,,travels ,,into ,,north ,,america2 ,,containing ,its ,natural ,history1 and ,a circumstantial ,account of its ,plantations and ,agriculture in general1 ,,with ,,the ,,civil1 ,,ecclesiastical ,,and ,,commercial ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,country1 ,the ,,manners of the ,,inhabitants1 and several curious and ,,important ,,remarks on various ,subjects4 ,by ,,peter ,,kalm1 ,professor of ,oeconomy in the ,university of ,aobo in ,swedish ,finland1 and ,member of the ,swedish ,royal ,academy of ,sciences4 ,,translated ,,into ,,english ,by ,,john ,,reinhold ,,forster1 ,f4,a4,s4 ,enriched with a ,map1 several ,cuts for the ,illustration of ,natural ,history1 and some additional ,notes4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,london3 ,printed for the ,,editor2 ,and ,sold by ,t4 ,lowndes1 in ,fleet-street1 ,,mdcclxxi4 ,,peter ,,kalm's ,,travels4 ,new ,jersey1 ,raccoon4 ,december the seventh1 #agdh4 ,in the morning ,i undertook again a little journey1 to ,raccoon1 in ,new ,jersey4 ,it does not seem difficult to find out the reasons1 why the people multiply more here than in ,europe4 ,as soon as a person is old enough1 he may marry in these provinces1 without any fear of poverty2 for there is such a tract of good ground yet uncultivated1 that a new-married man can1 without difficulty1 get a spot of ground1 where he may sufficiently subsist with his wife and children4 ,the taxes are very low1 and he need not be under any concern on their account4 ,the liberties he enjoys are so great1 that he considers himself as a prince in his possessions4 ,i shall here demonstrate by some plain examples1 what effect such a constitution is capable of4 ,maons ,keen1 one of the ,swedes in ,raccoon1 was now near seventy years old3 he had many children1 grandchildren1 and great-grandchildren2 so that1 of those who were yet alive1 he could muster up forty-five persons4 ,besides them1 several of his children and grandchildren died young1 and some in a mature age4 ,he was1 therefore1 uncommonly blessed4 ,yet his happiness is not comparable to that which is to be seen in the following examples1 and which ,i have extracted from the ,philadelphia gazette4 ,in the year #agcb1 ,january the #bdth1 died at ,ipswich1 in ,new ,england1 ,mrs4 ,sarah ,tuthil1 a widow1 aged eighty-six years4 ,she had brought sixteen children into the world2 and from seven of them only1 she had seen one hundred and seventy-seven grandchildren and great-grandchildren4 ,in the year #agci1 ,may the #cjth1 the children1 grand and great-grandchildren1 of ,mr4 ,richard ,buttington1 in the parish of ,chester1 in ,pensylvania1 were assembled in his house2 and they made together one hundred and fifteen persons4 ,the parent of these children1 ,richard ,buttington1 who was born in ,england1 was then entering into his eighty-fifth year3 and was at that time quite fresh1 active1 and sensible4 ,his eldest son1 then sixty years old1 was the first ,englishman born in ,pensylvania4 ,in the year #agdb1 on the #hth of ,january1 died at ,trenton1 in ,new ,jersey1 ,mrs4 ,sarah ,furman1 a widow1 aged ninety-seven years4 ,she was born in ,new ,england2 and left five children1 sixty-one grandchildren1 one hundred and eighty-two great-grandchildren1 and twelve great-great-grandchildren1 who were all alive when she died4 ,in the year #agci1 on the #bhth of ,january1 died at ,south ,kingston1 in ,new ,england1 ,mrs4 ,maria ,hazard1 a widow1 in the hundredth year of her age4 ,she was born in ,rhode ,island1 and was a grandmother of the then vice-governor of that island1 ,mr4 ,george ,hazard4 ,she could count altogether five hundred children1 grandchildren1 great-grandchildren1 and great-great-grandchildren4 ,when she died1 two hundred and five persons of them were alive2 a grand-daughter of hers had already been grandmother near fifteen years4 ,in this manner1 the usual wish or blessing in our liturgy1 that the new-married couple may see their grandchildren1 till the third and fourth generation1 has been literally fulfilled in regard to some of these persons #a4 ,december the #ith4 ,in every country1 we commonly meet with a number of insects2 of which many1 though they be ever so small and contemptible1 can do considerable damage to the inhabitants4 ,of these dangerous insects1 there are likewise some in ,north ,america3 some are peculiar to that country1 others are common to ,europe likewise4 ,i have already1 in the preceding volume1 mentioned the ,mosquitoes1 as a kind of disagreeable gnats2 and another noxious insect1 the ,bruchus ,pisi1 which destroys whole fields with pease4 ,i shall here add some more4 ,there are a kind of ,locusts which about every seventeenth year come hither in incredible numbers4 ,they come out of the ground in the middle of ,may1 and make1 for six weeks together1 such a noise in the trees and woods1 that two persons who meet in such places1 cannot understand each other1 unless they speak louder than the locusts can chirp4 ,during that time1 they make1 with the sting in their tail1 holes into the soft bark of the little branches on the trees1 by which means these branches are ruined4 ,they do no other harm to the trees or other plants4 ,in the interval between the years when they are so numerous1 they are only seen or heard single in the woods4 ,there is likewise a kind of ,caterpillars in these provinces1 which eat the leaves from the trees4 ,they are also innumerable in some years4 ,in the intervals there are but few of them3 but when they come1 they strip the trees so entirely of their leaves1 that the woods in the middle of summer are as naked as in winter4 ,they eat all kinds of leaves1 and very few trees are left untouched by them2 as1 about that time of the year the heat is most excessive4 ,the stripping the trees of their leaves has this fatal consequence1 that they cannot withstand the heat1 but dry up entirely4 ,in this manner1 great forests are sometimes entirely ruined4 ,the ,swedes who live here shewed me1 here and there1 great tracts in the woods1 where young trees were now growing1 instead of the old ones1 which1 some years ago1 had been destroyed by the caterpillars4 ,these caterpillars afterwards change into moths1 or phaln1 which shall be described in the sequel1 in their proper places4 ,in other years the ,grass-worms do a great deal of damage in several places1 both in the meadows and corn-fields4 ,for the fields are at certain times over-run with great armies of these worms1 as with the other insects2 yet it is very happy that these many plagues do not come all together4 ,for in those years when the locusts are numerous1 the caterpillars and grass-worms are not very considerable1 and it happens so with the latter kinds1 so that only one of the three kinds comes at a time4 ,then there are several years when they are very scarce4 ,the grass-worms have been observed to settle chiefly in a fat soil2 but as soon as careful husbandmen discover them1 they draw narrow channels with almost perpendicular sides quite round the field in which the worms are settled2 then by creeping further they all fall into the ditch1 and cannot get out again4 ,i was assured by many persons that these three sorts of insects followed each other pretty closely2 and that the locusts came in the first year1 the caterpillars in the second1 and the grass-worms in the last3 ,i have likewise found by my own experience that this is partly true4 ,moths1 or ,tine1 which eat the clothes1 are likewise abundant here4 ,i have seen cloth1 worsted gloves1 and other woollen stuffs1 which had hung all the summer locked up in a shrine1 and had not been taken care of1 quite cut through by these worms1 so that whole pieces fell out3 ,sometimes they were so spoiled that they could not be mended again4 ,furs which had been kept in the garret were frequently so ruined by worms1 that the hair went off by handfuls4 ,i am however not certain whether these worms were originally in the country1 or whether they were brought over from ,europe4 ,fleas are likewise to be found in this part of the world4 ,many thousands were undoubtedly brought over from other countries2 yet immense numbers of them have certainly been here since time immemorial4 ,i have seen them on the grey squirrels1 and on the hares which have been killed in such desart parts of this country1 where no human creature ever lived4 ,as ,i afterwards came further up into the country1 and was obliged to lie at night in the huts and beds of the ,indians1 ,i was so plagued by immense quantities of fleas1 that ,i imagined ,i was put to the torture4 ,they drove me from the bed1 and ,i was very glad to sleep on the benches below the roof of the huts4 ,but it is easy to conceive that the many dogs which the ,indians keep1 breed fleas without end4 ,dogs and men lie promiscuously in the huts2 and a stranger can hardly lie down and shut his eyes1 but he is in danger of being either squezed to death1 or stifled by a dozen or more dogs1 which lie round him1 and upon him1 in order to have a good resting place4 ,for ,i imagine they do not expect that strangers will venture to beat them or throw them off1 as their masters and mistresses commonly do4 ,the noisy ,crickets 7,gryllus domesticus7 which are sometimes to be met with in the houses in ,sweden1 ,i have not perceived in any part of ,pensylvania or ,new ,jersey1 and other people whom ,i have asked1 could not say that they had ever seen any4 ,in summer there are a kind of black ,crickets #b in the fields1 which make exactly the same chirping noise as our house crickets4 ,but they keep only to the fields1 and were silent as soon as winter or the cold weather came on4 ,they say it sometimes happens that these field crickets take refuge in houses1 and chirp continually there1 whilst it is warm weather1 or whilst the rooms are warm2 but as soon as it grows cold they are silent4 ,in some parts of the province of ,new ,york1 and in ,canada1 every farm-house and most of the houses in the towns1 swarm with so many1 that no farm-house in our country can be better stocked with them4 ,they continue their music there throughout the whole winter4 ,bugs 7,cimex lectularius7 are very plentiful here4 ,i have been sufficiently tormented by them1 in many places in ,canada3 ,but ,i do not remember having seen any with the ,indians1 during my stay at ,fort ,frederic4 ,the commander there1 ,mr4 de ,lousignan1 told me1 that none of the ,illinois and other ,indians of the western parts of ,north ,america knew any thing of these vermin4 ,and he added1 that he could with certainty say this from his own experience1 having been among them for a great while4 ,yet ,i cannot determine whether bugs were first brought over by the ,europeans1 or whether they have originally been in the country4 ,many people looked upon them as natives of this country1 and as a proof of it said1 that under the wings of bats the people had often found bugs1 which had eaten very deep into the flesh4 ,it was therefore believed that the bats had got them in some hollow tree1 and had afterwards brought them into the houses1 as they commonly fix themselves close to the walls1 and creep into the little chinks which they meet with4 ,but as ,i have never seen any bugs upon bats1 ,i cannot say any thing upon that subject4 ,perhaps a louse or a tick 7,acarus7 has been taken for a bug4 ,or1 if a real bug has been found upon a bat's wing1 it is very easy to conceive that it fixed on the bat1 whilst the latter was sitting in the chinks of a house stocked with ,european bugs4 ,as the people here could not bear the inconvenience of these vermin1 any more than we can in ,sweden1 they endeavoured to expel them by different means4 ,i have already remarked in the preceding volume1 that the beds to that purpose were made of ,sassafras wood1 but that they were only temporary remedies4 ,some persons assured me that they had found from their own experience1 and by repeated trials1 that no remedy was more effectual towards the expulsion of bugs1 than the injecting of boiling water into all the cracks where they are settled1 and washing all the wood of the beds with it2 this being twice or thrice repeated1 the bugs are wholly destroyed4 ,but if there are bugs in neighbouring houses1 they will fasten to one's clothes1 and thus be brought over into other houses4 ,i cannot say whether these remedies are good or no1 as ,i have not tried them2 but by repeated trials ,i have been convinced that sulphur1 if it be properly employed1 entirely destroys bugs and their eggs in beds and walls1 though they were ten times more numerous than the ants in an ant-hill #c4 ,the ,mill-beetles1 or ,cock-roaches1 are likewise a plague of ,north ,america1 and are settled in many of its provinces4 ,the learned ,dr4 ,colden was of opinion that these insects were properly natives of the ,west ,indies1 and that those that were found in ,north ,america were brought over from those islands4 ,to confirm his opinion1 he said1 that it was yet daily seen how the ships coming with goods from the ,west ,indies to ,north ,america brought mill-beetles with them in great numbers4 ,but from the observations which ,i have made in this country1 ,i have reason to believe that these insects have been on the continent of ,north ,america since time immemorial4 ,yet notwithstanding this ,i do not deny their being brought over from the ,west ,indies4 ,they are in almost every house in the city of ,new ,york2 and those are undoubtedly come over with ships4 ,but how can that be said of those mill-beetles1 which are found in the midst of the woods and desarts8 ,the ,english likewise call the ,mill-beetles1 ,cock-roaches1 and the ,dutch give them the name of ,kackerlack4 ,the ,swedes in this country call them ,brodoetare1 or ,bread-eaters1 on account of the damage they do to the bread1 which ,i am going to describe4 ,dr4 ,linnus calls them ,blatta ,orientalis4 ,many of the ,swedes call them likewise ,kackerlack4 ,they are not only observed in the houses1 but in the summer they appear often in the woods1 and run about the trees1 which are cut down4 ,on bringing in all sorts of old rotten blocks of wood for fewel1 in ,february1 ,i discovered several cock-roaches settled in them2 they were at first quite torpid1 or as it were dead2 but after lying in the room for a while1 they recovered1 became very lively1 and began to run about4 ,i afterwards found very often1 that when old rotten wood was brought home in winter1 and cut in pieces for fewel1 the cock-roaches were got into it in numbers1 and lay in it in a torpid state4 ,in the same winter1 a fellow cut down a great dry tree1 and was about to split it4 ,i then observed in a crack1 some fathoms above the ground1 several cock-roaches together with the common ants4 ,they were1 it seems1 crept up a great way1 in order to find a secure place of abode against winter4 ,on travelling in the middle of ,october #agdi1 through the uninhabited country between the ,english and ,french colonies1 and making a fire at night near a thick half rotten tree1 on the shore of lake ,champlain1 numbers of cock-roaches came out of the wood1 being wakened by the smoke and the fire1 which had driven them out of their holes4 ,the ,frenchmen1 who were then in my company1 did not know them1 and could not give them any name4 ,in ,canada the ,french did not remember seeing any in the houses4 ,in ,pensylvania1 ,i am told1 they run in immense numbers about the sheaves of corn1 during the harvest4 ,at other times they live commonly in the houses in the ,english settlements1 and lie in the crevices1 especially in the cracks of those beams which support the ceiling1 and are nearest to the chimney4 ,they do a deal of damage by eating the soft parts of the bread4 ,if they have once made a hole into a loaf1 they will in a little time eat all the soft part in it1 so that on cutting the loaf1 nothing but the crust is left4 ,i am told they likewise eat other victuals4 ,sometimes they bite people's noses or feet1 whilst they are asleep4 ,an old ,swede1 called ,sven ,laock1 a grandson of the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,laockenius1 one of the first ,swedish clergymen that came to ,pensylvania1 told me1 that he had in his younger years been once very much frightened on account of a cock-roach1 which crept into his ear whilst he was asleep4 ,he waked suddenly1 jumped out of bed1 and felt that the insect1 probably out of fear1 was endeavouring with all its strength to get deeper4 ,these attempts of the cock-roach were so painful to him1 that he imagined his head was bursting1 and he was almost senseless2 however he hastened to the well1 and bringing up a bucket full of water1 threw some into his ear4 ,as soon as the cock-roach found itself in danger of being drowned1 it endeavoured to save itself1 and pushed backwards out of the ear1 with its hind feet1 and thus happily delivered the poor man from his fears4 ,the ,wood-lice are disagreeable insects1 which in a manner are worse than the preceding2 but as ,i have already described them in a peculiar memoir1 which is printed among the memoirs of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences for the year #aged1 ,i refer my readers to that account4 ,december the #aath4 ,this morning ,i made a little excursion to ,penn's ,neck1 and further over the ,delaware to ,wilmington4 ,the country round ,penn's ,neck has the same qualities as that about other places in this part of ,new ,jersey4 ,for the ground consists chiefly of sand1 with a thin stratum of black soil4 ,it is not very hilly1 but chiefly flat1 and in most places covered with open woods of such trees as have annual leaves1 especially oak4 ,now and then you see a single farm1 and a little corn field round it4 ,between them are here and there little marshes or swamps1 and sometimes a brook with water1 which has a very slow motion4 ,the woods of these parts consist of all sorts of trees1 but chiefly of oak and hiccory4 ,these woods have certainly never been cut down1 and have always grown without hindrance4 ,it might therefore be expected that there are trees of an uncommon great age to be found in them2 but it happens otherwise1 and there are very few trees three hundred years old4 ,most of them are only two hundred years old2 and this convinced me that trees have the same quality as animals1 and die after they are arrived at a certain age4 ,thus we find great woods here1 but when the trees in them have stood an hundred and fifty or an hundred and eighty years1 they are either rotting within1 or losing their crown1 or their wood becomes quite soft1 or their roots are no longer able to draw in sufficient nourishment1 or they die from some other cause4 ,therefore when storms blow1 which sometimes happens here1 the trees are broke off either just above the root1 or in the middle1 or at the summit4 ,several trees are likewise torn out with their roots by the power of the winds4 ,the storms thus cause great devastations in these forests4 ,every where you see trees thrown down by the winds1 after they are too much weakened by one or the other of the above mentioned causes to be able to resist their fury4 ,fire likewise breaks out often in the woods1 and burns the trees half way from the root1 so that a violent gust of wind easily throws them down4 ,on travelling through these woods1 ,i purposely tried to find out1 by the position of the trees which were fallen down1 which winds are the strongest hereabouts4 ,but ,i could not conclude any thing with certainty1 for the trees fell on all sides1 and lay towards all the points of the compass4 ,i therefore judged1 that any wind which blows from that side where the roots of the tree are weakest and shortest1 and where it can make the least resistance1 must root it up and throw it down4 ,in this manner the old trees die away continually1 and are succeeded by a young generation4 ,those which are thrown down lay on the ground and putrify1 sooner or later1 and by that means encrease the black soil1 into which the leaves are likewise finally changed1 which drop abundantly in autumn1 are blown about by the winds for some time1 but are heaped up1 and lie on both sides of the trees1 which are fallen down4 ,it requires several years before a tree is intirely reduced to dust4 ,when the winds tear up a tree with the roots1 a quantity of loose soil commonly comes out with and sticks to them for some time1 but at last it drops off1 and forms a little hillock1 which is afterwards augmented by the leaves1 which commonly gather about the roots4 ,thus several inequalities are formed in the woods1 such as little holes land hills2 and by this means the upper soil must likewise be heaped up in such places4 ,some trees are more inclined to putrify than others4 ,the tupelo-tree 7,nyssa71 the tulip-tree 7,liriodendron71 and the sweet gum-tree 7,liquidambar71 became rotten in a short time4 ,the hiccory did not take much time1 and the black oak fell sooner to pieces than the white oak2 but this was owing to circumstances4 ,if the bark remained on the wood1 it was for the greatest part rotten1 and entirely eaten by worms within1 in the space of six1 eight1 or ten years1 so that nothing was to be found but a reddish brown dust4 ,but if the bark was taken off1 they would often lie twenty years before they were entirely rotten4 ,the suddenness of a tree's growth1 the bigness of its pores1 and the frequent changes of heat and wet in summer1 cause it to rot sooner4 ,to this it must be added1 that all sorts of insects make holes into the stems of the fallen trees1 and by that means the moisture and the air get into the tree1 which must of course forward putrefaction4 ,most of the trees here have deciduous or annual leaves4 ,many of them begin to rot whilst they are yet standing and blooming4 ,this forms the hollow trees1 in which many animals make their nests and places of refuge4 ,the breadth of the ,delaware directly opposite ,wilmington is reckoned an ,english mile and a half2 yet to look at it1 it did not seem to be so great4 ,the depth of the river1 in the middle1 is said to be from four to six fathoms here4 ,december the #abth4 ,the ,joiners say1 that among the trees of this country they chiefly use the black walnut-trees1 the wild cherry-trees1 and the curled maple4 ,of the black walnut-trees 7,juglans nigra7 there is yet a sufficient quantity4 ,however careless people take pains enough to destroy them1 and some peasants even use them as fewel4 ,the wood of the wild cherry-trees 7,prunus ,virginiana7 is very good1 and looks exceedingly well2 it has a yellow colour1 and the older the furniture is1 which is made of it1 the better it looks4 ,but it is already difficult to get at it1 for they cut it every where1 and plant it no where4 ,the curled maple 7,acer rubrum7 is a species of the common red maple1 but likewise very difficult to be got4 ,you may cut down many trees without finding the wood which you want4 ,the wood of the sweet gum-tree 7,liquidambar7 is merely employed in joiner's work1 such as tables1 and other furniture4 ,but it must not be brought near the fire1 because it warps4 ,the firs and the white cedars 7,cupressus thyoides7 are likewise made use of by the joiners for different sorts of work4 ,the millers who attended the mill which stood here1 said1 that the axle-trees of the wheels of the mill were made of white oak1 and that they continued good three or four years1 but that the fir-wood does not keep so well4 ,the cogs of the mill-wheel1 and the pullies1 are made of the wood of the white walnut-tree1 because it is the hardest which can be got here4 ,the wood of mulberry-trees is of all others reckoned the most excellent for pegs and plugs in ships and boats4 ,at night ,i went over the river ,delaware1 from ,willmington1 to the ferrying-place1 on the ,new ,jersey side4 ,december the #acth4 ,in the morning ,i returned to ,raccoon4 ,on many trees in the woods of this country1 either on one of the sides1 or in the middle of a branch1 or round a branch1 are greater or lesser knobs or excrescences4 ,sometimes there is only a single one in a tree4 ,in the size there is a considerable difference1 for some of these knobs are as big and bigger than a man's head1 others are only small4 ,they project above the surface of the tree1 like a tumor4 ,sometimes a tree was quite covered with them4 ,they do not ly on one side only1 but often form a circle round a branch1 and even round the stem itself4 ,the trees which have these knobs are not always great ones1 but some not above a fathom high4 ,the knobs commonly consist of the same parts as the wood itself1 and look within like curled wood4 ,some of them are hollow4 ,when a knob on a little tree is cut open1 we commonly find a number of little worms in it1 which are sometimes also common in the greater knobs4 ,this shews the origin of the knobs in general4 ,the tree is stung by insects1 which lay their eggs under the bark1 and from the eggs worms are afterwards hatched4 ,they occasion an extravasation of the sap1 which gradually condenses into a knob4 ,only the trees with annual deciduous leaves have these knobs1 and among them chiefly the oak1 of which again the black and ,spanish oak have the greatest abundance of knobs4 ,the ash trees1 7,fraxinus excelsior7 and the red maple 7,acer rubrum7 likewise have enough of them4 ,formerly the ,swedes1 and more especially the ,finlanders1 who are settled here1 made dishes1 bowls1 c4 of the knobs which were on the ash-trees4 ,these vessels1 ,i am told1 were very pretty1 and looked as if they were made of curled wood4 ,the oak-knobs cannot be employed in this manner1 as they are commonly worm-eaten and rotten within4 ,at present the ,swedes no longer make use of such bowls and dishes1 but make use of earthen ware1 or vessels made of other wood4 ,some knobs are of an uncommon size1 and make a tree have a monstrous appearance4 ,trees with knobs are very common in the woods of this country #d4 ,the roads are good or bad according to the difference of the ground4 ,in a sandy soil the roads are dry and good2 but in a clayey one they are bad4 ,the people here are likewise very careless in mending them4 ,if a rivulet be not very great1 they do not make a bridge over it2 and travellers may do as well as they can to get over3 ,therefore many people are in danger of being drowned in such places1 where the water is risen by a heavy rain4 ,when a tree falls across the road1 it is seldom cut off1 to keep the road clear1 but the people go round it4 ,this they can easily do1 since the ground is very even1 and without stones2 has no underwood or shrubs1 and the trees on it stand much asunder4 ,hence the roads here have so many bendings4 ,the farms are most of them single1 and you seldom meet with even two together1 except in towns1 or places which are intended for towns2 therefore there are but few villages4 ,each farm has its corn-fields1 its woods1 its pastures and meadows4 ,this may perhaps have contributed something towards the extirpation of wolves1 that they every where met with houses1 and people who fired at them4 ,two or three farm-houses have generally a pasture or a wood in common1 and there are seldom more together2 but most of them have their own grounds divided from the others4 ,december the #ahth4 ,all persons who intend to be married1 must either have their banns published three times from the pulpit1 or get a licence from the governor4 ,the banns of the poorer sort of people only are published1 and all those who are a little above them get a licence from the governor4 ,in that licence he declares that he has examined the affair1 and found no obstacles to hinder the marriage1 and therefore he allows it4 ,the licence is signed by the governor2 but1 before he delivers it1 the bridegroom must come to him in company with two creditable and well known men1 who answer for him1 that there really is no lawful obstacle to his marriage4 ,these men must subscribe a certificate1 in which they make themselves answerable for1 and engage to bear all the damages of1 any complaints made by the relations of the persons who intend to be married1 by their guardians1 their masters1 or by those to whom they may have been promised before4 ,for all these circumstances the governor cannot possibly know4 ,they further certify that nothing hinders the intended marriage1 and that nothing is to be feared on that account4 ,for a licence they pay five and twenty shillings in ,pensylvanian money1 at ,philadelphia4 ,the governor keeps twenty shillings1 or one pound1 and the remaining five shillings belong to his secretary4 ,the licence is directed only to protestant clergymen4 ,the quakers have a peculiar licence to their marriages4 ,but as it would be very troublesome1 especially for those who live far from the governor's residence to come up to town for every licence1 and to bring the men with them who are to answer for them1 the clergymen in the country commonly take a sufficient number of licences and certificates1 which are ready printed1 with blanks left for the names2 they give them occasionally1 and get the common money1 one pound1 five shillings1 for each of them1 besides something for their trouble4 ,the money that they have collected1 they deliver to the governor as soon as they come to town1 together with the certificates1 which are signed by two men1 as above-mentioned2 they then take again as many licences as they think sufficient3 from hence we may conceive that the governors in the ,english ,north ,american colonies1 besides their salaries1 have very considerable revenues #e4 ,there is a great mixture of people of all sorts in these colonies1 partly of such as are lately come over from ,europe1 and partly of such as have not yet any settled place of abode4 ,hence it frequently happens that when a clergyman has married such a couple1 the bridegroom says he has no money at present1 but would pay the fee at the first opportunity3 however he goes off with his wife1 and the clergyman never gets his due4 ,this proceeding has given occasion to a custom which is now common in ,maryland4 ,when the clergyman marries a very poor couple1 he breaks off in the middle of the ,liturgy1 and cries out ,where is my fee8 ,the man must then give the money1 and the clergyman proceeds2 but if the bridegroom has no money1 the clergyman defers the marriage till another time1 when the man is better provided4 ,people of fortune1 of whom the clergyman is sure to get his due1 need not fear this disagreeable question1 when they are married4 ,however1 though the parson has got licences to marry a couple1 yet if he be not very careful1 he may get into very disagreeable circumstances2 for in many parts of the country there is a law made1 which1 notwithstanding the governor's licence1 greatly limits a clergyman in some cases4 ,he is not allowed to marry a couple who are not yet of age1 unless he be certain of the consent of their parents4 ,he cannot marry such strangers as have bound themselves to serve a certain number of years1 in order to pay off their passage from ,europe1 without the consent of their masters2 if he acts without their consent1 or in opposition to it1 he must pay a penalty of fifty pounds1 ,pensylvania currency1 though he has the licence1 and the certificate of the two men who are to answer for any objection4 ,but parents or masters give themselves no concern about these men1 but take hold of the clergyman1 who is at liberty to prosecute those who gave him the certificate1 and to get his damages repaid4 ,with the consent of the parents and masters he may marry people without danger to himself4 ,no clergyman is allowed to marry a negro with one of ,european extraction1 or he must pay a penalty of one hundred pounds1 according to the laws of ,pensylvania4 ,there is a very peculiar diverting custom here1 in regard to marrying4 ,when a man dies1 and leaves his widow in great poverty1 or so that she cannot pay all the debts with what little she has left1 and that1 notwithstanding all that1 there is a person who will marry her1 she must be married in no other habit than her shift4 ,by that means1 she leaves to the creditors of her deceased husband her cloaths1 and every thing which they find in the house4 ,but she is not obliged to pay them any thing more1 because she has left them all she was worth1 even her cloaths1 keeping only a shift to cover her1 which the laws of the country cannot refuse her4 ,as soon as she is married1 and no longer belongs to the deceased husband1 she puts on the cloaths which the second has given her4 ,the ,swedish clergymen here have often been obliged to marry a woman in a dress which is so little expensive1 and so light4 ,this appears from the registers kept in the churches1 and from the accounts given by the clergymen themselves4 ,i have likewise often seen accounts of such marriages in the ,english gazettes2 which are printed in these colonies2 and ,i particularly remember the following relation3 ,a woman went1 with no other dress than her shift1 out of the house of her deceased husband to that of her bridegroom1 who met her half way with fine new cloaths1 and said1 before all who were present1 that he lent them his bride2 and put them on her with his own hands4 ,it seems1 he said that he lent the cloaths1 lest1 if he had said he gave them1 the creditors of the first husband should come1 and take them from her2 pretending1 that she was looked upon as the relict of her first husband1 before she was married to the second4 ,december the #bast4 ,it seems very probable1 from the following observations1 that long before the arrival of the ,swedes1 there have been ,europeans in this province2 and1 in the sequel1 we shall give more confirmations of this opinion4 ,the same old ,maons ,keen1 whom ,i have already mentioned before1 told me repeatedly1 that on the arrival of the ,swedes in the last century1 and on their making a settlement1 called ,helsingburg1 on the banks of the ,delaware1 somewhat below the place where ,salem is now situated2 they found1 at the depth of twenty feet1 some wells1 inclosed with walls4 ,this could not be a work of the native ,americans1 or ,indians1 as bricks were entirely unknown to them when the ,europeans first settled here1 at the end of the fifteenth century2 and they still less knew how to make use of them4 ,the wells were1 at that time1 on the land2 but in such a place1 on the banks of the ,delaware1 as is sometimes under water1 and sometimes dry4 ,but since1 the ground has been so washed away1 that the wells are entirely covered by the river1 and the water is seldom low enough to shew the wells4 ,as the ,swedes afterwards made new wells for themselves1 at some distance from the former1 they discovered1 in the ground1 some broken earthen vessels1 and some entire good bricks2 and they have often got them out of the ground by ploughing4 ,from these marks1 it seems1 we may conclude1 that in times of yore1 either ,europeans or other people of the then civilized parts of the world1 have been carried hither by storms1 or other accidents1 settled here1 on the banks of the river1 burnt bricks1 and made a colony here2 but that they afterwards mixed with the ,indians1 or were killed by them4 ,they may gradually1 by conversing with the ,indians1 have learnt their manners1 and turn of thinking4 ,the ,swedes themselves are accused1 that they were already half ,indians1 when the ,english arrived in the year #afhb4 ,and we still see1 that the ,french1 ,english1 ,germans1 ,dutch1 and other ,europeans1 who have lived for several years together in distant provinces1 near and among the ,indians1 grow so like them1 in their behaviour and thoughts1 that they can only be distinguished by the difference of their colour4 ,but history1 together with the tradition among the ,indians1 assures us1 that the above-mentioned wells and bricks cannot have been made at the time of ,columbus's expedition1 nor soon after2 as the traditions of the ,indians say1 that those wells were made long before that epocha4 ,this account of the wells1 which had been inclosed with bricks1 and of such bricks as have been found in several places in the ground1 ,i have afterwards heard repeated by many other old ,swedes4 ,december the #bbnd4 ,an old farmer foretold a change of the weather1 because the air was very warm this day at noon1 though the morning had been very cold4 ,this he likewise concluded1 from having observed the clouds gathering about the sun4 ,the meteorological observations annexed to the end of this volume will prove that his observation was just4 ,december the #cast4 ,the remedies against the tooth-ach are almost as numerous as days in a year4 ,there is hardly an old woman but can tell you three or four score of them1 of which she is perfectly certain that they are as infallible and speedy in giving relief1 as a month's fasting1 by bread and water1 is to a burthensome paunch4 ,yet it happens often1 nay too frequently1 that this painful disease eludes all this formidable army of remedies4 ,however1 ,i cannot forbear observing the following remedies1 which have sometimes1 in this country1 been found effectual against the tooth-ach4 ,when the pains come from the hollowness of the teeth1 the following remedy is said to have had a good effect3 ,a little cotton is put at the bottom of a tobacco-pipe2 the tobacco is put in upon it1 and lighted2 and you smoke till it is almost burnt up4 ,by smoking1 the oil of the tobacco gets into the cotton1 which is then taken out1 and applied to the tooth as hot as it can be suffered4 ,the chief remedy of the ,iroquois1 or ,iroquese1 against the tooth-ach occasioned by hollow teeth1 ,i heard of ,captain ,lindsey's lady1 at ,oswego2 and she assured me1 that she knew1 from her own experience1 that the remedy was effectual4 ,they take the seed capsules of the ,virginian ,anemone1 as soon as the seed is ripe1 and rub them in pieces4 ,it will then be rough1 and look like cotton4 ,this cotton-like substance is dipped into strong brandy1 and then put into the hollow tooth1 which commonly ceases to ache soon after4 ,the brandy is biting or sharp1 and the seeds of the anemone1 as most seeds of the ,polyandria ,polygynia class of plants 7or such as have many ,stamina1 or male flowers1 and many ,pistilla1 or female flowers7 have likewise an acrimony4 ,they therefore1 both together1 help to assuage the pain2 and this remedy is much of the same kind with the former4 ,besides that1 we have many seeds which have the same qualities with the ,american anemone4 ,the following remedy was much in vogue against the tooth-ach which is attended with a swelling3 ,they boil gruel1 of flour of maize1 and milk2 to this they add1 whilst it is yet over the fire1 some of the fat of hogs1 or other suet1 and stir it well1 that every thing may mix equally4 ,a handkerchief is then spread over the gruel1 and applied as hot as possible to the swelled cheek1 where it is kept till it is gone cool again4 ,i have found1 that this remedy has been very efficacious against a swelling as it lessens the pain1 abates the swelling1 opens a gathering1 if there be any1 and procures a good discharge of the ,pus4 ,i have seen the ,iroquese boil the inner bark of the ,sambucus ,canadensis1 or ,canada ,elder1 and put it on that part of the cheek in which the pain was most violent4 ,this1 ,i am told1 often diminishes the pain4 ,among the ,iroquese1 or ,five ,nations1 upon the river ,mohawk1 ,i saw a young ,indian woman1 who1 by frequent drinking of tea1 had got a violent tooth-ach4 ,to cure it1 she boiled the ,myrica asplenii folia1 and tied it1 as hot as she could bear it1 on the whole cheek4 ,she said1 that remedy had often cured the tooth-ach before4 ,january the #bnd1 #agdi4 ,before the ,europeans under the direction of ,columbus1 came to the ,west ,indies1 the savages or ,indians 7who lived there since times immemorial7 were entirely unacquainted with iron1 which appears very strange to us1 as ,north ,america1 almost in every part of it1 contains a number of iron mines4 ,they were therefore obliged to supply this want with sharp stones1 shells1 claws of birds and wild beasts1 pieces of bones1 and other things of that kind1 whenever they intended to make hatchets1 knives1 and such like instruments4 ,from hence it appears1 that they must have led a very wretched life4 ,the old ,swedes who lived here1 and had had an intercourse with the ,indians when they were young1 and at a time when they were yet very numerous in these parts1 could tell a great many things concerning their manner of living4 ,at this time the people find accidentally1 by ploughing and digging in the ground1 several of the instruments which the ,indians employed1 before the ,swedes and other ,europeans had provided them with iron tools4 ,for it is observable that the ,indians at present make use of no other tools1 than such as are made of iron and other metals1 and which they always get from the ,europeans3 ,of this ,i shall be more particular1 in its proper place4 ,but having had an opportunity of seeing1 and partly collecting a great many of the ancient ,indian tools1 ,i shall here describe them4 ,their hatchets were made of stone4 ,their shape is similar to that of the wedges with which we cleave our wood1 about half a foot long1 and broad in proportion2 they are made like a wedge1 sharp at one end1 but rather blunter than our wedges4 ,as this hatchet must be fixed on a handle1 there was a notch made all round the thick-end4 ,to fasten it1 they split a stick at one end1 and put the stone between it1 so that the two halves of the stick come into the notches of the stone2 then they tied the two split ends together with a rope or something like it1 almost in the same way as smiths fasten the instrument with which they cut off iron1 to a split stick4 ,some of these stone-hatchets were not notched or furrowed at the upper end1 and it seems they only held those in their hands in order to hew or strike with them1 and did not make handles to them4 ,most of the hatchets which ,i have seen1 consisted of a hard rock-stone3 but some were made of a fine1 hard1 black1 apyrous stone4 ,when the ,indians intended to fell a thick strong tree1 they could not make use of their hatchets1 but for want of proper instruments employed fire4 ,they set fire to a great quantity of wood at the roots of the tree1 and made it fall by that means4 ,but that the fire might not reach higher than they would have it1 they fastened some rags to a pole1 dipped them into water1 and kept continually washing the tree1 a little above the fire4 ,whenever they intended to hollow out a thick tree for a canoe1 they laid dry branches all along the stem of the tree1 as far as it must be hollowed out4 ,they then put fire to those dry branches1 and as soon as they were burnt1 they were replaced by others4 ,whilst these branches were burning1 the ,indians were very busy with wet rags1 and pouring water upon the tree1 to prevent the fire from spreading too far on the sides and at the ends4 ,the tree being burnt hollow as far as they found it sufficient1 or as far as it could without damaging the canoe1 they took the above described stone-hatchets1 or sharp flints1 and quartzes1 or sharp shells1 and scraped off the burnt part of the wood1 and smoothened the boats within4 ,by this means they likewise gave it what shape they pleased4 ,instead of cutting with a hatchet such a piece of wood as was necessary for making a canoe1 they likewise employed fire4 ,a canoe was commonly between thirty and forty feet long4 ,the chief use of their hatchets was1 according to the unanimous accounts of all the ,swedes1 to make good fields for maize-plantations2 for if the ground where they intended to make a maize-field was covered with trees1 they cut off the bark all round the trees with their hatchets1 especially at the time when they lose their sap4 ,by that means the tree became dry1 and could not take any more nourishment1 and the leaves could no longer obstruct the rays of the sun from passing4 ,the smaller trees were then pulled out by main force1 and the ground was a little turned up with crooked or sharp branches4 ,instead of knives they were satisfied with little sharp pieces of flint or quartz1 or else some other hard kind of a stone1 or with a sharp shell1 or with a piece of a bone which they had sharpened4 ,at the end of their arrows they fastened narrow angulated pieces of stone2 they made use of them1 having no iron to make them sharp again1 or a wood of sufficient hardness3 these points were commonly flints or quartzes1 but sometimes likewise another kind of a stone4 ,some employed the bones of animals1 or the claws of birds and beasts4 ,some of these ancient harpoons are very blunt1 and it seems that the ,indians might kill birds and small quadrupeds with them2 but whether they could enter deep into the body of a great beast or of a man1 by the velocity which they get from the bow1 ,i cannot ascertain2 yet some have been found very sharp and well made4 ,they had stone pestles1 about a foot long1 and as thick as a man's arm4 ,they consist chiefly of a black sort of a stone1 and were formerly employed1 by the ,indians1 for pounding maize1 which has1 since times immemorial1 been their chief and almost their only corn4 ,they had neither wind-mills1 water-mills1 nor hand-mills1 to grind it1 and did not so much as know a mill1 before the ,europeans came into the country4 ,i have spoken with old ,frenchmen1 in ,canada1 who told me1 that the ,indians had been astonished beyond expression1 when the ,french set up the first wind-mill4 ,they came in numbers1 even from the most distant parts1 to view this wonder1 and were not tired with sitting near it for several days together1 in order to observe it2 they were long of opinion that it was not driven by the wind1 but by the spirits who lived within it4 ,they were partly under the same astonishment when the first water-mill was built4 ,they formerly pounded all their corn or maize in hollow trees1 with the above-mentioned pestles1 made of stone4 ,many ,indians had only wooden pestles4 ,the blackish stone1 of which the hatchets and pestles are sometimes made1 is very good for a grindstone1 and therefore both the ,english and the ,swedes employ the hatchets and pestles chiefly as grindstones1 at present1 when they can get them4 ,the old boilers or kettles of the ,indians1 were either made of clay1 or of different kinds of pot-stone1 7,lapis ollaris74 ,the former consisted of a dark clay1 mixt with grains of white sand or quartz1 and burnt in the fire4 ,many of these kettles have two holes in the upper margin1 on each side one1 through which the ,indians put a stick1 and held the kettle over the fire1 as long as it was to boil4 ,most of the kettles have no feet4 ,it is remarkable that no pots of this kind have been found glazed1 either on the outside or the inside4 ,a few of the oldest ,swedes could yet remember seeing the ,indians boil their meat in these pots4 ,they are very thin1 and of different sizes2 they are made sometimes of a greenish1 and sometimes of a grey pot-stone1 and some are made of another species of apyrous stone2 the bottom and the margin are frequently above an inch thick4 ,the ,indians1 notwithstanding their being unacquainted with iron1 steel1 and other metals1 have learnt to hollow out very ingeniously these pots or kettles of pot-stone4 ,the old tobacco-pipes of the ,indians are likewise made of clay1 or pot-stone1 or serpentine-stone4 ,the first sort are shaped like our tobacco-pipes1 though much coarser and not so well made4 ,the tube is thick and short1 hardly an inch long1 but sometimes as long as a finger2 their colour comes nearest to that of our tobacco-pipes which have been long used4 ,their tobacco-pipes of pot-stone are made of the same stone as their kettles4 ,some of them are pretty well made1 though they had neither iron nor steel4 ,but besides these kinds of tobacco-pipes1 we find another sort of pipes1 which are made with great ingenuity1 of a very fine1 red pot-stone1 or a kind of serpentine marble4 ,they are very scarce1 and seldom made use of by any other than the ,indian ,sachems1 or elders4 ,the fine red stone1 of which these pipes are made1 is likewise very scarce1 and is found only in the country of those ,indians who are called ,ingouez1 and who1 according to father ,charlevoix1 live on the other side of the river ,missisippi #f4 ,the ,indians themselves commonly value a pipe of this kind as much as a piece of silver of the same size1 and sometimes they make it still dearer4 ,of the same kind of stone commonly consists their pipe of peace1 which the ,french call calumet de paix1 and which they make use of in their treaties of peace1 and alliances4 ,most authors who have wrote of these nations mention this instrument1 and ,i intend to speak of it when an opportunity offers4 ,the ,indians employ hooks made of bone1 or bird's claws1 instead of fishing-hooks4 ,some of the oldest ,swedes here told me1 that when they were young1 a great number of ,indians had been in this part of the country1 which was then called ,new ,sweden1 and had caught fishes in the river ,delaware1 with these hooks4 ,they made fire by rubbing one end of a hard piece of wood continually against another dry one1 till the wood began to smoke1 and afterwards to burn4 ,such were the tools of the antient ,indians1 and the use which they made of them1 before the ,europeans invaded this country1 and before they 7the ,indians7 were acquainted with the advantages of iron4 ,north ,america abounds in iron-mines1 and the ,indians lived all about the country before the arrival of the ,europeans1 so that several places can be shewn in this country1 where at present there are iron-mines1 and where1 not a hundred years ago1 stood great towns or villages of the ,indians4 ,it is therefore very remarkable that the ,indians did not know how to make use of a metal or ore which was always under their eyes1 and on which they could not avoid treading every day4 ,they even lived upon the very spots where iron ores were afterwards found1 and yet they often went many miles in order to get a wretched hatchet1 knife1 or the like1 as above described4 ,they were forced to employ several days in order to sharpen their tools1 by rubbing them against a rock1 or other stones1 though the advantage was far from being equal to the labour4 ,for they could never cut down a thick tree with their hatchets1 and with difficulty they felled a small one4 ,they could not hollow out a tree with their hatchets1 or do a hundredth part of the work which we can perform with ease1 by the help of our iron hatchets4 ,thus we see how disadvantageous the ignorance and inconsiderate contempt of useful arts is4 ,happy is the country which knows their full value6 ,january the #eth4 ,christmas-day was celebrated this day by the ,swedes and ,english1 for they kept then to the old stile4 ,january the #fth4 ,there are a great number of hares in this country1 but they differ from our ,swedish ones in their size1 which is very small1 and but little bigger than that of a rabbit2 they keep almost the same grey colour both in summer and winter1 which our ,northern hares have in summer only2 the tip of their ears is always grey1 and not black2 the tail is likewise grey on the upper side1 at all seasons2 they breed several times a year3 in spring they lodge their young ones in hollow trees1 and in summer1 in the months of ,june and ,july1 they breed in the grass4 ,when they are surprised they commonly take refuge in hollow trees1 out of which they are taken by means of a crooked stick1 or by cutting a hole into the tree1 opposite to the place where they lie2 or by smoke1 which is occasioned by making a fire on the outside of the tree4 ,on all these occasions the greyhounds must be at hand4 ,these hares never bite1 and can be touched without any danger4 ,in day-time they usually lie in hollow trees1 and hardly ever stir from thence1 unless they be disturbed by men or dogs2 but in the night they come out1 and seek their food4 ,in bad weather1 or when it snows1 they lie close for a day or two1 and do not venture to leave their retreats4 ,they do a great deal of mischief in the cabbage-fields2 but apple-trees suffer infinitely more from them1 for they peel off all the bark next to the ground4 ,the people here agreed that the hares are fatter in a cold and severe winter1 than in a mild and wet one1 of which they could give me several reasons1 from their own conjectures4 ,the skin is useless1 because it is so loose1 that it can be drawn off2 for when you would separate it from the flesh1 you need only pull at the fur1 and the skin follows3 these hares cannot be tamed4 ,they were at all times1 even in the midst of winter1 plagued with a number of common fleas #g4 ,january the #afth4 ,the common mice were in great abundance in the towns and in the country2 they do as much mischief as in the old countries4 ,oldmixon in his book1 the ,british ,empire in ,america1 vol4 i4 p4 #ddd1 writes1 that ,north ,america had neither rats nor mice before ,european ships brought them over4 ,how far this is true ,i know not4 ,it is undoubted1 that in several desart places1 where no man ever lived1 ,i have seen and killed the common mice1 in crevices of stones or mountains2 and is it probable that all such mice as are spread in this manner1 throughout the inland parts of the country1 derive their origin from those which were brought over from ,europe8 ,rats likewise may be ranked among those animals which do great damage in this country4 ,they live both in the cities and in the country1 and destroy the provisions4 ,their size is the same with that of our rats1 but their colour differs2 for they are grey1 or blue-grey4 ,i enquired of the ,swedes1 ,whether these rats had been here prior to the arrival of the ,europeans1 or whether they came over in the ships8 ,but ,i could not get an answer which ,i might depend upon4 ,all agreed1 that a number of these dangerous and mischievous animals were every year brought to ,america1 by ships from ,europe and other countries4 ,but ,mr4 ,bartram maintained1 that before the ,europeans settled here1 rats had been in the country2 for he saw a great number of them on the high mountains1 which are commonly called the ,blue ,mountains1 where they lived among stones1 and in the subterraneous grottoes which are in those mountains4 ,they always lie very close in the day-time1 and you hardly ever see one out2 but at night they come out1 and make a terrible noise4 ,when the cold was very violent1 they seemed quite torpid2 for during the continuance of the cold weather1 one could not hear the least noise1 or shrieking1 occasioned by them4 ,it is to be observed1 that neither the ,swedes nor the ,english have any dark windows in their houses here4 ,there is hardly a dormer-window in the garret2 but only loose boards4 ,the walls in the wooden houses are frequently not closed1 even with moss2 so that the rooms1 though they have fires in them1 are no warmer than the outside apartment1 or hall4 ,the rooms where the servants sleep have never any fire in them1 though the winter is pretty severe sometimes4 ,the rats have1 therefore1 little or no warmth in winter2 but as soon as a milder season makes its appearance1 they come out again4 ,we observed several times this winter1 that the rats were very active1 and made an unusual noise all night1 just before a severe cold4 ,it seems1 they had some sensation of cold weather being at hand2 and that they therefore eat sufficiently1 or stored up provisions4 ,in mild weather1 they were used to carry away apples1 and other provisions3 therefore1 we could always conclude1 with certainty1 when the rats made an uncommon noise at night1 or were extremely greedy1 that a severe cold would ensue4 ,i have already observed in the preceding volume1 p4 #cab1 that the grey squirrels in this country have the same quality4 ,when these1 and the common mice1 eat maize1 they do not consume the whole grains1 but only the loose1 sweet and soft kernel1 and leave the rest4 ,january the #bast4 ,the cold now equalled that of ,sweden1 though this country is so much more southerly4 ,the ,celsian or ,swedish thermometer was twenty-two degrees below the freezing point1 in the morning4 ,as the rooms are without any shutters here1 the cracks in the walls not closed with moss1 and sometimes no fire-place or chimney in the room1 the winters here must be very disagreeable to one who is used to our ,swedish warm winter-rooms4 ,but the greatest comfort here is1 that the cold is of a very short duration4 ,some days of this month1 the room which ,i lodged in was such1 that ,i could not write two lines before the ink would freeze in my pen4 ,when ,i did not write1 ,i could not leave the ink-stand on the table2 but was forced to put it upon the hearth1 or into my pocket4 ,yet1 notwithstanding it was so cold1 as appears from the meteorological observations at the end of this volume1 and though it snowed sometimes for several days and nights together1 and the snow lay near six inches high upon the ground1 yet all the cattle are obliged to stay1 day and night1 in the fields1 during the whole winter4 ,for neither the ,english nor the ,swedes had any stables2 but the ,germans and ,dutch had preserved the custom of their country1 and generally kept their cattle in stables during winter4 ,almost all the old ,swedes say1 that on their first arrival in this country1 they made stables for their cattle1 as is usual in ,sweden2 but as the ,english came1 and settled among them1 and left their cattle in the fields all winter1 as is customary in ,england1 they left off their former custom1 and adopted the ,english one4 ,they owned1 however1 that the cattle suffered greatly in winter1 when it was very cold1 especially when it froze after a rain1 and that some cattle were killed by it in several places1 in the long winter of the year #agda4 ,about noon1 the cattle went out into the woods1 where there were yet some leaves on the young oak2 but they did not eat the leaves1 and only bit off the extremities of the branches1 and the tops of the youngest oaks4 ,the horses went into the maize fields1 and ate the dry leaves on the few stalks which remained4 ,the sheep ran about the woods1 and on the corn fields4 ,the chickens perched on the trees of the gardens1 at night2 for they had no particular habitations4 ,the hogs were likewise exposed to the roughness of the weather1 within a small inclosure4 ,a small kind of birds1 which the ,swedes call ,snow-bird1 and the ,english ,chuck-bird1 came into the houses about this time4 ,at other times1 they sought their food along the roads4 ,they are seldom seen1 but when it snows4 ,catesby1 in his ,natural ,history of ,carolina1 calls it ,passer nivalis2 and ,dr4 ,linnus1 in his ,systema ,natur1 calls it ,emberiza hyemalis4 ,the river ,delaware was now covered with ice opposite ,philadelphia1 and even somewhat lower1 and the people could walk over it2 but nobody ventured to ride over on horseback4 ,january the #bb;d4 ,there are partridges in this country2 but they are not of the same kind with ours4 ,the ,swedes called them sometimes rapphons 7partridges71 and sometimes aekkerhoens 7quails74 ,some of the ,english likewise called them partridges1 others quails4 ,their shape is almost the same with that of the ,european partridges1 and their nature and qualities the same3 ,i mean1 they run and hide themselves1 when pursued4 ,but they are smaller1 and entirely different in colour4 ,in this work ,i cannot insert1 at large1 the descriptions which ,i have made of birds1 insects1 quadrupeds1 and plants2 because it would swell my volume too much4 ,i only observe1 that the feet are naked1 and not hairy2 the back is spotted with brown1 black1 and white2 the breast is dark yellow2 and the belly whitish1 with black edges on the tips of the feathers4 ,the size is nearly that of a hazel-hen1 or tetrao bonasia4 ,above each eye is a narrow stroke of whitish yellow4 ,these birds are numerous in ,new ,sweden1 i4 e4 this part of the country4 ,on going but a little way1 you meet with great coveys of them4 ,however1 they keep at a great distance from towns2 being either extirpated1 or frightened there by the frequent shooting4 ,they are always in lesser or greater coveys1 do not fly very much1 but run in the fields1 and keep under the bushes and near the inclosures1 where they seek their food4 ,they are reckoned very delicious food2 and the people here prepare them in different ways4 ,for that purpose they are caught1 and shot in great numbers4 ,they are caught by putting up a sieve1 or a square open box1 made of boards1 in the places they frequent4 ,the people strew some oats under the sieve1 and lift it up on one side by a little stick2 and as soon as the partridges are got under the sieve1 in order to pick up the oats1 it falls1 and they are caught alive4 ,sometimes they get several partridges at once4 ,when they run in the bushes1 you can come very near them1 without starting them4 ,when they sleep at night1 they come together in an heap4 ,they scratch in the bushes and upon the field1 like common chickens4 ,in spring they make their nests1 either under a bush or in the maize fields1 or on the hills in the open air3 they scratch some hay together1 into which they lay about thirteen white eggs4 ,they eat several sorts of corn1 and seeds of grass4 ,they have likewise been seen eating the berries of sumach1 or rhus glabra4 ,some people have taken them young1 and kept them in a cage till they were tame3 then they let them go2 and they followed the chickens1 and never left the court-yards4 ,the inclosures made use of in ,pensylvania and ,new ,jersey1 but especially in ,new ,york1 are those1 which on account of their serpentine form resembling worms1 are called worm-fences in ,english4 ,the poles which compose this fence are taken from different trees2 but they are not all of equal duration3 the red cedar is reckoned the most durable of any1 for it holds out above thirty years2 but it is very scarce1 and grows only in a single place hereabouts1 so that no fences can be made of it4 ,it is true1 the fences about ,philadelphia 7which however are different from the worm-fences7 are all made of red cedar2 but it has been brought by water from ,egg-harbour1 where it grows in abundance4 ,the supports on which the poles lie are made of the white cedar1 or ,cupressus thyoides1 and the poles which are laid between them of the red cedar or ,juniperus ,virginiana4 ,next to the cedar-wood1 oak and chesnut are reckoned best4 ,chesnut is commonly preferred1 but it is not every where so plentiful as to be made into fences2 in its stead they make use of several sorts of oak4 ,in order to make inclosures1 the people do not cut down the young trees1 as is common with us1 but they fell here and there thick trees1 cut them in several places1 leaving the pieces as long as it is necessary1 and split them into poles of the usual thickness2 a single tree affords a multitude of poles4 ,several old men in this country told me1 that the ,swedes on their arrival here1 made such inclosures as are usual in ,sweden1 but they were forced to leave off in a few years time1 because they could not get posts enough2 for they had found by experience that a post being put into the ground would not last above four or six years before the part under ground was entirely rotten2 but the chief thing was1 that they could not get any switches for to tie them together2 they made some of hiccory1 which is one of the toughest trees in this country1 and of the white oak2 but in the space of a year or two the switches were rotten1 and the fence fell in pieces of itself1 therefore they were forced to give over making such inclosures4 ,several of the new comers again attempted1 but with the same bad success1 to make fences with posts and switches4 ,the ,swedish way of inclosing therefore will not succeed here4 ,thus the worm-fences are one of the most useful sorts of inclosures1 especially as they cannot get any post1 made of the woods of this country1 to stay above six or eight years in the ground without rotting4 ,the poles in this country are very heavy1 and the posts cannot bear them well1 especially when it blows a storm2 but the worm-fences are easily put up again1 when they are thrown down4 ,experience has shewn that an inclosure made of chesnut or white oak seldom holds out above ten or twelve years1 before the poles and posts are thoroughly rotten3 when the poles are made of other wood1 the fences hardly stand six or eight years4 ,considering how much more wood the worm-fences require1 7since they run in bendings7 than other inclosures which go in strait lines1 and that they are so soon useless1 one may imagine how the forests will be consumed1 and what sort of an appearance the country will have forty or fifty years hence1 in case no alteration is made2 especially as wood is really squandered away in immense quantities1 day and night all the winter1 or nearly one half of the year1 for fewel4 ,february the #hth4 ,the ,musk-rats1 so called by the ,english in this country1 on account of their scent1 are pretty common in ,north ,america2 they always live near the water1 especially on the banks of lakes1 rivers1 and brooks4 ,on travelling to places where they are1 you see the holes which they have dug in the ground just at the water's edge1 or a little above its surface4 ,in these holes they have their nests1 and there they continue whenever they are not in the water in pursuit of food4 ,the ,swedes call them ,dsmans ,rattor #h1 and the ,french1 ,rats musqus4 ,linnus calls this animal ,castor ,zibethicus4 ,their food is chiefly the muscles which ly at the bottom of lakes and rivers2 you see a number of such shells near the entrance of their holes4 ,i am told they likewise eat several kinds of roots and plants4 ,they differ from the ,european ,musk-rat1 or ,linnus's ,castor ,moschatus4 ,the teeth are the same in both2 the tail of the ,american is compressed on the sides so1 that one sharp edge goes upwards and the other downwards3 the hind feet are not palmated1 or joined by a moveable skin1 but are peculiar for having on both sides of the feet1 long1 white1 close1 pectinated1 off-standing hair1 besides the short hair with which the feet are quite covered4 ,such hairs are on both sides of the toes1 and do the same service in swimming as a web4 ,their size is that of a little cat1 or to be more accurate1 the length of the body is about ten inches1 and the tail of the same length3 the colour of the head1 neck1 back1 sides1 and of the outside of the thighs1 is blackish brown2 the hairs are soft and shining2 under the neck1 on the breasts1 and on the inside of the thighs1 they are grey4 ,they make their nests in the dykes that are erected along the banks of rivers to keep off the water from the adjoining meadows2 but they often do a great deal of damage1 by spoiling the dykes with digging1 and opening passages for the water to come into the meadows2 whereas ,beavers stop up all the holes in a dyke or bank4 ,they make their nests of twigs and such like things externally1 and carry soft stuff into them for their young ones to ly upon4 ,the ,swedes asserted that they could never observe a diminution in their number1 but believed that they were as numerous at present as formerly4 ,as they damage the banks so considerably1 the people are endeavouring to extirpate them1 when they can find out their nests2 the skin is paid for1 and this is an encouragement towards catching the animal4 ,a skin of a ,musk-rat formerly cost but three-pence1 but at present they gave from six-pence to nine-pence4 ,the skins are chiefly employed by hatters1 who make hats of the hair1 which are said to be nearly as good as ,beaver hats4 ,the ,musk-rats are commonly caught in traps1 with apples as baits4 ,in the country of the ,iroquese1 ,i saw those ,indians following the holes of the ,musk-rats by digging till they came to their nests1 where they killed them all4 ,nobody here eats their flesh2 ,i do not know whether the ,indians eat it1 for they are commonly not over nice in the choice of meat4 ,the musk-bag is put between the cloaths in order to preserve them against worms4 ,it is very difficult to extirpate these ,rats when they are once settled in a bank4 ,a ,swede1 however1 told me1 that he had freed his bank1 or piece of dyke along the river1 from them in the following manner3 ,he sought for all their holes1 stopped them all up with earth1 excepting one1 on that side from whence the wind came4 ,he put a quantity of sulphur into the open entrance1 set fire to it1 and then closed the hole1 leaving but a small one for the wind to pass through4 ,the smoke of the sulphur then entered their most remote nests1 and stifled all the animals4 ,as soon as the sulphur was burnt1 he was obliged to dig up part of the ground in the bank1 where they had their nests2 and he found them lie dead by heaps4 ,he sold the skins1 and they paid his trouble1 not to mention the advantage he got by clearing his bank of the ,musk-rats4 ,beavers were formerly abundant in ,new ,sweden1 as all the old ,swedes here told me4 ,at that time they saw one bank after another raised in the rivers by beavers4 ,but after the ,europeans came over in great number1 and cultivated the country better1 the beavers have been partly killed1 and partly extirpated1 and partly are removed higher into the country1 where the people are not so numerous4 ,therefore there is but a single place in ,pensylvania where beavers are to be met with2 their chief food is the bark of the beaver-tree1 or ,magnolia glauca1 which they prefer to any other4 ,the ,swedes therefore put branches of this tree near the beaver-dykes1 into traps1 which they laid for the beavers1 whilst they were yet plentiful2 and they could almost be certain of good success4 ,some persons in ,philadelphia have tamed beavers1 so that they go a fishing with them1 and they always come back to their masters4 ,major ,roderfert1 in ,new ,york1 related that he had a tame beaver above half a year in his house1 where he went about quite loose1 like a dog4 ,the major gave him bread1 and sometimes fish1 which he was very greedy of4 ,he got as much water in a bowl as he wanted4 ,all the rags and soft things he could meet with he dragged into a corner1 where he was used to sleep1 and made a bed of them4 ,the cat in the house1 having kittens1 took possession of his bed1 and he did not hinder her4 ,when the cat went out1 the beaver often took the kitten between his fore paws and held it to his breast to warm it1 and doated upon it2 as soon as the cat returned he gave her the kitten again4 ,sometimes he grumbled1 but never did any hurt1 or attempted to bite4 ,the ,english and the ,swedes gave the name of ,mink to an animal of this country1 which likewise lives either in the water1 or very near it4 ,i have never had an opportunity to see any more than the skin of this animal4 ,but the shape of the skin1 and the unanimous accounts ,i have heard of it1 make me conclude with much certainty1 that it belonged to the genus of weasels or mustel4 ,the greatest skin ,i ever saw1 was one foot1 eight inches long1 a lesser one was about ten inches long1 and about three inches1 one third broad1 before it was cut2 the colour was dark brown1 and sometimes almost black2 the tail was bushy1 as that of a marten2 the hair was very close2 and the ears short1 with short hair4 ,the length of the feet belonging to the lesser skin was about two inches long4 ,i am told this animal is so similar to the ,american polecat1 or ,viverra putorius1 that they are hardly distinguishable #i4 ,i have had the following accounts given me of its way of living2 it seldom appears in day-time1 but at night it comes out of the hollow trees1 on the banks of rivers4 ,sometimes it lives in the docks and bridges1 at ,philadelphia1 where it is a cruel enemy to the rats4 ,sometimes it gets into the court-yards at night1 and creeps into the chicken-house1 through a small hole1 where it kills all the poultry1 and sucks their blood1 but seldom eats one4 ,if it meets with geese1 fowls1 ducks1 or other birds on the road1 it kills and devours them4 ,it lives upon fish and birds4 ,when a brook is near the houses1 it is not easy to keep ducks and geese1 for the mink1 which lives near rivers1 kills the young ones4 ,it first kills as many as it can come at1 and then it carries them off1 and feasts upon them4 ,in banks and dykes near the water1 it likewise does mischief1 with digging4 ,to catch it the people put up traps1 into which they put heads of birds1 fishes1 or other meat4 ,the skin is sold in the towns1 and at ,philadelphia2 they give twenty-pence and even two shillings a-piece for them1 according to their size4 ,some of the ladies get muffs made of these skins2 but for the greatest part they are sent over to ,england1 from whence they are distributed to other countries4 ,the old ,swedes told me that the ,indians formerly used to eat all kinds of flesh1 except that of the mink4 ,i have already mentioned something of the ,raccoon2 ,i shall here add more of the nature of this animal1 in a place which is properly its native country #aj4 ,the ,english call it every where by the name of ,raccoon1 which name they have undoubtedly taken from one of the ,indian nations2 the ,dutch call it ,hespan1 the ,swedes1 ,espan1 and the ,iroquese1 ,attigbro4 ,it commonly lodges in hollow trees1 lies close in the day-time1 never going out but on a dark1 cloudy day2 but at night it rambles and seeks its food4 ,i have been told by several people1 that in bad weather1 especially when it snows and blows a storm1 the ,raccoon lies in its hole for a week together without coming out once2 during that time it lives by sucking and licking its paws4 ,its food are several sorts of fruit1 such as maize1 whilst the ears are soft4 ,in gardens it often does a great deal of damage among the apples1 chesnuts1 plumbs1 and wild grapes1 which are what it likes best2 among the poultry it is very cruel4 ,when it finds the hens on their eggs1 it first kills them1 and then eats the eggs4 ,it is caught by dogs1 which trace it back to its nest1 in hollow trees1 or by snares and traps1 in which a chicken1 some other bird1 or a fish1 is put as a bait4 ,some people eat its flesh4 ,it leaps with all its feet at once2 on account of this and of several other qualities1 many people here reckoned it to the genus of bears4 ,the skin sold for eighteen-pence1 at ,philadelphia4 ,i was told that the ,raccoons were not near so numerous as they were formerly2 yet in the more inland parts they were abundant4 ,i have mentioned the use which the hatters make of their furs2 as likewise that they are easily tamed1 that they are very greedy of sweet-meats1 c4 in the preceding volume4 ,of all the ,north ,american wild quadrupeds none can be tamed to such a degree as this4 ,february the #ajth4 ,in the morning ,i went to ,philadelphia1 where ,i arrived towards night4 ,on my arrival at the ferry upon the river ,delaware1 ,i found the river quite covered with drifts of ice1 which at first prevented our crossing the water4 ,after waiting about an hour1 and making an opening near the ferry1 ,i1 together with many more passengers1 got over1 before any more shoals came on4 ,as it began to freeze very hard soon after the twelfth of ,january 7or ,new ,year1 according to the old style7 the river ,delaware was covered with ice1 which by the intenseness of the frost grew so strong1 that the people crossed the river with horses at ,philadelphia4 ,the ice continued till the eighth of ,february1 when it began to get loose1 and the violent hurricane1 which happened that night1 broke it1 and it was driven down so fast1 that on the twelfth of ,february not a single shoal came down1 excepting a piece or two near the shore4 ,crows flew in great numbers together to-day1 and settled on the tops of trees4 ,during the whole winter we hardly observed one1 though they are said to winter there4 ,during all this spring they commonly used to sit at the tops of trees in the morning2 yet not all together1 but in several trees4 ,they belong to the noxious birds in this part of the world1 for they chiefly live upon corn4 ,after the maize is planted or sown1 they scratch the grains out of the ground and eat them4 ,when the maize begins to ripen1 they peck a hole into the involucrum which surrounds the ear1 by which means the maize is spoiled1 as the rain passes through the hole which they have made1 and occasions the putrefaction of the corn4 ,besides eating corn1 they likewise steal chickens4 ,they are very fond of dead carcasses4 ,some years ago the government of ,pensylvania had given three-pence1 and that of ,new ,jersey four-pence premium for every head of a ,crow1 but this law has now been repealed1 as the expences are too great4 ,i have seen the young ,crows of this kind in several places playing with tame ones whose wings were cut4 ,the latter hopped about the fields1 near the farm-houses where they belonged to1 but always returned again1 without endeavouring to escape on any occasion4 ,these ,american ,crows are only a variety of the ,royston ,crow1 or ,linnus's ,corvus ,cornix4 ,february the #abth4 ,in the afternoon ,i returned to ,raccoon from ,philadelphia4 ,on my journey to ,raccoon1 ,i attentively observed the trees which had yet any leaves left4 ,the leaves were pale and dried up1 but not all dropt from the following trees3 ,the ,beach-tree1 7,fagus sylvatica7 whether great or small2 it always kept a considerable part of its leaves during the whole winter even till spring4 ,the greater trees kept the lowermost leaves4 ,the white oak 7,quercus alba74 ,most of the young trees which were not above a quarter of a yard in diameter1 had the greatest part of their leaves still on them1 but the old trees had lost most of theirs1 except in some places where they have got new shoots4 ,the colour of the dry leaves was much paler in the white oak than in the black one4 ,the black oak 7as it is commonly called here74 ,dr4 ,linnus calls it the red oak1 ,quercus rubra4 ,most of the young trees still preserved their dried leaves4 ,their colour was reddish brown1 and darker than that of the white oak4 ,the ,spanish oak1 which is a mere variety of the black oak4 ,the young trees of this kind likewise keep their leaves4 ,a scarce species of oak which is known by its leaves having a triangular apex or top1 whose angles terminate in a short bristle2 the leaves are smooth below1 but woolly above #aa4 ,the young oaks of this species had still their leaves4 ,when ,i came into any wood where the above kinds of oaks were only twenty years1 and even not so old1 ,i always found the leaves on them4 ,it seems that ,providence has1 besides other views1 aimed to protect several sorts of birds1 it being very cold and stormy about this time1 by preserving even the dry leaves on these trees4 ,i have this winter at several times seen birds hiding in the trees covered with old leaves during a severe cold or storm4 ,february the #acth4 ,as ,i began to dig a hole to-day1 ,i found several insects which were crept deep into the ground in order to pass the winter4 ,as soon as they came to the air1 they moved their limbs a little1 but had not strength sufficient for creeping1 except the black ants1 which crept a little1 though slowly4 ,formica nigra1 or the black ant1 were pretty numerous1 and somewhat lively4 ,they lay about ten inches below the surface4 ,carabus latus4 ,some of these lay at the same depth with the ants4 ,this is a very common insect in all ,north ,america4 ,scarabus2 chesnut-coloured1 with a hairy thorax2 the elytr shorter than the abdomen1 with several longitudinal lines1 beset with hair4 ,it is something similar to the cock-chaffer1 but differs in many respects4 ,i found it very abundant in the ground4 ,gryllus campestris1 or the field-cricket3 ,they lay ten inches deep2 they were quite torpid1 but as soon as they came into a warm place they revived and were quite lively4 ,in summer ,i have found these crickets in great plenty in all parts of ,north ,america where ,i have been4 ,they leaped about on the fields1 and made a noise like that of our common house-crickets1 so that it would be difficult to distinguish them by their chirping4 ,they sometimes make so great a noise1 that it causes pain in the ears1 and even two people cannot understand each other4 ,in such places where the rattle-snakes live1 the field-crickets are very disagreeable1 and in a manner dangerous1 for their violent chirping prevents the warning1 which that horrid snake gives with its rattle1 from reaching the ear1 and thus deprives one of the means of avoiding it4 ,i have already mentioned that they likewise winter sometimes in chimnies #ab4 ,here they ly all winter in the ground1 but at the beginning of ,march1 as the air was grown warm1 they came out of their holes1 and began their music1 though at first it was but very faint and rarely heard4 ,when we were forced on our travels to sleep in uninhabited places1 the crickets had got into the folds of our clothes1 so that we were obliged to stop an hour every morning in examining our clothes1 before we could get rid of them4 ,the red ants 7,formica rufa7 which in ,sweden make the great ant-hills1 ,i likewise found to-day and the following day2 they were not in the ground1 for when my servant ,yungstroem cut down old dry trees1 he met with a number of them in the cracks of the tree4 ,these cracks were at the height of many yards in the tree1 and the ants were crept so high1 in order to find their winter habitation3 ,as soon as they came into a warm place1 they began to stir about very briskly4 ,february the #adth4 ,the ,swedes and the ,english gave the name of blue bird to a very pretty little bird1 which was of a fine blue colour4 ,linnus calls it ,motacilla ,sialis4 ,catesby has drawn it in his ,natural history of ,carolina1 vol4 ,i4 pl4 #dg1 and described it by the name of ,rubecula ,americana crulea2 and ,edwards has represented it in his ,natural history of birds1 plate and page #bd4 ,in my own journal ,i called it ,motacilla crulea nitida1 pectore rufo1 ventre albo4 ,in ,catesby's plate ,i must observe1 that the colour of the breast ought to be dirty red or ferruginous2 the tibi and feet black as jet2 the bill too should be quite black2 the blue colour in general ought to be much deeper1 more lively and shining2 no bird in ,sweden has so shining and deep a blue colour as this3 ,the jay has perhaps a plumage like it4 ,the food of the blue bird is not merely insects1 he likewise feeds upon plants2 therefore in winter1 when no insects are to be met with1 they come to the farm-houses in order to subsist on the seeds of hay1 and other small grains4 ,red-bird is another species of small bird4 ,catesby has likewise figured it #ac4 ,dr4 ,linnus calls it1 ,loxia ,cardinalis4 ,it belongs to that class of birds which are enemies to bees1 lying in wait for them and eating them4 ,i fed a cock for five months together in a cage2 it eat both maize and buck-wheat1 for ,i gave it nothing else4 ,by its song it attracted others of its species to the court-yard1 and after we had put some maize on the ground under the window where ,i had it1 the others came there every day to get their food2 it was then easy to catch them by means of traps4 ,some of them1 especially old ones1 both cocks and hens1 would die with grief on being put into cages4 ,those on the other hand which were grown tame1 began to sing exceedingly sweet4 ,their note very nearly resembles that of our ,european nightingale1 and on account of their agreeable song1 they are sent abundantly to ,london1 in cages4 ,they have such strength in their bill that when you hold your hand to them they pinch it so hard as to cause the blood to issue forth4 ,in spring they sit warbling on the tops of the highest trees in the woods1 in the morning4 ,but in cages they sit quite still for an hour2 the next hour they hop up and down1 singing2 and so they go on alternately all day4 ,february the #agth4 ,cranes 7,ardea ,canadensis7 were sometimes seen flying in the day-time1 to the northward4 ,they commonly stop here early in spring1 for a short time1 but they do not make their nests here1 for they proceed on more to the north4 ,certain old ,swedes told me1 that in their younger years1 as the country was not yet much cultivated1 an incredible number of cranes were here every spring2 but at present they are not so numerous4 ,several people who have settled here1 eat their flesh1 when they can shoot them4 ,they are said to do no harm to corn1 or the like4 ,february the #bc;d4 ,this morning ,i went down to ,penn's ,neck1 and returned in the evening4 ,snow lay yet in several parts of the woods1 especially where the trees stood very thick1 and the sun could not make its way3 however it was not above four inches deep4 ,all along the roads was ice1 especially in the woods1 and therefore it was very difficult to ride horses1 which were not sharp shoed4 ,the people who are settled here know little of sledges1 but ride on horseback to church in winter1 though the snow is sometimes near a foot deep4 ,it lays seldom above a week before it melts1 and then some fresh snow falls4 ,a species of birds1 called by the ,swedes1 maize-thieves1 do the greatest mischief in this country4 ,they have given them that name1 because they eat maize1 both publicly and secretly1 just after it is sown and covered with the ground1 and when it is ripe4 ,the ,english call them blackbirds4 ,there are two species of them1 both described and drawn by ,catesby #ad4 ,though they are very different in species1 yet there is so great a friendship between them1 that they frequently accompany each other in mixed flocks4 ,however1 in ,pensylvania1 the first sort are more obvious1 and often fly together1 without any of the red-winged stares4 ,the first sort1 or the purple daws1 bear1 in many points1 so great a likeness to the daw1 the stare1 and the thrush1 that it is difficult to determine to which genus they are to be reckoned1 but seem to come nearest to the stare2 for the bill is exactly the same with that of the thrush1 but the tongue1 the flight1 their sitting on the trees1 their song and shape1 make it entirely a stare2 at a distance they look almost black1 but close by they have a very blue or purple cast1 but not so much as ,catesby's print3 their size is that of a stare2 the bill is conic1 almost subulated1 strait1 convex1 naked at the base1 black1 with almost equal mandibles1 the upper being only a very little longer than the lower2 the nostrils are oblong1 yet a little angulated1 so as to form almost squares2 they are placed obliquely at the base of the bill1 and have no hair2 there is a little horny knob1 or a small prominence on the upper side of them2 the tongue is sharp and bifid at the point2 the iris of the eyes is pale2 the forehead1 the crown1 the nucha1 the upper part and the sides of the neck are of an obscure blue and green shining colour2 the sides of the head under the eyes are obscurely blue2 all the back and coverts of the wings are purple2 the upper coverts of the tail are not of so conspicuous a purple colour1 but as it were blackened with soot2 the nine primary quill-feathers are black2 the other secundary ones are likewise black1 but their outward margin is purple2 the twelve tail feathers have a blackish purple colour1 and their tips are round2 those on the outside are the shortest1 and the middle extremely long4 ,when the tail is spread1 it looks round towards the extremity4 ,the throat is blueish green1 and shining2 the breast is likewise black or shining green1 according as you turn it to the light2 the belly is blackish1 and the vent feathers are obscurely purple-coloured2 the parts of the breast and belly which are covered by the wings1 are purple-coloured2 the wings are black below1 or rather sooty2 and the thighs have blackish feathers2 the legs 7tibi71 and the toes are of a shining black4 ,it has four toes1 as most birds have4 ,the claws are black1 and that on the back toe is longer than the rest4 ,dr4 ,linnus calls this bird ,gracula ,quiscula4 ,a few of these birds are said to winter in swamps1 which are quite overgrown with thick woods2 and they only appear in mild weather4 ,but the greatest number go to the south at the approach of winter4 ,to-day ,i saw them1 for the first time this year4 ,they flew in great flocks already4 ,their chief and most agreeable food is maize4 ,they come in great swarms in spring1 soon after the maize is put under ground4 ,they scratch up the grains of maize1 and eat them4 ,as soon as the leaf comes out1 they take hold of it with their bills1 and pluck it up1 together with the corn or grain2 and thus they give a great deal of trouble to the country people1 even so early in spring4 ,to lessen their greediness of maize1 some people dip the grains of that plant in a decoct of the root of the veratrum album1 or white hellebore1 7of which ,i shall speak in the sequel7 and plant them afterwards4 ,when the maize-thief eats a grain or two1 which are so prepared1 his head is disordered1 and he falls down3 this frightens his companions1 and they dare not venture to the place again4 ,but they repay themselves amply towards autumn1 when the maize grows ripe2 for at that time1 they are continually feasting4 ,they assemble by thousands in the maize-fields1 and live at discretion4 ,they are very bold2 for when they are disturbed1 they only go and settle in another part of the field4 ,in that manner1 they always go from one end of the field to the other1 and do not leave it till they are quite satisfied4 ,they fly in incredible swarms in autumn2 and it can hardly be conceived whence such immense numbers of them should come4 ,when they rise in the air they darken the sky1 and make it look quite black4 ,they are then in such great numbers1 and so close together1 that it is surprising how they find room to move their wings4 ,i have known a person shoot a great number of them on one side of a maize-field1 which was far from frightening the rest2 for they only just took flight1 and dropped at about the distance of a musket-shot in another part of the field1 and always changed their place when their enemy approached4 ,they tired the sportsman1 before he could drive them from off the maize1 though he killed a great many of them at every shot4 ,they likewise eat the seeds of the aquatic tare-grass 7,zizania aquatica7 commonly late in autumn1 after the maize is got in4 ,i am told1 they likewise eat buck-wheat1 and oats4 ,some people say1 that they even eat wheat1 barley1 and rye1 when pressed by hunger2 yet1 from the best information ,i could obtain1 they have not been found to do any damage to these species of corn4 ,in spring1 they sit in numbers on the trees1 near the farms2 and their note is pretty agreeable4 ,as they are so destructive to maize1 the odium of the inhabitants against them is carried so far1 that the laws of ,pensylvania and ,new ,jersey have settled a premium of three-pence a dozen for dead maize-thieves4 ,in ,new ,england1 the people are still greater enemies to them2 for ,dr4 ,franklin told me1 in the spring of the year #agej1 that1 by means of the premiums which have been settled for killing them in ,new ,england1 they have been so extirpated1 that they are very rarely seen1 and in a few places only4 ,but as1 in the summer of the year #agdi1 an immense quantity of worms appeared on the meadows1 which devoured the grass1 and did great damage1 the people have abated their enmity against the maize-thieves2 for they thought they had observed1 that those birds lived chiefly on these worms before the maize is ripe1 and consequently extirpated them1 or at least prevented their spreading too much4 ,they seem therefore to be entitled1 as it were1 to a reward for their trouble4 ,but after these enemies and destroyers of the worms 7the maize-thieves7 were extirpated1 the worms were more at liberty to multiply2 and therefore they grew so numerous1 that they did more mischief now than the birds did before4 ,in the summer #agdi1 the worms left so little hay in ,new ,england1 that the inhabitants were forced to get hay from ,pensylvania1 and even from ,old ,england4 ,the maize-thieves have enemies besides the human species4 ,a species of little hawks live upon them1 and upon other little birds4 ,i saw some of these hawks driving up the maize-thieves1 which were in the greatest security1 and catching them in the air4 ,nobody eats the flesh of the purple maize-thieves or daws 7,gracula quiscula72 but that of the red-winged maize-thieves1 or stares 7,oriolus ,phniceus7 is sometimes eaten4 ,some old people have told me1 that this part of ,america1 formerly called ,new ,sweden1 still contained as many maize-thieves as it did formerly4 ,the cause of this they derive from the maize1 which is now sown in much greater quantity than formerly2 and they think that the birds can get their food with more ease at present4 ,the ,american whortleberry1 or the ,vaccinium hispidulum1 is extremely abundant over all ,north ,america1 and grows in such places where we commonly find our whortle-berries in ,sweden4 ,the ,american ones are bigger1 but in most things so like the ,swedish ones1 that many people would take them to be mere varieties4 ,the ,english call them ,cranberries1 the ,swedes ,tranbr1 and the ,french in ,canada ,atopa1 which is a name they have borrowed from the ,indians4 ,they are brought to market every ,wednesday and ,saturday at ,philadelphia1 late in autumn4 ,they are boiled and prepared in the same manner as we do our red whortle-berries1 or ,vaccinium vitis ida2 and they are made use of during winter1 and part of summer1 in tarts and other kinds of pastry4 ,but as they are very sour1 they require a deal of sugar2 but that is not very dear1 in a country where the sugar-plantations are not far off4 ,quantities of these berries are sent over1 preserved1 to ,europe1 and to the ,west ,indies4 ,march the #b;d4 ,mytilus anatinus1 a kind of muscle-shells1 was found abundantly in little furrows1 which crossed the meadows4 ,the shells were frequently covered on the outside1 with a thin crust of particles of iron1 when the water in the furrows came from an iron mine4 ,the ,englishmen and ,swedes settled here seldom made any use of these shells2 but the ,indians who formerly lived here broiled them and ate the flesh4 ,some of the ,europeans eat them sometimes4 ,the snow still remained in some parts of the wood1 where it was very shady1 but the fields were quite free from it4 ,the cows1 horses1 sheep1 and hogs1 went into the woods1 and sought their food1 which was as yet very trifling4 ,march the #c;d4 ,the ,swedes call a species of little birds1 ,snofogel1 and the ,english call it ,snow-bird4 ,this is ,dr4 ,linnus's ,emberiza hyemalis4 ,the reason why it is called snow-bird is because it never appears in summer1 but only in winter1 when the fields are covered with snow4 ,in some winters they come in as great numbers as the maize-thieves1 fly about the houses and barns1 into the gardens1 and eat the corn1 and the seeds of grass1 which they find scattered on the hills4 ,at eight o'clock at night we observed a meteor1 commonly called snow-fire #ae4 ,i have described this meteor in the memoirs of the ,royal ,swedish ,academy of ,sciences1 see the volume for the year #ageb1 page #aed1 #aee4 ,wild ,pigeons1 7,columba migratoria #af71 flew in the woods1 in numbers beyond conception1 and ,i was assured that they were more plentiful than they had been for several years past4 ,they came this week1 and continued here for about a fortnight1 after which they all disappeared1 or advanced further into the country1 from whence they came4 ,i shall speak of them more particularly in another place4 ,march the #gth4 ,several people told me1 that it was a certain sign of bad weather here when a thunder-storm arose in the south or south west1 if it spread to the east and afterwards to the north3 but that on the contrary1 when it did not spread at all1 or when it spread both east and west1 though it should rise in south or south west1 yet it would prognosticate fair weather4 ,to-day it was heard in south west1 but it did not spread at all4 ,see the meteorological observations1 at the end of this volume4 ,till now the frost had continued in the ground1 so that if any one had a mind to dig a hole he was forced to cut it through with a pick-ax4 ,however it had not penetrated above four inches deep4 ,but to-day it was quite gone out4 ,this made the soil so soft1 that on riding1 even in the woods1 the horse sunk in very deep4 ,i often enquired among the old ,englishmen and ,swedes1 whether they had found that any trees were killed in very severe winters1 or had received much hurt4 ,i was answered1 that young hiccory trees are commonly killed in very cold weather2 and the young black oaks likewise suffer in the same manner4 ,nay sometimes black oaks1 five inches in diameter1 were killed by the frost in a severe winter1 and sometimes1 though very seldom1 a single mulberry-tree was killed4 ,peach-trees very frequently die in a cold winter1 and often all the peach-trees in a whole district are killed by a severe frost4 ,it has been found repeatedly1 with regard to these trees1 that they can stand the frost much better on hills1 than in vallies2 insomuch1 that when the trees in a valley were killed by frost1 those on a hill were not hurt at all4 ,they assured me that they had never observed that the black walnut-tree1 the sassafras1 and other trees1 had been hurt in winter4 ,in regard to a frost in spring1 they had observed at different times1 that a cold night or two happened often after the trees were furnished with pretty large leaves1 and that by this most of the leaves were killed4 ,but the leaves thus killed have always been supplied by fresh ones4 ,it is remarkable that in such cold nights the frost acts chiefly upon the more delicate trees1 and in such a manner1 that all the leaves1 to the height of seven and even of ten feet from the ground1 were killed by the frost1 and all the top remained unhurt4 ,several old ,swedes and ,englishmen assured me they had made this observation1 and the attentive engineer1 ,mr4 ,lewis ,evans1 has shewn it me among his notes4 ,such a cold night happened here1 in the year #agdf1 in the night between the #adth and #aeth of ,june1 new style1 attended with the same effect1 as appears from ,mr4 ,evans's observations4 ,the trees which were then in blossom1 had lost both their leaves and their flowers in these parts which were nearest the ground2 sometime after they got fresh leaves1 but no new flowers4 ,further it is observable1 that the cold nights which happen in spring and summer never do any hurt to high grounds1 damaging only the low and moist ones4 ,they are likewise very perceptible in such places where limestone is to be met with1 and though all the other parts of the country be not visited by such cold nights in a summer1 yet those where limestone lies have commonly one or two every summer4 ,frequently the places where the limestone lies are situated on a high ground2 but they suffer notwithstanding their situation2 whilst a little way off in a lower ground1 where no limestone is to be found1 the effects of the cold nights are not felt4 ,mr4 ,evans was the first who made this observation1 and ,i have had occasion at different times to see the truth of it1 on my travels1 as ,i shall mention in the sequel4 ,the young hiccory-trees have their leaves killed sooner than other trees1 in such a cold night1 and the young oaks next2 this has been observed by other people1 and ,i have found it to be true1 in the years #agdi and #agej4 ,march the #aath4 ,of the genus of ,wood-peckers1 we find here all those1 which ,catesby in his first volume of the ,natural ,history of ,carolina1 has drawn and described4 ,i shall only enumerate them1 and add one or two of their qualities2 but their description at large ,i defer for another occasion4 ,picus principalis1 the ,king of the ,wood-peckers1 is found here1 though very seldom1 and only at a certain season4 ,picus pileatus1 the crested ,wood-pecker2 this ,i have already mentioned4 ,picus auratus1 the gold-winged ,wood-pecker3 ,this species is plentiful here1 and the ,swedes call it ,hittock1 and ,piut2 both these names have a relation to its note2 it is almost continually on the ground1 and is not observed to pick in the trees2 it lives chiefly on insects1 but sometimes becomes the prey of hawks2 it is commonly very fat1 and its flesh is very palatable4 ,as it stays all the year1 and cannot easily get insects in winter1 it must doubtless eat some kinds of grass or plants in the fields4 ,its form1 and some of its qualities1 make it resemble a cuckow4 ,picus ,carolinus1 the ,carolina ,wood-pecker4 ,it lives here likewise1 and the colour of its head is of a deeper and more shining red than ,catesby has represented it1 vol4 i4 p4 #ai4 t4 #ai4 ,picus villosus1 the spotted1 hairy1 middle-sized ,wood-pecker is abundant here2 it destroys the apple-trees by pecking holes into them4 ,picus erythrocephalus1 the red-headed ,wood-pecker4 ,this bird was frequent in the country1 and the ,swedes called it merely ,hackspick1 or ,wood pecker4 ,they give the same name to all the birds which ,i now enumerate1 the gold-winged wood-pecker excepted4 ,this species is destructive to maize-fields and orchards1 for it pecks through the ears of maize1 and eats apples4 ,in some years they are very numerous1 especially where sweet apples grow1 which they eat so far1 that nothing but the mere peels remain4 ,some years ago there was a premium of two pence per head1 paid from the public funds1 in order to extirpate this pernicious bird1 but this law has been repealed4 ,they are likewise very fond of acorns4 ,at the approach of winter they travel to the southward4 ,but when they stay in numbers in the woods1 at the beginning of winter1 the people look upon it as a sign of a pretty mild winter4 ,picus varius1 the lesser1 spotted1 yellow-bellied ,wood-pecker4 ,these birds are much more numerous than many people wished2 for this1 as well as the preceding and succeeding species1 are very hurtful to apple-trees4 ,picus pubescens1 or the least spotted ,wood-pecker4 ,this species abounds here4 ,of all the wood-peckers it is the most dangerous to orchards1 because it is the most daring4 ,as soon as it has pecked a hole into the tree1 it makes another close to the first1 in a horizontal direction1 proceeding till it has pecked a circle of holes round the tree4 ,therefore the apple-trees in the orchards here have several rings round their stems1 which lie very close above each other1 frequently only an inch distant from each other4 ,sometimes these wood-peckers peck the holes so close1 that the tree dries up4 ,this bird1 as ,catesby remarks1 is so like the lesser spotted wood-pecker1 in regard to its colour and other qualities1 that they would be taken for the same bird1 were not the former 7the ,picus pubescens7 a great deal less4 ,they agree in the bad quality1 which they both possess1 of pecking holes into the apple-trees4 ,rana ocellata are a kind of frogs here1 which the ,swedes call1 ,sill-hoppetosser1 i4 e4 ,herring-hoppers1 and which now began to quack in the evening1 and at night1 in swamps1 pools1 and ponds4 ,the name which the ,swedes give them is derived from their beginning to make their noise in spring1 at the same time when the people here go catching what are called herrings1 which however differ greatly from the true ,european herrings4 ,these frogs have a peculiar note1 which is not like that of our ,european frogs1 but rather corresponds with the chirping of some large birds1 and can nearly be expressed by picet4 ,with this noise they continued throughout a great part of spring1 beginning their noise soon after sun-setting1 and finishing it just before sun-rising4 ,the sound was sharp1 but yet so loud that it could be heard at a great distance4 ,when they expected rain they cried much worse than commonly1 and began in the middle of the day1 or when it grew cloudy1 and the rain came usually six hours after4 ,as it snowed on the #afth of the next month1 and blew very violently all day1 there was not the least sign of them at night1 and during the whole time that it was cold1 and whilst the snow lay on the fields1 the frost had so silenced them1 that we could not hear one2 but as soon as the mild weather returned1 they began their noise again4 ,they were very timorous1 and it was difficult to catch them2 for as soon as a person approached the place where they lived1 they are quite silent1 and none of them appeared4 ,it seems that they hide themselves entirely under water1 except the tip of the snout1 when they cry4 ,for when ,i stepped to the pond where they were in1 ,i could not observe a single one hopping into the water4 ,i could not see any of them before ,i had emptied a whole pool1 where they lodged in4 ,their colour is a dirty green1 variegated with spots of brown4 ,when they are touched they make a noise and moan2 they then sometimes assume a form1 as if they had blown up the hind part of the back1 so that it makes a high elevation2 and then they do not stir1 though touched4 ,when they are put alive into spirits of wine1 they die within a minute4 ,march the #abth4 ,the bird which the ,english and ,swedes in this country call ,robin-red-breast #ag1 is found here all the year round4 ,it is a very different bird from that which in ,england bears the same name4 ,it is ,linnus's ,turdus migratorius4 ,it sings very melodiously1 is not very shy1 but hops on the ground1 quite close to the houses4 ,the ,hazels 7,corylus avellana7 were now opening their blossoms4 ,they succeeded best in a rich mould1 and the ,swedes reckoned it a sign of a good soil where they found them growing4 ,march the #acth4 ,the alder 7,betula ,alnus7 was just blossoming4 ,the ,dracontium foetidum grew plentifully in the marshes and began to flower4 ,among the stinking plants1 this is the most ftid2 its nauseous scent was so strong1 that ,i could hardly examine the flower2 and when ,i smelled a little too long at it1 my head ached4 ,the ,swedes call it ,byorn-blad 7bear's-leaf7 or ,byorn-retter 7bear's-root47 ,the ,english call it ,polecat-root1 because its effluvia are as nauseous and ftid1 as those of the polecat1 which ,i have mentioned before4 ,the flowers are purple-coloured2 when they are in full flower1 the leaves begin to come out of the ground2 in summer the cattle do not touch it4 ,dr4 ,colden told me1 that he had employed the root in all cases where the root of the arum is made use of1 especially against the scurvy1 c4 ,the ,swedish name it got1 because the bears1 when they leave their winter habitations1 are fond of it in spring3 ,it is a common plant in all ,north ,america4 ,the ,draba verna was abundant here1 and now appeared in flower4 ,the ,veratrum album was very common in the marshes1 and in low places over all ,north ,america4 ,the ,swedes here call it ,dack1 ,dackor or ,dackretter1 that is puppet-root1 because the children make puppets of its stalks and leaves4 ,the ,english call it ,itch-reed or ,ellebore4 ,it is a poisonous plant1 and therefore the cattle never touch it2 however it sometimes happens that the cattle are deceived in the beginning of spring1 when the pastures are bare1 and eat of the fine broad green leaves of this plant1 which come up very early2 but such a meal frequently proves fatal to them4 ,sheep and geese have likewise often been killed with it4 ,by means of its root1 the maize is preserved from the greediness of voracious birds1 in the following manner3 ,the roots are boiled in water1 into which the maize is put as soon as the water is quite cool2 the maize must ly all night in it1 and is then planted as usual4 ,when the maize-thieves1 crows1 or other birds1 pick up or pluck out the grains of maize1 their heads grow delirious1 and they fall1 which so frightens the rest that they never venture on the field again2 when those which have tasted the grains recover1 they leave the field1 and are no more tempted to visit it again4 ,by thus preparing maize1 one must be very careful that no other creatures touch it2 for when ducks or fowls eat a grain or two of the maize which is thus steeped1 they become very sick2 but if they swallow a considerable quantity they die4 ,when the root is thrown away raw1 no animal eats it2 but when it is put out boiled1 its sweet taste tempts the beasts to eat it4 ,dogs have been seen to eat a little of it1 and have been very sick after it2 however they have recovered after a vomit1 for when animals cannot free themselves of it by this means1 they often die4 ,some people boil the root1 and wash the scorbutic parts with the water or decoct4 ,this is said to cause some pain1 and even a plentiful discharge of urine1 but it re-establishes the patient4 ,when the children here are plagued with vermin1 the women boil this root1 put the comb into the decoction1 and comb the head with it1 and this kills them most effectually4 ,march the #agth4 ,at the first arrival of the ,swedes in this country1 and long after that time1 it was filled with ,indians4 ,but as the ,europeans proceeded to cultivate the land1 the ,indians sold their land1 and went further into the country4 ,but in reality few of the ,indians really left the country in this manner2 most of them ended their days before1 either by wars among themselves1 or by the small-pox1 a disease which the ,indians were unacquainted with before their commerce with the ,europeans1 and which since that time has killed incredible numbers of them4 ,for though they can heal wounds and other external hurts1 yet they know not how to proceed with fevers1 or in general with internal diseases4 ,one can imagine1 how ill they would succeed with the cure of the small-pox1 when as soon as the pustules appeared1 they leaped naked into the cold water of the rivers1 lakes1 or fountains1 and either dived over head into it1 or poured it over their body in great abundance1 in order to cool the heat of the fever4 ,in the same manner they carry their children1 when they have the small-pox1 into the water and duck them #ah4 ,but brandy has killed most of the ,indians4 ,this liquor was likewise entirely unknown to them1 before the ,europeans came hither2 but after they had tasted it1 they could never get enough of it4 ,a man can hardly have a greater desire of a thing1 than the ,indians have of brandy4 ,i have heard them say1 that to die by drinking brandy1 was a desirable and an honourable death2 and indeed 'tis no very uncommon thing to kill themselves by drinking this liquor to excess4 ,the food of these ,indians was very different from that of the inhabitants of the other parts of the world4 ,wheat1 rye1 barley1 oats1 and rice-groats1 were quite unknown in ,america4 ,in the same manner it is with regard to the fruits and herbs which are eaten in the old countries4 ,the maize1 some kinds of beans1 and melons1 made almost the whole of