mechanism by which historical impressions are apprehended4 ,and ,schopenhauer1 who1 significantly enough1 retains but one of the ,kantian categories1 viz41 causality1 speaks contemptuously of history4#b ,that there is1 besides a necessity of cause and effect--which ,i may call the logic of space-- another necessity1 an organic necessity in life1 that of ,destiny--the logic of time--is a fact of the deepest inward certainty1 a fact which suffuses the whole of mythological religions and artistic thought and constitutes the essence and kernel of all history 7in contradistinction to nature7 but is unapproachable through the cognition-forms which the 8,critique of ,pure ,reason0 investigates4 ,this fact still awaits its theoretical formulation4 ,as ,galileo says in a famous passage of his ,saggiatore1 philosophy1 as ,nature's great book1 is written 8in mathematical language40 ,we await1 to-day1 the philosopher who will tell us in what language history is written and how it is to be read4 ,mathematics and the principle of ,causality lead to a naturalistic1 ,chronology and the idea of ,destiny to a historical ordering of the phenomenal world4 ,both orderings1 each on its own account1 cover the whole world4 ,the difference is only in the eyes by which and through which this world is realized4 ----- ,footnote #a3 ,kant's error1 an error of very wide bearing which has not even yet been overcome1 was first of all in bringing the outer and inner ,man into relation with the ideas of space and time by pure scheme1 though the meanings of these are numerous and1 above all1 not unalterable2 and secondly in allying arithmetic with the one and geometry with the other in an utterly mistaken way4 ,it is not between arithmetic and geometry--we must here anticipate a little--but between chronological and mathematical number that there is fundamental opposition4 ,arithmetic and geometry are both spatial mathematics and in their higher regions they are no longer separable4 ,time-reckoning1 of which the plain man is capable of a perfectly clear understanding through his senses1 answers the question 8,when10 not 8,what0 or 8,how ,many40 ,footnote #b3 ,one cannot but be sensible how little depth and power of abstraction has been associated with the treatment of1 say1 the ,renaissance or the ,great ,migrations1 as compared with what is obviously required for the theory of functions and theoretical optics4 ,judged by the standards of the physicist and the mathematician1 the historian becomes careless as soon as he has assembled and ordered his material and passes on to interpretation4 ----- ,,iv ,nature is the shape in which the man of higher ,cultures synthesizes and interprets the immediate impressions of his senses4 ,history is that from which his imagination seeks comprehension of the living existence of the world in relation to his own life1 which he thereby invests with a deeper reality4 ,whether he is capable of creating these shapes1 which of them it is that dominates his waking consciousness1 is a primordial problem of all human existence4 ,man1 thus1 has before him two possibilities of world-formation4 ,but it must be noted1 at the very outset1 that these possibilities are not necessarily actualities1 and if we are to enquire into the sense of all history we must begin by solving a question which has never yet been put1 viz41 for whom is there ,history8 ,the question is seemingly paradoxical1 for history is obviously for everyone to this extent1 that every man1 with his whole existence and consciousness1 is a part of history4 ,but it makes a great difference whether anyone lives under the constant impression that his life is an element in a far wider life- course that goes on for hundreds and thousands of years1 or conceives of himself as something rounded off and self-contained4 ,for the latter type of consciousness there is certainly no world-history1 no world-as- history4 ,but how if the self-consciousness of a whole nation1 how if a whole ,culture rests on this ahistoric spirit8 ,how must actuality appear to it8 ,the world8 ,life8 ,consider the ,classical ,culture4 ,in the world- consciousness of the ,hellenes all experience1 not merely the personal but the common past1 was immediately transmuted into a timeless1 immobile1 mythically-fashioned background for the particular momentary present2 thus the history of ,alexander the ,great began even before his death to be merged by ,classical sentiment in the ,dionysus legend1 and to ,csar there seemed at the least nothing preposterous in claiming descent from ,venus4 ,such a spiritual condition it is practically impossible for us men of the ,west1 with a sense of time-distances so strong that we habitually and unquestioningly speak of so many years before or after ,christ1 to reproduce in ourselves4 ,but we are not on that account entitled1 in dealing with the problems of ,history1 simply to ignore the fact4 ,what diaries and autobiographies yield in respect of an individual1 that historical research in the widest and most inclusive sense--that is1 every kind of psychological comparison and analysis of alien peoples1 times and customs--yields as to the soul of a ,culture as a whole4 ,but the ,classical culture possessed no memory1 no organ of history in this special sense4 ,the memory of the ,classical man--so to call it1 though it is somewhat arbitrary to apply to alien souls a notion derived from our own--is something different1 since past and future1 as arraying perspectives in the working consciousness1 are absent and the 8pure ,present10 which so often roused ,goethe's admiration in every product of the ,classical life and in sculpture particularly1 fills that life with an intensity that to us is perfectly unknown4 ,this pure ,present1 whose greatest symbol is the ,doric column1 in itself predicates the negation of time 7of direction74 ,for ,herodotus and ,sophocles1 as for ,themistocles or a ,roman consul1 the past is subtilized instantly into an impression that is timeless and changeless1 polar and not periodic in structure--in the last analysis1 of such stuff as myths are made of--whereas for our world-sense and our inner eye the past is a definitely periodic and purposeful organism of centuries or millennia4 ,but it is just this background which gives the life1 whether it be the ,classical or the ,western life1 its special colouring4 ,what the ,greek called ,kosmos was the image of a world that is not continuous but complete4 ,inevitably1 then1 the ,greek man himself was not a series but a term4#c ,for this reason1 although ,classical man was well acquainted with the strict chronology and almanac-reckoning of the ,babylonians and especially the ,egyptians1 and therefore with that eternity-sense and disregard of the present-as-such which revealed itself in their broadly- conceived operations of astronomy and their exact measurements of big time-intervals1 none of this ever became intimately a part of him4 ,what his philosophers occasionally told him on the subject they had heard1 not experienced1 and what a few brilliant minds in the ,asiatic- ,greek cities 7such as ,hipparchus and ,aristarchus7 discovered was rejected alike by the ,stoic and by the ,aristotelian1 and outside a small professional circle not even noticed4 ,neither ,plato nor ,aristotle had an observatory4 ,in the last years of ,pericles1 the ,athenian people passed a decree by which all who propagated astronomical theories were made liable to impeachment 774 ,this last was an act of the deepest symbolic significance1 expressive of the determination of the ,classical soul to banish distance1 in every aspect1 from its world-consciousness4 ,as regards ,classical history-writing1 take ,thucydides4 ,the mastery of this man lies in his truly ,classical power of making alive and self- explanatory the events of the present1 and also in his possession of the magnificently practical outlook of the born statesman who has himself been both general and administrator4 ,in virtue of this quality of experience 7which we unfortunately confuse with the historical sense proper71 his work confronts the merely learned and professional historian as an inimitable model1 and quite rightly so4 ,but what is absolutely hidden from ,thucydides is perspective1 the power of surveying the history of centuries1 that which for us is implicit in the very conception of a historian4 ,the fine pieces of ,classical history-writing are invariably those which set forth matters within the political present of the writer1 whereas for us it is the direct opposite1 our historical masterpieces without exception being those which deal with a distant past4 ,thucydides would have broken down in handling even the ,persian ,wars1 let alone the general history of ,greece1 while that of ,egypt would have been utterly out of his reach4 ,he1 as well as ,polybius and ,tacitus 7who like him were practical politicians71 loses his sureness of eye from the moment when1 in looking backwards1 he encounters motive forces in any form that is unknown in his practical experience4 ,for ,polybius even the ,first ,punic ,war1 for ,tacitus even the reign of ,augustus1 are inexplicable4 ,as for ,thucydides1 his lack of historical feeling--in our sense of the phrase--is conclusively demonstrated on the very first page of his book by the astounding statement that before his time 7about #djj ,b4,c47 no events of importance had occurred 7o 7 in the world6#d ,consequently1 ,classical history down to the ,persian ,wars and for that matter the structure built up on traditions at much later periods1 are the product of an essentially mythological thinking4 ,the constitutional history of ,sparta is a poem of the ,hellenistic period1 and ,lycurgus1 on whom it centres and whose 8biography0 we are given in full detail1 was probably in the beginning an unimportant local god of ,mount ,taygetus4 ,the invention of pre-,hannibalian ,roman history was still going on even in ,csar's time4 ,the story of the expulsion of the ,tarquins by ,brutus is built round some contemporary of the ,censor ,appius ,claudius 7#caj ,b4,c474 ,the names of the ,roman kings were at that period made up from the names of certain plebeian families which had become wealthy 7,k4 ,j4 ,neumann74 ,in the sphere of constitutional history1 setting aside altogether the 8constitution0 of ,servius ,tullius1 we find that even the famous land law of ,licinius 7#cfg ,b4,c47 was not in existence at the time of the ,second ,punic ,war 7,b4 ,niese74 ,when ,epaminondas gave freedom and statehood to the ,messenians and the ,arcadians1 these peoples promptly provided themselves with an early history4 ,but the astounding thing is not that history of this sort was produced1 but that there was practically none of any other sort2 and the opposition between the ,classical and the modern outlook is sufficiently illustrated by saying that ,roman history before #bej ,b4,c41 as known in ,csar's time1 was substantially a forgery1 and that the little that we know has been established by ourselves and was entirely unknown to the later ,romans4 ,in what sense the ,classical world understood the word 8history0 we can see from the fact that the ,alexandrine romance-literature exercised the strongest influence upon serious political and religious history1 even as regards its matter4 ,it never entered the ,classical head to draw any distinction of principle between history as a story and history as documents4 ,when1 towards the end of the ,roman republic1 ,varro set out to stabilize the religion that was fast vanishing from the people's consciousness1 he classified the deities whose cult was exactly and minutely observed by the ,state1 into 8certain0 and 8uncertain0 gods1 i4e41 into gods of whom something was still known and gods that1 in spite of the unbroken continuity of official worship1 had survived in name only4 ,in actual fact1 the religion of ,roman society in ,varro's time1 the poet's religion which ,goethe and even ,nietzsche reproduced in all innocence1 was mainly a product of ,hellenistic literature and had almost no relation to the ancient practices1 which no one any longer understood4 ,mommsen clearly defined the ,west-,european attitude towards this history when he said that 8the ,roman historians10 meaning especially ,tacitus1 8were men who said what it would have been meritorious to omit1 and omitted what it was essential to say40 ,in the ,indian ,culture we have the perfectly ahistoric soul4 ,its decisive expression is the ,brahman ,nirvana4 ,there is no pure ,indian astronomy1 no calendar1 and therefore no history so far as history is the track of a conscious spiritual evolution4 ,of the visible course of their ,culture1 which as regards its organic phase came to an end with the rise of ,buddhism1 we know even less than we do of ,classical history1 rich though it must have been in great events between the #abth and #hth centuries4 ,and this is not surprising1 since it was in dream-shapes and mythological figures that both came to be fixed4 ,it is a full millennium after ,buddha1 about #ejj ,a4,d41 when ,ceylon first produces something remotely resembling historical work1 the 8,mahavansa40 ,the world-consciousness of ,indian man was so ahistorically built that it could not even treat the appearance of a book written by a single author as an event determinate in time4 ,instead of an organic series of writings by specific persons1 there came into being gradually a vague mass of texts into which everyone inserted what he pleased1 and notions such as those of intellectual individualism1 intellectual evolution1 intellectual epochs1 played no part in the matter4 ,it is in this anonymous form that we possess the ,indian philosophy--which is at the same time all the ,indian history that we have--and it is instructive to compare with it the philosophy-history of the ,west1 which is a perfectly definite structure made up of individual books and personalities4 ,indian man forgot everything1 but ,egyptian man forgot nothing4 ,hence1 while the art of portraiture--which is biography in the kernel--was unknown in ,india1 in ,egypt it was practically the artist's only theme4 ,the ,egyptian soul1 conspicuously historical in its texture and impelled with primitive passion towards the infinite1 perceived past and future as its whole world1 and the present 7which is identical with waking consciousness7 appeared to him simply as the narrow common frontier of two immeasurable stretches4 ,the ,egyptian ,culture is an embodiment of care--which is the spiritual counterpoise of distance--care for the future expressed in the choice of granite or basalt as the craftsman's materials1#e in the chiselled archives1 in the elaborate administrative system1 in the net of irrigation works1#f and1 necessarily bound up therewith1 care for the past4 ,the ,egyptian mummy is a symbol of the first importance4 ,the body of the dead man was made everlasting1 just as his personality1 his 8,ka10 was immortalized through the portrait- statuettes1 which were often made in many copies and to which it was conceived to be attached by a transcendental likeness4 ,there is a deep relation between the attitude that is taken towards the historic past and the conception that is formed of death1 and this relation is expressed in the disposal of the dead4 ,the ,egyptian denied mortality1 the ,classical man affirmed it in the whole symbolism of his ,culture4 ,the ,egyptians embalmed even their history in chronological dates and figures4 ,from pre-,solonian ,greece nothing has been handed down1 not a year-date1 not a true name1 not a tangible event--with the consequence that the later history1 7which alone we know7 assumes undue importance--but for ,egypt we possess1 from the #crd millennium and even earlier1 the names and even the exact reign-dates of many of the kings1 and the ,new ,empire must have had a complete knowledge of them4 ,to-day1 pathetic symbols of the will to endure1 the bodies of the great ,pharaohs lie in our museums1 their faces still recognizable4 ,on the shining1 polished-granite peak of the pyramid of ,amenemhet ,,iii we can read to-day the words 8,amenemhet looks upon the beauty of the ,sun0 and1 on the other side1 8,higher is the soul of ,amenemhet than the height of ,orion1 and it is united with the underworld40 ,here indeed is victory over ,mortality and the mere present2 it is to the last degree un-,classical4 ----- ,footnote #c3 ,in the original1 these fundamental antitheses are expressed simply by means of werden and sein4 ,exact renderings are therefore impossible in ,english4--,tr4 ,footnote #d3 ,the attempts of the ,greeks to frame something like a calendar or a chronology after the ,egyptian fashion1 besides being very belated indeed1 were of extreme navet4 ,the ,olympiad reckoning is not an era in the sense of1 say1 the ,christian chronology1 and is1 moreover1 a late and purely literary expedient1 without popular currency4 ,the people1 in fact1 had no general need of a numeration wherewith to date the experiences of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers1 though a few learned persons might be interested in the calendar question4 ,we are not here concerned with the soundness or unsoundness of a calendar1 but with its currency1 with the question of whether men regulated their lives by it or not2 but1 incidentally1 even the list of ,olympian victors before #ejj is quite as much of an invention as the lists of earlier ,athenian archons or ,roman consuls4 ,of the colonizations1 we possess not one single authentic date 7,e4 ,meyer4 ,gesch4 d4 ,alt4 ,,ii1 #ddb4 ,beloch4 ,griech4 ,gesch4 ,i1 #b1 #bai7 8in ,greece before the fifth century1 no one ever thought of noting or reporting historical events40 7,beloch4 ,i1 #a1 #abe74 ,we possess an inscription which sets forth a treaty between ,elis and ,heraea which 8was to be valid for a hundred years from this year40 ,what 8this year0 was1 is however not indicated4 ,after a few years no one would have known how long the treaty had still to run4 ,evidently this was a point that no one had taken into account at the time--indeed1 the very 8men of the moment0 who drew up the document1 probably themselves soon forgot4 ,such was the childlike1 fairy-story character of the ,classical presentation of history that any ordered dating of the events of1 say1 the ,trojan ,war 7which occupies in their series the same position as the ,crusades in ours7 would have been felt as a sheer solecism4 ,equally backward was the geographical science of the ,classical world as compared with that of the ,egyptians and the ,babylonians4 ,e4 ,meyer 7,gesch4 d4 ,alt4 ,,ii1 #ajb7 shows how the ,greeks' knowledge of the form of ,africa degenerated from ,herodotus 7who followed ,persian authorities7 to ,aristotle4 ,the same is true of the ,romans as the heirs of the ,carthaginians2 they first repeated the information of their alien forerunners and then slowly forgot it4 ,footnote #e3 ,contrast with this the fact1 symbolically of the highest importance and unparalleled in art-history1 that the ,hellenes1 though they had before their eyes the works of the ,mycenan ,age and their land was only too rich in stone1 deliberately reverted to wood2 hence the absence of architectural remains of the period #abjj-fjj4 ,the ,egyptian plant-column was from the outset of stone1 whereas the ,doric column was wooden1 a clear indication of the intense antipathy of the ,classical soul towards duration4 ,footnote #f3 ,is there any ,hellenic city that ever carried out one single comprehensive work that tells of care for future generations8 ,the road and water systems which research has assigned to the ,mycenan--i4e41 the pre-,classical--age fell into disrepair and oblivion from the birth of the ,classical peoples--that is1 from the ,homeric period4 ,it is a remarkably curious fact1 proved beyond doubt by the lack of epigraphic remains1 that the ,classical alphabet did not come into use till after #ijj1 and even then only to a limited extent and for the most pressing economic needs4 ,whereas in the ,egyptian1 the ,babylonian1 the ,mexican and the ,chinese ,cultures the formation of a script begins in the very twilight of dawn1 whereas the ,germans made themselves a ,runic alphabet and presently developed that respect for writing as such which led to the successive refinements of ornamental calligraphy1 the ,classical primitives were entirely ignorant of the numerous alphabets that were current in the ,south and the ,east4 ,we possess numerous inscriptions of ,hittite ,asia ,minor and of ,crete1 but not one of ,homeric ,greece4 7,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ahj et seq47 ----- ,v ,in opposition to this mighty group of ,egyptian life-symbols1 we meet at the threshold of the ,classical ,culture the custom1 typifying the ease with which it could forget every piece of its inward and outward past1 of burning the dead4 ,to the ,mycenan age the elevation into a ritual of this particular funerary method amongst all those practised in turn by stone-age peoples1 was essentially alien2 indeed its ,royal tombs suggest that earth-burial was regarded as peculiarly honourable4 ,but in ,homeric ,greece1 as in ,vedic ,india1 we find a change1 so sudden that its origins must necessarily be psychological1 from burial to that burning which 7the ,iliad gives us the full pathos of the symbolic act7 was the ceremonial completion of death and the denial of all historical duration4 ,from this moment the plasticity of the individual spiritual evolution was at an end4 ,classical drama admitted truly historical motives just as little as it allowed themes of inward evolution1 and it is well known how decisively the ,hellenic instinct set itself against portraiture in the arts4 ,right into the imperial period ,classical art handled only the matter that was1 so to say1 natural to it1 the myth4#g ,even the 8ideal0 portraits of ,hellenistic sculpture are mythical1 of the same kind as the typical biographies of ,plutarch's sort4 ,no great ,greek ever wrote down any recollections that would serve to fix a phase of experience for his inner eye4 ,not even ,socrates has told1 regarding his inward life1 anything important in our sense of the word4 ,it is questionable indeed whether for a ,classical mind it was even possible to react to the motive forces that are presupposed in the production of a ,parzeval1 a ,hamlet1 or a ,werther4 ,in ,plato we fail to observe any conscious evolution of doctrine2 his separate works are merely treatises written from very different standpoints which he took up from time to time1 and it gave him no concern whether and how they hung together4 ,on the contrary1 a work of deep self-examination1 the ,vita ,nuova of ,dante1 is found at the very outset of the spiritual history of the ,west4 ,how little therefore of the ,classical pure-present there really was in ,goethe1 the man who forgot nothing1 the man whose works1 as he avowed himself1 are only fragments of a single great confession6 ,after the destruction of ,athens by the ,persians1 all the older art-works were thrown on the dustheap 7whence we are now extracting them71 and we do not hear that anyone in ,hellas ever troubled himself about the ruins of ,mycen or ,phaistos for the purpose of ascertaining historical facts4 ,men read ,homer but never thought of excavating the hill of ,troy as ,schliemann did2 for what they wanted was myth1 not history4 ,the works of schylus and those of the pre-,socratic philosophers were already partially lost in the ,hellenistic period4 ,in the ,west1 on the contrary1 the piety inherent in and peculiar to the ,culture manifested itself1 five centuries before ,schliemann1 in ,petrarch--the fine collector of antiquities1 coins and manuscripts1 the very type of historically- sensitive man1 viewing the distant past and scanning the distant prospect 7was he not the first to attempt an ,alpine peak871 living in his time1 yet essentially not of it4 ,the soul of the collector is intelligible only by having regard to his conception of ,time4 ,even more passionate perhaps1 though of a different colouring1 is the collecting- bent of the ,chinese4 ,in ,china1 whoever travels assiduously pursues 8old traces0 7,ku-tsi7 and the untranslatable 8,tao10 the basic principle of ,chinese existence1 derives all its meaning from a deep historical feeling4 ,in the ,hellenistic period1 objects were indeed collected and displayed everywhere1 but they were curiosities of mythological appeal 7as described by ,pausanias7 as to which questions of date or purpose simply did not arise--and this too in the very presence of ,egypt1 which even by the time of the great ,thuthmosis had been transformed into one vast museum of strict tradition4 ,amongst the ,western peoples1 it was the ,germans who discovered the mechanical clock1 the dread symbol of the flow of time1 and the chimes of countless clock towers that echo day and night over ,west ,europe are perhaps the most wonderful expression of which a historical world- feeling is capable4#h ,in the timeless countrysides and cities of the ,classical world1 we find nothing of the sort4 ,till the epoch of ,pericles1 the time of day was estimated merely by the length of shadow1 and it was only from that of ,aristotle that the word received the 7,babylonian7 significance of 8hour02 prior to that there was no exact subdivision of the day4 ,in ,babylon and ,egypt water-clocks and sun-dials were discovered in the very early stages1 yet in ,athens it was left to ,plato to introduce a practically useful form of clepsydra1 and this was merely a minor adjunct of everyday utility which could not have influenced the ,classical life-feeling in the smallest degree4 ,it remains still to mention the corresponding difference1 which is very deep and has never yet been properly appreciated1 between ,classical and modern mathematics4 ,the former conceived of things as they are1 as magnitudes1 timeless and purely present1 and so it proceeded to ,euclidean geometry and mathematical statics1 rounding off its intellectual system with the theory of conic sections4 ,we conceive things as they become and behave1 as function1 and this brought us to dynamics1 analytical geometry and thence to the ,differential ,calculus4#i ,the modern theory of functions is the imposing marshalling of this whole mass of thought4 ,it is a bizarre1 but nevertheless psychologically exact1 fact that the physics of the ,greeks--being statics and not dynamics--neither knew the use nor felt the absence of the time- element1 whereas we on the other hand work in thousandths of a second4 ,the one and only evolution-idea that is timeless1 ahistoric1 is ,aristotle's entelechy4 ,this1 then1 is our task4 ,we men of the ,western ,culture are1 with our historical sense1 an exception and not a rule4 ,world-history is our world picture and not all mankind's4 ,indian and ,classical man formed no image of a world in progress1 and perhaps when in due course the civilization of the ,west is extinguished1 there will never again be a ,culture and a human type in which 8world-history0 is so potent a form of the waking consciousness4 ----- ,footnote #g3 ,from ,homer to the tragedies of ,seneca1 a full thousand years1 the same handful of myth-figures 7,thyestes1 ,clytmnestra1 ,heracles and the like7 appear time after time without alteration1 whereas in the poetry of the ,west1 ,faustian ,man figures1 first as ,parzeval or ,tristan1 then 7modified always into harmony with the epoch7 as ,hamlet1 ,don ,quixote1 ,don ,juan1 and eventually ,faust or ,werther1 and now as the hero of the modern world-city romance1 but is always presented in the atmosphere and under the conditions of a particular century4 ,footnote #h3 ,it was about #ajjj ,a4,d4 and therefore contemporaneously with the beginning of the ,romanesque style and the ,crusades--the first symptoms of a new ,soul--that ,abbot ,gerbert 7,pope ,sylvester ,,ii71 the friend of the ,emperor ,otto ,,iii1 invented the mechanism of the chiming wheel- clock4 ,in ,germany too1 the first tower-clocks made their appearance1 about #abjj1 and the pocket watch somewhat later4 ,observe the significant association of time measurement with the edifices of religion4 ,footnote #i3 ,newton's choice of the name 8fluxions0 for his calculus was meant to imply a standpoint towards certain metaphysical notions as to the nature of time4 ,in ,greek mathematics time figures not at all4 ----- ,,vi ,what1 then1 is world-history8 ,certainly1 an ordered presentation of the past1 an inner postulate1 the expression of a capacity for feeling form4 ,but a feeling for form1 however definite1 is not the same as form itself4 ,no doubt we feel world-history1 experience it1 and believe that it is to be read just as a map is read4 ,but1 even to-day1 it is only forms of it that we know and not the form of it1 which is the mirror- image of our own inner life4 ,everyone of course1 if asked1 would say that he saw the inward form of ,history quite clearly and definitely4 ,the illusion subsists because no one has seriously reflected on it1 still less conceived doubts as to his own knowledge1 for no one has the slightest notion how wide a field for doubt there is4 ,in fact1 the lay-out of world-history is an unproved and subjective notion that has been handed down from generation to generation 7not only of laymen but of professional historians7 and stands badly in need of a little of that scepticism which from ,galileo onward has regulated and deepened our inborn ideas of nature4 ,thanks to the subdivision of history into 8,ancient10 8,medival0 and 8,modern0--an incredibly jejune and meaningless scheme1 which has1 however1 entirely dominated our historical thinking--we have failed to perceive the true position in the general history of higher mankind1 of the little part-world which has developed on ,west-,european#aj soil from the time of the ,german-,roman ,empire1 to judge of its relative importance and above all to estimate its direction4 ,the ,cultures that are to come will find it difficult to believe that the validity of such a scheme with its simple rectilinear progression and its meaningless proportions1 becoming more and more preposterous with each century1 incapable of bringing into itself the new fields of history as they successively come into the light of our knowledge1 was1 in spite of all1 never whole- heartedly attacked4 ,the criticisms that it has long been the fashion of historical researchers to level at the scheme mean nothing2 they have only obliterated the one existing plan without substituting for it any other4 ,to toy with phrases such as 8the ,greek ,middle ,ages0 or 8,germanic antiquity0 does not in the least help us to form a clear and inwardly- convincing picture in which ,china and ,mexico1 the empire of ,axum and that of the ,sassanids have their proper places4 ,and the expedient of shifting the initial point of 8modern history0 from the ,crusades to the ,renaissance1 or from the ,renaissance to the beginning of the #aith ,century1 only goes to show that the scheme per se is regarded as unshakably sound4 ,it is not only that the scheme circumscribes the area of history4 ,what is worse1 it rigs the stage4 ,the ground of ,west ,europe is treated as a steady pole1 a unique patch chosen on the surface of the sphere for no better reason1 it seems1 than because we live on it--and great histories of millennial duration and mighty far-away ,cultures are made to revolve around this pole in all modesty4 ,it is a quaintly conceived system of sun and planets6 ,we select a single bit of ground as the natural centre of the historical system1 and make it the central sun4 ,from it all the events of history receive their real light1 from it their importance is judged in perspective4 ,but it is in our own ,west-,european conceit alone that this phantom 8world-history10 which a breath of scepticism would dissipate1 is acted out4 ,we have to thank that conceit for the immense optical illusion 7become natural from long habit7 whereby distant histories of thousands of years1 such as those of ,china and ,egypt1 are made to shrink to the dimensions of mere episodes while in the neighbourhood of our own position the decades since ,luther1 and particularly since ,napoleon1 loom large as ,brocken-spectres4 ,we know quite well that the slowness with which a high cloud or a railway train in the distance seems to move is only apparent1 yet we believe that the tempo of all early ,indian1 ,babylonian or ,egyptian history was really slower than that of our own recent past4 ,and we think of them as less substantial1 more damped-down1 more diluted1 because we have not learned to make the allowance for 7inward and outward7 distances4 ,it is self-evident that for the ,cultures of the ,west the existence of ,athens1 ,florence or ,paris is more important than that of ,lo-,yang or ,pataliputra4 ,but is it permissible to found a scheme of world-history on estimates of such a sort8 ,if so1 then the ,chinese historian is quite entitled to frame a world-history in which the ,crusades1 the ,renaissance1 ,csar and ,frederick the ,great are passed over in silence as insignificant4 ,how1 from the morphological point of view1 should our #ahth ,century be more important than any other of the sixty centuries that preceded it8 ,is it not ridiculous to oppose a 8modern0 history of a few centuries1 and that history to all intents localized in ,west ,europe1 to an 8ancient0 history which covers as many millennia--incidentally dumping into that 8ancient history0 the whole mass of the pre-,hellenic cultures1 unprobed and unordered1 as mere appendix-matter8 ,this is no exaggeration4 ,do we not1 for the sake of keeping the hoary scheme1 dispose of ,egypt and ,babylon--each as an individual and self-contained history quite equal in the balance to our so-called 8world-history0 from ,charlemagne to the ,world-,war and well beyond it--as a prelude to classical history8 ,do we not relegate the vast complexes of ,indian and ,chinese culture to foot-notes1 with a gesture of embarrassment8 ,as for the great ,american cultures1 do we not1 on the ground that they do not 8fit in0 7with what871 entirely ignore them8 ,the most appropriate designation for this current ,west-,european scheme of history1 in which the great ,cultures are made to follow orbits round us as the presumed centre of all world-happenings1 is the ,ptolemaic system of history4 ,the system that is put forward in this work in place of it ,i regard as the ,copernican discovery in the historical sphere1 in that it admits no sort of privileged position to the ,classical or the ,western ,culture as against the ,cultures of ,india1 ,babylon1 ,china1 ,egypt1 the ,arabs1 ,mexico--separate worlds of dynamic being which in point of mass count for just as much in the general picture of history as the ,classical1 while frequently surpassing it in point of spiritual greatness and soaring power4 ----- ,footnote #aj3 ,here the historian is gravely influenced by preconceptions derived from geography1 which assumes a ,continent of ,europe1 and feels himself compelled to draw an ideal frontier corresponding to the physical frontier between 8,europe0 and 8,asia40 ,the word 8,europe0 ought to be struck out of history4 ,there is historically no 8,european0 type1 and it is sheer delusion to speak of the ,hellenes as 8,european ,antiquity0 7were ,homer and ,heraclitus and ,pythagoras1 then1 ,asiatics87 and to enlarge upon their 8mission0 as such4 ,these phrases express no realities but merely a sketchy interpretation of the map4 ,it is thanks to this word 8,europe0 alone1 and the complex of ideas resulting from it1 that our historical consciousness has come to link ,russia with the ,west in an utterly baseless unity--a mere abstraction derived from the reading of books--that has led to immense real consequences4 ,in the shape of ,peter the ,great1 this word has falsified the historical tendencies of a primitive human mass for two centuries1 whereas the ,russian instinct has very truly and fundamentally divided 8,europe0 from 8,mother ,russia0 with the hostility that we can see embodied in ,tolstoi1 ,aksakov or ,dostoyevski4 8,east0 and 8,west0 are notions that contain real history1 whereas 8,europe0 is an empty sound4 ,everything great that the ,classical world created1 it created in pure denial of the existence of any continental barrier between ,rome and ,cyprus1 ,byzantium and ,alexandria4 ,everything that we imply by the term ,european ,culture came into existence between the ,vistula and the ,adriatic and the ,guadalquivir and1 even if we were to agree that ,greece1 the ,greece of ,pericles1 lay in ,europe1 the ,greece of to-day certainly does not4 ----- ,,vii ,the scheme 8ancient-medival-modern0 in its first form was a creation of the ,magian world-sense4 ,it first appeared in the ,persian and ,jewish religions after ,cyrus1#aa received an apocalyptic sense in the teaching of the ,book of ,daniel on the four world-eras1 and was developed into a world-history in the post-,christian religions of the ,east1 notably the ,gnostic systems4#ab ,this important conception1 within the very narrow limits which fixed its intellectual basis1 was unimpeachable4 ,neither ,indian nor even ,egyptian history was included in the scope of the proposition4 ,for the ,magian thinker the expression 8world-history0 meant a unique and supremely dramatic act1 having as its theatre the lands between ,hellas and ,persia1 in which the strictly dualistic world-sense of the ,east expressed itself not by means of polar conceptions like the 8soul and spirit10 8good and evil0 of contemporary metaphysics1 but by the figure of a catastrophe1 an epochal change of phase between world-creation and world-decay4#ac ,no elements beyond those which we find stabilized in the ,classical literature1 on the one hand1 and the ,bible 7or other sacred book of the particular system71 on the other1 came into the picture1 which presents 7as 8,the ,old0 and 8,the ,new10 respectively7 the easily-grasped contrasts of ,gentile and ,jewish1 ,christian and ,heathen1 ,classical and ,oriental1 idol and dogma1 nature and spirit with a time connotation--that is1 as a drama in which the one prevails over the other4 ,the historical change of period wears the characteristic dress of the religious 8,redemption40 ,this 8world-history0 in short was a conception narrow and provincial1 but within its limits logical and complete4 ,necessarily1 therefore1 it was specific to this region and this humanity1 and incapable of any natural extension4 ,but to these two there has been added a third epoch1 the epoch that we call 8modern10 on ,western soil1 and it is this that for the first time gives the picture of history the look of a progression4 ,the oriental picture was at rest4 ,it presented a self-contained antithesis1 with equilibrium as its outcome and a unique divine act as its turning-point4 ,but1 adopted and assumed by a wholly new type of mankind1 it was quickly transformed 7without anyone's noticing the oddity of the change7 into a conception of a linear progress3 from ,homer or ,adam--the modern can substitute for these names the ,indo-,german1 ,old ,stone ,man1 or the ,pithecanthropus--through ,jerusalem1 ,rome1 ,florence and ,paris according to the taste of the individual historian1 thinker or artist1 who has unlimited freedom in the interpretation of the three-part scheme4 ,this third term1 8modern times10 which in form asserts that it is the last and conclusive term of the series1 has in fact1 ever since the ,crusades1 been stretched and stretched again to the elastic limit at which it will bear no more4#ad ,it was at least implied if not stated in so many words1 that here1 beyond the ancient and the medival1 something definitive was beginning1 a ,third ,kingdom in which1 somewhere1 there was to be fulfilment and culmination1 and which had an objective point4 ,as to what this objective point is1 each thinker1 from ,schoolman to present-day ,socialist1 backs his own peculiar discovery4 ,such a view into the course of things may be both easy and flattering to the patentee1 but in fact he has simply taken the spirit of the ,west1 as reflected in his own brain1 for the meaning of the world4 ,so it is that great thinkers1 making a metaphysical virtue of intellectual necessity1 have not only accepted without serious investigation the scheme of history agreed 8by common consent0 but have made of it the basis of their philosophies and dragged in ,god as author of this or that 8world- plan40 ,evidently the mystic number three applied to the world-ages has something highly seductive for the metaphysician's taste4 ,history was described by ,herder as the education of the human race1 by ,kant as an evolution of the idea of freedom1 by ,hegel as a self-expansion of the world-spirit1 by others in other terms1 but as regards its ground-plan everyone was quite satisfied when he had thought out some abstract meaning for the conventional threefold order4 ,on the very threshold of the ,western ,culture we meet the great ,joachim of ,floris 7c4 #aade-abjb71ae the first thinker of the ,hegelian stamp who shattered the dualistic world-form of ,augustine1 and with his essentially ,gothic intellect stated the new ,christianity of his time in the form of a third term to the religions of the ,old and the ,new ,testaments1 expressing them respectively as the ,age of the ,father1 the ,age of the ,son and the ,age of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,his teaching moved the best of the ,franciscans and the ,dominicans1 ,dante1 ,thomas ,aquinas1 in their inmost souls and awakened a world-outlook which slowly but surely took entire possession of the historical sense of our ,culture4 ,lessing-- who often designated his own period1 with reference to the ,classical as the 8after-world0#af 7,nachwelt7--took his idea of the 8education of the human race0 with its three stages of child1 youth and man1 from the teaching of the ,fourteenth ,century mystics4 ,ibsen treats it with thoroughness in his ,emperor and ,galilean 7#ahgc71 in which he directly presents the ,gnostic world-conception through the figure of the wizard ,maximus1 and advances not a step beyond it in his famous ,stockholm address of #ahhg4 ,it would appear1 then1 that the ,western consciousness feels itself urged to predicate a sort of finality inherent in its own appearance4 ,but the creation of the ,abbot of ,floris was a mystical glance into the secrets of the divine world-order4 ,it was bound to lose all meaning as soon as it was used in the way of reasoning and made a hypothesis of scientific thinking1 as it has been--ever more and more frequently-- since the #agth ,century4 ,it is a quite indefensible method of presenting world-history to begin by giving rein to one's own religious1 political or social convictions and endowing the sacrosanct three-phase system with tendencies that will bring it exactly to one's own standpoint4 ,this is1 in effect1 making of some formula--say1 the 8,age of ,reason10 ,humanity1 the greatest happiness of the greatest number1 enlightenment1 economic progress1 national freedom1 the conquest of nature1 or world-peace--a criterion whereby to judge whole millennia of history4 ,and so we judge that they were ignorant of the 8true path10 or that they failed to follow it1 when the fact is simply that their will and purposes were not the same as ours4 ,goethe's saying1 8,what is important in life is life and not a result of life10 is the answer to any and every senseless attempt to solve the riddle of historical form by means of a programme4 ,it is the same picture that we find when we turn to the historians of each special art or science 7and those of national economics and philosophy as well74 ,we find3 8,painting0 from the ,egyptians 7or the cave-men7 to the ,impressionists1 or 8,music0 from ,homer to ,bayreuth and beyond1 or 8,social ,organization0 from ,lake ,dwellings to ,socialism1 as the case may be1 presented as a linear graph which steadily rises in conformity with the values of the 7selected7 arguments4 ,no one has seriously considered the possibility that arts may have an allotted span of life and may be attached as forms of self-expression to particular regions and particular types of mankind1 and that therefore the total history of an art may be merely an additive compilation of separate developments1 of special arts1 with no bond of union save the name and some details of craft-technique4 ,we know it to be true of every organism that the rhythm1 form and duration of its life1 and all the expression-details of that life as well1 are determined by the properties of its species4 ,no one1 looking at the oak1 with its millennial life1 dare say that it is at this moment1 now1 about to start on its true and proper course4 ,no one as he sees a caterpillar grow day by day expects that it will go on doing so for two or three years4 ,in these cases we feel1 with an unqualified certainty1 a limit1 and this sense of the limit is identical with our sense of the inward form4 ,in the case of higher human history1 on the contrary1 we take our ideas as to the course of the future from an unbridled optimism that sets at naught all historical1 i4e41 organic1 experience1 and everyone therefore sets himself to discover in the accidental present terms that he can expand into some striking progression-series1 the existence of which rests not on scientific proof but on predilection4 ,he works upon unlimited possibilities--never a natural end--and from the momentary top-course of his bricks plans artlessly the continuation of his structure4 8,mankind10 however1 has no aim1 no idea1 no plan1 any more than the family of butterflies or orchids4 8,mankind0 is a zoological expression1 or an empty word4#ag ,but conjure away the phantom1 break the magic circle1 and at once there emerges an astonishing wealth of actual forms--the ,living with all its immense fullness1 depth and movement-- hitherto veiled by a catchword1 a dryasdust scheme1 and a set of personal 8ideals40 ,i see1 in place of that empty figment of one linear history which can only be kept up by shutting one's eyes to the overwhelming multitude of the facts1 the drama of a number of mighty ,cultures1 each springing with primitive strength from the soil of a mother-region to which it remains firmly bound throughout its whole life-cycle2 each stamping its material1 its mankind1 in its own image2 each having its own idea1 its own passions1 its own life1 will and feeling1 its own death4 ,here indeed are colours1 lights1 movements1 that no intellectual eye has yet discovered4 ,here the ,cultures1 peoples1 languages1 truths1 gods1 landscapes bloom and age as the oaks and the stone-pines1 the blossoms1 twigs and leaves--but there is no ageing 8,mankind40 ,each ,culture has its own new possibilities of self-expression which arise1 ripen1 decay1 and never return4 ,there is not one sculpture1 one painting1 one mathematics1 one physics1 but many1 each in its deepest essence different from the others1 each limited in duration and self-contained1 just as each species of plant has its peculiar blossom or fruit1 its special type of growth and decline4 ,these cultures1 sublimated life-essences1 grow with the same superb aimlessness as the flowers of the field4 ,they belong1 like the plants and the animals1 to the living ,nature of ,goethe1 and not to the dead ,nature of ,newton4 ,i see world-history as a picture of endless formations and transformations1 of the marvellous waxing and waning of organic forms4 ,the professional historian1 on the contrary1 sees it as a sort of tapeworm industriously adding on to itself one epoch after another4 ,but the series 8ancient-medival-modern history0 has at last exhausted its usefulness4 ,angular1 narrow1 shallow though it was as a scientific foundation1 still we possessed no other form that was not wholly unphilosophical in which our data could be arranged1 and world-history 7as hitherto understood7 has to thank it for filtering our classifiable solid residues4 ,but the number of centuries that the scheme can by any stretch be made to cover has long since been exceeded1 and with the rapid increase in the volume of our historical material--especially of material that cannot possibly be brought under the scheme--the picture is beginning to dissolve into a chaotic blur4 ,every historical student who is not quite blind knows and feels this1 and it is as a drowning man that he clutches at the only scheme which he knows of4 ,the word 8,middle ,age10#ah invented in #affg by ,professor ,horn of ,leyden1 has to-day to cover a formless and constantly extending mass which can only be defined1 negatively1 as every thing not classifiable under any pretext in one of the other two 7tolerably well-ordered7 groups4 ,we have an excellent example of this in our feeble treatment and hesitant judgment of modern ,persian1 ,arabian and ,russian history4 ,but1 above all1 it has become impossible to conceal the fact that this so-called history of the world is a limited history1 first of the ,eastern ,mediterranean region and then1--with an abrupt change of scene at the ,migrations 7an event important only to us and therefore greatly exaggerated by us1 an event of purely ,western and not even ,arabian significance71--of ,west-,central ,europe4 ,when ,hegel declared so navely that he meant to ignore those peoples which did not fit into his scheme of history1 he was only making an honest avowal of methodic premisses that every historian finds necessary for his purpose and every historical work shows in its lay- out4 ,in fact it has now become an affair of scientific tact to determine which of the historical developments shall be seriously taken into account and which not4 ,ranke is a good example4 ----- ,footnote #aa3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ca1 #age4 ,footnote #ab3 ,windelband1 ,gesch4 d4 ,phil4 7#aijc71 pp4 #bge ff4 ,footnote #ac3 ,in the ,new ,testament the polar idea tends to appear in the dialectics of the ,apostle ,paul1 while the periodic is represented by the ,apocalypse4 ,footnote #ad3 ,as we can see from the expression1 at once desperate and ridiculous1 8newest time0 7neueste ,zeit74 ,footnote #ae3 ,k4 ,burdach1 ,reformation1 ,renaissance1 ,humanismus1 #aiah1 pp4 #dh et seq4 7,english readers may be referred to the article ,joachim of ,floris by ,professor ,alphandery in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,,xi ed41 ,tr47 ,footnote #af3 ,the expression 8antique0--meant of course in the dualistic sense--is found as early as the ,isagoge of ,porphyry 7c4 #cjj ,a4,d474 ,footnote #ag3 8,mankind8 ,it is an abstraction4 ,there are1 always have been1 and always will be1 men and only men40 7,goethe to ,luden47 ,footnote #ah3 8,middle ,ages0 connotes the history of the space-time region in which ,latin was the language of the ,church and the learned4 ,the mighty course of ,eastern ,christianity1 which1 long before ,boniface1 spread over ,turkestan into ,china and through ,saba into ,abyssinia1 was entirely excluded from this 8world-history40 ----- ,,viii ,to-day we think in continents1 and it is only our philosophers and historians who have not realized that we do so4 ,of what significance to us1 then1 are conceptions and purviews that they put before us as universally valid1 when in truth their furthest horizon does not extend beyond the intellectual atmosphere of ,western ,man8 ,examine1 from this point of view1 our best books4 ,when ,plato speaks of humanity1 he means the ,hellenes in contrast to the barbarians1 which is entirely consonant with the ahistoric mode of the ,classical life and thought1 and his premisses take him to conclusions that for ,greeks were complete and significant4 ,when1 however1 ,kant philosophizes1 say on ethical ideas1 he maintains the validity of his theses for men of all times and places4 ,he does not say this in so many words1 for1 for himself and his readers1 it is something that goes without saying4 ,in his sthetics he formulates the principles1 not of ,phidias's art1 or ,rembrandt's art1 but of ,art generally4 ,but what he poses as necessary forms of thought are in reality only necessary forms of ,western thought1 though a glance at ,aristotle and his essentially different conclusions should have sufficed to show that ,aristotle's intellect1 not less penetrating than his own1 was of different structure from it4 ,the categories of the ,westerner are just as alien to ,russian thought as those of the ,chinaman or the ancient ,greek are to him4 ,for us1 the effective and complete comprehension of ,classical root-words is just as impossible as that of ,russian#ai and ,indian1 and for the modern ,chinese or ,arab1 with their utterly different intellectual constitutions1 8philosophy from ,bacon to ,kant0 has only a curiosity-value4 ,it is this that is lacking to the ,western thinker1 the very thinker in whom we might have expected to find it--insight into the historically relative character of his data1 which are expressions of one specific existence and one only2 knowledge of the necessary limits of their validity2 the conviction that his 8unshakable0 truths and 8eternal0 views are simply true for him and eternal for his world-view2 the duty of looking beyond them to find out what the men of other ,cultures have with equal certainty evolved out of themselves4 ,that and nothing else will impart completeness to the philosophy of the future1 and only through an understanding of the living world shall we understand the symbolism of history4 ,here there is nothing constant1 nothing universal4 ,we must cease to speak of the forms of 8,thought10 the principles of 8,tragedy10 the mission of 8,the ,state40 ,universal validity involves always the fallacy of arguing from particular to particular4 ,but something much more disquieting than a logical fallacy begins to appear when the centre of gravity of philosophy shifts from the abstract-systematic to the practical-ethical and our ,western thinkers from ,schopenhauer onward turn from the problem of cognition to the problem of life 7the will to life1 to power1 to action74 ,here it is not the ideal abstract 8man0 of ,kant that is subjected to examination1 but actual man as he has inhabited the earth during historical time1 grouped1 whether primitive or advanced1 by peoples2 and it is more than ever futile to define the structure of his highest ideas in terms of the 8ancient-medival-modern0 scheme with its local limitations4 ,but it is done1 nevertheless4 ,consider the historical horizon of ,nietzsche4 ,his conceptions of decadence1 militarism1 the transvaluation of all values1 the will to power1 lie deep in the essence of ,western civilization and are for the analysis of that civilization of decisive importance4 ,but what1 do we find1 was the foundation on which he built up his creation8 ,romans and ,greeks1 ,renaissance and ,european present1 with a fleeting and uncomprehending side-glance at ,indian philosophy--in short 8ancient1 medival and modern0 history4 ,strictly speaking1 he never once moved outside the scheme1 not did any other thinker of his time4 ,what correlation1 then1 is there or can there be of his idea of the 8,dionysian0 with the inner life of a highly-civilized ,chinese or an up- to-date ,american8 ,what is the significance of his type of the 8,superman0--for the world of ,islam8 ,can image-forming antitheses of ,nature and ,intellect1 ,heathen and ,christian1 ,classical and ,modern1 have any meaning for the soul of the ,indian or the ,russian8 ,what can ,tolstoi-- who from the depths of his humanity rejected the whole ,western world- idea as something alien and distant--do with the 8,middle ,ages10 with ,dante1 with ,luther8 ,what can a ,japanese do with ,parzeval and 8,zarathustra10 or an ,indian with ,sophocles8 ,and is the thought-range of ,schopenhauer1 ,comte1 ,feuerbach1 ,hebbel or ,strindberg any wider8 ,is not their whole psychology1 for all its intention of world-wide validity1 one of purely ,west-,european significance8 ,how comic seem ,ibsen's woman-problems--which also challenge the attention of all 8humanity0--when1 for his famous ,nora1 the lady of the ,north-west ,european city with the horizon that is implied by a house-rent of #ajj to #cjj a year and a ,protestant upbringing1 we substitute ,csar's wife1 ,madame de ,svign1 a ,japanese or a ,turkish peasant woman6 ,but1 for that matter1 ,ibsen's own circle of vision is that of the middle class in a great city of yesterday and to-day4 ,his conflicts1 which start from spiritual premisses that did not exist till about #ahej and can scarcely last beyond #aiej1 are neither those of the great world nor those of the lower masses1 still less those of the cities inhabited by non-,european populations4 ,all these are local and temporary values--most of them indeed limited to the momentary 8intelligentsia0 of cities of ,west-,european type4 ,world- historical or 8eternal0 values they emphatically are not4 ,whatever the substantial importance of ,ibsen's and ,nietzsche's generation may be1 it infringes the very meaning of the word 8world-history0--which denotes the totality and not a selected part--to subordinate1 to undervalue1 or to ignore the factors which lie outside 8modern0 interests4 ,yet in fact they are so undervalued or ignored to an amazing extent4 ,what the ,west has said and thought1 hitherto1 on the problems of space1 time1 motion1 number1 will1 marriage1 property1 tragedy1 science1 has remained narrow and dubious1 because men were always looking for the solution of the question4 ,it was never seen that many questioners implies many answers1 that any philosophical question is really a veiled desire to get an explicit affirmation of what is implicit in the question itself1 that the great questions of any period are fluid beyond all conception1 and that therefore it is only by obtaining a group of historically limited solutions and measuring it by utterly impersonal criteria that the final secrets can be reached4 ,the real student of mankind treats no standpoint as absolutely right or absolutely wrong4 ,in the face of such grave problems as that of ,time or that of ,marriage1 it is insufficient to appeal to personal experience1 or an inner voice1 or reason1 or the opinion of ancestors or contemporaries4 ,these may say what is true for the questioner himself and for his time1 but that is not all4 ,in other ,cultures the phenomenon talks a different language1 for other men there are different truths4 ,the thinker must admit the validity of all1 or of none4 ,how greatly1 then1 ,western world-criticism can be widened and deepened6 ,how immensely far beyond the innocent relativism of ,nietzsche and his generation one must look--how fine one's sense for form and one's psychological insight must become--how completely one must free oneself from limitations of self1 of practical interests1 of horizon--before one dare assert the pretension to understand world-history1 the world-as- history4 ----- ,footnote #ai3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfb1 foot-note4 ,to the true ,russian the basic proposition of ,darwinism is as devoid of meaning as that of ,copernicus is to a true ,arab4 ----- ,,ix ,in opposition to all these arbitrary and narrow schemes1 derived from tradition or personal choice1 into which history is forced1 ,i put forward the natural1 the 8,copernican10 form of the historical process which lies deep in the essence of that process and reveals itself only to an eye perfectly free from prepossessions4 ,such an eye was ,goethe's4 ,that which ,goethe called ,living ,nature is exactly that which we are calling here world-history1 world-as- history4 ,goethe1 who as artist portrayed the life and development1 always the life and development1 of his figures1 the thing-becoming and not the thing-become 78,wilhelm ,meister0 and 8,wahrheit und ,dichtung07 hated ,mathematics4 ,for him1 the world-as-mechanism stood opposed to the world-as-organism1 dead nature to living nature1 law to form4 ,as naturalist1 every line he wrote was meant to display the image of a thing-becoming1 the 8impressed form0 living and developing4 ,sympathy1 observation1 comparison1 immediate and inward certainty1 intellectual flair--these were the means whereby he was enabled to approach the secrets of the phenomenal world in motion4 ,now these are the means of historical research--precisely these and no others4 ,it was this godlike insight that prompted him to say at the bivouac fire on the evening of the ,battle of ,valmy3 8,here and now begins a new epoch of world history1 and you1 gentlemen1 can say that you #8were there4'0 ,no general1 no diplomat1 let alone the philosophers1 ever so directly felt history 8becoming40 ,it is the deepest judgment that any man ever uttered about a great historical act in the moment of its accomplishment4 ,and just as he followed out the development of the plant-form from the leaf1 the birth of the vertebrate type1 the process of the geological strata--the ,destiny in nature and not the ,causality--so here we shall develop the form-language of human history1 its periodic structure1 its organic logic out of the profusion of all the challenging details4 ,in other aspects1 mankind is habitually1 and rightly1 reckoned as one of the organisms of the earth's surface4 ,its physical structure1 its natural functions1 the whole phenomenal conception of it1 all belong to a more comprehensive unity4 ,only in this aspect is it treated otherwise1 despite that deeply-felt relationship of plant destiny and human destiny which is an eternal theme of all lyrical poetry1 and despite that similarity of human history to that of any other of the higher life-groups which is the refrain of endless beast-legends1 sagas and fables4 ,but only bring analogy to bear on this aspect as on the rest1 letting the world of human ,cultures intimately and unreservedly work upon the imagination instead of forcing it into a ready-made scheme4 ,let the words youth1 growth1 maturity1 decay--hitherto1 and to-day more than ever1 used to express subjective valuations and entirely personal preferences in sociology1 ethics and sthetics--be taken at last as objective descriptions of organic states4 ,set forth the ,classical ,culture as a self-contained phenomenon embodying and expressing the ,classical soul1 put it beside the ,egyptian1 the ,indian1 the ,babylonian1 the ,chinese and the ,western1 and determine for each of these higher individuals what is typical in their surgings and what is necessary in the riot of incident4 ,and then at last will unfold itself the picture of world-history that is natural to us1 men of the ,west1 and to us alone4 ,x ,our narrower task1 then1 is primarily to determine1 from such a world- survey1 the state of ,west ,europe and ,america as at the epoch of #ahjj- #bjjj--to establish the chronological position of this period in the ensemble of ,western culture-history1 its significance as a chapter that is in one or other guise necessarily found in the biography of every ,culture1 and the organic and symbolic meaning of its political1 artistic1 intellectual and social expression-forms4 ,considered in the spirit of analogy1 this period appears as chronologically parallel--8contemporary0 in our special sense--with the phase of ,hellenism1 and its present culmination1 marked by the ,world- ,war1 corresponds with the transition from the ,hellenistic to the ,roman age4 ,rome1 with its rigorous realism--uninspired1 barbaric1 disciplined1 practical1 ,protestant1 ,prussian--will always give us1 working as we must by analogies1 the key to understanding our own future4 ,the break of destiny that we express by hyphening the words 8,greeks ,romans0 is occurring for us also1 separating that which is already fulfilled from that which is to come4 ,long ago we might and should have seen in the 8,classical0 world a development which is the complete counterpart of our own ,western development1 differing indeed from it in every detail of the surface but entirely similar as regards the inward power driving the great organism towards its end4 ,we might have found the constant alter ego of our own actuality in establishing the correspondence1 item by item1 from the 8,trojan ,war0 and the ,crusades1 ,homer and the ,nibelungenlied1 through ,doric and ,gothic1 ,dionysian movement and ,renaissance1 ,polycletus and ,john ,sebastian ,bach1 ,athens and ,paris1 ,aristotle and ,kant1 ,alexander and ,napoleon1 to the world-city and the imperialism common to both ,cultures4 ,unfortunately1 this requires an interpretation of the picture of ,classical history very different from the incredibly one-sided1 superficial1 prejudiced1 limited picture that we have in fact given to it4 ,we have1 in truth been only too conscious of our near relation to the ,classical ,age1 and only too prone in consequence to unconsidered assertion of it4 ,superficial similarity is a great snare1 and our entire ,classical study fell a victim to it as soon as it passed from the 7admittedly masterly7 ordering and critique of the discoveries to the interpretation of their spiritual meaning4 ,that close inward relation in which we conceive ourselves to stand towards the ,classical1 and which leads us to think that we are its pupils and successors 7whereas in reality we are simply its adorers71 is a venerable prejudice which ought at last to be put aside4 ,the whole religious-philosophical1 art- historical and social-critical work of the #aith ,century has been necessary to enable us1 not to understand schylus1 ,plato1 ,apollo and ,dionysus1 the ,athenian state and ,csarism 7which we are far indeed from doing71 but to begin to realize1 once and for all1 how immeasurably alien and distant these things are from our inner selves--more alien1 maybe1 than ,mexican gods and ,indian architecture4 ,our views of the ,grco-,roman ,culture have always swung between two extremes1 and our standpoints have invariably been defined for us by the 8ancient-medival-modern0 scheme4 ,one group1 public men before all else-- economists1 politicians1 jurists--opine that 8present-day mankind0 is making excellent progress1 assess it and its performances at the very highest value and measure everything earlier by its standards4 ,there is no modern party that has not weighed up ,cleon1 ,marius1 ,themistocles1 ,catiline1 the ,gracchi1 according to its own principles4 ,on the other hand we have the group of artists1 poets1 philologists and philosophers4 ,these feel themselves to be out of their element in the aforesaid present1 and in consequence choose for themselves in this or that past epoch a standpoint that is in its way just as absolute and dogmatic from which to condemn 8to-day40 ,the one group looks upon ,greece as a 8not yet10 the other upon modernity as a 8nevermore40 ,both labour under the obsession of a scheme of history which treats the two epochs as part of the same straight line4 ,in this opposition it is the two souls of ,faust that express themselves4 ,the danger of the one group lies in a clever superficiality4 ,in its hands there remains finally1 of all ,classical ,culture1 of all reflections of the ,classical soul1 nothing but a bundle of social1 economic1 political and physiological facts1 and the rest is treated as 8secondary results10 8reflexes10 8attendant phenomena40 ,in the books of this group we find not a hint of the mythical force of schylus's choruses1 of the immense mother-earth struggle of the early sculpture1 the ,doric column1 of the richness of the ,apollo-cult1 of the real depth of the ,roman ,emperor-worship4 ,the other group1 composed above all of belated romanticists--represented in recent times by the three ,basel professors ,bachofen1 ,burckhardt and ,nietzsche--succumb to the usual dangers of ideology4 ,they lose themselves in the clouds of an antiquity that is really no more than the image of their own sensibility in a philological mirror4 ,they rest their case upon the only evidence which they consider worthy to support it1 viz41 the relics of the old literature1 yet there never was a ,culture so incompletely represented for us by its great writers4#bj ,the first group1 on the other hand1 supports itself principally upon the humdrum material of law-sources1 inscriptions and coins 7which ,burckhardt and ,nietzsche1 very much to their own loss1 despised7 and subordinates thereto1 often with little or no sense of truth and fact1 the surviving literature4 ,consequently1 even in point of critical foundations1 neither group takes the other seriously4 ,i have never heard that ,nietzsche and ,mommsen had the smallest respect for each other4 ,but neither group has attained to that higher method of treatment which reduces this opposition of criteria to ashes1 although it was within their power to do so4 ,in their self-limitation they paid the penalty for taking over the causality-principle from natural science4 ,unconsciously they arrived at a pragmatism that sketchily copied the world-picture drawn by physics and1 instead of revealing1 obscured and confused the quite other-natured forms of history4 ,they had no better expedient for subjecting the mass of historical material to critical and normative examination than to consider one complex of phenomena as being primary and causative and the rest as being secondary1 as being consequences or effects4 ,and it was not only the matter-of-fact school that resorted to this method4 ,the romanticists did likewise1 for ,history had not revealed even to their dreaming gaze its specific logic2 and yet they felt that there was an immanent necessity in it to determine this somehow1 rather than turn their backs upon ,history in despair like ,schopenhauer4 ----- ,footnote #bj3 ,this is conclusively proved by the selection that determined survival1 which was governed not by mere chance but very definitely by a deliberate tendency4 ,the ,atticism of the ,augustan ,age1 tired1 sterile1 pedantic1 back-looking1 conceived the hall-mark 8classical0 and allowed only a very small group of ,greek works up to ,plato to bear it4 ,the rest1 including the whole wealth of ,hellenistic literature1 was rejected and has been almost entirely lost4 ,it is this pedagogue's anthology that has survived 7almost in its entirety7 and so fixed the imaginary picture of 8,classical ,antiquity0 alike for the ,renaissance ,florentine and for ,winckelmann1 ,hlderlin1 and even ,nietzsche4 ,in this ,english translation1 it should be mentioned1 the word 8,classical0 has almost universally been employed to translate the ,german antike1 as1 in the translator's judgment1 no literal equivalent of the ,german word would convey the specific meaning attached to antike throughout the work1 8antique10 8ancient0 and the like words having for us a much more general connotation4--,tr4 ----- ,,xi ,briefly1 then1 there are two ways of regarding the ,classical--the materialistic and the ideological4 ,by the former1 it is asserted that the sinking of one scale-pan has its cause in the rising of the other1 and it is shown that this occurs invariably 7truly a striking theorem72 and in this juxtaposing of cause and effect we naturally find the social and sexual1 at all events the purely political1 facts classed as causes and the religious1 intellectual and 7so far as the materialist tolerates them as facts at all7 the artistic as effects4 ,on the other hand1 the ideologues show that the rising of one scale-pan follows from the sinking of the other1 which they are able to prove of course with equal exactitude2 this done1 they lose themselves in cults1 mysteries1 customs1 in the secrets of the strophe and the line1 throwing scarcely a side-glance at the commonplace daily life--for them an unpleasant consequence of earthly imperfection4 ,each side1 with its gaze fixed on causality1 demonstrates that the other side either cannot or will not understand the true linkages of things and each ends by calling the other blind1 superficial1 stupid1 absurd or frivolous1 oddities or ,philistines4 ,it shocks the ideologue if anyone deals with ,hellenic finance-problems and instead of1 for example1 telling us the deep meanings of the ,delphic oracle1 describes the far-reaching money operations which the ,oracle priests undertook with their accumulated treasures4 ,the politician1 on the other hand1 has a superior smile for those who waste their enthusiasm on ritual formul and the dress of ,attic youths1 instead of writing a book adorned with up-to-date catchwords about antique class-struggles4 ,the one type is foreshadowed from the very outset in ,petrarch2 it created ,florence and ,weimar and the ,western classicism4 ,the other type appears in the middle of the #ahth ,century1 along with the rise of civilized1#ba economic-megalopolitan#bb politics1 and ,england is therefore its birthplace 7,grote74 ,at bottom1 the opposition is between the conceptions of culture-man and those of civilization-man1 and it is too deep1 too essentially human1 to allow the weaknesses of both standpoints alike to be seen or overcome4 ,the materialist himself is on this point an idealist4 ,he too1 without wishing or desiring it1 has made his views dependent upon his wishes4 ,in fact all our finest minds without exception have bowed down reverently before the picture of the ,classical1 abdicating in this one instance alone their function of unrestricted criticism4 ,the freedom and power of ,classical research are always hindered1 and its data obscured1 by a certain almost religious awe4 ,in all history there is no analogous case of one ,culture making a passionate cult of the memory of another4 ,our devotion is evidenced yet again in the fact that since the ,renaissance1 a thousand years of history have been undervalued so that an ideal 8,middle0 ,age may serve as a link between ourselves and antiquity4 ,we ,westerners have sacrificed on the ,classical altar the purity and independence of our art1 for we have not dared to create without a side- glance at the 8sublime exemplar40 ,we have projected our own deepest spiritual needs and feelings on to the ,classical picture4 ,some day a gifted psychologist will deal with this most fateful illusion and tell us the story of the 8,classical0 that we have so consistently reverenced since the days of ,gothic4 ,few theses would be more helpful for the understanding of the ,western soul from ,otto ,,iii1 the first victim of the ,south1 to ,nietzsche1 the last4 ,goethe on his ,italian tour speaks with enthusiasm of the buildings of ,palladio1 whose frigid and academic work we to-day regard very sceptically3 but when he goes on to ,pompeii he does not conceal his dissatisfaction in experiencing 8a strange1 half-unpleasant impression10 and what he has to say on the temples of ,pstum and ,segesta--masterpieces of ,hellenic art--is embarrassed and trivial4 ,palpably1 when ,classical antiquity in its full force met him face to face1 he did not recognize it4 ,it is the same with all others4 ,much that was ,classical they chose not to see1 and so they saved their inward image of the ,classical--which was in reality the background of a life-ideal that they themselves had created and nourished with their heart's blood1 a vessel filled with their own world-feeling1 a phantom1 an idol4 ,the audacious descriptions of ,aristophanes1 ,juvenal or ,petronius of life in the ,classical cities-- the southern dirt and riff-raff1 terrors and brutalities1 pleasure-boys and ,phrynes1 phallus worship and imperial orgies--excite the enthusiasm of the student and the dilettante1 who find the same realities in the world-cities of to-day too lamentable and repulsive to face4 8,in the cities life is bad2 there are too many of the lustful40--also sprach ,zarathustra4 ,they commend the state-sense of the ,romans1 but despise the man of to-day who permits himself any contact with public affairs4 ,there is a type of scholar whose clarity of vision comes under some irresistible spell when it turns from a frock-coat to a toga1 from a ,british football-ground to a ,byzantine circus1 from a transcontinental railway to a ,roman road in the ,alps1 from a thirty-knot destroyer to a trireme1 from ,prussian bayonets to ,roman spears--nowadays1 even1 from a modern engineer's ,suez ,canal to that of a ,pharaoh4 ,he would admit a steam-engine as a symbol of human passion and an expression of intellectual force if it were ,hero of ,alexandria who invented it1 not otherwise4 ,to such it seems blasphemous to talk of ,roman central-heating or book-keeping in preference to the worship of the ,great ,mother of the ,gods4 ,but the other school sees nothing but these things4 ,it thinks it exhausts the essence of this ,culture1 alien as it is to ours1 by treating the ,greeks as simply equivalent1 and it obtains its conclusions by means of simple factual substitutions1 ignoring altogether the ,classical soul4 ,that there is not the slightest inward correlation between the things meant by 8,republic10 8freedom10 8property0 and the like then and there and the things meant by such words here and now1 it has no notion whatever4 ,it makes fun of the historians of the age of ,goethe1 who honestly expressed their own political ideals in classical history forms and revealed their own personal enthusiasms in vindications or condemnations of lay-figures named ,lycurgus1 ,brutus1 ,cato1 ,cicero1 ,augustus--but it cannot itself write a chapter without reflecting the party opinion of its morning paper4 ,it is1 however1 much the same whether the past is treated in the spirit of ,don ,quixote or in that of ,sancho ,panza4 ,neither way leads to the end4 ,in sum1 each school permits itself to bring into high relief that part of the ,classical which best expresses its own views--,nietzsche the pre- ,socratic ,athens1 the economists the ,hellenistic period1 the politicians ,republican ,rome1 poets the ,imperial ,age4 ,not that religious and artistic phenomena are more primitive than social and economic1 any more than the reverse4 ,for the man who in these things has won his unconditional freedom of outlook1 beyond all personal interests whatsoever1 there is no dependence1 no priority1 no relation of cause and effect1 no differentiation of value or importance4 ,that which assigns relative ranks amongst the individual detail-facts is simply the greater or less purity and force of their form-language1 their symbolism1 beyond all questions of good and evil1 high and low1 useful and ideal4 ----- ,footnote #ba3 ,as will be seen later1 the words zivilisierte and ,zivilisation possess in this work a special meaning4--,tr4 ,footnote #bb3 ,english not possessing the adjective-forming freedom of ,german1 we are compelled to coin a word for the rendering of grossstdtisch1 an adjective not only frequent but of emphatic significance in the author's argument4--,tr4 ----- ,,xii ,looked at in this way1 the 8,decline of the ,west0 comprises nothing less than the problem of ,civilization4 ,we have before us one of the fundamental questions of all higher history4 ,what is ,civilization1 understood as the organic-logical sequel1 fulfilment and finale of a culture8 ,for every ,culture has its own ,civilization4 ,in this work1 for the first time the two words1 hitherto used to express an indefinite1 more or less ethical1 distinction1 are used in a periodic sense1 to express a strict and necessary organic succession4 ,the ,civilization is the inevitable destiny of the ,culture1 and in this principle we obtain the viewpoint from which the deepest and gravest problems of historical morphology become capable of solution4 ,civilizations are the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable4 ,they are a conclusion1 the thing-become succeeding the thing-becoming1 death following life1 rigidity following expansion1 intellectual age and the stone-built1 petrifying world-city following mother-earth and the spiritual childhood of ,doric and ,gothic4 ,they are an end1 irrevocable1 yet by inward necessity reached again and again4 ,so1 for the first time1 we are enabled to understand the ,romans as the successors of the ,greeks1 and light is projected into the deepest secrets of the late-,classical period4 ,what1 but this1 can be the meaning of the fact--which can only be disputed by vain phrases--that the ,romans were barbarians who did not precede but closed a great development8 ,unspiritual1 unphilosophical1 devoid of art1 clannish to the point of brutality1 aiming relentlessly at tangible successes1 they stand between the ,hellenic ,culture and nothingness4 ,an imagination directed purely to practical objects--they had religious laws governing godward relations as they had other laws governing human relations1 but there was no specifically ,roman saga of gods--was something which is not found at all in ,athens4 ,in a word1 ,greek soul--,roman intellect2 and this antithesis is the differentia between ,culture and ,civilization4 ,nor is it only to the ,classical that it applies4 ,again and again there appears this type of strong-minded1 completely non-metaphysical man1 and in the hands of this type lies the intellectual and material destiny of each and every 8late0 period4 ,such are the men who carried through the ,babylonian1 the ,egyptian1 the ,indian1 the ,chinese1 the ,roman ,civilizations1 and in such periods do ,buddhism1 ,stoicism1 ,socialism ripen into definitive world-conceptions which enable a moribund humanity to be attacked and re-formed in its intimate structure4 ,pure ,civilization1 as a historical process1 consists in a progressive taking-down of forms that have become inorganic or dead4 ,the transition from ,culture to ,civilization was accomplished for the ,classical world in the #dth1 for the ,western in the #aith ,century4 ,from these periods onward the great intellectual decisions take place1 not as in the days of the ,orpheus-movement or the ,reformation in the 8whole world0 where not a hamlet is too small to be unimportant1 but in three or four world-cities that have absorbed into themselves the whole content of ,history1 while the old wide landscape of the ,culture1 become merely provincial1 serves only to feed the cities with what remains of its higher mankind4 ,world-city and province#bc--the two basic ideas of every civilization-- bring up a wholly new form-problem of ,history1 the very problem that we are living through to-day with hardly the remotest conception of its immensity4 ,in place of a world1 there is a city1 a point1 in which the whole life of broad regions is collecting while the rest dries up4 ,in place of a type-true people1 born of and grown on the soil1 there is a new sort of nomad1 cohering unstably in fluid masses1 the parasitical city dweller1 traditionless1 utterly matter-of-fact1 religionless1 clever1 unfruitful1 deeply contemptuous of the countryman and especially that highest form of countryman1 the country gentleman4 ,this is a very great stride towards the inorganic1 towards the end--what does it signify8 ,france and ,england have already taken the step and ,germany is beginning to do so4 ,after ,syracuse1 ,athens1 and ,alexandria comes ,rome4 ,after ,madrid1 ,paris1 ,london come ,berlin and ,new ,york4 ,it is the destiny of whole regions that lie outside the radiation-circle of one of these cities--of old ,crete and ,macedon and to-day the ,scandinavian ,north#bd--to become 8provinces40 ,of old1 the field on which the opposed conception of an epoch came to battle was some world-problem of a metaphysical1 religious or dogmatic kind1 and the battle was between the soil-genius of the countryman 7noble1 priest7 and the 8worldly0 patrician genius of the famous old small towns of ,doric or ,gothic springtime4 ,of such a character were the conflicts over the ,dionysus religion--as in the tyranny of ,kleisthenes of ,sikyon#be--;and those of the ,reformation in the ,german free cities and the ,huguenot wars4 ,but just as these cities overcame the country-side 7already it is a purely civic world-outlook that appears in even ,parmenides and ,descartes71 so in turn the world-city overcame them4 ,it is the common intellectual process of later periods such as the ,ionic and the ,baroque1 and to-day--as in the ,hellenistic age which at its outset saw the foundation of artificial1 land-alien ,alexandria--,culture- cities like ,florence1 ,nrnberg1 ,salamanca1 ,bruges and ,prag1 have become provincial towns and fight inwardly a lost battle against the world- cities4 ,the world-city means cosmopolitanism in place of 8home10#bf cold matter-of-fact in place of reverence for tradition and age1 scientific irreligion as a fossil representative of the older religion of the heart1 8society0 in place of the state1 natural instead of hard- earned rights4 ,it was in the conception of money as an inorganic and abstract magnitude1 entirely disconnected from the notion of the fruitful earth and the primitive values1 that the ,romans had the advantage of the ,greeks4 ,thenceforward any high ideal of life becomes largely a question of money4 ,unlike the ,greek stoicism of ,chrysippus1 the ,roman stoicism of ,cato and ,seneca presupposes a private income2#bg and1 unlike that of the #ahth ,century1 the social-ethical sentiment of the #bjth1 if it is to be realized at a higher level than that of professional 7and lucrative7 agitation1 is a matter for millionaires4 ,to the world-city belongs not a folk but a mass4 ,its uncomprehending hostility to all the traditions representative of the ,culture 7nobility1 church1 privileges1 dynasties1 convention in art and limits of knowledge in science71 the keen and cold intelligence that confounds the wisdom of the peasant1 the new-fashioned naturalism that in relation to all matters of sex and society goes back far beyond ,rousseau and ,socrates to quite primitive instincts and conditions1 the reappearance of the panem et circenses in the form of wage-disputes and football-grounds--all these things betoken the definite closing-down of the ,culture and the opening of a quite new phase of human existence--anti-provincial1 late1 futureless1 but quite inevitable4 ,this is what has to be viewed1 and viewed not with the eyes of the partisan1 the ideologue1 the up-to-date novelist1 not from this or that 8standpoint10 but in a high1 time-free perspective embracing whole millenniums of historical world-forms1 if we are really to comprehend the great crisis of the present4 ,to me it is a symbol of the first importance that in the ,rome of ,crassus--triumvir and all-powerful building-site speculator--the ,roman people with its proud inscriptions1 the people before whom ,gauls1 ,greeks1 ,parthians1 ,syrians afar trembled1 lived in appalling misery in the many-storied lodging-houses of dark suburbs1#bh accepting with indifference or even with a sort of sporting interest the consequences of the military expansion3 that many famous old-noble families1 descendants of the men who defeated the ,celts and the ,samnites1 lost their ancestral homes through standing apart from the wild rush of speculation and were reduced to renting wretched apartments2 that1 while along the ,appian ,way there arose the splendid and still wonderful tombs of the financial magnates1 the corpses of the people were thrown along with animal carcases and town refuse into a monstrous common grave--till in ,augustus's time it was banked over for the avoidance of pestilence and so became the site of ,mcenas's renowned park2 that in depopulated ,athens1 which lived on visitors and on the bounty of rich foreigners1 the mob of parvenu tourists from ,rome gaped at the works of the ,periclean age with as little understanding as the ,american globe-trotter in the ,sistine ,chapel at those of ,michelangelo1 every removable art- piece having ere this been taken away or bought at fancy prices to be replaced by the ,roman buildings which grew up1 colossal and arrogant1 by the side of the low and modest structures of the old time4 ,in such things--which it is the historian's business not to praise or to blame but to consider morphologically--there lies1 plain and immediate enough for one who has learnt to see1 an idea4 ,for it will become manifest that1 from this moment on1 all great conflicts of world-outlook1 of politics1 of art1 of science1 of feeling will be under the influence of this one opposition4 ,what is the hall- mark of a politic of ,civilization to-day1 in contrast to a politic of ,culture yesterday8 ,it is1 for the ,classical rhetoric1 and for the ,western journalism1 both serving that abstract which represents the power of ,civilization--money4#bi ,it is the money-spirit which penetrates unremarked the historical forms of the people's existence1 often without destroying or even in the least disturbing these forms--the form of the ,roman state1 for instance1 underwent very much less alteration between the elder ,scipio and ,augustus than is usually imagined4 ,though forms subsist1 the great political parties nevertheless cease to be more than reputed centres of decision4 ,the decisions in fact lie elsewhere4 ,a small number of superior heads1 whose names are very likely not the best-known1 settle everything1 while below them are the great mass of second-rate politicians--rhetors1 tribunes1 deputies1 journalists--selected through a provincially-conceived franchise to keep alive the illusion of popular self-determination4 ,and art8 ,philosophy8 ,the ideals of a ,platonic or those of a ,kantian age had for the higher mankind concerned a general validity4 ,but those of a ,hellenistic age1 or those of our own1 are valid exclusively for the brain of the ,megalopolitan4 ,for the villager's or1 generally1 the nature-man's world- feeling our ,socialism--like its near relation ,darwinism 7how utterly un- ,goethian are the formul of 8struggle for existence0 and 8natural selection0671 like its other relative the woman-and-marriage problem of ,ibsen1 ,strindberg1 and ,shaw1 like the impressionistic tendencies of anarchic sensuousness and the whole bundle of modern longings1 temptations and pains expressed in ,baudelaire's verse and ,wagner's music--are simply non-existent4 ,the smaller the town1 the more unmeaning it becomes to busy oneself with painting or with music of these kinds4 ,to the ,culture belong gymnastics1 the tournament1 the agon1 and to the ,civilization belongs ,sport4 ,this is the true distinction between the ,hellenic palstra and the ,roman circus4#cj ,art itself becomes a sport 7hence the phrase 8art for art's sake07 to be played before a highly- intelligent audience of connoisseurs and buyers1 whether the feat consist in mastering absurd instrumental tone-masses and taking harmonic fences1 or in some tour de force of colouring4 ,then a new fact- philosophy appears1 which can only spare a smile for metaphysical speculation1 and a new literature that is a necessity of life for the megalopolitan palate and nerves and both unintelligible and ugly to the provincials4 ,neither ,alexandrine poetry nor plein-air painting is anything to the 8people40 ,and1 then as now1 the phase of transition is marked by a series of scandals only to be found at such moments4 ,the anger evoked in the ,athenian populace by ,euripides and by the 8,revolutionary0 painting of ,apollodorus1 for example1 is repeated in the opposition to ,wagner1 ,manet1 ,ibsen1 and ,nietzsche4 ,it is possible to understand the ,greeks without mentioning their economic relations2 the ,romans1 on the other hand1 can only be understood through these4 ,chronea and ,leipzig were the last battles fought about an idea4 ,in the ,first ,punic ,war and in #ahgj economic motives are no longer to be overlooked4 ,not till the ,romans came with their practical energy was slave-holding given that big collective character which many students regard as the die-stamp of ,classical economics1 legislation and way of life1 and which in any event vastly lowered both the value and the inner worthiness of such free labour as continued to exist side by side with gang-labour4 ,and it was not the ,latin1 but the ,germanic peoples of the ,west and ,america who developed out of the steam-engine a big industry that transformed the face of the land4 ,the relation of these phenomena to ,stoicism and to ,socialism is unmistakable4 ,not till the ,roman ,csarism--foreshadowed by ,c4 ,flaminius1 shaped first by ,marius1 handled by strong-minded1 large-scale men of fact--did the ,classical ,world learn the pre-eminence of money4 ,without this fact neither ,csar1 nor 8,rome0 generally1 is understandable4 ,in every ,greek is a ,don ,quixote1 in every ,roman a ,sancho ,panza factor1 and these factors are dominants4 ----- ,footnote #bc3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aag et seq4 ,footnote #bd3 ,one cannot fail to notice this in the development of ,strindberg and especially in that of ,ibsen1 who was never quite at home in the civilized atmosphere of his problems4 ,the motives of 8,brand0 and 8,rosmersholm0 are a wonderful mixture of innate provincialism and a theoretically-acquired megalopolitan outlook4 ,nora is the very type of the provincial derailed by reading4 ,footnote #be3 ,who forbade the cult of the town's hero ,adrastos and the reading of the ,homeric poems1 with the object of cutting the ,doric nobility from its spiritual roots 7c4 #efj ,b4,c474 ,footnote #bf3 ,a profound word which obtains its significance as soon as the barbarian becomes a culture-man and loses it again as soon as the civilization-man takes up the motto 8,ubi bene1 ibi patria40 ,footnote #bg3 ,hence it was that the first to succumb to ,christianity were the ,romans who could not afford to be ,stoics4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #fjg et seq4 ,footnote #bh3 ,in ,rome and ,byzantium1 lodging-houses of six to ten stories 7with street-widths of ten feet at most67 were built without any sort of official supervision1 and frequently collapsed with all their inmates4 ,a great part of the cives ,romani1 for whom panem et circenses constituted all existence1 possessed no more than a high-priced sleeping-berth in one of the swarming ant-hills called insul4 7,pohlmann1 ,aus ,altertum und ,gegenwart1 #aiaa1 pp4 #aii ff47 ,footnote #bi3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 #egg4 ,footnote #cj3 ,german gymnastics1 from the intensely provincial and natural forms imparted to it by ,jahn1 has since #ahac been carried by a very rapid development into the sport category4 ,the difference between a ,berlin athletic ground on a big day and a ,roman circus was even by #aiad very slight4 ----- ,,xiii ,considered in itself1 the ,roman world-dominion was a negative phenomenon1 being the result not of a surplus of energy on the one side-- that the ,romans had never had since ,zama--but of a deficiency of resistance on the other4 ,that the ,romans did not conquer the world is certain2#ca they merely took possession of a booty that lay open to everyone4 ,the ,imperium ,romanum came into existence not as the result of such an extremity of military and financial effort as had characterized the ,punic ,wars1 but because the old ,east forwent all external self-determinations4 ,we must not be deluded by the appearance of brilliant military successes4 ,with a few ill-trained1 ill-led1 and sullen legions1 ,lucullus and ,pompey conquered whole realms--a phenomenon that in the period of the battle of ,ipsus would have been unthinkable4 ,the ,mithradatic danger1 serious enough for a system of material force which had never been put to any real test1 would have been nothing to the conquerors of ,hannibal4 ,after ,zama1 the ,romans never again either waged or were capable of waging a war against a great military ,power4#cb ,their classic wars were those against the ,samnites1 ,pyrrhus and ,carthage4 ,their grand hour was ,cann4 ,to maintain the heroic posture for centuries on end is beyond the power of any people4 ,the ,prussian- ,german people have had three great moments 7#ahac1 #ahgj and #aiad71 and that is more than others have had4 ,here1 then1 ,i lay it down that ,imperialism1 of which petrifacts such as the ,egyptian empire1 the ,roman1 the ,chinese1 the ,indian may continue to exist for hundreds or thousands of years--dead bodies1 amorphous and dispirited masses of men1 scrap-material from a great history--is to be taken as the typical symbol of the passing away4 ,imperialism is ,civilization unadulterated4 ,in this phenomenal form the destiny of the ,west is now irrevocably set4 ,the energy of culture-man is directed inwards1 that of civilization-man outwards4 ,and thus ,i see in ,cecil ,rhodes the first man of a new age4 ,he stands for the political style of a far-ranging1 ,western1 ,teutonic and especially ,german future1 and his phrase 8expansion is everything0 is the ,napoleonic reassertion of the indwelling tendency of every ,civilization that has fully ripened-- ,roman1 ,arab or ,chinese4 ,it is not a matter of choice--it is not the conscious will of individuals1 or even that of whole classes or peoples that decides4 ,the expansive tendency is a doom1 something daemonic and immense1 which grips1 forces into service1 and uses up the late mankind of the world-city stage1 willy-nilly1 aware or unaware4#cc ,life is the process of effecting possibilities1 and for the brain-man there are only extensive possibilities4#cd ,hard as the half-developed ,socialism of to-day is fighting against expansion1 one day it will become arch- expansionist with all the vehemence of destiny4 ,here the form-language of politics1 as the direct intellectual expression of a certain type of humanity1 touches on a deep metaphysical problem--on the fact1 affirmed in the grant of unconditional validity to the causality-principle1 that the soul is the complement of its extension4 ,when1 between #dhj and #bcj1ce the ,chinese group of states was tending towards imperialism1 it was entirely futile to combat the principle of ,imperialism 7,lien-heng71 practised in particular by the 8,roman0 state of ,tsin#cf and theoretically represented by the philosopher ,dschang ,yi1 by ideas of a ,league of ,nations 7,hoh-tsung7 largely derived from ,wang ,h1 a profound sceptic who had no illusions as to the men or the political possibilities of this 8late0 period4 ,both sides opposed the anti- political idealism of ,lao-tse1 but as between themselves it was ,lien- heng and not ,hoh-tsung which swam with the natural current of expansive ,civilization4#cg ,rhodes is to be regarded as the first precursor of a ,western type of ,csars1 whose day is to come though yet distant4 ,he stands midway between ,napoleon and the force-men of the next centuries1 just as ,flaminius1 who from #bcb ,b4,c4 onward pressed the ,romans to undertake the subjugation of ,cisalpine ,gaul and so initiated the policy of colonial expansion1 stands between ,alexander and ,csar4 ,strictly speaking1 ,flaminius was a private person--for his real power was of a kind not embodied in any constitutional office--who exercised a dominant influence in the state at a time when the state-idea was giving way to the pressure of economic factors4 ,so far as ,rome is concerned1 he was the archetype of opposition ,csarism2 with him there came to an end the idea of state-service and there began the 8will to power0 which ignored traditions and reckoned only with forces4 ,alexander and ,napoleon were romantics2 though they stood on the threshold of ,civilization and in its cold clear air1 the one fancied himself an ,achilles and the other read ,werther4 ,csar1 on the contrary1 was a pure man of fact gifted with immense understanding4 ,but even for ,rhodes political success means territorial and financial success1 and only that4 ,of this ,roman-ness within himself he was fully aware4 ,but ,western ,civilization has not yet taken shape in such strength and purity as this4 ,it was only before his maps that he could fall into a sort of poetic trance1 this son of the parsonage who1 sent out to ,south ,africa without means1 made a gigantic fortune and employed it as the engine of political aims4 ,his idea of a trans-,african railway from the ,cape to ,cairo1 his project of a ,south ,african empire1 his intellectual hold on the hard metal souls of the mining magnates whose wealth he forced into the service of his schemes1 his capital ,bulawayo1 royally planned as a future ,residence by a statesman who was all- powerful yet stood in no definite relation to the ,state1 his wars1 his diplomatic deals1 his road-systems1 his syndicates1 his armies1 his conception of the 8great duty to civilization0 of the man of brain--all this1 broad and imposing1 is the prelude of a future which is still in store for us and with which the history of ,west-,european mankind will be definitely closed4 ,he who does not understand that this outcome is obligatory and insusceptible of modification1 that our choice is between willing this and willing nothing at all1 between cleaving to this destiny or despairing of the future and of life itself2 he who cannot feel that there is grandeur also in the realizations of powerful intelligences1 in the energy and discipline of metal-hard natures1 in battles fought with the coldest and most abstract means2 he who is obsessed with the idealism of a provincial and would pursue the ways of life of past ages-- must forgo all desire to comprehend history1 to live through history or to make history4 ,thus regarded1 the ,imperium ,romanum appears no longer as an isolated phenomenon1 but as the normal product of a strict and energetic1 megalopolitan1 predominantly practical spirituality1 as typical of a final and irreversible condition which has occurred often enough though it has only been identified as such in this instance4 ,let it be realized1 then3 ,that the secret of historical form does not lie on the surface1 that it cannot be grasped by means of similarities of costume and setting1 and that in the history of men as in that of animals and plants there occur phenomena showing deceptive similarity but inwardly without any connexion--e4g41 ,charlemagne and ,haroun-al-,raschid1 ,alexander and ,csar1 the ,german wars upon ,rome and the ,mongol onslaughts upon ,west ,europe--and other phenomena of extreme outward dissimilarity but of identical import--e4g41 ,trajan and ,rameses ,,ii1 the ,bourbons and the ,attic ,demos1 ,mohammed and ,pythagoras4 ,that the #aith and #bjth centuries1 hitherto looked on as the highest point of an ascending straight line of world-history1 are in reality a stage of life which may be observed in every ,culture that has ripened to its limit--a stage of life characterized not by ,socialists1 ,impressionists1 electric railways1 torpedoes and differential equations 7for these are only body-constituents of the time71 but by a civilized spirituality which possesses not only these but also quite other creative possibilities4 ,that1 as our own time represents a transitional phase which occurs with certainty under particular conditions1 there are perfectly well-defined states 7such as have occurred more than once in the history of the past7 later than the present-day state of ,west ,europe1 and therefore that ,the future of the ,west is not a limitless tending upwards and onwards for all time towards our present ideals1 but a single phenomenon of history1 strictly limited and defined as to form and duration1 which covers a few centuries and can be viewed and1 in essentials1 calculated from available precedents4 ----- ,footnote #ca3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 #ebi4 ,footnote #cb3 ,the conquest of ,gaul by ,csar was frankly a colonial1 i4e41 a one- sided1 war2 and the fact that it is the highest achievement in the later military history of ,rome only shows that the well of real achievement was rapidly drying up4 ,footnote #cc3 ,the modern ,germans are a conspicuous example of a people that has become expansive without knowing it or willing it4 ,they were already in that state while they still believed themselves to be the people of ,goethe4 ,even ,bismarck1 the founder of the new age1 never had the slightest idea of it1 and believed himself to have reached the conclusion of a political process 7cf4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #ebi74 ,footnote #cd3 ,this is probably the meaning of ,napoleon's significant words to ,goethe3 8,what have we to-day to do with destiny8 ,policy is destiny40 ,footnote #ce3 ,corresponding to the #cjj-ej ,b4,c4 phase of the ,classical world4 ,footnote #cf3 ,which in the end gave its name to the ,empire 7,tsin ,china74 ,footnote #cg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 #eba-eci4 ----- ,,xiv ,this high plane of contemplation once attained1 the rest is easy4 ,to this single idea one can refer1 and by it one can solve1 without straining or forcing1 all those separate problems of religion1 art- history1 epistemology1 ethics1 politics1 economics with which the modern intellect has so passionately--and so vainly--busied itself for decades4 ,this idea is one of those truths that have only to be expressed with full clarity to become indisputable4 ,it is one of the inward necessities of the ,western ,culture and of its world-feeling4 ,it is capable of entirely transforming the world-outlook of one who fully understands it1 i4e41 makes it intimately his own4 ,it immensely deepens the world- picture natural and necessary to us in that1 already trained to regard world-historical evolution as an organic unit seen backwards from our standpoint in the present1 we are enabled by its aid to follow the broad lines into the future--a privilege of dream-calculation till now permitted only to the physicist4 ,it is1 ,i repeat1 in effect the substitution of a ,copernican for a ,ptolemaic aspect of history1 that is1 an immeasurable widening of horizon4 ,up to now everyone has been at liberty to hope what he pleased about the future4 ,where there are no facts1 sentiment rules4 ,but henceforward it will be every man's business to inform himself of what can happen and therefore of what with the unalterable necessity of destiny and irrespective of personal ideals1 hopes or desires1 will happen4 ,when we use the risky word 8freedom0 we shall mean freedom to do1 not this or that1 but the necessary or nothing4 ,the feeling that this is 8just as it should be0 is the hall-mark of the man of fact4 ,to lament it and blame it is not to alter it4 ,to birth belongs death1 to youth age1 to life generally its form and its allotted span4 ,the present is a civilized1 emphatically not a cultured time1 and ipso facto a great number of life-capacities fall out as impossible4 ,this may be deplorable1 and may be and will be deplored in pessimist philosophy and poetry1 but it is not in our power to make otherwise4 ,it will not be--already it is not-- permissible to defy clear historical experience and to expect1 merely because we hope1 that this will spring or that will flourish4 ,it will no doubt be objected that such a world-outlook1 which in giving this certainty as to the outlines and tendency of the future cuts off all far-reaching hopes1 would be unhealthy for all and fatal for many1 once it ceased to be a mere theory and was adopted as a practical scheme of life by the group of personalities effectively moulding the future4 ,such is not my opinion4 ,we are civilized1 not ,gothic or ,rococo1 people2 we have to reckon with the hard cold facts of a late life1 to which the parallel is to be found not in ,pericles's ,athens but in ,csar's ,rome4 ,of great painting or great music there can no longer be1 for ,western people1 any question4 ,their architectural possibilities have been exhausted these hundred years4 ,only extensive possibilities are left to them4 ,yet1 for a sound and vigorous generation that is filled with unlimited hopes1 ,i fail to see that it is any disadvantage to discover betimes that some of these hopes must come to nothing4 ,and if the hopes thus doomed should be those most dear1 well1 a man who is worth anything will not be dismayed4 ,it is true that the issue may be a tragic one for some individuals who in their decisive years are overpowered by the conviction that in the spheres of architecture1 drama1 painting1 there is nothing left for them to conquer4 ,what matter if they do go under6 ,it has been the convention hitherto to admit no limits of any sort in these matters1 and to believe that each period had its own task to do in each sphere4 ,tasks therefore were found by hook or by crook1 leaving it to be settled posthumously whether or not the artist's faith was justified and his life-work necessary4 ,now1 nobody but a pure romantic would take this way out4 ,such a pride is not the pride of a ,roman4 ,what are we to think of the individual who1 standing before an exhausted quarry1 would rather be told that a new vein will be struck to-morrow--the bait offered by the radically false and mannerized art of the moment--than be shown a rich and virgin clay- bed near by8 ,the lesson1 ,i think1 would be of benefit to the coming generations1 as showing them what is possible--and therefore necessary-- and what is excluded from the inward potentialities of their time4 ,hitherto an incredible total of intellect and power has been squandered in false directions4 ,the ,west-,european1 however historically he may think and feel1 is at a certain stage of life invariably uncertain of his own direction2 he gropes and feels his way and1 if unlucky in environment1 he loses it4 ,but now at last the work of centuries enables him to view the disposition of his own life in relation to the general culture-scheme and to test his own powers and purposes4 ,and ,i can only hope that men of the new generation may be moved by this book to devote themselves to technics instead of lyrics1 the sea instead of the paint- brush1 and politics instead of epistemology4 ,better they could not do4 ,,xv ,it still remains to consider the relation of a morphology of world- history to ,philosophy4 ,all genuine historical work is philosophy1 unless it is mere ant-industry4 ,but the operations of the systematic philosopher are subject to constant and serious error through his assuming the permanence of his results4 ,he overlooks the fact that every thought lives in a historical world and is therefore involved in the common destiny of mortality4 ,he supposes that higher thought possesses an everlasting and unalterable objectiveness 7,gegenstand71 that the great questions of all epochs are identical1 and that therefore they are capable in the last analysis of unique answers4 ,but question and answer are here one1 and the great questions are made great by the very fact that unequivocal answers to them are so passionately demanded1 so that it is as life-symbols only that they possess significance4 ,there are no eternal truths4 ,every philosophy is the expression of its own and only its own time1 and--if by philosophy we mean effective philosophy and not academic triflings about judgment- forms1 sense-categories and the like--no two ages possess the same philosophic intentions4 ,the difference is not between perishable and imperishable doctrines but between doctrines which live their day and doctrines which never live at all4 ,the immortality of thoughts-become is an illusion--the essential is1 what kind of man comes to expression in them4 ,the greater the man1 the truer the philosophy1 with the inward truth that in a great work of art transcends all proof of its several elements or even of their compatibility with one another4 ,at highest1 the philosophy may absorb the entire content of an epoch1 realize it within itself and then1 embodying it in some grand form or personality1 pass it on to be developed further and further4 ,the scientific dress or the mark of learning adopted by a philosophy is here unimportant4 ,nothing is simpler than to make good poverty of ideas by founding a system1 and even a good idea has little value when enunciated by a solemn ass4 ,only its necessity to life decides the eminence of a doctrine4 ,for me1 therefore1 the test of value to be applied to a thinker is his eye for the great facts of his own time4 ,only this can settle whether he is merely a clever architect of systems and principles1 versed in definitions and analyses1 or whether it is the very soul of his time that speaks in his works and his intuitions4 ,a philosopher who cannot grasp and command actuality as well will never be of the first rank4 ,the ,pre-,socratics were merchants and politicians en grand4 ,the desire to put his political ideas into practice in ,syracuse nearly cost ,plato his life1 and it was the same ,plato who discovered the set of geometrical theorems that enabled ,euclid to build up the ,classical system of mathematics4 ,pascal--whom ,nietzsche knows only as the 8broken ,christian0-- ,descartes1 ,leibniz were the first mathematicians and technicians of their time4 ,the great 8,pre-,socratics0 of ,china from ,kwan-tsi 7about #fgj7 to ,confucius 7#eej-dgh7 were statesmen1 regents1 lawgivers like ,pythagoras and ,parmenides1 like ,hobbes and ,leibniz4 ,with ,lao-tsze--the opponent of all state authority and high politics and the enthusiast of small peaceful communities--unworldliness and deed-shyness first appear1 heralds of lecture-room and study philosophy4 ,but ,lao-tsze was in his time1 the ancien rgime of ,china1 an exception in the midst of sturdy philosophers for whom epistemology meant the knowledge of the important relations of actual life4 ,and herein1 ,i think1 all the philosophers of the newest age are open to a serious criticism4 ,what they do not possess is real standing in actual life4 ,not one of them has intervened effectively1 either in higher politics1 in the development of modern technics1 in matters of communication1 in economics1 or in any other big actuality1 with a single act or a single compelling idea4 ,not one of them counts in mathematics1 in physics1 in the science of government1 even to the extent that ,kant counted4 ,let us glance at other times4 ,confucius was several times a minister4 ,pythagoras was the organizer of an important political movement#ch akin to the ,cromwellian1 the significance of which is even now far underestimated by ,classical researchers4 ,goethe1 besides being a model executive minister--though lacking1 alas6 the operative sphere of a great state--was interested in the ,suez and ,panama canals 7the dates of which he foresaw with accuracy7 and their effects on the economy of the world1 and he busied himself again and again with the question of ,american economic life and its reactions on the ,old ,world1 and with that of the dawning era of machine-industry4 ,hobbes was one of the originators of the great plan of winning ,south ,america for ,england1 and although in execution the plan went no further than the occupation of ,jamaica1 he has the glory of being one of the founders of the ,british ,colonial ,empire4 ,leibniz1 without doubt the greatest intellect in ,western philosophy1 the founder of the differential calculus and the analysis situs1 conceived or co-operated in a number of major political schemes1 one of which was to relieve ,germany by drawing the attention of ,louis ,,xiv to the importance of ,egypt as a factor in ,french world-policy4 ,the ideas of the memorandum on this subject that he drew up for the ,grand ,monarch were so far in advance of their time 7#afgb7 that it has been thought that ,napoleon made use of them for his ,eastern venture4 ,even thus early1 ,leibniz laid down the principle that ,napoleon grasped more and more clearly after ,wagram1 viz41 that acquisitions on the ,rhine and in ,belgium would not permanently better the position of ,france and that the neck of ,suez would one day be the key of world-dominance4 ,doubtless the ,king was not equal to these deep political and strategic conceptions of the ,philosopher4 ,turning from men of this mould to the 8philosophers0 of to-day1 one is dismayed and shamed4 ,how poor their personalities1 how commonplace their political and practical outlook6 ,why is it that the mere idea of calling upon one of them to prove his intellectual eminence in government1 diplomacy1 large-scale organization1 or direction of any big colonial1 commercial or transport concern is enough to evoke our pity8 ,and this insufficiency indicates1 not that they possess inwardness1 but simply that they lack weight4 ,i look round in vain for an instance in which a modern 8philosopher0 has made a name by even one deep or far-seeing pronouncement on an important question of the day4 ,i see nothing but provincial opinions of the same kind as anyone else's4 ,whenever ,i take up a work by a modern thinker1 ,i find myself asking3 has he any idea whatever of the actualities of world-politics1 world-city problems1 capitalism1 the future of the state1 the relation of technics to the course of civilization1 ,russia1 ,science8 ,goethe would have understood all this and revelled in it1 but there is not one living philosopher capable of taking it in4 ,this sense of actualities is of course not the same thing as the content of a philosophy but1 ,i repeat1 it is an infallible symptom of its inward necessity1 its fruitfulness and its symbolic importance4 ,we must allow ourselves no illusions as to the gravity of this negative result4 ,it is palpable that we have lost sight of the final significance of effective philosophy4 ,we confuse philosophy with preaching1 with agitation1 with novel-writing1 with lecture-room jargon4 ,we have descended from the perspective of the bird to that of the frog4 ,it has come to this1 that the very possibility of a real philosophy of to-day and to-morrow is in question4 ,if not1 it were far better to become a colonist or an engineer1 to do something1 no matter what1 that is true and real1 than to chew over once more the old dried-up themes under cover of an alleged 8new wave of philosophic thought0--far better to construct an aero-engine than a new theory of apperception that is not wanted4 ,truly it is a poor life's work to restate once more1 in slightly different terms1 views of a hundred predecessors on the ,will or on psycho-physical parallelism4 ,this may be a profession1 but a philosophy it emphatically is not4 ,a doctrine that does not attack and affect the life of the period in its inmost depths is no doctrine and had better not be taught4 ,and what was possible even yesterday is1 to-day1 at least not indispensable4 ,to me1 the depths and refinement of mathematical and physical theories are a joy2 by comparison1 the sthete and the physiologist are fumblers4 ,i would sooner have the fine mind-begotten forms of a fast steamer1 a steel structure1 a precision-lathe1 the subtlety and elegance of many chemical and optical processes1 than all the pickings and stealings of present-day 8arts and crafts10 architecture and painting included4 ,i prefer one ,roman aqueduct to all ,roman temples and statues4 ,i love the ,colosseum and the giant vault of the ,palatine1 for they display for me to-day in the brown massiveness of their brick construction the real ,rome and the grand practical sense of her engineers1 but it is a matter of indifference to me whether the empty and pretentious marblery of the ,csars--their rows of statuary1 their friezes1 their overloaded architraves--is preserved or not4 ,glance at some reconstruction of the ,imperial ,fora--do we not find them the true counterpart of a modern ,international ,exhibition1 obtrusive1 bulky1 empty1 a boasting in materials and dimensions wholly alien to ,periclean ,greece and the ,rococo alike1 but exactly paralleled in the ,egyptian modernism that is displayed in the ruins of ,rameses ,,ii 7#acjj ,b4,c47 at ,luxor and ,karnak8 ,it was not for nothing that the genuine ,roman despised the ,grculus histrio1 the kind of 8artist0 and the kind of 8philosopher0 to be found on the soil of ,roman ,civilization4 ,the time for art and philosophy had passed2 they were exhausted1 used up1 superfluous1 and his instinct for the realities of life told him so4 ,one ,roman law weighed more than all the lyrics and school-metaphysics of the time together4 ,and ,i maintain that to-day many an inventor1 many a diplomat1 many a financier is a sounder philosopher than all those who practise the dull craft of experimental psychology4 ,this is a situation which regularly repeats itself at a certain historical level4 ,it would have been absurd in a ,roman of intellectual eminence1 who might as ,consul or ,prtor lead armies1 organize provinces1 build cities and roads1 or even be the ,princeps in ,rome1 to want to hatch out some new variant of post-,platonic school philosophy at ,athens or ,rhodes4 ,consequently no one did so4 ,it was not in harmony with the tendency of the age1 and therefore it only attracted third-class men of the kind that always advances as far as the ,zeitgeist of the day before yesterday4 ,it is a very grave question whether this stage has or has not set in for us already4 ,a century of purely extensive effectiveness1 excluding big artistic and metaphysical production--let us say frankly an irreligious time which coincides exactly with the idea of the world-city--is a time of decline4 ,true4 ,but we have not chosen this time4 ,we cannot help it if we are born as men of the early winter of full ,civilization1 instead of on the golden summit of a ripe ,culture1 in a ,phidias or a ,mozart time4 ,everything depends on our seeing our own position1 our destiny1 clearly1 on our realizing that though we may lie to ourselves about it we cannot evade it4 ,he who does not acknowledge this in his heart1 ceases to be counted among the men of his generation1 and remains either a simpleton1 a charlatan1 or a pedant4 ,therefore1 in approaching a problem of the present1 one must begin by asking one's self--a question answered in advance by instinct in the case of the genuine adept--what to-day is possible and what he must forbid himself4 ,only a very few of the problems of metaphysics are1 so to say1 allocated for solution to any epoch of thought4 ,even thus soon1 a whole world separates ,nietzsche's time1 in which a last trace of romanticism was still operative1 from our own1 which has shed every vestige of it4 ,systematic philosophy closes with the end of the #ahth ,century4 ,kant put its utmost possibilities in forms both grand in themselves and--as a rule--final for the ,western soul4 ,he is followed1 as ,plato and ,aristotle were followed1 by a specifically megalopolitan philosophy that was not speculative but practical1 irreligious1 social-ethical4 ,this philosophy-- paralleled in the ,chinese civilization by the schools of the 8,epicurean0 ,yang-chu1 the 8,socialist0 ,mo-ti1 the 8,pessimist0 ,chuang-ts1 the 8,positivist0 ,mencius1 and in the ,classical by the ,cynics1 the ,cyrenaics1 the ,stoics and the ,epicureans--begins in the ,west with ,schopenhauer1 who is the first to make the ,will to life 78creative life-force07 the centre of gravity of his thought1 although the deeper tendency of his doctrine is obscured by his having1 under the influence of a great tradition1 maintained the obsolete distinctions of phenomena and things- in-themselves and suchlike4 ,it is the same creative will-to-life that was ,schopenhauer-wise denied in 8,tristan0 and ,darwin-wise asserted in 8,siegfried02 that was brilliantly and theatrically formulated by ,nietzsche in 8,zarathustra02 that led the ,hegelian ,marx to an economic and the ,malthusian ,darwin to a biological hypothesis which together have subtly transformed the world-outlook of the ,western megalopolis2 and that produced a homogeneous series of tragedy-conceptions extending from ,hebbel's 8,judith0 to ,ibsen's 8,epilogue40 ,it has embraced1 therefore1 all the possibilities of a true philosophy--and at the same time it has exhausted them4 ,systematic philosophy1 then1 lies immensely far behind us1 and ethical has been wound up4 ,but a third possibility1 corresponding to the ,classical ,scepticism1 still remains to the soul-world of the present- day ,west1 and it can be brought to light by the hitherto unknown methods of historical morphology4 ,that which is a possibility is a necessity4 ,the ,classical scepticism is ahistoric1 it doubts by denying outright4 ,but that of the ,west1 if it is an inward necessity1 a symbol of the autumn of our spirituality1 is obliged to be historical through and through4 ,its solutions are got by treating everything as relative1 as a historical phenomenon1 and its procedure is psychological4 ,whereas the ,sceptic philosophy arose within ,hellenism as the negation of philosophy-- declaring philosophy to be purposeless--we1 on the contrary1 regard the history of philosophy as1 in the last resort1 philosophy's gravest theme4 ,this is 8skepsis10 in the true sense1 for whereas the ,greek is led to renounce absolute standpoints by contempt for the intellectual past1 we are led to do so by comprehension of that past as an organism4 ,in this work it will be our task to sketch out this unphilosophical philosophy--the last that ,west ,europe will know4 ,scepticism is the expression of a pure ,civilization2 and it dissipates the world-picture of the ,culture that has gone before4 ,for us1 its success will lie in resolving all the older problems into one1 the genetic4 ,the conviction that what is also has become1 that the natural and cognizable is rooted in the historic1 that the ,world as the actual is founded on an ,ego as the potential actualized1 that the 8when0 and the 8how long0 hold as deep a secret as the 8what10 leads directly to the fact that everything1 whatever else it may be1 must at any rate be the expression of something living4 ,cognitions and judgments too are acts of living men4 ,the thinkers of the past conceived external actuality as produced by cognition and motiving ethical judgments1 but to the thought of the future they are above all expressions and symbols4 ,the ,morphology of world-history becomes inevitably a universal symbolism4 ,with that1 the claim of higher thought to possess general and eternal truths falls to the ground4 ,truths are truths only in relation to a particular mankind4 ,thus1 my own philosophy is able to express and reflect only the ,western 7as distinct from the ,classical1 ,indian1 or other7 soul1 and that soul only in its present civilized phase by which its conception of the world1 its practical range and its sphere of effect are specified4 ----- ,footnote #ch3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 #cgc ff4 ----- ,,xvi ,in concluding this ,introduction1 ,i may be permitted to add a personal note4 ,in #aiaa1 ,i proposed to myself to put together some broad considerations on the political phenomena of the day and their possible developments4 ,at that time the ,world-,war appeared to me both as imminent and also as the inevitable outward manifestation of the historical crisis1 and my endeavour was to comprehend it from an examination of the spirit of the preceding centuries--not years4 ,in the course of this originally small task1#ci the conviction forced itself on me that for an effective understanding of the epoch the area to be taken into the foundation-plan must be very greatly enlarged1 and that in an investigation of this sort1 if the results were to be fundamentally conclusive and necessary results1 it was impossible to restrict one's self to a single epoch and its political actualities1 or to confine one's self to a pragmatical framework1 or even to do without purely metaphysical and highly transcendental methods of treatment4 ,it became evident that a political problem could not be comprehended by means of politics themselves and that1 frequently1 important factors at work in the depths could only be grasped through their artistic manifestations or even distantly seen in the form of scientific or purely philosophical ideas4 ,even the politico-social analysis of the last decades of the #aith century--a period of tense quiet between two immense and outstanding events3 the one which1 expressed in the ,revolution and ,napoleon1 had fixed the picture of ,west-,european actuality for a century and another of at least equal significance that was visibly and ever more rapidly approaching--was found in the last resort to be impossible without bringing in all the great problems of ,being in all their aspects4 ,for1 in the historical as in the natural world-picture1 there is found nothing1 however small1 that does not embody in itself the entire sum of fundamental tendencies4 ,and thus the original theme came to be immensely widened4 ,a vast number of unexpected 7and in the main entirely novel7 questions and interrelations presented themselves4 ,and finally it became perfectly clear that no single fragment of history could be thoroughly illuminated unless and until the secret of world-history itself1 to wit the story of higher mankind as an organism of regular structure1 had been cleared up4 ,and hitherto this has not been done1 even in the least degree4 ,from this moment on1 relations and connexions--previously often suspected1 sometimes touched on but never comprehended--presented themselves in ever-increasing volume4 ,the forms of the arts linked themselves to the forms of war and state-policy4 ,deep relations were revealed between political and mathematical aspects of the same ,culture1 between religious and technical conceptions1 between mathematics1 music and sculpture1 between economics and cognition-forms4 ,clearly and unmistakably there appeared the fundamental dependence of the most modern physical and chemical theories on the mythological concepts of our ,germanic ancestors1 the style-congruence of tragedy and power- technics and up-to-date finance1 and the fact 7bizarre at first but soon self-evident7 that oil-painting perspective1 printing1 the credit system1 longrange weapons1 and contrapuntal music in one case1 and the nude statue1 the city-state and coin-currency 7discovered by the ,greeks7 in another were identical expressions of one and the same spiritual principle4 ,and1 beyond and above all1 there stood out the fact that these great groups of morphological relations1 each one of which symbolically represents a particular sort of mankind in the whole picture of world-history1 are strictly symmetrical in structure4 ,it is this perspective that first opens out for us the true style of history4 ,belonging itself as symbol and expression to one time and therefore inwardly possible and necessary only for present-day ,western man1 it can but be compared--distantly--to certain ideas of ultra-modern mathematics in the domain of the ,theory of ,groups4 ,these were thoughts that had occupied me for many years1 though dark and undefined until enabled by this method to emerge in tangible form4 ,thereafter ,i saw the present--the approaching ,world-,war--in a quite other light4 ,it was no longer a momentary constellation of casual facts due to national sentiments1 personal influences1 or economic tendencies endowed with an appearance of unity and necessity by some historian's scheme of political or social cause-and-effect1 but the type of a historical change of phase occurring within a great historical organism of definable compass at the point preordained for it hundreds of years ago4 ,the mark of the great crisis is its innumerable passionate questionings and probings4 ,in our own case there were books and ideas by the thousand2 but1 scattered1 disconnected1 limited by the horizons of specialisms as they were1 they incited1 depressed and confounded but could not free4 ,hence1 though these questions are seen1 their identity is missed4 ,consider those art-problems that 7though never comprehended in their depths7 were evinced in the disputes between form and content1 line and space1 drawing and colour1 in the notion of style1 in the idea of ,impressionism and the music of ,wagner4 ,consider the decline of art and the failing authority of science2 the grave problems arising out of the victory of the megalopolis over the country-side1 such as childlessness and land-depopulation2 the place in society of a fluctuating ,fourth ,estate2 the crisis in materialism1 in ,socialism1 in parliamentary government2 the position of the individual vis--vis the ,state2 the problem of private property with its pendant the problem of marriage4 ,consider at the same time one fact taken from what is apparently an entirely different field1 the voluminous work that was being done in the domain of folk-psychology on the origins of myths1 arts1 religions and thought--and done1 moreover1 no longer from an ideal but from a strictly morphological standpoint4 ,it is my belief that every one of these questions was really aimed in the same direction as every other1 viz41 towards that one ,riddle of ,history that had never yet emerged with sufficient distinctness in the human consciousness4 ,the tasks before men were not1 as supposed1 infinitely numerous--they were one and the same task4 ,everyone had an inkling that this was so1 but no one from his own narrow standpoint had seen the single and comprehensive solution4 ,and yet it had been in the air since ,nietzsche1 and ,nietzsche himself had gripped all the decisive problems although1 being a romantic1 he had not dared to look strict reality in the face4 ,but herein precisely lies the inward necessity of the stock-taking doctrine1 so to call it4 ,it had to come1 and it could only come at this time4 ,our scepticism is not an attack upon1 but rather the verification of1 our stock of thoughts and works4 ,it confirms all that has been sought and achieved for generations past1 in that it integrates all the truly living tendencies which it finds in the special spheres1 no matter what their aim may be4 ,above all1 there discovered itself the opposition of ,history and ,nature through which alone it is possible to grasp the essence of the former4 ,as ,i have already said1 man as an element and representative of the ,world is a member1 not only of nature1 but also of history--which is a second ,cosmos different in structure and complexion1 entirely neglected by ,metaphysics in favour of the first4 ,i was originally brought to reflect on this fundamental question of our world- consciousness through noticing how present-day historians as they fumble round tangible events1 things-become1 believe themselves to have already grasped ,history1 the happening1 the becoming itself4 ,this is a prejudice common to all who proceed by reason and cognition1 as against intuitive perception4#dj ,and it had long ago been a source of perplexity to the great ,eleatics with their doctrine that through cognition there could be no becoming1 but only a being 7or having-become74 ,in other words1 ,history was seen as ,nature 7in the objective sense of the physicist7 and treated accordingly1 and it is to this that we must ascribe the baneful mistake of applying the principles of causality1 of law1 of system--that is1 the structure of rigid being--to the picture of happenings4 ,it was assumed that a human culture existed just as electricity or gravitation existed1 and that it was capable of analysis in much the same way as these4 ,the habits of the scientific researcher were eagerly taken as a model1 and if1 from time to time1 some student asked what ,gothic1 or ,islam1 or the ,polis was1 no one inquired why such symbols of something living inevitably appeared just then1 and there1 in that form1 and for that space of time4 ,historians were content1 whenever they met one of the innumerable similarities between widely discrete historical phenomena1 simply to register it1 adding some clever remarks as to the marvels of coincidence1 dubbing ,rhodes the 8,venice of ,antiquity0 and ,napoleon the 8modern ,alexander10 or the like2 yet it was just these cases1 in which the destiny-problem came to the fore as the true problem of history 7viz41 the problem of time71 that needed to be treated with all possible seriousness and scientifically regulated physiognomic in order to find out what strangely-constituted necessity1 so completely alien to the causal1 was at work4 ,that every phenomenon ipso facto propounds a metaphysical riddle1 that the time of its occurrence is never irrelevant2 that it still remained to be discovered what kind of a living interdependence 7apart from the inorganic1 natural-law interdependence7 subsists within the world- picture1 which radiates from nothing less than the whole man and not merely 7as ,kant thought7 from the cognizing part of him2 that a phenomenon is not only a fact for the understanding but also an expression of the spiritual1 not only an object but a symbol as well1 be it one of the highest creations of religion or art or a mere trifle of everyday life--all this was1 philosophically1 something new4 ,and thus in the end ,i came to see the solution clearly before me in immense outlines1 possessed of full inward necessity1 a solution derived from one single principle that though discoverable had never been discovered1 that from my youth had haunted and attracted me1 tormenting me with the sense that it was there and must be attacked and yet defying me to seize it4 ,thus1 from an almost accidental occasion of beginning1 there has arisen the present work1 which is put forward as the provisional expression of a new world-picture4 ,the book is laden1 as ,i know1 with all the defects of a first attempt1 incomplete1 and certainly not free from inconsistencies4 ,nevertheless ,i am convinced that it contains the incontrovertible formulation of an idea which1 once enunciated clearly1 will 7,i repeat7 be accepted without dispute4 ,if1 then1 the narrower theme is an analysis of the ,decline of that ,west- ,european ,culture which is now spread over the entire globe1 yet the object in view is the development of a philosophy and of the operative method peculiar to it1 which is now to be tried1 viz41 the method of comparative morphology in world-history4 ,the work falls naturally into two parts4 ,the first1 8,form and ,actuality10 starts from the form- language of the great ,cultures1 attempts to penetrate to the deepest roots of their origin and so provides itself with the basis for a science of ,symbolic4 ,the second part1 8,world-historical ,perspectives10 starts from the facts of actual life1 and from the historical practice of higher mankind seeks to obtain a quintessence of historical experience that we can set to work upon the formation of our own future4 ,the accompanying tables#da present a general view of what has resulted from the investigation4 ,they may at the same time give some notion both of the fruitfulness and of the scope of the new methods4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,numbers ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,numbers ,it is necessary to begin by drawing attention to certain basic terms which1 as used in this work1 carry strict and in some cases novel connotations4 ,though the metaphysical content of these terms would gradually become evident in following the course of the reasoning1 nevertheless1 the exact significance to be attached to them ought to be made clear beyond misunderstanding from the very outset4 ,the popular distinction--current also in philosophy--between 8being0 and 8becoming0 seems to miss the essential point in the contrast it is meant to express4 ,an endless becoming--8action10 8actuality0--will always be thought of also as a condition 7as it is1 for example1 in physical notions such as uniform velocity and the condition of motion1 and in the basic hypothesis of the kinetic theory of gases7 and therefore ranked in the category of 8being40 ,on the other hand1 out of the results that we do in fact obtain by and in consciousness1 we may1 with ,goethe1 distinguish as final elements 8becoming0 and 8the become0 7,das ,werden1 das ,gewordne74 ,in all cases1 though the atom of human-ness may lie beyond the grasp of our powers of abstract conception1 the very clear and definite feeling of this contrast--fundamental and diffused throughout consciousness--is the most elemental something that we reach4 ,it necessarily follows therefore that 8the become0 is always founded on a 8becoming0 and not the other way round4 ,i distinguish further1 by the words 8proper0 and 8alien0 7das ,eigne1 das ,fremde71 those two basic facts of consciousness which for all men in the waking 7not in the dreaming7 state are established with an immediate inward certainty1 without the necessity or possibility of more precise definition4 ,the element called 8alien0 is always related in some way to the basic fact expressed by the word 8perception10 i4e41 the outer world1 the life of sensation4 ,great thinkers have bent all their powers of image-forming to the task of expressing this relation1 more and more rigorously1 by the aid of half-intuitive dichotomies such as 8phenomena and things-in-themselves10 8world-as-will and world-as-idea10 8ego and non-ego10 although human powers of exact knowing are surely inadequate for the task4 ,similarly1 the element 8proper0 is involved with the basic fact known as feeling1 i4e41 the inner life1 in some intimate and invariable way that equally defies analysis by the methods of abstract thought4 ,i distinguish1 again1 8soul0 and 8world40 ,the existence of this opposition is identical with the fact of purely human waking consciousness 7,wachsein74 ,there are degrees of clearness and sharpness in the opposition and therefore grades of the consciousness1 of the spirituality1 of life4 ,these grades range from the feeling-knowledge that1 unalert yet sometimes suffused through and through by an inward light1 is characteristic of the primitive and of the child 7and also of those moments of religious and artistic inspiration that occur ever less and less often as a ,culture grows older7 right to the extremity of waking and reasoning sharpness that we find1 for instance1 in the thought of ,kant and ,napoleon1 for whom soul and world have become subject and object4 ,this elementary structure of consciousness1 as a fact of immediate inner knowledge1 is not susceptible of conceptual subdivision4 ,nor1 indeed1 are the two factors distinguishable at all except verbally and more or less artificially1 since they are always associated1 always intertwined1 and present themselves as a unit1 a totality4 ,the epistemological starting-point of the born idealist and the born realist alike1 the assumption that soul is to world 7or world to soul1 as the case may be7 as foundation is to building1 as primary to derivative1 as 8cause0 to 8effect10 has no basis whatever in the pure fact of consciousness1 and when a philosophic system lays stress on the one or the other1 it only thereby informs us as to the personality of the philosopher1 a fact of purely biographical significance4 ,thus1 by regarding waking-consciousness structurally as a tension of contraries1 and applying to it the notions of 8becoming0 and 8the thing- become10 we find for the word ,life a perfectly definite meaning that is closely allied to that of 8becoming40 ,we may describe becomings and the things-become as the form in which respectively the facts and the results of life exist in the waking consciousness4 ,to man in the waking state his proper life1 progressive and constantly self-fulfilling1 is presented through the element of ,becoming in his consciousness--this fact we call 8the present0--and it possesses that mysterious property of ,direction which in all the higher languages men have sought to impound and--vainly--to rationalize by means of the enigmatic word time4 ,it follows necessarily from the above that there is a fundamental connexion between the become 7the hard-set7 and ,death4 ,if1 now1 we designate the ,soul--that is1 the ,soul as it is felt1 not as it is reasonably pictured--as the possible and the ,world on the other hand as the actual 7the meaning of these expressions is unmistakable to man's inner sense71 we see life as the form in which the actualizing of the possible is accomplished4 ,with respect to the property of ,direction1 the possible is called the ,future and the actualized the ,past4 ,the actualizing itself1 the centre-of-gravity and the centre-of- meaning of life1 we call the ,present4 8,soul0 is the still-to-be- accomplished1 8,world0 the accomplished1 8life0 the accomplishing4 ,in this way we are enabled to assign to expressions like moment1 duration1 development1 life-content1 vocation1 scope1 aim1 fullness and emptiness of life1 the definite meanings which we shall need for all that follows and especially for the understanding of historical phenomena4 ,lastly1 the words ,history and ,nature are here employed1 as the reader will have observed already1 in a quite definite and hitherto unusual sense4 ,these words comprise possible modes of understanding1 of comprehending the totality of knowledge--becoming as well as things- become1 life as well as things-lived--as a homogeneous1 spiritualized1 well-ordered world-picture fashioned out of an indivisible mass- impression in this way or in that according as the becoming or the become1 direction 78time07 or extension 78space07 is the dominant factor4 ,and it is not a question of one factor being alternative to the other4 ,the possibilities that we have of possessing an 8outer world0 that reflects and attests our proper existence are infinitely numerous and exceedingly heterogeneous1 and the purely organic and the purely mechanical world-view 7in the precise literal sense of that familiar term#db7 are only the extreme members of the series4 ,primitive man 7so far as we can imagine his waking-consciousness7 and the child 7as we can remember7 cannot fully see or grasp these possibilities4 ,one condition of this higher world-consciousness is the possession of language1 meaning thereby not mere human utterance but a culture-language1 and such is non-existent for primitive man and existent but not accessible in the case of the child4 ,in other words1 neither possesses any clear and distinct notion of the world4 ,they have an inkling but no real knowledge of history and nature1 being too intimately incorporated with the ensemble of these4 ,they have no ,culture4 ,and therewith that important word is given a positive meaning of the highest significance which henceforward will be assumed in using it4 ,in the same way as we have elected to distinguish the ,soul as the possible and the ,world as the actual1 we can now differentiate between possible and actual culture1 i4e41 culture as an idea in the 7general or individual7 existence and culture as the body of that idea1 as the total of its visible1 tangible and comprehensible expressions--acts and opinions1 religion and state1 arts and sciences1 peoples and cities1 economic and social forms1 speech1 laws1 customs1 characters1 facial lines and costumes4 ,higher history1 intimately related to life and to becoming1 is the actualizing of possible ,culture4#dc ,we must not omit to add that these basic determinations of meaning are largely incommunicable by specification1 definition or proof1 and in their deeper import must be reached by feeling1 experience and intuition4 ,there is a distinction1 rarely appreciated as it should be1 between experience as lived and experience as learned 7zwischen ,erleben und ,erkennen71 between the immediate certainty given by the various kinds of intuition--such as illumination1 inspiration1 artistic flair1 experience of life1 the power of 8sizing men up0 7,goethe's 8exact percipient fancy07--and the product of rational procedure and technical experiment4 ,the first are imparted by means of analogy1 picture1 symbol1 the second by formula1 law1 scheme4 ,the become is experienced by learning--indeed1 as we shall see1 the having-become is for the human mind identical with the completed act of cognition4 ,a becoming1 on the other hand1 can only be experienced by living1 felt with a deep wordless understanding4 ,it is on this that what we call 8knowledge of men0 is based2 in fact the understanding of history implies a superlative knowledge of men4 ,the eye which can see into the depths of an alien soul--owes nothing to the cognition-methods investigated in the 8,critique of ,pure ,reason10 yet the purer the historical picture is1 the less accessible it becomes to any other eye4 ,the mechanism of a pure nature-picture1 such as the world of ,newton and ,kant1 is cognized1 grasped1 dissected in laws and equations and finally reduced to system3 the organism of a pure history-picture1 like the world of ,plotinus1 ,dante and ,giordano ,bruno1 is intuitively seen1 inwardly experienced1 grasped as a form or symbol and finally rendered in poetical and artistic conceptions4 ,goethe's 8living nature0 is a historical world-picture4#dd ----- ,footnote #ci3 ,the work referred to is embodied in ,vol4 ,,ii 7pp4 #eba et seq41 #efb et seq41 #fca et seq474 ,footnote #dj3 ,the philosophy of this book ,i owe to the philosophy of ,goethe1 which is practically unknown to-day1 and also 7but in a far less degree7 to that of ,nietzsche4 ,the position of ,goethe in ,west-,european metaphysics is still not understood in the least2 when philosophy is being discussed he is not even named4 ,for unfortunately he did not set down his doctrines in a rigid system1 and so the systematic philosophy has overlooked him4 ,nevertheless he was a philosopher4 ,his place vis-- vis ,kant is the same as that of ,plato--who similarly eludes the would- be-systematizer--vis--vis ,aristotle4 ,plato and ,goethe stand for the philosophy of ,becoming1 ,aristotle and ,kant the philosophy of ,being4 ,here we have intuition opposed to analysis4 ,something that it is practically impossible to convey by the methods of reason is found in individual sayings and poems of ,goethe1 e4g41 in the ,orphische ,urworte1 and stanzas like 8,wenn im ,unendlichen0 and 8,sagt es ,niemand10 which must be regarded as the expression of a perfectly definite metaphysical doctrine4 ,i would not have one single word changed in this3 ,the ,godhead is effective in the living and not in the dead1 in the becoming and the changing1 not in the become and the set-fast2 and therefore1 similarly1 the reason 7,vernunft7 is concerned only to strive towards the divine through the becoming and the living1 and the understanding 7,verstand7 only to make use of the become and the set- fast 7to ,eckermann74 ,this sentence comprises my entire philosophy4 ,footnote #da3 ,at the end of the volume4 ,footnote #db3 ,weltanschauung im wrtlichen ,sinne2 ,anschauung der ,welt4 ,footnote #dc3 ,the case of mankind in the historyless state is discussed in ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #eh et seq4 ,footnote #dd3 ,with1 moreover1 a 8biological horizon40 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cd4 ----- ,,ii ,in order to exemplify the way in which a soul seeks to actualize itself in the picture of its outer world--to show1 that is1 in how far ,culture in the 8become0 state can express or portray an idea of human existence-- ,i have chosen number1 the primary element on which all mathematics rests4 ,i have done so because mathematics1 accessible in its full depth only to the very few1 holds a quite peculiar position amongst the creations of the mind4 ,it is a science of the most rigorous kind1 like logic but more comprehensive and very much fuller2 it is a true art1 along with sculpture and music1 as needing the guidance of inspiration and as developing under great conventions of form2 it is1 lastly1 a metaphysic of the highest rank1 as ,plato and above all ,leibniz show us4 ,every philosophy has hitherto grown up in conjunction with a mathematic belonging to it4 ,number is the symbol of causal necessity4 ,like the conception of ,god1 it contains the ultimate meaning of the world-as- nature4 ,the existence of numbers may therefore be called a mystery1 and the religious thought of every ,culture has felt their impress4#de ,just as all becoming possesses the original property of direction 7irreversibility71 all things-become possess the property of extension4 ,but these two words seem unsatisfactory in that only an artificial distinction can be made between them4 ,the real secret of all things-become1 which are ipso facto things extended 7spatially and materially71 is embodied in mathematical number as contrasted with chronological number4 ,mathematical number contains in its very essence the notion of a mechanical demarcation1 number being in that respect akin to word1 which1 in the very fact of its comprising and denoting1 fences off world-impressions4 ,the deepest depths1 it is true1 are here both incomprehensible and inexpressible4 ,but the actual number with which the mathematician works1 the figure1 formula1 sign1 diagram1 in short the number-sign which he thinks1 speaks or writes exactly1 is 7like the exactly-used word7 from the first a symbol of these depths1 something imaginable1 communicable1 comprehensible to the inner and the outer eye1 which can be accepted as representing the demarcation4 ,the origin of numbers resembles that of the myth4 ,primitive man elevates indefinable nature-impressions 7the 8alien10 in our terminology7 into deities1 numina1 at the same time capturing and impounding them by a name which limits them4 ,so also numbers are something that marks off and captures nature-impressions1 and it is by means of names and numbers that the human understanding obtains power over the world4 ,in the last analysis1 the number-language of a mathematic and the grammar of a tongue are structurally alike4 ,logic is always a kind of mathematic and vice versa4 ,consequently1 in all acts of the intellect germane to mathematical number--measuring1 counting1 drawing1 weighing1 arranging and dividing#df--men strive to delimit the extended in words as well1 i4e41 to set it forth in the form of proofs1 conclusions1 theorems and systems2 and it is only through acts of this kind 7which may be more or less unintentioned7 that waking man begins to be able to use numbers1 normatively1 to specify objects and properties1 relations and differenti1 unities and pluralities--briefly1 that structure of the world-picture which he feels as necessary and unshakable1 calls 8,nature0 and 8cognizes40 ,nature is the numerable1 while ,history1 on the other hand1 is the aggregate of that which has no relation to mathematics-- hence the mathematical certainty of the laws of ,nature1 the astounding rightness of ,galileo's saying that ,nature is 8written in mathematical language10 and the fact1 emphasized by ,kant1 that exact natural science reaches just as far as the possibilities of applied mathematics allow it to reach4 ,in number1 then1 as the sign of completed demarcation1 lies the essence of everything actual1 which is cognized1 is delimited1 and has become all at once--as ,pythagoras and certain others have been able to see with complete inward certitude by a mighty and truly religious intuition4 ,nevertheless1 mathematics--meaning thereby the capacity to think practically in figures--must not be confused with the far narrower scientific mathematics1 that is1 the theory of numbers as developed in lecture and treatise4 ,the mathematical vision and thought that a ,culture possesses within itself is as inadequately represented by its written mathematic as its philosophical vision and thought by its philosophical treatises4 ,number springs from a source that has also quite other outlets4 ,thus at the beginning of every ,culture we find an archaic style1 which might fairly have been called geometrical in other cases as well as the ,early ,hellenic4 ,there is a common factor which is expressly mathematical in this early ,classical style of the #ajth ,century ,b4,c41 in the temple style of the ,egyptian ,fourth ,dynasty with its absolutism of straight line and right angle1 in the ,early ,christian sarcophagus- relief1 and in ,romanesque construction and ornament4 ,here every line1 every deliberately non-imitative figure of man and beast1 reveals a mystic number-thought in direct connexion with the mystery of death 7the hard-set74 ,gothic cathedrals and ,doric temples are mathematics in stone4 ,doubtless ,pythagoras was the first in the ,classical ,culture to conceive number scientifically as the principle of a world-order of comprehensible things--as standard and as magnitude--but even before him it had found expression1 as a noble arraying of sensuous-material units1 in the strict canon of the statue and the ,doric order of columns4 ,the great arts are1 one and all1 modes of interpretation by means of limits based on number 7consider1 for example1 the problem of space- representation in oil painting74 ,a high mathematical endowment may1 without any mathematical science whatsoever1 come to fruition and full self-knowledge in technical spheres4 ,in the presence of so powerful a number-sense as that evidenced1 even in the ,old ,kingdom1#dg in the dimensioning of pyramid temples and in the technique of building1 water-control and public administration 7not to mention the calendar71 no one surely would maintain that the valueless arithmetic of ,ahmes belonging to the ,new ,empire represents the level of ,egyptian mathematics4 ,the ,australian natives1 who rank intellectually as thorough primitives1 possess a mathematical instinct 7or1 what comes to the same thing1 a power of thinking in numbers which is not yet communicable by signs or words7 that as regards the interpretation of pure space is far superior to that of the ,greeks4 ,their discovery of the boomerang can only be attributed to their having a sure feeling for numbers of a class that we should refer to the higher geometry4 ,accordingly--we shall justify the adverb later--they possess an extraordinarily complicated ceremonial and1 for expressing degrees of affinity1 such fine shades of language as not even the higher ,cultures themselves can show4 ,there is analogy1 again1 between the ,euclidean mathematic and the absence1 in the ,greek of the mature ,periclean age1 of any feeling either for ceremonial public life or for loneliness1 while the ,baroque1 differing sharply from the ,classical1 presents us with a mathematic of spatial analysis1 a court of ,versailles and a state system resting on dynastic relations4 ,it is the style of a ,soul that comes out in the world of numbers1 and the world of numbers includes something more than the science thereof4 ----- ,footnote #de3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cbg et seq4 ,footnote #df3 ,also 8thinking in money40 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #fjc et seq4 ,footnote #dg3 ,dynasties ,i-,,viii1 or1 effectively1 ,i-,,vi4 ,the ,pyramid period coincides with ,dynasties ,,iv-,,vi4 ,cheops1 ,chephren and ,mycerinus belong to the ,,iv dynasty1 under which also great water-control works were carried out between ,abydos and the ,fayum4--,tr4 ----- ,,iii ,from this there follows a fact of decisive importance which has hitherto been hidden from the mathematicians themselves4 ,there is not1 and cannot be1 number as such4 ,there are several number- worlds as there are several ,cultures4 ,we find an ,indian1 an ,arabian1 a ,classical1 a ,western type of mathematical thought and1 corresponding with each1 a type of number--each type fundamentally peculiar and unique1 an expression of a specific world-feeling1 a symbol having a specific validity which is even capable of scientific definition1 a principle of ordering the ,become which reflects the central essence of one and only one soul1 viz41 the soul of that particular ,culture4 ,consequently1 there are more mathematics than one4 ,for indubitably the inner structure of the ,euclidean geometry is something quite different from that of the ,cartesian1 the analysis of ,archimedes is something other than the analysis of ,gauss1 and not merely in matters of form1 intuition and method but above all in essence1 in the intrinsic and obligatory meaning of number which they respectively develop and set forth4 ,this number1 the horizon within which it has been able to make phenomena self- explanatory1 and therefore the whole of the 8nature0 or world-extended that is confined in the given limits and amenable to its particular sort of mathematic1 are not common to all mankind1 but specific in each case to one definite sort of mankind4 ,the style of any mathematic which comes into being1 then1 depends wholly on the ,culture in which it is rooted1 the sort of mankind it is that ponders it4 ,the soul can bring its inherent possibilities to scientific development1 can manage them practically1 can attain the highest levels in its treatment of them--but is quite impotent to alter them4 ,the idea of the ,euclidean geometry is actualized in the earliest forms of ,classical ornament1 and that of the ,infinitesimal ,calculus in the earliest forms of ,gothic architecture1 centuries before the first learned mathematicians of the respective ,cultures were born4 ,a deep inward experience1 the genuine awakening of the ego1 which turns the child into the higher man and initiates him into community of his ,culture1 marks the beginning of number-sense as it does that of language-sense4 ,it is only after this that objects come to exist for the waking consciousness as things limitable and distinguishable as to number and kind2 only after this that properties1 concepts1 causal necessity1 system in the world-around1 a form of the world1 and world laws 7for that which is set and settled is ipso facto bounded1 hardened1 number-governed7 are susceptible of exact definition4 ,and therewith comes too a sudden1 almost metaphysical1 feeling of anxiety and awe regarding the deeper meaning of measuring and counting1 drawing and form4 ,now1 ,kant has classified the sum of human knowledge according to syntheses a priori 7necessary and universally valid7 and a posteriori 7experiential and variable from case to case7 and in the former class has included mathematical knowledge4 ,thereby1 doubtless1 he was enabled to reduce a strong inward feeling to abstract form4 ,but1 quite apart from the fact 7amply evidenced in modern mathematics and mechanics7 that there is no such sharp distinction between the two as is originally and unconditionally implied in the principle1 the a priori itself1 though certainly one of the most inspired conceptions of philosophy1 is a notion that seems to involve enormous difficulties4 ,with it ,kant postulates--without attempting to prove what is quite incapable of proof--both unalterableness of form in all intellectual activity and identity of form for all men in the same4 ,and1 in consequence1 a factor of incalculable importance is--thanks to the intellectual prepossessions of his period1 not to mention his own--simply ignored4 ,this factor is the varying degree of this alleged 8universal validity40 ,there are doubtless certain characters of very wide-ranging validity which are 7seemingly at any rate7 independent of the ,culture and century to which the cognizing individual may belong1 but along with these there is a quite particular necessity of form which underlies all his thought as axiomatic and to which he is subject by virtue of belonging to his own ,culture and no other4 ,here1 then1 we have two very different kinds of a priori thought-content1 and the definition of a frontier between them1 or even the demonstration that such exists1 is a problem that lies beyond all possibilities of knowing and will never be solved4 ,so far1 no one has dared to assume that the supposed constant structure of the intellect is an illusion and that the history spread out before us contains more than one style of knowing4 ,but we must not forget that unanimity about things that have not yet become problems may just as well imply universal error as universal truth4 ,true1 there has always been a certain sense of doubt and obscurity--so much so1 that the correct guess might have been made from that non-agreement of the philosophers which every glance at the history of philosophy shows us4 ,but that this non-agreement is not due to imperfections of the human intellect or present gaps in a perfectible knowledge1 in a word1 is not due to defect1 but to destiny and historical necessity--this is a discovery4 ,conclusions on the deep and final things are to be reached not by predicating constants but by studying differenti and developing the organic logic of differences4 ,the comparative morphology of knowledge forms is a domain which ,western thought has still to attack4 ,,iv ,if mathematics were a mere science like astronomy or mineralogy1 it would be possible to define their object4 ,this man is not and never has been able to do4 ,we ,west-,europeans may put our own scientific notion of number to perform the same tasks as those with which the mathematicians of ,athens and ,baghdad busied themselves1 but the fact remains that the theme1 the intention and the methods of the like-named science in ,athens and in ,baghdad were quite different from those of our own4 ,there is no mathematic but only mathematics4 ,what we call 8the history of mathematics0--implying merely the progressive actualizing of a single invariable ideal--is in fact1 below the deceptive surface of history1 a complex of self-contained and independent developments1 an ever-repeated process of bringing to birth new form-worlds and appropriating1 transforming and sloughing alien form-worlds1 a purely organic story of blossoming1 ripening1 wilting and dying within the set period4 ,the student must not let himself be deceived4 ,the mathematic of the ,classical soul sprouted almost out of nothingness1 the historically- constituted ,western soul1 already possessing the ,classical science 7not inwardly1 but outwardly as a thing learnt71 had to win its own by apparently altering and perfecting1 but in reality destroying the essentially alien ,euclidean system4 ,in the first case1 the agent was ,pythagoras1 in the second ,descartes4 ,in both cases the act is1 at bottom1 the same4 ,the relationship between the form-language of a mathematic and that of the cognate major arts1#dh is in this way put beyond doubt4 ,the temperament of the thinker and that of the artist differ widely indeed1 but the expression-methods of the waking consciousness are inwardly the same for each4 ,the sense of form of the sculptor1 the painter1 the composer is essentially mathematical in its nature4 ,the same inspired ordering of an infinite world which manifested itself in the geometrical analysis and projective geometry of the #agth ,century1 could vivify1 energize1 and suffuse contemporary music with the harmony that it developed out of the art of thoroughbass1 7which is the geometry of the sound-world7 and contemporary painting with the principle of perspective 7the felt geometry of the space-world that only the ,west knows74 ,this inspired ordering is that which ,goethe called 8,the ,idea1 of which the form is immediately apprehended in the domain of intuition1 whereas pure science does not apprehend but observes and dissects40 ,the ,mathematic goes beyond observation and dissection1 and in its highest moments finds the way by vision1 not abstraction4 ,to ,goethe again we owe the profound saying3 8the mathematician is only complete in so far as he feels within himself the beauty of the true40 ,here we feel how nearly the secret of number is related to the secret of artistic creation4 ,and so the born mathematician takes his place by the side of the great masters of the fugue1 the chisel and the brush2 he and they alike strive1 and must strive1 to actualize the grand order of all things by clothing it in symbol and so to communicate it to the plain fellow-man who hears that order within himself but cannot effectively possess it2 the domain of number1 like the domains of tone1 line and colour1 becomes an image of the world-form4 ,for this reason the word 8creative0 means more in the mathematical sphere than it does in the pure sciences-- ,newton1 ,gauss1 and ,riemann were artist-natures1 and we know with what suddenness their great conceptions came upon them4#di 8,a mathematician10 said old ,weierstrass 8who is not at the same time a bit of a poet will never be a full mathematician40 ,the mathematic1 then1 is an art4 ,as such it has its styles and style- periods4 ,it is not1 as the layman and the philosopher 7who is in this matter a layman too7 imagine1 substantially unalterable1 but subject like every art to unnoticed changes from epoch to epoch4 ,the development of the great arts ought never to be treated without an 7assuredly not unprofitable7 side-glance at contemporary mathematics4 ,in the very deep relation between changes of musical theory and the analysis of the infinite1 the details have never yet been investigated1 although sthetics might have learned a great deal more from these than from all so-called 8psychology40 ,still more revealing would be a history of musical instruments written1 not 7as it always is7 from the technical standpoint of tone-production1 but as a study of the deep spiritual bases of the tone-colours and tone-effects aimed at4 ,for it was the wish1 intensified to the point of a longing1 to fill a spatial infinity with sound which produced--in contrast to the ,classical lyre and reed 7lyra1 kithara2 aulos1 syrinx7 and the ,arabian lute--the two great families of keyboard instruments 7organ1 pianoforte1 etc47 and bow instruments1 and that as early as the ,gothic time4 ,the development of both these families belongs spiritually 7and possibly also in point of technical origin7 to the ,celtic-,germanic ,north lying between ,ireland1 the ,weser and the ,seine4 ,the organ and clavichord belong certainly to ,england1 the bow instruments reached their definite forms in ,upper ,italy between #adhj and #aecj1 while it was principally in ,germany that the organ was developed into the space-commanding giant that we know1 an instrument the like of which does not exist in all musical history4 ,the free organ-playing of ,bach and his time was nothing if it was not analysis--analysis of a strange and vast tone-world4 ,and1 similarly1 it is in conformity with the ,western number-thinking1 and in opposition to the ,classical1 that our string and wind instruments have been developed not singly but in great groups 7strings1 woodwind1 brass71 ordered within themselves according to the compass of the four human voices2 the history of the modern orchestra1 with all its discoveries of new and modification of old instruments1 is in reality the self-contained history of one tone-world--a world1 moreover1 that is quite capable of being expressed in the forms of the higher analysis4 ,v ,when1 about #edj ,b4,c41 the circle of the ,pythagoreans arrived at the idea that number is the essence of all things1 it was not 8a step in the development of mathematics0 that was made1 but a wholly new mathematic that was born4 ,long heralded by metaphysical problem-posings and artistic form-tendencies1 now it came forth from the depths of the ,classical soul as a formulated theory1 a mathematic born in one act at one great historical moment--just as the mathematic of the ,egyptians had been1 and the algebra-astronomy of the ,babylonian ,culture with its ecliptic co-ordinate system--and new--for these older mathematics had long been extinguished and the ,egyptian was never written down4 ,fulfilled by the #bnd century ,a4,d41 the ,classical mathematic vanished in its turn 7for though it seemingly exists even to-day1 it is only as a convenience of notation that it does so71 and gave place to the ,arabian4 ,from what we know of the ,alexandrian mathematic1 it is a necessary presumption that there was a great movement within the ,middle ,east1 of which the centre of gravity must have lain in the ,persian-,babylonian schools 7such as ,edessa1 ,gundisapora and ,ctesiphon7 and of which only details found their way into the regions of ,classical speech4 ,in spite of their ,greek names1 the ,alexandrian mathematicians--,zenodorus who dealt with figures of equal perimeter1 ,serenus who worked on the properties of a harmonic pencil in space1 ,hypsicles who introduced the ,chaldean circle-division1 ,diophantus above all--were all without doubt ,aramans1 and their works only a small part of a literature which was written principally in ,syriac4 ,this mathematic found its completion in the investigations of the ,arabian- ,islamic thinkers1 and after these there was again a long interval4 ,and then a perfectly new mathematic was born1 the ,western1 our own1 which in our infatuation we regard as 8,mathematics10 as the culmination and the implicit purpose of two thousand years' evolution1 though in reality its centuries are 7strictly7 numbered and to-day almost spent4 ,the most valuable thing in the ,classical mathematic is its proposition that number is the essence of all things perceptible to the senses4 ,defining number as a measure1 it contains the whole world-feeling of a soul passionately devoted to the 8here0 and the 8now40 ,measurement in this sense means the measurement of something near and corporeal4 ,consider the content of the ,classical art-work1 say the free-standing statue of a naked man2 here every essential and important element of ,being1 its whole rhythm1 is exhaustively rendered by surfaces1 dimensions and the sensuous relations of the parts4 ,the ,pythagorean notion of the harmony of numbers1 although it was probably deduced from music--a music1 be it noted1 that knew not polyphony or harmony1 and formed its instruments to render single plump1 almost fleshy1 tones-- seems to be the very mould for a sculpture that has this ideal4 ,the worked stone is only a something in so far as it has considered limits and measured form2 what it is is what it has become under the sculptor's chisel4 ,apart from this it is a chaos1 something not yet actualized1 in fact for the time being a null4 ,the same feeling transferred to the grander stage produces1 as an opposite to the state of chaos1 that of cosmos1 which for the ,classical soul implies a cleared-up situation of the external world1 a harmonic order which includes each separate thing as a well-defined1 comprehensible and present entity4 ,the sum of such things constitutes neither more nor less than the whole world1 and the interspaces between them1 which for us are filled with the impressive symbol of the ,universe of ,space1 are for them the nonent 7 74 ,extension means1 for ,classical mankind body1 and for us space1 and it is as a function of space that1 to us1 things 8appear40 ,and1 looking backward from this standpoint1 we may perhaps see into the deepest concept of the ,classical metaphysics1 ,anaximander's --a word that is quite untranslatable into any ,western tongue4 ,it is that which possesses no 8number0 in the ,pythagorean sense of the word1 no measurable dimensions or definable limits1 and therefore no being2 the measureless1 the negation of form1 the statue not yet carved out of the block2 the optically boundless and formless1 which only becomes a something 7namely1 the world7 after being split up by the senses4 ,it is the underlying form a priori of ,classical cognition1 bodiliness as such1 which is replaced exactly in the ,kantian world-picture by that ,space out of which ,kant maintained that all things could be 8thought forth40 ,we can now understand what it is that divides one mathematic from another1 and in particular the ,classical from the ,western4 ,the whole world-feeling of the matured ,classical world led it to see mathematics only as the theory of relations of magnitude1 dimension and form between bodies4 ,when1 from out of this feeling1 ,pythagoras evolved and expressed the decisive formula1 number had come1 for him1 to be an optical symbol--not a measure of form generally1 an abstract relation1 but a frontier-post of the domain of the ,become1 or rather of that part of it which the senses were able to split up and pass under review4 ,by the whole ,classical world without exception numbers are conceived as units of measure1 as magnitude1 lengths1 or surfaces1 and for it no other sort of extension is imaginable4 ,the whole ,classical mathematic is at bottom ,stereometry 7solid geometry74 ,to ,euclid1 who rounded off its system in the third century1 the triangle is of deep necessity the bounding surface of a body1 never a system of three intersecting straight lines or a group of three points in three-dimensional space4 ,he defines a line as 8length without breadth0 7 74 ,in our mouths such a definition would be pitiful--in the ,classical mathematic it was brilliant4 ,the ,western number1 too1 is not1 as ,kant and even ,helmholtz thought1 something proceeding out of ,time as an a priori form of conception1 but is something specifically spatial1 in that it is an order 7or ordering7 of like units4 ,actual time 7as we shall see more and more clearly in the sequel7 has not the slightest relation with mathematical things4 ,numbers belong exclusively to the domain of extension4 ,but there are precisely as many possibilities--and therefore necessities--of ordered presentation of the extended as there are ,cultures4 ,classical number is a thought-process dealing not with spatial relations but with visibly limitable and tangible units1 and it follows naturally and necessarily that the ,classical knows only the 8natural0 7positive and whole7 numbers1 which on the contrary play in our ,western mathematics a quite undistinguished part in the midst of complex1 hypercomplex1 non- ,archimedean and other number-systems4 ,on this account1 the idea of irrational numbers--the unending decimal fractions of our notation--was unrealizable within the ,greek spirit4 ,euclid says--and he ought to have been better understood--that incommensurable lines are 8not related to one another like numbers40 ,in fact1 it is the idea of irrational number that1 once achieved1 separates the notion of number from that of magnitude1 for the magnitude of such a number 71 for example7 can never be defined or exactly represented by any straight line4 ,moreover1 it follows from this that in considering the relation1 say1 between diagonal and side in a square the ,greek would be brought up suddenly against a quite other sort of number1 which was fundamentally alien to the ,classical soul1 and was consequently feared as a secret of its proper existence too dangerous to be unveiled4 ,there is a singular and significant late-,greek legend1 according to which the man who first published the hidden mystery of the irrational perished by shipwreck1 8for the unspeakable and the formless must be left hidden for ever40#ej ,the fear that underlies this legend is the selfsame notion that prevented even the ripest ,greeks from extending their tiny city-states so as to organize the country-side politically1 from laying out their streets to end in prospects and their alleys to give vistas1 that made them recoil time and again from the ,babylonian astronomy with its penetration of endless starry space1#ea and refuse to venture out of the ,mediterranean along sea-paths long before dared by the ,phnicians and the ,egyptians4 ,it is the deep metaphysical fear that the sense- comprehensible and present in which the ,classical existence had entrenched itself would collapse and precipitate