,illustration3 ,,the ,,crew ,,of ,,the 8,,hansa0 ,,dragging ,,their ,,boats ,,across ,,the ,,ice4 ,see page #beg4 ,,the ,,arctic ,,world3 ,,its ,,plants1 ,,animals1 ,,and ,,natural ,,phenomena4 ,with a ,historical ,sketch of ,arctic ,discovery1 ,,down ,,to ,,the ,,british ,,polar ,,expedition3 #ahge-gf4 ,illustration3 8,here let the billows stiffen1 and have rest40--,,coleridge4 ,,london3 ,t4 ,,nelson ,,and ,,sons1 ,,paternoster ,,row2 ,,edinburgh2 ,,and ,,new ,,york4 ,,preface4 ,englishmen have always felt a special interest in the regions of the icy ,north1 from the days when ,dr4 ,thorne first proposed the search after a passage to the ,pole1 down to these present times1 when the ,expedition under ,captains ,nares and ,stephenson has shown that such a passage is virtually impracticable4 ,the interest originally kindled by commercial considerations has been maintained by purer and loftier motives1--by the thirst after knowledge1 and the sympathy with the brave deeds of brave men4 ,and it must be admitted that our national virtues of resolute perseverance and patient courage have never been more happily displayed than in the prosecution of the great work of ,arctic ,discovery4 ,our explorers have refused to know when they were beaten2 and in defiance of a terrible climate1 of icebergs and ice-floes1 of hurricanes and driving snow-storms1 of obstacles1 dangers1 and difficulties1 have pressed onward1 until the latest adventurers have crossed the ,threshold of the ,unknown ,region1 and confronted the immense plain of ice that extends for four hundred miles from the ,pole4 ,their labours1 indeed1 have been attended by the shadows of melancholy disasters1 and the long ,arctic night closes over the graves of many whom ,england was loath to lose2 but in their successful issue they have brought us acquainted with the phenomena of a strange and wonderful world1 and opened up to us a succession of scenes of the most remarkable character4 ,there can be no question that in the frozen wastes and snowy wildernesses lurks a powerful fascination1 which proves almost irresistible to the adventurous spirit4 ,he who has once entered the ,arctic ,world1 however great his sufferings1 is restless until he returns to it4 ,whether the spell lies in the weird magnificence of the scenery1 in the splendours of the heavens1 in the mystery which still hovers over those far-off seas of ice and remote bays1 or in the excitement of a continual struggle with the forces of ,nature1 or whether all these influences are at work1 we cannot stop to inquire4 ,but it seems to us certain that the ,arctic ,world has a romance and an attraction about it1 which are far more powerful over the minds of men than the rich glowing lands of the ,tropics1 or the 8,summer-isles of ,eden lying in dark-purple spheres of sea10 which are crowned with the bread-fruit and the palm1 the spontaneous gifts of a liberal soil4 ,we follow with far deeper interest the footprints of a ,parry and a ,franklin than those of a ,wallis1 a ,carteret1 or even a ,cook4 ,the general reader1 therefore1 may not be displeased at the attempt of the present writer to put before him1 with bold touches1 and in outline rather than in detail1 a picture of that ,polar ,world which is so awful and yet so fascinating4 ,in the following pages he will find its principal features sketched1 its chief characters legibly and clearly traced4 ,they are not intended for the scientific1--though it is hoped the scientific1 if they fall in with them1 will find no ground for censure4 ,they aim at describing the wonders of sky and sea and land2 the glories of the aurora2 the beauty of the starry ,arctic night2 the majesty of iceberg and glacier2 the rugged dreariness of the hummocky fields of ice2 the habits of the ,polar bear1 the seal1 and the walrus2 and the manners and customs of the various tribes which frequent the shores of the ,polar seas and straits1 or dwell on the border-land of the ,frigid ,zone4 ,in a word1 it has been the writer's object to bring together just such particulars as might enable the intelligent reader to realize to himself the true character of the world which extends around the ,north ,pole4 ,in carrying out this object1 he has necessarily had recourse to the voyages of numerous explorers and the narratives of sundry scientific authorities2 and he believes that not a statement has been ventured which could not claim their support4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,various routes between the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans described--,advantages of a ,north-,west ,passage1 if practicable--,what is to be gained from further ,arctic exploration--,what zoology would gain--,the problem of the migration of birds--,about the ,knots--,boundaries of the ,north ,polar ,regions--,their principal geographical features--,divisions into two zones1 or sections--,the stony tundras--,the flora of the ,north--,the ,siberian desert--,limits of perpetual snow--,general character of life in the ,polar ,world #i-ba ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,an imaginary voyage--,view of the ,greenland coast--,a splendid picture of land and sea--,the winter night and its atmospheric phenomena--,the aurora borealis described--,its peculiarities and possible causes--,winds and whirlwinds--,phenomena of refraction--,the 8ice-blink0--,characteristics of the ,arctic night--,described by ,dr4 ,kane--,remarkable atmospheric conditions--,effect of prolonged darkness on animal life--,characteristics of the ,arctic spring--,a spring landscape described by ,dr4 ,hayes--,summer in the ,north--,the ,northern heavens and the ,pole-,star--,list of ,northern constellations--,the ,great ,bear--,some conspicuous stars #bb-dj ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,polar seas--,formation of icebergs--,their dimensions and appearance--,description of colossal bergs--,their danger to navigation--,adventures with bergs--,quotations from various writers--,dissolution of an iceberg--,icebergs in ,melville ,bay--,how icebergs are formed--,reference to icebergs in the ,alpine lakes--,professor ,tyndall quoted--,breaking up of a berg described by ,dr4 ,hayes--,a vision of icebergs--,their range--,the 8pack-ice0 described--,extent of the ice-fields--8,taking the pack0--,an incident described by ,admiral ,beechey--,dangerous position of ,captain ,parry's ships--,character of an ice-field--,crossing an ice-field--,its extraordinary dimensions--,animal life in the ,polar seas--,walrus-hunting--,quotation from ,mr4 ,lamont--,a disagreeable process--,natural history of the walrus--,the walrus and the ,polar bear--,historical sketch of the walrus-fishery--,adventure with walruses--,a walrus-hunt described--,hunting in an ,arctic gale--,the ,phocid family--,natural history of the seal--,different genera--,seal's flesh1 and its uses--,an incident in ,dr4 ,kane's expedition--,an ,eskimo hut--,an ,eskimo seal-hunter--,the whale1 and all about it--,the ,greenland whale--,what is whalebone8--,food of the whale--,the ,northern rorqual--,eskimo whale-fishers--,about the narwhal--,the black dolphin--,the orc1 or grampus--,the ,polar bear--,bears and seals--,particulars of the habits of the ,polar bear--,his voracity--,affection of the bear for her young--,an episode described--,battle with a bear--,the bear and the ,eskimo dogs--,the ,arctic night--,its various phases--,coming of the sun--,return of the birds--,guillemots and auks--,about the puffins--,the mergansers--,the smew1 or white nun--,the eider duck described--,eider ducks in ,iceland--,collecting eider down--,the wild swan--,fables about its death-song--,the ,arctic waters1 and their teeming life--,migrations of fish #da-ajg ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the formation of snow described--,snow-crystals--,effects of the crystallizing force--,ice-flowers--,sir ,david ,brewster's experiment with polarised light--,regelation and moulding of ice--,characteristics of glacier-ice--,cleavage in compact ice--,the aspect of glaciers--,on the motion of glaciers--,history of its discovery--,moraines described--,theory of glacier-motion--,quotation from ,professor ,tyndall--,glaciers of the ,polar ,regions--,glacier in ,bell ,sound--,formation of icebergs--,icebergs in ,baffin ,bay--,glacier described by ,dr4 ,hayes--,the ,greenland ,mer de ,glace--,glacier of ,sermiatsialik--,the great ,humboldt ,glacier--,discovered by ,dr4 ,kane--,description of its features--,kane's theory of icebergs--,notes on the glacier #ajh-acd ,,chapter ,v4 ,red snow1 what is it8--,first forms of vegetable life--,the lichens1 their variety--,reindeer moss--,rock-hair--,rock tripe1 or tripe de roche--,used as food--,iceland moss and its properties--,the mosses of the ,arctic ,regions--,scurvy-grass--,the fly-agaric--,microscopic vegetation--,a memorial of ,franklin--,phnogamous plants of the ,north--,cryptogamous plants--,vegetation in ,novaia ,zemlaia--,in ,spitzbergen--,in ,kamtschatka--,the ,fritallaria sarrana--,the wooded and desert zones--,forms of animal life--,natural history of the reindeer--,his usefulness--,his food--,reindeer and wolves--,cunning of the ,arctic wolf--,domesticity of the wolf--,the musk-ox described--,captain ,m',clintock quoted--,the ,arctic fox--,his wariness--,a fox-trap--,the bear and the fox--,the ,arctic hare--,the ,alpine hare--,the ,hudson ,bay lemming--,the ,mustelid family--,the marten--,the sable--,the polecat--,about the glutton1 or wolverine--anecdotes of his extraordinary sagacity--,a great enemy to the trapper--,the biter bit--,arctic birds--,the falcons--,the crows--,distribution of animals #ace-afa ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,iceland1 its extent--,its history--,its volcanoes--,hekla and its eruptions--,eruption of the ,skapt ,jokul--,the geysers1 or boiling springs--,their phenomena described--,account of the ,strokr--,coasts and valleys of ,iceland--,the ,thingvalla--,description of ,reikiavik1 the capital--,character of the ,icelander--,his haymaking operations--,his dwelling described--,an ,icelandic church--,icelandic clergy--,travelling in ,iceland--,its inconveniences--,fording the streams--,fishing in ,iceland #afb-agd ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,the land of the ,eskimos--,range of the so-called ,arctic ,highlanders--,danish settlements in ,greenland--,upernavik described--,jacobshav'n--,godhav'n--,the ir ,eskimo inhabitants--,the ,moravian ,missions--,characteristics of the nomadic ,eskimos--,their physical qualities--,their mode of dress--,an ,eskimo hut--,the ,eskimo kayak1 or canoe--,their weapons and implements--,hostility between the ,eskimos and ,red ,indians--,eskimo settlement at ,anatoak--,eskimo singing--,food of the ,eskimos--,dr4 ,hayes' intercourse with the ,eskimos--,the story of ,hans the ,hunter--,the ,eskimo dogs--,anecdote of ,toodla--,the ,eskimo sledge--,equipment of the sledge--,equipment of an ,eskimo hunter--,general character of the ,eskimos #age-aif ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,lapland1 its divisions1 extent1 and boundaries--,its climate--,its inhabitants--,their physical characteristics--,dress of the ,lapps--,their superstitions--,the ,mountain ,lapps--,their migratory habits--,their tuguria1 or huts1 described--,milking the reindeer--,sledging and skating--,a ,lapp's skates--,a ,lapp's sledge--,the ,lapp hunters--,encounter with a bear--,intemperance of the ,mountain ,lapps--,the ,forest ,lapps--,interior economy of a ,lapland hut--,lapps at ,bjorkholm--,racial characteristics of the ,lapps--,habits and manners of the ,lapps--,the ,lapp dialect--,the ,lapps and the ,qunes--,the stationary ,lapps1 and their grds #aig-bjg ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,samojedes--,their degrading superstitions--,samojede idol at ,waigatz--,the ,tadebtsios1 or spirits--,influence of the ,tadibe1 or sorcerer--,his mode of incantation--,customs of the ,samojedes--,the ,ostiaks--,their ,schatans and ,schamans--,residence of the ,ostiaks--,hunting the white bear--,kamtschatka described--,its inhabitants--,their physical peculiarities--,the dog of ,kamtschatka--,his qualities--,his usefulness--,how he is trained--,siberia and its tribes--,the ,jakuts--,their jarts1 or huts--,their hardy horses--,the character of the ,jakuts--,jakut travellers--,jakut merchants and their caravans--,dreariness of the country they inhabit--,hunting the reindeer--,at ,kolymsk--,the ,tungusi--,his mode of travelling--,his food--,the ,tchuktche1 and their land--,their activity as traders--,tobacco1 a staple of commerce--,visit to a ,tchuktche family--,the ,tenngyk and the ,oukilon #bjh-bba ,,chapter ,x4 ,history of ,discovery in the ,arctic ,regions--,expeditions of ,thorne and ,hore--,of ,sir ,hugh ,willoughby--,martin ,frobisher and his adventures--,discoveries of ,davis--,hudson1 his discovery of ,hudson ,bay1 ,jan ,mayen1 and ,cape ,wolstenholm--,his fate--,baffin's voyages--,highway to the ,north ,pole--,expedition of ,ross and ,parry--,parry's second expedition--,loss of the ,fury--,overland journeys--,franklin's last expedition--,the search after ,franklin--,discovery of relics--,captain ,penny's expedition--,sir ,robert ,m',clure's discovery of the ,north-,west ,passage--,voyage of ,m',clintock--,lieutenant ,hobson's discoveries--,dr4 ,kane's expedition--,explores ,smith ,sound--,discovers the ,humboldt ,glacier and ,kennedy ,channel--,wintering in the ,arctic ,regions--,dr4 ,hayes' expedition--,voyage of the ,germania and the ,hansa--,loss of the latter--,escape of the crew on an ice-raft--,arrival at ,greenland--,adventures of the ,germania--,barents and ,carlsen--,austrian expedition under ,payer--,voyage of the ,polaris--,death of ,hall--,tyson's voyage on an ice-raft--,rescued by the ,tigress--,captain ,buddington abandons the ,polaris--,his winter quarters--,boat voyage--,safe arrival--,british expedition of #ahge-gf--;,departure of the ,alert and ,discovery--,narrative of the expedition--,winter amusements--,the sledging-parties--,important discoveries--,no road to the ,pole--,return home--,cruise of the ,pandora #bbb-ccg ,illustration3 ,,north ,,polar ,,regions ,list of ,illustrations4 #a4 ,,the ,,crew ,,of ,,the 8,,hansa0 ,,dragging ,,their ,,boats ,,across ,,the ,,ice 7,,frontispiece74 #b4 ,a ,,desert ,,of ,,ice ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,region1 #ac #c4 ,,the ,,swamps ,,of ,,the ,,obi1 #af #d4 ,,in ,,the ,,forest ,,zone ,,of ,,the ,,north 7,,full-,,page71 #ag #e4 ,,the ,,midnight ,,sun 7,,full-,,page71 #bc #f4 ,,off ,,the ,,coast ,,of ,,greenland1 #be #g4 ,,moonlight ,,in ,,the ,,polar ,,world1 #bf #h4 ,,the ,,aurora ,,borealis1 #bh #i4 ,,the ,,aurora ,,borealis--,,the ,,corona1 #bi #aj4 ,,atmospheric ,,phenomena ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,regions3--,,reflection ,,of ,,icebergs1 #cb #aa4 ,,advent ,,of ,,spring ,,in ,,the ,,polar ,,regions1 #ce #ab4 ,,ursa ,,major ,,and ,,ursa ,,minor1 #cf #ac4 ,,nebula ,,in ,,andromeda1 #ci #ad4 ,,arched ,,iceberg ,,off ,,the ,,greenland ,,coast1 #db #ae4 ,,among ,,the ,,bergs--,a ,,narrow ,,escape1 #dc #af4 ,,iceberg ,,and ,,ice-,,field1 ,,melville ,,bay1 ,,greenland1 #de #ag4 ,,origin ,,of ,,icebergs--,,extension ,,of ,a ,,glacier ,,seawards1 #dg #ah4 ,,the ,,aletsch ,,glacier1 ,,switzerland1 ,,from ,,the ,,ggischhorn1 ,,showing ,,its ,,moraines1 #dh #ai4 ,,the ,,marjelen ,,sea1 ,,switzerland1 #dh #bj4 ,,fall ,,of ,,an ,,iceberg 7,,full-,,page71 #ea #ba4 ,,in ,,an ,,ice-,,pack1 ,,melville ,,bay1 #ec #bb4 ,,channel ,,in ,,an ,,ice-,,field1 #ed #bc4 8,,nipped0 ,,in ,,an ,,ice-,,field1 #ed #bd4 ,,among ,,the ,,ice-,,hummocks 7,,full-,,page71 #eg #be4 ,,hunting ,,the ,,walrus1 #fa #bf4 ,,the ,,walrus1 ,,or ,,morse1 #fc #bg4 ,a ,,walrus ,,family1 #fd #bh4 ,,fight ,,between ,a ,,walrus ,,and ,a ,,polar ,,bear1 #fd #bi4 ,,boat ,,attacked ,,by ,a ,,walrus 7,,full-,,page71 #fe #cj4 ,,fight ,,with ,a ,,walrus1 #fh #ca4 ,,herd ,,of ,,seals1 ,,near ,,the ,,devil',s ,,thumb1 ,,baffin ,,sea1 ,,greenland1 #ga #cb4 ,,the ,,common ,,seal1 #gc #cc4 ,,shooting ,a ,,seal1 #gd #cd4 ,,the ,,otary1 #ge #ce4 ,,the ,,hooded ,,seal1 #gf #cf4 ,,an ,,eskimo ,,seal-,,hunter1 #gg #cg4 ,,the ,,greenland ,,whale1 #gi #ch4 ,,narwhals1 ,,male ,,and ,,female1 #hb #ci4 ,a ,,shoal ,,of ,,dolphins1 #hc #dj4 ,,polar ,,bears1 #hd #da4 ,,bear ,,catching ,a ,,seal1 #hf #db4 ,,bears ,,destroying ,a ,,cache1 #hh #dc4 ,,fight ,,with ,a ,,white ,,bear 7,,full-,,page71 #hi #dd4 ,,stalking ,a ,,bear1 #id #de4 ,,sea-,,birds ,,in ,,the ,,polar ,,regions1 #ig #df4 ,,the ,,great ,,auk--,,razor-,,bills--,,the ,,puffin1 #ih #dg4 ,,puffins1 #ii #dh4 ,,the ,,goosander1 #ajj #di4 ,a ,,bird 8,,bazaar0 ,,in ,,novaia ,,zemlaia 7,,full-,,page71 #aja #ej4 ,,the ,,black-,,backed ,,gull1 #ajc #ea4 ,,the ,,eider-,,duck1 #ajc #eb4 ,,the ,,haunt ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,swan1 #aje #ec4 ,,various ,,forms ,,of ,,snow-,,crystals1 #aji #ed4 ,,exhibition ,,of ,,ice-,,flowers ,,by ,,projection1 #aaj #ee4 ,,ice-,,flowers1 #aaj #ef4 ,,moulding ,,ice1 #aab #eg4 ,a ,,polar ,,glacier1 #aah #eh4 ,,glacier1 ,,english ,,bay1 ,,spitzbergen1 #aai #ei4 ,,glacier1 ,,bell ,,sound1 ,,spitzbergen1 #abj #fj4 ,,steamer 8,,charging0 ,,an ,,iceberg1 ,,upernavik1 ,,greenland 7,,full-,,page71 #aba #fa4 ,,forcing ,a ,,passage ,,through ,,the ,,ice 7,,full-,,page71 #abe #fb4 ,,the ,,glacier ,,of ,,sermiatsialik1 ,,greenland 7,,full-,,page71 #abi #fc4 ,,protococcus ,,nivalis1 #acf #fd4 ,,wild ,,reindeer1 #ade #fe4 ,,the ,,musk-,,ox1 #aej #ff4 ,,arctic ,,foxes1 #aeb #fg4 ,a ,,fox-,,trap1 #aec #fh4 ,,the ,,ermine1 ,,or ,,sable ,,marten1 #aef #fi4 ,,the ,,glutton1 ,,or ,,wolverine1 #aeg #gj4 ,,ptarmigan1 #afj #ga4 ,,an ,,icelandic ,,landscape1 #afc #gb4 ,,mount ,,hekla1 ,,from ,,the ,,valley ,,of ,,hevita1 #afd #gc4 ,,the ,,great ,,geyser1 #aff #gd4 ,,harbour ,,of ,,reikiavik1 #afi #ge4 ,,icelanders ,,fishing ,,for ,,narwhal1 #agd #gf4 ,,upernavik1 ,,greenland1 #agf #gg4 ,,disko ,,island1 ,,greenland1 #agg #gh4 ,,godhav',n1 ,,disko ,,island1 ,,greenland1 #agg #gi4 ,,danish ,,settlement ,,of ,,jacobshav',n1 ,,greenland1 #agh #hj4 ,,building ,,an ,,eskimo ,,hut1 #aha #ha4 ,,the ,,eskimo ,,kayak1 #ahb #hb4 ,,the ,,eskimo ,,oomiak1 #ahc #hc4 ,,dr4 ,,hayes ,,falls ,,in ,,with ,,hans ,,the ,,hunter 7,,full-,,page71 #ahg #hd4 ,,eskimo ,,dogs1 #aia #he4 ,,eskimo ,,sledge ,,and ,,team 7,,full-,,page71 #aic #hf4 ,,reindeer ,,in ,,lapland1 #bjj #hg4 ,,travelling ,,in ,,lapland1 #bja #hh4 ,,fisher ,,lapps1 #bjc #hi4 ,,samojede ,,huts ,,on ,,waigatz ,,island1 #bji #ij4 ,a ,,samojede ,,family1 #baj #ia4 ,,jakut ,,hunter ,,and ,,bear1 #bab #ib4 ,,kamtschatkans1 #bac #ic4 ,a ,,kamtschatkan ,,sledge ,,and ,,team1 #bae #id4 ,,the ,,loss ,,of ,,the 8,,squirrel10 #bbd #ie4 ,,ship ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century1 #bbe #if4 ,,scenery ,,of ,,jan ,,mayen1 #bbf #ig4 ,,the 8,,hecla0 ,,and 8,,fury0 ,,wintering ,,at ,,winter ,,island1 #bbi #ih4 ,,the 8,,fury0 ,,abandoned ,,by ,,parry1 #bcj #ii4 ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,cairn ,,containing ,,sir ,,john ,,franklin',s ,,papers1 #bce #ajj4 ,,relics ,,of ,,the ,,franklin ,,expedition ,,brought ,,back ,,to ,,england1 #bce #aja4 ,,discovery ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,boats ,,of ,,the ,,franklin ,,expedition1 #bcf #ajb4 ,,the 8,,three ,,brother ,,turrets10 #bch #ajc4 ,,morton ,,on ,,the ,,shore ,,of ,,the ,,supposed ,,polar ,,ocean1 #bdj #ajd4 ,,dr4 ,,kane ,,paying ,a ,,visit ,,to ,,an ,,eskimo ,,hut ,,at ,,etah1 #bda #aje4 ,,trying ,,to ,,lasso ,a ,,bear 7,,full-,,page71 #bdg #ajf4 ,,the ,,midnight ,,sun1 ,,greenland1 #bdi #ajg4 ,a ,,bear ,,at ,,anchor1 #bdi #ajh4 ,,skating--,,off ,,the ,,coast ,,of ,,greenland1 #bej #aji4 ,,snow ,,linnets ,,and ,,buntings ,,visiting ,,the ,,crew ,,of ,,the 8,,hansa10 #bed #aaj4 ,,the ,,crew ,,of ,,the 8,,hansa0 ,,bivouacking ,,on ,,the ,,ice 7,,full-,,page71 #bee #aaa4 ,a ,,rash ,,intruder1 #bei #aab4 ,,bear-,,hunting1 ,,greenland1 #bfj #aac4 8,,into ,a ,,water-,,gap10 #bfa #aad4 ,,the ,,crew ,,of ,,the 8,,germania0 ,,in ,a ,,snow-,,storm 7,,full-,,page71 #bfc #aae4 ,,materials ,,for ,,the ,,house1 #bff #aaf4 ,,attack ,,on ,a ,,bear1 #bfg #aag4 ,,setting ,,fox-,,traps1 #bfh #aah4 ,,relieved1 #bfi #aai4 ,,funeral ,,of ,,captain ,,hall 7,,full-,,page71 #bgc #abj4 ,,an ,,arctic ,,snow-,,storm1 #bgf #aba4 ,,the ,,castaways ,,on ,,the ,,ice 7,,full-,,page71 #bgi #abb4 ,,adrift ,,on ,,the ,,ice-,,floe1 #bha #abc4 ,,recovery ,,of ,,the ,,boat ,,by ,,captain ,,tyson1 #bhb #abd4 ,,igloes ,,constructed ,,by ,,the ,,castaways1 #bhc #abe4 ,,hans ,,mistaken ,,for ,a ,,bear1 #bhd #abf4 ,,difficult ,,travelling 7,,full-,,page71 #bhe #abg4 ,,the ,,guiding ,,light1 #bhg #abh4 ,,dragging ,a ,,seal1 #bhh #abi4 ,,return ,,of ,,the ,,sun 7,,full-,,page71 #bhi #acj4 ,,shooting ,,narwhal1 #bia #aca4 ,,dragging ,,the ,,oogjook1 #bib #acb4 ,,sunlight ,,effect ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,region 7,,full-,,page71 #bic #acc4 ,,first ,,sight ,,of ,a ,,whale1 #bie #acd4 ,,face ,,to ,,face ,,with ,a ,,polar ,,bear1 #bif #ace4 ,,an ,,arctic ,,ice-,,scape 7,,full-,,page71 #big #acf4 ,,on ,,board ,,the ,,boat1 #bii #acg4 ,,breaking ,,up ,,of ,,the ,,ice1 #cjj #ach4 ,,joe ,,captures ,a ,,seal1 #cjj #aci4 ,a ,,night ,,of ,,fear 7,,full-,,page71 #cja #adj4 ,a 8,,hell ,,of ,,waters10 #cjc #ada4 ,,dragging ,,the ,,boat ,,on ,,to ,a ,,floe1 #cjd #adb4 ,,clinging ,,to ,,the ,,boat 7,,full-,,page71 #cje #adc4 ,,saved6 7,,full-,,page71 #cji ,,the ,,arctic ,,world4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,north ,,pole--,,threshold ,,of ,,the ,,unknown ,,world--,,the ,,circumpolar ,,regions--,,the ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,north--,,life ,,in ,,the ,,polar ,,world--,,the ,,north-,,west ,,and ,,north-,,east ,,passages4 ,as the reader knows1 the ,poles are the two extremities of the axis round which the ,earth revolves4 ,it is to the ,north ,pole1 and the regions surrounding it1 that the following pages will be devoted4 ,the inhabitants of ,western ,europe1 and more particularly those of the ,british ,isles1 have a peculiar interest in the ,north ,polar ,regions4 ,deriving their wealth and importance from their commercial enterprise1 and that commercial enterprise leading their ships and seamen into the furthest seas1 they have necessarily a vital concern in the discovery of the shortest possible route from that side of the ,earth which they inhabit to the other1 or eastern side2 and this1 more particularly1 because the ,east is rich in natural productions which are of high value to the peoples of the ,west4 ,now a glance at the map will show the reader that the traders of ,western ,europe--the ,british1 the ,french1 the ,dutch1 the ,scandinavians--are situated on the northern shores of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and that1 to reach the ,pacific ,ocean or the ,indian1 only two routes are at present open4 ,for instance1 they may cross the ,atlantic to the ,american coast1 and1 keeping southward1 strike through ,magellan's stormy ,strait or round the bleak promontory of ,cape ,horn into the ,pacific1 and then1 over some thousands of miles of water1 proceed to ,australia or ,hindustan or ,china2 or they may keep along the ,african coast to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 its southernmost point1 and so stretch across the warm ,tropical seas to ,india and the ,eastern ,archipelago4 ,a third1 an artificial route1 has indeed of late years been opened up2 and ships1 entering the ,mediterranean1 may pass through the ,suez ,canal into the ,red ,sea4 ,but this last-named route is unsuitable for sailing-ships1 and all three routes are laborious and slow4 ,how greatly the distance would be shortened were it possible to navigate the ,northern ,seas1 and1 keeping along the north coast of the ,american continent1 to descend ,behring's ,strait into the ,pacific6 ,in other words1 were that ,north-,west ,passage practicable1 which1 for three centuries1 our geographers and explorers so assiduously and courageously toiled to discover6 ,but a still shorter route would be opened up1 if we could follow a line drawn from the ,british ,islands straight across the ,north ,pole to ,behring's ,sea and the ,aleutian ,archipelago4 ,this line would not exceed #ejjj miles in length1 and would bring ,japan1 ,china1 and ,india within a very short voyage from ,great ,britain4 ,we should be able to reach ,japan in three or four weeks1 to the obvious advantage of our extensive commerce4 ,hitherto1 however1 all efforts to follow out this route1 and to throw open this great ocean-highway between ,europe and ,asia1 have failed4 ,man has been baffled by ,nature2 by ice1 and frost1 and winds1 and climatic influences4 ,with heroic perseverance he has sought to gain the open sea which1 it is believed1 surrounds the ,pole1 but a barrier of ice has invariably arrested his progress4 ,his researches have carried him within about #ejj miles of the coveted point2 but he is as yet unable to move a step beyond this furthest limit of geographical discovery4 ,immediately around the ,north ,pole1 within a radius of eight to ten degrees or more1 according to locality1 still lies an ,unknown ,region1 on the threshold of which ,science stands expectant1 eagerly looking forward to the day when human skill and human courage shall penetrate its solitudes and reveal its secrets4 ,this ,unknown ,region comprises an area of #b1ejj1jjj square miles2 an immense portion of the terrestrial surface to be shut out from the knowledge of ,civilized ,man4 ,its further exploration1 if practicable1 cannot but be rich in valuable results4 ,not only would it furnish the shortest route from the ,west to the ,east1 from progressive ,europe to conservative ,asia1 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 but it could not fail to add in a very important degree to our stores of scientific information4 ,sir ,edward ,sabine is surely right when he says1 that it is the greatest geographical achievement which can be attempted1 and that it will be the crowning enterprise of those ,arctic researches in which ,england has hitherto had the pre-eminence4 ,we may briefly indicate to the reader some of the advantages which might be expected from exploration in the ,unknown ,region4 ,it would unquestionably advance the science of hydrography1 and lead to a solution of some of the more difficult problems connected with the ,equatorial and ,polar ocean-currents1 those great movements of the waters of which1 as yet1 we know so little4 ,a series of pendulum observations1 it is said1 at and near the ,north ,pole1 would be of essential service to the science of geology4 ,we are unable1 at present1 for want of sufficient data1 to form a mathematical theory of the physical condition of the ,earth1 and to ascertain its exact configuration4 ,no pendulum observations have been taken nearer than #fjj or #fbj miles to the ,north ,pole4 ,again3 what precious information respecting the strange and wonderful phenomena of magnetism and atmospheric electricity would certainly be acquired6 ,how much we have yet to learn in reference to the ,aurora1 which can be learned only in high latitudes1 and at or near the point which apparently represents a magnetic focus or centre6 ,it has also been pointed out by ,mr4 ,markham that the climate of ,europe is largely affected by the atmospheric conditions of the ,polar area1 in which the development of extremely low temperatures necessarily leads to corresponding extreme changes of pressure1 and other atmospheric disturbances1 whose influence extends far into the ,temperate ,zone4 ,for the satisfactory appreciation of these phenomena1 says ,mr4 ,markham1 a precise knowledge is required of the distribution of land and water within the ,polar ,region2 and any addition to our knowledge of its unknown area1 accompanied by suitable observations of its meteorology1 cannot fail to afford improved means of understanding the meteorology of our own country1 and of the ,earth generally4 ,there can be no doubt1 too1 that geology would profit1 if we could push our researches nearer to the ,pole1 and force our way through the great barrier of the ,polar ice4 ,it is highly desirable1 too1 that we should know more of that interesting class of animals1 the ,mollusca1 both terrestrial and aquatic1 fresh-water and salt-water4 ,again3 what a wide field of inquiry is opened up by the ,polar glaciers2 their extent1 their elevation1 their range1 and the effects produced by the slow but continuous motion of those huge ice-rivers over the surface of the country4 ,and the botanist has a right to calculate upon the discovery of many precious forms of vegetable life in the ,unknown ,region4 ,the ,arctic flora is by no means abundant1 but it is peculiarly interesting4 ,in ,greenland1 besides numerous mosses1 lichens1 alg1 and the like1 flourish three hundred kinds of flowering plants1 all of which are natives of the ,scandinavian peninsula2 and ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker remarks that they exhibit scarcely any admixture of ,american types1 though these are found on the opposite coast of ,labrador4 ,it would seem probable that in the warm period which preceded the ,glacial ,age1 the ,scandinavian flora spread over the entire area of the ,polar ,regions2 but that during the ,age of ,ice it was gradually driven within its present limits1 only the hardier types surviving the blight of the long lingering winter4 ,and what would be the gain to the zoologist8 ,why1 it is a well-known fact that life abounds in the ,arctic waters1 and especially those minute organisms which play so important a part in the formation of sedimentary deposits1 and help to build up the terrestrial crust4 ,we have much to learn1 moreover1 of the habits and habitats of the fish1 the echinoderms1 the molluscs1 the corals1 the sponges of the extreme ,northern ,seas4 ,there are questions connected with the migrations of birds which can be elucidated only by an exploration of the ,unknown ,region4 ,multitudes which annually visit our shores in the winter and spring1 return in summer to the far ,north4 ,this is their regular custom1 and obviously would not have become a custom unless it had been found beneficial4 ,therefore we may assume that in the zone they frequent they find some water which is not always frozen2 some land on which they can rest their weary feet2 and an adequate supply of nourishing food4 ,from ,professor ,newton we adopt1 in connection with this consideration1 a brief account of the movements of one class of migratory birds1--the ,knots4#a ,the knot1 or sandpiper1 is something half-way between a snipe and a plover4 ,it is a very active and graceful bird1 with rather long legs1 moderately long wings1 and a very short tail4 ,it swims admirably1 but is not often seen in the water2 preferring to assemble with its fellows on the sandy sea-shores1 where it gropes in the sand for food1 or fishes in the rock-pools and shallow waters for the small crustaceans4 ,it is known both as the red and the ash-coloured sandpiper1 because it changes the colour of its plumage according to the season of the year2 a bright red in summer1 a sober ashen-gray in winter4 ,now1 in the spring the knot seeks our island in immense flocks1 and after remaining on the coasts for about a fortnight1 can be traced proceeding gradually northwards1 until it finally takes leave of us4 ,it has been noticed in ,iceland and ,greenland1 but not to stay2 the summer there would be too rigorous for its liking1 and it goes further and further north4 ,whither8 ,where does it build its nest1 and hatch its young8 ,we lose all trace of it for some weeks3 what becomes of it8 ,towards the end of summer back it comes to us in larger flocks than before1 and both old birds and young birds remain upon our coasts until ,november1 or1 in mild seasons1 even later4 ,then it wings its flight to the south1 and luxuriates in blue skies and balmy airs until the following spring1 when it resumes the order of its migrations4 ,commenting upon these facts1 ,professor ,newton infers that the lands visited by the knot in the middle of summer are less sterile than ,iceland or ,greenland2 for certainly it would not pass over these countries1 which are known to be the breeding-places for swarms of water-birds1 to resort to regions not so well provided with supplies of food4 ,the food1 however1 chiefly depends on the climate4 ,wherefore we conclude that beyond the northern tracts already explored lies a region enjoying in summer a climate more genial than they possess4 ,do any races of men with which we are now unacquainted inhabit the ,unknown ,region8 ,mr4 ,markham observes that although scarcely one-half of the ,arctic world has been explored1 yet numerous traces of former inhabitants have been found in wastes which are at present abandoned to the silence and solitude4 ,man would seem to migrate as well as the inferior animals1 and it is possible that tribes may be dwelling in the mysterious inner zone between the ,pole and the known ,polar countries4 ,the extreme points reached by our explorers on the ice-bound ,greenland coast are in about #hb on the west1 and #gf on the east side2 these two points lying about six hundred miles apart4 ,as man has dwelt at both these points1 and as they are separated from the settlements further south by a dreary1 desolate1 uninhabitable interval1 it is not an extravagant conjecture that the unknown land to the north has been or is inhabited4 ,in #ahah a small tribe was discovered on the bleak ,greenland coast between #gf and #gi ,n42 their southward range being bounded by the glaciers of ,melville ,bay1 and their northward by the colossal mass of the ,humboldt ,glacier1 while inland their way is barred by the ,sernik-sook1 a great glacier of the interior4 ,these so-called ,arctic ,highlanders number about one hundred and forty souls1 and their existence 8depends on open pools and lanes of water throughout the winter1 which attract animal life40 ,wherever such conditions as these are found1 man may be found4 ,we know that there are or have been inhabitants north of the ,humboldt ,glacier1 on the very threshold of the ,unknown ,region2 for ,dr4 ,kane's expedition discovered the runner of a sledge made of bone lying on the beach immediately to the north of it4 ,the ,arctic ,highlanders1 moreover1 cherish a tradition that herds of musk-oxen frequent an island situated far away to the north in an iceless sea4 ,traces of these animals were found by ,captain ,hall's expedition1 in #ahga-gb1 as far north as #ha #cj2 and similar indications have been noted on the eastern side of ,greenland4 ,in #ahbc1 ,captain ,clavering found twelve natives at ,cape ,borlase ,warren1 in lat4 #gi ,n42 but when ,captain ,koldewey1 of the ,german expedition1 wintered in the same neighbourhood1 in #ahfi1 they had disappeared1 though there were traces of their occupancy1 and ample means of subsistence4 ,yet they cannot have gone southward1 owing to insuperable natural obstacles2 they must have moved towards the ,north ,pole4 ,we have thus indicated some of the results which may be anticipated from further researches in the ,unknown ,region4 ,it is not to be forgotten1 however1 that 8the unexpected always happens10 and it is impossible to calculate definitely the consequences which may ensue from a more extensive investigation4 8,columbus10 it has been justly said1 8found very few to sympathize with him1 or perceive the utility of the effort on his part to go out into the unknown waste of waters beyond the ,strait of ,gibraltar1 in search of a new country4 ,who can1 at this time1 estimate the advantages which have followed upon that adventure8 ,if now it should be possible to reach the ,pole1 and to make accurate observations at that point1 from the relation which the ,earth bears to the sun and to the whole stellar universe1 the most useful results are very likely to follow1 in a more thorough knowledge of our globe40 ,the reader has now before him the particulars which will enable him to form an idea of the extent and character of the undiscovered region of the ,pole4 ,roughly speaking1 it is bounded by the #hjth parallel of latitude on the ,european side1 except at a few points where our gallant explorers have succeeded in crossing the threshold2 on the ,asiatic side it descends as low as #ge2 and to the west of ,behring ,strait as low as #gb4 ,thus1 it varies from #ejj or #fjj to #adjj or #aejj miles across4 ,below these parallels1 and bounded by the ,arctic ,circle1 or1 in some places1 by the #fjth parallel1 extends a vast belt of land and water which is generally known as the ,arctic or ,circumpolar ,regions4 ,these have been more or less thoroughly explored2 and it is to a description of their principal features1 their forms of animal and vegetable life1 and their natural phenomena1 that we propose to devote the present volume4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,desert ,,of ,,ice ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,region4 ,it is important to remember that the northern shores of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america are skirted by the parallel of #gj1 and that the belt between the #gjth and #hjth parallels1 having been partially explored by the seamen and travellers of various nations1 intervenes as a kind of neutral ground between the known and the unknown4 ,we may1 indeed1 formulate our statement thus2 from the ,pole to the #hjth degree stretches the unknown2 from the #hjth to the #gjth1 the partially known2 while1 south of the #gjth1 we traverse the lands and seas which human enterprise has completely conquered4 ,the ,circumpolar ,zone includes the northernmost portions of the three great continents1 ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america2 and by sea it has three approaches or gateways3 one1 through the ,northern ,ocean1 between ,norway and ,greenland2 another1 through ,davis ,strait1--both these being from the ,atlantic2 and a third1 through ,behring ,strait1--the entrance from the ,pacific4 ,it will be seen that the ,circumpolar ,regions1 as they are now understood1 and as we shall describe them in the following pages1 extend to the south of that imaginary line drawn by geographers round the ,north ,pole1 at a distance from it equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic1 or #bc #cj'4 ,within this circle1 however1 there is a period of the year when the sun does not set2 while there is another when he is never seen1 when a settled gloom spreads over the face of nature1--this period being longer or shorter at any given point according as that point is nearer to or further from the ,pole4 ,but as animal and vegetable life are largely affected by climate1 it may be justly said that wherever an ,arctic climate prevails there we shall find an ,arctic or ,polar region2 and1 hence1 many countries below even the #fjth parallel1 such as ,kamtschatka1 ,labrador1 and ,south ,greenland1 fall within the ,circumpolar boundary4 ,the waters surrounding the ,north ,pole bear the general designation of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,but here again it is almost impossible to particularize any uniform limit southward4 ,it joins the ,pacific at ,behring ,strait in about lat4 #ff ,n41 and consequently in this quarter extends fully half a degree beyond the ,arctic ,circle4 ,at ,scoresby ,sound1 as at ,north ,cape1 where it meets the ,atlantic1 it is intersected by the parallel of #ga1 and consequently falls short of the ,arctic ,circle by about #d #cj'4 ,in the ,old ,world1 the ,polar ,ocean1 if we include its gulfs1 extends1 in the ,white ,sea1 fully two degrees beyond the ,arctic ,circle2 while at ,cape ,severo1 the northernmost point of ,asia1 in lat4 #gh #be' ,n41 it is #aa #ee' distance from it4 ,finally1 in the ,new ,world it is everywhere confined within the ,circle2 as much as #e at ,point ,barrow1 about #g #cj' at ,barrow ,strait1 and about #c at the ,hecla and ,fury ,strait4 ,we may add that1 so far as temperature is concerned1 the great gulfs known1 in memory of their discoverers1 as ,davis ,strait1 ,baffin ,bay1 and ,hudson ,bay1 are portions of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,of the more southerly area of this great ocean1 the only section which has been adequately explored to a distance from the continent1 and in the direction of the ,pole1 is that which washes the north-east of ,america4 ,here we meet1 under the collective name of the ,polar ,archipelago1 with the following islands3--,banks ,land1 ,wollaston ,land1 ,prince ,albert ,land1 ,victoria ,land1 ,prince ,patrick ,island1 ,princess ,royal ,islands1 ,melville ,island1 ,cornwallis ,island1 ,north ,devon1 ,beechey ,island1 ,grinnell ,land1 and ,north ,lincoln4 ,further to the east lie ,spitzbergen1 ,jan ,mayen ,island1 ,novaia ,zemlaia1 ,new ,siberia1 and the ,liakhov ,islands4 ,the chief straits and inlets are ,lancaster ,sound1 ,barrow ,strait1 ,smith ,sound1 ,regent ,inlet1 ,hecla and ,fury ,strait1 ,wellington ,channel1 and ,cumberland ,sound2 while further westward are ,belcher ,channel1 ,melville ,sound1 ,m',clintock ,channel1 ,banks ,strait1 and ,prince of ,wales ,strait4 ,the ,arctic ,lands comprehend two well-defined sections1 or zones2 that of the forests1 and the treeless wastes4 ,to the latter belong the islands within the ,arctic ,circle1 and also a considerable tract of the northern continents1 forming the 8barrens0 of ,north ,america1 and the 8tundras0 and 8steppes0 of ,european ,russia and ,siberia4 ,the treeless character of this vast area of wilderness is owing to the bleak sea-winds which drive1 without let or hindrance1 across the islands and level shores of the ,polar ,ocean1 compelling even the most vigorous plant to bend before them and creep along the ground4 ,drearier scenes are nowhere presented than these stony tundras1 or their boundless swamps4 ,almost the only vegetation are a few gray lichens1 a few dull blackish-looking mosses2 the stunted flowers or crawling grasses that here and there occur do not relieve the uniform desolation1--they serve simply to enhance its gloomy character4 ,in summer1 indeed1 the tundras are full of life2 for the spawning instinct of the salmon and the sturgeon impels them to enter their rivers and seek the quiet recesses of their mysterious lakes4 ,the reindeer assemble in numerous herds to feed on the herbage warmed into temporary vitality by the upward-slanting sun2 the whirr of countless wings announces the coming of the migratory birds to breed1 and feed their young1 on the river-banks and the level shores2 and in their trail arrive the eagle and the hawk1 intent on prey4 ,but with the first days of ,september a change passes over the scene4 ,animal life hastens to the more genial south2 the birds abandon the frozen wastes2 the reindeer retires to the shelter of the forests2 the fish desert the ice-bound streams2 and a terrible silence reigns in the desolate wilderness1 broken only by the harsh yelp of a fox or the melancholy hooting of a snow-owl4 ,for some eight or nine months a deep shroud or pall of snow lies on the whitened plains4 ,no cheerful sunbeams irradiate it with a rosy glow2 the sky is dull and dark2 and it seems as if ,nature had been abandoned to eternal ,night4 ,but blank and dreary as the limitless expanse of snow appears1 it is the security of man in these far northern regions4 ,it affords the necessary protection to the scanty vegetable life against the rigour of the long winter season4 ,in ,rensselaer ,bay1 ,dr4 ,kane found1 when the surface temperature had sunk to -#cj1 a temperature at two feet deep of -#h1 at four feet deep of #b1 and at eight feet deep of #bf1 or no more than #f below freezing-point4 ,hence1 underneath their thick frozen pall1 the ,arctic grasses and lichens maintain a struggling existence1 and are able to maintain it until thoroughly resuscitated by the summer sun4 ,it is owing to this wise and beneficent provision that1 in the highest latitudes1 the explorer discovers some feeble forms of vegetation4 ,thus1 as ,hartwig reminds us1 ,morton gathered a crucifer at ,cape ,constitution1 in lat4 #hj #de' ,n42 and ,dr4 ,kane1 on the banks of the ,minturn ,river1 in lat4 #gh #eb'1 met with a flower-growth which1 though fully ,arctic in its type1 was gaily and richly coloured--including the purple lychnis1 the starry chickweed1 and the hesperis1 among the festuca and other tufted grasses4 ,in the tundras1 the most abundant vegetable forms1 next to the lichens and mosses1 are the grasses1 the crucifers1 the saxifrages1 the caryophyles1 and the composit4 ,these grow fewer and fewer as we move towards the north1 but the number of individual plants does not decrease4 ,where the soil is fairly dry1 we shall find an extensive growth of lichens2 in moister grounds1 these are intermingled with the well-known ,iceland moss4 ,lichens are everywhere1 except in the sparse tracts of meadow-land lying at the foot of sheltering hills1 or in those alluvial inundated hollows which are thickly planted with 8whispering reeds0 and dwarf willows4 ,it is not easy to trace exactly the boundary between the tundras and the forest zone4 ,the former descend to the south1 and the latter advances to the north1 according to the climatic influences which prevail2 following the isothermic lines of uniform temperature1 and not the mathematical limits of the geographical parallels of latitude4 ,where the ground undulates1 and hilly ridges break the fury of the icy blasts1 the forests encroach on the stony treeless region2 but the desolate plains strike into the wooded zone in places where the ocean-winds range with unchecked sway4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,swamps ,,of ,,the ,,obi4 ,the southernmost limit of the 8barrens0 is found in ,labrador1 where they descend to lat4 #eg2 nor is this to be wondered at1 when we remember the peculiar position of that gloomy peninsula1 with icy seas washing it on three sides1 and cold winds sweeping over it from the north4 ,on the opposite coasts of ,hudson ,bay they do not strike lower than #fj2 and they continue to rise as we proceed westward1 until in the ,mackenzie ,valley we find the tall forest growth reaching as far north as #fh or even #gj4 ,thence they recede gradually1 until1 on the bleak shore of ,behring ,sea1 they do not rise higher than #fe4 ,crossing into the eastern continent1 we find them beginning1 in the land of the ,tuski 7or ,tchuktche71 in #fc1 and from thence encroaching gradually upon the tundras until1 at the ,lena1 they reach as high as #ga4 ,from the ,lena to the ,obi the tundras gain upon the forests1 and in the ,obi ,valley descend below the ,arctic ,circle2 but from the ,obi to the ,scandinavian coast the forests gain upon the tundras1 terminating1 after many variations1 in lat4 #gj4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,the ,,forest ,,zone ,,of ,,the ,,north4 ,the result to which this rapid survey brings us is1 that the 8tundras0 or 8barrens0 of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america occupy an area larger than the whole of ,europe4 ,the ,siberian wilderness is more extensive than the ,african ,sahara or the ,south ,american ,pampas4 ,but of still vaster area are the ,arctic forest regions1 which stretch in an 8almost continuous belt0 through three quarters of the world1 with a breadth of from #ae to #bj--that is1 of #ajjj to #adjj miles4 ,and it is a peculiarity of these ,circumpolar woods1 that they are almost wholly composed of conifers1 and that frequently a wide space of ground is covered for leagues upon leagues with a single kind of fir or pine4 8,this is the forest primeval4 ,the murmuring pines and the hemlocks1 ,blended with moss1 and in garments green1 indistinct in the twilight1 ,stand like ,druids of eld1 with voices sad and prophetic1 ,stand like harpers hoar1 with beards that rest on their bosoms40 ,the ,american species1 however1 differ from the ,asiatic or ,european4 ,while in the ,hudson ,bay territories grow the white and black spruce1#b the ,canadian larch1#c and the gray pine#d2 in ,scandinavia and ,siberia1 the ,siberian fir and larch1#e the ,picea olovata1 and the ,pinus umbra flourish4 ,but both in the ,old ,world and the ,new the birch advances beyond the fir and pine1 and on the banks of the rivers and the shores of the lakes dwarf willows form immense and almost impenetrable thickets4 ,the ,arctic forests also include various kinds of ash1 elder1 and the service tree2 and though orchard trees are wholly wanting1 both man and beast find a great boon in the bilberries1 cranberries1 bog-berries1 and the like1 which grow plentifully in many localities4 ,the area of the ,arctic flora comprises ,greenland1 in the western hemisphere1 and extends considerably to the south of the ,arctic ,circle1 especially on the coasts1 where it reaches the parallel of #fj ,n4 lat41 and even overpasses it4 ,in ,greenland the vegetation is more truly of an ,arctic character than even in ,iceland4 ,the valleys are covered with marsh-plants and dingy mosses2 the gloomy rocks are encrusted with lichens2 while the grasses on the meadow-lands that border the fiords and inlets are nearly four times less varied than those of ,iceland4 ,the flora of ,iceland is approximative to that of ,great ,britain2 yet only one in every four of ,british plants is included in it4 ,the total number of species may be computed at eight hundred and seventy1 of which more than half blossom2 this proportion is greater than prevails in ,scotland1 but then only thirty-two are of woody texture4 ,they are scattered about in groups according as they prefer a marshy1 volcanic1 dry1 or marine soil4 ,many bloom in the immediate vicinity of the hot springs2 some not far from the brink of the basin of the ,great ,geyser1 where every other plant is petrified2 and several species of conferv flourish in a spring the waters of which are hot enough1 it is said1 to boil an egg4 ,from the nature of the ,arctic forests1 the reader will be prepared to learn that they are not inhabited1 like those of the ,tropics1 by swarms of animals2 or made musical by the songs of birds1 like our ,european woods4 ,even the echoes are silent1 except when the hoarse wind bears to them the peculiar cry of the reindeer1 the howl of the wolf1 or the sharp scream of some bird of prey4 ,insect life1 however1 is active and abundant2 and our ,arctic travellers have suffered greatly from the legions of gnats which haunt their swampy recesses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,passing from the forest region into the treeless wastes1 we may glance once again at their strikingly impressive features4 ,north of the #fbnd parallel no corn can ripen1 on account of the fatal power of the winds which pour down from the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,as we advance to the northward1 a wide-spread area of desolation stretches before us3 salt steppes1 stony plains1 boundless swamps1 and lakes of salt and fresh water4 ,so terrible is the cold that the spongy soil is perpetually frozen to the depth of some hundred feet below the surface2 and the surface itself1 though not thawed until the end of ,june1 is again ice-bound by the middle of ,september4 ,one of the most graphic sketches with which we are acquainted of the extreme ,siberian desert is furnished by ,admiral von ,wrangel1 who travelled during the winter from the mouth of the ,kolyma to ,behring ,strait4 ,here1 he says1 endless snows and ice-crusted rocks bound the horizon2 ,nature lies shrouded in all but perpetual winter2 life is a constant conflict with privation and with the terrors of cold and hunger2 the grave of ,nature1 containing only the bones of another world4 ,the people1 and even the snow1 throw off a continual vapour2 and this evaporation is instantly changed into millions of needles of ice1 which make a noise in the air like the sound of torn satin or the rustle of thick silk4 ,the reindeer take to the forest1 or crowd together for heat2 and the raven alone1 the dark bird of winter1 still smites the frosty air with heavy laborious wing1 leaving behind him a long trail of thin vapour to mark the course of his solitary flight4 ,the trunks of the thickest trees are rent with a loud clang1 masses of rock are torn from their sites1 the ground in the valleys is split into a myriad fissures1 from which the waters that are underneath bubble up1 throwing off a cloud of smoke1 and immediately congealing into ice4 ,the atmosphere grows dense2 the glistening stars are dimmed4 ,the dogs outside the huts of the ,siberians burrow in the snow1 and their howling1 at intervals of six or eight hours1 interrupts the general silence of winter4 ,the abundance of fur-bearing animals in the less rigorous parts of the tundras has induced the hardy ,russians to colonize and build towns on these confines of the ,frozen ,world4 ,yakutsk1 on the river ,lena1 in #fb #a #cj ,n41 may be regarded1 perhaps1 as the coldest town on the ,earth4 ,the ground is perpetually frozen to the depth of more than #djj feet1 of which three feet only are thawed in summer1 when ,fahrenheit's thermometer frequently marks #gg in the shade4 ,yet in winter the rigour of the climate is so extreme that mercury is constantly frozen for two and occasionally even for three months4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from the data set forth in the preceding pages1 the reader will conclude that1 as indeed results from physical laws1 the line of perpetual snow will be found to descend lower and lower on advancing to the ,pole4 ,by the line of perpetual snow we mean1 of course1 the limit above which a continual frost endures4 ,now1 this limit varies according to climate4 ,the lower the temperature1 the lower the snow-line2 the higher the temperature1 the higher the snow-line4 ,in the ,tropics it does not sink below the summits of the loftiest mountains4 ,thus1 at #a from the ,equator1 where the mean temperature at the sea-level is #hd4b1 the snow-line must be sought at the elevation of #ae1bjc feet2 in #ea #cj' lat41 the latitude of ,london1 it is usually found at about #eijj feet2 in lat4 #hj1 where the mean temperature is #cc4f1 it sinks to #deg feet4 ,these figures1 however1 represent its normal elevations2 but temperature1 as we all know1 is greatly affected by local circumstances1 and therefore the perpetual snow-line varies greatly in height4 ,owing to causes already explained1 the snow-line in the ,circumpolar ,regions sinks to a very low level2 and1 therefore1 many mountainous regions or elevated table-lands1 such as ,spitzbergen1 ,greenland1 and ,novaia ,zemlaia1 which1 in a more temperate climate1 would bloom with emerald slopes and waving woods1 are covered with huge glaciers and fields of ice1 with apparently interminable reaches of untrodden snow4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that nowhere does the perpetual snow-line descend to the water's edge2 nowhere has the spell of winter absolutely crushed the life out of all vegetation4 ,lichens and grasses1 on which the reindeer gains its hardy subsistence1 are found near lat4 #hj2 even on the awful plains of ,melville ,island the snow melts at midsummer2 and the deserts of ,new ,siberia afford food for considerable numbers of lemmings4 ,as far as man has reached to the north1 says a popular and accurate writer1 vegetation1 when fostered by a sheltered situation and the refraction of solar heat from the rocks1 has everywhere been found to rise to a considerable altitude above the level of the sea2 and should there be land at the ,north ,pole1 we may reasonably suppose that it is destitute neither of animal nor vegetable life4 ,it would be quite wrong to conclude that the cold of winter invariably increases as we approach the ,pole1 the temperature of a land being controlled by many other causes besides its latitude4 ,even in the most northern regions visited by man1 the influence of the sea1 particularly where favoured by warm currents1 considerably mitigates the severity of the winter1 while at the same time it diminishes the heat of summer4 ,on the other hand1 the large continental tracts of ,asia or ,america that slope towards the ,pole1 possess a more rigorous winter and a fiercer summer than many coast lands or islands situated far nearer to the ,pole4 ,for example3 the western shores of ,novaia ,zemlaia1 fronting a wide expanse of sea1 have an average winter temperature of only -#d1 and a mean summer temperature which rises very little above the freezing-point of water 7 #cf #cj'72 while ,yakutsk1 situated in the centre of ,siberia1 and #bj nearer to the ,equator1 has a winter temperature of -#cf #f'1 and a summer of #ff #f'4 ,but though such are the physical conditions of the ,polar ,regions1 it must not be supposed that ,nature wears only a severe and repellent aspect4 ,there is something beautiful in the vast expanse of snowy plain when seen by the light of a cloudless moon2 something majestic in the colossal glaciers which fill up the remote ,arctic valleys2 something picturesque in the numerous icebergs which grandly sail down the dark ,polar waters2 something mysterious and wonderful in the coruscations of the ,aurora1 which illuminates the darkness of the winter nights with the glory of the celestial fires4 ,the law of compensation prevails in the far ,north1 as in the glowing and exuberant regions of the ,tropics4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,arctic ,,heavens3 ,,atmospheric ,,and ,,meteoric ,,phenomena4 ,let the reader fancy himself--should he be reading these pages on a warm summer's day1 the fancy will not be unpleasant6--let the reader fancy himself on board a well-found1 stoutly-built whaling-vessel1 and rapidly approaching the coast of ,greenland4 ,but the heavy mist hangs over the legend-haunted shores1 and we can but catch the sound of the clanging surf as it rolls upon them4 ,all around us spreads the mist1--dense1 impenetrable4 ,what is that before us8 ,the dead white mass of an iceberg1 slowly drifting with the current1 and almost upon us before the look-out man discovered it4 ,but the helm has been sharply handled2 our good ship has put about2 and we sail clear of the mighty pyramid4 ,fully one hundred and fifty feet high1 we can assure you1 and twice as broad at its base4 ,a sudden break in the mist reveals its radiant spire1 with white cloud-wreaths circling and dancing round it in the sunlight4 ,and now1 as we steadily move forward1 the fog is lifted up like a curtain1 and before us1 like a scene in a panorama1 looms the ,greenland coast in all its austere magnificence3 yonder are its broad ice-filled valleys1 its snow-clad ravines1 its noble mountains1 its iron-bound range of cliffs1 its general aspect of solemn desolation4 ,away over the westward sea fly the scattered vapours1 disclosing iceberg after iceberg1 like the magical towers in some of ,turner's pictures4 ,we seem to have been drawn by some irresistible spell into a world of enchantment1 and all the old ,norse romance comes back upon the memory1 with its picturesque associations4 ,yonder lies the ,valhalla of the ancient ocean-rovers2 yonder the dazzling city of the sun-god ,freya1 one of the most popular of the ,scandinavian divinities1 as well he might be2 yonder the elfin caves of ,alfheim2 and ,glitner1 with its walls of gold and roofs of silver2 and the radiant ,gimele1 the home of the blessed2 and there1 too1 towering above the clouds1 the bridge ,bifrost1 by which the heroes ascended from earth to heaven4 ,heimdall1 who can see for fully a hundred leagues1 as well by night as by day1 stands sentinel upon it1 prepared to sound his horn ,gjallar1 if intruders should attempt to cross it6 ,the sea is smooth as glass2 not a ripple breaks the wonderful calmness of its surface4 ,it is midnight1 but in this strange ,arctic world the sun still hangs close upon the northern horizon2 the icebergs rear their dazzling crests around1 like floating spires1 and turrets1 and many-towered minsters2 the dark headlands are boldly outlined against the sky2 and sea1 and sky1 and mountains1 and icebergs are suffused in a wildly beautiful atmosphere of crimson1 gold1 and purple4 ,the picture is like a poet's vision2 and so startlingly unreal1 that it is difficult for the unaccustomed spectator to believe it other than an illusion4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,midnight ,,sun4 ,we adopt the following description from the vivid language of ,dr4 ,hayes1 who displays a keen feeling for the beauties of the ,polar world4 ,the air was warm1 he says1 almost as a summer's night at home1 and yet there were the icebergs and the bleak mountains1 with which the fancy1 in our own land of green hills and waving woods1 can associate nothing but what is cold and repellent4 ,bright was the sky1 and soft and strangely inspiring as the skies of ,italy4 ,the bergs had wholly lost their chilly aspect1 and1 glittering in the blaze of the brilliant heavens1 seemed1 in the distance1 like masses of burnished metal or solid flame4 ,nearer at hand they were huge blocks of ,parian marble1 encrusted with colossal gems of pearl and opal4 ,one in particular exhibited the perfection of grandeur4 ,its form was not unlike that of the ,coliseum1 and it lay so far away that half its height was buried beneath the line of blood-red waters4 ,the sun1 slow moving along its path of glory1 passed behind it1 and the old ,roman ruin seemed suddenly to break into flame4 ,illustration3 ,,off ,,the ,,coast ,,of ,,greenland4 ,nothing1 indeed1 but the pencil of the artist could depict the wonderful richness of this combined landscape and seascape4 ,church1 in his great picture of 8,the ,icebergs10 has grandly exhibited a scene not unlike that we have attempted to describe4 ,in the shadows of the bergs the water was a rich green1 and nothing could be more soft and tender than the gradations of colour made by the sea shoaling on the sloping tongues of some of these floating masses4 ,the tint increased in intensity where the ice overhung the waters1 and a deep cavern in one of them exhibited the solid colour of the malachite mingled with the transparency of the emerald1 while1 in strange contrast1 a broad belt of cobalt blue shot diagonally through its body4 ,the enchantment of the scene was heightened by a thousand little cascades which flashed into the sea from the icebergs1 the water being discharged from basins of melted snow and ice which tranquilly reposed far up in the hollows of their topmost surface4 ,from other bergs large boulders were occasionally detached1 and these plunged into the water with a deafening din1 while the roll and rush of the ocean resounded like the music of a solemn dirge through their broken archways4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the contrasts and combinations of colour in the ,polar world are1 indeed1 among its particular attractions1 and of their kind they cannot be surpassed or imitated even in the gorgeous realms of the ,tropics4 ,the pale azure gleam of the ice1 the dazzling whiteness of the snow1 the vivid verdure of the sunlit plains1 the deep emerald tints1 crossed with sapphire and ultramarine1 of the waters1 would in themselves afford a multiplicity of rich and beautiful effects2 but to these we must add the magical influences of the coruscations of the ,arctic heavens1 with the glories of the midnight sun and the wonders of the ,aurora4 ,illustration3 ,,moonlight ,,in ,,the ,,polar ,,world4 ,even moonlight in the ,polar world is unlike moonlight anywhere else2 it has a character all its own1--strange1 weird1 supernatural4 ,night after night the sky will be free from cloud or shadow1 and the radiant stars shine out with a singular intensity1 seeming to cut the air like keen swords4 ,the moonbeams are thrown back with a pale lustre by ice-floe and glacier and snow-drift1 and the only relief to the brightness is where the dark cliffs throw a shadow over the landscape4 ,gloriously beautiful look the snow-clad mountains1 as the moonlight pours upon them its serene splendour1 interrupted only by the occasional passage of a wreath of mist1 which is soon transformed into sparkling silver4 ,the whole scene produces an impression of awe on the mind of the thoughtful spectator1 and he feels as if brought face to face with the visible presence of another world4 ,the prolonged winter night is in itself well calculated to affect the imagination of the ,european4 ,he reads of it in travels and books of astronomy2 but to know what it is1 and what it means1 he must submit himself to its influence1--he must 8winter0 in the ,polar ,regions4 ,not to see sunrise and sunset1 and the changes they bring with them1 day after day1 enlivening1 inspiriting1 strengthening1 is felt at first as an intolerable burden4 ,the stars shining at all hours with equal brilliancy1 and the lasting darkness which reigns for twenty days of each winter month when the moon is below the horizon1 become a weariness and a discomfort4 ,the traveller longs for the reappearance of the moon2 and yet before she has run her ten days' course1 he feels fatigued by the uniform illumination4 ,but sometimes a relief is supplied by the phenomenon of the ,aurora ,borealis4 ,we inhabitants of the ,united ,kingdom know something of the rare beauty of the 8northern lights10 when the heavens kindle with a mysterious play of colours which reminds us of the strange weird radiance that occasionally kindles in our dreams2 yet these are poor and trivial when compared with the auroral display4 ,let us endeavour to realize it from the glowing description painted by one of the most eloquent and observant of ,arctic explorers4 ,he was groping his way among the ice-hummocks1 in the deep obscurity of the mid-winter1 when suddenly a bright ray darted up from behind the black cloud which lay low down on the horizon before him4 ,it lasted but an instant1 and1 having filled the air with a strange illumination1 it died away1 leaving the darkness even greater darkness than before4 ,presently an arc of coloured light sprang across the sky1 and the aurora became gradually more fixed4 ,the space enclosed by the arc was very dark1 and was filled with the cloud4 ,the play of the rays which rose from its gradually brightening border was for some time very capricious1 modifying the burst of flame from what seemed a conflagration of the heavens to the soft glow of early morn4 ,gradually the light grew more and more intense1 and from irregular bursts it settled into an almost steady sheet of splendour4 ,this sheet1 however1 was far from uniform1 and may best be described as 8a flood of mingling and variously-tinted streaks40 ,the exhibition1 at first tame and quiet1 developed by degrees into startling brilliancy4 ,the broad dome of night seemed all ablaze4 ,lurid fires1 fiercer than those which reddened the heavens from burning ,troy1 flashed angrily across the zenith4 ,the stars waned before the marvellous outburst1 and seemed to recede further and further from the ,earth2 8as when the chariot of the sun1 driven by ,phaeton1 and carried from its beaten track by the ungovernable steeds1 rushed madly through the skies1 parching the world and withering the constellations4 ,the gentle ,andromeda flies trembling from the flame2 ,perseus1 with his flashing sword and ,gorgon shield1 retreats in fear2 the ,pole-,star is chased from the night2 and the ,great ,bear1 faithful sentinel of the ,north1 quits his guardian watch1 following the feeble trail40 ,the colour of the light was chiefly red1 but this was not permanent1 and every hue mingled in the wonderful display4 ,blue and yellow streamers shot athwart the lurid fire2 and1 sometimes starting side by side from the wide expanse of the illumined arc1 they melted into each other1 and flung a weird glare of green over the landscape4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,aurora ,,borealis4 ,again this green overcame the red2 blue and yellow blended with each other in their swift flight2 violet-tinted arrows flashed through a broad glow of orange1 and countless tongues of white flame1 formed of these uniting streams1 rushed aloft and clasped the skies4 ,the effect of the many-coloured lustre upon the surrounding objects was singularly wonderful4 ,the weird forms of innumerable icebergs1 singly and in clusters1 loomed above the sea1 and around their summits hovered the strange gleam1 like the fires of ,vesuvius over the villas and temples of ,pompeii4 ,all along the white surface of the frozen sea1 upon the mountain-peaks and the lofty cliffs1 the light glowed and dimmed and glowed again1 as if the air were filled with graveyard meteors1 flitting wildly above some vast illimitable city of the dead4 ,the scene was noiseless1 yet the senses were deceived1 for sounds not of earth or sea seemed to follow the swift coruscations1 and to fall upon the ear like 8,the tread ,of phantoms dread1 ,with banner1 and spear1 and flame40 ,though the details1 so to speak1 are not always the same1 the general character of the aurora changes very slightly1 and1 from a comparison of numerous accounts1 the gradation of the phenomenon would seem to be as follows3-- ,the sky slowly assumes a tint of brown1 on which1 as on a background1 is soon developed a nebulous segment1 bordered by a spacious arc of dazzling whiteness1 which seems incessantly agitated by a tremulous motion4 ,from this arc an incredible number of shafts and rays of light leap upwards to the zenith4 ,these luminous columns pass through all the hues of the rainbow1--from softest violet and intensest sapphire to green and purple-red4 ,sometimes the rays issue from the resplendent arc mingled with darker flashes2 sometimes they rise simultaneously at different points of the horizon1 and unite in one broad sea of flame pervaded by rapid undulations4 ,on other occasions it would seem as if invisible hands were unfurling fiery dazzling banners1 to stream1 like meteors1 in the troubled air4 ,a kind of canopy1 of soft and tranquil light1 which is known as the corona1 indicates the close of the marvellous exhibition2 and shortly after its appearance the luminous rays begin to decrease in splendour1 the richly-coloured arcs dissolve and die out1 and soon of all the gorgeous spectacle nothing remains but a whitish cloudy haze in those parts of the firmament which1 but a few minutes before1 blazed with the mysterious fires of the aurora borealis4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,aurora ,,borealis--,,the ,,corona4 ,the arc of the aurora is only part of a broad circle of light1 which is elevated considerably above the surface of our globe1 and the centre of which is situated in the vicinity of the ,pole4 ,it is not difficult1 therefore1 to account for the different aspects under which it is presented to observers placed at different angles to the focus of the display4 ,a person some degrees south of the ring necessarily sees but a very small arc of it towards the north1 owing to the interposition of the earth between him and it2 if he stood nearer the north1 the arc would appear larger and higher2 if immediately below it1 he would see it apparently traversing the zenith2 or if within the ring1 and still further north1 he would see it culminating in the south4 ,it has been supposed that the centre of the ring corresponds with the magnetic north pole in the island of ,boothia ,felix4 ,generally the phenomenon lasts for several hours1 and at times it will be varied by peculiar features4 ,now it will seem to present the hemispherical segment of a colossal wheel2 now it will wave and droop like a rich tapestry of many-coloured light1 in a thousand prismatic folds2 and now it exhibits the array of innumerable dazzling streamers1 waving in the dark and intense sky4 ,the arc varies in elevation1 but is seldom more than ninety miles above the terrestrial surface4 ,its diameter1 however1 must be enormous1 for it has been known to extend southward to ,italy1 and has been simultaneously visible in ,sardinia1 ,connecticut1 and at ,new ,orleans4 ,according to some authorities1 the phenomenon is accompanied by noises resembling the discharge of fireworks1 or the crackling of silk when one piece is folded over another2 but this statement is discredited by the most trustworthy observers4 ,mrs4 ,somerville's description is worth quoting1 as taking up more emphatically some points to which we have already alluded3-- ,the aurora1 she says1 is decidedly an electrical 7or1 more strictly speaking1 a magneto-electrical7 phenomenon4 ,it generally appears soon after sunset in the form of a luminous arc stretching more or less from east to west1 the most elevated point being always in the magnetic meridian of the place of the observer2 across the arc the coruscations are rapid1 vivid1 and of various colours1 darting like lightning to the zenith1 and at the same time flitting laterally with incessant velocity4 ,the brightness of the rays varies in an instant2 they sometimes surpass the splendour of stars of the first magnitude1 and often exhibit colours of admirable transparency1--blood-red at the base1 emerald-green in the middle1 and clear yellow towards their extremity4 ,sometimes one1 and sometimes a quick succession of luminous currents run from one end of the arc or bow to the other1 so that the rays rapidly increase in brightness2 but it is impossible to say whether the coruscations themselves are actually affected by a horizontal motion of translation1 or whether the more vivid light is conveyed from ray to ray4 ,the rays occasionally dart far past the zenith1 vanish1 suddenly reappear1 and1 being joined by others from the arc1 form a magnificent corona or immense dome of light4 ,the segment of the sky below the arc is quite black1 as if formed by dense clouds2 yet ,m4 ,struve is said to have seen stars in it1 and so it would appear that the blackness of which several observers speak must be the effect of contrast4 ,the lower edge of the arc is evenly defined2 its upper margin is fringed by the coruscations1 their convergence towards the north1 and that of the arc itself1 being probably an effect of perspective4 ,the aurora exercises a remarkable influence on the magnetic needle1 even in places where the display is not visible4 ,its vibrations seem to be slower or quicker according as the auroral light is quiescent or in motion1 and the variations of the compass during the day show that the aurora is not peculiar to night4 ,it has been ascertained by careful observations that the disturbances of the magnetic needle and the auroral displays were simultaneous at ,toronto1 in ,canada1 on thirteen days out of twenty-four1 the remaining days having been clouded2 and contemporaneous observations show that in these thirteen days there were also magnetic disturbances at ,prague and ,tasmania2 so that the occurrence of auroral phenomena at ,toronto on these occasions may be viewed as a local manifestation connected with magnetic effects1 which1 whatever may have been their origin1 probably prevailed on the same day over the whole surface of the globe4 ,among the atmospheric phenomena of the outer world we are justified in reckoning the ,winds1 which are remarkable for their variability4 ,their force is considerably diminished when they pass over a wide surface of ice2 sometimes the ice seems even to beat back the breeze1 and turn it in a contrary direction4 ,the warm airs from the south grow cool as they sweep across the frozen expanse1 and give up their moisture in the form of snow4 ,in a region so bleak and chill it is not often that clouds are created1 the atmospheric vapours being condensed into snow or hail without passing through any intermediate condition4 ,whirlwinds of frozen snow are formidable enemies to the seaman forced to traverse the ice on foot1 or in a sledge drawn by ,eskimo dogs4 ,dense showers lash and sting the unfortunate traveller's face1 penetrate his mouth and nostrils1 freeze together his very eyelids1 and almost blind him4 ,his skin assumes a bluish tint1 and burns as if scarred by the keen thongs of a knout4 ,an optical illusion of frequent occurrence in the ,polar ,regions makes objects appear of dimensions much larger than they really possess4 ,a fox assumes the proportions of a bear2 low banks of ice are elevated into lofty mountains4 ,the eye is fatigued by dwelling upon the horizon of lands which are never approached4 ,just as in the sandy deserts of the ,sahara the distances of real objects are apparently diminished1 so the ,arctic explorer1 misled by the arial illusion1 advances towards a goal which seems always near at hand1 but is never attained4 ,another source of error1 common both to the ,arctic and the ,tropical deserts1 is the mirage1 a phenomenon of refraction1 which represents as suspended in air the images of remote objects1 and thus gives rise to the most curious illusions and fantastic scenes4 ,dr4 ,scoresby one day perceived in the air the reversed representation of a ship which he recognized as the ,fame1 commanded by his father4 ,he afterwards discovered that it had been lying moored in a creek about ten leagues from the point where the mirage had played with his imagination4 ,again1 in approaching a field of ice or snow1 the traveller invariably descries a belt of resplendent white immediately above the horizon4 ,this is known as the 8ice-blink10 and it reveals to the ,arctic navigator beforehand the character of the ice he is approaching4 ,at times1 too1 a range of icebergs1 or of broken masses of ice1 will be reflected in colossal shadows on the sky1 with a strange and even weird effect4 ,but1 after all1 the special distinction between the ,arctic lands and the other regions of the globe is their long day and longer night4 ,describing an immense spiral curve upon the horizon1 the sun gradually mounts to #cj1 the highest point of its course2 then1 in the same manner1 it returns towards the horizon1 and bids farewell to the wildernesses of the ,north1 slowly passing away behind the veil of a gloomy and ghastly twilight4 ,when the navigator1 says ,captain ,parry1 finds himself for the first time buried in the silent shadows of the ,arctic night1 he cannot conquer an involuntary emotion of dread2 he feels transported out of the sphere of ordinary1 commonplace existence4 ,the deadly and sombre deserts of the ,pole seem like those uncreated voids which ,milton has placed between the realms of life and death4 ,the very animals are affected by the profound melancholy which saddens the face of ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,atmospheric ,,phenomenon ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,regions3--,,reflection ,,of ,,icebergs4 ,who can read without emotion the following passages from ,dr4 ,kane's ,journal8-- 8,october #bh1 ,friday4--,the moon has reached her greatest northern declination of about #be #ce'4 ,she is a glorious object2 sweeping around the heavens1 at the lowest part of her curve she is still #ad above the horizon4 ,for eight days she has been making her circuit with nearly unvarying brightness4 ,it is one of those sparkling nights that bring back the memory of sleigh-bells and songs and glad communings of hearts in lands that are far away4 8,the weather outside is at #be below zero40 ,a few days later1 and the heroic explorer writes3-- 8,november #g1 ,monday4--,the darkness is coming on with insidious steadiness1 and its advances can be perceived only by comparing one day with its fellow of some time back4 ,we still read the thermometer at noonday without a light1 and the black masses of the hills are plain for about five hours with their glaring patches of snow2 but all the rest is darkness4 ,lanterns are always on the spar-deck1 and the lard-lamps never extinguished below4 ,the stars of the sixth magnitude shine out at noonday4 8,our darkness has ninety days to run before we shall get back again even to the contested twilight of to-day4 ,altogether1 our winter will have been sunless for one hundred and forty days40 ,here is another significant passage2 yet all its significance can scarcely be appreciated by the dwellers in temperate climes3-- 8,november #bg1 ,sunday4--,the thermometer was in the neighbourhood of #dj below zero1 and the day was too dark to read at noon40 8,december #ae1 ,thursday4--,we have lost the last vestige of our mid-day twilight4 ,we cannot see print1 and hardly paper3 the fingers cannot be counted a foot from the eyes4 ,noonday and midnight are alike2 and1 except a vague glimmer on the sky that seems to define the hill outlines to the south1 we have nothing to tell us that this ,arctic world of ours has a sun40 ,on the #aath of ,january 7#ahed71 ,dr4 ,kane's thermometer stood at #di below zero2 and on the #bjth the range of those at the observatory was at -#fd to -#fg4 ,on the #eth of ,february they began to show an unexampled temperature4 ,they ranged from #fj to #ge below zero1 and one very admirable instrument on the taffrail of the brig stood at -#fe4 ,the reduced mean of the best spirit-standards gave -#fg1 or #ig below the freezing-point of water4 ,at these temperatures chloric ether became solid1 and carefully prepared chloroform exhibited a granular film or pellicle on its surface4 ,spirit of naphtha froze at -#ed1 and oil of sassafras at -#di4 ,the oil of winter-green assumes a flocculent appearance at -#ef1 and solid at -#fc and -#fe4 ,some further details1 borrowed from ,dr4 ,kane's experiences1 will illustrate still more powerfully the singular atmospheric conditions of the ,arctic winter4 ,the exhalations from the surface of the body invested any exposed or partially-clad part with a wreath of vapour4 ,the air had a perceptible pungency when inspired1 but ,dr4 ,kane did not undergo the painful sensation described by some ,siberian travellers4 ,when breathed for any length of time it imparted a sensation of dryness to the air-passages2 and ,dr4 ,kane observed that all his party1 as it were involuntarily1 breathed gradually1 and with compressed lips4 ,it was at noon on the #bast of ,january that the first glimmer of returning light became visible1 the southern horizon being touched for a short time with a distinct orange hue4 ,the sun had1 perhaps1 afforded them a kind of illumination before1 but if so1 it was not to be distinguished from the 8cold light of stars40 ,they had been nearing the sunshine for thirty-two days1 and had just reached that degree of mitigated darkness which made the extreme midnight of ,sir ,edward ,parry in lat4 #gd #dg'4 ,we have already alluded to the depressing influence exercised by the prolonged and intense darkness of the ,arctic night1 and we have referred to the singular effect it has upon animals4 ,dr4 ,kane's dogs1 though most of them were natives of the ,arctic ,circle1 proved unable to bear up against it4 ,most of them died from an anomalous form of disease1 to which the absence of light would seem to have contributed as much as the extreme cold4 ,this circumstance seems worthy of fuller notice1 and we quote1 therefore1 ,dr4 ,kane's observation upon it3-- 8,january #bj4--,this morning at five o'clock--for ,i am so afflicted with the insomnium of this eternal night1 that ,i rise at any time between midnight and noon--,i went upon deck4 ,it was absolutely dark1 the cold not permitting a swinging lamp4 ,there was not a glimmer came to me through the ice-crusted window-panes of the cabin4 ,while ,i was feeling my way1 half puzzled as to the best method of steering clear of whatever might be before me1 two of my ,newfoundland dogs put their cold noses against my hand1 and instantly commenced the most exuberant antics of satisfaction4 ,it then occurred to me how very dreary and forlorn must these poor animals be1 at atmospheres #aj in-doors and -#ej without1--living in darkness1 howling at an accidental light1 as if it reminded them of the moon1--and with nothing1 either of instinct or sensation1 to tell them of the passing hours1 or to explain the long-lost daylight40 ,the effect of the prolonged darkness upon these animals was most extraordinary4 ,every attention was paid to their wants2 they were kept below1 tended1 fed1 cleansed1 caressed1 and doctored2 still they grew worse and worse4 ,strange to say1 their disease was as clearly mental as in the case of any human being4 ,there was no physical disorganization2 they ate voraciously2 they slept soundly1 they retained their strength4 ,but first they were stricken by epilepsy1 and this was followed by true lunacy4 ,they barked frenziedly at nothing2 they walked in straight and curved lines with anxious and unwearying perseverance4 ,they fawned on the seamen1 but without seeming to appreciate any caresses bestowed upon them2 pushing their head against the friend who noticed them1 or oscillating with a strange pantomime of fear4 ,their most intelligent actions seemed of an automatic character2 sometimes they clawed at their masters1 as if seeking to burrow into their seal-skins2 sometimes they preserved for hours a moody silence1 and then started off howling1 as if pursued1 and ran to and fro for a considerable period4 ,when spring returned ,dr4 ,kane had to mourn the loss of nine splendid ,newfoundland and thirty-five ,eskimo dogs2 of the whole pack only six survived1 and one of these was unfit for draught4 ,having dwelt at some length on the characteristics of the ,arctic winter1 we now turn to consider those of the ,arctic spring4 ,this begins in ,april1 but does not exhibit itself in all the freshness of its beauty until ,may4 ,the temperature rises daily in the interval2 the winter fall of snow1 which has so long shrouded the gaunt hills and lain upon the valleys1 rolls up before the rays of the rising sun2 and the melted snow pours in noisy torrents and flashing cascades through the rugged ravines and over the dark sides of the lofty cliffs3 everywhere the air resounds with the din of falling waters4 ,early in ,june the traveller sees with delight the signs of returning vegetation4 ,the willow-stems grow green with the fresh and living sap2 mosses1 and poppies1 and saxifrages1 and the cochlearia1 with other hardy plants1 begin to sprout2 the welcome whirr of wings is brought upon the breeze2 the cliffs are alive with the little auks2 flocks of stately eider-ducks sail into the creeks and sounds2 the graceful terns scream and dart over the sea2 the burgomasters and the gyrfalcons move to and fro with greater dignity2 the long-tailed duck fills the echoes with its shrill voice2 the snipes hover about the fresh-water pools2 the sparrows chirp from rock to rock2 long lines of cackling geese sail in the blue clearness overhead on their way to a remoter north2 the walrus and the seal bask on the ice-floes which have broken up into small rafts1 and drift lazily with the currents2 and a fleet of icebergs move southwards in solemn and stately procession1 their spires and towers flashing and coruscating in the sunlight4 ,illustration3 ,,advent ,,of ,,spring ,,in ,,the ,,polar ,,regions4 ,we transcribe a sketch of a spring landscape in the ,polar world from the pages of ,dr4 ,hayes3-- ,we arrived at the lake1 he says1 in the midst of a very enlivening scene4 ,the snow had mainly disappeared from the valley1 and1 although no flowers had yet appeared1 the early vegetation was covering the banks with green1 and the feeble growths opened their little leaves almost under the very snow1 and stood alive and fresh in the frozen turf1 looking as glad of the spring as their more ambitious cousins of the warm ,south4 ,numerous small herds of reindeer had come down from the mountains to fatten on this newly budding life4 ,gushing rivulets and fantastic waterfalls mingled their pleasant music with the ceaseless hum of birds1 myriads of which sat upon the rocks of the hill-side1 or were perched upon the cliffs1 or sailed through the air in swarms so thick that they seemed like a dark cloud passing before the sun4 ,these birds were the little auk1 a water-fowl not larger than a quail4 ,the swift flutter of their wings and their constant cry filled the air with a roar like that of a storm advancing among the forest trees4 ,the valley was glowing with the sunlight of the early morning1 which streamed in over the glacier1 and robed hill1 mountain1 and plain in brightness4 ,spring passes into summer1 and all nature seems endowed with a new life4 ,the death-like silence1 the oppressive darkness1 the sense of fear and despondency1 all have passed away2 and earth and water echo with cheerful voices1 the landscape is bathed in a glorious radiance1 the human soul is conscious of a sentiment of hope and expectation4 ,the winter is past and gone2 the flowers appear on the earth2 the time of the singing of birds is come4 ,the snow has melted from the hills1 and the streams run with a merry music1 and the scanty flora of the far northern world attains its full development4 ,by day and night the sun pours forth its invigorating rays1 and even the butterfly is encouraged to sport among the blossoms4 ,the ,aurora no longer exhibits its many-coloured fires1 and the sky is as clear and cloudless as in genial ,italy4 ,but this season of life and warmth is of short duration1 and when ,july has passed the sun begins to sink lower and lower1 as if to visit another world2 a shadow gradually steals over the sky2 winds blow fiercely1 and bring with them blinding showers of sleet and icicles2 the fountains and the streams cease their pleasant flow2 the broad crust of ice spreads over the imprisoned sea2 the snow-mantle rests on the hill-sides and the valleys2 the birds wing their way to the warmer ,south2 and the ,polar world is once more given over to the silence1 the loneliness1 and the gloom of the long ,arctic night4 ,turning our attention now to the 8starry heavens10 we observe that conspicuous among the glorious host is the ,north ,star1 which1 from earliest times1 has been the friend and guide of the navigator4 ,the ,pole-,star1 or ,polaris1 is the star in the constellation of ,ursa ,minor1 and is the nearest large star to the north pole of the celestial equator4 ,we say the 8nearest10 because it does not actually mark the position of the pole1 but is about #a #cj' from it4 ,owing1 however1 to the motion of the pole of the celestial equator round that of the ecliptic1 it will1 in about #bjjj ,a4,d41 approach within #bh' of the north pole2 but after reaching this point of approximation it will begin to recede4 ,at the time of ,hipparchus it was #ab distant from it 7that is1 in #aef ,b4,c472 in #aghe1 #b #b'4 ,you may easily find its place in the 8stellar firmament10 for a line drawn between the stars and 7hence called the 8,pointers07 of the constellation ,ursa ,major1 or the ,great ,bear1 and produced in a northerly direction for about four and a half times its own length1 will almost touch the ,pole-,star4 ,two thousand years this post of honour1 so to speak1 was occupied by the star of ,ursa ,major2 while1 in about twelve thousand years1 it will be occupied by the star ,vega in ,lyra1 which will be within #e of the north pole4 ,the constellation of ,ursa ,major is always above the horizon of ,europe1 and hence it has been an object of curiosity to its inhabitants from the remotest antiquity4 ,our readers may easily recognize it by three stars which form a triangle in its tail1 while four more form a quadrangle in the body of the imaginary bear4 ,in the triangle1 the first star at the tip of the tail is ,benetnasch of the second magnitude2 the second1 ,mizar2 and the third1 ,alioth4 ,in the quadrangle1 the first star at the root of the tail is named ,megrez2 the second below it1 ,phad2 the third1 in a horizontal direction1 ,merak2 and the fourth1 above the latter1 ,dubhe1 of the first magnitude4 ,illustration3 ,,ursa ,,major ,,and ,,ursa ,,minor4 ,in ,ursa ,minor the only conspicuous star is ,polaris1 of which we have recently spoken4 ,we subjoin a list of the northern constellations1 including the names of those who formed them1 the number of their visible stars1 and the names of the most important and conspicuous4 ,,northern ,,constellations4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,constellations4 ,,author4 ,,no4 ,,of ,,principal ,,stars4 ,,stars4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,ursa ,minor1 the ,lesser ,bear ,aratus4 #bd ,polaris1 #b4 ,ursa ,major1 the ,great ,bear ,aratus4 #hg ,dubhe1 #a2 ,alioth1 #b4 ,perseus1 and ,head of ,medusa ,aratus4 #ei ,algenib1 #b2 ,algol1 #b4 ,auriga1 the ,waggoner ,aratus4 #ff ,capella1 #a4 ,bootes1 the ,herdsman ,aratus4 #ed ,arcturus1 #a4 ,draco1 the ,dragon ,aratus4 #hj ,rastaben1 #c4 ,cepheus ,aratus4 #ce ,alderamin1 #c4 ,canes ,venatici1 the ,greyhounds ,chara and ,asteria ,hevelius4 #be ,cor ,caroli1 ,heart of ,charles ,,ii ,halley4 #c ,triangulum1 the ,triangle ,aratus4 #af ,triangulum ,minus1 the ,lesser ,triangle ,hevelius4 #aj ,musca1 the ,fly ,bode4 #f ,lynx ,hevelius4 #dd ,leo ,minor1 the ,lesser ,lion ,hevelius4 #ec ,coma ,berenices1 ,berenice's ,hair ,tycho ,brahe4 #dc ,cameleopardalis1 the ,giraffe ,hevelius4 #eh ,mons ,menelaus1 ,mount ,menelaus ,hevelius4 #aa ,corona ,borealis1 the ,northern ,crown ,aratus4 #ba ,serpens1 the ,serpent ,aratus4 #fd ,scutum ,sobieski1 ,sobieski's ,shield ,hevelius4 #h ,hercules1 with ,cerberus ,aratus4 #aac ,ras ,algratha1 #c4 ,serpentarius1 or ,ophiuchus1 the ,serpent-,bearer ,aratus4 #gd ,ras ,aliagus1 #b4 ,taurus ,poniatowski1 or the ,bull of ,poniatowski ,poezobat4 #g ,lyra1 the ,harp ,aratus4 #bb ,vega1 #a4 ,vulpeculus et ,anser1 the ,fox and the ,goose ,hevelius4 #cg ,sagitta1 the ,arrow ,aratus4 #ah ,aquila1 the ,eagle1 with ,antinous ,aratus4 #ga ,altair1 #a4 ,delphinus1 the ,dolphin ,aratus4 #ah ,cygnus1 the ,swan ,aratus4 #ha ,deneb1 #a4 ,cassiopeia1 the ,lady in her ,chair ,aratus4 #ee ,equulus1 the ,horse's ,head ,ptolemy4 #aj ,lacerta1 the ,lizard ,hevelius4 #af ,pegasus1 the ,flying ,horse ,aratus4 #hi ,markab1 #b4 ,andromeda ,aratus4 #ff ,almaac1 #b4 ,turandus1 the ,reindeer ,lemonnier4 #ab ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,a few remarks in reference to some of these constellations1 and the glorious orbs which they help to indicate to mortal eyes1 may fitly close this chapter4 ,we have already alluded to ,ursa ,major1 which forms one of the most conspicuous objects of the northern heavens4 ,it has borne different names1 at different times1 and among different peoples4 ,it was the of the ,greeks2 the 8,septem triones0 of the ,latins4 ,it is known in some parts as ,david's ,chariot2 the ,chinese call it1 ,tcheou-pey4 ,night and day this constellation watches above the northern horizon1 revolving1 with slow and majestic march1 around ,polaris1 in four and twenty hours4 ,the quadrangle of stars in the body of the ,great ,bear forms the wheels of the chariot2 the triangle in its tail1 the chariot-pole4 ,above the second of the three latter shines the small star ,alcor1 also named the ,horseman4 ,the ,arabs call it ,saidak1 or 8the ,test10 because they use it to try the range and strength of a person's vision4 ,this brilliant northern constellation1 composed1 with the exception of 1 of stars of the second magnitude1 has frequently been celebrated by poets4 ,we may paraphrase1 for the advantage of our readers1 a glowing apostrophe from the pen of the ,american ,ware3-- ,with what grand and majestic steps1 he says1 it moves forward in its eternal circle1 following among the stars its regal way in a slow and silent splendour6 ,mighty creation1 ,i salute thee6 ,i love to see thee wandering in the shining paths like a giant proud of his strong girdle--severe1 indefatigable1 resolved--whose feet never lag in the road which lies before them4 ,other tribes abandon their nocturnal course and rest their weary orbs under the waves2 but thou1 thou never closest thy burning eyes1 and never suspendest thy determined steps4 ,forward1 ever forward6 ,while systems change1 and suns retire1 and worlds fall to sleep and awake again1 thou pursuest thy endless march4 ,the near horizon attempts to check thee1 but in vain4 ,a watchful sentinel1 thou never quittest thy age-long duty2 but1 without allowing thyself to be surprised by sleep1 thou guardest the fixed light of the universe1 and preventest the north from ever forgetting its place4 ,seven stars dwell in that shining company2 the eye embraces them all at a single glance2 their distances from one another1 however1 are not less than the distance of each from ,earth4 ,and this again is the reciprocal distance of the celestial centres or foci4 ,from depths of heaven1 unexplored by thought1 the piercing rays dart across the void1 revealing to our senses innumerable worlds and systems4 ,let us arm our vision with the telescope1 and let us survey the firmament4 ,the skies open wide2 a shower of sparkling fires descends upon our head2 the stars close up their ranks1 are condensed in regions so remote that their swift rays 7swifter than aught else in creation7 must travel for centuries before they can reach our ,earth4 ,earth1 sun1 and ye constellations1 what are ye among this infinite immensity and the multitude of the ,divine works6 ,if we face towards the ,pole-,star1 which1 as we have seen1 preserves its place in the centre of the northern region of the sky1 we have the south behind us1 the east is on our right1 the west upon our left4 ,all the stars revolving round the ,pole-,star1 from right to left1 should be recognized according to their mutual relations rather than referred to the cardinal points4 ,on the other side of ,polaris1 as compared with the ,great ,bear1 we find another constellation which is easily recognized4 ,if from the central star we carry a line to the ,pole1 and then prolong it for an equal distance1 we traverse the constellation of ,cassiopeia1 composed of five stars of the third magnitude1 disposed somewhat like the outer jambs of the letter ,m4 ,the small star 1 terminating the square1 gives it also the form of a chair4 ,this group occupies every possible situation in revolving round the ,pole1 being at one time above it1 at another below1 now on the left1 and then on the right2 but it is always readily found1 because1 like ,ursa ,major1 to which it is invariably opposite1 it never sets4 ,the ,pole-,star is the axle round which these two constellations revolve4 ,if we now draw1 from the stars and in ,ursa ,major1 two lines meeting at the ,pole1 and afterwards extend them beyond ,cassiopeia1 they will abut on the square of ,pegasus1 which is bounded on one of its sides by a group1 or series1 of three stars resembling the triangle in ,ursa ,major4 ,these three belong to the constellation of ,andromeda 71 1 and 71 and themselves abut on another three-orbed group1 that of ,perseus4 ,the last star in the square of ,perseus is also the first of ,andromeda3 the other three are named1 ,algenib1 2 ,markab1 2 and ,scheat1 4 ,to the north of ,andromeda 1 and near a small star1 1 the ,arctic traveller will discern an oblong nebula1 which may be compared to the light of a taper seen through a sheet of horn2 this is the first nebula to which any allusion occurs in the annals of astronomy4 ,in ,perseus 1 an orb of great brilliancy1 on the prolonged plane of the three principal stars of ,andromeda1 shines with steady lustre between two less dazzling spheres1 and forms in conjunction with them a concave arc very easily distinguished4 ,of this arc we may avail ourselves as a new point of departure4 ,by prolonging it in the direction of 1 we come to a very bright star of the first magnitude1 the ,goat4 ,by forming a right angle to this prolongation in a southerly direction we come to that glorious mass of stars1 not very frequently above the ,polar horizon1 the ,pleiads4 ,these were held in evil repute among the ancients4 ,their appearance was supposed to be ominous of violent storms1 and ,valerius ,flaccus speaks of them as fatal to ships4 ,illustration3 ,,nebula ,,in ,,andromeda4 ,algol1 or ,medusa's ,head1 known to astronomers as ,perseus 1 belongs to the singular class of ,variable ,stars4 ,instead of shining with a constant lustre1 like other orbs1 it is sometimes very brilliant1 and sometimes very pale2 passing1 apparently1 from the second to the fourth magnitude4 ,according to ,goodricke1 its period of variation is #b days #bj hours #dh minutes4 ,this phenomenal character was first observed by ,maraldi in #afid2 but the duration of the change was determined by ,goodricke in #aghb4 ,for two days and fourteen hours it continues at its brightest1 and shines a glory in the heavens4 ,then its lustre suddenly begins to wane1 and in three hours and a half is reduced to its minimum4 ,its weakest period1 however1 does not last more than about fifteen minutes4 ,it then begins to increase in brightness1 and in three hours and a half more it is restored to its full splendour2 thus passing through its succession of changes in #b days #bj hours #dh minutes4 ,this singular periodicity suggested to ,goodricke the idea of some opaque body revolving around the star1 and by interposing between it and the ,earth cutting off a portion of its light4 ,algol is one of the most interesting of the welcome stars which kindle in the long ,arctic darkness4 ,the star in ,perseus1 situated above the 8stormy ,pleiads10 is double2 that is1 a binary star4 in ,ursa ,major is also a twin-star2 and so is ,polaris1 the second and smaller star appearing a mere speck in comparison with its companion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these are the principal stars and starry groups in the ,circumpolar ,regions of the heavens1 on one side2 let us now turn our attention to the other4 ,for this purpose we must again take the ,great ,bear as our starting-point4 ,prolonging the tail in its curvature1 the ,arctic traveller notes1 at some distance from it1 a star of the first magnitude1 ,arcturus1 or ,botes 4 ,this star1 though without any authority1 was at one time considered the nearest to the ,earth of all the starry host4 ,about #aj to the north-east of it is ,mirac1 or ,botes2 one of the most beautiful objects in the heavens1 on account of the contrasted hues1 yellow and azure1 of the two stars composing it4 ,unfortunately1 the twin-orbs cannot be distinctly seen except with a telescope of two hundred magnifying power4 ,a small ring of stars to the left of ,botes is appropriately known as ,corona ,borealis1 or the ,northern ,crown4 ,the constellation of ,botes forms a pentagon2 and the stars composing it are all of the third magnitude1 with the exception of 1 which is of the first4 ,arcturus1 as we have said1 was anciently considered the star nearest to the ,earth4 ,it is1 at all events1 one of the nearest1 and belongs to the small number of those whose distance our astronomers have succeeded in calculating4 ,it is #fa trillions1 #gab1jjj millions of leagues from our planet2 a distance of which we can form no appreciable conception4 ,moreover1 it is a coloured star2 on examining it through a telescope we see that it is of the same hue as the 8red planet ,mars40 ,by carrying a line from the ,polar ,star to ,arcturus1 and raising a perpendicular in the middle of this line1 opposite to ,ursa ,major1 the observer of the ,arctic skies will discover one of the most luminous orbs of night1 ,vega1 or ,lyra1 near the ,milky ,way4 ,the star ,lyra1 or ,sheliak1 is a variable star1 changing from the third to the fifth magnitude1 and accomplishing its variation in #f days #aj hours and #cd minutes4 and ,lyra are quadruple systems1 each composed of binary or twin-stars4 ,the line drawn from ,arcturus to ,vega cuts the constellation of ,hercules4 ,between ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor may be observed a prolonged series of small stars1 coiling1 as it were1 in a number of convolutions1 and extending towards ,vega3 these belong to the constellation of the ,dragon4 ,such are the principal objects which attract the attention of the traveller1 when contemplating the star-studded firmament of the ,arctic night4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,polar ,,seas3 ,,icebergs--,,ice-,,floes--,,the ,,seal--,,the ,,walrus ,,the ,,narwhal--,,the ,,whale--,,sundry ,,forms ,,of ,,marine ,,life4 ,those masses of ice which1 towering to a considerable elevation above the surface of the water1 are carried hither and thither by the currents of the ,polar ,sea1 are known as ,icebergs4 ,they are fresh-water formations1 originating in the great glaciers of the northern highlands4 ,for as the rivers continuously pour their waters into the ocean1 so do the glaciers incessantly glide downward from the head of the valleys which they occupy1 until1 arriving on the coast1 they throw off their terminal projections1 to be carried afar by the action of the tidal waves4 ,these bergs1 or floating mountains1 are sometimes #bej to #cjj feet above the level of the sea1 and their capacity or bulk is invariably equal to their height4 ,from their specific gravity it has been calculated that the volume of an iceberg below the water is eight times that of the portion rising above it4 ,they are frequently of the most imposing magnitude4 ,ross1 in his first expedition1 fell in with one in ,baffin ,bay1 at a distance of seven leagues from land1 which had gone aground in sixty-one fathoms water4 ,its dimensions1 according to ,lieutenant ,parry1 were #d1afi yards in length1 #c1hfi yards in breadth1 and #ea feet in height4 ,its configuration is described as resembling that of the back of the ,isle of ,wight1 while its cliffs recalled those chalky ramparts which stretch their glittering line to the west of ,dover4 ,its weight was computed at #a1bib1cig1fgc tons4 ,captain ,graab examined a mass1 on the west coast of ,greenland1 which rose #abj feet out of the water1 measured #d1jjj feet in circumference at the base1 and was calculated to be equal in bulk to upwards of #ijj1jjj1jjj cubic feet4 ,dr4 ,hayes took the measurements of a berg which had stranded off the little harbour of ,tessuissak1 to the north of ,melville ,bay4 ,the square wall which faced towards his base of triangulation was somewhat more than three-quarters of a mile in length1 and #cae feet in height4 ,as it was nearly square-sided above the sea1 it would be of the same shape beneath it2 and1 according to the ratio already given1 must have drifted aground in a depth of fully half a mile4 ,in other words1 from base to summit it must have stood as high as the peak of ,snowdon4 ,its cubical contents cannot have been less than about #bg1jjj1jjj1jjj feet1 nor its weight than #b1jjj1jjj1jjj tons6 ,when seen from a distance1 the spectacle of any considerable number of these slowly-moving mountains is very impressive1 and it becomes particularly magnificent if it should be lit up by the splendour of the midnight sun4 ,they are not only majestic in size1 but sublime in appearance1 at one time assuming the likeness of a grand cathedral church1 at another1 of a lofty obelisk2 now of a dazzling pyramid1 and now of a cluster of lofty towers4 ,nature would seem to have lavished upon them all her architectural fancy2 and as they are grandly swept along1 one might be pardoned for supposing them to be the sea-washed palaces of a race of ocean ,titans4 ,illustration3 ,,arched ,,iceberg ,,off ,,the ,,greenland ,,coast4 ,in ,melville ,bay1 ,dr4 ,kane's ship anchored to an iceberg1 which protected it from the fury of a violent gale4 ,but he had not long enjoyed the tranquil shelter it afforded1 when a din of loud crackling sounds was heard above2 and small fragments of ice1 not larger than a walnut1 began to dot the water1 like the first big drops of a thunder-shower4 ,dr4 ,kane and his crew did not neglect these indications2 they had barely time to cast off1 however1 before the face of the icy cliff fell in ruins1 crashing like near artillery4 ,afterwards he made fast to a larger berg1 which he describes as a moving breakwater1 and of gigantic proportions2 it kept its course steadily towards the north4 ,when he got under weigh1 and made for the north-east1 through a labyrinth of ice-floes1 he was favoured with a gorgeous spectacle1 which hardly any excitement of peril could have induced him to overlook4 ,the midnight sun came out over the northern crest of the huge berg1 kindling variously-coloured fires on every part of its surface1 and making the ice around one sublime transparency of illuminated gem-work1 blazing carbuncles1 and rubies and molten gold4 ,illustration3 ,,among ,,the ,,bergs--,a ,,narrow ,,escape4 ,dr4 ,hayes describes an immense berg which resembled in its general aspect the ,westminster ,palace of ,sir ,charles ,barry's creation4 ,it went to ruin before his eyes4 ,first one tall tower tumbled headlong into the water1 starting from its surface an innumerable swarm of gulls2 then another followed2 and at length1 after five hours of terrible disruption and crashing1 not a fragment that rose fifty feet above the water remained of this architectural colossus of ice4 ,these floating isles of ice are carried southward fully two thousand miles from their parent glaciers to melt in the ,atlantic1 where they communicate a perceptible coldness to the water for thirty or forty miles around1 while their influence on the atmospheric temperature may be recognized at a greater distance4 ,their number is extraordinary4 ,as many as seven hundred bergs1 each loftier than the dome of ,st4 ,paul's1 some than the cross of ,st4 ,peter's1 have been seen at once in the ,polar basin2 as if the ,frost ,king had despatched an armada to oppose the rash enterprise of man in penetrating within his dominions4 ,the waves break against them as against an iron-bound coast1 and often the spray is flung over their very summits1 like the spray of the rolling waters of the ,channel over the crest of the ,eddystone ,lighthouse4 ,the ice crumbles from their face1 and tumbles down into the sea with a roar like that of artillery2 and as they waste away1 through the combined action of air and water1 they occasionally lose their equilibrium and topple over1 producing a swell and a violent commotion which break up the neighbouring ice-fields3 the tumult spreads far and wide1 and thunder seems to peal around4 ,the fractures or rents frequently visible in the glittering cliffs of the icebergs are of an emerald green1 and look like patches of beautiful fresh sward on cliffs of chalk2 while pools of water of the most exquisite sapphirine blue shine resplendent on their surface1 or leap down their craggy sides in luminous cascades4 ,even in the night they are readily distinguished from afar by their effulgence2 and in foggy1 hazy weather1 by a peculiar blackness in the atmosphere4 ,as the ,greenland ,current frequently drifts them to the south of ,newfoundland1 and even to the #djth or #cith parallel of latitude1 the ships and steamers crossing between ,europe and ,america sometimes meet them on their track4 ,to come into collision with them is certain destruction2 and it is probable that some of those ill-fated vessels which have left their harbours in safety1 but have never since been heard of1--as1 for example1 the steamer ,president1--have perished through this cause4 ,but if they are sometimes dangerous to the mariner1 they often prove his security4 ,as most of their bulk lies below the water-surface1 they are either carried along by under-currents against the wind1 or else from their colossal size they are able to defy the strongest gale1 and to move along with majestic slowness when every other kind of ice is driven swiftly past them4 ,and hence it happens that1 when the wind is contrary1 the whaler is glad to bring his ship into smooth water under their lee4 ,in describing the difficulties of his passage through the loose and drifting ice near ,cape ,york1 and the broken ice-fields1 ,dr4 ,kane records the assistance he derived from the large icebergs1 to