the ,indian agriculture and gardening2 and dogs were the only domestic animals in ,north ,america4 ,but as their agriculture and their gardening were very trifling1 and they could hardly live two months in a year upon their produce1 they were forced to apply to hunting and fishing1 which at that time1 and even at present1 are their chief subsistence1 and to seek some of the wild plants and trees here4 ,some of the old ,swedes were yet alive1 who in their younger years had an intercourse with the ,indians1 and had seen the minuti of their conomy4 ,i was therefore desirous of knowing which of the spontaneous herbs they made use of for food at that time2 and all the old men agreed that the following plants were what they chiefly consumed3 ,hopniss or ,hapniss was the ,indian name of a wild plant1 which they ate at that time4 ,the ,swedes still call it by that name1 and it grows in the meadows in a good soil4 ,the roots resemble potatoes1 and were boiled by the ,indians1 who eat them instead of bread4 ,some of the ,swedes at that time likewise ate this root for want of bread4 ,some of the ,english still eat them instead of potatoes4 ,mr4 ,bartram told me1 that the ,indians who live farther in the country do not only eat these roots1 which are equal in goodness to potatoes1 but likewise take the pease which ly in the pods of this plant1 and prepare them like common pease4 ,dr4 ,linnus calls the plant ,glycine ,apios4 ,katniss is another ,indian name of a plant1 the root of which they were likewise accustomed to eat1 when they lived here4 ,the ,swedes still preserve this name4 ,it grows in low1 muddy and very wet ground4 ,the root is oblong1 commonly an inch and an half long1 and one inch and a quarter broad in the middle2 but some of the roots have been as big as a man's fists4 ,the ,indians either boiled this root or roasted it in hot ashes4 ,some of the ,swedes likewise eat them with much appetite1 at the time when the ,indians were so near the coast2 but at present none of them make any use of the roots4 ,a man of ninety-one years of age1 called ,nils ,gustafson1 told me1 that he had often eaten these roots when he was a boy1 and that he liked them very well at that time4 ,he added that the ,indians1 especially their women1 travelled to the islands1 dug out the roots1 and brought them home2 and whilst they had them1 they desired no other food4 ,they said that the hogs1 which are amazingly greedy of them1 have made them very scarce4 ,the cattle are very fond of its leaves4 ,i afterwards got fond of these roots roasted1 and in my opinion they tasted well1 though they were rather dry3 ,the taste was nearly the same with that of the potatoes4 ,when the ,indians come down to the coast and see the turneps of the ,europeans1 they likewise give them the name of katniss4 ,their katniss is an arrow-head or ,sagittaria1 and is only a variety of the ,swedish arrow-head or ,sagittaria sagittifolia1 for the plant above the ground is entirely the same1 but the root under ground is much greater in the ,american than in the ,european4 ,mr4 ,osbeck in his voyage to ,china1 vol4 i4 p4 #ccd1 of the ,english edition1 mentions1 that the ,chinese plant a ,sagittaria1 and eat its roots4 ,this seems undoubtedly to be a variety of this katniss4 ,further in the north of this part of ,america1 ,i met with the other species of ,sagittaria which we have in ,sweden4 ,taw-ho and ,taw-him was the ,indian name of another plant1 the root of which they eat4 ,some of them likewise call it ,tuckah2 but most of the ,swedes still knew it by the name of ,taw-ho4 ,it grows in moist ground and swamps4 ,hogs are very greedy of the roots1 and grow very fat by feeding on them4 ,therefore1 they often visit the places where these roots grow2 and they are frequently seen rooting up the mud1 and falling with their whole body into the water1 so that only a little of the back part was out of the water4 ,it is therefore very plain1 that these roots must have been extirpated in places which are frequented by hogs4 ,the roots often grow to the thickness of a man's thigh4 ,when they are fresh1 they have a pungent taste1 and are reckoned a poison in that fresh taste4 ,nor did the ,indians ever venture to eat them raw1 but prepared them in the following manner3 ,they gathered a great heap of these roots1 dug a great long hole1 sometimes two or three fathoms and upwards in length1 into which they put the roots1 and covered them with the earth that had been taken out of the hole2 they made a great fire above it1 which burnt till they thought proper to remove it2 and then they dug up the roots1 and consumed them with great avidity4 ,these roots1 when prepared in this manner1 ,i am told1 taste like potatoes4 ,the ,indians never dry and preserve them2 but always take them fresh out of the marshes1 when they want them4 ,this ,taw-ho is the ,arum ,virginicum1 or ,virginian ,wake-robin4 ,it is remarkable1 that the ,arums1 with the plants next akin to them1 are eaten by men in different parts of the world1 though their roots1 when raw1 have a fiery pungent taste1 and are almost poisonous in that state4 ,how can men have learnt1 that plants so extremely opposite to our nature were eatable2 and that their poison1 which burns on the tongue1 can be conquered by fire4 ,thus the root of the ,calla palustris1 which grows in the north of ,europe1 is sometimes used instead of bread on an exigency4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians consume this species of ,arum4 ,those of ,south ,america1 and of the ,west ,indies1 eat other species of ,arums4 ,the ,hottentots1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in ,africa1 prepare bread from a species of ,arum or ,wake-robin1 which is as burning and poisonous as the other species of this plant4 ,in the same manner1 they employ the roots of some kinds of ,arum as a food1 in ,egypt and ,asia4 ,probably1 that severe but sometimes useful mistress1 necessity1 has first taught men to find out a food1 which the first taste would have rejected as useless4 ,this ,taw-ho seems to be the same with what the ,indians in ,carolina call ,tuckahoo2 and of which see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bhg4 ,taw-kee is another plant1 so called by the ,indians who eat it4 ,some of them call it ,taw-kim1 and others ,tackvim4 ,the ,swedes call it always by the name of ,taw-kee4 ,the plant grows in marshes1 near moist and low grounds1 and is very plentiful in ,north ,america4 ,the cattle1 hogs and stags1 are very fond of the leaves in spring2 for they are some of the earliest4 ,the leaves are broad1 like those of the ,convallaria1 or ,lilly of the ,valley1 green on the upper side1 and covered with very minute hair1 so that they looked like a fine velvet4 ,the ,indians pluck the seeds1 and keep them for eating4 ,they cannot be eaten fresh or raw1 but must be dried4 ,the ,indians were forced to boil them repeatedly in water1 before they were fit for use2 and then they ate them like pease4 ,when the ,swedes gave them butter or milk1 they boiled or broiled the seeds in it4 ,sometimes they employ these seeds instead of bread2 and they taste like pease4 ,some of the ,swedes likewise ate them2 and the old men among them told me1 they liked this food better than any of the other plants which the ,indians formerly made use of4 ,this ,taw-kee was the ,orontium aquaticum4 ,bilberries were likewise a very common dish among the ,indians4 ,they are called ,huckleberries by the ,english here1 and belong to several species of ,vaccinium1 which are all of them different from our ,swedish ,bilberry-bush1 though their berries1 in regard to colour1 shape1 and taste1 are so similar to the ,swedish bilberry1 that they are distinguished from each other with difficulty4 ,the ,american ones grow on shrubs1 which are from two to four feet high2 and there are some species which are above seven feet in height4 ,the ,indians formerly plucked them in abundance every year1 dried them either in the sun-shine or by the fire-side1 and afterwards prepared them for eating1 in different manners1 ,these huckleberries are still a dainty dish among the ,indians4 ,on my travels through the country of the ,iroquese1 they offered me1 whenever they designed to treat me well1 fresh maize-bread1 baked in an oblong shape1 mixed with dried ,huckleberries1 which lay as close in it as the raisins in a plumb-pudding4 ,i shall write more at large about it in the sequel4 ,the ,europeans are likewise used to collect a quantity of these berries1 to dry them in ovens1 to bake them in tarts1 and to employ them in several other ways4 ,some preserve them with treacle4 ,they are likewise eaten raw1 either quite alone or with fresh milk4 ,i shall1 on the #bgth of ,march1 find occasion to mention another dish1 which the ,indians ate formerly1 and still eat1 on formal ceremonies4 ,march the #ahth4 ,almost during the whole of this spring1 the weather and the winds were always calm in the morning at sun-rising4 ,at eight o'clock the wind began to blow pretty hard1 and continued so all day1 till sun-setting2 when it ceased1 and all the night was calm4 ,this was the regular course of the weather2 but sometimes the winds raged1 without intermission1 for two or three days together4 ,at noon it was commonly most violent4 ,but in the ordinary way1 the wind decreased and increased as follows3 ,at six in the morning1 a calm2 at seven1 a very gentle western breeze1 which grew stronger at eight2 at eleven it was much stronger2 but at four in the afternoon1 it is no stronger than it was at eight o'clock in the morning2 and thus it goes on decreasing till it is quite a calm1 just before sun-set4 ,the winds this spring blew generally west1 as appears from the observations at the end of this volume4 ,i was told1 that it was a very certain prognostic of bad weather1 that when you see clouds in the horizon in the south-west1 about sun-setting1 and when those clouds sink below the horizon1 in an hour's time1 it will rain the next day1 though all the forenoon be fair and clear4 ,but if some clouds be seen in the south-west1 in the horizon1 at sun-set1 and they rise some time after1 you may expect fair weather the next day4 ,march the #bjth4 ,an old ,swede prognosticated a change in the weather1 because it was calm to-day2 for when there has been wind for some days together1 and a calm follows1 they say1 rain or snow1 or some other change in the weather1 will happen4 ,i was likewise told1 that some people here were of that false opinion1 that the weather commonly alters on ,friday2 so that1 in case it had rained or blown hard all the week1 and a change was to happen1 it would commonly fall on ,friday4 ,how far the former prognostic has been true1 appears from my own observations of the weather1 to which ,i refer4 ,march the #bast4 ,the red maple 7,acer rubrum7 and the ,american elm 7,ulmus ,americana7 began to flower at present2 and some of the latter kind were already in full blossom4 ,march the #bdth4 ,i walked pretty far to-day1 in order to see whether ,i could find any plants in flower4 ,but the cloudy weather1 and the great rains which had lately fallen1 had allowed little or nothing to grow up4 ,the leaves now began to grow pretty green4 ,the plants which ,i have just before mentioned1 were now in full blossom4 ,the noble ,liverwort1 or ,anemone hepatica1 was now every where in flower4 ,it was abundant2 and the ,swedes called it ,blablomster1 or ,blue-flower4 ,they did not know any use of it4 ,near all the corn-fields on which ,i walked to-day1 ,i did not see a single ditch1 though many of them wanted it4 ,but the people generally followed the ,english way of making no ditches along the fields1 without considering whether the corn-fields wanted them or not4 ,the consequence was1 that the late rain had in many places washed away great pieces of the grounds1 sown with wheat and rye4 ,there were no ridges left between the fields1 except a very narrow one near the fence1 which was entirely over-grown with the ,sumach1 or ,rhus glabra1 and with black-berry bushes1 so that there the cattle could find very little or no food4 ,the corn fields were broad-cast1 or divided into pieces1 which were near seventeen feet broad1 and separated from each other only by means of furrows4 ,these pieces were uniform1 and not elevated in the middle4 ,meloe majalis a species of oil-beetle1 crept about on the hills4 ,papilio ,antiopa1 or willow butterfly1 flew in the woods to-day1 and was the first butterfly which ,i saw this year4 ,papilio ,euphrosyne1 or the ,april butterfly1 was one of the scarce species4 ,the other ,american insect1 which ,i described this day and the following days1 ,i shall mention on some other occasion4 ,in the sequel ,i shall only mention those which were remarkable for some peculiar qualities4 ,the hay-stacks were commonly made here after the ,swedish manner1 that is1 in the shape of a thick and short cone1 without any cover over it4 ,when the people wanted any hay1 they cut some of it loose1 by a peculiar sort of a knife4 ,however1 many people1 especially in the environs of ,philadelphia1 had hay-stacks with roofs which could be moved up and down4 ,near the surface of the ground were some poles laid1 on which the hay was put1 that the air may pass freely through it4 ,i have mentioned before1 that the cattle have no stables in winter or summer1 but must go in the open air1 during the whole year4 ,however1 in ,philadelphia1 and in a few other places1 ,i have seen that those people who made use of the latter kind of hay-stacks1 viz4 that with moveable roofs1 commonly had built them so1 that the hay was put a fathom or two above the ground1 on a floor of boards1 under which the cattle could stand in winter1 when the weather was very bad4 ,under this floor of boards were partitions of boards on all the sides1 which however stood far enough from each other1 to afford the air a free passage4 ,march the #bgth4 ,in the morning ,i went in order to speak with the old ,swede1 ,nils ,gustafson1 who was ninety-one years of age4 ,i intended to get an account of the former state of ,new ,sweden4 ,the country which ,i now passed through was the same with that which ,i had found in those parts of ,north ,america ,i had hitherto seen4 ,it was diversified with a variety of little hills and vallies3 the former consisted of a very pale brick-coloured earth1 composed1 for the greatest part1 of a fine sand1 mixed with some mould4 ,i saw no mountains1 and no stones1 except some little stones1 not above the size of a pigeon's or hen's egg1 lying on the hills1 and commonly consisting of white quartz1 which was generally smooth and polished on the outside4 ,at the bottom1 along the vallies1 ran sometimes rivulets of crystalline water1 the bottom of which was covered with such white pebbles as ,i have just described4 ,now and then ,i met with a swamp in the vallies4 ,sometimes there appeared1 though at considerable distances from each other1 some farms1 frequently surrounded on all sides by corn-fields4 ,almost on every corn-field there yet remained the stumps of trees1 which had been cut down2 a proof that this country has not been long cultivated1 being overgrown with trees forty or fifty years ago4 ,the farms did not ly together in villages1 or so that several of them were near each other1 in one place2 but they were all separated from one another4 ,each countryman lived by himself1 had his own ground about his house1 separated from the property of his neighbour4 ,the greatest part of the land1 between these farms so distant from each other1 was over-grown with woods1 confiding of tall trees4 ,however1 there was a fine space between the trees1 so that one could ride on horseback without inconvenience in the woods1 and even with a cart in most places2 and the ground was very plain and uniform at the same time4 ,here and there appeared some fallen trees1 thrown down by the wind2 some were torn up by the roots2 others broken quite across the stem4 ,in some parts of the country the trees were thick and tall1 but in others ,i found large tracts covered with young trees1 only twenty1 thirty1 or forty years old3 these tracts1 ,i am told1 the ,indians formerly had their little plantations in4 ,i did not yet see any marks of the leaves coming out1 and ,i did not meet with a flower in the woods3 for the cold winds1 which had blown for several days together successively1 had hindered this4 ,the woods consisted chiefly of several species of oak1 and of hiccory4 ,the swamps were filled with red maple1 which was all now in flower1 and made these places look quite red at a distance4 ,the old ,swede1 whom ,i came to visit1 seemed to be still pretty hearty and fresh1 and could walk by the help of a stick2 but he complained of having felt in these latter years1 some pains in his back1 and limbs1 and that he could keep his feet warm in winter only by sitting near the fire4 ,he said he could very well remember the state of this country1 at the time when the ,dutch possessed it1 and in what circumstances it was in before the arrival of the ,english4 ,he added1 that he had brought a great deal of timber to ,philadelphia1 at the time that it was built4 ,he still remembered to have seen a great forest on the spot where ,philadelphia now stands4 ,the father of this old man had been one of the ,swedes who were sent over from ,sweden1 in order to cultivate and inhabit this country4 ,he returned me the following answers to the questions ,i asked him4 ,quere1 ,whence did the ,swedes1 who first came hither1 get their cattle8 ,the old man answered1 that when he was a boy1 his father and other people had told him1 that the ,swedes brought their horses1 cows1 and oxen1 sheep1 hogs1 geese1 and ducks1 over with them4 ,there were but few of a kind at first1 but they multiplied greatly here afterwards4 ,he said1 that ,maryland1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,england1 and ,virginia1 had been sooner inhabited by ,europeans than this part of the country2 but he did not know whether the ,swedes ever got cattle of any kind1 from any of these provinces1 except from ,new ,york4 ,whilst he was yet very young1 the ,swedes1 as well as he could remember1 had already a sufficient stock of all these animals4 ,the hogs had propagated so much at that time1 there being so great a plenty of food for them1 that they ran about wild in the woods1 and that the people were obliged to shoot them1 when they intended to make use of them4 ,the old man likewise recollected1 that horses ran wild in the woods1 in some places2 but he could not tell whether any other kind of cattle turned wild4 ,he thought that the cattle grow as big at present as they did when he was a boy1 supposing they get as much food as they want4 ,for in his younger years1 food for all kinds of cattle was so plentiful1 and even so superfluous1 that the cattle were extremely well fed by it4 ,a cow at that time gave more milk1 than three or four do at present2 but she got more and better food at that time1 than three or four get now2 and1 as the old man said1 the scanty allowance of grass1 which the cattle get in summer1 is really very pitiful4 ,the causes of this scarcity of grass have already been mentioned4 ,quere1 ,whence did the ,english in ,pensylvania and ,new ,jersey get their cattle8 ,they bought them chiefly from the ,swedes and ,dutch1 who lived here2 and a small number were brought over from ,old ,england4 ,the form of the cattle1 and the unanimous accounts of the ,english here1 confirmed what the old man had said4 ,quere1 ,whence did the ,swedes here settled get their several sorts of corn1 and likewise their fruit-trees and kitchen-herbs8 ,the old man told me that he had frequently heard1 when he was young1 that the ,swedes had brought all kinds of corn1 and fruits1 and herbs1 or seeds of them1 with them4 ,for1 as far as he could recollect1 the ,swedes here were plentifully provided with wheat1 rye1 barley1 and oats4 ,the ,swedes1 at that time1 brewed all their beer of malt made of barley1 and likewise made good strong beer4 ,they had already got distilling vessels1 and made good brandy4 ,every one among them had not a distilling vessel1 but when they intended to distil1 they lent their apparatus to one another4 ,at first they were forced to buy maize of the ,indians1 both for sowing and eating4 ,but after continuing for some years in this country1 they extended their maize-plantations so much that the ,indians were obliged some time after to buy maize of the ,swedes4 ,the old man likewise assured me1 that the ,indians formerly1 and about the time of the first settling of the ,swedes1 were more industrious and laborious in every branch of business1 than they are now4 ,whilst he was young1 the ,swedes had a great quantity of very good white cabbage4 ,winter cabbage1 or ,cale1 which was left on the ground during winter1 was likewise abundant4 ,they were likewise well provided with turnips4 ,in winter they kept them in holes under ground4 ,but the old man did not like that method2 for when they had lain too long in these holes1 in winter1 they became spungy4 ,he preferred that method of keeping them which is now commonly adopted1 and which consists in the following particulars4 ,after the turnips have been taken out of the ground in autumn1 and exposed to the air for a while1 they are put in a heap upon the field1 covered with straw at the top1 and on the sides1 and with earth over the straw4 ,by this means they stand the winter very well here1 and do not become spungy4 ,the ,indians were very fond of turneps1 and called them sometimes ,hopniss1 sometimes ,katniss4 ,the ,swedes likewise cultivated carrots1 in the old man's younger years4 ,among the fruit-trees were ,apple-trees4 ,they were not numerous1 and only some of the ,swedes had little orchards of them1 whilst others had not a single tree4 ,none of the ,swedes made cyder1 for it is come into use but lately4 ,the ,swedes brewed strong beer and small beer1 and it was their common liquor4 ,but at present there are very few who brew beer1 for they commonly prepare cyder4 ,cherry-trees were abundant when ,nils ,gustafson was yet a boy4 ,peach-trees were at that time more numerous than at present1 and the ,swedes brewed beer of the fruit4 ,the old man could not tell from whence the ,swedes first of all got the peach-trees4 ,during the younger years of this old man the ,indians were every where spread in the country2 they lived among the ,swedes1 and were scattered every where4 ,the old man mentioned ,swedes who had been killed by the ,indians2 and he mentioned two of his countrymen who had been scalped by them4 ,they stole children from the ,swedes1 and carried them off1 and they were never heard of again4 ,once they came and killed some ,swedes1 and took the upper part of their sculls with them2 on that occasion they scalped a little girl1 and would have killed her1 if they had not perceived a boat full of ,swedes1 making towards them1 which obliged them to fly2 the girl was afterwards healed1 but never got any hair on her head again2 she was married1 had many children1 and lived to a considerable age4 ,at another time1 the ,indians attempted to kill the mother of this old man1 but she vigorously resisted them1 and in the mean while a number of ,swedes came up1 who frightened the ,indians1 and made them run away4 ,nobody could ever find out to what nation of ,indians these owe their origin2 for in general they lived very peaceably with the ,swedes4 ,the ,indians had their little plantations of maize in many places2 before the ,swedes came into this country1 the ,indians had no other than their hatchets made of stone2 in order to make maize plantations they cut out the trees and prepared the ground in the manner ,i have before mentioned #ai4 ,they planted but little maize1 for they lived chiefly upon hunting2 and throughout the greatest part of summer1 their ,hopniss or the roots of the ,glycine ,apios1 their ,katniss1 or the roots of the ,sagittaria ,sagittifolia1 their ,taw-ho or the roots of the ,arum ,virginicum1 their ,taw-kee or ,orontium aquaticum1 and whortle-berries1 were their chief food4 ,they had no horses or other cattle which could be subservient to them in their agriculture1 and therefore did all the work with their own hands4 ,after they had reaped the maize1 they kept it in holes under ground1 during winter2 they dug these holes seldom deeper than a fathom1 and often not so deep2 at the bottom and on the sides they put broad pieces of bark4 ,the ,andropogon bicorne1 a grass which grows in great plenty here1 and which the ,english call ,indian ,grass1 and the ,swedes ,wilskt ,grass #bj1 supplies the want of bark2 the ears of maize are then thrown into the hole and covered to a considerable thickness with the same grass2 and the whole is again covered by a sufficient quantity of earth3 the maize kept extremely well in those holes1 and each ,indian had several such subterraneous stores1 where his corn lay safe1 though he travelled far from it4 ,after the ,swedes had settled here and planted apple-trees and peach-trees1 the ,indians1 and especially their women1 sometimes stole the fruit in great quantity2 but when the ,swedes caught them1 they gave them a severe drubbing1 took the fruit from them1 and often their clothes too4 ,in the same manner it happened sometimes that as the ,swedes had a great encrease of hogs1 and they ran about in the woods1 the ,indians killed some of them privately and feasted upon them3 but there were likewise some ,indians who bought hogs of the ,swedes and fed them2 they taught them to run after them like dogs1 and whenever they removed from one place to another1 their hogs always followed them4 ,some of those ,indians got such numbers of these animals1 that they afterwards gave them to the ,swedes for a mere trifle4 ,when the ,swedes arrived in ,america1 the ,indians had no domestic animals1 except a species of little dogs4 ,the ,indians were extremely fond of milk1 and ate it with pleasure when the ,swedes gave it them4 ,they likewise prepared a kind of liquor like milk in the following manner3 they gathered a great number of hiccory nuts and walnuts from the black walnut-trees1 dried and crushed them2 then they took out the kernels1 pounded them so fine as flour1 and mixed this flour with water1 which took a milky hue from them1 and was as sweet as milk4 ,they had tobacco-pipes of clay1 manufactured by themselves1 at the time that the ,swedes arrived here2 they did not always smoke true tobacco1 but made use of another plant instead of it1 which was unknown to the old ,swedes1 but of which he assured me that it was not the common mullein1 or ,verbascum ,thapsus1 which is generally called ,indian ,tobacco here #ba4 ,as to their religion1 the old man thought it very trifling1 and even believed that they had none at all2 when they heard loud claps of thunder1 they said that the evil spirit was angry2 some of them said that they believed in a ,god1 who lives in heaven4 ,the old ,swede once walked with an ,indian1 and they met with a red-spotted snake on the road3 the old man therefore went to seek a stick in order to kill the snake2 but the ,indian begged he would not touch it1 because he adored it3 perhaps the ,swede would not have killed it1 but on hearing that it was the ,indian's deity1 he took a stick and killed it1 in the presence of the ,indian1 saying3 ,because thou believest in it1 ,i think myself obliged to kill it4 ,sometimes the ,indians came into the ,swedish churches1 looked at them1 heard them1 and went away again1 after a while4 ,one day as this old ,swede was at church1 and did not sing1 because he had no ,psalm-book by him1 one of the ,indians1 who was well acquainted with him1 tapped him on the shoulder1 and said3 ,why dost thou not sing with the others1 ,tantanta6 ,tantanta6 ,tantanta8 ,on another occasion1 as a sermon was preached in the ,swedish church1 at ,raccoon1 an ,indian came in1 looked about him2 and1 after hearkening a while to the preacher1 he said3 ,here is a great deal of prattle and nonsense1 but neither brandy nor cyder2 and went out again4 ,for it is to be observed1 that when an ,indian makes a speech to his companions1 in order to encourage them to war1 or to any thing else1 they all drink immoderately on those occasions4 ,at the time when the ,swedes arrived1 they bought land at a very inconsiderable price4 ,for a piece of baize1 or a pot full of brandy1 or the like1 they could get a piece of ground1 which at present would be worth more than four hundred pounds1 ,pensylvania currency4 ,when they sold a piece of land1 they commonly signed an agreement2 and though they could neither read nor write1 yet they scribbled their marks1 or signatures1 at the bottom of it4 ,the father of old ,nils ,gustafson bought a piece of ground from the ,indians in ,new ,jersey4 ,as soon as the agreement was drawn up1 and the ,indians should sign it1 one of them1 whose name signified a beaver1 drew a beaver1 another of them drew a bow and arrow1 and a third a mountain1 instead of their names4 ,their canoes they made of thick trees2 which they hollowed out by fire1 and made them smooth again with their hatchets1 as has been before mentioned4 ,the following account the old man gave me1 in answer to my questions with regard to the weather and its changes3 ,it was his opinion1 that the weather had always been pretty uniform ever since his childhood2 that there happen as great storms at present as formerly2 that the summers now are sometimes hotter1 sometimes colder1 than they were at that time2 that the winters were often as cold and as long as formerly2 and that still there often falls as great a quantity of snow as in former times4 ,however1 he thought that no cold winter came up to that which happened in the year #afig2 and which is often mentioned in the almanacks of this country2 and ,i have mentioned it in the preceding volume4 ,for in that winter the river ,delaware was so strongly covered with ice1 that the old man brought many waggons full of hay over it1 near ,christina2 and that it was passable in sledges even lower4 ,no cattle1 as far as he could recollect1 were starved to death in cold winters2 except1 in later years1 such cattle as were lean1 and had no stables to retire into4 ,it commonly does not rain1 neither more nor less1 in summer than it did formerly2 excepting that1 during the last years1 the summers have been more dry4 ,nor could the old ,swede find a diminution of water in brooks1 rivers1 and swamps4 ,he allowed1 as a very common and certain fact1 that wherever you dig wells1 you meet with oyster-shells in the ground4 ,the old ,gustafson was of opinion1 that intermitting fevers were as frequent and violent formerly as they are now2 but that they seemed more uncommon1 because there were fewer people at that time here4 ,when he got this fever1 he was not yet full grown4 ,he got it in summer1 and had it till the ensuing spring1 which is almost a year2 but it did not hinder him from doing his work1 either within or out of doors4 ,pleurisy likewise attacked one or two of the ,swedes formerly2 but it was not near so common as it is now4 ,the people in general were very healthy at that time4 ,some years ago1 the old ,swede's eyes were so much weakened that he was forced to make use of a pair of spectacles4 ,he then got a fever2 which was so violent1 that it was feared he would not recover4 ,however1 he became quite well again1 and at the same time got new strength in his eyes2 so that he has been able to read without spectacles since that time4 ,the houses which the ,swedes built when they first settled here1 were very bad4 ,the whole house consisted of one little room1 the door of which was so low1 that one was obliged to stoop in order to get in4 ,as they had brought no glass with them1 they were obliged to be content with little holes1 before which a moveable board was fastened4 ,they found no moss1 or at least none which could have been serviceable in stopping up holes or cracks in the walls4 ,they were therefore forced to close them1 both without and within1 with clay4 ,the chimnies were made in a corner1 either of grey sand1 a stone1 or 7in places where no stone was to be got7 of mere clay1 which they laid very thick in one corner of the house4 ,the ovens for baking were likewise in the rooms4 ,formerly the ,swedes had proper stables for the cattle2 but after the ,english came hither1 and made no peculiar buildings for their cattle1 the ,swedes likewise left off making stables4 ,before the ,english came to settle here1 the ,swedes could not get as many cloaths as they wanted2 and were therefore obliged to make shift as well as they could4 ,the men wore waistcoats and breeches of skins4 ,hats were not in fashion2 and they made little caps1 provided with flaps before4 ,they had worsted stockings4 ,their shoes were of their own making4 ,some of them had learnt to prepare leather1 and to make common shoes1 with heels2 but those who were not shoemakers by profession1 took the length of their feet1 and sewed the leather together accordingly2 taking a piece for the sole1 one for the hind-quarters1 and one more for the upper-leather4 ,at that time1 they likewise sowed flax here1 and wove linen cloth4 ,hemp was not to be got2 and they made use of flaxen ropes and fishing tackle4 ,the women were dressed in jackets and petticoats of skins4 ,their beds1 excepting the sheets1 were skins of several animals2 such as bears1 wolves1 c4 ,tea1 coffee1 and chocolate1 which are at present universally in use here1 were then #bb wholly unknown4 ,bread and butter1 and other substantial food1 was what they breakfasted upon2 and the above-mentioned superfluities have only been lately introduced1 according to the account of the old ,swede4 ,sugar and treacle they had in abundance1 as far as he could remember2 and rum formerly bore a more moderate price4 ,from the accounts of this old ,swede ,i concluded1 that before the ,english settled here1 they followed wholly the customs of ,old ,sweden2 but after the ,english had been in the country for some time1 the ,swedes began gradually to follow their customs4 ,when this ,swede was but a boy1 there were two ,swedish smiths here1 who made hatchets1 knives1 and scythes1 exactly like the ,swedish ones1 and made them sharper than they can be got now4 ,the hatchets now in use are in the ,english way1 with a broad edge2 and their handles are very narrow1 ,almost all the ,swedes made use of baths2 and they commonly bathed every ,saturday4 ,they celebrated ,christmas with several sorts of games1 and with several peculiar dishes1 as is usual in ,sweden2 all which is now1 for the greatest part1 left off4 ,in the younger years of this ,swede1 they made a peculiar kind of carts here4 ,they sawed thick pieces of liquid-amber trees1 and made use of two of them for the foremost wheels1 and of two more for the hindmost4 ,with those carts they brought home their wood4 ,their sledges were at that time made almost in the same manner as they are now1 or about as broad again as the true ,swedish ones4 ,timber and great beams of wood were carried upon a dray4 ,they baked great loaves1 such as they do now4 ,they had never any biscuit1 though the clergymen1 who came from ,sweden1 commonly got some baked4 ,the ,english on their arrival here bought large tracts of land of the ,swedes1 at a very inconsiderable price4 ,the father of the old ,swede sold an estate to the ,english1 which at this time would be reckoned worth three hundred pounds1 for which he got a cow1 a sow1 and a hundred gourds4 ,with regard to the decrease of birds1 the number of them and fish1 he was wholly of that opinion which ,i have already mentioned #bc4 ,this was the account which the old man gave me of the former state of the ,swedes in this country4 ,i shall speak more particularly of it in the sequel4 ,hurricanes are sometimes very violent here1 and often tear up great trees4 ,they sometimes proceed as it were in peculiar tracts1 or lines4 ,in some places1 especially in the hurricane's tract1 all the trees are struck down1 and it looks as if the woods were cut down designedly2 but close to the tract the trees receive no hurt4 ,such is the place which was shewn to me to-day4 ,it is dangerous to go into the woods where the hurricanes blow2 for the trees fall before one has time to guard himself1 or make the least provision for his security4 ,the ,pensylvanian ,asp was now in full blossom4 ,but neither this tree1 nor those near a-kin to it1 shewed their leaves4 ,an old countryman asserted that he commonly sowed a bushel of rye1 on an acre of ground1 and got twenty bushels in return2 but from a bushel of barley he got thirty bushels4 ,however in that case the ground must be well prepared4 ,wheat returns about as much as rye4 ,the soil was a clay mixed with sand and mould4 ,in the evening ,i returned #bd4 ,march the #bhth4 ,i found a black beetle #be 7,scarabus7 with a pentagonal oval ,clypeus or shield1 on the head a short blunt horn1 and a gibbous1 or hump-backed ,thorax1 or ,corselet4 ,this beetle is one of the bigger sort here4 ,i found here and there holes on the hills1 which were so wide that ,i could put my finger into them4 ,on digging them up ,i always found these beetles lying at the bottom1 about five inches under ground4 ,sometimes there were short whitish worms1 about as thick as one's finger1 which lay with the beetles2 and perhaps they were related to them4 ,there were likewise other insects in such holes1 as1 a black cricket 7,gryllus campestris78 spiders1 earth-beetles 7,carabi71 and others4 ,this beetle had a scent exactly like the ,trifolium melilotus crulea1 or the blue melilot4 ,it was entirely covered with oblong pale ticks 7,acari74 ,its feet were as strong as those of the common ,dung-chaffer 7,scarabus stercorarius74 ,april the #dth4 ,a ,cicindela1 or shining beetle1 with a gold-green head1 thorax1 and feet1 and a blue green abdomen or belly1 flew every where about the fields1 and was hunting other insects4 ,it is very common in ,north ,america1 and seems to be a mere variety of the ,cicindela campestris4 ,cimex lacustris1 a kind of ,water-bugs1 hopped in numbers on the surface of waters which had a slow course4 ,dytiscus piceus1 or1 the great ,water-beetle1 swam sometimes in the water4 ,about sixty years ago1 the greatest part of this country was covered with tall and thick trees1 and the swamps were full of water4 ,but it has undergone so great a change1 as few other places have undergone1 in so short a time4 ,at present the forests are cut down in most places1 the swamps drained by ditches1 the country cultivated1 and changed into corn-fields1 meadows1 and pastures4 ,therefore1 it seems very reasonable to suppose1 that so sudden a change has likewise had some effect upon the weather4 ,i was therefore desirous of hearing from the old ,swedes1 who have lived the longest in this country1 and have been inhabitants of this place during the whole time of the change mentioned1 whether the present state of the weather was in some particulars remarkably different from that which they felt in their younger years8 ,the following is an account which they all unanimously gave me in answer to this question4 ,the winter came sooner formerly than it does now4 ,mr4 ,isaac ,norris1 a wealthy merchant1 who has a considerable share in the government of ,pensylvania1 confirmed this by a particular account4 ,his father1 one of the first ,english merchants in this country1 observed1 that in his younger years1 the river ,delaware was commonly covered with ice1 about the middle of ,november1 old style1 so that the merchants were obliged to bring down their ships in great haste before that time1 for fear of their being obliged to ly all winter4 ,on the contrary1 this river seldom freezes over at present1 before the middle of ,december1 old stile4 ,it snowed much more in winter1 formerly1 than it does now2 but the weather in general was likewise more constant and uniform2 and when the cold set in1 it continued to the end of ,february1 or till ,march1 old style1 when it commonly began to grow warm4 ,at present1 it is warm1 even the very next day after a severe cold2 and sometimes the weather changes several times a day4 ,most of the old people here were of opinion1 that spring came much later at present1 than formerly1 and that it was now much colder in the latter end of ,february1 and the whole month of ,may1 than when they were young4 ,formerly the fields were as green1 and the air as warm1 towards the end of ,february1 as it is now in ,march1 or in the beginning of ,april1 old stile4 ,the ,swedes at that time made use of this phrase3 ,pask bitida1 ,pask sent1 altid ,gras1 that is1 we have always grass at ,easter1 whether it be soon or late in the year4 ,but perhaps we can account as follows1 for the opinion which the people here have1 that vegetation appeared formerly more forward than it does now4 ,formerly the cattle were not so numerous as now2 however1 the woods were full of grass and herbs1 which1 according to the testimony of all the old people here1 grew to the height of a man4 ,at present a great part of the annual grasses and plants have been entirely extirpated by the continual grazing of numbers of cattle4 ,these annual grasses were probably green very early in spring1 and 7being extirpated7 might lead the people to believe1 that every thing came on sooner formerly1 than it does at present4 ,it used to rain more abundantly than it does now1 during the harvest especially1 the rains fell in such plenty1 that it was very difficult to bring home the hay and corn4 ,some of the last years had been extremely dry4 ,however1 a few people were of opinion that it rained as plentifully at present1 as formerly4 ,all the people agreed1 that the weather was not by far so inconstant1 when they were young1 as it is now4 ,for at present it happens at all times of the year1 that when a day has been warm1 the next is very cold1 and vice versa4 ,it frequently happens that the weather alters several times in one day2 so that when it has been a pretty warm morning1 the wind blows from ,n4 ,w4 about ten o'clock1 and brings a cold air with it2 yet a little after noon it may be warm again4 ,my meteorological observations sufficiently confirm the reality of these sudden changes of weather1 which are said to cause in a great measure the people to be more unhealthy at present1 than they were formerly4 ,i likewise found every body agree in asserting1 that the winter1 betwixt the autumn of the year #afig1 and the spring of the year #afih1 was the coldest and the severest which they had ever felt4 ,april the #fth4 ,sanguinaria ,canadensis1 which is here called ,blood-root1 because the root is great and red1 and1 when cut1 looks like the root of red beet1 and the ,epiga repens1 which some call the creeping ground ,laurel1 were both beginning to flower4 ,the former grew in a rich mould1 the other in a poorer soil4 ,the ,laurus stivalis1 which some people call ,spice-wood1 likewise began to blossom about this time2 its leaves were not yet broke out2 it liked a moist soil in the woods4 ,april the #ith4 ,apocynum ,cannabinum was by the ,swedes called ,hemp of the ,indians2 #bf and grew plentifully in old corn-grounds1 in woods1 on hills1 and in high glades4 ,the ,swedes have given it the name of ,indian hemp1 because the ,indians formerly1 and even now1 apply it to the same purposes as the ,europeans do hemp2 for the stalk may be divided into filaments1 and is easily prepared4 ,when the ,indians were yet settled among the ,swedes1 in ,pensylvania and ,new ,jersey1 they made ropes of this ,apocynum1 which the ,swedes bought1 and employed them as bridles1 and for nets4 ,these ropes were stronger1 and kept longer in water1 than such as were made of common hemp4 ,the ,swedes commonly got fourteen yards of these ropes for one piece of bread4 ,many of the ,europeans still buy such ropes1 because they last so well4 ,the ,indians likewise make several other stuffs of their hemp4 ,on my journey through the country of the ,iroquese1 ,i saw the women employed in manufacturing this hemp4 ,they made use neither of spinning-wheels nor distaffs1 but rolled the filaments upon their bare thighs1 and made thread and strings of them1 which they dyed red1 yellow1 black1 c4 and afterwards worked them into stuffs1 with a great deal of ingenuity4 ,the plant is perennial1 which renders the annual planting of it altogether unnecessary4 ,out of the root and stalk of this plant1 when it is fresh1 comes a white milky juice1 which is somewhat poisonous4 ,sometimes the fishing tackle of the ,indians consists entirely of this hemp4 ,the ,europeans make no use of it1 that ,i know of4 ,flax and ,cat-tail1 were names given to a plant which grows in bays1 rivers1 and in deep whirlpools1 and which is known to botanists by the name of ,typha latifolia4 ,its leaves are here twisted together1 and formed into great oblong rings1 which are put upon the horse's neck1 between the mane and the collar1 in order to prevent the horse's neck from being hurt by the collar4 ,the bottoms of chairs were frequently made of these leaves1 twisted together4 ,formerly the ,swedes employed the wool or cotton which surrounds its seeds1 and put it into their beds1 instead of feathers2 but as it coalesces into lumps after the beds have been used for some time1 they have left off making use of them4 ,i omit the use of this plant in physic1 it being the peculiar province of the physicians4 ,a species of ,leek #bg1 very like that which appears only in woods on hills in ,sweden1 grows at present on almost all corn-fields mixed with sand4 ,the ,english here called it ,garlick4 ,on some fields it grew in great abundance4 ,when the cattle grazed on such fields1 and ate the garlick1 their milk1 and the butter which was made of it1 tasted so strongly of it1 that they were scarce eatable4 ,sometimes they sold butter in the ,philadelphia markets1 which tasted so strongly of garlick that it was entirely useless4 ,on this account1 they do not suffer milking cows to graze on fields where garlick abounds3 this they reserve for other species of cattle4 ,when the cattle eat much of this garlick in summer1 their flesh has likewise such a strong flavour1 that it is unfit for eating4 ,this kind of garlick appears early in spring2 and the horses always passed by it1 without ever touching it4 ,it would take too much room in my ,journal1 and render it too prolix1 were ,i to mark down the time when every wild plant in this country was in blossom1 when it got ripe seeds1 what soil was peculiar to it1 besides other circumstances4 ,some of my readers would be but little amused with such a botanical digression4 ,i intend therefore to reserve all this for another work1 which will give a particular account of all the plants of ,north ,america2 and ,i shall only mention such trees and plants here1 which deserve to be made known for some peculiar quality4 ,april the #abth4 ,this morning ,i went to ,philadelphia and the places adjacent1 in order to know whether there were more plants lately sprung up1 than at ,raccoon1 and in ,new ,jersey in general4 ,the wet weather which had happened the preceding days1 had made the roads very bad in low and clayey places4 ,the leaves which dropt last autumn had covered the ground1 in depth three or four inches4 ,as this seems to hinder the growth of the grass1 it was customary to burn it in ,march or at the end of that month1 7according to the old stile7 in order to give the grass the liberty of growing up4 ,i found several spots burnt in this manner to-day2 but if it be useful one way1 it does a great deal of damage in another2 all the young shoots of several trees were burnt with the dead leaves1 which diminishes the woods considerably2 and in such places where the dead leaves had been burnt for several years together1 the old trees only were left1 which being cut down1 there remains nothing but a great field1 without any wood4 ,at the same time all sorts of trees and plants are consumed by the fire1 or at least deprived of their power of budding2 a great number of the plants1 and most of the grasses here1 are annual2 their seeds fall between the leaves1 and by that means are burnt3 ,this is another cause of universal complaint1 that grass is much scarcer at present in the woods than it was formerly2 a great number of dry and hollow trees are burnt at the same time1 though they could serve as fewel in the houses1 and by that means spare part of the forests4 ,the upper mould likewise burns away in part by that means1 not to mention several other inconveniences with which this burning of the dead leaves is attended4 ,to this purpose the government of ,pensylvania have lately published an edict1 which prohibits this burning2 nevertheless every one did as he pleased1 and this prohibition met with a general censure4 ,there were vast numbers of ,woodlice in the woods about this time2 they are a very disagreeable insect1 for as soon as a person sits down on an old stump of a tree1 or on a tree which is cut down1 or on the ground itself1 a whole army of ,woodlice creep upon his clothes1 and insensibly come upon the naked body4 ,i have given a full account of their bad qualities1 and of other circumstances relating to them1 in the ,memoirs of the ,swedish ,royal ,academy of ,sciences4 ,see the ,volume for the year #aged1 page #ai4 ,i had a piece of petrified wood given me to-day1 which was found deep in the ground at ,raccoon4 ,in this wood the fibres and inward rings appeared very plainly2 it seemed to be a piece of hiccory2 for it was as like it1 in every respect1 as if it had but just been cut from a hiccory-tree4 ,i likewise got some shells to-day which the ,english commonly call ,clams1 and whereof the ,indians make their ornaments and money1 which ,i shall take an opportunity of speaking of in the sequel4 ,these ,clams were not fresh1 but such as are every where found in ,new ,jersey1 on digging deep into the ground2 the live shells of this kind are only found in salt water1 and on the sea coasts4 ,but these ,clams were found at ,raccoon1 about eight or nine ,english miles from the river ,delaware1 and near a hundred from the nearest sea-shore4 ,at night ,i went to ,mr ,bartram's seat4 ,april the #acth4 ,i employed this day in several observations relative to ,botany4 ,two nests of wasps hung in a high maple-tree1 over a brook4 ,their form was wholly the same with that of our wasp-nests1 but they exceeded them in size4 ,each nest was ten inches in diameter2 in each nest were three cakes1 above one another1 of which the lowermost was the biggest1 and the two uppermost decreased in proportion3 there were some eggs of wasps in them4 ,the diameter of the lowest cake was about six inches1 and one quarter1 and that of the uppermost1 three inches1 and three quarters4 ,the cells in which the eggs or the young ones were deposited were hexagonal1 and the colour of the nest grey4 ,i was told1 that the wasps make this kind of nests out of the grey splints1 which stick to old pales and walls4 ,a dark brown bee1 with black antenn1 and two black rings on the belly1 and purple wings1 flew about the trees1 and might perhaps be an inhabitant of these nests4 ,another kind of wasps1 which are larger than these1 make their nests quite open4 ,it consists merely of one cake1 which has no covering1 and is made of the boughs of trees4 ,the cells are horizontal1 and when the eggs or the young larv ly in them1 they have lids or coverings1 that the rain may not come into them4 ,but whither the old wasps retreat during storms1 is a mystery to me1 except they creep into the crevices of rocks4 ,that side of the cake which is uppermost is covered with some oily particles1 so that the rain cannot penetrate4 ,the cells are hexagonal1 from five to seven lines deep1 and two lines in diameter4 ,mr4 ,bartram observed1 that these nests are built of two sorts of materials1 viz4 the splints which are found upon old pales1 or fences1 and which the wind separates from them2 for the wasps have often been observed to sit on such old wood1 and to gnaw away these splints2 the sides and the lid or cover of the cells are made of an animal substance1 or glutinous matter1 thrown up by the wasps1 or prepared in their mouths2 for when this substance is thrown into the fire1 it does not burn1 but is only singed1 like hair or horn4 ,but the bottom of the nest being put into the fire1 burns like linen or half-rotten wood1 and leaves a smell of burnt wood4 ,the wasps1 whose nests ,i have now described1 have three elevated black shining points on the forehead #bh1 and a pentagonal black spot on the thorax4 ,towards the end of autumn these wasps creep into the cavities of mountains1 where they ly torpid during winter4 ,in spring1 when the sun begins to operate1 they come out during day-time1 but return towards night1 when it grows cold4 ,i saw them early in spring during sunshine1 in and about some cavities in the mountains4 ,i was told of another species of wasps1 which make their nests under ground4 ,gyrinus natator 7,americanus71 or the ,whirl-beetles4 ,these were found dancing in great numbers on the surface of the waters4 ,april the #adth4 ,this morning ,i went down to ,chester3 in several places on the road are saw-mills1 but those which ,i saw to-day had no more than one saw4 ,i likewise perceived that the woods and forests of these parts had been very roughly treated4 ,it is customary here1 when they erect saw-mills1 wind-mills1 or iron works1 to lead the water a good way lower1 in case the ground near a fall in the river is not convenient for building upon4 ,april the #afth4 ,this morning ,i returned to ,raccoon4 ,this country has several kinds of swallows1 viz4 such as live in barns1 in chimneys1 and under ground2 there are likewise martens4 ,the ,barn ,swallows1 or ,house ,swallows are those with a furcated tail4 ,they are ,linnus's ,hirundo rustica4 ,i found them in all the parts of ,north ,america which ,i travelled over4 ,they correspond very nearly to the ,european ,house ,swallow in regard to their colour1 however there seems to be a small difference in the note4 ,i took no notice this year when they arrived3 but the following year1 #agej1 ,i observed them for the first time on the #ajth of ,april 7new style72 the next day in the morning1 ,i saw great numbers of them sitting on posts and planks1 and they were as wet as if they had been just come out of the sea #bi4 ,they build their nests in houses1 and under the roofs on the outside2 ,i likewise found their nests built on mountains and rocks whose top projected beyond the bottom2 they build too under the corners of perpendicular rocks2 and this shews where the ,swallows made their nests1 before the ,europeans settled and built houses here2 for it is well known that the huts of the ,indians could not serve the purpose of the ,swallows4 ,a very creditable lady and her children told me the following story1 assuring me that they were eye-witnesses to it3 ,a couple of ,swallows built their nest in the stable belonging to the lady2 the female ,swallow sat upon the nest1 laid eggs in it1 and was about to brood them2 some days after1 the people saw the female still sitting on the eggs3 but the male flying about the nest and sometimes settling on a nail1 was heard to utter a very plaintive note1 which betrayed his uneasiness3 on a nearer examination the female was found dead in the nest1 and the people flung her away4 ,the male then went to sit upon the eggs1 but after