,illustration3 ,,basaltic ,,columns ,,at ,,regia1 ,,in ,,mexico ,,geological ,,facts2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,crust ,,of ,,the ,,earth1 ,,what ,,it ,,is1 ,,and ,,what ,,are ,,its ,,uses4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,w4 ,g4 ,,barrett1 ,,royston4 8,there is in this universe a stair1 or manifest scale of creatures1 rising not disorderly nor in confusion1 but with a comely method and proportion40--,,sir ,,thomas ,,browne1 ,religio ,medici1 #afdb4 ,,london3 ,,arthur ,,hall1 ,,virtue1 ,,co4 #be1 ,,paternoster ,,row4 #ahee4 ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill ,,preface4 ,last written1 and generally last read1 a ,preface has nevertheless become so integral a part of every book1 that ,i may presume1 ,i trust1 upon the attention of my readers while ,i ask them to indulge me with a little prefatory egotism4 ,this book of mine goes forth into the world with many misgivings on the part of its author4 ,how he came to write it was thus-wise4 ,he was settled in a quiet country town in ,cambridgeshire1 ,royston to wit1 as a ,dissenting ,minister2 around him he found a number of young persons1 who did not believe they had 8finished their education0 because they had left school1 and who were anxious to avoid the usual littleness and small talk of such towns1 by earnest attention to actual study4 ,and so it came to pass that a ,geological class was formed1 which1 meeting every week1 afforded real stimulus for private work1 and led to the consultation of the best standard works1 happily available through the well-conditioned library of the town4 ,the result of those classes is this little book4 ,what is written here was mostly1 if not all1 said there2 and1 urged to publish1 the author feels a pleasure in dedicating this book to the class1 composed almost entirely of young ladies1 who found in these studies one of their chief delights1 and whose private collections have been greatly assisted by the hints thus obtained4 ,i do not pretend to teach the ,science of ,geology2 ,i aspire simply to give a taste for this noble and elevating physical study2 and1 imperfect as this little manual1 written in the few hours of capricious leisure snatched from an incessant strain of engagements1 must be1 ,i shall only be too happy1 if one and another lay aside my book1 and go up higher to ,lyell1 ,sedgwick1 ,buckland1 ,murchison1 ,ansted1 ,miller1 and others4 ,possibly my stand-point as a minister of religion may have given unconsciously a too theological tone to some of the chapters1 especially the last2 if such is the case1 ,i beg leave to apologise for such an error by the candid statement1 that ,i have come into contact frequently with minds who have not hesitated to express the doubts ,i have endeavoured to resolve4 ,i am quite sure that if we1 whose calling is with the greatest and the deepest truths that can touch the heart of the real world in which we live and move and have our being1 encourage those whom we meet in the free intercourse of social life1 to express their doubts1 however painful the form of that expression may sometimes be1 we shall be far better prepared to meet the wants of our age than if we shut ourselves up in our studies1 and exclude ourselves by conventional devices from ,god's great world of thought and action that is vibrating so palpably around us1 many of whose most painful throbs are occasioned by a supposed contradiction between ,science and ,scripture4 ,at the feet of the ,master ,i desire to serve1 ,i lay this little book1 beseeching ,him to regard it as a labour of love1 and to use it as an aid to the faith of others in the inspired books of ,nature and of ,revelation4 ,removed from the happy town where this book was written1 it only remains to add1 that for many of the fossils figured in the following pages ,i am indebted to the kindness of the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,meeke1 at that time the ,unitarian ,minister of ,royston1 whose cabinet was always open to my use1 and whose courtesy and catholic kindness ,i thus desire to record2 while to ,miss ,butler1 one of my ,geological class1 ,i am indebted for all the drawings and devices which will doubtless make this book more attractive than it could otherwise have been4 ,in the words of ,archdeacon ,hare1 ,i close this brief prelection3 8,so imperfectly do we yet understand the redemption wrought for us by ,christ2 and so obstinate are we in separating what ,god has united1 as though it were impossible for the ,tree of ,knowledge to stand beside the ,tree of ,life4 ,yet in the redeemed world they do stand side by side1 and their arms intermingle and intertwine1 so that no one can walk under the shade of the one1 but he will also be under the shade of the other40 ,w4 ,g4 ,b4 ,,manchester1 ,july1 #ahee4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,introductory #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,preliminaries #ae ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,epoch #cc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,pal,,ozoic ,,period #ej ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,old ,,red ,,sandstone #fg ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,carboniferous ,,system #hc ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,secondary ,,formations4 #a4 ,the ,new ,red ,sandstone #ajf ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,secondary ,,rocks4 #b4 ,the ,oolitic ,system #abc ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,secondary ,,rocks4 #c4 ,the ,oolite proper #ade ,,chapter ,x4 ,,secondary ,,rocks4 #d4 ,the ,wealden #age ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,secondary ,,rocks4 #e4 ,the ,chalk4 ,the ,cretaceous ,system #aih ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,tertiary ,,system #bbd ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,scripture ,,and ,,geology2 ,,or1 ,,apparent ,,contradictions ,,reconciled #bee ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,by ,s4 ,g4 ,,nicholls4 ,,page ,,basaltic ,,columns1 ,,regia1 ,,mexico ,frontispiece4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,earth',s ,,crust #af ,,ditto #ba ,,london ,,basin #be ,,section ,,of ,,ditto #be ,,artesian ,,well #bg ,,mining ,,district #da ,,section ,,of ,a ,,mine #dc ,,trilobite #ef ,,ditto #eg ,,eyes ,,of ,,ditto #eh ,,crystallization ,,on ,,cornish ,,slate #fj ,,bellerophon #fa ,,silurian ,,remains #fa ,,ditto #fb ,,coralline #fb ,,land',s ,,end #ff ,,fish ,,scales #gd ,,fish ,,tails #ge ,,cephalaspis #gf ,,coccosteus #gg ,,pterichthys #gh ,,osteolepis #gi ,,extinct ,,and ,,existing ,,ferns #hg ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,carboniferous ,,system #ie ,,asterophyllite ,,and ,,sphenopteris #ig ,,pecopteris1 ,,odontopteris1 ,,and ,,neuropteris #ih ,,calamites #ajj ,,stigmaria ,,ficoides #aja ,,miner ,,at ,,work1 ,,and ,,lamp #aje ,,casts ,,of ,,rain ,,drops #aaa ,,footprints ,,of ,,bird #aac ,,ditto #aad ,,footprints ,,of ,,labyrinthodon #aaf ,,ammonites #acj ,,ditto ,,and ,,nautilus #aca ,,ditto #acb ,,ichthyosaurus #acg ,,plesiosaurus #adj ,,dirt-,,bed1 ,,portland #aej ,,oolite ,,coral #aea ,,ditto #aeb ,,pear ,,encrinites #afd ,,ditto #afe ,,ditto1 ,,with ,,coral #aff ,,ammonites ,,jason #aff ,,oolite ,,shells #afi ,,discovering ,,the ,,pterodactyle #agj ,,the ,,philosopher ,,and ,,ditto #aga ,,pterodactyle ,,skeleton #agc ,,ditto1 ,,restored #agd ,,fauna ,,of ,,the ,,oolitic ,,period #aie ,,royston ,,heath #bjf ,,fossil ,,teeth 7,,greensand7 #bji ,,fossils ,,from ,,the ,,gault 7,,folkstone7 #baj ,,ditto #baa ,,fossils ,,from ,,the ,,chalk #bab ,,fossil ,,fish #bad ,,ditto #bae ,,waltonian ,,and ,,mantellian ,,fishermen #bbc ,,fossils ,,from ,,the ,,london ,,clay #bch ,,wood ,,perforated ,,by ,,the ,,teredina #bda ,,septaria #bdb ,,fossils ,,from ,,red ,,crag #bde ,,megatherium #bdh ,,mastodon #bej ,,fossil ,,man #bea ,,cliff1 ,,guadaloupe #beb ,,the ,,geologist',s ,,dream #bed ,,the ,,reconciliation #bhh ,,geology4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 8,in the beginning ,god created the heaven and the earth40 ,,moses4 ,geology is the history of the crust of this planet4 ,this history we compile1 not from old records or moth-eaten state papers1 not from antiquarian research or the study of ancient coins1 but from actual and painstaking examination of the materials composing this crust4 ,how suitable is this word crust1 will be seen at once1 when it is considered that its thickness in all probability does not exceed eighty miles1 a mere fraction of the distance to the earth's centre4 ,of this eighty miles we know pretty accurately the character and arrangement of some seven or eight miles2 not that we have ever penetrated so far beneath the surface in a straight line1 the deepest mines not exceeding #ahjj or #aijj feet2 but1 by putting together the thicknesses of the various strata1 with which we are well acquainted1 we reach this conclusion without much hesitation4 ,professor ,whewell has well observed1 that 8an earth greater or smaller1 denser or rarer1 than the one on which we live1 would require a change in the structure and strength of all the little flowers that hang their heads under our hedges4 ,there is something curious in thus considering the whole mass from pole to pole and from circumference to centre1 as employed in keeping a snowdrop in the position most suited to its vegetable health40#a ,when we come to examine this crust1 several appearances of a striking character reward our toil4 ,at first1 and before we proceed in our investigations more minutely1 we find that there are only two varieties of rocks in all the vast arrangements spread out before us4 ,some rocks we find to be unstratified1 and others we find to be stratified3 from the absence of all fossils in the former of these1 and from their crystalline character1 we conclude that these were formed by the action of fire1 and therefore we call them ,igneous or ,plutonic rocks4 ,from the sedimentary character and from the numerous fossils of the stratified rocks1 we conclude these to have been formed by the action of water1 and we therefore call these ,aqueous or ,neptunian rocks4 ,following out these investigations1 we meet with other facts equally interesting3 we find that the ,plutonic or unstratified rocks lie generally at the base of all the others1 and that where they come up to the surface and crop out from other rocks1 or rise in towering mountain heights above them1 this has been the result of igneous action from beneath1 and that this elevation has disturbed the surrounding strata from the horizontal position in which we imagine them to have been first arranged4 ,the extent of the ,plutonic rocks is immense2 in ,europe1 the ,scandinavian mountains1 the ,alps1 the ,pyrenees1 and the ,carpathians2 in ,asia1 the ,himalayan1 the ,caucasian1 and the ,altai mountains2 in ,africa1 the ,atlas mountains and the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 in ,america1 nearly the whole of the two continents1 and in ,australia1 its southern part2--all these wide regions of the globe are composed of those igneous or ,plutonic rocks to which we give the names of granite1 basalt1 porphyry1 trap1 c4 c4 ,finding the surrounding strata disturbed by depression1 or upheaval in consequence of the giant claims of these older rocks that appear to have risen out of the centre of the earth in a red-hot or semifluid condition1 and then suddenly to have cooled down1 we begin to examine this upper and sedimentary strata1 and here the most delightful and romantic results are obtained4 ,we find no two courses or formations in these sedimentary rocks alike4 ,rising up from the granite1 we meet in the clay strata corals and trilobites1 the first fossil forms of ancient life with which we are acquainted3 we rise higher still1 for our imaginary start is from the bottom of the earth's crust1 and we meet in other rocks fossil fishes of an extraordinary shape1 and once1 doubtless1 possessed of extraordinary functions2 higher yet1 and touching the coal measures1 we come to vast forests of palms and ferns1 that by chemical changes and mechanical pressure have been converted into our mineral coal1 the vast fields of which constitute the real diamond mines of ,great ,britain2 higher yet1 exploring the ,lias and ,oolitic groups1 the huge remains of ancient saurians 7animals of the lizard species7 fill us with awe and wonder1 and make us rejoice that they had no successors in the next strata2 higher yet1 and we reach the last period of the earth's history1 previous to the introduction of man1 and enormous 8four-footed beasts10 the mastodon1 the megatherium and others1 astonish us by their gigantic proportions1 and evidently herbivorous habits2 and last of all we rise to the surface and breathe freely in company with our fellow man1 made in the image of ,god1 to inhabit this world as his palace1 and to interpret its mysteries as its priest4 ,we may probably put these general results into a more popular form1--for we reserve the details to a seriatim examination of each formation1--by the following quotation from a modern and extensively useful writer3 8,we distinguish four ages of nature1 corresponding to the great geological divisions1 namely-- 8#a4 ,the primary or palozoic#b age1 comprising the ,lower ,silurian1 the ,upper ,silurian1 and the ,devonian4 ,during this age there were no air-breathing animals4 ,the fishes were the masters of creation4 ,we may therefore call it the ,reign of ,fishes4 8#b4 ,the secondary age1 comprising the carboniferous formation1 the trias1 the oolitic1 and the cretaceous formations4 ,this is the epoch in which air-breathing animals first appear4 ,the reptiles predominate over the other classes1 and we may therefore call it the ,reign of ,reptiles4 8#c4 ,the tertiary age1 comprising the tertiary formations4 ,during this age1 terrestrial mammals of great size abound4 ,this is the ,reign of ,mammals4 8#d4 ,the modern age1 characterized by the appearance of the most perfect of created beings4 ,this is the ,reign of ,man40#c ,from this brief but necessary outline of 8the treasures of the deep0 which lie before us we may proceed to make a few preliminary remarks on the moral and theological aspects of this science4 ,many persons have supposed that the statements of ,scripture and the alleged facts of ,geology are at variance1 and1 forgetful that some of the devoutest minds of this and other countries have been equal believers in both1 have too summarily dismissed geology from their notice as a study likely to lead to infidelity4 ,to such we would briefly remark1 that it is utterly impossible there can be any contradiction between the written volume of ,inspiration and the outspread volume of ,creation4 ,both are books written by the same hand1 both are works proceeding from the same ever blessed and beneficent ,creator4 ,we believe in the plenary inspiration of the ,bible1 and we believe equally in the plenary inspiration of ,nature2 both are full of ,god1 for in them both ,he is all and in all2 and he who is the deepest and the most reverent student of both will not be long before he comes to the conclusion that not only is there no disharmony1 no discrepancy and no contradiction between them1 but that they are both harmonious utterances of the one infinite and ever blessed ,god4 8,in reason's ear they both rejoice1 ,and utter forth a glorious voice2 ,for ever singing as they shine1 #8,the hand that made us is divine4'0 ,let us remember that ,geology has nothing to do with the history of man1 nor with ,god's government of man2 to the ,bible1 and only there1 do we go for information on these points4 ,geology gives us the history and the succession of the things and beings that were created and made1 we believe1 incalculable ages before man was placed on the face of the earth4 ,possibly at times some new discovery in geology may appear to contradict our long received interpretations of isolated passages in ,scripture1 in which case the modesty of science compels us to reexamine our data1 while our reverence for the word of ,god teaches us to revise our interpretations4 ,as ,dr4 ,chalmers once remarked1 8the writings of ,moses do not fix the antiquity of the globe2 if they fix anything at all1 it is only the antiquity of the species40 ,we believe that the same ,god who1 in anticipation of the spiritual wants of the human race1 graciously promised from the beginning of man's transgression1 that 8the seed of the woman should bruise the serpent's head10 laid up for him 8in the bowels of the earth those vast stores of granite1 marble1 coal1 salt1 and the various metals1 the products of its several revolutions2 and thus was an inexhaustible provision made for his necessities1 and for the developments of his genius1 ages in anticipation of his appearance40#d ,truth is1 and always must be1 coincident4 ,there can be no real contradiction between the truth of ,scripture and the truth of ,science4 ,whatever is true in one department of ,god's agency1 must be true when compared with his works in any other department4 ,as an illustration we may notice one particular in which ,geology and ,scripture move towards the same point in proving the recent introduction of man4 ,we take up a chart of the earth's crust1 and examine it so far as that crust is open to our investigation3 eight miles depth or height we know pretty accurately1 and in all these accumulations we find one concurrent testimony4 ,if we take the ,azoic period of the earth's crust1 and search through the granitic rocks of ,scotland1 ,wales1 or ,cornwall2 or if we pass on to the ,palozoic period1 and examine the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 the ,carboniferous system1 or other formations2 or1 extending our researches1 investigate the secondary formations1 the ,lias1 the ,oolite1 and the ,chalk1 and so on until we arrive at the ,tertiary period of the earth's history2 all the testimony is one2 there is no contradiction2 there are no fossil boats or sofas2 no fossil beds or books2 no fossil boys and girls2 no fossil knives and forks2 so far as the teachings of ,geology go throughout all these vast periods it says1 8there was not a man to till the earth20 they declare that man is not so old as the earth1 and that all its fossil remains are pre-,adamite4 ,now why should this truth be supposed to lie against the teaching of ,scripture8 ,the object of ,moses in the first chapter of ,genesis1 is to teach us that all existing matter owes its origin to the ,god of the ,bible1 and not to any of the idols of the heathen4 8,in the beginning10 says that oldest historical record with which we are acquainted1 8,god created the heaven and the earth20 that is1 we apprehend1 at some period of the earth's history1 in all probability an undefined and incalculable distance from the present time1 ,god created all matter out of nothing1 the universe1 these heavens and this earth1 began to be at the word of ,god4 8,but afterwards10 says ,dr4 ,pye ,smith1 in his translation of these words1 8the earth was without form and void20 undergoing1 we believe1 those vast geological changes1 those deposits of metal1 and those slow accumulations of mineral wealth1 by which it was fitted to become the temple1 the palace1 the workshop1 and the home of man4 8,the first sentence in ,genesis is a simple1 independent1 all-comprehending axiom to this effect1 that matter elementary or combined1 aggregated only or organised1 and dependent1 sentient1 and intellectual beings1 have not existed from eternity either in self-continuity or succession2 but had a beginning2 that their beginning took place by the all-powerful will of one ,being1 the ,self-existent1 ,independent and ,infinite in all perfection2 and that the date of that beginning is not made known40#e ,dr4 ,redford says1 8,we ought to understand ,moses as saying1 that indefinitely far back and concealed from us in the mystery of eternal ages prior to the first moment of mundane time1 ,god created the heavens and the earth20 and ,dr4 ,harris in the same strain writes thus1 8,the first verse in ,genesis was designed by the ,divine ,spirit to announce the absolute origination of the material universe by the ,almighty ,creator2 and it is so understood in the other parts of holy writ2 passing by an indefinite interval1 the second verse describes the state of our planet immediately prior to the ,adamic creation1 and the third verse begins the account of the six days' work40 ,on this subject we will quote but one brief sentence more--and we have preferred using these quotations to stating the question in our words1 thoroughly accordant as they would have been4 ,in ,dr4 ,hitchcock's valuable work1 entitled 8,the ,religion of ,geology10 he says1 8,the time is not far distant when the high antiquity of the globe will be regarded as no more opposed to the ,bible than the earth's revolution round the sun and on its axis4 ,soon shall the horizon where ,geology and ,revelation meet be cleared of every cloud1 and present only an unbroken and magnificent circle of truth40 ,let these thoughts be borne in mind while we pursue our examination of the solid crust of this globe4 ,we do not 8drill and bore ,the solid earth1 and from its strata thence ,extract a register1 by which we learn ,that ,he who made it and revealed its date ,to ,moses was mistaken in its age40 ,nowhere do we find the age of the globe revealed either to ,moses or any other inspired writer2 we believe that as science has nothing to fear from the ,bible1 so the ,bible has nothing to fear from the widest intellectual range of study4 ,we ponder in devout amazement over these unwritten records of the earth's bygone history3 we find #8sermons in stones' as we light on some delicate fern1 or elegant vertebrate animal1 preserved in the deposits of past ages1 and the hieroglyphics of nature and the distincter utterances of the ,bible prompt the same exclamation1--8,how marvellous are thy works1 ,o ,god1 in wisdom hast thou made them all60 8,waste1 and disorder1 and confusion we nowhere find in our study of the crust of the earth2 instead of this we find endless examples of economy1 order1 and design2 and the result of all our researches carried back through the unwritten records of past time1 has been to fix more steadily our assurance of the existence of one ,supreme ,creator of all things2 to exalt more highly our conviction of the immensity of ,his perfections1 of ,his might and majesty1 ,his wisdom and ,his goodness1 and all-sustaining providence2 and to penetrate our understandings with a profound and sensible perception of the high veneration man's intellect owes to ,god4 ,the earth from her deep foundations unites with the celestial orbs that roll through boundless space1 to declare the glory and show forth the praise of their common ,author and ,preserver2 and the voice of natural religion accords harmoniously with the testimonies of revelation1 in ascribing the origin of the universe to the will of one ,eternal and ,dominant ,intelligence1 the ,almighty ,lord and supreme ,first ,cause of all things that subsist2 the same yesterday1 to-day1 and for ever2 before the mountains were brought forth1 or ever the earth and the world were made1 ,god from everlasting and world without end40--,buckland's ,bridgewater ,treatise4 8,come1 frankly read the rocks1 and see ,in them the ,earth's biography2 ,let mountain piled on mountain tell ,its antique age2 and every shell ,in fossil form its tale unfold1 ,of life's bright day through time untold2 ,and gathering use from great and small1 ,see good in each1 but ,god in all40 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,preliminaries4 8,of old hast thou laid the foundation of the earth40 ,,david4 ,as yet we have only been talking about the crust of the earth2 we shall now return and enter upon its actual examination4 ,it will not be necessary for us personally to descend into the abysmous caverns that lie beneath our feet1 nor1 with hammer in hand1 to go forth and explore the district of country in which we may happen to dwell3 we may do all this by and by1 when we know both how and what to observe4 ,meanwhile1 with such teachers as ,buckland1 ,sedgwick1 ,murchison1 ,pye ,smith1 ,hugh ,miller1 ,de la ,beche1 ,lyell1 ,owen and others1 we may for some while to come be only tarry-at-home travellers2 for in a true sense1 in this department of knowledge1 8other men have laboured1 and we enter into their labours40 ,let us now look at the crust of the earth1 as it may be represented in two imaginary sections4 ,suppose we could make a vertical section of the earth's crust1 and cut straight down some eighty miles till we reached the central mass of incandescence that we believe lies beneath this crust1 or ,erdrinde 7earth-rind71 as the ,germans call it1 and then bring out this section to daylight1 it would present something very much like the following appearance4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,i4 ,here the granite ,a will be observed forming the supposed boundary between the superlying strata and the fire ,b below to which we have just referred1 and thus will be seen the origin of all plutonic rocks4 ,here too will be seen how the granite is not confined to the lower levels1 but rises1 as mentioned in the first chapter1 far above all the other strata1 and forms some of the highest peaks on the face of the globe4#f ,here1 too1 will be seen how the granite is frequently traversed by veins of trap-dykes1 those black-looking branches1 which rise often above the whole mass of metamorphic and stratified rocks1 often occasioning great difficulties in mining operations4 ,here1 too1 the student will see how1 supposing the theory of a central globe of heat to be founded in fact1 the volcanoes that are now active1 ,c1 form1 as the volcanoes that are extinct1 ,d1 once did1 the safety valves of this mighty mass of incandescence1 ,b2 and in the same way may be seen how certain strata may be above the granite1 or above any other formation1 though they do not overlie them1 and how the lowest strata1 being formed first1 is said to be older than any superlying strata1 notwithstanding any accidental arrangement produced by upheaval or depression4 ,for1 in 8consequence of the great commotions which the crust of the globe has undergone1 many points of its surface have been elevated to great heights in the form of mountains2 and hence it is that fossils are sometimes found at the summit of the highest mountains1 though the rocks containing them were originally formed at the bottom of the sea4 ,but1 even when folded or partly broken1 their relative age may still be determined by an examination of the ends of their upturned strata1 where they appear or crop out in succession1 at the surface or on the slopes of mountains40#g ,but to make this view of the subject clearer1 let us imagine that some ,titanic power was granted us to push down these towering masses of granite to their original situation1 below the metamorphic and stratified rocks1 by which means we should at the same time restore these curved and broken strata to their originally horizontal position2 and let us suppose that we were now again to descend to the foundations of the earth for the purpose of making another vertical section2 then the crust of the earth would present to us an arrangement something like the leaves of a book1 or the coats of an onion1 arranged in successive and uninterrupted layers1 or in concentric and unbroken circles4 ,such a diagram must of course be imaginary1 and unless it is taken into connexion with the previous remarks1 it is more likely to bewilder than to assist the beginner4 ,let it again be urged upon the reader1 that such a chart as we are about to lay before him is only intended to give him an idea of the succession of these formations and systems1 and that the details found in it are anticipatory of many future references to it on the student's part4 ,let it not be supposed that this is a mere barren research into dry facts that have no connexion with our truest welfare2 for if1 as ,lord ,bacon somewhere finely observes1 all study is to be valued 8not so mush as an exercise of the intellect1 but as a true discipline of humanity10 then what study is calculated to be more useful than ,geology1 in enlarging and purifying the powers of the mind1 by teaching us how harmonious1 and orderly1 and economic are the works of ,god2 in removing all narrow notions of the extent and age of this solid globe1 which from the beginning had its origin in the almighty will of ,god2 in checking the presumptuous or the chilling inferences of a sceptical philosophy1 by everywhere pointing out the design1 skill1 and adaptations of an ever-present and most beneficent ,creator2 and in chastening those overweening ideas of ourselves which both ignorance and knowledge may create and foster1 by saying to us1 in the language of ,god himself1 as we stand amazed in the presence of huge pre-,adamite vestiges of creation1 8,where wast thou10 vain man1 8when ,i laid the foundations of the earth8 ,declare if thou hast understanding40 7,job xxxviii4 #d47 8,among these rocks and stones1 methinks ,i see ,more than the heedless impress that belongs ,to lonely nature's casual work2 they bear ,a semblance strange to ,power intelligent1 ,and of ,design not wholly worn away4 ,and ,i own ,some shadowy intimations haunt me here1 ,that in these shows a chronicle survives ,of purposes akin to those of man1 ,measuring through all degrees1 until the scale ,of time and conscious nature disappear1 ,lost in unsearchable eternity40--,,wordsworth4 ,we will now proceed to the diagram to which we have made allusion1 and which represents an ideal section of the earth's crust as the various formations are there found arranged4 7,diagram ,,ii47 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,ii4 ,here1 in the words of another writer1 we would add for the reader's guidance1 that 8the unstratified or igneous rocks occur in no regular succession1 but appear amidst the stratified without order or arrangement2 heaving them out of their original horizontal positions1 breaking up through them in volcanic masses1 and sometimes overrunning them after the manner of liquid lava4 ,from these circumstances they are1 in general1 better known by their mineral composition than by their order of occurrence4 ,still it may be convenient to divide them into three great classes2 granite1 trappean1 and volcanic--granite being the basis of all known rocks1 and occurring along with the primary and transition strata2 the trappean1 of a darker and less crystalline structure than the granite1 and occurring along with the secondary and tertiary rocks2 and the volcanic1 still less crystalline and compact1 and of comparatively recent origin1 or still in process of formation40 ,this the student will observe by another reference to the previous diagram2 but1 in looking at the one now before him1 we must also add for his further guidance1--for we are presuming that we address those who need initiation into the rudiments of this science1 and the circumstance that we never met with a preliminary treatise that quite satisfied us1 or helped such intelligent youth as were prying into the apparently cabalistic mysteries of the earth's structural divisions1 is one strong inducement to the present undertaking2--we must add1 that 8it must not be supposed1 however1 that all the stratified rocks always occur in any one portion of the earth's crust in full and complete succession as represented0 in ,diagram ,,ii4 8,all that is meant is1 that such would be their order if every group and formation were present4 ,but whatever number of groups may be present1 they never happen out of their regular order of succession2 that is1 clay-slate never occurs above coal1 nor coal above chalk4 ,thus in ,london1 tertiary strata occupy the surface2 in ,durham1 magnesian limestone2 in ,fife1 the coal measures2 and in ,perthshire1 the old red sandstone and clay-slate2 so that it would be fruitless to dig for chalk in ,durham1 for magnesian limestone in ,fife1 or for coal in ,perthshire4 ,it would not be absurd1 however1 to dig for coal in ,durham1 because that mineral underlies the magnesian limestone2 or for old red sandstone in ,fife1 because that formation might be naturally expected to occur under the coal strata of that country1 in the regular order of succession40#h ,still1 after reading all this1 we can easily imagine1 not so much an air of incredulity taking possession of the countenance of our courteous reader as a feeling somewhat like this1 with which we have often come into contact in those geological classes of young persons which it has been our pleasure to conduct3 8,well1 all that's very plain in the book2 ,i see granite lies at the bottom1 and pushes itself up to the top very often2 and ,i see in the diagrams that coal and chalk are not found in the same place1 and that different localities have their different formations1 and the various formations have their different fossils1 but ,i confess that ,i cannot realize it4 ,i know the earth is round like an orange1 a little flattened at the poles--what is called an oblate spheroid2 but all this surpasses my power of comprehension2 can't you make it plainer80 ,well1 let us try2 on page #bg is a diagram1 representing no ideal1 but an actual boring into the earth4 ,london is situated on the tertiary formation1 in what is called geologically the basin of the ,london clay1 that is almost on the very top of the crust1 or external covering that lies on the vast mass of molten and other matter beneath4 ,here is first a drawing and then a section that may represent this basin3-- ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,iv4 ,the water which falls on the chalk hills flows into them1 or into the porous beds adjoining1 and would rise upwards to its level but for the superincumbent pressure of the bed of clay above it1 cccc4 ,under these circumstances1 in order to procure water1 ,artesian#i wells are sunk through the bed of clay1 perhaps also through the chalk1 but at any rate till the depressed stratum of chalk is reached2 and this gives exit to the subterranean water1 which at once rises through the iron tubes inserted in the boring to the surface4 ,by these borings through the clay1 water is obtained where it would be impossible to sink a well1 or where the expense would prohibit the attempt4 ,to explain this matter1 here is a diagram 7,no4 ,v47 which represents the ,artesian well at the ,model ,prison at ,pentonville1 ,london1 the strata upon which ,london is built1 and which we can apply to the diagram on page #ba1 that the theory of the earth's crust may be the more thoroughly understood before we proceed4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,v4 ,in the same manner ,artesian wells have been sunk in other places1 as at ,hampstead ,water ,works1 #dej feet deep2 ,combe ,delafield's1 #ejj feet deep2 and the ,trafalgar-square ,water ,works1 #eaj feet deep4#aj ,now1 the reader has only to take this last diagram1 and in imagination to apply it to the one on page #ba1 in order to see that so far as actual boring and investigation go1 the geological theory of the earth's crust is correct2 only again let it be observed that this order is never inverted1 although it frequently happens that some one or more of the strata may be absent4 ,hitherto we have spoken of the earth's crust without reference to that wondrous succession and development of living beings which once had their joy of life1 and whose fossil remains1 found in the different strata1 waken such kindling emotions of the power of ,deity1 and enlarge indefinitely our conceptions of the boundless resources of ,his ,mind4 ,this will open before us a new chapter in the history of our planet1 already the theatre of such vast revolutions1 and which1 under the influence of ,divine truth1 is yet to undergo one greater and nobler than any of these4 ,we have as yet only glanced at the surface page of the wondrous book1 now happily opened for us by geologists1 to whose names we have already made reference2 and as the mind rests with intense pleasure on the discoveries of ,champollion1 ,belzoni1 ,lane1 ,layard1 ,botta1 and others who have deciphered the hieroglyphics1 in which were written the wars and the chronicles of ancient nations1 whose names and deeds are becoming1 by books and lectures1 and above all by our noble national ,museum1 familiar even to our children1 and a source of help and solace to the hard-toiling artisan2 so with profounder interest1 as carried back into remoter ages of antiquity1 so remote that they seem to lie beyond the power of a human arithmetic to calculate1 do we humbly endeavour to decipher the hieroglyphics1#aa not of ,egypt or of ,nineveh1 but of the vast creation of ,god1 written in characters that require1 not only learning and science to understand1 but modesty1 patience1 and triumphant perseverance4 ,he who with these pre-requisites combines reverence for ,god and ,his revelation1 will always find in ,geology material both for manly exercise of thought1 and also for reverent adoration of ,him who is ,himself unsearchable1 and whose ways are past finding out4 8,we not to explore the secrets1 ask ,of ,his eternal empire1 but the more ,to magnify ,his works1 the more we know40--,,milton4 ,most happily for ,christendom1 our noblest men of science are not ashamed of the 8reproach of ,christ20 and we know not how to conclude this chapter in a strain more accordant with our own thoughts than by quoting the words of an eminent living naturalist3--8,i can echo with fullest truth the experience of ,bishop ,heber2 #8,in every ride ,i have taken1 and in every wilderness in which my tent has been pitched1 ,i have found enough to keep my mind from sinking into the languor and the apathy which have been regarded as natural to a tropical climate4' ,nay1 ,i may truly say1 ,i found no tendency to apathy or ennui4 ,every excursion presented something to admire2 every day had its novelty2 the morning was always pregnant with eager expectation2 the evening invariably brought subjects of interest fresh and new2 and the days were only too short for enjoyment4 ,they were not days of stirring adventure1 of dangerous conflicts with man or with beast1 or of hair-breadth escapes in flood and field2 their delights were calm and peaceful1 ,i trust not unholy1 nor unbecoming the character of a ,christian1 who has his heart in heaven1 and who traces1 even in earth's loveliest scenes1 the mark of the spoiler4 ,the sentiments expressed by my friend#ab and fellow-labourer are those which ,i would ever associate with the study of science4 #8,if the sight of nature1' observes ,mr4 ,hill1 #8were merely the looking at a painted pageantry1 or at a spectacle filling the carnal mind with wonder and delight1 the spirit would be overpowered and worked into weariness2 but it is admiration at the wisdom1 and reverence for the beneficence of ,almighty power4 ,he who dwelleth in the light which no man can approach unto1 whom no man hath seen1 nor can see1' is yet visible in ,his perfections through the works of ,his hand1 and ,his designs are made manifest in the purpose of ,his creatures4 ,wherever our lot is cast1 into whatever scenes our wayward impulses lead us1 the mind-illumined eye gazes on divine things1 and the spirit-stirred heart feels its pulses bounding with emotions from the touch of an ever-present ,deity4 ,the habit that sees in every object the wisdom and the goodness as well as the power of ,god1 ,i may speak of1 as ,coleridge speaks of the poetical spirit1 #8it has been to me an exceeding great reward2 it has soothed my afflictions2 it has multiplied and refined my enjoyments2 it has endeared my solitude2 and it has given me the habit of wishing to discover the good and the beautiful in all that meets and surrounds me4' 8#8,great are thy works1 ,jehovah1 infinite ,thy power6 what thought can measure thee1 or tongue ,relate thee8'0#ac ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,epoch4 8,where wast thou when ,i laid the foundations of the earth80--,job xxxviii4 #d4 ,and now in right earnest let us begin our examination of the earth's crust4 ,some of the terms we may use will1 perhaps1 at first sight appear repulsive from their novelty and difficulty2 such words we will explain as we proceed1 and will only stay the student's course to remark1 that there is a necessity for the use of the dead languages in the formation of compound terms that are to become descriptive names1 and in their application to newly discovered objects4 ,this necessity arises from the fact that it is only in this way that scientific men of different nations can understand the character of each other's researches1 and compare notes with one another4 ,a fossil is found1 let us suppose1 in the lias formation2 it proves to be the organic remains of some very strange and anomalous creature4 ,people go down to ,lyme ,regis to examine it1 and1 in doing so1 discover others4 ,comparative anatomists arrange the dislocated parts and give them a name2 this must be intelligible to geologists on the ,continent as well as in ,england2 and therefore some term descriptive of the animal1 once the living possessor of these 8dry bones10 must be given1 and finally it is called ichthyosaurus4 ,any one in ,russia1 or ,austria1 or ,italy1 who happened to be acquainted with the rudiments of ,greek1 would know at once the kind of animal referred to by its very name1 derived from ichthus1 a fish1 and sauros1 a lizard4 ,this would indicate to all scientific men the nature of this remarkable animal1 of which we shall have to tell some stories by and by as full of wonder as any modern or ancient book of marvels2 while1 if we had called it fish-lizard1 only those who understood ,english would know what we meant4 ,our object is to simplify as much as possible every difficult term that may be used2 but while we solicit our readers to master each difficulty as it rises1 we hope they will not think that1 when they have read this little book1 they are masters of ,geology1 our highest ambition being only to impart a taste for the science4 ,to return3 our examination commences with the ,plutonic rocks1 so called in memory of the well-known mythological god of the fiery or infernal regions2 and we take granite#ad as a type of these rocks1 because it is so familiar to all our readers4 ,there are besides granite1 syenite1#ae greenstone1 porphyry1 basalt1 and others1 to dilate upon which would defeat our purpose4 ,our object is to lay but a little at a time upon the memory1 and to let that little be well digested before we pass from the thoroughly known to the unknown4 ,nothing but actual examination can make the student familiar with the varieties of the rocks of this very ancient epoch in the world's history4 ,well1 everybody knows what granite is2 they see it on the kerb-stones of the wayside1 in the hard paving of the ,london streets1 in the massive slabs of ,london and ,waterloo ,bridges1 and elsewhere4 8,granite60 exclaims the reader1 8everybody knows what granite is1 and there is an end of it2 you make as much fuss about granite as ,wordsworth did about his well-known primrose1 and the man who could see nothing but a primrose in a primrose40 ,but there is a poetry and a history about granite upon which we are going to dwell4 ,this piece of granite which ,i hold in my hand is composed of quartz1 mica1 and feldspar4#af ,the quartz is white and hard--,i can't scratch it with my knife2 the mica is in glistening plates or scales2 and the feldspar is soft and greyish1 and can easily be scratched4 ,oh1 if this granite could speak1 what a story could it tell6 8,to give it1 then1 a tongue were wise in man40 ,let us try4 8,once upon a time1 long1 long ages ago1 incalculable periods before ,adam was placed in possession of ,eden1 ,i1 the granite1 and my contemporaries1 came into being4 ,before us1 this planet #8was without form and void4' ,a dark chaotic period1 of which ,i know nothing1 preceded me4 ,when ,i first emerged into being1 at the command of ,him who laid the foundations of the earth1 this world was a barren1 lifeless1 uncultivated1 uninhabited1 untrodden1 seasonless waste4 ,here and there were undulations of land and water1 but all was bare1 desolate1 and silent3 not a moss nor a lichen covered the ancient skeleton of the globe2 not a sea-weed floated in the broad ocean2 not a trace existed even of the least highly organized animal or vegetable2 everything was still1 and with the stillness of universal death4 ,the earth was prepared1 and the fiat of creation had gone forth2 but there was no inhabitant1 and no beings endowed with life had been introduced to perform their part in the great mystery of creation40#ag ,and the granite might go on to say--8,man6 of three-score years and ten1 where wast thou when ,he1 my ,maker and yours1 laid the foundations of the earth8 ,let me tell you what an important part ,i have played in the history of your world's formation4 ,i rise to the highest elevations1 and form the sublimest pinnacles on the surface of the globe1 and without me your scenery would lose its grandeur and its glory4 ,but for me ,albert ,smith had never climbed ,mont ,blanc1 nor ,humboldt ,cotopaxi and ,chimborazo2 nor would the head of the famed ,egyptian ,memnon#ah have been sculptured4 ,you may see me giving to ,cornwall1 ,wales1 and ,scotland their most valuable minerals and metals4 ,in ,europe #8,i am monarch of all ,i survey1 ,my right there is none to dispute4' ,the ,scandinavians1 the ,hartz mountains1 the ,alps1 and the ,pyrenees are mine2 nor is my territory less in ,asia1 ,africa1 the great ,americas1 and in the becoming great ,australia2 and thus1 by my deeply rooted foundations and my vast extension1 ,i constitute the framework1 solid and immoveable1 of this #8great globe and all that it inherits4'0 ,thus1 at any rate1 the granite might speak1 nor would there be one word of vain boasting in it4 ,having beard it1 or fancied we heard it1 which amounts to the same thing1 let us soberize ourselves1 and put granite into the third person4 ,there are no fossils in granite and the other ,plutonic and volcanic rocks2 even supposing any forms of life to have been in existence at the period to which we are referring1 the action of fire has annihilated all their remains4 ,we should not therefore expect in ,cumberland and ,cornwall1 nor in those parts of ,devonshire where granite prevails1 to find the fossils peculiar to other formations with which in time we hope to make familiar acquaintance4 ,but though destitute of interest in this respect1 how great is its importance and interest in those economic uses which have the geologist for their guide1 and the whole family of man for their beneficent operations6 8,many varieties of granite are excellent as building stones1 though expensive in working to definite forms4 ,some of the most important public works of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 ,france and ,russia1 are of this material4 ,in selecting granite1 those varieties in which the constituent minerals and the scales of mica are superabundant1 should be avoided2 and1 as a practical test1 it is wise to notice the country immediately around the quarry1 as the sandy varieties rapidly disintegrate1#ai and form accumulations of micaceous sand4 ,the ,hayter or ,dartmoor granite1 the ,aberdeen granite1 the ,kingstown 7,dublin7 granite1 some beds of the ,mourne or county of ,down granite1 and the ,guernsey or ,channel ,island granite1 are well known for their excellence4 ,in some of the quarries the bedding of the granite is more defined than in others2 and wherever this is the case1 or where marked cleavages or joints prevail1 the work is much facilitated4 ,many old ,egyptian works and statues were formed of granite1 and it is still used for colossal works1 as it takes a fine polish4 ,for example1 the great fountain shell1 or vase1 before the ,museum at ,berlin1 and the pedestal of ,peter the ,great at ,st4 ,petersburg1 are of the northern granite1 being sculptured from erratic blocks4 ,the splendid ,scotch granite columns1 in the vestibule of the ,fitzwilliam ,museum at ,cambridge1 are beautiful examples of a modern application of this rock to the arts40#bj ,it is also in the ,plutonic or igneous rocks that almost all the metals are found2 and here we have our first illustration of that order to which we shall frequently call attention2 an order as exquisite as can be