which he moored his vessel1 and thus was enabled1 he says1 to hold his own1 however rapidly the surface-floes were passing by him to the south4 ,yet anchoring to a berg brings with it an occasional peril4 ,as we have already said1 large pieces frequently loosen themselves from the summit or sides1 and fall into the sea with a far-resounding crash4 ,when this operation1 8calving10 as it is called1 takes place1 woe to the unfortunate ship which lies beneath6 ,all ice becomes excessively brittle under the influence of the sun or of a temperate atmosphere1 and a single blow from an axe will suffice to split a huge berg asunder1 burying the heedless adventurer beneath the ruins1 or hurling him into the yawning chasm4 ,dr4 ,scoresby records the adventure of two sailors who had been sent to attach an anchor to a berg4 ,they set to work to hew a hole in the ice1 but scarcely had the first blow been struck1 when the colossal mass rent from top to bottom and fell asunder1 the two halves falling in opposite directions with a tremendous uproar4 ,one of the sailors1 with remarkable presence of mind1 instantly clambered up the huge fragment on which he was sitting1 and remained rocking to and fro on the dizzy summit until its equilibrium was restored2 the other1 falling between the masses1 would probably have been crushed to death if the current caused by their commotion had not swept him within reach of the boat that was waiting for them4 ,fastening to a berg1 says ,sherard ,osborn1 has its risks and dangers4 ,sometimes the first stroke of the man setting the ice-anchor1 by its concussion1 causes the iceberg to break up1 and the people so employed run great risk of being injured2 at another time1 vessels obliged to make fast under the steep side of a berg have been seriously damaged by pieces detaching themselves from overhead2 and1 again1 the projecting masses1 called tongues1 which form under water the base of the berg1 have been known to break off1 and strike a vessel so severely as to sink her4 ,all these perils are duly detailed by every ,arctic navigator1 who is always mindful1 in mooring to an iceberg1 to look for a side which is low and sloping1 without any tongues under water4 ,captain ,parry was once witness of that sublime spectacle1 which1 though of frequent occurrence1 is seldom seen by human eyes1 the entire dissolution of an enormous iceberg4 ,its huge size and massiveness had been specially remarked1 and men thought that it might well resist 8a century of sun and thaw40 ,it looked as large as ,westminster ,abbey4 ,all on board ,captain ,parry's ship described as a most wonderful spectacle this iceberg1 without any warning1 completely breaking up4 ,the sea around it became a seething caldron1 from the violent plunging of the masses1 as they broke and re-broke in a thousand pieces4 ,the floes1 torn up for a distance of two miles around it1 by the violent action of the rolling waters1 threatened1 from the agitation of the ice1 to destroy any vessel that had been amongst them2 and ,captain ,parry and his crew congratulated themselves that they were sufficiently far from the scene to witness its sublimity without being involved in its danger4 ,illustration3 ,,iceberg ,,and ,,ice-,,field1 ,,melville ,,bay1 ,,greenland ,icebergs chiefly abound in ,baffin ,bay1 and in the gulfs and inlets connected with it4 ,they are particularly numerous in the great indentation known as ,melville ,bay1 the whole interior of the country bordering upon it being the seat of immense glaciers1 and these are constantly 8shedding off0 icebergs of the largest dimensions4 ,the greater bulk of these is1 as we have explained1 below the water-line2 and the consequent depth to which they sink when floating subjects them to the action of the deeper ocean-currents1 while their broad surface above the water is1 of course1 acted on by the wind4 ,it happens1 therefore1 as ,dr4 ,kane remarks1 that they are found not infrequently moving in different directions from the floes around them1 and preventing them for a time from freezing into a united mass4 ,still1 in the late winter1 when the cold has thoroughly set in1 ,melville ,bay becomes a continuous mass of ice1 from ,cape ,york to the ,devil's ,thumb4 ,at other times1 this region justifies the name the whalers have bestowed upon it of 8,bergy ,hole40 ,captain ,beechey1 in his voyage with ,buchan1 in #ahah1 had an opportunity of witnessing the formation of a 8berg10 or rather of two of these immense masses4 ,in ,magdalena ,bay he had taken the ship's launch near the shore to examine a magnificent glacier1 when the discharge of a gun caused an instantaneous disruption of its bulk4 ,a noise resembling thunder was heard in the direction of the glacier1 and in a few seconds more an immense piece broke away1 and fell headlong into the sea4 ,the crew of the launch1 supposing themselves beyond the reach of its influence1 quietly looked upon the scene1 when a sea arose and rolled towards the shore with such rapidity that the boat was washed upon the beach and filled4 ,as soon as their astonishment had subsided1 they examined the boat1 and found her so badly stove that it was necessary to repair her before they could return to their ship4 ,they had also the curiosity to measure the distance the boat had been carried by the wave1 and ascertained that it was ninety-six feet4 ,a short time afterwards1 when ,captain ,beechey and ,lieutenant ,franklin had approached one of these stupendous walls of ice1 and were endeavouring to search into the innermost recess of a deep cavern that lay near the foot of the glacier1 they suddenly heard a report1 as of a cannon1 and turning to the quarter whence it proceeded1 perceived an immense section of the front of the glacier sliding down from the height of two hundred feet at least into the sea1 and dispersing the water in every direction1 accompanied by a loud grinding noise1 and followed by an outflow of water1 which1 being previously lodged in the fissures1 now made its escape in innumerable tiny flashing rills and cataracts4 ,the mass thus disengaged at first disappeared wholly under water1 and nothing could be seen but a violent seething of the sea1 and the ascent of clouds of glittering spray1 such as that which occurs at the foot of a great waterfall4 ,but after a short time it reappeared1 raising its head fully a hundred feet above the surface1 with water streaming down on every side2 and then labouring1 as if doubtful which way it should fall1 it rolled over1 rocked to and fro for a few minutes1 and finally became settled4 ,on approaching and measuring it1 ,beechey found it to be nearly a quarter of a mile in circumference1 and sixty feet out of the water4 ,knowing its specific gravity1 and making a fair allowance for its inequalities1 he computed its weight at #dba1ffj tons4 ,in ,parry's first voyage he passed in one day fifty icebergs of large dimensions1 just after crossing the ,arctic ,circle2 and on the following day a still more extended chain of ice-peaks of still larger size1 against which a heavy southerly swell was violently driven1 dashing the loose ice with tremendous force1 sometimes flinging a white spray over them to the height of more than one hundred feet1 and accompanied by a loud noise 8exactly resembling the roar of distant thunder40 ,between one of these bergs and a detached floe the ,hecla1 ,parry's ship1 had nearly1 as the whalers say1 been 8nipped10 or crushed4 ,the berg was about one hundred and forty feet high1 and aground in one hundred and twenty fathoms1 so that its whole height must have exceeded eight hundred feet2 that is1 it was of a bulk equal to ,st4 ,catherine's ,down in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,in his second voyage ,parry speaks of fifty-four icebergs visible at one time1 some of which were not less than two hundred feet above the sea2 and again of thirty of these huge masses1 many of them whirled about by the tides like straws on a mill-stream4 ,icebergs can originate only in regions where glaciers abound3 the former are the offspring of the latter1 and where land unsuitable to the production of the latter does not exist1 the former are never found4 ,hence1 in ,baffin ,bay1 where steep cliffs of cold granite frown over almost fathomless waters1 the 8monarch of glacial formations0 floats slowly from the ravine which has been its birthplace1 until fairly launched into the depths of ocean1 and1 8after long years10 drifts into the warmer regions of the ,atlantic to assist in the preservation of ,nature's laws of equilibrium of temperature of the air and water4 ,there was a time when men of science1 and1 amongst others1 the ,french philosopher ,st4 ,pierre1 believed that icebergs were the snow and ice of ages accumulated upon an ,arctic sea1 which1 forming at the ,poles1 detached themselves from the parent mass4 ,such an hypothesis naturally gave rise to many theories1 not less ingenious than startling1 as to the effect an incessant accumulation of ice must produce on the globe itself2 and ,st4 ,pierre hinted at the possibility of the huge 8domes of ice0--which1 as he supposed1 rose to an immense height in the keen frosty heavens of the ,poles--suddenly launching towards the ,equator1 dissolving under a tropical sun1 and resulting in a second deluge6 ,in simple language ,professor ,tyndall furnishes an explanation of the origin of icebergs1 which we may transfer to these pages as supplementary to the preceding remarks4 ,illustration3 ,,origin of ,,icebergs--,,extension ,,of ,a ,,glacier ,,seawards4 ,what is their origin8 he asks2 and he replies1 as we have done1 the ,arctic glaciers4 ,from the mountains in the interior the indurated snows slide into the valleys1 and fill them with ice4 ,the glaciers thus created move1 like the ,swiss ones1 incessantly downward4 ,but the ,arctic glaciers descend to the sea1 and even enter it1 frequently ploughing up its bottom into submarine moraines4 ,undermined by the continuous action of the waves1 and unable to resist the pressure of their own weight1 they break across1 and discharge enormous masses into the ocean4 ,some of these drift on the adjacent shores1 and often maintain themselves for years4 ,others float away to the southward1 and pass into the broad ,atlantic1 where they are finally dissolved4 ,but a vast amount of heat is demanded for the simple liquefaction of ice1 and the melting of icebergs is on this account so slow that1 when large1 they sometimes maintain themselves till they have been drifted two thousand miles from their place of birth4 ,icebergs1 then1 are fresh-water formations1 and though they are found on a colossal scale only in the ,polar seas1 yet they are by no means uncommon among the lofty ,alpine lakes4 ,the monarch of ,european ice-rivers is the great ,aletsch glacier1 at the head of the valley of the ,rhone4 ,it is about twenty miles in length1 and collects its materials from the snow-drifts of the grandest mountains of the ,bernese ,oberland--the ,jungfrau1 the ,mnch1 the ,trugberg1 the ,aletschhorn1 the ,breithorn1 and the ,gletscherhorn4 ,from the peak of the ggischhorn the ,alpine traveller obtains a fine view of its river-like course1 and he sees beneath him1 on the right hand1 and surrounded by sheltering mountains1 an object of almost startling beauty4 8,yonder10 says ,tyndall1#f 8we see the naked side of the glacier1 exposing glistening ice-cliffs sixty or seventy feet high4 ,it would seem as if the ,aletsch here were engaged in the vain attempt to thrust an arm through a lateral valley4 ,it once did so2 but the arm is now incessantly broken off close to the body of the glacier1 a great space formerly covered by the ice being occupied by its water of liquefaction4 ,in this way a lake of the loveliest blue is formed1 which reaches quite to the base of the ice-cliffs1 saps them1 as the ,arctic waves sap the ,greenland glaciers1 and receives from them the broken masses which it has undermined4 ,as we look down upon the lake1 small icebergs sail over the tranquil surface1 each resembling a snowy swan accompanied by its shadow40 ,this lake is the ,mrjelen ,sea of the ,swiss4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,aletsch ,,glacier1 ,,switzerland1 ,,from ,,the ,,ggischhorn1 ,,showing ,,its ,,moraines4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,m,,rjelen ,,sea1 ,,switzerland4 ,professor ,tyndall goes on to describe a spectacle which he witnessed1 and which1 as we have seen1 is of frequent occurrence in the ,arctic ,seas4 ,a large and lonely iceberg was floating in the middle of the lake4 ,suddenly he heard a sound like that of a cataract1 and on looking towards the iceberg could see the water teeming from its sides4 ,whence came the water8 ,the berg had become top-heavy through the melting underneath2 it was in the act of performing a somersault1 and in rolling over carried with it a vast quantity of water1 which rushed like a waterfall down its sides4 ,and the iceberg1 which1 but a moment before1 was snowy white1 now exhibited the delicate blue colour characteristic of compact ice4 ,it would soon1 however1 be rendered white again by the action of the sun4 ,we may contrast this picture of the solitary iceberg in the centre of the dark-blue lake with one which ,dr4 ,hayes describes in his picturesque voyage in the open ,polar ,sea4 ,after passing ,upernavik he saw a heavy line of icebergs lying across his course1 and having no alternative1 shot in among them4 ,some of them proved to be of immense size--upwards of two hundred feet in height1 and a mile in length2 others were not larger than the schooner which wound her way amongst them4 ,their forms were as various as their dimensions1 from solid wall-sided masses of dead whiteness1 with waterfalls tumbling from them1 to an old weather-worn accumulation of ,gothic spires1 whose crystal peaks and sharp angles melted into the blue sky4 ,they seemed to be endless and innumerable1 and so close together that at a little distance they appeared to form upon the sea an unbroken canopy of ice4 ,dr4 ,hayes records an adventure which may serve to give the reader an idea of the nature of the perils encountered by the ,arctic explorer4 ,the ocean-current was carrying his schooner towards a labyrinth of icebergs at an uncomfortably rapid rate4 ,a boat was therefore lowered1 to moor a cable to a berg which lay grounded at about a hundred yards distant4 ,while this was being done the schooner absolutely grazed the side of a berg which rose a hundred feet above her topmasts1 and then slipped past another of smaller dimensions4 ,but a strong eddy at this moment carried her against a huge floating mass1 and though the shock was slight1 it proved sufficient to disengage some fragments of ice large enough to have crushed the vessel had they struck her4 ,the berg then began to revolve1 slowly and ponderously1 and to settle slowly over the threatened ship1 whose destruction seemed a thing of certainty4 ,fortunately1 she was saved by the action of the berg4 ,an immense mass broke off from that part which lay beneath the water-surface1 and this colossal fragment1 a dozen times larger than the schooner1 came rushing up within a few yards of them1 sending a vast volume of foam and water flying from its sides4 ,this rupture arrested the rotatory motion of the berg1 which then began to settle in another direction1 and the schooner was able to sheer off4 ,at this moment the crew were startled by a loud report4 ,another and another followed in quick succession1 until the din grew deafening1 and the whole air seemed a reservoir of chaotic sounds4 ,the opposite side of the berg had split off1 piece after piece1 toppling a vast volume of ice into the sea1 and sending the berg revolving back upon the ship4 ,then the side nearest to them underwent the same singular process of disruption1 and came plunging wildly down into the sea1 sending over them a shower of spray1 and raising a swell which rocked the ship to and fro as in a gale of wind1 and left her grinding in the dbris of the crumbling ruin4 8,the ice was here1 ,the ice was there1 ,the ice was all around2 ,it creaked and growled1 ,and roared and howled1 ,like demons in a swound40 ,it is impossible1 we should say1 for any one who has not had actual experience of the conditions of the ,arctic world1 to comprehend or imagine the immense quantity of ice upborne on its cold bleak waters4 ,the mere enumeration of the floating bergs at times defies the navigator4 ,dr4 ,hayes once counted as far as five hundred1 and then gave up in despair4 ,near by they stood out1 he says1 in all the rugged harshness of their sharp outlines2 and from this1 softening with the distance1 they melted away into the clear gray sky2 and there1 far off upon the sea of liquid silver1 the imagination conjured up the strangest and most wonderful groups and objects4 ,birds and beasts and human forms and architectural designs took shape in the distant masses of blue and white4 ,the dome of ,st4 ,peter's was recognizable here2 then the spire of a village church rose sharp and distinct2 and under the shadow of the ,pyramids nestled a ,byzantine tower and a ,grecian temple4 8,to the eastward10 says ,dr4 ,hayes1 describing a similar scene1 8the sea was dotted with little islets--dark specks upon a brilliant surface4 ,icebergs1 great and small1 crowded through the channels which divided them1 until in the far distance they appeared massed together1 terminating against a snow-covered plain that sloped upward until it was lost in a dim line of bluish whiteness4 ,this line could be traced behind the serrated coast as far to the north and south as the eye could carry4 ,it was the great ,mer de ,glace#g which covers the length and breadth of the ,greenland continent4 ,the snow-covered slope was a glacier descending therefrom--the parent stem from which had been discharged1 at irregular intervals1 many of the icebergs which troubled us so much40 ,we have now brought together a sufficient number of data to assist the reader in forming a vivid conception of those monsters of the ,polar ,seas1 the icebergs2 and to enable him1 unless he is very slow of imagination1 to realize to himself what they are1 and what their general aspect is4 ,but we may add one interesting detail1 noticed by ,mr4 ,lament1 the persevering seal-hunter1 which is very generally overlooked4 ,in the course of the brief ,arctic summer the increased solar warmth has a perceptible effect upon the solid ice1 and it becomes undermined and honeycombed1 or1 as the sailors call it1 8rotten10 like a chalk cliff4 ,it decays fastest1 apparently1 8between wind and water10 so that enormous caverns are excavated in the sides of the bergs4 ,poets never dreamed of anything more beautiful than these crystal vaults1 which sometimes appear of a deep ultramarine blue1 and at others of an emerald-green tint4 ,one could fancy them the favourite haunts of mermaids and mermen1 and of every kind of sea monster2 but1 in truth1 no animal ever enters them2 the water dashing in and out through their icy caves and tunnels makes a sonorous but rather monotonous and melancholy sound4 ,in moderately calm weather many of these excavated bergs assume the form of gigantic mushrooms1 and all kinds of fantastic outlines2 but as soon as a breeze of wind arises they break up into little pieces with great rapidity4 ,icebergs are met with on every side of the ,southern ,pole1 and on every meridian of the great ,antarctic ,ocean4 ,but such is not the case in the ,north4 ,in the #cfjth meridian of longitude which intersects the parallel of #gj ,n41 icebergs spread over an extent only of about fifty-five degrees1 and this is immediately in and about ,greenland and ,baffin ,bay4 ,or1 as ,admiral ,osborn puts it1 for #a1cge miles of longitude we have icebergs1 and then for #g1fce geographical miles none are met with4 ,this fact is1 as the same writer calls it1 most interesting1 and points strongly to the probability that no extensive area of land exists about the ,north ,pole2 a supposition strengthened by another fact1 that the vast ice-fields off ,spitzbergen show no signs of ever having been in contact with land or gravel4 ,illustration3 ,,fall ,,of ,,an ,,iceberg4 ,another difficulty which besets the ,arctic navigator is the 8pack-ice40 ,in winter1 the ice from the ,north ,pole descends so far south as to render the coast of ,newfoundland inaccessible2 it envelops ,greenland1 sometimes even ,iceland1 and always surrounds and blocks up ,spitzbergen and ,novaia ,zemlaia4 ,but as the sun comes north this vast frozen expanse1 which stretches over several thousands of square miles1 breaks up into enormous masses4 ,when these extend horizontally for a considerable distance they are called ice-fields4 ,a floe is a detached portion of a field2 a large area of floes1 closely compact together1 is known as pack-ice2 while drift-ice is loose ice in motion1 and not so firmly welded as to prevent a ship from forcing her way through the yielding fragments4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,an ,,ice-,,pack1 ,,melville ,,bay4 ,this 8pack-ice10 however1 is the great obstacle to ,arctic exploration2 and frequently it presents a barrier which no human enterprise or skill can overpass4 ,at times1 it has been found possible to cut a channel through it1 or it breaks up and opens a water-way through which the bold adventurer steers4 ,in #ahjf1 ,captain ,scoresby forced his ship through two hundred and fifty miles of pack-ice1 in imminent peril1 until he reached the parallel of #ha #ej'1--;his nearest approach to the ,pole4 ,in #ahbg1 ,sir ,edward ,parry gained the latitude of #hb #de'1 by dragging a boat over the ice-fields1 but was then compelled to abandon his daring and hazardous attempt1 because the current carried the ice southward more rapidly than he could traverse it to the north4 ,in warm summers this mass of ice will suddenly clear away and leave an open streak of silver sea along the west coast of ,spitzbergen1 varying in width from sixty to one hundred and fifty miles1 and reaching as high as #hj or #hj #cj' ,n4 latitude4 ,it was through this channel that ,scoresby bore his ship on the expedition to which we have just alluded4 ,a direct course from the ,thames1 across the ,pole1 to ,behring ,strait is #c1egj geographical miles2 by ,lancaster ,sound it is #d1ffj miles4 ,the ,russians would be saved a voyage of #ah1jjj geographical miles could they strike across the ,pole and through ,behring ,strait to ,british ,columbia1 instead of going by ,cape ,horn4 ,illustration3 ,,channel ,,in ,,an ,,ice-,,field4 ,ice-fields1 twenty to thirty miles across1 are of frequent occurrence in the great ,northern ,ocean2 sometimes they extend fully one hundred miles1 so closely and solidly packed that no opening1 even for a boat1 intervenes between them2 they vary in thickness from ten to forty or even fifty feet4 ,at times these fields1 which are many thousand millions of tons in weight1 acquire a rapid rotatory motion1 and dash against one another with a fury of which no words can give an accurate idea4 ,the reader knows what awful results are produced by the collision of two railway trains1 and may succeed1 perhaps1 in forming some feeble conception of this still more appalling scene when he remembers the huge dimensions and solidity of the opposing forces4 ,the waters seethe and foam1 as if lashed by a tremendous tempest2 the air is smitten into stillness by the chaos of sounds1 the creaking1 and rending1 and cracking1 and heaving1 as the two ice-fields are hurled against each other4 ,illustration3 8,,nipped0 ,,in ,,an ,,ice-,,field4 ,woe to the ship caught between these grinding masses6 ,no vessel ever built by human hands could resist their pressure2 and many a whaler1 navigating amid the floating fields1 especially in foggy weather1 has thus been doomed to destruction4 ,some have been caught up like reeds1 and flung helplessly upon the ice2 others have been overrun by the ice1 and buried beneath the accumulated fragments2 others have been dashed to pieces1 and have gone down suddenly with all on board4 ,the records of ,arctic exploration are full of stories of 8hairbreadth escapes0 from the perils of the ice-field and the ice-floe4 ,here is one which we borrow from the voyage of the ,dorothea and the ,trent1 under ,captain ,buchan and ,lieutenant ,franklin4 ,the two vessels were making for ,magdalena ,bay1 when they were caught in a violent storm1 and compelled to heave-to under storm stay-sails4 ,next morning 7,june #cj7 the ice was seen along the lee1 with a furious sea breaking upon it4 ,close-reefed sails were out in the hope of weathering the danger4 ,when ,buchan found that this could not be effected by his ship1 a slow and heavy sailer1 he resolved on the desperate expedient of 8taking the pack10 in preference to falling1 broadside on1 among the roaring breakers and crashing ice4 8,heaven help them60 was the involuntary cry of those on board the ,trent1 and the prayer was all the more earnest from the conviction that a similar fate would soon be their own4 ,the ,dorothea wore1 and1 impelled by wind and sea1 rushed towards what seemed inevitable destruction2 those in the ,trent held their breath while they watched the perilous exploit4 ,the suspense lasted but a moment1 for the vessel1 like a snow-flake before the storm1 drove into the awful scene of foam1 and spray1 and broken ice1 which formed a wall impenetrable to mortal eyesight4 ,whether she was lost or saved1 the gallant hearts on board the ,trent would never know until they too were forced into a manuvre which appeared like rushing into the jaws of death4 ,but it was inevitable2 and when ,franklin had made all his preparations1 he gave1 in firm1 decisive tones1 the order to 8put up the helm40 ,no language1 says ,admiral ,beechey1 who was then serving as a lieutenant on board the ,trent1 can convey an adequate idea of the terrific grandeur of the effects produced by the collision of the ice and the tempestuous ocean4 ,no language1 on the other hand1 can convey an idea of the heroic calmness and resolution of ,franklin and his crew4 ,as they approached the terrible scene1 ,franklin watched for one opening less hazardous than another2 but there was none4 ,before them stretched one long line of frightful breakers1 immense blocks of ice heaving1 rearing1 and hurtling against one another with a din which rendered the loud voice of the gallant commander almost inaudible4 ,on the crest of a huge billow the little ,trent rushed into the horrible turmoil2 a shock1 which quivered through the ship from stem to stern1 and the crew were flung upon the deck1 and the masts bent like willow wands4 8,hold on1 for your lives1 and stand to the helm1 lads60 shouted ,franklin4 8,ay1 ay1 sir10 was the steady response from many a heroic heart4 ,a billow came thundering against the stern of the brig2 would the brig be engulfed1 or would she drive before it8 ,happily1 she forged ahead1 though shaking like a spent race-horse1 and with every timber straining and creaking4 ,now1 thrown broadside on1 her side was remorselessly battered by the floe pieces2 then1 tossed by the sea over ice-block after ice-block1 she seemed like a plaything in the grasp of an irresistible power4 ,for some hours this severe trial of strength and fortitude endured2 then the storm subsided as rapidly as it had arisen1 and their gratitude for their own escape was mingled with joy at the safety of the ,dorothea1 which they could see in the distance1 still afloat1 and with her crew in safety4 ,on ,captain ,parry's second expedition1 in #ahbb1 his ships1 the ,hecla and the ,fury1 were placed in a position of scarcely less danger4 ,thus we read of the ,hecla1 which at the time had been made fast by means of cables to the land-ice1 that a very heavy and extensive floe caught her on her broadside1 and1 being backed by another large body of ice1 gradually lifted her stern as if by the action of a wedge4 ,the weight every moment increasing1 her crew were obliged to veer on the hawsers1 whose friction was so great as nearly to cut through the bitt-heads1 and ultimately set them on fire1 so that it became requisite to pour upon them buckets of water4 ,at length the pressure proved irresistible2 the cables snapped2 but as the sea was too full of ice to allow the ship to drive1 the only way in which she could yield to the enormous burden brought to bear upon her was by leaning over the land-ice1 while her stern at the same time was lifted clean out of the water for fully five feet4 ,had another floe backed the one which lifted her1 the ship must inevitably have rolled broadside over1 or been rent in twain4 ,but the pressure which had been so dangerous eventually proved its safety2 for1 owing to its increasing weight1 the floe on which she was carried burst upwards1 unable to resist its force4 ,the ,hecla then righted1 and a small channel opening up amid the driving ice1 she was soon got into comparatively smooth water4 ,on the following day1 shortly before noon1 a heavy floe1 measuring some miles in length1 came down towards the ,fury1 exciting the gravest apprehensions for her safety4 ,in a few minutes it came in contact1 at the rate of a mile and a half an hour1 with a point of the land-ice1 breaking it up with a tremendous roar1 and forcing numberless immense masses1 perhaps many tons in weight1 to the height of fifty or sixty feet2 whence they again rolled down on the inner or land side1 and were quickly succeeded by a fresh supply4 ,while they were compelled to remain passive spectators of this grand but terrific sight1 being within five or six hundred yards of the point1 the danger they incurred was twofold3 first1 lest the floe should swing in and serve the ship in the same unceremonious manner2 and1 secondly1 lest its pressure should detach the land-ice to which they were secured1 and cast them adrift at the mercy of the tides4 ,fortunately1 neither of these terrible alternatives occurred1 the floe remaining stationary for the rest of the tide1 and setting off with the ebb when the tide soon afterwards turned4 ,the reader must not imagine that an ice-field is a smooth and uniform plain1 as level as an ,english meadow2 it is1 on the contrary1 a rugged succession of hollows1 and of protuberances called 8hummocks10 interspersed with pools of water1 and occasionally intersected by deep fissures4 ,in many parts it can be compared only to a promiscuous accumulation of rocks closely packed together1 and piled up over the extensive dreary space in great heaps and endless ridges1 leaving scarcely a foot of level surface1 and compelling the traveller to thread his way as best he can among the perplexing inequalities2 sometimes mounting unavoidable obstructions to an elevation of ten1 and again more than a hundred feet1 above the general level4 ,the interspaces between these closely accumulated ice-masses are filled up to some extent with drifted snow4 ,now1 let the reader endeavour to form a definite idea of the scene presented by an ice-field4 ,let him watch the slow progress of the sledges as they wind through the labyrinth of broken ice-tables1 the men and dogs pulling and pushing up their respective loads1 as ,napoleon's soldiers may have done when drawing their artillery through the rugged ,alpine passes1 or ,lord ,napier's heroes when they scaled the steep ,abyssinian heights4 ,he will see them clambering over the very summit of lofty ridges1 where no gap occurs1 and again descending on the other side1 the sledge frequently toppling over a precipice1 sometimes capsizing1 and sometimes breaking4 ,illustration3 ,,among ,,the ,,ice-,,hummocks4 ,again3 he will see the adventurous party1 when baffled in their attempt to cross or find a pass1 breaking a track with shovel and handspike2 or1 again1 unable even with these appliances to accomplish their end1 they retreat to seek an easier route4 ,perhaps they are fortunate enough to discover a kind of gap or gateway1 and upon its winding and uneven surface accomplish a mile or so with comparative ease4 ,the snow-drifts sometimes prove an assistance1 but more frequently an obstruction2 for though their surface is always hard1 it is not always firm to the foot4 ,then the crust gives way1 and the foot sinks at the very moment when the other is lifted4 ,but1 worse than this1 the chasms between the hummocks may be overarched with snow in such a manner as to leave a considerable space at the bottom void and empty2 then1 when everything looks auspicious1 down sinks one of the hapless explorers to his waist1 another to the neck1 a third is 8lost to sight10 the sledge gives way1 and all is confusion worse confounded6 ,to educe order out of the chaos is probably the work of hours2 especially if the sledge1 as is often the case1 must be unloaded4 ,not unfrequently it is necessary to carry the cargo in two or three loads2 the sledges are coming and going continually2 and the day is one 8endless pull and haul40 ,dr4 ,hayes speaks of an ice-floe1 crested with hummocks1 and covered with crusted snow1 the solid contents of which lie estimated1 in round numbers1 at #f1jjj1jjj1jjj of tons1 its depth being about one hundred and sixty feet4 ,all around its border was banked up a kind of rampart of last year's ice1 the loftiest pinnacle of which rose fully one hundred and twenty feet above the sea-level4 ,this ice-tower consisted of blocks of ice of every shape and size1 piled one upon another in the greatest disorder4 ,numerous other towers1 or bastions1 equally rugged1 though of less elevation1 sprang from the same ridge1 and from every part of this desolate area2 and 8if a thousand ,lisbons were crowded together and tumbled to pieces by the shock of an earthquake1 the scene could hardly be more rugged1 nor to cross the ruins a severer task40 ,we must date the origin of a floe like this back to a very remote period4 ,probably it was cradled1 at the outset1 in some deep recess of the land1 where it remained until it had accumulated to a thickness which defied the summer's sun and the winter's winds4 ,then it would grow1 as the glacier grows1 from above2 for1 like the glacier1 it is wholly composed of fresh ice--that is1 of frozen snow4 ,thus it will be seen1 to quote ,dr4 ,hayes once more1 that the accumulation of ice upon the mountain-tops is in nowise different from the accumulation which takes place upon these floating fields1 where every recurring year marks an addition to their depth4 ,vast as they are to the sight1 and pigmies as they are compared with the inland ,mer de ,glace1 yet1 in all that concerns their growth1 they are truly glaciers1 dwarf floating glaciers4 ,that only in this manner can they grow to so great a depth will at once be conceded by the reader1 if he recollects that ice soon reaches a maximum thickness by direct freezing1 and that its growth is arrested by a natural law4 ,necessarily1 this maximum thickness varies according to the temperature of the locality3 but the ice is in itself the sea's protection4 ,the cold air cannot absorb the warmth of the water through more than a certain thickness of ice1 and that thickness attains a final limit long before the winter has reached its close4 ,the depth of ice formed on the first night is greater than that formed on the second2 on the second is greater than on the third2 on the third greater than on the fourth2 and so it continues1 until the increase no longer takes place4 ,in other words1 the ratio of increase of the thickness of ice is in inverse proportion to the duration of the period of freezing4 ,there comes a time when the water beneath the ice no longer congeals1 because the ice-crust above it protects it from the action of the atmosphere4 ,dr4 ,hayes asserts that he never saw an ,arctic ice-table formed by direct freezing that exceeded eighteen feet2 and he justly adds1 that were it not for this all-wise provision of the ,deity1--this natural law1 as our men of science term it1--the ,arctic waters would1 ages ago1 have been solid seas of ice to their profoundest depths4 ,having said thus much about the various forms which the ice assumes in the ,polar seas1--about their icebergs and ice-fields1 pack-ice and drift-ice1 and the thick belt of ice which surrounds their shores1--we may now direct the reader's attention to their ,animal ,life2 to the creatures which inhabit them1 walrus and seal and whale1 the fishes1 the molluscs1 and even minuter organisms4 ,and first we shall begin with the ,walrus1 which finds a congenial home in the ,arctic wildernesses4 ,walrus-hunting is the principal1 or at all events the most lucrative1 occupation of the ,norse fishermen1 who annually betake themselves to the cheerless shores oi ,spitzbergen in search of booty4 ,their life is a terribly hard and dangerous one2 and ,mr4 ,lamont1 who has had much experience of them1 observes that they all have a restless1 weary look about the eyes1--a look as if contracted by being perpetually in the presence of peril4 ,they are wild1 rough1 and reckless2 but they are also bold1 hardy1 and enduring of cold1 hunger1 fatigue2 active and energetic while at sea1 though sadly intemperate during their winter-holiday4 ,the vessels engaged in the seal-fishery and walrus-hunting are fitted out by the merchants of ,tromse and ,hammerfest1 who have1 of late years1 adopted the system of sharing their proceeds with their crews1 thus giving them a direct interest in the prosperity of the expedition4 ,the ship is fitted out and provisioned by the owners1 who also advance to the men what money they may require to purchase clothing and to make provision for their families during their absence4 ,then they allot one-third of the gross receipts of the adventure to the crew1 dividing it into shares1 three for the captain1 two for the harpooneer1 and one each for the common men4 ,so that if a fairly successful voyage should realize in skins1 blubber1 and ivory a sum of two thousand dollars1 and the number of hands amounts to ten1 the usual strength of a seal-ship's crew1 each will receive forty-seven and a half dollars1 or about #aj1--;a very considerable sum for a ,norwegian4 ,each ship carries a couple of boats1 and a walrus-boat1 capable of holding five men1 which measures twenty-one feet in length by five feet beam1 having her main breadth at about seven feet from the bow4 ,she is bow-shaped at both ends1 and so built as to turn easily on her own centre1 besides being strong1 light1 and easy to row4 ,each man plies a pair of oars hung in 8grummets0 to stout thole-pins2 the steersman directs the boat by also rowing a pair of oars1 but with his face to the bow2 and as there are six thwarts1 he can1 if necessary1 sit and row like the others4 ,by this arrangement the strength of the men is economized1 and the boat is more swiftly turned when in pursuit of the walrus4 ,the steersman also acts as harpooneer1 and1 of course1 sits in the bow4 ,the strongest man in the boat is usually placed next to him1 to hold and haul in the line when a walrus is struck1 and it is his duty to hand the harpoons and lances to the harpooneer as required4 ,illustration3 ,,hunting ,,the ,,walrus4 ,each boat--which1 by the way1 is painted white1 so as to resemble the ice amongst which it moves--is usually provided with three harpoon-heads inside the bow1 on each side3 these fit into little racks of painted canvas1 so that their keen points and edges may not be blunted1 and to prevent them from injuring the men4 ,the harpoons serve equally well for seal and walrus1 and1 simple as they seem and are1 answer admirably the purpose for which they are designed4 ,the weapon is thrust into the animal2 its struggles tighten the line2 the large outer barb then catches up a loop of its tenacious hide1 or the tough reticulated fibres containing its blubber2 while the small inner barb1 like that of a fish-hook1 prevents it from being detached or loosened4 ,when a walrus has been properly struck1 and the line hauled taut1 it rarely escapes4 ,to each harpoon a line of twelve or fifteen fathoms long is attached3 a sufficient length1 as the walrus is seldom found in water more than fifteen fathoms deep2 and even if the water should exceed that depth1 it cannot drag the boat under1 because it is unable to exert its full strength when subjected to the pressure of twelve or fifteen fathoms of water4 ,besides the harpoons1 each boat is provided with four or five enormous lances2 the shaft being made of pine-wood1 nine feet long1 and one inch and a half thick at the handle1 increasing upwards to a thickness of two inches and a half where it enters the iron socket4 ,this would seem a formidable weapon1 and formidable it is in the stout hands of a ,norse harpooneer2 yet1 frequently1 the iron shank is bent double1 or the strong shaft snapped like a reed1 in the violent resistance of the sea-horse2 and1 therefore1 to prevent the head being lost1 it is fastened to the shaft by a double thong of raw seal-skin1 tied round the shank and nailed to the handle for about three feet up4 ,the shaft may seem of disproportionate length1 but it is necessary to give the buoyancy sufficient for floating the heavy iron spear if it should fall into the water4 ,this spear1 or lance1 is not used for seals1 because it would spoil the skins4 ,notwithstanding the destruction effected by the yearly expeditions of the walrus-hunters1 the sea-horses are still found in large herds in many parts of the ,polar world4 ,mr4 ,lamont describes a curious and exciting spectacle1 where four large flat icebergs were seen to be so closely packed with these animals that they were sunk almost level with the water1 and presented the appearance of 8solid islands of walrus60 ,the walrus lay with their heads reclining on one another's backs and hind-quarters1 just as rhinoceroses lie asleep in the dense shade of the ,african forests1 or1 to use a more commonplace but familiar comparison1 as hogs slumber and wallow in a ,british farmyard4 ,such a sight was a temptation not to be withstood by a walrus-hunter1 and ,mr4 ,lamont and his harpooneer speedily disturbed the repose of the monsters1 which chiefly consisted of cows and young bulls4 ,after slaying their victims1 and getting them on board1 came the disagreeable but necessary task of separating the blubber from the skins to stow it in the barrels2 a process which is performed in the following manner3-- ,across the ship's deck1 immediately aft the hatchway1 is erected a kind of framework or stage of stout timber1 about four feet in height1 but sloping down at an angle of about sixty degrees1 with the deck at the forward side3 on the other side it is perpendicular1 and there the two specksioneers 7or 8blubber-cutters07 post themselves1 clad1 not in armour1 but in oil-skin from top to toe1 and armed with large keen knives1 curved on the edge4 ,then the skins are hoisted out of the hold1 and1 two at a time1 are suspended across the frame1 with the blubber side uppermost3 the fat1 or blubber1 is next removed by a kind of mowing motion of the knife1 which is held in both hands1 and swayed from left to right4 ,only long practice1 and great steadiness of wrist1 can give the dexterity requisite for the due performance of this difficult operation4 ,even in skinning a walrus1 skill is imperative4 ,as the blubber is mown off1 it is divided into slabs1 weighing twenty or thirty pounds each1 and flung down the hatchway1 where two men are stationed to receive it1 and pack it into the casks1 which when full are securely fastened up4 ,the skin1 which is taken off the animal in two longitudinal halves1 is a valuable commodity1 and sells at the rate of from two to four dollars per half skin4 ,the principal purchasers are the ,russian and ,swedish merchants1 and its principal uses are for harness and sole leather4 ,it is also twisted into tiller ropes1 and employed to protect the rigging of ships from friction4 ,the blubber is valued on account of the oil2 but neither has the walrus so much blubber1 in proportion to its size1 as the seal1 nor does the blubber afford so good an oil4 ,a seal of #fjj lbs4 will carry #bjj to #bej lbs4 weight of fat2 an ordinary walrus1 weighing #bjjj lbs41 will not carry any more4 ,the most profitable portion of the unfortunate sea-horse is its tusks1 which are composed of very hard1 dense1 and white ivory4 ,this ivory is not so good1 and consequently does not command so high a price1 as elephant ivory1 but is in high repute for the manufacture of false teeth1 chessmen1 umbrella handles1 whistles1 and other small articles4 ,the tusks are not an extra pair of teeth1 but a development and modification of the canines4 ,for about six or seven inches of their length they are solidly set in the mass of hard bone which forms the animal's upper jaw4 ,so far as they are imbedded in the head they are hollow1 but mostly filled up with a cellular osseous substance containing much oil2 the remainder of the tusk is hard and solid throughout4 ,the young walrus1 or calf1 has no tusks in its first year of existence2 but in its second1 when it is about the size of a large seal1 it has a pair of much the same size as the canines of a lion4 ,in the third year the tusks measure about six inches in length4 ,in size and shape they vary greatly1 according to the animal's age and sex4 ,a good pair of bull's tusks1 says ,mr4 ,lamont1 will be twenty-four inches each in length1 and four pounds each in weight2 but larger and heavier specimens are of frequent occurrence4 ,cows' tusks1 it is said1 will average fully as long as those of the bulls1 because less liable to be broken1 but seldom weigh more than three pounds4 ,they are generally set much closer together than the bull's tusks1 sometimes even overlapping one another at the points2 while those of the bull will often diverge as much as fifteen inches4 ,in scientific language the walrus1 morse1 or sea-horse 7,trichecus71 belongs to a genus of amphibious mammals of the family ,phocid1 a family including the well-known seals4 ,it agrees with the other members of that family in the general configuration of the body and limbs1 but distinctly differs from them in the head1 which is remarkable1--as we have seen1--for the extraordinary development of the canine teeth of the upper jaw1 as also for the protuberant or swollen appearance of the muzzle1--due to the size of their sockets and the thickness of the upper lip4 ,this upper lip is thickly set with strong1 transparent1 bristly hairs1 which measure about six inches in length1 and are as thick as a crow-quill4 ,the terrific moustache1 with the long white curving tusks1 the thick projecting muzzle1 and the fierce and bloodshot eyes1 give ,rosmarus trichecus a weird and almost demoniacal aspect as it rears its head above the waves1 and goes far to account for some of the legends of sea-monsters which embellish the ,scandinavian mythology4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,walrus1 ,,or ,,morse4 ,the walrus has no canine teeth in the lower jaw4 ,its incisors are small1 and ten in number2 six in the upper and four in the lower jaw4 ,the molars1 at first five on each side in each jaw1 but fewer in the adult1 are simple and not large2 their crowns are obliquely worn4 ,the nostrils would seem to be displaced by the sockets of the tusks2 at least they both open almost directly upwards at some distance from the muzzle4 ,the eyes are small1 but savage2 there are no external ears4 ,the ,arctic walrus is the sole known species of the genus4 ,it is a gregarious animal1 always assembling in large herds1 which occasionally leave the water to take their rest upon the shore or on the ice2 and it is at such times the hunters chiefly attack them1 since their movements out of the water are very laborious and awkward4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,walrus ,,family4 ,they defend themselves against their enemies1 of which the ,polar bear is chief1 with their formidable tusks2 and these they also use in their fierce combats with one another4 ,they fight with great determination and ferocity1 using their tusks much in the same manner as game-cocks use their beaks4 ,from the unwieldy appearance of the animal1 and the position of its tusks1 an inexperienced spectator would suppose that the latter could be employed only in a downward stroke2 but1 on the contrary1 it turns its neck with so much ease and rapidity that it can strike in all directions with equal force444 ,illustration3 ,,fight ,,between ,,walrus ,,and ,a ,,polar ,,bear4 ,old bulls very frequently have one or both of their tusks broken2 which may arise either from fighting or from using them to assist in scaling the rocks and ice-floes4 ,but these broken tusks are soon worn down again and sharpened to a point by the action of the sand1 as the walrus1 like the elephant1 employs its tusks in digging its food out of the ground1--that is1 out of the ocean-bed4 ,its food principally consists of starfish1 shrimps1 sandworms1 clams1 cockles1 and alg2 and ,scoresby relates that he has found the remains of young seals in its stomach4 ,illustration3 ,,boat ,,attacked ,,by ,,walrus4 ,in reference to the gradual decay1 or1 more correctly speaking1 extermination of the walrus1 the following particulars seem to be authentic4 ,when the pursuit of the walrus was first systematically organized from ,tromse and ,hammerfest1 much larger vessels were employed than are now in vogue2 and it was usual for them to obtain their first cargo about ,bear ,island early in the season1 and two additional cargoes at ,spitzbergen before the summer passed away4 ,this regular and wholesale slaughter drove away the sea-horse herds from their haunts about ,bear ,island2 but even afterwards it was not a rare occurrence to procure three cargoes in a season at ,spitzbergen1 and less than two full cargoes was regarded as a lamentable mishap4 ,now1 however1 more than one cargo in a season is very seldom obtained1 and many vessels return1 after four months' absence1 only half full4 ,it is estimated that about one thousand walrus and twice that number of bearded seals 7,phoca barbata7 are annually captured in the seas about ,spitzbergen1 exclusive of those which sink or may die of their wounds4 ,some idea1 therefore1 may be formed of the number of sea-horses which still ride the waves of the ,polar seas4 ,but it is quite clear that they are undergoing a rapid diminution of numbers1 and also that they are gradually withdrawing into the inaccessible solitudes of the remotest ,north4 ,we learn from the voyage of ,ohthere1 which was undertaken ten centuries ago1 that the walrus then abounded even on the very coast of ,finmarken4 ,they have abandoned that region1 however1 for some centuries1 though individual stragglers were captured up to within the last forty years4 ,after their desertion of ,finmarken1 they retreated to ,bear ,island2 thence they were driven to the ,thousand ,islands1 ,hope ,island1 and ,ryk-,yse ,island2 and thence1 again1 to the banks and skerries to the north of ,spitzbergen4 ,it is fortunate for the persecuted walrus that the latter districts are accessible only in open seasons1 or perhaps once in every three or four summers2 so that they obtain a respite and time to breed and replenish their numbers4 ,otherwise the end of the present century would mark also the total extinction of the walrus on the island-shores of ,northern ,europe4 ,we agree with ,dr4 ,kane that the resemblance of the walrus to man has been absurdly overstated4 ,yet the notion is put forward in some of our systematic treatises1 and accompanied by the suggestion that we are to look for the type of the merman and mermaid in this animal4 ,if we look we shall not find4 ,the walrus has a square-shaped head1 with a frontal bone presenting a steep descent to the eyes1 and any likeness to humanity must exist in the imagination of the spectator4 ,some of the seals exhibit a much greater resemblance3 the size of the head1 the regularity of the facial oval1 the drooping shoulders1 even the movements of the seal1 remind us impressively of man4 ,and certainly1 when seen at a distance1 with head raised above the waves1 it affords some justification for the fanciful conception of the nymphs of ocean1 the mermaids who figure so attractively in song and legend4 ,dr4 ,kane remarks that the instinct of attack1 which is strong in the walrus1 though so feeble in the seal1 and is a well-known characteristic of the pachyderms1 is interesting to the naturalist1 as assisting to establish the affinity of the walrus to the latter4 ,when wounded1 it rears its body high out of the water1 plunges heavily against the ice1 and strives to raise itself upon the surface by means of its fore-flippers4 ,as the ice gives way under its weight1 its countenance assumes a truly ferocious expression1 its bark changes to a roar1 and the foam pours out from its jaws till it froths its beard4 ,even when not excited1 the walrus manages its tusks bravely4 ,so strong are they that they serve as grappling-irons with which to hold on to the surface of the steep rocks and ice-banks it loves to climb2 and thus it can ascend rocky islands that are sixty and a hundred feet above the sea-level4 ,it can deal an opponent a fearful blow1 but it prefers to charge1 like a veteran warrior2 and man1 unless well armed1 often comes off second best in the contest4 ,governor ,flaischer told ,dr4 ,kane that1 in #ahcj1 a brown walrus--and the ,eskimos say that the brown walrus are the fiercest--after being speared and wounded near ,upernavik1 put to flight its numerous assailants1 and drove them in fear to seek help from the ,danish settlement4 ,so violent were its movements as to jerk out the harpoons that were launched into its body4 ,the governor slew it with much difficulty after it had received several rifle-shots and lance-wounds from his whale-boat4 ,illustration3 ,,fight ,,with ,a ,,walrus4 ,on another occasion1 a young and adventurous ,innuit plunged his nalegeit into a brown walrus2 but1 alarmed by the savage demeanour of the beast1 called for help before using the lance4 ,in vain the older and more wary hunters advised him to forbear4 8,it is a brown walrus60 they cried2 8,avok-,kaiok6 ,hold back60 ,finding the caution disregarded1 his only brother rowed forward1 and hurled the second harpoon4 ,almost instantaneously the infuriated beast charged1 like the wild boar1 on the unfortunate young ,innuit1 and ripped open his body4 ,here is a description of a walrus-hunt3-- ,on first setting out1 the hunters listen eagerly for some sounds by which to discover the habitat of the animal4 ,the walrus1 like amateur vocalists1 is partial to its own music1 and will lie for hours enjoying the monotonous vocalization in which it is accustomed to indulge4 ,this is described as something between the mooing of a cow and the deepest baying of a mastiff2 very round and full1 with its 8barks0 or 8detached notes0 repeated seven to nine times in rather quick succession4 ,the hunters hear the bellow1 and press forward in single file2 winding behind ice-hummocks and ridges in a serpentine approach towards a group of 8pond-like discolorations10 recently frozen ice-spots1 which are surrounded by older and firmer ice4 ,in a few minutes they come in sight of the walrus4 ,there they are1 five in number1 rising at intervals through the ice in a body1 and breaking it up with an explosion which sounds like the report of heavy ordnance4 ,conspicuous as the leaders of the herd are two large and fierce-looking males4 ,now for a display of dexterity and skill4 ,while the walrus remains above water1 the hunter lies flat and motionless2 when it begins to sink1 behold1 the hunter is alert and ready to spring4 ,in fact1 scarcely is the tusked head below the water-line before every man is in a rapid run2 while1 as if by instinct1 before it returns all are prone behind protecting knolls of ice4 ,they seem to guess intuitively1 not only how long it will be absent1 but the very point at which it will reappear4 ,and1 in this way1 hiding and advancing by turns1 they reach a plate of thin ice1 scarcely strong enough to bear a man's weight1 on the very brink of the dark pool in which the walrus are gambolling4 ,the phlegmatic ,eskimo harpooneer now wakens into a novel condition of excitement4 ,his coil of walrus-hide1 a well-trimmed line of many fathoms length1 lies at his side4 ,he attaches one end to an iron barb1 and this he fastens loosely1 by a socket1 to a shaft of unicorn's horn2 the other end is already loosed4 ,it is the work of a second6 ,he has grasped the harpoon4 ,the water eddies and whirls2 puffing and panting1 up comes the unwieldy sea-horse4 ,the ,eskimo rises slowly2 his right arm thrown back1 his left hanging close to his side4 ,the walrus looks about him1 and throws the water off his crest2 the ,eskimo launches the fatal weapon1 and it sinks deep into the animal's side4 ,down goes the wounded awak1 but the ,eskimo is already speeding with winged feet from the scene of combat1 letting his coil run out freely1 but clutching the final loop with a desperate grip4 ,as he runs1 he seizes a small stick of bone1 roughly pointed with iron1 and by a swift strong movement thrusts it into the ice2 he twists his line around it1 and prepares for a struggle4 ,the wounded walrus plunges desperately1 and churns the ice-pool into foam2 meantime1 the line is hauled tight at one moment1 and loosened the next2 for the hunter has kept his station4 ,but the ice crashes2 and a couple of walrus rear up through it1 not many yards from the spot where he stands4 ,one of them1 a male1 is excited1 angry1 partly alarmed2 the other1 a female1 looks calm1 but bent on revenge4 ,down1 after a rapid survey of the field1 they go again into the ocean-depths2 and immediately the harpooneer has chosen his position1 carrying with him his coil1 and fixing it anew4 ,scarcely is the manuvre accomplished before the pair have once more risen1 breaking up an area of ten feet in diameter about the very spot he left4 ,they sink for a second time1 and a second time he changes his place4 ,and thus continues the battle between the strength of the beast and the address of the man1 till the former1 half exhausted1 receives a second wound1 and gives up the contest4 ,the ,eskimos regard the walrus with a certain degree of superstitious reverence1 and it is their belief that it is under the guardianship of a special representative or prototype1 who does not1 indeed1 interfere to protect it from being hunted1 but is careful that it shall be hunted under tolerably fair conditions4 ,they assert that near a remarkable conical peak1 which rises in the solitudes of ,force ,bay1 a great walrus lives all alone1 and when the moon is absent1 creeps out to the brink of a ravine1 where he bellows with a voice of tremendous power4 ,the walrus-hunter1 unless he keeps to the sea-shore1 and the ice-floes within reach of a boat1 must be prepared to undergo many hardships1 and to confront with a calm heart the most baffling and terrible dangers4 ,he may be overtaken by a gale2 and a gale in the wild remote ,north1 far from any shelter1--a gale which drives before it the blinding snow and pitiless icicles1--a gale which sweeps unresisted and irresistible over leagues of frozen snow1--a gale which comes down from the mountain-recesses where the glaciers take their rise1--is something so dread1 so ghastly1 that the dweller in temperate regions can form no idea of it4 ,we remember that one of the gallant seekers after ,franklin describes an ,arctic gale1 and its effects4 ,he says that the ice1 at a short distance from the shore1 had in many places been swept bare of snow by the driving blast2 and over the glassy sheet he and his companions were helplessly carried along before the gale4 ,the dogs1 seldom stretching their traces1 ran howling in front of the sledges1 which pressed upon their heels4 ,wild was the scene1 and dark4 ,the moon had sunk far behind the snow-shrouded mountains1 and the travellers had no other light than the shimmer of stars4 ,the deep shadows of the cliffs1 towering a thousand feet above their heads1 lay heavily upon them1 and enhanced the midnight gloom4 ,the patches of snow clinging to the sharp angles of the colossal wall2 the white shroud lying on its lofty summit2 the glaciers which here and there protruded through its clefts1 brought out into striking relief the blackness of its cavernous recesses4 ,the air was filled with clouds of drift1 which sometimes completely hid the land1 and swept relentlessly before the explorers1 as they tottered across the frozen plain4 ,suddenly a dark line became visible across their path2 its true nature revealed by circling wreaths of 8frost-smoke40 8,emerk6 emerk60 7,water6 water67 shouted the drivers1 checking as suddenly as possible the headway of the sledges1 but not until the party were within a few feet of a recently opened and rapidly widening crack1--a fissure in the ice-crust1 already twenty feet across4 ,some of the travellers now clambered to the summit of a pile of hummocks1 and endeavoured to pierce the obscurity4 ,a headland1 laid down on the map as ,cape ,alexander1 lay only a few miles in advance4 ,the ice in the shallow bay on its southern side was rent in all directions2 while beyond1 from the foot of the cape1 a broad sheet of water extended westward4 ,the wind diversified its dark surface with ridges of snowy spray2 while here and there a frosty surf tumbled in breakers over a small berg or drifting floe4 ,the pieces of ice lying along its margin were in motion1 and the crash of their hard surfaces could be heard as they came into constant collision4 ,their strident clamour1 the ceaseless washing of the surface1 the moaning of the wind1 the steely rush of the drift1 the piteous wail of the dogs1 and all the strange noises and voices of the storm1 added to the gloom and awful melancholy of that moonless night4 ,we need not wonder that the ,eskimos of the ,arctic wilderness are as fearful of a tempest as are the ,bedouins of the ,african desert4 ,it overwhelms the one with a cloud of snow1 and it buries the other in a cloud of sand2 and each demands and receives its quota of victims4 ,that seal-hunting should be more extensively pursued than walrus-hunting is natural2 for if less exciting1 it is also less dangerous2 and the seal is not only a more valuable prey than the walrus1 but is more easily captured4 ,the ,phocid are well represented in the ,arctic waters4 ,in ,behring ,sea we encounter the sea-lion and the sea-bear2 while from the ,parry ,islands to ,novaia ,zemlaia extends the range of the harp seal 7,phoca ,grnlandica71 the bearded seal 7,phoca barbata71 and the hispid seal 7,phoca hispida74 ,the skins of all these species are more or less valuable2 their oil is much esteemed2 and their flesh supplies the wild northern tribes with one of their principal articles of subsistence4 ,illustration3 ,,herd ,,of ,,seals1 ,,near ,,the ,,devil',s ,,thumb1 ,,baffin ,,sea1 ,,greenland4 ,the structure of the seal is admirably adapted in every detail to an aquatic life4 ,it lives chiefly in the water1 where its motions are always easy and graceful2 but it spends a part of its time in enjoying the sunshine on ice-fields1 open shores1 rocks1 and sandy beaches2 and the female brings forth her young on land4 ,the body of the seal is elongated1 and tapers considerably from the chest to the tail4 ,the head has been compared to that of the dog2 the brain is generally voluminous4 ,the feet are short1 and little more than the paw extends beyond the integument of the body2 they are webbed1 and pentadactylous1 or five-toed3 the fore feet are set like those of other quadrupeds2 but the hind feet are directed backwards1 with toes which can be spread out widely to act as paddles4 ,the tail is short4 ,the motions of the seal on land are constrained and peculiar4 ,the fore feet are but little used1 and the body is thrown forward in a succession of jerks produced by a contraction of the spine4 ,awkward as this mode of progression seems1 it is1 nevertheless1 exceedingly rapid4 ,the seal1 however1 never ventures far from the shore1 and the moment it is disturbed or alarmed it plunges into the water4 ,the physiognomy of the animal is in perfect accord with its character1 and expresses a considerable degree of intelligence combined with much mildness of disposition4 ,the eyes are large1 black1 and brilliant2 the nose is broad1 with oblong nostrils2 and there are large whiskers4 ,the seal has no external ears1 but in the auricular orifices exists a valve which can be closed at will1 and protects the internal organism from the water2 the nostrils possess a similar valve4 ,the body is thickly garnished with stiff glossy hairs1 very closely set against the skin1 and plentifully lubricated with an oily secretion1 so that the surface is always smooth1 and unaffected by water4 ,the teeth differ in different genera1 but in all are specially adapted for the seizure of fish and other slippery prey1 though the seals are omnivorous in their habits1 and will partake both of vegetable and animal food4 ,there are either six or four incisors in the upper1 and four or two in the lower jaw2 the canines are invariably large and strong2 and the molars1 usually five or six on either side1 in each jaw1 are sharp-edged or conical1 and bristle with points4 ,the seal is fond of swallowing large stones2 for what purpose is not certain1 but1 probably1 to assist digestion4 ,seals live in herds1 more or less numerous1 along the frozen shores of the ,arctic seas2 and on the lonely deserted coasts they bring forth their young1 over which they watch with singular affection4 ,they swim with much rapidity1 and can remain a considerable time under water4 ,they are migratory in their habits1 and at least four species visit our ,british waters4 ,on the northern coasts of ,greenland they are observed to take their departure in ,july and to return again in ,september4 ,they produce two or three young at a time1 and suckle them for six or seven weeks in remote caverns and sequestered recesses2 after which they take to the sea4 ,the young exhibit a remarkable degree of tractability2 will recognize and obey the maternal summons2 and assist each other in distress or danger4 ,many1 if not all1 of the species are polygamous1 and the males frequently contend with desperate courage for the possession of a favourite female4 ,there is not much difference in the habits of the different genera or species of the ,phocid2 but while the great ,arctic seal dives like the walrus1 making a kind of semi-revolution as it goes down1 the common seal 7,phoca vitulina71 called by the hunters the stein-cobbe1 from its custom of basking on the rocks1 dives by suddenly dropping under water1 its nose being the last part of its body which disappears1 instead of its tail4 ,the common seal has a very fine spotted skin1 and weighs about sixty or seventy pounds4 ,it is much fatter1 in proportion to its size1 than the bearded seal1 and its carcass1 consequently1 having less specific gravity1 floats much longer on the water after death4 ,a third kind of seal found in the ,spitzbergen seas is1 probably1 the ,phoca hispida1 though the hunters know it only by the names of the 8springer10 and ,jan ,mayen seal4 ,in the spring months it is killed in large numbers by the whalers among the vast ice-fields which encircle the solitary rocks of ,jan ,mayen ,island4 ,mr4 ,lamont observes that these seals1 though existing in such enormous numbers to the west1 are not nearly so numerous in ,spitzbergen as the great1 or even as the much less abundant common seal4 ,they are gregarious1 which neither of the other varieties are1 and generally consort in bands of fifty to five hundred4 ,they are extremely difficult to kill1 as during the summer months they very seldom go upon the ice2 they seem much less curious than the other seals1 and go at such a rapid pace through the water as to defy pursuit from a boat4 ,on coming up to breathe1 these seals do not1 like their congeners1 take a deliberate breath and a leisurely survey1 but the whole troop make a sort of simultaneous flying leap through the air like a shoal of porpoises1 as they go along1 and reappear again at an incredible distance from their preceding breathing-place4 ,hence the name of 8springers0 given to them by the whalers4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,common ,,seal4 ,the ,jan ,mayen seal weighs from #bjj to #cjj lbs41 and is described as the fattest and most buoyant of the ,arctic mammals4 ,we have spoken of seal's flesh as an important article of subsistence to the ,eskimo tribes4 ,our ,arctic voyagers and explorers have frequently been glad to nourish themselves upon it1 and speak of it as somewhat resembling veal in flavour4 ,not once or twice1 but several times1 it has saved the hardy pioneer of civilization from destruction1 and the discovery of a stray seal has been the means of preserving a whole expedition4 ,there is a very striking incident of this kind in the narrative of ,dr4 ,kane4 ,he and his party had reached ,cape ,york on their way to the ,danish settlements1 after their long but fruitless search for ,sir ,john ,franklin4 ,they were spent with fatigue1 and half-dead from hunger4 ,a kind of low fever crippled their energies1 and they were unable to sleep4 ,in their frail and unseaworthy boats1 which were scarcely kept afloat by constant bailing1 they made but slow progress across the open bay2 when1 at this crisis of their fortunes1 they descried a large seal floating1 as is the wont of these animals1 on a small patch of ice1 and apparently asleep1--a seal so large that at first they mistook it for a walrus4 ,trembling with anxiety1 ,kane and his companions prepared to creep down upon the monster4 ,one of the men1 ,petersen1 with a large ,english rifle1 was stationed in the bow of the boat1 and stockings were drawn over the oars as mufflers4 ,as they approached the animal1 their excitement became so intense that the men could hardly keep stroke4 ,that no sound might be heard1 ,dr4 ,kane communicated his orders by signal2 and when about three hundred yards off the oars were taken in1 and they moved on1 stealthily and silently1 with a single scull astern4 ,the seal was not asleep1 for he reared his head when his enemies were almost within rifle-shot2 and long afterwards ,dr4 ,kane could remember the hard1 careworn1 almost despairing expression of the men's haggard faces as they saw him move2 their lives depended on his capture4 ,dr4 ,kane lowered his hand1 as a signal for ,petersen to fire4 ,m',gorry1 who was rowing1 hung1 he says1 upon his oar1 and the boat slowly but noiselessly forging ahead1 did not seem within range4 ,looking at ,petersen1 he saw that the poor fellow was paralyzed by his anxiety1 and was vainly seeking to find a rest for his gun against the cut-water of the boat4 ,the seal rose on his flippers1 gazed at his antagonists for a moment with mingled curiosity and alarm1 and coiled himself for a plunge4 ,at that moment1 simultaneously with the crack of the rifle1 he relaxed his huge bulk on the ice1 and1 at the very brink of the water1 his head fell helplessly on one side4 ,illustration3 ,,shooting ,a ,,seal4 ,dr4 ,kane would have ordered another shot1 but no discipline could have controlled his men4 ,with a wild yell1 each vociferating according to his own impulse1 they urged both boats upon the floes4 ,a crowd of hands seized the precious booty1 and bore it up to safer ice4 ,the men seemed half crazy1 they had been so reduced by famine4 ,they ran over the floe1 crying and laughing1 and brandishing their knives4 ,before five minutes had elapsed1 each man was sucking his streaming fingers or mouthing long strips of raw blubber4 ,not an ounce of this seal was wasted6 ,the intestines found their way into the soup-kettles without any observance of the preliminary home-processes4 ,the cartilaginous parts of the fore-flippers were cut off in the mle1 and passed round for the operation of chewing2 and even the liver1 warm and raw as it was1 bade fair to be eaten before it had seen the pot4 ,that night1 on the large halting-floe to which1 in contempt of the dangers of drifting1 the happy adventurers had hauled their boats1 two entire planks of the ,red ,eric were devoted to the kindling of a large cooking-fire1 and they enjoyed a bountiful and savage feast4 ,such is an experience of ,arctic life2 of the hardships endured by the heroic men who go forth to do the work of ,science and ,civilization4 ,returning to the seals1 we may remark that1 according to a scientific authority1 the angle of weedy rock on which a phoca is accustomed to rest with his family comes to be regarded as his property1 and no other individuals of his species are entitled to lay claim to it4 ,although in the water these animals congregate together in numerous herds1 and protect and courageously defend one another1 yet1 when they have once emerged from their favourite element1 they regard themselves on their own space of rock as in a sacred domicile1 where no comrade has a right to intrude on their domestic tranquillity4 ,if any stranger approach this family centre1 the chief--or shall we call him the father8--prepares to repel by force what he considers an unwarrantable encroachment2 and a terrible combat invariably ensues1 which terminates only with the death of the lord of the rock1 or the compulsory retreat of the intruder4 ,but a family never seizes upon a larger tract than it absolutely requires1 and lives peaceably with neighbouring families1 from which it is seldom separated by a greater interval than forty or fifty paces4 ,if compelled by necessity1 they will even live on amicable terms at much closer quarters4 ,three or four families will share a rock1 a cavern1 or an ice-floe2 but each occupies the place allotted to it at the original apportionment1 and shuts himself within it1 so to speak1 nor ever meddles with individuals of another family4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,otary4 ,our modern naturalists divide the ,phocid into two distinct orders3 the ,phoc properly so called1 which have no external ears1 but only an auditory orifice on the surface of the head2 and the ,otari1 which are provided with external organs4 ,the remarks we have been making apply more particularly to the common seal 7,phoca vitulina71 or small ,spitzbergen seal1 which measures from four to five feet in length4 ,the ,greenland or harp seal 7,phoca ,grnlandica71 to which we have already alluded1 is larger and fatter1 and is distinguished by the changes of colour it undergoes before it reaches maturity4 ,we have also spoken of the bearded seal 7,phoca barbata71 which sometimes attains a length of ten feet1 and is known1 not only by its size1 but its thick and strong moustaches4 ,the hooded seal 7,stemmatopus cristatus7 is distinguished by the globular and expansible sac situated on the summit of the head of the males4 ,this species grows to the length of seven or eight feet1 and inhabits the waters of ,newfoundland and ,greenland4 ,the value of the seal to the ,eskimo tribes will best be understood from a description of the uses to which various parts of the animal are applied in an ,eskimo hut4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hooded ,,seal4 ,we will suppose this hut to measure about five or five and a half feet in height1 and about ten feet in diameter4 ,the walls are made of stones1 moss1 and the bones of seals1 narwhals1 whales1 and other ocean-creatures4 ,they are not arched1 but recede inward gradually from the foundation1 and are capped by long oblong slabs of slate-stone extending from side to side4 ,we enter3 the flooring consists of thin flat stones4 ,at the back part of the hut the floor rises about a foot1 and this breck1 as the elevation is called1 serves both as couch and seat1 being covered with a thick layer of dried moss and grass1 under seal-skins1 dog-skins1 and bear-skins4 ,similar elevations are placed at the corners in front2 under one of which will lie1 perhaps1 a litter of pups1 with their mother1 and under the other a portion of seal's meat4 ,in the square front of the hut1 above the passage-way1 a window is inserted2 the light being admitted through a square sheet of strips of dried intestines1 sewed together4 ,the entrance is in the floor1 close to the front wall1 and is covered with a piece of seal-skin4 ,seal-skins are hung about the walls to dry4 ,at the edge of the breck1 on either side1 sits a woman1 each busily engaged in attending to a smoky lamp1 fed with seal's oil4 ,these lamps are made of soapstone1 and in shape resemble a clam-shell1 being about eight inches in diameter4 ,the cavity is filled with oil obtained from seal's blubber2 and on the straight edge the flame burns quite vividly1 the wick which furnishes it being made of moss4 ,the business of the women is apparently to prevent the lamps from smoking1 and to keep them supplied with blubber1 large pieces of which are placed in the cavity1 the heat drawing out the oil4 ,about three inches above this flame hangs1 suspended from the ceiling1 an oblong square pot made of the same material as the lamp1 in which a joint of seal is simmering slowly4 ,above this hangs a rack1 made of bare rib-bones1 bound together crosswise1 on which stockings and mittens1 and various garments made of seal-skin1 are laid to dry4 ,no other fire can be seen than that which the lamps supply1 nor is any other needed4 ,so many persons are crowded into the confined interior that it is insufferably hot1 while the whole place reeks with the smell of seal-flesh1 seal-oil1 and seal-skin6 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is natural enough that we should here introduce an account of the ,eskimo mode of catching seals4 ,the great season of the seal-hunt is the spring1 when the inoffensive phoc gambol and sport in the open water-ways near the coasts1 or clamber on the ice-floes to enjoy the rays of the tardy sun4 ,they are of a wary and timid disposition1 and we may suppose that their traditions have taught them to be on their guard against man2 but as all their habits and ways are well known to the ,eskimo1 they do not succeed in eluding his dexterous perseverance4 ,sometimes the hunter attires himself in a seal-skin1 and so exactly imitates their appearance and movements that he approaches within spear-range of them before the disguise is detected2 or else he creeps into their haunts behind a white screen1 which is propelled in front of him by means of a sledge4 ,as the season verges upon midsummer less precaution becomes necessary2 the eyes of the seals being so congested by the fierce radiance of the sun that they are often nearly blind4 ,in winter they are assailed while labouring at their breathing-holes1 or when they rise for the purpose of respiration4 ,if an ,eskimo satisfies himself that a seal is working away beneath the ice1 he takes up his station at the suspected point1 and seldom quits it1 however severe the weather1 until he has captured the animal4 ,to protect himself from the freezing blast1 he throws up a snow-wall four feet in height1 and seating himself in its shade1 he rests his spears1 lines1 and other appliances on a number of little forked sticks inserted into the snow1 in order that he may move them1 when wanted1 without making the slightest noise4 ,he carries his caution to such an excess1 that he even ties his own knees together with a thong to prevent his garments from rustling6 about ,illustration3 ,,an ,,eskimo ,,seal-,,hunter4 ,to discover whether the seal is still gnawing at the ice1 our patient watcher makes use of his keep-kuttuk2 a slender rod of bone1 no thicker than ordinary bell-wire1 cleverly rounded1 with a knob at one end and a sharp point at the other4 ,this implement he thrusts into the ice1 and the knob1 which remains above the surface1 informs him by its motion whether the animal is still engaged in making his hole2 if it does not move1 the attempt is given up in that place1 and the hunter betakes himself elsewhere4 ,when he supposes the hole to be nearly completed1 he stealthily raises his spear1 and as soon as he can hear the blowing of the seal1 and knows therefore that the ice-crust is very thin1 he drives it into the unsuspecting animal with all his might2 and then hacks away with his sharp-edged knife1 or panna1 the intervening ice1 so as to repeat his blows1 and secure his victim4 ,the neituk1 or ,phoca hispida1 being the smallest seal1 is held while struggling1 either by the hand1 or by a line one end of which is twisted round a spear driven into the ice4 ,in the case of the bearded seal1 or oguka1 the line is coiled round the hunter's leg or arm2 for a walrus1 round his body1 the feet being at the same time firmly planted against a hummock of ice1 so as to increase the capability of resistance4 ,a boy of fifteen can kill a neituk1 but the larger animals can be mastered only by a robust and experienced adult4 ,we come now to speak of the ,whale1 which1 in size1 is the sovereign of the ,arctic seas1 and the grandest type of marine life4 ,whales 7,cetacea7 are1 as most persons now-a-days know1 an order of aquatic mammals1 distinguished by their fin-like anterior extremities1 and by the peculiarity that the place of the posterior extremities is supplied by a large horizontal caudal fin1 or tail2 while the cervical bones are so compressed that the animal1 externally at least1 seems to have no neck4 ,the general form of the whale1 notwithstanding its position among the ,mammalia1 is similar to that of the fishes1 and the horizontal elongation of the body1 the smooth and rounded surface1 the gradual attenuation of the extremities of the trunk1 and the magnitude of the fins and tail1 are specially adapted to easy and swift motion in the water4 ,the arrangement of the bones composing the anterior limb is very curious4 ,the whole of the fin consists of exactly the same parts as those which we find in the human hand and arm2 but they are so concealed beneath the thick cutaneous or integumentary envelope1 that not a trace of bone is visible4 ,in this respect an intermediate organization is shown by the fore limbs of the seal4 ,the posterior extremity1 in all the ,cetacea1 is either absolutely deficient1 or else rudimentary4 ,if rudimentary1 its sole vestige consists of certain small bones1 the imperfect representation of a pelvis1 suspended1 as it were1 in the flesh1 and unconnected with the spinal column4 ,here we may observe a remarkable difference between the whale and the seal3 in the latter1 as we have seen1 there is a short tail1 and the posterior extremities perform the office of a true caudal fin2 in the former this important organ of progression consists1 to use ,mr4 ,bell's words1 of 8an extremely broad and powerful horizontal disc1 varying in figure in the different genera1 but in all constituting the principal instrument of locomotion40 ,in fishes the tail is set vertically1 but in whales horizontally2 and it has been well said that the admirable adaptation of such a peculiarity in its position to the requirements of the animal forms a fresh and beautiful illustration of the infinite resource and foresight of the ,creative ,wisdom4 ,thus3 the fishes1 respiring only the air contained in the dense liquid medium in which they live1 require no access to the atmosphere2 and1 therefore1 their progression is chiefly confined to the same region4 ,but the whales1 breathing atmospheric air1 must necessarily come to the surface for each respiration2 and hence they need a powerful instrument or lever1 the position of which shall apply its impulse in a vertical direction1 so as to impel their colossal bulk from the lowest depths of ocean to the surface every time the lungs require to receive a fresh supply of atmospheric air4 ,the greatest rapidity of motion is effected by alternate strokes of the tail against the water1 upwards and downwards2 but the usual progression is accomplished by an oblique lateral and downward impulse1 first on one side and then on the other1 just as a boat is propelled by a man with a single oar in the art of 8sculling40 ,the extent of the tail in some of the larger species is really immense2 the superficies being no less than about a hundred square feet1 and its breadth considerably exceeding twenty feet4 ,the common1 right1 or ,greenland whale 7,balna mysticetus7 has been1 for centuries1 the object of man's systematic pursuit1 on account of its valuable oil and scarcely less valuable baleen4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,greenland ,,whale4 ,this whale seldom exceeds fifty to sixty feet in length1 or thirty to forty in girth1 and1 therefore1 is by no means the head of its family4 ,as in other species1 the body is thick and bulky forwards1 largest about the middle1 and tapers suddenly towards the tail4 ,the head is colossal2 broad1 flat1 and rounded beneath1 and narrow above2 it forms about a third of the animal's entire length1 and is about ten or twelve feet broad4 ,its lips--such lips6--are five or six feet thick4 ,they do not cover any teeth1 but they protect a pair of very formidable jaws4 ,the cavernous interior of the mouth is filled up with two series of whalebone lamin1 about three hundred in each1 which require particular description4 ,the whalebone1 or baleen1 as it is called1 consists of numerous parallel plates1 layers1 or lamin1 each of which is formed of a central coarse fibrous layer lying between two that are compact and externally polished4 ,but this outer part does not completely cover the inner2 a kind of edge is exposed1 and this edge terminates in a loose fringed or fibrous extremity4 ,moreover1 at the base of each plate of baleen lies a conical cavity1 covering a pulp which corresponds with it2 and this pulp is sunk within the substance of the gum or buccal membrane stretched over the palate and upper jaw4 ,the compact outer layers of the baleen plate are continuous with a white horny layer of the gum1 which passes on to the surface of each plate2 and the pulp may be regarded1 therefore1 as the secreting organ of the internal coarse structure only4 ,the filaments of the fringe are exceedingly numerous1 and so fill up the mouth-cavity as to form a very efficient and ingenious sieve or strainer2 and as the esophagus1 or 8swallow10 of the whale is so confined as to be unable to admit of the passage even of the smaller fish1 and the food of the whale consequently is limited to minute organisms1 such as the medus1 this skilfully devised construction is absolutely requisite in order to retain the whole of those which are taken into the mouth4 ,the mode in which the whale feeds may be thus described3-- ,the broad waters of the ,arctic seas teem with innumerable shoals of molluscous1 radiate1 and crustaceous animals1 and these are frequently so numerous as absolutely to colour the wave-surface4 ,when a whale1 therefore1 desires food1 it opens its colossal mouth1 and a host of these organisms is1 as it were1 swept up by the great expanse of the lower jaw3 as the mouth closes1 the water is ejected1 and the life it contained is imprisoned by the appliance we have attempted to describe4 ,if we consider the number of whales found in the ,northern seas1 and the mighty bulk of each individual1 our imagination entirely fails to appreciate the countless myriads of minute organisms which must be sacrificed to their due nourishment4 ,one of the principal products of the ,greenland whale is its baleen1 or whalebone1 with the domestic uses of which our readers will be familiar2 but the large quantities of oil which it yields are still more valuable4 ,a whale sixty feet in length will supply fully twenty tons of pure oil4 ,besides the common whale1 our hunters find in the seas of the ,north the razor-backed whale1 or northern rorqual 7,balnoptera physalis71 characterized by the prominent ridge which extends along its mighty back4 ,this monster of the deep attains a length1 it is said1 of one hundred feet1 and measures from thirty to thirty-five feet in circumference4 ,but its yield of oil and baleen is less than that of the right or ,greenland whale1 and as its capture is a task of difficulty and danger1 the whalers seldom attack it4 ,in its movements it is more rapid and restless1 and when harpooned it frequently plunges downward with such force and velocity as to break the line4 ,in several respects it differs from the ,greenland species2 and particularly in the nature of its food1 for it feeds upon fishes of considerable size4 ,some of our naturalists affirm that several species of rorquals exist in the ,arctic seas2 and the pike whale1 so called from the resemblance of its mouth to that of a pike1 is frequently described as an independent species4 ,others1 however1 are of opinion that the pike is simply the young of the monster we have been describing4 ,the rorqual is very voracious1 and preys extensively upon fishes2 as many as six hundred cod1 to say nothing of smaller 8fry10 having been found in the stomach of a single individual4 ,while the ,greenland whale is being rapidly driven back into the icy wildernesses beyond ,behring ,strait1 on the west1 and the creeks and gulfs beyond ,baffin ,bay1 on the east1 the rorquals1 including the ,balnoptera rostratus 7or beaked whale71 ,balnoptera musculus1 and ,balnoptera bops1 still frequent the open waters1--their pursuit being1 as we have shown1 more difficult and less profitable4 ,they are generally found in attendance on the herring-shoals1 of which they are the assiduous and destructive enemies4 ,off ,greenland1 ,spitzbergen1 and ,novaia ,zemlaia they are found in considerable numbers4 ,our whalers go forth every year in well-provided ships1 and supplied with the best and most formidable weapons which scientific ingenuity can devise4 ,still they find the enterprise one of peril and hardship1 and it is universally recognized as requiring in those who embark in it no ordinary powers of endurance1 as well as courage1 patience1 and perseverance4 ,yet the ,asiatic and ,american tribes do not fear to confront the ocean-leviathan with the simplest of arms4 ,the ,alet embarks in his little skiff1 or baidar1 and catching sight of his prey1 stealthily approaches it from behind until he nearly reaches the monster's head4 ,then he suddenly and dexterously drives his short spear into the huge flank1 just under the fore fin1 and retreats as swiftly as his well-plied oars can carry him4 ,if the spear has sunk into the flesh1 the whale is doomed2 within the next two or three days it will perish1 and the currents and the waves will hurl the vast bulk on the nearest shore1 to be claimed by its gallant conqueror4 ,and as each spear bears its owner's peculiar mark1 the claim is never disputed4 ,occasionally the baidar does not escape in time1 and the exasperated leviathan1 furiously lashing the waters with its tail1 hurls the frail boat high up into the air1 as if it were a reed1 or sinks it with one crushing blow4 ,no wonder that those of their race who undertake so hazardous a calling are held in high repute among the ,alets4 ,to sally forth alone1 and encounter the whale in the icy waters of the ,polar ,sea1 is a task demanding the utmost intrepidity and the utmost tranquillity of nerve4 ,many of the whales thus daringly harpooned are lost4 ,it is on record that1 in the summer of #ahca1 one hundred and eighteen whales were struck near ,kadjack1 and of these only forty-three were found4 ,the others either drifted to far-off shores and lonely unknown isles1 or became the prey of sharks and ocean-birds4 ,wrangell states that of late years the ,russians have introduced the use of the harpoon1 and engaged some ,english harpooneers to teach the ,alets the secret of their craft2 and1 therefore1 the older and more hazardous method1 which the ,alets had learned from their forefathers1 will soon be a thing of the past4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,eskimos devote the month of ,august to the whale-fishery1 and for this purpose they assemble in companies1 and plant a colony of huts on some bold headland of the ,polar coast1 where the water is of depth sufficient to float their destined victim4 ,as soon as a whale's colossal bulk is seen outstretched on the water1 a dozen kayaks or more cautiously paddle up in the rear1 until one of them1 shooting ahead1 comes near enough on one side for the men to drive the spear into its flesh with all the force of both arms4 ,to the spear are attached an inflated seal-skin and a long coil of thong4 ,the whale dives immediately it is stricken4 ,after awhile it reappears1 and the signal being given by the floating seal-skin buoy1 all the canoes again paddle towards their prey4 ,again the opportunity is seized for launching the fatal spears2 and this process is repeated until the exhausted whale rises more and more frequently to the surface1 is finally killed1 and towed ashore4 ,captain ,m',clure fell in with an ,eskimo tribe off ,cape ,bathurst which hunted the whale in this primitive fashion1 but the females1 as well as the men1 engaged in the pursuit4 ,an omaiak1 or woman's boat1 he says1 is 8manned by ladies10 having as harpooneer a chosen man of the tribe2 and a shoal of small fry1 in the form of kayaks1 or single-men canoes1 are in attendance4 ,the harpooneer singles out 8a fish10 drives into its flesh his weapon1 to which an inflated seal-skin is attached by means of a walrus-hide thong4 ,the wounded fish is then incessantly harassed by the men in the kayacks with weapons of a similar description2 and a number of these1 driven into the unfortunate whale1 baffle its efforts to escape1 and wear out its strength1 until1 in the course of a day1 it dies from exhaustion and loss of blood4 ,sherard ,osborn tells us that the harpooneer1 when successful1 becomes a very great personage indeed1 and is invariably decorated with the ,eskimo order of the ,blue ,ribbon2 that is1 a blue line is drawn across his face over the bridge of his nose4 ,this is the highest honour known to the heroes of ,cape ,bathurst2 but it carries along with it the privilege of the decorated individual being allowed to take unto himself a second wife6 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the waters of ,novaia ,zemlaia1 ,greenland1 and ,spitzbergen is found the narwhal1 or sea unicorn 7,monodon monoceros71 which was at one time the theme of so many extravagant legends4 ,it belongs to the ,cetacea1 but differs from the whale in having no teeth1 properly so called1 and in being armed with a formidable horn1 projecting straight forward from the upper jaw1 in a direct line with the body4 ,this horn1 or tusk1 the use of which has not been satisfactorily ascertained1 is harder and whiter than ivory1 spirally striated from base to point1 tapers throughout1 and measures from six to ten feet in length4 ,mr4 ,bell remarks that it would be a strange anomaly if the apparent singleness of this weapon were real4 ,in truth1 both teeth are invariably found in the jaw1 not only of the male1 but of the female also2 but in ordinary 7though not in all7 cases one only1 and this in the male1 is fully developed1 the other remaining in a rudimentary condition--even as both do in the female4 ,illustration3 ,,narwhals1 ,,male ,,and ,,female4 ,the narwhal1 from mouth to tail1 is about twenty feet long1 though individuals measuring thirty feet are sometimes met with4 ,its head is short1 and the upper part convex2 its mouth small2 its spiracle1 or respiratory vent1 duplicate within2 its tongue long2 the pectoral fins small4 ,the back1 which is convex and rather wide1 has no fins1 and sharpens gradually towards the tail1 which1 as in other ,cetacea1 is horizontal4 ,the food of the narwhal1 whose habits are remarkably pacific1 consists of medus1 the smaller kinds of flat fish1 and other marine animals4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a striking spectacle which frequently greets the eye of the voyager in the ,arctic seas is that of a shoal of dolphins gambolling and leaping1 as if in the very heyday of enjoyment4 ,the beluga1 sometimes called the white whale 7,delphinus leucos71 attracts attention by the dazzling whiteness of its body and the swiftness of its movements4 ,it frequents the estuaries of the ,obi and the ,irtish1 the ,mackenzie and the ,coppermine1 which it sometimes ascends to a considerable distance in pursuit of the salmon4 ,its length varies from twelve to twenty feet2 it has no dorsal fin2 and its head is round1 with a broad truncated snout4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,shoal ,,of ,,dolphins4 ,the black dolphin 7,globicephalus globiceps7 is also an inhabitant of the ,polar seas1 both beyond ,behring ,strait1 and between ,greenland and ,spitzbergen4 ,it is1 however1 frequently met with in waters further south4 ,its length averages about twenty-four feet1 and its circumference ten feet4 ,its smooth oily skin is bluish-black on the upper1 and an obscure white on the lower1 parts of the body4 ,twenty-two or twenty-four strong interlocking teeth in each jaw form its formidable apparatus of offence and defence2 its dorsal fin is about fifteen inches high2 its tail five feet broad2 the pectoral fins are long and narrow1 and well adapted to assist their owner in its rapid movements4 ,it consorts with its kind in herds of several hundreds1 under the guidance of some old and wary males1 whom the rest follow as docilely as a flock of sheep their bell-wether2 hence the ,shetlanders term it the 8ca'ing whale40 ,large shoals are frequently stranded on the shores of ,norway1 ,iceland1 and the ,orkney1 ,faroe1 and ,shetland ,isles1 furnishing the inhabitants with a welcome booty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the same latitudes belong the ferocious orc or grampus 7,delphinus orca71 the tiger of the seas1 which not only attacks the porpoise and dolphin1 but even the colossal whale4 ,its broad deep body is black above and white beneath2 the sides are marbled with black and white4 ,there are thirty teeth in each jaw1 those in front being blunt1 round1 and slender1 while those behind are sharp and thick2 and between each is a space fitted to receive those of the opposite jaw when the mouth is closed4 ,the back fin of the grampus is of great size2 sometimes measuring as much as six feet in length1 from the base to the tip4 ,the grampus generally voyages in small squadrons of four or five individuals1 following each other in single file1 and alternately rising and sinking in such a manner as to resemble the undulatory motions of a huge kraken or sea-serpent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the inhabitants of the ,polar ,ocean must certainly be included the ,polar bear 7,thalassarctos maritimus71 since it swims and dives with great dexterity1 and1 moreover1 is often found on the drifting ice-floes at a distance of eighty to one hundred miles from land4 ,it is a creature of great strength1 great fierceness1 and great courage1 though we may not accept the exaggerated accounts of it which enliven the narratives of the earlier voyagers4 ,illustration3 ,,polar ,,bears4 ,a noble creature is the ,polar bear1 says ,sherard ,osborn1 whether we speak of him by the learned titles of 8,ursus maritimus10 8,thalassarctos maritimus10 or the sailors' more expressive nomenclature of 8,jack ,rough60 ,with all her many wonders1 continues this lively writer1 never did ,nature create a creature more admirably adapted to the life it has to lead4 ,half flesh1 half fish1 the seaman wandering in the inhospitable regions of the ,north cannot but be struck with the appearance of latent energy and power its every action attests1 as it rolls in a lithe and swaggering way over the rough surface of the frozen sea2 or1 during the brief ,arctic summer1 haunts the broken and treacherous 8pack0 in search of its prey4 ,when not too loaded with fat--and it seems to fatten readily--the pace of the bear is leisurely and easy1 yet at its slowest it is equal to that of a good pedestrian2 and when alarmed or irritated1 its speed is surprising1 though not graceful4 ,on level ice1 it flings itself ahead1 as it were1 by a violent jerking motion of the powerful fore paws1 in what has been described as an 8ungainly gallop20 but it always makes1 when it can1 for rough ice1 where its strength and agility are best displayed1 and where neither man nor dog can overtake it4 ,in the ,queen's ,channel1 during ,captain ,m',clure's expedition1 more than one bear was seen making its way over broken-up ice1 rugged and precipitous as the mind can picture1 with a truly wonderful facility2 their powerful fore paws and hind legs enabling them to spring from piece to piece1 scaling one fragment and sliding down another with the activity of a huge quadrumane rather than that of a quadruped4 ,evidently it is conscious of its superiority in such rough and perilous ground1 and is generally found at the edge of the belts of hummocks or broken ice which intersect most ice-fields1 or else amongst the frozen pack-ice of channels such as ,barrow's and the ,queen's4 ,there is1 however1 another reason why bears keep among hummocks and pack-ice--namely1 that near such spots water usually first makes its appearance in the summer4 ,seals1 consequently1 are most numerous there2 while the inequalities of the floe afford shelter to the bears in approaching their prey4 ,during summer the colour of the ,polar bear is of a dull yellowish hue1 closely resembling that of decaying snow or ice4 ,the fur is then thin1 and the hair on the soles of their feet almost wholly rubbed off1 as with the other animals of ,arctic climes2 but in the autumn1 when the body has recovered from the privations of the previous winter1 and a thick coating of blubber overlays his carcass to meet the exigencies of another season of scanty fare1 the feet1 as the season advances1 are beautifully incased and feathered with hair1 and the animal's colour usually turns to a very pale straw1 which1 from particular points of view1 as the light strikes it1 looks white1 or nearly so4 ,the nose and lips are of a jetty black2 the eyes vary in colour4 ,brown is common1 but some have been seen with eyes of a pale gray4 ,their sense of smell is peculiarly acute1 facilitated no doubt by the peculiar manner in which the pure keen air of the ,north carries scent to very considerable distances4 ,sherard ,osborn states that bears have been seen to follow up a scent1 exactly as dogs would do2 and the floes about ,lowther ,island1 in #ahea1 looked as if the bears had quartered there in search of seals1 after the fashion of a pointer in the green fields of ,england4 ,the snorting noise which they make as they approach near indicates how much more confidence they place in their scent than in their vision2 though both1 when the hunter is concerned1 are apt to deceive them4 ,the ,polar bear attains to very formidable proportions2 but when seamen speak of monsters fifteen feet in length1 their auditors may be excused for withholding their belief4 ,ten feet would seem to be a maximum2 and the bear need be large1 strong1 and muscular to master the large ,arctic seal1 especially the saddle-back and bladder-nose species4 ,for though it swims well and dives well1 it neither swims nor dives as well as the seal1 and would therefore have but little chance of obtaining a sufficient livelihood if it could not attack and capture its victim on the ice-floes4 ,the seal1 on the other hand1 fully aware of its danger1 and of the only means of escaping from it1 always keeps close to the water1 whether it be the hole it has gnawed and broken through the ice1 or the open sea at the floe edge4 ,and when it lies basking on the floating ice1 and apparently apathetic and lethargic1 nothing can exceed its vigilance4 ,with its magnificent eyes it is able to sweep a wide range of the horizon1 however slightly it turns its head2 its keenness of hearing adds to its security4 ,there is something peculiarly striking in its continuous watchfulness4 ,now it raises its head and looks around2 now it is intent on the slightest sound that travels over the crisp surface of the ice2 now it gazes and listens down its hole1 a needful precaution against so subtle a hunter as old ,bruin6 ,it would seem impossible to surprise an animal so vigilant and so wary2 and1 indeed1 in circumventing its prey the bear exhibits an astuteness and a skill which overpass the bounds of instinct1 and approach closely to those of reason4 ,from its scent and by its quick strong vision the bear apprehends the position of the seal4 ,then it throws itself prone upon the ice1 and profiting by inequalities which are invisible to human eyes1 gradually steals upon its destined victim by a soft and scarcely perceptible movement of the hind feet4 ,to hide its black muzzle1 it constantly uses its fore feet2 and thus1 only the dingy white of its coat being visible1 it is scarcely to be distinguished from the general mass of the floe4 ,patiently it draws nearer and nearer2 the seal1 mistaking it for one of its own congeners1 or else yielding to a fatal curiosity1 delaying until its assailant1 with one spring1 is upon it4 ,yet1 as the old adage says1 there is many a slip2 and even in these circumstances the bear does not always secure its feast4 ,it is disappointed sometimes just as the prey seems within its grasp2 and how keen the disappointment is can be appreciated only1 we are told1 by hapless ,arctic travellers1 8who have been hours crawling up1 dreaming of delicious seal's fry and overflowing fuel bags1 and seen the prey pop down a hole when within a hundred yards of it40 ,the great muscular power of the seal frequently enables it to fling itself into the water in spite of the bear's efforts to hold it on the floe2 ,bruin1 however1 retains his grip1 for his diving powers are not much inferior to those of the seal1 and down they go together6 ,sometimes the bear proves victorious1 owing to mortal injuries inflicted upon the seal before it reaches the water2 sometimes it may be seen reappearing at another hole in the floe1 or clambering up another loose piece of ice1 apparently much mortified by its want of success4 ,illustration3 ,,bear ,,catching ,a ,,seal4 ,as we have said1 the bear dives well1 and is nearly as much at home in the water as upon the ice4 ,if it catches sight of a seal upon a drifting floe1 it will slide quietly into the sea1 swim with only the tip of its nose above the water1 and1 diving under the floe1 reach the very spot which the hapless seal has regarded as an oasis of safety4 ,it is this stratagem of its enemy which has taught the seal to watch its hole so warily4 ,even on extensive ice-fields fast to the land1 where the bear cannot conceal its approach by taking advantage of hummocks or other inequalities1 the seal is not safe2 for then ,bruin drops down a hole1 and swims along under the ice-crust until it reaches the one where the poor seal is all unwittingly enjoying its last rays of sunshine4 ,the bear's season of plenty begins with the coming of the spring4 ,in ,february and ,march the seal is giving birth to her young1 who are born blind and helpless1 and for ten days are unable to take to the water4 ,the poor mothers use every effort to protect them1 but1 in spite of their affectionate exertions1 a perfect massacre of the innocents takes place1 in which1 not improbably1 the ,arctic wolf is not less guilty than the ,arctic bear4 ,voracity1 however1 frequently proves its own ,nemesis1 and the bear1 in its eager pursuit of prey1 often involves itself in serious disaster4 ,the seal instinctively breeds as close as possible to the open water4 ,but the ice-floes1 during the early equinoctial gales1 will sometimes break up and drift away in the form of pack-ice2 a matter of indifference1 says ,osborn1 to the seal1 but a question of life and death to the bear4 ,borne afar on their little islets of ice1 rocked by tempestuous waters1 buffeted by icy gales1 numbers of these castaways are lost along the whole area of the ,polar ,sea4 ,it is said that when the gales blow down from the north1 bears are sometimes stranded in such numbers on the shores of ,iceland as to endanger the safety of the flocks and herds of the ,icelandic peasants2 and they have been known to reach the coasts of ,norway4 ,bears drifting about at a considerable distance from the land are often enough seen by the whalers4 ,they have been discovered fully sixty miles from shore1 in ,davis ,strait1 without any ice in sight1 and utterly exhausted by long swimming4 ,it is thus that ,nature checks their too rapid increase2 for beyond the possibility of the wolf hunting it in packs and destroying the cubs1 there seems no other limitation of their numbers4 ,the ,eskimos are too few1 and too badly provided with weapons1 to slaughter them very extensively4 ,wherever seals abound1 so do bears2 in ,barrow ,strait and in the ,queen's ,channel they have been seen in very numerous troops4 ,the ,danes assert that they are plentiful about the northern settlement of ,upernavik in ,greenland1 for nine months in the year2 and from the united testimony of the natives inhabiting the north-eastern portion of ,baffin ,bay1 and that of ,dr4 ,kane1 who wintered in ,smith ,sound1 it is evident that they are plentiful about the polynias1 or open pools1 formed there by the action of the tides4 ,in the summer months1 when the bear is loaded with fat1 it is easily hunted down1 for then it can neither move swiftly nor run long2 but in deep winter its voracity and its great strength render it a formidable enemy to uncivilized and unarmed man4 ,usually it avoids coming into contact with our ,british seamen1 though instances are on record of fiercely contested engagements1 in which ,bruin has with difficulty been defeated4 ,it is folly1 says ,sherard ,osborn1 to talk of the ,polar bear hibernating3 whatever bears may do on the ,american continent1 there is only one ,arctic navigator who ever saw a bear's nest6 ,bears were seen at all points visited by our sailors in the course of ,m',clure's expedition2 at all times and in all temperatures2 males or females1 and sometimes females with their cubs4 ,in mid-winter1 as well as in midsummer1 they evidently frequented spots where tides or currents occasioned either water to constantly exist1 or only allowed such a thin coating of ice to form that the seal or walrus could easily break through4 ,that the ,polar bear does not willingly attack man1 except when hotly pursued or when suffering from extreme want1 is asserted by several good authorities1 and confirmed by an experience which ,dr4 ,hayes relates4 ,he was strolling one day along the shore1 and observing with much interest the effect of the recent spring-tides upon the ice-foot1 when1 rounding a point of land1 he suddenly found himself confronted in the full moonlight by an enormous bear4 ,it had just sprung down from the land-ice1 and met ,dr4 ,hayes at full trot1 so that they caught sight of each other1 man and brute1 at the same moment4 ,being without a rifle or other means of defence1 ,dr4 ,hayes suddenly wheeled towards his ship1 with much the same reflections1 probably1 about discretion and valour as occurred to old ,jack ,falstaff when the ,douglas set upon him2 but discovering1 after a few lengthy strides1 that he was not 8gobbled up10 he looked back over his shoulder1 when1 to his gratification as well as surprise1 he saw the bear speeding towards the open water with a celerity which left no doubt as to the state of its mind4 ,it would be difficult to determine which1 on this occasion1 was the more frightened1 the bear or ,dr4 ,hayes6 99 99 99 99 99 ,a curious illustration of the combined voracity and epicureanism of ,bruin is recorded by ,dr4 ,kane4 ,a cache1 or dept of provisions1 which had been constructed by one of his exploring parties with great care1 and was intended to supply them with stores on their return journey1 they found completely