its cosmos 7largely created and sustained by art7 into unknown primitive abysses4 ,and to understand this fear is to understand the final significance of ,classical number--that is1 measure in contrast to the immeasurable--and to grasp the high ethical significance of its limitation4 ,goethe too1 as a nature-student1 felt it--hence his almost terrified aversion to mathematics1 which as we can now see was really an involuntary reaction against the non-,classical mathematic1 the ,infinitesimal ,calculus which underlay the natural philosophy of his time4 ,religious feeling in ,classical man focused itself ever more and more intensely upon physically present1 localized cults which alone expressed a college of ,euclidean deities4 ,abstractions1 dogmas floating homeless in the space of thought1 were ever alien to it4 ,a cult of this kind has as much in common with a ,roman ,catholic dogma as the statue has with the cathedral organ4 ,there is no doubt that something of cult was comprised in the ,euclidean mathematic--consider1 for instance1 the secret doctrines of the ,pythagoreans and the ,theorems of regular polyhedrons with their esoteric significance in the circle of ,plato4 ,just so1 there is a deep relation between ,descartes' analysis of the infinite and contemporary dogmatic theology as it progressed from the final decisions of the ,reformation and the ,counter-,reformation to entirely desensualized deism4 ,descartes and ,pascal were mathematicians and ,jansenists1 ,leibniz a mathematician and pietist4 ,voltaire1 ,lagrange and ,d',alembert were contemporaries4 ,now1 the ,classical soul felt the principle of the irrational1 which overturned the statuesquely-ordered array of whole numbers and the complete and self-sufficing world-order for which these stood1 as an impiety against the ,divine itself4 ,in ,plato's 8,timus0 this feeling is unmistakable4 ,for the transformation of a series of discrete numbers into a continuum challenged not merely the ,classical notion of number but the ,classical world-idea itself1 and so it is understandable that even negative numbers1 which to us offer no conceptual difficulty1 were impossible in the ,classical mathematic1 let alone zero as a number1 that refined creation of a wonderful abstractive power which1 for the ,indian soul that conceived it as base for a positional numeration1 was nothing more nor less than the key to the meaning of existence4 ,negative magnitudes have no existence4 ,the expression -#b-cf is neither something perceivable nor a representation of magnitude4 ,the series of magnitudes ends with #a1 and in graphic representation of negative numbers 7 #c #b #a #j - #a - #b - #c 7 -- -- -- -- -- -- we have suddenly1 from zero onwards1 positive symbols of something negative2 they mean something1 but they no longer are4 ,but the fulfilment of this act did not lie within the direction of ,classical number-thinking4 ,every product of the waking consciousness of the ,classical world1 then1 is elevated to the rank of actuality by way of sculptural definition4 ,that which cannot be drawn is not 8number40 ,archytas and ,eudoxus use the terms surface- and volume-numbers to mean what we call second and third powers1 and it is easy to understand that the notion of higher integral powers did not exist for them1 for a fourth power would predicate at once1 for the mind based on the plastic feeling1 an extension in four dimensions1 and four material dimensions into the bargain1 8which is absurd40 ,expressions like ix which we constantly use1 or even the fractional index 7e4g41 #e7 which is employed in the ,western mathematics as early as ,oresme 7#adth ,century71 would have been to them utter nonsense4 ,euclid calls the factors of a product its sides and fractions 7finite of course7 were treated as whole-number relationships between two lines4 ,clearly1 out of this no conception of zero as a number could possibly come1 for from the point of view of a draughtsman it is meaningless4 ,we1 having minds differently constituted1 must not argue from our habits to theirs and treat their mathematic as a 8first stage0 in the development of 8,mathematics40 ,within and for the purposes of the world that ,classical man evolved for himself1 the ,classical mathematic was a complete thing--it is merely not so for us4 ,babylonian and ,indian mathematics had long contained1 as essential elements of their number-worlds1 things which the ,classical number- feeling regarded as nonsense--and not from ignorance either1 since many a ,greek thinker was acquainted with them4 ,it must be repeated1 8,mathematics0 is an illusion4 ,a mathematical1 and1 generally1 a scientific way of thinking is right1 convincing1 a 8necessity of thought10 when it completely expresses the life-feeling proper to it4 ,otherwise it is either impossible1 futile and senseless1 or else1 as we in the arrogance of our historical soul like to say1 8primitive40 ,the modern mathematic1 though 8true0 only for the ,western spirit1 is undeniably a master-work of that spirit2 and yet to ,plato it would have seemed a ridiculous and painful aberration from the path leading to the 8true0--to wit1 the ,classical--mathematic4 ,and so with ourselves4 ,plainly1 we have almost no notion of the multitude of great ideas belonging to other ,cultures that we have suffered to lapse because our thought with its limitations has not permitted us to assimilate them1 or 7which comes to the same thing7 has led us to reject them as false1 superfluous1 and nonsensical4 ,,vi ,the ,greek mathematic1 as a science of perceivable magnitudes1 deliberately confines itself to facts of the comprehensibly present1 and limits its researches and their validity to the near and the small4 ,as compared with this impeccable consistency1 the position of the ,western mathematic is seen to be1 practically1 somewhat illogical1 though it is only since the discovery of ,non-,euclidean ,geometry that the fact has been really recognized4 ,numbers are images of the perfectly desensualized understanding1 of pure thought1 and contain their abstract validity within themselves4#eb ,their exact application to the actuality of conscious experience is therefore a problem in itself--a problem which is always being posed anew and never solved--and the congruence of mathematical system with empirical observation is at present anything but self-evident4 ,although the lay idea--as found in ,schopenhauer--is that mathematics rest upon the direct evidences of the senses1 ,euclidean geometry1 superficially identical though it is with the popular geometry of all ages1 is only in agreement with the phenomenal world approximately and within very narrow limits--in fact1 the limits of a drawing-board4 ,extend these limits1 and what becomes1 for instance1 of ,euclidean parallels8 ,they meet at the line of the horizon--a simple fact upon which all our art-perspective is grounded4 ,now1 it is unpardonable that ,kant1 a ,western thinker1 should have evaded the mathematic of distance1 and appealed to a set of figure-examples that their mere pettiness excludes from treatment by the specifically ,western infinitesimal methods4 ,but ,euclid1 as a thinker of the ,classical age1 was entirely consistent with its spirit when he refrained from proving the phenomenal truth of his axioms by referring to1 say1 the triangle formed by an observer and two infinitely distant fixed stars4 ,for these can neither be drawn nor 8intuitively apprehended0 and his feeling was precisely the feeling which shrank from the irrationals1 which did not dare to give nothingness a value as zero 7i4e41 a number7 and even in the contemplation of cosmic relations shut its eyes to the ,infinite and held to its symbol of ,proportion4 ,aristarchus of ,samos1 who in #bhh-bgg belonged to a circle of astronomers at ,alexandria that doubtless had relations with ,chaldaeo-,persian schools1 projected the elements of a heliocentric world-system4#ec ,rediscovered by ,copernicus1 it was to shake the metaphysical passions of the ,west to their foundations--witness ,giordano ,bruno#ed--to become the fulfilment of mighty premonitions1 and to justify that ,faustian1 ,gothic world-feeling which had already professed its faith in infinity through the forms of its cathedrals4 ,but the world of ,aristarchus received his work with entire indifference and in a brief space of time it was forgotten--designedly1 we may surmise4 ,his few followers were nearly all natives of ,asia ,minor1 his most prominent supporter ,seleucus 7about #aej7 being from the ,persian ,seleucia on ,tigris4 ,in fact1 the ,aristarchian system had no spiritual appeal to the ,classical ,culture and might indeed have become dangerous to it4 ,and yet it was differentiated from the ,copernican 7a point always missed7 by something which made it perfectly conformable to the ,classical world-feeling1 viz41 the assumption that the cosmos is contained in a materially finite and optically appreciable hollow sphere1 in the middle of which the planetary system1 arranged as such on ,copernican lines1 moved4 ,in the ,classical astronomy1 the earth and the heavenly bodies are consistently regarded as entities of two different kinds1 however variously their movements in detail might be interpreted4 ,equally1 the opposite idea that the earth is only a star among stars#ee is not inconsistent in itself with either the ,ptolemaic or the ,copernican systems and in fact was pioneered by ,nicolaus ,cusanus and ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,but by this device of a celestial sphere the principle of infinity which would have endangered the sensuous-,classical notion of bounds was smothered4 ,one would have supposed that the infinity-conception was inevitably implied by the system of ,aristarchus--long before his time1 the ,babylonian thinkers had reached it4 ,but no such thought emerges4 ,on the contrary1 in the famous treatise on the grains of sand#ef ,archimedes proves that the filling of this stereometric body 7for that is what ,aristarchus's ,cosmos is1 after all7 with atoms of sand leads to very high1 but not to infinite1 figure-results4 ,this proposition1 quoted though it may be1 time and again1 as being a first step towards the ,integral ,calculus1 amounts to a denial 7implicit indeed in the very title7 of everything that we mean by the word analysis4 ,whereas in our physics1 the constantly-surging hypotheses of a material 7i4e41 directly cognizable7 ther1 break themselves one after the other against our refusal to acknowledge material limitations of any kind1 ,eudoxus1 ,apollonius and ,archimedes1 certainly the keenest and boldest of the ,classical mathematicians1 completely worked out1 in the main with rule and compass1 a purely optical analysis of things-become on the basis of sculptural-,classical bounds4 ,they used deeply-thought-out 7and for us hardly understandable7 methods of integration1 but these possess only a superficial resemblance even to ,leibniz's definite-integral method4 ,they employed geometrical loci and co-ordinates1 but these are always specified lengths and units of measurement and never1 as in ,fermat and above all in ,descartes1 unspecified spatial relations1 values of points in terms of their positions in space4 ,with these methods also should be classed the exhaustion-method of ,archimedes1#eg given by him in his recently discovered letter to ,eratosthenes on such subjects as the quadrature of the parabola section by means of inscribed rectangles 7instead of through similar polygons74 ,but the very subtlety and extreme complication of his methods1 which are grounded in certain of ,plato's geometrical ideas1 make us realize1 in spite of superficial analogies1 what an enormous difference separates him from ,pascal4 ,apart altogether from the idea of ,riemann's integral1 what sharper contrast could there be to these ideas than the so-called quadratures of to-day8 ,the name itself is now no more than an unfortunate survival1 the 8surface0 is indicated by a bounding function1 and the drawing as such1 has vanished4 ,nowhere else did the two mathematical minds approach each other more closely than in this instance1 and nowhere is it more evident that the gulf between the two souls thus expressing themselves is impassable4 ,in the cubic style of their early architecture the ,egyptians1 so to say1 concealed pure numbers1 fearful of stumbling upon their secret1 and for the ,hellenes too they were the key to the meaning of the become1 the stiffened1 the mortal4 ,the stone statue and the scientific system deny life4 ,mathematical number1 the formal principle of an extension-world of which the phenomenal existence is only the derivative and servant of waking human consciousness1 bears the hall-mark of causal necessity and so is linked with death as chronological number is with becoming1 with life1 with the necessity of destiny4 ,this connexion of strict mathematical form with the end of organic being1 with the phenomenon of its organic remainder the corpse1 we shall see more and more clearly to be the origin of all great art4 ,we have already noticed the development of early ornament on funerary equipments and receptacles4 ,numbers are symbols of the mortal4 ,stiff forms are the negation of life1 formulas and laws spread rigidity over the face of nature1 numbers make dead--and the 8,mothers0 of ,faust ,,ii sit enthroned1 majestic and withdrawn1 in 8,the realms of ,image unconfined4 444 ,formation1 transformation1 ,eternal play of the eternal mind ,with semblances of all things in creation ,for ever and for ever sweeping round40#eh ,goethe draws very near to ,plato in this divination of one of the final secrets4 ,for his unapproachable ,mothers are ,plato's ,ideas--the possibilities of a spirituality1 the unborn forms to be realized as active and purposed ,culture1 as art1 thought1 polity and religion1 in a world ordered and determined by that spirituality4 ,and so the number- thought and the world-idea of a ,culture are related1 and by this relation1 the former is elevated above mere knowledge and experience and becomes a view of the universe1 there being consequently as many mathematics--as many number-worlds--as there are higher ,cultures4 ,only so can we understand1 as something necessary1 the fact that the greatest mathematical thinkers1 the creative artists of the realm of numbers1 have been brought to the decisive mathematical discoveries of their several ,cultures by a deep religious intuition4 ,classical1 ,apollinian number we must regard as the creation of ,pythagoras--who founded a religion4 ,it was an instinct that guided ,nicolaus ,cusanus1 the great ,bishop of ,brixen 7about #adej71 from the idea of the unendingness of ,god in nature to the elements of the ,infinitesimal ,calculus4 ,leibniz himself1 who two centuries later definitely settled the methods and notation of the ,calculus1 was led by purely metaphysical speculations about the divine principle and its relation to infinite extent to conceive and develop the notion of an analysis situs--probably the most inspired of all interpretations of pure and emancipated space--the possibilities of which were to be developed later by ,grassmann in his ,ausdehnungslehre and above all by ,riemann1 their real creator1 in his symbolism of two-sided planes representative of the nature of equations4 ,and ,kepler and ,newton1 strictly religious natures both1 were and remained convinced1 like ,plato1 that it was precisely through the medium of number that they had been able to apprehend intuitively the essence of the divine world- order4 ,,vii ,the ,classical arithmetic1 we are always told1 was first liberated from its sense-bondage1 widened and extended by ,diophantus1 who did not indeed create algebra 7the science of undefined magnitudes7 but brought it to expression within the framework of the ,classical mathematic that we know--and so suddenly that we have to assume that there was a pre- existent stock of ideas which he worked out4 ,but this amounts1 not to an enrichment of1 but a complete victory over1 the ,classical world-feeling1 and the mere fact should have sufficed in itself to show that1 inwardly1 ,diophantus does not belong to the ,classical ,culture at all4 ,what is active in him is a new number-feeling1 or let us say a new limit-feeling with respect to the actual and become1 and no longer that ,hellenic feeling of sensuously-present limits which had produced the ,euclidean geometry1 the nude statue and the coin4 ,details of the formation of this new mathematic we do not know--,diophantus stands so completely by himself in the history of so-called late-,classical mathematics that an ,indian influence has been presumed4 ,but here also the influence it must really have been that of those early-,arabian schools whose studies 7apart from the dogmatic7 have hitherto been so imperfectly investigated4 ,in ,diophantus1 unconscious though he may be of his own essential antagonism to the ,classical foundations on which he attempted to build1 there emerges from under the surface of ,euclidean intention the new limit- feeling which ,i designate the 8,magian40 ,he did not widen the idea of number as magnitude1 but 7unwittingly7 eliminated it4 ,no ,greek could have stated anything about an undefined number a or an undenominated number #c--which are neither magnitudes nor lines--whereas the new limit-feeling sensibly expressed by numbers of this sort at least underlay1 if it did not constitute1 ,diophantine treatment2 and the letter-notation which we employ to clothe our own 7again transvalued7 algebra was first introduced by ,vieta in #aeia1 an unmistakable1 if unintended1 protest against the classicizing tendency of ,renaissance mathematics4 ,diophantus lived about #bej ,a4,d41 that is1 in the third century of that ,arabian ,culture whose organic history1 till now smothered under the surface-forms of the ,roman ,empire and the 8,middle ,ages10#ei comprises everything that happened after the beginning of our era in the region that was later to be ,islam's4 ,it was precisely in the time of ,diophantus that the last shadow of the ,attic statuary art paled before the new space-sense of cupola1 mosaic and sarcophagus-relief that we have in the ,early-,christian-,syrian style4 ,in that time there was once more archaic art and strictly geometrical ornament2 and at that time too ,diocletian completed the transformation of the now merely sham ,empire into a ,caliphate4 ,the four centuries that separate ,euclid and ,diophantus1 separate also ,plato and ,plotinus--the last and conclusive thinker1 the ,kant1 of a fulfilled ,culture and the first schoolman1 the ,duns ,scotus1 of a ,culture just awakened4 ,it is here that we are made aware for the first time of the existence of those higher individualities whose coming1 growth and decay constitute the real substance of history underlying the myriad colours and changes of the surface4 ,the ,classical spirituality1 which reached its final phase in the cold intelligence of the ,romans and of which the whole ,classical ,culture with all its works1 thoughts1 deeds and ruins forms the 8body10 had been born about #aajj ,b4,c4 in the country about the gean ,sea4 ,the ,arabian ,culture1 which1 under cover of the ,classical ,civilization1 had been germinating in the ,east since ,augustus1 came wholly out of the region between ,armenia and ,southern ,arabia1 ,alexandria and ,ctesiphon1 and we have to consider as expressions of this new soul almost the whole 8late-,classical0 art of the ,empire1 all the young ardent religions of the ,east--,mandanism1 ,manichism1 ,christianity1 ,neo- ,platonism1 and in ,rome itself1 as well as the ,imperial ,fora1 that ,pantheon which is the first of all mosques4 ,that ,alexandria and ,antioch still wrote in ,greek and imagined that they were thinking in ,greek is a fact of no more importance than the facts that ,latin was the scientific language of the ,west right up to the time of ,kant and that ,charlemagne 8renewed0 the ,roman ,empire4 ,in ,diophantus1 number has ceased to be the measure and essence of plastic things4 ,in the ,ravennate mosaics man has ceased to be a body4 ,unnoticed1 ,greek designations have lost their original connotations4 ,we have left the realm of ,attic the ,stoic and 4 ,diophantus does not yet know zero and negative numbers1 it is true1 but he has ceased to know ,pythagorean numbers4 ,and this ,arabian indeterminateness of number is1 in its turn1 something quite different from the controlled variability of the later ,western mathematics1 the variability of the function4 ,the ,magian mathematic--we can see the outline1 though we are ignorant of the details--advanced through ,diophantus 7who is obviously not a starting-point7 boldly and logically to a culmination in the ,abbassid period 7#ith century7 that we can appreciate in ,al-,khwarizmi and ,alsidzshi4 ,and as ,euclidean geometry is to ,attic statuary 7the same expression-form in a different medium7 and the analysis of space to polyphonic music1 so this algebra is to the ,magian art with its mosaic1 its arabesque 7which the ,sassanid ,empire and later ,byzantium produced with an ever-increasing profusion and luxury of tangible-intangible organic motives7 and its ,constantinian high-relief in which uncertain deep-darks divide the freely-handled figures of the foreground4 ,as algebra is to ,classical arithmetic and ,western analysis1 so is the cupola-church to the ,doric temple and the ,gothic cathedral4 ,it is not as though ,diophantus were one of the great mathematicians4 ,on the contrary1 much of what we have been accustomed to associate with his name is not his work alone4 ,his accidental importance lies in the fact that1 so far as our knowledge goes1 he was the first mathematician in whom the new number-feeling is unmistakably present4 ,in comparison with the masters who conclude the development of a mathematic--with ,apollonius and ,archimedes1 with ,gauss1 ,cauchy1 ,riemann--,diophantus has1 in his form- language especially1 something primitive4 ,this something1 which till now we have been pleased to refer to 8late-,classical0 decadence1 we shall presently learn to understand and value1 just as we are revising our ideas as to the despised 8late-,classical0 art and beginning to see in it the tentative expression of the nascent ,early ,arabian ,culture4 ,similarly archaic1 primitive1 and groping was the mathematic of ,nicolas ,oresme1 ,bishop of ,lisieux 7#acbc-achb71fj who was the first ,western who used co-ordinates so to say elastically#fa and1 more important still1 to employ fractional powers--both of which presuppose a number-feeling1 obscure it may be but quite unmistakable1 which is completely non- ,classical and also non-,arabic4 ,but if1 further1 we think of ,diophantus together with the early-,christian sarcophagi of the ,roman collections1 and of ,oresme together with the ,gothic wall-statuary of the ,german cathedrals1 we see that the mathematicians as well as the artists have something in common1 which is1 that they stand in their respective ,cultures at the same 7viz41 the primitive7 level of abstract understanding4 ,in the world and age of ,diophantus the stereometric sense of bounds1 which had long ago reached in ,archimedes the last stages of refinement and elegance proper to the megalopolitan intelligence1 had passed away4 ,throughout that world men were unclear1 longing1 mystic1 and no longer bright and free in the ,attic way2 they were men rooted in the earth of a young country-side1 not megalopolitans like ,euclid and ,d',alembert4#fb ,they no longer understood the deep and complicated forms of the ,classical thought1 and their own were confused and new1 far as yet from urban clarity and tidiness4 ,their ,culture was in the ,gothic condition1 as all ,cultures have been in their youth--as even the ,classical was in the early ,doric period which is known to us now only by its ,dipylon pottery4 ,only in ,baghdad and in the #ith and #ajth ,centuries were the young ideas of the age of ,diophantus carried through to completion by ripe masters of the calibre of ,plato and ,gauss4 ----- ,footnote #dh3 ,as also those of law and of money4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #fh et seq41 pp4 #faf et seq4 ,footnote #di3 ,poincar in his ,science et ,mthode 7,ch4 ,,iii71 searchingly analyses the 8becoming0 of one of his own mathematical discoveries4 ,each decisive stage in it bears 8les mmes caractres de brivet1 de soudainet et de certitude absolue0 and in most cases this 8certitude0 was such that he merely registered the discovery and put off its working-out to any convenient season4--,tr4 ,footnote #ej3 ,one may be permitted to add that according to legend1 both ,hippasus who took to himself public credit for the discovery of a sphere of twelve pentagons1 viz41 the regular dodecahedron 7regarded by the ,pythagoreans as the quintessence--or ther--of a world of real tetrahedrons1 octahedrons1 icosahedrons and cubes71 and ,archytas the eighth successor of the ,founder are reputed to have been drowned at sea4 ,the pentagon from which this dodecahedron is derived1 itself involves incommensurable numbers4 ,the 8pentagram0 was the recognition badge of ,pythagoreans and the 7incommensurable7 their special secret4 ,it would be noted1 too1 that ,pythagoreanism was popular till its initiates were found to be dealing in these alarming and subversive doctrines1 and then they were suppressed and lynched--a persecution which suggests more than one deep analogy with certain heresy-suppressions of ,western history4 ,the ,english student may be referred to ,g4 ,j4 ,allman1 ,greek ,geometry from ,thales to ,euclid 7,cambridge1 #ahhi71 and to his articles 8,pythagoras10 8,philolaus0 and 8,archytas0 in the ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,edition4--,tr4 ,footnote #ea3 ,horace's words 7,odes ,i xi73 8,tu ne qusieris1 scire nefas1 quem mihi quem tibi finem di dederint1 ,leucono1 nec ,babylonios temptaris numeros 444 carpe diem1 quam minimum credula postero40--,tr4 ,footnote #eb3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aa et seq4 ,footnote #ec3 ,in the only writing of his that survives1 indeed1 ,aristarchus maintains the geocentric view2 it may be presumed therefore that it was only temporarily that he let himself be captivated by a hypothesis of the ,chaldaean learning4 ,footnote #ed3 ,giordano ,bruno 7born #aedh1 burned for heresy #afjj74 ,his whole life might be expressed as a crusade on behalf of ,god and the ,copernican universe against a degenerated orthodoxy and an ,aristotelian world- idea long coagulated in death4--,tr4 ,footnote #ee3 ,f4 ,strunz1 ,gesch4 d4 ,naturwiss4 im ,mittelalter 7#aiaj71 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #ef3 ,in the 8,psammites10 or 8,arenarius10 ,archimedes framed a numerical notation which was to be capable of expressing the number of grains of sand in a sphere of the size of our universe4--,tr4 ,footnote #eg3 ,this1 for which the ground had been prepared by ,eudoxus1 was employed for calculating the volume of pyramids and cones3 8the means whereby the ,greeks were able to evade the forbidden notion of infinity0 7,heiberg1 ,naturwiss4 u4 ,math4 i4 ,klass4 ,alter4 #aiab1 p4 #bg74 ,footnote #eh3 ,dr4 ,anster's translation4--,tr4 ,footnote #ei3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,footnote #fj3 ,oresme was1 equally1 prelate1 church reformer1 scholar1 scientist and economist--the very type of the philosopher-leader4--,tr4 ,footnote #fa3 ,oresme in his ,latitudines ,formarum used ordinate and abscissa1 not indeed to specify numerically1 but certainly to describe1 change1 i4e41 fundamentally1 to express functions4--,tr4 ,footnote #fb3 ,alexandria ceased to be a world-city in the second century ,a4,d4 and became a collection of houses left over from the ,classical civilization which harboured a primitive population of quite different spiritual constitution4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #abb et seq4 ----- ,,viii ,the decisive act of ,descartes1 whose geometry appeared in #afcg1 consisted not in the introduction of a new method or idea in the domain of traditional geometry 7as we are so frequently told71 but in the definitive conception of a new number-idea1 which conception was expressed in the emancipation of geometry from servitude to optically- realizable constructions and to measured and measurable lines generally4 ,with that1 the analysis of the infinite became a fact4 ,the rigid1 so- called ,cartesian1 system of co-ordinates--a semi-,euclidean method of ideally representing measurable magnitudes--had long been known 7witness ,oresme7 and regarded as of high importance1 and when we get to the bottom of ,descartes' thought we find that what he did was not to round off the system but to overcome it4 ,its last historic representative was ,descartes' contemporary ,fermat4#fc ,in place of the sensuous element of concrete lines and planes--the specific character of the ,classical feeling of bounds--there emerged the abstract1 spatial1 un-,classical element of the point which from then on was regarded as a group of co-ordered pure numbers4 ,the idea of magnitude and of perceivable dimension derived from ,classical texts and ,arabian traditions was destroyed and replaced by that of variable relation-values between positions in space4 ,it is not in general realized that this amounted to the supersession of geometry1 which thenceforward enjoyed only a fictitious existence behind a faade of ,classical tradition4 ,the word 8geometry0 has an inextensible ,apollinian meaning1 and from the time of ,descartes what is called the 8new geometry0 is made up in part of synthetic work upon the position of points in a space which is no longer necessarily three-dimensional 7a 8manifold of points071 and in part of analysis1 in which numbers are defined through point-positions in space4 ,and this replacement of lengths by positions carries with it a purely spatial1 and no longer a material1 conception of extension4 ,the clearest example of this destruction of the inherited optical-finite geometry seems to me to be the conversion of angular functions--which in the ,indian mathematic had been numbers 7in a sense of the word that is hardly accessible to our minds7--into periodic functions1 and their passage thence into an infinite number-realm1 in which they become series and not the smallest trace remains of the ,euclidean figure4 ,in all parts of that realm the circle-number 1 like the ,napierian base 1 generates relations of all sorts which obliterate all the old distinctions of geometry1 trigonometry and algebra1 which are neither arithmetical nor geometrical in their nature1 and in which no one any longer dreams of actually drawing circles or working out powers4 ----- ,footnote #fc3 ,born #afja1 died #affe4 ,see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,ed41 article ,fermat1 and references therein4--,tr4 ----- ,,ix ,at the moment exactly corresponding to that at which 7c4 #edj7 the ,classical ,soul in the person of ,pythagoras discovered its own proper ,apollinian number1 the measurable magnitude1 the ,western soul in the persons of ,descartes and his generation 7,pascal1 ,fermat1 ,desargues7 discovered a notion of number that was the child of a passionate ,faustian tendency towards the infinite4 ,number as pure magnitude inherent in the material presentness of things is paralleled by numbers as pure relation1#fd and if we may characterize the ,classical 8world10 the cosmos1 as being based on a deep need of visible limits and composed accordingly as a sum of material things1 so we may say that our world-picture is an actualizing of an infinite space in which things visible appear very nearly as realities of a lower order1 limited in the presence of the illimitable4 ,the symbol of the ,west is an idea of which no other ,culture gives even a hint1 the idea of ,function4 ,the function is anything rather than an expansion of1 it is complete emancipation from1 any pre-existent idea of number4 ,with the function1 not only the ,euclidean geometry 7and with it the common human geometry of children and laymen1 based on everyday experience7 but also the ,archimedean arithmetic1 ceased to have any value for the really significant mathematic of ,western ,europe4 ,henceforward1 this consisted solely in abstract analysis4 ,for ,classical man geometry and arithmetic were self- contained and complete sciences of the highest rank1 both phenomenal and both concerned with magnitudes that could be drawn or numbered4 ,for us1 on the contrary1 those things are only practical auxiliaries of daily life4 ,addition and multiplication1 the two ,classical methods of reckoning magnitudes1 have1 like their sister geometrical-drawing1 utterly vanished in the infinity of functional processes4 ,even the power1 which in the beginning denotes numerically a set of multiplications 7products of equal magnitudes71 is1 through the exponential idea 7logarithm7 and its employment in complex1 negative and fractional forms1 dissociated from all connexion with magnitude and transferred to a transcendent relational world which the ,greeks1 knowing only the two positive whole-number powers that represent areas and volumes1 were unable to approach4 ,think1 for instance1 of expressions like -x1 x1 #a;i4 ,every one of the significant creations which succeeded one another so rapidly from the ,renaissance onward--imaginary and complex numbers1 introduced by ,cardanus as early as #aeej2 infinite series1 established theoretically by ,newton's great discovery of the binomial theorem in #afff2 the differential geometry1 the definite integral of ,leibniz2 the aggregate as a new number-unit1 hinted at even by ,descartes2 new processes like those of general integrals2 the expansion of functions into series and even into infinite series of other functions--is a victory over the popular and sensuous number-feeling in us1 a victory which the new mathematic had to win in order to make the new world- feeling actual4 ,in all history1 so far1 there is no second example of one ,culture paying to another ,culture long extinguished such reverence and submission in matters of science as ours has paid to the ,classical4 ,it was very long before we found courage to think our proper thought4 ,but though the wish to emulate the ,classical was constantly present1 every step of the attempt took us in reality further away from the imagined ideal4 ,the history of ,western knowledge is thus one of progressive emancipation from ,classical thought1 an emancipation never willed but enforced in the depths of the unconscious4 ,and so the development of the new mathematic consists of a long1 secret and finally victorious battle against the notion of magnitude4#fe ----- ,footnote #fd3 ,similarly1 coinage and double-entry book-keeping play analogous parts in the money-thinking of the ,classical and the ,western ,cultures respectively4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #faj et seq4 ,footnote #fe3 ,the same may be said in the matter of ,roman ,law 7see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #if et seq47 and of coinage 7see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #faf et seq474 ----- ,x ,one result of this ,classicizing tendency has been to prevent us from finding the new notation proper to our ,western number as such4 ,the present-day sign-language of mathematics perverts its real content4 ,it is principally owing to that tendency that the belief in numbers as magnitudes still rules to-day even amongst mathematicians1 for is it not the base of all our written notation8 ,but it is not the separate signs 7e4g41 1 1 7 serving to express the functions but the function itself as unit1 as element1 the variable relation no longer capable of being optically defined1 that constitutes the new number2 and this new number should have demanded a new notation built up with entire disregard of ,classical influences4 ,consider the difference between two equations 7if the same word can be used of two such dissimilar things7 such as #cx #dx #ex and xn yn zn 7the equation of ,fermat's theorem74 ,the first consists of several ,classical numbers--i4e41 magnitudes--but the second is one number of a different sort1 veiled by being written down according to ,euclidean-,archimedean tradition in the identical form of the first4 ,in the first case1 the sign establishes a rigid connexion between definite and tangible magnitudes1 but in the second it states that within a domain of variable images there exists a relation such that from certain alterations certain other alterations necessarily follow4 ,the first equation has as its aim the specification by measurement of a concrete magnitude1 viz41 a 8result10 while the second has1 in general1 no result but is simply the picture and sign of a relation which for n#b 7this is the famous ,fermat problem#ff7 can probably be shown to exclude integers4 ,a ,greek mathematician would have found it quite impossible to understand the purport of an operation like this1 which was not meant to be 8worked out40 ,as applied to the letters in ,fermat's equation1 the notion of the unknown is completely misleading4 ,in the first equation x is a magnitude1 defined and measurable1 which it is our business to compute4 ,in the second1 the word 8defined0 has no meaning at all for x1 y1 z1 n1 and consequently we do not attempt to compute their 8values40 ,hence they are not numbers at all in the plastic sense but signs representing a connexion that is destitute of the hallmarks of magnitude1 shape and unique meaning1 an infinity of possible positions of like character1 an ensemble unified and so attaining existence as a number4 ,the whole equation1 though written in our unfortunate notation as a plurality of terms1 is actually one single number1 x1 y1 z being no more numbers than and are4 ,in fact1 directly the essentially anti-,hellenic idea of the irrationals is introduced1 the foundations of the idea of number as concrete and definite collapse4 ,thenceforward1 the series of such numbers is no longer a visible row of increasing1 discrete1 numbers capable of plastic embodiment but a unidimensional continuum in which each 8cut0 7in ,dedekind's sense7 represents a number4 ,such a number is already difficult to reconcile with ,classical number1 for the ,classical mathematic knows only one number between #a and #c1 whereas for the ,western the totality of such numbers is an infinite aggregate4 ,but when we introduce further the imaginary 7-#a or i7 and finally the complex numbers 7general form a bi71 the linear continuum is broadened into the highly transcendent form of a number-body1 i4e41 the content of an aggregate of homogeneous elements in which a 8cut0 now stands for a number-surface containing an infinite aggregate of numbers of a lower 8potency0 7for instance1 all the real numbers71 and there remains not a trace of number in the ,classical and popular sense4 ,these number- surfaces1 which since ,cauchy and ,riemann have played an important part in the theory of functions1 are pure thought-pictures4 ,even positive irrational number 7e4g41 #b7 could be conceived in a sort of negative fashion by ,classical minds2 they had1 in fact1 enough idea of it to ban it as and 4 ,but expressions of the form x yi lie beyond every possibility of comprehension by ,classical thought1 whereas it is on the extension of the mathematical laws over the whole region of the complex numbers1 within which these laws remain operative1 that we have built up the function theory which has at last exhibited the ,western mathematic in all purity and unity4 ,not until that point was reached could this mathematic be unreservedly brought to bear in the parallel sphere of our dynamic ,western physics2 for the ,classical mathematic was fitted precisely to its own stereometric world of individual objects and to static mechanics as developed from ,leucippus to ,archimedes4 ,the brilliant period of the ,baroque mathematic--the counterpart of the ,ionian--lies substantially in the #ahth ,century and extends from the decisive discoveries of ,newton and ,leibniz through ,euler1 ,lagrange1 ,laplace and ,d',alembert to ,gauss4 ,once this immense creation found wings1 its rise was miraculous4 ,men hardly dared believe their senses4 ,the age of refined scepticism witnessed the emergence of one seemingly impossible truth after another4#fg ,regarding the theory of the differential coefficient1 ,d',alembert had to say3 8,go forward1 and faith will come to you40 ,logic itself seemed to raise objections and to prove foundations fallacious4 ,but the goal was reached4 ,this century was a very carnival of abstract and immaterial thinking1 in which the great masters of analysis and1 with them1 ,bach1 ,gluck1 ,haydn and ,mozart--a small group of rare and deep intellects--revelled in the most refined discoveries and speculations1 from which ,goethe and ,kant remained aloof2 and in point of content it is exactly paralleled by the ripest century of the ,ionic1 the century of ,eudoxus and ,archytas 7#ddj- #cej7 and1 we may add1 of ,phidias1 ,polycletus1 ,alcamenes and the ,acropolis buildings--in which the form-world of ,classical mathematic and sculpture displayed the whole fullness of its possibilities1 and so ended4 ,and now for the first time it is possible to comprehend in full the elemental opposition of the ,classical and the ,western souls4 ,in the whole panorama of history1 innumerable and intense as historical relations are1 we find no two things so fundamentally alien to one another as these4 ,and it is because extremes meet--because it may be there is some deep common origin behind their divergence--that we find in the ,western ,faustian soul this yearning effort towards the ,apollinian ideal1 the only alien ideal which we have loved and1 for its power of intensely living in the pure sensuous present1 have envied4 ,,xi ,we have already observed that1 like a child1 a primitive mankind acquires 7as part of the inward experience that is the birth of the ego7 an understanding of number and ipso facto possession of an external world referred to the ego4 ,as soon as the primitive's astonished eye perceives the dawning world of ordered extension1 and the significant emerges in great outlines from the welter of mere impressions1 and the irrevocable parting of the outer world from his proper1 his inner1 world gives form and direction to his waking life1 there arises in the soul--instantly conscious of its loneliness--the root- feeling of longing 7,sehnsucht74 ,it is this that urges 8becoming0 towards its goal1 that motives the fulfilment and actualizing of every inward possibility1 that unfolds the idea of individual being4 ,it is the child's longing1 which will presently come into the consciousness more and more clearly as a feeling of constant direction and finally stand before the mature spirit as the enigma of ,time--queer1 tempting1 insoluble4 ,suddenly1 the words 8past0 and 8future0 have acquired a fateful meaning4 ,but this longing which wells out of the bliss of the inner life is also1 in the intimate essence of every soul1 a dread as well4 ,as all becoming moves towards a having-become wherein it ends1 so the prime feeling of becoming--the longing--touches the prime feeling of having- become1 the dread4 ,in the present we feel a trickling-away1 the past implies a passing4 ,here is the root of our eternal dread of the irrevocable1 the attained1 the final--our dread of mortality1 of the world itself as a thing-become1 where death is set as a frontier like birth--our dread in the moment when the possible is actualized1 the life is inwardly fulfilled and consciousness stands at its goal4 ,it is the deep world-fear of the child--which never leaves the higher man1 the believer1 the poet1 the artist--that makes him so infinitely lonely in the presence of the alien powers that loom1 threatening in the dawn1 behind the screen of sense-phenomena4 ,the element of direction1 too1 which is inherent in all 8becoming10 is felt owing to its inexorable irreversibility to be something alien and hostile1 and the human will- to-understanding ever seeks to bind the inscrutable by the spell of a name4 ,it is something beyond comprehension1 this transformation of future into past1 and thus time1 in its contrast with space1 has always a queer1 baffling1 oppressive ambiguity from which no serious man can wholly protect himself4 ,this world-fear is assuredly the most creative of all prime feelings4 ,man owes to it the ripest and deepest forms and images1 not only of his conscious inward life1 but also of the infinitely-varied external culture which reflects this life4 ,like a secret melody that not every ear can perceive1 it runs through the form-language of every true art- work1 every inward philosophy1 every important deed1 and1 although those who can perceive it in that domain are the very few1 it lies at the root of the great problems of mathematics4 ,only the spiritually dead man of the autumnal cities--,hammurabi's ,babylon1 ,ptolemaic ,alexandria1 ,islamic ,baghdad1 ,paris and ,berlin to-day--only the pure intellectual1 the sophist1 the sensualist1 the ,darwinian1 loses it or is able to evade it by setting up a secretless 8scientific world-view0 between himself and the alien4 ,as the longing attaches itself to that impalpable something whose thousand-formed elusive manifestations are comprised in1 rather than denoted by1 the word 8time10 so the other prime feeling1 dread1 finds its expression in the intellectual1 understandable1 outlinable symbols of extension2 and thus we find that every ,culture is aware 7each in its own special way7 of an opposition of time and space1 of direction and extension1 the former underlying the latter as becoming precedes having-become4 ,it is the longing that underlies the dread1 becomes the dread1 and not vice versa4 ,the one is not subject to the intellect1 the other is its servant4 ,the rle of the one is purely to experience1 that of the other purely to know 7erleben1 erkennen74 ,in the ,christian language1 the opposition of the two world-feelings is expressed by3 8,fear ,god and love ,him40 ,in the soul of all primitive mankind1 just as in that of earliest childhood1 there is something which impels it to find means of dealing with the alien powers of the extension-world that assert themselves1 inexorable1 in and through space4 ,to bind1 to bridle1 to placate1 to 8know0 are all1 in the last analysis1 the same thing4 ,in the mysticism of all primitive periods1 to know ,god means to conjure him1 to make him favourable1 to appropriate him inwardly4 ,this is achieved1 principally1 by means of a word1 the ,name--the 8nomen0 which designates and calls up the 8numen0--and also by ritual practices of secret potency2 and the subtlest1 as well as the most powerful1 form of this defence is causal and systematic knowledge1 delimitation by label and number4 ,in this respect man only becomes wholly man when he has acquired language4 ,when cognition has ripened to the point of words1 the original chaos of impressions necessarily transforms itself into a 8,nature0 that has laws and must obey them1 and the world-in-itself becomes a world-for-us4#fh ,the world-fear is stilled when an intellectual form-language hammers out brazen vessels in which the mysterious is captured and made comprehensible4 ,this is the idea of 8taboo10#fi which plays a decisive part in the spiritual life of all primitive men1 though the original content of the word lies so far from us that it is incapable of translation into any ripe culture-language4 ,blind terror1 religious awe1 deep loneliness1 melancholy1 hate1 obscure impulses to draw near1 to be merged1 to escape--all those formed feelings of mature souls are in the childish condition blurred in a monotonous indecision4 ,the two senses of the word 8conjure0 7verschwren71 meaning to bind and to implore at once1 may serve to make clear the sense of the mystical process by which for primitive man the formidable alien becomes 8taboo40 ,reverent awe before that which is independent of one's self1 things ordained and fixed by law1 the alien powers of the world1 is the source from which the elementary formative acts1 one and all1 spring4 ,in early times this feeling is actualized in ornament1 in laborious ceremonies and rites1 and the rigid laws of primitive intercourse4 ,at the zeniths of the great ,cultures those formations1 though retaining inwardly the mark of their origin1 the characteristic of binding and conjuring1 have become the complete form-worlds of the various arts and of religious1 scientific and1 above all1 mathematical thought4 ,the method common to all--the only way of actualizing itself that the soul knows--is the symbolizing of extension1 of space or of things2 and we find it alike in the conceptions of absolute space that pervade ,newtonian physics1 ,gothic cathedral-interiors and ,moorish mosques1 and the atmospheric infinity of ,rembrandt's paintings and again the dark tone-worlds of ,beethoven's quartets2 in the regular polyhedrons of ,euclid1 the ,parthenon sculptures and the pyramids of ,old ,egypt1 the ,nirvana of ,buddha1 the aloofness of court-customs under ,sesostris1 ,justinian ,i and ,louis ,,xiv1 in the ,god- idea of an schylus1 a ,plotinus1 a ,dante2 and in the world-embracing spatial energy of modern technics4 ----- ,footnote #ff3 ,that is1 8it is impossible to part a cube into two cubes1 a biquadrate into two biquadrates1 and generally any power above the square into two powers having the same exponent40 ,fermat claimed to possess a proof of the proposition1 but this has not been preserved1 and no general proof has hitherto been obtained4--,tr4 ,footnote #fg3 ,thus ,bishop ,berkeley's ,discourse addressed to an infidel mathematician 7#agce7 shrewdly asked whether the mathematician were in a position to criticize the divine for proceeding on the basis of faith4--,tr4 ,footnote #fh3 ,from the savage conjuror with his naming-magic to the modern scientist who subjects things by attaching technical labels to them1 the form has in no wise changed4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aaf et seq41 #cbb et seq4 ,footnote #fi3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #acg et seq4 ----- ,,xii ,to return to mathematics4 ,in the ,classical world the starting-point of every formative act was1 as we have seen1 the ordering of the 8become10 in so far as this was present1 visible1 measurable and numerable4 ,the ,western1 ,gothic1 form-feeling on the contrary is that of an unrestrained1 strong-willed far-ranging soul1 and its chosen badge is pure1 imperceptible1 unlimited space4 ,but we must not be led into regarding such symbols as unconditional4 ,on the contrary1 they are strictly conditional1 though apt to be taken as having identical essence and validity4 ,our universe of infinite space1 whose existence1 for us1 goes without saying1 simply does not exist for ,classical man4 ,it is not even capable of being presented to him4 ,on the other hand1 the ,hellenic cosmos1 which is 7as we might have discovered long ago7 entirely foreign to our way of thinking1 was for the ,hellene something self-evident4 ,the fact is that the infinite space of our physics is a form of very numerous and extremely complicated elements tacitly assumed1 which have come into being only as the copy and expression of our soul1 and are actual1 necessary and natural only for our type of waking life4 ,the simple notions are always the most difficult4 ,they are simple1 in that they comprise a vast deal that not only is incapable of being exhibited in words but does not even need to be stated1 because for men of the particular group it is anchored in the intuition2 and they are difficult because for all alien men their real content is ipso facto quite inaccessible4 ,such a notion1 at once simple and difficult1 is our specifically ,western meaning of the word 8space40 ,the whole of our mathematic from ,descartes onward is devoted to the theoretical interpretation of this great and wholly religious symbol4 ,the aim of all our physics since ,galileo is identical2 but in the ,classical mathematics and physics the content of this word is simply not known4 ,here1 too1 ,classical names1 inherited from the literature of ,greece and retained in use1 have veiled the realities4 ,geometry means the art of measuring1 arithmetic the art of numbering4 ,the mathematic of the ,west has long ceased to have anything to do with both these forms of defining1 but it has not managed to find new names for its own elements-- for the word 8analysis0 is hopelessly inadequate4 ,the beginning and end of the ,classical mathematic is consideration of the properties of individual bodies and their boundary-surfaces2 thus indirectly taking in conic sections and higher curves4 ,we1 on the other hand1 at bottom know only the abstract space-element of the point1 which can neither be seen1 nor measured1 nor yet named1 but represents simply a centre of reference4 ,the straight line1 for the ,greeks a measurable edge1 is for us an infinite continuum of points4 ,leibniz illustrates his infinitesimal principle by presenting the straight line as one limiting case and the point as the other limiting case of a circle having infinitely great or infinitely little radius4 ,but for the ,greek the circle is a plane and the problem that interested him was that of bringing it into a commensurable condition4 ,thus the squaring of the circle became for the ,classical intellect the supreme problem of the finite4 ,the deepest problem of world-form seemed to it to be to alter surfaces bounded by curved lines1 without change of magnitude1 into rectangles and so to render them measureable4 ,for us1 on the other hand1 it has become the usual1 and not specially significant1 practice to represent the number by algebraic means1 regardless of any geometrical image4 ,the ,classical mathematician knows only what he sees and grasps4 ,where definite and defining visibility--the domain of his thought--ceases1 his science comes to an end4 ,the ,western mathematician1 as soon as he has quite shaken off the trammels of ,classical prejudice1 goes off into a wholly abstract region of infinitely numerous 8manifolds0 of n 7no longer #c7 dimensions1 in which his so-called geometry always can and generally must do without every commonplace aid4 ,when ,classical man turns to artistic expressions of his form-feeling1 he tries with marble and bronze to give the dancing or the wrestling human form that pose and attitude in which surfaces and contours have all attainable proportion and meaning4 ,but the true artist of the ,west shuts his eyes and loses himself in the realm of bodiless music1 in which harmony and polyphony bring him to images of utter 8beyondness0 that transcend all possibilities of visual definition4 ,one need only think of the meanings of the word 8figure0 as used respectively by the ,greek sculptor and the ,northern contrapuntist1 and the opposition of the two worlds1 the two mathematics1 is immediately presented4 ,the ,greek mathematicians ever use the word for their entities1 just as the ,greek lawyers used it for persons as distinct from things 7 3 person et res74 ,classical number1 integral and corporeal1 therefore inevitably seeks to relate itself with the birth of bodily man1 the 4 ,the number #a is hardly yet conceived of as actual number but rather as 1 the prime stuff of the number-series1 the origin of all true numbers and therefore all magnitudes1 measures and materiality 7,dinglichkeit74 ,in the group of the ,pythagoreans 7the date does not matter7 its figured-sign was also the symbol of the mother-womb1 the origin of all life4 ,the digit #b1 the first true number1 which doubles the #a1 was therefore correlated with the male principle and given the sign of the phallus4 ,and1 finally1 #c1 the 8holy number0 of the ,pythagoreans1 denoted the act of union between man and woman1 the act of propagation--the erotic suggestion in adding and multiplying 7the only two processes of increasing1 of propagating1 magnitude useful to ,classical man7 is easily seen--and its sign was the combination of the two first4 ,now1 all this throws quite a new light upon the legends previously alluded to1 concerning the sacrilege of disclosing the irrational4 ,the irrational--in our language the employment of unending decimal fractions--implied the destruction of an organic and corporeal and reproductive order that the gods had laid down4 ,there is no doubt that the ,pythagorean reforms of the ,classical religion were themselves based upon the immemorial ,demeter-cult4 ,demeter1 ,ga1 is akin to ,mother ,earth4 ,there is a deep relation between the honour paid to her and this exalted conception of the numbers4 ,thus1 inevitably1 the ,classical became by degrees the ,culture of the small4 ,the ,apollinian soul had tried to tie down the meaning of things-become by means of the principle of visible limits2 its taboo was focused upon the immediately-present and proximate alien4 ,what was far away1 invisible1 was ipso facto 8not there40 ,the ,greek and the ,roman alike sacrificed to the gods of the place in which he happened to stay or reside2 all other deities were outside the range of vision4 ,just as the ,greek tongue--again and again we shall note the mighty symbolism of such language-phenomena--possessed no word for space1 so the ,greek himself was destitute of our feeling of landscape1 horizons1 outlooks1 distances1 clouds1 and of the idea of the far-spread fatherland embracing the great nation4 ,home1 for ,classical man1 is what he can see from the citadel of his native town and no more4 ,all that lay beyond the visual range of this political atom was alien1 and hostile to boot2 beyond that narrow range1 fear set in at once1 and hence the appalling bitterness with which these petty towns strove to destroy one another4 ,the ,polis is the smallest of all conceivable state-forms1 and its policy is frankly short-range1 therein differing in the extreme from our own cabinet-diplomacy which is the policy of the unlimited4 ,similarly1 the ,classical temple1 which can be taken in in one glance1 is the smallest of all first-rate architectural forms4 ,classical geometry from ,archytas to ,euclid--like the school geometry of to-day which is still dominated by it--concerned itself with small1 manageable figures and bodies1 and therefore remained unaware of the difficulties that arise in establishing figures of astronomical dimensions1 which in many cases are not amenable to ,euclidean geometry4#gj ,otherwise the subtle ,attic spirit would almost surely have arrived at some notion of the problems of non-,euclidean geometry1 for its criticism of the well-known 8parallel0 axiom1#ga the doubtfulness of which soon aroused opposition yet could not in any way be elucidated1 brought it very close indeed to the decisive discovery4 ,the ,classical mind as unquestioningly devoted and limited itself to the study of the small and the near as ours has to that of the infinite and ultra-visual4 ,all the mathematical ideas that the ,west found for itself or borrowed from others were automatically subjected to the form-language of the ,infinitesimal--and that long before the actual ,differential ,calculus was discovered4 ,arabian algebra1 ,indian trigonometry1 ,classical mechanics were incorporated as a matter of course in analysis4 ,even the most 8self-evident0 propositions of elementary arithmetic such as #b #b #d become1 when considered analytically1 problems1 and the solution of these problems was only made possible by deductions from the ,theory of ,aggregates1 and is in many points still unaccomplished4 ,plato and his age would have looked upon this sort of thing not only as a hallucination but also as evidence of an utterly nonmathematical mind4 ,in a certain measure1 geometry may be treated algebraically and algebra geometrically1 that is1 the eye may be switched off or it may be allowed to govern4 ,we take the first alternative1 the ,greeks the second4 ,archimedes1 in his beautiful management of spirals1 touches upon certain general facts that are also fundamentals in ,leibniz's method of the definite integral2 but his processes1 for all their superficial appearance of modernity1 are subordinated to stereometric principles2 in like case1 an ,indian mathematician would naturally have found some trigonometrical formulation4#gb ----- ,footnote #gj3 ,a beginning is now being made with the application of non-,euclidean geometries to astronomy4 ,the hypothesis of curved space1 closed but without limits1 filled by the system of fixed stars on a radius of about #dgj1jjj1jjj earth-distances1 would lead to the hypothesis of a counter-image of the sun which to us appears as a star of medium brilliancy4 7,see translator's footnote1 p4 #ccb47 ,footnote #ga3 ,that only one parallel to a given straight line is possible through a given point--a proposition that is incapable of proof4 ,footnote #gb3 ,it is impossible to say1 with certainty1 how much of the ,indian mathematics that we possess is old1 i4e41 before ,buddha4 ----- ,,xiii ,from this fundamental opposition of ,classical and ,western numbers there arises an equally radical difference in the relationship of element to element in each of these number-worlds4 ,the nexus of magnitudes is called proportion1 that of relations is comprised in the notion of function4 ,the significance of these two words is not confined to mathematics proper2 they are of high importance also in the allied arts of sculpture and music4 ,quite apart from the rle of proportion in ordering the parts of the individual statue1 the typically ,classical artforms of the statue1 the relief1 and the fresco1 admit enlargements and reductions of scale--words that in music have no meaning at all--as we see in the art of the gems1 in which the subjects are essentially reductions from life-sized originals4 ,in the domain of ,function1 on the contrary1 it is the idea of transformation of groups that is of decisive importance1 and the musician will readily agree that similar ideas play an essential part in modern composition-theory4 ,i need only allude to one of the most elegant orchestral forms of the #ahth ,century1 the ,tema con ,variazioni4 ,all proportion assumes the constancy1 all transformation the variability of the constituents4 ,compare1 for instance1 the congruence theorems of ,euclid1 the proof of which depends in fact on the assumed ratio #a 3 #a1 with the modern deduction of the same by means of angular functions4 ,,xiv ,the ,alpha and ,omega of the ,classical mathematic is construction 7which in the broad sense includes elementary arithmetic71 that is1 the production of a single visually-present figure4 ,the chisel1 in this second sculptural art1 is the compass4 ,on the other hand1 in function- research1 where the object is not a result of the magnitude sort but a discussion of general formal possibilities1 the way of working is best described as a sort of composition-procedure closely analogous to the musical2 and in fact1 a great number of the ideas met with in the theory of music 7key1 phrasing1 chromatics1 for instance7 can be directly employed in physics1 and it is at least arguable that many relations would be clarified by so doing4 ,every construction affirms1 and every operation denies appearances1 in that the one works out that which is optically given and the other dissolves it4 ,and so we meet with yet another contrast between the two kinds of mathematic2 the ,classical mathematic of small things deals with the concrete individual instance and produces a once-for-all construction1 while the mathematic of the infinite handles whole classes of formal possibilities1 groups of functions1 operations1 equations1 curves1 and does so with an eye1 not to any result they may have1 but to their course4 ,and so for the last two centuries--though present-day mathematicians hardly realize the fact--there has been growing up the idea of a general morphology of mathematical operations1 which we are justified in regarding as the real meaning of modern mathematics as a whole4 ,all this1 as we shall perceive more and more clearly1 is one of the manifestations of a general tendency inherent in the ,western intellect1 proper to the ,faustian spirit and ,culture and found in no other4 ,the great majority of the problems which occupy our mathematic1 and are regarded as 8our0 problems in the same sense as the squaring of the circle was the ,greeks'1--e4g41 the investigation of convergence in infinite series 7,cauchy7 and the transformation of elliptic and algebraic integrals into multiply- periodic functions 7,abel1 ,gauss7--would probably have seemed to the ,ancients1 who strove for simple and definite quantitative results1 to be an exhibition of rather abstruse virtuosity4 ,and so indeed the popular mind regards them even to-day4 ,there is nothing less 8popular0 than the modern mathematic1 and it too contains its symbolism of the infinitely far1 of distance4 ,all the great works of the ,west1 from the 8,divina ,commedia0 to 8,parsifal10 are unpopular1 whereas everything ,classical from ,homer to the ,altar of ,pergamum was popular in the highest degree4 ,,xv ,thus1 finally1 the whole content of ,western number-thought centres itself upon the historic limit-problem of the ,faustian mathematic1 the key which opens the way to the ,infinite1 that ,faustian infinite which is so different from the infinity of ,arabian and ,indian world-ideas4 ,whatever the guise--infinite series1 curves or functions--in which number appears in the particular case1 the essence of it is the theory of the limit4#gc ,this limit is the absolute opposite of the limit which 7without being so called7 figures in the ,classical problem of the quadrature of the circle4 ,right into the #ahth ,century1 ,euclidean popular prepossessions obscured the real meaning of the differential principle4 ,the idea of infinitely small quantities lay1 so to say1 ready to hand1 and however skilfully they were handled1 there was bound to remain a trace of the ,classical constancy1 the semblance of magnitude1 about them1 though ,euclid would never have known them or admitted them as such4 ,thus1 zero is a constant1 a whole number in the linear continuum between #a and -#a2 and it was a great hindrance to ,euler in his analytical researches that1 like many after him1 he treated the differentials as zero4 ,only in the #aith ,century was this relic of ,classical number-feeling finally removed and the ,infinitesimal ,calculus made logically secure by ,cauchy's definitive elucidation of the limit- idea2 only the intellectual step from the 8infinitely small quantity0 to the 8lower limit of every possible finite magnitude0 brought out the conception of a variable number which oscillates beneath any assignable number that is not zero4 ,a number of this sort has ceased to possess any character of magnitude whatever3 the limit1 as thus finally presented by theory1 is no longer that which is approximated to1 but the approximation1 the process1 the operation itself4 ,it is not a state1 but a relation4 ,and so in this decisive problem of our mathematic1 we are suddenly made to see how historical is the constitution of the ,western soul4#gd ----- ,footnote #gc3 ,the technical difference 7in ,german usage7 between ,grenz and ,grenzwert is in most cases ignored in this translation as it is only the underlying conception of 8number0 common to both that concerns us4 ,grenz is the 8limit0 strictly speaking1 i4e41 the number a to which the terms a#a1 a#b1 a 444 of a particular series approximate more and more closely1 till nearer to a than any assignable number whatever4 ,the ,grenzwert of a function1 on the other hand1 is the 8limit0 of the value which the function takes for a given value a of the variable x4 ,these methods of reasoning and their derivatives enable solutions to be obtained for series such as 7#am17 7#am17 7#am17 444 7#amx7 or functions such as x7#bx - #a7 y ------------------------------ 7x #b77x- #c7 where x is infinite or indefinite4--,tr4 ,footnote #gd3 8,function1 rightly understood1 is existence considered as an activity0 7,goethe74 ,cf4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fah1 for functional money4 ----- ,,xvi ,the liberation of geometry from the visual1 and of algebra from the notion of magnitude1 and the union of both1 beyond all elementary limitations of drawing and counting1 in the great structure of function- theory--this was the grand course of ,western number-thought4 ,the constant number of the ,classical mathematic was dissolved into the variable4 ,geometry became analytical and dissolved all concrete forms1 replacing the mathematical bodies from which the rigid geometrical values had been obtained1 by abstract spatial relations which in the end ceased to have any application at all to sense-present phenomena4 ,it began by substituting for ,euclid's optical figures geometrical loci referred to a co-ordinate system of arbitrarily chosen 8origin10 and reducing the postulated objectiveness of existence of the geometrical object to the one condition that during the operation 7which itself was one of equating and not of measurement7 the selected co-ordinate system should not be changed4 ,but these co-ordinates immediately came to be regarded as values pure and simple1 serving not so much to determine as to represent and replace the position of points as space-elements4 ,number1 the boundary of things-become1 was represented1 not as before pictorially by a figure1 but symbolically by an equation4 8,geometry0 altered its meaning2 the co-ordinate system as a picturing disappeared and the point became an entirely abstract number-group4 ,in architecture1 we find this inward transformation of ,renaissance into ,baroque through the innovations of ,michael ,angelo and ,vignola4 ,visually pure lines became1 in palace and church faades as in mathematics1 ineffectual4 ,in place of the clear co-ordinates that we have in ,romano-,florentine colonnading and storeying1 the 8infinitesimal0 appears in the graceful flow of elements1 the scrollwork1 the cartouches4 ,the constructive dissolves in the wealth of the decorative--in mathematical language1 the functional4 ,columns and pilasters1 assembled in groups and clusters1 break up the faades1 gather and disperse again restlessly4 ,the flat surfaces of wall1 roof1 storey melt into a wealth of stucco work and ornaments1 vanish and break into a play of light and shade4 ,the light itself1 as it is made to play upon the form-world of mature ,baroque-- viz41 the period from ,bernini 7#afej7 to the ,rococo of ,dresden1 ,vienna and ,paris--has become an essentially musical element4 ,the ,dresden ,zwinger#ge is a sinfonia4 ,along with #ahth ,century mathematics1 #ahth ,century architecture develops into a form-world of musical characters4 ----- ,footnote #ge3 ,built for ,august ,,ii1 in #agaa1 as barbican or fore-building for a projected palace4--,tr4 ----- ,,xvii ,this mathematics of ours was bound in due course to reach the point at which not merely the limits of artificial geometrical form but the limits of the visual itself were felt by theory and by the soul alike as limits indeed1 as obstacles to the unreserved expression of inward possibilities--in other words1 the point at which the ideal of transcendent extension came into fundamental conflict with the limitations of immediate perception4 ,the ,classical soul1 with the entire abdication of ,platonic and ,stoic 1 submitted to the sensuous and 7as the erotic under-meaning of the ,pythagorean numbers shows7 it rather felt than emitted its great symbols4 ,of transcending the corporeal here-and-now it was quite incapable4 ,but whereas number1 as conceived by a ,pythagorean1 exhibited the essence of individual and discrete data in 8,nature0 ,descartes and his successors looked upon number as something to be conquered1 to be wrung out1 an abstract relation royally indifferent to all phenomenal support and capable of holding its own against 8,nature0 on all occasions4 ,the will-to-power 7to use ,nietzsche's great formula7 that from the earliest ,gothic of the ,eddas1 the ,cathedrals and ,crusades1 and even from the old conquering ,goths and ,vikings1 has distinguished the attitude of the ,northern soul to its world1 appears also in the sense-transcending energy1 the dynamic of ,western number4 ,in the ,apollinian mathematic the intellect is the servant of the eye1 in the ,faustian its master4 ,mathematical1 8absolute0 space1 we see then1 is utterly un-,classical1 and from the first1 although mathematicians with their reverence for the ,hellenic tradition did not dare to observe the fact1 it was something different from the indefinite spaciousness of daily experience and customary painting1 the a priori space of ,kant which seemed so unambiguous and sure a concept4 ,it is a pure abstract1 an ideal and unfulfillable postulate of a soul which is ever less and less satisfied with sensuous means of expression and in the end passionately brushes them aside4 ,the inner eye has awakened4 ,and then1 for the first time1 those who thought deeply were obliged to see that the ,euclidean geometry1 which is the true and only geometry of the simple of all ages1 is when regarded from the higher standpoint nothing but a hypothesis1 the general validity of which1 since ,gauss1 we know it to be quite impossible to prove in the face of other and perfectly non-perceptual geometries4 ,the critical proposition of this geometry1 ,euclid's axiom of parallels1 is an assertion1 for which we are quite at liberty to substitute another assertion4 ,we may assert1 in fact1 that through a given point1 no parallels1 or two1 or many parallels may be drawn to a given straight line1 and all these assumptions lead to completely irreproachable geometries of three dimensions1 which can be employed in physics and even in astronomy1 and are in some cases preferable to the ,euclidean4 ,even the simple axiom that extension is boundless 7boundlessness1 since ,riemann and the theory of curved space1 is to be distinguished from endlessness7 at once contradicts the essential character of all immediate perception1 in that the latter depends upon the existence of light-resistances and ipso facto has material bounds4 ,but abstract principles of boundary can be imagined which transcend1 in an entirely new sense1 the possibilities of optical definition4 ,for the deep thinker1 there exists even in the ,cartesian geometry the tendency to get beyond the three dimensions of experiential space1 regarded as an unnecessary restriction on the symbolism of number4 ,and although it was not till about #ahjj that the notion of multi-dimensional space 7it is a pity that no better word was found7 provided analysis with broader foundations1 the real first step was taken at the moment when powers-- that is1 really1 logarithms--were released from their original relation with sensually realizable surfaces and solids and1 through the employment of irrational and complex exponents1 brought within the realm of function as perfectly general relation-values4 ,it will be admitted by everyone who understands anything of mathematical reasoning that directly we passed from the notion of a as a natural maximum to that of an1 the unconditional necessity of three-dimensional space was done away with4 ,once the space-element or point had lost its last persistent relic of visualness and1 instead of being represented to the eye as a cut in co- ordinate lines1 was defined as a group of three independent numbers1 there was no longer any inherent objection to replacing the number #c by the general number n4 ,the notion of dimension was radically changed4 ,it was no longer a matter of treating the properties of a point metrically with reference to its position in a visible system1 but of representing the entirely abstract properties of a number-group by means of any dimensions that we please4 ,the number-group--consisting of n independent ordered elements--is an image of the point and it is called a point4 ,similarly1 an equation logically arrived therefrom is called a plane and is the image of a plane4 ,and the aggregate of all points of n dimensions is called an n-dimensional space4#gf ,in these transcendent space-worlds1 which are remote from every sort of sensualism1 lie the relations which it is the business of analysis to investigate and which are found to be consistently in agreement with the data of experimental physics4 ,this space of higher degree is a symbol which is through-and-through the peculiar property of the ,western mind4 ,that mind alone has attempted1 and successfully too1 to capture the 8become0 and the extended in these forms1 to conjure and bind--to 8know0--the alien by this kind of appropriation or taboo4 ,not until such spheres of number-thought are reached1 and not for any men but the few who have reached them1 do such imaginings as systems of hypercomplex numbers 7e4g41 the quaternions of the calculus of vectors7 and apparently quite meaningless symbols like n acquire the character of something actual4 ,and here if anywhere it must be understood that actuality is not only sensual actuality4 ,the spiritual is in no wise limited to perception-forms for the actualizing of its idea4 ----- ,footnote #gf3 ,from the standpoint of the theory of 8aggregates0 7or 8sets of points071 a well-ordered set of points1 irrespective of the dimension figure1 is called a corpus2 and thus an aggregate of n - #a dimensions is considered1 relatively to one of n dimensions1 as a surface4 ,thus the limit 7wall1 edge7 of an 8aggregate0 represents an aggregate of lower 8potentiality40 ----- ,,xviii ,from this grand intuition of symbolic space-worlds came the last and conclusive creation of ,western mathematic--the expansion and subtilizing of the function theory in that of groups4 ,groups are aggregates or sets of homogeneous mathematical images--e4g41 the totality of all differential equations of a certain type--which in structure and ordering are analogous to the ,dedekind number-bodies4 ,here are worlds1 we feel1 of perfectly new numbers1 which are nevertheless not utterly sense- transcendent for the inner eye of the adept2 and the problem now is to discover in those vast abstract form-systems certain elements which1 relatively to a particular group of operations 7viz41 of transformations of the system71 remain unaffected thereby1 that is1 possess invariance4 ,in mathematical language1 the problem1 as stated generally by ,klein1 is-- given an n-dimensional manifold 78space07 and a group of transformations1 it is required to examine the forms belonging to the manifold in respect of such properties as are not altered by transformation of the group4 ,and with this culmination our ,western mathematic1 having exhausted every inward possibility and fulfilled its destiny as the copy and purest expression of the idea of the ,faustian soul1 closes its development in the same way as the mathematic of the ,classical ,culture concluded in the third century4 ,both those sciences 7the only ones of which the organic structure can even to-day be examined historically7 arose out of a wholly new idea of number1 in the one case ,pythagoras's1 in the other ,descartes'4 ,both1 expanding in all beauty1 reached their maturity one hundred years later2 and both1 after flourishing for three centuries1 completed the structure of their ideas at the same moment as the ,cultures to which they respectively belonged passed over into the phase of megalopolitan ,civilization4 ,the deep significance of this interdependence will be made clear in due course4 ,it is enough for the moment that for us the time of the great mathematicians is past4 ,our tasks to-day are those of preserving1 rounding off1 refining1 selection-- in place of big dynamic creation1 the same clever detail-work which characterized the ,alexandrian mathematic of late ,hellenism4 ,a historical paradigm will make this clearer4 column #a column two ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,world-,,history ,i ,,physiognomic ,,and ,,systematic ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,world-,,history ,i ,,physiognomic ,,and ,,systematic ,i ,now1 at last1 it is possible to take the decisive step of sketching an image of history that is independent of the accident of standpoint1 of the period in which this or that observer lives--independent too of the personality of the observer himself1 who as an interested member of his own ,culture is tempted1 by its religious1 intellectual1 political and social tendencies1 to order the material of history according to a perspective that is limited as to both space and time1 and to fashion arbitrary forms into which the superficies of history can be forced but which are entirely alien to its inner content4 ,what has been missing1 till now1 is detachment from the objects considered 7die ,distanz vom ,gegenstande74 ,in respect of ,nature1 this detachment has long ago been attained1 though of course it was relatively easy of attainment1 since the physicist can obviously systematize the mechanical-causal picture of his world as impersonally as though he himself did not exist in it4 ,it is quite possible1 however1 to do the same as regards the form-world of ,history4 ,we have merely been unaware of the possibility4 ,the modern historian1 in the very act of priding himself on his 8objectivity10 navely and unconsciously reveals his prepossessions4 ,for this reason it is quite legitimate to say--and it will infallibly be said some day--that so far a genuinely ,faustian treatment of history has been entirely lacking4 ,by such a treatment is meant one that has enough detachment to admit that any 8present0 is only such with reference to a particular generation of men2 that the number of generations is infinite1 and that the proper present must therefore be regarded just as something infinitely distant and alien is regarded1 and treated as an interval of time neither more nor less significant in the whole picture of ,history than others4 ,such a treatment will employ no distorting modulus of personal ideals1 set no personal origin of co-ordinates1 be influenced by none of the personal hopes and fears and other inward impulses which count for so much in practical life2 and such a detachment will--to use the words of ,nietzsche 7who1 be it said1 was far from possessing enough of it himself7--enable one to view the whole fact of ,man from an immense distance1 to regard the individual ,cultures1 one's own included1 as one regards the range of mountain peaks along a horizon4 ,once again1 therefore1 there was an act like the act of ,copernicus to be accomplished1 an act of emancipation from the evident present in the name of infinity4 ,this the ,western soul achieved in the domain of ,nature long ago1 when it passed from the ,ptolemaic world-system to that which is alone valid for it to-day1 and treats the position of the observer on one particular planet as accidental instead of normative4 ,a similar emancipation of world-history from the accidental standpoint1 the perpetually re-defined 8modern period10 is both possible and necessary4 ,it is true that the #aith ,century ,a4,d4 seems to us infinitely fuller and more important than1 say1 the #aith ,century ,b4,c42 but the moon1 too1 seems to us bigger than ,jupiter or ,saturn4 ,the physicist has long ago freed himself from prepossessions as to relative distance1 the historian not so4 ,we permit ourselves to consider the ,culture of the ,greeks as an 8ancient0 related to our own 8modern40 ,were they in their turn 8modern0 in relation to the finished and historically mature ,egyptians of the court of the great ,thuthmosis who lived a millennium before ,homer8 ,for us1 the events which took place between #aejj and #ahjj on the soil of ,western ,europe constitute the most important third of world-history2 for the ,chinese historian1 on the contrary1 who looks back on and judges by #djjj years of ,chinese history1 those centuries generally are a brief and unimportant episode1 infinitely less significant than the centuries of the ,han dynasty 7#bjf ,b4,c4 to #bbj ,a4,d471 which in his world-history are epoch-making4 ,to liberate ,history1 then1 from that thraldom to the observers' prejudices which in our own case has made of it nothing more than a record of a partial past leading up to an accidental present1 with the ideals and interests of that present as criteria of the achievement and possibility1 is the object of all that follows4 ,,ii ,nature and ,history#gg are the opposite extreme terms of man's range of possibilities1 whereby he is enabled to order the actualities about him as a picture of the world4 ,an actuality is ,nature in so far as it assigns things-becoming their place as things-become1 and ,history in so far as it orders things-become with reference to their becoming4 ,an actuality as an evocation of mind is contemplated1 and as an assurance of the senses is critically comprehended1 the first being exemplified in the worlds of ,plato1 ,rembrandt1 ,goethe and ,beethoven1 the second in the worlds of ,parmenides1 ,descartes1 ,kant and ,newton4 ,cognition in the strict sense of the word is that act of experience of which the completed issue is called 8,nature40 ,the cognized and 8,nature0 are one and the same4 ,the symbol of mathematical number has shown us that the aggregate of things cognized is the same as the world of things mechanically defined1 things correct once and for all1 things brought under law4 ,nature is the sum of the law-imposed necessities4 ,there are only laws of ,nature4 ,no physicist who understands his duty would wish to transcend these limits4 ,his task is to establish an ordered code which not only includes all the laws that he can find in the picture of ,nature that is proper to himself but1 further1 represents that picture exhaustively and without remainder4 ,contemplation or vision 7,anschauen71 on the other hand--,i may recall ,goethe's words3 8vision is to be carefully distinguished from seeing0--1 is that act of experience which is itself history because it is itself a fulfilling4 ,that which has been lived is that which has happened1 and it is history4 7,erlebtes ist ,geschehenes1 ist ,geschichte47 ,every happening is unique and incapable of being repeated4 ,it carries the hall-mark of ,direction 78,time071 of irreversibility4 ,that which has happened is thenceforth counted with the become and not with the becoming1 with the stiffened and not the living1 and belongs beyond recall to the past4 ,our feeling of world-fear has its sources here4 ,everything cognized1 on the contrary1 is timeless1 neither past nor future but simply 8there10 and consequently permanently valid1 as indeed the very constitution of natural law requires that it should be4 ,law and the domain of law are anti-historical4 ,they exclude incident and casuality4 ,the laws of nature are forms of rigorous and therefore inorganic necessity4 ,it becomes easy to see why mathematics1 as the ordering of things-become by number1 is always and exclusively associated with laws and causality4 ,becoming has no number4 ,we can count1 measure1 dissect only the lifeless and so much of the living as can be dissociated from livingness4 ,pure becoming1 pure life1 is in this sense incapable of being bounded4 ,it lies beyond the domain of cause and effect1 law and measure4 ,no deep and pure historical research seeks for conformities with causal laws--or1 if it does so1 it does not understand its own essence4 ,at the same time1 history as positively treated is not pure becoming3 it is an image1 a world-form radiated from the waking consciousness of the historian1 in which the becoming dominates the become4 ,the possibility of extracting results of any sort by scientific methods depends upon the proportion of things-become present in the subject treated1 and by hypothesis there is in this case a defect of them2 the higher the proportion is1 the more mechanical1 reasonable1 causal1 history is made to appear4 ,even ,goethe's 8living nature10 utterly unmathematical world- picture as it was1 contained enough of the dead and stiffened to allow him to treat at least his foreground scientifically4 ,but when this content of things-become dwindles to very little1 then history becomes approximately pure becoming1 and contemplation and vision become an experience which can only be rendered in forms of art4 ,that which ,dante saw before his spiritual eyes as the destiny of the world1 he could not possibly have arrived at by ways of science1 any more than ,goethe could have attained by these ways to what he saw in the great moments of his 8,faust0 studies1 any more than ,plotinus and ,giordano ,bruno could have distilled their visions from researches4 ,this contrast lies at the root of all dispute regarding the inner form of history4 ,in the presence of the same object or corpus of facts1 every observer according to his own disposition has a different impression of the whole1 and this impression1 intangible and incommunicable1 underlies his judgment and gives it its personal colour4 ,the degree in which things-become are taken in differs from man to man1 which is quite enough in itself to show that they can never agree as to task or method4 ,each accuses the other of a deficiency of 8clear thinking10 and yet the something that is expressed by this phrase is something not built with hands1 not implying superiority or a priority of degree but necessary difference of kind4 ,the same applies to all natural sciences4 ,nevertheless1 we must not lose sight of the fact that at bottom the wish to write history scientifically involves a contradiction4 ,true science reaches just as far as the notions of truth and falsity have validity3 this applies to mathematics and it applies also to the science of historical spade-work1 viz41 the collection1 ordering and sifting of material4 ,but real historical vision 7which only begins at this point7 belongs to the domain of significances1 in which the crucial words are not 8correct0 and 8erroneous10 but 8deep0 and 8shallow40 ,the true physicist is not deep1 but keen3 it is only when he leaves the domain of working hypotheses and brushes against the final things that he can be deep1 but at this stage he is already a metaphysician4 ,nature is to be handled scientifically1 ,history poetically4 ,old ,leopold von ,ranke is credited with the remark that1 after all1 ,scott's 8,quentin ,durward0 was the true history-writing4 ,and so it is3 the advantage of a good history book is that it enables the reader to be his own ,scott4 ,on the other hand1 within the very realm of numbers and exact knowledge there is that which ,goethe called 8living ,nature10 an immediate vision of pure becoming and self-shaping1 in fact1 history as above defined4 ,goethe's world was1 in the first instance1 an organism1 an existence1 and it is easy therefore to see why his researches1 even when superficially of a physical kind1 do not make numbers1 or laws1 or causality captured in formul1 or dissection of any sort their object1 but are morphology in the highest sense of the word2 and why his work neither uses nor needs to use the specifically ,western and un-,classical means of causal treatment1 metrical experiment4 ,his treatment of the ,earth's crust is invariably geology1 and never mineralogy1 which he called the science of something dead4 ,let it be said1 once more1 that there are no exact boundaries set between the two kinds of world-notion4 ,however great the contrast between becoming and the become1 the fact remains that they are jointly present in every kind of understanding4 ,he who looks at the becoming and fulfilling in them1 experiences ,history2 he who dissects them as become and fulfilled cognizes ,nature4 ,in every man1 in every ,culture1 in every culture-phase1 there is found an inherent disposition1 an inherent inclination and vocation to prefer one of the two forms as an ideal of understanding the world4 ,western man is in a high degree historically disposed1#gh ,classical man far from being so4 ,we follow up what is given us with an eye to past and future1 whereas ,classical man knew only the point-present and an ambiance of myth4 ,we have before us a symbol of becoming in every bar of our music from ,palestrina to ,wagner1 and the ,greeks a symbol of the pure present in every one of their statues4 ,the rhythm of a body is based upon a simultaneous relation of the parts1 that of a fugue in the succession of elements in time4 ----- ,footnote #gg3 ,see p4 #ee1 also ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #be et seq4 ,footnote #gh3 8,anti-historical10 the expression which we apply to a decidedly systematic valuation1 is to be carefully distinguished from 8ahistorical40 ,the beginning of the ,,iv ,book 7#ec7 of ,schopenhauer's ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung affords a good illustration of the man who thinks anti-historically1 that is1 deliberately for theoretical reasons suppresses and rejects the historical in himself-- something that is actually there4 ,the ahistoric ,greek nature1 on the contrary1 neither possesses nor understands it4 ----- ,,iii ,there emerge1 then1 as the two basic elements of all world-picturing1 the principle of ,form 7,gestalt7 and the principle of ,law 7,gesetz74 ,the more decidedly a particular world-picture shows the traits of 8,nature10 the more unconditionally law and number prevail in it2 and the more purely intuitive the picture of the world as eternally becoming1 the more alien to numbers its manifold and intangible elements4 8,form is something mobile1 something becoming1 something passing4 ,the doctrine of formation is the doctrine of transformation4 ,metamorphosis is the key to the whole alphabet of ,nature10 so runs a note of ,goethe's1 marking already the methodic difference between his famous 8exact percipient fancy0 which quietly lets itself be worked upon by the living1#gi and the exact killing procedure of modern physics4 ,but whatever the process1 a remainder consisting of so much of the alien element as is present is always found4 ,in strict natural sciences this remainder takes the form of the inevitable theories and hypotheses which are imposed on1 and leaven1 the stiff mass of number and formula4 ,in historical research1 it appears as chronology1 the number-structure of dates and statistics which1 alien though number is to the essence of becoming1 is so thoroughly woven around and into the world of historical forms that it is never felt to be intrusive4 ,for it is devoid of mathematical import4 ,chronological number distinguishes uniquely-occurring actualities1 mathematical number constant possibilities4 ,the one sharpens the images and works up the outlines of epoch and fact for the understanding eye4 ,but the other is itself the law which it seeks to establish1 the end and aim of research4 ,chronological number is a scientific means of pioneering borrowed from the science of sciences1 mathematics1 and used as such without regard to its specific properties4 ,compare1 for instance1 the meaning of the two symbols #ab #h #if1 and #ah ,october1 #ahac4hj ,it is the same difference1 in the use of figures1 that prose and poetry present in the use of words4 ,one other point remains to be noted4#ha ,as a becoming always lies at the base of the become1 and as the world-picture representative of becoming is that which history gives us1 therefore history is the original world-form1 and ,nature--the fully elaborated world-mechanism-- is the late world-form that only the men of a mature ,culture can completely actualize4 ,in fact1 the darkness encompassing the simple soul of primitive mankinds1 which we can realize even to-day from their religious customs and myths--that entirely organic world of pure wilfulness1 of hostile demons and kindly powers--was through-and-through a living and swaying whole1 ununderstandable1 indefinable1 incalculable4 ,we may call this ,nature if we like1 but it is not what we mean by 8nature10 i4e41 the strict image projected by a knowing intellect4 ,only the souls of children and of great artists can now hear the echoes of this long-forgotten world of nascent humanity1 but it echoes still1 and not rarely1 even in the inelastic nature-medium that the city-spirit of the mature ,culture is remorselessly building up round the individual4 ,hence that acute antagonism between the scientific 78modern07 and the artistic 78unpractical07 world-idea which every ,late period knows2 the man of fact and the poet do not and cannot understand one another4 ,hence comes1 too1 that tendency of historical study1 which must inevitably contain an element of the childish1 the dreamy1 the ,goethian1 to dress up as a science1 to be 7using its own nave word7 8materialistic10 at the imminent risk of becoming a mere physics of public life4 8,nature10 in the exact sense1 is a way of possessing actuality which is special to the few1 restricted to the megalopolitans of the late periods of great ,cultures1 masculine1 perhaps even senatorial2 while ,history is the nave1 youthful1 more or less instinctive way that is proper to all men alike4 ,at least1 that is the position of the number-based1 unmystical1 dissectable and dissected 8,nature0 of ,aristotle and ,kant1 the ,sophists and the ,darwinians1 modern physics and chemistry1 vis-- vis the lived1 felt and unconfined 8,nature0 of ,homer and the ,eddas1 of ,doric and ,gothic man4 ,to overlook this is to miss the whole essence of historical treatment4 ,it is history that is the truly natural1 and the exact mechanically-correct 8,nature0 of the scientist that is the artificial conception of world by soul4 ,hence the paradox that modern man finds nature-study easy and historical study hard4 ,tendencies towards a mechanistic idea of the world proceeding wholly from mathematical delimitation and logical differentiation1 from law and causality1 appear quite early4 ,they are found in the first centuries of all ,cultures1 still weak1 scattered and lost in the full tide of the religious world-conception4 ,the name to be recalled here is that of ,roger ,bacon4 ,but soon these tendencies acquire a sterner character3 like everything that is wrung out of the soul and has to defend itself against human nature1 they are not wanting in arrogance and exclusiveness4 ,quietly the spatial and comprehensible 7comprehension is in its essence number1 in its structure quantitative7 becomes prepotent throughout the outer world of the individual and1 aiding and aided by the simple impressions of sensuous-life1 effects a mechanical synthesis of the causal and legal sort1 so that at long last the sharp consciousness of the megalopolitan--be he of ,thebes1 ,babylon1 ,benares1 ,alexandria or a ,west ,european cosmopolis--is subjected to so consistent a pressure of natural-law notions that1 when scientific and philosophical prejudice 7it is no more than that7 dictates the proposition that this condition of the soul is the soul and the mechanical world-picture is the world1 the assertion is scarcely challenged4 ,it has been made predominant by logicians like ,aristotle and ,kant4 ,but ,plato and ,goethe have rejected it and refuted it4 ,,iv ,the task of world-knowing--for the man of the higher ,cultures a need1 seen as a duty1 of expressing his own essence--is certainly in every case the same1 though its process may be called science or philosophy1 and though its affinity to artistic creation and to faith-intuition may for one be something felt and for another something questionable4 ,it is to present1 without accretions1 that form of the world-picture which to the individual in each case is proper and significant1 and for him 7so long as he does not compare7 is in fact 8the0 world4 ,the task is necessarily a double one1 in view of the distinction between 8,nature0 and 8,history40 ,each speaks its own form-language which differs utterly from that of the other1 and however the two may overlap and confuse one another in an unsifted and ambiguous world-picture such as that of everyday life1 they are incapable of any inner unity4 ,direction and ,extension are the outstanding characters which differentiate the historical and the scientific 7naturhaft7 kind of impressibility1 and it is totally impossible for a man to have both working creatively within him at the same time4 ,the double meaning of the ,german word 8,ferne0 7distance1 farness7 is illuminating4 ,in the one order of ideas it implies futurity1 in the other a spatial interval of standing apart1 and the reader will not fail to remark that the historical materialist almost necessarily conceives time as a mathematical dimension1 while for the born artist1 on the contrary1--as the lyrics of every land show us--the distance-impressions made by deep landscapes1 clouds1 horizon and setting sun attach themselves without an effort to the sense of a future4 ,the ,greek poet denies the future1 and consequently he neither sees nor sings of the things of the future2 he cleaves to the near1 as he belongs to the present1 entirely4 ,the natural-science investigator1 the productive reasoner in the full sense of the word1 whether he be an experimenter like ,faraday1 a theorist like ,galileo1 a calculator like ,newton1 finds in his world only directionless quantities which he measures1 tests and arranges4 ,it is only the quantitative that is capable of being grasped through figures1 of being causally defined1 of being captured in a law or formula1 and when it has achieved this1 pure nature-knowledge has shot its bolt4 ,all its laws are quantitative connexions1 or as the physicist puts it1 all physical processes run a course in space1 an expression which a ,greek physicist would have corrected--without altering the fact--into 8all physical processes occur between bodies0 conformably to the space- denying feeling of the ,classical soul4 ,the historical kind of impression-process is alien to everything quantitative1 and affects a different organ4 ,to ,world-as-,nature certain modes of apprehension1 as to ,world-as-,history certain other modes1 are proper4 ,we know them and use them every day1 without 7as yet7 having become aware of their opposition4 ,there is nature-knowledge and there is man-knowledge2 there is scientific experience and there is vital experience4 ,let the reader track down this contrast into his own inmost being1 and he will understand what ,i mean4 ,all modes of comprehending the world may1 in the last analysis1 be described as ,morphology4 ,the ,morphology of the mechanical and the extended1 a science which discovers and orders nature-laws and causal relations1 is called ,systematic4 ,the ,morphology of the organic1 of history and life and all that bears the sign of direction and destiny1 is called ,physiognomic4 ,v ,in the ,west1 the ,systematic mode of treating the world reached and passed its culminating-point during the last century1 while the great days of ,physiognomic have still to come4 ,in a hundred years all sciences that are still possible on this soil will be parts of a single vast ,physiognomic of all things human4 ,this is what the 8,morphology of ,world- ,history0 means4 ,in every science1 and in the aim no less than in the content of it1 man tells the story of himself4 ,scientific experience is spiritual self-knowledge4 ,it is from this standpoint1 as a chapter of ,physiognomic1 that we have just treated of mathematics4 ,we were not concerned with what this or that mathematician intended1 nor with the savant as such or his results as a contribution to an aggregate of knowledge1 but with the mathematician as a human being1 with his work as a part of the phenomenon of himself1 with his knowledge and purposes as a part of his expression4 ,this alone is of importance to us here4 ,he is the mouthpiece of a ,culture which tells us about itself through him1 and he belongs1 as personality1 as soul1 as discoverer1 thinker and creator1 to the physiognomy of that ,culture4 ,every mathematic1 in that it brings out and makes visible to all the idea of number that is proper to itself and inborn in its conscious being1 is1 whether the expression-form be a scientific system or 7as in the case of ,egypt7 an architecture1 the confession of a ,soul4 ,if it is true that the intentional accomplishments of a mathematic belong only to the surface of history1 it is equally true that its unconscious element1 its number-as-such1 and the style in which it builds up its self- contained cosmos of forms are an expression of its existence1 its blood4 ,its life-history of ripening and withering1 its deep relation to the creative acts1 the myths and the cults of the same ,culture--such things are the subject-matter of a second or historical morphology1 though the possibility of such a morphology is hardly yet admitted4 ,the visible foregrounds of history1 therefore1 have the same significance as the outward phenomena of the individual man 7his statue1 his bearing1 his air1 his stride1 his way of speaking and writing71 as distinct from what he says or writes4 ,in the 8knowledge of men0 these things exist and matter4 ,the body and all its elaborations--defined1 8become0 and mortal as they are--are an expression of the soul4 ,but henceforth 8knowledge of men0 implies also knowledge of those superlative human organisms that ,i call ,cultures1 and of their mien1 their speech1 their acts--these terms being meant as we mean them already in the case of the individual4 ,descriptive1 creative1 ,physiognomic is the art of portraiture transferred to the spiritual domain4 ,don ,quixote1 ,werther1 ,julian ,sorel1 are portraits of an epoch1 ,faust the portrait of a whole ,culture4 ,for the nature-researcher1 the morphologist as systematist1 the portrayal of the world is only a business of imitation1 and corresponds to the 8fidelity to nature0 and the 8likeness0 of the craftsman-painter1 who1 at bottom1 works on purely mathematical lines4 ,but a real portrait in the ,rembrandt sense of the word is physiognomic1 that is1 history captured in a moment4 ,the set of his self-portraits is nothing else but a 7truly ,goethian7 autobiography4 ,so should the biographies of the great ,cultures be handled4 ,the 8fidelity0 part1 the work of the professional historian on facts and figures1 is only a means1 not an end4 ,the countenance of history is made up of all those things which hitherto we have only managed to evaluate according to personal standards1 i4e41 as beneficial or harmful1 good or bad1 satisfactory or unsatisfactory-- political forms and economic forms1 battles and arts1 science and gods1 mathematics and morals4 ,everything whatsoever that has become is a symbol1 and the expression of a soul4 ,only to one having the knowledge of men will it unveil itself4 ,the restraint of a law it abhors4 ,what it demands is that its significance should be sensed4 ,and thus research reaches up to a final or superlative truth--,alles ,vergngliche ist nur ein ,gleichnis4#hb ,the nature-researcher can be educated1 but the man who knows history is born4 ,he seizes and pierces men and facts with one blow1 guided by a feeling which cannot be acquired by learning or affected by persuasion1 but which only too rarely manifests itself in full intensity4 ,direction1 fixing1 ordering1 defining by cause and effect1 are things that one can do if one likes4 ,these things are work1 but the other is creation4 ,form and law1 portrayal and comprehension1 symbol and formula1 have different organs1 and their opposition is that in which life stands to death1 production to destruction4 ,reason1 system and comprehension kill as they 8cognize40 ,that which is cognized becomes a rigid object1 capable of measurement and subdivision4 ,intuitive vision1 on the other hand1 vivifies and incorporates the details in a living inwardly-felt unity4 ,poetry and historical study are kin4 ,calculation and cognition also are kin4 ,but1 as ,hebbel says somewhere1 systems are not dreamed1 and art- works are not calculated or 7what is the same thing7 thought out4 ,the artist or the real historian sees the becoming of a thing 7schaut1 wie etwas wird71 and he can re-enact its becoming from its lineaments1 whereas the systematist1 whether he be physicist1 logician1 evolutionist or pragmatical historian1 learns the thing that has become4 ,the artist's soul1 like the soul of a ,culture1 is something potential that may actualize itself1 something complete and perfect--in the language of an older philosophy1 a microcosm4 ,the systematic spirit1 narrow and withdrawn 8abs-tract07 from the sensual1 is an autumnal and passing phenomenon belonging to the ripest conditions of a ,culture4 ,linked with the city1 into which its life is more and more herded1 it comes and goes with the city4 ,in the ,classical world1 there is science only from the #fth-century ,ionians to the ,roman period1 but there was art in the ,classical world for just as long as there was existence4 ,once more1 a paradigm may help in elucidation4 ,soul ,world ,existence potentiality fulfilment actuality 7,life7 becoming the become ,consciousness direction extension organic mechanical symbol1 portrait1 number1 notion4 ,crossed downward arrows ,history ,nature ,world-image ,rhythm1 form4 ,tension1 law4 ,physiognomic4 ,systematic4 ,facts ,truths ,seeking thus to obtain a clear idea of the unifying principle out of which each of these two worlds is conceived1 we find that mathematically-controlled cognition relates always 7and the purer it is1 the more directly7 to a continuous present4 ,the picture of nature dealt with by the physicist is that which is deployed before his senses at the given moment4 ,it is one of the tacit1 but none the less firm1 presuppositions of nature-research that 8,nature0 7die ,natur7 is the same for every consciousness and for all times4 ,an experiment is decisive for good and all2 time being1 not precisely denied1 but eliminated from the field of investigation4 ,real history rests on an equally certain sense of the contrary2 what it presupposes as its origin is a nearly indescribable sensitive faculty within1 which is continuously labile under continuous impressions1 and is incapable therefore of possessing what may be called a centre of time4#hc 7,we shall consider later what the physicist means by 8time407 ,the picture of history--be it the history of mankind1 of the world of organisms1 of the earth or of the stellar systems--is a memory-picture4 8,memory10 in this connexion1 is conceived as a higher state 7certainly not proper to every consciousness and vouchsafed to many in only a low degree71 a perfectly definite kind of imagining power1 which enables experience to traverse each particular moment sub specie ternitatis as one point in an integral made up of all the past and all the future1 and it forms the necessary basis of all looking-backward1 all self-knowledge and all self-confession4 ,in this sense1 ,classical man has no memory and therefore no history1 either in or around himself4 8,no man can judge history but one who has himself experienced history10 says ,goethe4 ,in the ,classical world-consciousness all ,past was absorbed in the instant ,present4 ,compare the entirely historical heads of the ,nrnberg ,cathedral sculptures1 of ,drer1 of ,rembrandt1 with those of ,hellenistic sculpture1 for instance the famous ,sophocles statue4 ,the former tell the whole history of a soul1 whereas the latter rigidly confines itself to expressing the traits of a momentary being1 and tells nothing of how this being is the issue of a course of life--if indeed we can speak of 8course of life0 at all in connexion with a purely ,classical man1 who is always complete and never becoming4 ----- ,footnote #gi3 8,there are prime phenomena which in their godlike simplicity we must not disturb or infringe40 ,footnote #hj3 ,the date of ,napoleon's defeat1 and the liberation of ,germany1 on the field of ,leipzig4--,tr4 ,footnote #ha3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #be et seq41 #cbg et seq4 ,footnote #hb3 8,all we see before us passing ,sign and symbol is alone40 ,from the final stanza of ,faust ,,ii 7,anster's translation74--,tr4 ,footnote #hc3 ,this phrase1 derived by analogy from the centre of gravity of mechanics1 is offered as a translation of 8mithin in einim ,zeitpunkte ger nicht zusammengefasst werden knnen40--,tr4 ----- ,,vi ,and now it is possible to discover the ultimate elements of the historical form-world4 ,countless shapes that emerge and vanish1 pile up and melt again1 a thousand-hued glittering tumult1 it seems1 of perfectly wilful chance-- such is the picture of world-history when first it deploys before our inner eye4 ,but through this seeming anarchy1 the keener glance can detect those pure forms which underlie all human becoming1 penetrate their cloud-mantle1 and bring them unwillingly to unveil4 ,but of the whole picture of world-becoming1 of that cumulus of grand planes that the ,faust-eye#hd sees piled one beyond another--the becoming of the heavens1 of the earth's crust1 of life1 of man--we shall deal here only with that very small morphological unit that we are accustomed to call 8world-history10 that history which ,goethe ended by despising1 the history of higher mankind during #fjjj years or so1 without going into the deep problem of the inward homogeneity of all these aspects4 ,what gives this fleeting form-world meaning and substance1 and what has hitherto lain buried deep under a mass of tangible 8facts0 and 8dates0 that has hardly yet been bored through1 is the phenomenon of the ,great ,cultures4 ,only after these prime forms shall have been seen and felt and worked out in respect of their physiognomic meaning will it be possible to say that the essence and inner form of human ,history as opposed to the essence of ,nature are understood--or rather1 that we understand them4 ,only after this inlook and this outlook will a serious philosophy of history become feasible4 ,only then will it be possible to see each fact in the historical picture--each idea1 art1 war1 personality1 epoch--according to its symbolic content1 and to regard history not as a mere sum of past things without intrinsic order or inner necessity1 but as an organism of rigorous structure and significant articulation1 an organism that does not suddenly dissolve into a formless and ambiguous future when it reaches the accidental present of the observer4 ,cultures are organisms1 and world-history is their collective biography4 ,morphologically1 the immense history of the ,chinese or of the ,classical ,culture is the exact equivalent of the petty history of the individual man1 or of the animal1 or the tree1 or the flower4 ,for the ,faustian vision1 this is not a postulate but an experience2 if we want to learn to recognize inward forms that constantly and everywhere repeat themselves1 the comparative morphology#he of plants and animals has long ago given us the methods4 ,in the destinies of the several ,cultures that follow upon one another1 grow up with one another1 touch1 overshadow1 and suppress one another1 is compressed the whole content of human history4 ,and if we set free their shapes1 till now hidden all too deep under the surface of a trite 8history of human progress10 and let them march past us in the spirit1 it cannot but be that we shall succeed in distinguishing1 amidst all that is special or unessential1 the primitive culture-form1 the ,culture that underlies as ideal all the individual ,cultures4 ,i distinguish the idea of a ,culture1 which is the sum total of its inner possibilities1 from its sensible phenomenon or appearance upon the canvas of history as a fulfilled actuality4 ,it is the relation of the soul to the living body1 to its expression in the light-world perceptible to our eyes4 ,this history of a ,culture is the progressive actualizing of its possible1 and the fulfilment is equivalent to the end4 ,in this way the ,apollinian soul1 which some of us can perhaps understand and share in1 is related to its unfolding in the realm of actuality1 to the 8,classical0 or 8antique0 as we call it1 of which the tangible and understandable relics are investigated by the archologist1 the philologist1 the sthetic and the historian4 ,culture is the prime phenomenon of all past and future world-history4 ,the deep1 and scarcely appreciated1 idea of ,goethe1 which he discovered in his 8living nature0 and always made the basis of his morphological researches1 we shall here apply--in its most precise sense--to all the formations of man's history1 whether fully matured1 cut off in the prime1 half opened or stifled in the seed4 ,it is the method of living into 7erfhlen7 the object1 as opposed to dissecting it4 8,the highest to which man can attain1 is wonder2 and if the prime phenomenon makes him wonder1 let him be content2 nothing higher can it give him1 and nothing further should he seek for behind it2 here is the limit40 ,the prime phenomenon is that in which the idea of becoming is presented net4 ,to the spiritual eye of ,goethe the idea of the prime plant was clearly visible in the form of every individual plant that happened to come up1 or even that could possibly come up4 ,in his investigation of the 8os intermaxillare0 his starting-point was the prime phenomenon of the vertebrate type2 and in other fields it was geological stratification1 or the leaf as the prime form of the plant-organism1 or the metamorphosis of the plants as the prime form of all organic becoming4 8,the same law will apply to everything else that lives10 he wrote1 in announcing his discovery to ,herder4 ,it was a look into the heart of things that ,leibniz would have understood1 but the century of ,darwin is as remote from such a vision as it is possible to be4 ,at present1 however1 we look in vain for any treatment of history that is entirely free from the methods of ,darwinism--that is1 of systematic natural science based on causality4 ,a physiognomic that is precise1 clear and sure of itself and its limits has never yet arisen1 and it can only arise through the discoveries of method that we have yet to make4 ,herein lies the great problem set for the #bjth ,century to solve--to explore carefully the inner structure of the organic units through and in which world-history fulfils itself1 to separate the morphologically necessary from the accidental1 and1 by seizing the purport of events1 to ascertain the languages in which they speak4 ,,vii ,a boundless mass of human ,being1 flowing in a stream without banks2 up- stream1 a dark past wherein our time-sense loses all powers of definition and restless or uneasy fancy conjures up geological periods to hide away an eternally-unsolvable riddle2 down-stream1 a future even so dark and timeless--such is the groundwork of the ,faustian picture of human history4 ,over the expanse of the water passes the endless uniform wave-train of the generations4 ,here and there bright shafts of light broaden out1 everywhere dancing flashes confuse and disturb the clear mirror1 changing1 sparkling1 vanishing4 ,these are what we call the clans1 tribes1 peoples1 races which unify a series of generations within this or that limited area of the historical surface4 ,as widely as these differ in creative power1 so widely do the images that they create vary in duration and plasticity1 and when the creative power dies out1 the physiognomic1 linguistic and spiritual identification-marks vanish also and the phenomenon subsides again into the ruck of the generations4 ,aryans1 ,mongols1 ,germans1 ,kelts1 ,parthians1 ,franks1 ,carthaginians1 ,berbers1 ,bantus are names by which we specify some very heterogeneous images of this order4 ,but over this surface1 too1 the great ,cultures#hf accomplish their majestic wave-cycles4 ,they appear suddenly1 swell in splendid lines1 flatten again and vanish1 and the face of the waters is once more a sleeping waste4 ,a ,culture is born in the moment when a great soul awakens out of the proto-spirituality 7dem urseelenhaften ,zustande7 of ever-childish humanity1 and detaches itself1 a form from the formless1 a bounded and mortal thing from the boundless and enduring4 ,it blooms on the soil of an exactly-definable landscape1 to which plant-wise it remains bound4 ,it dies when this soul has actualized the full sum of its possibilities in the shape of peoples1 languages1 dogmas1 arts1 states1 sciences1 and reverts into the proto-soul4 ,but its living existence1 that sequence of great epochs which define and display the stages of fulfilment1 is an inner passionate struggle to maintain the ,idea against the powers of ,chaos without and the unconscious muttering deep-down within4 ,it is not only the artist who struggles against the resistance of the material and the stifling of the idea within him4 ,every ,culture stands in a deeply- symbolical1 almost in a mystical1 relation to the ,extended1 the space1 in which and through which it strives to actualize itself4 ,the aim once attained--the idea1 the entire content of inner possibilities1 fulfilled and made externally actual--the ,culture suddenly hardens1 it mortifies1 its blood congeals1 its force breaks down1 and it becomes ,civilization1 the thing which we feel and understand in the words ,egypticism1 ,byzantinism1 ,mandarinism4 ,as such they may1 like a worn-out giant of the primeval forest1 thrust their decaying branches towards the sky for hundreds or thousands of years1 as we see in ,china1 in ,india1 in the ,islamic world4 ,it was thus that the ,classical ,civilization rose gigantic1 in the ,imperial age1 with a false semblance of youth and strength and fullness1 and robbed the young ,arabian ,culture of the ,east of light and air4#hg ,this--the inward and outward fulfilment1 the finality1 that awaits every living ,culture--is the purport of all the historic 8declines10 amongst them that decline of the ,classical which we know so well and fully1 and another decline1 entirely comparable to it in course and duration1 which will occupy the first centuries of the coming millennium but is heralded already and sensible in and around us to-day--the decline of the ,west4#hh ,every ,culture passes through the age-phases of the individual man4 ,each has its childhood1 youth1 manhood and old age4 ,it is a young and trembling soul1 heavy with misgivings1 that reveals itself in the morning of ,romanesque and ,gothic4 ,it fills the ,faustian landscape from the ,provence of the troubadours to the ,hildesheim cathedral of ,bishop ,bernward4#hi ,the spring wind blows over it4 8,in the works of the old- ,german architecture10 says ,goethe1 8one sees the blossoming of an extraordinary state4 ,anyone immediately confronted with such a blossoming can do no more than wonder2 but one who can see into the secret inner life of the plant and its rain of forces1 who can observe how the bud expands1 little by little1 sees the thing with quite other eyes and knows what he is seeing40 ,childhood speaks to us also--and in the same tones--out of early-,homeric ,doric1 out of early-,christian 7which is really early-,arabian7 art and out of the works of the ,old ,kingdom in ,egypt that began with the ,fourth ,dynasty4 ,there a mythic world- consciousness is fighting like a harassed debtor against all the dark and daemonic in itself and in ,nature1 while slowly ripening itself for the pure1 day-bright expression of the existence that it will at last achieve and know4 ,the more nearly a ,culture approaches the noon culmination of its being1 the more virile1 austere1 controlled1 intense the form-language it has secured for itself1 the more assured its sense of its own power1 the clearer its lineaments4 ,in the spring all this had still been dim and confused1 tentative1 filled with childish yearning and fears--witness the ornament of ,romanesque-,gothic church porches of ,saxony#ij and southern ,france1 the early-,christian catacombs1 the ,dipylon#ia vases4 ,but there is now the full consciousness of ripened creative power that we see in the time of the early ,middle ,kingdom of ,egypt1 in the ,athens of the ,pisistratid1 in the age of ,justinian1 in that of the ,counter-,reformation1 and we find every individual trait of expression deliberate1 strict1 measured1 marvellous in its ease and self-confidence4 ,and we find1 too1 that everywhere1 at moments1 the coming fulfilment suggested itself2 in such moments were created the head of ,amenemhet ,,iii 7the so-called 8,hyksos ,sphinx0 of ,tanis71 the domes of ,hagia ,sophia1 the paintings of ,titian4 ,still later1 tender to the point of fragility1 fragrant with the sweetness of late ,october days1 come the ,cnidian ,aphrodite and the ,hall of the ,maidens in the ,erechtheum1 the arabesques on ,saracen horseshoe-arches1 the ,zwinger of ,dresden1 ,watteau1 ,mozart4 ,at last1 in the grey dawn of ,civilization1 the fire in the ,soul dies down4 ,the dwindling powers rise to one more1 half- successful1 effort of creation1 and produce the ,classicism that is common to all dying ,cultures4 ,the soul thinks once again1 and in ,romanticism looks back piteously to its childhood2 then finally1 weary1 reluctant1 cold1 it loses its desire to be1 and1 as in ,imperial ,rome1 wishes itself out of the overlong daylight and back in the darkness of protomysticism1 in the womb of the mother1 in the grave4 ,the spell of a 8second religiousness0#ib comes upon it1 and ,late-,classical man turns to the practice of the cults of ,mithras1 of ,isis1 of the ,sun--those very cults into which a soul just born in the ,east has been pouring a new wine of dreams and fears and loneliness4 ----- ,footnote #hd3 ,cf4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cc et seq4 ,footnote #he3 ,not the dissecting morphology of the ,darwinian's pragmatic zoology with its hunt for causal connexions1 but the seeing and overseeing morphology of ,goethe4 ,footnote #hf3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #da et seq4 ,footnote #hg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bbg et seq4 ,footnote #hh3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aaf et seq4 ,what constitutes the downfall is not1 e4g41 the catastrophe of the ,great ,migrations1 which like the annihilation of the ,maya ,culture by the ,spaniards 7see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ea et seq47 was a coincidence without any deep necessity1 but the inward undoing that began from the time of ,hadrian1 as in ,china from the ,eastern ,han dynasty 7#be-bbj74 ,footnote #hi3 ,st4 ,bernward was ,bishop of ,hildesheim from #iic to #ajbb1 and himself architect and metal-worker4 ,three other churches besides the cathedral survive in the city from his time or that of his immediate successors1 and ,hildesheim of all ,north ,german cities is richest in monuments of the ,romanesque4--,tr4 ,footnote #ij3 ,by 8,saxony10 a ,german historian means not the present-day state of ,saxony 7which was a small and comparatively late accretion71 but the whole region of the ,weser and the lower ,elbe1 with ,westphalia and ,holstein4--,tr4 ,footnote #ia3 ,vases from the cemetery adjoining the ,dipylon ,gate of ,athens1 the most representative relics that we possess of the ,doric or primitive age of the ,hellenic ,culture 7about #ijj to #fjj ,b4,c474--,tr4 ,footnote #ib3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cha et seq4 ----- ,,viii ,the term 8habit0 7,habitus7 is used of a plant to signify the special way1 proper to itself1 in which it manifests itself1 i4e41 the character1 course and duration of its appearance in the light-world where we can see it4 ,by its habit each kind is distinguished1 in respect of each part and each phase of its existence1 from all examples of other species4 ,we may apply this useful notion of 8habit0 in our physiognomic of the grand organisms and speak of the habit of the ,indian1 ,egyptian or ,classical ,culture1 history or spirituality4 ,some vague inkling of it has always1 for that matter1 underlain the notion of style1 and we shall not be forcing but merely clearing and deepening that word if we speak of the religious1 intellectual1 political1 social or economic style#ic of a ,culture4 ,this 8habit0 of existence in space1 which covers in the case of the individual man action and thought and conduct and disposition1 embraces in the case or the existence of whole ,cultures the totality of life-expressions of the higher order4 ,the choice of particular branches of art 7e4g41 the round and fresco by the ,hellenes1 counterpoint and oil-painting by the ,west7 and the out-and-out rejection of others 7e4g41 of plastic by the ,arabs72 inclination to the esoteric 7,india7 or the popular 7,greece and ,rome72 preference for oratory 7,classical7 or for writing 7,china1 the ,west7 as the form of spiritual communication1 are all style-manifestations1 and so also are the various types of costume1 of administration1 of transport1 of social courtesies4 ,all great personalities of the ,classical world form a self-contained group1 whose spiritual habit is definitely different from that of all great men of the ,arabian or the ,western groups4 ,compare even ,goethe and ,raphael with ,classical men1 and ,heraclitus1 ,sophocles1 ,plato1 ,alcibiades1 ,themistocles1 ,horace and ,tiberius rank themselves together instantly as members of one family4 ,every ,classical ,cosmopolis--from ,hiero's ,syracuse to ,imperial ,rome the embodiment and sense-picture of one and the same life-feeling--differs radically in lay-out and street- plan1 in the language of its public and private architecture1 in the type of its squares1 alleys1 courts1 faades1 in its colour1 noises1 street-life and night-life1 from the group of ,indian or that of ,arabian or that of ,western world-cities4 ,baghdad and ,cairo could be felt in ,granada long after the conquest2 even ,philip ,,ii's ,madrid had all the physiognomic hall-marks of modern ,london and ,paris4 ,there is a high symbolism in every dissimilarity of this sort4 ,contrast the ,western tendency to straight-lined perspectives and street-alignments 7such as the grand tract of the ,champs-,elyses from the ,louvre1 or the ,piazza before ,st4 ,peter's7 with the almost deliberate complexity and narrowness of the ,via ,sacra1 the ,forum ,romanum and the ,acropolis1 whose parts are arranged without symmetry and with no perspective4 ,even the town- planning--whether darkly as in the ,gothic or consciously as in the ages of ,alexander and ,napoleon--reflects the same principle as the mathematic-- in the one case the ,leibnizian mathematic of infinite space1 in the other the ,euclidean mathematic of separate bodies4#id ,but to the 8habit0 of a group belong1 further1 its definite life-duration and its definite tempo of development4 ,both of these are properties which we must not fail to take into account in a historical theory of structure4 ,the rhythm 7,takt7 of ,classical existence was different from that of ,egyptian or ,arabian2 and we can fairly speak of the andante of ,greece and ,rome and the allegro con brio of the ,faustian spirit4 ,the notion of life-duration as applied to a man1 a butterfly1 an oak1 a blade of grass1 comprises a specific time-value1 which is quite independent of all the accidents of the individual case4 ,ten years are a slice of life which is approximately equivalent for all men1 and the metamorphosis of insects is associated with a number of days exactly known and predictable in individual cases4 ,for the ,romans the notions of pueritia1 adolescentia1 iuventus1 virilitas1 senectus possessed an almost mathematically precise meaning4 ,without doubt the biology of the future will--in opposition to ,darwinism and to the exclusion in principle of causal fitness-motives for the origins of species--take these pre-ordained life durations as the starting-point for a new enunciation of its problem4#ie ,the duration of a generation-- whatever may be its nature--is a fact of almost mystical significance4 ,now1 such relations are valid also1 and to an extent never hitherto imagined1 for all the higher ,cultures4 ,every ,culture1 every adolescence and maturing and decay of a ,culture1 every one of its intrinsically necessary stages and periods1 has a definite duration1 always the same1 always recurring with the emphasis of a symbol4 ,in the present work we cannot attempt to open up this world of most mysterious connexions1 but the facts that will emerge again and again as we go on will tell us of themselves how much lies hidden here4 ,what is the meaning of that striking fifty-year period1 the rhythm of the political1 intellectual and artistic 8becoming0 of all ,cultures8#if ,of the #cjj-year period of the ,baroque1 of the ,ionic1 of the great mathematics1 of ,attic sculpture1 of mosaic painting1 of counterpoint1 of ,galileian mechanics8 ,what does the ideal life of one millennium for each ,culture mean in comparison with the individual man's three-score years and ten8 ,as the plant's being is brought to expression in form1 dress and carriage by leaves1 blossoms1 twigs and fruit1 so also is the being of a ,culture manifested by its religious1 intellectual1 political and economic formations4 ,just as1 say1 ,goethe's individuality discourses of itself in such widely- different forms as the ,faust1 the ,farbenlehre1 the ,reineke ,fuchs1 ,tasso1 ,werther1 the journey to ,italy and the ,friederike love1 the ,weststliche ,diwan and the ,rmische ,elegien2 so the individuality of the ,classical world displays itself in the ,persian wars1 the ,attic drama1 the ,city-,state1 the ,dionysia and not less in the ,tyrannis1 the ,ionic column1 the geometry of ,euclid1 the ,roman legion1 and the gladiatorial contests and 8panem et circenses0 of the ,imperial age4 ,in this sense1 too1 every individual being that has any sort of importance recapitulates1#ig of intrinsic necessity1 all the epochs of the ,culture to which it belongs4 ,in each one of us1 at that decisive moment when he begins to know that he is an ego1 the inner life wakens just where and just how that of the ,culture wakened long ago4 ,each of us men of the ,west1 in his child's day-dreams and child's play1 lives again its ,gothic--the cathedrals1 the castles1 the hero-sagas1 the crusader's 8,dieu le veult10 the soul's oath of young ,parzival4 ,every young ,greek had his ,homeric age and his ,marathon4 ,in ,goethe's ,werther1 the image of a tropic youth that every ,faustian 7but no ,classical7 man knows1 the springtime of ,petrarch and the ,minnesnger reappears4 ,when ,goethe blocked out the ,urfaust1#ih he was ,parzival2 when he finished ,faust ,i1 he was ,hamlet1 and only with ,faust ,,ii did he become the world-man of the #aith ,century whom ,byron could understand4 ,even the senility of the ,classical--the faddy and unfruitful centuries of very late ,hellenism1 the second-childhood of a weary and blas intelligence--can be studied in more than one of its grand old men4 ,thus1 much of ,euripides' ,bacch anticipates the life-outlook1 and much of ,plato's ,timus the religious syncretism of the ,imperial age2 and ,goethe's ,faust ,,ii and ,wagner's ,parsifal disclose to us in advance the shape that our spirituality will assume in our next 7in point of creative power our last7 centuries4 ,biology employs the term homology of organs to signify morphological equivalence in contradistinction to the term analogy which relates to functional equivalence4 ,this important1 and in the sequel most fruitful1 notion was conceived by ,goethe 7who was led thereby to the discovery of the 8os intermaxillare0 in man7 and put into strict scientific shape by ,owen2#ii this notion also we shall incorporate in our historical method4 ,it is known that for every part of the bone-structure of the human head an exactly corresponding part is found in all vertebrated animals right down to the fish1 and that the pectoral fins of fish and the feet1 wings and hands of terrestrial vertebrates are homologous organs1 even though they have lost every trace of similarity4 ,the lungs of terrestrial1 and the swim-bladders of aquatic animals are homologous1 while lungs and gills on the other hand are analogous--that is1 similar in point of use4#ajj ,and the trained and deepened morphological insight that is required to establish such distinctions is an utterly different thing from the present method of historical research1 with its shallow comparisons of ,christ and ,buddha1 ,archimedes and ,galileo1 ,csar and ,wallenstein1 parcelled ,germany and parcelled ,greece4 ,more and more clearly as we go on1 we shall realize what immense views will offer themselves to the historical eye as soon as the rigorous morphological method has been understood and cultivated4 ,to name but a few examples1 homologous forms are3 ,classical sculpture and ,west ,european orchestration1 the ,fourth ,dynasty pyramids and the ,gothic cathedrals1 ,indian ,buddhism and ,roman ,stoicism 7,buddhism and ,christianity are not even analogous72 the periods of 8the ,contending ,states0 in ,china1 the ,hyksos in ,egypt and the ,punic ,wars2 the age of ,pericles and the age of the ,ommayads2 the epochs of the ,rigveda1 of ,plotinus and of ,dante4 ,the ,dionysiac movement is homologous with the ,renaissance1 analogous to the ,reformation4 ,for us1 ,wagner is the rsum of modernity1 as ,nietzsche rightly saw2 and the equivalent that logically must exist in the ,classical modernity we find in ,pergamene art4 7,some preliminary notion of the fruitfulness of this way of regarding history1 may be gathered from studying the tables included in this volume47 ,the application of the 8homology0 principle to historical phenomena brings with it an entirely new connotation for the word 8contemporary40 ,i designate as contemporary two historical facts that occur in exactly the same--relative--positions in their respective ,cultures1 and therefore possess exactly equivalent importance4 ,it has already been shown how the development of the ,classical and that of the ,western mathematic proceeded in complete congruence1 and we might have ventured to describe ,pythagoras as the contemporary of ,descartes1 ,archytas of ,laplace1 ,archimedes of ,gauss4 ,the ,ionic and the ,baroque1 again1 ran their course contemporaneously4 ,polygnotus pairs in time with ,rembrandt1 ,polycletus with ,bach4 ,the ,reformation1 ,puritanism and1 above all1 the turn to ,civilization appear simultaneously in all ,cultures2 in the ,classical this last epoch bears the names of ,philip and ,alexander1 in our ,west those of the ,revolution and ,napoleon4 ,contemporary1 too1 are the building of ,alexandria1 of ,baghdad1 and of ,washington2 ,classical coinage and our double-entry book-keeping2 the first ,tyrannis and the ,fronde2 ,augustus and ,shih-huang-ti2#aja ,hannibal and the ,world ,war4 ,i hope to show that without exception all great creations and forms in religion1 art1 politics1 social life1 economy and science appear1 fulfil themselves and die down contemporaneously in all the ,cultures2 that the inner structure of one corresponds strictly with that of all the others2 that there is not a single phenomenon of deep physiognomic importance in the record of one for which we could not find a counterpart in the record of every other2 and that this counterpart is to be found under a characteristic form and in a perfectly definite chronological position4 ,at the same time1 if we are to grasp such homologies of facts1 we shall need to have a far deeper insight and a far more critical attitude towards the visible foreground of things than historians have hitherto been wont to display2 who amongst them1 for instance1 would have allowed himself to dream that the counterpart of ,protestantism was to be found in the ,dionysiac movement1 and that ,english ,puritanism was for the ,west what ,islam was for the ,arabian world8 ,seen from this angle1 history offers possibilities far beyond the ambitions of all previous research1 which has contented itself in the main with arranging the facts of the past so far as these were known 7and that according to a one-line scheme7--the possibilities1 namely1 of ,overpassing the present as a research-limit1 and predetermining the spiritual form1 duration1 rhythm1 meaning and product of the still unaccomplished stages of our western history2 and ,reconstructing long-vanished and unknown epochs1 even whole ,cultures of the past1 by means of morphological connexions1 in much the same way as modern palontology deduces far-reaching and trustworthy conclusions as to skeletal structure and species from a single unearthed skull-fragment4 ,it is possible1 given the physiognomic rhythm1 to recover from scattered details of ornament1 building1 script1 or from odd political1 economic and religious data1 the organic characters of whole centuries of history1 and from known elements on the scale of art-expression1 to find corresponding elements on the scale of political forms1 or from that of mathematical forms to read that of economic4 ,this is a truly ,goethian method--rooted in fact in ,goethe's conception of the prime phenomenon-- which is already to a limited extent current in comparative zoology1 but can be extended1 to a degree hitherto undreamed of1 over the whole field of history4 ----- ,footnote #ic3 ,in ,english the word 8cast0 will evidently satisfy the sense better on occasion4 ,the word 8stil0 will therefore not necessarily be always rendered 8style40--,tr4 ,footnote #id3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aji et seq4 ,footnote #ie3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cf et seq4 ,footnote #if3 ,i will only mention here the distances apart of the three ,punic ,wars1 and the series--likewise comprehensible only as rhythmic--,spanish ,succession ,war1 ,silesian wars1 ,napoleonic ,wars1 ,bismarck's wars1 and the ,world ,war 7cf4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dhh74 ,connected with this is the spiritual relation of grandfather and grandson1 a relation which produces in the mind of primitive peoples the conviction that the soul of the grandfather returns in the grandson1 and has originated the widespread custom of giving the grandson the grandfather's name1 which by its mystic spell binds his soul afresh to the corporeal world4 ,footnote #ig3 ,the word is used in the sense in which biology employs it1 viz41 to describe the process by which the embryo traverses all the phases which its species has undergone4--,tr4 ,footnote #ih3 ,the first draft of ,faust ,i1 discovered only comparatively recently4-- ,tr4 ,footnote #ii3 ,see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,x,ith ,ed41 articles ,owen1 ,sir ,richard2 ,morphology and ,zoology 7p4 #ajbi74--,tr4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,it is not superfluous to add that there is nothing of the causal kind in these pure phenomena of 8,living ,nature40 ,materialism1 in order to get a system for the pedestrian reasoner1 has had to adulterate the picture of them with fitness-causes4 ,but ,goethe--who anticipated just about as much of ,darwinism as there will be left of it in fifty years from ,darwin--absolutely excluded the causality-principle4 ,and the very fact that the ,darwinians quite failed to notice its absence is a clear indication that ,goethe's 8,living ,nature0 belongs to actual life1 cause-less and aim-less2 for the idea of the prime-phenomenon does not involve causal assumptions of any sort unless it has been misunderstood in advance in a mechanistic sense4 ,footnote #aja3 ,reigned #bdf-baj ,b4,c4 ,he styled himself 8first universal emperor0 and intended a position for himself and his successors akin to that of 8,divus0 in ,rome4 ,for a brief account of his energetic and comprehensive work see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,ed41 article ,china1 p4 #aid4-- ,tr4 ----- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,world-,,history ,,ii ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,destiny ,,and ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,causality ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,world-,,history ,,ii ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,destiny ,,and ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,causality ,i ,following out this train of thought to the end1 we come into the presence of an opposition in which we perceive the key--the only key-- wherewith to approach1 and 7so far as the word has any meaning at all7 to solve1 one of the oldest and gravest of man's riddles4 ,this is the opposition of the ,destiny ,idea and the ,causality ,principle--an opposition which1 it is safe to say1 has never hitherto been recognized for what it is1 the necessary foundation of world-building4 ,anyone who understands at all what is meant by saying that the soul is the idea of an existence1 will also divine a near relationship between it and the sure sense of a destiny and must regard ,life itself 7our name for the form in which the actualizing of the possible is accomplished7 as directed1 irrevocable in every line1 fate-laden4 ,primitive man feels this dimly and anxiously1 while for the man of a higher ,culture it is definite enough to become his vision of the world-- though this vision is communicable only through religion and art1 never through notions and proofs4 ,every higher language possesses a number of words such as luck1 doom1 conjuncture1 vocation1 about which there is1 as it were1 a veil4 ,no hypothesis1 no science1 can ever get into touch with that which we feel when we let ourselves sink into the meaning and sound of these words4 ,they are symbols1 not notions4 ,in them is the centre of gravity of that world-picture that ,i have called the ,world-as-history as opposed to the ,world-as-nature4 ,the ,destiny-idea demands life-experience and not scientific experience1 the power of seeing and not that of calculating1 depth and not intellect4 ,there is an organic logic1 an instinctive1 dream-sure logic of all existence as opposed to the logic of the inorganic1 the logic of understanding and of things understood--a logic of direction as against a logic of extension--and no systematist1 no ,aristotle or ,kant1 has known how to deal with it4 ,they are on their own ground when they tell us about 8judgment10 8perception10 8awareness10 and 8recollection10 but as to what is in the words 8hope10 8happiness10 8despair10 8repentance10 8devotion10 and 8consolation0 they are silent4 ,he who expects here1 in the domain of the living1 to find reasons and consequences1 or imagines that an inward certainty as to the meaning of life is the same thing as 8,fatalism0 or 8,predestination10 simply knows nothing of the matters in question1 confusing experience lived with experience acquired or acquirable4 ,causality is the reasonable1 the law- bound1 the describable1 the badge of our whole waking and reasoning existence4 ,but destiny is the word for an inner certainty that is not describable4 ,we bring out that which is in the causal by means of a physical or an epistemological system1 through numbers1 by reasoned classification2 but the idea of destiny can be imparted only by the artist working through media like portraiture1 tragedy and music4 ,the one requires us to distinguish and in distinguishing to dissect and destroy1 whereas the other is creative through and through1 and thus destiny is related to life and causality to death4 ,in the ,destiny-idea the soul reveals its world-longing1 its desire to rise into the light1 to accomplish and actualize its vocation4 ,to no man is it entirely alien1 and not before one has become the unanchored 8late0 man of the megalopolis is original vision quite overpowered by matter-of-fact feeling and mechanizing thought4 ,even then1 in some intense hour1 the lost vision comes back to one with terrible clearness1 shattering in a moment all the causality of the world's surface4 ,for the world as a system of causal connexions is not only a 8late0 but also a highly rarefied conception and only the energetic intellects of high ,cultures are capable of possessing it--or perhaps we should say1 devising it--with conviction4 ,the notion of causality is coterminous with the notion of law3 the only laws that are1 are causal laws4 ,but just as there lies in the causal1 according to ,kant1 a necessity of the thinking consciousness and the basic form of its relation to the essence of things1 so also1 designated by the words destiny1 dispensation1 vocation1 there is a something that is an inevitable necessity of life4 ,real history is heavy with fate but free of laws4 ,one can divine the future 7there is1 indeed1 a certain insight that can penetrate its secrets deeply7 but one cannot reckon it4 ,the physiognomic flair which enables one to read a whole life in a face or to sum up whole peoples from the picture of an epoch--and to do so without deliberate effort or 8system0--is utterly remote from all 8cause and effect40 ,he who comprehends the light-world that is before his eyes not physiognomically but systematically1 and makes it intellectually his own by the methods of causal experience1 must necessarily in the end come to believe that every living thing can be understood by reference to cause and effect--that there is no secret and no inner directedness4 ,he1 on the other hand1 who as ,goethe did--and for that matter as everyone does in nine out of ten of his waking moments--lets the impressions of the world about him work merely upon his senses1 absorbs these impressions as a whole1 feels the become in its becoming4 ,the stiff mask of causality is lifted by mere ceasing to think4 ,suddenly1 ,time is no more a riddle1 a notion1 a 8form0 or 8dimension0 but becomes an inner certainty1 destiny itself2 and in its directedness1 its irreversibility1 its livingness1 is disclosed the very meaning of the historical world-picture4 ,destiny and ,causality are related as ,time and ,space4 ,in the two possible world-forms then--,history and ,nature1 the physiognomy of all becoming and the system of all things become--destiny or causality prevails4 ,between them there is all the difference between a feeling of life and a method of knowledge4 ,each of them is the starting- point of a complete and self-contained1 but not of a unique world4 ,yet1 after all1 just as the become is founded upon a becoming1 so the knowledge of cause and effect is founded upon the sure feeling of a destiny4 ,causality is--so to say--destiny become1 destiny made inorganic and modelled in reason-forms4 ,destiny itself 7passed over in silence by ,kant and every other builder of rational world-systems because with their armoury of abstractions they could not touch life7 stands beyond and outside all comprehended ,nature4 ,nevertheless1 being itself the original1 it alone gives the stiff dead principle of cause-and- effect the opportunity to figure in the later scenes of a culture-drama1 alive and historical1 as the incarnation of a tyrannical thinking4 ,the existence of the ,classical soul is the condition for the appearance of ,democritus's method1 the existence of the ,faustian soul for that of ,newton's4 ,we may well imagine that either of these ,cultures might have failed to produce a natural science of its own1 but we cannot imagine the systems without their cultural foundations4 ,here again we see how becoming and the become1 direction and extension1 include one another and are subordinated each to the other1 according as we are in the historical or in the 8natural0 focus4 ,if history is that kind of world-order in which all the become is fitted to the becoming1 then the products of scientific work must inter alia be so handled2 and1 in fact1 for the historical eye there is only a history of physics4 ,it was ,destiny that the discoveries of oxygen1 ,neptune1 gravitation and spectrum analysis happened as and when they did4 ,it was ,destiny that the phlogiston theory1 the undulatory theory of light1 the kinetic theory of gases could arise at all1 seeing that they were elucidations of results and1 as such1 highly personal to their respective authors1 and that other theories 78correct0 or 8erroneous07 might equally well have been developed instead4 ,and it is again ,destiny and the result of strong personality when one theory vanishes and another becomes the lodestar of the physicist's world4 ,even the born physicist speaks of the 8fate0 of a problem or the 8history0 of a discovery4 ,conversely1 if 8,nature0 is that constitution of things in which the becoming should logically be incorporated in the thing-become1 and living direction in rigid extension1 history may best be treated as a chapter of epistemology2 and so indeed ,kant would have treated it if he had remembered to include it at all in his system of knowledge4 ,significantly enough1 he did not2 for him as for every born systematist ,nature is ,the ,world1 and when he discusses time without noticing that it has direction and is irreversible1 we see that he is dealing with the ,nature-world and has no inkling of the possibility of another1 the history-world4 ,perhaps1 for ,kant1 this other world was actually impossible4 ,now1 ,causality has nothing whatever to do with ,time4 ,to the world of to-day1 made up of ,kantians who know not how ,kantian they are1 this must seem an outrageous paradox4 ,and yet every formula of ,western physics exhibits the 8how0 and the 8how long0 as distinct in essence4 ,as soon as the question is pressed home1 causality restricts its answer rigidly to the statement that something happens--and not when it happens4 ,the 8effect0 must of necessity be put with the 8cause40 ,the distance between them belongs to a different order1 it lies within the act of understanding itself 7which is an element of life7 and not within the thing or things understood4 ,it is of the essence of the extended that it overcomes directedness1 and of ,space that it contradicts ,time1 and yet the latter1 as the more fundamental1 precedes and underlies the former4 ,destiny claims the same precedence2 we begin with the idea of ,destiny1 and only later1 when our waking-consciousness looks fearfully for a spell that will bind in the sense-world and overcome the death that cannot be evaded1 do we conceive causality as an anti-,fate1 and make it create another world to protect us from and console us for this4 ,and as the web of cause and effect gradually spreads over the visible surfaces there is formed a convincing picture of timeless duration-- essentially1 ,being1 but ,being endowed with attributes by the sheer force of pure thought4 ,this tendency underlies the feeling1 well known in all mature ,cultures1 that 8,knowledge is ,power10 the power that is meant being power over ,destiny4 ,the abstract savant1 the natural-science researcher1 the thinker in systems1 whose whole intellectual existence bases itself on the causality principle1 are 8late0 manifestations of an unconscious hatred of the powers of incomprehensible ,destiny4 8,pure ,reason0 denies all possibilities that are outside itself4 ,here strict thought and great art are eternally in conflict4 ,the one keeps its feet1 and the other lets itself go4 ,a man like ,kant must always feel himself as superior to a ,beethoven as the adult is to the child1 but this will not prevent a ,beethoven from regarding the 8,critique of ,pure ,reason0 as a pitiable sort of philosophy4 ,teleology1 that nonsense of all nonsenses within science1 is a misdirected attempt to deal mechanically with the living content of scientific knowledge 7for knowledge implies someone to know1 and though the substance of thought may be 8,nature0 the act of thought is history71 and so with life itself as an inverted causality4 ,teleology is a caricature of the ,destiny-idea which transforms the vocation of ,dante into the aim of the savant4 ,it is the deepest and most characteristic tendency both of ,darwinism--the megalopolitan-intellectual product of the most abstract of all ,civilizations--and of the materialist conception of history which springs from the same root as ,darwinism and1 like it1 kills all that is organic and fateful4 ,thus the morphological element of the ,causal is a ,principle1 and the morphological element of ,destiny is an ,idea1 an idea that is incapable of being 8cognized10 described or defined1 and can only be felt and inwardly lived4 ,this idea is something of which one is either entirely ignorant or else--like the man of the spring and every truly significant man of the late seasons1 believer1 lover1 artist1 poet--entirely certain4 ,thus ,destiny is seen to be the true existence-mode of the prime phenomenon1 that in which the living idea of becoming unfolds itself immediately to the intuitive vision4 ,and therefore the ,destiny-idea dominates the whole world-picture of history1 while causality1 which is the existence-mode of objects and stamps out of the world of sensations a set of well-distinguished and well-defined things1 properties and relations1 dominates and penetrates1 as the form of the understanding1 the ,nature-world that is the understanding's 8alter ego40 ,but inquiry into the degree of validity of causal connexions within a presentation of nature1 or 7what is henceforth the same thing for us7 into the destinies involved in that presentation1 becomes far more difficult still when we come to realize that for primitive man or for the child no comprehensive causally-ordered world exists at all as yet and that we ourselves1 though 8late0 men with a consciousness disciplined by powerful speech-sharpened thought1 can do no more1 even in moments of the most strained attention 7the only ones1 really1 in which we are exactly in the physical focus71 than assert that the causal order which we see in such a moment is continuously present in the actuality around us4 ,even waking1 we take in the actual1 8the living garment of the ,deity10 physiognomically1 and we do so involuntarily and by virtue of a power of experience that is rooted in the deep sources of life4 ,a systematic delineation1 on the contrary1 is the expression of an understanding emancipated from perception1 and by means of it we bring the mental picture of all times and all men into conformity with the moment's picture of ,nature as ordered by ourselves4 ,but the mode of this ordering1 which has a history that we cannot interfere with in the smallest degree1 is not the working of a cause1 but a destiny4 ,,ii ,the way to the problem of ,time1 then1 begins in the primitive wistfulness and passes through its clearer issue the ,destiny-idea4 ,we have now to try to outline1 briefly1 the content of that problem1 so far as it affects the subject of this book4 ,the word ,time is a sort of charm to summon up that intensely personal something designated earlier as the 8proper10 which with an inner certainty we oppose to the 8alien0 something that is borne in upon each of us amongst and within the crowding impressions of the sense-life4 8,the ,proper10 8,destiny0 and 8,time0 are interchangeable words4 ,the problem of ,time1 like that of ,destiny1 has been completely misunderstood by all thinkers who have confined themselves to the systematic of the ,become4 ,in ,kant's celebrated theory there is not one word about its character of directedness4 ,not only so1 but the omission has never even been noticed4 ,but what is time as a length1 time without direction8 ,everything living1 we can only repeat1 has 8life10 direction1 impulse1 will1 a movement-quality 7,bewegtheit7 that is most intimately allied to yearning and has not the smallest element in common with the 8motion0 7,bewegung7 of the physicists4 ,the living is indivisible and irreversible1 once and uniquely occurring1 and its course is entirely indeterminable by mechanics4 ,for all such qualities belong to the essence of ,destiny1 and 8,time0--that which we actually feel at the sound of the word1 which is clearer in music than in language1 and in poetry than in prose--has this organic essence1 while ,space has not4 ,hence1 ,kant and the rest notwithstanding1 it is impossible to bring ,time with ,space under one general ,critique4 ,space is a conception1 but time is a word to indicate something inconceivable1 a sound- symbol1 and to use it as a notion1 scientifically1 is utterly to misconceive its nature4 ,even the word direction--which unfortunately cannot be replaced by another--is liable to mislead owing to its visual content4 ,the vector-notion in physics is a case in point4 ,for primitive man the word 8time0 can have no meaning4 ,he simply lives1 without any necessity of specifying an opposition to something else4 ,he has time1 but he knows nothing of it4 ,all of us are conscious1 as being aware1 of space only1 and not of time4 ,space 8is10 7i4e4 exists1 in and with our sense-world7--as a self-extension while we are living the ordinary life of dream1 impulse1 intuition and conduct1 and as space in the strict sense in the moments of strained attention4 8,time10 on the contrary1 is a discovery1 which is only made by thinking4 ,we create it as an idea or notion and do not begin till much later to suspect that we ourselves are ,time1 inasmuch as we live4#ajb ,and only the higher ,cultures1 whose world-conceptions have reached the mechanical-,nature stage1 are capable of deriving from their consciousness of a well- ordered measurable and comprehensible ,spatial1 the projected image of time1 the phantom time1#ajc which satisfies their need of comprehending1 measuring and causally ordering all4 ,and this impulse--a sign of the sophistication of existence that makes its appearance quite early in every ,culture--fashions1 outside and beyond the real life- feeling1 that which is called time in all higher languages and has become for the town-intellect a completely inorganic magnitude1 as deceptive as it is current4 ,but1 if the characteristics1 or rather the characteristic1 of extension--limit and causality--is really wizard's gear wherewith our proper soul attempts to conjure and bind alien powers-- ,goethe speaks somewhere of the 8principle of reasonable order that we bear within ourselves and could impress as the seal of our power upon everything that we touch0--if all law is a fetter which our world-dread hurries to fix upon the incrowding sensuous1 a deep necessity of self- preservation1 so also the invention of a time that is knowable and spatially representable within causality is a later act of this same self-preservation1 an attempt to bind by the force of notion the tormenting inward riddle that is doubly tormenting to the intellect that has attained power only to find itself defied4 ,always a subtle hatred underlies the intellectual process by which anything is forced into the domain and form-world of measure and law4 ,the living is killed by being introduced into space1 for space is dead and makes dead4 ,with birth is given death1 with the fulfilment the end4 ,something dies within the woman when she conceives--hence comes that eternal hatred of the sexes1 child of world-fear4 ,the man destroys1 in a very deep sense1 when he begets--by bodily act in the sensuous world1 by 8knowing0 in the intellectual4 ,even in ,luther#ajd the word 8know0 has the secondary genital sense4 ,and with the 8knowledge0 of life--which remains alien to the lower animals--the knowledge of death has gained that power which dominates man's whole waking consciousness4 ,by a picture of time the actual is changed into the transitory4#aje ,the mere creation of the name ,time was an unparalleled deliverance4 ,to name anything by a name is to win power over it4 ,this is the essence of primitive man's art of magic--the evil powers are constrained by naming them1 and the enemy is weakened or killed by coupling certain magic procedures with his name4#ajf ,and there is something of this primitive expression of world-fear in the way in which all systematic philosophies use mere names as a last resort for getting rid of the ,incomprehensible1 the ,almighty that is all too mighty for the intellect4 ,we name something or other the 8,absolute10 and we feel ourselves at once its superior4 ,philosophy1 the love of ,wisdom1 is at the very bottom defence against the incomprehensible4 ,what is named1 comprehended1 measured is ipso facto overpowered1 made inert and taboo4#ajg ,once more1 8knowledge is power40 ,herein lies one root of the difference between the idealist's and the realist's attitude towards the ,unapproachable2 it is expressed by the two meanings of the ,german word ,scheu--respect and abhorrence4#ajh ,the idealist contemplates1 the realist would subject1 mechanize1 render innocuous4 ,plato and ,goethe accept the secret in humility1 ,aristotle and ,kant would open it up and destroy it4 ,the most deeply significant example of this realism is in its treatment of the ,time problem4 ,the dread mystery of ,time1 life itself1 must be spellbound and1 by the magic of comprehensibility1 neutralized4 ,all that has been said about time in 8scientific0 philosophy1 psychology and physics--the supposed answer to a question that had better never have been asked1 namely what is time8--touches1 not at any point the secret itself1 but only a spatially-formed representative phantom4 ,the livingness and directedness and fated course of real ,time is replaced by a figure which1 be it never so intimately absorbed1 is only a line1 measurable1 divisible1 reversible1 and not a portrait of that which is incapable of being portrayed2 by a 8time0 that can be mathematically expressed in such forms as t1 t1 -t1 from which the assumption of a time of zero magnitude or of negative times is1 to say the least1 not excluded4#aji ,obviously this is something quite outside the domain of ,life1 ,destiny1 and living historical ,time2 it is a purely conceptual time-system that is remote even from the sensuous life4 ,one has only to substitute1 in any philosophical or physical treatise that one pleases1 this word 8,destiny0 for the word 8time0 and one will instantly see how understanding loses its way when language has emancipated it from sensation1 and how impossible the group 8time and space0 is4 ,what is not experienced and felt1 what is merely thought1 necessarily takes a spatial form1 and this explains why no systematic philosopher has been able to make anything out of the mystery-clouded1 far-echoing sound symbols 8,past0 and 8,future40 ,in ,kant's utterances concerning time they do not even occur1 and in fact one cannot see any relation which could connect them with what is said there4 ,but only this spatial form enables time and space to be brought into functional interdependence as magnitudes of the same order1 as four-dimensional vector analysis#aaj conspicuously shows4 ,as early as #ahac ,lagrange frankly described mechanics as a four-dimensional geometry1 and even ,newton's cautious conception of 8tempus absolutum sive duratio0 is not exempt from this intellectually inevitable transformation of the living into mere extension4 ,in the older philosophy ,i have found one1 and only one1 profound and reverent presentation of ,time2 it is in ,augustine--8,if no one questions me1 ,i know3 if ,i would explain to a questioner1 ,i know not40#aaa ,when philosophers of the present-day ,west 8hedge0--as they all do--by saying that things are in time as in space and that 8outside0 them nothing is 8conceivable10 they are merely putting another kind of space 7,rumlichkeit7 beside the ordinary one1 just as one might1 if one chose1 call hope and electricity the two forces of the universe4 ,it ought not1 surely1 to have escaped ,kant when he spoke of the 8two forms0 of perception1 that whereas it is easy enough to come to a scientific understanding about space 7though not to 8explain0 it1 in the ordinary sense of the word1 for that is beyond human powers71 treatment of time on the same lines breaks down utterly4 ,the reader of the 8,critique of ,pure ,reason0 and the 8,prolegomena0 will observe that ,kant gives a well- considered proof for the connexion of space and geometry but carefully avoids doing the same for time and arithmetic4 ,there he did not go beyond enunciation1 and constant reassertion of analogy between the two conceptions lured him over a gap that would have been fatal to his system4 ,vis--vis the ,where and the ,how1 the ,when forms a world of its own as distinct as is metaphysics from physics4 ,space1 object1 number1 notion1 causality are so intimately akin that it is impossible--as countless mistaken systems prove--to treat the one independently of the other4 ,mechanics is a copy of the logic of its day and vice versa4 ,the picture of thought as psychology builds it up and the picture of the space-world as contemporary physics describes it are reflections of one another4 ,conceptions and things1 reasons and causes1 conclusions and processes coincide so nicely1 as received by the consciousness1 that the abstract thinker himself has again and again succumbed to the temptation of setting forth the thought-8process0 graphically and schematically-- witness ,aristotle's and ,kant's tabulated categories4 8,where there is no scheme1 there is no philosophy0 is the objection of principle-- unacknowledged though it may be--that all professional philosophers have against the 8intuitives10 to whom inwardly they feel themselves far superior4 ,that is why ,kant crossly describes the ,platonic style of thinking 8as the art of spending good words in babble0 7die ,kunst1 wortreich zu schwatzen71 and why even to-day the lecture-room philosopher has not a word to say about ,goethe's philosophy4 ,every logical operation is capable of being drawn1 every system a geometrical method of handling thoughts4 ,and therefore ,time either finds no place in the system at all1 or is made its victim4 ,this is the refutation of that widely-spread misunderstanding which connects time with arithmetic and space with geometry by superficial analogies1 an error to which ,kant ought never to have succumbed--though it is hardly surprising that ,schopenhauer1 with his incapacity for understanding mathematics1 did so4 ,because the living act of numbering is somehow or other related to time1 number and time are constantly confused4 ,but numbering is not number1 any more than drawing is a drawing4 ,numbering and drawing are a becoming1 numbers and figures are things become4 ,kant and the rest have in mind now the living act 7numbering7 and now the result thereof 7the relations of the finished figure72 but the one belongs to the domain of ,life and ,time1 the other to that of ,extension and ,causality4 ,that ,i calculate is the business of organic1 what ,i calculate the business of inorganic1 logic4 ,mathematics as a whole--in common language1 arithmetic and geometry-- answers the ,how8 and the ,what8--that is1 the problem of the ,natural order of things4 ,in opposition to this problem stands that of the ,when8 of things1 the specifically historical problem of destiny1 future and past2 and all these things are comprised in the word ,chronology1 which simple mankind understands fully and unequivocally4 ,between arithmetic and geometry there is no opposition4#aab ,every kind of number1 as has been sufficiently shown in an earlier chapter1 belongs entirely to the realm of the extended and the become1 whether as a ,euclidean magnitude or as an analytical function2 and to which heading should we have to assign the cyclometric#aac functions1 the ,binomial ,theorem1 the ,riemann surfaces1 the ,theory of ,groups8 ,kant's scheme was refuted by ,euler and d',alembert before he even set it up1 and only the unfamiliarity of his successors with the mathematics of their time--what a contrast to ,descartes1 ,pascal and ,leibniz1 who evolved the mathematics of their time from the depths of their own philosophy6--made it possible for mathematical notions of a relation between time and arithmetic to be passed on like an heirloom1 almost uncriticized4 ,but between ,becoming and any part whatsoever of mathematics there is not the slightest contact4 ,newton indeed was profoundly convinced 7and he was no mean philosopher7 that in the principles of his ,calculus of ,fluxions#aad he had grasped the problem of ,becoming1 and therefore of ,time--in a far subtler form1 by the way1 than ,kant's4 ,but even ,newton's view could not be upheld1 even though it may find advocates to this day4 ,since ,weierstrass proved that continuous functions exist which either cannot be differentiated at all or are capable only of partial differentiation1 this most deep-searching of all efforts to close with the ,time-problem mathematically has been abandoned4 ----- ,footnote #ajb3 ,the sensuous life and the intellectual life too are ,time2 it is only sensuous experience and intellectual experience1 the 8world10 that is spatial nature4 7,as to the nearer affinity of the ,feminine to ,time1 see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #djc et seq47 ,footnote #ajc3 ,the expression 8space of time0 7,zeitraum7 which is common to many languages1 is evidence of our inability to represent direction otherwise than by extension4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,i4e41 the translated ,bible4--,tr4 ,footnote #aje3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ai et seq4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,see p4 #hj of this volume1 and ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aff1 #cbh4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #acg4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,the nearest ,english equivalent is perhaps the word 8fear40 8,fearful0 would correspond exactly but for the fact that in the second sense the word is objective instead of subjective4 ,the word 8shy0 itself bears the second meaning in such trivial words as gun-shy1 work-shy4--,tr4 ,footnote #aji3 ,the ,relativity theory1 a working hypothesis which is on the way to overthrowing ,newton's mechanics--which means at bottom his view of the problem of motion--admits cases in which the words 8earlier0 and 8later0 may be inverted4 ,the mathematical foundation of this theory by ,minkowski uses imaginary time units for measurement4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,the dimensions are x1 y1 z 7in respect of space7 and t 7in respect of time71 and all four appear to be regarded as perfectly equivalent in transformations4 ,the ,english reader may be referred to ,a4 ,einstein1 8,theory of ,relativity10 ,ch4 ,,xi and appendices ,i1 ,,ii4-- ,tr4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,si nemo ex me quaerat1 scio2 si quaerenti explicari velim1 nescio4 7,conf4 ,,xi1 #ad47 ,footnote #aab3 ,save in elementary mathematics4 7,it may be remarked that most philosophers since ,schopenhauer have approached these questions with the prepossessions of elementary mathematics47 ,footnote #aac3 ,the 8inverse circular functions0 of ,english text-books4--,tr4 ,footnote #aad3 ,the ,newtonian form of the differential calculus was distinct from the ,leibnizian1 which is now in general use4 ,without going into unnecessary detail1 the characteristic of ,newton's method was that it was meant not for the calculation of quadratures and tangents 7which had occupied his predecessors71 nor as an organ of functional theory as such 7as the differential calculus became much later71 but quite definitely as a method of dealing with rate of change in pure mechanics1 with the 8flowing0 or 8fluxion0 of a dependent variable under the influence of a variable which for ,newton was the 8fluent10 and which we call the argument of a function4--,tr4 ----- ,,iii ,time is a counter-conception 7,gegenbegriff7 to ,space1 arising out of ,space1 just as the notion 7as distinct from the fact7 of ,life arises only in opposition to thought1 and the notion 7as distinct from the fact7 of birth and generation only in opposition to death4#aae ,this is implicit in the very essence of all awareness4 ,just as any sense- impression is only remarked when it detaches itself from another1 so any kind of understanding that is genuine critical activity#aaf is only made possible through the setting-up of a new concept as anti-pole to one already present1 or through the divorce 7if we may call it so7 of a pair of inwardly-polar concepts which as long as they are mere constituents1 possess no actuality4#aag ,it has long been presumed--and rightly1 beyond a doubt--that all root-words1 whether they express things or properties1 have come into being by pairs2 but even later1 even to- day1 the connotation that every new word receives is a reflection of some other4 ,and so1 guided by language1 the understanding1 incapable of fitting a sure inward subjective certainty of ,destiny into its form- world1 created 8time0 out of space as its opposite4 ,but for this we should possess neither the word nor its connotation4 ,and so far is this process of word-formation carried that the particular style of extension possessed by the ,classical world led to a specifically ,classical notion of time1 differing from the time-notions of ,india1 ,china and the ,west exactly as ,classical space differs from the space of these ,cultures4#aah ,for this reason1 the notion of an art-form--which again is a 8counter- concept0--has only arisen when men became aware that their art-creations had a connotation 7,gehalt7 at all1 that is1 when the expression-language of the art1 along with its effects1 had ceased to be something perfectly natural and taken-for-granted1 as it still was in the time of the ,pyramid-,builders1 in that of the ,mycenan strongholds and in that of the early ,gothic cathedrals4 ,men become suddenly aware of the existence of 8works10 and then for the first time the understanding eye is able to distinguish a causal side and a destiny side in every living art4 ,in every work that displays the whole man and the whole meaning of the existence1 fear and longing lie close together1 but they are and they remain different4 ,to the fear1 to the ,causal1 belongs the whole 8taboo0 side of art--its stock of motives1 developed in strict schools and long craft-training1 carefully protected and piously transmitted2 all of it that is comprehensible1 learnable1 numerical2 all the logic of colour1 line1 structure1 order1 which constitutes the mother- tongue of every worthy artist and every great epoch4 ,but the other side1 opposed to the 8taboo0 as the directed is to the extended and as the development-destiny within a form-language to its syllogisms1 comes out in genius 7namely1 in that which is wholly personal to the individual artists1 their imaginative powers1 creative passion1 depth and richness1 as against all mere mastery of form7 and1 beyond even genius1 in that superabundance of creativeness in the race which conditions the rise and fall of whole arts4 ,this is the 8totem0 side1 and owing to it-- notwithstanding all the sthetics ever penned--there is no timeless and solely-true way of art1 but only a history of art1 marked like everything that lives with the sign of irreversibility4#aai ,and this is why architecture of the grand style--which is the only one of the arts that handles the alien and fear-instilling itself1 the immediate ,extended1 the stone--is naturally the early art in all ,cultures1 and only step by step yields