found in the drawers of a lady's cabinet1 forbidding the thought that anything observable at the present time1 in the bowels or on the surface of the crust of the earth1 can be attributed to the violent diluvial action of the ,noachian deluge4 ,the diagram below represents an ideal section of a mining district4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,a ,,mining ,,district4 ,here the metalliferous vein1 we may suppose1 has cropped out on the surface of the ground1 or1 as the miners say1 has 8come above grass40 ,let us now suppose that the position of this vein of ore1 copper1 lead1 or tin1 has been ascertained--that is1 how it runs1 whether from north to south1 or from east to west--and also that the 8captains0 of the mining district around have given their opinion as to the extent and thickness of this underground vein4 ,the next thing is to obtain this mineral wealth4 ,for this purpose shafts 7a a a a7 must be sunk1 which must reach the vein at a certain depth2 then will probably follow cross-cuts 7c c c71 called adit levels 7technically an 8additt071 driven1 as may be seen1 at the lowest convenient point above the level of the highest water of the valley2 and these1 in connexion with the shaft1 will serve the purpose of draining the mine and carrying the ore above ground4 ,it will also be seen1 by reference to the diagram1 that the shafts of a mine do not always correspond2 sometimes they are sunk vertically to meet the vein1 sometimes they are commenced in the very outcrop itself4 ,on this matter the best geological lesson is a visit to ,cornwall1 where the student will see that everything depends on the locality of a mine1 the nature of the slope of the hill1 or the character of the rock in which the vein appears1 and so on4 8,the act of sinking a perpendicular shaft downwards to a depth where it is calculated the lode should be cut1 may seem to require little further skill than is necessary to determine correctly the spot on the surface where the work is to commence4 ,but the process in this way is exceedingly tedious2 and in a mine at work1 where many galleries already existing are to be traversed1 much greater rapidity is desirable4 ,in such a case the shaft is sunk in several pieces 7see diagram below71 or1 in other words1 the sinking is commenced at the same time in different levels2 and no small skill is required to lay out the work1 so that the different portions of the shaft thus formed may exactly fit when they are joined together4 ,an exceedingly small error of measurement1 in any one of these various and dark subterranean passages1 would1 in fact1 be sufficient to throw the whole into confusion2 but such an accident rarely happens1 although works of the kind are common in the ,cornish mines40#ba ,as an illustration of the immense quantity of water in the mines1 we may add--and this is almost as startling as any romantic fiction--that the various branches of the principal level in ,cornwall1 called 8the ,great ,adit1 which receives the waters of the numerous mines in ,gwennap1 and near ,redruth1 measure on the whole about #bf1jjj fathoms1 or nearly thirty miles in length2 one branch only1 at ,cardrew mine1 extends for nearly five miles and a half1 and penetrates ground seventy fathoms beneath the surface4 ,the water flows into a valley communicating with a small inlet of the sea1 and is discharged about forty feet above high-water mark40#bb ,in this method about forty millions of tons of water are raised by steam-power out of the mines in ,cornwall4 ,illustration3 ,,east ,,wheal ,,crofly ,,copper ,,mine1 ,,cornwall4 ,here1 then1 we have seen two of the economic uses of geology in connexion with granite alone2 and as we think of these mineral treasures1 requiring only the labour and skill of man to bring them out for his service and for the civilization of the world1 our boast is in our native land1 which1 though insular and small1 combines within itself everything needful to develop its three sources of national wealth--mining1 manufactures1 and agriculture--to their highest point4 ,our boast is not the warrior's boast1 which ,shakspeare puts into the mouth of one of his heroes--that this our isle is 8,that pale1 that white-faced shore1 ,whose foot spurns back the ocean's roaring tides1 ,and coops from other lands her islanders0-- but rather that1 without impropriety or irreverence1 the words of ,holy ,writ may as legitimately be applied to ,great ,britain as to ,palestine4 ,it is a land wherein 8thou shalt eat bread without scarceness1 thou shalt not lack anything in it2 a land whose stones are iron1 and out of whose hills thou mayest dig brass4#bc ,when thou hast eaten and art full1 then thou shalt bless the ,lord thy ,god for the good land which ,he hath given thee40 7,deut4 viii4 #i1 #aj47 ,but before we bring this chapter on granite and its kindred rocks to a close1 we must glance at one more purpose served by this ,plutonic rock4 ,here is a teacup1 and here is a piece of granite3 the one comes from ,cornwall1 the other is made in ,staffordshire or ,worcestershire4 ,what relation have they to each other8 ,if it were not thought infra dig41 we should say the granite is the parent of the teacup4 ,in ,cornwall1 especially in the neighbourhood of ,st4 ,austel1 the writer has lately visited what are called the ,china clay works4 8,the granite is here in a state of partial decomposition4 ,in some localities1 this growan0 7,cornish for disintegrated granite7 8is tolerably firm1 when it resembles the ,chinese ,kaolin1 and1 quarried under the name of ,china stone1 is extensively employed in the potteries4 ,this is ready for the market when cut into blocks of a size convenient for transport2 but the softer material1 which is dug out of pits1 and called ,china clay1 or porcelain earth1 requires a more elaborate preparation for the purpose of separating the quartz1 schorl1 or mica from the finer particles of the decomposed feldspar4 ,this clay is dug up in stopes or layers1 which resemble a flight of irregular stairs4 ,a heap of it is then placed upon an inclined platform1 under a small fall of water1 and repeatedly stirred with a piggle and shovel1 by which means the whole is gradually carried down by the water in a state of suspension4 ,the heavy and useless parts collect in a trench below the platform2 while the ,china clay1 carried forward through a series of catch-pits or tanks1 in which the grosser particles are deposited1 is ultimately accumulated in larger pits1 called ponds1 from which the clear supernatant water is from time to time withdrawn4 ,as soon as these ponds are filled with clay1 they are drained1 and the porcelain earth is removed to pans1 in which it remains undisturbed until sufficiently consolidated to be cut into oblong masses4 ,these are carried to a roofed building1 through which the air can freely pass1 and dried completely for the market4 ,when dry they are scraped perfectly clean1 packed in casks1 and carried to one of the adjacent ports1 to be shipped for the potteries40#bd ,as furnishing some idea of the extent to which this business is carried on1 it may be added that #cg1jjj tons of this ,china clay are annually shipped from the south-west of ,england to the potteries1 the value of which is upwards of #ej1jjj1 while the number of working men and women thus employed is beyond calculation4 ,this is one of the practical results of geology4 ,this is one of the things which geology1 once a neglected and unpopular science1 has done for our comfort and welfare4 8,a hundred years ago1 it does not seem that any part of this ,china clay was made use of1 or that this important produce was then of any value whatever40#be ,we bring this chapter to a close4 ,granite and its kindred rocks should stand associated with an actual history and poetry1 not inferior to the history and poetry of man's own handiwork2 and we believe geology1 so often regarded with dread by the uninitiated1 will soon be considered worthy a patient and painstaking investigation4 ,remembering that geology is still an incomplete science1 and that we have much yet to learn concerning the laws of organic and inorganic matter1 we should be modest in the maintenance of any theory1 while thankful for the acquisition of any fact4 8,we have yet to learn whether man's past duration upon the earth--whether even that which is still destined to him--is such1 as to allow him to philosophise with success on such matters2 whether man1 placed for a few centuries on the earth as in a schoolroom1 has time to strip the wall of its coating and count its stones1 before his ,,parent removes him to some other destination40#bf ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,pal,,ozoic ,,period4 8,in ,his hand are the deep places of the earth40--,,david4 ,trench1 in his charming little book on the 8,study of ,words10 says of words that they are 8fossil poetry40 ,he adds1 8,just as in some fossil1 curious and beautiful shapes of vegetable or animal life1 the graceful fern or finely vertebrated lizard1 such as now it may be1 have been extinct for many thousands of years1 are permanently bound up in the stone1 and rescued from that perishing which would otherwise have been theirs2 so in words are beautiful thoughts and images1 the imagination and the feeling of past ages1 of men long since in their graves1 of men whose very names have perished--these1 which would so easily have perished too1 are preserved and made safe for ever40 ,geology is the fossil poetry of the earth2 such a poetry as those can never dream of who in a pebble see a pebble and nothing more4 ,but to those who walk through this great and beautiful world intent upon finding material for thought and reflection1 there is no 8picking up a pebble by the wayside without finding all nature in connexion with it20 and the most retired student1 in search not simply of the picturesque or of the beautiful1 but of anything and everything that can minister to his profounder worship of ,him to whom belongeth both 8the deep places of the earth and the strength of the hills10 may say of his solitary rambles3-- 8,there rolls the deep where grew the tree2-- ,o earth1 what changes hast thou seen6 ,there where the long street roars1 hath been ,the stillness of the central sea40#bg ,we now enter upon the ancient life1 or ,palozoic period of the earth's history1 and proceed to examine the oldest forms of life1 or the most ancient organic remains found in the crust of the earth4 ,as we do not aim to teach geology in this small work1 but simply to place the chief geological facts in such a light as to impart a taste for the science1 the reader will not expect any minute details1 which are more likely to perplex than to assist the beginner4 ,let the reader dismiss from his mind all that he has tried to remember about ,upper and ,lower ,silurian rocks1 and the ,upper and ,lower ,ludlow rocks1 the ,caradoc sandstone and the ,llandilo flags1 and so on2 let us simply say that one part of the crust of the earth1 supposed to be between #ej1jjj and #fj1jjj feet in thickness1#bh is called the ,silurian system1 and constitutes a large and interesting part of the ,palozoic period4 ,the term ,silurian was given to this part of the earth's crust in consequence of these rocks being found chiefly in ,wales1 ,devon1 and ,cornwall--parts of ,england once inhabited by the ,silures1 who under ,caractacus made so noble a stand against the ,romans4 ,in coming for the first time into contact with the organic remains of pre-,adamite creations1 it may be well to entreat the student to mark1 as he goes on1 the very different and characteristic fossils of the several formations through which we propose to travel4 ,there will be little or no difficulty in doing this1 and its mastery will be of invaluable service in our after researches4 ,there is and there can be no royal road to any kind of learning2 all1 therefore1 that we propose to do is to take a few of the big stones1 boulders1 c41 that have needlessly been allowed to make the road rougher than necessary1 out of the way1 that thus our companion traveller on this geologic route may feel that every step of ground walked over is a real and solid acquisition4 ,in marking the characteristic fossils of each formation1 let us suggest1 in passing1 the vast amount of pleasure there is in going to a friend's house1 and looking at the minerals or organic remains that may be in the cabinet or on the mantel-shelf1 and being able to take them up one by one1 and to say this is from the ,silurian2 that is from the ,carboniferous2 this is from the ,cretaceous1 and that from the ,wealden formations1 and so on4 ,why1 it gives a magical feeling of delightful interest to every object we see1 and will always make a person a welcome visitor with friends with whom1 instead of talking scandal1 he can talk geology4 ,not long since the writer had a very pleasing illustration of this4 ,he had been lecturing on geology in a small agricultural village2 there was a good sprinkling of smock-frocks among the hearers1 and he said at the close of one of the lectures1 8,now1 very likely most of you have got some stones1 as you call them1 at home on the chimneypiece2 perhaps you don't know their names1 or what they were before they became stones2 well1 bring them next week1 and we will do our best to name them for you60 ,next week1 after the lecture1 up came one1 and then another1 and then a third1 and so on2 and diving their hands down into the old orthodox agricultural pocket1 brought out a variety of specimens1 some of them very good indeed1 which had been 8picked up0 by them in the course of their labour1 and which1 supposed to be 8rather krss10 had been carefully conveyed home4 ,when these matters were given a 8local habitation and a name10 the delight of many was most gratifying4 ,now1 all this is only just the application of ,m4 ,cousin's words in relation to physical geography3 8,give me the map of a country1 its configuration1 its climate1 its waters1 its winds1 and all its physical geography2 give me its natural productions1 its flora and fauna1 and ,i pledge myself to tell you priori what the inhabitants of that country will be1 and what place that country will take in history1 not accidentally1 but necessarily2 not at a particular epoch1 but at all periods of time2 in a word1 the thought that country is formed to represent40 ,these remarks furnish us with a clue4 ,each formation has its own peculiar and characteristic fossils1 and these fossils are arranged with as much care1 and preserved as uninjured1 as if they had been arranged for a first-class museum4 ,but before proceeding on this fossiliferous tour1 we may anticipate a question that may possibly be asked on the threshold of our inquiries1 and into which we propose going fully in the sequel of this volume4 ,it may be asked1 8,were not these fossils placed in the rocks by the ,deluge80 ,to this1 at present1 we answer1 that so partial and limited was the character of the ,deluge1 being confined to just so much of the earth as was inhabited by man1 and so brief was its duration1 compared with the vast geological epochs we shall have to consider1 that we do not believe we have one single fossil that can be referred to the ,noachian deluge2 and before we close1 we trust it will have been made evident to every careful reader that fossils1 as records of ,noah's flood1 are an impossibility2 and that the vast antiquity of the globe1 taken into connexion with the prevalence of death on a most extensive scale1 ages and ages previous to the creation of man1 can alone account for our innumerable treasures of the 8deep places of the earth40 ,illustration3 #a ,the characteristic fossils of the ,silurian system are entirely unique4 ,the trilobite may fairly be regarded as the prominent one2 besides which there are orthoceratites1 and graptolites1 some members of the crinoidean family1 with different kinds of corallines1 and some other names to be rendered familiar only by future further study4 ,we shall confine ourselves to those that our own recent researches have made us familiar with4 ,first1 here is the trilobite4 ,we need not perplex our readers by any of the numerous subdivisions of this remarkable animal's nomenclature2 that would defeat the purpose of this book4 ,any work on geology will do this4#bi ,here are three trilobites3 one 7#a7 by itself2 another1 7#b7 imperfect in its bed or matrix1 and a third 7#c7 rolled up4 ,illustration ,this most remarkable crustacean possessed the power of rolling itself up like the wood-louse or the hedgehog2 and1 reasoning by analogy1 we suppose this to have been its defence against its numerous enemies4 ,it is a very abundant fossil1 found all over ,europe1 in some parts of ,america1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 but never in more recent strata than the ,silurian4 ,the hinder part of the body is covered with a crescent-like shield1 composed of segments like the joints of a lobster's tail2 and two furrows divide it into three lobes1 whence its name4#cj ,most remarkable are the eyes of this animal1 and it is the only specimen in the vestiges of ancient creations in which the eye1 that most delicate organization1 is preserved2 and if1 as we believe1 this little creature was living and swimming about1 now and then fighting with some greater ,cephalopodous mollusk1 millions and millions of years ago1 then in this fact we have the real fossil poetry of science1 the romance of an ancient world which geology reveals to our delighted and astonished minds4 ,from ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,treatise we give a drawing of the eyes of the trilobite2 and in ,buckland's words we add3 8,this point deserves peculiar consideration1 as it affords the most ancient1 and almost the only example yet found in the fossil world1 of the preservation of parts so delicate as the visual organs of animals that ceased to live many thousands1 and perhaps millions of years ago4 ,we must regard these organs with feelings of no ordinary kind1 when we recollect we have before us the identical instruments of vision through which the light of heaven was admitted to the sensorium of some of the first created inhabitants of our planet40#ca ,illustration3 ,fossil ,but these are not the only fossils1 or organic remains1 to be found in the clay1 slates1 c41 of the ,silurian system4 ,passing by those we have briefly indicated above1 there are others of a highly interesting character1 concerning some of which we proceed to give a brief history4 ,being in ,cornwall a short time since1 we made a visit to ,polperro1 a romantic but out-of-the-way town on the south-west coast1 for the purpose of procuring some remains of fossil fish considered characteristic of the ,silurian system of ,murchison1 and which have been recently discovered by ,mr4 ,couch1 an eminent local naturalist1 in the cliffs east and west of that town4 ,we did not see ,mr4 ,couch1 but found our way to a coast-guardsman1 also a naturalist1 whom we found to be a most skilful bird and fish stuffer1 and a ranger for objects of natural history among the surrounding clay-slates and other rocks4 ,william ,loughrin's collection of ,cornish curiosities will well repay any traveller going out of the way twenty or thirty miles1 and they will find in him a fine specimen of an intelligent and noble class of men4 ,below we give some specimens from the ,polperro slate4 ,no4 #a might be taken for impressions of sea-weed1 so remarkably does it resemble the sea-weed thrown up on our beaches2 but it is generally conceded that this is merely a crystallization of oxydized matter1 such as may often be found in connexion with manganese4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b is the ,bellerophon1#cb a shell which we shall afterwards find in the mountain limestone1 but which is rare in connexion with the ,silurian rocks4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #b4 ,,bellerophon1 a shell which seems to have been abundant4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #c4 ,,remains ,,of ,,vegetable ,,texture4 ,no4 #c we know not how to describe4 ,we are not certain what organic remains these are2 so far as we have been able to examine them1 they appear to us the remains of succulent vegetables1 787 probably the thick1 soft stems of sea-weed1 that may once have reposed in quiescence on the mud of which these slates are composed1 and afterwards have been crushed by the superposition of mud and shale1 until in the course of ages1 by upheaval and depression1 they have become a second time visitants of our atmosphere1 and now expose themselves to our study and speculations4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #c4 7,portion magnified two natural sizes47 ,illustration3 ,no4 #d4 ,,coralline4 7,natural size47 ,here is one more form of life of this ancient period2 it is evidently a coralline1 which we also procured at ,polperro4 ,let us suppose our readers to have made themselves familiar with these organic remains1 simply as characteristic and illustrative of this formation2 they will easily find their way into other traces and remnants of ancient life in the ,silurian epoch4 ,how absurd must seem the development hypothesis to those who rightly ponder these old1 old vestiges6 ,it seems to us a very idle idea to suppose that a trilobite could develop itself into a bird1 or a monkey1 or by any series of happy accidents1 could become a man2#cc yet such has been the theory of those who overlook what some writer on geology1 whose name we forget1 has expressed strongly in these words3 8,there is no fact which has been demonstrated more completely to the satisfaction of every man of real science1 than that there is no known power in nature capable of creating a new species of animal1 or of transmuting one species into another40 ,we close this chapter on the ,silurian system in the eloquent words of ,professor ,sedgwick3 8,the elevation of the faunas of successive periods was not made by transmutation1 but by creative additions1 and it is by watching these additions that we get some insight into nature's true historical progress4 ,judging by our evidence--and what else have we to judge by8--there was a time when ,cephalopods were the highest type of animal life4 ,they were then the ,primates of this world1 and1 corresponding to their office and position1 some of them were of noble structure and gigantic size4 ,but these creatures were degraded from their rank at the head of ,nature1 and ,fishes next took the lead2 and they did not rise up in nature in some degenerate form1 as if they were only the transmuted progeny of the ,cephalopods1 but they started into life in the very highest ichthyic type ever reached4 8,following our history chronologically1 ,reptiles next took the lead1 and1 with some evanescent exceptions1 they flourished during the countless ages of the secondary period as the lords and despots of the world3 and they had an organic perfection corresponding to their exalted rank in ,nature's kingdom2 for their highest orders were not merely great in strength and stature1 but were anatomically raised far above any forms of the ,reptile class now living in the earth4 ,this class1 however1 was in its turn to lose its rank4 ,mammals were added next 7near the commencement of the tertiary period71 and seem to have been added suddenly4 ,some of the early extinct forms of this class1 which we now know only by ransacking the ancient catacombs of ,nature1 were powerful and gigantic1 and we believe well fitted for the place they filled4 ,but they in turn were to be degraded from their place in ,nature1 and she became what she now is by the addition of man4 ,by this last addition she became more exalted than before4 ,man stands by himself1 the despotic lord of the living world2 not so great in organic strength as many of the despots that went before him in ,nature's chronicle1 but raised far above them all by a higher development of brain1 by a framework that fits him for the operations of mechanical skill1 by superadded reason1 by a social instinct of combinations1 by a prescience that leads him to act prospectively1 by a conscience that makes him amenable to law1 by conceptions that transcend the narrow limits of his vision1 by hopes that have no full fruition here1 by an inborn capacity of rising from individual facts to the apprehension of general laws1 by a conception of a cause for all the phenomena of sense1 and lastly1 by a consequent belief in the ,god of nature3--such is the history of nature40#cd ,illustration3 ,,lands ,,end1 ,,cornwall4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,old ,,red ,,sandstone4 8,the fishes of the sea shall declare unto thee40--,,job4 ,lord ,bacon remarks1 8,some men think that the gratification of curiosity is the end of knowledge1 some the love of fame1 some the pleasure of dispute1 and some the necessity of supporting themselves by knowledge2 but the real use of all knowledge is this1 that we should dedicate that reason which was given us by ,god to the use and advantage of man40 ,the historian of the old red sandstone1 ,hugh ,miller1 to whose researches not only we1 but such men as ,murchison1 ,lyell1 ,ansted1 ,agassiz and others1 are so exclusively indebted1 is a philosopher in this last category4 ,he does not hesitate to tell us1 how1 as a ,cromarty quarryman 8twenty years ago10 he commenced a 8life of labour and restraint10 a 8slim1 loose-jointed boy1 fond of the pretty intangibilities of romance1 and of dreaming when broad awake20#ce and how1 as a quarryman1 he ever kept his eyes open1 to observe the results of every blow of the hammer1 stroke of the pick1 or blast of the powder2 and finding himself in the midst of new and undreamt-of relics of an old creation1 preserved in 8tables of stone10 he adds his testimony to that of the great father of inductive philosophy1 8that it cannot be too extensively known1 that nature is vast and knowledge limited1 and that no individual1 however humble in place or acquirement1 need despair of adding to the general fund40#cf ,we here enter upon a marvellous field of discovery4 ,hitherto the forms of life we have met with have all been invertebrate4 ,the trilobite1 something between a crab and a beetle1 once revelling1 in untold myriads1 probably on the land as well as in the water1 and of which two hundred and fifty species have been brought to light1 is the highest type of life with which our researches have made us familiar4 ,we are now to begin the study of fossil fish1 and to their discovery1 strange forms1 and characters1 this chapter will be specially devoted4 ,it was once a generally received opinion among even the most learned geologists1 that the 8old red sandstone10 or the 8,devonian system10 was particularly barren of fossils1 but the labours 7literally such1 8mente1 manu1 malleoque0#cg7 of ,hugh ,miller have proved the contrary4 8,the fossils10 he says1 8are remarkably numerous1 and in a state of high preservation4 ,i have a hundred solid proofs by which to establish the proof of my assertion1 within less than a yard of me4 ,half my closet walls are covered with the peculiar fossils of the lower old red sandstone2 and certainty a stranger assemblage of forms have rarely been grouped together2 creatures whose very type is lost1 fantastic and uncouth1 and which puzzle the naturalist to assign them even their class2 boat-like animals1 furnished with oars and a rudder2 fish plated over like the tortoise1 above and below1 with a strong armour of bone1 and furnished with but one solitary rudder-like fin2 other fish less equivocal in their form1 but with the membranes of their fins thickly covered with scales2 creatures bristling over with thorns1 others glistening in an enamelled coat1 as if beautifully japanned1 the tail in every instance among the less equivocal shapes1 formed not equally as in existing fish1 on each side the central vertebral column1 but chiefly on the lower side1 the column sending out its diminished vertebr to the extreme termination of the fin4 ,all the forms testify of a remote antiquity--of a period whose fashions have passed away40#ch ,the old red sandstone formation prevails in the north of ,scotland1 ,herefordshire1 north of ,devonshire1 part of ,cornwall1 and in ,worcestershire and ,shropshire4 ,our attention will be principally confined to ,cromarty1 whose romantic bay and high hills have long arrested the admiring gaze of the traveller4 ,this was the scene of ,hugh ,miller's labours and discoveries2 this the great library in which he read the history of pre-,adamite ichthyolites#ci exposed not only to the light of day1 but for the first time to the inspection of human eyes1 by the sweat-of-brow toil of one of ,scotland's noble sons4 ,before we get into the hard names that must be connected with this chapter1 let us hear ,mr4 ,miller describe this library of ,god's books that was so long his wonder and his study in ,cromartyshire4 8,the quarry in which ,i wrought lay on the southern shore of a noble inland bay1 or frith rather1 with a little clear stream on the one side1 and a thick fir-wood on the other4 ,not the united labours of a thousand men for a thousand years could have furnished a better section of the geology of this district than this range of cliffs2 it may be regarded as a sort of chance dissection on the earth's crust4 ,we see in one place the primary rock1 with its veins of granite and quartz1 its dizzy precipices of gneiss1 its huge masses of horneblend2 we find the secondary rock in another1 with its beds of sandstone and shale1 its spars1 its clays1 and its nodular limestones4 ,we discover the still little known1 but very interesting fossils of the old red sandstone in one deposition2 we find the beautifully preserved shell and lignites of the lias in another4 ,there are the remains of two several creations at once before us4 ,the shore1 too1 is heaped with rolled fragments of almost every variety of rock1--basalts1 ironstones1 hyperstenes1 porphyries1 bituminous shales1 and micaceous schists4 ,in short1 the young geologist1 had he all ,europe before him1 could hardly choose for himself a better field4 ,i had1 however1 no one to tell me so at the time1 for geology had not yet travelled so far north2 and so1 without guide or vocabulary1 ,i had to grope my way as best ,i might1 and find out all its wonders for myself4 ,but so slow was the process1 and so much was ,i a seeker in the dark1 that the facts contained in these few sentiments were the patient gatherings of years40#dj ,now with regard to the hard names to which we have just made allusion--names that1 apart from their etymology1 which is nothing more than 8sending vagrant words back to their parish10 are enough to startle any one2 names such as heterocercal1 homocercal1 cephalaspis1 pterichthys1 coccosteus1 osteolepis1 c4 c4--why1 they will all presently become plain1 and1 we hope1 familiar to our readers4 8,they are10 says ,hugh ,miller1 8like all names in science1 unfamiliar in their aspect to mere ,english readers1 just because they are names not for ,england alone1 but for ,england and the world4 ,i am assured1 however1 that they are all composed of very good ,greek1 and picturesquely descriptive of some peculiarity in the fossils they designate40#da ,the rest of this chapter will be occupied with an account of the four most remarkable and characteristic fishes of this formation1 to understand which a few preliminary remarks are necessary4 ,cuvier divided all fish into two groups1 the bony and the cartilaginous2 and these two groups he subdivided into two divisions1 characterised by differences in their fins1 or organs of locomotion1 one of which he called ,acanthopterygian1#db 7thorny-finned17 and the other1 ,malacopterygian1#dc 7or soft-finned47 ,this concise arrangement did not1 however1 meet all the wants of the fish-students1 and it was often practically difficult to know under which class to arrange particular specimens4 ,more recently ,m4 ,agassiz has arranged fish1 not according to their fins1 but according to their scales2 and simple as this classification may seem1 it is one of the greatest triumphs of genius in modern times1 inasmuch as all fishes extinct and existing1 that have inhabited or are inhabiting the 8waters under the earth10 may be grouped easily under the following four divisions3-- ,illustration3 #a4 ,,ganoid ,,scale2 as bony pike4#dd ,illustration3 #b4 ,,placoid ,,scale4#de ,illustration3 #c4 ,,ctenoid ,,scale2 as sole or perch4#df ,illustration3 #d4 ,,cycloid ,,scale2 as herring4#dg ,one more preliminary remark1 and we will proceed to look at the four fishes already alluded to4 ,neither the teacher nor the student of any science can skip definitions1 axioms1 postulates1 and so on2 they must just be mastered1 and their mastery is a real pleasure4 ,in addition to a marked difference in the fins1 a difference was observed also in the tails of fossil 7extinct7 and living pieces of fish4 ,this difference between the tails of fish has been happily described in two words1 heterocercal and homocercal1 of which the figures below will give a better idea than a lengthened description4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,heterocercal4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,,homocercal4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,,homocercal4 ,the heterocercal fish1 it will be seen1 are unequally lobed1 that is1 the spinal vertebr are prolonged into the upper lobe of the tail1 as seen in the shark1 and of which our own dog-fish is an example2 while the homocercal fish are equally lobed1 and the spine does not extend into either4 ,the fossil fish of the old red sandstone belong almost1 if not entirely1 to the classes of fish that have ganoid or placoid scales1 and heterocercal tails2 and of these fish we will now say a few words of the four most remarkable specimens of the one thousand and upwards fossil species that have been discovered1 and which can only be known familiarly by accomplished geologists in the ichthyolite department4 ,illustration3 ,fossil #a4 ,here is a drawing of the ,cephalaspis1#dh or buckler-headed fish4 ,what an extraordinary looking creature this is6 ,like the crescent shape of a saddler's knife without the handle--broad and flat1 with points on each side running down1 ever fixed in warlike attitude against its enemies--it reminds one of an extinct trilobite1 and of a living sole or ray1 at the same time2 and one can easily fancy how hard it must have been for its ancient foes to swallow down so singular and so knife-like looking a creature4 ,this is one of the curious organisms of old life discovered in ,cromarty1 ,herefordshire1 and in ,russia1 the original of which1 restored in the drawing1 seldom if ever exceeded seven inches4 ,let us look now at another curiosity from the same quarter4 ,illustration3 ,fossil #b4 ,here is a drawing of the ,coccosteus1#di or berry-boned fish4 ,this creature is equally singular with his long extinct neighbour4 ,hugh ,miller's description is the best1 and as he was its discoverer1 let us give it4 8,the figure of the ,coccosteus ,i would compare to a boy's kite2 there is a rounded head1 a triangular body1 a long tail attached to the apex of the triangle1 and arms thin and rounded where they attach to the body1 and spreading out towards their termination1 like the ancient one-sided shovel which we see sculptured on old tombstones1 or the rudder of an ancient galley4 ,a ring of plates1 like the ring-stones of an arch1 runs along what we may call the hoop of the kite4 ,the form of the key-stone plate is perfect2 the shapes of the others are elegantly varied1 as if for ornament2 and what would be otherwise the opening of the arch is filled up with one large plate of an outline singularly elegant40#ej ,illustration3 ,fossil #c4 ,above is the ,pterichthys1#ea or winged fish4 ,we have here a fish more strikingly different to any existing species than either of the other two just passed under review4 8,imagine10 says ,miller1 8the figure of a man rudely drawn in black on a grey ground2 the head cut off by the shoulders2 the arms spread at full1 as in the attitude of swimming2 the body rather long than otherwise1 and narrowing from the chest downwards2 one of the legs cut away at the hip-joint2 the other1 as if to preserve the balance1 placed directly in the centre of the figure1 which it seems to support4 ,such1 at the first glance1 is the appearance of the fossil40#eb ,we will now turn to the fourth and last of the singular fishes of this formation4 ,illustration3 ,fossil #d4 ,the ,osteolepis1#ec or bony scaled fish4 ,here we have in the old red sandstone the first perfect specimen of a fish with pectoral1 abdominal1 and caudal fins1 ending as the others do in the heterocercal tail4 ,the vertebral column seems to have run on to well-nigh the extremity of the caudal fin1 which we find developed chiefly on the under side4 ,the tail was a one-sided tail4 ,take into account with these peculiarities such as the naked skull1 jaws1 and operculum1#ed the naked and thickly set rays1 and the unequally lobed condition of tail1 a body covered with scales that glitter like sheets of mica1 and assume1 according to their position1 the parallelogramical1 rhomboidal1 angular1 or polygonal form1 a lateral line raised1 not depressed1 a raised bar on the inner or bony side of the scales1 which1 like the doubled up end of a tile1 seems to have served the purpose of fastening them in their places1 a general clustering of alternate fins towards the tail--and the tout ensemble must surely impart to the reader the idea of a very singular little fish4#ee ,most hasty and superficial is this glance through the wonders of the old red sandstone4 ,on the economic uses of this formation1 as tile-stones and paving-stones1 we need not dwell2 apart from this1 these singular inhabitants of the seas of past ages1 the mud of which1 elevated and hardened1 has become solid rock1 tell us stories of that long since ancient time to which no poetry could do justice4 ,carried away from the present into those remote eras1 our minds revel in the realization of scenery and inhabitants1 of which now we possess only the fossil pictures4 ,at the ,british ,museum1 we gaze with feelings approaching to repulsion on the stiff and unnatural forms of ,egyptian mummies1 but with what feelings of profound wonder do we look on these small fishes1 so numerous that the relics of them1 found in the ,orkneys1 may be carried away by cartloads6 ,no number of creations can exhaust ,god1 for in ,him all fulness dwelleth4 ,the ,god in whom we now live1 and move1 and have our being1 is the same ,god who gave to these pre-,adamite fish their marvellous structures1 minutely but fearfully and wonderfully made1 and who1 when their joy of life and functions of life had ceased1 consigned them to a calm and peaceful grave4 ,he is the same ,god who now upholds all things by the word of his power1 and whom we desire to honour by the attentive and reverent perusal of his manifold works4 ,we are tautologists2 we say and do the same thing over and over again4 ,god never repeats himself3 each successive creation--and how many1 extending through countless ages1 does geology disclose6--only reveals some new aspect of wisdom1 love1 and beneficence4 ,to the mind that cannot repose in ,god1 we say1 ,study ,god1 in his works and in his word2 yea1 come back to this remote sandstone era and ask of the 8fishes1 and they shall declare unto thee0 the might and majesty1 the skill and contrivance of the ,almighty2 and though you and ,i were not there1 nor had ,adam yet trod this blessed earth1-- 8,think not1 though men were none1 ,that heaven could want spectators1 ,god want praise2 ,millions of spiritual creatures walked the earth1 ,and these with ceaseless praise ,his works beheld40 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,carboniferous ,,system4 8,as for the earth1 out of it cometh bread1 and under it is turned up as it were fire40--,,job4 ,suppose this lump of coal could speak1 what would it say8 ,would it not say something like this3 8,to get me up out of the earth involves dirt1 danger1 slush1 and much tallow-candle2 but now you have me1 let me tell you my story1 for though black ,i am comely1 and but for me--but ,i anticipate4 ,now and then ,i make a dust in your libraries1 and inadvertently shoot out sparks and firestones1 but nevertheless ,i am of more use to man than the old granite or the proudest ,parian marble2 you may get a long way in philosophy1 but you will never get beyond coal4 ,i am the real ,koh-i-noor of the ,british empire2 and though ,i can't1 like my namesake1 put on a white dress1 ,i am nevertheless worth the soiling of your whitest gloves4 ,chemistry makes no discoveries without me3 ,i light the fire of the laboratory1 and furnish man with the means of every crucial test4 ,civilization wants me every day on land and sea1 and though in one sense my labours end in smoke1 in another they end in commerce1 progress1 national brotherhood1 and interchanging productions of every clime4 ,the poor student needs me1 for ,i light his lamp1 warm his feet1 and cook his food while he is doing sweat-of-brain work for others4 ,and best of all1 the poor man is a rich man when he has me2 he knows that next of kin to good food is good fuel1 and man by my help is making such progress1 that the day will come when every man will sit by his own blazing fire1 instead of seeking joy elsewhere amidst false and pernicious excitements40 ,something like this our friend ,coal would be sure to say2 and that ,coal may not complain of any aloofness on our parts1 let us proceed to an examination of the carboniferous system4 8',tis very pregnant1 ,the jewel that we find1 we stoop and take it1 ,because we see it2 but what we do not see1 ,we tread upon1 and never think of it40 ,measure for ,measure4 ,the carboniferous system is not all coal2 underlying1 and often overlying1 the coal measures1 for the most part1 is the mountain limestone1 a formation pre-eminently rich in marine fossils4 ,during the tremendous convulsions experienced by the earth immediately after the deposition of the old red sandstone1 a vast sea of lime1 thick1 muddy1 and hot1 seems to have been poured out over a large portion of the ,british islands and elsewhere4 ,this flow of liquid lime covered and encased many then existing animals1 and we now find it full of fossils of the crinoidean family1 a few molluscs1 and traces of fish4 ,we shall not1 however1 stay to examine these now1 as we shall meet with them again in the ,oolite2 our attention will be limited to that part of the carboniferous system which includes only the coal measures1 properly so called4 ,coal is a vegetable that1 by chemical change and by mechanical pressure1 has become a bituminous mineral2 and this will render it needful to say a word or two on the ancient vegetable kingdom4 ,the vast quantities#ef of remains of leaves1 ferns1 and stems of trees1 found in the coal measures1 are not in themselves evidence sufficient of the vegetable origin of coal2 we arrive at that conclusion in consequence of the researches of modern philosophers1 who having applied the powers of the microscope to the internal structure of coal1 have discovered the cellular and reticular construction of vegetable life beautifully preserved1 and thus previous convictions have become certainties4 ,the examination of the ancient vegetable kingdom is1 however1 attended with much difficulty1 in consequence of the total destruction in most cases of the stems and trunks of the plants1 and the entire absence1 in consequence of pressure1 of all fructification on the fronds of the ferns4 ,if we take an existing species of fern1 say the rare and delicate 8maiden-hair fern10#eg one of the smallest and most elegant ferns of ,england1 we find the fructification very distinct on the under side1 and the different methods in which this fructification is arranged is now the principal guide in the classification of ferns4 ,but if we take a fossil fern1 say the pecopteris1 found in the coal measures1 we shall see that there has been so much dislocation and crushing1 that all appearance of seed-vessels has disappeared4 ,the following sketch will explain this4 ,illustration3 ,,extinct ,,fern1 ,,and ,,maiden-,,hair ,,fern4 8,nothing10 says ,professor ,ansted1 8however1 is more certain than that all coal was once vegetable2 for in most cases the woody structure may be detected under the microscope1 and this1 if not in the coal in its ordinary state1 at least in the burnt ashes which remain after it has been exposed to the action of heat1 and has lost its bituminous and semi-crystalline character4 ,this has been too well and too frequently proved by actual experiment to require more than the mere statement of the fact40 ,and here let us say a few words1 which to a few perhaps may have the charm of novelty1 about the economic history of coal2 for as ,cowper says that the first curse1 8labour10 has1 by ,god's blessing on it1 been 8softened into mercy10 so do we add also1 in his words1 heartily subscribing to their truth1-- 8,thus studied1 used1 and consecrated thus1 ,on earth what is1 seems formed indeed for us2 ,not as the plaything of a froward child1 ,fretful unless diverted and beguiled2 ,but as scale1 by which the soul ascends ,from mighty means to more important ends2 ,securely1 though by steps but rarely trod1 ,mounts from inferior beings up to ,god2 ,and sees1 by no fallacious light or dim1 ,earth made for man1 and man himself for ,him40 ,how long coal has been known and used1 we cannot certainly tell1 but a writer in ,lardner's ,cabinet ,cyclopdia states that the first mention of coal is in the pages of one ,theophrastus1 who was1 it seems1 a pupil of ,aristotle4 ,he says1 8,those fossil substances that are called coals10 7,greek1 7 8and are broken for use1 are earthy2 they kindle1 however1 and burn like wood coals2 they are found in ,liguria and in the way to ,olympias over the mountains1 and are used by the smiths40 ,csar1 although he speaks of the metals of the ,british isles1 does not once mention its coal2 but it seems more than likely that it was both known and used by the ,romans during their occupation of ,britain4 ,horsley1 in his 8,britannia ,romana10 says of ,benwell1 a village near ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 8,there was a coalry not far from this place1 which is judged by those who are best skilled in such affairs to have been wrought by the ,romans2 and1 in digging up the foundations of one of the ,roman walled cities1 coal cinders very large were dug up1 which glowed in the fire like other coal cinders1 and were not to be known from them when taken up40 ,during the time of the ,saxons1 we find ourselves on less doubtful ground4 ,in a grant made to the monks of ,peterborough ,abbey for one night's annual entertainment1 those good old souls had1 we find1 8ten vessels of ,welsh ale1 two vessels of common ale1 sixty cartloads of wood1 and twelve cartloads of fossil coal10 7carbonum fossilium47 ,the ,danes had so much fighting on hand1 that they troubled themselves neither with coal nor civilization2 and we know little of our ,english diamond until we come to ,henry the ,third's reign1 when1 in #abci1 a charter was granted to the inhabitants of ,newcastle-on-,tyne to dig coals1 and we find the coal called for the first time 8carbo maris10 or sea-coal1 a term retained through all the succeeding centuries4 ,about this time chimneys came into fashion4 ,as long as people burnt wood they scarcely needed chimneys1 but coal introduced chimneys1 to say nothing of steamboats and railroads4 ,the ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 who at that time used to reside alternately at ,croydon and at ,lambeth1 had by royal permission thirty cartloads of 8sea-borne coal0 annually delivered at his archiepiscopal palace1 because1 says the historian1 8for his own private use in his own chamber he now had the convenience of chimneys40 ,the smoke nuisance of that day deserves a passing notice4 ,smoke was then with many a grand luxury4 ,old ,hollingshed says1 8,now we have many chimneys1 yet our tenderlings do complain of rheums1 and catarrhs1 and poses4 ,once we had nought but rere-doses1#eh and our heads did never ake4 ,for the smoke of those days was a good hardening for the house1 and a far better medicine to keep the good man and his family from the quack or the pose1 with which then very few were acquainted4 ,there are old men yet dwelling in the village