being about two hours on them1 and thinking the business too troublesome for him1 he went out1 and returned in the afternoon with another female1 which sat upon the eggs1 and afterwards fed the young ones1 till they were able to provide for themselves4 ,the people differed here in their opinions about the abode of ,swallows in winter3 most of the ,swedes thought that they lay at the bottom of the sea2 some1 with the ,english and the ,french in ,canada1 thought that they migrate to the southward in autumn1 and return in spring4 ,i have likewise been credibly informed in ,albany1 that they have been found sleeping in deep holes and clefts of rocks1 during winter4 ,the ,chimney ,swallows are the second species1 and they derive their name from building their nests in chimneys1 which are not made use of in summer3 sometimes when the fire is not very great1 they do not mind the smoke1 and remain in the chimney4 ,i did not see them this year till late in ,may1 but in the ensuing year1 #agej1 they arrived on the #c;d of ,may1 for they appear much later than the other ,swallows4 ,it is remarkable that each feather in their tail ends in a stiff sharp point1 like the end of an awl2 they apply the tail to the side of the wall in the chimneys1 hold themselves with their feet1 and the stiff tail serves to keep them up3 they make a great thundering noise all the day long1 by flying up and down in the chimneys2 and as they build their nests in chimneys only2 and it is well known that the ,indians have not so much as a hearth made of masonry1 much less a chimney1 but make their fires on the ground in their huts1 it is an obvious question1 ,where did these ,swallows build their nests before the ,europeans came1 and made houses with chimneys8 ,it is probable that they formerly made them in great hollow trees2 ,this opinion was adopted by ,mr4 ,bartram1 and many others here1 ,catesby has described the ,chimney ,swallow and figured it #cj1 and ,dr4 ,linnus calls it ,hirundo ,pelasgia4 ,the ,ground ,swallows or ,sand ,martins1 7,linnus's ,hirundo riparia7 are to be met with every where in ,america2 they make their nests in the ground on the steep shores of rivers and lakes4 ,the ,purple ,martins have likewise been described and drawn in their natural colours by ,catesby #ca4 ,dr4 ,linnus likewise calls them ,hirundo purpurea4 ,they are less common here than the former species2 ,i have seen in several places little houses made of boards1 and fixed on the outside of the walls1 on purpose that these ,martins may make their nests in them2 for the people are very desirous of having them near their houses1 because they both drive away hawks and crows as soon as they see them1 and alarm the poultry by their anxious note1 of the approach of their enemies4 ,the chickens are likewise used to run under shelter1 as soon as they are warned by the ,martins4 ,april the #agth4 ,the ,dirca palustris1 or ,mouse-wood1 is a little shrub which grows on hills1 towards swamps and marshes1 and was now in full blossom4 ,the ,english in ,albany call it ,leather-wood1 because its bark is as tough as leather4 ,the ,french in ,canada call it ,bois de ,plomb1 or ,leaden-wood1 because the wood itself is as soft and as tough as lead4 ,the bark of this shrub was made use of for ropes1 baskets1 c4 by the ,indians1 whilst they lived among the ,swedes4 ,and it is really very fit for that purpose1 on account of its remarkable strength and toughness1 which is equal to that of the ,lime-tree bark4 ,the ,english and the ,dutch in many parts of ,north ,america1 and the ,french in ,canada1 employ this bark in all cases1 where we make use of ,lime-tree bark in ,europe4 ,the tree itself is very tough1 and you cannot easily separate its branches without the help of a knife3 some people employ the twigs for rods4 ,april the #bjth4 ,this day ,i found the ,strawberries in flower1 for the first time1 this year3 the fruit is commonly larger than that in ,sweden2 but it seems to be less sweet and agreeable4 ,the annual harvest1 ,i am told1 is always of such a nature1 that it affords plenty of bread for the inhabitants1 though it turns out to greater advantage in some years than it does in others4 ,a venerable septuagenary ,swede1 called ,aoke ,helm1 assured me1 that in his time no absolutely barren crop had been met with1 but that the people had always had pretty plentiful crops4 ,it is likewise to be observed1 that the people eat their bread of maize1 rye1 or wheat1 quite pure and free from the inferior kinds of corn1 and clear of husks1 stalks1 or other impurities4 ,many aged ,swedes and ,englishmen confirmed this account1 and said1 that they could not remember any crop so bad as to make the people suffer in the least1 much less that any body was starved to death1 whilst they here in ,america4 ,sometimes the price of corn rose higher in one year than in another1 on account of a great drought or bad weather1 but still there was always corn sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants4 ,nor is it likely that any great famine can happen in this country1 unless it please ,god to afflict it with extraordinary punishments4 ,the weather is well known1 from more than sixty years experience4 ,here are no cold nights which hurt the germ4 ,the wet is of short continuance1 and the drought is seldom or never of long duration4 ,but the chief thing is the great variety of corn4 ,the people sow the different kinds1 at different times and seasons1 and though one crop turn out bad1 yet another succeeds4 ,the summer is so long1 that of some species of corn they may get three crops4 ,there is hardly a month from ,may to ,october or ,november1 inclusive1 in which the people do not reap some kind of corn1 or gather some sort of fruit4 ,it would indeed be a very great misfortune if a bad crop should happen2 for here1 as in many other places1 they lay up no stores1 and are contented that there is plenty of food for the present exigencies4 ,the ,peach-trees were now every where in blossom2 their leaves were not yet come out of the buds1 and therefore the flowers shewed to greater advantage2 their beautiful pale red colour had a very fine effect2 and they sat so close that the branches were entirely clad with them4 ,the other fruit-trees were not yet in flower2 however the apple-blossoms began to appear4 ,the ,english and the ,swedes of ,america give the name of ,currants #cb to a shrub which grows in wet ground1 and near swamps1 and which was now in blossom2 its flowers are white1 have a very agreeable fragrancy1 and grow in oblong bunches2 the fruit is very good eating1 when it is ripe2 the ,style 7,stylus7 is thread-shaped 7filiformis71 and shorter than the ,stamina2 it is divided in the middle1 into five parts1 or ,stigmata4 ,dr4 ,linnus calls it ,cratgus #cc1 and ,dr4 ,gronovius calls it a ,mespilus #cd4 ,april the #bb;d4 ,the ,swedes give the name of ,whipperiwill1 and the ,english that of ,whip-poor-will1 to a kind of nocturnal bird1 whose voice is heard in ,north ,america1 almost throughout the whole night4 ,catesby and ,edwards both have described and figured it #ce4 ,dr4 ,linnus calls it a variety of the ,caprimulgus ,europus1 or ,goat-sucker3 its shape1 colour1 size1 and other qualities1 make it difficult to distinguish them from each other4 ,but the peculiar note of the ,american one distinguishes it from the ,european one1 and from all other birds3 it is not found here during winter1 but returns with the beginning of summer4 ,i heard it to-day1 for the first time1 and many other people said1 that they had not heard it before this summer2 its ,english and ,swedish name is taken from its note2 but1 accurately speaking1 it does not call ,whipperiwill1 nor ,whip-poor-will1 but rather ,whipperiwhip so that the first and last syllables are accented1 and the intermediate ones but slightly pronounced4 ,the ,english change the call of this bird into ,whip-poor-will1 that it may have some kind of signification3 it is neither heard nor seen in day-time2 but soon after sun-set it begins to call1 and continues for a good while1 as the cuckow does in ,europe4 ,after it has continued calling in a place for some time1 it removes to another1 and begins again3 it commonly comes several times in a night1 and settles close to the houses2 ,i have seen it coming late in the evening1 and settling on the steps of the house1 in order to sing its song2 it is very shy1 and when a person stood still1 it would settle close by him1 and begin to call4 ,it came to the houses in order to get its food1 which consists of insects2 and those always abound near the houses at night2 when it sat and called its whipperiwhip1 and saw an insect passing1 it flew up and caught it1 and settled again4 ,sometimes you hear four or five1 or more1 near each other1 calling as it were for a wager1 and raising a great noise in the woods4 ,they were seldom heard in towns1 being either extirpated there1 or frightened away1 by frequent shooting4 ,they do not like to sit on trees1 but are commonly on the ground1 or very low in bushes1 or on the lower poles of the enclosures4 ,they always fly near the ground3 they continue their calling at night till it grows quite dark2 they are silent till the dawn of day comes on1 and then they call till the sun rises4 ,the sun seems to stop their mouths1 or dazzle their eyes1 so as to make them sit still4 ,i have never heard them call in the midst of night1 though ,i hearkened very attentively1 on purpose to hear it2 and many others have done the same4 ,i am told they make no nest1 but lay two eggs in the open fields4 ,my servant shot at one which sat on a bush near the house1 and though he did not hit it1 yet it fell down through fear1 and lay for some time quite dead2 but recovered afterwards4 ,it never attempted to bite when it was held in the hands1 only endeavouring to get loose by stirring itself about4 ,above1 and close under the eyes1 were several black1 long1 and stiff bristles1 as in other nocturnal birds4 ,the ,europeans eat it4 ,mr4 ,catesby says1 the ,indians affirm1 that they never saw these birds1 or heard of them1 before a certain great battle1 in which the ,europeans killed a great number of ,indians4 ,therefore1 they suppose that these birds1 which are restless1 and utter their plaintive note at night1 are the souls of their ancestors who died in battle4 ,april the #bdth4 ,to-day the ,cherry-trees began to shew their blossom2 they had already pretty large leaves4 ,the ,apple-trees likewise began to blossom2 however the ,cherry-trees were more forward3 ,they likewise got a greenish hue from their leaves4 ,the ,mulberry-trees #cf were yet quite naked2 and ,i was sorry to find that this tree is one of the latest in getting leaves1 and one of the first which gets fruit4 ,april the #bfth4 ,this morning ,i travelled to ,penn's ,neck4 ,the ,tulip-trees1 especially the tall ones1 looked quite green1 being covered with their leaves2 this tree is therefore one of the earliest which get leaves4 ,to-day ,i saw the flowers of the ,sassafras-tree1 7,laurus ,sassafras74 ,the leaves were not yet come out4 ,the flowers have a fine smell4 ,the ,lupinus perennis is abundant in the woods1 and grows equally in good soil and in poor4 ,i often found it thriving on very poor sandy fields1 and on heaths1 where no other plants will grow4 ,its flowers1 which commonly appear in the middle of ,may1 make a fine shew by their purple hue4 ,i was told1 that the cattle eat these flowers very greedily2 but ,i was sorry to find very often that they were not so fond of it1 as it is represented1 especially when they had any thing else to eat2 and they seldom touched it notwithstanding its fine green colour1 and its softness3 ,the horses eat the flowers1 but leave the stalks and leaves4 ,if the cattle eat this plant in spring1 necessity and hunger give it a relish4 ,this country does not afford any green pastures like the ,swedish ones2 the woods are the places where the cattle must collect their food4 ,the ground in the woods is chiefly flat1 or with very little risings4 ,the trees stand far asunder2 but the ground between them is not covered with green sods2 for there are but few kinds of grasses in the woods1 and they stand single and scattered4 ,the soil is very loose1 partly owing to the dead leaves which cover the ground during a great part of the year4 ,thus the cattle find very little grass in the woods1 and are forced to be satisfied with all kinds of plants which come in their way1 whether they be good or bad food4 ,i saw for some time this spring1 that the cattle bit off the tops and shoots of young trees1 and fed upon them2 for no plants were yet come up1 and they stand in general but very thin1 and scattered here and there1 as ,i have just mentioned4 ,hence you may easily imagine that hunger compels the cattle to eat plants1 which they would not touch1 were they better provided for4 ,however1 ,i am of opinion1 that it would be worth while to make use of this ,lupine to mend dry sandy heaths1 and1 ,i believe1 it would not be absolutely impossible to find out the means of making it agreeable to the cattle4 ,the ,oaks here have similar qualities with the ,european ones4 ,they keep their dead leaves almost during the whole winter1 and are very backward in getting fresh ones2 they had no leaves as yet1 and were but just beginning to shew a few4 ,the ,humming-bird1 which the ,swedes call ,kings-bird #cg1 and which ,i have mentioned in a former volume1 appeared hereabouts to-day1 for the first time this spring4 ,numbers of ,oil beetles1 7,melo ,proscarabus7 sat on the leaves of white ,hellebore1 7,veratrum album7 and feasted on them4 ,i considered them a great while1 and they devoured a leaf in a few minutes4 ,some of them had already eaten so much that they could hardly creep4 ,thus this plant1 which is almost certain death to other animals1 is their dainty food4 ,the fire-flies appeared at night1 for the first time this year1 and flew about between the trees1 in the woods4 ,it seemed1 in the dark1 as if sparks of fire flew up and down4 ,i will give a more particular account of them in another place4 ,towards night ,i went to ,raccoon4 ,may the #ast4 ,the last night was so cold that the ground at sun-rising was as white as snow1 from the hoary frost4 ,the ,swedish thermometer was a degree and a half below the freezing point4 ,we observed no ice in the rivers or waters of any depth2 but upon such only as were about three inches deep1 the ice lay to the thickness of one third part of a line #ch4 ,the evening before1 the wind was south1 but the night was calm4 ,the apple-trees and cherry-trees were in full blossom4 ,the peach-trees were almost out of flower4 ,most of the forest-trees had already got new and tender leaves1 and most of them were in flower1 as almost all kinds of oaks1 the dog-wood1 7,cornus ,florida71 hiccory1 wild prunes1 sassafras1 horn-beam1 beeches1 c4 ,the plants which were found damaged by the frost1 were the following4 #a4 ,the ,hiccory4 ,most of the young trees of this kind had their leaves killed by the frost1 so that they looked quite black in the afternoon2 the leaves were consumed by frost every where in the fields1 near the marshes1 and in the woods4 #b4 ,the black ,oak4 ,several of these trees had their leaves damaged by the frost4 #c4 ,the white ,oak4 ,some very young trees of this kind had lost their leaves by the frost4 #d4 ,the blossoms of the ,cherry-trees were hurt in several places4 #e4 ,the flowers of the ,english ,walnut-tree were entirely spoiled by the frost4 #f4 ,the ,rhus glabra4 ,some of these trees had already got leaves1 and they were killed by the cold4 #g4 ,the ,rhus radicans2 the tender young trees of this kind suffered from the frost1 and had their leaves partly killed4 #h4 ,the ,thalictra1 or ,meadow ,rues1 had both their flowers and leaves hurt by the frost4 #i4 ,the ,podophyllum peltatum4 ,of this plant there was not above one in five hundred hurt by the frost4 #aj4 ,the ,ferns4 ,a number of them1 which were lately come up1 were destroyed4 ,i must add several plants which were likewise hurt1 but which ,i could not distinguish1 on account of their smallness4 ,i went to several places this day4 ,the ,bartsia coccinea grew in great abundance on several low meadows4 ,its flower-buds were already tinged with their precious scarlet1 and adorned the meadows4 ,it is not yet applied to any use1 but that of delighting the sight4 ,one of the ,swedes here had planted an ,english walnut-tree 7,juglans regia7 in his garden1 and it was now about three yards high2 it was in full blossom1 and had already great leaves1 whereas the black walnut-trees1 which grow spontaneously in every part of this country1 had not yet any leaves1 or flowers4 ,the last night's frost had killed all the leaves of the ,european kind4 ,dr4 ,franklin told me afterwards1 that there had been some ,english walnut-trees in ,philadelphia1 which came on very well2 but that they were killed by the frost4 ,i looked about me for the trees which had not yet got fresh leaves1 and ,i found the following ones3 ,juglans nigra1 or the ,black ,walnut-tree4 ,fraxinus excelsior1 or the ,ash4 ,acer ,negundo1 called the ,white-ash here4 ,nyssa aquatica1 the ,tupelo-tree4 ,diospyros ,virginiana1 or the ,persimon4 ,vitis ,labrusca1 or the ,fox-grapes2 and ,rhus glabra1 or the ,sumach4 ,the trees whose leaves were coming out1 were the following3 ,morus rubra1 the ,mulberry-tree4 ,fagus ,castanea1 the ,chesnut-tree4 ,platanus occidentalis1 or the ,water-beach4 ,laurus ,sassafras1 the ,sassafras-tree4 ,juglans alba1 the ,hiccory4 ,some trees of this kind had already large leaves1 but others had none at all2 the same difference1 ,i believe1 exists likewise among the other species of hiccory4 ,the ,virginian ,cherry-tree grows here and there1 in the woods and glades3 its leaves were already pretty large2 but the flowers were not yet entirely open4 ,the ,sassafras-tree was now every where in flower2 but its leaves were not yet quite disclosed4 ,the ,liquidambar ,styraciflua or ,sweet ,gum-tree1 grows in the woods1 especially in wet soil1 in and near purling rivulets3 its leaves were now already sprouting out at its summit4 ,this tree grows to a great thickness1 and its height rivals that of the tallest firs and oaks2 as it grows higher1 the lower branches die and drop1 and leave the stem at last quite smooth and strait1 with a great crown at the very summit2 the seeds are contained in round1 dentated cones1 which drop in autumn2 and as the tree is very tall1 so the high winds carry the seeds away to a great distance4 ,i have already given an account of the use of this tree in the first volume1 to which ,i must add the following account4 ,the wood can be made very smooth1 because its veins are extremely fine3 but it is not hard2 you can carve letters on it with a knife1 which will seem to be engraved4 ,mr4 ,lewis ,evans told me1 from his own experience1 that no wood in this country was more fit for making moulds for casting brass in1 than this4 ,i enquired of ,mr4 ,bartram1 8,whether he had found the rosin on this tree1 which is so much praised in physic40 ,he told me1 8,that a very odoriferous rosin always flows out of any cut or wound1 which is made in the tree2 but that the quantity here was too inconsiderable to recompense the labour of collecting it40 ,this odoriferous rosin or gum first gave rise to the ,english name4 ,the further you go to the ,south1 the greater quantity of gum does the tree yield1 so that it is easy to collect it4 ,mr4 ,bartram was of opinion1 that this tree was properly calculated for the climate of ,carolina1 and that it was brought by several ways so far ,north as ,new ,york4 ,in the southern countries the heat of the ,sun fills the tree with gum1 but in the northern ones it does not4 ,may the #b;d4 ,this morning ,i travelled down to ,salem1 in order to see the country4 ,the ,sassafras-tree stood single in the woods1 and along the fences1 round the fields3 it was now distinguishable at a distance for its fine flowers1 which being now quite open1 made it look quite yellow4 ,the leaves were not yet come out4 ,in some meadows the grass was already grown up pretty high3 but it is to be observed1 that these meadows were marshy1 and that no cattle had been on them this year4 ,these meadows are mown twice a year1 viz4 in ,may1 and the end of ,august1 or beginning of ,august1 old style4 ,i saw some meadows of this kind to-day1 in which ,i saw grass which was now almost fit to be mown2 and many meadows in ,sweden have not such grass at the proper time of mowing1 as these had now2 these meadows lay in marshes and vallies1 where the ,sun had very great power3 the grass consisted merely of ,cyperus-grass or ,carex4 ,the wild ,prune-trees were now every where in flower2 they grow here and there in the woods1 but commonly near marshes and in wet ground2 they are distinguishable by their white flowers3 the fruit when ripe is eatable4 ,the ,cornus ,florida1 or ,dogwood1 grows in the forests1 on hills1 on plains1 in vallies1 in marshes1 and near rivulets4 ,i cannot therefore say1 which is its native soil2 however1 it seems that in a low but not a wet soil it succeeds best2 it was now adorned with its great snowy ,involucra1 which render it conspicuous even at a distance4 ,at this time it is a pleasure to travel through the woods1 so much are they beautified by the blossoms of this tree4 ,the flowers which are within the ,involucra began to open to-day4 ,the tree does not grow to any considerable height or thickness1 but is about the size of our ,mountain ,ash 7,sorbus aucuparia74 ,there are three species of this tree in the woods2 one with great white ,involucra1 another with small white ones1 and a third with reddish ones4 ,the woods were now full of birds3 ,i saw the lesser species every where hopping on the ground1 or creeping in bushes1 without any great degree of shiness2 it is therefore very easy for all kinds of snakes to approach and bite them4 ,i believe that the rattlesnake has nothing to do but to ly still1 and without waiting long1 some little bird or other will pass by or run directly upon her1 giving her an opportunity of catching it1 without any enchantment4 ,salem is a little trading town1 situated at some distance from the river ,delaware4 ,the houses do not stand far asunder1 and are partly stone1 and partly wood4 ,a rivulet passes by the town1 and falls into the ,delaware4 ,the inhabitants live by their several trades1 as well as they can4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,salem are some very low and swampy meadows2 and therefore it is reckoned a very unwholesome place4 ,experience has shewn1 that those who came hither from other places to settle1 got a very pale and sickly look1 though they arrived in perfect health1 and with a very lively colour4 ,the town is very easily distinguished about this time1 by the disagreeable stench which arises from the swamps4 ,the vapours of the putrid water are carried to those inhabitants which live next to the marshes2 and enter the body along with the air1 and through the pores1 and thus are hurtful to health4 ,at the end of every summer1 the intermitting fevers are very frequent4 ,i knew a young couple1 who came along with me from ,england to ,america3 soon after their arrival at ,philadelphia1 they went to ,salem1 in perfect health2 but a few weeks after they fell sick1 and before the winter was half over they were both dead4 ,many of the inhabitants plant ,saffron2 but it is not so good and so strong as the ,english and ,french ,saffron4 ,perhaps it grows better by being laid up for some years1 as tobacco does4 ,the ,gossypium herbaceum1 or ,cotton plant1 is an annual plant2 and several of the inhabitants of ,salem had began to sow it4 ,some had the seeds from ,carolina1 where they have great plantations of cotton2 but others got it out of some cotton which they had bought4 ,they said1 it was difficult1 at first1 to get ripe seeds from the plants which were sown here2 for the summer in ,carolina1 from whence their first seed came1 is both longer and hotter than it is here4 ,but after the plants have been more used to the climate1 and hastened more than they were formerly1 the seeds are ripe in due time4 ,at night ,i returned to ,raccoon4 ,may the #dth4 ,crab-trees are a species of wild apple trees1 which grow in the woods and glades1 but especially on little hillocks1 near rivers #ci4 ,in ,new ,jersey the tree is rather scarce2 but in ,pensylvania it is plentiful4 ,some people had planted a single tree of this kind near their farms1 on account of the fine smells which its flowers afford4 ,it had begun to open some of its flowers about a day or two ago2 however1 most of them were not yet open4 ,they are exactly like the blossoms of the common apple-trees1 except that the colour is a little more reddish in the ,crab-trees2 though some kinds of the cultivated trees have flowers which are very near as red3 but the smell distinguishes them plainly2 for the wild trees have a very pleasant smell1 somewhat like the rasp-berry4 ,the apples1 or crabs1 are small1 sour1 and unfit for any thing but to make vinegar of4 ,they ly under the trees all the winter1 and acquire a yellow colour4 ,they seldom begin to rot before spring comes on4 ,i cannot omit an observation here4 ,the ,crab-trees opened their flowers only yesterday and to-day2 whereas1 the cultivated apple-trees1 which are brought from ,europe1 had already lost their flowers4 ,the wild cherry-trees did not flower before the #abth of ,may2 on the other hand1 the cultivated or ,european ones1 had already opened their blossoms on the #bdth of ,april4 ,the black walnut-trees of this country had neither leaves nor flowers1 when the ,european kind has large leaves and blossoms4 ,from hence it appears1 that trees brought over from ,europe1 of the same kind with the wild trees of ,america1 flower much sooner than the latter4 ,i cannot say what is the reason of this forwardness of the ,european trees in this country1 unless they bring forth their blossoms as soon as they get a certain degree of warmth1 which they have in their native country4 ,it seems1 the ,european trees do not expect1 after a considerable degree of warmth1 any such cold nights as will kill their flowers2 for1 in the cold countries1 there seldom happen any hot days succeeded by such cold nights as will hurt the flowers considerably4 ,on the contrary1 the wild trees in this country are directed by experience1 7if ,i may so speak7 not to trust to the first warmth2 but they wait for a greater heat1 when they are already safe from cold nights4 ,therefore1 it happens often1 that the flowers of the ,european trees are killed by the frosts here2 but the native trees are seldom hurt1 though they be of the same kind with the ,european ones4 ,this is a manifest proof of the wisdom of the ,creator4 ,may the #eth4 ,early this morning ,i went to ,rapaapo1 which is a great village1 whose farms ly all scattered4 ,it was inhabited merely by ,swedes1 and not a single ,englishman1 or people of any other nation1 lived in it3 therefore they have preserved their native ,swedish tongue1 and mixed but few ,english words with it4 ,the intention of my journey was partly to see the place1 and to collect plants2 and other natural curiosities there2 and partly to find the places where the ,white ,cedar1 or ,cupressus thyoides1 grows4 ,the ,mayflowers1 as the ,swedes call them1 were plentiful in the woods where-ever ,i went to-day2 especially on a dry soil1 or one that is somewhat moist4 ,the ,swedes have given them this name1 because they are in full blossom in ,may4 ,some of the ,swedes and the ,dutch call them ,pinxterbloem1 7,whitsunday flowers71 as they really are in blossom about ,whitsuntide4 ,the ,english call them ,wild ,honeysuckles2 and at a distance they have some similarity to the ,honeysuckle1 or ,lonicera4 ,dr4 ,linnus1 and other botanists1 call it an ,azalea #dj4 ,its flowers were now open1 and added a new ornament to the woods1 being little inferior to the flowers of the honeysuckle and ,hedysarum4 ,they sit in a circle round the stem's extremity1 and have either a dark red or a lively red colour2 but1 by standing for some time1 the sun bleaches them1 and at last they get a whitish hue4 ,i know not why ,colden calls them yellow #da4 ,the height of the bush is not always alike4 ,some were as tall as a full grown man1 and taller1 others were but low1 and some were not above a palm from the ground2 yet they were all full of flowers4 ,the people have not yet found that this plant may be applied to any use2 they only gather the flowers1 and put them in pots1 because they are very shewy4 ,they have some smell2 but ,i cannot say it is very pleasant4 ,however1 the beauty of the colour entitles them to a place in every flower-garden4 ,to-day ,i saw the first ear of this year's rye4 ,in ,sweden1 rye begins to shew its ears about ,ericmas1 that is1 about the #ahth of ,may1 old stile #db4 ,but in ,new ,sweden1 the people said1 they always saw the ears of rye in ,april1 old stile2 whether the spring begins late or early4 ,however1 in some years the ears come early1 and in others late1 in ,april4 ,this spring was reckoned one of the late ones4 ,bullfrogs #dc are a large species of frogs1 which ,i had an opportunity of hearing and seeing to-day4 ,as ,i was riding out1 ,i heard a roaring before me2 and ,i thought it was a bull in the bushes1 on the other side of the dyke1 though the sound was rather more hoarse than that of a bull4 ,i was however afraid1 that a bad goring bull might be near me1 though ,i did not see him2 and ,i continued to think so till some hours after1 when ,i talked with some ,swedes about the ,bullfrogs1 and1 by their account1 ,i immediately found that ,i had heard their voice2 for the ,swedes told me1 that there were numbers of them in the dyke4 ,i afterwards hunted for them4 ,of all the frogs in this country1 this is doubtless the greatest4 ,i am told1 that towards autumn1 as soon as the air begins to grow a little cool1 they hide themselves under the mud1 which lies at the bottom of ponds and stagnant waters1 and ly there torpid during winter4 ,as soon as the weather grows mild1 towards summer1 they begin to get out of their holes1 and croak4 ,if the spring1 that is1 if the mild weather1 begins early1 they appear about the end of ,march1 old stile2 but if it happens late1 they tarry under water till late in ,april4 ,their places of abode are ponds1 and bogs with stagnant water2 they are never in any flowing water4 ,when many of them croak together1 they make an enormous noise4 ,their croak exactly resembles the roaring of an ox or bull1 which is somewhat hoarse4 ,they croak so loud1 that two people talking by the side of a pond cannot understand each other4 ,they croak all together2 then stop a little1 and begin again4 ,it seems as if they had a captain among them3 for when he begins to croak1 all the others follow2 and when he stops1 the others are all silent4 ,when this captain gives the signal for stopping1 you hear a note like poop coming from him4 ,in day-time they seldom make any great noise1 unless the sky is covered4 ,but the night is their croaking time2 and1 when all is calm1 you may hear them1 though you are near a mile and a half off4 ,when they croak1 they commonly are near the surface of the water1 under the bushes1 and have their heads out of the water4 ,therefore1 by going slowly1 one may get close up to them before they go away4 ,as soon as they are quite under water1 they think themselves safe1 though the water be very shallow4 ,sometimes they sit at a good distance from the pond2 but as soon as they suspect any danger1 they hasten with great leaps into the water4 ,they are very expert at hopping4 ,a full-grown ,bullfrog takes near three yards at one hop4 ,i have often been told the following story by the old ,swedes1 which happened here1 at the time when the ,indians lived with the ,swedes4 ,it is well known1 that the ,indians are excellent runners2 ,i have seen them1 at ,governor ,johnson's1 equal the best horse in its swiftest course1 and almost pass by it4 ,therefore1 in order to try how well the bull-frogs could leap1 some of the ,swedes laid a wager with a young ,indian1 that he could not overtake the frog1 provided it had two leaps before hand4 ,they carried a bull-frog1 which they had caught in a pond1 upon a field1 and burnt his back-side2 the fire1 and the ,indian1 who endeavoured to be closely up with the frog1 had such an effect upon the animal1 that it made its long hops across the field1 as fast as it could4 ,the ,indian began to pursue the frog with all his might at the proper time3 the noise he made in running frightened the poor frog2 probably it was afraid of being tortured with fire again1 and therefore it redoubled its leaps1 and by that means it reached the pond before the ,indian could over-take it4 ,in some years they are more numerous than in others3 nobody could tell1 whether the snakes had ever ventured to eat them1 though they eat all the lesser kinds of frogs4 ,the women are no friends to these frogs1 because they kill and eat young ducklings and goslings3 sometimes they carry off chickens that come too near the ponds4 ,i have not observed that they bite when they are held in the hands1 though they have little teeth2 when they are beaten1 they cry out almost like children4 ,i was told that some eat the thighs of the hind legs1 and that they are very palatable4 ,a tree which grows in the swamps here1 and in other parts of ,america1 goes by the name of ,white ,juniper-tree4 ,its stem indeed looks like one of our old tall and strait juniper-trees in ,sweden3 but the leaves are different1 and the wood is white4 ,the ,english call it ,white ,cedar1 because the boards which are made of the wood1 are like those made of cedar4 ,but neither of these names are just1 for the tree is of the cypress kind #dd4 ,it always grows in wet ground or swamps3 it is therefore difficult to come to them1 because the ground between the little hillocks is full of water4 ,the trees stand both on the hillocks and in the water3 they grow very close together1 and have strait1 thick1 and tall stems2 but they were greatly reduced in number to what they have been before4 ,in such places where they are left to grow up1 they grow as tall and as thick as the tallest fir-trees2 they preserve their green leaves both in winter and summer2 the tall ones have no branches on the lower part of the stem4 ,the marshes where these trees grow are called ,cedar ,swamps4 ,these cedar swamps are numerous in ,new ,jersey1 and likewise in some parts of ,pensylvania and ,new ,york4 ,the most northerly place1 where it has been hitherto found1 is near ,goshen in ,new ,york1 under forty-one degrees and twenty-live minutes of north latitude1 as ,i am informed by ,dr4 ,colden4 ,for to the ,north of ,goshen1 it has not been found in the woods4 ,the white cedar is one of the trees1 which resist the most to putrefaction2 and when it is put above ground1 it will last longer than under ground3 therefore it is employed for many purposes2 it makes good fences1 and posts which are to be put into the ground2 but in this point1 the red cedar is still preferable to the white2 it likewise makes good canoes4 ,the young trees are employed for hoops1 round barrels1 tuns1 c4 because they are thin and pliable2 the thick and tall trees afford timber1 and wood for cooper's work4 ,the houses which are built of it1 surpass in duration1 those which are built of ,american oak4 ,many of the houses in ,rapaapo were made of this white cedar wood2 but the chief thing which the white cedar affords is the best kind of shingles4 ,the white cedar shingles are preferred to all others for several reasons2 first1 they are more durable than any others made of ,american wood1 the red cedar shingles excepted2 secondly1 they are very light1 so that no strong beams are requisite to support the roof4 ,for the same reason it is unnecessary to build thick walls1 because they are not pressed by heavy roofs4 ,when fires break out1 it is less dangerous to go under or along the roofs1 because the shingles being very light can do little hurt by falling2 they suck the water1 being somewhat spungy1 so that the roofs can easily be wetted in case of a fire3 however1 their fatness occasions that the water does not hurt them1 but evaporates easily4 ,when they burn and are carried about by the wind1 they have commonly what is called a dead coal1 which does not easily set fire where it alights4 ,the roofs made of these shingles can easily be cut through1 if required1 because they are thin1 and not very hard2 for these qualities the people in the country1 and in the towns1 are very desirous of having their houses covered with white cedar shingles1 if the wood can be got4 ,therefore all churches1 and the houses of the more substantial inhabitants of the towns1 have shingle roofs4 ,in many parts of ,new ,york province1 where the white cedar does not grow1 the people1 however1 have their houses roofed with cedar shingles1 which they get from other parts4 ,to that purpose great quantities of shingles are annually exported from ,eggharbour and other parts of ,new ,jersey1 to the town of ,new ,york1 from whence they are distributed throughout the province4 ,a quantity of white cedar wood is likewise exported every year to the ,west ,indies1 for shingles1 pipe staves1 c4 ,thus the inhabitants are very busy here1 not only to lessen the number of these trees1 but even to extirpate them entirely4 ,they are here 7and in many other places7 in regard to wood1 bent only upon their own present advantage1 utterly regardless of posterity4 ,by this means many cedar swamps are already quite destitute of cedars1 having only young shoots left2 and ,i plainly observed1 by counting the circles round the stem1 that they do not grow up very quickly1 but require a great deal of time before they can be cut for timber4 ,it is well known that a tree gets only one circle every year2 a stem1 eighteen inches in diameter1 had one hundred and eight circles round the thicker end2 another1 seventeen inches in diameter1 had a hundred and sixteen2 and another1 two feet in diameter1 had one hundred and forty-two circles upon it4 ,thus near eighty years growth is required1 before a ,white cedar raised from seed can be used for timber4 ,among the advantages which the white cedar shingles have over others1 the people reckon their lightness4 ,but this good and useful quality may in future times turn out very disadvantageous to ,philadelphia1 and other places where the houses are rooted with cedar shingles2 for as the roofs made of these shingles are very light1 and bear but a trifling weight on the walls1 so the people have made the walls but very thin4 ,i measured the thickness of the walls of several houses here1 of three stories high 7cellar and garret not included71 and found most of them nine inches and a half1 and some ten inches thick2 therefore it is by no means surprising1 that violent hurricanes sometimes make the brick gable-ends to vibrate apparently1 especially on such houses as have a very open situation4 ,and since the cedar-trees will soon be wanting in this country1 and the present roofs when rotten must be supplied with heavier ones1 of tiles1 or of other wood1 it is more than probable1 that the thin walls will not be able to bear such an additional weight1 and will either break1 or require to be supported by props3 or else the whole house must be pulled down and rebuilt with thicker walls4 ,this observation has already been made by others4 ,some of the people here make use of the chips of white cedar instead of tea1 alluring me that they preferred it in regard to its wholesomeness to all foreign tea4 ,all the inhabitants here were of opinion1 that the water in the cedar swamps is wholesomer than any other drink3 it creates a great appetite1 which they endeavoured to prove by several examples4 ,they ascribed this quality to the water itself1 which is filled with the rosin of the trees1 and to the exhalations which came from the trees1 and can easily be smelled4 ,the people likewise thought that the yellowish colour of the water1 which stands between the cedar trees1 was owing to the rosin1 which comes out of the roots of these trees4 ,they likewise all agreed1 that this water is always very cold in the hottest season1 which may be partly owing to the continual shade it is in4 ,i knew several people who were resolved to go to these cedar swamps1 and use the waters for the recovery of their appetite4 ,mr4 ,bartram planted a white cedar in a dry soil1 but it could not succeed there3 he then put it into a swampy ground1 where it got as it were new life1 and came on very well2 and though it was not taller than a man1 yet it was full of cones4 ,another thing is very remarkable1 with regard to the propagation of this tree3 ,mr4 ,bartram cut its branches in spring two years successively1 and put them into the swampy soil1 where they struck roots1 and succeeded very well4 ,i have seen them myself4 ,the red ,juniper-tree is another tree which ,i have mentioned very frequently in the course of my account4 ,the ,swedes have given it the name of red ,juniper1 because the wood is very red and fine within4 ,the ,english call it red ,cedar1 and the ,french ,cedre rouge4 ,however1 the ,swedish name is the most proper1 as the tree belongs to the ,junipers #de4 ,at its first growth it has a deal of similarity to the ,swedish ,juniper #df1 but after it is grown up it gets quite different leaves4 ,the berry exactly resembles that of the ,swedish ,juniper1 in regard to its colour and shape2 however1 they are not so big1 though the red ,cedar grows very tall4 ,at ,raccoon these trees stood single1 and were not very tall4 ,but at other places ,i have seen them standing together in clusters2 they like the same ground as the common ,swedish ,juniper1 especially on the rising banks of rivers1 and on other rising grounds1 in a dry1 and frequently in a poor soil4 ,i have seen them growing in abundance1 as thick and tall as the tallest fir-trees1 on poor dry and sandy heaths4 ,towards ,canada1 or in the most northerly places1 where ,i have seen them1 they commonly choose the steep sides of the mountains1 and there they grow promiscuously with the common ,juniper4 ,the most northerly places where ,i have found them wild in the woods1 is in ,canada1 eighteen ,french miles to the southward of the ,fort ,saint ,jean1 or ,st4 ,john1 in about #dd #ce ,north ,latitude4 ,i have likewise seen it growing very well in a garden1 on the island of ,magdalene #dg1 belonging to the then governor of ,montreal1 ,monsieur le ,baron de ,longueuil4 ,but it had been got at more southerly places1 and was transplanted here4 ,of all the woods in this country1 this is without exception the most durable1 and withstands putrefaction longer than any other2 it is therefore employed in all such cases where it is most liable to rot1 especially for all kinds of posts which are to be put into the ground4 ,some people say1 that if an iron be put into the ground along with a pole of cedar1 the iron would be half corroded by rust in the same time that the wood would be rotten4 ,in many places both the fences1 and the posts belonging to them1 are made of red cedar4 ,the best canoes1 consisting of a single piece of wood1 are made of red cedar2 for they last longer than any others1 and are very light4 ,in ,new ,york ,i have seen pretty large yachts build of red cedar4 ,several yachts which go from ,new ,york to ,albany1 up the river ,hudson1 are built in a different manner1 as ,i have mentioned in the first volume #dh4 ,in ,philadelphia they cannot make any yachts or other boats of red cedar1 because the quantity and the size of the trees will not allow of it4 ,for the same reason they do not roof their houses with red cedar shingles2 but in such places where it is plentiful1 it makes excellent good roofs4 ,the heart of this cedar is of a fine red colour1 and whatever is made of it looks very fine1 and has a very agreeable and wholesome smell4 ,but the colour fades by degrees1 or else the wood would be exceedingly proper for cabinet work4 ,i saw a parlour in the country seat of ,mr4 ,norris1 one of the ,members of the ,pensylvanian ,house of ,assembly1 wainscotted many years ago with boards of red cedar4 ,mr4 ,norris assured me that the cedar looked exceedingly well in the beginning1 but it was quite faded when ,i saw it1 and the boards looked very shabby1 especially the boards near the window had entirely lost their colour2 so that ,mr4 ,norris had been obliged to put mahogany in their stead3 however1 ,i was told1 that the wood will keep its colour if a thin varnish is put upon it whilst it is fresh1 and just after it has been planed1 and if care is taken that the wood is not afterwards rubbed or hurt4 ,at least it makes the wood keep its colour much longer than commonly4 ,since it has a very pleasant smell1 when fresh1 some people put the shavings and chips of it among their linen to secure it against being worm-eaten4 ,some likewise get bureaus1 c4 made of red cedar1 with the same view4 ,but it is only useful for this purpose as long as it is fresh1 for it loses its smell after some time1 and is then no longer good for keeping off insects4 ,it is sometimes sent to ,england1 as timber1 and sells very well4 ,in many places round ,philadelphia1 in the seats of the gentry1 there was commonly an avenue1 with a row of these trees planted on both sides1 leading from the high road to the house4 ,the lower branches were cut1 and only a fine crown left4 ,in winter1 when most other trees have lost their leaves1 this looks very fine4 ,this tree has likewise a very slow growth2 for a stem1 thirteen inches and a quarter in diameter1 had one hundred and eighty-eight rings1 or annual circles and another1 eighteen inches in diameter1 had at least two hundred and fifty1 for a great number of the rings were so fine that they could not be counted4 ,this tree is propagated in the same manner as the common ,juniper-tree is in ,sweden1 viz4 chiefly by birds1 which eat the berries and emit the seeds entire4 ,to encourage the planting of this useful tree1 a description of the method of doing it1 written by ,mr4 ,bartram1 was inserted in a ,pensylvania almanack1 called ,poor ,richard ,improved1 for the year #agdi4 ,in it was explained the manner of planting and augmenting the number of these trees1 and mention is made of some of the purposes to which they may be employed4 ,in the evening ,i returned to ,raccoon4 ,may the #fth4 ,the ,mulberry-trees 7,morus rubra7 about this time began to blossom1 but their leaves were yet very small4 ,the people divided them into male and female trees or flowers2 and said that those which never bore any fruit were males1 and those which did1 females4 ,smilax laurifolia was superabundant in all the swamps near this place4 ,its leaves were now beginning to come out1 for it sheds them all every winter2 it climbs up along trees and shrubs1 and runs across from one tree or bush to another3 by this means it shuts up the passage between the trees1 fastening itself every where with its cirrhi or tendrils1 and even on people1 so that it is with the utmost difficulty one must force a passage in the swamps and woods1 where it is plentiful2 the stalk towards the bottom is full of long spines1 which are as strong as the spines of a rose-bush1 and catch hold of the clothes1 and tear them3 this troublesome plant may sometimes bring you into imminent danger1 when botanizing or going into the woods1 for1 not to mention that the cloaths must be absolutely ruined by its numberless spines1 it occasions a deep shade in the woods1 by crossing from tree to tree so often2 this forces you to stoop1 and even to creep on all fours through the little passages which are left close to the ground1 and then you cannot be careful enough to prevent a snake 7of which there are numbers here7 from darting into your face4 ,the stalk of the plant has the same colour as the young rose-bushes4 ,it is quite green and smooth between the spines1 so that a stranger would take it to be a kind of thorn-bush1 in winter1 when it is destitute of leaves4 ,may the #hth4 ,the trees hereabouts were now stocked with innumerable ,caterpillars2 one kind especially was observable1 which is worse than all the others4 ,they immediately formed great white webs1 between the branches of the trees1 so that they were perceptible1 even at a distance2 in each of these webs were thousands of ,caterpillars1 which crept out of them afterwards1 and spread chiefly upon the apple-trees4 ,they consumed the leaves1 and often left not one on a whole branch4 ,i was told1 that some years ago they did so much damage1 that the apple-trees and peach-trees hardly bore any fruit at all2 because they had consumed all the leaves1 and exposed the naked trees to the intense heat of the sun1 by which means several of the trees died4 ,the people took the following method of killing these ,caterpillars3 ,they fixed some straw or flax on a pole1 set it on fire1 and held it under the webs or nests2 by which a part was burnt1 and a part fell to the ground4 ,however1 numbers of the ,caterpillars crept up the trees again1 which could have been prevented1 if they had been trod upon1 or killed any other way4 ,i called chickens to such places where they crept on the ground in numbers2 but they would not eat them4 ,nor did the wild birds like them2 for the trees were full of these webs1 though whole flights of little birds had their nests in the gardens and orchards4 ,may the #ahth4 ,though it was already pretty late in ,may1 yet the nights were very dark here4 ,about an hour after sun-set1 it was so dark1 that it was impossible to read in a book1 though the type was ever so large4 ,about ten o'clock1 on a clear night1 the dark was so much increased1 that it looked like one of the darkest star-light nights in autumn1 in ,sweden4 ,it likewise seemed to me1 that though the nights were clear1 yet the stars did not give so great a light as they do in ,sweden4 ,and as1 about this time1 the nights are commonly dark1 and the sky covered with clouds2 so ,i would compare them only to dark and cloudy ,swedish winter nights4 ,it was therefore1 at this time of the year1 very difficult to travel in such cloudy nights2 for neither man nor horse could find their way4 ,the nights1 in general1 seem very disagreeable to me1 in comparison to the light and glorious1 summer nights of ,sweden4 ,ignorance sometimes makes us think slightly of our country4 ,if other countries have their advantages1 ,sweden is not destitute of matter to boast of on this head3 it likewise has its peculiar advantages2 and upon weighing the advantages and inconveniencies of different places1 ,sweden will be found to be not inferior to any of them4 ,i will briefly mention in what points ,i think ,sweden is preferable to this part of ,america2 and why ,i prefer ,old ,sweden to ,new ,sweden4 ,the nights are very dark here all the summer2 and in winter1 they are quite as dark1 if not darker1 than the winter nights in ,sweden2 for here is no kind of ,aurora ,borealis1 and the stars give a very faint light4 ,it is very remarkable if an ,aurora ,borealis appears once or twice a year4 ,the winters here bring no snow1 to make the nights clear1 and to make travelling more safe and easy4 ,the cold is1 however1 frequently as intense as in ,old ,sweden4 ,the snow which falls lies only a few days1 and always goes off with a great deal of wet4 ,the ,rattle-snakes1 ,horned-snakes1 red-bellied1 green1 and other poisonous ,snakes1 against whose bite there is frequently no remedy1 are in great plenty here4 ,to these ,i must add the wood-lice1 with which the forests are so pestered1 that it is impossible to pass through a bush without having a whole army of them on your cloaths1 or to sit down1 though the place be ever so pleasant4 ,the inconvenience and trouble they cause1 both to man and beast1 ,i have described in the ,memoirs of the ,royal ,swedish ,academy of ,sciences4 ,the weather is so inconstant here1 that when a day is most excessively hot1 the next is often sensibly cold4 ,this sudden change often happens in one day2 and few people can suffer these changes1 without impairing their health4 ,the heat in summer is excessive1 and the cold in winter often very piercing4 ,however1 one can always secure one's self against the cold2 but when the great heat is of any duration1 there is hardly any remedy against it4 ,it tires one so1 that one does not know which way to turn4 ,it has frequently happened1 that people who walked into the fields1 dropped down dead1 on account of the violence of the heat4 ,several distempers prevail here2 and they increase every year4 ,nobody is left unattacked by the intermitting fever2 and many people are forced to suffer it every year1 together with other diseases4 ,pease cannot be sown1 on account of the insects which consume them #di4 ,there are worms in the grains of rye1 and numbers of them are in the cherry-trees4 ,the caterpillars often eat all the leaves from the trees1 so that they cannot bear fruit in that year2 and numbers die every year1 both of fruit-trees and forest-trees4 ,the grass in the meadows is likewise consumed by a kind of worms1 and another species cause the plumbs to drop1 before they are half ripe4 ,the oak here affords not near so good timber as the ,european oak4 ,the fences cannot stand above eighteen years4 ,the houses are of no long duration4 ,the meadows are poor1 and what grass they have is bad4 ,the pasture for cattle in the forests1 consists of such plants as they do not like1 and which they are compelled to eat by necessity2 for it is difficult to find a single grass in great forests1 where the trees stand far asunder1 and where the soil is excellent4 ,for this reason1 the cattle are forced1 during almost the whole winter and part of the summer1 to live upon the young shoots and branches of trees1 which sometimes have no leaves3 therefore1 the cows give very little milk1 and decrease in size every generation4 ,the houses are extremely unfit for winter habitations4 ,hurricanes are frequent1 which overthrow trees1 carry away roofs1 and sometimes houses1 and do a great deal of damage4 ,some of these inconveniencies might be remedied by art2 but others will either admit of no alteration1 or they will at least cost vast trouble4 ,thus every country has its advantages1 and its defects3 happy is he who can content himself with his own4 ,the rye grows very ill in most of the fields1 which is chiefly owing to the carelessness in agriculture1 and to the poorness of the fields1 which are seldom or never manured4 ,after the inhabitants have converted a tract of land into fields1 which had been a forest for many centuries together1 and which consequently had a very fine soil1 they use it as such1 as long as it will bear any corn2 and when it ceases to bear any1 they turn it into pastures for the cattle1 and take new corn fields in another place1 where a fine soil can be met with1 and where it has never been made use of for this purpose4 ,this kind of agriculture will do for some time2 but it will afterwards have bad consequences1 as every one may clearly see4 ,a few of the inhabitants1 however1 treated their fields a little better3 the ,english in general have carried agriculture to a higher degree of perfection than any other nation4 ,but the depth and richness of the soil1 which those found