its primacy to the special arts of the city with their more mundane forms--the statue1 the picture1 the musical composition4 ,of all the great artists of the ,west1 it was probably ,michelangelo who suffered most acutely under the constant nightmare of world-fear1 and it was he also who1 alone among the ,renaissance masters1 never freed himself from the architectural4 ,he even painted as though his surfaces were stone1 become1 stiff1 hateful4 ,his work was a bitter wrestle with the powers of the cosmos which faced him and challenged him in the form of material1 whereas in the yearning ,leonardo's colour we see1 as it were1 a glad materialization of the spiritual4 ,but in every large architectural problem an implacable causal logic1 not to say mathematic1 comes to expression--in the ,classical orders of columns a ,euclidean relation of beam and load1 in the 8analytically0 disposed thrust-system of ,gothic vaulting the dynamic relation of force and mass4 ,cottage-building traditions--which are to be traced in the one and in the other1 which are the necessary background even of ,egyptian architecture1 which in fact develop in every early period and are regularly lost in every later--contain the whole sum of this logic of the extended4 ,but the symbolism of direction and destiny is beyond all the 8technique0 of the great arts and hardly approachable by way of sthetics4 ,it lies--to take some instances--in the contrast that is always felt 7but never1 either by ,lessing or by ,hebbel1 elucidated7 between ,classical and ,western tragedy2 in the succession of scenes of old ,egyptian relief and generally in the serial arrangement of ,egyptian statues1 sphinxes1 temple-halls2 in the choice1 as distinct from the treatment1 of materials 7hardest diorite to affirm1 and softest wood to deny1 the future72 in the occurrence1 and not in the grammar1 of the individual arts1 e4g41 the victory of arabesque over the ,early ,christian picture1 the retreat of oil-painting before chamber music in the ,baroque2 in the utter diversity of intention in ,egyptian1 ,chinese and ,classical statuary4 ,all these are not matters of 8can0 but of 8must10 and therefore it is not mathematics and abstract thought1 but the great arts in their kinship with the contemporary religions1 that give the key to the problem of ,time1 a problem that can hardly be solved within the domain of history#abj alone4 ----- ,footnote #aae3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ac1 #ai4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #af4 ,footnote #aag3 ,the original reads3 87,so ist jede ,art von ,verstehen 444 nur dadurch mglich 4447 dass ein ,begriffspaar von innerem ,gegensatz gewissermassen durch ,auseinandertreten erst ,wirklichkeit erhlt40-- ,tr4 ,footnote #aah3 ,at this point the ,german text repeats the paragraph which in this edition begins at 8,but inquiry0 7p4 #aba7 and ends at the close of section ,i 7p4 #aba74--,tr4 ,footnote #aai3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #acg1 #aei4 ,footnote #abj3 ,here the author presumably means history in the ordinary acceptation of the word4--,tr4 ----- ,,iv ,it follows from the meaning that we have attached to the ,culture as a prime phenomenon and to destiny as the organic logic of existence1 that each ,culture must necessarily possess its own destiny-idea4 ,indeed1 this conclusion is implicit from the first in the feeling that every great ,culture is nothing but the actualizing and form of a single1 singularly- constituted 7einzigartig7 soul4 ,and what cannot be felt by one sort of men exactly as it is felt by another 7since the life of each is the expression of the idea proper to himself7 and still less transcribed1 what is named by us 8conjuncture10 8accident10 8,providence0 or 8,fate10 by ,classical man 8,nemesis10 8,ananke10 8,tyche0 or 8,fatum10 by the ,arab 8,kismet10 by everyone in some way of his own1 is just that of which each unique and unreproduceable soul-constitution1 quite clear to those who share in it1 is a rendering4 ,the ,classical form of the ,destiny-idea ,i shall venture to call ,euclidean4 ,thus it is the sense-actual person of dipus1 his 8empirical ego10 nay1 his that is hunted and thrown by ,destiny4 dipus complains that ,creon has misused his 8body0#aba and that the oracle applied to his 8body40#abb schylus1 again1 speaks of ,agamemnon as the 8royal body1 leader of fleets40#abc ,it is this same word that the mathematicians employ more than once for the 8bodies0 with which they deal4 ,but the destiny of ,king ,lear is of the 8analytical0 type--to use here also the term suggested by the corresponding number-world--and consists in dark inner relationships4 ,the idea of fatherhood emerges2 spiritual threads weave themselves into the action1 incorporeal and transcendental1 and are weirdly illuminated by the counterpoint of the secondary tragedy of ,gloster's house4 ,lear is at the last a mere name1 the axis of something unbounded4 ,this conception of destiny is the 8infinitesimal0 conception4 ,it stretches out into infinite time and infinite space4 ,it touches the bodily1 ,euclidean existence not at all1 but affects only the ,soul4 ,consider the mad ,king between the fool and the outcast in the storm on the heath1 and then look at the ,laocon group2 the first is the ,faustian1 the other the ,apollinian way of suffering4 ,sophocles1 too1 wrote a ,laocon drama2 and we may be certain that there was nothing of pure soul-agony in it4 ,antigone goes below ground in the body1 because she has buried her brother's body4 ,think of ,ajax and ,philoctetes1 and then of the ,prince of ,homburg and ,goethe's ,tasso--is not the difference between magnitude and relation traceable right into the depths of artistic creation8 ,this brings us to another connexion of high symbolic significance4 ,the drama of the ,west is ordinarily designated ,character-,drama4 ,that of the ,greeks1 on the other hand1 is best described as ,situation-,drama1 and in the antithesis we can perceive what it is that ,western1 and what it is that ,classical1 man respectively feel as the basic life-form that is imperilled by the onsets of tragedy and fate4 ,if in lieu of 8direction0 we say 8irreversibility10 if we let ourselves sink into the terrible meaning of those words 8too late0 wherewith we resign a fleeting bit of the present to the eternal past1 we find the deep foundation of every tragic crisis4 ,it is ,time that is the tragic1 and it is by the meaning that it intuitively attaches to ,time that one ,culture is differentiated from another2 and consequently 8tragedy0 of the grand order has only developed in the ,culture which has most passionately affirmed1 and in that which has most passionately denied1 ,time4 ,the sentiment of the ahistoric soul gives us a ,classical tragedy of the moment1 and that of the ultrahistorical soul puts before us ,western tragedy that deals with the development of a whole life4 ,our tragedy arises from the feeling of an inexorable ,logic of becoming1 while the ,greek feels the illogical1 blind ,casual of the moment--the life of ,lear matures inwardly towards a catastrophe1 and that of dipus stumbles without warning upon a situation4 ,and now one may perceive how it is that synchronously with ,western drama there rose and fell a mighty portrait-art 7culminating in ,rembrandt71 a kind of historical and biographical art which 7because it was so7 was sternly discountenanced in ,classical ,greece at the apogee of ,attic drama4 ,consider the veto on likeness-statuary in votive offerings#abd and note how--from ,demetrius of ,alopeke 7about #djj7abe--;a timid art of 8ideal0 portraiture began to venture forth when1 and only when1 grand tragedy had been thrown into the background by the light society-pieces of the 8,middle ,comedy40#abf ,fundamentally all ,greek statues were standard masks1 like the actors in the theatre of ,dionysus2 all bring to expression1 in significantly strict form1 somatic attitudes and positions4 ,physiognomically they are dumb1 corporeal and of necessity nude--character-heads of definite individuals came only with the ,hellenistic age4 ,once more we are reminded of the contrast between the ,greek number-world1 with its computations of tangible results1 and the other1 our own1 in which the relations between groups of functions or equations or1 generally1 formula-elements of the same order are investigated morphologically1 and the character of these relations fixed as such in express laws4 ----- ,footnote #aba3 d4 ,rex41 #fdb4 4 7,cf4 ,rudolf ,hirsch1 ,die ,person 7#aiad71 p4 #i47 ,footnote #abb3 d4 ,col41 #cee4 444 ' 4 ,footnote #abc3 ,chophor1 #gaj4 444 4 ,footnote #abd3 ,phidias1 and through him his patron ,pericles1 were attacked for alleged introduction of portraits upon the shield of ,athene ,parthenos4 ,in ,western religious art1 on the contrary1 portraiture was1 as everyone knows1 a habitual practice4 ,every ,madonna1 for instance1 is more or less of a portrait4 ,with this may be compared again the growing resistance of ,byzantine art1 as it matured1 to portraiture in sacred surroundings1 evidenced for instance in the history of the nimbus or halo--which was removed from the insignia of the ,prince to become the badge of the ,saint--in the legend of the miraculous effacement of ,justinian's pompous inscription on ,hagia ,sophia1 and in the banishment of the human patron from the celestial part of the church to the earthly4--,tr4 ,footnote #abe3 ,who was criticized as 8no god-maker but a man-maker0 and as one who spoilt the beauty of his work by aiming at likeness4 ,cresilas1 the sculptor from whom the only existing portrait of ,pericles is derived1 was a little earlier2 in him1 however1 the 8ideal0 was still the supreme aim4--,tr4 ,footnote #abf3 ,the writers immediately succeeding ,aristophanes4--,tr4 ----- ,v ,in the capacity of experientially living history and the way in which history1 particularly the history of personal becoming1 is lived1 one man differs very greatly from another4 ,every ,culture possesses a wholly individual way of looking at and comprehending the world-as-,nature2 or 7what comes to the same thing7 it has its own peculiar 8,nature0 which no other sort of man can possess in exactly the same form4 ,but in a far greater degree still1 every ,culture--including the individuals comprising it 7who are separated only by minor distinctions7--possesses a specific and peculiar sort of history--and it is in the picture of this and the style of this that the general and the personal1 the inner and the outer1 the world-historical and the biographical becoming1 are immediately perceived1 felt and lived4 ,thus the autobiographical tendency of ,western man--revealed even in ,gothic times in the symbol of auricular confession#abg--;is utterly alien to ,classical man2 while his intense historical awareness is in complete contrast to the almost dreamy unconsciousness of the ,indian4 ,and when ,magian man--primitive ,christian or ripe scholar of ,islam--uses the words 8world-history10 what is it that he sees before him8 ,but it is difficult enough to form an exact idea even of the 8,nature0 proper to another kind of man1 although in this domain things specifically cognizable are causally ordered and unified in a communicable system4 ,and it is quite impossible for us to penetrate completely a historical world-aspect of 8becoming0 formed by a soul that is quite differently constituted from our own4 ,here there must always be an intractable residue1 greater or smaller in proportion to our historical instinct1 physiognomic tact and knowledge of men4 ,all the same1 the solution of this very problem is the condition-precedent of all really deep understanding of the world4 ,the historical environment of another is a part of his essence1 and no such other can be understood without the knowledge of his time-sense1 his destiny-idea and the style and degree of acuity of his inner life4 ,in so far therefore as these things are not directly confessed1 we have to extract them from the symbolism of the alien ,culture4 ,and as it is thus and only thus that we can approach the incomprehensible1 the style of an alien ,culture1 and the great time-symbols belonging thereto acquire an immeasurable importance4 ,as an example of these hitherto almost uncomprehended signs we may take the clock1 a creation of highly developed ,cultures that becomes more and more mysterious as one examines it4 ,classical man managed to do without the clock1 and his abstention was more or less deliberate4 ,to the ,augustan period1 and far beyond it1 the time of day was estimated by the length of one's shadow1#abh although sun-dials and water-clocks1 designed in conformity with a strict time-reckoning and imposed by a deep sense of past and future1 had been in regular use in both the older ,cultures of ,egypt and ,babylonia4#abi ,classical man's existence-- ,euclidean1 relationless1 point-formed--was wholly contained in the instant4 ,nothing must remind him of past or future4 ,for the true ,classical1 archology did not exist1 nor did its spiritual inversion1 astrology4 ,the ,oracle and the ,sibyl1 like the ,etruscan-,roman 8haruspices0 and 8augurs10 did not foretell any distant future but merely gave indications on particular questions of immediate bearing4 ,no time-reckoning entered intimately into everyday life 7for the ,olympiad sequence was a mere literary expedient7 and what really matters is not the goodness or badness of a calendar but the questions3 8who uses it80 and 8does the life of the nation run by it80 ,in ,classical cities nothing suggested duration1 or old times or times to come--there was no pious preservation of ruins1 no work conceived for the benefit of future generations2 in them we do not find that durable#acj material was deliberately chosen4 ,the ,dorian ,greek ignored the ,mycenan stone- technique and built in wood or clay1 though ,mycenan and ,egyptian work was before him and the country produced first-class building-stone4 ,the ,doric style is a timber style--even in ,pausanias's day some wooden columns still lingered in the ,herum of ,olympia4 ,the real organ of history is 8memory0 in the sense which is always postulated in this book1 viz41 that which preserves as a constant present the image of one's personal past and of a national and a world-historical past#aca as well1 and is conscious of the course both of personal and of super- personal becoming4 ,that organ was not present in the make-up of a ,classical soul4 ,there was no 8,time0 in it4 ,immediately behind his proper present1 the ,classical historian sees a background that is already destitute of temporal and therefore of inward order4 ,for ,thucydides the ,persian ,wars1 for ,tacitus the agitation of the ,gracchi1 were already in this vague background2#acb and the great families of ,rome had traditions that were pure romance--witness ,csar's slayer1 ,brutus1 with his firm belief in his reputed tyrannicide ancestor4 ,csar's reform of the calendar may almost be regarded as a deed of emancipation from the ,classical life-feeling4 ,but it must not be forgotten that ,csar also imagined a renunciation of ,rome and a transformation of the ,city-,state into an empire which was to be dynastic--marked with the badge of duration--and to have its centre of gravity in ,alexandria1 which in fact is the birthplace of his calendar4 ,his assassination seems to us a last outburst of the antiduration feeling that was incarnate in the ,polis and the ,urbs ,roma4 ,even then ,classical mankind was still living every hour and every day for itself2 and this is equally true whether we take the individual ,greek or ,roman1 or the city1 or the nation1 or the whole ,culture4 ,the hot-blooded pageantry1 palace-orgies1 circus-battles of ,nero or ,caligula--,tacitus is a true ,roman in describing only these and ignoring the smooth progress of life in the distant provinces--are final and flamboyant expressions of the ,euclidean world-feeling that deified the body and the present4 ,the ,indians also have no sort of time-reckoning 7the absence of it in their case expressing their ,nirvana7 and no clocks1 and therefore no history1 no life memories1 no care4 ,what the conspicuously historical ,west calls 8,indian history0 achieved itself without the smallest consciousness of what it was doing4#acc ,the millennium of the ,indian ,culture between the ,vedas and ,buddha seems like the stirrings of a sleeper2 here life was actually a dream4 ,from all this our ,western ,culture is unimaginably remote4 ,and1 indeed1 man has never--not even in the 8contemporary0 ,china of the ,chu period with its highly-developed sense of eras and epochs#acd--;been so awake and aware1 so deeply sensible of time and conscious of direction and fate and movement as he has been in the ,west4 ,western history was willed and ,indian history happened4 ,in ,classical existence years1 in ,indian centuries scarcely counted1 but here the hour1 the minute1 yea the second1 is of importance4 ,of the tragic tension of a historical crisis like that of ,august1 #aiad1 when even moments seem overpowering1 neither a ,greek nor an ,indian could have had any idea4#ace ,such crises1 too1 a deep-feeling man of the ,west can experience within himself1 as a true ,greek could never do4 ,over our country-side1 day and night from thousands of belfries1 ring the bells#acf that join future to past and fuse the point-moments of the ,classical present into a grand relation4 ,the epoch which marks the birth of our ,culture--the time of the ,saxon ,emperors-- marks also the discovery of the wheel-clock4#acg ,without exact time- measurement1 without a chronology of becoming to correspond with his imperative need of archology 7the preservation1 excavation and collection of things-become71 ,western man is unthinkable4 ,the ,baroque age intensified the ,gothic symbol of the belfry to the point of grotesqueness1 and produced the pocket watch that constantly accompanies the individual4#ach ,another symbol1 as deeply significant and as little understood as the symbol of the clock1 is that of the funeral customs which all great ,cultures have consecrated by ritual and by art4 ,the grand style in ,india begins with tomb-temples1 in the ,classical world with funerary urns1 in ,egypt with pyramids1 in early ,christianity with catacombs and sarcophagi4 ,in the dawn1 innumerable equally-possible forms still cross one another chaotically and obscurely1 dependent on clan-custom and external necessities and conveniences4 ,but every ,culture promptly elevates one or another of them to the highest degree of symbolism4 ,classical man1 obedient to his deep unconscious life-feeling1 picked upon burning1 an act of annihilation in which the ,euclidean1 the here- and-now1 type of existence was powerfully expressed4 ,he willed to have no history1 no duration1 neither past nor future1 neither preservation nor dissolution1 and therefore he destroyed that which no longer possessed a present1 the body of a ,pericles1 a ,csar1 a ,sophocles1 a ,phidias4 ,and the soul passed to join the vague crowd to which the living members of the clan paid 7but soon ceased to pay7 the homage of ancestor-worship and soul-feast1 and which in its formlessness presents an utter contrast to the ancestor-series1 the genealogical tree1 that is eternalized with all the marks of historical order in the family-vault of the ,west4 ,in this 7with one striking exception1 the ,vedic dawn in ,india7 no other ,culture parallels the ,classical4#aci ,and be it noted that the ,doric-,homeric spring1 and above all the 8,iliad10 invested this act of burning with all the vivid feeling of a new-born symbol2 for those very warriors whose deeds probably formed the nucleus of the epic were in fact buried almost in the ,egyptian manner in the graves of ,mycen1 ,tiryns1 ,orchomenos and other places4 ,and when in ,imperial times the sarcophagus or 8flesh-consumer0#adj began to supersede the vase of ashes1 it was again1 as in the time when the ,homeric urn superseded the shaft-grave of ,mycen1 a changed sense of ,time that underlay the change of rite4 ,the ,egyptians1 who preserved their past in memorials of stone and hieroglyph so purposefully that we1 four thousand years after them1 can determine the order of their kings' reigns1 so thoroughly eternalized their bodies that today the great ,pharaohs lie in our museums1 recognizable in every lineament1 a symbol of grim triumph--while of ,dorian kings not even the names have survived4 ,for our own part1 we know the exact birthdays and deathdays of almost every great man since ,dante1 and1 moreover1 we see nothing strange in the fact4 ,yet in the time of ,aristotle1 the very zenith of ,classical education1 it was no longer known with certainty if ,leucippus1 the founder of ,atomism and a contemporary of ,pericles--i4e41 hardly a century before--had ever existed at all2 much as though for us the existence of ,giordano ,bruno was a matter of doubt#ada and the ,renaissance had become pure saga4 ,and these museums themselves1 in which we assemble everything that is left of the corporeally-sensible past6 ,are not they a symbol of the highest rank8 ,are they not intended to conserve in mummy the entire 8body0 of cultural development8 ,as we collect countless data in milliards of printed books1 do we not also collect all the works of all the dead ,cultures in these myriad halls of ,west-,european cities1 in the mass of the collection depriving each individual piece of that instant of actualized purpose that is its own--the one property that the ,classical soul would have respected--and ipso facto dissolving it into our unending and unresting ,time8 ,consider what it was that the ,hellenes named 2#adb how deep a significance lies in the change of sense6 ----- ,footnote #abg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cfj et seq4 ,footnote #abh3 ,diels1 ,antike ,technik 7#aibj71 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #abi3 ,about #djj ,b4,c4 savants began to construct crude sun-dials in ,africa and ,ionia1 and from ,plato's time still more primitive clepsydr came into use2 but in both forms1 the ,greek clock was a mere imitation of the far superior models of the older ,east1 and it had not the slightest connexion with the ,greek life-feeling4 ,see ,diels1 op4 cit41 pp4 #afj et seq4 ,footnote #acj3 ,horace's monumentum re perennius 7,odes ,,iii1 #cj7 may seem to conflict with this3 but let the reader reconsider the whole of that ode in the light of the present argument1 and turn also to ,leuconoe and her 8,babylonian0 impieties 7,odes ,i1 #aa7 inter alia1 and he will probably agree that so far as ,horace is concerned1 the argument is supported rather than impugned4--,tr4 ,footnote #aca3 ,ordered1 for us1 by the ,christian chronology and the ancient-medival- modern scheme4 ,it was on those foundations that1 from early ,gothic times1 the images of religion and of art have been built up in which a large part of ,western humanity continues to live4 ,to predicate the same of ,plato or ,phidias is quite impossible1 whereas the ,renaissance artists could and did project a classical past1 which indeed they permitted to dominate their judgments completely4 ,footnote #acb3 ,see pp4 #i4 et seq4 ,footnote #acc3 ,the ,indian history of our books is a ,western reconstruction from texts and monuments4 ,see the chapter on epigraphy in the 8,indian ,gazetteer10 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,tr4 ,footnote #acd3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dhb1 #eba et seq4 ,footnote #ace3 ,there is one famous episode in ,greek history that may be thought to contradict this--the race against time of the galley sent to ,mitylene to countermand the order of massacre 7,thucydides1 ,,iii1 #di74 ,but we observe that ,thucydides gives twenty times the space to the debates at ,athens that he gives to the drama of the galley-rowers pulling night and day to save life4 ,and we are told that it was the ,mitylenean ambassadors who spared no expense to make it worth the rowers' while to win1 whereupon 8there arose such a zeal of rowing that44440 ,the final comment is1 strictly construing ,thucydides's own words3 8,such was the magnitude of the danger that ,mitylene passed by0 7 71 a phrase which recalls forcibly what has just been said regarding the 8situation-drama40-- ,tr4 ,footnote #acf3 ,besides the clock1 the bell itself is a ,western 8symbol40 ,the passing- bell tolled for ,st4 ,hilda of ,whitby in #fhj1 and a century before that time bells had come into general use in ,gaul both for monasteries and for parish churches4 ,on the contrary1 it was not till #hfe that ,constantinople possessed bells1 and these were presented in that year by ,venice4 ,the presence of a belfry in a ,byzantine church is accounted a proof of 8,western influence03 the ,east used and still largely uses mere gongs and rattles for religious purposes4 7,british ,museum 8,handbook of ,early ,christian ,antiquities704--,tr4 ,footnote #acg3 ,may we be permitted to guess that the ,babylonian sun-dial and the ,egyptian water-clock came into being 8simultaneously10 that is1 on the threshold of the third millennium before ,christ8 ,the history of clocks is inwardly inseparable from that of the calendar2 it is therefore to be assumed that the ,chinese and the ,mexican ,cultures also1 with their deep sense of history1 very early devised and used methods of time- measurement4 7,the ,mexican ,culture developed the most intricate of all known systems of indicating year and day4 ,see ,british ,museum 8,handbook of ,may on ,antiquities40--,tr47 ,footnote #ach3 ,let the reader try to imagine what a ,greek would feel when suddenly made acquainted with this custom of ours4 ,footnote #aci3 ,the ,chinese ancestor-worship honoured genealogical order with strict ceremonies4 ,and whereas here ancestor-worship by degrees came to be the centre of all piety1 in the ,classical world it was driven entirely into the background by the cults of present gods2 in ,roman times it hardly existed at all4 7,note the elaborate precautions taken in the ,athenian 8,anthesteria0 to keep the anonymous mass of ghosts at bay4 ,this feast was anything but an ,all ,souls' ,day of re-communion with the departed spirits4--,tr47 ,footnote #adj3 ,with obvious reference to the resurrection of the flesh 7 74 ,but the meaning of the term 8resurrection0 has undergone1 from about #ajjj ,a4,d41 a profound--though hardly noticed--change4 ,more and more it has tended to become identified with 8immortality40 ,but in the resurrection from the dead1 the implication is that time begins again to repeat in space1 whereas in 8immortality0 it is time that overcomes space4 ,footnote #ada3 ,for ,english readers1 the most conspicuous case of historic doubt is the ,shakespeare-,bacon matter4 ,but even here1 it is only the work of ,shakespeare that is in question1 not his existence and personality1 for which we have perfectly definite evidence4--,tr4 ,footnote #adb3 ,originally a philosophical and scientific lecture-temple founded in honour of ,aristotle1 and later the great ,university of ,alexandria1 bore the title 4 ,both ,aristotle and the ,university amassed collections but they were collections of 7a7 books1 7b7 natural history specimens1 living or taken from life4 ,in the ,west1 the collection of memorials of the past as such dates from the earliest days of the ,renaissance4--,tr4 ----- ,,vi ,it is the primitive feeling of ,care#adc which dominates the physiognomy of ,western1 as also that of ,egyptian and that of ,chinese history1 and it creates1 further1 the symbolism of the erotic which represents the flowing on of endless life in the form of the familial series of individual existences4 ,the point-formed ,euclidean existence of ,classical man1 in this matter as in others1 conceived only the here-and- now definitive act of begetting or of bearing1 and thus it comes about that we find the birth-pangs of the mother made the centre of ,demeter- worship and the ,dionysiac symbol of the phallus 7the sign of a sexuality wholly concentrated on the moment and losing past and future in it7 more or less everywhere in the ,classical4 ,in the ,indian world we find1 correspondingly1 the sign of the ,lingam and the sect of worshippers of ,paewati4#add ,in the one case as in the other1 man feels himself as nature1 as a plant1 as a willless and care-less element of becoming 7dem ,sinn des ,werdens willenlos und sorglos hingegeben74 ,the domestic religion of ,rome centred on the genius1 i4e41 the creative power of the head of the family4 ,to all this1 the deep and thoughtful care of the ,western soul has opposed the sign of mother-love1 a symbol which in the ,classical ,culture only appeared above the horizon to the extent that we see it in1 say1 the mourning for ,persephone or 7though this is only ,hellenistic7 the seated statue of ,demeter of ,knidos4#ade ,the ,mother with the ,child--the future--at her breast1 the ,mary-cult in the new ,faustian form1 began to flourish only in the centuries of the ,gothic and found its highest expression in ,raphael's ,sistine ,madonna4#adf ,this conception is not one belonging to ,christianity generally4 ,on the contrary1 ,magian ,christianity had elevated ,mary as ,theotokos1 8she who gave birth to ,god0#adg into a symbol felt quite otherwise than by us4 ,the lulling ,mother is as alien to ,early-,christian-,byzantine art as she is to the ,hellenic 7though for other reasons7 and most certainly ,faust's ,gretchen1 with the deep spell of unconscious motherhood on her1 is nearer to the ,gothic ,madonna than all the ,marys of ,byzantine and ,ravennate mosaics4 ,indeed1 the presumption of a spiritual relation between them breaks down completely before the fact that the ,madonna with the ,child answers exactly to the ,egyptian ,isis with ,horus--both are caring1 nursing mothers--and that nevertheless this symbol had vanished for a thousand years and more 7for the whole duration of the ,classical and the ,arabian ,cultures7 before it was reawakened by the ,faustian soul4#adh ,from the maternal care the way leads to the paternal1 and there we meet with the highest of all the time-symbols that have come into existence within a ,culture1 the ,state4 ,the meaning of the child to the mother is the future1 the continuation1 namely1 of her own life1 and mother-love is1 as it were1 a welding of two discontinuous individual existences2 likewise1 the meaning of the state to the man is comradeship in arms for the protection of hearth and home1 wife and child1 and for the insurance for the whole people of its future and its efficacy4 ,the state is the inward form of a nation1 its 8form0 in the athletic sense1 and history1 in the high meaning1 is the ,state conceived as kinesis and not as kinema 7nicht als ,bewegtes sondern als ,bewegung gedacht74 ,the ,woman as ,mother is1 and the ,man as ,warrior and ,politician makes1 ,history4#adi ,and here again the history of higher ,cultures shows us three examples of state-formations in which the element of care is conspicuous3 the ,egyptian administration even of the ,old ,kingdom 7from #cjjj ,b4,c472 the ,chinese state of the ,chu dynasty 7#aafi-bef ,b4,c471 of the organization of which the ,chu ,li gives such a picture that1 later on1 no one dared to believe in the authenticity of the book2 and the states of the ,west1 behind whose characteristic eye-to-the-future there is an unsurpassably intense ,will to the future4#aej ,and on the other hand we have in two examples--the ,classical and the ,indian world--a picture of utterly care- less submission to the moment and its incidents4 ,different in themselves as are ,stoicism and ,buddhism 7the old-age dispositions of these two worlds71 they are at one in their negation of the historical feeling of care1 their contempt of zeal1 of organizing power1 and of the duty- sense2 and therefore neither in ,indian courts nor in ,classical market- places was there a thought for the morrow1 personal or collective4 ,the carpe diem of ,apollinian man applies also to the ,apollinian state4 ,as with the political1 so with the other side of historical existence1 the economic4 ,the hand-to-mouth life corresponds to the love that begins and ends in the satisfaction of the moment4 ,there was an economic organization on the grand scale in ,egypt1 where it fills the whole culture-picture1 telling us in a thousand paintings the story of its industry and orderliness2 in ,china1 whose mythology of gods and legend- emperors turns entirely upon the holy tasks of cultivation2 and in ,western ,europe1 where1 beginning with the model agriculture of the ,orders1 it rose to the height of a special science1 8national economy10 which was in very principle a working hypothesis1 purporting to show not what happens but what shall happen4 ,in the ,classical world1 on the other hand--to say nothing of ,india--men managed from day to day1 in spite of the example of ,egypt2 the earth was robbed not only of its wealth but of its capacities1 and the casual surpluses were instantly squandered on the city mob4 ,consider critically any great statesman of the ,classical-- ,pericles and ,csar1 ,alexander and ,scipio1 and even revolutionaries like ,cleon and ,tiberius ,gracchus4 ,not one of them1 economically1 looked far ahead4 ,no city ever made it its business to drain or to afforest a district1 or to introduce advanced cultivation methods or new kinds of live stock or new plants4 ,to attach a ,western meaning to the 8agrarian reform0 of the ,gracchi is to misunderstand its purport entirely4 ,their aim was to make their supporters possessors of land4 ,of educating these into managers of land1 or of raising the standard of ,italian husbandry in general1 there was not the remotest idea--one let the future come1 one did not attempt to work upon it4 ,of this economic ,stoicism of the ,classical world the exact antithesis is ,socialism1 meaning thereby not ,marx's theory but ,frederick ,william ,i's ,prussian practice which long preceded ,marx and will yet displace him--the socialism1 inwardly akin to the system of ,old ,egypt1 that comprehends and cares for permanent economic relations1 trains the individual in his duty to the whole1 and glorifies hard work as an affirmation of ,time and ,future4 ,,vii ,the ordinary everyday man in all ,cultures only observes so much of the physiognomy of becoming--his own and that of the living world around him-- as is in the foreground and immediately tangible4 ,the sum of his experiences1 inner and outer1 fills the course of his day merely as a series of facts4 ,only the outstanding 7bedeutende7 man feels behind the commonplace unities of the history-stirred surface a deep logic of becoming4 ,this logic1 manifesting itself in the idea of ,destiny1 leads him to regard the less significant collocations of the day and the surface as mere incidents4 ,at first sight1 however1 there seems to be only a difference of degree in the connotations of 8destiny0 and 8incident40 ,one feels that it is more or less of an incident when ,goethe goes to ,sesenheim1 but destiny when he goes to ,weimar2#aea one regards the former as an episode and the latter as an epoch4 ,but we can see at once that the distinction depends on the inward quality of the man who is impressed4 ,to the mass1 the whole life of ,goethe may appear as a sequence of anecdotal incidents1 while a very few will become conscious1 with astonishment1 of a symbolic necessity inherent even in its most trivial occurrences4 ,perhaps1 then1 the discovery of the heliocentric system by ,aristarchus was an unmeaning incident for the ,classical ,culture1 but its supposed#aeb rediscovery by ,copernicus a destiny for the ,faustian8 ,was it a destiny that ,luther was not a great organizer and ,calvin was8 ,and if so1 for whom was it a destiny--for ,protestantism as a living unit1 for the ,germans1 or for ,western mankind generally8 ,were ,tiberius ,gracchus and ,sulla incidents and ,csar a destiny8 ,questions like these far transcend the domain of the understanding that operates through concepts 7der begriffliche ,verstndigung74 ,what is destiny1 what incident1 the spiritual experiences of the individual soul--and of the ,culture-soul--decide4 ,acquired knowledge1 scientific insight1 definition1 are all powerless4 ,nay more1 the very attempt to grasp them epistemologically defeats its own object4 ,for without the inward certainty that destiny is something entirely intractable to critical thought1 we cannot perceive the world of becoming at all4 ,cognition1 judgment1 and the establishment of causal connexions within the known 7i4e41 between things1 properties1 and positions that have been distinguished7 are one and the same1 and he who approaches history in the spirit of judgment will only find 8data40 ,but that--be it ,providence or ,fate--which moves in the depths of present happening or of represented past happening is lived1 and only lived1 and lived with that same overwhelming and unspeakable certainty that genuine ,tragedy awakens in the uncritical spectator4 ,destiny and incident form an opposition in which the soul is ceaselessly trying to clothe something which consists only of feeling and living and intuition1 and can only be made plain in the most subjective religious and artistic creations of those men who are called to divination4 ,to evoke this root-feeling of living existence which endows the picture of history with its meaning and content1 ,i know of no better way--for 8name is mere noise and smoke0--than to quote again those stanzas of ,goethe which ,i have placed at the head of this book to mark its fundamental intention4 8,in the ,endless1 self-repeating flows for evermore ,the ,same4 ,myriad arches1 springing1 meeting1 hold at rest the mighty frame4 ,streams from all things love of living1 grandest star and humblest clod4 ,all the straining1 all the striving is eternal peace in ,god40#aec ,on the surface of history it is the unforeseen that reigns4 ,every individual event1 decision and personality is stamped with its hall- mark4 ,no one foreknew the storm of ,islam at the coming of ,mohammed1 nor foresaw ,napoleon in the fall of ,robespierre4 ,the coming of great men1 their doings1 their fortune1 are all incalculables4 ,no one knows whether a development that is setting in powerfully will accomplish its course in a straight line like that of the ,roman patrician order or will go down in doom like that of the ,hohenstaufen or the ,maya ,culture4 ,and-- science notwithstanding--it is just the same with the destinies of every single species of beast and plant within earth-history and beyond even this1 with the destiny of the earth itself and all the solar systems and ,milky ,ways4 ,the insignificant ,augustus made an epoch1 and the great ,tiberius passed away ineffective4 ,thus1 too1 with the fortunes of artists1 artworks and art-forms1 dogmas and cults1 theories and discoveries4 ,that1 in the whirl of becoming1 one element merely succumbed to destiny when another became 7and often enough has continued and will continue to be7 a destiny itself--that one vanishes with the wave-train of the surface while the other makes this1 is something that is not to be explained by any why-and-wherefore and yet is of inward necessity4 ,and thus the phrase that ,augustine in a deep moment used of ,time is valid also of destiny--8if no one questions me1 ,i know3 if ,i would explain to a questioner1 ,i know not40 ,so1 also1 the supreme ethical expression of ,incident and ,destiny is found in the ,western ,christian's idea of ,grace--the grace1 obtained through the sacrificial death of ,jesus1 of being made free to will4#aed ,the polarity of ,disposition 7original sin7 and ,grace--a polarity which must ever be a projection of feeling1 of the emotional life1 and not a precision of learned reasoning--embraces the existence of every truly significant man of this ,culture4 ,it is1 even for ,protestants1 even for atheists1 hidden though it may be behind a scientific notion of 8evolution0 7which in reality is its direct descendant#aee71 the foundation of every confession and every autobiography2 and it is just its absence from the constitution of ,classical man that makes confession1 by word or thought1 impossible to him4 ,it is the final meaning of ,rembrandt's self-portraits and of music from ,bach to ,beethoven4 ,we may choose to call that something which correlates the life-courses of all ,western men disposition1 ,providence or 8inner evolution0#aef but it remains inaccessible to thought4 8,free will0 is an inward certitude4 ,but whatever one may will or do1 that which actually ensues upon and issues from the resolution--abrupt1 surprising1 unforeseeable--subserves a deeper necessity and1 for the eye that sweeps over the picture of the distant past1 visibly conforms to a major order4 ,and when the ,destiny of that which was willed has been ,fulfilment we are fain to call the inscrutable 8,grace40 ,what did ,innocent ,,iii1 ,luther1 ,loyola1 ,calvin1 ,jansen1 ,rousseau and ,marx will1 and what came of the things that they willed in the stream of ,western history8 ,was it ,grace or ,fate8 ,here all rationalistic dissection ends in nonsense4 ,the ,predestination doctrine of ,calvin and ,pascal--who1 both of them more upright than ,luther and ,thomas ,aquinas1 dared to draw the causal conclusion from ,augustinian dialectic--is the necessary absurdity to which the pursuit of these secrets by the reason leads4 ,they lost the destiny-logic of the world-becoming and found themselves in the causal logic of notion and law2 they left the realm of direct intuitive vision for that of a mechanical system of objects4 ,the fearful soul-conflicts of ,pascal were the strivings of a man1 at once intensely spiritual and a born mathematician1 who was determined to subject the last and gravest problems of the soul both to the intuitions of a grand instinctive faith and to the abstract precision of a no less grand mathematical plan4 ,in this wise the ,destiny-idea--in the language of religion1 ,god's ,providence--is brought within the schematic form of the ,causality ,principle1 i4e41 the ,kantian form of mind activity 7productive imagination72 for that is what ,predestination signifies1 notwithstanding that thereby ,grace--the causation-free1 living ,grace which can only be experienced as an inward certainty--is made to appear as a nature-force that is bound by irrevocable law and to turn the religious world-picture into a rigid and gloomy system of machinery4 ,and yet was it not a ,destiny again--for the world as well as for themselves-- that the ,english ,puritans1 who were filled with this conviction1 were ruined not through any passive self-surrender but through their hearty and vigorous certainty that their will was the will of ,god8 ----- ,footnote #adc3 ,the connotation of 8care0 is almost the same as that of 8,sorge10 but the ,german word includes also a certain specific1 ad hoc apprehension1 that in ,english is expressed by 8concern0 or 8fear40-- ,tr4 ,footnote #add3 ,the ,lingayats are one of the chief sects of the ,saivas 7that is1 of the branch of ,hinduism which devotes itself to ,shiva7 and ,paewati worshippers belong to another branch1 having the generic name of ,saktas1 who worship the 8active female principle0 in the persons of ,shiva's consorts1 of whom ,paewati is one4 ,vaishnavism--the ,vishnu branch of ,indian religion--also contains an erotic element in that form which conceives ,vishnu as ,krishna4 ,but in ,krishna worship the erotic is rather less precise and more amorous in character4 ,see 8,imperial ,gazetteer of ,india10 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dba et seq41 and ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,edition1 article ,hinduism4--,tr4 ,footnote #ade3 ,british ,museum4--,tr4 ,footnote #adf3 ,dresden4--,tr4 ,footnote #adg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #caf4 ,footnote #adh3 ,in connexion with this very important link in the ,author's argument1 attention may be drawn to a famous wall-painting of very early date in the ,catacomb of ,st4 ,priscilla4 ,in this1 ,mary is definitely and unmistakably the ,stillende ,mutter4 ,but she is1 equally unmistakably1 different in soul and style from her 8,early-,christian-,byzantine0 successor the ,theotokos4 ,now1 it is well known that the art of the catacombs1 at any rate in its beginnings1 is simply the art of contemporary ,rome1 and that this 8,roman0 art had its home in ,alexandria4 ,see ,woermann's ,geschichte der ,kunst1 ,,iii1 #ad-ae1 and ,british ,museum 8,guide to ,early ,christian ,art10 #gb-gd1 #hf4 ,woermann speaks of this ,madonna as the prototype of our grave1 tenderly- solicitous ,mother-,madonnas4 ,dr4 ,spengler would probably prefer to regard her as the last ,isis4 ,in any case it is significant that the symbol disappears3 in the very same catacomb is a ,theotokos of perhaps a century later date4--,tr4 ,footnote #adi3 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #djc et seq4 ,footnote #aej3 ,see1 further1 the last two sections of ,vol4 ,,ii 7,der ,staat and ,wirtschaftsleben74--,tr4 ,footnote #aea3 ,sesenheim is the home of ,friederike1 and a student's holiday took him thither3 ,weimar1 of course1 is the centre from which all the activity of his long life was to radiate4--,tr4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,vermeintlich4 ,the allusion is presumably to the fact that ,copernicus1 adhering to the hypothesis of circular orbits1 was obliged to retain some elements of ,ptolemy's geocentric machinery of epicycles1 so that ,copernicus's sun was not placed at the true centre of any planetary orbit4--,tr4 ,footnote #aec3 ,sprche in ,reimen4 ,footnote #aed3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bid et seq41 #cei et seq4 ,footnote #aee3 ,the path from ,calvin to ,darwin is easily seen in ,english philosophy4 ,footnote #aef3 ,this is one of the eternal points of dispute in ,western art-theory4 ,the ,classical1 ahistorical1 ,euclidean soul has no 8evolution02 the ,western1 on the contrary1 extends itself in evolving like the convergent function that it is4 ,the one is1 the other becomes4 ,and thus all ,classical tragedy assumes the constancy of the personality1 and all ,western its variability1 which essentially constitutes a 8character0 in our sense1 viz41 a picture of being that consists in continuous qualitative movement and an endless wealth of relationships4 ,in ,sophocles the grand gesture ennobles the suffering1 in ,shakespeare the grand idea 7,gesinnung7 ennobles the doing4 ,as our sthetic took its examples from both ,cultures1 it was bound to go wrong in the very enunciation of its problem4 ----- ,,viii ,we can proceed to the further elucidation of the incidental 7or casual7 without running the risk of considering it as an exception or a breach in the causal continuity of 8,nature10 for ,nature is not the world- picture in which ,destiny is operative4 ,wherever the sight emancipates itself from the sensible-become1 spiritualizes itself into ,vision1 penetrates through the enveloping world and lets prime phenomena instead of mere objects work upon it1 we have the grand historical1 trans- natural1 super-natural outlook1 the outlook of ,dante and ,wolfram and also the outlook of ,goethe in old age that is most clearly manifested in the finale of ,faust ,,ii4 ,if we linger in contemplation in this world of ,destiny and ,incident1 it will very likely seem to us incidental that the episode of 8world-history0 should have played itself out in this or that phase of one particular star amongst the millions of solar systems2 incidental that it should be men1 peculiar animal-like creatures inhabiting the crust of this star1 that present the spectacle of 8knowledge0 and1 moreover1 present it in just this form or in just that form1 according to the very different versions of ,aristotle1 ,kant and others2 incidental that as the counter-pole of this 8knowing0 there should have arisen just these codes of 8natural law10 each supposedly eternal and universally-valid and each evoking a supposedly general and common picture of 8,nature40 ,physics--quite rightly--banishes incidentals from its field of view1 but it is incidental1 again1 that physics itself should occur in the alluvial period of the earth's crust1 uniquely1 as a particular kind of intellectual composition4 ,the world of incident is the world of once-actual facts that longingly or anxiously we live forward to 7entgegenleben7 as ,future1 that raise or depress us as the living ,present1 and that we contemplate with joy or with grief as ,past4 ,the world of causes and effects is the world of the constantly-possible1 of the timeless truths which we know by dissection and distinction4 ,the latter only are scientifically attainable--they are indeed identical with science4 ,he who is blind to this other1 to the world as ,divina ,commedia or drama for a god1 can only find a senseless turmoil of incidents1#aeg and here we use the word in its most trivial sense4 ,so it has been with ,kant and most other systematists of thought4 ,but the professional and inartistic sort of historical research too1 with its collecting and arranging of mere data1 amounts for all its ingenuity to little more than the giving of a cachet to the banal-incidental4 ,only the insight that can penetrate into the metaphysical is capable of experiencing in data symbols of that which happened1 and so of elevating an ,incident into a ,destiny4 ,and he who is to himself a ,destiny 7like ,napoleon7 does not need this insight1 since between himself as a fact and the other facts there is a harmony of metaphysical rhythm which gives his decisions their dreamlike certainty4#aeh ,it is this insight that constitutes the singularity and the power of ,shakespeare4 ,hitherto1 neither our research nor our speculation has hit upon this in him--that he is the ,dramatist of the ,incidental4 ,and yet this ,incidental is the very heart of ,western tragedy1 which is a true copy of the ,western history idea and with it gives the clue to that which we understand in the world--so misconstrued by ,kant--8,time40 ,it is incidental that the political situation of 8,hamlet10 the murder of the ,king and the succession question impinge upon just that character that ,hamlet is4 ,or1 take ,othello--it is incidental that the man at whom ,iago1 the commonplace rogue that one could pick up in any street1 aims his blow is one whose person possesses just this wholly special physiognomy4 ,and ,lear6 ,could anything be more incidental 7and therefore more 8natural07 than the conjunction of this commanding dignity with these fateful passions and the inheritance of them by the daughters8 ,no one has even to-day realized all the significance of the fact that ,shakespeare took his stories as he found them and in the very finding of them filled them with the force of inward necessity1 and never more sublimely so than in the case of the ,roman dramas4 ,for the will to understand him has squandered itself in desperate efforts to bring in a moral causality1 a 8therefore10 a connexion of 8guilt0 and 8expiation40 ,but all this is neither correct nor incorrect--these are words that belong to the ,world-as-,nature and imply that something causal is being judged--but superficial1 shallow1 that is1 in contrast to the poet's deep subjectivizing of the mere fact-anecdote4 ,only one who feels this is able to admire the grand navet of the entrances of ,lear and ,macbeth4 ,now1 ,hebbel is the exact opposite1 he destroys the depth of the anecdote by a system of cause and effect4 ,the arbitrary and abstract character of his plots1 which everyone feels instinctively1 comes from the fact that the causal scheme of his spiritual conflicts is in contradiction with the historically-motived world-feeling and the quite other logic proper to that feeling4 ,these people do not live1 they prove something by coming on4 ,one feels the presence of a great understanding1 not that of a deep life4 ,instead of the ,incident we get a ,problem4 ,further1 this ,western species of the ,incidental is entirely alien to the ,classical world-feeling and therefore to its drama4 ,antigone has no incidental character to affect her fortunes in any way4 ,what happened to dipus--unlike the fate of ,lear--might just as well have happened to anyone else4 ,this is the ,classical 8,destiny10 the ,fatum which is common to all mankind1 which affects the 8body0 and in no wise depends upon incidents of personality4 ,the kind of history that is commonly written must1 even if it does not lose itself in compilation of data1 come to a halt before the superficially incidental--that is the 444 destiny of its authors1 who1 spiritually1 remain more or less in the ruck4 ,in their eyes nature and history mingle in a cheap unity1 and incident or accident1 8sa sacre majest le ,hazard10 is for the man of the ruck the easiest thing in the world to understand4 ,for him the secret logic of history #8which he does not feel' is replaced by a causal that is only waiting behind the scene to come on and prove itself4 ,it is entirely appropriate that the anecdotal foreground of history should be the arena of all the scientific causality-hunters and all the novelists and sketch-writers of the common stamp4 ,how many wars have been begun when they were because some jealous courtier wished to remove some general from the proximity of his wife6 ,how many battles have been won and lost through ridiculous incidents6 ,only think how ,roman history was written in the #ahth ,century and how ,chinese history is written even to-day6 ,think of the ,dey smacking the ,consul with his fly-flap#aei and other such incidents that enliven the historical scene with comic-opera motives6 ,do not the deaths of ,gustavus ,adolphus and of ,alexander seem like expedients of a nonplussed playwright2 ,hannibal a simple intermezzo1 a surprise intrusion in ,classical history2 or ,napoleon's 8transit0 more or less of a melodrama8 ,anyone who looks for the inner form of history in any causal succession of its visible detail-events must always1 if he is honest1 find a comedy of burlesque inconsequence1 and ,i can well imagine that the dance-scene of the drunken ,triumvirs in 8,antony and ,cleopatra0 7almost overlooked1 but one of the most powerful in that immensely deep work7#afj grew up out of the contempt of the prince of historical tragedy for the pragmatic aspect of history4 ,for this is the aspect of it that has always dominated 8the world10 and has encouraged ambitious little men to interfere in it4 ,it was because their eyes were set on this1 and its rationalistic structure1 that ,rousseau and ,marx could persuade themselves that they could alter the 8course of the world0 by a theory4 ,and even the social or economic interpretation of political developments1 to which present-day historical work is trying to rise as to a peak-ideal 7though its biological cast constantly leads us to suspect foundations of the causal kind71 is still exceedingly shallow and trivial4 ,napoleon had in his graver moments a strong feeling for the deep logic of world-becoming1 and in such moments could divine to what extent he was1 and to what extent he had1 a destiny4 8,i feel myself driven towards an end that ,i do not know4 ,as soon as ,i shall have reached it1 as soon as ,i shall become unnecessary1 an atom will suffice to shatter me4 ,till then1 not all the forces of mankind can do anything against me10 he said at the beginning of the ,russian campaign4 ,here1 certainly1 is not the thought of a pragmatist4 ,in this moment he divined how little the logic of ,destiny needs particular instances1 better men or situations4 ,supposing that he himself1 as 8empirical person10 had fallen at ,marengo--then that which he signified would have been actualized in some other form4 ,a melody1 in the hands of a great musician1 is capable of a wealth of variations2 it can be entirely transformed so far as the simple listener is concerned without altering itself--which is quite another matter--fundamentally4 ,the epoch of ,german national union accomplished itself through the person of ,bismarck1 that of the ,wars of ,freedom through broad and almost nameless events2 but either theme1 to use the language of music1 could have been 8worked out0 in other ways4 ,bismarck might have been dismissed early1 the battle of ,leipzig might have been lost1 and for the group of wars #ahfd--ahff--ahgj there might have been substituted 7as 8modulations07 diplomatic1 dynastic1 revolutionary or economic facts--though it must not be forgotten that ,western history1 under the pressure of its own physiognomic abundance 7as distinct from physiognomic style1 for even ,indian history has that7 demands1 so to say1 contrapuntally strong accents--wars or big personalities--at the decisive points4 ,bismarck himself points out in his reminiscences that in the spring of #ahdh national unity could have been achieved on a broader base than in #ahgj but for the policy 7more accurately1 the personal taste7 of the ,king of ,prussia2#afa and yet1 again1 according to ,bismarck1 this would have been so tame a working-out that a coda of one sort or another 7da capo e poi la coda7 would have been imperatively necessary4 ,withal1 the ,theme--the meaning of the epoch-- would have been entirely unaltered by the facts assuming this or that shape4 ,goethe might--possibly--have died young1 but not his 8idea40 ,faust and ,tasso would not have been written1 but they would have 8been0 in a deeply mysterious sense1 even though they lacked the poet's elucidation4 ,for if it is incidental that the history of higher mankind fulfils itself in the form of great ,cultures1 and that one of these ,cultures awoke in ,west ,europe about the year #ajjj2 yet from the moment of awakening it is bound by its charter4 ,within every epoch there is unlimited abundance of surprising and unforeseeable possibilities of self-actualizing in detail-facts1 but the epoch itself is necessary1 for the life-unity is in it4 ,that its inner form is precisely what it is1 constitutes its specific determination 7,bestimmung74 ,fresh incidentals can affect the shape of its development1 can make this grandiose or puny1 prosperous or sorrowful1 but alter it they cannot4 ,an irrevocable fact is not merely a special case but a special type2 thus in the history of the ,universe we have the type of the 8solar system0 of sun and circling planets2 in the history of our planet we have the type 8life0 with its youth1 age1 duration and reproduction2 in the history of 8life0 the type 8humanity10 and in the world-historical stage of that humanity the type of the great individual ,culture4#afb ,and these ,cultures are essentially related to the plants1 in that they are bound for the whole duration of their life to the soil from which they sprang4 ,typical1 lastly1 is the manner in which the men of a ,culture understand and experience ,destiny1 however differently the picture may be coloured for this individual and that2 what ,i say here about it is not 8true10 but inwardly necessary for this ,culture and this time-phase of it1 and if it convinces you1 it is not because there is only one 8truth0 but because you and ,i belong to the same epoch4 ,for this reason1 the ,euclidean soul of the ,classical ,culture could only experience its existence1 bound as this was to present foregrounds1 in the form of incidents of the ,classical style4 ,if in respect of the ,western soul we can regard incident as a minor order of ,destiny1 in respect of the ,classical soul it is just the reverse4 ,destiny is incident become immense--that is the very signification of ,ananke1 ,heimarmene1 ,fatum4 ,as the ,classical soul did not genuinely live through history1 it possessed no genuine feeling for a logic of ,destiny4 ,we must not be misled by words4 ,the most popular goddess of ,hellenism was ,tyche1 whom the ,greeks were practically unable to distinguish from ,ananke4 ,but ,incident and ,destiny are felt by us with all the intensity of an opposition1 and on the issue of this opposition we feel that everything fundamental in our existence depends4 ,our history is that of great connexions1 ,classical history--its full actuality1 that is1 and not merely the image of it that we get in the historian 7e4g41 ,herodotus7--is that of anecdotes1 of a series of plastic details4 ,the style of the ,classical life generally1 the style of every individual life within it1 is anecdotal1 using the word with all seriousness4 ,the sense-perceivable side of events condenses on anti-historical1 daemonic1 absurd incidents2 it is the denial and disavowal of all logic of happening4 ,the stories of the ,classical master-tragedies one and all exhaust themselves in incidents that mock at any meaning of the world2 they are the exact denotation of what is connoted by the word #afc in contrast to the ,shakesperian logic of incident4 ,consider dipus once more3 that which happened to him was wholly extrinsic1 was neither brought about nor conditioned by anything subjective to himself1 and could just as well have happened to anyone else4 ,this is the very form of the ,classical myth4 ,compare with it the necessity--inherent in and governed by the man's whole existence and the relation of that existence to ,time--that resides in the destiny of ,othello1 of ,don ,quixote1 of ,werther4 ,it is1 as we have said before1 the difference of situation-tragedy and character-tragedy4 ,and this opposition repeats itself in history proper--every epoch of the ,west has character1 while each epoch of the ,classical only presents a situation4 ,while the life of ,goethe was one of fate-filled logic1 that of ,csar was one of mythical indidentalness1 and it was left to ,shakespeare to introduce logic into it4 ,napoleon is a tragic character1 ,alcibiades fell into tragic situations4 ,astrology1 in the form in which from ,gothic to ,baroque the ,western soul knew it--was dominated by it even in denying it--was the attempt to master one's whole future life-course2 the ,faustian horoscope1 of which the best-known example is perhaps that drawn out for ,wallenstein by ,kepler1 presupposes a steady and purposeful direction in the existence that has yet to be accomplished4 ,but the ,classical oracle1 always consulted for the individual case1 is the genuine symbol of the meaningless incident and the moment2 it accepts the point-formed and the discontinuous as the elements of the world's course1 and oracle-utterances were therefore entirely in place in that which was written and experienced as history at ,athens4 ,was there one single ,greek who possessed the notion of a historical evolution towards this or that or any aim8 ,and we--should we have been able to reflect upon history or to make it if we had not possessed it8 ,if we compare the destinies of ,athens and of ,france at corresponding times after ,themistocles and ,louis ,,xiv1 we cannot but feel that the style of the historical feeling and the style of its actualization are always one4 ,in ,france logic outrance1 in ,athens un-logic4 ,the ultimate meaning of this significant fact can now be understood4 ,history is the actualizing of a soul1 and the same style governs the history one makes as governs the history one contemplates4 ,the ,classical mathematic excludes the symbol of infinite space1 and therefore the ,classical history does so too4 ,it is not for nothing that the scene of ,classical existence is the smallest of any1 the individual ,polis1 that it lacks horizon and perspective--notwithstanding the episode of ,alexander's expedition#afd--;just as the ,attic stage cuts them off with its flat back-wall1 in obvious contrast to the long-range efficacy of ,western ,cabinet diplomacy and the ,western capital city4 ,and just as the ,greeks and the ,romans neither knew nor 7with their fundamental abhorrence of the ,chaldean astronomy7 would admit as actual any cosmos but that of the foreground2 just as at bottom their deities are house- gods1 city-gods1 field-gods but never star-gods1#afe so also what they depicted was only foregrounds4 ,never in ,corinth or ,athens or ,sicyon do we find a landscape with mountain horizon and driving clouds and distant towns2 every vase-painting has the same constituents1 figures of ,euclidean separateness and artistic self-sufficiency4 ,every pediment or frieze group is serially and not contrapuntally built up4 ,but then1 life-experience itself was one strictly of foregrounds4 ,destiny was not the 8course of life0 but something upon which one suddenly stumbles4 ,and this is how ,athens produced1 with ,polygnotus's fresco and ,plato's geometry1 a fate-tragedy in which fate is precisely the fate that we discredit in ,schiller's 8,bride of ,messina40 ,the complete unmeaning of blind doom that is embodied1 for instance1 in the curse of the ,house of ,atreus1 served to reveal to the ahistorical ,classical soul the full meaning of its own world4 ----- ,footnote #aeg3 8,the older one becomes1 the more one is persuaded that ,his ,sacred ,majesty ,chance does three-quarters of the work of this miserable ,universe40 7,frederick the ,great to ,voltaire47 ,so1 necessarily1 must the genuine rationalist conceive it4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bj et seq4 ,footnote #aei3 ,the incident which is said to have precipitated the ,french war on ,algiers 7#ahbg74--,tr4 ,footnote #afj3 ,act4 ,,ii1 ,scene ,,vii4--,tr4 ,footnote #afa3 ,in the general upheaval of #ahdh a ,german national parliament was assembled at ,frankfurt1 of a strongly democratic colour1 and it chose ,frederick ,william ,,iv of ,prussia as hereditary emperor4 ,frederick ,william1 however1 refused to 8pick up a crown out of the gutter40 ,for the history of this momentous episode1 the ,english reader may be referred to the ,cambridge ,modern ,history or to the article ,germany 7,history7 in the ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,edition4--,tr4 ,footnote #afb3 ,it is the fact that a whole group of these ,cultures is available for our study that makes possible the 8comparative0 method used in the present work4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #db et seq4 ,footnote #afc3 ,derived from 1 to receive as one's portion1 to have allotted to one1 or1 colloquially1 to 8come in for0 or 8step into40--,tr4 ,footnote #afd3 ,the expedition of the ,ten ,thousand into ,persia is no exception4 ,the ,ten ,thousand indeed formed an ambulatory ,polis1 and its adventures are truly ,classical4 ,it was confronted with a series of 8situations40-- ,tr4 ,footnote #afe3 ,helios is only a poetical figure2 he had neither temples nor cult4 ,even less was ,selene a moon-goddess4 ----- ,,ix ,we may now point our moral with a few examples1 which1 though hazardous1 ought not at this stage to be open to misunderstanding4 ,imagine ,columbus supported by ,france instead of by ,spain1 as was in fact highly probable at one time4 ,had ,francis ,i been the master of ,america1 without doubt he and not the ,spaniard ,charles ,v would have obtained the imperial crown4 ,the early ,baroque period from the ,sack of ,rome to the ,peace of ,westphalia1 which was actually the ,spanish century in religion1 intellect1 art1 politics and manners1 would have been shaped from ,paris and not from ,madrid4 ,instead of the names of ,philip1 ,alva1 ,cervantes1 ,calderon1 ,velasquez we should be talking to-day of great ,frenchmen who in fact--if we may thus roundly express a very difficult idea--remained unborn4 ,the style of the ,church which was definitively fixed in this epoch by the ,spaniard ,loyola and the ,council of ,trent which he spiritually dominated2 the style of politics to which the war-technique of ,spanish captains1 the diplomacy of ,spanish cardinals and the courtly spirit of the ,escorial gave a stamp that lasted till the ,congress of ,vienna and in essential points till beyond ,bismarck2 the architecture of the ,baroque2 the great age of ,painting2 ceremonial and the polite society of the great cities--all these would have been represented by other profound heads1 noble and clerical1 by wars other than ,philip ,,ii's wars1 by another architect than ,vignola1 by another ,court4 ,the ,incidental chose the ,spanish gesture for the late period of the ,west4 ,but the inward logic of that age1 which was bound to find its fulfilment in the great ,revolution 7or some event of the same connotation71 remained intact4 ,this ,french revolution might have been represented by some other event of different form and occurring elsewhere1 say in ,england or ,germany4 ,but its 8idea10--which 7as we shall see later7 was the transition from ,culture to ,civilization1 the victory of the inorganic megalopolis over the organic countryside which was henceforward to become spiritually 8the provinces10--was necessary1 and the moment of its occurrence was also necessary4 ,to describe such a moment we shall use the term 7long blurred1 or misused as a synonym for period7 epoch4 ,when we say an event is epoch-making we mean that it marks in the course of a ,culture a necessary and fateful turning-point4 ,the merely incidental event1 a crystallization-form of the historical surface1 may be represented by other appropriate incidents1 but the epoch is necessary and predeterminate4 ,and it is evident that the question of whether1 in respect of a particular ,culture and its course1 an event ranks as an epoch or as an episode is connected with its ideas of ,destiny and ,incidents1 and therefore also with its idea of the ,tragic as 8epochal0 7as in the ,west7 or as 8episodic0 7as in the ,classical world74 ,we can1 further1 distinguish between impersonal or anonymous and personal epochs1 according to their physiognomic type in the picture of history4 ,amongst 8incidents0 of the first rank we include those great persons who are endowed with such formative force that the destiny of thousands1 of whole peoples1 and of ages1 are incorporated in their private destinies2 but at the same time we can distinguish the adventurer or successful man who is destitute of inward greatness 7like ,danton or ,robespierre7 from the ,hero of history by the fact that his personal destiny displays only the traits of the common destiny4 ,certain names may ring1 but 8the ,jacobins0 collectively and not individuals amongst them were the type that dominated the time4 ,the first part of this epoch of the ,revolution is therefore thoroughly anonymous1 just as the second or ,napoleonic is in the highest degree personal4 ,in a few years the immense force of these phenomena accomplished what the corresponding epoch of the ,classical 7c4 #chf-cbb71 fluid and unsure of itself1 required decades of undermining-work to achieve4 ,it is of the essence of all ,culture that at the outset of each stage the same potentiality is present1 and that necessity fulfils itself thereafter either in the form of a great individual person 7,alexander1 ,diocletian1 ,mohammed1 ,luther1 ,napoleon7 or in that of an almost anonymous happening of powerful inward constitution 7,peloponnesian ,war1 ,thirty ,years' ,war1 ,spanish ,succession ,war7 or else in a feeble and indistinct evolution 7periods of the ,diadochi and of the ,hyksos1 the ,interregnum in ,germany74 ,and the question which of these forms is the more likely to occur in any given instance1 is one that is influenced in advance by the historical and therefore also the tragic style of the ,culture concerned4#aff ,the tragic in ,napoleon's life--which still awaits discovery by a poet great enough to comprehend it and shape it--was that he1 who rose into effective being by fighting ,british policy and the ,british spirit which that policy so eminently represented1 completed by that very fighting the continental victory of this spirit1 which thereupon became strong enough1 in the guise of 8liberated nations0 to overpower him and to send him to ,st4 ,helena to die4 ,it was not ,napoleon who originated the expansion principle4 ,that had arisen out of the ,puritanism of ,cromwell's milieu which called into life the ,british ,colonial ,empire4#afg ,transmitted through the ,english-schooled intellects of ,rousseau and ,mirabeau to the ,revolutionary armies1 of which ,english philosophical ideas were essentially the driving force1 it became their tendency even from that day of ,valmy which ,goethe alone read aright4 ,it was not ,napoleon who formed the idea1 but the idea that formed ,napoleon1 and when he came to the throne he was obliged to pursue it further against the only power1 ,england namely1 whose purpose was the same as his own4 ,his ,empire was a creation of ,french blood but of ,english style4 ,it was in ,london1 again1 that ,locke1 ,shaftesbury1 ,samuel ,clarke and1 above all1 ,bentham built up the theory of 8,european ,civilization0--the ,western ,hellenism--which ,bayle1 ,voltaire and ,rousseau carried to ,paris4 ,thus it was in the name of this ,england of ,parliamentarianism1 business morality and journalism that ,valmy1 ,marengo1 ,jena1 ,smolensk and ,leipzig were fought1 and in all these battles it was the ,english spirit that defeated the ,french ,culture of the ,west4#afh ,the ,first ,consul had no intention of incorporating ,west ,europe in ,france2 his primary object was--note the ,alexander-idea on the threshold of every ,civilization6--to replace the ,british ,colonial ,empire by a ,french one4 ,thereby1 ,french preponderance in the ,western culture-region would have been placed on a practically unassailable foundation2 it would have been the ,empire of ,charles ,v on which the sun never set1 but managed from ,paris after all1 in spite of ,columbus and ,philip1 and organized as an economic-military instead of as an ecclesiastical-chivalric unit4 ,so far-reaching1 probably1 was the destiny that was in ,napoleon4 ,but the ,peace of ,paris in #agfc had already decided the question against ,france1 and ,napoleon's great plans time and again came to grief in petty incidents4 ,at ,acre a few guns were landed in the nick of time from the ,british warships3 there was a moment1 again1 just before the signature of the ,peace of ,amiens1 when the whole ,mississippi basin was still amongst his assets and he was in close touch with the ,maratha powers that were resisting ,british progress in ,india2 but again a minor naval incident#afi obliged him to abandon the whole of a carefully-prepared enterprise3 and1 lastly1 when by the occupation of ,dalmatia1 ,corfu and all ,italy he had made the ,adriatic a ,french lake1 with a view to another expedition to the ,east1 and was negotiating with the ,shah of ,persia for action against ,india1 he was defeated by the whims of the ,tsar ,alexander1 who at times was undoubtedly willing to support a march on ,india and whose aid would infallibly have secured its success4 ,it was only after the failure of all extra-,european combinations that he chose1 as his ultima ratio in the battle against ,england1 the incorporation of ,germany and ,spain1 and so1 raising against himself his own ,english- ,revolutionary ideas1 the very ideas of which he had been the vehicle1#agj he took the step that made him 8no longer necessary40 ,at one time it falls to the ,spanish spirit to outline1 at another to the ,british or the ,french to remould1 the world-embracing colonial system4 ,a 8,united ,states of ,europe10 actualized through ,napoleon as founder of a romantic and popular military monarchy1 is the analogue of the ,realm of the ,diadochi2 actualized as a #bast-,century economic organism by a matter-of-fact ,csar1 it is the counterpart of the imperium ,romanum4 ,these are incidentals1 but they are in the picture of history4 ,but ,napoleon's victories and defeats 7which always hide a victory of ,england and ,civilization over ,culture71 his ,imperial dignity1 his fall1 the ,grande ,nation1 the episodic liberation of ,italy 7in #agif1 as in #ahei1 essentially no more than a change of political costume for a people long since become insignificant71 the destruction of the ,gothic ruin of the ,roman-,german ,empire1 are mere surface phenomena1 behind which is marching the great logic of genuine and invisible ,history1 and it was in the sense of this logic that the ,west1 having fulfilled its ,french- formed ,culture in the ancien rgime1 closed it off with the ,english ,civilization4 ,as symbols of 8contemporary0 epochal moments1 then1 the storming of the ,bastille1 ,valmy1 ,austerlitz1 ,waterloo and the rise of ,prussia correspond to the ,classical-history facts of ,chronea1 ,gaugamela 7,arbela71 ,alexander's ,indian expedition and the ,roman victory of ,sentinum4#aga ,and we begin to understand that in wars and political catastrophies--the chief material of our historical writings--victory is not the essence of the fight nor peace the aim of a revolution4 ----- ,footnote #aff3 ,the original is somewhat obscure4 ,it reads3 ,welche ,form die ,wahrscheinlichkeit fr sich hat1 ist bereits eine ,frage des historischen--und also des tragischen--,stils4--,tr4 ,footnote #afg3 ,the words of ,canning at the beginning of the ,x,i,xth century may be recalled4 8,south ,america free6 and if possible ,english60 ,the expansion idea has never been expressed in greater purity than this4 ,footnote #afh3 ,the ,western ,culture of maturity was through-and-through a ,french outgrowth of the ,spanish1 beginning with ,louis ,,xiv4 ,but even by ,louis ,,xvi's time the ,english park had defeated the ,french1 sensibility had ousted wit1 ,london costume and manners had overcome ,versailles1 and ,hogarth1 ,chippendale and ,wedgwood had prevailed over ,watteau1 ,boulle and ,svres4 ,footnote #afi3 ,the allusion is to the voyage of ,linois's small squadron to ,pondichry in #ahjc1 its confrontation by another small ,british squadron there1 and the counter-order which led ,linois to retire to ,mauritius4--,tr4 ,footnote #agj3 ,hardenberg's reorganization of ,prussia was thoroughly ,english in spirit1 and as such incurred the severe censure of the old ,prussian ,von der ,marwitz4 ,scharnhorst's army reforms too1 as a breakaway from the professional army system of the eighteenth-century cabinet-wars1 are a sort of 8return to nature0 in the ,rousseau-,revolutionary sense4 ,footnote #aga3 ,where in #bie ,b4,c4 the ,romans decisively defeated the last great ,samnite effort to resist their hegemony over ,italy4--,tr4 ----- ,x ,anyone who has absorbed these ideas will have no difficulty in understanding how the causality principle is bound to have a fatal effect upon the capacity for genuinely experiencing ,history when1 at last1 it attains its rigid form in that 8late0 condition of a ,culture to which it is proper and in which it is able to tyrannize over the world- picture4 ,kant1 very wisely1 established causality as a necessary form of knowledge1 and it cannot be too often emphasized that this was meant to refer exclusively to the understanding of man's environment by the way of reason4 ,but while the word 8necessary0 was accepted readily enough1 it has been overlooked that this limitation of the principle to a single domain of knowledge is just what forbids its application to the contemplation and experiencing of living history4 ,man-knowing and ,nature-knowing are in essence entirely incapable of being compared1 but nevertheless the whole ,nineteenth ,century was at great pains to abolish the frontier between ,nature and ,history in favour of the former4 ,the more historically men tried to think1 the more they forgot that in this domain they ought not to think4 ,in forcing the rigid scheme of a spatial and anti-temporal relation of cause and effect upon something alive1 they disfigured the visible face of becoming with the construction-lines of a physical nature-picture1 and1 habituated to their own late1 megalopolitan and causally-thinking milieu1 they were unconscious of the fundamental absurdity of a science that sought to understand an organic becoming by methodically misunderstanding it as the machinery of the thing-become4 ,day is not the cause of night1 nor youth of age1 nor blossom of fruit4 ,everything that we grasp intellectually has a cause1 everything that we live organically with inward certitude has a past4 ,the one recognizes the case1 that which is generally possible and has a fixed inner form which is the same whenever and wherever and however often it occurs1 the other recognizes the event which once was and will never recur4 ,and1 according as we grasp something in our envelope-world critically and consciously or physiognomically and involuntarily1 we draw our conclusion from technical or from living experience1 and we relate it to a timeless cause in space or to a direction which leads from yesterday to to-day and to-morrow4 ,but the spirit of our great cities refuses to be involuntary4 ,surrounded by a machine-technique that it has itself created in surprising ,nature's most dangerous secret1 the 8law10 it seeks to conquer history also technically1 8theoretically and practically40 8,usefulness10 suitableness to purpose 7,zweckmssigkeit71 is the great word which assimilates the one to the other4 ,a materialist conception of history1 ruled by laws of causal ,nature1 leads to the setting up of usefulness-ideals such as 8enlightenment10 8humanity10 8world-peace10 as aims of world-history1 to be reached by the 8march of progress40 ,but in these schemes of old age the feeling of ,destiny has died1 and with it the young reckless courage that1 self-forgetful and big with a future1 presses on to meet a dark decision4 ,for only youth has a future1 and is ,future1 that enigmatic synonym of directional ,time and of ,destiny4 ,destiny is always young4 ,he who replaces it by a mere chain of causes and effects1 sees even in the not- yet-actualized something1 as it were1 old and past--direction is wanting4 ,but he who lives towards a something in the superabundant flow of things need not concern himself with aims and abilities1 for he feels that he himself is the meaning of what is to happen4 ,this was the faith in the ,star that never left ,csar nor ,napoleon nor the great doers of another kind2 and this it is that lies deepest of all--youthful melancholy notwithstanding--in every childhood and in every young clan1 people1 ,culture1 that extends forward over all their history for men of act and of vision1 who are young however white their hair1 younger even than the most juvenile of those who look to a timeless utilitarianism4 ,the feeling of a significance in the momentarily present world-around discloses itself in the earliest days of childhood1 when it is still only the persons and things of the nearest environment that essentially exist1 and develops through silent and unconscious experience into a comprehensive picture4 ,this picture constitutes the general expression of the whole ,culture as it is at the particular stage1 and it is only the fine judge of life and the deep searcher of history who can interpret it4 ,at this point a distinction presents itself between the immediate impression of the present and the image of the past that is only presented in the spirit1 in other words between the world as happening and the world as history4 ,the eye of the man of action 7statesman and general7 appreciates the first1 that of the man of contemplation 7historian and poet7 the second4 ,into the first one plunges practically to do or to suffer2 chronology1#agb that great symbol of irrevocable past1 claims the second4 ,we look backwards1 and we live forward towards the unforeseen1 but even in childhood our technical experience soon introduces into the image of the singular occurrence elements of the foreseeable1 that is1 an image of regulated ,nature which is subject not to physiognomic fact but to calculation4 ,we apprehend a 8head of game0 as a living entity and immediately afterwards as food2 we see a flash of lightning as a peril and then as an electrical discharge4 ,and this second1 later1 petrifying projection of the world more and more tends to overpower the first in the ,megalopolis2 the image of the past is mechanized and materialized and from it is deduced a set of causal rules for present and future4 ,we come to believe in historical laws and in a rational understanding of them4 ,nevertheless science is always natural science4 ,causal knowledge and technical experience refer only to the become1 the extended1 the comprehended4 ,as life is to history1 so is knowledge 7,wissen7 to ,nature1 viz41 to the sensible world apprehended as an element1 treated as in space and subjected to the law of cause and effect4 ,is there1 then1 a science of ,history at all8 ,to answer this question1 let us remember that in every personal world-picture1 which only approximates more or less to the ideal picture1 there is both something of ,nature and something of ,history4 ,no ,nature is without living1 and no ,history without causal1 harmonies4 ,for within the sphere of ,nature1 although two like experiments1 conformably to law1 have the like result1 yet each of these experiments is a historical event possessing a date and not recurring4 ,and within that of ,history1 the dates or data of the past 7chronologies1 statistics1 names1 forms#agc7 form a rigid web4 8,facts are facts0 even if we are unaware of them1 and all else is image1 ,theoria1 both in the one domain and in the other4 ,but history is itself the condition of being 8in the focus0 and the material is only an aid to this condition1 whereas in ,nature the real aim is the winning of the material1 and theory is only the servant of this purpose4 ,there is1 therefore1 not a science of history but an ancillary science for history1 which ascertains that which has been4 ,for the historical outlook itself the data are always symbols4 ,scientific research1 on the contrary1 is science and only science4 ,in virtue of its technical origin and purpose it sets out to find data and laws of the causal sort and nothing else1 and from the moment that it turns its glance upon something else it becomes ,metaphysics1 something trans-scientific4 ,and just because this is so1 historical and natural-science data are different4 ,the latter consistently repeat themselves1 the former never4 ,the latter are truths1 the former facts4 ,however closely related incidentals and causals may appear to be in the everyday picture1 fundamentally they belong to different worlds4 ,as it is beyond question that the shallowness of a man's history-picture 7the man himself1 therefore7 is in proportion to the dominance in it of frank incidentals1 so it is beyond question that the emptiness of written history is in proportion to the degree in which it makes the establishment of purely factual relations its object4 ,the more deeply a man lives ,history1 the more rarely will he receive 8causal0 impressions and the more surely will he be sensible of their utter insignificance4 ,if the reader examines ,goethe's writings in natural science1 he will be astounded to find how 8living nature0 can be set forth without formulas1 without laws1 almost without a trace of the causal4 ,for him1 ,time is not a distance but a feeling4 ,but the experience of last and deepest things is practically denied to the ordinary savant who dissects and arranges purely critically and allows himself neither to contemplate nor to feel4 ,in the case of ,history1 on the contrary1 this power of experience is the requisite4 ,and thus is justified the paradox that the less a historical researcher has to do with real science1 the better it is for his history4 ,to elucidate once more by a diagram3 ,soul ,world ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------v----------- ---------------------------------------- -----------_/ ,life1 ,direction ,extension ,destiny-,experience ,causal ,knowledge ,the uniquely ,the occurring and irrevocable constantly-possible 8,fact0 8,truth0 ,physiognomic tact 7instinct7 ,systematic criticism 7reason7 ,crossed downward arrows ,consciousness ,consciousness as servant of ,being as master of ,being ,the world-image of 8,history0 ,the world-image of ,nature ,life-experience ,scientific methods ,image of the ,past ,religion4 ,natural ,science ,constructive ,contemplation ,theoretical3 ,myth and ,dogma4 ,hypothesis 7,historian1 ,tragic ,dramatist7 ,practical3 ,cult4 ,technique to investigate ,destiny ,direction into the ,future ,constructive ,action 7,statesman7 to be ,destiny ,,xi ,is it permissible to fix upon one1 any one1 group of social1 religious1 physiological or ethical facts as the 8cause0 of another8 8,certainly10 the rationalistic school of history1 and still more the up-to-date sociology1 would reply4 ,that1 they would say1 is what is meant by our comprehending history and deepening our knowledge of it4 ,but in reality1 with 8civilized0 man there is always the implicit postulate of an underlying rational purpose--without which indeed his world would be meaningless4 ,and there is something rather comic in the most unscientific freedom that he allows himself in his choice of his fundamental causes4 ,one man selects this1 another that1 group as prima causa--an inexhaustible source of polemics--and all fill their works with pretended elucidations of the 8course of history0 on natural-science lines4 ,schiller has given us the classical expression of this method in one of his immortal banalities1 the verse in which the 8,weltgetriebe0 is stat 8durch ,hunger und durch ,liebe02 and the ,nineteenth ,century1 progressing from ,rationalism to ,materialism1 has made this opinion canonical4 ,the cult of the useful was set up on high4 ,to it ,darwin1 in the name of his century1 sacrificed ,goethe's ,nature-theory4 ,the organic logic of the facts of life was supplanted by a mechanics in physiological garb4 ,heredity1 adaptation1 natural selection1 are utility-causes of purely mechanical connotation4 ,the historical dispensations were superseded by a naturalistic movement 8in space40 7,but are there historical or spiritual 8processes10 or life- 8processes0 of any sort whatever8 ,have historical 8movements0 such as1 for example1 the ,renaissance or the ,age of ,enlightenment anything whatever to do with the scientific notion of movement87 ,the word 8process0 eliminated ,destiny and unveiled the secret of becoming1 and lo6 there was no longer a tragic but only an exact mathematical structure of world-happening4 ,and thereupon the 8exact0 historian enunciated the proposition that in the history-picture we had before us a sequence of 8states0 of mechanical type which were amenable to rational analysis like a physical experiment or a chemical reaction1 and that therefore causes1 means1 methods and objects were capable of being grouped together as a comprehensible system on the visible surface4 ,it all becomes astonishingly simple4 ,and one is bound to admit that given a sufficiently shallow observer1 the hypothesis 7so far as concerns his personality and its world-picture7 comes off4 ,hunger and ,love#agd thus become mechanical causes of mechanical processes in the 8life of peoples40 ,social problems and sexual problems 7both belonging to a 8physics0 or 8chemistry0 of public--all-too-public-- existence7 become the obvious themes of utilitarian history and therefore of the corresponding tragedy4 ,for the social drama necessarily accompanies the materialist treatment of history1 and that which in ,goethe's 8,wahlverwandtschaften0 was destiny in the highest sense has become in ,ibsen's 8,lady from the ,sea0 nothing but a sexual problem4 ,ibsen and all the reason-poets of our great cities build--build from their very first causes to their very last effect--but they do not sing4 ,as artist1 ,hebbel fought hard to overcome this merely prosaic element in his more critical than intuitive temperament1 to be a poet quand mme1 hence his desperate and wholly un-,goethean effort to motive his events4 ,in ,hebbel1 as in ,ibsen1 motiving means trying to shape tragedy causally1 and he dissected and re-dissected and transformed and retransformed his ,anecdote until he had made it into a system that proved a case4 ,consider his treatment of the ,judith story-- ,shakespeare would have taken it as it was1 and scented a world-secret in the physiognomic charm of the pure adventure4 ,but ,goethe's warning3 8,do not1 ,i beg you1 look for anything behind phenomena4 ,they are themselves their own lesson 7sie selbst sind die ,lehre70 had become incomprehensible to the century of ,marx and ,darwin4 ,the idea of trying to read a destiny in the physiognomy of the past and that of trying to represent unadulterated ,destiny as a tragedy were equally remote from them4 ,in both domains1 the cult of the useful had set before itself an entirely different aim4 ,shapes were called into being1 not to be1 but to prove something4 8,questions0 of the day were 8treated10 social problems suitably 8solved10 and the stage1 like the history-book1 became a means to that end4 ,darwinism1 however unconscious of what it was doing1 has made biology politically effective4 ,somehow or other1 democratic stirrings happened in the protoplasm1 and the struggle for existence of the rain-worms is a useful lesson for the bipeds who have scraped through4 ,with all this1 the historians have failed to learn the lesson that our ripest and strictest science1 ,physics1 would have taught them1 the lesson of prudence4 ,even if we concede them their causal method1 the superficiality with which they apply it is an outrage4 ,there is neither the intellectual discipline nor the keen sight1 let alone the scepticism that is inherent in our handling of physical hypotheses4#age ,for the attitude of the physicist to his atoms1 electrons1 currents1 and fields of force1 to ther and mass1 is very far removed from the nave faith of the layman and the ,monist in these things4 ,they are images which he subjects to the abstract relationships of his differential equations1 in which he clothes trans-phenomenal numbers1 and if he allows himself a certain freedom to choose amongst several theories1 it is because he does not try to find in them any actuality but that of the 8conventional sign40#agf ,he knows1 too1 that over and above an experimental acquaintance with the technical structure of the world-around1 all that it is possible to achieve by this process 7which is the only one open to natural science7 is a symbolic interpretation of it1 no more--certainly not 8,knowledge0 in the sanguine popular sense4 ,for1 the image of ,nature being a creation and copy of the ,intellect1 its 8alter ego0 in the domain of the extended1 to know ,nature means to know oneself4 ,if ,physics is the maturest of our sciences1 ,biology1 whose business is to explore the picture of organic life1 is in point both of content and of methods the weakest4 ,what historical investigation really is1 namely pure ,physiognomic1 cannot be better illustrated than by the course of ,goethe's nature-studies4 ,he works upon mineralogy1 and at once his views fit themselves together into a conspectus of an earth-history in which his beloved granite signifies nearly the same as that which ,i call the proto-human signifies in man's history4 ,he investigates well- known plants1 and the prime phenomenon of metamorphosis1 the original form of the history of all plant existence1 reveals itself2 proceeding further1 he reaches those extraordinarily deep ideas of vertical and spiral tendencies in vegetation which have not been fully grasped even yet4 ,his studies of ossature1 based entirely on the contemplation of life1 lead him to the discovery of the 8os intermaxillare0 in man and to the view that the skull-structure of the vertebrates developed out of six vertebr4 ,never is there a word of causality4 ,he feels the necessity of ,destiny just as he himself expressed it in his ,orphische ,urworte3 8,so must thou be4 ,thou canst not ,self escape4 ,so erst the ,sibyls1 so the ,prophets told4 ,nor ,time nor any ,power can mar the shape ,impressed1 that living must itself unfold40 ,the mere chemistry of the stars1 the mathematical side of physical observations1 and physiology proper interested him1 the great historian of ,nature very little1 because they belonged to ,systematic and were concerned with experiential learning of the become1 the dead1 and the rigid4 ,this is what underlies his anti-,newton polemic--a case in which1 it must be added1 both sides were in the right1 for the one had 8knowledge0 of the regulated nature-process in the dead colour#agg while the experiencing of the other1 the artist1 was intuitive-sensuous 8feeling40 ,here we have the two worlds in plain opposition2 and now therefore the essentials of their opposition must be stated with all strictness4 ,history carries the mark of the singular-factual1 ,nature that of the continuously possible4 ,so long as ,i scrutinize the image of the world- around in order to see by what laws it must actualize itself1 irrespective of whether it does happen or merely might happen-- irrespective1 that is1 of time--then ,i am working in a genuine science4 ,for the necessity of a nature-law 7and there are no other laws7 it is utterly immaterial whether it becomes phenomenal infinitely often or never4 ,that is1 it is independent of ,destiny4 ,there are thousands of chemical combinations that never are and never will be produced1 but they are demonstrably possible and therefore they exist--for the fixed ,system of ,nature though not for the ,physiognomy of the whirling universe4 ,a system consists of truths1 a history rests on facts4 ,facts follow one another1 truths follow from one another1 and this is the difference between 8when0 and 8how40 ,that there has been a flash of lightning is a fact and can be indicated1 without a word1 by the pointing of a finger4 8,when there is lightning there is thunder10 on the contrary1 is something that must be communicated by a proposition or sentence4 ,experience-lived may be quite wordless1 while systematic knowing can only be through words4 8,only that which has no history is capable of being defined10 says ,nietzsche somewhere4 ,but ,history is present becoming that tends into the future and looks back on the past4 ,nature stands beyond all time1 its mark is extension1 and it is without directional quality4 ,hence1 for the one1 the necessity of the mathematical1 and for the other the necessity of the tragic4 ,in the actuality of waking existence both worlds1 that of scrutiny and that of acceptance 7,hingebung71 are interwoven1 just as in a ,brabant tapestry warp and woof together effect the picture4 ,every law must1 to be available to the understanding at all1 once have been discovered through some destiny-disposition in the history of an intellect--that is1 it must have once been in experiential life2 and every destiny appears in some sensible garb--as persons1 acts1 scenes and gestures--in which ,nature-laws are operative4 ,primitive life is submissive before the daemonic unity of the fateful2 in the consciousness of the mature ,culture this 8early0 world-image is incessantly in conflict with the other1 8late10 world-image2 and in the civilized man the tragic world- feeling succumbs to the mechanizing intellect4 ,history and nature within ourselves stand opposed to one another as life is to death1 as ever-becoming time to ever-become space4 ,in the waking consciousness1 becoming and become struggle for control of the world- picture1 and the highest and maturest forms of both sorts 7possible only for the great ,cultures7 are seen1 in the case of the ,classical soul1 in the opposition of ,plato and ,aristotle1 and1 in the case of our ,western1 in that of ,goethe and ,kant--the pure physiognomy of the world contemplated by the soul of an eternal child1 and its pure system comprehended by the reason of an eternal greybeard4 ,,xii ,herein1 then1 ,i see the last great task of ,western philosophy1 the only one which still remains in store for the aged wisdom of the ,faustian ,culture1 the preordained issue1 it seems1 of our centuries of spiritual evolution4 ,no ,culture is at liberty to choose the path and conduct of its thought1 but here for the first time a ,culture can foresee the way that destiny has chosen for it4 ,before my eyes there seems to emerge1 as a vision1 a hitherto unimagined mode of superlative historical research that is truly ,western1 necessarily alien to the ,classical and to every other soul but ours--a comprehensive ,physiognomic of all existence1 a morphology of becoming for all humanity that drives onward to the highest and last ideas2 a duty of penetrating the world-feeling not only of our proper soul but of all souls whatsoever that have contained grand possibilities and have expressed them in the field of actuality as grand ,cultures4 ,this philosophic view--to which we and we alone are entitled in virtue of our analytical mathematic1 our contrapuntal music and our perspective painting--in that its scope far transcends the scheme of the systematist1 presupposes the eye of an artist1 and of an artist who can feel the whole sensible and apprehensible environment dissolve into a deep infinity of mysterious relationships4 ,so ,dante felt1 and so ,goethe felt4 ,to bring up1 out of the web of world-happening1 a millennium of organic culture-history as an entity and person1 and to grasp the conditions of its inmost spirituality--such is the aim4 ,just as one penetrates the lineaments of a ,rembrandt portrait or a ,csar-bust1 so the new art will contemplate and understand the grand1 fateful lines in the visage of a ,culture as a superlative human individuality4 ,to attempt the interpretation of a poet or a prophet1 a thinker or a conqueror1 is of course nothing new1 but to enter a culture-soul-- ,classical1 ,egyptian or ,arabian--so intimately as to absorb into one's self1 to make part of one's own life1 the totality expressed by typical men and situations1 by religion and polity1 by style and tendency1 by thought and customs1 is quite a new manner of experiencing life4 ,every epoch1 every great figure1 every deity1 the cities1 the tongues1 the nations1 the arts1 in a word everything that ever existed and will become existent1 are physiognomic traits of high symbolic significance that it will be the business of quite a new kind of 8judge of men0 7,menschenkenner7 to interpret4 ,poems and battles1 ,isis and ,cybele1 festivals and ,roman ,catholic masses1 blast furnaces and gladiatorial games1 dervishes and ,darwinians1 railways and ,roman roads1 8,progress0 and ,nirvana1 newspapers1 mass-slavery1 money1 machinery--all these are equally signs and symbols in the world-picture of the past that the soul presents to itself and would interpret4 ,alles ,vergngliche ist nur ein ,gleichnis4 ,solutions and panoramas as yet unimagined await the unveiling4 ,light will be thrown on the dark questions which underlie dread and longing--those deepest of primitive human feelings--and which the will-to-know has clothed in the 8problems0 of time1 necessity1 space1 love1 death1 and first causes4 ,there is a wondrous music of the spheres which wills to be heard and which a few of our deepest spirits will hear4 ,the physiognomic of world-happening will become the last ,faustian philosophy4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,v ,,makrokosmos ,i ,,the ,,symbolism ,,of ,,the ,,world-,,picture ,,and ,,the ,,space-,,problem ,,chapter ,v ,,makrokosmos ,i ,,the ,,symbolism ,,of ,,the ,,world-,,picture ,,and ,,the ,,space-,,problem ,i ,the notion of a world-history of physiognomic type expands itself therefore into the wider idea of an all-embracing symbolism4 ,historical research1 in the sense that we postulate here1 has simply to investigate the picture of the once-living past and to determine its inner form and logic1 and the ,destiny-idea is the furthest limit to which it can penetrate4 ,but this research1 however comprehensive the new orientation tends to make it1 cannot be more than a fragment and a foundation of a still wider treatment4 ,parallel with it1 we have a ,nature-investigation that is equally fragmentary and is limited to its own causal system of relations4 ,but neither tragic nor technical 8motion0 7if we may distinguish by these words the respective bases of the lived and the known7 exhausts the living itself4 ,we both live and know when we are awake1 but1 in addition1 we live when mind and senses are asleep4 ,though night may close every eye1 the blood does not sleep4 ,we are moving in the moving 7so at least we try to indicate1 by a word borrowed from science1 the inexpressible that in sleep-hours we feel with inward certainty74 ,but it is only in the waking existence that 8here0 and 8there0 appear as an irreducible duality4 ,every impulse proper to oneself has an expression and every impulse alien to oneself makes an impression4 ,and thus everything of which we are conscious1 whatever the form in which it is apprehended--8soul0 and 8world10 or life and actuality1 or ,history and ,nature1 or law and feeling1 ,destiny or ,god1 past and future or present and eternity--has for us a deeper meaning still1 a final meaning4 ,and the one and only means of rendering this incomprehensible comprehensible must be a kind of metaphysics which regards everything whatsoever as having significance as a symbol4 ,symbols are sensible signs1 final1 indivisible and1 above all1 unsought impressions of definite meaning4 ,a symbol is a trait of actuality that for the sensuously-alert man has an immediate and inwardly-sure significance1 and that is incommunicable by process of reason4 ,the detail of a ,doric or ,early-,arabic or ,early-,romanesque ornament2 the forms of the cottage and the family1 of intercourse1 of costume and rite2 the aspect1 gait and mien of a man and of whole classes of peoples and men2 the communication-and community-forms of man and beast2 and beyond all this the whole voiceless language of ,nature with her woods and pastures1 flocks1 clouds1 stars1 moonlight and thunderstorm1 bloom and decay1 nearness and distance--all this is the emblematical impression of the ,cosmos upon us1 who are both aware and in our reflective hours quite capable of listening to this language4 ,vice versa1 it is the sense of a homogeneous understanding that raises up the family1 the class1 the tribe1 or finally the ,culture1 out of the general humanity and assembles it as such4 ,here1 then1 we shall not be concerned with what a world 8is10 but with what it signifies to the being that it envelops4 ,when we wake up1 at once something extends itself between a 8here0 and a 8there40 ,we live the 8here0 as something proper1 we experience the 8there0 as something alien4 ,there is a dualizing of soul and world as poles of actuality2 and in the latter there are both resistances which we grasp causally as things and properties1 and impulses in which we feel beings1 numina 78just like ourselves07 to be operative4 ,but there is in it1 further1 something which1 as it were1 eliminates the duality4 ,actuality--the world in relation to a soul--is for every individual the projection of the ,directed upon the domain of the ,extended--the ,proper mirroring itself on the ,alien2 one's actuality then signifies oneself4 ,by an act that is both creative and unconscious--for it is not 8,i0 who actualize the possible1 but 8it0 actualizes itself through me--the bridge of symbol is thrown between the living 8here0 and 8there40 ,suddenly1 necessarily1 and completely 8the0 world comes into being out of the totality of received and remembered elements3 and as it is an individual who apprehends the world1 there is for each individual a singular world4 ,there are therefore as many worlds as there are waking beings and like- living1 like-feeling groups of beings4 ,the supposedly single1 independent and external world that each believes to be common to all is really an ever-new1 uniquely-occurring and non-recurring experience in the existence of each4 ,a whole series of grades of consciousness leads up from the root- beginnings of obscure childish intuition1 in which there is still no clear world for a soul or self-conscious soul within a world1 to the highly intellectualized states of which only the men of fully-ripened civilizations are capable4 ,this gradation is at the same time an expansion of symbolism from the stage in which there is an inclusive meaning of all things to one in which separate and specific signs are distinguished4 ,it is not merely when1 after the manner of the child1 the dreamer and the artist1 ,i am passive to a world full of dark significances2 or when ,i am awake without being in a condition of extreme alertness of thought and act 7such a condition is much rarer even in the consciousness of the real thinker and man of action than is generally supposed7--it is continuously and always1 for as long as my life can be considered to be a waking life at all1 that ,i am endowing that which is outside me with the whole content that is in me1 from the half-dreamy impressions of world-coherence to the rigid world of causal laws and number that overlies and binds them4 ,and even in the domain of pure number the symbolical is not lacking1 for we find that refined thought puts inexpressible meanings into signs like the triangle1 the circle and the numbers #g and #ab4 ,this is the idea of the ,macrocosm1 actuality as the sum total of all symbols in relation to one soul4 ,from this property of being significant nothing is exempt4 ,all that is1 symbolizes4 ,from the corporeal phenomena like visage1 shape1 mien 7of individuals and classes and peoples alike71 which have always been known to possess meaning1 to the supposedly eternal and universally-valid forms of knowledge1 mathematics and physics1 everything speaks out of the essence of one and only one soul4 ,at the same time these individuals' worlds as lived and experienced by men of one ,culture or spiritual community are interrelated1 and on the greater or less degree of this interrelation depends the greater or less communicability of intuitions1 sensations and thoughts from one to another--that is1 the possibility of making intelligible what one has created in the style of one's own being1 through expression-media such as language or art or religion1 by means of word-sounds or formul or signs that are themselves also symbols4 ,the degree of interrelation between one's world and another's fixes the limit at which understanding becomes self-deception4 ,certainly it is only very imperfectly that we can understand the ,indian or the ,egyptian soul1 as manifested in the men1 customs1 deities1 root-words1 ideas1 buildings and acts of it4 ,the ,greeks1 ahistoric as they were1 could not even guess at the essence of alien spiritualities--witness the navet with which they were wont to rediscover their own gods and ,culture in those of alien peoples4 ,but in our own case too1 the current translations of the 1 or ,atman1 or ,tao of alien philosophers presuppose our proper world-feeling1 which is that from which our 8equivalents0 claim their significance1 as the basis of an alien soul-expression4 ,and similarly we elucidate the characters of early ,egyptian and ,chinese portraits with reference to our own life-experience4 ,in both cases we deceive ourselves4 ,that the artistic masterpieces of all ,cultures are still living for us--8immortal0 as we say--is another such fancy1 kept alive by the unanimity with which we understand the alien work in the proper sense4 ,of this tendency of ours the effect of the ,laocon group on ,renaissance sculpture and that of ,seneca on the ,classicist drama of the ,french are examples4 ,,ii ,symbols1 as being things actualized1 belong to the domain of the extended4 ,they are become and not becoming 7although they may stand for a becoming7 and they are therefore rigidly limited and subject to the laws of space4 ,there are only sensible-spatial symbols4 ,the very word 8form0 designates something extended in the extended1--even the inner forms of music are no exception1 as we shall see4 ,but extension is the hall-mark of the fact 8waking consciousness10 and this constitutes only one side of the individual existence and is intimately bound up with that existence's destinies4 ,consequently1 every trait of the actual waking-consciousness1 whether it be feeling or understanding1 is in the moment of our becoming aware of it1 already past4 ,we can only reflect upon impressions1 8think them over0 as our happy phrase goes1 but that which for the sensuous life of the animals is past1 is for the grammatical 7wortgebundene7 understanding of man passing1 transient4 ,that which happens is1 of course1 transient1 for a happening is irrevocable1 but every kind of significance is also transient4 ,follow out the destiny of the ,column1 from the ,egyptian tomb- temple in which columns are ranked to mark the path for the traveller1 through the ,doric peripteros in which they are held together by the body of the building1 and the ,early-,arabian basilica where they support the interior1 to the faades of the ,renaissance in which they provide the upward-striving element4 ,as we see1 an old significance never returns2 that which has entered the domain of extension has begun and ended at once4 ,a deep relation1 and one which is early felt1 exists between space and death4 ,man is the only being that knows death2 all others become old1 but with a consciousness wholly limited to the moment which must seem to them eternal4 ,they live1 but like children in those first years in which ,christianity regards them as still 8innocent10 they know nothing of life1 and they die and they see death without knowing anything about it4 ,only fully-awakened man1 man proper1 whose understanding has been emancipated by the habit of language from dependence on sight1 comes to possess 7besides sensibility7 the notion of transience1 that is1 a memory of the past as past and an experiential conviction of irrevocability4 ,we are ,time1#agh but we possess also an image of history and in this image death1 and with death birth1 appear as the two riddles4 ,for all other beings life pursues its course without suspecting its limits1 i4e41 without conscious knowledge of task1 meaning1 duration and object4 ,it is because there is this deep and significant identity that we so often find the awakening of the inner life in a child associated with the death of some relation4 ,the child suddenly grasps the lifeless corpse for what it is1 something that has become wholly matter1 wholly space1 and at the same moment it feels itself as an individual being in an alien extended world4 8,from the child of five to myself is but a step4 ,but from the new-born baby to the child of five is an appalling distance10 said ,tolstoi once4 ,here1 in the decisive moments of existence1 when man first becomes man and realizes his immense loneliness in the universal1 the world-fear reveals itself for the first time as the essentially human fear in the presence of death1 the limit of the light-world1 rigid space4 ,here1 too1 the higher thought originates as meditation upon death4 ,every religion1 every scientific investigation1 every philosophy proceeds from it4 ,every great symbolism attaches its form-language to the cult of the dead1 the forms of disposal of the dead1 the adornment of the graves of the dead4 ,the ,egyptian style begins with the tomb-temples of the ,pharaohs1 the ,classical with the geometrical decoration of the funerary urns1 the ,arabian with catacomb and sarcophagus1 the ,western with the cathedral wherein the sacrificial death of ,jesus is re-enacted daily under the hands of the priest4 ,from this primitive fear springs1 too1 historical sensitiveness in all its modes1 the ,classical with its cleaving to the life-abundant present1 the ,arabian with its baptismal rite that wins new life and overcomes death1 the ,faustian with its contrition that makes worthy to receive the ,body of ,jesus and therewith immortality4 ,till we have the constantly-wakeful concern for the life that is not yet past1 there is no concern for that which is past4 ,the beast has only the future1 but man knows also the past4 ,and thus every new ,culture is awakened in and with a new view of the world1 that is1 a sudden glimpse of death as the secret of the perceivable world4 ,it was when the idea of the impending end of the world spread over ,western ,europe 7about the year #ajjj7 that the ,faustian soul of this religion was born4 ,primitive man1 in his deep amazement before death1 sought with all the forces of his spirit to penetrate and to spellbind this world of the extended with the inexorable and always present limits of its causality1 this world filled with dark almightiness that continuously threatened to make an end of him4 ,this energetic defensive lies deep in unconscious existence1 but1 as being the first impulse that genuinely projects soul and world as parted and opposed1 it marks the threshold of personal conduct of life4 ,ego-feeling and world-feeling begin to work1 and all culture1 inner or outer1 bearing or performance1 is as a whole only the intensification of this being-human4 ,henceforward all that resists our sensations is not mere resistance or thing or impression1 as it is for animals and for children also1 but an expression as well4 ,not merely are things actually contained in the world-around but also they possess meaning1 as phenomena in the world-view4 ,originally they possessed only a relationship to men1 but now there is also a relationship of men to them4 ,they have become emblems of his existence4 ,and thus the essence of every genuine--unconscious and inwardly necessary--symbolism proceeds from the knowledge of death in which the secret of space reveals itself4 ,all symbolism implies a defensive2 it is the expression of a deep ,scheu in the old double sense of the word1#agi and its form-language tells at once of hostility and of reverence4 ,every thing-become is mortal4 ,not only peoples1 languages1 races and ,cultures are transient4 ,in a few centuries from now there will no more be a ,western ,culture1 no more be ,german1 ,english or ,french than there were ,romans in the time of ,justinian4 ,not that the sequence of human generations failed2 it was the inner form of a people1 which had put together a number of these generations as a single gesture1 that was no longer there4 ,the ,civis ,romanus1 one of the most powerful symbols of ,classical being1 had nevertheless1 as a form1 only a duration of some centuries4 ,but the primitive phenomenon of the great ,culture will itself have disappeared some day1 and with it the drama of world-history2 aye1 and man himself1 and beyond man the phenomenon of plant and animal existence on the earth's surface1 the earth1 the sun1 the whole world of sun-systems4 ,all art is mortal1 not merely the individual artifacts but the arts themselves4 ,one day the last portrait of ,rembrandt and the last bar of ,mozart will have ceased to be--though possibly a coloured canvas and a sheet of notes may remain--because the last eye and the last ear accessible to their message will have gone4 ,every thought1 faith and science dies as soon as the spirits in whose worlds their 8eternal truths0 were true and necessary are extinguished4 ,dead1 even1 are the star-worlds which 8appeared10 a proper world to the proper eye1 to the astronomers of the ,nile and the ,euphrates1 for our eye is different from theirs2 and our eye in its turn is mortal4 ,all this we know4 ,the beast does not know1 and what he does not know does not exist in his experienced world-around4 ,but if the image of the past vanishes1 the longing to give a deeper meaning to the passing vanishes also4 ,and so it is with reference to the purely human macrocosm that we apply the oft- quoted line1 which shall serve as motto for all that follows3 ,alles ,vergngliche ist nur ein ,gleichnis4 ,from this we are led1 without our noticing it1 back to the space- problem1 though now it takes on a fresh and surprising form4 ,indeed1 it is as a corollary to these ideas that it appears for the first time as capable of solution--or1 to speak more modestly1 of enunciation--just as the time-problem was made more comprehensible by way of the ,destiny- idea4 ,from the moment of our awakening1 the fateful and directed life appears in the phenomenal life as an experienced depth4 ,everything extends itself1 but it is not yet 8space10 not something established in itself but a self-extension continued from the moving here to the moving there4 ,world-experience is bound up with the essence of depth 7i4e41 far-ness or distance74 ,in the abstract system of mathematics1 8depth0 is taken along with 8length0 and 8breadth0 as a 8third0 dimension2 but this trinity of elements of like order is misleading from the outset1 for in our impression of the spatial world these elements are unquestionably not equivalents1 let alone homogeneous4 ,length and breadth are no doubt1 experientially1 a unit and not a mere sum1 but they are 7the phrase is used deliberately7 simply a form of reception2 they represent the purely sensuous impression4 ,but depth is a representation of expression1 of ,nature1 and with it begins the 8world40 ,this discrimination between the 8third0 and the other two dimensions1 so called1 which needless to say is wholly alien to mathematics1 is inherent also in the opposition of the notions of sensation and contemplation4 ,extension into depth converts the former into the latter2 in fact1 depth is the first and genuine dimension in the literal sense of the word4#ahj ,in it the waking consciousness is active1 whereas in the others it is strictly passive4 ,it is the symbolic content of a particular order as understood by one particular ,culture that is expressed by this original fundamental and unanalysable element4 ,the experiencing of depth 7this is a premiss upon which all that follows is dependent7 is an act1 as entirely involuntary and necessary as it is creative1 whereby the ego keeps its world1 so to say1 in subordination 7zudiktiert erhlt74 ,out of the rain of impressions the ego fashions a formal unit1 a cinematic picture1 which as soon as it is mastered by the understanding is subjected to law and the causality principle2 and therefore1 as the projection of an individual spirit it is transient and mortal4 ,there is no doubt1 however reason may contest it1 that this extension is capable of infinite variety1 and that it operates differently not merely as between child and man1 or nature-man and townsman1 or ,chinese and ,romans1 but as between individual and individual according as they experience their worlds contemplatively or alertly1 actively or placidly4 ,every artist has rendered 8,nature0 by line and by tone1 every physicist--,greek1 ,arabian or ,german--has dissected 8,nature0 into ultimate elements1 and how is it that they have not all discovered the same8 ,because every one of them has had his own ,nature1 though--with a navet that was really the salvation of his world-idea and of his own self-- every one believed that he had it in common with all the rest4 ,nature is a possession which is saturated through and through with the most personal connotations4 ,nature is a function of the particular ,culture4 ,,iii ,kant believed that he had decided the great question of whether this a priori element was pre-existent or obtained by experience1 by his celebrated formula that ,space is the form of perception which underlies all world impressions4 ,but the 8world0 of the careless child and the dreamer undeniably possess this form in an insecure and hesitant way1#aha and it is only the tense1 practical1 technical treatment of the world-around--imposed on the free-moving being which1 unlike the lilies of the fields1 must care for its life--that lets sensuous self- extension stiffen into rational tridimensionality4 ,and it is only the city-man of matured ,cultures that really lives in this glaring wakefulness1 and only for his thought that there is a ,space wholly divorced from sensuous life1 8absolute10 dead and alien to ,time2 and it exists not as a form of the intuitively-perceived but as a form of the rationally-comprehended4 ,there is no manner of doubt that the 8space0 which ,kant saw all around him with such unconditional certainty when he was thinking out his theory1 did not exist in anything like so rigorous a form for his ,carolingian ancestors4 ,kant's greatness consists in his having created the idea of a form a priori1 but not in the application that he gave it4 ,we have already seen that ,time is not a 8form of perception0 nor for that matter a form at all--forms exist only in the extended--and that there is no possibility of defining it except as a counter-concept to ,space4 ,but there is the further question--does this word 8space0 exactly cover the formal content of the intuitively- perceived8 ,and beyond all this there is the plain fact that the 8form of perception0 alters with distance4 ,every distant mountain range is 8perceived0 as a scenic plane4 ,no one will pretend that he sees the moon as a body2 for the eye it is a pure plane and it is only by the aid of the telescope--i4e4 when the distance is artificially reduced--that it progressively obtains a spatial form4 ,obviously1 then1 the 8form of perception0 is a function of distance4 ,moreover1 when we reflect upon anything1 we do not exactly remember the impressions that we received at the time1 but 8represent to ourselves0 the picture of a space abstracted from them4 ,but this representation may and does deceive us regarding the living actuality4 ,kant let himself be misled2 he should certainly not have permitted himself to distinguish between forms of perception and forms of ratiocination1 for his notion of ,space in principle embraced both4#ahb ,just as ,kant marred the ,time-problem by bringing it into relation with an essentially misunderstood arithmetic and--on that basis--dealing with a phantom sort of time that lacks the life-quality of direction and is therefore a mere spatial scheme1 so also he marred the ,space-problem by relating it to a common-place geometry4 ,it befell that a few years after the completion of ,kant's main work ,gauss discovered the first of the ,non-,euclidean geometries4 ,these1 irreproachably demonstrated as regards their own internal validity1 enable it to be proved that there are several strictly mathematical kinds of three-dimensional extension1 all of which are a priori certain1 and none of which can be singled out to rank as the genuine 8form of perception40 ,it was a grave1 and in a contemporary of ,euler and ,lagrange an unpardonable1 error to postulate that the ,classical school-geometry 7for it was that which ,kant always had in mind7 was to be found reproduced in the forms of ,nature around us4 ,in moments of attentive observation at very short range1 and in cases in which the relations considered are sufficiently small1 the living impressions and the rules of customary geometry are certainly in approximate agreement4 ,but the exact conformity asserted by philosophy can be demonstrated neither by the eye nor by measuring-instruments4 ,both these must always stop short at a certain limit of accuracy which is very far indeed below that which would be necessary1 say1 for determining which of the ,non-,euclidean geometries is the geometry of 8empirical0 ,space4#ahc ,on the large scales and for great distances1 where the experience of depth completely dominates the perception-picture 7for example1 looking on a broad landscape as against a drawing7 the form of perception is in fundamental contradiction with mathematics4 ,a glance down any avenue shows us that parallels meet at the horizon4 ,western perspective and the otherwise quite different perspective of ,chinese painting are both alike based on this fact1 and the connexion of these perspectives with the root- problems of their respective mathematics is unmistakable4 ,experiential ,depth1 in the infinite variety of its modes1 eludes every sort of numerical definition4 ,the whole of lyric poetry and music1 the entire painting of ,egypt1 ,china and the ,west by hypothesis deny any strictly mathematical structure in space as felt and seen1 and it is only because all modern philosophers have been destitute of the smallest understanding of painting that they have failed to note the contradiction4 ,the 8horizon0 in and by which every visual image gradually passes into a definitive plane1 is incapable of any mathematical treatment4 ,every stroke of a landscape painter's brush refutes the assertions of conventional epistemology4 ,as mathematical magnitudes abstract from life1 the 8three dimensions0 have no natural limits4 ,but when this proposition becomes entangled with the surface-and-depth of experienced impression1 the original epistemological error leads to another1 viz41 that apprehended extension is also without limits1 although in fact our vision only comprises the illuminated portion of space and stops at the light-limit of the particular moment1 which may be the star-heavens or merely the bright atmosphere4 ,the 8visual0 world is the totality of light-resistances1 since vision depends on the presence of radiated or reflected light4 ,the ,greeks took their stand on this and stayed there4 ,it is the ,western world-feeling that has produced the idea of a limitless universe of space--a space of infinite star-systems and distances that far transcends all optical possibilities--and this was a creation of the inner vision1 incapable of all actualization through the eye1 and1 even as an idea1 alien to and unachievable by the men of a differently-disposed ,culture4 ,,iv ,the outcome1 then1 of ,gauss's discovery1 which completely altered the course of modern mathematics1#ahd was the statement that there are severally equally valid structures of three-dimensional extension4 ,that it should even be asked which of them corresponds to actual perception shows that the problem was not in the least comprehended4 ,mathematics1 whether or not it employs visible images and representations as working conveniences1 concerns itself with systems that are entirely emancipated from life1 time and distance1 with form-worlds of pure numbers whose validity--not fact-foundation--is timeless and like everything else that is 8known0 is known by causal logic and not experienced4 ,with this1 the difference between the living intuition-way and the mathematical form-language became manifest and the secret of spatial becoming opened out4 ,as becoming is the foundation of the become1 continuous living history that of fulfilled dead nature1 the organic that of the mechanical1 destiny that of causal law and the causally-settled1 so too direction is the origin of extension4 ,the secret of ,life accomplishing itself which is touched upon by the word ,time forms the foundation of that which1 as accomplished1 is understood by 7or rather indicated to an inner feeling in us by7 the word ,space4 ,every extension that is actual has first been accomplished in and with an experience of depth1 and what is primarily indicated by the word ,time is just this process of extending1 first sensuously 7in the main1 visually7 and only later intellectually1 into depth and distance1 i4e41 the step from the planar semi-impression to the macrocosmically ordered world-picture with its mysterious-manifest kinesis4 ,we feel--and the feeling is what constitutes the state of all-round awareness in us--that we are in an extension that encircles us2 and it is only necessary to follow out this original impression that we have of the worldly to see that in reality there is only one true 8dimension0 of space1 which is direction from one's self outwards into the distance1 the 8there0 and the future1 and that the abstract system of three dimensions is a mechanical representation and not a fact of life4 ,by the depth-experience sensation is expanded into the world4 ,we have seen already that the directedness that is in life wears the badge of irreversibility1 and there is something of this same hall-mark of ,time in our instinctive tendency to feel the depth that is in the world uni-directionally also--viz41 from ourselves outwards1 and never from the horizon inwards4 ,the bodily mobility of man and beast is disposed in this sense4 ,we move forward-- towards the ,future1 nearing with every step not merely our aim but our old age--and we feel every backward look as a glance at something that is past1 that has already become history4#ahe ,if we can describe the basic form of the understood1 viz41 causality1 as destiny become rigid1 we may similarly speak of spatial depth as a time become rigid4 ,that which not only man but even the beast feels operative around him as destiny1 he perceives by touching1 looking1 listening1 scenting as movement1 and under his intense scrutiny it stiffens and becomes causal4 ,we feel that it is drawing towards spring and we feel in advance how the spring landscape expands around us2 but we know that the earth as it moves in space revolves and that the duration of spring consists of ninety such revolutions of the earth1 or days4 ,time gives birth to ,space1 but ,space gives death to ,time4 ,had ,kant been more precise1 he would1 instead of speaking of the 8two forms of perception10 have called time the form of perception and space the form of the perceived1 and then the connexion of the two would probably have revealed itself to him4 ,the logician1 mathematician1 or scientist in his moments of intense thought1 knows only the ,become--which has been detached from the singular event by the very act of meditating upon it--and true systematic space--in which everything possesses the property of a mathematically-expressible 8duration40 ,but it is just this that indicates to us how space is continuously 8becoming40 ,while we gaze into the distance with our senses1 it floats around us1 but when we are startled1 the alert eye sees a tense and rigid space4 ,this space is2 the principle of its existing at all is that it is1 outside time and detached from it and from life4 ,in it duration1 a piece of perished time1 resides as a known property of things4 ,and1 as we know ourselves too as being in this space1 we know that we also have a duration and a limit1 of which the moving finger of our clock ceaselessly warns us4 ,but the rigid ,space itself is transient too--at the first relaxation of our intellectual tension it vanishes from the many-coloured spread of our world-around--and so it is a sign and symbol of the most elemental and powerful symbol1 of life itself4 ,for the involuntary and unqualified realization of depth1 which dominates the consciousness with the force of an elemental event 7simultaneously with the awakening of the inner life71 marks the frontier between child and 444 ,man4 ,the symbolic experience of depth is what is lacking in the child1 who grasps at the moon and knows as yet no meaning in the outer world but1 like the soul of primitive man1 dawns in a dreamlike continuum of sensations 7in traumhafter ,verbundenheit mit allem ,empfindungshaften hindmmert74 ,of course the child is not without experience of the extended1 of a very simple kind1 but there is no world-perception2 distance is felt1 but it does not yet speak to the soul4 ,and with the soul's awakening1 direction1 too1 first reaches living expression--,classical expression in steady adherence to the near- present and exclusion of the distant and future2 ,faustian in direction- energy which has an eye only for the most distant horizons2 ,chinese1 in free hither-and-thither wandering that nevertheless goes to the goal2 ,egyptian in resolute march down the path once entered4 ,thus the ,destiny- idea manifests itself in every line of a life4 ,with it alone do we become members of a particular ,culture1 whose members are connected by a common world-feeling and a common world-form derived from it4 ,a deep identity unites the awakening of the soul1 its birth into clear existence in the name of a ,culture1 with the sudden realization of distance and time1 the birth of its outer world through the symbol of extension2 and thenceforth this symbol is and remains the prime symbol of that life1 imparting to it its specific style and the historical form in which it progressively actualizes its inward possibilities4 ,from the specific directedness is derived the specific prime-symbol of extension1 namely1 for the ,classical world-view the near1 strictly limited1 self- contained ,body1 for the ,western infinitely wide and infinitely profound three-dimensional ,space1 for the ,arabian the world as a ,cavern4 ,and therewith an old philosophical problem dissolves into nothing3 this prime form of the world is innate in so far as it is an original possession of the soul of that ,culture which is expressed by our life as a whole1 and acquired in so far that every individual soul re-enacts for itself that creative act and unfolds in early childhood the symbol of depth to which its existence is predestined1 as the emerging butterfly unfolds its wings4 ,the first comprehension of depth is an act of birth--the spiritual complement of the bodily4#ahf ,in it the ,culture is born out of its mother-landscape1 and the act is repeated by every one of its individual souls throughout its life-course4 ,this is what ,plato--connecting it with an early ,hellenic belief--called anamnesis4 ,the definiteness of the world-form1 which for each dawning soul suddenly is1 derives meaning from ,becoming4 ,kant the systematic1 however1 with his conception of the form a priori1 would approach the interpretation of this very riddle from a dead result instead of along a living way4 ,from now on1 we shall consider the kind of extension as the prime symbol of a ,culture4 ,from it we are to deduce the entire form-language of its actuality1 its physiognomy as contrasted with the physiognomy of every other ,culture and still more with the almost entire lack of physiognomy in primitive man's world-around4 ,for now the interpretation of depth rises to acts1 to formative expression in works1 to the trans-forming of actuality1 not now merely in order to subserve necessities of life 7as in the case of the animals7 but above all to create a picture out of extensional elements of all sorts 7material1 line1 colour1 tone1 motion7--a picture1 often1 that re-emerges with power to charm after lost centuries in the world-picture of another ,culture and tells new men of the way in which its authors understood the world4 ,but the prime symbol does not actualize itself2 it is operative through the form-sense of every man1 every community1 age and epoch and dictates the style of every life-expression4 ,it is inherent in the form of the state1 the religious myths and cults1 the ethical ideals1 the forms of painting and music and poetry1 the fundamental notions of each science-- but it is not presented by these4 ,consequently1 it is not presentable by words1 for language and words are themselves derived symbols4 ,every individual symbol tells of it1 but only to the inner feelings1 not to the understanding4 ,and when we say1 as henceforth we shall say1 that the prime-symbol of the ,classical soul is the material and individual body1 that of the ,western pure infinite space1 it must always be with the reservation that concepts cannot represent the inconceivable1 and thus at the most a significative feeling may be evoked by the sound of words4 ,infinite space is the ideal that the ,western soul has always striven to find1 and to see immediately actualized1 in its world-around2 and hence it is that the countless space-theories of the last centuries possess-- over and above all ostensible 8results0--a deep import as symptoms of a world-feeling4 ,in how far does unlimited extension underlie all objective things8 ,there is hardly a single problem that has been more earnestly pondered than this2 it would almost seem as if every other world-question was dependent upon the one problem of the nature of space4 ,and is it not in fact so--for us8 ,and how1 then1 has it escaped notice that the whole ,classical world never expended one word on it1 and indeed did not even possess a word#ahg by which the problem could be exactly outlined8 ,why had the great pre-,socratics nothing to say on it8 ,did they overlook in their world just that which appears to us the problem of all problems8 ,ought we not1 in fact1 to have seen long ago that the answer is in the very fact of their silence8 ,how is it that according to our deepest feeling the 8world0 is nothing but that world-of-space which is the true offspring of our depth-experience1 and whose grand emptiness is corroborated by the star-systems lost in it8 ,could a 8world0 of this sense have been made even comprehensible to a ,classical thinker8 ,in short1 we suddenly discover that the 8eternal problem0 that ,kant1 in the name of humanity1 tackled with a passion that itself is symbolic1 is a purely ,western problem that simply does not arise in the intellects of other ,cultures4 ,what then was it that ,classical man1 whose insight into his own world- around was certainly not less piercing than ours1 regarded as the prime problem of all being8 ,it was the problem of 1 the material origin and foundation of all sensuously-perceptible things4 ,if we grasp this we shall get close to the significance of the fact--not the fact of space1 but the fact that made it a necessity of destiny for the space- problem to become the problem of the ,western1 and only the ,western1 soul4#ahh ,this very spatiality 7,rumlichkeit7 that is the truest and sublimest element in the aspect of our universe1 that absorbs into itself and begets out of itself the substantiality of all things1 ,classical humanity 7which knows no word for1 and therefore has no idea of1 space7 with one accord cuts out as the nonent1 1 that which is not4 ,the pathos of this denial can scarcely be exaggerated4 ,the whole passion of the ,classical soul is in this act of excluding by symbolic negation that which it would not feel as actual1 that in which its own existence could not be expressed4 ,a world of other colour suddenly confronts us here4 ,the ,classical statue in its splendid bodiliness--all structure and expressive surfaces and no incorporeal arrire-pense whatsoever--contains without remainder all that ,actuality is for the ,classical eye4 ,the material1 the optically definite1 the comprehensible1 the immediately present--this list exhausts the characteristics of this kind of extension4 ,the ,classical universe1 the ,cosmos or well-ordered aggregate of all near and completely viewable things1 is concluded by the corporeal vault of heaven4 ,more there is not4 ,the need that is in us to think of 8space0 as being behind as well as before this shell was wholly absent from the ,classical world- feeling4 ,the ,stoics went so far as to treat even properties and relations of things as 8bodies40 ,for ,chrysippus1 the ,divine ,pneuma is a 8body10 for ,democritus seeing consists in our being penetrated by material particles of the things seen4 ,the ,state is a body which is made up of all the bodies of its citizens1 the law knows only corporeal persons and material things4 ,and the feeling finds its last and noblest expression in the stone body of the ,classical temple4 ,the windowless interior is carefully concealed by the array of columns2 but outside there is not one truly straight line to be found4 ,every flight of steps has a slight sweep outward1 every step relatively to the next4 ,the pediment1 the roof-ridge1 the sides are all curved4 ,every column has a slight swell and none stand truly vertical or truly equidistant from one another4 ,but swell and inclination and distance vary from the corners to the centres of the sides in a carefully toned-off ratio1 and so the whole corpus is given a something that swings mysterious about a centre4 ,the curvatures are so fine that to a certain extent they are invisible to the eye and only to be 8sensed40 ,but it is just by these means that direction in depth is eliminated4 ,while the ,gothic style soars1 the ,ionic swings4 ,the interior of the cathedral pulls up with primeval force1 but the temple is laid down in majestic rest4 ,all this is equally true as relating to the ,faustian and ,apollinian ,deity1 and likewise of the fundamental ideas of the respective physics4 ,to the principles of position1 material and form we have opposed those of straining movement1 force and mass1 and we have defined the last-named as a constant ratio between force and acceleration1 nay1 finally volatilized both in the purely spatial elements of capacity and intensity4 ,it was an obligatory consequence also of this way of conceiving actuality that the instrumental music of the great #ahth-,century masters should emerge as a master-art--for it is the only one of the arts whose form-world is inwardly related to the contemplative vision of pure space4 ,in it1 as opposed to the statues of ,classical temple and forum1 we have bodiless realms of tone1 tone-intervals1 tone-seas4 ,the orchestra swells1 breaks1 and ebbs1 it depicts distances1 lights1 shadows1 storms1 driving clouds1 lightning flashes1 colours etherealized and transcendent--think of the instrumentation of ,gluck and ,beethoven4 8,contemporary10 in our sense1 with the ,canon of ,polycletus1 the treatise in which the great sculptor laid down the strict rules of human body-build which remained authoritative till beyond ,lysippus1 we find the strict canon 7completed by ,stamitz about #agdj7 of the sonata-movement of four elements which begins to relax in late-,beethoven quartets and symphonies and1 finally1 in the lonely1 utterly infinitesimal tone-world of the 8,tristan0 music1 frees itself from all earthly comprehensibleness4 ,this prime feeling of a loosing1 ,erlsung1 solution1 of the ,soul in the ,infinite1 of a liberation from all material heaviness which the highest moments of our music always awaken1 sets free also the energy of depth that is in the ,faustian soul3 whereas the effect of the ,classical art-work is to bind and to bound1 and the body-feeling secures1 brings back the eye from distance to a ,near and ,still that is saturated with beauty4 ----- ,footnote #agb3 ,which1 inasmuch as it has been detached from time1 is able to employ mathematical symbols4 ,these rigid figures signify for us a destiny of yore4 ,but their meaning is other than mathematical4 ,past is not a cause1 nor ,fate a formula1 and to anyone who handles them1 as the historical materialist handles them1 mathematically1 the past event as such1 as an actuality that has lived once and only once1 is invisible4 ,footnote #agc3 ,that is1 not merely conclusions of peaces or deathdays of persons1 but the ,renaissance style1 the ,polis1 the ,mexican ,culture and so forth-- are dates or data1 facts that have been1 even when we possess no representation of them4 ,footnote #agd3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #djc et seq41 #ehi et seq4 ,footnote #age3 ,the formation of hypotheses in ,chemistry is much more thoughtless1 owing to the less close relation of that science to mathematics4 ,a house of cards such as is presented to us in the researches of the moment on atom-structure 7see1 for example1 ,m4 ,born1 ,der ,aufbau der ,materie1 #aibj7 would be impossible in the near neighbourhood of the electro-magnetic theory of light1 whose authors never for a moment lost sight of the frontier between mathematical vision and its representation by a picture1 or of the fact that this was only a picture4 ,footnote #agf3 ,there is no difference essentially between these representations and the switchboard wiring-diagram4 ,footnote #agg3 ,goethe's theory of colour openly controverted ,newton's theory of light4 ,a long account of the controversy will be found in ,chapter ,,ix of ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes's ,life of ,goethe--a work that1 taken all in all1 is one of the wisest biographies ever written4 ,in reading his critique of ,goethe's theory1 of course1 it has to be borne in mind that he wrote before the modern development of the electro-magnetic theory1 which has substituted a merely mathematical existence for the ,newtonian physical existence of colour-rays as such in white light4 ,now1 this physical existence was just what1 in substance1 ,goethe denied4 ,what he affirmed1 in the simpler language of his day1 was that white light was something simple and colourless that becomes coloured through diminutions or modifications imposed upon it by 8darkness40 ,the modern physicist1 using a subtler hypothesis than ,newton's and a more refined 8balance0 than that which ,lewes reproaches ,goethe for 8flinging away10 has found in white light1 not the ,newtonian mixture of colour-rays1 but a surge of irregular wave-trains which are only regularized into colour-vibrations through being acted upon by analysers of one sort and another1 from prisms to particulate matter4 ,this necessity of a counter-agent for the production of colour seems--to a critical outsider at any rate--very like the necessity of an efficient negative principle or 8opaque0 that ,goethe's intuitive interpretation of his experiments led him to postulate4 ,it is this that is the heart of the theory1 and not the 8simplicity0 of light per se4 ,so much it seems desirable to add to the text and the reference1 in order to expand the author's statement that 8both were right40 ,for ,lewes1 with all his sympathetic penetration of the man and real appreciation of his scientific achievement1 feels obliged to regard his methods and his theory as such as 8erroneous40 ,and it is perhaps not out of place in this book to adduce an instance of the peculiar nature and power of intuitive vision 7which entirely escapes direct description7 in which ,vision frankly challenges ,reason on its own ground1 meets with refutation 7or contempt7 from the ,reason of its day1 and yet may come to be upheld in its specific rightness 7its rightness as vision1 that is1 apart from its technical enunciation by the seer7 by the ,reason of a later day4--,tr4 ,footnote #agh3 ,see p4 #abc4 ,footnote #agi3 ,see page #abc4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,the word dimension ought only to be used in the singular4 ,it means extension but not extensions4 ,the idea of the three directions is an out-and-out abstraction and is not contained in the immediate extension-feeling of the body 7the 8soul074 ,direction as such1 the direction-essence1 gives rise to the mysterious animal sense of right and left and also the vegetable characteristic of below-to- above1 earth to heaven4 ,the latter is a fact felt dream-wise1 the former a truth of waking existence to be learned and therefore capable of being transmuted4 ,both find expression in architecture1 to wit1 in the symmetry of the plan and the energy of the elevation1 and it is only because of this that we specially distinguish in the 8architecture0 of the space around us the angle of #ij in preference1 for example1 to that of #fj4 ,had not this been so1 the conventional number of our 8dimensions0 would have been quite different4 ,footnote #aha3 ,the want of perspective in children's drawings is emphatically not perceptible to the children themselves4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,his idea that the a priori-ness of space was proved by and through the unconditional validity of simple geometrical facts rests1 as we have already remarked1 on the all-too-popular notion that mathematics are either geometry or arithmetic4 ,now1 even in ,kant's time the mathematic of the ,west had got far beyond this nave scheme1 which was a mere imitation of the ,classical4 ,modern geometry bases itself not on space but on multiply-infinite number-manifolds--amongst which the three-dimensional is simply the undistinguished special case--and within these groups investigates functional formations with reference to their structure2 that is1 there is no longer any contact or even possibility of contact between any possible kind of sense-perception and mathematical facts in the domain of such extensions as these1 and yet the demonstrability of the latter is in no wise impaired thereby4 ,mathematics1 then1 are independent of the perceived1 and the question now is1 how much of this famous demonstrability of the forms of perception is left when the artificiality of juxtaposing both in a supposedly single process of experience has been recognized4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,it is true that a geometrical theorem may be proved1 or rather demonstrated1 by means of a drawing4 ,but the theorem is differently constituted in every kind of geometry1 and that being so1 the drawing ceases to be a proof of anything whatever4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,so much so that ,gauss said nothing about his discovery until almost the end of his life for tear of 8the clamour of the ,botians40 ,footnote #ahe3 ,the distinction of right and left 7see p4 #afi7 is only conceivable as the outcome of this directedness in the dispositions of the body4 8,in front0 has no meaning whatever for the body of a plant4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,it may not be out of place here to refer to the enormous importance attached in savage society to initiation-rites at adolescence4--,tr4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,either in ,greek or in ,latin1 7 locus7 means spot1 locality1 and also social position2 7 spatium7 means space-between1 distance1 rank1 and also ground and soil 7e4g41 1 produce72 7vacuum7 means quite unequivocally a hollow body1 and the stress is emphatically on the envelope4 ,the literature of the ,roman ,imperial ,age1 which attempted to render the ,magian world- feeling through ,classical words1 was reduced to such clumsy versions as 7sensible world7 or spatium inane 78endless space10 but also 8wide surface0--the root of the word 8spatium0 means to swell or grow fat74 ,in the true ,classical literature1 the idea not being there1 there was no necessity for a word to describe it4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,it has not hitherto been seen that this fact is implicit in ,euclid's famous parallel axiom 78through a point only one parallel to a straight line is possible074 ,this was the only one of the ,classical theorems which remained unproved1 and as we know now1 it is incapable of proof4 ,but it was just that which made it into a dogma 7as opposed to any experience7 and therefore the metaphysical centre and main girder of that geometrical system4 ,everything else1 axiom or postulate1 is merely introductory or corollary to this4 ,this one proposition is necessary and universally-valid for the ,classical intellect1 and yet not deducible4 ,what does this signify8 ,it signifies that the statement is a symbol of the first rank4 ,it contains the structure of ,classical corporeality4 ,it is just this proposition1 theoretically the weakest link in the ,classical geometry 7objections began to be raised to it as early as ,hellenistic times71 that reveals its soul1 and it was just this proposition1 self-evident within the limits of routine experience1 that the ,faustian number- thinking1 derived from incorporeal spatial distances1 fastened upon as the centre of doubt4 ,it is one of the deepest symbols of our being that we have opposed to the ,euclidean geometry not one but several other geometries all of which for us are equally true and self- consistent4 ,the specific tendency of the anti-,euclidean group of geometries--in which there may be no parallel or two parallels or several parallels to a line through a point--lies in the fact that by their very plurality the corporeal sense of extension1 which ,euclid canonized by his principle1 is entirely got rid of2 for what they reject is that which all corporeal postulates but all spatial denies4 ,the question of which of the three ,non-,euclidean geometries is the 8correct0 one 7i4e41 that which underlies actuality7--although ,gauss himself gave it earnest consideration--is in respect of world-feeling entirely ,classical and therefore it should not have been asked by a thinker of our sphere4 ,indeed it prevents us from seeing the true and deep meaning implicit in the plurality of these geometries4 ,the specifically ,western symbol resides not in the reality of one or of another1 but in the true plurality of equally possible geometries4 ,it is the group of space-structures--in the abundance of which the classical system is a mere particular case--that has dissolved the last residuum of the corporeal into the pure space-feeling4 ----- ,v ,each of the great ,cultures1 then1 has arrived at a secret language of world-feeling that is only fully comprehensible by him whose soul belongs to that ,culture4 ,we must not deceive ourselves4 ,perhaps we can read a little way into the ,classical soul1 because its form-language is almost the exact inversion of the ,western2 how far we have succeeded or can ever succeed is a question which necessarily forms the starting- point of all criticism of the ,renaissance1 and it is a very difficult one4 ,but when we are told that probably 7it is at best a doubtful venture to meditate upon so alien an expression of ,being7 the ,indians conceived numbers which according to our ideas possessed neither value nor magnitude nor relativity1 and which only became positive and negative1 great or small units in virtue of position1 we have to admit that it is impossible for us exactly to re-experience what spiritually underlies this kind of number4 ,for us1 #c is always something1 be it positive or negative2 for the ,greeks it was unconditionally a positive magnitude1 #c2 but for the ,indian it indicates a possibility without existence1 to which the word 8something0 is not yet applicable1 outside both existence and non-existence which are properties to be introduced into it4 #c1 -#c1 1 are thus emanating actualities of subordinate rank which reside in the mysterious substance 7#c7 in some way that is entirely hidden from us4 ,it takes a ,brahmanic soul to perceive these numbers as self-evident1 as ideal emblems of a self- complete world-form2 to us they are as unintelligible as is the ,brahman ,nirvana1 for which1 as lying beyond life and death1 sleep and waking1 passion1 compassion and dispassion and yet somehow actual1 words entirely fail us4 ,only this spirituality could originate the grand conception of nothingness as a true number1 zero1 and even then this zero is the ,indian zero for which existent and non-existent are equally external designations4#ahi ,arabian thinkers of the ripest period--and they included minds of the very first order like ,alfarabi and ,alkabi--in controverting the ontology of ,aristotle1 proved that the body as such did not necessarily assume space for existence1 and deduced the essence of this space--the ,arabian kind of extension1 that is--from the characteristic of 8one's being in a position40 ,but this does not prove that as against ,aristotle and ,kant they were in error or that their thinking was muddled 7as we so readily say of what our own brains cannot take in74 ,it shows that the ,arabian spirit possessed other world-categories than our own4 ,they could have rebutted ,kant1 or ,kant them1 with the same subtlety of proof--and both disputants would have remained convinced of the correctness of their respective standpoints4 ,when we talk of space to-day1 we are all thinking more or less in the same style1 just as we are all using the same languages and word-signs1 whether we are considering mathematical space or physical space or the space of painting or that of actuality1 although all philosophizing that insists 7as it must7 upon putting an identity of understanding in the place of such kinship of significance-feeling must remain somewhat questionable4 ,but no ,hellene or ,egyptian or ,chinaman could re-experience any part of those feelings of ours1 and no artwork or thought-system could possibly convey to him unequivocally what 8space0 means for us4 ,again1 the prime conceptions originated in the quite differently constituted soul of the ,greek1 like 1 1 1 comprise the whole content of his world4 ,but this world is differently constituted from ours4 ,it is1 for us1 alien and remote4 ,we may take these words of ,greek and translate them by words of our own like 8origin10 8matter0 and 8form10 but it is mere imitation1 a feeble effort to penetrate into a world of feeling in which the finest and deepest elements1 in spite of all we can do1 remain dumb2 it is as though one tried to set the ,parthenon sculptures for a string quartet1 or cast ,voltaire's ,god in bronze4 ,the master-traits of thought1 life and world-consciousness are as manifold and different as the features of individual men2 in those respects as in others there are distinctions of 8races0 and 8peoples10 and men are as unconscious of these distinctions as they are ignorant of whether 8red0 and 8yellow0 do or do not mean the same for others as for themselves4 ,it is particularly the common symbolic of language that nourishes the illusion of a homogeneous constitution of human inner-life and an identical world-form2 in this respect the great thinkers of one and another ,culture resemble the colour-blind in that each is unaware of his own condition and smiles at the errors of the rest4 ,and now ,i draw the conclusions4 ,there is a plurality of prime symbols4 ,it is the depth-experience through which the world becomes1 through which perception extends itself to world4 ,its signification is for the soul to which it belongs and only for that soul1 and it is different in waking and dreaming1 acceptance and scrutiny1 as between young and old1 townsmen and peasant1 man and woman4 ,it actualizes for every high ,culture the possibility of form upon which that ,culture's existence rests and it does so of deep necessity4 ,all fundamentals words like our mass1 substance1 material1 thing1 body1 extension 7and multitudes of words of the like order in other culture-tongues7 are emblems1 obligatory and determined by destiny1 that out of the infinite abundance of world-possibilities evoke in the name of the individual ,culture those possibilities that alone are significant and therefore necessary for it4 ,none of them is exactly transferable just as it is into the experiential living and knowing of another ,culture4 ,and none of these prime words ever recurs4 ,the choice of prime symbol in the moment of the ,culture- soul's awakening into self-consciousness on its own soil--a moment that for one who can read world-history thus contains something catastrophic-- decides all4 ,culture1 as the soul's total expression 8become0 and perceptible in gestures and works1 as its mortal transient body1 obnoxious to law1 number and causality3 ,as the historical drama1 a picture in the whole picture of world- history3 ,as the sum of grand emblems of life1 feeling and understanding3 --this is the language through which alone a soul can tell of what it undergoes4 ,the macrocosm1 too1 is a property of the individual soul2 we can never know how it stands with the soul of another4 ,that which is implied by 8infinite space10 the space that 8passeth all understanding10 which is the creative interpretation of depth-experience proper and peculiar to us men of the ,west--the kind of extension that is nothingness to the ,greeks1 the ,universe to us--dyes our world in a colour that the ,classical1 the ,indian and the ,egyptian souls had not on their palettes4 ,one soul listens to the world-experience in ,a flat major1 another in ,f minor2 one apprehends it in the ,euclidean spirit1 another in the contrapuntal1 a third in the ,magian spirit4 ,from the purest analytical ,space and from ,nirvana to the most somatic reality of ,athens1 there is a series of prime symbols each of which is capable of forming a complete world out of itself4 ,and1 as the idea of the ,babylonian or that of the ,indian world was remote1 strange and elusive for the men of the five or six ,cultures that followed1 so also the ,western world will be incomprehensible to the men of ,cultures yet unborn4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,vi ,,makrokosmos ,,ii ,,apollinian1 ,,faustian ,,and ,,magian ,,soul ,,chapter ,,vi ,,makrokosmos ,,ii ,,apollinian1 ,,faustian ,,and ,,magian ,,soul ,i ,henceforth we shall designate the soul of the ,classical ,culture1 which chose the sensuously-present individual body as the ideal type of the extended1 by the name 7familiarized by ,nietzsche7 of the ,apollinian4 ,in opposition to it we have the ,faustian soul1 whose prime-symbol is pure and limitless space1 and whose 8body0 is the ,western ,culture that blossomed forth with the birth of the ,romanesque style in the #ajth century in the ,northern plain between the ,elbe and the ,tagus4 ,the nude statue is ,apollinian1 the art of the fugue ,faustian4 ,apollinian are3 mechanical statics1 the sensuous cult of the ,olympian gods1 the politically individual city-states of ,greece1 the doom of dipus and the phallus-symbol4 ,faustian are3 ,galileian dynamics1 ,catholic and ,protestant dogmatics1 the great dynasties of the ,baroque with their cabinet diplomacy1 the destiny of ,lear and the ,madonna-ideal from ,dante's ,beatrice to the last line of ,faust ,,ii4 ,the painting that defines the individual body by contours is ,apollinian1 that which forms space by means of light and shade is ,faustian--this is the difference between the fresco of ,polygnotus and the oil painting of ,rembrandt4 ,the ,apollinian existence is that of the ,greek who describes his ego as soma and who lacks all idea of an inner development and therefore all real history1 inward and outward2 the ,faustian is an existence which is led with a deep consciousness and introspection of the ego1 and a resolutely personal culture evidenced in memoirs1 reflections1 retrospects and prospects and conscience4 ,and in the time of ,augustus1 in the countries between ,nile and ,tigris1 ,black ,sea and ,south ,arabia1 there appears--aloof but able to speak to us through forms borrowed1 adopted and inherited--the ,magian soul of the ,arabian ,culture with its algebra1 astrology and alchemy1 its mosaics and arabesques1 its caliphates and mosques1 and the sacraments and scriptures of the ,persian1 ,jewish1 ,christian1 8post-,classical0 and ,manichan religions4 8,space0--speaking now in the ,faustian idiom--is a spiritual something1 rigidly distinct from the momentary sense-present1 which could not be represented in an ,apollinian language1 whether ,greek or ,latin4 ,but the created expression-space of the ,apollinian arts is equally alien to ours4 ,the tiny cella of the early-,classical temple was a dumb dark nothingness1 a structure 7originally7 of perishable material1 an envelope of the moment in contrast to the eternal vaults of ,magian cupolas and ,gothic naves1 and the closed ranks of columns were expressly meant to convey that for the eye at any rate this body possessed no ,inward4 ,in no other ,culture is the firm footing1 the socket1 so emphasized4 ,the ,doric column bores into the ground1 the vessels are always thought of from below upward 7whereas those of the ,renaissance float above their footing71 and the sculpture-schools feel the stabilizing of their figures as their main problem4 ,hence in archaic works the legs are disproportionately emphasized1 the foot is planted on the full sole1 and if the drapery falls straight down1 a part of the hem is removed to show that the foot is standing4 ,the ,classical relief is strictly stereometrically set on a plane1 and there is an interspace between the figures but no depth4 ,a landscape of ,claude ,lorrain1 on the contrary1 is nothing but space1 every detail being made to subserve its illustration4 ,all bodies in it possess an atmospheric and perspective meaning purely as carriers of light and shade4 ,the extreme of this disembodiment of the world in the service of space is ,impressionism4 ,given this world-feeling1 the ,faustian soul in the springtime necessarily arrived at an architectural problem which had its centre of gravity in the spatial vaulting-over of vast1 and from porch to choir dynamically deep1 cathedrals4 ,this last expressed its depth- experience4 ,but with it was associated1 in opposition to the cavernous ,magian expression-space1#aij the element of a soaring into the broad universe4 ,magian roofing1 whether it be cupola or barrel-vault or even the horizontal baulk of a basilica1 covers in4 ,strzygowski#aia has very aptly described the architectural idea of ,hagia ,sophia as an introverted ,gothic striving under a closed outer casing4 ,on the other hand1 in the cathedral of ,florence the cupola crowns the long ,gothic body of #acfg1 and the same tendency rose in ,bramante's scheme for ,st4 ,peter's to a veritable towering-up1 a magnificent 8,excelsior10 that ,michelangelo carried to completion with the dome that floats high and bright over the vast vaulting4 ,to this sense of space the ,classical opposes the symbol of the ,doric peripteros1 wholly corporeal and comprehensible in one glance4 ,the ,classical ,culture begins1 then1 with a great renunciation4 ,a rich1 pictorial1 almost over-ripe art lay ready to its hand4 ,but this could not become the expression of the young soul1 and so from about #aajj ,b4,c4 the harsh1 narrow1 and to our eyes scanty and barbaric1 early-,doric geometrical style appears in opposition to the ,minoan4#aib ,for the three centuries which correspond to the flowering of our ,gothic1 there is no hint of an architecture1 and it is only at about #fej ,b4,c41 8contemporarily0 with ,michelangelo's transition into the ,baroque1 that the ,doric and ,etruscan temple-type arises4 ,all 8,early0 art is religious1 and this symbolic ,negation is not less so than the ,egyptian and the ,gothic ,affirmation4 ,the idea of burning the dead accords with the cult-site but not with the cult-building2 and the ,early ,classical religion which conceals itself from us behind the solemn names of ,calchas1 ,tiresias1 ,orpheus and 7probably7 ,numa#aic possessed for its rites simply that which is left of an architectural idea when one has subtracted the architecture1 viz41 the sacred precinct4 ,the original cult-plan is thus the ,etruscan templum1 a sacred area merely staked off on the ground by the augurs with an impassable boundary and a propitious entrance on the ,east side4#aid ,a 8templum0 was created where a rite was to be performed or where the representative of the state authority1 senate or army1 happened to be4 ,it existed only for the duration of its use1 and the spell was then removed4 ,it was probably only about #gjj ,b4,c4 that the ,classical soul so far mastered itself as to represent this architectural ,nothing in the sensible form of a built body4 ,in the long run the ,euclidean feeling proved stronger than the mere antipathy to duration4 ,faustian architecture1 on the contrary1 begins on the grand scale simultaneously with the first stirrings of a new piety 7the ,cluniac reform1 c4 #ajjj7 and a new thought 7the ,eucharistic controversy between ,berengar of ,tours and ,lanfranc #ajej71aie and proceeds at once to plans of gigantic intention2 often enough1 as in the case of ,speyer1 the whole community did not suffice to fill the cathedral1#aif and often again it proved impossible to complete the projected scheme4 ,the passionate language of this architecture is that of the poems too4#aig ,far apart as may seem the ,christian hymnology of the south and the ,eddas of the still heathen north1 they are alike in the implicit space-endlessness of prosody1 rhythmic syntax and imagery4 ,read the ,dies ,ir together with the ,vlusp1#aih which is little earlier2 there is the same adamantine will to overcome and break all resistances of the visible4 ,no rhythm ever imagined radiates immensities of space and distance as the old ,northern does3 ,zum ,unheil werden--noch allzulange ,mnner und ,weiber--zur ,welt geboren ,aber wir beide --bleiben zusammen ,ich und ,sigurd4 ,the accents of the ,homeric hexameter are the soft rustle of a leaf in the midday sun1 the rhythm of matter2 but the 8,stabreim0 likes 8potential energy0 in the world-pictures of modern physics1 creates a tense restraint in the void without limits1 distant night-storms above the highest peaks4 ,in its swaying indefiniteness all words and things dissolve themselves--it is the dynamics1 not the statics1 of language4 ,the same applies to the grave rhythm of ,media vita in morte sumus4 ,here is heralded the colour of ,rembrandt and the instrumentation of ,beethoven--here infinite solitude is felt as the home of the ,faustian soul4 ,what is ,valhalla8 ,unknown to the ,germans of the ,migrations and even to the ,merovingian ,age1 it was conceived by the nascent ,faustian soul4 ,it was conceived1 no doubt1 under ,classic-pagan and ,arabian- ,christian impressions1 for the antique and the sacred writings1 the ruins and mosaics and miniatures1 the cults and rites and dogmas of these past ,cultures reached into the new life at all points4 ,and yet1 this ,valhalla is something beyond all sensible actualities floating in remote1 dim1 ,faustian regions4 ,olympus rests on the homely ,greek soil1 the ,paradise of the ,fathers is a magic garden somewhere in the ,universe1 but ,valhalla is nowhere4 ,lost in the limitless1 it appears with its inharmonious gods and heroes the supreme symbol of solitude4 ,siegfried1 ,parzeval1 ,tristan1 ,hamlet1 ,faust are the loneliest heroes in all the ,cultures4 ,read the wondrous awakening of the inner life in ,wolfram's ,parzeval4 ,the longing for the woods1 the mysterious compassion1 the ineffable sense of forsakenness--it is all ,faustian and only ,faustian4 ,every one of us knows it4 ,the motive returns with all its profundity in the ,easter scene of ,faust ,i4 8,a longing pure and not to be described drove me to wander over woods and fields1 and in a mist of hot abundant tears ,i felt a world arise and live for me40 ,of this world-experience neither ,apollinian nor ,magian man1 neither ,homer nor the ,gospels1 knows anything whatever4 ,the climax of the poem of ,wolfram1 that wondrous ,good ,friday morning scene when the hero1 at odds with ,god and with himself1 meets the noble ,gawan and resolves to go on pilgrimage to ,tevrezent1 takes us to the heart of the ,faustian religion4 ,here one can feel the mystery of the ,eucharist which binds the communicant to a mystic company1 to a ,church that alone can give bliss4 ,in the myth of the ,holy ,grail and its ,knights one can feel the inward necessity of the ,german-,northern ,catholicism4 ,in opposition to the ,classical sacrifices offered to individual gods in separate temples1 there is here the one never-ending sacrifice repeated everywhere and every day4 ,this is the ,faustian idea of the #ith-#aath ,centuries1 the ,edda time1 foreshadowed by ,anglo-,saxon missionaries like ,winfried but only then ripened4 ,the ,cathedral1 with its ,high ,altar enclosing the accomplished miracle1 is its expression in stone4#aii ,the plurality of separate bodies which represents ,cosmos for the ,classical soul1 requires a similar pantheon--hence the antique polytheism4 ,the single world-volume1 be it conceived as cavern or as space1 demands the single god of ,magian or ,western ,christianity4 ,athene or ,apollo might be represented by a statue1 but it is and has long been evident to our feeling that the ,deity of the ,reformation and the ,counter-,reformation can only be 8manifested0 in the storm of an organ fugue or the solemn progress of cantata and mass4 ,from the rich manifold of figures in the ,edda and contemporary legends of saints to ,goethe our myth develops itself in steady opposition to the ,classical--in the one case a continuous disintegration of the divine that culminated in the early ,empire in an impossible multitude of deities1 in the other a process of simplification that led to the ,deism of the #ahth ,century4 ,the ,magian hierarchy of heaven--angels1 saints1 persons of the ,trinity-- has grown paler and paler1 more and more disembodied1 in the sphere of the ,western pseudomorphosis1#bjj supported though it was by the whole weight of ,church authority1 and even the ,devil--the great adversary in the ,gothic world-drama#bja--;has disappeared unnoticed from among the possibilities of the ,faustian world-feeling4 ,luther could still throw the inkpot at him1 but he has been passed over in silence by perplexed ,protestant theologians long ago4 ,for the solitude of the ,faustian soul agrees not at all with a duality of world powers4 ,god himself is the ,all4 ,about the end of the #agth ,century this religiousness could no longer be limited to pictorial expression1 and instrumental music came as its last and only form-language3 we may say that the ,catholic faith is to the ,protestant as an altar-piece is to an oratorio4 ,but even the ,germanic gods and heroes are surrounded by this rebuffing immensity and enigmatic gloom4 ,they are steeped in music and in night1 for daylight gives visual bounds and therefore shapes bodily things4 ,night eliminates body1 day soul4 ,apollo and ,athene have no souls4 ,on ,olympus rests the eternal light of the transparent southern day1 and ,apollo's hour is high noon1 when great ,pan sleeps4 ,but ,valhalla is light-less1 and even in the ,eddas we can trace that deep midnight of ,faust's study-broodings1 the midnight that is caught by ,rembrandt's etchings and absorbs ,beethoven's tone colours4 ,no ,wotan or ,baldur or ,freya has 8,euclidean0 form4 ,of them1 as of the ,vedic gods of ,india1 it can be said that they suffer not 8any graven image or any likeness whatsoever02 and this impossibility carries an implicit recognition that eternal space1 and not the corporeal copy-- which levels them down1 desecrates them1 denies them--is the supreme symbol4 ,this is the deep-felt motive that underlies the iconoclastic storms in ,islam and ,byzantium 7both1 be it noted1 of the #gth century71 and the closely similar movement in our ,protestant ,north4 ,was not ,descartes's creation of the anti-,euclidean analysis of space an iconoclasm8 ,the ,classical geometry handles a number-world of day1 the function-theory is the genuine mathematic of night4 ----- ,footnote #ahi3 ,this zero1 which probably contains a suggestion of the ,indian idea of extension--of that spatiality of the world that is treated in the ,upanishads and is entirely alien to our space-consciousness--was of course wholly absent in the ,classical4 ,by way of the ,arabian mathematics 7which completely transformed its meaning7 it reached the ,west1 where it was only introduced in #aeed by ,stipel1 with its sense1 moreover1 again fundamentally changed1 for it became the mean of #a and -#a as a cut in a linear continuum1 i4e41 it was assimilated to the ,western number-world in a wholly un-,indian sense of relation4 ,footnote #aij3 ,the word ,hhlengefhl is ,leo ,frobenius's 7,paideuma1 p4 #ib74 7,the ,early-,christian ,church of the ,nativity at ,bethlehem ,a4,d4 #cbg is built over a natural cave4--,tr47 ,footnote #aia3 ,strzygowski's ,ursprung der ,christlichen ,kirchenkunst 7#aibj71 p4 #hj4 ,footnote #aib3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aja et seq4 ,footnote #aic3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cde et seq4 ,footnote #aid3 ,mller-,decker1 ,die ,etrusker 7#ahgg71 ,,ii1 pp4 #abh et seq4 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer 7#aiab71 p4 #ebg4 ,the oldest plan of ,roma ,quadrata was a 8templum0 whose limits had nothing to do with the building-up of the city but were connected with sacral rules1 as the significance of this precinct 7the 8,pomrium07 in later times shows4 ,a 8templum10 too1 was the ,roman camp whose rectangular outline is visible to-day in many a ,roman-founded town2 it was the consecrated area within which the army felt itself under the protection of its gods1 and originally had nothing whatever to do with fortification1 which is a product of ,hellenistic times4 7,it may be added that ,roman camps retained their rigidity of outline even where obvious 8military considerations0 of ground1 etc41 must have suggested its modification4--,tr47 ,most ,roman stone-temples 7des7 were not 8templa0 at all4 ,on the other hand1 the early ,greek of ,homeric times must have had a similar significance4 ,footnote #aie3 ,the student may consult the articles 8,church ,history10 8,monasticism10 8,eucharist0 and other articles therein referred to in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,,xi ,edition4--,tr4 ,footnote #aif3 ,english readers may remember that ,cobbett 78,rural ,rides10 passim7 was so impressed with the spaciousness of ,english country churches as to formulate a theory that medival ,england must have been more populous than modern ,england is4--,tr4 ,footnote #aig3 ,cf4 my introduction to ,ernst ,droem's ,gesnge1 p4 ix4 ,footnote #aih3 ,the oldest and most mystical of the poems of the 8,elder ,edda40--,tr4 ,footnote #aii3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ceh et seq4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bda et seq4 ,footnote #bja3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ced4 ----- ,,ii ,that which is expressed by the soul of the ,west in its extraordinary wealth of media--words1 tones1 colours1 pictorial perspectives1 philosophical systems1 legends1 the spaciousness of ,gothic cathedrals and the formul of functions--namely its world-feeling1 is expressed by the soul of ,old ,egypt 7which was remote from all ambitions towards theory and literariness7 almost exclusively by the immediate language of ,stone4 ,instead of spinning word-subtleties around its form of extension1 its 8space0 and its 8time10 instead of forming hypotheses and number-systems and dogmas1 it set up its huge symbols in the landscape of the ,nile in all silence4 ,stone is the great emblem of the ,timeless- ,become2 space and death seem bound up in it4 8,men have built for the dead10 says ,bachofen in his autobiography1 8before they have built for the living1 and even as a perishable wooden structure suffices for the span of time that is given to the living1 so the housing of the dead for ever demands the solid stone of the earth4 ,the oldest cult is associated with the stone that marks the place of burial1 the oldest temple- building with the tomb-structure1 the origins of art and decoration with the grave-ornament4 ,symbol has created itself in the graves4 ,that which is thought and felt and silently prayed at the grave-side can be expressed by no word1 but only hinted by the boding symbol that stands in unchanging grave repose40 ,the dead strive no more4 ,they are no more ,time1 but only ,space--something that stays 7if indeed it stays at all7 but does not ripen towards a ,future2 and hence it is stone1 the abiding stone1 that expresses how the dead is mirrored in the waking consciousness of the living4 ,the ,faustian soul looks for an immortality to follow the bodily end1 a sort of marriage with endless space1 and it disembodies the stone in its ,gothic thrust-system 7contemporary1 we may note1 with the 8consecutives0 in ,church music#bjb7 till at last nothing remained visible but the indwelling depth- and height-energy of this self-extension4 ,the ,apollinian soul would have its dead burned1 would see them annihilated1 and so it remained averse from stone building throughout the early period of its ,culture4 ,the ,egyptian soul saw itself as moving down a narrow and inexorably-prescribed life-path to come at the end before the judges of the dead 78,book of the ,dead10 cap4 #abe74 ,that was its ,destiny-idea4 ,the ,egyptian's existence is that of the traveller who follows one unchanging direction1 and the whole form- language of his ,culture is a translation into the sensible of this one theme4 ,and as we have taken endless space as the prime symbol of the ,north and body as that of the ,classical1 so we may take the word way as most intelligibly expressing that of the ,egyptians4 ,strangely1 and for ,western thought almost incomprehensibly1 the one element in extension that they emphasize is that of direction in depth4 ,the tomb- temples of the ,old ,kingdom and especially the mighty pyramid-temples of the ,fourth ,dynasty represent1 not a purposed organization of space such as we find in the mosque and the cathedral1 but a rhythmically ordered sequence of spaces4 ,the sacred way leads from the gate-building on the ,nile through passages1 halls1 arcaded courts and pillared rooms that grow ever narrower and narrower1 to the chamber of the dead1#bjc and similarly the ,sun-temples of the ,fifth ,dynasty are not 8buildings0 but a path enclosed by mighty masonry4#bjd ,the reliefs and the paintings appear always as rows which with an impressive compulsion lead the beholder in a definite direction4 ,the ram and sphinx avenues of the ,new ,empire have the same object4 ,for the ,egyptian1 the depth-experience which governed his world-form was so emphatically directional that he comprehended space more or less as a continuous process of actualization4 ,there is nothing rigid about distance as expressed here4 ,the man must move1 and so become himself a symbol of life1 in order to enter into relation with the stone part of the symbolism4 8,way0 signifies both ,destiny and third dimension4 ,the grand wall-surfaces1 reliefs1 colonnades past which he moves are 8length and breadth02 that is1 mere perceptions of the senses1 and it is the forward-driving life that extends them into 8world40 ,thus the ,egyptian experienced space1 we may say1 in and by the processional march along its distinct elements1 whereas the ,greek who sacrificed outside the temple did not feel it and the man of our ,gothic centuries praying in the cathedral let himself be immersed in the quiet infinity of it4 ,and consequently the art of these ,egyptians must aim at plane effects and nothing else1 even when it is making use of solid means4 ,for the ,egyptian1 the pyramid over the king's tomb is a triangle1 a huge1 powerfully expressive plane that1 whatever be the direction from which one approaches1 closes off the 8way0 and commands the landscape4 ,for him1 the columns of the inner passages and courts1 with their dark backgrounds1 their dense array and their profusion of adornments1 appear entirely as vertical strips which rhythmically accompany the march of the priests4 ,relief- work is--in utter contrast to the ,classical--carefully restricted in one plane2 in the course of development dated by the ,third to the ,fifth dynasties it diminishes from the thickness of a finger to that of a sheet of paper1 and finally it is sunk in the plane4#bje ,the dominance of the horizontal1 the vertical and the right angle1 and the avoidance of all foreshortening support the two-dimensional principle and serve to insulate this directional depth-experience which coincides with the way and the grave at its end4 ,it is an art that admits of no deviation for the relief of the tense soul4 ,is not this an expression in the noblest language that it is possible to conceive of what all our space-theories would like to put into words8 ,is it not a metaphysic in stone by the side of which the written metaphysics of ,kant seems but a helpless stammering8 ,there is1 however1 another ,culture that1 different as it most fundamentally is from the ,egyptian1 yet found a closely-related prime symbol4 ,this is the ,chinese1 with its intensely directional principle of the ,tao4#bjf ,but whereas the ,egyptian treads to the end a way that is prescribed for him with an inexorable necessity1 the ,chinaman wanders through his world2 consequently1 he is conducted to his god or his ancestral tomb not by ravines of stone1 between faultless smooth walls1 but by friendly ,nature herself4 ,nowhere else has the landscape become so genuinely the material of the architecture4 8,here1 on religious foundations1 there has been developed a grand lawfulness and unity common to all building1 which1 combined with the strict maintenance of a north-south general axis1 always holds together gate-buildings1 side- buildings1 courts and halls in the same homogeneous plan1 and has led finally to so grandiose a planning and such a command over ground and space that one is quite justified in saying that the artist builds and reckons with the landscape itself40#bjg ,the temple is not a self- contained building but a lay-out1 in which hills1 water1 trees1 flowers1 and stones in definite forms and dispositions are just as important as gates1 walls1 bridges and houses4 ,this ,culture is the only one in which the art of gardening is a grand religious art4 ,there are gardens that are reflections of particular ,buddhist sects4#bjh ,it is the architecture of the landscape1 and only that1 which explains the architecture of the buildings1 with their flat extension and the emphasis laid on the roof as the really expressive element4 ,and just as the devious ways through doors1 over bridges1 round hills and walls lead at last to the end1 so the paintings take the beholder from detail to detail whereas ,egyptian relief masterfully points him in the one set direction4 8,the whole picture is not to be taken at once4 ,sequence in time presupposes a sequence of space-elements through which the eye is to wander from one to the next40#bji ,whereas the ,egyptian architecture dominates the landscape1 the ,chinese espouses it4 ,but in both cases it is direction in depth that maintains the becoming of space as a continuously-present experience4 ----- ,footnote #bjb3 ,this refers to the diaphonic chant of ,church music in the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,the form of this chant is supposed to have been an accompaniment of the 8plain chant0 by voices moving parallel to it at a fourth1 fifth1 or octave4--,tr4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,hlscher1 ,grabdenkmal des ,knigs ,chephren2 ,borchardt1 ,grabdenkmal des ,sahur2 ,curtius1 ,die ,antike ,kunst1 p4 #de4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cdb2 ,borchardt1 ,re-,heiligtum des ,newoserri2 ,ed4 ,mayer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1 ,i1 #bea4 ,footnote #bje3 8,relief en creux02 compare ,h4 ,schfer1 ,von gyptischer ,kunst 7#aiai71 ,i1 p4 #da4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cej et seq4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,o4 ,fischer1 ,chinesische ,landmalerei 7#aiba71 p4 #bd4 ,what makes ,chinese--as also ,indian--art so difficult a study for us is the fact that all works of the early periods 7namely1 those of the ,hwangho region from #acjj to #hjj ,b4,c4 and of pre-,buddhist ,india7 have vanished without a trace4 ,but that which we now call 8,chinese art0 corresponds1 say1 to the art of ,egypt from the ,twentieth ,dynasty onward1 and the great schools of painting find their parallel in the sculpture schools of the ,sate and ,ptolemaic periods1 in which an antiquarian preciosity takes the place of the living inward development that is no longer there4 ,thus from the examples of ,egypt we are able to tell how far it is permissible to argue backwards to conclusions about the art of ,chu and ,vedic times4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,c4 ,glaser1 ,die ,kunst ,ostasiens 7#aibj71 p4 #aha4 ,footnote #bji3 ,glaser1 op4 cit41 p4 #dc4 ----- ,,iii ,all art is expression-language4#baj ,moreover1 in its very earliest essays--which extend far back into the animal world--it is that of one active existence speaking for itself only1 and it is unconscious of witnesses even though in the absence of such the impulse to expression would not come to utterance4 ,even in quite 8late0 conditions we often see1 instead of the combination of artist and spectator1 a crowd of art- makers who all dance or mime or sing4 ,the idea of the 8,chorus0 as sum total of persons present has never entirely vanished from art-history4 ,it is only the higher art that becomes decisively an art 8before witnesses0 and especially 7as ,nietzsche somewhere remarks7 before ,god as the supreme witness4#baa ,this expression is either ornament or imitation4 ,both are higher possibilities and their polarity to one another is hardly perceptible in the beginnings4 ,of the two1 imitation is definitely the earlier and the closer to the producing race4 ,imitation is the outcome of a physiognomic idea of a second person with whom 7or which7 the first is involuntarily induced into resonance of vital rhythm 7mitschwingen im72 whereas ornament evidences an ego conscious of its own specific character4 ,the former is widely spread in the animal world1 the latter almost peculiar to man4 ,imitation is born of the secret rhythm of all things cosmic4 ,for the waking being the ,one appears as discrete and extended2 there is a ,here and a ,there1 a ,proper and an ,alien something1 a ,microcosm and a ,macrocosm that are polar to one another in the sense-life1 and what the rhythm of imitation does is to bridge this dichotomy4 ,every religion is an effort of the waking soul to reach the powers of the world-around4 ,and so too is ,imitation1 which in its most devoted moments is wholly religious1 for it consists in an identity of inner activity between the soul and body 8here0 and the world-around 8there0 which1 vibrating as one1 become one4 ,as a bird poises itself in the storm or a float gives to the swaying waves1 so our limbs take up an irresistible beat at the sound of march-music4 ,not less contagious is the imitation of another's bearing and movements1 wherein children in particular excel4 ,it reaches the superlative when we 8let ourselves go0 in the common song or parade- march or dance that creates out of many units one unit of feeling and expression1 a 8we40 ,but a 8successful0 picture of a man or a landscape is also the outcome of a felt harmony of the pictorial motion with the secret swing and sway of the living opposite2 and it is this actualizing of physiognomic rhythm that requires the executant to be an adept who can reveal the idea1 the soul1 of the alien in the play of its surface4 ,in certain unreserved moments we are all adepts of this sort1 and in such moments1 as we follow in an imperceptible rhythm the music and the play of facial expression1 we suddenly look over the precipice and see great secrets4 ,the aim of all imitation is effective simulation2 this means effective assimilation of ourselves into an alien something-- such a transposition and transubstantiation that the ,one lives henceforth in the ,other that it describes or depicts--and it is able to awaken an intense feeling of unison over all the range from silent absorption and acquiescence to the most abandoned laughter and down into the last depths of the erotic1 a unison which is inseparable from creative activity4 ,in this wise arose the popular circling-dances 7for instance1 the ,bavarian ,schuhplattler was originally imitated from the courtship of the woodcocks7 but this too is what ,vasari means when he praises ,cimabue and ,giotto as the first who returned to the imitation of 8,nature0--the ,nature1 that is1 of springtime men1 of which ,meister ,eckart said3 8,god flows out in all creatures1 and therefore all created is ,god40 ,that which in this world-around presents itself to our contemplation--and therefore contains meaning for our feelings--as movement1 we render by movement4 ,hence all imitation is in the broadest sense dramatic2 drama is presented in the movement of the brush-stroke or the chisel1 the melodic curve of the song1 the tone of the recitation1 the line of poetry1 the description1 the dance4 ,but everything that we experience with and in seeings and hearings is always an alien soul to which we are uniting ourselves4 ,it is only at the stage of the ,megalopolis that art1 reasoned to pieces and de- spiritualized1 goes over to naturalism as that term is understood nowadays2 viz41 imitation of the charm of visible appearances1 of the stock of sensible characters that are capable of being scientifically fixed4 ,ornament detaches itself now from ,imitation as something which does not follow the stream of life but rigidly faces it4 ,instead of physiognomic traits overheard in the alien being1 we have established motives1 symbols1 which are impressed upon it4 ,the intention is no longer to pretend but to conjure4 ,the 8,i0 overwhelms the 8,thou40 ,imitation is only a speaking with means that are born of the moment and unreproduceable--but ,ornament employs a language emancipated from the speaking1 a stock of forms that possesses duration and is not at the mercy of the individual4#bab ,only the living can be imitated1 and it can be imitated only in movements1 for it is through these that it reveals itself to the senses of artists and spectators4 ,to that extent1 imitation belongs to ,time and ,direction4 ,all the dancing and drawing and describing and portraying for eye and ear is irrevocably 8directional10 and hence the highest possibilities of ,imitation lie in the copying of a destiny1 be it in tones1 verses1 picture or stage-scene4#bac ,ornament1 on the contrary1 is something taken away from ,time3 it is pure extension1 settled and stable4 ,whereas an imitation expresses something by accomplishing itself1 ornament can only do so by presenting itself to the senses as a finished thing4 ,it is ,being as such1 wholly independent of origin4 ,every imitation possesses beginning and end1 while an ornament possesses only duration1 and therefore we can only imitate the destiny of an individual 7for instance1 ,antigone or ,desdemona71 while by an ornament or symbol only the generalized destiny-idea itself can be represented 7as1 for example1 that of the ,classical world by the ,doric column74 ,and the former presupposes a talent1 while the latter calls for an acquirable knowledge as well4 ,all strict arts have their grammar and syntax of form-language1 with rules and laws1 inward logic and tradition4 ,this is true not merely for the ,doric cabin-temple and ,gothic cottage-cathedral1 for the carving- schools of ,egypt#bad and ,athens and the cathedral plastic of northern ,france1 for the painting-schools of the ,classical world and those of ,holland and the ,rhine and ,florence1 but also for the fixed rules of the ,skalds and ,minnesnger which were learned and practised as a craft 7and dealt not merely with sentence and metre but also with gesture and the choice of imagery#bae71 for the narration-technique of the ,vedic1 ,homeric and ,celto-,germanic ,epos1 for the composition and delivery of the ,gothic sermon 7both vernacular and ,latin71 and for the orators' prose#baf in the ,classical1 and for the rules of ,french drama4 ,in the ornamentation of an art-work is reflected the inviolable causality of the macrocosm as the man of the particular kind sees and comprehends it4 ,both have system4 ,each is penetrated with the religious side of life-- fear and love4#bag ,a genuine symbol can instil fear or can set free from fear2 the 8right0 emancipates and the 8wrong0 hurts and depresses4 ,the imitative side of the arts1 on the contrary1 stands closer to the real race-feelings of hate and love1 out of which arises the opposition of ugly and beautiful4 ,this is in relation only with the living1 of which the inner rhythm repels us or draws us into phase with it1 whether it be that of the sunset-cloud or that of the tense breath of the machine4 ,an imitation is beautiful1 an ornament significant1 and therein lies the difference between direction and extension1 organic and inorganic logic1 life and death4 ,that which we think beautiful is 8worth copying40 ,easily it swings with us and draws us on to imitate1 to join in the singing1 to repeat4 ,our hearts beat higher1 our limbs twitch1 and we are stirred till our spirits overflow4 ,but as it belongs to ,time1 it 8has its time40 ,a symbol endures1 but everything beautiful vanishes with the life-pulsation of the man1 the class1 the people or the race that feels it as a specific beauty in the general cosmic rhythm4#bah ,the 8beauty0 that ,classical sculpture and poetry contained for ,classical eyes is something different from the beauty that they contain for ours--something extinguished irrecoverably with the ,classical soul--while what we regard as beautiful in it is something that only exists for us4 ,not only is that which is beautiful for one kind of man neutral or ugly for another--e4g41 the whole of our music for the ,chinese1 or ,mexican sculpture for us4 ,for one and the same life the accustomed1 the habitual1 owing to the very fact of its possessing duration1 cannot possess beauty4 ,and now for the first time we can see the opposition between these two sides of every art in all its depth4 ,imitation spiritualizes and quickens1 ornament enchants and kills4 ,the one becomes1 the other is4 ,and therefore the one is allied to love and1 above all--in songs and riot and dance--to the sexual love1 which turns existence to face the future2 and the other to care of the past1 to recollection#bai and to the funerary4 ,the beautiful is longingly pursued1 the significant instils dread1 and there is no deeper contrast than that between the house of the living and the house of the dead4#bbj ,the peasant's cottage#bba and its derivative the country noble's hall1 the fenced town and the castle are mansions of life1 unconscious expressions of circling blood1 that no art produced and no art can alter4 ,the idea of the family appears in the plan of the proto-house1 the inner form of the stock in the plan of its villages--which after many a century and many a change of occupation still show what race it was that founded them#bbb-- the life of a nation and its social ordering in the plan 7not the elevation or silhouette7 of the city4#bbc ,on the other hand1 ,ornamentation of the high order develops itself on the stiff symbols of death1 the urn1 the sarcophagus1 the stele and the temple of the dead1#bbd and beyond these in gods' temples and cathedrals which are ,ornament through and through1 not the expressions of a race but the language of a world-view4 ,they are pure art through and through--just what the castle and the cottage are not4#bbe ,for cottage and castle are buildings in which art1 and1 specifically1 imitative art1 is made and done1 the home of ,vedic1 ,homeric and ,germanic epos1 of the songs of heroes1 the dance of boors and that of lords and ladies1 of the minstrel's lay4 ,the cathedral1 on the other hand1 is art1 and1 moreover1 the only art by which nothing is imitated2 it alone is pure tension of persistent forms1 pure three- dimensional logic that expresses itself in edges and surfaces and volumes4 ,but the art of villages and castles is derived from the inclinations of the moment1 from the laughter and high spirit of feasts and games1 and to such a degree is it dependent on ,time1 so much is it a thing of occasion1 that the troubadour obtains his very name from finding1 while ,improvisation--as we see in the ,tzigane music to-day--is nothing but race manifesting itself to alien senses under the influence of the hour4 ,to this free creative power all spiritual art opposes the strict school in which the individual--in the hymn as in the work of building and carving--is the servant of a logic of timeless forms1 and so in all ,cultures the seat of its style-history is in its early cult architecture4 ,in the castle it is the life and not the structure that possesses style4 ,in the town the plan is an image of the destinies of a people1 whereas the silhouette of emergent spires and cupolas tells of the logic in the builders' world-picture1 of the 8first and last things0 of their universe4 ,in the architecture of the living1 stone serves a worldly purpose1 but in the architecture of the cult it is a symbol4#bbf ,nothing has injured the history of the great architectures so much as the fact that it has been regarded as the history of architectural techniques instead of as that of architectural ideas which took their technical expression- means as and where they found them4 ,it has been just the same with the history of musical instruments1#bbg which also were developed on a foundation of tone-language4 ,whether the groin and the flying buttress and the squinch-cupola were imagined specially for the great architectures or were expedients that lay more or less ready to hand and were taken into use1 is for art-history a matter of as little importance as the question of whether1 technically1 stringed instruments originated in ,arabia or in ,celtic ,britain4 ,it may be that the ,doric column was1 as a matter of workmanship1 borrowed from the ,egyptian temples of the ,new ,empire1 or the late-,roman domical construction from the ,etruscans1 or the ,florentine court from the ,north-,african ,moors4 ,nevertheless the ,doric peripteros1 the ,pantheon1 and the ,palazzo ,farnese belong to wholly different worlds--they subserve the artistic expression of the prime- symbol in three different ,cultures4 ----- ,footnote #baj3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ace et seq4 ,footnote #baa3 ,the monologue-art of very lonely natures is also in reality a conversation with self in the second person4 ,but it is only in the intellectuality of the megalopolitan stages that the impulse to express is overcome by the impulse to communicate 7see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ace7 which gives rise to that tendencious art that seeks to instruct or convert or prove views of a politico-social or moral character1 and provokes the antagonistic formula of 8,art for ,art's sake0--which is itself rather a view than a discipline1 though it does at least serve to recall the primitive significance of artistic expression4 ,footnote #bab3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ach et seq41 and ,worringer1 ,abstraktion und ,einfhrung1 pp4 #ff et seq4 ,footnote #bac3 ,imitation1 being life1 is past in the very moment of accomplishment4 ,the curtain falls1 and it passes either into oblivion or1 if the product is a durable artifact1 into art-history4 ,of the songs and dances of old ,cultures nothing remains1 of their pictures and poems little4 ,and even this little contains1 substantially1 only the ornamental side of the original imitation4 ,of a grand drama there remains only the text1 not the image and the sound2 of a poem only the words1 not the recital2 and of all their music the notes at most1 not the tone-colours of the instruments4 ,the essential is irrevocably gone1 and every 8reproduction0 is in reality something new and different4 ,footnote #bad3 ,for the workshop of ,thothmes at ,tell-el-,amarna1 see ,mitteilungen der ,deutschen ,orient-,gesellschaft1 ,no4 #eb1 pp4 #bh et seq4 ,footnote #bae3 ,k4 ,burdach1 ,deutsche ,renaissance1 p4 #aa4 ,the pictorial art of the ,gothic period also has its strict typism and symbolism4 ,footnote #baf3 ,e4 ,norden1 ,antike ,kunst-prosa1 pp4 #h et seq4 ,footnote #bag3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cbc4 ,footnote #bah3 ,the translation is so far a paraphrase here that it is desirable to reproduce the ,german original3 8,alles ,schne vergeht mit dem ,lebenspulsschlag 7dessen7 der es aus dem kosmischen ,takt heraus als solches empfindet40 ,footnote #bai3 ,hence the ornamental character of script4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,see p4 #ahh4 ,footnote #bba3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ajd4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,e4g41 the ,slavonic round-villages and ,teutonic street-villages east of the ,elbe4 ,similarly1 conclusions can be drawn as to many of the events of the ,homeric age from the distribution of round and rectangular buildings in ancient ,italy4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aji4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,see p4 #afg4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #adb et seq4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,see p4 #abh4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,see p4 #fb4 ----- ,,iv ,in every springtime1 consequently1 there are two definitely ornamental and non-imitative arts1 that of building and that of decoration4 ,in the longing and pregnant centuries before it1 elemental expression belongs exclusively to ,ornamentation in the narrow sense4 ,the ,carolingian period is represented only by its ornament1 as its architecture1 for want of the ,idea1 stands between the styles4 ,and similarly1 as a matter of art-history1 it is immaterial that no buildings of the ,mycenan age have survived4#bbh ,but with the dawn of the great ,culture1 architecture as ornament comes into being suddenly and with such a force of expression that for a century mere decoration-as-such shrinks away from it in awe4 ,the spaces1 surfaces and edges of stone speak alone4 ,the tomb of ,chephren is the culmination of mathematical simplicity--everywhere right angles1 squares and rectangular pillars1 nowhere adornment1 inscription or desinence--and it is only after some generations have passed that ,relief ventures to infringe the solemn magic of those spaces and the strain begins to be eased4 ,and the noble ,romanesque of ,westphalia-,saxony 7,hildesheim1 ,gernrode1 ,paulinzella1 ,paderborn71 of ,southern ,france and of the ,normans 7,norwich and ,peterborough7 managed to render the whole sense of the world with indescribable power and dignity in one line1 one capital1 one arch4 ,when the form-world of the springtime is at its highest1 and not before1 the ordained relation is that architecture is lord and ornament is vassal4 ,and the word 8ornament0 is to be taken here in the widest possible sense4 ,even conventionally1 it covers the ,classical unit- motive with its quiet poised symmetry or meander supplement1 the spun surface of arabesque and the not dissimilar surface-patterning of ,mayan art1 and the 8,thunder-pattern0#bbi and others of the early ,chu period which prove once again the landscape basis of the old ,chinese architecture without a doubt4 ,but the warrior figures of ,dipylon vases are also conceived in the spirit of ornament1 and so1 in a far higher degree still1 are the statuary groups of ,gothic cathedrals4 8,the figures were composed pillarwise from the spectator1 the figures of the pillar being1 with reference to the spectator1 ranked upon one another like rhythmic figures in a symphony that soars heavenward and expands its sounds in every direction40#bcj ,and besides draperies1 gestures1 and figure-types1 even the structure of the hymn-strophe and the parallel motion of the parts in church music are ornament in the service of the all-ruling architectural idea4#bca ,the spell of the great ,ornamentation remains unbroken till in the beginning of a 8late0 period architecture falls into a group of civic and worldly special arts that unceasingly devote themselves to pleasing and clever imitation and become ipso facto personal4 ,to ,imitation and ,ornament the same applies that has been said already of time and space4 ,time gives birth to space1 but space gives death to time4#bcb ,in the beginning1 rigid symbolism had petrified everything alive2 the ,gothic statue was not permitted to be a living body1 but was simply a set of lines disposed in human form4 ,but now ,ornament loses all its sacred rigour and becomes more and more decoration for the architectural setting of a polite and mannered life4 ,it was purely as this1 namely as a beautifying element1 that ,renaissance taste was adopted by the courtly and patrician world of the ,north 7and by it alone674 ,ornament meant something quite different in the ,egyptian ,old ,kingdom from what it meant in the ,middle2 in the geometric period from what it meant in the ,hellenistic2 at the end of the #abth ,century from what it meant at the end of ,louis ,,xiv's reign4 ,and architecture too becomes pictorial and makes music1 and its forms seem always to be trying to imitate something in the picture of the world- around4 ,from the ,ionic capital we proceed to the ,corinthian1 and from ,vignola through ,bernini to the ,rococo4 ,at the last1 when ,civilization sets in1 true ornament and1 with it1 great art as a whole are extinguished4 ,the transition consists--in every ,culture--in ,classicism and ,romanticism of one sort or another1 the former being a sentimental regard for an ,ornamentation 7rules1 laws1 types7 that has long been archaic and soulless1 and the latter a sentimental ,imitation1 not of life1 but of an older ,imitation4 ,in the place of architectural style we find architectural taste4 ,methods of painting and mannerisms of writing1 old forms and new1 home and foreign1 come and go with the fashion4 ,the inward necessity is no longer there1 there are no longer 8schools10 for everyone selects what and where it pleases him to select4 ,art becomes craft-art 7,kunstgewerbe7 in all its branches-- architecture and music1 poetry and drama--and in the end we have a pictorial and literary stock-in-trade which is destitute of any deeper significance and is employed according to taste4 ,this final or industrial form of ,ornament--no longer historical1 no longer in the condition of 8becoming0--we have before us not only in the patterns of oriental carpets1 ,persian and ,indian metal work1 ,chinese porcelain1 but also in ,egyptian 7and ,babylonian7 art as the ,greeks and ,romans met it4 ,the ,minoan art of ,crete is pure craft-art1 a northern outlier of ,egyptian post-,hyksos taste2 and its 8contemporary10 ,hellenistic-,roman art from about the time of ,scipio and ,hannibal1 similarly subserves the habit of comfort and the play of intellect4 ,from the richly-decorated entablature of the ,forum of ,nerva in ,rome to the later provincial ceramics in the ,west1 we can trace the same steady formation of an unalterable craft-art that we find in the ,egyptian and the ,islamic worlds1 and that we have to presume in ,india after ,buddha and in ,china after ,confucius4 ,v ,now1 ,cathedral and ,pyramid-temple are different in spite of their deep inward kinship1 and it is precisely in these differences that we seize the mighty phenomenon of the ,faustian soul1 whose depth-impulse refuses to be bound in the prime symbol of a way1 and from its earliest beginnings strives to transcend every optical limitation4 ,can anything be more alien to the ,egyptian conception of the ,state--whose tendency we may describe as a noble sobriety--than the political ambitions of the great ,saxon1 ,franconian and ,hohenstaufen ,emperors1 who came to grief because they overleapt all political actualities and for whom the recognition of any bounds would have been a betrayal of the idea of their rulership8 ,here the prime symbol of infinite space1 with all its indescribable power1 entered the field of active political existence4 ,beside the figures of the ,ottos1 ,conrad ,,ii1 ,henry ,,vi and ,frederick ,,ii stand the ,viking-,normans1 conquerors of ,russia1 ,greenland1 ,england1 ,sicily and almost of ,constantinople2 and the great popes1 ,gregory ,,vii and ,innocent ,,iii--all of whom alike aimed at making their visible spheres of influence coincident with the whole known world4 ,this is what distinguishes the heroes of the ,grail and ,arthurian and ,siegfried sagas1 ever roaming in the infinite1 from the heroes of ,homer with their geographically modest horizon2 and the ,crusades1 that took men from the ,elbe and the ,loire to the limits of the known world1 from the historical events upon which the ,classical soul built the 8,iliad0 and which from the style of that soul we may safely assume to have been local1 bounded1 and completely appreciable4 ,the ,doric soul actualized the symbol of the corporally-present individual thing1 while deliberately rejecting all big and far-reaching creations1 and it is for this very good reason that the first post- ,mycenan period has bequeathed nothing to our archologists4 ,the expression to which this soul finally attained was the ,doric temple with its purely outward effectiveness1 set upon the landscape as a massive image but denying and artistically disregarding the space within as the v1 that which was held to be incapable of existence4 ,the ranked columns of the ,egyptians carried the roof of a hall4 ,the ,greek in borrowing the motive invested it with a meaning proper to himself--he turned the architectural type inside out like a glove4 ,the outer column- sets are1 in a sense1 relics of a denied interior4#bcc ,the ,magian and the ,faustian souls1 on the contrary1 built high4 ,their dream-images became concrete as vaultings above significant inner- spaces1 structural anticipations respectively of the mathematic of algebra and that of analysis4 ,in the style that radiated from ,burgundy and ,flanders rib-vaulting with its lunettes and flying buttresses emancipated the contained space from the sense-appreciable surface#bcd bounding it4 ,in the ,magian interior the window is merely a negative component1 a utility-form in no wise yet developed into an art-form--to put it crudely1 nothing but a hole in the wall4#bce ,when windows were in practice indispensable1 they were for the sake of artistic impression concealed by galleries as in the ,eastern basilica4#bcf ,the window as architecture1 on the other hand1 is peculiar to the ,faustian soul and the most significant symbol of its depth-experience4 ,in it can be felt the will to emerge from the interior into the boundless4 ,the same will that is immanent in contrapuntal music was native to these vaultings4 ,the incorporeal world of this music was and remained that of the first ,gothic1 and even when1 much later1 polyphonic music rose to such heights as those of the ,matthew ,passion1 the ,eroica1 and ,tristan and ,parsifal1 it became of inward necessity cathedral-like and returned to its home1 the stone language of the ,crusade-time4 ,to get rid of every trace of ,classical corporeality1 there was brought to bear the full force of a deeply significant ,ornamentation1 which defies the delimiting power of stone with its weirdly impressive transformations of vegetal1 animal and human bodies 7,st4 ,pierre in ,moissac71 which dissolves all its lines into melodies and variations on a theme1 all its faades into many-voiced fugues1 and all the bodiliness of its statuary into a music of drapery- folds4 ,it is this spirituality that gave their deep meaning to the gigantic glass-expanses of our cathedral-windows with their polychrome1 translucent and therefore wholly bodiless1 painting--an art that has never and nowhere repeated itself and forms the completest contrast that can be imagined to the ,classical fresco4 ,it is perhaps in the ,sainte- ,chapelle at ,paris that this emancipation from bodiliness is most evident4 ,here the stone practically vanishes in the gleam of the glass4 ,whereas the fresco-painting is co-material with the wall on and with which it has grown and its colour is effective as material1 here we have colours dependent on no carrying surface but as free in space as organ notes1 and shapes poised in the infinite4 ,compare with the ,faustian spirit of these churches--almost wall-less1 loftily vaulted1 irradiated with many-coloured light1 aspiring from nave to choir--the ,arabian 7that is1 the ,early-,christian ,byzantine7 cupola-church4 ,the pendentive cupola1 that seems to float on high above the basilica or the octagon1 was indeed also a victory over the principle of natural gravity which the ,classical expressed in architrave and column2 it1 too1 was a defiance of architectural body1 of 8exterior40 ,but the very absence of an exterior emphasizes the more the unbroken coherence of the wall that shuts in the ,cavern and allows no look and no hope to emerge from it4 ,an ingeniously confusing interpenetration of spherical and polygonal forms2 a load so placed upon a stone drum that it seems to hover weightless on high1 yet closing the interior without outlet2 all structural lines concealed2 vague light admitted1 through a small opening in the heart of the dome but only the more inexorably to emphasize the walling-in--such are the characters that we see in the masterpieces of this art1 ,s4 ,vitale in ,ravenna1 ,hagia ,sophia in ,constantinople1 and the ,dome of the ,rock#bcg in ,jerusalem4 ,where the ,egyptian puts reliefs that with their flat planes studiously avoid any foreshortening suggestive of lateral depth1 where the ,gothic architects put their pictures of glass to draw in the world of space without1 the ,magian clothes his walls with sparkling1 predominantly golden1 mosaics and arabesques and so drowns his cavern in that unreal1 fairy-tale light which for ,northerners is always so seductive in ,moorish art4 ----- ,footnote #bbh3 ,the same applies to the architecture of ,thinite ,egypt and to the ,seleucid-,persian sun and fire temples of the pre-,christian area4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,the combination of scrolls and 8,greek keys0 with the ,dragon or other emblem of storm-power4--,tr4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,dvork1 ,idealismus und ,naturalismus in der got4 ,skulptur u4 ,malerei 7,hist4 ,zeitschrift1 #aiah1 pp4 #dd et seq474 ,footnote #bca3 ,and1 finally1 ornament in the highest sense includes script1 and with it1 the ,book1 which is the true associate of the cult-building1 and as an art-work always appears and disappears with it4 7,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ahb4 et seq41 pp4 #bih et seq47 ,in writing1 it is understanding as distinct from intuition that attains to form3 it is not essences that those signs symbolize but notions abstracted therefrom by words1 and as for the speech-habituated human intellect rigid space is the presented objective1 the writing of a ,culture is 7after its stone- building7 the purest of all expressions of its prime-symbol4 ,it is quite impossible to understand the history of ,arabesque if we leave the innumerable ,arabian scripts out of consideration1 and it is no less impossible to separate ,egyptian and ,chinese style-history from the history of the corresponding writing-signs and their arrangement and application4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,see p4 #agc4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,certainly the ,greeks at the time when they advanced from the ,ant to the ,peripteros were under the mighty influence of the ,egyptian series-columns--it was at this time that their sculpture in the round1 indisputably following ,egyptian models1 freed itself from the relief manner which still clings to the ,apollo figures4 ,but this does not alter the fact that the motive of the ,classical column and the ,classical application of the rank-principle were wholly and peculiarly ,classical4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,the surface of the space-volume itself1 not that of the stone4 ,dvork1 ,hist4 ,ztschr41 #aiah1 pp4 #ag et seq4 ,footnote #bce3 ,dehio1 ,gesch4 der deutschen ,kunst1 ,i1 p4 #af4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,for descriptions and illustrations of types of ,doming and ,vaulting1 see the article ,vault in ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,ed4--,tr4 ,footnote #bcg3 8,mosque of ,omar40--,tr4 ----- ,,vi ,the phenomenon of the great style1 then1 is an emanation from the essence of the ,macrocosm1 from the prime-symbol of a great culture4 ,no one who can appreciate the connotation of the word sufficiently to see that it designates not a form-aggregate but a form-history1 will try to aline the fragmentary and chaotic art-utterances of primitive mankind with the comprehensive certainty of a style that consistently develops over centuries4 ,only the art of great ,cultures1 the art that has ceased to be only art and has begun to be an effective unit of expression and significance1 possesses style4 ,the organic history of a style comprises a pre--1 a non-- and a post-- 4 ,the bull tablet of the ,first ,dynasty of ,egypt#bch is not yet 8,egyptian40 ,not till the ,third ,dynasty do the works acquire a style--but then they do so suddenly and very definitely4 ,similarly the ,carolingian period stands 8between-styles40 ,we see different forms touched on and explored1 but nothing of inwardly necessary expression4 ,the creator of the ,aachen ,minster 8thinks surely and builds surely1 but does not feel surely40#bci ,the ,marienkirche in the ,castle of ,wrzburg 7c4 #gjj7 has its counterpart in ,salonika 7,st4 ,george71 and the ,church of ,st4 ,germigny des ,prs 7c4 #hjj7 with its cupolas and horseshoe niches is almost a mosque4 ,for the whole of ,west ,europe the period #hej-iej is almost a blank4 ,and just so to-day ,russian art stands between two styles4 ,the primitive wooden architecture with its steep eight-sided tent-roof 7which extends from ,norway to ,manchuria7 is impressed with ,byzantine motives from over the ,danube and ,armenian-,persian from over the ,caucasus4 ,we can certainly feel an 8elective affinity0 between the ,russian and the ,magian souls1 but as yet the prime symbol of ,russia1 the plane without limit1#bdj finds no sure expression either in religion or in architecture4 ,the church roof emerges1 hillock-wise1 but little from the landscape and on it sit the tent-roofs whose points are coifed with the 8kokoshniks0 that suppress and would abolish the upward tendency4 ,they neither tower up like the ,gothic belfry nor enclose like the mosque-cupola1 but sit1 thereby emphasizing the horizontality of the building1 which is meant to be regarded merely from the outside4 ,when about #agfj the ,synod forbade the tent roofs and prescribed the orthodox onion-cupolas1 the heavy cupolas were set upon slender cylinders1 of which there may be any number#bda and which sit on the roof-plane4#bdb ,it is not yet a style1 only the promise of a style that will awaken when the real ,russian religion awakens4 ,in the ,faustian ,west1 this awakening happened shortly before ,a4,d4 #ajjj4 ,in one moment1 the ,romanesque style was there4 ,instead of the fluid organization of space on an insecure ground plan1 there was1 suddenly1 a strict dynamic of space4 ,from the very beginning1 inner and outer construction were placed in a fixed relation1 the wall was penetrated by the form-language and the form worked into the wall in a way that no other ,culture has ever imagined4 ,from the very beginning the window and the belfry were invested with their meanings4 ,the form was irrevocably assigned4 ,only its development remained to be worked out4 ,the ,egyptian style began with another such creative act1 just as unconscious1 just as full of symbolic force4 ,the prime symbol of the ,way came into being suddenly with the beginning of the ,fourth ,dynasty 7#bicj ,b4,c474 ,the world-creating depth-experience of this soul gets its substance from the direction-factor itself4 ,spatial depth as stiffened ,time1 distance1 death1 ,destiny itself dominate the expression1 and the merely sensuous dimensions of length and breadth become an escorting plane which restricts and prescribes the ,way of destiny4 ,the ,egyptian flat-relief1 which is designed to be seen at close quarters and arranged serially so as to compel the beholder to pass along the wall-planes in the prescribed direction1 appears with similar suddenness about the beginning of the ,fifth ,dynasty4#bdc ,the still later avenues of sphinxes and statues and the rock- and terrace-temples constantly intensify that tendency towards the one distance that the world of ,egyptian mankind knows1 the grave4 ,observe how soon the colonnades of the early period come to be systems of huge1 close-set pillars that screen off all side-view4 ,this is something that has never reproduced itself in any other architecture4 ,the grandeur of this style appears to us as rigid and unchanging4 ,and certainly it stands beyond the passion which is ever seeking and fearing and so imparts to subordinate characters a quality of restless personal movement in the flow of the centuries4 ,but1 vice versa1 we cannot doubt that to an ,egyptian the ,faustian style 7which is our style1 from earliest ,romanesque to ,rococo and ,empire7 would with its unresting persistent search for a ,something1 appear far more uniform than we can imagine4 ,it follows1 we must not forget1 from the conception of style that we are working on here1 that ,romanesque1 ,gothic1 ,renaissance1 ,baroque and ,rococo are only stages of one and the same style1 in which it is naturally the variable that we and the constant that men of other eyes remark4 ,in actual fact1 the inner unity of the ,northern ,renaissance is shown in innumerable reconstructions of ,romanesque work in ,baroque and of late ,gothic work in ,rococo that are not in the least startling4 ,in peasant art1 ,gothic and ,baroque have been identical1 and the streets of old towns with their pure harmony of all sorts of gables and faades 7wherein definite attributions to ,romanesque or ,gothic ,renaissance or ,baroque or ,rococo are often quite impossible7 show that the family resemblance between the members is far greater than they themselves realize4 ,the ,egyptian style was purely architectural1 and remained so till the ,egyptian soul was extinguished4 ,it is the only one in which ,ornamentation as a decorative supplement to architecture is entirely absent4 ,it allowed of no divergence into arts of entertainment1 no display-painting1 no busts1 no secular music4 ,in the ,ionic phase1 the centre of gravity of the ,classical style shifted from architecture to an independent plastic art2 in that of the ,baroque the style of the ,west passed into music1 whose form-language in its turn ruled the entire building art of the #ahth ,century2 in the ,arabian world1 after ,justinian and ,chosroes-,nushirvan1 ,arabesque dissolved all the forms of architecture1 painting and sculpture into style-impressions that nowadays we should consider as craft-art4 ,but in ,egypt the sovereignty of architecture remained unchallenged2 it merely softened its language a little4 ,in the chambers of the pyramid-temple of the ,fourth ,dynasty 7,pyramid of ,chephren7 there are unadorned angular pillars4 ,in the buildings of the ,fifth 7,pyramid of ,sahu-r7 the plant-column makes its appearance4 ,lotus and papyrus branches turned into stone arise gigantic out of a pavement of transparent alabaster that represents water1 enclosed by purple walls4 ,the ceiling is adorned with birds and stars4 ,the sacred way from the gate-buildings to the tomb-chamber1 the picture of life1 is a stream--it is the ,nile itself become one with the prime- symbol of direction4 ,the spirit of the mother-landscape unites with the soul that has sprung from it4 ,in ,china1 in lieu of the awe-inspiring pylon with its massy wall and narrow entrance1 we have the 8,spirit-wall0 7yin-pi7 that conceals the way in4 ,the ,chinaman slips into life and thereafter follows the ,tao of life's path2 as the ,nile valley is to the up-and-down landscape of the ,hwang ,ho1 so is the stone-enclosed temple-way to the mazy paths of ,chinese garden-architecture4 ,and just so1 in some mysterious fashion1 the ,euclidean existence is linked with the multitude of little islands and promontories of the gean1 and the passionate ,western1 roving in the infinite1 with the broad plains of ,franconia and ,burgundy and ,saxony4 ,,vii ,the ,egyptian style is the expression of a brave soul4 ,the rigour and force of it ,egyptian man himself never felt and never asserted4 ,he dared all1 but said nothing4 ,in ,gothic and ,baroque1 on the contrary1 the triumph over heaviness became a perfectly conscious motive of the form- language4 ,the drama of ,shakespeare deals openly with the desperate conflict of will and world4 ,classical man1 again1 was weak in the face of the 8powers40 ,the of fear and pity1 the relief and recovery of the ,apollinian soul in the moment of the was1 according to ,aristotle1 the effect deliberately aimed at in ,attic tragedy4 ,as the ,greek spectator watched someone whom he knew 7for everyone knew the myth and its heroes and lived in them7 senselessly maltreated by fortune1 without any conceivable possibility of resistance to the ,powers1 and saw him go under with splendid mien1 defiant1 heroic1 his own ,euclidean soul experienced a marvellous uplifting4 ,if life was worthless1 at any rate the grand gesture in losing it was not so4 ,the ,greek willed nothing and dared nothing1 but he found a stirring beauty in enduring4 ,even the earlier figures of ,odysseus the patient1 and1 above all1 ,achilles the archetype of ,greek manhood1 have this characteristic quality4 ,the morale of the ,cynics1 that of the ,stoics1 that of ,epicurus1 the common ,greek ideals of and 1 ,diogenes devoting himself to in a tub--all this is masked cowardice in the face of grave matters and responsibilities1 and different indeed from the pride of the ,egyptian soul4 ,apollinian man goes below ground out of life's way1 even to the point of suicide1 which in this ,culture alone 7if we ignore certain related ,indian ideals7 ranked as a high ethical act and was treated with the solemnity of a ritual symbol4#bdd ,the ,dionysiac intoxication seems a sort of furious drowning of uneasinesses that to the ,egyptian soul were utterly unknown4 ,and consequently the ,greek ,culture is that of the small1 the easy1 the simple4 ,its technique is1 compared with ,egyptian or ,babylonian1 a clever nullity4#bde ,no ornamentation shows such a poverty of invention as theirs1 and their stock of sculptural positions and attitudes could be counted on one's fingers4 8,in its poverty of forms1 which is conspicuous even allowing that at the beginning of its development it may have been better off than it was later1 the ,doric style pivoted everything on proportions and on measure40#bdf ,yet1 even so1 what adroitness in avoiding6 ,the ,greek architecture with its commensuration of load and support and its peculiar smallness of scale suggests a persistent evasion of difficult architectural problems that on the ,nile and1 later1 in the high ,north were literally looked for1 which moreover were known and certainly not burked in the ,mycenan age4 ,the ,egyptian loved the strong stone of immense buildings2 it was in keeping with his self- consciousness that he should choose only the hardest for his task4 ,but the ,greek avoided it2 his architecture first set itself small tasks1 then ceased altogether4 ,if we survey it as a whole1 and then compare it with the totality of ,egyptian or ,mexican or even1 for that matter1 ,western architecture1 we are astounded at the feeble development of the style4 ,a few variations of the ,doric temple and it was exhausted4 ,it was already closed off about #djj when the ,corinthian capital was invented1 and everything subsequent to this was merely modification of what existed4 ,the result of this was an almost bodily standardization of form-types and style-species4 ,one might choose between them1 but never overstep their strict limits--that would have been in some sort an admission of an infinity of possibilities4 ,there were three orders of columns and a definite disposition of the architrave corresponding to each2 to deal with the difficulty 7considered1 as early as ,vitruvius1 as a conflict7 which the alternation of triglyphs and metopes produced at the corners1 the nearest intercolumniations were narrowed--no one thought of imagining new forms to suit the case4 ,if greater dimensions were desired1 the requirements were met by superposition1 juxtaposition1 etc41 of additional elements4 ,thus the ,colosseum possesses three rings1 the ,didymum of ,miletus three rows of columns in front1 and the ,frieze of the ,giants of ,pergamum an endless succession of individual and unconnected motives4 ,similarly with the style-species of prose and the types of lyric poetry1 narrative and tragedy4 ,universally1 the expenditure of powers on the basic form is restricted to the minimum and the creative energy of the artist directed to detail-fineness4 ,it is a statical treatment of static genera1 and it stands in the sharpest possible contrast to the dynamic fertility of the ,faustian with its ceaseless creation of new types and domains of form4 ,,viii ,we are now able to see the organism in a great style-course4 ,here1 as in so many other matters1 ,goethe was the first to whom vision came4 ,in his 8,winckelmann0 he says of ,velleius ,paterculus3 8with his standpoint1 it was not given to him to see all art as a living thing 77 that must have an inconspicuous beginning1 a slow growth1 a brilliant moment of fulfilment and a gradual decline like every other organic being1 though it is presented in a set of individuals40 ,this sentence contains the entire morphology of art-history4 ,styles do not follow one another like waves or pulse-beats4 ,it is not the personality or will or brain of the artist that makes the style1 but the style that makes the type of the artist4 ,the style1 like the ,culture1 is a prime phenomenon in the strictest ,goethian sense1 be it the style of art or religion or thought1 or the style of life itself4 ,it is1 as 8,nature0 is1 an ever-new experience of waking man1 his alter ego and mirror-image in the world- around4 ,and therefore in the general historical picture of a ,culture there can be but one style1 the style of the ,culture4 ,the error has lain in treating mere style-phases--,romanesque1 ,gothic1 ,baroque1 ,rococo1 ,empire--as if they were styles on the same level as units of quite another order such as the ,egyptian1 the ,chinese 7or even a 8prehistoric07 style4 ,gothic and ,baroque are simply the youth and age of one and the same vessel of forms1 the style of the ,west as ripening and ripened4 ,what has been wanting in our art-research has been detachment1 freedom from prepossessions1 and the will to abstract4 ,saving ourselves trouble1 we have classed any and every form-domain that makes a strong impression upon us as a 8style10 and it need hardly be said that our insight has been led astray still further by the ,ancient-,medival-,modern scheme4 ,but in reality1 even a masterpiece of strictest ,renaissance like the court of the ,palazzo ,farnese is infinitely nearer to the arcade- porch of ,st4 ,patroclus in ,soest1 the interior of the ,magdeburg cathedral1 and the staircases of ,south-,german castles of the #ahth ,century than it is to the ,temple of ,pstum or to the ,erechtheum4 ,the same relation exists between ,doric and ,ionic1 and hence ,ionic columns can be as completely combined with ,doric building forms as late ,gothic is with early ,baroque in ,st4 ,lorenz at ,nrnberg1 or late ,romanesque with late ,baroque in the beautiful upper part of the ,west choir at ,mainz4 ,and our eyes have scarcely yet learned to distinguish within the ,egyptian style the ,old ,kingdom and ,middle ,empire elements corresponding to ,doric and ,gothic youth and to ,ionic and ,baroque maturity1 because from the ,twelfth ,dynasty these elements interpenetrate in all harmony in the form-language of all the greater works4 ,the task before art-history is to write the comparative biographies of the great styles1 all of which as organisms of the same genus possess structurally cognate life histories4 ,in the beginning there is the timid1 despondent1 naked expression of a newly-awakened soul which is still seeking for a relation between itself and the world that1 though its proper creation1 yet is presented as alien and unfriendly4 ,there is the child's fearfulness in ,bishop ,bernward's building at ,hildesheim1 in the ,early-,christian catacomb- painting1 and in the pillar-halls of the ,egyptian ,fourth ,dynasty4 ,a ,february of art1 a deep presentiment of a coming wealth of forms1 an immense suppressed tension1 lies over the landscape that1 still wholly rustic1 is adorning itself with the first strongholds and townlets4 ,then follows the joyous mounting into the high ,gothic1 into the ,constantinian age with its pillared basilicas and its domical churches1 into the relief-ornament of the ,fifth-,dynasty temple4 ,being is understood1 a sacred form-language has been completely mastered and radiates its glory1 and the ,style ripens into a majestic symbolism of directional depth and of ,destiny4 ,but fervent youth comes to an end1 and contradictions arise within the soul itself4 ,the ,renaissance1 the ,dionysiac-musical hostility to ,apollinian ,doric1 the ,byzantine of #dej that looks to ,alexandria and away from the overjoyed art of ,antioch1 indicate a moment of resistance1 of effective or ineffective impulse to destroy what has been acquired4 ,it is very difficult to elucidate this moment1 and an attempt to do so would be out of place here4 ,and now it is the manhood of the style-history that comes on4 ,the ,culture is changing into the intellectuality of the great cities that will now dominate the country-side1 and pari passu the style is becoming intellectualized also4 ,the grand symbolism withers2 the riot of superhuman forms dies down2 milder and more worldly arts drive out the great art of developed stone4 ,even in ,egypt sculpture and fresco are emboldened to lighter movement4 ,the artist appears1 and 8plans0 what formerly grew out of the soil4 ,once more existence becomes self- conscious and now1 detached from the land and the dream and the mystery1 stands questioning1 and wrestles for an expression of its new duty--as at the beginning of ,baroque when ,michelangelo1 in wild discontent and kicking against the limitations of his art1 piles up the dome of ,st4 ,peter's--in the age of ,justinian ,i which built ,hagia ,sophia and the mosaic-decked domed basilicas of ,ravenna--at the beginning of that ,twelfth ,dynasty in ,egypt which the ,greeks condensed under the name of ,sesostris--and at the decisive epoch in ,hellas 7c4 #fjj7 whose architecture probably1 nay certainly1 expressed that which is echoed for us in its grandchild schylus4 ,then comes the gleaming autumn of the style4 ,once more the soul depicts its happiness1 this time conscious of self-completion4 ,the 8return to ,nature0 which already thinkers and poets--,rousseau1 ,gorgias and their 8contemporaries0 in the other ,cultures--begin to feel and to proclaim1 reveals itself in the form-world of the arts as a sensitive longing and presentiment of the end4 ,a perfectly clear intellect1 joyous urbanity1 the sorrow of a parting--these are the colours of these last ,culture- decades of which ,talleyrand was to remark later3 8,qui n'a pas vcu avant #aghi ne connat pas la douceur de vivre40 ,so it was1 too1 with the free1 sunny and superfine art of ,egypt under ,sesostris ,,iii 7c4 #ahej ,b4,c47 and the brief moments of satiated happiness that produced the varied splendour of ,pericles's ,acropolis and the works of ,zeuxis and ,phidias4 ,a thousand years later again1 in the age of the ,ommaiyads1 we meet it in the glad fairyland of ,moorish architecture with its fragile columns and horseshoe arches that seem to melt into air in an iridescence of arabesques and stalactites4 ,a thousand years more1 and we see it in the music of ,haydn and ,mozart1 in ,dresden shepherdesses1 in the pictures of ,watteau and ,guardi1 and the works of ,german master-builders at ,dresden1 ,potsdam1 ,wrzburg and ,vienna4 ,then the style fades out4 ,the form-language of the ,erechtheum and the ,dresden ,zwinger1 honeycombed with intellect1 fragile1 ready for self- destruction1 is followed by the flat and senile ,classicism that we find in the ,hellenistic megalopolis1 the ,byzantium of #ijj and the 8,empire0 modes of the ,north4 ,the end is a sunset reflected in forms revived for a moment by pedant or by eclectic--semi-earnestness and doubtful genuineness dominate the world of the arts4 ,we to-day are in this condition--playing a tedious game with dead forms to keep up the illusion of a living art4 ,,ix ,no one has yet perceived that ,arabian art is a single phenomenon4 ,it is an idea that can only take shape when we have ceased to be deceived by the crust which overlaid the young ,east with post-,classical art- exercises that1 whether they were imitation-antique or chose their elements from proper or alien sources at will1 were in any case long past all inward life2 when we have discovered that ,early ,christian art1 together with every really living element in 8late-,roman10 is in fact the springtime of the ,arabian style2 and when we see the epoch of ,justinian ,i as exactly on a par with the ,spanish-,venetian ,baroque that ruled ,europe in the great days of ,charles ,v or ,philip ,,ii1 and the palaces of ,byzantium and their magnificent battle-pictures and pageant- scenes--the vanished glories that inspired the pens of courtly literati like ,procopius--on a par with the palaces of early ,baroque in ,madrid1 ,vienna and ,rome and the great decorative-painting of ,rubens and ,tintoretto4 ,this ,arabian style embraces the entire first millennium of our era4 ,it thus stands at a critical position in the picture of a general history of 8,art10 and its organic connectedness has been imperceptible under the erroneous conventions thereof4#bdg ,strange and--if these studies have given us the eye for things latent-- moving it is to see how this young ,soul1 held in bondage to the intellect of the ,classical and1 above all1 to the political omnipotence of ,rome1 dares not rouse itself into freedom but humbly subjects itself to obsolete value-forms and tries to be content with ,greek language1 ,greek ideas and ,greek art-elements4 ,devout acceptance of the powers of the strong day is present in every young ,culture and is the sign of its youth--witness the humility of ,gothic man in his pious high-arched spaces with their pillar-statuary and their light-filled pictures in glass1 the high tension of the ,egyptian soul in the midst of its world of pyramids1 lotus-columns and relief-lined halls4 ,but in this instance there is the additional element of an intellectual prostration before forms really dead but supposedly eternal4 ,yet in spite of all1 the taking-over and continuance of these forms came to nothing4 ,involuntarily1 unobserved1 not supported by an inherent pride as ,gothic was1 but felt1 there in ,roman ,syria1 almost as a lamentable come-down1 a whole new form-world grew up4 ,under a mask of ,grco-,roman conventions1 it filled even ,rome itself4 ,the master-masons of the ,pantheon and the ,imperial ,fora were ,syrians4 ,in no other example is the primitive force of a young soul so manifest as here1 where it has to make its own world by sheer conquest4 ,in this as in every other ,culture1 ,spring seeks to express its spirituality in a new ornamentation and1 above all1 in religious architecture as the sublime form of that ornamentation4 ,but of all this rich form-world the only part that 7till recently7 has been taken into account has been the ,western edge of it1 which consequently has been assumed to be the true home and habitat of ,magian style-history4 ,in reality1 in matters of style as in those of religion1 science and social-political life1 what we find there is only an irradiation from outside the ,eastern border of the ,empire4#bdh ,riegl#bdi and ,strzygowski#bej have discovered this1 but if we are to go further and arrive at a conspectus of the development of ,arabian art we have to shed many philological and religious prepossessions4 ,the misfortune is that our art-research1 although it no longer recognizes the religious frontiers1 nevertheless unconsciously assumes them4 ,for there is in reality no such thing as a ,late-,classical nor an ,early-,christian nor yet an ,islamic art in the sense of an art proper to each of those faiths and evolved by the community of believers as such4 ,on the contrary1 the totality of these religions--from ,armenia to ,southern ,arabia and ,axum1 and from ,persia to ,byzantium and ,alexandria--possess a broad uniformity of artistic expression that overrides the contradictions of detail4#bea ,all these religions1 the ,christian1 the ,jewish1 the ,persian1 the ,manichan1 the ,syncretic1#beb possessed cult-buildings and 7at any rate in their script7 an ,ornamentation of the first rank2 and however different the items of their dogmas1 they are all pervaded by an homogeneous religiousness and express it in a homogeneous symbolism of depth-experience4 ,there is something in the basilicas of ,christianity1 ,hellenistic1 ,hebrew and ,baal-cults1 and in the ,mithrum1#bec the ,mazdaist fire-temple and the ,mosque1 that tells of a like spirituality3 it is the ,cavern-feeling4 ,it becomes therefore the bounden duty of research to seek to establish the hitherto completely neglected architecture of the ,south-,arabian and ,persian temple1 the ,syrian and the ,mesopotamian synagogue1 the cult- buildings of ,eastern ,asia ,minor and even ,abyssinia2#bed and in respect of ,christianity to investigate no longer merely the ,pauline ,west but also the ,nestorian ,east that stretched from the ,euphrates to ,china1 where the old records significantly call its buildings 8,persian temples40 ,if in all this building practically nothing has1 so far1 forced itself specially upon our notice1 it is fair to suppose that both the advance of ,christianity first and that of ,islam later could change the religion of a place of worship without contradicting its plan and style4 ,we know that this is the case with ,late ,classical temples3 but how many of the churches in ,armenia may once have been fire-temples8 ,the artistic centre of this ,culture was very definitely--as ,strzygowski has observed--in the triangle of cities ,edessa1 ,nisibis1 ,amida4 ,to the westward of it is the domain of the ,late-,classical 8,pseudomorphosis10#bee the ,pauline ,christianity that conquered in the councils of ,ephesus and ,chalcedon1#bef ,western ,judaism and the cults of ,syncretism4 ,the architectural type of the ,pseudomorphosis1 both for ,jew and ,gentile1 is the ,basilica4#beg ,it employs the means of the ,classical to express the opposite thereof1 and is unable to free itself from these means--that is the essence and the tragedy of 8,pseudomorphosis40 ,the more 8,classical0 ,syncretism modifies a cult that is resident in a ,euclidean place into one which is professed by a community of indefinite estate1 the more the interior of the temple gains in importance over the exterior without needing to change either plan or roof or columns very much4 ,the space-feeling is different1 but not--at first--the means of expressing it4 ,in the pagan religious architecture of the ,imperial ,age there is a perceptible--though never yet perceived--movement from the wholly corporeal ,augustan temple1 in which the cella is the architectural expression of nothingness1 to one in which the interior only possesses meaning4 ,finally the external picture of the ,peripteros of the ,doric is transferred to the four inside walls4 ,columns ranked in front of a windowless wall are a denial of space beyond--that is1 for the ,classical beholder1 of space within1 and for the ,magian1 of space without4 ,it is therefore a question of minor importance whether the entire space is covered in as in the ,basilica proper1 or only the sanctuary as in the ,sun-temple of ,baalbek with the great forecourt1#beh which later becomes a standing element of the mosque and is probably of ,south ,arabian origin4#bei ,that the ,nave originates in a court surrounded by halls is suggested not only by the special development of the basilica-type in the ,east ,syrian steppe 7particularly ,hauran7 but also by the basic disposition of porch1 nave and choir as stages leading to the altar--for the aisles 7originally the side-halls of the court7 end blind1 and only the nave proper corresponds with the apse4 ,this basic meaning is very evident in ,st4 ,paul at ,rome1 albeit the ,pseudomorphosis 7inversion of the ,classical temple7 dictated the technical means1 viz41 column and architrave4 ,how symbolic is the ,christian reconstruction of the ,temple of ,aphrodisias in ,caria1 in which the cella within the columns is abolished and replaced by a new wall outside them4#bfj ,outside the domain of the 8,pseudomorphosis10 on the contrary1 the cavern-feeling was free to develop its own form-language1 and here therefore it is the definite roof that is emphasized 7whereas in the other domain the protest against the ,classical feeling led merely to the development of an interior74 ,when and where the various possibilities of dome1 cupola1 barrel-vaulting1 rib-vaulting1 came into existence as technical methods is1 as we have already said1 a matter of no significance4 ,what is of decisive importance is the fact that about the time of ,christ's birth and the rise of the new world-feeling1 the new space-symbolism must have begun to make use of these forms and to develop them further in expressiveness4 ,it will very likely come to be shown that the fire-temples and synagogues of ,mesopotamia 7and possibly also the temples of ,athtar in ,southern ,arabia7 were originally cupola- buildings4#bfa ,certainly the pagan marna-temple at ,gaza was so1 and long before ,pauline ,christianity took possession of these forms under ,constantine1 builders of ,eastern origin had introduced them1 as novelties to please the taste of the ,megalopolitans1 into all parts of the ,roman ,empire4 ,in ,rome itself1 ,apollodorus of ,damascus was employed under ,trajan for the vaulting of the temple of 8,venus and ,rome10 and the domed chambers of the ,baths of ,caracalla and the so-called 8,minerva ,medica0 of ,gallienus's time were built by ,syrians4 ,but the masterpiece1 the earliest of all ,mosques1 is the ,pantheon as rebuilt by ,hadrian4 ,here1 without a doubt1 the emperor was imitating1 for the satisfaction of his own taste1 cult-buildings that he had seen in the ,east4#bfb ,the architecture of the central-dome1 in which the ,magian world-feeling achieved its purest expression1 extended beyond the limits of the ,roman ,empire4 ,for the ,nestorian ,christianity that extended from ,armenia even into ,china it was the only form1 as it was also for the ,manichns and the ,mazdaists1 and it also impressed itself victoriously upon the ,basilica of the ,west when the ,pseudomorphosis began to crumble and the last cults of ,syncretism to die out4 ,in ,southern ,france--where there were ,manichan sects even as late as the ,crusades--the form of the ,east was domesticated4 ,under ,justinian1 the interpenetration of the two produced the domical basilica of ,byzantium and ,ravenna4 ,the pure basilica was pushed into the ,germanic ,west1 there to be transformed by the energy of the ,faustian depth-impulse into the cathedral4 ,the domed basilica1 again1 spread from ,byzantium and ,armenia into ,russia1 where it came by slow degrees to be felt as an element of exterior architecture belonging to a symbolism concentrated in the roof4 ,but in the ,arabian world ,islam1 the heir of ,monophysite and ,nestorian ,christianity and of the ,jews and the ,persians1 carried the development through to the end4 ,when it turned ,hagia ,sophia into a mosque it only resumed possession of an old property4 ,islamic domical building followed ,mazdaist and ,nestorian along the same tracks to ,shan-tung and to ,india4 ,mosques grew up in the far ,west in ,spain and ,sicily1 where1 moreover1 the style appears rather in its ,east-,araman-,persian than in its ,west-,araman-,syrian mode4#bfc ,and while ,venice looked to ,byzantium and ,ravenna 7,st4 ,mark71 the brilliant age of the ,norman-,hohenstaufen rule in ,palermo taught the cities of the ,italian west coast1 and even ,florence1 to admire and to imitate these ,moorish buildings4 ,more than one of the motives that the ,renaissance thought were ,classical--e4g41 the court surrounded by halls and the union of column and arch--really originated thus4 ,what is true as regards architecture is even more so as regards ornamentation1 which in the ,arabian world very early overcame all figure-representation and swallowed it up in itself4 ,then1 as 8arabesque10 it advanced to meet1 to charm and to mislead the young art- intention of the ,west4 ,the early-,christian-,late-,classical art of the ,pseudomorphosis shows the same ornament-plus-figure mixture of the inherited 8alien0 and the inborn 8proper0 as does the ,carolingian-,early ,romanesque of 7especially7 ,southern ,france and ,upper ,italy4 ,in the one case ,hellenistic intermingles with ,early-,magian1 in the other ,mauro-,byzantine with ,faustian4 ,the researcher has to examine line after line and ornament after ornament to detect the form-feeling which differentiates the one stratum from the other4 ,in every architrave1 in every frieze1 there is to be found a secret battle between the conscious old and the unconscious1 but victorious1 new motives4 ,one is confounded by this general interpenetration of the ,late-,hellenistic and the ,early-,arabian form-senses1 as one sees it1 for example1 in ,roman portrait-busts 7here it is often only in the treatment of the hair that the new way of expression is manifested72 in the acanthus-shoots which show--often on one and the same frieze--chisel-work and drill-work side by side2 in the sarcophagi of the #crd ,century in which a childlike feeling of the ,giotto and ,pisano character is entangled with a certain late and megalopolitan ,naturalism that reminds one more or less of ,david or ,carstens2 and in buildings such as the ,basilica of ,maxentius#bfd and many parts of the ,baths and the ,imperial ,fora that are still very ,classical in conception4 ,nevertheless1 the ,arabian soul was cheated of its maturity--like a young tree that is hindered and stunted in its growth by a fallen old giant of the forest4 ,here there was no brilliant instant felt and experienced as such1 like that of ours in which1 simultaneously with the ,crusades1 the wooden beams of the ,cathedral roof locked themselves into rib-vaulting and an interior was made to actualize and fulfil the idea of infinite space4 ,the political creation of ,diocletian was shattered in its glory upon the fact that1 standing as he did on ,classical ground1 he had to accept the whole mass of the administrative tradition of ,urbs ,roma2 this sufficed to reduce his work to a mere reform of obsolete conditions4 ,and yet he was the first of the ,caliphs4 ,with him1 the idea of the ,arabian ,state emerges clearly into the light4 ,it is ,diocletian's dispensation1 together with that of the ,sassanids which preceded it somewhat and served in all respects as its model1 that gives us the first notion of the ideal that ought to have gone on to fulfilment here4 ,but so it was in all things4 ,to this very day we admire as last creations of the ,classical--because we cannot or will not regard them otherwise--the thought of ,plotinus and ,marcus ,aurelius1 the cults of ,isis1 ,mithras and the ,sun-,god1 the ,diophantine mathematics and1 lastly1 the whole of the art which streamed towards us from the ,eastern marches of the ,roman ,empire and for which ,antioch and ,alexandria were merely points d'appui4 ,this alone is sufficient to explain the intense vehemence with which the ,arabian ,culture1 when released at length from artistic as from other fetters1 flung itself upon all the lands that had inwardly belonged to it for centuries past4 ,it is the sign of a soul that feels itself in a hurry1 that notes in fear the first symptoms of old age before it has had youth4 ,this emancipation of ,magian mankind is without a parallel4 ,syria is conquered1 or rather delivered1 in #fcd4 ,damascus falls in #fcg1 ,ctesiphon in #fcg4 ,in #fda ,egypt and ,india are reached1 in #fdg ,carthage1 in #fgf ,samarkand1 in #gaj ,spain4 ,and in #gcb the ,arabs stood before ,paris4 ,into these few years was compressed the whole sum of saved-up passions1 postponed hopes1 reserved deeds1 that in the slow maturing of other ,cultures suffice to fill the history of centuries4 ,the ,crusaders before ,jerusalem1 the ,hohenstaufen in ,sicily1 the ,hansa in the ,baltic1 the ,teutonic ,knights in the ,slavonic ,east1 the ,spaniards in ,america1 the ,portuguese in the ,east ,indies1 the ,empire of ,charles ,v on which the sun never set1 the beginnings of ,england's colonial power under ,cromwell--the equivalent of all this was shot out in one discharge that carried the ,arabs to ,spain and ,france1 ,india and ,turkestan4 ,true1 all ,cultures 7the ,egyptian1 the ,mexican and the ,chinese excepted7 have grown up under the tutelage of some older ,culture4 ,each of the form-worlds shows certain alien traits4 ,thus1 the ,faustian soul of the ,gothic1 already predisposed to reverence by the ,arabian origin of ,christianity1 grasped at the treasures of ,late-,arabian art4 ,an unmistakably ,southern1 one might even say an ,arabian1 ,gothic wove itself over the faades of the ,burgundian and ,provenal cathedrals1 dominated with a magic of stone the outward language of ,strassburg ,minster1 and fought a silent battle in statues and porches1 fabric-patterns1 carvings and metalwork--and not less in the intricate figures of scholastic philosophy and in that intensely ,western symbol1 the ,grail legend#bfe-- with the ,nordic prime-feeling of ,viking ,gothic that rules the interior of the ,magdeburg ,cathedral1 the points of ,freiburg ,minster and the mysticism of ,meister ,eckart4 ,more than once the pointed arch threatens to burst its restraining line and to transform itself into the horseshoe arch of ,moorish-,norman architecture4 ,so also the ,apollinian art of the ,doric spring--whose first efforts are practically lost to us--doubtless took over ,egyptian elements to a very large extent1 and by and through these came to its own proper symbolism4 ,but the ,magian soul of the ,pseudomorphosis had not the courage to appropriate alien means without yielding to them4 ,and this is why the physiognomic of the ,magian soul has still so much to disclose to the quester4 ,x ,the idea of the ,macrocosm1 then1 which presents itself in the style- problem as simplified and capable of treatment1 poses a multitude of tasks for the future to tackle4 ,to make the form-world of the arts available as a means of penetrating the spirituality of entire ,cultures-- by handling it in a thoroughly physiognomic and symbolic spirit--is an undertaking that has not hitherto got beyond speculations of which the inadequacy is obvious4 ,we are hardly as yet aware that there may be a psychology of the metaphysical bases of all great architectures4 ,we have no idea what there is to discover in the change of meaning that a form of pure extension undergoes when it is taken over into another ,culture4 ,the history of the column has never yet been written1 nor have we any notion of the deeply symbolic significances that reside in the means and the instruments of art4 ,consider mosaic4 ,in ,hellenic times it was made up of pieces of marble1 it was opaque and corporeal-,euclidean 7e4g41 the famous ,battle of ,issus at ,naples71 and it adorned the floor4 ,but with the awakening of the ,arabian soul it came to be built up of pieces of glass and set in fused gold1 and it simply covered the walls and roofs of the domed basilica4 ,this ,early-,arabian ,mosaic-picturing corresponds exactly1 as to phase1 with the glass-picturing of ,gothic cathedrals1 both being 8early0 arts ancillary to religious architectures4 ,the one by letting in the light enlarges the church-space into world-space1 while the other transforms it into the magic1 gold-shimmering sphere which bears men away from earthly actuality into the visions of ,plotinus1 ,origen1 the ,manichans1 the ,gnostics and the ,fathers1 and the ,apocalyptic poems4 ,consider1 again1 the beautiful notion of uniting the round arch and the column2 this again is a ,syrian1 if not a ,north-,arabian1 creation of the third 7or 8high ,gothic07 century4#bff ,the revolutionary importance of this motive1 which is specifically ,magian1 has never in the least degree been recognized2 on the contrary1 it has always been assumed to be ,classical1 and for most of us indeed it is even representatively ,classical4 ,the ,egyptians ignored any deep relation between the roof and the column2 the latter was for them a plant-column1 and represented not stoutness but growth4 ,classical man1 in his turn1 for whom the monolithic column was the mightiest symbol of ,euclidean existence--all body1 all unity1 all steadiness--connected it1 in the strictest proportions of vertical and horizontal1 of strength and load1 with his architrave4 ,but here1 in this union of arch and column which the ,renaissance in its tragicomic deludedness admired as expressly ,classical 7though it was a notion that the ,classical neither possessed nor could possess71 the bodily principle of load and inertia is rejected and the arch is made to spring clear and open out of the slender column4 ,the idea actualized here is at once a liberation from all earth-gravity and a capture of space1 and between this element and that of the dome which soars free but yet encloses the great 8cavern10 there is the deep relation of like meaning4 ,the one and the other are eminently and powerfully ,magian1 and they come to their logical fulfilment in the 8,rococo0 stage of ,moorish mosques and castles1 wherein ethereally delicate columns--often growing out of1 rather than based on1 the ground-- seem to be empowered by some secret magic to carry a whole world of innumerable notched arcs1 gleaming ornaments1 stalactites1 and vaultings saturated with colours4 ,the full importance of this basic form of ,arabian architecture may be expressed by saying that the combination of column and architrave is the ,classical1 that of column and round arch the ,arabian1 and that of pillar and pointed arch the ,faustian ,leitmotiv4 ,take1 further1 the history of the ,acanthus motive4#bfg ,in the form in which it appears1 for example1 on the ,monument of ,lysicrates at ,athens1 it is one of the most distinctive in ,classical ornamentation4 ,it has body1 it is and remains individual1 and its structure is capable of being taken in at one glance4 ,but already it appears heavier and richer in the ornament of the ,imperial ,fora 7,nerva's1 ,trajan's7 and that of the temple of ,mars ,ultor2 the organic disposition has become so complicated that1 as a rule1 it requires to be studied1 and the tendency to fill up the surfaces appears4 ,in ,byzantine art--of which ,riegl thirty years ago noticed the 8latent ,saracenic character0 though he had no suspicion of the connexion brought to light here--the acanthus leaf was broken up into endless tendril-work which 7as in ,hagia ,sophia7 is disposed quite inorganically over whole surfaces4 ,to the ,classical motive are added the old-,araman vine and palm leaves1 which have already played a part in ,jewish ornamentation4 ,the interlaced borders of 8,late-,roman0 mosaic pavements and sarcophagus-edges1 and even geometrical plane-patterns are introduced1 and finally1 throughout the ,persian-,anatolian world1 mobility and bizarrerie culminate in the ,arabesque4 ,this is the genuine ,magian motive--anti-plastic to the last degree1 hostile to the pictorial and to the bodily alike4 ,itself bodiless1 it disembodies the object over which its endless richness of web is drawn4 ,a masterpiece of this kind--a piece of architecture completely opened out into ,ornamentation--is the faade of the ,castle of ,mashetta in ,moab built by the ,ghassanids4#bfh ,the craft-art of ,byzantine-,islamic style 7hitherto called ,lombard1 ,frankish1 ,celtic or ,old-,nordic7 which invaded the whole youthful ,west and dominated the ,carolingian ,empire1 was largely practised by ,oriental craftsmen or imported as patterns for our own weavers1 metal-workers and armourers4#bfi ,ravenna1 ,lucca1 ,venice1 ,granada1 ,palermo were the efficient centres of this then highly- civilized form-language2 in the year #ajjj1 when in the ,north the forms of a new ,culture were already being developed and established1 ,italy was still entirely dominated by it4 ,take1 lastly1 the changed point of view towards the human body4 ,with the victory of the ,arabian world-feeling1 men's conception of it underwent a complete revolution4 ,in almost every ,roman head of the period #ajj-bej that the ,vatican ,collection contains1 one may perceive the opposition of ,apollinian and ,magian feeling1 and of muscular position and 8look0 as different bases of expression4 ,even in ,rome itself1 since ,hadrian1 the sculptor made constant use of the drill1 an instrument which was wholly repugnant to the ,euclidean feeling towards stone--for whereas the chisel brings out the limiting surfaces and ipso facto affirms the corporeal and material nature of the marble block1 the drill1 in breaking the surfaces and creating effects of light and shade1 denies it2 and accordingly the sculptors1 be they ,christian or 8pagan10 lose the old feeling for the phenomenon of the naked body4 ,one has only to look at the shallow and empty ,antinous statues--and yet these were quite definitely 8,classical40 ,here it is only the head that is physiognomically of interest--as it never is in ,attic sculpture4 ,the drapery is given quite a new meaning1 and simply dominates the whole appearance4 ,the consul-statues in the ,capitoline ,museum#bgj are conspicuous examples4 ,the pupils are bored1 and the eyes look into the distance1 so that the whole expression of the work lies no longer in its body but in that ,magian principle of the 8,pneuma0 which ,neo-,platonism and the decisions of the ,church ,councils1 ,mithraism and ,mazdaism alike presume in man4 ,the pagan 8,father0 ,iamblichus1 about #cjj1 wrote a book concerning statues of gods in which the divine is substantially present and working upon the beholder4#bga ,against this idea of the image--an idea of the ,pseudomorphosis--the ,east and the ,south rose in a storm of iconoclasm2 and the sources of this iconoclasm lay in a conception of artistic creation that is nearly impossible for us to understand4 ----- ,footnote #bch3 ,h4 ,schfer1 ,von ,aegyptischer ,kunst1 ,i1 pp4 #ae et seq4 7,the bulls are shown in ,fig4 #ah in the article ,egypt in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,,xi ,edition1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #fe-ff4--,tr47 ,footnote #bci3 ,frankl1 ,baukunst des ,mittelalters 7#aiah71 pp4 #af et seq4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cfa et seq4 ,the lack of any vertical tendency in the ,russian life-feeling is perceptible also in the saga-figure of ,ilya ,murometz 7see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bca74 ,the ,russian has not the smallest relation with a ,father-,god4 ,his ethos is not a filial but purely a fraternal love1 radiating in all directions along the human plane4 ,christ1 even1 is conceived as a ,brother4 ,the ,faustian1 wholly vertical1 tendency to strive up to fulfilment is to the real ,russian an incomprehensible pretension4 ,the same absence of all vertical tendency is observable in ,russian ideas of the state and property4 ,footnote #bda3 ,the cemetery church of ,kishi has #bb4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,j4 ,grabar1 8,history of ,russian ,art0 7,russian1 #aiaa71 ,i-,,iii4 ,eliasberg1 ,russ4 ,baukunst 7#aibb71 ,introduction4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,the disposition of ,egyptian and that of ,western history are so clear as to admit of comparison being carried right down into the details1 and it would be well worth the expert's while to carry out such an investigation4 ,the ,fourth ,dynasty1 that of the strict ,pyramid style1 ,b4,c4 #bicj-bgej 7,cheops1 ,chephren71 corresponds to the ,romanesque 7#ihj- #aajj71 the ,fifth ,dynasty 7#bgej-bfbe1 ,sahu-r7 to the early ,gothic 7#aajj-abcj71 and the ,sixth ,dynasty1 prime of the archaic portraiture 7#bfbe-bdge1 ,phiops ,i and ,,ii71 to the mature ,gothic of #abcj-adjj4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,that which differentiates the ,japanese harakiri from this suicide is its intensely purposeful and 7so to put it7 active and demonstrative character4--,tr4 ,footnote #bde3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fbf4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,koldewey-,puchstein1 ,die griech4 ,tempel in ,unter-,italien und ,sizilien1 ,i1 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bdj et seq4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,stilfragen1 ,grundlage zu einer ,geschichte der ,ornamentik 7#ahic74 ,spatrmische ,kunstindustrie 7#aija74 ,footnote #bej3 ,amida 7#aiaj74 ,die bildende ,kunst des ,ostens 7#aiaf71 ,altai-,iran 7#aiag74 ,die ,baukunst der ,armenier und ,europa 7#aiah74 ,footnote #bea3 ,these contradictions of detail are not greater1 after all1 than those between ,doric1 ,attic and ,etruscan art1 and certainly less than those which existed about #adej between ,florentine ,renaissance1 ,north ,french1 ,spanish and ,east-,german 7brick7 ,gothic4 ,footnote #beb3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cjd et seq4 ,footnote #bec3 ,for a brief description of the components of a ,mithrum1 the student may be referred to the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,,xi ,edition1 art4 ,mithras 7,section ,,ii74--,tr4 ,footnote #bed3 ,the oldest ,christian designs in the ,empire of ,axum undoubtedly agree with the pagan work of the ,sabans4 ,footnote #bee3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #adc et seq4 ,footnote #bef3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #caf et seq4 ,footnote #beg3 ,kohl ,watzinger1 ,antike ,synagogen in ,galila 7#aiaf74 ,the ,baal- shrines in ,palmyra1 ,baalbek and many other localities are basilicas3 some of them are older than ,christianity and many of them were later taken over into ,christian use4 ,footnote #beh3 ,frauberger1 ,die ,akropolis von ,baalbek1 plate #bb4 7,see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,edition1 art4 8,baalbek10 for plan1 etc4--,tr47 ,footnote #bei3 ,diez1 ,die ,kunst der islamischen ,vlker1 pp4 #h et seq4 ,in old ,saban temples the altar-court 7mahdar7 is in front of the oracle chapel 7makanat74 ,footnote #bfj3 ,wulff1 ,altchristliche und byzantinische ,kunst1 p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,pliny records that this region was rich in temples4 ,it is probable that the type of the transept-basilica--i4e41 with the entrance in one of the long sides--which is found in ,hauran and is distinctly marked in the tranverse direction of the altar space of ,st4 ,paul ,without at ,rome1 is derived from a ,south ,arabian archetype4 7,for the ,hauran type of church see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,ed41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cij2 and for ,st4 ,paul ,without1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dgd4--,tr4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,neither technically nor in point of space-feeling has this piece of purely interior architecture any connexion whatever with ,etruscan round-buildings4 7,altmann1 ,die ital4 ,rundbauten1 #aijf47 ,with the cupolas of ,hadrian's ,villa at ,tibur 7,tivoli71 on the contrary1 its affinity is evident4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,probably synagogues of domical type reached these regions1 and also ,morocco1 long before ,islam1 through the missionary enterprise of ,mesopotamian ,judaism 7see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bec71 which was closely allied in matters of taste to ,persia4 ,the ,judaism of the ,pseudomorphosis1 on the contrary1 built basilicas2 its ,roman catacombs show that artistically it was entirely on a par with ,western ,christianity4 ,of the two1 it is the ,judo-,persian style coming from ,spain that has become the pattern for the synagogues of the ,west--a point that has hitherto entirely escaped the notice of art-research4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,generally called the 8,basilica of ,constantine40--,tr4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,the ,grail legend contains1 besides old ,celtic1 well-marked ,arabian elements2 but where ,wolfram von ,eschenbach goes beyond his model ,chrestien de ,troyes1 his ,parzival is entirely ,faustian4 7,see articles ,grail and ,perceval1 ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,ed47--,tr4 ,footnote #bff3 ,the relation of column and arch spiritually corresponds to that of wall and cupola1 and the interposition of the drum between the rectangle and the dome occurs 8simultaneously0 with that of the impost between the column and the arch4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,a4 ,riegl1 ,stilfragen 7#ahic71 pp4 #bdh et seq41 #bgb et seq4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,the ,ghassanid ,kingdom flourished in the extreme ,north-west of ,arabia during the sixth century of our reckoning4 ,its people were essentially ,arab1 and probably came from the south2 and an outlying cousinry inhabited ,medina in the time of the ,prophet4--,tr4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,dehio1 ,gesch4 der deutschen ,kunst1 ,i1 pp4 #af et seq4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,wulff1 ,altchristl4-byzant4 ,kunst1 pp4 #aec et seq4 ,footnote #bga3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cae1 ,geffcken1 ,der ,ausgang des griech-rm4 ,heidentums 7#aibj71 p4 #aac4 ----- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,vii ,,music ,,and ,,plastic ,i ,,the ,,arts ,,of ,,form ,,chapter ,,vii ,,music ,,and ,,plastic ,i ,,the ,,arts ,,of ,,form ,i ,the clearest type of symbolic expression that the world-feeling of higher mankind has found for itself is 7if we except the mathematical- scientific domain of presentation and the symbolism of its basic ideas7 that of the arts of form1#bgb of which the number is legion4 ,and with these arts we count music in its many and very dissimilar kinds2 had these been brought within the domain of art-historical research instead of being put in a class apart from that of the pictorial-plastic arts1 we should have progressed very much further in our understanding of the import of this evolution towards an end4 ,for the formative impulse that is at work in the wordless#bgc arts can never be understood until we come to regard the distinction between optical and acoustic means as only a superficial one4 ,to talk of the art of the eye and the art of the ear takes us no further4 ,it is not such things that divide one art from another4 ,only the #aith ,century could so over-estimate the influence of physiological conditions as to apply it to expression1 conception or communion4 ,a 8singing0 picture of ,claude ,lorrain or of ,watteau does not really address itself to the bodily eye any more than the space- straining music since ,bach addresses itself to the bodily ear4 ,the ,classical relation between art-work and sense-organ--of which we so often and so erroneously remind ourselves here--is something quite different from1 something far simpler and more material than ours4 ,we read 8,othello0 and 8,faust0 and we study orchestral scores--that is1 we change one sense-agency for another in order to let the undiluted spirit of these works take effect upon us4 ,here there is always an appeal from the outer senses to the 8inner10 to the truly ,faustian and wholly un- ,classical power of imagination4 ,only thus can we understand ,shakespeare's ceaseless change of scene as against the ,classical unity of place4 ,in extreme cases indeed1 for instance in that of 8,faust0 itself1 no representation of the work 7that is1 of its full content7 is physically possible4 ,but in music too--in the unaccompanied 8,a capella0 of the ,palestrina style as well as a fortiori in the ,passions of ,heinrich ,schtz1 in the fugues of ,bach1 in the last quartets of ,beethoven1 and in 8,tristan0--we livingly experience behind the sensuous impressions a whole world of others4 ,and it is only through these latter that all the fullness and depth of the work begins to be present to us1 and it is only mediately--through the images of blond1 brown1 dusky and golden colours1 of sunsets and distant ranked mountain-summits1 of storms and spring landscapes1 of foundered cities and strange faces which harmony conjures up for us--that it tells us something of itself4 ,it is not an incident that ,beethoven wrote his last works when he was deaf--deafness merely released him from the last fetters4 ,for this music1 sight and hearing equally are bridges into the soul and nothing more4 ,to the ,greek this visionary kind of artistic enjoyment was utterly alien4 ,he felt the marble with his eye1 and the thick tones of an aulos moved him almost corporally4 ,for him1 eye and ear are the receivers of the whole of the impression that he wished to receive4 ,but for us this had ceased to be true even at the stage of ,gothic4 ,in the actual1 tones are something extended1 limited and numerable just as lines and colours are2 harmony1 melody1 rhyme and rhythm no less so than perspective1 proportion1 chiaroscuro and outline4 ,the distance separating two kinds of painting can be infinitely greater than that separating the painting and the music of a period4 ,considered in relation to a statue of ,myron1 the art of a ,poussin landscape is the same as that of a contemporary chamber-cantata2 that of ,rembrandt as that of the organ works of ,buxtehude1 ,pachelbel and ,bach2 that of ,guardi as that of the ,mozart opera--the inner form-language is so nearly identical that the difference between optical and acoustic means is negligible4 ,the importance which the 8science of art0 has always attached to a timeless and conceptual delimitation of the individual art-spheres only proves that the fundamentals of the problem have not been attacked4 ,arts are living units1 and the living is incapable of being dissected4 ,the first act of the learned pedant has always been to partition the infinitely wide domain into provinces determined by perfectly superficial criteria of medium and technique and to endow these provinces with eternal validity and immutable 767 form-principles4 ,thus he separated 8,music0 and 8,painting10 8,music0 and 8,drama10 8,painting0 and 8,sculpture40 ,and then he proceeded to define 8the0 art of ,painting1 8the0 art of ,sculpture1 and so on4 ,but in fact the technical form- language is no more than the mask of the real work4 ,style is not what the shallow ,semper--worthy contemporary of ,darwin and materialism-- supposed it to be1 the product of material1 technique1 and purpose4 ,it is the very opposite of this1 something inaccessible to art-reason1 a revelation of the metaphysical order1 a mysterious 8must10 a ,destiny4 ,with the material boundaries of the different arts it has no concern whatever4 ,to classify the arts according to the character of the sense-impression1 then1 is to pervert the problem of form in its very enunciation4 ,for how is it possible to predicate a genus 8,sculpture0 of so general a character as to admit of general laws being evolved from it8 ,what is 8,sculpture80 ,take painting again4 ,there is no such thing as 8the0 art of ,painting1 and anyone who compares a drawing of ,raphael1 effected by outline1 with one of ,titian1 effected by flecks of light and shade1 without feeling that they belong to two different arts2 any one who does not realize a dissimilarity of essence between the works of ,giotto or ,mantegna--relief1 created by brushstroke--and those of ,vermeer or ,goya--music1 created on coloured canvas--such a one will never grasp the deeper questions4 ,as for the frescoes of ,polygnotus and the mosaics of ,ravenna1 there is not even the similarity of technical means to bring them within the alleged genus1 and what is there in common between an etching and the art of ,fra ,angelico1 or a proto-,corinthian vase-painting and a ,gothic cathedral- window1 or the reliefs of ,egypt and those of the ,parthenon8 ,if an art has boundaries at all--boundaries of its soul-become-form--they are historical and not technical or physiological boundaries4#bgd ,an art is an organism1 not a system4 ,there is no art-genus that runs through all the centuries and all the ,cultures4 ,even where 7as in the case of the ,renaissance7 supposed technical traditions momentarily deceive us into a belief in the eternal validity of antique art-laws1 there is at bottom entire discrepance4 ,there is nothing in ,greek and ,roman art that stands in any relation whatever to the form-language of a ,donatello statue or a painting of ,signorelli or a faade of ,michelangelo4 ,inwardly1 the ,quattrocento is related to the contemporary ,gothic and to nothing else4 ,the fact of the archaic ,greek ,apollo-type being 8influenced0 by ,egyptian portraiture1 or early ,tuscan representation by ,etruscan tomb-painting1 implies precisely what is implied by that of ,bach's writing a fugue upon an alien theme--he shows what he can express with it4 ,every individual art--,chinese landscape or ,egyptian plastic or ,gothic counterpoint--is once existent1 and departs with its soul and its symbolism never to return4 ,,ii ,with this1 the notion of ,form opens out immensely4 ,not only the technical instrument1 not only the form-language1 but also the choice of art-genus itself is seen to be an expression-means4 ,what the creation of a masterpiece means for an individual artist--the 8,night ,watch0 for ,rembrandt or the 8,meistersinger0 for ,wagner--that the creation of a species of art1 comprehended as such1 means for the life-history of a ,culture4 ,it is epochal4 ,apart from the merest externals1 each such art is an individual organism without predecessor or successor4 ,its theory1 technique and convention all belong to its character1 and contain nothing of eternal or universal validity4 ,when one of these arts is born1 when it is spent1 whether it dies or is transmuted into another1 why this or that art is dominant in or absent from a particular ,culture--all these are questions of ,form in the highest sense1 just as is that other question of why individual painters and musicians unconsciously avoid certain shades and harmonies or1 on the contrary1 show preferences so marked that authorship-attributions can be based on them4 ,the importance of these groups of questions has not yet been recognized by theory1 even by that of the present day4 ,and yet it is precisely from this side1 the side of their physiognomic1 that the arts are accessible to the understanding4 ,hitherto it has been supposed--without the slightest examination of the weighty questions that the supposition involves--that the several 8arts0 specified in the conventional classification-scheme 7the validity of which is assumed7 are all possible at all times and places1 and the absence of one or another of them in particular cases is attributed to the accidental lack of creative personalities or impelling circumstances or discriminating patrons to guide 8art0 on its 8way40 ,here we have what ,i call a transference of the causality-principle from the world of the become to that of the becoming4 ,having no eye for the perfectly different logic and necessity of the ,living1 for ,destiny and the inevitableness and unique occurrence of its expression-possibilities1 men had recourse to tangible and obvious 8causes0 for the building of their art-history1 which thus came to consist of a series of events of only superficial concordance4 ,i have already1 in the earliest pages of this work1 exposed the shallowness of the notion of a linear progression of 8mankind0 through the stages of 8ancient10 8medival0 and 8modern10 a notion that has made us blind to the true history and structure of higher ,cultures4 ,the history of art is a conspicuous case in point4 ,having assumed as self- evident the existence of a number of constant and well-defined provinces of art1 one proceeded to order the history of these several provinces according to the--equally self-evident--scheme of ancient-medival-modern1 to the exclusion1 of course1 of ,indian and ,east-,asiatic art1 of the art of ,axum and ,saba1 of the ,sassanids and of ,russia1 which if not omitted altogether were at best relegated to appendices4 ,it occurred to no one that such results argued unsoundness in the method2 the scheme was there1 demanded facts1 and must at any price be fed with them4 ,and so a futile up-and-down course was stolidly traced out4 ,static times were described as 8natural pauses10 it was called 8decline0 when some great art in reality died1 and 8renaissance0 where an eye really free from prepossessions would have seen another art being born in another landscape to express another humanity4 ,even to-day we are still taught that the ,renaissance was a rebirth of the ,classical4 ,and the conclusion was drawn that it is possible and right to take up arts that are found weak or even dead 7in this respect the present is a veritable battle- field7 and set them going again by conscious reformation-program or forced 8revival40 ,and yet it is precisely in this problem of the end1 the impressively sudden end1 of a great art--the end of the ,attic drama in ,euripides1 of ,florentine sculpture with ,michelangelo1 of instrumental music in ,liszt1 ,wagner and ,bruckner--that the organic character of these arts is most evident4 ,if we look closely enough we shall have no difficulty in convincing ourselves that no one art of any greatness has ever been 8reborn40 ,of the ,pyramid style nothing passed over into the ,doric4 ,nothing connects the ,classical temple with the basilica of the ,middle ,east1 for the mere taking over of the ,classical column as a structural member1 though to a superficial observer it seems a fact of the first importance1 weighs no more in reality than ,goethe's employment of the old mythology in the 8,classical ,walpurgis ,night0 scene of 8,faust40 ,to believe genuinely in a rebirth of ,classical art1 or any ,classical art1 in the ,western #aeth ,century requires a rare stretch of the imagination4 ,and that a great art may die not merely with the ,culture but within it1 we may see from the fate of music in the ,classical world4#bge ,possibilities of great music there must have been in the ,doric springtime--how otherwise can we account for the importance of old- fashioned ,sparta in the eyes of such musicians as there were later 7for ,terpander1 ,thaletas and ,alcman were effective there when elsewhere the statuary art was merely infantile78--and yet the ,late-,classical world refrained4 ,in just the same fashion everything that the ,magian ,culture had attempted in the way of frontal portraiture1 deep relief and mosaic finally succumbed before the ,arabesque2 and everything of the plastic that had sprung up in the shade of ,gothic cathedrals at ,chartres1 ,reims1 ,bamberg1 ,naumburg1 in the ,nrnberg of ,peter ,vischer and the ,florence of ,verrocchio1 vanished before the oil-painting of ,venice and the instrumental music of the ,baroque4 ,,iii ,the temple of ,poseidon at ,pstum and the ,minster of ,ulm1 works of the ripest ,doric and the ripest ,gothic1 differ precisely as the ,euclidean geometry of bodily bounding-surfaces differs from the analytical geometry of the position of points in space referred to spatial axes4 ,all ,classical building begins from the outside1 all ,western from the inside4 ,the ,arabian also begins with the inside1 but it stays there4 ,there is one and only one soul1 the ,faustian1 that craves for a style which drives through walls into the limitless universe of space and makes both the exterior and the interior of the building complementary images of one and the same world-feeling4 ,the exterior of the basilica and the domical building may be a field for ornamentation1 but architecture it is not4 ,the impression that meets the beholder as he approaches is that of something shielding1 something that hides a secret4 ,the form-language in the cavern-twilight exists for the faithful only--that is the factor common to the highest examples of the style and to the simplest ,mithra and ,catacombs1 the prime powerful utterance of a new soul4 ,now1 as soon as the ,germanic spirit takes possession of the basilical type1 there begins a wondrous mutation of all structural parts1 as to both position and significance4 ,here in the ,faustian ,north the outer form of the building1 be it cathedral or mere dwelling-house1 begins to be brought into relation with the meaning that governs the arrangement of the interior1 a meaning undisclosed in the mosque and non-existent in the temple4 ,the ,faustian building has a visage and not merely a faade 7whereas the front of a peripteros is1 after all1 only one of four sides and the centre-domed building in principle has not even a front7 and with this visage1 this head1 is associated an articulated trunk that draws itself out through the broad plain like the cathedral at ,speyer1 or erects itself to the heavens like the innumerable spires of the original design of ,reims4 ,the motive of the faade1 which greets the beholder and tells him the inner meaning of the house1 dominates not only individual major buildings but also the whole aspect of our streets1 squares and towns with their characteristic wealth of windows4#bgf ,the great architecture of the early period is ever the mother of all following arts2 it determines the choice of them and the spirit of them4 ,accordingly1 we find that the history of the ,classical shaping art is one untiring effort to accomplish one single ideal1 viz41 the conquest of the free-standing human body as the vessel of the pure real present4 ,the temple of the naked body was to it what the cathedral of voices was to the ,faustian from earliest counterpoint to the orchestral writing of the #ahth ,century4 ,we have failed hitherto to understand the emotional force of this secular tendency of the ,apollinian1 because we have not felt how the purely material1 soulless body 7for the ,temple of the ,body1 too1 has no interior67 is the object which archaic relief1 ,corinthian painting on clay1 and ,attic fresco were all striving to obtain until ,polycletus and ,phidias showed how to achieve it in full4 ,we have1 with a wonderful blindness1 assumed this kind of sculpture as both authoritative and universally possible1 as in fact1 8the art of sculpture40 ,we have written its history as one concerned with all peoples and periods1 and even to-day our sculptors1 under the influence of unproved ,renaissance doctrines1 speak of the naked human body as the noblest and most genuine object of 8the0 art of sculpture4 ,yet in reality this statue-art1 the art of the naked body standing free upon its footing and appreciable from all sides alike1 existed in the ,classical and the ,classical only1 for it was that ,culture alone which quite decisively refused to transcend sense-limits in favour of space4 ,the ,egyptian statue is always meant to be seen from the front--it is a variant of plane-relief4 ,and the seemingly ,classically-conceived statues of the ,renaissance 7we are astounded1 as soon as it occurs to us to count them1 to find how few of them there are#bgg7 are nothing but a semi-,gothic reminiscence4 ,the evolution of this rigorously non-spatial art occupies the three centuries from #fej to #cej1 a period extending from the completion of the ,doric and the simultaneous appearance of a tendency to free the figures from the ,egyptian limitation of frontalness#bgh to the coming of the ,hellenistic and its illusion-painting which closed-off the grand style4 ,this sculpture will never be rightly appreciated until it is regarded as the last and highest ,classical1 as springing from a plane art1 first obeying and then overcoming the fresco4 ,no doubt the technical origin can be traced to experiments in figure-wise treatment of the pristine column1 or the plates that served to cover the temple wall1#bgi and no doubt there are here and there imitations of ,egyptian works 7seated figures of ,miletus71 although very few ,greek artists can ever have seen one4#bhj ,but as a form-ideal the statue goes back through relief to the archaic clay-painting in which fresco also originated4 ,relief1 like fresco1 is tied to the bodily wall4 ,all this sculpture right down to ,myron may be considered as relief detached from the plane4 ,in the end1 the figure is treated as a self-contained body apart from the mass of the building1 but it remains essentially a silhouette in front of a wall4#bha ,direction in depth is excluded1 and the work is spread out frontally before the beholder4 ,even the ,marsyas of ,myron can be copied upon vases or coins without much trouble or appreciable foreshortenings4#bhb ,consequently1 of the two major 8late0 arts after #fej1 fresco definitely has the priority4 ,the small stock of types is always to be found first in vase-figuring1 which is often exactly paralleled by quite late sculptures4 ,we know that the ,centaur group of the ,west pediment at ,olympia was worked out from a painting4 ,on the gina temple1 the advance from the ,west to the ,east pediment is an advance from the fresco-character to the body-character4 ,the change is completed about #dfj with ,polycletus1 and thenceforward plastic groups become the model for strict painting4 ,but it is from ,lysippus that the wholly cubic and 8all-ways0 treatment becomes thoroughly veristic and yields 8fact40 ,till then1 even in the case of ,praxiteles1 we have still a lateral or planar development of the subject1 with a clear outline that is only fully effective in respect of one or two standpoints4 ,but an undeviating testimony to the picture-origin of independent sculpture is the practice of polychroming the marble--a practice unknown to the ,renaissance and to ,classicism1 which would have felt it as barbaric#bhc--;and we may say the same of the gold-and-ivory statuary and the enamel overlaying of bronze1 a metal which already possesses a shining golden tone of its own4 ,,iv ,the corresponding stage of ,western art occupies the three centuries #aejj-ahjj1 between the end of late ,gothic and the decay of ,rococo which marks the end of the great ,faustian style4 ,in this period1 conformably to the persistent growth into consciousness of the will to spatial transcendence1 it is instrumental music that develops into the ruling art4 ,at the beginning1 in the #agth ,century1 music uses the characteristic tone-colours of the instruments1 and the contrasts of strings and wind1 human voices and instrumental voices1 as means wherewith to paint4 ,its 7quite unconscious7 ambition is to parallel the great masters from ,titian to ,velasquez and ,rembrandt4 ,it makes pictures 7in the sonata from ,gabrieli d4 #afab4 to ,corelli d4 #agac every movement shows a theme embellished with graces and set upon the background of a basso continuo71 paints heroic landscapes 7in the pastoral cantata71 and draws a portrait in lines of melody 7in ,monteverde's 8,lament of ,ariadne10 #afjh74 ,with the ,german masters1 all this goes4 ,painting can take music no further4 ,music becomes itself absolute3 it is music that 7quite unconsciously again7 dominates both painting and architecture in the #ahth ,century4 ,and1 ever more and more decisively1 sculpture fades out from among the deeper possibilities of this form-world4 ,what distinguishes painting as it was before1 from painting as it was after1 the shift from ,florence to ,venice--or1 to put it more definitely1 what separates the painting of ,raphael and that of ,titian as two entirely distinct arts--is that the plastic spirit of the one associates painting with relief1 while the musical spirit of the other works in a technique of visible brush-strokes and atmospheric depth-effects that is akin to the chromatic of string and wind choruses4 ,it is an opposition and not a transition that we have before us1 and the recognition of the fact is vital to our understanding of the organism of these arts4 ,here1 if anywhere1 we have to guard against the abstract hypothesis of 8eternal art-laws40 8,painting0 is a mere word4 ,gothic glass-painting was an element of ,gothic architecture1 the servant of its strict symbolism just as the ,egyptian and the ,arabian and every other art in this stage was the servant of the stone-language4 ,draped figures were built up as cathedrals were4 ,their folds were an ornamentation of extreme sincerity and severe expressiveness4 ,to criticize their 8stiffness0 from a naturalistic-imitative point of view is to miss the point entirely4 ,similarly 8music0 is a mere word4 ,some music there has been everywhere and always1 even before any genuine ,culture1 even among the beasts4 ,but the serious music of the ,classical was nothing but a plastic for the ear4 ,the tetrachords1 chromatic and enharmonic1 have a structural and not a harmonic meaning3#bhd but this is the very difference between body and space4 ,this music was single-voiced4 ,the few instruments that it employed were all developed in respect of capacity for tone-plastic2 and naturally therefore it rejected the ,egyptian harp1 an instrument that was probably akin in tone-colour to the harpsichord4 ,but1 above all1 the melody--like ,classical verse from ,homer to ,hadrian's time--was treated quantitatively and not accentually2 that is1 the syllables1 their bodies and their extent1 decided the rhythm4 ,the few fragments that remain suffice to show us that the sensuous charm of this art is something outside our comprehension2 but this very fact should cause us also to reconsider our ideas as to the impressions purposed and achieved by the statuary and the fresco1 for we do not and cannot experience the charm that these exercised upon the ,greek eye4 ,equally incomprehensible to us is ,chinese music3 in which1 according to educated ,chinese1 we are never able to distinguish gay from grave4#bhe ,vice versa1 to the ,chinese all the music of the ,west without distinction is march-music4 ,such is the impression that the rhythmic dynamic of our life makes upon the accentless ,tao of the ,chinese soul1 and1 indeed1 the impression that our entire ,culture makes upon an alien humanity--the directional energy of our church-naves and our storeyed faades1 the depth-perspectives of our pictures1 the march of our tragedy and narrative1 not to mention our technics and the whole course of our private and public life4 ,we ourselves have accent in our blood and therefore do not notice it4 ,but when our rhythm is juxtaposed with that of an alien life1 we find the discordance intolerable4 ,arabian music1 again1 is quite another world4 ,hitherto we have only observed it through the medium of the ,pseudomorphosis1 as represented by ,byzantine hymns and ,jewish psalmody1 and even these we know only in so far as they have penetrated to the churches of the far ,west as antiphons1 responsorial psalmody and ,ambrosian chants4#bhf ,but it is self-evident that not only the religious west of ,edessa 7the syncretic cults1 especially ,syrian sun-worship1 the ,gnostic and the ,mandan7 but also those to the east 7,mazdaists1 ,manichans1 ,mithraists1 the synagogues of ,irak and in due course the ,nestorian ,christians7 must have possessed a sacred music of the same style2 that side by side with this a gay secular music developed 7above all1 amongst the ,south-,arabian and ,sassanid chivalry#bhg72 and that both found their culmination in the ,moorish style that reigned from ,spain to ,persia4 ,out of all this wealth1 the ,faustian soul borrowed only some few church- forms and1 moreover1 in borrowing them1 it instantly transformed them root and branch 7#ajth ,century1 ,hucbald1 ,guido d',arezzo74 ,melodic accent and beat produced the 8march10 and polyphony 7like the rime of contemporary poetry7 the image of endless space4 ,to understand this1 we have to distinguish between the imitative#bhh and the ornamental sides of music1 and although owing to the fleeting nature of all tone- creations#bhi our knowledge is limited to the musical history of our own ,west1 yet this is quite sufficient to reveal that duality of development which is one of the master-keys of all art-history4 ,the one is soul1 landscape1 feeling1 the other strict form1 style1 school4 ,west ,europe has an ornamental music of the grand style 7corresponding to the full plastic of the ,classical7 which is associated with the architectural history of the cathedral1 which is closely akin to ,scholasticism and ,mysticism1 and which finds its laws in the motherland of high ,gothic between ,seine and ,scheldt4 ,counterpoint developed simultaneously with the flying-buttress system1 and its source was the 8,romanesque0 style of the ,fauxbourdon and the ,discant with their simple parallel and contrary motion4#bij ,it is an architecture of human voices and1 like the statuary-group and the glass-paintings1 is only conceivable in the setting of these stone vaultings4 ,with them it is a high art of space1 of that space to which ,nicolas of ,oresme1 ,bishop of ,lisieux1 gave mathematical meaning by the introduction of co- ordinates4#bia ,this is the genuine 8rinascita0 and 8reformatio0 as ,joachim of ,floris saw it at the end of the #abth ,century#bib--the birth of a new soul mirrored in the form-language of a new art4 ,along with this there came into being in castle and village a secular imitative music1 that of troubadours1 ,minnesnger and minstrels4 ,as 8ars nova0 this travelled from the courts of ,provence to the palaces of ,tuscan patricians about #acjj1 the time of ,dante and ,petrarch4 ,it consisted of simple melodies that appealed to the heart with their major and minor1 of canzoni1 madrigals and caccias1 and it included also a type of galante operetta 7,adam de la ,hale's 8,robin and ,marion074 ,after #adjj1 these forms give rise to forms of collective singing--the rondeau and the ballade4 ,all this is 8art0 for a public4#bic ,scenes are painted from life1 scenes of love1 hunting1 chivalry4 ,the point of it is in the melodic inventiveness1 instead of in the symbolism of its linear progress4 ,thus1 musically as otherwise1 the castle and the cathedral are distinct4 ,the cathedral is music and the castle makes music4 ,the one begins with theory1 the other with impromptu3 it is the distinction between waking consciousness and living existence1 between the spiritual and the knightly singer4 ,imitation stands nearest to life and direction and therefore begins with melody1 while the symbolism of counterpoint belongs to extension and through polyphony signifies infinite space4 ,the result was1 on the one side1 a store of 8eternal0 rules and1 on the other1 an inexhaustible fund of folk-melodies on which even the #ahth ,century was still drawing4 ,the same contrast reveals itself1 artistically1 in the class-opposition of ,renaissance and ,reformation4#bid ,the courtly taste of ,florence was antipathetic to the spirit of counterpoint2 the evolution of strict musical form from the ,motet to the four-voice ,mass through ,dunstaple1 ,binchois and ,dufay 7c4 #adcj7 proceeded wholly within the magic circle of ,gothic architecture4 ,from ,fra ,angelico to ,michelangelo the great ,netherlanders ruled alone in ornamental music4 ,lorenzo de' ,medici found no one in ,florence who understood the strict style1 and had to send for ,dufay4 ,and while in this region ,leonardo and ,raphael were painting1 in the north ,okeghem 7d4 #adie7 and his school and ,josquin des ,prs 7d4 #aeba7 brought the formal polyphony of human voices to the height of fulfilment4 ,the transition into the 8,late0 age was heralded in ,rome and ,venice4 ,with ,baroque the leadership in music passes to ,italy4 ,but at the same time architecture ceases to be the ruling art and there is formed a group of ,faustian special-arts in which oil-painting occupies the central place4 ,about #aefj the empire of the human voice comes to an end in the a cappella style of ,palestrina and ,orlando ,lasso 7both d4 #aeid74 ,its powers could no longer express the passionate drive into the infinite1 and it made way for the chorus of instruments1 wind and string4 ,and thereupon ,venice produced ,titian-music1 the new madrigal that in its flow and ebb follows the sense of the text4 ,the music of the ,gothic is architectural and vocal1 that of the ,baroque pictorial and instrumental4 ,the one builds1 the other operates by means of motives4 ,for all the arts have become urban and therefore secular4 ,we pass from super-personal ,form to the personal expression of the ,master1 and shortly before #afjj ,italy produces the basso continuo which requires virtuosi and not pious participants4 ,thenceforward1 the great task was to extend the tone-corpus into the infinity1 or rather to resolve it into an infinite space of tone4 ,gothic had developed the instruments into families of definite timbre4 ,but the new-born 8orchestra0 no longer observes limitations imposed by the human voice1 but treats it as a voice to be combined with other voices--at the same moment as our mathematic proceeds from the geometrical analysis of ,fermat to the purely functional analysis of ,descartes4#bie ,in ,zarlino's 8,harmony0 7#aeeh7 appears a genuine perspective of pure tonal space4 ,we begin to distinguish between ornamental and fundamental instruments4 ,melody and embellishment join to produce the ,motive1 and this in development leads to the rebirth of counterpoint in the form of the fugal style1 of which ,frescobaldi was the first master and ,bach the culmination4 ,to the vocal masses and motets the ,baroque opposes its grand1 orchestrally-conceived forms of the oratorio 7,carissimi71 the cantata 7,viadana7 and the opera 7,monteverde74 ,whether a bass melody be set against upper voices1 or upper voices be concerted against one another upon a background of basso continuo1 always sound-worlds of characteristic expression- quality work reciprocally upon one another in the infinity of tonal space1 supporting1 intensifying1 raising1 illuminating1 threatening1 overshadowing--a music all of interplay1 scarcely intelligible save through ideas of contemporary ,analysis4 ,from out of these forms of the early ,baroque there proceeded1 in the #agth ,century1 the sonata-like forms of suite1 symphony and concerto grosso4 ,the inner structure and the sequence of movements1 the thematic working-out and modulation became more and more firmly established4 ,and thus was reached the great1 immensely dynamic1 form in which music--now completely bodiless--was raised by ,corelli and ,handel and ,bach to be the ruling art of the ,west4 ,when ,newton and ,leibniz1 about #afgj1 discovered the ,infinitesimal ,calculus1 the fugal style was fulfilled4 ,and when1 about #agdj1 ,euler began the definitive formulation of functional ,analysis1 ,stamitz and his generation were discovering the last and ripest form of musical ornamentation1 the four-part movement#bif as vehicle of pure and unlimited motion4 ,for1 at that time1 there was still this one step to be taken4 ,the theme of the fugue 8is10 that of the new sonata-movement 8becomes10 and the issue of its working out is in the one case a picture1 in the other a drama4 ,instead of a series of pictures we get a cyclic succession1#big and the real source of this tone-language was in the possibilities1 realized at last1 of our deepest and most intimate kind of music--the music of the strings4 ,certain it is that the violin is the noblest of all instruments that the ,faustian soul has imagined and trained for the expression of its last secrets1 and certain it is1 too1 that it is in string quartets and violin sonatas that it has experienced its most transcendent and most holy moments of full illumination4 ,here1 in chamber-music1 ,western art as a whole reaches its highest point4 ,here our prime symbol of endless space is expressed as completely as the ,spearman of ,polycletus expresses that of intense bodiliness4 ,when one of those ineffably yearning violin-melodies wanders through the spaces expanded around it by the orchestration of ,tartini or ,nardini1 ,haydn1 ,mozart or ,beethoven1 we know ourselves in the presence of an art beside which that of the ,acropolis is alone worthy to be set4 ,with this1 the ,faustian music becomes dominant among the ,faustian arts4 ,it banishes the plastic of the statue and tolerates only the minor art-- an entirely musical1 refined1 un-,classical and counter-,renaissance art-- of porcelain1 which 7as a discovery of the ,west7 is contemporary with the rise of chamber-music to full effectiveness4 ,whereas the statuary of ,gothic is through-and-through architectural ornamentation1 human espalier-work1 that of the ,rococo remarkably exemplifies the pseudo- plastic that results from entire subjection to the form-language of music1 and shows to what a degree the technique governing the presented foreground can be in contradiction with the real expression-language that is hidden behind it4 ,compare ,coysevox's#bih 7#afhf7 crouching ,venus in the ,louvre with its ,classical prototype in the ,vatican--in the one plastic is understudying music1 in the other plastic is itself4 ,terms like 8staccato10 8accelerando10 8andante0 and 8allegro0 best describe the kind of movements that we have here1 the flow of the lines1 the fluidity in the being of the stone itself which like the porcelain has more or less lost its fine compactness4 ,hence our feeling that the granular marble is out of keeping4 ,hence1 too1 the wholly un-,classical tendency to work with reference to effects of light and shade4 ,this is quite in conformity with the principles of oil-painting from ,titian onwards4 ,that which in the #ahth ,century is called 8colour0 in an etching1 a drawing1 or a sculpture-group really signifies music4 ,music dominates the painting of ,watteau and ,fragonard and the art of ,gobelins and pastels1 and since then1 have we not acquired the habit of speaking of colour-tones or tone-colours8 ,and do not the very words imply a recognition of a final homogeneity between the two arts1 superficially dissimilar as they are8 ,and are not these same words perfectly meaningless as applied to any and every ,classical art8 ,but music did not stop there2 it transmuted also the architecture of ,bernini's ,baroque into accord with its own spirit1 and made of it ,rococo1 a style of transcendent ornamentation upon which lights 7or rather 8tones07 play to dissolve ceilings1 walls and everything else constructional and actual into polyphonies and harmonies1 with architectural trills and cadences and runs to complete the identification of the form-language of these halls and galleries with that of the music imagined for them4 ,dresden and ,vienna are the homes of this late and soon-extinguished fairyland of visible chamber music1 of curved furniture and mirror-halls1 and shepherdesses in verse and porcelain4 ,it is the final brilliant autumn with which the ,western soul completes the expression of its high style4 ,and in the ,vienna of the ,congress-time it faded and died4 ,v ,the ,art of the ,renaissance1 considered from this particular one of its many aspects1#bii is a revolt against the spirit of the ,faustian forest-music of counterpoint1 which at that time was preparing to vassalize the whole form-language of the ,western ,culture4 ,it was the logical consequence of the open assertion of this will in matured ,gothic4 ,it never disavowed its origin and it maintained the character of a simple counter-movement2 necessarily therefore it remained dependent upon the forms of the original movement1 and represented simply the effect of these upon a hesitant soul4 ,hence1 it was without true depth1 either ideal or phenomenal4 ,as to the first1 we have only to think of the bursting passion with which the ,gothic world-feeling discharged itself upon the whole ,western landscape1 and we shall see at once what sort of a movement it was that the handful of select spirits--scholars1 artists and humanists--initiated about #adbj4cjj ,in the first the issue was one of life and death for a new-born soul1 in the second it was a point of--taste4 ,the ,gothic gripped life in its entirety1 penetrated its most hidden corners4 ,it created new men and a new world4 ,from the idea of ,catholicism to the state-theory of the ,holy ,roman ,emperors1 from the knightly tourney to the new city-form1 from cathedral to cottage1 from language-building to the village maiden's bridal attire1 from oil- painting to the ,spielmann's song1 everything is hall-marked with the stamp of one and the same symbolism4 ,but the ,renaissance1 when it had mastered some arts of word and picture1 had shot its bolt4 ,it altered the ways of thought and the life-feeling of ,west ,europe not one whit4 ,it could penetrate as far as costume and gesture1 but the roots of life it could not touch--even in ,italy the world-outlook of the ,baroque is essentially a continuation of the ,gothic4#cja ,it produced no wholly great personality between ,dante and ,michelangelo1 each of whom had one foot outside its limits4 ,and as for the other--phenomenal or manifested depth--the ,renaissance never touched the people1 even in ,florence itself4 ,the man for whom they had ears was ,savonarola--a phenomenon of quite another spiritual order and one which begins to be comprehensible when we discern the fact that1 all the time1 the deep under-currents are steadily flowing on towards the ,gothic-musical ,baroque4 ,the ,renaissance as an anti-,gothic movement and a reaction against the spirit of polyphonic music has its ,classical equivalent in the ,dionysiac movement4 ,this was a reaction against ,doric and against the sculptural-,apollinian world-feeling4 ,it did not 8originate0 in the ,thracian ,dionysus-cult1 but merely took this up as a weapon against and counter-symbol to the ,olympian religion1 precisely as in ,florence the cult of the antique was called in for the justification and confirmation of a feeling already there4 ,the period of the great protest was the #gth ,century in ,greece and 7therefore7 the #aeth in ,west ,europe4 ,in both cases we have in reality an outbreak of deep-seated discordances in the ,culture1 which physiognomically dominates a whole epoch of its history and especially of its artistic world--in other words1 a stand that the soul attempts to make against the ,destiny that at last it comprehends4 ,the inwardly recalcitrant forces--,faust's second ,soul that would separate itself from the other--are striving to deflect the sense of the ,culture1 to repudiate1 to get rid of or to evade its inexorable necessity2 it stands anxious in presence of the call to accomplish its historical fate in ,ionic and ,baroque4 ,this anxiety fastened itself in ,greece to the ,dionysus-cult with its musical1 dematerializing1 body-squandering orgasm1 and in the ,renaissance to the tradition of the ,antique and its cult of the bodily-plastic tradition4 ,in each case1 the alien expression-means was brought in consciously and deliberately1 in order that the force of a directly-opposite form-language should provide the suppressed feelings with a weight and a pathos of their own1 and so enable them to stand against the stream--in ,greece the stream which flowed from ,homer and the ,geometrical to ,phidias1 in the ,west that which flowed from the ,gothic cathedrals1 through ,rembrandt1 to ,beethoven4 ,it follows from the very character of a counter-movement that it is far easier for it to define what it is opposing than what it is aiming at4 ,this is the difficulty of all ,renaissance research4 ,in the ,gothic 7and the ,doric7 it is just the opposite--men are contending for something1 not against it--but ,renaissance art is nothing more nor less than anti- ,gothic art4 ,renaissance music1 too1 is a contradiction in itself2 the music of the ,medicean court was the ,southern ,french 8ars nova10 that of the ,florentine ,duomo was the ,low-,german counterpoint1 both alike essentially ,gothic and the property of the whole ,west4 ,the view that is customarily taken of the ,renaissance is a very clear instance of how readily the proclaimed intentions of a movement may be mistaken for its deeper meaning4 ,since ,burckhardt1#cjb criticism has controverted every individual proposition that the leading spirits of the age put forward as to their own tendencies--and yet1 this done1 it has continued to use the word ,renaissance substantially in the former sense4 ,certainly1 one is conscious at once in passing to the south of the ,alps of a marked dissimilarity in architecture in particular and in the look of the arts in general4 ,but the very obviousness of the conclusion that the impression prompts should have led us to distrust it and to ask ourselves1 instead1 whether the supposed distinction of ,gothic and 8antique0 was not in reality merely a difference between ,northern and ,southern aspects of one and the same form-world4 ,plenty of things in ,spain give the impression of being 8,classical0 merely because they are ,southern1 and if a layman were confronted with the great cloister of ,s4 ,maria ,novella or the faade of the ,palazzo ,strozzi in ,florence and asked to say if these were 8,gothic0 he would certainly guess wrong4 ,otherwise1 the sharp change of spirit ought to have set in not beyond the ,alps but only beyond the ,apennines1 for ,tuscany is artistically an island in ,italian ,italy4 ,upper ,italy belongs entirely to a ,byzantine-tinted ,gothic2 ,siena in particular is a genuine monument of the counter-,renaissance1 and ,rome is already the home of ,baroque4 ,but1 in fact1 it is the change of landscape that coincides with the change of feeling4 ,in the actual birth of the ,gothic style ,italy had indeed no inward share4 ,at the epoch of #ajjj the country was still absolutely under the domination of ,byzantine taste in the ,east and ,moorish taste in the ,south4 ,when ,gothic first took root here it was the mature ,gothic1 and it implanted itself with an intensity and force for which we look in vain in any of the great ,renaissance creations--think of the 8,stabat ,mater10 the 8,dies ,ir10 ,catharine of ,siena1 ,giotto and ,simone ,martini6 ,at the same time1 it was lighted from the ,south and its strangeness was1 as it were1 softened in acclimatization4 ,that which it suppressed or expelled was not1 as has been supposed1 some lingering strains of the ,classical but purely the ,byzantine-cum-,saracen form-language that appealed to the senses in familiar everyday life--in the buildings of ,ravenna and ,venice but even more in the ornament of the fabrics1 vessels and arms imported from the ,east4 ,if the ,renaissance had been a 8renewal0 7whatever that may mean7 of the ,classical world-feeling1 then1 surely1 would it not have had to replace the symbol of embraced and rhythmically-ordered space by that of closed structural body8 ,but there was never any question of this4 ,on the contrary1 the ,renaissance practised wholly and exclusively an architecture of space prescribed for it by ,gothic1 from which it differed only in that in lieu of the ,northern 8,sturm und ,drang0 it breathed the clear equable calm of the sunny1 care-free and unquestioning ,south4 ,it produced no new building-idea1 and the extent of its architectural achievement might almost be reduced to faades and courtyards4 ,now1 this focussing of expressible effort upon the street-front of a house or the side of a cloister--many-windowed and ever significant of the spirit within--is characteristic of the ,gothic 7and deeply akin to its art of portraiture72 and the cloistered courtyard itself is1 from the ,sun-temple of ,baalbek to the ,court of the ,lions in the ,alhambra1 as genuinely ,arabian4 ,and in the midst of this art the ,poseidon temple of ,pstum1 all body1 stands lonely and unrelated3 no one saw it1 no one attempted to copy it4 ,equally un-,attic is the ,florentine sculpture1 for ,attic is free plastic1 8in the round0 in the full sense of the words1 whereas every ,florentine statue feels behind it the ghost of the niche into which the ,gothic sculptor had built its real ancestors4 ,in the relation of figure to background and in the build of the body1 the masters of the 8,kings' heads0 at ,chartres and the masters of the 8,george0 choir at ,bamberg exhibit the same interpenetration of 8,antique0 and ,gothic expression-means that we have1 neither intensified nor contradicted1 in the manner of ,giovanni ,pisano and ,ghiberti and even ,verrocchio4 ,if we take away from the models of the ,renaissance all elements that originated later than the ,roman ,imperial ,age--that is to say1 those belonging to the ,magian form-world--nothing is left4 ,even from ,late-,roman architecture itself all elements derived from the great days of ,hellas had one by one vanished4 ,most conclusive of all1 though1 is that motive which actually dominates the ,renaissance1 which because of its ,southern-ness we regard as the noblest of the ,renaissance characters1 viz41 the association of round-arch and column4 ,this association1 no doubt1 is very un-,gothic1 but in the ,classical style it simply does not exist1 and in fact it represents the leitmotif of the ,magian architecture that originated in ,syria4 ,but it was just then that the ,south received from the ,north those decisive impulses which helped it first of all to emancipate itself entirely from ,byzantium and then to step from ,gothic into ,baroque4 ,in the region comprised between ,amsterdam1 ,kln and ,paris#cjc--the counter- pole to ,tuscany in the style-history of our culture--counterpoint and oil-painting had been created in association with the ,gothic architecture4 ,thence ,dufay in #adbh and ,willaert in #aeaf came to the ,papal ,chapel1 and in #aebg the latter founded that ,venetian school which was decisive of ,baroque music4 ,the successor of ,willaert was de ,rore of ,antwerp4 ,a ,florentine commissioned ,hugo van der ,goes to execute the ,portinari altar for ,santa ,maria ,nuova1 and ,memlinc to paint a ,last ,judgment4 ,and over and above this1 numerous pictures 7especially ,low- ,countries portraits7 were acquired and exercised an enormous influence4 ,in #adej ,rogier van der ,weyden himself came to ,florence1 where his art was both admired and imitated4 ,in #adgj ,justus van ,gent introduced oil- painting to ,umbria1 and ,antonello da ,messina brought what he had learned in the ,netherlands to ,venice4 ,how much 8,dutch0 and how little 8,classical0 there is in the pictures of ,filippino ,lippi1 ,ghirlandaio and ,botticelli and especially in the engravings of ,pollaiulo6 ,or in ,leonardo himself4 ,even to-day critics hardly care to admit the full extent of the influence exercised by the ,gothic ,north upon the architecture1 music1 painting and plastic of the ,renaissance4#cjd ,it was just then1 too1 that ,nicolaus ,cusanus1 ,cardinal and ,bishop of ,brixen 7#adja-adfd71 brought into mathematics the 8infinitesimal0 principle1 that contrapuntal method of number which he reached by deduction from the idea of ,god as ,infinite ,being4 ,it was from ,nicholas of ,cusa that ,leibniz received the decisive impulse that led him to work out his differential calculus2 and thus was forged the weapon with which dynamic1 ,baroque1 ,newtonian1 physics definitely overcame the static idea characteristic of the ,southern physics that reaches a hand to ,archimedes and is still effective even in ,galileo4 ,the high period of the ,renaissance is a moment of apparent expulsion of music from ,faustian art4 ,and in fact1 for a few decades1 in the only area where ,classical and ,western landscapes touched1 ,florence did uphold--with one grand effort that was essentially metaphysical and essentially defensive--an image of the ,classical so convincing that1 although its deeper characters were without exception mere anti-,gothic1 it lasted beyond ,goethe and1 if not for our criticism1 yet for our feelings1 is valid to this day4 ,the ,florence of ,lorenzo de' ,medici and the ,rome of ,leo the ,tenth--that is what for us the ,classical is1 an eternal goal of most secret longing1 the only deliverance from our heavy hearts and limit upon our horizon4 ,and it is this because1 and only because1 it is anti-,gothic4 ,so clean-cut is the opposition of ,apollinian and ,faustian spirituality4 ,but let there be no mistake as to the extent of this illusion4 ,in ,florence men practiced fresco and relief in contradiction of ,gothic glass-painting and ,byzantine gold-ground mosaic4 ,this was the one moment in the history of the ,west when sculpture ranked as the paramount art4 ,the dominant elements in the picture are the poised bodies1 the ordered groups1 the structural side of architecture4 ,the backgrounds possess no intrinsic value1 merely serving to fill up between and behind the self- sufficient present of the foreground-figures4 ,for a while here1 painting is actually under the domination of plastic2 ,verrocchio1 ,pollaiuolo and ,botticelli were goldsmiths4 ,yet1 all the same1 these frescoes have nothing of the spirit of ,polygnotus in them4 ,examine a collection of ,classical painted vases--not in individual specimens or copies 7which would give the wrong idea7 but in the mass1 for this is the one species of ,classical art in which originals are plentiful enough to impress us effectively with the will that is behind the art4 ,in the light of such a study1 the utter un-,classicalness of the ,renaissance-spirit leaps to the eye4 ,the great achievement of ,giotto and ,masaccio in creating a fresco-art is only apparently a revival of the ,apollinian way of feeling2 but the depth-experience and idea of extension that underlies it is not the ,apollinian unspatial and self-contained body but the ,gothic field 7,bildraum74 ,however recessive the backgrounds are1 they exist4 ,yet here again there was the fullness of light1 the clarity of atmosphere1 the great noon-calm1 of the ,south2 dynamic space was changed in ,tuscany1 and only in ,tuscany1 to the static space of which ,piero della ,francesca was the master4 ,though fields of space were painted1 they were put1 not as an existence unbounded and like music ever striving into the depths1 but as sensuously definable4 ,space was given a sort of bodiliness and order in plane layers1 and drawing1 sharpness of outline1 definition of surface were studied with a care that seemingly approached the ,hellenic ideal4 ,yet there was always this difference1 that ,florence depicted space perspectively as singular in contrast with things as plural1 whereas ,athens presented things as separate singulars in contrast to general nothingness4 ,and in proportion as the surge of the ,renaissance smoothed down1 the hardness of this tendency receded1 from ,masaccio's frescoes in the ,brancacci ,chapel to ,raphael's in the ,vatican ,stanze1 until the sfumato of ,leonardo1 the melting of the edges into the background1 brings a musical ideal in place of the relief-ideal into painting4 ,the hidden dynamic is equally unmistakable in the sculpture of ,florence--it would be perfectly hopeless to look for an ,attic companion for ,verrocchio's equestrian statue4#cje ,this art was a mask1 a mode of the taste of an lite1 and sometimes a comedy--though never was comedy more gallantly played out4 ,the indescribable inward purity of ,gothic form often causes us to forget what an excess of native strength and depth it possessed4 ,gothic1 it must be repeated again1 is the only foundation of the ,renaissance4 ,the ,renaissance never even touched the real ,classical1 let alone understood it or 8revived0 it4 ,the consciousness of the ,florentine lite1 wholly under literary influences1 fashioned the deceptive name to positivize the negative element of the movement--thereby demonstrating how little such currents are aware of their own nature4 ,there is not a single one of their great works that the contemporaries of ,pericles1 or even those of ,csar1 would not have rejected as utterly alien4 ,their palace courtyards are ,moorish courtyards1 and their round arches on slender pillars are of ,syrian origin4 ,cimabue taught his century to imitate with the brush the art of ,byzantine mosaic4 ,of the two famous domical buildings of the ,renaissance1 the domed cathedral of ,florence is a masterpiece of late ,gothic1 and ,st4 ,peter's is one of early ,baroque4 ,when ,michelangelo set himself to build the latter as the 8,pantheon towering over the ,basilica of ,maxentius10 he was naming two buildings of the purest early ,arabian style4 ,and ornament--is there indeed a genuine ,renaissance ornamentation8 ,certainly there is nothing comparable in symbolic force with the ornamentation of ,gothic4 ,but what is the provenance of that gay and elegant embellishment which has a real inward unity of its own and has captivated all ,europe8 ,there is a great difference between the home of a 8taste0 and the home of the expression- means that it employs3 one finds a great deal that is ,northern in the early ,florentine motives of ,pisano1 ,maiano1 ,ghiberti and ,della ,quercia4 ,we have to distinguish in all these chancels1 tombs1 niches and porches between the outward and transferable forms 7the ,ionic column itself is doubly a transfer1 for it originated in ,egypt7 and the spirit of the form-language that uses them as means and signs4 ,one ,classical element or item is equivalent to another so long as something un-,classical is being expressed--significance lies not in the thing but in the way in which it is used4 ,but even in ,donatello such motives are far fewer than in mature ,baroque4 ,as for a strict ,classical capital1 no such thing is to be found4 ,and yet1 at moments1 ,renaissance art succeeded in achieving something wonderful that music could not reproduce--a feeling for the bliss of perfect nearness1 for pure1 restful and liberating space-effects1 bright and tidy and free from the passionate movement of ,gothic and ,baroque4 ,it is not ,classical1 but it is a dream of ,classical existence1 the only dream of the ,faustian soul in which it was able to forget itself4 ,,vi ,and now1 with the #afth ,century1 the decisive epochal turn begins for ,western painting4 ,the trusteeship of architecture in the ,north and that of sculpture in ,italy expire1 and painting becomes polyphonic1 8picturesque10 infinity-seeking4 ,the colours become tones4 ,the art of the brush claims kinship with the style of cantata and madrigal4 ,the technique of oils becomes the basis of an art that means to conquer space and to dissolve things in that space4 ,with ,leonardo and ,giorgione begins ,impressionism4 ,in the actual picture there is transvaluation of all the elements4 ,the background1 hitherto casually put in1 regarded as a fill-up and1 as space1 almost shuffled out of sight1 gains a preponderant importance4 ,a development sets in that is paralleled in no other ,culture1 not even in the ,chinese which in many other respects is so near to ours4 ,the background as symbol of the infinite conquers the sense-perceptible foreground1 and at last 7herein lies the distinction between the depicting and the delineating styles7 the depth-experience of the ,faustian soul is captured in the kinesis of a picture4 ,the space-relief of ,mantegna's plane layers dissolves in ,tintoretto into directional energy1 and there emerges in the picture the great symbol of an unlimited space-universe which comprises the individual things within itself as incidentals--the horizon4 ,now1 that a landscape painting should have a horizon has always seemed so self-evident to us that we have never asked ourselves the important question3 ,is there always a horizon1 and if not1 when not and why not8 ,in fact1 there is not a hint of it1 either in ,egyptian relief or in ,byzantine mosaic or in vase- paintings and frescoes of the ,classical age1 or even in those of the ,hellenistic in spite of its spatial treatment of foregrounds4 ,this line1 in the unreal vapour of which heaven and earth melt1 the sum and potent symbol of the far1 contains the painter's version of the 8infinitesimal0 principle4 ,it is out of the remoteness of this horizon that the music of the picture flows1 and for this reason the great landscape-painters of ,holland paint only backgrounds and atmospheres1 just as for the contrary reason 8anti-musical0 masters like ,signorelli and especially ,mantegna1 paint only foregrounds and 8reliefs40 ,it is in the horizon1 then1 that ,music triumphs over ,plastic1 the passion of extension over its substance4 ,it is not too much to say that no picture by ,rembrandt has a foreground at all4 ,in the ,north1 the home of counterpoint1 a deep understanding of the meaning of horizons and high-lighted distances is found very early1 while in the ,south the flat conclusive gold-background of the ,arabic-,byzantine picture long remained supreme4 ,the first definite emergence of the pure space-feeling is in the ,books of ,hours of the ,duke of ,berry 7that at ,chantilly and that at ,turin7 about #adaf4 ,thereafter1 slowly and surely1 it conquers the ,picture4 ,the same symbolic meaning attaches to clouds4 ,classical art concerns itself with them no more than with horizons1 and the painter of the ,renaissance treats them with a certain playful superficiality4 ,but very early the ,gothic looked at its cloud-masses1 and through them1 with the long sight of mysticism2 and the ,venetians 7,giorgione and ,paolo ,veronese above all7 discovered the full magic of the cloud-world1 of the thousand-tinted ,being that fills the heavens with its sheets and wisps and mountains4 ,grnewald and the ,netherlanders heightened its significance to the level of tragedy4 ,el ,greco brought the grand art of cloud-symbolism to ,spain4 ,it was at the same time that along with oil-painting and counterpoint the art of gardens ripened4 ,here1 expressed on the canvas of ,nature itself by extended pools1 brick walls1 avenues1 vistas and galleries1 is the same tendency that is represented in painting by the effort towards the linear perspective that the early ,flemish artists felt to be the basic problem of their art and ,brunellesco1 ,alberti and ,piero della ,francesca formulated4 ,we may take it that it was not entirely a coincidence that this formulation of perspective1 this mathematical consecration of the picture 7whether landscape or interior7 as a field limited at the sides but immensely increased in depth1 was propounded just at this particular moment4 ,it was the proclamation of the ,prime- ,symbol4 ,the point at which the perspective lines coalesce is at infinity4 ,it was just because it avoided infinity and rejected distance that ,classical painting possessed no perspective4 ,consequently the ,park1 the deliberate manipulation of ,nature so as to obtain space and distance effects1 is an impossibility in ,classical art4 ,neither in ,athens nor in ,rome proper was there a garden-art3 it was only the ,imperial ,age that gratified its taste with ground-schemes of ,eastern origin1 and a glance at any of the plans of those 8gardens0 that have been preserved#cjf is enough to show the shortness of their range and the emphasis of their bounds4 ,and yet the first garden-theorist of the ,west1 ,l4 ,b4 ,alberti1 was laying down the relation of the surroundings to the house 7that is1 to the spectators in it7 as early as #adej1 and from his projects to the parks of the ,ludovisi and ,albani villas1#cjg we can see the importance of the perspective view into distance becoming ever greater and greater4 ,in ,france1 after ,francis ,i 7,fontainebleau7 the long narrow lake is an additional feature having the same meaning4 ,the most significant element in the ,western garden-art is thus the point de vue of the great ,rococo park1 upon which all its avenues and clipped-hedge walks open and from which vision may travel out to lose itself in the distances4 ,this element is wanting even in the ,chinese garden-art4 ,but it is exactly matched by some of the silver-bright distance-pictures of the pastoral music of that age 7in ,couperin for example74 ,it is the point de vue that gives us the key to a real understanding of this remarkable mode of making nature itself speak the form-language of a human symbolism4 ,it is in principle akin to the dissolution of finite number-pictures into infinite series in our mathematic3 as the remainder-expression#cjh reveals the ultimate meaning of the series1 so the glimpse into the boundless is what1 in the garden1 reveals to a ,faustian soul the meaning of ,nature4 ,it was we and not the ,hellenes or the men of the high ,renaissance that prized and sought out high mountain tops for the sake of the limitless range of vision that they afford4 ,this is a ,faustian craving--to be alone with endless space4 ,the great achievement of ,le ,ntre and the landscape- gardeners of ,northern ,france1 beginning with ,fouquet's epoch-making creation of ,vaux-le-,vicomte1 was that they were able to render this symbol with such high emphasis4 ,compare the ,renaissance park of the ,medicean age--capable of being taken in1 gay1 cosy1 well-rounded--with these parks in which all the water-works1 statue-rows1 hedges and labyrinths are instinct with the suggestion of long range4 ,it is the ,destiny of ,western oil-painting told over again in a bit of garden- history4 ,but the feeling for long range is at the same time one for history4 ,at a distance1 space becomes time and the horizon signifies the future4 ,the ,baroque park is the park of the ,late season1 of the approaching end1 of the falling leaf4 ,a ,renaissance park is meant for the summer and the noonday4 ,it is timeless1 and nothing in its form-language reminds us of mortality4 ,it is perspective that begins to awaken a premonition of something passing1 fugitive and final4 ,the very words of distance possess1 in the lyric poetry of all ,western languages1 a plaintive autumnal accent that one looks for in vain in the ,greek and ,latin4 ,it is there in ,macpherson's 8,ossian0 and ,hlderlin1 and in ,nietzsche's ,dionysus-,dithyrambs1 and lastly in ,baudelaire1 ,verlaine1 ,george and ,droem4 ,the ,late poetry of the withering garden avenues1 the unending lines in the streets of a megalopolis1 the ranks of pillars in a cathedral1 the peak in a distant mountain chain--all tell us that the depth-experience which constitutes our space-world for us is in the last analysis our inward certainty of a ,destiny1 of a prescribed direction1 of time1 of the irrevocable4 ,here1 in the experience of horizon as future1 we become directly and surely conscious of the identity of ,time with the 8third dimension0 of that experienced space which is living self-extension4 ,and in these last days we are imprinting upon the plan of our megalopolitan streets the same directional-destiny character that the #agth ,century imprinted upon the ,park of ,versailles4 ,we lay our streets as long arrow-flights into remote distance1 regardless even of preserving old and historic parts of our towns 7for the symbolism of these is not now prepotent in us71 whereas a megalopolis of the ,classical world studiously maintained in its extension that tangle of crooked lanes that enabled ,apollinian man to feel himself a body in the midst of bodies4#cji ,herein1 as always1 practical requirements1 so called1 are merely the mask of a profound inward compulsion4 ,with the rise of perspective1 then1 the deeper form and full metaphysical significance of the picture comes to be concentrated upon the horizon4 ,in ,renaissance art the painter had stated and the beholder had accepted the contents of the picture for what they were1 as self- sufficient and co-extensive with the title4 ,but henceforth the contents became a means1 the mere vehicle of a meaning that was beyond the possibility of verbal expression4 ,with ,mantegna or ,signorelli the pencil sketch could have stood as the picture1 without being carried out in colour--in some cases1 indeed1 we can only regret that the artist did not stop at the cartoon4 ,in the statue-like sketch1 colour is a mere supplement4 ,titian1 on the other hand1 could be told by ,michelangelo that he did not know how to draw4 ,the 8object10 i4e41 that which could be exactly fixed by the drawn outline1 the near and material1 had in fact lost its artistic actuality2 but1 as the theory of art was still dominated by ,renaissance impressions1 there arose thereupon that strange and interminable conflict concerning the 8form0 and the 8content0 of an art-work4 ,mis-enunciation of the question has concealed its real and deep significance from us4 ,the first point for consideration should have been whether painting was to be conceived of plastically or musically1 as a static of things or as a dynamic of space 7for in this lies the essence of the opposition between fresco and oil technique71 and the second point1 the opposition of ,classical and ,faustian world-feeling4 ,outlines define the material1 while colour-tones interpret space4#caj ,but the picture of the first order belongs to directly sensible nature-- it narrates4 ,space1 on the contrary1 is by its very essence transcendent and addresses itself to our imaginative powers1 and in an art that is under its suzerainty1 the narrative element enfeebles and obscures the more profound tendency4 ,hence it is that the theorist1 able to feel the secret disharmony but misunderstanding it1 clings to the superficial opposition of content and form4 ,the problem is purely a ,western one1 and reveals most strikingly the complete inversion in the significance of pictorial elements that took place when the ,renaissance closed down and instrumental music of the grand style came to the front4 ,for the ,classical mind no problem of form and content in this sense could exist2 in an ,attic statue the two are completely identical and identified in the human body4 ,the case of ,baroque painting is further complicated by the fact that it involves an opposition of ordinary popular feeling and the finer sensibility4 ,everything ,euclidean and tangible is also popular1 and the genuinely popular art is therefore the ,classical4 ,it is very largely the feeling of this popular character in it that constitutes its indescribable charm for the ,faustian intellects that have to fight for self-expression1 to win their world by hard wrestling4 ,for us1 the contemplation of ,classical art and its intention is pure refreshment3 here nothing needs to be struggled for1 everything offers itself freely4 ,and something of the same sort was achieved by the anti-,gothic tendency of ,florence4 ,raphael is1 in many sides of his creativeness1 distinctly popular4 ,but ,rembrandt is not1 cannot be1 so4 ,from ,titian painting becomes more and more esoteric4 ,so1 too1 poetry4 ,so1 too1 music4 ,and the ,gothic per se had been esoteric from its very beginnings--witness ,dante and ,wolfram4 ,the masses of ,okeghem and ,palestrina1 or of ,bach for that matter1 were never intelligible to the average member of the congregation4 ,ordinary people are bored by ,mozart and ,beethoven1 and regard music generally as something for which one is or is not in the mood4 ,a certain degree of interest in these matters has been induced by concert room and gallery since the age of enlightenment invented the phrase 8art for all40 ,but ,faustian art is not1 and by very essence cannot be1 8for all40 ,if modern painting has ceased to appeal to any but a small 7and ever decreasing7 circle of connoisseurs1 it is because it has turned away from the painting of things that the man in the street can understand4 ,it has transferred the property of actuality from contents to space--the space through which alone1 according to ,kant1 things are4 ,and with that a difficult metaphysical element has entered into painting1 and this element does not give itself away to the layman4 ,for ,phidias1 on the contrary1 the word 8lay0 would have had no meaning4 ,his sculpture appealed entirely to the bodily and not to the spiritual eye4 ,an art without space is a priori unphilosophical4 ,,vii ,with this is connected an important principle of composition4 ,in a picture it is possible to set the things inorganically above one another or side by side or behind one another without any emphasis of perspective or interrelation1 i4e41 without insisting upon the dependence of their actuality upon the structure of space which does not necessarily mean that this dependence is denied4 ,primitive men and children draw thus1 before their depth-experience has brought the sense- impressions of their world more or less into fundamental order4 ,but this order differs in the different ,cultures according to the prime symbols of these ,cultures4 ,the sort of perspective composition that is so self- evident to us is a particular case1 and it is neither recognized nor intended in the painting of any other ,culture4 ,egyptian art chose to represent simultaneous events in superposed ranks1 thereby eliminating the third dimension from the look of the picture4 ,the ,apollinian art placed figures and groups separately1 with a deliberate avoidance of space-and-time relations in the plane of representation4 ,polygnotus's frescoes in the ,lesche of the ,cnidians at ,delphi are a celebrated instance of this4 ,there is no background to connect the individual scenes--for such a background would have been a challenge to the principle that things alone are actual and space non-existent4 ,the pediment of the gina temple1 the procession of gods on the ,franois ,vase and the ,frieze of the ,giants of ,pergamum are all composed as meander-syntheses of separate and interchangeable motives1 without organic character4 ,it is only with the ,hellenistic age 7the ,telephus ,frieze of the altar of ,pergamum is the earliest example that has been preserved7 that the un-,classical motive of the consistent series comes into existence4 ,in this respect1 as in others1 the feeling of the ,renaissance was truly ,gothic4 ,it did indeed carry group-composition to such a pitch of perfection that its work remains the pattern for all following ages4 ,but the order of it all proceeded out of space4 ,in the last analysis1 it was a silent music of colour-illumined extension that created within itself light-resistances1 which the understanding eye could grasp as things and as existence1 and could set marching with an invisible swing and rhythm out into the distance4 ,and with this spatial ordering1 with its unremarked substitution of air-and light-perspective for line-perspective1 the ,renaissance was already1 in essence1 defeated4 ,and now from the end of the ,renaissance in ,orlando ,lasso and ,palestrina right up to ,wagner1 from ,titian right up to ,manet and ,mares and ,leibl1 great musicians and great painters followed close upon one another while the plastic art sank into entire insignificance4 ,oil-painting and instrumental music evolve organically towards aims that were comprehended in the ,gothic and achieved in the ,baroque4 ,both arts-- ,faustian in the highest sense--are within those limits prime phenomena4 ,they have a soul1 a physiognomy and therefore a history4 ,and in this they are alone4 ,all that sculpture could thenceforward achieve was a few beautiful incidental pieces in the shadow of painting1 garden-art1 or architecture4 ,the art of the ,west had no real need of them4 ,there was no longer a style of plastic in the sense that there were styles of painting or music4 ,no consistent tradition or necessary unity links the works of ,maderna1 ,goujon1 ,puget and ,schlter4 ,even ,leonardo begins to despise the chisel outright3 at most he will admit the bronze cast1 and that on account of its pictorial advantages4 ,therein he differs from ,michelangelo1 for whom the marble block was still the true element4 ,and yet even ,michelangelo in his old age could no longer succeed with the plastic1 and none of the later sculptors are great in the sense that ,rembrandt and ,bach are great4 ,there were clever and tasteful performances no doubt1 but not one single work of the same order as the 8,night ,watch0 or the 8,matthew ,passion10 nothing that expresses1 as these express1 the whole depth of a whole mankind4 ,this art had fallen out of the destiny of the ,culture4 ,its speech meant nothing now4 ,what there is in a ,rembrandt portrait simply cannot be rendered in a bust4 ,now and then a sculptor of power arises1 like ,bernini or the masters of the contemporary ,spanish school1 or ,pigalle or ,rodin 7none of whom1 naturally1 transcended the decorative and attained the level of grand symbolism71 but such an artist is always visibly either a belated imitator of the ,renaissance like ,thorwaldsen1 a disguised painter like ,houdon or ,rodin1 an architect like ,bernini and ,schlter or a decorator like ,coysevox4 ,and his very appearance on the scene only shows the more clearly that this art1 incapable of carrying the ,faustian burden1 has no longer a mission--and therefore no longer a soul or a life-history of specific style-development--in the ,faustian world4 ,in the ,classical world1 correspondingly1 music was the art that failed4 ,beginning with probably quite important advances in the earliest ,doric1 it had to give way in the ripe centuries of ,ionic 7#fej-cej7 to the two truly ,apollinian arts1 sculpture and fresco2 renouncing harmony and polyphony1 it had to renounce therewith any pretensions to organic development as a higher art4 ,,viii ,the strict style in ,classical painting limited its palette to yellow1 red1 black and white4 ,this singular fact was observed long ago1 and1 since the explanation was only sought for in superficial and definitely material causes1 wild hypotheses were brought forward to account for it1 e4g41 a supposed colour-blindness in the ,greeks4 ,even ,nietzsche discussed this 7,morgenrte1 #dbf74 ,but why did this painting in its great days avoid blue and even blue- green1 and only begin the gamut of permissible tones at greenish-yellow and bluish-red8 ,it is not that the ancient artists did not know of blue and its effect4 ,the metopes of many temples had blue backgrounds so that they should appear deep in contrast with the triglyphs2 and trade- painting used all the colours that were technically available4 ,there are authentic blue horses in archaic ,acropolis work and ,etruscan tomb- painting2 and a bright blue colouring of the hair was quite common4 ,the ban upon it in the higher art was1 without a doubt1 imposed upon the ,euclidean soul by its prime symbol4 ,blue and green are the colours of the heavens1 the sea1 the fruitful plain1 the shadow of the ,southern noon1 the evening1 the remote mountains4 ,they are essentially atmospheric and not substantial colours4 ,they are cold1 they disembody1 and they evoke impressions of expanse and distance and boundlessness4 ,for this reason they were kept out of the frescoes of ,polygnotus4 ,and for this reason also1 an 8infinitesimal0 blue-to-green is the space- creating element throughout the history of our perspective oil-painting1 from the ,venetians right into the #aith ,century2 it is the basic and supremely important tone which supports the ensemble of the intended colour-effect1 as the basso continuo supports the orchestra1 whereas the warm yellow and red tones are put on sparingly and in dependence upon this basic tone4 ,it is not the full1 gorgeous and familiar green that ,raphael and ,drer sometimes--and seldom at that--use for draperies1 but an indefinite blue-green of a thousand nuances into white and grey and brown2 something deeply musical1 into which 7notably in ,gobelin tapestry7 the whole atmosphere is plunged4 ,that quality which we have named aerial perspective in contrast to linear--and might also have called ,baroque perspective in contrast to ,renaissance--rests almost exclusively upon this4 ,we find it with more and more intense depth- effect in ,leonardo1 ,guercino1 ,albani in the case of ,italy1 and in ,ruysdael and ,hobbema in that of ,holland1 but1 above all1 in the great ,french painters1 from ,poussin and ,claude ,lorrain and ,watteau to ,corot4 ,blue1 equally a perspective colour1 always stands in relation to the dark1 the unillumined1 the unactual4 ,it does not press in on us1 it pulls us out into the remote4 ,an 8enchanting nothingness0 ,goethe calls it in his ,farbenlehre4 ,blue and green are transcendent1 spiritual1 non-sensuous colours4 ,they are missing in the strict ,attic fresco and therefore dominant in oil- painting4 ,yellow and red1 the ,classical colours1 are the colours of the material1 the near1 the full-blooded4 ,red is the characteristic colour of sexuality--hence it is the only colour that works upon the beasts4 ,it matches best the ,phallus-symbol--and therefore the statue and the ,doric column--but it is pure blue that etherealizes the ,madonna's mantle4 ,this relation of the colours has established itself in every great school as a deep-felt necessity4 ,violet1 a red succumbing to blue1 is the colour of women no longer fruitful and of priests living in celibacy4 ,yellow and red are the popular colours1 the colours of the crowd1 of children1 of women1 and of savages4 ,amongst the ,venetians and the ,spaniards high personages affected a splendid black or blue1 with an unconscious sense of the aloofness inherent in these colours4 ,for red and yellow1 the ,apollinian1 ,euclidean-polytheistic colours1 belong to the foreground even in respect of social life2 they are meet for the noisy hearty market-days and holidays1 the nave immediateness of a life subject to the blind chances of the ,classical ,fatum1 the point- existence4 ,but blue and green--the ,faustian1 monotheistic colours--are those of loneliness1 of care1 of a present that is related to a past and a future1 of destiny as the dispensation governing the universe from within4 ,the relation of ,shakespearian destiny to space and of ,sophoclean to the individual body has already been stated in an earlier chapter4 ,all the genuinely transcendent ,cultures--that is all whose prime-symbol requires the overcoming of the apparent1 the life of struggle and not that of acceptance--have the same metaphysical inclination to space as to blues and blacks4 ,there are profound observations on the connexion between ideas of space and the meaning of colour in ,goethe's studies of 8entoptic colours0 in the atmosphere2 the symbolism that is enunciated by him in the ,farbenlehre and that which we have deduced here from the ideas of ,space and ,destiny are in complete agreement4 ,the most significant use of dusky green as the colour of destiny is ,grnewald's4 ,the indescribable power of space in his nights is equalled only by ,rembrandt's4 ,and the thought suggests itself here1 is it possible to say that his bluish-green1 the colour in which the interior of a great cathedral is so often clothed1 is the specifically ,catholic colour8--it being understood that we mean by 8,catholic0 strictly the ,faustian ,christianity 7with the ,eucharist as its centre7 that was founded in the ,lateran ,council of #abae and fulfilled in the ,council of ,trent4 ,this colour with its silent grandeur is as remote from the resplendent gold-ground of ,early ,christian-,byzantine pictures as it is from the gay1 loquacious 8pagan0 colours of the painted ,hellenic temples and statues4 ,it is to be noted that the effect of this colour1 entirely unlike that of yellow and red1 depends upon work being exhibited indoors4 ,classical painting is emphatically a public art1 ,western just as emphatically a studio-art4 ,the whole of our great oil- painting1 from ,leonardo to the end of the #ahth ,century1 is not meant for the bright light of day4 ,here once more we meet the same opposition as that between chamber-music and the free-standing statue4 ,the climatic explanation of the difference is merely superficial2 the example of ,egyptian painting would suffice to disprove it if disproof were necessary at all4 ,infinite space meant for ,classical feeling complete nothingness1 and the use of blue and green1 with their powers of dissolving the near and creating the far1 would have been a challenge to the absolutism of the foreground and its unit-bodies1 and therefore to the very meaning and intent of ,apollinian art4 ,to the ,apollinian eye1 pictures in the colours of ,watteau would have been destitute of all essence1 things of almost inexpressible emptiness and untruth4 ,by these colours the visually-perceived light-reflecting surface of the picture is made effectively to render1 not circumscribed things1 but circumambient space4 ,and that is why they are missing in ,greece and dominant in the ,west4 ,,ix ,arabian art brought the ,magian world-feeling to expression by means of the gold ground of its mosaics and pictures4 ,something of the uncanny wizardry of this1 and by implication of its symbolic purpose1 is known to us through the mosaics of ,ravenna1 in the work of the ,early ,rhenish and especially ,north ,italian masters who were still entirely under the influence of ,lombardo-,byzantine models1 and last but not least in the ,gothic book-illustrations of which the archetypes were the ,byzantine purple codices4 ,in this instance we can study the soul of three ,cultures working upon very similar tasks in very dissimilar ways4 ,the ,apollinian ,culture recognized as actual only that which was immediately present in time and place--and thus it repudiated the background as pictorial element4 ,the ,faustian strove through all sensuous barriers towards infinity--and it projected the centre of gravity of the pictorial idea into the distance by means of perspective4 ,the ,magian felt all happening as an expression of mysterious powers that filled the world-cavern with their spiritual substance--and it shut off the depicted scene with a gold background1 that is1 by something that stood beyond and outside all nature-colours4 ,gold is not a colour4 ,as compared with simple yellow1 it produces a complicated sense-impression1 through the metallic1 diffuse refulgence that is generated by its glowing surface4 ,colours--whether coloured substance incorporated with the smoothed wall-face 7fresco7 or pigment applied with the brush--are natural4 ,but the metallic gleam1 which is practically never found in natural conditions1 is unearthly4#caa ,it recalls impressively the other symbols of the ,culture1 ,alchemy and ,kabbala1 the ,philosophers' ,stone1 the ,holy ,scriptures1 the ,arabesque1 the inner form of the tales of the 8,thousand and ,one ,nights40 ,the gleaming gold takes away from the scene1 the life and the body their substantial being4 ,everything that was taught in the circle of ,plotinus or by the ,gnostics as to the nature of things1 their independence of space1 their accidental causes--notions paradoxical and almost unintelligible to our world-feeling--is implicit also in the symbolism of this mysterious hieratic background4 ,the nature of bodies was a principal subject of controversy amongst ,neo-,pythagoreans and ,neo- ,platonists1 as it was later in the schools of ,baghdad and ,basra4 ,suhrawardi distinguishes extension1 as the primary existence of the body1 from width and height and depth as its accidents4 ,nazzm pronounced against the corporeal substantiality and space-filling character of the atom4 ,these and the like were the metaphysical notions that1 from ,philo and ,paul to the last great names of the ,islamic philosophy1 manifested the ,arabian world-feeling4 ,they played a decisive part in the disputes of the ,councils upon the substantiality of ,christ4#cab ,and thus the gold background possesses1 in the iconography of the ,western ,church1 an explicit dogmatic significance4 ,it is an express assertion of the existence and activity of the divine spirit4 ,it represents the ,arabian form of the ,christian world-consciousness1 and with such a deep appropriateness that for a thousand years this treatment of the background was held to be the only one metaphysically-- and even ethically--possible and seemly in representations of the ,christian legend4 ,when 8natural0 backgrounds1 with their blue-green heavens1 far horizons and depth perspective1 began to appear in early ,gothic1 they had at first the appearance of something profane and worldly4 ,the change of dogma that they implied was1 if not acknowledged1 at any rate felt1 witness the tapestry backgrounds with which the real depth of space was covered up by a pious awe that disguised what it dared not exhibit4 ,we have seen how just at this time1 when the ,faustian 7,german-,catholic7 ,christianity attained to consciousness of itself through the institution of the sacrament of ,contrition--a new religion in the old garb--the tendency to perspective1 colour1 and the mastering of aerial space in the art of the ,franciscans#cac transformed the whole meaning of painting4 ,the ,christianity of the ,west is related to that of the ,east as the symbol of perspective to the symbol of gold-ground--and the final schism took place almost at the same moment in ,church and in ,art4 ,the landscape-background of the depicted scene and the dynamic infiniteness of ,god were comprehended at the same moment2 and1 simultaneously with the gold ground of the sacred picture1 there vanished from the ,councils of the ,west that ,magian1 ontological problem of ,godhead which had so passionately agitated ,nica1 ,ephesus1 ,chalcedon and all the ,councils of the ,east4 ,x ,the ,venetians discovered1 and introduced into oil-painting as a space- forming and quasi-musical motive1 the handwriting of the visible brush- stroke4 ,the ,florentine masters had never at any time challenged the fashion--would-be ,classical and yet in ,gothic employ--of smoothing out all turns of the brush so as to produce pure1 cleanly-outlined and even colour-surfaces4 ,in consequence1 their pictures have a certain air of being1 something felt1 unmistakably1 as the opposite of the inherent motion-quality of the ,gothic expression-means that were storming in from over the ,alps4 ,the #aeth-,century manner of applying colour is a denial of past and future4 ,it is only in the brushwork1 which remains permanently visible and1 in a way1 perennially fresh1 that the historical feeling comes out4 ,our desire is to see in the work of the painter not merely something that has become but something that is becoming4 ,and this is precisely what the ,renaissance wanted to avoid4 ,a piece of ,perugino drapery tells us nothing of its artistic origin2 it is ready-made1 given1 simply present4 ,but the individual brush-strokes-- first met with as a complete new form-language in the later work of ,titian--are accents of a personal temperament1 characteristic in the orchestra-colours of ,monteverde1 melodically-flowing as a contemporary ,venetian madrigal3 streaks and dabs1 immediately juxtaposed1 cross one another1 cover one another1 entangle one another1 and bring unending movement into the plain element of colour4 ,just so the geometrical ,analysis of the time made its objects become instead of being4 ,every painting has in its execution a history and does not disguise it2 and a ,faustian who stands before it feels that he too has a spiritual evolution4 ,before any great landscape by a ,baroque master1 the one word 8historical0 is enough to make us feel that there is a meaning in it wholly alien to the meaning of an ,attic statue4 ,as other melody1 so also this of the restless outlineless brush-stroke is part of the dynamic stability of the universe of eternal ,becoming1 directional ,time1 and ,destiny4 ,the opposition of painting-style and drawing-style is but a particular aspect of the general opposition of historical and ahistorical form1 of assertion and denial of inner development1 of eternity and instantaneity4 ,a ,classical art-work is an event1 a ,western is a deed4 ,the one symbolizes the here-and-now point1 the other the living course4 ,and the physiognomy of this script of the brush--an ornamentation that is entirely new1 infinitely rich and personal1 and peculiar to the ,western ,culture--is purely and simply musical4 ,it is no mere conceit to compare the allegro feroce of ,frans ,hals with the andante con moto of ,van ,dyck1 or the minor of ,guercino with the major of ,velasquez4 ,henceforward the notion of tempo is comprised in the execution of a painting and steadily reminds us that this art is the art of a soul which1 in contrast to the ,classical1 forgets nothing and will let nothing be forgotten that once was4 ,the ary web of brush-strokes immediately dissolves the sensible surface of things4 ,contours melt into chiaroscuro4 ,the beholder has to stand a very long way back to obtain any corporeal impression out of our coloured space values1 and even so it is always the chromatic and active air itself that gives birth to the things4 ,at the same time with this1 there appeared in ,western painting another symbol of highest significance1 which subdued more and more the actuality of all colour--the 8studio-brown0 7atelierbraun74 ,this was unknown to the early ,florentines and the older ,flemish and ,rhenish masters alike4 ,pacher1 ,drer1 ,holbein1 passionately strong as their tendency towards spatial depth seems1 are quite without it1 and its reign begins only with the last years of the #afth ,century4 ,this brown does not repudiate its descent from the 8infinitesimal0 greens of ,leonardo's1 ,schngauer's and ,grnewald's backgrounds1 but it possesses a mightier power over things than they1 and it carries the battle of ,space against ,matter to a decisive close4 ,it even prevails over the more primitive linear perspective1 which is unable to shake off its ,renaissance association with architectural motives4 ,between it and the ,impressionist technique of the visible brush-stroke there is an enduring and deeply suggestive connexion4 ,both in the end dissolve the tangible existences of the sense-world--the world of moments and foregrounds--into atmospheric semblances4 ,line disappears from the tone-picture4 ,the ,magian gold-ground had only dreamed of a mystic power that controlled and at will could thrust aside the laws governing corporeal existence within the world-cavern4 ,but the brown of these pictures opened a prospect into an infinity of pure forms4 ,and therefore its discovery marks for the ,western style a culmination in the process of its becoming4 ,as contrasted with the preceding green1 this colour has something ,protestant in it4 ,it anticipates the hyperbolic#cad ,northern pantheism of the #ahth ,century which the ,archangels voice in the ,prologue of ,goethe's 8,faust40#cae ,the atmosphere of ,lear and the atmosphere of ,macbeth are akin to it4 ,the contemporary striving of instrumental music towards freer and ever freer chromatics 7de ,rore1 ,luca ,marenzio7 and towards the formation of bodies of tone by means of string and wind choruses corresponds exactly with the new tendency of oil-painting to create pictorial chromatics out of pure colours1 by means of these unlimited brown shadings and the contrast-effect of immediately juxtaposed colour-strokes4 ,thereafter both the arts spread through their worlds of tones and colours--colour-tones and tone-colours--an atmosphere of the purest spatiality1 which enveloped and rendered1 no longer body-- the human being as a shape--but the soul unconfined4 ,and thus was attained the inwardness that in the deepest works of ,rembrandt and of ,beethoven is able to unlock the last secrets themselves--the inwardness which ,apollinian man had sought with his strictly somatic art to keep at bay4 ,from now onward1 the old foreground-colours yellow and red--the ,classical tones--are employed more and more rarely and always as deliberate contrasts to the distances and depths that they are meant to set off and emphasize 7,vermeer in particular1 besides of course ,rembrandt74 ,this atmospheric brown1 which was entirely alien to the ,renaissance1 is the unrealest colour that there is4 ,it is the one major colour that does not exist in the rainbow4 ,there is white light1 and yellow and green1 and red and other light of the most entire purity4 ,but a pure brown light is outside the possibilities of the ,nature that we know4 ,all the greenish-brown1 silvery1 moist brown1 and deep gold tones that appear in their splendid variety with ,giorgione1 grow bolder and bolder in the great ,dutch painters and lose themselves towards the end of the #ahth ,century1 have the common quality that they strip nature of her tangible actuality4 ,they contain1 therefore1 what is almost a religious profession of faith2 we feel that here we are not very far from ,port ,royal1 from ,leibniz4 ,with ,constable on the other hand--who is the founder of the painting of ,civilization--it is a different will that seeks expression2 and the very brown that he had learnt from the ,dutch meant to him not what it had meant to them--,destiny1 ,god1 the meaning of life-- but simply romance1 sensibility1 yearning for something that was gone1 memorial of the great past of the dying art4 ,in the last ,german masters too--,lessing1 ,mares1 ,spitzweg1 ,diez1 ,leibl#caf--whose belated art is a romantic retrospect1 an epilogue1 the brown tones appear simply as a precious heirloom4 ,unwilling in their hearts to part with this last relic of the great style1 they preferred to set themselves against the evident tendency of their generation--the soulless and soul-killing generation of plein-air and ,haeckel4 ,rightly understood 7as it has never yet been71 this battle of ,rembrandt-brown and the plein-air of the new school is simply one more case of the hopeless resistance put up by soul against intellect and ,culture against ,civilization1 of the opposition of symbolic necessary art and megalopolitan 8applied0 art which affects building and painting and sculpture and poetry alike4 ,regarded thus1 the significance of the brown becomes manifest enough4 ,when it dies1 an entire ,culture dies with it4 ,it was the masters who were inwardly greatest--,rembrandt above all--who best understood this colour4 ,it is the enigmatic brown of his most telling work1 and its origin is in the deep lights of ,gothic church- windows and the twilight of the high-vaulted ,gothic nave4 ,and the gold tone of the great ,venetians--,titian1 ,veronese1 ,palma1 ,giorgione--is always reminding us of that old perished ,northern art of glass painting of which they themselves know almost nothing4 ,here also the ,renaissance with its deliberate bodiliness of colour is seen as merely an episode1 an event of the very self-conscious surface1 and not a product of the underlying ,faustian instinct of the ,western soul1 whereas this luminous gold-brown of the ,venetian painting links ,gothic and ,baroque1 the art of the old glass-painting and the dark music of ,beethoven4 ,and it coincides precisely in time with the establishment of the ,baroque style of colour- music by the work of the ,netherlanders ,willaert and ,cyprian de ,rore1 the elder ,gabrieli1 and the ,venetian music-school which they founded4 ,brown1 then1 became the characteristic colour of the soul1 and more particularly of a historically-disposed soul4 ,nietzsche has1 ,i think1 spoken somewhere of the 8brown0 music of ,bizet1 but the adjective is far more appropriate to the music which ,beethoven wrote for strings#cag and to the orchestration that even as late as ,bruckner so often fills space with a browny-golden expanse of tone4 ,all other colours are relegated to ancillary functions--thus the bright yellow and the vermilion of ,vermeer intrude with the spatial almost as though from another world and with an emphasis that is truly metaphysical1 and the yellow-green and blood-red lights of ,rembrandt seem at most to play with the symbolism of space4 ,in ,rubens1 on the contrary--brilliant performer but no thinker--the brown is almost destitute of idea1 a shadow-colour4 7,in him and in ,watteau1 the 8,catholic0 blue-green disputes precedence with the brown47 ,all this shows how any particular means may1 in the hands of men of inward depth1 become a symbol for the evocation of such high transcendence as that of the ,rembrandt landscape1 while for other great masters it may be merely a serviceable technical expedient--or in other words that 7as we have already seen7 technical 8form10 in the theoretical sense of something opposed to 8content10 has nothing whatever to do with the real and true form of a great work4 ,i have called brown a historical colour4 ,by this is meant that it makes the atmosphere of the pictured space signify directedness and future1 and overpowers the assertiveness of any instantaneous element that may be represented4 ,the other colours of distance have also this significance1 and they lead to an important1 considerable and distinctly bizarre extension of the ,western symbolism4 ,the ,hellenes had in the end come to prefer bronze and even gilt-bronze to the painted marble1 the better to express 7by the radiance of this phenomenon against a deep blue sky7 the idea of the individualness of any and every corporeal thing4#cah ,now1 when the ,renaissance dug these statues up1 it found them black and green with the patina of many centuries4 ,the historic spirit1 with its piety and longing1 fastened on to this--and from that time forth our form-feeling has canonized this black and green of distance4 ,to-day our eye finds it indispensable to the enjoyment of a bronze--an ironical illustration of the fact that this whole species of art is something that no longer concerns us as such4 ,what does a cathedral dome or a bronze figure mean to us without the patina which transmutes the short-range brilliance into the tone of remoteness of time and place8 ,have we not got to the point of artificially producing this patina8#cai ,but even more than this is involved in the ennoblement of decay to the level of an art-means of independent significance4 ,that a ,greek would have regarded the formation of patina as the ruin of the work1 we can hardly doubt4 ,it is not merely that the colour green1 on account of its 8distant0 quality1 was avoided by him on spiritual grounds4 ,patina is a symbol of mortality and hence related in a remarkable way to the symbols of time-measurement and the funeral rite4 ,we have already in an earlier chapter discussed the wistful regard of the ,faustian soul for ruins and evidences of the distant past1 its proneness to the collection of antiquities and manuscripts and coins1 to pilgrimages to the ,forum ,romanum and to ,pompeii1 to excavations and philological studies1 which appears as early as the time of ,petrarch4 ,when would it have occurred to a ,greek to bother himself with the ruins of ,cnossus or ,tiryns8#cbj ,every ,greek knew his 8,iliad0 but not one ever thought of digging up the hill of ,troy4 ,we1 on the contrary1 are moved by a secret piety to preserve the aqueducts of the ,campagna1 the ,etruscan tombs1 the ruins of ,luxor and ,karnak1 the crumbling castles of the ,rhine1 the ,roman ,limes1 ,hersfeld and ,paulinzella from becoming mere rubbish--but we keep them as ruins1 feeling in some subtle way that reconstruction would deprive them of something1 indefinable in terms1 that can never be reproduced4#cba ,nothing was further from the ,classical mind than this reverence for the weather-beaten evidences of a once and a formerly4 ,it cleared out of sight everything that did not speak of the present2 never was the old preserved because it was old4 ,after the ,persians had destroyed old ,athens1 the citizens threw columns1 statues1 reliefs1 broken or not1 over the ,acropolis wall1 in order to start afresh with a clean slate--and the resultant scrap-heaps have been our richest sources for the art of the #fth ,century4 ,their action was quite in keeping with the style of a ,culture that raised cremation to the rank of a major symbol and refused with scorn to bind daily life to a chronology4 ,our choice has been1 as usual1 the opposite4 ,the heroic landscape of the ,claude ,lorrain type is inconceivable without ruins4 ,the ,english park with its atmospheric suggestion1 which supplanted the ,french about #agej and abandoned the great perspective idea of the latter in favour of the 8,nature0 of ,addison1 ,pope and sensibility1 introduced into its stock of motives perhaps the most astonishing bizarrerie ever perpetrated1 the artificial ruin1 in order to deepen the historical character in the presented landscape4#cbb ,the ,egyptian ,culture restored the works of its early period1 but it would never have ventured to build ruins as the symbols of the past4 ,again1 it is not the ,classical statue1 but the ,classical torso that we really love4 ,it has had a destiny3 something suggestive of the past as past envelops it1 and our imagination delights to fill the empty space of missing limbs with the pulse and swing of invisible lines4 ,a good restoration--and the secret charm of endless possibilities is all gone4 ,i venture to maintain that it is only by way of this transposition into the musical that the remains of ,classical sculpture can really reach us4 ,the green bronze1 the blackened marble1 the fragments of a figure abolish for our inner eye the limitations of time and space4 8,picturesque0 this has been called--the brand-new statue and building and the too-well-groomed park are not picturesque--and the word is just to this extent1 that the deep meaning of this weathering is the same as that of the studio-brown4 ,but1 at bottom1 what both express is the spirit of instrumental music4 ,would the ,spearman of ,polycletus1 standing before us in flashing bronze and with enamel eyes and gilded hair1 affect us as it does in the state of blackened age8 ,would not the ,vatican torso of ,heracles lose its mighty impressiveness if1 one fine day1 the missing parts were discovered and replaced8 ,and would not the towers and domes of our old cities lose their deep metaphysical charm if they were sheathed in new copper8 ,age1 for us as for the ,egyptian1 ennobles all things4 ,for ,classical man1 it depreciates them4 ,lastly1 consider ,western tragedy2 observe how the same feeling leads it to prefer 8historical0 material--meaning thereby not so much demonstrably actual or even possible1 but remote and crusted subjects4 ,that which the ,faustian soul wanted1 and must have1 could not be expressed by any event of purely momentary meaning1 lacking in distance of time or place1 or by a tragic art of the ,classical kind1 or by a timeless myth4 ,our tragedies1 consequently1 are tragedies of the past and of the future--the latter category1 in which men yet to be are shown as carriers of a ,destiny1 is represented in a certain sense by 8,faust10 8,peer ,gynt0 and the 8,gtterdmmerung40 ,but tragedies of the present we have not1 apart from the trivial social drama of the #aith ,century4#cbc ,if ,shakespeare wanted on occasion to express anything of importance in the present1 he at least removed the scene of it to some foreign land--,italy for preference--in which he had never been1 and ,german poets likewise take ,england or ,france--always for the sake of getting rid of that nearness of time and place which the ,attic drama emphasized even in the case of a mythological subject4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,viii ,,music ,,and ,,plastic ,,ii ,,act ,,and ,,portrait ,,chapter ,,viii ,,music ,,and ,,plastic ,,ii ,,act ,,and ,,portrait ,i ,the ,classical has been characterized as a culture of the ,body and the ,northern as a culture of the ,spirit1 and not without a certain arrire- pense of disprizing the one in favour of the other4 ,though it was mainly in trivialities that ,renaissance taste made its contrasts between ,classical and ,modern1 ,pagan and ,christian1 yet even this might have led to decisive discoveries if only men had seen how to get behind formula to origins4 ,if the environment of a man 7whatever else it may be7 is with respect to him a macrocosm with respect to a microcosm1 an immense aggregate of symbols1 then the man himself1 in so far as he belongs to the fabric of actuality1 in so far as he is phenomenal1 must be comprised in the general symbolism4 ,but1 in the impress of him made upon men like himself1 what is it that possesses the force of ,symbol1 viz41 the capacity of summing within itself and intelligibly presenting the essence of that man and the signification of his being8 ,art gives the answer4 ,but this answer is necessarily different in different ,cultures4 ,as each lives differently1 so each is differently impressed by ,life4 ,for the mode of human imagining--metaphysical1 ethical1 artistic imagining alike-- it is more than important1 it is determinant that the individual feels himself as a body amongst bodies or1 on the contrary1 as a centre in endless space2 that he subtilizes his ego into lone distinctness or1 on the contrary1 regards it as substantially part of the general consensus1 that the directional character is asserted or1 on the contrary1 denied in the rhythm and course of his life4 ,in all these ways the prime-symbol of the great ,culture comes to manifestation3 this is indeed a world- feeling1 but the life-ideal conforms to it4 ,from the ,classical ideal followed unreserved acceptance of the sensuous instant1 from the ,western a not less passionate wrestle to overcome it4 ,the ,apollinian soul1 ,euclidean and point-formed1 felt the empirical visible body as the complete expression of its own way of being2 the ,faustian1 roving into all distances1 found this expression not in person1 1 but in personality1 character1 call it what you will4 8,soul0 for the real ,hellene was in last analysis the form of his body--and thus ,aristotle defined it4 8,body0 for ,faustian man was the vessel of the soul--and thus ,goethe felt it4 ,but the result of this is that ,culture and ,culture differ very greatly in their selection and formation of their humane arts4 ,while ,gluck expresses the woe of ,armida by a melody combined with drear gnawing tones in the instrumental accompaniment1 the same is achieved in ,pergamene sculptures by making every muscle speak4 ,the ,hellenistic portraiture tries to draw a spiritual type in the structure of its heads4 ,in ,china the heads of the ,saints of ,ling-yan-si tell of a wholly personal inner life by their look and the play of the corners of the mouth4 ,the ,classical tendency towards making the body the sole spokesman is emphatically not the result of any carnal overload in the race 7to the man of wantonness was not permitted#cbd71 it was not1 as ,nietzsche thought1 an orgiastic joy of untrammelled energy and perfervid passion4 ,this sort of thing is much nearer to the ideals of ,germanic- ,christian or of ,indian chivalry4 ,what ,apollinian man and ,apollinian art can claim as their very own is simply the apotheosis of the bodily phenomenon1 taking the word perfectly literally--the rhythmic proportioning of limbs and harmonious build of muscles4 ,this is not ,pagan as against ,christian1 it is ,attic as against ,baroque2 for it was ,baroque mankind 7,christian or unbeliever1 monk or rationalist7 that first utterly put away the cult of the palpable 1 carrying its alienation indeed to the extremes of bodily uncleanliness that prevailed in the entourage of ,louis ,,xiv1#cbe whose full wigs and lace cuffs and buckled shoes covered up ,body with a whole web of ornament4 ,thus the ,classical plastic art1 after liberating the form completely from the actual or imaginary back-wall and setting it up in the open1 free and unrelated1 to be seen as a body among bodies1 moved on logically till the naked body became its only subject4 ,and1 moreover1 it is unlike every other kind of sculpture recorded in art-history in that its treatment of the bounding surfaces of this body is anatomically convincing4 ,here is the ,euclidean world-principle carried to the extreme2 any envelope whatever would have been in contradiction1 however slightly1 with the ,apollinian phenomenon1 would have indicated1 however timidly1 the existence of the circum-space4 ,in this art1 what is ornamental in the high sense resides entirely in the proportions of the structure#cbf and the equivalence of the axes in respect of support and load4 ,standing1 sitting1 lying down but always self-secure1 the body has1 like the peripteros1 no interior1 that is1 no 8soul40 ,the significance of the muscle-relief1 carried out absolutely in the round1 is the same as that of the self-closing array of the columns2 both contain the whole of the form-language of the work4 ,it was a strictly metaphysical reason1 the need of a supreme life-symbol for themselves1 that brought the later ,hellenes to this art1 which under all the consummate achievement is a narrow one4 ,it is not true that this language of the outer surface is the completest1 or the most natural1 or even the most obvious mode of representing the human being4 ,quite the contrary4 ,if the ,renaissance1 with its ardent theory and its immense misconception of its own tendency1 had not continued to dominate our judgment--long after the plastic art itself had become entirely alien to our inner soul--we should not have waited till to-day to observe this distinctive character of the ,attic style4 ,no ,egyptian or ,chinese sculptor ever dreamed of using external anatomy to express his meaning4 ,in ,gothic image-work a language of the muscles is unheard of4 ,the human tracery that clothes the mighty ,gothic framework with a web of countless figures and reliefs 7,chartres cathedral has more than ten thousand such7 is not merely ornament2 as early as about #abjj it is employed for the expression of schemes and purposes far grander than even the grandest of ,classical plastic4 ,for these masses of figures constitute a tragic unit4 ,here1 by the ,north even earlier than by ,dante1 the historical feeling of the ,faustian soul--of which the deep sacrament of ,contrition is the spiritual expression and the rite of ,confession the grave teacher--is intensified to the tragic fullness of a world- drama4 ,that which ,joachim of ,floris1 at this very time1 was seeing in his ,apulian cell--the picture of the world1 not as ,cosmos1 but as a ,divine ,history and succession of three world-ages#cbg--the craftsmen were expressing at ,reims1 ,amiens and ,paris in serial presentation of it from the ,fall to the ,last ,judgment4 ,each of the scenes1 each of the great symbolic figures1 had its significant place in the sacred edifice1 each its rle in the immense world-poem4 ,then1 too1 each individual man came to feel how his life-course was fitted as ornament in the plan of ,divine history1 and to experience this personal connexion with it in the forms of ,contrition and ,confession4 ,and thus these bodies of stone are not mere servants of the architecture4 ,they have a deep and particular meaning of their own1 the same meaning as the memorial-tomb brings to expression with ever-increasing intensity from the ,royal ,tombs of ,st4 ,denis onward2 they speak of a personality4 ,just as ,classical man properly meant1 with his perfected working-out of superficial body 7for all the anatomical aspiration of the ,greek artist comes to that in the end71 to exhaust the whole essence of the living phenomenon in and by the rendering of its bounding surfaces1 so ,faustian man no less logically found the most genuine1 the only exhaustive1 expression of his life-feeling in the ,portrait4 ,the ,hellenic treatment of the nude is the great exceptional case2 in this and in this only has it led to an art of the high order4#cbh ,act and ,portrait have never hitherto been felt as constituting an opposition1 and consequently the full significance of their appearances in art-history has never been appreciated4 ,and yet it is in the conflict of these two form-ideals that the contrast of two worlds is first manifested in full4 ,there1 on the one hand1 an existence is made to show itself in the composition of the exterior structure2 here1 on the other hand1 the human interior1 the ,soul1 is made to speak of itself1 as the interior of a church speaks to us through its faade or face4 ,a mosque had no face1 and consequently the ,iconoclastic movement of the ,moslems and the ,paulicians--which under ,leo ,,iii spread to ,byzantium and beyond-- necessarily drove the portrait-element quite out of the arts of form1 so that thenceforward they possessed only a fixed stock of human arabesques4 ,in ,egypt the face of the statue was equivalent to the pylon1 the face of the temple-plan2 it was a mighty emergence out of the stone- mass of the body1 as we see in the 8,hyksos ,sphinx0 of ,tanis and the portrait of ,amenemhet ,,iii4 ,in ,china the face is like a landscape1 full of wrinkles and little signs that mean something4 ,but1 for us1 the portrait is musical4 ,the look1 the play of the mouth1 the pose of head and hands--these things are a fugue of the subtlest meaning1 a composition of many voices that sounds to the understanding beholder4 ,but in order to grasp the significance of the portraiture of the ,west more specifically in contrast with that of ,egypt and that of ,china1 we have to consider the deep change in the language of the ,west that began in ,merovingian times to foreshadow the dawn of a new life-feeling4 ,this change extended equally over the old ,german and the vulgar ,latin1 but it affected only the tongues spoken in the countries of the coming ,culture 7for instance1 ,norwegian and ,spanish1 but not ,rumanian74 ,the change would be inexplicable if we were to regard merely the spirit of these languages and their 8influence0 of one upon another2 the explanation is in the spirit of the mankind that raised a mere way of using words to the level of a symbol4 ,instead of sum1 ,gothic im1 we say ich bin1 ,i am1 je suis2 instead of fecisti1 we say tu habes factum1 tu as fait1 du habes gitn2 and again1 daz wp1 un homme1 man hat4 ,this has hitherto been a riddle#cbi because families of languages were considered as beings1 but the mystery is solved when we discover in the idiom the reflection of a soul4 ,the ,faustian soul is here beginning to remould for its own use grammatical material of the most varied provenance4 ,the coming of this specific 8,i0 is the first dawning of that personality-idea which was so much later to create the sacrament of ,contrition and personal absolution4 ,this 8ego habeo factum10 the insertion of the auxiliaries 8have0 and 8be0 between a doer and a deed1 in lieu of the 8feci0 which expresses activated body1 replaces the world of bodies by one of functions between centres of force1 the static syntax by a dynamic4 ,and this 8,i0 and 8,thou0 is the key to ,gothic portraiture4 ,a ,hellenistic portrait is the type of an attitude--a confession it is not1 either to the creator of it or to the understanding spectator4 ,but our portraits depict something sui generis1 once occurring and never recurring1 a life-history expressed in a moment1 a world-centre for which everything else is world-around1 exactly as the grammatical subject 8,i0 becomes the centre of force in the ,faustian sentence4 ,it has been shown how the experience of the extended has its origin in the living direction1 time1 destiny4 ,in the perfected 8being0 of the all-round nude body the depth-experience has been cut away1 but the 8look0 of a portrait leads this experience into the supersensuous infinite4 ,therefore the ,ancient art is an art of the near and tangible and timeless1 it prefers motives of brief1 briefest1 pause between two movements1 the last moment before ,myron's athlete throws the discus1 or the first moment after ,ponius's ,nike has alighted from the air1 when the swing of the body is ending and the streaming draperies have not yet fallen--attitudes devoid equally of duration and of direction1 disengaged from future and from past4 8,veni1 vidi1 vici0 is just such another attitude4 ,but in ,i--came1 ,i--saw1 ,i--conquered there is a becoming each time in the very build of the sentence4 ,the depth-experience is a becoming and effects a become1 signifies time and evokes space1 is at once cosmic and historical4 ,living direction marches to the horizon as to the future4 ,as early as #abcj the ,madonna of the ,st4 ,anne entrance of ,notre-,dame dreams of this future3 so1 later1 the ,cologne 8,madonna with the ,bean-blossom0 of ,meister ,wilhelm4 ,long before the ,moses of ,michelangelo1 the ,moses of ,klaus ,suter's well in the ,chartreuse of ,dijon meditates on destiny1 and even the ,sibyls of the ,sistine ,chapel are forestalled by those of ,giovanni ,pisano in ,sant' ,andrea at ,pistoia 7#acjj74 ,and1 lastly1 there are the figures on the ,gothic tombs--how they rest from the long journey of ,destiny and how completely they contrast with the timeless grave and gay that is represented on the stel of ,attic cemeteries4#ccj ,the ,western portraiture is endless in every sense1 for it begins to wake out of the stone from about #abjj and it has become completely music in the #agth ,century4 ,it takes its man not as a mere centre of the ,world-as-,nature which as phenomenon receives shape and significance from his being1 but1 above all1 as a centre of the ,world-as-,history4 ,the ,classical statue is a piece of present 8,nature0 and nothing besides4 ,the ,classical poetry is statuary in verse4 ,herein is the root of our feeling that ascribes to the ,greek an unreserved devotion to ,nature4 ,we shall never entirely shake off the idea that the ,gothic style as compared with the ,greek is 8unnatural40 ,of course it is1 for it is more than ,nature2 only we are unnecessarily loath to realize that it is a deficiency in the ,greek that our feeling has detected4 ,the ,western form-language is richer-- portraiture belongs to ,nature and to history4 ,a tomb by one of those great ,netherlanders who worked on the ,royal graves of ,st4 ,denis from #abfj1 a portrait by ,holbein or ,titian or ,rembrandt or ,goya1 is a biography1 and a self-portrait is a historical confession4 ,to make one's confession is not to avow an act but to lay before the ,judge the inner history of that act4 ,the act is patent1 its roots the personal secret4 ,when the ,protestant or the ,freethinker opposes auricular confession1 it never occurs to him that he is rejecting merely the outward form of the idea and not the idea itself4 ,he declines to confess to the priest1 but he confesses to himself1 to a friend1 or to all and sundry4 ,the whole of ,northern poetry is one outspoken confession4 ,so are the portraits of ,rembrandt and the music of ,beethoven4 ,what ,raphael and ,calderon and ,haydn told to the priests1 these men put into the language of their works4 ,one who is forced to be silent because the greatness of form that can take in even the ultimate things has been denied him 444 goes under like ,hlderlin4 ,western man lives in the consciousness of his becoming and his eyes are constantly upon past and future4 ,the ,greek lives point-wise1 ahistorically1 somatically4 ,no ,greek would have been capable of a genuine self-criticism4 ,as the phenomenon of the nude statue is the completely ahistoric copy of a man1 so the ,western self- portrait is the exact equivalent of the 8,werther0 or 8,tasso0 autobiography4 ,to the ,classical both are equally and wholly alien4 ,there is nothing so impersonal as ,greek art2 that ,scopas or ,polycletus should make an image of himself is something quite inconceivable4 ,looking at the work of ,phidias1 of ,polycletus1 or of any master later than the ,persian ,wars1 do we not see in the doming of the brow1 the lips1 the set of the nose1 the blind eyes1 the expression of entirely non-personal1 plantlike1 soulless vitality8 ,and may we not ask ourselves whether this is the form-language that is capable even of hinting at an inner experience8 ,michelangelo devoted himself with all passion to the study of anatomy1 but the phenomenal body that he works out is always the expression of the activity of all bones1 sinews and organs of the inside2 without deliberate intention1 the living that is under the skin comes out in the phenomenon4 ,it is a physiognomy1 and not a system1 of muscles that he calls to life4 ,but this means at once that the personal destiny and not the material body has become the starting- point of the form-feeling4 ,there is more psychology 7and less 8,nature07 in the arm of one of his ,slaves#cca than there is in the whole head of ,praxiteles's ,hermes4#ccb ,myron's ,discobolus1#ccc on the other hand1 renders the exterior form purely as itself1 without relation of any sort to the inner organs1 let alone to any 8soul40 ,one has only to take the best work of this period and compare it with the old ,egyptian statues1 say the 8,village ,sheikh0#ccd or ,king ,phiops 7,pepi71 or again with ,donatello's 8,david10#cce to understand at once what it means to recognize a body purely with reference to its material boundaries4 ,everything in a head that might allow something intimate or spiritual to become phenomenal the ,greeks 7and markedly this same ,myron7 most carefully avoid4 ,once this characteristic has struck us1 the best heads of the great age sooner or later begin to pall4 ,seen in the perspective of our world-feeling1 they are stupid and dull1 wanting in the biographical element1 devoid of any destiny4 ,it was not out of caprice that that age objected so strongly to votive images4 ,the statues of ,olympian victors are representatives of a fighting attitude4 ,right down to ,lysippus there is not one single character-head1 but only masks4 ,again1 considering the figure as a whole1 with what skill the ,greeks avoid giving any impression that the head is the favoured part of the body6 ,that is why these heads are so small1 so un-significant in their pose1 so un-thoroughly modelled4 ,always they are formed as a part of the body like arms and legs1 never as the seat and symbol of an 8,i40 ,at last1 even1 we come to regard the feminine 7not to say effeminate7 look of many of these heads of the #eth1 and still more of the #dth1 ,centuries#ccf as the--no doubt unintentional--outcome of an effort to get rid of personal character entirely4 ,we should probably be justified in concluding that the ideal facial type of this art--which was certainly not an art for the people1 as the later naturalistic portrait-sculpture at once shows--was arrived at by rejecting all elements of an individual or historical character2 that is1 by steadily narrowing down the field of view to the pure ,euclidean4 ,the portraiture of the great age of ,baroque1 on the contrary1 applies to historical distance all those means of pictorial counterpoint that we already know as the fabric of their spatial distance--the brown-dipped atmosphere1 the perspective1 the dynamic brush-stroke1 the quivering colour-tones and lights--and with their aid succeeds in treating body as something intrinsically non-material1 as the highly expressive envelope of a space-commanding ego4 7,this problem the fresco-technique1 ,euclidean that it is1 is powerless to solve47 ,the whole painting has only one theme1 a soul4 ,observe the rendering of the hands and the brow in ,rembrandt 7e4g41 in the etching of ,burgomaster ,six or the portrait of an architect at ,cassel71 and again1 even so late1 in ,mares and ,leibl#ccg-- spiritual to the point of dematerializing them1 visionary1 lyrical4 ,compare them with the hand and brow of an ,apollo or a ,poseidon of the ,periclean age6 ,the ,gothic1 too1 had deeply and sincerely felt this4 ,it had draped body1 not for its own sake but for the sake of developing in the ornament of the drapery a form-language consonant with the language of the head and the hands in a fugue of ,life4 ,so1 too1 with the relations of the voices in counterpoint and1 in ,baroque1 those of the 8continuo0 to the upper voices of the orchestra4 ,in ,rembrandt there is always interplay of bass melody in the costume and motives in the head4 ,like the ,gothic draped figure1 the old ,egyptian statue denies the intrinsic importance of body4 ,as the former1 by treating the clothing in a purely ornamental fashion1 reinforces the expressiveness of head and hands1 so the latter1 with a grandeur of idea never since equalled 7at any rate in sculpture71 holds the body--as it holds a pyramid or an obelisk--to a mathematical scheme and confines the personal element to the head4 ,the fall of draperies was meant in ,athens to reveal the sense of the body1 in the ,north to conceal it2 in the one case the fabric becomes body1 in the other it becomes music4 ,and from this deep contrast springs the silent battle that goes on in high-,renaissance work between the consciously-intended and the unconsciously-insistent ideals of the artist1 a battle in which the first--anti-,gothic--often wins the superficial1 but the second--,gothic becoming ,baroque--invariably wins the fundamental victory4 ,,ii ,the opposition of ,apollinian and ,faustian ideals of ,humanity may now be stated concisely4 ,act and ,portrait are to one another as body and space1 instant and history1 foreground and background1 ,euclidean and analytical number1 proportion and relation4 ,the ,statue is rooted in the ground1 ,music 7and the ,western portrait is music1 soul woven of colour-tones7 invades and pervades space without limit4 ,the fresco-painting is tied to the wall1 trained on it1 but the oil-painting1 the 8picture0 on canvas or board or other table1 is free from limitations of place4 ,the ,apollinian form-language reveals only the become1 the ,faustian shows above all a becoming4 ,it is for this reason that child-portraits and family groups are amongst the finest and most intimately right achievements of the ,western art4 ,in the ,attic sculpture this motive is entirely absent1 and although in ,hellenistic times the playful motive of the ,cupid or ,putto came into favour1 it was expressly as a being different from the other beings and not at all as a person growing or becoming4 ,the child links past and future4 ,in every art of human representation that has a claim to symbolic import1 it signifies duration in the midst of phenomenal change1 the endlessness of ,life4 ,but the ,classical ,life exhausted itself in the completeness of the moment4 ,the individual shut his eyes to time- distances2 he comprehended in his thought the men like himself whom he saw around him1 but not the coming generations2 and therefore there has never been an art that so emphatically ignored the intimate representation of children as the ,greek art did4 ,consider the multitude of child-figures that our own art has produced from early ,gothic to dying ,rococo--and in the ,renaissance above all--and find if you can in ,classical art right down to ,alexander one work of importance that intentionally sets by the side of the worked-out body of man or woman any child-element with existence still before it4 ,endless ,becoming is comprehended in the idea of ,motherhood1 ,woman as ,mother is ,time and is ,destiny4 ,just as the mysterious act of depth- experience fashions1 out of sensation1 extension and world1 so through motherhood the bodily man is made an individual member of this world1 in which thereupon he has a ,destiny4 ,all symbols of ,time and ,distance are also symbols of maternity4 ,care is the root-feeling of future1 and all care is motherly4 ,it expresses itself in the formation and the idea of ,family and ,state and in the principle of ,inheritance which underlies both4 ,care may be either affirmed or denied--one can live care-filled or care-free4 ,similarly1 ,time may be looked at in the light of eternity or in the light of the instant1 and the drama of begetting and bearing or the drama of the nursing mother with her child may be chosen as the symbol of ,life to be made apprehensible by all the means of art4 ,india and the ,classical took the first alternative1 ,egypt and the ,west the second4#cch ,there is something of pure unrelated present in the ,phallus and the ,lingam1 and in the phenomenon of the ,doric column and the ,attic statue as well4 ,but the nursing ,mother points into the future1 and she is just the figure that is entirely missing in the ,classical art4 ,she could not possibly be rendered in the style of ,phidias4 ,one feels that this form is opposed to the sense of the phenomenon4 ,but in the religious art of the ,west1 the representation of ,motherhood is the noblest of all tasks4 ,as ,gothic dawns1 the ,theotokos of the ,byzantine changes into the ,mater ,dolorosa1 the ,mother of ,god4 ,in ,german mythology she appears 7doubtless from ,carolingian times only7 as ,frigga and ,frau ,holle4 ,the same feeling comes out in beautiful ,minnesinger fancies like ,lady ,sun1 ,lady ,world1 ,lady ,love4 ,the whole panorama of early ,gothic mankind is pervaded by something maternal1 something caring and patient1 and ,germanic-,catholic ,christianity--when it had ripened into full consciousness of itself and in one impulse settled its sacraments and created its ,gothic ,style--placed not the suffering ,redeemer but the suffering ,mother in the centre of its world-picture4 ,about #abej1 in the great epic of statuary of ,reims ,cathedral1 the principal place in the centre of the main porch1 which in the cathedrals of ,paris and ,amiens was still that of ,christ1 was assigned to the ,madonna2 and it was about this time1 too1 that the ,tuscan school at ,arezzo and ,siena 7,guido da ,siena7 began to infuse a suggestion of mother-love into the conventional ,byzantine ,theotokos4 ,and after that the ,madonnas of ,raphael led the way to the purely human type of the ,baroque1 the mother in the sweetheart-- ,ophelia1 ,gretchen--whose secret reveals itself in the glorious close of ,faust ,,ii and in its fusion with the early ,gothic ,mary4 ,as against these types1 the imagination of the ,greeks conceived goddesses who are either ,amazons like ,athene or hetr like ,aphrodite4 ,in the root-feeling which produced the ,classical type of womanhood1 fruitfulness has a vegetal character--in this connexion as in others the word exhaustively expresses the meaning of the phenomenon4 ,think of the masterpieces of this art1 the three mighty female bodies of the ,east ,pediment of the ,parthenon1#cci and compare with them that noblest image of a mother1 ,raphael's ,sistine ,madonna4 ,in the latter1 all bodiliness has disappeared4 ,she is all distance and space4 ,the ,helen of the 8,iliad10 compared with ,kriemhild1 the motherly comrade of ,siegfried1 is a courtesan1 while ,antigone and ,clytmnestra are ,amazons4 ,how strangely even schylus passes over in silence the mother-tragic in ,clytmnestra6 ,the figure of ,medea is nothing less than the mythic inverse of the ,faustian 8,mater ,dolorosa02 her tragic is not one of future or children1 it is with her lover1 the symbol of wholly-present life1 that her universe collapses4 ,kriemhild revenges her unborn children--it is this future that has been murdered in her--but ,medea revenges only a past happiness4 ,when the ,classical sculpture1 late art that it is1#cdj arrives at secularizing#cda the pictures of the god1 it creates the antique ideal of female form in a ,cnidian ,aphrodite--merely a very beautiful object1 not a character or an ego but a piece of ,nature4 ,and in the end ,praxiteles finds the hardihood to represent a goddess entirely naked4 ,this innovation met with severe criticism1 for it was felt to be a sign of the decline of the ,classical world-feeling2 suitable as it was to erotic symbolism1 it was in sharp contradiction with the dignity of the older ,greek religion4 ,but exactly then1 too1 a portrait-art ventured to show itself1 simultaneously with the invention of a form that has never since been forgotten1 the bust4 ,unfortunately 7here as elsewhere7 art-research has made the mistake of discovering in this the 8beginnings0 of 8the0 portrait4 ,in reality1 whereas a ,gothic visage speaks of an individual destiny1 and even an ,egyptian--in spite of the rigid formalism of the figure--has the recognizable traits of the individual person 7since otherwise it could not serve as dwelling for the higher soul of the dead1 his ,ka71 the ,greeks developed a taste for typical representations just as the contemporary comedy produced standard men and situations1 to which any names whatever could be affixed4 ,the 8portrait0 is distinguishable not by personal traits but by the label only4 ,this is the general custom amongst children and primitive men1 and it is connected with name-magic4 ,the name serves to capture some essence of what is named and to bind it as an object which thereupon becomes specific for every beholder4 ,the statues of the ,tyrannicides1#cdb the 7,etruscan7 statues of ,kings in the ,capitol and the 8iconic0 portraits of victors at ,olympia must have been portraits of this sort1 viz41 not likenesses but figures with names4 ,but now1 in the later phase1 there was an additional factor--the tendency of the time towards genre and applied art1 which produced also the ,corinthian column4 ,what the sculptors worked out was the types of life's stage1 the which we mistranslate by character but which is really the kinds and modes of public behaviour and attitude2 thus there is 8the0 grave ,commander1 8the0 tragic poet1 8the0 passion-torn actor1 8the0 absorbed philosopher4 ,here is the real key to the understanding of the celebrated ,hellenistic portraiture1 for which the quite unjustifiable claim has been set up that its products are expressions of a deep spiritual life4 ,it is not of much moment whether the work bears the name of someone long dead--the ,sophocles#cdc was sculptured about #cdj--or of a living man like the ,pericles of ,cresilas4#cdd ,it was only in the #dth ,century that ,demetrius of ,alopeke began to emphasize individual traits in the external build of the man and ,lysistratus the brother of ,lysippus to copy 7as ,pliny tells us7 a plaster-of-paris cast of the subject's face without much subsequent modification4 ,and how little such portraiture is portraiture in ,rembrandt's sense should surely have been obvious to anyone4 ,the soul is missing4 ,the brilliant fidelity of ,roman busts especially has been mistaken for physiognomic depth4 ,but what really distinguishes the higher work from this craftsman's and virtuoso's work is an intention that is the precise opposite of the artistic intention of a ,mares or a ,leibl4 ,that is1 in such work the important and significant is not brought out1 it is put in4 ,an example of this is seen in the ,demosthenes statue1#cde the artist of which possibly saw the orator in life4 ,here the particulars of the body- surface are emphasized1 perhaps over-emphasized 78true to ,nature10 they called this then71 but into the disposition so conceived he works the character-type of the ,serious ,orator which we meet again on different bases in the portraits of schines and ,lysias at ,naples4 ,that is truth to life1 undoubtedly1 but it is truth to life as ,classical man felt it1 typical and impersonal4 ,we have contemplated the result with our eyes1 and have accordingly misunderstood it4 sp #b ,,iii ,in the oil-painting age that followed the end of the ,renaissance1 the depth of an artist can be accurately measured by the content of his portraits4 ,to this rule there is hardly an exception4 ,all forms in the picture 7whether single1 or in scenes1 groups or masses7#cdf are fundamentally felt as portraits2 whether they are meant to be so or not is immaterial1 for the individual painter has no choice in the matter4 ,nothing is more instructive than to observe how under the hands of a real ,faustian man even the ,act transforms itself into a portrait- study4#cdg ,take two ,german masters like ,lucas ,cranach and ,tilmann ,riemenschneider who were untouched by any theory and 7in contrast to ,drer1 whose inclination to sthetic subtlety made him pliant before alien tendencies7 worked in unqualified navet4 ,they seldom depict the ,act1 and when they do so1 they show themselves entirely unable to concentrate their expression on the immediately-present plane-specified bodiliness4 ,the meaning of the human phenomenon1 and therefore of the representation of it1 remains entirely in the head1 and is consistently physiognomical rather than anatomical4 ,and the same may be said of ,drer's ,lucrezia1 notwithstanding his ,italian studies and the quite opposite intention4 ,a ,faustian act is a contradiction in itself--hence the character-heads that we so often see on feeble act-representations 7as far back as the ,job of old ,french cathedral-sculpture7 and hence also the laborious1 forced1 equivocal character that arouses our dislike in too manifest efforts to placate the ,classical ideal--sacrifices offered up not by the soul but by the cultivated understanding4 ,in the whole of painting after ,leonardo there is not one important or distinctive work that derives its meaning from the ,euclidean being of the nude body4 ,it is mere incomprehension to quote ,rubens here1 and to compare his unbridled dynamism of swelling bodies in any respect whatever with the art of ,praxiteles and even ,scopas4 ,it is owing precisely to his splendid sensuality that he is so far from the static of ,signorelli's bodies4 ,if there ever was an artist who could put a maximum of 8becoming0 into the beauty of naked bodies1 who could treat bodily floridness historically and convey the 7utterly un-,hellenic7 idea of an inexhaustible outflowing from within1 it was ,rubens4 ,compare the horse's head from the ,parthenon pediment#cdh with his horses' heads in the ,battle of the ,amazons1#cdi and the deep metaphysical contrast between the two conceptions of the same phenomenal element is felt at once4 ,in ,rubens 7recalling once more the characteristic opposition of ,apollinian and ,faustian mathematics7 the body is not magnitude but relation4 ,what matters is not the regimen of its external structure but the fullness of life that streams out of it and the stride of its life along the road from youth to age1 where the ,last ,judgment that turns bodies into flames takes up the motive and intertwines it in the quivering web of active space4 ,such a synthesis is entirely un- ,classical2 but even nymphs1 when it is ,corot who paints them1 are likewise shapes ready to dissolve into colour-patches reflecting endless space4 ,such was not the intention of the ,classical artist when he depicted the ,act4 ,at the same time1 the ,greek form-ideal--the self-contained unit of being expressed in sculpture--has equally to be distinguished from that of the merely beautiful bodies on which painters from ,giorgione to ,boucher were always exercising their cleverness1 which are fleshly still-life1 genre- work expressing merely a certain gay sensuousness 7e4g41 8,rubens's wife in a fur cloak40#cej7 and in contrast with the high ethical significance of the ,classical ,act have almost no symbolic force4#cea ,magnificent as these men's painting is1 therefore1 they have not succeeded in reaching the highest levels either of portraiture or of space-representation in landscape4 ,their brown and their green and their perspective lack 8religiousness10 future1 ,destiny4 ,they are masters only in the domain of elementary form1 and when it has actualized this their art is exhausted4 ,it is they who constitute the substance-element in the development-history of a great art4 ,but when a great artist pressed on beyond them to a form that was to be capable of embracing the whole meaning of the world1 he had necessarily to push to perfection the treatment of the nude body if his world was the ,classical1 and not to do so if it was our ,north4 ,rembrandt never once painted an ,act1 in this foreground sense1 and if ,leonardo1 ,titian1 ,velasquez 7and1 among moderns1 ,menzel1 ,leibl1 ,mares and ,manet7 did so at all1 it was very rarely2 and even then1 so to say1 they painted bodies as landscapes4 ,the portrait is ever the touchstone4#ceb ,but no one would ever judge masters like ,signorelli1 ,mantegna1 ,botticelli or even ,verrocchio1 by the quality of their portraits4 ,the equestrian statue of ,can ,grande#cec of #accj is in a far higher sense a portrait than the ,bartolommeo ,colleoni is2 and ,raphael's portraits 7the best of which e4g41 ,pope ,julius ,,ii were done under the influence of the ,venetian ,sebastian del ,piombo71 could be ignored altogether in an appreciation of his creative work4 ,it is only with ,leonardo that the portrait begins to count seriously4 ,between fresco-technique and oil- painting there is a subtle opposition4 ,in fact1 ,giovanni ,bellini's 8,doge0 7,loredano7#ced is the first great oil-portrait4 ,here too the character of the ,renaissance as a protest against the ,faustian spirit of the ,west betrays itself4 ,the episode of ,florence amounts to an attempt to replace the ,portrait of the ,gothic style 7as distinct from the 8ideal0 portrait of late-,classical art1 which was well known through the ,csar-busts7 by the ,act as human symbol4 ,logically1 therefore1 the entire art of the ,renaissance should be wanting in the physiognomic traits4 ,and yet the strong undercurrent of ,faustian art-will kept alive1 not only in the smaller towns and schools of middle ,italy1 but also in the instincts of the great masters themselves1 a ,gothic tradition that was never interrupted4 ,nay1 the physiognomic of ,gothic art even made itself master of the ,southern nude body1 alien as this element was4 ,its creations are not bodies that speak to us through static definition of their bounding surfaces4 ,what we see is a dumb-show that spreads from the face over all parts of the body1 and the appreciative eye detects in this very nudity of ,tuscany a deep identity with the drapery of the ,gothic4 ,both are envelopes1 neither a limitation4 ,the reclining nude figures of ,michelangelo in the ,medici chapel are wholly and entirely the visage and the utterance of a soul4 ,but1 above all1 every head1 painted or modelled1 became of itself a portrait1 even when the heads were of gods or saints4 ,the whole of the portrait-work of ,a4 ,rossellino1 ,donatello1 ,benedetto de ,maiano1 ,mino da ,fiesole1 stands so near in spirit to that of ,van ,eyck1 ,memlinc and the ,early ,rhenish masters as to be often indistinguishable from theirs4 ,there is not and there cannot be1 ,i maintain1 any genuine ,renaissance portraiture1 that is1 a portraiture in which just that artistic sentiment which differentiates the ,court of the ,palazzo ,strozzi from the ,loggia dei ,lanzi and ,perugino from ,cimabue applies itself to the rendering of a visage4 ,in architecture1 little as the new work was ,apollinian in spirit1 it was possible to create anti-,gothically1 but in portraiture--no4 ,it was too specifically ,faustian a symbol4 ,michelangelo declined the task3 passionately devoted as he was to his pursuit of a plastic ideal1 he would have considered it an abdication to busy himself with portraiture4 ,his ,brutus bust is as little of a portrait as his de' ,medici1 whereas ,botticelli's portrait of the latter is actual1 and frankly ,gothic to boot4 ,michelangelo's heads are allegories in the style of dawning ,baroque1 and their resemblance even to ,hellenistic work is only superficial4 ,and however highly we may value the ,uzzano bust of ,donatello#cee--which is perhaps the most important achievement of that age and that circle--it will be admitted that by the side of the portraits of the ,venetians it hardly counts4 ,it is well worth noting that this overcoming of1 or at least this desire to overcome1 the ,gothic portrait with the ,classical ,act--the deeply historical and biographical form by the completely ahistoric--appears simultaneously with1 and in association with1 a decline in the capacity for self-examination and artistic confession in the ,goethian sense4 ,the true ,renaissance man did not know what spiritual development meant4 ,he managed to live entirely outwardly1 and this was the great good fortune and success of the ,quattrocento4 ,between ,dante's 8,vita ,nuova0 and ,michelangelo's sonnets there is no poetic confession1 no self-portrait of the high order4 ,the ,renaissance artist and humanist is the one single type of ,western man for whom the word 8loneliness0 remained unmeaning4 ,his life accomplished its course in the light of a courtly existence4 ,his feelings and impressions were all public1 and he had neither secret discontents nor reserves1 while the life of the great contemporary ,netherlanders1 on the contrary1 moved on in the shadow of their works4 ,is it perhaps permissible to add that it was because of this that that other symbol of historic distance1 duration1 care and ponderation1 the ,state1 also disappeared from the purview of the ,renaissance1 between ,dante and ,michelangelo8 ,in 8fickle ,florence0--whose great men one and all were cruelly maltreated and whose incapacity for political creation seems1 by the side of other ,western state-forms1 to border on sheer bizarrerie--and1 more generally1 wherever the anti-,gothic 7which in this connexion means anti-dynastic7 spirit displayed itself vigorously in art and public life1 the ,state made way for a truly ,hellenic sorriness of ,medicis1 ,sforzas1 ,borgias1 ,malatestas1 and waste republics4 ,only that city where sculpture gained no foothold1 where the ,southern music was at home1 where ,gothic and ,baroque joined hands in ,giovanni ,bellini and the ,renaissance remained an affair of occasional dilettantism1 had an art of portraiture and therewith a subtle diplomacy and a will to political duration--,venice4 ,,iv ,the ,renaissance was born of defiance1 and therefore it lacked depth1 width and sureness of creative instinct4 ,it is the one and only epoch which was more consistent in theory than in performance and--in sharp contrast to ,gothic and ,baroque--the only one in which theoretically- formulated intention preceded 7often enough surpassed7 the ability to perform4 ,but the fact that the individual arts were forced to become satellites of a ,classicist sculpture could not in the last analysis alter the essence of them1 and could only impoverish their store of inward possibilities4 ,for natures of medium size1 the ,renaissance theme was not too big2 it was attractive indeed from its very plainness1 and we miss consequently that ,gothic wrestling with overpowering imprecise problems which distinguishes the ,rhenish and ,flemish schools4 ,the seductive ease and clarity of the ,renaissance rests very largely upon evasion--the evasion of deeper reluctances by the aid of speciously simple rule4 ,to men of the inwardness of ,memlinc or the power of ,grnewald such conditions as those of the ,tuscan form-world would have been fatal4 ,they could not have developed their strength in and through it1 but only against it4 ,seeing as we do no weakness in the form of the ,renaissance masters1 we are very prone to overrate their humanity4 ,in ,gothic1 and again in ,baroque1 an entirely great artist was fulfilling his art in deepening and completing its language1 but in ,renaissance he was necessarily only destroying it4 8 ,so it was in the cases of ,leonardo1 ,raphael and ,michelangelo1 the only really great men of ,italy after ,dante4 ,is it not curious that between the masters of the ,gothic-- who were nothing but silent workers in their art and yet achieved the very highest that could be achieved within its convention and its field-- and the ,venetians and ,dutch of #afjj--who again were purely workers--there should be these three men who were not 8sculptors0 or painters0 but thinkers1 and thinkers who of necessity busied themselves not merely with all the available means of artistic expression but with a thousand other things besides1 ever restless and dissatisfied1 in their effort to get at the real essence and aim of their being8 ,does it not mean--that in the ,renaissance they could not 8find themselves08 ,each in his own fashion1 each under his own tragic illusion1 these three giants strove to be 8,classical0 in the ,medicean sense2 and yet it was they themselves who in one and another way--,raphael in respect of the line1 ,leonardo in respect of the surface1 ,michelangelo in respect of the body--shattered the dream4 ,in them the misguided soul is finding its way back to its ,faustian starting-points4 ,what they intended was to substitute proportion for relation1 drawing for light-and-air effect1 ,euclidean body for pure space4 ,but neither they nor others of their time produced a ,euclidean-static sculpture--for that was possible once only1 in ,athens4 ,in all their work one feels a secret music1 in all their forms the movement-quality and the tending into distances and depths4 ,they are on the way1 not to ,phidias but to ,palestrina1 and they have come thither not from ,roman ruins but from the still music of the cathedral4 ,raphael thawed the ,florentine fresco1 and ,michelangelo the statue1 and ,leonardo dreamed already of ,rembrandt and ,bach4 ,the higher and more conscientious the effort to actualize the ideas of the age1 the more intangible it became4 ,gothic and ,baroque1 however1 are something that is1 while ,renaissance is only an ideal1 unattainable like all ideals1 that floats over the will of a period4 ,giotto is a ,gothic1 and ,titian is a ,baroque1 artist4 ,michelangelo would be a ,renaissance artist1 but fails4 ,visibly1 the plastic in him1 for all its ambitiousness1 is overpowered by the pictorial spirit--and a pictorial spirit1 too1 in which the ,northern space-perspective is implicit4 ,even as soon as #aebj the beautiful proportion1 the pure rule--that is1 the conscious ,classical--are felt as frigid and formal4 ,the cornice which he put on to ,sangallo's purely 8,classical0 faade of the ,palazzo ,farnese was no doubt1 from the strictly ,renaissance standpoint1 a disfigurement1 but he himself and many with him felt it to be far superior to the achievements of ,greeks and ,romans4 ,as ,petrarch was the first1 so ,michelangelo was the last ,florentine who gave himself up passionately to the ,antique4 ,but it was no longer an entire devotion4 ,the ,franciscan ,christianity of ,fra ,angelico1 with its subtle gentleness and its quiet1 reflective piety--to which the ,southern refinement of ripe ,renaissance work owes far more than has been supposed#cef--;came now to its end4 ,the majestic spirit of the ,counter- ,reformation1 massive1 animated1 gorgeous1 lives already in ,michelangelo4 ,there is something in ,renaissance work which at the time passed for being 8,classical0 but is really only a deliberately noble dress for the ,christian-,german world-feeling2 as we have already mentioned1 the combination of round-arch and pillar1 that favourite ,florentine motive1 was of ,syrian origin4 ,but compare the pseudo-,corinthian column of the #aeth ,century with the columns of a real ,roman ruin--remembering that these ruins were known and on the spot6 ,michelangelo alone would tolerate no half-and-half4 ,clarity he wanted and he would have4 ,the question of form was for him a religious matter2 for him 7and only for him7 it was all or nothing4 ,and this is the explanation of the lonely fearful wrestlings of this man1 surely the unhappiest figure in our art2 of the fragmentary1 the tortured1 the unsatisfied1 the terribile in his forms that frightened his contemporaries4 ,the one half of his nature drew him towards the ,classical and therefore to sculpture--we all know the effect produced upon him by the recently-discovered ,laocon4 ,no man ever made a more honest effort than he did to find a way with the chisel into a buried world4 ,everything that he created he meant sculpturally-- sculpturally1 that is1 in a sense of the word that he and he alone stood for4 8,the world1 presented in the great ,pan10 the element which ,goethe meant to render when he brought ,helena into the ,second ,part of ,faust1 the ,apollinian world in all its powerful sensuous corporal presence--that was what ,michelangelo was striving with all his might to capture and to fix in artistic being when he was painting the ,sistine ceiling4 ,every resource of fresco--the big contours1 the vast surfaces1 the immense nearness of naked shapes1 the materiality of colour--was here for the last time strained to the utmost to liberate the paganism1 the high- ,renaissance paganism1 that was in him4 ,but his second soul1 the soul of ,gothic-,christian ,dante and of the music of great expanses1 is pulling in the opposite sense2 his scheme for the ensemble is manifestly metaphysical in spirit4 ,his was the last effort1 repeated again and again1 to put the entirety of the artist-personality into the language of stone4 ,but the ,euclidean material failed him4 ,his attitude to it was not that of the ,greek4 ,in the very character of its being the chiselled statue contradicts the world-feeling that tries to find something by1 and not to possess something in1 its art-works4 ,for ,phidias1 marble is the cosmic stuff that is crying for form4 ,the story of ,pygmalion and ,galatea expresses the very essence of that art4 ,but for ,michelangelo marble was the foe to be subdued1 the prison out of which he must deliver his idea as ,siegfried delivered ,brunhilde4 ,everyone knows his way of setting to work4 ,he did not approach the rough block coolly from every aspect of the intended form1 but attacked it with a passionate frontal attack1 hewing into it as though into space1 cutting away the material layer by layer and driving deeper and deeper until his form emerged1 while the members slowly developed themselves out of the quarry4 ,never perhaps has there been a more open expression of world-dread in the presence of the become--,death--of the will to overpower and capture it in vibrant form4 ,there is no other artist of the ,west whose relation to the stone has been that of ,michelangelo--at once so intimate and so violently masterful4 ,it is his symbol of ,death4 ,in it dwells the hostile principle that his daemonic nature is always striving to overpower1 whether he is cutting statues or piling great buildings out of it4#ceg ,he is the one sculptor of his age who dealt only with marble4 ,bronze1 as cast1 allows the modeller to compromise with pictorial tendencies1 and it appealed therefore to other ,renaissance artists and to the softer ,greeks4 ,the ,giant stood aloof from it4 ,the instantaneous bodily posture was what the ,classical sculptor created1 and of this ,faustian man was incapable4 ,it is here just as it is in the matter of love1 in which ,faustian man discovers1 not primarily the act of union between man and woman1 but the great love of ,dante and beyond that the caring ,mother4 ,michelangelo's erotic--which is that of ,beethoven also--is as un-,classical as it is possible to be4 ,it stands sub specie ternitatis and not under that of sense and the moment4 ,he produced acts--a sacrifice to the ,hellenic idol--but the soul in them denies or overmasters the visible form4 ,he wills infinity as the ,greek willed proportion and rule1 he embraces past and future as the ,greek embraced present4 ,the ,classical eye absorbs plastic form into itself1 but ,michelangelo saw with the spiritual eye and broke through the foreground-language of immediate sensuousness4 ,and inevitably1 in the long run1 he destroyed the conditions for this art4 ,marble became too trivial for his will-to-form4 ,he ceased to be sculptor and turned architect4 ,in full old age1 when he was producing only wild fragments like the ,rondanini ,madonna and hardly cutting his figures out of the rough at all1 the musical tendency of his artistry broke through4 ,in the end the impulse towards contrapuntal form was no longer to be repressed and1 dissatisfied through and through with the art upon which he had spent his life1 yet dominated still by the unquenchable will to self-expression1 he shattered the canon of ,renaissance architecture and created the ,roman ,baroque4 ,for relations of material and form he substituted the contest of force and mass4 ,he grouped the columns in sheaves or else pushed them away into niches4 ,he broke up the storeys with huge pilasters and gave the faade a sort of surging and thrusting quality4 ,measure yielded to melody1 the static to the dynamic4 ,and thus ,faustian music enlisted in its service the chief of all the other arts4 ,with ,michelangelo the history of ,western sculpture is at an end4 ,what of it there was after him was mere misunderstandings or reminiscences4 ,his real heir was ,palestrina4 ,leonardo speaks another language4 ,in essentials his spirit reached forward into the following century1 and he was in nowise bound1 as ,michelangelo was bound by every tie of heart1 to the ,tuscan ideal4 ,he alone had neither the ambition to be sculptor nor the ambition to be architect4 ,it was a strange illusion of the ,renaissance that the ,hellenic feeling and the ,hellenic cult of the exterior structure could be got at by way of anatomical studies4 ,but when ,leonardo studied anatomy it was not1 as in ,michelangelo's case1 foreground anatomy1 the topography of human surfaces1 studied for the sake of plastic1 but physiology studied for the inward secrets4 ,while ,michelangelo tried to force the whole meaning of human existence into the language of the living body1 ,leonardo's studies show the exact opposite4 ,his much- admired sfumato is the first sign of the repudiation of corporeal bounds1 in the name of space1 and as such it is the starting-point of ,impressionism4 ,leonardo begins with the inside1 the spiritual space within us1 and not with the considered definition-line1 and when he ends 7that is1 if he ends at all and does not leave the picture unfinished71 the substance of colour lies like a mere breathing over the real structure of the picture1 which is something incorporeal and indescribable4 ,raphael's paintings fall into planes in which he disposes his well-ordered groups1 and he closes off the whole with a well- proportioned background4 ,but ,leonardo knows only one space1 wide and eternal1 and his figures1 as it were1 float therein4 ,the one puts inside a frame a sum of individual near things1 the other a portion cut out of the infinite4 ,leonardo discovered the circulation of the blood4 ,it was no ,renaissance spirit that brought him to that--on the contrary1 the whole course of his thought took him right outside the conceptions of his age4 ,neither ,michelangelo nor ,raphael could have done it1 for their painter's anatomy looks only at the form and position1 not the function1 of the parts4 ,in mathematical language1 it is stereometry as against analysis4 ,did not the ,renaissance find it quite sufficient preparation for great painted scenes to study corpses1 suppressing the becoming in favour of the become and calling on the dead to make ,classical accessible to ,northern creative energy8 ,but ,leonardo investigated the life in the body as ,rubens did1 and not the body-in-itself as ,signorelli did4 ,his discovery was contemporary with that of ,columbus1 and the two have a deep affinity1 for they signify the victory of the infinite over the material limitedness of the tangibly present4 ,would a ,greek ever have concerned himself with questions like theirs8 ,the ,greeks inquired as little into the interior of their own organization as they sought for the sources of the ,nile2 these were problems that might have jeopardized the ,euclidean constitution of their being4 ,the ,baroque1 on the other hand1 is truly the period of the great discoveries4 ,the very word 8discovery0 has something bluntly un-,classical in it4 ,classical man took good care not to take the cover1 the material wrapping1 off anything cosmic1 but to do just this is the most characteristic impulse of a ,faustian nature4 ,the discoveries of the ,new ,world1 the circulation of the blood1 and the ,copernican universe were achieved almost simultaneously and1 at bottom1 are completely equivalent2 and the discovery of gunpowder 7that is1 the long-range weapon#ceh7 and of printing 7the long-range script7 were little earlier4 ,leonardo was a discoverer through-and-through1 and discovery was the sum in one word of his whole nature4 ,brush1 chisel1 dissecting-knife1 pencil for calculating and compasses for drawing--all were for him of equal importance4 ,they were for him what the ,mariner's ,compass was for ,columbus4 ,when ,raphael completes with colour the sharp-drawn outline he asserts the corporeal phenomenon in every brush-stroke1 but ,leonardo1 in his red-chalk sketches and his backgrounds reveals aerial secrets with every line4 ,he was the first1 too1 who set his mind to work on aviation4 ,to fly1 to free one's self from earth1 to lose one's self in the expanse of the universe--is not this ambition ,faustian in the highest degree8 ,is it not in fact the fulfilment of our dreams8 ,has it never been observed how the ,christian legend became in ,western painting a glorious transfiguration of this motive8 ,all the pictured ascents into heaven and falls into hell1 the divine figures floating above the clouds1 the blissful detachment of angels and saints1 the insistent emphasis upon freedom from earth's heaviness1 are emblems of soul-flight1 peculiar to the art of the ,faustian1 utterly remote from that of the ,byzantine4 ,v ,the transformation of ,renaissance fresco-painting into ,venetian oil- painting is a matter of spiritual history4 ,we have to appreciate very delicate and subtle traits to discern the process of change4 ,in almost every picture from ,masaccio's 8,peter and the ,tribute ,money0 in the ,brancacci ,chapel1 through the soaring background that ,piero della ,francesca gave to the figures of ,federigo and ,battista of ,urbino1#cei to ,perugino's 8,christ ,giving the ,keys10#cfj the fresco manner is contending with the invasive new form1 though ,raphael's artistic development in the course of his work on the ,vatican 8stanze0 is almost the only case in which we can see comprehensively the change that is going on4 ,the ,florentine fresco aims at actuality in individual things and produces a sum of such things in an architectonic setting4 ,oil- painting1 on the other hand1 sees and handles with ever-growing sureness extension as a whole1 and treats all objects only as representatives thereof4 ,the ,faustian world-feeling created the new technique that it wanted4 ,it rejected the drawing style1 as1 from ,oresme's time1 co- ordinate geometry rejected it4 ,it transformed the linear perspective associated with the architectural motive into a purely aerial perspective rendered by imponderable gradations of tone4 ,but the condition of ,renaissance art generally--its inability either to understand its own deeper tendencies or to make good its anti-,gothic principle--made the transition an obscure and difficult process4 ,each artist followed the trend in a way of his own4 ,one painted in oils on the bare wall1 and thereby condemned his work to perish 7,leonardo's 8,last ,supper074 ,another painted pictures as if they were wall-frescoes 7,michelangelo74 ,some ventured1 some guessed1 some fell by the way1 some shied4 ,it was1 as always1 the struggle between hand and soul1 between eye and instrument1 between the form willed by the artist and the form willed by time--the struggle between ,plastic and ,music4 ,in the light of this1 we can at last understand that gigantic effort of ,leonardo1 the cartoon of the 8,adoration of the ,magi0 in the ,uffizi4 ,it is the grandest piece of artistic daring in the ,renaissance4 ,nothing like it was even imagined till ,rembrandt4 ,transcending all optical measures1 everything then called drawing1 outline1 composition and grouping1 he pushes fearlessly on to challenge eternal space2 everything bodily floats like the planets in the ,copernican system and the tones of a ,bach organ-fugue in the dimness of old churches4 ,in the technical possibilities of the time1 so dynamic an image of distance could only remain a torso4 ,in the ,sistine ,madonna1 which is the very summation of the ,renaissance1 ,raphael causes the outline to draw into itself the entire content of the work4 ,it is the last grand line of ,western art4 ,already 7and it is this that makes ,raphael the least intelligible of ,renaissance artists7 convention is strained almost to breaking-point by the intensity of inward feeling4 ,he did not indeed wrestle with problems4 ,he had not even an inkling of them4 ,but he brought art to the brink where it could no longer shirk the plunge1 and he lived to achieve the utmost possibilities within its form-world4 ,the ordinary person who thinks him flat simply fails to realize what is going on in his scheme4 ,look again1 reader1 at the hackneyed ,madonna4 ,have you ever noticed the little dawn-cloudlets1 transforming themselves into baby heads1 that surround the soaring central figure8--these are the multitudes of the unborn that the ,madonna is drawing into ,life4 ,we meet these light clouds again1 with the same meaning1 in the wondrous finale of ,faust ,,ii4#cfa ,it is just that which does not charm in ,raphael1 his sublime unpopularity1 that betrays the inner victory over the ,renaissance- feeling in him4 ,we do understand ,perugino at a glance1 we merely think we understand ,raphael4 ,his very line--that drawing-character that at first sight seems so ,classical--is something that floats in space1 supernal1 ,beethoven-like4 ,in this work ,raphael is the least obvious of all artists1 less obvious even than ,michelangelo1 whose intention is manifest through all the fragmentariness of his works4 ,in ,fra ,bartolommeo the material bounding-line is still entirely dominant4 ,it is all foreground1 and the whole sense of the work is exhaustively rendered by the definition of bodies4 ,but in ,raphael line has become silent1 expectant1 veiled1 waiting in an extremity of tension for dissolution into the infinite1 into space and music4 ,leonardo is already over the frontier4 ,the ,adoration of the ,magi is already music4 ,it is not a casual but a deeply significant circumstance that in this work1 as also in his ,st4 ,jerome1#cfb he did not go beyond the brown underpainting1 the 8,rembrandt0 stage1 the atmospheric brown of the following century4 ,for him1 entire fullness and clearness of intention was attained with the work in that state1 and one step into the domain of colour 7for that domain was still under the metaphysical limitations of the fresco style7 would have destroyed the soul of what he had created4 ,feeling1 in all its depth1 the symbolism of which oil- painting was later to be the vehicle1 he was afraid of the fresco 8slickness0 7,fertigkeit7 that must have ruined his idea4 ,his studies for this painting show how close was his relation to the ,rembrandt etching--an art whose home was also that of the art 7unknown to ,florence7 of counterpoint4 ,only it was reserved for the ,venetians1 who stood outside the ,florentine conventions1 to achieve what he strove for here1 to fashion a colour-world subserving space instead of things4 ,for this reason1 too1 ,leonardo 7after innumerable attempts7 decided to leave the ,christ-head in the 8,last ,supper0 unfinished4 ,the men of his time were not even ripe for portraiture as ,rembrandt understood the word1 the magistral building-up of a soul-history out of dynamic brush- strokes and lights and tones4 ,but only ,leonardo was great enough to experience this limitation as a ,destiny4 ,others merely set themselves to paint heads 7in the modes prescribed by their respective schools7 but ,leonardo--the first1 here1 to make the hands also speak1 and that with a physiognomic maestria--had an infinitely wider purpose4 ,his soul was lost afar in the future1 though his mortal part1 his eye and hand1 obeyed the spirit of the age4 ,assuredly he was the freest of the three great ones4 ,from much of that which ,michelangelo's powerful nature vainly wrestled with1 he was already remote4 ,problems of chemistry1 geometrical analysis1 physiology 7,goethe's 8living ,nature0 was also ,leonardo's71 the technique of fire-arms--all were familiar to him4 ,deeper than ,drer1 bolder than ,titian1 more comprehensive than any single man of his time1 he was essentially the artist of torsos4#cfc ,michelangelo the belated sculptor was so1 too1 but in another sense1 while in ,goethe's day that which had been unattainable for the painter of the ,last ,supper had already been reached and overpassed4 ,michelangelo strove to force life once more into a dead form-world1 ,leonardo felt a new form-world in the future1 ,goethe divined that there could be no new form-worlds more4 ,between the first and the last of these men lie the ripe centuries of the ,faustian ,culture4 ,,vi ,it remains now to deal with the major characters of ,western art during the phase of accomplishment4 ,in this we may observe the deep necessity of all history at work4 ,we have learned to understand arts as prime phenomena4 ,we no longer look to the operations of cause and effect to give unity to the story of development4 ,instead1 we have set up the idea of the ,destiny of an art1 and admitted arts to be organisms of the ,culture1 organisms which are born1 ripen1 age and for ever die4 ,when the ,renaissance--its last illusion--closes1 the ,western soul has come to the ripe consciousness of its own strength and possibilities4 ,it has chosen its arts4 ,as a 8late0 period1 the ,baroque knows1 just as the ,ionic had known1 what the form-language of its arts has to mean4 ,from being a philosophical religion1 art has to be a religious philosophy4 ,great masters come forward in the place of anonymous schools4 ,at the culmination of every ,culture we have the spectacle of a splendid group of great arts1 well-ordered and linked as a unit by the unity of the prime symbol underlying them all4 ,the ,apollinian group1 to which belong vase-painting1 fresco relief1 the architecture of ranked columns1 the ,attic drama and the dance1 centres upon the naked statue4 ,the ,faustian group forms itself round the ideal of pure spatial infinity and its centre of gravity is instrumental music4 ,from this centre1 fine threads radiate out into all spiritual form-languages and weave our infinitesimal mathematic1 our dynamic physics1 the propaganda of ,jesuits and the power of our famous slogan of 8progress10 the modern machine- technique1 credit economics and the dynastic-diplomatic ,state--all into one immense totality of spiritual expression4 ,beginning with the inward rhythm of the cathedral and ending with ,wagner's 8,tristan0 and 8,parsifal10 the artistic conquest of endless space deploys its full forces from about #aeej4 ,plastic is dying with ,michelangelo in ,rome just when planimetry1 dominant hitherto1 is becoming the least important branch of our mathematic4 ,at the same time1 ,venice is producing ,zarlino's theories of harmony and counterpoint 7#aeeh7 and the practical method of the basso continuo--a perspective and an analysis of the world of sound--and this music's sister1 the ,northern mathematic of the ,calculus1 is beginning to mount4 ,oil-painting and instrumental music1 the arts of space1 are now entering into their kingdom4 ,so also--consequently1 we say--the two essentially material and ,euclidean arts of the ,classical ,culture1 viz41 the all- round statue and the strictly planar fresco1 attain to their primacy at the corresponding date of c4 #fjj ,b4,c4 ,and further1 in the one and in the other case1 it is the painting that ripens first4 ,for in either kind painting on the plane is a less ambitious and more accessible art than modelling in solid or composing in immaterial extension4 ,the period #aeej-afej belongs as completely to oil-painting as fresco and vase- painting belong to the #fth ,century ,b4,c4 ,the symbolism of space and of body1 expressed in the one case by perspective and in the other by proportion1 are only indicated and not immediately displayed by pictorial arts4 ,these arts1 which can only in each case produce their respective prime-symbols 7i4e41 their possibilities in the extended7 as illusions on a painted surface1 are capable indeed of denoting and evoking the ideal--,classical or ,western1 as the case may be--but they are not capable of fulfilling it2 they appear therefore in the path of the 8late0 ,culture as the ledges before the last summit4 ,the nearer the grand style comes to its point of fulfilment1 the more decisive the tendency to an ornamental language of inexorable clarity of symbolism4 ,the group of great arts is further simplified4 ,about #afgj1 just when ,newton and ,leibniz were discovering the ,differential ,calculus1 oil- painting had reached the limit of its possibilities4 ,its last great masters were dead or dying--,velasquez #affj1 ,poussin #affe1 ,franz ,hals #afff1 ,rembrandt #affi1 ,vermeer #afge1 ,murillo1 ,ruysdael and ,claude ,lorrain #afhb--;and one has only to name the few successors of any importance 7,watteau1 ,hogarth1 ,tiepolo7 to feel at once the descent1 the end1 of an art4 ,in this time also1 the great forms of pictorial music expired4 ,heinrich ,schtz died in #afgb1 ,carissimi in #afgd1 and ,purcell in #afie--the last great masters of the ,cantata1 who had played around image-themes with infinite variety of vocal and instrumental colour and had painted veritable pictures of fine landscape and grand legend-scene4 ,with ,lully 7#afhg7 the heart of the heroic ,baroque opera of ,monteverde ceased to beat4 ,it was the same with the old 8classical0 sonata for orchestra1 organ and string trio1 which was a development of image-themes in the fugal style4 ,thereafter1 the forms become those of final maturity1 the concerto grosso1 the suite1 and the three-part sonata for solo instruments4 ,music frees itself from the relics of bodiliness inherent in the human voice and becomes absolute4 ,the theme is no longer an image but a pregnant function1 existent only in and by its own evolution1 for the fugal style as ,bach practised it can only be regarded as a ceaseless process of differentiation and integration4 ,the victory of pure music over painting stands recorded in the ,passions which ,heinrich ,schtz composed in his old age--the visible dawn of the new form- language--in the sonatas of ,dall',abaco and ,corelli1 the oratorios of ,hndel and the ,baroque polyphony of ,bach4 ,henceforth this music is the ,faustian art1 and ,watteau may fairly be described as a painter-,couperin1 ,tiepolo as a painter-,hndel4 ,in the ,classical world the corresponding change occurred about #dfj1 when ,polygnotus1 the last of the great fresco-painters1 ceded the inheritance of the grand style to ,polycletus and free sculpture in the round4 ,till then--as late even as ,polygnotus's contemporaries ,myron and the masters of the ,olympia pediment--the form-language of a purely planar art had dominated that of statuary also2 for1 just as painting had developed its form more and more towards the ideal of the silhouette of colour with internal drawing superposed--to such an extent that at last there was almost no difference between the painted relief and the flat picture--so also the sculptor had regarded the frontal outline as it presented itself to the beholder as the true symbol of the ,ethos1 the cultural type1 that he meant his figure to represent4 ,the field of the temple- pediment constitutes a picture2 seen from the proper distance1 it makes exactly the same impression as its contemporary the red-figure vase-painting4 ,in ,polycletus's generation the monumental wall-painting gives place to the board-picture1 the 8picture0 proper1 in tempera or wax--a clear indication that the great style has gone to reside elsewhere4 ,the ambition of ,apollodorus's shadow painting was not in any sense what we call chiaroscuro and atmosphere1 but sheer modelling in the round in the sculptor's sense2 and of ,zeuxis ,aristotle says expressly that his work lacked 8,ethos40 ,thus1 this newer ,classical painting with its cleverness and human charm is the equivalent of our #ahth-,century work4 ,both lacked the inner greatness and both tried by force of virtuosity to speak in the language of that single and final ,art which in each case stood for ornamentation in the higher sense4 ,hence ,polycletus and ,phidias aline themselves with ,bach and ,hndel2 as the ,western masters liberated strict musical form from the executive methods of the ,painting1 so the ,greek masters finally delivered the statue from the associations of the ,relief4 ,and with this full plastic and this full music the two ,cultures reach their respective ends4 ,a pure symbolism of mathematical rigour had become possible4 ,polycletus could produce his 8canon0 of the proportions of the human body1 and his contemporary ,bach the 8,kunst der ,fuge0 and 8,wohltemperiertes ,klavier40 ,in the two arts that ensued1 we have the last perfection of achievement that pure form saturated with meaning can give4 ,compare the tone-body of ,faustian instrumental music1 and within that system again the body of the strings 7in ,bach1 too1 the virtual unity of the winds71 with the bodies of ,attic statuary4 ,compare the meaning of the word 8figure0 to ,haydn with its meaning to ,praxiteles4 ,in the one case it is the figure of a rhythmic motive in a web of voices1 in the other the figure of an athlete4 ,but in both cases the notion comes from mathematics and it is made plain that the aim thus finally attained is a union of the artistic and the mathematical spirit1 for analysis like music1 and ,euclidean geometry like plastic1 have both come to full comprehension of their tasks and the ultimate meaning of their respective number-languages4 ,the mathematics of beauty and the beauty of mathematics are henceforth inseparable4 ,the unending space of tone and the all-round body of marble or bronze are immediate interpretations of the extended4 ,they belong to number-as-relation and to number-as- measure4 ,in fresco and in oil-painting1 in the laws of proportion and those of perspective1 the mathematical is only indicated1 but the two final arts are mathematics1 and on these peaks ,apollinian art and ,faustian art are seen entire4 ,with the exit of fresco and oil-painting1 the great masters of absolute plastic and absolute music file on to the stage1 man after man4 ,polycletus is followed by ,phidias1 ,ponius1 ,alcamenes1 ,scopas1 ,praxiteles1 ,lysippus4 ,behind ,bach and ,hndel come ,gluck1 ,stamitz1 the younger ,bachs1 ,haydn1 ,mozart1 ,beethoven--in their hands an armoury of wonderful and now long-forgotten instruments1 a whole magician's world created by the discovering and inventing spirit of the ,west in the hope of getting more and more tones and timbres for the service and enhancement of musical expression--in their winds an abundance of grand1 solemn1 ornate1 dainty1 ironic1 laughing and sobbing forms of perfectly regular structure1 forms that no one now understands4 ,in those days1 in #ahth-,century ,germany especially1 there was actually and effectively a ,culture of ,music that suffused all ,life4 ,its type was ,hoffmann's ,kapellmeister ,kreisler4 ,to-day it is hardly even a memory4 ,and with the #ahth ,century1 too1 architecture died at last1 submerged and choked in the music of ,rococo4 ,on that last wonderful fragile growth of the ,western architecture criticism has blown mercilessly1 failing to realize that its origin is in the spirit of the fugue and that its non- proportion and non-form1 its evanescence and instability and sparkle1 its destruction of surface and visual order1 are nothing else than a victory of tones and melodies over lines and walls1 the triumph of pure space over material1 of absolute becoming over the become4 ,they are no longer buildings1 these abbeys and castles and churches with their flowing faades and porches and 8gingerbread0 courts and their splendid staircases1 galleries1 salons and cabinets2 they are sonatas1 minuets1 madrigals in stone1 chamber-music in stucco1 marble1 ivory and fine woods1 cantilene of volutes and cartouches1 cadences of fliers and copings4 ,the ,dresden ,zwinger is the most completely musical piece in all the world's architecture1 with an ornamentation like the tone of an old violin1 an allegro fugitivo for small orchestra4 ,germany produced the great musicians and therefore also the great architects of this century 7,poppelmann1 ,schlter1 ,bhr1 ,naumann1 ,fischer von ,erlach1 ,dinzenhofer74 ,in oil-painting she played no part at all3 in instrumental music1 on the contrary1 hers was the principal rle4 ,,vii ,there is a word1 8,impressionism10 which only came into general use in ,manet's time 7and then1 originally1 as a word of contempt like ,baroque and ,rococo7 but very happily summarizes the special quality of the ,faustian way of art that has evolved from oil-painting4 ,but1 as we ordinarily speak of it1 the idea has neither the width nor the depth of meaning that it ought to have3 we regard it as a sequel to or derivative of the old age of an art which1 in fact1 belongs to it entirely and from first to last4 ,what is the imitation of an impression8 ,something purely ,western1 something related to the idea of ,baroque and even to the unconscious purposes of ,gothic architecture and diametrically opposed to the deliberate aims of the ,renaissance4 ,does it not signify the tendency--the deeply-necessary tendency of a waking consciousness to feel pure endless space as the supreme and unqualified actuality1 and all sense-images as secondary and conditioned actualities within it8 ,a tendency that can manifest itself in artistic creations1 but has a thousand other outlets besides4 ,does not ,kant's formula space as a priori form of perception sound like a slogan for the whole movement that began with ,leonardo8 ,impressionism is the inverse of the ,euclidean world-feeling4 ,it tries to get as far as possible from the language of plastic and as near as possible to that of music4 ,the effect that is made upon us by things that receive and reflect light is made not because the things are there but as though they 8in themselves0 are not there4 ,the things are not even bodies1 but light-resistances in space1 and their illusive density is to be unmasked by the brush-stroke4 ,what is received and rendered is the impression of such resistances1 which are tacitly evaluated as simple functions of a transcendent extension4 ,the artist's inner eye penetrates the body1 breaks the spell of its material bounding surfaces and sacrifices it to the majesty of ,space4 ,and with this impression1 under its influence1 he feels an endless movement-quality in the sensuous element that is in utter contrast to the statuesque 8,ataraxia0 of the fresco4 ,therefore1 there was not and could not be any ,hellenic impressionism2 if there is one art that must exclude it on principle1 it is ,classical sculpture4 ,impressionism is the comprehensive expression of a world-feeling1 and it must obviously therefore permeate the whole physiognomy of our 8,late0 ,culture4 ,there is an impressionistic mathematic1 which frankly and with intent transcends all optical limitations4 ,it is ,analysis1 as developed after ,newton and ,leibniz1 and to it belong the visionary images of number-8bodies10 aggregates1 and the multidimensional geometry4 ,there is again an impressionistic physics which 8sees0 in lieu of bodies systems of mass-points--units that are evidently no more than constant relations between variable efficients4 ,there are impressionistic ethics1 tragedy1 and logic1 and even 7in ,pietism7 an impressionistic ,christianity4 ,be the artist painter or musician1 his art consists in creating with a few strokes or spots or tones an image of inexhaustible content1 a microcosm meet for the eyes or ears of ,faustian man2 that is1 in laying the actuality of infinite space under enchantment by fleeting and incorporeal indications of something objective which1 so to say1 forces that actuality to become phenomenal4 ,the daring of these arts of moving the immobile has no parallel4 ,right from the later work of ,titian to ,corot and ,menzel1 matter quivers and flows like a solution under the mysterious pressure of brush-stroke and broken colours and lights4 ,it was in pursuit of the same object that ,baroque music became 8thematic0 instead of melodic and--reinforcing the 8theme0 with every expedient of harmonic charm1 instrumental colour1 rhythm1 and tempo--developed the tone-picture from the imitative piece of ,titian's day to the leitmotiv- fabric of ,wagner1 and captured a whole new world of feeling and experience4 ,when ,german music was at its culmination1 this art penetrated also into lyric poetry 7,german lyric1 that is1 for in ,french it is impossible7 and gave rise to a whole series of tiny masterpieces1 from ,goethe's 8,urfaust0 to ,hlderlin's last poems--passages of a few lines apiece1 which have never yet been noticed1 let alone collected1 but include nevertheless whole worlds of experience and feeling4 ,on a small scale1 it continually repeats the achievements of ,copernicus and ,columbus4 ,no other ,culture possesses an ornament-language of such dynamical impressiveness relatively to the means it employs4 ,every point or stroke of colour1 every scarce-audible tone releases some surprising charm and continually feeds the imagination with fresh elements of space-creating energy4 ,in ,masaccio and ,piero della ,francesca we have actual bodies bathed in air4 ,then ,leonardo1 the first1 discovers the transitions of atmospheric light and dark1 the soft edges1 the outlines that merge in the depth1 the domains of light and shade in which the individual figures are inseparably involved4 ,finally1 in ,rembrandt1 objects dissolve into mere coloured impressions1 and forms lose their specific humanness and become collocations of strokes and patches that tell as elements of a passionate depth-rhythm4 ,distance1 so treated1 comes to signify ,future1 for what ,impressionism seizes and holds is by hypothesis a unique and never-recurring instant1 not a landscape in being but a fleeting moment of the history thereof4 ,just as in a ,rembrandt portrait it is not the anatomical relief of the head that is rendered1 but the second visage in it that is confessed2 just as the art of his brush-stroke captures not the eye but the look1 not the brow but the experience1 not the lips but the sensuousness2 so also the impressionist picture in general presents to the beholder not the ,nature of the foreground but again a second visage1 the look and soul of the landscape4 ,whether we take the ,catholic-heroic landscape of ,claude ,lorrain1 the 8paysage intime0 of ,corot1 the sea and river-banks and villages of ,cuyp and ,van ,goyen1 we find always a portrait in the physiognomic sense1 something uniquely-occurring1 unforeseen1 brought to light for the first and last time4 ,in this love of the character and physiognomy in landscape--just the motive that was unthinkable in fresco art and permanently barred to the ,classical--the art of portraiture widens from the immediately human to the mediately human1 to the representation of the world as a part of the ego or the self-world in which the painter paints himself and the beholder sees himself4 ,for the expansion of ,nature into ,distance reflects a ,destiny4 ,in this art of tragic1 daemonic1 laughing and weeping landscapes there is something of which the man of another ,culture has no idea and for which he has no organ4 ,anyone who in the presence of this form-world talks of ,hellenistic illusion-painting must be unable to distinguish between an ornamentation of the highest order and a soulless imitation1 an ape- mimicry of the obvious4 ,if ,lysippus said 7as ,pliny tells us he said7 that he represented men as they appeared to him1 his ambition was that of a child1 of a layman1 of a savage1 not that of an artist4 ,the great style1 the meaning1 the deep necessity1 are absent2 even the cave- dwellers of the stone age painted thus4 ,in reality1 the ,hellenistic painters could do more when they chose4 ,even so late1 the wall-paintings of ,pompeii and the 8,odyssey0 landscapes in ,rome contain a symbol4 ,in each case it is a group of bodies that is rendered--rocks1 trees1 even 8the ,sea0 as a body among bodies6 ,there is no depth1 but only superposition4 ,of course1 of the objects represented one or several had necessarily to be furthest away 7or rather least near7 but this is a mere technical servitude without the remotest affinity to the illumined supernal distances of ,faustian art4 ,,viii ,i have said that oil-painting faded out at the end of the #agth ,century1 when one after another all its great masters died1 and the question will naturally1 therefore1 be asked--is ,impressionism 7in the current narrow sense7 a creation of the #aith ,century8 ,has painting lived1 after all1 two centuries more8 ,is it still existing8 ,but we must not be deceived by appearances4 ,not only was there a dead space between ,rembrandt and ,delacroix or ,constable--for when we think of the living art of high symbolism that was ,rembrandt's the purely decorative artists of the #ahth ,century do not count--but1 further1 that which began with ,delacroix and ,constable was1 notwithstanding all technical continuity1 something quite different from that which had ended with ,rembrandt4 ,the new episode of painting that in the #aith ,century 7i4e41 beyond the #ahjj frontier and in 8,civilization07 has succeeded in awakening some illusion of a great culture of painting1 has itself chosen the word ,plein-air 7,freilicht7 to designate its special characteristic4 ,the very designation suffices to show the significance of the fleeting phenomenon that it is4 ,it implies the conscious1 intellectual1 cold-blooded rejection of that for which a sudden wit invented the name 8brown sauce10 but which the great masters had1 as we know1 regarded as the one truly metaphysical colour4 ,on it had been built the painting-culture of the schools1 and especially the ,dutch school1 that had vanished irretrievably in the ,rococo4 ,this brown1 the symbol of a spatial infinity1 which had for ,faustian mankind created a spiritual something out of a mere canvas1 now came to be regarded1 quite suddenly1 as an offence to ,nature4 ,what had happened8 ,was it not simply this1 that the soul for which this supernal colour was something religious1 the sign of wistfulness1 the whole meaning of 8,living ,nature10 had quietly slipped away8 ,the materialism of a ,western ,cosmopolis blew into the ashes and rekindled this curious brief flicker--a brief flicker of two generations1 for with the generation of ,manet all was ended again4 ,i have 7as the reader will recall7 characterized the noble green of ,grnewald and ,claude and ,giorgione as the ,catholic space-colour and the transcendent brown of ,rembrandt as the colour of the ,protestant world- feeling4 ,on the other hand1 ,plein-air and its new colour scale stand for irreligion4#cfd ,from the spheres of ,beethoven and the stellar expanses of ,kant1 ,impressionism has come down again to the crust of the earth4 ,its space is cognized1 not experienced1 seen1 not contemplated2 there is tunedness in it1 but not ,destiny4 ,it is the mechanical object of physics and not the felt world of the pastorale that ,courbet and ,manet give us in their landscapes4 ,rousseau's tragically correct prophecy of a 8return to ,nature0 fulfils itself in this dying art--the senile1 too1 return to ,nature day by day4 ,the modern artist is a workman1 not a creator4 ,he sets unbroken spectrum-colours side by side4 ,the subtle script1 the dance of brush-strokes1 give way to crude commonplaces1 pilings and mixings and daubings of points1 squares1 broad inorganic masses4 ,the whitewasher's brush and the trowel appear in the painter's equipment2 the oil-priming of the canvas is brought into the scheme of execution and in places left bare4 ,it is a risky art1 meticulous1 cold1 diseased--an art for over-developed nerves1 but scientific to the last degree1 energetic in everything that relates to the conquest of technical obstacles1 acutely assertive of programme4 ,it is the 8satyric pendant0 of the great age of oil-painting that stretches from ,leonardo to ,rembrandt2 it could only be at home in the ,paris of ,baudelaire4 ,corot's silvern landscapes1 with their grey-greens and browns1 dream still of the spiritual of the ,old ,masters2 but ,courbet and ,manet conquer bare physical space1 8factual0 space4 ,the meditative discoverer represented by ,leonardo gives way to the painting experimentalist4 ,corot1 the eternal child1 ,french but not ,parisian1 finds his transcendent landscapes anywhere and everywhere2 ,courbet1 ,manet1 ,czanne1 portray over and over again1 painfully1 laboriously1 soullessly1 the ,forest of ,fontainebleau1 the bank of the ,seine at ,argenteuil1 or that remarkable valley near ,arles4 ,rembrandt's mighty landscapes lie essentially in the universe1 ,manet's near a railway station4 ,the plein-air painters1 true megalopolitans1 obtain as it were specimens of the music of space from the least agitated sources of ,spain and ,holland--from ,velasquez1 ,goya1 ,hobbema1 ,franz ,hals--in order 7with the aid of ,english landscapists and1 later1 the ,japanese1 8highbrows0 all7 to restate it in empirical and scientific terms4 ,it is natural science as opposed to nature experience1 head against heart1 knowledge in contrast to faith4 ,in ,germany it was otherwise4 ,whereas in ,france it was a matter of closing-off the great school1 in ,germany it was a case of catching up with it4 ,for in the picturesque style1 as practised from ,rottmann1 ,wasmann1 ,k4 ,d4 ,friedrich and ,runge to ,mares and ,leibl1 an unbroken evolution is the very basis of technique1 and even a new-style school requires a closed tradition behind it4 ,herein lies the weakness and the strength of the last ,german painters4 ,whereas the ,french possessed a continuous tradition of their own from early ,baroque to ,chardin and ,corot1 whereas there was living connexion between ,claude ,lorrain and ,corot1 ,rubens and ,delacroix1 all the great ,germans of the #ahth ,century had been musicians4 ,after ,beethoven this music1 without change of inward essence1 was diverted 7one of the modalities of the ,german ,romantic movement7 back into painting4 ,and it was in painting that it flowered longest and bore its kindliest fruits1 for the portraits and landscapes of these men are suffused with a secret wistful music1 and there is a breath of ,eichendorff and ,mrike left even in ,thoma and ,bcklin4 ,but a foreign teacher had to be asked to supply that which was lacking in the native tradition1 and so these painters one and all went to ,paris1 where they studied and copied the old masters of #afgj4 ,so also did ,manet and his circle4 ,but there was this difference1 that the ,frenchmen found in these studies only reminiscences of something that had been in their art for many generations1 whereas the ,germans received fresh and wholly different impressions4 ,the result was that1 in the #aith ,century1 the ,german arts of form 7other than music7 were a phenomenon out of season--hasty1 anxious1 confused1 puzzled as to both aim and means4 ,there was indeed no time to be lost4 ,the level that ,german music or ,french painting had taken centuries to attain had to be made good by ,german painting in two generations4 ,the expiring art demanded its last phase1 and this phase had to be reached by a vertiginous race through the whole past4 ,hence the unsteadiness1 in everything pertaining to form1 of high ,faustian natures like ,mares and ,bcklin1 an unsteadiness that in ,german music with its sure tradition 7think of ,bruckner7 would have been impossible4 ,the art of the ,french ,impressionists was too explicit in its programme and correspondingly too poor in soul to expose them to such a tragedy4 ,german literature1 on the contrary1 was in the same condition as ,german painting2 from ,goethe's time1 every major work was intended to found something and obliged to conclude something4 ,just as ,kleist felt in himself both ,shakespeare and ,stendhal1 and laboured desperately1 altering and discarding without end and without result1 to forge two centuries of psychological art into a unit2 just as ,hebbel tried to squeeze all the problems from ,hamlet to ,rosmersholm into one dramatic type2 so ,menzel1 ,leibl1 and ,mares sought to force the old and new models--,rembrandt1 ,claude1 ,van ,goyen1 and ,watteau1 ,delacroix1 ,courbet and ,manet--into a single form4 ,while the little early interiors of ,menzel anticipated all the discoveries of the ,manet circle and ,leibl not seldom succeeded where ,courbet tried and failed1 their pictures renew the metaphysical browns and greens of the ,old ,masters and are fully expressive of an inward experience4 ,menzel actually re- experienced and reawakened something of ,prussian ,rococo1 ,mares something of ,rubens1 ,leibl in his 8,frau ,gedon0 something of ,rembrandt's portraiture4 ,moreover1 the studio-brown of the #agth ,century had had by its side a second art1 the intensely ,faustian art of etching4 ,in this1 as in the other1 ,rembrandt is the greatest master of all time2 this1 like the other1 has something ,protestant in it that puts it in a quite different category from the work of the ,southern ,catholic painters of blue-green atmospheres and the ,gobelin tapestries4 ,and ,leibl1 the last artist in the brown1 was the last great etcher whose plates possess that ,rembrandtesque infinity that contains and reveals secrets without end4 ,in ,mares1 lastly1 there was all the mighty intention of the great ,baroque style1 but1 though ,guricault and ,daumier were not too belated to capture it in positive form1 he--lacking just that strength that a tradition would have given him--was unable to force it into the world of painter's actuality4 ,,ix ,the last of the ,faustian arts died in 8,tristan40 ,this work is the giant keystone of ,western music4 ,painting achieved nothing like this as a finale--on the contrary1 the effect of ,manet1 ,menzel and ,leibl1 with their combination of 8free light0 and resurrected old-master styles1 is weak4 8,contemporaneously10 in our sense1 ,apollinian art came to its end in ,pergamene sculpture4 ,pergamum is the counterpart of ,bayreuth4 ,the famous altar itself1#cfe indeed1 is later1 and probably not the most important work of the epoch at that2 we have to assume a century 7#ccj- #bbj ,b4,c47 of development now lost in oblivion4 ,nevertheless1 all ,nietzsche's charges against ,wagner and ,bayreuth1 the 8,ring0 and 8,parsifal0--decadence1 theatricalness and the like--could have been levelled in the same words at the ,pergamene sculpture4 ,a masterpiece of this sculpture--a veritable 8,ring0--has come down to us in the ,gigantomachia frieze of the great altar4 ,here is the same theatrical note1 the same use of motives from ancient discredited mythology as points d'appui1 the same ruthless bombardment of the nerves1 and also 7though the lack of inner power cannot altogether be concealed7 the same fully self-conscious force and towering greatness4 ,to this art the ,farnese ,bull and the older model of the ,laocon group certainly belong4 ,the symptom of decline in creative power is the fact that to produce something round and complete the artist now requires to be emancipated from form and proportion4 ,its most obvious1 though not its most significant1 manifestation is the taste for the gigantic4 ,here size is not1 as in the ,gothic and the ,pyramid styles1 the expression of inward greatness1 but the dissimulation of its absence4 ,this swaggering in specious dimensions is common to all nascent ,civilizations--we find it in the ,zeus altar of ,pergamum1 the ,helios of ,chares called the 8,colossus of ,rhodes10 the architecture of the ,roman ,imperial ,age1 the ,new ,empire work in ,egypt1 the ,american skyscraper of to-day4 ,but what is far more indicative is the arbitrariness and immoderateness that tramples on and shatters the conventions of centuries4 ,in ,bayreuth and in ,pergamum1 it was the superpersonal ,rule1 the absolute mathematic of ,form1 the ,destiny immanent in the quietly-matured language of a great art1 that was found to be intolerable4 ,the way from ,polycletus to ,lysippus and from ,lysippus to the sculptors of the groups of ,gauls#cff is paralleled by the way from ,bach1 by ,beethoven1 to ,wagner4 ,the earlier artists felt themselves masters1 the later uneasy slaves1 of the great form4 ,while even ,praxiteles and ,haydn were able to speak freely and gaily within the limits of the strictest canon1 ,lysippus and ,beethoven could only produce by straining their voices4 ,the sign of all living art1 the pure harmony of 8will10 8must0 and 8can10 the self-evidence of the aim1 the un-self- consciousness of the execution1 the unity of the art and the ,culture--all that is past and gone4 ,in ,corot and ,tiepolo1 ,mozart and ,cimarosa1 there is still a real mastery of the mother-tongue4 ,after them1 the process of mutilation begins1 but no one is conscious of it because no one now can speak it fluently4 ,once upon a time1 ,freedom and ,necessity were identical2 but now what is understood by freedom is in fact indiscipline4 ,in the time of ,rembrandt or ,bach the 8failures0 that we know only too well were quite unthinkable4 ,the ,destiny of the form lay in the race or the school1 not in the private tendencies of the individual4 ,under the spell of a great tradition full achievement is possible even to a minor artist1 because the living art brings him in touch with his task and the task with him4 ,to-day1 these artists can no longer perform what they intend1 for intellectual operations are a poor substitute for the trained instinct that has died out4 ,all of them have experienced this4 ,mares was unable to complete any of his great schemes4 ,leibl could not bring himself to let his late pictures go1 and worked over them again and again to such an extent that they became cold and hard4 ,czanne and ,renoir left work of the best quality unfinished because1 strive as they would1 they could do no more4 ,manet was exhausted after he had painted thirty pictures1 and his 8,shooting of the ,emperor ,maximilian10 in spite of the immense care that is visible in every item of the picture and the studies for it1 hardly achieved as much as ,goya managed without effort in its prototype the 8shootings of the #crd of ,may40 ,bach1 ,haydn1 ,mozart and a thousand obscure musicians of the #ahth ,century could rapidly turn out the most finished work as a matter of routine1 but ,wagner knew full well that he could only reach the heights by concentrating all his energy upon 8getting the last ounce0 out of the best moments of his artistic endowment4 ,between ,wagner and ,manet there is a deep relationship1 which is not1 indeed1 obvious to everyone but which ,baudelaire with his unerring flair for the decadent detected at once4 ,for the ,impressionists1 the end and the culmination of art was the conjuring up of a world in space out of strokes and patches of colour1 and this was just what ,wagner achieved with three bars4 ,a whole world of soul could crowd into these three bars4 ,colours of starry midnight1 of sweeping clouds1 of autumn1 of the day dawning in fear and sorrow1 sudden glimpses of sunlit distances1 world-fear1 impending doom1 despair and its fierce effort1 hopeless hope--all these impressions which no composer before him had thought it possible to catch1 he could paint with entire distinctness in the few tones of a motive4 ,here the contrast of ,western music with ,greek plastic has reached its maximum4 ,everything merges in bodiless infinity1 no longer even does a linear melody wrestle itself clear of the vague tone- masses that in strange surgings challenge an imaginary space4 ,the motive comes up out of dark terrible deeps4 ,it is flooded for an instant by a flash of hard bright sun4 ,then1 suddenly1 it is so close upon us that we shrink4 ,it laughs1 it coaxes1 it threatens1 and anon it vanishes into the domain of the strings1 only to return again out of endless distances1 faintly modified and in the voice of a single oboe1 to pour out a fresh cornucopia of spiritual colours4 ,whatever this is1 it is neither painting nor music1 in any sense of these words that attaches to previous work in the strict style4 ,rossini was asked once what he thought of the music of the 8,huguenots02 8,music80 he replied4 8,i heard nothing resembling it40 ,many a time must this judgment have been passed at ,athens on the new painting of the ,asiatic and ,sicyonian schools1 and opinions not very different must have been current in ,egyptian ,thebes with regard to the art of ,cnossus and ,tell-el-,amarna4 ,all that ,nietzsche says of ,wagner is applicable1 also1 to ,manet4 ,ostensibly a return to the elemental1 to ,nature1 as against contemplation-painting 7,inhaltsmalerei7 and abstract music1 their art really signifies a concession to the barbarism of the ,megalopolis1 the beginning of dissolution sensibly manifested in a mixture of brutality and refinement4 ,as a step1 it is necessarily the last step4 ,an artificial art has no further organic future1 it is the mark of the end4 ,and the bitter conclusion is that it is all irretrievably over with the arts of form of the ,west4 ,the crisis of the #aith ,century was the death- struggle4 ,like the ,apollinian1 the ,egyptian and every other1 the ,faustian art dies of senility1 having actualized its inward possibilities and fulfilled its mission within the course of its ,culture4 ,what is practised as art to-day--be it music after ,wagner or painting after ,czanne1 ,leibl and ,menzel--is impotence and falsehood4 ,look where one will1 can one find the great personalities that would justify the claim that there is still an art of determinate necessity8 ,look where one will1 can one find the self-evidently necessary task that awaits such an artist8 ,we go through all the exhibitions1 the concerts1 the theatres1 and find only industrious cobblers and noisy fools1 who delight to produce something for the market1 something that will 8catch on0 with a public for whom art and music and drama have long ceased to be spiritual necessities4 ,at what a level of inward and outward dignity stand to-day that which is called art and those who are called artists6 ,in the shareholders' meeting of any limited company1 or in the technical staff of any first-rate engineering works there is more intelligence1 taste1 character and capacity than in the whole music and painting of present-day ,europe4 ,there have always been1 for one great artist1 a hundred superfluities who practised art1 but so long as a great tradition 7and therefore great art7 endured even these achieved something worthy4 ,we can forgive this hundred for existing1 for in the ensemble of the tradition they were the footing for the individual great man4 ,but to-day we have only these superfluities1 and ten thousand of them1 working art 8for a living0 7as if that were a justification674 ,one thing is quite certain1 that to-day every single art-school could be shut down without art being affected in the slightest4 ,we can learn all we wish to know about the art-clamour which a megalopolis sets up in order to forget that its art is dead from the ,alexandria of the year #bjj4 ,there1 as here in our world-cities1 we find a pursuit of illusions of artistic progress1 of personal peculiarity1 of 8the new style10 of 8unsuspected possibilities10 theoretical babble1 pretentious fashionable artists1 weight-lifters with cardboard dumb-bells--the 8,literary ,man0 in the ,poet's place1 the unabashed farce of ,expressionism which the art- trade has organized as a 8phase of art-history10 thinking and feeling and forming as industrial art4 ,alexandria1 too1 had problem-dramatists and box-office artists whom it preferred to ,sophocles1 and painters who invented new tendencies and successfully bluffed their public4 ,what do we possess to-day as art8 ,a faked music1 filled with artificial noisiness of massed instruments2 a faked painting1 full of idiotic1 exotic and showcard effects1 that every ten years or so concocts out of the form-wealth of millennia some new 8style0 which is in fact no style at all since everyone does as he pleases2 a lying plastic that steals from ,assyria1 ,egypt and ,mexico indifferently4 ,yet this and only this1 the taste of the 8man of the world10 can be accepted as the expression and sign of the age2 everything else1 everything that 8sticks to0 old ideals1 is for provincial consumption4 ,the grand ,ornamentation of the past has become as truly a dead language as ,sanskrit or ,church ,latin4#cfg ,instead of its symbolism being honoured and obeyed1 its mummy1 its legacies of perfected forms1 are put into the pot anyhow1 and recast in wholly inorganic forms4 ,every modern age holds change to be development1 and puts revivals and fusions of old styles in the place of real becoming4 ,alexandria also had its ,pre- ,raphaelite comedians with their vases1 chairs1 pictures and theories1 its symbolists1 naturalists and expressionists4 ,the fashion at ,rome was now ,grco-,asiatic1 now ,grco-,egyptian1 now 7after ,praxiteles7 neo-,attic4 ,the relief of the ,x,i,xth ,dynasty--the modern age in the ,egyptian ,culture-- that covered the monstrous1 meaningless1 inorganic walls1 statues and columns1 seems like a sheer parody of the art of the ,old ,kingdom4 ,the ,ptolemaic ,horus-temple of ,edfu is quite unsurpassed in the way of vacuous eclecticism--so far1 for we are only at the beginning of our own development in this line1 showy and assertive as the style of our streets and squares already is4 ,in due course1 even the strength to wish for change fades out4 ,rameses the ,great--so soon--appropriated to himself buildings of his predecessors by cutting out their names and inserting his own in the inscriptions4 ,it was the same consciousness of artistic impotence that led ,constantine to adorn his triumphal arch in ,rome with sculptures taken from other buildings2 but ,classical craftsmanship had set to work long before ,constantine--as early1 in fact1 as #aej--on the business of copying old masterpieces1 not because these were understood and appreciated in the least1 but because no one was any longer capable of producing originals4 ,it must not be forgotten that these copyists were the artists of their time2 their work therefore 7done in one style or another according to the moment's fashion7 represent the maximum of creative power then available4 ,all the ,roman portrait statues1 male and female1 go back for posture and mien to a very few ,hellenic types2 these1 copied more or less true to style1 served for torsos1 while the heads were executed as 8,likenesses0 by simple craftsmen who possessed the knack4 ,the famous statue of ,augustus in armour1 for example1 is based on the ,spearman of ,polycletus1 just as--to name the first harbingers of the same phase in our own world--,lenbach rests upon ,rembrandt and ,makart upon ,rubens4 ,for #aejj years 7,amasis ,i to ,cleopatra7 ,egypticism piled portrait on portrait in the same way4 ,instead of the steady development that the great age had pursued through the ,old and ,middle ,kingdoms1 we find fashions that change according to the taste of this or that dynasty4 ,amongst the discoveries at ,turfan are relics of ,indian dramas1 contemporary with the birth of ,christ1 which are similar in all respects to the ,kalidasa of a later century4 ,chinese painting as we know it shows not an evolution but an up-and-down of fashions for more than a thousand years on end2 and this unsteadiness must have set in as early as the ,han period4 ,the final result is that endless industrious repetition of a stock of fixed forms which we see to-day in ,indian1 ,chinese1 and ,arabian-,persian art4 ,pictures and fabrics1 verses and vessels1 furniture1 dramas and musical compositions--all is patternwork4#cfh ,we cease to be able to date anything within centuries1 let alone decades1 by the language of its ornamentation4 ,so it has been in the ,last ,act of all ,cultures4 ----- ,footnote #bgb3 ,die bildenden ,knste4 ,the expression is a standard one in ,german1 but unfamiliar in ,english4 ,ordinarily1 however1 8die bildenden ,knste0 7shaping arts1 arts of form7 are contrasted with 8die redenden ,knste0 7speaking arts7--music1 as giving utterance rather than spatial form to things1 being counted among the latter4--,tr4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,as soon as the word1 which is a transmission-agent of the understanding1 comes to be used as the expression-agent of an art1 the waking consciousness ceases to express or to take in a thing integrally4 ,not to mention the read word of higher ,cultures--the medium of literature proper--even the spoken word1 when used in any artificial sense1 separates hearing from understanding1 for the ordinary meaning of the word also takes a hand in the process and1 as this art grows in power1 the wordless arts themselves arrive at expression-methods in which the motives are joined to word-meanings4 ,thus arises the ,allegory1 or motive that signifies a word1 as in ,baroque sculpture after ,bernini4 ,so1 too1 painting very often develops into a sort of painting-writing1 as in ,byzantium after the second ,nicene ,council 7#ghg7 which took from the artist his freedom of choice and arrangement4 ,this also is what distinguishes the arias of ,gluck1 in which the melody grew up out of the meaning of the libretto1 from those of ,alessandro ,scarlatti1 in which the texts are in themselves of no significance and mostly serve to carry the voices4 ,the high-,gothic counterpoint of the #acth ,century is entirely free from any connexion with words3 it is a pure architecture of human voices in which several texts1 ,latin and vernacular1 sacred and secular1 were sung together4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,our pedantic method has given us an art-history that excludes music- history2 and while the one has become a normal element of higher education1 the other has remained an affair solely for the expert4 ,it is just as though one tried to write a history of ,greece without taking ,sparta into account4 ,the result is a theory of 8,art0 that is a pious fraud4 ,footnote #bge3 ,this sentence is not in the original4 ,it has been inserted1 and the following sentence modified1 for the sake of clarity4--,tr4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aaj4 ,the aspect of the streets of ,old ,egypt may have been very similar to this1 if we can draw conclusions from tesser discovered in ,cnossus 7see ,h4 ,bossert1 ,alt ,kreta 7#aiba71 ,t4 #ad74 ,and the ,pylon is an undoubted and genuine faade4 7,such tesser1 bearing pictures of windowed houses1 are illustrated in ,art4 8gean ,civilization10 ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,edition1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bea1 plate ,,iv1 fig4 #a4--,tr474 ,footnote #bgg3 ,ghiberti has not outgrown the ,gothic1 nor has even ,donatello2 and already in ,michelangelo the feeling is ,baroque1 i4e41 musical4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,the struggle to fix the problem is visible in the series of 8,apollo- figures40 ,see ,donna1 ,les ,apollons archaques 7#aiji74 ,footnote #bgi3 ,woermann1 ,geschichte der ,kunst1 ,i 7#aiae71 p4 #bcf4 ,the first tendency is seen in the ,samian ,hera of ,cheramues and the persistent turning of columns into caryatids2 the second in the ,delian figure dedicated to ,artemis by ,nicandra1 with its relation to the oldest metope-technique4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,miletus was in a particular relation with ,egypt through ,naucratis4-- ,tr4 ,footnote #bha3 ,most of the works are pediment-groups or metopes4 ,but even the ,apollo- figures and the 8,maidens0 of the ,acropolis could not have stood free4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,v4 ,salis1 ,kunst der ,griechen 7#aiai71 pp4 #dg1 #ih et seq4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,the decisive preference of the white stone is itself significant of the opposition of ,renaissance to ,classical feeling4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,all ,greek scales are capable of reduction to 8tetrachords0 or four- note scales of which the form ,e--note--note--,a is typical4 ,in the diatonic the unspecified inner notes are ,f1 ,g2 in the chromatic they are ,f1 ,f sharp2 and in the enharmonic they are ,e half-sharp1 ,f4 ,thus1 the chromatic and enharmonic scales do not provide additional notes as the modern chromatic does1 but simply displace the inner members of the scale downwards1 altering the proportionate distances between the same given total4 ,in ,faustian music1 on the contrary1 the meaning of 8enharmonic0 is simply relational4 ,it is applied to a change1 say from ,a flat to ,g sharp4 ,the difference between these two is not a quarter-tone but a 8very small0 interval 7theory and practice do not even agree as to which note is the higher1 and in tempered instruments with standardized scales the physical difference is eliminated altogether74 ,while a note is being sounded1 even without any physical change in it1 its harmonic co-ordinates 7i4e41 substantially1 the key of the harmony7 may alter1 so that henceforth the note1 from ,a flat1 has become ,g sharp4--,tr4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,in the same way the whole of ,russian music appears to us infinitely mournful1 but real ,russians assure us that it is not at all so for themselves4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,see articles under these headings in ,grove's 8,dictionary of ,music40-- ,tr4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bch4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,in ,baroque music the word 8imitation0 means something quite different from this1 viz41 the exact repetition of a motive in a new colouring 7starting from a different note of the scale74 ,footnote #bhi3 ,for all that survives performance is the notes1 and these speak only to one who still knows and can manage the tone and technique of the expression-means appropriate to them4 ,footnote #bij3 ,see articles ,fauxbourdon1 ,discant and ,gimel in ,grove's 8,dictionary of ,music40--,tr4 ,footnote #bia3 ,note that ,oresme was a contemporary of ,machault and ,philippe de ,vitry1 in whose generation the rules and prohibitions of strict counterpoint were definitively established4 ,footnote #bib3 ,see p4 #ai and ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #bic3 ,even the first great troubadour1 ,guilhem of ,poitiers1 though a reigning sovereign1 made it his ambition to be regarded as a 8professional10 as we should say4--,tr4 ,footnote #bid3 ,see also ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfe4 ,footnote #bie3 ,see p4 #gd4 ,footnote #bif3 ,a movement in sonata form consists essentially of 7a7 ,first ,subject2 7b7 ,second ,subject 7in an allied key72 7c7 ,working-out1 or free development of the themes grouped under 7a7 and 7b72 and 7d7 ,recapitulation1 in which the two subjects are repeated in the key of the tonic4 ,the ,english usage is to consider 7a7 and 7b7 with the bridge or modulation connecting them1 together as the 8,exposition10 and the form is consequently designated 8three-part40--,tr4 ,footnote #big3 ,einstein1 ,gesch4 der ,musik1 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #bih3 ,coysevox lived #afdj-agbj4 ,much of the embellishment and statuary of ,versailles is his work4--,tr4 ,footnote #bii3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ceg et seq41 #cfe et seq4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,it was not merely national-,italian 7for that ,italian ,gothic was also73 it was purely ,florentine1 and even within ,florence the ideal of one class of society4 ,that which is called ,renaissance in the ,trecento has its centre in ,provence and particularly in the papal court at ,avignon1 and is nothing whatever but the southern type of chivalry1 that which prevailed in ,spain and ,upper ,italy and was so strongly influenced by the ,moorish polite society of ,spain and ,sicily4 ,footnote #cja3 ,renaissance ornament is merely embellishment and self-conscious art- inventiveness4 ,it is only with the frank and outspoken ,baroque that we return to the necessities of high symbolism4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,jacob ,burckhardt1 ,die ,cultur der ,renaissance in ,italien4 7,an ,english translation was published in #ahgh4--,tr47 ,footnote #cjc3 ,inclusive of ,paris itself4 ,even as late as the fifteenth century ,flemish was as much spoken there as ,french1 and the architectural appearance of the city in its oldest parts connects it with ,bruges and ,ghent and not with ,troyes and ,poitiers4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,a4 ,schmarsow1 ,gotik in der ,renaissance 7#aiba72 ,b4 ,haendke1 ,der niederl4 ,einfluss auf die ,malerei ,toskana-,umbriens 7,monatshefte fr ,kunstwissensch4 #aiab74 ,footnote #cje3 ,the colossal statue of ,bartolommeo ,colleone at ,venice4--,tr4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,svoboda1 ,rmische und ,romanische ,palste 7#aiai72 ,rostowzew1 ,pompeianische ,landschaften und ,rmische ,villen 7,rm4 mitt41 #aijd74 ,footnote #cjg3 ,environs of ,rome4 ,they date from the late #agth and the mid-#ahth centuries respectively2 the gardens of the ,v4 ,ludovisi were laid out by ,le ,ntre4--,tr4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,that is1 the expression for the sum of a convergent series beyond any specified term4--,tr4 ,footnote #cji3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aag et seq4 ,footnote #caj3 ,in ,classical painting1 light and shadow were first consistently employed by ,zeuxis1 but only for the shading of the thing itself1 for the purpose of freeing the modelling of the body painted from the restriction of the relief-manner1 i4e41 without any reference to the relation of shadows to the time of day4 ,but even with the earliest of the ,netherlanders light and shade are already colour-tones and affected by atmosphere4 ,footnote #caa3 ,the brilliant polish of the stone in ,egyptian art has a deep symbolic significance of much the same kind4 ,its effect is to dematerialize the statue by causing the eye to glide along its exterior4 ,hellas on the contrary manifests1 by its progress from 8,poros0 stone1 through ,naxian1 to the translucent ,parian and ,pentelic marbles1 how determined it is that the look shall sink right into the material essence of the body4 ,footnote #cab3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cad et seq4 ,footnote #cac3 ,the life and teaching of ,st4 ,francis were1 morally and sthetically alike1 the centres of inspiration for ,cimabue1 ,giotto and the ,italian ,gothic generally4--,tr4 ,footnote #cad3 ,der nordische im ,grenzenlose schweifende ,pantheismus4 ,footnote #cae3 ,on the following page is a translation of this chorus4--,tr4 ,raphael4 ,the ,sun outsings the brother-spheres in olden rivalry of song1 and thunder-girt pursues the years the preordaind path along4 ',tis from his face the angels gain their strength2 but scan it no one may4 ,thought is outranged and ,works remain sublime as on ,creation-,day4 ,gabriel4 ,and1 swift beyond description1 flies the circling scene of land and sea1 in alternance of ,paradise with dark and awful ,mystery4 ,the ocean swings1 the billows sway1 back from the cliff the waves are hurled4 ,but cliff and waves alike obey the mightier movement of the ,world4 ,michael4 ,and storms arise and swell and ebb o'er sea and mountain1 lake and field1 in wild contention weave a web of forces purposed though concealed4 ,the lightning is thy flaming sword1 the thunder veils thee on thy way1 yet ever spare thy envoys1 ,lord1 the gentle changing of thy day4 ,the ,three4 ',tis from thy face the angels gain their strength1 but scan it no one may4 ,beyond all thought thy ,works remain sublime as on ,creation-,day4 ,footnote #caf3 ,his portrait of ,frau ,gedon1 all steeped in brown1 is the last ,old- ,master portrait of the ,west2 it is painted entirely in the style of the past4 ,footnote #cag3 ,the strings in the ,orchestra represent1 as a class1 the colours of the distance4 ,the bluish green of ,watteau is found already in the ,neapolitan bel canto of about #agjj1 in ,couperin1 in ,mozart and ,haydn2 and the brown of the ,dutch in ,corelli1 ,handel and ,beethoven4 ,the woodwind1 too1 calls up illumined distances4 ,yellow and red1 on the other hand1 the colours of nearness1 the popular colours1 are associated with the brass timbre1 the effect of which is corporeal often to the point of vulgarity4 ,the tone of an old fiddle is entirely bodiless4 ,it is worth remarking that the ,greek music1 insignificent as it is1 underwent an evolution from the ,dorian lyre to the ,ionian flute 7aulos and syrinx7 and that even in the time of ,pericles strict ,dorians blamed this as an enervating and lowering tendency4 7,the horn is an exception1 and is always treated as an exception1 to the brass generally4 ,its place is with the woodwind1 and its colours are those of the distance4--,tr47 ,footnote #cah3 ,the use of gold in this way1 viz41 to add brilliancy to bodies standing freely in the open1 has nothing in common with its employment in ,magian art to provide glittering backgrounds for figures seen in dim interiors4 ,footnote #cai3 ,the ,chinese also attach enormous importance to the patinas of their old bronzes1 which1 owing to the different alloys used and the strong chemical characters of the soil1 are of infinite variety and natural intricacy4 ,they too1 in later phases1 have come to the production of artificial patina4--,tr4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,pausanias1 it should be observed1 was neither by date nor by origin a ,greek4--,tr4 ,footnote #cba3 8,in places1 as you stand on it1 the great towered and embattled enceinte produces an illusion3 it looks as if it were still equipped and defended4 ,one vivid challenge at any rate it flings down before you2 it compels you to make up your mind on the matter of restoration4 ,for myself1 ,i have no hesitation2 ,i prefer in every case the ruined1 however ruined1 to the reconstructed however splendid4444 ,after that1 ,i am free to say that the restoration of ,carcassonne is a splendid achievement40 7,henry ,james1 8,a ,little ,tour in ,france10 xxiii47 ,yet if ever there was a reconstruction carried out with piety and scholarship as well as skill1 it was ,viollet-le-,duc's reconstruction of these old town-walls4--,tr4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,home1 an ,english philosopher of the #ahth ,century1 declared in a lecture on ,english parks that ,gothic ruins represented the triumph of time over power1 ,classical ruins that of barbarism over taste4 ,it was that age that first discovered the beauty of the ruin-studded ,rhine1 which was thenceforward the historic river of the ,germans4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,english readers will very likely think of the case of ,shaw's 8,back to ,methuselah10 with its extreme contrast of the cheaply-satirical present-day scene and the noble and tragic scenes of far past and far future4--,tr4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,one need only contrast the ,greek artist with ,rubens and ,rabelais4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,of whom one of his mistresses remarked that he 8smelt like a carcass0 7qu'il puait comme une charogne74 ,note also how the musician generally has a reputation for uncleanliness4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,from the solemn canon of ,polycletus to the elegance of ,lysippus the same process of lightening is going on in the body-build as that which brought the column from the ,doric to the ,corinthian order4 ,the ,euclidean feeling was beginning to relax4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,see p4 #ai4--,tr4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,in other countries1 e4g41 old ,egypt and ,japan 7to anticipate a particularly foolish and shallow assertion71 the sight of naked men was a far more ordinary and commonplace thing than it was in ,athens1 but the ,japanese art-lover feels emphasized nudity as ridiculous and vulgar4 ,the act is depicted 7as for that matter it is in the 8,adam and ,eve0 of ,bamberg ,cathedral71 but merely as an object without any significance of potential whatsoever4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,kluge1 ,deutsche ,sprachgesch4 7#aibj71 pp4 #bjb et seq4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,a4 ,conze1 ,die ,attischen ,grabreliefs 7#ahic etc474 ,footnote #cca3 ,louvre4 ,replicas of the pair in the ,vict4 and ,alb4 ,museum1 ,london4-- ,tr4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,olympia--the only unquestioned original that we have from the 8great age40 ,references would be superfluous1 for few1 if any1 ,classical works are better or more widely known4--,tr4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,of the several copies that have survived1 all imperfectly preserved1 that in the ,palazzo ,massimi is accounted the best4 ,the restoration which1 once seen1 convinces1 is ,professor ,furtwngler's 7shown in ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,ed41 article ,greek ,art1 fig4 #fh74--,tr4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,a cast of this is in the ,british ,museum 7illustrated in the ,museum ,guide to ,egypt4 ,antiq41 pl4 ,,xxi74--,tr4 ,footnote #cce3 ,in the ,bargello1 ,florence4 ,replica in ,vict4 and ,alb4 ,museum1 ,london4-- ,tr4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,the 8,apollo with the lyre0 at ,munich was admired by ,winckelmann and his time as a ,muse4 ,till quite recently a head of ,athene 7a copy of ,praxiteles7 at ,bologna passed as that of a general4 ,such errors would be entirely impossible in dealing with a physiognomic art1 e4g41 ,baroque4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,in his portrait of ,frau ,gedon1 already alluded to1 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #cch3 ,see p4 #acf and also ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ced4 ,footnote #cci3 ,the so-called 8,three ,fates0 in the ,british ,museum4--,tr4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,the ,orphic springtime contemplates the ,gods and does not see them4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cde4 ,footnote #cda3 ,there was indeed a beginning of this in the aristocratic epic of ,homer--so nearly akin to the courtly narrative art of ,boccaccio4 ,but throughout the ,classical age strictly religious people felt it as a profanation2 the worship that shines through the ,homeric poems is quite without idolatry1 and a further proof is the anger of thinkers who1 like ,heraclitus and ,plato1 were in close touch with the temple tradition4 ,it will occur to the student that the unrestricted handling of even the highest divinities in this very late art is not unlike the theatrical ,catholicism of ,rossini and ,liszt1 which is already foreshadowed in ,corelli and ,hndel and had1 earlier even1 almost led to the condemnation of ,church music in #aefd4 7,the event alluded to in the last line is the dispute in and after the ,council of ,trent as to the nature and conduct of ,church music4 ,if ,wagner's suggestion that ,pope ,marcellus ,,ii tried to exclude it altogether is exaggerated1 it is certain at least that the complaints were deep and powerful1 and that the ,council found it necessary to forbid 8unworthy music in the house of ,god0 and to bring the subject under the disciplinary control of the ,bishops4--,tr47 ,footnote #cdb3 ,harmodius and ,aristogiton4 ,at ,naples4 ,illustrated in ,ency4 ,brit4 ,,xi ed41 article ,greek ,art1 fig4 #ej4 ,cast in ,british ,museum4--,tr4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,the famous statue now in the ,lateran ,museum1 ,rome4--,tr4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,see foot-note1 p4 #acj4 ,an antique copy is in the ,british ,museum4--,tr4 ,footnote #cde3 ,in the ,vatican ,museum4--,tr4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,even the landscape of the ,baroque develops from composed backgrounds to portraits of definite localities1 representations of the soul of these localities which are thus endowed with faces4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,it could be said of ,hellenistic portrait art that it followed exactly the opposite course4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,british ,museum4--,tr4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,pinakothek1 ,munich4--,tr4 ,footnote #cej3 ,art ,gallery1 ,vienna4--,tr4 ,footnote #cea3 ,nothing more clearly displays the decadence of ,western art since the middle of the #aith century than its absurd rendering of acts by masses2 the deeper meaning of act-study and the importance of the motive have been entirely forgotten4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,by that test ,rubens1 and1 among moderns1 especially ,feuerbach and ,bcklin1 lose1 while ,goya1 ,daumier1 and1 in ,germany1 ,oldach1 ,wasmann1 ,rayski and many another almost forgotten artist of the earlier #aith ,century1 gain4 ,and ,mares passes to the rank of the very greatest4 ,footnote #cec3 ,tombs of the ,scaligers1 ,verona4--,tr4 ,footnote #ced3 ,national ,gallery1 ,london4--,tr4 ,footnote #cee3 ,museo ,nazionale1 ,florence4--,tr4 ,footnote #cef3 ,it is the same 8noble simplicity and quiet greatness0--to speak in the language of the ,german ,classicists--that produces such an impression of the antique in the ,romanesque of ,hildesheim1 ,gernrode1 ,paulinzella and ,hersfeld4 ,the ruined cloisters of ,paulinzella1 in fact1 have much of what ,brunellesco so many centuries later strove to obtain in his palace-courts4 ,but the basic feeling that underlies these creations is not something which we got from the ,classical1 but something that we projected on to our own notion of ,classical being4 ,and our own notion of peace is one of an infinite peace4 ,we feel the 8,rest in ,god0 to be an expanse of quietude4 ,all ,florentine work1 in so far as sureness does not turn into the ,gothic challenge of ,verrocchio1 is characterized by this feeling1 with which ,attic has nothing whatever in common4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,it has never been sufficiently noticed that the few sculptors who came after ,michelangelo had no more than a mere workaday relation with marble4 ,but we see at once that it is so when we think of the deeply intimate relation of great musicians to their favourite instruments4 ,the story of ,tartini's violin1 which shattered itself to pieces on the death of the master--and there are a hundred such stories--is the ,faustian counterpart of the ,pygmalion legend4 ,consider1 too1 ,e4 ,t4 ,a4 ,hoffmann's 8,johannes ,kreisler the ,kapellmeister02 he is a figure worthy to stand by the side of ,faust1 ,werther and ,don ,juan4 ,to see his symbolic significance and the inward necessity of him1 we have only to compare him with the theatrical painter-characters in the works of contemporary ,romanticists1 who are not in any relation whatever with the idea of ,painting4 ,as the fate of #aith-,century art-romances shows--a painter cannot be made to stand for the destiny of ,faustian art4 7,e4 ,t4 ,a4 ,hoffmann1 the strange many-sided genius who was at once musician1 caricaturist1 novelist1 critic1 wit1 able public official and winebibber1 at one time in his career wrote in the character of 8,johannes ,kreisler40 ,see his ,fantasiestcke in ,callots ,manier and ,der ,kater ,murr1 also ,thomas ,carlyle's 8,miscellanies0 and the biographical sketches of ,hoffmann in ,grove's ,dictionary of ,music and the ,ency4 ,brit4--,tr47 ,footnote #ceh3 ,although gunpowder is much older than the ,baroque1 its application in real earnest to long-ranging fire-arms was only accomplished during the #afth ,century4 ,it cannot be said that there was any technical reason why #ajj years should have elapsed between the first use of powder in ,european warfare and the first effective soldier's fire-arm4 ,no careful student of this period of military history can fail to be struck with this fact--the significance of which1 not being technical1 must be cultural4 ,much the same could be said of printing1 which1 so far as concerns technical factors1 might just as well have been invented in the #ajth as in the #aeth ,century4--,tr4 ,footnote #cei3 ,uffizi1 ,florence4--,tr4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,sistine ,chapel1 ,rome4--,tr4 ,footnote #cfa3 8,doctor ,marianus40--,tr4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,vatican4--,tr4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,in ,renaissance work the finished product is often quite depressingly complete4 ,the absence of 8infinity0 is palpable4 ,no secrets1 no discoveries4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,hence the impossibility of achieving a genuinely religious painting on plein-air principles4 ,the world-feeling that underlies it is so thoroughly irreligious1 so worthless for any but a 8religion of reason0 so-called1 that every one of its efforts in that direction1 even with the noblest intentions 7,uhde1 ,puvis de ,chavannes71 strikes us as hollow and false4 ,one instant of plein-air treatment suffices to secularize the interior of a church and degrade it into a showroom4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,state ,museum1 ,berlin4--,tr4 ,footnote #cff3 ,i4e41 the 8giants0 of the great frieze1 who were in fact ,galatians playing the part4 ,this ,gigantomachia1 a programme-work like the ,ring1 represented a situation1 as the ,ring represented characters1 under mythological labels4--,tr4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ach et seq4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,see pp4 #aig et seq4 ----- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,ix ,,soul-,,image ,,and ,,life-,,feeling ,i ,,on ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,soul ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,ix ,,soul-,,image ,,and ,,life-,,feeling ,i ,,on ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,soul ,i ,every professed philosopher is forced to believe1 without serious examination1 in the existence of a ,something that in his opinion is capable of being handled by the reason1 for his whole spiritual existence depends on the possibility of such a ,something4 ,for every logician and psychologist1 therefore1 however sceptical he may be1 there is a point at which criticism falls silent and faith begins1 a point at which even the strictest analytical thinker must cease to employ his method--the point1 namely1 at which analysis is confronted with itself and with the question of whether its problem is soluble or even exists at all4 ,the proposition 8it is possible by thought to establish the forms of thought0 was not doubted by ,kant1 dubious as it may appear to the unphilosophical4 ,the proposition 8there is a soul1 the structure of which is scientifically accessible2 and that which ,i determine1 by critical dissection of conscious existence-acts into the form of psychic elements1 functions1 and complexes1 is my soul0 is a proposition that no psychologist has doubted hitherto4 ,and yet it is just here that his strongest doubts should have arisen4 ,is an abstract science of the spiritual possible at all8 ,is that which one finds on this path identical with that which one is seeking8 ,why has psychology--meaning thereby not knowledge of men and experience of life but scientific psychology--always been the shallowest and most worthless of the disciplines of philosophy1 a field so empty that it has been left entirely to mediocre minds and barren systematists8 ,the reason is not far to seek4 ,it is the misfortune of 8experimental0 psychology that it does not even possess an object as the word is understood in any and every scientific technique4 ,its searches and solutions are fights with shadows and ghosts4 ,what is it--the ,soul8 ,if the mere reason could give an answer to that question1 the science would be ab initio unnecessary4 ,of the thousands of psychologists of to-day not one can give an actual analysis or definition of 8the0 ,will--or of regret1 anxiety1 jealousy1 disposition1 artistic intention4 ,naturally1 since only the systematic can be dissected1 and we can only define notions by notions4 ,no subtleties of intellectual play with notional distinctions1 no plausible observations of connexions between sensuous-corporeal states and 8inward processes0 touch that which is in question here4 ,will--this is no notion1 but a name1 a prime-word like ,god1 a sign for something of which we have an immediate inward certainty but which we are for ever unable to describe4 ,we are dealing here with something eternally inaccessible to learned investigation4 ,it is not for nothing that every language presents a baffling complexity of labels for the spiritual1 warning us thereby that it is something not susceptible of theoretical synthesis or systematic ordering4 ,here there is nothing for us to order4 ,critical 7i4e41 literally1 separating7 methods apply only to the world-as-,nature4 ,it would be easier to break up a theme of ,beethoven with dissecting-knife or acid than to break up the soul by methods of abstract thought4 ,nature-knowledge and man-knowledge have neither aims nor ways in common4 ,the primitive man experiences 8soul10 first in other men and then in himself1 as a ,numen1 just as he knows numina of the outer world1 and develops his impressions in mythological form4 ,his words for these things are symbols1 sounds1 not descriptive of the indescribable but indicative of it for him who hath ears to hear4 ,they evoke images1 likenesses 7in the sense of ,faust ,,ii7--the only language of spiritual intercourse that man has discovered to this day4 ,rembrandt can reveal something of his soul1 to those who are in inward kinship with him1 by way of a self-portrait or a landscape1 and to ,goethe 8a god gave it to say what he suffered40 ,certain ineffable stirrings of soul can be imparted by one man to the sensibility of another man through a look1 two bars of a melody1 an almost imperceptible movement4 ,that is the real language of souls1 and it remains incomprehensible to the outsider4 ,the word as utterance1 as poetic element1 may establish the link1 but the word as notion1 as element of scientific prose1 never4 8,soul10 for the man who has advanced from mere living and feeling to the alert and observant state1 is an image derived from quite primary experiences of life and death4 ,it is as old as thought1 i4e41 as the articulate separation of thinking 7thinking-over7 from seeing4 ,we see the world around us1 and since every free-moving being must for its own safety understand that world1 the accumulating daily detail of technical and empirical experience becomes a stock of permanent data which man1 as soon as he is proficient in speech1 collects into an image of what he understands4 ,this is the ,world-as-,nature4#cfi ,what is not environment we do not see1 but we do divine 8its0 presence in ourselves and in others1 and by virtue of 8its0 physiognomic impressive power it evokes in us the anxiety and the desire to know2 and thus arises the meditated or pondered image of a counterworld which is our mode of visualizing that which remains eternally alien to the physical eye4 ,the image of the soul is mythic and remains objective in the field of spiritual religion so long as the image of ,nature is contemplated in the spirit of religion2 and it transforms itself into a scientific notion and becomes objective in the field of scientific criticism as soon as 8,nature0 comes to be observed critically4 ,as 8,time0 is a counter-concept#cgj to space1 so the 8soul0 is a counterworld to 8,nature0 and therefore variable in dependence upon the notion of ,nature as this stands from moment to moment4 ,it has been shown how 8,time0 arose1 out of the feeling of the direction-quality possessed by ever-mobile ,life1 as a conceptual negative to a positive magnitude1 as an incarnation of that which is not extension2 and that all the 8properties0 of ,time1 by the cool analysis of which the philosophers believe they can solve the problem of ,time1 have been gradually formed and ordered in the intellect as inverses to the properties of space4 ,in exactly the same way1 the notion of the spiritual has come into being as the inverse and negative of the notion of the world1 the spatial notion of polarity assisting 7outward-8inward07 and the terms being suitably transvalued4 ,every psychology is a counter-physics4 ,to attempt to get an 8exact0 science out of the ever-mysterious soul is futile4 ,but the late-period ,city must needs have abstract thinking and it forces the 8physicist of the inner world0 to elucidate a fictitious world by ever more fictions1 notions by more notions4 ,he transmutes the non-extended into the extended1 builds up a system as 8cause0 for something that is only manifested physiognomically1 and comes to believe that in this system he has the structure of 8the0 soul before his eyes4 ,but the very words that he selects1 in all the ,cultures1 to notify to others the results of his intellectual labours betray him4 ,he talks of functions1 feeling-complexes1 mainsprings1 thresholds of consciousness2 course1 breadth1 intensity and parallelism in spiritual processes4 ,all these are words proper to the mode of representation that ,natural ,science employs4 8,the ,will is related to objects0 is a spatial image pure and simple4 8,conscious0 and 8unconscious0 are only too obviously derivatives of 8above-ground0 and 8below-ground40 ,in modern theories of the ,will we meet with all the vocabulary of electro-dynamics4 ,will- functions and thought-functions are spoken of in just the same way as the function of a system of forces4 ,to analyse a feeling means to set up a representative silhouette in its place and then to treat this silhouette mathematically and by definition1 partition1 and measurement4 ,all soul-examination of this stamp1 however remarkable as a study of cerebral anatomy1 is penetrated with the mechanical notion of locality1 and works without knowing it under imaginary co-ordinates in an imaginary space4 ,the 8pure0 psychologist is quite unaware that he is copying the physicist1 but it is not at all surprising that the navest methods of experimental psychology give depressingly orthodox results4 ,brain-paths and association-threads1 as modes of representation1 conform entirely to an optical scheme--the 8course0 of the will or the feeling2 both deal with cognate spatial phantoms4 ,it does not make much difference whether ,i define some psychic capacity conceptually or the corresponding brain-region graphically4 ,scientific psychology has worked out for itself a complete system of images1 in which it moves with entire conviction4 ,every individual pronouncement of every individual psychologist proves on examination to be merely a variation of this system conformable to the style of outer-world science of the day4 ,clear thought1 emancipated from all connexion with seeing1 presupposes as its organ a culture-language1 which is created by the soul of the ,culture as a part supporting other parts of its expression2#cga and presently this language itself creates a 8,nature0 of word-meanings1 a linguistic cosmos within which abstract notions1 judgments and conclusions--representations of number1 causality1 motion--can lead a mechanically determinate existence4 ,at any particular time1 therefore1 the current image of the soul is a function of the current language and its inner symbolism4 ,all the ,western1 ,faustian1 languages possess the notion of ,will4 ,this mythical entity manifested itself1 simultaneously in all1 in that transformation of the verb#cgb which decisively differentiated our tongues from the ,classical tongues and therefore our soul from the ,classical soul4 ,when 8ego habeo factum0 replaced 8feci10 a new numen of the inner world spoke4 ,and at the same time1 under specific label1 there appeared in the scientific soul-pictures of all the ,western psychologies the figure of the ,will1 of a well-rounded capacity of which the definition may be formulated in different ways by different schools1 but the existence is unquestionable4 ,,ii ,i maintain1 then1 that scientific psychology 7and1 it may be added1 the psychology of the same kind that we all unconsciously practise when we try to 8figure to ourselves0 the stirrings of our own or others' souls7 has1 in its inability to discover or even to approach the essence of the soul1 simply added one more to the symbols that collectively make up the ,macrocosm of the culture-man4 ,like everything else that is no longer becoming but become1 it has put a mechanism in place of an organism4 ,we miss in its picture that which fills our feeling of life 7and should surely be 8soul0 if anything is7 the ,destiny-quality1 the necessary directedness of existence1 the possibility that life in its course actualizes4 ,i do not believe that the word 8,destiny0 figures in any psychological system whatsoever--and we know that nothing in the world could be more remote from actual life-experience and knowledge of men than a system without such elements4 ,associations1 apperceptions1 affections1 motives1 thought1 feeling1 will--all are dead mechanisms1 the mere topography of which constitutes the insignificant total of our 8soul-science40 ,one looked for ,life and one found an ornamental pattern of notions4 ,and the soul remained what it was1 something that could neither be thought nor represented1 the secret1 the ever-becoming1 the pure experience4 ,this imaginary soul-body 7let it be called so outright for the first time7 is never anything but the exact mirror-image of the form in which the matured culture-man looks on his outer world4 ,in the one as in the other1 the depth-experience actualizes the extension-world4#cgc ,alike out of the perception of the outside and the conception of the inside1 the secret that is hinted at in the root-word ,time creates ,space4 ,the soul-image like the world-image has its directional depth1 its horizon1 and its boundedness or its unboundedness4 ,an 8inner eye0 sees1 an 8inner ear0 hears4 ,there exists a distinct idea of an inner order1 and this inner order like the outer wears the badge of causal necessity4 ,this being so1 everything that has been said in this work regarding the phenomenon of the high ,cultures combines to demand an immensely wider and richer sort of soul-study than anything worked upon so far4 ,for everything that our present-day psychologist has to tell us--and here we refer not only to the systematic science but also in the wider sense to the physiognomic knowledge of men--relates to the present condition of the ,western soul1 and not1 as hitherto gratuitously assumed1 to 8the human soul0 at large4 ,a soul-image is never anything but the image of one quite definite soul4 ,no observer can ever step outside the conditions and the limitations of his time and circle1 and whatever it may be that he 8knows0 or 8cognizes10 the very cognition itself involves in all cases choice1 direction and inner form1 and is therefore ab initio an expression of his proper soul4 ,the primitive himself appropriates a soul-image out of facts of his own life as subjected to the formative working of the basic experiences of waking consciousness 7distinction of ego and world1 of ego and tu7 and those of being 7distinction of body and soul1 sense- life and reflection1 sex-life and sentiment74 ,and as it is thoughtful men who think upon these matters1 an inner numen 7,spirit1 ,logos1 ,ka1 ,ruach7 always arises as an opposite to the rest4 ,but the dispositions and relations of this numen in the individual case1 and the conception that is formed of the spiritual elements--layers of forces or substances1 unity or polarity or plurality--mark the thinker from the outset as a part of his own specific ,culture4 ,when1 therefore1 one convinces one's self that one knows the soul of an alien ,culture from its workings in actuality1 the soul-image underlying the knowledge is really one's own soul-image4 ,in this wise new experiences are readily assimilated into the system that is already there1 and it is not surprising that in the end one comes to believe that one has discovered forms of eternal validity4 ,in reality1 every ,culture possesses its own systematic psychology just as it possesses its own style of knowledge of men and experience of life2 and just as even each separate stage--the age of ,scholasticism1 that of the ,sophists1 that of ,enlightenment--forms special ideas of number and thought and ,nature that pertain to itself only1 so even each separate century mirrors itself in a soul-image of its own4 ,the best judge of men in the ,western world goes wrong when he tries to understand a ,japanese1 and vice versa4 ,but the man of learning goes equally wrong when he tries to translate basic words of ,arabic or ,greek by basic words of his own tongue4 8,nephesh0 is not 8animus0 and 8tmn0 is not 8soul10 and what we consistently discover under our label 8will0 ,classical man did not find in his soul-picture at all4 ,taking one thing with another1 it is no longer possible to doubt the immense importance of the individual soul-images that have severally arisen in the general history of thought4 ,classical1 ,apollinian man1 the man of ,euclidean point-formed being1 looked upon his soul as a ,cosmos ordered in a group of excellent parts4 ,plato called it 1 1 and compared it with man1 beast and plant1 in one place even with ,southern1 ,northern and ,hellenic man4 ,what seems to be copied here is ,nature as seen by the ,classical age1 a well-ordered sum of tangible things1 in contrast to a space that was felt as the non-existent1 the ,nonent4 ,where in this field is ,will8 or the idea of functional connexions8 or the other creations of our psychology8 ,do we really believe that ,plato and ,aristotle were less sure in analysis than we are1 and did not see what is insistently obvious to every layman amongst us8 ,or is it that ,will is missing here for the same reason as space is missing in the ,classical mathematic and force in the ,classical physics8 ,take1 on the contrary1 any ,western psychology that you please1 and you will always find a functional and never a bodily ordering4 ,the basic form of all impressions which we receive from within is y f7x71 and that1 because the function is the basis of our outer world4 ,thinking1 feeling1 willing--no ,western psychologist can step outside this trinity1 however much he may desire to do so2 even in the controversies of ,gothic thinkers concerning the primacy of will or reason it already emerges that the question is one of a relation between forces4 ,it matters not at all whether these old philosophers put forward their theories as original or read them into ,augustine or ,aristotle4 ,associations1 apperceptions1 will-processes1 call them what you will1 the elements of our picture are without exception of the type of the mathematico-physical ,function1 and in very form radically un-,classical4 ,now1 such psychology examines the soul1 not physiognomically to indicate its traits1 but physically1 as an object1 to ascertain its elements1 and it is quite natural therefore to find psychology reduced to perplexity when confronted with the problem of motion4 ,classical man1 too1 had his inward ,eleatic difficulty1#cgd and the inability of the ,schoolmen to agree as to the primacy of ,will or ,reason foreshadows the dangerous flaw in ,baroque physics--its inability to reach an unchallengeable statement of the relation between force and movement4 ,directional energy1 denied in the ,classical and also in the ,indian soul-image 7where all is settled and rounded71 is emphatically affirmed in the ,faustian and in the ,egyptian 7wherein all is systems and centres of forces72 and yet1 precisely because this affirmation cannot but involve the element of time1 thought1 which is alien to ,time1 finds itself committed to self- contradictions4 ,the ,faustian and the ,apollinian images of the soul are in blunt opposition4 ,once more all the old contrasts crop up4 ,in the ,apollinian we have1 so to call it1 the soul-body1 in the ,faustian the soul-space1 as the imagination-unit4 ,the body possesses parts1 while the space is the scene of processes4 ,classical man conceives of his inner world plastically4 ,even ,homer's idiom betrays it2 echoing1 we may well believe1 immemorial temple-traditions1 he shows us1 for instance1 the dead in ,hades as well-recognizable copies of the bodies that had been4 ,the ,pre-,socratic philosophy1 with its three well-ordered parts 1 1 1 suggests at once the ,laocon group4 ,in our case the impress is a musical one2 the sonata of the inner life has the will as first subject1 thought and feeling as themes of the second subject2 the movement is bound by the strict rules of a spiritual counterpoint1 and psychology's business is to discover this counterpoint4 ,the simplest elements fall into antithesis like ,classical and ,western number--on the one hand magnitudes1 on the other spiritual relations--and the spiritual static of ,apollinian existence1 the stereometric ideal of and 1 stands opposed to the soul-dynamic of ,faustian4 ,the ,apollinian soul-image--,plato's biga-team with as charioteer-- takes to flight at once on the approach of the ,magian soul4 ,it is fading out already in the later ,stoa1 where the principal teachers came predominantly from the ,aramaic ,east1 and by the time of the ,early ,roman ,empire1 even in the literature of the city itself1 it has come to be a mere reminiscence4 ,the hall-mark of the ,magian soul-image is a strict dualism of two mysterious substances1 ,spirit and ,soul4 ,between these two there is neither the ,classical 7static7 nor the ,western 7functional7 relation1 but an altogether differently constituted relation which we are obliged to call merely 8,magian0 for want of a more helpful term1 though we may illustrate it by contrasting the physics of ,democritus and the physics of ,galileo with ,alchemy and the ,philosopher's ,stone4 ,on this specifically ,middle-,eastern