where ,i remain1 who have noted how the multitude of chimneys do increase1 whereas in their young days1 there was not above two or three1 if so many1 in some uplandish towns of the realm1 and peradventure in the manor places of some great lords2 but each one made his fire against a rere-dose in the hall1 where he dined and dressed his meat4 ,but when our houses were built of willow1 then we had oaken men2 but now that our houses are made of oak1 our men are not only become willow1 but a great many altogether men of straw1 which is a sore alteration40 ,leaving this digression1 let us try and get a bird's-eye view of the coal-fields of the ,british ,isles4 ,if we commence in ,devonshire1 we find there the ,devonian culms1 or ,bovey ,tracey coal1 lying near the surface of the ground1 and of little except local use4 ,crossing over the ,bristol ,channel1 we come into ,pembrokeshire1 to the ,welsh basin1 remarkable because thence we mostly get our anthracite coal4 ,thence we pass on to the ,derbyshire coal-fields1 that go with little interruption into ,scotland1 averaging #bjj miles in length1 and about #dj in width1--once mighty tropical swamps1 jungles1 and forests1 now become chief minerals of commerce4 ,included in this last immense field is the great ,newcastle coal district1 the most celebrated of any1 supplying almost all the south of ,england1 and nearly all ,london1 with their best coals2 and the ,scotch carboniferous system1 celebrated for its numerous fossils1 and for its general base of old red sandstone4 ,in addition to which there is the ,irish carboniferous system1 occupying as much as #a1jjj square miles1 but of an inferior quality1 and not likely to be of any great economical importance4 ,in the words of ,professor ,ansted1 we add3 8,this account of the coal-beds gives a very imperfect notion of the quantity of vegetable matter required to form them2 and1 on the other hand1 the rate of increase of vegetables1 and the quantity annually brought down by some great rivers both of the eastern and western continents1 is beyond all measure greater than is the case in our drier and colder climates4 ,certain kinds of trees which contributed largely to the formation of the coal1 seem to have been almost entirely succulent1#ei and capable of being squeezed into a small compass during partial decomposition4 ,this squeezing process must have been conducted on a grand scale1 and each bed in succession was probably soon covered up by muddy and sandy accumulations1 now alternating with the coal in the form of shale and gritstone4 ,sometimes the trunks of trees caught in the mud would be retained in a slanting or nearly vertical position1 while the sands were accumulating around them2 sometimes the whole would be quietly buried1 and soon cease to exhibit any external marks of vegetable origin40#fj ,there are various kinds of coal on which we may bestow a few words4 ,there is anthracite1 or non-bituminous coal1 and which1 therefore1 burns without flame or smoke1 and is extensively used in malting2 and sea-coal1 which is highly bituminous1 and which gives forth so much flame and smoke1 that in the good old times of #acjf1 ,parliament forbad its use in ,london by fine and by demolition of all furnaces in which it was burnt1 because 8this coal did corrupt the air with its great smoke and stink20 and cannel-coal1 the etymology of which1 they say1 is firm the word candle1 because in many parts of ,lancashire the poor use it in place of oil or tallow for lights2 and jet1 sometimes called black amber1 which in ,france employs about #a1bjj men in one district1 in making earrings1 rosaries1 and other ornaments2 and last of all1 there is wood passing into coal called lignite1 found only in the ,devonshire culms4 ,having thus glanced at the natural history and varieties of coal1 we may here try and realize the flora of the carboniferous era4 ,an examination of the fossils of this period enables us to come to undoubted conclusions concerning the trees and plants of that era1 so that it is no mere dream to look upon a picture like the following1 and see in it a landscape of the coal-forming time of the ,british islands4 ,illustration3 ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,coal ,,measures ,,restored4 ,the sun then poured down his golden beams of heat and light1 and a tropical climate prevailed in our now cold and humid ,england4 ,the mountain tops were gilded with his rays2 a vast ocean studded with islands1 and these crowned with gigantic palms and ferns1 then covered our northern hemisphere4 ,in that ocean but few fish were to be found1 though many rare molluscous animals swam to and fro1 enjoying their brief term of life1 and discharging all their appropriate functions4 ,mountain streams discharged their muddy waters into this ocean1 leaving along their margin course broken trees1 vegetables1 grasses and ferns4 ,the giant ,lepidodendron looked like a monarch of the ancient world1 while around him smaller ferns1 vying with each other in beauty and grace1 grew1 8first the blade0 and then the ripened frond1 until1 in obedience to the great law of organic life1 they died and decayed1 and became material for the coming man's future use4 ,but amidst all this prodigal luxuriousness of the vegetable world1 there appears to have been neither bird nor beast to break the monotony of the scene2 all was silent as the grave--rank1 moist verdure below2 magnificent ferns and palms above1 and the stillness of death on every side4#fa ,illustration3 ,fossil ,illustration3 ,fossil ,let us1 however1 glance at the principal ferns1 whose fossil remains we have often found at the mouth of many a coalpit thrown out among the waste4 ,the uncouth names given to them1 uncouth only in appearance1 must not deter the reader from his acquaintance with their peculiarities2 for are not the names of botanical science almost1 if not quite1 as repellent at first8 ,this star-shaped beauty1 7#a7 the asterophyllite1 7from aster1 a star1 and phyllon1 a leaf17 was a common one2 this 7#b7 is the sphenopteris 7from sphn1 a wedge1 and pteron1 a wing71 so named from a fancied resemblance of the petals of the frond to a wedge2 the next 7#c7 is the pecopteris 7from pekos1 a comb1 and pteron1 a wing71 from a resemblance of the frond to the teeth of a comb2 the next 7#d7 is the odontopteris 7from odous1 a tooth1 and pteron1 a wing71 and in this the frond is something like the jaws of a shark bound together by a central stem1 from which they diverge2 and the last 7#e71 our favourite1 is the neuropteris 7from neuros1 a nerve1 and pteron1 a wing71 on account of the exquisite beauty with which the fibres1 like nerves1 distribute themselves4 8,besides the ferns1 then growing to a great size1 there were other plants whose modern representatives are uniformly small2 but as the resemblance in this case is simply one of general form1 and the great majority of other trees seem to possess no living type to which they can be referred1 it is by no means impossible that these also may be completely lost4 ,one example of them is seen in a plant1 fragments of which are extremely common in the coal measures1 and which has been called calamite4#fb ,the remains of calamites consist of jointed fragments1 which were originally cylindrical1 but are now almost always crushed and flattened4 ,they resemble very closely in general appearance the common jointed reed1 growing in marshes1 and called equisetum1 or mare's tail2 but instead of being confined to a small size1 they would seem to have formed trees1 having a stem more than a foot in diameter1 and jointed branches and leaves of similar gigantic proportions4 ,they were evidently soft and succulent1 and very easily crushed4 ,they seem to have grown in great multitudes near the place where the coal is now accumulated2 and though often broken1 they seldom bear marks of having being transported from a distance40#fc ,the fossils of the carboniferous system here figured we found not long since in the neighbourhood of ,stockport4 ,illustration3 ,,calamites4 ,illustration3 ,,calamite4 ,illustration3 ,,stigmaria ,,ficoides4 ,this chapter on the carboniferous system must not be further lengthened4 ,we do not aspire to teach the science of geology2 we aim only to impart such a taste for it as shall lead the reader to consult our master works on this subject1 and if we succeed in this humble but useful aim1 our purpose will be fully answered4 ,only in reference to the economic uses of coal1 we will quote the following1 copied1 we believe1 from the 8,athenum0 some time since1 but unfortunately copied without reference to its original2 a lesson for common-place-book keepers4 ,the writer in speaking of coal-gas says3 8,the consumption of gas is enormous4 ,the following statistics give us an insight into the extent which this branch of industry has attained4 ,in ,england #f1jjj1jjj tons of coals are annually employed for the manufacture of gas1 and from #ab1jjj1jjj to #ae1jjj1jjj pounds sterling expended in its production4 ,in ,london alone #ejj1jjj tons of coals are annually used1 producing #d1ejj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of gas1 and #ejj1jjj chaldrons of coke2 of the latter1 #abe1jjj chaldrons are consumed in manufacturing the gas1 and the remainder sold for fuel4 ,upwards of half-a-million houses in ,london burn gas1 and the length of the main arteries for conveying it is #a1fjj miles4 ,the capital employed in the metropolis is #d1jjj1jjjl4 ,the manufacture of coal-gas for the purpose of illumination affords one of the most striking instances of the triumphs of science when enlisted in the divine cause of civilization4 ,looking at it as a whole1 and regarding the ingenuity evinced in the construction of apparatus1 the chemical skill and beauty displayed in the process1 and the very valuable purposes to which it is applied1 it forms one of the most beautiful1 curious1 and useful of our manufactures2 and probably there is no subject of a manufacturing character in the present day which more engages public attention1 coal-gas having now become not a mere luxury1 or even convenience1 but an absolute necessary4 ,in the words of my late colleague and friend1 ,dr4 ,hofmann1 #8,the extent to which the use of gas has affected the arts and manufactures in this country1 can only be conceived by those who are aware of its innumerable applications in the double capacity of giving light and heat4 ,to our experimental chemists the benefits afforded by gas cannot be overrated1 more especially in ,england1 where the price of spirits of wine is so exorbitant4 ,but for the use of gas in the laboratory1 the progress of chemistry in this country must have been greatly retarded4' 8,in speaking of the general influence of the manufacture of coal-gas1 it is impossible to leave unnoticed the number of hands daily engaged in raising whole strata of coal1 in loading and navigating the fleets employed in conveying it1 not only to the different parts of this kingdom1 but to foreign countries1 which consume a larger quantity of ,english coal for the production than is generally known4 ,the extension of the gas enterprise produced a sensible effect on the ironworks1 by the vast number of retorts1 the stupendous gas-holders1 and endless pipes required for generating1 storing1 and conveying it4 8,several other branches of trade were also forced into increased activity1 and even new trades sprung up in consequence of the extended use of gas4 ,the substances produced in the purification of gas naturally attracted the attention of the gas manufacturer2 and chemistry soon pointed out valuable purposes to which they might be applied4 ,the oily matter1 which separates as a secondary product in the distillation of coal1 yielded1 when purified in its more volatile portion1 the most convenient solvent for caoutchouc2 another part of it was found to be an efficient preservative of timber1 and the pitchy residue formed the chief ingredient of an excellent substitute for the flag stones of our pavements2 while the ammoniacal liquors were found useful in improving the fertility of land4 ,thus1 after the lapse of countless ages1 was the nitrogen of petrified fern forests resuscitated in the ammoniacal liquors of the gas-works1 to vegetate once more and increase the produce of our corn fields40 ,illustration3 ,,sir ,,humphrey ,,davy',s ,,lamp1 ,,and ,,miner ,,at ,,work4 8,all nature feels the secret power1 ,and through eternal change obeys ,up from the deepest region creeps ,the trace of life of former days40 ,faust4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,secondary ,,formations4 ,no4 #a4 ,the ,new ,red ,sandstone4 8,there is a path which no fowl knoweth1 and which the vulture's eye hath not seen2 the lions' whelps have not trodden it1 nor the fierce lion passed by it40--,,job4 ,we now take our leave of the ,palozoic period1 and enter upon the investigation of other and more recent geological epochs in the history of the crust of our planet4 ,this division is known by the names ,secondary or ,mesozoic1#fd and is inclusive of the ,new ,red ,sandstone1 ,oolitic1 ,wealden1 and ,cretaceous groups4 ,if1 in our previous survey1 we have had our minds filled with wonder as we looked at the disinterred relics of past creations1 and have gazed at these fossil forms of ancient life with almost a loving interest in their still remaining beauty2 so1 as we now study higher types of life1 and behold how 8other wonders rise1 and seize the soul the prisoner of amaze10 we shall find reason upon reason for the penetration of our minds with the profoundest adoration of ,deity4 ,no man turning up a tumulus1 and there finding coins1 weapons1 beads1 vases1 or other such historical relics1 would venture to say such things were created there2 on the contrary1 he would acknowledge that they were ,roman1 and that he had come to that conclusion by perceiving their resemblance to other and similar ancient ,roman relics1 discovered where there could be no doubt of their origin and history4 ,or if a traveller were to visit the cities of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 and there find buried beneath the overwhelming torrent of once burning lava1 all possible kinds of human memorials1 not only in human works1 but also in the skeleton remains of human beings1 would he not come to the conclusion that these were indubitable evidences of those cities having once been inhabited by man1 and that these skeletons were once covered with warm flesh1 and that they had lived1 and moved1 and had their being1 even as we do now1 amidst the activities and enjoyments of actual life8 ,we apply this to geology4 ,there are persons who never judge by evidence1 7though what else have we to judge by87 but rashly jump to conclusions about geological facts1 that have not a particle of common sense to sustain them4 ,they never think that every rounded pebble they meet with has been so rounded by the action of water2 they imagine sand to have been created as sand1 instead of taking the geologist's proof1 that all sand has been produced by the action of moving water on solid rock4 ,they believe that fossils were created1 and that ,god put encrinital remains1 and dead ammonites1 and bones of saurians1 and teeth and bones of great mammals1 in the earth1 just as we find them in the cliffs and caves of this and every country2 and they imagine that thus to account for the wonders of creation redounds to the glory of that ,god whom thus they ignorantly worship4 ,even our great publishing society in ,paternoster ,row1#fe that has published about everything in natural history but geology1 has acknowledged to me that it declines to undertake a work on this science1 because of the theological difficulties connected with the subject4 ,why1 what is this but the very way to breed infidelity8 ,the man who studies nature and who studies his ,bible1 is not ashamed to say he believes them both2 though two books1 they are both given by inspiration of ,god4 ,man may be a liar1 but neither nature nor the ,bible can lie2 and while one tells us the history of man1 the other reveals to us the history of the creation1 and succession of those beings which preceded the advent of man4 ,we now come to the ,new ,red ,sandstone1 which must occupy our attention both on account of the unique fossil remains found in it1 and also on account of its economic use and value in commerce4 ,few formations1 small as it is1 possess so many points of interest to the beginner as the new red sandstone2 for1 lying just above the carboniferous1 and between it and the oolitic group1 we find in it certain curiosities of very olden time1 that are full of marvellous power to fill us with amaze4 ,every one remembers ,robinson ,crusoe's surprise at finding 8the print of a man's naked foot on the shore1 which was very plain to be seen in the sand10 and how he 8stood like one thunder-struck1 or as if he had seen an apparition20 and then how he 8went again to see if it might not be his fancy1 but there was no room for that1 for there was exactly the very print of a foot1 toes1 heel1 and every part of a foot20 and then how1 after 8innumerable fluttering thoughts1 and out of himself10 he went home terrified to his fortification4 ,equally surprising are the discoveries made in the old red sandstone4 ,large slabs of this rock have been discovered in ,england1 in ,scotland1 and in the ,united ,states1 on which are left1 as ,robinson left the impression of his foot1 the undisturbed footmarks of pre-,adamite animals2 the ebb and flow of the tide of those distant ages2 the ripple-mark showing the direction of the wind2 and casts of the rainprints made by showers1 long long ages ere man had taken possession of the 8deep places of the earth40 8,romantic nonsense60 says a grave friend2 8let us go to something practical1 instead of losing ourselves in such idle speculations40 ,now1 you are just the person whose ear we want to catch2 and to you we say1 just listen to the evidence of these assertions4 8,the casts of rainprints below project from the under side of two layers2 the one a sandy shale1 and the other a sandstone presenting a warty or a blistered surface1 and affording evidence of cracks formed by the shrinkage of subjacent clay on which rain had fallen4 ,the great humidity of the climate of the coal period had been previously inferred from the nature of its vegetation1 and the continuity of its forests for hundreds of miles2 but it is satisfactory to have at length obtained such positive proofs of showers of rain1 the drops of which resembled in their average size those which now fall from the clouds4 ,from such data we may presume that the atmosphere of the carboniferous period corresponded in density with that now investing the globe and that different currents of air varied then as now in temperature1 so as to give rise1 by their mixture1 to the condensation of aqueous vapour40#ff ,illustration3 ,,casts ,,of ,,rain-,,prints4 ,again1 let us hear the words of ,professor ,ansted4 8,it may appear at first sight that nothing can be more fleeting1 or less likely to be handed down to future ages1 among the fossils of a bed of sandstone1 than the casts of the impressions of the footsteps of an animal1 which by chance may have walked over that bed when it existed in the condition of loose sand forming a seashore4 ,a little consideration1 however1 will show that it is in fact a very possible occurrence1 as1 if the wet sand should be immediately covered up with a thin coating of marl1 and another layer of sand be superimposed1 such an impression will be permanently preserved4 ,in after ages1 also1 when the soft sands have become sandstones1 and are elevated above their former level1 the stones split asunder wherever a layer of different material occurs2 and thus it happens that the casts of the footsteps may be preserved and exhibited1 although all other traces of the former existence of the animal have been lost40#fg ,illustration3 ,,footprints ,,of ,a ,,trydactyle ,,bird1 ,,and ,,impression ,,of ,,rain4 7,nat4 size47 ,if we go to the ,british ,museum1 on the north wall of room ,no4 #a4 we shall find slabs of sandstone containing footprints of animals1 apparently bipeds and quadrupeds1 of which we find the following notice in the catalogue of the ,museum2 and when this description is compared with the three drawings that follow1 we make no doubt of carrying the conviction of the reader along with our own1 as to the origin of these extraordinary ichnites1#fh as such petrified prints are termed3--8,the slabs of sandstone on the north wall of this room1 with the supposed tracks of an animal called ,cheirotherium1 are that on the left from the quarries of ,hildburghausen in ,saxony1 and that in the centre from those of ,horton ,hill1 near ,liverpool1 7the latter presented by ,j4 ,tomkinson1 ,esq47 ,on the right hand are placed slabs from the same new red sandstone formation1 with equally enigmatical imprests of various dimensions1 called ,ornithichnites1#fi being very like footmarks of birds2 they occur in the sandstone beds near ,greenfield1 ,massachusetts1 at a cataract in the ,connecticut ,river known by the name of ,turner's ,falls40 ,illustration3 ,,footprints ,,of ,,bipeds 7,,birds87 ,,prom ,,turner',s ,,falls4 7,size of slab1 #h ft4 by #f47 ,the lines in this drawing are merely to indicate the direction1 the line of progress1 of these bipeds1 and the reader by following the lines will find the illustration all the more interesting4 ,but the most remarkable footprints preserved on slabs of sandstone are those of a quadruped1 whose hinder feet were much larger than his fore feet4 ,some of our marsupial#gj quadrupeds1 such as the opossum and kangaroo1 and many species of batrachian#ga reptiles1 are distinguished by the same peculiarity4 ,below is a copy of this slab1 which is in the window recess of the same room of the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,fossil ,the animal that left these impressions on the soft sandy shore1 that are now converted into hard stone1 was originally named the ,cheirotherium1#gb and1 indeed1 this name is still retained by many writers1 the hand-like footprints being quite a sufficient reason for so appropriate a name2 but latterly the teeth of a fossil animal1 supposed to be the same as the ,cheirotherium1 having been examined1 and disclosing a peculiarly labyrinthine character1 the animal has been called ,labyrinthodon4#gc ,professor ,owen1 the great comparative anatomist of geology1 has fairly established the real character of this animal4 ,he says it is a huge frog1 a gigantic batrachian1 with hinder feet at least twelve inches in length1 combining a crocodilian with a frog-like structure2 and although the actual shape and proportions of such an animal must remain greatly an enigma1 it is one of the wondrous marvels of geology to pause over these extinct huge creatures1 and mark in them the exhaustless resources of creative power4 8,so reads he nature1 whom the lamp of truth ,illuminates1--thy lamp1 mysterious ,word6 ,which whoso sees1 no longer wanders lost1 ,with intellects bemazed in endless doubt1 ,but runs the road of wisdom4 ,thou hast built ,worlds that never had been1 hadst thou in strength ,been less1 or less benevolent than strong40 ,in ,professor ,ansted's remarkable prose poem on geology1 called1 8,the ,ancient ,world10 we have the following picture of the new red sandstone period1 which we quote for its vivid but faithful colouring3--8,we may imagine a wide1 low1 sandy track by the sea-side2 the hills and cliffs of limestone1 which still rise boldly on the shores of the ,avon1 and in ,derbyshire and ,yorkshire1 having then been recently elevated1 and forming a fringe to the coast line4 ,in some places1 where footprints are found in successive beds and at different levels1 local elevation was probably going on1 and the line of coast was occasionally shifting4 ,the sandy fiats thus laid bare1 and not reached by the ordinary level of high water1 were of course traversed by the ancient animals of that period2 but only a few faint records of them have been handed down for our observation4 ,amongst these1 however1 we are able to enumerate turtles and tortoises1 a little lizard having a bird-like beak1 and probably a bird's foot1--birds themselves1 some larger than an ostrich1 others as small as our smaller waders4 ,in some parts of the world there were also large reptiles with powerful tusks1 not surpassed in the amount of their departure from the ordinary structure of reptiles by any known aberrant forms of that strange and varied tribe4 8,amongst the most striking of these objects1 at least on our own shores1 would be the numerous and gigantic ,labyrinthodons4 ,we may imagine one of these animals1 as large as a rhinoceros1 pacing leisurely over the sands1 leaving deep imprints of its heavy1 elephantine hind foot1 strangely contrasting with the diminutive step of its short fore extremities4 ,another1 a small variety1 provided like the kangaroo1 not only with powerful hind legs1 but also with a strong tail1#gd also leaves its impress on the sand1 although itself1 perhaps1 soon fell a victim to the voracity of its larger congener4 ,these and others of their kind1 passing over the sands1 and marking there the form of their expanded feet1 marched onwards in their course1 fulfilled their part in nature1 and then disappeared for ever from the earth1 leaving1 in some cases1 no fragment of bone1 and no other indication of their shape and size than this obscure intimation of their existence4 8,it is strange that in a thin bed of fine clay1 occurring between two masses of sandstone1 we should thus have convincing evidence preserved concerning some of the earth's inhabitants at this early period4 ,the ripple mark1 the worm track1 the scratching of the small crab on the sand1 and even the impression of rain drops1 so distinct as to indicate the direction of the wind at the time of the shower1--these and the footprints of the bird and the reptile are all stereotyped1 and offer an evidence which no argument can gainsay1 no prejudice resist1 concerning the natural history of a very ancient period of the earth's history4 ,but the waves that made that ripple mark have long since ceased to wash those shores2 for ages has the surface then exposed been concealed under great thicknesses of strata2 the worm and the crab have left no solid fragment to speak to their form or structure2 the bird has left no bone that has yet been discovered2 and the fragments of the reptile are small1 imperfect1 and extremely rare4 ,still1 enough is known to determine the fact1 and that fact is the more interesting and valuable from the very circumstances under which it is presented40#ge ,but reminding ourselves of one part of the title of our book1 which professes not only to describe the crust of the earth1 but also to point out its uses1 we must add a few words on the economic value of this small but interesting formation4 ,in this same new red sandstone are found the salt mines of ,cheshire1 and the brine pits of ,worcestershire1 which supply all the rock and table salt consumed in ,england1 besides vast quantities for exportation4 ,the rock salt of ,cheshire was first discovered near ,northwich1 while searching for coal2 but the largest mine1 called the ,wilton ,mine1 is at ,nantwich1 and still yields about #fj1jjj tons of salt annually4 ,the salt is generally found from twenty-eight to forty-eight yards beneath the surface1 in thick strata varying from fifteen to thirty-five yards in thickness4 ,besides these beds of salt1 there are brine springs from twenty to forty yards in depth4 ,our common table salt is almost exclusively derived from these springs1 which is produced by evaporating the water1 and allowing the salt to settle at the bottom of the pans1 where1 after being washed1 it is placed in moulds like the ,china clay1 and comes to our grocers' shops in the blocks we frequently see4 8,so far as observation has yet gone1 the ,english supply is practically inexhaustible2 no limit is known to the extent of the beds or the springs2 and it ought to be regarded as one of the blessings which we owe to the mineral wealth of our country1 that the beautiful table salt of ,england may be obtained at such an extremely low price as that now charged for it40#gf ,to this formation1 with its fossil footprints1 we owe doubtless the fine fancy of ,longfellow1 in one of his sweet minor poems2 and we shall bring this chapter to a close by quoting the last three verses of this lyric4 ,if we can fulfil such a mission1 we had better be frail and erring men than huge ,labyrinthodons3-- 8,lives of great men all remind us1 ,we can make our lives sublime1 ,and departing1 leave behind us ,footprints on the sands of time4 8,footprints1 that perhaps another1 ,sailing o'er life's solemn main1 ,a forlorn and shipwreck'd brother1 ,seeing1 shall take heart again4 8,let us1 then1 be up and doing1 ,with a heart for any fate2 ,still achieving1 still pursuing1 ,learn to labour and to wait40 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,secondary ,,rocks4 ,no4 #b4 ,the ,oolitic ,system4 8,hast thou perceived the breadth of the earth8 declare if thou knowest it all40--,,job4 ,the next division of the secondary rocks is termed the ,oolitic system or group4 ,this is a term rather of convenience than of scientific accuracy4 ,in this title it is intended to include the ,lias1 the ,oolite proper1 and the ,wealden formations4 ,this chapter will be limited to a consideration of the first two series of rocks just named1 and in each we shall find abundant material for thoughtful contemplation and intelligent wonder4 ,the ,english student of geology possesses this great advantage over the student of geology in other lands3 this little 8corner of ,europe10 called ,england1 contains types of almost all the ,european rocks1 and not a few of those that are found in ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america4 ,to this fact ,professor ,whewell alluded when he said1 8,as if nature wished to imitate our geological maps1 she has placed in the corner of ,europe our island1 containing an index series of ,european formations in full detail40 ,out of this circumstance1 though little thought of by any except the geologist1 arise our threefold sources of wealth4 ,but for the varied distribution of rocks through our country1 neither mining1 nor manufacturing1 nor agricultural operations could be carried on to that extent1 and with that success1 which have made this country the envy and the admiration of the civilized world4 ,in the warlike age1 when ,shakspeare wrote1 we expect that his praise of ,england will be on account of her internal security from foreign invasion1 and in the hardy prowess of her sons2 as when he says1 and we are not insensible to the patriotic emotions wakened up by such noble words1-- 8,this royal throne of kings1 this sceptred isle1 ,this earth of majesty1 this seat of ,mars1 ,this fortress built by nature for herself1 ,against infection and the hand of war2 ,this blessed plot1 this earth1 this realm1 this ,england40 ,king ,richard ,,ii4 ,but1 we confess1 we rather dwell on other features in our physical and social history1 as affording the best proof of our real greatness1 and the best illustration of our untiring ,anglo-,saxon energy4 ,we would rather record such facts as the following1 than announce any 8famous victory20 we would rather turn fondly to considerations like these1 than contemplate 8,our sands that will not bear her enemy's boats1 ,but suck them to the top-mast40 8,though animal organization is beyond the constructive skill of man1 he takes the elements existing in nature1 and by new combinations gets new power4 ,he keeps adding to the qualities of his noblest coursers1 his fleetest dogs1 and his goodliest beeves4 ,he year by year develops the resources of the soil1 reclaims the marsh from wild fowl1 the heath from rabbits1 and the flinty hillside from briars and thistles4 ,he goes on multiplying the blades of grass and grains of corn1 and compels an equal area to yield a twofold substance4 ,he discovers in his raw materials unsuspected properties1 until soda and sand are converted into a ,crystal ,palace1 and water1 coal1 and stony ore into a train1 which rushes with the might of an earthquake and the velocity of the wind4 ,he devises fresh applications of machinery1 and in the creations of his ingenuity finds a servant and a master4 ,the broad result to ,england is quickly told3 fifty years have doubled the population1 and employment and subsistence have been doubled likewise4 ,an engine is contrived which economises labour1 and threatens starvation to the labourer2 but the issue proves that the work it makes is more than it saves4 ,annihilate all the cranks and wheels constructed in the interval1 and return our counties with their present population to the condition in which they were when the century began1 and there would be nothing but famine in the land4 ,a government wiser than man's has provided1 in the constant exertion of talent1 for the increase of our race1 and maintains a proportion between our wants and our progress4 ,every round we rise in the ladder leads to a higher2 but our step is limited1 or we should outstrip our needs by too prodigious a stride1 and encroach on the rights of a future age40#gg ,there is no turning over a leaf in the many-paged book of geologic investigation1 without finding the frequent application of thoughts like these4 ,every part of the crust of the earth has its uses1 and uses1 too1 that are peculiar to it2 and as we have endeavoured hitherto to point out the economic uses of each formation in the great onward progress of humanity1 we shall not find ourselves at a loss in this respect1 now that we enter the second division of the secondary rocks4 ,we commence with the ,lias4#gh ,during the new red sandstone period1 clay and marl were being deposited at the bottom of the seas and lakes then in existence4 ,these were the natural degradations of existing rocks2 into these soft deposits sunk various pre-,adamite remains1 finding in the soft argillaceous beds ready to receive them the 8possession of a burying-place0 provided for them by the infinite ,creator4 ,here they remained until in process of time1 at the close of the new red sandstone period1 these beds and their contents were upheaved from beneath the ocean1 apparently without much violence2 and becoming hardened by the chemical action of sun and wind1 present us with the formation we are now studying1 rich in its peculiarly characteristic fossils4 ,the name lias1 or layers1 indicates the finely stratified condition of the rocks1 and affords proof of the tranquil method of their deposit and upheaval4 ,they stretch in a north-easterly direction from ,lyme ,regis1 in ,dorsetshire1 where it may be seen on the open coast cliffs for about four miles1 on to ,whitby1 in ,yorkshire1 where also it lies open to the sea1 in cliffs of considerable elevation1 and lying conformably with other strata1 and is thus particularly favourable to geologistic examination4 ,it is in the shales of the lias at ,whitby1 and at ,lyme ,regis1 that most of the extraordinary and remarkable fossils have been met with that we are about to describe1 and for which this formation is so justly renowned4 ,indeed1 so far as palontology1 or the knowledge of ancient beings1 is concerned1 there is no formation more full of interest to the student4 ,here we meet for the first time with the ammonite4 ,we will introduce him first in his fictitious1 and then in his real character1 and this we do to show how science dispels the follies of ignorance and superstition4 ,the ammonites were once supposed to be petrified snakes--indeed they are even now called by the ignorant1 8snake-stones20 and the pleasant little legend about these snake-stones was this1 that ,st4 ,hilda1 who once resided near ,whitby1 was very much annoyed1 as any matron would be1 especially if she kept an establishment for young ladies1 as ,st4 ,hilda is alleged to have done1 by the multitude of snakes that infested the place1 and disturbed her equanimity4 ,accordingly1 she set to work1 and having first prayed their heads off1 then prayed the snakes into stone4 ,in ,scott's 8,marmion0 the legend reads thus3-- 8,and how the nuns of ,whitby told ,how of countless snakes1 each one ,was changed into a coil of stone ,when holy ,hilda prayed1 ,themselves within their sacred bound1 ,their stony folds had often found40--,,canto #b4 ,richardson1 in his ,geology1 relates the 8instance of a dealer who having been requested by his customers to supply them with some of the creatures which had escaped decapitation1 contrived to manufacture some heads of plaster of ,paris1 and affixed them to the specimens2 thus he pursued a thriving trade1 until some remorseless geologist visiting the place1 not only beheaded the reptiles1 but showed that they were in reality fossil shells40 ,with the figure of the ammonite every reader of geological books is familiar2 it is1 perhaps1 the best known and most beautiful of all our fossils4 ,we give below a representation of four different kinds1 found in the lias and oolite4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,ah4 ,,bechei4 ,,lias ,illustration3 #b4 ,,am4 ,,brodiei4 ,,oolite4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,,am4 ,,humphriesianus4 ,,lias4 ,illustration3 #d4 ,,am4 ,,walcotti4 ,,lias4 ,in general outline it will be seen that the ammonite somewhat resembles the nautilus1 and yet there are characteristic differences that are so striking as to mock the development hypothesis4 ,in the first place1 the shell of the ammonite1 though of the same flat discoidal form as that of the nautilus1 appears to have been much thinner2 secondly1 it will be seen that the whorls of the ammonite are rounder and more in number than those of the nautilus2 and lastly1 the siphuncle1 of which more presently1 runs round the chambers of the ammonite1 but through the chambers of the nautilus4 ,let us look a little at each of these peculiarities2 and to aid us1 we give below two drawings of sections of ammonites1 and two drawings of a nautilus4 ,illustration3 ,,am4 ,k,,nigi ,,lias4 ,illustration3 ,,nautilus4 7,,fossil47 ,,horizontal4 ,illustration3 ,,am4 ,,heterophyllus4 ,,lias4 ,illustration3 ,,nautilus 7,,fossil71 ,,showing ,,the ,,siphuncle4 ,the shell of the ammonite is a continued arch1 having transverse arches or ribs crossing the main arch1 giving to some particular forms of beauty1 and to all the peculiar symmetry of a series of spiral curves4 ,but1 to compensate for the thinness of the shell1 a peculiar adaptation is provided2 it consists in the flutings which are seen in the surface1 occasioned by the transverse ribs4 ,a pencil-case made of a thin plate of silver is all the stronger for being fluted1 and the zinc roof of a railway station is fluted or corrugated1 on the same principle4 ,it is thus that strength is combined with economy of material and elegance of form4 ,in the ammonite we see this recent invention anticipated by the ,creator1 long ages ere man had appeared4 ,in addition to this1 those round knobs or bosses studding some of the ammonites 7e4g4 #a and #c71 like gems upon a diadem1 add strength as well as beauty to their frail forms1 and thus served the same purpose as the groin work in gothic architecture1 a beautiful illustration of which may be seen in the roof of ,salisbury ,cathedral4 ,then1 looking at the chambers of the shell in the sections1 we find that some were for living in1 while others were mere empty air-cells1 used for purposes of elevation or depression1 according as the animal wished to rise to the top or sink to the bottom of the sea1--these front chambers being the drawing-rooms in which the aristocratic ammonite lived4 ,running round them is an hydraulic instrument1 called the siphuncle1 or air-tube1 by means of which singular mechanism this curious animal altered his specific gravity for purposes of sinking or swimming4 8,the universal prevalence of such delicate contrivances in the siphuncle1 and of such undeviating and systematic union of buoyancy and strength in the air chambers throughout this entire family1 are amongst the most prominent instances of order and method that pervade these remains of former races that inhabited the ancient seas2 and strange indeed must be the construction of that mind1 which can believe that all this order and method can have existed without the direction and agency of some commanding and controlling ,mind10#gi ,these are what ,cowper finely calls 8the unambiguous footsteps of the ,god20 and in tracing them our minds are elevated into exalted ideas of ,him1 whose wisdom is unsearchable1 and whose ways are past finding out4 ,with regard to the sections of the ammonite1 as seen in the two previous figures1 dimly indeed compared with the beautiful specimens from which they were copied1 we can only add1 in the words of the treatise just quoted1 8,nothing can be more beautiful than the sinuous windings of these sutures in many species1 at their union with the exterior shell1 adorning it with a succession of most graceful forms1 resembling festoons of foliage and elegant embroidery4 ,when these thin septa are converted into iron pyrites1 their edges appear like golden filagree work1 meandering amid the pellucid spar that fills the chambers of the shelf40 ,we pass by some other fossils found in the lias1 such as the pentacrinite1 of which we shall speak when we come to other members of the crinoideal family1 gryphites1#hj of which the gryphea incurva is the most common type1 broken portions of which1 and sometimes good specimens1 may be found in most gravel heaps1 their peculiar form having obtained for them the name among the rustics of 8devil's toe-nails20 and belemnites1#ha often met with in vast numbers1 and known under the name of ladies' fingers1 and thunderbolts2 and fossil fish1 a few specimens of which are found in the lias4 ,passing by these1 we next notice the huge ,saurians1#hb by far the most wondrous vertebrated animals with which either the ancient or modern vestiges of creation have made us acquainted4 ,these saurians1 sometimes called ,enaliosaurians1 7enalios1 the sea1 and sauros1 a lizard17 on account of their peculiar habitat1 may all be included in ,milton's description of the leviathan1 though it is hard to tell what precise creature our great poet had in his 8mind's eye0 at the time of writing this description--one line of which1 from having a syllable too much1 reads most unrhythmically--for the crocodile does not go so far out to sea as he represents1 and if he did1 would be hardly likely to go on to the 8,norway foam20 nor can he mean the whale1 for the whale has no 8scaly rind30-- 8,that sea beast1 ,leviathan1 which ,god of all his works ,created hugest that swim the ocean stream40 ,par4 ,lost1 ,book ,i4 ,but before we enter on a description of these extinct and anomalous creatures1 we shall give a sketch of both4 ,no4 #a is the skeleton of the ,ichthyosaurus1#hc restored from the fragments found chiefly at ,lyme ,regis3 it may be seen1 with several of its congeners and contemporaries1 in the ,british ,museum4 ,no4 #b is a restored outline of this saurian2 from both of which sketches it will be seen that the most justly dreaded monsters of our tropical climates sink into insignificance beside the ancient tenants of the mighty deep1 in those remote periods of geological antiquity we are now contemplating4 ,the combination of the forms of the fish and the lizard seems more like a troubled dream of ,fuseli1 than the calm and philosophic deductions of the most eminent anatomists and philosophers4 ,illustration3 ,fossil ,the fossil remains of this creature show that it was intended chiefly1 if not entirely1 for a marine life4 ,like the seal1 it may occasionally have come to bask on the shore1 although1 like the seal1 it possessed no developed legs or feet1 but only paddles4 ,the size of these animals was enormous2 they sometimes attained a length of upwards of thirty feet2 and to realize such a creature1 we must imagine our meeting with a monster thus long in some tropical swamp1 having a smooth slimy skin like a whale1 a long heavy head like a porpoise1 teeth like a crocodile1 vertebr hollow1 and therefore light1 like the vertebr of a fish1 enabling it to dive swiftly to the bottom1 and equally as swift to rise again2 and paddles like a whale4 ,again1 look at the head1--that is1 go into room ,no4 #d of the ,british ,museum1 and look with wonder1 as we often have1 on ,wall-case ,a7#a71 and ,b7#b71 and ,c7#c71 and you will agree with us that the half of the wonders of this heteroclite#hd creature have not been told4 ,it had a gape1 that is1 it could open its jaws seven feet1 so that a grenadier guard might walk into his mouth without stooping2 it had teeth1 not placed in sockets1 but arranged in a long continuous trough2 it had an eye more marvellous than the eye of the ,ancient ,mariner1 that kept the wedding guest sitting on a stone1 who could do nought but hear1 for the eye of the ,ichthyosaur was often eighteen inches in diameter1 so that a man might put his head1 hat and all1 into its socket1--and this eye was possessed of more wondrous properties than even the eye of the celebrated ,irishman that could see round a corner1 for the eye of the ,ichthyosaur enabled its owner to see all round the country at one time2 and as it was a very predatory animal1 having doubtless as many enemies as victims1 it required this eye both day and night1 and accordingly the eye was placed close to the nose1 so that the animal could not come to the surface of the water to breathe without being immediately forewarned of danger1 or advised of a prize4#he ,next follows the ,plesiosaurus1#hf which may be seen1 in its skeleton parts1 restored1 and in casts1 in room ,no4 #c of the ,british ,museum1 in ,wall-cases ,d7#d71 ,e7#e71 ,f7#f74 8,the beautiful state of preservation of many of the ,plesiosauri1 the entire skeleton1 from the point of the muzzle to the extremity of the tail1 lying in relief1 as if it had sunk down quietly on the soft clay1 and become petrified on the spot1 manifests how different were the conditions in which the strata of the lias and the wealden were deposited2 while the exquisite manner in which the investing stone has been removed1 attests the consummate skill and indefatigable zeal of the gentleman 7,mr4 ,hawkins7 by whom these superb fossils were developed40#hg ,below1 ,no4 #a1 is a skeleton of the ,plesiosaurus1 and ,no4 #b is the restored outline of the animal1 whose largest specimen never exceeded seventeen feet4 ,illustration3 ,fossil ,cuvier thus describes the ,plesiosaur 7we borrow the quotation from ,buckland73-- 8,the ,plesiosaur is the most heteroclite1 and in character the most monstrous1 of all the animals that have yet been found amid the ruins of a former world4 ,to the head of a lizard it united the teeth of a crocodile1 a neck of enormous length resembling the body of a serpent1 a trunk and tail like that of an ordinary quadruped1 the ribs of a chameleon1 and the paddles of a whale4 ,such are the strange combinations of form and structure of the ,plesiosaurus1 a genus the remains of which1 after interment for thousands of years amidst the wreck of millions of extinct inhabitants of the ancient earth1 are at length recalled to light by the researches of the geologist1 and submitted to our examination in nearly as perfect a state as the bones of species that are now existing on the earth40 ,we add a word upon the uses of this portion of the crust of the earth1 and we do so in the striking words of ,hugh ,miller4 8,we have seen how this central district of ,england has its storehouses of coal1 iron1 salt1 lime1--liberal donations to the wants of the human animal1 from the carboniferous1 saliferous1 and silurian systems2 and to this we must now add its inexhaustible deposits of medicine1 contributions to the general stock by the oolitic system4 ,along the course of the lias medicinal springs abound3 there is no other part of ,england where they rise so thickly1 or of a quality that exerts a more powerful influence on the human frame4 ,the mineral waters of ,cheltenham1 for instance1 so celebrated for their virtues1 are of the number2 and the way in which they are elaborated in such vast quantities seems to be as follows3--,they all rise in the lias1 a formation abounding in sulphate of iron1 lime1 magnesia1 lignite1 and various bituminous matters2 