here who came over from ,england1 7as they were preparing land for ploughing which had been covered with woods from times immemorial7 misled them1 and made them careless husbandmen4 ,it is well known1 that the ,indians lived in this country for several centuries before the ,europeans came into it2 but it is likewise known1 that they lived chiefly by hunting and fishing1 and had hardly any fields4 ,they planted maize1 and some species of beans and gourds2 and at the same time it is certain1 that a plantation of such vegetables as serve an ,indian family during one year1 take up no more ground than a farmer in our country takes to plant cabbage for his family upon2 at least1 a farmer's cabbage and turnep ground1 taken together1 is always as extensive1 if not more so1 than the corn-fields and kitchen-gardens of an ,indian family4 ,therefore1 the ,indians could hardly subsist for one month upon the produce of their gardens and fields4 ,commonly1 the little villages of ,indians are about twelve or eighteen miles distant from each other4 ,from hence one may judge1 how little ground was formerly employed for corn-fields2 and the rest was overgrown with thick and tall trees4 ,and though they cleared 7as is yet usual7 new ground1 as soon as the old one had quite lost its fertility2 yet such little pieces as they made use of were very inconsiderable1 when compared to the vast forests which remained4 ,thus the upper fertile soil increased considerably1 for centuries together2 and the ,europeans coming to ,america found a rich and fine soil before them1 lying as loose between the trees as the best bed in a garden4 ,they had nothing to do but to cut down the wood1 put it up in heaps1 and to clear the dead leaves away4 ,they could then immediately proceed to ploughing1 which in such loose ground is very easy2 and having sown their corn1 they got a most plentiful harvest4 ,this easy method of getting a rich crop has spoiled the ,english and other ,european inhabitants1 and induced them to adopt the same method of agriculture which the ,indians make use of2 that is1 to sow uncultivated grounds1 as long as they will produce a crop without manuring1 but to turn them into pastures as soon as they can bear no more1 and to take in hand new spots of ground1 covered since time immemorial with woods1 which have been spared by the fire or the hatchet ever since the creation4 ,this is likewise the reason why agriculture1 and the knowledge of this useful branch1 is so imperfect here1 that one can learn nothing on a great tract of land1 neither of the ,english1 nor of the ,swedes1 ,germans1 ,dutch1 and ,french2 except that1 from their gross mistakes and carelessness for futurity1 one finds opportunities every day of making all sorts of observations1 and of growing wise at the expence of other people4 ,in a word1 the corn-fields1 the meadows1 the forests1 the cattle1 c4 are treated with equal carelessness2 and the ,english nation1 so well skilled in these branches of husbandry1 is with difficulty found out here4 ,we can hardly be more lavish of our woods in ,sweden and ,finland than they are here3 their eyes are fixed upon the present gain1 and they are blind to futurity4 ,every day their cattle are harassed by labour1 and each generation decreases in goodness and size1 by being kept short of food1 as ,i have before mentioned4 ,on my travels in this country ,i observed several plants1 which the horses and cows preferred to all others4 ,they were wild in this country1 and likewise grew well on the driest and poorest ground1 where no other plants would succeed4 ,but the inhabitants did not know how to turn this to their advantage2 owing to the little account made of ,natural ,history1 that science being here 7as in other parts of the world7 looked upon as a mere trifle1 and the pastime of fools4 ,i am certain1 and my certainty is founded upon experience1 that by means of these plants1 in the space of a few years1 ,i have been able to turn the poorest ground1 which would hardly afford food for a cow1 into the richest and most fertile meadow1 where great flocks of cattle have found superfluous food1 and are grown fat upon4 ,i own1 that these useful plants were not to be found on the grounds of every planter3 but with a small share of natural knowledge1 a man would easily collect them in the places where they were to be got4 ,i was astonished1 when ,i heard the country people complaining of the badness of the pastures2 but ,i likewise perceived their negligence1 and often saw excellent plants growing on their own grounds1 which only required a little more attention and assistance from their unexperienced owners4 ,i found every where the wisdom and goodness of the ,creator2 but too seldom saw any acknowledgment1 or adequate estimation of it1 among men4 ,o fortunatos nimium sua si bona norint1 ,agricolas6 ,virg4 ,georgic4 ,i have been led to these reflections1 which may perhaps seem foreign to my purpose1 by the bad and neglected state of agriculture in every part of this continent4 ,i likewise intended to shew the reason why this journal is so thinly stocked with conomical advantages in the several branches of husbandry4 ,i do not however deny1 that ,i have sometimes found one or two skilful conomists1 but they were very scarce4 ,birds of prey which pursue the poultry are found in abundance here1 and if possible more plentiful than in ,sweden4 ,they enjoy great liberty here1 as there are still great forests in many places1 from whence they can come unawares upon chickens and ducks4 ,to the birds of prey it is quite indifferent whether the woods consist of good or bad trees1 provided they are in shade4 ,at night the owls1 which are very numerous1 endanger the safety of the tame fowls4 ,they live chiefly in marshes1 give a disagreeable shriek at night1 and attack the chickens1 which commonly roost at night in the apple-trees1 peach-trees1 and cherry-trees1 in the garden4 ,but since they are very busy in clearing this country of woods1 as we are in ,sweden and ,finland1 it may be of use for exposing the birds of prey1 more than they are now1 and for depriving them of the opportunities of doing mischief with so much ease4 ,the thick forests of ,america contain numbers of stags2 they do not seem to be a different species from the ,european stags4 ,an ,englishman was possessed of a tame hind4 ,it is observable that though these creatures are very shy when wild in the woods and the cedar swamps1 which are very much frequented by them1 yet they can be tamed to such a degree1 if taken young1 that they will come of their own accord to people1 and even to strangers3 ,this hind was caught when it was but very little2 the colour of the whole body was a dirty reddish brown1 the belly and the under side of the tail excepted1 which were white2 the ears were grey2 the head1 towards the snout1 was very narrow1 but upon the whole the creature looked very fine4 ,the hair lay close together1 and was quite short2 the tail reached almost to the bend of the knee1 near which1 on the inside of each hind-foot1 was a knob or callus4 ,the possessor of the hind said1 that he had tamed several stags1 by catching them whilst they were very young4 ,it was now big with young ones4 ,it had a little bell hung about its neck1 that by walking in the woods1 the people might know it to be tame1 and take care not to shoot it4 ,it was at liberty to go where it pleased1 and to keep it confined would have been a pretty hard task1 as it could leap over the highest enclosures4 ,sometimes it went far into the woods1 and frequently staid away a night or two1 but afterwards returned home like other cattle4 ,when it went into the woods1 it was often accompanied by wild stags1 and decoyed them even into the very houses1 especially in rutting time1 giving its master numerous opportunities of shooting the wild stags1 almost at his door4 ,its scent was excellent1 and when it was turned towards the wind1 ,i often saw it rising and looking towards that part1 though ,i did not see any people on the road1 but they commonly appeared about an hour after4 ,as soon as the wild stags have the scent of a man1 they make off4 ,in winter the man fed the hind with corn and hay2 but in summer it went out into the woods and meadows1 seeking its own food1 eating both grass and other plants3 it was now kept in a meadow2 it did chiefly eat clover1 the leaves of hiccory1 of the ,andromeda paniculata1 and the ,geranium maculatum4 ,it was likewise contented with the leaves of the common plantane1 or ,plantaga1 grasses1 and several other plants4 ,the possessor of this hind sold stags to people in ,philadelphia1 who sent them as curiosities to other places4 ,he got twenty-five1 thirty1 and forty shillings a-piece for them4 ,the food of the wild stags in summer is grass and several plants2 but in winter1 when they are not to be got1 they eat the shoots and young sprigs of branches4 ,i have already mentioned #ej that they eat without any danger the spoon-tree1 or ,kalmia latifolia1 which is poison to other animals4 ,in the long and severe winter1 which commenced here upon the tenth of ,december1 #agdj1 and continued to the thirteenth of ,march1 old stile1 during the course of which there fell a great quantity of snow1 the stags were found dead in the snow1 but chiefly higher up the country1 where the snow was deeper4 ,nobody could determine whether their death was the consequence of the great quantity and depth of snow1 which hindered their getting out1 or whether the frost had been too severe1 and of too long duration1 or whether they were short of food4 ,the old people likewise relate1 that vast numbers of stags came down in the year #agje1 when there was a heavy fall of snow1 near a yard deep1 and that they were afterwards found dead in the woods1 in great numbers1 because the snow was deeper than they could pass through4 ,numbers of birds were likewise found dead at that time4 ,in that same winter1 a stag came to ,matsong into the stables1 and ate hay together with the cattle4 ,it was so pinched by hunger1 that it grew tame immediately1 and did not run away from people4 ,it afterwards continued in the house1 as another tame creature4 ,all aged persons asserted1 that formerly this country abounded more with stags than it does at present4 ,it was formerly not uncommon to see thirty or forty of them in a flock together4 ,the reason of their decrease is chiefly owing to the increase of population1 the destruction of the woods1 and the number of people who kill and frighten the stags at present4 ,however1 high up in the country1 in great forests and desarts1 there are yet great numbers of them4 ,among their enemies is the ,lynx of this country1 which is the same with the ,swedish one #ea4 ,they climb up the trees1 and when the stags pass by1 they dart down upon him1 get fast hold1 bite1 and suck the blood1 and never give over till they have killed it4 ,i saw several holes in the ground1 both on hills and on fields1 and fallow grounds2 they were round1 and commonly about an inch wide2 they went almost perpendicularly into the earth1 and were made by dung-beetles1 or by great worms1 which are made use of for angling4 ,the dung-beetles had dug very deep into the ground1 thro' horse-dung1 tho' it lay on the hardest road1 so that a great heap of earth lay near it4 ,these holes were afterwards occupied by other insects1 especially grasshoppers1 7,grylli7 and ,cicad2 for by digging these holes up1 ,i commonly found one or more young ones of these insects1 which had not yet got their perfect size4 ,may the #aith4 ,this morning ,i left ,raccoon1 a parish in the country called ,new ,sweden1 and which is yet chiefly inhabited by ,swedes1 in order to proceed in my travels to the ,north4 ,i first intended to set out with the beginning of ,april1 but for several reasons this was not adviseble4 ,no leaves were come out at that time1 and hardly any flowers appeared4 ,i did not know what flowers grew here in spring2 for the autumnal plants are different from the vernal ones4 ,the ,swedes had this winter told me the conomical and medical uses of many plants1 to which they gave names unknown to me3 they could not then shew me those plants on account of the season1 and by their deficient and erroneous descriptions1 ,i was not able to guess what plants they meant4 ,by going away so early as the beginning of ,april1 ,i would have remained in uncertainty in regard to these things4 ,it was therefore fit1 that ,i should spend a part of the spring at ,raccoon1 especially as ,i had still time enough left for my tour to the ,north4 ,on the road we saw a ,black ,snake1 which we killed1 and found just five foot long4 ,catesby has described it and its qualities1 and also drawn it #eb4 ,the full-grown ,black ,snakes are commonly about five feet long1 but very slender2 the thickest ,i ever saw was in the broadest part hardly three inches thick2 the back is black1 shining1 and smooth2 the chin white and smooth2 the belly whitish turning into blue1 shining1 and very smooth2 ,i believe there are some varieties of this snake4 ,one which was nineteen inches long1 had a hundred and eighty-six scales on the belly1 7,scuta ,abdominalia7 and ninety-two half scales on the tail 7,squam subcaudales71 which ,i found to be true1 by a repeated counting of the scales4 ,another1 which was seventeen inches and a half in length1 had a hundred and eighty-four scales on the belly1 and only sixty-four half scales on the tail2 this ,i likewise assured myself of1 by counting the scales over again4 ,it is possible that the end of this last snake's tail was cut off1 and the wound healed up again #ec4 ,the country abounds with ,black ,snakes4 ,they are among the first that come out in spring1 and often appear very early if warm weather happens2 but if it grows cold again after that1 they are quite frozen1 and lie stiff and torpid on the ground or on the ice2 when taken in this state and put before a fire1 they revive in less than an hour's time4 ,it has sometimes happened1 when the beginning of ,january is very warm1 that they come out of their winter habitations4 ,they commonly appear about the end of ,march1 old style4 ,this is the swiftest of all the snakes which are to be found here1 for it moves so quick1 that a dog can hardly catch it4 ,it is therefore almost impossible for a man to escape it if pursued3 but happily its bite is neither poisonous nor any way dangerous2 many people have been bit by it in the woods1 and have scarce felt any more inconvenience than if they had been wounded by a knife2 the wounded place only remains painful for some time4 ,the ,black ,snakes seldom do any harm1 except in spring1 when they copulate2 but if any body comes in their way at that time1 they are so much vexed1 as to pursue him as fast as they can4 ,if they meet with a person who is afraid of them1 he is in great distress4 ,i am acquainted with several people1 who have on such an occasion run so hard as to be quite out of breath1 in endeavouring to escape the snake1 which moved with the swiftness of an arrow after them4 ,if a person thus pursued can muster up courage enough to oppose the snake with a stick or any thing else1 when it is either passed by him1 or when he steps aside to avoid it1 it will turn back again1 and seek a refuge in its swiftness4 ,it is1 however1 sometimes bold enough to run directly upon a man1 and not to depart before it has received a good stroke4 ,i have been assured by several1 that when it overtakes a person1 who has tried to escape it1 and who has not courage enough to oppose it1 it winds round his feet1 so as to make him fall down2 it then bites him several times in the leg1 or whatever part it can get hold of1 and goes off again4 ,i shall mention two circumstances1 which confirm what ,i have said4 ,during my stay in ,new ,york1 ,dr4 ,colden told me1 that in the spring1 #agdh1 he had several workmen at his country seat1 and among them one lately arrived from ,europe1 who of course knew very little of the qualities of the ,black ,snake4 ,the other workmen seeing a great ,black ,snake copulating with its female1 engaged the new comer to go and kill it1 which he intended to do with a little stick4 ,but on approaching the place where the snakes lay1 they perceived him1 and the male in great wrath leaves his pleasure to pursue the fellow with amazing swiftness2 he little expected such courage in the snake1 and flinging away his stick1 began to run as fast as he was able4 ,the snake pursued him1 overtook him1 and twisting several times round his feet1 threw him down1 and frightened him almost out of his senses2 he could not get rid of the snake1 till he took a knife and cut it through in two of three places4 ,the other ,workmen were rejoiced at this sight1 and laughed at it1 without offering to help their companion4 ,many people at ,albany told me of an accident which happened to a young lady1 who went out of town in summer1 together with many other girls1 attended by her negro4 ,she sat down in the wood1 in a place where the others were running about1 and before she was aware1 a ,black ,snake being disturbed in its amours1 ran under her petticoats1 and twisted round her waist1 so that she fell backwards in a swoon occasioned by her fright1 or by the compression which the snake caused4 ,the negro came up to her1 and suspecting that a ,black ,snake might have hurt her1 on making use of a remedy to bring his lady to herself again1 he lifted up her cloaths1 and really found the snake wound about her body as close as possible2 the negro was not able to tear it away1 and therefore cut it1 and the girl came to herself again2 but she conceived so great an aversion to the negro1 that she could not bear the sight of him afterwards1 and died of a consumption4 ,at other times of the year this snake is more apt to run away1 than to attack people4 ,however ,i have heard it asserted frequently1 that even in summer when its time of copulation is past1 it pursues people1 especially children1 if it finds that they are afraid and run from her4 ,several people likewise assured me from their own experience1 that it may be provoked to pursue people1 if they throw at it1 and then run away4 ,i cannot well doubt of this1 as ,i have heard it said by numbers of creditable people2 but ,i could never succeed in provoking them4 ,i ran always away on perceiving it1 or flung something at it1 and then took to my heels1 but ,i could never bring the snakes to pursue me3 ,i know not for what reason they shunned me1 unless they took me for an artful seducer4 ,most of the people in this country ascribed to this snake a power of fascinating birds and squirrels1 as ,i have described in several parts of my ,journal #ed4 ,when the snake lies under a tree1 and has fixed his eyes on a bird or squirrel above2 it obliges them to come down1 and to go directly into its mouth4 ,i cannot account for this1 for ,i never saw it done4 ,however1 ,i have a list of more than twenty persons1 among which are some of the most creditable people1 who have all unanimously1 though living far distant from each other1 asserted the same thing2 they allured me upon their honor1 that they have seen 7at several times7 these ,black ,snakes fascinating squirrels and birds which sat on the tops of trees1 the snake lying at the foot of the tree1 with its eyes fixed upon the bird or squirrel1 which sits above it1 and utters a doleful note2 from which it is easy to conclude with certainty that it is about to be fascinated1 though you cannot see it4 ,the bird or squirrel runs up and down along the tree continuing its plaintive song1 and always comes nearer the snake1 whose eyes are unalterably fixed upon it4 ,it should seem as if these poor creatures endeavoured to escape the snake1 by hopping or running up the tree2 but there appears to be a power which withholds them3 they are forced downwards1 and each time that they turn back1 they approach nearer their enemy1 till they are at last forced to leap into its mouth1 which stands wide open for that purpose4 ,numbers of squirrels and birds are continually running and hopping fearless in the woods on the ground1 where the snakes ly in wait for them1 and can easily give these poor creatures a mortal bite4 ,therefore it seems that this fascination might be thus interpreted1 that the creature has first got a mortal wound from the snake1 which is sure of her bite1 and lies quiet1 being assured that the wounded creature has been poisoned with the bite1 or at least feels pain from the violence of the bite1 and that it will at last be obliged to come down into its mouth4 ,the plaintive note is perhaps occasioned by the acuteness of the pain which the wound gives the creature4 ,but to this it may be objected1 that the bite of the ,black ,snake is not poisonous2 it may further be objected1 that if the snake could come near enough to a bird or squirrel to give it a mortal bite1 it might as easily keep hold of it1 or1 as it sometimes does with poultry1 twist round and strangle or stifle it4 ,but the chief objection which lies against this interpretation1 is the following account1 which ,i received from the most creditable people1 who have assured me of it4 ,the squirrel being upon the point of running into the snake's mouth1 the spectators have not been able to let it come to that pitch1 but killed the snake1 and as soon as it had got a mortal blow1 the squirrel or bird destined for destruction1 flew away1 and left off their moanful note1 as if they had broke loose from a net4 ,some say1 that if they only touched the snake1 so as to draw off its attention from the squirrel1 it went off quickly1 not stopping till it had got to a great distance4 ,why do the squirrels or birds go away so suddenly1 and why no sooner8 ,if they had been poisoned or bitten by the snake before1 so as not to be able to get from the tree1 and to be forced to approach the snake always more and more1 they could however not get new strength by the snake being killed or diverted4 ,therefore1 it seems that they are only enchanted1 whilst the snake has its eyes fixed on them4 ,however1 this looks odd and unaccountable1 though many of the worthiest and most reputable people have related it1 and though it is so universally believed here1 that to doubt it would be to expose one's self to general laughter4 ,the black snakes kill the smaller species of frogs1 and eat them4 ,if they get at eggs of poultry1 or of other birds1 they make holes in them1 and suck the contents4 ,when the hens are sitting on the eggs1 they creep into the nest1 wind round the birds1 stifle them1 and suck the eggs4 ,mr4 ,bartram asserted1 that he had often seen this snake creep up into the tallest trees1 after bird's eggs1 or young birds1 always with the head foremost1 when descending4 ,a ,swede told me1 that a black snake had once got the head of one of his hens in its mouth1 and was wound several times round the body1 when he came and killed the snake4 ,the hen was afterwards as well as ever4 ,this snake is very greedy of milk1 and it is difficult to keep it out1 when it is once used to go into a cellar where milk is kept4 ,it has been seen eating milk out of the same dish with children1 without biting them1 though they often gave it blows with the spoon upon the head1 when it was overgreedy4 ,i never heard it hissing4 ,it can raise more than one half of its body from the ground1 in order to look about her4 ,it skins every year2 and its skin is said to be a remedy against the cramp1 if continually worn about the body4 ,the rye was now beginning to flower4 ,i have often observed with astonishment1 on my travels1 the great difference between the plants and the soil1 on the two opposite banks of brooks4 ,sometimes a brook1 which one can stride over1 has plants on one bank widely different from those on the opposite bank4 ,therefore1 whenever ,i came to a great brook or a river1 ,i expected to find plants which ,i had not met with before4 ,their seeds are carried down with the stream from distant parts4 ,the soil is likewise very often different on the different sides of a rivulet1 being rich and fertile on the one1 and dry1 barren1 and sandy on the other4 ,but a great river can make still greater differences4 ,thus we see the great disparity between the province of ,pensylvania1 and ,new ,jersey1 which are only divided by the river ,delaware4 ,in ,pensylvania the soil consists of a mould mixed with sand and clay1 and is very rich and fertile3 and in the woods which are higher in the country1 the ground is mountainous and stony4 ,on the other hand1 in the province of ,new ,jersey1 the soil is poor and dry1 and not very fertile1 some parts excepted4 ,you can hardly find a stone in ,new ,jersey1 and much less mountains4 ,in ,pensylvania you scarce ever see a fir-tree1 and in ,new ,jersey are whole woods of it4 ,this evening ,i arrived at ,philadelphia4 ,may the #bb;d4 ,the locusts began to creep out of their holes in the ground last night1 and continued to do so to-day4 ,as soon as their wings were dry1 they began their song1 which is almost sufficient to make one deaf1 when travelling through the woods4 ,this year there was an immense number of them4 ,i have given a minute account of them1 of their food1 qualities1 c4 in the ,memoirs of the ,swedish ,royal ,academy of ,sciences #ee2 it is therefore needless to repeat it here1 and ,i refer the reader to the quoted place4 ,may the #beth4 ,the tulip-tree 7,liriodendron tulipifera7 was now in full blossom4 ,the flowers have a resemblance to tulips1 and look very fine1 and though they have not a very agreeable smell1 yet the eye is pleased to see trees as tall as full-grown oaks1 covered with tulip-like flowers4 ,on the flowers of the tulip-tree was an olive-coloured ,chafer 7,scarabus7 without horns 7muticus71 the future and borders of his wing-shells 7,elytr7 were black1 and his thighs brown4 ,i cannot with certainty say whether they collected the pollen of the flower1 or whether they coupled4 ,later in summer1 ,i saw the same kind of beetles make deep holes into the ripe mulberries1 either to eat them1 or to lay their eggs in them4 ,i likewise found them abundant in the leaves of the ,magnolia glauca1 or beaver-tree4 ,the strawberries were now ripe on the hills4 ,the country people already brought ripe cherries up to town2 but they were only a few to satisfy curiosity1 yet we may form a judgment of the climate from hence4 ,may the #bfth4 ,a peculiar kind of storm called a ,travat1 or ,travado1 happened to-day4 ,in the evening about ten o'clock1 when the sky was quite clear1 a thick1 black cloud came rushing from the south-west1 with a wind4 ,the air was quite calm1 and we could not feel any breeze4 ,but the approach of this cloud was perceived from the strong rushing noise in the woods to the south-west1 and which encreased in proportion as the cloud came nearer4 ,as soon as it was come up to us1 it was attended by a violent gust of wind1 which in its course threw down the weaker enclosures1 carried them a good way along with it1 and broke down several trees4 ,it was then followed by a hard shower of rain1 which put an end to the storm1 and every thing was calm as before4 ,these travadoes are frequent in summer1 and have the quality of cooling the air4 ,however1 they often do a deal of damage4 ,they are commonly attended by thunder and lightning2 as soon as they are passed over1 the sky is as clear as it was before4 ,may the #bhth4 ,the ,magnolia glauca was now in full bloom4 ,its flowers have a very pleasant fragrancy1 which refreshes the travellers in the woods1 especially towards the evening4 ,the flowers of the wild vine afterwards supplied the place of those of the ,magnolia4 ,several other flowers contribute likewise towards perfuming the ambient air4 ,the ,kalmia angustifolia was now every where in flower4 ,it grows chiefly on sandy heaths1 or on dry poor grounds1 which few other plants will agree with2 it is common in ,pensylvania1 but particularly in ,new ,jersey1 and the province of ,new ,york1 it is scarce in ,canada2 its leaves stay the winter2 the flowers are a real ornament to the woods2 they grow in bunches like crowns1 and are of a fine lively purple colour2 at the bottom is a circle of deep purple1 and within it a greyish or whitish colour4 ,the flowers grow as aforesaid1 in bunches1 round the extremity of the stalk1 and make it look like a decorated pyramid4 ,the ,english at ,new ,york call this plant the ,dwarf ,laurel4 ,its qualities are the same with those of the ,kalmia latifolia1 viz4 that it kills sheep and other lesser animals1 when they eat plentifully of it4 ,i do not know whether it is noxious to the greater cattle4 ,it is not of any known use1 and only serves to attract the eye whilst in flower4 ,the ,kalmia latifolia was likewise in full blossom at present4 ,it rivals the preceding one1 in the beauty of its colour2 yet though they are conspicuous in regard to the colours and shape of their flowers1 they are no ways remarkable for smell1 such as the ,magnolia is2 for they have little or no smell at all4 ,so equally and justly does nature distribute her gifts2 no part of the creation has them all1 each has its own1 and none is absolutely without a share of them4 ,may the #cjth4 ,the ,moravian ,brethren1 who arrived in great numbers from ,europe1 at ,new ,york1 in ,may1 brought two converted ,greenlanders with them4 ,the ,moravians who were already settled in ,america1 immediately sent some of their brethren from ,philadelphia to the new comers1 in order to welcome them4 ,among these deputies were two ,north ,american ,indians1 who had been converted to their doctrine1 and likewise two ,south ,american ,indians1 from ,surinam4 ,these three kinds of converted ,indians accordingly met at ,new ,york4 ,i had no opportunity of seeing them2 but all those who had seen them1 and whom ,i conversed with1 thought that they had plainly perceived a similarity in their features and shape1 the ,greenlanders being only somewhat smaller4 ,they concluded from hence1 that all these three kinds of ,americans were the posterity of one and the same descendant of ,noah1 or that they were perhaps yet more nearly related4 ,how far their guesses are to be relied upon1 ,i cannot determine4 ,ripe cherries were now already pretty common1 and consequently cheap4 ,yams are a species of roots1 which are cultivated in the hottest parts of ,america1 for eating1 as we do potatoes4 ,it has not yet been attempted to plant them here1 and they are brought from the ,west ,indies in ships2 therefore they are reckoned a rarity here1 and as such ,i ate them at ,dr4 ,franklin's to-day4 ,they are white1 and taste like common potatoes1 but not quite so agreeable2 and ,i think it would not be worth while to plant them in ,sweden1 though they might bear the climate4 ,the plant these roots belong to is the ,dioscorea alata4 ,the inhabitants make plenty of cheese4 ,they are not reckoned so good as ,english cheese3 however1 some take them to be full as good when old2 and so they seemed to me4 ,a man from ,boston in ,new-,england told me1 that they made very good cheese there3 but they take care to keep the cattle from salt water1 especially those who live near the sea-coasts2 for it has been found1 that the cheese will not become so good when the cows graze near salt water1 as it will when they have fresh water4 ,this1 however1 wants nearer examination1 in my opinion4 ,may the #cast4 ,about noon ,i left ,philadelphia1 and went on board a small yacht1 which sails continually up and down upon the river ,delaware1 between ,trenton and ,philadelphia4 ,we sailed up the river with fair wind and weather4 ,sturgeons leaped often a fathom into the air4 ,we saw them continuing this exercise all day1 till we came to ,trenton4 ,the banks on the ,pensylvanian side were low2 and those on the ,new ,jersey side steep and sandy1 but not very high4 ,on both sides we perceived forests of tall trees1 with deciduous leaves4 ,during the course of this month1 the forenoon was always calm2 but immediately after noon it began to blow gently1 and sometimes pretty strongly4 ,this morning was likewise fair2 and in the afternoon it was cloudy1 but did not rain4 ,the banks of the river were sometimes high1 and sometimes low4 ,we saw some small houses near the shore1 in the woods2 and1 now and then1 a good house built of stone4 ,the river now decreased visibly in breadth4 ,about three o'clock this afternoon we passed ,burlington4 ,burlington1 the chief town in the province of ,new ,jersey1 and the residence of the governor1 is but a small town1 about twenty miles from ,philadelphia1 on the eastern side of the ,delaware4 ,the houses were chiefly built of stone1 though they stood far distant from each other4 ,the town has a good situation1 since ships of considerable burden can sail close up to it3 but ,philadelphia prevents its carrying on an extensive trade2 for the proprietors of that place #ef have granted it great immunities1 by which it is increased so as to swallow all the trade of the adjacent towns4 ,the house of the governor at ,burlington is but a small one3 it is built of stone1 close by the river side1 and is the first building in the town as you come from ,philadelphia4 ,it is observed1 that about the full moons1 when the tides are highest1 and the high water at ,cape ,hinlopen comes at nine o'clock in the morning1 it will be at ,chester1 on the river ,delaware1 about ten minutes after one o'clock2 at ,philadelphia1 about ten minutes after two o'clock2 and at ,burlington1 about ten minutes after three o'clock2 for the tide in the river ,delaware comes quite up to ,trenton4 ,these observations were communicated to me by ,mr4 ,lewis ,evans4 ,the banks of the river were now chiefly high and steep on the side of ,new ,jersey1 consisting of a pale brick-coloured soil4 ,on the ,pensylvanian side1 they were gently sloping1 and consisted of a blackish rich mould1 mixed with particles of ,glimmer 7,mica74 ,on the ,new ,jersey side appeared some firs2 but seldom on the other1 except in a few places where they were accidentally brought over from ,new ,jersey4 ,towards night1 after the tide had begun to ebb and the wind was quite subsided1 we could not proceed1 but dropped our anchor about seven miles from ,trenton1 and passed the night there4 ,the woods were full of ,fireflies1 7,lampyris7 which flew like sparks of fire between the trees1 and sometimes across the river4 ,in the marshes1 the ,bullfrogs now and then began their hideous roaring2 and more than a hundred of them roared together4 ,the ,whip-poor-will1 or ,goatsucker1 was likewise heard every where4 ,june the #ast4 ,we continued our voyage this morning1 after the rain was over4 ,the river ,delaware was very narrow here1 and the banks the same as we found them yesterday1 after we had passed ,burlington4 ,about eight o'clock in the morning we arrived at ,trenton #eg4 ,june the #b;d4 ,this morning we left ,trenton1 and proceeded towards ,new ,york4 ,the country ,i have described before #eh4 ,the fields were sown with wheat1 rye1 maize1 oats1 hemp1 and flax4 ,in several places1 we saw very large pieces of ground with hemp4 ,we saw abundance of chesnut-trees in the woods4 ,they often stood in excessive poor ground1 which was neither too dry nor too wet4 ,tulip-trees did not appear on the road2 but the people said there were some in the woods4 ,the ,beaver-tree 7,magnolia glauca7 grows in the swamps4 ,it was now in flower1 and the fragrancy of its blossoms had so perfumed the air1 that one could enjoy it before one approached the swamps2 and this fine smell likewise shewed that a beaver-tree was near us1 though we often happened not to see it4 ,the ,phlox ,glaberrima grows abundantly in the woods1 and cuts a fine figure with its red flowers4 ,it grows in such soil here as in ,europe is occupied by the ,lychnis viscaria and ,lychnis dioica1 or red ,catchfly and ,campion4 ,the ,phlox maculata grows abundantly in wet ground1 and has fine red and odoriferous flowers4 ,it grows on low meadows1 where in ,europe the ,meadow-pinks1 or ,lychnis flos cuculi1 would be met with4 ,by adding to these flowers the ,bartsia coccinea1 the ,lobelia cardinalis1 and the ,monarda didyma1 which grow wild in this country1 they are undoubtedly altogether adorned with the finest red imaginable4 ,the ,sassafras-tree was abundant in the woods1 and near the inclosures4 ,the houses which we passed by were most of them wooden4 ,in one place1 ,i saw the people building a house with walls of mere clay1 which is likewise employed in making ovens for baking4 ,buckwheat was already coming up in several places4 ,we saw single plants of it all day in the woods1 and in the fields1 but always by the side of the road2 from whence it may be concluded1 that they spring up from lost and scattered seeds4 ,late this evening we arrived at ,new ,brunswick #ei4 ,june the #c;d4 ,at noon we went on board a yacht bound for ,new ,york1 and sailed down the river1 which had at first pretty high and steep banks1 of red sandstone1 on each side1 which ,i have mentioned before4 #fj ,now and then1 there was a farm-house on the high shore4 ,as we came lower down1 we saw on both sides great fields and meadows1 close up to the water4 ,we could not sail at random with the yacht2 for the river was often shallow in some places1 and sometimes in the very middle4 ,for that purpose1 the course which we were to take was marked out by branches with leaves on them4 ,at last we got into the sea1 which bounded our prospect on the south2 but on the other side1 we were continually in sight of land at some distance4 ,on coming to the mouth of the river1 we had a choice of two roads to ,new ,york2 viz4 either within the ,staten ,island1 or without it4 ,the inhabitants are determined in their choice by the weather2 for when it is stormy and cloudy1 or dark1 they do not venture to sail without1 where the sea itself communicates4 ,we took that course now1 it being very pleasant weather2 and though we struck on the sands once or twice1 yet we got loose again1 and arrived at ,new ,york about nine o'clock4 ,of this town ,i have given an account in the preceding volume #fa4 ,june the #dth4 ,i found vines in several gardens1 got from the old countries4 ,they bear annually a quantity of excellent grapes4 ,when the winters are very severe1 they are killed by the frost1 and die quite to the ground2 but the next spring new shoots spring up from the root4 ,strawberries were now sold in abundance about the town every day4 ,an ,englishman from ,jamaica asserted1 that in that island there were no strawberries4 ,the snakes are very fond of strawberries4 ,those which they had here were not so good as the ,swedish and ,finland ones4 ,red ,clover was sown in several places on the hills without the town4 ,the country people were now employed in mowing the meadows4 ,some were already mown2 and the dry clover was put under cover1 in order to be carried away the first opportunity4 ,cherry-trees were planted in great quantities before the farm-houses1 and along the high-roads1 from ,philadelphia to ,new ,brunswick2 but behind that place they became more scarce4 ,on coming to ,staten ,island1 in the province of ,new ,york1 ,i found them very common again1 near the gardens4 ,here are not so many varieties of cherries as there are in ,pensylvania4 ,i seldom saw any of the black sweet cherries #fb at ,new ,york2 but commonly the sour red ones4 ,all travellers are allowed to pluck ripe fruit in any garden which they pass by2 and not even the most covetous farmer can hinder them from so doing4 ,between ,new ,brunswick and ,staten ,island1 are a few cherry-gardens2 but proportionably more orchards1 with apple-trees4 ,june the #fth4 ,several gentlemen and merchants1 between fifty and sixty years of age1 asserted1 that during their life they had plainly found several kinds of fish decrease in number every year2 and that they could not get near so many fish now as they could formerly4 ,rum1 a brandy prepared from the sugar-canes1 and in great use with all the ,english ,north ,american colonies1 is reckoned much wholesomer than brandy1 made from wine or corn #fc4 ,in confirmation of this opinion1 they say1 that if you put a piece of fresh meat into rum1 and another into brandy1 and leave them there for some months2 that in the rum will keep as it was1 but that in the brandy will be quite eaten1 and full of holes4 ,but this experiment does not seem a very accurate one to me4 ,major ,roderfort told me1 that being upon the ,canada expedition1 he had observed1 that such of his men as drank brandy for some time died of it2 but those who drank rum were not hurt1 though they got drunk with it every day1 and oftener than the others4 ,long-,island is the name of an island opposite the town of ,new ,york1 in the sea4 ,the northern part of the island is much more fertile than the southern4 ,formerly there lived a number of ,indians on this island2 and there are yet some1 which however decrease in number every year1 because they leave the island4 ,the soil of the southern part of the island is very poor2 but this deficiency is made up by a vast quantity of oysters1 lobsters1 crabs1 several kinds of fish1 and numbers of water fowl1 all which are there far more abundant than on the northern shores of the ,island4 ,therefore the ,indians formerly chose the southern part to live in1 because they subsisted on oysters1 and other productions of the sea4 ,when the tide is out1 it is very easy to fill a whole cart with oysters1 which have been driven on shore by one flood4 ,the ,island is strewed with oystershells and other shells1 which the ,indians left there2 these shells serve now for good manure for the fields4 ,the southern part of the ,island is turned into meadows1 and the northern part into fields4 ,the winter is more constant on the northern part1 and the snow in spring lies longer there than on the southern part4 ,the people are very fertile here1 and commonly tall and strong4 ,june the #ajth4 ,at noon we left ,new ,york1 and sailed up the river ,hudson1 in a yacht bound for ,albany4 ,all this afternoon we saw a whole fleet of little boats returning from ,new ,york1 whither they had brought provisions and other goods for sale1 which on account of the extensive commerce of this town1 and the great number of its inhabitants1 go off very well4 ,the river ,hudson runs from ,north to ,south here1 except some high pieces of land which sometimes project far into it1 and alter its direction2 its breadth at the mouth is reckoned about a mile and a quarter4 ,some porpesses played and tumbled in the river4 ,the eastern shore1 or the ,new ,york side1 was at first very steep and high2 but the western was very sloping and covered with woods4 ,there appeared farm-houses on both sides1 surrounded with corn-fields4 ,the ground of which the steep shores consisted was of a pale brick colour1 and some little rocks of a grey sand-stone were seen here and there4 ,about ten or twelve miles from ,new ,york1 the western shore appears quite different from what it was before2 it consists of steep mountains with perpendicular sides towards the river1 and they are exactly like the steep sides of the mountains of ,hall and ,hunnebarg in ,west ,gothland4 ,sometimes a rock projects like the salliant angle of a bastion3 the tops of these mountains are covered with oaks1 and other wood2 a number of stones of all sizes lay along the shore1 having rolled down from the mountains4 ,these high and steep mountains continue for some ,english miles on the western shore2 but on the eastern side the land is high1 and sometimes diversified with hills and valleys1 which are commonly covered with deciduous trees1 amongst which there appears a farm now and then in a glade4 ,the hills are covered with stones in some places4 ,about twelve miles from ,new ,york we saw ,sturgeons #fd 7,acipenser ,sturio71 leaping up out of the water1 and on the whole passage we met with porpesses in the river4 ,as we proceeded we found the eastern banks of the river very much cultivated2 and a number of pretty farms surrounded with orchards and fine corn-fields1 presented themselves to our view4 ,about twenty-two miles from ,new ,york1 the high mountains which ,i have before mentioned left us1 and made as it were a high ridge here from east to west quite across the country4 ,this altered the face of the country on the western shore of the river3 from mountainous1 it became interspersed with little vallies and round hillocks1 which were scarce inhabited at all2 but the eastern shore continued to afford us a delightful prospect4 ,after sailing a little while in the night1 we cast our anchor and lay here till the morning1 especially as the tide was ebbing with great force4 ,june the #aath4 ,this morning we continued our voyage up the river1 with the tide and a faint breeze4 ,we now passed the ,highland mountains1 which were to the ,east of us2 they consist of a grey sandstone1 are very high and pretty steep1 and covered with deciduous trees1 and likewise with firs and red cedars4 ,the western shore was full of rocks1 which however did not come up to the height of the mountains on the opposite shore2 the tops of these eastern mountains were cut off from our sight by a thick fog which surrounded them4 ,the country was unfit for cultivation1 being so full of rocks1 and accordingly we saw no farms4 ,the distance from these mountains to ,new ,york is computed at thirty-six ,english miles4 ,a thick fog now rose up from the high mountains4 ,for the space of some ,english miles1 we had hills and rocks on the western banks of the river2 and a change of lesser and greater mountains and vallies covered with young firs1 red cedars1 and oaks1 on the eastern side4 ,the hills close to the river side are commonly low1 but their height increases as they are further from the river4 ,afterwards we saw1 for some miles together1 nothing but high round mountains and valleys1 both covered with woods2 the valleys are in reality nothing but low rocks1 and stand perpendicular towards the river in many places4 ,the breadth of the river is sometimes two or three musket shot1 but commonly not above one2 every now and then we saw several kinds of fish leaping out of the water4 ,the wind vanished away about ten o'clock in the morning1 and forced us to get forwards with our oars1 the tide being almost spent4 ,in one place on the western shore we saw a wooden house painted red1 and we were told1 that there was a saw-mill further up2 but besides this we did not perceive one farm or any cultivated grounds all this forenoon4 ,the water in the river has here no more a brackish taste2 yet ,i was told that the tide1 especially when the wind is ,south1 sometimes carries the salt water up higher with it4 ,the colour of the water was likewise altered1 for it appeared darker here than before4 ,to account for the first origin of rivers is very difficult1 if not wholly impossible2 some rivers may have come from a great reservoir of water1 which being considerably encreased by heavy falls of rain or other circumstances1 passed its old bounds and flowed to the lower countries1 through the places where it met with the least opposition4 ,this is perhaps the reason why some rivers run in so many bendings equally through fields of soft earth1 as likewise there1 where mountains1 rocks1 and stones1 divert their passage4 ,however it seems that some rivers derive their first origin from the creation itself1 and that ,providence then pointed out their course2 for their existence can1 in all probability1 not be owing to the accidental eruption of water alone4 ,among these rivers we may rank the river ,hudson3 ,i was surprised on seeing its course1 and the variety of its shores4 ,it takes its rise a good way above ,albany1 and descends to ,new ,york1 in a direct line from ,north to ,south1 which is a distance of about a hundred and sixty ,english miles1 and perhaps more2 for the little bendings which it makes are of no signification4 ,in many places between ,new ,york and ,albany1 are ridges of high mountains running ,west and ,east4 ,but it is remarkable that they go on undisturbed till they come to the river ,hudson1 which cuts directly across them1 and frequently their sides stand perpendicular towards the river4 ,there is an opening left in the chain of mountains1 as broad as the river commonly is1 for it to pass through1 and the mountains go on as before1 on the other side1 in the same direction4 ,it is likewise remarkable1 that the river in such places where it passes through the mountains is as deep1 and often deeper than in the other places4 ,the perpendicular rocks on the sides of the river are surprising1 and it appears that if no passages had been opened by ,providence1 for the river to pass through1 the mountains in the upper part of the country would have been inundated1 since these mountains1 like so many dykes1 would have hindered the water from going on4 ,quere1 ,why does this river go on in a direct line for so considerable a distance8 ,why do the many passages1 through which the river flows across the mountains1 ly under the same meridian8 ,why are water-falls near some of these passages1 or at least shallow water with a rocky ground8 ,we now perceived excessive high and steep mountains on both sides of the river1 which echoed back each sound we uttered4 ,yet notwithstanding they were so high and steep1 they were covered with small trees4 ,the ,blue ,mountains1 which reared their towering tops above all the other mountains1 were now seen before us1 towards ,north1 but at a great distance4 ,the country began here to look more cultivated1 and less mountainous4 ,the last of the high western mountains is called ,butterhill1 after which the country between the mountains grows more spacious4 ,the farms became very numerous1 and we had a prospect of many corn-fields1 between the hills3 before we passed these hills we had the wind in our face1 and we could only get forward by tacking1 which went very slow1 as the river was hardly a musket-shot in breadth4 ,afterwards we cast anchor1 because we had both wind and tide against us4 ,whilst we waited for the return of tide and the change of wind1 we went on shore4 ,the ,sassafras-tree 7,laurus ,sassafras7 and the chesnut-tree grows here in great abundance4 ,i found the tulip-tree 7,liriodendron tulipifera7 in some parts of the wood1 as likewise the ,kalmia latifolia1 which was now in full blossom2 though the flowers were already withering4 ,some time after noon the wind arose from ,south-west1 which being a fair wind1 we weighed anchor1 and continued our voyage4 ,the place where we lay at anchor1 was just the end of those steep and amazing high mountains3 their height is very amazing2 they consist of grey rock stone1 and close to them1 on the shore1 lay a vast number of little stones4 ,as soon as we had passed these mountains1 the country became clearer of mountains1 and higher4 ,the river likewise encreased in breadth1 so as to be near an ,english mile broad4 ,after sailing for some time1 we found no more mountains along the river2 but on the eastern side goes a high chain of mountains to the north-east1 whose sides are covered with woods1 up to one half of their height4 ,the summits however are quite barren2 for ,i suppose that nothing would grow there1 on account of the great degree of heat #fe1 dryness1 and the violence of the wind1 to which that part is exposed4 ,the eastern side of the river is much more cultivated than the western1 where we seldom saw a house1 the land being covered with woods1 though it is in general very level4 ,about fifty-six ,english miles from ,new ,york the country is not very high2 yet it is every where covered with woods1 except some new farms which were scattered here and there4 ,the high mountains which we left in the afternoon1 now appeared above the woods and the country4 ,these mountains1 which were called the ,highlands1 did not project more ,north than the other1 in the place where we anchored4 ,their sides 7not those towards the river7 were seldom perpendicular1 but sloping1 so that one could climb up to the top1 though not without difficulty4 ,on several high grounds near the river1 the people burnt lime4 ,the master of the yacht told me1 that they break a fine blueish grey limestone in the high grounds1 along both sides of the river1 for the space of some ,english miles1 and burn lime of it4 ,but at some miles distance there is no more limestone1 and they find also none on the banks till they come to ,albany4 ,we passed by a little neck of land1 which projected on the western side in the river1 and was called ,dance4 ,the name of this place is said to derive its origin from a festival which the ,dutch celebrated here in former times1 and at which they danced and diverted themselves2 but once there came a number of ,indians1 who killed them all4 ,we cast anchor late at night1 because the wind ceased and the tide was ebbing4 ,the depth of the river is twelve fathoms here4 ,the fire-flies passed the river in numbers1 at night1 and sometimes settled upon the rigging4 ,june the #abth4 ,this morning we proceeded with the tide1 but against the wind4 ,the river was here a musket-shot broad4 ,the country in general is low on both sides1 consisting of low rocks1 and stony fields1 which are however covered with woods4 ,it is so rocky1 stony1 and poor1 that nobody can settle in it1 or inhabit it1 there being no spot of ground fit for a corn-field4 ,the country continued to have the same appearance for the space of some miles1 and we never perceived one settlement4 ,at eleven o'clock this morning we came to a little island1 which lies in the middle of the river1 and is said to be half-way between ,new ,york and ,albany4 ,the shores are still low1 stony1 and rocky1 as before4 ,but at a greater distance we saw high mountains1 covered with woods1 chiefly on the western shore1 raising their tops above the rest of the country2 and still further off1 the ,blue ,mountains rose up above them4 ,towards noon it was quite calm1 and we went on very slow4 ,here1 the land is well cultivated1 especially on the eastern shore1 and full of great corn-fields2 yet the soil seemed sandy4 ,several villages lay on the eastern side1 and one of them1 called ,strasburg1 was inhabited by a number of ,germans4 ,to the ,west we saw several cultivated places4 ,the ,blue ,mountains are very plainly to be seen here4 ,they appear through the clouds1 and tower above all other mountains4 ,the river is full an ,english mile broad opposite ,strasburg4 ,they make use of a yellow ,agaricus1 or mushroom1 which grows on maple-trees1 for tinder2 that which is found on the red-flowering maple 7,acer rubrum7 is reckoned the best1 and next in goodness is that of the ,sugar-maple 7,acer saccarinum71 which is sometimes reckoned as good as the former4 ,rhinbeck is a place at some distance from ,strasburg1 further off from the river4 ,it is inhabited by many ,germans1 who have a church there4 ,their clergyman at present was the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,hartwig1 who knew some ,swedish1 having been at ,gothenburg for some time4 ,this little town is not visible from the river-side4 ,at two in the afternoon it began again to blow from the south1 which enabled us to proceed4 ,the country on the eastern side is high1 and consists of a well cultivated soil4 ,we had fine corn-fields1 pretty farms1 and good orchards1 in view4 ,the western shore is likewise somewhat high1 but still covered with woods1 and