destroyed4 ,it had been built1 with every possible precaution1 of rocks brought together by heavy labour1 and adjusted in the most skilful manner4 ,so far as the means of the builders permitted1 the entire construction was most effective and resisting4 ,yet these 8tigers of the ice0 seemed to have scarcely encountered an obstacle4 ,not a morsel of pemmican 7preserved meat7 remained1 except in the iron cases1 which1 being round1 with conical ends1 defied both claw and teeth4 ,these they had rolled and pawed in every direction1--tossing them about like footballs1 although upwards of eighty pounds in weight4 ,an alcohol-case1 strongly iron-bound1 was dashed into small fragments2 and a tin can of liquor twisted almost into a ball4 ,the bears' strong claws had perforated the metal1 and torn it up as with a chisel4 ,illustration3 ,,bears ,,destroying ,a ,,cache4 ,but the burglars were too dainty for salt meats4 ,for ground coffee they had evidently a relish2 old canvas was also a favourite1--de gustibus non est disputandum2 even the flag which had been reared 8to take possession0 of the icy wilderness1 was gnawed down to the very staff4 ,it seemed that the bears had enjoyed a regular frolic2 rolling the bread-barrels over the ice-foot and into the broken outside ice2 and finding themselves unable to masticate the heavy ,india-rubber cloth1 they had amused themselves by tying it up in unimaginable hard knots4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the she-bear displays a strong affection for her young1 which she will not desert even in the extremity of peril4 ,the explorer already quoted furnishes an interesting narrative of a pursuit of mother and cub1 in which the former's maternal qualities were touchingly exhibited4 ,on the appearance of the hunting party and their dogs1 the bear fled2 but the little one being unable either to keep ahead of the dogs or to maintain the same rate of speed as its mother1 the latter turned back1 and1 putting her head under its haunches1 threw it some distance forward4 ,the cub being thus safe for the moment1 she would wheel round and face the dogs1 so as to give it a chance to run away2 but it always stopped where it had alighted1 until its mother came up1 and gave it another forward impulse2 it seemed to expect her aid1 and would not go forward without it4 ,sometimes the mother would run a few yards in advance1 as if to coax her cub up to her1 and when the dogs approached she would turn fiercely upon them1 and drive them back4 ,then1 as they dodged her blows1 she would rejoin the cub1 and push it on1--sometimes putting her head under it1 sometimes seizing it in her mouth by the nape of its neck4 ,illustration3 ,,fight ,,with ,a ,,white ,,bear4 ,for some time she conducted her retreat with equal skill and celerity1 leaving the two hunters far in the rear4 ,they had sighted her on the land-ice2 but she led the dogs in-shore1 up a small stony valley which penetrated into the interior4 ,after going a mile and a half1 however1 her pace slackened1 and1 the little one being spent1 she soon came to a halt1 evidently determined not to desert it4 ,at this moment the men were only half a mile behind2 and1 running at full speed1 they soon reached the spot where the dogs were holding her at bay4 ,the fight then grew desperate4 ,the mother never moved more than two yards ahead1 constantly and affectionately looking at her cub4 ,when the dogs drew near1 she sat upon her haunches1 and taking the little one between her hind legs1 she fought her assailants with her paws1 roaring so loudly that she could have been heard a mile off4 ,she would stretch her neck and snap desperately at the nearest dog with her shining teeth1 whirling her paws like the sails of a windmill4 ,if she missed her aim1 not daring to pursue one dog lest the others should pounce upon her cub1 she uttered a deep howl of baffled rage1 and on she went1 pawing and snapping1 and facing the ring1 grinning at them with wide-opened jaws4 ,when the hunters came up1 the little one apparently had recovered its strength a little1 for it was able to turn round with its dam1 however quickly she moved1 so as always to keep in front of her belly4 ,meantime the dogs were actively jumping about the she-bear1 tormenting her like so many gadflies2 indeed1 it was difficult to fire at her without running the risk of killing the dogs4 ,but ,hans1 one of the hunters1 resting on his elbow1 took a quiet1 steady aim1 and shot her through the head4 ,she dropped at once1 and rolled over dead1 without moving a muscle4 ,immediately the dogs sprang towards her2 but the cub jumped upon her body and reared up1 for the first time growling hoarsely4 ,they seemed quite afraid of the little creature1 she fought so actively1 and made so much noise2 and1 while tearing mouthfuls of hair from the dead mother1 they would spring aside the minute the cub turned towards them4 ,the men drove the dogs off for a time1 but were compelled to shoot the cub at last1 as she would not quit the body4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a still more stirring episode is recorded by ,dr4 ,kane1 which will fitly conclude our account of the ,polar bear4 8,nannook6 nannook60 7,a bear6 a bear67 ,with this welcome shout1 ,hans and ,morton1 two of his attendants1 roused ,dr4 ,kane one fine ,saturday morning4 ,to the scandal of his domestic regulations1 the guns were all impracticable4 ,while the men were loading and capping anew1 ,dr4 ,kane seized his pillow-companion six-shooter1 and ran on deck1 to discover a medium-sized bear1 with a four-months' cub1 in active warfare with the dogs4 ,they were hanging on her skirts1 and she1 with remarkable alertness1 was picking out one victim after another1 snatching him by the nape of the neck1 and flinging him many feet1 or rather yards1 by a scarcely perceptible movement of her head4 ,tudea1 the best dog1 was already hors de combat2 he had been tossed twice4 ,jenny1 another of the pack1 made an extraordinary somerset of nearly fifty feet1 and alighted senseless4 ,old ,whitey1 a veteran combatant1 stanch1 but not 8bear-wise10 had been foremost in the battle2 soon he lay yelping1 helplessly1 on the snow4 ,it seemed as if the battle were at an end2 and nannook certainly thought so1 for she turned aside to the beef-barrels1 and began with the utmost composure to turn them over1 and nose out their fatness4 ,a bear more innocent of fear does not figure in the old1 old stories of ,barents and the ,spitzbergen explorers4 ,dr4 ,kane now lodged a pistol-ball in the side of the cub4 ,at once the mother placed her little one between her hind legs1 and1 shoving it along1 made her way to the rear of the store or 8beef-house40 ,as she went she received a rifle-shot1 but scarcely seemed to notice it4 ,by the unaided efforts of her fore arms she tore down the barrels of frozen beef which made the triple walls of the store-house1 mounted the rubbish1 and snatching up a half barrel of herrings1 carried it down in her teeth1 and prepared to slip away4 ,it was obviously time to arrest her movements4 ,going up within half pistol-range1 ,dr4 ,kane gave her six buck-shot4 ,she dropped1 but instantly rose1 and getting her cub into its former position1 away she sped6 ,and this time she would undoubtedly have effected her escape1 but for the admirable tactics of ,dr4 ,kane's canine ,eskimo allies4 ,the ,smith ,sound dogs1 he says1 are educated more thoroughly than any of their more southern brethren4 ,next to the seal and the walrus1 the bear supplies the staple diet of the tribes of the ,north1 and1 except the fox1 furnishes the most important element of their wardrobe4 ,unlike the dogs ,dr4 ,kane had brought with him from ,baffin ,bay1 the ,smith ,sound dogs were trained1 not to attack1 but to embarrass4 ,they revolved in circles round the perplexed bear1 and when pursued would keep ahead with regulated gait1 their comrades accomplishing a diversion at the critical moment by a nip at the nannook's hind-quarters4 ,this was done in the most systematic manner possible1 and with a truly wonderful composure4 8,i have seen bear-dogs elsewhere10 says ,dr4 ,kane1 8that had been drilled to relieve each other in the mle1 and avoid the direct assault2 but here1 two dogs1 without even a demonstration of attack1 would put themselves before the path of the animal1 and retreating right and left1 lead him into a profitless pursuit that checked his advance completely40 ,the unfortunate animal was still fighting1 and still retreating1 embarrassed by the dogs1 yet affectionately carrying along her wounded cub1 and though wounded1 bleeding1 and fatigued1 gaining ground upon her pursuers1 when ,hans and ,dr4 ,kane secured the victory1 such as it was1 for their own side1 by delivering a couple of rifle-balls4 ,she staggered in front of her young one1 confronted her assailants in death-like defiance1 and did not sink until pierced by six more bullets4 ,when her body was skinned1 no fewer than nine balls were discovered4 ,she proved to be of medium size1 very lean1 and without a particle of food in her stomach4 ,hunger1 probably1 had stimulated her courage to desperation4 ,the net weight of the cleansed carcass was #cjj pounds2 that of the entire animal1 #fej pounds2 her length1 only #g feet #h inches4 ,it is said that bears in this lean condition are more palatable and wholesome than when fat2 and that the impregnation of fatty oil through the cellular tissues makes a well-fed bear nearly uneatable4 ,the flesh of a famished beast1 though less nutritious as body-fuel or as a stimulating diet1 is rather sweet and tender than otherwise4 ,moral3 starve your bear before you eat him6 ,the little cub was larger than the qualifying adjective would imply4 ,she was taller than a dog1 and her weight #aad lbs4 ,she sprang upon the corpse of her slaughtered mother1 and rent the air with woful lamentations4 ,all efforts to noose her she repelled with singular ferocity2 but at last1 being completely muzzled with a line fastened by a running knot between her jaws and the back of her head1 she was dragged off to the brig amid the uproar of the dogs4 ,dr4 ,kane asserts that during this fight1 and the compulsory somersets which it involved1 not a dog suffered seriously4 ,he expected1 from his knowledge of the hugging propensity of the plantigrades1 that the animal would rear1 or it she did not rear1 would at least use her fore arms2 but she invariably seized the dogs with her teeth1 and after disposing of them for a time1 refrained from following up her advantage1--probably because she had her cub to take care of4 ,the ,eskimos state that this is the habit of the hunted bear4 ,one of the ,smith ,sound dogs made no exertion whatever when he was seized1 but allowed himself to be flung1 with all his muscles relaxed1 a really fearful distance2 the next instant he rose and renewed the attack4 ,according to the ,eskimos1 the dogs soon learn this 8possum-playing0 habit4 ,it would seem that the higher the latitude1 the more ferocious the bear1 or that he increases in ferocity as he recedes from the usual hunting-fields4 ,at ,oominak1 one winter day1 an ,eskimo and his son were nearly killed by a bear that had housed himself in an iceberg4 ,they attacked him with the lance1 but he boldly turned on them1 and handled them severely before they could make their escape4 ,the continued hostility of man1 however1 has had1 in ,dr4 ,kane's opinion1 a modifying influence upon the ursine character in ,south ,greenland2 at all events1 the bears of that region never attack1 and even in self-defence seldom inflict injury upon1 the hunters4 ,many instances have occurred where they have defended themselves1 and even charged after having been wounded1 but in none of them was life lost4 ,a stout ,eskimo1 an assistant to a ,danish cooper of ,upernavik1 fired at a she-bear1 and the animal closed at the instant of receiving the ball4 ,the man had the presence of mind to fling himself prone on the ground1 extending his arm to protect his head1 and afterwards lying perfectly motionless4 ,the beast was deceived4 ,she gave the arm a bite or two1 but finding her enemy did not stir1 she retired a few paces1 and sat upon her haunches to watch4 ,but her watch was not as wary as it should have been1 for the hunter dexterously reloaded his rifle1 and slew her with the second shot4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been pointed out that in approaching the bear the hunters should take advantage of the cover afforded by the inequalities of the frozen surface1 such as its ridges and hillocks4 ,these vary in height1 from ten feet to a hundred1 and frequently are packed so closely together as to leave scarcely a yard of level surface4 ,it is in such a region that the ,polar bear exhibits his utmost speed1 and in such a region his pursuit is attended with no slight difficulty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and after the day's labour comes the night's rest2 but what a night6 ,we know what night is in these temperate climes1 or in the genial southern lands2 a night of stars1 with a deep blue sky overspreading the happy earth like a dome of sapphire3 a night of brightness and serene glory1 when the moon is high in the heaven1 and its soft radiance seems to touch tree and stream1 hill and vale1 with a tint of silver2 a night of storm1 when the clouds hang low and heavily1 and the rain descends1 and a wailing rushing wind loses itself in the recesses of the shuddering woods2 we know what night is1 in these temperate regions1 under all its various aspects1--now mild and beautiful1 now gloomy and sad1 now grand and tempestuous2 the long dark night of winter with its frosty airs1 and its drooping shadows thrown back by the dead surface of the snow2 the brief bright night of summer1 which forms so short a pause between the evening of one day and the morning of another1 that it seems intended only to afford the busy earth a breathing-time2--but we can form no idea of what an ,arctic ,night is1 in all its mystery1 magnificence1 and wonder4 ,strange stars light up the heavens2 the forms of earth are strange2 all is unfamiliar1 and almost unintelligible4 ,illustration3 ,,stalking ,a ,,bear4 ,it is not that the ,arctic night makes a heavy demand on our physical faculties4 ,against its rigour man is able to defend himself2 but it is less easy to provide against its strain on the moral and intellectual faculties4 ,the darkness which clothes ,nature for so long a period reveals to the senses of the ,european explorer what is virtually a new world1 and the senses do not well adapt themselves to that world4 ,the cheering influences of the rising sun1 which invite to labour2 the soothing influences of the evening twilight1 which beguile to rest2 that quick change from day to night1 and night to day1 which so lightens the burden of existence in our temperate clime to mind and soul and body1 kindling the hope and renewing the courage1--all these are wanting in the ,polar world1 and man suffers and languishes accordingly4 ,the grandeur of ,nature1 says ,dr4 ,hayes1 ceases to give delight to the dulled sympathies1 and the heart longs continually for new associations1 new hopes1 new objects1 new sources of interest and pleasure4 ,the solitude is so dark and drear as to oppress the understanding2 the imagination is haunted by the desolation which everywhere prevails2 and the silence is so absolute as to become a terror4 ,the lover of ,nature will1 of course1 find much that is attractive in the ,arctic night2 in the mysterious coruscations of the aurora1 in the flow of the moonlight over the hills and icebergs1 in the keen clearness of the starlight1 in the sublimity of the mountains and the glaciers1 in the awful wildness of the storms2 but it must be owned that they speak a language which is rough1 rugged1 and severe4 ,all things seem built up on a colossal scale in the ,arctic world4 ,colossal are those dark and tempest-beaten cliffs which oppose their grim rampart to the ceaseless roll and rush of the ice-clad waters4 ,colossal are those mountain-peaks which raise their crests1 white with unnumbered winters1 into the very heavens4 ,colossal are those huge ice-rivers1 those glaciers1 which1 born long ago in the depths of the far-off valleys1 have gradually moved their ponderous masses down to the ocean's brink4 ,colossal are those floating islands of ice1 which1 outrivalling the puny architecture of man1 his temples1 palaces1 and pyramids1 drift away into the wide waste of waters1 as if abandoned by the ,hand that called them into existence4 ,colossal is that vast sheet of frozen1 frosty snow1 shimmering with a crystalline lustre1 which covers the icy plains for countless leagues1 and stretches away1 perhaps1 to the very border of the sea that is supposed to encircle the unattained ,pole4 ,in ,dr4 ,hayes' account of his voyage of discovery towards the ,north ,pole occurs a fine passage descriptive of the various phases of the ,arctic night4 8,i have gone out often10 he says1 8into its darkness1 and viewed ,nature under different aspects4 ,i have rejoiced with her in her strength1 and communed with her in her repose4 ,i have seen the wild burst of her anger1 have watched her sportive play1 and have beheld her robed in silence4 ,i have walked abroad in the darkness when the winds were roaring through the hills and crashing over the plain4 ,i have strolled along the beach when the only sound that broke the stillness was the dull creaking of the ice-floes1 as they rose and fell lazily with the tide4 ,i have wandered far out upon the frozen sea1 and listened to the voice of the icebergs bewailing their imprisonment2 along the glacier1 where forms and falls the avalanche2 upon the hill-top1 where the drifting snow1 coursing over the rocks1 sung its plaintive song2 and again1 ,i have wandered away to some distant valley where all these sounds were hushed1 and the air was still and solemn as the tomb40 ,whoever has been overtaken by a winter night1 when crossing some snowy plain1 or making his way over the hills and through the valleys1 in the deep drifts1 and with the icicles pendent from the leafless boughs1 and the white mantle overspreading every object dimly discernible in the darkness1 will have felt the awe and mystery of the silence that then and there prevails4 ,both the sky above and the earth beneath reveal only an endless and unfathomable quiet4 ,this1 too1 is the peculiar characteristic of the ,arctic night4 ,evidence there is none of life or motion4 ,no footfall of living thing breaks on the longing ear4 ,no cry of bird enlivens the scene2 there is no tree1 among the branches of which the wind may sigh and moan4 ,and hence it is that one who had travelled much1 and seen many dangers1 and witnessed ,nature in many phases1 was led to say that he had seen no expression on the face of ,nature so filled with terror as the silence of the ,arctic night4 ,but by degrees the darkness grows less intense1 and the coming of the day is announced by the prevalence of a kind of twilight1 which increases more and more rapidly as winter passes into spring4 ,there are signs that ,nature is awakening once more to life and motion4 ,the foxes come out upon the hill side1 both blue and white1 and gallop hither and thither in search of food1--following in the track of the bear1 to feed on the refuse which the 8tiger of the ice0 throws aside4 ,the walrus and the seal come more frequently to land2 and the latter begins to assemble on the ice-floes1 and select its breeding-places4 ,at length1 early in ,february1 broad daylight comes at noon1 and then the weary explorer rejoices to know that the end is near4 ,flocks of speckled birds arrive1 and shelter themselves under the lee of the shore2 chiefly dove-kies1 as they are called in ,southern ,greenland--the ,uria grylle of the naturalist4 ,at last1 on the #ahth or #aith of ,february1 the sun once more makes its appearance above the southern horizon1 and is welcomed as one welcomes a friend who has been long lost1 and is found again4 ,upon the crests of the hills light clouds are floating lazily1 and through these the glorious orb is pouring a stream of golden fire1 and all the southern sky quivers1 as it were1 with the shooting1 shifting splendours of the coming day4 ,presently a soft bright ray breaks through the vaporous haze1 kindling it into a purple sea1 and touches the silvery summits of the lofty icebergs until they seem like domes and pinnacles of flame4 ,nearer and nearer comes that auspicious ray1 and widens as it comes2 and that purple sea enlarges in every direction2 and those domes and pinnacles of flame multiply in quick succession as they feel the passage of the quickening light2 and the dark red cliffs are warmed with an indescribable glow2 and a mysterious change passes over the face of the ocean2 and all ,nature acknowledges the presence of the sun6 8,the parent of light and life everywhere10 says ,dr4 ,hayes1 8he is the same within these solitudes4 ,the germ awaits him here as in the ,orient2 but there it rests only through the short hours of a summer night1 while here it reposes for months under a sheet of snows4 ,but after a while the bright sun will tear this sheet asunder1 and will tumble it in gushing fountains to the sea1 and will kiss the cold earth1 and give it warmth and life2 and the flowers will bud and bloom1 and will turn their tiny faces smilingly and gratefully up to him1 as he wanders over these ancient hills in the long summer4 ,the very glaciers will weep tears of joy at his coming4 ,the ice will loose its iron grip upon the waters1 and will let the wild waves play in freedom4 ,the reindeer will skip gleefully over the mountains to welcome his return1 and will look longingly to him for the green pastures4 ,the sea-fowls1 knowing that he will give them a resting-place for their feet on the rocky islands1 will come to seek the moss-beds which he spreads for their nests2 and the sparrows will come on his life-giving rays1 and will sing their love-songs through the endless day40 ,with the sun return the ,arctic birds1 and before we quit the realm of waters we propose to glance at a few of those which frequent the cliffs and shores during the brief ,polar summer4 ,among the first-comers is the dove-kie or black guillemot 7,uria grylle71 which migrates to the temperate climates on the approach of winter1 visiting ,labrador1 ,norway1 ,scotland1 and even descending as far south as ,yorkshire4 ,in fact1 we know of no better place where to observe its habits than along the immense range of perpendicular cliffs stretching from ,flamborough ,head to ,filey ,bay4 ,here1 on the bare ledges of this colossal ocean-wall1 the guillemot lays its eggs1 but without the protection of a nest2 some of them parallel with the edge of the shelf1 others nearly so1 and others with their blunt and sharp ends indiscriminately pointing to the sea4 ,they are not affixed to the rock by any glutinous matter1 or any foreign substance whatever4 ,you may see as many as nine or ten1 or sometimes twelve1 old guillemots in a line1 so near to each other that their wings almost touch4 ,the eggs vary greatly in size and shape and colour4 ,some are large1 others small2 some exceedingly sharp at one end1 others rotund and globular4 ,it is said that1 if undisturbed1 the guillemot never lays more than one egg2 but if that be taken away1 she will lay another1 and so on4 ,but ,audubon asserts that he has seen these birds sitting on as many as three eggs at a time4 ,illustration3 ,,sea-,,birds ,,in ,,the ,,polar ,,regions4 ,the black guillemot differs from the foolish guillemot 7,uria troile7 only in the colour of its plumage1 which1 with the exception of a large white patch on the coverts of each wing1 is black1 silky1 and glossy2 the feathers appearing to be all unwebbed1 like silky filaments or fine hair4 ,the bill1 in all the species1 is slender1 strong1 and pointed2 the upper mandible bending slightly near the end1 and the base covered with soft short feathers4 ,the food of the guillemot consists of fish and other marine products4 ,the ,alcid1 or auks1 are also included amongst the ,arctic birds4 ,the little auk 7,arctica alca7 frequents the countries stretching northwards from our latitudes to the regions of perpetual ice1 and is found in the ,polar ,regions both of the ,old ,world and the ,new4 ,here1 indeed1 they congregate in almost innumerable flocks4 ,at early morn they sally forth to get their breakfast1 which consists of different varieties of marine invertebrates1 chiefly crustaceans1 with which the ,arctic waters teem4 ,then they return to the shore in immense swarms4 ,it would be impossible1 says an ,arctic voyager1 to convey an adequate idea of the numbers of these birds which swarmed around him4 ,the slope on both sides of the valley in which he had pitched his camp rose at an angle of about forty-five degrees to a distance of from #cjj to #ejj feet1 where it met the cliffs1 which stood about #gjj feet higher4 ,these hill-sides are composed of the loose rocks detached from the cliffs by the action of the frost4 ,the birds crawl among these rocks1 winding far in through narrow places1 and there deposit their eggs and hatch their young1 secure from their great enemy1 the ,arctic fox4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,auk4 ,on one occasion1 they were congregated along a slope1 fully a mile in length1 and over this slope rushed a constant stream of birds1 only a few feet above the stones2 and1 after making in their rapid flight the whole length of the hill1 they returned higher in the air1 performing over and over again the complete circuit4 ,occasionally a few hundreds or thousands of them would drop down1 as if following some leader2 and in an instant the rocks1 for a space of several rods1 would swarm all over with them1 their black backs and pure white breasts speckling the hill very prettily4 ,though quantities are destroyed by the crews of vessels as well as by the ,eskimos1 their numbers never seem to decrease4 ,their flesh is both wholesome and delicate1 and affords a welcome change of diet to the mariner weary of salt meat and pemmican4 ,they are very tame1 and easily captured1--in some places being actually caught in hand-nets1 like moths or butterflies2 and they pass a great portion of their time on the ocean1 where they disport themselves with equal grace and self-possession4 ,the starakis 7,phaleridin7 inhabit the archipelagoes which lie between ,china and ,north ,america4 ,they assemble in small flocks1 and swim about in quest of the crustaceans1 molluscs1 and other marine animals on which they feed4 ,at nightfall they return to land1 where they find shelter under the ledges of the rocks1 or in burrows dug with their bill and feet1 ,the female lays a solitary egg4 ,the auks abound in the high northern latitudes4 ,they are all ocean-birds1 and are never found1 like the divers1 in fresh-water streams and lakes4 ,those species which possess the power of flight nestle on the rocky cliffs and icebergs1 where they lay a single egg1 of conical form2 a shape which prevents it from rolling away1 or moving1 except within a very narrow circle1 on the bare rocky ledge where it is deposited4 ,the puffins 7,fratercola71 which in winter abound on our own shores1 live chiefly on the water4 ,they dive and swim with dexterity1 but1 owing to the shortness of their wings1 are capable only of limited flight4 ,their plumage is thick1 smooth1 and dense1 and so completely throws off the water that it is quite impervious to wet2 while their deep1 compressed1 and pointed beak1 resembling exactly a double keel1 is admirably adapted as an instrument for cutting the waves when the bird wishes to dive4 ,the puffins live principally upon sprats and other small fishes2 and the food intended for their young they retain until partially digested1 when they disgorge it into their mouths4 ,like all the auks1 the mother-bird lays but one egg4 ,the appearance of an island or iceberg frequented by these birds is very vividly sketched by ,audubon1 than whom no naturalist has ever more completely attained a thorough acquaintance with the ,bird-,world4 ,illustration3 ,,puffins4 ,he tells us that on every crag or stone stood a puffin1 at the entrance of every hole another1 and yet the sea was covered and the air filled with them4 ,the burrows were all inhabited by young birds1 of different ages and sizes2 and clouds of puffins flew over us1 each individual holding a small fish by the head4 ,the burrows all communicated with each other in various ways1 so that the whole island seemed to be perforated by a multitude of subterranean labyrinths1 over which it was impossible to run without the risk of falling at almost every step4 ,the voices of the young sounded beneath the traveller's foot like voices from the grave1 and the stench was exceedingly disagreeable4 ,something must next be said of the mergansers 7,mergin71 a sub-family of the palmipeds1 which also belong to the ,polar world4 ,their principal characters may thus be stated3 a straight bill1 much compressed on the sides1 and convex towards the tip1 which is furnished with a broad and much-hooked nail2 the wings are moderate1 and pointed2 the tail is short and rounded2 the tarsi are short1 and the toes moderate1 the outer being as long as the middle1 the three anterior ones united by a full web1 while the hind toe is moderate1 elevated1 and provided with a broad web on its margin4 ,from these characters it is easy to infer that the bird is aquatic in its habits2 that it can swim and dive well2 that it is also capable of strong1 swift flight2 and that its food will consist chiefly of fishes4 ,the dun diver or goosander 7,mergus merganser7 is widely distributed throughout the ,polar ,regions both of the eastern and western continents4 ,during its southern migration1 it visits the ,united ,states1 as well as ,france1 ,holland1 and ,germany2 but on the approach of summer it retires to ,siberia and ,kamtschatka1 ,iceland1 ,greenland1 and the ,arctic shores of ,north ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,goosander4 ,in these localities it constructs its nest--always near the edge of the water2 building it up of grass1 roots1 and similar materials1 with little regard to symmetry1 and lining it with down4 ,it is placed sometimes among the mossy1 weedy stones2 and sometimes it is concealed in the long grass1 or under the cover of bushes1 or in the stumps or hollows of decayed trees4 ,the female lays from twelve to fourteen eggs1 of a cream-yellow colour2 their form is a long oval1 both ends being equally obtuse4 ,the goosander may be said to spend its time in the air and on the water2 and1 in truth1 on the land it moves but laboriously and awkwardly1 owing to the backward position of its legs4 ,it rises with difficulty from the ground2 but when once on the wing1 its course is swift1 strong1 and steady4 ,as it lives mainly upon fish1 its flesh is oily and ill-flavoured2 a circumstance which goes far to compensate the sportsman for the frequent failure of his attempts to capture it4 ,it is a wild and wary bird1 and as it swims with rapidity and dives with ease1 it generally effects its escape from all but the most experienced hunters4 ,another species which abounds in northern latitudes is the smew 7,mergus albellus71 also known as the white nun or white merganser4 ,this palmiped is about the size of a widgeon2 is of elegant form2 and its plumage beautifully coloured with black and white4 ,its bill is of a dusky blue1 nearly two inches long1 thickest at the base1 and tapering into a slenderer and more narrow shape towards the point4 ,an oval black patch1 glossed with green1 marks each side of the head2 the under part of the crest is black2 but all the rest of the head and neck1 as well as the graceful breast and the belly1 are white as snow1 with the exception of a curved black line on each side of the upper part of the breast1 and similar marks on the lower part2 the back1 the coverts on the ridge of the wings1 and the primary quills are black2 the secondaries and greater coverts are white-tipped2 while the sides of the body1 under the wings to the tail1 exhibit a curious variegation of dark wavy lines4 ,the legs and feet are of a leaden blue4 ,the range of the smew is very extensive1 for it migrates as far southward as the ,mediterranean1 while it is found everywhere in the ,arctic ,regions4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,bird 8,,bazaar0 ,,in ,,novaia ,,zemlaia4 ,on the shores of ,novaia ,zemlaia1 as on those of ,spitzbergen1 the sea-birds arrive in countless hosts as soon as the summer sun has removed the long and dreary spell under which ,nature labours through the winter months4 ,the narrow rock-ledges on which they congregate1 and where auks and guillemots assemble in thousands1 the ,russians call 8a bazaar40 ,the large gray sea-mew 7,larus glaucus71 the 8burgomaster0 of the ,dutch whalers1 prefers the lonely summits of isolated cliffs1 where it can reign the monarch of all it surveys4 ,the ivory gull 7,larus eburneus7 is seldom found in high northern latitudes2 but the common gull 7,larus canus7 and the black-backed gull 7,larus marinus7 are almost as abundant as guillemots4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,black-,,backed ,,gull4 ,in ,iceland one of the most useful1 and certainly not the least beautiful1 of the birds is the eider-duck 7,somateria mollissima71 which also frequents the shores of ,baffin and ,hudson ,bays1 ,lapland1 ,greenland1 and ,spitzbergen4 ,it loves to breed on the small flat islands which lie off the coast1 such as ,akeney1 ,flutry1 and ,videy1 where it is secure from the attacks of the ,arctic fox4 ,its breeding-places in ,iceland are private property1 and some of them have been for centuries in the possession of the same families1 which owe to the birds all their wealth and prosperity4 ,hence they are very vigilantly guarded4 ,whoever kills one is fined thirty dollars2 and to secrete an egg1 or pocket a few downs1 is an offence punishable by law4 ,the chief occupation of some of the proprietors is to examine through their telescopes all the boats that approach1 so as to be sure that there are no guns on board4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eider-,,duck4 ,as the birds on these islands are quite tame1 the eider-down is easily collected4 ,the female having laid five or six pale greenish-olive eggs1 in a nest fashioned with marine plants1 and thickly lined with down of the most exquisite delicacy1 the collectors carefully remove her1 rob the nest of its precious lining1 and then replace the bird4 ,immediately she begins to lay afresh1 and again has recourse to the down on her body to protect her eggs2 and should her own stock be exhausted1 as is not unfrequently the case1 she is furnished with an auxiliary supply by the male4 ,even this second lining is often taken away1 and the poor bird a third time repeats the process1 both as regards the eggs and the down2 but if the plunderers do not spare her now1 she afterwards abandons the nest1 and seeks a home in some more sequestered nook4 ,as it comes to the ,european markets1 this down1 which is highly valued on account of its lightness1 elasticity1 and warmth1 occurs in balls about the size of a man's fist1 and weighing from three to four pounds4 ,such is its fineness and elastic quality1 that when a ball is opened1 and cautiously laid near the fire to expand1 it will completely fill a quilt five feet square4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that the down from dead birds is of comparatively little value1 having lost its elasticity4 ,an interesting account of a visit to ,vigr in the ,isafjardardjufs1 a favourite resort of the eider-duck in the north of ,iceland1 is furnished by ,mr4 ,shepherd3-- ,as he approached the island1 he says1 he could see flocks upon flocks of the sacred birds1 and could hear their cooings at a great distance4 ,landing on a rocky wave-worn shore1 against which the waters scarcely rippled1 he set off to survey the island4 ,the shore he describes as 8the most wonderful ornithological sight imaginable40 ,the ducks and their nests were everywhere4 ,great brown ducks started up under his feet at every step2 and it was with difficulty that he avoided treading on some of the nests4 ,as the island is but three-quarters of a mile across1 the opposite shore is soon reached4 ,on the coast was a wall built up of large stones1 just above the high-water mark1 about three feet high1 and of considerable thickness4 ,at the bottom1 on both sides of it1 alternate stones had been left out1 forming a series of square compartments in which the ducks might make their nests4 ,almost every compartment was occupied2 and as the human intruder walked along the shore1 a long line of startled ducks flew out one after the other4 ,the surface of the water also was white with ducks1 who welcomed their 8brown wives0 with loud and clamorous cooing4 ,mr4 ,shepherd1 on arriving at the farm-house1 was received in the most hospitable manner1 hospitality being one of the special virtues of the ,icelander4 ,he was much impressed by the appearance of the house1 which seemed to be converted into one large duckery4 ,the earthen wall surrounding it1 and the window-embrasures1 were filled with ducks2 on the ground1 encircling the house1 was a ring of ducks2 on the sloping roof were seated ducks2 and a duck was perched on the door-scraper6 ,a grassy bank close by had been cut into square patches like a chess-board 7a square of turf of about eighteen inches being removed1 and a hollow excavated71 and all these squares were occupied by ducks4 ,a windmill was infested with them1 and so were all the out houses1 mounds1 rocks1 and crevices4 ,in fact1 the ducks were everywhere4 ,many of them were so tame as to allow the stranger to stroke them on their nests2 and their mistress said there was scarcely a duck on the island which would not allow her to take its eggs without flight or fear4 ,when she first became possessor of the island1 the produce of down from the ducks did not exceed fifteen pounds weight in the year1 but under her careful nurture it had risen1 in twenty years1 to nearly one hundred pounds annually4 ,about a pound and a half are required to make a coverlet for a single bed2 and the down is worth from twelve to fifteen shillings per pound4 ,most of the eggs are taken and pickled for winter consumption1 one or two only being left to hatch4 ,eider-ducks congregate in numerous flocks1 generally in deep water2 they dive with wonderful force1 and thus are enabled to capture the shell-fish which form their principal food4 ,if a storm threatens1 they retire to the rocky shores where they love to breed and rest4 ,the ,greenlanders kill them with darts1 pursuing them in their little boats1 watching their course by the air-bubbles that come floating upward when they dive1 and dexterously aiming at them as soon as they rise to the surface wearied4 ,their flesh is eaten by the ,greenlanders1 but it is not well-flavoured2 their eggs1 however1 are held in high esteem4 ,the king eider 7,somateria spectabilis7 belongs to the same genus as the former4 ,we suppose that every reader is acquainted with the beautiful lines in which ,tennyson has embodied the fable of the dying swan singing its own dirge3-- 8,with an inner voice the river ran1 ,adown it floated a dying swan1 ,and loudly did lament4444 ,the wild swan's death-hymn took the soul ,of that waste place with joy ,hidden in sorrow3 at first1 to the ear ,the warble was low1 and full1 and clear2444 ,but anon her awful jubilant voice1 ,with a music strange and manifold1 ,flowed forth on a carol free and bold4444 ,and the creeping mosses and clambering weeds1 ,and the willow-branches hoar and dank1 ,and the wavy swell of the soughing reeds1 ,and the wave-worn horns of the echoing bank1 ,and the silvery marish-flowers that throng ,the desolate creeks and pools among1 ,were flooded over with eddying song40 ,but the wild swan's voice1 even in its death-hour1 has no such musical sweetness as the poet here sets forth4 ,it is always harsh and dissonant1 and when it breaks on the silence of the ,arctic skies carries with it an almost painful impression4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,haunt ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,swan4 ,the lakes of ,iceland1 and its streams1 abound with these beautiful birds4 ,they are very numerous on the ,myvatn1 or ,great ,lake1 as well as the wild duck1 the scoter1 the common goosander1 the red-breasted merganser1 the scaup duck1 and other anserines4 ,the wild swan is shot or caught for its feathers1 which are highly prized for ornamental purposes4 ,it is sometimes found in large flocks1 sometimes in single pairs2 and besides the lakes and streams1 it frequents the salt and brackish waters along the coast4 ,it is chiefly at the pairing season1 or at the approach of winter1 that it assembles in multitudes2 and as the winter advances it mounts high in air1 and shapes its course in search of milder climates4 ,the female builds her nest of the withered leaves and stalks of reeds and rushes1 in lonely and sequestered places4 ,she usually lays six or seven thick-shelled eggs1 which are hatched in about six weeks1 when both parents assiduously guard and feed the cygnets4 ,when full-grown1 this fine bird measures nearly five feet in length1 and above seven in breadth across its extended wings2 it weighs about fifteen pounds4 ,the entire plumage is of a pure white1 and next to the skin lies a coat of thick fine down4 ,the wealth of the ,arctic and sub-,arctic seas is apparently inexhaustible4 ,in many parts cod are plentiful1 and supply the ,greenlanders with a valuable article of food4 ,the capelin 7,mullotus vitlosus71 which in ,may and ,june frequents the ,greenland waters1 is eaten both fresh and dried2 in the latter case forming a useful winter provision4 ,the halibut is found of a large size2 and ocean also contributes the ,norway haddock1 the salmon-trout1 the lump-fish1 and the bull-head4 ,nor are the crustacea unrepresented3 long-tailed crabs being abundant1 while the common mussel may be gathered almost everywhere at ebb-tide4 ,the seas1 however1 grow poorer as we advance towards the ,pole1 and many important species of fish do not penetrate further north than the ,arctic ,circle4 ,yet even where these are wanting1 the ocean-waters teem with life2 and a recent writer is fully justified in remarking that the vast multitudes of animated beings which people them form a remarkable contrast to the nakedness of their bleak and desolate shores4 ,the colder surface-waters are1 as he says1 almost perpetually exposed to a cold atmosphere1 and being frequently covered1 even in summer1 with floating ice1 they are not favourable to the development of organic life2 but this adverse influence is modified by the higher temperature which constantly prevails at a greater depth4 ,contrary to the rule in the ,equatorial seas1 we find in the ,polar-ocean an increase of temperature from the surface downwards1 in consequence of the warmer under-currents1 flowing from the south northwards1 and passing beneath the cold waters of the superficial ,arctic current4 ,hence the awful rigour of the ,arctic winter1 which strikes the earth with a death-blight1 is not perceptible in the ocean-depths1 where myriads of organisms find a secure retreat from the frost1 and whence they emerge during the long summer's day1 either to haunt the shores or ascend the broad rivers of the ,polar world4 ,between the parallels of #gd and #hj1 ,dr4 ,scoresby observed that the colour of the ,greenland sea varies from the purest ultramarine to olive-green1 and from crystalline transparency to striking opacity2 and these appearances are not transitory1 but permanent4#h ,the aspect of this green semi-opaque water1 which varies in its locality with the currents1--often forming isolated stripes1 and sometimes spreading over two or three degrees of latitude1--is mainly due to small medus and nudibranchiate molluscs4 ,many thousands of square miles must literally run riot with life1 since the coloured waters we speak of are calculated to form one-fourth of the sea between the #gdth and #hjth parallels4 ,on the ,greenland coast1 where the transparency of the waters is so great that the bottom and every object upon it are clearly discernible1 even at a depth of eighty fathoms1 the ocean-bed is covered with gigantic tangles1 so as to remind the spectator of the ocean-gardens of the ,tropical ,zone4 ,alcyonians1 sertularians1 ascidians1 nullipores1 mussels1 and a variety of other sessile animals incrust every stone1 or congregate in every fissure and hollow of the rocky ground4 ,a dead seal or fish flung into the sea is soon converted into a skeleton1 it is said1 by the myriads of small crustaceans which infest these northern waters1 and1 like the ants in the equatorial forests1 perform the part of scavengers of the deep4 ,it is evident1 from the observations of ,professor ,forbes1 that depth has a very considerable influence in the distribution of marine life4 ,from the surface to the depth of #achj feet eight distinct zones or regions have been mapped out in the sea1 each of which has its own vegetation and inhabitants2 and the number of these regions must now he increased1 after the astonishing results of the deep-sea soundings of ,dr4 ,carpenter and ,professor ,wyville ,thomson4 ,the changes in the different zones are not abrupt3 some of the creatures of an under region always appear before those of the region above it vanish2 and though there are a few species the same in some of the eight zones1 only two are common to all4 ,it is to be observed that those near the surface have forms and colours analogous to the inhabitants of southern latitudes1 while those at a greater depth are analogous to the animals of northern waters4 ,hence1 in the sea1 depth corresponds with latitude1 as height does on land4 ,mrs4 ,somerville adds1 in language of much terseness1 that the extent of the geographical distribution of any species is proportioned to the depth at which it lives4 ,consequently1 those which live near the surface are less widely dispersed than those inhabiting deep water4 ,the larger and more active inhabitants of the seas obey the same laws with the rest of creation1 though their provinces1 or regions1 are in some instances very extensive4 ,above the #ddth parallel the ,atlantic species frequently correspond with those of the ,pacific4 ,the salmon of ,america is identical with that of the ,british ,isles1 and the coasts of ,sweden and ,norway2 the same is true of the ,gadid1 or cod4 ,the ,cottas1 or bull-head tribe1 are also the same on both sides of the ,atlantic2 increasing in numbers and specific differences on approaching the ,arctic seas4 ,the same law holds good in the ,north ,pacific1 but the generic forms differ from those in the ,atlantic4 ,from the propinquity of the coasts of ,america and ,asia at ,behring ,strait1 the fish on both sides are nearly alike1 down to ,admiralty ,inlet on the one side1 and the ,sea of ,okhotsk on the other4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,glaciers4 ,as introductory to a description of the ,arctic ,glaciers1 a few words on the formation of snow seem necessary4 ,briefly1 it may be said that snow is the result of the crystallization of water4 ,the molecules and atoms of all substances1 when not constrained by some external power1 build themselves up into crystals4 ,this is true of the metals and minerals1 if1 after having been melted1 they are allowed to cool gradually4 ,bismuth develops the process in a very impressive manner1 and when properly fused and solidified exhibits large-sized crystals of singular beauty4 ,in like manner1 sugar dissolved in water produces1 after evaporation has taken place1 crystals of sugar-candy4 ,the ready crystallization of alum is known to every school-boy who has dabbled in 8chemical experiments40 ,chalk dissolved and crystallized becomes ,iceland spar1 and assumes a variety of fanciful and graceful shapes4 ,the diamond is crystallized carbon2 and the crystallizing power is inherent in all our precious stones1--sapphire1 topaz1 emerald1 beryl1 amethyst1 ruby4 ,in the process of crystallization1 it is found that the minutest particle of matter is possessed of an attractive and a repellent pole1 and that by their natural action the form and structure of the crystal are determined4 ,the attracting poles1 in the solid condition of any given substance1 are firmly interlocked2 but dissolve the cohesion by the application of sufficient heat1 and the poles will recede so far as to be practically beyond each other's range4 ,and thus the natural tendency of the molecules to build themselves together is neutralized4 ,water1 for example1 as a liquid is1 to all appearance1 without form2 but when sufficiently cooled1 its molecules are brought under the influence of the crystallizing force1 and then arrange themselves in the most varied and beautiful shapes4 ,when snow falls in calm air1 the icy particles present themselves in the form of six-rayed stars4 ,from this type there is no departure1 though the appearance of the snow-stars in other respects is infinitely varied4 ,it is worth pausing1 as ,professor ,tyndall remarks1 to think what wonderful work is going on in the atmosphere during the formation and descent of every snow-shower3 what 8building power0 is brought into play6 and how imperfect seem the productions of human minds and hands when compared with those produced by the forces of ,nature6 ,we have spoken of attracting and repelling poles2 but a few words of explanation seem desirable4 ,every magnet possesses two such poles2 and if iron filings be scattered over a magnet1 each particle becomes also endowed with two poles4 ,now suppose that similar particles1 devoid of weight1 and floating in the atmosphere1 come together1 what will happen8 ,obviously1 the repellent poles will retreat from each other1 while the attractive will approach1 and ultimately interlock4 ,further3 if the particles1 instead of a single pair1 possess several pairs of poles arranged at definite points over their surfaces1 you can then picture them1 in obedience to their mutual attractions and repulsions1 building themselves together in masses of definite shape and structure4 ,illustration3 ,,various ,,forms ,,of ,,snow-,,crystals4 ,you have1 then1 only to imagine the aqueous particles in cold calm air to be gifted with poles of this description1 compelling the said particles to assume certain definite aggregates1 and you have before your mind's eye the invisible architecture which creates the visible and beautiful crystals of the snow4 ,the important part played by this crystallizing force in ice as well as snow1 will be understood from the following remarks by ,professor ,tyndall1 who may justly be described as the most eminent living authority on the subject3-- ,at any temperature below #cb ,f41--that is1 freezing-point1--the movement of heat is sufficient to loosen the molecules of water from their rigid bonds of cohesion4 ,but at #cb the movement is so diminished that the atoms lock themselves together1 and unite in a solid4 ,this act of union1 however1 is controlled by well-known laws4 ,to the unintelligent eye a block of ice seems neither more interesting nor more beautiful than a sheet of glass2 but to the instructed mind the ice is to the glass what an oratorio of ,handel is to the scream of a ballad-singer4 ,ice is music1 glass is noise2 ice represents order1 glass confusion4 ,in the latter1 the molecular forces have brought about an inextricable intertangled network2 in the former1 they have woven a rich and regular embroidery1 the designs of which are infinitely beautiful4 ,let us suppose ourselves examining a block of ice4 ,in what way shall we get at its structure8 ,a sunbeam1 or if that be wanting1 a ray of electric light is the anatomist to which we must confide the work of dissection4 ,we direct this ray straight from our lamp across the plate of transparent ice4 ,it shivers into pieces the icy edifice1 exactly reversing the order of its architecture4 ,the crystallizing force1 for example1 had silently and systematically built up atom after atom2 the electric ray dislocates them 7so to speak7 just as silently and systematically4 ,we elevate the ice-block in front of the lamp1 so that the light may now pass through its substance4 ,compare the ray as it enters with the ray as it makes its exit2 to the eye there is no perceptible difference1 and its intensity seems scarcely diminished4 ,but not so with its heat4 ,as a thermic agent1 the ray was more powerful before its entrance than it was after its emergence4 ,a portion of its heat is arrested1 is detained in the ice1 and of this portion we now proceed to avail ourselves4 ,what will it effect8 ,we place a lens in front of the ice upon the screen4 ,now1 observe this image 7see ,illustration71 the beauty of which is still very far from the real effect4 ,here is one star2 yonder is another2 and in proportion as the action continues1 the ice appears to resolve itself more and more into stars1 all of six rays1 like snow-crystals1 and resembling a beautiful flower4 ,by moving the lens in and out1 we bring new stars into sight2 and while the action continues1 the edge of the petals is covered with indentations like those of the leaf of a fern4 ,probably1 few of our readers have any conception of the magical beauties concealed in a block of ice6 ,let them remember that prodigal ,nature works in this way throughout the whole world4 ,every atom of the solid crust which covers the frozen waters of the ,north1 has been wrought out in obedience to the law we have enunciated4 ,nature is always and everywhere harmonious2 and it is the mission of ,science to awaken us to an appreciation of its concords4 ,illustration3 ,,exhibition ,,of ,,ice-,,flowers ,,by ,,projection4 ,illustration3 ,,ice-,,flowers4 ,there is another point of our experiment to which the reader's attention must be directed4 ,he sees the flowers illuminated by the ray which traverses them4 ,but if he examines them1 while turning upon them a ray which they will reflect and send back to his own eye1 he will see in the centre of each a spot with the brightness of burnished silver4 ,he will be tempted to think that this spot is a bubble of air2 but1 by immersing the ice in hot water1 you can melt the ice all around the spot1--and when it alone remains1 you will see it diminish and disappear without any trace of air4 ,the spot is a vacuum4 ,such is the faithfulness to herself with which ,nature operates2 thus1 in all her operations1 does she submit to her own laws4 ,we know that ice1 in melting1 contracts2 and here we arrest the contraction1 as it were1 in the very act4 ,the water of the flowers cannot fill the space occupied by the ice which by its fusion has given birth to them2 hence the production of a vacuum1 the inseparable companion of each liquid flower4 ,the fragment of compact ice whose elements assume such beautiful crystalline forms is itself a crystal4 ,this was shown by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 who employed for the purpose of analysis that modified form of light which we call polarised light4 ,it is singularly well adapted to bring out the peculiarities of the main structure of substances1 owing to the coloured figures which it outlines on a screen after passing through them4 ,all crystals with an axis--such1 for instance1 as ,iceland spar--yield a series of brilliantly-tinted rings1 traversed by a regularly-formed cross entirely black4 ,as ice produces the same figures1 we are justified in attributing to it the same kind of crystallization4 ,we must note1 however1 that we are referring now to the thick ice formed on our canals and lakes4 ,if we examined the first film formed on the surface of the water1 we should discover in it a completely irregular crystallization1 the ray of polarised light producing only a mosaic of varied tints1 distributed without any order4 ,but it is easy to explain the way in which this primary crust or film is produced4 ,those portions of the fluid mass in contact with the air are the first to freeze1 but each molecule of ice abandons its heat to the contiguous water1 which thereby is slightly raised in temperature1 and the result is a partial congelation4 ,the surface we are examining then presents a network of fine needles intercrossed in every direction1 and forming a kind of delicate lace1 the meshes or intervals of which are gradually filled up4 ,when the network is transformed into a continuous sheet1 the loss of heat is diminished more and more as this external crust grows thicker and thicker2 but the development of the ice invariably takes place by means of long interlaced needles1 as the reader may see for himself by breaking off a portion from the nearest pond 7in winter71 and examining the sectional surface4 ,having said thus much in reference to the crystallization of ice and snow1 we proceed to explain the regelation and moulding of ice4 ,some years ago1 ,faraday astonished the scientific world by a very curious experiment4 ,splitting into two parts a piece of ice1 he brought together the parts at the moment that fusion took place on their surfaces1 and they united immediately4 ,how are we to account for this effect1 which can be produced even in hot water8 ,when the temperature of water rises1 the surface molecules first become liquid1 then gaseous2 being placed beyond the coercitive action of the surrounding particles1 they are easily set free2 transported1 on the contrary1 into the centre of the mass1 they are brought absolutely under the influence of this action1 which induces a new solidification1--or1 to use the scientific term1 a regelation4 ,in this way it becomes easy to understand how very various forms can be communicated by simple pressure to a fragment of ice4 ,if the observer successively places a straight bar in moulds of increasing curvature1 he may easily compel it to assume the shape of a ring or even of a knot4 ,in each mould1 it is true1 the ice breaks2 but if the pressure is kept up1 the surfaces of the fragments are brought into contact1 and adhere so as to re-establish a condition of continuity4 ,a snowball may thus be converted into a sphere of ice1 and the sphere1 by constant pressure1 into a cup or a statue4 ,professor ,tyndall refers to a remarkable instance of regelation which he observed one day in early spring4 ,a layer of snow1 not quite two inches thick1 had fallen on the glass roof of a small conservatory1 and the internal air1 warming the panes1 had melted the snow so far as it was in immediate contact with them4 ,the entire layer had slipped down the pane1 and projected beyond the edge of the roof1 without falling1 and had bent and curved as required1 just like a flexible body4 ,illustration3 ,,moulding ,,ice4 ,the snow-fields which overspread the upper part of every glacier1 whether in the ,arctic ,regions or elsewhere1 are composed of crystallized snow1 whose fragile1 delicate1 and fairy-like architecture endures so long as it remains dry1 but undergoes a great transformation when the sun1 melting the upper stratum1 allows the water to interpenetrate its substance4 ,the fluid1 congealing anew during the night1 transforms the snow into the condition technically known as nv2 a term given by the ,swiss physicists to a granular mass composed of small rounded icicles1 disaggregated1 but more adhesive than snow-flakes1 and of a density intermediate between that of snow and that of ice4 ,under the pressure of new layers1 and as a result of infiltrations of water1 the nv unites1 and solders into ice of constantly increasing compactness4 ,but glacier-ice presents some other curious peculiarities4 ,every abundant snow-fall on the summit of the mountains forms a layer easily distinguishable from preceding layers--which1 in most cases1 have already passed into the nv condition4 ,this stratification becomes more apparent when the whiteness of the surface has been sullied by dirt or dust wafted on 8the wings of the wind40 ,it is perceptible also in ice2 but here we must not confound it with another phenomenon of which the cause is different1 the veined structure4 ,in places where glaciers have been accidentally cut down in an almost vertical direction1 the section is found to exhibit a series of parallel veins1 formed by a beautiful and very transparent azure ice in the midst of the general mass1 which is of a whitish colour1 and slightly opaque4 ,in different glaciers1 and in different parts of the same glacier1 these blue veins will vary in number and intensity of colouring4 ,they are specially beautiful in crevasses of recent formation1 and on the sides of channels excavated in the ice by tiny rills resulting from superficial fusion4 ,not a few glaciers exhibit this remarkable veined structure throughout their entire extent4 ,when a vertical cutting exposes the delicate azure network to atmospheric influences1 the softer ice melts prior to the fusion of the blue ice which then remains in their detached leaflets4 ,on examining these attentively1 we cannot fail to remark the absence1 or1 at all events1 the extreme rarity1 of air-bubbles1 though they are so plentiful in the coarser ice4 ,professor ,tyndall's explanation of this phenomenon is as interesting as it is ingenious4 ,while on a visit of inspection to the slate-quarries of ,wales1 he had occasion to study the cleavage of the rocks which compose them2 in other words1 their faculty of dividing naturally1 a property inherent in all crystals4 ,the schistous slate separates easily into sheets1 and in traversing different quarries one sees that all the planes of cleavage are parallel in each4 ,from this circumstance our men of science were at first induced to look upon slates as the products of the stratification of different deposits4 ,such an explanation1 however1 could not be accepted by ,tyndall1 when he observed that the minute fossils embedded in them were constantly misshapen and flattened in the direction of the plane of cleavage1 because the great modification they had undergone could not have taken place in superimposed strata at the bottom of the primeval sea4 ,he concluded that these schists1 therefore1 must have been subjected to a considerable pressure2 and further1 that this pressure must have been exercised at right angles with the plane of separation of the different layers4 ,a long series of experiments proved that many bodies1 when forcibly compressed1 exhibit in their structure a very distinctly marked lamination1 and frequently veins of very great beauty4 ,he carefully examined iron which had passed under the steam-hammer1 or through the rolling-mill2 clay and wax were subjected to the hydraulic press4 ,in all cases he detected signs of cleavage2 and hence we are justified in the inference that the phenomenon is invariably produced by pressure in all bodies of irregular internal structure4 ,such is the result with glacier-ice1 from whose mass the air-bubbles introduced by the snow are gradually expelled4 ,at first of brilliant whiteness1 it assumes1 in the parallel layers corresponding to the planes of cleavage1 those beautiful azure tints which characterize the veined structure4 ,so little has it to do with stratification1 that in places where this is apparent it has given rise to a series of horizontal lines1 while the parallel veinings1 in the same masses of ice1 are all inclined at an angle of about #fj4 ,the tendency to cleavage in compact ice would seem to explain the regular form of those fragments or detached pieces with which some parts of the glaciers are covered4 ,usually they occur as cubes1 or as rectangular parallelopipeds4 ,the ,alpine mountaineers name them sracs1--in allusion to their resemblance to certain cheeses which bear this name1 and which are manufactured in rectangular boxes4 ,they have been found in many parts of a really colossal size1 measuring fifty feet in length1 breadth1 and depth1 and as regular in shape as if they had been hewn with a chisel4 ,there are many interesting points connected with the formation and constitution of glaciers which we should gladly discuss1 but we are confined by our limits to remarks of a general character1 and we must now pass on to speak of the phenomena attendant upon their motion4 ,no doubt1 the traveller who for the first time comes in sight of one of these huge ice-rivers1 and sees the mighty mass apparently rooted to its valley-bed1 solid1 unchangeable1 adamantine1 finds it hard to believe that it moves onward with a certain and an unresting1 though a gradual progress4 ,it looks like a noble river1 suddenly petrified by some overwhelming force3 congealed1 as it flowed1 in a moment1 by some irresistible spell6 ,such1 indeed1 is the conception of the poet3-- 8,ye ice-falls6 ye that from the mountain's brow ,adown enormous ravines slope amain4444 ,torrents1 methinks1 that heard a mighty voice1 ,and stopped at once amid their maddest plunge6 ,motionless torrents6 silent cataracts60 ,and this conception is justified by the aspect of the glacier4 ,thus1 of the ,glacier du ,gant1 ,professor ,tyndall says3--8,it stretches smoothly for a long distance1 then becomes disturbed1 and then changes to a great frozen cascade1 down which the ice appears to tumble in wild confusion4 ,above the cascade you see an expanse of shining snow1 occupying an area of some square miles40 ,but we shall see that here1 as in the world of man1 appearances are deceitful1 and that the glacier well deserves to be called an ice-river1 in allusion to its regular and continuous motion4 ,between the snow-fall in the higher regions of the globe1 and the quantity of snow which every summer disappears through liquefaction1 the difference is very considerable4 ,the supply1 so to speak1 exceeds the demand1 and a residuum is annually left4 ,it is only below the perpetual snow-line that the snow created and accumulated in winter is wholly melted in the warm season4 ,and1 therefore1 if for any considerable period the excess upon any particular mountain continued to accumulate1 immense masses of ice would gradually rise to the extreme height in the atmosphere affected by aqueous phenomena4 ,rendu1 the ,roman ,catholic prelate1 who first led the way to the discovery of the true nature of glaciers1 says1 very justly1--8,the economy of the world would be soon destroyed1 if at certain points accumulations of matter prevailed4 ,the centre of gravity of the globe would be insensibly displaced1 and the admirable regularity of its movements would be succeeded by disorder and perturbation4 ,if the ,poles did not send back to the ,equatorial seas the waters which1 reduced into vapour1 issue daily from these burning regions1 to be converted into ice in the ,arctic and ,antarctic ,zones1 ocean would be drained dry1 and life would cease1 as well as water1 to circulate throughout our world4 ,the ,creator1 however1 in order to ensure the permanence of ,his almighty work1 has called into existence the vast and powerful law of circulation1 and this law the careful observer sees reproduced in all the economy of ,nature4 ,the water circulates from the ocean into the air1 from the air it spreads over the earth1 and from the earth it passes into the seas4 ,the rivers return from whence they came1 in order that they may issue forth anew2 the air circulates around the globe1 and1 as it were1 upon itself1 passing and repassing successively at all the altitudes of the atmospheric column4 ,the elements of every organic substance circulates in changing from the solid to the liquid or ariform state1 and in returning from the latter to the state of solidity or organization4 ,it is not improbable that the universal agent which we designate under the name of fire1 light1 electricity1 and magnetism1 has probably also a circle of circulation as extensive as the universe4 ,should its movements ever be known to us more than they now are1 it is probable that they would afford the solution of a host of problems which still defy the intellect of man4 ,circulation is the law of life1 the method of action employed by ,providence in the administration of the universe4 ,in the insect1 as in the plant1 as in the human body1 we find a circulation1 or rather several circulations1--blood1 humours1 elements1 fire1 all which enter into the composition of the individual40 ,however fanciful may be some of the amiable prelate's speculations1 it is certain that the glaciers obey this law of circulation4 ,the snow-accumulations in the upper regions are to some extent reduced by the descent of the avalanches1--that is1 of masses of snow and ice which detach themselves from the mountain-sides and dash headlong into the valleys below1 where they are rapidly melted by the warmer atmosphere4 ,but this would1 in itself1 be wholly insufficient4 ,another movement1 at once more efficacious and more regular1 is necessary2 a movement which embraces the entire system of the ice-masses1 and which carries the glaciers below the perpetual snow-line1 so that every year they may give up a portion of their terminal extremities4 ,the discovery of this general progression is one of the most fertile with which1 of late years1 the physics of the globe have been enriched4 ,professor ,tyndall rightly observes that there are numerous obvious indications of the existence of glacier-motion1 though it is too slow to catch the eye at once4 ,the crevasses change within certain limits from year to year1 and sometimes from month to month2 and this could not be if the ice did not move4 ,rocks and stones also are observed1 which have been plainly torn from the mountain-sides4 ,blocks seen to fall from particular points are afterwards noticed lower down4 ,on the moraines rocks are found of a totally different mineralogical character from those composing the mountains right and left2 and in all such cases strata of the same character are found bordering the glacier higher up4 ,hence the conclusion that the foreign boulders have been floated down by the ice4 ,further1 the ends or 8snouts0 of many glaciers act like ploughshares on the land in front of them1 overturning with irresistible energy the huts and chlets that lie in their path4 ,facts like these have been long known to the inhabitants of the ,high ,alps1 who were thus made acquainted in a vague and general way with the motion of the glaciers4 ,but ,science cannot deal with generalities3 it requires precise and accurate information2 and this information1 so far as the progression of the glaciers is concerned1 has been obtained through the patient labours of ,rendu1 ,charpentier1 ,agassiz1 ,desor1 ,vogt1 ,professor ,forbes1 ,bravais1 ,charles ,martins1 ,hopkins1 ,professor ,tyndall1 ,colomb1 ,john ,ball1 and ,schlagintweit4 ,their experiments and observations have established the truth of certain immutable principles1 and proved the existence of a general law of movement4 ,the accumulation of the dbris hurled headlong by the mountains forms on the glacier-surface long lines of stone and earth1 which are called moraines2 these diverge in certain directions1 according to the circumstances we now come to explain4 ,the landslips which occur on the banks or edges of the glacier give rise to the lateral moraines1 which are enlarged and extended daily by the twofold effect of the fall of stones and dbris1 and the progressive movement which carries them along with the whole mass of ice4 ,towards the centre of the great glaciers1 in almost every case1 is found a medial moraine2 the result of the encounter of the lateral moraines of two glaciers which have united into one4 ,these superficial moraines participating in the movement of the glacier1 each of their blocks eventually rolls to the foot of the terminal precipice1 and thus a frontal moraine is formed on the very soil of the valley1 like an embankment raised to prohibit the further advance of the ice4 ,and1 lastly1 the bed of sand1 gravel1 pebbles1 and detritus which is found beneath the glacier1 and over which it glides1 is called the profound moraine4 ,the furrows wrought by this last-named stratum on the bottom of the glacier-channels show the wonderful force of friction which the glacier exercises during its descent4 ,the depths of these furrows depends entirely on the hardness of the dbris carried down by the glacier1 and the nature of the rocks submitted to the friction4 ,the polish assumed by these rocks when they are sufficiently solid to resist the thunderous march of the glacier1 indicates the enormous pressure which it exercises on the slopes of the valley through which it forces its way4 ,this effort1 bearing principally on the side of the rocks turned in the direction of their crests1 impresses upon them a peculiar rounded form1 so like the appearance of a flock of sheep 7moutons7 that ,de ,saussure gave them the name of roches moutonnes4 ,connected with the scientific evidence of the progressive movement of glaciers1 a glacier in the ,bernese ,oberland will for ever be memorable4 ,two branch glaciers1 the ,lauteraar and the ,finsteraar1 unite at a promontory called the ,abschwung to form the trunk-glacier of the ,unteraar1 which carries a great medial moraine along its colossal back4 ,here in #ahbg1 an 8intrepid and enthusiastic0 ,swiss professor1 ,hugi1 of ,solothurm 7or ,soleure71 erected a small cabin of stones for the purpose of observations upon the glacier4 ,the hut moved1 and he took steps to measure its motion4 ,in three years1 #ahbg to #ahcj1 it moved #ccj feet downwards4 ,in #ahcf it had descended #bced feet2 and in #ahda1 it had accomplished a journey of #dgab feet4 ,this was at the rate of about #ccf feet a year4 ,in #ahdj1 ,m4 ,agassiz1 with some scientific friends1 ,messrs4 ,desor1 ,vogt1 and ,nicolieb1 established themselves under a great overhanging slab of rock on the same moraine1 and by means of side walls1 and other appliances1 constructed a rough abode which1 because some of these men of science came from ,neufchtel1 they named the 8,htel des ,neuchtelois40 ,in two years after its erection1 ,agassiz discovered that it had moved downwards no less a distance than #dhf feet4 ,these and some similar measurements brought to light a very important fact4 ,the reader will observe that the middle numbers1 corresponding to the central portion of the glacier1 are the largest3 hence it was obvious that the centre of a glacier1 like that of a river1 moves more rapidly than the sides4 ,owing to the greater central motion of a glacier1 its crevasses invariably assume a curved outline1 of which the convexity advances towards the bottom of the valley4 ,it has also been ascertained that the superficial part of a glacier moves more rapidly than its base4 ,again3 ,tyndall and ,hirst1 by employing instruments of great precision1 have demonstrated that the maximum of motion is not to be found exactly in the centre1 but that1 according to the windings of the valley through which the glacier flows1 it moves sometimes to the right of the centre1 and sometimes to the left4 ,now1 the progression of a river exhibits all the characters we have just enumerated1 and the truth foreshadowed by ,rendu has been confirmed in every detail4 ,the glacier is a 8river of ice40 ,the reader will naturally ask1 ,how can a substance of such apparent rigidity as ice obey1 as it does obey1 the same laws which regulate the movement of fluids8 ,i can understand1 he may say1 how water flows in such and such a manner3 it is a liquid1 and its molecules are deficient in the property of cohesion2 but that so solid1 and firm1 and unimpressible a substance as ice should be capable of motion seems impossible4 ,i can understand very easily that a mass of ice1 when loosened or detached from its resting-place1 will glide downwards until arrested by some adequate obstacle2 but this is not the kind of motion you are describing4 ,according to your explanations1 every constituent portion of the glacier moves1 and the central faster than the lateral1 and the surface faster than the base4 ,these objections were advanced by men of science when the motion of glaciers was first put forward as a theory2 and the answer given by ,scheuchzer was1 that a glacier might be compared1 in the summer season1 to a sponge saturated with water1 which1 when afterwards congealed by the cold temperature of autumn and winter1 expanded1 and produced a dilatation of the mass in every direction4 ,then1 as it could not recede1 as it could not reascend its valley-slope1 the augmentation of size would necessarily take place in its lower portion4 ,it is unnecessary for us to explain why this answer was unsatisfactory4 ,subsequent observations1 however1 proved its impossibility1 and ,professor ,forbes then put forward his ideas of the viscous character of ice4 ,but these1 too1 did not meet the conditions of the phenomenon2 and the view now adopted is that of ,professor ,tyndall1 who has shown that it is the result of the regelation we have already described4 ,professor ,forbes enunciated his theory in words to the following effect3 8,a glacier is an imperfect fluid or viscous body1 which is urged down slopes of certain inclination by the natural pressure of its parts40 ,but we know the exceeding brittleness of ice1 and how is viscosity compatible with brittleness8 ,we know1 too1 that crevasses and fissures will suddenly form on a glacier1 like the cracks on a pane of glass4 ,but if ice were viscous1 and could expand1 dilate1 or stretch as viscous substances do1 these crevasses would be impossible4 ,they would gradually close up1 like an indent in a mass of jelly4 ,and yet it cannot be denied that a glacier does move like a viscous body2 the centre flowing past the sides1 the top flowing over the bottom1 while the motion through a curved valley corresponds to fluid motion4 ,how are we to reconcile these apparently conflicting circumstances8 ,by ,professor ,tyndall's regelation theory1 which is founded on a fact already mentioned2 namely1 that when two pieces of thawing ice are brought in contact1 they freeze together4 ,this fact1 and its application irrespective of the cause of regelation1 may be thus illustrated3 8,saw two slabs from a block of ice1 and bring their flat surfaces into contact2 they immediately freeze together4 ,two plates of ice1 laid one upon the other1 with flannel round them overnight1 are sometimes so firmly frozen in the morning that they will rather break elsewhere than along their surface of junction4 ,if you enter one of the dripping ice-caves of ,switzerland1 you have only to press for a moment a slab of ice against the roof of the cave to cause it to freeze there and stick to the roof4 8,place a number of fragments of ice in a basin of water1 and cause them to touch each other2 they freeze together where they touch4 ,you can form a chain of such fragments2 and then1 by taking hold of one end of the chain1 you can draw the whole series after it4 ,chains of icebergs are sometimes formed in this way in the ,arctic seas40 ,from these observations we deduce the following result3--,snow consists of small particles of ice4 ,now1 if by pressure we squeeze out the air entangled in thawing snow1 and bring the little ice-granules into close contact1 they may be expected1 as they do1 to freeze together2 and should the expulsion of the air be complete1 the squeezed snow will assume the appearance of compact ice4 ,it is in this way that the consolidation of the snows takes place in the ,arctic as in the higher ,alpine regions4 ,the deeper layers of the nv are converted into more or less perfect ice by the pressure of the superjacent layers2 and further1 they are made to assume the shape of the valley which they fill1 by the slow and continuous pressure of its sides4 ,in glaciers1 as ,professor ,tyndall points out1 we have ample illustrations of rude fracture and regelation2 as1 for example1 in the opening and closing of crevasses4 ,the glacier is broken on the cascades1 and mended at their bases4 ,when two branch glaciers lay their sides together1 the regelation is so firm that they begin immediately to flow in the trunk glacier as in a single stream4 ,the medial moraine gives no indication by its slowness of motion that it is derived from the sluggish ice of the sides of the branch glaciers4 ,we may sum up the regelation theory in few words4 ,the ice of glaciers changes its form and retains its continuity under pressure which keeps its particles together4 ,but when subjected to tension1 sooner than stretch1 it breaks1 and behaves no longer as a viscous body4 ,these are ,professor ,tyndall's words1 and the fact which they embody it would be difficult to set forth more clearly or more concisely4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,polar ,,glacier4 ,having said thus much of the structure1 causes1 characteristics1 and movement of glaciers1 we proceed to consider some of the more remarkable of those which are situated in the ,arctic ,world4 ,the glaciers of the ,polar ,regions do not differ in structure or mode of formation from those of other countries4 ,yet they possess some peculiar features1 and to a superficial observer might seem independent of the physical laws we have attempted to explain4 ,that this is not the case has been shown by ,charles ,martins1 who carefully studied the glaciers of ,spitzbergen on the occasion of the exploring voyage of the ,recherche to that island1 and has demonstrated that their differences are but a particular case of the general phenomenon4 ,as special characters he points out1 first1 the rarity of needles and prisms of ice1 which he attributes to the slight inclination and the uniformity of the slopes1 as well as to the diminution of the solar heat1 which1 even in the long summer days1 does not melt the surface4 ,there are no rills or streams capable of hollowing out crevasses and moulding protuberances or projections4 ,but transversal crevasses produced by the movement of the glaciers are numerous1 and these are often very wide and very deep4 ,illustration3 ,,glacier1 ,,english ,,bay1 ,,spitzbergen4 ,in the terminal escarpment1 which melts in proportion as it plunges into the sea1 immense caverns are sometimes seen2 caverns so immense that the azure-gleaming grottoes of the ,arveiron and ,grindelwald1 so much admired by ,european travellers1 are but miniatures4 8,one day10 says ,charles ,martins1 8after having ascertained the temperature of the sea off the great glacier of ,bell ,sound1 ,i proposed to the sailors who accompanied me to carry our boat into its cavern4 ,i explained to them the risk we should incur1 being unwilling to attempt anything without their consent4 ,when our boat had crossed the threshold1 we found ourselves in an immense ,gothic cathedral2 long conical-pointed cylinders of ice descended from the roof2 the recesses seemed so many chapels opening out of the principal nave2 broad fissures divided the walls1 and the open intervals1 like arches1 sprang towards the summits2 azure gleams played over the icy surface1 and were reflected in the water4 ,the sailors1 like myself1 were dumb with admiration4 ,but a too prolonged contemplation would have been dangerous2 we soon regained the narrow opening through which we had penetrated into this winter temple1 and1 returning on board our vessel1 preserved a discreet silence respecting an escapade which might have been justly blamed4 ,in the evening1 we saw from the shore our cathedral of the morning slowly bend forwards1 detach itself from the parent glacier1 crash into the waves1 and reappear in a thousand blocks and fragments of ice1 which the retiring tide carried slowly out to sea40 ,the ,spitzbergen glaciers do not exhibit those numerous moraines which are observed on the majority of those of ,switzerland4 ,the mountains1 not being very lofty1 are buried1 as it were1 under their burden of glaciers1 instead of preponderating over them1 and seem with difficulty to lift their peaks out of the mass of ice and snow surrounding them4 ,consequently1 there are no considerable landslips or falls of earth and stone1 which1 accumulating along the borders of the glaciers1 might form moraines4 ,martins is of opinion that the ,spitzbergen glaciers correspond to the upper part of the glaciers of ,switzerland2 to so much1 that is to say1 as lies above the perpetual snow-line4 ,now1 he says1 the higher we ascend on an ,alpine glacier1 the more do the lateral and medial moraines diminish in width and form1 until they taper away and finally disappear under the high nvs of the amphitheatres from which the glacier issues1 just as the mountain torrents often take their rise in one or in several lakes terraced one above the other4 ,illustration3 ,,glacier1 ,,bell ,,sound1 ,,spitzbergen4 ,for all these reasons1 he adds1 the medial and lateral moraines are scarcely conspicuous on the glaciers of ,spitzbergen2 a number of stones and boulders may be seen along their sides1 and sometimes in their centre1 but the ice is never hidden1 as in the ,alps1 under the mass of dbris accumulated upon it4 ,as for the terminal moraines1 they must be sought at the bottom of the sea1 since the terminal escarpment nearly always overhangs it4 ,hence1 the blocks of stone fall simultaneously with the blocks of ice1 and form a submarine frontal moraine1 of which the two extremities are occasionally visible upon the shore4 ,in a previous chapter we have alluded to the manner in which icebergs are formed by the detachment from the seaward extremity of the glacier of huge masses of ice1 which the current carries out into the open sea4 ,to the description already given1 we may here add that which ,charles ,martins furnishes in his valuable and interesting record of persevering scientific enterprise1 8,du ,spitzberg au ,sahara03--,in ,spitzbergen1 he says1 the glacier1 after a traject of more or less considerable duration1 reaches the sea4 ,if the shore be rectilineal1 it advances no further2 but1 in the recess of a bay1 where the shore is curved1 it continues its progression1 supporting its bulk on the sides of the bay1 and advancing above the water1 which it overhangs4 ,this is easily understood4 ,in summer the sea-water at the bottom of the bays is always at a temperature a little above #cb2 on coming in contact with this comparatively warm water the glacier melts1 and1 at low tide1 an interval is perceptible between the ice and the surface of the water4 ,the glacier being no longer supported1 partially crumbles and gives way2 immense blocks detach themselves1 fall into the sea1 disappear beneath the water1 reappear revolving on their own axes1 and oscillate for a few moments until they have taken up their position of equilibrium4 ,the blocks thus detached from the floating masses1 of all sizes and shapes1 are called icebergs4 ,illustration3 ,,steamer 8,,charging0 ,,an ,,iceberg1 ,,upernavik1 ,,greenland4 ,our traveller records that twice a day1 in ,magdalena ,bay and ,bell ,sound1 he was an eye-witness of this partial ruin of the extremity of the glaciers4 ,their fall was accompanied by a noise like that of thunder2 the swollen sea rushed upon the shore in a succession of gigantic waves2 the gulf was covered with icebergs1 which1 caught in the swirl and eddy1 issued out of the bay1 like immense fleets1 to gain the sea beyond1 or were stranded here and there at points where the water was shallow4 ,the icebergs seen by ,m4 ,martins were not1 however1 of any surprising magnitude2 he estimates their average height at thirteen to sixteen feet4 ,we have seen that those of ,baffin ,bay are tenfold more considerable and imposing2 but then1 in that bay the temperature of the sea is below #cb2 the glacier does not melt when it enters the water2 it sinks to the bottom of the sea2 and the portions detached from it are all of greater height than even the submerged part of the icebergs which drift to and fro in the bays and gulfs of ,spitzbergen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we may follow up this description with some observations by ,lieutenant ,bellot1 the chivalrous young ,frenchman who perished in one of the expeditions despatched in search of ,sir ,john ,franklin and his companions4 ,he is speaking of the masses of ice his ship encountered soon after doubling ,cape ,farewell1 the south point of ,greenland1 and he remarks1 that as ,baffin ,bay narrows towards the south1 the icebergs1 first set in motion higher up the bay by the northern gales1 necessarily tend to accumulate in the gorge thus formed1 and so to impede and block up ,davis ,strait1 even when the higher waters are quite free4 ,it is only through a series of alternate movements of advance and recession that the bergs finally pass beyond the barrier1 and float out into the ,atlantic1 to undergo a slow process of dissolution4 ,the mobility of the bergs1 though necessary to navigation1 forms at the same time its peculiar danger1 since a vessel is often placed between the shore and the colossal masses driven forward by the wind1 or between these and the solid ice which as yet has not broken up4 ,it is useless to dwell upon the immense force possessed by masses which are frequently several square leagues in extent1 and which1 once in movement1 cannot be stayed by any human resistance4 ,a sailing-vessel finds herself placed in conditions all the more unfavourable1 because the winds blow from the very direction which she is bound to take in order to open up a way through the floes4 ,now1 if the gale is violent1 it is perilous indeed to push forward in the midst of a labyrinth of bergs1 which form so many floating rocks2 if a calm prevails1 a ship can move forward only by laborious hauling or towed by the boats4 ,the application of the screw-propeller to steam-ships has given to them a great superiority1 because they are not liable to any accident to paddle-wheels1 exposed as such must be to collision with the floating ice4 ,it is recorded that1 on one occasion1 a screw-steamer1 near ,upernavik1 on the coast of ,greenland1 actually charged an iceberg1 and drove right through it1 as a railway-engine might crash through a fence or hurdle4 ,of course1 the berg was of no great elevation2 but its solid mass yielded to the immense force of the steamship1 and split into large fragments4 ,in the convulsions caused by furious tempests1 which are far from being so rare within the ,arctic ,circle as is popularly supposed1 the shape of the bergs becomes very irregular1 and the configuration of the ice-fields is constantly undergoing modification4 ,hence it often happens that the voyager sees before him an open basin of water of greater or less extent1 from which he is separated only by a narrow strip of ice4 ,in such a case he endeavours to effect an opening1 either by driving his ship at full speed against the weakest part of the ice1 or with the help of immense saws1 twenty feet in length1 which are worked with a rope and pulley placed at the top of a triangle formed of long poles2 or1 finally1 by exploding a mine4 ,when the ice is not very solid1 the ship is forced into the opening1 against the sides of which it acts like a wedge4 ,it will sometimes occur1 in the course of the operation1 that the ice-fields1 set in motion by the wind or the currents1 close in together1 after having treacherously separated for a moment1 and the vessel is then subjected to a dangerous pressure4 ,unhappy the mariner who does not foresee or sufficiently note the warning signs of this accident1 which is almost always accompanied by fatal consequences4 ,the ice1 which nothing can check1 passing underneath the ship1 capsizes it1--or1 if it resists1 crushes it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have alluded to the colossal bergs of ,baffin ,bay4 ,these are thrown off from the northern glaciers1 and particularly from the enormous ice-river named after ,humboldt1 which cumbers the declivities of the ,greenland ,alps1 beyond the #gith parallel4 ,it has been a frequent source of surprise to navigators that these mighty masses should float in a contrary direction to that of the ice-fields which descend with the ,polar current towards the ,atlantic4 ,they reascend with such rapidity that they shatter the so-called 8ice-foot10 or belt of ice1 still adhering to the shore4 ,captain ,maury has collected numerous observations on this important subject1 and he quotes the case of a ship which was being laboriously hauled against the current1 when an enormous floating mountain coming up from the south steered against it1 but fortunately did not come into collision with it1 and forging ahead1 very quickly disappeared4 ,how is such an incident to be explained8 ,by the existence of a submarine counter-current1 acting on the lower extremity of the submerged portion of the berg1 which1 as we have stated1 is always seven or eight times larger than the bulk above the surface of the waves4 ,our whalers1 in their hazardous expeditions1 often derive assistance from these moving islands4 ,they seek shelter under their lee when sudden storms arise2 for the huge bergs are scarcely affected by the most violent gales4 ,they find their shelter valuable also during certain operations of the fishery for which rest and quiet are necessary4 ,yet it is not absolutely exempt from danger4 ,the seeming friend may prove to be a concealed foe4 ,the iceberg may collapse1 or be capsized2 or formidable fragments1 loosened from their sides or summits1 may topple headlong and threaten to overwhelm the ship beneath3 but as on these and other accidents we have already dwelt at length1 we refrain from wearying our readers with a twice-told tale4 ,the repetition in which1 to some extent1 we have indulged1 was needful1 in order to show the reader in what way the dissolution of the lower extremity of the glaciers is effected in the ,arctic world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the neighbourhood of ,cape ,alexander1 one of the headlands of ,smith ,strait1 ,dr4 ,hayes met with a glacier1 of which he gives an interesting description in his narrative of an 8,arctic ,boat ,journey10 7#ahed73-- ,it was the first1 protruding into the ocean1 which he had had an opportunity of inspecting closely2 and though small1 compared with other similar formations1 it had nevertheless all their principal characteristics4 ,it presented to the sea a convex mural face1 seventy feet in height and about two miles in length1 its centre projecting into the water beyond the general line of the coast to the east and west of it4 ,the surface rose abruptly to the height of about two hundred feet1 and1 sloping thence backward with a gentle inclination1 seemed to be connected with an extensive mer de glace above4 ,several fissures or crevasses1 apparently of great depth1 struck vertically through its body1 and extended far up into its interior2 and others1 more shallow1 which seemed to have been formed by the streams of melted snow that poured in cataracts down into the sea4 ,dr4 ,hayes remarks that he was impressed by its viscous appearance2 but we have shown that a certain amount of viscosity naturally appertains to glacier ice4 ,illustration3 ,,forcing ,a ,,passage ,,through ,,the ,,ice4 ,parallel with its convex face ran a succession of indistinctly marked lines1 which gave it the aspect of a semi-fluid mass moving downward upon an inclined surface2 and this idea was confirmed by its appearance about the rocks on either side4 ,over these it seemed to have flowed2 and1 fitting accurately into all their inequalities1 it gave the effect of a huge moving mass of partially solidified matter suddenly congealed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of still greater interest is the same adventurous explorer's description of the great ,arctic ,mer de ,glace which lies inland from ,rensselaer ,bay1 in about lat4 #gi ,n41 and long4 #fh ,w4 ,dr4 ,hayes and his party had set out on an expedition into the interior1 and after passing through a really picturesque landscape1 enriched with beds of moss and turf1 patches of purple andromeda1 and the trailing branches of the dwarf-willow1 they emerged upon a broad plain or valley1 in the heart of which reposed a frozen lake1 about two miles in length by half a mile in width4 ,they traversed its transparent surface4 ,on either side of them rose rugged bluffs1 that stretched off into long lines of hills1 culminating in series in a broad-topped mountain-ridge1 which1 running away to right and left1 was cut by a gap several miles wide that opened directly before them4 ,immediately in front was a low hill1 around the base of which flowed on either side the branches of a stream whose course they had followed4 ,leaving the river-bed just above the lake1 they climbed to the summit of this hillock2 and there a sight burst upon them1 grand and imposing beyond the power of words adequately to describe4 ,from the rocky bed1 only a few miles in advance1 a sloping wall of pure whiteness rose to a broad level plain of ice1 which1 apparently without limits1 stretched away toward the unknown east4 ,it was the great mer de glace of the ,arctic continent4 ,here then was1 in reality1 the counterpart of the river-systems of other lands4 ,from behind the granite hills the congealed drainings of the interior water-sheds1 the atmospheric precipitations of ages1 were moving in a mass1 which1 though solid1 was plastic1 moving down through every gap in the mountains1 swallowing up the rocks1 filling the valleys1 submerging the hills3 an onward1 irresistible1 crystal tide1 swelling to the ocean4 ,the surface was intersected by numerous vertical crevasses1 some of considerable depth1 which had drained off the melted snow4 ,it was midnight when the explorers approached this colossal reservoir4 ,the sun was several degrees beneath the horizon1 and afforded a faint twilight-gleam4 ,stars of the second magnitude were dimly perceptible in the cold1 steel-blue ,arctic heavens4 ,when they were within about half a mile of the icy wall1 a brilliant meteor fell before them1 and1 by its reflection upon the glassy surface beneath1 greatly increased the magical effect of the scene2 while loud reports1 like distant thunder or the roll of artillery1 broke at intervals from the depths of the frozen sea4 ,on closer inspection it was found that the face of the glacier ascended at an angle of from #cj to #ce4 ,at its base lay a high bank of snow1 and the wanderers clambered up it about sixty feet2 but beyond this their efforts were defied by the exceeding smoothness of the ice4 ,the mountains1 which stood on either hand like giant-warders1 were overlapped1 and to some extent submerged1 by the glacier4 ,from the face of the huge ice-river innumerable little rivulets ran down the channels their action had gradually excavated1 or gurgled from beneath the ice2 forming1 on the level lands below1 a sort of marsh1 not twenty yards from the icy wall4 ,here1 in strange contrast1 bloomed beds of verdurous moss2 and in these1 tufts of dwarf-willows were wreathing their tiny arms and rootlets about the feebler flower-growths2 and there1 clustered together1 crouching among the grass1 and sheltered by the leaves1 and feeding on the bed of lichens1 flourished a tiny1 white-blossomed draba and a white chickweed4 ,dotting the few feet of green around might be seen the yellow flowers of the more hardy poppy1 the purple potentilla1 and saxifrages yellow1 purple1 and white4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the great glacier of ,sermiatsialik is one of the arms1 or outlets1 of this immense reservoir of ice4 ,it occupies the bed of a valley1 varying from three and a half to five miles in width1 and attaining at certain points a depth of upwards of three hundred and seventy feet4 ,this valley opens upon the fiord of ,sermiatsialik1 which is separated from that of ,julianshaab by the range of mountains culminating in the peak of ,redkammen4 ,we owe to ,dr4 ,hayes a lively description of the ,sermiatsialik glacier1 which he thinks must at some places be more than seven hundred and fifty feet in depth1 overflowing the borders of the valley like a swollen torrent4 ,for upwards of four leagues1 the icebergs which throng the fiord1 or gulf1 are those of the glacier itself1 and terminating in a wedge-like outline1 disappear in the vast sea of ice expanding to right and left above the loftiest summits1 and drawing irresistibly the eye to its rippled surface1--boundless1 apparently1 like that of ocean4 ,as the voyager sails up the gulf1 he gradually loses sight of the frozen slope1 and then of the white line of the mer de glace3 he finds himself in front of an immense cliff1 from one hundred to two hundred feet in height1 diaphanous as the purest crystals1 and reflecting all the hues of heaven4 ,one almost shudders as one approaches this vast domain of ,winter4 ,collecting in copious streams1 the ice and snow melted on the surface of the glacier pour over its brink1 forming floating clouds of spray1 irradiated by rainbow colours4 ,the din of these cascades fills the air4 ,at intervals1 the loud reports of the internal convulsions of the glacier are repeated by every echo4 ,the cliff is entirely vertical2 but its face1 far from being smooth1 is broken up into an infinite variety of forms3 into unfathomable cavernous hollows1 symmetrical spires1 ogives1 pinnacles1 and deep fissures1 where the eye plunges into a transparent blue1 which changes every second its fleeting1 opaline tints2 tints so soft1 and yet so vivid1 that they defy the skill of the artist to reproduce them4 ,the lustre of the 8dark eye of woman0 is not more difficult to seize4 ,a deep dark green1 less delicate but not less splendid1 colours all the recesses where the ice overhangs the waters4 ,in the sunlight one sees the surface of these huge crystals shining with the whiteness of the purest snow2 except1 indeed1 where recent fractures have taken place4 ,they suggest to the mind the idea of the gleams and reflections of a piece of satin2 the undulatory lustre and shifting sparkle being produced by the different angles under which the light is reflected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but let us suppose that we have landed2 with much difficulty have ascended the cliffs2 and have clambered up the glacier to its very summit4 ,the scene before us1 how shall we convey to the mind of the reader8 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,glacier ,,of ,,sermiatsialik1 ,,greenland4 ,imagine1 if you can1 the rapids of the ,upper ,niagara congealed even to their lowest depths2 imagine the falls1 and the broad river1 and the great ,lake ,erie all frozen into solid ice2 with bergs above the cataract towering as high as the lower banks3 suppose that you1 the spectator1 having taken your stand upon the rapids1 with the ,erie so near that you can see its crystallized surface1 and you will have a picture1 on a reduced scale1 of the sea of ice now spreading far before us4 ,the rapids will represent the glacier2 the ,great ,fall the cliff which it projects into the sea 7only that the celebrated 8horse-shoe0 is here turned outwards72 the river which broadens into the ,ontario will be the fiord2 and the ,ontario1 that dark grim ocean into which the gigantic bergs detached from the mighty ice-cascade are slowly making their way6 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must indicate1 however1 one remarkable dissimilarity1 for which our previous observations on the nature of glaciers will have prepared the reader4 ,from one bank to the other1 the surface of a river is always horizontal1 but that of a glacier is slightly convex4 ,through the narrow glen1 or ravine1 formed by this curvature of the glacier1 a kind of lateral trough or gully1 bounded by the escarpment of the soil1 we reach the sea4 ,the descent is not without its dangers1 for at every point crevasses open1 separated by slippery projections4 ,these deep gashes1 at some points1 are only a few yards apart2 and they incessantly cross each other1 and run into one another1 so as to form a perfect labyrinth1 in the windings of which the adventurous traveller is apt to feel bewildered4 ,the border of the glacier once crossed1 the way becomes less difficult2 for a mile and a half the level is almost perfect1 and the ice but little broken up4 ,the frozen desert1 however1 impresses us with an almost solemn feeling1 and there is something terrible in the desolation of such a ,sahara of snow6 ,moreover1 the traveller is irresistibly affected by the continual roar or growling of the enormous mass1 which seems to stir and shake under our very feet4 ,he would not be surprised if a vast chasm suddenly yawned before him6 ,these harsh deep voices of the glacier1 however1 are not the only sounds we hear4 ,on every side rises the murmur of brooks which trace their furrows across the crystalline plain4 ,some of these gradually converge1 and1 uniting1 form a considerable torrent1 which leaps with a clang from icy crag to icy ledge1 until it is lost in a crevasse1 or precipitated over the frozen cliff into the waters of the fiord4 ,the solitude of the scene is complete1 but not the silence4 ,the air is as full of 8noises0 as ever was ,prospero's isle4 ,such are the principal features of the glacier of ,sermiatsialik4 99 99 99 99 99 ,about ninety miles north-east of ,rensselaer ,bay lies the great ,humboldt ,glacier1 which seems to serve as a connecting-link between the ,old ,world and the ,new4 ,it lies between the #gith and #hjth parallels north1 and between the #fdth and #feth meridians west1 skirting the shore of ,peabody ,bay1 which is a bold indentation of the east coast of ,kane ,sea4 ,it was discovered in ,dr4 ,kane's expedition1 and is probably one of the grandest spectacles in the ,arctic world4 ,dr4 ,kane acknowledges himself unable to do justice to its magnificent aspect4 ,he can speak only of its 8long1 ever-shining line of cliff diminished to a well-pointed wedge in the perspective20 of its 8face of glistening ice1 sweeping in a long curve from the low interior1 the facets in front intensely illuminated by the sun40 ,this line of cliff rises1 like a solid wall of glass1 three hundred feet above the water-level1 with an unknown1 unfathomable depth below it2 and its curved face1 sixty miles in length1 disappears into unknown space at not more than a single day's railroad-travel from the ,pole4 ,the interior with which it communicates1 and from which it issues1 is an unexplored mer de glace1 an ice-ocean1 of apparently boundless dimensions4 ,such is the 8mighty crystal bridge0 which connects the two continents of ,america and ,greenland4 ,we say1 continents2 for ,greenland1 as ,dr4 ,kane remarks1 however insulated it may ultimately prove to be1 is in mass strictly continental4 ,its least possible axis1 measured from ,cape ,farewell to the line of the ,humboldt ,glacier1 in the neighbourhood of the #hjth parallel1 gives a length of upwards of twelve hundred miles1--not materially less than that of ,australia from its northern to its southern cape4 ,imagine the centre of such a continent1 says ,dr4 ,kane1 occupied through nearly its whole extent by a deep1 unbroken sea of ice1 that gathers perennial increase from the watershed of vast snow-covered mountains and all the precipitations of the atmosphere upon its own surface4 ,imagine this1 moving onward like a great glacial river1 seeking outlets at every fiord and valley1 rolling icy cataracts into the ,atlantic and ,greenland seas2 and1 having at last reached the northern limit of the land that has borne it up1 pouring out a mighty frozen torrent into unknown ,arctic space4 8,it is thus10 remarks ,dr4 ,kane1 8and only thus1 that we must form a just conception of a phenomenon like this great glacier4 ,i had looked in my own mind for such an appearance1 should ,i ever be fortunate enough to reach the northern coast of ,greenland4 ,but now that it was before me1 ,i could hardly realize it4 ,i had recognized1 in my quiet library at home1 the beautiful analogies which ,forbes and ,studer have developed between the glacier and the river2 but ,i could not comprehend at first this complete substitution of ice for water4 8,it was slowly the conviction dawned on me that ,i was looking upon the counterpart of the great river-system of ,arctic ,asia and ,america4 ,yet here were no water-feeders from the south4 ,every particle of moisture had its origin within the ,polar ,circle1 and had been converted into ice4 ,there were no vast alluvions1 no forest or animal traces borne down by liquid torrents4 ,here was a plastic1 moving1 semi-solid mass1 obliterating life1 swallowing rocks and islands1 and ploughing its way with irresistible march through the crust of an investing sea40 99 99 99 99 99 ,when1 at a later period1 ,dr4 ,kane made a closer examination of this great natural wonder1 he found that previously he had not realized the full grandeur of the spectacle4 ,he noted that the trend of the glacier was a few degrees to the west of north2 and he remarks1 as the peculiarity of its aspect1 that it did not indicate repose1 but activity1 energy1 movement4 ,its surface seemed to follow that of the basis-country over which it flowed4 ,it was undulating on and about the horizon1 but as it descended towards the sea it represented a broken plain with a general inclination of some nine degrees1 still diminishing toward the foreground4 ,crevasses1 which in the distance seemed like mere wrinkles1 expanded as they came nearer1 and were intersected almost at right angles by long continuous lines of fracture parallel with the face of the glacier4 ,these lines1 too1 scarcely perceptible in the far distance1 widened as they approached the sea until they formed a gigantic stairway4 ,it seemed as though the ice had lost its support below1 and that the mass was let down from above in a series of steps2 and such an action is the necessary result of the heat thrown out by the soil1 the excessive surface-drainage1 and the constant abrasion of the sea4 ,the indication of a great propelling agency seemed to be just commencing at the time that ,dr4 ,kane visited the great glacier4 ,the split-off lines of ice were evidently in motion1 pressed on by those behind1 but still broadening their fissures1 as if the impelling action grew more and more energetic nearer the water1 till at last they floated away in the form of icebergs4 ,long files of these detached masses might be seen1 like the ranks of a stately armada1 slowly sailing out into the remote sea1 their separation marked by dark parallel shadows2 broad and spacious avenues near the eye1 but narrowed in the perspective to mere furrows4 ,a more impressive illustration of the forces of nature it would be difficult to conceive4 ,dr4 ,kane's view of the formation of icebergs differs considerably from that which most physicists entertain4 ,he does not believe that the berg falls into the sea1 broken by its weight from the parent glacier2 he is of opinion that it rises from the sea4 ,the process is at once gradual and comparatively quiet4 8,the idea of icebergs being discharged1 so universal among systematic writers1 seems to me at variance with the regulated and progressive actions of ,nature4 ,developed by such a process1 the thousands of bergs which throng the ,polar seas should keep the air and water in perpetual commotion1 one fearful succession of explosive detonations and propagated waves4 ,but it is only the lesser masses falling into deep waters which could justify the popular opinion4 ,the enormous masses of the great glacier are propelled1 step by step and year by year1 until1 reaching water capable of supporting them1 they are floated off to be lost in the temperatures of other regions40 ,the ,humboldt ,glacier did not differ in structure from the ,alpine and ,norwegian ice-growths2 and its face presented