but they all have their origin in the saliferous marls of the upper new red sandstone which the lias overlies4 ,in the inferior formation they are simply brine springs1 but brine is a powerful solvent4 ,passing through the lias1 it acts upon the sulphur and the iron--becomes1 by means of the acid thus set free and incorporated with it1 a more powerful solvent still--operates upon the lime1 upon the magnesia1 upon the various lignites and bitumens--and at length rises to the surface1 a brine-digested extract of liassic minerals4 ,the several springs yield various analyses1 according to the various rocks of the upper formation through which they pass2 some containing more1 some less lime1 sulphur1 iron1 magnesia1 but in all the dissolving menstruum is the same4 ,and such1 it would appear1 is the mode in which ,nature prepares her simples in this rich district1 and keeps her medicine-chest ever full40 ,thus wondrous is the machinery of ,god's universe2 every day utters some fresh speech1 and every night shows forth some new knowledge4 8,the ,lord of all1 himself through all diffused1 ,sustains and is the life of all that lives4 ,nature is but a name for an effect1 ,whose cause is ,god40 ,,note4--,we do not like to close this chapter without mentioning the name of ,mary ,anning1 of ,lyme ,regis4 ,it is mainly to her practical talent and perseverance that we owe these relics of past ages found in the lias3 the history of the ,british ,museum will have to record this humble name1 as well as that of ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 its founder4 ,the following we borrow from ,miss ,zornlin's 8,recreations in ,geology10 p4 #aig-- 8,mary ,anning died in #ahdg4 ,her father1 by trade a carpenter1 was in his own neighbourhood one of the first collectors of coorosities1 as they are locally termed1 such as petrified ladies' fingers and turbots 7as the fish were termed71 verterbarries 7vertebr71 cornemonius 7ammonites71 and crocodiles' jaws 7ichthyosauri71 c4 ,he died when his daughter ,mary was about ten or eleven years old2 and the circumstances of the family being straitened1 she went down one day to the beach to search for #8coorosities4' ,she found a fine specimen of an ammonite2 and as she was coming home1 a lady who met her in the street offered her half-a-crown for the fossil in her hand4 ,mary ,anning's future destiny was sealed4 ,she prosecuted her searches #8on beach1' and in the following year 7#ahaa7 observed among the ledges of the rocks a projecting bone of some animal4 ,this enterprising girl 7then only eleven years old7 traced the fossil in the cliff1 and hired some men to dig it out4 ,it proved to be the skeleton of an ichthyosaurus1 and has for many years formed an object of interest in the ,british ,museum4 ,mary ,anning afterwards sold this specimen for about #bcl40 ,to this we add1 that in the 8,memoirs of ,ichthyosauri10 by ,thomas ,hawkins1 ,esq4 reference is made to ,miss ,anning1 as one 8who devoted herself to science1 and explored the frowning and precipitous cliffs1 when the furious spring-tide conspired with the howling tempest to overthrow them1 and rescued from the devouring ocean1 sometimes at the peril of her life1 the few specimens which originated all the facts and ingenious theories of those eminent persons1 whose names must ever be remembered with sentiments of the liveliest gratitude40 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,secondary ,,rocks4 #c4 ,the ,oolite proper4 8,o ,lord1 how manifold are thy works6 in wisdom hast thou made them all40--,,david4 ,proceeding with our rapid sketch of the crust of the earth and its uses1 we now leave the ,lias1 to enter upon a survey of the ,oolite proper4 ,overlying the ,lias1 and underlying the ,wealden1 we find this deposit1 which1 though it occupies a comparatively narrow track in our own country1 is remarkable for the peculiarity and beauty of its fossils1 and for the commercial importance of the rocks of which it is composed4 ,its name is derived from n1 an egg1 and lithos1 a stone1#hh from the remarkable resemblance many of the beds bear to the roe1 or eggs of a fish4 ,a good specimen of oolite and the hard roe of a red herring are unlike one another1 mostly in the circumstance that one can be cooked1 and the other cannot4 ,these egg-like grains are mere agglomerations of calcareous matter1 although sometimes a piece of coral1 or a broken shell1 or a grain of sand1 is found to be the nucleus around which these deposits have arranged themselves4 ,it may be as well here to say a word upon the general character of calcareous rocks1 which are so largely to engage our attention in this and a subsequent chapter4 8,this division comprehends those rocks which1 like chalk1 are composed chiefly of lime and carbonic acid4 ,shells and corals are also formed of the same elements1 with the addition of animal matter4 ,to obtain pure lime it is necessary to calcine these calcareous substances1--that is to say1 to expose them to heat of sufficient intensity to drive off the carbonic acid and other volatile matter1 without vitrifying or melting the lime itself4 ,white chalk is often pure carbonate of lime2 and this rock1 although usually in a soft and earthy state1 is sometimes sufficiently solid to be used for building1 and even passes into a compact stone1 or a stone of which the separate parts are so minute as not to be distinguishable from each other by the naked eye4 8,many limestones are made up entirely of minute fragments of shells and corals1 or of calcareous sand cemented together4 ,these last might be called #8calcareous sandstones2' but that term is more properly applied to a rock in which the grains are partly calcareous and partly siliceous1 or to quartz-ore sandstones having a cement of carbonate of lime4 8,the variety of limestones called #8oolite' is composed of numerous small egg-like grains1 resembling the roe of a fish1 each of which has usually a small fragment of sand as a nucleus1 around which concentric layers of calcareous matter have accumulated4 8,any limestone which is sufficiently hard to take a fine polish is called marble4 ,many of these are fossiliferous2 but statuary marble1 which is also called saccharine limestone1 as having a texture resembling that of loaf-sugar1 is devoid of fossils1 and is in many cases a member of the metamorphic series40#hi ,the geographical distribution of this group of rocks may be traced thus3--,commencing with the ,bill of ,portland1 7for there is no isle of ,portland17 it runs up through part of ,dorsetshire1 ,somersetshire1 ,gloucestershire1 ,oxfordshire1 ,northamptonshire1 part of ,lincolnshire1 terminating in ,yorkshire1 where the lias and oolite may be seen lying conformably or in sequence2 the zone we have thus indicated being about thirty miles in width4 ,the following tabular arrangement will supplement this by pointing out the divisions and subdivisions of the oolite2 on which1 however1 we do not intend to dwell1 as our only object1 in this most preliminary treatise1--and we shall be pardoned again intruding this thought upon our readers1--is to assist in the investigation of our standard text-books on this science3-- ,,oolite ,,proper4 #a4 ,,upper4 #a4 ,portland stone1 with underlying dirt-beds4 #b4 ,kimmeridge clay4 #b4 ,,middle4#a4 ,coral rag4 #b4 ,oxford clay4 #c4 ,,lower4 #a4 ,cornbrash and ,forest marble4 #b4 ,great ,oolite and ,stonesfield slate4 #c4 ,fuller's earth4 #d4 ,inferior ,oolite4--,lyell4 ,in the upper oolites1 it will be seen1 is found the famous ,portland stone1 in which are some of the most remarkable specimens of the extinct fauna of this remote period4 8,they are found most plentifully in what is locally designated the #8dirt-bed' of ,portland--a stratum of dark argillaceous mud1 which must at one time have been the soil in which they and other vegetables flourished1 but which1 by a submergence of the land1 was converted into the bottom of an estuary1 over which other strata of clay1 limestone1 and sand were deposited4 #8,at the distance of two feet1' says ,bakewell1 #8we find an entire change from marine strata to strata once supporting terrestrial plants2 and should any doubt arise respecting the original place and position of these plants1 there is1 over the lower dirt-bed1 a stratum of fresh-water limestone2 and upon this a thicker dirt-bed1 containing not only the cycade1 but stumps of trees from three to seven feet in height1 in an erect position1 with their roots extending beneath them4 ,stems of trees are found prostrate upon the same stratum2 some of them are from twenty to twenty-five feet in length1 and from one to two feet in diameter4 ,the following section of a cliff in ,dorset exhibits very clearly proofs of the alternation from marine strata to dry land covered with a forest1 and of a subsequent submergence of the dry land under a river or lake which deposited fresh-water limestone4'0 ,illustration3 a a a1 ,portland stone 7marine formation72 b1 ,dirt-bed1 consisting of black mould and pebbles 7temporary dry land72 c1 ,burrstone1 and d1 ,calcareous slate 7both of fresh-water formation74--,chambers' ,geology1 p4 #abh4 ,from the well-known quarries in ,portland1 a description of which would tempt us too far astray1 have been procured the materials for ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 the ,reform ,club1 and other public buildings4 ,a visit to ,portland1 and examination of the quarries1 such as we have twice paid1 is well worth the attention of any summer tourist1 and will richly repay1 in its romantic scenery1 and in the unique simplicity of its people's manners1 a week's quiet stay at the ,king's ,arms1 the once favoured and favourite inn of ,george the ,third4 ,then1 if we take the middle oolite1 we shall find in it the well-known 8coral rag10 so called because of the continuous beds of petrified coral found in great abundance1 and in many places1 apparently1 in the same position in which they once grew at the bottom of the sea4 ,we give below a few specimens recently obtained by us from the north of ,wiltshire1 from which it will be seen how closely they resemble those of existing species4 ,illustration3 ,,oolite ,,coral4 7,nat4 ,size47 ,illustration3 ,,corals ,,and ,,sponge ,,from ,,the ,,oolite4 ,but what period was that1 and what sunny clime was this1 when the ocean poured its waves over what are now our oolitic building-stones1 and when the coral insect built its continuous reefs in this our ,england1 just as it is now distributing its labours over so vast an expanse of sea in the tropics and the southern hemisphere8#ij ,we cannot but recal the poetic and vivid language of ,hugh ,miller3 8,oh1 that hoarse voice of ,ocean1 never silent since time first began6--where has it not been uttered8 ,there is stillness amid the calm of the arid and rainless deserts1 where no spring rises and no streamlet flows1 and the long caravan plies its weary march amid the blinding glare of the sand2 and the red unshaded rays of the fierce sun4 ,but1 once and again1 and yet again1 has the roar of ,ocean been there4 ,it is his sands that the winds heap up1 and it is the skeleton remains of his vassals1--shells1 and fish1 and the stony coral1--that the rocks underneath enclose4 ,there is silence on the tall mountain peak1 with its glittering mantle of snow1 where the panting lungs labour to inhale the thin bleak air1 where no insect murmurs and no bird flies1 and where the eye wanders over multitudinous hill-tops that lie far beneath1 and vast dark forests that sweep on to the distant horizon1 and along long hollow valleys1 where the great rivers begin4 ,and yet1 once and again1 and yet again1 has the roar of ,ocean been there4 ,the effigies of his more ancient denizens we find sculptured on the crags1 where they jut from beneath the ice into the mist wreath1 and his later beaches1 stage beyond stage1 terrace the descending slopes4 ,where has the great destroyer not been1--the devourer of continents--the blue foaming dragon1 whose vocation it is to eat up the whole land8 ,his ice-floes have alike furrowed the flat steppes of ,siberia1 and the rocky flanks of ,schehallion2 and his nummulites and fish lie embedded in the great stones of the ,pyramids1 hewn in the times of the old ,pharaohs1 and in the rocky folds of ,lebanon still untouched by the tool4 ,so long as ,ocean exists1 there must be disintegration1 dilapidation1 change2 and should the time ever arrive when the elevatory agencies1 motionless and chill1 shall sleep within their profound depths1 to awaken no more1 and should the sea still continue to impel its currents and to roll its waves1 every continent and island would at length disappear1 and again1 as of old1 #8when the fountains of the great deep were broken up1' #8,a shoreless ocean tumble round the globe4'0#ia ,from this digression we return to our third division of the ,oolite proper1 the ,lower ,oolite1 as developed in ,somersetshire 7around ,bath71 and in ,wiltshire 7,tisbury1 ,braford1 c471 which has its own points of interest and of use4 ,here occurs the fuller's earth1 mostly found at a village near ,bath1 called ,old ,down1 which possesses the peculiar property of absorbing the grease or oil remaining in cloth1 and thus fulling or thickening it4 ,here also is found that peculiar rubbly limestone1 called 8,cornbrash10#ib in ,wiltshire1 which1 on exposure to atmospheric agencies1 soon decomposes1 and by mixture with he ordinary constituents of the soil1 makes an admirable material in agricultural operations4 ,here also we have the ,bath ,oolite1 the quarries of which are very extensive1 abundant in fossils1 and the character of whose stone gives to the city of ,bath that clean and aristocratic appearance which is so striking to the stranger approaching ,bath from the ,great ,western ,railway4 8,in this lower division10 says ,lieutenant-,colonel ,portlock1 8also occurs the ,bath oolite1 which is an excellent stone for the delicate mouldings of gothic architecture1 and is represented in ,france by the ,caen stone1 which was imported for the purpose by our early architects1 as may be seen in the beautiful ,temple ,church40#ic ,of two varieties of ,oolite1 called 8,barnack rag0 and 8,ketton stone10 obtained from the quarries in ,rutlandshire and ,northamptonshire1 almost all the churches in ,cambridgeshire1 of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 are built4 ,as an instance1 and illustrative of previous remarks1 we may specify ,king's ,college ,chapel1 ,cambridge4 ,whoever has been to the top of that gem of gothic architecture1 and walked outside where the stone is weathered1 and has been supplemented in various indifferent ways1 may there see the ripple marks of the old tides and winds1 marking the ebb and flow of pre-,adamite phenomena2 and little shells1 some of them most tiny ones1 but in beautiful preservation1 once left in the soft calcareous sand1 now embedded in the hard building stone4 ,and here1 before we speak of the fossils of the ,oolite1 we should like to be thoroughly understood about this same ripple-mark1 of which we have more than once spoken1 and which it seems desirable to explain4 8,another structure1 often conspicuous in fine-grained sandstones1 is that commonly called 8ripple-mark40 ,either in quarries or natural cliffs1 wherever the upper surface of a bed is exposed1 it is often found to be not smooth or flat1 but waved in small undulations1 exactly like those so often seen on a sandy shore4 ,now1 a good deal of misconstruction has1 ,i think1 arisen as to the origin of these small undulations or ripples in the sand1 leading sometimes to a possibility of grave error in geological reasoning4 ,people standing on the beach1 and observing the gentle rippling motion of the waves1 and a very similar form in the sand beneath them1 have not unnaturally jumped to the conclusion that the one was the cause of the other1 that the ripple on the surface of the water had somehow imprinted its form on the sand at the bottom4 ,now1 really1 one is not the cause of the other1 but they are both caused by the same action1 and each is as much a ripple as the other4 ,the wave-like form in the sand is not a ripple mark1 but a ripple2 if it is the mark of anything1 it is a #8current mark1' and as such ,i have always preferred to speak of it4 ,just as a current in the air produces a ripple in the surface of the water below it1 so a current in the water produces a ripple in the sand below it4 ,it makes no difference1 indeed1 whether the sand be acted upon by air or water4 ,wherever the circumstances are favourable1 wind will cause a ripple or current mark on the surface of blown sand1 as ,i observed frequently under very favourable circumstances at ,sandy ,cape1 in ,australia1 and as has been observed by ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 near ,calais4 ,in each case the moving fluid propels the grains of sand forward1 piling them up into ridges1 which are perpetually advancing by the rolling of particles over the crest of each ridge into the hollow beyond1 where they are for a time sheltered from the current1 but soon buried under the advancing ridge1 to be again turned up and rolled onward1 perhaps1 as their site becomes exposed to the force of the stream40#id ,other fossil remains found in the ,oolite demand our notice before we leave this period of the earth's history1 or this portion of the earth's crust4 ,in the autumn of last year we were en route to ,cornwall1 but turned aside to visit1 among other matters1 the ,oolite in the neighbourhood of ,bath1 ,chippenham1 ,bradford1 and ,trowbridge4 ,leaving the trunk line of the ,great ,western1 we transferred ourselves at ,chippenham to the branch that would take us to ,trowbridge1 that little ,halifax or ,preston of the ,west of ,england4 ,many a long day had passed since we made our first acquaintance with the poet ,crabbe1 and1 though fossil hunting1 we felt we must pay a pilgrimage to his honoured shrine4 ,we looked at the old church in which for eighteen years he was the representative and expounder of a large and human creed first uttered by the ,great ,teacher from ,galilee2 and standing by ,chantrey's monument of ,crabbe1 we thought how dear to ,god the man must be1 who by dint of purpose1 purity1 and hope1 had risen from an unknown boy to command the ear of the public in a time of poetic dearth1 and who1 amidst a very chequered life1 had realized the fine idea of ,goldsmith3 8,as some tall cliff1 that lifts its awful form1 ,swells from the vale1 and midway leaves the storm1 ,though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread1 ,eternal sunshine settles on its head40 ,we have heard it objected to ,crabbe's poetry that it wants fire1 that it has no romance1 that it moves among the homely scenes of rustic life1 and seldom soars above parochial records and village history4 ,but ,crabbe's life was a singularly unromantic one2 everything with him had been real1 hard1 up-hill work1 in which he had broken down had he not believed in work rather than in genius4 ,at ,bungay ,school he was flogged unmercifully1 according to the wise methods of teaching the classics then in vogue1 but now happily exploding1 except in our antediluvian public schools2 at ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds he was apprenticed to a surgeon1 who quickly turned him into an errand boy and servant of all work2 at twenty years of age1 conscious of innate power1 and aspiring to literary honour1 he found himself in ,london in two equal conditions of misery1 without a friend and without a pound2 and then1 in this very condition of impecuniosity1 the tender place of his heart was touched by an unpropertied girl1 ,sarah ,elwy1 and he1 the friendless young man1 loves her with a pure1 deep1 passionate1 and unchanging love4 ,for eight long years of struggle1 her image gave buoyancy to his spirit1 and oneness to his purpose1 amidst the ups and downs of no common hardships1--now turned from the rich man's door by lacqueys in silver lace1 and then politely bowed out by those who might have been his patrons in an hour of need1 until1 fortune favouring the bold1 he became not only the recognised poet of the poor1 but better still1 the husband of a woman of surpassing worth4 ,never aspiring to be a great poet1 but only a true and real man1 he lived1 and laboured1 and published much4 ,as a parish clergyman1 his memory at ,trowbridge is a familiar household word1 and having honourably served his generation according to the will of ,god1 he placidly and ,christianly fell asleep4 ,as we stood by ,chantey's monumental record of this good man1 we felt that it did us good to look on such a memorial of a working man2 a working man1 in the truest sense of the word1 for we must take some care1 or else this good name will become an empty conventional sham4 ,we must not confine the term to any one class1 whether to men who work with sweat of brow1 or to other men who work as hard1 and harder too1 with sweat of brain2 we give the name of working men to all who toil with head or hand1 and all such may be bettered by the contemplation of a character like ,crabbe's4 ,but we return2 our digression makes geology lag behind4 ,we were fortunate in procuring several fine specimens of the ,crinoidean#ie or ,stone-lily family1 about which the reader will pardon a few details4 ,at the stations of the ,great ,northern ,railway1 the marble mantelpieces and uprights are all made of the ,derbyshire encrinital marble1 and the mind is filled with singular surprise in the contemplation of these interesting relics of past creations4 ,how multitudinous must have been this one form of life in those ancient days1 and how quietly these encrinites1 when their brief term of life was over1 must have sunk down into the soft calcareous and argillaceous beds lying at the bottom of the old ocean waiting to receive them1 only that1 mummy like1 it might embalm them safely1 until in process of time1 by upheaval1 evaporation1 and sun-hardening1 their delicate forms should be brought out to our daylight in all the symmetry and beauty of their pre-,adamite life6 ,but the family of ,crinoideans or ,stone-lilies1 called the 8,pear encrinite10 or 8apiocrinites rotundus10 differs very remarkably from the 8,lily encrinite10 or 8encrinites molliformis20 and the following descriptions grouped from ,lyell and ,buckland1 aided by the accompanying figures1 will introduce these singular animals to our readers4 8,the ,crinoideans or ,stone-lilies are almost all confined to the limestone1 but an exception occurs at ,bath1 where they are enveloped in clay4 ,in this case1 however1 it appears that the solid upper surface of the #8,great ,oolite' had supported for a time a thick submarine forest of these beautiful zoophytes1 7plant-animals17 until the clear and still water was invaded by a current charged with mud10 7see diagram below1 a17 8which threw down the stone-lilies1 and broke most of their stems off near the point of attachment4 ,the stumps still remain0 7b7 8in their original position1 but the numerous articulations once composing the stem1 arms1 and body of the zoophyte1 were scattered at random through the argillaceous deposit in which some now lie prostrate4 ,vast strata of entrochal#if marble1 extending over large tracts of country in ,northern ,europe and ,north ,america1 are made up of the petrified bones of encrinites1 just as a cornrick is composed of straws4 ,man applies it to construct his palace or to adorn his sepulchre1 but there are few who know1 and fewer still who duly appreciate the surprising fact1 that much of this marble is composed of the skeletons of millions of organized beings1 once endowed with life1 and susceptible of enjoyment1 which after performing the part that was for a while assigned to them in living nature1 have contributed their remains towards the composition of the mountain masses of the earth40 ,illustration3 ,in situ4 ,restored4 ,,pear ,,encrinites1 ,,or ,,apiocrinites ,,rotundus4 ,,bradford1 ,,wilts4 ,that a better idea still may be formed of this zoophyte1 let the following diagrams be added3 #a is the body or bulbous head of the pear-encrinite1 curiously laminated1 and geometrically divided2 #b is a stem the natural size1 and #c a section1 or one of the articulations1 in which its entrochal and radiated character will appear4 ,below is a root of the pear-encrinite 7#a72 this will give some idea how rudely the graceful stems were broken off by the mud sea that came upon them1 and how firm a hold the roots of these beautiful zoophytes took of the ocean bottom2 many of these roots are covered with serpul and coral1 that only reveal their beauty under the lens4 ,in the root before us1 a little coral insect has begun to reticulate his tiny links of network2 these may be seen in #c1 magnified1 and by comparison with #b1 which is a piece of ,jamaica coral1 found plenteously on the seashore of the north side of the island1 the similarity in structure and symmetry will be immediately detected4 ,illustration3 ,fossil ,we have already spoken of the ,ammonite1 but we give here a specimen of a rare kind1 preserved in the fine clay near ,chippenham4 ,the form of this ammonite is more remarkable than that of any other2 its delicate nautilus shell has been sadly compressed1 and some of its external protuberances have been broken off1 and are here restored by dotted lines2 but1 more striking still1 the delicate horn-like structure that terminated its mouth or aperture has been perfectly embalmed by ,nature's kindly hand4 ,illustration3 ,fossil ,illustration3 ,,am4 ,,jason1 ,,or ,,am4 ,,elizabeth4 ,oolite4 ,we have no ammonites afloat now3 its twin brother1 the nautilus1 survives still in sunny climes on the tropic seas2 and1 perhaps1 when a 8new heaven and a new earth0 shall usher in another act in the great drama of creation1 the nautilus may be superseded by other forms of molluscous life1 to show forth the exhaustless resources of ,his skill and wisdom1 who is 8wonderful in counsel and excellent in working40 ,thus sings a poet and a geologist3-- 8,the nautilus and the ammonite ,were launch'd in storm and strife2 ,each sent to float1 in its tiny boat1 ,on the wide1 wild sea of life4 8,and each could swim on the ocean's brim1 ,and anon1 its sails could furl2 ,and sink to sleep in the great sea deep1 ,in a palace all of pearl4 8,thus hand in hand1 from strand to strand1 ,they sail'd in mirth and glee1 ,those fairy shells1 with their crystal cells1 ,twin creatures of the sea4 8,but they came at last to a sea long past1 ,and as they reach'd its shore1 ,the ,almighty's breath spake out in death1 ,and the ammonite lived no more4 8,and the nautilus now1 in its shelly prow1 ,as o'er the deep it strays1 ,still seems to seek1 in bay and creek1 ,its companion of other days4 8,and thus do we1 on life's stormy sea1 ,as we roam from shore to shore1 ,while tempest-tost1 seek the loved--the lost1 ,but find them on earth no more60--,,richardson4 ,below we add a small group of oolitic shells1 not on account of any particular beauty of form attaching to them1 but as characteristic of this formation1 and as lying conveniently near us for being figured4 ,their hard names--hard to the mere ,english reader--may possibly alarm the young1 who may at present skip the names3 let them get to love the science--let them get into the habit of making nature have a meaning in its realities1 and into the settled purpose of determining to know what kind of a world this is in which ,god has cast their lot1 and soon these hard names will be only as finger-posts1 directing to certain roads on which they may journey to the end of a happy pilgrimage4 ,aye1 better than any old pilgrimage to a fabulous ,holy ,sepulchre1 will be your pilgrimage to sepulchres wrought by the hand of ,infinite ,benevolence1 for the creatures whom his infinite wisdom had formed1 and sustained until he pronounced the decree1 8,return60 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,cucullea ,,carinata4 #b4 ,,cucullea ,,umbonata4 #c4 ,,modiola ,,bipartita4 #d4 ,,terebratula ,,globosa4 #e4 ,,terebratula ,,digona4 #f4 ,,terebratula ,,maxillata4 ,before we quit the ,oolite1 we have one more stranger to introduce--and in very truth he is the strangest stranger with whom we have yet made acquaintance4 ,we refer to the ,pterodactyle4#ig ,the geologist1 we may suppose1 has just lighted on one of these extraordinary remnants of antiquity1 say in the ,stonefield ,quarry1 ,oxfordshire1 and stands aghast as his pick lays open the fragments of this nondescript creature4 ,illustration3 ,fossil ,but when the researches of science had laid bare the whole of the fossil remains of this heterogeneous creature1 when the head and gape of the crocodile1 the wing-hands of the bat1 and the web-feet of the duck were all revealed2 when it was ascertained to be one of those flying reptiles that have no existing type1 and that it was 8the most extraordinary of all the beings of whose former existence the study of fossils has made us aware10 and 8the most unlike anything that exists in the known world20 the blank wonder of the geologist gave way to calm and admiring study1 as these undreamt-of relics of the past were made subservient to the wisdom and delight of the present4 ,illustration3 ,fossil ,the following is ,cuvier's description of this strange creature1 borrowed from ,ansted1 vol4 i1 p4 #dah3-- 8,you see before you10 he says1 8an animal which in all points of bony structure1 from the teeth to the extremity of the nails1 presents the well-known saurian characteristics1 and of which one cannot doubt that its integuments and soft parts1 its scaly armour1 and its organs of circulation and reproduction1 were likewise analogous4 ,but it was at the same time an animal provided with the means of flying2 and when stationary1 its wings were probably folded back like those of a bird1 although1 perhaps1 by the claws attached to its fingers1 it might suspend itself from the branches of trees4 ,its usual position1 when not in motion1 would be upon its hind feet1 resting like a bird1 and with its neck set up and curved backwards1 to prevent the weight of the enormous head from destroying its equilibrium4 ,any attempt1 however1 to picture this strange animal in a living state1 would appear to one who has not followed the whole argument to be rather the production of a diseased imagination1 than the necessary completion of a sketch of which the main outlines are known to be true4 ,the animal was undoubtedly of the most extraordinary kind1 and would appear1 if living1 the strangest of all creatures4 ,something approaching to it in form we may perhaps recognise in the fantastic pictures of the ,chinese2 but art has1 in this respect1 not been able to rival nature2 and the fabled centaur1 or dragon1 do not present anomalies more strange than those of the species we have been considering40 ,this description of ,cuvier will recal to the reader's mind the well-known words of ,milton 7,par4 ,lost1 ,book ,,ii4 line #bdg71 in which1 in his description of an imaginary fiend1 he almost realizes to the life the animal whose extinct and fossil remains have been so recently disinterred4 8,the fiend ,o'er bog1 or steep1 through strait1 rough1 dense1 or rare1 ,with head1 hands1 wings1 or feet1 pursues his way1 ,and sinks or swims1 or wades or walks1 or creeps or flies40 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,pterodactyle1 ,,from ,,solenhofen1 7one-third natural size47 ,we conclude this chapter by giving drawings of the ,pterodactyle4 ,the first is the ,pterodactyle as found at ,solenhofen2 the second is the skeleton restored2 and the third the animal itself1 according to the best judges of what a portrait of the ,pterodactyle would be4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,,skeleton ,,restored4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,,the ,,pterodactyle4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,secondary ,,rocks4 ,no4 #d4 ,the ,wealden4 8,the works of the ,lord are great1 sought out of all them that have pleasure therein40--,,david4 ,lying immediately between the oolite and the chalk1 is a small formation of fresh water1 and not of marine deposit1 to which the term ,wealden has been given4 ,this name has been given to it because it has been found developed chiefly in the ,wealds1 or ,wolds1#ih of ,sussex1 ,surrey1 and ,kent2 and to ,dr4 ,mantell belongs the honour of investigating this singularly interesting formation1 and of giving us its history1 after months of patient research and laborious toil conducted on the spot1 just as ,hugh ,miller has become the historian and explorer of the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,cromarty4 ,but although the ,wealden is small when compared with the vast extent of some other formations1 previously or subsequently added to the material of this 8great globe's0 crust1 it possesses unusual interest on account of the strange organic remains that are found in it1 and of the evidence which these remains supply of vast changes in the conditions and characters of the living beings1 found at that period roaming at large in the once tropical swamps of the ,wealden4 ,the ,wealden is almost if not wholly of fresh water origin2 and a word or two on the formation of the deltas of great rivers1 now going on in various parts of the world1 will help us rightly to appreciate the character of this formation4 ,it is seldom1 some one remarks1 that we 8can catch a mountain in process of making10 and hence we have much difficulty in arriving at definite ideas concerning the times that the sedimentary rocks occupied in their deposit4 ,but we can catch deltas in the process of manufacture1--the deltas of the ,nile1 the ,mississippi1 the ,amazon1 and other huge rivers that pour down1 not their 8golden streams10 but their muddy accumulations1 gathered from the mountain sides whose slopes they wash into the great ocean basin waiting to receive them4 8,all the rivers run into the sea1 yet the sea is not full40 ,these deltas1--for we wish to explain as we go along1 and would rather fall into the error of explaining where there is no necessity1 than of leaving one word that might prove a stumbling-block unexplained1--these deltas are all the mouths1 7les embouchres17 of oceanic rivers1 that is1 of rivers that pursue their impetuous course towards their native ocean bed2 and the character of these deltas necessarily varies with the character of the coast through which they pursue the uneven 8tenor of their way40 ,as the level of the sea is approached1 the rapidity of the mountain stream is necessarily checked4 ,no longer dashing down steep mountain precipices1 as it did in the heyday of its youth1 it finds itself grown into a majestic breadth and depth2 and as it nears its maternal home1 leaving the high land of its origin far behind1 it traverses with slow and measured pace the slightly descending planes by which it falls into the ocean4 ,this gradual process enables it to deposit on each side the alluvial soil1 and decayed vegetable matter1 and so on1 that have been held by it in suspension during its rapid progress2 and as the current slackens still more as it approaches its final destiny1 portions of land gradually rise into view1 the results of these deposits1 which from their triangular shape have received the name of deltas1 from their likeness to the ,greek letter 4 ,thus the mouths of the ,ganges form a vast breadth of waters1 with intervening islands and strips of land1 #bjj miles in width4 ,into this delta the river ,ganges runs laden with the rich spoils of clay1 sand1 vegetable matter1 c41 gathered from the ,himalaya ,mountains1 and thus those dismal-looking islands have been formed in the mouth of this river1 that have become the home of tigers1 crocodiles1 c4 ,in ,north ,america1 that 8father of waters10 the ,mississippi1 sometimes called the ,missouri1 runs through a glorious valley of unexhausted and inexhaustible wealth of #c1jjj miles1 and runs out into the sea at least fifty miles1 while its currenmiles further4 8,like all other great rivers1 the ,mississippi does not empty itself into the sea in one continuous channel1 but in a great variety of arms or mouths1 which intersect in sluggish streams the great alluvial delta1 which is formed by the perpetual deposit of the immense volume of water which rolls into the ocean4 ,between these mouths of the river a vast surface1 half land1 half water1 from #ej to #ajj miles in width1 and #cjj in length1 fringes the whole coast2 and there the enormous mass of vegetable matter constantly brought down by the ,mississippi is periodically deposited4 ,a few feet are sufficient to bring it above the level of the water1 except in great floods2 and as soon as that is done1 vegetation springs up with the utmost rapidity in that prolific slime4 ,no spectacle can be conceived so dreary and yet so interesting1 as the prospect of these immense alluvial swamps in the course of formation4 ,as far as the eye can reach1 over hundreds of square leagues1 nothing is to be seen but marshes bristling with roots1 trunks1 and branches of trees4 ,in winter and spring1 when the floods come down1 they bring with them an incalculable quantity of these broken fragments1 technically called logs1 which not only cover the whole of this immense semi-marine territory1 but1 floating over it1 strew the sea for several miles off to such an extent1 that ships have often no small difficulty in making their way through them4 ,thus the whole ground is formed of a vast network of masses of wood1 closely packed and rammed together to the depth of several fathoms1 which are gradually cemented by fresh deposits1 till the whole acquires by degrees a firm consistency4 ,aquatic birds1 innumerable cranes and storks1 water serpents1 and huge alligators1 people this dreary solitude4 ,in a short time a kind of rank cane or reed springs up1 which1 by retarding the flow of the river1 collects the mud of the next season1 and so lends its share in the formation of the delta4 ,fresh logs1 fresh mud1 and new crops of cane or reed1 go on for a series of years1 in the course of which the alligators1 in enormous multitudes1 fix in their new domain1 and extensive animal remains come to mingle with the vegetable deposits4 ,gradually1 as the soil accumulates and hardens1 a dwarfish shrub begins to appear above the surface2 larger and larger trees succeed with the decay of their more stunted predecessors2 and at length1 on the scene of former desolation1 the magnificent riches of the ,louisianian forest are reared40#ii ,to this glowing description we might add what we ourselves have witnessed on the coast of ,south ,america1 where the great ,amazon1 the ,orinoco1 and the ,essequibo1 roll their mud-laden waters into the ,atlantic1 and form vast accumulations of alluvial deposit all along its northern coast2 indeed1 the coast line of all the ,guianas of ,south ,america1 averaging some five to ten miles in width1 and at least #a1jjj miles in length1--,venezuela1 ,british ,guiana1 ,surinam1 and ,cayenne1--are nothing more than the deposit formed at the base of the mountains by these and other rivers of smaller note4 ,buried in this mud are pebbles1 trunks of trees1 animal remains1 and so on2 and if these in process of time should be elevated and afterwards hardened1 or submerged and pressed into clayey slate or sandy stone1 the fauna and the flora of these deltas would then be brought to light1 just as the leaves of plants are exhibited between the pages of a botanist's collecting book4 ,in some such method as this was once formed a delta1 now constituting the ,wealden formation in our own country4 ,what is now the south-east of ,england1 including the ,weald clay1 the ,hastings sand1 and the ,purbeck beds of limestone and marls1 in short1 the greater part of the counties already named1 with part of ,dorsetshire1 was once the delta of a mighty river1 that so long and so uninterruptedly flowed through this then uninhabited part of the planet1 that its accumulated deposits average #a1jjj feet in thickness4 ,we have but to pause over those words--one thousand feet thick2--once mud1 or rather fluviatile deposits of mud and sand1 a thousand feet thick in order to receive fresh evidence of the high antiquity of the globe1 and of the recent creation of man4 ,we have but for a moment to remember that these deposits consist of innumerable layers of mollusks and crustaceans1 a prodigious accumulation of the bones of reptiles and fishes1 and of the trunks1 branches1 and foliage of a long extinct vegetable world1 all quietly brought down by 8the rivers of waters0 of that era1 and carefully and without injury deposited in what were then the bottoms of bays or the rising land of deltas1 in order to appreciate the evidence which this one deposit alone affords of the immense period of time occupied in its accumulation4 ,our next section1 the cretaceous division of the secondary rocks1 presents us with an exclusively marine deposit4 ,the ,wealden1 as we have said1 is a fresh-water deposit4 8,many a long and weary journey10 says ,dr4 ,mantell1 8have ,i undertaken to examine the materials thrown up from a newly-made well1 or the section exposed by recent cuttings on the roadside1 in the hope of obtaining the data by which this problem is now completely settled40 ,the data referred to are such as these--the absence of all ammonites1 encrinites1 corals1 terebratul1 and other marine organisms1 which form so large a portion of the cretaceous and other sea deposits4 ,here1 again1 we may anticipate future remarks4 ,it may be thought--by some it has been roundly asserted--that these fossils were placed in their present situations by the deluge4 ,without entering into the theological question1 as to the universality or partiality of the ,noachian flood1 although1 as we shall hereafter see1 there is but one opinion on that subject held by our best geologists1 namely1 that the deluge recorded in the ,bible was simply the subsidence or submerging of so much of the earth1 and no more1 as was then inhabited by man1 and that so partial and so limited was its character1 and so brief its duration1 compared with those vast geological epochs we have been considering1 that there are no traces in nature of that event at all1 i4e4 that we have no one single fossil that can be referred to that event1--without1 we repeat1 entering upon the investigation of this subject1 which will be done in a subsequent part of this volume1 we would merely remark1 in reply to this absurd notion1 that the ,wealden is evidently an alluvial1 and not a diluvial formation2 and as these terms are so frequently used as if they were synonymous1 we shall venture upon our old habit of explanation4 ,an alluvial deposit is formed by the ordinary1 but a diluvial deposit by the extraordinary action of water4 ,thus all the straths and carses of ,scotland1 and our ,english dales or dells1 7may not the remote etymology be delta87 are all of alluvial formation2 while1 as owing their origin to diluvial1 or the violent action of water1 we are to ascribe the heaps of rubbish1 gravel1 sand and boulders1 that are found in firm compact together4 ,thus1 if we take a basin of water holding a quantity of earthy matter in solution1 and place it on a quiet table1 and allow the earthy matter gradually to subside1 that which is found at the bottom of the basin is an alluvial formation1 deposited by the quiet and ordinary action of water4 ,but when1 as sometimes here in ,royston1 a sudden and heavy rain occurs1 when for a while 8the windows of heaven0 seem opened1 and the surrounding hills pour down their rushing streams through the town1 filling1 as unfortunately they do on such occasions1 the cellars of our neighbours in the bottom of the town1 with sticks1 stones1 flint1 gravel1 bits of chalk1 paper1 bones1 cloth1 and a variety of intermingled sundries too numerous to mention1 and all huddled together in wild confusion1 then is formed in such ill-fated cellars a diluvial deposit1 occasioned by the extraordinary action of water4 ,now1 the ,scripture flood 7and we may be allowed to say1 we are not trying to explain away the fact of the deluge1#ajj nor to weaken the strength of the ,mosaic narrative1 but the very contrary7 was a most extraordinary event4 ,not only were the 8windows of heaven opened10 but the 8fountains of the great deep0 were broken up1 and if it had left any traces of its action1 they would have been of a heterogeneous and diluvial character2 whereas in the ,wealden1 as elsewhere1 the fossils occur in the most orderly and quiet manner1 preserving in many cases those exquisite forms of beauty which distinguished them during life4 ,without entering more fully into details of the fossil remains of this period1 we shall conclude this chapter by a reference to one of the vast saurians whose remains have been disinterred from the ,wealden4 ,many years ago ,dr4 ,mantell discovered1 in a quarry at ,cuckfield in ,sussex1 a tooth1 which he took up to the ,geological ,society of ,london2 it was altogether unlike any tooth he had hitherto found1 but yet it was so common1 that the quarrymen had broken many of them up to mend the roads4 ,the most eminent geologists of the day were puzzled extremely with this tooth4 ,one thought it belonged to a fish2 another1 that it belonged to an unknown herbivorous mammal2 and a third1 who was right1 that it belonged to a herbivorous reptile4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell was at that time about to visit ,paris1 and the tooth1 and that alone1 was shown to ,cuvier1 who at once pronounced it to be the tooth of a rhinoceros4 ,in the process of time other fossil remains were found1 portions of jaws1 cervical1 dorsal1 and caudal vertebr2 and on ,cuvier seeing these1 with the magnanimity of a truly great mind1 he frankly avowed his error1 and said1 8,i am entirely convinced of my error in pronouncing it to be the tooth of a rhinoceros40 ,shortly after1 ,dr4 ,mantell was fortunate enough to procure the skeleton of an iguana1#aja and he found that the fossil teeth found in ,tilgate forest bore a close resemblance to the teeth of the iguana4 ,the teeth of the iguana were found to be small1 closely set1 and serrated like the edge of a saw1 not so much for crushing victims1 as for champing and grinding its vegetable food2 this corresponded precisely with the fossil teeth found1 and after long and careful deliberation1 the name given to this crocodile lizard1 and the name which it retains1 was ,iguanodon1 or the reptile with teeth like the iguana4 ,the probable size of the ,iguanodon was thirty feet in length1 though probably some exceeded these enormous proportions4 ,seventy species have been discovered in the quarries opened at ,tilgate forest2 and this gives us some idea of the conspicuous part these mighty creatures once played in the eras happily before man was an inhabitant of this planet4 ,why these remains should generally be found in the same locality we cannot certainly tell1 though the previous extract from ,alison may shed some light on this curious fact2 but it appears beyond doubt that particular spots were selected by these beasts as hospitals and dying places1 where1 undisturbed by their enemies1 they retired to die unseen4 ,the drawing on page #aie1 representing the restored fauna of this period1 that is1 inclusive of the ,lias1 ,oolite1 and ,wealden formations1 will not only illustrate our previous remarks1 but enable our readers thoroughly to appreciate the following vivid description of the life of that remote era1 which we do not like to abridge4 ,should any feel sceptical as to whether there were ever such 8goings on0 in this globe of ours1 especially in our eastern counties1 now the resort of tourists and invalids having no dread of such creatures before their eyes1 we ask them not to reject all this as fable until they have gone to the ,british ,museum1 and in ,room #c1 and in ,wall-case ,c1 they will there see some of the magnificent specimens1 obtained by ,dr4 ,mantell1 of these extinct deinosaurians4#ajb ,on reading this description1 it seems quite justifiable to congratulate ourselves upon the era in which we live4 ,strange forms and monsters vast have been in the old time before us1 and their disinterred remains teach us again and again the good and wholesome lesson of the king of ,israel1 prefixed as a motto to this chapter4 8,two of these saurians have more especially attracted attention1 in consequence of their great abundance in a fossil state in our own country1 but