soul-image rests1 of inward necessity1 all the psychology and particularly the theology with which the 8,gothic0 springtime of the ,arabian ,culture 7#j-cjj ,a4,d47 is filled4 ,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john belongs thereto1 and the writings of the ,gnostics1 the ,early ,fathers1 the ,neoplatonists1 the ,manichans1 and the dogmatic texts in the ,talmud and the ,avesta2 so1 too1 does the tired spirit of the ,imperium ,romanum1 now expressed only in religiosity and drawing the little life that is in its philosophy from the young ,east1 ,syria1 and ,persia4 ,even in the #ast ,century ,b4,c4 the great ,posidonius1 a true ,semite and young-,arabian in spite of the ,classical dress of his immense learning1 was inwardly sensible of the complete opposition between the ,classical life-feeling and this ,magian soul-structure which for him was the true one4 ,there is a patent difference of value between a ,substance permeating the body and a ,substance which falls from the world-cavern into humanity1 abstract and divine1 making of all participants a ,consensus4#cge ,this 8,spirit0 it is which evokes the higher world1 and through this creation triumphs over mere life1 8the flesh0 and ,nature4 ,this is the prime image that underlies all feeling of ego4 ,sometimes it is seen in religious1 sometimes in philosophical1 sometimes in artistic guise4 ,consider the portraits of the ,constantinian age1 with their fixed stare into the infinite--that look stands for the 4 ,it is felt by ,plotinus and by ,origen4 ,paul distinguishes1 for example in ,i ,cor41 xv1 #dd1 between and 4 ,the conception of a double1 bodily or spiritual1 ecstasy and of the partition of men into lower and higher1 psychics and pneumatics1 was familiar currency amongst the ,gnostics4 ,late-,classical literature 7,plutarch7 is full of the dualistic psychology of and 1 derived from ,oriental sources4 ,it was very soon brought into correlation with the contrast between ,christian and ,heathen and that between ,spirit and ,nature1 and it issued in that scheme of world-history as man's drama from ,creation to ,last ,judgment 7with an intervention of ,god as means7 which is common to ,gnostics1 ,christians1 ,persians and ,jews alike1 and has not even now been altogether overcome4 ,this ,magian soul-image received its rigorously scientific completion in the schools of ,baghdad and ,basra4#cgf ,alfarabi and ,alkindi dealt thoroughly with the problems of this ,magian psychology1 which to us are tangled and largely inaccessible4 ,and we must by no means underrate its influence upon the young and wholly abstract soul-theory 7as distinct from the ego-feeling7 of the ,west4 ,scholastic and ,mystic philosophy1 no less than ,gothic art1 drew upon ,moorish ,spain1 ,sicily and the ,east for many of its forms4 ,it must not be forgotten that the ,arabian ,culture is the culture of the established revelation-religions1 all of which assume a dualistic soul-image4 ,the ,kabbala#cgg and the part played by ,jewish philosophers in the so-called medival philosophy--i4e41 late-,arabian followed by early-,gothic--is well known4 ,but ,i will only refer here to the remarkable and little-appreciated ,spinoza4#cgh ,child of the ,ghetto1 he is1 with his contemporary ,schirazi1 the last belated representative of the ,magian1 a stranger in the form-world of the ,faustian feeling4 ,as a prudent pupil of the ,baroque he contrived to clothe his system in the colours of ,western thought1 but at bottom he stands entirely under the aspect of the ,arabian dualism of two soul-substances4 ,and this is the true and inward reason why he lacked the force-concept of ,galileo and ,descartes4 ,this concept is the centre of gravity of a dynamic universe and ipso facto is alien to the ,magian world-feeling4 ,there is no link between the idea of the ,philosopher's ,stone 7which is implicit in ,spinoza's idea of ,deity as 8causa sui07 and the causal necessity of our ,nature-picture4 ,consequently1 his determinism is precisely that which the orthodox wisdom of ,baghdad had maintained--8,kismet40 ,it was there that the home of the more geometrico#cgi method was to be looked for--it is common to the ,talmud1 the ,zend ,avesta and the ,arabian ,kalaam2#chj but its appearance in ,spinoza's 8,ethics0 is a grotesque freak in our philosophy4 ,once more this ,magian soul-image was to be conjured up1 for a moment4 ,german ,romanticism found in magic and the tangled thought-threads of ,gothic philosophers the same attractiveness as it found in the ,crusade- ideals of cloisters and castles1 and even more in ,saracenic art and poetry--without of course understanding very much of these remote things4 ,schelling1 ,oken1 ,baader1 ,grres and their circle indulged in barren speculations in the ,arabic-,jewish style1 which they felt with evident self-satisfaction to be 8dark0 and 8deep0--precisely what1 for ,orientals1 they were not--understanding them but partially themselves and hoping for similar quasi-incomprehension in their audiences4 ,the only noteworthy point in the episode is the attractiveness of obscurity4 ,we may venture the conclusion that the clearest and most accessible conceptions of ,faustian thought--as we have it1 for instance1 in ,descartes or in ,kant's 8,prolegomena0--would in the same way have been regarded by an ,arabian student as nebulous and abstruse4 ,what for us is true1 for them is false1 and vice versa2 and this is valid for the soul- images of the different ,cultures as it is for every other product of their scientific thinking4 ,,iii ,the separation of its ultimate elements is a task that the ,gothic world- outlook and its philosophy leaves to the courage of the future4 ,just as the ornamentation of the cathedral and the primitive contemporary painting still shirk the decision between gold and wide atmosphere in backgrounds--between the ,magian and the ,faustian aspects of ,god in ,nature--so this early1 timid1 immature soul-image as it presents itself in this philosophy mingles characters derived from the ,christian-,arabian metaphysic and its dualism of ,spirit and ,soul with ,northern inklings of functional soul-forces not yet avowed4 ,this is the discrepance that underlies the conflict concerning the primacy of will or reason1 the basic problem of the ,gothic philosophy1 which men tried to solve now in the old ,arabian1 now in the new ,western sense4 ,it is this myth of the mind--which under ever-changing guises accompanies our philosophy throughout its course--that distinguishes it so sharply from every other4 ,the rationalism of late ,baroque1 in all the pride of the self-assured city-spirit1 decided in favour of the greater power of the ,goddess ,reason 7,kant1 the ,jacobins72 but almost immediately thereafter the #aith ,century 7,nietzsche above all7 went back to the stronger formula ,voluntas superior intellectu1 and this indeed is in the blood of all of us4#cha ,schopenhauer1 the last of the great systematists1 has brought it down to the formula 8,world as ,will and ,idea10 and it is only his ethic and not his metaphysic that decides against the ,will4 ,here we begin to see by direct light the deep foundations and meaning of philosophizing within a ,culture4 ,for what we see here is the ,faustian soul trying in labour of many centuries to paint a self-portrait1 and one1 moreover1 that is in intimate concordance with its world-portrait4 ,the ,gothic world-view with its struggle of will and reason is in fact an expression of the life-feeling of the men of the ,crusades1 of the ,hohenstaufen empire1 of the great cathedrals4 ,these men saw the soul thus1 because they were thus4 ,will and thought in the soul-image correspond to ,direction and ,extension1 ,history and ,nature1 ,destiny and ,causality in the image of the outer world4 ,both aspects of our basic characters emerge in our prime- symbol which is infinite extension4 ,will links the future to the present1 thought the unlimited to the here4 ,the historic future is distance-becoming1 the boundless world-horizon distance-become--this is the meaning of the ,faustian depth-experience4 ,the direction-feeling as 8,will0 and the space-feeling as 8,reason0 are imagined as entities1 almost as legend-figures2 and out of them comes the picture that our psychologists of necessity abstract from the inner life4 ,to call the ,faustian ,culture a ,will-,culture is only another way of expressing the eminently historical disposition of its soul4 ,our first- person idiom1 our 8ego habeo factum0--our dynamic syntax1 that is-- faithfully renders the 8way of doing things0 that results from this disposition and1 with its positive directional energy1 dominates not only our picture of the ,world-as-,history but our own history to boot4 ,this first person towers up in the ,gothic architecture2 the spire is an 8,i10 the flying buttress is an 8,i40 ,and therefore the entire ,faustian ethic1 from ,thomas ,aquinas to ,kant1 is an 8excelsior0--fulfilment of an 8,i10 ethical work upon an 8,i10 justification of an 8,i0 by faith and works2 respect of the neighbour 8,thou0 for the sake of one's 8,i0 and its happiness2 and1 lastly and supremely1 immortality of the 8,i40 ,now this1 precisely this1 the genuine ,russian regards as contemptible vain-glory4 ,the ,russian soul1 will-less1 having the limitless plane as its prime-symbol1#chb seeks to grow up--serving1 anonymous1 self- oblivious--in the brother-world of the plane4 ,to take 8,i0 as the starting-point of relations with the neighbour1 to elevate 8,i0 morally through 8,i's0 love of near and dear1 to repent for 8,i's0 own sake1 are to him traits of ,western vanity as presumptuous as is the upthrusting challenge to heaven of our cathedrals that he compares with his plane church-roof and its sprinkling of cupolas4 ,tolstoi's hero ,nechludov looks after his moral 8,i0 as he does after his finger-nails2 this is just what betrays ,tolstoi as belonging to the pseudomorphosis of ,petrinism4 ,but ,raskolnikov is only something in a 8we40 ,his fault is the fault of all1#chc and even to regard his sin as special to himself is pride and vanity4 ,something of the kind underlies the ,magian soul-image also4 8,if any man come to me10 says ,jesus 7,luke xiv1 #bf71 8and hate not his father and mother1 and wife1 and children1 and brethren1 yea1 and his own life 7 7 also1#chd he cannot be my disciple02 and it is the same feeling that makes him call himself by the title that we mistranslate 8,son of ,man40#che ,the ,consensus of the ,orthodox too is impersonal and condemns 8,i0 as a sin4 ,so too with the--truly ,russian-- conception of truth as the anonymous agreement of the elect4 ,classical man1 belonging wholly to the present1 is equally without that directional energy by which our images of world and of soul are dominated1 which sums all our sense-impressions as a path towards distance and our inward experiences as a feeling of future4 ,he is will- less4 ,the ,classical idea of destiny and the symbol of the ,doric column leave no doubt as to that4 ,and the contest of thinking and willing that is the hidden theme of every serious portrait from ,jan van ,eyck to ,mares is impossible in ,classical portraiture1 for in the ,classical soul-image thought 771 the inner ,zeus1 is accompanied by the wholly ahistoric entities of animal and vegetative impulse 7 and 71 wholly somatic and wholly destitute of conscious direction and drive towards an end4 ,the actual designation of the ,faustian principle1 which belongs to us and to us alone1 is a matter of indifference4 ,a name is in itself mere sound4 ,space1 too1 is a word that is capable of being employed with a thousand nuances--by mathematicians and philosophers1 poets and painters-- to express one and the same indescribable2 a word that is ostensibly common to all mankind and yet1 carrying a metaphysical under-meaning that we gave it and could not but give it1 is in that sense valid only for our ,culture4 ,it is not the notion of 8,will10 but the circumstance that we possess it while the ,greeks were entirely ignorant of it1 that gives it high symbolic import4 ,at the very bottom1 there is no distinction between space-as-depth and will4 ,for the one1 and therefore for the other also1 the ,classical languages had no expression4#chf ,the pure space of the ,faustian world-picture is not mere extension1 but efficient extension into the distance1 as an overcoming of the merely sensuous1 as a strain and tendency1 as a spiritual will-to-power4 ,i am fully aware how inadequate these periphrases are4 ,it is entirely impossible to indicate in exact terms the difference between what we and what the men of the ,indian or the ,arabian ,culture call space1 or feel or imagine in the word4 ,but that there is some radical distinction is proved by the very different fundamentals of the respective mathematics1 arts of form1 and1 above all1 immediate utterances of life4 ,we shall see how the identity of space and will comes to expression in the acts of ,copernicus and ,columbus--as well as in those of the ,hohenstaufen and ,napoleon--but it underlies also1 in another way1 the physical notions of fields of force and potential1 ideas that it would be impossible to convey to the comprehension of any ,greek4 ,space as a priori form of perception1 the formula in which ,kant finally enunciated that for which ,baroque philosophy had so long and tirelessly striven1 implies an assertion of supremacy of soul over the alien2 the ego1 through the form1 is to rule the world4#chg ,this is brought to expression in the depth-perspective of oil-painting which makes the space-field of the picture1 conceived as infinite1 dependent on the observer1 who in choosing his distance asserts his dominion4 ,it is this attraction of distance that produces the type of the heroic and historically-felt landscape that we have alike in the picture and the park of the ,baroque period1 and that is expressed also in the mathematico-physical concept of the vector4 ,for centuries painting fought passionately to reach this symbol1 which contains all that the words space1 will and force are capable of indicating4 ,and correspondingly we find in our metaphysic the steady tendency to formulate pairs of concepts 7such as phenomena and things-in-themselves1 will and idea1 ego and non-ego7 all of the same purely dynamic content1 and--in utter contrast to ,protagoras's conception of man as the measure1 not the creator1 of things--to establish a functional dependence of things upon spirit4 ,the ,classical metaphysic regarded man as a body among bodies1 and knowledge as a sort of contact1 passing from the known to the knower and not vice versa4 ,the optical theories of ,anaxagoras and ,democritus were far from admitting any active participation of the percipient in sense-perception4 ,plato never felt1 as ,kant was driven to feel1 the ego as centre of a transcendent sphere of effect4 ,the captives in his celebrated cave are really captives1 the slaves and not the masters of outer impressions--recipients of light from the common sun and not themselves suns which irradiate the universe4 ,the relation of our will to our imaginary space is evidenced again in the physical concept of space-energy--that utterly un-,classical idea in which even spatial interval figures as a form1 and indeed as prime form thereof1 for the notions of 8capacity0 and 8intensity0 rest upon it4 ,we feel will and space1 the dynamic world-picture of ,galileo and ,newton and the dynamic soul-picture which has will as its centre of gravity and centre of reference1 as of identical significance4 ,both are ,baroque ideas1 symbols of the fully-ripened ,faustian ,culture4 ,it is wrong1 though it may be usual1 to regard the cult of the 8will0 as common1 if not to mankind1 at any rate to ,christendom1 and derived in consequence from the ,early-,arabian ethos4 ,the connexion is merely a phenomenon of the historical surface1 and the deduction fails because it confuses the 7formal7 history of words and ideas such as 8voluntas0 with the course of their destiny1 thereby missing the profoundly symbolical changes of connotation that occur in that course4 ,when ,arabian psychologists--,murtada for instance--discuss the possibility of several 8wills10 a will that hangs together with the act1 another will that independently precedes the act1 another that has no relation to the act at all1 a will that is simply the parent of a willing1 they are obviously working in deeper connotations of the ,arabic word and on the basis of a soul-image that in structure differs entirely from the ,faustian4 ,for every man1 whatever the ,culture to which he belongs1 the elements of the soul are the deities of an inner mythology4 ,what ,zeus was for the outer ,olympus1 was for the inner world that every ,greek was entirely conscious of possessing--the throned lord of the other soul- elements4 ,what 8,god0 is for us1 ,god as ,breadth of the world1 the ,universal ,power1 the ever-present doer and provider1 that also--reflected from the space of world into the imaginary space of soul and necessarily felt as an actual presence--is 8,will40 ,with the microcosmic dualism of the ,magian ,culture1 with ruach and nephesh1 pneuma and psyche1 is necessarily associated the macrocosmic opposition of ,god and ,devil-- ,ormuzd and ,ahriman for ,persians1 ,yahwe and ,beelzebub for ,jews1 ,allah and ,eblis for ,mohammedans--in brief1 ,absolute ,good and ,absolute ,evil4 ,and note1 further1 how in the ,western world-feeling both these oppositions pale together4 ,in proportion as the ,will emerges1 out of the ,gothic struggle for primacy between 8intellectus0 and 8voluntas10 as the centre of a spiritual monotheism1 the figure of the ,devil fades out of the real world4 ,in the ,baroque age the pantheism of the outer world immediately resulted in one of the inner world also2 and the word 8,god0 in antithesis to 8world0 has always--however interpreted in this or that case--implied exactly what is implied in the word 8will0 with respect to soul1 viz41 the power that moves all that is within its domain4#chh ,thought no sooner leaves ,religion for ,science than we get the double myth of concepts1 in physics and psychology4 ,the concepts 8force10 8mass10 8will10 8passion0 rest not on objective experience but on a life-feeling4 ,darwinism is nothing but a specially shallow formulation of this feeling4 ,no ,greek would have used the word 8,nature0 as our biology employs it1 in the sense of an absolute and methodical activity4 8,the will of ,god0 for us is a pleonasm--,god 7or 8,nature10 as some say7 is nothing but will4 ,after the ,renaissance the notion of ,god sheds the old sensuous and personal traits 7omnipresence and omnipotence are almost mathematical concepts71 becomes little by little identical with the notion of infinite space and in becoming so becomes transcendent world- will4 ,and therefore it is that about #agjj painting has to yield to instrumental music--the only art that in the end is capable of clearly expressing what we feel about ,god4 ,consider1 in contrast with this1 the gods of ,homer4 ,zeus emphatically does not possess full powers over the world1 but is simply 8primus inter pares10 a body amongst bodies1 as the ,apollinian world-feeling requires4 ,blind necessity1 the ,ananke immanent in the cosmos of ,classical consciousness1 is in no sense dependent upon him2 on the contrary1 the ,gods are subordinate to ,it4 schylus says so outright in a powerful passage of the 8,prometheus10#chi but it is perceptible enough even in ,homer1 e4g41 in the ,strife of the ,gods and in that decisive passage in which ,zeus takes up the scales of destiny1 not to settle1 but to learn1 the fate of ,hector4#cij ,the ,classical soul1 therefore1 with its parts and its properties1 imagines itself as an ,olympus of little gods1 and to keep these at peace and in harmony with one another is the ideal of the ,greek life-ethic of and 4 ,more than one of the philosophers betrays the connexion by calling 1 the highest part of the soul1 ,zeus4 ,aristotle assigns to his deity the single function of 1 contemplation1 and this is ,diogenes's ideal also--a completely-matured static of life in contrast to the equally ripe dynamic of our #ahth-,century ideal4 ,the enigmatic ,something in the soul-image that is called 8will10 the passion of the third dimension1 is therefore quite specially a creation of the ,baroque1 like the perspective of oil-painting and the force-idea of modern physics and the tone-world of instrumental music4 ,in every case the ,gothic had foreshadowed what these intellectualizing centuries brought to fullness4 ,here1 where we are trying to take in the cast of ,faustian life in contradiction to that of all other lives1 what we have to do is to keep a firm hold on the fact that the primary words will1 space1 force1 ,god1 upborne by and permeated with connotations of ,faustian feeling1 are emblems1 are the effective framework that sustains the great and kindred form-worlds in which this being expresses itself4 ,it has been believed1 hitherto1 that in these matters one was holding in one's grip a body of eternal facts1 of facts- in-themselves1 which sooner or later would be successfully treated1 8known10 and proved by the methods of critical research4 ,this illusion of natural science was shared by psychology also4 ,but the view that these 8universally-valid0 fundamentals belong merely to the ,baroque style of apprehension and comprehension1 that as expression-forms they are only of transitory significance1 and that they are only 8true0 for the ,western type of intellect1 alters the whole meaning of those sciences and leads us to look upon them not only as subjects of systematic cognition but also1 and in a far higher degree1 as objects of physiognomic study4 ,baroque architecture began1 as we have seen1 when ,michelangelo replaced the tectonic elements of the ,renaissance1 support and load1 by those of dynamics1 force and mass4 ,while ,brunelleschi's chapel of the ,pazzi in ,florence expresses a bright composedness1 ,vignola's faade of the ,ges in ,rome is will become stone4 ,the new style in its ecclesiastical form has been designated the 8,jesuit10 and indeed there is an inward connexion between the achievement of ,vignola and ,giacomo ,della ,porta and the creation by ,ignatius ,loyola of the ,order that stands for the pure and abstract will of the ,church1#cia just as there is between the invisible operations and the unlimited range of the ,order and the arts of ,calculus and ,fugue4 ,henceforward1 then1 the reader will not be shocked if we speak of a ,baroque1 and even of a ,jesuit1 style in psychology1 mathematics1 and pure physics4 ,the form-language of dynamics1 which puts the energetic contrast of capacity and intensity in place of the volitionless somatic contrast of material and form1 is one common to all the mind-creations of those centuries4 ,,iv ,the question is now3 ,how far is the man of this ,culture himself fulfilling what the soul-image that he has created requires of him8 ,if we can1 to-day1 state the theme of ,western physics quite generally to be efficient space1 we have ipso facto defined also the kind of existence1 the content of existence as lived by contemporary man4 ,we1 as ,faustian natures1 are accustomed to take note of the individual according to his effective and not according to his plastic-static appearance in the field of our life-experience4 ,we measure what a man is by his activity1 which may be directed inwardly or outwardly1 and we judge all intentions1 reasons1 powers1 convictions and habits entirely by this directedness4 ,the word with which we sum up this aspect is character4 ,we habitually speak of the 8character0 of heads and landscapes2 of ornaments1 brush-strokes and scripts2 of whole arts and ages and ,cultures4 ,the art of the characteristic is1 above all1 ,baroque music--alike in respect of its melody and its instrumentation4 ,here again is a word indicating an indescribable1 a something that emphasizes1 among all the ,cultures1 the ,faustian in particular4 ,and the deep relation between this word 8character0 and the word 8will0 is unmistakable2 what will is in the soul-image1 character is in the picture of life as we see it1 the ,western life that is self-evident to ,western men4 ,it is the fundamental postulate of all our ethical systems1 differ otherwise as they may in their metaphysical or practical precepts1 that man has character4 ,character1 which forms itself in the stream of the world--the personality1 the relation of living to doing--is a ,faustian impression of the man made by the man2 and1 significantly enough1 just as in the physical world-picture it has proved impossible 7in spite of the most rigorous theoretical examination7 to separate the vectorial idea of forces from the idea of motion 7because of the inherent directional quality of the vector71 so also it is impossible to draw a strict distinction between will and soul1 character and life4 ,at the height of our ,culture1 certainly since the #agth ,century1 we feel the word 8life0 as a pure and simple synonym of willing4 ,expressions like living force1 life-will1 active energy1 abound in our ethical literature and their import is taken for granted1 whereas the ,age of ,pericles could not even have translated them into its language4 ,hitherto the pretension of each and every morale to universal validity has obscured the fact that every ,culture1 as a homogeneous being of higher order1 possesses a moral constitution proper to itself4 ,there are as many morales as there are ,cultures4 ,nietzsche was the first to have an inkling of this2 but he never came anywhere near to a really objective morphology of morale 8beyond good0 7all good7 8and evil0 7all evil74 ,he evaluated ,classical1 ,indian1 ,christian and ,renaissance morale by his own criteria instead of understanding the style of them as a symbol4 ,and yet if anything could detect the prime-phenomenon of ,morale as such1 it should have been the historical insight of a ,westerner4 ,however1 it appears that we are only now ripe enough for such a study4 ,the conception of mankind as an active1 fighting1 progressing whole is 7and has been since ,joachim of ,floris and the ,crusades7 so necessary an idea for us that we find it hard indeed to realize that it is an exclusively ,western hypothesis1 living and valid only for a season4 ,to the ,classical spirit mankind appears as a stationary mass1 and correspondingly there is that quite dissimilar morale that we can trace from the ,homeric dawn to the time of the ,roman ,empire4 ,and1 more generally1 we shall find that the immense activity of the ,faustian life- feeling is most nearly matched in the ,chinese and the ,egyptian1 and the rigorous passivity of the ,classical in the ,indian4 ,if ever there was a group of nations that kept the 8struggle for existence0 constantly before its eyes1 it was the ,classical ,culture4 ,all the cities1 big and little1 fought one another to sheer extinction1 without plan or purpose1 without mercy1 body against body1 under the stimulus of a completely anti-historical instinct4 ,but ,greek ethics1 notwithstanding ,heraclitus1 were far from making struggle an ethical principle4 ,the ,stoics and the ,epicureans alike preached abstention from it as an ideal4 ,the overcoming of resistances may far more justly be called the typical impulse of the ,western soul4 ,activity1 determination1 self-control1 are postulates4 ,to battle against the comfortable foregrounds of life1 against the impressions of the moment1 against what is near1 tangible and easy1 to win through to that which has generality and duration and links past and future--these are the sum of all ,faustian imperatives from earliest ,gothic to ,kant and ,fichte1 and far beyond them again to the ,ethos of immense power and will exhibited in our ,states1 our economic systems and our technics4 ,the carpe diem1 the saturated being1 of the ,classical standpoint is the most direct contrary of that which is felt by ,goethe and ,kant and ,pascal1 by ,church and ,freethinker1 as alone possessing value--active1 fighting and victorious being4#cib ,as all the forms of ,dynamic 7whether pictorial1 musical1 physical1 social or political7 are concerned with the working-out of infinite relations and deal1 not with the individual case and the sum of individual cases as the ,classical physics had done1 but with the typical course or process and its functional rule1 8character0 must be understood as that which remains in principle constant in the working- out of life2 where there is no such constant we speak of 8lack of character40 ,it is character--the form in virtue of which a moving existence can combine the highest constancy in the essential with the maximum variability in the details--that makes telling biography 7such as ,goethe's 8,wahrheit und ,dichtung071 possible at all4 ,plutarch's truly ,classical biographies are by comparison mere collections of anecdotes strung together chronologically and not ordered pictures of historical development1 and it will hardly be disputed that only this second kind of biography is imaginable in connexion with ,alcibiades or ,pericles or1 for that matter1 any purely ,apollinian figure4 ,their experiences lack1 not mass1 but relation2 there is something atomic about them4 ,similarly in the field of ,science the ,greek did not merely forget to look for general laws in the sum of his experiential data2 in his cosmos they were simply not there to be found4 ,it follows that the sciences of character-study1 particularly physiognomy and graphology1 would not be able to glean much in the ,classical field4 ,its handwriting we do not know1 but we do know that its ornament1 as compared with the ,gothic1 is of incredible simplicity and feebleness of character-expression--think of the ,meander and the ,acanthus-shoot4 ,on the other hand1 it has never been surpassed in timeless evenness4 ,it goes without saying that we1 when we turn to look into the ,classical life-feeling1 must find there some basic element of ethical values that is antithetical to 8character0 in the same way as the statue is antithetical to the fugue4 ,euclidean geometry to ,analysis1 and body to space4 ,we find it in the ,gesture4 ,it is this that provides the necessary foundation for a spiritual static4 ,the word that stands in the ,classical vocabulary where 8personality0 stands in our own is 1 8persona0--namely rle or mask4 ,in late ,greek or ,roman speech it means the public aspect and mien of a man1 which for ,classical man is tantamount to the essence and kernel of him4 ,an orator was described as speaking in the --not the character or the vein as we should say-- of a priest or a soldier4 ,the slave was --that is1 he had no attitude or figure in the public life--but not --that is1 he did have a soul4 ,the idea that ,destiny had assigned the rle of king or general to a man was expressed by ,romans in the words persona regis1 imperatoris4#cic ,the ,apollinian cast of life is manifest enough here4 ,what is indicated is not the personality 7that is1 an unfolding of inward possibilities in active striving7 but a permanent and self- contained posture strictly adapted to a so-to-say plastic ideal of being4 ,it is only in the ,classical ethic that ,beauty plays a distinct rle4 ,however labelled--as 1 or --it always amounts to the well-ordered group of tangible and publicly evident traits1 defined for other men rather than specific to one's self4 ,a man was the object and not the subject of outward life4 ,the pure present1 the moment1 the foreground were not conquered but worked up4 ,the notion of an inward life is impossible in this connexion4 ,the significance of ,aristotle's phrase --quite untranslatable and habitually translated with a ,western connotation--is that it refers to men who are nothing when single and lonely 7what could be more preposterous than an ,athenian ,robinson ,crusoe67 and only count for anything when in a plurality1 in agora or forum1 where each reflects his neighbour and thus1 only thus1 acquires a genuine reality4 ,it is all implicit in the phrase 1 used for the burghers of the city4 ,and thus we see that the ,portrait1 the centre of ,baroque art1 is identical with the representation of a man to the extent that he possesses character1 and that in the best age of ,attic the representation of a man in respect of his attitude1 as persona1 necessarily leans to the form-ideal of the nude statue4 ,v ,this opposition1 further1 has produced forms of tragedy that differ from one another radically in every respect4 ,the ,faustian character-drama and the ,apollinian drama of noble gesture have in fact nothing but name in common4#cid ,starting1 significantly enough1 from ,seneca and not from schylus and ,sophocles#cie 7just as the contemporary architecture linked itself with ,imperial ,rome and not with ,pstum71 the ,baroque drama with ever- increasing emphasis makes character instead of occurrence its centre of gravity1 the origin of a system of spiritual co-ordinates 7so to express it7 which gives the scenic facts position1 sense1 and value in relation to itself4 ,the outcome is a tragedy of willing1 of efficient forces1 of inward movement not necessarily exhibited in visible form1 whereas ,sophocles's method was to employ a minimum of happening and to put it behind the scenes particularly by means of the artifice of the 8messenger40 ,the ,classical tragedy relates to general situations and not particular personalities4 ,it is specifically described by ,aristotle as 4 ,that which in his ,poetica-- assuredly the most fateful of all books for our poetry--he calls 1 namely the ideal bearing of the ideal ,hellene in a painful situation1 has as little in common with our notion of character 7viz41 a constitution of the ego which determines events7 as a surface in ,euclidean geometry has with the like-named concept in ,riemann's theory of algebraic equations4 ,it has1 unfortunately1 been our habit for centuries past to translate as 8character0 instead of paraphrasing it 7exact rendering is almost impossible7 by 8rle10 8bearing0 or 8gesture02 to reproduce myth1 1 which is timeless occurrence1 by 8action02 and to derive from 8doing40 ,it is ,othello1 ,don ,quixote1 ,le ,misanthrope1 ,werther and ,hedda ,gabler that are characters1 and the tragedy consists in the mere existence of human beings thus constituted in their respective milieux4 ,their struggle--whether against this world or the next1 or themselves--is forced on them by their character and not by anything coming from outside2 a soul is placed in a web of contradictory relations that admits of no net solution4 ,classical stage- figures1 on the contrary1 are rles and not characters2 over and over again the same figures appear--the old man1 the slayer1 the lover1 all slow-moving bodies under masks and on stilts4 ,thus in ,classical drama-- even of the ,late period--the mask is an element of profound symbolic necessity1 whereas our pieces would not be regarded as played at all without the play of features4 ,it is no answer to point to the great size of the ,greek theatre1 for even the strolling player--even the portrait- statue#cif--wore a mask1 and had there been any spiritual need of a more intimate setting the required architectural form would have been forthcoming quickly enough4 ,in the tragedy of a character1 what happens is the outcome of a long inner development4 ,but in what befalls ,ajax and ,philoctetes1 ,antigone and ,electra1 their psychological antecedents 7even supposing them to have any7 play no part4 ,the decisive event comes upon them1 brutally1 as accident1 from without1 and it might have befallen another in the same way and with the same result4 ,it would not be necessary even for that other to be of the same sex4 ,it is not enough to distinguish ,classical and ,western tragedy merely as action-drama and event-drama4 ,faustian tragedy is biographical1 ,classical anecdotal2 that is1 the one deals with the sense of a whole life and the other with the content of the single moment4#cig ,what relation1 for instance1 has the entire inward past of dipus or ,orestes to the shattering event that suddenly meets him on his way8#cih ,there is one sort of destiny1 then1 that strikes like a flash of lightning1 and just as blindly1 and another that interweaves itself with the course of a life1 an invisible thread#cii that yet distinguishes this particular life from all others4 ,there is not the smallest trait in the past existence of ,othello--that masterpiece of psychological analysis--that has not some bearing on the catastrophe4 ,race-hatred1 the isolation of the upstart amongst the patricians1 the ,moor as soldier and as child of ,nature1 the loneliness of the ageing bachelor--all these things have their significance4 ,lear1 too1 and ,hamlet--compare the exposition of these characters with that of ,sophoclean pieces4 ,they are psychological expositions through-and-through and not summations of outward data4 ,the psychologist1 in our sense of the word1 namely the fine student 7hardly nowadays to be distinguished from the poet7 of spiritual turning-points1 was entirely unknown to the ,greeks4 ,they were no more analytical in the field of soul than in that of number2 vis-- vis the ,classical soul1 how could they be so8 8,psychology0 in fact is the proper designation for the ,western way of fashioning men2 the word holds good for a portrait by ,rembrandt as for the music of 8,tristan10 for ,stendhal's ,julian ,sorel as for ,dante's 8,vita ,nuova40 ,the like of it is not to be found in any other ,culture4 ,if there is anything that the ,classical arts scrupulously exclude it is this1 for psychology is the form in which art handles man as incarnate will and not as 4 ,to call ,euripides a psychologist is to betray ignorance of what psychology is4 ,what an abundance of character there is even in the mere mythology of the ,north with its sly dwarfs1 its lumpy giants1 its teasing elves1 its ,loki1 ,baldr and the rest6 ,zeus1 ,apollo1 ,poseidon1 ,ares are simply 8men10 ,hermes the 8youth10 ,athene a maturer ,aphrodite1 and the minor gods--as the later plastic shows--distinguishable only by the labels4 ,and the same is true without reservation of the figures of the ,attic stage4 ,in ,wolfram von ,eschenbach1 ,cervantes1 ,shakespeare1 ,goethe1 the tragic is individual1 life develops from within outwards1 dynamic1 functional1 and the life-courses are only fully understandable with reference to the historical background of the century4 ,but in the great tragedians of ,athens it comes from outside1 it is static1 ,euclidean4 ,to repeat a phrase already used in connexion with world-history1 the shattering event is epochal in the former and merely episodic in the latter1 even the finale of death being only the last bead in the string of sheer accidents that makes up an existence4 ,a ,baroque tragedy is nothing but this same directive character brought into and developed in the light-world1 and shown as a curve instead of as an equation1 as kinetic instead of as potential energy4 ,the visible person is the character as potential1 the action the character at work4 ,this1 under the heap of ,classicist reminiscences and misunderstandings that still hides it1 is the whole meaning of our idea of ,tragedy4 ,the tragic man of the ,classical is a ,euclidean body that is struck by the ,heimarmene in a position that it did not choose and cannot alter1 but is seen1 in the light that plays from without upon its surfaces1 to be indeformable quand mme4 ,this is the sense in which ,agamemnon is and in which dipus's is subjected to the ,oracle4#djj ,down to ,alexander the significant figures of ,greek history astonish us with their inelasticity2 not one of them1 apparently1 undergoes in the battle of life any such inward transformation as those which we know took place in ,luther and ,loyola4 ,what we are prone--too prone--to call 8characterization0 in ,greek drama is nothing but the reflection of events upon the of the hero1 never the reflection of a personality on events4 ,of deep necessity1 therefore1 we ,faustians understand drama as a maximum of activity2 and1 of deep necessity also1 the ,greek understood it as a maximum of passivity4#dja ,speaking generally1 the ,attic tragedy had no 8action0 at all4 ,the ,mysteries were purely or 1 i4e41 ritual performances1 and it was from the ,mystery-form with its 8peripeteia0 that schylus 7himself an ,eleusinian7 derived the high drama that he created4 ,aristotle describes tragedy as the imitation of an occurrence4 ,this imitation is identical with the 8profanation0 of the mysteries2 and we know that schylus went further and made the sacral vestments of the ,eleusinian priesthood the regular costume of the ,attic stage1 and was accused on that account4#djb ,for the proper1 with its reversal from lamentation to joy1 consisted not in the fable that was narrated but in the ritual action that lay behind it1 and was understood and felt by the spectator as deeply symbolic4 ,with this element of the non-,homeric early religion#djc there became associated another1 a boorish--the burlesque 7whether phallic or dithyrambic7 scenes of the spring festivals of ,demeter and ,dionysus4 ,the beast-dances#djd and the accompanying song were the germ of the tragic ,chorus which puts itself before the actor or 8answerer0 of ,thespis 7#ecd74 ,the genuine tragedy grew up out of the solemn death-lament 7threnos1 nnia74 ,at some time or other the joyous play of the ,dionysus festival 7which also was a soul-feast7 became a mourners' chorus of men1 the ,satyr-play being relegated to the end4 ,in #did ,phrynichus produced the 8,fall of ,miletus0--not a historical drama but a lament of the women of ,miletus--and was heavily fined for thus recalling the public calamity4 ,it was schylus's introduction of the second actor that accomplished the essential of ,classical tragedy2 the lament as given theme was thenceforward subordinated to the visual presentation of a great human suffering as present motive4 ,the foreground-story 77 is not 8action0 but the occasion for the songs of the ,chorus1 which still constitutes the proper4 ,it is immaterial whether the occurrence is indicated by narrative or exposition4 ,the spectator was in solemn mood and he felt himself and his own fate to be meant in the words of pathos4 ,it was in him that the 1 the central element of the holy pageant1 took place4 ,whatever the environment of message and tale1 the liturgical lament for the woe of mankind remained always the centre of gravity of the whole1 as we see more particularly in the 8,prometheus10 the 8,agamemnon0 and the 8dipus ,rex40 ,but presently--at the very time when in ,polycletus the pure plastic was triumphing over the fresco#dje--there emerges high above the lament the grandeur of human endurance1 the attitude1 the of the ,hero4 ,the theme is1 not the heroic ,doer whose will surges and breaks against the resistance of alien powers or the demons in his own breast1 but the will-less ,patient whose somatic existence is--gratuitously--destroyed4 ,the ,prometheus trilogy of schylus begins just where ,goethe would in all probability have left off4 ,king ,lear's madness is the issue of the tragic action1 but ,sophocles's ,ajax is made mad by ,athene before the drama opens--here is the difference between a character and an operated figure4 ,fear and compassion1 in fact1 are1 as ,aristotle says1 the necessary effect of ,greek tragedy upon the ,greek 7and only the ,greek7 spectator1 as is evident at once from his choice of the most effective scenes1 which are those of piteous crash of fortune 77 and of recognition 774 ,in the first1 the ruling impression is 7terror7 and in the second it is 7pity71 and the in the spectator presupposes his existence-ideal to be that of 4#djf ,the ,classical soul is pure 8present10 pure 1 unmoved and point-formed being4 ,to see this imperilled by the jealousy of the ,gods or by that blind chance that may crash upon any man's head without reason and without warning1 is the most fearful of all experiences4 ,the very roots of ,greek being are struck at by what for the challenging ,faustian is the first stimulus to living activity4 ,and then--to find one's self delivered1 to see the sun come out again and the dark thunder clouds huddle themselves away on the remote horizon1 to rejoice profoundly in the admired grand gesture1 to see the tortured mythical soul breathe again--that is the 4 ,but it presupposes a kind of life-feeling that is entirely alien to us1 the very word being hardly translatable into our languages and our sensations4 ,it took all the sthetic industry and assertiveness of the ,baroque and of ,classicism1 backed by the meekest submissiveness before ancient texts1 to persuade us that this is the spiritual basis of our own tragedy as well4 ,and no wonder4 ,for the fact is that the effect of our tragedy is precisely the opposite4 ,it does not deliver us from deadweight pressure of events1 but evokes active dynamic elements in us1 stings us1 stimulates us4 ,it awakens the primary feelings of an energetic human being1 the fierceness and the joy of tension1 danger1 violent deed1 victory1 crime1 the triumph of overcoming and destroying--feelings that have slumbered in the depths of every ,northern soul since the days of the ,vikings1 the ,hohenstaufen and the ,crusades4 ,that is ,shakespearian effect4 ,a ,greek would not have tolerated ,macbeth1 nor1 generally1 would he have comprehended the meaning of this mighty art of directional biography at all4 ,that figures like ,richard ,,iii1 ,don ,juan1 ,faust1 ,michael ,kohlhaas1 ,golo--un-,classical from top to toe--awaken in us not sympathy but a deep and strange envy1 not fear but a mysterious desire to suffer1 to suffer-with 78compassion0 of quite another sort71 is visibly--even to-day when ,faustian tragedy in its final form1 the ,german1 is dead at last--the standing motive of the literature of our ,alexandrian phase4 ,in the 8sensational0 adventure- and detective-story1 and still more recently in the cinema-drama 7the equivalent of the ,late-,classical mimes71 a relic of the unrestrainable ,faustian impulse to conquer and discover is still palpable4 ,there are corresponding differences between the ,apollinian and the ,faustian outlook in the forms of dramatic presentation1 which are the complement of the poetic idea4 ,the antique drama is a piece of plastic1 a group of pathetic scenes conceived as reliefs1 a pageant of gigantic marionettes disposed against the definitive plane of the back-wall4#djg ,presentation is entirely that of grandly-imagined gestures1 the meagre facts of the fable being solemnly recited rather than presented4 ,the technique of ,western drama aims at just the opposite--unbroken movement and strict exclusion of flat static moments4 ,the famous 8three unities0 of place1 time and action1 as unconsciously evolved 7though not expressly formulated7 in ,athens1 are a paraphrase of the type of the ,classical marble statue and1 like it1 an indication of what classical man1 the man of the ,polis and the pure present and the gesture1 felt about life4 ,the unities are all1 effectively1 negative1 denials of past and future1 repudiation of all spiritual action-at-a-distance4 ,they can be summed in the one word 4 ,the postulates of these 8unities0 must not be confused with the superficially similar postulates in the drama of the ,romance peoples4 ,the ,spanish theatre of the #afth ,century bowed itself to the authority of 8,classical0 rules1 but it is easy to see the influence of noblesse oblige in this2 ,castilian dignity responded to the appeal without knowing1 or indeed troubling to find out1 the original sense of the rules4 ,the great ,spanish dramatists1 ,tirso da ,molina above all1 fashioned the 8unities0 of the ,baroque1 but not as metaphysical negations1 but purely as expressions of the spirit of high courtesy1 and it was as such that ,corneille1 the docile pupil of ,spanish 8grandezza10 borrowed them4 ,it was a fateful step4 ,if ,florence threw herself into the imitation of the ,classical sculpture--at which everyone marvelled and of which no one possessed the final criteria--no harm was done1 for there was by then no ,northern plastic to suffer thereby4 ,but with tragedy it was another matter4 ,here there was the possibility of a mighty drama1 purely ,faustian1 of unimagined forms and daring4 ,that this did not appear1 that for all the greatness of ,shakespeare the ,teutonic drama never quite shook off the spell of misunderstood convention1 was the consequence of blind faith in the authority of ,aristotle4 ,what might not have come out of ,baroque drama had it remained under the impression of the knightly epic and the ,gothic ,easter-play and ,mystery1 in the near neighbourhood of ,oratorios and ,passions1 without ever hearing of the ,greek theatre6 ,a tragedy issuing from the spirit of contrapuntal music1 free of limitations proper to plastic but here meaningless1 a dramatic poetry that from ,orlando ,lasso and ,palestrina could develop--side by side with ,heinrich ,schtz1 ,bach1 ,hndel1 ,gluck and ,beethoven1 but entirely free--to a pure form of its own3 that was what was possible1 and that was what did not happen2 and it is only to the fortunate circumstance that the whole of the fresco- art of ,hellas has been lost that we owe the inward freedom of our oil- painting4 ,,vi ,the unities were not sufficient for the ,attic drama4 ,it demanded1 further1 the rigid mask in lieu of facial play1 thus forbidding spiritual characterization in the same spirit as ,attic sentiment forbade likeness-statuary4 ,it demanded more-than-life-sized figures and got them by means of the cothurnus and by padding and draping the actor till he could scarcely move1 thus eliminating all his individuality4 ,lastly1 it required monotonous sing-song delivery1 which it ensured by means of a mouthpiece fixed in the mask4 ,the bare text as we read it to-day 7not without reading into it the spirit of ,goethe and ,shakespeare and of our perspective vision7 conveys little of the deeper significance of these dramas4 ,classical art-works were created entirely for the eye1 even the physical eye1 of ,classical man1 and the secrets reveal themselves only when put in sensuous forms4 ,and here our attention is drawn to a feature of ,greek tragedy that any true tragedy of the ,faustian style must find intolerable1 the continual presence of the ,chorus4 ,the ,chorus is the primitive tragedy1 for without it the would be impossible4 ,character one possesses for one's self1 but attitude has meaning only in relation to others4 ,this ,chorus as crowd 7the ideal opposite to the lonely or inward man and the monologue of the ,west71 this ,chorus which is always there1 the witness of every 8soliloquy10 this ,chorus by which1 in the stage-life as in the real life1 fear before the boundless and the void is banished1 is truly ,apollinian4 ,self-review as a public action1 pompous public mourning in lieu of the solitary anguish of the bedchamber1 the tears and lamentations that fill a whole series of dramas like the 8,philoctetes0 and the 8,trachini10 the impossibility of being alone1 the feeling of the ,polis1 all the feminine of this ,culture that we see idealized in the ,belvedere ,apollo1 betrays itself in this symbol of the ,chorus4 ,in comparison with this kind of drama1 ,shakespeare's is a single monologue4 ,even in the conversations1 even in the group-scenes we are sensible of the immense inner distance between the persons1 each of whom at bottom is only talking with himself4 ,nothing can overcome this spiritual remoteness4 ,it is felt in ,hamlet as in 8,tasso0 and in ,don ,quixote as in ,werther1 but even ,wolfram von ,eschenbach's ,parzeval is filled with and stamped by the sense of infinity4 ,the distinction holds for all ,western poetry against all ,classical4 ,all our lyric verse from ,walther von der ,vogelweide to ,goethe and from ,goethe to the poems of our dying world-cities is monologue1 while the ,classical lyric is a choral lyric1 a singing before witnesses4 ,the one is received inwardly1 in wordless reading1 as soundless music1 and the other is publicly recited4 ,the one belongs to the still chamber and is spread by means of the book1 the other belongs to the place where it is voiced4 ,thus1 although the ,eleusinian ,mysteries and the ,thracian festival of the epiphany of ,dionysus had been nocturnal celebrations1 the art of ,thespis developed1 as its inmost nature required1 as a scene of the morning and the full sunlight4 ,on the contrary1 our ,western popular and ,passion plays1 which originated in the sermon of allocated parts and were produced first by priests in the church1 and then by laymen in the open square1 on the mornings of high festivals1 led almost unnoticed to an art of evening and night4 ,already in ,shakespeare's time performances took place in the late afternoon1 and by ,goethe's this mystical sense of a proper relation between art-work and light-setting had attained its object4 ,in general1 every art and every ,culture has its significant times of day4 ,the music of the #ahth ,century is a music of the darkness and the inner eye1 and the plastic of ,athens is an art of cloudless day4 ,that this is no superficial contrast we can see by comparing the ,gothic plastic1 wrapped eternally in 8dim religious light10 and the ,ionic flute1 the instrument of high noon4 ,the candle affirms and the sunlight denies space as the opposite of things4 ,at night the universe of space triumphs over matter1 at midday things and nearness assert themselves and space is repudiated4 ,the same contrast appears in ,attic fresco and ,northern oil-painting1 and in the symbols of ,helios and ,pan and those of the starry night and red sunset4 ,it is at midnight1 too1 and particularly in the twelve long nights after ,christmas1 that the souls of our dead walk abroad4 ,in the ,classical world1 the souls belong to the day--even the early ,church still speaks of the 1 the twelve dedicated days2 but with the awakening of the ,faustian soul these become 8,twelfth ,night40 ,the ,classical vase-painting and fresco--though the fact has never been remarked--has no time-of-day4 ,no shadow indicates the state of the sun1 no heaven shows the stars4 ,there is neither morning nor evening1 neither spring nor autumn1 but pure timeless brightness4#djh ,for equally obvious reasons our oil-painting developed in the opposite direction1 towards an imaginary darkness1 also independent of time-of-day1 which forms the characteristic atmosphere of the ,faustian soul-space4 ,this is all the more significant as the intention is from the outset to treat the field of the picture with reference to a certain time-of-day1 that is1 historically4 ,there are early mornings1 sunset-clouds1 the last gleams upon the sky-line of distant mountains1 the candle-lighted room1 the spring meadows and the autumn woods1 the long and short shadows of bushes and furrows4 ,but they are all penetrated through and through with a subdued darkness that is not derived from the motion of the heavenly bodies4 ,in fact1 steady brightness and steady twilight are the respective hall-marks of the ,classical and the ,western1 alike in painting and in drama2 and may we not also describe ,euclidean geometry as a mathematic of the day and ,analysis as a mathematic of the night8 ,change of scene1 undoubtedly regarded by the ,greeks as a sort of profanation1 is for us almost a religious necessity1 a postulate of our world-feeling4 ,there seems something pagan in the fixed scene of ,tasso4 ,we inwardly need a drama of perspectives and wide backgrounds1 a stage that shakes off sensuous limitations and draws the whole world into itself4 ,in ,shakespeare1 who was born when ,michelangelo died and ceased to write when ,rembrandt came into the world1 dramatic infinity1 the passionate overthrow of all static limitations1 attained the maximum4 ,his woods1 seas1 alleys1 gardens1 battlefields lie in the afar1 the unbounded4 ,years fly past in the space of minutes4 ,the mad ,lear between fool and reckless outcast on the heath1 in the night and the storm1 the unutterably lonely ego lost in space--here is the ,faustian life-feeling6 ,from such a scene as this it is but a step to the inwardly seen and inwardly felt landscapes of the almost contemporary ,venetian music2 for on the ,elizabethan stage the whole thing was merely indicated1 and it was the inner eye that out of a few hints fashioned for itself an image of the world in which the scenes--far-fetched always--played themselves out4 ,such scenes the ,greek stage could not have handled at all4 ,the ,greek scene is never a landscape2 in general1 it is nothing1 and at best it may be described as a basis for movable statues4 ,the figures are everything1 in drama1 as in fresco4 ,it is sometimes said that ,classical man lacked the feeling for ,nature4 ,insensitive to ,faustian ,nature1 that of space and of landscape1 ,classical man certainly was4 ,his ,nature was the body1 and if once we have let the sentiment of this sink into us1 we suddenly comprehend the eye with which the ,greek would follow the mobile muscle-relief of the nude body4 ,this1 and not clouds and stars and horizon1 was his 8,living ,nature40 ,,vii ,now1 whatever is sensuously-near is understandable for all1 and therefore of all the ,cultures that have been1 the ,classical is the most popular1 and the ,faustian the least popular1 in its expressions of life- feeling4 ,a creation is 8popular0 that gives itself with all its secrets to the first comer at the first glance that incorporates its meaning in its exterior and surface4 ,in any ,culture1 that element is 8popular0 which has come down unaltered from primitive states and imaginings1 which a man understands from childhood without having to master by effort any really novel method or standpoint--and1 generally1 that which is immediately and frankly evident to the senses1 as against that which is merely hinted at and has to be discovered--by the few1 and sometimes the very1 very few4 ,there are popular ideas1 works1 men and landscapes4 ,every ,culture has its own quite definite sort of esoteric or popular character that is immanent in all its doings1 so far as these have symbolic importance4 ,the commonplace eliminates differences of spiritual breadth as well as depth between man and man1 while the esoteric emphasizes and strengthens them4 ,lastly1 considered in relation to the primary depth-experience of this and that kind of awakening man--that is1 in relation to the prime-symbol of his existence and the cast of his world-around--the purely 8popular0 and nave associates itself with the symbol of the bodily1 while to the symbol of endless ,space belongs a frankly un-popular relation between the creations and the men of the ,culture4 ,the ,classical geometry is that of the child1 that of any layman--,euclid's ,elements are used in ,england as a school-book to this day4 ,the workaday mind will always regard this as the only true and correct geometry4 ,all other kinds of natural geometry that are possible 7and have in fact1 by an immense effort of overcoming the popular-obvious1 been discovered7 are understandable only for the circle of the professional mathematicians4 ,the famous 8four elements0 of ,empedocles are those of every nave man and his 8instinctive0 physics1 while the idea of isotopes which has come out of research into radioactivity is hardly comprehensible even to the adept in closely-cognate sciences4 ,everything that is ,classical is comprehensible in one glance1 be it the ,doric temple1 the statue1 the ,polis1 the cults2 backgrounds and secrets there are none4 ,but compare a ,gothic cathedral-faade with the ,propyla1 an etching with a vase-painting1 the policy of the ,athenian people with that of the modern ,cabinet4 ,consider what it means that every one of our epoch-making works of poetry1 policy and science has called forth a whole literature of explanations1 and not indubitably successful explanations at that4 ,while the ,parthenon sculptures were 8there0 for every ,hellene1 the music of ,bach and his contemporaries was only for musicians4 ,we have the types of the ,rembrandt expert1 the ,dante scholar1 the expert in contrapuntal music1 and it is a reproach--a justifiable reproach--to ,wagner that it was possible for far too many people to be ,wagnerians1 that far too little of his music was for the trained musician4 ,but do we hear of ,phidias-experts or even ,homer-scholars8 ,herein lies the explanation of a set of phenomena which we have hitherto been inclined to treat--in a vein of moral philosophy1 or1 better1 of melodrama--as weaknesses common to humanity1 but which are in fact symptoms of the ,western life-feeling1 viz41 the 8misunderstood0 artist1 the poet 8left to starve10 the 8derided discoverer10 the thinker who is 8centuries in advance of his time0 and so on4 ,these are types of an esoteric ,culture4 ,destinies of this sort have their basis in the passion of distance in which is concealed the desire-to-infinity and the will- to-power1 and they are as necessary in the field of ,faustian mankind--at all stages--as they are unthinkable in the ,apollinian4 ,every high creator in ,western history has in reality aimed1 from first to last1 at something which only the few could comprehend4 ,michelangelo made the remark that his style was ordained for the correction of fools4 ,gauss concealed his discovery of non-,euclidean geometry for thirty years1 for fear of the 8clamour of the ,botians40 ,it is only to-day that we are separating out the masters of ,gothic cathedral art from the rank- and-file4 ,but the same applies also to every painter1 statesman1 philosopher4 ,think of ,giordano ,bruno1 or ,leibniz1 or ,kant1 as against ,anaximander1 ,heraclitus or ,protagoras4 ,what does it mean1 that no ,german philosopher worth mentioning can be understood by the man in the street1 and that the combination of simplicity with majesty that is ,homer's is simply not to be found in any ,western language8 ,the ,nibelungenlied is a hard1 reserved utterance1 and as for ,dante1 in ,germany at any rate the pretension to understand him is seldom more than a literary pose4 ,we find everywhere in the ,western what we find nowhere in the ,classical--the exclusive form4 ,whole periods--for instance1 the ,provenal ,culture and the ,rococo--are in the highest degree select and uninviting1 their ideas and forms having no existence except for a small class of higher men4 ,even the ,renaissance is no exception1 for though it purports to be the rebirth of that ,antique which is so utterly non-exclusive and caters so frankly for all1 it is in fact1 through-and-through1 the creation of a circle or of individual chosen souls1 a taste that rejects popularity from the outset--and how deep this sense of detachment goes we can tell from the case of ,florence1 where the generality of the people viewed the works of the elect with indifference1 or with open mouths1 or with dislike1 and sometimes1 as in the case of ,savonarola1 turned and rent them4 ,on the contrary1 every ,attic burgher belonged to the ,attic ,culture1 which excluded nobody2 and consequently1 the distinctions of deeps and shallows1 which are so decisively important for us1 did not exist at all for it4 ,for us1 popular and shallow are synonymous--in art as in science--but for ,classical man it was not so4 ,consider our sciences too4 ,every one of them1 without exception1 has besides its elementary groundwork certain 8higher0 regions that are inaccessible to the layman--symbols1 these also1 of our will-to-infinity and directional energy4 ,the public for whom the last chapters of up-to- date physics have been written numbers at the utmost a thousand persons1 and certain problems of modern mathematics are accessible only to a much smaller circle still--for our 8popular0 science is without value1 dtraque1 and falsified4 ,we have not only an art for artists1 but also a mathematic for mathematicians1 a politic for politicians 7of which the profanum vulgus of newspaper-readers has not the smallest inkling1#dji whereas ,classical politics never got beyond the horizon of the ,agora71 a religion for the 8religious genius0 and a poetry for philosophers4 ,indeed1 we may take the craving for wide effect as a sufficient index by itself of the commencing and already perceptible decline of ,western science4 ,that the severe esoteric of the ,baroque ,age is felt now as a burden1 is a symptom of sinking strength and of the dulling of that distance-sense which confessed the limitation with humility4 ,the few sciences that have kept the old fineness1 depth1 and energy of conclusion and deduction and have not been tainted with journalism--and few indeed they are1 for theoretical physics1 mathematics1 ,catholic dogma1 and perhaps jurisprudence exhaust the list-- address themselves to a very narrow and chosen band of experts4 ,and it is this expert1 and his opposite the layman1 that are totally lacking in the ,classical life1 wherein everyone knows everything4 ,for us1 the polarity of expert and layman has all the significance of a high symbol1 and when the tension of this distance is beginning to slacken1 there the ,faustian life is fading out4 ,the conclusion to be argued from this as regards the advances of ,western science in its last phase 7which will cover1 or quite possibly will not cover1 the next two centuries7 is1 that in proportion as megalopolitan shallowness and triviality drive arts and sciences on to the bookstall and into the factory1 the posthumous spirit of the ,culture will confine itself more and more to very narrow circles2 and that there1 remote from advertisement1 it will work in ideas and forms so abstruse that only a mere handful of superfine intelligences will be capable of attaching meanings to them4 ,,viii ,in no ,classical art-work is a relation with the beholder attempted1 for that would require the form-language of the individual object to affirm and to make use of the existence of a relation between that object and ambient unlimited space4 ,an ,attic statue is a completely ,euclidean body1 timeless and relationless1 wholly self-contained4 ,it neither speaks nor looks4 ,it is quite unconscious of the spectator4 ,unlike the plastic forms of every other ,culture1 it stands wholly for itself and fits into no architectural order2 it is an individual amongst individuals1 a body amongst bodies4 ,and the living individuals merely perceive it as a neighbour1 and do not feel it as an invasive influence1 an efficient capable of traversing space4 ,thus is expressed the ,apollinian life- feeling4 ,the awakening ,magian art at once reversed the meaning of these forms4 ,the eyes of the statues and portraits in the ,constantinian style are big and staring and very definitely directed4 ,they represent the ,pneuma1 the higher of the two soul-substances4 ,the ,classical sculptor had fashioned the eyes as blind1 but now the pupils are bored1 the eye1 unnaturally enlarged1 looks into the space that in ,attic art it had not acknowledged as existing4 ,in the ,classical fresco-painting1 heads are turned towards one another1 but in the mosaics of ,ravenna and even in the relief-work of ,early-,christian-,late-,roman sarcophagi they are always turned towards the beholder1 and their wholly spiritual look is fixed upon him4 ,mysteriously and quite un-,classically the beholder's sphere is invaded by an action-at-a-distance from the world that is in the art-work4 ,something of this magic can still be traced in early ,florentine and early ,rhenish gold-ground pictures4 ,consider1 now1 ,western painting as it was after ,leonardo1 fully conscious of its mission4 ,how does it deal with infinite space as something singular which comprehends both picture and spectator as mere centres of gravity of a spatial dynamic8 ,the full ,faustian life- feeling1 the passion of the third dimension1 takes hold of the form of the picture1 the painted plane1 and transforms it in an unheard-of way4 ,the picture no longer stands for itself1 nor looks at the spectator1 but takes him into its sphere4 ,the sector defined by the sides of the frame--the peepshow-field1 twin with the stage-field--represents universal space itself4 ,foreground and background lose all tendency to materiality and propinquity and disclose instead of marking off4 ,far horizons deepen the field to infinity1 and the colour-treatment of the close foreground eliminates the ideal plane of separation formed by the canvas and thus expands the field so that the spectator is in it4 ,it is not he1 now1 who chooses the standpoint from which the picture is most effective2 on the contrary1 the picture dictates position and distance to him4 ,lateral limits1 too1 are done away with--from #aejj onwards overrunnings of the frame are more and more frequent and daring4 ,the ,greek spectator stands before the fresco of ,polygnotus4 ,we sink into a picture1 that is1 we are pulled into it by the power of the space-treatment4 ,unity of space being thus re-established1 the infinity that is expanded in all directions by the picture is ruled by the ,western perspective2#daj and from perspective there runs a road straight to the comprehension of our astronomical world-picture and its passionate pioneering into unending farness4 ,apollinian man did not want to observe the broad universe1 and the philosophical systems one and all are silent about it4 ,they know only problems concerned with tangible and actual things1 and have never anything positive or significant to say about what is between the 8things40 ,the ,classical thinker takes the earth-sphere1 upon which he stands and which 7even in ,hipparchus7 is enveloped in a fixed celestial sphere1 as the complete and given world1 and if we probe the depths and secrets of motive here we are almost startled by the persistency with which theory attempted time after time to attach the order of these heavens to that of the earth in some way that would not impugn the primacy of the latter4#daa ,compare with this the convulsive vehemence with which the discovery of ,copernicus--the 8contemporary0 of ,pythagoras--drove through the soul of the ,west1 and the deep spirit of awe in which ,kepler looked upon the laws of planetary orbits which he had discovered as an immediate revelation from ,god1 not daring to doubt that they were circular because any other form would have been too unworthy a symbol4 ,here the old ,northern life-feeling1 the ,viking infinity-wistfulness1 comes into its own4 ,here1 too1 is the meaning of the characteristically ,faustian discovery of the telescope which1 penetrating into spaces hidden from the naked eye and inaccessible to the will-to-power1 widens the universe that we possess4 ,the truly religious feeling that seizes us even to-day when we dare to look into the depths of starry space for the first time--the same feeling of power that ,shakespeare's greatest tragedies aim at awakening--would to ,sophocles appear as the impiety of all impieties4 ,our denial of the 8vault0 of heaven1 then1 is a resolve and not a sense-experience4 ,the modern ideas as to the nature of starry space--or1 to speak more prudently1 of an extension indicated by light-indices that are communicated by eye and telescope--most certainly do not rest upon sure knowledge1 for what we see in the telescope is small bright disks of different sizes4 ,the photographic plate yields quite another picture-- not a sharper one but a different one--and the construction of a consistent world-picture such as we crave depends upon connecting the two by numerous and often very daring hypotheses 7e4g41 of distances1 magnitudes and movements7 that we ourselves frame4 ,the style of this picture corresponds to the style of our own soul4 ,in actual fact we do not know how different the light-powers of one and another star may be1 nor whether they vary in different directions4 ,we do not know whether or not light is altered1 diminished1 or extinguished in the immensities of space4 ,we do not know whether our earthly conceptions of the nature of light1 and therefore all the theories and laws deduced from them1 have validity beyond the immediate environment of the earth4 ,what we 8see0 are merely light-indices2 what we understand are symbols of ourselves4 ,the strong upspringing of the ,copernican world-idea--which belongs exclusively to our ,culture and 7to risk an assertion that even now may seem paradoxical7 would be and will be deliberately forced into oblivion whenever the soul of a coming ,culture shall feel itself endangered by it#dab--was founded on the certainty that the corporeal- static1 the imagined preponderance of the plastic earth1 was henceforth eliminated from the ,cosmos4 ,till then1 the heavens which were thought of1 or at any rate felt1 as a substantial quantity1 like the earth1 had been regarded as being in polar equilibrium with it4 ,but now it was ,space that ruled the universe4 8,world0 signifies space1 and the stars are hardly more than mathematical points1 tiny balls in the immense1 that as material no longer affect the world-feeling4 ,while ,democritus1 who tried 7as on behalf of the ,apollinian ,culture he was bound to try7 to settle some limit of a bodily kind to it all1 imagined a layer of hook-shaped atoms as a skin over the ,cosmos1 an insatiable hunger drives us ever further and further into the remote4 ,the solar system of ,copernicus1 already expanded by ,giordano ,bruno to a thousand such systems1 grew immeasurably wider in the ,baroque ,age2 and to-day we 8know0 that the sum of all the solar systems1 about #ce1jjj1jjj1 constitutes a closed 7and demonstrably finite#dac7 stellar system which forms an ellipsoid of rotation and has its equator approximately along the band of the ,milky ,way4 ,swarms of solar systems traverse this space1 like flights of migrant birds1 with the same velocity and direction4 ,one such group1 with an apex in the constellation of ,hercules1 is formed by our sun together with the bright stars ,capella1 ,vega1 ,altair and ,betelgeuse4 ,the axis of this immense system1 which has its mid-point not far from the present position of our sun1 is taken as #dgj1jjj1jjj times as long as the distance from the earth to the sun4 ,any night1 the starry heavens give us at the same moment impressions that originated #c1gjj years apart in time1 for that is the distance in light-years from the extreme outer limit to the earth4 ,in the picture of history as it unfolds before us here1 this period corresponds to a duration covering the whole ,classical and ,magian ages and going back to the zenith of the ,egyptian ,culture in the ,x,i,ith ,dynasty4 ,this aspect--an image1 ,i repeat1 and not a matter of experimental knowledge--is for the ,faustian a high and noble#dad aspect1 but for the ,apollinian it would have been woeful and terrible1 an annihilation of the most profound conditions of his being4 ,and he would have felt it as sheer salvation when after all a limit1 however remote1 had been found4 ,but we1 driven by the deep necessity that is in us1 must simply ask ourselves the new question3 ,is there anything outside this system8 ,are there aggregates of such systems1 at such distances that even the dimensions established by our astronomy#dae are small by comparison8 ,as far as sense-observations are concerned1 it seems that an absolute limit has been reached2 neither light nor gravitation can give a sign of existence through this outer space1 void of mass4 ,but for us it is a simple necessity of thought4 ,our spiritual passion1 our unresting need to actualize our existence- idea in symbols1 suffers under this limitation of our sense- perceptions4 ,,ix ,so also it was that the old ,northern races1 in whose primitive souls the ,faustian was already awakening1 discovered in their grey dawn the art of sailing the seas which emancipated them4#daf ,the ,egyptians knew the sail1 but only profited by it as a labour-saving device4 ,they sailed1 as they had done before in their oared ships1 along the coast to ,punt and ,syria1 but the idea of the high-seas voyage--what it meant as a liberation1 a symbol--was not in them4 ,sailing1 real sailing1 is a triumph over ,euclidean land4 ,at the beginning of our #adth ,century1 almost coincident with each other 7and with the formation-periods of oil-painting and counterpoint67 came gunpowder and the compass1 that is1 long-range weapons and long-range intercourse 7means that the ,chinese ,culture#dag too had1 necessarily1 discovered for itself74 ,it was the spirit of the ,vikings and the ,hansa1 as of those dim peoples1 so unlike the ,hellenes with their domestic funerary urns1 who heaped up great barrows as memorials of the lonely soul on the wide plains4 ,it was the spirit of those who sent their dead kings to sea in their burning ships1 thrilling manifests of their dark yearning for the boundless4 ,the spirit of the ,norsemen drove their cockle-boats--in the ,tenth ,century that heralded the ,faustian birth--to the coasts of ,america4 ,but to the circumnavigation of ,africa1 already achieved by ,egyptians and ,carthaginians1 ,classical mankind was wholly indifferent4 ,how statuesque their existence was1 even with respect to intercourse1 is shown by the fact that the news of the ,first ,punic ,war--one of the most intense wars of history--penetrated to ,athens from ,sicily merely as an indefinite report4 ,even the souls of the ,greeks were assembled in ,hades as unexcitable shadows 77 without strength1 wish or feeling4 ,but the ,northern dead gathered themselves in fierce unresting armies of the cloud and the storm4 ,the event which stands at the same cultural level as the discoveries of the ,spaniards and ,portuguese is that of the ,hellenic colonizations of the #hth ,century ,b4,c4 ,but1 while the ,spaniards and the ,portuguese were possessed by the adventured-craving for uncharted distances and for everything unknown and dangerous1 the ,greeks went carefully1 point by point1 on the known tracks of the ,phnicians1 ,carthaginians and ,etruscans1 and their curiosity in no wise extended to what lay beyond the ,pillars of ,hercules and the ,isthmus of ,suez1 easily accessible as both were to them4 ,athens no doubt heard of the way to the ,north ,sea1 to the ,congo1 to ,zanzibar1 to ,india--in ,nero's time the position of the southern extremity of ,india was known1 also that of the islands of ,sunda--but ,athens shut its eyes to these things just as it did to the astronomical knowledge of the old ,east4 ,even when the lands that we call ,morocco and ,portugal had become ,roman provinces1 no ,atlantic voyaging ensued1 and the ,canaries remained forgotten4 ,apollinian man felt the ,columbus-longing as little as he felt the ,copernican4 ,possessed though the ,greek merchants were with the desire of gain1 a deep metaphysical shyness restrained them from extending the horizon1 and in geography as in other matters they stuck to near things and foregrounds4 ,the existence of the ,polis1 that astonishing ideal of the ,state as statue1 was in truth nothing more nor less than a refuge from the wide world of the sea-peoples--and that though the ,classical1 alone of all the ,cultures so far1 had a ring of coasts about a sea of islands1 and not a continental expanse1 as its motherland4 ,not even ,hellenism1 with all its proneness to technical diversions1#dah freed itself from the oared ship which tethered the mariner to the coasts4 ,the naval architects of ,alexandria were capable of constructing giant ships of #bfj-;ft4 length1#dai and1 for that matter1 the steamship was discovered in principle4 ,but there are some discoveries that have all the pathos of a great and necessary symbol and reveal depths within1 and there are others that are merely play of intellect4 ,the steamship is for ,apollinians one of the latter and for ,faustians one of the former class4 ,it is prominence or insignificance in the ,macrocosm as a whole that gives discovery and the application thereof the character of depth or shallowness4 ,the discoveries of ,columbus and ,vasco da ,gama extended the geographical horizon without limit1 and the world-sea came into the same relation with land as that of the universe of space with earth4 ,and then first the political tension within the ,faustian world-consciousness discharged itself4 ,for the ,greeks1 ,hellas was and remained the important part of the earth's surface1 but with the discovery of ,america ,west-,europe became a province in a gigantic whole4 ,thenceforward the history of the ,western ,culture has a planetary character4 ,every ,culture possesses a proper conception of home and fatherland1 which is hard to comprehend1 scarcely to be expressed in words1 full of dark metaphysical relations1 but nevertheless unmistakable in its tendency4 ,the ,classical home-feeling which tied the individual corporally and ,euclidean-ly to the ,polis#dbj is the very antithesis of that enigmatic 8,heimweh0 of the ,northerner which has something musical1 soaring and unearthly in it4 ,classical man felt as 8,home0 just what he could see from the ,acropolis of his native city4 ,where the horizon of ,athens ended1 the alien1 the hostile1 the 8fatherland0 of another began4 ,even the ,roman of late ,republican times understood by 8patria0 nothing but ,urbs ,roma1 not even ,latium1 still less ,italy4 ,the ,classical world1 as it matured1 dissolved itself into a large number of point-patri1 and the need of bodily separation between them took the form of hatreds far more intense than any hatred that there was of the ,barbarian4 ,and it is therefore the most convincing of all evidences of the victory of the ,magian world-feeling that ,caracalla#dba in #bab ,a4,d4 granted ,roman citizenship to all provincials4 ,for this grant simply abolished the ancient1 statuesque1 idea of the citizen4 ,there was now a ,realm and consequently a new kind of membership4 ,the ,roman notion of an army1 too1 underwent a significant change4 ,in genuinely ,classical times there had been no ,roman ,army in the sense in which we speak of the ,prussian ,army1 but only 8armies10 that is1 definite formations 7as we say7 created as corps1 limited and visibly present bodies1 by the appointment of a ,legatus to command--an exercitus ,scipionis1 ,crassi for instance--but never an exercitus ,romanus4 ,it was ,caracalla1 the same who abolished the idea of 8civis ,romanus0 by decree and wiped out the ,roman civic deities by making all alien deities equivalent to them1 who created the un-,classical and ,magian idea of an ,imperial ,army1 something manifested in the separate legions4 ,these now meant something1 whereas in ,classical times they meant nothing1 but simply were4 ,the old 8fides exercituum0 is replaced by 8fides exercitus0 in the inscriptions and1 instead of individual bodily-conceived deities special to each legion and ritually honoured by its ,legatus1 we have a spiritual principle common to all4 ,so also1 and in the same sense1 the fatherland-feeling undergoes a change of meaning for ,eastern men--and not merely ,christians--in ,imperial times4 ,apollinian man1 so long as he retained any effective remnant at all of his proper world-feeling1 regarded 8home0 in the genuinely corporeal sense as the ground on which his city was built--a conception that recalls the 8unity of place0 of ,attic tragedy and statuary4 ,but to ,magian man1 to ,christians1 ,persians1 ,jews1 8,greeks10#dbb ,manichans1 ,nestorians and ,mohammedans1 it means nothing that has any connexion with geographical actualities4 ,and for ourselves it means an impalpable unity of nature1 speech1 climate1 habits and history--not earth but 8country10 not point-like presence but historic past and future1 not a unit made up of men1 houses and gods but an idea1 the idea that takes shape in the restless wanderings1 the deep loneliness1 and that ancient ,german impulse towards the ,south which has been the ruin of our best1 from the ,saxon ,emperors to ,hlderlin and ,nietzsche4 ,the bent of the ,faustian ,culture1 therefore1 was overpoweringly towards extension1 political1 economic or spiritual4 ,it overrode all geographical-material bounds4 ,it sought--without any practical object1 merely for the ,symbol's own sake--to reach ,north ,pole and ,south ,pole4 ,it ended by transforming the entire surface of the globe into a single colonial and economic system4 ,every thinker from ,meister ,eckhardt to ,kant willed to subject the 8phenomenal0 world to the asserted domination of the cognizing ego1 and every leader from ,otto the ,great to ,napoleon did it4 ,the genuine object of their ambitions was the boundless1 alike for the great ,franks and ,hohenstaufen with their world-monarchies1 for ,gregory ,,vii and ,innocent ,,iii1 for the ,spanish ,habsburgs 8on whose empire the sun never set10 and for the ,imperialism of to-day on behalf of which the ,world-,war was fought and will continue to be fought for many a long day4 ,classical man1 for inward reasons1 could not be a conqueror1 notwithstanding ,alexander's romantic expedition--for we can discern enough of the inner hesitations and unwillingnesses of his companions not to need to explain it as an 8exception proving the rule40#dbc ,the never-stilled desire to be liberated from the binding element1 to range far and free1 which is the essence of the fancy-creatures of the ,north-- the dwarfs1 elves and imps--is utterly unknown to the ,dryads and ,oreads of ,greece4 ,greek daughter-cities were planted by the hundred along the rim of the ,mediterranean1 but not one of them made the slightest real attempt to conquer and penetrate the hinterlands4 ,to settle far from the coast would have meant to lose sight of 8home10 while to settle in loneliness--the ideal life of the trapper and prairie-man of ,america as it had been of ,icelandic saga-heroes long before--was something entirely beyond the possibilities of ,classical mankind4 ,dramas like that of the emigration to ,america--man by man1 each on his own account1 driven by deep promptings to loneliness--or the ,spanish ,conquest1 or the ,californian gold-rush1 dramas of uncontrollable longings for freedom1 solitude1 immense independence1 and of giantlike contempt of all limitations whatsoever upon the home-feeling--these dramas are ,faustian and only ,faustian4 ,no other ,culture1 not even the ,chinese1 knows them4 ,the ,hellenic emigrant1 on the contrary1 clung as a child clings to its mother's lap4 ,to make a new city out of the old one1 exactly like it1 with the same fellow citizens1 the same gods1 the same customs1 with the linking sea never out of sight1 and there to pursue in the ,agora the familiar life of the --this was the limit of change of scene for the ,apollinian life4 ,to us1 for whom freedom of movement 7if not always as a practical1 yet in any case as an ideal1 right7 is indispensable1 such a limit would have been the most crying of all slaveries4 ,it is from the ,classical point of view that the oft- misunderstood expansion of ,rome must be looked at4 ,it was anything rather than an extension of the fatherland2 it confined itself exactly within fields that had already been taken up by other culture-men whom they dispossessed4 ,never was there a hint of dynamic world-schemes of the ,hohenstaufen or ,habsburg stamp1 or of an imperialism comparable with that of our own times4 ,the ,romans made no attempt to penetrate the interior of ,africa4 ,their later wars were waged only for the preservation of what they already possessed1 not for the sake of ambition nor under a significant stimulus from within4 ,they could give up ,germany and ,mesopotamia without regret4 ,if1 in fine1 we look at it all together--the expansion of the ,copernican world-picture into that aspect of stellar space that we possess to-day2 the development of ,columbus's discovery into a worldwide command of the earth's surface by the ,west2 the perspective of oil-painting and of tragedy-scene2 the sublimed home-feeling2 the passion of our ,civilization for swift transit1 the conquest of the air1 the exploration of the ,polar regions and the climbing of almost impossible mountain- peaks--we see1 emerging everywhere the prime-symbol of the ,faustian soul1 ,limitless ,space4 ,and those specially 7in form1 uniquely7 ,western creations of the soul-myth called 8,will10 8,force0 and 8,deed0 must be regarded as derivatives of this prime-symbol4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,x ,,soul-,,image ,,and ,,life-,,feeling ,,ii ,,buddhism1 ,,stoicism1 ,,socialism ,,chapter ,x ,,soul-,,image ,,and ,,life-,,feeling ,,ii ,,buddhism1 ,,stoicism1 ,,socialism ,i ,we are now at last in a position to approach the phenomenon of ,morale1#dbd the intellectual interpretation of ,life by itself1 to ascend the height from which it is possible to survey the widest and gravest of all the fields of human thought4 ,at the same time1 we shall need for this survey an objectivity such as no one has as yet set himself seriously to gain4 ,whatever we may take ,morale to be1 it is no part of ,morale to provide its own analysis2 and we shall get to grips with the problem1 not by considering what should be our acts and aims and standards1 but only by diagnosing the ,western feeling in the very form of the enunciation4 ,in this matter of morale1 ,western mankind1 without exception1 is under the influence of an immense optical illusion4 ,everyone demands something of the rest4 ,we say 8thou shalt0 in the conviction that so- and-so in fact will1 can and must be changed or fashioned or arranged conformably to the order1 and our belief both in the efficacy of1 and in our title to give1 such orders is unshakable4 ,that1 and nothing short of it1 is1 for us1 morale4 ,in the ethics of the ,west everything is direction1 claim to power1 will to affect the distant4 ,here ,luther is completely at one with ,nietzsche1 ,popes with ,darwinians1 ,socialists with ,jesuits2 for one and all1 the beginning of morale is a claim to general and permanent validity4 ,it is a necessity of the ,faustian soul that this should be so4 ,he who thinks or teaches 8otherwise0 is sinful1 a backslider1 a foe1 and he is fought down without mercy4 ,you 8shall10 the ,state 8shall10 society 8shall0--this form of morale is to us self- evident2 it represents the only real meaning that we can attach to the word4 ,but it was not so either in the ,classical1 or in ,india1 or in ,china4 ,buddha1 for instance1 gives a pattern to take or to leave1 and ,epicurus offers counsel4 ,both undeniably are forms of high morale1 and neither contains the will-element4 ,what we have entirely failed to observe is the peculiarity of moral dynamic4 ,if we allow that ,socialism 7in the ethical1 not the economic1 sense7 is that world-feeling which seeks to carry out its own views on behalf of all1 then we are all without exception1 willingly or no1 wittingly or no1 ,socialists4 ,even ,nietzsche1 that most passionate opponent of 8herd morale10 was perfectly incapable of limiting his zeal to himself in the ,classical way4 ,he thought only of 8mankind10 and he attacked everyone who differed from himself4 ,epicurus1 on the contrary1 was heartily indifferent to others' opinions and acts and never wasted one thought on the 8transformation0 of mankind4 ,he and his friends were content that they were as they were and not otherwise4 ,the ,classical ideal was indifference 77 to the course of the world--the very thing which it is the whole business of ,faustian mankind to master--and an important element both of ,stoic and of ,epicurean philosophy was the recognition of a category of things neither preferred nor rejected#dbe 774 ,in ,hellas there was a pantheon of morales as there was of deities1 as the peaceful coexistence of ,epicureans1 ,cynics and ,stoics shows1 but the ,nietzschean ,zarathustra--though professedly standing beyond good and evil--breathes from end to end the pain of seeing men to be other than as he would have them be1 and the deep and utterly un- ,classical desire to devote a life to their reformation--his own sense of the word1 naturally1 being the only one4 ,it is just this1 the general transvaluation1 that makes ethical monotheism and--using the word in a novel and deep sense--socialism4 ,all world-improvers are ,socialists4 ,and consequently there are no ,classical world-improvers4 ,the moral imperative as the form of morale is ,faustian and only ,faustian4 ,it is wholly without importance that ,schopenhauer denies theoretically the will to live1 or that ,nietzsche will have it affirmed-- these are superficial differences1 indicative of personal tastes and temperaments4 ,the important thing1 that which makes ,schopenhauer the progenitor of ethical modernity1 is that he too feels the whole world as ,will1 as movement1 force1 direction4 ,this basic feeling is not merely the foundation of our ethics1 it is itself our whole ethics1 and the rest are bye-blows4 ,that which we call not merely activity but action#dbf is a historical conception through-and-through1 saturated with directional energy4 ,it is the proof of being1 the dedication of being1 in that sort of man whose ego possesses the tendency to ,future1 who feels the momentary present not as saturated being but as epoch1 as turning-point1 in a great complex of becoming--and1 moreover1 feels it so of both his personal life and of the life of history as a whole4 ,strength and distinctness of this consciousness are the marks of higher ,faustian man1 but it is not wholly absent in the most insignificant of the breed1 and it distinguishes his smallest acts from those of any and every ,classical man4 ,it is the distinction between character and attitude1 between conscious becoming and simple accepted statuesque becomeness1 between will and suffering in tragedy4 ,in the world as seen by the ,faustian's eyes1 everything is motion with an aim4 ,he himself lives only under that condition1 for to him life means struggling1 overcoming1 winning through4 ,the struggle for existence as ideal form of existence is implicit even in the ,gothic age 7of the architecture of which it is visibly the foundation7 and the #aith ,century has not invented it but merely put it into mechanical- utilitarian form4 ,in the ,apollinian world there is no such directional motion--the purposeless and aimless see-saw of ,heraclitus's 8becoming0 7 7 is irrelevant here--no 8,protestantism10 no 8,sturm und ,drang10 no ethical1 intellectual or artistic 8revolution0 to fight and destroy the existent4 ,the ,ionic and ,corinthian styles appear by the side of the ,doric without setting up any claim to sole and general validity1 but the ,renaissance expelled the ,gothic and ,classicism expelled the ,baroque styles1 and the history of every ,european literature is filled with battles over form-problems4 ,even our monasticism1 with its ,templars1 ,franciscans1 ,dominicans and the rest1 takes shape as an order- movement1 in sharp contrast to the 8askesis0 of the ,early-,christian hermit4 ,to go back upon this basic form of his existence1 let alone transform it1 is entirely beyond the power of ,faustian man4 ,it is presupposed even in efforts to resist it4 ,one fights against 8advanced0 ideas1 but all the time he looks on his fight itself as an advance4 ,another agitates for a 8reversal10 but what he intends is in fact a continuance of development4 8,immoral0 is only a new kind of 8moral0 and sets up the same claim to primacy4 ,the will-to-power is intolerant--all that is ,faustian wills to reign alone4 ,the ,apollinian feeling1 on the contrary1 with its world of coexistent individual things1 is tolerant as a matter of course4 ,but1 if toleration is in keeping with will-less ,ataraxia1 it is for the ,western world with its oneness of infinite soul-space and the singleness of its fabric of tensions the sign either of self-deception or of fading-out4 ,the ,enlightenment of the #ahth ,century was tolerant towards--that is1 careless of--differences between the various ,christian creeds1 but in respect of its own relation to the ,church as a whole1 it was anything but tolerant as soon as the power to be otherwise came to it4 ,the ,faustian instinct1 active1 strong-willed1 as vertical in tendency as its own ,gothic cathedrals1 as upstanding as its own 8ego habeo factum10 looking into distance and ,future1 demands toleration-- that is1 room1 space--for its proper activity1 but only for that4 ,consider1 for instance1 how much of it the city democracy is prepared to accord to the ,church in respect of the latter's management of religious powers1 while claiming for itself unlimited freedom to exercise its own and adjusting the 8common0 law to conform thereto whenever it can4 ,every 8movement0 means to win1 while every ,classical 8attitude0 only wants to be and troubles itself little about the ,ethos of the neighbour4 ,to fight for or against the trend of the times1 to promote ,reform or ,reaction1 construction1 reconstruction or destruction--all this is as un- ,classical as it is un-,indian4 ,it is the old antithesis of ,sophoclean and ,shakespearian tragedy1 the tragedy of the man who only wants to exist and that of the man who wants to win4 ,it is quite wrong to bind up ,christianity with the moral imperative4 ,it was not ,christianity that transformed ,faustian man1 but ,faustian man who transformed ,christianity--and he not only made it a new religion but also gave it a new moral direction4 ,the 8it0 became 8,i10 the passion-charged centre of the world1 the foundation of the great ,sacrament of personal contrition4 ,will-to-power even in ethics1 the passionate striving to set up a proper morale as a universal truth1 and to enforce it upon humanity1 to reinterpret or overcome or destroy everything otherwise constituted--nothing is more characteristically our own than this is4 ,and in virtue of it the ,gothic springtime proceeded to a profound--and never yet appreciated--inward transformation of the morale of ,jesus4 ,a quiet spiritual morale welling from ,magian feeling--a morale or conduct recommended as potent for salvation1 a morale the knowledge of which was communicated as a special act of grace#dbg--was recast as a morale of imperative command4#dbh ,every ethical system1 whether it be of religious or of philosophical origin1 has associations with the great arts and especially with that of architecture4 ,it is in fact a structure of propositions of causal character4 ,every truth that is intended for practical application is propounded with a 8because0 and a 8therefore40 ,there is mathematical logic in them--in ,buddha's 8,four ,truths0 as in ,kant's 8,critique of ,practical ,reason0#dbi and in every popular catechism4 ,what is not in these doctrines of acquired truth is the uncritical logic of the blood1 which generates and matures those conduct-standards 7,sitten7 of social classes and of practical men 7e4g41 the chivalry-obligations in the time of the ,crusades7 that we only consciously realize when someone infringes them4 ,a systematic morale is1 as it were1 an ,ornament1 and it manifests itself not only in precepts but also in the style of drama and even in the choice of art-motives4 ,the ,meander1 for example1 is a ,stoic motive4 ,the ,doric column is the very embodiment of the ,antique life-ideal4 ,and just because it was so1 it was the one ,classical 8order0 which the ,baroque style necessarily and frankly excluded2 indeed1 even ,renaissance art was warned off it by some very deep spiritual instinct4 ,similarly with the transformation of the ,magian dome into the ,russian roof- cupola1#dcj the ,chinese landscape-architecture of devious paths1 the ,gothic cathedral-tower4 ,each is an image of the particular and unique morale which arose out of the waking-consciousness of the ,culture4 ,,ii ,the old riddles and perplexities now resolve themselves4 ,there are as many morales as there are ,cultures1 no more and no fewer4 ,just as every painter and every musician has something in him which1 by force of inward necessity1 never emerges into consciousness but dominates a priori the form-language of his work and differentiates that work from the work of every other ,culture1 so every conception of ,life held by a ,culture-man possesses a priori 7in the very strictest ,kantian sense of the phrase7 a constitution that is deeper than all momentary judgments and strivings and impresses the style of these with the hall-mark of the particular ,culture4 ,the individual may act morally or immorally1 may do 8good0 or 8evil0 with respect to the primary feeling of his ,culture1 but the theory of his actions is not a result but a datum4 ,each ,culture possesses its own standards1 the validity of which begins and ends with it4 ,there is no general morale of humanity4 ,it follows that there is not and cannot be any true 8conversion0 in the deeper sense4 ,conscious behaviour of any kind that rests upon convictions is a primary phenomenon1 the basic tendency of an existence developed into a 8timeless truth40 ,it matters little what words or pictures are employed to express it1 whether it appears as the predication of a deity or as the issue of philosophic meditation1 as proposition or as symbol1 as proclamation of proper or confutation of alien convictions4 ,it is enough that it is there4 ,it can be wakened and it can be put theoretically in the form of doctrine1 it can change or improve its intellectual vehicle but it cannot be begotten4 ,just as we are incapable of altering our world-feeling--so incapable that even in trying to alter it we have to follow the old lines and confirm instead of overthrowing it--so also we are powerless to alter the ethical basis of our waking being4 ,a certain verbal distinction has sometimes been drawn between ethics the science and morale the duty1 but1 as we understand it1 the point of duty does not arise4 ,we are no more capable of converting a man to a morale alien to his being than the ,renaissance was capable of reviving the ,classical or of making anything but a ,southernized ,gothic1 an anti-,gothic1 out of ,apollinian motives4 ,we may talk to-day of transvaluing all our values2 we may1 as ,megalopolitans1 8go back to0 ,buddhism or ,paganism or a romantic ,catholicism2 we may champion as ,anarchists an individualist or as ,socialists a collectivist ethic--but in spite of all we do1 will and feel the same4 ,a conversion to ,theosophy or ,freethinking or one of the present-day transitions from a supposed ,christianity to a supposed ,atheism 7or vice versa7 is an alteration of words and notions1 of the religious or intellectual surface1 no more4 ,none of our 8movements0 have changed man4 ,a strict morphology of all the morales is a task for the future4 ,here1 too1 ,nietzsche has taken the first and essential step towards the new standpoint4 ,but he has failed to observe his own condition that the thinker shall place himself 8beyond good and evil40 ,he tried to be at once sceptic and prophet1 moral critic and moral gospeller4 ,it cannot be done4 ,one cannot be a first-class psychologist as long as one is still a ,romantic4 ,and so here1 as in all his crucial penetrations1 he got as far as the door--and stood outside it4 ,and so far1 no one has done any better4 ,we have been blind and uncomprehending before the immense wealth that there is in the moral as in other form-languages4 ,even the sceptic has not understood his task2 at bottom he1 like others1 sets up his own notion of morale1 drawn from his particular disposition and private taste1 as standard by which to measure others4 ,the modern revolutionaires--,stirner1 ,ibsen1 ,strindberg1 ,shaw--are just the same2 they have only managed to hide the facts 7from themselves as well as from others7 behind new formul and catchwords4 ,but a morale1 like a sculpture1 a music1 a painting-art1 is a self- contained form-world expressing a life-feeling2 it is a datum1 fundamentally unalterable1 an inward necessity4 ,it is ever true within its historical circle1 ever untrue outside it4 ,as we have seen already1#dca what his several works are to the poet or musician or painter1 that its several art-genera are for the higher individual that we call the ,culture1 viz41 organic units2 and that oil-painting as a whole1 act-sculpture as a whole and contrapuntal music as a whole1 and rhymed lyric and so on are all epoch-making1 and as such take rank as major symbols of ,life4 ,in the history of the ,culture as in that of the individual existence1 we are dealing with the actualization of the possible2 it is the story of an inner spirituality becoming the style of a world4 ,by the side of these great form-units1 which grow and fulfil themselves and close down within a predeterminate series of human generations1 which endure for a few centuries and pass irrevocably into death1 we see the group of ,faustian morals and the sum of ,apollinian morals also as individuals of the higher order4 ,that they are1 is ,destiny4 ,they are data1 and revelation 7or scientific insight1 as the case may be7 only put them into shape for the consciousness4 ,there is something1 hardly to be described1 that assembles all the theories from ,hesiod and ,sophocles to ,plato and the ,stoa and opposes them collectively to all that was taught from ,francis of ,assisi and ,abelard to ,ibsen and ,nietzsche1 and even the morale of ,jesus is only the noblest expression of a general morale that was put into other forms by ,marcion and ,mani1 by ,philo and ,plotinus1 by ,epictetus1 ,augustine and ,proclus4 ,all ,classical ethic is an ethic of attitude1 all ,western an ethic of deed4 ,and1 likewise1 the sum of all ,indian and the sum of all ,chinese systems forms each a world of its own4 ,,iii ,every ,classical ethic that we know or can conceive of constitutes man an individual static entity1 a body among bodies1 and all ,western valuations relate to him as a centre of effect in an infinite generality4 ,ethical ,socialism is neither more nor less than the sentiment of action-at-a-distance1 the moral pathos of the third dimension2 and the root-feeling of ,care--care for those who are with us1 and for those who are to follow--is its emblem in the sky4 ,consequently there is for us something socialistic in the aspect of the ,egyptian ,culture1 while the opposite tendency to immobile attitude1 to non- desire1 to static self-containedness of the individual1 recalls the ,indian ethic and the man formed by it4 ,the seated ,buddha-statue 78looking at its navel07 and ,zeno's ,ataraxia are not altogether alien to one another4 ,the ethical ideal of ,classical man was that which is led up to in his tragedy1 and revealed in its ,katharsis4 ,this in its last depths means the purgation of the ,apollinian soul from its burden of what is not ,apollinian1 not free from the elements of distance and direction1 and to understand it we have to recognize that ,stoicism is simply the mature form of it4 ,that which the drama effected in a solemn hour1 the ,stoa wished to spread over the whole field of life2 viz41 statuesque steadiness and will-less ethos4 ,now1 is not this conception of closely akin to the ,buddhist ideal of ,nirvana1 which as a formula is no doubt very 8late0 but as an essence is thoroughly ,indian and traceable even from ,vedic times8 ,and does not this kinship bring ideal ,classical man and ideal ,indian man very close to one another and separate them both from that man whose ethic is manifested in the ,shakespearian tragedy of dynamic evolution and catastrophe8 ,when one thinks of it1 there is nothing preposterous in the idea of ,socrates1 ,epicurus1 and especially ,diogenes1 sitting by the ,ganges1 whereas ,diogenes in a ,western megalopolis would be an unimportant fool4 ,nor1 on the other hand1 is ,frederick ,william ,i of ,prussia1 the prototype of the ,socialist in the grand sense1 unthinkable in the polity of the ,nile1 whereas in ,periclean ,athens he is impossible4 ,had ,nietzsche regarded his own times with fewer prejudices and less disposition to romantic championship of certain ethical creations1 he would have perceived that a specifically ,christian morale of compassion in his sense does not exist on ,west-,european soil4 ,we must not let the words of humane formul mislead us as to their real significance4 ,between the morale that one has and the morale that one thinks one has1 there is a relation which is very obscure and very unsteady1 and it is just here that an incorruptible psychology would be invaluable4 ,compassion is a dangerous word1 and neither ,nietzsche himself--for all his maestria--nor anyone else has yet investigated the meaning--conceptual and effective--of the word at different times4 ,the ,christian morale of ,origen's time was quite different from the ,christian morale of ,st4 ,francis's4 ,this is not the place to enquire what ,faustian compassion-- sacrifice or ebullience or again race-instinct in a chivalrous society#dcb--means as against the fatalistic ,magian-,christian kind1 how far it is to be conceived as action-at-a-distance and practical dynamic1 or 7from another angle7 as a proud soul's demand upon itself1 or again as the utterance of an imperious distance-feeling4 ,a fixed stock of ethical phrases1 such as we have possessed since the ,renaissance1 has to cover a multitude of different ideas and a still greater multitude of different meanings4 ,when a mankind so historically and retrospectively disposed as we are accepts the superficial as the real sense1 and regards ideals as subject-matter for mere knowing1 it is really evidencing its veneration for the past--in this particular instance1 for religious tradition4 ,the text of a conviction is never a test of its reality1 for man is rarely conscious of his own beliefs4 ,catchwords and doctrines are always more or less popular and external as compared with deep spiritual actualities4 ,our theoretical reverence for the propositions of the ,new ,testament is in fact of the same order as the theoretical reverence of the ,renaissance and of ,classicism for antique art2 the one has no more transformed the spirit of men than the other has transformed the spirit of works4 ,the oft-quoted cases of the ,mendicant ,orders1 the ,moravians and the ,salvation ,army prove by their very rarity1 and even more by the slightness of the effects that they have been able to produce1 that they are exceptions in a quite different generality--namely1 the ,faustian-,christian morale4 ,that morale will not indeed be found formulated1 either by ,luther or by the ,council of ,trent1 but all ,christians of the great style--,innocent ,,iii and ,calvin1 ,loyola and ,savonarola1 ,pascal and ,st4 ,theresa--have had it in them1 even in unconscious contradiction to their own formal teachings4 ,we have only to compare the purely ,western conception of the manly virtue that is designated by ,nietzsche's 8moralinfrei0 virt1 the grandezza of ,spanish and the grandeur of ,french ,baroque1 with that very feminine of the ,hellenic ideal1 of which the practical application is presented to us as capacity for enjoyment 771 placidity of disposition 71 71 absence of wants and demands1 and1 above all1 the so typical 4 ,what ,nietzsche called the ,blond ,beast and conceived to be embodied in the type of ,renaissance ,man that he so overvalued 7for it is really only a jackal counterfeit of the great ,hohenstaufen ,germans7 is the utter antithesis to the type that is presented in every ,classical ethic without exception and embodied in every ,classical man of worth4 ,the ,faustian ,culture has produced a long series of granite-men1 the ,classical never a one4 ,for ,pericles and ,themistocles were soft natures in tune with ,attic 1 and ,alexander was a ,romantic who never woke up1 ,csar a shrewd reckoner4 ,hannibal1 the alien1 was the only 8,mann0 amongst them all4 ,the men of the early time1 as ,homer presents them to our judgment--the ,odysseuses and ,ajaxes--would have cut a queer figure among the chevaliers of the ,crusades4 ,very feminine natures1 too1 are capable of brutality--a rebound-brutality of their own--and ,greek cruelty was of this kind4 ,but in the ,north the great ,saxon1 ,franconian and ,hohenstaufen emperors appear on the very threshold of the ,culture1 surrounded by giant-men like ,henry the ,lion and ,gregory ,,vii4 ,then come the men of the ,renaissance1 of the struggle of the two ,roses1 of the ,huguenot ,wars1 the ,spanish ,conquistadores1 the ,prussian electors and kings1 ,napoleon1 ,bismarck1 ,rhodes4 ,what other ,culture has exhibited the like of these8 ,where in all ,hellenic history is so powerful a scene as that of #aagf--the ,battle of ,legnano as foreground1 the suddenly-disclosed strife of the great ,hohenstaufen and the great ,welf as background8 ,the heroes of the ,great ,migrations1 the ,spanish chivalry1 ,prussian discipline1 ,napoleonic energy--how much of the ,classical is there in these men and things8 ,and where1 on the heights of ,faustian morale1 from the ,crusades to the ,world ,war1 do we find anything of the 8slave-morale10 the meek resignation1 the deaconess's ,caritas8#dcc ,only in pious and honoured words1 nowhere else4 ,the type of the very priesthood is ,faustian2 think of those magnificent bishops of the old ,german empire who on horseback led their flocks into the wild battle1#dcd or those ,popes who could force submission on a ,henry ,,iv and a ,frederick ,,ii1 of the ,teutonic ,knights in the ,ostmark1 of ,luther's challenge in which the old ,northern heathendom rose up against old ,roman1 of the great ,cardinals 7,richelieu1 ,mazarin1 ,fleury7 who shaped ,france4 ,that is ,faustian morale1 and one must be blind indeed if one does not see it efficient in the whole field of ,west-,european history4 ,and it is only through such grand instances of worldly passion which express the consciousness of a mission that we are able to understand those of grand spiritual passion1 of the upright and forthright ,caritas which nothing can resist1 the dynamic charity that is so utterly unlike ,classical moderation and ,early-,christian mildness4 ,there is a hardness in the sort of com-passion that was practised by the ,german mystics1 the ,german and ,spanish military ,orders1 the ,french and ,english ,calvinists4 ,in the ,russian1 the ,raskolnikov1 type of charity a soul melts into the fraternity of souls1 in the ,faustian it arises out of it4 ,here too 8ego habeo factum0 is the formula4 ,personal charity is the justification before ,god of the ,person1 the individual4 ,this is the reason why compassion-morale1 in the everyday sense1 always respected by us so far as words go1 and sometimes hoped for by the thinker1 is never actualized4 ,kant rejected it with decision1 and in fact it is in profound contradiction with the ,categorical ,imperative1 which sees the meaning of ,life to lie in actions and not in surrender to soft opinions4 ,nietzsche's 8slave-morale0 is a phantom1 his master- morale is a reality4 ,it does not require formulation to be effective--it is there1 and has been from of old4 ,take away his romantic ,borgia-mask and his nebulous vision of supermen1 and what is left of his man is ,faustian man himself1 as he is to-day and as he was even in saga-days1 the type of an energetic1 imperative and dynamic ,culture4 ,however it may have been in the ,classical world1 our great well-doers are the great doers whose forethought and care affects millions1 the great statesmen and organizers4 ,a higher sort of men1 who thanks to their preponderance of will1 knowledge1 wealth and influence make use of democratic ,europe as their aptest and most mobile tool1 in order to bring into their own hands the destinies of the ,earth and as artists to shape #8man' himself4 ,enough--the time is coming when men will unlearn and relearn the art of politics4 ,so ,nietzsche delivered himself in one of the unpublished drafts that are so much more concrete than the finished works4 8,we must either breed political capacities1 or else be ruined by the democracy that has been forced upon us by the failure of the older alternatives10#dce says ,shaw in ,man and ,superman4 ,limited though his philosophic horizon is in general1 ,shaw has the advantage over ,nietzsche of more practical schooling and less ideology1 and the figure of the multimillionaire ,undershaft in ,major ,barbara translates the ,superman- ideal into the unromantic language of the modern age 7which in truth is its real source for ,nietzsche also1 though it reached him indirectly through ,malthus and ,darwin74 ,it is these fact-men of the grand style who are the representatives to-day of the ,will-to-,power over other men's destinies and therefore of the ,faustian ethic generally4 ,men of this sort do not broadcast their millions to dreamers1 8artists10 weaklings and 8down-and-outs0 to satisfy a boundless benevolence2 they employ them for those who like themselves count as material for the ,future4 ,they pursue a purpose with them4 ,they make a centre of force for the existence of generations which outlives the single lives4 ,the mere money1 too1 can develop ideas and make history1 and ,rhodes--precursor of a type that will be significant indeed in the #bast ,century--provided1 in disposing of his possessions by will1 that it should do so4 ,it is a shallow judgment1 and one incapable of inwardly understanding history1 that cannot distinguish the literary chatter of popular social-moralists and humanity-apostles from the deep ethical instincts of the ,west- ,european ,civilization4 ,socialism--in its highest and not its street-corner sense--is1 like every other ,faustian ideal1 exclusive4 ,it owes its popularity only to the fact that it is completely misunderstood even by its exponents1 who present it as a sum of rights instead of as one of duties1 an abolition instead of an intensification of the ,kantian imperative1 a slackening instead of a tautening of directional energy4 ,the trivial and superficial tendency towards ideals of 8welfare10 8freedom10 8humanity10 the doctrine of the 8greatest happiness of the greatest number10 are mere negations of the ,faustian ethic--a very different matter from the tendency of ,epicureanism towards the ideal of 8happiness10 for the condition of happiness was the actual sum and substance of the ,classical ethic4 ,here precisely is an instance of sentiments1 to all outward appearance much the same1 but meaning in the one case everything and in the other nothing4 ,from this point of view1 we might describe the content of the ,classical ethic as philanthropy1 a boon conferred by the individual upon himself1 his soma4 ,the view has ,aristotle on its side1 for it is exactly in this sense that he uses the word 1 which the best heads of the ,classicist period1 above all ,lessing1 found so puzzling4 ,aristotle describes the effect of the ,attic tragedy on the ,attic spectator as philanthropic4 ,its ,peripeteia relieves him from compassion with himself4 ,a sort of theory of master-morale and slave-morale existed also in the early ,hellenism1 in ,callicles for example--naturally1 under strictly corporeal-,euclidean postulates4 ,the ideal of the first class is ,alcibiades4 ,he did exactly what at the moment seemed to him best for his own person1 and he is felt to be1 and admired as1 the type of ,classical ,kalokagathia4 ,but ,protagoras is still more distinct1 with his famous proposition--essentially ethical in intention--that man 7each man for himself7 is the measure of things4 ,that is master-morale in a statuesque soul4 ,,iv ,when ,nietzsche wrote down the phrase 8transvaluation of all values0 for the first time1 the spiritual movement of the centuries in which we are living found at last its formula4 ,transvaluation of all values is the most fundamental character of every civilization4 ,for it is the beginning of a ,civilization that it remoulds all the forms of the ,culture that went before1 understands them otherwise1 practises them in a different way4 ,it begets no more1 but only reinterprets1 and herein lies the negativeness common to all periods of this character4 ,it assumes that the genuine act of creation has already occurred1 and merely enters upon an inheritance of big actualities4 ,in the ,late- ,classical1 we find the event taking place inside ,hellenistic-,roman ,stoicism1 that is1 the long death-struggle of the ,apollinian soul4 ,in the interval from ,socrates--who was the spiritual father of the ,stoa and in whom the first signs of inward impoverishment and city- intellectualism became visible--to ,epictetus and ,marcus ,aurelius1 every existence-ideal of the old ,classical underwent transvaluation4 ,in the case of ,india1 the transvaluation of ,brahman life was complete by the time of ,king ,asoka 7#bej ,b4,c471 as we can see by comparing the parts of the ,vedanta put into writing before and after ,buddha4 ,and ourselves8 ,even now the ethical socialism of the ,faustian soul1 its fundamental ethic1 as we have seen1 is being worked upon by the process of transvaluation as that soul is walled up in the stone of the great cities4 ,rousseau is the ancestor of this socialism2 he stands1 like ,socrates and ,buddha1 as the representative spokesman of a great ,civilization4 ,rousseau's rejection of all great ,culture-forms and all significant conventions1 his famous 8,return to the state of ,nature10 his practical rationalism1 are unmistakable evidences4 ,each of the three buried a millennium of spiritual depth4 ,each proclaimed his gospel to mankind1 but it was to the mankind of the city intelligentsia1 which was tired of the town and the ,late ,culture1 and whose 8pure0 7i4e41 soulless7 reason longed to be free from them and their authoritative form and their hardness1 from the symbolism with which it was no longer in living communion and which therefore it detested4 ,the ,culture was annihilated by discussion4 ,if we pass in review the great #aith-,century names with which we associate the march of this great drama-- ,schopenhauer1 ,hebbel1 ,wagner1 ,nietzsche1 ,ibsen1 ,strindberg--we comprehend in a glance that which ,nietzsche1 in a fragmentary preface to his incomplete master-work1 deliberately and correctly called the ,coming of ,nihilism4 ,every one of the great ,cultures knows it1 for it is of deep necessity inherent in the finale of these mighty organisms4 ,socrates was a nihilist1 and ,buddha4 ,there is an ,egyptian or an ,arabian or a ,chinese de-souling of the human being1 just as there is a ,western4 ,this is a matter not of mere political and economic1 nor even of religious and artistic1 transformations1 nor of any tangible or factual change whatsoever1 but of the condition of a soul after it has actualized its possibilities in full4 ,it is easy1 but useless1 to point to the bigness of ,hellenistic and of modern ,european achievement4 ,mass slavery and mass machine-production1 8,progress0 and ,ataraxia1 ,alexandrianism and modern ,science1 ,pergamum and ,bayreuth1 social conditions as assumed in ,aristotle and as assumed in ,marx1 are merely symptoms on the historical surface4 ,not external life and conduct1 not institutions and customs1 but deepest and last things are in question here--the inward finishedness 7,fertigsein7 of megalopolitan man1 and of the provincial as well4#dcf ,for the ,classical world this condition sets in with the ,roman age2 for us it will set in from about the year #bjjj4 ,culture and ,civilization--the living body of a soul and the mummy of it4 ,for ,western existence the distinction lies at about the year #ahjj--on the one side of that frontier life in fullness and sureness of itself1 formed by growth from within1 in one great uninterrupted evolution from ,gothic childhood to ,goethe and ,napoleon1 and on the other the autumnal1 artificial1 rootless life of our great cities1 under forms fashioned by the intellect4 ,culture and ,civilization--the organism born of ,mother ,earth1 and the mechanism proceeding from hardened fabric4 ,culture-man lives inwards1 ,civilization-man outwards in space and amongst bodies and 8facts40 ,that which the one feels as ,destiny the other understands as a linkage of causes and effects1 and thenceforward he is a materialist--in the sense of the word valid for1 and only valid for1 ,civilization-- whether he wills it or no1 and whether ,buddhist1 ,stoic or ,socialist doctrines wear the garb of religion or not4 ,to ,gothic and ,doric men1 ,ionic and ,baroque men1 the whole vast form- world of art1 religion1 custom1 state1 knowledge1 social life was easy4 ,they could carry it and actualize it without 8knowing0 it4 ,they had over the symbolism of the ,culture that unstrained mastery that ,mozart possessed in music4 ,culture is the self-evident4 ,the feeling of strangeness in these forms1 the idea that they are a burden from which creative freedom requires to be relieved1 the impulse to overhaul the stock in order by the light of reason to turn it to better account1 the fatal imposition of thought upon the inscrutable quality of creativeness1 are all symptoms of a soul that is beginning to tire4 ,only the sick man feels his limbs4 ,when men construct an unmetaphysical religion in opposition to cults and dogmas2 when a 8natural law0 is set up against historical law2 when1 in art1 styles are invented in place of the style that can no longer be borne or mastered2 when men conceive of the ,state as an 8order of society0 which not only can be but must be altered#dcg--then it is evident that something has definitely broken down4 ,the ,cosmopolis itself1 the supreme ,inorganic1 is there1 settled in the midst of the ,culture-landscape1 whose men it is uprooting1 drawing into itself and using up4 ,scientific worlds are superficial worlds1 practical1 soulless and purely extensive worlds4 ,the ideas of ,buddhism1 of ,stoicism1 and of ,socialism alike rest upon them4#dch ,life is no longer to be lived as something self-evident--hardly a matter of consciousness1 let alone choice--or to be accepted as ,god-willed destiny1 but is to be treated as a problem1 presented as the intellect sees it1 judged by 8utilitarian0 or 8rational0 criteria4 ,this1 at the back1 is what all three mean4 ,the brain rules1 because the soul abdicates4 ,culture-men live unconsciously1 ,civilization-men consciously4 ,the ,megalopolis--sceptical1 practical1 artificial--alone represents ,civilization to-day4 ,the soil-peasantry before its gates does not count4 ,the 8,people0 means the city-people1 an inorganic mass1 something fluctuating4 ,the peasant is not democratic-- this again being a notion belonging to mechanical and urban existence#dci--;and he is therefore overlooked1 despised1 detested4 ,with the vanishing of the old 8estates0--gentry and priesthood--he is the only organic man1 the sole relic of the ,early ,culture4 ,there is no place for him either in ,stoic or in ,socialistic thought4 ,thus the ,faust of the ,first ,part of the tragedy1 the passionate student of solitary midnights1 is logically the progenitor of the ,faust of the ,second ,part and the new century1 the type of a purely practical1 far- seeing1 outward-directed activity4 ,in him ,goethe presaged1 psychologically1 the whole future of ,west ,europe4 ,he is ,civilization in the place of ,culture1 external mechanism in place of internal organism1 intellect as the petrifact of extinct soul4 ,as the ,faust of the beginning is to the ,faust of the end1 so the ,hellene of ,pericles's age is to the ,roman of ,csar's4 ,v ,so long as the man of a ,culture that is approaching its fulfilment still continues to live straight before him naturally and unquestioningly1 his life has a settled conduct4 ,this is the instinctive morale1 which may disguise itself in a thousand controversial forms but which he himself does not controvert1 because he has it4 ,as soon as ,life is fatigued1 as soon as a man is put on to the artificial soil of great cities--which are intellectual worlds to themselves--and needs a theory in which suitably to present ,life to himself1 morale turns into a problem4 ,culture-morale is that which a man has1 ,civilization-morale that which he looks for4 ,the one is too deep to be exhaustible by logical means1 the other is a function of logic4 ,as late as ,plato and as late as ,kant ethics are still mere dialectics1 a game with concepts1 or the rounding- off of a metaphysical system1 something that at bottom would not be thought really necessary4 ,the ,categorical ,imperative is merely an abstract statement of what1 for ,kant1 was not in question at all4 ,but with ,zeno and with ,schopenhauer this is no longer so4 ,it had become necessary to discover1 to invent or to squeeze into form1 as a rule of being1 that which was no longer anchored in instinct2 and at this point therefore begin the civilized ethics that are no longer the reflection of ,life but the reflection of ,knowledge upon ,life4 ,one feels that there is something artificial1 soulless1 half-true in all these considered systems that fill the first centuries of all the ,civilizations4 ,they are not those profound and almost unearthly creations that are worthy to rank with the great arts4 ,all metaphysic of the high style1 all pure intuition1 vanishes before the one need that has suddenly made itself felt1 the need of a practical morale for the governance of a ,life that can no longer govern itself4 ,up to ,kant1 up to ,aristotle1 up to the ,yoga and ,vedanta doctrines1 philosophy had been a sequence of grand world- systems in which formal ethics occupied a very modest place4 ,but now it became 8moral philosophy0 with a metaphysic as background4 ,the enthusiasm of epistemology had to give way to hard practical needs4 ,socialism1 ,stoicism and ,buddhism are philosophies of this type4 ,to look at the world1 no longer from the heights as schylus1 ,plato1 ,dante and ,goethe did1 but from the standpoint of oppressive actualities is to exchange the bird's perspective for the frog's4 ,this exchange is a fair measure of the fall from ,culture to ,civilization4 ,every ethic is a formulation of a soul's view of its destiny--heroic or practical1 grand or commonplace1 manly or old-manly4 ,i distinguish1 therefore1 between a tragic and a plebeian morale4 ,the tragic morale of a ,culture knows and grasps the heaviness of being1 but it draws therefrom the feeling of pride that enables the burden to be borne4 ,so schylus1 ,shakespeare1 the thinkers of the ,brahman philosophy felt it2 so ,dante and ,german ,catholicism4 ,it is heard in the stern battle-hymn of ,lutheranism 8,ein' feste ,burg ist unser ,gott10 and it echoes still in the ,marseillaise4 ,the plebeian morale of ,epicurus and the ,stoa1 the sects of ,buddha's day and the #aith ,century made rather battle-plans for the outmanuvring of destiny4 ,what schylus did in grand1 the ,stoa did in little--no more fullness1 but poverty1 coldness and emptiness of life--and all that ,roman bigness achieved was to intensify this same intellectual chill and void4 ,and there is the same relation between the ethical passion of the great ,baroque masters--,shakespeare1 ,bach1 ,kant1 ,goethe--the manly will to inward mastery of natural things that it felt to be far below itself1 and modern ,europe's state-provision1 humanity-ideals1 world-peace1 8greatest happiness of greatest number10 etc41 which express the will to an outward clearance from the path of things that are on the same level4 ,this1 no less than the other1 is a manifestation of the will-to- power1 as against the ,classical endurance of the inevitable1 but the fact remains that material bigness is not the same as metaphysical majesty of achievement4 ,the former lacks depth1 lacks that which former men had called ,god4 ,the ,faustian world-feeling of deed1 which had been efficient in every great man from the ,hohenstaufen and the ,welf to ,frederick the ,great1 ,goethe and ,napoleon1 smoothes itself down to a philosophy of work4 ,whether such a philosophy attacks or defends work does not affect its inward value4 ,the ,culture-idea of ,deed and the ,civilization-idea of ,work are related as the attitude of schylus's ,prometheus and that of ,diogenes4 ,the one suffers and bears1 the other lolls4 ,it was deeds of science that ,galileo1 ,kepler and ,newton performed1 but it is scientific work that the modern physicist carries out4 ,and1 in spite of all the great words from ,schopenhauer to ,shaw1 it is the plebeian morale of every day and 8sound human reason0 that is the basis of all our expositions and discussions of ,life4 ,,vi ,each ,culture1 further1 has its own mode of spiritual extinction1 which is that which follows of necessity from its life as a whole4 ,and hence ,buddhism1 ,stoicism and ,socialism are morphologically equivalent as end- phenomena4 ,for even ,buddhism is such4 ,hitherto the deeper meaning of it has always been misunderstood4 ,it was not a ,puritan movement like1 for instance1 ,islamism and ,jansenism1 not a ,reformation as the ,dionysiac wave was for the ,apollinian world1 and1 quite generally1 not a religion like the religions of the ,vedas or the religion of the ,apostle ,paul1#ddj but a final and purely practical world-sentiment of tired megalopolitans who had a closed-off ,culture behind them and no future before them4 ,it was the basic feeling of the ,indian ,civilization and as such both equivalent to and 8contemporary0 with ,stoicism and ,socialism4 ,the quintessence of this thoroughly worldly and unmetaphysical thought is to be found in the famous sermon near ,benares1 the ,four ,noble ,truths that won the prince- philosopher his first adherents4#dda ,its roots lay in the rationalist- atheistic ,sankhya philosophy1 the world-view of which it tacitly accepts1 just as the social ethic of the #aith ,century comes from the ,sensualism and ,materialism of the #ahth and the ,stoa 7in spite of its superficial exploitation of ,heraclitus7 is derived from ,protagoras and the ,sophists4 ,in each case it is the all-power of ,reason that is the starting-point from which to discuss morale1 and religion 7in the sense of belief in anything metaphysical7 does not enter into the matter4 ,nothing could be more irreligious than these systems in their original forms--and it is these1 and not derivatives of them belonging to later stages of the ,civilizations1 that concern us here4 ,buddhism rejects all speculation about ,god and the cosmic problems2 only self and the conduct of actual life are important to it4 ,and it definitely did not recognize a soul4 ,the standpoint of the ,indian psychologist of early ,buddhism was that of the ,western psychologist and the ,western 8,socialist0 of to-day1 who reduce the inward man to a bundle of sensations and an aggregation of electrochemical energies4 ,the teacher ,nagasena tells ,king ,milinda#ddb that the parts of the car in which he is journeying are not the car itself1 that 8car0 is only a word and that so also is the soul4 ,the spiritual elements are designated ,skandhas1 groups1 and are impermanent4 ,here is complete correspondence with the ideas of association-psychology1 and in fact the doctrines of ,buddha contain much materialism4#ddc ,as the ,stoic appropriated ,heraclitus's idea of ,logos and flattened it to a materialist sense1 as the ,socialism based on ,darwin has mechanicalized 7with the aid of ,hegel7 ,goethe's deep idea of development1 so ,buddhism treated the ,brahman notion of ,karma1 the idea 7hardly achievable in our thought7 of a being actively completing itself4 ,often enough it regarded this quite materially as a world-stuff under transformation4 ,what we have before us is three forms of ,nihilism1 using the word in ,nietzsche's sense4 ,in each case1 the ideals of yesterday1 the religious and artistic and political forms that have grown up through the centuries1 are undone2 yet even in this last act1 this self-repudiation1 each several ,culture employs the prime-symbol of its whole existence4 ,the ,faustian nihilist--,ibsen or ,nietzsche1 ,marx or ,wagner--shatters the ideals4 ,the ,apollinian--,epicurus or ,antisthenes or ,zeno--watches them crumble before his eyes4 ,and the ,indian withdraws from their presence into himself4 ,stoicism is directed to individual self-management1 to statuesque and purely present being1 without regard to future or past or neighbour4 ,socialism is the dynamic treatment of the same theme2 it is defensive like ,stoicism1 but what it defends is not the pose but the working-out of the life2 and more1 it is offensive-defensive1 for with a powerful thrust into distance it spreads itself into all future and over all mankind1 which shall be brought under one single regimen4 ,buddhism1 which only a mere dabbler in religious research could compare with ,christianity1#ddd is hardly reproducible in words of the ,western languages4 ,but it is permissible to speak of a ,stoic ,nirvana and point to the figure of ,diogenes1 and even the notion of a ,socialist ,nirvana has its justification in so far that ,european weariness covers its flight from the struggle for existence under catchwords of world-peace1 ,humanity and brotherhood of ,man4 ,still1 none of this comes anywhere near the strange profundity of the ,buddhist conception of ,nirvana4 ,it would seem as though the soul of an old ,culture1 when from its last refinements it is passing into death1 clings1 as it were1 jealously to the property that is most essentially its own1 to its form-content and the innate prime-symbol4 ,there is nothing in ,buddhism that could be regarded as 8,christian10 nothing in ,stoicism that is to be found in the ,islam of ,a4,d4 #ajjj1 nothing that ,confucius shares with ,socialism4 ,the phrase 8si duo faciunt idem1 non est idem0--which ought to appear at the head of every historical work that deals with living and uniquely- occurring ,becomings and not with logically1 causally and numerically comprehensible ,becomes--is specially applicable to these final expressions of ,culture-movements4 ,in all ,civilizations being ceases to be suffused with soul and comes to be suffused with intellect1 but in each several ,civilization the intellect is of a particular structure and subject to the form-language of a particular symbolism4 ,and just because of all this individualness of the ,being which1 working in the unconscious1 fashions the last-phase creations on the historical surface1 relationship of the instances to one another in point of historical position becomes decisively important4 ,what they bring to expression is different in each case1 but the fact that they bring it to expression so marks them as 8contemporary0 with one another4 ,the ,buddhistic abnegation of full resolute life has a ,stoic flavour1 the ,stoic abnegation of the same a ,buddhistic flavour4 ,allusion has already been made to the affinity between the ,katharsis of the ,attic drama and the ,nirvana-idea4 ,one's feeling is that ethical ,socialism1 although a century has already been given to its development1 has not yet reached the clear hard resigned form of its own that it will finally possess4 ,probably the next decades will impart to it the ripe formulation that ,chrysippus imparted to the ,stoa4 ,but even now there is a look of the ,stoa in ,socialism1 when it is that of the higher order and the narrower appeal1 when its tendency is the ,roman-,prussian and entirely unpopular tendency to self-discipline and self-renunciation from sense of great duty2 and a look of ,buddhism in its contempt for momentary ease and carpe diem4 ,and1 on the other hand1 it has unmistakably the ,epicurean look in that mode of it which alone makes it effective downward and outward as a popular ideal1 in which it is a hedonism 7not indeed of each-for-himself1 but7 of individuals in the name of all4 ,every soul has religion1 which is only another word for its existence4 ,all living forms in which it expresses itself--all arts1 doctrines1 customs1 all metaphysical and mathematical form-worlds1 all ornament1 every column and verse and idea--are ultimately religious1 and must be so4 ,but from the setting-in of ,civilization they cannot be so any longer4 ,as the essence of every ,culture is religion1 so--and consequently--the essence of every ,civilization is irreligion--the two words are synonymous4 ,he who cannot feel this in the creativeness of ,manet as against ,velasquez1 of ,wagner as against ,haydn1 of ,lysippus as against ,phidias1 of ,theocritus as against ,pindar1 knows not what the best means in art4 ,even ,rococo in its worldliest creations is still religious4 ,but the buildings of ,rome1 even when they are temples1 are irreligious2 the one touch of religious architecture that there was in old ,rome was the intrusive ,magian-souled ,pantheon1 first of the mosques4 ,the megalopolis itself1 as against the old ,culture-towns--,alexandria as against ,athens1 ,paris as against ,bruges1 ,berlin as against ,nrnberg--is irreligious#dde down to the last detail1 down to the look of the streets1 the dry intelligence of the faces4#ddf ,and1 correspondingly1 the ethical sentiments belonging to the form-language of the megalopolis are irreligious and soulless also4 ,socialism is the ,faustian world- feeling become irreligious2 8,christianity10 so called 7and qualified even as 8true ,christianity071 is always on the lips of the ,english ,socialist1 to whom it seems to be something in the nature of a 8dogma- less morale40 ,stoicism also was irreligious as compared with ,orphic religion1 and ,buddhism as compared with ,vedic1 and it is of no importance whatever that the ,roman ,stoic approved and conformed to ,emperor-worship1 that the later ,buddhist sincerely denied his atheism1 or that the ,socialist calls himself an earnest ,freethinker or even goes on believing in ,god4 ,it is this extinction of living inner religiousness1 which gradually tells upon even the most insignificant element in a man's being1 that becomes phenomenal in the historical world-picture at the turn from the ,culture to the ,civilization1 the ,climacteric of the ,culture1 as ,i have already called it1 the time of change in which a mankind loses its spiritual fruitfulness for ever1 and building takes the place of begetting4 ,unfruitfulness--understanding the word in all its direct seriousness--marks the brain-man of the megalopolis1 as the sign of fulfilled destiny1 and it is one of the most impressive facts of historical symbolism that the change manifests itself not only in the extinction of great art1 of great courtesy1 of great formal thought1 of the great style in all things1 but also quite carnally in the childlessness and 8race-suicide0 of the civilized and rootless strata1 a phenomenon not peculiar to ourselves but already observed and deplored-- and of course not remedied--in ,imperial ,rome and ,imperial ,china4#ddg ,,vii ,as to the living representatives of these new and purely intellectual creations1 the men of the 8,new ,order0 upon whom every decline-time founds such hopes1 we cannot be in any doubt4 ,they are the fluid megalopolitan ,populace1 the rootless city-mass 7 1 as ,athens called it7 that has replaced the ,people1 the ,culture-folk that was sprung from the soil and peasantlike even when it lived in towns4 ,they are the market-place loungers of ,alexandria and ,rome1 the newspaper- readers of our own corresponding time2 the 8educated0 man who then and now makes a cult of intellectual mediocrity and a church of advertisement2#ddh the man of the theatres and places of amusement1 of sport and 8best-sellers40 ,it is this late-appearing mass and not 8mankind0 that is the object of ,stoic and ,socialist propaganda1 and one could match it with equivalent phenomena in the ,egyptian ,new ,empire1 ,buddhist ,india and ,confucian ,china4 ,correspondingly1 there is a characteristic form of public effect1 the ,diatribe4#ddi ,first observed as a ,hellenistic phenomenon1 it is an efficient form in all ,civilizations4 ,dialectical1 practical and plebeian through and through1 it replaces the old meaningful and far- ranging ,creation of the great man by the unrestrained ,agitation of the small and shrewd1 ideas by aims1 symbols by programs4 ,the expansion- element common to all ,civilizations1 the imperialistic substitution of outer space for inner spiritual space1 characterizes this also4 ,quantity replaces quality1 spreading replaces deepening4 ,we must not confuse this hurried and shallow activity with the ,faustian will-to-power4 ,all it means is that creative inner life is at an end and intellectual existence can only be kept up materially1 by outward effect in the space of the ,city4 ,diatribe belongs necessarily to the 8religion of the irreligious0 and is the characteristic form that the 8cure of souls0 takes therein4 ,it appears as the ,indian preaching1 the ,classical rhetoric1 and the ,western journalism4 ,it appeals not to the best but to the most1 and it values its means according to the number of successes obtained by them4 ,it substitutes for the old thoughtfulness an intellectual male-prostitution by speech and writing1 which fills and dominates the halls and the market-places of the megalopolis4 ,as the whole of ,hellenistic philosophy is rhetorical1 so the social-ethic system of ,zola's novel and ,ibsen's drama is journalistic4 ,if ,christianity in its original expansion became involved with this spiritual prostitution1 it must not be confounded with it4 ,the essential point of ,christian missionarism has almost always been missed4#dej ,primitive ,christianity was a ,magian religion and the soul of its ,founder was utterly incapable of this brutal activity without tact or depth4 ,and it was the ,hellenistic practice of ,paul#dea that--against the determined opposition of the original community1 as we all know-- introduced it into the noisy1 urban1 demagogic publicity of the ,imperium ,romanum4 ,slight as his ,hellenistic tincture may have been1 it sufficed to make him outwardly a part of the ,classical ,civilization4 ,jesus had drawn unto himself fishermen and peasants1 ,paul devoted himself to the market-places of the great cities and the megalopolitan form of propaganda4 ,the word 8pagan0 7man of the heath or country-side7 survives to this day to tell us who it was that this propaganda affected last4 ,what a difference1 indeed what diametrical opposition1 between ,paul and ,boniface the passionate ,faustian of woods and lone valleys1 the joyous cultivating ,cistercians1 the ,teutonic ,knights of the ,slavonic ,east6 ,here was youth once more1 blossoming and yearning in a peasant landscape1 and not until the #aith ,century1 when that landscape and all pertaining to it had aged into a world based on the megalopolis and inhabited by the masses1 did ,diatribe appear in it4 ,a true peasantry enters into the field of view of ,socialism as little as it did into those of ,buddha and the ,stoa4 ,it is only now1 in the ,western megalopolis1 that the equivalent of the ,paul-type emerges1 to figure in ,christian or anti-,christian1 social or theosophical 8causes10 ,free ,thought or the making of religious fancy-ware4 ,this decisive turn towards the one remaining kind of life--that is1 life as a fact1 seen biologically and under causality-relations instead of as ,destiny--is particularly manifest in the ethical passion with which men now turn to philosophies of digestion1 nutrition and hygiene4 ,alcohol- questions and ,vegetarianism are treated with religious earnestness--such1 apparently1 being the gravest problems that the 8men of the ,new ,order10 the generations of frog-perspective1 are capable of tackling4 ,religions1 as they are when they stand new-born on the threshold of the new ,culture--the ,vedic1 the ,orphic1 the ,christianity of ,jesus and the ,faustian ,christianity of the old ,germany of chivalry--would have felt it degradation even to glance at questions of this kind4 ,nowadays1 one rises to them4 ,buddhism is unthinkable without a bodily diet to match its spiritual diet1 and amongst the ,sophists1 in the circle of ,antisthenes1 in the ,stoa and amongst the ,sceptics such questions became ever more and more prominent4 ,even ,aristotle wrote on the alcohol- question1 and a whole series of philosophers took up that of vegetarianism4 ,and the only difference between ,apollinian and ,faustian methods here is that the ,cynic theorized about his own digestion while ,shaw treats of 8everybody's40 ,the one disinterests himself1 the other dictates4 ,even ,nietzsche1 as we know1 handled such questions with relish in his ,ecce ,homo4 ,,viii ,let us1 once more1 review ,socialism 7independently of the economic movement of the same name7 as the ,faustian example of ,civilization- ethics4 ,its friends regard it as the form of the future1 its enemies as a sign of downfall1 and both are equally right4 ,we are all ,socialists1 wittingly or unwittingly1 willingly or unwillingly4 ,even resistance to it wears its form4 ,similarly1 and equally necessarily1 all ,classical men of the ,late period were ,stoics unawares4 ,the whole ,roman people1 as a body1 has a ,stoic soul4 ,the genuine ,roman1 the very man who fought ,stoicism hardest1 was a ,stoic of a stricter sort than ever a ,greek was4 ,the ,latin language of the last centuries before ,christ was the mightiest of ,stoic creations4 ,ethical ,socialism is the maximum possible of attainment to a life- feeling under the aspect of ,aims2#deb for the directional movement of ,life that is felt as ,time and ,destiny1 when it hardens1 takes the form of an intellectual machinery of means and end4 ,direction is the living1 aim the dead4 ,the passionate energy of the advance is generically ,faustian1 the mechanical remainder--8,progress0--is specifically ,socialistic1 the two being related as body and skeleton4 ,and of the two it is the generic quality that distinguishes ,socialism from ,buddhism and ,stoicism2 these1 with their respective ideals of ,nirvana and ,ataraxia1 are no less mechanical in design than ,socialism is1 but they know nothing of the latter's dynamic energy of expansion1 of its will-to- infinity1 of its passion of the third dimension4 ,in spite of its foreground appearances1 ethical ,socialism is not a system of compassion1 humanity1 peace and kindly care1 but one of will- to-power4 ,any other reading of it is illusory4 ,the aim is through and through imperialist2 welfare1 but welfare in the expansive sense1 the welfare not of the diseased but of the energetic man who ought to be given and must be given freedom to do1 regardless of obstacles of wealth1 birth and tradition4 ,amongst us1 sentimental morale1 morale directed to happiness and usefulness1 is never the final instinct1 however we may persuade ourselves otherwise4 ,the head and front of moral modernity must ever be ,kant1 who 7in this respect ,rousseau's pupil7 excludes from his ethics the motive of ,compassion and lays down the formula 8,act1 so that44440 ,all ethic in this style expresses and is meant to express the will-to-infinity1 and this will demands conquest of the moment1 the present1 and the foreground of life4 ,in place of the ,socratic formula 8,knowledge is ,virtue0 we have1 even in ,bacon1 the formula 8,knowledge is ,power40 ,the ,stoic takes the world as he finds it1 but the ,socialist wants to organize and recast it in form and substance1 to fill it with his own spirit4 ,the ,stoic adapts himself1 the ,socialist commands4 ,he would have the whole world bear the form of his view1 thus transferring the idea of the 8,critique of ,pure ,reason0 into the ethical field4 ,this is the ultimate meaning of the ,categorical ,imperative1 which he brings to bear in political1 social and economic matters alike--act as though the maxims that you practise were to become by your will the law for all4 ,and this tyrannical tendency is not absent from even the shallowest phenomena of the time4 ,it is not attitude and mien1 but activity that is to be given form4 ,as in ,china and in ,egypt1 life only counts in so far as it is deed4 ,and it is the mechanicalizing of the organic concept of ,deed that leads to the concept of work as commonly understood1 the civilised form of ,faustian effecting4 ,this morale1 the insistent tendency to give to ,life the most active forms imaginable1 is stronger than reason1 whose moral programs--be they never so reverenced1 inwardly believed or ardently championed--are only effective in so far as they either lie1 or are mistakenly supposed to lie1 in the direction of this force4 ,otherwise they remain mere words4 ,we have to distinguish1 in all modernism1 between the popular side with its dolce far niente1 its solicitude for health1 happiness1 freedom from care1 and universal peace--in a word1 its supposedly ,christian ideals--and the higher ,ethos which values deeds only1 which 7like everything else that is ,faustian7 is neither understood nor desired by the masses1 which grandly idealizes the ,aim and therefore ,work4 ,if we would set against the ,roman 8panem et circenses0 7the final life-symbol of ,epicurean-,stoic existence1 and1 at bottom1 of ,indian existence also7 some corresponding symbol of the ,north 7and of ,old ,china and ,egypt7 it would be the 8,right to ,work40 ,this was the basis of ,fichte's thoroughly ,prussian 7and now ,european7 conception of ,state-,socialism1 and in the last terrible stages of evolution it will culminate in the ,duty to ,work4 ,think1 lastly1 of the ,napoleonic in it1 the re perennius1 the will- to-duration4 ,apollinian man looked back to a ,golden ,age2 this relieved him of the trouble of thinking upon what was still to come4 ,the ,socialist--the dying ,faust of ,part ,,ii--is the man of historical care1 who feels the ,future as his task and aim1 and accounts the happiness of the moment as worthless in comparison4 ,the ,classical spirit1 with its oracles and its omens1 wants only to know the future1 but the ,westerner would shape it4 ,the ,third ,kingdom is the ,germanic ideal4 ,from ,joachim of ,floris to ,nietzsche and ,ibsen--arrows of yearning to the other bank1 as the ,zarathustra says--every great man has linked his life to an eternal morning4 ,alexander's life was a wondrous paroxysm1 a dream which conjured up the ,homeric ages from the grave4 ,napoleon's life was an immense toil1 not for himself nor for ,france1 but for the ,future4 ,it is well1 at this point1 to recall once more that each of the different great ,cultures has pictured world-history in its own special way4 ,classical man only saw himself and his fortunes as statically present with himself1 and did not ask 8whence0 or 8whither40 ,universal history was for him an impossible notion4 ,this is the static way of looking at history4 ,magian man sees it as the great cosmic drama of creation and foundering1 the struggle between ,soul and ,spirit1 ,good and ,evil1 ,god and ,devil--a strictly-defined happening with1 as its culmination1 one single ,peripeteia--the appearance of the ,saviour4 ,faustian man sees in history a tense unfolding towards an aim2 its 8ancient-medival-modern0 sequence is a dynamic image4 ,he cannot picture history to himself in any other way4 ,this scheme of three parts is not indeed world-history as such1 general world-history4 ,but it is the image of world-history as it is conceived in the ,faustian style4 ,it begins to be true and consistent with the beginning of the ,western ,culture and ceases with its ceasing2 and ,socialism in the highest sense is logically the crown of it1 the form of its conclusive state that has been implicit in it from ,gothic onwards4 ,and here ,socialism--in contrast to ,stoicism and ,buddhism--becomes tragic4 ,it is of the deepest significance that ,nietzsche1 so completely clear and sure in dealing with what should be destroyed1 what transvalued1 loses himself in nebulous generalities as soon as he comes to discuss the ,whither1 the ,aim4 ,his criticism of decadence is unanswerable1 but his theory of the ,superman is a castle in the air4 ,it is the same with ,ibsen--8,brand0 and 8,rosmersholm10 8,emperor and ,galilean0 and 8,master- builder0--and with ,hebbel1 with ,wagner and with everyone else4 ,and therein lies a deep necessity2 for1 from ,rousseau onwards1 ,faustian man has nothing more to hope for in anything pertaining to the grand style of ,life4 ,something has come to an end4 ,the ,northern soul has exhausted its inner possibilities1 and of the dynamic force and insistence that had expressed itself in world-historical visions of the future--visions of millennial scope--nothing remains but the mere pressure1 the passion yearning to create1 the form without the content4 ,this soul was ,will and nothing but ,will4 ,it needed an aim for its ,columbus-longing2 it had to give its inherent activity at least the illusion of a meaning and an object4 ,and so the keener critic will find a trace of ,hjalmar ,ekdal in all modernity1 even its highest phenomena4 ,ibsen called it the lie of life4 ,there is something of this lie in the entire intellect of the ,western ,civilization1 so far as this applies itself to the future of religion1 of art or of philosophy1 to a social-ethical aim1 a ,third ,kingdom4 ,for deep down beneath it all is the gloomy feeling1 not to be repressed1 that all this hectic zeal is the effort of a soul that may not and cannot rest to deceive itself4 ,this is the tragic situation--the inversion of the ,hamlet motive--that produced ,nietzsche's strained conception of a 8return10 which nobody really believed but he himself clutched fast lest the feeling of a mission should slip out of him4 ,this ,life's lie is the foundation of ,bayreuth--which would be something whereas ,pergamum was something--and a thread of it runs through the entire fabric of ,socialism1 political1 economic and ethical1 which forces itself to ignore the annihilating seriousness of its own final implications1 so as to keep alive the illusion of the historical necessity of its own existence4 ,,ix ,it remains1 now1 to say a word as to the morphology of a history of philosophy4 ,there is no such thing as ,philosophy 8in itself40 ,every ,culture has its own philosophy1 which is a part of its total symbolic expression and forms with its posing of problems and methods of thought an intellectual ornamentation that is closely related to that of architecture and the arts of form4 ,from the high and distant standpoint it matters very little what 8truths0 thinkers have managed to formulate in words within their respective schools1 for1 here as in every great art1 it is the schools1 conventions and repertory of forms that are the basic elements4 ,infinitely more important than the answers are the questions--the choice of them1 the inner form of them4 ,for it is the particular way in which a macrocosm presents itself to the understanding man of a particular ,culture that determines a priori the whole necessity of asking them1 and the way in which they are asked4 ,the ,classical and the ,faustian ,cultures1 and equally the ,indian and the ,chinese1 have each their proper ways of asking1 and further1 in each case1 all the great questions have been posed at the very outset4 ,there is no modern problem that the ,gothic did not see and bring into form1 no ,hellenistic problem that did not of necessity come up for the old ,orphic temple-teachings4 ,it is of no importance whether the subtilizing turn of mind expresses itself here in oral tradition and there in books1 whether such books are personal creations of an 8,i0 as they are amongst ourselves or anonymous fluid masses of texts as in ,india1 and whether the result is a set of comprehensible systems or1 as in ,egypt1 glimpses of the last secrets are veiled in expressions of art and ritual4 ,whatever the variations1 the general course of philosophies as organisms is the same4 ,at the beginning of every springtime period1 philosophy1 intimately related to great architecture and religion1 is the intellectual echo of a mighty metaphysical living1 and its task is to establish critically the sacred causality in the world-image seen with the eye of faith4#dec ,the basic distinctions1 not only of science but also of philosophy1 are dependent on1 not divorced from1 the elements of the corresponding religion4 ,in this springtime1 thinkers are1 not merely in spirit but actually in status1 priests4 ,such were the ,schoolmen and the ,mystics of the ,gothic and the ,vedic as of the ,homeric#ded and the ,early-,arabian#dee centuries4 ,with the setting-in of the ,late period1 and not earlier1 philosophy becomes urban and worldly1 frees itself from subservience to religion and even dares to make that religion itself the object of epistemological criticism4 ,the great theme of ,brahman1 ,ionic and ,baroque philosophies is the problem of knowing4 ,the urban spirit turns to look at itself1 in order to establish the proposition that there is no higher judgment-seat of knowing beyond itself1 and with that thought draws nearer to higher mathematics and instead of priests we have men of the world1 statesmen and merchants and discoverers1 tested in high places and by high tasks1 whose ideas about thought rest upon deep experience of life4 ,of such are the series of great thinkers from ,thales to ,protagoras and from ,bacon to ,hume1 and the series of pre-,confucian and pre-,buddha thinkers of whom we hardly know more than the fact that they existed4 ,at the end of such series stand ,kant and ,aristotle1#def and after them there set in the ,civilization-philosophies4 ,in every ,culture1 thought mounts to a climax1 setting the questions at the outset and answering them with ever-increasing force of intellectual expression--and1 as we have said before1 ornamental significance--until exhausted2 and then it passes into a decline in which the problems of knowing are in every respect stale repetitions of no significance4 ,there is a metaphysical period1 originally of a religious and finally of a rationalistic cast--in which thought and life still contain something of chaos1 an unexploited fund that enables them effectively to create--and an ethical period in which life itself1 now become megalopolitan1 appears to call for inquiry and has to turn the still available remainder of philosophical creative- power on to its own conduct and maintenance4 ,in the one period life reveals itself1 the other has life as its object4 ,the one is 8theoretical0 7contemplative7 in the grand sense1 the other perforce practical4 ,even the ,kantian system is in its deepest characters contemplated in the first instance and only afterwards logically and systematically formulated and ordered4 ,we see this evidenced in ,kant's attitude to mathematics4 ,no one is a genuine metaphysician who has not penetrated into the form-world of numbers1 who has not lived them into himself as a symbolism4 ,and in fact it was the great thinkers of the ,baroque who created the analytical mathematic1 and the same is true1 mutatis mutandis1 of the great pre- ,socratics and ,plato4 ,descartes and ,leibniz stand beside ,newton and ,gauss1 ,pythagoras and ,plato by ,archytas and ,archimedes1 at the summits of mathematical development4 ,but already in ,kant the philosopher has become1 as mathematician1 negligible4 ,kant no more penetrated to the last subtleties of the ,calculus as it stood in his own day than he absorbed the axiomatic of ,leibniz4 ,the same may be said of ,aristotle4 ,and thenceforward there is no philosopher who is counted as a mathematician4 ,fichte1 ,hegel and the ,romantics were entirely unmathematical1 and so were ,zeno#deg and ,epicurus4 ,schopenhauer in this field is weak to the point of crudity1 and of ,nietzsche the less said the better4 ,when the form-world of numbers passed out of its ken1 philosophy lost a great convention1 and since then it has lacked not only structural strength but also what may be called the grand style of thinking4 ,schopenhauer himself admitted that he was a hand-to-mouth thinker 7,gelegenheitsdenker74 ,with the decline of metaphysics1 ethics has outgrown its status as a subordinate element in abstract theory4 ,henceforth it is philosophy1 the other divisions being absorbed into it and practical living becoming the centre of consideration4 ,the passion of pure thought sinks down4 ,metaphysics1 mistress yesterday1 is handmaid now2 all it is required to do is to provide a foundation for practical views4 ,and the foundation becomes more and more superfluous4 ,it becomes the custom to despise and mock at the metaphysical1 the unpractical1 the philosophy of 8stone for bread40 ,in ,schopenhauer it is for the sake of the fourth book that the first three exist at all4 ,kant merely thought that it was the same with him2 in reality1 pure and not applied reason is still his centre of creation4 ,there is exactly the same difference in ,classical philosophy before and after ,aristotle--on the one hand1 a grandly conceived ,cosmos to which a formal ethic adds almost nothing1 and1 on the other1 ethics as such1 as programme1 as necessity with a desultory ad hoc metaphysic for basis4 ,and the entire absence of logical scruple with which ,nietzsche1 for instance1 dashes off such theories makes no difference whatever to our appreciation of his philosophy proper4 ,it is well known#deh that ,schopenhauer did not proceed to ,pessimism from his metaphysic but1 on the contrary1 was led to develop his system by the pessimism that fell upon him in his seventeenth year4 ,shaw1 a most significant witness1 observes in his 8,quintessence of ,ibsenism0 that one may quite well accept ,schopenhauer's philosophy and reject his metaphysics--therein quite accurately discriminating between that which makes him the first thinker of the new age and that which is included because an obsolete tradition held it to be indispensable in a complete philosophy4 ,no one would undertake to divide ,kant thus1 and the attempt would not succeed if it were made4 ,but with ,nietzsche one has no difficulty in perceiving that his 8philosophy0 was through-and-through an inner and very early experience1 while he covered his metaphysical requirements rapidly and often imperfectly by the aid of a few books1 and never managed to state even his ethical theory with any exactitude4 ,just the same overlay of living seasonable ethical thought on a stratum of metaphysics required by convention 7but in fact superfluous7 is to be found in ,epicurus and the ,stoics4 ,we need have no doubt after this as to what is the essence of a ,civilization-philosophy4 ,strict metaphysics has exhausted its possibilities4 ,the world-city has definitely overcome the land1 and now its spirit fashions a theory proper to itself1 directed of necessity outward1 soulless4 ,henceforward1 we might with some justice replace the word 8soul0 by the word 8brain40 ,and1 since in the ,western 8brain0 the will to power1 the tyrannical set towards the ,future and purpose to organize everybody and everything1 demands practical expression1 ethics1 as it loses touch more and more with its metaphysical past1 steadily assumes a social-ethical and social-economic character4 ,the philosophy of the present that starts from ,hegel and ,schopenhauer is1 so far as it represents the spirit of the age 7which1 e4g41 ,lotze and ,herbart do not71 a critique of society4 ,the attention that the ,stoic gave to his own body1 the ,westerner devotes to the body social4 ,it is not chance that ,hegelian philosophy has given rise to ,socialism 7,marx1 ,engels71 to ,anarchism 7,stirner7 and to the problem-posing social drama 7,hebbel74 ,socialism is political economy converted into the ethical and1 moreover1 the imperative mood4 ,so long as a metaphysic existed 7that is1 till ,kant7 political economy remained a science4 ,but as soon as 8philosophy0 became synonymous with practical ethics1 it replaced mathematics as the basis of thought about the world--hence the importance of ,cousin1 ,bentham1 ,comte1 ,mill and ,spencer4 ,to choose his material at will is not given to the philosopher1 neither is the material of philosophy always and everywhere the same4 ,there are no eternal questions1 but only questions arising out of the feelings of a particular being and posed by it4 ,alles ,vergngliche ist nur ein ,gleichnis applies also to every genuine philosophy as the intellectual expression of this being1 as the actualization of spiritual possibilities in a form-world of concepts1 judgments and thought- structures comprised in the living phenomenon of its author4 ,any and every such philosophy is1 from the first word to the last1 from its most abstract proposition to its most telltale trait of personality1 a thing- become1 mirrored over from soul into world1 from the realm of freedom into that of necessity1 from the immediate-living into the dimensional- logical2 and on that very account it is mortal1 and its life has prescribed rhythm and duration4 ,the choice of them1 therefore1 is subject to strict necessity4 ,each epoch has its own1 important for itself and for no other epoch4 ,it is the mark of the born philosopher that he sees his epoch and his theme with a sure eye4 ,apart from this1 there is nothing of any importance in philosophical production--merely technical knowledge and the industry requisite for the building up of systematic and conceptual subtleties4 ,consequently1 the distinctive philosophy of the #aith ,century is only ,ethics and social critique in the productive sense--nothing more4 ,and consequently1 again1 its most important representatives 7apart from actual practitioners7 are the dramatists4 ,they are the real philosophers of ,faustian activism1 and compared with them not one of the lecture-room philosophers and systematics counts at all4 ,all that these unimportant pedants have done for us is1 so to write and rewrite the history of philosophy 7and what history6--collections of dates and 8results07 that no one to-day knows what the history of philosophy is or what it might be4 ,thanks to this1 the deep organic unity in the thought of this epoch has never yet been perceived4 ,the essence of it1 from the philosophical point of view1 can be precised by asking the question3 ,in how far is ,shaw the pupil and fulfiller of ,nietzsche8 ,the question is put in no ironic spirit4 ,shaw is the one thinker of eminence who has consistently advanced in the same direction as that of the true ,nietzsche--namely1 productive criticism of the ,western morale--while following out as poet the last implications of ,ibsen and devoting the balance of the artistic creativeness that is in him to practical discussions4 ,save in so far as the belated ,romanticist in him has determined the style1 sound and attitude of his philosophy1 ,nietzsche is in every respect a disciple of the materialistic decades4 ,that which drew him with such passion to ,schopenhauer was 7not that he himself or anyone else was conscious of it7 that element of ,schopenhauer's doctrine by which he destroyed the great metaphysic and 7without meaning to do so7 parodied his master ,kant2 that is to say1 the modification of all deep ideas of the ,baroque age into tangible and mechanistic notions4 ,kant speaks in inadequate words1 which hide a mighty and scarcely apprehensible intuition1 an intuition of the world as appearance or phenomenon4 ,in ,schopenhauer this becomes the world as brain-phenomenon 7,gehirnphnomen74 ,the change-over from tragic philosophy to philosophical plebeianism is complete4 ,it will be enough to cite one passage4 ,in 8,the ,world as ,will and ,idea0 ,schopenhauer says3 8,the will1 as thing-in-itself1 constitutes the inner1 true and indestructible essence of the man2 in itself1 however1 it is without consciousness4 ,for the consciousness is conditioned by the intellect and this is a mere accident of our being1 since it is a function of the brain1 and that again 7with its dependent nerves and spinal cord7 is a mere fruit1 a product1 nay1 even a parasite of the rest of the organism1 inasmuch as it does not intervene directly in the latter's activities but only serves a purpose of self-preservation by regulating its relations with the outer world40 ,here we have exactly the fundamental position of the flattest materialism4 ,it was not for nothing that ,schopenhauer1 like ,rousseau before him1 studied the ,english sensualists4 ,from them he learned to misread ,kant in the spirit of megalopolitan utilitarian modernity4 ,the intellect as instrument of the will-to-life1#dei as weapon in the struggle for existence1 the ideas brought to grotesque expression by ,shaw in 8,man and ,superman0--it was because this was his view of the world that ,schopenhauer became the fashionable philosopher when ,darwin's main work was published in #ahei4 ,in contrast to ,schelling1 ,hegel and ,fichte1 he was a philosopher1 and the only philosopher1 whose metaphysical propositions could be absorbed with ease by intellectual mediocrity4 ,the clarity of which he was so proud threatened at every moment to reveal itself as triviality4 ,while retaining enough of formula to produce an atmosphere of profundity and exclusiveness1 he presented the civilized view of the world complete and assimilable4 ,his system is anticipated ,darwinism1 and the speech of ,kant and the concepts of the ,indians are simply clothing4 ,in his book 8,ueber den ,willen in der ,natur0 7#ahce7 we find already the struggle for self-preservation in ,nature1 the human intellect as master-weapon in that struggle and sexual love as unconscious selection according to biological interest4#dfj ,it is the view that ,darwin 7via ,malthus7 brought to bear with irresistible success in the field of zoology4 ,the economic origin of ,darwinism is shown by the fact that the system deduced from the similarities between men and the higher animals ceases to fit even at the level of the plant-world and becomes positively absurd as soon as it is seriously attempted to apply it with its will-tendency 7natural selection1 mimicry7 to primitive organic forms4#dfa ,proof1 to the ,darwinian1 means to the ordering and pictorial presentation of a selection of facts so that they conform to his historico-dynamic basic feeling of 8,evolution40 ,darwinism--that is to say1 that totality of very varied and discrepant ideas1 in which the common factor is merely the application of the causality principle to living things1 which therefore is a method and not a result--was known in all details to the #ahth ,century4 ,rousseau was championing the ape-man theory as early as #aged4 ,what ,darwin originated is only the 8,manchester ,school0 system1 and it is this latent political element in it that accounts for its popularity4 ,the spiritual unity of the century is manifest enough here4 ,from ,schopenhauer to ,shaw1 everyone has been1 without being aware of it1 bringing the same principle into form4 ,everyone 7including even those who1 like ,hebbel1 knew nothing of ,darwin7 is a derivative of the evolution-idea--and of the shallow civilized and not the deep ,goethian form of it at that--whether he issues it with a biological or an economic imprint4 ,there is evolution1 too1 in the evolution-idea itself1 which is ,faustian through and through1 which displays 7in sharpest contrast to ,aristotle's timeless entelechy-idea7 all our passionate urgency towards infinite future1 our will and sense of aim which is so immanent in1 so specific to1 the ,faustian spirit as to be the a priori form rather than the discovered principle of our ,nature-picture4 ,and in the evolution of evolution we find the same change taking place as elsewhere1 the turn of the ,culture to the ,civilization4 ,in ,goethe evolution is upright1 in ,darwin it is flat2 in ,goethe organic1 in ,darwin mechanical2 in ,goethe an experience and emblem1 in ,darwin a matter of cognition and law4 ,to ,goethe evolution meant inward fulfilment1 to ,darwin it meant 8,progress40 ,darwin's struggle for existence1 which he read into ,nature and not out of it1 is only the plebeian form of that primary feeling which in ,shakespeare's tragedies moves the great realities against one another2 but what ,shakespeare inwardly saw1 felt and actualized in his figures as destiny1 ,darwinism comprehends as causal connexion and formulates as a superficial system of utilities4 ,and it is this system and not this primary feeling that is the basis of the utterances of 8,zarathustra10 the tragedy of 8,ghosts10 the problems of the 8,ring of the ,nibelungs40 ,only1 it was with terror that ,schopenhauer1 the first of his line1 perceived what his own knowledge meant--that is the root of his pessimism1 and the 8,tristan0 music of his adherent ,wagner is its highest expression--whereas the late men1 and foremost among them ,nietzsche1 face it with enthusiasm1 though it is true1 the enthusiasm is sometimes rather forced4 ,nietzsche's breach with ,wagner--that last product of the ,german spirit over which greatness broods--marks his silent change of school- allegiance1 his unconscious step from ,schopenhauer to ,darwin1 from the metaphysical to the physiological formulation of the same world-feeling1 from the denial to the affirmation of the aspect that in fact is common to both1 the one seeing as will-to-life what the other regards as struggle for existence4 ,in his 8,schopenhauer als ,erzieher0 he still means by evolution an inner ripening1 but the ,superman is the product of evolution as machinery4 ,and 8,zarathustra0 is ethically the outcome of an unconscious protest against 8,parsifal0--which artistically entirely governs it--of the rivalry of one evangelist for another4 ,but ,nietzsche was also a ,socialist without knowing it4 ,not his catchwords1 but his instincts1 were ,socialistic1 practical1 directed to that welfare of mankind that ,goethe and ,kant never spent a thought upon4 ,materialism1 ,socialism and ,darwinism are only artificially and on the surface separable4 ,it was this that made it possible for ,shaw in the third act of 8,man and ,superman0 7one of the most important and significant of the works that issued from the transition7 to obtain1 by giving just a small and indeed perfectly logical turn to the tendencies of 8master-morale0 and the production of the ,superman1 the specific maxims of his own ,socialism4 ,here ,shaw was only expressing with remorseless clarity and full consciousness of the commonplace1 what the uncompleted portion of the ,zarathustra would have said with ,wagnerian theatricality and woolly romanticism4 ,all that we are concerned to discover in ,nietzsche's reasoning is its practical bases and consequences1 which proceed of necessity from the structure of modern public life4 ,he moves amongst vague ideas like 8new values10 8,superman10 8,sinn der ,erde10 and declines or fears to shape them more precisely4 ,shaw does it4 ,nietzsche observes that the ,darwinian idea of the ,superman evokes the notion of breeding1 and stops there1 leaves it at a sounding phrase4 ,shaw pursues the question--for there is no object in talking about it if nothing is going to be done about it--asks how it is to be achieved1 and from that comes to demand the transformation of mankind into a stud-farm4 ,but this is merely the conclusion implicit in the ,zarathustra1 which ,nietzsche was not bold enough1 or was too fastidious1 to draw4 ,if we do talk of systematic breeding--a completely materialistic and utilitarian notion--we must be prepared to answer the questions1 who shall breed