nearly all the characteristic features of the latter4 ,the overflow1 or viscous overlapping of the surface1 was very strongly marked4 8,when close to the island rocks10 says ,kane1 8and looking out upon the upper table of the glacier1 ,i was struck with the homely analogy of the batter-cake spreading itself out under the ladle of the housewife1 the upper surface less affected by friction1 and rolling forward in consequence40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the crevasses bore the marks of direct fracture1 as well as of the more gradual action of surface-drainage4 ,the extensive watershed between their converging planes gave to the icy surface most of the hydrographic features of a river-system4 ,the ice-born rivers which divided them were margined occasionally with spires of discoloured ice1 and generally lost themselves in the central areas of the glacier before reaching its foreground4 ,occasionally1 too1 the face of the glacier was cut by vertical lines1 which1 as in the ,alpine examples1 were evidently outlets for the surface drainage4 ,the height of this ice-wall at the nearest point was about three hundred feet1 measured from the water's edge2 and the unbroken right line of its diminishing perspective showed that this might be regarded as its constant measurement4 ,it seemed1 in fact1 a great icy table-land1 abutting with a clean precipice against the sea4 ,this1 indeed1 is the great characteristic of all those ,arctic glaciers which issue from central reservoirs or mers de glace upon the fiords or bays1 and is strikingly in contrast with the dependent or hanging glacier of the ravines1 where every line and furrow and chasm seem to indicate the movement of descent and the mechanical disturbances which have impeded and delayed it4 ,dr4 ,kane named this monster glacier after ,alexander ,von ,humboldt1 to whose labours ,physical ,science is so largely indebted2 and the cape which flanks it on the ,greenland coast after the distinguished naturalist1 whom the world has so recently lost1 ,professor ,agassiz4 ,the point at which the ,humboldt ,glacier enters the 8,land of ,washington0 affords even at a distance very clear indications of its plastic or semi-solid character4 ,the observer finds it impossible to resist the impression of fluidity conveyed by its peculiar markings4 ,dr4 ,kane very appropriately named it ,cape ,forbes1 in honour of the illustrious son of ,scotia who contributed so largely to our true knowledge of the structure and mode of progression of glaciers4 ,as the surface of the glacier1 adds its discoverer1 receded to the south1 its face seemed broken with piles of earth and rock-stained rubbish1 until far back in the interior it was concealed from view by the slope of a hill4 ,but even beyond this point its continued extension was shown by the white glare or ice-blink in the sky above4 ,its outline to the northward could not be so easily traced1 on account of the enormous discharges at its base4 ,the talus of its descent from the interior1 looking far off to the east1 ranged from #g to #ae2 so interrupted by the crevasses1 however1 as only in the distance to produce the effect of an inclined plane4 ,a few black protuberances rose above the glittering surface of the snow1 like islands in a foamy sea4 ,it could be seen1 from the general inequalities of its surface1 how well the huge mass adapted itself to the inequalities of the basis-country beneath4 ,the same modifications of hill and dale were discernible as upon land4 ,thus grand and various in its imposing aspect1 it stretches to the north until it touches the new ,land of ,washington1 cementing together by an apparently indissoluble tie the ,greenland of the ,norse ,vikings and the ,america of the ,anglo-,saxon colonists4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,arctic ,,lands--,,fauna--,,flora--,,greenland-- ,,iceland--,,novaia ,,zemlaia--,,siberia4 ,we have already pointed out that in the northernmost regions of the ,arctic lands the year is divided into one prolonged and bitterly cold night of several months' duration1 and one glorious summer's day extending over nine or ten weeks1 which brings the scanty vegetation to a sudden maturity4 ,we have indicated that even within the limits of perpetual snow the life of ,nature is not altogether crushed out2 and in support of this statement we may refer to the 8red snow0 which figures so often in the pages of our ,arctic voyagers1 though its true character was not at first apprehended4 ,this so-called 8red snow0 was found by ,sir ,john ,ross1 in his first ,arctic expedition in #ahjh1 on a range of cliffs rising about #hjj feet above the sea-level1 and extending eight miles in length 7lat4 #ge ,n474 ,it was also discovered by ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,parry in his overland expedition in #ahbg4 ,the snow was tinged to the depth of several inches4 ,moreover1 if the surface of the snow-plain1 though previously of its usual spotless purity1 was crushed by the pressure of the sledges and of the footsteps of the party1 blood-like stains instantly arose2 the impressions being sometimes of an orange hue1 and sometimes more like a pale salmon tint4 ,it has been ascertained that this singular variation of colour is due to an immense aggregation of minute plants of the species called ,protococcus nivalis2 the generic name alluding to the extreme primitiveness of its organization1 and the specific to the peculiar nature of its habitat4 ,if we place a small quantity of red snow on a piece of white paper1 and allow it to melt and evaporate1 there will be left a residuum of granules sufficient to communicate a faint crimson tint to the paper4 ,examine these granules under a microscope1 and they will prove to be spherical purple cells of almost inappreciable size1 not more than the three-thousandth to one-thousandth part of an inch in diameter4 ,look more closely1 and you will see that each cell has an opening1 surrounded by indented or serrated lines1 the smallest diameter of which measures only the five-thousandth part of an inch4 ,when perfect1 the plant1 as ,dr4 ,macmillan observes1 bears a resemblance to a red-currant berry2 as it decays1 the red colouring matter fades into a deep orange1 which is finally resolved into a brownish hue4 ,the thickness of the wall of the cell is estimated at the twenty-thousandth part of an inch1 and three hundred to four hundred of these cells might be grouped together in a smaller space than a shilling would cover4 ,yet each cell is a distinct individual plant2 perfectly independent of others with which it may be massed2 fully capable of performing for and by itself all the functions of growth and reproduction2 possessing 8a containing membrane which absorbs liquids and gases from the surrounding matrix or elements1 a contained fluid of peculiar character formed out of these materials1 and a number of excessively minute granules equivalent to spores1 or1 as some would say1 to cellular buds1 which are to become the germs of new plants40 ,dr4 ,macmillan adds3 8,that one and the same primitive cell should thus minister equally to absorption1 nutrition1 and reproduction1 is an extraordinary illustration of the fact that the smallest and simplest organized object is in itself1 and1 for the part it was created to perform in the operations of nature1 as admirably adapted as the largest and most complicated40 ,illustration3 ,,protococcus ,,nivalis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first vegetable forms to make their appearance at the limits of the snow-line1 whether in high latitudes or on mountain-summits1 are lichens2 which flourish on rocks1 or stones1 or trees1 or wherever they can obtain sufficient moisture to support existence4 ,upwards of two thousand four hundred species are known4 ,the same kinds prevail throughout the ,arctic ,regions1 and the species common to both the ,eastern and ,western ,hemispheres are very numerous4 ,they lend the beauty of colour to many an ,arctic scene which would otherwise be inexpressibly dreary2 the most rugged rock acquiring a certain air of picturesqueness through their luxuriant display4 ,their forms are wonderfully varied2 so that they present to the student of ,nature an almost inexhaustible field of inquiry4 ,in their most rudimentary aspects they seem to consist of nothing more than a collection of powdery granules1 so minute that the figure of each is scarcely distinguishable1 and so dry and so deficient in organization that we cannot but wonder how they live and maintain life4 ,now they are seen like ink-spots on the trunks of fallen trees2 now they are freely sprinkled in white dust over rocks and withered tufts of moss1 others appear in gray filmy patches2 others again like knots or rosettes of various tints2 and some are pulpy and gelatinous1 like arial sea-weeds which the receding tide leaves bare and naked on inland rocks4 ,a greater complexity of structure1 however1 is visible in the higher order of lichens1--and we find them either tufted and shrubby1 like miniature trees2 or in clustering cups1 which1 ,hebe-like1 present their 8dewy offerings to the sun40 ,in the ,polar ,world1 and its regions of eternal winter1 where snow and ice1 and dark drear waters1 huge glacier and colossal berg1 combine to form an awful and impressive picture1 the traveller is thankful for the abundance of these humble and primitive forms1 which communicate the freshness and variety of life to the otherwise painful and death-like uniformity of the frost-bound ,nature4 ,it is true that here1 8,above1 around1 below1 ,on mountain or in glen1 ,nor tree1 nor shrub1 nor plant1 nor flower10 may be found in the lands beyond the line of perpetual snow2 it is true that 8,all is rocks at random thrown1 ,black waves1 bare crags1 and banks of stone2 ,as if were here denied ,the summer's sun1 the spring's sweet dew1 ,that clothe with many a varied hue ,the bleakest mountain-side20 but vegetation is not absolutely wanting1 and the lichens are so largely developed and so widely distributed as to impart quite a peculiar and distinctive character to the scenery4 ,a lichen which is discovered in almost every zone of altitude and latitude1 which ranges from the wild shores of ,melville ,island in the ,arctic to those of ,deception ,island in the ,antarctic circle1--which blooms on the crests of the ,himalayas1 on the lofty peak of ,chimborazo1 and was found by ,agassiz near the top of ,mont ,blanc1--is the ,lecidea geographica1 a beautiful bright-green lichen1 whose clusters assume almost a kaleidoscopic appearance4 ,a lichen of great importance in the ,arctic world is the well-known ,cladonia rangiferina1 or reindeer moss1 which forms the staple food of that animal during the long ,arctic winter4 ,in the vast tundras1 or steppes1 of ,lapland it flourishes in the greatest profusion1 completely covering the ground with its snowy tufts1 which look like the silvery sprays of some magic plant4 ,according to ,linnus1 it thrives more luxuriantly than any other plant in the pine-forests of ,lapland1 the surface of the soil being carpeted with it for many miles in extent2 and if the forests are accidentally burned to the ground1 it quickly reappears1 and grows with all its original vigour4 ,these plains1 which seem to the traveller smitten with the curse of desolation1 the ,laplander regards as fertile pastures2 and here vast herds of reindeer roam at will1 thriving where the horse1 the elephant1 and even the camel would perish4 ,this useful animal is dependent almost entirely on a lichen for support4 ,what a deep interest is thus attached to it6 ,that vast numbers of families1 living in pastoral simplicity in the cheerless and inhospitable ,polar ,regions1 should depend for their subsistence upon the uncultured and abundant supply of a plant so low in the scale of organization as this1 is1 says ,dr4 ,macmillan1 a striking proof of the great importance of even the smallest and meanest objects in nature4 ,when the ground is crusted with a hard and frozen snow1 which prevents it from obtaining its usual food1 the reindeer turns to another lichen1 called rock-hair 7,alectoria jubata71 that grows in long bearded tufts on almost every tree4 ,in winters of extreme rigour1 the ,laplanders cut down whole forests of the largest trees1 that their herds may browse freely on the tufts which clothe the higher branches4 ,hence it has been justly said that 8the vast dreary pine-forests of ,lapland possess a character which is peculiarly their own1 and are perhaps more singular in the eyes of the traveller than any other feature in the landscapes of that remote and desolate region4 ,this character they owe to the immense number of lichens with which they abound4 ,the ground1 instead of grass1 is carpeted with dense tufts of the reindeer moss1 white as a shower of new fallen snow2 while the trunks and branches of the trees are swollen far beyond their natural dimensions with huge1 dusky1 funereal branches of the rock-hair1 hanging down in masses1 exhaling a damp earthy smell1 like an old cellar1 or stretching from tree to tree in long festoons1 waving with every breath of wind1 and creating a perpetual melancholy sound40 99 99 99 99 99 ,in regions furthest north are found various species of lichens belonging to the genera ,gyrophora and ,umbilicuria1 and known in the records of ,arctic travel as rock tripe1 or tripe de roche2 a name given to them in consequence of their blistered thallus1 which bears a faint resemblance to the animal substance so called4 ,they afford a coarse kind of food1 and proved of the greatest service to the expeditions under ,sir ,john ,franklin2 though their nutritious properties are not considerable1 and1 such as they are1 are unfortunately impaired by the presence of a bitter principle which is apt to induce diarrha4 ,in ,franklin and ,richardson's terrible overland journey from the ,coppermine ,river to ,fort ,enterprise it was almost the sole support1 at one time1 of the heroic little company4 ,dr4 ,richardson says they gathered four species of ,gyrophora1#i and used them all as articles of food2 8but not having the means of extracting the bitter principle from them1 they proved nauseous to all1 and noxious to several of the party1 producing severe bowel complaints40 ,franklin on one occasion remarks3 8,this was the sixth day since we had enjoyed a good meal2 the tripe de roche1 even when we got enough1 only serving to allay the pangs of hunger for a short time40 ,again1 we read3 8,the want of tripe de roche caused us to go supperless to bed40 ,dr4 ,hayes1 in the course of his 8,arctic ,boat ,journey10 was compelled to have recourse to the same unsatisfactory fare4 ,the rock-lichen1 or stone-moss1 as he calls it1 he describes as about an inch in diameter at its maximum growth1 and of the thickness of a wafer4 ,it is black externally1 but when broken the interior appears white4 ,when boiled it makes a glutinous fluid1 which is slightly nutritious4 8,although in some places it grows very abundantly10 writes ,dr4 ,hayes1 8yet in one locality it1 like the game1 was scarce4 ,most of the rocks had none upon them2 and there were very few from which we could collect as much as a quart4 ,the difficulty of gathering it was much augmented by its crispness1 and the firmness of its attachment4 8,for this plant1 poor though it was1 we were compelled to dig4 ,the rocks in every case were to be cleared from snow1 and often our pains went unrewarded4 ,the first time this food was tried it seemed to answer well1--it at least filled the stomach1 and thus kept off the horrid sensation of hunger until we got to sleep2 but it was found to produce afterwards a painful diarrha4 ,besides this unpleasant effect1 fragments of gravel1 which were mixed with the moss1 tried our teeth4 ,we picked the plants from the rock with our knives1 or a piece of hoop-iron2 and we could not avoid breaking off some particles of the stone40 ,these lichens are black and leather-like1 studded with small black points like 8coiled wire buttons10 and attached either by an umbilical root or by short and tenacious fibres to the rocks4 ,some of them may be compared to a piece of shagreen1 while others resemble a fragment of burned skin4 ,they are met with in cold bleak localities1 on ,alpine heights of granite or micaceous schist1 in almost all parts of the world1--on the ,scottish mountains1 on the ,andes1 on the ,himalayas2 but it is in the ,polar ,world that they most abound1 spreading over the surface of every rock a sombre ,plutonian vegetation1 that seems to have been scathed by fire and flame1 until all its beauty and richness were shrivelled up4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some of the lichens in the less remote latitudes--as1 for instance1 in ,sweden--are far superior in usefulness to any of those we have hitherto described4 ,the ,swedish peasant finds in them his pharmacy1 his dyeing materials1 his food4 ,with the various lichens that grow upon the trees and rocks1 says ,frederika ,bremer1 he cures the virulent diseases which sometimes afflict him1 dyes the articles of clothing which he wears1 and poisons the noxious and dangerous animals which annoy him4 ,the juniper and cranberry give him their berries1 which he brews into drink2 he makes a conserve of them1 and mixes their juices with his dry salt-meat1 and is healthful and cheerful with these and with his labour1 of which he makes a pleasure4 ,the only lichen which has retained its place in modern pharmacy is the well-known 8,iceland moss40 ,it is still employed as a tonic and febrifuge in ague2 but more largely1 when added to soups and chocolate1 as an article of diet for the feeble and consumptive4 ,in ,iceland the ,cetraria ,islandica is highly valued by the inhabitants4 ,what barley1 rye1 and oats are to the ,indo-,caucasian races of ,asia and ,western ,europe2 the olive1 the fig1 and the grape to the inhabitants of the ,mediterranean basin2 rice to the ,hindu2 the tea-plant to the native of the ,flowery ,land2 and the date palm to the ,arab1--is ,iceland moss to the ,icelander1 the ,lapp1 and the ,eskimo4 ,it is found on some of the loftiest peaks of the ,scottish ,highlands2 but in ,iceland it overspreads the whole country1 flourishing more abundantly and attaining to a larger growth on the volcanic soil of the western coast than elsewhere4 ,it is collected triennially1 for it requires three years to reach maturity1 after the spots where it thrives have been cleared4 ,we are told that the meal obtained from it1 when mixed with wheat-flour1 produces a greater quantity1 though perhaps a less nutritious quality1 of bread than can be manufactured from wheat-flour alone4 ,the great objection to it is its bitterness1 arising from its peculiar astringent principle1 cetraria4 ,however1 the ,lapps and ,icelanders remove this disagreeable pungency by a simple process4 ,they chop the lichen to pieces1 and macerate it for several days in water mixed with salt of tartar or quicklime1 which it absorbs very readily2 next they dry it1 and pulverize it2 then1 mixed with the flour of the common knot-grass1 it is made into a cake1 or boiled1 and eaten with reindeer's milk4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mosses are abundant in the ,arctic ,regions1 increasing in number and beauty as we approach the ,pole1 and covering the desert land with a thin veil of verdure1 which refreshes the eye and gladdens the heard of the traveller4 ,on the hills of ,lapland and ,greenland1 they are extensively distributed2 and the landscape owes most of its interest to the charming contrasts they afford4 ,of all the genera1 perhaps the bog-mosses1 ,sphagna1 are the most luxuriant2 but at the same time they are the least attractive1 and the plains which they cover are even drearier than the naked rock4 ,in ,melville ,island these mosses form upwards of a fourth part of the whole flora4 ,much finer to the sight is the common hair-moss 7,polytrichum commune71 which extends over the levels of ,lapland1 and is used by the ,lapps1 when they are bound on long journeys1 for a temporary couch4 ,we may mention also the fork-moss 7,dieranum71 which the ,eskimos twist into wicks for their rude lamps4 ,we have not space to dwell upon the grasses and fungi1 though these are numerous1 and some of them interesting4 ,the cochlearia1 or scurvy-grass1 has often proved of great utility to ,arctic explorers2 and ,dr4 ,kane on more than one occasion availed himself of its medicinal properties4 ,fungi extend almost to the very limits of ,arctic vegetation4 ,the ,greenlanders and ,lapps make use of them for tinder1 or as styptics for stopping the flow of blood1 and allaying pain4 ,in ,siberia they abound4 ,frequently1 in the high latitudes1 they take the form of 8snow mould10 and are found growing on the barren and ungenial snow4 ,these species are warmed into life only when the sun has grown sufficient to melt the superficial snow-crust1 without producing a general thaw1 and then they spread far and wide in glittering wool-like patches1 dotted with specks of red or green4 ,when the snow melts1 they overspread the grass beneath like a film of cobweb1 and in a day or two disappear4 ,in ,siberia grows the fly-agaric 7,agaricus muscarius71 from which the inhabitants obtain an intoxicating liquor of peculiarly dangerous character4 ,it has a tall white stem1 surmounted by a dome of rich orange scarlet1 studded with white scaly tubercles1 and in some parts of ,kamtschatka and the northern districts of ,siberia is so abundant that the ground sparkles and shines as if covered with a scarlet carpet4 ,the natives collect it during the hot summer months1 and dry it4 ,steeped in the juice of the whortleberry1 it forms a powerful intoxicating wine2 or rolled up like a bolus1 and swallowed without chewing1 it produces much the same effect as opium4 ,on some1 however1 it acts as an excitant1 and induces active muscular exertion4 ,a talkative person1 under its influence1 cannot keep silence or secrets2 one fond of music1 sings incessantly2 and if a person who has partaken of it wishes to step over a straw or small stick1 he takes a stride or jump sufficient to clear the trunk of a tree6 ,the ,koriaks and ,kamtschatkans personify this fungus1 under the name of ,mocho ,moro1 as one of their penates1 or household gods2 and if they are impelled by its effects to commit any dreadful crime1 they pretend they act only in obedience to commands which may not be disputed4 ,to qualify themselves for murder or suicide1 they drink additional doses of 8this intoxicating product of decay and corruption40 ,during ,captain ,penny's voyage in search of ,sir ,john ,franklin1 he picked up two pieces of floating drift-wood1 far beyond the usual limit of ,eskimo occupation1 which1 from their peculiar appearance1 excited a lively curiosity4 ,the one was found in ,robert ,bay1 off ,hamilton ,island1 lat4 #gf #b' north1 and long4 #gf west1--that is1 in the route which ,franklin's ships1 it is supposed1 had followed1--and was plainly a fragment of wrought elm plank1 which had been part of a ship's timbers4 ,it exhibited three kinds of surface1--one that had been planed and pitched1 one roughly sawn1 and the third split with an axe4 ,the second piece of drift-wood was picked up on the north side of ,cornwallis ,island1 in lat4 #ge #cf' north1 and long4 #if west4 ,it was a branch of white spruce1 much bleached in some places1 and in others charred and blackened as if it had been used for fuel4 ,on both fragments traces of microscopic vegetation were discovered2 and as it was thought they might1 if carefully examined1 afford some clue to the fate of ,franklin's expedition1 they were submitted to ,mr4 ,berkeley1 a well-known naturalist4 ,in the report which he addressed to the ,admiralty1 he stated that the vegetation in both cases resembled the dark olive mottled patches with which wooden structures in this country1 if exposed to atmospheric influences1 are speedily covered4 ,the bleached cells and fibres of the fragment of elm were filled up with slender fungoid forms1 myceli2 while on its different surfaces appeared several dark-coloured specks1 belonging to the genus ,phoma4 ,as it was not probable that plants so minute could have retained1 through the terrible severity of an ,arctic winter1 their delicate naked spores in the perfect condition in which they were found1 ,mr4 ,berkeley concluded that they must have been developed through that same summer2 while from three to four years1 in those high latitudes and amid the rigour of stormy ice-covered seas1 would suffice to produce the bleached appearance of the wood4 ,hence he inferred that the plank had not been long exposed4 ,on the other fragment of drift-wood he discovered some deeply-embedded minute black fungoid forms1 called ,sporidesmium lepraria4 ,unlike the phomas1 which are very ephemeral1 these plants possess the longevity of the lichens1 and the same patches last for years unchanged on the same pieces of wood1 while their traces are discernible for a still longer period4 ,from their condition1 ,mr4 ,berkeley inferred that the fungi on the drifted wood had not been recently developed1 but that1 on the contrary1 they were the remains of the species which existed on the drift-wood when used for fuel by the unfortunate crews of ,franklin's ships1 the ,erebus and the ,terror4 ,there can be no doubt whatever1 as ,dr4 ,macmillan remarks1 considering the circumstances in which they were discovered1 and the remarkable appearances they presented--there can be no reasonable doubt that both fragments of drift-wood belonged to1 or were connected with1 the lost ships2 and the curious information regarding the course they pursued at a certain time1 furnished by witnesses so extraordinary and unlikely as a few tiny dark specks of cryptogamic vegetation on floating drift-wood1 was confirmed1 in a wonderful manner1 by the after-discovery of the first authentic account ever obtained of the sad and pathetic history of ,franklin's expedition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the reader will not expect to find the tundras of ,northern ,asia or the shores of the ,polar ,sea rich in bud and bloom1 yet even these dreary wastes are not absolutely without floral decoration4 ,selinum and cerathium1 as well as the poppy and sorrel1 andromeda1 and several species of heath1 are mentioned by ,dr4 ,kane as blooming in the neighbourhood of ,smith ,strait4 ,on the south coast of the ,polar ,sea ,dr4 ,richardson found a considerable variety of vegetation4 ,we noticed1 he says1 about one hundred and seventy phnogamous or flowering plants2 being one-fifth of the number of species which exist fifteen degrees of latitude further to the southward4 ,he adds3--,the grasses1 bents1 and rushes constitute only one-fifth of the number of species on the coast1 but the two former tribes actually cover more ground than all the rest of the vegetation4 ,the crucifer1 or cross-like tribe1 afford one-seventh of the species1 and the compound flowers are nearly as numerous4 ,the shrubby plants that reach the sea-coast are the common juniper1 two species of willow1 the dwarf-birch1 the common alder1 the hippopha1 a gooseberry1 the red bear berry 7arbutus uva ursi71 the ,labrador tea-plant1 the ,lapland rose1 the bog-whortleberry1 and the crowberry4 ,the kidney-leaved oxyria grows in great abundance there1 and occasionally furnished us with an agreeable addition to our meals1 as it resembles the garden-sorrel in flavour1 but is more juicy and tender4 ,it is eaten by the natives1 and must1 as well as many of the cress-like plants1 prove an excellent corrective of the gross1 oily1 rancid1 and frequently putrid meat on which they subsist4 ,the small balls of the ,alpine bistort1 and the long1 succulent1 and sweet roots of many of the astragale1 which grow on the sandy shores1 are eatable2 but it does not seem that the ,eskimos are acquainted with their use4 ,a few clumps of white spruce-fir1 with some straggling black spruces and canoe-birches1 grow at the distance of twenty or thirty miles from the sea1 in sheltered situations on the banks of rivers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been pointed out that the principal characteristic of the vegetation of the ,arctic ,regions is the predominance of perennial and cryptogamous plants2 but further southward1 where night begins to alternate with day1 or in what may be called the sub-arctic zone1 a difference of species appears which greatly enhances the beauty of the landscape4 ,a rich and vividly-coloured flora adorns these latitudes in ,europe as well as in ,asia during their brief but ardent summer1 with its intense radiance and intense warmth1--consisting of potentillas1 gentians1 starry chick-weeds1 spreading saxifrages and sedums1 spiras1 drabas1 artemisias1 and the like4 ,the power of the sun is so great1 and the consequent rapidity of growth so extraordinary1 that these plants spring up1 and blossom1 and germinate1 and perish in six weeks4 ,in a lower latitude many ligneous plants are found1--as berry-bearing shrubs1 the glaucous kalmia1 the trailing azalea1 the full-blossomed rhododendron4 ,the ,siberian flora differs from the ,european in the same latitudes by the inclusion of the ,north ,american genera1 phlox1 mitella1 and claytonia1 and by the luxuriance of its asters1 spiras1 milk-vetches1 and the saline plants goosefoot and saltwort4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,novaia ,zemlaia and other northern regions the vegetation is so stunted that it barely covers the ground1 but a much greater variety of minute plants of considerable beauty are aggregated there in a limited space than in the ,alpine climes of ,europe where the same genera occur4 ,this is due to the feebleness of the vegetation2 for in the ,swiss ,alps the same plant frequently usurps a large area1 and drives out every other1--as the dark blue gentian1 the violet-tinted pansy1 and the yellow and pink stone-crops4 ,but in the far north1 where vitality is weak and the seeds do not ripen1 thirty different species1 it has been observed1 may be seen 8crowded together in a brilliant mass10 no one being powerful enough to overcome its companions4 ,in these frozen climates plants may be said to live between the air and the earth1 for they scarcely raise their heads above the soil1 and their roots1 unable to penetrate it1 creep along the surface4 ,all the woody plants--as the betula nava1 the reticulated willow1 andromeda tetragona1 with a few bacciferous shrubs--trail upon the ground1 and never rise more than an inch or two above it4 ,the ,salix lanata1 the giant of the ,arctic forests1 is about five inches in height2 while its stem1 ten or twelve feet long1 lies hidden among the moss1 and owes shelter1 almost life1 to its humble neighbour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from ,novaia ,zemlaia we pass to ,spitzbergen1 whose flora contains about ninety-three species of flowering or phnogamous plants1 which1 like those already mentioned1 generally grow in tufts or patches1 as if for the sake of mutual protection4 ,the delicate mosses which clothe the moist lowlands1 and the hardy lichens which incrust the rocks up to the remotest limits of vegetation1 are very numerous4 ,some of the ,spitzbergen plants are found on the ,alps1 at elevations varying from #ijjj to #aj1jjj feet above the sea-level2 such as the ,arenaria biflora1 the ,cerastium alpinum1 and the ,ranunculus glacialis4 ,the only esculent plant is the ,cochlearia fenestrata1 which here loses its bitter principles1 so much complained of by our ,arctic explorers1 and may be eaten as a salad4 ,iceland moss and several grasses afford sustenance for the reindeer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a very different description is given of ,kamtschatka1 to which we are once more brought in the course of our rapid survey4 ,its climate is much more temperate and uniform than that of ,siberia1 and as the air is humid1 the herbaceous vegetation is extraordinarily luxuriant4 ,not only along the banks of the rivers and lakes1 but in the avenues and copses of the woodlands1 the grass attains a height of fully twelve feet1 while the size of some of the composit and umbellifer is really colossal4 ,for example1 the ,heraclium dulce and the ,senecio cannabifolius frequently grow so tall as to overtop a rider upon horseback4 ,the pasturage is so rich that the grass generally yields three crops every summer4 ,a species of lily1 the dark purple ,fritallaria sarrana1 is very abundant1 and the inhabitants use its tubers instead of bread and meal4 ,if the fruits of the bread-fruit tree are pre-eminent among all others1 as affording man a perfect substitute for bread1 the roots of the sarrana1 which are very similar in taste1 rank perhaps immediately after them4 ,the collection of these tubers in the meadows is an important summer occupation of the women1 and one which is rather troublesome1 as the plant never grows gregariously1 so that each root has to be dug out separately with a knife4 ,fortunately the work of gathering the tubers is much lightened by the activity of the ,siberian field-vole1 which excavates an ample burrow1 and stores it for winter provision with a large supply of roots1 chiefly those of the sarrana4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to sum up3-- ,what may be called the ,arctic climate extends over nearly the whole of ,danish ,america1 the newly-acquired possessions of the ,united ,states1 the original ,hudson ,bay ,territory1 and ,labrador1 down to that unimportant watershed which separates from the tributaries of ,hudson ,bay the three great basins of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the five great lakes1 and the ,mississippi4 ,this line of watershed undulates between the #ebnd and #dith parallels of latitude1 from ,belle ,isle ,strait to the sources of the ,saskatchewan1 in the ,rocky ,mountains1 where it inflects towards the ,pacific ,ocean1 skirting on the north the basin of the ,columbia4 ,thus bounded on the south1 the ,arctic lands of ,america1 including the groups of islands lying to the north and north-east1 cannot occupy less than #efj1jjj square leagues4 ,they exceed1 therefore1 the superficial area of the ,european lands1 estimated at about #dij1jjj square leagues4 ,we propose to divide these lands into two zones or regions1 the wooded and the desert zones3 the former1 in ,america1 includes the basins of the ,upper ,mackenzie1 the ,churchill1 the ,nelson1 and the ,severn4 ,in the wooded zone the thermometer does not rise above zero until the month of ,may4 ,then1 under the influence of a more genial temperature1 the breath of life passes into the slumbering1 inert vegetation4 ,then the reddish shoots of the willows1 the poplars1 and the birches hang out their long cottony catkins2 a pleasant greenness spreads over copse and thicket2 the dandelion1 the burdock1 and the saxifrages lift their heads in the shelter of the rocks2 the sweet-brier fills the air with fragrance1 and the gooseberry and the strawberry are put forth by a kindly nature2 while the valleys bloom and the hill-sides are glad with the beauty of the thuja1 the larch1 and the pine4 ,the boundary between the wooded zone and the barren would be shown by a line drawn from the mouth of the ,churchill in ,hudson ,bay to ,mount ,st4 ,elias on the ,pacific coast1 traversing the southern shores of the ,bear and the ,slave ,lakes4 ,to the north1 this barren zone touches on eternal snow1 and includes the ice-bound coasts of the ,parry ,archipelago2 to the east and the north-east1 identity of climate and uniform character of soil bring within it the greatest part of ,labrador and all ,greenland4 ,in ,asia the isothermal line of ,o descends towards the #eeth parallel of latitude1 one lower than in ,america1--though to the north of it some important towns are situated1 as ,tobolsk1 lat4 #eh #aa'2 ,irkutsk1 lat1 #eh #af'2 and ,yakutsk1 lat4 #fb4 ,in ,continental ,europe1 the only ,arctic lands properly so called1 and distinguished by an ,arctic flora1 are ,russian ,lapland and the deeply-indented coast of ,northern ,russia4 ,far away to the north1 and separated from the continent by a narrow arm of the sea1 lie the three almost contiguous islands known as ,novaia ,zemlaia 7lat4 #fh #ej' to #gf ,n474 ,and still further north1 almost equidistant from the ,old ,world and the ,new1 lies the gloomy mountainous archipelago of ,spitzbergen 7lat4 #gg to #ha1 and long4 #aj to #bd74 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have now only to recapitulate the general characters of the ,arctic flora1 as they would present themselves to a traveller advancing from the wooded zone into the desert1 and thence to the borders of the ,polar ,sea4 ,on the southern margin of the wooded region1 as in ,sweden1 ,russia1 and ,siberia1 extend immense forests1 chiefly of coniferous trees4 ,as we move towards the north these forests dwindle into scattered woods and isolated coppices1 composed chiefly of stunted poplars and dwarf birches and willows4 ,the sub-alpine myrtle1 and a small creeping honeysuckle with rounded leaves1 are met with in favourable situations4 ,continuing our northerly progress1 we wholly leave behind the arborescent species2 but the rocks and cliffs are bright with plants belonging to the families of the ranunculace1 saxifragace1 crucifer1 and gramine4 ,to the dwarf firs and pigmy willows succeed a few scattered shrubs--such as the gooseberry1 the strawberry1 the raspberry1 pseudo-mulberry 7,rubus chammorus7--indigenous to this region1 and the ,lapland oleander 7,rhododendron laponicum74 ,still advancing northward1 we find1 at the extreme limits of the mainland1 some drabas 7,crucifer71 potentillas 7,rosace71 burweeds and rushes 7,cyperace71 and lastly a great abundance of mosses and lichens4 ,the commonest mosses are the ,splechnum1 which resembles small umbels2 and1 in moist places1 the ,sphagnum1 or bog-moss1 whose successive accumulations1 from a remote epoch1 have formed1 with the detritus of the ,cyperace1 extensive areas of peat1 which at a future day will perhaps be utilized for fuel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we come now to examine the forms of ,animal ,life which exist under the conditions of climate and vegetation we have been describing4 ,foremost we must place the animal which1 in the ,arctic ,world1 occupies much the same position as the camel in the ,tropical1--the reindeer 7,cervus turandus74 ,in size the reindeer resembles the ,english stag1 but his form is less graceful and more compressed4 ,he stands about four feet six inches in height4 ,long1 slender1 branching horns embellish his head4 ,the upper part of his body is of a brown colour1 the under part is white2 but as the animal advances in years his entire coat changes to a grayish-white1 and1 in not a few cases1 is pure white4 ,the nether part of the neck1 or dewlap1 droops like a pendent beard4 ,the hoofs are large1 long1 and black2 and so are the secondary hoofs on the hind feet4 ,the latter1 when the animal is running1 make by their collision a curious clattering sound1 which may be heard at a considerable distance4 ,the reindeer anciently invaded ,europe and ,asia to a comparatively low latitude2 and ,julius ,csar includes it among the animals of the great ,hercynian forest4 ,even in our own time large herds traverse the wooded heights of the southern prolongation of the ,ouralian range4 ,between the ,volga and the ,don they descend to the #dfth parallel2 and they extend their wanderings as far as the very foot of the ,caucasus1 on the banks of the ,kouma4 ,still1 the proper habitat of the reindeer is that region of ice and snow bounded by the ,arctic ,circle1--or1 more exactly1 by the isothermal line of #j ,c4 ,both the wild and the tame species change their feeding-grounds with the seasons4 ,in winter they come down into the plains and valleys2 in summer they retire to the mountains1 where the wild herds gain the most elevated terraces1 in order to escape the pertinacious attacks of their insect-enemies4 ,it is a fact worthy of note that every species of animal is infested by a parasitical insect4 ,the stre so terrifies the reindeer that the mere appearance of one in the air will infuriate a troop of a thousand animals4 ,in the moulting season these insects deposit their eggs in the skin of the unfortunate animal1 and there the larv lodge and multiply ad infinitum1 incessantly renewing centres of suppuration4 ,to the natives of ,north ,america the reindeer is invaluable4 ,there is hardly a part of the animal not made available for some useful purpose4 ,clothing made of its skin is1 according to ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1 so impervious to cold1 that1 with the addition of a coverlet made of the same material1 any one so protected may bivouac on the snow with safety in the most intense cold of the ,arctic night4 ,the venison1 when in high condition1 has several inches of fat on the haunches1 and is said to equal that of the fallow-deer in our ,english parks2 the tongue1 and a portion of the tripe1 are reckoned most delicious morsels4 ,pemmican is made by pouring one-third part of fat over two-third parts of the pounded meat1 and mixing fat and meat thoroughly together4 ,the ,eskimos and ,greenlanders consider the stomach1 or paunch1 with its contents1 a special delicacy2 and ,captain ,sir ,james ,ross says that the contents form the only vegetable food ever tasted by the natives of ,boothia4 ,for the reindeer is a herbivorous animal1 and feeds upon the mosses and grasses4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,reindeer4 ,the reindeer is by no means a graceful animal2 its joints are large1 and powerful in proportion to its size2 the divided hoofs are very large1 and as the animal is compelled to lift its feet high when going over the snow1 its gallop has none of that beautiful elastic spring which characterizes the deer of our own islands1 though its pace is 8telling10 and soon carries it ahead of everything but the long-winded1 long-legged wolf4 ,the stags cast their antlers1 and the does drop their young1 in ,may or ,june1 about the time of the first thaw4 ,the males and females are then very seldom found together2 the female deer collecting in small herds with their young2 the little creatures1 which seem all eyes1 ears1 and legs1 taking alarm at any unaccustomed sound or the slightest appearance of danger4 ,the summer vegetation fattens the bucks and does amazingly1 and the fawns thrive and develop2 all three1 says ,osborn1 having a comparative holiday1 and getting into condition to face the trials of the coming winter2 while the wolf and the fox1 their sworn enemies1 are pursuing the infant seals and bears1 or attending to their own little domestic duties4 ,but when the autumn frost sets in1 and hardens the ground1 and the dense snow once more overspreads the dreary northern landscape1 the wolves resume their attacks on the unfortunate deer4 ,for warmth or protection1 and following the natural instincts of gregarious animals1 they now begin to collect together in large herds of bucks1 does1 and fawns1 numbering as many as sixty and seventy head4 ,the stags seem to undertake the discipline of these large companies1 as well as to be responsible for their safety4 ,captain ,mecham relates that1 in ,october #aheb1 when crossing that part of ,melville ,island which intervenes between ,liddon ,gulf and ,winter ,harbour1 he fell in with as many as three hundred head of deer2 and he adds that reindeer were always in sight1 in herds varying from ten to sixty in number4 ,one of these herds1 containing twenty males1 he tried to stalk up to on the #gth of ,october1 but failed in getting a shot at them2 for although the does1 with the inherent weakness of their sex1 showed an excessive curiosity1 and made one or two efforts to desert the herd and examine the stranger1 the stags would in nowise tolerate such conduct1 but chastised them smartly with their antlers1 and kept the herd together and in motion by running rapidly round and round1 uttering at the same time a strange noise which seemed to alarm the herd1 and keep it flying from the suspected danger4 ,the coat of the reindeer in summer-time is remarkably thin1 and adapted admirably in colour to that of the snow-denuded soil2 but as winter approaches1 it thickens1 and gradually resumes its snowy whiteness4 ,though not1 strictly speaking1 a fur1 it forms an admirable non-conducting substance4 ,as winter1 8ruler of the inverted year10 extends his sway over the ,polar ,world1 and food grows scarce and indifferent1 and has to be sought over larger areas1 the herds break up into companies of ten or twenty animals2 the lichens1 the reindeer moss already described 7,cetraria ,islandica71 and the sprouts of the creeping willow forming their principal food4 ,on this branch of our subject ,admiral ,sherard ,osborn makes two suggestive remarks4 ,arctic vegetation1 he observes1 has no time in the autumn to wither or decay--while in full bloom1 and before the juices have time to return into the parent root or be otherwise dissipated1 the 8magic hand of the frost king0 strikes them2 and thus the wisdom of the ,creator has provided for the nourishment of his creatures a fresh and warmth-creating food1 lying hid under a mantle of snow1 which the instinct of those ,arctic animals teaches them to remove and reach the stores so beneficently preserved beneath4 ,moreover1 most herbivorous animals have a slow system of digestion1 even in a domestic state2 as1 for instance1 our cattle and sheep4 ,this appears to be more conspicuously the case in the musk-ox1 the reindeer1 and the ,arctic hare1 and is of great utility in lands where vegetation is scanty and wide-spread1 and the weather occasionally so severe as to compel these creatures1 for two or three days at a time1 to think only of their safety by seeking shelter from the snow-storms in deep ravines or under lofty cliffs4 ,it appears in their case as if ,nature extracted from their food a greater quantity of nourishment than she does from that of animals in more southern latitudes2 or possibly1 the food1 by the mere act of remaining in the stomach or intestines1 serves to check the cravings of appetite1 though no further nutriment should be extracted4 ,most of the musk-oxen and deer shot in ,captain ,m',clintock's expedition1 and especially the musk-oxen1 had their entrails distended with food apparently quite digested1 while the surrounding country in many cases was absolutely barren and lifeless1--inducing the conclusion that these creatures had been a long time collecting their supplies1 as also that it had been a long time swallowed1 and necessitated the full activity of the vital principle to prevent the food from proving a source of disease4 ,this1 indeed1 was clearly proved in the case of the musk-oxen1 which1 if shot1 and left twelve hours without being disembowelled1 grew tainted throughout with a strong musky odour1 rendering the flesh uneatable4 ,it may also be stated1 as an illustration of the facility with which the reindeer can winter in high latitudes1 that in ,lapland1 where they are used as beasts of draught1 a daily supply of four pounds of lichen 7,cenomyce rangiferina7 is considered ample for a working animal2 and on this dietary a reindeer will be in sufficiently good condition to go without food occasionally for two or three days1 and yet1 to all appearance1 not to be distressed4 ,thus1 as regards its stores of food1 and its provision against the severity of the ,arctic winter1 the reindeer would seem to be suitably and amply endowed2 and its greatest trial is the incessant rapacity of the wolves that follow its track throughout the winter season4 ,as that season advances1 the unfortunate animal apparently resigns itself to an evil which it cannot avoid or avert2 and the calm composure with which a small troop of these creatures will graze with an entourage of half a dozen wolves is not less curious to the observer than philosophical on the part of the reindeer6 8,a herd of deer10 says an eye-witness1 8thus surrounded by the wolves1 who were too great cowards to rush in upon their prey1 would be startled every now and then by the long-drawn unearthly howl of the hungry brutes2 sometimes a frightened deer1 horror-stricken at the abominable chant1 dashes madly away from the herd1--away all1 or a portion1 of the wolfish fraternity go after it4 ,in many cases the scene may be briefly summed up with the old three-volume denouement of--a rush1 a shriek1 a crunching of bones1 and snarling of beasts of prey1 and all is over6 for the wonderful powers of swallow and horrid voracity of an ,arctic wolf must be seen to be understood2 no writer would peril his reputation for veracity by repeating what has been seen on that head4 ,but sometimes the frightened deer gains the open country1 and goes wonderful distances dogged by the persevering wolf1 who assuredly has it1 unless another herd is met which admits the hunted deer into its ranks4 8,occasionally1 whilst a herd of deer are grazing1 one of them may happen to hit upon a spot where the food is plentiful2 it naturally lingers there1 while the herd is moving slowly on against the wind4 ,the wolves immediately mark the straggler1 and stealthily crawl on1 their object being to cut him off from the herd2 that effected1 there is a howl and a rush1 which if the deer does not evade by extraordinary exertions1 his fate is instantly sealed40 ,these scenes are enacted throughout the long ,arctic winter4 ,when sight is rendered useless1 scent comes to the aid of the rapacious destroyer2 and we can well believe that many an explorer1 in the ,december darkness of the frozen wastes1 has often wished his olfactory nerves were as sensitively organized as those of the wolf4 ,for although he can then hear the reindeer1 it is impossible to see them1 except when they hurry across the dark but snowy landscape2 and many a bad shot has been made by a hungry seaman at a large pair of melancholy eyes which peered out of the enveloping mist1 because he could not tell1 for the life of him1 whether the animal was distant two or twenty yards4 ,in the dreadful winter of #aheb-ec1 the deer approached close to the exploring-ship ,investigator1 having quitted the land and traversed the belt of ice4 ,it is difficult to say whether this was done with a view of seeking the warmth which instinct1 if not scent1 told them radiated from the vessels1--the vessels1 compared with the temperature everywhere prevailing 7namely1 #ie below freezing-point71 being complete volcanoes of heat2 or whether it was for security against their wolfish enemies4 ,probably1 it was for the first-named reason2 inasmuch as it is recorded that the foxes of ,leopold ,harbour1 in #ahdh1 soon became aware of the warmer atmosphere produced by the presence of ,sir ,james ,ross's squadron1 and sagaciously burrowed and bred in the embankments thrown up around the ships4 ,but1 at length1 winter and its sorrows pass away1 and early in the new year a happier life dawns on the much-tried reindeer4 ,in ,february and ,march the seals begin to breed1 and as the attention of the wolves and other beasts of prey is then drawn to the helpless young1 which are truly 8delicious morsels10 the holidays of the reindeer may be said to commence4 ,we may remind the reader also that the ,arctic hare and the lemming winter in the icy north1 and yield occasional meals to wolf and fox4 ,the spring returns1 and as the sun rises above the horizon1 the great herds gradually break up and scatter abroad2 and the deer may then be seen in wandering groups of three or four1 until once more the autumn-twilight deepens1 and they reassemble in numerous companies4 ,as the reindeer is the camel of the ,polar ,world1 so the ,arctic wolf may be said to occupy the place of the tiger2 so daring is its courage1 and so fierce its lust of blood4 ,assembling in large packs1 they are not afraid to haunt the immediate neighbourhood of man4 ,in ,captain ,m',clintock's expedition1 they gathered round the ,investigator at such close quarters1 that it was unsafe for the crew to leave the ship1 unless in companies1 and well-armed2 and with their melancholy howls they made night hideous4 ,five of them attempted to pounce on an ,eskimo dog which had long been the pet of the ,investigator4 ,one of these brutes is described as a 8perfect giant10 standing nearly four feet high at the shoulder1 and having a footmark as big as a reindeer's4 ,our ,english seamen planned many a clever scheme to entrap these wary creatures1 but all failed1 while some of the encounters with them were unpleasantly close1 and the risk very considerable4 ,one day1 the boatswain1 while out shooting1 broke by a shot two of the legs of a fine buck reindeer4 ,evening coming on1 and he knowing the animal could not drag itself far1 returned to the ship4 ,next morning1 he started at an early hour to secure his prize4 ,what was his disgust1 when he arrived at the place1 to find his booty in the possession of five large wolves and several foxes6 ,determined to have1 at all events1 a share1 the boatswain advanced1 shouting with all his might1 and hurling at the thieves every opprobrious phrase he could invent1 yet afraid to fire his single-barrelled gun at any one of them1 for fear the rest should serve him as they were serving the buck2 more particularly as they appeared inclined to show fight1 and made no sign of retreat until he was within four yards4 ,even then only four had the grace to move away1 sitting down a pistol-shot off1 and howling most lamentably4 ,the boatswain picked up a leg of the deer1 which had been dismembered1 and then grasped one end of the half-devoured carcass1 while a large she wolf tugged against him at the other4 ,it must be owned that this position was a disagreeable one1 and had the howling of the four wolves brought others of their kind to the rescue1 the consequences of this affray between hungry wolves and a no less hungry sailor might have proved serious4 ,fortunately1 the interpreter1 who chanced likewise to be out shooting on a neighbouring hill1 had his attention attracted by the noise of the brutes1 and made his appearance on the scene4 ,he afterwards described it as the strangest he had ever witnessed4 ,so close were the boatswain and the carnivora in their struggle for the meat1 that he fancied the latter had actually attacked the former4 ,on the arrival of this reinforcement the wolves decamped1 leaving the gallant boatswain with only twenty pounds weight of meat1 instead of the one hundred and twenty his prize must have originally weighed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the identities between the ,arctic dog and the ,arctic wolf are so important that ,dr4 ,kane agrees with ,mr4 ,broderip in assigning to these animals a family origin4 ,the oblique position of the wolf's eye is not uncommon among the ,eskimo dogs4 ,dr4 ,kane had a slut1 one of the tamest and most affectionate of his team1 who had the long legs1 the compact body1 the drooping tail1 and the wild scared expression of the eye1 which some naturalists have supposed to distinguish the wolf alone4 ,when domesticated early--and it is easy to domesticate him--the wolf follows and loves you like a dog4 8,that they are fond of wandering proves nothing2 many of our pack will stray for weeks10 says ,kane1 8into the wilderness of ice2 yet they cannot be persuaded1 when they come back1 to inhabit the kennel we have built for them only a few hundred yards off4 ,they crouch around for the companionship of men40 ,both animals howl in unison alike2 and1 in most parts1 their footprint is the same4 ,the musk-ox 7,ovibos moschatus7 is one of the largest of the ,polar ruminants4 ,as its zoological name indicates1 it is an intermediary between the ox and the sheep4 ,smaller than the former1 larger than the latter1 it reminds us of both in its shape and general appearance4 ,it has an obtuse nose2 horns broad at the base1 covering the forehead and crown of the head1 and curving downwards between the eye and ear until about the level of the mouth1 where they turn upwards2 the tail is short1 and almost hidden by the thickness of the shaggy hair1 which is generally of a dark brown1 and of two kinds1 as with all the animals of the ,polar ,regions2 a long hair1 which on some parts of the body is thick and curled1 and1 underneath1 a fine kind of soft1 ash-coloured wool2 the legs are short and thick1 and furnished with narrow hoofs1 like those of the moose4 ,the female is smaller than the male1 and her horns are smaller4 ,her general colour is black1 except that the legs are whitish1 and along the back runs an elevated ridge or mane of dusky hair4 ,the musk-ox1 as his name implies1 throws out a strong odour of musk1--with which1 indeed1 his very flesh is impregnated1 so that the scent is communicated to the knife used in cutting up the animal4 ,not the less is he regarded as a valuable booty by the ,indians and the ,eskimos1 who hunt him eagerly4 ,he wanders in small troops over the rocky prairies which extend to the north of the great lakes of ,north ,america4 ,he is a fierce-tempered animal1 and in defence of his female will fight desperately4 ,his general habits resemble strongly those of the reindeer2 but his range appears to be principally limited to ,melville ,island1 ,banks ,land1 and the large islands to the south-east of the latter4 ,one of our ,arctic explorers describes the musk-oxen as all very wild in ,april1 and as generally seen in large herds from ten to seventy in number4 ,in ,june they were stupidly tame1 and seemed to be oppressed by their heavy coats of wool1 which were hanging loosely down their shoulders and hind-quarters in large quantities2 the herds much smaller1 and generally composed of cows and calves4 ,the heavy coat of wool with which the musk-oxen are provided1 is a perfect protection against any temperature4 ,it consists of a long fine black hair1 and in some cases white 7for it is not ascertained that these oxen change their colour during the winter71 with a beautiful fine wool or fur underneath1 softer and richer than the finest alpaca wool1 as well as much longer in the staple4 ,this mantle apparently touches the ground2 and the little creature looks1 it is said1 like a bale of black wool1 mounted on four short nervous goat-like legs1 with two very bright eyes1 and a pair of sharp 8wicked-shaped0 horns peering out of one end of it4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,musk-,,ox4 ,they seem to be of very uncertain temper1 sometimes standing stupidly glaring at their assailants1 whetting their horns against their fore legs2 at other times1 they will rush furiously against their hunters4 ,captain ,mecham discovered very great numbers of musk-oxen near the head of ,hardy ,bay1 ,melville ,island4 ,on one plain he observed as many as seventy grazing within a circuit of two miles2 on his approach1 they divided into herds of about fifteen each1 headed by two or three enormous bulls4 ,their manuvres1 he says1 were so quick and regular that they might be more fittingly compared to squadrons of cavalry than anything else he could think of4 ,one herd moved forward at a gallop1 several times within rifle-shot1 and formed in perfect line with bulls in the van1 presenting a formidable array of horns4 ,the last time they advanced at a gallop until within about sixty yards1 when they formed in line1 the bulls snorting wildly1 and tearing up the snow4 ,but as soon as ,captain ,mecham fired they wheeled round promptly1 rejoined the main body1 and made off out of sight1 only waiting occasionally for the wounded animal4 ,the following graphic account of an encounter with a musk-ox is given by ,captain ,m',clintock3-- 8,we saw and shot two very large bulls--a well-timed supply1 as the last of the venison was used up2 we found them to be in better condition than any we had ever seen4 ,i shall never forget the death-struggle of one of these noble bulls2 a ,spanish bull-fight gives no idea of it1 and even the slaughter of the bear is tame in comparison4 ,this animal was shot through the lungs1 and blood gushed from his nostrils upon the snow4 ,as it stood fiercely watching us1 prepared yet unable to charge1 its small but fixed glaring eyes were almost concealed by masses of shaggy hair1 and its whole frame was fearfully convulsed with agony2 the tremulous motion was communicated to its enormous covering of tangled wool and hair2 even the coarse thick mane seemed to rise indignant1 and slowly waved from side to side4 ,it seemed as if the very fury of its passion was pent up within it for one final and revengeful charge4 ,there was no roaring2 the majestic beast was dumb2 but the wild gleam of savage fire which shot from his eyes1 and his menacing attitude1 were far more terrible than the most hideous bellow4 ,we watched in silence1 for time was doing our work1 nor did we venture to lower our guns until1 his strength becoming exhausted1 he reeled and fell4 8,i have never witnessed such an intensity of rage1 nor imagined for one moment that such an apparently stupid brute1 under any circumstances of pain and passion1 could have presented such a truly appalling spectacle4 ,it is almost impossible to conceive a more terrific sight than that which was presented to us in the dying moments of this matchless denizen of the northern wilds40 99 99 99 99 99 ,it seems doubtful whether the wolf1 which is naturally a most cowardly creature1 can act on the offensive against the musk-ox2 and most ,arctic navigators seem of opinion that it attacks only lame or sickly cattle4 ,the activity of these oxen1 and-their goat-like power of climbing1 is very remarkable1 and much at variance with their clumsy appearance4 ,they have been seen making their way1 when frightened1 up the face of a cliff which defied all human efforts1 and going down the precipitous sides of ravines by alternately sliding upon their hams1 or pitching and arresting their downward course1 as ,sherard ,osborn remarks1 by the use of the magnificent shield of horn which spreads across their foreheads1 in a manner to excite the liveliest astonishment of the spectator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,arctic ,fox 7,canis lagopus7 cannot compare with either of the preceding animals in importance or interest1 yet it figures very largely in the journals of our ,arctic explorers4 ,it is smaller than the common ,european fox2 has a sharp nose1 and short rounded ears1 almost concealed in its fur2 the legs are short1 and the toes covered both above and below with a thick soft fur2 the tail is shorter than that of the common fox1 but more bushy4 ,its range is very extensive1 for it is found in the lands bordering on the ,polar ,sea in both continents4 ,as winter approaches1 its coat of hair grows thick and ragged2 until at length it becomes as white as snow--the change of colour taking place last on the ridge of the back and the tip of the tail4 ,its food consists of various small quadrupeds1--such as the ,arctic hare and the lemming1--on all kinds of water-fowl and their eggs1 on the carcasses of fish1 shell-fish1 and the refuse of the young seals killed and devoured by the ,polar bear4 ,in the track of the latter it seems to hunt systematically4 ,it swims with dexterity1 and will cross from island to island in search of prey4 ,its fur is light and warm1 though not very durable1 and for the sake of this fur it is pursued both in ,arctic ,asia1 ,greenland1 and ,hudson ,bay4 ,it is a wary animal1 however1 and not easily caught4 ,illustration3 ,,arctic ,,foxes4 ,dr4 ,hayes affords us an illustration of this statement4 ,as he and a follower1 named ,bonsall1 on one occasion were exploring in ,northumberland ,island1 they discovered a fox scampering away over the plain4 ,bonsall gave chase1 but could not arrive within shooting distance4 ,another was then heard barking overhead at them4 ,dr4 ,hayes seized his gun1 and climbing over some huge boulders which filled the bottom of the gorge1 endeavoured1 by crawling behind a rock1 to overtake or approach the animal2 but it seemed to be aware of his intentions1 and scampering away1 led him a wild chase across the plain4 ,the astute ,reynard first made off1 so that his assailant 8could not cover him upon the cliff20 and when out of danger1 perched upon a stone1 and barked at him in the most tantalizing manner4 ,the doctor approached within long range4 ,immediately1 as he was about to bring his gun to his shoulder1 it dropped behind the stone and fled to another1 where it set up the same rapid chatter1--a shrill 8,huk6 huk6 huk60 sounding like a mixture of anger and defiance4 ,again ,dr4 ,hayes tried to approach it1 but with no better success2 round and round it ran1 until at length1 weary of following it1 ,dr4 ,hayes fired4 ,some of the shot probably touched it1 for it screamed loudly2 but it fled with remarkable rapidity1 and finally baffled its pursuer4 ,as the flesh of the fox is by no means to be despised1 and1 indeed1 ranks as a dainty in the bill of fare of an ,arctic navigator1 a hot pursuit of it is often maintained1 and traps are constructed to ensure its capture4 ,these are usually built on much the same principle as a rabbit-trap4 ,selecting a smooth level rock1 the trappers arrange some flat stones of about six inches thick1 so as to enclose on three sides an area of six inches by two feet and a half4 ,over this enclosure other flat stones are laid2 and between the two used to close up one of the ends a peg is inserted1 so as to project about an inch within the trap4 ,to this peg1 by means of a loop1 is loosely hung a small piece of meat2 and to the same peg1 outside1 is attached another loop made at the end of a cord1 the cord being carried up through the rear of the trap1 and over the top to the front1 where it is fastened round a thin flat flag of slate1 which moves freely up and down1 being guided and held by a couple of large blocks placed one on either side of the entrance4 ,the way in which this machinery works is very simple3-- ,the fox enters under the slide or trap-door1 advances to the rear1 seizes the bait1 and attempts to back out4 ,the bait1 of course1 is pulled from the peg1 and with it the loop supporting the door comes off4 ,as soon as its support is removed down comes the door1 and ,master ,reynard is entrapped4 ,everything now depends on the manner in which the cracks have been closed up2 for if the animal can thrust its little nose between a couple of stones1 it will assuredly effect its escape4 ,nor is it less important that the enclosure should not be sufficiently large to enable the fox to turn round2 for in that case it generally contrives to loosen the door1 and depart in infinite glee4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fox ,,trap4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,arctic fox is described by ,dr4 ,hayes as the prettiest and most provoking of living creatures4 ,one which he unsuccessfully chased for fully three hours was about the size of a domestic cat1 round and plump1 white as the snow1 with a long pointed nose1 and a trailing bushy tail1 which seemed to be its particular pride4 ,it was quite evident that it enjoyed the perplexities of its hunters1 as it leaped from rock to rock1 or circled round and about them1 and showed the utmost indifference to the miseries of their famished condition4 ,it rolled and tossed about among the loose drift1 now springing into the air1 now bounding away1 now stopping short1 and now cocking its head to one side and elevating one foot1 as if listening1 seeming all the time to be intent on exhibiting its 8points0 to its enemies1 for whom it did not care the value of the minutest part of its very pretty tail4 ,weary and exhausted1 ,dr4 ,hayes abandoned the pursuit1 and returned to his camp1 followed by the fox1 though always at a safe distance2 and when they last caught sight of it1 as they looked back from the rocks above the hut1 it was mounted on an elevation1 uttering its shrill sharp cry1 in apparent mockery of their defeat4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of the supposed relations between the bear and the fox1 ,dr4 ,kane remarks that he once thought his observations had confirmed them4 ,it is certain that they are frequently found together2 the bear striding on ahead with his prey1 the fox behind gathering in the crumbs as they fall2 and ,dr4 ,kane often saw the parasite licking at the traces of a wounded seal which his champion had borne off over the snow4 ,the story is that the two hunt in couples4 ,this may well be doubted1 though it is clear that the inferior animal rejoices in his association with the superior1 at least for the profits1 if not the sympathy it brings to him4 8,i once wounded a bear10 says ,dr4 ,kane1 8when ,i was out with ,morton1 and followed him for twelve miles over the ice4 ,a miserable little fox travelled close behind his patron1 and licked up the blood wherever he lay down4 ,the bear at last made the water2 and as we returned from our fruitless chase1 we saw the fox running at full speed along the edge of the thin ice as if to rejoin him40 99 99 99 99 99 ,a welcome addition to the meagre fare of the ,arctic navigator is furnished by the ,arctic ,hare 7,lepus glacialis71 which1 like the reindeer1 collects in herds or troops as winter approaches4 ,as many as two hundred have been seen at a time2 and at one of their favourite haunts--,cape ,dundas1 ,melville ,island--might be seen a complete highway1 three yards broad1 which the tread of their numbers had beaten through the snow4 ,in winter they seek their food and burrow for protection under the snow-crust4 ,captain ,m',clintock states that they are ubiquitous in the ,polar ,regions1 but that1 of course1 they are most numerous where the pasture is most abundant1 as on ,banks ,land and ,melville ,island4 ,the sportsmen of the two discovery ships1 ,resolute and ,intrepid1 shot one hundred and sixty-one hares in a twelvemonth on ,melville ,island2 their average weight1 when fit for the table1 was seven pounds1 and from ten to twelve pounds including skin and offal4 ,in the warm brief summer the hare takes refuge from the pursuit of beasts of prey under large boulders1 or in the steep face of rocky ravines4 ,it is then found in groups of from twelve to twenty4 ,so delicate is their skin1 that though the winter fur is of exceeding beauty and brilliant whiteness1 it cannot be applied to any purpose of utility4 ,they do not hibernate2 and our explorers generally found them amongst the heavy hummocks of the floe-ice1 as if they fled to that rugged ground from the wolves or foxes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the range of the ,alta1 and extending even into ,kamtschatka1 we meet with the ,alpine ,hare 7,lagomys ,alpinus72 a small rodent1 scarcely exceeding a guinea-pig in size1 and measuring in length nine inches only3 it has a long head1 with short1 broad1 and rounded ears4 ,its favourite places of sojourn are among the rocks and cataracts of wild wooded regions1 where it forms burrows beneath the rocks1 or inhabits their fissures4 ,when the sky is bright1 and the sunshine genial1 they seldom leave their holes in the daytime2 but in dull weather they may be seen bounding among the rocks1 and making the echoes resound with their low whistle or bird-like chirp4 ,in the autumn they make ready against winter need by collecting a large assortment of the most nutritious herbs and grasses1 which1 after drying in the sun1 they arrange in heaps of various sizes1 according to the number of animals engaged in the task2 and as these heaps are often several feet in height and breadth1 they may be easily distinguished even through the deep snow1 and frequently prove of great service to the ,siberian sable-hunters1 whose horses would perish but for the supplies thus strangely afforded4 ,hence1 wherever a ,siberian or a ,tartar tribe is found1 the ,alpine hare possesses a distinctive name1--and1 notwithstanding its diminutiveness1 is highly valued4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another rodent which deserves to be remembered in these pages1 is the ,arctic or ,hudson ,bay ,lemming 7,myodus lemmus71 which is found in ,labrador1 and on all the ,american mainland washed by the cold waters of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,it has been described as 8a perfect diamond edition of the guinea-pig40 ,in habits it resembles the hare very closely1 except that it is more gregarious1 and is generally found in large families4 ,in summer it is of an ashy colour1 with a tawny tinge on the back1 a dusky streak along its middle1 and a pale stripe on either side4 ,it has the repute of being exceedingly inoffensive2 and is tamed so easily that1 when caught1 it becomes reconciled to its captivity in a day or two1 and will soon show itself sensible of its master's caresses4 ,in winter it is perfectly white1--white as snow1 from which it can be distinguished only by the keen scent of the fox or the ,eskimo dog4 ,about the end of ,may1 or early in ,june1 it leaves the land and seeks the floating ice2 for what purpose does not seem as yet to be accurately ascertained4 ,is it due to an instinct of migration1 such as the ,norwegian lemming so powerfully exhibits8 ,it may be that the thaws force them from the land1 or that1 as the seamen say1 8,them blessed little lemmings must be arter salt60 ,they have often been found steering off shore from the north coast of ,melville ,island1 leaving comparative plenty in their rear2 and1 so far as could be made out1 on a clear day1 from land of considerable height1 there was nothing in the shape of terra firma in the direction they were taking4 ,when thus exposed upon the open floe1 owls1 gulls1 and foxes pick them up for food4 ,can it be that ,providence occasions1 or has ordained this exodus for the purpose of feeding these creatures1 and of thinning down the numbers of an animal which would otherwise multiply exceedingly1 and devour all the vegetation of a naturally barren region8 ,from an ,arctic journal it would appear that the lemmings are preyed upon by the ,polar bear4 ,we transcribe a graphic passage in further illustration of the habits of that remarkable carnivore3-- 8,seeing some drift-wood lying about10 says a gallant navigator1 8which it was important should be examined1 ,i halted and encamped1 dispersing the men along the beach to bring all in they could find4 ,walking landward to obtain a view from a hill1 ,i was startled to see a she-bear and two cubs some distance inland4 ,watching them carefully1 ,i was not a little interested to see the mother applying her gigantic muscular power to turning over the large blocks of sandstone which strewed the plain1 and under which the unlucky lemmings at this season take shelter4 ,directly the she-bear lifted the stones1 which she did by sitting upon her hams and pulling them towards her with her fore paws1 the cubs rushed in and seized their prey1 tossing them up in the air in their wantonness4 ,after repeating this operation until the young fry must have made a very good meal1 ,i was glad to witness the bear's mode of suckling her young--a sight1 ,i should think1 rarely seen4 ,seated on her haunches1 with the backbone arched1 so as to bring the breasts 7which were situated between the shoulders7 as low as possible1 the youngsters sucked away in a standing attitude4 ,anxious to secure this family-party1 we proceeded to burn all sorts of strong-smelling articles2 and at last she brought her babes down1 though very warily1 and when more than one hundred yards off turned away1 evidently suspicious40 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the sub-,arctic regions are found some of those animals which furnish commerce with the costliest furs4 ,they all belong1 however1 to the family ,mustelid1 represented in temperate climes by the common weasel 7,musteles74 ,the marten of ,north ,america is1 in fact1 the cousin-german of the weasel1 and not less ferocious in its habits4 ,in the forests of fir and birch which it loves to frequent1 it preys upon the small rodents1 the birds1 and1 if its appetite is very keen1 upon the reptiles4 ,it scales trees as nimbly as the cat2 and its flexible body enables it to insinuate itself into the smallest openings1 where a cat could not pass1 and into the burrows and hollows of the trees or rocks in which its victims seek shelter4 ,it is1 however1 a pretty animal1 with vivacious ways1 an astute physiognomy1 and a rich coat of fur4 ,in the wooded zone which borders on the desert region of the ,polar ,world are found both the ,pine ,marten 7,mustela martes7 and ,pennant's ,marten 7,mustela ,canadensis74 ,the fur of the former is of a very superior quality1 and its skin forms a great article of commerce4 ,it burrows in the ground1 and feeds upon mice1 rabbits1 and partridges4 ,the ,canadian marten is larger than the preceding2 longer and stronger4 ,it lives in the woods1 preferring damp places to dry2 and climbs with a remarkable amount of ease and dexterity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,sable 7,mustela zibellina7 is much more highly esteemed for its fur than any other of the weasel tribe4 ,it has long whiskers1 rounded ears1 large feet 7the soles of which are covered with fur71 white claws1 and a long bushy tail4 ,the general colour of the fur is brown1 more or less brilliant1 but the lower parts of the throat and neck are grayish4 ,a vivacious and nimble animal is the sable1 which dwells in the remotest recesses of the forests1 beneath the roots of trees1 and in holes of the earth1 and penetrates to the very borders of the realm of perpetual snow4 ,prodigious numbers are killed in ,siberia1 during the months of ,november1 ,december1 and ,january4 ,the hunters assemble in large companies1 and make their way down the great rivers in boats1 carrying sufficient supplies of provisions for a three months' absence4 ,on reaching the appointed place of rendezvous1 the different companies1 each under the direction of a leader1 fix upon their respective quarters1 erect huts of trees1 and build up the snow around them4 ,in the neighbourhood of these they lay their snares2 and then1 advancing another mile or so1 they set a further quantity2 and thus they proceed1 until they have covered a considerable area of ground2 building huts in each locality1 and returning in due order to each set of snares to collect their prey4 ,these snares are of the simplest construction2 nothing more than small pits or cavities1 loosely covered with rough planks or branches of trees1 and baited with fish or flesh4 ,when the game grows scarce1 the trappers follow the sable to their retreats by tracking their footprints over the fresh-fallen snow2 place nets at their entrances2 and quietly wait1 if it be for two or three days1 until the animals make their appearance4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ermine ,,and ,,sable ,,marten4 ,the fur of the sable is distinguished from all other furs by this singular property3 the hair has no particular inclination1 but may be laid down indifferently in any direction whatever4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the genus ,polecat 7,mustela putarius7 comprehends the smallest of all known carnivores1--namely1 the weasel1 the ferret1 and the ermine4 ,the temperate countries of ,europe possess a variety of the latter species2 but the ermines of the remote ,north yield the fullest and softest fur4 ,these animals1 like many others in high latitudes1 change the colour of their coat according to the season4 ,they have been adopted by poets1 on account of the spotless whiteness of their fur1 as emblematic of purity2 but1 in truth1 they merit that honour only in the winter3 in the summer their colour is a clear maroon4 ,the tail1 at all times1 is of a beautiful brilliant black4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,glutton1 ,,or ,,wolverine4 ,another carnivorous quadruped which haunts the northern forests is the ,glutton 7,gulo ,arcticus71 or ,wolverine2 it owes its former and more popular name to its extreme voracity4 ,but it is at least as remarkable for its strength and fierceness1 inasmuch as it does not fear to dispute their prey with the wolf and bear2 and for its cunning1 since it baffles again and again the most carefully devised stratagems of the hunter4 ,it is a slow and somewhat unwieldy animal2 but it is determined and persevering1 and will proceed at a steady pace for miles in search of prey1 stealing unawares upon hares1 marmots1 and birds2 and surprising even the larger quadrupeds1 such as the elk and the reindeer1 when asleep4 ,the stories told of this remarkable animal's shrewdness1 which far exceeds that commonly attributed to the fox1 would seem incredible1 were they not confirmed by good authority4 ,it is in allusion to its extraordinary cunning that the ,indians call it ,kekwaharkess1 or the 8,evil ,one40 ,with an energy that never flags it hunts day and night for the trail of men1 which1 when found1 it follows up unerringly4 ,on coming to a lake1 where the track is generally drifted over1 it continues its steady gallop round the shores1 to discover the point at which the track re-enters the woods1 when it again pursues it until it arrives at one of the wooden traps set for the marten or the mink1 the ermine or the musk-rat4 ,cautiously avoiding the door1 it effects violent entrance at the back1 and seizes the bait with impunity2 or1 if the trap contains an animal1 drags it out1 and1 with wanton malevolence1 mauls it1 and hides it at some distance in the underwood or at the top of some lofty pine4 ,if hard pressed by hunger1 it devours the victim4 ,and in this manner it demolishes the whole series of traps2 so that when once a wolverine has established itself on a trapping-walk1 the hunter's only chance of success is to change his ground1 and build a fresh lot of traps1 in the hope of securing a few furs before the new path is discovered by his industrious enemy4 ,some interesting particulars of the habits and ways of the glutton are recorded by ,lord ,milton and ,dr4 ,cheadle in their lively narrative of an expedition from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific 78,the ,north-,west ,passage by ,land074 ,they tell us that it is never caught in the ordinary pit-fall4 ,occasionally one is poisoned1 or caught in a steel trap2 but so great is the creature's strength1 that many traps strong enough to hold securely a large wolf will not retain the wolverine4 ,when caught in this way1 it does not1 like the fox and the mink1 proceed to amputate the limb1 but1 assisting to carry the trap with its mouth1 hastens to reach a lake or river1 where its progress will be unimpeded by trees or fallen wood4 ,after travelling to a sufficient distance to be safe from pursuit for a time1 it sets to work to extricate its imprisoned limb1 and very frequently succeeds in the attempt4 ,occasionally the glutton is killed by a gun placed so as to bear on a bait1 to which is attached a string communicating with the trigger4 ,but a trapper assured ,lord ,milton and his companion1 that very often the animal had proved too cunning for him1 first approaching the gun and gnawing in two the cord communicating with the trigger1 and then securely devouring the bait4 ,in one instance1 when all the trapper's devices to beguile his enemy had been seen through1 and clearly foiled1 he adopted the plan of placing the gun in a tree1 with the muzzle pointing vertically downwards upon the bait4 ,this was suspended from a branch1 at such a height that the animal could not secure it without jumping2 and1 moreover1 it was completely screened by the boughs4 ,now1 the wolverine's curiosity almost equals its voracity4 ,it shows a disposition to investigate everything2 an old moccasin flung aside in the bushes1 or a knife lost in the snow1 must be ferreted out and examined1 and any object suspended almost out of reach generally proves irresistible as a temptation4 ,in this instance1 however1 the caution of the glutton exceeded its curiosity and restrained its hunger2 it climbed the tree1 cut the fastenings of the gun1 which then tumbled to the ground1 and1 descending1 it secured the bait with impunity4 ,lord ,milton's party were personal sufferers by1 and witnesses to1 the animal's cunning4 ,one day1 when setting out to visit their traps1 they observed the footprints of a very large wolverine which had followed their trail1 and ,la ,ronde1 their trapper1 at once exclaimed1 8,c'est fini1 monsieur2 il a cass toutes ntres trappes1 vous allez voir20 and so it proved4 ,as they came to each in succession1 they found it broken open at the back1 and the bait taken2 and1 where an animal had been caught1 it was carried off4 ,throughout the whole line every one had been demolished2 and the tails were discovered of no fewer than ten martens1 the bodies of which had apparently been devoured by the hungry and astute wolverine4 ,with one more illustration we must be content1 and turn to another branch of our subject1 though we do not suppose that our readers will weary of the relation of facts which throw so vivid a light on the intelligence1 as distinct from1 and superior to1 the instinct of animals4 ,and1 certainly1 the manner in which the glutton foils the ingenious stratagems of the trappers must be ascribed to intelligence rather than to instinct4 ,in the following anecdote we think it is plainly shown that the latter could not have sufficed to guard the animal against the machinations of its persevering foes4 ,dr4 ,cheadle1 accompanied by an ,indian boy1 named ,misquapasnayoo1 started off for the woods1 bent upon proving his superior acuteness to the wolverine4 ,they found that the latter had renewed his visits along the line of traps1 and broken all which had been reconstructed1 devouring the animals found in them4 ,dr4 ,cheadle thereupon adopted a device which could not fail1 he thought1 to catch his enemy in his own toils4 ,all the broken traps were repaired and set again1 and poisoned baits substituted for the ordinary ones in the traps2 not in every instance1 but here and there along the line4 ,the forest was here of great extent1 and seemed to stretch away to the frozen ,north without let or hindrance1 the mass of timber being broken only by numerous lakes and swamps1 or clearances which had been caused by conflagrations4 ,the traveller always seeks the lakes2 not only because they enable him to travel more rapidly1 and penetrate further into the less hunted regions1 but also because the edges of the lakes1 and the portages between them1 are favourite haunts of the fox1 the fisher1 and the mink4 ,on one of these lakes a curious circumstance was noted4 ,the lake was about half a mile in length1 and of nearly equal breadth1 but of no great depth4 ,the water had seemingly frozen to the bottom1 except at one end1 where a spring bubbled up1 and a hole of about a yard in diameter existed in the ice-crust1 which was there only a few inches thick4 ,in this hole the water was crowded with myriads of small fish1 most of them not much larger than a man's finger1 and so closely packed that they could not move freely4 ,on thrusting in an arm1 it seemed like plunging it into 8a mass of thick stir-about40 ,all around the snow had been trodden down hard and level by the feet of the numerous animals attracted to this ,lenten banquet2 and tracks converged to it from every side4 ,the footprints could be recognized of the cross or silver fox1 delicately impressed in the snow as he trotted daintily along with light and airy tread2 the rough marks of the clumsier fisher2 the clear and sharply-defined track of the nimble mink2 and the great cross trail of the ubiquitous glutton4 ,on the trees around scores of crows were sleepily digesting their abundant meals4 ,when ,dr4 ,cheadle and his companion turned homewards1 they found that their enemy had been in active pursuit4 ,along the ground they had traversed on the previous day1 every trap was already demolished1 and all the baits were abstracted4 ,dr4 ,cheadle at first imagined that he had at last outwitted and destroyed his enemy2 but the ,indian's keener eyes discovered each of the baits which had been poisoned1 lying close at hand1 bitten in two and rejected1 while all the others had disappeared4 ,the baits1 nevertheless1 had been very carefully prepared2 the strychnine being inserted into the centre of the meat by a small hole1 and when frozen it was impossible to distinguish them from the harmless ones by any peculiarity of appearance4 ,it seemed as if the animal suspected poison1 and bit in two and tasted every morsel before swallowing it4 ,the baits had purposely been made very small1 so that in the ordinary course they would have been swallowed whole4 ,that the same wolverine had followed up their path from the first1 they knew perfectly well1 because it was one of unusually large size1 as shown by its tracks1 which were readily distinguished from those of smaller animals4 ,the distribution of ,birds in the ,polar ,regions1 is a subject on which it seems desirable to offer a few remarks1 so that our readers may be able to form an accurate conception of the character and variety of the animal life peculiar to them4 ,of the birds of ,greenland and ,iceland1 it may be affirmed that fully three-fourths of the species1 and a still larger proportion of individuals1 are more or less aquatic1 and many of the remainder are only summer visitors4 ,the largest bird that ventures far north is the ,aquila albicilla1 or fishing-eagle1 which builds its eyrie on the loftiest crags of the ocean-cliffs1 and feeds on salmon and trout4 ,the ,falco ,islandicus1 or gyrfalcon1 though a native of ,iceland1 is now very rarely met with4 ,the snowy owl inhabits the glaciers which fill the deep inland valleys of ,greenland1 and its range extends as far southwards as the ,orkneys4 ,particular kinds of grouse are confined to the high latitudes2 and more particularly the ptarmigan1 or white grouse1 which supplies a welcome addition to the scanty bill of fare of the ,arctic navigators4 ,it is found1 even in the depths of winter1 on ,melville ,island2 burrowing under the snow1 perhaps1 for warmth1 protection1 and food4 ,but it appears to be most numerous in ,april1 when it is found in pairs2 in ,september it collects in coveys1 sometimes of as many as fifteen or twenty birds1 preparatory to their southern migration4 ,illustration3 ,,ptarmigan4 ,of the ,corvid1 the only species which ventures beyond the ,arctic ,circle is the ,royston crow1 and that only in summer4 ,the raven1 however1 is found in all the wide ,polar realm1 and is larger1 stronger1 and more voracious in the ,arctic ,islands than elsewhere4 ,it drives the eider-ducks from their nests in order to prey on their young or feast on their eggs1 and it unites in flocks to expel intruding birds from their abode4 ,the ,grallatores are more numerous than land-birds in the ,arctic ,world4 ,the snipe and the golden plover are only visitors2 but the oyster-catcher is a denizen of ,iceland1 where1 building its nest on the reedy banks of the streams1 it wages war with the crow tribe4 ,the heron1 curlew1 plover1 and most of the other waders1 emigrate2 sand-pipers and the water-ousel remain 8all the year round40 ,the ,cygnus musicus1 or whistling swan1 is specially famous for its migrations4 ,it measures five feet from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail1 and eight feet across its noble extended wings2 its plumage is white as snow1 with a slight tinge of orange or yellow on the head4 ,some of these swans winter in ,iceland2 and in the long ,arctic night their song1 as they pass in flocks1 falls on the ear of the listener like the notes of a violin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the distribution of animals is1 of course1 regulated by laws analogous to those which regulate the distribution of plants1 insects1 birds1 and fishes4 ,each continent1 and even different portions of the same continent1 are the centres of zoological families1 which have always existed there1 and nowhere else2 each group being almost always specifically different from all others4 ,as the ,arctic ,world includes a district common to ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 with uniform climatic conditions1 the animals inhabiting the high latitudes of these continents are frequently very similar and sometimes identical2 and1 in fact1 no genus of quadrupeds exists in the ,arctic regions that is not found in all three continents1 though there are only twenty-seven species common to all1 and these mostly fur-bearing animals4 ,the carnivores1 as we have seen1 are very few in number1 and of these the most important is the ,polar bear4 ,of the herbivores the reindeer is the most valuable2 its southern limit in ,europe is the ,baltic ,sea1 in ,america the latitude of ,quebec4 ,there are fully eight varieties of ,american dogs1 several of which are natives of the far ,north4 ,the lagopus1 or isatis1 a native of ,spitzbergen and ,greenland1 extends over all the ,arctic regions of ,america and ,asia1 and is found in some of the ,kurile ,islands4 ,dogs are employed to draw sledges in ,newfoundland and ,canada2 and the ,eskimo dogs1 used for this purpose by the ,arctic explorers1 are famous for their strength1 their docility1 and power of endurance4 ,they were mute1 until they learned to bark from ,european dogs on board the discovery ships4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,iceland ,,and ,,the ,,icelanders4 ,just within the ,arctic region1 but nearly on the limits of what geographers call the ,atlantic ,ocean1 lies an island which1 since its colonization in the ninth century1 has not ceased to excite the interest of the explorer and the man of science4 ,iceland--which measures about #cjj miles at its greatest length1 from east to west1 and about #bjj miles at its greatest breadth1 from north to south--is situated in lat4 #fc #bc'-ff #cc' ,n41 and long4 #ac #bb'-bd #ce' ,w42 at a distance of #fjj miles from the nearest point of ,norway1 #bej from the ,fare ,isles1 #bej from ,greenland1 and above #ejj miles from the northern extremity of ,scotland4 ,as early as the eighth ,christian century it was discovered by some ,european emigrants2 though1 indeed1 the ,landnana ,book1 one of the earliest of the island-records1 asserts that they found the memorials of a yet earlier settlement in various ,christian relics1 such as wooden crosses1 which appeared to be of ,irish origin4 ,at all events1 the first really successful attempt at colonization was made by ,ingolf1 a ,norwegian1 who planted himself and his followers at ,reikiavik in #hgd4 ,in the following century a somewhat extensive immigration took place of ,norwegians who resented the changes of polity introduced by ,harold ,haarfager1 and all the habitable points on the coast were occupied by about #iej ,a4,d4 ,fifty years afterwards1 though not without much opposition1 ,christianity was legally established1 and the bishoprics of ,holar and ,skalholt were founded4 ,the government assumed the character of an aristocratic republic1 with a popular assembly1 called the ,althing1 meeting every summer in the valley of ,thingvalla4 ,commerce was encouraged1 and the ,icelanders early distinguished themselves by the boldness of their maritime enterprise1 and the extent of their ocean fisheries4 ,about the year #icb they discovered ,greenland1 and about #ihf a portion of the ,north ,american coast1 which they called 8,vineland40 ,they did not confine their voyages to the north1 but sent their ships even as far south as the ,mediterranean4 ,from #aaej to #abej is rightly considered the most flourishing period of ,icelandic literature and commerce4 ,after the conquest of the island by ,haco ,,vi4 of ,norway1 much of the old spirit seemed to die out4 ,when ,norway was united to ,denmark in #achj1 ,iceland was included in the bond1 and it is still regarded as a dependency of the latter kingdom4 ,in #aedj it embraced the principles of ,lutheran ,protestantism4 ,its population at one time numbered #ajj1jjj1 but it gradually diminished until1 in #ahdj1 it was reduced to #eg1jid2 but a slow increase has taken place of late years1 and it now amounts to about #gj1jjj4 ,the language spoken is the old ,norse4 ,iceland is a fifth part larger than ,ireland1 and its superficial area is estimated at #ci1bjg square miles4 ,not more than #djjj miles1 however1 are habitable1 all the rest being ice and lava2 for the island seems to be little more than a mass of trachyte1 snow-shrouded and frost-bound1 resting on a sea of fire4 ,it consists of two vast parallel table-lands1 the foundations of ranges of lofty mountains1 most of which are active volcanoes2 and these table-lands strike across the centre of the island1 from north-east to south-west1 at a distance from one another of ninety to one hundred miles4 ,their mountainous summits are not pyramidal1 as is generally the case in ,europe1 but rounded like domes1 as in the ,andes of ,south ,america4 ,their sides1 however1 are broken up by precipitous masses of tufa and conglomerate1 intersected by deep ravines of the gloomiest character4 ,they are covered with a thick shroud of ice and snow1 but in their wombs seethe the fiery elements which ever and anon break forth into terrible activity4 ,the eastern table-land and its mountain range is the most extensive1 and contains ,orafa1 the culminating point of ,iceland4 ,it is visible from a great distance at sea1 like a white cloud suspended above the island4 ,its height is #fdbf feet1 and it springs from a vast mountain-mass2 no fewer than #cjjj square miles being perpetually burdened with ice and snow1 at an altitude varying from #cjjj to #fjjj feet4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,icelandic ,,landscape4 ,a very considerable portion of the island is occupied by the large glaciers which descend from the mountains1 like frozen torrents1 pushing forward into the lowlands1 and even to the margin of the sea4 ,these act as almost impassable barriers to communication between the various inhabited districts4 ,we have spoken of the two ranges of table-lands as about ninety to one hundred miles apart4 ,the interspace forms a low broad valley1 which opens at either extremity on the sea--an awful waste1 a region of desolation1 where man is utterly powerless2 where the elements of fire and frost maintain a perpetual antagonism2 where blade of grass is never seen1 nor drop of water2 where bird never wings its way1 and no sign of life can be detected4 ,it seems a realization of ,dante's 8circle of ice0 in the 8,inferno40 ,the surface consists of lava streams1 fissured by innumerable crevices2 of rocks piled on rocks2 of dreary glaciers1 relieved by low volcanic cones4 ,it is supposed that some remote portions of the inaccessible interior are less barren1 because herds of reindeer have been seen feeding on the ,iceland moss that fringes the borders of this dreary region4 ,but there is no reason to believe that it can ever be inhabited by man4 ,illustration3 ,,mount ,,hekla1 ,,from ,,the ,,valley ,,of ,,hevita4 ,the extremities of the valleys1 where they approach the ocean1 are the principal theatres of volcanic activity4 ,at the northern end the best-known volcano is that of ,hekla1 which has attained a sinister repute from the terrific character of its eruptions4 ,of these six-and-twenty are recorded1 the last having occurred in #ahde-df4 ,one lasted for six years1 spreading devastation over a country which had formerly been the seat of a prosperous colony1 burying the fields beneath a flood of lava1 scori1 and ashes4 ,during the eruption of ,september #b1 #ahde1 to ,april #ahdf1 three new craters were formed1 from which columns of fire sprang to the height of #ad1jjj feet4 ,the lava accumulated in formidable hills1 and fragments of scori and pumice-stone1 weighing two hundredweight1 were thrown to a distance of a league and a half2 while the ice and snow which had lain on the mountain for centuries were liquefied1 and poured down into the plains in devastating torrents4 ,but the eruption of another of these terrible volcanoes1 the ,skapt ,jokul1 which broke out on the #hth of ,may #aghc1 and lasted until ,august1 was of a still more awful character4 ,at that time the volcanic fire under ,europe must have raged most violently1 for a tremendous earthquake shattered a wide extent of ,calabria in the same year1 and a submarine volcano had flamed fiercely for many weeks in the ocean1 thirty miles from the south-west cape of ,iceland4 ,its fires ceased suddenly2 a series of earthquakes shook the island2 and then ,skapt broke forth into sudden and destructive activity4 ,for months the sun was hidden by dense clouds of vapour1 and clouds of volcanic dust were carried many hundreds of miles to sea1 extending even to ,england and ,holland4 ,sand and ashes1 raised to an enormous height in the atmosphere1 spread in all directions1 and overwhelmed thousands of acres of fertile pasturage4 ,the sulphurous exhalations blighted the grass of the field1 and tainted the waters of river1 lake1 and sea1 so that not only the herds and flocks perished1 but the fish died in their poisoned element4 ,the quantity of matter ejected by the rent and shivered mountain was computed at fifty or sixty thousand millions of cubic yards4 ,the molten lava flowed in a stream which in some places was twenty to thirty miles in breadth1 and of enormous thickness2 a seething1 hissing torrent1 which filled the beds of rivers1 poured into the sea nearly fifty miles from its points of eruption1 and destroyed the fishing on the coast4 ,some of the island-rivers were heated1 it is said1 to ebullition2 others were dried up2 the condensed vapour fell in whirls of snow and storms of rain4 ,but dreadful as was the eruption itself1 with its sublime but awful phenomena1 far more dreadful were its consequences4 ,the country within its range was one wide ghastly desert1 a fire-blighted wilderness2 and1 partly from want of food1 partly owing to the unwholesome condition of the atmosphere1 no fewer than #iccf men1#aj #bh1jjj horses1 #aa1dfa cattle1 and #aij1jjj sheep1 were swept away in the short space of two years4 ,even yet ,iceland has scarcely recovered from the blow4 ,at the northern end of the great central valley the focus of igneous phenomena is found in a semicircle of volcanic heights which slope towards the eastern shore of the ,lake ,myvatr4 ,two of these are very formidable1--namely1 ,leirhnukr and ,krabla on the north-east4 ,after years of inaction1 they suddenly broke out with tremendous fury1 pouring such a quantity of lava into the ,lake ,myvatr1 which measures twenty miles in circuit1 that the water was in a state of ebullition for many days4 ,on the sides of ,mount ,krabla1 and at the base of this group of mountains1 are situated various caldrons of boiling mineral pitch1 the ruined craters of ancient volcanoes2 and from their depths are thrown up jets of the molten matter1 enveloped in clouds of steam1 and accompanied by loud explosions at regular intervals4 ,but the most singular phenomena in this singular country1 where frost and fire are continually disputing the pre-eminence1 are the ,geysers1 or eruptive boiling springs4 ,these all occur in the trachytic formation1 are characterized by their high temperature1 by holding siliceous matter in solution1 which they deposit in the form of siliceous sinter1 and by evolving large quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen gas4 ,upwards of fifty geysers have been counted in the space of a few acres at the southern end of the great valley4 ,some are constant1 some periodical1 some stagnant1 some only slightly agitated4 ,the grandest and most celebrated are the ,great ,geyser and ,strokr1 thirty-five miles north-west from ,hekla4 ,these1 at regular intervals1 hurl into the air immense columns of boiling water1 to the height of one hundred feet1 accompanied by clouds of steam and deafening noises4 ,in the case of the ,great ,geyser1 the jet issues from a shaft about seventy-five feet deep1 and ten in diameter1 which opens into the centre of a shallow basin1 about one hundred and fifty feet in circumference4 ,the basin is alternately emptied and filled3 when filled1 loud explosions are heard1 the ground quivers1 and the boiling water is forced upwards in gigantic columns4 ,thus the basin is emptied1 and the explosions cease until it is refilled4 ,messrs4 ,descloiseaux and ,bunsen1 who1 according to ,mrs4 ,somerville1 visited ,iceland in #ahdf1 found the temperature of the ,great ,geyser1 at the depth of seventy-two feet1 to equal #bfj #cj' ,f4 prior to a great eruption1 reduced1 after the eruption1 to #bea #cj' ,f42 an interval of twenty-eight hours passing in silence4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,geyser4 ,about one hundred and forty yards distant is the ,strokr 7from stroka1 to agitate71 a circular well1 forty-four feet deep1 with a tube eight feet wide at its mouth1 diminishing to little more than ten inches at a depth of twenty-seven feet4 ,the surface of the water is in constant ebullition1 while at the bottom the temperature exceeds that of boiling water by about twenty-four degrees4 ,it appears1 from experiments made by ,donny1 that water1 long boiled1 becomes more and more free from air1 and that thus the cohesion of the particles is so much increased1 that when the heat is sufficiently increased to overcome that cohesion1 the production of steam is so considerable and so instantaneous as to induce an explosion4 ,in this circumstance ,m4 ,donny finds an explanation of the phenomena of the ,geysers1 which are in constant ebullition for many hours1 until1 being almost purified from air1 the intense internal or subterranean heat overcomes the cohesion of the particles1 and thus an explosion takes place4 ,lord ,dufferin describes an eruption which he witnessed on the occasion of his visit to the ,geysers1 but for which he waited three days4 ,like pilgrims round some ancient shrine1 he says1 he and his friends kept patient watch2 but the ,great ,geyser scarcely deigned to vouchsafe the slightest manifestation of its latent energies4 ,two or three times they heard a sound as of subterranean cannonading1 and once an eruption to the height of about ten feet occurred4 ,on the morning of the fourth day a cry from the guides made them start to their feet1 and with one common impulse rush towards the basin4 ,the usual underground thunder had already commenced4 ,a violent agitation was disturbing the centre of the pool4 ,suddenly a dome of water lifted itself up to the height of eight or ten feet1 then burst1 and fell2 immediately after which a shining liquid column1 or rather a sheaf of columns1 wreathed in robes of vapour1 sprang into the air1 and in a succession of jerking leaps1 each higher than the last1 flung their silver crests against the sky4 ,for a few minutes the fountain held its own1 then all at once appeared to lose its ascending power4 ,the unstable waters faltered1 drooped1 fell1 8like a broken purpose10 back upon themselves1 and were immediately sucked down into the recesses of their pipe4 ,the spectacle was one of great magnificence2 but no description can give an accurate idea of its most striking features4 ,the enormous wealth of water1 its vitality1 its hidden power1 the illimitable breadth of sunlit vapour1 rolling out in exhaustless profusion1--these combine to impress the spectator with an almost painful sense of the stupendous energy of nature's slightest movements4 ,the same traveller furnishes a very humorous account of the ,strokr 7or 8churn074 ,it is1 he says1 an unfortunate ,geyser1 with so little command over its temper and stomach1 that you can get a rise out of it whenever you like4 ,nothing more is necessary than to collect a quantity of sods and throw them down its funnel4 ,as it has no basin to protect it from these liberties1 you can approach to the very edge of the pipe1 which is about five feet in diameter1 and look down at the boiling water perpetually seething at the bottom4 ,in a few minutes the dose of turf just administered begins to disagree with it2 it works itself up into 8an awful passion20 tormented by the qualms of incipient sickness1 it groans and hisses1 and boils up1 and spits at you with malicious vehemence1 until at last1 with a roar of mingled pain and rage1 it throws up into the air a column of water forty feet high1 carrying with it all the sods that have been thrown in1 and scattering them1 scalded and half-digested1 at your feet4 ,so irritated has the poor thing's stomach become by the discipline it has undergone1 that even long after all foreign matter has been thrown off1 it continues retching and sputtering1 until at last nature is exhausted1 when1 sobbing and sighing to itself1 it sinks back into the bottom of its den4 ,the ground around the ,geysers1 for about a quarter of a mile1 looks as if it had been 8honeycombed by disease into numerous sores and orifices20 not a blade of grass grew on its hot1 inflamed surface1 which consisted of unwholesome-looking red livid clay1 or crumpled shreds and shards of slough-like incrustations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a region1 corresponding in character to the desert mountain-mass we have been describing1 stretches westward from it to the extremity of the ridge of the ,snaefield ,syssel1 and terminates in the remarkable cone of ,snaefield ,jokul4 ,the island coasts exhibit a singularly broken outline1 and the deep lochs or fiords1 like those of ,norway1 only less romantic1 dip into the interior for many miles1 and throw off numerous branches4 ,these fiords are wild and gloomy2 dark1 still inlets1 with precipices on either side1 a thousand feet in height1 and the silence unbroken1 save by the occasional wash of the waters1 or the scream of a solitary ocean-bird4 ,inland1 however1 they assume a gentler character3 they end in long narrow valleys1 watered by pleasant streams1 and bright with pasture4 ,in these bits of ,arcadia the inhabitants have built their towns and villages4 ,in the valleys on the north coast1 which are adorned by clumps of willow and juniper1 the soil is comparatively fertile2 but the most genial scenery is found on the east1 where1 in some places1 the birch-trees reach a height of twenty feet1 and are of sufficient size to be used in house-building4 ,the fuel used by the ,icelanders is the drift-wood which the ,gulf ,stream brings from ,mexico1 the ,carolinas1 ,virginia1 and the ,river ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,in the south of the island the mean temperature is about #ci2 in the central districts1 #cf2 in the north it rarely rises above #cb1 or freezing-point4 ,thunder-storms1 though rare in high latitudes1 are not uncommon in ,iceland2 a circumstance which is due1 no doubt1 to the atmospheric disturbances caused by the volcanic phenomena4 ,hurricanes are frequent1 and the days are few when the island is free from sea-mists4 ,at the northern end the sun is always above the horizon in the middle of summer1 and under it in the middle of winter2 but absolute darkness does not prevail4 ,one of the most interesting places in ,iceland is ,thingvalla1 where of old the 8,althing10 or supreme parliament1 was wont to hold its annual assemblies1 under the 8,logmathurman10 or president of the republic4 ,it is nothing more than a broad plain on the bank of the ,river ,oxer1 near the point where the swift waters1 after forming a noble cascade1 sweep into the ,lake of ,thingvalla4 ,only a plain2 but the scenery around it is indescribably grand and solemn4 ,on either side lies a barren plateau1 above which rises a range of snowy mountains1 and from the plateaus the plain is cut off