they are by no means the only ones known4 ,of these two1 one was more exclusively a tenant of the deep1 while the other was probably more frequently met with on the mud banks or on the shore4 ,both were truly marine in their habits1 and both seem to have served as the representatives of the great ,cetacean tribe--the whales1 the porpoises1 and other similar animals now existing4 8,it is not easy to imagine the conditions of existence of such animals4 ,we know their form1 their proportions1 their strange contrivances of structure1 their very skin1 and the nature of the food which they devoured2 and yet1 knowing with absolute certainty these points1 we hardly dare draw the conclusions which are suggested4 ,i will1 however1 venture to offer a sketch of the appearance of the sea and its inhabitants during this portion of the ,reptilian epoch4 8,there were then1 perhaps1 existing on or near the land1 some of those reptiles which ,i shall describe in the next chapter2 and with them were associated true crocodilians1 not much unlike the fresh water gavial inhabiting the ,ganges4 ,these1 also1 might occasionally swim out to sea1 and be found in the neighbouring shoals4 8,but these shoals were alive with myriads of invertebrated animals2 and crowds of sharks hovered about1 feeding upon the larger tribes4 ,there were also numerous other animals1 belonging to those remarkable groups which ,i have attempted to describe in some detail4 ,imagine one of these monstrous animals1 a plesiosaurus1 some sixteen or twenty feet long1 with a small wedge-shaped crocodilian head1 a long1 arched1 serpent-like neck1 a short compact body1 provided with four large and powerful paddles1 almost developed into hands2 an animal not covered with brilliant scales1 but with a black slimy skin4 ,imagine for a moment this creature slowly emerging from the muddy banks1 and1 half walking1 half creeping along1 making its way towards the nearest water4 ,arrived at the water1 we can understand from its structure that it was liable to exhibit greater energy4 ,unlike the crocodile tribe1 however1 in all its proportions1 it must have been equally dissimilar in habit4 ,perhaps1 instead of concealing itself in mud or among rushes1 it would swim at once boldly and directly to the attack4 ,its enormous neck stretched out to its full length1 and its tail acting as a rudder1 the powerful and frequent strokes of its four large paddles would at once give it an impulse1 sending it through the water at a very rapid rate4 ,when within reach of its prey1 we may almost fancy that we see it drawing back its long neck as it depressed its body in the water1 until the strength of the muscular apparatus with which this neck was provided1 and the great additional impetus given by the rapid advance of the animal1 would combine to produce a stroke from the pointed head which few living animals could resist4 ,the fishes1 including perhaps even the sharks1 the larger cuttle-fish1 and innumerable inhabitants of the sea1 would fall an easy prey to this monster4 8,but now let us see what goes on in the deeper abysses of the ocean1 where a free space is given for the operations of that fiercely carnivorous marine reptile1 the ichthyosaurus4 ,prowling about at a great depth1 where the reptilian structure of its lungs1 and the bony apparatus of the ribs would allow it to remain for a long time without coming to the air to breathe1 we may fancy we see this strange animal1 with its enormous eyes directed upwards1 and glaring like globes of fire4 ,its length is some thirty or forty feet1 its head being six or eight feet long2 and it has paddles and a tail like a shark2 its whole energies are fixed on what is going on above1 where the plesiosaurus or some giant shark is seen devouring its prey4 ,suddenly striking with its short but compact paddles1 and obtaining a powerful impetus by flapping its large tail1 the monster darts through the water at a rate which the eye can scarcely follow towards the surface4 ,the vast jaws1 lined with formidable rows of teeth1 soon open wide to their full extent2 the object of attack is approached--is overtaken4 ,with a motion quicker than thought the jaws are snapped together1 and the work is done4 ,the monster1 becoming gorged1 floats languidly near the surface1 with a portion of the top of its head and its nostrils visible1 like an island covered with black mud1 above the water4 ,illustration3 ,,fauna ,,of ,,the ,,oolitic ,,period1 ,,restored4 8,but a description of such scenes of carnage1 enacted at former periods of the earth's history1 may perhaps induce some of my readers to question the wisdom that permitted them1 and conclude rashly that they are opposed to the ideas which we are encouraged to form of the goodness of that ,being1 the necessary action of whose laws1 enforced on all living beings1 gives rise to them4 ,by no means1 however1 is this the case4 ,these very results are perfectly compatible with the greatest wisdom and goodness and even according to our limited views of the course of nature1 they may be shown not to involve any needless suffering4 ,to us men1 constituted as we are1 and looking upon death as a punishment which must be endured1 premature and violent destruction seems to involve unnecessary pain4 ,but such is not the law of nature as it relates to animal life in general4 ,the very exuberance and abundance of life is at once obtained and kept within proper bounds by this rapacity of some great tribes4 ,a lingering death--a natural decay of those powers which alone enable the animal to enjoy life--would1 on the contrary1 be a most miserable arrangement for beings not endowed with reason1 and not assisting each other4 ,it would be cruelty1 because it would involve great and hopeless suffering4 ,death by violence is to all unreasoning animals the easiest death1 for it is the most instantaneous2 and therefore1 no doubt1 it has been ordained that throughout large classes there should be an almost indefinite rate of increase1 accompanied by destruction rapid and complete in a corresponding degree1 since in this way the greatest amount of happiness is ensured1 and the pain of misery and slow decay of the vital powers prevented4 ,all nature1 both living and extinct1 abounds with facts proving the truth of this view2 and it would be as unreasonable to doubt the wisdom and goodness of this arrangement1 as it would be to call in question the mutual adaptation of each part in the great scheme of creation4 ,no one who examines nature for himself1 however superficially1 can doubt the latter2 and no one certainly1 who duly considers the laws ordained for the general government of the world1 can believe it possible for these laws to have acted without a system of compensation1 according to which the vital energies of one tribe serve to prepare food for the development of higher powers in another40#ajc ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,secondary ,,rocks4 ,no4 #e4 ,the ,chalk4 ,,the ,,cretaceous ,,system4 8,his hands formed the dry land40--,,david4 ,at the conclusion of the ,wealden period1 the crust of our globe underwent another great change4 ,the fresh-water rocks we have just been studying were probably submerged by some violent subterranean or subaquean agency1 and upon a great part of them a new deposit was gradually formed4 ,foot by foot1 and inch by inch1 slowly accumulated those cretaceous particles 7,lat4 creta1 chalk7 which now constitute the chalk hills and cliffs of our own country1 to say nothing of the extent of territory in ,europe occupied by this well-known mineral4 ,to those who like ourselves live in a chalk district1 this formation possesses special interest1 simply because the 8bounds of our habitation0 are fixed there2 and though we miss here all traces of the ,ichthyosaurus and ,iguanodon1 although no ,deinotherium nor ,mastodon as yet make their appearance on the stage of being1 yet with a very little knowledge of geology1 coupled with a desire not to walk through the world with 8eyes and no eyes10 it is in our power to invest many an otherwise motiveless walk with pleasurable interest4 ,a cutting in the hills may reveal some unthought-of geological curiosity2 a heap of flints may disclose some 8rich and rare0 fossils2 and even a walk over the ,downs1 those breezy 8downs0 or 8heaths0 of southern ,england1 covered with their short herbage1 and dotted with their browsing sheep--those downs that undulate in such well-known forms of beauty1 may be fruitful of suggestions concerning their origin1 character and antiquity1 that may be of healthful power in the development of an intellectual life4 ,we live--that is1 we aforesaid--not on a fresh-water deposit1 like the people of ,purbeck1 ,hastings1 and so on1 but upon an old marine deposit4 ,the huge cliffs of chalk that gave the name of ,albion1 the 8white isle10 to our country1 with all these downs1 which rest upon chalk1 having a depth or thickness of often more than two thousand feet1 were once formed at the bottom of pre-,adamite oceans2 and in process of time1 as the secondary period drew near to its destined close1 and other and higher types of life were to make their appearance1 were upheaved by ,him1 8whose hands thus formed the dry land10 to serve the future purposes and contribute to the comforts of the coming lord of all4 ,of this ,albion we may well be proud1 as the home of religion1 the birth-place of true freedom1 and the sanctuary of the oppressed4 ,with ,coleridge we exclaim3-- 8,not yet enslaved1 nor wholly vile1 ,o ,albion1 ,o my mother isle6 ,thy valleys fair1 as ,eden's bowers1 ,glitter green with sunny showers2 ,thy grassy upland's gentle swells ,echo to the bleat of flocks2 ,those grassy hills1 those glittering dells1 ,proudly ramparted with rocks2 ,and ,ocean1 'mid his uproar wild1 ,speaks safety to his island-child4 ,hence for many a fearless age ,has social quiet loved thy shore2 ,nor ever proud invader's rage ,or sack'd thy towers or stain'd thy fields with gore40 ,if we were to tell the story of the ,chalk formation1 it would run something after this fashion3--,once upon a time--but what time we don't know1 for man's records only go back a few thousand years2 but long1 long ages before there was a man to till the earth--all this chalk lay out of sight at the deep bottom of the old1 old sea4 ,the tall cliffs at ,dover1 which ,shakspeare would hardly recognise now with their tunnels and railroads1 the wavy downs of ,sussex and ,surrey1 the chalk hills of ,hampshire1 all that piece of ,wiltshire called ,salisbury ,plain1 and this line of country stretching away north to bluff ,flamborough ,head1 and running down south to ,weymouth and the isle of ,purbeck1 taking up in its course a good part of ,buckinghamshire1 ,bedfordshire1 ,cambridgeshire1 and ,norfolk1--all this immense district1 averaging probably a thousand feet in thickness1 lay quietly at the bottom of the sea4 ,yes6 it wasn't created just pat in a moment1 and set up in these hills and valleys1 any more than sand was created sand1 but gradually1 grain by grain1 it accumulated1 ages rolling by while thus the earth was a-preparing4 ,these undulating downs knew then no boys pursuing on them their healthful and gymnastic games2 no fair riders then crossed these pleasant turfy swards1 inhaling life and vigour from the air of heaven2 no evening promenades for men of business1 recreating the overworked physical nature1--then diversified the scene3 but instead thereof crumbling particles of older rocks covered the floor of the ocean with their dust1 so making green sand1 while the waste and dbris of coral reefs1 ground up and pulverized1 poured in their lavish contributions1 so making chalk2 787 while above this deposit thus forming1 the ocean waves rolled to and fro1 and in their rise and fall1 their daily ebb and flow1 sounded their eternal bass in the ear of old father ,time1 who certainly then had no human children4 ,had we been there we should have seen as tenants of the 8vasty deep10 pectens1 plagiostamas1 hamites1 belemnites1 and other odd-looking crustaceans1 roaming about at their own sweet will2 some ganoid fishes that have now such hard names1 that to write them would interfere with the strain of this description2 while here and there we might have spied a veteran remnant of the oolite come down by strange chance into the chalk1 a solitary pterodactyle1 snapped at and pounced upon by an ugly mososaurus1 a sea crocodile standing four feet high4 ,these1 and such as these1 were the tenants of that ocean1 which then rolled over our heaths and downs2 and when at length their period of life and purpose of creation were answered1 these too all perished1 and the secondary formation ended its wondrous career4 ,the old ocean still rolls on1 unchanged1 unaltered still2 but what changes has it seen in these long distant epochs of which geology tries to tell the story6 8,time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow2 ,such as creation's dawn beheld1 thou rollest now60 ,no one can write the history of the ,chalk formation1 without remembering his indebtedness to the patient and laborious toil of ,dr4 ,mantell in this department1 from whose 8,geological ,excursions round the ,isle of ,wight10#ajd we give the following extract4 8,the features of a chalk district are so well known1 that a brief notice will render local details unnecessary4 ,the rounded summits of the hills1 covered with short verdant turf--the smooth undulated outline of the downs unbroken1 save by the sepulchral mounds of the early inhabitants of the country--the coombes and furrows ramifying and extending into the deep valleys1 which abruptly terminate at the base of the hills1 and appear like dried-up channels of rivulets and streams1 though free from all traces of alluvial dbris1 thus bearing the impress of physical operations1 of which the agents that produced them have long since passed away--are phenomena familiar to every one who has travelled over the downs of the south-east of ,england1 and are displayed in the chalk districts of the #8beautiful isle4' ,these features are restricted to the hilly districts of the white chalk1 and have resulted from the peculiar nature of the sedimentary detritus1#aje of which the strata comprised in the upper division of the ,cretaceous system are composed3 for in the lower groups1 clays1 marls1 sands1 and sandstones prevail2 and where these deposits approach the surface1 and form the subsoil1 the country is broken and diversified1 and the landscape presents a striking contrast with the down scenery1 as may be observed in the picturesque district which flanks the escarpment of the chalk hills4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be necessary to remind the unscientific reader1 that these strata are but an insulated portion of an ancient sea-bottom1 or in other words1 a mass of consolidated sediments formed in the profound depths of the ocean1 in a very remote period of the earth's physical history4 ,this detritus is made up of inorganic and organic materials4 ,the former consist of the dbris of the cliffs and shores which encompassed the ancient sea1 of the spoils of islands and continents brought down into the ocean by fresh-water currents1 and of chemical deposits thrown down from mineral solutions4 ,the organic substances are the durable remains of animals and plants which lived and died in the ocean1 and of fluviatile and terrestrial species that were transported from the land by rivers and their tributaries2 the whole forming such an assemblage of sedimentary deposits as would probably be presented to observation1 if a mass of the bed of the ,atlantic ocean1 #b1jjj feet in thickness1 were elevated above the waters1 and became dry land40 ,we have alluded to the undulating character of the downs1 so 8well known10 as ,mantell says1 that 8local details are unnecessary40 ,how correct this is may be seen in the following drawing1 which represents a portion of ,royston ,heath4 ,illustration3 ,fossil ,all over this heath is found the 8,royston crow10 during the winter months4 ,this fine bird migrates hither from ,norway1 to avoid its severe winters1 and is scientifically known as the 8,hooded-crow1 corvus cornix40 ,on its first arrival1 when it is in its best plumage1 it is comparatively tame1 allowing the sportsman to approach very near2 but as the season advances1 acquaintance with the gun makes it very knowing and shy4 ,it associates freely with the other crows1 but its nest has never yet been found in ,england4 ,about ,march the hooded-crow wholly disappears4 ,the head1 throat1 and wings are black2 the back and breast a 8clear smoke-grey40 ,norman1 the bird-stuffer of this town1 has always several fine specimens on hand4 ,as1 in the case of the ,carboniferous system1 we ventured to say to the reader that it was not all coal1 so in the ,cretaceous system1 we would remind him that it is not all chalk2 but without going minutely into the subdivisions which the chalk formation has received1 because this unpretending elementary treatise does not profess to teach geology1 but simply aims1 as we have ventured again and again to repeat1 to infuse into the mind a desire of acquaintance with the marvels and truths of this science1 we will just indicate the leading divisions and nomenclature of this deposit4 ,first1 there is the green sand2 that is1 first1 beginning at the bottom or lower part of the formation3 this may be well seen and studied in the neighbourhood of ,cambridge1 where we have procured many of its characteristic fossils1 including several vertebr and teeth of the otodus1 a fish allied to the shark family1 such as are figured in the opposite diagram4 ,illustration3 ,,fossil ,,teeth ,,of ,,fishes3 ,,from ,,upper ,,green ,,sand1 ,,cambridge4 #a4 ,,otodus4 #b4 ,,carcharias4 #c4 ,,corax4 #d4 ,,oxyrhina4 #e4 ,,notidanus4 #f4 ,,lamna4 #g4 ,,ptychodus4 ,illustration3 ,,fossils ,,from ,,the ,,gault1 ,,folkstone4 #a4 ,,ammonite ,,dentatus4 #b4 ,,am4 ,,lautus4 #c4 ,,am4 ,,splendens4 #d4 ,,am4 ,,cristatus4 #e4 ,,am4 ,,denarius4 #f4 ,,catillus ,,sulcatus4 ,at ,potton and ,gamlingay in ,bedfordshire1 and in the neighbourhood1 this green sand is highly ferruginous1 and the roads and fields present that peculiarly dark-red colour which is first singular and then wearisome to the eye4 ,in the case of the ,potton beds1 the red colour is caused by oxidization or rust of iron2 in the neighbourhood of ,cambridge1 c41 where there is the green sand1 this is owing to the influence of 8chloritous silicate of iron40 ,then we have the galt or gault1 a local term of which we cannot trace the etymology4 ,the gault1 however1 is not of great thickness1 but is likely to be the most interesting department of the ,chalk to the beginner1 on account of the abundance and peculiar appearance of its fossils4 ,a ramble under the cliffs at ,folkstone1#ajf where the gault may be seen in perfection1 will amply repay any one for toil1 dirt1 and a few slips and bruises4 ,he will there find evidences of a prolific and prodigal bestowment of life in the innumerable fragments of organic remains every where observable2 and if he be patient1--if he won't go running on from spot to spot1 saying1 as some do1 8,oh1 there's nothing here20 if he will just persevere in a minute examination of every spot where organic remains may be detected1 he will not come away without his reward in ammonites1 hamites1 and other cephalopodous mollusks1 and most of them with that peculiar nacreous or mother-of-pearl lustre upon them which renders the fossils of this period so beautiful and attractive4 ,only we caution the explorer not to buy of the so-called guides4 ,at ,dover and ,folkstone the rogues have a knack of getting a lump of gault1 and sticking into it one or two common pyrites1 which are very abundant in the cliff1 bits of shell1 ammonites1 c42 they then offer this conglomerate for sale1 all rounded and smooth1 assuring you upon their 8sacred honour10 the honour of men who always draw upon their imagination for their facts1 that they would not ask so much for it1 only on account of its excessive rarity4 ,as good economists always avoid cheap houses1 and go to the best shops1 so let the young geologist always go to the best shop3 let him go to the cliff with his hammer1 and work for himself4 ,we picture a few fossils from the gault1 only regretting that it is out of the power of our artist to convey their lustrous colours1 as well as their curious forms4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,natica ,,caniculata4 #b4 ,,venticrulites4 #c4 #d4 ,,rostellaria ,,marginata4 #e4 #f4 #g4 ,,catillus ,,crispi4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,fossil ,then comes1 lastly1 the ,chalk3 that is1 the white chalk1 divided into lower and upper2 the lower being harder and mostly without flints1 and the upper characterised by layers and bands of flint1 sometimes nodular1 as in ,cambridgeshire1 and sometimes flat almost as a pancake1 as in the neighbourhood of ,woolwich4 ,above are some of the most characteristic fossils of the ,chalk4 ,no4 #a is a pecten1 or oyster1 called the 8five-ribbed10 or quinque costatus2 ,no4 #b is the plagiostoma spinosa1 so called on account of its spines1 a shell found frequently in our chalk or lime-pits2 ,no4 #c is the intermediate hamite 7,lat4 hamus1 a hook71 8hamites intermedius20 ,no4 #d is the spatangus cor-anguinum1 a very common fossil echinus in the chalk2 ,no4 #e is the ananchytes ovata1 found frequently in the ,brighton and ,ramsgate cliffs2 ,no4 #f is a scaphite 7,gr4 skaph1 a skiff or boat72 and the last is our old friend the belemnite1 who has survived so many of this earth's changes1 and now finds himself a contemporary of the cretaceous inhabitants of the globe4 ,in many respects1 the ,chalk presents us with remarkable anomalies3 we have sand1 the green sand1 but unlike in colour and in texture the sand of the old and new red sandstone1 where we find it compressed and hardened into solid and compact masses of stone2 we have clay1 argillaceous beds such as the gault1 but it is not clay hard and pressed into slaty rocks1 but soft and compressible2 and we have carbonate of lime1 the chalk constituting the calcareous beds of this formation2 but where we have met with it before it has been hard and solid limestone1 and marble1 not pliable and soft as in the ,cretaceous system2 and yet apparently it is all the same material as we have found in the earlier stages of the earth's crust--the washings1 degradations1 and deludations of older and harder rocks1 along with the secretions and remains of organized animals that once peopled this ancient earth2 thus affording us1 on a large scale1 another illustration of the economy observable in all the works of ,god4 ,illustration3 ,,fossil ,,fish ,,from ,,lewes4 ,having spoken of the fossil fishes of the ,chalk1 we here give drawings of two procured from the neighbourhood of ,lewes1 the famous fossil fishing-ground of the late ,dr4 ,mantell2 and it is due to the name and memory of the ,chalk historian and geologist1 to inform the reader that ,dr4 ,m4 was the first who succeeded1 by skilful removal of the surrounding chalk1 in procuring a perfect ichthyolite from the cretaceous formation of ,england4 ,the ,british ,museum is now enriched by ,dr4 ,mantell's collection of fossil fishes1 that once so much excited the admiration of ,agassiz1 when he saw them at ,brighton4 ,illustration3 ,,fossil ,,fish 7,,ichthyolite7 ,,from ,,lewes4 ,here let us again advert to the ,deluge theory1 not because our own minds are not satisfied on the point1 but because theology and science alike demand a true statement of the facts of the case4 ,we believe1 as we said in a previous chapter1 in the plenary inspiration of nature1 just as we believe that the ,scriptures were given by inspiration of ,god2 and we are quite sure that both books1 if they are not misinterpreted1 will declare the glory of ,god in one common speech1 and elevate the mind of man1 to whom they speak1 up to a more adoring trust and a profounder reverence4 ,with ,dr4 ,hitchcock we say1 8,it seems to me that the child can easily understand the geological interpretation of the ,bible and its reasons4 ,why1 then1 should it not be taught to children1 that they may not be liable to distrust the whole ,bible1 when they come to the study of geology8 ,i rejoice1 however1 that the fears and prejudices of the pious and the learned are so fast yielding to evidence2 and ,i anticipate the period1 when on this subject the child will learn the same thing in the ,sabbath school and in the literary institution4 ,nay1 ,i anticipate the time as not distant when the high antiquity of the globe will be regarded as no more opposed to the ,bible1 than the earth's revolution round the sun1 and on its axis4 ,soon shall the horizon1 where geology and revelation meet1 be cleared of every cloud1 and present only an unbroken and magnificent circle of truth40#ajg ,but to return2 this ,deluge theory refers all existing fossils to 8,noah's flood10--to that violent diluvial action1 the graphic account of which is in the book of ,genesis4 ,now1 it is impossible to believe this if we look at a fossil3 look1 for instance1 at this terebratula1 and observe how perfectly uninjured it is1 frail as is its shelly covering2 or at this plagiostoma spinosa1 and mark how susceptible it is of injury1 and yet that its brittle spines are all unbroken2 or at this inoceramus or catillus1 and observe its delicate flutings1 still in exquisite preservation1 without fracture or distortion2 or these specimens of echinites1 the ananchytes ovata1 or the spatanguscor-anguinum1 and see the markings on the shell1 the apertures of the mouth and stomach still perfect2 who can see all this and not come to the conclusion1 that these creatures1 and thousands such as these1 endured not only no violence in death1 such as a deluge would suppose1 but that at death they subsided quietly to the bottom of the sea1 there to find a fitting sepulchre of soft cretaceous matter prepared for them1 which in process of time was lifted up1 to exhibit in a hard chalky bed their forms of pristine beauty8 ,in the upper chalk every one has seen the layers of flint1 and marked their singular distribution1 in layers2 and here we would add1 that the existence of flint in chalk is one of those hard nuts which geology has not yet cracked4 ,the geologist1 the chemist1 and the zoologist have all puzzled themselves in vain to find a truly satisfactory origin for these nodules of siliceous matter4 ,we have heard it suggested that they may be coprolites2 but no one who examines the texture of a flint1 can hold that theory1 to say nothing of the idea that the coprolites have been preserved1 while the animal remains have perished4 ,we may sum up all we have to say about flints in the following words1 from that useful little book1 ,chambers's 8,rudiments of ,geology30 8,the formation of flint1 within a mass so different in composition as chalk1 is still in some respects an unsolved problem in geology4 ,it occurs in nodular masses of very irregular forms and variable magnitude2 some of these not exceeding an inch1 others more than a yard in circumference4 ,although thickly distributed in horizontal layers1 they are never in contact with each other1 each nodule being completely enveloped by the chalk4 ,externally1 they are composed of a white cherty crust2 internally1 they are of a grey or black silex1 and often contain cavities lined with chalcedony and crystallized quartz4 ,when taken from the quarry they are brittle and full of moisture1 but soon dry1 and assume their well-known hard and refractory qualities4 ,flints1 almost without exception1 enclose remains of sponges1 alcyonia1 echinida1 and other marine organisms1 the structures of which are often preserved in the most delicate and beautiful manner4 ,in some specimens the organism has undergone decomposition1 and the space it occupied either left hollow1 or partially filled with some sparry incrustation4 ,from these facts1 it would seem that flints are as much an aggregation of silex around some organized nucleus1 as septaria are aggregations of clay and carbonate of iron4 ,this is now the generally received opinion2 and when it is remembered that the organisms must have been deposited when the chalk was in a pulpy state1 there can be little difficulty in conceiving how the silex dissolved through the mass would1 by chemical affinity1 attach itself to the decaying organism4 ,chalk is composed of carbonate of lime1 with traces of clay1 silex1 and oxide of iron2 flint1 on the other hand1 consists of #ih per cent4 of pure silex1 with a trace of alumine1 oxide of iron1 and lime4 ,silex is quite capable of solution3 it occurs in the hot-springs of ,iceland and most thermal waters2 has been found in a pulpy state within basalt2 forms the tabasheer found in the cavities of the bamboo1 and the thin pellicle or outer covering of canes1 reeds1 grasses1 c42 and siliceous concretions are common in the fruits and trees of the tropics4 ,all these facts point to a very general diffusion of silex in a state of solution2 and whatever may have caused its abundance in the waters during the deposition of the upper chalk1 there can be little doubt respecting the mode in which it has been collected around the organic remains of these early seas40 ,at ,scratchell's ,bay in the ,isle of ,wight1 it will be seen that the flints are in a vertical position2 and to the most casual observer the perpendicular arrangement of these flints will supply the strongest evidence of disturbance by upheaval from below4 ,the bay in front1 called ,scratchell's ,bay1 is a small but romantic indentation in the coast of the south side of the island1 in which are the famous ,needles4 ,in the face of the cliff is a noble archway between #bjj and #cjj feet high1 which has been created by the constant action of water eating and wearing away the lower beds2 while the ,needles themselves are only isolated masses of chalk1 separated or eroded from the main land by the same erosive action4 8,to the late ,sir ,henry ,inglefield belongs the merit of having first observed and directed attention to the highly interesting phenomena of vertical chalk strata1 occasioned by the disruption and elevation of the eocene and cretaceous formations1 which are so remarkably displayed in the ,isle of ,wight1 where the vertical position of the strata1 and the shattered condition of the flint nodules1 thought still embedded in the solid chalk1 may be conveniently studied in the cliffs in the neighbourhood of ,scratchell's ,bay40#ajh ,with the study of the ,chalk formation1 we close what has been appropriately termed the 8secondary period1 or middle epoch of the ancient world20 of which it has been well said1 8,in reviewing the characters of the ,cretaceous group1 we have evidence that these varied strata are the mineralized bed of an extensive ocean1 which abounded in the usual forms of marine organic life1 as alg1 sponges1 corals1 shells1 crustacea1 fishes1 and reptiles4 ,these forms are specifically distinct from those which are discovered in the tertiary strata2 in many instances1 the genus1 in all the species1 became extinct with the close of the ,cretaceous period4 ,it affords a striking illustration of creative power1 that of the hundreds of species which composed the ,fauna and the ,flora of the ,cretaceous group1 not one species passed into the succeeding epoch40#aji ,of that old ocean with its countless tenants we have already spoken1 and conclude by applying to it the well-known lines of ,montgomery1 in his celebration of the coral insect in his 8,pelican ,island30-- ,millions of millions here1 from age to age1 ,with simplest skill1 and toil unweariable1 ,no moment and no movement unimproved1 ,laid line on line1 on terrace1 terrace spread1 ,to swell the heightening1 brightening gradual mound1 ,by marvellous structure climbing towards the day4 ,omnipotence wrought in them1 with them1 by them2 ,hence what ,omnipotence alone could do1 ,worms did4 ,illustration3 ,,waltonian ,,and ,,mantellian ,,fishermen4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,tertiary ,,system4 8,and ,god made the beast of the earth after his kind40 ,,moses4 ,in our rapid sketch of the materials constituting the crust of the earth1 we first of all1 in that imaginary section which we supposed to have been laid bare to us1 studied the characters of the hypogene rocks1#aaj that make up the ,azoic period1 in which1 with the exception of a few zoophytes1 all nature was void of animal1 life and possessed only by the genius of dread silence4 ,rising higher1 we surveyed the ,palozoic or primary rocks1 where the fishes of the ,old ,red ,sandstone convinced us of progress in the forms of life1 and taught us our first lesson in the ascending scale of those types of life with which ,palontology has now made us familiar4 ,leaving this period at the ,carboniferous era1 we entered upon the ,mesozoic1#aaa or ,secondary period1 ushered in amidst strange convulsions that must again and again have rendered the earth 8without form and void20 and here we found ourselves in company with the strange and gigantic remains of a higher order of vertebrated animals1 the saurians1 the crocodile-kings of a bygone period2 and as we pondered these hieroglyphics of past generations1 our souls 8were seized the prisoners of amaze20 and now1 in our upward ascent1 leaving behind us the scenes 8,where eldest ,night ,and ,chaos1 ancestors of nature1 held ,eternal anarchy10 we come to the ,cainozoic1#aab or ,tertiary ,rocks1 where other and higher types of life are found4 ,huge mammals1 beasts of prodigious size1 are now found inhabitants of the earth1 the precursors of man--reasoning1 intelligent1 responsible man1 who is presently to make his appearance on this great theatre of life1 8made a little lower than the angels10 to have dominion over the works of ,jehovah's power4 ,sir ,h4 de la ,beche proposes1 for tertiary1 the term 8supercretaceous20 it is1 however1 of little consequence which term is adopted1 the meaning in each case being the same1 that all the rocks or strata lying above the chalk are to be considered as belonging to the tertiary system or series4 ,confessedly1 it is a dark period in the history of those successive creations which have been engaging our attention1 for we can trace no near connexion between the secondary or older1 and tertiary or newer formations4 ,that is to say--and the bare statement appears so sufficient and final a refutation of what has been termed the 8development hypothesis10 now recognised as contradictory to fact and to ,scripture--that there are not known to exist in any of these newer strata the same beings1 or the descendants of the same beings1 that were found upon the earth at the termination of the chalk deposit4 ,nor is this all2 not only are none of the old fossils found in any one of the three divisions of this system1 but we are introduced at once to so many new ones1 that their species and genera are almost endless2 and he is not only a geologist of mark1 but a most singularly accomplished geologist1 who thoroughly understands their minute subdivisions1 and can appropriately classify the fossils of this most fossiliferous era4 ,to make the matter as simple as possible1 let us add that 8the broad distinction between tertiary and secondary rocks is a palontological one4 ,none of the secondary rocks contain any fossil animals or plants of the same species as any of those living at the present day4 ,every one of the tertiary groups do contain some fossil animals or plants of the same species as those now living40#aac ,having alluded to the threefold division of this series of rocks1 we shall proceed to notice them1 dwelling a while upon each1 and showing the principle on which each is based1 as originated and enunciated by ,lyell4 ,of the three divisions1 the first is called ,eocene 7s1 the dawn1 and kains1 recent71 by which term is represented the oldest or lowest of this tripartite series4 ,then we have the ,miocene 7mein1 less1 and kains1 recent7--a name1 we think1 not the most appropriate1 and likely to mislead the beginner1 because really it represents a series of beds1 more and not less recent than the ,eocene2 but the idea of the name is this 7and it must be carefully borne in mind71 that although it is more recent than the series of beds below1 it is less recent than those above2 it is nearer the 8dawn0 of our present era than the ,eocene1 but not so near the dawn as the ,pliocene4 ,this last term1 the ,pliocene 7from plein1 more1 and kains1 recent71 is applied to the newest of the beds of the tertiary series in which there are found many more recent than extinct shells4 ,the ,tertiary system or series1 then1 is divided into these three sections3 viz4 #a4 ,the older ,tertiary or ,eocene2 #b4 ,the middle ,tertiary or ,miocene2 and #c4 ,the newer ,tertiary or ,pliocene4 ,we used a term just now1 in quoting from ,mr4 ,juke's most useful manual1 which we will explain2 we said1 the 8distinction between the secondary and tertiary rocks is wholly a palontological one20 that is1 it is a distinction founded not on the character of the rocks1 but on the character of the organic remains found in the rocks4 8,this character10 says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 8must be used as a criterion of the age of a formation1 or of the contemporaneous origin of two deposits in different places1 under very much the same restrictions as the test of mineral composition4 8,first1 the same fossils may be traced over wide regions1 if we examine strata in the direction of their planes1 although by no means for indefinite distances4 8,secondly1 while the same fossils prevail in a particular set of strata for hundreds of miles in a horizontal direction1 we seldom meet with the same remains for many fathoms1 and very rarely for several hundred yards1 in a vertical line1 or a line transverse to the strata4 ,this fact has now been verified in almost all parts of the globe1 and has led to a conviction1 that at successive periods of the past1 the same area of land and water has been inhabited by species of animals and plants even more distinct than those which now people the antipodes1 or which now coexist in the ,arctic1 temperate1 and tropical zones4 ,it appears that1 from the remotest periods1 there has been ever a coming in of new organic forms1 and an extinction of those which pre-existed on the earth1 some species having endured for a longer1 others for a shorter time2 while none have ever reappeared after once dying out4 ,the law which has governed the creation and extinction of species seems to be expressed in the verse of the poet-- #8,nature made him1 and then broke the die2' and this circumstance it is which confers on fossils their highest value as chronological tests1 giving to each of them1 in the eyes of the geologist1 that authority which belongs to contemporary medals in history4 ,the same cannot be said of each peculiar variety of rock2 for some of these1 as red-marl and red sandstone for example1 may occur at once upon the top1 bottom1 and middle of the entire sedimentary series2 exhibiting in each position so perfect an identity of mineral aspect1 as to be undistinguishable4 ,such exact repetitions1 however1 of the same mixtures of sediment1 have not often been produced1 at distant periods1 in precisely the same parts of the globe2 and even where this has happened1 we are seldom in any danger of confounding together the monuments of remote eras1 when we have studied their imbedded fossils and relative position40#aad ,let us now briefly explain the very simple but satisfactory basis on which this threefold division of the ,tertiary rocks rests1 and then proceed to a brief explanation of each4 ,the reader will already have noted a statement on a preceding page1 to which we shall be pardoned1 if1 a second time1 we ask attention to it4 ,in imparting elementary instruction on geology we have always found our classes more or less puzzled by the tertiary system1 on account of its nomenclature and minute subdivisions1 and we have learnt from experience the importance of presenting this statement over and over again4 ,we have remarked that in the secondary rocks--that is1 up to the end of the chalk system--there are no organic remains found precisely similar to any species existing at the present day2 but when we come to the tertiary rocks1 although we find many strangers1 we find also a good many organic remains of the same kind and character as the shells1 that are now found on our shores4 ,in one part of the ,tertiary the number of fossils that belongs to existing genera is many1 in another more1 in another more still2 and upon this simple idea of positive1 comparative1 and superlative1 the present division is based4 ,taking the percentage principle as a guide1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell and a distinguished ,french geologist1 ,m4 ,deshayes1 have ascertained that in the lowest beds of this system there were only #c per cent4 of fossil shells similar to existing species1 and this1 for 8the sake of clearness and brevity10 says ,sir ,charles1 8was called the ,eocene period1 or the period of the dawn1 the dawn of our modern era so far as its testaceous fauna are concerned40 ,rising higher in the examination of these rocks1 certain strata were found containing #ah per cent4 of fossil shells1 similar to shells found now2 and to this was given the name of ,miocene1 the puzzling name already spoken of1 because it means less recent1 whereas it is in reality more recent1 and is to be understood in relation to the series below1 and not to the series above4 ,a step higher up in this system revealed deposits of a coralline and craggy character1 in which #da per cent4 of fossil shells like those of the present era were found2 and to this the name of ,pliocene1 or more recent still1 was given2 and latterly1 in ,sicily chiefly1 a series of strata has been discovered1 referable to the ,tertiary1 in which #ie per cent4 of recent species of shells have been found1 and to this series the name of ,post-,pliocene1 or ,pleistocene1 has been given4 ,before our description of each of these divisions1 let us add1 that 8the organic remains of the system constitute its most important and interesting feature4 ,the fossils of earlier periods presented little analogy1 often no resemblance1 to existing plants and animals2 here1 however1 the similitude is frequently so complete1 that the naturalist can scarcely point out a distinction between them and living races4 ,geology thus unfolds a beautiful gradation of being1 from the corals1 molluscs1 and simple crustacea of the grauwacke--the enamelled fishes1 crinoidea1 and cryptogamic plants of the lower secondary--the chambered shells1 sauroid reptiles1 and marsupial mammalia of the upper secondary--up to the true dicotyledonous trees1 birds1 and gigantic quadrupeds of the tertiary epoch4 ,the student must not1 however1 suppose that the fossils of this era bring him up to the present point of organic nature1 for thousands of species which then lived and flourished became in their turn extinct1 and were succeeded by others long before man was placed on the earth as the head of animated existence4 ,of ,plants1 few marine species have been detected2 but the fresh-water beds have yielded cycade1 coniferae1 palms1 willows1 elms1 and other species1 exhibiting the true dicotyledonous structure4 ,nuts allied to those of the cocoa and other palms have been discovered in the ,london clay2 and seeds of the fresh-water charace1 or stoneworts1 known by the name of gyrgonites 7,gr41 gyros1 curved1 and gonos1 seed71 are common in the same deposit4 ,of the ,radiata1 ,articulata1 and ,mollusca1 so many belong to existing genera1 that this circumstance has suggested the classification of tertiary rocks according to the number of recent species which they contain40--,chambers' ,outlines1 p4 #adg4 ,let us now begin the ,eocene period4 ,the most remarkable formations of this period are the ,london and ,hampshire basins4 ,of the ,london basin we have already spoken in a previous chapter2 a few additional remarks will be sufficient4 ,the diagrams #d and #e1 p4 #be1 will explain these tertiary deposits better than any verbal explanation2 and when it is remembered that this bed of clay is probably a thousand feet in thickness1 we get a passing illustration of the folly of those puerile reports which a few years since were industriously circulated about a coming earthquake in ,london4 ,poor1 uneducated people took up the alarm rather anxiously1 never dreaming of what any tyro in science would have told them--that supposing there was a subterranean chimney on fire down below1 there was a wet blanket under their feet composed of a thousand feet of sodden and solid clay1 a blanket of the material they may see in the deep cuttings of the ,great ,northern ,railway in and about ,london1 that would most effectually have put out any fire1 or checked the progress of any earthquake1 just as a cannon-ball is stopped dead by a woolsack4 ,a run down the river ,thames will take any one who has a day to spare to the isle of ,sheppey1 where he will be amply rewarded by seeing1 on the north side of the island1 an exposure of this formation in the cliff laid bare to the height of #bjj feet1 and which pleasure trip will be amply rewarded by the discovery in situ of the fossil tropical plants1 c41 that once flourished in the neighbourhood of our cold and foggy ,london4 8,at the entrance of the ,thames1 the ,london clay extends on both sides of the river1 and is admirably exhibited in the isle of ,sheppey1 which consists entirely of this stratum4 ,the cliffs on the north side of the island are upwards of #bjj feet high1 and are cut down vertically by the action of the sea2 they have long been celebrated for the remarkable abundance and variety of the organic remains obtained from them1 amongst which1 perhaps1 the most interesting are the fruits1 berries1 and woody seed-vessels of several hundred species of plants4 ,from the same locality there have also been obtained the remains of upwards of fifty species of fish1 and a considerable number of crustaceans1 and many other invertebrata2 besides some remarkable bones which have been described by ,professor ,owen1 and which indicate the former existence in this island of large serpents1 and of such birds as prey upon small reptiles and mammalia4 ,many of these fossils1 especially those of plants1 are very difficult to preserve1 owing to the great tendency of the iron pyrites1 which enter largely into their composition1 to effloresce and be destroyed by exposure to the atmosphere40#aae ,passing from the ,london basin to the ,hampshire basin or ,barton beds1 we shall first give a group of the shells found here2 and we wish our readers could look at them as they lie before us in their condition of most exquisite preservation1 so exquisite1 that those who have seen them have involuntarily and frequently exclaimed1 8,but these can't be fossils60 ,i know of no picture-painting of past history so touching1 and yet so true1 as these lovely specimens of the shells of the pre-,adamite condition of ,england in all their native simplicity4 ,to those who see in them shells1 and only shells1 why1 in the name of the prophet1 give them figs1 while we again remember ,wordsworth's hero1-- 8,a primrose on the river brim1 ,a yellow primrose was to him1 ,and it was nothing more40 ,to us they speak a wondrous story1 replete with the knowledge that maketh glad the heart of man1 because it is purifying1 elevating knowledge2 and though it does not teach the peculiar truths of theology1 and we heartily wish that geology had been allowed to tell only its own tale of ,creation--for here1 as elsewhere1 8,nature1 when unadorned1 ,is then adorned the most0-- instead of being put to the rack1 and made to suggest the special truths of ,revelation1#aaf with which it has nothing to do2--although1 we say1 it does not teach the peculiar and special truths for which a ,revelation was needed1 it everywhere throws light on the boundless treasures of wisdom and care and beneficent ,providence of the ,god of revelation4 ,but again we catch ourselves sermonizing3 to the diagram4 ,illustration3 ,,fossils ,,from ,,the ,,london ,,clay4 #a4 ,,tellina ,,crassa4 #b4 ,,chama ,,squamosa4 #c4 ,,turritella ,,imbricataria4 #d4 ,,fusus ,,asper4 #e4 ,,pleurotoma ,,colon4 #f4 ,,murex ,,tubifer4 #g4 ,,aporhais ,,pes-,,pelicani4 #h4 ,,voluta ,,luctator 7or