we now and then1 though seldom1 saw one or two little settlements4 ,the river is above an ,english mile broad in most places1 and comes in a strait line from the ,north1 so that we could not sometimes follow it with our eye4 ,june the #acth4 ,the wind favoured our voyage during the whole night1 so that ,i had no opportunity of observing the nature of the country4 ,this morning at five o'clock we were but nine ,english miles from ,albany4 ,the country on both sides the river is low1 and covered with woods1 excepting a few little scattered settlements4 ,under the higher shores of the river are wet meadows1 covered with sword-grass 7,carex71 and they formed several little islands4 ,we saw no mountains2 and hastened towards ,albany4 ,the land on both sides of the river is chiefly low1 and more carefully cultivated as we came nearer to ,albany4 ,as to the houses1 which we saw1 some were of wood1 others of stone4 ,the river is seldom above a musket-shot broad1 and in several parts of it are sands1 which require great experience for governing the yachts4 ,at eight o'clock in the morning we arrived at ,albany4 ,all the yachts which ply between ,albany and ,new ,york1 belong to ,albany4 ,they go up and down the river ,hudson1 as long as it is open and free from ice4 ,they bring from ,albany boards or planks1 and all sorts of timber1 flour1 pease1 and furs1 which they get from the ,indians1 or which are smuggled from the ,french4 ,they come home almost empty1 and only bring a few merchandizes with them1 among which rum is the chief4 ,this last is absolutely necessary to the inhabitants of ,albany2 they cheat the ,indians in the fur trade with it2 for when the ,indians are drunk1 they will leave it to the ,albanians to fix the price of the furs4 ,the yachts are pretty large1 and have a good cabbin1 in which the passengers can be very commodiously lodged4 ,they are commonly built of red ,cedar1 or of white ,oak4 ,frequently1 the bottom consists of white oak1 and the sides of red cedar1 because the latter withstands putrefaction much longer than the former4 ,the red cedar is likewise apt to split1 when it hits against any thing1 and the river ,hudson is in many parts full of sands and rocks1 against which the keel of the yacht sometimes hits2 therefore they choose white oak for the bottom1 as being the softer wood1 and not splitting so easily3 and the bottom being continually under water1 is not so much exposed to putrefaction1 and holds out longer4 ,the ,canoes which the yachts have along with them1 are made of a single piece of wood1 hollowed out2 they are sharp on both ends1 frequently three or four fathoms long1 and as broad as the thickness of the wood will allow4 ,the people in it do not row sitting1 but commonly a fellow stands at each end1 with a short oar in his hand1 with which he governs and brings the canoe forwards4 ,those which are made here at ,albany1 are commonly of the white ,pine2 they can do service for eight or twelve years1 especially if they be tarred and painted4 ,at ,albany they make them of the white pine1 since there is no other wood fit for them2 at ,new ,york they are made of the tulip-tree1 and in other parts they are made of red or white cedars3 but both these trees are so small1 in the neighbourhood of ,albany1 that they are unfit for canoes2 there are no seats in the canoes1 for if they had any1 they would be more liable to be overset1 as one could not keep the equilibrium so well4 ,battoes #ff are another kind of boats1 which are much in use in ,albany3 they are made of boards of white pine2 the bottom is flat1 that they may row the better in shallow water2 they are sharp at both ends1 and somewhat higher towards the end than in the middle4 ,they have seats in them1 and are rowed as common boats4 ,they are long1 yet not all alike1 commonly three1 and sometimes four fathoms long4 ,the height from the bottom to the top of the board 7for the sides stand almost perpendicular7 is from twenty inches to two feet1 and the breadth in the middle about a yard and six inches4 ,they are chiefly made use of for carrying goods1 by means of the rivers1 to the ,indians2 that is1 when those rivers are open enough for the battoes to pass through1 and when they need not be carried by land a great way4 ,the boats made of the bark of trees1 break easily by knocking against a stone1 and the canoes cannot carry a great cargo1 and are easily overset2 the battoes are therefore preferable to them both4 ,i saw no boats here like those in ,sweden1 and other parts of ,europe4 ,the frost does frequently a great deal of damage at ,albany4 ,there is hardly a month in summer during which a frost does not happen4 ,the spring comes very late1 and in ,april and ,may are numerous cold nights1 which frequently kill the flowers of trees and kitchen-herbs4 ,it was feared that the blossoms of the apple-trees had been so severely damaged by the frost1 last ,may1 that next autumn there would be but very few apples4 ,the oak-blossoms are very often killed by the frost in the woods4 ,the autumn here is of long continuance1 with warm days and nights4 ,however1 the cold nights commonly commence towards the end of ,september1 and are frequent in ,october4 ,the people are forced to keep their cattle in stables1 from the middle of ,november1 till ,march or ,april1 and must find them hay during that time #fg4 ,during summer1 the wind blows commonly from the ,south1 and brings a great drought along with it4 ,sometimes it rains a little1 and as soon as it has rained the wind veers to ,north ,west1 blowing for several days from that point1 and then returning to the ,south4 ,i have had frequent opportunities of seeing this change of wind happen very exactly1 both this year and the following4 ,june the #aeth4 ,the enclosures were made of boards of fir-wood1 of which there is abundance in the extensive woods1 and many saw-mills to cut it into boards4 ,the several sorts of apple-trees grow very well here1 and bear as fine fruit as in any other part of ,north ,america4 ,each farm has a large orchard4 ,they have some apples here1 which are very large1 and very palatable2 they are sent to ,new ,york1 and other places as a rarity4 ,they make excellent cyder1 in autumn1 in the country round ,albany4 ,all the kinds of cherry-trees1 which have been planted here1 succeed very well4 ,pear-trees do not succeed here4 ,this was complained of in many other parts of ,north ,america4 ,but ,i fear that they do not take sufficient care in the management and planting of them2 for ,i have seen fine pears in several parts of ,north ,america4 ,peach-trees have often been planted here1 and never would succeed well4 ,this was attributed to a worm which lives in the ground1 and eats through the root1 so that the tree dies4 ,perhaps the severity of the winter contributes much to it4 ,they plant no other fruit-trees at ,albany besides these ,i have mentioned4 ,they sow as much hemp and flax here1 as they want for home consumption4 ,they sow maize in great abundance3 ,a loose soil is reckoned the best for this purpose2 for it will not grow in clay4 ,from half a bushel they reap a hundred bushels4 ,they reckon maize a very good kind of corn1 because the shoot recovers after being hurt by the frost4 ,they have had examples here of the shoots dying twice in spring1 to the very ground1 and yet they shot up again afterwards1 and afforded an excellent crop4 ,maize has likewise the advantage of standing much longer against a drought1 than wheat4 ,the larger sort of maize which is commonly sown here1 ripens in ,september4 ,they sow wheat in the neighbourhood of ,albany1 with great advantage4 ,from one bushel they get twelve sometimes2 if the soil be good1 they get twenty bushels4 ,if their crop amounts only to ten bushels from one1 they think it very trifling4 ,the inhabitants of the country round ,albany1 are ,dutch and ,germans4 ,the ,germans live in several great villages1 and sow great quantities of wheat1 which is brought to ,albany2 and from thence they send many yachts laden with flour to ,new ,york4 ,the wheat-flour from ,albany is reckoned the best in all ,north ,america1 except that from ,sopus or ,king's ,town1 a place between ,albany and ,new ,york4 ,all the bread in ,albany is made of wheat4 ,at ,new ,york they pay the ,albany flour with several ,shillings more per hundred weight1 than that from other places4 ,rye is likewise sown here1 but not so generally as wheat4 ,they do not sow much barley here1 because they do not reckon the profits very great4 ,wheat is so plentiful that they make malt of it4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,new ,york1 ,i saw great fields sown with barley4 ,they do not sow more oats than are necessary for their horses4 ,the ,dutch and ,germans who live hereabouts1 sow pease in great abundance2 they succeed very well1 and are annually carried to ,new ,york1 in great quantities4 ,they have been free from insects for a considerable time4 ,but of late years the same beetles which destroy the pease in ,pensylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 and the lower parts of the province of ,new ,york #fh1 have likewise appeared abundant among the pease here4 ,it is a real loss to this town1 and to the other parts of ,north ,america1 which used to get pease from hence for their own consumption1 and that of their sailors4 ,it had been found that if they procured good pease from ,albany1 and sowed them near ,king's ,town1 or the lower part of the province of ,new ,york1 they succeeded very well the first year1 but were so full of worms the second1 and following years1 that nobody could or would eat them4 ,some people put ashes into the pot1 among the pease1 when they will not boil1 or soften well2 but whether this is wholesome and agreeable to the palate1 ,i do not know4 ,potatoes are generally planted4 ,some people preferred ashes to sand for keeping them in during winter4 ,the ,bermuda ,potatoes 7,convolvulus ,batatas7 have likewise been planted here1 and succeed pretty well4 ,the greatest difficulty is to keep them during winter2 for they generally rot in that season4 ,the ,humming-bird 7,trochilus ,colubris7 comes to this place sometimes2 but is rather a scarce bird4 ,the shingles with which the houses are covered are made of the ,white ,pine1 which is reckoned as good and as durable1 and sometimes better1 than the ,white ,cedar 7,cupressus thyoides74 ,the ,white ,pine is found abundant here1 in such places where common pines grow in ,europe1 ,i have never seen them in the lower parts of the province of ,new ,york1 nor in ,new ,jersey and ,pensylvania4 ,they saw a vast quantity of deal from the ,white ,pine on this side of ,albany1 which are brought down to ,new ,york1 and from thence exported4 ,the woods abound with vines1 which likewise grow on the steep banks of the river in surprising quantities4 ,they climbed to the tops of trees on the bank1 and bent them by their weight4 ,but where they found no trees1 they hung down along the steep shores1 and covered them entirely4 ,the grapes are eaten after the frost has attacked them2 for they are too sour before4 ,they are not much used any other way4 ,the vast woods and uninhabited grounds1 between ,albany and ,canada1 contain immense swarms of gnats1 which annoy the travellers4 ,to be in some measure secured against these insects1 some besmear their face with butter or grease2 for the gnats do not like to settle on greasy places4 ,the great heat makes boots very uneasy2 but to prevent the gnats from stinging the legs1 they wrap some paper round them1 under the stockings4 ,some travellers wear caps which cover the whole face1 and have some gauze before the eyes4 ,at night they lie in tents1 if they can carry any with them2 and make a great fire at the entrance1 by the smoke of which the gnats are driven away4 ,the porpesses seldom go higher up the river ,hudson than the salt water goes2 after that1 the sturgeons fill their place4 ,it has however sometimes happened1 that porpesses have gone quite up to ,albany4 ,there is a report1 that a whale once came up the river quite to this town4 ,the ,fireflies 7,lampyris7 which are the same that are so common in ,pensylvania during summer1 are seen here in abundance every night4 ,they fly up and down in the streets of this town4 ,they come into1 the houses1 if the doors and windows are open4 ,several of the ,pensylvanian trees are not to be met with in these woods2 viz4 ,magnolia glauca1 the ,beaver-tree4 ,nyssa aquatica1 the ,tupelo-tree4 ,liquidambar styraciflua1 the ,sweet-gum tree4 ,diospyros ,virginiana1 the ,persimon4 ,liriodendron tulipifera1 the ,tulip-tree4 ,juglans nigra1 the black ,walnut-tree4 ,quercus ----1 the ,swamp ,oak4 ,cercis ,canadensis1 the ,sallad-tree4 ,robinia pseudacacia1 the ,locust-tree4 ,gleditsia triacanthos1 the ,honey-locust tree4 ,annona muricata1 the ,papaw-tree4 ,celtis occidentalis1 the ,nettle-tree4 ,and a number of shrubs1 which are never found here4 ,the more northerly situation of the place1 the height of the ,blue ,mountains1 and the course of the rivers1 which flow here southward into the sea1 and accordingly carry the seeds of plants from north to south1 and not the contrary way1 are chiefly the causes that several plants which grow in ,pensylvania cannot be found here4 ,this afternoon ,i went to see an island which lies in the middle of the river1 about a mile below the town4 ,this island is an ,english mile long1 and not above a quarter of a mile broad4 ,it is almost entirely turned into corn-fields2 and is inhabited by a single planter1 who1 besides possessing this island1 is the owner of two more4 ,here we saw no woods1 except a few trees which were left round the island on the shore1 and formed as it were a tall and great hedge4 ,the ,red ,maple 7,acer rubrum7 grows in abundance in several places4 ,its leaves are white or silvery on the under sides1 and1 when agitated by the wind1 they make the tree appear as if it was full of white flowers4 ,the ,water-beech 7,platanus occidentalis7 grows to a great height1 and is one of the most shady trees here4 ,the ,water-poplar #fi is the most common tree hereabouts1 grows exceedingly well on the shores of the river1 and is as tall as the tallest of our asps4 ,in summer it affords the best shade for men and cattle against the scorching heat4 ,on the banks of rivers and lakes it is one of the most useful trees1 because it holds the soil by its extensive branched roots1 and prevents the water from washing it away4 ,the ,water-beech and the ,elm-tree 7,ulmus7 serve the same purpose4 ,the wild ,prune-trees were plentiful here1 and were full of unripe fruit4 ,its wood is not made use of2 but its fruit is eaten4 ,sumach 7,rhus glabra7 is plentiful here2 as also the wild vines1 which climb up the trees1 and creep along the high shores of the river4 ,i was told1 that the grapes ripen very late1 though they were already pretty large4 ,the ,american ,elm-tree 7,ulmus ,americana7 formed several high hedges4 ,the soil of this island is a rich mould1 mixed with sand1 which is chiefly employed in maize plantations4 ,there were likewise large fields of potatoes4 ,the whole island was leased for one hundred pounds of ,new ,york currency4 ,the person who had taken the lease1 again let some greater and some smaller lots of ground1 to the inhabitants of ,albany1 for making kitchen-gardens of2 and by that means reimbursed himself4 ,portulack 7,portulaca oleracea7 grows spontaneously here in great abundance1 and looks very well4 ,june the #bjth4 ,the tide in the river ,hudson goes about eight or ten ,english miles above ,albany1 and consequently runs one hundred and fifty-six ,english miles from the sea4 ,in spring1 when the snow melts1 there is hardly any flowing near this town2 for the great quantity of water which comes from the mountains during that season1 occasions a continual ebbing4 ,this likewise happens after heavy rains4 ,the cold is generally reckoned very severe here4 ,the ice in the river ,hudson is commonly three or four feet thick4 ,on the #c;d of ,april some of the inhabitants crossed the river with six pair of horses4 ,the ice commonly dissolves about the end of ,march1 or beginning of ,april4 ,great pieces of ice come down about that time1 which sometimes carry with them the houses that stand close to the shore4 ,the water is very high at that time in the river1 because the ice stops sometimes1 and sticks in places where the river is narrow4 ,the water has been often observed to rise three fathom higher than it commonly is in summer4 ,the ground is frozen here in winter to the depth of three1 four1 or five feet4 ,on the #afth of ,november the yachts are put up1 and about the beginning or middle of ,april they are in motion again4 ,they are unacquainted with stoves2 and their chimnies are so wide that one could drive through them with a cart and horses4 ,the water of several wells in this town was very cool about this time2 but had a kind of acid taste1 which was not very agreeable4 ,on a nearer examination1 ,i found an abundance of little insects in it1 which were probably ,monoculi4 ,their length was different2 some were a geometrical line and an half1 others two1 and others four lines long4 ,they were very narrow1 and of a pale colour4 ,the head was blacker and thicker than the other parts of the body1 and about the size of a pin's head4 ,the tail was divided into two branches1 and each branch terminated in a little black globule4 ,when these insects swim1 they proceed in crooked or undulated lines1 almost like ,tadpoles4 ,i poured some of this water into a bowl1 and put near a fourth part of rum to it4 ,the ,monoculi1 instead of being affected with it1 swam about as briskly as they had done in the water4 ,this shews1 that if one makes punch with this water1 it must be very strong to kill the ,monoculi4 ,i think this water is not very wholesome for people who are not used to it1 though the inhabitants of ,albany1 who drink it every day1 say1 they do not feel the least inconvenience from it4 ,i have been several times obliged to drink water here1 in which ,i have plainly seen ,monoculi swimming2 but ,i generally felt the next day somewhat like a pea in my throat1 or as if ,i had a swelling there2 and this continued for above a week4 ,i felt such swellings this year1 both at ,albany and in other parts4 ,my servant1 ,yungstroem1 likewise got a great pain in his breast1 and a sensation as from a swelling1 after drinking water with ,monoculi in it3 but whether these insects occasioned it1 or whether it came from some other cause1 ,i cannot ascertain4 ,however1 ,i have always endeavoured1 as much as possible1 to do without such water as had ,monoculi in it4 ,i have found ,monoculi in very cold water1 taken from the deepest wells1 in different parts of this country4 ,perhaps many of our diseases arise from waters of this kind1 which we do not sufficiently examine4 ,i have frequently observed abundance of minute insects in water1 which has been remarkable for its clearness4 ,almost each house in ,albany has its well1 the water of which is applied to common use2 but for tea1 brewing1 and washing1 they commonly take the water of the river ,hudson1 which flows close by the town4 ,this water is generally quite muddy1 and very warm in summer2 and1 on that account1 it is kept in cellars1 in order that the slime may subside1 and that the water may cool a little4 ,we lodged with a gunsmith1 who told us1 that the best charcoals for the forge were made of the ,black ,pine4 ,the next in goodness1 in his opinion1 were charcoals1 made of the ,beech-tree4 ,the best and dearest stocks for his muskets were made of the wood of the wild ,cherry-tree2 and next to these he valued those of the ,red ,maple most4 ,they scarce make use of any other wood for this purpose4 ,the black ,walnut-tree affords excellent wood for stocks2 but it does not grow in the neighbourhood of ,albany4 ,june the #bast4 ,next to the town of ,new ,york1 ,albany is the principal town1 or at least the most wealthy1 in the province of ,new ,york4 ,it is situated on the declivity of a hill1 close to the western shore of the river ,hudson1 about one hundred and forty-six ,english miles from ,new ,york4 ,the town extends along the river1 which flows here from ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 ,the high mountains in the west1 above the town1 bound the prospect on that side4 ,there are two churches in ,albany1 an ,english one and a ,dutch one4 ,the ,dutch church stands at some distance from the river1 on the east side of the market4 ,it is built of stone2 and in the middle it has a small steeple1 with a bell4 ,it has but one minister1 who preaches twice every ,sunday4 ,the ,english church is situated on the hill1 at the west end of the market1 directly under the fort4 ,it is likewise built of stone1 but has no steeple4 ,there was no service at this church at this time1 because they had no minister2 and all the people understood ,dutch1 the garrison excepted4 ,the minister of this church has a settled income of one hundred pounds sterling1 which he gets from ,england4 ,the town-hall lies to the southward of the ,dutch church1 close by the river side4 ,it is a fine building of stone1 three stories high4 ,it has a small tower or steeple1 with a bell1 and a gilt ball and vane at the top of it4 ,the houses in this town are very neat1 and partly built with stones covered with shingles of the ,white ,pine4 ,some are slated with tiles from ,holland1 because the clay of this neighbourhood is not reckoned fit for tiles4 ,most of the houses are built in the old way1 with the gable-end towards the street2 a few excepted1 which were lately built in the manner now used4 ,a great number of houses were built like those of ,new ,brunswick1 which ,i have described #gj2 the gable-end being built1 towards the street1 of bricks1 and all the other walls of planks4 ,the outside of the houses is never covered with lime or mortar1 nor have ,i seen it practiced in any ,north-,american towns which ,i have visited2 and the walls do not seem to be damaged by the air4 ,the gutters on the roofs reach almost to the middle of the street4 ,this preserves the walls from being damaged by the rain2 but is extremely disagreeable in rainy weather for the people in the streets1 there being hardly any means of avoiding the water from the gutters4 ,the street-doors are generally in the middle of the houses2 and on both sides are seats1 on which1 during fair weather1 the people spend almost the whole day1 especially on those which are in the shadow of the houses4 ,in the evening these seats are covered with people of both sexes2 but this is rather troublesome1 as those who pass by are obliged to greet every body1 unless they will shock the politeness of the inhabitants of this town4 ,the streets are broad1 and some of them are paved2 in some parts they are lined with trees2 the long streets are almost parallel to the river1 and the others intersect them at right angles4 ,the street which goes between the two churches1 is five times broader than the others1 and serves as a market-place4 ,the streets upon the whole are very dirty1 because the people leave their cattle in them1 during the summer nights4 ,there are two market-places in the town1 to which the country people resort twice a week4 ,the fort lies higher than any other building1 on a high steep hill on the ,west side of the town4 ,it is a great building of stone1 surrounded with high and thick walls2 its situation is very bad1 as it can only serve to keep off plundering parties1 without being able to sustain a siege4 ,there are numerous high hills to the west of the fort1 which command it1 and from whence one may see all that is done within it4 ,there is commonly an officer and a number of soldiers quartered in it4 ,they say the fort contains a spring of water4 ,the situation of ,albany is very advantageous in regard to trade4 ,the river ,hudson1 which flows close by it1 is from twelve to twenty feet deep4 ,there is not yet any quay made for the better lading of the yachts1 because the people feared it would suffer greatly1 or be entirely carried away in spring by the ice1 which then comes down the river2 the vessels which are in use here1 may come pretty near the shore in order to be laden1 and heavy goods are brought to them upon canoes tied together4 ,albany carries on a considerable commerce with ,new ,york1 chiefly in furs1 boards1 wheat1 flour1 pease1 several kinds of timber1 c4 ,there is not a place in all the ,british colonies1 the ,hudson's ,bay settlements excepted1 where such quantities of furs and skins are bought of the ,indians1 as at ,albany4 ,most of the merchants in this town send a clerk or agent to ,oswego1 an ,english trading town upon the lake ,ontario1 to which the ,indians resort with their furs4 ,i intend to give a more minute account of this place in my ,journal for the year #agej4 ,the merchants from ,albany spend the whole summer at ,oswego1 and trade with many tribes of ,indians who come to them with their goods4 ,many people have assured me1 that the ,indians are frequently cheated in disposing of their goods1 especially when they are in liquor1 and that sometimes they do not get one half or even one tenth of the value of their goods4 ,i have been a witness to several transactions of this kind4 ,the merchants of ,albany glory in these tricks1 and are highly pleased when they have given a poor ,indian a greater portion of brandy than he can bear1 and when they can after that get all his goods for mere trifles4 ,the ,indians often find when they are sober again1 that they have been cheated1 they grumble somewhat1 but are soon satisfied when they reflect that they have for once drank as much as they are able1 of a liquor which they value beyond any thing else in the whole world1 and they are quite insensible to their loss1 if they again get a draught of this nectar4 ,besides this trade at ,oswego1 a number of ,indians come to ,albany from several parts1 especially from ,canada2 but from this latter place1 they hardly bring any thing but beaver-skins4 ,there is a great penalty in ,canada for carrying furs to the ,english1 that trade belonging to the ,french ,west ,india ,company2 notwithstanding which the ,french merchants in ,canada carry on a considerable smuggling trade4 ,they send their furs1 by means of the ,indians1 to their correspondents at ,albany1 who purchase it at the price which they have fixed upon with the ,french merchants4 ,the ,indians take in return several kinds of cloth1 and other goods1 which may be got here at a lower rate than those which are sent to ,canada from ,france4 ,the greater part of the merchants at ,albany have extensive estates in the country1 and a great deal of wood4 ,if their estates have a little brook1 they do not fail to erect a saw-mill upon it for sawing boards and planks1 with which commodity many yachts go during the whole summer to ,new ,york1 having scarce any other lading than boards4 ,many people at ,albany make the wampum of the ,indians1 which is their ornament and their money1 by grinding some kinds of shells and muscles2 this is a considerable profit to the inhabitants4 ,i shall speak of this kind of money in the sequel4 ,the extensive trade which the inhabitants of ,albany carry on1 and their sparing manner of life1 in the ,dutch way1 contribute to the considerable wealth which many of them acquire4 ,the inhabitants of ,albany and its environs are almost all ,dutchmen4 ,they speak ,dutch1 have ,dutch preachers1 and divine service is performed in that language3 their manners are likewise quite ,dutch2 their dress is however like that of the ,english4 ,it is well known that the first ,europeans who settled in the province of ,new ,york were ,dutchmen4 ,during the time that they were the masters of this province1 they possessed themselves of ,new ,sweden #ga1 of which they were jealous4 ,however the pleasure of possessing this conquered land and their own1 was but of short duration2 for towards the end of #affd1 ,sir ,robert ,carre1 by order of ,king ,charles the second1 went to ,new ,york1 then ,new ,amsterdam1 and took it4 ,soon after ,colonel ,nichols went to ,albany1 which then bore the name of ,fort ,orange1 and upon taking it1 named it ,albany1 from the ,duke of ,york's ,scotch title4 ,the ,dutch inhabitants were allowed either to continue where they were1 and1 under the protection of the ,english1 to enjoy all their former privileges1 or to leave the country4 ,the greater part of them chose to stay1 and from them the ,dutchmen are descended1 who now live in the province of ,new ,york1 and who possess the greatest and best estates in that province4 ,the avarice and selfishness of the inhabitants of ,albany are very well known throughout all ,north ,america1 by the ,english1 by the ,french1 and even by the ,dutch1 in the lower part of ,new ,york province4 ,if a ,jew1 who understands the art of getting forward perfectly well1 should settle amongst them1 they would not fail to ruin him4 ,for this reason nobody comes to this place without the most pressing necessity2 and therefore ,i was asked in several places1 what induced me to go to it1 two years one after another4 ,i likewise found that the judgment1 which people formed of them1 was not without foundation4 ,for though they seldom see any strangers1 7except those who go from the ,british colonies to ,canada and back again7 and one might therefore expect to find victuals and accommodation for travellers cheaper than in places1 where travellers always resort to2 yet ,i experienced the contrary4 ,i was here obliged to pay for every thing twice1 thrice1 and four times as dear as in any part of ,north ,america which ,i have passed through4 ,if ,i wanted their assistance1 ,i was obliged to pay them very well for it1 and when ,i wanted to purchase any thing1 or to be helped in some case or other1 ,i could presently see what kind of blood ran in their veins2 for they either fixed exorbitant prices for their services1 or were very backward to assist me4 ,such was this people in general4 ,however1 there were some amongst them who equalled any in ,north ,america1 or any where else1 in politeness1 equity1 goodness1 and readiness to serve and to oblige2 but their number fell far short of that of the former4 ,if ,i may be allowed to declare my conjectures1 the origin of the inhabitants of ,albany and its neighbourhood seems to me to be as follows4 ,whilst the ,dutch possessed this country1 and intended to people it1 the government took up a pack of vagabonds1 of which they intended to clear the country1 and sent them along with a number of other settlers to this province4 ,the vagabonds were sent far from the other colonists1 upon the borders towards the ,indians and other enemies1 and a few honest families were persuaded to go with them1 in order to keep them in bounds4 ,i cannot any other way account for the difference between the inhabitants of ,albany1 and the other descendants of so respectable a nation as the ,dutch1 who are settled in the lower part of ,new ,york province4 ,the latter are civil1 obliging1 just in the prices1 and sincere2 and though they are not ceremonious1 yet they are well meaning and honest1 and their promises are to be relied on4 ,the behaviour of the inhabitants of ,albany1 during the war between ,england and ,france1 which was ended with the peace of ,aix la ,chapelle1 has1 among several other causes1 contributed to make them the object of hatred in all the ,british colonies1 but more especially in ,new ,england4 ,for at the beginning of that war1 when the ,indians of both parties had received orders to commence hostilities1 the ,french engaged theirs to attack the inhabitants of ,new ,england2 which they faithfully executed1 killing every body they met with1 and carrying off whatever they found4 ,during this time the people of ,albany remained neutral1 and carried on a great trade with the very ,indians who murdered the inhabitants of ,new ,england4 ,the plate1 such as silver spoons1 bowls1 cups1 c4 of which the ,indians robbed the houses in ,new ,england1 was carried to ,albany1 for sale4 ,the people of that town bought up these silver vessels1 though the names of the owners were graved on many of them1 and encouraged the ,indians to get more of them1 promising to pay them well1 and whatever they would demand4 ,this was afterwards interpreted by the inhabitants of ,new ,england1 as if the ,albanians encouraged the ,indians to kill more of the people1 who were in a manner their brothers1 and who were subjects of the same crown4 ,upon the first news of this behaviour1 which the ,indians themselves spread in ,new ,england1 the inhabitants of the latter province were greatly incensed1 and threatened1 that the first step they would take in another war1 would be to burn ,albany1 and the adjacent parts4 ,in the present war it will sufficiently appear how backward the other ,british provinces in ,america are in assisting ,albany1 and the neighbouring places1 in case of an attack from the ,french or ,indians #gb4 ,the hatred which the ,english bear against the people1 at ,albany1 is very great1 but that of the ,albanians against the ,english is carried to a ten times higher degree4 ,this hatred has subsisted ever since the time when the ,english conquered this country1 and is not yet extinguished1 though they could never have got such advantages under the ,dutch government1 as they have obtained under that of the ,english4 ,for in a manner1 their privileges are greater than those of ,englishmen4 ,the inhabitants of ,albany are much more sparing than the ,english4 ,the meat which is served up is often insufficient to satisfy the stomach1 and the bowl does not circulate so freely as amongst the ,english4 ,the women are perfectly well acquainted with conomy2 they rise early1 go to sleep very late1 and are almost over nice and cleanly1 in regard to the floor1 which is frequently scoured several times in the week4 ,the servants in the town are chiefly negroes4 ,some of the inhabitants wear their own hair1 but it is very short1 without a bag or queue1 which are looked upon as the characteristics of ,frenchmen2 and as ,i wore my hair in a bag the first day ,i came here from ,canada1 ,i was surrounded with children1 who called me ,frenchman1 and some of the boldest offered to pull at my ,french dress4 ,their meat1 and manner of dressing it1 is very different from that of the ,english4 ,their breakfast is tea1 commonly without milk4 ,about thirty or forty years ago1 tea was unknown to them1 and they breakfasted either upon bread and butter1 or bread and milk4 ,they never put sugar into the cup1 but take a small bit of it into their mouths whilst they drink4 ,along with the tea they eat bread and butter1 with slices of hung beef4 ,coffee is not usual here2 they breakfast generally about seven4 ,their dinner is butter-milk1 and bread1 to which they sometimes add sugar1 then it is a delicious dish for them2 or fresh milk and bread2 or boiled or roasted flesh4 ,they sometimes make use of butter-milk instead of fresh milk1 to boil a thin kind of porridge with1 which tastes very sour1 but not disagreeable in hot weather4 ,to each dinner they have a great sallad1 prepared with abundance of vinegar1 and very little or no oil4 ,they frequently eat butter-milk1 bread1 and sallad1 one mouthful after another4 ,their supper is generally bread and butter1 and milk and bread4 ,they sometimes eat cheese at breakfast1 and at dinner2 it is not in slices1 but scraped or rasped1 so as to resemble coarse flour1 which they pretend adds to the good taste of cheese4 ,they commonly drink very small beer1 or pure water4 ,the governor of ,new ,york often confers at ,albany1 with the ,indians of the ,five ,nations1 or the ,iroquese1 7,mohawks1 ,senekas1 ,cayugaws1 ,onondagoes1 and ,onidoes7 especially when they intend either to make war upon1 or to continue a war against the ,french4 ,sometimes their deliberations likewise turn upon their conversion to the christian religion1 and it appears by the answer of one of the ,indian chiefs1 or ,sachems1 to governor ,hunter1 at a conference in this town1 that the ,english do not pay so much attention to a work of so much consequence1 as the ,french do1 and that they do not send such able men to instruct the ,indians1 as they ought to do #gc4 ,for after governor ,hunter had presented these ,indians1 by order of ,queen ,anne1 with many clothes1 and other presents1 of which they were fond1 he intended to convince them still more of her ,majesty's good-will1 and care for them1 by adding1 that their good mother1 the ,queen1 had not only generously provided them with fine clothes for their bodies1 but likewise intended to adorn their souls1 by the preaching of the gospel2 and that to this purpose some ministers should be sent to them1 to instruct them4 ,the governor had scarce ended1 when one of the oldest ,sachems got up1 and answered1 that in the name of all the ,indians1 he thanked their gracious good queen and mother for the fine clothes she had sent them2 but that in regard to the ministers1 they had already had some among them1 7whom he likewise named7 who instead of preaching the holy gospel to them1 had taught them to drink to excess1 to cheat1 and to quarrel among themselves4 ,he then entreated the governor to take from them these preachers1 and a number of ,europeans who resided amongst them2 for before they were come among them1 the ,indians had been an honest1 sober1 and innocent people1 but most of them became rogues now4 ,that they had formerly had the fear of ,god1 but that they hardly believed his existence at present4 ,that if he 7the governor7 would do them any favour1 he should send two or three blacksmiths amongst them1 to teach them to forge iron1 in which they were unexperienced4 ,the governor could not forbear laughing at this extraordinary speech4 ,i think the words of ,st4 ,paul not wholly unapplicable on this occasion3 ,for the name of ,god is blasphemed amongst the ,gentiles1 through you #gd4 ,june the #bast4 ,about five o'clock in the afternoon we left ,albany1 and proceeded towards ,canada4 ,we had two men with us1 who were to accompany us to the first ,french place1 which is ,fort ,st4 ,frederick1 or1 as the ,english call it1 ,crown ,point4 ,for this service each of them was to receive five pounds of ,new ,york currency1 besides which ,i was to provide them with victuals4 ,this is the common price here1 and he that does not choose to conform to it1 is obliged to travel alone4 ,we were forced to take up with a canoe #ge1 as we could get neither battoes1 nor boats of bark2 and as there was a good road along the west side of the river ,hudson1 we left the men to row forwards1 in the canoe1 and we went along it on the shore1 that we might be better able to examine it1 and its curiosities1 with greater accuracy4 ,it is very incommodious to row in these canoes2 for one stands at each end and pushes the boat forwards4 ,they commonly keep close to the shore1 that they may be able to reach the ground easily4 ,thus the rowers are forced to stand upright1 whilst they row in a canoe4 ,we kept along the shore all the evening1 towards the river1 it consisted of great hills1 and next to the water grew the trees1 which ,i have above mentioned #gf1 and which likewise are to be met with on the shores of the isle1 in the river1 situate below ,albany4 ,the easterly shore of the river is uncultivated1 woody1 and hilly2 but the western is flat1 cultivated1 and chiefly turned into corn-fields1 which had no drains1 though they wanted them in some places4 ,it appeared very plainly here1 that the river had formerly been broader4 ,for there is a sloping bank on the corn-fields1 at about thirty yards distance from the river1 with which it always runs parallel4 ,from this it sufficiently appears1 that the rising ground formerly was the shore of the river1 and the corn-fields its bed4 ,as a further proof1 it may be added1 that the same shells which abound on the present shore of the river1 and are not applied to any use by the inhabitants1 ly plentifully scattered on these fields4 ,i cannot say whether this change was occasioned by the diminishing of the water in the river1 or by its washing some earth down the river1 and carrying it to its sides1 or by the river's cutting deeper in on the sides4 ,all the grounds were ploughed very even1 as is usual in the ,swedish province of ,upland4 ,some were sown with yellow1 and others with white ,wheat4 ,now and then we saw great fields of flax1 which was now beginning to flower4 ,in some parts it grows very well1 and in others it was but indifferent4 ,the excessive drought which had continued throughout this spring1 had parched all the grass and plants on hills and high grounds1 leaving no other green1 plant than the common ,mullein 7,verbascum ,thapsus ,linn47 which ,i saw in several places1 on the driest and highest hills1 growing in spite of the parching heat of the sun1 and though the pastures and meadows were excessively poor1 and afforded scarce any food at all1 yet the cattle never touched the ,mullein4 ,now and then ,i found fields with pease1 but the ,charlock1 7,sinapis arvensis ,linn47 kept them quite under4 ,the soil in most of these fields is a fine mould1 which goes pretty deep4 ,the wild vines cover all the hills along the rivers1 on which no other plants grow1 and on those which are covered with trees1 they climb to the tops of them1 and wholly cover them1 making them bend down with their weight4 ,they had already large grapes2 we saw them abundant all this day1 and during all the time that we kept to the river ,hudson1 on the hills1 along the shores1 and on some little islands in the river4 ,the white-backed ,maize-thieves appeared now and then1 flying amongst the bushes3 their note is fine1 and they are not so large as the black maize-thieves1 7,oriolus ,phniceus74 ,we saw them near ,new ,york1 for the first time4 ,we found a ,water-beech tree 7,platanus occidentalis7 cut down near the road1 measuring about five feet in diameter4 ,this day1 and for some days afterwards1 we met with islands in the river4 ,the larger ones were cultivated1 and turned into corn-fields and meadows4 ,we walked about five ,english miles along the river to-day1 and found the ground1 during that time1 very uniform1 and consisting of pure earth4 ,i did not meet with a single stone on the fields4 ,the ,red ,maple1 the ,water-beech1 the ,water-asp1 the wild ,prune-tree1 the ,sumach1 the ,elm1 the wild ,vines1 and some species of ,willows1 were the trees which we met with on the rising shores of the river1 where some ,asparagus 7,asparagus officinalis7 grew wild4 ,we passed the night about six miles from ,albany1 in a countryman's cottage4 ,on the west side of the river we saw several houses1 one after another1 inhabited by the descendants of the first ,dutch settlers1 who lived by cultivating their grounds4 ,about half an ,english mile beyond our lodgings1 was the place where the tide stops in the river ,hudson1 there being only small and shallow streams above it4 ,at that place they catch a good many sorts of fish in the river4 ,the barns were generally built in the ,dutch way1 as ,i have before described them #gg2 for in the middle was the threshing-floor1 above it a place for the hay and straw1 and on each side stables for horses1 cows1 and other animals4 ,the barn itself was very large4 ,sometimes the buildings in the court-yard consist only of a room1 and a garret above it1 together with a barn upon the above plan4 ,june the #bb;d4 ,this morning ,i followed one of our guides to the water-fall near ,cohoes1 in the river ,mohawk1 before it falls into the river ,hudson4 ,this fall is about three ,english miles from the place where ,i passed the night4 ,the country till the fall is a plain1 and only hilly about the fall itself4 ,the wood is cleared in most places1 and the ground cultivated1 and interspersed with farm-houses4 ,the ,cohoes ,fall is one of the greatest in ,north ,america4 ,it is in the river ,mohawk1 before it unites with the river ,hudson4 ,above and below the fall1 the sides and the bottom of the river consist of hard rock4 ,the river is three hundred yards broad here4 ,at the fall there is a rock crossways in the river1 running every where equally high1 and crossing in a strait line with the side which forms the fall4 ,it represents1 as it were1 a wall towards the lower side1 which is not quite perpendicular1 wanting about four yards4 ,the height of this wall1 over which the water rolls1 appeared to me about twenty or twenty-four yards4 ,i had marked this height in my pocket-book2 and afterwards found it agreed pretty well with the account which that ingenious engineer1 ,mr4 ,lewis ,evans1 communicated to me at ,philadelphia4 ,he said1 that he had geometrically measured the breadth and height of the fall1 and found it nine hundred ,english feet broad1 and seventy-five feet high4 ,the representation of this fall1 which is here joined1 has been made by ,mr4 ,evans4 ,there was very little water in the river at present1 and it only ran over the fall in a few places4 ,in such places where the water had rolled down before1 it had cut deep holes below into the rock1 sometimes to the depth of two or three fathoms4 ,the bed of the river1 below the fall1 was of rock1 and quite dry1 there being only a channel in the middle fourteen feet broad1 and a fathom or somewhat more deep1 through which the water passed which came over the fall4 ,we saw a number of holes in the rock1 below the fall1 which bore a perfect resemblance to those in ,sweden which we call ,giants ,pots1 or ,mountain ,kettles4 ,they differed in size2 there being large deep ones1 and small shallow ones4 ,we had clear uninterrupted sun-shine1 not a cloud above the horizon1 and no wind at all4 ,however1 close to this fall1 where the water was in such a small quantity1 there was a continual drizzling rain1 occasioned by the vapours which rose from the water during its fall1 and were carried about by the wind4 ,therefore1 in coming within a musket-shot of the fall1 against the wind1 our cloaths were wetted at once1 as from a rain4 ,the whirlpools1 which were in the water below the fall1 contained several kinds of fish2 and they were caught by some people1 who amused themselves with angling4 ,the rocks hereabouts consist of the same black stone which forms the hills about ,albany4 ,when exposed to the air1 it is apt to shiver into horizontal flakes1 as slate does4 ,at noon we continued our journey to ,canada in the canoe1 which was pretty long1 and made out of a white pine4 ,somewhat beyond the farm where we lay at night1 the river became so shallow that the men could reach the ground every where with their oars2 it being in some parts not above two feet1 and sometimes but one foot deep4 ,the shore and bed of the river consisted of sand and pebbles4 ,the river was very rapid1 and against us2 so that our rowers found it hard work to get forward against the stream4 ,the hills along the shore consisted merely of soil2 and were very high and steep in some parts4 ,the breadth of the river was generally near two musket-shot4 ,sturgeons abound in the river ,hudson4 ,we saw them for several days together leap high up into the air1 especially in the evening2 our guides1 and the people who lived hereabouts1 asserted that they never see any sturgeons in winter time1 because these fish go into the sea late in autumn1 but come up again in spring and stay in the river all the summer4 ,they are said to prefer the shallowest places in the river1 which agreed pretty well with our observations2 for we never saw them leap out of the water but in shallows4 ,their food is said to be several kinds of conferv1 which grow in plenty in some places at the bottom of the river2 for these weeds are found in their bellies when they are opened4 ,the ,dutch who are settled here1 and the ,indians1 fish for sturgeons1 and every night of our voyage upon this river1 we observed several boats with people who struck them with harpoons4 ,the torches which they employed were made of that kind of pine1 which they call the black pine here4 ,the nights were exceedingly dark1 though they were now shortest1 and though we were in a country so much to the ,south of ,sweden4 ,the shores of the river lay covered with dead sturgeons1 which had been wounded with the harpoon1 but escaped1 and died afterwards2 they occasioned an insupportable stench during the excessive heat of the weather4 ,as we went further up the river we saw an ,indian woman and her boy sitting in a boat of bark1 and an ,indian wading through the river1 with a great cap of bark on his head4 ,near them was an island on which there were a number of ,indians at present1 on account of the sturgeon fishery4 ,we went to their huts to try if we could get one of them to accompany us to ,fort ,st4 ,frederic4 ,on our arrival we found that all the men were gone into the woods a hunting this morning1 and we were forced to engage their boys to go and look for them4 ,they demanded bread for payment1 and we gave them twenty little round loaves2 for as they found that it was of great importance to us to speak with the ,indians1 they raised difficulties1 and would not go till we gave them what they wanted4 ,the island belonged to the ,dutch1 who had turned it into corn-fields4 ,but at present they had leased it to the ,indians1 who planted their maize and several kinds of melons on it4 ,they built their huts or wigwams on this island1 on a very simple plan4 ,four posts were put into the ground perpendicularly1 over which they had placed poles1 and made a roof of bark upon them4 ,they had either no walls at all1 or they consisted of branches with leaves1 which were fixed to the poles4 ,their beds consisted of deer-skins which were spread on the ground4 ,their utensils were a couple of small kettles1 and two ladles1 and a bucket or two of bark1 made so close as to keep water4 ,the sturgeons were cut into long slices1 and hung up in the sunshine to dry1 and to be ready against winter4 ,the ,indian women were sitting at their work on the hill1 upon deer-skins4 ,they never make use of chairs1 but sit on the ground3 however1 they do not sit cross-legged1 as the ,turks do1 but between their feet1 which1 though they be turned backwards1 are not crossed1 but bent outwards4 ,the women wear no head-dress1 and have black hair4 ,they have a short blue petticoat1 which reaches to their knees1 and the brim of which is bordered with red or other ribbands4 ,they wear their shifts over their petticoats4 ,they have large ear-rings3 and their hair is tied behind1 and wrapped in ribbands4 ,their ,wampum1 or ,pearls1 and their money1 which is made of shells1 are tied round the neck1 and hang down on the breast4 ,this is their whole dress4 ,they were now making several kinds of work of skins1 to which they sowed the quills of the ,american ,porcupines1 having dyed them black or red1 or left them in their original colour4 ,towards evening1 we went from hence to a farm close to the river1 where we found only one man1 looking after the maize and the fields2 the inhabitants being not yet returned since the end of the war4 ,the little brooks here contain ,crawfish1 which are exactly the same with ours #gh1 with this difference only1 that they are somewhat less2 however1 the ,dutch inhabitants will not eat them4 ,june the #bc;d4 ,we waited a good while for the ,indians1 who had promised to come home1 in order to shew us the way to ,fort ,st4 ,ann1 and to assist us in making a boat of bark1 to continue our voyage4 ,about eight o'clock three of the men arrived4 ,their hair was black1 and cut short2 they wore rough pieces of woollen cloth1 of a bright green colour1 on their shoulders1 a shirt which covers their thighs1 and pieces of cloth1 or skins1 which they wrap round the legs and part of the thighs4 ,they had neither hats1 caps1 nor breeches4 ,two of them had painted the upper part of their foreheads1 and their cheeks1 with vermilion4 ,round their neck was a ribband1 from which hung a bag down to the breast1 containing their knives4 ,they promised to accompany us for thirty shillings2 but soon after changed their minds1 and went with an ,englishman1 who gave them more4 ,thus we were obliged to make this journey quite alone4 ,the ,indians1 however1 were honest enough to return us fifteen shillings1 which we had paid them before-hand4 ,our last night's lodging was about ten ,english miles from ,albany4 ,during the last war1 which was just now ended1 the inhabitants had all retreated from thence to ,albany1 because the ,french ,indians had taken or killed all the people they met with1 set the houses on fire1 and cut down the trees4 ,therefore1 when the inhabitants returned1 they found no houses1 and were forced to ly under a few boards which were huddled together4 ,the river was almost a musket-shot broad1 and the ground on both sides cultivated4 ,the hills near the river were steep1 and the earth of a pale colour4 ,the ,american ,elder 7,sambucus occidentalis #gi7 grows in incredible quantities along those hills1 which appear quite white1 from the abundance of flowers on the ,elder4 ,all this day along1 we had one current after another1 full of stones1 which were great obstacles to our getting forward4 ,the water in the river was very clear1 and generally shallow1 being only from two to four feet deep1 running very violently against us in most places4 ,the shore was covered with pebbles1 and a grey sand4 ,the hills consisted of earth1 were high1 and stood perpendicular towards the river1 which was near two musket-shot broad4 ,sometimes the land was cultivated1 and sometimes it was covered with woods4 ,the hills near the river abound with red and white clover4 ,we found both these kinds plentiful in the woods4 ,it is therefore difficult to determine whether they were brought over by the ,europeans1 as some people think2 or whether they were originally in ,america1 which the ,indians deny4 ,we found ,purslane 7,portulaca oleracea7 growing plentifully in a sandy soil4 ,in gardens it was one of the worst weeds4 ,we found people returning every where to their habitations1 which they had been forced to leave during the war4 ,the farms were commonly built close to the river1 on the hills4 ,each house has a little kitchen-garden1 and a still lesser orchard4 ,some farms1 however1 had large gardens4 ,the kitchen-gardens afford several kinds of gourds1 water-melons1 and kidney-beans4 ,the orchards are full of apple-trees4 ,this year the trees had few or no apples1 on account of the frosty nights which had happened in ,may1 and the drought which had continued throughout this summer4 ,the houses hereabouts are generally built of beams of wood1 and of unburnt bricks dried by the sun and the air4 ,the beams are first erected1 and upon them a gable with two walls1 and the spars4 ,the wall on the gable is made of boards4 ,the roof is covered with shingles of fir4 ,they make the walls of unburnt bricks1 between the beams1 to keep the rooms warmer2 and that they might not easily be destroyed by rain and air1 they are covered with boards on the outside4 ,the cellar is below the house4 ,the farms are either built close to the river-side1 or on the high grounds2 and around them are large fields with maize4 ,we saw great numbers of ,musk-,rats 7,castor ,zibethicus ,linn47 on the shores of the river1 where they had many holes1 some on a level with the surface of the water4 ,these