by deep chasms1--that of ,almanna ,gja on the east1 and the ,hrafna ,gja on the west4 ,it measures eight miles in breadth1 and its surface is covered by a network of innumerable fissures and crevices of great depth and breadth4 ,at the foot of the plain lies a lake1 about thirty miles in circumference1 in the centre of which two small crater-islands1 the result of some ancient eruption1 are situated4 ,the mountains on its south bank have a romantic aspect1 and that their volcanic fires are not extinct is shown by the clouds of vapour evolved from the hot springs that pour down their rugged sides4 ,the actual meeting-place of the ,althing was an irregular oval area1 about two hundred feet by fifty1 almost entirely surrounded by a crevice so broad and deep as to be impassable1 except where a narrow causeway connected it with the adjacent plain1 and permitted access to its interior4 ,at one other point1 indeed1 the encircling chasm is so narrow that it may possibly be cleared at a leap2 and the story runs that one ,flosi1 when hotly pursued by his enemies1 did in this way escape them2 but as falling an inch short would mean sure death in the green waters below1 the chasm may be regarded as a tolerably sure barrier against intruders4 ,the ancient capital of the island was ,skalholt1 where1 in the eleventh century1 was founded the first school2 an episcopal seat2 the birthplace of a long line of ,norse worthies1 ,islief the chronicler1 ,gissur the linguist1 and ,finnur ,johnson the historian4 ,but its glories have passed away2 its noble cathedral has ceased to exist2 and three or four cottages alone perpetuate the name of the once flourishing city4 ,the present capital is ,reikiavik1 to which1 in #agig1 were transferred the united bishoprics of ,stoolum and ,skalholt4 ,it consists of a collection of wooden sheds1 one story high1 rising here and there into a gable end of greater pretensions1 extending along a tract of dreary lava1 and flanked at either end by a suburb of turf huts4 ,on every side of it stretches a dreary lava-plain1 and the gloom of the scorched and ghastly landscape is unrelieved by tree or bush4 ,the white mountains are too distant to serve as a background to the buildings1 but before the door of each merchant's house1 facing the sea1 streams a bright little pennon2 and as the traveller paces the silent streets1 whose dust no carriage-wheel has ever desecrated1 the rows of flower-pots peeping out of the windows1 between white muslin curtains1 at once convince him that1 notwithstanding their unostentatious appearance1 within each dwelling reign 8the elegance and comfort of a woman-tended home40 ,the prosperity of ,reikiavik is chiefly due to its excellent harbour1 and to the fish-banks in its neighbourhood1 which supply it with an important commercial staple4 ,in the summer and early autumn it is much visited by tourists1 who start from thence to admire the wonders of ,hekla1 ,skapta1 and the ,geysers2 but its busiest time is in ,july1 when the annual fair draws thither a crowd of fisher-folk and peasants4 ,from a distance of forty and fifty leagues they come1 with long trains of pack-horses1 their stock-fish slung loose across the animals' backs1 and their other wares packed closely in boxes or bags of reindeer-skin4 ,illustration3 ,,harbour ,,of ,,reikiavik4 ,the ,icelander is honest1 temperate1 hospitable1 possessed with a fervent spirit of patriotism1 and strongly wedded to the ancient usages4 ,he is also industrious2 and though his industry is but scantily remunerated1 he earns enough to satisfy his simple tastes4 ,in the interior his chief dependence is on his cattle2 and as grass is the main produce of his farm1 his anxiety during the haymaking season is extreme4 ,a bad crop would be almost ruin4 ,he is1 however1 wofully ignorant of agriculture as a science1 does but little for the improvement of the soil1 and employs implements of the most primitive character4 ,the process of haymaking in ,iceland is thus described3-- ,the best crops are gathered from the 8tn10 a kind of home-park or paddock1 comprising the lands contiguous to the farmstead--the only portion of his demesne to which the owner gives any special attention1 and on the improvement of which he bestows any labour4 ,this 8tn0 is enclosed within a wall of stone or turf1 and averages an extent of two or three acres1 though sometimes it reaches to ten4 ,its surface is usually a series of closely-packed mounds1 like an overcrowded graveyard1 with channels or water-runs between1 about two feet deep4 ,hither every person employed on the farm1 or whom the farmer can engage1 resorts1 with short-bladed scythe and rake1 and proceeds to cut down the coarse thick grass1 and rake it up into little heaps4 ,afterwards the mowers hasten to clear the neighbouring hill sides and undrained marshes4 ,this primitive haymaking1 so unlike the systematic operation which bears that name in ,england1 is carried on throughout the twenty-four hours of the long summer day4 ,the hay1 when sufficiently dried1 is made up into bundles1 and tied with cords and thongs1 and packed on the back of ponies1 which carry it to the clay-built stalls or sheds prepared for it4 ,and a curious sight it is to see a long string of hay-laden ponies returning home4 ,each pony's halter is made fast to the tail of his predecessor2 and the little animals are so overshadowed and overwhelmed by their burdens1 that their hoofs and the connecting ropes alone are visible1 and they seem like so many animated haycocks1 feeling themselves sufficiently made up1 and leisurely betaking themselves to their resting-places4 ,during the protracted winter the ,icelander1 of course1 can attend to no out-of-door labour1 and passes his time within his hut1 which1 in many parts of the island1 is not much superior to an ,irish 8cabin40 ,the lower part is built of rough stones up to a height of four feet1 and between each course a layer of turf is placed1 which serves instead of mortar1 and helps to keep out the cold4 ,the roof1 made of any available wood1 is covered with turf and sods4 ,on the southern side the building is ornamented with doors and gable-ends1 each of which is crowned by a weathercock4 ,these doors are the entrances to the dwelling-rooms and various offices1 such as the cow-shed1 store-house1 and smithy4 ,the dwelling-rooms are connected by a long1 dark1 narrow passage1 and are separated from each other by strong walls of turf4 ,as each apartment has its own roof1 the building is1 in effect1 an aggregate of several low huts1 which receive their light through small windows in the front1 or holes in the roof1 covered with a piece of glass or skin4 ,the floors are of stamped earth2 the fireplace is made of a few stones1 rudely packed together1 while the smoke escapes through a hole in the roof1 or through a cask or barrel1 with the ends knocked out1 which acts as chimney4 ,in some parts of the island lava is used instead of stones1 and instead of wood the rafters are made of the ribs of whales4 ,a horse's skull is the best seat provided for a visitor4 ,too often the same room serves as the dining1 sitting1 and sleeping place for the whole family1 and the beds are merely boxes filled with feathers or sea-weed4 ,there are1 however1 a few houses of a superior character1 in which the arrangements are not much unlike those of a good old-fashioned ,english farm-house2 the walls being wainscotted with deal1 and the doors and staircase of the same material4 ,a few prints and photographs1 some book-shelves1 one or two little pictures1 decorate the sitting-room1 and a neat iron stove1 and massive chests of drawers1 furnish it sufficiently4 ,from the houses we turn to the churches4 ,in ,reikiavik the church is a stone building1 the only stone building in the town2 but this is exceptional3 most of the churches are not much better than the houses4 ,we will be content1 therefore1 with a visit to the ,reikiavik sanctuary1 which is a neat and unpretending erection1 capable of accommodating three or four hundred persons4 ,the ,icelanders are not opposed to a 8decent ritual10 and the ,lutheran minister wears a black gown with a ruff round his neck4 ,the majority of the congregation1 here as everywhere else1 consists of women2 some few dressed in bonnets1 and the rest wearing the national black silk skull-cap1 set jauntily on one side of the head1 with a long black tassel drooping to the shoulder1 or else a quaint mitre-like structure of white linen1 almost as imposing as the head-dress of a ,normandy peasant4 ,the remainder of an ,icelandic lady's costume1 we may add1 consists of a black bodice1 fastened in front with silver clasps1 over which is drawn a cloth jacket1 gay with innumerable silver buttons2 round the neck goes a stiff ruff of velvet1 embroidered with silver lace2 and a silver belt1 often beautifully chased1 binds the long dark wadmal petticoat round the waist4 ,sometimes the ornaments are of gold1 instead of silver1 and very costly4 ,towards the end of the ,lutheran service1 the preacher descends from the pulpit1 and attiring himself in a splendid crimson velvet cope1 turns his back to the congregation1 and chants some ,latin sentences4 ,though still retaining in their ceremonies1 says a recent traveller1 a few vestiges of the old religion1 though altars1 candles1 pictures1 and crucifixes yet remain in many of their churches1 the ,icelanders are stanch ,protestants1 and singularly devout1 innocent1 and pure-hearted4 ,crime1 theft1 debauchery1 cruelty are unknown amongst them2 they have neither prison1 gallows1 soldiers1 nor police2 and in the manner of their lives mingles something of a patriarchal simplicity1 that reminds one of the ,old ,world princes1 of whom it has been said1 that they were 8upright and perfect1 eschewing evil1 and in their hearts no guile40 ,in the rural districts1 if such a phrase can properly be applied to any part of ,iceland1 the church is scarcely distinguishable from any other building1 except by the cross planted on its roof4 ,it measures1 generally1 from eight to ten feet in width1 and from eighteen to twenty-four feet in length2 but of this space about eight feet are devoted to the altar1 which is divided off by a wooden partition stretching across the church1 just behind the pulpit4 ,the communion-table is nothing more than a small wooden chest or cupboard1 placed at the end of the building1 between two small square windows1 each formed by a single common-sized pane of glass4 ,over the table is suspended a sorry daub1 on wood1 intended to represent the ,last ,supper4 ,the walls1 which are wainscotted1 are about six feet high2 and stout beams of wood stretch from side to side4 ,on these are carelessly scattered a number of old ,bibles1 psalters1 and loose leaves of soiled and antiquated manuscripts4 ,the interior of the roof1 the rafters of which rest on the walls1 is also lined with wood4 ,accommodation1 in the shape of a few rough benches1 is provided for a congregation of thirty or forty souls4 ,poor as are the churches1 the pastors are still poorer4 ,the best benefice in the island is worth not much more than #dj per annum2 the average value is #aj4 ,the bishop himself does not receive more than #bjj4 ,the principal support of the clergy1 therefore1 is derived from their glebe-land1 eked out by the small fees charged for baptisms1 marriages1 and funerals4 ,such being the case1 the reader will not be surprised to learn that the ,icelandic clergy live miserably and work hard4 ,they assist in the haymaking2 they hire themselves out as herdsmen2 they act as the leaders of the caravans of pack-horses which carry the produce of the island to the ports1 and return loaded with domestic necessaries2 and they distinguish themselves as blacksmiths1 as veterinarians1 and shoers of horses4 ,dr4 ,henderson gives an interesting and graphic account of a visit he paid to one of these 8poor parsons10 ,john ,thorlukson1 who1 while supporting himself by drudgery of this painful kind1 translated ,milton's 8,paradise ,lost0 and ,pope's 8,essay on ,man0 into ,icelandic4 8,like most of his brethren1 at this season of the year10 says ,dr4 ,henderson1 8we found him in the meadow assisting his people at haymaking4 ,on hearing of our arrival he made all the haste home which his age and infirmity would allow1 and bidding us welcome to his lowly abode1 ushered us into the humble apartment where he translated my countrymen into ,icelandic4 ,the door was not quite four feet in height1 and the room might be about eight feet in length by six in breadth4 ,at the inner end was the poet's bed2 and close to the door1 over against a small window1 not exceeding two feet square1 was a table where he committed to paper the effusions of his muse4 ,on my telling him that my countrymen would not have forgiven me1 nor could ,i have forgiven myself1 had ,i passed through this part of the island without paying him a visit1 he replied that the translation of ,milton had yielded him many a pleasant hour1 and often given him occasion to think of ,england40 ,it is true that this passage was written some fifty-five years ago1 but the condition of the clergy of ,iceland has not much improved in the interval4 99 99 99 99 99 ,travelling in ,iceland1 even under the more favourable conditions brought about by a constant influx of tourists1 is not to be achieved without difficulty and discomfort4 ,not only is the country destitute1 necessarily1 of inns and the usual arrangements for the convenience of travellers1 but much1 very much1 depends upon the weather4 ,with a bright sky overhead1 it is possible to regard as trivial and unworthy of notice the small dsagrments which1 in bad weather1 develop into very serious annoyances4 ,the only mode of travelling is on horseback1 for as there are no roads1 carriages would be useless2 while the distances between the various points of interest are too great1 the rivers too violent1 and the swamps too extensive for pedestrian tours to be undertaken4 ,even the most moderate-minded tourist requires a couple of riding-horses for himself1 a couple for his guide1 and a couple of pack-horses2 and when a larger company travels1 it expands into a cavalcade of from twenty to thirty horses1 tied head to tail1 which slowly pick their way over rugged lava-beds or dangerous boggy ground4 ,it is one thing1 as ,lord ,dufferin remarks1 to ride forty miles a day through the most singular scenery in the world1 when a glorious sun brings out every feature of the landscape into startling distinctness1 transmuting the dull tormented earth into towers1 domes1 and pinnacles of shining metal1 and clothes each peak in a robe of many-coloured light1 such as the 8,debatable ,mountains0 must have been in ,bunyan's dream2 and another to plod over the same forty miles1 wet to the skin1 seeing nothing but the dim gray bases of the hills1 which rise you know not how1 and care not where4 8,if1 in addition to this1 you have to wait1 as very often must be the case1 for many hours after your own arrival1 wet1 tired1 hungry1 until the baggage-train1 with the tents and food1 shall have come up1 with no alternative in the meantime but to lie shivering inside a grass-roofed house1 or to share the quarters of some farmer's family1 whose domestic arrangements resemble in every particular those which ,macaulay describes as prevailing among the ,scottish ,highlanders a hundred years ago2 and if1 finally1 after vainly waiting for some days to see an eruption which never takes place1 you journey back to ,reikiavik under the same melancholy conditions1 it will not be unnatural that1 on returning to your native land1 you should proclaim ,iceland1 with her geysers1 to be a sham1 a delusion1 and a snare60 ,there are no bridges in ,iceland2 no bridges1 except1 indeed1 a few planks flung across the ,bruera1 and a swing-bridge1 or klfe1 which spans the ,joklsa2 and1 as is still the case in some parts of the ,scottish ,highlands1 the traveller must ford the streams1 which are always rapid1 and sometimes inconveniently deep4 ,the passage of a river is1 therefore1 a formidable enterprise1 as may be inferred from the experiences of ,mr4 ,holland and other travellers4 ,the guide leads the way1 and the caravan follow obediently in his wake1 stemming1 as best they can1 the swift impetuous torrent4 ,often the boiling water rises high against the horse's shoulders1 and dashes clouds of spray in the face of the riders4 ,the stream is so furiously fast that it is impossible to follow the individual waves as they sweep by1 and to look down at it almost makes one dizzy4 ,now1 if ever1 is the time for a firm hand1 a sure seat1 and a steady eye3 not only is the current strong1 but its bed is full of large stones1 which the horse cannot see through the dark waters2 and should he fall1 the torrent will carry you down to the sea1 whose white breakers are plainly visible as they crawl along the resounding beach at a mile's distance4 ,happily1 though hungry for prey1 they will not be satisfied4 ,swimming would be of no use1 but an 8,icelandic water-horse0 seldom blunders or makes a false step4 ,but another danger lies in the masses of ice swept down by the whirling waves1 many of which are sufficiently large to topple over horse and rider4 ,how the horses are able to stand against such a stream is every traveller's wonder2 nor would they do so unless they were inured to the enterprise from their very youth4 ,the ,icelanders who live in the interior keep horses known for their qualities in fording difficult rivers1 and never venture to cross a dangerous stream unless mounted on an experienced 8water-horse40 ,the action of the ,icelandic horses in crossing a swift river is very peculiar4 ,they lean all their weight against the current1 so as to oppose it as much as possible1 and move onwards with a characteristic side-step4 ,this motion is not agreeable4 ,it feels as if your horse were marking time1 like soldiers at drill1 without gaining ground1 and as the progress made is really very slow1 the shore from which you started seems to recede from you1 while that to which you are bound does not seem to draw nearer4 ,in the mid-stream the roar of the waters is frequently so great that the travellers cannot make their voices audible to one another4 ,there is the swirl of the torrent1 the seething of the spray1 the crunching of the floating ice1 the roll of stones and boulders against the bottom1--and all these sounds combine in one confused chaotic din4 ,up to this point1 a diagonal line1 rather down stream1 is cautiously followed2 but when the middle is reached1 the horses' heads are turned slightly towards the current1 and after much effort and many risks the opposite bank is reached in safety4 ,lord ,dufferin says1 with much truth1 that the traveller in ,iceland is constantly reminded of the ,east4 ,from the earliest ages the ,icelanders have been a people dwelling in tents4 ,in the days of the ancient ,althing1 the legislators1 during the entire session1 lay encamped in movable booths around the place of council4 ,there is something patriarchal in their domestic polity1 and the very migration of their ancestors from ,norway was a protest against the antagonistic principle of feudalism4 ,no ,arab could be prouder of his high-mettled steed than the ,icelander of his little stalwart1 sure-footed pony3 no ,oriental could pay greater attention to the duties of hospitality2 while the solemn salutation exchanged between two companies of travellers1 as they pass each other in what is universally called 8the desert10 is not unworthy of the stately courtesy of the gravest of ,arabian sheikhs4 ,it is difficult to imagine anything more multifarious than the cargo which these caravans import into the inland districts3 deal boards1 rope1 kegs of brandy1 sacks of rye or wheaten flour1 salt1 soap1 sugar1 snuff1 tobacco1 coffee2 everything1 in truth1 which is necessary for domestic consumption during the dreary winter season4 ,in exchange for these commodities the ,icelanders give raw wool1 knitted stockings1 mittens1 cured cod1 fish-oil1 whale-blubber1 fox-skins1 eider-down1 feathers1 and ,iceland moss4 ,the exports of the island in wool amount to upwards of #a1bjj1jjj lbs4 of wool yearly1 and #ejj1jjj pairs of stockings and mittens4 ,illustration3 ,,icelanders ,,fishing ,,for ,,narwhal4 ,iceland offers abundant sport to the enthusiast in fishing4 ,the streams are well supplied with salmon2 while the neighbouring seas abound in seals1 torsk1 and herrings4 ,the narwhal-fishery is also carried on1 and has its strange and exciting features4 ,the implement used is simply a three-pronged harpoon1 like a trident1 with which the fisherman strikes at the fish as they rise to the surface2 and his dexterity and coolness are so great that he seldom misses his aim4 ,numerous works1 in ,english1 have been written upon ,iceland and the ,icelanders2 the most trustworthy are those by ,dr4 ,henderson1 ,professor ,forbes1 ,holland1 ,chambers1 and ,lord ,dufferin4 ,the ,king of ,denmark visited ,iceland in #ahgd4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,eskimos4 ,the land of the ,eskimos is of very wide extent4 ,from ,greenland and ,labrador they range over all the coasts of ,arctic ,america to the extreme north-eastern point of ,asia4 ,several of the ,eskimo tribes are independent2 others acknowledge the rule of ,great ,britain1 ,denmark1 ,russia1 and more recently of the ,united ,states4 ,the whaler meets with them on the shores of ,baffin ,bay1 and in the icy sea beyond ,behring ,straits2 the explorer has tracked them as far as ,smith ,sound1 the highway to the ,north ,pole2 and while they descend as low as the latitude of ,vienna1 they rove as far north as the #hast and #hbnd parallels4 ,they are the aborigines of the deserts of ice and snow1 the ancient masters of the ,arctic wilderness1 and all ,polar ,america is their long-acknowledged domain4 ,to a certain extent they are nomadic in their habits2 compelled to migrate by the conditions of the climate in which they live1 and forced to seek their scanty sustenance in a new locality when they have exhausted the capabilities of any chosen habitat4 ,as ,mr4 ,markham tells us1 traces of former inhabitants are found throughout the gloomiest wastes of the ,arctic regions1 in sterile and silent tracts where now only solitude prevails4 ,these wilds1 it is known1 have been uninhabited for centuries2 yet they are covered with memorials of wanderers or of sojourners of a bygone age4 ,here and there1 in ,greenland1 in ,boothia1 on the ,american coast1 where life is possible1 the descendants of former nomads are still to be found4 ,arctic discovery1 as yet1 has stopped short at about #hb on the west coast1 and #gf on the east1 of ,greenland4 ,these two points are about six hundred miles apart4 ,there have been inhabitants at both points1 though they are separated by an uninhabitable interval from the settlements further south2 we may conclude1 then1 that the terra incognita further north is also or has been inhabited4 ,in #ahah it was discovered that a small tribe of ,eskimos inhabited the bleak west coast of ,greenland between #gf and #gi ,n4 ,they could not penetrate to the south on account of the glaciers of ,melville ,bay2 they could not penetrate to the north1 because all progress in that direction is forbidden by the great ,humboldt glacier2 while the huge interior glacier of the ,sernik-sook pent them in upon the narrow belt of the sea-coast4 ,these so-called 8,arctic ,highlanders0 number about one hundred and forty souls1 and throughout the winter their precarious livelihood depends on the fish they catch in the open pools and water-ways4 ,under similar conditions1 it is probable that ,eskimo tribes may be existing still further north2 or if1 as geographers suppose1 an open sea really surrounds the ,pole1 and a warmer atmosphere prevails1 the conditions of their existence will necessarily be more favourable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before we come to speak of the characteristics of the ,eskimos1 we must briefly notice the ,danish settlements in ,greenland1 which are gradually attracting no inconsiderable number of them within the bounds of civilization4 ,these are dotted along the coast1 like so many centres of light and life2 but the most important1 from a commercial point of view1 are ,upernavik1 ,jacobshav'n1 and ,godhav'n4 ,upernavik is the chief town of a district which extends from the #gjth to the #gdth degree of north latitude1 and enjoys the distinction of being the most northerly civilized region in the world4 ,its northern boundary represents the furthest advance of civilization in its long warfare against the ,arctic climate4 ,illustration3 ,,upernavik1 ,,greenland4 ,the town of ,upernavik is situated on the summit of a mossy hill which slopes to the head of a small but sheltered harbour4 ,it contains a government-house1 plastered with pitch and tar2 a shop or two2 lodging-houses for the ,danish officials2 some timber huts1 inhabited by ,danes2 and a number of huts of stone and turf1 intermingled with seal-skin tents1 which accommodate the natives4 ,its principal evidences of civilization are its neat little church and parsonage4 ,the inhabitants are chiefly occupied in fishing and hunting1 and in the manufacture of suitable clothing for the protection of the human frame against the winter cold4 ,reindeer1 seal1 and dog skins are deftly converted into hoods1 jackets1 trousers1 and boots4 ,the last-named are triumphs of ingenuity4 ,they are made of seal-skin1 which has been tanned by alternate freezing and thawing2 are sewed with sinew1 and 8crimped0 and fitted to the foot with equal taste and skill4 ,dr4 ,hayes informs us that the ,greenland women1 not exempt from the love of finery characteristic of their sex1 trim their own boots in a perfectly bewitching manner1 and adopt the gayest of colours4 ,red boots1 or white1 trimmed with red1 he says1 seemed most generally worn1 though there was no more limit to the variety than to the capriciousness of the fancy which suggested it4 ,and it would be difficult to imagine a more grotesque spectacle than is presented by the crowd of red1 and yellow1 and white1 and purple1 and blue-legged women who crowd the beach whenever a strange ship enters the harbour4 ,the population of ,upernavik numbers now about two hundred and fifty souls2 comprising some forty or fifty ,danes1 a larger number of half-breeds1 the remainder being native ,greenlanders1--that is1 ,eskimos4 ,illustration3 ,,disco ,,island1 ,,greenland4 ,in describing one ,danish settlement we describe all1 for they present exactly the same characteristics1 the difference between them being only a question of population4 ,illustration3 ,,godhav',n1 ,,disko ,,island1 ,,greenland4 ,jacobshav'n and ,godhav'n are situated on the island of ,disko1 which is separated from the west coast of ,greenland by ,weygat ,strait1 and has been described as one of the most remarkable localities in the ,arctic ,world4 ,the tradition runs that it was translated from a southern region to its present position by a potent sorcerer2 and an enormous hole in the rock is pointed out as the gully through which he passed his rope4 ,it is a lofty island1 and its coast is belted round by high trap cliffs1 of the most imposing aspect4 ,near its south-west extremity1 in lat4 #fi ,s41 a low rugged spur or tongue of granite projects into the sea for about a mile and a half1--a peninsula at low water1 and an island at high water1--and forms the snug little recess of ,godhav'n1 or ,good ,harbour4 ,to the north of the bay1 in face of rocky cliffs1 which rise perpendicularly from the sea to a height of #bjjj feet1 lies the town of the same name1 which our ,english whalers know as ,lievely1 probably a corruption of the adjective lively2 for the tiny colony is the metropolis of ,northern ,greenland2 and since the beginning of the present century has been the favourite rendezvous of the fishing fleets and expeditions of discovery4 99 99 99 99 99 ,further to the north lies ,jacobshav'n1 which possesses a celebrity of its own as one of the most ancient of the ,moravian mission-stations in the north of ,greenland4 ,besides a church1 it boasts of a college for the education and training of natives who desire to be of service to their fellow-countrymen in the capacity of catechists or teachers4 ,so great has been the industry1 and so well deserved is the influence of the missionaries1 that it is difficult now to find an ,eskimo woman in this part of ,greenland who cannot read and write4 ,prior to the ,danish colonisation of ,greenland1 the language of the natives was exclusively oral4 ,only through the medium of speech could they represent their simplest ideas2 and the picture-writing of the ,north ,american ,indians was beyond their skill4 ,but the missionaries have raised the ,eskimo tongue into the rank of written languages4 ,at ,godthaab a printing-press is in full operation1 and has already produced some very interesting historical narratives and ,eskimo traditions4 ,illustration3 ,,danish ,,settlement ,,of ,,jacobshav',n1 ,,greenland4 ,as is the case with all the ,greenland colonies1 ,jacobshav'n owes its prosperity to the seal-fishing4 ,moreover1 the ,greenland1 or 8right0 whale1 in its annual migrations southward1 enters the neighbouring waters during the month of ,september1 and furnishes employment to the fishing population4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,jacobshav'n an enormous glacier1 one of the offshoots of the great central mer de glace of ,greenland1 finds its way to the sea4 ,yet the temperature is said to be milder than at ,godhav'n4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following remarks apply1 of course1 to those ,eskimos who still lead a nomadic life1 and have profited little or nothing by the ,christian civilization of the ,danish settlements and ,moravian missions4 ,among themselves the ,eskimos are known as ,inuits1 or 8men20 the seamen of the ,hudson ,bay ships have long been accustomed to call them ,seymos or ,suckemos--names derived from the cries of ,seymo or ,teymo with which they hail the arrival of the traders2 while the old ,norsemen designated them1 in allusion to their discordant shouts1 or by way of expressing their infinite contempt1 ,skraelingers1 8screamers0 or 8wretches40 ,the ,european feels impelled to pity the hard fate which condemns them to inhabit one of the dreariest and most inhospitable regions of the globe1 where only a few mosses and lichens1 or plants scarcely higher in the scale of creation1 can maintain a struggling existence2 where land animals and birds are few in number2 and where human life would be impossible but for the provision which the ocean waters so abundantly supply4 ,as they live in a great degree upon fish and the cetaceans1 they dwell almost always near the coast1 and never penetrate inland to any considerable distance4 ,in the east the ,eskimos1 for several centuries1 have been subjected to the civilizing influences of the ,english and the ,dutch2 in the west1 they have long been under the iron rule of the ,muscovite4 ,in the north and the centre their intercourse with ,europeans has always been casual and inconsiderable4 ,it will therefore be understood that the different branches of this wide-spread race must necessarily exhibit some diversity of character1 and that the same description of manners and mode of life will not in all points apply with equal accuracy to the savage and heathen ,eskimos of the extreme northern shores and islands1 the ,greek ,catholic ,alets1 the faithful servants of the ,hudson ,bay ,company1 and the disciples of the ,moravian ,brethren in ,labrador or ,greenland4 ,yet the differences are by no means important1 and it may be doubted whether any other race1 living under such peculiar conditions1 and extending over so vast an area1 can show so few and such inconsiderable specific varieties4 ,when one thinks of an ,eskimo1 one naturally calls up a certain image to one's mind3 that of a man of moderate stature or under medium size1 with a broad flat face1 narrow tapering forehead1 and narrow or more or less oblique eyes2 and this image or type will be found to be realized throughout the length and breadth of ,eskimo ,america4 ,the ,eskimo1 generally speaking1 would seem to have sprung from a ,mongol stock2 at all events1 he can claim no kinship with the ,red ,indians4 ,happily for ,europeans1 if inferior to the latter in physical qualities1 he is superior in generosity and amiability of disposition4 ,the ,eskimos are sometimes spoken of as if they were dwarfs or ,lilliputians1 but such is not the case4 ,they are shorter than the average ,frenchman or ,englishman1 but individuals measuring from five feet ten inches to six feet have been found in ,camden ,bay4 ,dr4 ,kane speaks of ,eskimos in ,smith ,strait who were fully a foot taller than himself4 ,it is true of the females1 however1 that they are comparatively little4 ,the ,eskimos are a stalwart1 broad-shouldered race1 considerably stronger than any other of the races of ,north ,america4 ,in both sexes the hands and feet are small and well-shaped4 ,their muscles are strongly developed1 owing to constant exercise in hunting the seal and the walrus4 ,they are also powerful wrestlers1 and on no unequal terms could compete with the athletic celebrities of ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,their physiognomy1 notwithstanding its lack of beauty1 is far from displeasing2 its expression is cheerful and good-tempered1 and the long winter night does not seem to sadden their spirits or oppress their energies4 ,the females are well made1 and though not handsome1 are scarcely to be stigmatized as ugly4 ,their teeth are very white and regular2 and their complexion is warm1 clear1 and good4 ,it is true that it cannot be seen to advantage1 owing to the layers of dirt by which it is obscured2 but it is not much darker than a dark brunette1 and as for the dirt--well1 perhaps1 it is preferable to cosmetics6 ,even in the ,arctic ,world1 woman seems conscious of the influence of her charms1 and man seems willing to recognize it4 ,they plait their black and glossy hair--these ,eskimo beauties6--with much care and taste2 and they tattoo their forehead1 cheeks1 and chin with a few curved lines1 which produce a not altogether unpleasant effect4 ,from ,behring ,straits eastward1 as far as the river ,mackenzie1 the males pierce the lower lip near each angle of the mouth1 in order to suspend to it ornaments of blue or green quartz1 or of ivory1 shaped like buttons4 ,some insert a small ivory quill or dentalium shell in the cartilage of the nose4 ,they decorate themselves1 moreover1 with strings of glass beads2 or when and where these cannot be obtained1 with strings of the teeth of the musk-ox1 wolf1 or fox2 hanging them to the tail of the jacket1 or twining them round the waist like a girdle4 ,the influence of climate upon dress is a subject which we commend to the notice of art-critics and sthetic philosophers4 ,within the ,arctic ,circle the problem to be solved is1 how to obtain the greatest amount of protection for the person1 without rendering the costume too heavy or cumbrous2 and the ,eskimos have succeeded in solving it satisfactorily4 ,they can defy the rigour of the ,arctic winter1 its extreme cold1 its severest gales1 and pursue their avocations in the open air even in the dreariness of the early winter twilight1 so cleverly adapted is their garb to the conditions under which they live4 ,their boots1 made of seal-skin1 and lined with the downy skins of birds1 are thoroughly waterproof2 their gloves are large1 but defend the hands from frost-bite3 they wear two pair of breeches1 made of reindeer or seal-skin1 of which the under pair has the close1 warm1 stimulating hair close to the flesh2 and two jackets1 of which the upper one is provided with a large hood1 completely enveloping the head and face1 all but the eyes4 ,the women are similarly attired1 except that their outer jacket is a little longer1 and the hood1 in which they carry their children1 considerably larger2 and that1 in summer1 they substitute for the skin-jacket a water-tight shirt1 or kamleika1 made of the entrails of the seal or walrus4 ,they sew their boots so tightly as to render them impervious to moisture1 and so neatly that they may almost be included in the category of works of art4 ,in ,labrador the women carry their infants in their boots1 which have a long pointed flap in front for the purpose4 ,in a preceding chapter we have spoken incidentally of the ,eskimo huts4 ,these1 like the ,eskimo dress1 are admirably adapted to the circumstances of the country and the nature of the climate4 ,the materials used are either frozen snow1 earth1 stones1 or drift-wood4 ,the snow-hut is a dome-shaped edifice1 constructed in the following manner3-- ,first1 the builders trace a circle on the smooth level surface of the snow1 and the snow gathered within the area thus defined is cut into slabs1 and used for building the walls1 leaving the ice underneath to serve as the flooring4 ,the crevices between the slabs1 and any accidental fissures1 are closed up by throwing a few shovelfuls of loose snow over the building4 ,two men are generally engaged in the work2 and when the dome is completed1 the one within cuts a low door1 through which he creeps4 ,as the walls are not more than three or four inches thick1 they admit a soft subdued light into the interior1 but a window of transparent ice is generally added4 ,not only the hut1 but the furniture inside it1 is made of snow2 snow seats1 snow tables1 snow couches--the latter rendered comfortable by coverings of skins4 ,to exclude the cold outer air1 the entrance is protected by an antechamber and a porch2 and for the purposes of intercommunication1 covered passages are carried from one hut to another4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,an ,,eskimo ,,hut4 ,the rapidity with which these snow-huts are raised is quite surprising1 and certainly affords a vivid illustration of the old saying that 8practice brings perfection40 ,captain ,m',clintock for a few nails hired four ,eskimos to erect a hut for his ship's crew2 and though it was twenty-four feet in circumference1 and five and a half feet in height1 it was erected in a single day4 ,much ingenuity is frequently displayed in their construction4 ,dr4 ,scoresby1 in #ahbd1 found some deserted huts on the east coast of ,greenland1 which showed no little constructive skill on the part of their builders4 ,a horizontal tunnel1 about fifteen feet in length1 and so low that a person entering it was compelled to crawl on his hands and knees1 opened with one end to the south1 while the other end terminated in the interior of the hut4 ,this rose but slightly above the surface of the earth1 and being generally overgrown with moss or grass1 could scarcely be distinguished from the neighbouring soil4 ,it resembled1 indeed1 a large ant-hill1 or the work of a mammoth mole6 ,in some cases the floor of the tunnel was on a level with that of the hut2 but more frequently it slanted downwards and upwards1 so that the colder1 and consequently heavier1 atmospheric air was still more completely prevented from mixing too quickly with the warmer air within4 ,the other arrangements exhibited the same ingenuity in providing against the inconveniences of a rigorous climate4 ,from the huts of the ,eskimos we pass to their boats4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eskimo ,,kayak4 ,the kayak or baidar is as good in its way as the light and swift canoe of the ,polynesian islanders4 ,it consists of a narrow1 long1 and light wooden framework1 covered water-tight with seal-skin1 with a central aperture for the body of the rower4 ,sometimes the frame is made of seal or walrus bone4 ,the ,eskimo takes his seat in his buoyant craft1 with legs outstretched1 and binds a sack--which is made from the intestines of the whale1 or the skins of young seals--so tightly round his waist1 that even in a rolling sea the boat remains water-tight4 ,dexterously and rapidly using his paddle1 with his spear or harpoon before him1 and preserving his equilibrium with marvellous steadiness1 he darts over the waves like an arrow2 and even if upset1 speedily rights himself and his buoyant skiff4 ,the oomiak1 or woman's boat1 consists in like manner of a framework covered with seal-skins2 but it is large enough to accommodate ten or twelve people1 with benches for the women who row or paddle4 ,the mast supports a triangular sail1 made of the entrails of seals1 and easily distended by the wind4 ,it has been observed that a similar degree of inventive and executive skill is displayed by the ,eskimos in their spears and harpoons1 their fishing and hunting implements4 ,their oars are tastefully inlaid with walrus teeth2 they have several kinds of spears or darts1 according to the character of the animal they intend to hunt2 and their bows1 with strings of seal-gut1 are so strong and elastic as to drive a six-foot arrow a really considerable distance4 ,the harpoons and spears used in killing whales or seals have long shafts of wood or bone1 and the barbed point is so constructed that1 when lodged in the body of an animal1 it remains imbedded1 while the shaft attached to it by a string is loosened from the socket1 and acts as a buoy4 ,seal-skins filled with air1 like bladders1 are also employed as buoys for the whale-spears1 being stripped from the animal with such address that all the natural apertures are easily made air-tight4 ,fish-hooks1 knives1 and spear or harpoon heads1 the ,eskimos make of the horns and bones of the deer4 ,in constructing their sledges1 and roofing their huts1 they have recourse to the ribs of the whale1 when drift-wood is not available4 ,strips of seal-skin hide are a capital substitute for cordage1 and cords for nets and bow-strings are manipulated from the sinews of musk-oxen and deer4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eskimo ,,oomiak4 ,a strange and deadly antagonism prevails between the ,eskimos and the ,red ,indians4 ,on the part of the latter it would seem to originate in jealousy1 for the ,eskimos are superior in skill1 social habits1 general intelligence1 personal courage1 and strength2 on the part of the former1 in the necessity for self-defence and the provocations they have received from a sanguinary enemy4 ,hence1 the ,indians inhabiting the borders of the ,polar ,world seek every opportunity of surprising and massacring the inoffensive ,eskimos4 ,hearne relates that1 in the course of his expedition to the ,coppermine ,river1 the ,indians who accompanied him obtained information that a party of ,eskimos had raised their summer huts near the river-mouth4 ,in spite of his generous efforts1 they resolved on destroying the peaceful settlement4 ,stealthily they made their approach1 and when the midnight sun touched the horizon1 they swooped down1 with a frightful yell1 on their unfortunate victims1 not one of whom escaped4 ,with that love of torture which seems inherent in the ,red ,indian1 they did their utmost to intensify and prolong the agonies of the sufferers2 and one aged woman had both her eyes torn out before she received her death-blow4 ,the scene where this cruel slaughter took place is known to this day as the 8,bloody ,falls40 99 99 99 99 99 ,dr4 ,kane supplies some interesting particulars of a party of ,eskimos with whom he became acquainted during his memorable expedition4 ,the intimacy began under unfavourable circumstances1 for three of the party had been detected in a scandalous theft1 had attempted to carry off their plunder1 were pursued1 overtaken1 and punished4 ,soon afterwards1 ,metek1 the head man or chief1 arrived on the scene1 and a treaty of peace was concluded4 ,on the part of the ,inuit1 or ,eskimos1 it ran as follows3-- 8,we promise that we will not steal4 ,we promise we will bring you fresh meat4 ,we promise we will sell or lend you dogs4 ,we will keep you company whenever you want us1 and show you where to find the game40 ,on the part of the ,kablunah1 or white men1 it ran as follows3-- 8,we promise that we will not visit you with death or sorcery1 nor do you any hurt or mischief whatsoever4 ,we will shoot for you on our hunts4 ,you shall be made welcome aboard ship4 ,we will give you presents of needles1 pins1 two kinds of knife1 a hoop1 three bits of hard wood1 some fat1 an awl1 and some sewing-thread2 and we will trade with you of these and everything else you want for walrus and seal meat of the first quality40 ,the treaty1 says ,dr4 ,kane1 was not solemnized by an oath2 but it was never broken4 ,the ,eskimo settlement at ,anatoak1 lat4 #gc ,n1 on the shore of ,smith ,strait1 near ,cape ,inglefield1 seems to merit description4 ,the hut or iglo was a single rude elliptical apartment1 built not unskilfully of stone1 the outside lined with sods4 ,at its further end1 a rude platform1 also of stone1 was raised about a foot above the entering floor4 ,the roof was irregularly curved4 ,it was composed of flat stones1 remarkably large and heavy1 arranged so as to overlap each other1 but apparently without any intelligent application of the principle of the arch4 ,the height of this cave-like abode barely permitted one to sit upright4 ,its length was eight feet1 its breadth seven feet1 and an expansion of the tunnelled entrance made an appendage of perhaps two feet more4 ,the true winter-entrance is called the tossut4 ,it is a walled tunnel1 ten feet long1 and so narrow that a man can hardly crawl along it4 ,it opens outside below the level of the iglo1 into which it leads by a gradual ascent4 ,thus the reader will see that the hut at ,anatoak was constructed on the same principles as the huts discovered by ,dr4 ,scoresby4 ,time had done its work1 says ,dr4 ,kane1 on the iglo of ,anatoak1 as among the palatial structures of more southern deserts4 ,the entire front of the dome had fallen in1 closing up the tossut1 or tunnel1 and forcing visitors and residents to enter at the solitary window above it4 ,the breach was wide enough to admit a sledge-team2 but the ,eskimos showed no anxiety to close it up4 ,their clothes saturated with the freezing water of the floes1 these men of iron gathered round a fire of hissing and flaring whale's blubber1 and steamed away in apparent comfort4 ,the only departure from their usual routine was suggested probably by the open roof and the bleakness of the night2 and therefore they refrained from stripping themselves naked before coming into the hut1 and hanging up their dripping vestments to dry1 like a votive offering to the god of the sea4 ,their kitchen implements were remarkable for simplicity4 8,a rude saucer-shaped cup of seal-skin1 to gather and hold water in1 was the solitary utensil that could be dignified as table-furniture4 ,a flat stone1 a fixture of the hut1 supported by other stones just above the shoulder-blade of a walrus1--the stone slightly inclined1 the cavity of the bone large enough to hold a moss-wick and some blubber2 a square block of snow was placed on the stone1 and1 as the hot smoke circled round it1 the seal-skin saucer caught the water that dripped from the edge4 ,they had no vessel for boiling2 what they did not eat raw they baked upon a hot stone4 ,a solitary coil of walrus-line1 fastened to a movable lance-head 7noon-ghak71 with the well-worn and well-soaked clothes on their backs1 completed the inventory of their effects40 ,the ,eskimos entertained ,dr4 ,kane and his companions with a choral performance1 singing their rude1 monotonous song of 8,amna ,ayah0 till the unfortunate white men were almost maddened by the discord4 ,they improvised1 moreover1 a special chant in their honour1 which they repeated with great gravity of utterance1 invariably concluding with the sonorous and complimentary refrain of 8,nalegak6 nalegak6 nalegak-soak60--8,captain6 captain6 great captain60 ,the chant ran as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,am-na-yah6 ,am-na-yah6 ,am-na-yah6 ,am-na-yah6 ,in the early spring the ,eskimos resume their hunting expeditions1 and their snow-covered huts are transformed into scenes of the liveliest activity4 ,stacks of jointed meat1 chiefly walrus1 are piled upon the ice-foot2 the women stretch the hide for sole-leather1 and the men collect a store of harpoon-lines for the winter4 ,tusky walrus heads stare at the spectacle from the snowbank1 where they are stowed for their ivory2 the dogs are tethered to the ice2 and the children1 each one armed with the curved rib of some big walrus or seal1 play ball and bat among the snow-drifts4 ,the quantity of walrus meat which the ,eskimos accumulate during a season of plenty should certainly raise them above all risk of winter want2 but other causes than improvidence render their supplies scanty4 ,they are never idle2 they hunt incessantly without the loss of a day4 ,when the storms prevent the use of the sledge1 they occupy themselves in stowing away the spoils of previous hunts4 ,for this purpose they dig a pit either on the mainland1 or1 which is preferred1 on an island inaccessible to foxes1 and the jointed meat is stacked inside1 and covered with heavy stones4 ,the true explanation of the scarcity from which these people so frequently suffer is the excessive consumption in which they indulge during the summer season4 ,by their ancient laws all share in common2 and since they migrate in numbers when their necessities press them1 the tax on each separate settlement is excessive4 ,the quantity which the members of a family consume seems excessive to a stranger2 yet it is not the result of inconsiderate gluttony1 but due to their peculiarities of life and organization4 ,in active exercise1 and under the influence of exposure to a severe temperature1 the waste of carbon must be enormous4 ,when in-doors1 and at rest1 engaged upon their ivory harness-rings1 fowl-nets1 or other household gear1 they eat1 as many eat in more civilized lands1 for mere animal enjoyment1 and to pass away the time4 ,but when engaged in the chase1 they take but one meal a day1 and that not until the day's labour is ended4 ,they go out upon the ice without breakfast1 and seldom eat anything until their return4 ,dr4 ,kane estimates the average ration of an ,eskimo in a season of plenty at eight to ten pounds of meat a day1 with soup and water to the extent of half a gallon4 ,such an allowance might almost have satisfied the appetite of ,gargantua6 99 99 99 99 99 ,dr4 ,hayes1 in the course of his adventurous ,arctic boat-journey1 held much intercourse with the ,eskimos1 and his impressions1 on the whole1 would seem to have been highly favourable4 ,his sketch of a couple whom he met in the neighbourhood of the ,eskimo colony of ,netlik is very amusing4 ,he describes them as a most unhuman-looking pair4 ,everything on and about them told of the battle they fought so gallantly and patiently with the elements4 ,from head to foot they were invested in a coat of ice and snow4 ,shapeless lumps of whiteness1 they resembled the snow-kings or statues which boys delight in making1 except that they possessed the faculty of motion4 ,their long1 heavy fox-skin coats1 reaching nearly to the knees1 and surmounted by a hood1 covering1 like a round lump1 all of the head but the face1 the bear-skin pantaloons and boots and mittens were saturated with snow4 ,their long1 black hair1 which fell from beneath their hoods over their eyes and cheeks1 their eyelashes1 the few hairs growing upon their chins1 the rim of fur around their faces1 all glittered with white frost--the frozen moisture of their breath4 ,each carried in his right hand a whip1 and in his left a lump of frozen meat and blubber4 ,the meat they flung down on the floor of ,dr4 ,hayes' hut2 then1 without pausing for an invitation1 they thrust their whipstocks under the rafters1 and divesting themselves of their mittens and outer garments1 hung them thereon4 ,underneath their frosty coats they wore a warm1 close shirt of bird-skins4 ,in the same bold explorer's narrative of his voyage of discovery in #ahfj1 two other ,eskimos figure very conspicuously2 and one of these1 named ,hans1 would seem to have been a very fair type of the ,eskimo character4 ,hans1 we may observe1 had originally served in ,dr4 ,kane's expedition1 and had then gained the confidence of ,dr4 ,hayes2 so that when the latter undertook his own memorable voyage1 he became anxious to secure the ,eskimo's services4 ,when his ship had crossed ,melville ,bay1 and lay in the grim shadows of ,cape ,york1 ,dr4 ,hayes bethought himself of the ,eskimo hunter4 ,he remembered to have heard that ,hans had fallen in love1 and taken a wife1 and repaired1 with her at his side1 to share the fortunes of the wild ,eskimos who inhabit the remote northern shores of ,baffin ,bay4 ,but ,dr4 ,hayes felt confident that the hunter1 having known something of the superior comfort and happiness of the social life of civilization1 would soon weary of his voluntary banishment1 and of the penury and hardships of the existence of the ,eskimo nomads4 ,he made up his mind that ,hans would return to ,cape ,york1 and there take up his residence1 in the hope of being picked up by some passing ship4 ,so ,dr4 ,hayes stood close in-shore1 to find that his conjectures were completely realized4 ,as he sailed along the coast he discovered a group of human beings eagerly endeavouring by signs and gestures to attract attention4 ,heaving the schooner to1 he and his second in command1 ,mr4 ,sountag1 went ashore in a boat1 and there was ,hans6 ,the ,eskimo recognized both of them immediately1 and called them by name4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,hayes ,,falls ,,in ,,with ,,hans ,,the ,,hunter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we may adopt the remainder of ,dr4 ,hayes' interesting little episode1 because it illustrates the ingrained selfishness1 or self-concentration1 of the ,eskimo character4 ,hans had deteriorated greatly during his residence with the wild ,eskimos1 and he had sunk to their level of filthy ugliness4 ,he was accompanied by his wife1 who carried her first-born in a hood upon her back2 his wife's brother1 a quick-eyed boy of twelve years2 and his wife's mother1 8an ancient dame with voluble and flippant tongue40 ,they were all attired in the usual ,eskimo dress of skins2 objects of interest and curiosity1 but not 8things of beauty40 ,hans led his visitors1 over rough rocks and through deep drifts of snow1 to his rude hut1 which stood on the cold hill-top1 about two hundred feet above the sea-level4 ,an excellent position for a 8look-out10 but as inconvenient for a hunter as can well be imagined4 ,here he had watched and waited for many a dreary month2 surveying the sea day after day1 in the faint hope of discovering some ,european vessel4 ,but none came2 summer passed into winter1 and winter lengthened into summer2 and still ,hans watched and waited1 yearning after his southern home and the friends of his youth4 ,his tent--for it was rather a tent than a hut--was made of seal-skins1 and its capacity was scarcely sufficient to accommodate his little family4 ,dr4 ,hayes asked him if he would accompany the expedition4 8,yes40 ,would he take his wife and baby8 8,yes40 ,would he go without them8 8,yes40 ,this last answer reveals the curious unimpressionableness of the ,eskimo1 who endures with calmness1 nay1 even with indifference1 those partings which try the heartstrings of the ,european4 ,it is1 perhaps1 a result of the constant warfare he maintains against an uncongenial and austere ,nature that he comes to regard himself as his first and chief1 as almost his only concern4 ,so long as his wife and children surround him1 he shows no evident want of affection2 but he has no objection to part from them1 if the separation will prove to his individual interest4 ,as ,dr4 ,hayes had no leisure to examine critically into the state of his mind1 and as he cherished a conviction that the permanent separation of husband and wife was to be regarded as a painful event1 he determined on giving the ,eskimo mother the benefit of this conventional suspicion4 ,both husband and wife1 therefore1 were carried on board the schooner1 as well as their baby1 their tent1 and all their household goods4 ,the bright-eyed boy and the ancient dame cried to accompany them2 but ,dr4 ,hayes had no further room1 and was compelled to leave them to the care of their tribe1 who1 about twenty in number1 had discovered the schooner1 and with a merry shout had come across the hill4 ,after bestowing upon them some useful gifts1 ,dr4 ,hayes returned to his vessel4 ,he adds that ,hans was the only unconcerned person in the party4 ,at a later period the thought crossed his commander's mind that he would by no means have been displeased had wife and child been left to the charity of their savage kin3 while ,dr4 ,hayes had abundant reason1 during the course of the expedition1 to wish that he had left the selfish and indolent ,eskimo to linger in his seal-skin tent among the hills and rocks of ,cape ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the same traveller describes the hunting equipment of a party of ,eskimos setting out in pursuit of bears4 ,first1 the dogs4 ,these were picketed1 each team separately1 on a convenient area of level ground2 and on the approach of ,dr4 ,hayes and his companions they sprang up from the knotted heap1 in which they had been lying through the night1 with a wild1 fierce yell1 which died away into a low whine and impatient snarl4 ,they evidently were hungry1 and their masters seemed desirous of feeding them2 for1 going to their sledges1 each one brought up a flat piece of something which looked singularly like plate-iron1 but1 upon examination1 was found to be walrus-hide1 three-quarters of an inch thick1 and frozen intensely hard4 ,throwing it upon the snow a few feet in advance of their respective teams1 they drew their knives from their capacious boots1 and attempted to cut up the skin2 but its hardness defied all their efforts1 and ,dr4 ,hayes had to fetch hatchet and saw before the work of division could be completed4 ,during the few minutes thus occupied1 the dogs had become almost frantic4 ,they endeavoured to break loose2 pulling on their traces1 running back and springing forward1 straining and choking themselves until their eyes shot fire1 and the foam flew from their mouths4 ,the sight of food had stimulated their wolfish passions1 and they seemed ready to eat each other4 ,not a moment passed that two or more of them were not flying at each other's throats1 and1 grappling together1 rolled1 and tossed1 and tumbled over the snow4 ,the ,eskimos looked on apparently unconcerned1 except when there appeared a risk of one of the dogs being injured1 and then they secured a temporary calm by uttering an angry nasal 8,ay6 ,ay60 ,when at length the food was thrown1 the dogs uttered a greedy scream1 which was followed by a moment's silence while the pieces were falling1 then by a scuffle1 and the hard1 frozen chunks had vanished4 ,how they were swallowed1 or how they were digested1 was1 to the spectator1 inexplicable6 ,enough to say that 8the jaws of darkness did devour them up10 and calm instantaneously succeeded to the storm4 ,the ,eskimo dog is of medium size1 and squarely built2 in fact1 he is a reclaimed wolf1 and exhibits that variety of colour which1 after a few generations1 generally characterizes tame animals4 ,gray1 which is often seen1 was probably at one time the predominating colour4 ,some of the dogs are black1 with white breasts2 some are wholly white2 others are reddish or yellowish2 but1 indeed1 almost every shade may be seen amongst them4 ,their skin is covered with a coarse1 compact fur1 and is much valued by the natives for the purposes of clothing4 ,in the form of the animals the variety is considerable2 but the general characters would seem to be a pointed nose1 short ears1 a cowardly1 treacherous eye1 and a hanging tail4 ,but exceptions occasionally occur1 and one figures in ,dr4 ,hayes' narrative under the name of ,toodlamik1 or1 more briefly1 ,toodla4 ,he differed from his kind in having a more compact head1 a less pointed nose1 an eye denoting affection and reliance1 and an erect1 bold1 fearless carriage4 ,dr4 ,hayes1 however1 expresses some doubt as to his purity of blood4 ,from the beginning to the end of the cruise he was master of all the dogs that were brought to the ship4 ,in this connection it is worthy of remark1 that in every pack one dog invariably attains the mastership of the whole--a kind of major-generalship2 and in each team1 one who is master of his comrades1 a general of brigade4 ,once master1 always master2 but the post of honour is gained at the cost of many a lame leg and ghastly wound1 and is held only by doing daily battle against all comers4 ,these could easily gain the ascendancy in every case1 but for their own petty jealousies1 which often prevent their union for such a purpose4 ,if a combination1 however1 does happen to be brought about1 and the leader is hopelessly beaten1 he is never worth anything afterward2 his spirit is completely prostrated1 the poor fellow pines away1 and dies at last of a broken heart4 ,illustration3 ,,eskimo ,,dogs4 ,toodla1 says ,dr4 ,hayes1 was a character in his way4 ,he was a tyrant of no mean pretension4 ,apparently he thought it his special duty to attack every dog1 great or small1 that was added to the pack3 if the animal was a large one1 in order1 probably1 that he might at once be forced to feel that he had a master2 if a small one1 in order that the others might hold him in the greater awe4 ,it was sometimes quite amusing to see him set off in pursuit of a strange dog1 his head erect1 his tail curled gracefully over his back2 slowly and deliberately he went straight at his mark1 with the confident1 defiant air of one who recognizes the power and importance of his office4 ,leagues and conspiracies were not unfrequently formed against him1 induced1 no doubt1 by a feeling of despair2 but he always succeeded in overthrowing them1--not1 it is true1 without occasional assistance from 8without20 for the sailors1 who petted him greatly1 would sometimes take his part when the struggle was manifestly unequal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but we must leave the dogs1 and turn to the sledge4 ,this was1 in very truth1 an ingenious specimen of native mechanical skill4 ,it was made wholly of bone and leather4 ,the runners1 which were square behind and rounded upward in front1 and about five feet long1 seven inches high1 and three-fourths of an inch thick1 were slabs of bone2 not solid1 but made up of a number of pieces of various shapes and sizes1 dexterously fitted and tightly lashed together4 ,some of these were not larger than one's two fingers2 some were three or four inches square2 others were as large as one's hand1 and triangular in shape2 others1 again1 were several inches in length1 and two or three in breadth4 ,they all fitted into their several places as exactly as the blocks of a ,chinese puzzle4 ,near their margins ran rows of little holes1 and through these strings of seal-skin were inserted1 by which the blocks were fastened together1 until the whole was as firm as a board4 ,the marvel of the thing is that all these pieces are flattened and cut into the required shape1 not with nicely contrived instruments and tools1 but with stones4 ,the labour must be immense4 ,the grinding needed to make a single runner must be the work of months4 ,the construction of an entirely new sledge would probably occupy the lifetime of a generation2 and hence a vehicle of this kind becomes a family heirloom1 and is handed down from father to son1 and son to grandson1 and is constantly undergoing repair and restoration2 a new piece here1 another there1 until as little remains of the original structure as of the sailor's old knife1 when it had had a new blade and a new handle6 ,the origin of some of the ,eskimo sledges is lost in the mists of a remote antiquity4 ,the runners are usually shod with ivory from the tusk of the walrus4 ,the said ivory had likewise been ground flat1 and its corners made square1 with stones2 and it was fastened to the runner by a string looped through two counter-sunk holes4 ,the pieces of which it was composed were numerous2 but the surface was wonderfully uniform1 and as smooth as glass4 ,the runners stood about fourteen inches apart1 and were fastened together by bones1 tightly lashed to them2 the bones used being the femur of the bear1 the antlers of the reindeer1 and the ribs of the narwhal4 ,two walrus-ribs1 lashed one to the after-end of each runner1 served as upstanders1 and were braced by a piece of reindeer antler1 secured across the top4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having thus disposed of the team and the sledge1 we now come to the equipment4 ,first1 one of the ,eskimo hunters spread a piece of seal-skin over the sledge1 fastening it securely by little strings attached to its margin4 ,on this he placed a small piece of walrus-skin1 as a provision for the dogs2 a piece of blubber for fuel2 and of meat for his own lunch4 ,during his absence he would cook no food1 but he would want water2 and therefore he carried his kotluk1 or lamp--namely1 a small stone dish2 a lump of mannek or dried moss1 designed for the wick2 and some willow-blossoms 7na-owinals7 for tinder4 ,to ignite the tinder1 he had a piece of iron-stone and a small sharp fragment of flint4 ,illustration3 ,,eskimo ,,sledge ,,and ,,team4 ,we may follow him on his route1 and ascertain the use he makes of these appliances4 ,when he grows thirsty1 he halts2 scrapes away the snow until he lays bare the solid ice beneath2 and painfully scoops in it a small cavity4 ,next1 he fetches a block of fresh-water ice from a neighbouring berg1 lights his lamp1 and1 using the blubber for fuel1 proceeds to place the block on the edge of the cavity4 ,as it slowly thaws1 the water trickles down into the hole2 and when the ,eskimo thinks the quantity collected is sufficient to quench his thirst1 he removes the rude apparatus1 and1 stooping down1 drinks the soot-stained fluid4 ,if he feels hungry1 he breaks off a few chips from his lump of frozen walrus-beef1 cuts a few slices from the blubber1 and enjoys his unsatisfactory meal4 ,the inhabitant of the ,arctic desert knows nothing of epicurean tastes2 and if he did1 he has no means of gratifying them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to return to the equipment4 ,the hunter carried with him an extra pair of boots1 another of dog-skin stockings1 and another of mittens1 to be used in case he should be unfortunate enough to get on thin ice1 and the ice should break through4 ,the entire equipment being placed upon the sledge1 he threw over them a piece of bear-skin1 which was doubled1 so that1 when opened1 it would be large enough to wrap about his body and protect it from the snow1 if he wished to lie down and rest4 ,then he drew forth a long line1 fastened an end of it through a hole in the fore part of one of the runners1 ran it across diagonally to the opposite runner1 passed it through a hole there1 and so continued1 to and fro1 from side to side1 until he reached the other end of the sledge4 ,there he made fast the line1 and thus the cargo was secured against all risk of loss from an upset4 ,next he hung to one upstander a coil of heavy line1 and to the other a lighter coil1 tying them fast with a small string4 ,the former was his harpoon-line for catching walrus2 the latter1 for catching seal4 ,his harpoon staff was made from the tusk of the narwhal2 measured five feet in length1 and two inches in diameter at one end1 tapering to a point at the other4 ,all being ready1 the team1 consisting of seven dogs1 was brought up4 ,the harness was of a very primitive description4 ,it consisted of two doubled strips of bear-skin1 one of which was placed on either side of the animal's body1 the two being fastened together on the top of the neck and at the breast1 so as to form a collar4 ,thence they passed inside of the dog's fore legs and up along his flanks to the tail1 where the four ends meeting together were attached to a trace eighteen feet in length4 ,the trace was connected with the sledge by a line four feet long1 of which one end was attached to each runner4 ,and to the middle of the line a stout string was fastened1 running-through bone rings at the ends of the traces1 and secured by a slip-knot1 easily untied--an arrangement designed with the view of ensuring safety in bear-hunting4 ,the bear is hotly pursued until the sledge arrives within about fifty yards2 the hunter then leans forward and slips the knot2 the dogs1 set loose from the sledge1 quickly bring the brute to bay4 ,if the knot gets fouled1 serious accidents are not unlikely to occur4 ,the hunter vainly endeavours to extricate it1 and before he can draw his knife to cut it--supposing he is fortunate enough to have such an instrument--man1 and dogs1 and sledge are all among the bear's legs1 in a huddled and tangled heap1 and at the mercy of the enraged monster4 ,the dogs were cold1 and eager to start4 ,in a moment they were yoked to the sledge2 the hunter with his right hand threw out the coils of his long whip-lash1 with his left he seized an upstander1 and propelling the sledge a few paces1 he uttered at the same moment the shrill starting-cry1 8,ka6 ka6--ka6 ka60 which sent the dogs in a bound to their places1 and away they dashed over the rugged ice4 ,the hunter skilfully guided his sledge among the hummocks1 moderating the impetuosity of his team with the nasal 8,ay6 ay60 which they perfectly understand4 ,on reaching the smooth ice1 he dropped upon the sledge1 allowed his whip-lash to trail after him on the snow1 shouted 8,ka6 ka6--ka6 ka60 to his savage team1 and disappeared in as wild a gallop as ever was taken by the demon huntsman of ,german legend6 99 99 99 99 99 ,it does not appear that the ,eskimos have magistrates or laws1 yet the utmost good order prevails in their communities1 and quarrels are rare4 ,when these do occur1 one or other of the dissatisfied parties collects his little store1 and migrates to a different settlement4 ,the constitution of their society is rightly described as patriarchal1 but the ruler does not seem to be elected3 he attains his post by proving his possession of superior strength1 address1 and courage4 ,as soon as his physical powers give way1 or old age enfeebles his mind1 he deposes himself1 takes his seat in the oomiak1 or woman's boat1 and is relegated by common consent to female companionship4 ,like all savage tribes1 the ,eskimos have their mystery-men1 or angekoks1 who resort to the usual deceptions to acquire and retain supremacy1 swallowing knives1 resorting to ventriloquial artifices1 and conversing in a mysterious jargon1 unintelligible to 8the common herd40 ,they profess to hold intercourse with certain potent spirits1 and to employ their agency in rewarding or punishing their dupes2 and even the influence of the ,christian missionaries has hardly rooted out the belief in the superstitions originated and fostered by these men4 ,notwithstanding the hard conditions of their life1 and the dreariness of the region which they inhabit1 the ,eskimos are a cheerful people4 ,they are keenly sensible of the charms of music1 though their own vocalization is inconceivably melancholy2 and they are partial to many rude pastimes1 mostly of a gymnastic character4 ,their good nature has been praised by many travellers2 but they show the usual inhumanity of the savage towards the aged and infirm4 ,weakness is no title to the sympathy of the ,eskimo2 he respects strength1 but he utterly disregards and cruelly oppresses the feeble4 ,he is ungrateful towards his benefactors1 and in his intercourse with strangers his fidelity can be relied upon only so long as he knows that any breach of faith will be severely punished4 ,he does not steal from his own people1 and 8,tiglikpok10 8he is a thief10 is a reproach among the ,eskimos as among ourselves2 but no shame attaches to him if he robs the white man1 though the latter may have loaded him with favours4 ,if we add that they display a strong affection for their children1 and that the children are singularly docile and obedient to their parents1 we shall have said enough to assist the reader in forming an accurate conception of the characteristics of the inhabitants of the ,eskimo ,land4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,lapland ,,and ,,the ,,lapps4 ,lapland1 or the ,land of the ,lapps1 which the ,lapps themselves call ,sameanda or ,somellada1 forms the north and north-eastern portions of the ,scandinavian peninsula1 and is divided between ,sweden and ,russia4 ,norwegian ,lapland includes the provinces of ,norrland and ,finmark2 ,swedish1 of ,north and ,south ,bothnia2 and ,russian1 of ,kola and ,kemi4 ,the last-named has an area of #aa1cjj square miles1 with a population of #ijjj2 ,swedish ,lapland1 an area of #ej1fjj square miles1 with #djjj inhabitants2 and ,norwegian1 an area of #bf1ejj square miles1 with a population of #ejjj4 ,we are here referring to the number of true ,lapps2 in each division the population would be largely increased if we included ,finns1 ,russians1 ,swedes1 ,norwegians4 ,lapland1 for nine months in the year1 is blighted by the rigour of a winter climate4 ,the summer months1 when the sun does not set for several weeks1 are ,july and ,august2 and these are preceded by a brief spring1 and followed by even a briefer autumn4 ,cereals do not thrive higher than the sixty-sixth parallel1 with the exception of barley1 which is cultivated as far north as the seventieth4 ,the greater part of the country comes within that wooded zone which we described in an earlier chapter1 and the forests1 consisting of birch1 pine1 fir1 and alder1 spread over a very extensive area4 ,on the mosses and lichens which grow abundantly in their shelter1 are fed the immense herds of reindeer which constitute the principal wealth of the inhabitants4 ,the ,lapps may almost be regarded as a nation of ,lilliputians4 ,their men seldom exceed five feet in height1 while the majority are some inches below that very moderate stature2 and the women are even shorter4 ,they are1 however1 a robust race1 with muscular limbs1 and unusual girth of body1 the circumference of their chest being nearly equal to their height4 ,their complexion is dark1 tawny1 or copper-coloured2 their dark1 piercing1 deep-sunken eyes are set very wide apart1 so as to communicate a peculiar character to the physiognomy4 ,the wild1 strange effect is further increased by the unkempt masses of dark1 lank1 straight hair which droop on either side of the whiskerless1 beardless face4 ,the cheek-bones are prominent1 like those of a ,celtic ,highlander2 the nose is flat2 the mouth wide1 with thin compressed lips4 ,it may be supposed that the ,lapps1 from these indications1 are not models of masculine or feminine beauty2 and ,dr4 ,clarke asserts that1 when aged1 many of them1 if exposed in a menagerie1 might be mistaken for the long-lost transitional form intermediate between man and ape4 ,and1 certainly1 there is something repulsive in the constant blinking of eyes rendered sore by the pungent smoke of their huts1 or the white glare of the snow1 as well as in the expression of obstinacy and low cunning which one reads in every feature4 ,an aristocrat might be proud of their small and finely-shaped hands2 but their arms1 like their legs1 are disproportionately short1 clumsy1 and thick4 ,clumsy1 we mean1 in shape2 certainly not in movement1 for the extraordinary flexibility of their limbs is one of the traits by which a ,lapp is easily distinguished4 ,of the dress of the ,lapps it is needless to say much4 ,in winter it consists of bears' skins1 in which both male and female wrap themselves up1 with the fur outward4 ,in summer the men wear a sort of tunic1 the poesk1 made of coarse light-coloured woollen cloth1 depending to the knee1 but bound about the waist with a belt or girdle4 ,their head-gear consists of a kind of fez1 made of wool1 and adorned with a red worsted band round the rim1 and a bright red tassel4 ,their boots or shoes are cut from the raw skin of the reindeer1 with the hair outwards1 and they are peaked in shape4 ,they are thin1 and they have no lining2 but the ,lapp defends his feet and ankles from the cold by stuffing the vacant space of the boot with the broad leaves of the ,carex vesicaria1 or ,cyperus grass1 which he cuts in summer1 rubs in his hands1 and dries before using4 ,the female costume resembles that of the males1 but their girdles are gayer with rings and chains4 ,the ,lapps are a superstitious race4 ,like all the ,norse tribes1 they believe in witchcraft2 and of old the ,lapland witches had a reputation which extended to ,england1 for being able to ward off rain or disperse storms4 ,the ,english seamen trading to ,archangel frequently visited their coast in order to buy a favourable wind4 ,many of the ,lapps claim the ability to foretell future events1 and fall1 or pretend to fall1 into a trance or ecstasy1 during which they see visions1 utter prophecies1 and unlock the secrets of those who trust to their divination4 ,they also read the fortunes of inquiring dupes by means of a cup of liquor1 or by the vulgarest jargon of palmistry4 ,superstition is the daughter of ,ignorance4 ,it is also the sister of ,fear1 for the superstitious are invariably prone to see supernatural signs and wonders in the appearances of the heavens1 or to hear unearthly voices borne upon the midnight wind1 and in everything they cannot understand to imagine the presence of some antagonistic power4 ,as the ,american natives were panic-stricken at the occurrence of an eclipse1 so the ,lapps are filled with dread when the sky glows with the coruscations of the aurora4 ,these superstitions prevail in spite of the exertions of priests and schoolmasters4 ,they are nourished in secret even when they are not openly proclaimed2 and the ,lapp1 after listening devoutly to the harangue of his pastor1 will return home to offer homage to his saidas1 or wooden idols2 to cower at the name of ,trolls1 the evil spirit of the forest2 and to be deluded by the artifices of any so-called witch or fortune-teller4 ,there are ,lapps1 and ,lapps2 each1 according to the region he inhabits1 bearing his distinctive characteristics1 and preserving his individual habits4 ,thus1 there are the ,fjlllappars1 or ,mountain ,lapps2 the ,skogslappars1 or ,wood ,lapps2 and the ,fisherlapps4 ,from the nature of the country the reader will expect1 and will be right in expecting1 that the ,fjlllappars form the most numerous section4 ,they are the nomads of ,lapland1 and their mode of life is entirely pastoral4 ,as the ,arabs with their flocks move from one oasis to another1 or the ,tartars with their cattle1 so the ,lapps migrate from place to place1 compelled by the necessity of finding sustenance for their herds of reindeer4 ,the mosses and lichens on which these animals feed are soon exhausted1 and some time elapses before the half-frozen soil replaces them4 ,the same cause operates to prevent the ,lapps from assembling in large communities4 ,seldom more than three1 four1 or five families encamp in the same neighbourhood4 ,it will not be supposed that the temporary abode of a nomad exhibits any architectural completeness4 ,their tuguria1 or huts1 are of the rudest construction4 ,they raise a conical framework1 composed of the flexible stems of trees1 and this they cover with a coarse kind of canvas1 and in winter with the skins of reindeer and other animals4 ,no doorway is required1 and egress and ingress are provided for by turning up a portion of the canvas at the bottom1 so as to form a triangular gap2 and the portion so turned up is let down again at night4 ,in the centre of the interior some large stones are piled together for a fireplace1 and a square opening in the roof above carries off the smoke1 and lets in the light and air--not to say rain1 snow1 and fog1 when these prevail4 ,the tent or hut we have described generally measures about six feet in diameter1 and eighteen to twenty in circumference4 ,it does not exceed ten feet in height4 ,there is no floor1 but the ground is covered with reindeer skins1 and upon these the inhabitants sit or crouch by day1 and huddle themselves up at night4 ,the household utensils1 implements1 and weapons are suspended from the sides of the hut2 and the clothing of the family1 no very extensive stock1 is preserved in a chest4 ,on a shelf or platform1 raised high above the reach of dogs and wolves1 between two neighbouring trees1 the ,lapp keeps his store of dried reindeer flesh1 and cheese1 and curds2 for his diet is as plain as his general habit of living4 ,his herd of reindeer he puts up at night1 or when they are required for milking1 in a large enclosure1 about four hundred to five hundred feet in circuit1 formed by a barrier of posts and stumps of trees1 supporting a row of horizontal poles4 ,against the latter birch poles and branches of trees are placed diagonally1 forming a kind of abattis1 which is found to be a sufficient security against the attacks of wolves4 ,it is said that the milking of a herd of reindeer affords a lively and picturesque spectacle4 ,when they have been driven within the area1 and all the outlets closed1 a ,lapp1 selecting a long cord or thong1 twists both ends round his left hand1 and then in his right gathers the thong itself in loose coils4 ,fixing on a reindeer1 he flings the coils over its antlers4 ,sometimes the latter offers no resistance2 but generally1 on feeling the touch of the thong1 it darts away1 and its pursuer1 in order to secure it1 is called upon for the most vigorous efforts4 ,and the scene is animated indeed1 when half-a-dozen reindeer1 pursued by as many ,lapps1 sweep round and round the enclosure1 until the former are finally overcome1 or1 as now and then happens1 wrest the cord from the hands of the discomfited ,lapp1 and leave him prostrate on the ground4 ,when the animal is secured1 his master takes a dexterous hitch of the thong round his muzzle and head1 and then fastens him to the trunk of a prostrate tree4 ,the operation of milking is performed by both men and women4 ,as soon as the pasture in the neighbourhood is exhausted1 the encampment is broken up1 and the little company migrate to some fresh station4 ,the rude tuguria are dismantled in less than half an hour1 and packed with all the household furniture on the backs of the reindeer1 who1 by long training1 are inured to serve as beasts of burden4 ,on the journey they are bound together1 five and five1 with leather thongs1 and led by the women over the mountains2 while the father of the family precedes the march to select a suitable site for the new encampment1 and his sons or servants follow with the remainder of the herd4 ,as spring verges upon summer1 the ,lapps abandon their mountain pastures1 and move towards the shore4 ,no sooner do the reindeer scent the keen sea-air than1 breaking loose from all control1 they dash headlong into the briny waves of the fiord1 and drink long draughts of the salt sea-water4 ,the ,lapps consider this sea-side migration essential to the health of their herds4 ,when summer reaches its meridian1 and the snow melts1 they return to the pleasant mountain-solitudes1 ascending higher and higher1 according to the increase of temperature4 ,then1 on the approach of winter1 they retire into the woods1 where their great difficulty is to defend their herds and themselves from the attacks of the wolves4 ,in this incessant warfare they derive much assistance from the courage of their dogs4 ,these are about the size of a ,scotch terrier1 with long shaggy hair1 and a head bearing a curiously close resemblance to that of a lynx4 ,illustration3 ,,reindeer ,,in ,,lapland4 ,in the winter the ,lapp accomplishes his journeys either by sledging or skating4 ,their skates are not exactly things of beauty1 but they answer their purpose admirably4 ,one is as long as the person who wears it2 the other is about a foot shorter4 ,the feet of the wearer are placed in the middle1 and the skates1 or skidas1 fastened to them by thongs or withes4 ,they are made of fir-wood1 and covered with the skins of reindeer1 which check any backward movement by acting like bristles against the snow4 ,it is astonishing with what speed the ,lapp1 thus equipped1 can traverse the frozen ground4 ,the most dexterous skater on the canals of ,holland could not outstrip him4 ,he runs down the swiftest wild beasts2 and the exercise so stimulates and warms his frame that1 even in mid-winter1 when pursuing one of these lightning-like courses1 he can dispense with his garment of furs4 ,when he wishes to stop1 he makes use of a long pole1 which is provided with a round ball of wood near the end1 to prevent it from sinking too deep into the snow4 ,he is no less expert as a sledger4 ,his vehicle1 or pulka1 is fashioned like a boat1 with a convex bottom1 so as to slip over the snow with all the greater ease2 the prow is sharp and pointed1 but the hind part flat4 ,perhaps it may better be compared to a punt than a boat4 ,at all events1 in this curious vehicle the ,lapp is bound and swathed1 like an infant in its cradle4 ,to preserve its equilibrium1 he trusts to the dexterity with which he moves his body to and fro1 and from side to side1 as may be needed2 and he guides it by means of a stout pole4 ,his steed1 a reindeer1 is fastened to it by traces attached to its collar1 and connected with the fore part of the sledge2 the reins are twisted round its horns2 and all about its trappings are hung a number of little bells1 in the tintinnabulation of which the animal greatly delights4 ,thus accoutred1 it will perform a journey of fifty or sixty miles a day2 sometimes travelling fifty miles without pause1 and with no other refreshment than an occasional mouthful of snow4 ,illustration3 ,,travelling ,,in ,,lapland4 ,with wonderful accuracy the ,lapp will guide himself and his steed through a seemingly labyrinthine wilderness1 when the usual signs and characters of the landscape are buried deep in snow4 ,but his memory is tenacious1 and a blighted tree1 or a projecting crag1 or a clump of firs1 affords him a sufficient indication of the correctness of his course4 ,he frequently continues his rapid journey throughout the night1 when the moon invests the gleaming plains with a strange brilliancy1 or the aurora fills both earth and heaven with the reflection of its wondrous fires4 ,a ,french traveller1 ,m4 de ,saint-,blaize1 is of opinion that the ,lapps1 like all savage and semi-civilized races1 are rapidly diminishing in numbers4 ,yet this diminution is hardly owing to the conditions under which they live4 ,their life1 to the civilized ,european1 seems severe and almost intolerable2 but though it is marked by privation and fatigue1 it is not without its charms4 ,it is free and independent1 and without anxiety4 ,as for the privation and fatigue1 the ,lapp is hardly conscious of them1 because his capacity of endurance is great1 and he is accustomed to them from his earliest years4 ,temperate1 active1 and inured to exertion1 his physical frame is wonderfully vigorous1 and he knows nothing of the majority of maladies which afflict the dweller in cities4 ,one terrible disease1 indeed1 he does not escape1 and this may have had much to do with their decline1--the smallpox4 ,otherwise1 they are a healthy as well as a hardy race4 ,if during a journey a ,lapp woman gives birth to a child1 she places the new-born in a frame of hollow wood1 in which a hole has been cut to receive the little one's head2 then slings this rude cradle on her back1 and continues her march4 ,when she halts1 she suspends the infant and its cradle to a tree1 the wirework with which it is covered affording a sufficient protection against wild beasts4 ,professor ,forbes1 however1 describes a more comfortable cradle1 which is cut out of solid wood1 and covered with leather1 in flaps so arranged as to lace across the top with leathern thongs2 the inside is lined with reindeer moss1 and a pillow1 also of reindeer moss1 is provided for the head of the infant1 who fits the space so exactly that it can stir neither hand nor foot4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,lapp is a bold hunter1 and will encounter the bear single-handed4 ,like the ,siberian1 he entertains a superstitious reverence for this powerful animal1 which he regards as the wisest and most acute of all the beasts of the field1 and supposes to know and hear all that is said about it2 but as its fur is valuable and its flesh well-favoured1 he does not refrain from pursuing it to the death1 though careful1 so to speak1 to kill it with the highest respect4 ,early in winter the bear retires to a rocky cave1 or a covert of branches1 leaves1 and moss1 and there remains1 without food1 and in a state of torpidity1 until the spring recalls him to active life4 ,after the first snow-fall1 the ,lapp hunters seek the forest1 and search for traces of their enemy4 ,these being found1 the spot is carefully marked1 and after a few weeks they return1 arouse the slumbering brute1 and stimulate it to an attack2 for to shoot it while asleep1 or1 indeed1 to use any weapon but a lance1 is considered dishonourable4 ,hogguer1 whose narrative is quoted by ,hartwig1 accompanied a couple of ,lapps1 well armed with axes and stout lances1 on one of these dangerous expeditions4 ,when about a hundred paces from the bear's den1 the party halted1 and one of the ,lapps advanced shouting1 and his comrades made all the din they could4 ,he ventured within twenty paces of the cavern1 and then threw stones into it4 ,for awhile all was quiet1 and ,hogguer began to think they had come upon an empty den2 but suddenly an angry growl was heard4 ,the hunters now renewed and redoubled their clamour1 until slowly1 like an honest citizen roused from his virtuous sleep by a company of roisterers1 the animal came forth from his lair4 ,at first he seemed indifferent and lethargic2 but1 catching sight of his nearest enemy1 he was filled with rage1 uttered a short but terrible roar1 and rushed headlong upon him4 ,the ,lapp1 with his lance in rest1 awaited the onset calmly1 while the bear1 coming to close quarters1 reared himself on his haunches1 and struck at his antagonist with his fore paws4 ,to avoid these powerful strokes1 the daring huntsman crouched1 and then1 with a sudden spring1 drove his lance1 impelled by a sturdy arm1 and guided by a sure eye1 into the creature's heart4 ,the victor escaped with only a slight wound on the hand1 but the marks of the bear's teeth were found deeply impressed on the iron spear-head4 ,according to an old custom1 the wives of the hunters assemble in one of their huts1 and as soon as they hear them returning1 raise a loud discordant chant in honour of the bear4 ,when the men1 loaded with their booty of skin and flesh1 draw near1 it is considered necessary to receive them with words of reproach and insult1 and they are not allowed to enter through the door2 they are compelled1 therefore1 to obtain admission through a hole in the wall4 ,but when the animal's manes have been thus propitiated1 the women are not less eager than the men to make the most of its carcass2 and after the skin1 fat1 and flesh have been removed1 they cut up the body1 and bury it with great ceremony1 the head first1 then the neck1 next the fore paws1 and so on1 down to the animal's 8last10--its tail4 ,this is done from a wild belief that the bear rises from the dead1 and if it has been properly interred1 will kindly allow itself to be killed a second time by the same hunter6 ,the principal article of food of the ,lapps is reindeer venison4 ,this they boil1 and it supplies them both with meat and broth4 ,in summer they vary their bill of fare with cheese and reindeer milk2 and the rich eat a kind of bread or cake1 baked upon hot iron plates or 8girdles40 ,for luxuries they resort to brandy and tobacco2 and these are not less appreciated by the women than by the men4 ,as for the latter1 they are never seen without a pipe1 except at meals2 and the first salutation which a ,lapp addresses to a stranger is a demand for 8tabak0 or 8braendi40 ,dr4 ,clarke tells us that on paying a visit to one of their tents1 he gave the father of the family about a pint of brandy1 and as he saw him place it behind his bed1 near the margin of the tent1 he concluded it would be economically used4 ,in a few minutes the daughter entered1 and asked for a dram1 on the ground that she had lost her share while engaged upon domestic duties outside4 ,the old ,lapp made no reply1 but slily crept round the exterior of the tent until he came to the place where the brandy was concealed4 ,then1 thrusting in his arm1 he drew forth the precious bottle1 and emptied its contents at a draught4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we find no great difference of habits existing between the ,mountain ,lapp and the ,skogs or ,forest ,lapp1 except that the latter takes up fishing as a summer pursuit1 and devotes the winter months to his herds and the chase4 ,but in course of time his herds demanding more attention than he can give to them1 he is transformed into a ,fisher ,lapp1 who dwells always upon the sea-coast1 and is at once the filthiest and least civilized of the race4 ,he resembles the ,mountain ,lapp in his love of tobacco and brandy4 ,he differs from him in never migrating1 and in wholly abandoning the pastoral life4 ,illustration3 ,,fisher ,,lapps4 ,a picture of what the artists call a ,lapland 8interior10 of the domestic economy of a ,lapp hut1 is painted for us by the author of a recent book of travel1 entitled 8,try ,lapland40 ,after a long day's journey1 in the neighbourhood of ,lake ,randejaur1 weary and cold1 he and his companions came upon a small hut1 and had visions of obtaining a night's rest2 but a closer acquaintance with the hut convinced them that such a proceeding would be undesirable4 ,for1 knocking at the door1 and pulling up the latch1 they entered1 to see before them a family scene6 ,in an inconceivably dirty room stood a still dirtier beldame1 making coffee4 ,her husband1 an old man of seventy1 sat on one side2 while a hideous1 deformed little ,lapp1 whether man or woman they could hardly tell1 squatted on the floor on the other1 in full costume1 consisting of high-peaked blue cloth cap1 and reindeer-skin dress1 ornamented with beads and spangles4 ,her face was brown as a berry1 long lanky black hair streamed down her cheeks2 and1 staring at the intruders1 she begged for 8penge0 7money74 ,two young men were snoring in one bed1 and two boys in another placed opposite to it1 each being covered with a few reindeer-skins4 ,the entrance of the strangers aroused the sleepers to give one hasty look1 and then they snored again4 ,the lady of the house offered coffee2 and though everything looked so dirty as to create a positive feeling of disgust1 the travellers could not afford to be particular1 and accepted her offer1 which put her in a perfect ecstasy of delight4 ,quickly she scuttled off to the well for water1 and1 filling her kettle1 set to work to roast fresh coffee4 ,the old man got up and endeavoured to rouse the sleepers1 when he understood that the strangers were in immediate want of boats and rowers4 ,leaving him to make the necessary preparations1 they went out to take a look at the surrounding scenery2 and returning in a quarter of an hour1 expected to find them preparing the boats1 which lay two or three hundred yards off4 ,but1 to their surprise1 not the slightest change had occurred in the position of the sleepers2 and1 after drinking their coffee out of the one cup the ,lapps possessed1 they grew impatient1 and stormed at the young men1 trying even to pull them out of bed--but they would not budge4 8,the father10 says our authority1 8who protested great love for the ,english1 but turned out the biggest rascal we had come across1 was as anxious as we were that his sons should get up and row us2--but not a bit of it6 ,he told us that they had been out three days and three nights on the ,fells1 and were thoroughly exhausted4 ,what was to be done1 we could not think4 ,it was getting serious2 we certainly could not sleep in this dreadful hole1 and there was no other shelter near4 8,money had no power3 though ,i showed the almighty dollar to the weary slumberers1 7they had surely never been in ,america67 they turned away with a grunt4 8,then1 ,o happy thought1 ,i recollected the brandy2 and bringing my keg to the bedside1 ,i tapped it1 and offered them a glass if they would get up4 ,this was quite another thing2 they yawned1 stretched their limbs1 and stood upon the floor4 ,poor fellows6 we then saw how ill and fagged they looked1 though they were splendid specimens of the human race4 8,pouring a glass of the fiery compound down their throats1 they put on their coats1 and followed us like sleepy dogs2 but in a few moments were rowing us like heroes40 ,all travellers agree in bearing witness to the passion of the ,lapps for alcoholic liquors4 ,if we could spare our apostles of temperance and advocates of ,good ,templarism1 which1 alas6 we cannot afford to do1 few better fields could be found for their admirable labours than ,lapland4 99 99 99 99 99 ,captain ,hutchinson1 however1 has more pleasant experiences to relate1 and more agreeable 8interiors0 to sketch1 than the preceding4 ,let us accompany him1 for instance1 on a visit to the island of ,bjorkholm4 ,the settlement here is very small1 consisting of only two or three houses1 and a few barns and sheds4 ,the inhabitants1 after the usual manner of the ,lapps1 support themselves by fishing in summer1 and by the reindeer in winter4 ,not a tree or shrub grows upon the island2 only grass4 ,the hostess1 on this occasion1 was an active1 good-natured little woman1 not more than four feet high1 who flew to and fro with a really wonderful agility4 ,at one moment she was mounted on the dresser1 searching for forks and spoons2 at another1 almost buried in a deep box1 diving for sheets and table-cloth4 ,crockery was decidedly scarce2 and a china slop-basin1 with a wreath of prettily painted little flowers round the margin1 had really a hard time of it4 ,it was first presented to ,captain ,hutchinson and his party for the purpose of washing their hands2 at supper it appeared filled with chocolate2 in the morning it reappeared as their joint washing-basin4 ,however1 the little ,lapp entertained them right royally1 with hot kippered salmon1 pancakes1 dried reindeer1 and eggs4 ,the beds were very comfortable1 the mattresses of hay1 with the whitest of sheets4 ,and though the hostess and her family seemed very poor1 relics of former grandeur were visible in the silver spoons1 teapot1 goblet1 and cream-jug4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a recent writer observes that the inferiority of the ,lapp race is as conspicuous from the intellectual as from the physical point of view4 ,this is evident from the most cursory glance at their lives and manners4 ,the ,lapp is1 on the whole1 a simple1 timid1 regular1 honest creature4 ,to his great defect we have already adverted1--that excessive partiality for strong liquors1 which would be sufficient to bring about the annihilation of his race within a more or less limited period1 even if his days were not numbered from every other concurrent cause4 ,he is essentially nomadic4 ,he is perfectly free and independent throughout the solitary wastes which extend from the ,north ,cape to the sixty-fourth degree of latitude2 he plants his tent where he pleases1 generally close to a wood or lake2 and he moves on when the moss all around it has been eaten up4 ,such a mode of life is1 of course1 incompatible with the progress of ,swedish1 ,norwegian1 and even ,finlandish civilization1 which1 year by year1 curtails the territory given up to the migration of the nomadic ,lapps4 ,there is about the life of the ,lapps1 in summer1 says ,count ,d',almeida1 a certain charm of independence1 which might prove seductive to certain minds1 weary of civilization and unwitting of mosquitoes4 ,but in winter1 no being of any other race could with impunity endure such privations and sufferings as they undergo4 ,they are compelled to keep a careful watch upon their herds1 which are in constant danger from the snow-storms and the wolves4 ,in the hard frosts1 when the snow is upwards of three feet in depth1 they are compelled to dig it up with their axes1 so as to obtain access for their reindeer to the moss1 which constitutes their only food in winter4 ,their vigorous constitutions and their power of enduring privation and climatic rigour1 explain how it was that man1 in the ,glacial ,age1 though without any of the appliances of civilization1 could endure its tremendous severity4 ,what the ,lapps can bear in point of toil and want is almost incredible4 ,they suffer1 and are strong1 in a sense the poet never contemplated4 ,it frequently happens that they are surprised by a snow-hurricane2 they sleep on the ground1 covered with snow-flakes1 which1 on awaking1 they simply shake off1 and pursue their way4 ,in an excess of cold which would chill our blood1 even if we were running at the top of our speed1 they will fall1 in a fit of intoxication1 on the ground1 and lie there with impunity for hours4 ,it is said that in mid-winter1 women1 suddenly seized with the pains of childbirth while on the road1 are delivered in the snow1 without any ill result1 either to them or their offspring4 ,but1 as the same writer remarks1 human strength cannot exceed certain limits4 ,the ,lapp ages early in life1 and dies young4 ,when he attains an advanced age1 his fate is still more lamentable4 ,it is said that if an old man falls sick while a tribe is accomplishing one of its customary migrations1 his children frequently abandon him1--leaving him with some provisions at the foot of a tree1 or on the bank of a stream1 with the terrible prospect before him of dying of starvation1 or falling a prey to wild beasts4 ,the ,lapp is always poor even when he may be called rich2 for it is calculated that to maintain a family of four persons1 a herd of fully four hundred reindeer is necessary1 representing a capital of about #afj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,lapp dialect is described as resembling the ,finnish4 ,when we remember that the ,lapps and the ,qunes1 or ,finns1 wear a similar costume1 are distinguished by very similar customs1 and that the two people call themselves by the same generic name1 ,suomi1 we can understand why some travellers persist in regarding them as sprung from the same common stock4 ,but a careful investigation shows the absolute distinctness of the ,lapps from the ,finns1 notwithstanding this similarity of name and language--a similarity due1 as in many other countries1 to the influences of conquest or colonization4 ,some ethnologists1 and among them ,m4 ,d',omalins1 include the ,finns among the white1 or ,caucasian race1 and leave the ,lapps among the inferior branches of the great ,mongol family4 ,it seems certain that a greater difference exists between the ,qunes and the ,lapps of ,northern ,norway than between the ,qunes and the ,scandinavians of the same region4 ,the ,qunes have adapted themselves completely to sedentary and agricultural habits1 while the ,lapps1 as yet1 have not made a single advance in the direction of raising themselves above a pastoral and nomadic life4 ,on the other hand1 ,finns constantly intermarry with the ,swedes or ,norwegians2 while unions between ,lapps and ,scandinavians1 or even between ,lapps and ,finns1 are regarded throughout the entire country as monstrous anomalies4 ,lastly3 laying aside the arguments founded upon the physical conformation of the ,lapps and the ,finns1 an important historical consideration seems to prove their distinct co-existence from a period far anterior to the settlement of the ,suiones and the ,goths in the peninsula2 it is that in the ,finnish mythology we constantly meet with legends of battles between dwarfs and giants4 ,it is impossible that these can refer to the warfare between the ,finns and the ,scandinavians1 for the latter were of the same stature as the former2 and it is in comparison with the ,lapps only that the ,finns could relatively be called giants4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we borrow from ,count ,d',alviella a few particulars relating to the stationary ,lapps1 who inhabit the region of ,west ,bothnia1 or ,westerbotten1 a long1 narrow strip of land dividing the ,gulf of ,bothnia from ,lapland proper4 ,these ,lapps seem to be the product of a mixture of races in which the ,scandinavian element predominates4 ,they are of an ordinary stature1 robust1 with regular features1 light hair1 and clear gray eyes4 ,the country in which they dwell has a strange1 an original1 but a monotonous character4 ,it is its monotony which wearies the traveller1 though at first he will be impressed by its fresh yet severe beauty4 ,the forests of birch and fir seem endless1 and the great lakes in their depths fatigue the eye with their wastes of cold1 drear water4 ,occasionally1 however1 the traveller comes upon a smiling plain1 enamelled with myosotis1 and brightened by a silver-shining1 music-murmuring stream4 ,here and there the wood is thinner1 and lean cows may be seen feeding among the half-stripped stems4 ,next comes a clearing1 where the forest has been swept away by fire2 a clearing with fields of rye and barley2 a palisade enclosure1 and a group of chlets1 with a comparatively spacious and undilapidated building in the centre4 ,these grds1 as they are called1 closely resemble each other throughout the ,north4 ,neither material nor space is begrudged to the ,west ,bothnian architects4 ,even the smallest farm comprises three or four buildings1 which generally form a square on the four sides of an inner court4 ,these buildings--how unlike the wretched1 filthy hut of the nomadic ,lapp6--comprise three living-rooms1 kitchen1 and stables2 and are divided from each other only by a partition of horizontally-laid planks1 the interstices being filled up by moss4 ,the furniture is simple1 convenient1 suitable1 and shining with cleanliness1 like a ,dutch kitchen4 ,around the hearth is hung a series of brightly-coloured prints1 representing either a ,scriptural scene or events in the life of an illustrious personage1--,king ,charles ,,xv41 or the bishop of the diocese1 side by side with the universal legendary figures1 ,napoleon ,i4 and ,garibaldi4 ,close by stands the old hereditary locker1 in which the husband accumulates his money and the wife deposits her trinkets2 to the wall is suspended a complete trophy of knives1 pipes1 belts with silver buckles1 sledge-bells1 and a whip with a carved horn handle4 ,the whole scene is one of order and the proprieties of family life4 ,all these dwellings1 it may be added1 do not wear the same aspect of prosperous neatness2 but even where poverty is present1 it is unaccompanied by that sullen gloom and melancholy squalidness which1 in other countries1 is the painful indication and result of long-endured privation4 ,and here1 we must also remember1 poverty and famine are not always inseparable companions4 ,the shadow of hunger frequently darkens the rich man's door1 and a man might perish for want of food on a sack of gold4 ,one winter1 the wealthiest members of the community were reduced to the necessity of eating bread made of bark mixed with moss4 ,still1 we see how wide a difference separates the stationary from the nomadic ,lapp1 and how impossible it is for a wandering population to acquire or appreciate the comforts of civilized life4 ,a pastoral race1 in the present age of the world1 is1 and must be1 a decaying1 because a barbarous race4 ,if it touches the borders of civilization1 it is only to become infected with its vices1 and thus to hasten its inevitable decay4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,samojedes ,,and ,,other ,,tribes ,,of ,,arctic ,,asia4 ,the ,samojedes are the immediate neighbours of the ,lapps4 ,like them1 they are nomads2 but they are even less civilized1 and have profited less by the arduous and enthusiastic labours of the ,christian missionaries4 ,they range over the forests and stony tundras of ,northern ,russia and ,western ,siberia2 driving their reindeer herds from the banks of the ,chatanga to the icy shores of the ,white ,sea1 or hunting the wild beasts in the dense woods which extend between the ,obi and the ,yenisei4 ,they are sunk far deeper than the ,lapps in a coarse and debasing superstition4 ,it is true that they believe in a supreme deity--,num1 or ,jilibeambaertje1 who resides in the air1 and1 like the ,greek ,zeus1 sends down thunder and lightning1 rain and snow2 and they evince that latent capacity for poetical feeling which is indicated even by the most barbarous tribes in their description of the rainbow as 8the hem of his garment40 ,they regard him1 however1 as so elevated above the world of man1 and so coldly indifferent to humanity1 that it is useless to seek to propitiate him either by prayer or sacrifice2 and they have recourse1 accordingly1 to the inferior gods1--who1 as they believe1 have the direction of human affairs1 and are influenced by incantations1 vows1 or special homage4 ,the chief of all the ,samojede idols is still supposed to consecrate with its presence1 as in the days of the adventurous ,barentz1 the bleak and ice-bound island of ,waigatz4 ,it is a block of stone1 pointed at the summit1 and bearing some rude resemblance to a human head1 having been fashioned after this likeness by a freak of nature4 ,this has formed the model for the ,samojede sculptors1 who have multiplied its effigy in wood and stone2 and the idols thus easily created they call sjadi1 because they wear a human 7or semi-human7 countenance 7sja74 ,they attire them in reindeer-skins1 and embellish them with innumerable coloured rags4 ,in addition to the sjadi1 they adopt as idols any curiously contorted tree or irregularly shaped stone2 and the household idol 7,hahe7 they carry about with them1 carefully wrapped up1 in a sledge reserved for the purpose1 the hahengan4 ,one of the said penates is supposed to be the guardian of wedded happiness1 another of the fishery1 a third of the health of his worshippers1 a fourth of their herds of reindeer4 ,when his services are required1 the ,hahe is removed from his resting-place1 and erected in the tent or on the pasture-ground1 in the wood or on the river's bank4 ,then his mouth is smeared with oil or blood1 and before him is set a dish of flesh or fish1 in return for which repast it is expected that he will use his power on behalf of his entertainers4 ,his aid being no longer needed1 he is returned to the hahengan4 ,besides these obliging deities1 the ,samojede believes in the existence of an order of invisible spirits which he calls ,tadebtsios4 ,these are ever and everywhere around him1 and bent rather upon his injury than his welfare4 ,it becomes important1 therefore1 to propitiate them2 but this can be done only through the interposition of a ,tadibe1 or sorcerer2 who1 on occasion1 stimulates himself into a state of wild excitement1 like the frenzy of the ,pythian or ,delphic priestess4 ,when his aid is invoked by the credulous ,samojede1 his first care is to attire himself in full magician's costume--a kind of shirt1 made of reindeer leather1 and hemmed with red cloth4 ,its seams are trimmed in like manner2 and the shoulders are also decorated with red cloth tags1 or epaulettes4 ,a piece of red cloth is worn over the face as a mask1 and a plate of polished metal