luctatrix74 #i4 ,,trochus ,,monolifer3 the necklace trochus4 #aj4 ,,venericardia ,,cor-,,avium4 #aa4 ,,fusus ,,bulbiformis3 the bulb fusus4 ,these fossils we obtained from the neighbourhood of ,christchurch2 and as these sheets were being written1 we received from ,dr4 ,mantell's 8,geological ,excursions in the ,isle of ,wight10 the following appropriate description of them3 8,the numerous marine fossil shells which are obtained from this part of the coast of ,hampshire1 are generally known as ,hordwell fossils2 but it is scarcely necessary to remark1 that they almost entirely belong to the ,london clay strata1 and are procured from ,barton cliffs4 ,these fossils are most conveniently obtained from the low cliff near ,beacon ,bunny1 and occur in greatest abundance in the upper part of the dark green sandy clay4 ,there are generally blocks of the indurated portions of the strata on the beach1 from which fossils may be extracted4 ,a collection of ,hordwell fossils1 consisting of the teeth of several species of sharks and rays1 bones of turtles1 and a great variety of shells1 may be purchased at a reasonable price of ,jane ,webber1 dealer in fossils1 ,barton cliff1 near ,christchurch40--7,p4 #abd47 ,before leaving the ,eocene1 or rather the ,london clay of the ,eocene1 we will give a drawing of a fossil in our possession4 ,the drawing opposite represents a piece of fossil wood1 pierced through and through by ,teredin1 a boring mollusk allied to the ,teredo1 which still proves so destructive to our vessels4 ,although the wood is converted into a stony mass1 and in some parts covered by calcareous matter1 the same as is found in the septaria1 so common in these beds1 to which we shall presently direct attention1 still the grain and woody texture are most distinct4 ,this wood was once probably floating down what we now call the ,thames1 when these piercing1 boring mollusks seized hold upon it1 penetrated its soft texture1 and lived1 moved1 and had their being down at the bottom of the river in their self-constructed chambers4 ,time rolled on1 and the log of wood is floated upon the shore1 and there it lies to harden and to dry2 again the log is drifted away1 and1 buried in some soft bed of clay1 is preserved from rotting4 ,in process of time it again sees the light2 but now saturated by argillaceous material1 and when hardened by the sun1 becomes the petrifaction such as we see it4 ,illustration3 ,,wood ,,perforated ,,ry ,,teredina ,,personata1 ,,london ,,clay4 ,here let us refer to the septaria1 of which we have just spoken2 two specimens lie before us1 which we will briefly describe4 ,in one 7#a7 the clay is in distinct lozenge-shaped masses of a blue colour1 while veins of calcareous spar or crystallized carbonate of lime surround these1 which are capable of a beautiful marble-like polish2 in the other 7#b7 the clay is of the same colour1 only in larger proportions1 and the spar is of a deep brown colour1 while here and there portions of iron pyrites may be seen2 they become beautiful ornaments in a room when cut and polished4 ,it should be added1 that the septaria are not without their economic uses1 being extensively used as cement after being stamped and burnt4 ,illustration3 ,,septaria ,here we may leave this brief sketch of the ,eocene1 or lowest beds of the ,tertiary4 ,a new creation has been introduced to our view2 and although we still wait for the coming of man--the lord and interpreter of all--the contemplation of these successive acts and centres of creation fills our minds with renewed admiration and reverence of ,him for whom1 and by whom1 and to whom are all things4 ,thus 8even ,geology1 while it has exhumed and revivified long buried worlds1 peopled with strange forms in which we can feel little more than a speculative interest1 and compared with which the most savage dweller in the wilderness of the modern period--jackal1 hyna1 or obscene vulture--is as a cherished pet and bosom friend1 has made for us new bonds of connexion between remote regions of the earth as it is1 on account of which we owe it a proportionate share of gratitude40#aag ,no4 ,,ii4--,the ,miocene4 ,we shall briefly pass over this period4 ,at ,bordeaux1 ,piedmont1 and in ,lisbon1 this formation is seen2 as well as in various other parts of the ,continent of ,europe4 ,the supposition of ,geology is1 that during this period 8whole regions of volcanoes burst forth1 whose lofty but now tranquil cones can be seen in ,catalonia1 in ,spain1 in ,france1 ,switzerland1 ,asia1 and in ,america4 ,the ,alps1 the ,carpathian ,mountains1 and other lofty ranges were at this period partially upheaved4 ,the researches of ,sir ,robert ,murchison have established this fact1 by his finding deep beds of limestone1 characteristic of the ,tertiary period1 on the summit of one of the loftiest of the ,alps1 fully ten thousand feet above the level of the sea40 ,no4 ,,iii4--,the ,pliocene ,period4 ,this term has already been explained4 ,we shall only detain the reader by a few words respecting the organic remains that characterize this formation4 ,in ,england it is confined to the eastern part of the county of ,suffolk1 where it is called 8,crag40 ,this is a mere provincial name1 given particularly to those masses of shelly sand which are used to fertilize lands deficient in calcareous matter4 ,the geological name given to this strata is the 8,red or ,coralline ,crag20 and it is so called on account of the deep ferruginous colour its fossils have through extensive oxidization of iron4 ,we give drawings of the fossils of the ,red ,crag1 obtained from the neighbourhood of ,ipswich4 ,illustration3 ,,fossils ,,from ,,the ,,red ,,crag1 ,,near ,,ipswich4 #a4 ,,venericardia ,,senilis4 #b4 ,,turritella4 #c4 ,,patella ,,qualis4 #d4 ,,cyprea4 #e4 ,,paludina ,,lenta4 #f4 ,,pectunculus ,,variabilis4 #g4 ,,murex4 #h4 ,,fusus ,,contrarius4 #i4 ,,buccinum ,,elongata4 #aj4 ,,venericardia ,,scalaris4 #aa4 ,,voluta ,,lamberti4 #ab4 ,,fusus ,,asper4 #ac4 ,,pectunculus ,,pilosus4 ,but these are not the only fossils of this period2 it is here we meet1 and that for the first time1 with the highest form of animal life with which the researches of geology have made us acquainted4 ,we have traced life in various forms in the different rocks that have passed under our rapid survey1 and in all we have seen a wondrous and most orderly gradation4 ,we began with the coral zoophytes1 and from them proceeded to the mollusks and crustacea of the hypogene rocks2 ascending1 we discovered 8fish with glittering scales10 associated with the crinoids and cryptogamous plants of the secondary series of rocks2 and then we arrive where we are now1 among the true dicotyledonous and exogenous plants and trees1 with the strange birds and gigantic quadrupeds of the tertiary period4 ,but the student must not imagine that even the fossils of this epoch bring him up to the modern era1 or the reign of man2 for even in the tertiary system numberless species lived and flourished1 which in their turn became extinct1 to be succeeded by others long before man1 the chief of animals and something more1 made his appearance1 to hold dominion over these manifold productions of creative skill and power4 ,but amidst these creations1 8,god was everywhere1 the ,god who framed ,mankind to be one mighty human family1 ,himself their ,father1 and the world their home40 ,it would be altogether beside the purpose of this preliminary treatise to enter into any details respecting the animals that have been found in such abundance in the ,norwich ,crag1 that it has been called the 8,mammaliferous ,crag40 ,those who desire full and deeply interesting information on this question should consult ,owen's noble work1 entitled 8,british ,fossil ,mammals and ,birds10 where1 under the respective divisions of ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pliocene1 he will see a complete chart of our riches in the possessions of a past creation4 ,for the discovery of the ,siberian ,mammoth so often quoted1 we shall refer to the same work1 page #bag1 c42 from which we shall only quote one brief extract1 illustrative of the abundance of these remains in our own coasts in the ages past4 8,mr4 ,woodward1 in his #8,geology of ,norfolk1' supposes that upwards of two thousand grinders of the mammoth have been dredged up by the fishermen of the little village of ,happisburgh in the space of thirteen years4 ,the oyster-bed was discovered here in #ahbj2 and during the first twelve months hundreds of the molar teeth of mammoths were landed in strange association with the edible mollusca4 ,great quantities of the bones and tusks of the mammoth are1 doubtless1 annually destroyed by the action of the waves of the sea4 ,remains of the mammoth are hardly less numerous in ,suffolk1 especially in the pleistocene beds along the coast1 and at ,stutton2--they become more rare in the fluvio-marine crag at ,southwold and ,thorp4 ,the village of ,walton1 near ,harwich1 is famous for the abundance of these fossils1 which lie along the base of the sea-cliffs1 mixed with bones of species of horse1 ox1 and deer40#aah ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,megatherium ,,cuvieri 7,,americanum74 ,all the animals of this period are called theroid animals3 from therion1 a wild beast2 and looking at the skeletons as they have been arranged from the few existing fossils1 or from nearly complete materials--a matter not of guess-work1 but of the most rigid application of the principles of comparative anatomy--we stand astounded at the prodigious sizes of these mammoths of the tertiary era4 ,there is the deinotherium1 or fierce wild beast2 the palotherium1 or ancient wild beast2 the anoplotherium1 or unarmed wild beast1 and others4 ,we give above a drawing of the well-known megatherium1 or great wild beast1 to be seen in the ,british ,museum1 and add the following from ,mantell's ,guide to the ,fossils of the ,british ,museum3--8,this stupendous extinct animal of the sloth tribe was first made known to ,european naturalists by a skeleton1 almost entire1 dug up in #aghi1 on the banks of a river in ,south ,america1 named the ,luxon1 about three miles south-east of ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the specimen was sent to ,madrid1 and fixed up in the ,museum1 in the form represented in numerous works on natural history4 ,a second skeleton was exhumed at ,lima1 in #agie2 and of late years ,sir ,woodbine ,parish1 ,mr4 ,darwin1 and other naturalists have sent bones of the megatherium1 and other allied genera1 to ,england4 ,the model of the megatherium has been constructed with great care from the original bones1 in the ,wall-cases #i1 #aj1 and in the ,hunterian ,museum4 ,the attitude given to the skeleton1 with the right arm clasping a tree1 is1 of course1 hypothetical2 and the position of the hinder toes and feet does not appear to be natural4 ,altogether1 however1 the construction is highly satisfactory2 and a better idea of the colossal proportions of the original is conveyed by this model1 than could otherwise be obtained40#aai ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,mastodon ,,ohioticus1 ,,from ,,north ,,america4 7,height1 #i feet2 length1 #bj feet47 ,we give below a drawing of the 8,mastodon ,ohioticus20 for the following account of which we are indebted to the same source4 ,it will be found in ,room #f1 figure #a4--8,this fine skeleton was purchased by the trustees of the ,british ,museum of ,albert ,koch1 a well-known collector of fossil remains2 who had exhibited1 in the ,egyptian ,hall1 ,piccadilly1 under the name of the ,missourium1 or ,leviathan of the ,missouri1 an enormous osteological monster1 constructed of the bones of this skeleton1 together with many belonging to other individuals--the tusks being fixed in their sockets so as to curve outwards on each side of the head4 ,from this heterogeneous assemblage of bones1 those belonging to the same animal were selected1 and are articulated in their natural juxtaposition40#abj ,illustration3 ,,fossil ,,human ,,skeleton1 ,,from ,,guadaloupe4 7,the original #d feet #b inches long1 by #b feet wide47 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,cliff ,,at ,,gaudaloupe4 ,in ,wall-case ,d of the ,british ,museum1 may be seen a fossil skeleton of a human being1 brought from the island of ,guadaloupe1 the consideration of which must for ever remove any idea that may exist about man being contemporaneous with the theroidal mammals of which we have been speaking4#aba ,professor ,whewell has remarked that the 8gradation in form between man and other animals is but a slight and unimportant feature in contemplating the great subject of the origin of the human race4 ,even if we had not revelation to guide us1 it would be most unphilosophical to attempt to trace back the history of man1 without taking into account the most remarkable facts in his nature3 the facts of civilization1 arts1 government1 speech--his traditions--his internal wants--his intellectual1 moral1 and religious constitution4 ,if we will attempt a retrospect1 we must look at all these things as evidence of the origin and end of man's being2 and we do thus comprehend1 in one view1 the whole of the argument--it is impossible for us to arrive at an origin homogeneous with the present order of things4 ,on this subject1 the geologist may1 therefore1 be well content to close the volume of the earth's physical history1 and open that divine record which has for its subject the moral and religious nature of man40 8,mysterious framework of bone1 locked up in the solid marble1--unwonted prisoner of the rock6 an irresistible voice shall yet call thee out of thy stony matrix4 ,the other organisms1 thy partners in the show1 are incarcerated in the lime for ever1--thou but for a term4 ,how strangely has the destiny of the race to which thou belongest re-stamped with new meanings the old phenomena of creation6444 ,when thou wert living1 prisoner of the marble1 haply as an ,indian wife and mother1 ages ere the keel of ,columbus had disturbed the waves of the ,atlantic1 the high standing of thy species had imparted new meanings to death and the rainbow4 ,the prismatic arch had become the bow of the covenant1 and death a great sign of the unbending justice and purity of the ,creator1 and of the aberration and fall of the living soul1 formed in the ,creator's own image1--reasoning1 responsible man40#abb ,,finis3--,,the ,,geologist',s ,,dream4 ,illustration3 ,,alarm1 ,,but ,,no ,,danger4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,scripture ,,and ,,geology2 ,,or1 ,,apparent ,,contradictions ,,reconciled4 8,by ,him were all things created1 that are in heaven1 and that are in earth1 visible and invisible1 whether they be thrones1 or dominions1 or principalities1 or powers2 all things were created by ,him1 and for ,him2 and ,he is before all things1 and by ,him all things consist40--,,paul4 ,we have in the course of the previous volume alluded to certain discrepancies1 supposed to exist between the statements of ,scripture1 and the teachings of ,geology4 ,we have more than once intimated our intention of discussing at some length these questions1 that have so long been tabooed by truly religious people1 and often needlessly exaggerated by those who have possessed a 8microscopic eye10 in the discovery of the weak points of ,christian faith or opinion4 ,dropping the convenient and euphonious form of egotism1 which allows sovereigns and authors to adopt the plural1 we shall crave to stand before our readers in our personal and singular1 rather than in our impersonal and plural1 form of speech4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the reader let me first say1 that while ,i do not wish to appear before him as an advocate1 as if ,i held a brief or had a retaining fee on behalf of ,moses1 ,i nevertheless feel rather keenly that the 8reverend0 put before my name may give something like this aspect to all my remarks4 ,it may be thought1 and that honestly enough1 that because mine is the clerical profession1 ,i am bound1 per fas aut nefas1 to contend for the authority of ,scripture4 ,it may be thought--in fact1 it is daily alleged against us--that the particular 8stand-point0 we occupy is an unfair one1 inasmuch as a preacher is bound to 8stick to the ,bible20 and indeed that he always comes to it with certain priori conclusions1 that to a great extent invalidate his reasonings1 and destroy the morality of his arguments4 ,possibly there may be more truth in this than any of us dream of3 fas est ab hoste doceri4 ,i therefore make no professions of honesty1 and appeal to no one's feelings2 let us go and look at the ,bible1 and at the earth's crust1 and be guided by our independent researches4 ,should this happen to be read by any one whose mind is out of joint with ,scripture2 who no longer reposes with satisfaction on the old book of his childhood and his youth2 who has begun to fear1--perhaps to think that it is only a collection of 8cunningly devised0 fables2 and who is on the verge of giving up ,christianity and all 8that sort of thing20 to such an one ,i shall speak1 supposing him to be as honest in his doubts as ,i am in my convictions4 ,i cannot deal with man as if he had no right to doubt2 ,i have never yet 8pooh-poohed0 any one's unbelief2 but ,i have always striven to regard all doubts expressed in courteous phrase1 as the result of investigation1 even though it may be partial1 as the fruit of study1 although it may have been misguided1 and as the painful conclusions of a thinking mind1 and not cherished for the sake of 8having a fling0 at moral truth or a righteous life1 or at the mothers and sisters whose life 8remote from public haunt0 has saved them from ever doubting the truth of revelation4 ,doubting and scorning are very opposite phases of mind3 we here address the doubter2 with the scorner we have nothing to do2 if ridicule is his substitute for argument1 by all means let him enjoy it2 and if calling names is his substitute for patient investigation1 let him enjoy that pastime also--hard words break no bones2 but for the doubter1 for the man who has his honest difficulties1 and finds large stumbling-blocks in the path of unresisting acquiescence in household faiths1 for such an one ,i have much to say in this chapter1 if he will read it1--to him ,i stretch forth my hand in cordial greeting1 and invite him to examine evidence1 and consider facts2 and then1 whatever may be the result1 whether ,i shake his doubts or he shake my faith1 we shall at least have acted a manly and a straightforward part4 ,at any rate1 we ought ever to meet as friends1 and to be candid and forbearing1 as men liable to err through manifold besetments and biasses4 ,having thus thrown myself upon my reader's candour1 by a clear avowal of the spirit in which such controversies ought to be conducted1 let us together proceed to the purpose of this chapter4 ,between ,geology and ,scripture interpretation there are apparent and great contradictions--that all admit3 on the very threshold of our future remarks1 let us allow most readily that between the usually recognised interpretations of ,scripture and the well-ascertained facts of ,geological science1 there are most appalling contradictions2 and the questions arising thence are very important1 both in a scientific and in a theological point of view4 ,is there any method of reconciliation1 by which the harmony of the facts of science with the statements of the ,bible can be shown8 ,where is the real solution to be found8 ,are we mistaken in our interpretations1 or are we mistaken in our discoveries8 ,have we to begin religion again de novo1 or may the ,bible and the ,book of ,nature remain just as we have been accustomed to regard them2 both as equally inspired books of ,god1 waiting only the service and worship of man1 their priest and interpreter8 ,these are questions surely of no common importance4 ,neither the ,christian nor the doubter act a consistent part in ignoring them4 ,should the ,christian say1 8,i want no teachings of science3 ,i want no learned phrases and learned researches to assist me in understanding my ,bible3 for aught ,i care1 all the #8ologies' in the world may perish as carnal literature3 ,i know the ,book is true1 and decline any controversy with the mere intellectual disputant20 and if the ,christian should go on to add1 as probably he would in such a state of mind1 and as1 alas6 too many have done to the lasting disgust and alienation of the thoughtful and intelligent3 8,these are the doubts of a #8philosophy falsely so called3' science has nothing to do with ,revelation3 they have separate paths to pursue2 let them each go their own way3 and should there come a collision between the two1 we are prepared to give up all science once and for ever1 whatever it may teach1 rather than have our views upon ,revelation disturbed30--now1 if the ,christian talks like that1 he is acting a most unwise part4 ,he is doing in his limited sphere of influence what the ,prussian ,government intended to have done when ,strauss' 8,life of ,christ0 appeared4 ,it was the heaviest blow that unbelief had ever struck against ,christianity1 and the ,government of ,prussia with several theological professors were disposed to prosecute its author1 and forbid the sale of the book4 ,but the great ,neander deprecated this course1 as calculated to give the work a spurious celebrity1 and as wearing the aspect of a confession that the book was unanswerable4 ,he advised that it should be met1 not by authority1 but by argument1 believing that the truth had nothing to fear in such a conflict4 ,his counsel prevailed1 and the event has shown that he was right4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the doubter should say1 8,the intelligence of the day has outgrown our household faiths2 men are no longer to be held in trammels of weakness and superstition1 or to be dragooned into ,religion2--the old story about the ,bible1 why1 you know we can't receive that1 and look upon those compilations that pass by that name as divinely inspired ,books2 we have long since been compelled to abandon the thought that ,christianity has any historic basis1 or that its ,books have any claim upon the reverence or faith of the nineteenth century1 as of supernatural origin40 ,to such an one ,i should say1 that this begging of the question1 this petitio principii1 is no argument2 these are statements that require every one of them a thorough demonstration before they are admitted2 you deny the ,christian one single postulate3 you deny him the liberty of taking anything for granted2 and then begin yourself with demanding his assent unquestioned to so large a postulate as your very first utterance involves1 8that the intelligence of the age has outgrown our household faiths40 ,before you proceed you must prove that2 and we must know what is meant by those terms1 before we can stand upon common ground1 and hold anything like argument upon these debated points4 ,from such general observations let us come to the precise objects before us3 ,geology and ,scripture are supposed to be at variance specially on three points4 ,the age of the earth3 the introduction of death3 and the ,noachian ,deluge4 ,these apparent contradictions are the most prominent difficulties1 and cause the most startling doubts among those who imagine ,science to be antagonistic to ,christian revelation4 ,i propose to devote a little attention to each of these questions1 while ,i endeavour honestly to show how1 in my opinion1 apparent contradictions may be reconciled4 ,the questions are these1 to state them in a popular form3 #a4 ,is the world more than #f1jjj years old8 and if it is1 how are the statements of ,scripture and ,geology to be reconciled8 #b4 ,was death introduced into the world before the fall of man8 and if it was1 how are the truths of ,scripture on this question to be explained8 and1 #c4 ,what was the character of the ,noachian ,deluge8 was it partial or universal8 and what are the apparent discrepancies in this case1 between science and the ,bible8 ,perhaps before ,i proceed a step further ,i ought to add that1 in my belief1 the age of the earth1 so far as its material fabric1 i4e4 its crust1 is concerned1 dates back to a period so remote1 and so incalculable1 that the epoch of the earth's creation is wholly unascertained and unascertainable by our human arithmetic2 whether this is contradicted in the ,scripture1 is another question4 ,with regard to the introduction of death1 ,i believe that death upon a most extensive scale prevailed upon the earth1 and in the waters that are under the earth1 ages1 yea countless ages1 before the creation of man--before the sin of any human being had been witnessed2 that is what ,geology teaches most indisputably3 whether the ,scriptures contradict this statement1 is another question4 ,with regard to the ,noachian ,deluge1 ,i believe that it was quite partial in its character1 and very temporary in its duration2 that it destroyed only those animals that were found in those parts of the earth then inhabited by man2 and that it has not left one single shell1 or fossil1 or any drift or other remains that can be traced to its action4 ,whether the ,scriptures teach any other doctrine1 is another question4 ,by this time the ground between us is narrowed1 and ,i may probably anticipate that ,i shall have objections to answer1 or misapprehensions to remove1 quite as much on the part of those who devoutly believe1 as on the part of those who honestly doubt the ,christian ,scriptures4 ,first then1 ,i4 ,how old is the world8 ,how many years is it since it was called into being1 as one of the planets8 ,how many centuries have elapsed since its first particle of matter was created8 ,the answer comes from a thousand voices1 8,how old8 why1 #f1jjj years1 and no more1 or closely thereabouts6 ,every child knows that2--talk about the age of the world at this time of day1 when the ,bible clearly reveals it60 ,now ,i ask1 ,where does the ,bible reveal it8 ,where is the chapter and the verse in which its age is recorded8 ,i have read my ,bible somewhat1 and feel a deepening reverence for it1 but as yet ,i have never read that4 ,i see the age of man recorded there2 ,i see the revelation that says the human species is not much more than #f1jjj years old2 and geology says this testimony is true1 for no remains of man have been found even in the tertiary system1 the latest of all the geological formations4 8,the ,bible1 the writings of ,moses10 says ,dr4 ,chalmers1 8do not fix the antiquity of the globe2 if they fix any thing at all1 it is only the antiquity of the species40 ,it may be said that the ,bible does not dogmatically teach this doctrine of the antiquity of the globe2 and we reply1 ,very true2 but how have we got the idea that the ,bible was to teach us all physical science1 as well as theology4 ,turretin went to the ,bible for ,astronomy3 ,turretin was a distinguished professor of theology in his day1 and has left behind him large proofs of scholarship and piety4 ,well1 ,turretin went to the ,bible1 determined to find his system of astronomy in it2 and of course he found it4 8,the sun10 he says1 8is not fixed in the heavens1 but moves through the heavens1 and is said in ,scripture to rise and to set1 and by a miracle to have stood still in the time of ,joshua2 if the sun did not move1 how could birds1 which often fly off through an hour's circuit1 be able to return to their nests1 for in the mean time the earth would move #dej miles80 ,and if it be said in reply1 that ,scripture speaks according to common opinion1 then says ,turretin1 8,we answer1 that the ,spirit of ,god best understands natural things1 and is not the author of any error40 ,we smile at such 8ecclesiastical drum0 noise now1 and we can well afford to do so3 but when people go to the ,bible1 determined to find there1 not a central truth1 but the truths of physics1 in every department of natural science1 are we to be surprised that they come away disappointed and angry8 ,as ,michaelis says1 7quoted by ,dr4 ,harris1 in his 8,man ,primeval10 p4 #ab17 8,should a stickler for ,copernicus and the true system of the world carry his zeal so far as to say1 that the city of ,berlin sets at such an hour1 instead of making use of the common expression1 that the sun sets at ,berlin at such an hour1 he speaks the truth1 to be sure1 but his manner of speaking it is pedantry40 ,now1 this is just the way to make thoughtful men unbelievers3 and we will not adopt that plan1 because it is not honest1 neither is it clever2 the ,gordian knot of every question might easily be solved in this way4 ,bearing in mind that the question we are now trying to solve is this1 8,what is the evidence afforded by ,geology1 as to the history of creation1 and in what way does the geological age of the world affect the supposed statement of ,scripture1 that the world is only #f1jjj years old80 ,i reply thus1 and ,i prefer to use the words of others rather than my own1 lest it should be supposed that ,i am introducing mere novelties of opinion on this subject3--8,that the first sentence in ,genesis is a simple1 independent1 all-comprehending axiom to this effect2 that matter1 elementary or combined1 aggregated only or organized1 and dependent1 sentient and intellectual beings have not existed from eternity1 either in self-continuity or in succession3 but had a beginning2 that their beginning took place by the all-powerful will of ,one ,being1 the self-existent1 independent and infinite in all perfection1 and that the date of that beginning is not made known40 ,these are the words of ,dr4 ,pye ,smith1#abc of whose name as an authority1 both in matters of science and philology1 no one need be ashamed4 ,dr4 ,redford says1 8,we ought to understand ,moses as saying1 indefinitely1 far back1 and concealed from us in the mystery of eternal ages1 prior to the first moment of mundane time1 #8,god created the heavens and the earth4'0 8,my firm persuasion is10 says ,dr4 ,harris1 8that the first verse of ,genesis was designed by the ,divine ,spirit to announce the absolute origination of the material universe by the ,almighty ,creator1 and that it is so understood in the other parts of ,holy ,writ2 that1 passing by an indefinite interval1 the second verse describes the state of our planet immediately prior to the ,adamic creation2 and that the third verse begins the account of the six days' work40 ,dr4 ,davidson1 in his 8,sacred ,hermeneutics10 says1--8,if ,i am reminded1 in a tone of animadversion1 that ,i am making science1 in this instance1 the interpreter of ,scripture1 my reply is1 that ,i am simply making the works of ,god illustrate ,his word in a department in which they speak with a distinct and authoritative voice2 that it is all the same whether our geological or theological investigations have been prior1 if we have not forced the one into accordance with the other4 ,and it may be deserving consideration whether or not the conduct of those is not open to just animadversion who first undertake to pronounce on the meaning of a passage of ,scripture1 irrespective of all appropriate evidence1 and who then1 when that evidence is explored and produced1 insist on their priori interpretation as the only true one40 ,but ,i quote no more3 such are some of the eminent theological contributions to this department of science3--satisfactory in this respect1 that a fair interpretation of ,scripture does not require us to fix any precise date1 much less the inconsiderable one of six thousand years1 as the period of the earth's formation4 ,geology teaches the same thing4--,of the various formations that compose the earth's trust1 to the ascertained extent of ten miles1 suppose we select two1--the ,old ,red ,sandstone and the ,chalk formations4 ,laborious and scientific men have been at the pains to calculate the gradual increase of some of these now proceeding deposits1--such as the ,deltas1 in course of formation at the mouth of the ,nile1 and at the gorges of the ,ganges2 and they find that the progress of the depth of increase is exceedingly small1--probably not more than a foot in many years4 ,mr4 ,maculloch1 a name standing very high for accurate investigation1 states1 from his own observation1 that a particular ,scottish lake does not form its deposit at the bottom1 and hence raise its level1 at the rate of more than half-a-foot in a century2 and he observes1 that the country surrounding that lake presents a vertical depth of far more than #c1jjj feet1 in the single series of the ,old ,red ,sandstone formation2 and no sound geologist1 he hence concludes1 will1 therefore1 accuse the computer of exceeding1 if1 upon the same ratio as the contiguous lake1 he allows #fjj1jjj years for the production of this series of rock alone4 ,a last instance which may here be adduced1 of the apparent length of time required for the construction of a particular rock1 offers itself in the ,chalk formation4 ,the enormous masses of this rock1 presenting their tall white precipices in such simple grandeur to our view1 might well excite our astonishment at the periods which would seem needful for their collection and deposition1 even if they were mere inorganic concretions of calcareous matter4 ,but what shall we say when the investigations of the microscope have lately revealed to us that these mountains of chalk1 instead of being formed of mere inert matter1 are1 on the contrary1 mighty congeries of decayed animal life1--the white apparent particles1 of which the chalk masses are composed1 being each grain a well-defined organized being1 in form still so perfect1 their shells so entire1 and all their characteristics so discoverable1 as to cause no doubt to naturalists as to the species in the animal economy to which they belonged4 ,how justly does ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 who in his 8,elements0 records at length this surprising discovery1 exclaim1-- 8,the dust we tread upon was once alive60 8,look at the lofty precipices which lay naked a slight section of the ,chalk at the ,culvers1 or the ,needles in the ,isle of ,wight1 or the still loftier ,shakspeare ,cliff at ,dover1 and let the mind form a conception1 if it can1 of the countless generations of these minutest of living creatures it must have required to build up1 from their decayed bodies and their shelly exuvi1 layer on layer1 those towering masses thus brought to our view4 ,who shall dare to compute the time for this entire elaboration8 ,the contemplation almost advances us a step towards forming a conception of infinitude40#abd ,i need not dwell longer on the antiquity of the globe3--,geology and ,scripture present no conflicting testimonies on this subject4 ,our interpretation of ,scripture has1 undoubtedly1 been modified2 but the living ,word itself abideth1 in all its grandeur and purity1 for ever4 ,and 8the time is not far distant when the high antiquity of the globe will be regarded as no more opposed to the ,bible than the earth's revolution round the sun and on its axis4 ,soon shall the horizon1 where geology and revelation meet1 be cleared of every cloud1 and present only an unbroken and magnificent circle of truth40#abe ,the reader shall not be detained so long on the second point of inquiry1 which is ,,ii4 8,was death introduced into the world before the fall of man8 and if it was1 how are the statements of ,scripture1 on this question1 to be explained80 ,to this ,i have replied by anticipation1 that1 in my opinion1 death1 upon a most extensive scale1 prevailed upon the earth1 and in the waters that are under the earth1 countless ages before the creation of man4 ,into the proof of this position allow me to go very briefly1 although ,i am well aware that ,i run the risk of incurring the charge of heterodoxy1 when ,i state my full conviction1 that death1 as well as the world1 was pre-,adamite4 ,the general impression is the contrary2 but general impressions are not always right3--8general impression0 is a very unsubstantial ghost to deal with1 very like that cant phrase we spoke of at the beginning of this lecture1--8the intelligence of the age40 8,general impression0 has it1 that death was not pre-,adamite2 that there was no death before the fall2 and that1 to say the contrary1 is1 at least1 to tread on very dangerous ground4 ,in vain does ,geology--8now happily a true science1 founded on facts1 and reduced to the dominion of definite laws0--lay bare the ,silurian rocks1 and discover even there extinct forms of life in exquisitely beautiful preservation4 ,in vain does ,geology1 after showing us the fossil trilobite and coral1 unfold the volume of the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and show us there the fossil remains of fish--so perfect that we might imagine them casts rather than fossils4 ,in vain does ,geology open its vast ,oolitic system1 and show us there other forms of extinct life in fossil insects1 tortoises1 mighty saurians1 and huge iguanodons4 ,in vain does ,geology lay bare the ,chalk1 with its marine deposits2 and the ,tertiary formation1 with its enormous theroid mammalia1 far surpassing in size the largest animals we are acquainted with4 ,in vain are all these fossil remains exhibited imbedded in the earth2 and in vain do we search1 amidst all these1 for one fossil remain of man1 or one fossil vestige of man's works4 ,the easy1 the cheap1 the unreflective answer is1 8,oh6 these things were created there1 or else ,noah's flood left them there40 ,of course1 we can fall back upon a miracle as having done all this2 but to have recourse to miracles when no miracle is recorded1 is just to shake our faith in that all-inspired testimony1 that supernatural ,book1 the existence of which is the great miracle of time4 ,but there are the fossils6 ,how did they come there if the forms of animal life1 once inhabiting those remains1 had not previously lived and died8 ,created6 ,what8 ,created fossils8 ,then why not1 when the ,almighty created man1 did he not create1 at the same time1 some skeletons of man1 and place them in the earth1 as he put skeletons of trilobites1 fishes1 reptiles1 and mammals there8 ,our common sense and reverence both reject the idea4 ,as to the puerile notion that ,noah's flood put them there1 did not ,noah's flood overwhelm man as well as animals8 and as the bones of man are as durable as the bones of animals1 how is it that we never meet with a fossil human skull or thigh bone1 or house8 ,we believe that death was a part of the divine plan of ,god's creation2 that death is a law of all organic life--a necessary law and a most benevolent provision2 that the living structure of all animals derives its substance from dead organic matter4 ,we believe that1 altogether apart from human sin1 preceding and successive generations must be the order of being2 for if there were no death1 animals would soon pass beyond the limit of provision sufficient for nutritive support1 or of localities for suitable habitations4 ,we believe that if there had been no death prior to man's sin1 it would involve the supposition that all animals were herbivorous2 whereas1 even the little ladybird cannot live without its meal of aphides2 and1 so believing1 we find our faith in ,scripture deepened when1 seeing on every hand the extensive proofs of death1 we find man1 the moment he lost his lordship and proud eminence1 and reduced himself voluntarily to the condition of animalism1 immediately brought penally within the influence of that law of death1 whose existence he must have recognised in the death of animals from the first day of his creation4 ,does any one reply1 8,this is contrary to ,scripture80 ,i ask them what ,scripture teaches that the death of animals is the result of man's sin8--rather would not ,scripture sanction the thought that death was a part of the divine plan of ,god's creation1 and that the certainty of man's transgression was the reason for giving this constitution to nature8 ,true1 ,milton sings1 in his noble poem1 that will live as long as the ,english language lives-- 8,of man's first disobedience1 and the fruit ,of that forbidden tree1 whose mortal taste ,brought death into the world1 and all our woe30 but we are not obliged to call the ,paradise ,lost our ,bible2 or to quote ,milton as a physiological authority1 although the prevalence of the opinion that death was not pre-,adamite1 and a good deal of theology besides1 is more of ,miltonic than of ,scripture teaching4 ,i leave this branch of my subject far before it is exhausted3 so far from that1 each of the three points enumerated might easily be expanded into a lecture2 and ,i can only hope that my brevity in treating these topics will not be misconstrued into a desire to shirk any of the difficulties with which their investigation is surrounded4 ,,iii4 ,i come1 lastly1 to the question of the ,noachian ,deluge1 and shall again repeat my own words3 8,what was the character of the ,noachian ,deluge8--was it partial or universal8 and what are the apparent discrepancies1 in this case1 between science and the ,bible80 ,and ,i have added to this my belief that the ,noachian ,deluge was quite partial in its character1 and very temporary in its duration3 that it destroyed only those animals that were found in those parts of the earth habitable by man1 and that it has not left a single shell or fossil1 or any drift boulders or pebbles1 or any other remains that may be traced to its action4 ,very briefly we shall try and prove this2 and perhaps the most popular way will be the best remembered1--only that the reader will bear in mind that this little book does not pretend to exhaust the subject1 but only to realize the idea expressed at the beginning of this chapter4 ,presuming1 that all have in their recollection the ,scriptural account of the ,noachian ,deluge1 instead of quoting words with which all are familiar1 ,i will only remark1 as the basis of my illustrations1 that rain descended1 and probably the ocean overflowed1 for forty days2 that the waters lay upon the land1 and covered them one hundred and fifty days2 that at the end of that time they began to subside1 and that in twelve months and twenty-seven days they were gone from the face of the earth1 and the ,noachian family liberated from the ark4 ,the question is1 was this flood universal1 and were all kinds of animals preserved in the ark8 ,to which my answer1 as involving my belief1 is this1 that the flood was local1 and that only the animals peculiar to ,armenia were provided for in ,noah's ark4 8,oh6 but the ,bible says it was universal10 says everybody4 ,yes2 but that1 you know1 is just the question between us4 ,the terms 8all the earth0 seem to imply universality1 but they do not necessarily involve this4 8,all countries came to ,egypt to buy corn20 certainly not all the world literally1 but all the surrounding countries4 ,so there were once dwelling at ,jerusalem devout ,jews 8from out of every nation under heaven20 but not literally out of every nation1 for the names of the nations are immediately given1 and we find the nations to have been a few between ,egypt and the ,black ,sea1 and between ,italy and ,palestine4 ,there are many other illustrations of a similar character3 these will suffice3 ,i only adduce these to show that at the beginning ,scripture does not oblige us to consider 8all0 as meaning 8every one20 or to understand literally 8all the inhabitants of the earth0 as meaning every creature4 ,now1 looking at the structure and composition of the earth's crust1 especially its fossiliferous rocks1 ,i am driven to one of three conclusions1 each of them involving difficulty1 ,i acknowledge1 but the one that involves the least is1 of course1 the most preferable4 ,either ,i must admit-- #a4 ,that the fossils in these rocks were all deposited in order and in succession1 without injury1 through a crust of rocks ten miles in thickness1 during twelve months' violent diluvial action3 #b4 ,or that they were all deposited there during the #ae1jjj or #af1jjj years that had elapsed since the creation of man prior to the ,deluge2 that is1 supposing the creation of man and the creation of the earth to have been synchronous4 ,or1 lastly1 which theory ,i accept-- #c4 ,that the date of the earth's physical being is unknown to us1 and that the fossiliferous rocks were deposited in decades of ages before the creation of man4 ,for1 on the other hand1 let us suppose the flood to have been universal1 in the strict and literal sense of the term2 then let me suggest some of the consequences and difficulties of such a theory4 #a4 ,one consequence would be that some remains of man or of his works would have been found2 but nothing of this kind has occurred4 ,even ,armenia has been geologically examined1 and no human remains have been found2 and surely man's bones would last as long as the shells of a trilobite or terebratula8 #b4 ,and1 secondly1 the organic remains1 the fossils themselves1 would have been found confusedly heaped together2 whereas1 the remains in the crust of the earth are as carefully arranged as the contents of a well-ordered cabinet4 ,we know always to a certainty what fossils will be found in any rock before we examine that rock4 #c4 ,besides which1 some1 at least1 of the organic remains found ought to correspond with existing beings and species3 yet the contrary is the case1 except only a few fossils found near the surface of the earth1 in that portion of the earth's crust occupied by the tertiary system4 ,nor is this all4 ,consider the vast difficulties the universal flood theory has to contend with1 all of which are removed by the theory we have adopted4 #a4 ,there is the quantity of water required4 ,if all over the earth the water rose twenty-two feet six inches above the tops of the highest mountains1 the quantity of water required would be eight times the whole quantity of water now existing4 ,where all this could have come from first and gone to afterwards1 are prodigious stumbling-blocks4 ,of course we can resort to miracle2 but this is not the way to get rid of difficulty in a manly and honest spirit4 #b4 ,then consider the number of animals the ark must have contained4 ,there are #a1jjj species of mammalia1 #e1jjj species of birds1 #b1jjj species of reptiles1 and #abj1jjj well-ascertained and distinct species of insects4 ,do we pretend that all these were housed and fed for nearly thirteen months in a vessel that was only #dej feet long1 #ge feet broad1 and #de feet high2 and that such a vessel contained room for them1 and their food1 besides that of man1 for such a long period4 ,the little toys of ,noah's ark are certainly pretty1 but very mischievous1 and most of the popular notions of the flood have grown up from our nurseries as much from the use of this toy in this case1 as from the reading of ,paradise ,lost in the other3 and the result is1 the ,bible is made responsible for it all4 #c4 ,then consider the subsequent distribution of animals3 the polar bear and the tropical elephant1 the ferocious tiger and a young fawn1 going out together in order1 and without violence3 of course we can suppose another miracle to repress passions and violence4 ,besides which1 in addition to the fauna1 the animal kingdom1 we must ask what became of the flora or vegetable kingdom during this period1 if the flood were universal8 ,we have at least twenty-five botanical provinces1 with their peculiar and numberless farms of vegetable life2 what became of them8 ,were they preserved in the ark1 or under the water8--for such questions must be answered by those who charge us with inconsistency in attempting to reconcile the facts of science with the words of ,scripture4 ,and as a last difficulty1 7suggested first1 ,i believe1 by ,dr4 ,pye ,smith1 and which ,i shall therefore state in his words1 lest it should seem that ,i use 8plainness of speech107 let us look at the descent from ,ararat out of the ark1 into ,armenia1 with all these animals1 birds1 insects1 plants and trees4 8,that mountain is #ag1jjj feet high1 and perpetual snow covers about #e1jjj feet from its summit4 ,if the water rose1 at its liquid temperature1 so as to overflow that summit1 the snows and icy masses would be melted2 and on the retiring of the flood1 the exposed mountain would present its pinnacles and ridges1 dreadful precipices of naked rock1 adown which the four men and the four women1 and with hardly any exception the quadrupeds1 would have found it utterly impossible to descend4 ,to provide against this difficulty1 to prevent them from being dashed to pieces1 