what1 where and how8 ,but ,nietzsche1 too romantic to face the very prosaic social consequences and to expose poetic ideas to the test of facts1 omits to say that his whole doctrine1 as a derivative of ,darwinism1 presupposes ,socialism and1 moreover1 socialistic compulsion as the means2 that any systematic breeding of a class of higher men requires as condition precedent a strictly socialistic ordering of society2 and that this 8,dionysiac0 idea1 as it involves a common action and is not simply the private affair of detached thinkers1 is democratic1 turn it how you may4 ,it is the climax of the ethical force of 8,thou shalt02 to impose upon the world the form of his will1 ,faustian man sacrifices even himself4 ,the breeding of the ,superman follows from the notion of 8selection40 ,nietzsche was an unconscious pupil of ,darwin from the time that he wrote aphorisms1 but ,darwin himself had remoulded the evolution-ideas of the #ahth ,century according to the ,malthusian tendencies of political economy1 which he projected on the higher animal-world4 ,malthus had studied the cotton industry in ,lancashire1 and already in #aheg we have the whole system1 only applied to men instead of to beasts1 in ,buckle's ,history of ,english ,civilization4 ,in other words1 the 8master-morale0 of this last of the ,romantics is derived--strangely perhaps but very significantly--from that source of all intellectual modernity1 the atmosphere of the ,english factory4 ,the ,machiavellism that commended itself to ,nietzsche as a ,renaissance phenomenon is something closely 7one would have supposed1 obviously7 akin to ,darwin's notion of 8mimicry40 ,it is in fact that of which ,marx 7that other famous disciple of ,malthus7 treats in his ,das ,kapital1 the bible of political 7not ethical7 ,socialism4#dfb ,that is the genealogy of 8,herrenmoral40 ,the ,will-to-,power1 transferred to the realistic1 political and economic domain1 finds its expression in ,shaw's 8,major ,barbara40 ,no doubt ,nietzsche1 as a personality1 stands at the culmination of this series of ethical philosophers1 but here ,shaw the party politician reaches up to his level as a thinker4 ,the will-to-power is to-day represented by the two poles of public life--the worker-class and the big money-and-brain men--far more effectually than it ever was by a ,borgia4 ,the millionaire ,undershaft of ,shaw's best comedy is a ,superman1 though ,nietzsche the ,romanticist would not have recognized his ideal in such a figure4 ,nietzsche is for ever speaking of transvaluations of all values1 of a philosophy of the 8,future0 7which1 incidentally1 is merely the ,western1 and not the ,chinese or the ,african future71 but when the mists of his thought do come in from the ,dionysiac distance and condense into any tangible form1 the will-to-power appears to him in the guise of dagger-and-poison and never in that of strike and 8deal40 ,and yet he says that the idea first came to him when he saw the ,prussian regiments marching to battle in #ahgj4 ,the drama1 in this epoch1 is no longer poetry in the old sense of the ,culture days1 but a form of agitation1 debate and demonstration4 ,the stage has become a moralizing institution4 ,nietzsche himself often thought of putting his ideas in the dramatic form4 ,wagner's ,nibelung poetry1 more especially the first draft of it 7#ahej71 expresses his social-revolutionary ideas1 and even when1 after a circuitous course under influences artistic and non-artistic1 he has completed the 8,ring10 his ,siegfried is still a symbol of the ,fourth ,estate1 his ,brnhilde still the 8free woman40 ,the sexual selection of which the 8,origin of ,species0 enunciated the theory in #ahei1 was finding its musical expression at the very same time in the third act of 8,siegfried0 and in 8,tristan40 ,it is no accident that ,wagner1 ,hebbel and ,ibsen1 all practically simultaneously1 set to work to dramatize the ,nibelung material4 ,hebbel1 making the acquaintance in ,paris of ,engels's writings1 expresses 7in a letter of ,april #b1 #ahdd7 his surprise at finding that his own conceptions of the social principle of his age1 which he was then intending to exemplify in a drama ,zu irgend einer ,zeit1 coincided precisely with those of the future 8,communist ,manifesto40 ,and1 upon first making the acquaintance of ,schopenhauer 7letter of ,march #ai1 #aheg71 he is equally surprised by the affinity that he finds between the ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung and tendencies upon which he had based his ,holofernes and his ,herodes und ,mariamne4 ,hebbel's diaries1 of which the most important portion belongs to the years #ahce-ahde1 were 7though he did not know it7 one of the deepest philosophical efforts of the century4 ,it would be no surprise to find whole sentences of it in ,nietzsche1 who never knew him and did not always come up to his level4 ,the actual and effective philosophy of the #aith ,century1 then1 has as its one genuine theme the ,will-to-,power4 ,it considers this ,will-to-,power in civilized-intellectual1 ethical1 or social forms and presents it as will-to-life1 as life-force1 as practical-dynamical principle1 as idea1 and as dramatic figure4 7,the period that is closed by ,shaw corresponds to the period #cej-bej in the ,classical47 ,the rest of the #aith-,century philosophy is1 to use ,schopenhauer's phrase1 8professors' philosophy by philosophy-professors40 ,the real landmarks are these3 #ahai4 ,schopenhauer1 ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung4 ,the will to life is for the first time put as the only reality 7original force1 ,urkraft72 but1 older idealist influences still being potent1 it is put there to be negatived 7zur ,verneinung empfohlen74 #ahcf4 ,schopenhauer1 ,ueber den ,willen in der ,natur4 ,anticipation of ,darwinism1 but in metaphysical disguise4 #ahdj4 ,proud'hon1 ,qu'est-ce que la ,proprit1 basis of ,anarchism4 ,comte1 ,cours de philosophic positive2 the formula 8order and progress40 #ahda4 ,hebbel1 8,judith10 first dramatic conception of the 8,new ,woman0 and the 8,superman40 ,feuerbach1 ,das ,wesen des ,christenthums4 #ahdd4 ,engels1 ,umriss einer ,kritik des ,nationalkonomie1 foundation of the materialistic conception of history4 ,hebbel1 ,maria ,magdalena1 the first social drama4 #ahdg4 ,marx1 ,misre de la ,philosophie 7synthesis of ,hegel and ,malthus74 ,these are the epochal years in which economics begins to dominate social ethic and biology4 #ahdh4 ,wagner's 8,death of ,siegfried02 ,siegfried as social-ethical revolutionary1 the ,fafnir hoard as symbol of ,capitalism4 #ahej4 ,wagner's ,kunst und ,klima2 the sexual problem4 #ahej-aheh4 ,wagner's1 ,hebbel's and ,ibsen's ,nibelung poetry4 #ahei 7year of symbolic coincidences74 ,darwin1 8,origin of ,species0 7application of economics to biology74 ,wagner's 8,tristan40 ,marx1 ,zur ,kritik der politischen konomie4 #ahfc4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 8,utilitarianism40 #ahfe4 ,dhring1 ,wert des ,lebens--a work which is rarely heard of1 but which exercised the greatest influence upon the succeeding generation4 #ahfg4 ,ibsen1 8,brand40 ,marx1 ,das ,kapital4 #ahgh4 ,wagner 8,parsifal40 ,first dissolution of materialism into mysticism4 #ahgi4 ,ibsen 8,nora40 #ahha4 ,nietzsche1 ,morgenrthe2 transition from ,schopenhauer to ,darwin1 morale as biological phenomenon4 #ahhc4 ,nietzsche1 ,also sprach ,zarathustra2 the ,will-to-,power1 but in ,romantic disguise4 #ahhf4 ,ibsen1 8,rosmersholm40 ,nietzsche1 ,jenseits von ,gut und ,bse4 #ahhg-h4 ,strindberg1 8,fadren0 and 8,frken ,julie40 ,from #ahij the conclusion of the epoch approaches4 ,the religious works of ,strindberg and the symbolical of ,ibsen4 #ahif4 ,ibsen1 8,john ,gabriel ,borkman40 ,nietzsche1 ,uebermensch4 #ahih4 ,strindberg1 8,till ,damascus40 ,from #aijj the last phenomena4 #aijc4 ,weininger1 ,geschlecht und ,charakter2 the only serious attempt to revive ,kant within this epoch1 by referring him to ,wagner and ,ibsen4 #aijc4 ,shaw1 8,man and ,superman02 final synthesis of ,darwin and ,nietzsche4 #aije4 ,shaw1 8,major ,barbara02 the type of the ,superman referred back to its economic origins4 ,with this1 the ethical period exhausts itself as the metaphysical had done4 ,ethical ,socialism1 prepared by ,fichte1 ,hegel1 and ,humboldt1 was at its zenith of passionate greatness about the middle of the #aith ,century1 and at the end thereof it had reached the stage of repetitions4 ,the #bjth ,century1 while keeping the word ,socialism1 has replaced an ethical philosophy that only ,epigoni suppose to be capable of further development1 by a praxis of economic everyday questions4 ,the ethical disposition of the ,west will remain 8socialistic0 but its theory has ceased to be a problem4 ,and there remains the possibility of a third and last stage of ,western philosophy1 that of a physiognomic scepticism4 ,the secret of the world appears successively as a knowledge problem1 a valuation problem and a form problem4 ,kant saw ,ethics as an object of knowledge1 the #aith ,century saw it as an object of valuation4 ,the ,sceptic would deal with both simply as the historical expression of a ,culture4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xi ,,faustian ,,and ,,apollinian ,,nature-,,knowledge ,,chapter ,,xi ,,faustian ,,and ,,apollinian ,,nature-,,knowledge ,i ,helmholtz observed1 in a lecture of #ahfi that has become famous1 that 8the final aim of ,natural ,science is to discover the motions underlying all alteration1 and the motive forces thereof2 that is1 to resolve itself into ,mechanics40 ,what this resolution into mechanics means is the reference of all qualitative impressions to fixed quantitative base- values1 that is1 to the extended and to change of place therein4 ,it means1 further--if we bear in mind the opposition of becoming and become1 form and law1 image and notion--the referring of the seen ,nature-picture to the imagined picture of a single numerically and structurally measurable ,order4 ,the specific tendency of all ,western mechanics is towards an intellectual conquest by measurement1 and it is therefore obliged to look for the essence of the phenomenon in a system of constant elements that are susceptible of full and inclusive appreciation by measurement1 of which ,helmholtz distinguishes motion 7using the word in its everyday sense7 as the most important4 ,to the physicist this definition appears unambiguous and exhaustive1 but to the sceptic who has followed out the history of this scientific conviction1 it is very far from being either4 ,to the physicist1 present- day mechanics is a logical system of clear1 uniquely-significant concepts and of simple1 necessary relations2 while to the other it is a picture distinctive of the structure of the ,west-,european spirit1 though he admits that the picture is consistent in the highest degree and most impressively convincing4 ,it is self-evident that no practical results and discoveries can prove anything as to the 8truth0 of the theory1 the picture4#dfc ,for most people1 indeed1 8mechanics0 appears as the self-evident synthesis of ,nature-impressions4 ,but it merely appears to be so4 ,for what is motion8 ,is not the postulate that everything qualitative is reducible to the motion of unalterably-alike mass-points1 essentially ,faustian and not common to humanity8 ,archimedes1 for example1 did not feel himself obliged to transpose the mechanics that he saw into a mental picture of motions4 ,is motion generally a purely mechanical quantity8 ,is it a word for a visual experience or is it a notion derived from that experience8 ,is it the number that is found by measurement of experimentally-produced facts1 or the picture that is subjected to that number1 that is signified by it8 ,and if one day physics should really succeed in reaching its supposed aim1 in devising a system of law-governed 8motions0 and of efficient forces behind them into which everything whatsoever appreciable by the senses could be fitted--would it thereby have achieved 8knowledge0 of that which occurs1 or even made one step towards this achievement8 ,yet is the form-language of mechanics one whit the less dogmatic on that account8 ,is it not1 on the contrary1 a vessel of the myth like the root- words1 not proceeding from experience but shaping it and1 in this case1 shaping it with all possible rigour8 ,what is force8 ,what is a cause8 ,what is a process8 ,nay1 even on the basis of its own definitions1 has physics a specific problem at all8 ,has it an object that counts as such for all the centuries8 ,has it even one unimpeachable imagination-unit1 with reference to which it may express its results8 ,the answer may be anticipated4 ,modern physics1 as a science1 is an immense system of indices in the form of names and numbers whereby we are enabled to work with ,nature as with a machine4#dfd ,as such1 it may have an exactly-definable end4 ,but as a piece of history1 all made up of destinies and incidents in the lives of the men who have worked in it and in the course of research itself1 physics is1 in point of object1 methods and results alike an expression and actualization of a ,culture1 an organic and evolving element in the essence of that ,culture1 and every one of its results is a symbol4 ,that which physics--which exists only in the waking-consciousness of the ,culture-man--thinks it finds in its methods and in its results was already there1 underlying and implicit in1 the choice and manner of its search4 ,its discoveries1 in virtue of their imagined content 7as distinguished from their printable formul71 have been of a purely mythic nature1 even in minds so prudent as those of ,j4 ,b4 ,mayer1 ,faraday and ,hertz4 ,in every ,nature-law1 physically exact as it may be1 we are called upon to distinguish between the nameless number and the naming of it1 between the plain fixation of limits#dfe and their theoretical interpretation4 ,the formul represent general logical values1 pure numbers--that is to say1 objective space--and boundary-elements4 ,but formul are dumb4 ,the expression s gt means nothing at all unless one is able mentally to connect the letters with particular words and their symbolism4 ,but the moment we clothe the dead signs in such words1 give them flesh1 body and life1 and1 in sum1 a perceptible significance in the world1 we have overstepped the limits of a mere order4 means image1 vision1 and it is this that makes a ,nature-law out of a figure-and-letter formula4 ,everything exact is in itself meaningless1 and every physical observation is so constituted that it proves the basis of a certain number of imaged presuppositions2 and the effect of its successful issue is to make these presuppositions more convincing than ever4 ,apart from these1 the result consists merely of empty figures4 ,but in fact we do not and cannot get apart from them4 ,even if an investigator puts on one side every hypothesis that he knows as such1 as soon as he sets his thought to work on the supposedly clear task1 he is not controlling but being controlled by the unconscious form of it1 for in living activity he is always a man of his ,culture1 of his age1 of his school and of his tradition4 ,faith and 8knowledge0 are only two species of inner certitude1 but of the two faith is the older and it dominates all the conditions of knowing1 be they never so exact4 ,and thus it is theories and not pure numbers that are the support of all natural science4 ,the unconscious longing for that genuine science which 7be it repeated7 is peculiar to the spirit of ,culture-man sets itself to apprehend1 to penetrate1 and to comprise within its grasp the world-image of ,nature4 ,mere industrious measuring for measuring's sake is not and never has been more than a delight for little minds4 ,numbers may only be the key of the secret1 no more4 ,no significant man would ever have spent himself on them for their own sake4 ,kant1 it is true1 says in a well-known passage3 8,i maintain that in each and every discipline of natural philosophy it is only possible to find as much of true science as is to be found of mathematics therein40 ,what ,kant has in mind here is pure delimitation in the field of the become1 so far as law and formula1 number and system can 7at any particular stage7 be seen in that field4 ,but a law without words1 a law1 consisting merely of a series of figures read off an instrument1 cannot even as an intellectual operation be completely effective in this pure state4 ,every savant's experiment1 be it what it may1 is at the same time an instance of the kind of symbolism that rules in the savant's ideation4 ,all ,laws formulated in words are ,orders that have been activated and vitalized1 filled with the very essence of the one--and only the one--,culture4 ,as to the 8necessity0 which is a postulate in all exact research1 here too we have to consider two kinds of necessity1 viz41 a necessity within the spiritual and living 7for it is ,destiny that the history of every individual research-act takes its course when1 where and how it does7 and a necessity within the known 7for which the current ,western name is ,causality74 ,if the pure numbers of a physical formula represent a causal necessity1 the existence1 the birth and the life-duration of a theory are a ,destiny4 ,every fact1 even the simplest1 contains ab initio a theory4 ,a fact is a uniquely-occurring impression upon a waking being1 and everything depends on whether that being1 the being for whom it occurs or did occur1 is or was ,classical or ,western1 ,gothic or ,baroque4 ,compare the effect produced by a flash of lightning on a sparrow and on an alert physical investigator1 and think how much more is contained in the observer's 8fact0 than in the sparrow's4 ,the modern physicist is too ready to forget that even words like quantity1 position1 process1 change of state and body represent specifically ,western images4 ,these words excite and these images mirror a feeling of significances1 too subtle for verbal description1 incommunicable to ,classical or to ,magian or to other mankind as like subtleties of their thought and feeling are incommunicable to us4 ,and the character of scientific facts as such--that is1 the mode of their becoming known--is completely governed by this feeling2 and if so1 then also a fortiori such intricate intellectual notions as work1 tension1 quantity of energy1 quantity of heat1 probability1#dff every one of which contains a veritable scientific myth of its own4 ,we think of such conceptual images as ensuing from quite unprejudiced research and1 subject to certain conditions1 definitively valid4 ,but a first-rate scientist of the time of ,archimedes would have declared himself1 after a thorough study of our modern theoretical physics1 quite unable to comprehend how anyone could assert such arbitrary1 grotesque and involved notions to be ,science1 still less how they could be claimed as necessary consequences from actual facts4 8,the scientifically-justified conclusions10 he would have said1 8are really so-and-so02 and thereupon he would have evolved1 on the basis of the same elements made 8facts0 by his eyes and his mind1 theories that our physicists would listen to with amazed ridicule4 ,for what1 after all1 are the basic notions that have been evolved with inward certainty of logic in the field of our physics8 ,polarized light- rays1 errant ions1 flying and colliding gas-particles1 magnetic fields1 electric currents and waves--are they not one and all ,faustian visions1 closely akin to ,romanesque ornamentation1 the upthrust of ,gothic architecture1 the ,viking's voyaging into unknown seas1 the longings of ,columbus and ,copernicus8 ,did not this world of forms and pictures grow up in perfect tune with the contemporary arts of perspective oil- painting and instrumental music8 ,are they not1 in short1 our passionate directedness1 our passion of the third dimension1 coming to symbolic expression in the imagined ,nature-picture as in the soul-image8 ,,ii ,it follows then that all 8knowing0 of ,nature1 even the exactest1 is based on a religious faith4 ,the pure mechanics that the physicist has set before himself as the end-form to which it is his task 7and the purpose of all this imagination-machinery7 to reduce ,nature1 presupposes a dogma--namely1 the religious world-picture of the ,gothic centuries4 ,for it is from this world-picture that the physics peculiar to the ,western intellect is derived4 ,there is no science that is without unconscious presuppositions of this kind1 over which the researcher has no control and which can be traced back to the earliest days of the awakening ,culture4 ,there is no ,natural science without a precedent ,religion4 ,in this point there is no distinction between the ,catholic and the ,materialistic views of the world--both say the same thing in different words4 ,even atheistic science has religion2 modern mechanics exactly reproduces the contemplativeness of ,faith4 ,when the ,ionic reaches its height in ,thales or the ,baroque in ,bacon1 and man has come to the urban stage of his career1 his self-assurance begins to look upon critical science1 in contrast to the more primitive religion of the countryside1 as the superior attitude towards things1 and1 holding as he thinks the only key to real knowledge1 to explain religion itself empirically and psychologically--in other words1 to 8conquer0 it with the rest4 ,now1 the history of the higher ,cultures shows that 8science0 is a transitory spectacle1#dfg belonging only to the autumn and winter of their life-course1 and that in the cases of the ,classical1 the ,indian1 the ,chinese and the ,arabian thought alike a few centuries suffice for the complete exhaustion of its possibilities4 ,classical science faded out between the battle of ,cann and that of ,actium and made way for the world-outlook of the 8second religiousness40#dfh ,and from this it is possible to foresee a date at which our ,western scientific thought shall have reached the limit of its evolution4 ,there is no justification for assigning to this intellectual form-world the primacy over others4 ,every critical science1 like every myth and every religious belief1 rests upon an inner certitude4 ,various as the creatures of this certitude may be1 both in structure and in sound1 they are not different in basic principle4 ,any reproach1 therefore1 levelled by ,natural science at ,religion is a boomerang4 ,we are presumptuous and no less in supposing that we can ever set up 8,the ,truth0 in the place of 8anthropomorphic0 conceptions1 for no other conceptions but these exist at all4 ,every idea that is possible at all is a mirror of the being of its author4 ,the statement that 8man created ,god in his own image10 valid for every historical religion1 is not less valid for every physical theory1 however firm its reputed basis of fact4 ,classical scientists conceived of light as consisting in corporeal particles proceeding from the source of light to the eye of the beholder4 ,for the ,arabian thought1 even at the stage of the ,jewish-,persian academies of ,edessa1 ,resana and ,pombaditha 7and for ,porphyry too71 the colours and forms of things were evidenced without the intervention of a medium1 being brought in a magic and 8spiritual0 way to the seeing-power which was conceived as substantial and resident in the eyeball4 ,this was the doctrine#dfi taught by ,ibn-al-,haitan1 by ,avicenna and by the 8,brothers of ,sincerity40#dgj ,and the idea of light as a force1 an impetus1 was current even from about #acjj amongst the ,paris ,occamists who centred on ,albert of ,saxony1 ,buridan and ,oresme the discoverer of co-ordinate geometry4 ,each ,culture has made its own set of images of processes1 which are true only for itself and only alive while it is itself alive and actualizing its possibilities4 ,when a ,culture is at its end and the creative element--the imaginative power1 the symbolism--is extinct1 there are left 8empty0 formul1 skeletons of dead systems1 which men of another ,culture read literally1 feel to be without meaning or value and either mechanically store up or else despise and forget4 ,numbers1 formul1 laws mean nothing and are nothing4 ,they must have a body1 and only a living mankind--projecting its livingness into them and through them1 expressing itself by them1 inwardly making them its own-- can endow them with that4 ,and thus there is no absolute science of physics1 but only individual sciences that come1 flourish and go within the individual ,cultures4 ,the 8,nature0 of ,classical man found its highest artistic emblem in the nude statue1 and out of it logically there grew up a static of bodies1 a physics of the near4 ,the ,arabian ,culture owned the arabesque and the cavern-vaulting of the mosque1 and out of this world-feeling there issued ,alchemy with its ideas of mysterious efficient substantialities like the 8philosophical mercury10 which is neither a material nor a property but some thing that underlies the coloured existence of metals and can transmute one metal into another4#dga ,and the outcome of ,faustian man's ,nature idea was a dynamic of unlimited span1 a physics of the distant4 ,to the ,classical therefore belong the conceptions of matter and form1 to the ,arabian 7quite ,spinozistically7 the idea of substances with visible or secret attributes1#dgb and to the ,faustian the idea of force and mass4 ,apollinian theory is a quiet meditation1 ,magian a silent knowledge of ,alchemy the means of ,grace 7even here the religious source of mechanics is to be discerned71 and the ,faustian is from the very outset a working hypothesis4#dgc ,the ,greek asked1 what is the essence of visible being8 ,we ask1 what possibility is there of mastering the invisible motive-forces of becoming8 ,for them1 contented absorption in the visible2 for us1 masterful questioning of ,nature and methodical experiment4 ,as with the formulation of problems and the methods of dealing with them1 so also with the basic concepts4 ,they are symbols in each case of the one and only the one ,culture4 ,the ,classical root-words 1 1 1 1 are not translatable into our speech4 ,to render by 8prime-stuff0 is to eliminate its ,apollinian connotation1 to make the hollow shell of the word sound an alien note4 ,that which ,classical man saw before him as 8motion0 in space1 he understood as 1 change of position of bodies2 we1 from the way in which we experience motion1 have deduced the concept of a process1 a 8going forward10 thereby expressing and emphasizing that element of directional energy which our thought necessarily predicates in the courses of ,nature4 ,the ,classical critic of ,nature took the visible juxtaposition of states as the original diversity1 and specified the famous four elements of ,empedocles--namely1 earth as the rigid-corporeal1 water as the non-rigid- corporeal and air as the incorporeal1 together with fire1 which is so much the strongest of all optical impressions that the ,classical spirit could have no doubt of its bodiliness4 ,the ,arabian 8elements10 on the contrary1 are ideal and implicit in the secret constitutions and constellations which define the phenomenon of things for the eye4 ,if we try to get a little nearer to this feeling1 we shall find that the opposition of rigid and fluid means something quite different for the ,syrian from what it means for the ,aristotelian ,greek1 the latter seeing in it different degrees of bodiliness and the former different magic attributes4 ,with the former therefore arises the image of the chemical element as a sort of magic substance that a secret causality makes to appear out of things 7and to vanish into them again7 and which is subject even to the influence of the stars4 ,in ,alchemy there is deep scientific doubt as to the plastic actuality of things--of the 8somata0 of ,greek mathematicians1 physicists and poets--and it dissolves and destroys the soma in the hope of finding its essence4 ,it is an iconoclastic movement just as truly as those of ,islam and the ,byzantine ,bogomils were so4 ,it reveals a deep disbelief in the tangible figure of phenomenal ,nature1 the figure of her that to the ,greek was sacrosanct4 ,the conflict concerning the person of ,christ which manifested itself in all the early ,councils and led to the ,nestorian and ,monophysite secessions is an alchemistic problem4#dgd ,it would never have occurred to a ,classical physicist to investigate things while at the same time denying or annihilating their perceivable form4 ,and for that very reason there was no ,classical chemistry1 any more than there was any theorizing on the substance as against the manifestations of ,apollo4 ,the rise of a chemical method of the ,arabian style betokens a new world- consciousness4 ,the discovery of it1 which at one blow made an end of ,apollinian natural science1 of mechanical statics1 is linked with the enigmatic name of ,hermes ,trismegistus1#dge who is supposed to have lived in ,alexandria at the same time as ,plotinus and ,diophantus4 ,similarly it was just at the time of the definite emancipation of the ,western mathematic by ,newton and ,leibniz that the ,western chemistry#dgf was freed from ,arabic form by ,stahl 7#affj-agcd7 and his ,phlogiston theory4 ,chemistry and mathematic alike became pure analysis4 ,already ,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda7 had transformed the ,magian effort to make gold into a pharmaceutical science--a transformation in which one cannot but surmise an altered world-feeling4 ,then ,robert ,boyle 7#afbf-afia7 devised the analytical method and with it the ,western conception of the ,element4 ,but the ensuing changes must not be misinterpreted4 ,that which is called the founding of modern chemistry and has ,stahl and ,lavoisier at its turning-points is anything but a building-up of 8chemical0 ideas1 in so far as chemistry implies the alchemistic outlook on ,nature4 ,it is in fact the end of genuine chemistry1 its dissolution into the comprehensive system of pure dynamic1 its assimilation into the mechanical outlook which the ,baroque age had established through ,galileo and ,newton4 ,the elements of ,empedocles designate states of bodiliness 7bezeichnen ein krperliches ,sichverhalten7 but the elements of ,lavoisier1 whose combustion-theory followed promptly upon the isolation of oxygen in #agga1 designate energy-systems accessible to human will1 8rigid0 and 8fluid0 becoming mere terms to describe tension-relations between molecules4 ,by our analysis and synthesis1 ,nature is not merely asked or persuaded but forced4 ,the modern chemistry is a chapter of the modern physics of ,deed4 ,what we call ,statics1 ,chemistry and ,dynamics--words that as used in modern science are merely traditional distinctions without deeper meaning--are really the respective physical systems of the ,apollinian1 ,magian and ,faustian souls1 each of which grew up in its own ,culture and was limited as to validity to the same4 ,corresponding to these sciences1 each to each1 we have the mathematics of ,euclidean geometry1 ,algebra and ,higher ,analysis1 and the arts of statue1 arabesque and fugue4 ,we may differentiate these three kinds of physics 7bearing in mind of course that other ,cultures may and in fact do give rise to other kinds7 by their standpoints towards the problem of motion1 and call them mechanical orderings of states1 secret forces and processes respectively4 ,,iii ,now1 the tendency of human thought 7which is always causally disposed7 to reduce the image of ,nature to the simplest possible quantitative form-units that can be got by causal reasoning1 measuring and counting-- in a word1 by mechanical differentiation--leads necessarily in ,classical1 ,western and every other possible physics1 to an atomic theory4 ,of ,indian and ,chinese science we know hardly more than the fact they once existed1 and the ,arabian is so complicated that even now it seems to defy presentation4 ,but we do know our own and the ,apollinian sciences well enough to observe1 here too1 a deeply symbolical opposition4 ,the ,classical atoms are miniature forms1 the ,western minimal quanta1 and quanta1 too1 of energy4 ,on the one hand perceptibility1 sensuous nearness1 and on the other1 abstractness are the basic conditions of the idea4 ,the atomistic notions of modern physics--which include not only the ,daltonian or 8chemical0 atom but also the electrons#dgg and the quanta of thermodynamics--make more and more demands upon that truly ,faustian power of inner vision which many branches of higher mathematics 7such as the ,non-,euclidean geometries and the ,theory of ,groups7 postulate1 and which is not at the disposal of laymen4 ,a quantum of action is an extension-element conceived without regard to sensible quality of any kind1 which eludes all relation with sight and touch1 for which the expression 8shape0 has no meaning whatever--something therefore which would be utterly inconceivable to a ,classical researcher4 ,such1 already1 were ,leibniz's 8,monads0#dgh and such1 superlatively1 are the constituents of ,rutherford's picture of the atom as positively-charged nucleus with planetary negative electrons1 and of the picture that ,niels ,bohr has imagined by working these in with the 8quanta0 of ,planck4#dgi ,the atoms of ,leucippus and ,democritus were different in form and magnitude1 that is to say1 they were purely plastic units1 8indivisible10 as their name asserts1 but only plastically indivisible4 ,the atoms of ,western physics1 for which 8indivisibility0 has quite another meaning1 resemble the figures and themes of music2 their being or essence consisting in vibration and radiation1 and their relation to the processes of ,nature being that of the 8motive0 to the 8movement40#dhj ,classical physics examines the aspect1 ,western the working1 of these ultimate elements in the picture of the ,become2 in the one1 the basic notions are notions of stuff and form1 in the other they are notions of capacity and intensity4 ,there is a ,stoicism and there is a ,socialism of the atom1 the words describing the static-plastic and the dynamic-contrapuntal ideas of it respectively4 ,the relations of these ideas to the images of the corresponding ethics is such that every law and every definition takes these into account4 ,on the one hand--,democritus's multitude of confused atoms1 put there1 patient1 knocked about by the blind chance that he as well as ,sophocles called 1 hunted like dipus4 ,on the other hand-- systems of abstract force-points working in unison1 aggressive1 energetically dominating space 7as 8field071 overcoming resistances like ,macbeth4 ,the opposition of basic feelings makes that of the mechanical ,nature-pictures4 ,according to ,leucippus the atoms fly about in the void 8of themselves02 ,democritus merely regards shock and countershock as a form of change of place4 ,aristotle explains individual movements as accidental1 ,empedocles speaks of love and hate1 ,anaxagoras of meetings and partings4 ,all these are elements also of ,classical tragedy2 the figures on the ,attic stage are related to one another just so4 ,further1 and logically1 they are the elements of ,classical politics4 ,there we have minute cities1 political atoms ranged along coasts and on islands1 each jealously standing for itself1 yet ever needing support1 shut-in and shy to the point of absurdity1 buffeted hither and thither by the planless orderless happenings of ,classical history1 rising to-day and ruined to-morrow4 ,and in contrast--the dynastic states of our #agth and #ahth ,centuries1 political fields of force1 with cabinets and great diplomats as effective centres of purposeful direction and comprehensive vision4 ,the spirit of ,classical history and the spirit of ,western history can only be really understood by considering the two souls as an opposition4 ,and we can say the same of the atom-idea1 regarded as the basis of the respective physics4 ,galileo who created the concept of force and the ,milesians who created that of 1 ,democritus and ,leibniz1 ,archimedes and ,helmholtz1 are 8contemporaries10 members of the same intellectual phases of quite different ,cultures4 ,but the inner relationship between atom-theory and ethic goes further4 ,it has been shown how the ,faustian soul--whose being consists in the overcoming of presence1 whose feeling is loneliness and whose yearning is infinity--puts its need of solitude1 distance and abstraction into all its actualities1 into its public life1 its spiritual and its artistic form-worlds alike4 ,this pathos of distance 7to use ,nietzsche's expression7 is peculiarly alien to the ,classical1 in which everything human demanded nearness1 support and community4 ,it is this that distinguishes the spirit of the ,baroque from that of the ,ionic1 the culture of the ,ancien ,rgime from that of ,periclean ,athens4 ,and this pathos1 which distinguishes the heroic doer from the heroic sufferer1 appears also in the picture of ,western physics as tension4 ,it is tension that is missing in the science of ,democritus2 for in the principle of shock and countershock it is denied by implication that there is a force commanding space and identical with space4 ,and1 correspondingly1 the element of ,will is absent from the ,classical soul- image4 ,between ,classical men1 or states1 or views of the world1 there was--for all the quarrelling and envy and hatred--no inner tension1 no deep and urging need of distance1 solitude1 ascendancy2 and consequently there was none between the atoms of the ,cosmos either4 ,the principle of tension 7developed in the potential theory71 which is wholly untranslatable into ,classical tongues and incommunicable to ,classical minds1 has become for ,western physics fundamental4 ,its content follows from the notion of energy1 the ,will-to-,power in ,nature1 and therefore it is for us just as necessary as for the ,classical thought it is impossible4 ,,iv ,every atomic theory1 therefore1 is a myth and not an experience4 ,in it the ,culture1 through the contemplative-creative power of its great physicists1 reveals its inmost essence and very self4 ,it is only a preconceived idea of criticism that extension exists in itself and independently of the form-feeling and world-feeling of the knower4 ,the thinker1 in imagining that he can cut out the factor of ,life1 forgets that knowing is related to the known as direction is to extension and that it is only through the living quality of direction that what is felt extends into distance and depth and becomes space4 ,the cognized structure of the extended is a projection of the cognizing being4 ,we have already#dha shown the decisive importance of the depth- experience1 which is identical with the awakening of a soul and therefore with the creation of the outer world belonging to that soul4 ,the mere sense-impression contains only length and breadth1 and it is the living and necessary act of interpretation--which1 like everything else living1 possesses direction1 motion and irreversibility 7the qualities that our consciousness synthesizes in the word ,time7--that adds depth and thereby fashions actuality and world4 ,life itself enters into the experiences as third dimension4 ,the double meaning of the word 8far10 which refers both to future and to horizon1 betrays the deeper meaning of this dimension1 through which extension as such is evoked4 ,the ,becoming stiffens and passes and is at once the ,become2 ,life stiffens and passes and is at once the three-dimensional ,space of the known4 ,it is common ground for ,descartes and ,parmenides that thinking and being1 i4e41 imagined and extended1 are identical4 8,cogito1 ergo sum0 is simply the formulation of the depth-experience--,i cognize1 and therefore ,i am in space4 ,but in the style of this cognizing1 and therefore of the cognition-product1 the prime-symbol of the particular ,culture comes into play4 ,the perfected extension of the ,classical consciousness is one of sensuous and bodily presence4 ,the ,western consciousness achieves extension1 after its own fashion1 as transcendental space1 and as it thinks its space more and more transcendentally it develops by degrees the abstract polarity of ,capacity and ,intensity that so completely contrasts with the ,classical visual polarity of ,matter and ,form4 ,but it follows from this that in the known there can be no reappearance of living time4 ,for this has already passed into the known1 into constant 8existence10 as ,depth1 and hence duration 7i4e41 timelessness7 and extension are identical4 ,only the knowing possesses the mark of direction4 ,the application of the word 8time0 to the imaginary and measurable time-dimension of physics is a mistake4 ,the only question is whether it is possible or not to avoid the mistake4 ,if one substitutes the word 8,destiny0 for 8time0 in any physical enunciation1 one feels at once that pure ,nature does not contain ,time4 ,the form-world of physics extends just as far as the cognate form-world of number and notion extend1 and we have seen that 7notwithstanding ,kant7 there is not and cannot be the slightest relation of any sort between mathematical number and ,time4 ,and yet this is controverted by the fact of motion in the picture of the world-around4 ,it is the unsolved and unsolvable problem of the ,eleatics--being 7or thinking7 and motion are incompatible2 motion 8is0 not 7is only 8apparent074 ,and here1 for the second time1 ,natural science becomes dogmatic and mythological4 ,the words ,time and ,destiny1 for anyone who uses them instinctively1 touch ,life itself in its deepest depths--life as a whole1 which is not to be separated from lived-experience4 ,physics1 on the other hand--i4e41 the observing ,reason--must separate them4 ,the livingly-experienced 8in-itself10 mentally emancipated from the act of the observer and become object1 dead1 inorganic1 rigid1 is now 8,nature10 something open to exhaustive mathematical treatment4 ,in this sense the knowledge of ,nature is an activity of measurement4 ,all the same1 we live even when we are observing and therefore the thing we are observing lives with us4 ,the element in the ,nature-picture in virtue of which it not merely from moment to moment is1 but in a continuous flow with and around us becomes1 is the copula of the waking-consciousness and its world4 ,this element is called movement1 and it contradicts ,nature as a picture1 but it represents the history of this picture4 ,and therefore1 as precisely as ,understanding is abstracted 7by means of words7 from feeling and mathematical space from light-resistances 78things0#dhb71 so also physical 8time0 is abstracted from the impression of motion4 ,physics investigates ,nature1 and consequently it knows time only as a length4 ,but the physicist lives in the midst of the history of this ,nature1 and therefore he is forced to conceive motion as a mathematically determinable magnitude1 as a concretion of the pure numbers obtained in the experiment and written down in formul4 8,physics10 says ,kirchhoff1 8is the complete and simple description of motions40 ,that indeed has always been its object4 ,but the question is one not of motions in the picture but of motions of the picture4 ,motion1 in the ,nature of physics1 is nothing else but that metaphysical something which gives rise to the consciousness of a succession4 ,the known is timeless and alien to motion2 its state of becomeness implies this4 ,it is the organic sequence of knowns that gives the impression of a motion4 ,the physicist receives the word as an impression not upon 8reason0 but upon the whole man1 and the function of that man is not 8,nature0 only but the whole world4 ,and that is the world-as-history4 8,nature10 then1 is an expression of the ,culture in each instance4#dhc ,all physics is treatment of the motion-problem--in which the life-problem itself is implicit--not as though it could one day be solved1 but in spite of1 nay because of1 the fact that it is insoluble4 ,the secret of motion awakens in man the apprehension of death4#dhd ,if1 then1 ,nature-knowledge is a subtle kind of self-knowledge--,nature understood as picture1 as mirror of man--the attempt to solve the motion- problem is an attempt of knowledge to get on the track of its own secret1 its own ,destiny4 ,v ,only physiognomic tact can1 if creative1 succeed in this1 and in fact it has done so from time immemorial in the arts1 particularly tragic poetry4 ,it is the thinking man who is perplexed by movement2 for the contemplative it is self-evident4 ,and however completely the former can reduce his perplexities to system1 the result is systematic and not physiognomic1 pure extension logically and numerically ordered1 nothing living but something become and dead4 ,it is this that led ,goethe1 who was a poet and not a computer1 to observe that 8,nature has no system4 ,it has ,life1 it is ,life and succession from an unknown centre to an unknowable bourne40 ,for one who does not live it but knows it1 ,nature has a system4 ,but it is only a system and nothing more1 and motion is a contradiction in it4 ,the contradiction may be covered up by adroit formulation1 but it lives on in the fundamental concepts4 ,the shock and countershock of ,democritus1 the entelechy of ,aristotle1 the notions of force from the 8impetus0 of #adth-,century ,occamists to the quantum-theory of radiation1 all contain it4 ,let the reader conceive of the motion within a physical system as the ageing of that system 7as in fact it is1 as lived-experience of the observer71 and he will feel at once and distinctly the fatefulness immanent in1 the unconquerably organic content of1 the word 8motion0 and all its derivative ideas4 ,but ,mechanics1 having nothing to do with ageing1 should have nothing to do with motion either1 and consequently1 since no scientific system is conceivable without a motion-problem in it1 a complete and self-contained mechanics is an impossibility4 ,somewhere or other there is always an organic starting-point in the system where immediate ,life enters it--an umbilical cord that connects the mind-child with the life-mother1 the thought with the thinker4 ,this puts the fundamentals of ,faustian and ,apollinian ,nature-science in quite another light4 ,no 8,nature0 is pure--there is always something of history in it4 ,if the man is ahistorical1 like the ,greek1 so that the totality of his impressions of the world is absorbed in a pure point- formed present1 his ,nature-image is static1 self-contained 7that is1 walled against past and future7 in every individual moment4 ,time as magnitude figures in ,greek physics as little as it does in ,aristotle's entelechy-idea4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the ,man is historically constituted1 the image formed is dynamic4 ,number1 the definitive evaluation of the become1 is in the case of ahistoric man ,measure1 and in that of the historical man ,function4 ,one measures only what is present and one follows up only what has a past and a future1 a course4 ,and the effect of this difference is that the inner inconsistencies of the motion-problem are covered up in ,classical theories and forced into the foreground in ,western4 ,history is eternal becoming and therefore eternal future2 ,nature is become and therefore eternally past4#dhe ,and here a strange inversion seems to have taken place--the ,becoming has lost its priority over the ,become4 ,when the intellect looks back from its sphere1 the ,become1 the aspect of life is reversed1 the idea of ,destiny which carries aim and future in it having turned into the mechanical principle of cause-and- effect of which the centre of gravity lies in the past4 ,the spatially- experienced is promoted to rank above the temporal living1 and time is replaced by a length in a spatial world-system4 ,and1 since in the creative experience extension follows from direction1 the spatial from life1 the human understanding imports life as a process into the inorganic space of its imagination4 ,while life looks on space as something functionally belonging to itself1 intellect looks upon life as something in space4 ,destiny asks3 8,whither801 ,causality asks3 8,whence80 ,to establish scientifically means1 starting from the become and actualized1 to search for 8causes0 by going back along a mechanically-conceived course1 that is to say1 by treating becoming as a length4 ,but it is not possible to live backwards1 only to think backwards4 ,not ,time and ,destiny are reversible1 but only that which the physicist calls 8time0 and admits into his formul as divisible1 and preferably as negative or imaginary quantities4 ,the perplexity is always there1 though it has rarely been seen to be originally and necessarily inherent4 ,in the ,classical science the ,eleatics1 declining to admit the necessity of thinking of ,nature as in motion1 set up against it the logical view that thinking is a being1 with the corollary that known and extended are identical and knowledge and becoming therefore irreconcilable4 ,their criticisms have not been1 and cannot be1 refuted4 ,but they did not hinder the evolution of ,classical physics1 which was a necessary expression of the ,apollinian soul and as such superior to logical difficulties4 ,in the 8classical0 mechanics so-called of the ,baroque1 founded by ,galileo and ,newton1 an irreproachable solution of the motion-problem on dynamic lines has been sought again and again4 ,the history of the concept of force1 which has been stated and restated with all the tireless passion of a thought that feels its own self endangered by a difficulty1 is nothing but the history of endeavours to find a form that is unimpeachable1 mathematically and conceptually1 for motion4 ,the last serious attempt-- which failed like the rest1 and of necessity--was ,hertz's4 ,without discovering the true source of all perplexities 7no physicist as yet has done that71 ,hertz tried to eliminate the notion of force entirely--rightly feeling that error in all mechanical systems has to be looked for in one or another of the basic concepts--and to build up the whole picture of physics on the quantities of time1 space and mass4 ,but he did not observe that it is ,time itself 7which as direction-factor is present in the force-concept7 that is the organic element without which a dynamic theory cannot be expressed and with which a clean solution cannot be got4 ,moreover1 quite apart from this1 the concepts force1 mass and motion constitute a dogmatic unit4 ,they so condition one another that the application of one of them tacitly involves both the others from the outset4 ,the whole ,apollinian conception of the motion-problem is implicit in the root-word 1 the whole ,western conception of it in the force-idea4 ,the notion of mass is only the complement of that of force4 ,newton1 a deeply religious nature1 was only bringing the ,faustian world-feeling to expression when1 to elucidate the words 8force0 and 8motion10 he said that masses are points of attack for force and carriers for motion4 ,so the #acth-,century ,mystics had conceived of ,god and his relation to world4 ,newton no doubt rejected the metaphysical element in his famous saying 8hypotheses non fingo10 but all the same he was metaphysical through and through in the founding of his mechanics4 ,force is the mechanical ,nature-picture of western man2 what ,will is to his soul-picture and infinite ,godhead in his world-picture4 ,the primary ideas of this physics stood firm long before the first physicist was born1 for they lay in the earliest religious world-consciousness of our ,culture4 ,,vi ,with this it becomes manifest that the physical notion of ,necessity1 too1 has a religious origin4 ,it must not be forgotten that the mechanical necessity that rules in what our intellects comprehend as ,nature is founded upon another necessity which is organic and fateful in ,life itself4 ,the latter creates1 the former restricts4 ,one follows from inward certitude1 the other from demonstration2 that is the distinction between tragic and technical1 historical and physical logic4 ,there are1 further1 differences within the necessity postulated and assumed by science 7that of cause-and-effect7 which have so far eluded the keenest sight4 ,we are confronted here with a question at once of very great difficulty and of superlative importance4 ,a ,nature-knowledge is 7however philosophy may express the relation7 a function of knowing1 which is in each case knowing in a particular style4 ,a scientific necessity therefore has the style of the appropriate intellect1 and this brings morphological differences into the field at once4 ,it is possible to see a strict necessity in ,nature even where it may be impossible to express it in natural laws4 ,in fact natural laws1 which for us are self-evidently the proper expression-form in science1 are not by any means so for the men of other ,cultures4 ,they presuppose a quite special form1 the distinctively ,faustian form1 of understanding and therefore of ,nature-knowing4 ,there is nothing inherently absurd in the conception of a mechanical necessity wherein each individual case is morphologically self-contained and never exactly reproduced1 in which therefore the acquisitions of knowledge cannot be put into consistently- valid formul4 ,in such a case ,nature would appear 7to put it metaphorically7 as an unending decimal that was also non-recurring1 destitute of periodicity4 ,and so1 undoubtedly1 it was conceived by ,classical minds--the feeling of it manifestly underlies their primary physical concepts4 ,for example1 the proper motion of ,democritus's atoms is such as to exclude any possibility of calculating motions in advance4 ,nature-laws are forms of the known in which an aggregate of individual cases are brought together as a unit of higher degree4 ,living ,time is ignored--that is1 it does not matter whether1 when or how often the case arises1 for the question is not of chronological sequence but of mathematical consequence4#dhf ,but in the consciousness that no power in the world can shake this calculation lies our will to command over ,nature4 ,that is ,faustian4 ,it is only from this standpoint that miracles appear as breaches of the laws of ,nature4 ,magian man saw in them merely the exercise of a power that was not common to all1 not in any way a contradiction of the laws of ,nature4 ,and ,classical man1 according to ,protagoras1 was only the measure and not the creator of things--a view that unconsciously forgoes all conquest of ,nature through the discovery and application of laws4 ,we see1 then1 that the causality-principle1 in the form in which it is self-evidently necessary for us--the agreed basis of truth for our mathematics1 physics and philosophy--is a ,western and1 more strictly speaking1 a ,baroque phenomenon4 ,it cannot be proved1 for every proof set forth in a ,western language and every experiment conducted by a ,western mind presupposes itself4 ,in every problem1 the enunciation contains the proof in germ4 ,the method of a science is the science itself4 ,beyond question1 the notion of laws of ,nature and the conception of physics as 8scientia experimentalis10#dhg which has held ever since ,roger ,bacon1 contains a priori this specific kind of necessity4 ,the ,classical mode of regarding ,nature--the alter ego of the ,classical mode of being--on the contrary1 does not contain it1 and yet it does not appear that the scientific position is weakened in logic thereby4 ,if we work carefully through the utterances of ,democritus1 ,anaxagoras1 and ,aristotle 7in whom is contained the whole sum of ,classical ,nature-speculation71 and1 above all1 if we examine the connotations of key-terms like 1 1 1 we look with astonishment into a world-image totally unlike our own4 ,this world-image is self-sufficing and therefore1 for this definite sort of mankind1 unconditionally true4 ,and causality in our sense plays no part therein4 ,the alchemist or philosopher of the ,arabian ,culture1 too1 assumes a necessity within his world-cavern that is utterly and completely different from the necessity of dynamics4 ,there is no causal nexus of law-form but only one cause1 ,god1 immediately underlying every effect4 ,to believe in ,nature-laws would1 from this standpoint1 be to doubt the almightiness of ,god4 ,if a rule seems to emerge1 it is because it pleases ,god so2 but to suppose that this rule was a necessity would be to yield to a temptation of the ,devil4 ,this was the attitude also of ,carneades1 ,plotinus and the ,neo-,pythagoreans4#dhh ,this necessity underlies the ,gospels as it does the ,talmud and the ,avesta1 and upon it rests the technique of alchemy4 ,the conception of number as function is related to the dynamic principle of cause-and-effect4 ,both are creations of the same intellect1 expression-forms of the same spirituality1 formative principles of the same objectivized and 8become0 ,nature4 ,in fact the physics of ,democritus differs from the physics of ,newton in that the chosen starting-point of the one is the optically-given while that of the other is abstract relations that have been deduced from it4 ,the 8facts0 of ,apollinian ,nature-knowledge are things1 and they lie on the surface of the known1 but the facts of ,faustian science are relations1 which in general are invisible to lay eyes1 which have to be mastered intellectually1 which require for their communication a code-language that only the expert researcher can fully understand4 ,the ,classical1 static1 necessity is immediately evident in the changing phenomena1 while the dynamic causation-principle prevails beyond things and its tendency is to weaken1 or to abolish even1 their sensible actuality4 ,consider1 for example1 the world of significance that is connected1 under present-day hypotheses1 with the expression 8a magnet40 ,the principle of the ,conservation of ,energy1 which since its enunciation by ,j4 ,r4 ,mayer has been regarded in all seriousness as a plain conceptual necessity1 is in fact a redescription of the dynamic principle of causality by means of the physical concept of force4 ,the appeal to 8experience10 and the controversy as to whether judgment is necessary or empirical--i4e41 in the language of ,kant 7who greatly deceived himself about the highly-fluid boundaries between the two71 whether it is a priori or a posteriori certain--are characteristically ,western4 ,nothing seems to us more self-evident and unambiguous than 8experience0 as the source of exact science4 ,the ,faustian experiment1 based on working hypotheses and employing the methods of measurement1 is nothing but the systematic and exhaustive exploitation of this 8experience40 ,but no one has noticed that a whole world-view is implicit in such a concept of 8experience0 with its aggressive dynamic connotation1 and that there is not and cannot be 8experience0 in this pregnant sense for men of other ,cultures4 ,when we decline to recognize the scientific results of ,anaxagoras or ,democritus as experiential results1 it does not mean that these ,classical thinkers were incapable of interpreting and merely threw off fancies1 but that we miss in their generalizations that causal element which for us constitutes experience in our sense of the word4 ,manifestly1 we have never yet given adequate thought to the singularity of this1 the pure ,faustian1 conception of experience4 ,the contrast between it and faith is obvious--and entirely superficial4 ,for indeed exact sensuous-intellectual experience is in point of structure completely congruent with that heart-experience 7as we may well call it71 that illumination which deep religious natures of the ,west 7,pascal1 for instance1 whom one and the same necessity made mathematician and ,jansenist7 have known in the significant moments of their being4 ,experience means to us an activity of the intellect1 which does not resignedly confine itself to receiving1 acknowledging and arranging momentary and purely present impressions1 but seeks them out and calls them up in order to overcome them in their sensuous presence and to bring them into an unbounded unity in which their sensuous discreteness is dissolved4 ,experience in our sense possesses the tendency from particular to infinite4 ,and for that very reason it is in contradiction with the feeling of ,classical science4 ,what for us is the way to acquire experience is for the ,greek the way to lose it4 ,and therefore he kept away from the drastic method of experiment2 therefore his physics1 instead of being a mighty system of worked-out laws and formul that strong-handedly override the sense-present 78only knowledge is power071 is an aggregate of impressions--well ordered1 intensified by sensuous imagery1 clean-edged--which leaves ,nature intact in its self-completeness4 ,our exact ,natural science is imperative1 the ,classical is in the literal sense1 the result of passive contemplativeness4 ,,vii ,we can now say without any hesitation that the form-world of a ,natural science corresponds to those of the appropriate mathematic1 the appropriate religion1 the appropriate art4 ,a deep mathematician--by which is meant not a master-computer but a man1 any man1 who feels the spirit of numbers living within him--realizes that through it he 8knows ,god40 ,pythagoras and ,plato knew this as well as ,pascal and ,leibniz did so4 ,terentius ,varro1 in his examination of the old ,roman religion 7dedicated to ,julius ,csar71 distinguished with ,roman seriousness between the theologia civilis1 the sum of officially-recognized belief1 the theologia mythica1 the imagination-world of poets and artists1 and the theologia physica of philosophical speculation4 ,applying this to the ,faustian ,culture1 that which ,thomas ,aquinas and ,luther1 ,calvin and ,loyola taught belongs to the first category1 ,dante and ,goethe belong to the second2 and to the third belongs scientific physics1 inasmuch as behind its formul there are images4 ,not only primitive man and the child1 but also the higher animals spontaneously evolve from the small everyday experiences an image of ,nature which contains the sum of technical indications observed as recurrent4 ,the eagle 8knows0 the moment at which to swoop down on the prey2 the singing-bird sitting on the eggs 8knows0 the approach of the marten2 the deer 8finds0 the place where there is food4 ,in man1 this experience of all the senses has narrowed and deepened itself into experience of the eye4 ,but1 as the habit of verbal speech has now been superadded1 understanding comes to be abstracted from seeing1 and thenceforward develops independently as reasoning2 to the instantly- comprehending technique is added the reflective theory4 ,technique applies itself to visible near things and plain needs1 theory to the distance and the terrors of the invisible4 ,by the side of the petty knowledge of everyday life it sets up belief4 ,and still they evolve1 there is a new knowledge and a new and higher technique1 and to the myth there is added the cult4 ,the one teaches how to know the 8numina10 the other how to conquer them4 ,for theory in the eminent sense is religious through and through4 ,it is only in quite late states that scientific theory evolves out of religious1 through men having become aware of methods4 ,apart from this there is little alteration4 ,the image-world of physics remains mythic1 its procedure remains a cult of conjuring the powers in things1 and the images that it forms and the methods that it uses remain generically dependent upon those of the appropriate religion4#dhi ,from the later days of the ,renaissance onward1 the notion of ,god has steadily approximated1 in the spirit of every man of high significance1 to the idea of pure endless ,space4 ,the ,god of ,ignatius ,loyola's exercitia spiritualis is the ,god also of ,luther's 8ein' feste ,burg10 of the ,improperia of ,palestrina and the ,cantatas of ,bach4 ,he is no longer the ,father of ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi and the high-vaulted cathedrals1 the personally-present1 caring and mild ,god felt by ,gothic painters like ,giotto and ,stephen ,lochner1 but an impersonal principle2 unimaginable1 intangible1 working mysteriously in the ,infinite4 ,every relic of personality dissolves into insensible abstraction1 such a divinity as only instrumental music of the grand style is capable of representing1 a divinity before which painting breaks down and drops into the background4 ,this ,god-feeling it was that formed the scientific world-image of the ,west1 its 8,nature10 its 8experience0 and therefore its theories and its methods1 in direct contradiction to those of the ,classical4 ,the force which moves the mass--that is what ,michelangelo painted in the ,sistine ,chapel2 that is what we feel growing more and more intense from the archetype of ,il ,ges to the climax in the cathedral faades of ,della ,porta and ,maderna1 and from ,heinrich ,schtz to the transcendent tone-worlds of #ahth-,century church music2 that is what in ,shakespearian tragedy fills with world-becoming scenes widened to infinity4 ,and that is what ,galileo and ,newton captured in formul and concepts4 ,the word 8,god0 rings otherwise under the vaulting of ,gothic cathedrals or in the cloisters of ,maulbronn and ,st4 ,gallen than in the basilicas of ,syria and the temples of ,republican ,rome4 ,the character of the ,faustian cathedral is that of the forest4 ,the mighty elevation of the nave above the flanking aisles1 in contrast to the flat roof of the basilica2 the transformation of the columns1 which with base and capital had been set as self-contained individuals in space1 into pillars and clustered- pillars that grow up out of the earth and spread on high into an infinite subdivision and interlacing of lines and branches2 the giant windows by which the wall is dissolved and the interior filled with mysterious light--these are the architectural actualizing of a world- feeling that had found the first of all its symbols in the high forest of the ,northern plains1 the deciduous forest with its mysterious tracery1 its whispering of ever-mobile foliage over men's heads1 its branches straining through the trunks to be free of earth4 ,think of ,romanesque ornamentation and its deep affinity to the sense of the woods4 ,the endless1 lonely1 twilight wood became and remained the secret wistfulness in all ,western building-forms1 so that when the form-energy of the style died down--in late ,gothic as in closing ,baroque--the controlled abstract line-language resolved itself immediately into naturalistic branches1 shoots1 twigs and leaves4 ,cypresses and pines1 with their corporeal and ,euclidean effect1 could never have become symbols of unending space4 ,but the oaks1 beeches and lindens with the fitful light-flecks playing in their shadow-filled volume are felt as bodiless1 boundless1 spiritual4 ,the stem of the cypress finds conclusive fulfilment of its vertical tendency in the defined columniation of its cone-masses1 but that of an oak seems1 ever restless and unsatisfied1 to strain beyond its summit4 ,in the ash1 the victory of the upstriving branches over the unity of the crown seems actually to be won4 ,its aspect is of something dissolving1 something expanding into space1 and it was for this probably that the ,world-,ash ,yggdrasil became a symbol in the ,northern mythology4 ,the rustle of the woods1 a charm that no ,classical poet ever felt--for it lies beyond the possibilities of ,apollinian ,nature-feeling--stands with its secret questions 8whence8 whither80 its merging of presence into eternity1 in a deep relation with ,destiny1 with the feeling of ,history and ,duration1 with the quality of ,direction that impels the anxious1 caring1 ,faustian soul towards infinitely-distant ,future4 ,and for that reason the organ1 that roars deep and high through our churches in tones which1 compared with the plain solid notes of aulos and cithara1 seem to know neither limit nor restraint1 is the instrument of instruments in ,western devotions4 ,cathedral and organ form a symbolic unity like temple and statue4 ,the history of organ-building1 one of the most profound and moving chapters of our musical history1 is a history of a longing for the forest1 a longing to speak in the language of that true temple of ,western ,god-fearing4 ,from the verse of ,wolfram von ,eschenbach to the music of 8,tristan0 this longing has borne fruit unceasingly4 ,orchestra- tone strove tirelessly in the #ahth ,century towards a nearer kinship with the organ-tone4 ,the word 8schwebend0--meaningless as applied to ,classical things--is important alike in the theory of music1 in oil-painting1 in architecture and in the dynamic physics of the ,baroque4 ,stand in a high wood of mighty stems while the storm is tearing above1 and you will comprehend instantly the full meaning of the concept of a force which moves mass4 ,out of such a primary feeling in the existence that has become thoughtful there arises1 then1 an idea of the ,divine immanent in the world-around1 and this idea becomes steadily more definite4 ,the thoughtful percipient takes in the impression of motion in outer ,nature4 ,he feels about him an almost indescribable alien life of unknown powers1 and traces the origin of these effects to 8numina10 to ,the ,other1 inasmuch as this ,other also possesses ,life4 ,astonishment at alien motion is the source of religion and of physics both2 respectively1 they are the elucidations of ,nature 7world-around7 by the soul and by the reason4 ,the 8powers0 are the first object both of fearful or loving reverence and of critical investigation4 ,there is a religious experience and a scientific experience4 ,now it is important to observe how the consciousness of the ,culture intellectually concretes its primary 8numina40 ,it imposes significant words--names--on them and there conjures 7seizes or bounds7 them4 ,by virtue of the ,name they are subject to the intellectual power of the man who possesses the ,name1 and 7as has been shown already7 the whole of philosophy1 the whole of science1 and everything that is related in any way to 8knowing0 is at the very bottom nothing but an infinitely-refined mode of applying the name-magic of the primitive to the 8alien40 ,the pronouncement of the right name 7in physics1 the right concept7 is an incantation4 ,deities and basic notions of science alike come into being first as vocable names1 with which is linked an idea that tends to become more and more sensuously definite4 ,the outcome of a ,numen is a ,deus1 the outcome of a notion is an idea4 ,in the mere naming of 8thing-in-itself10 8atom10 8energy10 8gravitation10 8cause10 8evolution0 and the like is for most learned men the same sense of deliverance as there was for the peasant of ,latium in the words 8,ceres10 8,consus10 8,janus10 8,vesta40#dij ,for the ,classical world-feeling1 conformably to the ,apollinian depth- experience and its symbolism1 the individual body was 8,being40 ,logically therefore the form of this body1 as it presented itself in the light1 was felt as its essence1 as the true purport of the word 8being40 ,what has not shape1 what is not a shape1 is not at all4 ,on the basis of this feeling 7which was of an intensity that we can hardly imagine7 the ,classical spirit created as counter-concept#dia to the form of 8,the ,other0 ,non-,form viz41 stuff1 1 1 that which in itself possesses no being and is merely complement to the actual 8,ent10 representing a secondary and corollary necessity4 ,in these conditions1 it is easy to see how the ,classical pantheon inevitably shaped itself1 as a higher mankind side by side with the common mankind1 as a set of perfectly- formed bodies1 of high possibilities incarnate and present1 but in the unessential of stuff not distinguished and therefore subject to the same cosmic and tragic necessity4 ,it is otherwise that the ,faustian world-feeling experiences depth4 ,here the sum of true ,being appears as pure efficient ,space1 which is being4 ,and therefore what is sensuously felt1 what is very significantly designated the plenum 7das ,raumerfllende71 is felt as a fact of the second order1 as something questionable or specious1 as a resistance that must be overcome by philosopher or physicist before the true content of ,being can be discovered4 ,western scepticism has never been directed against ,space1 always against tangible things only4 ,space is the higher idea--force is only a less abstract expression for it--and it is only as a counter-concept to space that mass arises4 ,for mass is what is in space and is logically and physically dependent upon space4 ,from the assumption of a wave-motion of light1 which underlies the conception of light as a form of energy1 the assumption of a corresponding mass1 the 8luminiferous ther0 necessarily followed4 ,a definition of mass and ascription of properties to mass follows from the definition of force 7and not vice versa7 with all the necessity of a symbol4 ,all ,classical notions of substantiality1 however they differed amongst themselves as realist or idealist1 distinguish a 8to-be-formed10 that is1 a ,nonent1 which only receives closer definition from the basic concept of form1 whatever this form may be in the particular philosophical system4 ,all ,western notions of substantiality distinguish a 8to-be-moved10 which also is a negative1 no doubt1 but one polar to a different positive4 ,form and non-form1 force and non-force--these words render as clearly as may be the polarities that in the two ,cultures underlie the world- impression and contain all its modes4 ,that which comparative philosophy has hitherto rendered inaccurately and misleadingly by the one word 8matter0 signifies in the one case the substratum of shape1 in the other the substratum of force4 ,no two notions could differ more completely4 ,for here it is the feeling of ,god1 a sense of values1 that is speaking4 ,the ,classical deity is superlative shape1 the ,faustian superlative force4 ,the 8,other0 is the ,ungodly to which the spirit will not accord the dignity of ,being2 to the ,apollinian world-feeling this ungodly 8other0 is substance without shape1 to the ,faustian it is substance without force4 ,,viii ,scientists are wont to assume that myths and ,god-ideas are creations of primitive man1 and that as spiritual culture 8advances10 this myth- forming power is shed4 ,in reality it is the exact opposite1 and had not the morphology of history remained to this day an almost unexplored field1 the supposedly universal mythopoetic power would long ago have been found to be limited to particular periods4 ,it would have been realized that this ability of a soul to fill its world with shapes1 traits and symbols--like and consistent amongst themselves--belongs most decidedly not to the world-age of the primitives but exclusively to the springtimes of great ,cultures4#dib ,every myth of the great style stands at the beginning of an awakening spirituality4 ,it is the first formative act of that spirituality4 ,nowhere else is it to be found4 ,there--it must be4 ,i make the assumption that that which a primitive folk--like the ,egyptians of ,thinite times1 the ,jews and ,persians before ,cyrus1#dic the heroes of the ,mycenan burghs and the ,germans of the ,migrations-- possesses in the way of religious ideas is not yet myth in the higher sense4 ,it may well be a sum of scattered and irregular traits1 of cults adhering to names1 fragmentary saga-pictures1 but it is not yet a divine order1 a mythic organism1 and ,i no more regard this as myth than ,i regard the ornament of that stage as art4 ,and1 be it said1 the greatest caution is necessary in dealing with the symbols and sagas current to- day1 or even those current centuries ago1 amongst ostensibly primitive peoples1 for in those thousands of years every country in the world has been more or less affected by some high ,culture alien to it4 ,there are1 therefore1 as many form-worlds of great myth as there are ,cultures and early architectures4 ,the antecedents--that chaos of undeveloped imagery in which modern folk-lore research1 for want of a guiding principle1 loses itself--do not1 on this hypothesis1 concern us2 but we are concerned1 on the other hand1 with certain cultural manifestations that have never yet been thought of as belonging to this category4 ,it was in the ,homeric age 7#aajj-hjj ,b4,c47 and in the corresponding knightly age of ,teutonism 7#ijj-abjj ,a4,d471 that is1 the epic ages1 and neither before nor after them1 that the great world- image of a new religion came into being4 ,the corresponding ages in ,india and ,egypt are the ,vedic and the ,pyramid periods2 one day it will be discovered that ,egyptian mythology did in fact ripen into depth during the ,third and ,fourth ,dynasties4 ,only in this way can we understand the immense wealth of religious- intuitive creations that fills the three centuries of the ,imperial ,age in ,germany4 ,what came into existence then was the ,faustian mythology4 ,hitherto1 owing to religious and learned preconceptions1 either the ,catholic element has been treated to the exclusion of the ,northern- ,heathen or vice versa1 and consequently we have been blind to the breadth and the unity of this form-world4 ,in reality there is no such difference4 ,the deep change of meaning in the ,christian circle of ideas is identical1 as a creative act1 with the consolidation of the old heathen cults of the ,migrations4 ,it was in this age that the folk-lore of ,western ,europe became an entirety2 if the bulk of its material was far older1 and if1 far later again1 it came to be linked with new outer experiences and enriched by more conscious treatment1 yet it was then and neither earlier nor later that it was vitalized with its symbolic meaning4 ,to this lore belong the great ,god-legends of the ,edda and many motives in the gospel-poetry of learned monks2 the ,german hero-tales of ,siegfried and ,gudrun1 ,dietrich and ,wayland2 the vast wealth of chivalry- tales1 derived from ancient ,celtic fables1 that was simultaneously coming to harvest on ,french soil1 concerning ,king ,arthur and the ,round ,table1 the ,holy ,grail1 ,tristan1 ,percival and ,roland4 ,and with these are to be counted--beside the spiritual transvaluation1 unremarked but all the deeper for that1 of the ,passion-,story--the ,catholic hagiology of which the richest floraison was in the #ajth and #aath ,centuries and which produced the ,lives of the ,virgin and the histories of ,,ss4 ,roch1 ,sebald1 ,severin1 ,francis1 ,bernard1 ,odilia4 ,the ,legenda ,aurea was composed about #abej--this was the blossoming-time of courtly epic and ,icelandic skald-poetry alike4 ,the great ,valhalla ,gods of the ,north and the mythic group of the 8,fourteen ,helpers0 in ,south ,germany are contemporary1 and by the side of ,ragnark1 the ,twilight of the ,gods1 in the ,vluspa we have a ,christian form in the ,south ,german ,muspilli4 ,this great myth develops1 like heroic poetry1 at the climax of the early ,culture4 ,they both belong to the two primary estates1 priesthood and nobility2 they are at home in the cathedral and the castle and not in the village below1 where amongst the people the simple saga-world lives on for centuries1 called 8fairy-tale10 8popular beliefs0 or 8superstition0 and yet inseparable from the world of high centemplation4#did ,nowhere is the final meaning of these religious creations more clearly indicated than in the history of ,valhalla4 ,it was not an original ,german idea1 and even the tribes of the ,migrations were totally without it4 ,it took shape just at this time1 instantly and as an inward necessity1 in the consciousness of the peoples newly-arisen on the soil of the ,west4 ,thus it is 8contemporary0 with ,olympus1 which we know from the ,homeric epos and which is as little ,mycenan as ,valhalla is ,german in origin4 ,moreover1 it is only for the two higher estates that ,valhalla emerges from the notion of ,hel2 in the beliefs of the people ,hel remained the realm of the dead4#die ,the deep inward unity of this ,faustian world of myth and saga and the complete congruence of its expression-symbolism has never hitherto been realized1 and yet ,siegfried1 ,baldur1 ,roland1 ,christ the ,king in the 8,heliand10 are different names for one and the same figure4 ,valhalla and ,avalon1 the ,round ,table and the communion of the ,grail-templars1 ,mary1 ,frigga and ,frau ,holle mean the same4 ,on the other hand1 the external provenance of the material motives and elements1 on which mythological research has wasted an excessive zeal1 is a matter of which the importance does not go deeper than the surface4 ,as to the meaning of a myth1 its provenance proves nothing4 ,the 8numen0 itself1 the primary form of the world-feeling1 is a pure1 necessary and unconscious creation1 and it is not transferable4 ,what one people takes over from another--in 8conversion0 or in admiring imitation--is a name1 dress and mask for its own feeling1 never the feeling of that other4 ,the old ,celtic and old ,germanic myth-motives have to be treated1 like the repertory of ,classical forms possessed by the learned monk1 and like the entire body of ,christian-,eastern faith taken over by the ,western ,church1 simply as the material out of which the ,faustian soul in these centuries created a mythic architecture of its own4 ,it mattered little whether the persons through whose minds and mouths the myth came to life were individual skalds1 missionaries1 priests or 8the people10 nor did the circumstance that the ,christian ideas dictated its forms affect the inward independence of that which had come to life4 ,in the ,classical1 ,arabian and ,western ,cultures1 the myth of the springtime is in each case that which we should expect2 in the first static1 in the second ,magian1 in the third dynamic4 ,examine every detail of form1 and see how in the ,classical it is an attitude and in the ,west a deed1 there a being and here a will that underlies them2 how in the ,classical the bodily and tangible1 the sensuously-saturated1 prevails and how therefore in the mode of worshipping the centre of gravity lies in the sense-impressive cult1 whereas in the ,north it is space1 force and therefore a religiousness that is predominantly dogmatic in colouring that rule4 ,these very earliest creations of the young soul tell us that there is relationship between the ,olympian figures1 the statue and the corporeal ,doric temple2 between the domical basilica1 the 8,spirit0 of ,god and the arabesque2 between ,valhalla and the ,mary myth1 the soaring nave and instrumental music4 ,the ,arabian soul built up its myth in the centuries between ,csar and ,constantine--that fantastic mass of cults1 visions and legends that to- day we can hardly even survey1#dif syncretic cults like that of the ,syrian ,baal and of ,isis and ,mithras not only transported to but transformed in ,syrian soil2 ,gospels1 ,acts of ,apostles and ,apocalypses in astonishing profusion2 ,christian1 ,persian1 ,jewish1 ,neoplatonist and ,manichan legends1 and the heavenly hierarchy of angels and spirits of the ,fathers and the ,gnostics4 ,in the suffering-story of the ,gospels1 the very epic of the ,christian nation1 set between the story of ,jesus's childhood and the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and in the ,zoroaster- legend that is contemporary with it1 we are looking upon the hero- figures of ,early ,arabian epic as we see ,achilles in the ,classical and ,siegfried and ,percival in the ,faustian4 ,the scenes of ,gethsemane and ,golgotha stand beside the noblest pictures of ,greek and ,germanic saga4 ,these ,magian visions1 almost without exception1 grew up under the pressure of the dying ,classical which1 in the nature of things unable to communicate its spirit1 the more insistently lent its forms4 ,it is almost impossible now to estimate the extent to which given ,apollinian elements had to be accepted and transvalued before the old ,christian myth assumed the firmness that it possessed in the time of ,augustine4 ,,ix ,the ,classical polytheism1 consequently1 has a style of its own which puts it in a different category from the conceptions of any other world- feelings1 whatever the superficial affinities may be4 ,this mode of possessing gods without godhead has only existed once1 and it was in the one ,culture that made the statue of naked ,man the whole sum of its art4 ,nature1 as ,classical man felt and knew it about him1 viz41 a sum of well-formed bodily things1 could not be deified in any other form but this4 ,the ,roman felt that the claim of ,yahweh to be recognized as sole ,god had something atheistic in it4 ,one ,god1 for him1 was no ,god1 and to this may be ascribed the strong dislike of popular feeling1 both ,greek and ,roman1 for the philosophers in so far as they were pantheists and godless4 ,gods are bodies1 of the perfectest kind1 and plurality was an attribute of bodies alike for mathematicians1 lawyers and poets4 ,the concept of was valid for gods as well as for men2 nothing was more alien to them than oneness1 solitariness and self- adequacy2 and no existence therefore was possible to them save under the aspect of eternal propinquity4 ,it is a deeply significant fact that in ,hellas of all countries star-gods1 the numina of the ,far1 are wanting4 ,helios was worshipped only in half-,oriental ,rhodes and ,selene had no cult at all4 ,both are merely artistic modes of expression 7it is as such only that they figure in the courtly epos of ,homer71 elements that ,varro would class in the genus mythicum and not in the genus civile4 ,the old ,roman religion1 in which the ,classical world-feeling was expressed with special purity1 knew neither sun nor moon1 neither storm nor cloud as deities4 ,the forest stirrings and the forest solitude1 the tempest and the surf1 which completely dominated the ,nature of ,faustian man 7even that of pre-,faustian ,celts and ,teutons7 and imparted to their mythology its peculiar character1 left ,classical man unmoved4 ,only concretes--hearth and door1 the coppice and the plot-field1 this particular river and that particular hill--condensed into ,being for him4 ,we observe that everything that has farness1 everything that contains a suggestion of unbounded and unbodied in it and might thereby bring space as ,ent and divine into the felt ,nature1 is excluded and remains excluded from ,classical myth2 how should it surprise1 then1 if clouds and horizons1 that are the very meaning and soul of ,baroque landscapes1 are totally wanting in the ,classical backgroundless frescoes8 ,the unlimited multitude of antique gods--every tree1 every spring1 every house1 nay every part of a house is a god--means that every tangible thing is an independent existence1 and therefore that none is functionally subordinate to any other4 ,the bases of the ,apollinian and the ,faustian ,nature-images respectively are in all contexts the two opposite symbols of individual thing and unitary space4 ,olympus and ,hades are perfectly sense-definite places1 while the kingdom of the dwarfs1 elves and goblins1 and ,valhalla and ,niflheim are all somewhere or other in the universe of space4 ,in the old ,roman religion 8,tellus ,mater0 is not the all-mother but the visible ploughable field itself4 ,faunus is the wood and ,vulturnus is the river1 the name of the seed is ,ceres and that of the harvest is ,consus4 ,horace is a true ,roman when he speaks of 8sub ,jove frigido10 under the cold sky4 ,in these cases there is not even the attempt to reproduce the ,god in any sort of image at the places of worship1 for that would be tantamount to duplicating him4 ,even in very late times the instinct not only of the ,romans but of the ,greeks also is opposed to idols1 as is shown by the fact that plastic art1 as it became more and more profane1 came into conflict more and more with popular beliefs and the devout philosophy4#dig ,in the house1 ,janus is the door as god1 ,vesta the hearth as goddess1 the two functions of the house are objectivized and deified at once4 ,a ,hellenic river-god 7like ,achelos1 who appears as a bull17 is definitely understood as being the river and not as1 so to say1 dwelling in the river4 ,the ,pans#dih and ,satyrs are the fields and meadows as noon defines them1 well bounded and1 as having figure1 having also existence4 ,dryads and ,hamadrayads are trees2 in many places1 indeed1 individual trees of great stature were honoured with garlands and votive offerings without even the formality of a name4 ,on the contrary1 not a trace of this localized materiality clings to the elves1 dwarfs1 witches1 ,valkyries and their kindred the armies of departed souls that sweep round o'nights4 ,whereas ,naiads are sources1 nixies and hags1 and tree-spirits and brownies are souls that are only bound to sources1 trees and houses1 from which they long to be released into the freedom of roaming4 ,this is the very opposite of the plastic ,nature-feeling1 for here things are experienced merely as spaces of another kind4 ,a nymph--a spring1 that is--assumes human form when she would visit a handsome shepherd1 but a nixy is an enchanted princess with nenuphars in her hair who comes up at midnight from the depths of the pool wherein she dwells4 ,kaiser ,barbarossa sits in the ,kyffhuser cavern and ,frau ,venus in the ,hrselberg4 ,it is as though the ,faustian universe abhorred anything material and impenetrable4 ,in things1 we suspect other worlds4 ,their hardness and thickness is merely appearance1 and--a trait that would be impossible in ,classical myth1 because fatal to it--some favoured mortals are accorded the power to see through cliffs and crags into the depths4 ,but is not just this the secret intent of our physical theories1 of each new hypothesis8 ,no other ,culture knows so many fables of treasures lying in mountains and pools1 of secret subterranean realms1 palaces1 gardens wherein other beings dwell4 ,the whole substantiality of the visible world is denied by the ,faustian ,nature-feeling1 for which in the end nothing is of earth and the only actual is ,space4 ,the fairy-tale dissolves the matter of ,nature as the ,gothic style dissolves the stone-mass of our cathedrals1 into a ghostly wealth of forms and lines that have shed all weight and acknowledge no bounds4 ,the ever-increasing emphasis with which ,classical polytheism somatically individualized its deities is peculiarly evident in its attitude to 8strange gods40 ,for ,classical man the gods of the ,egyptians1 the ,phnicians and the ,germans1 in so far as they could be imagined as figures1 were as real as his own gods4 ,within his world-feeling the statement that such other gods 8do not exist0 would have no meaning4 ,when he came into contact with the countries of these deities he did them reverence4 ,the gods were1 like a statue or a polis1 ,euclidean bodies having locality4 ,they were beings of the near and not the general space4 ,if a man were sojourning in ,babylon1 for instance1 and ,zeus and ,apollo were far away1 all the more reason for particularly honouring the local gods4 ,this is the meaning of the altars dedicated 8to the unknown gods10 such as that which ,paul so significantly misunderstood in a ,magian monotheistic sense at ,athens4#dii ,these were gods not known by name to the ,greek but worshipped by the foreigners of the great seaports 7,pirus1 ,corinth or other7 and therefore entitled to their due of respect from him4 ,rome expressed this with ,classical clearness in her religious law and in carefully-preserved formul like1 for example1 the generalis invocatio4#ejj ,as the universe is the sum of things1 and as gods are things1 recognition had to be accorded even to those gods with whom the ,roman had not yet practically and historically come into relations4 ,he did not know them1 or he knew them as the gods of his enemies1 but they were gods1 for it was impossible for him to conceive the opposite4 ,this is the meaning of the sacral phrase in ,livy1 ,,viii1 #i1 #f3 8di quibus est potestas nostrorum hostiumque40 ,the ,roman people admits that the circle of its own gods is only momentarily bounded1 and after reciting these by name it ends the prayer thus so as not to infringe the rights of others4 ,according to its sacral law1 the annexation of foreign territory involves the transfer to ,urbs ,roma of all the religious obligations pertaining to this territory and its gods-- which of course logically follows from the additive god-feeling of the ,classical4 ,recognition of a deity was very far from being the same as acceptance of the forms of its cult2 thus in the ,second ,punic ,war the ,great ,mother of ,pessinus#eja was received in ,rome as the ,sibyl commanded1 but the priests who had come in with her cult1 which was of a highly un-,classical complexion1 practised under strict police supervision1 and not only ,roman citizens but even their slaves were forbidden under penalty to enter this priesthood4 ,the reception of the goddess gave satisfaction to the ,classical world-feeling1 but the personal performance of her despised ritual would have infringed it4 ,the attitude of the ,senate in such cases is unmistakable1 though the people1 with its ever-increasing admixture of ,eastern elements1 had a liking for these cults and in ,imperial times the army became in virtue of its composition a vehicle 7and even the chief vehicle7 of the ,magian world- feeling4 ,this makes it the easier to understand how the cult of deified men could become a necessary element in this religious form-world4 ,but here it is necessary to distinguish sharply between ,classical phenomena and ,oriental phenomena that have a superficial similarity thereto4 ,roman emperor-worship--i4e41 the reverence of the 8genius0 of the living ,princes and that of the dead predecessors as 8,divi0--has hitherto been confused with the ceremonial reverence of the ,ruler which was customary in ,asia ,minor 7and1 above all1 in ,persia17#ejb and also with the later and quite differently meant ,caliph-deification which is seen in full process of formation in ,diocletian and ,constantine4 ,actually1 these are all very unlike things4 ,however intimately these symbolic forms were interfused in the ,east of the ,empire1 in ,rome itself the ,classical type was actualized unequivocally and without adulteration4 ,long before this certain ,greeks 7e4g41 ,sophocles1 ,lysander and1 above all1 ,alexander7 had been not merely hailed as gods by their flatterers but felt as gods in a perfectly definite sense by the people4 ,it is only a step1 after all1 from the deification of a thing--such as a copse or a well or1 in the limit1 a statue which represented a god--to the deification of an outstanding man who became first hero and then god4 ,in this case as in the rest1 what was reverenced was the perfect shape in which the world- stuff1 the un-divine1 had actualized itself4 ,in ,rome the consul on the day of his triumph wore the armour of ,jupiter ,capitolinus1 and in early days his face and arms were even painted red1 in order to enhance his similarity to the terra-cotta statue of the ,god whose 8numen0 he for the time being incorporated4 ,x ,in the first generations of the ,imperial age1 the antique polytheism gradually dissolved1 often without any alteration of outward ritual and mythic form1 into the ,magian monotheism4#ejc ,a new soul had come up1 and it lived the old forms in a new mode4 ,the names continued1 but they covered other numina4 ,in all ,late-,classical cults1 those of ,isis and ,cybele1 of ,mithras and ,sol and ,serapis1 the divinity is no longer felt as a localized and formable being4 ,in old times1 ,hermes ,propylus had been worshipped at the entrance of the ,acropolis of ,athens1 while a few yards away1 at the point where later the ,erechtheum was built1 was the cult-site of ,hermes as the husband of ,aglaure4 ,at the ,south extremity of the ,roman ,capitol1 close to the sanctuary of ,juppiter ,feretrius 7which contained1 not a statue of the god1 but a holy stone1 silex#ejd7 was that of ,juppiter ,optimus ,maximus1 and when ,augustus was laying down the huge temple of the latter he was careful to avoid the ground to which the numen of the former adhered4#eje ,but in ,early ,christian times ,juppiter ,dolichenus or ,sol ,invictus#ejf could be worshipped 8wheresoever two or three were gathered together in his name40 ,all these deities more and more came to be felt as a single numen1 though the adherents of a particular cult would believe that they in particular knew the numen in its true shape4 ,hence it is that ,isis could be spoken of as the 8million-named40 ,hitherto1 names had been the designations of so many gods different in body and locality1 now they are titles of the ,one whom every man has in mind4 ,this ,magian monotheism reveals itself in all the religious creations that flooded the ,empire from the ,east--the ,alexandrian ,isis1 the ,sun-god favoured by ,aurelian 7the ,baal of ,palmyra71 the ,mithras protected by ,diocletian 7whose ,persian form had been completely recast in ,syria71 the ,baalath of ,carthage 7,tanit1 ,dea ,clestis#ejg7 honoured by ,septimius ,severus4 ,the importation of these figures no longer increases as in ,classical times the number of concrete gods4 ,on the contrary1 they absorb the old gods into themselves1 and do so in such a way as to deprive them more and more of picturable shape4 ,alchemy is replacing statics4 ,correspondingly1 instead of the image we more and more find symbols--e4g41 the ,bull1 the ,lamb1 the ,fish1 the ,triangle1 the ,cross-- coming to the front4 ,in ,constantine's 8in hoc signo vinces0 scarcely an echo of the ,classical remains4 ,already there is setting in that aversion to human representation that ended in the ,islamic and ,byzantine prohibitions of images4 ,right down to ,trajan--long after the last trait of ,apollinian world- feeling had departed from the soil of ,greece--the ,roman state-worship had strength enough to hold to the ,euclidean tendency and to augment its world of deities4 ,the gods of the subject lands and peoples were accorded recognized places of worship1 with priesthood and ritual1 in ,rome1 and were themselves associated as perfectly definite individuals with the older gods4 ,but from that point the ,magian spirit began to gain ground even here1 in spite of an honourable resistance which centred in a few of the very oldest patrician families4#ejh ,the god-figures as such1 as bodies1 vanished from the consciousness of men1 to make way for a transcendental god-feeling which no longer depended on sense- evidences2 and the usages1 festivals and legends melted into one another4 ,when in #bag ,caracalla put an end to all sacral-legal distinctions between ,roman and foreign deities and ,isis1 absorbing all older female numina1 became actually the first goddess of ,rome#eji 7and thereby the most dangerous opponent of ,christianity and the most obnoxious target for the hatred of the ,fathers71 then ,rome became a piece of the ,east1 a religious diocese of ,syria4 ,then the ,baals of ,doliche1 ,petra1 ,palmyra and ,edessa began to melt into the monotheism of ,sol1 who became and remained 7till his representative ,licinius fell before ,constantine7 ,god of the ,empire4 ,by now1 the question was not between ,classical and ,magian--,christianity was in so little danger from the old gods that it could offer them a sort of sympathy--but it was1 which of the ,magian religions should dictate religious form to the world of the ,classical ,empire8 ,the decline of the old plastic feeling is very clearly discernible in the stages through which ,emperor-worship passed-- first1 the dead emperor taken into the circle of ,state gods by resolution of the ,senate 7,divus ,julius1 #db ,b4,c471 a priesthood provided for him and his image removed from amongst the ancestor-images that were carried in purely domestic celebrations2 then1 from ,marcus ,aurelius1 no further consecrations of priests 7and1 presently1 no further building of temples7 for the service of deified emperors1 for the reason that religious sentiment was now satisfied by a general 8templum divorum02 finally1 the epithet ,divus used simply as a title of members of the ,imperial family4 ,this end to the evolution marks the victory of the ,magian feeling4 ,it will be found that multiple names in the inscriptions 7such as ,isis-,magna ,mater-,juno-,astarte-,bellona1 or ,mithras-,sol ,invictus- ,helios7 come to signify titles of one sole existent ,godhead4#eaj ,,xi ,atheism is a subject that the psychologist and the student of religion have hitherto regarded as scarcely worth careful investigation4 ,much has been written and argued about it1 and very roundly1 by the free-thought martyr on the one hand and the religious zealot on the other4 ,but no one has had anything to say about the species of atheism2 or has treated it analytically as an individual and definite phenomenon1 positive and necessary and intensely symbolic2 or has realized how it is limited in time4 ,is 8,atheism0 the a priori constitution of a certain world- consciousness or is it a voluntary self-expression8 ,is one born with it or converted to it8 ,does the unconscious feeling that the cosmos has become godless bring in its train the consciousness that it is so1 the realization that ,great ,pan is dead8 ,are there early atheists1 for example in the ,doric or the ,gothic ages8 ,has this thinker or that been denounced as atheist with injustice as well as with passion8 ,and can there be civilized men who are not wholly or at any rate partially atheist8 ,it is not in dispute 7the word itself shows it in all languages7 that atheism is essentially a negation1 that it signifies the foregoing of a spiritual idea and therefore the precedence of such an idea1 and that it is not the creative act of an unimpaired formative power4 ,but what is it that it denies8 ,in what way8 ,and who is the denier8 ,atheism1 rightly understood1 is the necessary expression of a spirituality that has accomplished itself and exhausted its religious possibilities1 and is declining into the inorganic4 ,it is entirely compatible with a living wistful desire for real religiousness#eaa-- therein resembling ,romanticism1 which likewise would recall that which has irrevocably gone1 namely1 the ,culture--and it may quite well be in a man as a creation of his feeling without his being aware of it1 without its ever interfering with the habits of his thought or challenging his convictions4 ,we can understand this if we can see what it was that made the devout ,haydn call ,beethoven an atheist after he had heard some of his music4 ,atheism comes not with the evening of the ,culture but with the dawn of the ,civilization4 ,it belongs to the great city1 to the 8educated man0 of the great city who acquires mechanistically what his forefathers the creators of the ,culture had lived organically4 ,in respect of the ,classical feeling of ,god1 ,aristotle is an atheist unawares4 ,the ,hellenistic-,roman ,stoicism is atheistic like the ,socialism of ,western and the ,buddhism of ,indian modernity1 reverently though they may and do use the word 8,god40 ,but1 if this late form of world-feeling and world-image which preludes our 8second religiousness0 is universally a negation of the religious in us1 the structure of it is different in each of the ,civilizations4 ,there is no religiousness that is without an atheistic opposition belonging uniquely to itself and directed uniquely against itself4 ,men continue to experience the outer world that extends around them as a cosmos of well- ordered bodies or a world-cavern or efficient space1 as the case may be1 but they no longer livingly experience the sacred causality in it4 ,they only learn to know it in a profane causality that is1 or is desired to be1 inclusively mechanical4#eab ,there are atheisms of ,classical1 ,arabian and ,western kinds and these differ from one another in meaning and in matter4 ,nietzsche formulated the dynamic atheism on the basis that 8,god is dead10 and a ,classical philosopher would have expressed the static and ,euclidean by saying that the 8gods who dwell in the holy places are dead10 the one indicating that boundless space has1 the other that countless bodies have1 become godless4 ,but dead space and dead things are the 8facts0 of physics4 ,the atheist is unable to experience any difference between the ,nature-picture of physics and that of religion4 ,language1 with a fine feeling1 distinguishes wisdom and intelligence--the early and the late1 the rural and the megalopolitan conditions of the soul4 ,intelligence even sounds atheistic4 ,no one would describe ,heraclitus or ,meister ,eckart as an intelligence1 but ,socrates and ,rousseau were intelligent and not 8wise0 men4 ,there is something root-less in the word4 ,it is only from the standpoint of the ,stoic and of the ,socialist1 of the typical irreligious man1 that want of intelligence is a matter for contempt4 ,the spiritual in every living ,culture is religious1 has religion1 whether it be conscious of it or not4 ,that it exists1 becomes1 develops1 fulfils itself1 is its religion4 ,it is not open to a spirituality to be irreligious2 at most it can play with the idea of irreligion as ,medicean ,florentines did4 ,but the megalopolitan is irreligious2 this is part of his being1 a mark of his historical position4 ,bitterly as he may feel the inner emptiness and poverty1 earnestly as he may long to be religious1 it is out of his power to be so4 ,all religiousness in the ,megalopolis rests upon self-deception4 ,the degree of piety of which a period is capable is revealed in its attitude towards toleration4 ,one tolerates1 either because the form-language appears to be expressing something of that which in one's own lived experience is felt as divine1 or else because that experience no longer contains anything so felt4 ,what we moderns have called 8,toleration0 in the ,classical world#eac is an expression of the contrary of atheism4 ,plurality of numina and cults is inherent in the conception of ,classical religion1 and it was not toleration but the self-evident expression of antique piety that allowed validity to them all4 ,conversely1 anyone who demanded exceptions showed himself ipso facto as godless4 ,christians and ,jews counted1 and necessarily counted1 as atheists in the eyes of anyone whose world- picture was an aggregate of individual bodies2 and when in ,imperial times they ceased to be regarded in this light1 the old ,classical god- feeling had itself come to an end4 ,on the other hand1 respect for the form of the local cult whatever this might be1 for images of the gods1 for sacrifices and festivals was always expected1 and anyone who mocked or profaned them very soon learned the limits of ,classical toleration-- witness the scandal of the ,mutilation of the ,hermae at ,athens and trials for the desecration of the ,eleusinian mysteries1 that is1 impious travestying of the sensuous element4 ,but to the ,faustian soul 7again we see opposition of space and body1 of conquest and acceptance of presence7 dogma and not visible ritual constitutes the essence4 ,what is regarded as godless is opposition to doctrine4 ,here begins the spatial-spiritual conception of heresy4 ,a ,faustian religion by its very nature cannot allow any freedom of conscience2 it would be in contradiction with its space-invasive dynamic4 ,even free thinking itself is no exception to the rule4 ,after the stake1 the guillotine2 after the burning of the books1 their suppression2 after the power of the pulpit1 the power of the ,press4 ,amongst us there is no faith without leanings to an ,inquisition of some sort4 ,expressed in appropriate electrodynamic imagery1 the field of force of a conviction adjusts all the minds within it according to its own intensity4 ,failure to do so means absence of conviction--in ecclesiastical language1 ungodliness4 ,for the ,apollinian soul1 on the contrary1 it was contempt of the cult-- in the literal sense--that was ungodly1 and here its religion admitted no freedom of attitude4 ,in both cases there was a line drawn between the toleration demanded by the god-feeling and that forbidden by it4 ,now1 here the ,late-,classical philosophy of ,sophist-,stoic speculation 7as distinct from the general ,stoic disposition7 was in opposition to religious feeling4 ,and accordingly we find the people of ,athens--that ,athens which could build altars to 8unknown gods0--persecuting as pitilessly as the ,spanish ,inquisition4 ,we have only to review the list of ,classical thinkers and historical personages who were sacrificed to the integrity of the cult4 ,socrates and ,diagoras were executed for 2 ,anaxagoras1 ,protagoras1 ,aristotle1 ,alcibiades only saved themselves by flight4 ,the number of executions for cult-impiety1 in ,athens alone and during the few decades of the ,peloponnesian ,war1 ran into hundreds4 ,after the condemnation of ,protagoras1 a house-to-house search was made for the destruction of his writings4 ,in ,rome1 acts of this sort began 7so far as history enables us to trace them7 in #aha ,b4,c4 when the ,senate ordered the public burning of the ,pythagorean 8,books of ,numa40#ead ,this was followed by an uninterrupted series of expulsions1 both of individual philosophers and of whole schools1 and later by executions and by public burnings of books regarded as subversive of religion4 ,for instance1 in the time of ,csar alone1 the places of worship of ,isis were five times destroyed by order of the ,consuls1 and ,tiberius had her image thrown into the ,tiber4 ,the refusal to perform sacrifice before the image of the ,emperor was made a penal offence4 ,all these were measures against 8atheism10 in the ,classical sense of the word1 manifested in theoretical or practical contempt of the visible cult4 ,unless we can put our ,western feeling of these matters out of action we shall never penetrate into the essence of the world-image that underlay the ,classical attitude to them4 ,poets and philosophers might spin myths and transform god-figures as much as they pleased4 ,the dogmatic interpretation of the sensuous data was everyone's liberty4 ,the histories of the gods could be made fun of in ,satyric drama and comedy--even that did not impugn their ,euclidean existence4 ,but the statue of the god1 the cult1 the plastic embodiment of piety--it was not permitted to any man to touch these4 ,it was not out of hypocrisy that the fine minds of the earlier ,empire1 who had ceased to take a myth of any kind seriously1 punctiliously conformed to the public cults and1 above all1 to the cult--deeply real for all classes--of the ,emperor4 ,and1 on the other hand1 the poets and thinkers of the mature ,faustian ,culture were at liberty 8not to go to ,church10 to avoid ,confession1 to stay at home on procession-days and 7in ,protestant surroundings7 to live without any relations with the church whatever4 ,but they were not free to touch points of dogma1 for that would have been dangerous within any confession and any sect1 including1 once more and expressly1 free- thought4 ,the ,roman ,stoic1 who without faith in the mythology piously observed the ritual forms1 has his counterpart in those men of the ,age of ,enlightenment1 like ,lessing and ,goethe1 who disregarded the rites of the ,church but never doubted the 8fundamental truths of faith40 ,,xii ,if we turn back from ,nature-feeling become form to ,nature-knowledge become system1 we know ,god or the gods as the origin of the images by which the intellect seeks to make the world-around comprehensible to itself4 ,goethe once remarked 7to ,riemer73 8,the ,reason is as old as the ,world2 even the child has reason4 ,but it is not applied in all times in the same way or to the same objects4 ,the earlier centuries had their ideas in intuitions of the fancy1 but ours bring them into notions4 ,the great views of ,life were brought into shapes1 into ,gods2 to-day they are brought into notions4 ,then the productive force was greater1 now the destructive force or art of separation40 ,the strong religiousness of ,newton's mechanics#eae and the almost complete atheism of the formulations of modern dynamics are of like colour1 positive and negative of the same primary feeling4 ,a physical system of necessity has all the characters of the soul to whose world-form it belongs4 ,the ,deism of the ,baroque belongs with its dynamics and its analytical geometry2 its three basic principles1 ,god1 ,freedom and ,immortality1 are in the language of mechanics the principles of inertia 7,galileo71 least action 7,d',alembert7 and the conservation of energy 7,j4 ,r4 ,mayer74 ,that which nowadays we call quite generally physics is in reality an artifact of the ,baroque4 ,at this stage the reader will not feel it as paradoxical to associate the mode of representation which rests on the assumption of distant forces and the 7wholly un-,classical and anything but nave7 idea of action-at-a-distance1 attraction and repulsion of masses1 specially with the ,jesuit style of architecture founded by ,vignola1 and to call it accordingly the ,jesuit style of physics2 and ,i would likewise call the ,infinitesimal ,calculus1 which of necessity came into being just when and where it did1 the ,jesuit style of mathematic4 ,within this style1 a working hypothesis that deepens the technique of experimentation is 8correct02 for ,loyola's concern1 like ,newton's1 was not description of ,nature but method4 ,western physics is by its inward form dogmatic and not ritualistic 7kultisch74 ,its content is the dogma of ,force as identical with space and distance1 the theory of the mechanical ,act 7as against the mechanical ,posture7 in space4 ,consequently its tendency is persistently to overcome the apparent4 ,beginning with a still quite ,apollinian- sensuous classification of physics into the physics of the eye 7optics71 of the ear 7acoustics7 and of the skin-sense 7heat71 it by degrees eliminated all sense-impressions and replaced them by abstract systems of relations2 thus1 under the influence of ideas concerning dynamical motion in an ther1 radiant heat is nowadays dealt with under the heading of 8optics10 a word which has ceased to have anything to do with the eye4 8,force0 is a mythical quantity1 which does not arise out of scientific experimentation but1 on the contrary1 defines the structure thereof a priori4 ,it is only the ,faustian conception of ,nature that instead of a magnet thinks of a magnetism whose field of force includes a piece of iron1 and instead of luminous bodies thinks of radiant energy1 and that imagines personifications like 8electricity10 8temperature0 and 8radioactivity40#eaf ,that this 8force0 or 8energy0 is really a numen stiffened into a concept 7and in nowise the result of scientific experience7 is shown by the often overlooked fact that the basic principle known as the ,first ,law of ,thermodynamics#eag says nothing whatever about the nature of energy1 and it is properly speaking an incorrect 7though psychologically most significant7 assumption that the idea of the 8,conservation of ,energy0 is fixed in it4 ,experimental measurement can in the nature of things only establish a number1 which number we have 7significantly1 again7 named work4 ,but the dynamical cast of our thought demanded that this should be conceived as a difference of energy1 although the absolute value of energy is only a figment and can never be rendered by a definite number4 ,there always remains1 therefore1 an undefined additive constant1 as we call it2 in other words1 we always strive to maintain the image of an energy that our inner eye has formed1 although actual scientific practice is not concerned with it4 ,this being the provenance of the force-concept1 it follows that we can no more define it than we can define those other un-,classical words ,will and ,space4 ,there remains always a felt and intuitively-perceived remainder which makes every personal definition an almost religious creed of its author4 ,every ,baroque scientist in this matter has his personal inner experience which he is trying to clothe in words4 ,goethe1 for instance1 could never have defined his idea of a world-force1 but to himself it was a certainty4 ,kant called force the phenomenon of an ent- in-itself3 8we know substance in space1 the body1 only through forces40 ,laplace called it an unknown of which the workings are all that we know1 and ,newton imagined immaterial forces at a distance4 ,leibniz spoke of ,vis viva as a quantum which together with matter formed the unit that he called the monad1 and ,descartes1 with certain thinkers of the #ahth ,century1 was equally unwilling to draw fundamental distinctions between motion and the moved4 ,beside potentia1 virtus1 impetus we find even in ,gothic times peri-phrases such as conatus and nisus1 in which the force and the releasing cause are obviously not separated4 ,we can1 indeed1 quite well differentiate between ,catholic1 ,protestant and ,atheistic notions of force4 ,but ,spinoza1 a ,jew and therefore1 spiritually1 a member of the ,magian ,culture1 could not absorb the ,faustian force-concept at all1 and it has no place in his system4#eah ,and it is an astounding proof of the secret power of root-ideas that ,heinrich ,hertz1 the only ,jew amongst the great physicists of the recent past1 was also the only one of them who tried to resolve the dilemma of mechanics by eliminating the idea of force4 ,the force-dogma is the one and only theme of ,faustian physics4 ,that branch of science which under the name of ,statics has been passed from system to system and century to century is a fiction4 8,modern ,statics0 is in the same position as 8arithmetic0 and 8geometry10 which1 if the literal and original senses of the words be kept to1 are void of meaning in modern analysis1 empty names bequeathed by ,classical science and only preserved because our reverence for all things ,classical has hitherto debarred us from getting rid of them or even recognizing their hollowness4 ,there is no ,western statics--that is1 no interpretation of mechanical facts that is natural to the ,western spirit bases itself on the ideas of form and substance1 or even1 for that matter1 on the ideas of space and mass otherwise than in connexion with those of time and force4#eai ,the reader can test this in any department that he pleases4 ,even 8temperature10 which of all our physical magnitudes has the most plausible look of being static1 ,classical and passive1 only falls into its place in our system when it is brought into a force-picture1 viz41 the picture of a quantity of heat made up of ultra-swift subtle irregular motions of the atoms of a body1 with temperature as the mean vis viva of these atoms4 ,the ,late ,renaissance imagined that it had revived the ,archimedean physics just as it believed that it was continuing the ,classical sculpture4 ,but in the one case as in the other it was merely preparing for the forms of the ,baroque1 and doing so out of the spirit of the ,gothic4 ,to this ,statics belongs the picture-subject as it is in ,mantegna's work and also in that of ,signorelli1 whose line and attitude later generations regarded as stiff and cold4 ,with ,leonardo1 dynamics begins and in ,rubens the movement of swelling bodies is already at a maximum4 ,as late as #afbi the spirit of ,renaissance physics appears in the theory of magnetism formulated by the ,jesuit ,nicolaus ,cabeo4 ,conceived in the mould of an ,aristotelian idea of the world1 it was 7like ,palladio's work on architecture7 foredoomed to lead to nothing--not because it was 8wrong0 in itself but because it was in contradiction with the ,faustian ,nature-feeling which1 freed from ,magian leading-strings by the thinkers and researchers of the #adth ,century1 now required forms of its very own for the expression of its world-knowledge4 ,cabeo avoided the notions of force and mass and confined himself to the ,classical concepts of form and substance--in other words1 he went back from the architecture of ,michelangelo's last phase and of ,vignola to that of ,michelozzo and ,raphael--and the system which he formed was complete and self-contained but without importance for the future4 ,a magnetism conceived as a state of individual bodies and not as a force in unbounded space was incapable of symbolically satisfying the inner eye of ,faustian man4 ,what we need is a theory of the ,far1 not one of the ,near4 ,newton's mathematical- mechanical principles required to be made explicit as a dynamics pure and entire1 and this another ,jesuit1 ,boscovich1#ebj was the first to achieve in #ageh4 ,even ,galileo was still under the influence of the ,renaissance feeling1 to which the opposition of force and mass1 that was to produce1 in architecture and painting and music alike the element of grand movement1 was something strange and uncomfortable4 ,he therefore limited the idea of force to contact-force 7impact7 and his formulation did not go beyond conservation of momentum 7quantity of motion74 ,he held fast to mere moved-ness and fought shy of any passion of space1 and it was left to ,leibniz to develop--first in the course of controversy and then positively by the application of his mathematical discoveries--the idea of genuine free and directional forces 7living force1 activum thema74 ,the notion of conservation of momentum then gave way to that of conservation of living forces1 as quantitative number gave way to functional number4 ,the concept of mass1 too1 did not become definite until somewhat later4 ,in ,galileo and ,kepler its place is occupied by volume1 and it was ,newton who distinctly conceived it as functional--the world as function of ,god4 ,that mass 7defined nowadays as the constant relation between force and acceleration in respect of a system of material points7 should have no proportionate relation whatever to volume was1 in spite of the evidence of the planets1 a conclusion inacceptable to ,renaissance feeling4 ,but1 even so1 ,galileo was forced to inquire into the causes of motion4 ,in a genuine ,statics1 working only with the notions of material and form1 this question would have had no meaning4 ,for ,archimedes displacement was a matter of insignificance compared with form1 which was the essence of all corporeal existence2 for1 if space be ,nonent1 what efficient can there be external to the body concerned8 ,things are not functions of motion1 but they move themselves4 ,newton it was who first got completely away from ,renaissance feeling and formed the notion of distant forces1 the attraction and repulsion of bodies across space itself4 ,distance is already in itself a force4 ,the very idea of it is so free from all sense-perceptible content that ,newton himself felt uncomfortable with it--in fact it mastered him and not he it4 ,it was the spirit of ,baroque itself1 with its bent towards infinite space1 that had evoked this contrapuntal and utterly un-plastic notion4 ,and in it withal there was a contradiction4 ,to this day no one has produced an adequate definition of these forces-at-a-distance4 ,no one has ever yet understood what centrifugal force really is4 ,is the force of the earth rotating on its axis the cause of this motion or vice versa8 ,or are the two identical8 ,is such a cause1 considered per se1 a force or another motion8 ,what is the difference between force and motion8 ,suppose the alterations in the planetary system to be workings of a centrifugal force2 that being so1 the bodies ought to be slung out of their path tangentially1 and as in fact they are not so1 we must assume a centrifugal force as well4 ,what do all these words mean8 ,it is just the impossibility of arriving at order and clarity here that led ,hertz to do away with the force-notion altogether and 7by highly artificial assumptions of rigid couplings between positions and velocities7 to reduce his system of mechanics to the principle of contact 7impact74 ,but this merely conceals and does not remove the perplexities1 which are of intrinsically ,faustian character and rooted in the very essence of dynamics4 8,can we speak of forces which owe their origin to motion80 ,certainly not2 but can we get rid of primary notions that are inborn in the ,western spirit though indefinable8 ,hertz himself made no attempt to apply his system practically4 ,this symbolic difficulty of modern mechanics is in no way removed by the potential theory that was founded by ,faraday when the centre of gravity of physical thought had passed from the dynamics of matter to the electrodynamics of the ther4 ,the famous experimenter1 who was a visionary through and through--alone amongst the modern masters of physics he was not a mathematician--observed in #ahdf3 8,i assume nothing to be true in any part of space 7whether this be empty as is commonly said1 or filled with matter7 except forces and the lines in which they are exercised40 ,here1 plain enough1 is the directional tendency with its intimately organic and historic content1 the tendency in the knower to live the process of his knowing4 ,here ,faraday is metaphysically at one with ,newton1 whose forces-at-a-distance point to a mythic background that the devout physicist declined to examine4 ,the possible alternative way of reaching an unequivocal definition of force--viz41 that which starts from ,world and not ,god1 from the object and not the subject of natural motion-state--was leading at the very same time to the formulation of the concept of ,energy4 ,now1 this concept represents1 as distinct from that of force1 a quantum of directedness and not a direction1 and is in so far akin to ,leibniz's conception of 8living force0 unalterable in quantity4 ,it will not escape notice that essential features of the mass-concept have been taken over here2 indeed1 even the bizarre notion of an atomic structure of energy has been seriously discussed4 ,this rearrangement of the basic words has not1 however1 altered the feeling that a world-force with its substratum does exist4 ,the motion- problem is as insoluble as ever4 ,all that has happened on the way from ,newton to ,faraday--or from ,berkeley to ,mill--is that the religious deed- idea has been replaced by the irreligious work-idea4#eba ,in the ,nature- picture of ,bruno1 ,newton and ,goethe something divine is working itself out in acts1 in that of modern physics ,nature is doing work2 for every 8process0 within the meaning of the ,first ,law of ,thermodynamics is or should be measurable by the expenditure of energy to which a quantity of work corresponds in the form of 8bound energy40 ,naturally1 therefore1 we find the decisive discovery of ,j4 ,r4 ,mayer coinciding in time with the birth of the ,socialist theory4 ,even economic systems wield the same concepts2 the value-problem has been in relation with quantity of work#ebb ever since ,adam ,smith1 who vis--vis ,quesney and ,turgot marks the change from an organic to a mechanical structure of the economic field4 ,the 8work0 which is the foundation of modern economic theory has purely dynamic meaning1 and phrases could be found in the language of economists which correspond exactly to the physical propositions of conservation of energy1 entropy and least action4 ,if1 then1 we review the successive stages through which the central idea of force has passed since its birth in the ,baroque1 and its intimate relations with the form-worlds of the great arts and of mathematics1 we find that 7#a7 in the #agth ,century 7,galileo1 ,newton1 ,leibniz7 it is pictorially formed and in unison with the great art of oil-painting that died out about #afcj2 7#b7 in the #ahth ,century 7the 8classical0 mechanics of ,laplace and ,lagrange7 it acquires the abstract character of the fugue-style and is in unison with ,bach2 and 7#c7 with the ,culture at its end and the civilized intelligence victorious over the spiritual1 it appears in the domain of pure analysis1 and in particular in the theory of functions of several complex variables1 without which it is1 in its most modern form1 scarcely understandable4 ,,xiii ,but with this1 it cannot be denied1 the ,western physics is drawing near to the limit of its possibilities4 ,at bottom1 its mission as a historical phenomenon has been to transform the ,faustian ,nature-feeling into an intellectual knowledge1 the faith-forms of springtime into the machine-forms of exact science4 ,and1 though for the time being it will continue to quarry more and more practical and even 8purely theoretical0 results1 results as such1 whatever their kind1 belong to the superficial history of a science4 ,to its deeps belong only the history of its symbolism and its style1 and it is almost too evident to be worth the saying that in those deeps the essence and nucleus of our science is in rapid disintegration4 ,up to the end of the #aith ,century every step was in the direction of an inward fulfilment1 an increasing purity1 rigour and fullness of the dynamic ,nature-picture--and then1 that which has brought it to an optimum of theoretical clarity1 suddenly becomes a solvent4 ,this is not happening intentionally--the high intelligences of modern physics are1 in fact1 unconscious that it is happening at all--but from an inherent historic necessity4 ,just so1 at the same relative stage1 the ,classical science inwardly fulfilled itself about #bjj ,b4,c4 ,analysis reached its goal with ,gauss1 ,cauchy and ,riemann1 and to-day it is only filling up the gaps in its structure4 ,this is the origin of the sudden and annihilating doubt that has arisen about things that even yesterday were the unchallenged foundation of physical theory1 about the meaning of the energy-principle1 the concepts of mass1 space1 absolute time1 and causality-laws generally4 ,this doubt is no longer the fruitful doubt of the ,baroque1 which brought the knower and the object of his knowledge together2 it is a doubt affecting the very possibility of a ,nature-science4 ,to take one instance alone1 what a depth of unconscious ,skepsis there is in the rapidly-increasing use of enumerative and statistical methods1 which aim only at probability of results and forgo in advance the absolute scientific exactitude that was a creed to the hopeful earlier generations4 ,the moment is at hand now1 when the possibility of a self-contained and self-consistent mechanics will be given up for good4 ,every physics1 as ,i have shown1 must break down over the motion-problem1 in which the living person of the knower methodically intrudes into the inorganic form-world of the known4 ,but to-day1 not only is this dilemma still inherent in all the newest theories but three centuries of intellectual work have brought it so sharply to focus that there is no possibility more of ignoring it4 ,the theory of gravitation1 which since ,newton has been an impregnable truth1 has now been recognized as a temporally limited and shaky hypothesis4 ,the principle of the ,conservation of ,energy has no meaning if energy is supposed to be infinite in an infinite space4 ,the acceptance of the principle is incompatible with any three-dimensional structure of space1 whether infinite or ,euclidean or 7as the ,non- ,euclidean geometries present it7 spherical and of 8finite1 yet unbounded0 volume4 ,its validity therefore is restricted to 8a system of bodies self-contained and not externally influenced0 and such a limitation does not and cannot exist in actuality4 ,but symbolic infinity was just what the ,faustian world-feeling had meant to express in this basic idea1 which was simply the mechanical and extensional re-ideation of the idea of immortality and world-soul4 ,in fact it was a feeling out of which knowledge could never succeed in forming a pure system4 ,the luminiferous ther1 again1 was an ideal postulate of modern dynamics whereby every motion required a something-to-be-moved1 but every conceivable hypothesis concerning the constitution of this ther has broken down under inner contradictions2 more1 ,lord ,kelvin has proved mathematically that there can be no structure of this light- transmitter that is not open to objections4 ,as1 according to the interpretation of ,fresnel's experiments1 the light-waves are transversal1 the ther would have to be a rigid body 7with truly quaint properties71 but then the laws of elasticity would have to apply to it and in that case the waves would be longitudinal4 ,the ,maxwell-,hertz equations of the ,electro-magnetic ,theory of ,light1 which in fact are pure nameless numbers of indubitable validity1 exclude the explanation of the ther by any mechanics whatsoever4 ,therefore1 and having regard also to the consequences of the ,relativity theory1 physicists now regard the ther as pure vacuum4 ,but that1 after all1 is not very different from demolishing the dynamic picture itself4 ,since ,newton1 the assumption of constant mass--the counterpart of constant force--has had uncontested validity4 ,but the ,quantum theory of ,planck1 and the conclusions of ,niels ,bohr therefrom as to the fine structure of atoms1 which experimental experience had rendered necessary1 have destroyed this assumption4 ,every self-contained system possesses1 besides kinetic energy1 an energy of radiant heat which is inseparable from it and therefore cannot be represented purely by the concept of mass4 ,for if mass is defined by living energy it is ipso facto no longer constant with reference to thermodynamic state4 ,nevertheless1 it is impossible to fit the theory of quanta into the group of hypotheses constituting the 8classical0 mechanics of the ,baroque2 moreover1 along with the principle of causal continuity1 the basis of the ,infinitesimal ,calculus founded by ,newton and ,leibniz is threatened4#ebc ,but1 if these are serious enough doubts1 the ruthlessly cynical hypothesis of the ,relativity theory strikes to the very heart of dynamics4 ,supported by the experiments of ,a4 ,a4 ,michelson1 which showed that the velocity of light remains unaffected by the motion of the medium1 and prepared mathematically by ,lorentz and ,minkowski1 its specific tendency is to destroy the notion of absolute time4 ,astronomical discoveries 7and here present-day scientists are seriously deceiving themselves7 can neither establish nor refute it4 8,correct0 and 8incorrect0 are not the criteria whereby such assumptions are to be tested2 the question is whether1 in the chaos of involved and artificial ideas that has been produced by the innumerable hypotheses of ,radioactivity and ,thermodynamics1 it can hold its own as a useable hypothesis or not4 ,but however this may be1 it has abolished the constancy of those physical quantities into the definition of which time has entered1 and unlike the antique statics1 the ,western dynamics knows only such quantities4 ,absolute measures of length and rigid bodies are no more4 ,and with this the possibility of absolute quantitative delimitations and therefore the 8classical0 concept of mass as the constant ratio between force and acceleration fall to the ground--just after the quantum of action1 a product of energy and time1 had been set up as a new constant4 ,if we make it clear to ourselves that the atomic ideas of ,rutherford and ,bohr#ebd signify nothing but this1 that the numerical results of observations have suddenly been provided with a picture of a planetary world within the atom1 instead of that of atom-swarms hitherto favoured2 if we observe how rapidly card-houses of hypothesis are run up nowadays1 every contradiction being immediately covered up by a new hurried hypothesis2 if we reflect on how little heed is paid to the fact that these images contradict one another and the 8classical0 ,baroque mechanics alike1 we cannot but realize that the great style of ideation is at an end and that1 as in architecture and the arts of form1 a sort of craft-art of hypothesis-building has taken its place4 ,only our extreme maestria in experimental technique--true child of its century-- hides the collapse of the symbolism4 ,,xiv ,amongst these symbols of decline1 the most conspicuous is the notion of ,entropy1 which forms the subject of the ,second ,law of ,thermodynamics4 ,the first law1 that of the conservation of energy1 is the plain formulation of the essence of dynamics--not to say of the constitution of the ,west-,european soul1 to which ,nature is necessarily visible only in the form of a contrapuntal-dynamic causality 7as against the static- plastic causality of ,aristotle74 ,the basic element of the ,faustian world-picture is not the ,attitude but the ,deed and1 mechanically considered1 the ,process1 and this law merely puts the mathematical character of these processes into form as variables and constants4 ,but the ,second ,law goes deeper1 and shows a bias in ,nature-happenings which is in no wise imposed a priori by the conceptual fundamentals of dynamics4 ,mathematically1 ,entropy is represented by a quantity which is fixed by the momentary state of a self-contained system of bodies and under all physical and chemical alterations can only increase1 never diminish2 in the most favourable conditions it remains unchanged4 ,entropy1 like ,force and ,will1 is something which 7to anyone for whom this form-world is accessible at all7 is inwardly clear and meaningful1 but is formulated differently by every different authority and never satisfactorily by any4 ,here again1 the intellect breaks down where the world-feeling demands expression4 ,nature-processes in general have been classified as irreversible and reversible1 according as entropy is increased or not4 ,in any process of the first kind1 free energy is converted into bound energy1 and if this dead energy is to be turned once more into living1 this can only occur through the simultaneous binding of a further quantum of living energy in some second process2 the best-known example is the combustion of coal--that is1 the conversion of the living energy stored up in it into heat bound by the gas form of the carbon dioxide1 if the latent energy of water is to be translated into steam-pressure and thereafter into motion4#ebe ,it follows that in the world as a whole entropy continually increases2 that is1 the dynamic system is manifestly approaching to some final state1 whatever this may be4 ,examples of the irreversible processes are conduction of heat1 diffusion1 friction1 emission of light and chemical reactions2 of reversible1 gravitation1 electric oscillations1 electromagnetic waves and sound-waves4 ,what has never hitherto been fully felt1 and what leads me to regard the ,entropy theory 7#ahej7 as the beginning of the destruction of that masterpiece of ,western intelligence1 the old dynamic physics1 is the deep opposition of theory and actuality which is here for the first time introduced into theory itself4 ,the ,first ,law had drawn the strict picture of a causal ,nature-happening1 but the ,second ,law by introducing irreversibility has for the first time brought into the mechanical- logical domain a tendency belonging to immediate life and thus in fundamental contradiction with the very essence of that domain4 ,if the ,entropy theory is followed out to its conclusion1 it results1 firstly1 that in theory all processes must be reversible--which is one of the basic postulates of dynamics and is reasserted with all rigour in the law of the ,conservation of ,energy--but1 secondly1 that in actuality processes of ,nature in their entirety are irreversible4 ,not even under the artificial conditions of laboratory experiment can the simplest process be exactly reversed1 that is1 a state once passed cannot be re- established4 ,nothing is more significant of the present condition of systematics than the introduction of the hypotheses of 8elementary disorder0 for the purpose of smoothing-out the contradiction between intellectual postulate and actual experience4 ,the 8smallest particles0 of a body 7an image1 no more7 throughout perform reversible processes1 but in actual things the smallest particles are in disorder and mutually interfere2 and so the irreversible process that alone is experienced by the observer is linked with increase of entropy by taking the mean probabilities of occurrences4 ,and thus theory becomes a chapter of the ,calculus of ,probabilities1 and in lieu of exact we have statistical methods4 ,evidently1 the significance of this has passed unnoticed4 ,statistics belong1 like chronology1 to the domain of the organic1 to fluctuating ,life1 to ,destiny and ,incident and not to the world of laws and timeless causality4 ,as everyone knows1 statistics serve above all to characterize political and economic1 that is1 historical1 developments4 ,in the 8classical0 mechanics of ,galileo and ,newton there would have been no room for them4 ,and if1 now1 suddenly the contents of that field are supposed to be understood and understandable only statistically and under the aspect of ,probability--instead of under that of the a priori exactitude which the ,baroque thinkers unanimously demanded--what does it mean8 ,it means that the object of understanding is ourselves4 ,the ,nature 8known0 in this wise is the ,nature that we know by way of living experience1 that we live in ourselves4 ,what theory asserts 7and1 being itself1 must assert7--to wit1 this ideal irreversibility that never happens in actuality--represents a relic of the old severe intellectual form1 the great ,baroque tradition that had contrapuntal music for twin sister4 ,but the resort to statistics shows that the force that that tradition regulated and made effective is exhausted4 ,becoming and ,become1 ,destiny and ,causality1 historical and natural-science elements are beginning to be confused4 ,formul of life1 growth1 age1 direction and death are crowding up4 ,that is what1 from this point of view1 irreversibility in world- processes has to mean4 ,it is the expression1 no longer of the physical 8t0 but of genuine historical1 inwardly-experienced ,time1 which is identical with ,destiny4 ,baroque physics was1 root and branch1 a strict systematic and remained so for as long as its structure was not racked by theories like these1 as long as its field was absolutely free from anything that expressed accident and mere probability4 ,but directly these theories come up1 it becomes physiognomic4 8,the course of the world0 is followed out4 ,the idea of the end of the world appears1 under the veil of formul that are no longer in their essence formul at all4 ,something ,goethian has entered into physics--and if we understand the deeper significance of ,goethe's passionate polemic against ,newton in the 8,farbenlehre0#ebf we shall realize the full weight of what this means4 ,for therein intuitive vision was arguing against reason1 life against death1 creative image against normative law4 ,the critical form-world of ,nature-knowledge came out of ,nature-feeling1 ,god-feeling1 as the evoked contrary4 ,here1 at the end of the ,late period1 it has reached the maximal distance and is turning to come home4 ,so1 once more1 the imaging-power that is the efficient in dynamics conjures up the old great symbol of ,faustian man's historical passion1 ,care--the outlook into the farthest far of past and future1 the back- looking study of history1 the foreseeing state1 the confessions and introspections1 the bells that sounded over all our country-sides and measured the passing of ,life4 ,the ethos of the word ,time1 as we alone feel it1 as instrumental music alone and no statue-plastic can carry it1 is directed upon an aim4 ,this aim has been figured in every life-image that the ,west has conceived--as the ,third ,kingdom1 as the ,new ,age1 as the task of mankind1 as the issue of evolution4 ,and it is figured1 as the destined end-state of all ,faustian 8,nature10 in ,entropy4 ,directional feeling1 a relation of past and future1 is implicit already in the mythic concept of force on which the whole of this dogmatic form- world rests1 and in the description of natural processes it emerges distinct4 ,it would not be too much1 therefore1 to say that entropy1 as the intellectual form in which the infinite sum of nature-events is assembled as a historical and physiognomic unit1 tacitly underlay all physical concept-formation from the outset1 so that when it came out 7as one day it was bound to come out7 it was as a 8discovery0 of scientific induction claiming 8support0 from all the other theoretical elements of the system4 ,the more dynamics exhausts its inner possibilities as it nears the goal1 the more decidedly the historical characters in the picture come to the front and the more insistently the organic necessity of ,destiny asserts itself side by side with the inorganic necessity of ,causality1 and ,direction makes itself felt along with capacity and intensity1 the factors of pure extension4 ,the course of this process is marked by the appearance of whole series of daring hypotheses1 all of like sort1 which are only apparently demanded by experimental results and which in fact world-feeling and mythology imagined as long ago as the ,gothic age4 ,above all1 this is manifested in the bizarre hypotheses of atomic disintegration which elucidate the phenomena of radioactivity1 and according to which uranium atoms that have kept their essence unaltered1 in spite of all external influences1 for millions of years and then suddenly without assignable cause explode1 scattering their smallest particles over space with velocities of thousands of kilometres per second4 ,only a few individuals in an aggregate of radioactive atoms are struck by ,destiny thus1 the neighbours being entirely unaffected4 ,here too1 then1 is a picture of history and not 8,nature10 and although statistical methods here also prove to be necessary1 one might almost say that in them mathematical number has been replaced by chronological4#ebg ,with ideas like these1 the mythopoetic force of the ,faustian soul is returning to its origins4 ,it was at the outset of the ,gothic1 just at the time when the first mechanical clocks were being built1 that the myth of the world's end1 ,ragnark1 the ,twilight of the ,gods1 arose4 ,it may be that1 like all the reputedly old-,german myths ,ragnark 7whether in the ,vluspa form or as the ,christian ,muspilli7 was modelled more or less on ,classical and particularly ,christian-,apocalyptic motives4 ,nevertheless1 it is the expression and symbol of the ,faustian and of no other soul4 ,the ,olympian college is historyless1 it knows no becoming1 no epochal moments1 no aim4 ,but the passionate thrust into distance is ,faustian4 ,force1 ,will1 has an aim1 and where there is an aim there is for the inquiring eye an end4 ,that which the perspective of oil-painting expressed by means of the vanishing point1 the ,baroque park by its point de vue1 and analysis by the nth term of an infinite series--the conclusion1 that is1 of a willed directedness--assumes here the form of the concept4 ,the ,faust of the ,second ,part is dying1 for he has reached his goal4 ,what the myth of ,gtterdmmerung signified of old1 the irreligious form of it1 the theory of ,entropy1 signifies to-day--world's end as completion of an inwardly necessary evolution4 ,,xv ,it remains now to sketch the last stage of ,western science4 ,from our standpoint of to-day1 the gently-sloping route of decline is clearly visible4 ,this too1 the power of looking ahead to inevitable ,destiny1 is part of the historical capacity that is the peculiar endowment of the ,faustian4 ,the ,classical died1 as we shall die1 but it died unknowing4 ,it believed in an eternal ,being and to the last it lived its days with frank satisfaction1 each day spent as a gift of the gods4 ,but we know our history4 ,before us there stands a last spiritual crisis that will involve all ,europe and ,america4 ,what its course will be1 ,late ,hellenism tells us4 ,the tyranny of the ,reason--of which we are not conscious1 for we are ourselves its apex--is in every ,culture an epoch between man and old-man1 and no more4 ,its most distinct expression is the cult of exact sciences1 of dialectic1 of demonstration1 of causality4 ,of old the ,ionic1 and in our case the ,baroque were its rising limb1 and now the question is what form will the down-curve assume8 ,in this very century1 ,i prophesy1 the century of scientific-critical ,alexandrianism1 of the great harvests1 of the final formulations1 a new element of inwardness will arise to overthrow the will-to-victory of science4 ,exact science must presently fall upon its own keen sword4 ,first1 in the #ahth ,century1 its methods were tried out1 then1 in the #aith1 its powers1 and now its historical rle is critically reviewed4 ,but from ,skepsis there is a path to 8second religiousness10 which is the sequel and not the preface of the ,culture4 ,men dispense with proof1 desire only to believe and not to dissect4 ,the individual renounces by laying aside books4 ,the ,culture renounces by ceasing to manifest itself in high scientific intellects4 ,but science exists only in the living thought of great savant-generations1 and books are nothing if they are not living and effective in men worthy of them4 ,scientific results are merely items of an intellectual tradition4 ,it constitutes the death of a science that no one any longer regards it as an event1 and an orgy of two centuries of exact scientific-ness brings satiety4 ,not the individual1 the soul of the ,culture itself has had enough1 and it expresses this by putting into the field of the day ever smaller1 narrower and more unfruitful investigators4 ,the great century of the ,classical science was the third1 after the death of ,aristotle2 when ,archimedes died and the ,romans came1 it was already almost at its end4 ,our great century has been the #aith4 ,savants of the calibre of ,gauss and ,humboldt and ,helmholtz were already no more by #aijj4 ,in physics as in chemistry1 in biology as in mathematics1 the great masters are dead1 and we are now experiencing the decrescendo of brilliant gleaners who arrange1 collect and finish-off like the ,alexandrian scholars of the ,roman age4 ,everything that does not belong to the matter-of-fact side of life--to politics1 technics or economics--exhibits the common symptom4 ,after ,lysippus no great sculptor1 no artist as man- of-destiny1 appears1 and after the ,impressionists no painter1 and after ,wagner no musician4 ,the age of ,csarism needed neither art nor philosophy4 ,to ,eratosthenes and ,archimedes1 true creators1 succeed ,posidonius and ,pliny1 collectors of taste1 and finally ,ptolemy and ,galen1 mere copyists4 ,and1 just as oil-painting and instrumental music ran through their possibilities in a few centuries1 so also dynamics1 which began to bud about #afjj1 is to-day in the grip of decay4 ,but before the curtain falls1 there is one more task for the historical ,faustian spirit1 a task not yet specified1 hitherto not even imagined as possible4 ,there has still to be written a morphology of the exact sciences1 which shall discover how all laws1 concepts and theories inwardly hang together as forms and what they have meant as such in the life-course of the ,faustian ,culture4 ,the re-treatment of theoretical physics1 of chemistry1 of mathematics as a sum of symbols--this will be the definitive conquest of the mechanical world-aspect by an intuitive1 once more religious1 world-outlook1 a last master-effort of physiognomic to break down even systematic and to absorb it1 as expression and symbol1 into its own domain4 ,one day we shall no longer ask1 as the #aith ,century asked1 what are the valid laws underlying chemical affinity or diamagnetism--rather1 we shall be amazed indeed that minds of the first order could ever have been completely preoccupied by questions such as these4 ,we shall inquire whence came these forms that were prescribed for the ,faustian spirit1 why they had to come to our kind of humanity particularly and exclusively1 and what deep meaning there is in the fact that the numbers that we have won became phenomenal in just this picture-like disguise4 ,and1 be it said1 we have to-day hardly yet an inkling of how much in our reputedly objective values and experiences is only disguise1 only image and expression4 ,the separate sciences--epistemology1 physics1 chemistry1 mathematics1 astronomy--are approaching one another with acceleration1 converging towards a complete identity of results4 ,the issue will be a fusion of the form-worlds1 which will present on the one hand a system of numbers1 functional in nature and reduced to a few ground-formul1 and on the other a small group of theories1 denominators to those numerators1 which in the end will be seen to be myths of the springtime under modern veils1 reducible therefore--and at once of necessity reduced--to picturable and physiognomically significant characters that are the fundamentals4 ,this convergence has not yet been observed1 for the reason that since ,kant--indeed1 since ,leibniz--there has been no philosopher who commanded the problems of all the exact sciences4 ,even a century ago1 physics and chemistry were foreign to one another1 but to-day they cannot be handled separately--witness spectrum analysis1 radioactivity1 radiation of heat4 ,fifty years ago the essence of chemistry could still be described almost without mathematics1 and to- day the chemical elements are in course of volatilizing themselves into the mathematical constants of variable relation-complexes1 and with the sense-comprehensibility of the elements goes the last trace of magnitude as the term is ,classically and plastically understood4 ,physiology is becoming a chapter of organic chemistry and is making use of the methods of the ,infinitesimal ,calculus4 ,the branch of the older physics-- distinguished1 according to the bodily senses concerned in each1 as acoustics1 optics and heat--have melted into a dynamic of matter and a dynamic of the ther1 and these again can no longer keep their frontiers mathematically clear4 ,the last discussions of epistemology are now uniting with those of higher analysis and theoretical physics to occupy an almost inaccessible domain1 the domain to which1 for example1 the theory of ,relativity belongs or ought to belong4 ,the sign-language in which the emanation-theory of radioactivity expresses itself is completely de-sensualized4 ,chemistry1 once concerned with defining as sharply as possible the qualities of elements1 such as valency1 weight1 affinity and reactivity1 is setting to work to get rid of these sensible traits4 ,the elements are held to differ in character according to their derivation from this or that compound4 ,they are represented to be complexes of different units which indeed behave 78actually07 as units of a higher order and are not practically separable but show deep differences in point of radioactivity4 ,through the emanation of radiant energy degradation is always going on1 so that we can speak of the lifetime of an element1 in formal contradiction with the original concept of the element and the spirit of modern chemistry as created by ,lavoisier4 ,all these tendencies are bringing the ideas of chemistry very close to the theory of ,entropy1 with its suggestive opposition of causality and destiny1 ,nature and ,history4 ,and they indicate the paths that our science is pursuing--on the one hand1 towards the discovery that its logical and numerical results are identical with the structure of the reason itself1 and1 on the other1 towards the revelation that the whole theory which clothes these numbers merely represents the symbolic expression of ,faustian life4 ,and here1 as our study draws to its conclusion1 we must mention the truly ,faustian theory of 8aggregates10 one of the weightiest in all this form-world of our science4 ,in sharpest antithesis to the older mathematic1 it deals1 not with singular quantities but with the aggregates constituted by all quantities or objects having this or that specified morphological similarity--for instance all square numbers or all differential equations of a given type4 ,such an aggregate it conceives as a new unit1 a new number of higher order1 and subjecting it to criteria of new and hitherto quite unsuspected kinds such as 8potency10 8order10 8equivalence10 8countableness10 and devising laws and operative methods for it in respect of these criteria4 ,thus is being actualized a last extension of the function-theory4#ebh ,little by little this absorbed the whole of our mathematic1 and now it is dealing with variables by the principles of the ,theory of ,groups in respect of the character of the function and by those of the ,theory of ,aggregates in respect of the values of the variables4 ,mathematical philosophy is well aware that these ultimate meditations on the nature of number are fusing with those upon pure logic1 and an algebra of logic is talked of4 ,the study of geometrical axioms has become a chapter of epistemology4 ,the aim to which all this is striving1 and which in particular every ,nature-researcher feels in himself as an impulse1 is the achievement of a pure numerical transcendence1 the complete and inclusive conquest of the visibly apparent and its replacement by a language of imagery unintelligible to the layman and impossible of sensuous realization--but a language that the great ,faustian symbol of ,infinite space endows with the dignity of inward necessity4 ,the deep scepticism of these final judgments links the soul anew to the forms of early ,gothic religiousness4 ,the inorganic1 known and dissected world-around1 the ,world as ,nature and ,system1 has deepened itself until it is a pure sphere of functional numbers4 ,but1 as we have seen1 number is one of the most primary symbols in every ,culture2 and consequently the way to pure number is the return of the waking consciousness to its own secret1 the revelation of its own formal necessity4 ,the goal reached1 the vast and ever more meaningless and threadbare fabric woven around natural science falls apart4 ,it was1 after all1 nothing but the inner structure of the 8,reason10 the grammar by which it believed it could overcome the ,visible and extract therefrom the ,true4 ,but what appears under the fabric is once again the earliest and deepest1 the ,myth1 the immediate ,becoming1 ,life itself4 ,the less anthropomorphic science believes itself to be1 the more anthropomorphic it is4 ,one by one it gets rid of the separate human traits in the ,nature-picture1 only to find at the end that the supposed pure ,nature which it holds in its hand is--humanity itself1 pure and complete4 ,out of the ,gothic soul grew up1 till it overshadowed the religious world-picture1 the spirit of the ,city1 the alter ego of irreligious ,nature-science4 ,but now1 in the sunset of the scientific epoch and the rise of victorious ,skepsis1 the clouds dissolve and the quiet landscape of the morning reappears in all distinctness4 ,the final issue to which the ,faustian wisdom tends--though it is only in the highest moments that it has seen it--is the dissolution of all knowledge into a vast system of morphological relationships4 ,dynamics and ,analysis are in respect of meaning1 form-language and substance1 identical with ,romanesque ornament1 ,gothic cathedrals1 ,christian-,german dogma and the dynastic state4 ,one and the same world-feeling speaks in all of them4 ,they were born with1 and they aged with1 the ,faustian ,culture1 and they present that ,culture in the world of day and space as a historical drama4 ,the uniting of the several scientific aspects into one will bear all the marks of the great art of counterpoint4 ,an infinitesimal music of the boundless world-space--that is the deep unresting longing of this soul1 as the orderly statuesque and ,euclidean ,cosmos was the satisfaction of the ,classical4 ,that--formulated by a logical necessity of ,faustian reason as a dynamic-imperative causality1 then developed into a dictatorial1 hard-working1 world-transforming science--is the grand legacy of the ,faustian soul to the souls of ,cultures yet to be1 a bequest of immensely transcendent forms that the heirs will possibly ignore4 ,and then1 weary after its striving1 the ,western science returns to its spiritual home4 ----- ,footnote #cfi3 ,see pp4 #ee et seq4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,see p4 #abf4 ,footnote #cga3 ,primitive languages afford no foundations for abstract ordered thought4 ,but at the beginning of every ,culture an inner change takes place in the language that makes it adequate for carrying the highest symbolic tasks of the ensuing cultural development4 ,thus it was simultaneously with the ,romanesque style that ,english and ,german arose out of the ,teutonic languages of the ,frankish period1 and ,french1 ,italian and ,spanish out of the 8lingua rustica0 of the old ,roman provinces--languages of identical metaphysical content though so dissimilar in origin4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,see p4 #bfb4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,see p4 #agb4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,that is1 discussion of the doctrines of the ,eleatic school regarding unity and plurality1 the ,ent and ,nonent1 focussed themselves1 in ,zeno1 down to the famous paradoxes concerning the nature of motion 7such as 8,achilles and the ,tortoise07 which within the ,greek discipline were unanswerable4 ,their general effect was to show that motion depended upon the existence of an indefinitely great plurality1 that is1 of infinitely small subdivisions as well as infinitely great quantities1 and1 the denial of this plurality being the essential feature of the ,eleatic philosophy1 its application to motion was bound to produce 8paradoxes40 ,the enunciations1 with a brief but close critique1 will be found in the ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed41 ,article ,zeno of ,elea4 ,here it suffices to draw attention to the difficulties that are caused by the absence 7or unwelcome presence7 of time and direction elements1 not only in the treatment of plurality itself 7which is conceived of indifferently as an augmentation or as a subdivision of the finite magnitude7 but especially in the conclusion of the 8arrow0 paradox and in the very obscure enunciation of ,paradox #h4--,tr4 ,footnote #cge3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bif et seq4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,de ,boer1 ,gesch4 d4 ,philos4 im ,islam 7#aija71 pp4 #ic1 #ajh4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,a detailed summary will be found in ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed41 article ,kabbalah1 by ,dr4 ,ginsburg and ,dr4 ,cook4--,tr4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,see ,windelband1 ,gesch4 d4 neueren ,philosophie 7#aiai71 ,i1 #bjh2 also ,hinnebert1 ,kultur der ,gegenwart1 ,i1 ,v 7#aiac71 p4 #dhd4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed41 article ,cartesianism 7,v1 #dba74--,tr4 ,footnote #chj3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bif4 ,footnote #cha3 ,when1 therefore1 in the present work also1 precedence is consistently given to ,time1 ,direction and ,destiny over ,space and ,causality1 this must not be supposed to be the result of reasoned proofs4 ,it is the outcome of 7quite unconscious7 tendencies of life-feeling--the only mode of origin of philosophic ideas4 ,footnote #chb3 ,see p4 #bja4 ,footnote #chc3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfc4 ,footnote #chd3 ,in the ,german1 8,vor allem aber sein eignes ,ich40 7,but in ,luther's ,bible1 characteristically1 8,auch dazu sein eigen ,leben407--,tr4 ,footnote #che3 ,barnasha4 ,the underlying idea is not the filial relation1 but an impersonal coming-up in the field of mankind4 ,footnote #chf3 and imply1 to have the intention1 or wish1 or inclination 7 means counsel1 council1 plan1 and has no equivalent noun74 ,voluntas is not a psychological concept but1 like potestas and virtus1 a thoroughly ,roman and matter-of-fact designation for a practical1 visible and outward asset--substantially1 the mass of an individual's being4 ,in like case1 we use the word energy4 ,the 8will0 of ,napoleon is something very different from the energy of ,napoleon1 being1 as it were1 lift in contrast to weight4 ,we must not confuse the outward-directed intelligence1 which distinguishes the ,romans as civilized men from the ,greeks as cultured men1 with 8will0 as understood here4 ,csar is not a man of will in the ,napoleonic sense4 ,the idioms of ,roman law1 which represent the root-feeling of the ,roman soul far better than those of poetry1 are significant in this regard4 ,intention in the legal sense is animus 7animus occidendi72 the wish1 directed to some criminal end1 is dolus as distinct from the unintended wrongdoing 7culpa74 ,voluntas is nowhere used as a technical term4 ,footnote #chg3 ,the ,chinese soul 8wanders0 in its world4 ,this is the meaning of the ,east-,asiatic perspective1 which places the vanishing point in the middle of the picture instead of in the depth as we do4 ,the function of perspective is to subject things to the 8,i10 which in ordering comprehends them2 and it is a further indication that 8will0--the claim to command the world--is absent from the ,classical make-up that its painting denies the perspective background4 ,in ,chinese perspective as in ,chinese technique 7see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fbg71 directional energy is wanting1 and it would not be illegitimate to call ,east-,asiatic perspective1 in contrast with the powerful thrust into depth of our landscape-painting1 a perspective of 8,tao02 for the world-feeling indicated by that word is unmistakably the operative element in the picture4 ,footnote #chh3 ,obviously1 atheism is no exception to this4 ,when a ,materialist or ,darwinian speaks of a 8,nature0 that orders everything1 that effects selections1 that produces and destroys anything1 he differs only to the extent of one word from the #ahth-,century ,deist4 ,the world- feeling has undergone no change4 ,footnote #chi3 ,lines #ebe-ecd3 4 2 4 1 etc4--,tr4 ,footnote #cij3 ,iliad1 ,,xxii1 #bjh-bae4--,tr4 ,footnote #cia3 ,the great part played by learned ,jesuits in the development of theoretical physics must not be overlooked4 ,father ,boscovich1 with his system of atomic forces 7#agei71 made the first serious advance beyond ,newton4 ,the idea of the equivalence of ,god and pure space is even more evident in ,jesuit work than it is in that of the ,jansenists of ,port ,royal with whom ,descartes and ,pascal were associated4 7,boscovich's atomic theory is discussed by ,james ,clerk ,maxwell in ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed41 ,,xviii1 #fee--;a reference that1 for more general reasons1 no student of the ,faustian-as-scientist should fail to follow up4--,tr47 ,footnote #cib3 ,luther placed practical activity 7the day's demands1 as ,goethe said7 at the very centre of morale1 and that is one of the main reasons why it was to the deeper natures that ,protestantism appealed most cogently4 ,works of piety devoid of directional energy 7in the sense that we give the words here7 fell at once from the high esteem in which they had been sustained 7as the ,renaissance was sustained7 by a relic of ,southern feeling4 ,on ethical grounds monasticism thenceforth falls into ever-increasing disrepute4 ,in the ,gothic ,age entry into the cloister1 the renunciation of care1 deed and will1 had been an act of the loftiest ethical character--the highest sacrifice that it was possible to imagine1 that of life4 ,but in the ,baroque even ,roman ,catholics no longer felt thus about it4 ,and the institutions1 no longer of renunciation but merely of inactive comfort1 went down before the spirit of the ,enlightenment4 ,footnote #cic3 meant in the older ,greek 8visage10 and later1 in ,athens1 8mask40 ,as late as ,aristotle the word is not yet in use for person4 8,persona10 originally also a theatre-mask1 came to have a juristic application1 and in ,roman ,imperial times the pregnant ,roman sense of this word affected the ,greek also4 ,see ,r4 ,hirzel1 ,die ,person 7#aiad71 pp4 #dj et seq4 ,footnote #cid3 ,see pp4 #abg et seq4 ,footnote #cie3 ,w4 ,creizenach1 ,gesch4 d4 neueren ,dramas 7#aiah71 ,,ii1 #cdf et seq4 ,footnote #cif3 ,see p4 #bfe4 ,footnote #cig3 ,we too have our anecdote1 but it is of our own type and diametrically opposed to the ,classical4 ,it is the 8short story0 7,novelle7--the story of ,cervantes1 ,kleist1 ,hoffmann and ,storm--and we admire it in proportion as we are made to feel that its motive is possible only this once1 at this time and with these people1 whereas the mythic type of anecdote1 the ,fable1 is judged by precisely opposite criteria4 ,footnote #cih3 ,see pp4 #adc et seq4 ,footnote #cii3 ,the ,fates of the ,greeks are represented as spinning1 measuring out and cutting the thread of a man's destiny1 but not as weaving it into the web of his life4 ,it is a mere dimension4--,tr4 ,footnote #djj3 ,see p4 #abi4 ,footnote #dja3 ,the evolution of meaning in the ,classical words pathos and passico corresponds with this4 ,the second was formed from the first only in the ,imperial period1 and carried its original sense in the 8,passion0 of ,christ4 ,it was in the early ,gothic times1 and particularly in the language of the ,franciscan 8,zealots0 and the disciples of ,joachim of ,floris1 that its meaning underwent the decisive reversal4 ,expressing thenceforward a condition of profound excitement which strained to discharge itself1 it became finally a generic name for all spiritual dynamic2 in this sense of strong will and directional energy it was brought into ,german as ,leidenschaft by ,zesen in #afdg4 ,footnote #djb3 ,the ,eleusinian mysteries contained no secrets at all4 ,everyone knew what went on4 ,but upon the believers they exercised a strange and overpowering effect1 and the 8betrayal0 consisted in profaning them by imitating their holy forms outside the temple-precinct4 ,see1 further1 ,a4 ,dieterich1 ,kleine ,schriften 7#aiaa71 pp4 #dad et seq4 ,footnote #djc3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cde et seq4 ,footnote #djd3 ,the dancers were goats1 ,silenus as leader of the dance wore a horsetail1 but ,aristophanes's 8,birds10 8,frogs0 and 8,wasps0 suggest that there were still other animal disguises4 ,footnote #dje3 ,see pp4 #bhc et seq4 ,footnote #djf3 ,as the student of cultural history to-day is not necessarily familiar with technical ,greek1 it may be helpful to reproduce from ,cornish's edition of ,smith's 8,greek and ,roman ,antiquities10 s4v4 8,tragoedia10 the following paragraph1 as clear as it is succinct3 8,tragedy is described by ,aristotle 7,poet41 ,,vi1 #b7 as effecting by means of pity and terror that purgation of the soul 77 which belongs to is proper for such feelings40444 ,tragedy excites pity and terror by presenting to the mind things which are truly pitiable and terrible4 ,when pity and terror are moved1 as tragedy moves them1 by a worthy cause1 then the mind experiences that sense of relief which comes from finding an outlet for a natural energy4 ,and thus the impressions made by ,tragedy leave behind them in the spectator a temperate and harmonious state of the soul4 ,similarly ,aristotle speaks of the enthusiastic worshippers of ,dionysus as obtaining a 1 a healthful relief1 by the 8lyric utterance of their sacred frenzy40-- ,tr4 ,footnote #djg3 ,the evolution of ideals of stage-presentation in the minds of schylus1 ,sophocles and ,euripides successively is perhaps comparable with that of sculptural style which we see in the pediments of gina1 of ,olympia and of the ,parthenon4 ,footnote #djh3 ,it must be repeated that the ,hellenistic shadow-painting of ,zeuxis and ,apollodorus is a modelling of the individual body for the purpose of producing the plastic effect on the eye4 ,there was no idea of rendering space by means of light and shade4 ,the body is 8shaded0 but it casts no shadow4 7,contrast with this ,dante's exact and careful specification of the time-of-day in every episode of the ,purgatorio and the ,paradiso1 sublimely imaginative as these poems are4--,tr47 ,footnote #dji3 ,the great mass of ,socialists would cease to be ,socialists if they could understand the ,socialism of the nine or ten men who to-day grasp it with the full historical consequences that it involves4 ,footnote #daj3 ,see p4 #bci et seq4 ,footnote #daa3 ,see p4 #fh4 ,footnote #dab3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfc1 note4 ,footnote #dac3 ,as we increase the powers of the telescope we find that the number of newly appearing stars falls off rapidly towards the edges of the field4 ,footnote #dad3 ,the thrill of big figures is a feeling peculiar to ,western mankind4 ,in the ,civilization of to-day this significant passion for gigantic sums1 for indefinitely big and indefinitely minute measurements1 for 8records0 and statistics1 is playing a conspicuous part4 7,our very notation of number is ceasing to rest on sense-standards4 ,science has carried number1 as ordinarily written1 so high and so low that it now uses a movable base for its numerical statements4 ,for example1 a number in astronomy is written1 not as #c1dej1jjj1jjj but as #c4de #aji1 one relating to ordinary experience as #c4de 7i4e41 #c4de #ajj7 and one in electromagnetic theory1 not as #j4jjjjjcde but as #c4de #aj-f4 ,under this system the conceptual unit may be as large or as small1 compared with the unit of daily experience1 as the region of thought in which the calculation is taking place requires4 ,and different conceptual worlds can be connected as to number say1 a number of kilometres brought into an order of thought that deals with millimetres by simply changing the ten-power4--,tr47 ,footnote #dae3 ,in stellar calculations even the mean radius of the earth's orbit 7#a4dic #ajac cm47 hardly suffices as unit1 as the distance of a star of one second parallax is already #bjf1bfe such units away from us2 star-distances are reckoned therefore either in light-years or in terms of the unit distance of a star of this standard parallax4--,tr4 ,footnote #daf3 ,as early as the second millennium before ,christ they worked from ,iceland and the ,north ,sea past ,finisterre to the ,canaries and ,west ,africa4 ,an echo of these voyagings lingers in the ,atlantis-saga of the ,greeks4 ,the realm of ,tartessus 7at the mouth of the ,guadalquivir7 appears to have been a centre of these movements 7see ,leo ,frobenius1 ,das unbekannte ,afrika1 p4 #aci74 ,some sort of relation1 too1 there must have been between them and the movements of the 8sea peoples10 ,viking swarms which after long land-wanderings from ,north to ,south built themselves ships again on the ,black ,sea or the gean and burst out against ,egypt from the time of ,rameses ,,ii 7#abib-abbe74 ,the ,egyptian reliefs show their ship-types to have been quite different from the native and the ,phnician2 but they may well have been similar to those that ,csar found afterwards among the ,veneti of ,brittany4 ,a later example of such outbursts is afforded by the ,varyags or ,varangians in ,russia and at ,constantinople4 ,no doubt more light will shortly be thrown on the courses of these movement-streams4 ,footnote #dag3 ,here there is no need to postulate firearms 7as distinct from gunpowder used in fireworks7 in the ,chinese ,culture4 ,the archery of the ,chinese and ,japanese was such as only the ,british #adth-century archery could match in the ,western and nothing in the ,classical4 ,it should be noted also that it was in our #adth ,century that--quite independently of gunpowder--archery and the construction of siege- engines reached their zenith in the ,west4 ,the 8,english0 bow had long been used by the ,welsh1 but it was left to ,edward ,i and ,edward ,,iii to make it the tactical weapon par excellence4--,tr4 ,footnote #dah3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #fbf et seq4 ,footnote #dai3 ,half as long again as ,nelson's ,victory and about the same length as the last wooden steam three-deckers 7e4g41 ,duke of ,wellington7 of the mid-#aith ,century4--,tr4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bjg et seq41 and ,chapter ,,iv ,b4 ,footnote #dba3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hj4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,i4e41 adherents of the various syncretic cults4 ,sec ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bab et seq4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,this applies even more forcibly to the other 8long-range0 episode1 that of the ,ten ,thousand 7,xenophon1 ,anabasis ,i74--,tr4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,in this place it is exclusively with the conscious1 religio- philosophical morale--the morale which can be known and taught and followed--that we are concerned1 and not with the racial rhythm of ,life1 the habit1 ,sitte1 1 that is unconsciously present4 ,the morale with which we are dealing turns upon intellectual concepts of ,virtue and ,vice1 good and bad2 the other1 upon ideals in the blood such as honour1 loyalty1 bravery1 the feeling that attributes nobility and vulgarity4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 #dba et seq4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,the original is here expanded a little for the sake of clarity4--,tr4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,after what has been said above regarding the absence of pregnant words for 8will0 and 8space0 in the ,classical tongues1 the reader will not be surprised to hear that neither ,greek nor ,latin affords exact equivalents for these words action and activity4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bic et seq4 ,footnote #dbh3 8,he who hath ears to hear1 let him hear0--there is no claim to power in these words4 ,but the ,western ,church never conceived its mission thus4 ,the 8,glad ,tidings0 of ,jesus1 like those of ,zoroaster1 of ,mani1 of ,mahomet1 of the ,neo-,platonists and of all the cognate ,magian religions were mystic benefits displayed but in nowise imposed4 ,youthful ,christianity1 when it had flowed into the ,western world1 merely imitated the missionarism of the later ,stoa1 itself by that time thoroughly ,magian4 ,paul may be thought of as urgent2 the itinerant preachers of the ,stoa were certainly so1 as we know from our authorities4 ,but commanding they were not4 ,to illustrate by a somewhat farfetched parallel--in direct contrast to the physicians of the ,magian stamp who merely proclaimed the virtues of their mysterious arcana1 the medical men of the ,west seek to obtain for their knowledge the force of civil law1 as for instance in the matter of vaccination or the inspection of pork for trichina4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,for the ,buddhist ,four ,truths see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #gdb4 ,english translation of ,kant's ,kritik der praktischen ,vernunft by ,t4 ,k4 ,abbott4--,tr4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,see p4 #bja4 ,footnote #dca3 ,see p4 #bje and #bbb et seq4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ccd4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,the philosophy and dogma of charity and almsgiving--a subject that ,english research seems generally