gleams upon his breast4 ,illustration3 ,,samojede ,,huts ,,on ,,waigatz ,,island4 ,thus costumed1 the ,tadibe takes his drum of reindeer-skin1 ornamented with brass rings1 and1 attended by a neophyte1 walks round and round with great stateliness1 while invoking the presence of the spirits by a discordant rattle4 ,this gradually increases in violence1 and is accompanied by the droning intonation of the words of enchantment4 ,the spirits in due time appear1 and the ,tadibe proceeds to consult them2 beating his drum more gently1 and occasionally pausing in his doleful chant1--which1 however1 the novice is careful not to interrupt1--to listen1 as is supposed1 to the answers of the aerial divinities4 ,at length the conversation ceases2 the chant breaks into a fierce howl2 the drum rattles more and more loudly2 the ,tadibe seems under a supernatural influence2 his body quivers1 and foam gathers on his lips4 ,then suddenly the frenzy ceases1 and the ,tadibe utters the will of the ,tadebtsios1 and gives advice how a straying reindeer may be recovered1 or the disease of the ,samojede worshipper relieved1 or the fisherman's labour rewarded with an abundant 8harvest of the sea40 ,the office of the ,tadibe is usually transmitted from father to son2 but occasionally some individual1 predisposed by nature to fits of excitement1 and endowed with a vivid imagination1 is initiated into its mysteries4 ,his morbid fancy is worked upon by long solitary self-communings and protracted fasts and vigils1 and his frame by the use of pernicious narcotics and stimulants1 until he persuades himself that he has been visited by the spirits4 ,he is then received as a ,tadibe with many ceremonies1 which take place at midnight1 and he is invested with the magic drum4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that the ,tadibe1 if he deceives others1 partly deceives himself4 ,but he does not disdain to have recourse to the commonest tricks of the conjuror1 with the view of imposing upon his ignorant countrymen4 ,among these is the famous rope-trick1 introduced into ,england by the ,davenport ,brothers1 and since repeated by so many professional necromancers4 ,with his hands and feet fastened1 he sits down on a carpet of reindeer-skin1 and1 the lights being put out1 invokes the spirits to come to his assistance4 ,soon their presence is made known by strange noises2 squirrels seem to rustle1 snakes to hiss1 and bears to growl4 ,at length the disturbance ceases1 the lights are rekindled1 and the ,tadibe steps forward unbound2 the spectators1 of course1 believing that he has been assisted by the ,tadebtsios4 ,as barbarous1 says ,dr4 ,hartwig--to whose pages we are here indebted--as barbarous as the poor wretches who submit to his guidance1 the ,tadibe is incapable of improving their moral condition1 and has no wish to do so4 ,under various names1--,schamans among the ,tungusi1 ,angekoks among the ,eskimos1 ,medicine-men among the ,crees and ,chepewyans1--we find similar magicians or impostors assuming a spiritual dictatorship over all the ,arctic nations of the ,old and the ,new ,world1 wherever their authority has not been broken by ,christianity or ,buddhism2 and this dreary faith still extends its influence over at least half a million of souls1 from the ,white ,sea to the extremity of ,asia1 and from the ,pacific to ,hudson ,bay4 ,the ,samojedes1 like the ,siberian tribes1 offer up sacrifices to the dead1 and perform various ceremonies in honour of their memory4 ,like the ,north ,american ,indians1 they believe that the desires and pursuits of the departed continue to be the same as they were on earth2 and hence1 that they may not be in want of weapons or implements1 they deposit in or about their graves a sledge1 a spear1 a cooking-pot1 a knife1 an axe4 ,at the funeral1 and for several years afterwards1 the kinsmen sacrifice reindeer over the grave4 ,when a prince dies1 a ,starschina1 the owner1 perhaps1 of several herds of reindeer1 his nearest relatives fashion an image1 which is kept in the tent of the deceased1 and to which as much respect is paid as was paid to the man himself in his lifetime4 ,it occupies his usual seat at every meal2 every evening it is undressed1 and laid down in his bed4 ,for three years these honours are kept up1 and then the image is buried1 from a belief that the body by that time must have decayed1 and lost all recollection of the past4 ,only the souls of the ,tadibes1 and of those who have died a violent death1 are privileged with immortality1 and hover about the air as disembodied spirits4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,samojede ,,family4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,samojedes are scattered--to the number of about a thousand families--over their wild and inhospitable region4 ,ethnologists generally consider them to have a common origin with the ,finns of ,europe4 ,in stature they are somewhat taller than the ,lapps1 and their colour is more of a tawny4 ,the marked features of their countenance recall the ,hindu type4 ,the forehead is high1 the hair black1 the nose long1 the mouth well-formed2 but the sunken eye1 veiled by a heavy lid1 expresses a cruel and perfidious nature4 ,the manners of the ,samojedes are brutal2 and in character they are fierce and cunning4 ,they are shepherds1 hunters1 traders--and when opportunity serves1 robbers4 ,like the other ,arctic peoples1 they clothe themselves in reindeer-skins4 ,they shave off their hair1 except a tolerably large tuft which they allow to flourish on the top of the head1 and they pluck out the beard as fast as it grows4 ,the women decorate their persons with a belt of gilded copper1 and with a profusion of glass beads and metallic ornaments4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continuing our progress eastward1 we come to the ,ostiaks1 a people spreading over the northernmost parts of ,siberia1 from the ,oural ,mountains to ,kamtschatka4 ,some interesting particulars of their habits and customs are recorded by ,madame ,felinska1 a ,polish lady whom the ,russian ,government condemned to a long exile in ,siberia4 ,one day1 when she was seeking a pathway through a wood1 she fell in with a couple of ,ostiaks on the point of performing their devotions4 ,these are of the simplest kind3 the worshipper places himself before a tree 7the larch1 by preference7 in the densest recess of the forest1 and indulges in a succession of extravagant gestures and contortions4 ,as this form of worship is prohibited by the ,russian ,government1 the ,ostiak can resort to it only in secret4 ,he professes1 indeed1 to have accepted ,christianity1 but there is too much reason to fear that the majority of the race are still attached to their heathen creed4 ,nearly every ,ostiak carries about his person a rude image of one of the deities which he adores under the name of ,schatan2 but this does not prevent him from wearing a small crucifix of copper on his breast4 ,the ,schatan is a rough imitation of the human figure1 carved out of wood4 ,it is of different sizes1 according to the various uses for which it is intended3 if for carrying on the person1 it is a miniature doll2 but for decorating the ,ostiak's hut an image can be had on a larger scale4 ,it is always attired in seven pearl-embroidered chemises1 and suspended to the neck by a string of silver coins4 ,the wooden deity occupies the place of honour in every hut1--sometimes in company with an image of the ,virgin ,mary or some saint1--and before beginning a repast the ,ostiaks are careful to offer it the daintiest morsels1 smearing its lips with fish or raw game2 this sacred duty performed1 they finish their meal in contentment4 ,the priests of the ,ostiaks are called ,schamans2 their immense influence they employ to promote their own personal interests1 and maintain the meanest superstitions4 ,in summer the ,ostiak fixes his residence on the banks of the ,obi or one of its tributaries4 ,it is generally square in form1 with low stone walls1 and a high pointed roof made of willow-branches1 and covered with pieces of bark4 ,these having been softened by boiling1 are sewn together so as to form large mats or carpets1 which are easily rolled up and carried from place to place4 ,the hearth is in the centre2 it consists of a few stones set round a cavity in the soil4 ,here the ,ostiak lives2 supporting himself on fish1 which he frequently eats without cooking--and purchasing a few occasional luxuries1 such as tobacco and drink1 with the salmon and sturgeon caught by his dexterity4 ,in winter he withdraws into the woods1 to hunt the sable or the squirrel1 or to pasture the herds of reindeer which some of them possess4 ,he builds his jurt on a small eminence near the bank of a stream1 but out of reach of its spring inundations4 ,it is low1 small1 squalid2 its walls plastered with clay2 its window made of a thin sheet of ice4 ,the ,ostiaks are generally of small stature1 dark-complexioned1 and with black hair1 like the ,samojedes2 but this is not invariably the case4 ,they seem to belong to the same family as the ,samojedes and ,finns4 ,they are honest1 good-natured1 inert1 and extremely careless and dirty in their habits2 though it may be conceded that their huts are not filthier than the 8interiors0 of the ,icelandic fishermen4 ,their women are not much better treated than ,african slaves1 and are given in marriage to the highest bidder4 ,the price necessarily varies according to the condition of the parent2 the daughter of a rich man sells for fifty reindeer1 of a poor man for half-a-dozen dried sturgeon and a handful of squirrel-skins4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,jakut ,,hunter ,,and ,,bear4 ,the ,ostiaks and the ,samojedes are great hunters of the white bear4 ,it is the same with the ,jakuts 7or ,yakouts71 a people dwelling near the ,bouriats1 and1 like them1 approximating to the ,mongol type4 ,their object in the chase1 however1 is not always to kill the animal1 but to take it alive4 ,madame ,felinska asserts that1 one day1 she saw a considerable herd of bears conducted to ,brzov1 like a herd of tame cattle1 and apparently quite as inoffensive4 ,she does not inform us1 however1 by what means they had been reduced to such a desirable state of subjection4 ,frequently the ,ostiaks and the ,jakuts attack the white bears body to body1 without any other weapon than a hatchet or long cutlass4 ,they require to strike their formidable antagonist with immense vigour1 and to slay it at the first blow1 or their own danger is extreme4 ,should the hunter miss his stroke1 his sole resource is to fling himself on the ground and lie motionless1 until the bear1 while smelling his body and turning him over1 incautiously offers himself again to his attack4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now reach the peninsula of ,kamtschatka4 ,in area it is equal to ,great ,britain1 and its natural resources are abundant2 yet1 owing to the ravages of smallpox1 and excessive brandy-drinking1 its population does not exceed seven or eight thousand souls4 ,its climate is much milder than that of the interior of ,siberia1 being favourably affected by the warm breezes from the sea2 and though cereals do not flourish1 its pasture-grounds are rich and ample1 and its herbaceous vegetation is exceedingly abundant4 ,the fisheries of ,kamtschatka enjoy a well-deserved reputation4 ,in spring the salmon ascend its rivers in such astonishingly numerous legions1 that it you plunge a dart into the water you will surely strike a fish2 and ,steller asserts that the bears and dogs in this fortunate region catch on the banks with their paws and mouths more fish than in less favoured countries the most skilful anglers can ensnare by all the devices of piscatorial science4 ,hermann also refers to the teeming myriads of the ,kamtschatka waters4 ,in a stream only six inches deep he saw countless hosts of chackos 7,slagocephalus71 two or three feet in length1 partly stranded on the grassy banks1 partly attempting to force a passage through the shallows4 ,the coasts of ,kamtschatka swarm in like manner with aquatic birds1 which roost and breed on every crag and ledge1 in every niche and hollow1 and at the slightest alarm rise from their resting-places with a whirr of wings and a clamour of voices repeated by a thousand echoes4 ,the ,kamtschatkans display in the pursuit of these birds and their eggs a skill and a daring not inferior to the intrepidity and dexterity of the inhabitants of the ,faroe ,isles or the ,hebrides4 ,barefooted1 and without even the aid of ropes1 they venture to descend the most awful declivities1 which the foaming waters render inaccessible from below4 ,on the left arm hangs a basket1 to be filled with eggs as they advance2 in the right hand they carry a short iron hook1 with which to drag the birds from their rocky roosts4 ,when a bird is caught1 the fowler wrings its neck1 slings it to his girdle1 and lowers himself still further down the rugged precipice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,kamtschatkans are of small stature1 but strong-limbed and broad-shouldered4 ,their cheek-bones are high1 their jaws massive1 broad1 and prominent1 their eyes small and black1 their noses small1 their lips very full4 ,the prevailing colour of the men is a dark brown1 sometimes approaching to tawny2 the complexion of the women is fairer2 and to preserve it from the sun1 they embellish it with bears' guts1 adhering to the face by means of fish-lime4 ,they also paint their cheeks a brilliant red with a sea-weed4 ,illustration3 ,,kamtschatkans4 ,kamtschatka boasts of a very valuable domestic animal in its dog4 ,mr4 ,hill is of opinion that he must be considered indigenous to the country1 where he roves wild upon the hills1 and obtains his existence in exactly the same manner as the wolf4 ,in his nature1 both physically and in respect to his temper and disposition1 he seems about equally to resemble that tameless animal and the mastiff2 yet not altogether in the same manner that might be supposed to arise from the cross breed of the two species1 but rather as possessing some of the qualities of both1 neither confounded nor modified1 but distinctly marked1 and perhaps in equal perfection to the same qualities possessed severally by those animals4 ,he is about the size of the ordinary mastiff1 and his colour is usually buff or silver-gray1 with the several darker or lighter shades of these colours as an invariable basis4 ,in the form of his body1 too1 he resembles the mastiff1 but his head is more like that of the wolf4 ,still more do we recognize the wolfish character in the eye1 which is cruel and furtive1 as well as in his habits and disposition4 ,like his fellow-rover1 he sleeps more by day than by night1 and he sees better through the scanty light afforded by the stars or moon than in the full radiance of the sun3 this has given rise to the same vulgar error concerning his vision which1 in ,britain1 prevails respecting that of the cat1--that he can see in the dark4 ,if there be any exception1 says ,mr4 ,hill1 to the distinct manner in which the dog of ,kamtschatka possesses the character and qualities of both the wolf and mastiff1 it is in regard to his voice1 which is heard in loud cries and undistinguishable sounds1 something between the bark of the one and the howl of the other4 ,in all things connected with the labour in which he is engaged1 the ,kamtschatka dog displays a more than ordinary intelligence4 ,he is very eager to work1 and obedient1 like the canine species generally1 to one master only2 but he gives no indications of that attachment which1 more or less1 in all other species of the dog1 enables man to sympathize with them1 and sometimes even excites a degree of friendship which not every one of his own species is able to inspire4 ,thus1 every pack or team of dogs must always be driven by the same hand and guided by the same voice1 which the whip1 and not caresses1 has taught them to remember and obey4 ,with these qualities1 the dog becomes in this country a very serviceable animal4 ,whatever1 indeed1 our horses and bullocks perform for us here in ,britain1 if we except carrying us on their backs and ploughing our arable land1 the dogs perform for the ,kamtschatkans4 ,there is not much employment for them1 however1 in the summer2 and at that season they are allowed to range about and secure their food1 which they usually find in the rivers1 in the best way they can4 ,some pains are at all times necessary to keep them in good temper and at peace with their neighbours1 whether canine or human4 ,and therefore all ,kamtschatkans who keep a team near their houses are careful1 when the snow is on the ground1 to drive a number of stakes into the earth1 or poles set up in the same manner as the frame of a hut or wigwam2 and to these the dogs are attached singly or in pairs4 ,but when paired1 whether at the stakes or in harness1 it is requisite that those yoked together should be not only of the same family1 but of the same litter1 or at all events they should have been paired when they were puppies4 ,it is at no time safe to leave the greater part of them loose2 and the younger dogs are described as the most dangerous in this way4 ,they will not only at all times kill domestic fowls1--which the ,kamtschatkans1 therefore1 are unable to breed1--and dogs of the smaller species that may chance to be brought to the place1 but they have been known to destroy children4 ,while they do not work they are tolerably fat1 and have usually an allowance of half a dried salmon1 or a portion weighing about two pounds1 a day2 but when they labour they are worse treated and more stinted than the ,siberian horses1 and receive only half the quantity of food apportioned to them when at rest2 yet they will1 under this treatment1 perform journeys of three or four weeks' duration with much less repose than the horses require4 ,nay1 they will even1 upon a journey of four or five days' duration1 work for fourteen or sixteen hours out of the twenty-four without tasting any food whatsoever1 and without appearing to suffer any diminution of strength2 and the universal opinion seems to be1 that the less food they receive on this side of starvation1 when travelling1 the better4 ,five of these dogs will draw a sledge carrying three full-grown persons and sixty pounds weight of luggage4 ,when lightly loaded1 such a sledge will travel from thirty to forty versts in a day over bad roads and through the deep snow1 while on even roads it will accomplish eighty to one hundred and twenty4 ,and herein lies the inestimable value of the ,kamtschatkan dogs1 for the horse would be useless in sledging3 in the deep snow it would sink2 and it would be unable1 on account of its weight1 to cross the rivers and streams which are covered only with a thin sheet of ice4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,kamtschatkan ,,sledge ,,and ,,team4 ,but travelling with dogs is by no means easy4 ,instead of the whip1 the driver uses a crooked stick with iron rings1 which1 by their jingling1 supply the leader of the team with the necessary signals4 ,if the dogs show symptoms of relaxing in their efforts1 the stick is cast among them to rouse them to greater speed2 and the driver dexterously picks it up again as his sledge shoots by4 ,in a snow-storm they keep their master comfortably warm1 and will lie round about him quietly for hours4 ,they are experienced weather-prophets too1 for if1 when resting1 they dig holes in the snow1 it is a certain sign of a storm4 ,the training of these dogs begins at a very early age4 ,soon after their birth they are placed with their mother in a deep pit1 so as to see neither man nor beast2 and after being weaned1 they are still condemned to a total exclusion from 8the madding crowd40 ,a probation of six months having expired1 they are attached to a sledge with older dogs1 and being extremely shy1 they run at their very fastest4 ,on returning home they undergo another period of pit-life1 until they are considered perfectly trained1 and capable of performing a long journey4 ,they are then allowed to enjoy their summer freedom4 ,such a mode of training may render them docile and obedient1 but it renders them also gloomy1 mistrustful1 and ill-tempered4 99 99 99 99 99 ,siberia1 so far as the valley of the ,lena is concerned1 and even eastward to the ,kolima and westward to the ,yenisei1 is inhabited by the bold and vigorous race of the ,jakuts4 ,their number is computed at about #bjj1jjj1 and they inhabit the extensive but dreary province of ,jakutsk1 with a chief town of the same name4 ,the ,jakuts are to a great extent a pastoral people1 but as they trade in horses and cattle1 and also carry on a brisk fur-trade with the ,russians1 they have attained a far higher level of civilization than is common among pastoral races4 ,in summer they live in light conical tents 78urossy071 which are fixed upon poles1 and covered with birch rind4 ,these they pitch in the open plains and valleys1 and then devote themselves to gathering supplies of hay against the coming winter4 ,this is with them a very important labour1 for their chief wealth is in their herds of cattle1 and to find a sufficient provision for them in the bleak climate of the ,lena basin1 and on the borders of the ,arctic ,world1 is a task of great difficulty4 ,often1 indeed1 the supply fails before the return of spring1 and the oxen must then be fed upon the young shoots and saplings of the birch and willow4 ,when winter approaches1 the ,jakut removes from his tent into a warm1 timber-built hut1 or jart1 which assumes the form of a truncated pyramid1 and has an exterior covering of turf and clay4 ,its windows are made of thin sheets of ice2 which1 as soon as a thaw sets in1 are replaced by fish-bladders or paper steeped in oil4 ,the floor is of earth1 very rarely boarded1 and generally sunk two or three feet below the surface of the ground4 ,the seats and sleeping-berths are arranged along the sides2 the hearth1 or tscherwal1 occupies the centre1 and its smoke finds an exit through an aperture in the roof4 ,clothes and weapons are suspended from the walls1 and the general appearance of the interior is squalid and disorderly4 ,near the jart are stalls for the cows2 but when the cold is very intense1 they1 like the ,irishman's pigs1 find accommodation in-doors4 ,as for the horses1 they remain night and day in the open air1 though the weather may be so severe that even mercury freezes2 and they have no other food than the decayed autumn grass1 which they find under the snow4 ,the capacity of endurance which the ,jakut horses exhibit is almost incredible4 ,like other quadrupeds in the ,arctic regions1 they change their hair in summer4 ,traversing1 month after month1 the dreary wilderness where the only vegetation is a scanty and half-rotten grass1 they still retain their strength and energy2 and notwithstanding the hard conditions of their lives1 they do not age so quickly as our own more carefully-tended steeds4 ,to aim at improving the ,jakut horse would be1 in the opinion of many travellers1 to gild refined gold1 and perfume 8thrown on the violet40 ,he will continue a steady trot for hours1 over roads of which no ,englishman can form an idea1 and stop to take his rest with no other food but the bark of the larch and willow1 or a little hard grass1 no covering protecting his foaming sides from the cold1 and the temperature down at #dj4 ,as the horse1 so the master4 ,the ,jakut is the very personification of hardiness4 ,he seems able to endure anything1 and to attempt everything4 ,on the longest winter-journey he carries neither tents nor extra coverings with him1 not even one of the large fur-dresses1 such as the ,siberians generally use4 ,he contents himself1 in fact1 with his usual dress2 in this he generally sleeps in the open air3 his bed1 a horse-rug stretched upon the snow2 his pillow1 a wooden saddle4 ,with the same fur jacket which serves him by daytime as a dress1 and which he pulls off when he lies down for the night1 he defends his back and shoulders1 while the front part of his body is turned towards the fire1 almost without any covering4 ,he then stops his nose and ears with small pieces of skin1 and covers his face so as to leave only a small aperture for breathing2 these are all the precautions he takes against the severest cold4 ,even in ,siberia the ,jakuts are known as 8iron men40 ,the horse to the ,jakut is as valuable and as important as the camel to the ,arab or the reindeer to the ,lapp4 ,it is not only his steed1 which seems incapable of weariness1--his beast of draught1 patient under heavy loads1--but its skin provides him with articles of dress2 with its hair he makes his fishing-nets2 boiled horse meat is his favourite food1 and sour mare's milk1 or koumis1 his principal beverage4 ,by mixing this milk with rye flour1 or the inner rind of the fir or larch1 he makes a thick porridge1 which he flavours with berries1 or dried fish1 or rancid fat4 ,before commerce had been diverted into the valley of the ,amur1 thousands of pack-horses1 under the guidance of ,jakuts1 annually crossed the ,stanowoi hills on the way to ,ochotsk2 a journey of terrible difficulty1 which might appal the stoutest nerves4 ,but the ,jakut endures the extremes of cold and hunger with a wonderful equanimity4 ,he fears neither the stormy winds1 the darkened heavens1 the depth of the treacherous morass1 nor the darkness and silence of the forest4 ,nothing appals him but the unseen presence of 8,ljeschei10 the spirit of the mountain and the forest4 ,the traveller frequently comes upon a fir-crowned hillock1 and from the branches of one of the oldest firs sees suspended innumerable tufts of horse-hair4 ,what does it mean8 ,he needs not to inquire1 for1 lo6 his ,jakut driver1 dismounting from his steed1 hastens to pluck a few hairs from his horse's mane1 and then1 with much reverence1 attaches them to the nearest bough1 in order to propitiate the terrible ,ljeschei4 ,even ,jakuts who have been baptized1 and are nominally enrolled among the ,christian population1 are guilty of this silly bit of superstition2 while it is suspected1 on good grounds1 that they still cherish their belief in ,schamanism1 and their ancient dread of evil spirits4 ,when we remember1 however1 the absurd beliefs and vulgar errors still lingering in many parts of our own land1 we are unable to pass a very severe verdict on the credulity of the ,jakuts4 ,when on the road they beguile the tedium of the way by singing songs of the most doleful character1 corresponding to the habitual melancholy which they seem to have inherited from their forefathers2 a melancholy suggested1 probably1 by the gloom of the landscape1 the chilling aspect of the sky1 the inclemency of the climate1 and the prolonged battle in which their lives are passed4 ,their songs1 not the less1 are songs worthy of a bold and intelligent people1 and1 like the poetry of the ,norsemen1 are replete with images borrowed from nature4 ,they constantly describe in glowing language the lofty magnificence of the snow-crowned mountains1 the starry beauty of the night1 the roll and rush of the river1 the wail of the wind as it streams through a forest of pines4 ,the ,jakut minstrels are mostly improvisatores2 and1 to secure the favour of the ,ljeschei1 they will extol the charms of the wilderness over which it rules1 as if that wilderness were a portion of ,elysium4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,jakut merchants are remarkable for their enterprise4 ,their capital is ,jakutsk1 on the ,lena1 and thence they extend their operations in all directions4 ,in the rigour of winter they will lead their caravans to ,ochotsk1 or ,kjachta1 or ,ostrownoje4 ,yet the country they traverse is at all times a desert4 ,the mean temperature of the year is only #ad4 ,in ,november the thermometer sinks to -#dj1 or #gb below freezing-point4 ,the ,yana1 at ,nishni ,kolymsk1 freezes early in ,september2 and lower down1 where the current is sluggish1 loaded horses can cross its frozen surface as early as the middle of ,august3 yet the ice does not melt before ,june4 ,the sun remains1 it is true1 about fifty-two days above the horizon2 but its light1 shrouded by almost continual mists1 is attended by but little heat1--and its orb1 compressed by refraction into an elliptical form1 may be examined by the naked eye without inconvenience4 ,as the climate1 so the vegetation4 ,dwarfish willow-shrubs1 stunted grass1 moss1 and a few berry-bearing plants compose the flora of the cheerless tundras4 ,there is greater abundance and more variety in the neighbouring and better sheltered valleys of the ,aniuj2 the poplar1 birch1 thyme1 absinth1 and low creeping cedar enliven their slopes2 but even in these places ,nature is most niggardly of her gifts4 ,such is not the case1 however1 with the fauna of ,arctic ,siberia4 ,the forests are tenanted by numbers of reindeer1 elks1 bears1 foxes1 sables1 and gray squirrels2 while in the low grounds stone foxes make their burrows4 ,with the return of spring come immense flights of swans1 geese1 and ducks1 which build their nests in the most sequestered corners4 ,the sea-coast is frequented by eagles1 owls1 and gulls2 the brushwood by the white ptarmigan2 the brooks by hundreds of little snipes4 ,even the songs of the finch are not wanting in spring1 nor is the thrush wholly silent in autumn4 99 99 99 99 99 ,summing up the details recorded by ,admiral ,wrangell1 a recent writer draws an impressive picture of the mode of life of the people of this desolate waste1 and observes3 8,all denotes that here the limits of the habitable earth are passed2 and one asks with astonishment1 ,what could induce human beings to take up their abode in so comfortless a region80 ,the chief resource of the ,sullaheris of the ,river ,aniuj is1 he says1 the reindeer chase1--the success of which mainly determines whether famine or some degree of plenty is to be their lot during the coming winter4 ,the passage of the reindeer takes place twice a year3 in spring1 when the mosquito-swarms drive them to the sea-coast1 where they feed on the moss of the tundra2 and in autumn1 when the increasing cold forces them to retire inland4 ,the spring migration1 which begins about the middle of ,may1 is not very profitable2 partly because the animals are then in poor condition1 and partly because it is more difficult to kill them as they dash across the frozen rivers4 ,the chief hunting takes place in ,august and ,september1 when the herds1 each numbering several thousand deer1 return to the forests4 ,they invariably cross the river at a particular spot1 where a flat sandy bank enables them to land with comparative ease2 and here they close up their ranks1 as it were1 under the guidance of the stalwart veterans of the herd4 ,after a brief pause of hesitation the herd plunge into the waters1 and in a few minutes the surface of the river seems alive with swimming reindeer4 ,now is the hunter's time2 and out from his concealment in the reedy creek he darts in his little boat1 wounding as many animals as he can4 ,while he and his comrades are thus engaged1 they run some risk of being capsized in the turmoil1 for the bucks gallantly defend themselves with horns1 and teeth1 and hind legs1 while the roes usually attempt to spring with their fore feet upon the gunwale of the boat4 ,if the hunter should be overset1 his sole chance of safety is to cling to a strong animal1 which will carry him securely across the stream4 ,such an accident1 however1 is of rare occurrence4 ,a good hunter will kill a hundred reindeer1 or even more1 in half an hour4 ,meantime1 the other boats seize the slaughtered animals1 which become the property of their crews2 while those that are merely wounded and swim ashore belong to the hunters1 who1 in the midst of the uproar1 when all their strength is tasked to the uttermost1 so aim their strokes as only to wound severely the larger animals4 ,the noise of the horns striking against each other1 the 8incarnadined0 waters1 the shouts of the hunters1 the cries of pain1 rage1 and alarm of the struggling animals1 all form a scene which1 once seen1 is not easily forgotten4 ,while the men of ,kolymsk are thus engaged during the brief summer-time in hunting1 fishing1 and haymaking1 the women wander over the country1 and climb the sides of the mountains1 for the purpose of gathering edible roots1 aromatic herbs1 and various kinds of berries--though the last do not ripen every year4 ,the berry-plucking season at ,kolymsk1 like the vintage in ,france or ,italy1 is a season of mirth1 a holiday interval in a hard and laborious life4 ,the young women and girls form large parties1 and spend whole days and nights in the open air4 ,when the berries are collected1 cold water is poured over them1 and they are preserved in a frozen state as an addition to the scanty winter fare4 ,we are told that 8social parties0 are not unknown at ,kolymsk1 and probably afford as much or as little entertainment there as in more favoured and more civilized communities4 ,the staple luxury is a deluge of weak tea--very weak1 for the aromatic leaves which cheer but not inebriate are very dear at ,kolymsk2 and as sugar is also a costly article1 every guest takes a lump of candy in his mouth1 lets the tea which he sips flow by1 and then replaces it upon the saucer4 ,it would be considered a breach of courtesy if he consumed the entire lump1 which thus is made to do duty at more than one soiree4 ,next to tea1 but not less esteemed1 the principal requisite for a ,kolymsk entertainment is brandy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another important ,siberian people are the ,tungusi1 who spread from the basins of the ,upper1 ,middle1 and ,lower ,tunguska to the western shores of the ,sea of ,ochotsk1 and from the ,chinese frontiers and the ,baikal to the ,polar ,ocean4 ,their number does not exceed thirty thousand4 ,according to their avocations1 and the domestic animals which constitute their wealth1 they are known as the ,reindeer1 ,horse1 ,dog1 ,forest1 and ,river ,tungusi4 ,those who keep or rear horses and cattle are but a few2 the majority depend on the reindeer4 ,the condition of all is deplorably wretched4 ,the ,tungusi has no resource but fishing or hunting4 ,when the rivers are frozen1 he withdraws into the forest4 ,here his misery is so great and his need so extreme that he frequently becomes a cannibal1 and attacks the wives and children of his more fortunate countrymen4 ,in happier circumstances he is remarkable for the readiness of his wit1 the vivacity of his manner1 and the blithesome carelessness of his disposition4 ,it is asserted1 however1 that he is both malignant and deceitful4 ,he is vain2 and loves to decorate his person with strings and ornaments of glass beads1 from his small ,tartar cap to the tips of his shoes4 ,when hunting the reindeer1 or travelling through the forests1 however1 he puts on large water-tight boots1 or sari1 well greased with fat2 and he carries1 on these occasions1 a small axe1 a kettle1 a leathern wallet containing some dried fish1 and a short gun1 or a bow and a sling4 ,he is always accompanied by his faithful dog4 8,with the assistance of his long and narrow snow-shoes1 he flies over the dazzling plain2 and protects his eyes1 like the ,jakut1 with a net made of black horse-hair4 ,he never hesitates to attack the bear single-handed1 and generally masters him4 ,the nomad ,tungusi naturally requires a movable dwelling4 ,his tent is covered with leather1 or large pieces of pliable bark1 which are easily rolled up1 and transported from place to place4 ,the jart of the sedentary ,tungusi resembles that of the ,jakut1 and is so small that it can be very quickly and thoroughly warmed by a fire kindled on the stone hearth in the centre4 ,in his food the ,tungusi is by no means dainty4 ,one of his favourite dishes consists of the contents of a reindeer's stomach mixed with wild berries1 and spread out in thin cakes on the rind of trees1 to be dried in the air or in the sun4 ,those who have settled on the ,wilnj and in the neighbourhood of ,nertschinsk likewise consume large quantities of birch tea1 which they boil with fat and berries into a thick porridge2 and this unwholesome food adds1 no doubt1 to the yellowness of their complexion40 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall now1 and lastly1 take a glance at the ,tchuktche 7or ,tuski71 who inhabit the north-eastern point of ,asia1 with the ice-covered waters of the ,polar ,sea on one side1 and those of ,behring ,sea on the other4 ,their land is but seldom visited2 all1 however1 who have ventured thither agree in describing it as one of the most melancholy regions of the earth4 ,the soil is barren1 and half-frozen1 yielding no other vegetation than mosses and lichens1 the vaccinium1 and the dwarf birch and willow1--except in the low grounds1 where the reedy marshes are frequented in the summer by geese1 and swans1 and ducks1 and wading-birds4 ,the climate is so rigorous that one wonders man can make up his mind to endure it4 ,there is no summer earlier than the #bjth of ,july2 and on the #bjth of ,august the shadow of winter comes upon the earth4 ,animal life1 however1 if not very varied1 is abundant3 walruses1 sea-lions1 and seals inhabit the coasts2 and the reindeer1 the wolf1 the argali1 and the ,arctic fox are found in the interior4 ,the ,tchuktche are an enterprising people1 and fond of independence4 ,unlike their neighbours1 the ,koriaks1 they have always maintained their freedom against the encroachments of ,russia4 ,they are active and spirited traders4 ,in skin-covered boats they cross ,behring ,straits1 and barter furs and walrus-teeth with the natives of ,america4 ,in long caravans1 their sledges drawn by reindeer1 they repair to the great fair of ,ostrownoje1 and carry on a vigorous commerce with the ,russian merchants4 ,in their train follow sledges laden with supplies of lichen and moss for the reindeer1 as in their wanderings1 however circuitous these may be1 they are compelled to traverse broad spaces of stony desert1 where even these abstemious animals can obtain no food4 ,as their movements are regulated by the necessities of their herds1 they occupy five or six months in a journey which1 in a straight line1 would not exceed a thousand versts in length2 they are almost always migrating from place to place1 yet1 as they invariably carry their dwellings with them1 they never leave home4 ,a caravan generally consists of fifty or sixty families2 and as soon as one fair is at an end1 they depart to make their preparations for the next4 ,the great staple of the trade at ,ostrownoje is tobacco4 ,to secure a small supply of the narcotic which forms the sole luxury of their dreary lives1 the ,eskimos of ,north ,america1 extending from the ,icy ,cape to ,bristol ,bay1 send their articles of barter from hand to hand as far as the ,gwosdus ,islands in ,behring ,strait1 where the ,tchuktche purchase them with tobacco bought at ,ostrownoje4 ,thus1 in the icy regions of the extreme north1 tobacco is the source and support of considerable commerce2 and the narcotic weed which ,raleigh and his contemporaries introduced from ,america into ,europe1 and which from ,europe made its way into ,asia1 is exported from ,asia for the use of ,american tribes4 ,the balance of trade1 however1 seems entirely against the latter4 ,we are told that the skins which a ,tchuktche purchases of an ,eskimo for half a pood 7eighteen pounds7 of tobaccoleaves1 he sells to the ,russian for two poods 7seventy-two pounds72 and these skins1 costing the ,russian about one hundred and sixty roubles1 the latter sells at ,jakutsk for two hundred and sixty1 and at ,st4 ,petersburg for upwards of five hundred roubles4 ,the furs sold at ,ostrownoje are chiefly those of stone foxes1 black and silver-gray foxes1 gluttons1 lynxes1 otters1 beavers1 and martens4 ,other products brought thither by the ,tchuktche are bear-skins1 walrus-teeth1 and thongs1 sledge-runners 7made of whale ribs71 and dresses of reindeer-skin4 ,the ,russians1 besides tobacco1 dispose of kettles1 axes1 knives1 guns1 tea1 and sugar4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a visit to the family of a ,tchuktche chief is thus described by one of ,admiral ,wrangell's companions3-- ,we entered the outer tent1 or namet1 consisting of tanned reindeer-skins outstretched on a slender framework4 ,an opening at the top to give egress to the smoke1 and a kettle on the hearth in the centre1 showed that antechamber and kitchen were here harmoniously blended into one4 ,but where might be the inmates8 ,most probably in that large sack made of the finest skins of reindeer calves1 which occupied1 near the kettle1 the centre of the namet4 ,to penetrate into this 8sanctum sanctorum0 of the ,tchuktch household1 we raised the loose flap which served as a door1 crept on all fours through the opening1 cautiously refastened the flap by tucking it under the floor-skin1 and found ourselves in the polog--that is1 the reception or withdrawing-room4 ,a snug box1 no doubt1 for a cold climate1 but rather low1 as we were unable to stand upright in it2 nor was it quite so well ventilated as a sanitary commissioner would require1 as it had positively no opening for light or air4 ,a suffocating smoke met us on entering3 we rubbed our eyes2 and when they had at length got accustomed to the pungent atmosphere1 we perceived1 by the gloomy light of a train-oil lamp1 the worthy family sitting on the floor in a state of almost complete nudity4 ,without being in the least embarrassed1 ,madame ,lett and her daughter received us in their primitive costume2 but to show us that the ,tchuktche knew how to receive company1 and to do honour to their guests1 they immediately inserted strings of glass beads in their hair4 ,their hospitality equalled their politeness2 for1 instead of a cold reception1 a hot dish of boiled reindeer flesh1 copiously irrigated with rancid train-oil by the experienced hand of the mistress of the household1 was soon after smoking before them4 ,the culinary taste of the ,russians1 however1 could not appreciate this work of art1 and the ,lett family were left to do justice to it unaided4 ,the ,tchuktche are polygamous4 ,their women are regarded as slaves1 but are not badly treated4 ,most of the ,tchuktche have been baptized1 but they cling in secret to their heathen creed1 and own the power of the shamans1 or necromancers4 ,they form two great divisions3 the reindeer1 or wandering ,tchuktche1 who call themselves ,tennygk2 and the stationary ,tchuktche1 or ,oukilon1 who exhibit affinities with the ,eskimos1 and subsist by hunting the whale1 the walrus1 and the seal4 ,the ,oukilon are supposed to number #aj1jjj1 and the ,tennygk about #bj1jjj4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,historical ,,sketch ,,of ,,arctic ,,discovery4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 ,dr4 ,robert ,thorne declared that 8if he had facultie to his will1 the first thing he would understande1 even to attempt1 would be if our seas northwarde be navigable to the ,pole or no40 ,and it is said that the king1 at his instigation1 8sent two fair ships1 well-manned and victualled1 having in them divers cunning men1 to seek strange regions2 and so they set forth out of the ,thames1 the #bjth day of ,may1 in the nineteenth year of his reign1 which was the year of our ,lord #aebg40 ,of the details of this expedition1 however1 we have no record1 except that one of the vessels was wrecked on the coast of ,newfoundland4 ,in #aecf1 a second ,arctic voyage was undertaken by a ,london gentleman1 named ,hore1 accompanied by thirty members of the ,inns of ,law1 and about the same number of adventurers of a lower estate4 ,they reached ,newfoundland1 which1 according to some authorities1 was discovered by ,sebastian ,cabot in #adif1 and here they suffered terrible distress2 in the extremity of their need being reduced to cannibalism4 ,after the deaths of a great portion of the crew1 the survivors captured by surprise a ,french vessel which had arrived on the coast1 and navigated her in safety to ,england4 ,but the true history of ,arctic ,discovery dates1 as ,mr4 ,markham observes1 from the day when the veteran navigator1 ,sebastian ,cabot1 explained to young ,edward ,,vi4 the phenomena of the variation of the needle4 ,on the same day the aged sailor received a pension2 and immediately afterwards three discovery-ships were fitted out by the ,muscovy ,company under his direction4 ,sir ,hugh ,willoughby was appointed to their command1 with ,richard ,chancellor in the ,edward ,bonadventure as his second4 ,the latter1 soon after quitting ,england1 was separated from the squadron1 and sailing in a northerly direction1 gained at last a spacious harbour on the ,muscovy coast4 ,sir ,hugh's ship1 and her companion1 the ,bona ,confidentia1 were cast away on a desolate part of the ,lapland coast1 at the mouth of the river ,arzina4 ,they entered the river on ,september #ah1 #aefc1 and remained there for a week2 and 8seeing the year far spent1 and also very evil weather1 as frost1 snow1 and hail1 as though it had been the deep of winter1 they thought it best to winter there40 ,but as day followed day1 and week followed week1 in those grim solitudes of ice and snow1 the brave adventurers perished one by one2 and many months afterwards their bleached bones were discovered by some ,russian fishermen4 ,in the spring of #aeef1 ,stephen ,burrough1 afterwards chief pilot of ,england1 fitted out the 8,search-thrift0 pinnace1 and sailed away for the remote north4 ,he discovered the strait leading into the sea of ,kara1 between ,novaia ,zemlaia and the island ,waigatz2 but he made up his mind to return1 because1 first1 of the north winds1 which blew continually2 second1 8the great and terrible abundance of ice which we saw with our eyes20 and third1 because the nights waxed dark4 ,he arrived at ,archangel on ,september #aa1 wintered there1 and returned to ,england in the following year4 ,twenty years later1 on a bright ,may morning1 ,queen ,elizabeth waved a farewell to ,martin ,frobisher and his gallant company1 as they dropped down the ,thames in two small barks1 the ,gabriel and the ,michael1 each of thirty tons1 together with a pinnace of ten tons4 ,they gained the shores of ,friesland on the #aath of ,july2 and sailing to the south-west1 reached ,labrador4 ,then1 striking northward1 they discovered 8a great gut1 bay1 or passage10 which they named ,frobisher ,strait 7lat4 #fc #h' ,n471 and fell into the error of supposing that it connected the ,atlantic ,ocean with the ,pacific4 ,here they came into contact with some ,eskimos2 and ,frobisher describes them as 8strange infidels1 whose like was never seen1 read1 nor heard of before3 with long black hair1 broad faces and flat noses1 and tawny in colour1 wearing seal-skins1 the women marked in the face with blue streaks down the cheeks1 and round about the eyes40 ,frobisher's discoveries produced so great an impression on the public mind1 that in the following year he was placed at the head of a larger expedition1 in the hope that he would throw open to ,english enterprise the wealth of 8far ,cathay40 ,about the end of ,may #aegg1 he sailed from ,gravesend with the ,ayde of one hundred tons1 the ,gabriel of thirty1 and the ,michael of thirty1 carrying crews of ninety men in all1 besides about thirty merchants1 miners1 refiners1 and artisans4 ,he returned in ,september with two hundred tons of what was supposed to be gold ore1 and met with a warm reception4 ,it was considered almost certain that he had fallen in with some portion of the ,indian coast1 and ,queen ,elizabeth1 naming it ,meta ,incognita1 resolved to establish there a colony4 ,for this purpose1 ,frobisher was dispatched with fifteen well-equipped ships1 three of which were to remain for a twelvemonth at the new settlement1 while the others1 taking on board a cargo of the precious ore1 were to return to ,england4 ,in the third week of ,june ,frobisher arrived at ,friesland1 of which he took possession in the queen's name4 ,steering for ,frobisher ,strait1 he found its entrance blocked up with colossal icebergs2 and the bark ,dennis1 which carried the wooden houses and stores for the colony1 coming in collision with one of these1 unfortunately sank4 ,then1 in a great storm1 the fleet was scattered far and wide1--some of the vessels drifting out to sea1 some being driven into the strait2 and when most of them rejoined their admiral1 it was found they had suffered so severely that no help remained but to abandon the project of a colony4 ,they collected fresh supplies of ore1 however1 and then made their way back to ,england as best they could4 ,here they were met with the unwelcome intelligence that the supposed gold ore contained no gold at all1 and was1 in truth1 mere dross and refuse4 ,the dream of a northern passage to ,cathay was not to be dissipated1 however1 by an occasional misadventure4 ,even a man of the keen intellect of ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert felt persuaded that through the northern seas lay the shortest route to the treasures of the ,east2 and having obtained from ,queen ,elizabeth a patent authorizing him to undertake north-western discoveries1 and to acquire possession of any lands not inhabited or colonized by ,christian princes or their subjects1 he equipped1 in #aehc1 with the help of his friends1 a squadron of five small ships1 and sailed from ,england full of bright visions and sanguine anticipations4 ,on board his fleet were smiths1 and carpenters1 and shipwrights1 and masons1 and refiners1 and 8mineral men20 not to speak of one ,stephen ,parmenio1 a learned ,hungarian1 who was bound to chronicle in sonorous ,latin all 8gests and things worthy of remembrance40 ,sir ,humphrey formed a settlement at ,newfoundland2 and then1 embarking on board the ,squirrel1 a little pinnace of ten tons burden1 and taking with him the ,golden ,hind and the ,delight1 he proceeded on a voyage of exploration4 ,unhappily1 the ,delight ran ashore on the shoals near ,sable ,land1 and all her crew except twelve men1 and all her stores1 were lost4 ,the disaster determined ,sir ,humphrey to return to ,england2 and his companions implored him to embark on board the ,golden ,hind1 representing that the ,squirrel was unfit for so long a voyage4 8,i will not forsake10 replied the chivalrous adventurer1 8the brave and free companions with whom ,i have undergone so many storms and perils40 ,soon after passing the ,azores1 they were overtaken by a terrible tempest1 in which the tiny pinnace was tossed about by the waves like a straw4 ,the ,golden ,hind kept as near her as the rolling billows permitted2 and her captain has left on record that he could see ,sir ,humphrey sitting calmly in the stern reading a book4 ,he was heard to exclaim--8,courage1 my lads2 we are as near heaven by sea as by land60 ,then night came on1 with its shadows and its silence1 and next morning it was perceived that the pinnace and her gallant freight had gone to swell the sum of the irrecoverable treasures of the deep4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,loss ,,of ,,the 8,,squirrel40 ,but neither ,frobisher's mishap nor ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert's melancholy fate could check that current of ,english enterprise which had set in for the ,north4 ,there was an irresistible attraction in these remote northern seas and distant mist-shrouded lands1 with all their possibilities of wealth and glory2 and ,arctic ,discovery had already begun to exercise on the mind of the ,english people that singular fascination which the course of centuries has not weakened1 which endures even to the present day4 ,so1 in #aehe1 ,sir ,adrian ,gilbert and some other gentlemen of ,devonshire raised funds sufficient to fit out a couple of vessels--the ,sunshine of fifty1 and the ,moonshine of thirty-five tons--for the great work of discovery2 and they gave the command to a veteran mariner and capable navigator1 ,captain ,john ,davis1 a countryman1 or county-man1 of their own4 ,towards the end of ,july he reached the west coast of ,greenland1 and its cheerless aspect induced him to christen it the 8,land of ,desolation40 ,his intercourse with the ,eskimos1 however1 was of the friendliest character4 ,standing away to the north-west1 he discovered and crossed the strait which still bears his name2 and to the headland on its western coast he gave the name of ,cape ,walsingham4 ,having thus opened up1 though unwittingly1 the great highway to the ,polar ,sea1 he sailed for ,england1 where he arrived on the #bjth of ,september4 ,in his second voyage1 in #aehf1 when1 in addition to the ,sunshine and the ,moonshine1 he had with him the ,mermaid of one hundred and twenty tons1 and the ,north ,star pinnace of ten1 he retraced his route of the previous year4 ,the ,sunshine and the ,north ,star1 however1 he employed in cruising along the east coast of ,greenland2 and they ascended1 it is said1 as high as lat4 #hj ,n4 ,davis in his third voyage pushed further to the north1 reaching as far as the bold promontory which he named ,cape ,sanderson4 ,he also crossed the great channel afterwards known as ,hudson ,bay4 ,the next ,englishman who ventured into the frozen seas was one ,captain ,waymouth1 in #afjb2 but he added nothing to the scanty information already acquired4 ,an ,englishman1 ,james ,hall1 was the chief pilot of an expedition fitted out in #afje by the ,king of ,denmark1 which explored some portion of the ,greenland coast4 ,he made three successive voyages2 but while exhibiting his own courage and resolution1 he contributed nothing to the stores of geographical knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now arrive at a name which deservedly ranks among the foremost of ,arctic explorers--that of ,henry ,hudson4 ,he contributed more to our acquaintance with the ,polar seas than any one who had preceded him1 and few of his successors have surpassed him in the extent and thoroughness of his researches4 ,he first appears1 says ,mr4 ,markham1 fitting out a little cock-boat for the ,muscovy ,company1 called the ,hopewell 7of eighty tons71 to discover a passage by the ,north ,pole4 ,on the #ast of ,may #afjg he sailed from ,greenwich4 8,when we consider the means with which he was provided for the achievement of this great discovery1 we are astonished at the fearless audacity of the attempt4 ,here was a crew of twelve men and a boy1 in a wretched little craft of eighty tons1 coolly talking of sailing right across the ,pole to ,japan1 and actually making as careful and judicious a trial of the possibility of doing so as has ever been effected by the best equipped modern expeditions4444 ,imagine this bold seaman sailing from ,gravesend1 bound for the ,north ,pole1 in a craft about the size of one of the smallest of modern collier brigs4 ,we can form a good idea of her general appearance1 because three such vessels are delineated on the chart drawn by ,hudson himself4 ,the ,hopewell was more like an old ,surat buggalow than anything else that now sails the seas1 with high stern1 and low pointed bow2 she had no head-sails on her bowsprit1 but1 to make up for this1 the foremast was stepped chock forward4 ,there was a cabin under the high and narrow poop1 where ,hudson and his little son were accommodated2 and the crew were crowded forward40 ,illustration3 ,,ship ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4 ,hudson first sighted land beyond the ,arctic ,circle in lat4 #gj4 ,it was the cold1 grim coast of ,east ,greenland4 ,three degrees further north a chain of lofty peaks1 all bare of snow1 rose upon the horizon1 and ,hudson's men noted that the temperature daily increased in mildness4 ,steering to the north-east1 the great navigator arrived off the shores of ,spitzbergen1 where some of his men landed and picked up various fragments of whalebone1 horns of deer1 walrus-teeth1 and relics of other animals4 ,to the north-west point of ,spitzbergen he gave the name which it still bears--,hakluyt's ,headland4 ,at one time he found himself as far north as #ha2 and it seems probable that he discovered the ,seven ,islands3 he remarked that the sea was in some places green1 in others blue2 and he says1 8,our green sea we found to be freest from ice1 and our azure-blue sea to be our icy sea20 an observation not confirmed by later navigators4 ,the greenness was probably due to the presence of minute organisms4 ,illustration3 ,,scenery ,,of ,,jan ,,mayen4 ,having completed a survey of the west coast of ,spitzbergen1 he resolved on sailing round the north end of ,greenland1 which he supposed to be an island1 and returning to ,england by ,davis ,strait4 ,with this view he again examined the sea between ,spitzbergen and ,greenland1 but from the strong ice-blink along the northern horizon felt convinced that there was no passage in that direction4 ,after sighting ,spitzbergen1 therefore1 he determined to return to ,england2 and on his homeward voyage discovered an island in lat4 #ga ,n41 which he named ,hudson ,sutches1 and which has since been improperly named ,jan ,mayen4 ,the ,hopewell arrived in the ,thames on the #aeth of ,september4 ,the results of this voyage1 says ,mr4 ,markham1 were very important1 both in a geographical and a commercial point of view4 ,hudson had discovered a portion of the east coast of ,greenland2 he had examined the edge of the ice between ,greenland and ,spitzbergen twice--in ,june and in the end of ,july2 and he had sailed to the northward of ,spitzbergen until he was stopped by the ice1 reaching almost as high a latitude as ,scoresby in #ahjf1 which was #ha #ab #db ,n4 ,hudson's highest latitude by observation was #hj #bc'1 but he sailed for two more days in a north-easterly direction4 ,the practical consequence of his voyage was that his account of the quantities of whales and sea-horses in the ,spitzbergen seas led to the establishment of a rich and prosperous fishery1 which continued to flourish for two centuries4 ,in the following year ,hudson made a second voyage1 in the hope of discovering a north-eastern passage to ,china between ,spitzbergen and ,novaia ,zemlaia4 ,he exhibited his characteristic resolution1 and forced his way to the very gate of the unknown region1 which is still closed against human enterprise by an impenetrable barrier of ice2 but all his efforts proved in vain1 and he returned to ,gravesend on the #bfth of ,august4 ,in #afaj1 in a vessel of fifty-five tons1 he once more entered the ,polar seas1 and gained the extreme point of ,labrador1 which he named ,cape ,wolstenholm4 ,here burst upon him the view of that magnificent sea which has since been associated with his name2 and there can be no doubt that his enterprise would have anticipated the discoveries of later navigators1 but for the mutiny which broke out among his crew1 and eventually led to his being sent adrift1 with nine faithful companions1 in a small open boat4 ,he was never again heard of4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the spirit of commercial enterprise and the love of maritime adventure were still strong enough in ,england to induce the equipment of further expeditions4 ,in #afab sailed ,captain ,button1--who discovered a stream1 and named it ,nelson ,river2 where1 at a later date1 the ,hudson ,bay ,company planted their first settlement4 ,here he wintered4 ,in ,april #afac1 on the breaking up of the ice1 he resumed his work of exploration1 and discovered1 in lat4 #fe1 an island group1 which he named ,manuel1 now known as ,mansfield1 ,islands4 ,then he bore away for ,england1 arriving in the ,thames early in ,september4 ,robert ,bylot and ,william ,baffin undertook a voyage in #afae4 ,the latter had had some previous experience of ,arctic navigation1 which he turned to advantage in #afaf1 when he accompanied ,bylot on a second expedition4 ,their ship1 the ,discovery1 of fifty-five tons1 reached ,cape ,hope ,sanderson1 the furthest point attained by ,davis1 on the #cjth of ,may2 and after meeting with some obstruction from the ice1 proceeded northwards to #gb #de'1 where she dropped anchor for awhile among the ,women's ,islands4 ,baffin kept to the north until he found ice in #gd #ae' ,n41 and he then ascended ,melville ,bay1 touching the head of the great basin now known by his name1 and sailing down its western coast4 ,he arrived in ,dover ,roads on the #cjth of ,august1 after a brilliantly successful voyage1 which had opened up the principal north-west channels into the ,arctic ,sea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is necessary here to interpolate a few remarks in explanation of the difficulties which beset the ,baffin ,bay route of ,arctic exploration4 ,geographers assert1 and the assertion seems confirmed by the experience of navigators1 that a surface-current is constantly flowing down this bay1 and carrying great fleets of icebergs and shoals of ice-floes into the ,atlantic from its southern channels--,lancaster1 ,jones1 and ,smith ,sounds4 ,hence1 at the head of the bay there exists a considerable open and navigable expanse1 which extends for some distance up ,lancaster and ,smith ,sounds during the summer and early winter1 and is known as the 8,north ,water40 ,but between this open expanse and ,davis ,strait lies an immense mass of ice1 averaging from one hundred and seventy to two hundred miles in width1 and blocking up the centre of ,baffin ,bay1 so as to interrupt the approach to the north-west end4 ,this is known as the 8middle pack10 and consists of some ancient floe-pieces of great thickness1 which may have been brought down from a distant part of the ,arctic seas2 of a wide extent of ice accumulated during each winter1 about six or eight feet in thickness2 and of the grand and gigantic icebergs which are so characteristic a feature of the ,melville ,bay scenery4 ,a very large quantity of this pack is destroyed in each succeeding summer by the thaws1 or by the swell and warm temperature of the ,atlantic as the ice drifts southward4 ,it is remarked of the ,baffin ,bay ice1 that it is much lighter than that found in the ,spitzbergen seas4 ,the latter often occurs in single sheets1 solid1 transparent1 and from twenty to thirty1 and even forty1 feet in thickness4 ,in ,baffin ,bay the average thickness of the floes does not exceed five or six feet1 and eight or ten feet is of very rare occurrence4 ,from ,baffin's voyage1 in #afaf1 until #ahag1 no attempt was made to force this 8middle pack0 and enter the ,north ,water2 but now the voyage is made every year1 and three routes have been opened up4 ,the first is called the 8,north-about ,passage10 and lies along the ,greenland coast2 the second1 or 8,middle ,passage10 only possible late in the season1 is by entering the drift-ice in the centre of the bay2 and the third1 or 8,southern ,passage10 also only possible late in the season1 along the west side of ,baffin ,bay4 ,once in the ,north ,water1 whichever route be attempted1 all obstacles to an exploration of the unknown region may be considered at an end4 ,from ,cape ,york to ,smith ,sound the sea is always navigable in the summer months4 ,it will thus be seen that the great highways to the ,pole were discovered by ,william ,baffin4 ,our limits compel us to pass over the voyages of ,stephen ,bennet 7#afjc-afaj71 ,jonas ,poole 7#afaj-afac71 and ,captain ,luke ,fox 7#afca74 ,in #afca the merchants of ,bristol despatched ,captain ,thomas ,james1 but he made no additions to the discoveries of his predecessors4 ,and then for nearly two centuries ,england abandoned her efforts to open up a communication between the ,atlantic and the ,pacific4 ,in #ahah1 however1 the question of the existence of a ,north-,west ,passage once more occupied the public mind2 and the ,british ,government accordingly fitted out an exploring expedition1 the ,isabella and the ,alexander1 under the command of ,captain ,ross and ,lieutenant ,parry4 ,they sailed from ,england on the #ahth of ,april1 reached the southern edge of the ,baffin ,bay ice on the #bnd of ,july1 and1 after a detention of thirty-eight days1 reached the ,north ,water on ,august #hth4 ,the capes on each side of the mouth of ,smith ,sound1 ,ross named after his two ships2 and having accomplished this much1 he affirmed that he saw land against the horizon at a distance of eight leagues1 and then retraced his course1 and sailed for ,england4 ,the ,british ,government1 however1 refused to be discouraged by the failure of an expedition which had obviously been conducted with an entire absence of vigour and enterprise4 ,they therefore equipped the ,hecla and the ,griper1 and gave the command to ,lieutenant ,parry2 who sailed from the ,thames on the #eth of ,may #ahai1 and on the #aeth of ,june sighted ,cape ,farewell4 ,striking northward1 up ,davis ,strait and ,baffin ,bay1 he found himself checked by the ice-barrier in lat4 #gc ,n4 ,a man of dauntless resolution1 he came to the determination of forcing a passage at all hazards2 and in seven days1 by the exercise of a strong will1 great sagacity1 and first-rate seamanship1 he succeeded in carrying his ships through the pack of ice1 which measured eighty miles in breadth4 ,he was then able to enter ,sir ,james ,lancaster ,sound2 and up this noble inlet he proceeded with a fair wind1 hopeful of entering the great ,polar ,sea4 ,but after advancing a considerable distance1 he was once more met by the frozen powers of the ,north1 and this time he was forced to own himself vanquished4 ,he accordingly returned towards the south1 discovering ,barrow ,strait2 and1 more to the westward1 an inlet which has since figured conspicuously in ,arctic voyages--,wellington ,channel4 ,bathurst ,island he also added to the map2 and afterwards he came in sight of ,melville ,island4 ,on the #dth of ,september he attained the meridian of #aaj ,w4 long41 and thus became entitled to the ,parliamentary grant of #ejjj4 ,a convenient harbour in the vicinity was named the 8,bay of the ,hecla and the ,griper10 and here ,lieutenant ,parry resolved upon passing the winter4 ,in the following spring he resumed his adventurous course1 and completed a very careful survey of the shores of ,baffin ,sea2 after which he repaired to ,england1 and reached the ,thames in safety1 with his crews in good health1 and his ships in excellent condition1 about the middle of ,november #ahbj4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,hecla0 ,,and 8,,fury0 ,,wintering ,,at ,,winter ,,island4 ,having done so much and so well1 it was natural that ,captain ,parry should again be selected for employment in the ,arctic seas in the following year4 ,he hoisted his flag in his old ship1 the ,hecla1 and was accompanied by the ,fury2 both vessels being equipped in the most liberal manner4 ,he sailed from the ,nore on the #hth of ,may #ahba2 he returned to the ,shetland ,islands on the #ajth of ,october #ahbc4 ,in the interval1 a period of seven-and-twenty months1 he discovered the ,duke of ,york ,bay1 the numerous inlets which break up the northern coast-line of the ,american continent1 ,winter ,island1 the islands of ,anatoak and ,ooght1 the ,strait of the ,fury and ,hecla1 ,melville ,peninsula1 and ,cockburn ,island4 ,during their winter sojourn on ,winter ,island1 the ,english crews were surprised by a visit from a party of ,eskimos1 whose settlement ,captain ,parry visited in his turn4 ,he found it an establishment of five huts1 with canoes1 sledges1 dogs1 and above sixty men1 women1 and children1 as regularly1 and1 to all appearance1 as permanently fixed as if they had occupied the same spot the whole winter4 8,if the first view10 says ,parry1 8of the exterior of this little village was such as to create astonishment1 that feeling was in no small degree heightened on accepting the invitation soon given us to enter these extraordinary houses1 in the construction of which we observed that not a single material was used but snow and ice4 ,after creeping through two low passages1 having each its arched doorway1 we came to a small circular apartment1 of which the roof was a perfect arched dome4 ,from this three doorways1 also arched1 and of larger dimensions than the outward ones1 led into as many inhabited apartments--one on each side1 and the other facing us as we entered4 ,the interior of these presented a scene no less novel than interesting3 the women were seated on the beds at the sides of the huts1 each having her little fireplace or lamp1 with all her domestic utensils about her4 ,the children crept behind their mothers1 and the dogs shrank past us in dismay4 ,the construction of this inhabited part of the hut was similar to that of the outer apartment1--being a dome1 formed by separate blocks of snow laid with great regularity and no small art1 each being cut into the shape requisite to form a substantial arch1 from seven to eight feet high in the centre1 and having no support whatever but what this principle of building supplies4 ,sufficient light was admitted into these curious edifices by a circular window of ice1 neatly fitted into the roof of each apartment40 ,in #ahbd-be ,captain ,parry undertook a third voyage1 but with less than his usual success4 ,the ,fury was driven ashore by the pressure of the pack-ice1 and so damaged1 that ,parry found it needful to abandon her1 and remove her crew and stores to the ,hecla4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,fury0 ,,abandoned ,,by ,,parry--#ahbd4 ,sir ,john ,parry's fourth and last expedition1 in #ahbg1 was characterized by his bold attempt to cross the icy sea in light boats and sledges2 resorting to the former when his progress was interrupted by pools of water1 and to the latter in traversing the unbroken surface of the ice-fields4 ,he was soon compelled1 however1 to abandon the sledges1 on account of the hummocks and irregularities of the ice4 ,we agree with ,mr4 ,cooley1 that voluntarily to undertake the toil and brave the danger of such an expedition1 required a zeal little short of enthusiasm4 ,when the travellers reached a water-way1 they were obliged to launch their boats and embark4 ,on reaching the opposite side1 their boats were then to be dragged1 frequently up steep and perilous cliffs1 their lading being first removed4 ,by this laborious process1 persevered in with little intermission1 they contrived to accomplish eight miles in five days4 ,they travelled only during the night1 by which means they were less incommoded with snow-blindness2 they found the ice more firm and consistent2 and had the great advantage of lying down to sleep during the warmer portion of the twenty-four hours4 ,shortly after sunset they took their breakfast2 then they laboured for a few hours before taking their principal meal4 ,a little after midnight1 towards sunrise1 they halted as if for the night1 smoked their pipes1 looked over the icy desert in the direction in which the journey was to be resumed2 and then1 wrapping themselves in their furs1 lay down to rest4 ,advancing as far north as #hb #dj'1 they were then compelled by the drifting of the snow-fields to retrace their steps4 ,they regained their ships on the #bast of ,august1 and sailed for ,england4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must now go back a few years4 ,in ,may #ahai1 an overland expedition was despatched to ascertain the exact position of the ,coppermine ,river1 to descend it to its mouth1 and to explore the coast of the ,arctic ,sea on either hand4 ,the command was given to ,lieutenant ,franklin1 who was accompanied by ,dr4 ,richardson the naturalist1 by ,messrs4 ,hood and ,back1 two ,english midshipmen1 and two picked seamen4 ,the expedition was spread over a period of two years and a half1 and the narrative of what was accomplished and endured by its members reads like a romance4 ,they reached the mouth of the ,coppermine1 and then launched their little barks on the chill waters of the ,polar ,sea4 ,with much perseverance1 and after encountering some serious obstacles1 they made their way along its shores in a westerly direction as far as ,point ,turnagain1 in lat4 #fh #cj' ,n4 ,between this headland on the east1 and ,cape ,barrow on the west1 opens a deep gulf1 stretching inland as far as the ,arctic ,circle1 ,franklin named it ,george the ,fourth's ,coronation ,gulf2 and describes it as studded with numerous islands1 and indented with sounds affording excellent harbours1 all of them supplied with small rivers of fresh water1 abounding with salmon1 trout1 and other fish4 99 99 99 99 99 ,passing over ,franklin's after-labours in the great cause of ,arctic ,discovery1 labours which secured him the well-merited reward of knighthood1 we come to that last voyage1 which helped1 as we shall see1 to solve the problem of a ,north-,west ,passage1 but was the cause of one of the saddest chapters in the history of ,maritime ,enterprise4 ,it was in the spring of #ahde that ,sir ,john ,franklin1 in command of the ,erebus and the ,terror1 with ,captain ,crozier1 an experienced ,arctic navigator1 as his lieutenant1 and at the head of one hundred and thirty-seven picked seamen1 brave1 resolute1 and hardy1 once more sailed for the ,polar waters4 ,on the #hth of ,june he left the ,orkneys1 and a month later arrived in ,baffin ,bay4 ,about the end of ,july some whaling-ships in ,melville ,bay saw the ,erebus and ,terror contending gallantly with the ice which impeded their progress to ,lancaster ,sound4 ,on the evening of the #bfth the ice opened up1 and the two discovery-ships sailed away into the north-western seas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,two years passed1 and no news reached ,england of ,franklin and his companions4 ,as day succeeded day1 and week followed week1 and still no tidings came1 men grew anxious1 and then alarmed2 8expectation darkened into anxiety1 anxiety into dread40 ,at last1 it was determined to institute a search for the missing heroes4 ,an expedition was sent out under ,sir ,james ,ross2 another under ,sir ,john ,richardson2 but neither obtained any information4 ,by many all hope was then abandoned2 and the fate of ,franklin was regarded as one of those mysteries which the historian in vain attempts to unravel4 ,he and his men had perished2 of that there could be no reasonable doubt4 ,yet a few were sanguine enough to believe that they had taken refuge among the ,eskimos1 or were dragging out a weary existence in some remote wilderness1 in expectation of help from home4 ,franklin's brave and noble wife was one of those who1 whatever they feared or hoped1 were1 at all events1 determined not to rest until some accurate information had been gained4 ,and round her gathered the most eminent scientific men of the day1 whose influence combined with the general sympathy of the people to encourage the ,government in a further effort4 ,it was in #ahej that the first clue to the position of the ,erebus and ,terror was secured in ,beechey ,island1 through the accidental detention there of the searching expeditions of ,captains ,austin and ,penny4 ,they were bound for ,melville ,island1 but on reaching the entrance of ,wellington ,channel 7,august #ahej71 were met by such immense fields of ice sweeping down it and out of ,barrow ,strait1 that they were glad to seek shelter in a great bay at the eastern end of the channel1--a bay almost bisected1 as it were1 by ,beechey ,island4 ,on the #bcrd1 a boat from ,captain ,ommaney's ship1 the ,assistance1 happened to land on one of the extreme points of the bay2 and the crew1 in the course of their wanderings1 were not a little surprised to discover traces of a former visit from ,europeans4 ,under the lofty cliff of ,cape ,riley they came upon the groundwork of a tent1 scraps of canvas and rope1 a quantity of birds' bones and feathers1 and a long-handled rake which1 apparently1 had been used for collecting the rich rare weeds that cover the bottom of the ,arctic waters4 ,that ,europeans had been encamped there1 was certain1 but not a name or record associated the remains with ,franklin's expedition4 ,news of the discovery1 however1 reached ,captain ,penny1 an ,aberdeen seaman1 who had been employed by the ,british ,admiralty as leader of a separate expedition2 and in conjunction with ,lieutenant de ,haven1 of the ,united ,states ,navy1 who was in command of the expedition liberally equipped by ,mr4 ,grinnell1 of ,new ,york1 he resolved to examine the east coast of ,wellington ,channel with minute care1 in the belief that some memorials of ,franklin would thus be discovered4 ,from a point called ,cape ,spenser1 the ,americans1 on foot1 pursued the trail of a sledge up the east side of ,wellington ,channel1 until1 at one day's journey beyond ,cape ,innis1 it suddenly ceased1 as if the party had there turned back again4 ,a bottle and a piece of ,the ,times newspaper were the only relics which fell into the hands of the searchers4 ,meantime1 ,captain ,penny had anchored his ships under the western point of ,beechey ,island1 and despatched a boat to take up the clue at ,cape ,riley1 and follow it to the eastward1 in the event of the traces being those of a party retreating from the ships1 supposing them to have been ice-bound in the north-west1 to ,baffin ,bay4 ,this boat-party eventually returned unsuccessful2 but1 one afternoon1 some men belonging to the ,lady ,franklin asked leave1 and obtained it1 for the purpose of a ramble over ,beechey ,island4 ,they sauntered along towards the low projecting portion of the island which extends northward1 choosing a convenient spot to cross the huge ridges of ice which lay piled up along the beach2 they were seen to mount the acclivity or backbone of the point4 ,in a minute afterwards their friends on board the ships 7says ,admiral ,sherard ,osborn7 saw the party rush simultaneously towards a dark object1 round which they collected1 with signs of great excitement4 ,presently one ran hither1 one thither4 ,feverish with anxiety1 those on board knew immediately that some fresh traces had been found1 and a general sortie took place to ,beechey ,island4 8,eh1 sir10 said a gallant ,scotch mariner1 when relating the discovery--8eh1 sir1 my heart was in my mouth1 and ,i didna ken ,i could rin so fast afore40 ,and what had been found8 ,a cairn1 of a pyramidal form1 which had evidently been constructed with much care4 ,the base consisted of a series of preserved-meat tins1 filled with gravel and sand2 and more tins were so arranged as to taper gradually upwards to the summit of the cairn1 in which was planted the fragment of a broken boarding-pike4 ,to all appearance it had been purposely raised for the reception of some documental record1 yet nothing could be found in or about the spot1 in spite of the most persevering efforts4 ,but presently looking along the northern slope of the island1 other strange objects caught the eye4 ,another rush of anxious excited beings1 and they stood before three graves2 and many of them brushed away the unwonted tear as they read upon their humble tablets the words ,erebus and ,terror4 99 99 99 99 99 ,captain ,austin followed up ,captain ,penny in his explorations of the ,arctic wastes1 but no further information was obtained of ,franklin's movements4 ,it was impossible to determine whether on his way home he had perished in ,baffin ,bay2 whether he had struck to the north-west by ,wellington ,channel2 or whether he was haply imprisoned in ,melville ,island4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have no space1 nor is it necessary1 to dwell on the records of the various searching expeditions fitted out by the ,government1 or by ,lady ,franklin and her friends4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that one of these1 led by ,captain 7afterwards ,sir7 ,robert ,m',clure1 succeeded in accomplishing the enterprise in which ,franklin perished1 and1 entering the ,northern ,ocean by ,behring ,strait1 actually forced its way1 through snow and ice1 into the ,atlantic4 ,the ,north-,west ,passage1 so long sought1 was thus discovered2 but the discovery1 though interesting and valuable from a geographical point of view1 was followed by no commercial results4 ,in truth1 it proved that the route along the north-west of the ,american ,continent could never be practicable for ordinary vessels4 ,it may be asserted that nearly all men had abandoned hope and expectation of ascertaining any exact particulars of the fate of ,franklin and his followers1 when1 towards the close of the autumn of #ahed1 ,dr4 ,rae1 a well-known traveller and ,arctic explorer1 suddenly appeared in ,england1 bringing with him the most curious evidence of the disasters which had overwhelmed a party that had evidently been travelling from the ice-bound ,erebus and ,terror towards the ,great ,fish ,river4 ,dr4 ,rae had ascertained from some ,eskimos with whom he had been travelling that this party numbered forty persons1 and that all had died of starvation four years prior to ,dr4 ,rae's visit4 ,the unfortunate 8white men0 had been first seen on ,king ,william's ,land2 later in the same year their dead bodies had been observed near or about the mouth of the ,great ,fish ,river 7#ahej74 ,dr4 ,rae brought home numerous pieces of silver plate obtained from the ,eskimos1 which were marked with the names of officers of the two ships4 ,lady ,franklin was encouraged by this intelligence to urge upon the ,government the propriety of despatching an expedition to the points indicated by the ,eskimos2 but the ,government contented themselves with applying to the ,hudson ,bay ,company4 ,the result was an overland expedition in #ahee to the mouth of the ,great ,fish ,river1 by ,mr4 ,anderson1 one of the ,company's chief officers4 ,he had no boat with him capable of reaching ,king ,william's ,land1 though it was only sixty miles distant from the point he attained1 nor was he accompanied by an ,eskimo interpreter4 ,he ascertained1 however1 that only a portion of the officers and men of the ,erebus and ,terror had reached the ,great ,fish ,river--some forty of them1 very possibly1 as ,dr4 ,rae had been informed2 these forty1 with the three graves upon ,beechey ,island1 still leaving ninety-five persons unaccounted for4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lady ,franklin and her friends continued to press upon ,government the need for further inquiry2 but finding the responsible ministers unwilling to interfere in what they had come to consider a hopeless enterprise1 they contrived1 with some help from the public1 to purchase and fit out a strongly-built screw-schooner1 of which ,captain ,m',clintock volunteered to take the command4 ,he sailed from ,england in the summer of #aheg2 reached ,melville ,bay in safety1 but was then held fast by the floating ice4 ,the winter1 however1 came and went without any injury to him and his gallant band2 and on the #bgth of ,july #aheh1 the ,fox stretched across to ,lancaster ,sound4 ,on the #aath of ,august she arrived at ,beechey ,island1 and replenished her diminished stores from the depts left there by previous expeditions4 ,then she pushed to the westward1 past ,cape ,hotham and ,griffith ,island1 southward through ,sir ,robert ,peel ,channel1 and so into ,prince ,regent ,inlet4 ,having arrived off the eastern entrance of ,bellot ,strait1 she found it blocked up by a wall of ice1 and from the #bjth of ,august to the #fth of ,september she watched for an opportunity of breaking through it4 ,on the #fth she made the passage1 but only to find the other end obstructed by an impassable ice-barrier2 and1 after five fruitless attempts1 her captain brought her to anchor for the winter in ,port ,kennedy1 on the northern side of the strait4 ,when the new year opened1 ,m',clintock resolved on undertaking sledge excursions in various directions1 with the view of obtaining some information of ,franklin and his expedition4 ,in one of them1 at ,cape ,victoria1 on the west coast of ,boothia 7lat4 #fi #ej' ,n41 long4 #if ,w471 he ascertained from the natives that1 several years previously1 a ship had been wrecked off the northern shores of ,king ,william's ,land2 that all her crew landed safely1 and set off on a journey to the ,great ,fish ,river1 where they died4 ,again3 in ,april1 falling in with the same party of ,eskimos1 they learned further1 that besides the ship which had sunk in deep water1 another had been driven ashore by the ice4 ,captain ,m',clintock thereupon crossed to ,montreal ,island1 travelled round the estuary of the ,great ,fish ,river1 and visited ,point ,ogle and ,barrow ,island4 ,on ,may #g1 he fell in with an old ,eskimo woman1 who told him that many of the white men dropped by the way as they made towards the ,great ,fish ,river2 that some were buried1 and some were not4 ,proceeding in what he conceived to have been the route of the retreating crews1 he discovered1 near ,point ,herschel1 a bleached skeleton2 evidently that of one who had fallen behind the main body1 from weakness and fatigue1 and had died where he had fallen4 ,illustration3 ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,cairn ,,containing ,,sir ,,john ,,franklin',s ,,papers4 ,illustration3 ,,relics ,,of ,,the ,,franklin ,,expedition ,,brought ,,back ,,to ,,england4 ,meanwhile1 ,lieutenant ,hobson1 who had started with another sledging party1 had made the important discovery of a record1 giving a brief account of the ,franklin expedition up to the time when the ships were lost4 ,it was found within a cairn constructed on ,point ,victory1 and it set forth the following particulars3-- ,the ,erebus and ,terror spent their first winter at ,beechey ,island1 in the spot discovered by ,penny and ,austin's expedition2 but they had previously explored ,wellington ,channel as far as #gc ,n41 and passed down again into ,barrow ,strait1 between ,cornwallis and ,bathurst ,land4 ,in #ahdf the two ships seem to have sailed through ,peel ,channel1 until caught in the ice off ,king ,william's ,land1 on the #abth of ,september4 ,in ,may #ahdg1 ,lieutenant ,graham ,gore and ,mr4 des ,vux landed1 and erected a cairn a few miles south of ,point ,victory1 and deposited in it a document which stated that1 on that day1 all were well1 with ,sir ,j4 ,franklin in command4 ,within a month1 however1 that illustrious navigator died 7,june #aa71 and thus was spared the terrible trials which afflicted his followers4 ,the ice did not move1 and the winter of #ahdg-dh closed in upon them4 ,it proved fatal to nine officers and fifteen men4 ,on ,april #bb1 #ahdh1 the two ships1 which had been imprisoned for upwards of nineteen months1 were deserted1 and the officers and crews1 one hundred and five in number1 under the command of ,captains ,crozier and ,fitzjames1 started for the ,great ,fish ,river4 ,at the cairn and all about it lay a great quantity of clothing and other articles1 which the sufferers had found from experience of three days to be a heavier weight than their enfeebled strength was able to drag4 ,illustration3 ,,discovery ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,boats ,,of ,,the ,,franklin ,,expedition4 ,from this point to a spot about midway between ,point ,victory and ,point ,herschel nothing of much importance was discovered1 and the skeletons as well as relics were deeply embedded in snow4 ,at this midway station1 however1 the top of a piece of wood projecting out of the snow was seen by ,lieutenant ,hobson1 and on digging round it a boat was discovered4 ,it stood on a very heavy sledge1 and within it were a couple of skeletons4 ,the one in the bottom of the stern-sheets was covered with a great quantity of thrown-off clothing2 the other1 in the bows1 seemed to have been that of some poor fellow who had crept there to look out1 and in that position fallen into his last sleep4 ,a couple of guns1 loaded and ready cocked1 stood upright to hand1 as it they had been prepared for use against wild animals4 ,around this boat was another accumulation of cast-off articles2 and it was the belief of ,m',clintock that the party in charge of her were returning to the ships1 as it they discovered their strength unequal to the terrible journey before them4 ,it may be assumed1 however1 that the stronger portion of the crews still pushed on with another boat1 and that some reached ,montreal ,island and ascended the ,great ,fish ,river4 ,the point1 says ,sherard ,osborn1 at which the fatal imprisonment of the ,erebus and ,terror in #ahdf took place1 was only ninety miles from the spot reached by ,dease and ,simpson in their boats in #ahch-ci1 coming from the east4 ,ninety miles more of open water1 and ,franklin and his gallant crew would have not only won the prize they sought1 but reached their homes to wear their well-earned honours4 8,it was not to be so4 ,let us bow in humility and awe to the inscrutable decrees of that ,providence who ruled it otherwise4 ,they were to discover the great highway between the ,pacific and the ,atlantic4 ,it was given them to win for their country a discovery for which she had risked her sons and lavishly spent her wealth through many centuries2 but they were to die in accomplishing their last great earthly task3 and1 still more strange1 but for the energy and devotion of the wife of their chief and leader1 it would in all probability never have been known that they were indeed the ,first ,discoverers of the ,north-,west ,passage40 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have thought it for the convenience of our readers to set before them an uninterrupted narrative of the exertions made to ascertain the fate of ,franklin and his companions by ,english seamen under ,english influence2 but we must now return to #ahec1 to chronicle the ,american expedition under ,dr4 ,kane--which did not1 indeed1 succeed in its primary object1 but made some remarkable additions to our knowledge of the ,polar ,regions4 ,dr4 ,elisha ,kane sailed from ,boston in #ahec1 in command of the ,advance1 with a crew of seventeen officers and men1 to whom two ,greenlanders were subsequently added4 ,on the #gth of ,august he passed the two great headlands which guard the entrance of ,smith ,sound1--,cape ,isabella and ,cape ,alexander1 discovered and named in the preceding year by ,captain ,inglefield1--and after a voyage of equal difficulty and danger reached ,rensselaer ,bay on the east coast of the sound1 where he passed the winter4 ,a few extracts from his diary will show under what conditions1 and in what circumstances1 ,kane and his followers passed the long and dreary winter months3-- 8,october #bhth4--,the moon has reached her greatest northern declination of about #be #ce'4 ,she is a glorious object2 sweeping around the heavens1 at the lowest part of her curve1 she is still #ad above the horizon4 ,for eight days she has been making her circuit with nearly unvarying brightness4 ,it is one of those sparkling nights that bring back the memory of sleigh-bells and songs1 and glad communings of hearts in lands that are far away4 8,november #gth4--,the darkness is coming on with insidious steadiness1 and its advances can only be perceived by comparing one day with its fellow of some time back4 ,we still read the thermometer at noonday without a light1 and the black masses of the hills are plain for about five hours1 with their glaring patches of snow2 but all the rest is darkness4 ,the stars of the sixth magnitude shine out at noonday4 ,except upon the island of ,spitzbergen1 which has the advantages of an insular climate1 and tempered by ocean-currents1 no ,christians have wintered in so high a latitude as this4 ,they are ,russian sailors who made the encounter there--men inured to hardships and cold4 ,our darkness has ninety days to run before we shall get back again even to the contested twilight of to-day4 ,altogether our winter will have been sunless for one hundred and forty days4 8,december #aeth4--,we have lost the last vestige of our mid-day twilight4 ,we cannot see print1 and hardly paper2 the finger's cannot be counted a foot from the eyes4 ,noonday and midnight are alike2 and1 except a vague glimmer in the sky that seems to define the hill outlines to the south1 we have nothing to tell us that this ,arctic world of ours has a sun4 ,in the darkness1 and consequent inaction1 it is almost in vain that we seek to create topics of thought1 and1 by a forced excitement1 to ward off the encroachments of disease40 ,but in due time the long ,arctic night passed away1 and the season came round for undertaking the sledge journeys which were the main object of the expedition4 ,but ,dr4 ,kane was then met by a new difficulty4 ,out of the nine splendid ,newfoundland and thirty-five ,eskimo dogs which he had originally possessed1 only six had survived a peculiar malady that had seized them during the winter2 and though some fresh purchases were made from the ,eskimos who visited ,rensselaer ,harbour early in ,april1 his means of transport remained wholly inadequate4 ,kane1 moreover1 who though strong of heart was weak of body1 had suffered much from the rigour of the climate1 and was in a sadly feeble condition when1 on the #beth of ,april #ahed1 he started on his northward journey4 ,he found the ,greenland coast1 as he ascended ,kane ,sea1 full of romantic surprises2 the cliffs rising to a height of ten hundred and eleven hundred feet1 and presenting the boldest and most fantastic outlines4 ,this character is continued as far as the ,great ,humboldt ,glacier4 ,the coast is indented by four great bays1 all of them communicating with deep gorges1 which are watered by streams from the interior ice-fields4 ,the mean height of the table-land1 till it reaches the bed of the ,great ,glacier1 ,dr4 ,kane estimated1 in round numbers1 at #ijj feet2 its tallest summit near the water at #acjj1 and the rise of the background above the general level at #fjj more4 ,the face of this stupendous ice-mass1 as it defined the coast1 was everywhere an abrupt and threatening precipice1 only broken by clefts and deep ravines1 giving breadth and interest to its wild expression4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,three ,,brother ,,turrets40 ,dr4 ,kane informs us that the most picturesque portion of the coast occurs in the neighbourhood of ,dallas ,bay4 ,here the red sandstones contrast very favourably with the blank whiteness1 and associate the warm colours of more southern lands with the cold tints of the ,arctic scenery4 ,the seasons have acted on the different layers of the cliff so as to give them all the appearance of jointed masonry1 and the narrow stratum of greenstone at the top surmounts them with boldly-designed battlements4 ,to one of these 8interesting freaks of ,nature0 ,kane gave the name of the 8,three ,brother ,turrets40 ,the crumbled ruin at the foot of the coast-wall led up1 like an artificial causeway1 to a ravine that blazed at noonday with the glow of the southern sun1 when everywhere else the rock lay in blackest shadow4 ,just at the edge of this lane of light rose the semblance of a castle1 flanked with triple towers1 completely isolated and defined4 ,these were the ,three ,turrets4 ,still further to the north1 a solitary cliff of greenstone1 marked by the slaty limestone that once encased it1 sprang from a mass of broken sandstone1 like the rough-hewn rampart of an ancient city4 ,at its northern extremity1 on the brink of a deep ravine1 wrought out among the ruin1 stood a solitary column1 or minaret-tower1 the pedestal of which was not less than #bhj feet in height1 while the shaft was fully #dhj feet4 ,dr4 ,kane associated this remarkable beacon with the name of the poet ,tennyson4 ,dr4 ,kane continued his advance1 and on the #dth of ,may approached the ,great ,glacier4 ,this progress1 however1 was dearly earned4 ,owing to the excessive cold and labour1 most of his party suffered from painful prostration2 three were attacked with snow-blindness2 and all were troubled with dropsical swellings4 ,off ,cape ,kent1 while taking an observation for latitude1 ,kane himself was seized with a sudden pain1 and fainted4 ,his limbs became rigid4 ,he was strapped upon the sledge1 and insisted that the march should be continued4 ,but1 on the #eth1 he grew delirious1 and fainting every time that he was taken from the tent to the sledge1 he succumbed entirely4 8,my comrades10 writes this heroic man1 than whom no braver or more resolute spirit ever ventured into the dreary ,northern wilds1 8would kindly persuade me that1 even had ,i continued sound1 we could not have proceeded on our journey4 ,the snows were very heavy1 and increasing as we went2 some of the drifts perfectly impassable1 and the level floes often four feet deep in yielding snow4 ,the scurvy had already broken out among the men1 with symptoms like my own2 and ,morton1 our strongest man1 was beginning to give way4 ,it is the reverse of comfort to me that they shared my weakness4 ,all that ,i should remember with pleasurable feeling is1 that to five brave men1 themselves scarcely able to travel1 ,i owe my preservation40 ,they carried him back to the brig at ,rensselaer ,harbour1 and for several days he lay fluctuating between life and death4 ,as the summer came on1 however1 his health slowly improved2 and though unable to undertake any sledge excursions in person1 he organized a series of expeditions in which his stronger companions took part4 ,dr4 ,hayes crossed the strait in a north-easterly direction1 reached the opposite coast of ,grinnell ,land1 where the cliffs varied from #abjj to #bjjj feet in height1 and surveyed it as far as ,cape ,fraser1 in lat4 #gi #de'4 ,he returned on ,june #ast1 and1 a few days later1 ,morton departed to survey the ,greenland shore beyond the ,humboldt ,glacier4 ,his journey was a difficult one1 for the obstacles offered by the ice hummocks were sometimes almost insurmountable1 and the ice-field was intersected by chasms and water-lanes frequently four feet in width4 ,after skirting the coast of what is now known as ,morris ,bay1 ,morton's party came upon easier ground2 and presently a long low country opened on the land-ice1 a wide plain between large headlands1 with rolling hills through it4 ,a flock of brent geese came down this valley1 with a whirr of wings1 and ducks were seen in crowds upon the open water4 ,eiders and dove-kies also made their appearance2 and tern were very numerous1 and exceedingly tame4 ,flying high overhead1 their notes echoing from the rocks1 were large white birds1 which ,morton supposed to be burgomasters4 ,there were also ivory gulls and mollemokes2 the former flying very high1 and the latter winging their way far out to sea4 ,the channel 7,kennedy ,channel7 was here unobstructed by ice1 and its waves rolled freely and noisily on the shore4 ,along its verdant margin ,morton proceeded warily1 and on the #bfth of ,june1 #ahed1 reached the striking headland of ,cape ,constitution1 about #bjjj feet in height4 ,its base was washed by a tremendous surf1 through which it was impossible to pass--the ne plus ultra1 as it seemed1 of human enterprise4 ,climbing from rock to rock1 he contrived to reach an elevation of #cjj feet2 from which he was able to trace the outline of the coast for fifty miles to the north4 ,in the distance rose a range of mountains1 very lofty1 and rounded at their summits4 ,to the north-west might be seen a bare peak1 striated vertically with protruding ridges1 and soaring to an altitude of between #bejj and #cjjj feet4 ,this peak1 the most remote northern land then known upon the globe1 was named after the great pioneer of ,arctic travel1 ,sir ,edward ,parry4 ,illustration3 ,,morton ,,on ,,the ,,shore ,,of ,,the ,,supposed ,,polar ,,ocean4 ,the range 7,victoria and ,albert ,mountains7 with which it was connected was much higher1 ,morton thought1 than any they had seen on the southern or ,greenland side of the bay4 ,the summits were generally rounded1 resembling a succession of sugar-loaves and stacked cannonballs declining slowly in the perspective4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all the sledge-parties were now once more aboard the brig1 and the season of ,arctic travel had ended4 ,the short summer was rapidly wearing away1 and yet the ice remained a rigid and impenetrable barrier4 ,it was evident that the ship could not be liberated1 and ,kane found himself compelled to decide between two equally dismal alternatives1--the abandonment of the ship1 or another winter among the ,polar snows4 ,for himself1 he resolved to remain2 but to those who were willing to venture on the attempt to reach the ,danish settlement at ,upernavik1 he left the choice open4 ,out of the seventeen survivors of the party1 eight1 like ,dr4 ,kane1 decided to stand by the brig2 the others1 to push southward to ,upernavik4 ,these were provided with all the provisions and appliances that could be spared1 and took their departure on ,monday1 ,august #bhth2 carrying with them a written assurance of a brother's welcome should they be driven back--an assurance amply redeemed when severe trials had prepared them to share again the fortunes of their commander4 ,dr4 ,kane confronted the winter with equal sagacity and resolution4 ,he had carefully studied the ,eskimos1 and concluded that their form of habitation and peculiarities of diet1 without their unthrift and filth1 were the safest that could be adopted4 ,he turned the brig1 therefore1 into a kind of iglo1 or hut4 ,the quarter-deck was well padded with moss and turf1 and the cabin below1 a space some eighteen feet square1 was enclosed and packed from floor to ceiling with inner walls of the same material4 ,the floor itself was carefully calked with plaster of ,paris and common paste1 and covered two inches deep with ,manilla oakum and a canvas carpet4 ,the entrance was from the hold by a low1 moss-lined tunnel1 the tossut of the native huts1 with as many doors and curtains to close it up as ingenuity could devise4 ,this was their sitting-room1 dining-room1 sleeping-room2 but there were only ten of them1 and the closer the warmer4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,kane ,,paying ,a ,,visit ,,to ,,an ,,eskimo ,,hut ,,at ,,etah4 ,while they were engaged in these defences against the enemy1 they contrived to open up a friendly intercourse with the ,eskimos1 visiting them in their snow-huts at the settlements of ,etah and ,anatoak1 distant about thirty and seventy miles from the brig2 and1 in return for presents of needles1 pins1 and knives1 they undertook to show the white strangers where game was to be procured1 as well as to furnish walrus and fresh seal meat4 ,the assistance rendered by the ,eskimos was of the greatest value1 and we may infer that1 without it1 ,dr4 ,kane and his followers must have succumbed to the hardships of that dreadful winter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the #abth of ,december1 the party which had abandoned the ship suddenly reappeared1 finding it impossible to penetrate to the south4 ,they had suffered severely2 were covered with rime and snow1 and fainting with hunger4 ,it was necessary to use much caution in conveying them below2 for after an exposure of such fearful intensity and duration as they had undergone1 the warmth of the cabin would have prostrated them completely4 ,they had journeyed three hundred and fifty miles2 and their last run from the bay near ,etah1 some seventy miles in a right line1 was through the hummocks with the thermometer at -#ej4 8,one by one10 says ,kane1 8they all came in and were housed4 ,poor fellows6 as they threw open their ,eskimo garments by the stove1 how they relished the scanty luxuries which we had to offer4 ,the coffee1 and the meat-biscuit soup1 and the molasses1 and the wheat-bread1 even the salt pork1 which our scurvy forbade the rest of us to touch--how they relished it all6 ,for more than two months they had lived on frozen seal and walrus meat40 ,we cannot dwell on the various little incidents which marked that sad and terrible winter1 but an extract or two from ,dr4 ,kane's journal will show the reader how much the imprisoned explorers endured1 and in what spirit they bore their trials3-- 8,december #a1 ,friday4--,i am writing at midnight4 ,i have the watch from eight to two4 ,it is day in the moonlight on deck1 the thermometer getting up again to #cf below zero4 ,as ,i come down to the cabin--for so we still call this little moss-lined iglo of ours--every one is asleep1 snoring1 gritting his teeth1 or talking in his dreams4 ,this is pathognomonic2 it tells of ,arctic winter1 and its companion1 scurvy4 ,tom ,hickey1 our good-humoured1 blundering cabin-boy1 decorated with the dignities of cook1 is in that little dirty cot on the starboard side2 the rest are bedded in rows4 ,mr4 ,brooks and myself chock aft4 ,our bunks are close against the frozen moss-wall1 where we can take in the entire family at a glance4 ,the apartment measures twenty feet by eighteen2 its height six feet four inches at one place1 but diversified elsewhere by beams crossing at different distances from the floor4 ,the avenue by which it is approached is barely to be seen in the moss-wall forward2 twenty feet of air-tight space make misty distance1 for the puff of outside temperature that came in with me has filled our atmosphere with vesicles of vapour4 ,the avenue--,ben-,djerback is our poetic name for it--closes on the inside with a door well-patched with flannel1 from which1 stooping upon all fours1 you back down a descent of four feet in twelve through a tunnel three feet high1 and two feet six inches broad4 ,arrived at the bottom1 you straighten yourself1 and a second door admits you into the dark and sorrowing hold1 empty of stores1 and stripped to its naked ceiling for firewood4 ,from this we grope our way to the main hatch1 and mount by a rude stairway of boxes into the open air40 99 99 99 99 99 8,february #ba1 ,wednesday4--,to-day the crests of the north-east headland were gilded by true sunshine1 and all who were able ascended on deck to greet it4 ,the sun rose above the horizon1 though still screened from our eyes by intervening hills4 ,although the powerful refraction of ,polar latitudes heralds his direct appearance by brilliant light1 this is as far removed from the glorious tints of day as it is from the mere twilight4 ,nevertheless1 for the past ten days we have been watching the growing warmth of our landscape1 as it emerged from buried shadow1 through all the stages of distinctness of an ,india-ink washing1 step by step1 into the sharp1 bold definition of our desolate harbour scene4 ,we have marked every dash of colour which the great ,painter in his benevolence vouchsafed to us2 and now the empurpled blue1 clear1 unmistakable1 the spreading lake1 the flickering yellow2 peering at all these1 poor wretches6 everything seemed superlative lustre and unsurpassable glory4 ,we had so grovelled in darkness1 that we oversaw the light4 8,mr4 ,wilson has caught cold1 and relapsed4 ,mr4 ,ohlsen1 after a suspicious day1 startles me by an attack of partial epilepsy2 one of those strange1 indescribable spells1 fits1 seizures1 whatever name the jargon gives them1 which indicate deep disturbance4 ,i conceal his case as far as ,i can2 but it adds to my heavy pack of troubles to anticipate the gloomy scenes of epileptic transport introduced into our one apartment40 99 99 99 99 99 8,february #bh1 ,wednesday4--,february closes3 thank ,god for the lapse of its twenty-eight days6 ,should the thirty-one of the coming ,march not drag us further downward1 we may hope for a successful close to this dreary drama4 ,by the #ajth of ,april we should have seal2 and when they come1 if we remain to welcome them1 we can call ourselves saved4 8,but a fair review of our prospects tells me that ,i must look the lion in the face4 ,the scurvy is steadily gaining on us4 ,i do my best to sustain the more desperate cases2 but as fast as ,i partially build up one1 another is stricken down4 ,the disease is perhaps less malignant than it was1 but it is more diffused throughout our party4 ,except ,william ,morton1 who is disabled by a frozen heel1 not one of our eighteen is exempt4 ,of the six workers of our party1 as ,i counted them a month ago1 two are unable to do out-door work1 and the remaining four divide the duties of the ship among them4 ,hans musters his remaining energies to conduct the hunt4 ,petersen is his disheartened1 moping assistant4 ,the other two1 ,bonsall and myself1 have all the daily offices of household and hospital4 ,we chop five large sacks of ice1 cut six fathoms of eight-inch hawser into junks of a foot each 7for fuel71 serve out the meat when we have it1 hack at the molasses1 and hew out with crowbar and axe the pork and dried apples1 pass up the foul slops and cleansings of our dormitory2 and1 in a word1 cook1 scullionize1 and attend the sick4 ,added to this1 for five nights running ,i have kept watch from #h ,p4,m4 to #d ,a4,m41 catching cat-naps as ,i could in the day without changing my clothes1 but carefully waking every hour to note thermometers4 8,such is the condition in which ,february leaves us1 with forty-one days more ahead of just the same character in prospect as the twenty-eight which1 thank ,god6 are numbered now with the past4 ,it is saddening to think how much those twenty-eight days have impaired our capacities of endurance4 ,if ,hans and myself can only hold on1 we may work our way through4 ,all rests upon destiny1 or the ,power which controls it40 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is useless1 however1 to dwell longer on this melancholy record4 ,kane saw that to abandon the brig was now the only resource3 the ice held it fast1 there was no probability of its being released1 and a third winter in ,rensselaer ,bay would have been death to the whole party4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as the return of spring in some measure recruited the health of his followers1 he made the necessary preparations for departure2 and on the #bjth of ,may the entire ship's company bade farewell to the ,advance1 and set out on their homeward route4 ,with considerable difficulty and arduous labour they hauled their boats across the rough1 hummocky ice1 and reached the open sea4 ,on the #agth of ,june they embarked1 and steered for ,upernavik1 which port they calculated upon reaching in fifty-six days4 ,when they got fairly clear of the land1 and in the course of the great ice-drift southward1 they found their boats so frail and leaky that they could be kept afloat only by constant bailing2 a labour which told heavily on men already weakened with disease and want4 ,starvation stared them in the face1 when happily they fell in with and captured a large seal1 which they devoured voraciously2 and this opportune help recruited their failing energies4 ,thenceforth they were in no lack of food1 as seals were plentiful2 and early in ,august1 after living for eighty-four days in the open air1 they found themselves under the comfortable roofs of ,upernavik1 enjoying the hospitable welcome of the generous ,danes4 ,dr4 ,kane returned to ,new ,york on the #aath of ,october #ahee1 after an absence of thirty months4 ,his discoveries had been important1 his heroism worthy of the race from which he sprung1 and none can deny that he had well merited the honours he received4 ,unfortunately1 a frame never very robust had been broken down by the trials of two ,arctic winters2 and this gallant explorer passed away on the #afth of ,february #aheg1 in the thirty-seventh year of his age4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in #ahfj1 ,dr4 ,hayes1 the companion of ,dr4 ,kane1 took the command of an expedition intended to complete the survey of ,kennedy ,channel1 and to reach1 if it were possible1 the ,north ,pole4 ,his schooner1 the ,united ,states1 was brought up for the winter at ,port ,foulke1 about twenty miles south of ,rensselaer ,harbour2 and early in the following ,april1 ,dr4 ,hayes set out on a sledge and boat journey across the sound1 and along the shores of ,grinnell ,land4 ,from the eloquent record of his adventures1 which does so much credit to his literary skill1 8,an ,arctic ,boat ,journey10 we have already quoted some stirring passages2 but the following extract we may be allowed to repeat1 on account of the clear light it throws upon the nature of the difficulties ,hayes encountered on his northward advance3-- 8,the track10 he says1 8was rough1 past description4 ,i can compare it to nothing but a promiscuous accumulation of rocks closely packed together1 and piled up over a vast plain in great heaps and endless ridges1 leaving scarcely a foot of level surface4 ,the interstices between these closely accumulated ice-masses are filled up1 to some extent1 with drifted snow4 ,the reader will easily imagine the rest4 ,he will see the sledges winding through the tangled wilderness of broken ice-tables1 the men and dogs pulling and pushing up their respective loads4 ,he will see them clambering over the very summit of lofty ridges1 through which there is no opening1 and again descending on the other side--the sledge often plunging over a precipice1 sometimes capsizing1 and frequently breaking4 ,again he will see the party1 baffled in their attempt to cross or find a pass1 breaking a track with shovel and handspike2 or1 again1 unable even with these appliances to accomplish their end1 they retreat to seek a better track3 and they may be lucky enough to find a sort of gap or gateway1 upon the winding and uneven surface of which they will make a mile or so with comparative ease4 ,the snow-drifts are sometimes a help and sometimes a hindrance4 ,their surface is uniformly hard1 but not always firm to the foot4 ,the crust frequently gives way1 and in a most tiresome and provoking manner4 ,it will not quite bear the weight1 and the foot sinks at the very moment when the other is lifted4 ,but1 worse than this1 the chasms between the hummocks are frequently bridged over with snow in such a manner as to leave a considerable space at the bottom quite unfilled2 and at the very moment when all looks promising1 down sinks one man to his middle1 another to the neck1 another is buried out of sight2 the sledge gives way1--and to extricate the whole from this unhappy predicament is probably the labour of hours4 ,it would be difficult to imagine any kind of labour more disheartening1 or which would sooner sap the energies of both men and animals40 99 99 99 99 99 ,after encountering difficulties like these1 which wore out the strength of most of his party1 so that they were compelled to return to the schooner1 ,dr4 ,hayes succeeded in crossing the sound1 and began his journey along the coast4 ,but the difficulties did not abate1 and made such demands on the powers of endurance of the travellers1 that the strongest among them broke down1 and had to be left behind in charge of another of the party4 ,the resolute ,hayes then pushed on1 accompanied by ,knorr1 and on the #ahth of ,may reached the margin of a deep gulf1 where further progress was rendered impossible by the rotten ice and broad water-ways4 ,from this point1 however1 he could see1 on the other side of the channel1 and immediately opposite to him1 the lofty peak of ,mount ,parry1 discovered in #ahed by the gallant ,morton2 and more to the north1 a bold conspicuous headland1 which he named ,cape ,union1 the most northern known land upon the globe4 ,beyond it1 he thought he saw the open sea of the ,pole1 which1 from ,cape ,union1 is not distant five hundred miles2 but the voyage of the ,polaris1 at a later date1 has shown that what he saw was only a land-locked bay4 ,on the #abth of ,july1 the schooner was set free from the ice1 but she proved to be too much damaged to continue her dangerous voyage2 and satisfied with having proved that a direct and not impracticable route to the ,pole lies up ,smith ,sound and ,kennedy ,channel1 ,dr4 ,hayes returned to ,boston4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is the opinion1 however1 of some geographers1 though scarcely warranted by ascertained facts1 that the ,pole may more easily be reached by what is known as the ,spitzbergen route4 ,they argue that to the east of this snow-crowned archipelago the influence of the ,gulf ,stream makes itself felt2 and they conclude that this great warm current possibly strikes as far as the ,pole itself4 ,it is known that ,parry1 to the north of ,spitzbergen1 attained the latitude of #hb #de'2 and it is recorded that a ,hull whaler1 the ,true-,love1 in #ahcg1 navigated an open sea in lat4 #hb #cj' ,n41 and long4 #ae ,e42 so that she might probably have solved the problem and have gained the ,pole1 had she continued on her northerly course4 ,holding this belief1 the illustrious ,german geographer1 ,dr4 ,petermann1 succeeded in raising funds for a ,german expedition in #ahfh2 and the ,germania1 a brig of eighty tons1 under the command of ,captain ,koldewey1 sailed from ,bergen on the #bdth of ,may1 for ,shannon ,island1 in lat4 #ge #ad' ,n41 the furthest point on the ,greenland coast reached by ,sabine in #ahbc4 ,she was accompanied by the ,hansa1 ,captain ,hegemann2 and both ships were equipped in the most careful manner1 and liberally supplied with appliances and stores4 ,on the #ith of ,july the expedition was off the island of ,jan ,mayen1 and at midnight on that day was sailing direct to the northward4 ,a heavy fog came on1 and the two ships1 even when sailing side by side1 could not see one another1 and communication could be maintained only by the use of the speaking-trumpet4 ,their crews might then conceive an idea of that impenetrable chaos which1 according to ,pythias1 terminated the world beyond ,thule1 and which is neither air1 nor earth1 nor sea4 ,it is impossible to imagine anything more melancholy than this gray1 uniform1 infinite veil or canopy2 ocean itself1 far as the eye can reach1 is gray and gloomy4 ,for five successive days the weather remained in this condition1 the fog alone varying in intensity1 and growing thicker and thicker4 ,on the #adth a calm prevailed1 and the ,germania lowered a boat to pick up drift-wood and hunt the sea-gulls4 ,the ice-blink on the horizon showed that the ships were drawing near the great ice-fields of the ,polar ,ocean2 and another sign of their proximity was the appearance of the ivory gull 7,larus eburneus71 which never wanders far from the ice4 ,occasionally the ships fell in with a rorqual1 or nord-caper1 as the seamen call it1--a species of whale distinguished by the presence of a dorsal fin4 ,on the morning of the #aeth of ,july a light breeze blew up from the south1 and the two ships sailed steadily on their north-western course through a sea covered with floating ice4 ,an accustomed ear could already distinguish a distant murmur1 which seemed to draw nearer and yet nearer2 it was the swell of the sea breaking on the far-off ice-field4 ,nearer and yet nearer6 ,everybody gathered upon deck2 and1 suddenly1 as if in virtue of some spell1 the mists cleared away1 and the adventurers saw before them1 within a few hundred yards1 the ice6 ,it formed a long line1 like a cliff-wall of broken and rugged rocks1 whose azure-tinted precipices glittered in the sun1 and repelled1 unmoved1 the rush of the foamy waves4 ,the summit was covered with a deep layer of blinding snow4 ,they gazed on the splendid panorama in silence4 ,it was a solemn moment1 and in every mind new thoughts and new impressions were awakened1 in which both hope and doubt were blended4 ,the point where the ,germania had struck the ice was lat4 #gd #dg' ,n4 and long4 #aa #ej' ,e41 and the icy barrier stretched almost directly from north to south4 ,the ,hansa touched the ice on the same day1 but in lat4 #gd #eg' ,n41 and long4 #i #da' ,e4 ,the two ships1 which had separated in the fog1 effected a union on the #ahth1 and the ,germania taking the ,hansa in tow1 they made towards ,sabine ,island4 ,after awhile1 the towing-rope was thrown off1 the ,germania finding it necessary to extinguish her fires and proceed under canvas4 ,they then followed up1 in a southerly direction1 the great icy barrier1 seeking for an opening which might afford them a chance of steering westward4 ,on the #bjth1 the ,germania found the ice so thick in the south-west that she adopted a westerly ,course1 and hoisted a signal for the captain of the ,hansa to come on board to a conference4 ,the latter1 however1 misinterpreted it1 and instead of reading the signal as 8,come within hail10 read it as 8,long stay a peak20 crowded on all sail1 and speedily disappeared in the fog1 which grew wonderfully intense before the ,germania could follow her4 ,through this curious error the two ships were separated1 and for fourteen months the crew of the ,germania remained in ignorance of the fate of their comrades'4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before following the ,germania on her voyage of discovery1 we propose to see what befell the ,hansa among the ,arctic ice4 ,captain ,hegemann had understood the signal of his senior officer to mean that the ships were to push on as far as possible to the westward1 and1 as we have seen1 he crowded on all sail4 ,but when the fog closed in1 and he found himself out of sight of the ,germania1 he lay-to1 in the hope that the latter might rejoin him4 ,disappointed in this1 he kept on his way1 and on the #bhth of ,july sighted the rocky and gloomy coast of ,east ,greenland1 from ,cape ,brer-,ruys to ,cape ,james4 ,the weather continued fine4 ,by the light of the midnight sun1 which illuminated the fantastic outlines of the bergs1 the adventurers engaged in a narwhal-hunt4 ,nothing is more extraordinary than the effect of the rays of the midnight sun penetrating into an ocean covered with floating ice4 ,the warm and cold tones strike against each other in all directions2 the sea is orange1 leaden-gray1 or dark green2 the reefs of ice are tinged with a delicate rose-bloom2 broad shadows spread over the snow1 and the most varied effects of mirage are produced everywhere in the tranquil waters4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crew ,,of ,,the 8,,hansa0 ,,trying ,,to ,,lasso ,a ,,bear4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,midnight ,,sun1 ,,greenland4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,bear ,,at ,,anchor4 ,on the #ith of ,september1 the ,hansa found the channel of free water in which she had been navigating closed by a huge mass of ice1 and to protect her against the drift of the floating bergs she was moored to it with stout hawsers4 ,a few days later1 the ice was broken up by a gale of wind from the north-east1 and the hawsers snapped4 ,the ice accumulating behind the ship raised it a foot and a half4 ,on a contiguous sheet of ice1 the explorers discovered a she-bear with her cub1 and a boat was despatched in pursuit4 ,the couple soon caught sight of it1 and began to trot along the edge of the ice beside the boat1 the mother grinding her teeth and licking her beard4 ,her enemies landed1 and fired1 and the bear fell in the snow1 mortally wounded4 ,while the cub was engaged in tenderly licking and caressing her1 several attempts were made to capture it with a lasso2 but it always contrived to extricate itself1 and at last took to flight1 crying and moaning bitterly4 ,though struck with a bullet1 it succeeded in effecting its escape4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the #abth they again saw a couple of bears coming from the east1 and returning from the sea towards the land4 ,the mother fell a victim to their guns1 but the cub was captured1 and chained to an anchor which they had driven into the ice4 ,it appeared exceedingly restless and disturbed1 but not the less did it greedily devour a slice of its mother's flesh which the sailors threw to it4 ,a snow wigwam was hastily constructed for its accommodation1 and the floor covered with a layer of shavings2 but the cub despised these luxuries of civilization1 and preferred to encamp on the snow1 like a true inhabitant of the ,polar ,regions4 ,a few days afterwards it disappeared with its chain1 which it had contrived to detach from the anchor2 and the weight of the iron1 in all probability1 had dragged the poor beast to the bottom of the water4 ,illustration3 ,,skating--,,off ,,the ,,coast ,,of ,,greenland4 ,the ,hansa was now set fast in the ice1 and no hope was entertained of her release until the coming of the spring4 ,her crew amused themselves with skating1 and1 when the weather permitted1 with all kinds of gymnastic exercises4 ,it became necessary1 however1 to consider what preparations should be made for encountering the ,arctic winter1 one of the bitterest enemies with which man is called upon to contend4 ,the ,hansa was strongly built1 but her commander feared she might not be able to endure the more and more frequent pressure of the ice4 ,at first1 it was proposed to cover the boats with sail-cloth and convert them into winter-quarters2 but it was felt that they would not afford a sufficient protection against the rigour of the ,polar climate1 its furious winds1 its excess of cold1 its wild whirlwinds of snow4 ,and therefore it was resolved to erect on the ice-floe a suitable winter-hut1 constructed of blocks of coal4 ,bricks made of this material have the double advantage of absorbing humidity1 and reflecting the heat which they receive4 ,water and snow would serve for mortar2 and a roof could be made with the covering which protected the deck of the ,hansa from the snow4 ,the ground-plan of the house was designed by ,captain ,hegemann2 it measured twenty feet in length1 and fourteen feet in width2 the ridge of the roof was eight feet and a half1 and the side walls four feet eight inches in elevation4 ,these walls were composed of a double row of bricks nine inches wide up to a height of two feet1 after which a single row was used4 ,they were cemented in a peculiarly novel fashion4 ,the joints and fissures were filled up with dry snow1 on which water was poured1 and in ten minutes it hardened into a compact mass1 from which it would have been exceedingly difficult to extract a solitary brick4 ,the roof consisted of sails and mats1 covered with a layer of snow4 ,the door was two and a half feet wide1 and the floor was paved with slabs of coal4 ,into this house1 which was completed in seven days1 provisions for two months were carried1 including four hundred pounds of bread1 two dozen boxes of preserved meat1 a flitch of bacon1 some coffee and brandy1 besides a supply of firing-wood1 and some tons of coal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the #hth of ,october1 after the completion of the house1 a violent snow-storm broke out1 which would assuredly have rendered its construction impossible1 and which1 in five days1 completely buried both the ship and the hut4 ,such immense piles of snow accumulated on the deck of the ,hansa1 that it was with the greatest difficulty the seamen could reach their berths4 ,from the #eth to the #adth of ,october the drift of the current was so strong1 that the ice-bound ship was carried no fewer than seventy-two miles towards the south-south-east4 ,meantime1 the pressure of the ice continued to increase1 and the ,hansa seemed held in the tightening grasp of an invincible giant4 ,huge masses rose in front1 and behind1 and on both sides1 and underneath1 until she was raised seventeen feet higher than her original position4 ,affairs seemed so critical1 that ,captain ,hegemann hastened to disembark the stores of clothing1 the scientific instruments1 charts1 log-book1 and diaries4 ,it was found that through the constant strain on her timbers the ship had begun to leak badly1 and on sounding1 two feet of water were found in the pumps4 ,all hands to work6 ,but after half an hour's vigorous exertions1 the water continued to rise1 slowly but surely2 and the most careful search failed to indicate the locality of the leak4 ,it was painfully evident that the good ship could not be saved4 8,though much affected10 says the chronicler of the expedition1 8by this sad catastrophe1 we endured it with firmness4 ,resignation was indispensable4 ,the coal hut1 constructed on the shifting ice-floe1 was thenceforward our sole refuge in the long nights of an ,arctic winter1 and was destined1 perhaps1 to become our tomb4 8,but we had not a minute to lose1 and we set to work4 ,at nine o'clock ,p4,m4 the snow-fall ceased2 the sky glittered with stars1 the moon illuminated with her radiance the immense wilderness of ice1 and the rays of the ,aurora ,borealis here and there lighted up the firmament with their coloured coruscations4 ,the frost was severe2 during the night the thermometer sank to -#bj ,r4 ,one half the crew continued to work at the pumps2 the other was actively engaged in disembarking on the ice the most necessary articles4 ,there could be no thought of sleep1 for in our frightful situation the mind was beset by the most conflicting apprehensions4 ,what would become of us at the very outset of a season which threatened to be one of excessive rigour8 ,in vain we endeavoured to imagine some means of saving ourselves4 ,it was not possible to think seriously of an attempt to gain the land4 ,perhaps we might have succeeded1 in the midst of the greatest dangers1 in reaching the coast by opening up a way across the ice-floes1 but we had no means of transporting thither our provisions2 and it appeared1 from the reports of ,scoresby1 that we could not count on finding any ,eskimo establishments1--so that our only prospect then would have been to die of hunger40 ,the sole resource remaining to the explorers was to drift to the south on their moving ice-floe1 and confine themselves1 meantime1 to their coal hut4 ,if their ice-raft proved of sufficient strength1 they might hope to reach in the spring the ,eskimo settlement in the south of ,greenland1 or come to gain the coast of ,iceland by traversing its cincture of ice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was on the #bbnd of ,october1 in lat4 #gj #ej' ,n41 and long4 #ba ,w41 that the ,hansa sank beneath the ice4 ,dr4 ,laube writes3 8,we made ourselves as snug as possible1 and1 once our little house was completely embanked with snow1 we had not to complain of the cold4 ,we enjoyed perfect health1 and occupied the time with long walks and with our books1 of which we had many4 ,we made a ,christmas-tree of birch-twigs1 and embellished it with fragments of wax taper40 ,to prevent attacks of disease1 and to maintain the cheerfulness of the men1 the officers of the expedition stimulated them to every kind of active employment1 and laid down strict rules for the due division of the day4 ,at seven in the morning1 they were aroused by the watch4 ,they rose1 attired themselves in their warm thick woollen clothing1 washed in water procured by melting snow1 and then took their morning cup of coffee1 with a piece of hard bread4 ,various occupations succeeded3 the construction of such useful utensils as proved to be necessary2 stitching sail-cloth1 mending clothes1 writing up the day's journal1 and reading4 ,when the weather permitted1 astronomical observations and calculations were not forgotten4 ,at noon1 all hands were summoned to dinner1 at which a good rich soup formed the principal dish2 and as they had an abundance of preserved vegetables1 the bill of fare was frequently changed4 ,in the use of alcoholic liquors the most rigid economy was observed1 and it was on ,sunday only that each person received a glass of port4 ,the ice-floe on which their cabin stood was assiduously and carefully explored in all directions4 ,it was about seven miles in circuit1 and its average diameter measured nearly two miles4 ,the out-of-door amusements consisted chiefly of skating1 and building up huge images of snow--,egyptian sphynxes and the like4 ,the borders of the ice-floe1 especially to the west and south-west1 presented a curious aspect2 the attrition and pressure of the floating ice had built up about it high glittering walls1 upwards of ten feet in elevation4 ,the snow-crystals flashed and radiated in the sun like myriads of diamonds4 ,the red gleam of morning and evening cast a strange emerald tint on the white surface of the landscape4 ,the nights were magnificent4 ,the glowing firmament1 and the snow which reflected its lustre1 produced so intense a brightness1 that it was possible to read without fatigue the finest handwriting1 and to distinguish remote objects4 ,the phenomenon of the ,aurora ,borealis was of constant occurrence1 and on one occasion was so wonderfully luminous that it paled the radiance of the stars1 and everything upon the ice-floe cast a shadow1 as if it had been the sun shining4 ,near the coal-cabin stood two small huts1 one of which served for ablutions1 the other as a shed4 ,round this nucleus of the little shipwrecked colony were situated at convenient points the piles of wood for fuel1 the boats1 and the barrels of patent fuel and pork4 ,to prevent the wind and snow from entering the dwelling-hut1 a vestibule was constructed1 with a winding entrance4 ,the greatest cold experienced was -#bi #cj' ,f41 and this was in ,december4 ,after ,christmas the little settlement was visited by several severe storms1 and their ice-raft drifted close along the shore1 sometimes within eight or nine miles1 amidst much ice-crushing1--which so reduced it on all sides1 that by the #dth of ,january #ahgj it did not measure more than one-eighth of its original dimensions4 ,on the #fth of ,january1 when they had descended as far south as #ff #de' ,n4 lat41 the sun reappeared1 and was joyfully welcomed4 ,on the night of the #aeth of ,january1 the colony was stricken by a sudden and terrible alarm4 ,the ice yawned asunder1 immediately beneath the hut1 and its occupants had but just time to take refuge in their boats4 ,here they lay in a miserable condition1 unable to clear out the snow1 and sheltered very imperfectly from the driving1 furious tempest4 ,but on the #agth the gale moderated1 and as soon as the weather permitted they set to work to reconstruct out of the ruins of the old hut a new but much smaller one4 ,it was not large enough to accommodate more than half the colony2 and the other half took up their residence in the boats4 ,february was calm and fine1 and the floe still continued to drift southward along the land4 ,the nights were gorgeous with auroral displays4 ,luminous sheaves expanded themselves on the deep blue firmament like the folds of a fan1 or the petals of a flower4 ,march was very snowy1 and mostly dull4 ,on the #dth1 the ice-raft passed within twenty-five miles of the glacier ,kolberger-,heide4 ,a day or two later1 it nearly came into collision with a large grounded iceberg4 ,the portion nearest to the drifting colony formed an immense overhanging mass2 its principal body had been wrought by the action of the sun and the waves into the most capricious forms1 and seemed an aggregate of rocks and pinnacles1 towers and gateways4 ,the castaways could have seized its projecting angles as they floated past4 ,they thought their destruction certain1 but the fragments of ice which surrounded the raft served as 8buffers10 and saved it from a fatal collision4 ,on the #bith of ,march1 they found themselves in the latitude of ,nukarbik1 the island where ,graab1 the explorer1 wintered1 from ,september #crd1 #ahbg1 to ,april #eth1 #ahcj4 ,they had cherished the hope that from this spot they might be able to take to their boats1 and start for ,friedrichstal1 a ,moravian missionary station on the south coast of ,greenland4 ,however1 the ice was as yet too compact for any such venture to be attempted4 ,for four weeks they were detained in the bay of ,nukarbik1 only two or three miles from the shore1 and yet unable to reach it4 ,their raft was caught in a kind of eddy1 and sometimes tacked to the south1 sometimes to the north4 ,the rising tide carried it towards the shore1 the ebbing tide floated it out again to sea4 ,during this detention they were visited by small troops of birds1 snow linnets and snow buntings4 ,the seamen threw them a small quantity of oats1 which they greedily devoured4 ,they were so tame that they allowed themselves to be caught by the hand4 ,illustration3 ,,snow ,,linnets ,,and ,,buntings ,,visiting ,,the ,,crew ,,of ,,the 8,,hansa40 ,from the end of ,march to the #agth of ,april1 the voyagers continued their dreary vacillation between ,skieldunge ,island and ,cape ,moltke2 a storm then drove them rapidly to the south4 ,the coast1 with its bold littoral mountain-chain1 its deep bays1 its inlets1 its islands1 and its romantic headlands1 offered a succession of novel and impressive scenes2 and specially imposing was the great glacier of ,puisortok1 a mighty ice-river which skirts the shore for upwards of thirty miles4 ,early in ,may they had reached lat4 #fa #ab'4 ,on the #gth1 some water-lanes opened for them a way to the shore2 and abandoning the ice-raft1 they took to their boats1 with the intention of progressing southward along the coast4 ,at first they met with considerable difficulty1 being frequently compelled to haul up the boats on an ice-floe1 and so pass the night1 or wait until the wind was favourable4 ,as this necessitated a continual unloading and reloading of the boats1 the work was very severe4 ,at one time they were detained for six days on the ice1 owing to bad weather1 violent gales1 and heavy snow-showers4 ,the temperature varied from #b during the day to -#e ,r4 during the night4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crew ,,of ,,the 8,,hansa0 ,,bivouacking ,,on ,,the ,,ice4 ,their rations at this period were thus distributed3--,in the morning1 a cup of coffee1 with a piece of dry bread4 ,at noon1 for dinner1 soup and broth2 in the evening1 a few mouthfuls of cocoa1 of course without milk and sugar4 ,they were compelled to observe the most rigid economy in the use of their provisions1 lest1 before reaching any settlement1 they should be reduced to the extremities of famine4 ,yet their appetite was very keen2 a circumstance easily explained1 for they were necessarily very sparing in their allowance of meat and fat1 which in the rigorous ,arctic climate are indispensable as nourishment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as no change took place in the position of the masses of ice which surrounded them1 they resolved to drag their boats towards the island of ,illiudlek1 about three marine miles distant4 ,they began this enterprise on the evening of the #bjth1 making use of some stout cables which they had manufactured during the winter1 and harnessing themselves by means of a brace passed across the shoulders4 ,that evening they accomplished three hundred paces4 ,snow fell heavily1 and melted as fast as it fell1 so that during their night-bivouac they suffered much from damp4 ,the next day they found before them such a labyrinth of blocks and fragments of ice1 floating ice-fields1 and water-channels1 that they were constrained to give up the idea of hauling their boats across it1 and resolved to wait for the spring tide--which1 they knew1 would occur in a few days4 ,the delay was very wearisome4 ,to beguile the time1 some of the seamen set to work at wood-carving1 while the officers and scientific gentlemen manufactured the pieces for a game of chess4 ,others prepared some fishing-lines1 eighty fathoms long1 in the hope of catching a desirable addition to their scanty bill of fare4 ,on the #bdth1 the weather was splendid4 ,the sun shone in a cloudless sky1 and wherever its genial radiance fell the thermometer marked #bh #e' ,r4 ,this was an excellent opportunity for drying their clothes1 which1 as well as their linen1 had been thoroughly soaked innumerable times4 ,the coverings were removed from the boats1 which1 in the warm sunshine1 exhaled great clouds of vapour4 ,the cook endeavoured to add to his stores of provisions2 but the seals churlishly refused to make their appearance1 the fish disdained to nibble at the fat-baited hooks1 and the stupid guillemots were cunning enough to escape the best directed shots4 ,m4 ,hildebrandt1 with two seamen1 made an attempt--in which they succeeded--to reach the island of ,illiudlek1 which lay about three miles off1 and is from #dej to #ejj feet in height4 ,they found it a desert2 not a trace of vegetation2 its shores very steep1 and at some points precipitous2 its surface torn with crevasses and ravines4 ,the only accessible part seemed on the north2 but as the evening was drawing in1 they had no time for exploration1 and made haste to return to the boats4 ,the castaways now came to a resolution to seek a temporary refuge on this desolate isle4 ,as the heat of the sun was sufficient to render their labour very painful1 and they suffered much from the effects of the snow upon their eyes1 they went to work at night1 dragging their boats forward with many a weary effort1 and rested during the daytime4 ,in this way they reached the island on the #dth of ,june4 ,here they moored their boats in a small bay sheltered by a wall of rocks from the north wind1 which they named ,hansa-,hafen4 ,next day they shot two-and-twenty divers1 which provided them with a couple of good dinners4 ,the supply was very valuable1 as the stock of provisions on hand would not last above a fortnight4 ,after a brief rest1 the adventurers resumed their voyage1 keeping close in-shore1 and struggling perseveringly amidst ice and stones--and further checked by an inaccurate chart1 which led them into a deep fiord1 instead of ,king ,christian ,,iv4 ,sound4 ,on the #acth of ,june1 however1 they arrived at the ,moravian missionary station of ,friedrichstal1 where their countrymen received them with a hearty welcome4 ,for two hundred days they had sojourned upon a drifting ice-field1 experiencing all the hardships of an ,arctic winter1 aggravated by an insufficiency of food4 ,they reached ,julianshaab on the #bast of ,june2 embarked on board the ,danish brig ,constance2 and were landed at ,copenhagen on the #ast of ,september4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must now return to the ,germania4 ,captain ,koldewey made several bold attempts to penetrate the pack-ice1 but proved unsuccessful in all until1 on the #ast of ,august1 he reached lat4 #gd1 where he contrived to effect a passage2 and though much delayed by a succession of fogs and calms1 he made his way to ,sabine ,island1--and dropped anchor on its southern side1 in lat4 #gd #cj' ,n41 and long4 #bi ,w41 on the #eth of ,august4 ,on the #ajth he again passed towards the north1 keeping along the ,greenland shore until1 in lat4 #ge #ca' ,n41 his advance was checked by a mass of closely-packed ice1 which stretched from the coast of the mainland out to ,shannon ,island1 a long unbroken line of fourteen miles4 ,it presented a very formidable appearance1 being edged in some places with a fringe of broken ice1 boulders1 and blocks1 rising in heaps and hummocks forty feet high4 ,the ,germania remained in this position for several days4 ,as nothing but ice was visible to the northward1 and no prospect opened up of further progress in that direction1 ,captain ,koldewey moved his ship to the south side of the island on the #afth of ,august1 and dropped anchor close to ,cape ,philip ,broke4 ,eleven days were spent in a careful exploration of ,shannon ,island1 during which time a musk-ox was shot1 and close watch was kept from an elevated point on the ice lying to the northward4 ,but as it continued solid and immovable1 and the end of the season was at hand1 ,captain ,koldewey returned northward1 and brought his vessel to anchor on the south side of ,pendulum ,island on the #bgth of ,august4 ,when it became necessary to make preparations for facing the coming winter1 ,captain ,koldewey moved his ship on the #acth of ,september into the little harbour he had occupied on the #eth of ,august4 ,their subsequent experience showed it to be the only secure one between the parallels of #gd and #gg4 ,a few days later the ship was frozen in4 ,the first sledging-party was despatched on the #adth of ,september1 and remained out for eight days4 ,after reaching the mainland1 they travelled for four days up a newly-discovered fiord1 finding many petrifactions and much lignite4 ,they also saw large herds of musk-oxen4 ,vegetation was abundant1 but chiefly composed of species of ,andromeda4 ,in the course of this excursion1 our explorers had one or two adventures with bears4 ,first1 a female1 with her two cubs1 paid them a visit1 but being received with some volleys of musketry1 quickly beat a retreat4 ,on another occasion1 a daring intruder found his way into their tent4 ,his temerity1 however1 cost him his life2 and the ,germans banqueted gaily on the fat and flesh with which he incontinently supplied them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,rash ,,intruder4 ,when the winter preparations were completed1 ,captain ,koldewey organized several shooting parties1 who made good booty of reindeer and musk-oxen and added most satisfactorily to the provision-supplies2 no fewer than fifteen hundred pounds of good beef and venison attesting the skill and good fortune of the hunters4 ,but after the beginning of ,november1 neither musk-oxen1 reindeer1 nor bears were visible4 ,a second sledge journey was undertaken towards the end of ,october in a southerly direction4 ,the party discovered another fiord1 and returned on the #dth of ,november4 ,on the following day the sun disappeared altogether1 and the dreary ,arctic night of three months' duration overtook them4 ,the close of the year was marked by a succession of violent storms1 and the temperature rose to #be ,f4 ,it soon fell again to zero1 however2 but it was not until #ahgj that it indicated the maximum of cold experienced throughout the winter1--namely1 -#dj ,f4 ,of the ,december gales1 the most furious broke out on the #afth1 and lasted until the #bjth4 ,it set free the ice in the harbour1 and even to within three hundred yards of the ship2 but fortunately she had been anchored in the most sheltered part of the bay1 and close to the shore1 in only ten feet of water2 otherwise the crushed-up ice1 moving with the currents1 would probably have carried her away to almost certain destruction4 ,illustration3 ,,bear-,,hunting--,,greenland4 ,the heroic little company1 however1 were nowise disheartened by the gloom and hardship of their situation4 ,from ,captain ,koldewey's account1 they would seem to have spent a right merry ,christmas1 after the hearty ,german fashion4 ,they danced by starlight upon the ice2 they celebrated ,christmas ,eve with open doors1 the temperature being #be ,f42 with the evergreen ,andromeda they made a famous ,christmas-tree2 they decorated the cabin with flags1 and spread out upon their tables the gifts prepared for the occasion by kindly hands3 each received his share1 and each joined in and contributed to the general merriment4 ,the ,yule-tide festivities over1 they made ready the equipments for their sledging expeditions in the ensuing spring1--the object of the most important of these being to attain the highest possible degree of north latitude4 ,in ,february the sun returned1 and with it the bears2 and the daily excursions upon the island1 undertaken by the scientific members of the expedition1 were rendered dangerous by their audacity4 ,every one was required to go armed1 yet some accidents occurred4 ,one of the 8scientists0 was severely wounded in the head1 and dragged upwards of four hundred paces before his comrades rescued him from the bear4 ,after the lapse of a few weeks1 however1 he recovered from his wounds4 ,on the #bdth of ,march1 the first sledge-party left the ship1 and travelled northward until1 on the #aeth of ,april1 they reached #gg #a' ,n4 lat4 ,then the wild northerly gales compelled them to retrace their steps4 ,on their return they were fortunate enough to shoot some bears1 whose blubber supplied them with fuel to warm their food2 and the wind filling the sails which they had hoisted on their sledges1 they progressed with such rapidity as to reach the ship on the #bgth of ,april4 ,at the northernmost point attained by this party1--lat4 #gg #a'1--the belt of land-ice which skirted the shore seemed to the travellers to be four miles in width and several years old4 ,they speak of it as a 8bulwark built for eternity40 ,out to seaward1 the ice1 which was very hummocky1 stretched in an unbroken expanse4 ,illustration3 8,,into ,a ,,water-,,gap40 ,two other sledge-parties were sent out early in ,may3 one of these was employed in making geographical and scientific explorations of the neighbouring coast of ,greenland2 the other in attempting the measurement of an arc of the meridian4 ,their journeys were difficult enough and troublesome enough1 and made large demands on the energies of those who undertook them4 ,crossing hummocks and rugged ice was weary work1 and sometimes the whole party plunged into deep drifts of snow4 ,on one occasion1 the sledge was precipitated into a water-gap1 or crevasse2 and before it could be recovered and hauled up on the ice-floe1 they were compelled to unload it1 and remove each article1 one by one4 ,then again they would have to make their way through a storm of pitiless violence2 the north wind driving the frozen snow into their faces with a fury that almost blinded them4 ,up to their knees in the new snow1 they pressed forward with a dogged intrepidity2 enduring hardships and triumphing over obstacles of which the 8mob of gentlemen who stay at home at ease0 can form no adequate conception4 ,the bears now increased in numbers and in boldness1 as if they had determined to besiege the small company now left on board the ship4 ,the greatest caution was necessary to prevent accidents2 and though several were shot1 their death did not appear to terrify the survivors4 ,the thaw began about the middle of ,may1 and towards the close of the month the sledge-parties were forced to wade through the water which flooded the surface of the sea-ice4 ,in ,june1 large portions of land-ice were continually breaking off1 and much open water could be descried in the south-east4 ,but it was not until the #ajth of ,july that the ice around the ship broke up4 ,four days later1 boating became practicable1 and a voyage was made to the ,eskimo village on ,clavering ,island4 ,it ended in disappointment1--the village having been deserted1 and the huts having fallen into ruin4 ,on the #bbnd of ,july1 the ,germania once more steamed to the northward1 to renew the attempt of the preceding year4 ,her boiler-tubes1 however1 leaked so seriously1 that it was evident the boiler would speedily fail altogether4 ,after some delay it was temporarily patched up2 and by following a narrow channel between the loose pack-ice and the firm ice-belt of the coast1 she contrived to push forward to the north-east cape of ,shannon ,island1 in lat4 #ge #bi' ,n4 ,here the ice barrier showed itself compact1 solid1 and insuperable4 ,the ,germania1 therefore1 on the #cjth of ,july1 made for the southward1 and continued her explorations in that direction4 ,the 8,mackenzie ,inlet10 which ,captain ,clavering discovered in #ahbc1 was found to have disappeared2 its place being occupied by a low1 flat plain1 on which herds of reindeer were pasturing4 ,so unaccustomed were they to the sight of man1 and so fearless of danger1 that five of them were speedily shot4 ,on the #fth of ,august1 the ,germania discovered and entered a broad1 deep fiord in lat4 #gc #ac'4 ,it was perfectly free from ice2 but a fleet of huge icebergs was sailing out of it with the current4 ,it was soon noticed that the farther they ascended this picturesque sea-arm1 the warmer became the temperature of the air and of the surface water4 ,it threw off several branches1 and these wound in and out among lofty mountains4 ,their declivities were washed by cascades1 and their ravines filled with glaciers2 so that the prospect thus unexpectedly opened up of the interior of ,greenland was singularly romantic and impressive4 ,some of the adventurers ascended a mountain #gjjj feet in height2 but even from this lofty watch-tower no limit could be discerned to the western or principal arm of the fiord4 ,in about #cb ,w4 long4 the mountain-range rose1 it was ascertained1 to an elevation of #ad1jjj feet4 ,the ,germania penetrated for seventy-two miles into this remarkable inlet1 and reached #bf ,w4 long42 but her boiler acting irregularly1 and ,captain ,koldewey being apprehensive of the consequences if it wholly failed1 commenced his homeward voyage on the #agth of ,august4 ,he re-entered the pack-ice at the mouth of the fiord1 and was occupied until the #bdth in forcing his way through it1--reaching the open1 iceless sea in lat4 #gb ,n4 and long4 #ad ,w4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crew ,,of ,,the 8,,germania0 ,,in ,a ,,snow-,,storm4 ,the ,germania1 owing to the uselessness of her boiler1 made the rest of her voyage under sail1 and arrived at ,bremen in safety on the #aath of ,september1 with all well on board4 ,it is worth notice that1 with the exception of two accidental wounds1 this interesting expedition was accomplished without any kind of sickness1--a circumstance which speaks highly for the forethought and carefulness of those engaged in equipping and conducting it4 ,we have been indebted for our brief notice of the voyage of the ,germania to a paper by ,captain ,sir ,leopold ,m',clintock1 who sums up its results in a condensed and intelligible form2 and to the narratives by ,captain ,koldewey and his officers1 translated by ,mr4 ,mercier1 and published under the direction of ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bates4 ,the ,greenland shore1 under the seventy-fifth parallel of latitude1 is not the frozen desert which it has hitherto been supposed to be4 ,it is frequented by large herds of reindeer1 as many as fifty having been sighted at a time4 ,musk-oxen were by no means rare1 but made their appearance in troops of fifteen or sixteen2 while smaller animals1 such as ermines and lemmings1 were also met with4 ,birds were not numerous2 shoals of walruses were noticed1 but no whales4 ,geographically speaking1 the voyage was valuable from the observations obtained in reference to a region which previously was almost unknown4 ,the absence of natives1 and of all recent traces of them1 is a remarkable fact4 ,in #ahbi1 ,captain ,graab found the northern ,greenlanders ranging as high as #fd #ae' ,n4 lat42 but they knew nothing of any human beings living further north2 nor could they themselves travel in that direction1 the way being blocked up by huge impassable glaciers4 ,in #ahbb1 when ,scoresby partially explored the ,greenland coast between the parallels of #gj and #gb #cj'1 he discovered many ruined habitations and graves1 but no recent indications of human beings4 ,in the following year1 ,captain ,clavering met with a party of ,eskimos in #gd2 but neither he nor ,scoresby found reindeer or musk-oxen2 and the fact ascertained by the ,germania that1 in #ahfi1 these animals were numerous1 and devoid of any fear of man1 gives reason to suppose that few1 if any1 of this isolated tribe of ,eskimos are now in existence4 ,now1 as the musk-oxen1 and also the reindeer1 seem to have wandered hither from the northward1 we may conjecture that the natives followed the same route4 8,if it be true10 says ,m',clintock1 8that this migration of men and animals was effected from west to east along the northern shore of ,greenland1 we naturally assume that it does not extend far towards the ,pole2 that1 probably1 its most northern point is at the eastern outlet of ,kennedy ,channel1 and that it turns from thence sharply towards the east and north-east1--the distance1 in a straight line1 to the most northern point reached by ,koldewey1 is not more than six hundred miles4 ,it is not less strange than sad to find that a peaceable and once numerous tribe1 inhabiting a coast-line of at least #g of latitude in extent1 has died out1 or has almost died out1 whilst at the same time we find1 by the diminution of the glaciers and increase of animal life1 that the terrible severity of the climate has undergone considerable modification4 ,we feel this saddening interest with greater force when we reflect that the distance of ,clavering's village from the coast of ,scotland is under one thousand miles6 ,they were our nearest neighbours of the ,new ,world40 99 99 99 99 99 ,returning suddenly to the sixteenth century1 we find the names of some ,dutch seamen of eminence inscribed in the record of early ,arctic ,discovery1 and amongst these the most illustrious is that of ,william ,barents4 ,we refer to him here1 because he is connected with ,carlsen's voyage in #ahfi1 which went over much the same ground as that which the ,dutch explorer had surveyed nearly three hundred years before4 ,the merchants of ,amsterdam having fitted out a ship--the ,mercurius1 of one hundred tons--to attempt a passage round the northern end of ,novaia ,zemlaia1 the command was given to ,william ,barents2 who accordingly sailed from the ,texel on the #dth of ,june #aeid4 ,he sighted ,novaia ,zemlaia1 in lat4 #gc #be' ,n41 on the #dth of ,july1 sailed along its grim1 gaunt coast1 doubled ,cape ,nassau on the #ajth1 and struck the edge of the northern ice on the #acth4 ,for several days he skirted this formidable barrier1 vainly seeking for an opening2 and in quest of a channel into the further sea1 he sailed perseveringly from ,cape ,nassau to the ,orange ,islands4 ,he went over no fewer than seventeen hundred miles of ground in his assiduous search1 and put his ship about one-and-eighty times4 ,he discovered also the long line of coast between the two points we have named1 laying it down with an exactness which has been acknowledged by later explorers4 ,his men wearying of labour which seemed to yield no positive results1 ,barents was under the necessity of returning home4 ,illustration3 ,,materials ,,for ,,the ,,house4 ,in #aeif the ,amsterdammers fitted out another expedition1 consisting of two strongly-built ships1 under ,jacob van ,heemskerch and ,jan ,cornelizoon ,rijp1 with ,barents as pilot1 though really in command4 ,in this voyage the adventurers kept away from the land1 in order to avoid the pack-ice1 and sailing to the westward1 discovered ,bear ,island on the #ith of ,june4 ,then they steered to the northward1 and hove in sight of ,spitzbergen exactly ten days later4 ,they supposed1 however1 that it was only a part of ,greenland1 and were led to bear away to the north-west--a course which was speedily arrested by the eternal icy barrier4 ,barents then coasted along the western side of ,spitzbergen2 and the north-western headland being frequented by an immense number of birds1 he called it ,vogelsang4 ,on the #ast of ,july he again made ,bear ,island1 and here he and ,rijp agreed to separate4 ,of the latter we know only that he was unsuccessful in an attempt to find an opening in the ice on the east of ,greenland1 and that he returned to ,holland in the same year4 ,of the former the narrative is painfully full and interesting4 ,quitting ,bear ,island1 he reached ,novaia ,zemlaia on the #agth of ,july1 sighting the coast in lat4 #gd #dj' ,n4 ,keeping along it with characteristic perseverance until the #gth of ,august1 he passed ,cape ,comfort2 but only to find himself once more face to face with the dreary spectacle of the far-reaching ,polar ice4 ,it so hemmed and fenced him in on every side1 that he was unable to extricate his vessel from it2 and being driven into a bay1 which he named ,ice ,haven1 8there they were forced1 in great cold1 poverty1 misery1 and griefe1 to stay all the winter40 ,for the heavy pack-ice drifting into the bay closed it up1 and closed around the ship until she was held fast as in iron bonds4 ,illustration3 ,,attack ,,on ,a ,,bear4 ,barents and his sixteen followers now prepared to encounter with a good heart the trials of the long ,arctic winter-night4 ,they displayed1 in truth1 a courage1 a patience1 and a good fellowship which were heroic4 ,finding a large supply of drift-wood1 they constructed1 with the help of planks from the poop and forecastle of the vessel1 a sufficiently commodious house1 into which they removed all their stores and provisions4 ,they fixed a chimney in the centre of the roof2 a ,dutch clock was set up and duly struck the weary hours2 the sleeping-berths were ranged along the walls2 a wine-cask was converted into a bath4 ,all these ingenious devices1 however1 availed but little against the terrible feeling of depression which is induced by the continuance for so many weeks of a blank and cheerless darkness4 ,the sun disappeared on the #dth of ,november1 and the cold thereafter increased until it was almost intolerable4 ,their wine and beer were frozen1 and lost all their strength4 ,by means of great fires1 by applying heated stones to their feet1 and by wrapping themselves up in double fox-skin coats1 they barely contrived to keep off the deadly cold4 ,in searching for drift-wood they endured the sharpest pain1 and often braved imminent danger4 ,to add to their troubles1 they had much ado to defend themselves against the bears1 which made frequent assaults on their hut4 ,however1 they contrived to slaughter some of the audacious animals1 and their fat provided them with oil for their lamps4 ,when the sun disappeared the bears departed1 and then the white foxes came in great numbers4 ,they were much more welcome visitors1 and being caught in traps1 set in the vicinity of the house1 supplied the ice-bound voyagers with food and clothing4 ,illustration3 ,,setting ,,fox-,,traps4 ,when the #aith of ,december arrived1 they found some comfort in the reflection that half the dreary season of darkness had passed away1 and that they could now count every day as bringing them nearer to the joyful spring4 ,they suffered much1 but endured their sufferings bravely2 and celebrated ,twelfth ,night with a little sack1 two pounds of meat1 and some merry games4 ,the gunner drew the prize1 and became ,king of ,novaia ,zemlaia1 8which is at least two hundred miles long1 and lyeth between two seas40 ,on the #bgth of ,january every heart rejoiced1 for the glowing disc of the sun reappeared above the horizon4 ,but it brought with it their old enemies the bears1 against whom they found it necessary to exercise the greatest vigilance4 ,on the #bbnd of ,february they again saw 8much open water in the sea1 which in long time they had not seene40 ,during the whole month violent storms broke out1 and the snow fell in enormous quantities4 ,on the #abth of ,march a gale from the north-east brought back the ice1 and the open water disappeared2 the ice driving in with much fury and a mighty noise1 the pieces crashing against each other1 8fearful to hear40 ,up to the #hth of ,may the ice was everywhere1 and their sad eyes could look forth on no pleasant or hopeful scene4 ,then it began to break up1 and the gaunt1 weary explorers prepared to tempt the sea once more4 ,they set to work to repair their two boats1 for their ship was so crippled and strained by the ice that she was injured beyond their ability to repair4 ,illustration3 ,,relieved4 ,on the #adth of ,june they quitted the place of their long captivity2 ,barents1 before they set out1 drawing up in writing a list of their names1 with a brief record of their experiences1 and depositing it in the wooden hut4 ,he himself was so reduced with sickness1 want1 and anxiety that he was unable to stand1 and had to be carried into the boat4 ,on the #afth1 the captain1 hailing from the other boat1 inquired how the pilot fared4 8,quite well1 mate10 ,barents replied2 8,i still hope to mend before we get to ,wardhouse10--,wardhouse being an island on the coast of ,lapland4 ,but he died on the #aith 7or1 as some authorities say1 on the #bjth71 to the great grief of his comrades1 who appreciated his manly character1 and placed great reliance on his experience and skill4 ,the adventurers met with many difficulties from the ice1--sometimes being carried out far from the ice-belt1 and at others being compelled to haul the boats for long distances over the rough surface of the floes to reach open water4 ,it has been well observed that there are many instances on record of long ocean-voyages performed in open boats1 but that1 perhaps1 not one is of so extraordinary a character as that which we are describing1--when two small and crazy craft ventured to cross the frozen seas for eleven hundred miles1 continually endangered by huge floating ice-masses1 threatened by bears1 and exposed for forty days to the combined trials of sickness1 famine1 cold1 and fatigue4 ,at length they arrived at ,kola1 in ,lapland1 towards the end of ,august2 and1 strangely enough1 were taken on board a ,dutch vessel commanded by the very ,cornelizoon ,rijp who had commanded the sister discovery-ship in the previous year4 ,they reached the ,maas in safety in ,october #aeig4 99 99 99 99 99 ,no voyager appears to have sailed in the track of ,barents1 or1 at all events1 to have visited the place where he wintered1 until #ahga4 ,no one but he had rounded the north-east point of bleak ,novaia ,zemlaia4 ,in #ahfi1 however1 and on the #afth of ,may1 ,captain ,carlsen1 a ,norwegian of much experience in the ,north ,sea trade1 sailed from ,hammerfest in a sloop of sixty tons1 called the ,solid4 ,on the #gth of ,september he reached ,ice ,haven1 and on the #ith discovered a rude wooden house standing at the head of the bay4 ,its dimensions were #cb feet by #bj1 and it was constructed of planks measuring from #ad to #af inches in breadth1 and #a inches thick4 ,these1 it was evident1 had belonged to a ship1 and amongst them were several oak beams4 ,heaps of bones of seal1 bear1 reindeer1 and walrus1 as well as several large puncheons1 were collected round the hut4 ,it was the winter-prison of ,barents and his companions1 and had never been entered by human foot since they had abandoned it4 ,the cooking-pans stood over the fireplace1 the old clock hung against the wall2 there were the books1 and implements1 and tools1 and weapons which had been of so much service two hundred and seventy-eight years before4 ,it was an ,arctic reproduction of the legend of the hundred years' sleep of the fairy princess4 ,captain ,carlsen gives the following list of articles found in the lone hut on the shore of ,novaia ,zemlaia3-- ,iron frame over the fireplace1 with shifting bar2 two ship cooking-pans of copper1 found standing on the iron frame1 with the remains of a copper scoop2 copper bands1 probably at one time fastened round pails2 bar of iron2 iron crowbar2 one long and two small gun-barrels2 two bores or augers1 each three feet in length2 chisel1 padlock1 caulking-iron1 three gouges1 and six files2 plate of zinc2 earthenware jar2 tankard1 with zinc lid2 lower half of another tankard2 six fragments of pepper-pots2 tin meat-strainer2 pair of boots2 sword2 fragments of old engravings1 with ,latin couplets underneath them2 three ,dutch books2 a small piece of metal2 nineteen cartridge cases1 some still full of powder2 iron chest1 with lid1 and intricate lock-work2 fragments of metal handle of same2 grindstone2 an eight-pound iron weight2 small cannon-ball2 gun-lock1 with hammer and flint2 clock1 bell of clock1 and striker2 rasp2 small auger2 small narrow strips of copper band2 two salt and pepper pots1 about eight inches high2 two pairs of compasses2 fragment of iron-handled knife2 three spoons2 borer2 hone2 one wooden1 and one bronze tap2 two wooden stoppers for gun muzzles2 two spear or ice-pole heads2 four navigation instruments2 a flute2 lock and key2 another lock2 sledge-hammer head2 clock weight2 twenty-six pewter candlesticks and fragments1 six in a complete state of preservation2 pitcher of ,etruscan shape1 beautifully engraved2 upper half of another pitcher2 wooden trencher1 coloured red2 clock alarum2 three scales2 four medallions1 circular1 about eight inches in diameter1 three of them mounted in oak frames2 a string of buttons2 hilt of sword1 and a foot of its blade2 halberd head2 and two carved pieces of wood1 one with the haft of a knife in it4 ,on the #adth of ,september ,captain ,carlsen sailed from the ,ice ,haven1 and kept along the east coast of ,novaia ,zemlaia1 encountering bad weather and contrary winds1 but succeeding in his chief object1 the circumnavigation of the island1 which he accomplished on the #fth of ,october4 ,he returned to ,hammerfest early in ,november4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our chronological summary now brings us to the ,austrian ,polar expedition of #ahgb4 ,the command was intrusted to ,lieutenant ,payer1 an accomplished seaman who had served under ,captain ,koldewey2 ,carlsen was engaged as pilot2 and the steamer ,tegethoff was carefully and abundantly equipped for the voyage4 ,the plan laid down by ,lieutenant ,payer was well-conceived2 namely1 to round the north-eastern point of ,novaia ,zemlaia1 and sail eastward until he made the extreme north of ,siberia1 where he proposed to winter4 ,in the spring1 travelling-parties would be sent out on exploring journeys2 and the voyage1 in summer1 would be continued as far as ,behring ,strait4 ,the ,tegethoff steamed out of ,troms ,harbour on the #acth of ,july2 first fell in with the ice on the #beth1 in lat4 #gd #ae' ,n42 and on the #bith sighted the coast of ,novaia ,zemlaia4 ,here she was caught in the pack2 but steam being got up1 repeated charges were made at the enemy1 and she was carried bravely into an open water-way1 about twenty miles wide1 to the north of the ,matochkia ,strait4 ,on the #abth of ,august she was joined by the ,isbyrn yacht1 with ,count ,wilczck and some friends on board4 ,the two vessels anchored close to the shore1 in lat4 #gf #cj' ,n41 and on the #ahth celebrated the ,emperor of ,austria's birthday4 ,daily excursions were made by sledge-parties to the adjoining islands1 resulting in an accumulation of botanical and geological specimens1 besides slaughtered bears and foxes1 and quantities of drift-wood4 ,on the #bcrd the vessels parted company1--the ,tegethoff steaming to the northward1 and the ,isbyrn endeavouring to push southward along the coast4 ,on reaching the mouth of the ,petchora1 ,count ,wilczck and his friends left her to proceed on the return voyage to ,troms1 while they ascended the ,petchora in small boats to ,perm1 and returned to ,vienna by way of ,moscow4 ,the ,tegethoff spent the winters of #ahgb and #ahgc in the ,icy ,sea1 and made some discoveries of interest4 ,it returned in safety in the summer of #ahgd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in #ahga an ,american expedition was fitted out under the command of ,captain ,charles ,francis ,hall1 who had already gained distinction by his explorations in the ,polar regions and his long residence among the ,eskimos4 ,through the liberality of ,mr4 ,grinnell1 assisted by the ,united ,states ,government1 he was provided with a stout and well-found steamer1 the ,polaris1 which sailed from ,brooklyn on the #bith of ,june4 ,she carried a crew of seventeen officers and men1--,mr4 ,buddington being sailing and ice master1 and ,mr4 ,tyson assistant navigator1--besides six adult ,eskimos and two children2 and a scientific staff consisting of ,dr4 ,emil ,bessel1 ,mr4 ,bryan1 and ,mr4 ,frederick ,meyers4 ,a few days previous to the sailing of the expedition1 ,mr4 ,grinnell presented ,hall with the historic flag which ,lieutenant ,wilkes1 in #ahch1 had borne nearer to the ,south ,pole than any ,american flag had been before1--which ,lieutenant ,de ,haven1 and afterwards ,dr4 ,kane1 and lastly ,dr4 ,hayes1 had carried further north than any other ensign4 ,captain ,hall1 in receiving it1 expressed his conviction that1 in the spring of #ahgb1 8it would float over a new world1 in which the ,north ,pole ,star is the crowning jewel40 ,on the #crd of ,july the ,polaris entered the land-locked harbour of ,st4 ,john's1 ,newfoundland1 where she remained a week while her machinery underwent some repairs4 ,then she proceeded north to ,holsteinberg1 in ,greenland2 but failed in procuring a supply of coal or a stock of reindeer furs1 both of which were much desiderated4 ,on the #dth of ,august she arrived at the ,danish settlement of ,godhaven1 and happily found the ,united ,states steamer ,congress1 which had been despatched with extra stores and supplies4 ,thence she steamed northward to ,upernavik1 which was reached on the #ahth4 ,so far her progress seemed to have been peculiarly fortunate2 but already dissensions had broken out among the officers1 which augured ill for the eventual success of the expedition4 ,in his despatches home1 however1 ,captain ,hall made no allusion to this discouraging circumstance2 and his biographer explains this silence by 8his idiosyncrasy1 which enabled him to sink everything else in the one idea of pushing on to the far north40 ,upernavik1 with its little colony of ,danish officials and ,eskimo natives1 was left behind on the #bast of ,august1 and the ,polaris continued her adventurous course4 ,six days later1 she arrived at ,kane's winter-quarters in #ahec-ee1 and at the point where he abandoned his little vessel1 the ,advance4 ,next day her crew found a huge wall of ice in front of them1 and doubled round it by steering to the west-north-west4 ,then again putting their vessel's head to the northward1 they made their way up ,kennedy ,channel1 and gained the threshold of what ,dr4 ,kane had supposed to be the ,open ,polar ,sea4 ,they discovered1 however1 that it was bounded by land on either side1 with a vast expanse of ice stretching far beyond it4 ,careful observation showed that it was1 in reality1 a bay1 which ,kane had mistaken for the open sea when its land-boundaries were hidden by fog4 ,it is about forty-five miles wide4 ,thence they entered a channel similar to that of ,kennedy1 which measured about seventeen miles in breadth1 and was obstructed by heavy ice4 ,their progress now was slow and difficult1 and many of the crew wore rueful countenances1 as if they were going 8to sail off the edge of the world40 ,a more serious obstacle was the timidity of ,captain ,buddington1 who showed himself opposed to pushing further northward4 ,hall1 therefore1 resolved to carry the steamer in-shore1 land some of his stores1 and prepare for wintering at this advanced point of 8,ultima ,thule40 ,at midnight1 on the #dth of ,september1 ,captain ,hall raised an ,american flag on this land1 the northernmost site on which any civilized flag had been planted4 ,when it was waving in the breeze1 he proclaimed that he took possession of the surrounding region of snow and ice 8in the name of the ,lord1 and for the ,president of the ,united ,states40 ,he then returned on board the ,polaris1 and her anchor was let go4 ,the place was only a bend in the coast1 and afforded no protection as a harbour2 they therefore steamed through the open water1 and searched further to the southward2 but finding no more sheltered quarters1 they returned to their former anchorage1 and began to land provisions1--the wind moaning sadly1 and the snow falling in heavy showers4 ,on the #gth1 they weighed anchor and steamed in nearer to the shore2 bringing the ship round behind an iceberg1 which lay aground in thirteen fathoms of water4 ,this huge mass of ice proved to be about #dej feet in length1 #cjj feet in breadth1 and #fj feet in height2 lat #ha #ch' ,n41 long4 #fa #de' ,w4 ,the berg was named 8,providence ,berg10 and the cove in which they had established themselves1 8,thank ,god ,harbour40 ,on surveying the surrounding country they found nothing calculated to brighten the prospects of the coming winter4 ,the coast-hills rose from nine to thirteen hundred feet in height1 and were furrowed and scarred with great cracks and fissures1 which bore witness to the rough usage of frost and ice1 wind and weather4 ,to the south lay a large glacier1 which swept round in a wide circuit1 and fell into the bay immediately north of their anchorage4 ,traces of ,eskimos were discernible here and there2 circles of stones1 indicating where they had pitched their tents4 ,the landscape was all of a dull neutral tint1 a kind of cold gray2 for1 as yet1 the winter snow had not clothed it with its mantle of dazzling whiteness4 ,for this1 however1 the adventurers had not long to wait4 ,a snow-storm began on the #bgth of ,september1 and lasted for six-and-thirty hours4 ,illustration3 ,,funeral ,,of ,,captain ,,hall4 ,on the #ajth of ,october ,captain ,hall organized a sledging expedition1 as a preliminary to an extended journey in the spring4 ,there were two sledges1 each drawn by seven dogs2 ,captain ,hall and ,eskimo ,joe in one sledge1 and ,mr4 ,chester and ,eskimo ,hans in the other4 ,they were absent until the #bdth1 but owing to the roughness of the ice had accomplished only fifty miles1 and had made no discovery4 ,meantime1 the crew had been engaged in banking up the ice around the ship1 in order to protect it from collision with drifting floes2 the deck was partly roofed over1 and covered with canvas2 and other preparations were made to resist the terrible inclemency of an ,arctic winter4 ,these1 however1 were temporarily suspended by the sudden illness of ,captain ,hall4 ,on the #ast of ,november he was a little better1 but on the #crd his malady1 which appears to have been a form of paralysis1 took a turn for the worse2 and the end came so rapidly that the eager-hearted1 enthusiastic explorer1 who had braved so many harsh experiences in the ,polar ,world1 8fell asleep0 early on the morning of the #hth4 ,a grave was immediately prepared for the reception of his remains about half a mile inland2 a shallow grave1 for the ground was frozen so hard that it was scarcely possible to break it up1 even with picks2 and on the #aath1 the funeral took place4 ,the time chosen was half-past eleven in the morning2 yet it was so dark that ,mr4 ,bryan read prayers by the light 8of a lantern dimly burning40 ,all the ship's company were present4 ,the coffin was hauled on a sledge1 over which1 by way of pall1 was spread the ,american flag with its stars and stripes4 ,the captain and officers1 ,dr4 ,bessel1 and ,mr4 ,meyers1 followed as mourners2 and strange and picturesque must the melancholy procession have appeared1 as it wound its way through ice and snow1 while a weird boreal light or gleam in the air revealed the outlines of the distant hills1 rising like a rampart on the edge of the snow-covered plain1 and flickered every now and then over the frozen expanse of the ice-bound bay4 ,thus1 says ,captain ,tyson1 thus ended poor ,hall's ambitious projects2 thus was stilled the effervescing enthusiasm of his ardent nature4 8,wise he might not always have been1 but his soul was in his work2 and had he lived till spring1 ,i think he would have gone as far as mortal man could go to accomplish his mission4 ,but with his death1 ,i fear that all hopes of further progress will have to be abandoned40 ,that ,tyson was right in his conjecture1 our narrative will show4 99 99 99 99 99 ,captain ,buddington succeeded to the command1 and one of his first measures was to discontinue the ,sunday service1 for reasons which he does not seem to have explained1 and we are unable to imagine4 ,so far as we can gather from the published records of the expedition1 he was a man unfitted to bear responsibility1--a man without enthusiasm in himself1 and incapable1 therefore1 of stimulating it in others4 ,nor could he secure the obedience of his inferiors4 ,seamen are always prompt to detect the weakness of their officers2 and the crew of the ,polaris soon assured themselves that their new captain was deficient both in courage and resolution4 ,however1 the winter gradually closed in upon the little ice-bound company of the ,polaris1 and they were called upon to endure1 with such patience as was at their command1 the severities of the long ,arctic night4 ,it was very dark1 yet not totally dark4 ,for an hour or two at noon it was possible to wander a short distance from the snow-roofed vessel2 but1 once away from it1 the gloom and silence of everything around settled down on the wanderer like a pall4 ,there were none of the usual sounds of ,nature to relieve the deep oppression of the scene4 8,the other evening10 says ,tyson1 8,i had wandered away from the ship1 disgusted with the confusion and noise1 and longing for a moment's quiet4 ,once beyond range of the men's voices1 there was absolutely no other sound whatever4 ,it was quite calm--no wind1 no movement of any living creature2 nothing but a leaden sky above1 ice beneath my feet1 and silence everywhere4 ,it hung like a pall over everything4 ,so painfully oppressive did it become at last1 that ,i was frequently tempted to shout aloud1 to break the spell4 ,at last ,i did2 but no response came1 not even an echo4 #8,the space was void2 there ,i stood1 ,and the sole spectre was the solitude4'0 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,arctic ,,snow-,,storm4 ,on the #ast of ,january #ahgb1 it is recorded that eighty days had elapsed since the adventurers had seen the sun4 ,the internal economy of the ,polaris1 meantime1 was pitiably disorganized4 ,there was no discipline1 no order1 no method4 ,the men did what they pleased1 and consequently made night hideous by their prolonged carousals4 ,the officers disagreed among themselves1 and the object of the expedition appeared to have been lost sight of1 or no longer to excite any deep or permanent interest4 ,it was even discussed as a proper and probable course to abandon the proposed northward exploration1 and1 as soon as the ice broke up1 to make all haste back to ,new ,york4 ,early in ,february1 the daylight began to gain upon the night a little1 and the ,eskimos hunted for seals1 as they could be heard under the ice making their breathing holes4 ,storms were very frequent--storms which drove the snow afar in dense1 blinding clouds2 and false moons and other atmospheric phenomena attracted the attention of the curious observer4 ,on the #bhth1 after an absence of one hundred and thirty-five days1 the sun reappeared2 and never was royal guest more eagerly welcomed by a loyal people4 ,its rays seemed to bring with them a promise of new life4 ,men's hearts grew lighter in spite of themselves1 and all felt as if they had been relieved from a heavy and intolerable burden4 ,not that the temperature showed any perceptible difference4 ,the thermometer indicated #cg below zero on the #ast of ,march6 ,passing over a couple of months which present no incidents of importance1 we find that on the #ith of ,may the monotonous dulness of the expedition was broken by a sledge-journey to the north1 undertaken by ,captain ,tyson1 with ,meyers1 ,joe1 and ,hans as companions4 ,they were absent from the ship six days2 striking inland1 in an east-north-east direction1 to ,newman ,bay1 and thence keeping more to the north1 until they reached lat4 #hb #i'4 ,mr4 ,meyers surveyed the shores of ,newman ,bay1 and ,captain ,tyson endeavoured to secure some game4 ,one day they came on a large herd of musk-oxen4 ,these animals act very curiously when an attack is made upon them4 ,they form a circle1 stern to stern1 and await the assault of their enemies4 ,the dogs surround them1 and keep them at bay4 ,not unfrequently a dog gets tossed4 ,though ,joe and the captain fired and reloaded as fast as they could1 the poor brutes offered no resistance2 but when eight had fallen1 the remainder took to flight4 ,the slaughtered oxen were then flayed1 and the best pieces cut up for conveyance to the ship4 ,these cattle develop their great size and weight on what might be supposed to form a very slender diet4 ,their food is the mosses and lichens which grow on the rocks2 and to obtain it1 they must first scrape away the snow with their hoofs4 ,at the first sign of danger1 the calves shelter themselves under their parents' body2 and their hair is so long as to afford the young a very complete and satisfactory screen4 ,the musk-ox is an animal of considerable bulk4 ,several of those shot by ,tyson and the ,eskimos weighed from #ejj to #fjj lbs4 each4 ,in proportion to their size and weight1 their legs are very short4 ,early in ,june1 ,captain ,buddington resolved to despatch a couple of boats1 for the purpose of exploring the neighbouring coast1 and discovering1 if possible1 an open water channel to the north4 ,one of these was placed under the command of ,mr4 ,chester2 the other1 of ,captain ,tyson4 ,mr4 ,chester's boat was nipped in an ice-floe1 and crushed to pieces4 ,the crew escaped with difficulty1 but the historical flag was lost4 ,captain ,tyson pushed forward to ,newman ,bay1 where some eider-ducks1 gulls1 and dove-kies were shot4 ,joined by ,mr4 ,chester--who had returned to the ship1 and secured the safety-boat--he found his further progress arrested by that compact1 insuperable field of ice which is the despair of ,arctic navigators4 ,all attempts to get further to the north proved in vain2 and orders to return having arrived from ,captain ,buddington1 there was nothing to be done but to rejoin the ,polaris4 ,the summer passed away1 and still the ,polaris lay beset among the ice2 or1 rather1 drifted slowly to the southward1 along with the floe to which it was attached4 ,no sledge-expeditions were organized2 and ,captain ,buddington's sole concern was to watch for an opportunity of getting out into the open channel1 and returning to ,new ,york4 ,some slight progress southward was occasionally made2 but towards the end of ,october it became evident that the explorers would have to spend a second winter in their frozen captivity4 ,they had been carried beyond ,rensselaer ,harbour1 where ,dr4 ,kane wintered during #ahec-ee1 and began the construction of a store-house for provisions1 in case the ship should be endangered by the drifting ice4 ,this dreaded catastrophe did indeed occur1 on the night of the #aeth4 ,the pressure of the floe was tremendous1 but the ,polaris bore it bravely1 though groaning and creaking in every timber4 ,after awhile1 however1 it was found that she had started a leak aft1 and that the water was gaining on the pumps4 ,the discovery seems to have startled ,buddington out of all coolness or reflection4 ,he threw up his arms1 and cried out to 8throw everything on the ice40 ,immediately all was chaos4 ,the men seized whatever lay near to their hands1 and threw it overboard4 ,a quantity of stores had been previously placed on the deck1 in anticipation of such an event2 but these were now hurled on the floe in indiscriminate confusion1 and with considerable loss4 ,captain ,tyson and some of the men got overboard1 with the view of arranging things in1 at least1 a semblance of order2 but while he was thus engaged1 the ice commenced cracking4 ,shortly afterwards it exploded under his feet1 and broke in many places2 the ship drove away in the darkness1 and ,tyson and his companions immediately lost sight of her4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was a terrible night4 ,the wind blew a hurricane1 and the snow fell heavily in drifting1 whirling masses4 8,we did not know10 says ,tyson1 8who was on the ice1 or who was on the ship20 but seeing some musk-ox skins lying across a wide crack in the ice1 he pulled them towards him to save them--and behold1 rolled up in one of them were two or three of the children of ,hans the ,eskimo6 ,some of the men were afloat on small pieces of ice1 but by means of the whale-boat these were rescued2 and when the gray light of morning dawned on the scene1 ,tyson ascertained that eighteen persons1 besides himself1 were castaways4 ,these were--,mr4 ,meyers1 meteorologist2 ,heron1 steward2 ,jackson1 cook2 six seamen2 ,joe and ,hans1 the ,eskimos1 and their wives and children4 ,the piece of the floe on which they were cast was nearly circular1 and about four miles in circumference4 ,it was not level1 but full of hillocks1 and of ponds or small lakes1 which had been formed by the melting of the ice during the short summer4 ,the ice varied greatly in thickness4 ,some of the mounds1 or hills1 were probably thirty feet thick2 the flat parts not more than ten or fifteen4 ,the surface was exceedingly rugged1 and the hummocks were white with snow4 ,tyson's first task was to inspect the stock of provisions that had been collected on the floe4 ,it consisted of fourteen cans of pemmican1 eleven and a half bags of bread1 one can of dried apples1 and fourteen hams2 and if the ship did not return for them1 they might have to support themselves upon this supply all through the dreary winter1 or die of starvation4 ,fortunately1 they had a couple of boats2 and ,tyson's second care was to load these1 embark his little company1 and endeavour to reach the shore4 ,in this attempt they were balked by the drifting ice2 and before they could repeat it they caught sight of the ,polaris4 ,immediately they ran up a rough and ready signal2 but no one seemed to be keeping a look-out1 and the castaways had the mortification of seeing her drop away behind ,littleton ,island1 without undertaking any search for her missing crew4 ,tyson therefore resolved to cross to the other side of the floe1 and make for the land1 perhaps lower down than the ,polaris was1 so as to intercept her4 ,everything was thrown away1 except two or three days' provisions1 and the boats were got ready4 ,but the men were slow and reluctant2 oars were wanting2 a violent gale arose2 and as night was coming on1 ,tyson found himself compelled to abandon his intention4 ,on the following day1 the ice again broke2 and now the adventurers were drifting with one boat on one piece of ice1 while the other boat1 a part of their provisions1 and an extemporized hut of poles1 remained on the main part of the original floe4 ,the ice-raft which carried ,tyson and his companions measured about #aej yards each way4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,castaways ,,on ,,the ,,ice4 ,illustration3 ,,adrift ,,on ,,the ,,ice-,,floe4 ,on the #bast1 however1 the boat and provisions were recovered4 ,joe1 with the keen eye of an ,eskimo1 caught sight of the bow of the boat1 projecting from a fragment of the broken ice4 ,followed by his faithful ally1 ,tyson went in search of it1 leaping like a chamois-hunter from crag to crag4 ,six of the dogs had accompanied him4 ,these were harnessed to the boat1 and with the help of sturdy arms dragged it over the disrupted floe4 ,the whole party then removed to the large floe1 where some snow-houses were speedily erected4 ,they formed quite an encampment3 one hut1 or rather a sort of half-hut1 for ,mr4 ,meyers and ,captain ,tyson2 ,joe's hut for himself1 his wife1 and their adopted daughter2 a hut for the men2 a store-house for provisions1 and a cook-house1--all united by arched galleries1 built of consolidated snow1 with one main entrance1 and smaller ones branching off to the several apartments or huts4 ,hans built his iglo separately1 but close by4 ,all were constructed after the ,eskimo fashion--that is1 the ground being levelled off1 one half of the floor toward the end furthest from the entrance was slightly raised above the other or front half4 ,the raised part1 as we have previously explained1 serves as parlour and bedroom2 the lower area1 as workshop and kitchen4 ,the walls and arched roof were built up of square blocks of hard snow1 packed hard and close by the force of the wind4 ,a square of about eighteen inches of this compressed snow or ice served for window4 ,this good work done1 ,tyson took stock4 ,successive expeditions had gathered together nearly all that was on the ice when the ,polaris drifted from them1 and he found that their stores included two boats--one of which1 however1 was being broken up for fuel--and one kayack1 a good supply of powder and shot1 eleven and a half bags of bread1 fourteen cans of pemmican1 fourteen hams1 ten dozen cans of meats and soups1 one can of dried apples1 and about twenty pounds of chocolate and sugar mixed4 ,the pemmican cases were large1 each weighing forty-five pounds2 the meats and soups were only one and two pound cans2 the hams were small2 the dried-apple can counted for twenty-two pounds4 ,evidently1 when divided among nineteen people1 this supply could not last many weeks2 and unless they reached the land1 or could catch seals1 starvation seemed their probable ultimate fate4 ,the allowance was reduced to eleven ounces for each adult1 and half that amount for the children1--rations painfully inadequate to the proper support of the human frame in a ,polar region and during an ,arctic winter4 ,illustration3 ,,recovery ,,of ,,the ,,boat ,,by ,,captain ,,tyson4 ,on the #bcrd of ,october they lost sight of the sun4 ,at this time they were about eight or ten miles off-shore1 and forty to fifty miles west of ,northumberland ,island1 in lat4 #gg #cj' nearly4 ,the ,eskimos were on the watch for seals day after day1 but without success4 ,in truth1 it is not easy to find the seal in winter1 as they live principally under the ice1 and can be seen only when it cracks4 ,a warm-blooded animal1 it cannot always remain beneath the frozen surface without breathing1 and for this purpose they make air-holes through the ice and snow4 ,these1 however1 are so small at the surface1 not exceeding two and a half inches across1 that they are not easily distinguished1 especially in the twilight-gloom of an ,arctic winter day4 ,the floe1 or ice-raft1 on which the crew of the ,polaris had found shelter1 continued to drift slowly to the southward1 impelled by wind and current4 ,the weather was so severe that it was worse than useless to attempt to reach the shore4 ,the castaways therefore huddled themselves together in their igloes1 or huts of snow1 or took such diversion as hunting for fox or seal afforded4 ,or when a gleam of fair weather afforded an opportunity1 ,tyson took a short drive in his sledge1 and explored as much as he dared of the ice lying towards the shore4 ,on the #ast of ,november an attempt was made to reach the land1 the dogs being harnessed to the sledge1 and the boat loaded with the most essential articles2 but the state of the ice rendered all efforts of this kind fruitless4 ,illustration3 ,,igloes ,,constructed ,,by ,,the ,,castaways4 ,one day1 ,joe and ,hans1 the ,eskimos1 went out in quest of game4 ,in wandering through the hummocks they lost one another1 and ,joe1 after trying his luck alone1 made his way back towards the hut before night came on2 he fully anticipated to find that ,hans had preceded him1 and was much alarmed when he heard that he had not returned4 ,accompanied by ,robert1 he started in search of him4 ,as they sped along through the rapidly-gathering darkness1 they saw what appeared to be a ,polar bear approaching them2 loaded their pistols1 and prepared to give him a warm reception1 when1 fortunately1 the creature throwing up his arms1 and standing erect1 they perceived that it was their missing comrade4 ,he had used both hands and feet in climbing the rough hummocks1 and his fur clothing being covered with snow1 the deception was tolerably complete4 ,on the #bast of ,november1 ,captain ,tyson writes in his diary3 8,we are living now on as little as the human frame can endure without succumbing2 some tremble with weakness when they try to walk4 ,mr4 ,meyers suffers much from this cause2 he was not well when he came on the ice1 and the regimen here has not improved him4 ,he lives with the men now2 they are mostly ,germans1 and so is he1 and the affinity of blood draws them together1 ,i suppose4 ,since he has housed with the men1 ,i have lived in the hut with ,joe1 ,hannah1 and ,puney4 ,puney1 poor child1 is often hungry2 indeed1 all the children often cry with hunger4 ,we give them all that it is safe to use4 ,i can do no more1 however sorry ,i may feel for them40 99 99 99 99 99 ,but it is unnecessary to trace the misfortunes and sufferings of ,captain ,tyson's little company day by day4 ,their wretched condition--adrift on a raft of ice1 insufficiently clothed1 insufficiently fed1 poorly housed1 without any of the comforts that generally make an ,arctic expedition endurable1 buffeted by snow-storm and tempest1 in constant apprehension lest their insecure raft should break up--requires no exaggeration of colouring to produce its full impression on the reader4 ,in ,january #ahgc1 it was found that the provisions were diminishing with terrible rapidity2 and this was due not so much to the regular daily consumption as to the secret pilferings of the crew1 who were not controlled by any bonds of discipline1 and yielded ,captain ,tyson an imperfect and reluctant obedience4 ,they were all ,germans1 except ,heron1 an ,englishman1 and the cook1 a man of colour1 and their conduct was a disgrace to their nationality4 ,they seem to have thought that their raft was carrying them swiftly towards ,disco in ,greenland1 where abundant supplies could easily be obtained2 but1 in truth1 they were drifting in the direction of ,labrador1 and the safety of all demanded the sternest economy of their small stock of provisions4 ,illustration3 ,,hans ,,mistaken ,,for ,a ,,bear4 ,illustration3 ,,difficult ,,travelling4 ,the cold was now excessive1--#ce below zero at noon1 and #cg at midnight4 ,on the #acth1 it sank below #dj4 ,on the following day1 however1 a strong westerly gale blew up2 the cold became more moderate--the temperature rose to -#ad4 ,under the influence of the gale1 the ice began to crack and grind and break up2 the natives launched a kayack2 a seal was hunted down1 and the castaways feasted gloriously4 ,this1 however1 was but a transient gleam of good fortune4 ,on the #agth the glass again sank to #ch1 and no more seals were visible4 ,the men were now reduced to less than twelve ounces of food daily1 which was not sufficient to furnish internal warmth1 or to strengthen the system against the terrible effects of the ,arctic climate4 ,the #aith was1 to some extent1 a day of hope2 for1 after an absence of eighty-three days1 the sun once more rose above the misty horizon4 ,eskimo ,joe took advantage of the burst of daylight to undertake a hunting expedition4 ,about five miles from the hut he found open water1 and shot two seals1 but could land only one2 the young ice carried the other away4 ,encouraged by the cheerful glow of the sun1 he stayed out later than usual1 and it was very dark before he returned4 ,a light of burning blubber was kindled to guide him to the hut4 ,it shone out upon the gloom of the night like a pharos4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,guiding ,,light4 ,the #beth of ,january marked the one hundred and third day of the castaways' voyage on the ice-raft1 and they severely felt the monotonous wretchedness of their existence4 ,it was a beautiful day1 and perfectly calm2 but the thermometer indicated #dj below zero4 ,at midnight the heavens were illuminated with all the glories of a brilliant aurora4 ,they seemed to be ablaze3 from the south-west to the north-east1 from the horizon to the zenith1 the magnetic fires shot here and there1 and wavered and undulated1 like flame driven by a strong wind4 ,at one time the splendour was almost overpowering1 and the straining eye was fain to seek relief in darkness4 ,on the #ast of ,february a violent gale arose1 blowing from the north-west1 and the ice1 rolling and rocking beneath its influence1 split up into great cracks and fissures which threatened the safety of the castaways4 ,huge blocks fell off from the floe2 and the vast bergs which had hitherto accompanied1 and partly sheltered it1 moved rapidly before the wind4 ,everything acknowledged the might of the storm2 but as yet the adventurers had not been disturbed1 though surrounded by mountains of ice heavy enough1 if driven against their encampment1 to have crushed them to atoms4 ,thus far they had floated safely1 but the position was one to cause reflection3 at some time or other the ice must break up1 they knew2 but whether they would survive the catastrophe was beyond conjecture4 ,they could only wait and hope4 ,illustration3 ,,dragging ,a ,,seal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here is a picture of the interior of one of the igloes1 or snow-huts3-- 8,joe and ,hannah are sitting in front of the lamp1 playing checkers on an old piece of canvas1 the squares being marked out with ,tyson's pencil4 ,they use buttons for men1 as they have nothing better4 ,the natives easily learn any sort of game2 some of them can even play a respectable game of chess2 and cards they understand as well as the #8heathen ,chinee4' ,cards go wherever sailors go1 and the first lessons that the natives of any uncivilized country get are usually from sailors4 8,little ,puney1 ,joe and ,hannah's adopted child1 a little girl1 is sitting wrapped in a musk-ox skin2 every few minutes she says to her mother1 #8,i am so hungry6' ,the children often cry with hunger4 ,it makes one's heart ache1 but they are obliged to bear it with the rest40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the gale continued on the #bnd1 with blinding showers of snow--fine1 penetrating1 pungent4 ,next day the weather moderated1 and the glass rose to #ae below zero4 ,dark clouds lowered in the horizon1 preventing the land from being seen1 if any shore were near4 ,but the rapid rise in the temperature1 after so strong a north-west gale1 allowed ,tyson to hope that the wind had mastered the current1 and was forcing them towards the ,greenland shore4 ,illustration3 ,,return ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,though all around nothing was visible but ice and icebergs1 the scene had a certain beauty of its own--a strange weird beauty1 like that of a dream-picture4 ,when the sun shone on the bergs1 and lighted up their massive or fantastic forms1 all the prismatic colours of the rainbow flashed through the 8crystal pendants0 or 8projecting peaks40 ,the interest of the scene was enhanced by the variety of its forms4 ,every berg appeared to have had its individual history1 and its broken outline and furrowed surface bore witness to the experiences it had undergone--storm and rain1 wind and water4 ,some rose up around the castaways like solid ramparts2 others represented the spire of a ,gothic cathedral1 the pinnacle of a ,turkish minaret1 the glittering walls of a palace3 all were beautiful1 yet terrible in their beauty1 conveying a profound feeling of might and destructive power4 ,illustration3 ,,shooting ,,narwhal4 ,on the #eth1 and again on the #gth1 a seal was caught1 and the little company enjoyed a plentiful meal4 ,on the latter day a couple of narwhals were shot1 but both sank before they could be reached4 ,these narwhals are sometimes called sea-unicorns1 or monodons1 in allusion to the long horn1 six to eight feet in measurement--or1 rather1 the elongated tooth--which projects from the upper jaw2 a formidable weapon1 tapering from base to point1 with a spiral twist from left to right4 ,strange stories were told of these sea-unicorns by the early navigators2 but science has made short work of legend and fable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,day after day1 the history of our navigators was the same2 no stirring romance1 but harsh reality3--wind and snow1 snow and wind--a wind which almost froze the life-blood of those exposed to it1 and snow which fell so fast and thick as to wrap the scene in the gloom of desolation4 ,still1 the ice-raft drifted southward2 slowly but surely drifted through the darkness of the night and the twilight obscurity of the day2 while the little company it carried suffered much from increasing weakness1 though better provided with food than formerly1 owing to the frequent capture of narwhal and seal4 ,occasionally the mists cleared off1 and the sun streamed out in meridian splendour1 lighting up every feature of the 8ice-scape0--may we coin the word8--around them4 ,but1 too frequently1 8snow and blow1 blow and snow10 was1 as ,tyson remarks1 8the order of the day40 ,hope lives eternal in the human breast2 and though it had sunk very low in the hearts of our adventurers1 it suddenly rekindled on the #aith of ,february1 when they caught sight of the west coast1 at no greater distance than thirty-eight or forty miles4 ,its flame was kept alive on the #bast by the discovery that the thermometer had risen to #c above zero4 ,next day it had risen to #bj1 or within #ab of freezing-point2 and men inured to the rigour of an ,arctic winter spoke of such weather with cheeriness as 8very comfortable40 ,the cloud upon the prospect now was the want of food1 for the game had begun to fail4 ,the hunters went forth every morning1 but returned empty-handed4 ,the feebleness of the party increased in an alarming degree4 ,it took several men to carry a light ,eskimo kayack1 which for an ordinary man is not even a burden4 ,what was to be done8 ,the only chance of life seemed to lie in reaching the shore2 but how were these gaunt1 frail skeletons to convey their boat across the rugged ice until they reached the open water8 ,illustration3 ,,dragging ,,the ,,oogjook 7,,see ,,page #bie74 ,illustration3 ,,sunlight ,,effect ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,region 7,,see ,,page #bia74 ,they decided1 however1 on making the attempt1 in the hope of reaching a place called ,shaumen1 a little to the north of ,cape ,mercy1 in lat4 #fe ,n41 where game1 and sometimes ,eskimos1 were to be found4 ,in spite of all their efforts1 they were foiled by a succession of blinding1 lashing1 beating snow-storms4 ,the mercury sank again to #bd below zero1 and their position grew desperate4 ,they were reduced to one meal--and such a meal6--per diem4 ,great was their joy on the #bhth when the hunters brought in thirty-seven dove-kies1 or two apiece4 ,they were cooked without delay1 and eaten up to the last morsel1 except the feathers4 ,greater still was their joy on the #bnd 7of ,march71 when ,eskimo ,joe shot a monster oogjook 7a large kind of seal71 the largest they had ever seen--such a monster that it took all hands to drag its carcass to the huts4 ,peter danced and sung in the exuberance of his delight1 and everybody felt that for a time they were saved from starvation4 ,on measurement1 this glorious oogjook proved to be seven feet nine inches in length1 or fully nine feet including the tail4 ,the ice-raft was now approaching ,cumberland ,gulf1 and ,tyson calculated that they had reached lat4 #fe ,n4 ,they drifted more and more rapidly2 and if they did not die of famine1--if the ice did not break up too suddenly1--there was a probability of their reaching the whaling ground1 and falling in with some friendly ship4 ,the gales1 however1 were frequent and severe2 the thermometer continued very low--#cb to #cd below zero2 and the sufferings of the whole company were intense4 ,even the ,eskimos were sorely afflicted2 though without these bold and patient hunters1 the white men must certainly have perished4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,sight ,,of ,a ,,whale4 ,on the #gth of ,march there were indications of the breaking up of the floe4 ,it cracked and snapped beneath them1 with a sound like that of distant thunder4 ,so far as the surface was concerned1 however1 no signs of fracture were visible2 the eye1 straining in every direction1 saw nothing but an unbroken expanse of ice4 ,and thus it continued until the #abth1 when1 during a terrible storm1 the threatened catastrophe took place1 the ice-raft being shattered suddenly into hundreds of pieces1 on one of which1 not more that one hundred yards by seventy-five1 the adventurers found themselves adrift6 ,oh1 what a night of dread anxiety they passed1 expecting every moment that this piece too would give way1 and plunge them into ruin6 ,but it held together2 and when the wind abated1 and the snow ceased to fall1 and the wild hurtling of the broken ice was hushed1 they could look around them1 and realize their position4 ,the condition of the ice had undergone an absolute change2 the 8floes0 were driven up into a 8pack10 and huge blocks1 of all shapes and sizes1 were heaped up and jammed together in inextricable confusion4 ,illustration3 ,,face ,,to ,,face ,,with ,a ,,polar ,,bear4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,arctic ,,ice-,,scape 7,,see ,,page #bib74 ,noting that on the #bast of ,march seven seals replenished the empty larder of our adventurers1 and that on the #bfth whales were visible for the first time1--a welcome sign1 as indicating their approach to the fishing-grounds1--we pass on to the #bith1 which was marked by a curious incident4 ,shortly after dark1 ,tyson heard a noise outside his hut2 he had just taken off his boots1 preparing for rest2 ,joe1 too1 was on the point of retiring1 but thinking the ice was breaking up1 he went out to view the 8situation40 ,in a few seconds he hastily returned1 pallid and frightened1 and exclaiming1 8,there is a bear close to my kayack60 ,the kayack lay within ten feet of the entrance to the hut4 ,both ,joe and ,tyson's rifles were outside2 ,joe's within the kayack1 and ,tyson's lying close to it2 but ,joe had his pistol in the hut4 ,the captain put on his boots1 and then both crept cautiously out4 ,seal-skins and lumps of blubber were lying about in all directions2 and ,bruin1 having dragged some of these about thirty feet from the kayack1 was banqueting at his ease4 ,joe crept into the sailors' hut to alarm them4 ,meantime ,tyson crawled stealthily to his rifle1 but in taking it knocked down a shot-gun standing by4 ,the bear heard it1 but ,tyson's rifle already covered him2 he growled2 ,tyson pulled the trigger1 but the gun would not go off2 a second1 and a third time--it did not go2 but ,tyson did1 for the bear now rushed full upon him4 ,retiring to the hut1 he put another cartridge in1 and then again crept out into the open1 taking up a position where he could see the animal1 although the night was dark4 ,the bear1 too1 saw his assailant1 and faced towards him2 but this time the rifle-ball went straight to its mark2 the bear ran about two rods1 and fell dead4 ,the victim was a 8sea-bear10 ,ursus maritimus1 and supplied the company on the ice-raft with a welcome change of diet4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,board ,,the ,,boat4 ,illustration3 ,,breaking ,,up ,,of ,,the ,,ice4 ,illustration3 ,,joe ,,captures ,a ,,seal4 ,as the piece of ice was gradually wearing away1 the adventurers of the ,polaris resolved on an effort to regain the main pack1 which would necessarily be safer4 ,with their sleeping-gear1 tent1 and a supply of shot and powder1 they embarked on board the boat1 and stood to the westward2 and on the #dth of ,april1 after a succession of rough experiences1 reached the 8pack40 ,here they were not much better off1 for a violent gale blowing from the north-east1 the ice began to break off in huge fragments2 and soon the area at the command of the navigators was so small1 that they were compelled to reload the boat1 and prepare for a hurried departure4 ,the wind1 however1 subsided1 the pack closed up1 and things returned to their normal condition4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,night ,,of ,,fear 7,,see ,,page #bif74 ,on the #ahth of ,april the castaways were somewhat reinvigorated by the capture of a seal1 which ,joe brought ashore in his kayack1 and by the appearance of land to the south-west4 ,but in this wild ,arctic region the weather in spring is subject to surprising changes1 and on the #bjth another gale began to blow4 ,such was its fury that it drove a heavy swell of sea across the ice-raft1 which washed away every article that was loose4 ,billow after billow followed with ever-increasing violence2 and tent1 and skins1 and nearly all the bed-gear1 were swept into the boiling waters4 ,only a few articles were saved1 which1 along with the women and children1 had been stowed in the boat4 ,to save the boat tasked the energies of all the party1 who had to hold on to it1 with might and main1 to prevent it from being carried out to sea4 ,all through the dreadful night the men were on the watch against this crowning disaster2 all through the dreary night1 from #i ,p4,m4 until #g ,a4,m41 straining every nerve1 calling into play every resource of energy4 ,ever and anon1 one of the tremendous billows would plunge downward1 and lift the boat bodily1 and the men with it1 and carry it and them forward on the ice1 almost to the opposite edge of the floating raft2 several times the boat heeled partly over1 and was hauled back only by the more than human strength which the crew derived from a knowledge of their position4 ,the boat gone1 all was lost6 ,terrible was the work2 had the waters been smooth1 the task would not have been easy2 but they were filled with loose ice1 which rolled about in blocks of all shapes and sizes1 and with almost every wave these came toppling and rolling and driving forward like an avalanche1 and fell about the heads and limbs of the men as they clung desperately to the boat4 ,but ,god mercifully supplied them with the strength they needed2 and so1 labouring to the uttermost1 they waited and watched for the day4 ,for twelve hours scarcely a sound was uttered except the crying of the children1 and ,tyson's stern command to 8,hold on10 or 8,bear down10 with the responsive 8,ay1 ay1 sir0 of the men4 ,illustration3 ,a 8,,hell ,,of ,,waters40 ,day dawned at last1 with a dull gray light over the restless sea1 and ,tyson saw with indescribable thankfulness a large raft of ice floating within reach4 ,he determined to make for it1 though the men hesitated to launch the boat into such a 8hell of waters40 ,but it was done2 the women and children were first got on board1 and then all the men embarked in safety4 ,by dint of hard pulling1 they gained the ice1 landed1 refreshed themselves with a morsel of food1 and then1 on this new ice-raft1 laid down to rest4 ,the following morning found them 8safe and sound10 after all their trials1 with the exception of a few bruises and contusions4 ,on the #bbnd of ,april another bear was killed2 and just in time1 for the whole party were without a morsel of food4 ,this lasted them for three or four days2 and then1 on the #beth1 as starvation once more stared them in the face1 they resolved on a desperate effort to make the land4 ,what else were they to do8 ,the rain fell in torrents2 the wind blew a hurricane2 the ice-raft was constantly wasting away2 they had no provisions4 ,true1 the boat was frail and leaky1 and the sea ran high2 but as the ice would not much longer afford them even a footing1 a decision was forced upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,dragging ,,the ,,boat ,,on ,,to ,a ,,floe4 ,so in their crippled1 overloaded boat they set out1 the wind blowing a gale1 and a tremendous sea running1 full of small knife-like blades of ice4 ,after eight hours' labour at the oars1 they came to a piece of floe1 and encamped upon it for the night4 ,at daylight on the #bhth they again launched their boat2 and after much weary work in threading their way through a fleet of icebergs1 they got into comparatively open water4 ,at half-past four1 a joyful sight6--a steamer right ahead1 and bearing north of them4 ,the castaways hoisted their colours1 and pulled towards her4 ,she was a sealer1 going south-west1 and making her way through the floating ice4 ,the hearts of the castaways beat with joy at the prospect of speedy relief2 but1 alas1 they were doomed to disappointment6 ,she did not see the miserable little company in the overloaded boat2 and it was impossible for them to overtake her4 ,night gathered over the sea1 and she disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,,clinging ,,to ,,the ,,boat 7,,see ,,page #cjh74 ,reaching a suitable piece of floe1 they boarded it1 and again encamped for the night1 under a sky which was clear and calm1 and shone with the glory of stars4 ,the sea1 too1 was tranquil1 and1 notwithstanding their disappointment1 they felt more hopeful than before2 it was evident they had reached the borders of civilization1 and might rely upon obtaining help4 ,with seals' blubber they kindled beacon-fires on the ice2 and divided their men into two watches4 ,the next day they sighted another steamer1 launched their boat1 and pulled lustily towards her4 ,in vain3 she did not see them1 and after a couple of hours' hard work they were hemmed in by the ice1 and could make no progress4 ,they landed on a floe1 and hoisted their colours2 collected and loaded all their rifles and pistols1 and filled the echoes with the ringing report of three simultaneous volleys4 ,they heard three shots in reply1 and--glorious sight6--saw the steamer directing her course towards them4 ,they shouted with all their might2 but in the keen air their voices seemed to pass away soundlessly4 ,presently the steamer changed her course1 tacking south1 then north1 then west1 as if she were vainly endeavouring to force a passage through the accumulated ice4 ,yet there seemed no insuperable obstacle in her path4 ,the fugitives fired again1 and again2 but she came no nearer1 and late in the afternoon steamed away to the south west4 ,at sunset they descried land in the same direction1 about thirty-five miles distant4 ,on the following day1 the #cjth of ,april1 ,tyson was lying in the boat1 his watch having just ended1 when the look-out raised a sudden shout3 8,there's a steamer6 there's a steamer60 ,as if fresh life had been poured into his veins1 ,tyson sprang to his feet1 ordered all the guns to be fired1 joined his companions in a loud simultaneous cry1 and raised their colours to the head of the boat's mast4 ,hans leaped into his kayack1 and was despatched to intercept the ship1 if possible1 as there was some danger of losing sight of her in the fog which prevailed2 but1 happily1 she bore down towards them4 ,hans paddled on1 and in his broken ,english shouted1 8,american steamer40 ,he was not understood by those on board1 but they kept their course1 and in a few minutes lay alongside of the ice-isle which sheltered ,tyson and his company4 ,oh1 what three loud1 hearty1 joyful cheers acknowledged their deliverance6 ,these were immediately returned by the crew of the steamer1 which proved to be the sealer ,tigress1 of ,conception ,bay1 ,newfoundland4 ,we quote from ,captain ,tyson's simply-worded narrative3-- 8,two or three of their small seal-boats were instantly lowered4 ,we1 however1 now that relief was certain1 threw everything from our own boat1 and in a minute's time she was in the water2 while the boats of the ,tigress came on1 and the crews got on our bit of ice1 and peeped curiously into the dirty pans we had used over the oil-fires4 ,we had been making soup out of the blood and entrails of the last little seal which ,hans had shot4 ,they soon saw enough to convince them that we were in sore need4 ,no words were required to make that plain4 8,taking the women and children in their boats1 we tumbled into our own1 and were soon alongside of the ,tigress4 ,we left all we had behind1 and our all was simply a few battered smoky tin pans and the dbris of our last seal4 ,it had already become offal in our eyes1 though we had often been glad enough to get such fare4 8,on stepping on board1 ,i was at once surrounded by a curious lot of people--,i mean men filled with curiosity to know our story1 and all asking questions of me and the men4 ,i told them who ,i was1 and where we were from4 ,but when they asked me1 #8,how long have you been on the ice8' and ,i answered1 #8,since the #aeth of last ,october1' they were so astonished that they fairly looked blank with wonder4 8,one of the party1 looking at me with open-eyed surprise1 exclaimed1-- 8#8,and was you on it night and day8' 8,the peculiar expression of the tone1 with the absurdity of the question1 was too much for my politeness4 ,i laughed in spite of myself1 and my long unexercised risibles thrilled with an unwonted sensation40 ,tyson and his party were picked up in lat4 #ec #ce' ,n42 a fact which will give the reader some idea of the wonderful voyage they had accomplished on their various ice-rafts4 ,they were treated with thoughtful kindness on board the ,tigress1 which on the #gth of ,may turned her head towards ,newfoundland4 ,on the following day she put into ,conception ,bay1 where the ,americans landed1 and remained until the #abth4 ,they then started for ,st4 ,john's2 and the news of their remarkable experiences having preceded them1 found themselves on their arrival the objects of a very general and lively curiosity4 ,after a short stay1 they were conveyed to ,washington on board the ,united ,states steamship ,frolic4 ,and here ends their strange1 eventful history4 ,we must now return to the ,polaris4 ,when she drifted away in the darkness of that stormy night1 she had on board fourteen persons3 ,captain ,buddington1 ,dr4 ,emil ,bessel1 ,messrs4 ,bryan and ,chester1 and ten officers and seamen4 ,what had become of them and their vessel8 ,such was the natural question which arose on the safe arrival at ,washington of ,tyson and his companions2 and the ,american ,government quickly came to the determination of organizing a relieving party to seek for and bring back the survivors and remains1 if any1 of the ,polaris expedition4 ,the steamship ,juniata was immediately despatched to form a dept of supplies on the coast of ,greenland in advance4 ,she reached ,upernavik on the #cast of ,july1 and there brought into use her steam-launch1 the ,little ,juniata2 which1 manned by a gallant crew1 pushed forward into the icy waters of ,melville ,bay1 but without coming upon any traces of the missing explorers4 ,meantime1 the ,american ,government purchased the ,tigress1 and fitted her up for a thorough cruise in the ,arctic seas4 ,with ,captain ,greer in command1 and ,mr4 ,tyson as acting-lieutenant1 and a crew of eleven officers and forty-two men1 8all told10 the ,tigress set sail on the evening of ,july #adth1 and dropped anchor at ,st4 ,john's on the morning of the #bcrd4 ,on the #aath of ,august we find her at ,upernavik1 where she took on board a supply of coal from the ,juniata4 ,she then proceeded northward1 falling in with the heavy pack-ice near ,cape ,york4 ,the #adth saw her off the ,eskimo settlement of ,netlik4 ,she was now approaching ,northumberland ,island1 in the neighbourhood of which1 or of ,littleton ,island1 it was supposed the ,polaris had parted from the ice-floe4 ,captain ,greer carefully examined ,northumberland ,island1 but without success4 ,he then made for ,littleton ,island2 and a boat was lowered to go on shore1 carrying ,lieutenant ,white1 ,captain ,tyson1 and other officers4 ,what was their surprise1 as they approached1 to discover some human figures and a couple of tents on the mainland1 near ,littleton ,island4 ,the figures proved to be ,eskimos2 and through the agency of ,eskimo ,joe1 who was on board the ,tigress1 it was soon ascertained that ,captain ,buddington had deserted the ,polaris on the day after her separation from the floe2 that he and his companions had erected a house on the mainland1 and wintered therein2 had fitted it up with sleeping-berths for fourteen men1 the full number1 and furnished it with stove1 table1 chairs1 and other articles removed from the abandoned ship2 that during the winter the party had built and equipped a couple of sailing-boats2 and that 8about the time when the ducks begin to hatch0 they had departed for the south4 ,illustration3 ,,saved6 ,the ,eskimo chief1 or leader1 added that ,captain ,buddington had made him a present of the ,polaris2 but that the gift proved of no effect1 for in a violent gale she broke loose from the ice1 drifted out into the channel1 and foundered4 ,further search brought the crew of the ,tigress to the winter-camp of the ,polaris crew4 ,it was situated in lat4 #gh #bc' ,n41 and long4 #gc #df' ,w4 ,some manuscripts were found there1 with the log-book1 the medical stores1 and remains of instruments2 and these1 with whatever else that seemed of intrinsic value1 having been removed on board the ,tigress1 the expedition bore away to the southward1 and on the #afth of ,october reached ,st4 ,john's1 ,newfoundland1 where they received the welcome intelligence of the rescue of the ,polaris party under the circumstances we shall now relate4 ,we return to the eventful night of the #aeth of ,october #ahgb4 ,during the tremendous gale that then raged along the ,arctic coast1 the bow-hawser of the ,polaris snapped like a 8pack-thread10 the anchors slipped1 and the ship drifted away into the darkness4 ,the wind forced her in a north-easterly direction2 and next morning those on board found her 8a little north of ,littleton ,island1 in ,smith ,sound1 having been exactly abreast of ,sutherland ,island during a portion of the night40 ,as she was leaking rapidly the pumps were set to work2 and the fires with much difficulty being lighted1 the ship was got to obey her helm4 ,it was then found that the following officers and men remained on board3--,captain ,buddington2 ,mr4 ,chester1 chief mate2 ,william ,merton1 second mate2 ,emil ,schuman1 chief engineer2 ,odell1 assistant-engineer2 ,campbell and ,booth1 firemen2 ,coffin1 carpenter2 ,sieman1 ,hobby1 ,hays1 and ,manch1 seamen2 ,dr4 ,emil ,bessel1 meteorologist2 and ,mr4 ,bryan1 astronomer and chaplain4 ,a look-out was kept1 it is said1 for the nineteen who were missing1 but no signs of them being discovered1 ,captain ,buddington came to the comfortable conclusion that they had saved themselves in the boats4 ,doubting the feasibility of carrying the ,polaris to the southward1 he determined to abandon her1 and winter on shore4 ,with this view she was run in as near land as possible1 and finally grounded in ,kane's ,life-boat ,cove1 lat4 #gh #bc' #cj ,n41 and long4 #gc #ba' ,w4 ,here1 on the #agth of ,october1 ,captain ,buddington prepared to establish a winter-camp2 and the next few days were occupied in removing from the stranded vessel all the food and fuel1 and such articles as could conduce to the comfort and sustenance of the party through the ensuing winter4 ,with spars1 bulk-heads1 and canvas brought from the ,polaris a commodious house was erected1 measuring twenty-two feet in length1 and fourteen feet in width4 ,it was thoroughly water-tight2 warmed inside by a stove2 and banked outside with masses of compact snow4 ,in the interior the sides were lined with fourteen sleeping-berths4 ,a table and chairs and lamps added to the general comfort2 so that our explorers were prepared to brave a ,polar winter under more favourable conditions than those experienced by most ,arctic navigators4 ,in the course of a few days a party of native ,eskimos1 with five sledges1 made their appearance1 and their friendly labours were found of no little value4 ,they considered themselves amply repaid by a few presents of knives1 needles1 and the like1 and after a short stay returned to their settlement at ,etah4 ,however1 others soon took their place2 and eventually two or three families built their igloes in the neighbourhood of the ,american camp4 ,the ,eskimo women made themselves very useful by making and repairing clothing1 and rendering other feminine courtesies2 while the men1 when game became plentiful1 supplied the little settlement with a welcome abundance of fresh meat4 ,nor was this the only advantage derived from the presence of the ,eskimos2 on the contrary1 it had an excellent effect on the morale of the men1 who did not feel that utter isolation1 that sense of being cut off from human companionship1 and separated from the rest of the world1 which is one of the severest trials of wintering in the ,arctic regions4 ,the heavy pressure of the long1 dark ,polar night was wonderfully lightened by the kindly attentions and mirthful society of the ,eskimos4 ,it is probable that some of the ,polaris crew never spent a happier winter4 ,there was no want of food1 no suffering from cold2 their quarters were warm1 cheerful1 and well-lighted4 ,time did not hang heavily on their hands2 for when the house-work was done1 when the fires were replenished1 the lamps trimmed1 and the day's provisions cooked1 they amused themselves with reading or writing1 or played at chess1 draughts1 and cards4 ,it is true they had no communication with the world without1 and no intelligence could reach them from friends or kinsmen2 but1 surgit amari aliquid--in the cup of human happiness a bitter drop is always found6 ,when the worst of the winter was past1 they began1 under the direction of the carpenter1 to construct a couple of boats1 with the view of returning homeward as soon as the ice broke up4 ,each was twenty-five feet long1 square fore and aft1 and five feet beam2 capable1 that is1 of carrying seven men1 with provisions for about two months1 in which time they might reasonably calculate on reaching the civilized settlements4 ,it was the end of ,may before the condition of the ice enabled them to set out4 ,then they broke up their camp1 rewarded their ,eskimo friends1 carried on board stores and provisions2 and1 finally1 early on the morning of the #ast of ,june they bade farewell to their winter-home1 and sailed out into the waters of ,smith ,sound4 ,their voyage was unmarked by any disastrous incident1 and presents a strange contrast to the dangerous experiences of ,tyson and his companions4 ,wherever they landed1 they obtained an abundant supply of aquatic birds1 seal1 and other game4 ,they were all in good health1 well-fed1 well-clothed4 ,their boats were sound and strong4 ,the winter had long passed away1 and the glorious summer sun poured its full radiance on the calm surface of the ,arctic sea4 ,sailing pleasantly along1 they touched at ,hakluyt ,island1 and subsequently landed on the west shore of ,northumberland ,island4 ,the pack-ice detained them there until the #ajth4 ,they then entered a water-way toward ,cape ,parry1 but were subsequently forced back by the ice to the place whence they had started4 ,on the #abth the channel was clearer4 ,they set sail again2 crossed the southern part of ,murchison ,sound2 doubled ,cape ,parry2 and halted for rest and refreshment on ,blackwood ,point1 near ,fitz ,clarence ,rock4 ,thence they made1 in due succession1 for ,wolstenholme ,island1 and ,cape ,york1--names which recall the adventures of the earlier explorers4 ,their course now assumed a more difficult character1 as they had come face to face with the ice of ,melville ,bay1--that great expanse of ,arctic waters which is surrounded by glacier-loaded shores1 and has always been a favourite 8whaling-ground40 ,here they encountered some difficulty with the 8pack20 the 8leads10 or water-ways1 curiously intersecting one another1 and striking far into the ice1 and so closing up that it was often necessary to haul their boats across a kind of promontory1 or tongue1 from one lead to another4 ,their troubles1 however1 were of brief duration4 ,on the twentieth day after leaving ,life-boat ,cove1 they sighted a steamer1 beset in the ice1 at a distance of thirty or thirty-five miles from ,cape ,york4 ,she could not come to them1 it was true1 but they could go to her2 and this they prepared to do4 ,they had not traversed half the distance1 however1 before they met a body of eighteen men from the ship2 for they too had been seen1 and recognized as white men1 and relief immediately despatched4 ,the friendly vessel proved to be the ,ravenscraig of ,dundee1 ,captain ,allen1 lying in lat4 #ge #ch' ,n41 and long4 #fe #ce' ,w4 ,it was now found1 according to the narrative of the expedition1 that the relief did not come much too soon1 for the boats had been considerably injured by contact with the rough hummocky ice4 ,and the fatigue of hauling them over such a surface may be inferred from the fact that it took the ,polaris crew1 with their eighteen relief-men from the ,ravenscraig1 six hours to reach the latter vessel4 ,the difficulty was increased by a deep slushy snow1 which lay thick upon the ice1 and which was not only heavy and disagreeable to the wayfarer1 but exceedingly dangerous1 as more than one found by sinking into the pitfalls it treacherously concealed4 ,but they reached the ,ravenscraig at midnight1 and received a hearty welcome from ,captain ,allen1 who was able also to communicate the grateful intelligence that their comrades1 the little company sent adrift on the ice-raft1 were all in safety4 ,it has been well said that the ,polaris expedition proved curiously prolific of startling and exciting incidents4 ,from the time when ,captain ,bartlett of the ,tigress rescued the 8exhausted waifs0 of the ice-floe1 until the last scene in this romantic drama was enacted1 the public mind had been kept in a condition of continual expectancy by the progress of events connected with the story of these ,arctic explorers4 ,the lamentable death of ,captain ,hall1--the long voyage on the ice-floe through the gloom of the ,polar night1--the return of the nineteen castaways after so many hairbreadth escapes and wonderful adventures1--the departure of the ,tigress1--the discovery of ,buddington's winter-camp1--and now the rescue of him and his crew by the ,dundee whaler1 formed a series of surprising and exciting events1 which1 if not of epical interest1 would certainly seem to furnish matter for a poet's song4 ,even the early annals of ,arctic exploration1 with their narratives of the achievements and sufferings of ,hudson1 ,davis1 ,barentz1 present no incidents of a more remarkable character4 ,as men dwelt upon them1 they came to acknowledge that the 8age of romance0 was not ended yet4 ,on the #ahth of ,september #ahgc1 the ,arctic whaling-steamer arrived at ,dundee with eleven of the ,polaris survivors1 who had been transferred to her from the ,ravenscraig1 as the latter was not homeward bound4 ,three others reached ,america in the ,intrepid2 and thus the expedition of the ,polaris terminated without any loss of life1 if we except the unfortunate death of her enthusiastic commander1 ,captain ,hall4 ,it added nothing1 it is true1 to our geographical knowledge of the ,arctic ,world2 and yet it was not without some useful results4 ,the ,polaris1 at all events1 approached nearer to the ,north ,pole than any one of her predecessors2 and men of science were thenceforth justified in asserting that the hope of complete success was no longer chimerical4 ,the distance to the pole from the point reached by the ,polaris was comparatively so trivial1 as to afford good reason for believing that it would not long baffle human resolution and enterprise4 ,then1 again1 it was established as a fact beyond doubt that ,europeans could securely winter in a latitude of #ha #ch'2 that a ship well built and well equipped might push northward as far as #hb #af'2 and that no insuperable obstacles to its further advance could then be detected4 ,it was also shown that the temperature1 even in lat4 #hb1 was not of a nature to overcome the energy and enthusiasm of men accustomed to life and adventure in the ,arctic ,world4 ,these data1 so conclusively established by experience1 constituted a source of great encouragement to future navigators1 and permit the conclusion that the ,polaris expedition1 with all its disasters and mismanagement1 helped forward the great work of discovering the ,north ,pole4 8,we now know10 says ,mr4 ,markham1 8that the ,american vessel commanded by ,captain ,hall passed up the strait1 in one working season1 for a direct distance of two hundred and fifty miles1 without a check of any kind1 reaching lat4 #hb #af' ,n42 and that at her furthest point the sea was still navigable1 with a water-sky to the northward40 ,the ,polaris1 however1 was nothing better than a river-steamer of small power1 ill adapted for encountering the perils of ,arctic navigation1--with a crew1 all told1 of thirty men1 women1 and children1 including eight ,eskimos4 ,if she could accomplish such a voyage without difficulty1 and could attain so high a latitude1 it was reasonable to anticipate that a properly equipped ,english expedition1 under equally favourable circumstances1 would do1 not only as much1 but much more1 and carry the ,british flag into the waters of the circumpolar sea1 if such existed4 ,with this view1 the ,admiralty fitted out the ,alert and the ,discovery1 under ,captains ,nares and ,stephenson4 ,every precaution that science could suggest was adopted to ensure the completeness of their equipment2 and the two ships1 accompanied as far as ,disco by ,h4,m4,s4 ,valorous as a tender1 left ,england on the #bith ,may #ahge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,british ,expedition1 consisting of the ,alert and the ,discovery1 did not succeed in all it was intended to accomplish2 and yet it can hardly be spoken of as a failure4 ,it did not reach that conventional point of geographers1 the ,north ,pole1 but it penetrated within four hundred miles of it2 and it ascertained the exact nature of the obstacles which render access impossible1 except under conditions not at present in existence4 ,we agree with a thoughtful writer in the ,spectator that this was a most important service rendered both to ,science and the ,state4 ,we now know that by the ,smith ,sound route a ship may attain to within #dej miles of the ,pole2 and that1 afterwards1 a journey about as long as from ,london to ,edinburgh must be undertaken1 in a rigorous climate1 with the thermometer #ej below zero1 over ice packed up into hillocks and hummocks which render sledge-travelling almost impracticable1 or practicable only by hewing out a path with the pickaxe at the rate of a mile and a half a day4 ,and further3 the work would have to be begun and completed in four months1 or1 from lack of light and warmth1 it could not be done at all4 ,these are serious difficulties1 and whether it is worth while for men to encounter them1 where the gain would be problematical1 we need not here inquire4 ,before any attempt can be made1 some provision must be discovered for protecting those who make it against the excessive cold1 and for a surer and swifter mode of conveyance than the sledge affords4 ,the journalist to whom we have referred speculates that science may furnish future expeditions with undreamt-of resources1--with portable light and heat1 for instance1 from the newly-discovered mines at ,disco2 preventives against scurvy2 electric lights2 supplies of dynamite for blowing up the ice2 and a traction-engine to traverse the road thus constructed2 but1 in the meantime1 these appliances are not at our command4 ,we must be content with the measure of success achieved by ,captain ,nares and his gallant followers4 ,and these well deserve the gratitude of all who think the fame and honour of a nation are precious possessions4 ,they have shown clearly that the 8race0 has not degenerated2 that ,englishmen can do and suffer now as they did and suffered in the old time4 ,they displayed a courage and a fortitude of truly heroic proportions4 ,and the experiences of ,arctic voyaging are always of a nature to require the highest courage and the sternest fortitude4 ,the long ,arctic night is in itself as severe a test of true manhood as can well be devised4 ,the miner works under conditions for less laborious than those to which the ,arctic explorer submits1 for he enjoys an alternation of light and darkness2 his underground toil lasts but for a few hours at a time4 ,yet we know that it tries a man's manly qualities sorely6 ,what1 then1 must it be to keep brave and cheerful and true throughout a prolonged night of one hundred and forty-two days--that apparently endless darkness1 almost the darkness of a sunless world8 ,we know1 too1 that continuous work1 without relaxation1 for month after month1 will break down the nerves and shatter the intellect of the strongest4 ,yet we read that the men of the ,alert toiled like slaves1 on one occasion1 for seventy-two days1 in cold so extreme that the reader can form no conception of its severity1 and with the dread constantly hanging over them of that terrible and most depressing disease1 scurvy4 ,owing to their inability to procure any fresh game1 as most former expeditions had done1 each of the extended sledge-parties1 when at their farthest distance from any help1 was attacked by it4 ,the return-journeys were1 therefore1 a prolonged homeward struggle of men who grew weaker at every step1 the available force to draw the sledge continually decreasing1 and the weight to be dragged as steadily increasing1 as1 one after another1 the men stricken down had to be carried by their enfeebled comrades4 ,it has been well said that in such exploits as these there is a sustained heroism which we cannot fully appreciate1 because we cannot fully realize the terrible character of the sacrifices involved4 ,but it is comparatively easy for us to understand1 and therefore to admire1 the courage of ,lieutenant ,parr1 when he started alone on a journey of thirty-five miles1 with no other guide for his adventurous steps than the fresh track of a wandering wolf over the ice and snow1 in order to carry help and comfort to his failing comrades4 ,it is easy to understand1 and therefore to admire1 the devotion of ,mr4 ,egerton and ,lieutenant ,rawson1 when1 at the imminent risk of their own lives1 they nursed ,petersen1 the interpreter1 while travelling from the ,alert to the ,discovery1 with the temperature #dj below zero4 ,petersen1 who had accompanied them with the dog-sledge1 fell ill2 and with a noble unselfishness they succeeded in retaining heat in the poor fellow's body by alternately lying one at a time alongside of him1 while the other by exercise was recovering his own vital warmth4 ,we can also acknowledge and admire the constancy of ,captain ,nares1 who1 in that horrible climate1 lived thirty-six days in the 8crow's-nest10 while his ship laboured among the grinding1 shivering1 crushing ice1 until exhaustion overcame him4 ,and we can acknowledge and admire the bravery and faithfulness of the men of the sledge-parties who1 for days and weeks1 drew the sledges and their comrades1 with gloom above and around them1 ice and snow everywhere bounding the prospect1 and in a temperature which seemed to freeze the blood and benumb the heart4 ,what a tale1 says a writer in the ,times1 what a tale of unrequited suffering it is6 ,surely not 8unrequited20 for those who suffered1 suffered at the call of duty1 and have been rewarded by the approval of their countrymen1 and by the consciousness of having done something great1 of not having lived in vain4 8,how lightly do all talk of glory2 how little do they know what it means6 ,the little army had to cut its way through the ice-barriers1 dragging heavily-laden sledges1 and going to and fro1 the whole force being often required for each sledge1 content to make a mile and a quarter a day1 in pursuit of an object still four hundred miles off1 through increasing difficulties1 and with barely five months1 or one hundred and fifty days1 wherein to go and return4 ,the labour is a dreadful reality2 the scheme itself a nightmare1 the phantasy of a disordered brain4 ,even the smaller and subsidiary expedition for planting a dept last autumn cost three amputations4 ,the cold was beyond all former experience for intensity and length1 and the physical effect of a long winter spent in the ships under such conditions is particularized as one reason why the men were less able to endure cold1 labour1 and the want of proper food4 ,every one of the expeditions1 whatever the direction1 came back in the saddest plight1--some dragging the rest1 and in one case only reaching the ship through the heroism of an officer pushing on many miles alone to announce his returning comrades1 and to procure the aid by which alone they were saved from destruction4 ,these are episodes1 but they are the matter which redeems the story and makes its truest value4 ,they tell us what ,englishmen will do on occasions beyond our feeble home apprehensions1 when once they have accepted a call1 and are in duty bound40 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the time we write no elaborate record of the expedition has been published1 and the materials of the following sketch are collected therefore from various narratives which have appeared in the daily journals4 ,we shall begin by endeavouring to place before the reader1 with the assistance of ,mr4 ,clements ,r4 ,markham1 a rapid summary of what the expedition accomplished4 ,and then we shall describe its more interesting incidents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the object of ,captain ,nares and his followers was to discover and explore as considerable a portion of the unknown area in the ,polar ,regions as was possible with reference to the means at their disposal1 and to the positions the vessels succeeded in reaching as starting-points4 ,the theories about open ,polar basins and navigable waters which once obtained have long been discarded by practical ,arctic geographers4 ,a coast-line1 however1 is needful as a means of progress to 8the threshold of work20 and it is needful1 too1 in order to secure the desired results of ,arctic discovery in the various departments of scientific inquiry4 ,the expedition1 then1 in the first place1 had to force its way through the ice-encumbered channel which connects ,baffin ,bay with the ,polar ,ocean2 a channel which successively bears the names of ,smith ,sound1 ,kane ,basin1 ,kennedy ,channel1 ,hall ,basin1 and ,robeson ,strait4 ,smith ,sound opens out of ,baffin ,bay between ,capes ,alexander and ,isabella4 ,the ,alert and the ,discovery passed these famous headlands and entered the ,sound on ,july #bi1 #ahge2 and from that date until ,september #a1 when the ,alert crossed the ,threshold of the ,unknown ,region1 they fought one continuous battle with the ice4 ,the ,polaris1 it is true1 had made a rapid passage on the occasion of its memorable voyage2 but the circumstances were exceptional4 ,generally the ,sound is blocked up by heavy floes1 with winding waters caused by the action of wind and tide4 ,with great difficulty our two ships forced the barrier2 but their success was due in no small measure to the skill and vigilance of ,captain ,nares1 who allowed himself no rest until they were out of danger4 ,at length1 after many hairbreadth escapes1 and many laborious nights and days1 and much energy and devotion on the part of the officers1 and equal courage and industry on the part of the men1 the expedition reached the north shore of ,lady ,franklin ,inlet1 and found a safe1 commodious harbour in lat4 #ha #dd' ,n4 ,here the ,discovery took up her winter quarters1 as had previously been arranged2 and the ,alert1 after a brief interval of repose1 continued her northward progress4 ,this she was enabled to do through the opportune opening up of a water-lane between the shore and the ice4 ,bravely she dashed ahead1 rounded ,cape ,union1 so named by the men of the ,polaris expedition1 and entered the open ,polar ,ocean4 ,then1 in lat4 #hb #bj' ,n41 the white ensign was hoisted on board a ,british man-of-war in a latitude further north than the ship of any nation had reached before4 ,soon afterwards the solid masses of the ,polar pack-ice began to close around the adventurous vessel2 and on the #crd of ,september #ahge1 the ,alert was fast fixed in her winter quarters1 on the ice-bound shore of the inhospitable ,polar ,sea in lat4 #hb #bg' ,n4 ,this1 says ,mr4 ,markham1#aa was the first grand success2 and it assured the eventual completion of the work4 ,for1 owing to the admirable seamanship of ,captain ,nares1 and to the zeal and devotion of the officers and crew1 the ,alert had been carried across the ,threshold1 and was within the ,unknown ,region4 ,a point of departure was thus obtained1 which rendered certain the achievement of complete success2 inasmuch as in whatever direction the sledge-parties travelled1 valuable discoveries could not fail to be the result4 ,the autumnal excursions1 during which depts of provisions were established for use in the work of the coming spring1 were not performed without a very considerable amount of suffering4 ,lieutenant ,may and two seamen were so severely frost-bitten1 that1 to save their lives1 amputation was found necessary4 ,as will be seen from the latitude given1 the ships wintered further north than any ships had ever previously wintered4 ,the cold exceeded anything previously registered1 and darkness extended over a dreary period4 ,the winter1 however1 was not spent idly3 observatories were erected1 and a mass of valuable scientific data industriously accumulated4 8,but the crowning glories of this ever-memorable campaign were10 as ,mr4 ,markham exclaims1 8achieved during the spring40 ,three main sledge-expeditions were organized3 one1 under ,commander ,markham and ,lieutenant ,parr1 instructed to keep due north1 as far as possible1 into the newly-discovered ,polar ,ocean2 another1 under ,lieutenant ,aldrich1 to explore the ,american coast1 westward2 and the third1 under ,lieutenant ,beaumont of the ,discovery1 to survey the north coast of ,greenland1 facing eastward4 ,each party consisted of two sledges2 and the six1 with their gallant crews1 set out on the #crd of ,april #ahgf1 determined to vindicate and maintain the reputation of ,british seamen4 ,they separated at ,cape ,joseph ,henry2 and before they again met1 this was what they achieved3-- ,commander ,markham and ,lieutenant ,parr pushed northward as far as lat4 #hc #bj' #bf ,n42 being the most northerly point which any explorers have attained4 ,they may therefore be fairly and justly regarded as 8the ,champions0 of ,arctic ,discovery1 until some successors1 more fortunate than they1 shall surpass their glorious feat4 ,lieutenant ,aldrich struck westward2 rounded ,cape ,colombia in lat4 #hc #g' ,n42 and explored #bbj miles of the ,american coast-line1 previously not laid down on any map4 ,lieutenant ,beaumont crossed ,robeson ,strait1 and surveyed the northern coast of ,greenland for about seventy miles4 8,in order10 it is said1 8that these three main parties might do their work successfully1 every soul in the two ships was actively employed4 ,the dept and relieving parties did most arduous work1 and the officers vied with each other in promoting the objects of the expedition1 while the most perfect harmony and unanimity prevailed4 ,captain ,feilden and ,mr4 ,hart were especially active in making natural history collections2 and ,lieutenants ,giffard1 ,archer1 ,rawson1 ,egerton1 and ,conybeare did admirable work in exploring and keeping open communications40 ,when the sledge-parties returned to the ships1 ,captain ,nares found that they had suffered terribly2 but he also found that their success had been complete4 ,they had solved a geographical problem2 no open sea surrounded the ,pole1 as so many sanguine spirits had anticipated4 ,the way northward was over a waste of ice--of ice broken up into hummocks and ponderous masses4 ,and with the appliances they possessed further progress was impossible2 the expedition had reached its ne plus ultra4 ,the work was done1 and ,captain ,nares perceived that nothing more could be gained1 while valuable lives might be lost by remaining longer in the ,polar ,ocean4 ,he decided upon returning to ,england1 with the following rich results to show as the reward of an heroic enterprise3-- ,first1 the expedition had discovered a great ,polar ,ocean1 a knowledge of which cannot fail to prove of exceeding value to the hydrographer4 ,next1 the shores of this ocean had been explored along fifty degrees of longitude1 and important collections formed of specimens of the ,arctic fauna1 flora1 and geology4 ,the channel connecting the ,polar ,ocean with ,smith ,sound had also been carefully surveyed1 and an accurate delineation effected of either shore4 ,geological discoveries of high value had also been made2 as1 for example1 that of the former existence of an evergreen forest in lat4 #hb #dd' ,n41--a fact significant of vast climatic changes4 ,and1 lastly1 interesting observations in meteorology1 magnetism1 tidal and electric phenomena1 and spectrum analysis had been carefully recorded4 ,the expedition of #ahge-gf must1 therefore1 in view of these results1 be classed among the most successful which ever adventured into ,arctic waters2 though it failed1 like its predecessors1 to gain the ,north ,pole4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,alert and the ,discovery left the shores of ,england in ,may #ahge4 ,after a voyage of five weeks' duration they arrived at ,lievely1 the port of ,disco ,island1 on the west coast of ,greenland4 ,this small settlement numbers about ninety-six inhabitants1 ,danes and ,eskimos1--generally speaking1 a mixed race4 ,the ,danish ,inspector of ,north ,greenland resides here1 and he received the expedition with a salute from three brass cannon planted in front of his house4 ,there is a well-conducted school1 attended by about sixteen children2 and a small church1 where the schoolmaster reads the ,lutheran service on ,sundays1--the priest coming over from ,upernavik occasionally1 to perform marriages1 christenings1 and other religious services4 ,the ,alert having taken on board thirty ,eskimo dogs and a driver1 the expedition left ,disco at one o'clock on ,july #afth1 and next morning reached ,kiltenbunto1 about thirty miles further north4 ,kiltenbunto is a little island in the ,strait of ,weigattet1 between ,disco and the mainland4 ,here the ,discovery took on board thirty dogs2 and shooting-parties from both ships made a descent on a 8loomery10 or 8bird-bazaar10 frequented by guillemots1 kittiwakes1 and other ocean-birds4 ,two or three days later the expedition arrived at a settlement named ,proven1 where it was joined by the ,eskimo dog-driver1 ,hans ,christian1 the attendant of ,kane1 ,hayes1 and ,hall1 in their several expeditions4 ,at ,proven the adventurers received and answered their last letters from 8home40 ,striking northward through ,baffin ,bay1 they reached ,cape ,york on the #beth of ,july1 and met with a company of the misnamed ,arctic ,highlanders1 who traversed the ice-floes in their dog-sledges1 and soon fraternized with the seamen4 ,a narwhal having been harpooned1 a quantity of the skin and blubber was given to these ,eskimos4 ,mr4 ,hodson1 the chaplain of the ,discovery1 describes them as exceedingly greedy and barbarous1 eating whatever fell in their way1 but living chiefly upon seals4 ,they were not so far advanced in civilization as to be able to construct kayacks1 and apparently they had never before seen ,europeans4 ,they wore trousers of bear-skin1 and an upper garment of seal-skin4 ,proceeding northward by ,dr4 ,kane's ,crimson ,cliffs1 they soon reached that brave explorer's celebrated winter quarters1 ,port ,foulke1 and took advantage of a day's delay to visit the ,brother ,john ,glacier4 ,they found ,dr4 ,kane's journal1 but no relics2 shot a reindeer1 and a large number of birds4 ,between ,melville ,bay and the entrance to ,smith ,sound no ice was met with2 but on the #cjth of ,july the 8pack0 was sighted1 off ,cape ,sabine1 in lat4 #gh #da ,n4 ,here1 at ,port ,payer1 the ships were fast held by the ice for several days4 ,an attempt to proceed further northward was made to the west of the islands in ,hayes ,sound2 but the water-way not leading in the right direction1 the ships returned4 ,on the #fth of ,august they made a fresh start1 and thenceforward maintained an uninterrupted struggle with the ice4 ,the ,alert led the way1 with ,captain ,nares in her 8crow's-nest10 anxiously looking out for practicable channels4 ,at ,cape ,frazer the huge solid mass again delayed them4 ,then they succeeded in crossing ,kennedy ,channel to the east side1 and taking shelter in ,petermann ,fiord--so named after the great ,german geographer4 ,after a few days they again pushed northward2 and on the #beth of ,august1 after many narrow escapes from being crushed in the ice1 a well-sheltered harbour received them1 on the west side of ,hall ,basin1 north of ,lady ,franklin ,sound1 in lat4 #ha #dd ,n4 ,this was at once selected as the winter quarters of the ,discovery4 ,her sister-ship1 continuing her course1 rounded the north-east point of ,grant ,land2 but instead of falling in with a continuous coast-line1 stretching one hundred miles further towards the north1 as all had anticipated1 found herself on the border of what was evidently a very extensive sea1 with impenetrable ice on every side4 ,as no harbour could be found1 the ship was secured as far north as possible1 inside a kind of embankment of grounded ice close to the land4 ,there she passed the winter2 and during the eleven months of her detention no navigable water-way1 through which she could move further to the north1 presented itself4 ,far from meeting with the 8great ,polar ,sea0 dreamed of by ,kane and ,hayes1 our adventurers discovered that the ice-barrier before them was unusually thick and solid4 ,it looked as if composed of floating icebergs which had gradually been jammed and welded together4 ,henceforth it will be known on our maps as the ,palocrystic ,sea1 or ,sea of ,ancient ,ice2 and a stranded mass of ice disrupted from an ice-floe is to be termed a floeberg4 ,ordinary ice does not exceed ten feet in thickness2 but in the ,polar ,sea1 generation after generation1 layer has been superimposed on layer1 until the whole mass measures from eighty feet to one hundred and twenty feet2 it floats with its surface nowhere less than fifteen feet above the water-line4 ,it was this wonderful thickness which prevented the ,alert from driving ashore4 ,owing to its great depth of flotation1 sixty feet to one hundred feet1 the mass grounded on coming into shallow water1 and formed a breakwater within which the ship was comparatively secure4 8,when two pieces of ordinary ice are driven one against the other1 and the edges broken up1 the crushed pieces are raised by the pressure into a high1 long1 wall-like hedge of ice4 ,when two of the ancient floes of the ,polar ,sea meet1 the intermediate lighter broken-up ice which may happen to be floating about between them alone suffers2 it is pressed up between the two closing masses to a great height1 producing a chaotic wilderness of angular blocks of all shapes and sizes1 varying in height up to fifty feet above water1 and frequently covering an area upwards of a mile in diameter40 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must now return to the ,discovery4 ,as soon as she had taken up her winter quarters1 her crew began to unload her1 landing the boats1 stores1 and spare spars1 and otherwise preparing for the winter4 ,the first day ashore they shot a herd of eleven musk-oxen4 ,a few days afterwards the sea was frozen all round the ship1 so that they could freely move to and fro about the ice4 ,a week later they saw a large number of musk-oxen1 and shot about forty--thus laying in a considerable supply of provisions4 ,their winter port1 which was surrounded by snow-clad hills1 about two thousand feet high1 they christened ,discovery ,harbour4 ,as soon as the sea was completely frozen over1 the sledging-parties were organized and duly despatched2 but as the autumn was rapidly passing1 very little could be done in this direction4 ,the usual preparations on the part of ,arctic explorers were then made for 8hybernating40 ,houses were built2 also a magnetic observatory and a theatre of ice--recalling the glittering edifice constructed by ,catherine ,,ii4 of ,russia on the ,neva1 and celebrated by ,cowper in the well-known lines1-- 8,no forest fell ,when thou wouldst build1 no quarry sent its stores ,to enrich thy walls2 but thou didst hew the floods1 ,and make thy marble of the glassy wave40 ,a smithy was erected on the #aath of ,november1 being the first the ,arctic ice had ever borne4 ,its roof was made of coal-bags1 cemented with ice4 ,the ship's stoker reigned supreme in it as blacksmith2 and when we consider the accessories1--the ice1 the snow1 the darkness1--we must admit that his blazing forge must have made a curious picture4 ,the chaplain tells us1 humorously1 that the smith adorned the interior wall with a good many holes1 as each time that his iron wanted cooling he simply thrust it into the ice6 ,as for the theatre1 which1 as we know1 has always been a favourite source of amusement with ,arctic explorers when winter-bound1 it was sixty feet long and twenty-seven feet broad2 and1 in honour of the ,princess of ,wales1 was named 8,the ,alexandra40 ,her birthday was selected as the day of opening--,december #ast2 and the opening piece was a popular farce--8,my ,turn ,next40 ,as sailors are generally adepts at dramatic personations1 we may conceive that the piece 8went well10 and that the different actors received the applause they merited4 ,it is recorded that foremost among them was the engineer1 ,mr4 ,miller1 who appears to have been1 emphatically1 the ,polar ,star4 ,several of the men sung songs2 and recitations1 old and new1 were occasionally introduced2 the result of the whole being to divert the minds and keep up the spirits of the ship's company during the long1 long ,arctic night4 ,the ,fifth of ,november and its time-honoured associations were not forgotten4 ,a huge bonfire blazed on the ice2 a 8,guy ,fawkes0 was manufactured and dressed in the most approved fashion2 and the silence of the frozen solitudes was broken by the sounds of a grand display of fireworks and the cheering of the spectators4 ,a fine level promenade had been constructed on the ice1 about a mile in length1 by sweeping away the snow2 and this served as a daily exercise ground4 ,a skating-rink was also constructed4 ,a free hole in the ice1 for the sake of better ventilation1 was carefully kept up4 ,whenever it closed1 through a process of gradual congelation1 the ice-saws were set in motion to open it up again1 or it was blasted with gunpowder4 ,the dogs lived on the ice-floe all the winter4 ,it must not be thought that the cold was uniform day after day4 ,probably it is not the low temperature so much as the variable temperature that makes an ,arctic winter so very trying to the ,european4 ,in a few hours the change would be no less than #fj4 ,the cold reached its height--or depth--in winter1 when the thermometer marked #gj below zero2 the greatest cold ever experienced by any ,polar expedition4 ,it is difficult for the human frame to bear up against this excess of rigour1 even with the help of good fires1 good food1 and good clothing4 ,not only the physical but the mental faculties are debilitated and depressed4 ,our ice-bound seamen1 however1 managed to keep ,christmas merrily4 ,early on the day so dear to ,christian memories 8the waits0 went their usual rounds1--a sergeant of marines1 the chief boatswain's mates1 and three other volunteers1--singing ,christmas carols1 and making 8a special stay outside the captain's cabin40 ,in the forenoon prayers were said on the lower deck2 after which the captain and officers visited the men's mess1 tasting the ,christmas pudding1 and examining the tasteful decorations which had been improvised4 ,then the gifts which1 in anticipation of the day1 had been sent out by kindly ,english hearts1 were distributed by the captain1--to each gift the name of the recipient having been previously attached4 ,this was an affecting scene2 and hearty1 though not without a touch of pathos in them1 were the cheers given as the distribution took place2 a distribution recalling so many 8old familiar faces10 and all the sweet associations and gentle thoughts of home6 ,cheers were also raised for the captain and men of the far-away ,alert4 ,next1 a choir was formed1 and echo resounded with the strains of 8,o the ,roast ,beef of ,old ,england60 of which1 no doubt1 many of the singers entertained a very affectionate remembrance4 ,the men dined at twelve and the officers at five1 and the day seems in every respect to have been most successful as a festival4 ,a few particulars of the 8situation0 may here be given in the chaplain's own words3--8,we had brought fish1 beef1 and mutton from ,england10 he says1 8all of which we hung up on one of the masts1 and it was soon as hard as a brick1 and perfectly preserved4 ,we had also brought some sheep from ,england with us1 and they were killed from time to time4 ,when we arrived in ,discovery ,bay1 as we called it1 six of them were alive2 but on being landed they were worried by the dogs1 and had to be slaughtered4 ,during the winter the men had to fetch ice from a berg about half a mile distant from the ship1 in order to melt it for fresh water40 ,at last the long ,arctic night came to an end4 ,it was with emotions of hope and gratitude and joy that the explorers welcomed the first rays of the returning sun on the last day of ,february4 ,for four months they had lived in obscurity and gloom1 with the exception of such relief as the stars and the moon had occasionally afforded4 ,on the day of the sun's return to the ,polar ,world1 it was known that it would rise at about twelve o'clock1 and everybody ascended the hills for the purpose of hailing the glorious spectacle4 ,the mists and fogs1 however1 baffled their expectations2 and though they felt its influence1 they did not see it for some days after it had mounted above the horizon4 ,news was brought from the ,alert by two officers and two men towards the end of ,march4 ,they had accomplished the journey with the thermometer at #dj below zero1 and had occupied six days in making it4 ,the officers were ,lieutenant ,rawson and ,mr4 ,egerton1 who had started at first in company with ,petersen1 the interpreter1 but had been compelled to return with him1 as already narrated1 because he was severely frost-bitten4 ,directly they returned to the ,discovery1 preparations were made for sending out the sledge-parties4 ,two officers and three men1 with a dog-sledge1 started across ,robeson ,channel to ,hall's ,rest1 the winter quarters of the ,polaris1 to report on the stores left by the ,american vessel1 which the ,united ,states ,government had placed at the disposal of the ,british expedition4 ,they reappeared on the fifth day1 with the information that they had found biscuit1 pemmican1 preserved meat1 molasses1 and other articles4 ,they had lived in a wooden observatory that they found erected there4 ,captain ,hall's grave was in excellent preservation2 and they set up a head-board1 with an inscription on it1 to mark its situation4 ,lieutenant ,beaumont and ,mr4 ,coppinger1 the surgeon1 each with an eight-man sledge--or1 rather1 with seven men besides themselves--started for the ,alert1 in quest of the other sledge which had wintered with that vessel2 their design being to cross ,robeson ,channel1 and explore the ,north ,greenland coast4 ,in this journey1 owing to the 8hummocky0 character of the ice1 they spent twelve days4 ,two days later1 a third party1 consisting of a twelve-man sledge and an eight-man sledge1 with two officers1 proceeded to survey the shores of ,lady ,franklin ,sound4 ,the captain accompanied them in the eight-man sledge1 and was absent about a week2 but the twelve-man sledge1 which had gone merely to carry stores and provisions for the other1 did not return for a fortnight1 the sledge having been damaged1 and one of the marines severely frost-bitten in the heel4 ,the other sledge1 after an absence of about four weeks1 returned in safety1--having discovered that ,lady ,franklin ,strait1 as the ,americans call it1 was a sound or fiord about sixty miles long4 ,they had fallen in with some musk-oxen1 which were too wild to be got at2 and had seen three or four glaciers1 and hills three thousand feet in height4 ,about ,june the warm summer began to assert itself1 and in the rays of the sun their icehouses melted away1 like the baseless fabric of a vision4 ,so the sledging-party last spoken of adventured across the ice to ,polaris ,bay1 taking with them a life-boat as a precaution 7for the ice might at any time have broken up71 and a supply of provisions for the use of the ,north ,greenland expedition4 ,this work done1 they returned to the ship1 leaving behind them two officers and three men1 who pushed up ,petermann ,fiord for about eight miles1 until arrested by the impenetrable barrier of a huge glacier4 ,on returning from their explorations they found that ,lieutenant ,newsome1 with four men1 of whom one had died of scurvy on the way1 had accidentally separated from the ,north ,greenland party1 and reached ,petermann ,fiord on the #crd of ,june4 ,all were seriously ill of scurvy1 except ,mr4 ,rawson and a marine4 ,under ,dr4 ,coppinger's skill and care1 however1 they recovered4 ,as soon as possible1 the doctor1 with ,mr4 ,newsome and the ,eskimos1 started in a dog-sledge to gather some information about the other members of the ,north ,greenland party4 ,in a day or two they fell in with them2 and not too soon1 for all were thoroughly exhausted4 ,they had abandoned everything1 and when the doctor arrived were without food4 ,four of them1 who were accommodated on the sledge1 were broken down with scurvy1 and two others had been attacked slightly4 ,what was to be done in this critical position of affairs8 ,at first it was thought advisable to remain on the spot for a while1 and see if the ,eskimos could shoot a seal4 ,but a day's experience showed that this plan would not answer2 and they then resolved to carry the two worst invalids on the dog-sledge to ,hall's ,rest4 ,this was accomplished1 and the poor fellows seemed to grow better when nourished by seal-soup and proper food2 but on the following morning one of them sank and died4 ,the life of the other hung for some time in the balance4 ,the whole company were now invalided2 and ,hall's ,rest might fitly have been termed ,hall's ,hospital4 ,a few days--weary1 melancholy days--having elapsed1 an officer1 with a couple of men1 was sent across to the ship to report the serious condition of affairs4 ,as it was the end of ,june1 the ice had broken up in many places1 and the traject of the strait was not accomplished without difficulty1 and frequent immersions in the water4 ,no sooner did ,captain ,stephenson learn how the party were situated1 than he set out1 with seven men1 to carry a supply of medicines1 provisions1 and various comforts4 ,they had with them a boat and a sledge on a four-wheeled car1 and in this they crossed the land to the margin of the sea1 a distance of about six miles4 ,sometimes the boat was called into requisition to carry themselves and the sledge from floe to floe4 ,with half of the men they returned in a few days1 leaving the rest in charge of ,lieutenant ,beaumont and ,dr4 ,coppinger1 until they had made more progress towards recovery4 ,early in ,august an officer arrived from the ,alert1 to report that she had moved southward1 and was only about ten miles distant2 and that ,captain ,nares1 considering the main objects of the expedition secured1 had decided on returning to ,england4 ,about the same time returned the ,north ,greenland party1 their provisions having failed them4 ,a few days later1 and1 having made her way through the broken ice1 the ,alert joined the ,discovery in ,discovery ,bay4 ,mr4 ,beaumont's party next arrived2 and both vessels prepared for the homeward voyage4 ,they left ,discovery ,bay1 as we shall see1 on the #bhth of ,august4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us now return to the ,alert1 which we left embedded in the ice of the ,north ,polar ,ocean4 ,her crew made shift to spend a tolerably merry winter1 availing themselves of the usual resources of ,arctic explorers under similar conditions4 ,the day's order was much as follows3--,at #f4de ,a4,m4 the commander was called1 and all hands were piped up on deck2 and the hammocks having been previously stowed away and the decks cleansed1 everybody sat down1 with vigorous appetite1 to breakfast4 ,the steerage and lower deck were afterwards cleared up1 and soon after #i ,a4,m4 the men were told off for their respective daily duties4 ,at #aj ,a4,m4 another general parade of the crew was summoned1 and1 as a preventive against scurvy1 the day's dose of lime juice was administered4 ,then the crew went to quarters2 the usual careful inspection took place2 and the chaplain read prayers4 ,at one o'clock the deck was cleared1 and 8dinner smoked upon the board40 ,on days when the darkness was not too intense the crew turned out to work upon the ice1 or took their turn at walking exercise and amusements4 ,they were thus occupied until supper1 which was served at about five o'clock2 and followed by evening school1 the duties of which proved equally agreeable to the officers who taught and the men who learned4 ,soon after nine the officers in charge inspected the ship to see that all was quiet for the night4 ,at ten out went the lights of the chief petty officers1 and at eleven those of the wardroom4 ,this daily routine was freely interrupted on festival occasions4 ,guy ,fawkes' ,day was celebrated as hilariously as by the men of the ,discovery2 and it is a curious illustration of the strength of old ,english traditions1 that the merry-making customs of the ,fifth of ,november should be thus closely observed by both the ice-bound vessels4 ,due honours were also paid to ,father ,christmas2 nor was ,new-,year's ,day forgotten4 ,dramatic talent existed among the men of the ,alert in sufficient force to provide a regular dramatic company4 ,the 8,royal ,arctic ,theatre0 was erected in ,funnel ,row1 and entertainments given weekly4 ,the programmes of the 8,thursday ,pops10 as they were commonly called1 were thrown off at a printing-press established in ,trap ,lane by ,messrs4 ,giffard and ,simmons2 and from one of these we gather that the ,royal ,arctic ,theatre opened for the season 8under the distinguished patronage of ,captain ,nares1 the members of the ,arctic ,expedition1 and all the nobility and gentry of the neighbourhood10 on the #ahth of ,november #ahge4 ,the orchestra consisted of one eminent pianist1 ,signor ,aldrichi 7,lieutenant ,aldrich72 and the scenic artist was ,dr4 ,moss4 ,the performances commenced at #g4cj2 and 8sledges0 might be ordered at nine o'clock4 ,they were by no means wholly dramatic4 ,the bill of fare included scientific and historical lectures1 readings and recitations1 songs and instrumental music1 ranging from grave to gay1 from lively to severe2 and now and then1 to draw a bumper house1 some such attraction as feats of legerdemain by 8the real ,wizard of the ,north1 on his way to the ,hyperborean ,regions20 acrobatic feats by 8the ,bounding ,brothers of the ,frigid ,zone20 or the vocal performances of the 8,pale-o'-,christy ,minstrels10 who 8never sing in ,london40 ,the plays produced were an original burlesque operetta1 8,the ,vulgar ,little ,boy2 or1 ,weeping ,bill0 7founded on ,barham's popular 8,misadventures at ,margate071 written expressly by the ship's chaplain1 the ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pullen1 author of the well-known political squib1 8,dame ,europa's ,school20 8,aladdin2 or1 ,the ,wonderful ,scamp20 8,boots at the ,swan20 and 8,the ,area ,belle40 ,the last and grand night was ,march #bnd1 #ahgf1--when ,captain ,nares lectured on 8,the ,palocrystic ,sea1 and ,sledging ,experiences20 and after a variety of songs and readings1 the company and audience sang a grand choral strain1 8,the ,palocrystic ,chorus10 which we borrow from the pages of the ,graphic3-- 8,not very long ago1 ,on the six-foot floe ,of the ,palocrystic ,sea1 ,two ships did ride ',mid the crushing of the tide1 ,the ,alert and the ,discovery4 8,the sun never shone ,their gallant crews upon ,for a hundred and forty-two days2 ,but no darkness and no hummocks ,their merry hearts could flummox1 ,so they set to work and acted plays4 8,there was music and song ,to help the hours along1 ,brought forth from the good ship's store2 ,and each man did his best ,to amuse and cheer the rest1 ,and #8nobody can't do more4' 8,here's a health to ,marco ,polo2 ,may he reach his northern goal oh6 ,and advance the flag of ,england into realms unknown2 ,may the ,challenger be there ,all courses bold to dare1 ,and ,victoria be victorious in the ,frozen ,zone4 8,may our ,poppie be in sight ,with her colours streaming bright2 ,and the ,bulldog tug on merrily from strand to strand2 ,and the ,alexandra brave ,see our banner proudly wave1 ,o'er the highest cliffs and summits of the northernmost land4 8,here's a health to ,hercules1 ,whom the autumn blast did freeze1 ,and all our gallant fellows by the frost laid low4 ,just wait a little longer1 ,till they get a trifle stronger1 ,and they'll never pull the worse for having lost a toe4 8,here's a health with three times three ,to the brave ,discovery1 ,and our merry1 merry guests so truly welcome here2 ,and a brimming bumper yet ,to our gallant little pet1 ,the lively ,clements ,markham with its bold charioteer4 8,here's a health to all true blue1 ,to the officers and crew1 ,who man this expedition neat and handy oh6 ,and may they ever prove1 ,both in ,sledging and in ,love1 ,that the tars of old ,britannia are the dandy oh60 ,in explanation of some passages in the foregoing spirited effusion1 we may state that the six sledges belonging to the ,alert were named respectively1 ,marco ,polo1 ,victoria1 ,challenger1 ,poppie1 ,bulldog1 and ,alexandra4 8,hercules0 appears to have been the nickname of one of the strong men of the ship4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,alert wintered so far north1 that its officers and men failed to meet with some of the usual accessories of a ,polar expedition4 ,there were no ,polar bears2 no ,eskimos2 even auroral displays were infrequent4 ,on the other hand1 the darkness is described as not having been particularly dense4 ,the reflection of the snow1 and the keen 8light of stars10 considerably mitigated the 8deep obscure20 and once in every fourteen days the splendour of the moon illuminated the weird outlines of the monotonous ,arctic scenery4 ,some sledging was done in the autumn1 though spring is the season when it can best be undertaken4 ,the ,alert was no sooner made all snug in her winter quarters1 than sledging-parties carried provisions and boats along the shore both northward and westward1 ready for use by expeditions in the following spring2 the dept being planted within a mile of the farthest northern position hitherto attained by civilized man4 ,after a terrible journey of twenty days' duration1 the travellers returned on the #adth of ,october1 just two days after the disappearance of the sun4 ,the snow fell heavily1 and1 by protecting the sloppy ice from the intense frost1 rendered travelling difficult4 ,the men's shoes got thoroughly wet2 hence several were frost-bitten1 and one officer and two men1 on their return1 were compelled to undergo amputation4 ,beneath the cliffs lay great dense1 deep snow-wreaths1 and in many places a road had to be excavated to the depth of six feet4 ,the men sunk to their waists4 ,the sledge was often completely buried4 ,it needed all ,lieutenant ,rawson's resolution and patience to bring back his little company in safety4 ,the main sledging-party1 under ,commander ,markham1 with ,lieutenants ,parr and ,may1 and twenty-five men1 left the ,alert on the #beth of ,september1 for the purpose of establishing a dept at ,cape ,joseph ,henry4 ,they advanced three miles beyond ,sir ,edward ,parry's northernmost point1 and1 from a mountain #bjjj feet high1 sighted land towards the west-north-west1 as far as lat4 #hc #g' ,n41 but saw none to the northward4 ,with the return of the sun on the #bith of ,february1 ,captain ,nares began his preparations for the spring sledging-expeditions1 organizing two main detachments3 one1 bound northward1 under ,commander ,markham and ,lieutenant ,parr1 with fifteen men1 supported by ,dr4 ,moss and ,mr4 ,white1 with two seven-man sledges2 and another1 bound westward1 consisting of two seven-man sledges1 led by ,lieutenants ,aldrich and ,giffard4 ,on the #abth of ,march1 ,lieutenant ,rawson and ,mr4 ,egerton1 as already narrated1 started off to open up communication with the ,discovery1 but were compelled to return by the illness of ,petersen1 whom they nursed on the way with womanlike tenderness and devotion4 ,in the following week1 accompanied by ,simmons1 of the ,alert1 and ,regan1 of the ,discovery1 they resumed their adventurous track across the hummocky ice1 with the temperature #dj below zero1 enduring much1 but pushing forward undauntedly4 ,when their comrades of the ,discovery condoled with them on account of frost-bitten cheeks1 and noses1 and fingers1 it was with the frank1 blithe heroism of the true ,british seaman that ,lieutenant ,rawson replied1--8,well1 at least we feel that the cheers from ,southsea beach have been fairly earned40 ,the sledging-expeditions began in earnest in the first week of ,april1 only a few men being left on board each ship4 ,captain ,stephenson1 of the ,discovery1 paid a visit to the ,alert1 and also crossed ,hall's ,basin twice to ,greenland4 ,captain ,nares1 with ,captain ,feilden1 was not less energetic2 and for a considerable area round the two ships all was activity and motion4 ,when at ,polaris ,bay1 ,captain ,stephenson1 in memory of the gallant and unfortunate ,hall1 hoisted the ,american ensign1 and erected a brass tablet above the explorer's lonely grave4 ,it bears the following inscription3-- 8,sacred to the memory of ,captain ,c4 ,f4 ,hall1 of the ,u4,s4 ship ,polaris1 who sacrificed his life in the advancement of science on ,november #h1 #ahga4 ,this tablet has been erected by the ,british ,polar ,expedition of #ahge1 who1 following in his footsteps1 have profited by his experience40 ,it may be noted here1 in illustration of the labour attendant on the equipment of an ,arctic sledge-party1 and the despatch of provisions for their sustenance1 that1 in order to support the expeditions on the north coast of ,greenland and in ,petermann ,fiord1 8,robeson ,channel was crossed eleven times from the position of the ,alert to a dept established north of ,cape ,brevoort1 and ,hall's ,basin eleven times between ,discovery ,bay and ,polaris ,bay2 making a total of twenty-two sledge-parties crossing the straits1 including the transporting of two boats4 ,the main dept at ,cape ,joseph ,henry1 for the support of the northern and western divisions1 thirty-seven miles from the ,alert1 was visited by sixteen different sledges40 ,our travellers did not fail to examine the various cairns erected by the seamen of the ,polaris4 ,at one place a box chronometer was found to be in excellent order1 though it had undergone the test of four ,arctic winters4 ,and some wheat1 which the ,polaris had brought out in order to ascertain the effect upon it of exposure to extreme cold1 was successfully cultivated under a glass shade by ,dr4 ,ninnis--almost as interesting an experiment in its way as the sowing and successful harvesting of ,mummy wheat1 the grains found in ancient ,egyptian sepulchres4 ,the ,british expedition had advanced so far north that it was beyond the life-limit of bears1 birds1 and even seals2 and the sledging-parties1 unable therefore to obtain any fresh game1 were severely attacked by scurvy4 ,this fell disease invariably broke out when its victims were farthest from any assistance4 ,the journeys back to the ships were consequently undertaken1 as we have already pointed out1 by men whose strength decreased daily2 and the burden became all the greater as man after man was smitten down1 and1 to save his life1 placed upon the sledge4 ,great was the alarm on board the ,alert1 when1 towards the close of the #hth of ,june1 ,lieutenant ,parr suddenly presented himself4 ,he was alone4 ,where were his comrades8 ,what calamity had befallen them8 ,he soon explained that he had undertaken a journey of thirty-five miles1 toiling for twenty-two hours through mist and drift and snow1 and guided only by the fresh track of a stray wolf1 to convey the news of the prostrated condition of the members of the northern expedition4 ,preparations were immediately made for hastening to their assistance4 ,with the help of the officers1 who all volunteered to drag the sledges1 ,captain ,nares was able by midnight to start with two strong relief-parties--,messrs4 ,egerton1 ,conybeare1 ,wootton1 and ,white1 the officers who could best be spared from the ship1 taking their places at the drag-ropes2 and ,lieutenant ,may and ,dr4 ,moss pushing forward with a supply of medicines in the dog-sledge4 ,such was the alacrity and energy of the two latter1 that they contrived to reach ,commander ,markham's encampment within fifty hours of the departure of ,lieutenant ,parr2 though1 unfortunately1 not in time to save the life of one of the marines1 who but a few hours before had expired and been buried in the floe4 ,on the remainder of the stricken company1 their arrival1 however1 had a most beneficial influence2 and when1 early the next day1 ,captain ,nares came up to their relief1 their courage and resolution1 which had never deserted them1 were quickened to the utmost1 and even the invalids threw off that dread depression an attack of scurvy invariably produces4 ,on the morning of the #adth all were once more safe on board the ship1 and offering up their heartfelt thanksgiving to ,god4 ,captain ,nares furnishes some particulars which illustrate very vividly the terrible experiences of the adventurous sledge-party1 and also the ravages which scurvy never fails to commit4 ,he says that of the seventeen officers and men who originally left the ,alert1 only five--namely1 three officers and two men--were able to drag the sledges alongside4 ,three others--heroes as true as any of those whom ,homer has made famous6--manfully kept on their feet to the last1 enduring the extreme of pain and fatigue rather than1 by riding on the sledges1 increase the burden their weakened companions had to drag4 ,they were just able to crawl on board ship without assistance4 ,the remaining eight had struggled gallantly1 but the disease had proved too much for them1 and they were carried on the sledges4 ,out of the whole number1 only two officers escaped the ravages of scurvy4 ,after due rest and medical attention1 the chief carpenter's mate returned to his duty1 and three others recovered so as to be able to wait on their sick comrades2 but ,jolliffe1 a petty officer1 who had nobly borne up against the disease while actively employed1 when his legs became cramped from resting on board proved to be one of the most lingering cases4 ,surely the nation will never begrudge the cost of expeditions which give such occasion for the display of the most generous unselfishness and the noblest devotion6 ,these sledge-journeys were performed in the face of tremendous difficulties4 ,beyond the mere coast-belt1 there was little smooth ice2 the tolerably level floes or fields1 usually about six feet above the neighbouring ice1 seldom measured a mile across4 ,their surfaces were thickly covered with rounded blue-topped ice-humps1 averaging twenty feet high2 which lay sometimes in ranges1 and sometimes a hundred to two hundred yards apart1 the intervening spaces being filled with wind-driven snow1 and the whole resembling a gusty ocean suddenly stiffened into rest4#ab ,between these floes1 like an embankment of rude formation1 extended a vast pile of the wreck and refuse of previous summers' broken-up pack-ice1 regelated during the winter into one rugged and confused mass of angular blocks of various heights up to forty and fifty feet1 and of every imaginable variety of configuration1 like the disrupted lava at the mouth of a crater4 ,these were interspersed with a continuous series of 8steep-sided snow-drifts10 which stretched downwards from the highest summit of the ice-chaos until lost in the general level at a distance of about one hundred yards4 ,it may be conceived that it was not easy to find a passage for the sledges through these labyrinths of ice and snow4 ,the snow-slopes were by no means an assistance1 for the winter-winds coming chiefly from the west1 and the course of the sledges being due north1 they had to be encountered almost at right angles4 ,consequently1 the journey was an incessant struggle with ever-recurring obstacles2 as fast as one had been conquered1 another presented itself4 ,the pickaxes were in constant requisition1 either to cut a way through the packed-up ice1 or out of the perpendicular side of the high floes4 ,instead of a steady advance1 the whole party were frequently detained half a day by the necessity of facing the sledge and hauling it forward a few feet at a time4 ,these considerations will enable the reader to judge how great must have been the 8pluck10 persistence1 and energy which could accomplish a journey of seventy miles in such exceptional circumstances4 ,captain ,nares observes--and his eulogium will be endorsed by the reader--that no two officers could have accomplished this laborious enterprise with greater ability or courage than ,commander ,markham and ,lieutenant ,parr4 ,and it is but just that the services of ,rawlings and ,lawrence1 the captains of the two sledges1 should be put on record4 ,in addition to their general cheerfulness and good-humour1--qualities which always help to lighten difficult work1--to their care and skill were due the safe return of the sledges1 on which the lives of all depended--safe1 uninjured1 and in as serviceable a state as when they left the ship1 notwithstanding the terrible character of the road they had travelled4 ,to such men as these1 and to the brave1 patient1 resolute sledge-crews generally1 we owe the tribute of our praise4 ,however severe their privations1 they never complained4 ,during this memorable journey to penetrate to the north over the rugged ,polar ,oceanic ice1 a journey in which the 8pluck0 and determination of the ,british seaman were most conspicuously displayed1 day after day1 against obstacles which might well have been regarded as insurmountable1 the two officers and their brave followers succeeded in advancing the ,union ,jack to latitude #hc #bj' #bf ,n41--or within four hundred miles of the ,north ,pole4 ,in order to attain this advanced post1 the present boundary-mark of geographical research in that direction1 the total distance travelled was two hundred and seventy-six miles on the outward1 and two hundred and forty-five miles on the homeward journey1 though the farthest direct distance from the ship did not exceed seventy-three miles4 ,the result of labour so colossal and sufferings so severe would seem to be1 that we must consider a long journey over the ,polar pack-ice1 with sledge and boat1 to be impracticable at any season of the year4 ,as the sledges were necessarily advanced each stage singly1 we are able to calculate the exact rate of progression which may be expected1 if it should be thought desirable to push forward with light sledges1 without any additional means of returning later in the season in the event of a disruption of ice in the rear4 ,the maximum attained by ,commander ,markham was two and three-quarter miles a day2 the mean rate being one mile and a quarter4 ,the outbreak of scurvy rendered ,captain ,nares very anxious as to the welfare of ,lieutenant ,aldrich's company on their return from the westward2 and the more so1 when it was found that the cairn erected over his dept of provisions1 thirty miles to the north-west1 remained untouched on the day appointed for his arrival there4 ,lieutenant ,may1 with the dog-sledge1 and three robust men1 were therefore sent to meet him4 ,on the #bjth of ,june the two parties met at the dept1 and signalled the welcome fact to ,captain ,nares4 ,it was fortunate that ,lieutenant ,aldrich returned when he did1 for on the following day a rapid thaw set in1 with the wind from the southward1 and the snow-valleys were rendered impassable for sledges for the rest of the season4 ,his party1 like ,commander ,markham's1 were stricken with scurvy1 four of them lying helpless on the dog-sledge2 and ,lieutenant ,may's arrival proved most opportune4 ,having now assembled all his company on board the ,alert1 ,captain ,nares was called upon to decide whether it was possible to carry the work of exploration further1 or whether the expedition should return to ,england4 ,owing to the absence of any land with a northward trend1 and the innavigable character of the ,polar pack-ice1 he concluded that on neither side of ,smith ,sound could any ship advance further northward than the ,alert had done2 and also1 that from no secure position in ,smith ,sound was it possible for sledges to advance nearer to the ,pole4 ,if the expedition remained in the vicinity for another season1 the exploration of the shores of ,grant ,land might be pursued to the south-west1 and of ,greenland to the north-east1 but not more than fifty miles beyond the points already attained4 ,in the weakened condition of the crew1 and for so small an additional gain1 ,captain ,nares decided that it would be unwise to risk another winter4 ,as soon as the ice broke up1 8,ho for merry ,england60 ,a regular thaw did not set in until the last week of ,june4 ,water flowed in the ravines on the #ast of ,july4 ,after that date the thaw gradually extended1 and increased in rapidity2 and on the #bcrd a strong south-west wind drove the pack a mile away from the shore4 ,on the #bfth a cairn was erected on the shore1 and a record of the work of the expedition deposited in it2 and on the #cast1 a passage having been cleared through the winter-barrier of icebergs1 the ,alert1 with a strong south-west wind filling her canvas1 pushed out into ,robeson ,channel on her homeward voyage4 ,after a run of two miles along-shore1 through a fairly open way between the pack-ice and what ,dr4 ,kane calls 8the ice-foot10 she was checked in her course by a heavy floe one and a half mile in diameter1 which almost touched the land2 and no other shelter being available1 she lay up in a small cove or creek1 among a group of icebergs that had gone ashore in the shallows4 ,the obstructive floe showed signs of movement early on the morning of ,august #ast2 and soon afterwards went away to the northward at the rate of a mile and a half an hour1 grinding along the ice-foot somewhat alarmingly as it advanced towards the ship4 ,steam being up1 however1 the ,alert cast off her moorings1 and succeeded in edging between the land and the floe2 while the latter swung round in-shore with a violent jerk1 close to the position which the ship had previously occupied4 ,we may note here the difference which ,captain ,nares insists upon between an ordinary floe1 such as is commonly met with in ,arctic waters1 and the ancient ,polar ,sea ice4 ,the former seldom exceeds six feet in thickness1 and breaks into fragments against an obstruction1 or may be charged by a steamship2 but the latter1 being some eighty or one hundred feet thick1 lifts all impediments out of its course1--or1 so to speak1 throws them disdainfully away4 8,such was the case on this occasion3 the ,polar floe1 which10 says ,captain ,nares1 8we only escaped by a few yards1 on nipping against the heavy breastwork of isolated floebergs lining the coast1 some of them forty feet high and many thousand tons in weight1 which had lately formed our protection from the smaller ice-pieces1 tilted them over one after another1 and forced them higher up the land-slope1 like a giant at play1 without receiving the slightest harm itself--not a piece breaking away4 ,it was most providential that1 by its twisting round1 the ,alert was enabled to escape out of the trap in which she was enclosed40 ,the shore here presented a formidable line of ice-cliff1 from twenty to forty feet in height1 striking down into clear blue water ten to twenty fathoms deep4 ,the ,alert kept onward1 so close to the cliff that the boats hung at her quarter frequently touched it1 until again brought to a stop near ,cape ,union by the accumulation of the pack4 ,her captain1 however1 was able here to secure her abreast of a large stream1 the current of which had undermined the ice-cliff for some fifty yards1 and floated it off to sea1 leaving a kind of cove or harbour where the ship could be laid alongside the beach in such a manner that1 if the pack struck her1 it could only force her on shore4 ,the reader of ,arctic voyages will remember that a somewhat similar position was once occupied by ,sir ,edward ,parry's ship1 under somewhat similar circumstances4 ,when the tide had turned1 and began to flow southward1 it broke up the ice all around ,cape ,union1 and formed a narrow water-way1 which offered ,captain ,nares a chance of escape4 ,steam was got up immediately1 but1 owing to unavoidable delay in shipping the rudder1 the ice closed in before the ship could be carried round4 ,her last stage was worse than her first2 for she was now cut off from her safe little port1 and no better shelter was available than a slight hollow or break in the ice-cliff4 ,here1 however1 she was brought-to1 with the ice-blocks swirling past her at a distance of twenty yards4 ,at low water ,captain ,nares cast off1 and bored some way into the pack1 so that the ,alert might drift round the cape with the southern tide4 ,at about a quarter of a mile from the land1 she drove along with the ice2 and when the tide slackened1 steamed out of the pack before it began to set to the northward4 ,then1 keeping close in to the ice-foot1 she kept slowly on her course to the southward1 the water-way broadening as she approached ,lincoln ,bay1 which was crossed without difficulty4 ,when within five miles of ,cape ,beechey1 the tide turned2 but after a short delay a channel opened1 allowing the ship to round the cape4 ,at this point the ice-cliff ends1 and the land slopes gently to the shore--which is protected by a barrier of floebergs1 similar to1 but smaller than1 those which line the shore of the ,polar ,sea4 ,here the ship was made fast in three fathoms water1 within twenty yards of the shore1 about a mile to the south of the cape4 ,we dwell on these particulars in order that our readers may form some idea of the difficulties of ,arctic voyaging4 ,the words1 8,she forced her way through the ice10 afford no conception whatever of the obstacles that have to be overcome1 and the dangers that have to be avoided1 by a ship navigating in the midst of pack-ice and ice-floes2 or of the skill and vigilance and patience on the part of officers and men1 by which only can the enterprise be brought to a successful issue4 ,we are told that on ,august the #dth snow-squalls blew from the south-west4 ,as the ice had closed in around the ship1 holding it in a vice1 the sportsmen of the party landed1 and visited some neighbouring lakes in search of game4 ,they found a number of wild geese1 and killed fifty-seven1 which supplied a welcome addition to the ordinary bill of fare4 ,mr4 ,egerton and a seaman were sent off to the ,discovery1 then about twenty miles distant1 with orders for her to prepare for the homeward voyage4 ,we have already related how they reached the ship in safety4 ,while the ,alert was thus imprisoned1 the huge pack-ice in the offing was carried up and down the strait by the tidal movement1 the wind having the effect of increasing the velocity of the current and the duration of its flow both northward and southward4 ,the ice generally was of a lighter character than that in the ,polar ,sea2 but many heavy ,polar floes were driven southward by the gale1 and set into ,lady ,franklin ,sound and ,archer ,fiord rather than down ,kennedy ,channel4 ,lady ,franklin ,sound1 indeed1 seems to be the receptacle of all the heavy ice that comes south through ,robeson ,channel2 retaining it until the prevailing westerly winds carry it once more to the northward1 and empty the ,sound1 previous to its being refilled on the return of the northerly gales4 ,it is only1 says ,captain ,nares1 in seasons when northerly winds occur more frequently than westerly ones1 that any considerable quantities of the huge ,polar ice are drifted into ,smith ,sound and ,baffin ,bay4 ,the gale of the #fth of ,august was very violent4 ,the tide rushing southward1 drove a succession of heavy floe-pieces against the small bergs that protected the ship1 and capsized one of them completely4 ,it was firmly aground when struck by the point of a large floe2 but such was the force of the collision that it was reared erect in the air to its full height of at least sixty feet above water1 when1 turning a complete somersault1 like a practised gymnast1 it came down on its back with a shock that shattered it into pieces1 and raised a wave sufficient to roll the ship considerably4 ,into the gap thus caused moved the ice1 until at last it nipped the ,alert1 though not dangerously4 ,that same evening ,lieutenant ,rawson and two seamen arrived from the ,discovery1 with news of the ill-fortune that had overtaken the ,greenland sledge-party4 ,it soon became apparent that there was no chance of releasing the ice-bound ship except by cutting down the heavy floe that held her prisoner2 and accordingly all hands were set to work4 ,after three days' toil1 so much of the floe was hewn away that at high water it floated and set the ship free2 at the same time the main pack moved off1 and the ,alert steamed onward1 rejoining her consort1 the ,discovery1 on the #aath of ,august4 ,all the invalids on board the ,alert were now removed to the ,discovery1 and ,captain ,nares remained at the entrance to the harbour1 prepared to cross to ,polaris ,bay1 as soon as the ice permitted1 to relieve ,lieutenant ,beaumont4 ,as before stated1 however1 he arrived on the #adth1 and relieved the commander of the expedition of a serious anxiety4 ,both vessels were now ready to start1 but the state of the ice detained them until the #bjth1 when1 a 8lead0 offering through the pack1 away they steamed1 and arrived close to ,cape ,lawrence without encountering any serious obstacle4 ,here their old enemy1 the ice1 again opposed them2 and ,captain ,nares found only the famous 8three courses0 of a well-known statesman open to him3 either to return north1 to drive ahead into the pack1 or make fast the ships to some of the grounded floebergs4 ,this last expedient was adopted1 and in a land-locked inner basin the ,alert and the ,discovery were accordingly secured4 ,but1 unfortunately1 at the fall of high water a piece of ice pressed against the ,alert1 and at the same time its protecting floeberg drove ashore4 ,result3 the ,alert was aground forward1 but with deep water under the stern4 ,and before she could be released1 the tide had fallen fourteen feet1 so that the ship lay over at an angle of #bb1 with fore-foot and keel exposed as far aft as the fore-channels4 ,nothing could be done until the tide rose4 ,then the ship was lightened1 and afterwards hauled off without having undergone any damage4 ,a passage again opened on the #bbnd of ,august1 and the two ships steamed as far southward as ,cape ,collinson1 with no other troubles than dense snow-storms1 mists1 and strong head-winds4 ,but off the cape1 the ,alert having to back to escape a nip1 she fouled the ,discovery for a moment2 the latter escaping1 however1 with nothing worse than the loss of a boat's davit4 ,the ice gradually breaking up before a strong south-west wind1 the two ships crossed ,scoresby ,bay1 which was perfectly clear1 but rolled with a heavy sea4 ,as they approached ,cape ,frazer1 they were buffeted by a terrible gale1 and put in to ,maury ,bay1 anchoring among a quantity of grounded ice4 ,three days were spent in arduous efforts to double ,cape ,frazer1--one of the btes noires of ,arctic navigators1 because it is the meeting-point of the flood-tides1 north and south1 one from the ,polar ,ocean and the other from the ,atlantic1--and ,cape ,hayes1 the boundary-mark of the channel4 ,then the voyagers1 with glad hearts1 passed into ,smith ,sound2 and hugging the shore as closely as was safe1 arrived on the #bith at ,prince ,imperial ,island1 in ,dobbin ,bay1 8every one heartily thankful to be out of the pack1 clear of the straggling icebergs1 and for the ships to be secured to fixed ice once more40 ,the temperature now sunk again below freezing-point4 ,the brief ,arctic summer was over1 and day and night the young sea-ice formed continuously4 ,the mists that had hitherto accompanied the ships cleared away before a brisk northerly wind1 and revealed a magnificent panorama of lofty mountains1 white with shrouds of snow1 and deep valleys filled with colossal glaciers4 ,one of these stretched downwards to the shore1 and threw off great icebergs which floated or stranded in ,dobbin ,bay4 ,it was named after the ,empress ,eugnie1 who had taken a lively personal interest in the expedition4 ,crossing ,dobbin ,bay on the #ast of ,september1 the voyagers came within a quarter of a mile of a dept of provisions established near ,cape ,hawks in the previous autumn1 and succeeded in removing a portion4 ,a day or two later ,captain ,nares landed on ,washington ,island1 and visited a cairn which he had raised there on the #abth of ,august #ahfe4 ,he visited1 also1 two old cairns erected by former explorers2 the lichens with which they were gray proved that they were of earlier date than ,dr4 ,hayes' expedition4 ,on the #crd of ,september1 by dint of steaming assiduously1 the ships rammed their way through a lane of water to the westward of ,cape ,hawks1 which was inconveniently obstructed by loose pieces of old ice4 ,after rounding the cape1 says the captain1 the pack by drifting away from the land had left unfrozen water and numerous detached small floes1 which forced them to make a very serpentine course1 and occasionally to pass within thirty yards of the low ice-foot on the shore1 fortunately always finding deep water4 ,in this way they reached ,allman ,bay1 half-way between ,cape ,hawks and ,franklin ,pierce ,bay4 ,meeting here with a belt of new ice1 the ,discovery was sent ahead2 and under full steam she forced a canal through the ice1 which was from one to three inches thick4 ,from the lofty hills in the interior a huge glacier leads down to ,allman ,bay2 and it is a noticeable fact that always in the neighbourhood of a glacier-stream the water was found nearly fresh1 and of the temperature of #cb4 ,on the #gth our homeward-bound ships reached ,norman ,lockyer ,island1 on the margin of ,princess ,marie ,bay4 ,the season was now far advanced1 and as the slightest mistake might have led to the vessels being ice-bound for the winter1 the two captains ascended to the highest point of the island to obtain some idea of the prospect before them4 ,they were much relieved by seeing a large area of open water some twenty miles distant1 which they conjectured would extend to the mouth of ,smith ,sound4 ,no time was lost in getting under way2 and the ships crossed two-thirds of the distance before they fell in with ice4 ,by charging it under full steam1 they cleared the obstacle1 and then1 through an open-water channel1 ran on to ,cape ,sabine4 ,on the #ith of ,september they arrived off ,cape ,isabella1 where they found a small packet of letters and newspapers which had been left at the dept by the ,pandora4 ,the weather was now calm1 and the wind favourable4 ,sail was hoisted1 therefore1 as the supply of coal began to run short1 and on the evening of the #abth the expedition reached ,bardin ,bay4 ,during the #acth and the #adth they worked southward into ,wolstenholm ,sound2 and thence1 with a south-easterly wind1 crossed to ,cape ,byam ,martin1 which they reached on the #afth4 ,two days later they entered the well-known waters of ,melville ,bay2 on the #beth they arrived at ,disco1 where1 and afterwards at ,egedesminde1 they obtained some small supplies of coal4 ,egedesminde was left behind on the #bnd of ,october1 and on the #dth the two ships recrossed the ,arctic ,circle--exactly fifteen months from the time of crossing it on the outward voyage4 ,experiencing adverse winds1 they made but slow progress to the southward2 and as the weather became warmer and damper1 a few of the men suffered from rheumatism and catarrhs4 ,during a heavy gale on the #aith1 the two ships separated2 but both1 as we have seen1 reached the shores of ,england in safety1 where their gallant officers and crews met with the hearty welcome so thoroughly merited by their courage1 perseverance1 and heroic industry4 ,some notes on the general results obtained by the expedition in zoology1 botany1 and geology1 have appeared in the ,academy4 ,the two naturalists under whose care these departments were placed1--,captain ,feilden1 in the ,alert1 and ,mr4 ,hart1 in the ,discovery1--worked with unflagging energy and no small success4 ,of mammals1 the species found farthest north were the ,arctic fox1 the wolf1 the ermine1 the ,polar hare1 the lemming1 and the musk-ox1--all of which were seen on the shores of the great ,polar ,basin or ,palocrystic ,sea4 ,no cetaceans were sighted north of ,payer ,harbour1 near ,cape ,sabine2 a fact which renders all the more serious the gradual process of extermination of the ,greenland 7or right7 whale in more southern latitudes4 ,the only seal found beyond ,cape ,union1 in lat4 #hb #ae' ,n41 was the little ringed seal or 8floe-rat0 7,phoca hispida74 ,so far as the land extended1 bird life prevailed2 the species being the snowy owl1 the snow-bunting1 and the ptarmigan4 ,full collections were made of all the birds frequenting ,smith ,sound2 and our naturalists had the satisfaction of discovering the long-sought-for breeding-haunts of the knott and sanderling4#ac ,few species of marine fish were obtained1 but 8an interesting small salmonoid0 was met with in fresh-water lakes as far north as lat4 #hb #ce'4 ,a fine collection of marine invertebrates was secured by dredging and trawling2 and the character of the sea-bottom from ,baffin ,bay up to lat4 #hc #ai' ,n4 was accurately ascertained by a series of careful soundings4 ,in the department of botany our naturalists were rewarded by the discovery of between twenty and thirty species of phanerogamic plants between the parallels of #hb and #hc4 ,much richer and more varied results were obtained in the cryptogamic flora4 ,geologically1 the facts arrived at were of the utmost value4 8,the whole west coast of ,smith ,sound1 from ,cape ,isabella to ,cape ,union1 has been fully surveyed and mapped1 and large collections have been made both of fossils and rock-specimens2 while the sledge-parties which explored the shore of the ,polar ,basin1 both to east and west1 brought back sufficient material to determine the geological character of the country4 ,silurian limestones1 richly fossiliferous1 were the prevailing rocks along ,smith ,sound4 ,miocene deposits1 including a twenty-foot seam of coal1 were found as far north as lat4 #ha #dd'4 ,from the shales and sandstones of this formation a beautiful series of leaf-impressions were collected1 illustrating the characteristic flora of the epoch1 and presenting a remarkable demonstration of the existence of a temperate climate within five hundred miles of the present ,pole at a comparatively recent geological time4 ,not less important are the indications of great recent changes in the elevation of the land afforded by the discovery of thick post-pliocene deposits1 lying at a considerable elevation above the sea-level1 and containing fossils similar to the existing marine fauna4 ,lastly1 very interesting and suggestive observations have been made on glaciation and ice-action in general40 ,this1 of course1 is but a summary1 and a very brief and condensed one1 of researches which have evidently been of the highest importance4 ,and it might almost be said of the late expedition1 that even had its geographical discoveries been less valuable1 its scientific results would have entitled it to a foremost place in the annals of ,arctic ,enterprise4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our record of ,arctic expeditions will fitly close with a sketch of the cruise of the ,pandora1 a screw-yacht commanded by ,captain ,allen ,young1 which left ,england in the summer of #ahgf1 in order to open up communications with the ,admiralty expedition4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,showing ,,the ,,discoveries ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,polar ,,expedition #ahge-gf4 ,from ,map accompanying ,official ,report published in 8,nature40 ,captain ,young left ,upernavik on the evening of the #aith of ,july1 and stood away to the northward--in bad weather1 and with the wind blowing a gale4 ,through vast fields of ice he threaded his way1 sometimes under sail1 sometimes under steam1 until1 on the morning of the #bdth1 he found his ship completely surrounded1 in lat4 #ge #aj' ,n4 ,no time was lost in endeavouring to effect an escape by charging the ice at full speed1--again and again returning to the onset2 and a slow but steady progress was being made1 when the field in which they were held fast1 drifting before the gale1 8collided0 with a group of grounded bergs1 and exposed the little vessel to such severe pressure1 that preparations were made for abandoning her4 ,provisions1 ammunition1 camping and travelling gear1 all were made ready1 and the boats were lowered as far as possible at the davits4 ,meantime1 heavy charges of gunpowder were used to blast the ice where it pressed the ship most severely2 and the bergs taking a different direction1 the ,pandora began to recover herself1 and before night settled down nearly to her usual level4 ,in the darkness of the night1 with the wind howling1 and the snow and sleet driving in heavy showers1 she moved ahead with the pack2 and in this way continued her progress until the #bgth1 when the weather cleared1 and ,captain ,young discovered that he had advanced right into the heart of ,melville ,bay1 with no water in sight4 ,full in view were ,capes ,walker and ,melville1 the ,peaked ,hill1 and huge glacier-streams embedded in the intervening valleys4 ,all around was one vast monotonous sheet of rugged ice4 ,it was not until the #bith that the ,pandora1 after many hairbreadth escapes1 got into open water1 in lat4 #ge #ej' ,n41 and long4 #fd #ee' ,w4 ,while thus imprisoned in the grasp of the floe1 the explorers killed only one ,polar bear1 four seals1 and a few little auks4 ,in a clear sea they now stood away to the westward1 passing ,capes ,dudley1 ,digges1 and ,athol1 and other headlands familiar in the records of ,arctic adventure4 ,at noon on the #cast1 when off ,wolstenholm ,island1 another gale overtook them1 increasing rapidly to almost hurricane fury4 ,this was an unpleasant experience2 for the deck was washed by heavy seas1 and it was with the greatest difficulty they avoided coming into collision with the icebergs which drifted rapidly through the snow and spray4 ,reaching ,cary ,island1 they landed to examine ,captain ,nares' dept of provisions1 and found it in good preservation4 ,the cairn had not been visited since ,young's call at the island on the #ajth of ,september in the previous year4 ,afterwards they made for ,sutherland ,island1 where they found a record of the ,american explorer1 ,captain ,hartstene1 dated ,august #af1 #ahee4 ,it is with a curious feeling that1 in these regions of almost perpetual winter1 the voyager comes upon such faint memorials of men who1 like him1 have dared all the perils of ice-floes and icebergs1 and adventured into seas far beyond the track of ordinary commercial enterprise4 ,on ,littleton ,island1 a record of the expedition was found4 ,the document was dated ,july #bh1 #ahge1 and signed by ,captain ,nares2 and it indicated the course about to be taken by the ships under his orders4 ,owing to the ice-encumbered condition of the straits1 however1 ,captain ,young could not follow it up2 and instead of crossing to ,cape ,isabella1 he resolved to examine the coast in ,hartstene ,bay1 in order to seek a harbour for the relief-ship which the ,admiralty had intended to send out in #ahgg1 in case of the non-return of the ,polar ,expedition4 ,this was found on the #dth of ,august1 not far from the ,eskimo settlement of ,etah1 and named after the ,pandora4 ,it would seem to offer every advantage as winter quarters for ,arctic discovery-ships2 the surrounding hills are 8dotted with ,arctic hares1 appearing like snow-balls on the luxurious vegetation40 ,the little auk breeds in thousands on the cliffs1 eider fowl and guillemots haunt the waters1 and the adjacent valleys and pastures are frequented by reindeer4 ,captain ,young next made for ,cape ,isabella1 which he reached on the #fth of ,august4 ,watchful eyes soon discovered a large cairn on the summit of this headland4 ,a boat was lowered1 and the contents of the cairn soon obtained1 while despatches and letters for ,captain ,nares' expedition were left in their stead4 ,then the ,pandora steamed to the northward2 but1 owing to the adverse winds and the accumulated ice1 could make no way1 and was forced back to ,cape ,isabella4 ,another attempt was made to the eastward1 and for several days the gallant little ship crossed and recrossed the straits1 through the pack1 always beset with ice1 and frequently enshrouded in impenetrable fogs4 ,no fewer than three times was she compelled to take shelter in ,pandora ,harbour4 ,on the #aith she was driven back to the northward of ,littleton ,island1 and ,captain ,young and some of his officers took the opportunity of visiting the ,polaris camp4 ,nothing remained of the house erected by ,captain ,buddington except a few broken boards4 ,the rocks were strewn with pieces of metal1 fragments of clothing1 and other waifs and strays4 ,the cache in which the retreating party had deposited their books and instruments was also examined2 but the only relics were a brass bowl of a seven-inch compass1 a tin tube1 and parts of a telescope4 ,some cases and casks1 containing records for the use of ,captain ,nares1 were securely placed among the rocks on the western point of the island2 and ,captain ,young then returned to ,cape ,isabella4 ,finding nothing here of any interest1 and convinced that no travelling or boat party had reached that position from the ,polar ships1 the ,pandora bore away to the northward under canvas4 8,it was very dark and thick10 says ,captain ,young1 8but sufficiently clear to enable us to avoid the heavy ice4 ,by nine ,a4,m4 we were up to ,lecomte ,island1 when we were stopped by a fog until eleven o'clock1 when ,i could see from aloft that the main pack extended across the straits into ,rosse ,bay4 ,we were in a lake of land water1 with close-packed and heavy ice all round1 from south to north1 and again closing on the land from the eastward4 ,our only chance of moving seemed to be through a narrow lead or slack place1 running first to the east-north-east1 and then again apparently towards the east coast4 ,we entered the pack1 and succeeded by five ,p4,m4 in again escaping into the land water in ,hartstene ,bay40 ,such are the experiences of twelve hours in the ice-clogged waters of the ,north6 ,but we need not delay the reader with these minute particulars1 notwithstanding their interest as illustrative of the nature of the struggle waged with so much persistency of purpose by the ,arctic explorer4 ,the sea was now covered everywhere with ice and bergs4 ,storms were of frequent occurrence2 and the wind and wave beaten ,pandora was forced back into ,baffin ,bay4 ,here1 on the #bhth of ,august1 her captain could see that the solid ice had filled the straits and the head of the bay right across to ,cape ,alexander4 ,the way north being thus obstructed1 ,captain ,young resolved on proceeding towards ,upernavik1 in ,north ,greenland1 hoping to find that the last ship had not already sailed for ,denmark1 and in that case to send an officer home with despatches1 while the ,pandora returned to ,smith ,strait4 ,on the #bith she was off ,hakluyt ,island1 and steered for ,bardin ,bay in ,whale ,sound4 ,on entering the bay1 a summer tent could be seen1 and some ,eskimos1 with their dogs1 running to and fro1 evidently with the view of attracting the attention of the visitors4 ,captain ,young accordingly landed1 with some of his officers1 and accompanied by ,christian1 his ,eskimo interpreter4 ,the natives met them with the utmost confidence and fearlessness1 assisting to haul their boat up on the shore4 ,they were ten in number1 and all members of one family4 ,food appeared to be plentiful with them1 but they were profuse in their thanks for some walrus-flesh given by ,captain ,young4 ,their manners were frank and communicative1 and they showed considerable vivacity1 rejoicing over the results of a very good hunting season4 ,neither ,european ships nor white men had they seen for years2 but they said that an old man1 who1 with his family1 inhabited ,northumberland ,island1 told of two ships which had passed to the northward 8last summer40 ,how lonely must be the life led by these poor savages6 ,never gladdened by the sight of a sail2 but1 year after year1 shut up in their frozen solitudes1 and without any other object or purpose before them than to obtain just enough food to avoid a premature and miserable death6 ,among their treasures ,captain ,young observed a ship's bucket1 half the top of a mahogany table1 the paddle of a ,greenlander's kayack1 much ice-worn1 and a piece of packing-case marked 8,lime juice--,leith20 all of which1 they said1 had drifted into the bay at different times from the southward4 ,these people seemed to ,captain ,young of a kind and simple disposition1 while they were evidently robust and healthy4 ,all that they had--and it was little enough--they freely pressed upon their visitor2 and when asked what present they would like1 their chief selected only some gimlets and a fifteen-foot ash oar4 ,the latter1 he said1 would split up into spear-shafts2 the former he wanted for boring bone and ivory4 ,captain ,young1 however1 gave them several other useful articles2 accepting in return some narwhal horns1 specimens of their pot-stone cooking-kettles1 and of the iron pyrites which they used for striking fire4 ,an exchange of dogs also took place2 five of the dogs belonging to the ,pandora being given for three of the finest bear-hunting and tame dogs of the ,eskimos4 ,at ,upernavik1 the ,pandora1 after a stormy and dangerous passage1 arrived on the evening of ,september the #gth1 but found that the last ship had sailed for ,europe4 ,as there were no means1 therefore1 of communicating with ,england1 and as1 without such communication1 ,captain ,young did not feel authorized to winter in the ,north1 a supply of fresh water wars taken on board1 and the ship steered for home4 ,from the #aeth to the #bast she tarried at ,goodhav'n1 in ,disco ,island4 ,in ,davis ,strait she encountered large quantities of heavy ,spitzbergen drift-ice1 and weathered a severe south-easterly gale4 ,on the #afth of ,october1 in lat4 #ed #ch' ,n41 and long4 #dd #cj' ,w41 she sighted the ,arctic ships1 ,alert and ,discovery1 and hastened to communicate with them4 ,they kept together until the #aith4 ,on the following day1 the ,pandora was buffeted by another hurricane2 but the rest of her voyage was accomplished in safety1 and was marked by no incidents of importance4 ,here1 for the present1 terminates the record of ,british enterprise and adventure in the ,arctic ,world4 ,it is difficult to believe1 however1 that the nation will rest until the 8heart of the mystery has been plucked out10 the ,secret finally mastered1 and the ,british flag hoisted on that remote point which is conventionally known as the ,,north ,,pole4 ,,index4 ,agaricus muscarius1 #aci4 ,agassiz1 experiments of1 #aaf4 ,alectoria jubata1 #acg4 ,aletsch glacier1 the1 described1 #dg4 ,algol1 or ,medusa's ,head1 #ci4 ,arctic ,highlanders1 #ab4 ,arctic night1 the1 characteristics of1 #cb-cd1 #ic-ie4 ,arctic region1 extent of1 #ac1 #ad4 ,atmospheric phenomena1 #ca4 ,auk1 the1 described1 #ig1 #ih4 ,aurora ,borealis1 the1 phenomena of1 #bg2 theory of1 #bi4 ,baffin1 discoveries of1 #bbg4 ,barents1 adventures of1 #bff-bfi4 ,barrens1 the1 region of1 described1 #af4 ,bear1 ,polar1 natural history of the1 #he-ic2 hunting seals1 #hf2 voracity of1 #hh2 affection for its young1 #hh1 #hi4 ,beechey1 ,captain1 quoted1 #de1 #df1 #ee4 ,bell1 quoted1 #gh4 ,bellot1 ,lieutenant1 quoted1 #abc4 ,bennet1 ,stephen1 voyage of1 #bbh4 ,berkeley1 quoted1 #adj4 ,birds1 migrations of1 #aa4 ,botes1 constellation of1 #dj4 ,bremer1 ,frederika1 quoted1 #ach4 ,brewster's1 ,sir ,david1 experiment with polarised light1 #aaa4 ,buddington1 ,captain1 adventures of1 #cjh-caa4 ,burrough1 ,stephen1 voyage of1 #bbb1 #bbc4 ,button1 ,captain1 voyage of1 #bbg4 ,bylot1 ,robert1 voyage of1 #bbg4 ,carlsen1 ,captain1 voyage of1 #bgj4 ,cladonia rangiferina1 #acg4 ,clarke1 ,dr41 quoted1 #bjc4 ,clavering1 ,captain1 referred to1 #ab4 ,cochlearia1 or scurvy-grass1 uses of1 #aci4 ,coleridge1 quoted1 #fi4 ,constellations1 northern1 list of1 #cg4 ,cooley1 ,mr41 quoted1 #bcj4 ,corvid1 the1 natural history of1 #afj4 ,cryptogamous plants of the north1 #ada1 #adb4 ,crystallization1 process of1 #ajh4 ,cygnus musicus1 #afa4 ,d',almeida1 ,count1 quoted1 #bje1 #bjf4 ,davis1 ,captain ,john1 voyages of1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,dolphins1 the1 natural history of1 #hb1 #hc4 ,dorothea1 the1 narrow escape of1 #ee4 ,dufferin1 ,lord1 quoted1 #aff1 #afg1 #agb4 ,eider ducks1 the1 natural history of1 #ajc2 in ,iceland1 #ajd4 ,eskimo dog1 the1 description of1 #aij4 ,eskimo1 the1 hunting the walrus1 #fh1 #fi2 hut of1 #gf4 ,eskimo kayak described1 #ahb4 ,eskimo seal-hunt1 an1 described1 #gg1 #gh4 ,eskimo sledge1 the1 described1 #aib-aif4 ,eskimos1 the1 boundaries of1 #age2 character1 manners1 customs1 and clothing1 #agi-aif4 ,falcon1 the1 natural history of1 #afj4 ,faraday1 ingenious experiment of1 #aaa4 ,felinska1 ,madame1 quoted1 #baa4 ,fish in the ,arctic seas1 #ajf4 ,flora of the ,arctic lands1 #ai4 ,fox1 ,luke1 voyage of1 #bbh4 ,fox1 the ,arctic1 natural history of1 #aea-aec4 ,fox-trap1 a1 described1 #aeb4 ,franklin1 ,sir ,j41 overland journey of1 #bca2 last expedition of1 #bca2 relics of1 discovered1 #bcc1 #bce1 #bcf4 ,fritillaria sarrana1 the1 properties of1 #adb1 #adc4 ,frobisher1 ,sir ,martin1 voyage of1 #bbc4 ,frobisher ,strait discovered1 #bbc4 ,gale1 an ,arctic1 described1 #gj4 ,grds of ,lapland1 described1 #bjg4 ,germania1 the1 expedition of1 #bde-bfe4 ,geysers1 the1 phenomena of1 #afe-afg4 ,gilbert1 ,sir ,humphrey1 death of1 #bbd4 ,glacier-ice1 peculiarities of1 #aab4 ,glacier in ,smith ,strait1 #abd1 #abg2 of ,sermiatsialik1 #abh1 #abi4 ,glaciers1 characteristics of1 #dg2 motion of1 #aac-aae2 phenomena connected with1 #aae-aah2 of the ,arctic regions1 #aah-acc2 of ,spitzbergen1 #abj1 #abc4 ,godhav'n1 #afg4 ,grampus1 the1 natural history of1 #hc1 #hd4 ,greenland1 scenery on the coast of1 #bb4 ,guillemot1 the1 described1 #if1 #ig4 ,gull1 the1 described1 #ajc4 ,hall1 ,captain1 expedition and death of1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,hansa1 the1 voyage and loss of1 #bde-bea4 ,hans the ,hunter1 #ahf-ahi1 #bhd4 ,hare1 the ,arctic1 #aed4 ,hartwig1 ,dr41 quoted1 #ae4 ,hayes1 ,dr41 quoted1 #be1 #ce1 #dc1 #di1 #ej1 #ei1 #hg1 #ie1 #if1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #abh1 #ach1 #aeb1 #aec1 #ahf1 #aia1 #aib1 #bdd2 ,arctic expedition of1 #bdd1 #bde4 ,hearne1 quoted1 #ahc4 ,hecla1 the1 and the ,fury1 danger of1 #ef4 ,hegemann1 ,captain1 #bde4 ,hekla1 eruption of1 #afd4 ,henderson1 ,dr41 quoted1 #agb4 ,hill1 ,mr41 quoted1 #bac1 #bad4 ,hobson1 ,lieutenant1 discovers ,franklin relics1 #bcd-bcf4 ,holland1 ,mr41 quoted1 #agc4 ,hore1 ,mr41 voyage of1 #bbb4 ,hudson1 ,henry1 discoveries of1 #bbe-bbh4 ,humboldt ,glacier1 description of1 #aca-acd1 #bch4 ,hutchinson1 ,captain1 quoted1 #bje4 ,icebergs1 their dimensions1 #da2 their magnificent appearance1 #db1 #dc2 danger to navigation from1 #dd1 #abc2 breaking up of1 #di2 range of1 #ej1 #ea2 in ,baffin ,bay1 #abd4 ,ice-fields1 extent and character of1 #ed1 #ef1 #eg4 ,ice-flowers1 characteristics of1 #ajh4 ,iceland1 dimensions of1 #afb2 history of1 #afb2 volcanoes of1 #afc2 dreary landscapes of1 #afd2 geysers of1 #aff1 #afg2 houses and churches of1 #agj2 travelling in1 #agb2 horses of1 #agc4 ,iceland moss1 uses of1 #ach1 #aci4 ,jacobshav'n1 #afh4 ,jakut merchants1 the1 enterprise of1 #bag4 ,jakuts1 the1 as bear-hunters1 #bab2 manners and customs of1 #baf1 #bag4 ,james1 ,captain ,thomas1 voyage of1 #bbh4 ,joe the ,eskimo1 with ,captain ,tyson1 #bgh1 et sqq4 ,kamtschatka1 fisheries of1 #bab2 the dog of1 #bad1 #bae4 ,kamtschatkans1 the1 characteristics of1 #bac1 #bad4 ,kane1 ,dr41 quoted1 #ae1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #db1 #fh1 #gc1 #gd1 #hh1 #ia1 #ib1 #aca-acd1 #adi1 #aec1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #bcg1 #bci1 #bdb1 #bdc2 ,arctic explorations of1 #bcg-bdd4 ,knots1 the1 habits of1 #aa1 #ab4 ,koldewey1 ,captain1 referred to1 #ab2 voyage of1 #bde4 ,lagopus1 the1 #afa4 ,lamont1 ,mr41 quoted1 #fj1 #fb4 ,lapland1 divisions and extent of1 #aig2 climate of1 #aig2 inhabitants of1 #aig2 the reindeer in1 #bjj2 sledging in1 #bja2 an interior in1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,lapp dialect1 the1 #bjf4 ,lapp hunters1 the1 boldness of1 #bjb4 ,lapps1 the1 dress1 manners1 and customs of1 #aih4 ,lapps1 the ,mountain1 character of1 #aii1 #bjj4 ,lapps of ,west ,bothnia1 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,laube1 ,dr41 quoted1 #beb4 ,lemming1 the ,arctic1 #aed4 ,macmillan1 ,dr41 quoted1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #ada4 ,markham1 ,c41 quoted1 #aj1 #age1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bgc4 ,marten1 the1 #aee4 ,martins1 ,m4 ,charles1 quoted1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba4 ,m',clintock1 ,captain ,sir ,roderick1 quoted1 #adh1 #aea1 #aha1 #bfe2 voyage of1 #bcd4 ,m',clure1 ,sir ,robert1 quoted1 #ha2 discovers ,north-,west ,passage1 #bcc4 ,mecham1 ,captain1 quoted1 #adf1 #aej4 ,mer de ,glace of ,greenland1 #abg1 #abh4 ,merganser1 the natural history of1 #ii4 ,milton1 ,lord1 and ,dr4 ,cheadle1 quoted1 #aeh-afj4 ,moonlight in the ,polar ,world1 #bf4 ,moraines1 described1 #aae4 ,moravian mission-stations in ,greenland1 #agi4 ,mosses in the ,arctic regions1 #aci4 ,musk-ox1 the1 natural history of1 #adi1 #aej4 ,mustelid family1 the1 in the ,arctic regions1 #aee4 ,nares1 ,captain1 expedition of1 #cad1 et sqq4 ,narwhal1 the1 natural history of1 #hb4 ,newfoundland colonized1 #bbd4 ,north-,west ,passage1 utility of1 #i4 ,novaia ,zemlaia1 temperature of1 #ba4 ,osborn1 ,admiral ,sherard1 quoted1 #dd1 #ha1 #hd1 #he1 #hg1 #adf1 #aea1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,ostiaks1 the1 manners and customs of1 #baa1 #bab4 ,ostrownoje1 trade at1 #bbj4 ,oxyria1 the1 uses of1 #ada4 ,pack-ice1 description of1 #ec4 ,parry1 ,captain1 quoted1 #dd1 #df1 #ef1 #bcj2 voyages of1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,payer1 ,lieutenant1 voyage of1 #bgj1 #bga4 ,penny1 ,captain1 voyage of1 #bcb-bcd4 ,phnogamous plants of the north1 #ada4 ,phocid1 the4--,see ,,seal4 ,plant-life of ,spitzbergen1 #adb2 of ,kamtschatka1 #adb1 #adc4 ,pleiads1 the1 #ci4 ,polaris1 the1 voyage of1 #bga-cac4 ,polecat1 the1 in the ,arctic regions1 #aef1 #aeg4 ,pole-,star1 the1 position of1 #cf4 ,poole1 ,jonas1 voyage of1 #bbh4 ,puffin1 the1 natural history of1 #ii4 ,quenes1 or ,finns1 the1 #bjf4 ,rae1 ,dr41 finds relics of ,franklin1 #bcc4 ,red snow1 phenomenon of1 explained1 #ace4 ,refraction1 phenomena of1 #ca4 ,regelation1 what it is1 #aaa4 ,reikiavik1 description of1 #afh1 #afi4 ,reindeer1 the1 natural history of1 #add2 usefulness of1 #ade2 food of1 #adf2 and wolves1 #adg2 in ,siberia1 #bah1 #bai4 ,reindeer moss1 #acg4 ,rendu1 ,bishop1 quoted1 #aad4 ,richardson1 ,sir ,j41 quoted1 #ade4 ,rock-hair1 #acg4 ,rorqual1 the1 #hj4 ,ross1 ,sir ,james1 quoted1 #ade4 ,ross1 ,sir ,john1 voyages of1 #bbh1 #bca4 ,sabine1 ,sir ,edward1 quoted1 #aj4 ,sable1 the1 natural history of1 #aef4 ,samojedes1 the1 superstitions of1 #bjh1 #bji2 manners and customs of1 #baj1 #baa4 ,schatan1 an ,ostiak idol1 #baa4 ,scoresby1 ,dr41 quoted1 #dd1 #ajf1 #ahf4 ,seal1 the1 natural history of1 #ga-gc2 flesh of1 #gc1 #gd2 different genera of1 #ge4 ,sermiatsialik1 glacier of1 #abg1 #abh4 ,shepherd1 ,mr41 quoted1 #ajd4 ,skapt ,jokul1 eruption of1 #afe4 ,smew1 the1 natural history of1 #ajj4 ,smith ,sound1 route by1 #bbh4 ,snow1 formation of1 #ajh4 ,snow-crystals1 described1 #aji4 ,snow-line1 limit of1 #bj4 ,somerville1 ,mrs41 quoted1 #cj1 #ajg4 ,southey1 quoted1 #acf4 ,sporidesmium lepraria1 #adj4 ,spring in the ,arctic regions1 #cd4 ,starakis1 the1 described1 #ih4 ,stephenson1 ,captain1 of the ,discovery1 #cad4 ,summer in the ,arctic regions1 #cf4 ,swan1 the wild1 natural history of1 #aje2 the whistling1 #afa4 ,tadebtsios1 or ,samojede demons1 #bji4 ,tadibe1 the ,samojede priest1 #bji4 ,tchuktche1 the1 manners and customs of1 #bbj4 ,temperature of ,arctic winter1 #cc4 ,tennyson1 quoted1 #aje4 ,thingvalla1 the1 in ,iceland1 #afh4 ,thorne1 ,dr4 ,robert1 ,arctic exploration proposed by1 #bbb4 ,tripe de roche1 #acg1 #ach4 ,tundras1 the stony1 described1 #ae1 #af4 ,tungusi1 the1 characteristics of1 #bai1 #bbj4 ,tyndall1 ,professor1 quoted1 #dg1 #dh1 #ajh1 #aji-aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 #aae1 #aag1 #aah4 ,tyson1 ,captain1 narrative of1 #bgh-cjh4 ,unknown ,region1 extent of1 #aj4 ,upernavik1 described1 #agf4 ,ursa ,major1 constellation of1 #cf2 description of1 #cg1 #ch4 ,waigatz1 island of1 #bjh4 ,walrus1 the1 natural history of1 #fc2 courage of1 #fd2 gradual decay of1 #fg4 ,walrus-hunt1 a1 described1 #fh1 #fi4 ,walrus-hunting1 how carried on1 #fj2 proceeds of1 #fb4 ,ware1 quoted1 #cg1 #ch4 ,whale1 the1 natural history of1 #gh2 characteristics of the ,greenland1 #gi1 #hj2 the ,razor-backed1 #hj4 ,whalebone1 what it is1 described1 #gi4 ,whale-fishery of the ,eskimos1 #ha4 ,whirlwinds of the north1 #ca4 ,willoughby1 ,sir ,hugh1 loss of1 #bbb4 ,wolf1 the ,arctic1 natural history of1 #adh4 ,wolverine1 the1 cunning of1 #aeg2 anecdotes of1 #aeh-afj4 ,wooded zone of the ,arctic regions1 #adc4 ,wrangel1 ,admiral von1 quoted1 #bj1 #ha1 #bah1 #bba4 ,yakutsk1 temperature of1 #bf4 ,young1 ,captain1 cruise of1 in the ,pandora1 #ccd4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,tringa canutus of ornithologists4 #b ,abies alba et nigra4 #c ,larix ,canadensis4 #d ,pinus ,banksiana4 #e ,abies ,sibirica1 ,larix ,sibirica4 #f ,tyndall1 8,forms of ,water10 p4 #acg4 #g ,the name given to a plain of ice near ,mont ,blanc4 #h ,scoresby calculated that it would require #hj1jjj persons1 labouring continuously from the creation of man to the present day1 to count the number of organisms contained in two miles of the green water4 #i ,so called from its circular form1 and because the surface of the leaf is marked with curved lines4 #aj ,a more moderate estimate says #acjj persons4 #aa ,the ,academy1 ,november #d1 #ahgf1 p4 #dec4 #ab 8,here let the billows stiffen and have rest40--,,coleridge4 #ac ,the scarcity of animal life in the remote ,north is shown by the small quantity of game shot by the sportsmen of the expedition after reaching winter quarters3--six musk-oxen1 twenty hares1 seventy geese1 twenty-six ducks1 ten ptarmigan1 and three foxes4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 #a4 ,obvious printers'1 punctuation and spelling errors have been corrected silently4 #b4 ,where hyphenation is in doubt1 it has been retained as in the original4 #c4 ,some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have been retained as in the original4 #d4 ,where appropriate1 the original spelling has been retained4 #e4 ,italics are shown as xxx4