must we again suppose a miracle8 ,must we conceive of the human beings and the animals as transported through the air to the more level regions below2 or that1 by a miracle equally grand1 they were enabled to glide unhurt adown the wet and slippery faces of the rock80 ,such are some of the difficulties and some of the consequences that must flow from an acceptance of any other theory than the one ,i have proposed3 that the flood was partial in its character1 extending only over the habitable parts of the earth2 and that it was so temporary in its character as not to have left a single trace of its influence visible on rock or fossil4 ,i have thus endeavoured to suggest points of reconciliation between the accepted facts of ,geology and the recorded statements of ,scripture2 and if this slight contribution be accepted as an aid to faith1 and a proof of candour on my part to meet those who linger on the border land of doubt1 my purpose will be fully answered4 ,let me add1 in the words of ,chenevix ,trench--words uttered in the ,university of ,cambridge not long since3 8,may we in a troubled time be helped to feel something of the grandeur of the ,scriptures1 and so of the manifold wisdom of that ,eternal ,spirit by whom it came2 and then petty objections and isolated difficulties1 though they were multiplied as the sands of the sea1 will not harass us4 ,for what are they all to the fact1 that for more than #a1jjj years the ,bible collectively taken1 has gone hand in hand with civilization1 science1 law--in short1 with the moral and intellectual cultivation of the species1 always supporting and often leading the way8 ,its very presence as a believed book1 has rendered the nations emphatically a chosen race2 and this1 too1 in exact proportion as it is more or less generally studied4 ,of those nations which in the highest degree enjoy its influences1 it is not too much to affirm that the differences1 public and private1 physical1 moral1 and intellectual1 are only less than what might be expected from a diversity in species4 ,good and holy men1 and the best and wisest of mankind1 the kingly spirits of history enthroned in the hearts of mighty nations1 have borne witness to its influence1 and have declared it to be beyond compare the most perfect instrument and the only adequate organ of humanity3 the organ and instrument of all the gifts1 powers1 and tendencies1 by which the individual is privileged to rise beyond himself1 to leave behind and lose his dividual phantom self1 in order to find his true self in that distinctness where no division can be1--in the ,eternal ,i ,,am1 the ever-living ,,word1 of whom all the elect1 from the archangel before the throne to the poor wrestler with the ,spirit until the breaking of day1 are but the fainter and still fainter echoes40 ,illustration3 ,logo ,m4 ,,clay1 ,,printer ,,head ,,street ,,hill4 ----- ,footnote #a3 ,whewell's ,astronomy and ,physics1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #b3 ,from 1 ancient1 and 1 life2 ancient-life period4 ,footnote #c3 ,hughes1 ,physical ,geography4 #c;d ed4 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #d3 ,hughes1 ,physical ,geog4 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #e3 ,dr4 ,pye ,smith4 ,footnote #f3 ,as ,chimborazo in ,south ,america1 #ba1dad2 ,ararat1 #af1jjj2 ,dhawalagiri1 in the ,himalayas1 #bh1jjj feet above the level of the sea2 compared with which what a mole-hill is ,vesuvius1 only #h1idg feet2 or ,blue ,mountain ,peak1 #h1fjj1 or even ,mont ,blanc1 that monarch of mountains1 which is #ae1haf feet above the sea6 ,footnote #g3 ,hughes1 p4 #af4 ,footnote #h3 ,chambers' ,rudiments of ,geology1 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #i3 ,these wells are so frequently spoken of as to need no explanation1 further than to remind the reader that they are so called from having been first introduced in the province of ,artois1 the ancient ,artesium in ,france4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the deepest ,artesian well is the famous one in the ,plaine de ,grenelle1 ,paris4 ,this well yields #eaf gallons a minute2 its temperature is #ha ,fahr42 and its depth is nearly #a1hjj feet4 ,footnote #aa3 ,how truly hieroglyphics--sacred carvings2 7ieros1 sacred1 glupho1 ,i carve27 and in this sense there is a holier meaning than ,shakspeare could have dreamt of in his well-known lines1 when applied by the geologist to his researches3-- 8,and this our life1 exempt from public haunt1 ,finds tongues in trees1 books in the running brooks1 ,sermons in stones1 and good in everything40 ,footnote #ab3 ,and ,i may say1 my friend also1 to whom1 during my residence in ,jamaica1 ,i was frequently indebted for contributions on natural history to the ,jamaica ,friendly ,instructor1 of which ,i was ,editor4 ,footnote #ac3 ,a ,naturalist's ,sojourn in ,jamaica1 by ,p4 ,h4 ,gosse1 ,esq4 pp4 #dif-g4 ,footnote #ad3 ,so called because of its grained or granular appearance4 ,footnote #ae3 ,first brought from ,syene1 in ,egypt4 ,footnote #af3 ,feld-spar1 written also felspar1 a compound of feld1 field1 and spar4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see ,ansted's ,ancient ,world1 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #ah3 ,memnon1 or ,ramesis4 ,this famous head is in the ,british ,museum2 the body is of greenstone1 the head of syenite1 and the bust one continuous mass4 ,footnote #ai3 ,from dis and integer4 ,the separation of the whole parts of a rock1 without chemical action1 by means of the light1 the air1 or the rain1 is called disintegration4 ,footnote #bj3 ,lieut4 ,portlock on ,geology1 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #ba3 ,ansted's ,geology1 ,descriptive and ,practical1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bij1 #bia4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ansted's ,geology1 p4 #bia4 ,footnote #bc3 ,as the ancients did not know or use the compound metal brass1 though bronze was common amongst them1 we must in this verse1 and all others in which the word 8brass0 is used1 understand it to mean copper4--,hughes' ,scripture ,geography1 ,art4 ,geology of ,palestine1 p4 #acc4 ,footnote #bd3 ,murray's ,hand-book for ,cornwall1 p4 #aii4 ,footnote #be3 ,ansted1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dah4 ,footnote #bf3 ,whewell1 ,anniversary ,address to ,geol4 ,society1 #ahci4 ,footnote #bg3 ,in ,memoriam4 ,footnote #bh3 ,dr4 ,pye ,smith says #adj1jjj feet4 ,footnote #bi3 ,see a valuable map of fossils published by the ,christian ,knowledge ,society4 ,footnote #cj3 ,trilobite3 treis1 three1 and lobos1 a lobe2 having three lobes4 ,footnote #ca3 ,bridgewater ,treatise1 vol4 i4 p4 #cif4 ,footnote #cb3 ,a fossil shell allied to the ,argonauta and ,carinaria4 ,footnote #cc3 8,man has no tail1 quantum mutatus2 but the notion of a much-ridiculed philosopher of the last century is not altogether without foundation2 for the bones of a caudal extremity exist in an undeveloped state in the os coccygis of the human subject40 ,poor man6--,vestiges of ,creation1 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #cd3 ,sedgwick1 p4 #baf1 8,on the ,studies of the ,university of ,cambridge40 ,footnote #ce3 8,my ,school and ,schoolmasters10 by ,hugh ,miller4 ,footnote #cf3 8,old ,red ,sandstone2 or1 ,new ,walks in an ,old ,field20 by ,hugh ,miller1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #cg3 8,by mind1 by hand1 and by hammer40 ,footnote #ch3 8,old ,red ,sandstone10 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #ci3 ,ichthyolite3 ichthus1 a fish1 lithos1 a stone3 fossil fish1 or the figure or impression of a fish in the rock4 ,footnote #dj3 8,old ,red ,sandstone10 pp4 #da1 #db4 ,footnote #da3 8,old ,red ,sandstone10 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #db3 ,from akanthos1 a thorn1 and pterugion1 the fin4 ,footnote #dc3 ,from malakos1 soft1 and pterugion1 the fin4 ,footnote #dd3 #a4 ,ganoid1 from ganos1 splendour1 because the scales are coated with a bright enamel4 ,footnote #de3 #b4 ,placoid1 from plax1 a plate2 sometimes large1 sometimes reduced to a point2 e4g4 shark4 ,footnote #df3 #c4 ,ctenoid1 from kteis 7gen4 ktenos1 a comb72 scales jagged like a comb4 ,footnote #dg3 #d4 ,cycloid1 from kuklos1 a circle2 scales smooth and simple3 e4g4 salmon1 c4 ,footnote #dh3 ,from kephal1 the head2 aspis1 a buckler4 ,footnote #di3 ,coccosteus1 from kokkos1 a berry1 and osteon1 a bone4 ,footnote #ej3 8,old ,red ,sandstone10 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #ea3 ,pterichthys3 pteron1 a wing1 and ichthus1 a fish4 ,footnote #eb3 8,old ,red ,sandstone10 pp4 #hj1 #ha4 ,footnote #ec3 ,osteolepis3 osteon1 a bone1 and lepis1 a scale4 ,footnote #ed3 ,operculum1 the flap which covers the gill4 ,footnote #ee3 8,old ,red ,sandstone10 p4 #aaa4 ,footnote #ef3 8,vast quantities30 let any reader go and turn over the non-bituminous shale lying on the waste heaps of every coalpit1 and he will see that this is no exaggeration4 ,footnote #eg3 ,capillus ,veneris4 ,footnote #eh3 ,corruption of arrire-dos1 a fire-place4 ,see a view and description of one in 8,a ,visit to ,penshurst10 in ,howitt's 8,visits to ,remarkable ,places10 ,second ,series4 ,footnote #ei3 ,juicy and soft1 as peas1 beans1 plantains1 bananas1 c4 ,footnote #fj3 8,ancient ,world10 pp4 #gf1 #gg4 ,footnote #fa3 ,this may seem strange at first2 but ,i have journeyed through tropical forests that realized completely this sketch1 so far as stillness and silence are concerned4 ,a modern and most accomplished naturalist says of a ,jamaica virgin forest1 8,animal life is almost unseen2 the solitude is scarcely broken by the voices of birds1 except that now and then the rain-bird or the hunter 7large cat-tailed cuckoos that love the shade7 sound their startling rattle1 or the mountain partridge utters those mournful cooings which are like the moans of a dying man40--,gosse's ,jamaica1 p4 #aih4 ,footnote #fb3 ,from 7calamus71 a reed4 ,footnote #fc3 ,ansted's 8,ancient ,world10 p4 #hb4 ,footnote #fd3 ,mesozoic3 i4e4 middle life period2 mesos1 middle1 zoos1 life4 ,footnote #fe3 ,the ,religious ,tract ,society4 ,footnote #ff3 ,lyell's 8,manual of ,elementary ,geology40 ,postscript1 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #fg3 ,ansted's ,geology1 vol i4 p4 #cjf4 ,footnote #fh3 ,ichnites2 from ichnon1 a footstep1 and eidos1 like4 ,footnote #fi3 ,ornithos1 a bird1 and ichnon4 ,footnote #gj3 ,marsupial1 from marsupium1 a pouch2 animals of the fourth order of ,cuvier1 that have a pouch in which the young are carried4 ,footnote #ga3 ,batrachian1 from batrachos1 a frog2 animals in ,cuvier's fourth class of reptiles4 ,footnote #gb3 ,cheir1 the hand1 therion1 a wild beast2 a wild beast with a foot like a hand4 ,footnote #gc3 ,from labyrinthus1 a labyrinth1 and odous1 a tooth2 so called from the labyrinthine structure of the tooth4 ,footnote #gd3 ,in some cases we find1 corresponding to a set of footmarks1 a continuous furrow1 presumed to be the impression of a tail dragged along the sand by the animal while walking4 ,footnote #ge3 ,ansted's ,ancient ,world1 pp4 #abe-abg4 ,footnote #gf3 ,knight's ,cyclopdia of ,arts1 c4 ,footnote #gg3 ,quarterly ,review1 ,may1 #aheb4 ,article on ,roger de ,coverley4 ,footnote #gh3 ,this is a corruption1 we are inclined to think1 of the word 8layers20 one of those provincial corruptions of the ,queen's ,english that get stereotyped4 ,footnote #gi3 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,treatise4 pp4 #cea1 #ceb4 ,footnote #hj3 ,a fossil bivalve1 allied to the oyster1 and very abundant in the secondary strata4 ,footnote #ha3 ,belemnite1 from belemnos1 a dart1 and so called from its arrow-headed shape4 ,footnote #hb3 ,saurian1 from sauros1 a lizard1 the name by which the great family of lizards is designated4 ,footnote #hc3 ,from ichthus1 a fish1 and sauros1 a lizard2 so called from its resemblance to both4 ,footnote #hd3 ,heteroclite2 heteros1 another1 and klitos1 inclining2 a word applied to any thing or person deviating from common forms4 ,footnote #he3 ,very unlike the alligator1 whose eyes are placed at a considerable distance behind the nose4 ,footnote #hf3 ,from plein1 more1 and sauros1 a lizard2 because it is more like a lizard than the ,ichthyosaurus4 ,footnote #hg3 ,mantel's ,fossils of the ,british ,museum1 p4 #cda4 ,footnote #hh3 ,this formation is sometimes called the ,jurassic system4 ,footnote #hi3 ,lyell's ,manual of ,elementary ,geology1 p4 #ab1 ed4 #aheb4 ,footnote #ij3 8,so vast an expanse60 ,mr4 ,darwin traced coral reefs in the ,pacific1 #d1jjj miles long and #fjj broad4 ,between the coasts of ,malabar and ,madagascar there is a chain of coral reefs1 called the ,maldives and ,laccadives1 #dhj miles long and #ej miles wide4 ,on the east coast of ,australia there is an unbroken reef of #cej miles long2 and between ,australia and ,guinea1 coral reefs extend #gjj miles in length4 ,truly the coral animals1 like the 8conies10 are a 8feeble folk10 but their habitations survive our proudest monuments4 ,footnote #ia3 ,hugh ,miller's ,first ,impressions1 pp4 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,footnote #ib3 ,brash is s ,wiltshire word for short or brittle2 and thus a quick-tempered1 irritable person1 is said to have a brashy temper4 ,footnote #ic3 ,geology for ,beginners 7,weale's ,series71 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #id3 ,juke's ,popular ,geology1 pp4 #db-dd4 ,footnote #ie3 ,from krinos1 a lily1 and eidos1 like2 lily-shaped animals of the ,radiated division1 forming a link between the animal and vegetable world4 ,footnote #if3 ,from trochos1 a wheel2 wheel-shaped crinoideans4 ,footnote #ig3 ,from pteron1 a wing1 and dactulos1 a finger2 the wing-fingered animal4 ,footnote #ih3 ,the term ,weald or ,wold is the old ,saxon for our present ,wood2 and now1 altered by pronunciation1 is found in connexion with many words and names of places3 e4g4 ,waltham 7,weald-ham71 the wood house or home2 ,walthamstow1 the wood house store1 and so on4 ,thus it is that words are 8fossil poetry40 ,footnote #ii3 ,alison's description of ,south ,america1 in ,history of ,europe 7,article1 ,south ,american ,revolution72 vol4 viii4 ,footnote #ajj3 8,our disposition is1 and has been1 not to multiply miracles after the sort in which this has been done by many more zealous than wise friends of revelation4 ,in all cases we allow the miracle without question1 which is distinctly claimed to be such in the ,scriptures1 and where the circumstances clearly indicate that a miracle was necessary1--we say #8necessary1' because we are persuaded that the ,almighty has almost invariably chosen to act through natural agencies1 and under the laws which he has imposed on nature1 whenever they are adequate to produce the required result4 ,we believe it is one of the beautiful peculiarities of the ,bible1 that it has none of those gratuitous and barren wonders1 which form the mass of the pretended miracles which the various systems of false religion produce4444 ,for our own part1 we do not wish to hear of small miracles1 which leave us doubtful whether there be any miracle at all4 ,if we are to have miracles1 let them be decidedly miraculous1 and let not our veneration for the ,divine character be offended by exhibitions of the ,almighty1 as laying bare his holy arm to remove the small remaining difficulty which theorists leave him to execute40--,dr4 ,kitto's ,biblical ,history of ,palestine4 ,footnote #aja3 ,we have a fine specimen before us which we brought from ,demerara1 answering well to ,gosse's description of the iguana found in ,jamaica4 8,in the eastern parts of the island the great iguana 7,cyclura lophoma71 with its dorsal crest1 like the teeth of a saw1 running all down its back1 may be seen lying out on the branches of the trees1 or playing bo-peep from a hole in the trunk40 ,it is considered a great delicacy by many1 but it never seemed ,christian food to us1 and we never ventured to provoke our palate with a taste4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,enaliosaurians are sea lizards1 such as those found in the ,lias2 and deinosaurians are terrible lizards1 such as those found in the ,wealden4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,ansted's ,ancient ,world1 pp4 #afd-afh4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,just published by ,bohn1 in his valuable 8,scientific ,library20 a marvel of cheapness and value4 ,footnote #aje3 ,since writing the above we have met with the following1 which proves that this origin of chalk is not so fabulous as some think it3--8,lieut4 ,nelson1 ,mr4 ,dance1 and others have shown1 that the waste and dbris derived from coral reefs produces a substance exactly resembling chalk4 ,i can corroborate this assertion from my own observations1 both on some very white chalky limestones in ,java and the neighbouring islands1 which ,i believe to be nothing else than raised fringing coral reefs1 and on the substance brought up by the lead over some hundreds of miles in the ,indian ,archipelago1 and along the north-east coast of ,australia1 and the coral sea of ,flinders10--,juke's ,physical ,geology1 p4 #bfc4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,we take the origin of the word ,folkstone to mean1 that that old town was once built of the brick that may be made of the galt3 it was the folk's-stone4 ,footnote #ajg3 8,the ,religion of ,geology10 c41 by ,e4 ,hitchcock1 ,,ll4,d4 c4 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,mantell's 8,geological ,excursions10 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #aji3 ,richardson1 p4 #cia4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,under-borne rocks2 upo1 below1 and ginomai1 to be formed4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,middle life period3 mesos1 middle1 and zoos1 life4 ,footnote #aab3 ,recent-life period3 kains1 recent1 and zoos1 life4 ,footnote #aac3 ,juke's ,practical ,geology1 p4 #bfe4 ,footnote #aad3 ,lyell's ,manual of ,geology1 pp4 #ig1 #ih4 ,footnote #aae3 ,ansted's ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,even ,hitchcock's good book is sadly disfigured and damaged1 by trying to make geology prove too much4 ,how can geology teach or suggest sin and the resurrection8 ,footnote #aag3 ,british ,quarterly1 ,feb4 #aheb4 ,footnote #aah3 ,owen's ,british ,fossil ,mammals and ,birds1 p4 #bee4 ,footnote #aai3 ,mantell1 pp4 #dgg-dgi4 ,footnote #abj3 ,mantell1 p4 #dga4 ,footnote #aba3 ,the skeleton is not more than #aej years old1 and is probably one of an ,indian who fell in war2 and has been covered with carbonate of lime1 held in solution in some spring4 ,footnote #abb3 ,hugh ,miller's 8,first ,impressions of ,england and its ,people10 p4 #cfb4 ,footnote #abc3 ,no sooner did geology give signs of being able to speak from her subterranean abode1 and say something new about the history of this old world1 than ,dr4 ,smith was among the foremost of the geologists1 intent upon the interpretation of these mysterious1 and at first incoherent sounds4 ,at times the sounds seemed unscriptural1 but his faith never failed2 at other times it seemed in confirmation of ,scripture1 and he was filled with delight4 ,there were sepulchres older than what he had accounted the era of death1 and he must solve the mystery4 ,mineralogy1 to which from his youth he had given considerable attention1 became to him history more ancient than that of ,moses1 and poetry more fascinating than that of ,homer4 ,his minerals became books of wonderful tales2 his fossils1 before riddles of nature1 the pictures of things in ancient worlds4 ,the earth was a land of monuments1 and the rock which before seemed nothing more than the solid masonry of the foundation on which men might build their dwellings1 became the enduring chronicle of the millions of years in which extinct ages had risen1 flourished and decayed4 ,from that time he suffered no discovery of the geologists to escape his attention2 and every valuable book upon the subject in ,english1 ,german1 or ,french1 contributed its supplies to mitigate his insatiate craving after further information4 ,dr4 ,smith had another reason for devoting a large proportion of his time to geological studies4 ,the new science had something to say about ,holy ,scripture4 ,it threatened1 as many understood its first ambiguous words1 to contradict the book of ,genesis4 ,whatever affected theology was of supreme importance in the estimation of the ,homerton professor4 ,having full confidence in the truth of ,god's word1 he was sure that nature and revelation1 however they appeared to superficial observers1 could not be really at variance4 ,in that confidence he patiently listened to every word the new science had to say about the creation of the world4 ,to him belongs the honour1 in the opinion of the most eminent geologists1 of having relieved their science of every appearance of hostility to ,scripture4 ,of his book on this subject1 ,dr4 ,mantell said1 8,it is1 indeed1 the dove sent out from the ark of modern geology2 and it has returned with the olive branch in its mouth40--,british ,quarterly1 ,jan4 #ahed4 ,art4 ,,dr4 ,,pye ,,smith4 ,footnote #abd3 ,gray's ,antiquity of the ,globe1 pp4 #eg-ei4 ,footnote #abe3 ,hitchcock1 p4 #gj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,august1 #ahed4 ,a ,,general ,,catalogue ,,of ,,works ,,published ,,by ,,arthur ,,hall1 ,,virtue ,,co4 #be1 ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london4 ,,ackworth ,,vocabulary1 or ,english ,spelling ,book2 with the ,meaning attached to each ,word4 ,compiled for the use of ,ackworth ,school4 ,new ,edition4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,akerman 7,j4 ,y471--,,legends ,,of ,,old ,,london4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 gilt1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,alfred ,,dudley2 or1 the ,australian ,settlers4 ,second ,edition4 ,with ,nine ,illustrations4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,summary ,,of ,,old ,,testament ,,history ,,and ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,moses1 with a connexion between the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 an ,introductory ,outline of the ,geography1 ,political ,history1 c4 ,by ,j4 ,t4 ,,wheeler1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,fourth ,edition1 post #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 #f;d4 ---- ,,new ,,testament ,,history2 including1 #a4 ,the ,four ,gospels harmonized into one continuous ,narrative4 #b4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and continuous ,history of ,st4 ,paul4 #c4 ,an ,analysis of the ,epistles and ,book of ,revelation4 #d4 ,an ,introductory ,outline of the ,geography1 ,critical ,history1 ,authenticity1 ,credibility1 and ,inspiration of the ,new ,testament4 ,the whole ,illustrated by copious ,historical1 ,geographical1 and ,antiquarian ,notes1 ,chronological ,tables1 c4 ,second ,edition1 revised4 ,post #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 #f;d4 ---- ,a ,,popular ,,abridgment ,,of ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,testament ,,history1 for ,schools1 ,families1 and ,general ,reading1 ,explained by ,historical and ,geographical ,illustrations1 and numerous ,map ,diagrams4 ,two ,vols4 #ahmo4 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,,the ,,historical ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,testaments4 ,illustrated with ,five coloured ,maps1 and large ,view of ,jerusalem1 with a ,plan of the ,ancient ,city4 ,folio1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,anatomy ,,and ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,mind1 7,,manual ,,of ,,the47 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,,carlile1 ,d4,d4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #es4 ,,apocalyptic ,,sketches2 or1 ,,lectures on the ,,book of ,,revelation4 ,delivered in ,exeter ,hall1 and at ,crown ,court ,church4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,,new ,,editions1 revised and corrected1 with ,,indices4 ,sixteenth ,thousand4 ,three ,vols4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt1 #is4 each2 morocco extra1 #cis4 ,,art ,,journal 7,,the71 an ,illustrated ,journal of the ,fine ,arts1 the ,arts of ,design1 ,manufacture1 c4 c4 ,published ,monthly1 with ,two ,engravings from the ,vernon ,gallery1 and between ,forty and ,fifty fine ,engravings on ,wood4 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,new ,series1 ,volumes ,i4 to ,v4 ,each with ,twenty-four ,line ,engravings from the 8,,vernon ,,gallery10 ,twelve ,engravings of ,statues on steel1 and about ,eight ,hundred ,engravings on ,wood4 ,super-royal #dto4 cloth1 #al4 #aas4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,,illustrated ,,catalogue of the ,great ,industrial ,exhibition of #ahea1 containing upwards of ,fourteen ,hundred ,engravings on ,wood1 and a ,frontispiece on ,steel1 ,imperial #dto4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bas4 ---- of the ,great ,exhibition in ,dublin1 with numerous ,engravings4 ,cloth1 gilt edges1 #ajs4 ,,art ,,of ,,chess-,,play4 ,a ,,new ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,game ,,of ,,chess4 ,by ,,george ,,walker1 ,esq4 ,fourth ,edition1 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,autobiography ,,of ,,william ,,jerdan2 ,with his ,literary1 ,political1 and ,social ,reminiscences and ,correspondence1 during the last ,forty ,years1 as ,editor of the 8,sun0 ,newspaper1 #ahab-ag1 and of the 8,literary ,gazette10 #ahag-ej1 in connexion with most of the ,eminent ,persons who have been distinguished in the past half-century as ,statesmen1 ,poets1 ,authors1 ,men of ,science1 ,artists1 c42 with ,portraits1 c4 ,now complete4 ,in #d ,vols4 post #hvo4 cloth1 #bas4 ,,bakewell',s 7,,frederick ,c47 ,,philosophical ,,conversations1 in which are familiarly explained the causes of many daily occurring ,natural ,phenomena4 ,third ,edition1 with ,cuts4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,ballads ,,for ,,the ,,times1 now first collected4 ,american ,lyrics1 ,geraldine1 ,modern ,pyramid1 ,hactenus1 ,a ,thousand ,lines1 and ,other ,poems1 by ,,martin ,f4 ,,tupper1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,third ,edition1 with ,vignette and ,frontispiece1 uniform with 8,proverbial ,philosophy10 fcap4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 8,with smoothness of measure1 ,mr4 ,tupper's design is always excellent1 and his versification is brought to bear upon things of no transient interest4 ,it is one of the best characteristics of his labours1 that he does not write for praise1 but for the benefit of his fellow-men--not merely for time1 but for eternity40--,bell's ,messenger4 ,,baptismal ,,font 7,,the71 an ,exposition of the ,,nature and ,,obligations of ,,christian ,,baptism4 ,with an ,,appendix4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,fourth ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 ,,barbauld',s 7,,mrs471 ,,le,,ons ,,pour ,,des ,,enfans1 depuis l'ge de ,deux ,ans junqu' ',cinq4 ,avec une ,interprtation ,anglais4 ,new ,edition1 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,bartlett 7,w4 ,h471--,,footsteps ,,of ,,our ,,lord ,,and ,,his ,,apostles1 in ,syria1 ,greece1 and ,italy4 ,a succession of ,visits to the ,scenes of ,new ,testament ,narrative4 ,with ,twenty-three ,steel ,engravings1 and several ,woodcuts4 ,third ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #ads42 morocco elegant1 #bfs4 ---- ,,forty ,,days ,,in ,,the ,,desert1 on the ,track of the ,israelites2 or1 a ,journey from ,cairo by ,,wady ,,feiran to ,mount ,sinai and ,petra1 with ,twenty-seven ,engravings on ,steel1 a ,map1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 ,fifth ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth full gilt1 morocco elegant1 #ba s4 ,,bartlett 7,w4 ,h471--,,gleanings1 ,,antiquarian ,,and ,,pictorial1 ,,on ,,the ,,overland ,,route1 with ,twenty-eight ,plates or ,maps1 and ,several ,woodcuts4 ,second ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 #afs42 morocco elegant1 #bhs4 ---- ,,the ,,nile ,,boat2 or1 ,glimpses of the ,land of ,egypt4 ,with ,thirty-five ,steel ,engravings and ,maps1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 ,third ,edition1 in super-royal #hvo4 cloth full gilt1 #afs42 morocco elegant1 #bhs4 ---- ,,pictures ,,from ,,sicily4 ,with ,thirty-three ,steel ,engravings1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 ,super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 full gilt1 #afs42 morocco elegant1 #bhs4 ---- ,,the ,,pilgrim ,,fathers2 or1 the ,founders of ,new ,england in the reign of ,james ,i4 ,with #bh ,plates1 c4 ,second ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 #abs42 morocco elegant1 #bas4 ---- ,,scripture ,,sites ,,and ,,scenes1 from actual ,survey1 in ,egypt1 ,arabia1 and ,palestine4 ,illustrated by ,seventeen ,steel ,engravings1 ,three ,maps1 and ,thirty-seven ,woodcuts4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #ds4 ---- ,,walks ,,about ,,jerusalem ,,and ,,its ,,environs4 ,with ,twenty-four ,engravings on ,steel1 and ,maps1 and many ,woodcuts4 ,new ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 full gilt1 #abs42 morocco elegant1 #bas4 ,,barton 7,,bernard71--,,letters ,,and ,,poems4 ,with ,,memoir1 ,edited by his ,,daughter4 ,new ,edition1 with ,portrait1 fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 large paper1 #ajs4 ,,bases ,,of ,,belief1 an ,examination of ,christianity as a ,divine ,revelation by the ,light of ,recognised ,facts and ,principles1 in ,four ,parts4 ,by ,,edward ,,miall1 ,m4,p4 ,second ,edition1 #hvo4 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,basket ,,of ,,flowers2 or1 ,piety and ,truth ,triumphant4 ,a ,tale for the ,young4 #cbmo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #as4 ,,baxter',s ,,dying ,,thoughts1 with ,essay by ,,dr4 ,,stebbing1 fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,becker',s ,,omnigraph1 or ,universal ,atlas2 containing ,thirty-one coloured ,maps1 ,modern and ,ancient1 with ,geographical ,index4 #dto4 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,bellenger',s ,,one ,,hundred ,,choice ,,fables1 imitated from ,,la ,,fontaine4 ,for the use of ,children1 and all ,persons beginning to learn the ,french language2 with a ,,dictionary of the ,words and ,idiomatic ,phrases1 ,grammatically ,explained4 ,new ,edition1 revised and corrected by ,c4 ,j4 ,,delille1 ,professor at ,christ's ,hospital4 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,bertinchamp',s 7,g41 ,a4,m47 ,,conversational ,,french ,,grammar4 ,in ,progressive ,lessons4 ,a ,new ,edition1 by ,,de ,,la ,,voye4 #abmo4 bound1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,beveridge',s ,,private ,,thoughts1 ,,and ,,necessity ,,of ,,frequent ,,communion1 with ,essays by ,,dr4 ,,stebbing4 ,two ,vols4 fcap4 cloth1 #es4 ,,bingley',s ,,useful ,,knowledge4 ,enlarged by ,,cooper4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,two ,vols4 #abmo4 cloth1 #abs4 ,,bonaventure 7,,st471--,,the ,,psalter ,,of ,,the ,,blessed ,,virgin4 ,translated from the last ,french ,edition of #aheb1 and carefully compared with the ,latin4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,boy ,,and ,,the ,,birds 7,,the74 ,by ,,emily ,,taylor4 ,with ,sixteen fine ,woodcuts1 from ,,landseer',s ,designs1 #afmo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,bremer1--,,homes ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world4 ,impressions of ,america4 ,by ,,fredrika ,,bremer4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,three ,vols4 #hvo4 cloth1 #al4 #aas4 #f;d4 ,,british ,,churches 7,,the7 in ,relation to the ,british ,people4 ,by ,,edward ,,miall1 ,m4 ,p4 ,cheap ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,bunyan',s ,,pilgrim',s ,,progress1 with ,woodcuts1 and ,memoir by ,j4 ,a4 ,,st4 ,,john4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,butler',s ,,analogy ,,of ,,religion2 with ,introduction by ,,dr4 ,,croly4 ,portrait4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,campbell 7,,major ,,walter71--,,the ,,old ,,forest ,,ranger2 or1 ,wild ,sports of ,india on the ,neilgherry ,hills1 in the ,jungles1 and on the ,plains4 ,new ,edition4 ,with ,illustrations on ,steel4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #hs4 ,,campbell1--,,peace ,,in ,,believing1 a ,memoir of ,isabella ,campbell4 ,new ,edition4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,canadian ,,crusoes2 a ,tale of the ,rice ,lake ,plains4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,traill1 7late ,catharine ,parr ,strickland17 ,authoress of 8,the ,backwoods of ,canada10 c4 ,edited by ,,agnes ,,strickland4 ,with numerous ,illustrations by ,,harvey4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #fs4 ,,carlile 7,,rev4 ,j41 ,d4,d471--,,manual ,,of ,,the ,,anatomy ,,and ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,mind4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #es4 ,,castles ,,and ,,abbeys ,,of ,,england 7,,the74 ,by ,w4 ,,beattie1 ,m4,d4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,two ,vols1 imperial #hvo4 cloth1 #bl41 #ajs4 ,,castles1 ,,palaces1 ,,and ,,prisons ,,of ,,mary ,,queen ,,of ,,scots4 ,by ,,charles ,,mackie1 ,,esq41 with ,forty-eight ,illustrations1 royal #hvo4 cloth gilt1 #aes4 ,,celt1 ,,roman1 ,,and ,,saxon 7,,the72 a ,history of the ,early ,inhabitants of ,britain1 down to the ,conversion of the ,anglo-,saxons to ,christianity4 ,illustrated by the ,ancient ,remains brought to light by recent research4 ,by ,,thomas ,,wright1 ,,esq4 ,m4,a4 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with numerous ,engravings4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #hs4 ,,cerioni 7,,signor71--,a ,,narrative ,,of ,,the ,,conversion ,,from ,,popery of ,the ,,rev4 ,g4 ,,cerioni and the ,,rev4 ,l4 ,d4 ,,moscardi1 formerly ,padre ,berardo da ,jesi1 and ,padre ,leonardo da ,camarda4 ,including several ,letters1 and much interesting information4 ,second ,edition4 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,charlie',s ,,discoveries2 or1 a ,good use for ,eyes and ,ears4 ,with ,cuts by ,,williams4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,chemistry ,,no ,,mystery2 being the ,subject ,matter of a ,course of ,lectures by ,dr4 ,scoffern4 ,illustrated with ,diagrams and ,woodcuts4 ,second ,edition1 revised and corrected1 with ,index4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,cherry ,,and ,,violet3 a ,tale of the ,great ,plague4 ,by the ,author of 8,mary ,powell40 ,with ,frontispiece1 price #gs4 #f;d4 cloth1 antique4 ,,christian ,,in ,,palestine2 or1 ,scenes of ,sacred ,history4 ,by ,,henry ,,stebbing1 ,d4,d41 ,illustrated ,with ,eighty ,engravings on ,steel from designs by ,w4 ,h4 ,,bartlett1 #dto4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bl4 #bs4 ,,christian ,,life 7,,the71 a ,manual of ,sacred ,verse4 ,by ,,robert ,,montgomery ,m4,a41 ,second ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,chronicles ,,of ,,merry ,,england1 related to her people4 ,by the ,author of 8,mary ,powell40 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,church ,,before ,,the ,,flood 7,,the74 ,by the ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,third ,thousand1 fcap4 cloth1 full gilt1 #is4 ,,city ,,scenes2 or1 a ,peep into ,london4 ,with many ,plates4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,claude ,,the ,,colporteur4 ,by the ,author of 8,mary ,powell40 ,with ,coloured ,frontispiece after ,,warren4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,cobbin 7,,rev4 ,,ingram1 ,m4,a471--,,dr4 ,,watts',s ,,divine ,,and ,,moral ,,songs ,,for ,,children4 ,with ,anecdotes and ,reflections4 ,with ,frontispiece and ,fifty-seven ,woodcuts4 ,new ,edition4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #as42 with gilt edges1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,cola ,,monti2 or1 the ,story of a ,genius4 ,a ,tale for ,boys4 ,by the ,author of 8,how to win ,love40 ,with ,four ,illustrations by ,,franklin4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,collette',s 7,j4 ,h47 ,,romanism ,,in ,,england ,,exposed4 ,second ,edition1 enlarged and improved1 fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,popish ,,infallibility4 ,sewed #as4 ,,colloquies ,,of ,,edward ,,osborne 7,,the71 ,citizen and ,cloth-,worker of ,london1 as reported by the ,author of 8,mary ,powell40 ,second ,edition1 post #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #gs4 #f;d42 morocco antique1 #ads4 ,,communion ,,table 7,,the72 or1 ,communicant's ,manual4 ,a plain and ,practical ,exposition of the ,lord's ,supper1 by ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,cottage ,,in ,,the ,,chalk-,,pit4 ,by ,c4 ,a4 ,,mant4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,crock ,,of ,,gold 7,,the74 ,a ,tale of ,covetousness4 ,by ,,martin ,f4 ,,tupper1 ,d4,c4,l4,f4,r4,s4 ,with ,frontispiece by ,,john ,,leech4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,crosland',s 7,,mrs4 ,,newton7 ,,stratagems4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 ,cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,toil ,,and ,,trial1 a ,story of ,london ,life4 ,with ,frontispiece by ,,john ,,leech4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #bas4 #f;d4 ,,cross' 7,,robert1 ,m4,d47 ,,physiology ,,of ,,human ,,nature1 being an investigation of the ,physical and ,moral ,condition of ,man in his ,relation to the ,inspired ,word of ,god4 #hvo4 cloth1 #fs4 ,,crowe',s 7,,catharine7 ,,pippie',s ,,warning2 or1 the ,adventures of a ,dancing ,dog4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,cumming 7,,rev4 ,,john1 ,d4,d471--,,apocalyptic ,,sketches2 or1 ,,lectures on the ,,book ,,of ,,revelation1 delivered in ,exeter ,hall1 and ,crown ,court ,church4 ,new ,editions1 revised and corrected by the ,author1 with ,index1 c4 ,sixteenth ,thousand4 ,three ,vols1 cloth1 full gilt1 #is4 each4 ---- ,,the ,,baptismal ,,font2 an ,exposition of the ,nature and ,obligations of ,christian ,baptism4 ,with an ,appendix4 ,third ,edition4 fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 ---- ,,christ ,,our ,,passover2 or1 ,thoughts on the ,atonement4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,the ,,church ,,before ,,the ,,flood4 ,third ,thousand1 ,fcap4 cloth1 full gilt1 #is4 ---- ,,the ,,comforter2 or1 ,thoughts on the ,holy ,spirit4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,the ,,communion ,,table2 or ,,communicant',s ,,manual3 a plain and practical ,,exposition of the ,,lord',s ,,supper4 ,new ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ---- ,,daily ,,family ,,devotion2 or1 ,,guide to ,,family ,,worship4 #dto4 cloth1 #bas42 or with ,plates1 #bes4 ---- ,,the ,,daily ,,life2 or1 ,divine ,precepts and ,prescriptions for ,christian ,living4 ,in preparation4 ---- ,,the ,,finger ,,of ,,god4 ,third ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,foreshadows2 or1 ,,lectures on our ,,lord',s ,,miracles and ,,parables1 as ,earnests of the ,age to come4 ,fifth ,thousand4 ,two ,volumes uniformly printed4 ,with ,designs by ,,franklin4 ,cloth1 full gilt1 #is4 each4 ---- ,,hammersmith ,,protestant ,,discussion1 between the ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 and ,,daniel ,,french1 ,,esq41 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,cheap ,edition4 ,tenth ,thousand1 post #hvo4 cloth1 #fs4 ---- ,,infant ,,salvation2 or1 ,,all ,,saved ,,who ,,die ,,in ,,infancy4 ,specially addressed to ,mothers mourning the ,loss of ,infants and ,children4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 ---- ,,is ,,christianity ,,from ,,god8 ,a ,manual of ,christian ,evidences for ,scripture ,readers1 ,sunday ,school ,teachers1 ,city ,missionaries1 and ,young ,persons4 ,tenth ,edition4 ,fcap4 #cs4 cloth4 ---- ,,lectures ,,at ,,exeter ,,hall2 or1 ,a ,challenge to ,cardinal ,wiseman4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,seven ,,churches ,,of ,,asia ,,minor4 ,apocalyptic ,sketches4 ,third ,series4 ,illustrated by ,wood ,engravings representing the present state of the ,apostolic ,churches4 ,eleventh ,thousand4 ,fcap4 cloth1 full gilt1 #is4 ---- ,,lectures ,,for ,,the ,,times2 or1 ,illustrations and ,refutations of the ,errors of ,romanism and ,tractarianism4 ,new ,edition1 ,fcap4 cloth1 #fs4 ---- ,,lectures ,,to ,,young ,,men4 ,collected edition1 with additions4 ,in preparation4 ,,cumming 7,,rev4 ,,john1 ,d4,d471--,a ,,message ,,from ,,god2 or1 ,,thoughts on ,,religion for ,,thinking ,,men4 ,fourth ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 ---- ,,our ,,father2 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,family ,,prayers for ,general and ,special ,occasions1 with ,short ,prayers for ,spare ,minutes1 and ,passages for ,reflection4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cs4 ---- ,,occasional ,,discourses4 ,new ,edition4 ,two ,vols4 fcap4 cloth1 #hs4 ---- ,,prophetic ,,studies2 or1 ,,lectures on the ,,book ,,of ,,daniel4 ,ninth ,thousand4 ,fcap4 cloth1 full gilt1 #is4 ---- ,,pulpit ,,psalmody4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d42 roan1 #es42 morocco1 #fs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,psalter ,,of ,,the ,,blessed ,,virgin4 ,written by ,,st4 ,,bonaventure4 ,translated from the last ,french ,edition of #aheb1 and carefully compared with the ,latin4 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ---- ,,sabbath ,,evening ,,readings ,,on ,,st4 ,,matthew1 complete1 with ,frontispiece4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #es4 ---- ,,st4 ,,mark4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ---- ,,st4 ,,luke4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #fs4 ---- ,,revelation4 #b;d ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,salvation4 ,a ,sermon preached before the ,queen4 ,twentieth ,thousand4 ,sewed1 #f;d4 ---- ,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,times4 ,complete ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,tent ,,and ,,the ,,altar2 or1 ,sketches from ,patriarchal ,life4 ,fcap4 cloth1 full gilt1 #is4 ---- ,,the ,,war ,,and ,,its ,,issues4 ,sewed1 #as4 ---- ,,wellington4 ,a ,,lecture4 ,new and ,enlarged ,edition1 with ,valuable ,additions4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,darton 7,,margaret ,e471--,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,its ,,inhabitants4 ,with ,frontispiece4 ,second ,edition1 crown #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 ,,decoy 7,,the72 or1 an ,agreeable ,method of ,teaching ,children the elementary ,parts of ,english ,grammar4 ,sewed1 #as4 ,,de ,,la ,,voye',s 7,,marin7 ,,new ,,critical ,,french ,,pronouncing ,,vocabulary1 with ,exercises on ,reading1 and ,critical ,rules for ,french ,pronunciation4 #abmo4 bound1 #bs4 ,,deslyon',s ,,french ,,dialogues1 ,practical and ,familiar1 constructed so as to enable all ,persons at once to practise ,conversing in the ,french ,language2 with ,,familiar ,,letters in ,,french and ,,english1 adapted to the capacities of ,youth4 ,new ,edition1 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,french ,,tutor2 or1 ,practical ,exposition of the best ,french ,grammarians1 with familiar ,exercises and ,questions on every ,rule1 to serve for ,examination and ,repetition4 ,third ,edition1 #abmo4 cloth1 #ds4 ,,dialogues ,,between ,a ,,popish ,,priest ,,and ,,an ,,english ,,protestant1 wherein the ,principal ,points and ,arguments of both ,religions are truly ,proposed1 and fully ,examined4 ,by ,,matthew ,,poole4 ,new ,edition1 with the ,references revised and corrected4 ,by the ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,doctor',s ,,little ,,daughter 7,,the74 ,the ,story of a ,child's ,life amidst the ,woods and ,hills4 ,by ,,eliza ,,meteyard1 with numerous ,illustrations by ,,harvey4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,double ,,claim 7,,the71 a ,tale of ,real ,life4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,t4 ,k4 ,,hervey4 ,with ,frontispiece by ,,weir4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,drawing-,,room ,,table-,,book1 ,with ,twenty ,illustrations on ,steel4 ,edited by the ,author of 8,mary ,powell10 #dto4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #as4 #a;d4 ,,earth ,,and ,,its ,,inhabitants 7,,the71 ,by ,,margaret ,e4 ,,darton4 ,second ,edition1 with ,frontispiece4 ,crown #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 ,,eddy',s 7,,daniel ,c47 ,,heroines ,,of ,,the ,,missionary ,,enterprise2 or1 ,sketches of ,prominent ,female ,missionaries4 ,with ,preface by the ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,emilie1 ,,the ,,peace-,,maker4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,,geldart4 ,frontispiece1 fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d42 gilt edges1 #cs4 ,,english ,,stories ,,of ,,the ,,olden ,,time4 ,by ,,maria ,,hack4 ,a ,new ,edition4 ,with ,vignettes by ,,harvey4 ,in preparation4 ,,euphonia3 ,portions of ,holy ,scripture marked for ,chanting1 with ,forty ,chants arranged for the ,voice and ,organ1 or ,pianoforte4 ,third ,edition1 post #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 ,,evenings ,,at ,,home2 or1 the ,juvenile ,budget opened4 ,by ,dr4 ,,aiken and ,mrs4 ,,barbauld4 ,sixteenth ,edition1 revised and newly arranged by ,,arthur ,,aiken1 ,esq4 and ,,miss ,,aiken4 ,with ,engravings by ,,harvey4 ,fcap1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,evenings ,,in ,,my ,,tent2 or1 ,wanderings in the ,african ,sahara4 ,by ,rev4 ,n4 ,,davis1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,s4,a4 ,with ,illustrations1 ,two ,vols4 post #hvo4 cloth1 #bds4 ,,expository ,,readings ,,on ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,revelation1 forming a short and continuous ,commentary on the ,apocalypse4 ,by ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,farr',s 7,,edward7 ,,manual ,,of ,,geography1 ,physical and ,political4 ,for the use of ,schools and ,families1 with ,questions for ,examination4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,felton',s 7,j47 ,,improved ,,method ,,of ,,performing ,,commercial ,,calculations2 representing the ,science of ,arithmetic in a ,new ,light4 ,a ,book of ,general ,utility4 ,containing1 among other matter1 a full ,illustration of the ,theory of ,proportion and the ,german ,chain ,rule4 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ---- ,,the ,,teacher',s ,,manual ,,of ,,mental ,,arithmetic2 displaying a ,simple ,method of successfully ,communicating ,instruction in that most useful ,science4 ,together with a ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,calculations4 #abmo1 cloth1 #bs4 ,,fireside ,,stories2 or1 ,recollections of my ,schoolfellows4 ,third ,edition1 with ,thirteen ,illustrations4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,fletcher 7,,rev4 ,,alexander1 ,d4,d471--,a ,,guide ,,to ,,family ,,devotion1 containing #gcj ,hymns1 ,prayers1 and ,passages of ,scripture1 with appropriate reflections4 ,the whole arranged to form a ,complete and ,distinct ,family ,service for every ,morning and ,evening in the ,year1 with ,illustrations4 ,fortieth ,thousand1 revised1 #dto4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #al4 #fs4 ---- ,,sabbath ,,school ,,preacher ,,and ,,juvenile ,,miscellany4 ,with ,numerous ,illustrations4 ,complete in ,three ,vols4 fcap4 cloth1 #as4 each4 ---- ,,assembly',s ,,catechism4 ,divided into ,fifty-two ,lessons4 ,sewed1 #h;d4 ,,footsteps ,,of ,,our ,,lord ,,and ,,his ,,apostles1 ,,in ,,syria1 ,,greece1 ,,and ,,italy4 ,a succession of ,visits to the ,scenes of ,new ,testament ,narrative4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,bartlett4 ,with ,twenty-three ,steel ,engravings1 and several ,woodcuts4 ,third ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #ads42 morocco elegant1 #bfs4 ,,footsteps ,,to ,,natural ,,history4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,foreshadows2 or1 ,,lectures on our ,,lord',s ,,miracles and ,,parables1 as ,earnests of the ,age to come4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,fifth ,thousand4 ,with ,designs by ,,franklin4 ,two ,vols4 ,fcap4 cloth1 full gilt1 #is4 each4 ,,forty ,,days ,,in ,,the ,,desert1 ,,on ,,the ,,track ,,of ,,the ,,israelites2 or1 a ,journey from ,cairo by ,wady ,feiran to ,mount ,sinai and ,petra4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,bartlett4 ,illustrated with ,twenty-seven ,engravings on ,steel1 a ,map1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 ,fifth ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 full gilt1 #abs42 morocco elegant1 #bas4 ,,frank ,,fairlegh2 or1 ,scenes from the ,life of a ,private ,pupil4 ,by ,f4 ,e4 ,,smedley1 ,,esq4 ,with ,thirty ,illustrations1 by ,,george ,,cruikshank4 #hvo4 cloth1 #afs4 ,,french ,,and ,,english ,,primer4 ,with ,one ,hundred ,engravings on ,wood4 ,sewed1 #f;d4 ,,gavazzi 7,,father7 ,,life ,,of4 ,by ,,campanelle1 in ,english or ,italian4 ,crown #hvo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 each4 ,,geldart',s 7,,mrs4 ,,thomas7 ,,love1 ,a ,,reality1 ,,not ,,romance4 ,with ,cuts by ,,gilbert4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,elder ,,brothers4 #afmo4 cloth1 #i;d4 ---- ,,emilie1 ,,the ,,peace-,,maker4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d42 gilt edges1 #cs4 ---- ,,stories ,,of ,,scotland4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d42 gilt edges1 #cs4 ---- ,,thoughts ,,of ,,home4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,truth ,,is ,,everything4 #b;d ,edit4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d42 gilt edges1 #cs4 ,,gems ,,of ,,european ,,art4 ,the best ,pictures of the best ,schools1 containing ,ninety highly-finished ,engravings4 ,edited by ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall1 ,,esq4 ,f4,s4,a4 ,two ,vols4 folio cloth1 gilt edges1 #el4 ,,gibbon',s ,,decline ,,and ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4 ,illustrated ,edition1 with ,memoir of the ,author1 and additional ,notes1 principally referring to ,christianity4 ,from the ,french of ,m4 ,,guizot4 ,two ,vols4 super-royal #hvo4 cloth gilt1 #al4 #afs4 ,,giles',s 7,,jas47 ,,english ,,parsing ,,lessons4 ,seventeenth ,edition4 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,gleanings1 ,,antiquarian ,,and ,,pictorial1 ,,on ,,the ,,overland ,,route1 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,bartlett4 ,with ,twenty-eight ,plates and ,maps1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 ,second ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth gilt1 #afs42 morocco elegant1 #bhs4 ,,godwin 7,,rev4 ,b41 ,d4,d471--,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,atheism ,,examined1 ,,and ,,compared ,,with ,,christianity4 ,a ,course of ,popular ,lectures1 delivered at ,bradford1 ,yorkshire1 in ,january and ,february1 #ahec4 ,third ,edition1 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,grieve 7,,john71--,,the ,,farmer',s ,,assistant1 ,,and ,,agriculturist',s ,,calendar4 ,new and ,enlarged ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #ds4 ,,griffith',s 7,,ralph ,t4 ,h1 ,m4,a4 ,m4,r4,a4,s47 ,,specimens ,,of ,,old ,,indian ,,poetry4 ,translated from the ,original ,sanskrit into ,english ,verse4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 ,,hack',s 7,,maria7 ,,english ,,stories ,,of ,,the ,,olden ,,time4 ,vignettes by ,,harvey4 ,new ,edition4 ,two ,vols4 ,in preparation4 ---- ,,grecian ,,stories4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,new ,edition4 ,in preparation4 ---- ,,harry ,,beaufoy2 or1 the ,pupil of ,nature4 ,new ,edition1 with ,cuts by ,,landseer4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ---- ,,stories ,,of ,,animals4 ,adapted for ,children from ,three to ,ten ,years of ,age4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,two ,vols1 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 each4 ---- ,,winter ,,evenings2 or1 ,tales of ,travellers4 ,new ,edition4 ,illustrations by ,,gilbert4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,haigh',s 7,j41 ,a4,m47 ,,latin ,,pocket ,,dictionary2 designed for the ,junior ,forms in ,schools4 ,new ,edition1 #ahmo4 bound1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,hairby',s ,,rambles ,,in ,,normandy1 with ,eight ,engravings after ,,turner and ,,stanfield1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 #dto4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #es4 ,,hall 7,,mrs4 ,s4 ,c471--,,pilgrimages ,,to ,,english ,,shrines4 ,with ,notes and ,illustrations by ,f4 ,w4 ,,fairholt1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,new and cheaper ,edition4 ,in ,one ,vol4 #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges4 #bas4 ---- ,,tales ,,of ,,woman',s ,,trials4 ,with ,illustrations4 #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #hs4 ---- 7,,mr4 ,,and ,,mrs4 ,s4 ,c47 ,,ireland1 ,,its ,,scenery ,,and ,,character4 ,new ,edition1 with numerous ,engravings on ,steel1 ,maps1 and ,five ,hundred ,woodcuts4 ,three ,vols4 royal #hvo4 ,cloth1 #cl4 #cs4 ---- ,,handbooks ,,for ,,ireland1 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,no4 #a4--;,,dublin ,,and ,,wicklow4 ,no4 #b4--,,the ,,south ,,and ,,killarney4 ,no4 #c4--,,north ,,and ,,the ,,giant',s ,,causeway4 ,no4 #d4--,,the ,,west ,,and ,,connemara4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,hall 7,,mr4 ,,and ,,mrs4 ,s4 ,c471--,a ,,week ,,at ,,killarney1 being a ,guide to ,tourists to the ,lakes of ,killarney4 ,illustrated by ,twenty ,engravings on ,steel1 and ,one ,hundred and ,ten ,woodcuts4 ,new ,edition1 #dto4 cloth1 #hs4 ---- 7,,bishop71--,,treatises1 with ,essay by ,rev4 ,r4 ,,cattermole1 ,b4,d4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,hammersmith ,,protestant ,,discussion 7,,the71 between ,,dr4 ,,cumming and ,,mr4 ,,french4 ,cheap ,edition1 ,tenth ,thousand1 crown #hvo4 cloth1 #fs4 ,,happy ,,transformation2 or1 the ,history of a ,london ,apprentice4 ,with ,preface1 by ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,,james4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #as4 ,,heart2 a ,tale of ,false-witness4 ,by ,,martin ,f4 ,,tupper1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with ,frontispiece by ,,leech4 ,post #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,hendry',s ,,history ,,of ,,greece4 ,in ,easy ,lessons4 ,adapted to ,children of from ,six to ,ten ,years of ,age4 ,with illustrations4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ---- ,,history ,,of ,,rome4 ,in ,easy ,lessons4 ,adapted for ,children of from ,six to ,ten ,years of ,age4 ,with illustrations4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,heroines ,,of ,,the ,,missionary ,,enterprise2 or1 ,sketches of ,prominent ,female ,missionaries4 ,by ,,daniel ,c4 ,,eddy4 ,with ,preface by the ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,second ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,hervey 7,,mrs4 ,t4 ,k471--,,the ,,double ,,claim1 a ,tale of ,real ,life4 ,with frontispiece by ,,weir4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ---- ,,juvenile ,,calendar 7,,the7 ,,and ,,zodiac ,,of ,,flowers4 ,with ,twelve ,illustrations of the ,months1 by ,,richard ,,doyle4 ,post #hvo1 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,higgins' 7,,wm47 ,,researches ,,in ,,the ,,solar ,,realm4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,historical ,,prints ,,of ,,english ,,history4 ,by ,,emily ,,taylor4 ,fourth ,edition1 revised and enlarged1 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,representing the principal events in the ,,history ,,of ,,greece4 ,with many ,cuts4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,hofland ,,library2 for the ,instruction and ,amusement of ,youth4 ,illustrated with ,plates1 and handsomely hound in embossed ,scarlet ,cloth1 with ,gilt ,edges1 c4 ,,first ,,class1 in #abmo4--,price #bs4 #f;d4 #a4 ,,memoir of the ,,life and ,,literary ,,remains of ,,mrs4 ,,hofland4 ,by ,t4 ,,ramsay1 ,esq4 ,with ,portrait4 #b4 ,,alfred ,,campbell4 #c4 ,,decision2 a ,tale4 #d4 ,,energy4 #e4 ,,fortitude4 #f4 ,,humility4 #g4 ,,integrity4 #h4 ,,moderation4 #i4 ,,patience4 #aj4 ,,reflection4 #aa4 ,,self-,,denial4 #ab4 ,,young ,,cadet4 #ac4 ,,young ,,pilgrim4 ,,hofland ,,library3-- ,,second ,,class1 in #ahmo4--,price #as4 #f;d4 #a4 ,,adelaide4 #b4 ,,affectionate ,,brothers4 #c4 ,,alicia ,,and ,,her ,,aunt4 #d4 ,,barbados ,,girl4 #e4 ,,blind ,,farmer ,,and ,,his ,,children4 #f4 ,,clergyman',s ,,widow4 #g4 ,,daughter-,,in-,,law4 #h4 ,,elizabeth4 #i4 ,,godmother',s ,,tales4 #aj4 ,,good ,,grandmother4 #aa4 ,,merchant',s ,,widow4 #ab4 ,,rich ,,boys ,,and ,,poor ,,boys4 #ac4 ,,the ,,sisters4 #ad4 ,,stolen ,,boy4 #ae4 ,,william ,,and ,,his ,,uncle ,,ben4 #af4 ,,young ,,crusoe4 ,,homes ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world4 ,impressions of ,america4 ,by ,,fredrika ,,bremer4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,three ,vols4 #hvo4 cloth1 #al4 #aas4 #f;d4 ,,household ,,of ,,sir ,,thos4 ,,more1 7,,ye47 ,libellus a ,margareta ,more1 quindecim annos nata1 ,chelsei inceptus4 ,second ,edition1 with ,portrait4 ,cloth1 red edges1 #gs4 #f;d42 morocco antique1 #ads4 ,,how ,,to ,,win ,,love2 or1 ,rhoda's ,lesson4 ,a ,story ,book for the ,young4 ,by the ,author of 8,michael the ,miner10 8,cola ,monti10 c4 ,with ,illustrations on ,steel4 ,new ,edition1 #afmo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,humboldt',s 7,,baron ,,william ,,von7 ,,letters ,,to ,a ,,lady4 ,from the ,german4 ,with introduction by ,dr4 ,,stebbing4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,hume ,,and ,,smollett',s ,,history ,,of ,,england1 with continuation to #ahdf1 by ,,farr4 ,with ,portraits1 c4 ,three ,vols4 imperial #hvo4 cloth1 #al4 #aas4 #f;d4 ,,hymns ,,and ,,sketches ,,in ,,verse4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,illustrated ,,catalogue ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,industrial ,,exhibition ,,of #ahea1 published in connexion with the ,art ,journal1 containing upwards of ,fourteen ,hundred ,engravings on ,wood1 and a ,frontispiece on ,steel4 #dto4 cloth1 gilt edges1 ,one ,guinea4 ,,illustrated ,,french ,,and ,,english ,,primer4 ,with ,one ,hundred ,engravings on ,wood4 ,sewed1 #f;d4 ,,illustrated ,,year-,,book of ,wonders1 ,events1 and ,discoveries4 ,edited by ,,john ,,timbs4 ,with numerous ,engravings on ,wood4 ,two vols4 fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,incidents ,,of ,,travel ,,in ,,central ,,america1 ,,chiapas1 ,,and ,,yucatan4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,,stephens4 ,new ,edition1 by ,f4 ,,catherwood4 ,with numerous ,illustrations1 #hvo4 cloth1 #abs4 ,,infant ,,salvation2 or1 ,all ,saved who ,die in ,infancy4 ,specially addressed to ,mothers mourning the ,loss of ,infants and ,children4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,fourth ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 ,,ireland1 ,,its ,,scenery1 ,,and ,,character4 ,by ,,mr4 and ,,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall4 ,with numerous ,engravings on ,steel1 and ,five ,hundred ,woodcuts4 ,new ,edition1 ,three ,vols4 royal #hvo4 cloth1 #cl4 #cs4 ,,is ,,christianity ,,from ,,god8 ,a ,manual of ,christian ,evidences for ,scripture ,readers1 ,sunday ,school ,teachers1 ,city ,missionaries1 and ,young ,persons4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,tenth ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,jack ,,and ,,the ,,tanner ,,of ,,wymondham2 a ,tale of the ,time of ,edward ,,vi4 ,by the ,author of 8,mary ,powell40 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 7,,railway ,,reading47 ,,jay 7,,rev4 ,w471--,,final ,,discourses ,,at ,,argyle ,,chapel1 ,,bath4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,portraiture ,,of4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,jerdan',s 7,,william7 ,,autobiography2 ,with his ,literary1 ,political1 and ,social ,reminiscences and ,correspondence1 during the last ,forty ,years1 as ,editor of the 8,sun0 ,newspaper1 #ahab-ag1 and of the 8,literary ,gazette10 #ahag-ej1 in connexion with most of the ,eminent ,persons who have been distinguished in the past half-century as ,statesmen1 ,poets1 ,authors1 ,men of ,science1 ,artists1 c4 ,post #hvo4 with ,portraits1 c4 ,complete in #d ,vols4 cloth1 #bas4 ,,julian2 or1 the ,close of an ,era4 ,by ,l4 ,f4 ,,bungener1 ,author of 8,history of the ,council of ,trent40 ,two ,vols4 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,juvenile ,,anecdotes2 or1 ,stories of ,children4 ,by ,p4 ,,wakefield4 ,new ,edition4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,juvenile ,,calendar 7,,the7 ,,and ,,zodiac ,,of ,,flowers4 ,by ,mrs4 ,t4 ,k4 ,,hervey4 ,with ,twelve ,illustrations of the ,months1 by ,,richard ,,doyle4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,keating 7,,elizabeth71--,,raymond ,,bury1 a ,tale4 ,illustrated by ,,mrs4 ,,ingram4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #fs4 ,,king ,,alfred',s ,,poems4 ,now first turned into ,english ,metre1 by ,mr4 ,,tupper4 ,cloth1 #cs4 ,,laurie 7,,james71--,,tables ,,of ,,simple ,,interest ,,for ,,every ,,day ,,in ,,the ,,year1 at #e1 #d1 #d1 #c1 #c1 and #b per cent4 per annum1 from #al4 to #ajjl41 c4 ,nineteenth ,edition1 #hjj pp4 #hvo4 cloth1 #al4 #as4 8,in the great requisites of simplicity of arrangement and comprehensiveness we have seen none better adapted for general use40--,mc,culloch's ,commercial ,dictionary4 ---- ,,tables ,,of ,,simple ,,interest at #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 and #i per cent4 per annum1 from #a day to #ajj days4 ,third ,edition1 #hvo4 cloth1 #gs4 ,,lawrence',s 7,,miss7 ,,stories ,,from ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,testament4 ,new ,edition1 with ,engravings4 ,in preparation4 ,,le,,ons ,,pour ,,des ,,enfans1 depuis l'ge de ,deux ,ans jusqu' ,cinq4 ,avec une ,interprtation ,anglais4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,barbauld4 ,new ,edition4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,lectures ,,for ,,the ,,times2 or1 ,illustrations and ,refutations of the ,errors of ,romanism and ,tractarianism4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,new ,edition1 ,revised and ,corrected1 with ,additions4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #fs4 ,,lectures ,,to ,,young ,,men4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,a collected edition1 with additions4 ,in preparation4 ,,letters ,,and ,,poems1 selected from the ,writings of ,,bernard ,,barton4 ,with ,,memoir4 ,edited by his ,,daughter4 ,new ,edition1 with ,portrait4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d42 large paper1 #ajs4 ,,letters ,,to ,a ,,lady4 ,by ,,baron ,,william ,,von ,,humboldt4 ,from the ,german4 ,with ,introduction by ,,dr4 ,,stebbing4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,lewis ,,arundel2 or1 the ,railroad of ,life4 ,by ,f4 ,e4 ,,smedley1 ,,esq4 ,author of 8,frank ,fairlegh40 ,with ,illustrations by ,h4 ,k4 ,,browne1 7,,phiz47 #hvo4 cloth1 #bbs4 ,,limed ,,twigs ,,to ,,catch ,,young ,,birds4 ,by the ,authors of 8,original ,poems40 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,objects4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,knowledge2 containing ,useful ,information on ,common ,things1 for ,young ,children4 ,by ,,elizabeth ,g4 ,,noverre4 ,with ,eight ,illustrations4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,love1 ,a ,,reality1 ,,not ,,romance4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,,thomas ,,geldart4 ,with ,cuts by ,,gilbert4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,mackie',s 7,c47 ,,castles1 ,,palaces1 ,,and ,,prisons ,,of ,,mary ,,queen ,,of ,,scots4 ,with ,forty-eight ,illustrations4 ,royal #hvo4 cloth gilt1 #aes4 ,,maiden ,,and ,,married ,,life ,,of ,,mary ,,powell1 afterwards ,,mistress ,,milton4 ,third ,edition1 with ,portrait4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 red edges1 #gs4 #f;d42 morocco antique1 #ads4 8,this is a charming little book2 and whether we regard its subject1 cleverness1 or delicacy of sentiment or expression--to say nothing of its type and orthography--it is likely to be a most acceptable present to young or old1 be their peculiar taste for religion1 morals1 poetry1 history1 or romance40--,christian ,observer4 ---- ,,cherry ,,and ,,violet3 a ,tale of the ,great ,plague4 ,by the ,author of 8,mary ,powell40 #b;d ,edit4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 antique1 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,chronicles ,,of ,,merry ,,england4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,claude ,,the ,,colporteur4 ,with ,coloured ,frontispiece after ,,warren4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,colloquies ,,of ,,edward ,,osborne 7,,the71 ,citizen and ,cloth-,worker of ,london1 as reported by the ,author of 8,mary ,powell40 ,second ,edition1 post #hvo4 cloth1 red edges1 #gs4 #f;d42 morocco antique1 #ads4 ---- ,,jack ,,and ,,the ,,tanner ,,of ,,wymondham4 ,a ,tale of the ,time of ,edward ,,vi4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 8,,railway ,,reading40 ---- ,,provocations ,,of ,,madame ,,palissy 7,,the74 ,with ,coloured ,frontispiece1 by ,warren4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,queene ,,philippa',s ,,golden ,,booke4 ,handsomely bound and gilt1 with ,illuminations4 ---- ,y,e ,,household ,,of ,,sir ,,tho,s4 ,,more4 ,libellus a ,margareta ,more1 quindecim annos nata1 ,chelsei inceptus4 ,third ,edition1 with ,portrait1 c41 cloth1 red edges1 #gs4 #f;d42 morocco antique1 #ads4 ,,manual 7,a7 ,,of ,,the ,,anatomy ,,and ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,mind4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,,carlile1 ,d4,d4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #es4 ,,manual ,,of ,,heraldry1 being a concise ,description of the several ,terms used1 and containing a ,dictionary of every ,designation in the ,science4 ,illustrated by #djj ,engravings on ,wood4 ,new ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,manual ,,of ,,geography1 ,physical and ,political4 ,for the use of ,schools and ,families1 with ,questions for ,examination4 ,by ,,edward ,,farr1 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,manual ,,of ,,perspective4 ,illustrated by numerous ,engravings4 ,by ,n4 ,,whittock4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,merrifield 7,,mrs471--,,dress ,,as ,a ,,fine ,,art4 ,with ,illustrations4 post #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,message ,,from ,,god 7,a72 or1 ,thoughts on ,religion for ,thinking ,men4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,fourth ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 ,,meteyard',s 7,,eliza7 ,,doctor',s ,,little ,,daughter4 ,the ,story of a ,child's ,life amidst the ,woods and ,hills4 ,with numerous ,illustrations by ,,harvey4 ,foolscap1 cloth1 gilt edges1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,m',,henry',s ,,spanish ,,course4-- ,a ,,new ,,and ,,improved ,,grammar1 designed for every ,class of ,learners1 and especially for ,self-instruction4 ,containing the ,elements of the ,language and the ,rules of ,etymology and ,syntax ,exemplified2 with ,,notes and ,,appendix1 consisting of ,dialogues1 ,select ,poetry1 ,commercial ,correspondence1 c4 ,new ,edition1 ,revised4 #abmo1 bound1 #hs4 ---- ,,exercises ,,on ,,the ,,etymology1 ,,syntax1 ,,idioms1 c4 of the ,,spanish ,,language4 ,fifth ,edition1 #abmo4 bound1 #ds4 ---- ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,exercises4 #abmo4 bound1 #ds4 ---- ,,synonymes ,,of ,,the ,,spanish ,,language ,,explained4 #abmo4 and #hvo4 #es4 #f;d4 each4 ,,miall 7,,edward1 ,m4,p471--,,bases ,,of ,,belief1 an ,examination of ,christianity as a ,divine ,revelation by the light of recognised ,facts and ,principles4 ,in ,four ,parts4 ,second ,edition1 #hvo4 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,british ,,churches ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,british ,,people4 ,cheap ,edition1 post #hvo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,voluntary ,,principle1 in ,four ,series4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,miall 7,,rev4 ,j4 ,g471--,,memorials ,,of ,,early ,,christianity4 ,presenting1 in a graphic1 compact1 and popular form1 some of the memorable events of ,early ,ecclesiastical ,history4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 ,,miracles ,,of ,,nature ,,and ,,marvels ,,of ,,art4 ,,vol4 ,i4--,,seas1 ,,ships1 and ,,adventures4 #af ,engravings4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4--,,land ,,creation4 #ad ,engravings4 ,,vol4 ,,iii4--,,the ,,tropics ,,and ,,the ,,poles4 #aj ,engravings4 ,,vol4 ,,iv4--,,nature ,,and ,,art4 #ah ,engravings4 #as4 each1 square boards4 ,,modern ,,romanism4 ,by ,b4 ,b4 ,,woodward1 ,b4,a4 ,a popularly written account of the convocation and the proceedings of the ,council of ,trent1 with a readable version of its authorized ,formularies1 showing what ,romanism then became1 and by what means it was changed4 ,in prep4 ,,monod 7,a471--,,woman3 ,,her ,,mission1 ,,and ,,her ,,life4 ,translated from the ,french by ,rev4 ,w4 ,g4 ,,barrett4 ,second ,edition1 #ahmo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d42 gilt edges1 #bs4 ---- ,,saint ,,paul4 ,five ,discourses4 ,translated from the ,french by ,,rev4 ,w4 ,g4 ,,barrett4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,montgomery 7,,robert1 ,m4,a471--,,the ,,omnipresence ,,of ,,the ,,deity1 and other ,poems4 ,twenty-fifth ,edition1 ,illustrated by ,,corbould1 fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,the ,,christian ,,life1 a ,manual of ,sacred ,verse4 ,second ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,moubray',s ,,treatise ,,on ,,domestic ,,and ,,ornamental ,,poultry4 ,new ,edition1 revised and greatly enlarged by ,l4 ,a4 ,,meall1 with the ,diseases of ,poultry1 by ,dr4 ,,horner4 ,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #hs4 ,,my ,,boy',s ,,first ,,book4 ,by ,,miss ,m4 ,,frazer ,,tytler4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,my ,,old ,,pupils4 ,by the ,author of 8,my ,schoolboy ,days40 ,with ,four ,illustrations on ,wood4 #afmo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,my ,,youthful ,,companions4 ,by the same ,author4 ,with ,frontispiece4 #abmo4 cloth1 #as4 ,,naomi2 or1 the ,last ,days of ,jerusalem4 ,by ,mrs4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,webb4 ,with ,illustrations by ,,gilbert1 c4 ,new ,edition1 ,fcap4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,narrative 7,a7 ,,of ,,the ,,conversion ,,from ,,popery of the ,,rev4 ,g4 ,,cerioni and the ,,rev4 ,l4 ,d4 ,,moscardi1 formerly ,padre ,berardo da ,jesi1 and ,padre ,leonardo da ,camarda4 ,including several ,letters1 and much interesting information by ,,signor ,,cerioni4 ,second ,edition4 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,new ,,gift ,,book ,,for ,,youth1 with ,twenty-six ,illustrations4 #afmo4 boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,nile ,,boat 7,,the72 or1 ,glimpses of the ,land of ,egypt4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,bartlett4 ,illustrated by ,thirty-five ,steel ,engravings and ,maps1 with numerous ,cuts4 ,third ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 full gilt1 #afs42 morocco elegant1 #bhs4 ,,nineveh ,,and ,,persepolis3 an ,historical ,sketch of ,ancient ,assyria and ,persia1 with an ,account of the recent ,researches in those ,countries4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 ,,vaux1 ,m4,a4 of the ,british ,museum4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,third ,edition1 post #hvo4 cloth1 #hs42 morocco elegant1 #ags4 ,,occasional ,,discourses4 ,by ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,new ,edition4 ,two ,volumes1 fcap4 cloth1 #hs4 ,,old ,,forest ,,ranger 7,,the72 or1 ,wild ,sports of ,india on the ,neilgherry ,hills1 the ,jungles1 and on the ,plains4 ,by ,,major ,,walter ,,campbell1 of ,skipness4 ,new ,edition1 with ,illustrations on ,steel4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #hs4 ,,old ,,oak ,,chest2 or1 a ,book a ,great ,treasure4 ,by the ,author of 8,charlie's ,discoveries10 c4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,omnipresence ,,of ,,the ,,deity1 and other ,poems4 ,by ,,robert ,,montgomery1 ,m4,a41 ,twenty-fifth ,edition1 ,illustrated by ,,corbould4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,open ,,and ,,see2 or1 ,first ,reading ,lessons4 ,by the ,author of 8,aids to ,development10 c4 c4 ,with ,twenty-four ,engravings on ,wood4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,original ,,poems ,,for ,,infant ,,minds4 ,a ,new and ,revised ,edition4 ,two ,vols4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 each4 ,,our ,,father2 a ,manual of ,family ,prayers for ,general and ,special ,occasions1 with ,short ,prayers for ,spare ,minutes1 and ,passages for ,reflection4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,sixth ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cs4 ,,paul ,,percival2 or1 the ,young ,adventurer4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,payne',s 7,,joseph7 ,,select ,,poetry ,,for ,,children2 with brief ,explanatory ,notes1 arranged for the use of ,schools and ,families4 ,eleventh ,edition1 ,corrected and ,enlarged4 #ahmo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d42 with gilt edges1 #cs4 ---- ,,studies ,,in ,,english ,,poetry2 with short ,biographical ,sketches1 and ,notes ,explanatory and ,critical1 intended as a ,text-,book for the higher ,classes in ,schools1 and as an introduction to the ,study of ,english ,literature4 ,second ,edition4 #abmo4 cloth1 #fs4 ,,philosophical ,,conversations in which are familiarly explained the causes of many daily occurring ,natural ,phenomena4 ,by ,,frederick ,c4 ,,bakewell4 ,third ,edition1 with ,cuts4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,human ,,nature4 ,being an ,investigation of the ,physical and ,moral ,condition of ,man in his ,relation to the ,inspired ,word of ,god4 ,by ,,robert ,,cross1 ,m4,d4 #hvo4 cloth1 #fs4 ,,pictorial ,,french ,,and ,,english ,,primer4 ,with ,one ,hundred ,engravings on ,wood4 ,sewed1 #f;d4 ,,pictorial ,,spelling ,,book2 or1 ,lessons on ,facts and ,objects4 ,with ,one ,hundred and ,thirty ,illustrations4 ,fifth ,edition4 #abmo4 cloth1 #as4 ,,pictures ,,from ,,sicily4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,bartlett1 with ,thirty-three ,steel ,engravings1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 ,super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 full gilt1 #afs42 morocco elegant1 #bhs4 ,,pilgrimages ,,to ,,english ,,shrines4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall4 ,with ,notes and ,illustrations by ,f4 ,w4 ,,fairholt1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,new and cheaper ,edition4 ,in ,one ,vol4 #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bas4 ,,pippie',s ,,warning or1 the ,adventures of a ,dancing ,dog4 ,by ,,catharine ,,crowe1 ,author of 8,susan ,hopley10 c4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,pleasant ,,pastime2 or1 ,drawing-,room ,dramas for ,private ,representation by the ,young4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,poole',s 7,,matthew7 ,,dialogues ,,between ,a ,,popish ,,priest ,,and ,,an ,,english ,,protestant1 wherein the principal ,points and ,arguments of both ,religions are truly ,proposed1 and fully ,examined4 ,new ,edition1 with the ,references revised and corrected4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4 ,d4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,popish ,,infallibility4 ,by ,c4 ,h4 ,,collette4 ,fcap4 sewed1 #as4 ,,prophetic ,,studies2 or1 ,lectures on the ,book of ,daniel4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,ninth ,thousand4 ,fcap4 cloth1 ,full gilt1 #is42 morocco extra1 #acs4 ,,protestant ,,catechism 7,,the72 or1 the ,true ,christian's ,defence against the ,church of ,rome2 ,with an ,introductory ,essay4 ,by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,,parkinson1 ,m4,a4 ,fifth ,thousand1 revised and enlarged1 #ahmo4 sewed1 #f;d42 or #es4 per dozen for distribution4 ,,provocations ,,of ,,madame ,,palissy 7,,the74 ,by the ,author of 8,mary ,powell40 ,with ,coloured ,frontispiece1 by ,,warren4 ,second ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,psalter ,,of ,,the ,,blessed ,,virgin4 ,written by ,,st4 ,,bonaventure4 ,translated from the last ,french ,edition of #aheb1 and carefully compared with the ,latin1 by ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,pulpit ,,psalm ,,book 7,,the71 ,edited by the ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d42 roan1 #es42 morocco1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,queene ,,philippa',s ,,golden ,,booke4 ,handsomely bound and gilt1 with ,illuminations4 ,,railway ,,appliances1 in the ,nineteenth ,century2 or1 the ,rail1 ,steam1 and ,electricity4 ,with illustrative ,anecdotes1 ,engravings1 and ,diagrams1 ,fcap4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,rambles ,,in ,,normandy1 with ,eight ,engravings after ,,turner and ,,stanfield1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 #dto4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #es4 ,,raymond ,,bury4 ,a ,tale4 ,by ,,elizabeth ,,keating4 ,illustrated by ,,mrs4 ,,ingram4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #fs4 ,,recollections ,,of ,,mrs4 ,,anderson',s ,,school4 ,a ,book for ,girls4 ,by ,,jane ,,winnard ,,hooper4 ,illustrated by ,,franklin4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,rhymes ,,for ,,the ,,nursery4 ,by the ,authors of 8,original ,poems40 #ahmo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ---- ,illustrated ,edition1 in ,large ,type4 ,with ,sixteen ,designs by ,,gilbert4 #afmo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,rippon',s 7,,dr47 ,,selection ,,of ,,hymns ,,from ,,the ,,best ,,authors1 including a great number of ,originals1 intended as an ,appendix to ,dr4 ,watts' ,psalms and ,hymns4 ,new ,edition4 ,nonpareil #cbmo4 ,long ,primer #bdmo4 ,large ,type4 ,sheep #a #f,sheep #b #h,sheep #e #j ,roan1 gilt edges #b #f,roan1 gilt edges #c #f,roan1 gilt edges #f #j ,morocco #e #j,morocco #f #j,morocco #g #j ,,road ,,to ,,learning2 or1 ,original ,lessons in ,words of ,one and ,two ,syllables4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,square boards1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,robinson ,,crusoe4 ,with ,illustrations1 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,rock ,,of ,,israel2 a ,word or ,two to the ,distrustful4 #cbmo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,rodwell',s 7,,ann7 ,,first ,,step ,,to ,,english ,,history4 ,with many ,cuts4 ,new ,edition1 revised1 by ,,julia ,,corner4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,romaine',s ,,life1 ,,walk1 ,,and ,,triumph ,,of ,,faith4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,romanism ,,in ,,england ,,exposed4 ,by ,,charles ,,hastings ,,collette4 ,second ,edition1 enlarged and improved1 fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,rome3 ,,regal ,,and ,,republican4 ,a ,history for ,families4 ,by ,,jane ,m4 ,,strickland4 ,edited by ,,agnes ,,strickland1 ,authoress of 8,lives of the ,queens of ,england40 ,with ,vignettes4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,rosalie2 or1 8,the ,truth shall make you ,free40 ,an authentic ,narrative4 ,by ,mdlle4 ,r4 ,b4 99 99 de ,p4 99 99 99 ,edited by ,,rev4 ,,jos4 ,,ridgeway1 ,a4,m4 of ,sydenham1 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,rowbotham',s 7,j41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,a47 ,,derivative ,,spelling ,,book1 in which the ,origin of each ,word is given from the ,greek1 ,latin1 ,saxon1 ,german1 ,teutonic1 ,dutch1 ,french1 ,spanish1 and other ,languages2 with the ,parts of ,speech1 and ,pronunciation accented4 #abmo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ---- ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,french ,,language ,,and ,,conversation2 consisting of ,modern ,french ,dialogues1 with the ,pronunciation of the most difficult ,words2 for the use of ,schools1 ,travellers1 and ,private ,students1 ,a ,new ,edition1 by ,,de ,,la ,,voye4 #ahmo4 bound1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,rural ,,scenes2 or1 a ,peep into the ,country4 ,a ,new and ,revised ,edition1 with ,eighty-eight ,cuts4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,sabbath ,,evening ,,readings ,,on ,,st4 ,,matthew4 ,by the ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,with ,frontispiece4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #es4 ---- ,,st4 ,,mark4 ,complete1 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ---- ,,st4 ,,luke4 ,complete1 ,fcap4 cloth1 #fs4 ---- ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,revelation4 ,complete4 ,second ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,sabbath ,,school ,,preacher ,,and ,,juvenile ,,miscellany4 ,,rev4 ,a4 ,,fletcher1 ,d4,d41 with ,illustrations1 complete in ,three ,vols4 fcap4 cloth1 #as4 each4 ,,salvation4 ,a ,sermon preached before the ,queen by the ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,twentieth ,thousand1 sewed1 #f;d4 ,,sanderson 7,a4 ,r41 ,m4,d471--,,thoughts ,,and ,,reflections ,,on ,,sickness ,,and ,,affliction4 ,second ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 #es4 ,,sandford ,,and ,,merton4 ,with ,cuts4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,scenes ,,from ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,moses1 a ,series of ,twenty ,engravings in ,outline4 ,designed by ,,selous and ,engraved by ,,rolls4 ,in portfolio1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,scoffern',s ,,chemistry ,,no ,,mystery2 being the ,subject ,matter of a ,course of ,lectures4 ,illustrated by ,diagrams and ,woodcuts4 ,second ,edition1 revised and corrected1 with ,index4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,scott 7,,rev4 ,t471--,,holy ,,bible1 with ,readings and an ,abridged ,commentary4 #afmo4 roan1 embossed1 #ds42 morocco1 #fs42 elegant1 #fs4 #f;d42 with ,maps1 or ,twenty-eight ,engravings1 #as4 each extra4 ,,scripture ,,sites ,,and ,,scenes1 from actual ,survey1 in ,egypt1 ,arabia1 and ,palestine4 ,illustrated by ,seventeen ,steel ,engravings1 ,three ,maps1 and ,thirty-seven ,woodcuts4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,bartlett4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #ds4 ,,select ,,poetry ,,for ,,children2 ,with brief ,explanatory ,notes1 arranged for the use of ,schools and ,families4 ,by ,,joseph ,,payne4 ,eleventh ,edition1 corrected and ,enlarged4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d42 with gilt edges1 #cs4 ,,sharpe',s ,,london ,,journal4 ,a ,miscellany of ,entertainment and ,instruction for ,general ,reading4 ,new ,series4 ,conducted by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall4 ,published ,monthly1 with ,two ,engravings on ,steel4 ,vols4 ,i4 to ,,iv4 cloth1 #fs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,old ,series4 ,volumes ,i4 to ,,ix4 cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 each4 ,vols4 ,x4 to ,,xv4 #fs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,smedley',s 7,f4 ,e4 ,,esq47 ,,fortunes ,,of ,,the ,,colville ,,family2 or1 a ,cloud and its ,silver ,lining4 ,cuts by ,,phiz4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,frank ,,fairlegh2 or1 ,scenes from the ,life of a ,private ,pupil4 ,with ,thirty ,illustrations1 by ,,george ,,cruikshank4 #hvo4 cloth1 #afs4 ---- ,,lewis ,,arundel2 or1 the ,railroad of ,life4 ,with ,illustrations by ,h4 ,k4 ,,browne4 7,,phiz47 #hvo4 cloth1 #bbs4 ,,snape 7,,rev4 ,a4 ,w471--,,the ,,great ,,adversary4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,specimens ,,of ,,old ,,indian ,,poetry4 ,translated from the original ,sanskrit into ,english ,verse1 by ,,ralph ,t4 ,h4 ,,griffith1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,r4,a4,s41 and ,boden ,sanskrit ,scholar in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 ,,squirrels ,,and ,,other ,,animals2 or1 ,illustrations of the ,habits and ,instincts of many of the smaller ,british ,quadrupeds4 ,by ,,george ,,waring4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 ,new ,edition4 ,in preparation4 ,,stebbing 7,,henry1 ,d4,d4 ,f4,r4,s471--,,jesus1 a ,poem in ,six ,books4 ,crown #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 ,,steill',s ,,pictorial ,,spelling ,,book2 or1 ,lessons on ,facts and ,objects4 ,with ,one ,hundred and ,thirty ,illustrations4 ,fifth ,edition1 #abmo4 cloth1 #as4 ,,stephens 7,j4 ,l471--,,incidents ,,of ,,travel ,,in ,,central ,,america1 ,,chiapas1 ,,and ,,yucatan4 ,new ,edition1 by ,f4 ,,catherwood4 ,numerous ,illustrations1 #hvo4 cloth1 #abs4 ,,stories ,,from ,,dream ,,land4 ,by ,,herzhaft ,,tra,,mer4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,stratagems4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,,newton ,,crosland 7late ,,camilla ,,toulmin74 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,strickland',s ,,history ,,of ,,rome ,,for ,,families4 ,first ,series4 ,rome3 ,regal and ,republican4 ,edited by ,,agnes ,,strickland1 ,authoress of 8,lives of the ,queens of ,england40 ,with ,vignettes4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,studies ,,in ,,english ,,poetry2 with short ,biographical ,sketches1 and ,notes ,explanatory and ,critical1 intended as a ,text-,book for the higher ,classes in ,schools1 and as an ,introduction to the ,study of ,english ,literature4 ,by ,,joseph ,,payne4 ,second ,edition4 #abmo4 cloth1 #fs4 ,,tables ,,of ,,simple ,,interest ,,for ,,every ,,day ,,in ,,the ,,year1 at #e1 #d1 #d1 #c1 #c1 and #b per cent4 per annum4 from #al4 to #ajjl41 c4 ,by ,,james ,,laurie4 ,nineteenth ,edition1 #hjj pp4 #hvo4 cloth1 #al4 #as4 8,in the great requisites of simplicity of arrangement and comprehensiveness we have none better adapted for general use40--,mc,culloch's ,commercial ,dictionary4 ---- ,,at #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i and #i1 per cent4 per annum1 from #a day to #ajj days4 ,by ,,james ,,laurie4 ,third ,edition1 #hvo4 cloth #gs4 ,,tales ,,of ,,woman',s ,,trials4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall4 ,with ,illustrations4 #hvo4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #hs4 ,,tayler 7,w4 ,,elfe71--,,hippolytus ,,and ,,the ,,christian ,,church ,,at ,,the ,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,century4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,taylor 7,,bishop ,,jeremy71--,,holy ,,living ,,and ,,dying1 with prayers1 c41 and ,essay by ,,dr4 ,,croly4 ,two ,vols4 fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,,life ,,of ,,christ1 with ,essays by ,,dr4 ,,stebbing4 ,three ,vols4 fcap4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,select ,,sermons1 with ,essay by ,,cattermole1 fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,taylor',s 7,,emily7 ,,boy ,,and ,,the ,,birds4 ,with ,sixteen fine ,woodcuts1 from ,,landseer',s ,designs4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,historical ,,prints ,,of ,,english ,,history4 ,fourth ,edition1 revised and enlarged1 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,tent ,,and ,,altar1 7,,the71 or ,sketches from ,patriarchal ,life4 ,by ,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,with ,vignettes4 ,fcap4 cloth1 full gilt1 #is4 ,,timbs' 7,,john7 ,,illustrated ,,year-,,book 7,,the7 of ,wonders1 ,events1 and ,discoveries4 ,with numerous ,engravings on ,wood4 ,two ,vols4 fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,toil ,,and ,,trial1 a ,story of ,london ,life4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,,newton ,,crosland1 7late ,,camilla ,,toulmin47 ,with ,frontispiece by ,,john ,,leech4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,tomlinson',s ,,cyclop,,dia ,,of ,,arts4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,two ,vols4 royal #hvo4 cloth1 #des4 ,,traill 7,,mrs471--,,canadian ,,crusoes2 a ,tale of the ,rice ,lake ,plains4 ,edited by ,,agnes ,,strickland4 ,with numerous ,illustrations by ,,harvey4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #fs4 ,,travels ,,on ,,the ,,shores ,,of ,,the ,,baltic1 c4 ,by ,s4 ,s4 ,,hill1 ,author of 8,travels in ,siberia40 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,true ,,stories4 ,by an ,,old ,,woman4 ,crown #hvo4 cloth1 #gs4 ,,truth ,,is ,,everything4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,,geldart4 ,frontispiece4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d42 gilt edges1 #cs4 ,,tupper',s 7,,martin ,f41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,f4,r4,s47 ,,ballads ,,for ,,the ,,times1 now first collected4 ,american ,lyrics1 ,geraldine1 ,modern ,pyramid1 ,hactenus1 ,a ,thousand ,lines1 and other ,poems4 ,third ,edition1 with ,vignette1 and ,frontispiece1 uniform with 8,proverbial ,philosophy40 ,fcap4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,king ,,alfred',s ,,poems4 ,now first turned into ,english ,metre4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ---- ,,the ,,crock ,,of ,,gold1 ,,the ,,twins1 ,,and ,,heart4 ,with ,illustrations by ,,john ,,leech4 ,new and cheaper ,edition1 post #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 ---- ,,proverbial ,,philosophy1 ,translated into ,french4 ,portrait4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,tytler',s 7,,miss ,m4 ,,frazer7 ,,my ,,boy',s ,,first ,,book4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,hymns ,,and ,,sketches ,,in ,,verse4 ,with ,cuts4 #afmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,tales ,,of ,,many ,,lands4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,new ,edition4 ,in preparation4 ,,universal ,,atlas4 ,engraved by ,,becker',s ,,omnigraph1 containing ,thirty-one ,modern and ,ancient ,maps1 coloured1 with ,geographical ,index4 #dto4 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,vaux',s 7,w4 ,s4 ,w41 ,m4,a47 ,,nineveh ,,and ,,persepolis2 an ,,historical ,,sketch ,,of ,,ancient ,,assyria and ,,persia1 with an ,account of the recent ,researches in those ,countries4 ,third ,edition1 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,post #hvo4 cloth gilt1 #hs42 morocco antique1 #ags4 ,,vernon ,,gallery ,,and ,,gallery ,,of ,,sculpture1 published monthly4 #es4 ---- ,,of ,,british ,,art4 ,edited by ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall1 ,,esq4 ,f4,s4,a41 published monthly4 #cs4 ,volumes #a to #c1 folio1 cloth1 gilt edges1 #bl4 #bs4 each4 ,,wakefield',s 7,,priscilla7 ,,family ,,tour ,,through ,,the ,,british ,,empire4 ,a ,new ,edition1 revised4 ,with a ,map4 #abmo4 cloth1 #fs4 ---- ,,juvenile ,,anecdotes2 or1 ,stories of ,children1 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ---- ,,juvenile ,,travellers2 a ,tour throughout ,europe4 ,a ,new ,edition4 ,with a ,map4 #abmo4 cloth1 #fs4 ---- ,,instinct ,,displayed in the ,animal ,creation4 ,a ,new and ,revised ,edition1 with many ,additions4 ,foolscap4 ,new ,edition4 ,in preparation4 ,,walker',s 7,,george7 ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,game ,,of ,,chess4 ,fourth ,edition1 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,selection ,,of ,,seventy-,,four ,,games ,,at ,,chess1 actually played by ,,phillidor and his ,contemporaries4 #abmo4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,walks ,,about ,,jerusalem ,,and ,,its ,,environs4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,bartlett4 ,illustrated by ,twenty-four ,engravings on ,steel1 ,two ,maps1 and many ,woodcuts4 ,new ,edition1 super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 full gilt1 #abs42 morocco elegant1 #bas4 8,we have1 at length1 in this attractive volume1 the desideratum of a complete picturesque guide to the topography of ,jerusalem40--,patriot4 ,,watts',s 7,,dr47 ,,divine ,,and ,,moral ,,songs ,,for ,,children4 ,with ,anecdotes and ,reflections1 by the ,rev4 ,,ingram ,,cobbin1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,frontispiece and ,fifty-seven ,woodcuts4 ,new ,edition1 cloth1 #as42 gilt1 edges1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,watts 7,,dr471--,,lyric ,,poems1 with ,essay by ,,southey4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,webb',s 7,,mrs4 ,j4 ,b47 ,,naomi2 or1 the ,last ,days of ,jerusalem4 ,with ,view and ,plan of ,jerusalem4 ,new ,edition4 ,illustrated by ,,gilbert4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,week ,,at ,,killarney 7,a71 ,by ,,mr4 and ,,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall4 ,being a ,guide for ,tourists to the ,lakes of ,killarney4 ,with ,twenty ,engravings on ,steel1 and ,one ,hundred and ,ten on ,wood4 ,new ,edition1 #dto4 cloth1 #hs4 ,,wellington2 a ,lecture by the ,,rev4 ,,john ,,cumming1 ,d4,d4 ,new and ,enlarged ,edition1 fcap4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,wheeler',s 7,j4 ,t41 ,f4,r4,g4,s47 ,,historical ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,testaments4 ,illustrated with ,five coloured ,maps1 and large ,view of ,jerusalem1 with a ,plan of the ,ancient ,city4 ,folio1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,analysis ,,and ,,summary ,,of ,,old ,,testament ,,history ,,and ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,moses1 with a ,connexion between the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 an ,introductory ,outline of the ,geography1 ,political ,history1 c4 ,fourth ,edition1 post #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 #f;d4 ,,wheeler',s 7,j4 ,t41 ,f4,r4,g4,s47 ,,analysis ,,and ,,summary ,,of ,,new ,,testament ,,history1 including1 #a4 ,the ,four ,gospels harmonized into one continuous ,narrative4 #b4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and continuous ,history of ,st4 ,paul4 #c4 ,an ,analysis of the ,epistles and ,book of ,revelation4 #d4 ,an ,introductory ,outline of the ,geography1 ,critical ,history1 ,authenticity1 ,credibility1 and ,inspiration of the ,new ,testament4 ,the whole ,illustrated by copious ,historical1 ,geographical1 and ,antiquarian ,notes1 ,chronological ,tables1 c4 ,second ,edition1 revised4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #es4 #f;d4 ---- ,a ,,popular ,,abridgment ,,of ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,testament ,,history1 for ,schools1 ,families1 and ,general ,reading4 ,explained by ,historical and ,geographical ,illustrations1 and numerous ,map ,diagrams4 ,two ,vols4 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,whittock',s 7,n47 ,,manual ,,of ,,perspective4 ,illustrated by numerous ,engravings4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 ,,wilkie ,,gallery 7,the72 a ,series of ,sixty-six ,line ,engravings from the best paintings of the late ,,sir ,,david ,,wilkie1 ,r4,a41 with ,biographical and ,critical ,notices1 a ,biography1 and ,portrait of the ,painter4 #dto4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cl4 #ajs4 ,,willement 7,e4 ,e471--,a ,,catechism ,,of ,,familiar ,,things4 ,new ,edition1 #abmo4 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,willie ,,fraser2 or1 the ,little ,scotch ,boy2 and other ,tales4 ,by ,mrs4 ,r4 ,,lee4 ,with ,four ,illustrations1 #ahmo4 cloth1 #bs4 ,,winnard',s 7,,jane7 7,,mrs4 ,,hooper7 ,,recollections ,,of ,,mrs4 ,,anderson',s ,,school4 ,a ,book for ,girls4 ,illustrated by ,,franklin4 ,fcap4 cloth1 gilt edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,winter ,,evenings2 or1 ,tales of ,travellers4 ,by ,,maria ,,hack4 ,new ,edition1 with ,illustrations4 ,fcap4 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,woman2 ,,her ,,mission1 ,,and ,,her ,,life4 ,from the ,french of ,,monod4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4 ,g4 ,,barrett4 ,second ,edition1 #ahmo4 cloth1 #as4 #f;d42 gilt edges1 #bs4 ,,woodward',s 7,b4 ,b41 ,b4,a47 ,,history ,,of ,,wales4 ,from the ,earliest ,times to its ,final ,incorporation with ,england2 with ,notices of its ,physical ,geography1 and the ,poetry1 ,traditions1 ,religion1 ,arts1 ,manners1 and ,laws of the ,welsh1 with ,fifteen ,steel ,plates4 ,super-royal #hvo4 cloth1 #al4 #es4 ,,woodward 7,b4 ,b41 ,b4,a471--,,modern ,,romanism4 ,a popularly written account of the convocation and the proceedings of the ,council of ,trent1 with a readable version of its authorised ,formularies1 showing what ,romanism then became1 and by what means it was changed4 ,in preparation4 ,,wright',s 7,,thomas1 ,,esq4 ,m4,a4 ,f4,s4,a47 ,,the ,,celt1 ,,the ,,roman1 ,,and ,,the ,,saxon4 ,a ,history of the ,early ,inhabitants of ,britain1 down to the ,conversion of the ,anglo-,saxons to ,christianity4 ,illustrated by the ,ancient ,remains brought to light by recent research4 ,with numerous ,engravings4 ,post #hvo4 cloth1 #hs4 ,,young ,,naturalist',s ,,book ,,of ,,birds4 ,by ,,percy ,b4 ,,st4 ,,john4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with ,sixteen ,woodcuts4 #afmo4 cloth #bs4 #f;d4 ,r4 ,clay1 ,printer1 ,bread ,street ,hill4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in spelling4 #b4 ,retained archaic1 non-standard1 and uncertain spellings as printed4 #c4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 #d4 ,denoted superscripts by a caret before a single superscript character1 e4g4 ,mr4