holes were large enough to admit a kitten4 ,before and in the entrance to the holes1 lay a quantity of empty shells1 the animals of which had been eaten by the ,musk-,rats #hj4 ,they are caught in traps placed along the water-side1 and baited with some maize or apples4 ,the ,sassafras-trees abound here1 but never grow to any considerable height4 ,chestnut-trees appear now and then4 ,the ,cockspur ,hawthorn 7,cratgus ,crus ,galli ,linn47 grows in the poorest soil1 and has very long spines2 which shews1 that it may be very advantageously planted in hedges1 especially in a poor soil4 ,this night we lodged with a farmer1 who had returned to his farm after the war was over4 ,all his buildings1 except the great barn1 were burnt4 ,june the #bdth4 ,the farm where we passed the night was the last in the province of ,new ,york1 towards ,canada1 which had been left standing1 and which was now inhabited4 ,further on1 we met still with inhabitants3 but they had no houses1 and lived in huts of boards2 the houses being burnt during the war4 ,as we continued our journey1 we observed the country on both sides of the river to be generally flat1 but sometimes hilly2 and large trails of it are covered with woods of fir-trees4 ,now and then we found some parts turned into corn-fields and meadows2 however1 the greater part was covered with woods4 ,ever since we left ,albany1 almost half-way to ,saratoga1 the river runs very rapid2 and it cost us a deal of pains to get upwards4 ,but afterwards it becomes very deep1 for the space of several miles2 and the water moves very slowly4 ,the shores are very steep1 though they are not very high4 ,the river is two musket-shot broad4 ,in the afternoon it changed its direction2 for hitherto its direction was from ,north to ,south1 but now it came from ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 and sometimes from ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w4 ,anthills are very scarce in ,america2 and ,i do not remember seeing a single one before ,i came to the ,cohoes ,fall4 ,we observed a few in the woods to-day4 ,the ,ants were the same with our common red ones 7,formica rufa ,linn47 ,the ,ant-hills consist chiefly of the slate-like mouldered stone which abounds here1 there being nothing else for them4 ,chestnut-trees grew scattered in the woods4 ,we were told1 that ,mulberry-trees 7,morus rubra ,linn47 likewise grow wild here1 but rather scarce2 and this is the most northerly place where they grow in ,america2 at least1 they have not been observed further to the north4 ,we met with wild parsneps every day2 but commonly in such places where the land was or had been cultivated4 ,hemp grows spontaneously1 and in great abundance1 near old plantations4 ,the woods abound with ,woodlice1 which were extremely troublesome to us4 ,the ,thuya occidentalis ,linn4 appeared along the shores of the river4 ,i had not seen it there before4 ,the trees which grow along the shores1 and on the adjacent hills1 within our sight to-day1 are elms1 birches1 white firs1 alders1 dog-trees1 lime-trees1 red willows1 and chestnut-trees4 ,the ,american ,elder1 7,sambucus ,canadensis ,linn47 and the wild vines1 only appear in places where the ground has been somewhat cultivated1 as if they were desirous of being the companions of men4 ,the lime-trees and white walnut-trees are the most numerous4 ,the horn-beams1 with inflated cones1 7,carpinus ,ostrya ,linn47 appeared now and then2 but the water-beech and water-poplar never came within sight any more4 ,we frequently saw ground-squirrels and black squirrels in the woods4 ,at a little distance from ,saratoga1 we met two ,indians in their boats of bark1 which could scarce contain more than one person4 ,near ,saratoga the river becomes shallow and rapid again4 ,the ground is here turned into corn-fields and meadows1 but on account of the war1 it was not made use of4 ,saratoga has been a fort built of wood by the ,english1 to stop the attacks of the ,french ,indians upon the ,english inhabitants in these parts1 and to serve as a rampart to ,albany4 ,it is situated on a hill1 on the east-side of the river ,hudson1 and is built of thick posts driven in to the ground1 close to each other1 in the manner of palisades1 forming a square1 the length of whose sides was within the reach of a musket-shot4 ,at each corner are the houses of the officers1 and within the palisades are the barracks1 all of timber4 ,this fort has been kept in order and was garrisoned till the last war1 when the ,english themselves in #agdg set fire to it1 not being able to defend themselves in it against the attacks of the ,french and their ,indians2 for as soon as a party of them went out of the fort1 some of these enemies lay concealed1 and either took them all prisoners1 or shot them4 ,i shall only mention one1 out of many artful tricks which were played here1 and which both the ,english and ,french who were present here at that time1 told me repeatedly4 ,a party of ,french1 with their ,indians1 concealed themselves one night in a thicket near the fort4 ,in the morning some of their ,indians1 as they had previously resolved1 went to have a nearer view of the fort4 ,the ,english fired upon them1 as soon as they saw them at a distance2 the ,indians pretended to be wounded1 fell down1 got up again1 ran a little way1 and dropped again4 ,above half the garrison rushed out to take them prisoners2 but as soon as they were come up with them1 the ,french and the remaining ,indians came out of the bushes1 betwixt the fortress and the ,english1 surrounded them1 and took them prisoners4 ,those who remained in the fort had hardly time to shut the gates1 nor could they fire upon the enemy1 because they equally exposed their countrymen to danger1 and they were vexed to see their enemies take and carry them off in their fight and under their cannon4 ,such ,french artifices as these made the ,english weary of their ill-planned fort4 ,we saw some of the palisades still in the ground4 ,there was an island in the river1 near ,saratoga1 much better situated for a fortification4 ,the country is flat on both sides of the river near ,saratoga1 and its soil good4 ,the wood round about was generally cut down4 ,the shores of the river are high1 steep1 and consist of earth4 ,we saw some hills in the north1 beyond the distant forests4 ,the inhabitants are ,dutch1 and bear an inveterate hatred to all ,englishmen4 ,we lay over night in a little hut of boards erected by the people who were come to live here4 ,june the #beth4 ,several saw-mills were built here before the war1 which were very profitable to the inhabitants1 on account of the abundance of wood which grows here4 ,the boards were easily brought to ,albany1 and from thence to ,new ,york1 in rafts every spring with the high water2 but all the mills were burnt at present4 ,this morning we proceeded up the river1 but after we had advanced about an ,english mile1 we fell in with a water-fall1 which cost us a deal of pains before we could get our canoe over it4 ,the water was very deep just below the fall1 owing to its hollowing the rock out by the fall4 ,in every place where we met with rocks in the river1 we found the water very deep1 from two to four fathoms and upwards2 because by finding a resistance it had worked a deeper channel into the ground4 ,above the fall1 the river is very deep again1 the water glides along silently1 and increases suddenly near the shores4 ,on both sides till you come to ,fort ,nicholson1 the shore is covered with tall trees4 ,after rowing several miles1 we passed another water-fall1 which is longer and more dangerous than the preceding one4 ,giants-pots #ha1 which ,i have described in the memoirs of the ,royal ,swedish ,academy of ,sciences1 are abundant near the fall of the rock which extends across the river4 ,the rock was almost dry at present1 the river containing very little water at this season of the year4 ,some of the giants-pots were round1 but in general they were oblong4 ,at the bottom of most of them lay either stones or grit1 in abundance4 ,some were fifteen inches in diameter1 but some were less4 ,their depth was likewise different1 and some that ,i observed were above two foot deep4 ,it is plain that they owed their origin to the whirling of the water round a pebble1 which by that means was put in motion1 together with the sand4 ,we intended to have gone quite up to ,fort ,nicholson in the canoe1 which would have been a great convenience to us2 but we found it impossible to get over the upper fall1 the canoe being heavy1 and scarce any water in the river1 except in one place where it flowed over the rock1 and where it was impossible to get up1 on account of the steepness1 and the violence of the fall4 ,we were accordingly obliged to leave our canoe here1 and to carry our baggage through unfrequented woods to ,fort ,anne1 on the river ,woodcreek which is a space from forty-three to fifty ,english miles1 during which we were quite spent1 through the excess of heat4 ,sometimes we had no other way of crossing deep rivers1 than by cutting down tall trees1 which stood on their banks1 and throwing them across the water4 ,all the land we passed over this afternoon was almost level1 without hills and stones1 and entirely covered with a tall and thick forest1 in which we continually met with trees which were fallen down1 because no one made the least use of the woods4 ,we passed the next night in the midst of the forest1 plagued with muskitoes1 gnats1 and wood-lice1 and in fear of all kinds of snakes1 ,june the #bfth4 ,early this morning we continued our journey through the wood1 along the river ,hudson4 ,there was an old path leading to ,fort ,nicholson1 but it was so overgrown with grass1 that we discovered it with great difficulty4 ,in some places we found plenty of raspberries1 some of which were already ripe4 ,fort ,nicholson is the place on the eastern shore of the river ,hudson1 where a wooden fortification formerly stood4 ,we arrived here some time before noon1 and rested a while4 ,colonel ,lydius resided here till the beginning of the last war1 chiefly with a view of carrying on a greater trade with the ,french ,indians2 but during the war1 they burnt his house1 and took his son prisoner4 ,the fort was situated on a plain1 but at present the place is all overgrown with a thicket4 ,it was built in the year #agji1 during the war which ,queen ,anne carried on against the ,french1 and it was named after the brave ,english general ,nicholson4 ,it was not so much a fort1 as a magazine to ,fort ,anne4 ,in the year #agaa1 when the ,english naval attempt upon ,canada miscarried1 the ,english themselves set fire to this place4 ,the soil hereabouts seems to be pretty fertile4 ,the river ,hudson passed close by here4 ,some time in the afternoon1 we continued our journey4 ,we had hitherto followed the eastern shore of the river ,hudson1 and gone almost due ,north2 but now we left it1 and went ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 or ,n4 ,e4 across the woods1 in order to come to the upper end of the river ,woodcreek1 which flows to ,fort ,st4 ,frederic1 where we might go in a boat from the former place4 ,the ground we passed over this afternoon was generally flat1 and somewhat low4 ,now and then we met with rivulets1 which were generally dried up during this season4 ,sometimes we saw a little hill1 but neither mountains nor stones1 and the country was every where covered with tall and thick forests4 ,the trees stood close1 and afforded a fine shade2 but the pleasure which we enjoyed from it was lessened by the incredible quantity of gnats which fill the woods4 ,we found several plants here1 but they were far from each other1 7as in our woods where the cattle have destroyed them17 though no cattle ever came here4 ,the ground was every where thick covered with leaves of the last autumn4 ,in some places we found the ground over-grown with great quantities of moss4 ,the soil was generally very good1 consisting of a deep mould1 in which the plants thrive very well4 ,therefore it seems that it would answer very well if it were cultivated3 however1 flowing waters were very scarce hereabouts2 and if the woods were cleared1 how great would be the effects of the parching heat of the sun1 which might then act with its full force6 ,we lodged this night near a brook1 in order to be sufficiently supplied with water1 which was not every where at hand during this season4 ,the muskitoes1 punchins or gnats1 and the woodlice1 were very troublesome4 ,our fear of snakes1 and of the ,indians rendered this night's rest very precarious and unsecure4 ,punchins1 as the ,dutch call them1 are the little gnats 7,culex pulicaris ,linn47 which abound here4 ,they are very minute1 and their wings grey1 with black spots4 ,they are ten times worse than the larger ones1 7,culex pipiens ,linn47 or muskitoes2 for their size renders them next to imperceptible2 they are every where careless of their lives1 suck their fill of blood1 and cause a burning pain4 ,we heard several great trees fall of themselves in the night1 though it was so calm1 that not a leaf stirred4 ,they made a dreadful cracking4 ,june the #bgth4 ,we continued our journey in the morning4 ,we found the country like that which we passed over yesterday1 except meeting with a few hills4 ,early this morning we plainly heard a fall in the river ,hudson4 ,in every part of the forest we found trees thrown down either by storms1 or age2 but none were cut down1 there being no inhabitants2 and though the wood is very fine1 yet nobody makes use of it4 ,we found it very difficult to get over such trees1 because they had stopped up almost all the passages1 and close to them was the chief residence of rattle-snakes1 during the intenseness of the heat4 ,about two o'clock this afternoon we arrived at ,fort ,anne4 ,it lies upon the river ,woodcreek1 which is here at its origin no bigger than a little brook4 ,we stayed here all this day1 and next1 in order to make a new boat of bark1 because there was no possibility to go down the river to ,fort ,st4 ,frederic1 without it4 ,we arrived in time1 for one of our guides fell ill this morning1 and could not have gone any further with his burthen4 ,if he had been worse1 we should have been obliged to stop on his account1 which would have put us under great difficulties1 as our provisions would soon have been exhausted1 and from the desart place where we were1 we could not have arrived at any inhabited place in less than three or four days4 ,happily we reached the wish'd-for place1 and the sick man had time to rest and recover4 ,about ,fort ,anne we found a number of mice1 of the common kind4 ,they were probably the offspring of those which were brought to the fort in the soldier's provisions1 at the time when it was kept in a state of defence4 ,we met with some apple and plumb-trees1 which were certainly planted when the fort was in a good condition1 ,june the #bhth4 ,the ,american ,elm1 7,ulmus ,americana ,linn47 grows in abundance1 in the forests hereabouts4 ,there are two kinds of it4 ,one was called the ,white ,elm1 on account of the inside of the tree being white4 ,it was more plentiful than the other species1 which was called the ,red ,elm1 because the colour of the wood was reddish4 ,of the bark of the former the boats made use of here are commonly made1 it being tougher than the bark of any other tree4 ,with the bark of hiccory1 which is employed as bast1 they sow the elm-bark together1 and with the bark of the red elm they join the ends of the boat so close as to keep the water out4 ,they beat the bark between two stones2 or for want of them1 between two pieces of wood4 ,the making of the boat took up half yesterday1 and all this day4 ,to make such a boat1 they pick out a thick tall elm1 with a smooth bark1 and with as few branches as possible4 ,this tree is cut down1 and great care is taken to prevent the bark from being hurt by falling against other trees1 or against the ground4 ,with this view some people do not fell the trees1 but climb to the top of them1 split the bark1 and strip it off1 which was the method our carpenter took4 ,the bark is split on one side1 in a strait line along the tree1 as long as the boat is intended to be2 at the same time1 the bark is carefully cut from the stem a little way on both sides of the slit1 that it may more easily separate2 the bark is then peeled off very carefully1 and particular care is taken not to make any holes into it2 this is easy when the sap is in the trees1 and at other seasons the tree is heated by the fire1 for that purpose4 ,the bark thus stript off is spread on the ground1 in a smooth place1 turning the inside downwards1 and the rough outside upwards1 and to stretch it better1 some logs of wood or stones are carefully put on it1 which press it down4 ,then the sides of the bark are gently bent upwards1 in order to form the sides of the boat2 some sticks are then fixed into the ground1 at the distance of three or four feet from each other1 in the curve line1 in which the sides of the boat are intended to be1 supporting the bark intended for the sides2 the sides of the bark are then bent in the form which the boat is to have1 and according to that the sticks are either put nearer or further off4 ,the ribs of the boat are made of thick branches of hiccory1 they being tough and pliable4 ,they are cut into several flat pieces1 about an inch thick1 and bent into the form which the ribs require1 according to their places in the broader or narrower part of the boat4 ,being thus bent1 they are put across the boat1 upon the back1 or its bottom1 pretty close1 about a span1 or ten inches from each other4 ,the upper edge on each side of the boat is made of two thin poles1 of the length of the boat1 which are put close together1 on the side of the boat1 being flat1 where they are to be joined4 ,the edge of the bark is put between these two poles1 and sewed up with threads of bast1 of the mouse-wood1 or other tough bark1 or with roots4 ,but before it is thus sewed up1 the ends of the ribs are likewise put between the two poles on each side1 taking care to keep them at some distance from each other4 ,after that is done1 the poles are sewed together1 and being bent properly1 both their ends join at each end of the boat1 where they are tied together with ropes4 ,to prevent the widening of the boat at the top1 three or four transverse bands are put across it1 from one edge to the other1 at the distance of thirty or forty inches from each other4 ,these bands are commonly made of hiccory1 on account of its toughness and flexibility1 and have a good length4 ,their extremities are put through the bark on both sides1 just below the poles1 which make the edges2 they are bent up above those poles1 and twisted round the middle part of the bands1 where they are carefully tied by ropes4 ,as the bark at the two ends of the boat cannot be put so close together as to keep the water out1 the crevices are stopped up with the crushed or pounded bark of the red elm1 which in that state looks like oakum4 ,some pieces of bark are put upon the ribs in the boat1 without which the foot would easily pierce the thin and weak bark below1 which forms the bottom of the boat1 for the better security of which1 some thin boards are commonly laid at the bottom1 which may be trod upon with more safety4 ,the side of the bark which has been upon the wood1 thus becomes the outside of the boat1 because it is smooth and slippy1 and cuts the water with less difficulty than the other4 ,the building of these boats is not always quick2 for sometimes it happens that after peeling the bark off an elm1 and carefully examining it1 it is found pierced with holes and splits1 or it is too thin to venture one's life in4 ,in such a case another elm must be looked out2 and it sometimes happens that several elms must be stripped of their bark1 before one is found fit for a boat4 ,that which we made was big enough to bear four persons1 with our baggage1 which weighed somewhat more than a man4 ,all possible precautions must be taken in rowing on the rivers and lakes of these parts with a boat of bark4 ,for as the rivers1 and even the lakes1 contain numbers of broken trees1 which are commonly hidden under the water1 the boat may easily run against a sharp branch1 which would tear half the boat away1 if one rowed on very fast1 exposing the people in it to great danger1 where the water is very deep1 especially if such a branch held the boat4 ,to get into such a dangerous vessel1 must be done with great care1 and for the greater safety1 without shoes4 ,for with the shoes on1 and still more with a sudden leap into the boat1 the heels may easily pierce through the bottom of the boat1 which might sometimes be attended with very disagreeable circumstances1 especially when the boat is so near a rock1 and close to that a sudden depth of water2 and such places are common in the lakes and rivers here4 ,i never saw the muskitoes 7,culex pipiens7 more plentiful in any part of ,america than they are here4 ,they were so eager for our blood1 that we could not rest all the night1 though we had surrounded ourselves with fire4 ,wood-lice 7,acarus ,americanus ,linn47 abound here1 and are more plentiful than on any part of the journey4 ,scarcely any one of us sat down but a whole army of them crept upon his clothes4 ,they caused us as much inconvenience as the gnats1 during the last night1 and the short time we stayed here4 ,their bite is very disagreeable1 and they would prove very dangerous1 if any one of them should creep into a man's ear1 from whence it is difficult to extract them4 ,there are examples of people whose ears were swelled to the size of the fist1 on account of one of these insects creeping into them1 and biting them4 ,more is said about them in the description which ,i have given to the ,royal ,swedish ,academy of ,sciences #hb4 ,the ,whipperiwill or ,whip-poor-,will cried all night on every side4 ,the ,fireflies flew in numbers through the woods at night4 ,fort ,anne derives its name from ,queen ,anne2 for in her time it served as a fortification against the ,french4 ,it lies on the ,western side of the river ,woodcreek1 which is here as inconsiderable as a brook1 of a fathom's breadth1 and may be waded through in any part1 during this season4 ,the fort is built in the same manner as the forts ,saratoga and ,nicholson1 that is to say1 of palisades1 within which the soldiers were quartered1 and at the corners of which were the lodgings of the officers4 ,the whole consisted of wood1 because it was erected only with a view to resist irregular troops4 ,it is built on a little rising ground which runs obliquely to the river ,woodcreek4 ,the country round about it is partly flat1 partly hilly1 and partly marshy1 but it consists merely of earth1 and no stones are to be met with1 though ever so carefully sought for4 ,general ,nicholson built this fort in the year #agji2 but at the conclusion of the war1 then carrying on against the ,french1 it shared the same fate with ,saratoga and ,fort ,nicholson1 being burnt by the ,english in #agaa4 ,this happened with the following circumstance3 ,in #agaa the ,english resolved to attack ,canada1 by land and by sea1 at the same time4 ,a powerful ,english fleet sailed up the river ,st4 ,lawrence to besiege ,quebec1 and ,general ,nicholson1 who was the greatest promoter of this expedition1 headed a numerous army to this place by land1 to attack ,montreal1 at the same time from hence2 but a great part of the ,english fleet was shipwrecked in the river ,st4 ,lawrence1 and obliged to return to ,new ,england4 ,the news of this misfortune was immediately communicated to ,general ,nicholson1 who was advised to retreat4 ,captain ,butler who commanded ,fort ,mohawk1 during my stay in ,america1 told me that he had been at ,fort ,anne in #agaa1 and that ,general ,nicholson was about to leave it1 and go down the river ,woodcreek1 in boats ready for that purpose1 when he received the accounts of the disaster which befel the fleet4 ,he was so enraged1 that he endeavoured to tear his wig1 but it being too strong for him1 he flung it to the ground1 and trampled on it1 crying out ,roguery1 treachery4 ,he then set fire to the fort1 and returned4 ,we saw the remains of the burnt palisades in the ground2 and ,i asked my guides1 ,why the ,english had been at so great an expence in erecting the fort1 and why they afterwards burnt it without any previous consideration8 ,they replied1 that it was done to get money from the government once more1 for the rebuilding of the fort1 which money coming into some people's hands1 they would appropriate a great part of it to themselves1 and erect again a wretched1 inconsiderable fort4 ,they further told me1 that some of the richest people in ,albany had promoted their poor relations to the places for supplying the army with bread1 c4 with a view to patch up their broken fortunes2 and that they had acquired such fortunes as rendered them equal to the richest inhabitants of ,albany4 ,the heat was excessive to-day1 especially in the afternoon1 when it was quite calm4 ,we were on the very spot where ,fort ,anne formerly stood2 it was a little place free from trees1 but surrounded with them on every side1 where the sun had full liberty to heat the air4 ,after noon it grew as warm as in a hot bath #hc1 and ,i never felt a greater heat4 ,i found a difficulty of breathing1 and it seemed to me as if my lungs could not draw in a sufficient quantity of air4 ,i was more eased when ,i went down into the vallies1 and especially along the ,woodcreek4 ,i tried to fan the air to me with my hat1 but it only encreased the difficulty of breathing1 and ,i received the greatest relief when ,i went to the water1 and in a shady place frequently sprinkled some water in the air4 ,my companions were all very much weakened1 but they did not find such difficulty in breathing1 as ,i had done2 however towards evening the air became somewhat cooler4 ,june the #bith4 ,having compleated our boat1 after a great deal of trouble1 we continued our journey this morning4 ,our provisions1 which were much diminished1 obliged us to make great haste2 for by being obliged to carry every thing on our backs1 through the woods to ,fort ,anne1 we could not take a great quantity of provisions with us1 having several other very necessary things with us2 and we did always eat very heartily4 ,as there was very little water in the river1 and several trees were fallen across it1 which frequently stopped the boat1 ,i left the men in the boat1 and went along the shore with ,yungstroem4 ,the ground on both sides of the river was so low1 that it must be under water in spring and autumn4 ,the shores were covered with several sorts of trees1 which stood at moderate distances from each other1 and a great deal of grass grew between them4 ,the trees afforded a fine shade1 very necessary and agreeable in this hot season2 but the pleasure it gave was considerably lessened by the numbers of gnats which we met with4 ,the soil was extremely rich4 ,as we came lower down the river1 the dykes1 which the beavers had made in it1 produced new difficulties4 ,these laborious animals had carried together all sorts of boughs and branches1 and placed them across the river1 putting mud and clay in betwixt them1 to stop the water4 ,they had bit off the ends of the branches as neatly as if they had been chopped off with a hatchet4 ,the grass about these places was trod down by them1 and in the neighbourhood of the dykes we sometimes met with paths in the grass1 where the beavers probably carried trees along4 ,we found a row of dykes before us1 which stopped us a considerable while1 as we could not get forwards with the boat1 till we had cut through them4 ,as soon as the river was more open1 we got into the boat again1 and continued our journey in it4 ,the breadth of the river1 however1 did not exceed eight or nine yards1 and frequently it was not above three or four yards broad1 and generally so shallow1 that our boat got on with difficulty4 ,sometimes it acquired such a sudden depth1 that we could not reach the ground with sticks of seven feet length4 ,the stream was very rapid in some places1 and very slow in others4 ,the shores were low at first1 but afterwards remarkably high and steep1 and now and then a rock projected into the water1 which always caused a great depth in such places4 ,the rocks consisted here of a grey quartz1 mixed with a grey limestone1 lying in strata4 ,the water in the river was very clear and transparent1 and we saw several little paths leading to it from the woods1 said to be made by beavers1 and other animals1 which resorted here to drink4 ,after going a little more than three ,english miles1 we came to a place1 where a fire was yet burning1 and then we little thought that we had narrowly escaped death last night1 as we heard this evening4 ,now and then we met with several trees lying across the river1 and some dykes of beavers1 which were troublesome to us4 ,towards night we met with a ,french serjeant1 and six ,french soldiers1 who were sent by the commander of ,fort ,st4 ,frederic1 to accompany three ,englishmen to ,saratoga1 and to defend them in case of necessity1 against six ,french ,indians1 who were gone to be revenged on the ,english1 for killing the brother of one of them in the last war4 ,the peace was already concluded at that time1 but as it had not yet been proclaimed in ,canada1 the ,indians thought they could take this step2 therefore they silently got away1 contrary to the order of the ,governor of ,montreal1 and went towards the ,english plantations4 ,we here had occasion to admire the care of ,providence for us1 in escaping these barbarians4 ,we found the grass trod down all day along1 but had no thoughts of danger1 as we believed that every thing was quiet and peaceable4 ,we were afterwards informed1 that these ,indians had trod the grass down1 and passed the last night in the place where we found the burning brands in the morning4 ,the usual road which they were to take1 was by ,fort ,anne1 but to shorten their journey they had gone an unfrequented road4 ,if they had gone on towards ,fort ,anne1 they would have met us without doubt1 and looking upon us all as ,englishmen1 for whose blood they were gone out1 they could easily have surprised and shot us all1 and by that means have been rid of the trouble of going any further to satisfy their cruelty4 ,we were greatly struck when the ,frenchmen told us how near death we had been to-day4 ,we passed the night here1 and though the ,french repeatedly advised and desired me not to venture any further with my company1 but to follow them to the first ,english settlement1 and then back to ,fort ,st4 ,frederic1 yet ,i resolved1 with the protection of the ,almighty1 to continue my journey the next day4 ,we saw immense numbers of those wild pigeons flying in the woods1 which sometimes come in incredible flocks to the southern ,english colonies1 most of the inhabitants not knowing where they come from4 ,they have their nests in the trees here2 and almost all the night make a great noise and cooing in the trees1 where they roost4 ,the ,frenchmen shot a great number of them1 and gave us some1 in which we found a great quantity of the seeds of the elm1 which evidently demonstrated the care of ,providence in supplying them with food2 for in ,may the seeds of the red maple1 which abounds here1 are ripe1 and drop from the trees1 and are eaten by the pigeons during that time3 afterwards1 the seeds of the elm ripen1 which then become their food1 till other seeds ripen for them4 ,their flesh is the most palatable of any bird's flesh ,i ever tasted4 ,almost every night1 we heard some trees crack and fall1 whilst we lay here in the wood1 though the air was so calm that not a leaf stirred4 ,the reason of this breaking ,i am totally unacquainted with4 ,perhaps the dew loosens the roots of trees at night2 or1 perhaps there are too many branches on one side of the tree4 ,it may be1 that the above-mentioned wild pigeons settle in such quantities on one tree as to weigh it down2 or perhaps the tree begins to bend more and more to one side1 from its center of gravity1 making the weight always greater for the roots to support1 till it comes to the point1 when it can no longer be kept upright1 which may as well happen in the midst of a calm night as at any other time4 ,when the wind blows hard1 it is reckoned very dangerous to sleep or walk in the woods1 on account of the many trees which fall in them2 and even when it is very calm1 there is some danger in passing under very great and old trees4 ,i was told1 in several parts of ,america1 that the storms or hurricanes sometimes only pass over a small part of the woods1 and tear down the trees in it2 and ,i have had opportunities of confirming the truth of this observation1 by finding places in the forests1 where almost all the trees were thrown down1 and lay all in one direction4 ,tea is differently esteemed by different people2 and ,i think we would be as well1 and our purses much better1 if we were both without tea and coffee4 ,however1 ,i must be impartial1 and mention in praise of tea1 that if it be useful1 it must certainly be so in summer1 on such journeys as mine1 through a desart country1 where one cannot carry wine or other liquors1 and where the water is generally unfit for use1 as being full of insects4 ,in such cases1 it is very relishing when boiled1 and tea is drunk with it2 and ,i cannot sufficiently describe the fine taste it has in such circumstances4 ,it relieves a weary traveller more than can be imagined1 as ,i have myself experienced1 together with a great many others who have travelled through the desart forests of ,america2 on such journeys1 tea is found to be almost as necessary as victuals #hd4 ,june the #cjth4 ,this morning we left our boat to the ,frenchmen1 who made use of it to carry their provisions2 for we could not make any further use of it1 on account1 of the number of trees which the ,french had thrown across the river during the last war1 to prevent the attacks of the ,english upon ,canada4 ,the ,frenchmen gave us leave to make use of one of their boats1 which they had left behind them1 about six miles from the place where we passed the last night4 ,thus we continued our journey on foot1 along the river2 and found the country flat1 with some little vales here and there4 ,it was every where covered with tall trees1 of the deciduous kind2 among which the beech1 the elm1 the ,american lime-tree1 and the sugar-maple1 were the most numerous4 ,the trees stand at some distance from each other2 and the soil in which they grow is extremely rich4 ,after we had walked about a ,swedish mile1 or six ,english miles1 we came to the place where the six ,frenchmen had left their bark boats1 of which we took one1 and rowed down the river1 which was now between nineteen and twenty yards broad4 ,the4 ground on both sides was very smooth1 and not very high4 ,sometimes we found a hill consisting of grey quartz1 mixed with small fine grains of grey spar4 ,we likewise observed black stripes in it2 but they were small1 that ,i could not determine whether they were of glimmer1 or of another kind of stone4 ,the hills were frequently divided into strata1 lying one above another1 of the thickness of five inches4 ,the strata went from north to south2 and were not quite horizontal1 but dipping to the north4 ,as we went further on1 we saw high and steep hills on the river-side1 partly covered with trees2 but in other parts1 the banks consist of a swampy turf ground1 which gave way when it was walked upon1 and had some similarity to the sides of our marshes1 which my countrymen are now about to drain4 ,in those parts where the ground was low and flat1 we did not see any stones either on the ground1 or on the softer shore2 and both sides of the river when they were not hilly1 were covered with tall elms1 ,american lime-trees1 sugar-maples1 beeches1 hiccory-trees1 some water-beeches1 and white walnut-trees4 ,on our left we saw an old fortification of stones laid above one another2 but nobody could tell me whether the ,indians or the ,europeans had built it4 ,we had rowed very fast all the afternoon1 in order to get forward2 and we thought that we were upon the true road1 but found ourselves greatly mistaken3 for towards night we observed1 that the reeds in the river bent towards us1 which was a mark that the river likewise flowed towards us2 whereas1 if we had been on the true river1 it should have gone with us4 ,we likewise observed1 from the trees which lay across the river1 that nobody had lately passed that way1 though we should have seen the steps of the ,frenchmen in the grass along the shore1 when they brought their boat over these trees4 ,at last1 we plainly saw that the river flowed against us1 by several pieces of wood which floated slowly towards us2 and we were convinced1 that we had gone twelve ,english miles1 and upwards1 upon a wrong river1 which obliged us to return1 and to row till very late at night4 ,we sometimes thought1 through fear1 that the ,indians1 who were gone to murder some ,english1 would unavoidably meet with us4 ,though we rowed very fast1 yet we were not able to-day to get half-way back to the place where we first left the true river4 ,the most odoriferous effluvia sometimes came from the banks of the river1 towards night1 but we could not determine what flowers diffused them4 ,however1 we supposed they chiefly arose from the ,asclepias ,syriaca1 and the ,apocynum androsmifolium4 ,the ,musk-,rats could likewise be smelled at night4 ,they had many holes in the shores1 even with the surface of the water4 ,we passed the night in an island1 where we could not sleep on account of the gnats4 ,we did not venture to make a fire1 for fear the ,indians should find us out1 and kill us4 ,we heard several of their dogs barking in the woods1 at a great distance from us1 which added to our uneasiness4 ,,meteorological ,,observations4 ,,advertisement4 ,in the first column of these tables1 the ,reader will find the days of the month2 in the second1 the time or hour of the day1 when the observations were made2 in the third1 the rising and falling of the thermometer2 in the fourth1 the wind2 and in the fifth1 the weather in general1 such as rainy1 fair1 cloudy1 c4 ,the thermometer which ,i have made use of is that of ,mr4 ,celsius1 or the ,swedish thermometer so called1 as ,i have already pointed out in the preface4 ,to distinguish the degrees above freezing-point from those below it1 ,i have expressed the freezing-point itself by #jj1 and prefixed #j to every degree below it4 ,the numbers therefore which have no #j before them1 signify the upper degrees4 ,some examples will make this still more intelligible4 ,on the #agth of ,december it is remarked1 that the thermometer1 at eight o'clock in the morning1 was at #jb4e4 ,it was therefore at #b degrees and #eaj1 or half a degree1 below the freezing-point2 but at two in the afternoon1 it was at #jj4j1 or exactly upon the freezing-point4 ,if it had been #jj4c1 it would have signified that the thermometer was fallen #caj of a degree below the freezing-point2 but #j4c would signify1 that it was risen #caj of a degree above the freezing-point4 ,thus likewise #jc4j4 is three degrees below the freezing-point2 and #d4j4 four degrees above it4 ,the numbers in the columns of the winds signify as follows3 #j1 is a calm2 #a1 a gentle breeze2 #b1 a fresh gale2 #c1 a strong gale2 and #d1 a violent storm or hurricane4 ,when1 in some of the last tables1 the winds are only marked once a day1 it signifies that they have not changed that day4 ,thus1 on the #bast of ,december1 stands ,n4 #j fair4 ,this shews that the weather-cocks have turned to the north all day2 but that no wind has been felt1 and the sky has been clear all the day long4 ,before ,i went to ,canada in summer #agdi1 ,i desired ,mr4 ,john ,bartram to make some meteorological observations in ,pensylvania1 during my absence1 in order to ascertain the summer-heat of that province4 ,for that purpose1 ,i left him a thermometer1 and instructed him in the proper use of it2 and he was so kind as to write down his observations at his farm1 about four ,english miles to the south of ,philadelphia4 ,he is very excusable for not putting down the hour1 the degree of wind1 c4 for being employed in business of greater consequence1 that of cultivating his grounds1 he could not allow much time for this4 ,what he has done1 is however sufficient to give an idea of the ,pensylvanian summer4 ,august #agdh4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #e m #bj4j ,e ,s ,e #b ,fair #b a #bd4e ,e #b #b #e m #bb4j ,e #b #b a #bd4e ,e #b #c #e m #bb4j ,e #a #b a #be4e ,s ,s ,w #a ,cloudy with some rain4 #d #e m #bb4j ,s #a ,alternately fair1 cloudy and #a a #ba4j ,s #a rainy all day4 #e #e m #ag4j ,s ,s ,w #a ,chiefly rainy4 #f #g m #ag4j ,s #b ,cloudy4 #b a #ai4j ,s #b ,somewhat cloudy1 but chiefly fair4 #g #e m #ae4e ,s ,s ,w #b ,alternately fair and cloudy4 #h #e m #ah4j ,s ,s ,w #j ,fair all day4 #c a #ai4j ,s ,s ,w #j #i #f m #ag4e ,w ,n ,w #j #d a #ba4j ,w ,n ,w #a #aj #f m #ah4e ,e #a ,fair4 #c a #bj4e ,e #a #aa #f m #dg4j ,e ,n ,e #a ,somewhat cloudy4 a #ah4e ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #d #bb4j ,s ,w #a #f #bb4j ,w #c #ab #f m #af4j ,n ,w #a ,cloudy with some drizzl4 rain at ten4 #d a #ai4j ,n ,w #a ,cloudy1 fair1 some drizzl4 rain altern4 #ac #f m #ag4j ,w ,n ,w #b ,cloudy with some rain2 foggy1 #b a #ah4e ,w ,n ,w #b sometimes fair4 #ad #e m #ah4j ,w ,s ,w #j ,somewhat cloudy1 fair from #aa m4 to #c a4 #d a #bj4j ,w ,s ,w #j ,cloudy #ae #e m #ah4j ,w ,s ,w #j ,cloudy2 sometimes fair2 at ten #b a #ai4e ,n ,e #b o'clock fell a thin fog4 #af #f m #ah4c ,n ,n ,e #b ,somewhat cloudy2 sometime fair4 #b a #ah4e ,dark2 rainy at night4 #ag #f m #ah4e ,e ,n ,e #b ,dark1 with some drizzling rain4 #b a #ai4e ,drizzling rain all the afternoon4 #ah #f m #ai4j ,e #b ,drizzling rain all the day4 #b a #bj4e #ai #f m #ai4e ,cloudy #b a #bj4j ,scattered clouds4 #bj #f m #ai4e ,fair4 #b a #ba4e ,scattered clouds3 sometimes rain4 #ba #f m #bj4h ,e #a ,somewhat cloudy1 fair at nine #b a #ba4c ,thin clouds4 #bb #e m #ba4j ,fair2 about twelve it became cloudy4 #a a #bc4e ,e ,s ,e #a ,cloudy4 #bc #e m #bb4b ,scattered clouds4 #g ,s ,e #b #b a #bd4b ,scattered clouds1 dark towards eve4 #bd #e m #bc4e ,w ,s ,w #b ,violent rain4 #f ,w #b #g ,w ,n ,w #a ,about seven it cleared up4 #i ,n ,w #a #b a ,scattered clouds4 #be #f m #bd4e ,w #a ,scattered clouds4 #aj ,w ,n ,w #c #b a #bc4e #bf #f m #bd4j ,w #b ,fair4 ,at night a great halo appeared round the sun4 #b a #bd4e ,s ,w #b ,dark4 ,a strong redness at sun-setting4 ,w ,s ,w #a ,cloudy4 ,at ten it began to rain1 and it rained all day4 #bg #f m #bd4e ,s ,e #b #aa ,e #c #a a ,n ,e #d ,rain4 #d #ba4e ,n #a ,scattered clouds4 #bh #g m #bc4j #b a #bc4e ,s ,w #a #bi #f m ,s ,w #c ,towards evening drizzl4 rain and lightning4 #b a #be4e ,n ,w #b ,scattered clouds2 air very cool4 #cj #f m #bc4e ,fair3 in the morning it began to #b a #ba4e ,s ,w #a grow cloudy2 at night lightning1 hard rain1 and some thunder4 #ca #f m #bb4b ,september #agdh4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #g m #bj4j ,n ,w #b ,scattered clouds4 #b a #ba4e ,clouds passing by4 ,rain and strong winds all the afternoon4 #b #f m #ai4j ,n ,w #a ,scattered clouds all day4 #b a #bj4e ,n ,w #j ,at night a great halo round the moon4 #c #f m #ba4e ,w ,s ,w #j ,scattered clouds4 #b a #bc4j ,s #a ,it became more cloudy4 ,in the evening appeared a great halo round the sun4 #d #f m #bc4c ,e #a ,scattered clouds4 #ab n #bg4e ,e ,s ,e #a #b a #bd4j #e #f m #bd4e ,s ,e #c ,scattered clouds4 #ab n #bf4e #f #f m #bg4j ,s ,e #b ,scattered clouds1 #a a #bh4e ,at night a great halo round the moon1 and the sky very red4 #g #f m #bg4e ,e #c ,dark sometimes4 ,the sun shone through the clouds4 #h #ab n #bh4e ,n ,e #b ,scattered clouds4 #h #f m #bf4j ,n ,n ,e #b ,scattered clouds all day4 #a a #bf4e #i #f m #bd4e ,n #a ,scattered clouds all day4 #a a #bd4e #aj #e m #bd4j ,n ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #a a #bd4e #aa #f m #bc4b ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #be4j ,at night a halo round the moon4 #ab #f m #bd4j ,a ,calm4 ,fair1 and very hot4 a #bf4j #ac #e m #be4e ,s ,e #a ,fair4 #a a #bf4e #ad #f m #be4e ,s ,e #a ,fair2 but a cool wind all the #a a #bf4e morning4 #ae #e m #bc4j ,s ,e #a ,scattered clouds4 #a a #bg4e ,it grew more cloudy4 ,in the evening and ensuing night1 violent rain and winds4 #af #e m #ba4e ,n ,n ,e #a ,it rained hard all day4 #b a #ba4e #ag #e m #be4e ,n ,w #a ,cloudy4 #a a #ba4j ,scattered clouds4 #ah #f m #ac4j ,calm4 ,fair4 #ai #a a #bd4e ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair all day4 #bj #f m #ad4j ,n ,e #a ,scattered clouds4 #ba #f m #aa4j ,n ,e #j ,scattered clouds4 #a a #bc4j #bb #g m #aj4e ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #a a #be4j #bc #f m #aa4j ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #b a #bh4j #bd #f m #ad4j ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #b a #bh4j ,it grew dark4 ,at night came rain1 which continued late4 #be #f m #ah4j ,n ,w #a ,dark4 ,at #h1 scattered clouds4 #b a #bh4j ,n ,e #a ,scattered clouds4 #bf #f m #ae4e ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #b a #bg4e #bg #f m #ag4j ,n ,e #a ,cloudy4 ,fair at #h1 and all the morning4 #b a #bg4j ,cloudy4 #bh #f m #ad4j ,n ,e #a ,fair and cloudy alternately4 #b a #bj4j #bi #g m #ae4e ,n ,e #a ,cloudy4 #b a #bj4e ,fine drizzling rain4 #cj #g m #af4j ,n ,e #j ,alternately fair and cloudy4 ,october #agdh4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #f m #ai4j ,s #a ,fair4 ,scattered clouds at #h4 #b a #ah4e ,scattered clouds4 ,dark towards night4 #b #f m #ah4e ,s ,w #j ,cloudy4 #c #f m #ae4j ,n ,w #a ,cloudy4 #a a #ah4j ,scattered clouds4 ,late at night a great halo round the moon4 #d #g m #f4j ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #a a #af4j #e #g m #b4j ,n #a ,fair4 #f #g m #b4j ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #a a #ah4j ,at night a great halo round the moon4 #g #f m #g4j ,e ,n ,e #a ,cloudy4 ,fair at #i1 and all day4 #h #f m #ad4j ,e ,n ,e #a ,cloudy4 ,scattered clouds at #h4 #i #f m #ah4j ,s ,s ,e #a ,rain all the morning4 #c a #bc4j ,cloudy4 #aj #f m #bj4j ,s ,w #j ,fog1 and a drizzling rain4 #b a #bc4j ,fair4 #aa #g m #bj4j ,s ,w #a ,fog1 which fell down4 ,fair at #h4 #b a #bf4j ,fair4 #ab #f m #h4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair all day4 #h ,w #a #b a #bj4j ,w ,s ,w #a #ac #f m #b4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,in the morning1 hoary frost on the plants4 #b a #ag4j ,w ,s ,w #j ,fair all day4 #ad #f m #e4j ,s ,s ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #ba4j #ae #f m #d4e ,s ,s ,e #j ,fair4 #b a #bd4j #af #f m #aa4j ,e ,n ,e #j ,cloudy4 #ag #f m #h4j ,n ,e #a ,cloudy4 #b a #ah4j ,cloudy4 ,violent rain all night4 #ah #f m #ab4j ,n ,w #j ,cloudy4 #e a #d4j ,s ,w #j #ai #f m #jj4j ,w ,s ,w #a ,scattered clouds4 #b a #i4j #bj #e m #ja4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #i4j #ba #g m #jj4j ,w #j ,in the morning ice on standing water1 white hoary frost on the #a a #ae4j ground2 fair all day4 #bb #f m #jj4j ,w #j ,fair4 #bc #f m #d4e ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #a a #af4j #bd #f m #d4e ,n #j ,fair4 #b a #ah4j #be #f m #d4e ,s ,w #a ,fair4 ,air very much condensed in the afternoon4 #bf #f m #d4j ,s ,w #j ,fair4 #c a #ai4j #bg #f m #a4j ,s ,w #j ,fair4 #c a #ag4j #bh #f m #i4j ,e #b ,heavy rain all day4 #bi #f m #ad4j ,w #a ,fair4 #a a #bj4j ,at night ,i saw a meteor1 commonly called the shooting of a star1 going far from ,n4 ,w4 to ,s4 ,e4 #cj #f m #c4j ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #ca #g m #d4j ,w #a ,fair4 #a a #ah4j ,november #agdh4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #g m #c4j ,s #a ,fair4 #b #f m #d4j ,n #j ,fair4 #c a #ah4j #c #g m #g4j ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #a a #ad4j ,s ,e #j #d #g m #a4j ,s ,w #j ,in the morning the fields were covered with white frost4 #ab n #ai4j ,a fair day4 #e #g m #d4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #a a #ag4j #f #g m #d4e ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #a a #ab4j ,towards evening somewhat cloudy4 #g #g m #g4j ,e ,n ,e #a ,cloudy4 #d a #aa4e #h #g m #aa4e ,e ,n ,e #b ,drizzling rain4 a #ah4j ,e ,s ,e #c ,heavy rain4 #i #g m #ag4j ,s ,e #a ,drizzling rain4 #i m #ae4j ,s ,s ,w #a ,at eight it cleared up4 #a a #ag4j ,scattered clouds4 #aj #g m #f4j ,s ,s ,w #b ,fair4 a #ac4j ,w ,n ,w #b #aa #g m #d4j ,w ,s ,w #a ,cloudy4 a #ab4j ,scattered clouds4 #ab #f m #jc4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #aa4e ,n ,w #b ,cloudy4 #d #e4j #ac #g m #jj4j ,n ,n ,e #a ,this morning ice on the water4 #b a #e4e ,fair4 #ad #g m #j4e ,n #c ,fair4 #a a #h4j ,n #b #ae #g m #c4j ,s #b ,a strong red aurora4 #a a #h4j ,cloudy1 and continual drizzling rain4 #af #g m #d4e ,w #a ,fair4 #ag #g m #ja4j ,w #a ,fair and cloudy alternately4 #a a #h4j ,sometimes drizzling rain4 #ah #g m #d4j ,s #a ,fair4 #c a #f4e ,n ,w #b #ai #g m #jc4j ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #aa4e #bj #g m #ja4j ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #b a ,s #a #ba #g m #ae4j ,s ,w #b ,fair4 #a a #ai4j #bb #g m #bj4j ,e #a ,rain all day4 #b a #aj4j #bc #h m #af4j ,s #a ,cloudy1 foggy1 and rain now and then4 #h a ,s ,w #d #bd #g m #jj4j ,w ,n ,w #c ,fair4 #be #g m ,n ,w #j ,it was very cold last night1 and fair to-day4 #bf ,n ,w #j ,alternately fair and somewhat cloudy1 and always pretty cold4 #bg ,fair2 scattered clouds3 pretty warm in the air4 #bh ,cloudy1 foggy1 and quite calm4 #bi ,somewhat cloudy4 #cj ,n #a ,fair1 and a little cold4 ,december #agdh4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a ,n #a ,fair4 #b ,w ,s ,w #a ,fair1 and cold2 a great halo round the moon at night4 #c ,w ,s ,w #a ,a pretty red aurora1 however a fair day4 #d #g m #f4j ,s ,s ,w #j ,fair4 #c a #ah4j #e #g m #e4e ,n ,n ,e #a #d a #i4e #f #g m #f4e ,s ,s ,w #a ,cloudy4 #c a #ad4j ,somewhat fairer3 hard rain in the next night4 #g #g m #ac4e ,s ,w #a ,cloudy4 #b a #ai4j ,fair4 #h #g m #e4j ,s #a ,cloudy4 #b a #ac4e ,rain and wind next night2 thick1 but #i #g m #ab4j ,s ,w #b scattered clouds4 #b a #aj4j ,w ,n ,w #b #aj ,w ,n ,w #b ,scattered clouds4 #aa #g m #b4j ,s ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #ab4e #ab #g m #j4e ,n ,e #a ,cloudy1 rain1 and fog all day #b a #aj4e from nine o'clock4 #ac #h m #g4e ,s ,w #j ,foggy1 and cloudy4 #b a #aj4j ,next night a strong ,n4 ,w4 wind4 #ad #h m #a4j ,n ,w #b ,scattered clouds4 #b a #b4j #ae #h m #jg4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair and cloudy alternately4 #b a #ja4j #af #h m #ja4j ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #a4e #ag #h m #jb4e ,n ,w #a ,cloudy1 some snow1 the first #b a #jj4j this winter4 #ah #h m #jc4j ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #d4j #ai #h m #a4j ,w #a ,cloudy4 #b a #h4j ,fair4 #bj #h m #ja4e ,w ,s ,w #b ,scattered clouds3 about six at night were quite red stripes on #b a #g4e ,w ,s ,w #a the sky1 to the ,north4 #ba #h m #jg4j ,n #j ,fair4 #b a #b4j #bb #h m #jd4e ,s ,e #j ,fair4 #b a #ac4j ,it grew cloudy in the afternoon4 #bc #h m #ac4j ,s ,s ,w #j ,heavy rain4 #b a #ah4j ,foggy and cloudy4 #bd #h m #ac4j ,w ,s ,w #j ,thick fog4 #b a #ag4j ,s ,w #a ,fair2 but late in the evening a hard shower of rain4 #be #h m #ah4j ,s #c ,last night was a storm1 rain1 thunder1 and lightning4 #b a #ah4e ,s ,s ,e #b ,heavy rain all day4 #b #h m #c4j ,w #c ,last night a violent storm from ,w4 and ,s4 and heavy rain4 ,the morning was cloudy1 and some snow fell4 #b a #c4e ,w ,n ,w #c ,clears up4 #bg #h m #jd4j ,w ,n ,w #c ,fair4 #bh #h m #jg4j ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #h4j #bi #h m #c4j ,n ,n ,e #a ,somewhat cloudy1 and #b a #ac4j -- #j intermittent showers4 #cj #h m #h4j ,n ,n ,e #a ,cloudy and foggy all day4 #b a #aj4j -- #j #ca #h m #f4j ,w #c ,fair4 #b a #d4j ,n ,w #a ,at night a halo round the moon4 ,january #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #g m #jg4j ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #d4j -- #j #b #g m #jd4e ,w ,n ,w #a ,alternately fair and cloudy4 #b a #e4e -- #a #c #g m #b4j ,n ,w #a ,cloudy4 #b a #b4j -- #a #d #g #jb4j ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #aa4j -- #a #e #g m #jc4j ,w #j ,fair4 #f #g m #jc4j ,w #j ,fair1 but darkened towards #b a #ad4e -- #j night1 with some snow4 #e a #ad4e ,n ,w #c #g #g m #ja4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,somewhat cloudy4 #b a #c4j -- #a #h #g m #jd4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #h4j -- #a #i #g m #jc4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,aurora1 cloudy1 heavy rains at #b a #h4j -- #a night4 #aj #g m #ae4j ,s #b ,cloudy1 and showers1 some snow at night2 at #i morn4 ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 #c2 #b a #b4j ,w #d at #aa4 m4 ,s4 ,w4 #d2 at #b aft4 ,w4 #d a #d #aa #g m #jc4j ,w ,n ,w #c ,cloudy4 #b a #jd4j -- #c #ab #g m #jd4j ,w ,n ,w #c ,fair4 #b a #ja4e ,n ,n ,w #b #ac #g m #jg4e ,w ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #a a #jc4j -- #b ,cloudy4 #ad #g m #je4e ,w ,n ,w #a ,cloudy1 and snows all day2 it lay above two inches thick4 #a a #jb4j -- #a #ae #g m #jg4j ,w ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #c4j -- #j #af #g m #jh4i ,n ,w #c ,all the last night ,w ,n ,w #d4 #h m #ji4j ,fair all day4 #b a #jh4j -- #a #ag #g m #jaa4j ,n ,n ,e #j ,cloudy2 snows all day1 and the ensuing night4 #g a #ji4j -- #j #ah #g m #jab4j ,n ,w #a ,cloudy1 and snows in the morning1 fair all the afternoon1 and the ther4 at #jaa4j3 snow lay #aj m #jaa4j -- #a five inches deep4 #ai #g m #jae4e ,w #a ,fair4 #a a #jaj4e -- #a #bj #g m #jab4e ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #jg4j #ba #g m #jbb4j ,w ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #jc4j ,w #a #bb #g m #je4j ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #ja4j ,w #a ,cloudy4 #bc #g m #jaj4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair2 a great halo round the #g a #c4j -- #a moon at night4 #bd #g m #ja4j ,n ,n ,e #j ,cloudy1 snows all day4 #b a #d4j ,n ,e #j #be #g m #jj4j ,w ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #d4j ,w #j #bf #g m #jac4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #a4j -- #a ,cloudy2 at three in the afternoon began to snow4 #bg #g m #jg4j ,w #a ,fair2 halo round the moon at #b a #jj4j -- #a night4 #bh #g m #ja4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,cloudy2 snows almost all day4 #c a #d4j -- #a #bi #g m #je4j ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #c a #jc4j -- #a #cj #g m #jac4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair2 halo round the moon at #c a #d4j -- #a night4 #ca #g m #jd4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair2 halo round the moon at #c a #h4j -- #a night4 ,february #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #g m #jc4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair2 a halo round the moon at #a a #aa4j ,w #a night4 #b #g m #e4j ,w ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #f4j ,w #j #c #g m #jj4j ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #ai4e -- #j #d #g m #e4e ,w #j ,cloudy2 at ten at night wind ,n ,n #b a #aa4j #d a4,n ,n ,e #b ,e #c1 snow4 #e #g m #jf4j ,n ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #a a #jc4j ,n ,w #b #f #g m #jaj4e ,n ,w #j ,a cracking noise was heard in all houses the night before4 ,aurora4--,fair all day1--at #g in the morn4 ,n ,w #j--;at #i1 ,w ,n ,w #a--;at #aa1 ,w #a--;at #b in the afternoon1 ,w #b a #c4j ,w ,s ,w #a ,s ,w #a4 #g #g m #ja4j ,n ,n ,e #a ,cloudy--fair--at #g in the morn4 ,n ,n ,e #a--;at #i1 ,n #a 4--at #aj1 ,w ,n ,w #b a #a4j ,n ,w #a #a--;at #ab1 ,n ,w #a4 #h #g m #ji4j ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #g4j ,w #a #i #g m #jc4j ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #af4j -- #a #aj #g m #g4j ,w #a ,pretty clear2 a violent storm #a a #aa4j ,s ,s ,w #d with rain all the ensuing night4 #aa #g m #i4j ,s ,s ,w #b ,fair2 rain towards night2 at night a light similar to an #a a #aa4j ,aurora ,borealis in ,s4 ,w4 #ab #g m #d4j ,s ,s ,w #c ,fair2 about nine at night a #a a #aj4j faint ,aurora ,borealis in ,s ,w4 #ac #g m #b4j ,w ,n ,w #b ,cloudy4 #c a #e4j ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #ad #g m #jf4j ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #jb4e ,w ,n ,w #b ,flying clouds4 #ae #f m #jaj4e ,n ,w #a ,fair2 at eight in the evening an #b a #jc4j ,w ,n ,w #j ,aurora ,borealis4 #af #f m #jac4j ,w ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #b a #jj4j ,n ,w #a #ag #f m #jb4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,cloudy and snow2 wind all the #b a #jj4j ,w #a afternoon long4 #ah #f m #b4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,cloudy4 #b a #jj4j #ai #f m #jc4j ,n ,n ,e #b ,cloudy2 rain all day1 mixed with #b a #ja4j snow and hail4 #bj #f m #a4e ,n ,w #a ,cloudy4 #b a #d4e #ba #f m #jj4h ,n ,w #j ,cloudy2 at #e in the morn1 we heard a waterfall near a mill1 about a mile ,s ,s of us making a stronger noise than common1 tho' the air was very calm--at #aj began a rain which continued the #d a #d4j ,n ,n ,e #a whole day4 #bb #f m #c4j ,w ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #b a #c4e #bc #f m #jf4j ,w #b ,fair4 #d a #d4j ,some clouds gathered round the sun4 #bd #f m #d4j ,s ,s ,w #a ,cloudy4 #c a #aj4j ,w #a #be #f m #c4j ,w ,n ,w #j ,alternately fair and cloudy4 #b a #a #bf #f m #jab4j ,n ,n ,w #a ,fair2 cloudy at night2 at eight in the evening was a halo round the moon1 and the clouds in ,s4 #c a #jb4j quite red4 #bg #f m #jd4j ,n #b ,cloudy1 and snow in the morning2 #c a #ja4j but fair at #d in the afternoon4 #bh #f m #jd4e ,n ,w #d ,flying clouds4 #c a #jc4e ,w ,n ,w #d ,march #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #f m #ji4j ,w ,n ,w #b ,fair4 ,a great halo round the #c a #ja4e moon at night4 #b #f m #jf4j ,n ,w #b ,fair4 ,a faint halo round the #d a #b4e moon at night4 #c #f m #jd4j ,n ,w #a ,fair4 ,cloudy afternoon4 ,about #h at night the clouds in ,s4 ,w4 were quite red4 ,at #i it began to #b a #f4e ,s #a snow4 #d #f m #j4e ,e ,s ,e #a ,cloudy4 ,heavy rain at night4 #b a #g4j ,s #a #e #f m #d4j ,w #a ,alternately fair and cloudy4 ,the #b a #aa4j ,w #c next night calm4 #f #f m #d4j ,w #b ,fair4 #g #f m #jj4j ,w ,s ,w #a ,alternately fair and cloudy in the morning4 ,in the afternoon cloudy1 with intermittent rain #b a #h4j and thunder4 #h #f m #b4j ,w ,n ,w #j ,fair4 ,about #h at night we saw what is called a snowfire to the #c a #bj4j ,w ,s ,w #b ,s4 ,w4--,see ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ha4 #i #f m #e4j ,n #a ,fair4 #c a #ac4e ,cloudy4 ,snowfire in ,s4 ,w4 about #h at night4 #aj #f m #e4j ,s ,s ,e #a ,cloudy4 ,snow and rain all day1 #b a #f4e ,s ,e #a and next night4 #aa #f m #i4j ,s ,s ,e #a ,cloudy and heavy rain in the morning4 ,clears up in the #c a #ad4j ,w #a afternoon4 #ab #f m #i4j ,n ,n ,w #j ,cloudy in the morning4 ,clears up at #aj4 ,towards night cloudy1 #c a #ae4j ,e ,n ,e #j with rain4 #ac #f m #i4e ,n ,n ,e #b ,cloudy1 with heavy rain4 ,fair at #b a #h4j #aj m4 ,n #c #d in the afternoon4 #ad #f m #d4j ,w ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #b a #aj4j #ae #c m #jj4j ,w ,s ,w #j ,fair4 ,cloudy towards night4 #c a #ac4j ,w #b #af #f m #b4e ,n ,n ,e #c ,snow violently blown about all #c a #ja4j day4 #ag #f m #ja4j ,n ,w #b ,cloudy4 ,clears up at #h in the #c a #e4j morning4 #ah #f m #jb4j ,w ,s ,w #j ,fair4 ,the fields were now #c a #d4j ,w #b covered with snow4 #ai #f m #jb4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #f4j ,n ,w #b #bj #f m #je4e ,w #j ,fair4 ,cloudy towards night4 #c a #aa4e ,s ,w #a ,cloudy4 #ba #f m #b4j ,s ,s ,e #j ,cloudy4 ,intermittent showers4 #c a #ad4e #bb #f m #aj4j ,s ,s ,e #j ,cloudy4 #c a #ai4e #bc #f m #ae4j ,s ,s ,e #a ,heavy rain4 #c a #ai4j #bd #f m #h4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #ae4j #be #f m #f4e ,w ,n ,w #c ,fair4 #c a #aa4j ,flying clouds4 #bf #f m #jj4j ,w ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #e a #aa4j ,s ,w #b ,flying clouds4 ,about #h at night a snowfire on the horizon in ,s4 ,w4 #bg #f m #c4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #i4j #bh #f m #c4j ,s #a ,rain all the day1 and the next night4 #c a #ab4j #aa a4,,nnw#c #bi #f m #a4j ,n ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #b a #f4j #cj #f m #jc4j ,e #a ,fair4 ,cloudy at noon3 begins to snow1 which continues till #b a #d4j ,s ,e #a night1 when it turned into rain4 #ca #f m #e4j ,n #a ,cloudy4 #c a #ad4j ,april #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #f m #e4e ,n ,n ,e #a ,rain in the morning1--afternoon1--and in the night4 #c a #c4e ,e #a ,snow1 with much thunder and lightning4 #b #f m #j4e ,n ,n ,e #a ,snow almost the whole day4 #c a #j4e #c #f m #jb4j ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #i4j #d #f m #jb4j ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #af4j #e #f m #jj4e ,n #a ,fair4 #c a #ai4j ,s ,w #a ,sun very red at setting4 #f #f m #d4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bc4j #g #f m #ac4j ,s #b ,fair4 ,cloudy afternoon4 #c a #bd4j ,about #g in the evening it began to rain1 and continued till late at night4 #h #g m #i4j ,n ,w #c ,flying clouds4 #c a #ac4j #i #f m #a4j ,n #a ,alternately fair and cloudy4 ,snows in the evening1 and at #c a #g4j night4 #aj #g m #b4e ,n ,e #a ,cloudy4 ,began to rain at ten1 and continued all day till #c a #f4e night4 #aa #f m #e4j ,n ,e #a ,rain almost the whole day4 #c a #i4j #ab #f m #b4j ,w ,n ,w #b ,fair4 ,afternoon cloudy1 with #b a #ac4j hail and rain4 #ac #f m ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #b a ,s ,w #a ,cloudy4 #ad #f m ,e #a ,cloudy2 fair at eight4 ,cloudy #b a towards night4 #ae #f m ,e #a ,almost quite fair4 #b a #af #f m #f4e ,w ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #b a #ac4e -- #a #ag #f m #g4j ,s #a ,alternately fair and cloudy4 #c a #af4j ,s ,w #a ,rain4 #ah #g m #f4j ,n #j ,fair4 #c a #ah4j ,n ,w #c #ai #e m #b4j ,n ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #c a #bj4j ,w #b #bj #f m #b4j ,s ,w #j ,a hoar frost this morning1 fair #c a and very hot all day4 #ba ,s ,w #a ,fair2 with hot vapours raised by the sun4 #bb #e m #ac4j ,s #j ,almost fair4 #c a #bc4j #bc #e m #aa4j ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #be4e #bd #f m #ab4j ,s #a ,cloudy1 intermittent drizzl4 #c a #bb4j showers4 #be #f m #ah4j ,s #j ,rain the preceding night1 and now and then this day4 ,at night #c a #bd4j thunder and lightning4 #bf #f m #bh4j ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #cj4j #bg #f m #ag4j ,w #b ,fair4 #c a #be4j #bh #f m #g4j ,w #j ,fair4 #c a #bd4j #bi #f m #g4j ,n #b ,fair4 #c a #ag4j ,e #b #cj #e m #c4j ,e #a ,flying clouds4 #c a #ae4e ,s #a ,may #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #d m #ja4e ,s #j ,hoar frost this morning1--fair4 #c a #ah4e ,s ,w #a #b #e m #a4j ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bc4j #c #e m #d4j ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bg4e #d #e m #af4j ,w #a ,fair4 #e #e m #ac4j ,s #c ,flying clouds4 #c a #bg4j #f #e m #ad4e ,n #j ,fair4 #g #e m #ac4j ,n #j ,somewhat cloudy4 #h #e m #d4j ,n #j ,fair4 #i #f m #ad4j ,s #a ,rain almost the whole day4 #c a #ad4j #aj #f m #ac4j ,s ,s ,w #j ,intermittent showers4 #c a #af4j #aa #f m #ab4j ,w ,s ,w #j ,fair4 #c a #bh4j #ab #f m #ac4j ,w ,n ,w #b ,fair4 #c a #bj4j #ac #e m #i4j ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #ah4e #ad #e m #jj4e ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #ae #e m #i4j ,s ,s ,w #b ,cloudy4 #c a #bj4j ,rain4 #af #e m #ag4j ,cloudy4 #d a #bc4j #ag #e m #bj4j ,s #a ,rains intermittently all day2 #c a #bd4j and lightens very much at night4 #ah #e m #ac4j ,fair4 #ai #e m #ag4j ,w #b ,fair4 #bj #e m #ai4j ,w #a ,fair4 #c m #bd4j #ba #f m #bj4j ,fair4 #bb ,s ,w #a ,fair4 ,very hot4 #bc #e m #ag4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #cc4e #bd #ab m #cb4j ,,sw #a ,fair4 #be #h m #bc4j ,s ,w #a ,fair1 and very warm4 #b a #bh4j #bf #h m #ba4j ,w ,n ,w #b ,flying clouds2 at night thick #c a #be4j clouds1 with storm and rain4 #bg #g m #ag4j ,w #b ,thick1 scattered clouds4 #b a #be4j ,pretty cool4 #bh #g m #ae4j ,w #a ,flying clouds4 #b a #be4j #bi #g m #af4j ,w #b ,flying clouds4 #b a #be4j #cj #e m #ac4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair4 -- a #be4j ,w #a ,cloudy4 #ca #e m #ac4j ,s ,w #a ,somewhat cloudy4 #a a #bg4j ,fair4 ,june #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #e m #bc4j ,s ,w #a ,rain the preceding night4 #b ,s ,e #a ,morning cloudy1--clears up at ten1--flying clouds4 #c #g m #bd4j ,s ,w #a ,flying clouds2 afternoon1 thunder-clouds1 with rain from the ,n ,w4 #d #c a #bf4j ,n ,w #a ,flying clouds4 #e #e m #ae4e ,s #a ,fair4 #c a #bb4j #f #e m #ah4e ,s ,w #a ,alternately fair and cloudy4 #c a #bc4j #g ,all d #bj4j ,cloudy and rainy4 #h #f m #ae4e ,n ,w #j ,cloudy4 #c a #bc4j -- #a ,flying clouds4 #i #e m #ac4j ,fair4 #aj #e m #aa4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bb4e #aa #g m #bj4j ,n #a ,flying clouds4 #b a #cc4j ,s ,w #a ,thunder-storm1 with rain4 #ab #f m #bc4j ,n #j ,fair4 #c a #cb4j ,s #b ,somewhat cloudy4 #ac #e m #ai4j ,s ,e #b ,almost fair4 #c a #bg4j #ad #f m #bf4j ,s #a ,fair4 #c a #be4j ,thunder-clouds1 with rain4 #ae #f m #ah4j ,n #j ,fair4 #c a #bf4e #af #f m #bj4j ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #b a #bh4j #ag #e m #ah4j ,n #j ,fair4 #c a #bg4e #ah #e m #ba4j ,e ,s ,e #a ,fair4 #c a #cb4j ,n ,e #a ,thunder1 with heavy showers4 #ai #f m #bj4j ,n ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bg4j #bj #e m #ah4j ,s #a ,fair4 #c a #bf4j ,cloudy4 #ba #e m #bc4j ,s ,w #j ,cloudy1 with some showers4 #bb #e m #i4j ,w #a ,fair4 #bc #f m #ag4j ,s #a ,fair4 -- a ,n ,w #a ,cloudy4 #bd #f m #bj4e ,s #a ,cloudy1 afterwards fair4 -- a ,s ,w #a ,thunder and rain4 #be #e m #bc4j ,s #a ,fair4 #b a #cb4j #bf #e m #ad4j ,n #a ,fair4 #bg #f m #ae4j ,fair4 #bh #f m #ah4j ,s #a ,fair4 #a a #ce4j #bi #g m #bf4j ,fair4 #cj #e m #aa4j ,s #a ,fair4 #c a #ca4j ,w #a ,july #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a ,n #c ,flying clouds4 #b #e m #g4e ,n #b ,fair4 #c #h m #bf4j ,n #a ,fair4 #b a #bh4j -- #a ,thunder-storm1 and rain at night4 #d #f m #bj4j ,s #a ,cloudy2 intermittent showers in -- a ,n #b the afternoon4 #e ,w #a ,fair4 #d a #bf4j -- #a ,cloudy2 rain at night4 #f #e m #ah4j ,s ,w #a ,rain all the preceding night2 fair in day-time4 #g #d m #ag4j ,n ,w #j ,fair4 #h #f m #af4j ,n #j ,alternately fair and cloudy4 ,a halo round the sun1 in the forenoon4 #i #g m #ba4j ,s ,w #j ,rain the preceding night4 ,in day-time1 cloudy1 with some #c a #bb4j showers4 #aj #d m #ah4j ,s ,w #j ,fair2 sometimes flying clouds #c a #bd4e -- #a and showers4 #aa #e m #ag4j ,s ,s ,e #a ,fair4 #b a #bf4j -- #a #ab #e m #bb4j ,w #a ,fair4 #ac #f m #bj4j ,s ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #cc4j -- #a #ad #e m #ba4j ,w ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #bh4j -- #a #ae #e m #bf4j ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #c a #bh4j -- #a #af #e m #ad4j ,s #j ,fair2 sometimes cloudy4 #aj m ,s ,s ,e #a #ag #e m #ai4j ,s #a ,fair4 #c a #bd4j -- #a ,cloudy4 #ah #e m #ae4j ,n ,n ,e #j ,fair4 #b a #be4j -- #j #ai #e m #ai4j ,s ,s ,w #a ,cloudy2 rain4 -- a ,pretty fair4 #bj #e m #ai4j ,s #a ,fair4 #c a #bd4j -- #a ,flying clouds4 #ba ,s #j ,fair4 #c a #bg4j -- #j ,flying clouds4 #bb #e m #af4j ,s ,w #b ,fair4 #c a #bg4j ,s ,w #b #bc #f m #ai4j ,s ,s ,w #a ,alternatively fair and cloudy4 #c a #bh4e -- #a #bd #f m #bj4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bi4j -- #a #be #e m #bj4j ,w ,s ,w #j ,fair4 #c a #bi4e -- #j #bf #e m #ba4j ,s #j ,fair4 #c a #cj4j -- #a #bg #e m #bb4j ,w #a ,cloudy2 intermittent showers4 #c a #ba4e -- #a #bh #f m #ag4j ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bg4j -- #a #bi #f m #af4j ,n ,w ,fair2 flying clouds at night1 #b a #bd4j -- #a and showers4 #cj #f m #ad4j ,w ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #bf4j -- #a #ca #f m #af4j ,e #a ,cloudy2 rain almost all day4 #c a #bb4j -- #a ,august #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #f m #bb4j ,n ,e #a ,cloudy4 ,some showers4 #c a #bh4j -- #a #b #d m #af4j ,n ,e #a ,fair4 a ,s ,e #a ,cloudy4 ,fair towards night4 #c #e m #ac4j ,s ,w #b ,fair4 #d m ,n ,e #b ,cloudy4 ,some showers4 #b a #ba4j -- #b #e m ,n ,e #a ,fair4 a ,s ,w #a #f #e m #af4j ,n ,e #c ,heavy rain all day4 #c a #af4j -- #c ,some thunder4 #g #f m #ac4j ,e ,s ,e #a ,cloudy4 ,frequent showers4 #c a #af4j -- #a #h #f m #af4j ,s ,w #a ,cloudy4 ,some showers4 #c a #bg4j -- #a #i #f m #ad4j ,s ,w #a ,flying clouds4 #a a #bj4j -- #a ,rain at night4 #aj #f m #ad4j ,s ,w #a ,flying clouds4 #c a #bd4j -- #a #aa #f m #ae4e ,w #a ,cloudy4 #ab #f m #ad4j ,w #a ,flying clouds4 #b a #be4j -- #a #ac #g m #ae4e ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #cj4j -- #a #ad #f m #af4j ,n ,e #b ,fair4 #b a #bf4j -- #b #ae #f m #ad4j ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #b a #bh4j -- #a #af #e m #ad4j ,s ,e #a ,fair4 ,at night thunder and rain4 #c a #bf4j -- #a #ag #e m #ad4e ,s #j ,flying clouds4 #c a #bg4j -- #j #ah #e m #af4j ,w #a ,thunder and rain in the morning4 ,at ten in the morning flying #c a #bi4j -- #a clouds4 #ai #f m #ag4j ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #cj4j -- #a #bj #e m #af4e ,s ,w #j ,fair4 #c a #bh4j -- #j #ba #e m #ag4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #bi4j -- #a #e a #bg4j -- #a #bb #e m #ai4j ,n ,e #b ,rain all day4 #c a #ag4e #bc #e m #af4e ,s ,w #c ,rain early in the morning4 ,at #aj #b a #bb4e -- #c m4 flying clouds4 #bd #f m #ac4e ,s ,w #b ,flying clouds4 #b a #bb4j -- #b #be #e m #g4j ,s ,w #b ,fair4 #d a #bj4e -- #b #bf #e m #ac4j ,n ,e #a ,alternately fair and cloudy4 #c a #ah4j -- #a ,much rain this afternoon4 #bg #e m #aj4e ,s ,w #a ,flying clouds4 #b a #bc4j -- #a #bh #e m #aj4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #b a #bj4j -- #a #bi #e m #ac4j ,n ,e #b ,fair4 #cj #e m #aa4j ,n ,e #b ,fair4 #ca #f m #ac4f ,s #a ,pair and cloudy alternately4 #c a #ah4e -- #a ,intermittent showers4 ,september #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #e m #ad4e ,n ,n ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #cj4j -- #a #b #e m #i4j ,n #a ,fair4 #b a #ah4j ,s ,s ,w #a #c #e m #g4e ,s #a ,somewhat cloudy4 ,now and then #b a #bj4j -- #a fair4 #d #f m #ad4j ,s #a ,now and then a shower2 and in #b a #ag4e -- #a the intervals fair4 #e #f m #ad4j ,n ,e #b ,fog4 ,rain all day4 ,now and then thund4 #f #aj m #ae4j ,n ,e #b ,fog1 and drizzling rain all day4 #aj a #ae4j -- #b #g #g m #ag4j ,s ,w #a ,fog and rain4 #c a #bb4j -- #a ,fair4 #h #e m #ae4j ,s ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #d a #bh4j -- #a #i #e m #ag4e ,e ,n ,e #b ,fair4 #c a #be4j -- #b #aj #e m #af4j ,n ,e #b ,fair4 #c a #bf4j -- #b #aa #e m #ae4j ,e ,n ,e #j ,fair4 #c a #be4j -- #j #ab #g m #ad4e ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair4 a ,s ,w #a #ac #e m #ad4j ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #a a #bd4e -- #a #ad #e m #ae4j ,n ,e #b ,fair4 #a a #bb4e -- #b #ae #e m #af4j ,n ,n ,e #c ,fair4 ,forenoon1 a halo round the #b a #ai4j -- #c sun4 #af #e m #h4e ,n ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #c a #bj4e -- #a #ag #e m #ab4j ,s ,w #j ,fair4 #ah #f m #ag4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bg4j -- #a #ai #f m #ad4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bf4j -- #a #bj #f m #ai4j ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #c a #bf4j -- #a ,cloudy4 ,rain towards night4 #ba #f m #ae4j ,fair4 #c a #ai4e #bb #f m #ac4j ,e #j ,somewhat cloudy4 #c a #bb4j -- #j #bc #f m #ad4j ,s ,w #j ,fair4 #bd #f m #ah4j ,s ,w #b ,fair4 ,rain at noon4 #b a #bf4j -- #b ,flying clouds in the afternoon4 #be #g m #af4j ,w #a ,alternately clear and cloudy4 #b a #ag4j -- #a #bf #h m #ab4e ,n ,e #a ,fair4 #c a #aa4e -- #a ,cloudy and rainy #bg #f m #i4c ,n #a ,rain all day4 #c a #ad4j -- #a #bh #f m #h4j ,s ,w #a ,heavy rain all day4 #c a #ad4j -- #a #bi #f m #h4j ,s #a ,fog4 #a a #ac4j -- #a ,flying clouds #cj #h m #ad4j ,s ,w #b ,drizzling rain4 #b a #ah4j -- #b ,somewhat clear4 ,october #agdi4 ,d4 ,h4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #g m #i4j ,n ,w #a ,rain4 n -- #a ,somewhat fairer4 #b #g m #b4j ,w #a ,hoarfrost this morning4 ,fair all day4 #c #f m #c4e ,s ,w #a ,fair4 #a a #ab4j -- #a #d #f m #aa4j ,s #a ,rain4 #e #f m #aj4e ,n ,e #a ,cloudy4 a #aa4j -- #a #f #f m #aj4j ,e ,n ,e #a ,rain all day4 #c a #ab4j -- #a #g #f m #aj4j ,e ,n ,e #a ,flying clouds4 #b a #ad4j #h #f m #g4j ,s #a ,fair4 #c a #ah4j ,s #a ,,meteorological ,,observations1 ,made by ,mr4 ,john ,bartram1 near ,philadelphia1 ,during my ,absence1 in the ,summer of the ,year #agdi4 ,june #agdi4 ,d4 ,ther4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ,morn4 ,aft4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #bb #be ,w ,cloudy4 #b #bj #bg ,w ,cloudy4 #c #bc #bh ,w ,showers4 #d #bb #bh ,w ,fair4 #e #ah #be ,w ,fair4 #f #ah #be ,w ,cloudy4 #g #bb #bb ,n ,e ,cloudy4 #h #ba ,n ,e #i #ba ,n #aj #ad #bb ,e #aa #bb #bc ,e #ab #be #be ,e #ac #bc #be ,e #ad #be #bg ,e #c #ae #bd #bh ,e ,fair4 #af #bb #bf ,e #ag #bc #bg ,e #ah #be #bg ,e #ai #bc #bd ,n ,w #bj #ag #bf ,w #ba #bd #bf ,w #bb #ah #bg ,w #bc #ae #bi ,w #bd #bb #cj ,w #be #bb #ca ,w #bf #bc #cj ,n #bg #ai #cb ,w #bh #bd #cf ,w #bi #be #cg ,w #cj #be #cf ,n ,july #agdi4 ,d4 ,ther4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ,morn4 ,aft4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #ba #cj ,w #b #ah #bg ,n ,w #c #bf #be ,s ,w ,heavy showers4 #d #bd #cf ,n ,w #e #bb #cb ,w #f #bb #cd ,n ,w ,rain4 #g #bj #ce ,w ,hard showers4 #h #bj #ce ,n ,e ,rain4 #i #bj #bi ,n ,fair4 #aj #af #bi ,n ,fair4 #aa #ag #cc ,n ,w ,fair4 #ab #bj #ce ,w ,fair4 ,rain at night4 #ac #bb #cc ,w ,fair4 #ad #bf #cj ,w ,hard showers4 #ae #bj #bi ,n ,fair4 #af #ba #cj ,e ,rain4 #ag #bi #bi ,n ,e ,cloudy4 #ah #ah #ai ,n ,e ,rain4 #ai #ah #cc ,w ,fair4 #bj #ai #cc ,w ,fair4 #ba #bb #ca ,w ,fair4 #bb #bc #bc ,w ,heavy showers4 #bc #bc #be ,w ,heavy showers4 #bd #bj #cf ,w ,fair4 #be #bg #cf ,w #bf #bh #cb ,w #bg #bd #cj ,w ,fair4 #bh #ai #bg ,w ,fair4 #bi #bc #cj ,w ,rain4 #cj #cj #cd #ca #ba #cd ,august #agdi4 ,d4 ,ther4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ,morn4 ,aft4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #b #ah #cb #c #ag #cj #d #ah #cc #e #bb #ci ,w #f #ah #cg ,n #b #g #ag #bg ,w #h #ad #be ,n ,w #i #ab #bd ,n ,w #aj #ac #bd ,n ,w #aa #aa #be ,n ,w #ab #ad #cj ,n ,w #ac #ah #ca ,n ,w #ad #ah #cj ,w #ae #ae #cj ,w ,rain4 #af #bc #cc ,n #ag #ad #cd ,n ,w #ah #ah #cg ,w #ai #ah #be ,s ,w #bj #bj #bf ,n ,e ,rain4 #ba #bj #be ,n ,w #bb #bc #cd ,n ,w #bc #ag #cd ,w #bd #ah #cj ,w #be #bj #cb ,,nw by ,w #bf #aj #bd ,n ,w ,fair4 #bg #ab #bj ,n ,w ,fair4 #bh #ac #bc ,n ,w ,fair4 #bi #bb #bd ,w ,fair4 #cj #ag #be ,e #ca #bj #bi ,e ,september #agdi4 ,d4 ,ther4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,the ,weather in general4 ,morn4 ,aft4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #ai #cj ,e ,hard showers4 #b #ah #bj ,e ,rain4 #c #ai #be ,e ,rain4 #d #bj #be ,e ,foggy4 #e #bc #ba ,n ,e ,cloudy4 #f #bc #cg ,n ,e ,cloudy4 #g #bd #cd ,n ,e ,cloudy4 #h #bd #cb ,n ,e ,cloudy4 #i #bc #cc ,n ,e ,rain4 #aj #bc #cb ,w ,rain4 #aa #ai #be ,n ,e #ab #ac #be ,n ,e #ac #ab #bj ,n ,e #ad #ab #cc ,n ,e #ae #ac #bg ,n ,e #af #bj #bf ,n ,e #ag #ag #bg ,e #ah #af #cd ,s ,e #ai #ab #cj ,s ,w #bj #ag #bf #ba #ag #be ,w #bb #ae #cj ,e #bc #bj #bi ,e #bd #ba #bi ,w #be #bc #bh ,w #c #bf #bj #ae ,e by ,n ,thunder-storm4 #bg #ae #ai ,n ,w #bh #aj #bj ,n ,w #bi #cj #f #bf ,w ,october #agdi4 ,d4 ,ther4 ,ther4 ,wind4 ,m4 ,aft4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #ac #be ,w #b #ad #bi ,n ,w #c #h #ae ,n #d #ac #bi ,w #e #ag #cj ,e #f #ah #cj ,e #g #af #ba ,n ,w #h #aa #bb ,n ,w ,end of ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,list ,,of ,,subscribers4 ,a4 ,george ,abney1 ,esq4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,john ,aikin4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,airey4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,allen4 ,edward ,archer1 ,m4 ,d4 of ,gray's-,inn4 ,george ,ashby1 ,esq2 of ,haselbech1 ,northamptonshire4 ,the ,rev4 ,george ,ashby1 ,b4 ,d4 ,president of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,john ,atherton1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,richard ,atherton1 of ,preston1 in ,lancashire4 ,b4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,bagshaw1 of ,bromley1 ,kent4 ,thomas ,butterworth ,bailey1 of ,hope1 ,esq4 ,thomas ,barlow1 of ,barlow1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,baron1 of ,walsal4 ,mr4 ,baron1 of ,cockey4 ,hon4 ,daines ,barrington4 ,thomas ,beaumont1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,ellis ,bent1 of ,warrington4 ,richard ,berenger1 ,esq4 ,miss ,blackburne1 of ,orford1 ,lancashire1 #c ,copies4 ,miss ,bold1 of ,bold1 ,lancashire1 #b ,copies4 ,richard ,wilbraham ,bootle1 ,esq2 #d ,copies4 ,rev4 ,william ,borlase1 ,l4 ,l4 ,d4 ,rector of ,ludgvan1 in ,cornwall1 #c ,copies4 ,rev4 ,walter ,borlase1 ,l4 ,l4 ,d4 ,rev4 ,george ,borlase1 ,b4 ,d4 ,rev4 ,john ,bosworth1 ,d4 ,d4 ,rector of ,tortworth1 ,gloucestershire4 ,s4 ,bosworth1 ,esq4 ,john ,bover1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,john ,bower1 at ,manchester4 ,mr4 ,robert ,bradley1 of ,leigh1 #e ,copies4 ,henry ,bright1 ,esq2 of ,bristol4 ,lowbridge ,bright1 ,esq2 of ,bristol4 ,john ,brooke1 of ,hallwood1 ,esq4 ,george ,byng1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,james ,barton1 of ,manchester4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,barker4 ,mr4 ,bland1 of ,scarborough4 ,mr1 ,joseph ,brookes1 jun4 ,henry ,blundell1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,jonathan ,blundell4 ,mr4 ,brown4 ,mr4 ,richard ,badcock4 ,thomas ,brand1 ,esq4 ,dr4 ,browne1 at ,manchester1 #f ,copies4 ,c4 ---- ,carleton1 ,esq4 ,captain in the #bjth ,regiment of ,foot4 ,mr4 ,alexander ,cassen1 at ,preston4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,case1 at ,liverpool4 ,william ,constable1 of ,burton ,constable1 ,esq4 ,hon4 ,mr4 ,conway4 ,anthony ,champion1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,chevalier1 ,b4 ,d4 ,senior ,fellow and ,tutor of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,rev4 ,j4 ,clayton1 ,m4 ,a4 ,fellow of ,manchester ,college4 ,sir ,john ,mordaunt ,cope1 ,bart4 ,robert ,cooke1 ,esq2 of ,manchester4 ,mr4 ,peter ,crompton1 of ,manchester4 ,mr4 ,william ,crosbie1 jun4 of ,liverpool4 ,d4 ,john ,darker1 ,esq2 ,treasurer1 to ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital4 ,richard ,davenport1 ,esq2 of ,davenport1 near ,brereton-green1 ,cheshire4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,dawson4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,dean4 ,edward ,dicconson1 of ,wrightington1 ,esq4 ,jeremiah ,dixon1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,daniel ,dumaresq1 ,d4 ,d4 #b ,copies4 ,matthew ,duane1 ,esq4 ,e4 ,the ,right ,hon4 the ,earl of ,egremont4 ,ralph ,earle1 ,esq2 of ,liverpool4 ,sir ,john ,eden1 ,bart4 ,william ,eden1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,enfield1 of ,warrington4 ,f4 ,the ,right ,hon4 the ,earl of ,finlater4 ,thomas ,falconer1 of ,chester1 ,esq2 #b ,copies4 ,john ,fenwick1 ,esq4 ,francis ,foljambe1 ,esq2 ,fellow ,commoner of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,john ,formby1 ,esq4 ,john ,fothergill1 ,m4 ,d4 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,g4 ,john ,old ,goodford1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,foote ,gower1 ,d4 ,d4 of ,chelmsford1 ,essex4 ,mr4 ,gray1 of ,pembroke ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,professor of ,modern ,history4 ---- ,grenville1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,griffin1 ,f4,a4,s4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,griffith1 ,fellow of ,pembroke ,college1 ,oxford4 ,joseph ,grove1 ,esq4 ,john ,grimstone1 of ,kilnwick1 ,esq4 ,robert ,gwillym1 of ,bucyhall1 ,esq4 ,robert ,atherton ,gwillym1 of ,atherton1 ,esq4 ,william ,gwillym1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,richard ,guest1 ,surgeon1 at ,leigh4 ,h4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,haber4 ,mr4 ,robert ,hamilton4 ,miss ,haworth4 ,thomas ,hayward1 ,esq4 ,thomas ,hastewell1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,heathcote4 ,robert ,helyar1 ,esq4 ,roger ,hesketh1 of ,tulketh1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,william ,hesketh4 ,mr4 ,robert ,hesketh1 of ,liverpool4 ,dr4 ,hird4 ,mr4 ,peter ,holme1 of ,liverpool4 ,mr4 ,holman1 ,doctors ,commons4 ,mr4 ,hopton1 in ,spital-,fields4 ,timothy ,hollis1 ,esq4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,holt4 ,thomas ,hughes1 of ,halkin1 ,esq4 ,the ,rev4 ,william ,huddesford1 ,b4 ,d4 ,i4 ,john ,johnson1 ,esq2 ,gentleman ,commoner of ,brazennose ,college1 ,oxford4 ,jacob ,jarvis1 ,esq2 from ,antigua4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,jackson4 ,mr4 ,ibbetson1 ,middle ,temple4 ,k4 ,mr4 ,kenedy1 of ,manchester4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,kenyon1 ,fellow of ,brazennose ,college1 ,oxon4 ,l4 ,the ,honourable and ,right ,reverend the ,bishop of ,llandaff4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,layland4 ,john ,lee1 ,esq4 ,richard ,lee1 ,esq2 #c ,copies4 ,thomas ,lee1 ,esq4 ,john ,lees1 ,esq4 ,sir ,digby ,legard1 of ,ganton1 ,bart4 ,ashton ,lever1 of ,alkrington1 ,esq4 ,dymock ,lifter1 ,esq2 of ,borrell ,park1 ,lincolnshire4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,lloyd of ,llanassa4 ,john ,lloyd1 ,esq2 of ,havodynas1 in ,denbighshire4 ,john ,lyon1 ,esq4 ,m4 ,his ,grace the ,duke of ,marlborough4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,maddock4 ,magdalen ,college ,library1 at ,oxford4 ,james ,marriot1 ,esq2 ,northiam1 ,sussex4 ,joshua ,marriot1 ,esq2 of ,manchester4 ,george ,martins1 ,esq4 ,j4 ,martyn1 ,esq4 ,the ,rev4 ,thomas ,martyn1 ,fellow of ,sidney ,college1 and ,professor of ,botany at ,cambridge4 ,mathew ,maty1 ,m4 ,d4 and ,f4 and ,sec4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mr4 ,john ,meslin4 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,moore1 ,canon of ,christ ,church1 ,oxon4 ,sir ,roger ,mostyn1 ,bart4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,mostyn4 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,michel1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mr4 ,middleton1 of the ,temple4 ,dr4 ,milner4 ,robert ,moss1 of ,preston1 ,esq4 ,n4 ,andrew ,napier1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,newbery1 ,fellow1 of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxon4 ,james ,nibbs1 ,esq4 from ,antigua4 ,mrs4 ,norman1 of ,bromley1 ,kent4 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,nowel1 ,principal of ,st4 ,mary ,hall1 ,oxford4 ,o4 ,oriel ,college ,library1 at ,oxford4 ,mrs4 ,osbaldeston4 ,adam ,otley1 ,esq1 of ,pitchford1 in ,shropshire4 ,william ,owen1 of ,campobello1 ,esq4 ,the ,rev4 ,edward ,owen1 ,m4 ,a4 ,p4 ,paul ,panton1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,henry ,parker1 ,d4 ,d4 ,rector of ,grays1 in ,oxfordshire4 ,rev4 ,i4 ,parsons1 ,d4 ,d4 of ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,pemberton4 ,mr4 ,stephen ,pemberton1 of ,oriel ,college1 ,oxon4 ,thomas ,pennant1 ,esq2 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 of ,downing1 in ,flintshire4 ,thomas ,percival1 ,m4 ,d4 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 at ,manchester4 ,w4 ,p4 ,perrin1 ,esq4 ,edward ,phelips1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,william ,pickering1 of ,liverpool4 ,mr4 ,pitfield1 at ,exeter1 #f ,copies4 ,mr4 ,plymly1 of ,longnor1 ,shropshire4 ,mr4 ,william ,pole1 of ,liverpool4 ,mr4 ,pomfret4 ,richard ,parry ,price1 of ,brynypys1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,price1 principal ,librarian to the ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford4 ,joseph ,priestley1 ,l4 ,l4 ,d4 and ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,philip ,puleston1 of ,estlas1 in ,denbighshire1 ,esq4 ,r4 ,dorning ,rasbotham1 ,esq4 ---- ,rawsthom1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,renshaw1 ,commoner of ,brazennose ,col4 ,oxon4 ,dr4 ,roebuck4 ,william ,rigby ,esq4 ---- ,ross1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,roger ,rogerson1 at ,warrington4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,russel1 of ,overton1 in ,flintshire4 ,s4 ,the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,charles ,spencer4 ,the ,hon4 ,mr4 ,seymour4 ,richard ,sheldon1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,shent1 at ,liverpool4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,sheffield1 ,fellow of ,worcester ,college1 ,oxford4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,smythe1 of ,liverpool4 ,miss ,starkie4 ,miss ,stebbing4 ,benjamin ,stillingfleet1 ,esq2 #b ,copies4 ,t4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,talbot4 ,john ,tarleton1 ,esq2 #b ,copies4 ,the ,rev4 ,christopher ,tatchel1 ,m4 ,a4 ,mr4 ,james ,taylor1 at ,leigh4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,taylor1 at ,berwick upon ,tweed4 ,mrs4 ,trafford1 of ,trafford4 ,mr4 ,john ,travis1 at ,scarborough4 ,mr4 ,touchet4 ,george ,tollet1 of ,betley1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,roger ,topping4 ,the ,hon4 ,mr4 ,trevor4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,william ,turner4 ,mr4 ,william ,turner1 #ad ,copies4 ,marmaduke ,tunstall1 ,esq4 ,thomas ,tyrrwhitt1 ,esq4 ,v4 ,benjamin ,vaughan1 ,esq4 ,w4 ,mr4 ,peter ,walker4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,ward4 ,mr4 ,john ,watkins4 ,mr4 ,wildman1 ,tamworth1 ,staffordshire4 ,mr4 ,samuel ,wildman4 ,john ,williamson1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,wilson1 at ,hatton ,garden4 ,mr4 ,wilson1 of ,ainsworth4 ,simon ,wilson1 ,esq4 ,r4 ,wilbraham1 of ,rhode1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,wayland4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,wolrich4 ,james ,woodcock1 ,esq4 ,gentleman ,commoner of ,brazennose ,college1 ,oxford4 ,mr4 ,samuel ,woodward4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,william ,worthington4 ,daniel ,wray1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,wright4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,wroe4 ,richard ,wruckley1 of ,preston1 ,esq4 ,,notes #a ,mr4 ,kalm speaks here of the ,swedish ,liturgy4 #b ,perhaps it is the ,gryllus campestris1 or common black field cricket of ,europe1 of which ,rocsel in his work on insects1 vol4 #b1 ,gryll4 f4 #ac4 has given a fine drawing4 ,f4 #c ,a still more infallible remedy1 is to wash all the furniture1 infected with that vermin1 with a solution of arsenic4 ,f4 #d ,in ,siberia1 and in the province of ,wiatka1 in the government of ,cazan1 in ,russia1 the inhabitants make use of the knobs1 which are pretty frequently found in birches1 to make bowls and other domestic utensils thereof4 ,they are turned1 made pretty thin1 and covered with a kind of varnish1 which gives them a pretty appearance2 for the utensil looks yellow1 and is marbled quite in a picturesque manner1 with brown veins4 ,the best kind of these vessels are made so thin that they are semi-diaphanous1 and when put into hot water they grow quite pliant1 and may be formed by main force1 quite flat1 but when again left to themselves1 and grown cold1 they return to their original shape4 ,this kind of wood is called1 in ,russia1 ,kap1 and the vessels made of it1 kappowie ,tchashki1 and are pretty high in price1 when they are of the best kind1 and well varnished4 ,f4 #e ,though it is very desirable1 that the members of the church of ,england may enjoy the same religious liberty in ,america as the rest of their fellow-subjects and have every part of their religious establishment among themselves1 and that therefore bishops might be introduced in ,america1 it is however to be feared this will prove one of the obstacles to the introducing of ,english bishops in that part of the world4 #f ,see his ,journal historique d'un voyage de l',amerique4 ,tome v4 p4 m4 #caa1 and the #acth letter4 #g ,this account sufficiently proves1 that these hares are a species distinct from our ,european reddish grey kind1 and also of that species or variety only1 which in the northern parts of ,europe and ,asia is white in winter1 with black tipped ears1 and has a grey coat in summer4 ,upon a closer examination naturalists will perhaps find more characters to distinguish them more accurately4 ,f4 #h ,desm signifies musk in the ,swedish1 and in some provincial dialects of the ,german language2 consequently ,dsman rat is nothing but ,musk-rat1 and from hence ,mr4 de ,buffon has formed his ,desman or ,russian ,musk-rat4 ,f4 #i ,the ,mink1 or ,minx1 is a kind of small otter1 which is called by ,dr4 ,linnus1 ,mustela lutreola1 in his system4 i4 p4 #ff4 ,f4 #aj ,the village of ,raccoon4 #aa ,this seems to be nothing but a variety of the ,quercus rubra4 ,linn4 ,f4 #ab ,see page #aj4 #ac ,see ,catesby's ,natural history1 vol4 ,i4 pl4 #ch4 ,coccothraustes rubra4 #ad ,see ,catesby's nat4 hist4 of ,carolina1 vol4 i4 tab4 #ab4 ,the purple daw1 and tab4 #ac4 the red-winged starling3 but as both these drawings are in a very expensive work1 we have1 from specimens lately brought over from ,america1 made a new drawing1 which represents them both1 and it is engraved here1 tab4 ,i4 ,f4 #ae ,probably nothing but an ,aurora borealis4 #af ,of this ,pigeon of ,passage we have given here a plate1 tab4 ii4 taken from a parcel of birds1 lately brought from ,america1 of which we were favoured with a fine specimen4 ,f4 #ag ,of this bird we have given a figure in plate #c1 where likewise the ,mocking bird is represented2 both drawn after specimens lately brought from ,america1 and which we were favoured with4 ,f4 #ah ,professor ,kalm wrote this1 when the truly laudable method of treating the small-pox with a cold regimen1 was not yet adopted2 and he thought therefore1 the way in which the ,americans treated this disease1 was the cause of its being so deleterious4 ,but when the ,khalmucks1 in the ,russian dominions1 get the small-pox1 it has been observed1 that very few escape4 ,of this ,i believe no other reason can be alledged1 than that the small-pox is always dangerous1 either when the open pores of the human skin are too numerous1 which is caused by opening them in a warm water bath2 or when they are too much closed1 which is the case with all the nations1 that are dirty and greasy4 ,all the ,american ,indians rub their body with oils1 the ,khalmucks never wash themselves1 and rub their bodies and their fur coats with grease2 the ,hottentots are ,i believe known to be patterns of filthiness1 their bodies being richly anointed with their ornamental greasy sheep guts2 this shuts up all the pores2 hinders perspiration entirely1 and makes the small-pox always lethal among these nations2 to which we may yet add the too frequent use of spirituous inflammatory liquors1 since their acquaintance with the ,europeans4 ,f4 #ai ,in page #ci of this ,volume4 #bj ,grass of the savages4 #ba ,in the ,swedish language ,wilskt ,toback4 #bb ,before the ,english settled here4 #bc ,see vol4 ,i4 page #bhi4 #bd ,from ,nils ,gustafson1 the old ,swede4 #be ,the beetle here described1 seems to be the ,scarabus ,carolinus1 ,linn4 ,syst4 ,nat4 p4 #ede1 and of ,drury ,illustrations of ,nat4 ,hist4 tab4 #ce4 f4 #b4 ,it is common in ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pensylvania1 ,maryland1 and ,carolina4 ,f4 #bf ,wilskt ,hampa4 #bg ,allium arvense2 odore gravi1 capitulis bulbosis rubentibus4 ,see ,gronov4 ,flora ,virginica1 #cg4 ,this ,leek seems to be ,dr4 ,linnus's ,allium ,canadense1 scapo nudo tereti1 foliis linearibus1 capitulo bulbifero4 ,spec4 plant4 ,i4 p4 #dca4 ,f4 #bh ,these three points are common to most insects1 and ought therefore not to be made characteristics of any particular species4 ,they are called ,stemmata1 and are a kind of eyes which serve the insects for looking at distant objects1 as the compound eyes do for objects near at hand4 ,f4 #bi ,it has been a subject of contest among naturalists1 to determine the winter-retreat of ,swallows4 ,some think1 they go to warmer climates when they disappear in the ,northern countries3 others say1 they creep into hollow trees1 and holes in clefts of rocks1 and ly there all the winter in a torpid state3 and others affirm1 that they take their retreat into water1 and revive again in spring4 ,the two first opinions have been proved1 and it seems have found credit2 the last has been treated as ridiculous1 and almost as an old woman's tale4 ,natural history1 as all the other histories1 depends not always upon the intrinsic degree of probability1 but upon facts founded on the testimony of people of noted veracity4--,swallows are seldom seen sinking down into the water1 ,swallows have not such organs as frogs or lizards1 which are torpid during winter1 ergo1 ,swallows live not1 and cannot live1 under water4--,this way of arguing1 ,i believe1 would carry us1 in a great many cases1 too far2 for tho' it is not clear to every one1 it may however be true3 and lizards and frogs are animals of a class widely different from that of birds1 and must therefore of course have a different structure2 hence it is they are classed separately4 ,the bear and the marmot are in winter in a torpid state1 and have however not such organs as lizards and frogs2 and no body doubts of their being1 during some time1 in the most rigid climates in a torpid state3 for the ,alpine ,nations hunt the marmots frequently1 by digging their holes up1 and find them so torpid1 that they cut their throats1 without their reviving or giving the least sign of life during the operation2 but when the torpid marmot is brought into a warm room and placed before the fire1 it revives from its lethargy4 ,the question must therefore be decided by fact2 nor are they wanting here3 ,dr4 ,wallerius1 the celebrated ,swedish ,chemist1 wrote in #agdh1 ,september the #fth ,o4 ,s4 to the late ,mr4 ,klein1 ,secretary of the ,city of ,dantzick3 8,that he has seen more than once ,swallows assembling on a reed1 till they were all immersed and went to the bottom2 this being preceded by a dirge of a quarter of an hour's length4 ,he attests likewise1 that he had seen a ,swallow caught during winter out of a lake with a net1 drawn1 as is common in ,northern countries1 under the ice3 this bird was brought into a warm room1 revived1 fluttered about1 and soon after died40 ,mr4 ,klein applied to many ,fermiers generaux of the ,king of ,prussia's domains1 who had great lakes in their districts1 the fishery in them being a part of the revenue2 in winter the fishery thereon is the most considerable under the ice1 with nets spreading more than #bjj or #cjj fathoms1 and they are often wound by screws and engines1 on account of their weight4 ,all the people questioned made affidavits upon oath before the magistrates4 ,first1 ,the mother of the ,countess ,lehndorf said1 that she had seen a bundle of ,swallows brought from the ,frish ,haff 7a lake communicating with the ,baltic at ,pillau7 which when brought into a moderately warm room1 revived and fluttered about4 ,secondly1 ,count ,schlieben gave an instrument on stamped paper1 importing1 that by fishing on the lake belonging to his estate of ,gerdauen in winter1 he saw several ,swallows caught in the net1 one of which he took up with his hand1 brought it into a warm room1 where it lay about an hour1 when it began to stir1 and half an hour after it flew about in the room4 ,thirdly1 ,fermier general 7,amtman7 ,witkowski made affidavit1 that in the year #agdj1 three ,swallows were brought up with the net in the great pond at ,didlacken2 in the year #agda1 he got two ,swallows from another part of the pond1 and took them home1 7they all being caught in his presence72 after an hour's space they revived all in a warm room1 fluttered about1 and died three hours after4 #dthly1 ,amtman ,bnke says1 that having had the estate ,kleskow in farm1 he had seen nine ,swallows brought up in the net from under the ice1 all which he took into a warm room1 where he distinctly observed how they gradually revived2 but a few hours after they all died4 ,another time his people got likewise some ,swallows in a net1 but he ordered them again to be thrown into the water1 #ethly1 ,andrew ,rutta1 a master fisherman1 at ,oletsko1 made affidavit1 #agdg1 that #bb years ago1 two ,swallows were taken up1 by him1 in a net1 under the ice1 and being brought into a warm room1 they flew about4 #fthly1 ,jacob ,kosiulo1 a master fisherman1 at ,stradauen1 made affidavit1 that in #agcf1 he brought up in winter1 in a net1 from under the ice of the lake at ,raski1 a seemingly dead ,swallow1 which revived in half an hour's time1 in a warm room1 and he saw1 a quarter of an hour after1 the bird grow weaker1 and soon after dying4 #gthly1 ,i can reckon myself among the eye-witnesses of this paradoxon of natural history4 ,in the year #agce1 being a little boy1 ,i saw several ,swallows brought in winter by fishermen1 from the river ,vistula1 to my father's house1 where two of them were brought into a warm room1 revived1 and flew about4 ,i saw them several times settling on the warm stove1 7which the ,northern nations have in their rooms7 and ,i recollect well that the same forenoon they died1 and ,i had them1 when dead1 in my hand4 ,in the year #aged1 after the death of my uncle ,godefroy ,wolf1 captain in the ,polish regiment of foot guards2 being myself one of his heirs1 ,i administered for my co-heirs1 several estates called the ,starosty1 of ,dirschau1 in ,polish ,prussia1 which my late uncle farmed under the king4 ,in ,january the lake of ,lybshau1 belonging to these estates1 being covered with ice1 ,i ordered the fishermen to fish therein1 and in my presence several ,swallows were taken2 which the fishermen threw in again2 but one ,i took up myself1 brought it home1 which was five miles from thence1 and it revived1 but died about an hour after its reviving4 ,these are facts1 attested by people of the highest quality1 by some in public offices1 and by others1 who1 tho' of a low rank1 however made these affidavits upon oath4 ,it is impossible to suppose indiscriminately that they were prompted by views of interest1 to assert as a fact1 a thing which had no truth in it4 ,it is therefore highly probable1 or rather incontestably true1 that ,swallows retire in the ,northern countries during winter1 into the water1 and stay there in a torpid state1 till the return of warmth revives them again in spring4 ,the question therefore ,i believe ought for the future to be thus stated3 ,the swallows in ,spain1 ,italy1 ,france1 and perhaps some from ,england1 remove to warmer climates2 some ,english ones1 and some in ,germany and other mild countries1 retire into clefts and holes in rocks1 and remain there in a torpid state4 ,in the colder northern countries the ,swallows immerse in the sea1 in lakes1 and rivers1 and remain in a torpid state1 under ice1 during winter4 ,there are still some objections to this latter assertion1 which we must remove4 ,it is said1 ,why do not rapacious fish1 and aquatic quadrupeds and birds1 devour these ,swallows8 ,the answer is obvious4 ,swallows chuse only such places in the water for their winter retreat1 as are near reeds and rushes2 so that sinking down there between them and their roots1 they are by them secured against the rapaciousness of their enemies4 ,but others object1 ,why are not these birds caught in such waters as are continually harrassed by nets8 ,i believe the same answer which has been made to the first objection1 will serve for this likewise4 ,fishermen take care to keep off with their nets from places filled with reeds and rushes1 for fear of entangling and tearing their nets2 and thus the situation of ,swallows under water1 is the reason that they are seldom disturbed in their silent winter-retreats4 ,what confirms this opinion still more is1 that ,swallows were never caught in ,prussia1 according to the above-mentioned affidavits1 but with those parts of the net which passed near to the reeds and rushes2 and sometimes the ,swallows were yet fastened with their feet to a reed1 when they were drawn up by the net4 ,as to the argument taken from their being so long under water without corruption1 ,i believe1 there is a real difference between animals suffocated in water1 and animals being torpid therein4 ,we have examples of things being a long time under water2 to which we may add the intense cold of these northern regions1 which preserves them4 ,who would have thought it1 that snails and polypes may be dissected1 and could reproduce the parts severed from their body2 if it was not a fact8 ,natural history ought to be studied as a collection of facts2 not as the history of our guesses or opinions4 ,nature varies in an infinite manner2 and ,providence has diversified the instinct of animals1 and their conomy1 and adapted it to the various seasons and climates4 ,this long digression ,i thought necessary and excusable2 and the more so1 as the ingenious great friends to the cause of ,natural ,history1 the late ,mr4 ,collinson1 and ,mr4 ,pennant1 have both asserted the impossibility and improbability of this immersion4 ,i revere the memory and the ashes of the one1 and think the friendship of the other an honour to me3 but am assured1 that both prefer truth to their private opinion2 and can bear a modest opposition1 when it is proposed with candour1 with a view to promote truth1 and with sentiments of respect and gratitude1 as it is done by me1 in the present case4 ,f4 #cj ,hirundo1 caud aculeat1 ,americana4 ,catesb4 ,carol4 vol4 iii4 t4 #h4 #ca ,hirundo purpurea4 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,carol4 vol4 i4 t4 #ea4 #cb ,it must be carefully distinguished from what is called ,currants1 in ,england1 which is the ,ribes rubrum4 ,f4 #cc ,cratgus tomentosa1 ,linn4 ,spec4 ,pl4 p4 #fhb4 #cd ,mespilus inermis1 foliis ovato-oblongis1 serratis1 subtus tomentosis4 ,gronov4 ,fl4 ,virgin4 #ee4 #ce ,caprimulgus minor ,americanus4 ,catesb4 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,carolina1 ,vol4 iii4 t4 #af4 ,edwards's ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,birds1 t4 #fc4 #cf ,morus rubra4 #cg ,kungsfogel4 #ch ,the tenth part of an inch4 #ci ,pyrus coronaria4 ,linn4 ,sp4 ,plant1 p4 ,malus sylvestris1 floribus odoratis4 ,gronov4 ,fl4 ,virginica4 #ee4 #dj ,azalea nudiflora4 ,linn4 ,spec4 ,plant4 p4 #bad4 ,azalea ramis infra flores nudis4 ,gron4 ,virg4 #ba4 #da ,azalea erecta1 foliis ovatis1 integris1 alternis1 flore luteo1 piloso1 prcoci4 ,cold4 ,ebor4 #be4 #db ,accordingly about the #bith of ,may1 new stile4 #dc ,rana boans4 ,linn4 ,syst4 ,i4 p4 #ceh4 ,rana maxima1 ,americana1 aquatica4 ,catesb4 ,carol4 ,,ii4 #gb4 #dd ,cupressus thyoides4 ,linn4 ,spec4 pl4 p4 #adbb4 ,cypressus ,americana1 fructu minimo4 ,miller's ,gard4 ,dictionary4 #de ,juniperus ,virginiana4 ,linn4 ,spec4 pl4 p4 #aad4 #df ,juniperus communis4 ,linn4 ,spec4 pl4 p4 #adgj4 #dg ,an island in the river ,st4 ,lawrence1 close by the town of ,montreal1 in ,canada4 #dh ,see vol4 ,i4 page #aae4 ,the lower part of the yachts1 which is continually under water1 is made of black oak2 the upper part is built of red cedar1 because it is sometimes above and sometimes in the water4 #di ,bruchus ,pisi4 #ej ,see vol4 i4 page #cch4 #ea ,warglo2 ,felis ,lynx4 ,linn4 ,the ,swedes mention two kinds of lynx1 the one is called the ,warglo1 or wolf-lynx1 and the other the ,kattlo1 or cat-lynx4 ,the ,germans make the same distinction1 and call the former ,wolf-luchs1 and the latter ,katz-luchs3 the former is the biggest1 of a brownish red1 mixed with grey and white1 on its back1 and white towards the belly1 with brownish spots2 the latter is smaller1 and has a coat which is more white1 and with more spots4 ,f4 #eb ,anguis niger4 ,see ,catesby's ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,carol4 ii4 t4 #dh4 #ec ,it has been found by repeated experience1 that the specific character employed by ,dr4 ,linnus1 for the distinction of the species of snakes1 taken from their ,scuta abdominalia caudalia1 or their ,squam subcaudales1 varies greatly in snakes of the same species1 so that often the difference amounts to ten or more3 the whole number of the scuta sometimes helps to find out the species2 care ought however to be taken1 that the snake may not by any accident have lost its tail1 and that it be growing again2 in which case1 it is impossible to make use of this character4 ,the character is not quite so good and decisive1 as may be wished1 but neither are the marks taken from colours1 spots1 stripes1 c4 quite constant2 and so it is better to make use of an imperfect character1 than none at all4 ,time1 and greater acquaintance with this class of animals1 may perhaps clear up their natural characters4 ,f4 #ed ,see vol4 i4 p4 #cai4 #ee ,see the volume for the year #agef1 page #aj1 of the ,swedish edition4 #ef ,william ,pen1 ,esq2 and his heirs after him4 #eg ,see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bbj4 #eh ,ibid1 p4 #bbd-bcg4 #ei ,see an account of that place in ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bbh4 #fj ,see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bcj4 #fa ,see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bdg1 c4 #fb ,commonly called ,black-heart ,cherries4 #fc ,that rum is among the spirituous liquors less noxious than any one of the rest1 is chiefly owing to the balsamic quality it gets from the sugar1 which corrects the styptic quality all kinds of brandy and spirituous liquors have4 ,the older the rum is1 and the longer it has been kept in a great cask1 the more is its stypticity corrected4 ,all which has been lately proved by the clearest experiments1 explained and deducted from the most indisputable principles of chymistry1 in a pamphlet written by that able chymist ,mr4 ,dossie4 ,f4 #fd ,the ,new-,york ,sturgeons which ,i saw this year brought over1 had short blunt noses1 in which particular they are different from the ,english ones1 which have long noses4 ,f4 #fe ,mr4 ,kalm was certainly mistaken1 by thinking the summits of these mountains without wood1 on account of the great degree of heat3 for it is a general notion1 founded on experience1 that the sun operates not so much on the tops of mountains1 as in plains or vallies1 and the cold often hinders the increase of wood on the summits of high mountains4 ,f4 #ff ,from the ,french ,bateaux 7,boats74 #fg ,the reader must reckon all this according to the old stile4 #fh ,i have mentioned them before4 ,see vol4 i4 p4 #agf1 #agg4 #fi ,populus glandulis variis basi foliorum adnexis1 foliis cordato-deltoidibus1 acuminatis1 serrato-angulosis1 utrinque glabris4----,an ,populus heterophylla ,linni8 #gj ,see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bbh1 c4 #ga ,new ,jersey and part of ,pensylvania were formerly comprized under this name4 #gb ,mr4 ,kalm published his third volume just during the time of the last war4 ,f4 #gc ,mr4 ,kalm is1 ,i believe1 not right informed4 ,the ,french ecclesiastics have allured some few wretched ,indians to their religion and interest1 and settled them in small villages2 but by the accounts of their behaviour1 in the several wars of the ,french and ,english1 they were always guilty of the greatest cruelties and brutalities2 and more so than their heathen countrymen2 and therefore it seems that they have been rather perverted than converted4 ,on the other hand1 the ,english have translated the bible into the language of the ,virginian ,indians1 and converted many of them to the true knowledge of ,god2 and at this present time1 the ,indian charity schools1 and missions1 conducted by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,eleazar ,wheelock1 have brought numbers of the ,indians to the knowledge of the true ,god4 ,the society for propagating the gospel in foreign parts1 sends every year many missionaries1 at their own expence1 among the ,indians4 ,and the ,moravian ,brethren are also very active in the conversion of ,gentiles2 so that if ,mr4 ,kalm had considered all these circumstances1 he would have judged otherwise of the zeal of the ,british nation1 in propagating the gospel among the ,indians4 ,f4 #gd ,romans ii4 #bd4 #ge ,see the description of it1 p4 #bda4 #gf ,see page #bea4 #gg ,see in the first ,volume1 p4 #bbc1 #bbd4 #gh ,cancer ,astacus ,linn4 #gi ,sambucus ,canadensis ,linn4 #hj ,this appears to be a new observation1 as ,linnus1 ,de ,buffon1 and ,sarrasin pretend1 they only feed on the ,acorus1 or ,reeds1 and other roots4 ,f4 #ha ,this is the literal meaning of the ,swedish word jtte grytor4 ,see the memoirs of the ,swed4 ,acad4 of ,sciences for the year #agdc1 p4 #abb4 and ,kalm's vol4 #a4 p4 #aba4 #hb ,see the ,memoirs of the ,royal ,academy for the year #aged1 page #ai1 c4 #hc ,in ,sweden and in ,russia it is usual for people of all ranks to bathe every week at least one time2 this is done in a stove heated by an oven1 to a surprising degree1 and which is enough to stifle people who are not used to it3 for commonly the heat is encreased by the hot steam1 caused by throwing red hot stones into water4 ,in these baths1 in ,russia1 the lower sort of people1 men and women1 bathe promiscuously1 as the ,romans did1 and from whom1 as ,plutarch observes1 in his ,life of ,cato1 the ,greeks adopted this indelicate and indecent custom1 and which spread so much1 that the ,emperor ,adrian1 and ,marcus ,antoninus were obliged to make laws against it1 but neither were they long observed1 for we find soon the ,council of ,laodicea obliged to prescribe a canon against this brutal custom1 and notwithstanding this we find soon after that not only persons of all ranks1 but even clergymen and monks bathed promiscuously with women1 in the same baths2 and from thence1 it is probable1 this custom passed among the ,russians1 when christianity took place among them4 ,near the bath1 in ,russia1 is commonly a pond1 where the people plunge in1 when quite hot1 and in winter they welter in the snow2 and ,saturdays it is common to see before the bath naked men and women1 each having a bundle of rods in their hand1 with which they gently beat one another1 when in the bath4 ,f4 #hd ,on my travels through the desart plains1 beyond the river ,volga1 ,i have had several opportunities of making the same observations on ,tea2 and every traveller1 in the same circumstances1 will readily allow them to be very just4 ,f4