to have ignored--is dealt with at length in ,dr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,loch's article ,charity and ,charities1 ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed4--,tr4 ,footnote #dcd3 ,not only as local sovereigns enforcing order1 like the good ,bishop ,wazo of ,lige who fought down his castled robber-barons one by one in the middle of the #aath ,century1 but even as high commanders for the ,emperor in distant ,italy4 ,the battle of ,tusculum in #aafg was won by the ,archbishops of ,kln and ,mainz4 ,english history1 too1 contains the figures of warlike prelates--not only leaders of national movements like ,stephen ,langton but strong-handed administrators and fighters4 ,the great ,scots invasion of #acdf was met and defeated by the ,archbishop of ,york4 ,the ,bishops of ,durham were for centuries 8palatines02 we find one of them serving on pay in the ,king's army in ,france1 #acdh4 ,the line of these warlike ,bishops in our history extends from ,odo the brother of ,william the ,conqueror to ,scrope1 archbishop and rebel in ,henry ,,iv's time4--,tr4 ,footnote #dce3 ,a paraphrase of the opening of 8,john ,tanner's ,revolutionist's ,handbook10 ,ch4 ,v4--,tr4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aaf et seq4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,rousseau's ,contrat ,social is paralleled by exactly equivalent productions of ,aristotle's time4 ,footnote #dch3 ,the first on the atheistical system of ,sankhya1 the second 7through ,socrates7 on the ,sophists1 the third on ,english sensualism4 ,footnote #dci3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #dda et seq4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,it was many centuries later that the ,buddhist ethic of life gave rise to a religion for simple peasantry1 and it was only enabled to do so by reaching back to the long-stiffened theology of ,brahmanism and1 further back still1 to very ancient popular cults4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cgh1 #bhe4 ,footnote #dda3 ,the articles ,buddha and ,buddhism in the ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed41 by ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys ,davids1 may be studied in this connexion4--,tr4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,see 8,the ,questions of ,king ,milinda10 ed4 ,rhys ,davids4--,tr4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,of course1 each ,culture naturally has its own kind of materialism1 conditioned in every detail by its general world-feeling4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,to begin with1 it would be necessary to specify what ,christianity was being compared with it--that of the ,fathers or that of the ,crusades4 ,for these are two different religions in the same clothing of dogma and cult4 ,the same want of psychological flair is evident in the parallel that is so fashionable to-day between ,socialism and early ,christianity4 ,footnote #dde3 ,the term must not be confused with anti-religious4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,note the striking similarity of many ,roman portrait-busts to the matter-of-fact modern heads of the ,american style1 and also 7though this is not so distinct7 to many of the portrait-heads of the ,egyptian ,new ,empire4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #abb et seq4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,the original is here very obscure2 it reads3 8444 es ist der #8,gebildete1' jener ,anhnger eines ,kultus des geistigen ,mittelmasses und der ,offentlichkeit als ,kultsttte40--,tr4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,see ,p4 ,wendland1 ,die hellenist4-rm4 ,kultur 7#aiab71 pp4 #ge et seq4 ,footnote #dej3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cah et seq4 ,footnote #dea3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bfi et seq4 ,footnote #deb3 ,compare my ,preussentum und ,sozialismus1 pp4 #bb et seq4 ,footnote #dec3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cbd et seq41 #cfh et seq4 ,footnote #ded3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cde4 ,it is possible that the peculiar style of ,heraclitus1 who came of a priestly family of the temple of ,ephesus1 is an example of the form in which the old ,orphic wisdom was orally transmitted4 ,footnote #dee3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #def3 ,here we are considering only the scholastic side4 ,the mystic side1 from which ,pythagoras and ,leibniz were not very far1 reached its culminations in ,plato and ,goethe1 and in our own case it has been extended beyond ,goethe by the ,romantics1 ,hegel and ,nietzsche1 whereas ,scholasticism exhausted itself with ,kant--and ,aristotle--and degenerated thereafter into a routine-profession4 ,footnote #deg3 ,zeno the ,stoic1 not to be confused with ,zeno of ,elea1 whose mathematical fineness has already been alluded to4--,tr4 ,footnote #deh3 ,neue ,paralipomena1 #fef4 ,footnote #dei3 ,even the modern idea that unconscious and impulsive acts of life are completely efficient1 while intellect can only bungle1 is to be found in ,schopenhauer 7,vol4 ,,ii1 cap4 #cj74 ,footnote #dfj3 ,in the chapter 8,zur ,metaphysik der ,geschlechtsliebe0 7,,ii1 #dd7 the idea of natural selection for the preservation of the genus is anticipated in full4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cf et seq4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,this began to appear in #ahfg4 ,but the preliminary work ,zur ,kritik der politischen konomie came out in the same year as ,darwin's masterpiece4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fbe4 ,see1 for example1 ,leonard1 ,relativitts-,prinzip1 ,aether1 ,gravitation 7#aibj71 pp4 #bj et seq4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cfi et seq41 #fbd et seq4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,see p4 #eg4 ,footnote #dff3 ,e4g41 in ,boltzmann's formulation of the ,second ,law of ,thermodynamics3 8the logarithm of the probability of a state is proportional to the entropy of that state40 ,every word in this contains an entire scientific concept1 capable only of being sensed and not described4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfi4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #chb et seq4 ,footnote #dfi3 ,e4 ,wiedermann1 ,die ,naturwissensch4 bei den ,arabern 7#ahij74 ,f4 ,struntz1 ,gesch4 d4 ,naturwissensch4 im ,mittelalter 7#aiaj71 p4 #eh4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,an order of encyclopdists and philosophers2 see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgh;a4--,tr4 ,footnote #dga3 ,m4 ,p4 ,e4 ,berthelot1 ,die ,chemie im ,altertum u4 ,mittelalter 7#aiji71 pp4 #fd et seq4 7,the reference is evidently to a ,german version2 ,berthelot published several works on the subject1 viz41 ,les origines de l',alchmie #ahhe2 ,introduction l'tude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen ge #ahhi2 ,collection des anciens alchimistes grecs #ahhg1 translations of texts2 ,la chimie au moyen ge #ahic4--,tr4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,for the metals1 8mercury0 is the principle of substantial character 7lustre1 tensility1 fusibility71 8sulphur0 that of the attributive generation 7e4g41 combustion1 transmutation74 ,see ,struntz1 ,gesch4 d4 ,naturwissensch4 im ,mittelalter 7#aiaj71 pp4 #gc et seq4 7,it seems desirable to supplement this a little for the non-technical reader1 by stating1 however roughly and generally1 the principle and process of transmutation as the alchemist saw them4 ,all metals consist of mercury and sulphur4 ,remove 8materiality0 from common mercury 7or from the mercury-content of the metal under treatment7 by depriving it 7or the metal7 of 8earthness10 8liquidness0 and 8airiness0 7i4e41 volatility7 and we have a prime1 substantial 7though not material7 and stable thing4 ,similarly1 remove materiality from sulphur 7or the sulphur-content of the metal treated7 and it becomes an elixir1 efficient for generating attributes4 ,then1 the prime matter and the elixir react upon one another so that the product on reassuming materiality is a different metal1 or rather a 8metallicity0 endowed with different characters and attributes4 ,the production of one metal from another thus depends merely on the modalities of working processes4--,tr47 ,footnote #dgc3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cgj1 #fbg4 ,footnote #dgd3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cad et seq4 ,footnote #dge3 ,see the article under this heading1 and also that under ,alchemy1 ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed4--,tr4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,during the ,gothic age1 in spite of the ,spanish ,dominican ,arnold of ,villanova 7d4 #acaa71 chemistry had had no sort of creative importance in comparison with the mathematical-physical research of that age4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,for even ,helmholtz had sought to account for the phenomena of electrolysis by the assumption of an atomic structure of electricity4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,which in their physical aspect are individual centres of force1 without parts or extension or figure4 7,for their metaphysical aspect1 see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi edition4 ,article ,leibniz1 especially pp4 #chg-h4-- ,tr47 ,footnote #dgi3 ,m4 ,born1 ,aufbau der ,materie 7#aibj71 p4 #bg4 7,so many books and papers--strict1 semi-popular and frankly popular-- have been published in the last few years that references may seem superfluous1 the more so as the formulation of this central theory of present-day physics4 ,the article ,matter by ,rutherford in the ,ency4 ,brit41 ,x,i,ith edition 7#aibb71 and ,bertrand ,russell1 ,the ,a4,b4,c4 of ,atoms1 are perhaps the clearest elementary accounts that are possible1 having regard to the scientist's necessary reservations of judgment4--,tr4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,see p4 #bca4 ,footnote #dha3 ,see p4 #agb4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,see p4 #aba and ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aa et seq4 ,footnote #dhc3 ,see p4 #afi4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,see p4 #aff and ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,see p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,see p4 #aaf et seq41 pp4 #aea et seq4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cfi et seq4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,j4 ,goldziher1 ,die islam4 und jd4 ,philosophie 78,kultur der ,gegenwart10 ,i1 ,v1 #aiac71 pp4 #cjf et seq4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bg et seq41 #dbg et seq4 ,footnote #dij3 ,and it may be asserted that the downright faith that ,haeckel1 for example1 pins to the names atom1 matter1 energy1 is not essentially different from the fetishism of ,neanderthal ,man4 ,footnote #dia3 ,see p4 #abf4 ,footnote #dib3 ,compare ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ch et seq4 ,footnote #dic3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cje4 ,footnote #did3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cdc et seq41 and p4 #cdf4 ,footnote #die3 ,e4 ,mogk1 ,germ4 ,mythol41 ,grundr4 d4 ,germ4 ,philos41 ,,iii 7#aijj71 p4 #cdj4 ,footnote #dif3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bda et seq41 #cjf et seq4 ,footnote #dig3 ,see p4 #bfh4 ,footnote #dih3 ,the pantheistic idea of ,pan1 familiar in ,european poetry1 is a conception of later ,classical ages1 acquired in principle from ,egypt4-- ,tr4 ,footnote #dii3 ,few passages in the ,acts of the ,apostles have obtained a stronger hold on our imagination than ,paul's meeting with the altar of 8the ,unknown ,god0 at ,phalerum 7,acts ,,xvii1 #bc74 ,and yet we have perfectly definite evidence1 later than ,paul's time1 of the plurality of the gods to whom this altar was dedicated4 ,pausanias in his guide-book 7,i1 #bd7 says3 8here there are 444 altars of the gods styled ,unknowns1 of heroes1 etc40 7 444 44474 ,such1 however1 is the force of our fixed idea that even ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 in his 8,pausanias and ,other ,studies10 speaks of 8,the ,altar to the ,unknown ,god which ,st4 ,paul1 and ,pausanias after him1 saw40 ,more1 he follows this up with a description of a dialogue 8attributed to ,lucian0 7#bnd ,cent4 ,a4,d47 in which the ,unknown ,god of ,athens figures in a ,christian discussion2 but this dialogue 7the ,philopatris7 is almost universally regarded as a much later work1 dating at earliest from ,julian's time 7mid-#dth ,cent47 and probably from that of ,nicephorus ,phocas 7#ajth ,cent474--,tr4 ,footnote #ejj3 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer 7#aiab71 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #eja3 ,see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed41 article ,great ,mother of the ,gods4--,tr4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,in ,egypt ,ptolemy ,philadelphus was the first to introduce a ruler-cult4 ,the reverence that had been paid to the ,pharaohs was of quite other significance4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bda et seq4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,significantly enough1 the formula of the oath sworn by this stone was not 8per ,jovis lapidem0 but 8per ,jovem lapidem40--,tr4 ,footnote #eje3 ,the ,erechtheum1 similarly1 was a group of cult-sites1 each refraining from interference with the others4--,tr4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,juppiter ,dolichenus was a local deity of ,doliche in ,commagene1 whose worship was spread over all parts of the ,empire by soldiers recruited from that region2 the tablet dedicated to him which is in the ,british ,museum was found1 for example1 near ,frankfurt-on-,main4 ,sol ,invictus is the ,roman official form of ,mithras4 ,troop-movements and trade spread his worship1 like that of ,juppiter ,dolichenus1 over the ,empire4--,tr4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,to whom the inhabitants of 8,roman0 ,carthage managed to attach even ,dido4--,tr4 ,footnote #ejh3 ,wissowa1 ,kult4 und4 ,relig4 d4 ,rmer 7#aiab71 pp4 #ih et seq4 ,footnote #eji3 ,wissowa1 ,relig4 u4 ,kult4 der ,rmer 7#aiab71 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,the symbolic importance of the ,title1 and its relation to the concept and idea of the ,person1 cannot here be dealt with4 ,it must suffice to draw attention to the fact that the ,classical is the only ,culture in which the ,title is unknown4 ,it would have been in contradiction with the strictly somatic character of their names4 ,apart from personal and family names1 only the technical names of offices actually exercised were in use4 8,augustus0 became at once a personal name1 8,csar0 very soon a designation of office4 ,the advance of the ,magian feeling can be seen in the way in which courtesy-expressions of the ,late-,roman bureaucracy1 like 8,vir clarissimus10 became permanent titles of honour which could be conferred and cancelled4 ,in just the same way1 the names of old and foreign deities became titles of the recognized ,godhead2 e4g41 ,saviour and ,healer 7,asklepios7 and ,good ,shepherd 7,orpheus7 are titles of ,christ4 ,in the ,classical1 on the contrary1 we find the secondary names of ,roman deities evolving into independent and separate gods4 ,footnote #eaa3 ,diagoras1 who was condemned to death by the ,athenians for his 8godless0 writings1 left behind him deeply pious dithyrambs4 ,read1 too1 ,hebbel's diaries and his letters to ,elise4 ,he 8did not believe in ,god10 but he prayed4 ,footnote #eab3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cgf4 ,footnote #eac3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdd4 ,footnote #ead3 ,livy ,,xl1 #bi4--,tr4 ,footnote #eae3 ,in the famous conclusion of his 8,optics0 7#agjf7 which made a powerful impression and became the starting-point of quite new enunciations of theological problems1 ,newton limits the domain of mechanical causes as against the ,divine ,first ,cause1 whose perception-organ is necessarily infinite space itself4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,as has been shown already1 the dynamic structure of our thought was manifested first of all when ,western languages changed 8feci0 to 8ego habeo factum10 and thereafter we have increasingly emphasized the dynamic in the phrases with which we fix our phenomena4 ,we say1 for instance1 that industry 8finds outlets for itself0 and that ,rationalism 8has come into power40 ,no ,classical language allows of such expressions4 ,no ,greek would have spoken of ,stoicism1 but only of the ,stoics4 ,there is an essential difference1 too1 between the imagery of ,classical and that of ,western poetry in this respect4 ,footnote #eag3 ,the law of the equivalence of heat and work4--,tr4 ,footnote #eah3 ,see p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #eai3 ,original3 8,keine dem abendlndischen ,geist natrliche ,art der ,deutung mechanischer ,tatsachen1 welche die ,begriffe ,gestalt und ,substanz 7allenfalls ,raum und ,masse7 statt ,raum1 ,zeit1 ,masse1 und ,kraft zugrunde liegt40 ,footnote #ebj3 ,see foot-note1 p4 #cad4--,tr4 ,footnote #eba3 ,see p4 #cee4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fah4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,see ,m4 ,planck1 ,entstehung und bisherige ,entwicklung der ,quantentheorie 7#aibj71 pp4 #ag-be4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,which in many cases have led to the supposition that the 8actual existence0 of atoms has now at last been proved--a singular throw-back to the materialism of the preceding generation4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,this sentence follows the original word for word and phrase for phrase4 ,its significance depends wholly on the precise meaning to be attached to such words as 8dead10 8free10 8latent10 and to attempt any sharper formulation of the processes in ,english would require not only the definition of these 7or other7 basic terms but also extended description of what they imply4 ,the ,second ,law of ,thermodynamics is something which is absorbed by1 rather than specified for1 the student4 ,elsewhere in this ,english edition1 indications have been frequently given to enable the ordinary student to follow up matters referred to more allusively in the text4 ,but in this difficult domain such minor aids would be worthless4 ,all that is possible is to recommend such students to make a very careful study of some plain statement of the subject like ,professor ,soddy's 8,matter and ,energy0 7especially chapters #d and #e7 and to follow this up--to the extent that his mathematical knowledge permits--in the articles ,energy1 ,energetics and ,thermodynamics in the ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed4--,tr4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,see foot-note1 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,the application of the idea of 8lifetime0 to elements has in fact produced the conception of 8half-transformation times0 such as #c4he days for ,radium ,emanation4--,tr44 ,footnote #ebh3 ,the text of this paragraph has been slightly condensed1 as in such a field as this of philosophical mathematics partial indications would serve no useful purpose4 ,the mathematical reader may refer to the articles ,function1 ,number1 and ,groups in the ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ed4--,tr4 ,,index ,prepared by ,,david 4 ,,matteson ,aachen ,minster1 and style1 #bjj ,abaca1 ,evaristo ,f4 dall'1 sonatas1 #bhc ,abel1 ,niels ,h41 mathematic problem1 #he ,absolutism1 contemporary periods1 table iii ,abydos1 #ehn42 contemporaries1 table ii ,abyssinia1 cult-buildings1 #bji ,academy1 contemporaries1 table i ,acanthus motive1 history1 #bae ,achelos1 as god1 #djc ,achilles1 archetype1 #bjc1 #djb ,acre1 battle1 #aej ,acropolis1 contemporaries1 table ii4 ,see also ,parthenon ,act1 and portrait1 #bfb1 #bff1 #bgj ,action1 in ,western morale1 #cdb ,actium1 battle1 #cha ,activity1 as ,western trait1 #cae1 #cbj2 as quality of ,socialism1 #cfb-cfd ,actuality1 as test of philosophy1 #da2 significance1 #afd ,adam de la ,hale4 ,see ,la ,hale ,addison1 ,joseph1 type1 #bed ,adolescence1 initiation-rites as symbol1 #agdn4 ,adrastos1 cult1 #ccn4 gina temple1 sculpture1 #bbf1 #bdd schines1 portrait statue1 #bgj schylus1 tragic form and method1 #abi1 #cbj1 #cba2 and architecture1 #bjf2 and motherhood1 #bfh2 and deity1 #cac2 morale1 #cee sthetics1 and genius in art1 #abh ther1 contradictory theories1 #dah ,agamemnon1 contemporaries1 table iii ,aggregates1 theory1 #dbf ,aglaure1 cult1 #djf ,ahmes1 arithmetic1 #eh ,ahriman1 ,persian ,devil1 #cab ,aim1 and direction1 #cfa2 nebulousness1 #cfc ,aksakov1 ,sergei1 and ,europe1 #afn4 ,albani1 ,francesco1 linear perspective1 #bdj2 colour1 #bdf ,albani villa1 garden1 #bdj ,albert of ,saxony1 ,occamist1 #cha ,alberti1 ,leone ,b41 gardening1 #bdj ,alcamenes1 contemporary mathematic1 #gh2 period1 #bhd ,alchemy1 as symbol1 #bdh2 as ,arabian physics1 #chb1 #chc2 process of transmutation1 #chbn42 and substance1 #chc2 and mechanical necessity1 #cic ,alcibiades1 and ,napoleon1 #d2 and ,classical morale1 #cea2 condemnation1 #daa ,alcman1 music1 #bbc ,alembert1 ,jean ,b4 le ,r4 d'1 mathematic1 #ff1 #gh2 and time1 #abf2 mechanics and deism1 #dab ,alexander the ,great1 analogies1 #d2 and ,dionysus legend1 #h2 romantic1 #ch2 and economic organization1 #ach2 expedition as episode1 #adg2 himself as epoch1 #adi2 as conqueror1 #ccf2 morale1 #cdi2 as paradox1 #cfc2 deification1 #dje2 contemporaries1 table iii ,alexander ,i of ,russia1 and ,napoleon1 #aej ,alexandria1 as a cultural left-over1 #cc1 #gcn41 #gi2 contemporaries1 #aab2 collections of ,university1 #acfn42 as irreligious1 #ceh ,alfarabi1 and extension1 #agh2 and dualism1 #cjf2 contemporaries1 table i ,algebra1 defined1 significance of letter-notation1 #ga2 ,diophantus and ,arabian ,culture1 #ga-gc2 ,western liberation1 #hf2 contemporaries1 table i4 ,see also ,mathematics ,algiers1 origin of ,french war1 #addn4 ,alhambra1 courtyard1 #bce ,alien1 and 8proper01 #ec ,alkabi1 and extension1 #agh ,alkarchi1 contemporaries1 table i ,al-,khwarizmi1 mathematic1 #gb2 contemporaries1 table i ,alkindi1 and dualism1 #cjg2 contemporaries1 table i ,allegory1 motive and word1 #bain4 ,almighty1 philosophical attitude toward1 #abc4 ,see also ,religion ,alphabet1 and historical consciousness1 #abn4 ,see also ,language ,alsidzshi1 mathematic1 #gb ,altar of the ,unknown ,god1 ,paul's error1 #djd ,amarna art1 contemporaries1 table ii ,ambrosian chants1 and ,jewish psalmody1 #bbh ,amenemhet ,,iii1 pyramid1 #ac2 portrait1 #ajh1 #bfb ,amida1 and ,arabian art1 #bji ,analogies1 superficial and real historical1 #d1 #f1 #bg1 #ch1 #ci2 necessity of technique1 #e ,analysis1 and ,classical mathematic1 #fi2 in ,western mathematic1 #gd1 #ge2 inadequacy as term1 #ha2 and earlier mathematics1 #hd2 contemporaries1 table i4 ,see also ,mathematics ,anamnesis1 and comprehension of depth1 #agd ,ananke1 and ,tyche1 #adf ,anarchism1 basis1 #cfg1 #cgc ,anatomy1 in ,classical and ,western art1 #bfd2 ,michelangelo and ,leonardo1 #bgg ,anaxagoras1 and ego1 #caa2 on atoms1 #chf2 and mechanical necessity1 #cib1 #cid2 condemnation1 #daa ,anaximander1 and chaos1 #fd2 popularity1 #cbg ,ancestral worship1 cultural basis1 #acd1 #acen4 ,ancient ,history1 as term1 #af ,anecdote1 and ,classical tragedy1 #cah2 ,western1 #cahn4 ,angelico1 ,fra1 and the antique1 #bge ,anthesteria1 #acen4 ,antigone1 and ,kriemhild1 #bfh ,antiphons1 and ,jewish psalmody1 #bbh ,antisthenes1 character of ,nihilism1 #ceg2 and diet1 #cfa ,antonello da ,messina1 ,dutch influence1 #bcf ,apelles1 contemporaries1 table ii ,aphrodisias ,temple in ,caria1 as pseudomorphic1 #baj ,aphrodite1 as goddess1 #bfh2 in ,classical art1 #bfh ,apocalypses1 and world-history1 #ahn42 contemporaries1 table i ,apollinian soul1 explained1 #ahc4 ,see also ,classical ,culture ,apollo ,didymus ,temple1 form-type1 #bjd ,apollo of ,tenea1 contemporaries1 table ii ,apollodorus of ,athens1 unpopularity1 #ce2 painting1 #bhc1 #cben4 ,apollodorus of ,damascus1 ,roman architecture1 #baa ,apollonius ,pergus1 and infinity1 #fi2 mathematic1 #ij ,appius ,claudius1 contemporaries1 table iii ,arabesque1 algebraic analogy1 #gb2 period1 #ajh2 spun surface1 #aif2 character1 #bjc1 #bab2 as symbol1 #bae1 #bdh2 end-art1 #bbc2 contemporaries1 table ii ,arabian ,culture1 and polar idea of history1 #ah2 mathematic1 significance of algebra1 #fc1 #ga-gc2 expressions1 #gb2 and ,late-,classical1 #gc1 #bji1 #bab1 #bad2 and ,marycult1 #acg2 prime symbol1 cavern1 #agd1 #bji1 #bae2 soul and dualism1 #ahc1 #cje-cjg1 #cfc2 8inside0 architectural expression1 #ahd1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bbd2 religious expression1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #cab1 #dja2 and ,russian art1 #bja2 autumn of style1 #bjg2 art as single phenomenon1 #bjg-bji2 art research1 #bji2 dome space-symbolism1 #baj-bab2 ornamentation1 #bab2 fetters1 #bab2 emancipation1 hurry1 #bac2 and mosaic1 #bad2 arch-column1 #bad2 ,acanthus motive1 #bae2 and portraiture1 #bbc1 #bfb2 architecture in ,italy1 #bce2 music1 #bbh2 and ,renaissance1 #bce2 gold as symbol1 #bdg2 political concept1 #cce2 will-lessness1 #cji1 #caa2 art and spectator1 #cbi2 and world-history1 #cfc2 nature idea1 chemistry1 #chb-chd1 #cic2 religion in ,late-,classical1 #djg2 spiritual epochs1 table i2 art epochs1 table ii ,arabian ,nights1 as symbol1 #bdh ,arbela1 battle1 #aea ,arcadians1 provided history1 #aa ,arch1 and column1 #bad1 #bcf ,archology1 and historical repetition1 #d2 cultural attitude1 #ad1 #acb1 #bed2 significance1 #acd4 ,archery1 ,eastern and ,western1 #cccn4 ,archimedes1 style1 #ei2 and infinity1 #fi2 mathematical limitation1 #hd1 #ij2 contemporaries1 #aab1 #chf2 and metaphysics1 #cff2 and motion1 #cgg2 as creator1 #dbe ,architecture1 ahistoric symbolism of ,classical1 #i1 #abn42 symbolism of ,egyptian1 #fi1 #ahi1 #bjb2 transition to and from ,arabian1 #gb1 #gc2 ,rococo as music1 #hg1 #bca1 #bhe2 as early art of a ,culture1 mother-art1 #abh1 #bbd2 undurable basis of ,classical1 #acb1 #aih2 column1 and arch1 #aff1 #ahd1 #bjd1 #bad1 #bcf1 #bfjn41 #cde2 dimension and direction1 cultural relation1 #afin41 #agg1 #ahd1 #bje1 #bbd2 symbolism in ,chinese1 #aij1 #aif2 imitation and ornament1 becoming and become1 #aid-aih1 #bjb2 history of techniques and ideas1 #aie2 of ,civilization period1 #aig2 stage of ,russian1 #bja2 ,classical1 feeble development of style1 #bjd2 pseudomorphic ,late-,classical1 basilica1 #bji1 #bab1 #bad2 ,arabian1 dome type1 #bjh1 #baj-bab2 ,western faade and visage1 #bbd2 cathedral and infinite space1 forest character1 #aih-bjj1 #bbd1 #cif2 ,arabian in ,italy1 #bce2 place of ,renaissance1 #bce2 ,michelangelo and ,baroque1 #bgg2 and cultural morale1 #cde2 contemporary cultural epochs1 table ii4 ,see also ,art2 ,baroque2 ,egyptian ,culture2 ,doric2 ,gothic2 ,romanesque ,archytas1 irrational numbers and fate1 #fen42 and higher powers1 #ff2 contemporaries1 #gh1 #ij1 #aab1 table i2 and metaphysics1 #cff ,arezzo1 school of art1 #bfh ,aristarchus of ,samos1 and ,eastern thought1 #i2 and heliocentric system1 #fh1 #fi1 #aci ,aristogiton1 statue1 #bfin4 ,aristophanes1 and burlesque1 #cj1 #cbjn4 ,aristotle1 ahistoric consciousness1 #i2 entelechy1 #ae2 contemporaries1 #ag1 table i2 and philosophy of being1 #din42 mechanistic world-conception1 #ii1 #cib2 and deity1 #abd1 #cac2 tabulation of categories1 #abe2 as collector1 #acfn42 as ,plato's opposite1 #aei2 on tragedy1 #bjc1 #cah1 #cbj1 #cba1 #cea2 on body and soul1 #bei2 on ,zeuxis1 #bhd2 and inward life1 #cag2 and philanthropy1 #cea2 and ,civilization1 #ceb2 and diet1 #cfa2 culmination of ,classical philosophy1 #cfe1 #cff2 and mathematics1 #cff2 on atoms1 #chf2 as atheist1 #dji2 condemnation1 #daa ,arithmetic1 ,kant's error1 #fn42 and time1 #abe1 #abf4 ,see also ,mathematics ,army1 ,roman notion1 #cce ,arnold of ,villanova1 and chemistry1 #chdn4 ,art and arts1 irrational polar idea1 #bj2 as sport1 #ce2 and future of ,western ,culture1 #dj2 as mathematical expression1 #eg1 #eh1 #fa1 #fb1 #gj2 ,arabian1 relation to algebra1 #gb2 and vision1 #if2 causal and destiny sides1 #abg1 #abh2 ,western1 and 8memory10 #acbn42 mortality1 #afg2 religious character of early periods1 #ahe2 lack of early ,chinese survivals1 #aijn42 as expression-language1 #aia2 and witnesses1 #aia2 imitation and ornament1 #aia-aid2 their opposition1 becoming and become1 #aid-aif2 typism1 #aic2 so-called1 of ,civilization1 copyists1 #aig1 #bic-bie2 meaning of style1 #bjj1 #bja2 forms and cultural spirituality1 #bad-baf2 as symbolic expression of ,culture1 #bai1 #bei2 expression-methods of wordless1 #bain42 sense-impression and classification1 #bbj1 #bba2 historical boundaries1 organism1 #bba2 species within a ,culture1 no rebirths1 #bbb-bbd2 early period architecture as mother1 #bbd2 ,western philosophical association1 #bbi2 secularization of ,western1 #bcj2 dominance of ,western music1 #bca2 outward forms and cultural meaning1 #bch2 and popularity1 #bdb2 space and philosophy1 #bdc2 cultural basis of composition1 #bdc2 symptom of decline1 striving1 #bia1 #bib2 trained instinct and minor artists1 #bib1 #bic2 cultural association with morale1 #cdd2 contemporary cultural epochs1 table ii4 ,see also ,imitation2 ,ornament2 ,science2 ,style2 arts by name ,aryan hero-tales1 contemporaries1 table i ,asklepios1 as ,christian title1 #djhn4 ,astrology1 cultural attitude1 #acb1 #adg ,astronomy1 ,classical ,culture and1 #i2 heliocentric system1 #fh1 #aci2 dimensional figures1 #hc2 cultural significance1 #ccj-ccb ,ataraxia1 ,stoic ideal1 #cdc1 #cdg1 #ceb1 #cfa ,atheism1 and 8,god01 #cabn42 as definite phenomenon1 position1 #djh1 #dji2 cultural basis of structure1 #dji2 and toleration1 #daj1 #daa ,athene1 as goddess1 #bfh ,athens1 and ,paris1 #bg2 culture city1 #cb2 as religious1 #ceh ,athtar1 temples1 #baj ,atlantis1 and voyages of ,northmen1 #ccbn4 ,atmosphere1 in painting1 #bhg ,atomic theories1 ,boscovich's1 #cadn42 cultural basis1 #chd-chg1 #dai2 disintegration hypotheses1 #dbc ,augustan ,age1 ,atticism1 #bhn4 ,augustine1 ,saint1 and time1 #abd1 #adj2 and ,jesus1 #cdg2 contemporaries1 table i ,augustus1 as epoch1 #adj2 statue1 #bie ,aurelian1 favourite god1 #djf2 contemporaries1 table iii ,avalon1 and ,valhalla1 #dja ,avesta4 ,see ,zend ,avesta ,aviation1 ,leonardo's interest1 #bgi ,avicenna1 on light1 #cha2 contemporaries1 table i ,axum1 empire1 and world-history1 #af1 #bjh1 #bjin41 #bbc ,baader1 ,franz ,x4 von1 and dualism1 #cjg ,baal1 shrines as basilicas1 #bjin42 cults1 #djf1 #djg2 contemporaries1 table i ,baalbek1 basilica1 #bjin42 ,sun ,temple as pseudomorphic1 #baj ,babylon1 and time1 #i1 #ae2 geographical science1 #aj2 place in history1 #ag2 autumnal city1 #gi ,baccio della ,porta4 ,see ,bartolommeo ,bach1 ,john ,sebastian1 contemporaries1 #bg1 #aab1 #dag1 table ii2 as analysist1 #fb2 contemporary mathematic1 #gh2 fugue1 #bcj2 and dominance of music1 #bca2 and popularity1 #bdc2 pure music1 #bhc2 ease1 #bib2 ethical passion1 #cee2 ,god-feeling1 #cid ,bachofen1 ,johann ,j41 ,classical ideology1 #bh2 on stone1 #ahh ,backgrounds1 in ,renaissance art1 #bcg2 in ,western painting1 #bci2 in ,western gardening1 #bdj4 ,see also ,depth-experience ,bacon1 ,francis1 ,shakespeare controversy1 #acen4 ,bacon1 ,roger1 world-conception1 #ii2 and mechanical necessity1 #cib2 contemporaries1 table i ,bhr1 ,georg1 architecture1 #bhe ,baghdad1 autumnal city1 #gi2 contemporary cities1 #aab2 philosophy of school1 #bdh1 #cjf1 #cjg2 contemporaries of school1 table i ,ballade1 origin1 #bbi ,bamberg ,cathedral1 sculpture1 #bce ,barbarossa1 symbolism1 #djc ,baroque1 mathematic1 #eh1 #gg2 musical association1 #hg1 #bbhn41 #bcj2 as stage of style1 #bjb2 sculpture as allegory1 #bain42 origin1 #bcf2 depth-experience in painting1 #bci2 in gardening1 #bdj2 portraits1 #bfe2 ,michelangelo's relation1 #bgg2 philosophy1 reason and will1 #cjh2 soul1 #cac1 #cad2 contemporaries1 table ii4 ,see also ,art ,bartolommeo1 ,fra 7,baccio della ,porta71 and line1 #bhj2 dynamic ,god-feeling1 #cid ,basilica1 as pseudomorphic type1 #bji1 #baj2 and ,western cathedral1 #baa1 #bbd2 contemporaries1 table ii ,basilica of ,maxentius 7,constantine71 ,arabian influences1 #bab ,basra ,school1 philosophy1 #bdh1 #cjf2 contemporaries1 table i ,basso continuo4 ,see ,thoroughbass4 ,baths of ,caracalla1 ,syrian workmen1 #baa1 #bab ,battista of ,urbino1 portrait1 #bgi ,baudelaire1 ,pierre ,charles1 sensuousness1 #ce2 autumnal accent1 #bda2 and the decadent1 #bib ,bayle1 ,pierre1 and imperialism1 #aej ,bayreuth4 ,see ,wagner ,beauty1 transience1 cultural basis1 #aid2 as ,classical rle1 #cag ,become1 ,civilization as1 #ca1 #df2 philosophers1 #din42 explained1 relationships1 #ec2 and learning1 #ef2 and extension1 #ef2 and mathematical number1 #gj1 #ie2 relation to nature and history1 #id-ih1 #ajb1 #ajc2 and symbolism1 #aja2 and causality and destiny1 #aai2 and problem of time1 #abb2 and mortality1 #afg2 in art1 #aid4 ,see also ,becoming2 ,causality2 ,nature2 ,space ,becoming1 and history1 #be1 #id-ih1 #ajb1 #ajc2 philosophers1 #din42 explained1 relationships1 #ec2 intuition1 #ef2 and direction1 #ef2 and chronological number1 #gj2 relation to nature and destiny and causality1 #aai1 #ach1 #aci2 and mathematics1 #abe1 #abf2 in art1 #aid4 ,see also ,become2 ,destiny2 ,history2 ,time ,beech1 as symbol1 #cif ,beethoven1 ,ludwig van1 contemporary mathematic1 #gh1 #ij2 and pure reason1 #abj2 and imagination1 #bbj2 orchestration1 #bca2 inwardness1 8brown0 music1 #bea1 #beb1 #bebn42 music as confession1 #bfd2 period1 #bhd2 straining1 #bia2 contemporaries1 table ii ,bell1 as ,western symbol1 #acdn4 ,bellini1 ,giovanni1 and portrait1 #bgb1 #bgc ,benares1 autumnal city1 #ii ,benedetto da ,maiano1 and ornament1 #bch2 and portrait1 #bgb ,bentham1 ,jeremy1 and imperialism1 #aej2 and economic ascendency1 #cfg2 contemporaries1 table i ,berengar of ,tours1 controversy1 #ahe ,berkeley1 ,george1 on mathematics and faith1 #ghn4 ,berlin1 megalopolitanism1 #cc2 as irreligious1 #gi1 #ceh ,berlioz1 ,hector1 contemporaries1 table ii ,bernard of ,clairvaux1 ,saint1 contemporaries1 #djj1 table i ,bernini1 ,giovanni ,lorenzo1 architecture1 #hg1 #bca1 #bdd1 #bde2 contemporaries1 table ii ,bernward1 ,saint1 as architect1 #ajgn41 #bjf ,berry1 ,duke of1 ,books of ,hours1 #bci ,beyle1 ,henri4 ,see ,stendhal ,bible1 and periodic history1 #ah2 as ,arabian symbol1 #bdh4 ,see also ,christianity ,biedermeyer1 contemporaries1 table ii ,binchois1 gide1 music1 #bcj ,binomial theorem1 discovery1 #ge ,biography1 and portraiture1 #ab2 ,cultures and1 #ac1 #ad2 and character1 #caf2 and ,western tragedy1 #cah4 ,see also ,portraiture ,biology1 and preordained life-duration1 #ajh2 in politics1 #aef2 as weakest science1 #aeg2 and ,civilization1 #cfj ,bismarck1 ,frst von1 wars and cultural rhythm1 #aajn42 and destiny1 #ade2 morale1 #cdi ,bizet1 ,georges1 8brown0 music1 #beb ,blood1 ,leonardo's discovery of circulation1 #bgh ,blue1 symbolism1 #bde1 #bdf ,boccaccio1 ,giovanni1 and ,homer1 #bfhn4 ,body1 as symbol of ,classical ,culture1 #agd2 and geometrical systems1 #agfn42 in ,arabian philosophy1 #bdh2 and soul1 ,classical expression1 #bei-bfa4 ,see also ,sculpture2 ,spirit ,bcklin1 ,arnold1 act and portrait1 #bgan42 painting1 #bhi1 #bij ,boehme1 ,jakob1 contemporaries1 table i ,bogomils1 iconoclasts1 #chc ,bohr1 ,niels1 and mass1 #che1 #dai ,boltzmann1 ,ludwig1 on probability1 #chjn4 ,boniface1 ,saint1 as missionary1 #cfj ,book1 and cult-building1 #aign4 ,books of ,hours1 ,berry's1 #bci ,books of ,numa1 burning1 #daa ,boomerang1 and mathematical instinct1 #eh ,borgias1 ,hellenic sorriness1 #bgc ,boscovich1 ,ruggiero ,giuseppe1 and physics1 #cadn41 #dae ,botticelli1 ,sandro1 ,dutch influence1 #bcf2 goldsmith1 #bcg2 and portrait1 #bga1 #bgb ,boucher1 ,franois1 and body1 #bga ,boulle1 ,andr ,c41 ,chippendale's ascendency1 #aejn4 ,bourbons1 analogy1 #ci ,boyle1 ,robert1 and element1 #chd ,brahmanism1 transvaluation1 #ceb2 ,buddhist interpretation of ,karma1 #ceg2 contemporaries of ,brahmanas1 table i4 ,see also ,indian ,culture ,brain1 and soul1 #cfg ,bramante1 ,donato d',angnolo1 plan of ,st4 ,peter's1 #ahd ,brancacci ,chapel1 #bcg1 #bgi ,brass musical instruments1 colour expression1 #bebn4 ,bronze1 and ,classical expression1 #bec2 patina1 #bec2 ,michelangelo and1 #bgf ,brothers of ,sincerity1 on light1 #cha2 contemporaries1 table i ,brown1 symbolism of studio1 #bej1 #bhh2 ,leonardo and1 #bhj ,bruckner1 ,anton1 end-art1 #bbc2 8brown0 music1 #beb ,bruges1 loss of prestige1 #cc2 as religious1 #ceh ,brunelleschi1 ,filippo1 linear perspective1 #bdj2 and antique1 #bgen42 architecture1 #cac ,bruno1 ,giordano1 world1 #ef2 martyrdom1 #fh2 and vision1 #if2 esoteric1 #cbf2 astronomy1 #cca2 contemporaries1 table i ,brutus1 ,m4 ,junius1 character1 #e ,buckle1 ,henry ,t41 and evolution1 #cga ,buddhism1 and ,civilization1 end-phenomenon1 materialism1 #cb1 #ceb1 #cef1 #ceg1 #cei1 #dji2 and state1 #ach2 ,nirvana1 #agh1 #ceg1 #cfa2 morale1 #cda1 #cdg2 scientific basis of ideas1 #cec2 moral philosophy1 #cee2 as peasant religion1 #cefn42 and ,christianity1 #ceg2 and contemporaries1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cfa1 table i2 and diet1 #cfa4 ,see also ,religion ,burckhardt1 ,jacob1 ,classical ideology1 #bh2 on ,renaissance1 #bcd ,buridan1 ,jean1 ,occamist1 #cha ,burlesque1 ,classical1 #cj1 #cbj ,busts1 ,classical1 as portraits1 #bfi1 #bgb ,buxtehude1 ,dietrich1 organ works1 #bbj ,byron1 ,george1 ,lord1 and ,civilization1 #aaj ,byzantinism1 as ,civilization1 #ajf2 and portraiture1 #acjn42 style1 #bjf2 ,acanthus motive1 #bae2 allegorical painting1 #bain42 contemporaries1 tables ii1 iii4 ,see also ,arabian ,culture ,byzantium1 tenement houses1 #cdn4 ,cabeo1 ,nicolaus1 theory of magnetism1 #dad ,caccias1 character1 #bbi ,csar1 ,c4 ,julius1 analogies1 #d1 #ch2 and newspaper1 #e2 and democracy1 #e2 conquest of ,gaul1 #cfn42 practicality1 #ch2 and calendar and duration1 #acc2 and economic organization1 #ach2 and destiny1 #aci2 bust1 #bgb2 morale1 #cdi2 ,divus ,julius1 #djg2 contemporaries1 table iii ,csarism1 and money1 #cf2 contemporary periods1 table iii ,calchas1 cult1 #ahe ,calculus1 and ,classical astronomy1 #fi2 limit-idea1 #hf2 ,newtonian and ,leibnizian1 #abfn42 and religion1 #agj2 as ,jesuit style1 #dab2 basis threatened1 #dai4 ,see also ,mathematics ,calderon de la ,barca1 ,pedro1 plays as confession1 #bfd ,calendar1 ,csar's1 #acc ,caliphate1 ,diocletian's government1 #gb1 #bab2 deification of caliph1 #dje ,callicles1 ethic1 #cea ,calvin1 ,john1 predestination and evolution1 #adjn41 #ada2 and ,western morale1 #cdh2 variety of religion1 #cid2 contemporaries1 table i ,can ,grande1 statue1 #bgb ,cann1 as climax1 #cf ,canning1 ,george1 and imperialism1 #adin4 ,cantata1 and orchestra1 #bcj ,canzoni1 character1 #bbi ,caracalla1 and citizenship and army1 #cce1 #djg ,carcassonne1 restoration1 #bedn4 ,cardano1 ,girolamo1 and numbers1 #ge ,care1 and distance1 #ab2 cultural attitude1 relation to state1 #acf1 #acg2 and maternity1 #bfg ,carissimi1 ,giacomo1 music1 pictorial character1 #bcj1 #bhc ,carneades1 and mechanical necessity1 #cic ,carstens1 ,armus ,j41 naturalism1 #bab ,carthage4 ,see ,punic ,wars ,carthaginians1 and geography1 #ajn41 #ccc ,castle1 and cathedral1 #aie1 #bbi ,catacombs1 art1 #acgn41 #bbd ,categories1 tabulation1 #abe ,catharine of ,siena1 ,saint1 and ,gothic1 #bce ,cathedral1 as ornament1 #aie2 and castle1 #bbi2 forest-character1 #cif2 contemporaries1 table ii4 ,see also ,gothic2 ,romanesque ,cato1 ,m4 ,porcius1 ,stoicism and income1 #cc ,cauchy1 ,augustin ,louis1 notation1 #gg2 mathematic problem1 #he2 and infinitesimal calculus1 #hf2 mathematical position1 #ij2 goal of analysis1 #dah2 contemporaries1 table i ,causality1 history and ,kantian1 #g2 and historiography1 #bh2 and number1 #ef2 and pure phenomenon1 #aaan42 and destiny and history1 limited domain1 #aag-aba1 #aea1 #aef-aei2 and space and time1 #aai1 #abj1 #adb2 and principle1 #aba2 and grace1 #ada2 and reason1 #cjh2 and ,civilization1 #cfj2 and destiny in natural science1 #cgi2 and mechanical necessity1 #cib-cid4 ,see also ,become2 ,destiny2 ,nature2 ,space ,cavern1 as symbol1 #bjj1 #bji1 #bae1 #bbd ,celtic art1 as ,arabian1 #bae ,centre of time1 and history1 #ajc ,ceres1 materiality1 #djc ,cervantes1 ,miguel de1 tragic method1 #cai ,ceylon1 ,mahavansa1 #ab ,czanne1 ,paul1 landscapes1 #bhi2 striving1 #bib ,chronea1 issue at battle1 #ce ,chalcedon1 ,council of1 and ,godhead1 #bji1 #bdi ,chaldeans1 astronomy1 ,classical reaction1 #adg ,chamber-music1 as summit of ,western art1 #bca ,chan-,kwo period1 contemporaries1 table iii ,character1 and person1 #bei2 and will1 ,western ego1 #cad1 #cce2 ,cultures and study1 #caf2 gesture as ,classical substitute1 #caf2 in ,western tragedy1 ,classical contrast1 #cag-cbf4 ,see also ,morale2 ,soul ,chardin1 ,jean ,b4 ,s41 and ,french tradition1 #bhi ,chares1 ,helios and gigantomachia1 #bia ,charity4 ,see ,compassion ,charlemagne1 analogies1 #d1 #ch2 contemporaries1 table iii ,charles ,,xii of ,sweden1 analogy1 #d ,chartres ,cathedral1 sculpture1 #bce1 #bfa ,chemistry1 thoughtless hypotheses1 #aefn42 no ,classical1 #chc2 ,western so-called1 #chd2 as ,arabian system1 #chd1 #cic2 new essence1 entropy1 #dbf4 ,see also ,natural science ,cheops1 dynasty1 #ehn4 ,chephren1 dynasty1 #ehn42 tomb-pyramid1 #aif1 #bjc ,chian1 contemporaries1 table iii ,children1 ,western portraiture1 #bff-bfh4 ,see also ,motherland4 ,chinese ,culture1 historic feeling1 #ad2 imperialism1 #cg2 philosophers1 #db1 #de2 time-measurement1 #acdn42 ancestral worship1 #acen42 and care1 #acf2 attitude toward state1 #acg2 economic organization1 #ach2 destiny-idea1 landscape as prime symbol1 #aij1 #aif1 #bjc2 lack of early art survivals1 #aijn42 and tutelage1 #bac2 music1 #bbh2 gardening1 #bdj2 bronzes1 patina1 #becn42 portraiture1 #bfj1 #bfb2 ,civilization1 #bie2 soul1 perspective as expression1 #cajn42 passive morale1 #cae1 #cda1 #cdg2 and discovery1 #ccc1 #ccf2 political epochs1 table iii4 ,see also ,cultures ,chippendale1 ,thomas1 position1 #aejn4 ,chivalry1 southern type1 #bccn4 ,chorus1 in art-history1 #aia2 in ,classical tragedy1 #cbd ,chosroes-,nushirvan1 art of period1 #bjc ,chu ,li1 on ,chu dynasty1 #acg ,chu ,period1 and care1 #acg2 contemporaries1 table iii ,christianity1 comparisons1 #d2 ,eastern1 and historical-periods1 #bbn42 and poor ,stoics1 #ccn42 as ,arabian1 #gb1 #djb2 ,mary-cult1 ,madonna in art1 #acf1 #bfg1 #bfh2 destiny in ,western1 #adj2 architectural expression of early1 #bjh-baa2 colour and gold as symbols1 #bdg-bej2 in ,western art1 spiritual space1 #bgi2 dualism in early1 #cjf2 8passion01 #cbjn42 ,eastern1 and home1 #cce2 ,western transformation of morale1 #cdd1 #cdg1 #cdh2 and ,buddhism1 #ceg2 of ,fathers and ,crusades1 #cegn42 missionarism1 #cfj2 ,god-man problem as alchemistic1 #chc2 and mechanical necessity1 miracles1 #cib1 #cic2 elements of ,western1 #cii-dja2 foreign gods as titles1 #djhn4 ,see also ,religion ,chronology1 relation of ,classical ,culture1 #i1 #aj2 as number1 #ig1 #aecn42 and the when1 #abf2 and archology1 #acd4 ,see also ,history ,chrysippus1 and ,stoicism1 #cc1 #ceh2 and corporeality1 #agg ,chuang-ts1 practical philosophy1 #de ,chun-,chiu ,period1 contemporaries1 table iii ,cicero1 ,m4 ,tullius1 analogy1 #d ,cimabue1 ,giovanni1 and nature1 #aib2 and ,byzantine art1 #bch2 and ,francis of ,assisi1 #bdin42 and portraiture1 #bgc ,cimarosa1 ,domenico1 ease1 #bib ,cistercians1 soul1 #cfj ,citizenship1 ,classical concept1 #ccd4 ,see also ,politics ,civilization1 defined1 as destiny of a ,culture1 #ca-cd1 #ajf1 #beb1 #cec1 #ced2 and the 8become01 #ca1 #df2 and megalopolitanism1 #cb1 #ce2 money as symbol1 #cd-cf2 and economic motives1 #ce2 imperialism1 #cf2 destiny of ,western1 #cg1 #ch2 and scepticism1 #df1 #dji2 ,alexander-idea1 #aej2 ,english basis of ,western1 #aea1 #cga2 ,western1 effect on history1 #aea2 so-called art1 #aig1 #bic-bie2 style histories1 #bjg2 ,western painting1 plein-air1 #bea1 #bhh1 #bhi2 and gigantomachia1 #bia2 ,manet and ,wagner1 #bic2 transvaluation of values1 striving1 #cea1 #cec2 ,nihilism and inward finishedness1 #ceb2 manifestations1 #cec1 #ced2 problematic and plebeian morale1 #ced1 #cee2 and irreligion1 #ceh2 diatribe as phenomenon1 #cei2 and biological philosophies1 philosophical essence1 #cfa1 #cfg2 natural science1 #dag2 contemporary spiritual epochs1 table i2 contemporary art epochs1 table ii2 contemporary political epochs1 table iii4 ,see also ,cultures ,clarke1 ,samuel1 and imperialism1 #aej ,classical ,culture1 philosophy1 culmination1 #c1 #de2 ahistoric basis1 #h-aj1 #abn41 #ig1 #ajc1 #aca-ace1 #bed1 #bee1 #bfd1 #cfc2 and chronology1 #i1 #ajn42 and geography1 #ajn42 religious expression1 bodied pantheon1 later monotheistic tendencies1 #aj1 #aa1 #ac1 #ahg1 #cab1 #cig1 #cih1 #djb-djh2 and mortality1 funeral customs1 #ac1 #acd2 portraiture1 #ac1 #acj1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bfi1 #bgb2 and archology1 #ad2 and measurement of time1 #ae2 mathematic1 #ae1 #fc-fe1 #fi1 #gg1 #hc1 #hd1 #ij2 contemporary ,western periods1 #bf2 ,western views1 ideology1 #bg-ca1 #gf1 #ha1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bdc1 #bed1 #bgj1 #cbc2 8,classical0 and 8antike01 #bhn42 civilization1 ,rome1 ,stoicism1 #cb-cd1 #cf1 #dd1 #bid1 #ceb2 cosmology1 astronomy1 #fc1 #fh1 #fi1 #adg1 #ccj2 cultural significance of mathematic1 #fe-fg1 #gj2 and algebra1 #ga2 surviving forms under ,arabian ,culture1 #gb1 #gc1 #bjh2 opposition to ,western soul1 #gh2 and space1 #ha-hd1 #hh1 #agen42 8smallness01 #hc2 relation to proportion and function1 #hd1 #he2 popularity1 #he1 #bed1 #cbf-cbh2 and destiny-idea1 dramatic illustration1 #abi1 #acj1 #adc1 #adf1 #adg1 #cag-cbf1 #dbd2 care and sex attitude1 family and home1 #acf1 #bff-bfh1 #ccd-ccg2 attitude toward state1 #acg1 #adg2 and economic organization1 #ach2 actualization of the corporeal only1 sculpture1 #agf-agh1 #bbe1 #bei- #bfa2 soul1 attributes1 #ahc1 #cjd1 #cje2 architectural expression1 #ahd1 #aih1 #bbd2 weak style1 #bjc2 art-work and sense-organ1 #bbj2 and music1 #bbc1 #bbg2 and form and content1 #bdb2 and composition1 #bdc2 colour1 #bde-bdg2 nature idea1 statics1 #bfc1 #chb-chd1 #cib2 and discovery1 #bgh2 painting1 #bhg2 will-less-ness1 #cji1 #caj2 lack of character1 gesture as substitute1 #caf2 art and time of day1 #cbe2 morale1 ethic of attitude1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cdg1 #cea2 and 8action01 #cdbn42 cult and dogma1 #dja1 #daj2 and strange gods1 #djd2 scientific periods1 #dbd2 spiritual epochs1 table i2 art epochs1 table ii2 political epochs1 table iii4 ,see also ,art2 ,cultures2 ,renaissance2 ,science ,classicism1 and dying ,culture1 #ajh2 defined1 #aig2 period in style1 #bjg ,claude ,lorrain1 landscape as space1 #ahd2 8singing0 picture1 #bai2 and ruins1 #bed2 colour1 #bdf1 #bhh2 period1 #bhc2 landscape as portrait1 #bhg ,cleanliness1 cultural attitude1 #bfj ,cleisthenes1 contemporaries1 table iii ,cleomenes ,,iii1 contemporaries1 table iii ,cleon1 and economic organization1 #ach ,clepsydra1 ,plato's1 #ae ,clock1 and historic consciousness1 #ad2 religious aspect1 #aen42 cultural attitude1 #aca1 #acd ,clouds1 in paintings1 #bci ,cluniac reform1 and architecture1 #ahe ,clytmnestra1 and ,helen1 #bfh ,cnidian ,aphrodite1 #ajh1 #bfh ,cnossos art1 #bbdn41 #bic2 contemporaries1 table ii ,cobbett1 ,william1 population theory1 #ahen4 ,cognition1 and nature1 #id1 #ajb1 #ajc ,colleoni1 ,bartolommeo1 statue1 #bch1 #bgb ,colosseum1 and real ,rome1 #dd2 form type1 #bjd2 contemporaries1 table ii ,colossus of ,rhodes1 and gigantomachia1 #bia ,colour1 ,goethe's theory1 #aegn41 #aehn42 and depth-experience1 #bdb2 ,classical and ,western use1 symbolism1 #bde-bdg2 ,western blue and green1 #bde2 ,arabian ,culture and gold1 #bdg-bdi2 brushwork and motion-quality1 #bdi2 studio-brown1 as symbol1 #bej1 #bhh2 ,leonardo's sense1 #bhj2 plein-air1 #bhh4 ,see also ,painting ,columbus1 ,christopher1 and ,spanish ascendency1 #adh2 and ,leonardo1 #bgh2 and space and will1 #caj1 #ccg2 spiritual result1 #ccd ,column1 as symbol1 #aff1 #ahd1 #bad1 #bfjn41 #cde2 ,classical orders1 #bjd2 and arch1 #bad1 #bcf ,compass1 symbolism1 #ccc ,compassion1 times and meaning1 #cdg-cea2 and ,socialism1 #cfb ,composition in art1 cultural basis1 #bdc ,comprehension1 qualities1 #ii ,comte1 ,auguste1 provincialism1 #bd2 and economic ascendency1 #cfg1 #cgc2 contemporaries1 table i ,confession1 as ,western symbol1 #aca1 #adj1 #bfa1 #bfd2 absence in ,renaissance art1 #bgc ,confucius1 and actuality1 #db2 and analogies1 #ceg ,conic sections1 contemporaries1 table i ,conquest1 as ,western concept1 #ccf ,consciousness1 phases1 #aed ,consecutives in church music1 #ahh ,conservation of energy1 and causality1 #cic2 and first law of thermodynamics1 #dac2 and concept of infinity1 #dah2 and entropy1 #dbj-dbd ,constable1 ,john1 significance of colour1 #bea2 and impressionism1 #bhh ,constantine the ,great1 and artistic impotence1 #bid2 as caliph1 #dje2 religion1 #djg ,constantinople4 ,see ,byzantium2 ,haggia ,sophia ,consus1 materiality1 #djc ,contemplation1 defined1 #ie ,contemporaneity1 intercultural1 #bf1 #aab1 #agg1 #bjbn41 #bbj2 number paradigm1 #ij2 ,classical sculpture and ,western music1 #bbf1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #bia2 in physical theories1 #chf2 spiritual epochs1 table i2 culture epochs1 table ii2 political epochs1 table iii ,contending ,states1 period in ,china1 homology1 #aaa ,content1 and form1 #bdb1 #bgj ,contrition1 sacrament as ,western symbol1 #bfa1 #bfc ,conversion1 impossibility1 #cde ,copernicus1 ,classical anticipation of system1 #fh1 #aci2 and destiny1 #id2 discovery and ,western soul1 #caj1 #ccj1 #cca ,corelli1 ,arcangelo1 sonatas1 #bbf1 #bhc2 and dominance of music1 #bca2 colour expression1 #bebn42 ,catholicism1 #bfhn4 ,corinth1 and unknown gods1 #djd ,corinthian column1 contemporaries1 table ii4 ,see also ,column ,corneille1 ,pierre1 and unities1 #cbc ,corot1 ,jean ,b4 ,c41 colour1 #bdf1 #bhi2 and nude1 #bga2 impressionism1 #bhf2 landscape as portrait1 #bhg2 ease1 #bib ,cosmogonies1 contemporaries1 table i ,cosmology1 cultural attitude1 #fc1 #fh1 #fi1 #adg1 #ccj-ccb4 ,see also ,astronomy ,counterpoint1 and ,gothic1 #bbi2 and fugue1 #bcj4 ,see also ,music ,counter-,reformation1 ,michelangelo and spirit1 #bge ,couperin1 ,franois1 pastoral music1 #bdj2 colour expression1 #bebn4 ,courbet1 ,gustave1 landscapes1 #bhh-bij ,courtyards1 ,renaissance1 #bce ,cousin1 ,victor1 and economic ascendency1 #cfg ,coysevox1 ,antoine1 sculpture1 #bcb2 decoration1 #bde ,cranach1 ,lucas1 and portraiture1 #bgj ,crassus ,dives1 ,m4 ,licinius1 and city of ,rome1 #cd ,cremation1 as cultural symbol1 #acd ,cresilas1 and portraiture1 #acjn41 #bfi ,crete1 inscriptions1 #abn42 ,minoan art1 #aih ,cromwell1 ,oliver1 and imperialism1 #adi2 contemporaries1 table iii ,crusades1 symbolism1 #aen41 #aih2 and ,trojan ,war1 #bg2 ,christianity1 #cegn42 contemporaries1 table iii ,ctesiphon1 school1 #fc ,cult and dogma1 cultural attitudes1 #dja1 #daj1 #daa2 in natural science1 #dab ,cultures1 ,spengler's morphological theory1 xi2 obligatory stages1 symbols1 #c1 #d1 #f1 #ch1 #ci2 superficial and real analogies1 #d1 #f1 #bg1 #ch2 theory of distinct cycles1 #ba1 #bb1 #ca1 #gh2 divergent viewpoints1 #bc1 #df1 #aca2 as organisms1 mortality1 #bf1 #ajd1 #aji1 #afg2 contemporary periods1 #bf1 #aab1 #agg1 #bjbn41 #bbj2 ,civilization as destiny1 #ca-cd1 #ajf1 #beb1 #cec1 #ced2 symmetry1 #dg2 and notion of the world1 language1 #ee2 physiognomic meaning as essence of history1 #ee1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aje2 mathematical aspects1 separation1 #eg-fc1 #fg1 #gj2 and universal validity1 #fj1 #adf1 #agh-ahj1 #bjb1 #bhg2 number-thought and world-idea1 #gj2 stages1 #ajf1 #ajg2 application of term 8habit0 or 8style01 #ajh1 #bje2 recapitulation in life of individuals1 #aaj2 homologous forms1 #aaa2 separate destiny-ideas1 #abi1 #ade2 comparative study1 #aden42 as interpretation of soul1 #aei1 #ahj1 #cjb-cjd1 #cjg1 #cac1 #cad2 cultural and intercultural macrocosm1 #afe2 particular1 and nature1 #afi2 kind of extension as symbol1 #agc-age2 actualization of depth-experience1 #age2 plurality of prime symbols1 #agi1 #ahj2 tutelage1 #bac2 art forms and spiritualities1 #bad-baf2 arts of form as symbolic expression1 #bai2 significance of species of art1 #bbb-bbd2 as bases of morale1 #cae1 #cde-cdg2 and times of day1 #cbe2 and nature-law1 #cgg-chj1 #chb1 #chg2 scientific period1 #cha2 religious springtimes1 #cii-djb2 renunciation1 second religiousness1 #dbd2 characteristics of seasons1 table i2 contemporary art epochs1 table ii2 contemporary political epochs1 table iii4 ,see also ,arabian2 ,art2 ,chinese2 ,classical2 ,egyptian2 ,history2 ,indian2 ,macrocosm2 ,morphology2 ,nature2 ,spirit2 ,western ,cupid1 as art motive1 #bff ,cupola4 ,see ,dome ,curtius ,rufus1 ,quintus1 biography of ,alexander1 #d ,cusanus1 ,nikolaus4 ,see ,nicholas of ,cusa ,cuyp1 ,albert1 landscape as portrait1 #bhg ,cyaxares1 and ,henry the ,fowler1 #d ,cybele1 cult1 #djf ,cynics1 practicality1 #de2 morale1 #bjc1 #cdb2 and digestion1 #cfa2 contemporaries1 table i ,cypress1 as symbol1 #cif ,cyrenaics1 practicality1 #de2 contemporaries1 table i ,dante ,alighieri1 historical consciousness1 #ad1 #ef1 #adb1 #aei2 influence of ,joachim of ,floris1 #bj2 and vision1 #if2 homology1 #aaa2 and popularity1 #bdc2 and confession1 #bgc2 and psychology1 #cai2 and time of day1 #cben42 esoteric1 #cbh2 morale1 #cee2 variety of religion1 #cid2 contemporaries1 table i ,danton1 ,georges1 adventurer1 #adi ,darwinism and evolution1 and ,socialism1 #ce1 #cgj-cgb2 and practical philosophy1 #de2 morphology and vision1 #ajdn41 #aje2 ,goethe and1 #aaan42 and teleology1 #abj2 and destiny1 #adj2 and cultural art-theory1 #adan42 and usefulness1 #aee2 and biological politics1 #aef2 nature and ,god1 #cab2 anticipation1 ,darwin's political-economic application1 #cfi-cgc2 contemporaries1 table i ,daumier1 ,honor1 act and portrait1 #bgan42 and grand style1 #bij ,david1 ,pierre ,jean1 naturalism1 #bab ,dea ,clestis1 #djf ,death1 and historical consciousness1 #ac2 and become1 #ed1 #afg2 ,cultures and funeral customs1 #acd1 #ace1 #ahe2 and space1 #aff2 and world-fear and symbolism1 #aff2 stone as emblem1 #ahh2 and ornament1 #aie ,decoration1 architectural1 #aif2 ,gothic1 and bodilessness1 #aii2 ,arabian1 #bjh1 #bab2 mosaic1 #bad2 ,acanthus motive1 #bae4 ,see also ,ornament ,dedekind1 ,richard1 notation1 #gg1 #ie ,definitions1 and destiny1 xiv2 fundamental1 #ec-ef ,deism1 cause1 #ahg1 #dab2 concept1 #cabn42 ,baroque1 and mechanics1 #dab4 ,see also ,religion ,deities1 cultural basis1 #cab4 ,see also ,religion ,delacroix1 ,ferdinand ,v4 ,e41 and impressionism1 #bhh2 contemporaries1 table ii ,delphi1 ,polygnotus's frescos1 #bdc ,demeter cult1 #hc2 spring festivals1 #cbj2 contemporaries1 table i ,demeter of ,knidos1 statue1 #acf ,demetrius of ,alopeke1 and portraiture1 #acj1 #bfi ,democracy1 decay by formalism1 #ce2 contemporary periods1 table iii4 ,see also ,politics ,democritus1 and corporeality1 #agg2 and ego1 #caa2 cosmology1 #cca2 atoms1 #che2 ,leibniz as contemporary1 #chf2 and motion1 #chi2 and mechanical necessity1 #cib-cid2 contemporaries1 table i ,demosthenes1 statue1 #bgj ,depth-experience1 significance1 #afh1 #afi1 #agb-agd2 and number1 #aga2 and time1 #agb1 #agc2 realization as cultural symbol1 #agc-age2 in ,western painting1 #bci1 #bdf2 in ,western gardening1 #bdj2 and destiny1 #bda2 and philosophy in art1 #bdc2 in portrait1 #bfc1 #bff2 and impressionism1 #bhe-bhg2 and will1 #caa2 in ,socialism1 #cfa2 and natural science1 #chj1 #chf1 #cid2 ,western ,god-feeling1 #cie2 cathedral and organ1 #cif4 ,see also ,destiny2 ,space ,desargues1 ,girard1 mathematic1 #ge ,descartes1 ,ren1 civic world-outlook1 #cc2 and actuality1 #db2 style1 #fa2 mathematics and religion1 #ff2 relation to ,classical mathematic1 #fi2 and new number-idea1 #gd1 #ge1 #ha1 #hh1 #ij1 #abf1 #ahh2 contemporaries1 #aab1 table i2 and ,jansenists1 #cadn42 as thinker1 #cff2 thinking and being1 #chg2 on force1 #dac ,des ,prs1 ,josquin1 music1 #bcj ,destiny1 and pessimism1 xiv2 historical1 #c1 #d1 #f1 #ch-da2 as logic of time1 #g2 acceptance1 #dj1 #dd2 in ,world ,war1 #dg2 fulfilment of ,western mathematic1 #ij2 of a ,culture1 #ajf1 #ade2 and causality1 #aag-aba2 soul and predestination1 #aag2 organic logic1 #aag2 and time and space1 #aai1 #abj2 and idea1 #aba2 in art1 revolts1 #abg1 #abh1 #bcc2 separate cultural ideas1 illustrations1 #abi-aca1 #ade-adi1 #ahi1 #aij1 #dbd2 in ,western ,christianity1 #adj1 #ada2 and incident1 #ach-ada1 #add2 and nature1 #adb2 ,classical 8fate01 body and personality1 #adc1 #adg2 youth1 #aeb2 and ,western depth-experience1 #bda2 patina as symbol1 #bec2 and motherhood1 #bfg2 ,western1 and painting1 #bgfn42 ethic and soul's view1 #cjb1 #cdf1 #cee2 and will1 #cjh2 and ,civilization1 #cfj2 and causality in natural science1 #cgi2 and decay of exact science1 #dbb-dbd4 ,see also ,becoming2 ,causality2 ,civilization2 ,history2 ,time ,devil1 disappearance1 #ahg2 and ,arabian dualism1 #cab1 #cfc ,diadochi1 period as episode1 #adi1 #aea ,diagoras1 character of atheism1 #djhn42 condemnation1 #daa ,diatribe1 as phenomenon of ,civilization1 #cei ,dido1 cult1 #djfn4 ,diet1 and ,civilization1 #cfa ,diez1 ,feodor1 significance of colour1 #beb ,differential calculus1 as symbol1 #ae4 ,see also ,calculus ,dimension1 abstract notion1 #hi2 significance of depth1 #afh2 singularity1 #afin4 ,dinzenhofer1 ,kilian ,i41 architecture1 #bhe ,diocletian1 as caliph1 #gb1 #bab1 #dje2 as epoch1 #adi2 and ,mithras #djf ,diogenes1 morale1 #bjc2 and deity1 #cac2 ,indian kinship1 #cdg1 #ceg ,dionysiac movement1 ,alexander and legend1 #h2 contemporaries1 homology1 #bg1 #aaj1 table i2 as revolt1 #bcc1 #cef2 spring festival1 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbd ,dionysius ,i1 contemporaries1 table iii ,diophantus1 algebra1 and ,arabian ,culture1 #fc1 #ga-gc1 #chc ,dipylon vases1 #gc1 #ajg1 #aif ,direction1 and time and becoming1 #ed1 #ef2 and extension1 #ii1 #agb2 and dimension1 #afin42 and will1 #cjh2 and aim1 #cfa4 ,see also ,time ,discant1 music1 #bbi ,discobolus1 ,myron's1 #bfc1 #bfe ,discovery1 as ,western trait1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #ccb2 and space and will1 #caj1 #ccg2 spiritual results1 #ccd ,divinities4 ,see ,religion ,dogma and cult1 cultural attitude1 #dja1 #daj1 #daa2 in natural science1 #dab ,doliche1 ,baal1 #djg ,dome1 as ,arabian art expression1 #baj ,dome of the ,rock1 characteristics1 #bjj ,dominicans1 influence of ,joachim of ,floris1 #bj ,domitian1 contemporaries1 table iii ,donatello1 and ,gothic1 #bben42 8,david01 #bfe2 and portrait1 #bgb ,doric1 column as symbol1 #i1 #aie2 and ,gothic1 #bg2 timber style1 #acb2 and ,ionic1 #bje2 and ,egyptian1 #bac2 ,western exclusion1 #cde2 contemporaries1 table ii1 iii4 ,see also ,architecture2 ,column ,dostoyevski1 ,feodor ,m41 and ,europe1 #afn42 ,raskolnikov's philosophy1 #cji2 and compassion1 #cej ,drama1 cultural basis1 ,classical and ,western1 #abh-aca1 #adan41 #adc1 #adg1 #adh1 #bjc1 #bee1 #cag-cbb1 #cdg2 ,german1 #bij2 development of ,classical1 #cbj1 #cba2 cultural basis of form1 unities1 #cbb1 #cbc2 undeveloped ,western1 #cbc2 ,classical elimination of individuality1 #cbc2 chorus1 #cbd2 and time of day1 #cbd2 attitude toward scene1 #cbe2 and cultural basis of morale1 #cdg2 and philosophy of ,western activism1 #cfh1 #cgb2 ,classical1 and atomic theory1 #chf ,dresden1 architecture1 #bjg1 #bhe2 chamber music1 #bcb ,droem1 autumnal accent1 #bda ,dryads1 passivity1 #ccf2 materiality1 #djc ,dschang ,yi1 and imperialism1 #cg ,dualism1 in ,arabian ,culture1 #cje-cjg1 #cfc2 and will and reason1 #cji2 in religion1 #cab ,dhring1 ,eugen ,karl1 position in ,western ethics1 #cgc ,drer1 ,albrecht1 historical heads1 #ajc2 colour1 #bde1 #bej2 and act and portrait1 #bgj ,dufay1 ,guillaume1 music1 in ,italy1 #bcj1 #bcf ,duns ,scotus1 historical place1 #gb2 contemporaries1 table i ,dunstaple1 ,john1 music1 #bcj ,duration4 ,see ,life ,durham1 palatinate1 #cdin4 ,dyck1 ,anthony van4 ,see ,van ,dyck ,dynamics1 as ,western system1 #chd1 #cic4 ,see also ,natural science ,eckhardt1 ,meister1 on imitation1 #aia2 mysticism1 #bac2 egoism1 #cce2 wisdom and intellect1 #dji2 contemporaries1 table i ,economic motives4 ,see ,money ,economic organization1 cultural attitude toward care1 #ach ,economics1 and ,western practical ethics1 #cfg-cfi4 ,see also ,politics2 ,socialism ,eddas1 space-expression1 #ahe1 #ahg2 and ,western religion1 #djj1 #dbc2 contemporaries1 table i ,edessa1 school1 #fc1 #cha2 and ,arabian art1 #bji2 ,baal1 #djg ,edfu1 temple1 #bid ,edward ,i of ,england1 and archery1 #cccn4 ,edward ,,iii of ,england1 and archery1 #cccn4 ,egoism1 in ,western ,culture1 #bfb1 #cjb1 #cji1 #cce ,egyptian ,culture1 historic aspect1 #ab2 and immortality1 #ac2 and pure number1 #fi2 historical basis1 funeral custom1 #ace2 and care1 #acf2 and ,mary-cult1 #acg2 attitude toward state1 #acg2 economic organization1 #ach2 stone as symbol1 #ahh2 destiny-idea1 path as prime symbol1 #ahh1 #ahi2 architectural expression1 #ahi1 #bjb2 brave style1 #bja-bjc2 and tutelage1 #bac2 streets1 #bbd2 art composition1 #bdc2 sculpture1 #bdhn41 #bff2 and portrait1 #bfb2 ,civilization1 #bid1 #bie2 view of soul1 #cje2 morale1 #cae2 and discovery1 #ccb2 and ,socialism1 #cdg2 and man-deification1 #djen42 art epochs1 table ii2 political epochs1 table iii4 ,see also ,cultures2 arts by name1 especially ,architecture ,egyptianism1 contemporary periods1 table iii ,eichendorff1 ,joseph von1 poetry1 #bhi ,eleatic philosophy1 and motion1 #cjen41 #chh1 #cij ,elements1 cultural concepts of physical1 #chc1 #chd4 ,see also ,atomic theories2 ,natural science ,eleusinian mysteries1 dramatic imitation1 #cbj ,elis1 treaty1 #ajn4 ,emigration1 cultural attitude1 #ccf ,empedocles1 elements1 #cbg1 #chc1 #chd2 on atoms1 #chf ,emperor-worship1 #dje1 #djg1 #daa ,empire style1 as ,classicism1 #bjg2 contemporaries1 table ii ,encyclopedists1 contemporaries1 table i ,energy1 and voluntas1 #cajn4 ,engels1 ,friedrich1 and ,hegelianism1 #cfg2 position in ,western ethics1 #cgc ,england1 ,manchester system and ,western ,civilization1 #bi1 #aea1 #cga2 imperialism and ,napoleonic epoch1 #adi-aea ,enlightenment1 ,age of1 and movement1 #aee2 effect on monasticism1 #cafn42 and tolerance1 #cdc2 and cult and dogma1 #daa ,entelechy1 ahistoric aspect1 #ae ,entropy1 theory1 formulations1 #dbj2 effect1 #dba-dbd ,epaminondas1 and invented history1 #aa ,ephesus1 ,council of1 and ,godhead1 #bji ,epic1 and religion1 #cii-djb ,epictetus1 and ,jesus1 #cdg ,epicureanism1 practicality1 #de2 morale1 #cae2 and will1 #cda1 #cdb2 contemporaries1 table i ,epicurus1 ,indian kinship1 #cdg2 character of ,nihilism1 #ceg2 and ,socialism1 #ceh2 and mathematics1 #cff2 and ethics1 #cfg2 contemporaries1 table i ,epigoni1 and ,socialism1 #cgd ,epistemology1 and history1 #aai1 #cee ,epochs1 personal and impersonal1 #adh4 ,see also ,incident2 ,destiny ,epos1 contemporaries of popular1 table i ,erastosthenes1 as creator1 #dbe ,erechtheum1 in style history1 #ajh1 #bjg ,eroticism4 ,see ,sex ,esoterics1 in ,western ,culture1 #cbf-cbi4 ,see also ,popularity ,etching1 ,leonardo's relation1 #bha2 as ,western art1 #bij ,ethics1 relation to ,culture1 #ced2 period in philosophy1 #cfe-cfg2 socio-economic character of ,western1 #cfg-cfi2 dramatical presentation of ,western1 #cfh1 #cgb2 evolution theory1 aspects1 #cfi-cgb2 landmarks of ,western1 #cgc1 #cgd2 exhaustion of period1 #cgd4 ,see also ,metaphysics2 ,morale2 ,philosophy ,etruscan1 round-buildings1 #baan42 contemporaries of discipline1 table i ,eucharist1 cultural significance1 #ahe1 #ahf2 as centre of ,western ,christianity1 #bdg ,euclid1 mathematical style1 #ei1 #fd1 #fe2 limitation of geometry1 #fg1 #hh2 mathematical position1 #ij2 parallel axiom1 #agfn4 ,see also ,geometry ,eudoxus1 and higher powers1 #ff2 and infinity1 #fi1 #fin42 and mathematic1 #gh1 #ij ,euler1 ,leonhard1 mathematic1 #gh1 #ij2 and differentials1 #hf2 and time1 #abf2 contemporaries1 #bca1 table i ,euripides1 unpopularity1 #ce2 foreshadowing by1 #aaa2 end-art1 #bbc2 tragic method1 #cai ,europe1 as historical term1 #afn4 ,evolution4 ,see ,darwinism ,exhaustion-method of ,archimedes1 #fi ,experience1 and historical sense1 #aj2 lived and learned1 #ee2 in ,western concept of nature1 #cic2 and faith1 #cid2 and theory1 #cie ,experiment1 and experience1 #cic ,exploration4 ,see ,discovery ,expressionism1 farce1 #bid ,extension1 and direction1 #ii1 #agb2 and reason1 #cjh4 ,see also ,space ,eyck1 ,jan van1 portraits1 #bgb1 #cji2 contemporaries1 table ii ,eye1 in sculpture1 #cbi ,faades1 cultural significance1 #bbd2 ,renaissance1 #bce ,fact1 and theory1 #cgh ,fairies1 cultural attitude1 #ccf1 #djc ,faith1 and ,western mathematic1 #gh4 ,see also ,religion ,family1 ,western portraits1 #bff2 ,civilization and race-suicide1 #cei4 ,see also ,motherhood ,faraday1 ,michael1 and theory1 #ajj1 #cgh1 #daf ,farnese ,bull1 theatrical note1 #bia ,fate1 cultural attitude1 #abi4 ,see also ,destiny ,faunus1 materiality1 #djc ,faustian soul1 explained1 #ahc4 ,see also ,western ,culture ,fauxbourdon1 music1 #bbi ,fayum1 #ehn4 ,fear1 and ,classical and ,western tragedy1 #cba ,federigo of ,urbino1 portrait1 #bgi ,feeling1 and 8proper10 #ec ,fermat1 ,pierre de1 relation to ,classical mathematic1 #fi2 mathematic style1 #gd1 #ge1 #ij2 problem1 #gf1 #gg2 contemporaries1 table i ,feudalism1 contemporary periods1 table iii ,feuerbach1 ,anselm von1 act and portrait1 #bgan4 ,feuerbach1 ,ludwig ,a41 provincialism1 #bd2 position in ,western ethics1 #cgc2 contemporaries1 table i ,fichte1 ,johann ,g41 basis of ,socialism1 #cfb1 #cgd2 esoteric1 #cfi2 and mathematics1 #cgd2 contemporaries1 table i ,fifty-year period1 cultural rhythm1 #aaj ,fischer von ,erlach1 ,johann ,b41 architecture1 #bhe ,flaminius1 ,c41 and economic motive1 #cf2 and imperialism1 #cg ,fleury1 ,andre1 ,cardinal de1 policy1 #d1 #cdi ,florence1 culture city1 loss of prestige #bi1 #cc2 cathedral1 #ahd1 #bch2 and ,arabian ,culture1 #baa2 and ,renaissance1 #bcc-bch2 and ,northern art1 #bcf2 character as state1 #bgc4 ,see also ,renaissance2 ,savonarola ,fluxions1 significance of ,newton's designation1 #aen4 ,fontainebleau1 park1 #bdj ,force1 as undefinable ,western concept1 numen1 #cij1 #cia1 #cih1 #djb1 #dab- #dag2 stages of concept1 #dag2 contradictions1 #dah4 ,see also ,natural science ,forest1 and ,western cathedrals1 #cif ,form1 and law1 #ig2 and music1 #bai2 and content1 #bdb1 #bgj ,forum of ,nerva1 craft-art1 #aih1 #bae ,forum of ,trajan1 ornament1 #bae ,fouquet1 ,nicolas1 and gardening1 #bda ,four-part movement1 #bca ,fourteen ,helpers1 #djj ,fourth dimension1 and ,classical mathematic1 #ff2 and time and space1 #abd ,fox1 ,charles ,james1 contemporaries1 table iii ,fragonard1 ,jean ,h41 and music1 #bcb ,france1 and maturity of ,western ,culture1 #adh1 #aej2 plein-air painting1 #bhh1 #bhi ,francesca1 ,piero della1 and static space1 #bcg2 perspective1 #bdj2 and artistic change1 #bgi1 #bhg ,francis of ,assisi1 art influence1 #bdin42 morale1 #cdh2 ,god-feeling1 #cie2 contemporaries1 table i ,francis ,i of ,france1 and imperial crown1 #adh ,franciscans1 influence of ,joachim of ,floris1 #bj ,franois ,vase1 composition1 #bdd ,frau ,holle1 and ,mary-cult1 #bfg ,frau ,venus1 symbolism1 #djc ,frazer1 ,sir ,j4 ,g41 error on 8,unknown ,god01 #djdn4 ,frederick the ,great1 and analogy1 #d2 on chance1 #adbn42 contemporaries1 table iii ,frederick ,william ,i of ,prussia1 and ,socialism1 #ach2 ,egyptian kinship1 #cdg ,frederick ,william ,,iv of ,prussia1 and ,german unity1 #ade ,free will1 and destiny1 #adj1 #ada4 ,see also ,will ,freedom1 and historical destiny1 #ci ,freiburg ,minster1 ,viking ,gothic1 #bac ,french ,revolution1 incident and destiny in1 #adh1 #adi ,frescobaldi1 ,girolamo1 music1 #bcj ,frescos1 ,classical1 and time of day1 #bbe1 #bhc1 #cbe2 ,renaissance1 #bcg1 #bge2 displacement by oil1 #bgi4 ,see also ,painting ,fresnel1 ,augustin ,j41 light theory1 #dah ,friedrich1 ,kaspar ,d41 and grand style1 #bhi ,frigga1 and ,mary-cult1 #bfg ,fronde1 contemporaries1 table iii ,front1 cultural basis of architectural1 #bbd ,fugue1 style and theme1 #bcj1 #bca ,function1 as symbol of ,western ,culture1 #gd-gh2 and proportion1 #hd2 contrast with ,classical construction1 #he2 basis of ,western number1 thought1 #hf1 #hg2 ,goethe's definition1 #hfn42 expansion in groups1 aggregates1 #hi1 #ij1 #dbf4 ,see also ,mathematics ,funeral customs1 as cultural symbol1 #acd1 #ace1 #aeh ,future1 youth as1 #aeb2 cultural relation1 #cfc ,gabrieli1 ,andrea1 music1 #beb ,gabrieli1 ,giovanni1 music1 #bbf ,galen1 as copyist1 #dbe ,galileo1 and natural philosophy1 #g2 on nature and mathematics1 #eg2 and static idea1 #bcf1 #dab2 dynamic world-picture1 #caa2 deeds of science1 #cee2 concept of force1 #chf1 #dae1 #dag2 and motion-problem1 #cij2 ,god-feeling1 #cif2 contemporaries1 table i ,gama1 ,vasco da1 spiritual result1 #ccd ,gardening1 as ,chinese religious art1 #aij2 ,western1 perspective1 #bdj1 #bda2 ,renaissance1 #bda2 ,english1 and ruins1 #bed ,gaugamela1 battle1 #aea ,gaul1 ,csar's conquest1 #cfn4 ,gauss1 ,karl ,f41 style1 #ei2 artist-nature1 #fa2 mathematical position1 #gh1 #he1 #ij1 #agfn42 and nonperceptual geometry1 #hh2 contemporaries1 #aab1 table i2 and dimension1 #agj1 #agb2 and popularity1 #cbg2 and metaphysics1 #cff2 goal of analysis1 #dah ,gaza1 temple1 #baa ,gedon1 ,frau1 ,leibl's portrait1 #bebn41 #bffn4 ,generations1 spiritual relation1 #aajn4 ,geography1 ,classical ,culture and1 #ajn42 influence on historical terms1 #afn4 ,see also ,discovery ,geology1 and mineralogy1 #if ,geometry1 ,kant's error1 #fn41 #agj1 #aga2 art expression1 #fa2 limitation of ,classical1 #fg1 #hc1 #hh2 ,descartes and infinite1 #gd2 ,western mathematic and term1 #ha2 ,western liberation1 #hf1 #agjn42 and arithmetic1 #abe1 #abf2 systems and corporeality1 #agfn42 and popularity1 cultural basis1 #cbg4 ,see also ,mathematics ,george1 ,henry1 autumnal accent1 #bda ,gerbert4 ,see ,sylvester ,,ii ,gricault1 ,jean ,l4 ,a4 ,t41 and grand style1 #bij ,germany1 union as destiny1 #add2 and music and architecture1 #bhe2 diversion from music to painting1 #bhi ,germigny des ,prs1 church as mosque1 #bja ,gernrode ,cathedral1 simplicity1 #aif2 and antique1 #bgen4 ,gesture1 as ,classical symbol1 #caf2 in ,classical tragedy1 #cag ,gesu1 ,il1 church at ,rome1 faade1 #cac2 ,god-feeling1 #cie ,ghassanid ,kingdom1 #bae ,ghiberti1 ,lorenzo1 and ,gothic1 #bben41 #bce1 #bch ,ghirlandaio1 ,il1 ,dutch influence1 #bcf ,giacomo della ,porta1 architecture1 #cad2 ,god-feeling1 #cie ,gigantomachia1 and decline of art1 #bia ,giorgione1 ,il1 and impressionism1 #bci2 clouds1 #bdj2 colour1 #bea1 #beb2 and body1 #bga ,giotto1 childlike feeling1 #bab2 technique1 #bba2 and fresco-art1 #bcg2 and ,francis of ,assisi1 #bdin42 ,gothic1 #bce1 #bgd2 ,god-feeling1 #cie2 contemporaries1 table ii ,giovanni ,pisano1 sculpture1 #bab1 #bce1 #bch1 #bfc ,glass painting1 ,gothic and ,venetian1 #beb2 contemporaries1 table ii ,gluck1 ,christopher ,w41 contemporary mathematics1 #gh1 #ij2 character of arias1 #bain42 music1 #bfj2 period1 #bhd ,gnostics1 music1 #bbh2 dualism1 #bdh1 #cjf2 contemporaries1 table i ,gobelins1 and music1 #bcb ,god1 ,western1 and will1 #cab4 ,see also ,religion ,grres1 ,jakob ,j4 von1 and dualism1 #cjg ,goes1 ,hugo van der1 in ,italy1 #bcf ,goethe1 ,johann ,wolfgang von1 and living nature and vision1 vii1 #ie1 #if1 #aje1 #aaan41 #aac1 #adj1 #aed1 #chi2 influence on ,spengler1 xiv2 historic consciousness1 #ad1 #adb1 #aei2 on life1 #bj2 on mankind1 #ba2 and world-as-history1 #be1 #ii1 #ajd2 as ,classicist1 #cj2 and ,darwinism1 #ce1 #aaan41 #cgj2 and actuality1 #db1 #dc2 as philosopher1 #din41 #cfen42 on becoming and become1 #din41 #ec2 and intuition1 #ef2 on vision and observation1 #fa2 and mathematics1 #fa1 #fe1 #ge2 and ,plato's ,ideas1 #gj2 on function1 #hfn42 on form and law1 #ig2 on symbols1 #ajbn42 on historiography1 #ajc2 and morphology1 #ajdn41 #aaa2 on blossoming of art1 #ajg2 display of individuality1 #aaj2 foreshadowing by1 #aaa2 and causal effort1 nature-studies1 #aah1 #aee-aeg1 #dbb2 on reasonable order1 #abc2 and the ,almighty1 #abd2 dramatic form1 #abi1 #cah2 destiny in life1 #aci1 #ade1 #adf1 #bha2 and imperialism1 #adi2 theory of colour1 #aegn41 #aehn41 #bdf2 as ,kant's opposite1 #aei2 and style as organism1 #bje2 and imagination1 #bbj2 ,northern pantheism1 #bej1 #bean42 on soul and body1 #bei2 lyrics1 #bhf2 and confession1 #cjj2 as biographer1 #caf2 and time of day1 #cbd2 ,faust as symbol of ,civilization1 #ced2 ethical passion1 #cee2 variety of religion1 #cid2 and cult and dogma1 #daa2 on application of reason1 #dab2 and world-force1 #dac1 #dag2 contemporaries1 table i ,gtterdmmerung1 ,christian form1 #djj ,gold1 and ,arabian ,culture1 #bdg2 contrasting ,classical use1 #becn4 ,golden ,age1 cultural basis of concept1 #cfc ,golden ,legend1 contemporaries1 #djj ,gorgias1 autumnal accent1 #bjg ,gospels1 contemporaries1 table i ,gothic1 and ,doric1 #bg2 architecture1 and depth-experience1 #agg1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #aih-bjj2 cathedrals as ornament1 #aie2 sculpture1 nude1 cathedral groups1 #aif1 #aig1 #bbg1 #bca1 #bfa1 #bff1 #bgb2 as stage of style1 #bjb2 and ,arabian1 borrowings1 #baa1 #bac2 musical association1 #bbi1 #bcj2 aliveness1 #bcc2 in ,italy1 and ,renaissance1 #bcd-bch2 esoteric1 #bdc2 ,italian1 and ,francis of ,assisi1 #bdin42 and later ,western expression1 #beb2 and nature1 #bfd2 philosophy1 will and reason1 #cjh2 ,god-feeling1 #cie2 forest1 cathedral1 and organ1 #cif2 contemporaries1 tables ii1 iii4 ,see also ,art2 ,western ,culture ,goujon1 ,jean1 sculpture1 #bdd ,government4 ,see ,politics ,goya y ,lucientes1 ,francisco1 technique1 #bba2 act and portrait1 #bgan41 #bfd2 ease1 #bib2 contemporaries1 table ii ,goyen1 ,jan van1 landscape as portrait1 #bhg ,gracchi1 and economic organization1 #ach2 as incident1 #aci ,grace1 and destiny1 #adj1 #ada ,granada1 and ,arabian ,culture1 #baf ,grassmann1 ,hermann ,g41 religion and mathematic1 #gj ,gravitation1 shaky hypothesis1 #dah ,great ,mother of ,pessinus1 ,rome and cult1 #dje ,greco1 ,el1 clouds1 #bdj ,greece1 and ,europe1 #afn4 ,see also ,classical ,culture ,green1 symbolism1 #bde1 #bdf ,gregory ,,vii1 pope1 morale1 #cdi ,grote1 ,george1 narrow ,classicalism1 #bi ,groups1 as culmination of ,western mathematic1 #hi1 #ij1 #dbg ,grnewald1 ,matthias1 clouds1 #bdj2 colour1 #bdf1 #bej1 #bhh2 and ,renaissance1 #bgd ,guardi1 ,francesco1 painting1 #bjg1 #bbj ,guercino1 ,giovanni ,f4 ,b41 colour1 #bdf2 and musical expression1 #bej ,guido d' ,arezzo1 music1 #bbh ,guido da ,siena1 and ,madonna1 #bfg ,guilhem of ,poitiers1 professionalism1 #bbin4 ,gundisapora1 school1 #fc ,gunpowder1 relation to ,baroque1 #bghn41 #ccc ,gymnastics1 and sport1 #ce ,habit1 applied to a ,culture1 #ajh ,hadrian1 analogy1 #d2 ,pantheon as ,arabian1 #baa ,hadrian's ,villa1 type1 #baan4 ,haeckel1 ,ernst ,h41 and ,civilization1 #beb2 faith in names1 #cign4 ,hageladas1 contemporaries1 table ii ,hagia ,sophia1 period1 #ajh2 miracle1 #acjn42 character1 #ahd1 #bjj2 mosque as resumption1 #baa2 acanthus motive1 #bae ,halo1 history1 #acjn4 ,hals1 ,frans1 musical expression1 #bej2 period1 #bhc ,hamadryads1 materiality1 #djc ,han ,dynasty1 importance1 #id2 contemporaries1 table iii ,handel1 ,george ,f41 and dominance of music1 #bca2 colour expression1 #bebn42 ,catholicism1 #bfhn42 oratorios1 #bhc ,hannibal1 contemporaries1 #aab1 table iii2 historical position1 #add2 ethical exception1 #cdi ,happiness1 and ,classical ethic1 #cea ,harakiri1 and ,greek suicide1 #bjdn4 ,hardenberg1 ,karl ,a4 von1 reorganization of ,prussia1 #aejn4 ,harmodius1 statue1 #bfin4 ,haroun-al-,raschid1 analogies1 #ch2 contemporaries1 table ii ,hauran1 basilica type1 #baj1 #bajn4 ,haydn1 ,joseph1 contemporary mathematic1 #gh1 #ij2 orchestration1 #bca2 colour expression1 #bebn42 and ,praxiteles1 #bhd2 period1 #bhd2 ease1 #bia2 as religious1 #ceh ,hebbel1 ,friedrich1 provincialism1 #bd2 and practical philosophy1 #de2 on research and vision1 #ajb2 and cultural contrasts1 #abh2 as dramatist1 #adc1 #bij2 causal effort1 #aef2 and ,civilization1 #ceb2 nebulous aim1 #cfc2 and ,hegelianism1 #cfg2 and economic ethics1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cgc2 character of atheism1 #djhn4 ,hegel1 ,georg ,w4 ,f41 and history1 #ai1 #bb2 and mystic philosophy1 #cfen42 and mathematics1 #cff2 and critique of society1 #cfg1 #cgd2 esoteric1 #cfi2 contemporaries1 table i ,heimarmene1 in ,classical tragedy1 #cbj ,hei1 and ,valhalla1 #djj ,helen1 and ,kriemhild1 #bfh ,helios1 as god1 #adgn41 #djb ,hellenism1 contemporaries1 tables i1 ii ,hellenistic art period1 contemporaries1 table ii ,helmholtz1 ,hermann ,l4 ,f4 von1 time and mathematic1 #fd2 on natural science and mechanics1 #cgg2 on electrolysis1 #chen42 ,archimedes as contemporary1 #chf ,henry the ,fowler1 and ,cyaxares1 #d ,henry the ,lion1 morale1 #cdi ,hera1 ,samian temple1 #bben4 ,heracles1 ,vatican torso1 #bee ,heracles legends1 contemporaries1 table i ,heraclitus1 morale1 #bfhn41 #cae1 #cdc2 popularity1 #cbg2 and ,stoicism1 #cef2 wisdom and intellect1 #dji ,hera1 treaty1 #ajn4 ,herum of ,olympia1 timber construction1 #acb ,herbart1 ,johann ,f41 ethics1 #cfg ,herder1 ,johann ,g4 von1 and history1 #ai ,hermes1 cults1 #djf ,hermes ,trismegistus1 and chemistry1 #chc ,herodotus1 ahistoric consciousness1 #i1 #adf ,hersfeld1 and antique1 #bgen4 ,hertz1 ,heinrich1 and theory1 #cgh2 and motion-problem1 #cia1 #dad1 #daf ,hesiod1 contemporaries1 table i ,hilda1 ,saint1 passing-bell1 #acdn4 ,hildesheim ,cathedral1 simplicity1 #aif2 and antique1 #bgen4 ,hipparchus1 as scientist1 #i1 #ccj ,hippasus1 irrational numbers and fate1 #fen4 ,history1 ,spengler and morphology1 xi2 and destiny and causality1 experiencing and thinking1 #c1 #aah1 #aba1 #aea2 repetitions of expression-forms1 #d1 #bg2 needed technique of analogies1 #e2 consciousness1 #h2 historic and ahistoric ,cultures1 #h-ab1 #ig1 #ajc1 #acb-acf1 #bed1 #bee1 #bfd1 #cfc2 consciousness and attitude toward mortality1 #ac2 concept of morphology1 #e-h1 #bf1 #ci1 #ajj1 #aja2 form and form feeling1 #ae1 #af2 irrational culminative division scheme1 #af-ah1 #bb2 origin of the scheme1 #ah2 ,western development of it1 #ai1 #bj1 #id2 theory of distinct ,cultures1 #ba1 #bb2 provincialism of ,western thinkers1 #bb-be2 world-as-history1 thing-becoming1 #be1 #ie2 single riddle1 #dh2 time essence1 #di2 and intuition1 #ef2 definite sense and nature1 #ee1 #eg1 #id2 and ,culture1 #ee2 detached view1 #ic2 research and vision1 #if1 #ajb1 #aje1 #adb2 anti-historical and ahistorical1 #ign42 chronology1 #ig2 as original world-form1 #ih2 8scientific1 possibility1 #ih1 #aec1 #aed2 and mechanistic world-conception1 #ii2 and direction and extension1 #ii1 #ajj2 portraiture of ,cultures1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aje2 memory-picture1 #ajc2 elements of form-world1 #ajc1 #ajd2 phenomena1 #aje1 #ajf2 future task1 organic culture-history1 #aje1 #aei2 stages of a ,culture1 #ajf-ajh2 preordained durations1 #aji2 homology1 #aaa2 cultural contemporaneousness1 #aab2 enlarged possibilities1 restoration and prediction1 #aab1 #aac2 teleology and materialistic conception1 #aba2 cultural basis of viewpoint1 #aca2 cultural symbols1 clock2 bell1 funeral customs1 museums1 #aca1 #acd-acf2 cultural feeling of care1 #acf-ach2 judgment and life1 #aci2 incident and destiny1 ,western examples1 #adc1 #adh2 grandiose demand of ,western1 #ade2 incidental character of ,classical1 #adf1 #adg2 as actualizing of a soul1 #adg2 impersonal and personal epochs1 #adh2 effect of ,civilization-period1 #aeb2 and happening1 #aec2 causal harmonies1 #aec1 #aed1 #aeh2 confusion in causal method1 #aee-aeg2 physiognomic investigation1 #aeg2 symbolism1 #afc2 of styles1 #bje2 and cultural art expression1 #bdi1 #bec2 and portrait1 #bfd2 and will1 #cjh2 and action1 #cdc2 cultural opposition1 #chf2 in natural science1 #chi4 ,see also ,becoming2 ,destiny2 ,nature2 ,politics2 ,spirit2 ,time ,hittites1 inscriptions1 #abn4 ,hobbema1 ,meyndert1 colour1 #bdf ,hobbes1 ,thomas1 and actuality1 #db ,hlderlin1 ,johann ,c4 ,f41 narrow ,classicalism1 #bhn42 autumnal accent1 #bda2 and confession1 #bfd2 lyrics1 #bhf2 and fatherland1 #cce ,hoffmann1 ,ernst ,t4 ,a41 8,johannes ,kreisler01 #bgfn41 #bhe ,hogarth1 ,william1 position1 #aejn41 #bhc ,holbein1 ,hans1 colour1 #bej2 contemporaries1 table ii ,holy ,grail legend1 cultural significance1 #ahf1 #aih2 elements1 #bac ,holy ,roman ,empire1 contemporaries1 table iii ,home1 ,henry1 on ruins1 #bedn4 ,home1 significance of term1 #ccn42 cultural basis of conception1 #hc1 #ccd-ccg4 ,see also ,politics ,homer1 contemporaries1 #bg1 table i2 soul1 #bjc1 #cje2 religion1 #bfhn42 gods1 #cab1 #cac2 popularity1 #cbh2 and ,classical ethics1 #cdi ,homology1 historical application1 #aaa1 #aab ,horace1 and duration1 #fen41 #acb ,horizon1 and mathematics1 #aga2 in ,western landscape painting1 #bci1 #bdb ,horn1 ,georg1 and term ,middle ,age1 #bb ,horoscopes1 cultural attitude1 #adg ,houdon1 ,jean ,a41 sculpture as painting1 #bde ,hucbald1 music1 #bbh ,hugo van der ,goes4 ,see ,goes ,huguenot wars1 character1 #cc ,humboldt1 ,alexander von1 ,ethical ,socialism1 #cgd ,hus1 ,john1 contemporaries1 table i ,hwang-,ti1 contemporaries1 table iii ,hygiene1 as phenomenon of ,civilization1 #cfa ,hyksos ,period1 contemporaries1 #aaa1 tables ii1 iii2 feebleness1 #adi ,hyksos ,sphinx1 #ajh1 #bfb ,hypsicles1 as ,arabian thinker1 #fc ,iamblichus1 on statues of gods1 #baf2 contemporaries1 table i ,ibn-al-,haitan1 on light1 #cha ,ibn ,kurra1 contemporaries1 table i ,ibsen1 ,henrik1 world-conception1 #bj2 provincialism1 #bd1 #ccn42 sex problem1 #ce2 unpopularity1 #ce2 and practical philosophy1 #de2 causal effort1 #aef2 tragic method1 #cah2 and morale1 #cdf2 and ,civilization1 #ceb2 character of ,nihilism1 #ceg2 journalism1 #cfj2 nebulous aim1 #cfc1 #cfd2 and socio-economic ethics1 #cgb-cgd ,iconoclasts1 ,arabian principle1 #bfb2 contemporaries1 table i ,idea1 and destiny1 #aba ,idolatry1 ,arabian iconoclasm1 #bfb2 ,classical attitude1 #djc ,iliad1 spatial aspect1 #aih ,ilya ,murometz1 ,russian saga1 #bjan4 ,image1 cultural basis of idea1 #baf ,imagination1 music as channel1 #bbj ,imitation1 qualities and aim1 #aia-aid2 opposition to ornament1 #aid-aif2 period in architecture1 #aig2 in music1 #bbh4 ,see also ,ornament ,imperialism1 negative character of ,roman1 #cf2 and ,civilization1 #cf2 ,western destiny1 #cg1 #ch2 origin of ,western1 ,napoleon's relation1 #adh2 cultural attitude1 #ccf2 cultural contemporaries1 table iii ,impressionism1 as space1 #ahd2 beginning1 #bci2 ,leonardo's relation1 #bgg2 full meaning1 #bhe-bhg2 later plein-air1 #bhh2 in ,wagner's music1 #bib ,improvisation1 as manifestation1 #aie ,incident1 world1 #adb2 and destiny1 #ach-add2 and cause1 #adb2 and style of existence1 #adb-adg2 as basis of ,western tragedy1 #adc2 historical use1 #adc4 ,see also ,destiny ,india1 ,napoleon and1 #aej ,indian ,culture1 ahistorical basis1 #aa1 #ab1 #acc2 anonymous philosophy1 #ab2 mathematic1 #hd1 #agh2 sex attitude1 #acf2 attitude toward state1 #acg2 morale1 passive1 #cae1 #cda1 #cdg2 ,buddhism and ,civilization1 #ceb2 spiritual epochs1 table i4 ,see also ,buddhism2 ,cultures ,indo-,iranian art period1 contemporaries1 table ii ,infinity1 and ,classical mathematic1 #fi2 in ,western ,culture1 #gd-gf1 #ha-hd2 and new notation1 #gf-gh2 limit as a relation1 #hf2 and ,western science1 #dah1 #dbg4 ,see also ,depth-experience2 ,space ,innocent ,,iii1 pope1 and ,western morale1 #cdh ,inquisition1 and ,western faith1 #daj ,integral calculus4 ,see ,calculus ,intellect1 and nature1 #aeg4 ,see also ,will ,intelligence1 and atheism1 #dji ,interregnum1 ,germanic1 period as episode1 #adi ,intuition1 and learning1 #ee1 #ef ,ionic1 and ,doric1 #bje2 contemporaries1 tables ii1 iii4 ,see also ,architecture2 ,column ,irak1 synagogue music1 #bbh ,irrationalism1 cultural attitude1 #fd-ff1 #fh1 #hc ,isis1 motherhood1 #acg2 cult1 #djf1 #djg ,islam1 analogy to ,mohammed1 #ci2 ,mohammed as epoch1 #adi2 architectural expression1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baa2 iconoclasm1 #bfb2 and home1 #cce2 ,mohammed's unimposed mystic benefits1 #cddn42 ,puritanism1 #cef2 ,mohammed's contemporaries1 table i2 fatalism period1 table i4 ,see also ,arabian ,culture2 ,religion ,issus1 battle1 mosaic1 #bad ,italy1 liberation as episode1 #aea2 and music1 #bcj ,i-,wang1 contemporaries1 table iii ,jacobins1 and reason and will1 #cjh ,jacopo della ,quercia1 and ornament1 #bch ,jahn1 ,friedrich ,l41 and gymnastics1 #cen4 ,james1 ,henry1 on ruins1 #bedn4 ,jansenism1 and theoretical science1 #ff1 #cadn42 ,puritanism1 #cef2 contemporaries1 table i ,janus1 materiality1 #djc ,japan1 harakiri1 #bjdn42 art and the nude1 #bfbn4 ,jason of ,pher1 contemporaries1 table iii ,jesuitism1 and ,baroque architecture1 #cac2 style in science1 #dab4 ,see also ,loyola ,jesus1 as ,son of ,man1 #cji2 and ,arabian morale1 #cdd1 #cdg2 unimposed glad tidings1 #cddn4 ,see also ,christianity ,joachim of ,floris1 world-conception1 #ai1 #bbi1 #bfa2 and 8passion01 #cbjn42 contemporaries1 table i ,john1 ,saint1 and world-history1 #ahn42 dualism in ,gospel1 #cjf ,journalism1 as phenomenon of ,civilization1 #cfj ,judaism1 architectural expression1 #bji1 #baan42 psalmody1 #bbh2 ,kabbala1 dualism1 #bdh1 #cjg1 #cab2 and home #cce4 ,see also ,arabian ,culture ,judgment1 and necessity1 #cic ,julius ,,ii1 pope1 ,raphael's portrait1 #bgb ,juppiter ,dolichenus1 cult1 #djfn4 ,juppiter ,feretrius1 temple and oath1 #djf ,juppiter ,optimus ,maximus1 cult1 #djf ,jurisprudence1 esoteric ,western1 #cbh ,justinian1 period of fulfilment1 #ajg2 and ,hagia ,sophia1 #acjn4 ,justus van ,gent1 in ,italy1 #bcf ,kabbala1 dualism1 #bdh1 #cjg ,kalaam1 determinism1 #cjg ,kant1 ,emmanuel1 and space and time1 #fn41 #g1 #fd1 #abb1 #abd-abf1 #adc1 #afi1 #agj1 #agc-age2 and history1 #ai2 provincialism1 #bc2 contemporaries1 #bg1 table i2 final ,western systematic philosophy1 #de1 #cfe-cfg2 as philosopher of ,being1 #din42 and nature and mathematics1 #eg1 #fd1 #fh1 #gh1 #cff1 #cgi2 a priori error1 #ei2 mechanistic world-conception1 #ii2 and causality and destiny1 #aah-abj1 #aea2 and the ,almighty1 #abd2 and incident1 #adc2 as ,goethe's opposite1 #aei2 on knowledge of thought1 #bii2 egoism1 #caj1 #cce2 esoteric1 #cbg2 and compassion1 #cej1 #cfb2 and ethics1 #ced1 #cee2 and materialism1 #cfh2 on judgment1 #cic2 on force1 #dac ,karlstadt1 ,andreas ,r41 contemporaries1 table i ,karma1 ,buddhist interpretation1 #ceg ,karnak1 contemporaries1 table ii ,katharsis1 ,classical1 #cbb1 #cdg4 ,see also ,drama ,kelvin1 ,lord1 and ther1 #dah ,kepler1 ,johan1 mathematic and religion1 #ga1 #ccj2 horoscope for ,wallenstein1 #adg2 deeds of science1 #cee2 and mass1 #dae ,kirchhoff1 ,gustav ,r41 on physics and motions1 #chh ,kishi1 church architecture1 #bjan4 ,kismet1 #abi1 #cjg4 ,see also ,destiny ,klein1 ,felix1 and groups1 #ij ,kleist1 ,heinrich ,b4 ,w4 von1 as dramatist1 #bij ,kleisthenes of ,sikyon1 tyranny1 #cc ,knowledge1 comparative forms1 #ei1 #fj2 virtue and power1 #cfb2 and feeling1 #cfe2 as naming of numina1 #cig ,kriemhild1 and ,helen1 #bfh ,krishna worship1 and sex1 #acfn4 ,kwan-tsi1 and actuality1 #db ,lagrange1 ,comte1 mathematic1 #ff1 #gh1 #ij2 on mechanics1 #abd2 and force1 #dag2 contemporaries1 table i ,la ,hale1 ,adam de1 operetta1 #bbi ,landscape1 as ,chinese prime symbol1 #agd1 #aij1 #aif1 #bjc2 horizon in painting1 #bci2 ,western gardening1 #bdj2 ,baroque1 as portrait #bgjn41 #bhg2 plein-air1 #bhh1 #bhi2 and dramatic scene1 #cbf ,lanfranc1 controversy1 #ahe ,langton1 ,stephen1 as warrior1 #cdin4 ,language1 of ,culture1 #ee2 word and number1 #eg2 beginning of word-sense1 #eg2 paired root-words1 #abg2 personality-idea in ,western1 #bfb1 #cjb1 #cji1 #caj1 #dacn42 as cultural function1 #cjbn4 ,see also ,names2 ,writing ,laocon group1 theatrical note1 #bia2 and ,pre-,socratic philosophy1 #cje ,lao-tse1 and imperialism1 #cg2 and actuality1 #db4 ,laplace1 ,marquis ,pierre de1 mathematic1 #gh1 #ij2 contemporaries1 #aab1 table i2 and force1 #dac1 #dag ,lasso1 ,orlando1 style1 #bcj ,lateran ,council1 and ,western ,christianity1 #bdg ,latin1 as ,stoic creation1 #cfa ,lavoisier1 ,antoine ,l41 chemistry1 #chd1 #dbf ,law1 and form1 #ig ,league of ,nations1 ,chinese ideas1 #cg ,learning1 and intuition1 #ee1 #ef ,legends1 contemporary1 table i ,legnano1 battle1 a symbol1 #cdi ,leibl1 ,wilhelm1 significance of colour1 #beb2 portraiture1 #bff2 and body1 #bga2 and grand style1 #bhi-bia2 etching1 #bij2 striving1 #bib ,leibniz1 ,baron von1 and actuality1 #db2 mathematics1 metaphysics1 and religion1 #ef1 #ff1 #gj1 #abf1 #cff1 #cid2 relation to ,classical mathematic1 #fi2 calculus1 #ge1 #gh1 #hb1 #hd1 #ij2 and vision1 #aje2 and ,nicholas of ,cusa1 #bcf2 esoteric1 #cbg2 and mystic philosophy1 #cfen42 monads as quanta of action1 #che2 ,democritus as contemporary1 #chf2 and force1 #dac1 #dae-dag2 contemporaries1 table i ,leipzig1 battle1 issue1 #ce ,lenbach1 ,franz von1 copyist1 #bie ,le ,ntre1 ,andr1 gardening1 #bdjn41 #bda ,leo ,,iii1 pope1 and iconoclasm1 #bfb ,leochares1 contemporary mathematic1 #ij ,leonardo da ,vinci1 astronomical theory1 #fi2 spirituality1 #abh2 ,dutch influence1 #bcf2 and background1 #bcg2 and impressionism1 #bci1 #bhg2 and sculpture1 #bdd2 colour1 #bdf2 and body1 #bga2 and portrait1 #bgb2 as dissatisfied thinker1 #bgd2 discovery as basis of art1 #bgg-bgi2 and circulation of the blood1 #bgh2 and aviation1 #bgi2 ,western soul and technical limitation1 #bgi-bha2 and dynamics1 #dad ,lessing1 ,gotthold ,e41 world-conception1 #bj2 and cultural contrasts1 #abh2 and ,aristotle's philanthropy1 #cea2 and cult and dogma1 #daa ,lessing1 ,karl ,f41 colour1 #beb ,leucippus1 atoms1 #ace1 #che1 #chf ,li1 contemporaries1 table iii ,licinian ,laws1 myth1 #aa ,life1 and soul and world1 #ed2 duration1 specific time-value1 #ajh2 duration applied to ,culture1 #aji2 ,classical ,culture and duration1 #acb2 and willing1 #cae4 ,see also ,death ,light and shadow1 cultural art attitude1 #bdbn41 #bhc1 #cben4 ,light theories1 electro-magnetic1 #aefn42 ,newton's1 and ,goethe's theory of colour1 #aegn41 #aehn42 cultural basis1 #cha2 contradictory1 #dah ,limit1 as a relation1 #hf ,linden1 as symbol1 #cif ,lingam4 ,see ,phallus ,lingayats1 sect1 #acfn4 ,ling-yan-si1 ,saints1 #bfj ,linois1 ,comte de1 and ,india1 #aejn4 ,lippi1 ,filippino1 ,dutch influence1 #bcf ,liszt1 ,franz1 ,catholicism1 #bfhn42 contemporaries1 table ii ,literature4 ,see ,art2 ,drama2 ,history2 ,poetry2 writers by name1 especially ,dante2 ,goethe2 ,ibsen ,livy1 on strange gods1 #dje ,lochner1 ,stephen1 ,god-feeling1 #cie ,locke1 ,john1 and imperialism1 #aej2 contemporaries1 table i ,loggia dei ,lanzi1 artistic sentiment1 #bgb ,logarithms1 liberation1 #hh ,logic1 organic and inorganic1 #c1 #aag2 of time and space1 #g2 and mathematics1 convergence1 #eg1 #dbg2 and morale1 #ced4 ,see also ,causality ,logicians1 contemporaries1 table i ,lokoyata1 contemporaries1 table i ,london1 culture city1 #cc ,loredano1 doge1 portrait1 #bgb ,lorentz1 ,hendrik ,a41 and ,relativity1 #dai ,lorenzo de' ,medici1 and music1 #bcj ,lotze1 ,rudolf ,h41 ethics1 #cfg ,louis ,,xiv1 uncleanliness1 #bfj2 contemporaries1 table iii ,louisiana1 ,napoleon's project1 #aej ,loyola1 ,ignatius1 and style of the ,church1 #adh2 architectural parallel1 #cad2 and ,western morale1 #cdh2 ,god-feeling1 #cid1 #cie2 and method1 #dab ,lucca1 and ,arabian ,culture1 #baf ,lucian1 and ,philopatris dialogue1 #djdn4 ,lucullus1 ,l41 army1 #cf ,ludovisi ,villa1 garden1 #bdj ,lully1 ,raymond1 music1 #bhc ,luther1 ,martin1 and 8know01 #abc2 and destiny1 #ada2 as epoch1 #adi2 and works1 #cafn42 and ,western morale1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #cee2 ,god-feeling1 #cid1 #cie2 contemporaries1 table i ,luxor1 contemporaries1 table ii ,lycurgus1 myth1 #aa ,lysander1 deification1 #dje ,lysias1 portrait1 #bgj ,lysicrates1 ,monument of1 acanthus motive1 #bae ,lysippus1 contemporary mathematic1 #ij2 sculpture1 #bbf1 #bfjn42 period1 #bhd2 canon1 #bhg2 straining1 #bia2 irreligion1 #ceh2 contemporaries1 table ii ,lysistratus1 and portraiture1 #bfi ,machault1 ,guillaume de1 and counterpoint1 #bbin4 ,machiavellism1 and mimicry1 #cga ,macpherson1 ,james1 autumnal accent1 #bda ,macrocosm1 idea1 #afc-afe2 cultural and intercultural1 #afe2 expression1 #ahj2 and style-problem1 #bad-baf4 ,see also ,history2 ,morphology2 ,nature2 ,symbolism2 ,world-conceptions ,maderna1 ,stefano1 sculpture1 #bdd2 ,god-feeling1 #cie ,madonna1 in ,western art1 #acf1 #bfg1 #bhj4 ,see also ,marycult2 ,motherhood ,madrid1 culture city1 #cb1 #aji ,madrigals1 character1 #bbi ,mcenas1 park1 #cd ,magdeburg ,cathedral1 ,viking ,gothic1 #bac ,magian soul1 explained1 #ahc4 ,see also ,arabian ,culture ,magnetism1 ,cabeo's theory1 #dad ,magnitude1 emancipation of ,western mathematic1 #gd-gh2 and relations1 #hd1 #hf ,mahavansa1 as historical work1 #ab ,mainz ,cathedral1 and styles1 #bje ,makart1 ,hans1 copyist1 #bie ,malatestas1 ,hellenic sorriness1 #bgc ,malthus1 ,thomas ,r41 and ,darwinism1 #cej1 #cfi1 #cga ,manchester system1 and ,western ,civilization1 #aea1 #cga2 and ,darwinism1 #cfi ,mandans1 as ,arabian1 #gb2 music1 #bbh2 contemporaries1 table i ,manet1 douard1 unpopularity1 #ce2 and body1 #bga2 landscapes1 #bhh2 plein-air painting1 #bhh-bij2 weak style1 #bia2 striving1 #bib2 and ,wagner1 #bib2 irreligion1 #ceh ,mani1 and mystic benefits1 #cddn42 and ,jesus1 #cdg2 contemporaries1 table i ,manichanism1 as ,arabian1 #gb2 architectural expression1 #bji1 #baa2 music1 #bbh2 dualism1 #cjf2 and home1 #cce ,mankind1 as abstraction1 #ba1 #df ,mantegna1 ,andrea1 technique1 #bba1 #bci2 and colour1 #bdb2 and portrait1 #bga2 and statics1 #dad ,marble1 and later ,western sculpture1 #bcb1 #bgfn42 ,greek use1 #bdhn41 #bec2 ,michelangelo's attitude1 #bgf4 ,see also ,stone ,marcellus ,,ii1 pope1 and ,church music1 #bfhn4 ,marcion1 and ,jesus1 #cdg2 contemporaries1 table i ,marcus ,aurelius1 and monotheistic tendency1 #djg ,mares1 ,hans1 significance of colour1 #beb2 portraiture1 #bff1 #bga1 #bgan41 #cji2 and grand style1 #bhi1 #bij2 striving1 #bib ,marenzio1 ,luca1 music1 #bea ,marius1 ,c41 and economic motive1 #cf2 contemporaries1 table iii ,mars ,ultor1 temple1 ornament1 #bae ,marseillaise1 morale1 #cee ,marsyas1 ,myron's1 lack of depth1 #bbf ,marwitz1 ,friedrich ,a4 ,l4 von der1 and ,hardenberg1 #aejn4 ,marx1 ,karl1 and practical philosophy1 #de2 and earlier and final ,socialism1 #ach2 and superficially incidental1 #add2 character of ,nihilism1 #ceb1 #ceg2 and ,hegelianism1 #cfg2 socio-economic ethics1 #cgb1 #cgc2 contemporaries1 table i ,mary-cult1 as symbol1 #acf2 ,madonna in ,western art1 #bfg1 #bhj ,masaccio1 and artistic change1 #bcg1 #bgi1 #bhg ,mashetta1 castle1 faade1 #bae ,mask1 and ,classical drama1 #caf1 #cagn41 #cah1 #cbc ass1 ,western functional concept1 #dae2 effect of quantum theory1 #dai ,materialism1 and ,goethe's living nature1 #aaan42 ,buddhism as1 #cef2 in ,western ethics1 #cfh2 and ,socialism1 #cgj ,mathematics1 spatial concept1 #fn41 #g2 plurality1 cultural basis1 #ae1 #ei-fc1 #fg1 #gj1 #aja1 #cad2 position1 #ef2 and extension1 #ef2 and nature1 #eg2 wider-culture vision and analogy1 #eg1 #eh2 beginning of number-sense1 #ei2 as art1 #fa1 #fb1 #gj2 vision1 #fa2 of ,classical ,culture1 positive1 measurable numbers1 #fc-fe1 #fi1 #gg2 and time and becoming1 #fd1 #abe1 #abf2 symbolism in ,classical1 #fe-fg1 #gj2 religious analogy1 #ff1 #gj1 #cid2 and empirical observation1 #fg2 character of ,arabian1 #ga-gc2 primitive levels1 #gc2 ,western1 and infinite functions1 #gd-gf2 ,western need of new notation1 #gf2 as expression of world-fear1 #gi-ha2 and ,western meaning of space1 #ha-hd1 #hh2 and proportion and function1 #hd2 construction versus function1 #he2 virtuosity1 #he2 and physiognomic morphology1 #he2 ,western1 and limit as a relation1 #hf2 ,western abstraction1 #hf1 #hg2 ,western conflict with perception limitations1 #hg1 #agj1 #aga2 culmination of ,western1 groups1 #hi1 #ij1 #dbf2 paradigm of ,classical and ,western1 #ij2 and the how1 what1 and when1 #abf2 cultural relation to art1 #abi1 #acj2 ,classical sculpture and ,western music as1 #bhd2 impressionism1 #bhf2 vector and ,baroque art1 #caa2 esoteric ,western1 #cbh2 and philosophy1 #cff2 replacement by economics1 #cfg2 theory of aggregates1 and logic1 #dbf2 cultural contemporary epochs1 table i4 ,see also ,nature2 ,number2 branches by name ,matter4 ,see ,body2 ,natural science ,matthew ,passion4 ,see ,schtz1 ,heinrich ,maxwell-,hertz equations1 #dah ,maya ,culture4 ,see ,mexican ,mayer1 ,julius ,robert1 and theory1 #cgh2 and conservation of energy1 #cic1 #dab1 #dag ,mazarin1 ,jules1 ,cardinal1 morale1 #cdi ,mazdaism1 as ,arabian1 #bji2 architectural expression1 #baa2 and pneuma1 #baf2 music1 #bbh2 contemporaries1 table i ,mazdak1 contemporaries1 table i ,meander1 motive1 #caf1 #cde ,mechanics1 and fourth dimension1 #abd4 ,see also ,motion2 ,natural science ,medival ,history1 as term1 #af1 #bb ,medicis1 ,hellenic sorriness1 #bgc ,megalopolitanism1 and ,civilization of a ,culture1 #cb-ce1 #ch2 and systematism1 #ajb4 ,see also ,civilization ,melody1 ,classical and ,western1 #bbg ,memlinc1 ,hans1 in ,italy1 #bcf2 and ,renaissance1 #bgd ,memory1 conception1 #ajc2 as organ of history1 #acb2 as term1 #acb ,mencius1 practical philosophy1 #de ,mendicant ,orders1 as exception1 #cdh ,menes1 contemporaries1 table iii ,menzel1 ,adolf ,f4 ,e41 and body1 #bga2 impressionism1 #bhf2 and grand style1 #bij1 #bia ,merovingian-,carolingian ,era1 contemporary art epochs1 table ii ,mesopotamia1 synagogues1 #baj ,messenians1 provided history1 #aa ,metaphysics1 and scientific research1 #aed2 and symbolism1 #afc2 ,western and pairs of concepts1 #caa2 basis of ,classical1 #caa2 period in philosophy1 #cfe-cfg4 ,see also ,ethics2 ,philosophy4 ,mexican 7,maya7 ,culture1 and historical scheme1 #af1 #ah2 and time measurement1 #acdn42 ornament1 #aif2 and tutelage1 #bac ,meyer1 ,eduard1 on ,spengler1 x2 on ,classical ,culture and geography1 #ajn4 ,meyerbeer1 ,giacomo1 ,rossini on ,huguenots1 #bic ,michelangelo1 liberation of architecture1 beginning of ,baroque1 #hg1 #bjf1 #bben41 #cac2 materiality1 obsession by the architectural1 #abh2 ,st4 ,peter's1 #bjf1 #bch2 and passing of sculpture1 #bbc1 #bdd2 anticipations1 #bfc2 and physiognomy of muscles1 #bfd2 nude1 and portrait1 #bgb2 sonnets1 #bgc2 as dissatisfied thinker1 #bgd2 unsuccessful quest of the ,classical1 #bge-bgg1 #bha2 and marble1 #bgf2 architecture as final expression1 #bgg2 and popularity1 #cbg2 ,god-feeling1 #cie2 contemporaries1 table ii ,michelozzo1 ,bartolommeo di1 and ,classical1 #dae ,michelson1 ,albert ,a41 experiments1 #dai ,middle ,kingdom1 contemporaries1 tables i-iii ,milesians1 physical theory1 #chf ,miletus1 form-type of ,didymum1 #bjd2 and ,egypt1 #bbe ,milinda1 ,king1 and ,nagasena1 #cef ,military art1 ,western1 #cccn4 ,mill1 ,john ,stuart1 and economic ascendency1 #cfg1 #cgc ,millennianism1 as ,western phenomenon1 #cfc1 #dbc ,mineralogy1 and geology1 #if ,minerva ,medica1 ,syrian workmen1 #baa ,ming-,chu1 contemporaries1 table iii ,ming-ti1 contemporaries1 table iii ,minkowski1 ,hermann1 imaginary time1 #abdn42 and ,relativity1 #dai ,minnesnger1 rules1 #aic2 imitative music1 #bbi ,mino da ,fiesole1 and portrait1 #bgb ,minoan art1 character1 #aih2 contemporaries1 #bda ,minstrels1 imitative music1 #bbi ,mirabeau1 ,comte de1 and imperialism1 #adi2 contemporaries1 table iii ,miracles1 cultural attitude toward1 #cib1 #cic ,missionarism1 ,stoic1 #cddn42 and diatribe1 #cfj ,mithraists1 and pneuma1 #baf2 form-language of mithra1 #bbd2 music1 #bbh2 cult in ,rome1 #djf1 #djfn4 ,mitylene1 episode and ,classical time-sense1 #accn4 ,moab1 ,castle of ,mashetta1 #bae ,modern ,history1 as irrational term1 #af-ah ,mrike1 ,eduard1 poetry1 #bhi ,mohammed4 ,see ,islam ,moissac1 church ornamentation1 #aii ,molire1 tragic method1 #cah ,mommsen1 ,theodor1 on ,classical historians1 #aa2 narrow ,classicalism1 #bh ,monasticism1 and ,western morale1 #cafn42 order-movement1 #cdc2 mendicant orders1 #cdh ,money1 ,roman conception1 #cc2 as hall-mark of ,civilization1 #cd-cf ,monophysites1 ,islam as heir1 #baa2 as alchemistic problem1 #chc2 contemporaries1 table i ,monteverde1 ,claudio1 music1 #bbf1 #bcj1 #bdi1 #bhc ,morale1 plurality1 cultural basis1 no conversions1 #cae1 #cde-cdg2 ,western1 and activity1 #cae2 and analysis1 #cda2 ,western moral imperative1 #cda1 #cdb2 intellectual and unconscious concepts1 #cdan42 ,western purposeful motion1 ethic of deed1 #cdb-cdd1 #cdg2 ,western ,christian1 #cdd1 #cdh2 and art1 #cdd2 morphology1 #cdf2 compassion1 cultural types of manly virtue1 #cdg-cea2 real and presumed1 phrases and meanings1 #cdh2 ,classical1 and happiness1 #cea2 instinctive and problematic1 tragic and plebeian1 #ced1 #cee2 end phenomena1 cultural basis1 #cef-cei2 ,civilization and diatribe1 #cei1 #cfj2 and diet1 #cfa2 qualities and aim of ,socialism1 #cfa-cfd2 and cultural atomic theories1 #chf4 ,see also ,ethics2 ,spirit ,moravians1 as exception1 #cdh ,morphology1 ,spengler and historical1 xi2 concept of historical1 #e-h1 #bf1 #ci2 historical1 and symbolism1 #df2 historical1 ignored1 #dg2 symmetry1 #dg2 historical and natural1 #dh2 historical1 ,western study of comparative1 #ej1 #aei2 comparative1 knowledge forms1 #fj2 of mathematical operations1 #he2 systematic and physiognomic1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aba2 of world-history explained1 #aja2 of ,cultures1 #ajd2 historical homology1 #aaa1 #aab2 element of causal and destiny1 #aba2 of morales1 #cdf2 of history of philosophy1 #cfd-cgd2 of exact sciences1 #dbe ,mortality4 ,see ,death ,mosaic1 as cultural expression1 #bad2 and ,arabian gold background1 #bdg2 eyes1 #cbi2 contemporaries1 table ii ,mosque1 architectural characteristics1 #bjj1 #baj2 contemporaries1 table ii ,motherhood1 cultural attitude1 meaning1 #acf1 #acg2 and destiny1 portraiture1 #bfg ,mo-ti1 practical philosophy1 #de ,motion1 and fourth dimension1 #abd2 ,eleatic difficulty1 #cjen42 and natural science1 #cgg1 #chg-cia4 ,see also ,natural science ,motion pictures1 and ,western character1 #cbb ,mozart1 ,wolfgang ,amadeus1 contemporary mathematic1 #gh1 #ij2 period1 #ajh1 #bhd2 orchestration1 #bca2 colour expression1 #bebn42 ease1 #bib2 contemporaries1 table ii ,mummies1 as symbol1 #ab1 #ac1 #ace ,murillo1 ,bartolom1 period1 #bhc ,murtada1 and will1 #caa ,museums1 as historical symbols1 #ace2 change in meaning of word1 #acf ,music1 thoroughbass and geometry1 #fa2 mathematical relation1 #fb1 #fc2 of ,baroque period1 #gh2 and proportion and function1 #hd2 bodilessness of ,western1 development1 #ig1 #agg1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bhc2 history of instruments1 #aie2 ,western church1 as architectural ornament1 #aif1 #aii2 as art of form1 #bai1 #bban42 and allegory1 #bain42 as channel for imagination1 #bbj2 ,classical1 #bbc1 #bbg1 #bebn42 form-ideal of ,western1 #bbe2 technical contrast of ,classical and ,western1 #bbgn42 word and organism1 cultural basis1 #bbg1 #bbh2 ,arabian1 #bbh2 ,chinese1 #bbh2 imitation and ornament1 #bbh2 ornamental and imitative ,western1 #bbi2 secularization1 thoroughbass1 #bcj2 of ,renaissance1 #bcd2 ,flemish influence in ,italy1 #bcf2 and horizon in painting1 #bci2 pastoral1 and gardening1 #bdj2 esoteric ,western1 #bdc2 as ,western prime phenomenon1 #bdd1 #bha-bhd2 and ,western painting1 #bej1 #bea2 instruments and colour expression1 #beb2 instrumental as historical expression1 #bee2 and uncleanliness1 #bfjn42 and portrait1 #bfb1 #bff2 ,catholic1 #bfhn42 ,michelangelo's tendency1 #bgg2 ,western1 and ,classical free sculpture1 #bhc1 #bhd2 climacteric instruments1 #bhd2 and ,rococo architecture1 #bhe2 impressionism1 #bhe1 #bhf2 and later ,german school of painting1 #bhi2 ,wagner and death of ,western1 #bia1 #bic2 his impressionism1 #bib2 and ,western soul1 #cje2 and ,western concept of ,god1 #cab2 and character1 #cad2 place of organ1 #cif2 ,western contemporary natural science1 #dag2 contemporary cultural epochs1 table ii4 ,see also ,art ,muspilli1 and ,northern myths1 #djj1 #dbc ,mutazilites1 contemporaries1 table i ,mycen1 funeral customs1 #ace2 contemporaries1 tables1 ii1 iii ,mycerinus1 dynasty1 #ehn4 ,myron1 sculpture as planar art1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bhc2 ,discobolus1 #bfc1 #bfd ,mysteries1 ,classical1 #cbj4 ,see also ,religion ,mysticism1 art association1 #bbi2 and dualism1 #cjg2 cultural culmination1 #cfen42 and concept of force1 #cia2 contemporaries1 table i ,myth1 natural science as1 #cgh1 #chg ,mythology1 significance in ,classical ,culture1 #aj1 #aa1 #ac2 origin1 #eg4 ,see also ,religion ,nagasena1 materialism1 #cef ,names1 as overcoming fear1 #abc2 concretion of numina1 #cig ,napoleon ,i1 analogies1 #d1 #e2 romantic1 #ch2 imperialism1 #db1 #adi-aea2 as destiny and epoch1 #adb1 #add1 #adi2 egoism1 #ccf2 morale1 #cdi2 and toil for future1 #cfc2 contemporaries1 table iii ,napoleonic ,wars1 and cultural rhythm1 #aajn4 ,nardini1 ,pietro1 orchestration1 #bca ,natural science1 mechanics and motion1 cultural basis of postulate1 #cgg1 #cgh2 fact and theory1 cultural images1 #cgh-chj2 ,western1 and depth-experience1 tension1 #chj1 #chf1 #chg2 and religion1 cultural basis1 #chj-chb1 #cia1 #daa1 #dab1 #daf2 scientific period of a ,culture1 #cha2 cultural relativity1 #chb2 cultural nature ideas and elements1 #chb-chd2 statics1 chemistry1 dynamics1 cultural systems1 #chd2 cultural atomic theories1 #chd-chg2 thinking-motion problem1 system and life1 #chg-chi2 mechanical and organic necessity1 #cia2 cultural attitude on mechanical necessity1 #cib-cid2 things and relations1 #cic2 conservation of energy and ,western concept of experience1 #cic2 theory and religion1 ,western ,god-feeling1 #cie2 naming of notions1 #cig2 and atheism1 #dji2 ,western dogma of undefinable force1 provenance1 stages1 #dab-dag2 as to ,western statics1 #dad1 #dae2 mass concept of ,civilization1 work-idea1 #daf1 #dag2 disintegration of exact1 contradictions1 #dag-dbj2 physiognomic effect of irreversibility theory1 #dbj-dbd2 effect of radioactivity1 #dbc2 decay1 #dbd2 morphology1 convergence of separate sciences1 #dbe-dbg2 anthropomorphic return1 #dbg4 ,see also ,nature ,natural selection1 and ,western ethics1 ,superman1 #cga4 ,see also ,darwinism ,naturalism1 antiquity1 #cc1 #bjg1 #bhh2 in art1 #aib ,nature1 contrast of historical morphology1 #e1 #g1 #h2 definite sense1 and history1 #ee1 #eg1 #id-ih1 #ajb1 #ajc2 and learning1 #ef2 mathematics as expression1 #eg2 as late world-form1 #ih2 mechanistic world-conception1 #ii1 #ajj2 systematic morphology1 #ajj2 and causality and destiny1 #aai1 #aba1 #adb2 cultural viewpoints1 #aca1 #bfc2 timelessness1 #adb1 #aeh2 historical overlapping1 living harmonies1 #aec1 #aed1 #aeh2 and intellect1 #aeg2 personal connotations1 #afi2 soul as counter-world1 #cja2 and reason1 #cjh4 ,see also ,causality2 ,history2 ,mathematics2 ,natural science2 ,space2 ,spirit ,naucratis1 and ,miletus1 #bben4 ,naumann1 ,johann ,c41 architecture1 #bhe ,nazzm1 on body1 #bdh2 contemporaries1 table i ,necessity1 mechanical and organic1 #cia ,nemesis1 character of ,classical1 #abi1 #cbj4 ,see also ,destiny ,neo-,platonists1 as ,arabian1 #gb2 and pneuma1 #baf2 and body1 #bdh2 dualism1 #cjf2 unimposed mystic benefits1 #cddn4 ,neo-,pythagoreans1 and body1 #bdh2 and mechanical necessity1 #cic ,nerva1 forum1 #aih1 #bae ,nestorianism1 and art1 #bji1 #baa2 music1 #bbh2 and home1 #ccd2 as alchemistic problem1 #chc2 contemporaries1 table i ,neumann1 ,karl ,j41 on ,roman myths1 #aa ,new ,york ,city1 and megalopolitanism1 #cc ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 and 8fluxions01 #aen42 artist-nature1 #fa2 mathematic and religion1 #gj1 #cif1 #dab2 mathematical discoveries1 #ge1 #gh1 #ij2 and time and space1 #abd1 #abf2 light theory1 and ,goethe's theory1 #aegn41 #aehn41 #dbb2 dynamic world-picture1 #caa2 deeds of science1 #cee2 and motion-problem1 #cij1 #cia2 and metaphysics1 #cff2 and force and mass1 #dae1 #dag2 contemporaries1 table i ,nibelungenlied1 and ,homer1 #bg2 esoteric1 #cbh2 and ,western ,christianity1 #djj-djb ,nica1 ,council of1 and ,godhead1 #bdi ,nicephorus ,phocas1 and ,philopatris dialogue1 #djdn4 ,nicholas of ,cusa1 astronomical theory1 #fi2 religion and mathematic1 #gj2 musical association1 #bcf2 contemporaries1 table i ,nicholas of ,oresme1 and beginning of ,western mathematic1 #gc1 #gd1 #bgi2 art association1 #bbi2 ,occamist1 #cha ,niese1 ,benedictus1 on ,roman myths1 #aa ,nietzsche1 ,friedrich ,wilhelm1 influence on ,spengler1 xiv1 #din42 provincialism1 #bd2 ,classical ideology1 #bh1 #bhn42 on city life1 #cj2 unpopularity1 #ce2 practical philosophy1 #de2 and historical unity1 #dh2 and detachment1 #ic2 and ,wagner1 #aaa1 #bia1 #cgj2 on history and definition1 #aeh2 on art witnesses1 #aia2 autumnal accent1 #bda2 on ,greeks and colour1 #bde2 on 8brown0 music1 #beb2 on ,greeks and body1 #bfj2 will and reason1 #cjh2 and morale1 #cae1 #cdb1 #cdf2 and home1 #cce2 actuality of 8,mann01 #cdg1 #cej2 and ,civilization1 #ceb2 character of ,nihilism1 #ceg2 and diet1 #cfa2 nebulous aim1 #cfc1 #cfd2 and mystic philosophy1 #cfen42 and mathematics1 #cff2 ethics and metaphysics1 #cfg2 materialism1 #cfh2 and evolution and ,socialism1 #cgj-cgb2 position in ,western ethics1 #cgc1 #cgd2 on pathos of distance1 #chf2 dynamic atheism1 #dji2 contemporaries1 table i ,niflheim1 lack of materiality1 #djc ,nihilism1 and finale of a ,culture1 #ceb2 cultural manifestations1 #ceg ,nirvana1 ahistoric expression1 #aa1 #acc2 and zero1 #agh2 conception1 #cdg1 #ceg1 #cfa4 ,see also ,buddhism ,nisibis1 and ,arabian art1 #bji ,northmen1 discoveries1 #ccj ,norwich ,cathedral1 simplicity1 #aif ,notre-,dame1 ,madonna of the ,st4 ,anne1 #bfc ,nude1 in ,classical art1 necessity1 #acj1 #bfj-bfb1 #cag2 cultural basis of feeling1 #baf1 #bgj1 #bgb2 as element of ,classical ,culture only1 #bbe ,nrnberg1 loss of prestige1 #cc2 church statuary1 #ajc2 church and styles1 #bje2 as religious1 #ceh ,numa1 cult1 #ahe2 contemporaries1 table i ,number1 chronological and mathematical1 #f1 #g1 #gj1 #ig2 defined1 #fg2 numbers and mortality1 #gj2 ,arabian indeterminate1 #gb2 ,western ,culture and functional1 #gd1 #ge1 #ij2 ,western attitude and notation1 #gf1 #ccbn42 symbolism1 #hb1 #afe2 astronomical1 #hc1 #ccbn42 cultural attitudes1 #hh2 and the become1 #ie2 and numbering1 #abe2 ,indian conception1 #agh2 functional1 and causality1 #cic4 ,see also ,mathematics ,numina1 naming1 #cig4 ,see also ,religion ,nyaya1 contemporaries1 table i ,oak1 as symbol1 #cif ,occamists1 physical theory1 #cha1 #chi ,odo1 ,bishop1 as warrior1 #cdin4 ,odysseus1 as enduring1 #bjc ,okeghem1 ,joannes1 music1 #acj2 and popularity1 #bdc ,oken1 ,lorenz1 and dualism1 #cjg ,old ,kingdom1 and care1 #acg2 contemporaries1 tables ii1 iii ,old ,nordic art1 as ,arabian1 #bae ,oldach1 ,julius1 act and portrait1 #bgan4 ,omar1 ,mosque of1 characteristics1 #bjjn4 ,ommayad period1 homology1 #aaa ,opera1 and orchestra1 #bcj ,oracle1 ,classical1 #adg ,oratorio1 and orchestra1 #bcj ,orchomenos1 funeral customs1 #ace ,oreads1 passivity1 #ccf ,oresme4 ,see ,nicholas of ,oresme ,organ1 and ,western devotions1 #cif ,origen1 and dualism1 #cjf2 morale1 #cdh2 contemporaries1 table i ,ormuzd1 ,persian ,god1 #cab ,ornament1 qualities and aim1 #aia-aid2 opposition to imitation1 #aid-aif2 building and its symbolic decoration1 #aif2 pictorial period1 #aig2 and ,civilization1 #aig1 #bid2 in music1 #bbh1 #bcj1 #bca2 ,renaissance1 #bccn41 #bch4 ,see also ,decoration2 ,imitation ,orpheus1 cult1 #ahe2 as ,christian title1 #djhn42 contemporaries of discipline and movement1 table i ,otto the ,great1 egoism1 #ccf ,owen1 ,sir ,richard1 and morphology1 #aaa ,pachelbel1 ,johann1 organ works1 #bbj ,pacher1 ,michael1 colour1 #bej ,paderborn ,cathedral1 simplicity1 #aif ,ponius1 ,nike1 #bfc2 period1 #bhd ,pstum1 temple1 #bbd1 #bce ,paewati worshippers1 sect1 #acfn4 ,painting1 perspective and geometry1 #fa2 allegorical1 #bain42 and form-ideal of ,classical sculpture and ,western music1 #bbf1 #bcb2 word and organism1 #bbg2 ,flemish influence in ,italy1 #bcf2 ,renaissance fresco to ,venetian oil1 line to space1 #bcg1 #bgi-bha2 development of background in ,western1 #bci2 form and content1 outline and colour1 #bdb2 cultural expression and popularity1 #bdc2 oil1 as ,western prime phenomenon1 period1 #bdd1 #bha-bhc2 ,classical and ,western colours1 #bde-bdg2 outdoor and indoor1 #bdg2 symbolism in brushwork1 #bdi2 of ,western ,civilization1 #bea2 ,baroque portraits1 #bfe2 and destiny of ,western art1 #bgfn42 ,leonardo and discovery1 spiritual space1 #bgg-bhj2 ,western studio-brown1 pictorial chromatics1 #bej1 #bhh2 ,classical limitation1 #bhc1 #bhg2 full meaning of ,impressionism1 #bhe-bhg2 #aith ,century episode1 plein-air1 #bhh2 ,german school and grand style1 #bhi2 ,baroque and concept of vector1 #caa2 and time of day1 #cbe2 ,western1 and spectator1 #cbi2 ,western1 and contemporary natural science1 #dag2 contemporary cultural epochs1 table ii4 ,see also ,art2 ,portraiture ,palazzo ,farnese1 style1 #bje2 ,michelangelo's cornice1 #bge ,palazzo ,strozzi1 style1 #bcd2 and artistic sentiment1 #bgb ,palermo1 and ,arabian ,culture1 #baa1 #baf ,palestrina1 ,giovanni da1 style1 #bbj1 #bcj1 #cbc2 and popularity1 #bdc2 ,michelangelo's heir1 #bgd1 #bgg2 ,god-feeling1 #cie ,palladio1 ,andrea1 style1 #cj1 #dad ,palma1 ,jacopo1 colour1 #beb ,palmyra1 basilica1 #bjin42 ,baal1 #djg ,pan1 idea1 #djc ,panama ,canal1 ,goethe's prophecy1 #db 8,panem et circenses01 as symbol1 #cfb ,pantheon1 as mosque1 #gb1 #baa ,paolo ,veronese1 clouds1 #bdj2 colour1 #beb ,papacy1 contemporaries1 table iii ,paracelsus1 ,philippus1 and chemistry1 #chd ,parallel axiom1 #hc1 #hh1 #agfn4 ,paris1 and ,athens1 #bg2 culture city1 #cc2 autumnal city1 #gi2 ,flemish influence1 #bcfn42 as irreligious1 #ceh ,paris1 ,peace of 7#agfc71 and imperialism1 #aej ,park4 ,see ,gardening ,parmenides1 civic world-outlook1 #cc2 thinking and being1 #chg ,parthenon1 ,three ,fates as type1 #bfh2 horse's head1 ,rubens contrast1 #bga2 popularity1 #cbg ,pascal1 ,blaise1 and actuality1 #db2 faith and experience1 #ff1 #cid2 mathematic1 and ,archimedes1 #fi1 #ge1 #ij1 #abf2 and predestination1 #ada2 and ,jansenists1 #cadn42 and ,western morale1 #cdh2 contemporaries1 table i ,passion1 in ,christian cult1 #cbjn4 ,passivity1 as ,classical trait1 #cae1 #cbj2 and pathos1 #cbjn4 ,past1 and passing1 #aff ,pastels1 and music1 #bcb ,paterculus1 ,c4 ,velleius1 view of art1 #bje ,path4 ,see ,way ,pathos1 and passion1 #cbjn4 ,patina1 symbolism1 #bec ,patriotism1 cultural concept1 #ccd-ccg ,patristic literature1 contemporaries1 table i ,paul1 ,saint1 and world-history1 #ahn42 and dualism1 #cjf2 and will1 #cdd2 and diatribe1 #cfj2 error on 8,unknown ,god01 #djd ,paulicians1 and art1 #bji1 #baa2 iconoclasm1 #bfb2 contemporaries1 table i ,paulinzella ,monastery1 simplicity1 #aif2 and antique1 #bgen4 ,pausanias1 culture1 #bedn42 on altars to unknown gods1 #djdn4 ,pazzi1 chapel1 #cac ,peace1 ,classical and ,western conception1 #bgen4 ,peasant1 as ,culture relic1 #ced ,peloponnesian ,war1 as epoch1 #adi ,pepi4 ,see ,phiops ,perception1 and 8alien01 #ec2 ,western transcendency1 #hg-hi2 space and time as forms1 #afi-aga1 #agc ,percival1 archetype1 #djb ,pergamene art1 modernity1 #aaa2 composition1 #bdd1 #bfj2 gigantomachia1 #bia1 #ceb2 actuality1 #cfd2 contemporaries1 table ii ,pericles1 homology1 #aaa2 portrait1 #acjn41 #bfi2 and economic organization1 #ach2 morale1 #cdi ,peripatos1 contemporaries1 table i ,persians1 architectural expression1 #bji2 and home1 #cce2 contemporary art periods1 table ii4 ,see also ,arabian ,culture ,perspective1 ,classical attitude1 #aji2 ,western painting and gardening1 #bdj-bdb2 as soul-expression1 #cajn42 ,western1 and astronomy1 #ccj ,perugino1 technique1 #bdi2 and portraiture1 #bgb2 and artistic change1 #bgi2 simplicity1 #bhj ,pessimism1 and ,spengler's theories1 xiv1 #dj ,peter the ,great1 and ,europe1 #afn4 ,peterborough ,cathedral1 simplicity1 #aif ,petra1 ,baal1 #djg ,petrarch1 ,francesco1 analogy1 #d2 historic consciousness1 #ad2 narrow ,classicalism1 #bi1 #bge ,petrinism1 ,tolstoi's connection1 #cji ,phallus1 as symbol1 cult1 #acf1 #bfg1 #cbj ,phidias1 contemporary mathematic1 #gh1 #ij2 and portraiture1 #acjn42 and soulless body1 #bbe1 #bfg2 popularity1 #bdc2 and self-criticism1 #bfd2 and marble1 #bgf2 and ,handel1 #bhd2 period1 #bhd2 as religious1 #ceh2 contemporaries1 table ii ,philanthropy1 ,aristotle's1 #cea ,philippe de ,vitry1 and counterpoint1 #bbin4 ,philo1 and body1 #bdh2 and ,jesus1 #cdg ,philopatris dialogue1 source1 #djdn4 ,philosopher's ,stone1 as symbol1 #bdh1 #cjg ,philosophy1 truth and individual attitude1 xv2 natural and historical1 #g1 #h2 anonymous ,indian1 #ab2 provincialism1 #bb1 #bc2 epochal limitations1 cultural boundaries1 #da1 #df1 #cfd1 #cfg2 test of value1 actuality1 #da-dc2 present-day ,western1 and cultural destiny1 #dc-de2 development of ,western practical1 #de2 scepticism as final ,western1 #de1 #cgd2 of becoming and become1 #din42 and mathematics1 #ef1 #fd1 #cff2 ,kant's postulates1 #ei2 comparative forms of knowledge1 #fj2 and names1 #abc2 scientific1 of time1 #abd2 tabulation of categories1 #abe2 and death1 #aff2 ,western art association1 #bbi2 of ,culture and ,civilization1 #ced1 #cee2 cultural questions1 early posing1 #cfd2 course within each ,culture1 #cfd2 metaphysical and ethical periods1 #cfe-cfg4 ,see also ,ethics2 ,metaphysics2 ,spirit ,phiops1 ,western contemporary1 #bjbn42 statue1 #bfe ,phlogiston theory1 ,stahl's1 #chd ,phnicians1 and discovery1 #fe1 #ccc ,phrynichus1 fine1 #cba ,physics1 cautious hypotheses1 #aef2 ,jesuits and theoretical1 #cadn42 and popularity1 cultural basis1 #cbg1 #cbh4 ,see also ,natural science ,physiognomy4 ,see ,destiny2 ,portraiture ,picturesqueness1 and historical expression1 #bee ,piero della ,francesca4 ,see ,francesca ,pigalle1 ,jean ,b41 sculpture1 #bdd ,pindar1 as religious1 #ceh ,pine1 as symbol1 #cif ,piombo1 ,sebastiano del4 ,see ,sebastiano ,pirus1 and unknown gods1 #djd ,pisano1 ,giovanni4 ,see ,giovanni ,pisistratid1 as period of fulfilment1 #ajg ,planck1 ,max1 atomic theory1 #che1 #dai ,plane1 significance in ,egyptian architecture1 #ahi ,plastic4 ,see ,sculpture ,plato1 ahistoric consciousness1 #i1 #ad2 and clepsydra1 #ae2 provincialism1 #bb2 and actuality1 #db2 philosopher of the becoming1 #din42 metaphysics and mathematics1 #ef1 #fg1 #fi1 #ga1 #hd1 #ij1 #cff2 and the irrational1 #ff2 and ,goethe's 8mothers01 #gj2 and mechanistic world-conception1 #ii2 foreshadowing by1 #aaa2 and the ,almighty1 #abd2 ,kant on1 #abe2 as ,aristotle's opposite1 #aei2 anamnesis1 #agd2 and idolatry #bfhn42 on soul1 #cjd1 #cje2 and ego1 #caa2 and ethics1 #ced2 and mystic philosophy1 #cfen42 and science and religion1 #cid2 contemporaries1 table i ,plein-air1 as ,civilization painting1 #beb2 characterized1 #bhh ,pliny1 on ,mesopotamian temples1 #bajn42 on ,lysistratus1 #bfi2 on ,lysippus1 #bhg2 as collector1 #dbe ,plotinus1 world1 #ef2 and philosophical transition1 #gb2 and vision1 #if2 homology1 #aaa2 and body1 #bdh2 and dualism1 #cjf2 and ,jesus1 #cdg2 and ,arabian ,culture1 #chc2 and mechanical necessity1 #cic2 contemporaries1 table i ,plutarch1 as biographer1 #ad1 #caf2 and dualism1 #cjf ,pneuma1 as ,arabian principle1 #baf1 #cbi2 and eyes in ,arabian art1 #cbi4 ,see also ,dualism ,pppelmann1 ,daniel1 architecture1 #bhe ,poetry1 infinite space in ,western1 #ahe2 ,western1 as confession1 #bfd1 #bgc2 ,western and ,classical lyric1 #bhf1 #cbd4 ,see also ,drama2 ,literature ,poincar1 ,henri1 on mathematical vision1 #fan4 ,point1 and ,western geometry1 #gd1 #hb1 #hi ,point de vue1 in ,rococo parks1 #bdj ,polar discovery1 as symbol1 #cce ,polis1 as ,classical symbol1 #hc1 #adg1 #ccd ,polish1 as symbol in art1 #bdhn4 ,politics1 inadequate basis for historical deductions1 #df2 under ,classical ,culture1 #hc1 #adg1 #ccd2 meaning of the state1 #acg2 spatial aspect of ,western1 #aih2 origin of ,arabian state1 #bab2 ,renaissance attitude1 #bgc2 cultural conception1 #ccd-ccg2 and atomic theories1 #chf2 contemporary cultural epochs1 table iii4 ,see also ,imperialism2 ,philosophy2 ,socialism ,pollaiuolo1 ,antonio1 ,dutch influence1 #bcf2 goldsmith1 #bcg ,polybius1 ahistoric consciousness1 #aj ,polycletus1 contemporary ,western music1 #bg1aab1 #agg1 #bhd2 contemporary mathematic1 #gh2 sculpture1 canon1 #agg1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bca1 #bfjn41 #bhc1 #bhd2 present-day appeal1 #bee2 and self-criticism1 #bfd2 and statue of ,augustus1 #bie2 and fresco1 #cba ,polycrates1 contemporaries1 table iii ,polygnotus1 contemporaries1 #aab1 table ii2 frescoes1 background1 colour1 #adg1 #ahc1 #bba1 #bdc1 #bde1 #bhc1 #ccj ,pombaditha1 academy1 #cha ,pompeii1 wall-paintings1 #bhg ,pompey the ,great1 army1 #cf ,pope1 ,alexander1 type1 #bed ,popularity1 cultural basis1 #he1 #bdc1 #cbf-cbh1 #cfb2 in colour1 #bdf ,porcelain1 and ,western music1 #bca ,porphyry1 and 8antique01 #bjn42 academy1 #bha ,port ,royal1 contemporaries1 table i4 ,see also ,jansenism ,porta1 ,baccio della4 ,see ,bartolommeo ,porta1 ,giacomo della4 ,see ,giacomo ,portinari altar1 #bcf ,portraiture1 and biography1 #ab2 character of ,classical1 nude sculpture1 #ac1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bfi1 #bgb2 cultural basis and expression1 character and attitude1 #aja1 #ajd1 #baf1 #bfj1 #cag2 portrait as ,western expression1 #acj1 #bfa-bff2 and ,arabian ,culture1 #bbc2 and ,gothic1 #bfa1 #bff2 and confession1 #bfd2 contrast of act and portrait1 #bfb1 #bff1 #bgj1 #bga2 depth-experience1 impressionism1 #bff1 #bhg2 child and group portraits1 motherhood1 #bff-bfh2 ,renaissance1 #bga-bgc2 ,leonardo's relation1 #bha2 landscape as1 #bgjn41 #bhg2 ,roman statues1 #bie2 and will1 #cji2 ,american1 as irreligious1 #cehn4 ,see also ,soul ,portuguese1 and discovery1 #ccc ,poseidon1 temple of1 as model1 #bbd ,posidonius1 and dualism1 #cjf2 as collector1 #dbe ,potsdam1 architecture1 #bjg ,poussin1 ,nicolas1 musical analogy1 #bbj2 colour1 #bdf2 period1 #bhc ,prag1 loss of prestige1 #cc ,praxiteles1 contemporary mathematic1 #ij2 sculpture1 #bbf1 #bgj2 ,hermes1 #bfd2 and womanhood1 #bfh2 and ,haydn1 #bhd2 period1 #bhd2 ease1 #bia ,predestination4 ,see ,destiny ,present1 and becoming1 #ed2 significance in ,classical ,culture1 #fc1 #fe-fg ,pre-,socratics1 philosophy1 #da1 #age1 #cje2 and mathematics1 #cff2 contemporaries1 table i ,prime phenomena1 ,goethe's living nature1 vii1 #ie1 #if1 #aje1 #aaan41 #aac1 #adj1 #aed1 #chi2 in history1 #aje2 and destiny1 #aba2 of ,western ,culture1 #bdd4 ,see also ,symbols ,principle1 and causality1 #aba ,proclus1 and ,jesus1 #cdg ,procopius1 courtier1 #bjg ,progress1 as phenomenon of ,civilization1 #ceb1 #cfa ,prohibition1 and ,civilization1 #cfa ,proper1 and alien1 #ec ,proportion1 and function1 #hd ,propyla1 popularity1 #cbg ,protagoras1 conception of man1 #caa1 #cib2 popularity1 #cbg2 and ,classical morale1 #cea2 and ,stoicism1 #cef2 problem1 #cfe2 condemnation1 #daa ,protestantism1 colour symbolism1 #bej2 of etching1 #bij2 and works1 #cafn42 as symbol1 #cdc4 ,see also ,reformation4 ,proud'hon1 ,pierre ,joseph1 position in ,western ethics1 #cgc ,providence1 and destiny1 #ada ,provinces1 defined1 #cc ,provincialism1 philosophical and historical1 #bb-be ,prussia1 great periods1 #cf2 ,english basis of reorganization1 #aejn4 ,psalmody1 ,jewish1 #bbh ,pseudomorphosis1 ,late-,classical style1 #bji-bab1 #bad2 and image1 #baf2 music1 #bbh ,psychologists1 period1 contemporaries1 table i ,psychology1 8scientific01 and soul1 #bii-cjc1 #cac2 as counter-physics1 #cja2 and will and soma1 #cai ,ptolemy ,,ii ,philadelphus1 and ruler-cult1 #dje ,ptolemy1 ,l4 ,claudius1 relation of ,copernicus1 #acin42 as copyist1 #dbe ,puget1 ,pierre1 sculpture1 #bdd ,punic ,wars1 as classic1 #cf2 and cultural rhythm1 #aajn42 homology1 #aaa2 intensity1 #ccc ,purcell1 ,henry1 pictorial music1 #bhc ,pure reason1 and destiny1 #abj ,puritanism1 as common cultural feature1 #aab2 and destiny1 #ada2 and imperialism1 #adh2 cultural contemporary epochs1 table i ,putto1 as art motive1 #bff ,puvis de ,chavannes1 ,pierre1 and religious painting1 #bhhn4 ,pygmalion and ,galatea1 and marble1 #bgf ,pyramids1 period1 #ehn41 #bjc ,pyrrho1 contemporaries1 table i ,pyrrhus1 ,roman war1 #cf ,pythagoras and ,pythagoreans1 analogy1 #ci2 and actuality1 #db2 mathematical vision1 #eg1 #eh2 and ,classical mathematic1 #fa1 #fb1 #fd2 new number1 and fate1 #fen41 #hb1 #ij2 mathematic and religion1 #gj1 #cid2 contemporaries1 #aab1 table i2 and ,copernicus1 #ccj2 and mystic philosophy1 #cfen42 and metaphysics1 #cff ,quadratures1 and ,archimedes' method1 #fi ,quantum theory1 effect1 #dai ,quattrocento1 and ,gothic1 #bba4 ,see also ,renaissance ,quercia1 ,jacopo della4 ,see ,jacopo ,quesnay1 ,franois1 economic theory1 #dag ,race-suicide1 as phenomenon of ,civilization1 #cei ,radioactivity1 effect on natural science1 #dbc ,ragnark1 ,muspilli as contemporary1 #djj2 and world's end1 #djj ,rameses ,,ii1 analogy1 #ci2 and artistic impotence1 #dd1 #bid2 contemporaries1 table iii ,ranke1 ,leopold von1 and analogy1 #d1 #e2 and historical tact1 #bb2 on historical vision1 #if ,raphael ,sanzio1 ,madonnas1 #acf1 #bfh1 #bhj2 technique1 #bba1 #bgh2 and ,titian1 #bbg2 and background1 #bcg2 popularity1 #bdc2 colour1 #bde2 and confession1 #bfd2 and portrait1 #bgb2 as dissatisfied thinker1 #bgd2 and fresco and oil1 line and space1 #bgi1 #bhj ,raskolnikov4 ,see ,dostoevsky ,rationalism1 and chance1 #adbn42 contemporaries of ,english1 table i ,ravenna1 and ,arabian ,culture1 #bjf1 #baa1 #baf1 #bce2 mosaics1 #bba1 #bdg1 #cbi ,rayski1 ,louis ,f4 von1 art and portrait1 #bgan4 ,reason1 and will1 #cjh ,red1 symbolism1 #bdf ,reformation1 conflicts in ,germany1 #cc2 and ,dionysiac movement1 #aaa2 as common cultural epoch1 #aab2 class-opposition to ,renaissance1 #bbi2 contemporaries1 table i ,reims ,cathedral1 #bbd2 statuary1 #bfg ,relations1 and magnitudes1 #hd1 #hf ,relativity theory1 and time1 #abdn42 effect on natural science1 #dai2 domain1 #dbf ,relief1 ,egyptian1 #ahi1 #bjb2 and ,classical round sculpture1 #bbe4 ,see also ,sculpture ,religion1 reality of ,classical1 #aj1 #aa1 #ac2 relation of clock and bell1 #aen41 #acdn42 and number1 #ef2 mathematical cultural analogy1 #ff1 #gj2 stage in a ,culture1 #ajh1 #cii-djb2 second period1 sequel to ,civilization1 #ajh1 #dbd-dbh2 ,western1 and 8memory01 #acbn42 and death1 #aff2 birth of ,western soul1 #afg2 and early art periods1 #ahe2 cultural expression1 #ahe-ahh1 #cii1 #dja2 ,egyptian1 #ahh2 ,chinese1 #aij2 and imitation1 #aia2 architecture as ornament1 #aie2 ,russian1 #bjan42 ,arabian architecture1 #bjh2 ,classical1 and art1 #bfh2 and plein-air painting1 #bhhn42 revelation and dualism1 #cjg2 cultural soul-elements1 and deities1 #cab2 and ,classical drama1 #cbj2 and astronomy1 #ccj2 relation to ,civilization1 #ceh2 and hygiene1 #cfa2 and philosophy1 #cfe2 and natural science1 #chj-chb1 #cia1 #daa1 #daf2 ,western experience and faith1 #cid2 varieties1 #cid2 and theory1 #cie2 ,god-feelings1 #cie2 depth-experience in ,western1 cathedral1 organ1 #cie-cig2 naming of numina1 #cig2 ,classical bodied pantheon1 #cih1 #djb2 ,western deity as force1 unitary-space symbol1 #cih1 #djc1 #dac2 of primitive folk1 #cii2 elements of ,western1 #cii-dja2 ,classical1 and strange gods1 #djd2 late ,classical1 dislocation and monotheism1 ,arabian ascendency1 #djf- #djh2 cult of deified men1 #dje1 #djg1 #daa2 atheism as phenomenon1 #djh-daa2 cult and dogma1 cultural attitude1 #daj1 #daa2 contemporary cultural epochs1 table i4 ,see also ,death2 ,soul2 ,spirit2 creeds and sects by name ,rembrandt1 portraiture1 and confession1 #aja1 #ajc1 #acj1 #adj1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bfi1 #bha1 #cjj2 contemporaries1 #aab1 table ii2 inwardness1 colour1 #ahc1 #bea-bec2 etchings1 nights1 #ahg1 #bdf1 #bij2 musical counterpart1 #bbj2 and horizon1 #bci2 esoteric1 #bdc2 depth1 #bdd2 and body1 #bga2 period1 #bhc2 impressionism1 #bhg1 #bhh2 and psychology1 #cai ,renaissance1 contemporaries1 #bg1 table ii2 mathematic1 #ga2 relation to ,classical1 as revolt1 illusion1 #bhn41 #acbn41 #bcb-bcd1 #bcg1 #bch1 #beb1 #bff1 #bgb-bgd1 #bgi1 #cbc2 homology1 #aaa2 and beautiful1 #aid2 and ,western style1 #bjb1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bba1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bdd2 and ,arabian and ,gothic1 #bab1 #bcd-bch2 and polychrome sculpture1 #bbf2 class-opposition to ,reformation1 #bbi2 ornament1 #bccn41 #bch2 faades and courtyards1 #bce2 arch and column1 #bcf2 park1 #bda2 and popularity1 #bdc1 #cbh2 and patina1 #bec2 and child-figures1 #bff2 and portrait1 #bga-bgc2 and spiritual development1 #bgc2 leaders as dissatisfied thinkers1 #bgd1 #bha2 ,michelangelo1 #bge-bgg1 #bha2 ,raphael1 #bgi1 #bhj2 ,leonardo1 #bgg-bha2 and background1 #bcg2 and statics1 #dad ,renoir1 ,pierre ,a41 striving1 #bib ,resana1 academy1 #cha ,research1 and vision1 #ie1 #if1 #ajb1 #aje1 #adb2 historical and scientific data1 #aed2 metaphysical1 #afc ,restorations1 ,western attitude toward1 #bed ,resurrection1 change in meaning1 #acen4 ,rhine ,river1 as historic1 #bedn4 ,rhodes1 ,cecil1 analogy1 #d2 and imperialism1 #cg1 #ch2 morale1 #cdi1 #cea ,rhodes1 as 8,venice of ,antiquity01 #di2 and ,helios1 #djb ,richelieu1 ,cardinal1 morale1 #cdi2 contemporaries1 table iii ,riegl1 ,alois1 on ,arabian art1 #bjh1 #bae ,riemann1 ,georg ,f4 ,b41 artist-nature1 #fa2 relation to ,archimedes1 #fi2 religion and mathematic1 #gj2 notation1 #gg2 and boundlessness1 #hh2 mathematical position1 #ij2 goal of analysis1 #dah2 contemporaries1 table i ,riemenschneider1 ,tilmann1 and portraiture1 #bgj ,robespierre1 ,maximilien1 adventurer1 #adi2 contemporaries1 table iii ,rococo1 as stage of style1 #bjb2 architecture and music1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bhe2 parks1 #bdj2 contemporaries1 table ii4 ,see also ,baroque ,rodin1 ,auguste1 sculpture as painting1 #bdd1 #bde ,rogier van der ,weyden1 in ,italy1 #bcf ,roman ,catholicism1 colour symbolism1 #bdg-bdi2 and music1 #bfhn42 monasticism1 #cafn41 #cdc1 #cdh2 esoteric dogma1 #cbh2 prelates and manly virtue1 #cdi4 ,see also ,christianity2 ,jesuitism ,roman law1 and cultural-language1 #cajn4 ,romanesque1 simplicity1 #aif2 as stage of style1 #bja1 #bjb2 and ,classical1 #bgen4 ,romanticism1 defined1 #aig2 and mysticism1 #cfen42 and mathematics1 #cff ,rome1 city1 megalopolitanism1 #cb1 #cd ,rome1 empire1 and ,classical ,culture1 #h2 imperialism1 #cf-ch1 #ccf2 and ,arabian ,culture1 #gb1 #bjg1 #bjh2 army and citizenship1 #cbe2 emperor-worship1 #dje1 #djg1 #daa2 and toleration1 #daa4 ,see also ,classical ,culture ,rondanini ,madonna1 as music1 #bgg ,rondeau1 origin1 #bbi ,roof1 as ,arabian expression1 #baj ,rore1 ,cyprian de1 in ,italy1 #bcf2 music1 #bea1 #beb ,rossellino1 ,antonio1 and portrait1 #bgb ,rossini1 ,gioachino1 ,catholicism1 #bfhn42 on ,meyerbeer1 #bic ,rottmann1 ,karl1 and grand style1 #bhi ,rousseau1 ,jean ,jacques1 and naturalism1 #cc1 #bjg1 #bhh2 and superficially incidental1 #add2 and imperialism1 #adi1 #aej2 autumnal accent1 #bjg2 and ,civilization1 #ceb2 contemporaries1 #cecn41 table i2 and compassion1 #cfb2 and ,darwinism1 #cfi2 intellect and wisdom1 #dji ,rubens1 ,peter ,paul1 colour1 #bec2 and body1 #bgj1 #bgan41 #bgh2 and dynamics1 #dad ,ruins1 as ,western expression1 #bed ,ruler-cult1 #dje1 #daa ,runge1 ,otto ,p41 and grand style1 #bhi ,russia1 and the ,west1 #afn42 stage of art1 #bja2 architecture1 #baa2 ignored art1 #bbc2 will-less soul1 #cji2 culture and charity1 #cej ,rutherford1 ,sir ,ernest1 atoms as quanta of action1 #che1 #dai ,ruysdael1 ,jakob1 colour1 #bdf2 period1 #bhc ,sabans1 and early ,christian designs1 #bbn41 #bjin42 temple-form1 #bajn42 art1 #bbc2 art contemporaries1 table ii ,sahu-r1 pyramid1 #bjc ,st4 ,denis1 royal tombs1 #bfa1 #bfd ,st4 ,lorenz ,church1 ,nrnberg1 and styles1 #bje ,st4 ,mark1 ,venice1 origins1 #baa ,st4 ,patroclus1 ,soest1 arcade-porch1 #bje ,st4 ,paul without the ,walls1 as ,pseudomorphic1 #baj1 #bajn4 ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome1 as ,baroque1 #bjf1 #bch ,st ,pierre et ,st ,paul1 ,moissac1 ornamentation1 #aii ,st4 ,priscilla1 catacombs1 paintings1 #acg ,st4 ,vitale1 ,ravenna1 characteristics1 #bjj ,sainte-,chapelle1 ,paris1 boundlessness1 #aii ,saints1 contemporary legends1 #djj1 table i ,saivas1 ,lingayats1 #acfn4 ,saktas1 #acfn4 ,salamanca1 loss of prestige1 #cc ,salvation ,army1 as exception1 #cdh ,samarra1 contemporaries1 table ii ,samnites1 ,roman war as classic1 #cf1 #aean4 ,samos1 ,hera of ,cheramues1 #bben4 ,sangallo1 ,antonio da1 ,palazzo ,farnese faade1 #bge ,sankhya1 and ,buddhism1 #cecn41 #cef2 contemporaries1 table i ,sant' ,andrea1 ,pistora1 ,pisano's ,sibyls1 #bfc ,santa ,maria ,novella1 ,florence1 style1 #bcd2 ,flemish paintings1 #bcf ,sassanids1 and ,arabian state1 #bab2 art #bbc2 music1 #bbh ,satyrs1 materiality1 #djc ,savonarola1 ,girolamo1 and art tendencies1 #bcc2 and ,renaissance1 #cbh2 and ,western morale1 #cdh2 contemporaries1 table i ,scarlatti1 ,alessandro1 character of arias1 #bain4 ,scene1 dramatic1 cultural basis1 #cbe ,scepticism1 as last stage of ,western philosophy1 #de1 #cgd ,scharnhorst1 ,gerhard von1 army reforms1 #aejn4 ,schelling1 ,friedrich von1 and dualism1 #cjg2 esoteric1 #cfi2 contemporaries1 table i ,schiller1 ,johann ,c4 ,f41 tragic form1 #adg2 banality1 #aee ,schirazi1 and dualism1 #cjg ,schlter1 ,andreas1 architecture1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bhe ,schngauer1 ,martin1 colour1 #bej ,scholasticism1 art association1 #bbi2 will and reason1 #cje2 and dualism1 #cjg2 cultural culmination1 #cfen42 contemporaries1 table i ,schopenhauer1 ,arthur1 and history1 #g1 #bi1 #ign42 provincialism1 #bc1 #bd2 practical philosophy1 #de1 #cfh2 and mathematics1 #fg1 #abe1 #cff2 will1 and reason1 #cjh1 #cdb2 and ,civilization1 #ceb2 and ethics1 #ced1 #cgc2 pessimism and system1 #cff1 #cgj2 and critique of society1 #cfg2 and ,darwinism1 #cfi1 #cgb1 #cgc2 contemporaries1 table i ,schroeter1 ,manfred1 on criticism of ,spengler1 x ,schtz1 ,heinrich1 ,matthew ,passion1 #aii1 #bdd2 and imagination1 #bbj2 pictorial music1 #bhc2 ,god-feeling1 #cie ,science1 of history1 #aec1 #aed2 esoteric ,western1 #cbh4 ,see also ,art2 ,mathematics2 ,natural science2 ,nature ,scipio1 ,p4 ,cornelius1 and economic organization1 #ach2 contemporaries1 table iii ,scopas1 and self-criticism1 #bfd2 and body1 #bgj2 period1 #bhd ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 as historian1 #if ,scrope1 ,richard1 as warrior1 #cdin4 ,sculpture1 and proportion and function1 #hd2 ,classical1 as become1 #ig2 cultural basis1 #baf1 #bbe2 form-ideal of ,classical1 picture-origin1 #bbe2 polychrome1 #bbf2 music-origin of ,rococo1 #bca2 ,gothic1 #bca1 #bfa2 use of marble1 #bcb1 #bdin41 #bec1 #bgf2 ,renaissance1 #bce1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bec2 position in ,western ,culture1 #bdd2 ,egyptian1 polish1 #bdhn41 #bff2 bronze1 #bec1 #bgf2 ,classical expression of body as soul1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #cje2 ,michelangelo's attitude1 #bge-bgg1 #bha2 free ,classical1 and ,western music1 #bhc1 #bhd2 ,classical1 and time of day1 #cbe2 ,classical1 and spectator1 #cbi2 contemporary cultural periods1 table ii4 ,see also ,art2 ,portraiture ,sebastiano del ,piombo1 and ,raphael1 #bgb ,second religiousness1 period in a ,culture1 xi1 #ajh1 #dbd-dbh2 of ,rome1 #cjf ,selene1 as goddess1 #adgn41 #djb ,seleucus1 astronomical theory1 #fh ,seljuk art1 contemporaries1 table ii ,semper1 ,gottfried1 on style1 #bba ,seneca1 ,l4 ,annus1 ,stoicism and income1 #cc2 and ,baroque drama1 #cag ,sentinum1 battle1 #aea ,septimius ,severus1 favourite god1 #djf ,serapis1 cult1 #djf ,serenus1 as ,arabian thinker1 #fc ,servius ,tullius1 myth1 #aa ,sesostris1 court1 #ha2 as name1 #bjf2 autumn of ,culture1 #bjg ,sethos ,i1 contemporaries1 table iii ,svres ware1 and ,wedgwood1 #aejn4 ,sex1 naturalism1 #bd1 #cc1 #bjg1 #bhh2 problem of ,civilization1 #ce2 cultural attitude1 #acf2 historical aspects1 #acg ,sforzas1 ,hellenic sorriness1 #bgc ,shaftesbury1 ,earl of1 and imperialism1 #aej ,shakespeare1 ,william1 tragic form and method1 vision1 #abi1 #acj1 #adan41 #adb1 #adc1 #bbj1 #cai2 ,bacon controversy1 #acen42 and motive1 #aef2 as dramatist of the incidental1 #adb1 #adf2 and historical material1 #bee2 and ,classical drama1 #cbc2 and time of day1 #cbd2 scenes1 #cbe2 ,god-feeling1 #ccj1 #cie2 ethical passion1 #cdg1 #cee2 and evolution1 #cgj ,shang ,period1 contemporaries1 table iii ,shaw1 ,george ,bernard1 sex problem1 #ce2 and history1 #been42 and morale1 #cdf1 #cfh1 #cfi1 #cgc1 #cgd2 superman1 #cej2 and diet1 #cfa2 on ,schopenhauer1 #cfg2 and ,socialism and ,darwinism1 #cga1 #cgb ,shih-huang-ti1 career1 #aabn4 ,shiva1 cult1 #acfn4 ,short story1 ,western1 #cahn4 ,siegfried1 archtype1 #djb2 contemporaries1 table i ,siena1 and counter-,renaissance1 #bcd2 school1 #bfh ,signorelli1 ,luca de'1 and ,classicism1 #bba2 and body and colour1 #bci1 #bdb1 #bgh2 act and portrait1 #bgj1 #bga2 and statics1 #dad ,sikyon1 ,adrastos cult1 #ccn4 ,silesian wars1 and cultural rhythm1 #aajn4 ,simone ,martini1 and ,gothic1 #bce ,sistine ,chapel1 ,michelangelo's frescos1 #bfc1 #bge1 #cie ,sistine ,madonna1 #bfh1 #bhj ,six ,classical ,systems1 contemporaries1 table i ,skyscraper1 and gigantomachia1 #bia ,sluter1 ,klaus1 sculpture1 #bfc ,smith1 ,adam1 economic theory1 #dag ,soaring1 as ,western term1 #cig ,socialism1 and ,civilization1 #cb2 and ,darwinism1 #ce1 #cgj-cgb2 and economic motives1 #cf1 #cee2 and imperialism1 #cg2 ,frederick ,william ,i's practice1 #ach2 ethical1 defined1 esoteric1 #cbhn41 #cdb1 #cdg1 #cea1 #cee1 #cgd2 scientific basis of ideas1 #cec2 as end-phenomenon1 #cef1 #ceg2 and contemporaries1 immaturity1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cfa2 irreligion1 #cei1 #dji2 necessity1 #cfa2 dynamic qualities1 and compassion1 #cfa2 and work1 #cfb2 and future1 #cfc2 tragedy of nebulous aim1 #cfc2 and lie of life1 #cfd2 and political economy1 #cfg2 contemporaries1 table i ,sociology1 biological1 #aee2 and ,western ethics1 #cfg1 #cfh ,socrates1 ahistoric consciousness1 #ad2 ethic1 #cdg2 and ,civilization1 #ceb2 and ,stoicism1 #cecn42 intellect and wisdom #dji2 condemnation1 #daj2 contemporaries1 table i ,soest1 church1 #bje ,sol ,invictus1 cult1 #djf1 #djfn41 #djg ,sonata1 movement1 #bca ,sophists1 scientific basis1 #cecn41 #cef2 and diet1 #cfa2 contemporaries1 table i ,sophocles1 ahistoric consciousness1 #i2 tragic form and method1 #abi1 #acj1 #adan41 #adc1 #adf1 #cah1 #cba1 #ccj1 #chf2 statue1 #bfi2 deification1 #dje ,soul1 and world and life1 #ed2 mathematic expression1 #aja2 of ,cultures1 inner image1 #ajf1 #cjc2 and predestination1 #aag2 individual1 and macrocosm1 #afe1 #bei2 cultural designations and attributes1 #ahc2 man as phenomenon1 cultural expression1 #bei2 ,classical 8body0 expression1 #bei-bfa2 ,western expression in portrait1 #bfa-bff2 knowledge and faith1 #bii1 #cjj2 as image of counter-world1 #cjj2 and 8exact0 science1 #cja1 #cjb1 #cac2 culture-language1 #cjb2 cultural basis of systematic psychology1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cjg1 #cac1 #cad2 ,classical static and ,western dynamic1 #cjd1 #cje2 ,arabian dualism1 #cje2 will and reason1 outer world parallels1 #cjh2 ,western will-culture1 egoism1 #cjh-cab1 #cad2 and cultural religious concepts1 #cab1 #ceh2 cultural basis of morale1 #cae2 dynamic1 and biography1 #cae1 #caf2 ,classical gesture1 beauty1 #caf2 and cultural forms of tragedy1 #cag-cbf2 popularity1 cultural basis1 #cbf-cbi2 cultural relation to universe1 #ccj-ccb2 and to discovery1 #ccb-ccg2 and brain1 #cfg4 ,see also ,morale2 ,portraiture2 ,spirit ,space1 and natural morphology1 #f1 #g2 and the become1 #ef2 relation to ,classical and ,western ,cultures1 #fd1 #ha-hd1 #hh2 world-fear and creative expression1 #gi-ha2 multi-dimensional1 symbolism1 #hh1 #hi1 #afe2 direction and extension1 #ii1 #agb2 and causality and destiny1 #aai1 #abj2 awareness1 #abb2 and scientific time1 #abd1 #abe2 time as counter-concept1 #abf1 #agj1 #agb2 and death1 #aff2 world-experience and depth1 #afh1 #afi1 #agb2 perception or comprehension1 #afi-agb2 cultural symbolism in depth-experience1 #agc-age2 cultural prime symbols1 #agd-agh1 #ccg2 ,classical use of term1 #agen42 cultural basis of concepts1 #agi1 #caj2 and architectural and religious expression of ,culture1 #ahc-ahh1 #aih- #bjj2 ,egyptian and ,chinese experiencing1 #ahi-aia1 #bja-bjc2 ,western arts and prime phenomenon1 #bha1 #bhb2 extension and reason1 #cjh4 ,see also ,become2 ,causality2 ,depth-experience2 ,nature2 ,time ,spain1 period of ascendency1 incident and destiny1 #adh1 #aej ,spaniards1 and discovery1 #ccc ,spanish-,sicilian art1 contemporaries1 table ii ,spanish ,succession ,war1 and cultural rhythm1 #aajn42 as epoch1 #adi ,sparta1 myth1 #aa2 and music1 #bbc ,spencer1 ,herbert1 and economic ascendency1 #cfg2 contemporaries1 table i ,spengler1 ,oswald1 reception of book1 ix2 basis of philosophy1 xiii-xv1 #din4 ,speyer ,cathedral1 #ahe1 #bbd ,spinoza1 ,baruch1 and dualism1 #cjg2 and force1 #dac ,spirit1 and soul in ,arabian dualism1 #cjf4 ,see also ,body2 ,history2 ,morale2 ,nature2 ,philosophy2 ,religion2 ,soul ,spirit land1 cultural conception1 #ccc ,spirit-wall1 #bjc ,spitzweg1 ,karl1 significance of colour1 #beb ,sport1 and ,civilization1 #ce ,stahl1 ,georg ,ernst1 chemical theory1 #chd ,stained glass4 ,see ,glass painting ,stamitz1 ,johann ,k41 ,classical contemporary1 #agg2 and four-part movement1 #bca2 period1 #bhd ,state4 ,see ,politics ,statics1 as ,classical system1 #chd1 #cic2 no ,western concept1 #dad4 ,see also ,natural science ,statistics1 and probability1 #dba ,steamship1 ,classical anticipation1 #ccd ,stendhal1 and psychology1 #cai ,stipel1 and zero1 #aghn4 ,stirner1 ,max1 and morale1 #cdf2 and ,hegelianism1 #cfg2 contemporaries1 table i ,stoicism1 and ,civilization1 #cb1 #ceb2 and money1 #cc1 #cf2 practicality1 #de2 homology1 #aaa2 and state1 #ach2 and corporeality1 #agg2 weak soul1 #bjc2 ethic1 #cae1 #cdg1 #cee1 #cfg2 and will1 #cddn41 #cdg2 scientific basis of ideas1 #cec2 as end-phenomenon1 #cef1 #ceg2 and contemporaries1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cfa1 table i2 irreligion1 #cei1 #dji2 and diet1 #cfa ,stone1 as symbol1 #ahh1 #aie1 #bjf2 polish1 #bdhn4 ,see also ,architecture2 ,marble2 ,sculpture ,strassburg ,minister1 ,arabian influence1 #bac ,streets1 cultural attitude1 #aji2 ,western aspect and depth-experience1 #bbd1 #bda2 ,egyptian aspect1 #bbdn4 ,strindberg1 ,august1 provincialism1 #bd1 #ccn42 sex problem1 #ce2 and morale1 #cdf1 #cgd2 and ,civilization1 #ceb ,string music1 in ,western ,culture1 #bca1 #bebn4 ,strzygowski1 ,josef1 on ,arabian art1 #ahd1 #bji ,style1 as cultural emanation1 #ajh1 #bjj1 #bjb2 brave ,egyptian1 #bja-bjc2 ,chinese1 #bjc2 weak ,classical1 #bjc-bje2 history as organism1 cultural basis1 #bje2 stages of each style1 #bjf2 history of ,arabian1 #bjg-bad2 and technical form of arts1 #bbj2 in natural science1 #chg1 #cia ,suez ,canal1 ,goethe's prophecy1 #db ,sufism1 contemporaries1 table i ,suhrawardi1 on body1 #bdh ,suicide1 cultural attitude1 #bjd ,sulla1 incident1 #aci2 contemporaries1 table iii ,sunda1 islands of1 ,roman knowledge1 #ccd ,superman1 in ,nietzsche and ,shaw1 #cej1 #cfi1 #cgj2 natural selection1 #cga ,sutras1 contemporaries1 table i ,sylvester ,,ii1 pope1 and clock1 #aen4 ,symbolism1 in living thought1 xiii2 symbols of a culture1 #d1 #ac1 #ca2 in historical morphology1 #g1 #df2 clock and bell1 #ad1 #aca1 #acdn42 money and ,civilization1 #cd2 in the become1 #aja2 actuality1 #aja1 #afh2 symbols 7names7 and fear1 #abc1 #aic1 #cig2 of funeral customs1 #acd1 #ace2 of museums1 #ace2 of world-history1 #afc2 symbols defined1 #afc2 spatiality1 #afe2 and knowledge of death1 #aff2 kind of extension as cultural symbol1 #agc-age2 cultural prime symbols1 plurality1 #agd1 #agi1 #ahj1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aif1 #bjc1 #ccg2 writing as cultural symbol1 #aign42 window1 #aii1 #baj1 #bbd2 in colour and gold1 #bde-bdi2 as replacing images1 #djg ,synagogues1 patterns1 #baan4 ,syncretism1 architectural expression1 #bji2 cults1 #bbh2 contemporaries1 table i ,syracuse1 culture city1 #cb2 and ,plato1 #db ,syria1 music of sun-worship1 #bbh2 contemporaries of art1 table ii4 ,see also ,arabian ,culture ,taboo1 idea1 #hj2 effect of naming1 #abc2 side of art1 #abg4 ,see also ,religion ,tacitus1 ,cornelius1 ahistoric consciousness1 #aj1 #aa2 limited background1 #acb1 #acc ,talleyrand-,prigord1 ,charles de1 on life before #aghi1 #bjg ,talmud1 dualism1 #cjf2 determinism1 #cjg2 and nature1 #cic2 contemporaries1 table i ,tanis1 ,hyksos ,sphinx1 #ajh1 #bfb ,tanit1 as deity1 #djf ,tao1 principle1 #ad1 #aij1 #bjc1 #bbh2 perspective1 #caan4 ,tarquins1 myth1 #aa2 contemporaries1 table iii ,tartessus1 realm1 #ccbn4 ,tartini1 ,giuseppe1 orchestration1 #bca2 violin story1 #bgfn4 ,tasso1 ,torquato1 and fixed scene1 #cbe ,taygetus1 ,mount1 ,lycurgus as local god1 #aa ,technics1 and future of ,western ,culture1 #da1 #dd ,technique1 and theory1 #cie ,teleology1 as caricature1 #abj ,telephus ,frieze4 ,see ,pergamene ,telescope1 as ,western symbol1 #cca ,tell-el-,amarna1 art1 #aicn41 #bic ,tellez1 ,gabriel4 ,see ,tirso de ,molina ,tellus ,mater1 materiality1 #djc ,temperature1 and dynamics1 #dad ,templum1 as cult-plan1 #ahe ,tension1 as ,western principle1 #chf ,ten ,thousand1 expedition1 as episode1 #adg1 #ccfn4 ,terpander1 music1 #bbc ,thales1 and problem of knowing1 #cfe1 #cha ,thalestas1 music1 #bbc ,thebes1 autumnal city1 #ii ,themistocles1 ahistoric consciousness1 #i2 morale1 #cdi ,theocritus1 irreligion1 #ceh ,theory1 and fact1 #cgh2 and religion1 #cie ,theosophy1 conversion1 #cdf ,theotokos1 and ,mary-cult1 #acgn41 #bfg1 #bfh ,theresa1 ,saint1 and ,western morale1 #cdh ,thermodynamics1 first law and energy1 #dac2 second law1 entropy1 #dbj ,theseus legends1 contemporaries1 table i ,thing-become4 ,see ,become ,thing-becoming4 ,see ,becoming ,thinite ,period1 contemporaries1 tables ii1 iii ,thinker1 defined1 xiii ,third ,kingdom1 as ,western conception1 #cfc2 and lie of life1 #cfd ,thirty ,years' ,war1 as epoch1 #adi ,thoma1 ,hans1 painting1 #bhi ,thomas ,aquinas1 influence of ,joachim of ,floris1 #bj2 and destiny1 #ada2 ethic1 #cji2 religion1 #cid2 contemporaries1 table i ,thoroughbass1 and geometry1 #fa2 rise1 #bcj ,thorwaldsen1 ,albert1 sculpture1 #bde ,thothmes1 workshop1 #aicn4 ,thucydides1 ahistoric consciousness1 #i2 limited background1 #aj1 #acb1 #accn4 ,thunder-pattern1 #aif ,thuthmosis ,,iii1 maturity of culture1 #id2 contemporaries1 table iii ,tiberius1 as episode1 #adj2 contemporaries1 table iii ,tiepolo1 ,giovanni ,battista1 painting1 #bhc2 ease1 #bib ,time1 and historical morphology1 #f2 and history1 problems1 #di1 #ie1 #ajc1 #aeh2 and direction1 #ed1 #ef2 and mathematics1 #fd1 #abe1 #abf2 enigma1 as word1 effect of naming1 #gi1 #aba-abc2 direction and extension1 #ii1 #agb2 and destiny and causality1 #aai1 #abj2 unawareness1 #abb2 mechanical conception1 #abb2 8space of time01 #abbn42 and ,relativity1 #abdn41 #dai2 and space1 scientific explanation1 counter-concept1 #abd-abf1 #agj2 ahistoric and historic drama1 cultural basis1 #acj2 cultural symbolism of clock1 #aca1 #acd2 and cause and incident1 #adb2 as feeling1 #aed2 and nature1 #aeh1 #chg-cia2 past and transience1 #aff2 direction and dimension1 #afin42 and depth1 #agb1 #agc2 and imitation and ornament1 #aic-aie1 #aig2 direction and will1 #cjh2 direction and aim1 #cfa4 ,see also ,becoming2 ,destiny2 ,history2 ,space ,time of day1 cultural attitude1 #cbd1 #cbe ,tintoretto1 background1 #bci ,tiresias1 cult1 #ahe ,tirso de ,molina1 and unities1 #cbc ,tiryns1 funeral customs1 #ace ,titian1 period1 #ajh2 technique1 brushwork1 #bba1 #bdi2 and ,raphael1 #bbg2 and colour1 #bdb1 #beb2 and popularity1 #bdc2 portraits as biography1 #bfd2 and body1 #bga2 ,baroque1 #bgd2 impressionism1 #bhf2 contemporaries1 table ii ,title1 symbolic importance1 #djhn4 ,toleration1 cultural attitude1 #cdc1 #djd1 #daj1 #daa ,tolstoi1 ,leo1 and ,europe1 #afn42 provincialism1 #bd2 on notion of death1 #aff2 philosophy1 #cji ,totem1 side of art1 #abh4 ,see also ,religion2 ,taboo ,tragedy4 ,see ,drama ,trajan1 analogy1 #ci2 and ,arabian art1 #baa2 forum1 #bae2 contemporaries1 table iii ,transcendentalism1 ,western1 #caa ,transience1 notion1 #aff ,trecento1 so-called ,renaissance1 #bccn4 ,trent1 ,council of1 ,jesuit domination1 #adh2 and ,western ,christianity1 #bdg2 and church music1 #bfhn42 and ,western morale1 #cdh ,trigonometry1 contemporaries1 table i4 ,see also ,mathematics ,trinity1 as physical problem1 #chc ,trojan ,war1 and ,crusades1 #ajn41 #bg ,troubadours1 imitative music1 #bbi ,truth1 relativity1 cultural basis1 xiii1 #da1 #df1 #fj1 #adf1 #agh-ahj1 #cjd1 #cac1 #cde ,tscharvaka1 contemporaries1 table i ,tsin1 contemporaries1 #cg1 table iii ,turfan1 ,indian dramas1 #bie ,turgot1 ,anne ,r4 ,j41 economic theory1 #dag ,tuscany4 ,see ,florence2 ,renaissance ,tusculum1 battle1 #cdin4 ,twelfth ,night1 #cbe ,twilight of the ,gods1 ,christian form1 #djj ,tyche1 as deity1 #adf ,tzigane music1 improvisation1 #aie ,uhde1 ,fritz ,k4 ,h4 von1 and religious painting1 #bhhn4 ,ulm ,minster1 as model1 #bbd ,unities1 dramatic1 ,classical and ,western attitude1 #cbc ,universe1 cultural attitude1 #ccj-ccb ,upanishads1 contemporaries1 table i ,usefulness1 cult1 #aee1 #aef ,uzzano bust1 ,donatello's1 #bgb ,vaishnavism1 #acfn4 ,valcashika1 contemporaries1 table i ,valhalla1 conception1 #ahf1 #ahg2 history1 #djj2 and unitary space1 #djc ,valkyries1 and unitary space1 #djc ,valmy1 battle1 ,goethe and significance1 #adi ,van ,dyck1 ,anthony1 musical expression1 #bej ,varangians1 movement-stream1 #cccn4 ,varro1 ,m4 ,terentius1 classification of gods1 #aa2 on religions1 #cid ,varyags1 movement-stream1 #cccn4 ,vasari1 ,giorgio1 on imitation1 #aib ,vase-painting1 ,classical1 and time of day1 #bbf1 #cbe2 ,renaissance1 #bcg ,vatican1 ,raphael's frescoes1 #bcg1 #bgi2 ,michelangelo's1 #bfc1 #bge1 #cie ,vaux-le-,vicomte1 park1 #bda ,vector1 concept and ,baroque art1 #caa2 and motion1 #cad ,vedanta doctrine1 #ceb1 #cee2 contemporaries1 table i ,vedas1 homology1 #aaa2 contemporaries1 table i ,vegetarianism1 and ,civilization1 #cfa ,velasquez1 ,diego1 musical expression1 #bej2 and body1 #bga2 period1 #bhc2 as religious1 #ceh ,venice1 and ,arabian ,culture1 #baa1 #baf1 #bce2 art ascendency1 #bbd2 school of painting1 #bbg1 #bha2 music1 #bcj1 #bcf1 #bhb2 and ,renaissance1 #bgc4 ,see also ,titian ,venus and ,rome1 temple1 #baa ,verlaine1 ,paul1 autumnal accent1 #bda ,vermeer1 ,jan1 technique1 #bba2 colour1 #bea1 #bec2 period1 #bhc ,veronese1 ,paolo4 ,see ,paolo ,verrocchio1 ,andrea1 sculpture1 ,colleone statue1 #bce1 #bch1 #bgb2 goldsmith1 #bcg2 and portrait1 #bga2 anti-,gothic1 #bgen4 ,versailles1 park1 #bda ,vesta1 materiality1 #djc ,viadana1 ,lodovico1 music1 #bcj ,vienna1 master-builders1 #bjg2 chamber music1 #bcb ,vieta1 ,franois1 significance of algebraic notation1 #ga ,vignola1 ,giacomo1 architecture1 liberation1 #hg1 #cac1 #dab ,village ,sheikh1 statue1 #bfe ,violin1 as ,western symbol1 #bca1 #bebn4 ,viollet-le-,duc1 ,eugene ,e41 and restorations1 #bedn4 ,virtue1 cultural concepts of manly1 #cdh4 ,see also ,truth ,vishnu1 and ,krishna1 #acfn4 ,vision1 and history and art1 #ie1 #if1 #ajb1 #adb ,vitruvius1 and arch and column1 #bjd ,vlusp1 unitary space1 #ahe4 ,see also ,eddas ,voltaire1 contemporary mathematics1 #ff2 and imperialism1 #aej2 contemporaries1 table i ,voluntas1 meaning1 #cajn4 ,vulturnus1 materiality1 #djc ,wagner1 ,richard1 sensuousness1 #ce2 and popularity1 #ce1 #cbg2 foreshadowing by1 #aaa2 modernity1 #aaa2 and imagination1 #bbj2 end-art1 #bbc1 #dbe2 impressionism1 and endless space1 #bhb1 #bhf1 #bib2 and form and size1 #bia1 #ceb2 striving1 #bib2 and psychology1 #cai2 and ,civilization1 #ceb2 character of ,nihilism1 #ceg2 irreligion1 #ceh2 nebulous aim1 #cfc1 #cfd2 and lie of life1 #cfd2 and ,nietzsche1 #cgj2 and socio-economic ethics1 #cgj1 #cgb1 #cgc2 forest-longing1 #cig ,wallenstein1 ,albrecht von1 horoscope1 #adg2 contemporaries1 table iii ,walther von der ,vogelweide1 lyrics1 #cbd ,wang-,cheng1 contemporaries1 table iii ,wang ,h1 imperialism1 #cg ,washington1 ,george1 contemporaries1 table iii ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 contemporaries1 #aab ,wasmann1 ,rudolf ,f41 act and portrait1 #bgan42 and grand style1 #bhi ,watteau1 ,jean ,a41 period1 #ajh2 8singing0 picture1 #bai1 #bcb1 #bhc2 colour1 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bec2 contemporaries1 table ii ,way1 as ,egyptian prime symbol1 #agd1 #ahi1 #bja ,wazo of ,lige1 ,bishop1 as warrior1 #cdin4 ,wedgwood ware1 and ,svres1 #aejn4 ,weierstrass1 ,karl ,t4 ,w41 on poetry in mathematics1 #fb2 and time1 #abf ,weimar1 culture city1 #bi1 #aci ,weininger1 ,otto1 position in ,western ethics1 #cgd ,western ,culture1 clock and bell as symbols1 #ad1 #aen41 #aca1 #acd2 mathematic1 function1 #ae1 #fb1 #fh1 #gd-gh1 #hg-ij2 irrational idea of historical culmination in1 #af-bj1 #ci2 provincialism1 #bb-be1 #ci2 ,classical contemporary of present period1 #bf2 destiny1 acceptance1 #cb1 #cg-da1 #dd1 #ccf2 philosophy of decline1 #de1 #df2 ,world ,war as type of change1 #df-dh2 infinite space as prime symbol1 art expression1 #ha1 #hf1 #hg1 #hi1 #agd- #agh1 #ahd-ahg1 #aih-bja1 #bbd1 #bbi-bcb1 #bci-bdb1 #bha-bhe1 #ccg2 and popularity1 #he1 #bdc1 #cbf-cbh1 #cfb2 historic basis1 destiny-idea1 #ig1 #abi1 #acj1 #acc-ace1 #adc1 #ade1 #cfc2 morphological aspect1 #ajj2 dramatic form1 #abi2 expression of soul1 portrait1 #acj1 #bfj-bff1 #cjd2 and care and sex1 #acf2 attitude toward state1 #acg2 economic organization1 #ach2 religious expression1 #adj1 #ahe-ahh1 #cab1 #cih-dja2 ,franco-,spanish period of maturity1 #adh1 #aejn42 ,english basis of ,civilization1 #aea1 #cga2 final test of foreseeing destiny1 #aei2 birth of soul1 attributes1 #afg1 #ahc2 literary expression1 #ahe-ahh2 art-work and sense-organ1 imagination1 #bbj2 secularization of arts1 #bcj2 form and content1 #bdb2 position of sculpture1 #bdd2 colour symbol1 #bde-bdg1 #bej2 brushwork as symbol1 #bdi2 unity1 #beb2 and motherhood1 #bff-bfh2 languages1 #cjbn42 as will-culture1 #cjh-cab2 and time of day1 #cbd2 significance of astronomy1 #ccj-ccb2 and discovery1 #ccb-ccg2 aspects of ethics1 #cfg-cfi2 culture and dogma1 #daj2 spiritual epochs1 table i2 art epochs1 table ii2 political epochs1 table iii4 ,see also ,art2 ,civilization2 ,cultures2 ,history2 ,nature2 ,politics2 ,spirit ,weyden1 ,rogier van der4 ,see ,rogier ,wilhelm1 ,meister1 painting1 #bfc ,will1 free will and destiny1 #adj1 #ada2 unexplainable1 #bii2 as ,western concept1 #cjb1 #cjd1 #cjh-cac2 and reason1 #cjh2 and ,western concept of ,god1 #cab2 and character1 #cad2 and life1 #cae2 and ,western morale1 #cda-cde1 #cgc ,willaert1 ,adrian1 music1 in ,italy1 #bcf1 #beb ,winckelmann1 ,johann ,j41 narrow ,classicalism1 #bhn4 ,wind instruments1 colour expression1 #bebn4 ,window1 cultural significance1 #aii1 #baj1 #bbd ,woermann1 ,karl1 on catacomb ,madonna1 #acgn4 ,wolfram von ,eschenbach1 world-outlook1 #adb2 forest-longing1 #ahf1 #cig2 and ,grail1 #bacn42 and popularity1 #bdc2 tragic method1 #cai1 #cbd ,woodwind instruments1 colour expression1 #bebn4 ,word1 relation to number1 #eg4 ,see also ,language2 ,names ,work1 ,protestant works1 #cafn42 and deed1 #cee2 and ,socialism1 #cfb2 ,western concept1 #dac ,world1 and soul and life1 #ed ,world-,ash ,yggdrasil1 as symbol1 #cif ,world conceptions1 historical and natural1 overlapping1 #ih-ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aai1 #aec1 #aed1 #aeh2 7diagram71 #aed2 symbolic1 #afc-afe2 happening and history1 #aec4 ,see also ,history2 ,macrocosm2 ,nature ,world-end1 as symbol of ,western soul1 #cfc1 #dbc ,world-fear1 creative expression1 #gi-ha ,world-longing1 development1 and world-fear1 #gh-ha ,world ,war1 and ,spengler's theories1 ix1 xv2 as type of historical change of phase1 #df-dh1 #aajn42 contemporaries1 table iii ,writing1 alphabet and historical consciousness1 #abn42 as ornament1 #aidn41 #aign4 ,see also ,language ,wrzburg1 ,marienkirche and style1 #bjj2 master-builders1 #bjg ,wu-ti1 contemporaries1 table iii ,yahweh1 dualism1 #cab1 #djb ,yang-chu1 practical philosophy1 #de ,yellow1 symbolism1 #bdf ,yggdrasil1 as symbol1 #cif ,yoga doctrine1 #cee2 contemporaries1 table i ,youth1 and future1 #aeb ,zama1 as marking a period1 #cf ,zarathustra4 ,see ,zoroaster ,zarlino1 ,giuseppe1 music1 #bcj1 #bhb ,zend ,avesta1 dualism1 #cjf1 #cjg2 and nature1 #cic2 contemporaries1 table i ,zeno1 of ,elea4 ,see ,eleatic philosophy ,zeno1 the ,stoic1 ethic1 #cdg1 #ced2 character of ,nihilism1 #ceg2 and mathematics1 #cff2 contemporaries1 table i ,zenodorus1 as ,arabian thinker1 #fc ,zero1 ,classical mathematic and1 #ff-fh2 and theory of the limit1 #hf2 cultural conception1 #agh ,zeuxis1 painting1 light and shadow1 #bjg1 #bdbn41 #bhc1 #cben4 ,zola1 ,emile1 journalism1 #cfj ,zoroaster1 ,nietzsche's 8,zarathustra01 #cj1 #cdb1 #cfc1 #cgj1 #cga2 unimposed mystic benefits1 #cddn42 ,arabian epic1 #djb4 ,see also ,zend ,avesta ,zwinger1 of ,dresden1 in style history1 #ajh1 #bjg1 #bhe ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,tables ,,table ,i4 8,,contemporary0 ,,spiritual ,,epochs ,,indian ,,classical ,,arabian ,,western 7from #aejj7 7from #aajj7 7from #j47 7from #ijj7 ,,spring4 ,i4 ,,birth ,,of ,a ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,grand ,,style1 ,,expressing ,a ,,new ,,god-,,feeling4 ,,world-,,fear4 ,,world-,,longing 7,rural-intuit- #aejj-abjj #aajj-hjj #j-cjj #ijj-abjj ive4 ,great crea- ,vedic religion ,hellenic-,ital- ,primitive ,german ,catholicism tions of the ian 8,demeter0 ,christianity ,edda 7,baldr7 newly-awakened religion of 7,mandaeans1 ,bernard of ,clairvaux1 dream-heavy ,soul4 the people ,gnosis1 ,sync- ,joachim of ,floris1 ,super-personal retism ,marcion1 ,francis of ,assisi unity and ful- 7,mithras1 ,baal7 ,popular ,epos ness7 ,aryan hero- ,homer ,gospels4 ,apoca- 7,siegfried7 tales lypses ,western legends of the ,heracles and ,christian1 ,maz- ,saints ,theseus daist and legends pagan legends ,,ii4 ,,earliest ,,mystical-,,metaphysical ,,shaping ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world-,,outlook ,,zenith ,,of ,,scholasticism ,preserved in ,oldest 7oral7 ,origen 7d4 #bed71,thomas ,aquinas 7d4 oldest parts of ,orphic1 ,etruscan,plotinus 7d4 #abgd71 ,duns ,scotus 7d4 the ,vedas discipline #bfi71 ,mani 7d4 #acjh71 ,dante 7d4 #acba7 #bgf71 ,iamblichusand ,eckhardt 7d4 #acbi7 7d4 #ccj7 ,after-effect2 ,avesta1 ,talmud4 ,mysticism4 ,hesiod1 ,patristic ,scholasticism ,cosmogonies literature ,,summer4 ,,iii4 ,,reformation3 ,,internal ,,popular ,,opposition ,,to ,,the ,,great ,,springtime ,,forms 7,ripening ,brahmanas4 ,orphic movement4,augustine 7d4 ,nicolaus ,cusanus 7d4 consciousness4 ,oldest parts of ,dionysiac #dcj7 #adfd7 ,earliest urban ,upanishads 7#ajthreligion4 8,numa0,nestorians ,john ,hus 7d4 #acjh7 and critical and #ith religion7#gth 7about #dcj7 ,savonarola1 ,karlstadt1 stirrings7 ,centuries7 ,century7 ,monophysites ,luther1 ,calvin 7d4 7about #dej7 #aefd7 ,mazdak 7about #ejj7 ,,iv4 ,,beginning ,,of ,a ,,purely ,,philosophical ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,world-,,feeling4 ,,opposition ,,of ,,idealistic ,,and ,,realistic ,,systems ,preserved in ,the great ,pre- ,byzantine1 ,galileo1 ,bacon1 ,upanishads ,socratics 7#fth ,jewish1 ,syrian1 ,descartes1 ,bruno1 and #eth ,coptic and ,boehme1 ,leibniz4 #afth ,centuries7 ,persian and #agth ,centuries literature of #fth and #gth ,centuries ,v4 ,,formation ,,of ,a ,,new ,,mathematic ,,conception ,,of ,,number ,,as ,,copy ,,and ,,content ,,of ,,world-,,form 7lost7 ,number as ,the indefinite ,number as ,function magnitude number 7,algebra77analysis7 7proportion7 ,geometry4 ,arithmetic ,pythagoreans 7development not,descartes1 ,pascal1 7from #edj7 yet ,fermat 7ca4 #afcj7 investigated7 ,newton and ,leibniz 7ca4 #afgj7 ,,vi4 ,,puritanism4 ,,rationalistic-,,mystic ,,impoverishment ,,of ,,religion 7lost7 ,pythagorean ,mohammed 7#fbb7 ,english ,puritans society ,paulicians and 7from #afbj7 7from #edj7 ,iconoclasts ,french ,jansenists 7from #fej7 from #afdj7 ,port ,royal ,,autumn4 ,,vii4 8,,enlightenment40 ,,belief ,,in ,,almightiness ,,of ,,reason4 ,,cult ,,of 8,,nature40 8,,rational0 ,,religion 7,intelligence ,sutras2 ,sankhya2,sophists of ,mutazilites ,english ,ration- of the ,city4 ,zen- ,buddha2 later the #eth ,cen- alists 7,locke7 ith of strict ,upanishads tury ,sufism ,french ,encyc- intellectual cre- ,socrates 7d4 lopaedists ativeness7 #cii7 ,nazzam1 7,voltaire7 ,democritus 7d4 ,alkindi ,rousseau ca4 #cfj7 7about #hcj7 ,,viii4 ,,zenith ,,of ,,mathematical ,,thought4 ,,elucidation ,,of ,,the ,,form-,,world ,,of ,,numbers 7lost7 ,archytas 7d4 7not invest- ,euler 7d4 #agfc71 #cfe7 igated7 ,lagrange 7d4 #ahac71 ,plato 7d4 #cdf7 7,theory of ,laplace 7d4 #ahbg7 7,zero as 7,conic ,sections7 number4 7,the ,infinitesimal number7 ,spherical problem7 ,trigonometry7 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,great ,,conclusive ,,systems ,idealism ,schelling ,yoga1 ,vedanta ,plato 7d4 ,alfarabi 7d4 ,goethe ,epistemology #cdf7 #iej7 ,hegel ,valcashika ,aristotle 7d4 ,avicenna 7d4 ,kant ,logic ,nyaya #cbb7 ca4#ajjj7 ,fichte ,,winter4 ,x4 ,,materialistic ,,world-,,outlook4 ,,cult ,,of ,,science1 ,,utility ,,and ,,prosperity 7,dawn of ,mega- ,sankhya1 ,cynics1 ,cyr- ,communistic1 ,bentham1 ,comte1 lopolitan ,civ- ,tscharvaka enaics atheistic1 ,darwin ilization4 ,ex- 7,lokoyata7 ,last ,soph- ,epicurean sects,spencer1 ,stirner1 tinction of ists 7,pyr- of ,abbassid ,marx spiritual cre- rhon7 times4 8,breth- ,feuerbach ative force4 ren of ,sincer- ,life itself be- ity0 comes problem- ,,xi4 ,,ethical-,,social ,,ideals ,,of ,,life4 ,,epoch ,,of 8,,unmathematical ,,philosophy40 atical4 ,ethical- ,,skepsis practical tend- encies of an ,tendencies ,hellenism ,movements ,schopenhauer1 irreligious and in ,buddha's in ,islam ,nietzsche unmetaphysical time ,socialism1 cosmopolitan- ,anarchism ism7 ,hebbel1 ,wag- ner1 ,ibsen ,,xii4 ,,inner ,,completion ,,of ,,the ,,mathematical ,,form-,,world4 ,,the ,,concluding ,,thought 7lost7 ,euclid1 ,alchwarizmi ,gauss 7d4 #ahee7 ,apollonius 7#hjj7 7about #cjj7 ,ibn ,kurra 7#hej7 ,cauchy 7d4 #aheg7 ,archimedes ,alkarchi1 ,riemann 7d4 #ahff7 7about #bej7 ,albiruni 7#ajth ,century7 ,,xiii4 ,,degradation ,,of ,,abstract ,,thinking ,,into ,,professional ,,lecture-,,room ,,philosophy4 ,,compendium ,,literature ,the 8,six ,class- ,academy1 ,peri-1 ,schools of ,kantians4 ical ,systems0 patos1 ,sto- ,baghdad and 8,logicians0 ics1 ,epicur- ,basra and 8,psycho- eans logists0 ,,xiv4 ,,spread ,,of ,a ,,final ,,world-,,sentiment ,indian ,buddhism ,hellenistic- ,practical ,ethical ,socialism from ,roman ,stoicism fatalism in #aijj from #bjj ,islam after #ajjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,table ,,ii4 8,,contemporary0 ,,culture ,,epochs ,,egyptian ,,classical ,,arabian ,,western ,,pre-,,cultural ,,period4 ,,chaos ,,of ,,primitive ,,expression ,,forms4 ,,mystical ,,symbolism ,,and ,,na,,ve ,,imitation ,thinite ,period ,mycenean ,age ,persian- ,merovingian- ,seleucid ,carolingian ,period ,era 7#cdjj-cjjj7 7#afjj-agjj7 7#ejj-j7 7#ejj-ijj7 ,late-,egyptian ,late-,classical 7,minoan7 7,hellenistic7 ,late-,babylonian ,late-,indian 7,asia ,minor7 7,indo- ,iranian7 ,,excitation ,,culture4 ,,life-,,history ,,of ,a ,,style ,,formative ,,of ,,the ,,entire ,,inner-,,being4 ,,form- ,,language ,,of ,,deepest ,,symbolic ,,necessity ,i4 ,,early ,,period,,old ,,kingdom ,,doric ,,early-,,arabian ,,gothic ,,form-,,world4 7,ornament and 7#bijj-bdjj7 7#aajj-ejj7 7,sassanid1 7#ijj-aejj7 architecture as ,byzantine1 elementary ,armenian1 expression of the ,syrian1 young world- ,saban1 feeling47 7,the 8,late- 8,primitives07 ,classical0 and 8,early ,christian0 7#j-ejj7 #a4 ,birth and ,rise4 ,forms sprung from the ,land1 unconsciously shaped ,dynasties ,,iv-,v4 #aath to #ith #ast to #crd #aath to #acth ,centuries ,centuries ,centuries 7#bicj-bfbe7 ,cult interiors ,basilica1 ,romanesque and ,cupola ,early-,gothic 7,pantheon as vaulted ,mosque7 cathedrals ,geometrical ,timber building ,temple style ,pyramid temples ,doric column ,column-and-arch,flying buttress ,ranked plant- ,architrave ,stem-tracery ,glass-painting1 columns filling ,cathedral blanks ,rows of flat- ,geometric ,sarcophagus sculpture relief 7,dipylon7 style ,tomb statues ,burial urns #b4 ,completion of the early form-language4 ,exhaustion of possibilities4 ,contradiction ,,vi ,dynasty #hth and #gth #d-eth ,centuries#ad-aeth 7#bfbe-begd7 ,centuries ,centuries ,extinction of ,end of archaic ,end of ,syrian1 ,late ,gothic and pyramid-style ,doric-,etruscan ,persian1 and ,renaissance and epic- style ,coptic idyllic relief pictorial art style ,floraison of ,proto-,corinthian-,rise of mosaic-,floraison and archaic ,early-,attic picturing and waning of portrait- 7mythological7 of arabesque fresco and plastic vase statue4 ,from painting ,giotto 7,gothic7 to ,michelangelo 7,baroque74 ,siena1 ,nrnberg4 ,the ,gothic picture from ,van ,eyck to ,holbein4 ,counterpoint and oil- painting ,,ii4 ,,late ,,period ,,middle ,,kingdom ,,ionic ,,late-,,arabian ,,baroque 7,formation of 7#baej-ahjj7 7#fej-cej7 ,,form-,,world 7#aejj-ahjj7 a group of arts 7,persian-,nest- urban and con- orian1 ,byz- scious1 in the antine-,arm- hands of individ- enian1 ,islam- uals7 78,great ic ,moorish7 ,masters07 7#ejj-hjj7 #c4 ,formation of a mature artistry ,x,ith ,dynasty4 ,completion of ,completion of ,the pictorial ,delicate and the temple- of the mosque- style in telling art body 7,peri- interior 7,cen- architecture 7,almost no pteros1stone7 tral dome of from ,michel- traces left7 ,the ,ionic col- ,hagia ,sophia7 angelo to ,ber- umn nini 7d4 #afhj7 ,reign of fresco- ,zenith of mos- ,reign of oil- painting till aic painting painting from ,polygnotus ,titian to ,rem- 7#dfj7 brandt 7d4 ,rise of free ,completion of #affd7 plastic 8in the carpet- ,rise of music the round0 like arabesque from ,orlando 78,apollo of style 7,machat- ,lasso to ,h4 ,tenea0 to ta7 ,schtz 7d4 ,hageladas7 #afga7 #d4 ,perfection of an intellectualized form-language ,x,i,ith ,dynasty ,maturity of ,ommayads ,rococo 7#bjjj-aghh7 ,athens 7#dhj- #cej7 ,pylon-temple1 ,the ,acropolis 7#gth-#hth ,musical ,labyrinth ,century7 architecture 78,rococo07 ,character- ,reign of ,complete ,reign of statuary and ,classical victory of classical historical plastic from featureless music from reliefs ,myron to arabesque ,bach to ,phidias over ,mozart architecture also ,end of strict ,end of fresco and classical ceramic oil-painting painting 7,watteau to 7,zeuxis7 ,goya7 #e4 ,exhaustion of strict creativeness4 ,dissolution of grand form4 ,end of the ,style4 8,classicism0 and 8,romanticism0 ,confusion after ,the age of 8,haroun-al- ,empire and about #agej ,alexander ,raschid0 ,biedermeyer 7about #hjj7 7,no remains7 ,the ,corinthian 8,moorish ,art0 ,classicist column taste in architecture ,lysippus and ,beethoven1 ,apelles ,delacroix ,,civilization4 ,,existence ,,without ,,inner ,,form4 ,,megalopolitan ,,art ,,as ,a ,,commonplace3 ,,luxury1 ,,sport1 ,,nerve-,,excitement3 ,,rapidly-,,changing ,,fashions ,,in ,,art 7,,revivals1 ,,arbitrary ,,discoveries1 ,,borrowings7 #a4 8,modern ,art40 8,art problems40 ,attempts to portray or to excite the megalopolitan consciousness4 ,transformation of ,music1 architecture and painting into mere craft- arts ,hyksos ,period ,hellenism ,sultan #aith and #bjth dynasties of ,centuries #ith-#ajth ,century 7,preserved only ,pergamene ,art ,liszt1 ,berlioz1 in ,crete2 7theatricality7 ,wagner ,minoan art7 ,hellenistic ,prime of ,impressionism painting modes ,spanish- from 7veristic1 ,sicilian art ,constable to bizarre1 ,leibl and subjective7 ,manet ,architectural ,samarra ,american display in the architecture cities of the ,diadochi #b4 ,end of form-development4 ,meaningless1 empty1 artificial1 pretentious architecture and ornament4 ,imitation of archaic and exotic motives ,,xviii ,dynasty ,roman ,period ,seljuks 7from ,from #bjjj 7#aehj-acej7 7#ajj-j-ajj7 #ajej7 ,rock temple of ,indiscriminate 8,oriental ,dehr-el-,bahri4 piling of all ,art0 of the ,memnon- three orders4 ,crusade ,colossi4 ,art ,fora1 theatres period of ,cnossos and 7,colosseum74 ,amarna ,triumphal arches #c4 ,finale4 ,formation of a fixed stock of forms4 ,imperial display by means of material and mass4 ,provincial craft-art ,,xix ,dynasty ,trajan to ,mongol ,period ,from #bjjj 7#acej-abje7 ,aurelian 7from #abej7 ,gigantic ,gigantic fora1 ,gigantic buildings of therm1 buildings ,luxor1 ,karnak colonnades1 7e4g4 in and ,abydos4 triumphal ,india7 arches ,small-art 7beast,roman provincial ,oriental craft- plastic1 art 7ceramic1 art textiles1 statuary1 arms7 7rugs1arms1 arms7 implements7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,table ,,iii4 8,,contemporary0 ,,political ,,epochs ,,egyptian ,,classical ,,chinese ,,western ,,pre-,,cultural ,,period4 ,,primitive ,,folk4 ,,tribes ,,and ,,their ,,chiefs4 ,,as ,,yet ,,no 8,,politics0 ,,and ,,no 8,,state0 ,thinite ,period ,mycenean ,age ,shang ,period ,frankish ,period 7,menes7 78,agamemnon07 7,charlemagne7 #cdjj-cjjj #afjj-aajj 7#agjj-acjj7 7#ejj-ijj7 ,,culture4 ,,national ,,groups ,,of ,,definite ,,style ,,and ,,particular ,,world-,,feeling4 8,,nations40 ,,working ,,of ,,an ,,immanent ,,state-,,idea ,i4 ,,early ,,period4 ,organic articulation of political existence4 ,the two prime classes 7noble and priest74 ,feudal economics2 purely agrarian values #a4 ,feudalism4 ,,old ,,kingdom ,,doric ,,period ,,early ,,chou ,,gothic ,,period ,spirit of country- 7#bijj-bdjj7 7#aajj-fej7 ,,period 7#ijj-aejj7 side and country- ,feudal conditions,the ,homeric 7#acjj-hjj7 ,roman-,german man4 ,the 8,city0 of ,,iv ,dynasty king ,the central ,imperial per- only a market or ,increasing power 7,wang7 iod stronghold4 ,chiv- of feudatories ,rise of the pressed ,crusading nob- alric-religious and priest- nobility hard by the ility ideals4 ,struggles hoods 7,ithaca4 ,et- feudal nob- ,empire and of ideals4 ,strug- ,the ,pharaoh as ruria1 ,sparta7 ility ,papacy gles of vassals incarnation of amongst them- ,ra selves and a- gainst overlord #b4 ,crisis and ,,vi ,dynasty4 ,aristocratic #icd-ijd4 ,i-,wang ,territorial dissolution of ,break-up of the synoecism and the vassals princes patriarchal forms ,kingdom into ,dissolution of ,renaissance ,from feudalism to heritable kinship into #hdb4 towns4 aristocratic ,state principalities4 annual offices ,interregnum ,lancaster and ,,vii and ,,viii ,oligarchy ,york ,dynasties1 #abed interregnum ,interregnum ,,ii4 ,,late ,,period4 ,actualizing of the matured ,state-idea4 ,town versus countryside4 ,rise of ,third ,estate 7,bourgeoisie74 ,victory of money over landed property #c4 ,fashioning of a,,middle ,,kingdom ,,ionic ,,period ,,late ,,chou ,,period ,,baroque ,,period world of ,states of 7#baej-ahjj7 7#fej-cjj7 7#hjj-ejj7 7#aejj-ahjj7 strict form4 ,x,ith ,dynasty4 #fth ,century4 ,period of the ,dynastic ,frondes ,overthrow of ,first 8,protectors0 family power1 the baronage by ,tyrannis4 7,ming-,chu #fhe- ,fronde the rulers of 7,cleisthenes1 #eia7 and the 7,richelieu1 ,thebes4 ,periander1 rulers of ,wallenstein1 ,centralized ,polycrates1 ,thebes4 ,cromwell7 bureaucracy- the ,tarquins47 congresses of about #afcj4 state ,the ,city- princes 7-#dfj7 ,state4 #d4 ,climax of ,x,i,ith ,dynasty ,the pure ,polis ,chun-,chiu per- ,ancien ,rgime4 the ,state-form 7#bjjj-aghh7 7absolutism of iod 78,spring0 ,rococo4 78,absolutism07 ,strictest cent- the ,demos74 and 8,autumn071 ,court nobility ,unity of town and ralization of ,agora politics #eij-dhj of ,versailles4 8,society40 ,the power ,rise of the ,seven powers ,cabinet poli- 8three estates07 ,court and fin- tribunate ,perfection of tics ance nobility ,themistocles1 social forms ,habsburg and ,pericles 7,li7 ,bourbon4 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,frederick the ,great #e4 ,break-up of #aghh-afhj4 ,rev- #dth ,century4 #dhj4 ,beginning ,end of ,,xviii the ,state-form olution and ,social revol- of the ,chan- ,century4 ,rev- 7,revolution and military govern- ution and ,sec- ,kwo period olution in ,ame- ,napoleonism74 ment4 ,decay of ond ,tyrannis ica and ,france ,victory of the the realm4 ,small 7,dionysius ,i1 7,washington1 city over the potentates1 in ,jason of ,phe- #dda4 ,fall of ,fox1 ,mira- countryside 7of some cases rae1 ,appius the ,chou dyn- beau1 ,robes- the 8people0 sprung from the ,claudius the asty pierre7 over the priv- people ,censor7 ,revolutions and ileged1 of the annihilation- ,napoleon intelligentsia ,alexander wars over tradition1 of money over policy7 ,,civilization4 ,,the ,,body ,,of ,,the ,,people1 ,,now ,,essentially ,,urban ,,in ,,constitution1 ,,dissolves ,,into ,,formless ,,mass4 ,,megalopolis ,,and ,,provinces4 ,,the ,,fourth ,,estate 78,,masses071 ,,inorganic1 ,,cosmopolitan #a4 ,domination of #afhj 7#aghh7 #cjj-ajj4 ,politi-#dhj-bcj4 ,period #ahjj-bjjj4 ,x,i,xth ,money 78,democracy07 -#aehj4 ,hyksos cal ,hellenism4 of the 8,contend- ,century4 ,from ,economic powers period4 ,deepest ,from ,alexander ing ,states0 ,napoleon to the permeating the pol- decline4,dicta- to ,hannibal and#bhh4 ,the ,imperial ,world-,war4 itical forms and tures of alien ,scipio royal title 8,system of the authorities generals 7,chian7 all-power2 from,the imperialist ,great ,powers10 ,after #afjj ,cleomenes ,,iii statesmen of standing arm- definitive and ,c4 ,flamin- ,tsin ies1 constit- victory of the ius 7#bbj7 to ,from #bhi incorp- utions4 ,x,xth- rulers of ,c4 ,marius1 rad- oration of the ,century trans- ,thebes ical demagogues last states in ition from the ,empire constitutional to informal sway of indivi- duals4 ,annihi- lation wars4,imperialism ,imperialism #b4 ,formation of #aehj-acej4 #ajj-j-ajj4 ,sulla ,csarism4 ,victory ,x,v,i,i,ith ,dynasty to ,domitian #bej-j-bf4 ,house of force-politics of ,wang-,cheng over money4 ,in- and ,western ,han #ajjj-abjj creasing primitive- ,dynasty ness of political ,thuthmosis ,,iii ,csar1 ,tiberius #bba4 ,augustus forms4 ,inward de- -title 7,shi7 cline of the nat- of ,emperor ions into a form- ,hwang-,ti less population1 #adj-hj4 ,wu-ti and constitution thereof as an ,imp- erium of gradually- increasing crudity of despotism #c4 ,maturing of the#acej-abje4 ,x,i,xth #ajj-cjj4 ,trajan #be-bbj ,a4,d4 final form4 ,private,dynasty to ,aurelian ,eastern ,han after #abjj and family policies ,dynasty of individual ,sethos ,i ,trajan1 ,septi- #eh-ga4 ,ming-ti leaders4 ,the world mius ,severus as spoil4 ,egyptic- ism1 ,mandarinism1 ,rameses ,,ii ,byzantinism4 ,his- tory less stiffen- ing and enfeeble- ment even of the imperial machin- ery1 against young peoples eager for spoil1 or alien conquerors4 ,primi- tive human condi- tions slowly thrust up into the highly-civilized mode of living ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note ,the use of an extra #8,s' in the name of #8,hagia ,s ,sophia' on p4 #bjj is questionable4 ,if it is an abbreviation of #8,saint' as it is a line early1 it is redundant here given the word #8,hagia'1 meaning the same thing4 ,on p4 #djg1 footnotes #ejh and #eji refer to the same work1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer4 ,however the citation of the first note is garbled1 as ,kult4 und4 ,relig4 d4 ,rmer4 ,in the ,index1 a reference to the effect on natural science of the ,relativity ,theory was corrupted as #8#ai2d'4 ,the proper page is p4 #dai1 and the reference is corrected4 ,the page reference to a note on ,goethe and ,materialism should have been to p4 #aaa1 not p4 #baa4 ,the page references in footnote #dhf most likely refer to ,volume ,,ii1 since the two pages mentioned contain no pertinent material4 ,there are a number of index entries which refer to footnotes on a given page while the topics appear in the main text4 ,this would seem to indicate that the preparation of the ,index was not reviewed after the final version of the text was complete4 ,these references have been amended to direct the reader to the correct page3 ,intercultural ,contemporaneity 7multiple times7 7p4 #aab71 ,frescos 7p4 #bbe71 ,tasso 7p4 #cbe71 ,the reference to ,saint ,john and world-history as a note on p4 #ah seems incorrect4 ,footnote #ac on that page refers to the ,apostle ,paul4 ,the reference is left unlinked4 ,on p4 vi of the ,index1 a cross-referenced #8,motherland' topic is missing4 ,minor punctuation lapses in the ,index have been corrected without further notice4 ,other errors deemed most likely to be the printer's have been corrected1 and are noted here4 ,the references are to the page and line in the original4 xvii4#ah ,geometry and arithemetic ,removed4 #h4d lead to a naturalistic1 ,chronology ,removed4 #h4bg there is certaintly no world-history ,removed4 #ab4bi unparallelled in art-history ,removed4 #be4ai all these arbitrary and narrow schemes ,inserted4 #bf4ci occurring fu_/or us ,replaced4 #cg4bj and theori_/etically ,replaced4 #fb4db de soudainet et de certitude absolue ,added4 #hb4cj ,the ,greek me_/athematicians ,replaced4 #abf4ce approached these questions ,added4 #abh4ah a glad materialization of the spiritual4 ,inserted4 #abi4ci _/ _/ _/ ,replaced4 4 #abi4da 444 _/ ' ,replaced4 #acc4dc 7 u_/o _/ _/ ,replaced4 7 #acd4cf 8,handbook of ,early ,christian ,antiquities704 ,added4 #acd4dc 8,handbook of ,may on ,antiquities40 ,added4 #aej4da was thoroughly ,english in spirit ,inserted4 #aia4bb 7mitschwingen in_/m ,lebenstakte7 ,replaced4 #bjj4af ,hagia ,s ,sophia in ,constantinople ,removed4 #bab4cj ,here there was no brilliant instant ,inserted4 #bac4db ,ency4 ,brit41 ,,xi ,ed47 ,added4 #bbg4bh to the harpis_/sichord ,transposed4 #bfi4bd absorbed philosopher ,inserted4 #bfi4ch important and significant ,inserted4 #bgj4cd compare his unbridled dynamism ,inserted4 #bga4dc ,oldach1 ,wasmann1 ,rayski and many another ,inserted4 #bgg4ah he shattereed the canon ,removed4 #bhh4ci it is so thoroughly irreligious ,inserted4 #bij4ca something of ,rembrandt's pro_/ortraiture ,transposed4 #bii4f ,every professed philosopher ,inserted4 #cjb4bg the essens_/ce of the soul ,replaced4 #cjg4af of our ,nature-picture4 ,added4 #cjg4dj ,gess_/ch4 d4 neueren ,philosophie ,replaced4 #cac4db ,inserted4 #cah4f _/ _/ 4 ,replaced4 #ccj4be that would not in_/mpugn the primacy ,replaced4 #ccc4dc quite independently of gunpowder ,inserted4 #cee4h oppressive actualitites ,removed4 #cfj4ah spiritual prostitution ,inserted4 #cfc4ca what should be destroyed ,inserted4 #cgc4cj der politischen ,o_/konomie ,replaced4 #djj4cf ,mov_/reover1 it is only ,replaced4 #daj4b in its attitude torwards toleration ,removed4 a4iii4#bj ,see ,bartholommeo ,removed4 a4v4#da ,calculus1 and ,classical astromon_/nomy ,transposed4 a4vi4#ag ancestoral worship ,removed4 a4xii4#cc ,western mathematic and term ,inserted4 a4xiii4#dg wids_/sdom and intellect ,transposed4 a4xxv4#de intellect and wids_/sdom ,transposed4 a4xxviii4#ch ,tartini1 ,gui_/iuseppe ,transposed4 a4xxix4#db #8_/8space of time0 ,replaced4 a4xxxi4#aa ,wey den1 ,rogier van der4 ,removed4 t#c4bj dissolution of ,inserted4